which includes the more than #bjj original illustrations4 ,see #ejhbh-;h4htm or #ejhbh-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#ejhbh_/pg#ejhbh-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#ej hbh_/ejhbh-;h4zip7 ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,text enclosed by tilde characters is in bold sans-serif face 7bold sans-serif74 ,,smithsonian ,,institution ,,united ,,states ,,national ,,museum ,illustration3 ,,bulletin #bcj ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #aifd ,museum of ,history and ,technology ,,the ,,bark ,,canoes ,,and ,,skin ,,boats ,,of ,,north ,,america ,,edwin ,,tappan ,,adney and ,,howard ,i4 ,,chapelle ,curator of ,transportation ,b#jcabbb;,,ca ,smithsonian ,institution1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #aifd ,publications of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum ,the scholarly and scientific publications of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum include two series1 ,proceedings of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum and ,united ,states ,national ,museum ,bulletin4 ,in these series the ,museum publishes original articles and monographs dealing with the collections and work of its constituent museums--,the ,museum of ,natural ,history and the ,museum of ,history and ,technology--setting forth newly acquired facts in the fields of ,anthropology1 ,biology1 ,history1 ,geology1 and ,technology4 ,copies of each publication are distributed to libraries1 to cultural and scientific organizations1 and to specialists and others interested in the different subjects4 ,the ,proceedings1 begun in #ahgh1 are intended for the publication1 in separate form1 of shorter papers from the ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,these are gathered in volumes1 octavo in size1 with the publication date of each paper recorded in the table of contents of the volume4 ,in the ,bulletin series1 the first of which was issued in #ahge1 appear longer1 separate publications consisting of monographs 7occasionally in several parts7 and volumes in which are collected works on related subjects4 ,bulletins are either octavo or quarto in size1 depending on the needs of the presentation4 ,since #aijb papers relating to the botanical collections of the ,museum of ,natural ,history have been published in the ,bulletin series under the heading ,contributions from the ,united ,states ,national ,herbarium1 and since #aiei1 in ,bulletins titled ,contributions from the ,museum of ,history and ,technology1 have been gathered shorter papers relating to the collections and research of that ,museum4 ,this work1 the result of cooperation with the ,mariners' ,museum1 the ,stefansson ,library1 the ,museum of the ,american ,indian1 ,heye ,foundation1 and the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 forms number #bcj of the ,bulletin series4 ,,frank ,a4 ,,taylor ,director1 ,united ,states ,national ,museum ,u4,s4 ,,government ,,printing ,,office ,,washington3 #aifd 99 99 99 99 99 ,for sale by the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,u4,s4 ,government ,printing ,office ,washington1 ,d4,c4 #bjdjb--,price #f4ge ,special acknowledgment ,is here gratefully made to ,the ,mariners' ,museum1 ,newport ,news1 ,virginia1 under whose auspices was prepared and with whose cooperation is here published the part of this work based on the ,adney papers2 also to the late ,vilhjalmur ,stefansson1 for whose ,,encyclopedia ,,arctica was written the chapter on ,arctic skin boats4 ,contents ,page ,introduction #a #a4 ,early ,history #g #b4 ,materials and ,tools #ad #c4 ,form and ,construction #bg ,form #bg ,construction #cf #d4 ,eastern ,maritime ,region #eh ,micmac #eh ,malecite #gj ,st4 ,francis #hh ,beothuk #id #e4 ,central ,canada #ii ,eastern ,cree #aja ,ttes de ,boule #ajg ,algonkin #aac ,ojibway #abb ,western ,cree #acb ,fur-trade ,canoes #ace #f4 ,northwestern ,canada #aed ,narrow-,bottom ,canoe #aee ,kayak-,form ,canoe #aeh ,sturgeon-,nose ,canoe #afh #g4 ,arctic ,skin ,boats3 by ,howard ,i4 ,chapelle #agd ,the ,umiak #aha ,the ,kayak #aij #h4 ,temporary ,craft #bab ,bark ,canoes #bab ,skin ,boats #bai ,retrospect #bba ,appendix3 ,the ,kayak ,roll1 by ,john ,d4 ,heath #bbc ,bibliography #bca ,index #bce ,illustrations ,figure ,page #a ,fur-trade canoe on the ,missinaibi ,river1 #aija4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 #b #b ,page from a manuscript of #agga1 ,observations on ,hudsons ,bay1 by ,alexander ,graham1 ,factor4 7,in archives of ,hudson's ,bay ,company47 #i #c ,canoes from ,la,hontan's ,nouveaux ,voyages 444 dans l',amerique septentrionale1 showing crude representations typical of early writers4 #aa #d ,lines of an old birch-bark canoe1 probably ,micmac1 brought to ,england in #agdi from ,new ,england4 7,from ,admiralty ,collection of ,draughts1 ,national ,maritime ,museum1 ,greenwich47 #ab #e ,ojibway ,indian carrying spruce roots1 ,lac ,seul1 ,ont41 #aiai4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 #ae #f ,roll of bark for a hunting canoe4 ,algonkin ,reserve1 at ,golden ,lake1 ,ont41 #aibg4 #af #g ,sketch3 wood-splitting techniques1 cedar and spruce4 #ag #h-ai ,sketches of tools3 #h1 stone axe2 #i1 stone hammer1 wedge1 and knife2 #aj1 mauls and driving sticks2 #aa1 stone scraper2 #ab1 bow drill2 #ac1 modern ,hudson ,bay axe2 #ad1 steel fur-trade tomahawk2 #ae1 steel canoe awls2 #af1 crooked knives2 #ag1 froe2 #ah1 shaving horse2 #ai1 bucksaw4 #ag #bj ,peeling1 rolling1 and transporting bark4 7,sketches by ,adney47 #be #ba ,sketch3 ,building frame for a large canoe4 #bf #bb1 #bc ,sketches3 ,effect on canoe bottom of crimping and goring bark4 #cj #bd ,sketch3 ,canoe formed by use of gores and panels4 #ca #be ,gunwale ends nailed and wrapped with spruce roots4 7,sketch by ,adney47 #ca #bf ,gunwales and stakes on building bed1 plan view4 7,sketch by ,adney47 #cb #bg ,photo3 ,gunwale lashings1 examples made by ,adney4 #cc #bh ,photo3 ,gunwale-end lashings1 examples made by ,adney4 #cc #bi ,sketch3 ,splints arranged in various ways to sheath the bottom of a canoe4 #cd #cj ,end details1 including construction of stem-pieces4 7,sketches by ,adney47 #ce #ca ,lines of #b-;fathom ,st4 ,john ,river ,malecite canoe4 #cf #cb ,malecite canoe building1 #aiaj4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photos47 #ci #cc ,first stage of canoe construction3 assembled gunwale frame is used to locate stakes temporarily on building bed4 7,sketch by ,adney47 #dj #cd ,second stage of canoe construction3 bark cover is laid out on the building bed1 and the gunwales are in place upon it4 7,sketch by ,adney47 #da #ce ,photo3 ,malecite canoe builders near ,fredericton1 ,n4,b41 using wooden plank building bed4 #db #cf ,sketch3 ,two common styles of root stitching used in bark canoes4 #dc #cg ,comparison of canoe on the building bed and canoe when first removed from building bed during fifth stage of construction4 7,detail sketches by ,adney47 #dd #ch ,third stage of canoe construction3 the bark cover is shaped on the building bed4 7,sketch by ,adney47 #de #ci ,cross section of canoe on building bed during third and fourth stages of construction4 7,sketch by ,adney47 #df #dj ,sketch3 ,multiple cross section through one side of a canoe on the building bed1 at the headboard1 middle1 first1 and second thwarts4 #df #da ,fourth stage of canoe construction3 bark cover has been shaped and all stakes placed4 7,sketch by ,adney47 #dg #db ,fifth stage of canoe construction3 canoe is removed from building bed and set on horses to shape ends and complete sewing4 7,sketch by ,adney47 #di #dc ,ribs being dried and shaped for ,ojibway canoe4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 #ej #dd ,sketch3 ,details of ribs and method of shaping them in pairs4 #ea #de ,sixth stage of canoe construction3 in this stage splints for sheathing 7upper left7 are fixed in place and held by temporary ribs 7lower right7 under the gunwales4 7,sketch by ,adney47 #ec #df ,general details of birch-bark canoe construction1 in a drawing by ,adney4 7,from ,harper's ,young ,people1 supplement1 ,july #bi1 #ahij47 #ed #dg ,gunwale construction and thwart or crossbar fastenings1 as shown in a sketch by ,adney4 7,harper's ,young ,people1 supplement1 ,july #bi1 #ahij47 #ef #dh ,peter ,joe at ,work4 ,drawing by ,adney for his article ,how an ,indian ,birch-,bark ,canoe is ,made4 7,harper's ,young ,people1 supplement1 ,july #bi1 #ahij47 #eg #di ,lines of #b-;fathom ,micmac pack1 or woods1 canoe4 #ei #ej ,lines of #b-;fathom ,micmac pack1 or woods1 canoe4 #fj #ea ,lines of #b-;fathom ,micmac pack1 or woods1 canoe4 #fa #eb ,lines of #b-;fathom ,micmac big-river canoe4 #fb #ec ,lines of #c-;fathom ,micmac ocean canoe fitted for sailing4 #fc #ed ,micmac rough-water canoe1 ,bathurst1 ,n4,b4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 #fd #ee ,micmac ,woods canoe1 built by ,malecite ,jim ,paul at ,st4 ,mary's ,reserve in #aiaa4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 #fd #ef ,micmac rough-water canoe fitted for sailing4 7,photo ,w4 ,h4 ,mechling1 #aiac47 #fe #eg ,micmac rough-water canoe1 ,bay ,chaleur4 7,photo ,h4 ,v4 ,henderson1 ,west ,bathurst1 ,n4,b47 #ff #eh ,micmac rough-water sailing canoe1 ,bay ,chaleur4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 #ff #ei ,drawing3 ,details of ,micmac canoes1 including mast and sail4 #fg #fj ,micmac canoe1 ,bathurst1 ,n4,b4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 #fh #fa ,micmac woman gumming seams of canoe1 ,bathurst1 ,n4,b41 #aiac4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 #fi #fb ,lines of #b-;fathom ,malecite river canoe1 #aith century4 ,old form with raking ends and much sheer4 #ga #fc ,lines of old form of ,malecite-,abnaki #b-;fathom ocean canoe of the ,penobscots in the ,peabody ,museum1 ,salem1 ,mass4 #gb #fd ,lines of large #c-;fathom ocean canoe of the ,passamaquoddy porpoise hunters4 #gc #fe ,lines of old form of ,passamaquoddy #b-;fathom ocean canoe4 #gd #ff ,lines of ,malecite racing canoe of #ahhh1 showing ,v-shaped keel piece between sheathing and bark to form deadrise4 #ge #fg ,lines of sharp-ended #b-;fathom ,passamaquoddy hunting canoe1 for use on tidal river4 #gf #fh ,lines of ,malecite #b-;fathom ,st4 ,lawrence ,river canoe1 probably a hybrid model4 #gg #fi ,lines of ,malecite #b-;fathom river canoe of #ahij from the ,rivire du ,loup region4 #gh #gj ,lines of ,modern 7#ahie7 #b-;fathom ,malecite ,st4 ,john ,river canoe4 #gi #ga ,drawing3 ,malecite canoe details1 gear1 and gunwale decorations4 #hj #gb ,drawing3 ,malecite canoe details1 stem profiles1 paddles1 sail rig1 and salmon spear4 #ha #gc ,lines and decoration reconstructed from a very old model of a ,st4 ,john ,river ancient woods1 or pack1 canoe4 #ha #gd ,lines of last known ,passamaquoddy decorated ocean canoe to be built 7#ahih74 #hb #ge ,drawing3 ,malecite canoe details and decorations4 #hc #gf ,sketches3 ,wulegessis decorations4 #hd-he #gg ,photo3 ,end decorations1 ,passamaquoddy canoe4 #hf #gh ,photo3 ,end decorations1 ,passamaquoddy canoe4 #hg #gi ,photo3 ,passamaquoddy decorated canoe4 #hg #hj ,lines of #b-;fathom ,st4 ,francis canoe of about #ahfe #hi #ha ,lines of #ad-;foot ,st4 ,francis canoe of about #aiajij #hb ,lines of #b-;fathom low-ended ,st4 ,francis canoe4 #ia #hc ,lines of ,st4 ,francis-,abnaki canoe for open water1 a type that became extinct before #ahij4 ,from ,adney's drawings of a canoe formerly in the ,museum of ,natural ,history4 #ib #hd ,photo3 ,model of a ,st4 ,francis-,abnaki canoe under construction4 #ic #he ,photo3 ,st4 ,francis-,abnaki canoe4 #ic #hf ,a #ae-;foot ,beothuk canoe of ,newfoundland 7,sketch by ,adney47 #ie #hg ,lines based on ,adney's reconstruction of #ae-;foot ,beothuk canoe4 #ig #hh ,montagnais crooked canoe4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 #ajj #hi ,birch-bark crooked canoe1 ,ungava ,cree4 7,smithsonian ,institution photo47 #aja #ij ,lines of #c-;fathom ,nascapee canoe1 eastern ,labrador4 #ajb #ia ,lines of #b-;fathom ,montagnais canoe of southern ,labrador and ,quebec4 #ajb #ib ,lines of #b-;fathom crooked canoe of the ,ungava ,peninsula4 #ajc #ic ,lines of hybrid-model #b-;fathom ,nascapee canoe4 #ajc #id ,eastern ,cree crooked canoe of rather moderate sheer and rocker4 7,canadian ,pacific ,railway ,company photo47 #ajd #ie ,photo3 ,straight and crooked canoes1 eastern ,cree4 #aje #if ,montagnais canvas-covered crooked canoe under construction4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 #ajf #ig ,sketch3 ,fiddlehead of scraped bark on bow and stern of a ,montagnais birch-bark canoe at ,seven ,islands1 ,que41 #aiae4 #ajg #ih ,sketch3 ,disk of colored porcupine quills decorating canoe found at ,namaquagon1 ,que41 #ahih4 #ajg #ii ,fleet of #ea birch-bark canoes of the ,ttes de ,boule ,indians1 assembled at the ,hudson's ,bay ,company post1 ,grand ,lake ,victoria1 ,procession ,sunday1 ,august #ahie4 7,photo1 ,post-,factor ,l4 ,a4 ,christopherson47 #ajh #ajj ,photo3 ,ttes de ,boule canoe4 #aji #aja ,photo3 ,ttes de ,boule canoes4 #aaj #ajb ,lines of #a-;fathom ,ttes de ,boule hunting canoe4 #aaa #ajc ,lines of #b-;fathom ,ttes de ,boule canoe1 with construction details4 #aaa #ajd ,lines of #b-;fathom ,ttes de ,boule hunting canoe4 #aab #aje ,photo3 ,old ,algonkin canoe4 #aac #ajf ,lines of #b-;fathom old model1 ,ottawa ,river1 ,algonkin canoe4 #aad #ajg ,photo3 ,models made by ,adney of ,algonkin and ,ojibway stem-pieces4 #aae #ajh ,lines of light1 fast #b-;fathom hunting canoe of the old ,algonkin model4 #aaf #aji ,lines of hybrid #b- and #b-;fathom ,algonkin canoes4 #aag #aaj ,lines of #b-;fathom ,algonkin hunter's canoe1 without headboards4 #aah #aaa ,photo3 ,algonkin canoe1 old type4 #aai #aab ,photo3 ,algonkin ,wabinaki ,chiman #abj #aac ,algonkin canoe decorations1 ,golden ,lake1 ,ont4 #aba #aad ,lines of #b-;fathom ,ojibway hunter's canoe1 built in #ahgc #abc #aae ,lines of #c-;fathom ,ojibway old model rice-harvesting canoe and #b-;fathom hunter's canoe4 #abd #aaf ,lines of #c-;fathom ,ojibway freight canoe4 #abd #aag ,lines of #b-;fathom ,ojibway1 old form1 canoe and a #af-;foot long-nose ,cree-,ojibway canoe4 #abe #aah ,eastern ,ojibway canoe1 old form4 7,canadian ,pacific ,railway photo47 #abf #aai ,photo3 ,ojibway ,long-,nose canoe1 ,rainy ,lake ,district4 #abf #abj ,lines of #b-;fathom ,ojibway hunter's canoe1 #ahdi and long-nose ,minnesota ,ojibway rice-harvesting canoe4 #abg #aba ,photos3 ,canoe building1 ,lac ,seul1 ,canada1 #aiah #abh-abi #abb ,long ,lake ,ojibway long-nose canoe4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 #acj #abc ,photo3 ,ojibway #ai-;foot canoe with #ac ,indians aboard 7#aiac7 #aca #abd ,lines of #b-;fathom western ,cree canoe1 ,winisk ,river district1 northwest of ,james ,bay4 #acc #abe ,lines of a #f-;fathom fur-trade canoe of the early #aith century4 #acd #abf ,inboard profile of a #f-;fathom fur-trade canoe1 and details of construction1 fitting1 and decoration4 #ace #abg ,lines of small #c-;fathom north canoe of the ,ttes de ,boule model4 #acf #abh ,photo3 ,models of fur-trade canoes4 #acg #abi ,fur-,trade ,matre ,canot ,with ,passengers4 ,from an oil painting by ,hopkins 7,public ,archives of ,canada photo74 #ach #acj ,bivouac in ,expedition in ,hudson's ,bay ,canoe4 ,from an oil painting by ,hopkins 7,public ,archives of ,canada photo74 #aci #aca ,ojibway #c-;fathom fur-trade canoe1 a cargo-carrying type1 marked by cut-under end profiles1 that was built as late as #ahid4 #aci #acb ,lines of a #e-;fathom fur-trade canoe1 ,grand ,lake ,victoria ,post1 ,hudson's ,bay ,company4 #adj #acc ,hudson's ,bay ,canoe ,running the ,rapids4 ,from an oil painting by ,hopkins 7,public ,archives of ,canada photo74 #ada #acd ,repairing the ,canoe4 ,from an oil painting by ,hopkins 7,public ,archives of ,canada photo74 #adb #ace ,lines of a #d-;fathom ,hudson's ,bay ,company ,north ,canoe1 built by ,crees near ,james ,bay1 mid-#aith century4 #adc #acf ,photo3 #e-;fathom fur-trade canoe from ,brunswick ,house1 a ,hudson's ,bay ,company post4 #add #acg ,fur-trade canoes on the ,missinaibi ,river1 #aija4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 #ade #ach ,photo3 ,fur-trade canoe brigade from ,christopherson's ,hudson's ,bay ,company post1 about #ahhe4 #adf #aci ,forest rangers1 ,lake ,timagami1 ,ontario4 7,canadian ,pacific ,railway ,company photo47 #adg #adj ,photo3 ,models made by ,adney of fur-trade canoe stem-pieces4 #adi #ada ,photo3 ,models by ,adney of fur-trade canoe stem-pieces4 #aea #adb ,portaging a #d-;fathom fur-trade canoe1 about #aijb1 near the head of the ,ottawa ,river4 7,canadian ,pacific ,railway ,company photo47 #aeb #adc ,decorations1 fur-trade canoes 7,watercolor sketch by ,adney47 #aec #add ,lines of #b-;fathom ,chipewyan hunter's canoe4 #aee #ade ,lines of #b-;fathom ,chipewyan and #c-;fathom ,dogrib cargo1 or family1 canoes4 #aef #adf ,lines of #c-;fathom ,slavey and #b-;fathom ,algonkin-type ,athabascan plank-stem canoes4 #aeg #adg ,lines of ,eskimo kayak-form birch-bark canoe from ,alaskan ,coast4 #aei #adh ,lines of ,athabascan hunting canoes of the kayak form4 #afj #adi ,lines of extinct forms of ,loucheux and bateau-form canoes1 reconstructed from old models4 #afa #aej ,lines of kayak-form canoes of the ,alaskan ,eskimos and ,canadian ,athabascan ,indians4 #afc #aea ,lines of kayak-form canoe of ,british ,columbia and upper ,yukon valley4 #afd #aeb ,construction of kayak-form canoe of the lower ,yukon1 showing rigid bottom frame4 7,smithsonian ,institution photo47 #afe #aec ,photo3 ,model of an extinct form of ,athabascan type birch-bark canoe1 of ,british ,columbia4 ,in ,peabody ,museum1 ,harvard ,university4 #afg #aed ,lines of sturgeon-nose bark canoe of the ,kutenai and ,shuswap4 #afi #aee ,ojibway canoe construction4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photos47 #agj-aga #aef ,photo3 ,indians with canoe at ,alert ,bay1 on ,cormorant ,island1 ,b4 ,c4 #agc #aeg ,eighteenth-century lines drawing of a kayak1 from ,labrador or southern ,baffin ,island4 #age #aeh ,western ,alaskan umiak with eight women paddling1 ,cape ,prince of ,wales1 ,alaska1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #agg #aei ,western ,alaskan umiak being beached1 ,cape ,prince of ,wales1 ,alaska1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #agg #afj ,repairing umiak frame at ,st4 ,lawrence ,island1 ,alaska1 #aicj4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #agh #afa ,eskimo woman splitting walrus hide to make umiak cover1 ,st4 ,lawrence ,island1 ,alaska1 #aicj4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #agh #afb ,fitting split walrus-hide cover to umiak at ,st4 ,lawrence ,island1 ,alaska1 #aicj4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #agi #afc ,outboard motor installed on umiak1 ,cape ,prince of ,wales1 ,alaska1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #agi #afd ,launching umiak in light surf1 ,cape ,prince of ,wales1 ,alaska1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #agi #afe ,umiaks on racks1 in front of village on ,little ,diomede ,island1 ,july #cj1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #aha #aff ,umiak covered with split walrus hide1 ,cape ,prince of ,wales1 ,alaska4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #ahc #afg ,lines of small umiak for walrus hunting1 west coast of ,alaska4 #ahhh-hi #ahd #afh ,umiaks near ,cape ,prince of ,wales1 ,alaska1 showing walrus hide cover and lacing4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #ahe #afi ,lines of umiak1 west coast of ,alaska1 ,king ,island1 #ahhf #ahf #agj ,making the blind seam3 two stages of method used by the ,eskimo to join skins together4 #ahf #aga ,lines of north ,alaskan whaling umiak of about #ahij #ahg #agb ,lines of ,baffin ,island umiak1 #ahhe4 ,drawn from model and detailed measurements of a single boat4 #ahh #agc ,lines of east ,greenland umiak1 drawn from measurements taken off by a ,u4,s4 ,army officer in #aide4 #ahi #agd ,frame of kayak1 ,nunivak ,island1 ,alaska4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #aia #age ,frame of kayak at ,nunivak ,island1 ,alaska1 #aibg4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #aic #agf ,lines of ,koryak kayak1 drawn from damaged kayak in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 #aidh4 #aie #agg ,lines of ,kodiak ,island kayak1 #ahhe1 in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 #aif #agh ,lines of ,aleutian kayak1 ,unalaska1 #ahid1 in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 #aif #agi ,lines of kayak from ,russian ,siberia1 #b-;hole ,aleutian type1 in ,washington ,state ,historical ,society and ,museum4 ,taken off by ,john ,heath1 #aifb4 #aig #ahj ,lines of ,nunivak ,island kayak1 ,alaska1 #ahhi1 in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 #aih #aha ,lines of ,king ,island kayak1 ,alaska1 #ahhh1 in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 #aih #ahb ,lines of ,norton ,sound kayak1 ,alaska1 #ahhi1 in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 #aih #ahc ,nunivak ,island kayak with picture of mythological water monster ,palriayuk painted along gunwale4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #aii #ahd ,photo3 ,nunivak ,island kayak in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 #aii #ahe ,western ,alaskan kayak1 ,cape ,prince of ,wales1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 #bjj #ahf ,lines of ,kotzebue ,sound kayak1 in ,mariners' ,museum4 #bja #ahg ,lines of ,point ,barrow kayak1 ,alaska1 #ahhh1 in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 #bja #ahh ,lines of ,mackenzie ,delta kayak1 in ,museum of the ,american ,indian4 #bja #ahi ,photo3 ,kayak from ,point ,barrow1 ,alaska1 in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 #bjb #aij ,photo3 ,cockpit of kayak from ,point ,barrow4 #bjb #aia ,lines of kayak in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 #bjc #aib ,lines of kayak from ,coronation ,gulf1 ,canada4 #bjc #aic ,lines of ,caribou ,eskimo kayak1 ,canada1 in ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 #bjc #aid ,lines of ,netsilik ,eskimo kayak1 ,king ,william ,island1 ,canada1 in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 #bjc #aie ,lines of old kayak from vicinity of ,southampton ,island1 ,canada4 #bje #aif ,lines of ,baffin ,island kayak1 from ,cape ,dorset1 ,canada1 in the ,museum of the ,american ,indian4 #bje #aig ,lines of kayak from north ,labrador1 ,canada1 in the ,museum of the ,american ,indian4 #bjg #aih ,lines of ,labrador kayak1 ,canada1 in the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 #bjg #aii ,lines of north ,greenland kayak1 in the ,museum of the ,american ,indian4 #bjg #bjj ,lines of north ,greenland kayak1 in the ,peabody ,museum1 ,salem1 ,mass4 #bjg #bja ,photo3 ,profile of ,greenland kayak from ,disko ,bay1 in the ,national ,museum4 #bjh #bjb ,photo3 ,deck of ,greenland kayak from ,disko ,bay4 #bjh #bjc ,photo3 ,cockpit of ,greenland kayak from ,disko ,bay4 #bji #bjd ,photo3 ,bow view of ,greenland kayak from ,disko ,bay4 #bji #bje ,lines of northwestern ,greenland kayak1 in the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 #baj #bjf ,lines of southwestern ,greenland kayak1 #ahhc1 in the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 #baj #bjg ,lines of southwestern ,greenland kayak1 in the ,peabody ,museum1 ,salem1 ,mass4 #baj #bjh ,lines of south ,greenland kayak1 in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 #baa #bji ,lines of ,malecite and ,iroquois temporary canoes4 #bad #baj ,photo3 ,model of hickory-bark canoe under construction1 in the ,mariner's ,museum4 #bag #baa ,sketch3 ,detail of thwart used in ,malecite temporary spruce-bark canoe4 #bag #bab ,iroquois temporary elm-bark canoe1 after a drawing of #ahdi4 #bah #bac ,large moosehide canoe of upper ,gravel ,river1 ,mackenzie valley4 7,photo1 ,george ,m4 ,douglas47 #bba #bad ,sketch3 ,standard ,greenland roll4 #bbd #bae ,sketch3 ,critical stage of a capsize recovery4 #bbe #baf ,sketch3 ,hand positions used with the standard ,greenland roll4 #bbf #bag ,sketch3 ,kayak rescue1 bow-grab method4 #bbf #bah ,sketch3 ,kayak rescue1 paddle-grab method4 #bbf #bai ,preparing for demonstration of ,eskimo roll1 ,igdlorssuit1 ,west ,greenland4 7,photo by ,kenneth ,taylor47 #bbg #bbj ,getting aboard kayak4 7,photo by ,kenneth ,taylor47 #bbh #bba ,fully capsized kayak4 7,photo by ,kenneth ,taylor47 #bbh #bbb ,emerging from roll4 7,photo by ,kenneth ,taylor47 #bbi #bbc ,emerging from roll4 7,photo by ,kenneth ,taylor47 #bbi #bbd ,righting the kayak4 7,photo by ,kenneth ,taylor47 #bbi ,the ,bark ,canoes and ,skin ,boats of ,north ,america ,,introduction ,illustration3 ,figure #a ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe ,,on ,,the ,,missinaibi ,,river1 #aija4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 ,the bark canoes of the ,north ,american ,indians1 particularly those of birch bark1 were among the most highly developed of manually propelled primitive watercraft4 ,built with ,stone ,age tools from materials available in the areas of their use1 their design1 size1 and appearance were varied so as to create boats suitable to the many and different requirements of their users4 ,the great skill exhibited in their design and construction shows that a long period of development must have taken place before they became known to white men4 ,the ,indian bark canoes were most efficient watercraft for use in forest travel2 they were capable of being propelled easily with a single-bladed paddle4 ,this allowed the paddler1 unlike the oarsman1 to face the direction of travel1 a necessity in obstructed or shoal waters and in fast-moving streams4 ,the canoes1 being light1 could be carried overland for long distances1 even where trails were rough or nonexistent4 ,yet they could carry heavy loads in shallow water and could be repaired in the forest without special tools4 ,bark canoes were designed for various conditions3 some for use in rapid streams1 some for quiet waters1 some for the open waters of lakes1 some for use along the coast4 ,most were intended for portage in overland transportation as well4 ,they were built in a variety of sizes1 from small one-man hunting and fishing canoes to canoes large enough to carry a ton of cargo and a crew1 or a war-party1 or one or more families moving to new habitations4 ,some canoes were designed so that they could be used1 turned bottom up1 for shelter ashore4 ,the superior qualities of the bark canoes of ,north ,america are indicated by the white man's unqualified adoption of the craft4 ,almost as soon as he arrived in ,north ,america1 the white man learned to use the canoe1 without alteration1 for wilderness travel4 ,much later1 when the original materials used in building were no longer readily available1 canvas was substituted for bark1 and nails for the lashings and sewing2 but as long as manual propulsion was used1 the basic models of the bark canoes were retained4 ,indeed1 the models and the proportions used in many of these old bark canoes are retained in the canoes used today in the wildernesses of northern ,canada and ,alaska1 and the same styles may be seen in the canoes used for pleasure in the summer resorts of ,europe and ,america4 ,the bark canoe of ,north ,america shares with the ,eskimo kayak the distinction of being one of the few primitive craft of which the basic models are retained in the boats of civilized man4 ,it may seem strange1 then1 that the literature on ,american bark canoes is so limited4 ,many possible explanations for this might be offered4 ,one is that the art of bark canoe building died early1 as the ,indians came into contact with the whites1 before there was any attempt fully to record ,indian culture4 ,the bark canoe is fragile compared to the dugout4 ,the latter might last hundreds of years submerged in a bog1 but the bark canoe will not last more than a few decades4 ,it is difficult1 in fact1 to preserve bark canoes in museums1 for as they age and the bark becomes brittle1 they are easily damaged in moving and handling4 ,some small models made by ,indians are preserved1 but1 like most models made by primitive men1 these are not to any scale and do not show with equal accuracy all parts of the canoes they represent4 ,they are1 therefore1 of value only when full-sized canoes of the same type are available for comparison1 but this is too rarely the case with the ,american ,indian bark canoes4 ,today the builders who might have added to our knowledge are long dead4 ,it might be said fairly that those who had the best opportunities to observe1 including many whose profession it was to record the culture of primitive man1 showed little interest in watercraft and have left us only the most meager descriptions4 ,even when the watercraft of the primitive man had obviously played a large part in his culture1 we rarely find a record complete enough to allow the same accuracy of reproduction that obtains1 say1 for his art1 his dress1 or his pottery4 ,once lost1 the information on primitive watercraft cannot1 as a rule1 be recovered4 ,however1 as far as the bark canoes of ,north ,america are concerned1 there was another factor4 ,the student who became sufficiently interested to begin research soon discovered that one man was devoting his lifetime to the study of these craft2 that1 in a field with few documentary records and fewer artifacts1 he had had opportunities for detailed examination not open to younger men2 and that it was widely expected that this man would eventually publish his findings4 ,hence many1 who might otherwise have carried on some research and writing1 turned to other subjects4 ,practically1 then1 the whole field had been left to ,edwin ,tappan ,adney4 ,born at ,athens1 ,ohio1 in #ahfh1 ,edwin ,tappan ,adney was the son of ,professor ,h4 ,h4 ,adney1 formerly a colonel in a volunteer regiment in the ,civil ,war but then on the faculty of ,ohio ,university4 ,his mother was ,ruth ,shaw ,adney4 ,edwin ,tappan ,adney did not receive a college education1 but he managed to pursue three years' study of art with ,the ,art ,students' ,league of ,new ,york4 ,apparently he was interested in ornithology as well as in art1 and spent much time in ,new ,york museums1 where he met ,ernest ,thompson ,seton and other naturalists4 ,being unable to afford more study in art school1 he went on what was intended to be a short vacation1 in #ahhg1 to ,woodstock1 ,new ,brunswick4 ,there he became interested in the woods-life of ,peter ,joe1 a ,malecite ,indian who lived in a temporary camp nearby4 ,this life so interested the #ai-year-old ,ohioan that he turned toward the career of an artist-craftsman1 recording outdoor scenes of the wilderness in pictures4 ,he undertook to learn the handicrafts of the ,indian1 in order to picture him and his works correctly1 and lengthened his stay4 ,in #ahhi1 ,adney and ,peter ,joe each built a birch-bark canoe1 ,adney following and recording every step the ,indian made during construction4 ,the result ,adney published1 with sketches1 in ,harper's ,young ,people magazine1 ,july #bi1 #ahij1 and1 in a later version1 in ,outing1 ,may #aijj4 ,these1 so far as is known1 are the earliest detailed descriptions of a birch-bark canoe1 with instructions for building one4 ,daniel ,beard considered them the best1 and with ,adney's permission used the material in his ,boating ,book for ,boys4 ,in #ahig1 ,adney went to the ,klondike as an artist and special correspondent for ,harper's ,weekly and ,the ,london ,chronicle1 to report on the gold-rush4 ,he also wrote a book on his experience1 ,klondike ,stampede1 published in #aijj4 ,in #ahii he married ,minnie ,bell ,sharp1 of ,woodstock1 but by #aijj ,adney was again in the ,northwest1 this time as special correspondent for ,colliers magazine at ,nome1 ,alaska1 during the gold-rush of that year4 ,on his return to ,new ,york1 ,adney engaged in illustrating outdoor scenes and also lectured for the ,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals4 ,in #aijh he contributed to a ,harper's ,outdoor ,book for ,boys4 ,from ,new ,york he removed to ,montreal and became a citizen of ,canada1 entering the ,canadian ,army as a ,lieutenant of ,engineers in #aiaf4 ,he was assigned to the construction of training models and was on the staff of the ,military ,college1 mustering out in #aiai4 ,he then made his home in ,montreal1 engaging in painting and illustrating4 ,from his early years in ,woodstock he had made a hobby of the study of birch-bark canoes1 and while in ,montreal he became honorary consultant to the ,museum of ,mc,gill ,university1 dealing with ,indian lore4 ,by #aibe ,adney had assembled a great deal of material and1 to clarify his ideas1 he began construction of scale models of each type of canoe1 carrying on a very extensive correspondence with ,indians1 factors and other employees 7retired and active7 of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 and with government agents on the ,indian ,reservations4 ,he also made a number of expeditions to interview ,indians4 ,possessing linguistic ability in ,malecite1 he was much interested in all the ,indian languages2 this helped him in his canoe studies4 ,owing to personal and financial misfortunes1 he and his wife 7then blind7 returned in the early #aicj's to her family homestead in ,woodstock1 where ,mrs4 ,adney died in #aicg4 ,adney continued his work under the greatest difficulties1 including ill-health1 until his death1 ,october #aj1 #aiej4 ,he did not succeed in completing his research and had not organized his collection of papers and notes for publication when he died4 ,through the farsightedness of ,frederick ,hill1 then director of ,the ,mariners' ,museum1 ,newport ,news1 ,virginia1 ,adney had1 ten years before his death1 deposited in the museum over a hundred of his models and a portion of his papers4 ,after his death his son ,glenn ,adney cooperated in placing in ,the ,mariners' ,museum the remaining papers dealing with bark canoes1 thus completing the ,adney ,collection4 ,frederick ,hill's appreciation of the scope and value of the collection prompted him to seek my assistance in organizing this material with a view to publication4 ,though the ,adney papers were apparently complete and were found1 upon careful examination1 to contain an immense amount of valuable information1 they were in a highly chaotic state4 ,at the request of ,the ,mariners' ,museum1 ,i have assembled the pertinent papers and have compiled from ,adney's research notes as complete a description as ,i could of bark canoes1 their history1 construction1 decoration and use4 ,i had long been interested in the primitive watercraft of the ,americas1 but ,i was one of those who had discontinued research on bark canoes upon learning of ,adney's work4 ,the little ,i had accomplished dealt almost entirely with the canoes of ,alaska and ,british ,columbia2 from these ,i had turned to dugouts and to the skin boats of the ,eskimo4 ,therefore ,i have faced with much diffidence the task of assembling and preparing the ,adney papers for publication1 particularly since it was not always clear what ,adney had finally decided about certain matters pertaining to canoes4 ,his notes were seldom arranged in a sequence that would enable the reader to decide which1 of a number of solutions or opinions given1 were ,adney's final ones4 ,adney's interest in canoes1 as canoes1 was very great1 but his interest in anthropology led him to form many opinions about pre-,columbian migrations of ,indian tribes and about the significance of the decorations used in some canoes4 ,his papers contain considerable discussion of these matters1 but they are in such state that only an ethnologist could edit and evaluate them4 ,in addition1 my own studies lead me to conclude that the mere examination of watercraft alone is insufficient evidence upon which to base opinions as far-reaching as those of ,adney4 ,therefore ,i have not attempted to present in this work any of ,adney's theories regarding the origin or ethnological significance of the canoes discussed4 ,i have followed the same practice with those ,adney papers which concern ,indian language1 some of which relate to individual tribal canoe types and are contained in the canoe material4 7,most of his papers on linguistics are now in ,the ,peabody ,museum1 ,salem1 ,massachusetts47 ,the strength and weaknesses of ,adney's work1 as shown in his papers1 drawings1 and models1 seem to me to be fully apparent4 ,that part dealing with the eastern ,indians1 with whom he had long personal contact1 is by far the most voluminous and1 perhaps1 the most accurate4 ,the canoes used by ,indians west of the ,st4 ,lawrence as far as the western end of the ,great ,lakes and northward to the west side of ,hudsons ,bay are1 with a few exceptions1 covered in somewhat less detail1 but the material nonetheless appears ample for our purpose4 ,the canoes used in the ,canadian ,northwest1 except those from the vicinity of ,great ,slave ,lake1 and in ,alaska were less well described4 ,it appears that ,adney had relatively little opportunity to examine closely the canoes used in ,alaska1 during his visit there in #aijj1 and that he later was unable to visit those ,american museums having collections that would have helped him with regard to these areas4 ,as a result1 ,i have found it desirable to add my own material on these areas1 drawn largely from the collections of ,american museums and from my notes on construction details4 ,an important part of ,adney's work deals with the large canoes used in the fur trade4 ,very little beyond the barest of descriptions has been published and1 with but few exceptions1 contemporary paintings and drawings of these canoes are obviously faulty4 ,adney was fortunate enough to have been able to begin his research on these canoes while there were men alive who had built and used them4 ,as a result he obtained information that would have been lost within1 at most1 the span of a decade4 ,his interest was doubly keen1 fortunately1 for ,adney not only was interested in the canoes as such1 he also valued the information for its aid in painting historical scenes4 ,as a result1 there is hardly a question concerning fur trade canoes1 whether of model1 construction1 decoration1 or use1 that is not answered in his material4 ,i have made every effort to preserve the results of ,adney's investigations of the individual types in accurate drawings or in the descriptions in the text4 ,it was necessary to redraw and complete most of ,adney's scale drawings of canoes1 for they were prepared for model-building rather than for publication4 ,where his drawings were incomplete1 they could be filled in from his scale models and notes4 ,it must be kept in mind that in drawing plans of primitive craft the draftsman must inevitably idealize the subject somewhat1 since a drawing shows fair curves and straight lines which the primitive craft do not have in all cases4 ,also1 the inboard profiles are diagrammatic rather than precise1 because1 in the necessary reduction of the full-size canoe to a drawing1 this is the only way to show its form in a manner that can be interpreted accurately and that can be reproduced in a model or full size1 as desired4 ,it is necessary to add that1 though most of the ,adney plans were measured from full-size canoes1 some were reconstructed from ,indian models1 builders' information1 or other sources4 ,thanks to ,adney's thorough knowledge of bark construction1 the plans are highly accurate1 but there are still chances for error1 and these are discussed where they occur4 ,although reconstruction of extinct canoe types is difficult1 for the strange canoes of the ,beothuk ,indians of ,newfoundland ,adney appears to have solved some of the riddles posed by contemporary descriptions and the few grave models extant 7the latter may have been children's toys74 ,whether or not his reconstructed canoe is completely accurate cannot be determined2 at least it conforms reasonably well to the descriptions and models1 and ,adney's thorough knowledge of ,indian craftsmanship gives weight to his opinions and conclusions4 ,this much can be said3 the resulting canoe would be a practical one and it fulfills very nearly all descriptions of the type known today4 ,adney's papers and drawings dealing with the construction of bark canoes are most complete and valuable4 ,so complete as to be almost a set of how-to-do-it instructions1 they cover everything from the selection of materials and use of tools to the art of shaping and building the canoe4 ,an understanding of these building instructions is essential to any sound examination of the bark canoes of ,north ,america1 for they show the limitations of the medium and indicate what was and what was not reasonable to expect from the finished product4 ,in working on ,adney's papers1 it became obvious that this publication could not be limited to birch-bark canoes1 since canoes built of other barks and even some covered with skins appear in the birch bark areas4 ,because of this1 and to explain the technical differences between these and the birch canoes1 skin-covered canoes have been included4 ,i have also appended a chapter on ,eskimo skin boats and kayaks4 ,this material ,i had originally prepared for inclusion in the ,encyclopedia ,arctica1 publication of which was cancelled after one volume had appeared4 ,as a result1 the present work now covers the native craft1 exclusive of dugouts1 of all ,north ,america north of ,mexico4 ,in my opinion the value of the information gathered by ,edwin ,tappan ,adney is well worth the effort that has been expended to bring it to its present form1 and any merit that attaches to it belongs largely to ,adney himself1 whose long and painstaking research1 carried on under severe personal difficulties1 is the foundation of this study4 ,,howard ,,irving ,,chapelle ,curator of ,transportation1 ,museum of ,history and ,technology ,chapter ,one ,,early ,,history ,the development of bark canoes in ,north ,america before the arrival of the white men cannot satisfactorily be traced4 ,unlike the dugout1 the bark canoe is too perishable to survive in recognizable form buried in a bog or submerged in water1 so we have little or no visual evidence of very great age upon which to base sound assumptions4 ,records of bark canoes1 contained in the reports of the early white explorers of ,north ,america1 are woefully lacking in detail1 but they at least give grounds for believing that the bark canoes even then were highly developed1 and were the product of a very long period of existence and improvement prior to the first appearance of ,europeans4 ,the ,europeans were most impressed by the fact that the canoes were built of bark reinforced by a light wooden frame4 ,the speed with which they could be propelled by the ,indians also caused amazement1 as did their light weight and marked strength1 combined with a great load-carrying capacity in shallow water4 ,it is remarkable1 however1 that although bark canoes apparently aroused so much admiration among ,europeans1 so little of accurate and complete information appears in their writings4 ,with two notable exceptions1 to be discussed later1 early explorers1 churchmen1 travellers1 and writers were generally content merely to mention the number of persons in a canoe4 ,the first published account of variations in existing forms of the ,american bark canoe does not occur until #agbd1 and the first known illustration of a bark canoe accurate enough to indicate its tribal designation appeared only two years earlier4 ,this fact makes any detailed examination of the early books dealing with ,north ,america quite unprofitable as far as precise information on bark canoes is concerned4 ,the first known reference by a ,frenchman to the bark canoe is that of ,jacques ,cartier1 who reported that he saw two bark canoes in #aece2 he said the two carried a total of #ag men4 ,champlain was the first to record any definite dimensions of the bark canoes2 he wrote that in #afjc he saw1 near what is now ,quebec1 bark canoes #h to #i paces long and #a paces wide1 and he added that they might transport as much as a pipe of wine yet were light enough to be carried easily by one man4 ,if a pace is taken as about #cj inches1 then the canoes would have been between #bj and #bc feet long1 between #dj and #ej inches beam and capable of carrying about half a ton1 ,english measurements4 ,these were apparently ,algonkin canoes4 ,champlain was impressed by the speed of the bark canoes2 he reported that his fully manned longboat was passed by two canoes1 each with two paddlers4 ,as will be seen1 he was perhaps primarily responsible for the rapid adoption of bark canoes by the early ,french in ,canada4 ,the first ,english reference that has been found is in the records of ,captain ,george ,weymouth's voyage4 ,he and his crew in #afjc saw bark canoes to the westward of ,penobscot ,bay1 on what is now the coast of ,maine4 ,the ,english were impressed1 just as ,champlain had been1 by the speed with which canoes having but three or four paddlers could pass his ship's boat manned with four oarsmen4 ,weymouth also speaks admiringly of the fine workmanship shown in the structure of the canoes4 ,when ,champlain attacked the ,iroquois1 on what is now ,lake ,champlain1 he found that these ,indians had oak bark 7more probably elm7 canoes capable of carrying #aj1 #ae1 and #ah men4 ,this would indicate that the maximum size of the ,iroquois canoes was about #cj to #cc feet long4 ,the illustrations in his published account indicate canoes about #cj feet long2 but early illustrations of this kind were too often the product of the artist's imagination1 just as were the delineations of the animals and plants of ,north ,america4 ,as an example of what may be deduced from other early ,french accounts1 ,champlain in #afae1 with a companion and #ab ,indians1 embarked at ,la ,chine in two bark canoes for a trip to the ,great ,lakes4 ,he stated that the two canoes1 with men and baggage aboard1 were over-crowded4 ,taking one of these canoes as having #g men and baggage aboard1 it seems apparent that it was not much larger than the largest of the canoes ,champlain had seen in #afjc on the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,but in #afgb1 ,louis ,joliet and ,father ,jacques ,marquette traveled in two canoes1 carrying a total of #e ,french and #be ,indians--say #ad in one canoe and #af in the other4 ,these canoes1 then1 must have been at least #bh feet long over the gunwales1 exclusive of the round of the ends1 or about #cj feet overall4 ,the ,chevalier ,henri de ,tonti1 one of ,la ,salle's officers1 mentions a canoe carrying #cj men--probably #ad paddlers on each side1 a steersman1 and a passenger or officer4 ,such a capacity might indicate a canoe about #dj feet over the gunwales1 though this seems very long indeed2 it is more probable that the canoe would be about #cf feet long4 ,another of ,la ,salle's officers1 ,baron de ,la,hontan1 gave the first reasonably complete account that has been found of the size and character of a birch-bark canoe4 ,this was written at ,montreal ,june #bi1 #afhd4 ,after stating that he had seen at least a hundred bark canoes in his journeys1 he said that birch-bark canoes ranged in length from #aj to #bh pieds and were capable of carrying from #b to #ad persons4 ,the largest1 when carrying cargo1 might be handled by three men and could carry #b1jjj pounds of freight 7#bj quintals74 ,these large canoes were safe and never upset4 ,they were built of bark peeled in the winter2 hot water was thrown on the bark to make it pliable1 so that it could be rolled up after it was removed from the tree4 ,the canoes were built of more than one piece of bark as a rule4 ,the large canoes1 he reports1 were #bh pieds long1 #d pieds wide and #bj pouces deep1 top of gunwale to top of frames on bottom4 ,the last indicates inside measurement2 in this the length would be over the gunwales1 not overall1 and the beam inside the gunwales1 not extreme4 ,he also says the canoes had a lining or sheathing of cedar splints or plank and1 inside this1 cedar ribs or frames4 ,the bark was the thickness of an cu 7this coin1 a crown1 was a little less than inch thick71 the sheathing the thickness of two cus1 and the ribs of three4 ,the ends of the ribs were pointed and these were seated in holes in the underside of the gunwales4 ,there were #h crosspieces 7thwarts7 between the gunwales 7note3 such a canoe would commonly have #i thwarts2 ,la,hontan may have erred here74 ,the canoes were convenient1 he says1 because of their great lightness and shallow draft1 but they were easily damaged4 ,hence they had to be loaded and unloaded afloat and usually required repairs to the bark covers at the end of each day4 ,they had to be staked down at night1 so that a strong wind might not damage or blow them away2 but this light weight permitted them to be carried with ease by two men1 one at each end1 and this suited them for use on the rivers of ,canada1 where rapids and falls made carrying frequently necessary4 ,these canoes were of no value on the ,lakes1 ,la,hontan states1 as they could not be used in windy weather2 though in good weather they might cross lakes and might go four or five leagues on open water4 ,the canoes carried small sails1 but these could be used only with fair winds of moderate force4 ,the paddlers might kneel1 sit1 or stand to paddle and pole the canoes4 ,the paddle blade was #bj pouces long1 #f wide1 and #d lignes thick2 the handle was of the diameter of a pigeon's egg and three pieds long4 ,the paddlers also had a setting pole1 to pole the canoes in shoal water4 ,the canoes were alike at both ends and cost #hj cus 7,la,hontan's cost #ij71 and would last not more than five or six years4 ,the foregoing is but a condensed extract of ,la,hontan's lively account4 ,in translating ,la,hontan's measurements a pied is taken as #ab4gi inches1 a pouce as about #a inches4 ,the ,french fathom1 or brasse1 as used in colonial ,canada1 was the length from finger-tip to finger-tip of the arms outstretched and so varied1 but may be roughly estimated as about #fd inches2 this was the fathom used later in classing fur-trade canoes for length4 ,in ,english measurements his large canoe would have been about #cj feet long over the gunwales and1 perhaps1 almost #cc feet overall1 #eg inches beam inside the gunwales1 or about #fj inches extreme beam4 ,the depth inside would be #ba or #ba inches bottom to top of gunwale amidships4 ,la,hontan also described the elm-bark canoes of the ,iroquois as being large and wide enough to carry #cj paddlers1 #ae on a side1 sitting or standing4 ,here again a canoe about #dj feet long is indicated4 ,he said that these elm-bark canoes were crude1 heavy and slow1 with low sides1 so that once he and his men reached an open lake1 he no longer feared pursuit by the ,iroquois in these craft4 ,illustration3 ,figure #b ,,page ,,from ,a ,,manuscript ,,of #agga1 ,observations on ,hudsons ,bay1 by ,alexander ,graham1 ,factor1 now in the archives of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company in ,london4 ,the birch-bark canoe at the top1 the kayak below1 and the paddles are obviously drawn by one not trained to observe as an artist4 ,from the slight evidence offered in such records as these1 it appears that the ,indians may have had1 when the ,europeans first reached ,canada1 canoes at least as long as the #e-;fathom or #e-;fathom canoe of later times4 ,it appears also that these dimensions applied to the canoes of the ,great ,lakes area and perhaps to the elm-bark canoes of the ,iroquois as well4 ,probably there were canoes as short as #aj feet1 used as one-man hunting and fishing boats1 and it is plainly evident that canoes between this length and about #bd feet were very common4 ,the evidence in ,la ,salle's time1 in the last half of the seventeenth century1 must be taken with some caution1 as ,french influence on the size of large canoes may have by then come into play4 ,the comparison between the maximum length of the ,iroquois canoes1 inferred from the report of ,champlain1 and that suggested by ,la,hontan1 might indicate this growth4 ,beginning as early as #affj1 the colonial government of ,canada issued congs or trading licenses4 ,these were first granted to the military officers or their families2 later the congs were issued to all approved traders1 and the fees were used for pensions of the military personnel4 ,records of these licenses1 preserved from about #agjj1 show that three men commonly made up the crew of a trading canoe in the earliest years1 but that by #agbe five men were employed1 by #agcg seven men1 and by #agdg seven or eight men4 ,however1 as ,la,hontan has stated that in his time three men were sufficient to man a large canoe with cargo1 it is evident that the congs offer unreliable data and do not necessarily prove that the size of canoes had increased during this period4 ,the increase in the crews may have been brought about by the greater distances travelled1 with an increased number of portages or1 perhaps1 by heavier items of cargo4 ,the war canoe does not appear in these early accounts as a special type4 ,according to the traditions of the eastern ,micmac and ,malecite ,indians1 their war canoes were only large enough to carry three or four warriors and so must not have exceeded #ah feet in length4 ,these were built for speed1 narrow and with very sharp ends2 the bottom was made as smooth as was possible4 ,each canoe carried the insignia of each of its warriors1 that is1 his personal mark or sign4 ,a canoe carrying a war leader had only his personal mark1 none for the rest of the crew4 ,it is possible to regard the large canoes of the ,iroquois as war canoes since they were used in the pursuit of ,french raiders in ,la,hontan's time4 ,however1 the ,iroquois did not build the canoes primarily for war2 in early times these fierce tribesmen preferred to take to the warpath in the dead of winter and to raid overland on snowshoes4 ,in open weather1 they used the rough1 short-lived and quickly built elm-bark canoes to cross streams and lakes or to follow waterways1 discarding them when the immediate purpose was accomplished4 ,probably it was the ,french who really produced the bark war canoes1 for they appear to have placed great emphasis on large canoes for use of the military1 as indicated by ,la,hontan's concern with the largest canoes of his time4 ,perhaps large bark canoes were once used on the ,great ,lakes for war parties1 but1 if so1 no mention of a special type has been found in the early ,french accounts4 ,the sparse references suggest that both large and small canoes were used by the war parties but that no special type paralleling the characteristics of the ,micmac and ,malecite war canoes existed in the ,west4 ,the huge dugout war canoe of the ,indians of the ,northwest ,coast appears to have had no counterpart in size among the birch or elm bark canoes4 ,except for ,la,hontan1 the early ,french writers who refer to the use of sail agree that the canoes were quite unfitted for sailing4 ,it is extremely doubtful that the prehistoric ,indians using bark canoes were acquainted with sails1 though it is possible that the coastal ,indians might have set up a bush in the bow to utilize a following wind and thus lighten the labor of paddling4 ,however1 once the ,indian saw the usefulness of a sail demonstrated by white men1 he was quick to adopt it2 judging from the ,la,hontan reference1 and the use of sails in canoes must have become well established in some areas by #afhe4 ,one of the most important elements in the history of the canoe is its early adoption by the ,french4 ,champlain was the first to recommend its use by white men4 ,he stated that the bark canoe would be very necessary in trade and exploration1 pointing out that in order to penetrate the back country above the rapids at ,montreal1 during the short summer season1 and to come back in time to return to ,france for the winter 7unless the winter was to be spent in ,canada7 the canoe would have to be used4 ,with it the small and large streams could be navigated safely and the numerous overland carries could be quickly made4 ,also1 of course1 ,indians could be employed as crews without the need of training them to row4 ,this general argument in favor of the bark canoe remained sound after the desirability of going home to ,france for the winter had ceased to influence ,french ideas4 ,the quick expansion of the ,french fur trade in the early seventeenth century opened up the western country into the ,great ,lakes area and to the northward4 ,it was soon discovered that by using canoes on the ancient canoe route along the ,ottawa ,river goods could reach the western posts on the ,lakes and be transported north early enough to reach the northernmost posts before the first freeze-up occurred4 ,the use of sailing vessels on the ,lakes did not enable this to be accomplished1 so that until the railroads were built in western ,canada1 the canoe remained the mode of transport for the fur trade in this area4 ,even after the railways were built1 canoe traffic remained important1 until well into the first half of the twentieth century as part of the local system of transportation in the northwestern country of ,canada4 ,illustration3 ,figure #c ,,canoes ,,from ,,lahontan',s ,nouveaux ,voyages 444 dans l',amerique ,septentrionale1 showing crude representations typical of early writers4 ,the unsatisfactory illustrations accompanying early published accounts have been mentioned4 ,the earliest recognizable canoe to be shown in an illustration is the reasonably accurate drawing of a ,micmac canoe that appears in ,bacqueville de la ,poterie's book1 published in #agbb4 ,la,fiteau1 another ,frenchman1 in #agbd published a book that not only contains recognizable drawings but points out reasons for the variation in the appearance of bark canoes3 ,the ,abenacquis1 for example1 are less high in the sides1 less large1 and more flat at the two ends2 in a way they are almost level for their whole extent2 because those who travel on their small rivers are sure to be troubled and struck by the branches of trees that border and extend over the water4 ,on the other hand1 the ,outaouacs ,ottawas and the nations of the upper country having to do their navigation on the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river where there are many falls and rapids1 or especially on the ,lakes where there is always a very considerable swell1 must have high ends4 ,his illustrations show that his low-ended canoes were of ,micmac type but that his high-ended canoes were not of the ,ottawa ,river or ,great ,lakes types but rather of the eastern ,malecite of the lower ,st4 ,lawrence valley4 ,this ,jesuit missionary also noted that the canoes were alike at the ends and that the paddles were of maple and about #e feet long1 with blades #ah inches long and #f wide4 ,he observed that bark canoes were unfitted for sailing4 ,illustration3 ,figure #d ,,lines ,,of ,,an ,,old ,,birch-,,bark ,,canoe1 probably ,micmac1 brought to ,england in #agdi from ,new ,england4 ,this canoe was not alike at both ends1 although apparently intended to be so by the builder4 7,from ,admiralty ,collection of ,draughts1 ,national ,maritime ,museum1 ,greenwich47 ,the early ,english settlers of ,new ,england and ,new ,york were acquainted with the canoe forms of eastern ,indians such as the ,micmac1 ,malecite1 ,abnaki1 and the ,iroquois4 ,surviving records1 however1 show no detailed description of these canoes by an ,english writer and no illustration until about #agej4 ,at this time a bark canoe1 apparently ,micmac1 was brought from ,portsmouth1 ,new ,hampshire1 to ,england and delivered to ,lord ,anson who had it placed in the ,boat ,house of the ,chatham ,dockyard4 ,there it was measured and a scale drawing was made by ,admiralty draftsmen2 the drawing is now in the ,admiralty ,collection of ,draughts1 in the ,national ,maritime ,museum at ,greenwich4 ,a redrawing of this plan appears opposite4 ,it probably represents a war canoe1 since a narrow1 sharp-ended canoe is shown4 ,the bottom1 neither flat nor fully round1 is a rounded ,v-shape2 this may indicate a canoe intended for coastal waters4 ,other drawings1 of a later date1 showing crude plans of canoes1 exist in ,europe but none yet found appear as carefully drawn as the ,admiralty plan1 a scale drawing1 which seems to be both the earliest and the most accurate #ahth-century representation of a tribal type of ,american ,indian bark canoe4 ,due to the rapid development of the ,french fur trade1 and the attendant exploration1 a great variety of canoe types must have become known to the ,french by #agej1 yet little in the way of drawings and no early scale plans have been found4 ,this is rather surprising1 not only because the opportunity for observation existed but also because a canoe factory was actually operated by the ,french4 ,the memoirs of ,colonel ,franquet1 ,military ,engineer-in-,chief for ,new ,france1 contain extensive references to this factory as it existed in #agea4 ,the canoe factory was located at ,trois ,rivires1 just below ,montreal1 on the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,a standard large canoe was built1 and the rate of production was then #bj a year4 ,franquet gives as the dimensions of the canoes the following 7converted to ,english measurement73 length #cf feet1 beam about #e feet1 and depth about #cc inches4 ,much of his description is not clear1 but it seems evident that the canoe described was very much like the later grand canot1 or large canoe1 of the fur trade4 ,the date at which this factory was established is unknown2 it may have existed as early as #agjj1 as might have been required by the rapid expansion of the ,french trade and other activities in the last half of the previous century4 ,it is apparent from early comments that the ,french found the ,indian canoe-builders unreliable1 not to say most uncertain1 as a source of supply4 ,the need for large canoes for military and trade operations had forced the establishment of such a factory as soon as ,europeans could learn how to build the canoes4 ,this would1 in fact1 have been the only possible solution4 ,of course1 it must not be assumed that the bark canoes were the only watercraft used by the early ,french traders4 ,they used plank boats as well1 ranging from scows to flat-bottomed bateaux and ship's boats1 and they also had some early sailing craft built on the ,great ,lakes and on the lower ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,the bateau1 shaped much like a modern dory but with a sharp stern1 was adopted by the ,english settlers as well as the ,french4 ,in early colonial times this form of boat was called by the ,english a battoe1 or ,schenectady ,boat1 and later1 an ,albany ,boat4 ,it was sharp at both ends1 it usually had straight flaring sides with a flat bottom1 and was commonly built of white pine plank4 ,some1 however1 had rounded sides and lapstrake planking1 as shown by a plan of a bateau of #aggf in the ,admiralty ,collection of ,draughts4 ,early bateaux had about the same range of size as the bark canoes but later ones were larger4 ,after the ,english gained control of ,canada1 the records of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 and of individual traders and travellers such as ,alexander ,henry1 ,jr41 and ,alexander ,mac,kenzie1 at the end of the eighteenth century1 give much material on the fur-trade canoes but little on the small ,indian canoes4 ,in general1 these records show that the fur-trade canoe of the ,west was commonly #bd feet long inside the gunwales1 exclusive of the curves of bow and stern2 #d feet #i inches beam2 #bf inches deep2 and light enough to be carried by two men1 as ,mac,kenzie recorded1 three or four miles without resting on a good road4 ,but the development of the fur-trade canoes is best left for a later chapter4 ,the use of the name canoe for bark watercraft does not appear to been taken from a ,north ,american ,indian usage4 ,the early ,french explorers and travellers called these craft canau 7pl4 canaux74 ,as this also meant canal1 the name canot 7pl4 canots7 was soon substituted4 ,but some early writers preferred to call the canoe ecorse de bouleau1 or birch-bark1 and sometimes the name used was merely the generic petit embarcation1 or small boat4 ,the early ,english term was canoa1 later canoe4 ,the popular uses of canoe1 canoa1 canau1 and canot are thought to have begun early in the sixteenth century as the adaptation of a ,carib ,indian word for a dugout canoe4 ,summary ,it will be seen that the early descriptions of the ,north ,american bark canoes are generally lacking in exact detail4 ,yet this scanty information strongly supports the claim that bark canoes were highly developed and that the only influence white men exercised upon their design was related to an increase in size of the large canoes that may have taken place in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries4 ,the very early recognition of the speed1 fine construction1 and general adaptability of the bark canoes to wilderness travel sustain this view4 ,the two known instances mentioned of early accurate illustration emphasize that distinct variations in tribal forms of canoes existed1 and that these were little changed between early colonial times and a relatively recent period1 despite steadily increasing influence of the ,european4 ,chapter ,two ,,materials and ,,tools ,bark of the paper birch was the material preferred by the ,north ,american ,indians for the construction of their canoes1 although other barks were used where birch was not available4 ,this tree 7,betula papyrifera ,marsh471 also known as the canoe birch1 is found in good soil1 often near streams1 and where growing conditions are favorable it becomes large1 reaching a height of a hundred feet1 with a butt diameter of thirty inches or more4 ,its range forms a wide belt across the continent1 with the northern limits in ,canada along a line extending westward from ,newfoundland to the southern shores of ,hudson ,bay and thence generally northwestward to ,great ,bear ,lake1 the ,yukon ,river1 and the ,alaskan coast4 ,the southern limits extend roughly westward from ,long ,island to the southern shores of ,lake ,erie and through central ,michigan to ,lake ,superior1 thence through ,wisconsin1 northern ,nebraska1 and northwesterly through the ,dakotas1 northern ,montana1 and northern ,washington to the ,pacific ,coast4 ,the trees are both abundant and large in the eastern portion of the belt1 particularly in ,newfoundland1 ,quebec1 the ,maritime ,provinces1 ,ontario1 ,maine1 and ,new ,hampshire1 in contrast to the western areas4 ,near the limits of growth to the north and south the trees are usually small and scattered4 ,the leaves are rather small1 deep green1 and pointed-oval1 and are often heart-shaped at the base4 ,the edges of the leaves are rather coarsely toothed along the margin1 which is slightly six-notched4 ,the small limbs are black1 sometimes spotted with white1 and the large are white4 ,the bark of the tree has an aromatic odor when freshly peeled1 and is chalky white marked with black splotches on either side of limbs or where branches have grown at one time4 ,elsewhere on the bark1 dark1 or black1 horizontal lines of varying lengths also appear4 ,the lower part of the tree1 to about the height of winter snows1 has bark that is usually rough1 blemished and thin2 above this level1 to the height of the lowest large limbs1 the bark is often only slightly blemished and is thick and well formed4 ,the bark is made up of paper-like layers1 their color deepens with each layer from the chalky white of the exterior through creamy buff to a light tan on the inner layer4 ,a gelatinous greenish to yellow rind1 or cambium layer1 lies between the bark and the wood of the trunk2 its characteristics are different from those of the rest of the bark4 ,the horizontal lines that appear on each successive paper-like layer do not appear on the rind4 ,the thickness of the bark cannot be judged from the size of a tree and may vary markedly among trees of the same approximate size in a single grove4 ,the thickness varies from a little less than one-eighth to over three-sixteenths inch2 bark with a thickness of one-quarter inch or more is rarely found4 ,for canoe construction1 bark must be over one-eighth inch thick1 tough1 and from a naturally straight trunk of sufficient diameter and length to give reasonably large pieces4 ,the eyes must be small and not so closely spaced as to allow the bark to split easily in their vicinity4 ,the bark can be peeled readily when the sap is flowing4 ,in winter1 when the exterior of the tree is frozen1 the bark can be removed only when heat is applied4 ,during a prolonged thaw1 however1 this may be accomplished without the application of heat4 ,bark peeled from the tree during a winter thaw1 and early in the spring or late in the fall1 usually adheres strongly to the inner rind1 which comes away from the tree with the bark4 ,the act of peeling1 however1 puts a strain on the bark1 so that only tough1 well-made bark can be removed under these conditions4 ,this particular characteristic caused ,indians in the east to call bark with the rind adhering winter bark1 even though it might have been peeled from a tree during the warm weather of early summer4 ,since in large trees the flow of sap usually starts later than in small ones1 the period in which good bark is obtainable may extend into late ,june in some localities4 ,upon exposure to air and moisture1 the inner rind first turns orange-red and gradually darkens with age until in a few years it becomes dark brown1 or sepia4 ,if it is first moistened1 the rind can be scraped off1 and this allowed it to be employed in decoration1 enough being left to form designs4 ,hence winter bark was prized4 ,to the eastern ,indians summer bark was a poor grade that readily separated into its paper-like layers1 a characteristic of bark peeled in hot weather1 or of poorly made bark in any season4 ,in the west1 however1 high-quality bark was often scarce and1 therefore1 the distinction between winter and summer bark does not seem to have been made4 ,newfoundland once had excellent canoe bark1 as did the ,maritime ,provinces1 ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire1 and ,quebec1 but the best bark was found back from the seacoast4 ,ontario and the country to the immediate north of ,lake ,superior are also said to have produced bark of high quality for canoe building4 ,the bark of the paper birch was preferred for canoe building because it could be obtained in quite large sheets clear of serious blemishes2 because its grain ran around the tree rather than along the line of vertical tree growth1 so that sheets could be sewn together to obtain length in a canoe2 and because the bark was resinous and not only did not stretch and shrink as did other barks1 but also had some elasticity when green1 or when kept damp4 ,this elasticity1 of course1 was lost once the bark was allowed to become dry through exposure to air and sunshine1 a factor which controlled to some extent the technique of its employment4 ,many other barks were employed in bark canoe construction1 but in most instances the craft were for temporary or emergency use and were discarded after a short time4 ,such barks as spruce 7,picea71 elm 7,ulmus71 chestnut 7,castenea dentata ,l471 hickory 7,carya spp471 basswood 7,tilia spp471 and cottonwood 7,populus spp47 are said to have been used in bark canoe construction in some parts of ,north ,america4 ,birches other than the paper birch could be used1 but most of them produced bark that was thin and otherwise poor1 and was considered unsuitable for the better types of canoes4 ,barks other than birch usually had rough surfaces that had to be scraped away1 in order to make the material flexible enough for canoe construction4 ,spruce bark had some of the good qualities of the paper birch bark1 but to a far less degree1 and was considered at best a mere substitute4 ,non-resinous barks1 because of their structure could not be joined together to gain length1 and their characteristic shrinkage and swelling made it virtually impossible to keep them attached to a solid framework for any great length of time4 ,illustration3 ,figure #e ,,ojibway ,,indian carrying spruce roots1 ,lac ,seul1 ,ont41 #aiai4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 ,the material used for sewing together pieces of birch bark was most commonly the root of the black spruce 7,picea mariana 7,mill47 ,b4,s4,p471 which grows in much of the area where the paper birch exists4 ,the root of this particular spruce is long but of small diameter2 it is tough1 durable1 and flexible enough for the purpose4 ,the tree usually grows in soft1 moist ground1 so that the long roots are commonly very close to the surface1 where they could easily be dug up with a sharp stick or with the hands4 ,in some areas of favorable growing conditions1 the roots of the black spruce could be obtained in lengths up to #bj feet1 yet with a maximum diameter no larger than that of a lead pencil4 ,illustration3 ,figure #f ,,roll ,,of ,,bark ,,for ,a ,,hunting ,,canoe4 ,holding the bark is the intended builder1 ,vincent ,mikans1 then 7in #aibg71 at age #ajj1 the oldest ,indian on the ,algonkin ,reserve at ,golden ,lake1 ,ont4 ,other roots could be used in an emergency1 such as those of the other spruces1 as well as of the northern white-cedar 7,thuja occidentalis ,l471 tamarack 7hackmatack or eastern larch7 7,laris laricina 7,du ,roi7 ,k4 ,koch7 and jack pine 7pinus banksiana ,lamb471 the last named being used extensively by some of the western tribes4 ,although inferior to the black spruce for sewing1 these and other materials were used for sewing bark2 even rawhide was employed for some purposes in canoe construction by certain tribes4 ,canoes built of nonresinous barks were usually lashed1 instead of sewn1 by thongs of such material as the inner bark of the northern white cedar1 basswood1 elm1 or hickory1 for the reason stated earlier4 ,spruce root was also used for lashings1 if readily available4 ,since sheets of birch bark were joined without employing a needle1 the sewing actually could more correctly be termed lacing1 rather than stitching4 ,but for the nonresinous barks1 which could stand little sewing or lacing1 perhaps lashing is the better term4 ,before steel tools became available to the ,indians1 the woodwork required in constructing a birch-bark canoe represented great labor1 since stone tools having poor cutting characteristics were used4 ,selection of the proper wood was therefore a vital consideration4 ,in most sections of the bark canoe area1 the northern white cedar was the most sought-for wood for canoe construction4 ,this timber had the excellent characteristic of splitting cleanly and readily when dry and well-seasoned4 ,as a result1 the ,indian could either utilize fallen timber of this species1 windblown or torn up in spring floods2 with the crude means available he could fell a suitable tree well in advance of his needs2 or he could girdle the tree so that it would die and season on the stump and then fell it at his convenience4 ,if split properly1 ribs of white cedar could be bent and set in shape by the use of hot water4 ,in many areas the ribs1 sheathing1 and the gunwale members of bark canoes were made of this wood1 as were also the headboards and stem pieces4 ,illustration3 ,figure #g ,white cedar ,black spruce ,wood-splitting techniques ,black spruce was also employed1 as it too would split well1 although only when green4 ,this wood also required a different direction in splitting than the white cedar4 ,ribs of black spruce could be bent and set in shape when this was done while the wood was green4 ,in some areas black spruce was used in place of white cedar for all parts of a bark canoe structure4 ,hard maple 7usually either ,acer saccharum ,marsh4 or ,a4 nigrum ,michx471 can be split rather easily while green2 this wood was used for the crosspieces or thwarts that hold the gunwales apart and for paddles4 ,larch1 particularly western larch 7,larix occidentalis ,nutt471 was used in some areas for canoe members4 ,white and black ash 7,fraxinus americana ,l4 and ,f4 nigra ,marsh471 were also used where suitable wood of these species was available4 ,in the northwest1 spruce and various pines were employed1 as was also willow 7,salix74 ,it should be noted that the use of many woods in bark canoe construction can be identified only in the period after steel tools became available2 it must be assumed that the range of selection was much narrower in prehistoric times4 ,to make a bark cover watertight1 it is necessary to coat all seams and to cover all sewing with a waterproof material1 of which the most favored by the ,indians was spruce gum1 the resin obtained from black or white spruce 7,picea mariana or ,p4 glauca 7,moench7 ,voss74 ,the resin of the red spruce 7,picea rubens ,sarg47 was not used1 so far as has been discovered4 ,the soft resin was scraped from a fallen tree or from one damaged in summer4 ,spruce gum could be accumulated by stripping a narrow length of bark from trees early in the spring and then1 during warm weather1 gathering the resin that appeared at the bottoms of the scars thus made4 ,it was melted or heated in various ways to make it workable and certain materials were usually added to make it durable in use4 ,illustration3 ,figure #h ,stone axe ,the most important aids to the ,indian in canoe construction were his patience1 knowledge of the working qualities of materials1 his manual skill with the crude cutting1 scraping1 and boring instruments known to him1 and of course fire2 time was1 perforce1 of less importance4 ,the canoe builder had to learn by experience and close observation how to work the material available4 ,the wood-working tools of the stone age were relatively inefficient1 but with care and skill could be used with remarkable precision and neatness4 ,felling of trees was accomplished by use of a stone axe1 hatchet1 or adze1 combined with the use of fire4 ,the method almost universally employed by primitive people was followed4 ,the tree was first girdled by striking it with the stone tool to loosen and raise the wood fibers and remove the soft green bark4 ,above this girdle the trunk was daubed all around with wet earth1 or preferably clay4 ,a large1 hot fire was then built around the base of the tree and1 after the loose fibers were burned away and the wood well charred1 the char was removed by blows from the stone tool4 ,the process was repeated until the trunk was cut through enough for the tree to fall4 ,the fallen trunk could be cut into sections by employing the same methods1 mud being laid on each side of the cut to prevent the fire from spreading along the trunk4 ,fire could also be used to cut down poles and small trees1 to cut them into sections1 and to sharpen the ends into points to form crude wedges or stakes4 ,stone tools were formed by chipping flint1 jasper1 or other forms of quartz1 such as chalcedony1 into flakes with sharp edges4 ,this was done by striking the nodule of stone a sharp blow with another stone held in the hand or mounted in a handle of hide or wood to form a stone hammer4 ,the flakes were then shaped by pressing the edges with a horn point--say1 part of a deer antler--to force a chip from the flake4 ,the chipping tool was sometimes fitted with a hide or wood handle set at right angles to the tool1 so that its head could be hit with a stone or horn hammer4 ,the flake being worked upon1 if small1 was often held in the hand1 which was protected from the slipping of a chipping tool by a pad of rawhide4 ,heat was not used in chipping1 and some ,indians took care to keep the flake damp while working it1 occasionally burying the flake for a while in moist soil4 ,the cutting edge of a stone tool could be ground by abrasion on a hard piece of granite or on sandstone1 but the final degree of sharpness depended upon the qualities of the stone being used as a tool4 ,slate could be used in tools in spite of its brittleness4 ,in general1 stone tools were unsuitable for chopping or whittling wood4 ,illustration3 ,figure #i ,stone hammer ,stone wedge ,stone knife with rawhide thong handle ,splitting was done by starting the split at the upper1 or small end1 of a balk of timber with a maul and a stone wedge or the blade of a stone axe1 hatchet1 or knife4 ,the stone knives used for this work were not finished tools with wood handles1 but rather1 as the blade was often damaged in use1 selected flakes fitted with hide pads that served as a handle4 ,the tool was usually driven into the wood with blows from a wooden club or maul1 the brittle stone tool being protected from damage by a pad of rawhide secured to the top1 or head1 of the tool4 ,once the split was started1 it could be continued by driving more wedges1 or pointed sticks1 into the split2 this process was continued until the whole balk was divided4 ,white cedar was split into quarters by this method and then the heartwood was split away1 the latter being used for canoe structural members4 ,from short balks of the length of the longest rib or perhaps a little more1 were split battens equal in thickness to two ribs and in width also equal to two1 so that by splitting one batten two ways four finished ribs were produced4 ,the broad faces of the ribs were as nearly parallel to the bark side of the wood as possible1 as the ribs would bend satisfactorily toward or away from the bark side only4 ,black spruce1 however1 was split in line with the wood rays1 from the heart outward toward the bark1 so that one of the rib's narrow edges faced the bark side2 only in this direction would the wood split readily and only when made this way would the ribs bend without great breakage4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aj ,wooden mauls 7#b1 #c used to set ribs with #d1 #e7 ,driving sticks ,long pieces for sheathing and for the gunwale members were split from white cedar or black spruce4 ,the splitting of such long pieces as these required not only proper selection of clear wood1 but also careful manipulation of wood and tools in the operation4 ,splitting of this kind--say1 for ribs in the finish cut--was usually done by first splitting out a batten large enough to form two members4 ,to split it again1 a stone knife was tapped into the end grain to start the split at the desired point1 which1 as has been noted1 was always at the upper end of the stick1 not at the root end4 ,once the split was opened1 it was continued by use of a sharp-pointed stick and the stone knife2 if the split showed a tendency to run off the grain as it opened1 it could be controlled by bending the batten1 or one of the halves1 away from the direction the split was taking4 ,the first rough split usually served to show the worker the splitting characteristics of a piece of wood4 ,this method of finishing frame members in bark canoes accounts for the uneven surfaces that often mark some parts1 a wavy grain producing a wave in the surface of the wood when it was finished4 ,if it were desired to produce a partially split piece of wood1 such as some tribal groups used for the stems1 or in order to allow greater curvature at the ends of the gunwale1 the splitting was stopped at the desired point and a tight lashing of rawhide or bark was placed there to form a stop4 ,the tapering of frames1 gunwales1 and thwarts and the shaping of paddles were accomplished by splitting away surplus wood along the thin edges and by abrasion and scraping on all edges4 ,stone scrapers were widely employed2 shell could be employed in some areas4 ,rubbing with an abrasive such as soft sandstone was used when the wood became thoroughly dry2 hardwood could often be polished by rubbing it with a large piece of wood1 or by use of fine sand held in a rawhide pad4 ,by these means the sharp edges could be rounded off and the final shaping accomplished4 ,some stone knives could be used to cut wood slowly1 saw fashion1 and this process appears to to have been used to form the thwart ends that in many canoes were tenoned into the gunwales4 ,a stone knife used saw fashion would also cut a bent sapling easily1 though slowly4 ,to cut and trim bark a stone knife was employed2 to peel bark from a tree1 a hatchet1 axe1 or chisel could be used4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aa ,stone scraper ,drilling was done by means of a bone awl made from a splinter of the shank-bone of a deer2 the blade of this awl had a roughly triangular cross-section4 ,the splinter was held in a wooden handle or in a rawhide grip4 ,the awl was used not only to make holes in wood1 but also as the punch to make holes for sewing in bark4 ,large holes were drilled by means of the bow-drill1 in which a stone drill-point was rotated back and forth by the bow-string4 ,some ,indians rotated the drill between the palms of their hands1 or by a string with handgrips at each end4 ,the top of the drill was steadied by a block held in the worker's mouth1 the top rotating in a hole in the underside of the block4 ,with the bow-drill1 however1 the block was held in one hand4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ab ,bow ,drill ,peeling the bark from roots and splitting them was done by use of the thumbnail1 a stone knife1 or a clamshell4 ,biting was also resorted to4 ,the end of a root could also be split by first pounding it with a stone1 using a log or another stone as an anvil1 to open the fibers at one end4 ,splitting a root was usually done by biting to start the split4 ,once this was done1 half was held in the mouth and the other half between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand4 ,then the two parts were gradually pulled apart with the right hand1 while the thumbnail of the left was used to guide the split4 ,if the split showed a tendency to run off1 bending the root away from the direction of the run while continuing the splitting usually served to change the course of the split4 ,if a root was hard to split1 the stone knife came into play instead of the thumbnail4 ,when the split reached arm's length1 the ends were shifted in hand and mouth and the operation continued4 ,the use of hot water as an aid in bending wood was well known to some tribal groups before the white man came4 ,water was placed in a wooden trough1 or in a bark basin1 and heated to boiling by dropping hot stones into it4 ,some ,indians boiled water in bark utensils by placing them over a fire of hot coals surrounded by stones and earth so that the flame could not reach the highly inflammable bark above the water-level in the dish4 ,stones were lifted from the fire with wooden tongs made of green saplings bent into a ,u-shape or made into a spoon-like outline4 ,a straight stick and a forked one1 used together1 formed another type of tongs4 ,the straight stick was placed in and under the fork2 then1 by forcing the latter under the stone and bringing the end of the straight stick hard against its top1 the stone was held firmly1 pincer-fashion4 ,the wood to be bent was first soaked in the boiling water1 or the water was poured over it by means of a birch-bark or other dipper4 ,when the wood was thoroughly soaked with boiling water1 bending began1 and as it progressed boiling water was almost continuously poured on the wood4 ,when the wood had been bent to a desired form1 it was secured in shape by thongs and allowed to cool and dry out1 during which it would take a permanent set4 ,hard bends1 as in gunwale ends and stem-pieces1 were made by this means1 usually after the wood had been split into a number of laminations in the area of the greatest bend4 ,when the piece had been boiled and bent to its required form1 the laminations were secured by wrapping them spirally with a thong of inner bark 7such as basswood71 of roots1 or of rawhide4 ,flat stones were used to weigh down bark in order to flatten it and prevent curling4 ,picked up about the canoe-building site1 they had one smooth and fairly flat surface so that no harm came to the bark1 and were of such size and weight as could be handled easily by the builder4 ,smooth stones from a stream appear to have been preferred4 ,in preparation for building a canoe1 the pins1 stakes1 and poles which were of only temporary use were cut or burned down in the manner mentioned and stored ready for use4 ,bark containers were made and filled with spruce gum1 and the materials used in making it hard and durable were gathered4 ,the building site was selected in the shade1 to prevent the bark from becoming hard and brittle1 and on ground that was smooth1 clear of outcroppings of stone1 and roots1 or other obstructions1 and firm enough to hold the stakes driven into it4 ,the location was1 of course1 usually near the water where the canoe was to be launched4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ac ,modern ,hudson ,bay axe ,when steel tools became available1 the work of the ,indian in cutting and shaping wood became much easier but it is doubtful that better workmanship resulted4 ,the steel axe and hatchet made more rapid and far easier than before the felling and cutting up of trees1 poles1 and sticks2 they could also be used in peeling bark4 ,the favored style of axe among ,canadian ,indians was what is known as the ,hudson ,bay axe2 it is made as a fairly large or full-axe1 as a lighter half-axe1 and as a large hatchet1 or hand-axe4 ,the head of the blade is very narrow1 the front of the blade vertical1 while the back widens toward the cutting edge and the latter stands at a slightly acute angle to the front of the blade4 ,this style of axe seems to follow the traditional form of the tomahawk and is popular because it cuts well1 yet is lighter to carry than the other forms of axe4 ,it is also called a cedar axe in some localities4 ,in modern times1 ,indian hatchets are of the commercial variety1 the lathing form being preferred because it holds somewhat to the old trade tomahawk in form of blade and weight4 ,the traditional steel tomahawk1 incidentally was an adaptation of one of the ,european forms of hatchet1 sold in the early days of the fur trade4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ad ,steel tomahawk 7fur trade7 ,illustration3 ,figure #ae ,steel canoe awls ,the canoe awl of the fur trade was a steel awl with a blade triangular or square in cross-section1 and was sometimes made of an old triangular file of small size4 ,its blade was locked into a hardwood handle1 and it was a modern version of the old bone awl of the bark canoe builders1 hence its name4 ,the plane was also used by modern ,indians1 but not in white man's fashion1 in which the wood is held in a vise and smoothed by sliding the tool forward over the work4 ,the ,indian usually fixed the plane upside down on a bench or timber and slid the work over the sole1 much as would be done with a power-driven joiner4 ,however1 the plane was not very popular among any of the canoe-building ,indians4 ,illustration3 ,figure #af ,crooked knives ,the boring tool most favored by the ,indians was the common steel gimlet2 if a larger boring tool was desired1 an auger of the required diameter was bought and fitted with a removable cross-handle rather than a brace4 ,one steel tool having much popularity among canoe-building ,indians was the pioneer's splitting tool known as the froe4 ,this was a heavy steel blade1 fifteen to twenty inches long1 about two inches wide1 and nearly a quarter inch thick along its back4 ,one end of the blade ended in a tight loop into which a heavy hardwood handle1 about a foot long1 was set at right angles to the back edge of the blade1 so that1 when held in the hand1 the blade was cutting edge down1 with the handle upright4 ,the froe was driven into the end of a balk of timber to be split by blows from a wooden maul on the back of its blade4 ,once the split was started1 the maul was dropped and the hand that had held it was placed at the end of the blade away from the handle4 ,by twisting the blade with the two hands the split could be forced open4 ,the froe was a most powerful and efficient splitting tool when narrow1 short plank1 or battens1 were required4 ,the balk to be split was usually placed more or less end-up1 as its length permitted1 in the crotch of a felled tree1 so as to hold it steady during the splitting4 ,the pioneer used this tool to make clapboards and riven shingles2 the ,indian canoe builder found it handy for all splitting4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ag ,froe ,another pioneer tool that became useful to the ,indian canoe builder was the shaving horse4 ,a sort of bench and vise1 it was used by ,indians in a variety of forms1 all based on the same principle of construction4 ,usually a seven-foot-long bench made of a large log flattened on top was supported by two or four legs1 one pair being high enough to raise that end of the bench several feet off the ground to provide a seat for the operator4 ,to the top of the bench was secured a shorter1 wedge-shaped piece flattened top and bottom1 with one end beveled and fastened to the bench and the other held about #ab inches above it by a support tenoned into the bench about thirty inches from the high end4 ,through the bench and the shorter piece were cut slots1 about four feet from the high end of the bench and aligned to receive an arm pivoted on the bench and extending from the ground to above the upper slot4 ,the arm was shaped to overhang the slot on the front1 toward the operator's end of the bench1 and on each side4 ,the lower portion of the arm was squared to fit the slot1 and a crosspiece was secured to1 or through1 its lower end4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ah ,,shaving ,,horse4 ,the worker sat astraddle the high end of the bench1 facing the low end1 with his feet on the crosspiece of the pivoted arm4 ,placing a piece of wood on top of the wedge-shaped piece1 close to the head of the pivoted arm1 he pushed forward on the crosspiece with his feet1 thus forcing the head down hard upon the wood1 so that it was held as in a vise4 ,the wood could then be shaved down to a required shape with a drawknife or crooked knife without the necessity of holding the work4 ,a long piece was canted on top of the bench so that the finished part would pass by the body of the worker1 and1 if it were necessary to shape the full length1 it could be reversed4 ,nails and tacks eventually came into use1 though they were never used in all phases of the construction of a particular canoe4 ,in the last days of bark canoe construction1 the bark was tacked to the gunwales and1 in areas where a gunwale cap was customarily employed1 the cap was often nailed to the top of the gunwales4 ,the bucksaw also came into the hands of the ,indians1 but the frame of this saw was too awkward to carry1 so the ,indian usually bought only the blade4 ,with a couple of nails and a bent sapling he could make a very good frame in the woods1 when the saw was required4 ,the ends of the sapling were slotted to take the ends of the blade and then drilled crosswise to the slot1 so a nail could be inserted to hold the ends of blade and sapling together4 ,with the end of the nail bent over1 the frame was locked together and the tension was given to the blade by the bent sapling handle4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ai ,bucksaw ,the crooked knife was the most important and popular steel tool found among the ,indians building bark canoes4 ,it was made from a flat steel file with one side worked down to a cutting-edge4 ,the back of the blade thus formed was usually a little less than an eighth of an inch thick4 ,the cutting edge was bevel-form1 like that of a drawknife or chisel1 with the back face quite flat4 ,the tang of the file was fitted into a handle made of a crotched stick1 to one arm of which the tang was attached1 while the other projected at a slightly obtuse angle away from the back of the blade4 ,the tang was usually held in place by being bent at its end into a slight hook and let into the handle1 where it was secured with sinew lashing2 wire later came into use for this lashing4 ,the knife1 held with the cutting edge toward the user1 was grasped fingers-up with the thumb of the holding hand laid along the part of the handle projecting away from the user4 ,this steadied the knife in cutting4 ,unlike a jackknife1 the crooked knife was not used to whittle but to cut toward the user1 and was1 in effect1 a one-hand drawknife4 ,this form of knife is so satisfactory that it is to this day employed instead of a drawknife by many boat-builders in ,new ,brunswick and ,quebec4 ,a variation in the crooked knife has the tip of the blade turned upward1 on the flat1 so that it can be used in hollowing out a wooden bowl or dish4 ,the blades of crooked knives seen are usually about five-eighths inch wide and perhaps five or six inches long4 ,some are only slightly beveled along the cutting edge2 others show this feature very markedly4 ,awls1 as well as chisels and other stone or bone blades1 often had handles on their sides to allow them to be held safely when hit with a hammer4 ,some of the stone blades and chisels thus took the form of adzes and could be used like them1 but only1 of course1 to cut charred or very soft wood4 ,the sharpening of stone tools followed the same methods used in their original manufacture and was a slow undertaking4 ,to some ,indians an efficient wood-cutting chisel was available in the teeth of the beaver4 ,each tooth was nearly a quarter inch wide1 so two teeth would give a cut of nearly half an inch4 ,the usual practice appears to have been to employ the skull as a handle1 though some beaver tooth chisels had wooden handles4 ,as used in making tenons in the gunwales1 two holes1 of a diameter equal to the desired width1 were first drilled close enough together to make the length of the desired tenon1 after which the intervening wood1 especially if it was white cedar or black spruce1 could be readily split out by means of either a beaver tooth or narrow stone chisel4 ,the maul was merely some form of wooden club2 the most common type was made by cutting away part of the length of a small balk to form a handle1 the remainder being left to form the head4 ,the swelling of the trunk of a small tree at the ground1 where the roots form1 was also utilized to give weight and bulk to the head of a maul4 ,it could be hardened by scorching the head in a fire4 ,another method of pounding and driving was to employ a stone held in one hand or both4 ,stone hammers were rarely employed1 since the maul or a stone held in the hand would serve the purpose4 ,the birch tree that was to supply the bark was usually selected far in advance of the time of construction4 ,by exploring the birch groves1 the builder located a number of trees from which a suitable quantity of bark of the desired quality could be obtained4 ,samples of the bark of each tree were stripped from the trunk and carefully inspected and tested4 ,if they separated into layers when bent back and forth1 the bark was poor4 ,if the eyes inside the bark were lumpy1 the bark in their vicinity would split too easily2 this was also true if they were too close together1 but if the eyes on the inside of the bark appeared hollow there was no objection4 ,bark that was dead white1 or the outer surface of which was marked by small strips partly peeled away from the layer below1 would be rejected as poor in quality4 ,preferably1 bark was stripped from the selected trees during a prolonged thaw in winter1 particularly one accompanied by rain1 or as soon as the sap in the trees had begun to flow in early spring4 ,if this was not possible1 winter bark1 as described on page #ad1 was used as long as it was obtainable4 ,only dire necessity forced the ,indian to use bark of a poor quality4 ,fall peeling1 after the first frosts1 was also practiced in some areas4 ,the work on the tree was done from stages made of small trees whose branches could be used in climbing1 or from rough ladders constructed of short rungs lashed to two poles4 ,when steel axes and hatchets were available the tree could be felled1 provided care was taken to have it fall on poles laid on the ground to prevent damage to the bark in the fall and to keep the trunk high enough to allow it to be peeled4 ,felling permitted use of hot water to heat the bark1 and thus made peeling possible in colder weather than would permit stripping a standing tree4 ,felling by burning1 however1 sometimes resulted in an uncontrolled fall in which the bark could be damaged4 ,whether stone or steel knives were used1 the bark was cut in the same manner1 with the blade held at an angle to make a slashing cut2 holding a sharp knife upright1 so as to cut square to the surface of the bark1 makes the tool stick and jump1 and a ragged cut results4 ,a stone or steel axe blade could also very readily be used in cutting bark2 with such tools1 it was customary to tap the head with a maul to make the cut4 ,it was necessary to make only the longitudinal cut on the trunk of the birch tree1 as the bark would split around the tree with the grain at the ends of this cut4 ,spruce and other barks1 however1 required both vertical and horizontal cuts4 ,once the vertical cut was made to the desired length1 one edge of the bark was carefully pried away from the wood with the blade of a knife4 ,then the removal of the bark could proceed more rapidly4 ,instead of starting the bark with a knife blade1 some ,indians used a small stick1 one end of which was slightly bent and made into a chisel shape about three-quarters of an inch wide4 ,this was used to pry the bark away1 not only along the edge of the vertical cut1 but throughout the operation of peeling4 ,another tool1 useful in obtaining winter bark1 which was difficult to strip from the tree1 was a piece of dry1 thick birch bark1 about a foot square1 with one edge cut in a slight round and beveled to a sharp edge4 ,the beveled side was inserted beneath the bark and rocked on its curved cutting edge1 thus separating the bark from the wood with less danger of splitting the bark4 ,spruce and other barks were removed from the tree with the same tools4 ,after the bark had been removed from the tree1 it was handled with great care to avoid splitting it along the grain4 ,even in quite warm weather1 the bark was usually heated slightly with a bark torch to make it flexible2 sometimes hot water was applied if the inner rind was not to be used for decoration4 ,then the sheets were rolled up tightly in the direction of growth of the tree4 ,this made a roll convenient for transporting and also helped to prevent the bark from curling4 ,if the bark was not to be used immediately1 it was carefully submerged in water so that it would not dry out before it was fitted to the canoe4 ,spruce and other resinous barks1 which could not be stored1 were used as soon as possible after they were stripped from the tree1 the rough exterior surface being removed by scraping4 ,roots for sewing were also gathered1 split1 and rolled up1 then placed in water so they would remain flexible4 ,sometimes they were boiled as well1 just before being used4 ,the spruce gum was gathered and tempered4 ,before metal kettles and frying pans became available to the ,indians1 it was heated in a number of ways4 ,one method was to heat it in a wooden trough with hot stones4 ,as the spruce gum melted easily1 great temperature was not required4 ,stone and pottery containers were also used4 ,another method was to boil water in a bark container and drop in the spruce gum1 which melted and floated on top of the water in such a consistency that it could be skimmed off with a bark spoon or dipper4 ,chips and dirt were skimmed off the hot gum with a strip of bark or a flat stick4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bj ,,peeling1 ,,rolling1 ,,and ,,transporting bark for use in canoe construction4 7,sketches by ,adney47 ,tempering1 done after the gum was melted1 consisted of adding animal fat and a little finely powdered charcoal4 ,the mixture was then tested by dipping a strip of bark into it and then into cold water4 ,the strip was bent to see if it cracked the spruce gum2 if it did1 too much tempering material had been added and more gum was required4 ,if no cracking occurred1 the gum on the strip was held in the hand for a few moments to see if it became tacky or could be rubbed off the strip2 if either occurred1 more tempering was needed4 ,the method of tempering had many variations4 ,one was to remelt the gum a number of times2 this darkened it and made it harder4 ,red ochre or vermillion were sometimes added1 often together with charcoal made from the willow4 ,instead of spruce gum1 in some areas1 pine resin was used1 tempered with tallow and sometimes charcoal4 ,the ,indians in the ,east sometimes used remelted spruce gum to which a little tallow had been added1 making a light brown or almost transparent mixture4 ,most tribal groups used gum that was black1 or nearly so4 ,for repair work1 when melted spruce gum could not be procured in the usual manner1 hard globules and flakes of gum scraped from a fallen spruce tree were used4 ,these could not be easily melted1 so they were first chewed thoroughly until soft2 then the gum was spread over a seam4 ,this type of gum would not stick well unless it were smoothed with a glowing stick1 and hence was used only in emergencies4 ,it is believed that before steel tools were available birch-bark canoes were commonly built of a number of sheets of bark rather than1 as quite often occurred in later times1 of only one or two sheets4 ,the greater number of sheets in the early canoes resulted from the difficulty in obtaining large sheets from a standing tree4 ,comparison of surviving birch-bark canoes suggests that those built of a number of sheets would have contained the better bark1 as large sheets often included bark taken from low on the trunk1 and this1 as has been mentioned1 is usually of poorer quality than that higher on the trunk4 ,it is known that the early ,indians carried on some trade in bark canoe building materials1 as they did in stone for weapons and tools4 ,areas in which some materials were scarce or of poor quality might thus obtain replacements from more fortunate areas4 ,fine quality bark1 sewing roots1 and good spruce gum had trade value1 and these items were sold by some of the early fur traders4 ,paint does not appear to have been used on early canoes1 except1 in some instances1 on the woodwork4 ,this use occurred mostly in the ,east1 particularly among the ,beothuks in ,newfoundland4 ,paint was apparently not used on birch bark until it was introduced by white men in the fur trade4 ,summary ,it will be seen that the ,indian gathered all materials and prepared them for use with only a few simple tools1 most of which could be manufactured at the building site and discarded after the work was completed4 ,the only other tools he usually brought to the scene were those he normally required in his everyday existence in the forest4 ,some instruments used in canoe building1 however1 might be preserved2 these were the measuring sticks on which were marked1 by notches1 certain measurements to be used in shaping a canoe4 ,also1 some ,indians used a building frame that shaped the bottom in plan view4 ,these are best described when the actual building methods are examined4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ba ,,building ,,frame ,,for ,a ,,large ,,canoe4 ,dotted lines show change in shape is caused by omitting crossbars or by using short bars in ends4 ,note lashing at ends and method of fastening thwart with a thong4 ,chapter ,three ,,form ,,and ,,construction ,classification of the types of bark canoes built by the ,indians is not a simple matter4 ,perhaps the most practical way is to employ the tribal designation1 such as ,cree canoe1 ,micmac canoe1 accepting as a criterion the distinctive general appearance of the canoes used by each tribe4 ,it must be emphasized1 however1 that this method of classification does not indicate the model1 or lines1 employed4 ,both the model and the size of bark canoes were extensively affected by the requirements of use3 lake1 coastal1 or river navigation2 smooth1 rough1 or fast-running water2 transportation of a hunter1 a family1 or cargo2 the conditions and length of portages2 and the permanence of construction desired4 ,canoes of various models1 sizes1 methods of construction1 or decoration might be found within the limits of a single tribal classification4 ,also1 within a given area1 there might be apparent similarity in model among the canoes of two or three tribal groups4 ,however1 a classification based on geographical areas has been found to be impractical1 because the movements of tribal groups in search of new hunting grounds tend to make tribal boundaries difficult to define4 ,form ,the canoes of some tribal groups appear to be hybrids1 representing an intermingling of types as a result of some past contact between tribes4 ,those of other groups are of like model1 form1 and even appearance1 possibly owing to like conditions of employment4 ,the effects of a similarity in use requirements upon inventiveness is seen in the applications for modern patent rights1 where two or more applications can cover almost exactly the same device without the slightest evidence of contact between the applicants2 there is no logical reason to suppose the same condition cannot apply to primitive peoples1 even though their processes of invention might be very slow or relatively rare in occurrence4 ,the effects of migration of tribes upon their canoe forms can only be studied with respect to those comparatively recent times for which records and observations are available4 ,from the limited information at hand it appears that the ,indian1 when he moved to an area where use requirements and materials available for building differed from those to which he had been accustomed1 was often forced to modify the model1 form1 size1 and construction of his canoe4 ,in some instances this seems to have resulted in the adoption of another tribal form4 ,the distinctive feature that usually identifies the tribal classification of a bark canoe is the profile of the ends1 although sometimes the profile of the gunwale1 or sheer1 and even of the bottom1 is also involved4 ,the bow and stern of many bark canoes were as near alike in profile as the method of construction would permit2 nevertheless some types had distinct bow and and stern forms4 ,among tribes the form of the ends of the canoes varied considerably2 some were low and unimpressive1 others were high and often graceful4 ,obviously practical reasons can be found for certain tribal variations4 ,in some areas1 the low ends appear to ensue from the use of the canoe in open water1 where the wind resistance of a high end would make paddling laborious4 ,in others the low ends appear to result from the canoe being commonly employed in small streams where overhanging branches would obstruct passage4 ,portage conditions may likewise have been a factor2 low ends would pass through brush more easily than high4 ,types used where rapids were to be run often had ends higher than the gunwales to prevent the canoe from shipping water over the bow4 ,the high1 distinctive ends of the canoes most used in the fur trade1 on the other hand1 were said to have resulted from the necessity of employing the canoe as a shelter4 ,when the canoe was turned upside down on the ground1 with one gunwale and the tops of the high ends supporting it1 there was enough headroom under the canoe to permit its use as a shelter without the addition of any temporary structure4 ,the desirability of this characteristic in the fur-trade canoe can be explained by the fact that the crew travelled as many hours as possible each day1 and rested for only a very short period1 so that rapid erection of shelter lengthened both the periods of travel and of rest4 ,yet these practical considerations do not always explain the end-forms found in bark canoes4 ,canoes with relatively high ends were used in open waters1 and similar canoes were portaged extensively4 ,possibly the ,indian's consciousness of tribal distinctions led him to retain some feature1 such as height of the end-forms1 as a means of tribal recognition1 even though practical considerations required its suppression to some degree4 ,the profile of the gunwales also varied a good deal among tribal types4 ,most bark canoes1 because of the raised end-forms1 showed a short1 sharp upsweep of the sheer close to the bow and stern4 ,some showed a marked hump1 or upward sweep1 amidships which made the sheer profile follow somewhat the form of a cupid's bow4 ,many types had a straight1 or nearly straight1 sheer2 others had an orthodox sheer1 with the lowest part nearly amidships4 ,the bottom profiles of bark canoes showed varying degrees of curvature4 ,in some the bottom was straight for most of its length1 with a slight rise toward the ends4 ,in others the bottom showed a marked curvature over its full length1 and in a few the bottom was practically straight between the points at which the stems were formed4 ,some northwestern types had a slightly hogged bottom1 but in these the wooden framework was unusually flexible1 so that the bottom became straight1 or even a little rockered when the canoe was afloat and manned4 ,the practical reasons for these bottom forms are not clear4 ,for canoes used in rapid streams or in exposed waters where high winds were to be met many ,indians preferred bottoms that were straight4 ,others in these same conditions preferred them rockered to varying degrees4 ,it is possible that rocker may be desirable in canoes that must be run ashore end-on in surf4 ,of course1 a strongly rockered bottom permits quick turning2 this may have been appreciated by some tribal groups4 ,still other ,indians appear to have believed that a canoe with a slightly rockered bottom could be paddled more easily than one having a perfectly straight bottom4 ,the midsections of bark canoes varied somewhat in form within a single tribal type1 because the method of construction did not give absolute control of the sectional shape during the building1 but1 on the whole1 the shape followed tribal custom1 being modified only to meet use requirements4 ,perhaps the two most common midsection shapes were the ,u-form1 with the bottom somewhat flattened1 and the dish-shape1 having rather straight1 flaring sides combined with a narrow1 flat1 or nearly flat bottom4 ,some eastern canoes showed marked tumble-home in the topside above the bilge2 often they had a wide and rather flat rounded bottom1 with a short1 hard turn in the bilge4 ,a few eastern canoes1 used mainly in open waters along the coast1 had bottoms with deadrise--that is1 a shallow ,v-form1 the apex of the ,v being much rounded2 the ,v-bottom1 of course1 would have aided in steering the canoe in strong winds4 ,one type of canoe with this rising bottom had tumble-home topsides1 but another1 used under severe conditions1 had a midsection that was an almost perfect ,v1 the apex being rounded but with so little curvature in the arms that no bilge could be seen4 ,generally speaking1 the eastern canoes had a rather well rounded bottom with a high turn of the bilge and some tumble-home above1 though they might have a flatter form when built for shallow-water use or for increased carrying capacity4 ,a canoe built for speed1 however1 might be very round on the bottom1 and it might or might not have some tumble-home in the topside4 ,in the ,west1 a flat bottom with flaring topsides predominated2 fast canoes there had a very narrow1 flat bottom with some flare1 the width of the bottom and the amount of flare being increased to give greater capacity on a shallow draft4 ,some canoes in the ,northwest had a skiff-form flat bottom and flaring sides1 with the chine rounded off sharply4 ,the form of the sections near the ends of a canoe are controlled to a great extent by the form of midsection4 ,in canoes having flat bottoms combined with flaring sides this form was usually carried to the ends1 where it became a rather sharp ,v1 giving fine lines for speed when the canoe was light1 and only moderately increased resistance when it was loaded4 ,among eastern canoes having tumble-home topsides1 the midsection form could be carried to the ends1 gradually becoming sharper in canoes having chin in the profiles of the ends2 in canoes having no chin1 the sections necessarily took a pointed oval form close to the ends4 ,a few canoes having flaring sides and chin ends showed a similar change in form4 ,in all1 however1 the bow and stern showed a tendency toward fullness near the waterline4 ,canoes with a strongly ,u-shaped midsection commonly carried this form to the ends1 with increasing sharpness in the round of the ,u4 ,the ,u-form predominated in the end-sections of eastern canoes1 of course1 though a few showed a ,v-form1 as must be expected4 ,the fairing of the end sections into the end profiles appears to have controlled this matter4 ,the outline of the gunwales1 in plan view1 also influenced the form of the end-sections and of the level lines there4 ,some canoes1 when viewed from above1 showed a pinched-in form at the ends1 this was caused by the construction of the gunwales or by the projection of the end-profile forms beyond the ends of the true structural gunwale members4 ,such canoes would have a very strong hollow in the level lines projected through their hull-form below the gunwales1 and this could have been accentuated by any strong chin in the bow and stern shapes4 ,on the other hand1 many canoes showed no hollow1 and the level lines were straight for some distance inboard of the ends1 or were slightly convex4 ,full1 convex level lines will appear below the waterline in canoes having a strongly rockered bottom4 ,it should be noted that the ,indians were aware that very sharp-ended canoes usually were fast under paddle2 hence they employed this characteristic in any canoe where high speed was desired4 ,however1 the degree of sharpness in the gunwales and at the level lines is not always the same at both ends1 though the variation is sometimes too slight to be detected without careful measurement2 it may at times have been accidental1 but in many cases it appears to have been intentional4 ,some eastern canoes having their greatest width1 or beam1 on the gunwales at midlength had finer level lines aft than forward1 apparently to produce trim by the stern when afloat and manned4 ,this made them steer well in rough water4 ,some northwestern canoes had their greatest beam abaft the midlength1 giving them a long1 sharp bow2 the run was sometimes formed by sweeping up the bottom aft to a shallow stern1 as well as by the double-ended form of the canoe4 ,despite a general similarity in the form of the ends1 in some canoes the bow was marked by its greater height1 in others1 by the manner in which the bark was lapped at the seams1 or by the manner of decoration4 ,in a few with ends exactly alike the bow was indicated by the fitting of the thwarts such as1 for example1 by placing at the forward end a particular style of thwart1 intended to hold the torch used in spearing fish at night1 or to support a mast and sail4 ,in examining the lines1 or model1 of a bark canoe1 the limitations imposed upon the builder by the characteristics of bark must be considered4 ,the degree of flexibility1 the run of the grain1 and the toughness and elasticity of the bark used all influenced the form of canoes4 ,the marked chin in the ends of some canoes1 for example1 resulted from an effort to offset the tendency of birch bark to split when a row of stitches lay in the same line of grain4 ,the curved chin profile allowed the stitching to cross a number of lines of grain4 ,sometimes this tendency was avoided by incorporating battens into the coarse stitching2 this style of sewing was particularly useful in piecing out birch bark for width in a canoe1 where the sewing had to be in line with the grain4 ,the ,indians also employed alternating short and long stitching in some form for the same purpose4 ,spruce bark1 as used in canoes in the extreme ,north and ,northwest1 could be sewn in much the same manner as birch bark1 but with due regard for the longitudinal grain of the spruce bark4 ,the joining of two pieces of bark by root sewing or lacing1 combined with the use of spruce gum to obtain watertightness1 formed a seam that could be readily damaged by abrasion from launching the canoe1 from pulling it ashore1 or from grounding it accidentally4 ,for this reason1 seams below the waterline were kept at a minimum and were never placed along the longitudinal centerline of the bottom1 where they would have formed a sharp apex to both the ,v-shaped midsection and to the deadrise bottom form4 ,likewise1 a seam was not used in forming the rocker of the bottom4 ,though seams had to be used to join the bark at bow and stern1 the form of the canoe allowed the seams to be greatly strengthened and protected there4 ,the restrictions on form imposed by barks such as elm1 chestnut1 and hickory were very great4 ,these barks1 which are not as elastic as birch bark1 were sometimes employed in a single large sheet4 ,the sheets were not joined for length2 canoes of this material were often formed by crimping1 or lap folding1 rather than by cutting out gores and then sewing the edges together4 ,the characteristics of these barks can readily be demonstrated with a sheet of paper3 such a sheet can be made into a crude canoe-form by bending it lengthwise and joining the ends1 but it will be obvious that the midsection takes a very unstable ,u-form4 ,by forcing the ends inward to give a ram1 or chin1 effect to bow and stern1 a somewhat flatter bottom can be obtained in the midsection4 ,by crimping or folding the paper gore-fashion near each end of the canoe-form at the gunwale edge1 some rocker is created in the bottom and the width of the gunwales is increased near the ends1 giving more capacity4 ,but without the crimping along the gunwale1 when the midsection form is flattened on the bottom1 the latter tends to hog4 ,many of these bark canoes utilized both the rams ends and crimping to obtain a more useful form4 ,however1 while a sheet of birch bark could be crimped or gored into a scow-form canoe such as the ,asiatic birch-bark canoe1 no example of this form from ,north ,america is known4 ,on this continent all bark canoes were sharp at both ends1 i4e41 double-ended1 although a number of ,north ,american dugouts were scow-7or punt-7 shaped4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bb ,,canoe formed 7a7 without crimping or goring sides1 showing hogged bottom2 and 7b7 with ram ends to reduce hogging of bottom4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bc ,,canoe formed 7a7 by crimping sides1 showing rockered bottom line1 and 7b7 by simple gores in sides4 ,the same effects are obtained by making bark cover of three pieces3 sides and bottom4 ,birch bark gave much more freedom in the selection of form simply because it could be joined together in small odd-sized sheets to shape a hull1 and because it was elastic enough to allow some moulding by pressure of the framework employed4 ,birch bark could be gored1 or slashed1 and rejoined without resort to folding or crimping2 thus it permitted a smooth exterior surface to be achieved4 ,the toughness of the bark was sufficient to allow some sewing in line with the grain1 to add to the width of a sheet1 if the proper technique were employed 7this was also true to a lesser extent of spruce bark74 ,illustration3 ,figure #bd ,,canoe ,,formed by use of gores and panels4 ,the framework of most bark canoes depended upon the gunwale structure to give longitudinal strength to the hull2 for this reason the structure was made sufficiently large in cross-section to be rather stiff1 or was formed of more than one member4 ,an inner and outer gunwale construction was employed in many bark canoes4 ,the inner member was the strength member and was sometimes square1 or nearly so1 in cross-section4 ,in some canoes bark was brought up on the outside of this gunwale member1 lapped over the top1 and lashed over it2 in others the bark was lashed to both inner and outer gunwales4 ,the outer gunwale1 a rectangular-sectioned batten bent narrow-edge up1 was applied like a guard1 outside the bark1 and was secured by pegs1 by the lashings of the bark cover1 or by widely spaced lashings4 ,on top of the large inner gunwale and usually extending outward over the outer gunwale1 a thin cap1 pegged or lashed in the same manner as the outer gunwale1 was sometimes added2 this was intended to protect the lashing of the bark to the gunwale rather than to add longitudinal strength4 ,the corners of the inner gunwale1 or of the single gunwale1 were all rounded off to prevent them from cutting the sewing and lashings4 ,the bottom outboard corner was sometimes rounded off more than the other1 or beveled1 in order to form between the outboard face of the gunwale and the bark a slot into which the heads of the ribs could be forced4 ,an alternate method of accomplishing this was to notch or drill holes in the gunwales for the heads of the ribs4 ,the ends of the gunwales were fashioned in various ways4 ,in some canoes the gunwales were sheered upward at the ends only slightly1 the gunwale ends being secured to wide end boards in the stems or extended past them and secured to the stem-pieces4 ,the apparent sheer in the latter might be formed by bending the outer gunwale1 or outwale1 and the cap 7if one existed7 to the required curve and then securing the ends to the stem-piece1 or to the end boards1 as the form of end profile dictated4 ,if either the single gunwale or the outwale or both were sharply sheered1 they were split1 to a point near the end thwart1 into two or four or even more laminations2 even the rail cap1 which was perhaps half an inch thick1 might be split in the same manner to allow a sharp upward sweep at the stems4 ,after being bent1 the split members were temporarily wrapped to hold the laminations together4 ,in no bark canoes did the ends of the gunwales curve back on themselves to form a hook just inboard of the bow and stern1 despite the numerous pictures that show this feature4 ,the gunwale ends sometimes projected almost perpendicularly upward1 slightly above the top of the bow and stern1 so that when the canoe was upside down its weight came on these rather than on the sewing of the ends of the craft4 ,illustration3 ,figure #be ,,gunwale ,,ends nailed and wrapped with spruce roots4 7,sketch by ,adney47 ,the gunwale ends in some canoes were fastened together by means of one or more lashings1 often widely spaced4 ,after being lashed together1 a narrow wedge was sometimes driven between the two gunwales from inboard to tighten the lashings4 ,the ends were sometimes beveled on their bearing surfaces so as to make a neat appearance when joined4 ,the various ways in which the gunwale ends at stem and stern were finished can best be described when individual types are under examination4 ,some canoes had a small piece of bark over the ends of the gunwales but under the outwales that held it in place4 ,whether these pieces were employed to protect the lashing of the gunwales and adjoining work from the weather1 or whether they were the vestigial remains of a decking once used1 cannot be determined4 ,in the ,canadian ,northwest the ends of bark canoes were sometimes decked with bark for a short distance inboard4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bf ,,gunwales ,,and ,,stakes ,,on ,,building ,,bed1 plan view4 7,sketch by ,adney47 ,the bark was secured to the gunwales by a continuous spiral lashing all along the main gunwale or by separated lashing in series4 ,in the first1 the continuous lashing1 where it passed through the bark1 might show regularly spaced separations to avoid the tops of the ribs4 ,in the second1 the lashings were placed clear of the ribs4 ,there were some slight variations in the lashings1 but these were of minor importance so far as structural strength is concerned4 ,in all cases1 the bark was brought up to or over the top of the gunwale before being secured1 so that the holes for the lashing were pierced at some distance from the edge of the bark to prevent it from splitting4 ,the ends of the thwarts were mortised into the gunwales and also secured by lashings4 ,the number of thwarts varied with the tribal type1 the size1 and the purpose of the canoe4 ,usually an odd number1 from three to nine1 were used1 though occasional canoes had two or four thwarts4 ,very small canoes for hunting might have only two or three thwarts1 but most canoes #ad to #bj feet long had five4 ,canoes intended for portaging usually had one thwart at midlength to aid in lifting the canoe for the carry position4 ,the distance between the thwarts might be determined by structural design1 or might be fixed so as to divide the cargo space to allow proper trim4 ,the thwarts might serve as backrests for passengers1 but were never used as seats4 ,there was no standard form for the shape of the thwarts1 which varied not only to some degree by tribal classification1 but even among builders in single tribe4 ,they were usually thickest and widest over the centerline of the canoe1 tapering outboard and then spreading again at the gunwales to form a marked shoulder at the mortise4 ,the lashings to the gunwales often passed through two or more holes in this shoulder4 ,the ribs1 or frames1 of most canoes were very closely spaced and were wide1 flat1 and thin4 ,they ran in a single length from gunwale to gunwale4 ,in canoes having ,v-sections near the ends1 the ribs were often so sharply bent as to be fractured slightly4 ,across the bottom they were wide but above the bilge they tapered in width toward the end1 which was either a rounded point or a beveled or rounded chisel-edge4 ,the ribs were forced under the gunwales so that the heads fitted into the bevel1 or into notches or holes at the underside and outboard edge of the gunwale1 between it and the bark cover4 ,by canting the rib to bring its ends into the proper position and then forcing it nearly perpendicular1 the builder brought enough pressure on the bark cover to mold it to the required form4 ,bulging of the bark at each frame was prevented by a thin plank sheathing4 ,the ribs in many ,eastern canoes were spaced so that on the bottom they were separated only by a space equal to the width of a rib4 ,each piece of sheathing1 better described as a splint than as planking1 was commonly of irregular form4 ,the edges were often beveled to a marked thinness4 ,while some builders laid the sheathing edge-to-edge in the bark cover1 others overlapped the edges4 ,nearly all builders feathered the butts and overlapped them slightly4 ,the sheathing was held in position by a number of light temporary ribs while the permanent frames1 or ribs1 were being installed4 ,it is to be noted that the sheathing was neither lashed nor pegged2 it remained fixed in place only through the pressure of the bent ribs and the restraint of the bark skin4 ,the exact method of fitting the sheathing varied somewhat from area to area1 but not in every instance from tribe to tribe4 ,the bottom sheathing used by some eastern ,indians was in two lengths4 ,the individual pieces were tapered toward the stems and the edges butted closely together4 ,the sides were in three lengths1 but otherwise similarly fitted4 ,the butts lapped very slightly4 ,in a second method1 used to the westward1 the sheathing was laid edge-to-edge in two lengths1 with the butts slightly lapped4 ,the center members of the bottom1 usually five1 were parallel-sided1 but the outboard ends of those at the turn of the bilges were beveled1 or snied1 off4 ,the members further outboard were in one length1 with both ends snied off4 ,the bottom thus appeared as an elongated diamond-form4 ,the topside sheathing was fitted as in the first instance4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bg ,,gunwale ,,lashings1 examples made by ,adney3 #a1 ,elm-bark1 ,malecite2 #b1 ,st4 ,francis2 #c1 ,algonkin2 #d1 ,malecite4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bh ,,gunwale-,,end ,,lashings1 examples made by ,adney3 ,athabascan 7large71 ,ojibway 7small74 ,a variation in the second style used three lengths in the centerline sheathing4 ,in still another variation a centerline piece was laid in two lengths without taper1 the next outboard piece was then cut in the shape of a broad-based triangle1 and the rest were laid in two lengths1 with the sides parallel to the sides of the triangular strake and with their ends snied off against the centerline pieces4 ,in a fourth style short pieces1 roughly elongate-oval in shape1 were overlapped on all sides and laid irregularly so that when in place they appeared thrown in4 ,with this style1 the midship section was laid first and secured by a temporary rib1 then the next toward the ends1 with the butts shoved under the ends of the middle section4 ,the next series was similarly laid so that the top member of each butt-lap faced toward the ends of the hull and was under a rib4 ,the ends were not cut square across1 but were either blunt-pointed or rounded4 ,five lengths of sheathing were often used1 and the widths of the individual pieces of sheathing were rarely the same1 so the seams were not lined up and presented an irregular appearance in the finished canoe4 ,the sheathing was thin enough to allow it to take the curve of the bilge easily4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bi ,,splints ,,arranged in various ways to sheath the bottom of a canoe3 #a1 ,micmac1 ,malecite2 #b1 ,central ,cree1 ,ttes de ,boule1 etc42 #c1 ,montagnais2 #d1 ,algonkin1 ,ojibway1 etc4 ,if the sheathing was lapped1 the overlap was always slight4 ,in some old canoes a small space was left between the edges of the sheathing1 particularly in the topsides4 ,in some northwestern bark canoes there was no sheathing2 these used a batten system somewhat like that in the ,eskimo kayak1 except that in the bark canoes the battens were not lashed to the ribs1 being held in place only by pressure4 ,these kayak-like bark canoes had a bottom framework formed with chine members2 some had a rigid bottom frame of this type1 while others had bottom frames secured only by rib pressure4 ,the purpose of the sheathing1 it should be noted1 was to protect the bark cover from abrasion from the inside1 to prevent the ribs from bulging the bark1 and to back up the bark so as to resist impacts2 but in no case1 even when battens were employed1 as in the ,northwest1 did the sheathing add to the longitudinal strength of the bark canoe4 ,the principle of the stressed rib and clamped sheathing1 which is the most marked characteristic in the construction of the ,north ,american ,indian bark canoe1 is fundamentally different from that used in the construction of the ,eskimos' skin craft4 ,a wide variety of framing methods are exhibited in the construction of the ends1 or stems1 of bark canoes4 ,in the temporary types of the ,east1 the bark was trimmed to a straight1 slightly ram form and secured by sewing over two battens1 one outboard on each side4 ,birch-bark canoes of the ,east usually had an inside stem-piece bent by the lamination method to the desired profile1 the heel being left unsplit2 as usual1 the laminations were spirally wrapped1 often with basswood-bark thongs4 ,the stem-piece was then placed between the bark of the sides1 and the bark and wood were lashed together with an over-and-over stitch4 ,sometimes variations of the short-and-long form of stitch were used here1 and some builders also placed a halved-root batten over the ends of the bark before lashing to form a stem-band as protection to the seam4 ,in some canoes the end lashing passed through holes drilled in the stem-pieces1 often with the turns alternating in some regular manner through and around the stem-piece4 ,the stem-pieces were generally very light1 and in some canoes the head was notched and sharply bent down and inboard1 so that it could be secured to the ends of the gunwales4 ,some tribal types had no inner stem-piece1 and the stem profiles were strengthened merely by the use of two split-root or halved-sapling battens1 one on each side1 outside the bark and under the sewing4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cj ,,end ,,details1 ,,including ,,construction ,,of ,,stem-,,pieces and fitting of bark over them1 ending of gunwale caps at stem heads1 and the headboard1 with its location4 ,lamination of the stem pieces shows fewer laminae than is common4 7,sketches by ,adney47 ,birch-bark canoes to the westward used battens under the end lashing as well as rather complicated inside stem-pieces4 ,in some parts of the ,west and ,northwest1 the ends were formed of boards set up on edge fore-and-aft1 the bark being lashed through all1 with the boards projecting slightly outboard of the ends of the bark cover to form a cutwater4 ,to support the inside stem-piece1 some form of headboard was usually fitted near each end after the sheathing was in place4 ,these were shaped to the cross-section of the canoe so as to form bulkheads4 ,in some canoes1 these miniature bulkheads stood vertical1 but in others they were curved somewhat to follow the general curve of the end-profile1 and this caused them to be shaped more like a batten than a bulkhead4 ,bent headboards were sometimes stepped so as to rake outboard4 ,sometimes the form of the headboard permitted the gunwale members to be lashed to it1 and often there was a notch for the main gunwale on each side4 ,the headboards were sometimes stepped on the unsplit heel of the stem-piece2 a notch was made in the bottom of the headboard to allow this4 ,in two types of canoe in which there was no inner stem-piece1 the headboards were stepped on short keel pieces1 or frogs1 fore-and-aft on the bottom and extending slightly forward of the end of the sheathing to reinforce the forefoot4 ,the purpose of the headboard was to strengthen the stem-piece1 and in many cases it was an integral member of the end structure itself and helped to maintain its form4 ,the headboard usually served to support the gunwale ends in some manner1 it stretched the bark smooth near the stems1 and it secured the ends of the sheathing where support from a rib would have been most difficult to obtain4 ,many canoes had the space between the headboard and the stem-piece stuffed with shavings1 moss1 or other dry material to help mold the bark to form beyond the sheathing in the ends4 ,some tribal groups decorated the headboards4 ,in a few canoes1 the stem-piece was additionally supported by a short1 horizontal member stepped in the forward face of the headboard and projecting forward to bear on the after side of the stem-piece4 ,the latter was sometimes bent back onto itself above this member to form a loop around the top of the end-profile1 and the gunwale ends or a part of the gunwale structure were secured to it4 ,this complicated bending of the stem-piece1 in conjunction with use of a headboard and a brace member1 served to stiffen the end structure sufficiently to meet the requirements of service4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ca ,,malecite ,,canoe ,,of ,,the ,,type ,,described ,,in ,,this ,,chapter4 ,this #b fathom ,st4 ,john ,river canoe represents the last ,malecite birch-bark model1 and usually was fastened with tacks and nails1 rather than with root lashings and pegs as described here4 ,the use of a bark cover over the gunwale ends has already been mentioned4 ,in some eastern canoes1 this was placed under the cap and outwale pieces and extended below the latter in a shallow flap on which the owner's mark or other decoration might appear2 the flap was in fact a kind of name board4 ,such flaps do not appear on the partly decked bark canoes of the ,northwest4 ,this general description of the structure of the bark canoes is sufficient to permit the explanation of the actual construction of a bark canoe to be more readily understood1 and it also serves to illustrate the close connection between the method of construction and the formation of the lines1 or model1 of bark canoes4 ,from the description1 too1 it can be seen that while the shape of a bark canoe was partially planned during the construction the control of every part of the model could not be maintained with the same degree of precision as in the building of an ,eskimo skin boat or an ,indian dugout4 ,construction ,one aspect of canoe construction1 the ,indian method of making measurements1 was briefly mentioned 7p4 #h7 under a discussion of the origin of the measurement known in ,french ,canada as the brasse4 ,this was the distance from finger-tip to finger-tip of the arms outstretched2 in the fur trade in ,english times it was known as the fathom and it appears to have been about #fd inches1 or less than the nautical fathom of #f feet4 ,other measurements used were the greatest width of the ball of the thumb1 which is very close to an ,english inch1 and the width of the four fingers1 each finger-breadth being close to three-fourths of an ,english inch4 ,the length of the forearm1 usually from the knuckles of the clenched hand to the elbow1 was also employed by some ,indians1 as a convenient measurement4 ,measurements in these units might be memorized and used in building1 but many ,indians used measuring sticks1 and these served as foot-rules4 ,they were sometimes squared and were painted as well as notched4 ,a ,malecite ,indian1 interviewed in #aibe1 had three such sticks for canoe building4 ,one1 for the length of the gunwale frame1 was half the total length required2 it was notched to show the distance at which the ends of the gunwales were lashed and also the position of the thwarts4 ,such a stick would be about #g feet long for a #af-;foot canoe1 #h feet for an #ah-;foot canoe4 ,the second stick was notched to show half the length of each of the thwarts4 ,the third stick had notches showing the height of the gunwale at each thwart and at the end1 four notches in all for the half-length of the canoe4 ,this stick measured from the surface of the building bed1 not from a regular base line4 ,the method of measuring canoes appears to have been fairly well standardized1 at least in historical times4 ,as stated earlier1 length was commonly taken over the gunwales only1 and did not include the end profiles1 which might extend up to a foot or slightly more beyond the gunwale ends1 bow and stern4 ,however1 in certain old records the overall length is given1 and in various areas other methods of measurement existed4 ,where a building frame was used1 the given length of the canoe was the length of this frame2 usually this approximated the length of the gunwales4 ,the width of a canoe was measured by the ,indian from inside to inside of the main gunwale members4 ,the extreme beam might be only #b or #c inches greater than the inside measurement of the gunwales1 but if the sides bulged out1 the beam might actually be #f or more inches greater4 ,the depth was usually measured from the inside of the ribs to the top of the gunwale but in building it was measured from the surface of the building bed to the bottom of the main gunwales1 as noted above in the description of the measuring sticks4 ,thus it will be seen that the ,indian measurements constituted a statement of dimensions primarily useful to the builder1 for their main purpose was to fix the proportions rather than establish the actual length1 width1 and depth4 ,today we state the length of a canoe in terms of extreme overall measurement2 the ,indian was inclined to state the length in building terms1 giving dimensions applicable to the woodwork only1 just as the old-time shipbuilder gave the keel length of a vessel instead of the overall length on deck4 ,the building site was carefully selected4 ,the space in which the canoe was to be set up had to be smooth1 free of stones and roots or anything that might damage the bark1 and the soil had to be such that stakes driven into it would stand firmly4 ,a shady place was preferred1 as the bark would not dry there as fast as in sunlight4 ,since the construction of a canoe required both time and the aid of the whole ,indian family1 the site had to be close to a suitable place for camping1 where food and water could be obtained4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 to find canoe building sites that apparently had been used by generations of ,indians4 ,the preparation of the building bed was controlled by the intended form of the canoe to be built4 ,if the bottom of the canoe was to be rockered1 the cleared ground was brought to a flat surface for the length required for setting up the canoe4 ,if the rocker was to be great1 the middle of the bed would be slightly depressed4 ,if the bottom was to be straight fore-and-aft1 or very nearly so1 the bed was crowned from #a to #b inches higher in the middle than at the ends1 so that the canoe was first set up with a hogged bottom4 ,very large canoes such as were used in the fur trade required as much as #d inches crown in the building bed4 ,other dimensions being equal1 the amount of crown was usually somewhat greater in canoes having bulging sides than in ones having more upright or flaring sides4 ,canoe factories such as were operated in certain fur-trading posts sometimes had a plank building bed suitably crowned and drilled for setting the stakes4 ,two methods of setting up the canoe were used4 ,in most of the eastern area1 the gunwales were put together and used to establish the plan outline of the canoe on the building bed4 ,but a building frame was used for constructing the various narrow-bottom canoes having flaring sides1 and for some other tribal forms4 ,the frame1 made in the same general form as the gunwales when assembled1 but less wide and sometimes much shorter1 could be taken apart easily1 allowing it to be removed after the canoe was built2 hence it could be used to build as many canoes as desired to the same dimensions as the first1 and was retained by the builder as a tool1 or pattern1 for future use4 ,the method of construction in which gunwales only were used in setting up the canoe will be explained first in order to show the general technique of construction4 ,use of the building frame will then be described4 ,important deviations from these methods will be described in later chapters under the individual tribal types in which they occur4 ,the ,malecite canoe1 a straight-bottomed craft about #ai feet long and #cf inches beam1 is used as the example1 hence the method of building to be described is that generally employed in the ,east1 where variations in construction mainly involve the use or omission of structural elements4 ,the gunwales are the first members to be formed4 ,in the ,malecite canoe these are the inner gunwales1 as the canoe will have outwales and caps4 ,the gunwales are split from white cedar to produce battens that will square #a inches when shaped4 ,the gunwales are tapered each way from midlength1 where they are #a inches square1 to a point #c inches short of the ends1 where they are by #a to #a inches4 ,the edges of the gunwales are all rounded1 and the outboard bottom edge is beveled almost inch1 at #de to the bottom of the member4 ,the last #c inches at each end is formed like half a blunt arrowhead1 as shown in the sketch of the member on page #ca4 ,the gunwales will be bent1 side to side1 on the flat as far as the ends are concerned1 so the blunt arrowhead is formed on one of the wide faces of the ends as shown4 ,the arrowhead form allows a neat joint when the gunwale ends are brought together1 pegged athwartships1 and then wrapped with a root lashing4 ,in forming and finishing the gunwales1 a good deal of care is required to get them to bend alike1 so that the centerline of the finished frame will be straight and true4 ,to take the ends of the middle thwart1 a mortise by #b inches is cut in each gunwale member athwartships at exactly midlength1 the length of the mortise being with the run of the gunwale4 ,in it1 the middle thwart1 #cc inches long1 is fitted4 ,made of a -inch by #c-;inch piece of hard maple1 the thwart tapers slightly in thickness each way from its center to within #e inches of the shoulders1 which are #cj inches apart4 ,the thickness at a point #e inches from the shoulder is inch2 from there the taper is quick to the shoulder1 which is inch thick1 with a drop to inch in the tenon4 ,the width1 #c inches at the center1 decreases in a graceful curve to within #e inches of the shoulder1 where it is #b inches1 then increases to about #c inches at the shoulder4 ,the width of the tenon is1 of course1 #b inches1 to fit the mortise hole in the gunwale4 ,the edges of the outer #e inches of the thwart are rounded off or beveled a good deal2 inboard they are only slightly rounded4 ,the thwart is carefully fitted to the gunwale members and the ends are pegged4 ,some builders wedged the ends of this thwart from outside the gunwales1 the wedge standing vertical in the thwart so that the gunwale would not split2 however1 it is not certain that wedging was used in prehistoric times1 although it is seen in some existing old canoes4 ,the pegs used in this canoe are driven from above1 into holes bored through the gunwale and the tenon of the thwart to lock all firmly together4 ,three holes are then bored in the broad shoulders of the thwart about #a inches inboard of gunwale for the root lashing that is also used4 ,the ends of the gunwale members are now brought together1 and to avoid an unfair curve appearing at the thwart in place1 short pieces of split plank or of sapling1 notched to hold them in place1 are inserted between the gunwale members as temporary thwarts at points about #e feet on each side of the middle thwart4 ,after the ends are brought together and the final fitting is carried out1 a peg is driven athwartships the ends and a single-part root lashing is carefully wrapped around the assembly4 ,some canoe builders omitted the blunted half-arrowhead form at the gunwale end4 ,instead1 the inside faces were tapered to allow the two parts to bear on one another for some distance4 ,the gunwales were then pinched together and lashed with one or more wrappings4 ,finally1 a thin wedge was sometimes driven from inboard between the two gunwale ends to tighten the wrappings4 ,the wedges were usually so carefully fitted as to be difficult to identify4 ,it is probable that this wedged gunwale ending represents the prehistoric form1 and the blunted half-arrowhead ending is a result of the use of steel tools4 ,after the ends of the gunwales have been securely fastened together1 the first pair of permanent thwarts is fitted4 ,these are located #cf inches1 center to center1 on each side of the middle thwart1 a distance that determines the centers of the mortises in each gunwale member4 ,each thwart1 made from a -inch by #c-;inch piece1 tapers smoothly in thickness from the -inch center to the -inch shoulder4 ,the tenon is of the same dimensions as that of the middle thwart1 the width takes the same form as that of the middle thwart1 and the edges are similarly beveled and rounded4 ,the distance between the shoulders1 taken along the centerline1 is #bb inches1 and the centerline length of the thwart #be inches4 ,however1 the shoulders and ends of the tenons must be bevelled to follow the curve of the gunwales hence the extreme length of the thwart is actually very close to #bf inches4 ,the worker determines the bevel of the shoulders by fitting the thwart to the run of the gunwales1 the temporary thwarts being shifted so that the distance between the gunwales equals that set by the measuring stick4 ,these two thwarts having been fitted1 the tenons are pegged as before1 but in the shoulders only one lashing hole is bored instead of the three employed in the middle thwart4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cb ,,malecite ,,canoe ,,building1 #aiaj4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photos47 ,weighting gunwales on bark cover on building bed4 ,resetting stakes4 ,shaping bark cover and securing it to stakes4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cc ,,first ,,stage ,,of ,,canoe ,,construction3 assembled gunwale frame is used to locate stakes temporarily on building bed4 ,instead of the gunwales1 a building frame was used in some areas4 7,sketch by ,adney47 ,the second pair of thwarts is placed #cj inches1 center to center1 from the first pair1 one at each end1 and on the basis of this measurement the tenons are cut as for the others4 ,these two thwarts are made of -by #d-;inch pieces tapering in thickness each way from the center to the shoulder1 where they are a scant inch thick1 the tenons having the same dimensions as in the other thwarts4 ,in width the thwarts are worked to an even #c inches from shoulder to shoulder1 but in the form of a curve so that when each thwart is in place its center will be bowed toward the ends of the canoe1 viewed from above4 ,as in the first pair1 the shoulders and ends are cut to a bevel to fit the gunwale2 at the centerline they each measure #ab inches shoulder-to-shoulder in a straight line athwartships and #ae inches end-to-end4 ,allowing for bevel1 the maximum length is just over #ae- inches4 ,these thwarts are drilled for single gunwale lashings and the corner edges are well rounded from shoulder to shoulder4 ,the distance from the centerlines of these last thwarts at the bow and stern to the extreme ends of the joined gunwales is #cc inches1 so the finished gunwale length is #af feet4 ,after the endmost thwarts are pegged into place1 the temporary stays are removed4 ,at each step of construction the alignment of the gunwales is checked by measuring with the measuring sticks and by sighting1 since the shape of the assembled gunwales1 in this case of the inner gunwales1 is very important in determining the sharpness of the completed canoe and the fairness of its general form4 ,the assembled gunwales are now ready to be laid on the building bed which1 for the ,malecite canoe1 is #bj feet long1 about #c feet wide and is raised about #a inches at midlength so that the canoe bottom will be straight when the craft is in the water4 ,the gunwale frame having been carefully centered on this bed1 with the middle thwart exactly over the highest point in the surface of the bed1 some scrap split-planking is laid across the gunwales and the whole weighted down with a few flat stones4 ,next1 #cd stakes from #cj to #ej inches long are prepared1 each made of a halved length of sapling4 ,around the outside of the gunwale frame #bf of these are driven in pairs opposite one another across the frame1 about #bd inches apart and placed so that none is opposite a thwart1 except for the stakes at the extreme ends of the gunwale frame1 which are spaced about a foot from their nearest neighbors and are face-to-face1 about #a inches apart4 ,all the stakes are driven with the flat face about an inch from the gunwale frame and parallel to its outside edge4 ,finally two more pairs of stakes are driven at each end1 the first pair about a foot beyond the end of the gunwale frame and #a inches apart1 the second about #f inches beyond these and similarly spaced4 ,the length between the outermost stakes1 measured over the gunwale frame1 is about #ah feet4 ,great care is taken to line up the last pairs of stakes with the centerline of the gunwale frame4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cd ,,second ,,stage ,,of ,,canoe ,,construction3 stakes have been removed and laid aside1 and the gunwales shown in first stage have been removed from the building bed4 ,the bark cover is laid out on the building bed1 and the gunwales are in place upon it1 weighted down with stones4 7,sketch by ,adney47 ,if the canoe is to have a slight rocker near the ends and is to be straight over the rest of the bottom1 the ends of the gunwale frame will be blocked above the building bed so that the frame is not hogged on the bed4 ,after the builder is satisfied with the staking1 each stake is carefully pulled up and laid to one side1 off the bed but near its hole4 ,the weights are then removed from the gunwale frame1 which is lifted from the bed and laid aside1 and the bed1 if disturbed is repaired and re-leveled4 ,the roll of birch bark is now removed from storage1 perhaps in a nearby pool where it has been placed to keep it flexible1 and unrolled white side up on the building bed4 ,as the bark dries1 it will become more and more stiff1 so it will be necessary to moisten it frequently during construction to maintain its flexibility4 ,the bark is usually long enough1 but often it is not wide enough4 ,if the bark is too short1 it may be pieced out at this time1 or later4 ,if it is not wide enough it is centered on the bed2 the piecing out will be done later4 ,the gunwale frame is now laid on the bark1 care being taken to place it as nearly as possible in its former position on the bed4 ,the bark outside the frame is then slashed from the edge to a point close to the end of each thwart1 and also to points along the frame halfway between the thwarts1 so that the edges can be turned up4 ,while it is being slashed1 the bark cover is bent slightly1 so that it is cut under tension4 ,later1 when the required shape can be determined1 these slashes will be made into gores1 the ,malecite canoes having flush seams1 not overlaps1 in the topsides and bottom4 ,if a fault is noted along the outer edge of the bark1 a slash may be placed so as to allow the fault to be cut out in the later goring2 irregularity in the position of the cuts does no great harm to the progress of building these canoes4 ,the slashes are usually carried to within an inch of the gunwales on the bed4 ,it is not customary to slash the bark close to the end1 there the bark can usually be brought up unbroken1 depending upon the form of the end4 ,when the bark has been cut as described1 it can be turned up smoothly all around the frame so that the stake holes can be seen and a few of the stakes can be replaced4 ,the frame and the bark are then realigned so that all stakes may be replaced in their holes without difficulty4 ,when the frame and bark are aligned1 the frame is weighted as before and the bark is turned up all around it1 the stakes being firmly driven1 as this is done1 in their original holes4 ,the longest stakes are at the ends of the frame1 as the depth of the hull is to be greatest there4 ,the tops of each pair of opposite stakes are now tied together with a thong of basswood or cedar bark1 to hold them rigid and upright4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ce ,,malecite ,,canoe ,,builders ,,near ,,fredericton1 ,n4,b41 using wooden plank building bed with stakes set in holes in the platform4 ,this was a late method of construction1 which probably originated in the early ,french canoe factory at ,trois ,rivires1 ,que4 ,after the bark is turned up around the frame1 its lack of width becomes fully apparent4 ,at this stage1 some builders fitted the additional pieces to gain the necessary width2 others did it later4 ,the method of piecing the bark cover and the sewing technique1 however1 is explained here4 ,the bark is pieced out with regard to the danger of abrasion that would occur when the canoe is moving through obstructions in the water1 or when it is rolled or hauled ashore and unloaded4 ,if the bark is to be lapped below the waterline1 the thickness of the bark of both pieces in the lap is scraped thin so a ridge will not be formed athwart the bottom2 here1 however1 most tribes used edge-to-edge joining4 ,if there are laps in the topsides1 the exposed edge is toward the stern2 if in the midlength1 upward toward the gunwale2 and if it is in the end the lap may be toward the bottom1 because this makes it easier to sew1 and because in the ends of the canoe there is less danger of serious abrasion4 ,many tribes used edge-to-edge joining everywhere in the topsides so that the direction of lapping was not a matter of consideration4 ,the type of goring1 whether by slash and lap or by cutting out a ,v-shaped gore1 will1 of course1 have much to do with the selection of the method of sewing to be used4 ,it is to be recalled that in canoe building no needle was used in sewing the bark2 the ends of the root strands were sharpened and used to thread the strand through the awl holes4 ,much of the topside sewing in a bark canoe was done with small strands made by splitting small roots in half and then flattening the halves by scraping4 ,large root strands quartered and prepared in the same manner1 or the cores of these1 were sometimes used in heavy sewing or lashing at the gunwale or in the ends of a canoe4 ,as noted previously1 root thongs were used well water-soaked or quite green1 for they became very stiff and rather brittle as they dried out4 ,once in place1 however1 the drying did not seem to destroy their strength4 ,rawhide was also used for such sewing by some tribes4 ,the sewing was done by ,indian women1 if their help was available1 and the forms of stitching used in canoe building varied greatly4 ,the root sewing at the ends of the canoes ranged from a simple over-and-over spiral form to elaborate and decorative styles4 ,long-and-short stitching in a sequence that usually followed some formal pattern was widely used4 ,among the patterns were such arrangements as one long1 four short1 and one long2 or two longs1 two or three shorts1 and two longs2 or one short1 five of progressively increasing length1 and then one short2 or six progressively longer followed by six progressively shorter4 ,cross-stitching1 employing the two ends of the sewing root as in the lacing of a shoe was also common4 ,sometimes this was combined with a straight-across double-strand pass to join the ends of the ,x4 ,the harness stitch1 in which both ends of the sewing root were passed in opposite directions through the same holes1 was often used1 as was the #b-thong in-and-out lacing from each side used in northwestern canoes having plank stem-pieces4 ,if the root strand was too short to complete a seam1 instead of being spliced or knotted the end was tucked back under the last turns or stitches1 on the inside of the bark cover4 ,in starting1 the tail was placed under the first turn of the stitch1 so that it could not be pulled through4 ,to finish sewing with double-ended strands1 as in the harness stitch1 both ends were tucked under the last turn or two4 ,commonly two or more turns were taken through a single hole in the bark2 this might be done to clear some obstruction such as a frame head at the gunwale1 or to provide a stronger stitch1 or turn1 as in the harness stitch and others1 or to allow for greater spacing between awl holes in the bark4 7,since the awl blade was tapered1 the size of the hole it made in the bark could be regulated by the depth of penetration of the blade as it was turned in the hole47 ,the length of stitches varied with the need for strength and watertightness4 ,long stitches were about ,i inch1 short stitches from about to inch in length4 ,the run of the grain1 of course1 was a consideration in the length of stitch used4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cf ,,sewing3 two common styles of root stitching used in bark canoes4 ,the piecing of the side panels was done with a great variety of sewing styles1 according to strength requirements4 ,the strain put upon the bark in molding it by rib pressure was greater in the midlength than in the ends2 and the sewing differed accordingly4 ,the over-and-over spiral1 with a batten under the sewing1 was used for sewing in the midlength1 as was back-stitching1 a variety of basting stitch in which a new pass is started about half way between stitches1 thus forming overlapped passes or turns4 ,back-stitching was usually done in a direction slightly diagonal to the line of sewing1 so as to cross the grain of the bark at an angle with each pass4 ,the double-thong in-and-out stitch1 in which each thong goes through the same hole from opposite sides1 was frequently used4 ,the simple1 spiral over-and-over stitch was used in sewing panels in the ends of canoes1 as was the simple1 in-and-out basting stitch using either a single or double strand4 ,when the sides were pieced out edge-to-edge1 the sewing was usually done spirally1 over and over a narrow1 thin batten placed outside the bark cover4 ,this batten might be either a thin split sapling or1 more commonly1 a split and thinned piece of root4 ,if the pieced-out sides were lapped1 then the harness stitch was commonly used4 ,the lap might be some inches wide to decrease the danger of splitting while the bark was being punched with the awl1 afterward the surplus was cut away leaving about a half inch of overlap4 ,on rare occasions the strength of a lapped-edge seam was increased by the use of a parallel row of stitching4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cg ,,comparison ,,of ,,canoe ,,on ,,the ,,building ,,bed 7above71 with gunwales or building frame weighted down by stones inside bark cover1 and 7below7 canoe when first removed from building bed during fifth stage of construction4 7,sketches by ,adney47 ,in making the canoe watertight1 it is to be remembered that some forms of stitch make the bark lie up tight all along its edges while others bind only where the stitch crosses the seam4 ,the in-and-out stitch1 which was used only above the waterline1 cannot be pulled up hard without causing the bark to pucker and split and cannot be made very watertight with gum4 ,the over-and-over stitch1 in either a spiral form or square across the seam on the outside and diagonally on the inside1 is very strong2 when a batten is used under the stitches it can be pulled up hard and allows a very watertight gumming4 ,when this style of sewing is used without a batten across the run of the grain1 as in the gore seams1 it cannot be pulled up as hard1 but will serve4 ,back-stitching1 which was much used in the topsides1 can be pulled up quite hard and makes a tight seam when gummed1 as do the harness stitch and cross-stitch4 ,the ends1 regardless of the style of sewing used1 were more readily made tight by gumming than the other seams in a bark canoe4 ,two basic methods1 with some slight and unimportant variations1 were used to fasten the bark to the gunwales4 ,one employed a continuous over-and-over stitch1 the other employed groups of lashings4 ,on a canoe with the lashing continuous along the gunwales1 the turns were made two or more times through the same hole on each side of each rib head to allow space for them4 ,this might also be done where the lashing was in groups1 as described above4 ,usually1 a measuring stick was used to space the groups between thwart ends so that each group came between the rib heads4 ,the groupings could be independent lashings1 or the strand could be carried from one group to another4 ,if the latter1 it was passed along under the gunwale in a number of in-and-out stitches or in a single lone stitch either inside or out1 or else it was brought around over the gunwale from the last full turn4 ,some tribes use both ends of the lashing1 passing them through the same hole in the bark from opposite directions below the gunwales2 the ends might be carried in the same manner in a long stitch to the next group4 ,in some elm and other bark canoes employing basswood or cedar-bark lashings the bark was tied with a single turn at wide intervals2 when roots were used in these1 however1 small groupings of stitches were customary4 ,when group lashings were used with birch bark1 the intervals between groups was usually relatively short1 though in a few canoes the groups and intervals were of nearly equal length4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ch ,,third ,,stage ,,of ,,canoe ,,construction3 the bark cover is shaped on the building bed4 ,the gores have been cut2 part of the cover is shaped and secured by stakes and battens4 ,a shows battens secured by sticks lashed to stakes4 7,sketch by ,adney47 ,in an independent group1 the ends of the strand were treated as in whipping1 the tail being under the first turns made and the end tucked back under the last--usually on the inside of the gunwales4 ,where there were inner and outer gunwales the lashing was always around both1 and the tail might be jammed between them4 ,if a cap was used on the gunwales1 the lashings were always under it4 ,the use of a knotted turn to start a lashing occurred only in the old ,ttes de ,boule canoes4 ,on the ,malecite canoe1 the sides are pieced out in one to three panels rather than in one long1 narrow panel on each side4 ,the panel for the midlength requires the greatest strength and is usually lapped inside the bottom bark4 ,the latter is first trimmed straight along its edge1 and the panel inserted behind it with a couple of inches of lap4 ,then the two pieces of bark are sewn together over a halved-root batten with an over-and-over stitch4 7,other tribes used some form of the harness stitch1 or a similar style1 allowing great strength47 ,the middle panel does not extend much beyond the ends of the first pair of thwarts on each side of the middle4 ,the next panels toward the ends are lapped outside the bottom bark and are sewn with the back-stitch4 ,then1 if still another panel is required at each end1 this too is lapped outside and is sewn in the lap with an in-and-out stitch4 ,the ends of the panels are usually sewn with an over-and-over stitch that runs square with the seam outside and diagonally to it inside the bark4 7,the harness stitch was used here by some tribes1 as were many forms of the cross-stitch47 ,the ends of the canoe and the gores have already been sewn during an earlier stage of the building process4 ,once the sides are pieced out1 the bark is ready to be turned up and around the gunwale frame and clamped perpendicularly4 ,to effect this1 small stakes are made by halving saplings1 so that each half is about a half inch thick4 ,the butt of each half is cut chisel-shaped1 with the bevel on the flat side2 the rounded face is smoothed off1 and it may be tapered toward the head of the stake4 ,between two of the slashes a length of bark is now brought up against the outer stakes2 against the bark the small1 inside stake is placed with the round face of the chisel-pointed butt wedged against the outer face of the gunwale4 ,the top is then levered against the outside stake1 so that the flat face of each clamps the bark in place4 ,the top of the inner stake is then bound to the outer4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ci ,,cross ,,section of canoe on building bed during third stage of construction 7above7 and fourth stage4 7,sketch by ,adney47 ,in setting the inside stakes1 care is taken that their points do not pierce the bark4 ,no inside stakes are required at the ends1 as here the outside stakes are so close together in opposing pairs as to hold the bark in a sharp fold along the centerline of the cover4 ,this of course is also true of the stakes beyond the ends of the gunwales4 ,after a few lengths of bark have been thus secured1 they are faired between the stakes by inserting thin strips of split sapling1 or battens of wood or root1 along each side of the bark1 under the inside and outside stakes4 ,these battens are placed about halfway up the upturned bark4 ,some builders used long wooden battens1 as this gave a very fair side when enough lengths were secured upright2 others got the same results with short battens1 the ends of which were overlapped between a pair of stakes on each side4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dj ,,multiple ,,cross ,,section through one side of a canoe on the building bed3 at the headboard1 middle1 first1 and second thwarts4 ,gunwale is raised and supported on sheering posts set under thwarts4 ,crown of the building bed is shown by varying heights of bottoms of the four sections4 ,when the bark has been turned up and clamped1 the gores may be trimmed to allow it to be sewn with edge-to-edge seams at each slash4 ,this is usually done after the sides are faired1 by moving the battens up and down as the cuts are made1 then replacing them in their original position4 ,the gores or slashes1 if overlapped1 are not usually sewn at this stage of construction4 ,with the inside stakes in place1 the longitudinal battens secured1 and the gores cut or the overlaps properly arranged1 all is ready for sheering the gunwales4 ,first the weights are removed from the gunwale frame so that it can be lifted4 ,if the inside stakes have been properly made and fitted this can be done without disturbing the sides1 though the ties across each pair of outside stakes may have to be slacked off somewhat4 ,before lifting the frame1 some short posts1 usually of sapling or of waste from splitting out the gunwales and thwarts1 are cut in lengths determined by the measuring stick or from memory1 one for each end of each thwart1 and one for each end of the gunwale frame4 ,those under the middle thwart ends in this canoe are #g inches long1 those under the next thwarts out from the middle will be #i inches1 those under the end thwarts will be #ab inches1 and those at the gunwale ends will be #ag inches long4 ,these posts1 cut with squared butts1 are laid alongside the bed4 ,the gunwale frame is now lifted and the pair of posts to go under the middle thwart are stepped on the bark cover1 the gunwale is lowered onto them1 and while the frame and posts are held steady1 stones are laid on a plank over the middle thwart4 ,next1 the ends of the gunwales are held and lifted so that a pair of posts can be placed at the thwarts next out from the middle4 ,more weights are placed over these1 the operation is repeated for the end thwarts and1 finally at the gunwale ends1 so that the gunwales now stand on posts on the bark cover1 sprung to the correct fore-and-aft sheer and steadied by the bearing of the outside of the gunwale frame on the rounded faces of the inside stakes4 ,now the sheer has been established and the depth of the canoe is approximated4 ,illustration3 ,figure #da ,,fourth ,,stage ,,of ,,canoe ,,construction3 bark cover has been shaped and all stakes placed4 ,the gunwales have been raised to sheer height2 ,a indicates the sticks which fix the sheer of the gunwales2 ,b indicates blocks placed under ends to form rocker4 ,side panels are shown in place1 and cover is being sewn to gunwales4 7,sketch by ,adney47 ,to protect the bark cover from the thrust of the weights used to ballast the frame1 some builders inserted small bark or wood shields for padding under the heels of the posts4 ,by some tribes the posts were notched on one face1 to fit inside the gunwales near the thwarts1 and there were also other ways of assembling the gunwales themselves4 ,it should be apparent that the operations just described would serve only for canoes in which the sheer had a gentle1 fair sweep4 ,for canoes in which the sheer turned up sharply at the ends1 the gunwale members might have to be split into laminations and prebent to the required sheer before being assembled into the gunwale frame4 ,to accomplish this1 the laminations were scalded with boiling water until saturated and then the gunwale members were staked out on the ground or tied with cords to set the wood in the desired curves as it dried out4 ,the laminations were then wrapped with cord and the gunwale was ready to assemble4 ,to produce a hogged sheer1 the gunwales were made of green spruce and then staked out to season in the form desired2 a hogged sheer was also formed by steaming or boiling the gunwale members at midlength4 ,the canoe1 as now erected on the building bed1 has a double-ended1 flat-bottomed1 wall-sided form4 ,the gunwales are sprung to the proper breadth and sheer1 and the bark is standing irregularly above them4 ,at this point1 on canoes not having outwales1 the bark cover was laced or lashed to the gunwales4 ,since the ,malecite canoe has outwales1 these are now made and fitted4 ,they consist of two white cedar battens about #ai feet long1 perhaps #a inch wide1 and inch thick4 ,the face that will be the outboard side is usually somewhat rounded1 as are all the corners1 and the corner that will be on the inside and bottom of each batten when it is in place is somewhat beveled4 ,the outwales are placed between the bark and the outside stakes1 the inside stakes being removed one by one as this is done4 ,the removal of the inside stakes allows room for the outwale to be inserted in their place1 between the outside stakes and the inner gunwale face1 and it allows the bark to be brought against the outside face of the inner gunwales4 ,in the process of fitting the outwales1 the battens along the sides may have to be removed and replaced1 or shifted1 and the cross-ties of each pair of outside stakes may require adjustment4 ,beginning at midlength1 the outwale is pegged through the bark cover to the inner gunwales at intervals of #f to #i inches4 ,the pegging is not carried much beyond the end thwarts in any canoe and could not be in canoes having laminated gunwales near the ends4 ,the ,malecite canoe has bark covers over the ends of the inner gunwales1 and these are now fitted so that they can be passed under the outwales and clamped in place4 ,the ends of the outwales are forced inside the stakes at and beyond the ends of the gunwales1 assuming a pinched-in appearance there1 and they may reach a few inches beyond the ends of the bark cover2 they will be cut and shaped to the length of the finished canoe later4 ,the outwale pegs are made by splitting from a balk of birch1 larch1 or fir roughly squared dowels about inch square and #f to #i inches long4 ,each dowel is then tapered and rounded each way from the middle to form two shanks that are between and inch in diameter over #b to #c inches of length4 ,the ends may be sharpened by fire4 ,the dowels are then cut in two1 providing a pair of pegs with large heads4 ,these are driven in holes drilled through the outwales1 bark cover1 and gunwales1 and when well home1 the protruding ends are cut off flush4 ,toward the ends of the gunwales1 the spaces between the pegs increase1 and at the extreme ends1 the outwale will be lashed to the gunwale by widely spaced groupings of root strand4 ,these are usually temporary1 as the final lashing of the bark to the gunwales will secure the outwales4 ,after the outwales are secured in place1 the bark is fastened to the assembled gunwales with group lashings4 ,in the ,malecite canoe being built1 these are independent1 each grouping consisting of eight to ten complete turns of the root strand4 ,the intervals between1 roughly #b inches1 are usually spaced by means of a special measuring-stick to insure evenness4 ,before the lashing is actually begun1 however1 the excess bark standing above the gunwales is cut away4 ,the bark either is trimmed flush with the top of the gunwale1 or enough is left for a flap that will fully cover the top of the inner gunwale1 to be turned down under the lashing4 ,the latter method1 the stronger1 was used by many builders4 ,in making the turns in the group lashings1 two or three turns may be taken through a single hole in the bark2 the ,malecites did this to avoid having the holes too close together4 ,the result is that the group when seen from outboard appears as a ,w-form1 with only two or three holes in the bark for an entire group4 ,care is taken to lay up the turns over the gunwales neatly1 turn against turn without open spacing or overlaps and crossings4 ,when this is completed1 the ends of the thwarts can be lashed1 the strand passing through the holes in the shoulders1 around the two gunwale members1 and through one or two holes in the bark cover4 ,the groupings for the bark cover are spaced so that these lashings do not overlap them1 and thus the lashings serve a dual purpose4 ,next1 the gores are usually sewn and the ends of the side panels closed4 ,to do this1 the temporary side battens outside the bark are removed4 ,since this is a ,malecite canoe1 the gores are sewn edge-to-edge with an over-and-over stitch1 the strand crossing the seam square outside and diagonally inside4 ,when these seams and those remaining in the upper panels are sewn1 the rather stiff bark holds the shape formed on the building bed to a remarkable degree4 ,the canoe can now be raised from the building bed4 ,to set it up at a most convenient working height1 the weights are first removed from the gunwales and the remaining stakes are pulled up4 ,the canoe is then lifted from its bed and turned upside down over a couple of logs1 or crude horses4 ,traditionally1 logs or sapling were rested across two pairs of boulders or the logs were tied between two pairs of trees at convenient distances apart4 ,more recently1 horses1 formed by sticking four legs into auger holes drilled in the bottom of a #d-;foot length of timber1 were used4 ,after the canoe is on its supports the ends are ready to be closed in4 ,the stem-pieces customarily used by the ,malecite builder are formed from two clear white cedar billets a full #cf inches long and in the rough nearly #a inches square4 ,the billets are first shaped so that the outboard face of each stem-piece is about inch wide1 making it a truncated triangle in cross-section4 ,then1 along lines parallel to the base of the truncated triangle1 it is split into six laminations which are carried to within #f or #g inches of the end selected to be the heel of the stem-piece4 ,just clear of the laminations a notch is cut into the top side of the heel1 to hold the headboard1 as will be seen4 ,the piece is then treated with boiling water until the laminations are flexible1 and the curve of the stem-piece can be formed and either pegged out or tied with cords until it dries in the desired shape4 ,when dry the laminations are tightly wrapped with basswood bark cord1 leaving the form of the stem-piece a quarter arc of a circle1 with short tangents at each end1 as shown in the illustration 7p4 #ce74 ,illustration3 ,figure #db ,,fifth ,,stage ,,of ,,canoe ,,construction3 canoe is removed from building bed and set on horse in order to shape ends and complete sewing4 ,bark cover has dried out in a flat-bottomed and wall-sided form4 7,sketch by ,adney47 ,next1 the ends of the outwales are cut to a length determined by the quality of the bark already in place2 if the bark in one end is not very good1 it may be cut away somewhat and the canoe made shorter by this amount at both ends in finishing4 ,after the ends of the outwales have been cut1 both are notched on the inside at the extreme ends to take the head of the stem-piece4 ,the outwales may or may not project or inch beyond the stem and the stem head may project or #a inch above the top of the outwales of the canoe2 these matters1 at the builder's option1 decide the length of the notch and the fitting of the stem-pieces4 ,the stem-piece is now placed between the folded bark end of the canoe with the heel resting for a small distance along its length on the bark bottom2 the head must come to the right height above the outwales1 as noted4 ,while one worker holds the stem-piece in place1 another trims away the excess bark at the end to the profile of the outboard face of the stem-piece4 ,thus the profile of each end is cut and the rake of the ends is established4 ,the bark is next lashed to the stem-piece4 ,in this canoe it is done with a spiral over-and-over stitch1 a batten made of a large split root being placed over the edges of the bark1 as the lashing proceeds1 to form a stem band4 ,the turns pass alternately from outboard around the inboard face of the stem-piece and through it2 the awl inserted in the laminations from one side opens them enough to allow the strand to be forced through4 ,care is taken to pull up the strand very hard each time4 ,as the outwale is approached1 the bark is cut away at the notching in each so that the outwales can be brought snugly against the sides of the stem-piece4 ,here the strand is brought up one or two times over the outwales1 abaft the stem head1 before the bitter end is tucked1 thus locking the outwales to the stem-piece and the bark4 ,then a lashing is placed around the outwales just inboard of the stem-piece1 passing through a hole in the flap of the end deck-piece of bark and through the side bark4 ,this lashing holds the outboard end of the deck piece flap4 ,at the inboard end of the flap1 another lashing is required1 but the pinched-in outwales require additional securing outboard of this point2 hence a lashing is passed just inboard of the middle of the flap1 a little outboard of the ends of the inwales1 and about six inches inboard from this lashing another is passed through the side bark and around the gunwale and outwale on each side4 ,these three lashings hold the outwales snug to the ends of the gunwales and against the projecting bark ends in the pinched-in form of projecting outwales4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dc ,,ribs ,,being ,,dried ,,and ,,shaped ,,for ,,ojibway ,,canoe4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 ,the heels of the stem-pieces rest on the bottom bark and the sewing is carried down to where the cutting of the profile makes an end to the seam1 the solid part of the heels extending about #f to #h inches inboard of this4 ,next1 any sewing required on the bottom is done4 ,when the bark cover has been given a final inspection on the outside and all sewing has been completed1 the canoe is lifted from its supports1 righted1 and set on the bed or on a smooth grassy place4 ,all seams are now payed with gum on the inside of the bark while this can still be done without interference from the sheathing or those parts of the structure remaining to be installed4 ,the ,malecites used only spruce gum tempered with animal fat4 ,the gum1 heated until it is sufficiently soft to pour like heavy syrup1 is spread with a small wooden paddle or spoon1 and is then worked into the seam and smoothed by rubbing with the thumb dipped in water to prevent the gum from sticking and burning4 ,it is first worked into the ends1 between the bark and each side of the stem-pieces1 particularly near the heel below the waterline4 ,when the crevices are filled1 a piece of bark 7in later times a piece of cloth was used7 wide enough to cover the gum alongside is well smeared with warm gum and pressed down along the inside of the stem-pieces4 ,on each seam1 at gores1 and on side panels a thin narrow strip of bark is smeared with gum and pressed over the seam after the latter had been well payed4 ,the bark is now carefully scrutinized for small splits1 holes1 or thin spots since these can be easily patched from the inside at this stage of construction4 ,in fitting bark strips and in gumming1 great care is taken to obtain a flat surface2 the edges of the strips inside are faired to the inside face of the bark by smearing gum along the edges4 ,the canoe is now ready to be sheathed and ribbed out4 ,the sheathing for this canoe has been split in advance out of clear white cedar in splints about #e to #i feet long1 #c to #d inches wide1 and inch thick4 ,the butts of each piece have been whittled to a feather edge1 the bevel extending back about #b inches4 ,also1 some pieces of basket ash have been split out of saplings for temporary ribs to hold the sheathing in place4 ,a total of #ej or more ribs in five lengths1 the longest about #e feet1 have been made up from white cedar heartwood and bent to the desired shape4 ,in deciding the rough lengths of the ribs1 the builder can resort to various methods4 ,he can prebend ribs in pairs to a number of arbitrarily chosen shapes3 the first set of six pairs to the desired midsection form2 a second set of five pairs to the form of the section between the middle and first pair of thwarts2 a third1 of five pairs1 to the section at the first thwarts each way from the middle2 a fourth1 of four pairs1 to the section between the end and the first pair of thwarts each way from the middle2 a fifth1 of three pairs1 to the section at the end thwarts2 and a sixth1 of two or three pairs1 for the section at or near the headboards4 ,this makes from #ej to #eb frames in a canoe measuring #ah or #ai feet overall4 ,each frame piece is treated with boiling water and then bent1 over the knee or around a tree1 to a slightly greater degree than is needed4 ,while thus bent1 each pair is wrapped lengthwise over the end with a strip of basswood or cedar bark to hold the ribs in shape4 ,sometimes a strut is placed under the bark strips to maintain the desired form1 or a cross-tie of bark may be employed4 ,the ribs are then allowed to season in this position4 ,another method1 which will be illustrated later 7p4 #ec71 involves placing ribs of green spruce in their approximate position and forcing them against the bark4 ,in this method1 a number of long battens are placed over the roughly bent ribs laid loosely inside the bark cover1 and are spread by forcing a series of short crosspieces1 or stays1 between them athwartships4 ,the bark is given a good wetting with boiling water to make it flexible and elastic1 so that the pressure applied to the battens by the temporary crosspieces brings the bark to the shape desired for the canoe4 ,the rough lengths of the ribs are determined by use of a measuring stick or by measurements made around the bark with a piece of flexible root or a batten of basket ash4 ,the ribs1 in any case1 are made somewhat longer than required to allow a final fitting when being placed over the sheathing4 ,it can be seen that the exact form the canoe takes is largely a matter of judgment and of the flexibility and elasticity of the bark1 rather than of precise molding on a predetermined model1 or lines4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dd ,,details ,,of ,,ribs and method of shaping them in pairs in a bark strap or thong so that they take a set while drying out4 ,in the ,malecite canoe the ribs are wide amidships1 #c or #d inches1 and narrow to #b or #b inches toward the ends4 ,the thickness is an even inch4 ,most birch-bark canoes have ribs of even thickness their full length1 but in a few the thickness is tapered slightly above the turn of the bilge1 usually when the tumble-home is high on the sides and rather great4 ,the width1 as previously explained1 is usually carried all across the bottom2 above the bilges there is a moderate taper4 ,the sheathing of the canoe is now first to be put in place4 ,in the ,malecite canoe the center pieces are the longest2 they are tapered each way from their butts1 which overlap about #b inches amidships4 ,the ends are made narrow enough to fit readily into the sharp transverse curve of the bottom and are long enough to pass under the heels of the stem pieces for an inch or two4 ,the pieces of sheathing on each side of the center pieces are fitted in the same manner1 and by the time two or three courses are in place they must be held in some manner at the ends4 ,this is accomplished by means of the rough temporary ribs mentioned earlier4 ,the sheathing is laid edge-to-edge1 with the butts overlapping1 and1 if there are not enough long pieces to complete the bottom amidships1 three or four lengths1 with overlapped butts1 will be used4 ,as the sheathing progresses1 more temporary ribs will have to be added4 ,at the turn of the bilge1 the sheathing will bend transversely as pressure is applied by the temporary ribs2 the bark must be again wetted so that the angular bilge can be forced into a roughly rounded form4 ,particular care is required in finishing the sheathing below the gunwale to be certain that the top strake will be close up against the sewing of the bark at gunwales1 but no particular attempt is made to make the edges of the sheathing in the topsides maintain edge-to-edge contact4 ,the pressure of the temporary ribs1 the heads of which are forced under the gunwales1 and the elasticity of the bark due to treating it with boiling water are enough to rough-shape the canoe4 ,before the permanent ribs are placed the sheer is checked4 ,if it appears to have straightened1 the ends of the gunwales are supported by means of short posts placed under them1 with the heels standing on the heels of the stem pieces or on the sheathing4 ,then some stakes1 each having a projecting limb or root1 are cut and are driven into the ground with the limb hooked over the gunwale to force it down4 ,after measurements have been made for the first rib with a strand of root or an ash batten1 it is now cut to a length slightly more than would permit the rib to be forced upright when in place4 ,the ends of the rib are set in place in the bevel1 or notch1 on the underside of the gunwales1 against the bark cover1 and with the bottom part of the rib standing inboard of the head4 ,then1 with one end of a short batten placed against its inboard side1 the rib is driven toward the end of the canoe with blows from a club on the head of the batten4 ,if the rib drives too easily it is removed and laid aside2 if too hard1 it is shortened4 ,it must go home tightly enough to stretch slightly the bark cover by bringing pressure to bear on the whole width of the sheathing4 ,care is taken1 in this operation1 to keep moist not only the bark but also the sewing1 particularly along the gunwales1 so that all possible elasticity is obtained4 ,the ribs are set1 one by one1 working to within two or three frames of the midship thwart2 then the other end of the canoe is begun4 ,the last three or four ribs to be placed are thus amidships4 ,in every rib driven1 the tension is great1 but no rib is driven so that it stands perpendicular to the base4 ,those first driven stand with their bottoms nearer the midship thwart than the ends1 and this angle1 or slant1 continues to amidships2 the ribs in the other end of the canoe slant in the opposite direction4 ,it will be evident that skill is required to estimate how much pressure the bark will stand before bursting under the strain of the driven ribs4 ,it is also apparent that the shape of the canoe is controlled by the shaping given the ribs in the prebending1 for this fixes the amount of tumble-home and the amount of round1 or rounded-,v1 given to the bottom athwartships4 ,no fixed rules appear to exist2 the eye and judgment of the builder are his only guides4 ,to show how much strain is placed on the bark1 however1 it may be noted that inspection of two old canoes showed that the gunwale pegs had been noticeably bent between the inner and outer gunwales4 ,it appears to have been a rather common practice1 after all the ribs had been driven into place1 to allow the canoe to stand a few days and then again to set the frames 7where unevenness appears in the topsides7 with driving batten and maul1 the bark cover and the root sewing or lashings having been again thoroughly wetted4 ,the headboards are now to be made4 ,these are shaped in the form of an elongate-oval from a wide splint of white cedar about #d inches wide at midlength and inch thick4 ,the narrow end is first cut off square or nearly so2 the bottom end is notched to fit in the notch in the heel of the stem-piece and the top has a small tenon at the centerline that will be fitted into a hole drilled or gouged in the underside of the inner gunwales where they join at the ends4 ,the length of the headboards in the canoe being built is #ae inches over all1 and when they have been made for each end1 they are checked as to width and height to see that they can be fitted4 ,next1 the extreme ends of the canoe between the stem and the headboards are stuffed with dry cedar shavings or dry moss so that the sides stand firm on each side of the bow outboard of the ends of the sheathing1 which ends rather unevenly1 just outboard of where the headboards will stand4 ,this completed1 the headboards are forced into position by first stepping the heel notch in the stem-piece notch and then bending the board by placing one hand against its middle and pulling the top toward the worker4 ,this shortens the height of the board enough so the tenon projecting on its head can be sprung into the small hole under the inner gunwales1 where it becomes rigidly fixed4 ,its sprung shape pushes up the gunwales and makes the side bark of the ends very taut and smooth1 while supporting the gunwale ends4 ,two thin strips about #ai feet long are next split out of white cedar to form the gunwale caps2 these are to inch thick1 and taper each way from about #b inches wide in the middle to #a inch wide at the ends4 ,these are laid along the top of the inner gunwales and fastened down with pegs placed clear of the gunwale lashings4 ,the ends of the strips are usually secured by two or three small lashings2 the caps thus formed often stop short of the ends of the inner gunwale members4 ,if the caps are carried right out to the stems1 as was the practice of some ,malecite builders1 the lashings of the outwale are not turned in until after the caps are in place1 in which case the bark deck pieces1 or flaps1 are put in just before the final lashing is made4 ,illustration3 ,figure #de ,,sixth ,,stage ,,of ,,canoe ,,construction3 canoe has been righted and placed on a grassy or sandy spot4 ,in this stage splints for sheathing 7upper left7 are fixed in place and held by temporary ribs 7lower right7 under the gunwales4 ,the bark cover has been completely sewn and the shape of the canoe is set by the temporary ribs4 7,sketch by ,adney47 ,next1 the canoe is turned upside-down and all seams are gummed smoothly on the outside4 ,the ends1 from the beginning of the seam to above the waterline1 may be heavily gummed and then covered with a narrow strip of thin bark1 heavily enough smeared with gum to cause it to adhere over the seam4 ,in more recent times a piece of gummed cloth was used here4 ,above this protective strip1 the end seams are filled with gum so that the outside can be smoothed off flush on the face of the cutwater between the stitches4 ,all seams in the side and bottom are gummed smooth and any holes or patches remaining to be gummed are taken care of in this final inspection4 ,if the canoe is to be decorated 7not many types were7 the outside of the bark is moistened and the rough1 reddish winter bark1 or inner rind1 is scraped away1 leaving only enough to form the desired decorations4 ,when paints of various colors could be obtained1 these were also employed1 but the use of the inner rind was apparently the older and more common method of decorating4 ,the paddles are made from splints of spruce or maple1 ash1 white cedar1 or larch4 ,two forms of blade were used by the ,malecite4 ,the older form is long and narrow1 with the blade wide near the top and the taper straight along each edge to a narrow1 rounded point4 ,above the greatest width1 the blade tapers almost straight along the edge1 coming into an oval handle very quickly4 ,at the head1 the handle is widened and it ends squared off1 but the taper toward the handle is straight1 not flared as in modern canoe paddles2 there is no swelling4 ,paddles of a shape similar to this1 some without a wide handle1 were used by other eastern ,indians4 ,the more recent form of ,malecite paddle has a long leaf-shaped1 or beaver-tail1 blade1 much like that of the modern canoe paddle1 except that it ends in a dull point2 the handle is as in the old form but the head is swelled to form the upper grip4 ,the face of the blade1 in both old and new form1 has a noticeable ridge down the centerline4 ,illustration3 ,figure #df ,,general ,,details ,,of ,,birch-,,bark ,,canoe ,,construction1 in a drawing by ,adney4 7,from ,harper's ,young ,people1 supplement1 ,july #bi1 #ahij47 ,the eastern style of construction described here produced what might be called a wide-bottom canoe with some tumble-home above the turn of the bilge1 but a different method of construction was used to produce canoes having a narrow bottom and flaring sides4 ,these canoes were not set up on the building bed1 in the first steps of shaping the hull1 with the gunwale frame on the cover bark4 ,instead1 a special building frame1 mentioned earlier1 was used4 ,each tribe using the building frame had its own style1 but the variations were confined to minor matters or to proportion of width to length4 ,in general1 the building frame is made of two squared battens1 about #a inch square for an #ah-;foot canoe4 ,these1 sometimes tapered slightly toward each end1 are fitted with crosspieces with halved notches in each end to fit over the top of the battens4 ,there may be as many as nine or as few as three of these crosspieces1 with seven apparently a common number4 ,where ends of the long battens join they are beveled slightly on the inside face and notches are cut on the outside face to take the end lashings4 ,each crosspiece end is lashed around the long battens1 a hole being made in each end of the crosspiece for this purpose4 ,the lashings1 commonly bark or rawhide thongs1 are all temporary1 as the building frame has to be dismantled to remove it from the canoe4 ,sometimes holes are drilled in the ends of the crosspieces1 or in the long battens1 and in them are stepped the posts used to fix the sheer of the gunwales4 ,the methods of construction1 using the building frame1 varied somewhat among the tribes4 ,since the gunwale was both longer and wider across than the building frame1 the posts for sheering were set with outboard flare4 ,however1 some builders made the gunwales hogged by staking them out when green1 and then set them above the building frame with vertical posts4 ,these gunwales would not be fitted with thwarts nor would the thwart tenons always be cut at this stage4 ,the bark was lashed to the gunwales while they were in the hogged position with the ends secured2 the gunwales were then spread by inserting spreaders1 or stays1 between them1 after which the thwarts were fitted4 ,this method required knowledge of just how much hog should be given to the gunwales1 and it must be stated that not all builders guessed right enough to produce a good-looking sheer4 ,judging the hogging required in the gunwales was complicated by the fact that most of these canoes had laminated ends in the gunwales at bow and stern1 and a quick upturn there as well4 ,this method of construction persisted1 however1 because the straight sides made easy the sewing of gores and side panels4 ,in some ,alaskan birch-bark canoes the building frame was1 in fact1 part of the hull structure and remained in the canoe4 ,in these1 the building frame was hogged and then flattened by the ribs in construction so as to smooth the bottom bark by placing it under tension4 ,in some canoes the posts for sheering the canoe rested under the thwarts rather than under the gunwales4 ,in most canoes the building frame was taken apart and removed from the canoe when the gunwale structure was complete and in place1 sheered4 ,where large sheets of bark were available1 the setting up with the building frame or gunwale was made easier than where the bark had to be pieced out for both length and width4 ,if large pieces of bark could be obtained there was little or no sewing on the bottom2 only the gores or laps1 and the panels1 in the side required attention after the bark had been lashed to the gunwales4 ,in such instances1 the set-up did not require perpendicular sides1 as the sides could be completed after the canoe was removed from the building bed and the building frame had been removed from the hull4 ,there were many minor variations in the set-up and in the sequence of the sewing4 ,in view of the slight opportunities that now exist for examining the old building methods and construction sequences1 it is impossible to be certain that the one used by a tribe in recent times was that employed in prehistoric times by their ancestors4 ,instead of a laminated stem-piece1 a large root whittled to the desired cross section was sometimes used by builders among the ,malecites and other eastern tribes4 ,this was bent into the ends while green and to it was lashed the bark1 so that the stem dried in place to the desired profile curve4 ,no inner stem-piece was used by the ,micmacs1 who formed the end structure by placing a split-root batten on each outside face of the bark and passing the lashing around both4 ,when a plank-on-edge was used to form the stem-piece1 as mentioned earlier1 no headboard was required1 as the gunwales ends could be brought to the plank structure4 ,in canoes having the complicated stem structure seen in the large fur-trade canoes and some others1 the headboard became an integral part of the stem structure1 rather than an independent unit1 and was placed in the canoe during building with the stem-pieces4 ,there was much variation in the form of gunwale structure employed in bark canoes4 ,a strip of bark was added all along the outwale by some tribes1 so that between the gunwale members and for a short distance below the sewing the bark was doubled2 the bottom of this strip was1 in fact1 a flap not secured and thus was much like the flaps at the ends of the ,malecite canoe1 but without covering the top of the main gunwales4 ,the outwale and inwale cross sections of some canoes were almost round4 ,the use of a single gunwale member is commonly followed by continuous lashing of the bark along it4 ,on some northwestern canoes having continuous lashing1 the ends of the ribs were made in sharp points that could penetrate between the turns of root sewing1 under the gunwales4 ,the ends of the ribs in some of these were secured more firmly by tying them to long battens placed between the ribs and the bark cover just below the gunwales4 ,the northwestern canoes built in this manner had double gunwales1 an outwale and an inwale1 but no bevel or notch for the rib heads4 ,the ends of the gunwales1 inner and outer1 were secured in many ways4 ,some1 instead of being pegged and lashed1 were simply tied together2 others were fastened by a rather elaborate lashing through the bark and around the gunwales4 ,caps were sometimes allowed to overlap at the ends and were pinned together with pegs or lashed4 ,in some canoes the outwales were lashed1 rather than pegged1 to the inwales1 and for this and for the caps rawhide appears to have once been widely used4 ,in some canoes the head of the stem-piece was bent inboard sharply and lashed to the ends of the inwales or outwales4 ,in many canoes the gunwales1 instead of stopping short of the stem-piece1 ran to it and were lashed there4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dg ,,gunwale ,,construction and thwart or crossbar fastenings1 as shown in a sketch by ,adney4 7,from ,harper's ,young ,people1 supplement1 ,july #bi1 #ahij47 ,at the start of ribbing out a canoe1 the first two or three ribs might not be put at each end until after the headboards had been fitted1 and sometimes a rib was placed on each side of the middle thwart1 apparently to hold securely the sheathing butted amidships while the ribbing progressed toward them from the ends4 ,when a canoe was short and rather wide1 the ribs usually were bent by placing them inside the faired bark cover before the sheathing was installed1 there to dry and set or to season1 depending on whether they were steamed or green4 ,prebending the ribs1 as described in the building of a ,malecite canoe1 worked well only when the canoe was long1 narrow1 and sharp4 ,the spacing of the ribs was done by eye1 not by precise measurement1 and was never exactly the same over the length of the canoe4 ,ribs near the ends were usually spaced at greater intervals than those in the middle third of the length4 ,the extension of the bark beyond the ends of the inner gunwale in an eastern canoe was often about one foot on each end1 but this distance was actually determined by the length of the bark available and by the usual reluctance of the builder to add a panel at the end4 ,for the height of the end posts1 in sheering the gunwales1 a common ,malecite measurement was the length of the forearm from knuckles of clenched fist to back of elbow4 ,these posts were often left in place until the stems were fitted4 ,the use of a building frame is known to have been common in areas where1 normally1 the gunwale frame would be employed in the initial steps in building4 ,in a few instances this occurred when a builder had a number of canoes of the same size to construct4 ,it seems probable that the use of the building frame spread into ,eastern areas comparatively recently as a result of the influence of the fur-trade canoes on construction methods4 ,the employment of the plank building bed in the ,east is known to have occurred among individual canoe builders late in the nineteenth century as a result of this influence4 ,the use of nails and tacks instead of pegs and root lashing or sewing in bark canoe construction became quite widespread early in the nineteenth century2 it is to be seen in many old canoes preserved in museums4 ,the bark in these is often secured to the gunwales with carpet or flat-headed tacks1 and both the outwale and the cap are nailed to the inner gunwales with cut or wire nails4 ,various combinations of lashings and nailing can be seen in these canoes1 although such combinations are sometimes the result of comparatively recent repairs or restorations rather than evidence of the original construction4 ,no date can be placed on the introduction of nails into ,indian canoe building1 although it may be said that nailing was used in many eastern areas before #ahej4 ,among the many published descriptions of the method of building bark canoes the earliest give very incomplete information on the building sequence and usually contain obvious errors as to proportions and materials4 7,an example is that of ,nicolas ,denys1 who1 sometime between #afcb and #afej1 saw bark canoes being built in what is now ,new ,brunswick and ,cape ,breton47 ,the best descriptions are relatively recent and1 as a result1 may describe methods of construction that are not aboriginal4 ,the description given here is based upon notes made by ,adney in #ahhi-ij and upon inspection of old canoes from the various tribal areas4 ,it was noted that1 although among canoes of the same approximate length there was some variation in dimensions and some variety in end form1 the construction appeared to vary remarkably little1 and it is apparent that the ,malecites held very closely to a fixed sequence in the building process4 ,there was1 however1 great variation in detail4 ,the number of gore slashes in canoes #ah to #ai feet long varied from #aj to #bc on a side4 ,the number was not always the same on both sides of a canoe nor were the gores always opposite one another4 ,canoes with long1 sharp ends often had a large number of closely spaced gores in the middle third of the length1 with widely spaced gores toward the ends4 ,full-ended canoes1 on the other hand1 had rather equally spaced gores their full length4 ,the amount and form of rocker was also a factor in spacing the gores1 and when the rocker was confined to short distances close to the ends there would naturally be rather closely spaced gores in these portions of the sides4 ,a number of the building practices remain to be described1 but these will be best understood when the individual tribal canoe forms are examined4 ,no written description of building canoes can be understood without reference to drawings1 and to promote this understanding construction details have been shown on many of those of individual canoes of each tribal type4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dh ,,peter ,,joe ,,at ,,work4 ,drawing by ,adney for his article ,how an ,indian ,birch-,bark ,canoe is ,made 7,harper's ,young ,people1 supplement1 ,july #bi1 #ahij74 ,chapter ,four ,,eastern ,,maritime ,,region ,study of the tribal forms of bark canoes might well be started with the canoes of the eastern coastal ,indians1 whose craft were the first seen by white men4 ,these were the canoes of the ,indians inhabiting what are now the ,maritime ,provinces and part of ,quebec1 on the shores of the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river and in ,newfoundland1 in ,canada1 and of the ,indians of ,maine and ,new ,hampshire1 in ,new ,england4 ,within this area were the ,micmac1 the ,malecite1 and the mixture of tribal groups known as the ,abnaki in modern times1 as well as the ,beothuk of ,newfoundland4 ,all these groups were expert canoe builders and it was their work that first impressed the white men with the virtues of the birch-bark canoe in forest travel4 ,micmac ,the ,micmac ,indians appear to have occupied the ,gasp ,peninsula1 most of the north shore of ,new ,brunswick and nearly all the shores of the ,bay of ,fundy as well as all of ,nova ,scotia1 ,prince ,edward ,island1 and ,cape ,breton4 ,they may have also occupied much of southern and central ,new ,brunswick as well1 but if so they had been driven from these sections by the ,malecites before the white men came4 ,the ,micmacs were known to the early ,french invaders under a variety of names2 ,gaspesians1 ,canadiens1 ,sourikois1 or ,souriquois1 while the ,english colonists of ,new ,england called them merely ,eastern ,indians4 ,the name ,micmac is said to mean allies and not known1 but this name was in use early in the #ahth century1 if not before #agjj4 ,the ,micmac were a hunting people with warlike characteristics2 they aided the ,malecite and other ,new ,england ,indians in warfare against the early ,new ,england colonists and in later times aided the ,french against the ,english in ,nova ,scotia and ,new ,brunswick4 ,these ,indians lived in an area where water transport represented the easiest method of travel and so they became expert builders and users of birch-bark canoes1 which they employed in hunting1 fishing1 general travel1 and warfare4 ,the area in which they lived produced fine birch bark and suitable wood for the framework4 ,through experience1 they had become able to design canoes for specific purposes and had produced a variety of models and sizes4 ,the hunting canoe was the smallest1 being usually somewhere between #i and #ad feet long1 with an occasional canoe as long as #ae feet4 ,this light craft1 known as a woods canoe and sometimes as a portage canoe1 was intended for navigating very small streams and for portaging4 ,another model1 the big-river canoe1 somewhat longer than the woods canoe1 was usually between #ae and #bj feet long4 ,a third model1 the open water canoe1 was for hunting seal and porpoise in salt water and ranged from about #ah feet to a little over #bd feet in length4 ,the fourth model1 the war canoe1 about which little is known1 appears to have been built in either the big-river or open-water form1 and to the same length1 but sharper and with less beam so as to be faster4 ,the tribal characteristics of the ,micmac birch-bark canoes were to be seen in the form of the midsection1 in certain structural details1 and in their generally sharp1 torpedo-shaped lines4 ,the construction was very light and marked by good workmanship4 ,the distinctive profiles of bow and stern1 which do not appear in the canoes of other tribes in so radical a form1 were almost circular1 fairing from the bottom around into the sheer in a series of curves4 ,the break in the profile of the ends at the sheer1 a break that marks in more or less degree1 the end profile of other tribal forms1 never occurs in the ,micmac canoe4 ,at most1 a slight break in the streamlined curve might occur at the point where the profile was started in the bottom1 at which point there might be a short1 hard curve4 ,illustration3 ,figure #di ,,micmac #b-;,,fathom ,,pack1 ,,or ,,woods1 ,,canoe for woods travel with light loads1 used by the ,nova ,scotia ,micmacs4 ,the form of the sheer line of the ,micmac canoes apparently varied with the model3 the woods canoe had the usual curved sheer with the point of lowest freeboard about amidships1 the big river canoe had either a nearly straight sheer or one very slightly hogged1 while the open-water canoe had a strongly hogged sheer in which the midship portion was often as much as #c or #d inches above that just inboard of the ends4 ,however1 there is a possibility that1 at one time1 the sheer of all ,micmac canoes was more or less hogged4 ,the little that is known of the war canoes of colonial times indicate that they had the strongly hogged sheer that now marks the open-water model1 through it is also known that some of these were really of the big-river model1 which in later times had usually no more than a vestige of the hogged sheer4 ,the hull-forms of the ,micmac canoes were marked in the topsides by a strong tumble-home1 carried the full length of the hull1 that gave these canoes more beam below than at the gunwale4 ,the form of the midsection varied with the model2 the woods canoe usually had a rather flat bottom athwartships1 the big river canoe a slightly rounded bottom1 and the open water canoe either a well-rounded bottom or one in the form of a slightly rounded ,v4 ,the fore-and-aft rocker in the bottom was always moderate1 usually occurring in the last few feet near the ends2 however1 many of the canoes were straight along the bottom4 ,this condition will be again referred to in discussing the building beds used in this type4 ,the ends were usually fine-lined2 in plan view the gunwales came into the ends in straight or slightly hollow lines4 ,the level lines below the gunwales might also be straight as they came into the ends1 but were commonly somewhat hollow2 a few examples show marked hollowness there4 ,predominantly1 the ,micmac canoes were very sharp in the ends and paddled swiftly4 ,early ,micmac canoes seem to have been narrower than more recent examples1 which are usually rather broad as compared to the types used by some other tribes4 ,structurally1 the ,micmac canoes were distinguished by the construction of the ends and by their light build throughout4 ,the canoes had no inner framework to shape the ends2 stiffness there was obtained by placing battens outside the bark1 one on each side of the hull1 that ran from the bottom of the cut in the bark required to shape the ends to somewhat inboard of the ends of the gunwales at the sheer4 ,these two battens1 as well as a split-root stem-band covering the raw ends of the cut bark1 were held in place by passing a spiral over-and-over lashing around all three4 ,sometimes thicker battens reaching from the high point of the ends inboard to the end thwarts were added1 in which case the side battens were stopped at the high point of the ends and there faired into the thick battens4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ej ,,micmac #b-;,,fathom ,,pack1 ,,or ,,woods1 ,,canoe with ,northern ,lights decoration on bow1 and seven thwarts4 ,the gunwale structure was rather light1 the maximum cross section of the main gunwale in large canoes being rarely in excess of #a inches square4 ,these members usually tapered slightly toward the ends of the canoe and had a half-arrowhead form where they were joined4 ,old canoes had no guard or outwale1 but some more recent ,micmac canoes have had a short guard along the middle third of the length4 ,often there was no bevel to take the rib ends on the lower outboard corner of the main gunwales1 and the gunwales were not fitted so that their outboard faces stood vertically4 ,instead1 the tenons in the gunwales were cut to slant upward from the inside1 so that installation of the thwarts would cause the outboard face to flare outward at the top4 ,between this face and the inside of the bark cover were forced the beveled ends of the ribs1 which were cut chisel-shape4 ,however1 some builders beveled or rounded the lower outboard corner of the main gunwale1 as described under ,malecite canoe building 7p4 #ch74 ,the bark cover in the ,micmac canoe was always brought up over the gunwales1 gored to prevent unevenness1 and folded down on top of them before being lashed4 ,the gunwale lashing was a continuous one in which the turns practically touched one another outboard1 though they were sometimes separated under the gunwale to clear the ribs1 which widened near their ends1 so the intervals between them were very small4 ,the other member of the gunwale structure was the cap2 its thickness was usually to inch1 reduced slightly toward the ends4 ,its inboard face and the bottom were flat1 but the top was somewhat rounded1 with the thickness reduced toward the outboard edge4 ,the cap was fastened to the main gunwales with pegs and with short lashing groups near the ends1 but in late examples nails were used4 ,the ends of the caps were bevelled off on the inboard side1 so that they came together in pointed form4 ,the cap usually ended near the end of the gunwale but in some canoes1 particularly those that were nail-fastened1 the cap was let into the gunwale 7see p4 #ej7 so that the top was flush with end of the gunwale4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ea ,,micmac #b-;,,fathom ,,pack1 ,,or ,,woods1 ,,canoe with normal sheer and flat bottom4 ,the ends of the gunwales were supported by headboards that were bellied outboard to bring tension vertically on the bark cover4 ,the heel of the board stood on a short frog1 laid on the bottom with the inboard end touching or slightly lapping over the endmost rib4 ,the frog supported the heels of the headboard and also the forefoot of the stem-piece1 which otherwise would have but partial support from the sewing battens outside the ends at these points4 ,the headboard was rather oval-shaped and the top was notched on each side to fit under the gunwale2 the narrow central tenon stood slightly above the top of the main gunwales when the headboard was sprung into place and was held in position by a lashing across the gunwales inboard of the top of the headboard4 ,the heel was held by the notch in the frog4 ,cedar shavings were stuffed into the ends of the canoe between the stem-piece and the headboard to mold the ends properly1 as no ribs could be inserted there4 ,all woodwork in these canoes was white cedar1 except the headboards and thwarts1 which were maple1 and the stem battens1 which were usually basket ash but sometimes were split spruce roots4 ,the more recent ,micmac canoes usually had no more than five thwarts2 this number was found even on small woods canoes4 ,however1 old records indicate that canoes #bj to #bh feet long on the gunwales were once built with seven thwarts4 ,the shape of the thwarts varied1 apparently in accordance with the builder's fancy4 ,the most common form was nearly rectangular in cross-section2 in elevation1 it was thick at the hull centerline and tapered smoothly to the outboard ends2 and in plan it was narrowest at the hull centerline and increased in width toward the ends1 the increase being rather sharp at the shoulders of the tenon4 ,in some1 the tenon went through the main gunwales and touched the inside of the bark cover2 in others the ends of the thwarts were pointed in elevation1 square in plan1 and were inserted in shallow1 blind tenons on the inboard side of the main gunwales4 ,a single #c-turn lashing through a hole in the shoulder and around the main gunwale was used in every case4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ea ,,micmac #b-;,,fathom ,,pack1 ,,or ,,woods1 ,,canoe with normal sheer and flat bottom4 ,sometimes the thwarts just described were straight 7in plan view7 on the side toward the middle of the canoe1 and only the middle thwart was alike on both sides4 ,in others the straight side of the end thwart and of that next inboard were toward the bow and stern of the canoe4 ,in still others1 the middle thwart had a rounded barb form in plan1 with the barb located within #f or #g inches of the shoulder and pointed toward the tenon2 the next thwarts out on each side of the middle thwart were shaped like a cupid's bow but slightly angular and aimed toward the ends of the canoe1 and the end thwarts were of similar plan4 ,in one known example having such thwarts1 there were two very short thwarts at the ends of the canoe1 of the usual plain form described earlier1 each a few inches inboard of the headboard4 ,thus this canoe had seven thwarts in the old fashion4 ,the ribs1 or frames1 were thin1 about or inch thick1 and across the bottom of the canoe they were often #c inches wide4 ,in the topsides the ribs were tapered to about #b inches in width2 when the bottom and outboard corner of the main gunwales were not beveled1 the rib ends were cut square across on the wide face and chisel-shaped4 ,when the gunwale corner was beveled1 the ribs were formed with a sharply tapered dull point at the ends4 ,from the middle of the canoe to the first thwarts each way from the middle1 the ribs were spaced #a inch edge-to-edge4 ,from the first thwarts to the ends1 the spacing was about #a inches4 ,most builders made the ribs narrower toward the ends2 if those in the middle of the canoe were #c inches wide1 those near the ends might be #b4 ,they were shaped and placed as described for the ,malecite canoe in ,chapter #c4 ,in the construction of a ,micmac canoe1 the gunwales were first formed1 assembled1 and used as a building frame4 ,if the sheer was to be hogged1 this was done by treating the main gunwales with boiling water before assembly and then staking them out to dry in the required sheer curves4 ,the building bed was well crowned1 usually #b to #b inches because of the very wide bottom and the tumble-home of these canoes4 ,most ,micmac canoes appear to have had only slight fore-and-aft rocker in the bottom2 the bottoms of the seagoing type were often quite straight1 and the other two types had a slight rocker of perhaps #a inches1 most of it near the ends4 ,when the sheer was hogged1 the amount of hog was probably close to the amount of crown in the building bed4 ,the ends of the gunwales1 when laid on the bed1 were blocked up to about the desired amount of rocker to be given the bottom4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ec ,,micmac #c-;,,fathom ,,ocean ,,canoe ,,fitted ,,for ,,sailing4 ,short outwales or battens project gunwales to strengthen the ends of the canoe4 ,some specimens of this type of canoe had almost no rocker in the bottom4 ,the bark cover was selected with great care from the fine stand of paper birch available to the ,micmac4 ,except in emergencies1 only winter bark was used4 ,the cover was gored six to eight times on each side1 and most of these cuts were grouped amidships1 owing to the sharpness of the ends4 ,the gores were trimmed edge-to-edge1 without overlap1 as the ,micmac preferred a smooth surfaced canoe1 and the sewing was the common spiral1 over and over4 ,the width of the bark cover was usually pieced out amidships on each side 7at least in existing models7 by the addition of narrow panels4 ,these may not have been necessary in the very old canoes1 which appear to have been much narrower than more recent examples4 ,the horizontal seams of the panels were straight1 or nearly so1 and did not follow the sheer4 ,the closely spaced spiral over-and-over stitch was sewn over a batten1 the lap being toward the gunwale4 ,as has been said1 a continuous over-and-over gunwale lashing was used4 ,the thwart lashings were through single holes in the thwart shoulders1 three turns being usual1 and two turns around the gunwale on each side were added1 all passing through the bark cover1 of course4 ,the sewing was neat and the stitches were even4 ,the wood lining1 or sheathing1 of the ,micmac canoe was like that described for the ,malecite canoe in the last chapter4 ,the sheathing was a full to about inch thick4 ,the strakes were laid edge-to-edge longitudinally1 with slightly overlapping butts amidships1 and were tapered toward the ends of the canoe4 ,the maximum width of any strake at the butts was about #d inches4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ed ,,micmac ,,rough-,,water ,,canoe1 ,bathurst1 ,n4,b4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 ,in some of the rough-water canoes fitted to sail1 a guard strip running the full length of the canoe and located some #f or #g inches below the gunwale was placed along both sides to protect the strongly tumble-home sides from abrasion from the paddles1 particularly when the craft was steered under sail4 ,these strips1 about inch thick and inch wide1 were butted on each side1 a little abaft amidships1 and were held together by a single stitch4 ,the guards were secured in place by rather widely spaced stitches around them that passed through the bark cover and ceiling1 between the ribs in the topsides4 ,at bow and stern1 the ends of the guards butted against the battens outside the bark at the end profiles and were secured there by a through-all lashing4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ee ,,micmac ,,woods ,,canoe1 built by ,malecite ,jim ,paul at ,st4 ,mary's ,reserve in #aiaa1 under the direction of ,joe ,pictou1 old canoe builder of ,bear ,river1 ,n4,s4 ,modern nailed type4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 ,the proportions and measurements of the ,micmac canoes appear to have changed between the colonial period and the late #aith century4 ,from early references1 it is apparent that the early canoes were much narrower than later ones1 in proportion to length1 as mentioned earlier4 ,an #ah-;foot rough-water canoe of the #ahth century appears to have had an extreme beam of between #cj and #cd inches and a gunwale beam1 measured inside the members1 of #bd to #bh inches1 the depth amidships being about #ah to #bj inches4 ,a similar canoe late in the #aith century would have had an extreme beam of nearly #dj inches1 a beam inside the gunwales of #cc or #cd inches1 and a depth of about #ah inches or less4 ,an early woods canoe1 about #ad feet long overall1 appears to have had an extreme beam of only #bi inches and a beam inside the gunwales of about #be or #bf inches4 ,a woods canoe of #ahij was #ae feet long1 #cf inches extreme beam1 and #cj inches inside the gunwales1 with the depth amidships about #aa inches4 ,a big-river canoe of this same date was a little over #bj feet in extreme length1 #ah feet over the gunwales1 #da inches extreme beam1 and #cd inches gunwale width inside1 with a depth amidships of about #ab inches4 ,an #ah-;foot big-river canoe of an earlier time was reported as being #cg inches extreme beam1 #cj inches inside the gunwales1 and #ac inches depth amidships4 ,the maximum size of the rough-water seagoing canoe1 in early times1 may have been as great as #bh feet but with a narrow beam of roughly #bi or #cj inches over the gunwales1 and say #bd inches inside1 with a depth amidships as much as #bj or #bb inches due to the strongly hogged sheer there4 ,in modern times1 such canoes were rarely over #ba feet in overall length and had a maximum beam of about #db inches1 a beam inside the gunwales of #cf or #cg inches1 and a depth amidships of #af or #ag inches4 ,in early colonial times1 and well into the #ahth century1 apparently1 the ,micmac type of canoe was used as far south as ,new ,england1 probably having been brought there by the ,micmac war parties aiding the ,malecite and the ,kennebec in their wars against the ,english4 ,the canoe in the illustration on page #ab is obviously a ,micmac canoe and apparently one used by a war party4 ,as it was brought to ,england in #agdi in the ship ,america1 which was built in ,portsmouth1 ,new ,hampshire1 and probably sailed from there1 it seems highly probable that the canoe had been obtained nearby1 perhaps in eastern ,maine4 ,the small woods canoe1 most commonly about #ab feet long1 appears first to have been used by all the ,micmac4 ,by the middle of the #aith century1 however1 this type was to be found only in ,nova ,scotia1 owing to the movement of most of the tribe toward the north shore in ,new ,brunswick1 where their inland navigation was confined to large rivers and the coast4 ,hence the ,micmac in ,new ,brunswick used the big-river model and the seagoing type4 ,the latter was last used in the vicinity of the head of ,bay ,chaleur and was often called the ,restigouche canoe1 after the ,micmac village of that name4 ,it was replaced by a #c-;board skiff-canoe and finally by a large wooden canoe of the ,peterborough type with peaked ends and lapstrake planking2 some of the latter may still be seen on the ,gasp ,peninsula4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ef ,,micmac ,,rough-,,water ,,canoe fitted for sailing4 7,photo ,w4 ,h4 ,mechling1 #aiac47 ,the use of sail in the ,micmac canoes cannot be traced prior to the arrival of the white men4 ,the use probably resulted from the influence of ,europeans1 but it is possible that the prehistoric ,indians may have set up a leafy bush in the bow of their canoes to act as a sail with favorable winds4 ,the old ,nova ,scotia expression carrying too much bush1 meaning over-canvassing a boat1 is thought by some to have originated from an ,indian practice observed there by the first settlers4 ,in early colonial times1 the ,micmac used a simple square sail in their canoes and this1 by the last decade of the #aith century1 was replaced by a spritsail probably inspired by the dory-sail of the fishermen4 ,the ,indian rig was unusual in several respects4 ,the sheet1 for example1 was double-ended2 one end was made fast to the clew of the sail and the other to the head of the sprit1 so that it served also as a vang4 ,the bight was secured within reach of the steersman by a half hitch to a crossbar fixed well aft across the gunwales4 ,the sail1 nearly rectangular and with little or no peak1 was laced to the mast1 and the sprit was supported by a snotter lanyard tied low on the mast4 ,a sprit boom was also carried by some canoes2 this was secured to the clew of the sail and to the mast1 a snotter lanyard being used at the latter position4 ,illustration3 ,figure #eg ,,micmac ,,rough-,,water ,,canoe1 ,,bay ,,chaleur4 7,photo ,h4 ,v4 ,henderson1 ,west ,bathurst1 ,n4,b47 ,illustration3 ,figure #eh ,,micmac ,,rough-,,water ,,sailing ,,canoe1 ,,bay ,,chaleur4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 ,the mast was secured by a thwart pegged1 or nailed1 across the gunwale caps4 ,sometimes1 the thwart was also notched over the caps1 so that the side-thrust caused by the leverage of the mast would not shear the fastenings4 ,the crossbar for the sheet was sometimes similarly fastened and fitted1 with its ends projecting outboard of the gunwales4 ,the heel of the mast was sometimes stepped into a block1 which was usually about #e inches square and #a inches thick1 nailed or pegged to the center bottom board1 or sometimes it was merely stepped into a hole in the center bottom board4 ,the bottom boards1 usually three in number were of wide1 thin stock and were clamped in place over the ribs by three or four false frames driven under the thwarts1 just as were the canoe ribs under the gunwales4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ei ,,details ,,of ,,micmac ,,canoes1 ,,including ,,mast ,,and ,,sail4 ,the canoes could not sail close-hauled1 as a rule1 though some ,indians learned to use a leeboard in the form of a short plank hung vertically over the lee side and secured by a lanyard to a thwart1 the board being shifted in tacking4 ,an alternate was to have a passenger hold a paddle vertically on the lee side4 ,there seems to have been no fixed proportions to the area of sail used2 the actual areas appear to have been somewhere between #ej and #ajj square feet1 depending upon the size of the canoe4 ,joseph ,dadaham1 a ,micmac1 stated in #aibe that he used #bd yards in the sail of a rough-water canoe #bj feet long and about #dd inches beam1 while one #ah feet long and about #cf inches extreme beam carried #af to #ah yards2 it is obvious that the yards are of narrow sail cloth and not square yards of finished sail4 ,in the last days of sailing bark canoes1 mast hoops and a halyard block were fitted so that the sail could be lowered instead of having to be furled around the mast 7to accomplish this the crew had to stand74 ,dadaham also stated that for his sheet belay he used a jamb-hitch which could be released quickly when the canoe was found to be overpowered by the wind4 ,it appears that during the last era of these bark canoes the rig had been improved to fit it for open-water sailing4 ,the paddles used by the ,micmac appear to have varied in shape4 ,if the canoe shown in ,chapter #a 7p4 #ab7 was indeed a ,micmac canoe as supposed1 the paddle shown there is quite different from the later tribal forms illustrated above1 and it is possible that the top grips shown in the more modern forms were never used in prehistoric times1 when the pole handle shown with the old canoe may have been standard4 ,the ,micmac canoes were decorated by scraping away part of the inner rind of the birch bark1 leaving portions of it in a formal design4 ,it seems very probable that the ,micmac seldom used this form of decoration in early times1 but later they used it a great deal in their rough-water canoes1 perhaps as a result of contact with the ,malecite4 ,the formal designs used as decoration by the ,micmac did not have any particular significance as a totem or religious symbol2 they were used purely as decoration or to identify the owner4 ,such forms as the half-moon1 a star in various shapes1 or some other figure might be used by the builder1 but these were apparently only his canoe mark1 not a family insignia or his usual signature1 and could be altered at will4 ,the usual method of decoration was to place the canoe mark on both sides of the canoe at the ends and to have along the gunwales amidships a long narrow panel of decoration1 usually of some simple form4 ,the panel decorations are said by ,micmacs to have been selected by the builder merely as pleasing designs4 ,one design used was much like the fleur-de-lis1 another was a series of triangles supposed to represent camps1 still another was the northern lights design1 a series of closely spaced1 sloping1 parallel lines 7or very narrow panels7 that seem to represent a design much used in the quill decoration for which the ,micmac were noted4 ,canoes are recorded as having stylized representations of a salmon1 a moose1 a cross1 or a very simple star form2 these may have been canoe marks or may once have been a tribal mark in a certain locality4 ,a series of half-circles were sometimes used in the gunwale panels1 which were rarely alike on both sides of the canoe1 and it is probable that use was made of other forms that have not been recorded4 ,colored quills in northern lights pattern were used in some model or toy canoes but not in any surviving example of a full-size canoe4 ,it is quite possible1 however1 that such quill-work was once used in ,micmac canoe decoration4 ,painting of the bark cover for decorative purposes in ,micmac canoes has not been recorded4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fj ,,micmac ,,canoe1 ,,bathurst1 ,n4,b4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 ,historical references to the canoes of the ,micmac are frequent in the ,french records of ,canada2 it must have been ,micmac canoes that ,cartier saw in #aecd at ,prince ,edward ,island and in ,bay ,chaleur4 ,the most complete description of such canoes is in the account of ,nicolas ,denys1 who came to the ,micmac country in #afcc and remained there almost continuously until his death at #ij1 in #afhh4 ,his travels during this period took him into ,maine as far as the ,penobscot and throughout what are now ,new ,brunswick and ,nova ,scotia4 ,while his descriptions are primarily concerned with the ,malecite dress1 houses1 and hunting and fishing techniques1 his notes on birch-bark canoes seem to indicate very clearly that he is describing a hogged-sheer ,micmac rough-water canoe4 ,he says1 for example1 that the length of these canoes was between #c and #d fathoms1 the fathom being the ,french brasse1 so that they ranged in length from #af to #bd feet over the gunwales4 ,this gunwale length seems reasonable1 since ,denys gives the beam as only about #b ,english feet1 obviously a gunwale measurement in view of the great tumble-home in these canoes4 ,that the ,micmac rough-water canoe is the subject of ,denys' observations is further indicated by his statement that the depth was such that the gunwales came to the armpits of a man seated on the bottom4 ,this could only be true in a canoe having a hogged sheer in the lengths given1 and is1 in fact1 a slight exaggeration unless the man referred to was of less than average height4 ,the depth would be about #bb ,english inches1 great even for a #bd-;foot canoe4 ,denys states that the inside sheathing of these canoes was split from cedar4 ,he also states that the splints were about #d inches wide1 were tapered toward the ends1 and ran the full length of the canoe4 ,it is probable that they were butted amidships1 as in known examples2 this1 however1 would have been covered by a rib and might not have been noticed4 ,denys says that the ,indians bent the cedar ribs in half-circles to form ribs and shaped them in the fire4 ,adney believed this meant by use of hot water4 ,however1 this bending could have been done by what was known in #agth-century shipbuilding practice as stoving1 in which green lumber was roasted over an open fire until the sap and wood became hot enough to allow a strong bend to be made without breakage4 ,wood thus treated1 when cooled and seasoned somewhat1 would hold the set4 ,while it is certain that later ,indians knew how to employ hot water1 it does not follow that all tribes used this method1 particularly in early times4 ,denys also states that the roots of fir1 split into three or four parts1 were used in sewing4 ,he apparently used fir as a general name for an evergreen4 ,it is probable that the roots used were of the black spruce4 ,the technique of building he describes is about the same as that outlined in the last chapter4 ,he says that the gunwales were round and that seven beech thwarts were employed1 practices that differ from those in more recent ,micmac canoe building1 and he notes the goring of the bark cover4 ,denys states the paddles were made of beech 7instead of maple as was perhaps the case7 with blades about #f inches wide and their length that of an arm 7about #bg inches71 with the handle a little longer than the blade4 ,he also says that four1 five1 or six paddlers might be aboard a canoe and that a sail was often used4 ,formerly of bark1 the sail was made of a well-dressed hide of a young moose4 ,since it could carry eight or ten persons1 the canoe ,denys is referring to is obviously a large one4 ,in his building description he does not mention headboards1 rail caps1 or the end forms4 ,it may be assumed that he was then describing a canoe he had seen during construction but whose building he did not follow step by step4 ,de la ,poterie1 in his book published in #agbb1 gives a profile and top view of what must have been a ,micmac canoe4 ,the probable length indicated must have been about #bb ,english feet overall and about #cb inches extreme beam2 seven thwarts are shown4 ,late in the #aith century there appears to have been some fusion of ,micmac and ,malecite methods of construction1 as ,malecite built to ,micmac forms and vice versa4 ,this apparently did not produce a hybrid form so far as appearance was concerned but it did affect construction1 in that inner end-frames were used and other details of the ,micmac design were altered4 ,the ,micmac1 having early come into close contact with the ,europeans1 were among the first ,indians to employ nails in the construction of bark canoes1 and this resulted in an early decadence in their building methods4 ,hence1 some examples of their canoes show what the ,indians termed broken gunwales1 in which the ends of the thwarts were not tenoned into the gunwales1 but rather were let flush into the top by use of a dovetail cut or1 less securely1 by a rectangular recess across the gunwale1 and were held in place with a nail through the thwart end and the gunwale member4 ,from scanty references by early writers1 it appears that a spiral over-and-over lashing was originally used by the ,micmac on the ends and gunwales4 ,the lower edges of the side panels were sewn over-and-over a split-root batten4 ,in some extant examples the gores are sewn with a harness stitch2 in others a simple spiral stitch is used4 ,the cross-stitch does not appear to have been used by the ,micmac4 ,the gunwale caps were certainly pegged and the ends lashed2 the bark cover was folded over the gunwale tops and clamped by the caps as well as secured by the gunwale lashings4 ,tacking the bark cover to the top of the gunwales1 with the cap nailed over all1 marks the later ,micmac canoes4 ,the use of nails and tacks seems to have begun earlier than #ahej4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fa ,,micmac ,,woman gumming seams of canoe1 ,bathurst1 ,n4,b41 #aiac4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 ,in spite of decadent construction methods used in the last ,micmac birch-bark canoes1 the model remained a very good one in each type4 ,the half-circular ends1 sharp lines1 and standard mid-sectional forms were unaltered2 the hogged sheer was retained in some degree in at least two of the canoe types1 the rough water and the big river1 right down to the end of bark-canoe building by this tribe4 ,the very fine design and attractive appearance of the ,micmac canoe may have contributed to the early acceptance by the early explorers and traders of the birch-bark canoe as the best mode of water transport for forest travel4 ,malecite ,another tribe expert in canoe building and use was the ,malecite4 ,these ,indians were known to the early ,french explorers as the ,etchimins or ,tarratines 7or ,tarytines74 ,many explanations have been given for the name ,malecite4 ,one is that it was applied to these people by the ,micmac and is from their word meaning broken talkers1 since the ,micmac had difficulty in understanding them4 ,when the ,europeans came1 these people inhabited central and southern ,new ,brunswick and the shore of ,passamaquoddy ,bay1 with small groups or tribal subdivisions in the area of the ,penobscot to the ,kennebec4 ,these were early affected by the retreat of the ,new ,england ,indians before the whites into eastern and northern ,maine and southeastern ,quebec4 ,as a result1 the ,penobscot and ,kennebec ,indians became part of the group later known as ,abnaki1 while the ,passamaquoddy ,indians remained wholly ,malecite and closely attached to those living along the ,st4 ,john ,river in ,new ,brunswick4 ,like their neighbors the ,micmac1 the ,malecite were hunters and warlike2 during the colonial period they were usually friendly to the ,french and enemies of the ,english settlers in their vicinity4 ,it is not certain that the tribe now called by that name were actually of a single tribal stock2 it is possible that this designation really covers a loose federation of small tribal groups who eventually achieved a common language4 ,in addition1 the tribal designation cannot be wholly accurate because of the fact that much of the original group living in ,new ,england were absorbed in the ,abnaki in the #agth and #ahth centuries4 ,therefore1 the ,malecite are considered here to be those ,indians formerly inhabiting valleys of the ,st4 ,john and the ,st4 ,croix ,rivers1 and the ,passamaquoddy ,bay area4 ,the remaining portions1 the ,kennebec and ,penobscot ,indians1 must now be classed as ,abnaki1 of whom more later 7see p4 #hh74 ,in considering the birch-bark canoes of the ,malecite1 it is important to understand that this tribal form includes not only the types used in more recent times in ,new ,brunswick and on ,passamaquoddy ,bay1 but also an overlapping type related to the later ,abnaki models4 ,the old form of ,malecite canoe used on the large rivers and along the coast appears to have had rather high-peaked ends1 with a marked overhang fore and aft4 ,the end profiles had a sloping outline1 strongly curved into the bottom1 and a rather sharply lifting sheer toward each end4 ,this form was also to be seen in old canoes from the ,st4 ,john ,river 7the lower valley71 the ,passamaquoddy1 the ,penobscot1 and the upper ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,by late in the #aith century1 however1 this style of canoe had been replaced by canoes having rounded ends1 the profiles being practically quarter-circles and sometimes with such small radii that a slight tumble-home appeared near the sheer4 ,the small radius of the end curves is particularly marked in some of the seagoing porpoise-hunting canoes of the ,passamaquoddy4 ,in modern forms1 the amount of sheer is moderate and the quick lift in the sheer to the ends is practically nonexistent4 ,on the ,st4 ,lawrence1 the radii of the end curves are very short and the upper part of the stems stands vertical and straight2 the sheer1 too1 is usually rather straight4 ,the older type1 with high-peaked ends1 was also marked by very sharp lines forward and aft1 and had a midsection with tumble-home less extreme than in the ,micmac canoes4 ,the bottom1 athwartships1 was usually somewhat rounded 7in coastal canoes the form might be a rounded ,v7 and the bilges were rather slack1 with a reverse curve above1 to form the tumble-home rather close to the gunwales4 ,the river model probably had lower ends and less rake than the coastal type1 but surviving examples of both give confusing evidence4 ,the river canoes usually had a flatter bottom than the coastal type1 the latter having somewhat more rocker fore-and-aft4 ,the sections near the ends were rather ,v-shaped in the coastal canoes1 ,u-shaped in the river canoes4 ,the old form of small hunting canoe is represented by but one poor model 7see p4 #gb7 in which the ends are lower and with much less rake than those of the river type4 ,from this very scant evidence1 it seems probable that the small woods canoes were patterned on the river canoe in all respects but the profile of the ends4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fb ,,malecite #b-;,,fathom ,,river ,,canoe1 #ai,,th ,,century4 ,old form with raking ends and much sheer4 ,from the early ,english and ,french accounts1 it is evident that none of the maritime ,indians used very large or long war canoes1 capable of holding many men4 ,the old war canoes of the ,malecite appear to have been either of the coastal or river types as the circumstances of their place of building and use dictated4 ,the slight information available in these accounts suggests that the war canoe did not differ in appearance from the other types of ,malecite canoes1 and that they were not of greater size4 ,the ,malecite appear to have followed the same practices as the ,micmac1 using for war purposes canoes of standard size and appearance but narrower and built for speed1 since a war party sought to travel rapidly to and from its objective in order to surprise the enemy and escape before organized pursuit could be formed4 ,the ,malecite placed four warriors in each canoe1 two to paddle and two to watch and use weapons while afloat4 ,however1 only on rare occasions were bows and arrows used from canoes afloat2 most fighting was done on land4 ,each canoe carried the personal mark of each of the four warriors1 apparently one mark on each flap1 or wulegessis1 under the gunwales near the ends4 ,when a war leader was carried however1 only his mark was on his canoe4 ,after a successful raid1 the ,malecite used to race for the last mile or so of the return journey1 and the winning canoe was given1 as a distinction1 some mark or picture1 often something humorous such as a caricature of an animal4 ,this practice1 however1 was not confined to war canoes2 in rather recent times it has been noted that such pictures were placed on any canoe that had shown outstanding qualities in racing competition or in exhibitions of skill4 ,when making long canoe trips1 the ,malecite followed the widespread ,indian practice of using the canoe as a shelter at night4 ,when a camping place was reached1 the canoe was unloaded1 carried ashore1 and turned upside down so that the tops of the ends and one gunwale rested on the ground4 ,if the ends were high enough1 as in the old ,malecite type1 one gunwale was raised off the ground far enough to permit a man to crawl under4 ,if1 as in the ,micmac canoes1 the ends were too low to allow this1 they were raised off the ground by short forked sticks1 with the forks resting against the end thwarts and the upper gunwale and the heels stuck into the earth4 ,the dunnage 7provisions or other cargo7 was then stowed on the ground under the ends of the canoe and the two men would sleep under a single blanket with their feet pointed in opposite directions1 each with his head on a pile of dunnage4 ,if there were too many men aboard to do this1 in bad weather a crude shelter was made by resting some poles on the upturned bilge and covering them with sheets of bark2 under such a shelter meals could be cooked4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fc ,,old ,,form ,,of ,,malecite-,,abnaki #b--;,,fathom ,,ocean ,,canoe of the ,penobscots4 ,in the ,peabody ,museum1 ,salem1 ,mass4 ,as did many of the eastern ,indians1 the old ,malecite tribesmen built canoes of materials other than birch bark4 ,when a canoe was required for a temporary use such as in hunting1 it could be made of spruce bark4 7,as the designs of such canoes were rather standardized1 they will be dealt with in ,chapter #h47 ,when bark was unobtainable1 the ,malecite built canoes covered with moosehide1 or1 in rare instances1 they built wooden dugouts4 ,the old ,malecite river canoe shown on page #ga will serve to illustrate a description of the details of construction that were used4 ,these canoes were obviously built with their gunwales 7which were the length of the bottom only7 serving as a building frame4 ,the ends of the gunwales were supported by headboards stepped on the heels of the inner stem-pieces1 and the stems raked outward from their heels4 ,the gunwale ends were joined to the head of the stem-piece by the outwales and the gunwale caps4 ,bark was used to the ends of the canoe4 ,one side of the bark cover was cut so that it stood well above the sheer line from the gunwale end outboard1 and the opposite side was cut to the level of the sheer4 ,the first piece was then folded over the opposite side and down1 so that it covered both the extreme ends of the gunwales and the top of the inner stem-piece4 ,another piece of bark was then fitted over this fold1 and this new piece formed the flaps below the outwales on each side1 the wulegessis4 ,the outwales ran past the gunwale ends and were cut off flush with the outboard face of the stem2 the caps ran likewise and covered the bark over the head of the inner stem piece4 ,the characteristic sheer of these canoes1 where the rise toward the ends began1 showed a quick curve that faired into a rising straight line at the gunwale and then continued straight and rising to the stem head4 ,the wulegessis was therefore quite long4 ,the ends of the gunwales were not of the half-arrowhead shape1 but were snied off on their inboard sides so that they met on a rather long bevel2 the lashing was slightly let in to the outboard faces to keep it from slipping over the gunwale ends4 ,the caps of the gunwales were similarly reduced in width1 where they came together over the ends of the canoe4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fd ,,large #c-;,,fathom ,,ocean ,,canoe ,,of ,,the ,,passamaquoddy porpoise hunters4 ,these canoes were sometimes fitted to sail or outrigged for rowing4 ,the last of this type had much lower ends4 ,the main gunwale members were about #a inches square amidships1 tapering to inch at the ends4 ,the lower outboard corner was beveled to take the ends of the ribs1 as shown on page #ga1 and the lower inboard corner was also beveled or rounded1 but to a lesser degree4 ,the upper inboard corner1 shown beveled in the drawing of figure #fb1 was sometimes slightly rounded1 as were the outwales4 ,amidships the outwale was about #a inch deep1 and it tapered toward the ends1 where its depth was about inch1 the thickness being inch amidships and a scant inch at the ends4 ,on the canoe shown1 the cap was inch thick1 tapering to about inch at the ends1 and #a inches wide amidships1 tapering to about or inch where the caps came together at the ends4 ,the top corners of the cap were beveled in the example4 ,the sheathing appears to have been about inch thick on the average4 ,on the bottom and sides it was in two lengths1 overlapping slightly amidships4 ,toward the ends of the canoe the sheathing was tapered1 maximum width of the splints being about #d inches amidships4 ,the canoe1 which was #ah feet #f inches long overall1 had #df ribs4 ,these were about #c inches wide and inch thick from the center to the first thwart outboard on each side1 and #b inches wide from these thwarts to the ends1 except for the endmost five ribs1 which were roughly #a inches wide4 ,the drawing on page #ga shows the shape of the thwarts4 ,the ends were tenoned through the gunwales1 and there were three lacing holes in the ends of the middle and first thwarts and two in the end thwarts4 ,the beam of the canoe inside the gunwales was #cj inches and outside1 #ca inches2 the tumble-home made the extreme beam #ce inches4 ,the canoe was rather flat bottomed athwartships and quite shallow1 the depth amidships being #aj inches4 ,the building bed must have had about a #a inch crown at midlength4 ,it is probable that the stem pieces were not fixed in place until after the gunwales had been raised to sheer height4 ,the gunwales were lashed with the ,malecite group lashings1 each of four turns through the bark and spaced at #c to #c inches apart in the midlength and at #b inches from the end thwarts to the headboards4 ,two auxiliary lashings were placed over the outwales and caps outboard of the gunwale ends1 one about #f inches beyond the ends of the gunwales and the other against the inboard side of the stem-piece4 ,the end closure was accomplished by the usual spiral lashing passed through the laminated stem pieces4 ,the latter were split 7to within about #d inches of the heel71 into six or more laminae that were closely wrapped with bark cord4 ,the headboards were bellied toward the ends to keep the bark cover under tension1 and the ends outboard of the headboards were stuffed with shavings or moss4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fe ,,old ,,form ,,of ,,passamaquoddy #b-;,,fathom ,,ocean ,,canoe with characteristic bottom rocker and sheer4 ,this rather small1 fast canoe for coastal hunting and fishing was common in the #aith century4 ,a canoe from the ,penobscot ,river1 obtained in #ahbf by the ,peabody ,museum1 ,salem1 ,massachusetts1 and described in ,the ,american ,neptune for ,october #aidh1 shows that the ,penobscot built their canoes on the old ,malecite model4 ,the canoe is apparently a coastal type4 ,it has some round in the bottom amidships and ,v-sections toward the ends2 it is #ah feet #g inches long overall1 #cg inches maximum beam1 #ae inches deep amidships1 and the ends stand #bf to #bh inches above the base line1 the bow being slightly higher and with more rake than the stern4 ,the rocker takes place within #d feet of the ends1 with the bottom straight for about #h feet along the midlength4 ,the bilges amidship are slack1 and the reverse curve to form the tumble-home starts within #f inches of the gunwales 7see drawing1 p4 #gb47 ,a much later coastal canoe of the ,passamaquoddy1 a porpoise-and seal-hunting canoe built in #ahgc1 will also serve to show the old type 7see p4 #gc74 ,this style of canoe was usually built in lengths ranging from #ah to #bj feet overall1 the maximum beam was between #be and #dd inches1 and the beam inside the gunwales was between #bi and #cf inches4 ,the depth amidships ranged from about #ah to #ba inches1 and the height of the ends above the base was from #bh or #cj inches to as much as #de inches4 ,the ribs numbered from #db to #dh and were #c inches wide and inch thick4 ,the sheathing was from to inch thick and the rocker of the bottom1 from #d to #f inches1 took place within the last #d or #e feet of the ends4 ,the midsection showed a well-rounded bottom1 a slack bilge1 and the high reverse to form the tumble-home seen in the old ,penobscot canoe at ,salem4 ,these canoes were still being built well into the #ahhj's1 if not later1 and are to be seen in some old ,u4,s4 ,fish ,commission photographs of porpoise and seal hunting at ,eastport1 ,maine4 ,seal-and porpoise-hunting canoes carried a sail1 usually the spritsail of the dory4 ,while this model probably was little changed in construction from early times1 the surviving examples and models are of the period when nails were employed4 ,the drawing on page #gd is of a small coastal hunting canoe of the same class1 built in #ahge4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ff ,,malecite ,,racing ,,canoe ,,of #ahhh1 showing ,v-shaped keel piece placed between sheathing and bark to form deadrise4 ,the reasons for the gradual decline in the building of canoes of the old style are not known1 and the transition from the high-peaked ends to the more modern low and rounded ends was not sudden4 ,it apparently began in some inland areas1 particularly on the ,st4 ,lawrence and the ,st4 ,john ,rivers1 at least as early as #ahdi1 and the new trend in appearance finally reached the coast about #be years later4 ,in the period of transition1 the high-peaked model developed toward the ,st4 ,francis type1 or that of the modern ,indian canvas canoe1 as well as toward the low-ended type4 ,one of the later developments took place on the ,st4 ,john ,river1 in ,new ,brunswick1 where two ,indians1 ,jim ,paul and ,peter ,polchies1 both of ,st4 ,marys1 in #ahhh built for a ,lt4 ,col4 ,herbert ,dibble of ,woodstock the racing canoe illustrated above 7fig4 #ff74 ,this canoe1 #ai feet #f inches long overall and only #cj inches extreme beam1 was of a design perhaps not characteristic of any particular type of ,malecite canoe1 but it nevertheless shows two elements that may have appeared during the period of change in model4 ,the sides amidships not only are without tumble-home1 they flare outward slightly1 but tumble-home is developed at the first thwart each side of the middle and continues to the headboards4 ,the bottom shows a marked ,v-deadrise achieved by an unusual construction in a birch-bark canoe3 the center strake of the sheathing is shaped in a shallow ,v in cross section1 its width being about #b inches amidships and tapering each way toward the ends1 and its thickness along the longitudinal centerline being about inch and tapering to about inch at the edges2 the two lengths of the strake are butted1 not lapped1 amidships1 though the rest of the sheathing is lapped at the butts in the usual way and is uniformly inch thick4 ,in this manner a ridge that gives a ,v-deadrise is formed down the centerline of the bottom1 though the frames are bent in a flattened curve from bilge to bilge4 ,the bottom has very little rocker1 the rise being only #a inch1 and this takes place in the last #b feet inboard of the heel of the stem piece4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fg ,,sharp-,,ended #b-;,,fathom ,,hunting ,,canoe for use on tidal river4 ,built by the ,passamaquoddy ,indian ,peter ,denis1 it shows what may be the primitive construction method of obtaining a ,v-form in hull4 ,another feature in this canoe is the end profile2 the curved ends are strongly raked1 the curve used being the same as that in the old ,malecite type1 but with the stem-pieces reversed1 so that the quick turn is at the head1 near the sheer1 rather than at the heel4 ,as a result1 the gunwales come to the ends in a straight1 rising line for the last #af inches rather than as a sudden lift near the ends4 ,the stem-heads stand a little above the rail caps4 ,the headboards belly toward the ends and are raked in the same direction4 ,the use of a ,v-shaped keel piece in the sheathing has been found in a ,st4 ,francis canoe from the ,st4 ,lawrence country2 this may be a rather old practice4 ,this racing canoe is very lightly built and much decorated1 the date #ahhh being worked into the hull near one end4 ,another canoe having a marked ,v-deadrise was built sometime between #ahij and #ahib by ,nicola 7sometimes called ,peter7 ,denis 7sometimes spelled ,dana71 a ,passamaquoddy1 for his son ,francis1 who used it at ,frenchman's ,bay1 ,maine4 ,the drawing above 7fig4 #fg7 shows a coastal-type hunting canoe1 nailed along the gunwales but sewn elsewhere1 and painted4 ,the craft is #ae feet #i inches overall and #ad feet #e inches over the gunwales4 ,the beam amidships is #cb inches over the gunwales1 #bi inches inside4 ,the depth amidships is #aa inches1 and at the headboards1 #ad inches4 ,the ends are of the low rounded form2 the profile shows a moderate tumble-home just below the sheer1 which is a long fair curve without any quick lift toward the ends4 ,the construction is of the usual ,malecite type described in ,chapter #c4 ,the midsection shows a remarkable amount of ,v in the bottom without any tumble-home anywhere in the topsides4 ,the ,v-bottom is rounded at the apex1 where the keel would be2 this is done by bending the ribs very sharply where they cross the centerline of the hull4 ,a narrow strake of thin sheathing runs along the centerline of the canoe1 and this is bent athwart-wise to follow the bends in the ribs there4 ,the canoe had #df ribs1 each #b inches wide and inch thick1 tapered slightly from the middle up to the gunwales4 ,the gunwales1 as previously noted1 are nailed and the main gunwale members are of sawed spruce4 ,the rest of the framework is cedar4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fh ,,malecite #b-;,,fathom ,,st4 ,,lawrence ,,river ,,canoe1 probably a hybrid model4 ,the high ends show a western influence4 ,the outside of the canoe was painted red1 the inside was a pale yellow1 the gunwales and middle portions of the thwarts were cobalt blue1 the ends of the thwarts were red4 ,the wulegessis was blue1 and the canoe mark was a painted representation of the spread eagle of the ,united ,states ,seal1 the border being in black and white and the eagle in black1 yellow1 and white1 holding a brown branch with green leaves4 ,the whole panel was outlined in red4 ,on the side of the canoe1 near the stern1 was a white swallowtail pennant on which is lettered ,frenchmans ,bay in black capital letters4 ,this canoe was used for fishing and also for porpoise and seal hunting4 ,the construction employed to form the ,v-bottom in a birch-bark canoe can be seen to have been done in two ways2 that described on page #gf is undoubtedly the method used in prehistoric times1 since laborious forming of a ,v keel-piece in the sheathing1 using stone scrapers1 would be avoided4 ,the ,v-bottom1 it should be noted1 usually appears in canoes used in open waters1 as this form tends to run straight under paddle1 in spite of a side wind1 and thus requires the minimum of steering to hold it on its course4 ,it was this characteristic1 too1 that made the ,v-bottom suitable for the racing canoe on the ,st4 ,john ,river1 since stopping the stroke momentarily to steer diminishes the driving power of the stern paddler4 ,the various river canoes of the ,malecite1 built to the modern low1 rounded-end profiles1 or to the short-radii and straight-line forms1 held rather closely to the same lines1 that is1 sharp ends with a rather flat bottom amidships and an easy bilge4 ,some of the canoes retained the characteristic tumble-home1 but others had nearly vertical sides or the curve of the bilge was carried so high that it ended at the gunwales4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fi ,,malecite #b-;,,fathom ,,river ,,canoe of #ahij from the ,rivire du ,loup region4 ,canoes in this area had straight stems and sharp lines from at least as early as #aheg4 ,on the ,st4 ,lawrence there was apparently a canoe having rather peaked ends as well as the rather straight-stemmed1 low-ended type4 ,a ,st4 ,lawrence ,river canoe found in the ,chateau de ,ramezay and built sometime before #ahfg provides an example of the rather high-peaked ends4 ,the canoe1 as illustrated on page #gg1 has a well-rounded bilge working into a very round tumble-home above and into a rather flat bottom below1 the tumble-home being carried into the extreme ends1 so that the headboards are rather wide4 ,the ends round up rather quickly and then continue up to the sheer in a very slight curve1 having a very moderate tumble-home near the sheer4 ,the latter follows somewhat the characteristic sheer of the old ,malecite canoes1 but the straight portion just inboard of the ends is much shorter1 so that the quick upsweep of the sheer begins nearer the ends and thus appears somewhat more pronounced4 ,the construction is in the usual manner4 ,the rocker of the bottom is #b inches4 ,the ribs are wider amidships than near the ends4 ,the outwale is rounded on the outboard face so that the cap is slightly narrower than the thickness of inner gunwale and outwale combined4 ,the headboard is rather unusual1 however1 as it is not bellied but stands straight and vertical4 ,the lashing at the upper portion of the stems is the crossed stitch1 below it is spiral4 ,the gunwale groups are made up of six passes through the bark1 and the spaces between groups are about #b inches4 ,the side panels are sewn with the harness stitch4 ,the canoe is #af feet long overall and #ad feet #e inches inside the gunwales2 the extreme beam amidships is #cg inches and inside the gunwales #cb inches4 ,the depth amidships is about #ac inches and the height of the ends #be inches1 with #b inches of rocker at the headboards4 ,this canoe1 retaining the high ends1 marks the transition from the old form to the new4 ,a later canoe built on the ,st4 ,lawrence about #ahij1 probably near ,rivire de ,loup1 is shown above4 ,it is #af feet #aa inches long overall1 the beam over the gunwales is #cc inches and inside it is #ca inches1 the curve of the bilge being carried up to the gunwales4 ,the bottom is flat for only a short width4 ,the depth amidships is #aa inches and the height of the ends is #bj inches1 with #a inch of rocker in the last two feet of length4 ,the sheer is a long fair sweep without any quick upward lift near the ends4 ,the headboards are very narrow and belly only very slightly toward the ends4 ,the end profile illustrates the short radii and straight line form that marked many of the last ,malecite birch-bark canoes of the ,st4 ,lawrence ,valley4 ,it is possible that the end-form was copied from the white man's ,st4 ,lawrence skiff1 which usually had ends that were straight and nearly vertical1 with a sharp turn into the keel4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gj ,,modern 7#ahie7 ,,malecite #b-;,,fathom ,,st4 ,,john ,,river ,,canoe1 with low ends and moderate sheer1 developed late in the #aith century4 ,since a ,malecite canoe of the form having rounded low ends was the subject used to describe the construction of a birch-bark canoe in ,chapter #c 7see p4 #cf71 there is no need to discuss all the details here4 ,there was some variety in the sewing and lashing used in ,malecite canoes2 the combination of cross and spiral stitches in the ends and the use of a batten and the over-and-over stitch in the side panels are1 of course1 very common in these canoes4 ,the occasional use of other stitches in the side panels and even in the gores would probably be normal1 since individual preferences in such details were not controlled by a narrow tribal practice4 ,the ,malecite are known to have hauled their canoes overland in the early spring1 before the snow was entirely gone1 by mounting the canoe on two sleds or toboggans in tandem1 binding the canoe to each4 ,this was done as late as the #ahij's for early spring muskrat hunts4 ,the ,malecite also fitted their river canoes with outside protection when much running of rapids or quick water work was done4 ,this protection consisted of two sets of battens 7see p4 #hj71 each set being made up of five or six thin splints of cedar about inch thick and #c inches wide1 tapering to #b or #a inches at one end4 ,these were held together by four strips of basket ash1 bark cord1 or rawhide4 ,each cord was passed through holes or slits made edgewise through each splint4 ,the cords were located so that when the splints were placed on the bottom of the canoe1 the cords could be tied at the thwarts4 ,the tapered ends of the splints were at the ends of the canoe2 the butts of the two sets being lapped amidships with the lap toward the stern4 ,this formed a wooden sheathing1 outside the bottom1 to protect the bark from rocks and snags or floating ice that might be met in rapids and small streams4 ,the fitting was used also by the ,micmac and ,ojibway2 it is not known whether this was an ,indian or ,european invention4 ,the ,french canoemen called it barre d'abordage and the ,malecite1 ,p's-ta' k'n2 the ,english woodsmen called the fitting canoe shoes4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ga ,,malecite ,,canoe ,,details1 ,,gear1 ,,and ,,gunwale ,,decorations4 ,the ,malecite paddle was of various forms1 as illustrated in figures #ga and #gb1 the predominant form being very similar to the paddle now used with canvas ,indian canoes4 ,the total length of the blade was usually about #bh to #cj inches2 at #aj or #aa inches from the tip it was about #b inches wide4 ,the handle was about #cf inches long4 ,at just above the blade it was #a inches wide and #a inch thick4 ,the handle was not parallel-sided4 ,near the top it widened gradually to about #b inches at #b inches from the top2 here the cross-grip was formed4 ,the thickness of the handle reduced gradually from that given for just above the top of the blade to about inch at about #e inches below the cross-grip1 and widened again to inch at the point where the cross-grip was formed4 ,the blade was ridged down its center4 ,the lower end was rounded and the lower half of the blade was approximately half an ellipse in shape4 ,the ,passamaquoddy blade had its wide point within #g inches of the lower tip1 where it was about #f inches wide4 ,the handle was about #a inches in diameter just above the blade1 and then tapered in thickness until it first became oval and then flat in cross section4 ,the width remained nearly constant to a point within #ab to #af inches of the cross-grip1 then gradually widened to nearly #c inches at the top4 ,the blade was #cc to #cf inches long and the whole paddle somewhere between #gc and #gf inches long4 ,the cross-grips were sometimes round1 at other times they were merely worked off in an oval shape to fit the upper hand4 ,the usual width of the cross-grip was just under #c inches4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gb ,,malecite ,,canoe ,,details1 ,,stem ,,profiles1 ,,paddles1 ,,sail ,,rig1 ,,and ,,salmon ,,spear4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gc ,,lines ,,and ,,decoration ,,reconstructed ,,from ,a ,,very ,,old ,,model of an ancient woods1 or pack1 canoe1 showing short ends and use of fiddlehead and fire-steel form of decoration4 ,formerly1 the ,malecite placed his personal mark1 or dupskodegun1 on the flat of the top of his paddle near the cross-grip4 ,the mark was incised into the wood and the incised line was filled with red or black pigment when available4 ,sometimes the whole paddle1 including the blade1 was covered with incised line ornamentation4 ,this was usually a vine-and-leaf pattern1 or a combination of small triangles and curved lines4 ,the ,passamaquoddy used designs suggesting the needlework once seen on fine linens4 ,sometimes other designs showing animals1 camps1 or canoes were used4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gd ,,last ,,known ,,passamaquoddy ,,decorated ,,ocean ,,canoe to be built4 ,constructed in #ahih by ,tomah ,joseph1 ,princeton1 ,maine1 on the same model as a canvas porpoise-hunting canoe4 ,the ,malecite1 particularly the ,passamaquoddy1 were especially skillful in decorating bark canoes1 as can be seen from the illustrations 7pp4 #ha-hg74 ,sometimes they used scraped winter bark decoration just along the gunwales2 occasionally the whole canoe was decorated in this manner above the normal load waterline as described on page #hg4 ,usually1 however1 the bark decoration was confined to a long panel just below the gunwales and to the ends of the canoe4 ,the personal mark of the owner-builder would usually be on the flaps near the ends1 the wulegessis1 meaning the outside bark of a tree or a child's diaper1 but in canoe nomenclature used to indicate the protective cover which it formed for the gunwale-end lashings4 ,sometimes the ,malecite placed his mark in the gunwale decoration4 ,sometimes he placed a picture or a sign on each side of the ends below the wulegessis1 in about the position used for insignia on the canvas ,indian canoe4 ,the swastika was used by the ,passamaquoddy in a war canoe in colonial times and has been used later4 ,the ,passamaquoddy mark for an exceptional canoe 7such as a war canoe that won the race home7 was often on the wulegessis1 and on a relatively modern canoe this mark1 or gogetch1 was a picture of a funny-looking kind of doll4 ,a common form of decoration in ,passamaquoddy canoes was the fiddlehead curve which resembles the top of young fern shoots4 ,this appears in numerous combinations2 often double and back to back1 joined with a long bar1 or cross4 ,this particular combination is known as the fiddlehead and cross or as the fire steel2 the latter because of a fancied resemblance of the form to the shape of the old fire-making steels of colonial times4 ,a zigzag line appears to represent lightning to most ,indians4 ,a series of half-circles along the gunwales1 with the rounded side down and just touching one another at the top1 having a small circle in the center of each1 represents clouds passing over the moon4 ,a similar series of half-circles without the center circles might mean the canoe was launched during a new moon2 the number of half-circles shown would indicate the month4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ge ,,malecite ,,canoe ,,details ,,and ,,decorations4 ,yet there is not full agreement among ,indians about the meaning of decorative forms2 the crooked or zigzag line might also mean camps or the crooked score stick used in a ,malecite game4 ,the circle could mean sun or moon or month4 ,a half-moon form might also be a woman's earring1 or a new moon4 ,a circle with a very small one inside might be a brooch1 as well as money4 ,right triangles1 in a closely spaced series along the gunwales1 apparently meant door cloth1 or tent door 7what you lift with your hand74 ,shown on pages #hd and #he are some ,indian marks on the wulegessis1 based upon the statements of old ,malecites or upon their sketches4 ,after the ,malecite had become ,roman ,catholic1 a fish on the middle panel of a canoe meant that it had been launched on ,friday4 ,pictures on a canoe sometimes indicated a mythological story2 a picture of a rabbit sitting and smoking a pipe on one side of the canoe and a lynx on the other would be such a case4 ,in ,malecite mythology the rabbit was the ancestor of the tribe4 ,he was also a great magician4 ,the lynx was the mortal enemy of the rabbit1 but in the mythological tales he was always overcome and defeated by the rabbit's magic4 ,hence1 the idea conveyed is that though the-lynx is near1 the rabbit sits calmly smoking his pipe and as he knows he can overcome his enemy1 or1 in short1 self-confidence4 ,the ,indian's mark on his canoe or weapons is not a signature to be read by anyone4 ,the mark may1 of course1 be identified as to what it represents1 but unless it is known as the mark used by a certain man it cannot be read4 ,any mark could be used by an ,indian1 either because it had some connection with his activities or habits1 or because he likes it4 ,the stone tobacco pipe used by ,peter ,polchies 7see p4 #he7 as his mark had no known connection with this ,indian's habits or activities4 ,however1 his son1 of the same name and well known also as ,doctor ,polchies1 took the same mark1 but in his case it had a personal meaning since he was noted locally for his skill in making stone pipes4 ,another case was a ,passamaquoddy who at every opportunity used to pole his canoe in preference to paddling4 ,as a result he had become known as ,peter of the ,pole or ,peter ,pole and he then used as a canoe mark a representation of a setting pole4 ,in submitting sketches of the marking on the wulegessis of canoes to old ,indians it was seldom possible to learn the identity of the owner or builder1 since the marks were usually not known to those questioned4 ,in more recent times1 the educated ,malecite signed his name in ,english on his canoe and thus gave it more permanent identification4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gf ,,wulegessis ,,decorations mark of ,mitchell ,laporte that pot hanging was used by three or four generations--it was mark on ,john ,lolar's canoe in #ahgb ,i made marks like this on wulegessis and sometimes on middle 7,charlie ,bear7 mark of ,noel ,john ,sapier 7tomahawk7 mark of ,noel ,polchies 7paddle7 mark of old ,peter ,polchies 7stone pipe7 mark of ,chief ,neptune 7,passamaquoddy7 mark of ,louis ,paul canoe was finished on new moon 7,joe ,ellis7 mark of old ,solomon ,paul ,illustration3 ,figure #gg ,,end ,,decorations1 ,,passamaquoddy ,,canoe built by ,tomah ,joseph4 ,in duplicating a design1 the ,malecite apparently used a pattern1 or stencil1 which was preserved to allow duplication over a long period of time4 ,the stencil was usually cut from birch bark1 apparently an old practice1 although whether it was done in prehistoric times cannot be determined4 ,the long contact of the ,malecites with ,europeans is a factor to be considered in such matters4 ,this is sometimes shown in picture-writing on a canoe2 one1 for instance1 showed a white man fishing with rod and line from a canoe with an ,indian guide4 ,on the opposite side was the representation of an ,indian camp beside two trees1 a kettle over the fire and the brave sitting cross-legged smoking his pipe1 indicating1 of course1 comfort and contentment4 ,asking old ,indians to identify or give the names of decorations1 ,adney recorded statements which indicate their thought in regard to such matters4 ,there were used1 for example1 two forms of the half-moon or crescent2 one was quite open at the points which plainly indicated a half-moon1 but the other was more nearly closed3 ,illustration ,mrs4 ,billy ,ellis1 widow of ,frank ,francis1 a ,malecite1 said of them1 ,old ,indian earrings1 that is only what ,i can call them4 ,also in nose4 ,wild ,indian made them of silver or moose-bone1 ,i guess he thought he looked nice2 it looked like the devil4 ,joe ,ellis1 an old canoe builder1 also called this form earrings and when asked why an ,indian would put these on a canoe1 replied ,he will think what he will put on here4 ,he might have seen his wife at bow of canoe1 and put it on there4 ,shown the right-triangle-in-series design1 ,mrs4 ,ellis said ,i fergit it but ,i will remember2 what you lift with your hand1 we call it that--camp door 7referring to the cloth or hide hung over a camp door1 and raised at one corner to enter1 so that the opening is then divided diagonally74 ,in a later period1 the ,malecite usually confined decoration to the wulegessis and to the pieced-out bark amidships1 the panel formed on each side4 ,the wulegessis was of various forms2 its bottom was sometimes shaped like a cupid's bow1 sometimes it was rectangular4 ,a common form was one representing the profile of a canoe4 ,being of winter bark1 it was red or brown1 with the part where the design was scraped showing white or yellow4 ,the center panel was also of winter bark1 and the design on it showed a similar contrast in color4 ,even when the bark cover was not pieced out1 the panel was formed by scraping all the cover except a panel amidships on each side4 ,old models indicate that the early ,malecite canoes may have used decoration all over above the waterline 7see p4 #ha7 far more frequently than has been the recent custom4 ,the decorations were a fiddlehead design in a complicated sequence so that it bore a faint resemblance to the hyanthus in a formal scroll1 but the design apparently had no ceremonial significance2 it was used for the same reason given ,adney for so many forms of bark decoration1 it looked nice4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gh ,,end ,,decorations1 ,,passamaquoddy ,,canoe built by ,tomah ,joseph4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gi ,,passamaquoddy ,,decorated ,,canoe built by ,tomah ,joseph4 ,the drawings and plans on pages #ga to #hg will serve better than words to show these characteristic designs and decorations4 ,it is doubtful that color1 paint or pigment1 was used in decorating the ,malecite bark canoes before the coming of ,europeans1 but it was employed occasionally in the last half of the #aith century4 ,the beauty of the ,malecite canoe designs lay not in the barbaric display of color characteristic of the large fur-traders' canoes1 but in the tasteful distribution of the scraped winter bark decoration along the sides of the hull4 ,the workmanship exhibited by the ,malecite in the construction of their canoes was generally very fine2 indeed1 they were perhaps the most finished craftsmen among ,indian canoe-builders4 ,st4 ,francis ,the tribal composition of the ,abnaki ,indians is somewhat uncertain4 ,the group was certainly made up of a portion of the old ,malecite group1 the ,kennebec and ,penobscot1 but later also included the whole or parts of the refugee ,indians of other ,new ,england tribes who were forced to flee before the advancing white settlers4 ,it is probable that among the refugees were the ,cowassek 7,coosuc71 ,pennacook1 and the ,ossipee4 ,there were also some ,maine tribes among these--the ,sokoki1 ,androscoggin1 7,arosaguntacook71 ,wewenoc1 ,taconnet1 and ,pequawket4 ,it is probable that the tribal groups from southern and central ,new ,england were mere fragments and that the largest number to make up the ,abnaki were ,malecite4 ,the latter in turn were driven out of their old homes on the lower ,maine coast and drifted northwestward into the old hunting grounds of the ,kennebec and ,penobscot1 northwestern ,maine and eastern ,quebec as far as the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,the chief settlement was finally on the ,st4 ,francis ,river in ,quebec1 hence the ,abnaki were also known as the ,st4 ,francis ,indians4 ,these tribesmen held a deep-seated grudge against the ,new ,englanders and1 by the middle of the #ahth century1 they had made themselves thoroughly hated in ,new ,england4 ,siding with the ,french1 the ,st4 ,francis raided the ,connecticut ,valley and eastward1 taking white children and women home with them after a successful raid1 and as a result the later ,st4 ,francis had much white blood4 ,they were generally enterprising and progressive4 ,little is known about the canoes of these ,abnaki during the period of their retreat northwestward4 ,it is obvious that the ,penobscot1 at least1 used the old form of the ,malecite canoe4 ,what the canoes of the other tribal groups were like cannot be stated4 ,however1 by the middle of the #aith century the ,st4 ,francis ,indians had produced a very fine birch-bark canoe of distinctive design and excellent workmanship4 ,these they began to sell to sportsmen1 with the result that the type of canoe became a standard one for hunting and fishing in ,quebec4 ,when other tribal groups discovered the market for canoes1 they were forced to copy the ,st4 ,francis model and appearance to a very marked degree in order to be assured of ready sales4 ,it is obvious1 from what is now known1 that the ,st4 ,francis had adapted some ideas in canoe building from ,indians west of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 with whom they had come into close contact4 ,however1 they had also retained much of the building technique of their ,malecite relatives4 ,hence1 the ,st4 ,francis canoes usually represent a blend of building techniques as well as of models4 ,the ,st4 ,francis canoe of the last half of the #aith century had high-peaked ends1 with a quick upsweep of the sheer at bow and stern4 ,the end profile was almost vertical1 with a short radius where it faired into the bottom4 ,the rocker of the bottom took place in the last #ah or #bd inches of the ends1 the remaining portion of the bottom being usually straight4 ,the amount of rocker varied a good deal2 apparently some canoes had only an inch or so while others had as much as four or five4 ,a few canoes had a projecting chin end-profile2 the top portion where it met the sheer was usually a straight line4 ,the midsection was slightly wall-sided1 with a rather quick turn of the bilge4 ,the bottom was nearly flat across1 with very slight rounding until close to the bilges4 ,the end sections were a ,u-shape that approached the ,v owing to the very quick turn at the centerline4 ,the ends of the canoe were very sharp1 coming in practically straight at the gunwale and at level lines below it4 ,the gunwales were longer than the bottom and so the ,st4 ,francis canoes were commonly built with a building-frame which was nearly as wide amidships as the gunwales but shorter in length4 ,at least one ,st4 ,francis canoe1 built on ,lake ,memphremagog1 was constructed with a tumble-home amidships the same as that of some ,malecite canoes4 ,the rocker of the bottom at each end started at the first thwart on each side of the middle and gradually increased toward the ends1 which faired into the bottom without any break in the curves4 ,the end profiles projected with a chin that was full and round up to the peaked stem heads4 ,the sheer swept up sharply near the ends to the stem heads4 ,this particular canoe represented a hybrid design not developed for sale to sportsmen1 and the sole example1 a full-size canoe formerly in ,the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history at ,new ,york and measured by ,adney in #ahij1 is now missing and probably has been broken up4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hj ,,st4 ,,francis #b-;,,fathom ,,canoe ,,of ,,about #ahfe1 with upright stems4 ,built for forest travel1 this form ranged in size from #ab feet #f inches overall and #bf-;inch beam1 to #af feet overall and #cd-;inch beam4 ,the ,st4 ,francis canoes were usually small1 being commonly between #ab and #af feet overall2 the #ae-;foot length usually was preferred by sportsmen4 ,the width amidships was from #cb to #ce inches and the depth #ab to #ad inches4 ,the #ad-;foot canoe usually had a beam of about #cb inches and was nearly #ad inches deep2 if built for portaging the ends were somewhat lower than if the canoe was to be used in open waters4 ,canoes built for hunting might be as short as #aj or #aa feet and of only #bf to #bh inches beam2 these were the true woods canoes of the ,st4 ,francis4 ,the gunwale structure of the ,st4 ,francis canoes followed ,malecite design2 it was often of slightly smaller cross section than that of a ,malecite canoe of equal length1 but both outwale and cap were of somewhat larger cross section4 ,the stem-pieces were split and laminated in the same manner1 but occasionally the lamination was at the bottom1 due to the hard curve required where the stem faired into the bottom4 ,many such canoes had no headboards1 the heavy outwales being carried to the sides of the stem pieces and secured there to support the main gunwales4 ,if the headboard was used1 it was quite narrow and was bellied toward the ends of the canoe4 ,in some ,st4 ,francis canoes the bark cover in the rockered bottom near the ends showed a marked ,v4 ,in the canoe examined by ,adney at the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 the ribs inside toward the end showed no signs of being broken1 so it is evident that the ,v was formed either by use of a shaped keel-piece in the sheathing or by an additional batten shaped to give this ,v-form under the center strake4 ,since the ,v began where the rocker in the canoe started1 in an almost angular break in the bottom1 it is likely that a shaped batten had been used to form it4 ,he could not verify this1 however1 as the area was covered by the frames and sheathing4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ha ,,st4 ,,francis ,,canoe ,,of ,,about #aiaj1 with narrow1 rockered bottom1 a model popular with guides and sportsmen for forest travel4 ,the sheathing was in short lengths with rounded ends which overlapped1 and it was laid irregularly in the thrown in style found in many western birch-bark canoes4 ,the ribs were commonly about #b inches wide and nearly inch thick1 the width tapering to roughly #a inches under the gunwales4 ,the ends of the ribs were then sharply reduced in width to a chisel point about #a inch wide2 the sides of the sharply reduced taper being beveled1 as well as the end4 ,a #ae-;foot canoe usually had #df to #ej ribs4 ,the thwarts1 unlike those of the ,micmac and some ,malecite canoes1 in which the thwarts were unequally spaced1 were equally spaced according to a builder's formula4 ,the ends of the thwarts1 or crossbars1 were tenoned into the main gunwales and lashed in place through the three lashing holes in the ends of each thwart1 except the end ones1 which usually had but two4 ,in some small canoes1 however1 two lashing holes were placed in all thwart ends4 ,the design of the ,st4 ,francis thwart was as a rule very plain1 gradually increasing in width from the center outwards to the tenon at the gunwale in plan and decreasing in thickness in elevation in the same direction4 ,the ends of the main gunwales were of the half-arrowhead form1 and were covered with a bark wulegessis1 but the flaps below the outwales were sometimes cut off1 or they might be formed in some graceful outline4 ,the bark cover was sometimes in one piece2 when it was pieced out for width1 the harness-stitch was used4 ,in most canoes1 the bark along the gunwale was doubled by adding a long narrow strip1 often left hanging free below the gunwales and stopping just short of the wulegessis1 which it resembled4 ,it was sometimes decorated4 ,a few ,st4 ,francis canoes with nailed gunwales omitted this doubling piece4 ,when used1 the doubling piece1 as well as the end cover1 were folded down on top of the gunwale before being sewn into place4 ,the decoration of the ,st4 ,francis canoes seems to have been scant and wholly confined to a narrow band along the gunwale1 or to the doubling pieces4 ,the marking of the wulegessis had ceased long before ,adney investigated this type of canoe and no living ,indian knew of any old marks1 if any ever had been used4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hb ,,low-,,ended ,,st4 ,,francis ,,canoe with ,v-form end sections made with short1 ,v-shaped keel battens outside the sheathing at each end4 ,note the unusual form of headboard1 seen in some ,st4 ,francis canoes4 ,the ends were commonly lashed with a spiral or crossed stitch1 but some builders used a series of short-to-long stitches that made groups generally triangular in appearance4 ,the gunwale lashing was in groups about #b inches long1 each having #e to #g turns through the bark4 ,the groups were about #a to #a inches apart near the ends and about #b inches apart elsewhere4 ,the groups were not independent but were made by bringing the last turn of each group over the top and inside the main gunwale in a long diagonal pass so as to come through the bark from the inside for the first pass of the new group4 ,the caps were originally pegged1 with a few lashings at the ends4 ,the ribs were bent green4 ,after the bark cover had been sewn to the gunwales1 the green ribs were fitted roughly inside the bark1 with their ends standing above the gunwales1 and were then forced into the desired shape and held there1 usually by two wide battens pressed against them by #g to #aj temporary cross struts4 ,after being allowed to dry in place1 the ribs were then removed1 the sheathing was put into place1 and the ribs1 after a final fitting1 were driven into their proper positions4 ,some builders put in the ribs by pairs in the shaping stage1 one on top of the other1 as this made easier the job of fitting the temporary battens4 ,the forcing of the ribs to shape also served to shape the bark cover1 and the canoe was placed on horses during the operation1 so that the shape of the bottom could be observed while the bark was being moulded4 ,some builders used very thin longitudinal battens between the bark and the green ribs to avoid danger of bursting the bark4 ,the canoe was built on a level building bed1 in most instances apparently1 with the ends of the building frame blocked up about an inch4 ,it seems possible1 however1 that narrow bottom canoes may have been built with the bed raised #b or #c inches in the middle1 rather than employing a narrow building frame4 ,the construction of the building frame was the same as among the western ,indians and as described in ,chapter #c4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hc ,,st4 ,,francis-,,abnaki ,,canoe ,,for ,,open ,,water1 a type that became extinct before #ahij4 ,from ,adney's drawings of a canoe formerly in the ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,new ,york4 ,details of ,abnaki canoes are also shown4 ,in preparing the ribs1 a common practice was the following3 ,assume1 for example1 that there are #aj ribs from the center to the first thwart forward2 these are laid out on the ground edge-to-edge with the rib under the center thwart to the left and the rib under the first thwart to the right4 ,on the rib to the left the middle thwart is laid so that its center coincides with that of the rib1 and the ends of the thwart are marked on the rib4 ,the same is done to the rib on the far right1 over which the first thwart is laid as the measure4 ,on each side of the centerline the points marking the ends of the thwarts are then joined by a line across the ribs1 as they lie together1 to mark the approximate taper of the canoe toward the ends1 at the turn of the bilge4 ,each rib is taken in turn from the panel and with it is placed another from the stock on hand to be set in a matching position on the other side of the middle thwart1 toward the stern2 the pair1 placed flat sides together1 are then bent over the knee at1 or outside of1 the marks or lines4 ,the ribs in the next portion of the canoe's length are shaped in the same manner1 using the lengths of the first and second thwarts as guides4 ,thus1 the ribs are given a rough1 preliminary bend before being fitted inside the bark cover and stayed into place to season4 ,this method allowed the bilge of the canoe to be rather precisely determined and formed during the first stages of construction4 ,at the ends1 of course1 the ribs are sharply bent only in the middle4 ,since the full thwart length makes a wide bottom1 by setting the length of the rib perhaps a hand's width less than that of the whole thwart1 the narrow bottom is formed4 ,the rough length of the ribs was twice the length of the thwarts nearest them4 ,hackmatack was used for thwarts by the ,st4 ,francis ,indians1 rock maple being considered next best4 ,cedar was first choice for ribs1 then spruce1 and then balsam fir4 ,longitudinals were cedar or spruce4 ,all canoe measurements were made by hand1 finger1 and arm measurements4 ,basket ash strips were often used in transferring measurements4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hd ,,model ,,of ,a ,,st4 ,,francis-,,abnaki ,,canoe ,,under ,,construction1 showing method of moulding ribs inside the assembled bark cover4 ,from what has been said1 it will be seen that the construction practice of the ,st4 ,francis did not follow in all details that of their ,malecite relatives4 ,the intrusion of western practices into this group probably took place some time after the group's final settlement at ,st4 ,francis4 ,as they gradually came into more intimate relations with their western neighbors and drifted into western ,quebec1 beyond the ,st4 ,lawrence1 their canoe building technique became influenced by what they saw to the westward4 ,as would be expected1 the ,st4 ,francis ,abnaki began early to use nails in canoe building1 but1 being expert workmen1 they retained the good features of the old sewn construction to a marked degree up to the very end of birch-bark canoe construction in southern ,quebec1 probably about #aiae4 ,it should perhaps be noted that what has been discovered about the ,st4 ,francis ,abnaki canoes refers necessarily to only the last half of the #aith century1 since no earlier canoe of this group has been discovered4 ,the changes that took place between the decline of the ,penobscot style of canoe and that of the later ,abnaki remain a matter of speculation4 ,illustrations3 ,figure #he ,,st4 ,,francis-,,abnaki ,,canoe4 ,beothuk ,the fourth group of ,indians1 classed here as belonging to the eastern maritime area1 are the ,beothuk of ,newfoundland4 ,historically1 perhaps1 these ,indians should have been discussed first1 as they were probably the first of all ,north ,american ,indians to come into contact with the white man4 ,however1 so little is known about their canoes that it has seemed better to place them last1 since practically all that can be said is the result of reconstruction1 speculation1 and logic founded upon rather unsatisfactory evidence4 ,the tribal origin of the ,beothuk has long been a matter of argument2 they are known to have used red pigment on their weapons1 equipment1 clothes1 and persons4 ,a prehistoric group that once inhabited ,maine and the ,maritime ,provinces appears to have had a similar custom2 these are known as the ,red ,paint ,people1 and it may be that the ,beothuk were a survival of this earlier culture4 ,but all that can be said with certainty is that the ,beothuk inhabited ,newfoundland and perhaps some of the ,labrador coast when the white man began to frequent those parts4 ,the ,beothuk made a nuisance of themselves by stealing gear from the ,european fishermen1 and by occasionally murdering individuals or small groups of white men4 ,late in the #agth century1 the ,french imported some ,micmac warriors and began a war of extermination against the ,beothuk4 ,by the middle of the #ahth century the ,newfoundland tribe was reduced to a few very small groups1 and the ,beothuk became extinct early in the #aith century1 before careful investigation of their culture could be made4 ,their canoes were made to a distinctive model quite different from that of the canoes of other ,north ,american ,indians4 ,the descriptions available are far from complete and1 as a result1 many important details are left to speculation4 ,some parts of the more complete descriptions are obscure and do not appear to agree with one another4 ,in spite of these difficulties1 however1 some information on the canoes is rather specific2 by using this1 together with a knowledge of the requirements of birch-bark canoe construction1 and by reference to some toy canoes found in #ahfi in the grave of a ,beothuk boy1 a reasonably accurate reconstruction of a canoe is possible4 ,captain ,richard ,whitbourne had come with ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert to ,newfoundland in #aehj and revisited the island a number of times afterward4 ,in #afab he wrote that the ,beothuk canoes were shaped like the wherries of the ,river ,thames1 apparently referring to the humped sheer of both2 in the wherry the sheer swept up sharply to the height of the oar tholes1 in profile1 and flared outward1 in cross section4 ,john ,gay1 a member of the ,company of ,newfoundland ,plantation1 wrote in #afab that ,beothuk canoes were about #bj feet long and #d feet wide in the middle and aloft1 that the ribs were like laths1 and that the birch-bark cover was sewn with roots4 ,the canoes carried four persons and weighed less than a hundredweight4 ,they had a short1 light staff set in each end by which the canoes could be lifted ashore4 ,in the middle the canoa is higher a great deale1 than at the bowe and quarter4 ,he also says of their cross section3 ,they be all bearing from the keel to portlesse1 not with any circular1 but with a straight1 line4 ,joann de ,laet1 writing about #afcc1 speaks of the crescent shape of the canoes1 of their sharp keel and need of ballast to keep them upright2 he also states that the canoes were not over #bj feet long and could carry up to five persons4 ,the most complete description of the ,beothuk canoe was in the manuscript of ,lt4 ,john ,cartwright1 ,r4,n41 who was on the coast of ,newfoundland in #agfg-agfh as ,lieutenant of ,h4,b4,m4 ,ship ,guernsey4 ,however1 some portions are either in error or the description was over-simplified4 ,for example1 ,cartwright says that the gunwales were formed with a distinct angle made by joining two lengths of the main gunwale members at the elevated middle of the sheer4 ,this hardly seems correct since such a connection would not produce the rigidity that such structural parts require1 given the methods used by ,indians to build bark canoes4 ,the three grave models show that the sheer was actually curved along its elevated middle4 ,it is possible that ,cartwright saw a damaged canoe in which the lashings of the scarf of the gunwales had slackened so that the line of sheer broke there4 ,cartwright is perhaps misleading in his description of the rocker of the keel as being nearly1 if not exactly1 the half of an ellipse1 longitudinally divided4 ,the models show the keel to have been straight along the length of the canoe and turned up sharply at the ends to form bow and stern4 ,cartwright also states the keel piece was about the size of the handle of a common hatchet amidships1 or perhaps #a inch thick and #a inches wide1 and tapered toward the ends1 which were about inch wide and about equally thick4 ,the height of the sheer amidships was perhaps two-thirds the height of the ends4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hf ,a #ae-;,,foot ,,beothuk ,,canoe ,,of ,,newfoundland with #db-;inch beam1 inside measurement1 turned on side for use as a camp4 ,it gives headroom clearance of about #c feet1 double that of an #ah-;foot ,malecite canoe with high ends4 ,when the ends were not high enough to provide maximum clearance1 small upright sticks were lashed to bow and stern4 ,the shape of the gunwales would permit the canoe to be heeled to an angle 7more than #ce7 which would swamp a canoe of ordinary sheer and depth4 7,sketch by ,adney47 ,nearly all observers1 ,cartwright included1 noted the almost perfect ,v-form cross section of these canoes1 with the apexes rounded off slightly and the wings slightly curved4 ,from an interpretation of ,cartwright's statements1 it appears that after the bark cover had been laced to the gunwales1 the latter were forced apart to insert the thwarts1 as in some western ,indian canoe-building techniques4 ,the three thwarts are described as being about two fingers in width and depth4 ,it is stated that the gunwales were made up of an inner and outer member and all were scarfed in the middle to taper each way toward the ends1 the outer member serving as an outwale or guard4 ,cartwright also states that the inside of the bark cover was lined with sticks #b or #c inches broad1 cut flat and thin4 ,he refers also to others of the same sort which served as timbers so he is describing both the sheathing and the ribs as being #b or #c inches wide4 ,he does not say how the thwarts were fitted to the gunwales1 how high the ends were1 how the ends of the gunwales were formed1 nor does he give any details of the sewing used4 ,however1 the grave models suggest the form of sewing probably used and the approximate proportions of sheer4 ,an old settler told ,james ,howley that the ,beothuk canoes could be folded together like a purse4 ,considering the construction required in birch-bark canoes1 this is manifestly impossible2 perhaps what the settler had seen was a canoe in construction with the bark secured to shaped gunwales1 ready for the latter to be sprung apart by thwarts1 as in opening a purse4 ,howley also obtained from a man who had seen ,beothuk canoes a sketch which shows a straight keel and peaked ends1 confirmed in all respects by the grave models or toys4 ,the toy canoes so often referred to here were found by ,samuel ,coffin in an ,indian burial cave on a small island in ,pilley's ,tickle1 ,notre ,dame ,bay 7on the east coast of ,newfoundland71 in #ahfi4 ,among the graves in the cave1 one of a child1 evidently a boy1 was found to contain a wooden image of a boy1 toy bows and arrows1 two toy canoes and a fragment of a third1 packages of food1 and some red ochre4 ,with one of the canoes was a fragment of a miniature paddle4 ,one of the canoes was #cb inches long1 height of ends #h inches1 height of side amidships #f inches1 straight portion of keel #bf inches and beam #g inches1 as shown by ,howley4 ,in ,newfoundland there was very fine birch but no cedar4 ,there was1 however1 excellent spruce which would take the place of cedar4 ,it seems certain1 then1 that all the framework of the ,beothuk canoes was of spruce4 ,it seems likely that they were never built of a single sheet of birch but were covered with a number of sheets sewn together1 as in other early ,indian birch-bark canoes4 ,the canoe birch of ,newfoundland grew to a diameter of #b to #b feet at the butt1 which would produce a sheet of birch of #f to #g feet width2 the length would be decided by how far up the tree the ,indian could climb to make the upper cut4 ,as has been stated1 the prehistoric ,indians seemingly made little attempt to build birch-bark canoes of long lengths of bark1 preferring to use only the bark obtainable near the ground and above the height of the winter snows4 ,the form of the ,beothuk canoes1 particularly the lack of bilge and the marked ,v-form1 has caused much speculation4 ,one writer assumed that the form was particularly suited for running rapids4 ,actually1 the ,beothuk appeared to have used canoes for river travel very rarely1 as few rivers in their country were suited for navigation4 ,instead1 they seem to have been coast dwellers and to have used canoes for coastal travel and for voyages from island to island4 ,their canoes were undoubtedly designed for open-water navigation1 and the ,v-form was particularly suitable for this4 ,the draft aided in keeping the canoe on its course with either broadside or quartering winds1 and if the ,beothuks knew sail1 the hull-form would have served them well4 ,it is quite evident that the ,beothuk canoes used ballast in the form of stones or heavy cargo4 ,stones would have been placed along the keel piece and covered with moss and skins4 ,the strongly hogged sheer was useful in protecting cargo amidships from spray and1 in picking up a seal or porpoise1 the canoe could be sharply heeled without taking in water4 ,the ,v sections fore and aft were suitable for rough-water navigation2 because of its form and the weight of ballast1 the canoe would pass partly over and through the wave-top without pounding4 ,if a wave of such height as to overtop the gunwales just abaft the stem were met1 the strongly flaring sides would give reserve buoyancy1 causing the canoe to lift quickly as the wave reached up the sides4 ,the small sticks in the ends1 mentioned by ,john ,gay1 served not only for lifting the canoe but also as braces to support the canoe at a given angle when turned over ashore to serve as a shelter4 ,the ,beothuk canoe1 because of its form1 was not well suited for portaging1 and it must be concluded that little of this was done4 ,in coastal voyages1 the canoe would be unloaded and brought ashore each night to serve as a shelter4 ,it is believed that the gunwale lashing of these canoes was in groups1 as in the ,malecite4 ,howley questioned an old ,micmac who had seen the ,beothuk lashing2 he likened it to the continuous lashing used by his own people1 indicating some form of group wrapping1 at least4 ,it is probable that the group lashings were let into the gunwales by shallow notching at each group1 a common ,indian practice when no rail cap was used1 to prevent abrasion from the paddle or from loading and unloading the canoe4 ,the lacing of the ends appears to have been in the common spiral stitch1 judging by the grave models4 ,these1 however1 show a continuous wrapping at the gunwales1 a common simplification found in ,indian canoe models1 representing either group or continuously wrapped gunwales indiscriminately4 ,the paddle of the ,beothuks had a long1 narrow blade1 probably with a pointed tip and a ridged surface4 ,the shape is nearly spatulate4 ,the handle is missing from the grave model but was perhaps of the usual hoe-handled form without a top cross-grip4 ,from these descriptions and on the basis of common ,indian techniques in birch-bark canoe construction1 the form and methods of building the ,beothuk canoe can be reconstructed4 ,the drawing on page #ig shows the probable shape and appearance of the finished canoe4 ,it seems likely that a level building bed was first prepared4 ,the keel1 probably rectangular in cross section1 was then formed of two poles placed butt-to-butt1 worked to shape1 and scarfed4 ,the fastening of the scarf was probably two or more lashings let into the surface of the wood4 ,these lashings are assumed to have been of split-root material but may have been sinew4 ,possibly to strengthen the scarfs1 pegs were also used1 a technique consistent with the state of ,beothuk culture4 ,the keel probably had its ends split into laminae to allow the sharp bend required to form the bow and stern pieces2 and it was probably treated with hot water and staked out to the desired profile4 ,the main gunwales were similarly made and worked to the predetermined sheer which1 in staking out1 was hogged to a greater degree than was required in the finished canoe4 ,the ends of the gunwales were apparently split into laminae to allow the shaping of the sharp upsweep of the sheer close to bow and stern4 ,the outwales were probably formed in the same manner1 after which the three thwarts were made and the material for ribs and sheathing prepared4 ,the ribs were apparently bent to the desired shape1 using hot water1 and were either staked out or tied to hold them in form until needed4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hg ,,beothuk ,,canoe1 ,,approximate ,,form ,,and ,,construction ,the keel was then laid on the bed and a series of stakes1 perhaps #d feet long1 were driven into the bed on each side of the piece in opposing pairs at intervals of perhaps #b or #c feet4 ,the stakes and keel piece were then removed and the bark cover laid over the bed4 ,this may have been in two or three lengths1 with the edges overlapped so that the outside edge of the lap faced away from what was to be the stern4 ,the keel was then placed on the bark and weighted down with a few stones or lashed at the stem heads to the end stakes2 then the bark was folded up on each side of the keel1 and the stakes slipped back into their holes in the bed and driven solidly into place1 perhaps with the tops angled slightly outward4 ,the heads were then tied together across the work and battens placed along the stakes and the outside of the bark to form a trough against which the cover could be held with horizontal inside battens4 ,these were secured by inside stakes lashed to each outside stake in the manner used in building eastern ,indian canoes 7see p4 #de74 ,the bark cover now stood on the bed in a sharp ,v form1 with the keel supported on the bed1 the ends of the bark supported by the end stakes1 and both held down by stones along the length of the keel4 ,an alternative would have been to fix heavy stakes at the extreme bow and stern of the keel and to lash the stem-heads firmly to these in order to hold the keel down on the bark4 ,next the main gunwales1 prebent to the required form1 were brought to the building bed and their ends temporarily lashed to stem and stern4 ,the bark was brought up to these1 trimmed1 folded over their tops1 and secured by a few temporary lashings4 ,then the outwales were placed outside the bark with their ends temporarily secured1 and a few pegs were driven through outwale1 bark1 and main gunwales1 or a few permanent lashings were passed4 ,the bark cover was next securely lashed to the gunwales and outwales combined1 all along the sheer to a point near the ends4 ,the excess bark was then trimmed away at bow and stern and the cover was laced to the end pieces to form bow and stern4 ,this lacing must have passed through the laminations of the stem and stern pieces in the usual manner1 avoiding the spiral lashing that held the laminae together4 ,the ends of the gunwales and outwales were next permanently lashed together with root or other material and to the stem and stern pieces4 ,this done1 the gunwales were spread apart amidships1 pressing the stakes outward still more at the tops4 ,at this point the tenons may have then been cut in the main gunwales and the thwarts inserted4 ,this method1 incidentally1 was used in building some western ,indian bark canoes4 ,the usual steps of completing a birch-bark canoe would then follow--the insertion of sheathing1 held in place by temporary ribs1 and then the driving home of the prebent ribs under the main gunwales1 with their heads in the spaces between the group lashings along the gunwales and against the lower outboard corner of the main gunwale member1 which was probably beveled as in the ,malecite canoe4 ,the sheathing may have been in two or three lengths1 except close to the gunwale amidships where one length would serve4 ,on each side of the keel piece a sheathing strake was placed which was thick on the edge against the keel but thin along the outboard edge1 in order to fair the sheathing into the keel piece4 ,at some point in this process1 the bark cover was pieced out to make the required width1 and gores were cut in the usual manner4 ,in spreading the gunwales1 the bow and stern would have to be freed from any stakes1 as these would tend to pull inboard slightly as the gunwales were spread in the process of shaping the hull4 ,the ribs could have been put in while green and shaped in the bark cover by use of battens and cross braces inside1 as were those of the ,st4 ,francis canoes4 ,the sewing of the bark cover at panels and gores would take place before the sheathing and ribs were placed1 of course4 ,a #ae-;foot canoe when completed would have a girth amidships of about #fe to #fh inches if the beam at the gunwales were #dh inches1 and a bark cover of this width could be taken from a tree of roughly #bj inches in diameter4 ,hence1 there may have been little piecing out of the bark for width4 ,in the form of the ,beothuk canoe as reconstructed there is nothing that departs from what is possible by the common ,indian canoe-building techniques4 ,the finished canoe would1 in all respects1 agree with most of the descriptions that have been found and would be a practical craft in all the conditions under which it would be employed4 ,these were the only birch-bark canoes supposed to have made long runs in the open sea clear of the land4 ,in them the ,beothuk are supposed to have made voyages to the outlying islands1 in which runs in open water of upward of #fj miles would be necessary1 and they probably crossed from ,newfoundland to ,labrador4 ,the ,v-form used by the ,beothuk canoe was the most extreme of all birch-bark canoe models in ,north ,america1 although1 as has been mentioned1 less extreme ,v-bottoms were used elsewhere4 ,the ,beothuk canoe may have been a development of some more ancient form of bark sea canoe also related to the ,v-bottom canoes of the ,passamaquoddy4 ,the most marked structural characteristic of the ,beothuk canoe was the keel2 the only other canoe in which a true keel was employed was the temporary moosehide canoes of the ,malecite4 ,the ,beothuk keel piece may have sometimes been nearly round in section like the keel of the ,malecite moosehide canoe 7p4 #bad74 ,the two garboard strakes of the sheathing may have been shaped in cross section to fair the bark cover from the thin sheathing above to the thick keel and at the same time allow the ribs to hold the garboards in place4 ,they could1 in fact1 be easily made1 since a radial split of a small tree would produce clapboard-like cross sections4 ,this construction would perhaps comply better with ,cartwright's description of the keel than that shown in the plan on page #ig4 ,the sheer of the ,beothuk canoe is an exaggerated form of the gunwale shape of the ,micmac rough-water canoe but this1 of course1 is no real indication of any relationship between the two4 ,indeed1 the probable scarfing of the gunwales of the ,beothuk canoe might be taken as evidence against such a theory4 ,on the other hand1 the elm-bark and other temporary canoes of the ,malecite and ,iroquois had crudely scarfed gunwale members1 as did some northwestern bark canoes4 ,most of the building techniques employed by ,indians throughout ,north ,america are illustrated by these eastern bark canoes1 yet marked variation in construction details existed to the westward1 as will be seen4 ,chapter ,five ,,central ,,canada ,the ,indians inhabiting central ,canada were expert builders of birch-bark canoes and produced many distinctive types4 ,the area includes not only what are now the ,provinces of ,quebec 7including ,labrador71 ,ontario1 ,manitoba1 and the eastern part of ,saskatchewan1 but also the neighboring northern portions of ,michigan1 ,wisconsin and ,minnesota in the ,united ,states4 ,the migrations of tribal groups within this large area in historical times1 as well as the influence of a long-established fur trade1 have produced many hybrid forms of bark canoes and1 in at least a few instances1 the transfer of a canoe model from one tribal group to another4 ,it is this that makes it necessary to examine this area as a single geographic unit1 although a wide variation of tribal forms of bark canoes existed within its confines4 ,the larger portion of the ,indians inhabiting this area were of the great ,algonkian family4 ,in the east during the #ahth and #aith centuries1 however1 some members of the ,iroquois ,confederacy were also found1 and in the west1 from at least as early as the beginning of the ,french fur trade1 groups of ,sioux1 ,dakota1 ,teton1 and ,assiniboin4 ,from the fur trade as well as from normal migratory movements there was much intermingling of the various tribes1 and it was long the practice in the fur trade1 particularly in the days of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 to employ eastern ,indians as canoemen and as canoe builders in the western areas4 ,these apparently introduced canoe models into sections where they were formerly unknown2 as a result1 the tribal classification of bark canoes within the area under examination cannot be very precise and the range of each form cannot be stated accurately4 ,it was in this area1 too1 that the historical canot du matre 7also written matre canot71 or great canoe1 of the fur trade was developed4 ,most of central ,canada1 except toward the extreme north in ,quebec and toward the south below the ,great ,lakes1 is in the area where the canoe birch was plentiful and of large size4 ,there the numerous inland waterways1 the ,great ,lakes1 and the coastal waters of ,james and ,hudson ,bays make water travel convenient1 and natural conditions require a variety of canoe models4 ,hence1 when ,europeans first appeared in this area they found already in existence a highly developed method of canoe transportation4 ,this they immediately adopted as their own1 and in the long period lasting until very recent times1 during which the development of the northern portion of this area was slow1 the canoe remained the most important means of forest travel4 ,in the northeastern portion of the area1 including the ,province of ,quebec 7with ,labrador7 from a line drawn from the head of ,james ,bay eastwardly through ,lake ,st4 ,john and the ,saguenay ,river ,valley to the ,st4 ,lawrence and thence northward to the treeline in the sub-,arctic1 dwelt the eastern branch of the far-ranging ,cree tribe4 ,those living on the shores of ,hudson and ,james ,bays1 along the west side of the ,labrador ,peninsula1 were known as the ,eastern1 ,swamp1 or ,muskeg ,cree4 ,to the north1 at the ,head of ,ungava ,bay1 around ,fort ,chimo1 and to the immediate southward1 were the ,nascapee1 or ,nascopie1 supposedly related to the ,eastern ,cree4 ,in southern ,labrador and in ,quebec along the north shore of the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence and for some distance inland1 dwelt another related tribal group now known as the ,montagnais4 ,although the most recent canoe forms employed by these three ,indian groups were very much the same1 this may not have been the case earlier4 ,a common canoe model in this area was the so-called crooked canoe1 in which there was a very marked fore-and-aft rocker to the bottom without a corresponding amount of sheer2 as a result the canoe was much deeper amidships than near the ends4 ,another common model had a rather straight bottom fore and aft1 with some lift near the ends and a corresponding amount of sheer4 ,between these was a hybrid which had some fore-and-aft rocker in the bottom and a very moderate sheer4 ,not until the #ahgj's was any detailed examination made of the canoes in this area2 then it appeared that the crooked canoe might be the tribal model of the eastern ,cree only1 while the ,nascapee employed a straight-bottom model1 but it is possible that the examination was limited and that ,nascapee use of the crooked canoe was simply not observed4 ,by #aijj1 however1 the crooked model was in use not only by the eastern ,cree and the ,nascapee but also by the ,montagnais4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hh ,,montagnais ,,crooked ,,canoe4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 ,in the area around ,fort ,chimo and at the northern ranges of the eastern ,cree and of the ,montagnais the lack of good birch bark made it necessary to make up the bark cover out of many small pieces4 ,this not only was laborious but made a rough and rather unsightly cover4 ,hence1 some of the northern builders1 particularly the ,nascapee1 substituted spruce bark1 which was available in quite large sheets4 ,the use of the spruce bark1 however1 did not cause any of these people to depart markedly from the model or the method of constructing birch-bark canoes1 as it did for the ,indians in the maritime area4 ,at the time 7#aijh7 when ,adney was carefully observing the canoes in this area he found that both crooked and straight-bottom canoes were being used by all three tribal groups1 but with a variation in midsection form among individual builders4 ,both types were built with a midsection that had a wide bottom and vertical sides1 or1 as an alternative1 a narrow bottom and flaring sides4 ,the end profile of all these canoes showed chin4 ,in some crooked canoes the profile was apparently an arc of a circle1 but in most canoes the form was an irregular curve4 ,the stem met the gunwale in a marked peak rounded very slightly at the head1 as the result of the method by which the stem was constructed1 but in the hybrid model used by the ,nascapee the ends were low and not much peaked and the quick upward rise of the sheer near the ends was lacking4 ,in cross section all these canoes became ,v-shaped close to the ends1 regardless of the midsection form4 ,for the straight-bottom canoe and in the hybrid form this resulted in very sharp level lines1 but the very great rocker of the crooked canoe brought the ends well above the normal line of flotation1 so that this type was quite full-ended at the level line in spite of the ,v-section4 ,it is apparent upon examining the crooked canoe that there was actually less variation in its form1 in spite of differences in midsection shape1 than in that of the straight-bottom canoe1 owing to its very great depth amidships in proportion to its width4 ,this proportion made necessary a very moderate flare in the narrow-bottom midsection and resulted in a rather wall-sided appearance1 even in this model4 ,the hybrid form1 which fell between the extremes of the crooked canoe and the straight-bottom canoe1 had a narrow-bottomed flaring-sided midsection1 and its relatively moderate depth made obvious the flare in the topsides and thus created a distinctive model4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hi ,,birch-,,bark ,,crooked ,,canoe1 ,,ungava ,,cree4 7,smithsonian ,institution photo47 ,eastern ,cree ,the construction of canoes of the eastern ,cree and related tribes seems generally like that of the ,micmac craft4 ,instead of the gunwale method employed in the ,maritime area1 a building frame was used1 and as a result the gunwales were longer than the bottom4 ,in constructing the crooked canoe1 the building frame must be heavily sheered1 and there is evidence that the building bed was depressed amidships1 rather than raised as was usual in the east4 ,the great amount of rocker in the bottom in this form of ,cree canoe made it necessary to block up the ends of the building frame to a very great height1 and there was no need to raise the building bed at midlength1 since the rocker extended the full length of the bottom4 ,the bark cover had to be gored at closely spaced intervals to allow the rocker to be formed1 and even in the straight-bottom model1 the quick rise of the bottom near the ends required closely spaced gores there4 ,in the straight-bottom model1 however1 the building bed was raised at midlength1 as in eastern canoe-building1 and the building frame was ballasted to a cupid's-bow profile1 when on the bed1 so as to achieve the combination of straight bottom amidships with sharply rising ends4 ,the gunwales were formed of the main gunwale member and a light gunwale cap1 no outwale being employed4 ,they were joined at the ends and1 after hot water had been applied1 were staked out with posts under the ends to obtain the required sheer4 ,the thwarts were then tenoned into the main gunwales1 though occasionally a canoe was built with broken gunwales1 that is1 the thwart-ends were let flush into the top and covered by the caps4 ,some builders did not spread the gunwales and place the thwarts until after the bark cover was lashed at the sheer2 others used the eastern methods of assembling the gunwale structure prior to securing the bark cover at sheer4 ,the bark cover was attached to the main gunwales with a continuous lashing1 as in the ,micmac canoes1 but the bark was not always brought over the top of the gunwales4 ,as a result1 some canoes had a batten placed under the lashing1 near the edge of the cover1 to prevent the lashing from tearing away4 ,due to the lack of good root material1 the lashing was often of rawhide4 ,for all horizontal seams in the side panels of the bark cover1 rawhide sewing over a root batten was used4 ,the ends of the gunwales were supported by sprung headboards2 in some canoes these were bellied toward the ends to such a degree that they almost paralleled the end profiles4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ij ,,nascapee #c-;,,fathom ,,canoe1 ,,eastern ,,labrador4 ,similar canoes1 with slight variations in model and dimensions1 were used by all ,ungava ,indians3 the ,montagnais and the ,eastern1 or ,swamp1 ,crees4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ia ,,montagnais #b-;,,fathom ,,canoe ,,of ,,southern ,,labrador ,,and ,,quebec1 showing old decoration forms4 ,drawing based on small model of a narrow-bottom canoe built for fast paddling4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ib ,,crooked ,,canoe1 #b-;,,fathom1 ,,of ,,the ,,ungava ,,peninsula1 used by the ,ungava-,cree1 ,montagnais1 and ,nascapee4 ,also built with a wide bottom and a slight tumble-home in the topsides4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ic ,,hybrid ,,model ,,of ,,the ,,nascapee-,,cree ,,canoe1 #b-;,,fathom1 built of spruce or birch bark1 with details of canoes and paddles4 ,the ends were formed by means of the same technique used for ,micmac canoes2 no inside stem-piece was employed and the bark cover was stiffened by outside battens covered by the lashing4 ,in the ,cree canoes1 however1 the stem battens were broken sharply at the sheer to form a slightly rounded peak where the end met the gunwale caps4 ,the break in the battens was made by bending them very sharply1 so that they were almost fractured4 ,the ,cree practice also differed from that of the ,micmac1 although not universally1 by passing the lower end of the stem batten through the bark cover at the point where the stem met the bottom4 ,the slit thus made was sealed with gum or1 more recently1 covered with cloth impregnated with gum4 ,the stems were lashed in various ways2 the most common was a spiral form up to the sheer4 ,near the gunwale caps crossed stitches or small1 closely spaced wrappings were also employed4 ,the tops of the battens1 forming the peak of the stem1 were brought along under the rail caps1 in line with the gunwale lashings inboard1 and secured with a continuous lashing for about #f inches4 ,in the northern parts of the area under discussion the stem lashing was often of rawhide4 ,illustration3 ,figure #id ,,eastern ,,cree ,,crooked ,,canoe of rather moderate sheer and rocker4 7,canadian ,pacific ,railway ,company photo47 ,gunwale caps were wider than the gunwales and thus gave some protection to the lashing there4 ,the ends of the gunwale caps were heavily tapered to allow the sharp bends necessary to carry them out on the stems4 ,they were pegged or nailed to the gunwales1 but at the ends were lashed2 usually with two or three small group lashings over and under the stem battens1 below the caps4 ,the most recent canoes had canvas covers instead of bark4 ,nails1 tacks1 and twine for sewing were used2 otherwise they were built as the ,indians built birch- and spruce-bark craft1 and not as white men built canvas canoes and boats4 ,the framework of the canoes was usually spruce or larch4 ,toward the south and along the ,st4 ,lawrence some white cedar was used1 and in the south maple was sometimes used for thwarts4 ,the ribs of the canoes inspected by ,adney were usually about #c inches wide1 and a short taper brought them to about #b inches at the ends1 where they were cut square across4 ,they were spaced about #a inch apart edge-to-edge amidships and somewhat further apart toward the ends of the canoe4 ,the canoes usually had an odd number of ribs1 as the first was placed under the thwart amidships4 ,the last three ribs at the ends were broken at the centerline to allow them to take the necessary ,v-section there2 but the fourth rib from each end was only sharply bent4 ,in some canoes the heel of the very narrow headboard was stepped on the sheathing against the endmost rib1 in others it was stepped1 as in the ,micmac canoes1 on a frog which rested against the endmost rib4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ie ,,straight ,,and ,,crooked ,,canoes1 ,,eastern ,,cree4 ,in more recent times the sheathing was laid in one of two ways1 according to the preference of the builder1 but the existence of the two styles suggests that each was once a tribal-group method4 ,one method of shaping the bottom sheathing was to employ a center1 or keelson1 piece in two lengths1 the butts being overlapped amidships1 parallel-sided except toward the stems1 where it was tapered to fit the ,v-sections rather closely4 ,the next strake outboard was short and was in the form of a shallow triangle with its base along the middle portion of the first strakes and about one-third the length of the bottom4 ,its apex was under the middle thwart4 ,the next strake outboard was in two lengths lapped amidships1 parallel sided along the arms of the triangular strake1 and snied off at the ends to fit along the sides of the first strake4 ,another strake outboard of this was similar in form and position1 but longer4 ,thus seven strake widths would complete the bottom sheathing4 ,the side sheathing was narrow and slightly tapered2 each strake in two lengths overlapped slightly amidships4 ,the ends of the topside sheathing ran well into the ends1 in most canoes1 where they apparently served as stiffening4 ,the second method of sheathing employed parallel-sided strakes throughout1 laid side by side on the bottom1 with the ends snied off to fit the form of the bark bottom4 ,the existence of a model canoe made about #ahej 7see p4 #ia7 supports the theory that the first method was originally the ,montagnais tribal construction and that the more primitive second method was probably ,cree or ,nascapee4 ,the ribs were preformed and fitted to the canoe after drying out4 ,they were bent to the desired shape in pairs and tied with a thong across the ends to hold their shape while drying4 ,some builders inserted a strut inside the bent ribs1 parallel to the thong1 protecting the surface of the inner rib by a pad of bark placed under each end of the strut4 ,the pair of ribs might also be wrapped with a bark cord to help hold them together4 ,to aid in handling1 one pair of ribs might be nested inside another4 ,as in eastern canoes the ribs under the gunwales were driven into place4 ,at the ends they were canted toward the center1 so that in the straight-bottom models they stood nearly perpendicular to the rocker of the bottom there2 in the crooked canoe the ribs were all somewhat canted in this manner4 ,illustration3 ,figure #if ,,montagnais ,,canvas-,,covered ,,crooked ,,canoe under construction4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 ,the paddles used in this area were made with parallel-sided blades1 the end of the blade being almost circular4 ,the handle might be fitted with a wide grip at the head or it might be pole-ended4 ,it is impossible to say how early sails were used to propel canoes1 but it is probable they were introduced by the fur traders4 ,square sails were being used on the coastal canoes at the time the earliest reference was made to these canoes1 in the #ahgj's4 ,little is known about the decorations employed by the eastern ,cree4 ,the ,montagnais birch-bark model canoe of about #ahej 7see p4 #ia7 has three small circles placed in a triangular position on the bow and a band along the bottom of the side panels4 ,the circles and the bands are in red paint1 but may have been intended to represent the dark inner rind left after scraping the winter bark cover4 ,the use of decoration in this area after #ahej has not been noted in any available reference4 ,as a rule1 the straight-bottom canoes were small1 commonly between #ab and #ah feet overall1 and the most popular size was #ad to #af feet overall4 ,a canoe of this size was usually employed as a hunters' canoe for forest travel1 though it might be used occasionally along the coasts4 ,these canoes were light and1 in this respect1 resembled the ,micmac models shown in ,chapter #d4 ,the original purpose of the crooked canoe is in question4 ,those travelers who saw this canoe in use on the ,hudson ,bay side of the ,labrador ,peninsula believed that it was designed for use in rough1 exposed water4 ,while it would be a desirable form for beach work in surf1 the high ends would make paddling against strong winds very difficult4 ,on the other hand the ,montagnais used the crooked canoe for river navigation1 particularly where rapids were to be run1 and for this work it appears to have been well adapted4 ,the crooked canoe was commonly built larger than the straight-bottom model1 between #af and #bj feet in length overall1 and was a vessel of burden rather than a hunting canoe4 ,canoes up to #bh feet in length have been mentioned by travelers in this area but investigation indicates strongly that these were not the tribal form but the canot du nord1 or north canoe of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company traders4 ,along the southern borders of their territory and to the westward the eastern ,cree often built and used canoes modeled on those of their neighbors1 the ,ttes de ,boule and the ,ojibway4 ,hence the tribal classification does not hold good in these localities4 ,also1 the eastern ,cree were employed by the ,hudson's ,bay ,company as builders of forms of the matre canot and canot du nord that are unlike their typical tribal model4 ,ttes de ,boule ,the ,ttes de ,boule1 particularly the western bands1 were skilled canoe builders and had long been employed by the ,hudson's ,bay ,company in the construction of large fur-trade canoes4 ,apparently made up of bands of ,indians inhabiting lower ,quebec1 in the basin of the ,st4 ,maurice ,river and on the ,height of ,land1 these bands had come down to the lower ,ottawa ,river to trade with the local ,algonkin tribe there in early times4 ,they were known to the ,algonkins1 who had had some contact with civilization1 as wild ,indians4 ,they also came into close trading relations with the ,french colonists1 as the ,ottawa ,river was the early ,french canoe route between ,montreal and ,lake ,superior4 ,because they cut their hair short1 unlike the other ,indians1 these northern bands were nicknamed ,bull ,heads1 or ,round ,heads1 by the ,french traders1 and the tribesmen soon came to accept this rather than their own designation of ,white ,fish ,people as the tribal name4 ,in more recent times1 the name has been applied to groups of ,indians living in western ,quebec ,province1 near ,lake ,barrire and ,grand ,lake ,victoria1 but these do not consider themselves related to the ,st4 ,maurice bands4 ,it seems apparent that the canoe models of all these groups had been altered as a result of long contact with other tribal groups4 ,although the ,st4 ,maurice and the western bands were apparently not of the same tribal stock1 their relations with the ,algonkin may have brought about the use of a standard model by all4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ig ,,fiddlehead ,,of ,,scraped ,,bark on bow and stern of a ,montagnais birch-bark canoe at ,seven ,islands1 ,que41 #aiae4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ih ,,disk ,,of ,,colored ,,porcupine ,,quills decorating canoe found at ,namaquagon1 ,que41 #ahih4 ,within the #d-;inch disk may have been an #h-pointed star4 ,the ,ttes de ,boule lived in an area where very superior materials for birch-bark canoe construction were plentiful4 ,this1 with the need for canoes imposed by the numerous waterways and the demand for canoes from white traders1 made many of the tribesmen expert builders4 ,their small canoes1 ranging from the #h-to #ab-;foot hunter's canoes to the #ad-to #af-;foot family canoes1 were very similar in profile to the canoes of the ,st4 ,francis ,abnaki4 ,the ,ttes de ,boule canoes1 however1 were commonly narrower on the bottom1 and in their construction a building frame was always used4 ,the ,ttes de ,boule model was straight along the bottom for better than half the length and then rose rather quickly toward the ends4 ,similarly1 the sheer was moderate amidships and increased toward the ends4 ,the stems showed a chin and were much peaked at the gunwale ends4 ,most commonly the midsection had a flat bottom athwartships and a well-rounded bilge1 giving the topsides1 near the gunwale1 a very slight outward flare4 ,some ,ttes de ,boule canoes had rather ,v-section ends in which the endmost rib was broken at the centerline4 ,as a result the lines were sharp and the canoes paddled very easily4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ii ,a ,,fleet ,,of #ea ,,birch-,,bark ,,canoes of the ,ttes de ,boule ,indians1 assembled at the ,hudson's ,bay ,company post1 ,grand ,lake ,victoria1 ,procession ,sunday1 ,august #ahie4 7,photo1 ,post-,factor ,l4 ,a4 ,christopherson47 ,for construction of the ,ttes de ,boule canoe1 which was marked by good structural design and neat workmanship1 the building bed was slightly raised at midlength1 as was the general practice of the ,st4 ,francis builders4 ,the building frame was usually about #f inches less in width amidships1 inside to inside1 than were the gunwales1 and from #ae to #ah inches shorter4 ,the building frame was made quite sharp toward the ends so that1 viewed from above1 it rather approached a diamond form2 this produced the very sharp lines that are to be seen in many examples of the ,ttes de ,boule canoes4 ,the building frame was of course removed from the canoe as soon as the gunwales were in place and the bark cover lashed to them4 ,the gunwale structure1 comprised of main gunwale members1 caps1 and outwales1 was the same as in the ,malecite canoes4 ,the main gunwales were rectangular in cross-section1 some being almost square1 with the lower outboard corner bevelled off4 ,compared to those of eastern canoes of equal length1 the main gunwales were unusually light2 their depth and width rarely exceeded #a inch1 and in very small hunter's canoes these were often only about inch4 ,toward the ends1 they tapered to inch1 or even slightly less4 ,the ends of the main gunwales1 usually of the common half-arrowhead form1 were held together by rawhide or root thongs passed back and forth through horizontal holes in the members4 ,after being thus lashed together1 they were securely wrapped with thongs which usually went over gunwales and outwales and through the bark cover4 ,the gunwale caps1 also light1 were usually between and inch thick and from #a to #a inches wide4 ,at the ends they were tapered in width and thickness1 often to by inch1 so as to follow the quickly rising sheer there4 ,the ends of the gunwales1 caps1 and outwales required hot-water treatment to obtain the required curve of the sheer4 ,the caps were pegged to the gunwales and were secured at each end with two or three groups of lashings which passed around the outwales as well1 and through the bark cover4 ,the outwales were likewise light battens between and inch thick and from to #a inches deep1 the depth near the ends being tapered to to inch so as to sheer correctly4 ,the bark cover had four or five vertical gores on each side of the middle thwart1 the gore nearest each stem being commonly well inboard of the end thwarts4 ,the side panels were usually deep amidships and narrowed toward the ends4 ,a root batten was used under the stitching of the longitudinal seams of the side panels1 which were sewn with a harness-maker's stitch4 ,the top edge of the bark cover was brought over the top of the main gunwales1 as in the ,malecite canoes1 and was secured by group wrappings passing over the gunwales and outwales1 under the caps4 ,these groups were not independent1 the root thong being carried from group to group outside the bark in a long pass under the outwales4 ,the groups of seven to nine turns were roughly an inch apart in many small canoes1 and perhaps #a inches in the large craft4 ,in the last birch-bark canoes in which no nails or tacks were used1 wrappings of root thongs began with a stop knot1 but this does not appear to have been the earlier practice4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajj ,t,,tes ,,de ,,boule ,,canoe4 ,the ,ttes de ,boule canoes had inside stem-pieces split1 according to the size of the canoe1 in four to six laminations and lashed with a bark or root thong in an open spiral in some canoes but close-wrapped in others4 ,the stem-piece was as in the ,malecite canoes1 except that it ended under the rail cap1 and did not pass through it as in the ,eastern canoes2 the heel was notched to receive the heel of the headboard4 ,the bark was usually lashed through the stem1 as in the ,malecite construction4 ,however1 in some ,ttes de ,boule canoes1 the stem close to the heel was not laminated and the bark was lashed to the solid part by an in-and-out stitch passing through closely spaced holes drilled in the stem piece4 ,above this1 the lashing was the usual spiral which1 in at least a few instances1 was passed through the bark just inboard of the stem piece4 ,near the top of the stem the lashings sometimes were rather widely spaced and passed inboard of the stem-pieces2 at other times1 however1 these lashings were more closely spaced and passed through the stem4 ,ordinarily1 at the ends of the canoe no wulegessis1 or covers of bark1 were used under the gunwale caps1 although in one example examined a small cover had been inserted over the gunwale ends and under the caps1 it did not extend below the outwales to form a wulegessis4 ,in some canoes the bark cover was pieced up at the peak of the stems by a panel whose bottom faired into the bottom of the side panels4 ,a variety of methods was used to fit the gunwale caps at the ends of the canoe4 ,some builders carried the cap out beyond the gunwale ends1 flat1 over the edges of the bark cover and the top face of the outwale1 but others tilted the cap outboard and downward4 ,the ends of the caps came flush with the face of the stems4 ,in an apparently late variation1 the gunwales1 instead of ending in the half-arrowhead1 were snied off the inside and a triangular block was inserted between the ends4 ,the gunwales were then pegged or nailed to the block and the whole secured with a root wrapping around them1 before the outwales were in place4 ,the first turn began by passing the root through a hole in the block near its inboard end1 with a stop knot in the root4 ,the ends of the gunwales were supported by a narrow headboard sharply bellied toward the end of the canoe4 ,the top of the headboard was notched to stand under the main gunwales2 the center portion often was carried high and ended with a cylindrical top that was slightly swelled like the handle of a gouge or chisel4 ,the heel was sometimes held in the stem-piece notch with a root lashing4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aja ,t,,tes ,,de ,,boule ,,canoes4 ,the thwarts1 spaced equal distances apart1 were tenoned into the gunwales as in the old ,malecite canoes1 and were secured with a peg and lashing through the two holes in the thwart ends4 ,the middle thwart was usually formed with a shoulder1 viewed in plan1 that started #f or #g inches inboard of the inside face of the main gunwale4 ,in form1 this thwart usually swelled outward in a straight line from the tenon shoulder1 then reduced in a curved line to about the width of the tenon tongue and1 finally1 increased again in a right-angle cut to the greatest width4 ,from here it was reduced again in a long curve to the canoe's center line4 ,the other thwarts usually had simple ends1 wide at the tenon shoulder and reduced in a long curve to a narrow center4 ,in elevation1 all the thwarts were thin outboard and thick at the centerline of the canoe4 ,the cross section of the center thwart at the centerline was square or nearly so1 the first thwart on each side was rectangular in cross section at the center1 and the end thwarts were similar1 but very thin4 ,the sheathing of the ,ttes de ,boule canoes was thin1 particularly at the ends of the strakes4 ,the bottom was laid with a parallel-sided center strake going in first4 ,this strake was in two lengths in a small canoe and three lengths in a large1 the butts overlapping slightly4 ,the rest of the strakes in the bottom were tapered toward the ends of the canoe4 ,at the extremities of the canoe1 the narrow ends of the strakes were very thin and overlapped along their edges1 the bottom sheathing1 when in place1 thus following the diamond form of the building frame4 ,the topside sheathing was laid up in short lengths with overlapping butts and edges in an irregular plan1 those strakes along the bilges being longer than above4 ,toward the ends of the canoe these strakes were slightly tapered and the edges were very thin4 ,the sheathing ended irregularly1 outboard of the headboards1 in narrow butts as in most eastern canoes4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajb ,t,,tes ,,de ,,boule ,,hunting ,,canoe1 #a-;,,fathom1 with typical construction details and a paddle4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajc ,t,,tes ,,de ,,boule ,,canoe1 #b-;,,fathom1 with some construction details4 ,the ribs1 like the rest of the structure1 were very light1 usually to inch thick and from about #a to #a inches wide1 depending upon the size of the canoe4 ,a few examples had ribs #b inches wide1 and still fewer had ribs up to #b inches wide4 ,the spacing was usually close1 somewhat more than an inch edge to edge amidships and a little more between the end thwarts and the headboards4 ,the spacing amidships would average perhaps #c inches1 center to center4 ,the ends of the ribs1 in the last #b or #c inches1 were reduced in width very sharply in a hollow1 curved taper to to inch wide1 and were usually beveled on the inside edge4 ,the thickness was also reduced by a cut on the inside1 so that the ends were chisel-pointed with a short bevel on the inboard side4 ,the rib ends were forced between the main gunwales and the bark cover1 coming home in the bevel of the lower outboard edge of the main gunwales between the group lashings of the bark cover as in the ,malecite canoes4 ,the ribs were not prebent but were placed in the canoe when green1 treated with hot water1 and then allowed to dry into place4 ,in preparing the rib1 it was first bent over the knee4 ,it was the custom of some builders to place under the building frame the ribs that were to go near the ends of the canoe1 and to mark the point where they would be bent4 ,sometimes the endmost ribs that were to be broken at the centerline to form the ,v-section were split edgewise4 ,a piece of the inner lamina was then cut out to one side of the center so that the inner laminae would lie flat against each other1 and to prevent the inner half from buckling the rib was wrapped with a thong to one side of the break4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajd ,t,,tes ,,de ,,boule ,,hunting ,,canoe1 #b-;,,fathom1 with wide bottom1 showing structural details4 ,it does not appear to have been the common practice of the ,ttes de ,boule to decorate their small canoes1 though when building for white men they would decorate if the buyer requested it4 ,the paddles used by the ,ttes de ,boule were somewhat like those of the eastern ,cree but the blade was slightly wider near the tip than near the handle4 ,the top grip was formed wide and thin1 the taper from the lower grip to the upper one often being very long4 ,the paddles were usually of white birch1 but maple was used in a few of the examples examined4 ,the gunwales1 outwales1 and caps of the ,ttes de ,boule canoes were usually of spruce2 the ribs and stem pieces1 white cedar2 the thwarts1 white birch2 the headboards1 white cedar in all but one of the canoes inspected 7in this1 birch had been used74 ,jack pine was used also for thwarts1 and cedar was sometimes used for the gunwale members2 as would be expected1 the builders used the materials that were at hand near the building sites4 ,ttes de ,boule fur-trade canoes1 like those of the eastern ,cree1 appear to have had no relationship to the smaller tribal types1 since they were constructed under supervision of white men4 ,they will be discussed as a group on page #ace4 ,algonkin ,the ,algonkins were a tribe residing on the ,ottawa ,river and its tributaries1 in what are now the provinces of ,quebec and ,ontario1 when the ,french first met them4 ,they appear to have been a large and powerful tribe and were apparently competent builders and users of birch-bark canoes4 ,they were not the same tribe as the ,ottawa1 who controlled the ,lake ,huron end of the canoe route between ,montreal and ,lake ,superior1 by way of the ,ottawa ,river4 ,these ,ottawa were related to the ,ojibway tribe and received their name from the ,french1 who gave the name ,outaouais1 or ,ottaway1 to all ,indians1 except the ,hurons1 who came from the west by way of the ,ottawa4 ,the ,algonkins1 because of their location1 were much influenced by the ,french fur trade4 ,early in the #ahth century they intermingled with certain ,iroquois whom they allowed to settle with them1 near ,montreal1 at the ,lake of ,two ,mountains1 later ,oka4 ,thence they gradually spread out and lost tribal unity1 until only small groups were left4 ,these lived on the ,golden ,lake ,algonkin ,reserve1 ,bonshere ,river1 ,ontario2 at ,oka1 ,quebec2 and elsewhere in western ,quebec and eastern ,ontario4 ,it is possible that they were the first to build fur-trade canoes for the ,french1 but evidence to support such a claim with any certainty is lacking4 ,due to intermixing with other tribal groups and to the influence of the fur trade1 in which they were long employed as canoe men and builders1 the ,algonkins no longer used a single tribal model of canoe4 ,however1 one of their models1 which had high ends resembling those of the large fur-trade canoe1 may have been the tribal type from which the fur-trade canoe was developed1 as will be seen4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aje ,,old ,,algonkin ,,canoe4 ,the high-ended model1 the oldest form known to have been used by this tribe1 was narrow-bottomed1 with flaring sides4 ,the canoes seen were built with careful workmanship and in the old manner1 without iron fastenings4 ,they were light and easily paddled1 yet would carry a heavy load4 ,the ends were sharp at the line of flotation4 ,the bottom was straight to a point near the ends1 where it lifted somewhat4 ,the sheer was rather straight over the middle portion of the canoe1 then lifted slightly until close to the stem1 where it rose sharply1 becoming almost perpendicular at the ends of the rail caps4 ,the midsection was slightly rounded across the bottom1 with a well-rounded bilge and a gently flaring topside4 ,the cross-section became ,v-shaped close to the headboards4 ,the most marked feature in the appearance of this canoe was the profile of the ends4 ,the stem line1 beginning with a slight angle where it joined the bottom1 bent outward in a gentle curve1 reaching the perpendicular at a point a little more than half the height of the end1 and from there it tumbled home slightly4 ,in most of the canoes examined the top of the stem then rounded inboard in a quick1 hard curve1 usually almost half a circle1 so that the stem was turned downward as it joined the outwale and gunwale cap4 ,in a variation of this stem form1 the top of the stem was cut off almost square1 forming a straight line that ran parallel to the rise of the bottom below the stems to the point where it would meet the upturned outwale and cap4 ,the ends of the outwales and caps were thus #c or #d inches inboard of the extremities4 ,this form of stem1 particularly when to top was rounded in a half-circle1 approached the basic form of the ends of the fur-trade canoe4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajf ,,old ,,model1 ,,ottawa ,,river1 ,,algonkin ,,canoe1 combining capacity with easy paddling qualities4 ,all the examples of this form of canoe that were examined were small1 from #ad to a little over #af feet in length overall1 but this is not proof that larger canoes of this type had not existed earlier4 ,the later and more common form of ,algonkin canoe was the wabinaki chiman4 ,a corruption of ,abnaki1 wabinaki to the later ,algonkin meant the ,malecite as well as the ,st4 ,francis ,indians4 ,the wabinaki chiman was built in lengths from #ab to #ah feet4 ,iroquois living in the ,algonkin territory during the period built this form of canoe as well as the older1 high-ended form4 ,the wabinaki chiman was very much like the ,st4 ,francis and ,malecite canoes in appearance1 but it was not an exact copy4 ,the ,algonkin version was commonly a narrow-bottom canoe with flaring topsides4 ,there was some variation in the end profiles2 most had the rather high1 peaked ends of the ,st4 ,francis canoe4 ,the sheer was rather straight until near the end1 where it rose rapidly to the stem4 ,the stem was rounded and was faired into the bottom4 ,the top of the stem was often rather straight and tumbled home slightly1 but on some it raked outward1 much as did the stem of some ,malecite canoes4 ,another form of ,algonkin canoe had a low sheer with only a slight lift toward the ends4 ,in this canoe the stem might have a short1 hard curve at the heel and an upper portion that was quite straight and slightly tumbled home2 or the full height might be well rounded1 with a slight tumble-home near the stem head4 ,in appearance these canoes were very like the straight-stem ,malecite models4 ,the wabinaki chiman was unquestionably copied from the eastern canoes that came into popularity among the ,algonkin late in the #aith century1 when white sportsmen were demanding canoes of the ,st4 ,francis and ,malecite models4 ,however1 the ,algonkin canoes differed somewhat from the eastern canoes not only in model but also in methods of construction4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajg ,,algonkin ,,and ,,ojibway ,,stem-,,pieces1 models of old forms made by ,adney3 #a1 #b1 #c1 ,ojibway2 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 ,algonkin4 ,algonkins used the same construction methods in both their canoe models1 though the framework was not alike in all respects4 ,the building frame was always used4 ,for a #b-or #b-;fathom canoe this was made of two strips of cedar1 #a inches wide and inch deep1 that were bent edgewise1 notched1 and tied together at the ends with thongs of the inner bark of the basswood4 ,these strips were held apart in the required shape by cedar crosspieces #a inch wide and #a inches deep1 with the ends notched inch deep 7the depth of the longitudinals7 and the tops well rounded4 ,the crosspieces1 five in all1 were fastened to the longitudinals with thongs passing through holes in the ends4 ,the middle one was about #ai inches between the inside faces of the longitudinals1 those on each side of it were about #ae inches long by similar measure1 and the end ones were nearly #f inches long and were located a foot or so from the extremities of the longitudinals4 ,the outside width of the building frame amidships would thus be about #bb or #bc inches4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajh ,,light1 ,,fast #b-;,,fathom ,,hunting ,,canoe of the old ,algonkin model4 ,the building bed was level1 with a #f-;inch-wide board1 some #f to #h feet in length1 sunk into the earth flush with the surface to insure a true line for the bottom4 ,the outside stakes were of the usual sort described in building the ,malecite canoe 7pp4 #dj-da74 ,the wedge-shaped inside stakes1 or clamp pieces1 were #a inches wide1 #a inch thick1 and #bj to #be inches long4 ,the posts for setting the height of the gunwales at the ends and at the crosspieces were not cut off square at the top as for the ,malecite canoe1 but were notched on the outside to take the gunwales4 ,the heights of the posts were graduated1 of course1 to form the required sheer in the gunwales4 ,like the canoes of the ,ttes de ,boule1 these of the ,algonkin were generally less deep amidships than the general run of eastern canoes4 ,building procedure was as follows3 ,the gunwales were made1 bent1 and the ends fastened1 but instead of being mortised and fitted with thwarts1 they were spread by temporary crosspieces1 or spalls1 made of a splint1 or plank-on-edge1 with the lower edge notched in two places to take the gunwale members4 ,sometimes the spalls were lashed1 pegged or nailed to the gunwales as well4 ,the stakes were set along the building frame and these were generally driven sloping1 so that their heads stood outboard of the points4 ,they were then pulled and laid aside1 the building frame was removed1 and the bark cover placed on the building bed4 ,after the building frame has been reset in its original position and the bark cover turned up along the sides1 the stakes were again driven in their holes4 ,the cover was then pieced out with side panels as necessary and gored1 and longitudinal strips of wood were set in place by means of the clamp pieces1 about as in ,malecite construction4 ,the gunwales were then placed on the posts1 which had been set to the required sheer1 and the bark trimmed and fitted to them4 ,the old method was to lash the bark to the main gunwale members and to peg on the outwales at intervals of about a foot4 ,in earlier times most builders inserted along the gunwales an extra reinforcing strip of bark extending a little below the outwales1 as in the ,st4 ,francis canoes1 but in the nailed-and-tacked bark canoes built during the decadent period this was sometimes omitted4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aji ,,hybrid ,,algonkin ,,canoes3 ,eastern #b fathom 7above7 and northeastern #b-;fathom adaptation1 with sketches of stems used in each4 ,mortises for the thwarts were next cut and the middle thwart was forced into place1 after the spall there had been removed4 ,this required that the gunwales be spread slightly1 thus increasing the amount of sheer somewhat4 ,much judgment was needed to do this correctly4 ,the increase in the sheer lifted the ends slightly and put some rocker in the bottom toward the ends4 ,the building frame was lifted out before the rest of the thwarts were placed2 usually it was taken apart in the process4 ,in forming the ends of the bark cover1 the two sides were held together by a clothespin-like device made of two short1 flat sticks lashed together4 ,increasing the beam at the gunwales by fitting the thwarts after the bark cover had been secured to the gunwales not only increased the sheer but decreased the depth of the canoe amidships as established by the posts placed under the gunwales in setting up4 ,in order to retain the required sheer and the desired depth of side1 the gunwales had been sheered up at the ends while being shaped1 and had also been treated with hot water and hogged upward amidships by being staked out to dry into shape4 ,the spreading of the gunwales tended to lift the ends of the bottom line1 a condition that was controlled in two ways3 the usual one apparently was to employ1 in combination with a level bed1 a building frame slightly wider than was desired for the finished bottom2 the second way was to follow ,malecite procedure and elevate slightly the middle of the building bed while employing a building frame the width of the finished bottom4 ,the ,algonkin procedure of spreading the gunwales during construction was that employed in the northwest and in the building of the fur-trade canoes1 as will be seen4 ,the amount of spread to be given the gunwales also affected the angle1 or slope1 at which the side stakes were driven on the building bed4 ,even so1 some builders who spread the gunwales a good deal would set the stakes almost vertically1 instead of at a slant1 as this made sewing the side panels easier1 particularly in large canoes and in canoes whose covers were made up of a large number of small pieces of bark4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aaj ,,algonkin1 #b-;,,fathom ,,hunter',s ,,canoe1 without headboards4 ,details of building frame1 stakes or posts1 gauge1 and stem4 ,the gunwales of the ,algonkin canoes were made up of three members--main gunwales1 outwales1 and caps4 ,the main gunwales1 usually of cedar1 were rectangular in cross section and bent on the flat4 ,the lower outboard corner was bevelled off to take the rib ends1 as in the ,malecite canoes4 ,the gunwales were rather light ranging in the examples found from about #a inch square to #a by #a inches1 the ends being tapered to a lesser size4 ,the outwales were light battens1 rectangular in cross-section1 about as deep as the main gunwales and about two-thirds their thickness or less2 they tapered in depth toward the ends to or inch in order to follow the sheer1 while the thickness might be constant or only slightly reduced4 ,the caps1 which were pegged to the gunwales1 were also light and were about equal to the combined width of the main gunwales and outwales and had a depth of about to inch amidships4 ,at the ends they were tapered in both width and depth1 becoming inch wide and inch deep4 ,the amount of taper in the ends of the gunwale members depended upon the form of sheer2 the ,algonkin practice in the old form of canoe was to sheer the outwales and caps to the top of the stem1 while the gunwales sheered less and met the sides of the stem piece at a lower point1 as in the drawing 7p4 #aaf74 ,in the wabinaki chiman1 however1 the gunwales and other members1 as a rule1 all followed the sheer of the ends of the canoe4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aaa ,,algonkin ,,canoe1 ,,old ,,type4 ,the ,algonkins used inside stem-pieces in both models1 but the stem-piece of the old high-ended canoe was quite different from that of the wabinaki chiman1 for it was built to give a profile in which the top of the high stem ended in a line straight across to the sheer4 ,the piece consisted of a crooked stick1 without lamination1 worked out of a thin board1 to inch thick4 ,it was shaped to the desired profile inside and out1 and was slightly sharpened1 or sometimes rabbeted and sharpened1 toward the outboard face4 ,the headboard was mounted on this stem-piece by means of the usual notch but was not bellied2 instead it stood approximately vertical and a short strut was tenoned into both the headboard and the inside face of the stem at a point about half the height of the stem4 ,sometimes two struts were used1 side by side1 with the outboard ends lashed at the sides of the stem4 ,thus the stem-pieces and headboards were placed as a single unit1 not independently as in eastern canoes4 ,the gunwale ends were lashed to the sides of the stem-piece1 between the strut and the stem-head1 at a height determined by the sheering of the main gunwale members4 ,the outwales and caps did not touch the stem-piece1 ending with a nearly vertical upward sweep1 a few inches inboard4 ,the ends of the outwales and caps were always higher than the top of the stem-piece so that1 when the canoe was turned upside down1 the bark cover over the stem-head was kept off the ground and thus preserved from damage4 ,the top of the stem-piece was held rigid not only by the strut to the headboard but also by the ends of the main gunwale members lashed to it a little higher up4 ,the headboard was in the form of a rounded ,v that was widest at midheight1 at the gunwales1 which were let into its sides4 ,when the stem-head was rounded in the style of the fur-trade canoe1 the stem-piece except near the heel was split into very thin laminations about inch1 or a little more1 thick4 ,the carefully selected cedar of which these were made was treated with boiling water1 then bent to profile2 the head was sharply bent over and down1 inside the stem1 then sharply up again so the end stood at about right angles to the face of the stem at midheight4 ,the headboard was mounted as previously described1 except that the end of the stem-piece was inserted into a hole in the headboard just above the strut4 ,the laminations of the stem-piece were wrapped in the normal manner and the lashing was often brought around the strut as well1 up against the outboard face of the headboard4 ,the whole structure was thus made rigid and very strong4 ,as in the other form1 the main gunwale members did not follow the sheer near the ends of canoe but were secured at a point lower down on the sides of the stem-piece4 ,in the round-head form1 however1 the outwale and cap ends were fastened on the after face of the stem-head where the laminations were curved downward as illustrated in the drawing 7p4 #aaf74 ,the headboards for both models were thicker than those in the eastern canoes2 this aided in holding the stem line in form4 ,tension on the bark cover was obtained by making the cover ,v-formed toward the ends and then spreading the sides of the ,v with the headboard1 thus bringing pressure on the strakes of the sheathing and forcing the sides outward in a slight curve4 ,the stem-pieces of the wabinaki chiman were either cut out of a thin board or laminated4 ,in the straight-stem form1 only the forefoot part was laminated1 and no headboard was used4 ,ordinarily1 however1 the rigid headboard with a single strut was used4 ,the head of the stem-piece was carried through the rail caps and showed above them2 the ends of the caps and main gunwales were notched to permit this1 but neither these nor the cap extended outboard of the face of the stem4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aab ,,algonkin ,,wabinaki ,,chiman4 ,the bark cover was lashed to the gunwales with group lashings in which the thong was carried from group to group by a long stitch outside the cover1 under the outwale4 ,the turns in each group were passed through five or six holes in the cover and reinforcing piece1 two turns of the thong going through each hole4 ,the connecting stitch between groups1 which were usually about #a inches apart1 usually passed from the last hole in a group to the second hole in the next4 ,some builders laid a wooden measuring stick along the gunwales to space the lashings2 this was perhaps the practice of many tribal groups4 ,the lashing of the ends of the cover was passed through the stem pieces2 when the latter were not laminated1 holes through the soft1 thin cedar were made by a sharp awl and an in-and-out or harness stitch was quite commonly used4 ,on laminated stem pieces the form of lashing varied2 in the wabinaki chiman it was commonly some combination of spiral and crossed turns2 in the old form of high-ended canoe multiple turns through a single hole 7usually at the top of the stem-head7 were also used in combination with closely spaced long-and-short turns in triangular groups near the top of the stem profile4 ,below1 in the forefoot1 spiral or crossed stitches were used4 ,the ends of the outwales were lashed together with a close wrapping of turns in contact where they turned upward sharply1 and the caps were secured there by two or more group lashings4 ,the head of the headboard was lashed to each gunwale by passing the thong through holes each side of the headboard2 these lashings were in a long group and were passed around gunwale and outwale before the caps were in place4 ,with plank stem-pieces the ends of the bark cover were slightly inboard of the cutwater line1 sometimes protected by a rabbet4 ,the side panels were sewn on with in-and-out stitches1 back stitches1 or a double line of either4 ,the gores were sewn spirally in the usual manner or were stitched with a closely spaced lacing4 ,some of the old ,algonkin canoes examined had what appeared to be a wulegessis just outboard of the headboards4 ,no marking was found on these and they were too far aft to protect the ends of the gunwales4 ,the bark was carried across the gunwales1 under the caps1 and hung down a little below the outwales4 ,on top1 it reached from the headboard out to the lashings of the outwales1 forming between the headboards and the lashings a short deck that may have been intended to keep dirt and water out of the ends of the canoe4 ,sometimes a modern wabinaki chiman has a wulegessis1 copying the ,eastern practice but without markings4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aac ,,algonkin ,,canoe ,,decorations by ,tommy ,sersin 7or ,serzia71 ,golden ,lake1 ,ont41 showing four sides of stems of one canoe4 ,indian shown has the eastern headdress rather than that of the ,plains ,indian4 ,moose1 bear1 beaver1 and goose are shown4 7,sketches by ,adney47 ,the thwarts were of various designs2 a common one had parallel sides in plan4 ,the old canoes had thwarts much like those of the ,ttes de ,boule4 ,the end lashings of these were usually passed through three holes in the thwart ends1 but some had only two holes4 ,sheathing was laid somewhat as in the ,ttes-de-,boule canoe1 with overlapping edges and butts4 ,the end sheathing was short and was laid first2 the centerline strake was parallel-sided to a point near the sharp end of the canoe4 ,the strakes on each side of it were tapered and were laid with their wide ends toward the middle of the canoe and with the sides and narrow end lapped4 ,in the middle of the canoe the strakes were parallel-sided and their butts were on top of those of the strakes in the end of the canoe4 ,the sheathing was carried up to within about three inches of the gunwales4 ,the edges were not thinned or feathered as much as were those in the ,ttes de ,boule canoe4 ,ribs were of cedar from #b to #c inches wide1 closely spaced and1 as usual1 without taper until near the ends1 which were formed with a narrow chisel edge as in the ,ttes-de-,boule canoe4 ,the ribs were first roughly bent1 using the building frame as a general guide for length1 in order to obtain a somewhat dish-shaped cross section2 by this means the width of the bottom could be established to the builder's satisfaction4 ,the foregoing description of building methods and construction is based largely upon what is known of the old canoes4 ,in later times the ,algonkin copied the eastern canoes and their procedure altered4 ,not only did they copy extensively the appearance of the ,st4 ,francis and ,malecite canoes1 but they built some canoes much like those of the ,ttes de ,boule and ,ojibway4 ,as a result1 it has become difficult to determine what their tribal practices were4 ,their paddles were of the same design as those of the ,ttes de ,boule1 round-pointed and with the blade parallel-sided for most of its length4 ,in portaging1 the ,algonkin1 like many forest ,indians1 placed a pair of paddles a foot or so apart fore-and-aft over the middle thwart and those on each side of it4 ,these were lashed in place with the ends of a band of hide or the inner bark of a tree like the basswood or elm4 ,this band had been first passed around the ends of the middle thwart1 outside the shoulders1 and hitched with ends long enough to secure the paddles in place4 ,the shoulder on the middle1 thwart1 a few inches inside the gunwales1 was placed there for just this purpose1 not as a mere decoration1 so that the line could not slide in along the thwart4 ,the canoe was then lifted and turned over by raising one end1 or by lifting the whole canoe1 and was placed on the carrier's shoulders1 so that the paddle handles were on his shoulders4 ,this brought the middle thwart to just behind the carrier's head4 ,the loop of the bark or hide cord was then placed around the forehead of the carrier in order to keep the canoe from slipping backward4 ,in this fashion one man could carry a canoe for miles if the canoe were small--and all woods1 or portage1 canoes were small and light4 ,the headband was known to white men as a tump line4 ,the ,indians used it to carry not only canoes but other heavy or awkward loads 7see p4 #be74 ,there is no certainty about the decorations of ,algonkin canoes4 ,some of the older ,indians claimed that the old form of canoe was often decorated with figures formed by scraping the winter bark2 usually these depicted the game the owner hunted4 ,five-pointed stars1 fish1 and circular forms are known to have been used on the wabinaki chiman1 but it is not known whether these were really ,algonkin decorations or merely something that had been copied because it looked good4 ,the ,algonkin called the large fur canoes nabiska1 a name which the ,ttes de ,boule rendered as rabeska4 ,the word may be a corruption of the ,cree word for strong4 ,at any rate1 the name rabeska 7sometimes pronounced ra-bas-ha71 rather than the ,french matre canot1 was long applied by white men in the fur trade to the large canoes built in the ,ottawa ,river ,valley for their business4 ,in late years the rabeska was a large #b-;fathom high-ended birch-bark canoe1 but originally it meant a fur-trade canoe1 with the characteristic ends1 of from #c fathoms upward in length4 ,ojibway ,the ,indian bands that were called ,outaouais by the early ,french do not appear to have been an independent tribe1 as has been mentioned1 but were largely made up of ,ojibway from the ,great ,lakes region4 ,perhaps some ,ttes de ,boule were among these bands before these people were given their nickname4 ,the ,ojibway were a powerful tribal group1 made up of far-ranging bands1 located all around ,lake ,superior and to the northwest as far as ,lake ,winnipeg4 ,they had been in the process of taking over the western end of ,lake ,superior when the earliest ,french explorers reached that area2 they pushed the ,sioux from these forest lands into the plains area1 joining with the western ,cree in this movement4 ,in the process they seem to have absorbed both some ,sioux and some ,cree bands4 ,within the ,ojibway tribal group1 later called ,chippewa or ,chippeway by the ,english and ,americans1 the bands had local names1 or were given nicknames1 such as the ,menominee1 ,saltreaux1 ,pillagers1 etc4 ,all the important bands within the tribal group were expert canoemen and builders4 ,as far as can be discovered now1 the ,ojibway added to their own tribal types the models of canoes they encountered in their expansion westward4 ,it has long been true that the ,ojibway canoe can be one of at least three forms1 depending upon which area of their territory is being discussed4 ,what is believed to be their old tribal form was a high-ended canoe in all respects very much like the high-ended ,algonkin type4 ,this was the model used by the ,lake ,nipigon ,ojibway1 north of ,lake ,superior in ,ontario1 and by those of the same tribe that once lived near ,saginaw1 ,michigan1 as well as by the ,menominee of ,wisconsin4 ,at the late period1 from the middle of the #aith century onward1 for which information was available or in which investigation was possible1 it appears that the ,ojibway canoes of this high-ended model were built in larger sizes than contemporary ,algonkin canoes of like design4 ,the ,ojibway canoes had the same end structure as these2 the early examples found had chin in the end profiles and the tumble-home of the stem was straight1 or nearly so1 between the large curve of the forefoot and the very short hard curve at the stem head4 ,the ,ojibway used the same inner stem-piece1 laminated and brought downward abaft the stem-head and then inboard so that the end fitted into a slot in the headboard a little above its midheight1 at which point was fitted a strut from the headboard to the back of the stem-piece4 ,the midsection of the ,ojibway canoe was very much like that of the ,algonkin2 it had a narrow bottom somewhat rounded athwartships1 a well-rounded bilge1 and flaring topsides4 ,a small ,ojibway portage canoe built in the middle of the #aith century had an end profile somewhat different from that described above2 the ends were well rounded and had a heavy chin1 the stem was carried into the tumble-home with a full rounded curve all the way to the stem-head1 where the stem piece was bent in and downward very sharply and then inboard sharply again1 so that the end pierced the vertical headboard at sheer height4 ,the ,s-curve was so located that the main gunwales could be lashed to the stem piece at the point where they paralleled it well below the stem head4 ,in these canoes the ,ojibway followed ,algonkin practice in ending the gunwales2 there was1 therefore1 no strut4 ,where this canoe was built is uncertain4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aad ,,ojibway #b-;,,fathom ,,hunter',s ,,canoe1 used by the eastern tribal groups4 ,probably the ancient model4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aae ,,examples ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,model ,,ojibway #c-;,,fathom rice-harvesting canoe 7above71 and #b-;fathom hunter's canoe1 showing the easy paddling form used4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aaf ,,ojibway #c-;,,fathom ,,freight ,,canoe ,,from ,,lake ,,timagami1 apparently a hybrid based on canvas canoes4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aag ,,the ,,old ,,form ,,of ,,ojibway #b-;,,fathom ,,canoe of the eastern groups 7above71 and the long-nose ,cree-,ojibway canoe of the western groups4 ,at ,lake ,timagami1 north of ,georgian ,bay in ,ontario1 the ,ojibway used a low-ended canoe with a remarkably straight tumble-home stem profile2 the forefoot had a very short radius ending at the bottom line with a knuckle1 and the stem-head stood slightly above the gunwale caps4 ,the stem-piece was made from a thin plank cut to profile2 thus no lamination was necessary4 ,the headboard stood straight1 falling inboard slightly at the head4 ,the midsection was dish-shaped1 with a flat bottom athwartships and strongly flaring sides1 the turn of the bilge being rather abrupt4 ,the ends were strongly ,v-shaped in cross-section2 a number of the frames there being broken at the centerline of the bottom4 ,a canoe of this design was seen by ,adney at ,north ,bay1 ,ontario1 in #aibe1 indicating that the design may have been used in some degree outside the ,lake area in later years4 ,the most common ,ojibway model used to the northwest and west of ,lake ,superior was the so-called long-nose form1 a rather straight-sheered canoe4 ,the bottom1 near the ends1 had a slight rocker1 and the sheer turned up very sharply there1 becoming almost perpendicular at the extremities1 yet the ends were not proportionally very high4 ,the end-profile came up from the bottom very full and round1 then fell sharply inboard in a slightly rounded sweep to join the upturned sheer well inboard4 ,the midsection was somewhat dish-shaped1 but with well-rounded bilges1 so that the flare of the topsides was rounded and not very apparent to the casual observer4 ,the end section developed into a tumble-home form1 so that a section through the top of the headboard was rather oval4 ,as a result1 these canoes appeared rather clumsy and unfair in their lines1 but this apparently did not harm their paddling qualities or seaworthiness4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aah ,,eastern ,,ojibway ,,canoe1 ,,old ,,form4 7,canadian ,pacific ,railway photo47 ,illustration3 ,figure #aai ,,ojibway ,,long-,,nose ,,canoe1 ,,rainy ,,lake ,,district4 ,these canoes had narrow headboards that were sharply bellied1 somewhat like those in the crooked canoes1 and the belly was sufficient to allow the heel of the end-board to pass under the bottom sheathing and inside the bark cover so that two end ribs served to hold the heel in place4 ,the inside stem-piece was often no more than a light stick or rod bent to profile1 with the head split and brought over the gunwale ends and down inside1 between them4 ,each half of the split was then lashed to its neighboring gunwale member4 ,a strip of bark was often placed over the end of the bark cover and carried down the face of the stem1 under the sewing4 ,the rail caps were then brought up over the tops of the gunwales and overlapped the top portion of the stem piece4 ,the heel of the stem-piece was bevelled off on the inboard side so that it could be wedged under the headboard1 inside the bark cover4 ,these headboards1 it should be noted1 were no more than a thin1 narrow batten1 and in some canoes the head of this batten was lashed under the gunwale ends instead of coming up between them inboard1 as usual4 ,a variation in the fitting of the stem head was found in a canoe at ,long ,lake1 ,ontario2 the stem head1 instead of being split1 was lashed between the gunwale ends and thus was brought inboard level with the top of the gunwales4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abj ,,small ,,ojibway ,,canoes ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,tribal ,,forms showing 7above7 early trend toward the long nose form1 and the final ,ojibway-,cree hybrid form combining flaring sides amidships with tumble-home sections at ends4 ,the cross section of the main gunwales was round or nearly so in nearly all long-nose canoes1 and often a gunwale cap was fitted4 ,the bark cover was secured to the gunwales by a continuous lashing1 but in at least one example1 from ,minnesota1 the gunwale wrappings were in groups over an outwale after the regular fashion to the eastward4 ,the ends of the thwarts were wedge-or chisel-shaped and instead of being tenoned were forced into splits in the round gunwales4 ,many canoes had bark covers at the gunwale ends and vestiges of the wulegessis were to be seen4 ,all ,ojibway canoes were built with a building frame1 the bed being slightly higher at midlength than at the ends4 ,the stakes were driven nearly perpendicular1 instead of with heads slanted outward4 ,it is apparent from observed examples that some canoes were built by the same procedure as the ,algonkin1 but that not all the long-nose canoes were built by spreading the gunwales2 some were built using the methods of the ,st4 ,francis4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aba ,,ojibway ,,canoe ,,building1 ,,lac ,,seul1 #aiah4 ,preparing a building site or bed2 building frame in place4 ,bark set up2 bark staked out on building bed4 ,bark cover being sewn on building bed4 7,see pp4 #agj-aga for more photos of ,ojibway canoe building47 ,gunwales being lashed4 ,securing gunwales4 ,pitch being applied to seams4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abb ,,long ,,lake ,,ojibway ,,long-,,nose ,,canoe4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 ,the lashing in the high-ended ,ojibway canoes was about the same as that in the ,algonkin canoes1 but in the long-nose type the workmanship was often coarse4 ,on many of the latter the stems were lashed by use of small groups in which two turns were taken through each of two closely spaced holes in the bark and the connection between the groups was made by a long spiral around the outside of the stem4 ,this pattern was carried down from the stem-head to about the level of the midship sheer height2 from there down around the forefoot the lashing consisted of a simple spiral4 ,another style was to use widely spaced groups made up of two or three turns through a pair of facing holes in the bark1 one on each side and inboard of the stem4 ,the turn went around the stem1 and the last connected with the next pair of holes below4 ,a few canoes of this style used closely spaced wrapping1 as in the high-ended canoes4 ,the long-nose ,ojibway canoe is surprisingly primitive by comparison with the graceful and well-finished high-ended model built after the ,algonkin style4 ,adney believed that the long-nose type originated with the ,sioux ,dakotas1 before the combined ,ojibway and ,cree movement forced them out of the forest lands to the west of ,lake ,superior4 ,he considered it possible that both the ,ojibway and ,cree adapted the ,dakota model1 modifying it somewhat to their methods of construction4 ,it is true that the western ,cree built a long-nose canoe1 but it had less chin than the ,ojibway model4 ,on the other hand1 the ,ojibway prebent ribs in pairs like the eastern ,cree1 and used spreaders in the end ribs while drying them1 in exactly the same manner4 ,a picture taken in #aiaf shows the gunwales of a ,cree long-nose canoe being set2 it was laid on the ground and weighted along the midlength by stones laid on boards placed across the longitudinals4 ,the ends had been sheered up and were supported at each end by a thong made fast to the gunwale end and then brought over a post1 or strut1 a few feet inboard and made fast to the middle thwart4 ,it is unnecessary to detail the construction of the ,ojibway canoes1 as they employed a building-frame1 as the drawings on pages #abc to #abg show plainly enough the pertinent details of fitting and construction4 ,it is important to observe that the wide variation in model and in construction details of the ,ojibway canoes produced a variety of building procedures that in the main were like those of the ,algonkin and ,cree4 ,hence the older tribal method of construction cannot now be stated with any accuracy4 ,the paddle forms used by the ,ojibway groups varied somewhat4 ,most were made with parallel-sided blades and oval tips4 ,the hand grip at the top of the handle was rectangular and was large in comparison to the grip of the eastern ,cree paddles4 ,a few variations have been noticed2 the blade of one was widest at the top1 the tip was almost squared off1 and the upper hand grip was much as in the factory paddle of today4 ,this paddle1 from an unknown locality1 was used in #ahdi4 ,as in the case of the ,algonkin1 the eastern ,ojibway built fur-trade canoes under supervision4 ,though these canoes differed somewhat from those built by the ,algonkins1 it is now impossible to say whether or not there was any real relationship between them and the small1 high-ended old-form canoe4 ,likewise1 the ,ojibway built a version of the wabinaki chiman which seems to have influenced some types of their own1 such as1 for instance1 the straight-stem ,lake ,temagami canoe4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abc ,,nineteen-,,foot ,,ojibway ,,canoe with thirteen ,indians aboard 7#aiac74 ,western ,cree ,the western portion of the great ,cree tribe appear to have occupied the western shore of ,james ,bay and to have moved gradually northwestward in historical times4 ,their territory included the northern portion of ,ontario and northern ,manitoba north of ,lake ,winnipeg1 and as early as #ahjj they had entered northwestern ,alberta4 ,the line of division between the canoes of the eastern and western ,cree cannot be strictly determined1 but it is roughly the ,missinaibi ,river1 which1 with the ,abitibi ,river1 empties into the head of ,james ,bay at the old post of ,moose ,factory4 ,the southern range of the ,cree model was only a little way south of the head of ,james ,bay1 irregularly westward in line with ,lake ,st4 ,joseph to ,lake ,winnipeg4 ,to the west1 the ,cree type of canoe gradually spread until it met the canoe forms of the ,athabascan in the ,northwest ,territories1 in the vicinity of ,lake ,athabaska in northwestern ,saskatchewan4 ,the canoes of the western ,cree1 as has been noted1 strongly resembled the long-nose ,ojibway model except that they had less pronounced chin4 ,but unlike those of the eastern ,cree1 their canoes employed an inside stem-piece that was sometimes a laminated piece and sometimes a piece of spruce root4 ,the stem head was commonly bent sharply and secured between the gunwale ends at the point where the two longitudinals were fastened together1 much as in some ,ojibway long-nose canoes4 ,the ,cree canoe had basically the same dish-shaped midsection1 but it had very full1 round bilges and the flare was so curved in the topside that it was even less apparent than in the ,ojibway model4 ,the shorter chin of the ,cree canoe also made tumble-home in the end sections unnecessary1 and cross section near the headboards was given the form of a slightly rounded ,u4 ,the bottom had very little rocker at the ends1 being straight for practically the whole length4 ,the stem-piece if laminated 7often in only two or three laminations7 came up from the bottom in a fair round forefoot and then tumbled in by a gentle curve to the stem-head1 where it was bent sharply to pass down between the gunwale ends as previously noted4 ,but if the stem-piece was of spruce root1 the profile was often somewhat irregular and the chin was more pronounced4 ,in a common style the stem came fair out of the bottom in a quick hard curve1 then curved outward slightly until the height of the least freeboard amidships was reached1 at which height another hard turn began the tumble-home in a gentle sweep to the stem-head1 where there was a very hard turn downward4 ,the stem-head was often split1 as in some ,ojibway canoes1 so that it came over the joined ends of the main gunwales and the two halves were then lashed to the inside faces of the gunwales4 ,birch bark was often poor or scarce in the territory of the western ,cree1 as in that of their eastern brothers4 ,as a substitute1 they employed spruce bark and in general seem to have achieved better results1 for their spruce-bark canoes had a neater appearance4 ,if the canoe was built when or where root material was difficult to obtain1 the western ,cree used rawhide for sewing the bark cover4 ,when the stems were lashed with rawhide1 a stem-band of bark under the lashing was common4 ,the gunwales were round in cross section and were often spliced amidships4 ,the bark cover was lashed to these with a continuous lashing1 no caps or outwales being employed4 ,as in the ,ojibway long-nose canoe1 the headboards were very narrow and much bellied4 ,these canoes were built with four or five thwarts2 the #d-thwart type was used for gathering wild rice1 as was the ,ojibway type1 while the #e-thwart canoe was the portage model4 ,the thwarts were sometimes mortised into the gunwales1 but some builders made the thwart ends chisel-pointed and drove them into short splits in the gunwales before lashing them1 one or two holes being drilled in the thwart ends to take the lashing thongs4 ,when the thwarts were tenoned into the gunwales1 the builders of course made the inside of the gunwales flat4 ,when spruce bark was employed1 its greater stiffness made it possible to space the ribs as much as #aj inches on centers1 but with birch the spacing was about #a inch1 edge to edge4 ,the sheathing was in short splints and the inside of the canoe was shingled or covered irregularly without regard to lining off the strakes1 a practice sometimes observed in ,ojibway long-nose canoes4 ,the much-bellied and narrow headboards were fitted as in the long-nose canoe1 and the heel was secured under a piece of sheathing and held by it and the first two ribs4 ,western ,cree canoes were built with a building frame1 and the bed was raised in the middle4 ,the sewing varied4 ,the ends were lashed with combinations of close-wrapped turns1 crossed turns1 grouped1 and spiral turns2 the lashing commonly went around the inside stem piece rather than through it4 ,side panels were sewn with in-and-out stitches or back stitches1 and the gores with the usual spiral4 ,gumming as a rule was done with clear spruce gum tempered by repeated meltings4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abd ,,western ,,cree #b-;,,fathom ,,canoe1 ,winisk ,river ,district1 northwest of ,james ,bay4 ,built of either birch or spruce bark4 ,inside root stem piece1 round gunwales1 and much-bellied headboard are typical4 ,the woodwork varied with the building site2 some builders could use much cedar1 but spruce was most common and the thwarts were usually of birch4 ,when spruce bark was used it was never employed in a single large sheet1 since it would have been impossible to mold it to the required shape4 ,hence the bark cover was pieced up1 whether birch or spruce1 as an aid in molding the form4 ,before the spruce bark was sewed and gummed1 the edges of the pieces had to be thinned to make a neat joint4 ,furthermore1 in the continuous lashing it was desirable to take two or three turns through one hole in the bark cover to avoid weakening the material with closely spaced holes4 ,the western ,cree paddles had parallel-sided blades with rounded tips2 the handle sometimes had a ball-shaped top grip and sometimes it was pole-ended4 ,the blade did not have a ridge on its face near the handle4 ,old ,cree paddles were often decorated with red pigment bands1 markings in the shape of crosses1 squares in series1 and dots on the blades2 the top grip might also be painted4 ,many tribal groups in the western portion of the area have been mentioned--,teton1 ,sioux1 ,assiniboine1 ,illinois1 ,huron1 and many others--but no record of their canoe forms has survived and the assigning of any model to them is pure speculation4 ,the fur trade alone brought about a period of tribal movement among the ,indians long enough to erase many tribal distinctions in canoes and to cause types to move great distances4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abe ,,an ,,old #f-;,,fathom ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe1 or rabeska1 used on the ,montreal-,great ,lakes run4 ,also called the ,iroquois canoe1 it approximates the canoes built for the ,french1 at the ,trois ,rivires1 ,que41 factory and is of the style used by the ,north ,west and ,hudson's ,bay ,companies4 ,fur-,trade ,canoes ,of all birch-bark canoe forms1 the most famous were the canots du matre1 or matre canots 7also called north canoes1 great canoes1 or rabeskas71 of the great fur companies of ,canada4 ,these large canoes were developed early1 as we have seen in the ,french colonial records1 and remained a vital part of the fur trade until well toward the very end of the #aith century--two hundred years of use and development at the very least4 ,a comprehensive history of the ,canadian and ,american fur trade is yet to be written2 when one appears it will show that the fur trade could not have existed on a large scale without the great matre canot of birch bark4 ,it will also have to show that the early exploration of the north country was largely made possible by this carrier4 ,in fact1 the great canoes of the ,canadian fur trade must be looked upon as the national watercraft type1 historically1 of ,canada and far more representative of the great years of national expansion than the wagon1 truck1 locomotive1 or steamship4 ,little has survived concerning the form and construction of the early ,french-colonial fur-trade canoes4 ,circumstantial evidence leads to the conclusion that the model was a development1 an enlargement perhaps1 of the ,algonkin form of high-ended canoe as described on pages #aac to #aaf4 ,the early ,french came into contact with these tribesmen before they met the ,great ,lakes ,ojibway1 the other builders of the high-ended model4 ,it is known that the ,indians first supplied large canoes to the ,french governmental and church authorities and that when this source of canoes proved insufficient1 the canoe factory at ,trois ,rivires was set up and a standard size 7probably a standard model as well7 came into existence4 ,as the fur trade expanded1 large canoes may well have been built elsewhere by the early ,french2 we know at least that building spread westward and northward after ,canada became a ,british possession4 ,in the rise of the great canoe of the fur trade1 the basic model was no doubt maintained through the method of training its builders4 ,the first ,french engaged in bark-canoe building learned the techniques1 let us say1 from the original ,indian builders1 the ,algonkin4 ,as building moved westward1 the first men sent to the new posts to build canoes apparently came from the ,french-operated canoe factory4 ,it would be reasonable to expect that as building increased in the west1 local modifications would be patterned on canoes from around the building post1 but that the basic model would remain4 ,this may account for the departures from the true ,ojibway-,algonkin canoes seen in the matre canots4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abf ,,inboard ,,profile ,,of ,a #f-;,,fathom ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe1 and details of construction1 fitting1 and decoration4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abg ,,small #c-;,,fathom ,,north ,,canoe of the ,ttes de ,boule model4 ,built in the #aith century for fast travel1 this ,hudson's ,bay ,company canoe was also called nadow chiman1 or ,iroquois canoe4 ,in model1 all the fur-trade canoes had narrow bottoms1 flaring topsides1 and sharp ends4 ,the flaring sides were rather straight in section and the bottom nearly flat athwartships4 ,the bottom had a moderate rocker very close to the ends4 ,in nearly all of these canoes1 the main gunwales were sheered up only slightly at the ends and were secured to the sides of the inner stem-piece2 the outwales and caps1 however1 were strongly sheered up to the top of the stem4 ,the curvature and form of the ends1 in later years at least1 varied with the place of building4 ,after the ,english took control of ,canada and the fur trade1 a large number of ,iroquois removed into ,quebec and were employed by the ,english fur traders as canoemen and as canoe builders4 ,though the aboriginal ,iroquois were not birch-bark canoe builders1 they apparently became so after they reached ,canada1 for the fur-trade canoes built on the ,ottawa ,river and tributaries by the ,algonkins and their neighbors became known after #ahbj as nadow chiman or adowe chiman1 names which mean ,iroquois canoe4 ,these ,iroquois canoes1 however1 were not a standard form4 ,those built by the ,algonkin had relatively upright stem profiles1 giving them a rather long bottom1 and the outwales and caps stood almost vertical at the stem-heads2 in contrast1 the ,iroquois canoes built by the ,ttes de ,boule had a proportionally shorter bottom than those of the ,algonkin1 because the end profiles were cut under more at the forefoot4 ,also1 the outwales and caps of the ,ttes de ,boule canoes were not sheered quite as much as were those of the ,algonkin4 ,it is supposed that the ,ttes de ,boule were taught to build this model by ,iroquois1 who had replaced the ,french builders subsequent to the closing of the canoe factory at ,trois ,rivires1 sometime about #ahbj4 ,after the ,english took possession of ,canada in #agfc1 the old canoe factory had been maintained by the ,montreal traders 7the ,north ,west ,company71 and it was not until these traders were absorbed by the ,hudson's ,bay ,company that canoe manufacture at ,trois ,rivires finally came to a halt1 although it is probable that the production of canoes there had become limited by shortages of bark and other suitable materials4 ,however1 the ,north ,west ,company had built the large trading canoes elsewhere1 for many of its posts had found it necessary to construct canoes locally1 and when the ,hudson's ,bay ,company finally took over the fur trade it continued the policy of building the canoes at various posts where material and builders could be found4 ,this policy appears to have produced in the fur-trade canoe model a third variant in which the high ends were much rounded at the stem head2 this was the form built by the ,ojibway and ,cree 7see p4 #aci74 ,it must be noted1 however1 that the variation in the three forms of fur-trade canoe was expressed almost entirely in the form and framing of the ends2 the lines were all about the same1 though small variations in sheer1 rocker1 and midsection must have existed4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abh ,,models ,,of ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoes1 top to bottom3 #b-;fathom ,ottawa ,river ,algonkin canoe1 ,hudson's ,bay ,company express canoe1 #c-;fathom ,ttes de ,boule ,iroquois canoe1 #c-;fathom ,lake ,timagami canoe1 #e-;fathom fur-trade canoe of early type1 and #e-;fathom ,hudson's ,bay ,company canoe built in northwestern ,quebec ,province4 ,although no regulations appear to have been set up by the fur companies to govern the size1 model1 construction or finish of these canoes1 custom and the requirements of usage appear to have been satisfactory guides1 having been established by practical experience4 ,as a result1 the length of canoes varied and the classification by fathoms or feet must be accepted as no more than approximate4 ,the form of the canoe was determined by the use to which it was to be put1 in trade or in travel4 ,fur-trade accounts often mention the light canoe1 or canot lger1 often misspelled in various ways in early ,english accounts1 and this class of canoe was always mentioned where speed was necessary4 ,commonly1 the light canoe was merely a trade canoe lightly burdened4 ,due to the narrow bottom of these canoes1 they became long and narrow on the waterline when not heavily loaded and so could be paddled very rapidly4 ,it is true1 however1 that some express canoes were built for fast paddling4 ,these were merely the common trade models with less beam than usual at gunwale and across the bottom4 ,some posts made a specialty of building such canoes1 often handsomely painted1 for the use of officials of the company1 or of the church or government1 during inspection trips4 ,not all of the highly finished canoes were of the narrow form1 however1 as some were built wide for capacity rather than for high speed4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abi ,,fur-,,trade ,,ma,,tre ,,canot ,,with ,,passengers4 ,from an oil painting by ,hopkins 7,public ,archives of ,canada photo74 ,the fur traders used not only the so-called fur-trade canoes1 of course1 but they employed various ,indian types when small canoes were required4 ,and in the construction of the high-ended fur-trade models1 they did not limit themselves to canoes of relatively great length4 ,each canoe road forming the main lines of travel in the old fur-trade had requirements that affected the size of the canoes employed on it4 ,the largest size of fur-trade canoe1 the standard #e-;fathom 7bottom length71 was employed only on the ,montreal-,great ,lakes route1 in the days before this run was taken over by bateaux1 schooners1 sloops1 and later1 by steamers4 ,at the western end of this route1 a smaller #d-or #d-;fathom canoe came into use4 ,the latter was used on the long run into the northwest4 ,even smaller canoes were often employed by the northern posts2 the #c-or #c-;fathom sizes were popular where the canoe routes were very difficult to operate4 ,for use on some of the large northern lakes1 the large canoes of the ,montreal-,great ,lakes run were introduced4 ,fur coming east from the ,athabasca might thus be transported in canoes of varying size along the way4 ,in judging the size of the canoe mentioned in a fur-trader's journal1 it is often very difficult to be certain whether the measurement he is employing is bottom or gunwale length4 ,in the largest canoes1 however1 the #e-;fathom bottom-length was the #f-;fathom gunwale length1 and the use of either usually1 but not always1 indicates the method of measurement4 ,this is not the case in the small canoe however1 where the matter must too often be left to guesswork4 ,to give the reader a more precise idea of the sizes of the canoes last employed in the fur trade1 the following will serve4 ,the matre canot of the ,montreal-,great ,lakes run was commonly about #cf feet overall1 or about #cb feet #i inches over the gunwales1 and a little over #cb feet on the bottom4 ,the beam at gunwale was roughly #ff inches 7inside the gunwales7 or about #fh-gj inches extreme beam4 ,the width of the building frame that formed the bottom would be somewhere around #db inches4 ,the depth amidships1 from bottom to top of gunwale might be approximately #cj-cb inches and the height of the stems roughly #ed inches4 ,these dimensions might be best described as average1 since canoes with gunwale length given as #f fathoms were built a number of inches wider or narrower1 and deeper or shallower4 ,the earlier fur-trade canoes of the ,french and of the ,north ,west ,company1 for example1 were apparently narrower than the above4 ,illustration3 ,figure #acj ,,bivouac ,,in ,,expedition ,,in ,,hudson',s ,,bay ,,canoe4 ,from an oil painting by ,hopkins 7,public ,archives of ,canada photo74 ,illustration3 ,figure #aca ,,ojibway #c-;,,fathom ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe1 a cargo-carrying type1 marked by cut-under end profiles1 that was built as late as #ahid4 ,illustration3 ,figure #acb ,,this ,,type ,,of #e-;,,fathom ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe was built at ,l4 ,a4 ,christopherson's ,hudson's ,bay ,company posts at ,grand ,lake ,victoria1 ,lake ,barrire1 and ,lake ,abitibi4 ,called the ,ottawa ,river canoe by fur-traders1 it was used for fast travel and shows the upright stems of the northwest ,quebec ,algonkin4 ,the #e-;fathom size that replaced the larger canoe at the close of the bark-canoe period was about #ca feet long over the gunwales or #cj feet #h inches in a straight line from tip of upturned rail cap at one stem to the other4 ,the beam inside the gunwales was #fj inches4 ,the width of the building frame would be between #dj and #de inches1 and the frame when formed would be about #bf feet #h inches long4 ,the depth of the canoe amidships1 from bottom to top of gunwale1 was approximate #cj inches and the height of the stems about #ej inches4 ,the overall length of such a canoe was about #cd feet #d inches4 ,an express canoe of this size would be about #ef inches beam inside the gunwales or even somewhat less1 and the depth amidships about #bh inches or a little less4 ,illustration3 ,figure #acc ,,hudson',s ,,bay ,,canoe ,,running ,,the ,,rapids4 ,from an oil painting by ,hopkins 7,public ,archives of ,canada photo74 ,a #d-;fathom canoe measured #bf feet #h inches over the tips of the upturned rail caps1 and #bi feet #aa inches overall4 ,the beam amidships was #eg inches inside the gunwales and the depth amidships to top of gunwales was #bf inches2 the height of the stem was #ec inches4 ,a #c-;fathom canoe was #ai feet #b inches overall1 #af feet #h inches over the ends of the gunwale caps1 #db inches beam amidships inside of gunwales1 the depth of the canoe from bottom to top of gunwale amidships was #ai inches1 and the height of the ends was #ch inches4 ,the building frame for this canoe was #ae feet #h inches long and #bg inches wide4 ,the canoes falling between the even-fathom measurements were often of about the same dimensions as the even-fathom size next below2 a #c-;fathom canoe would have nearly the same breadth and depth as a #c-;fathom2 only the length was increased4 ,the half-fathom rarely measured that--a canoe rated as #c fathom was actually only #bj feet #e inches overall4 ,one express canoe rated #c fathoms measured #bj feet #a inch overall1 #ah feet #c inches over the gunwale caps1 #dd inches beam inside gunwales amidships1 and #ba inches deep1 bottom to top of gunwale cap4 ,the height of the ends was #ci inches4 ,this example will serve to indicate how inexact the fathom classification really was4 ,it should also be noted that the height of the ends varied a good deal in any given range of length1 as this dimension was determined not by the length of the canoe but by the judgment and taste of the builder and his tribal form of end4 ,generally1 however1 small canoes had relatively higher ends than large canoes1 in proportion to length1 because1 as will be remembered1 one function of the end was to hold the upended canoe far enough off the ground to permit the user to seek shelter under it4 ,illustration3 ,figure #acd ,,repairing ,,the ,,canoe4 ,from an oil painting by ,hopkins 7,public ,archives of ,canada photo74 ,extremes of dimension appear to have been rare in fur-trade canoes2 none whose length overall exceeded #cg feet have been found in the records1 and the maximum beam reported in a matre canot was #hj inches4 ,when canvas replaced birch bark in the fur-trade canoes1 the high-ended models disappeared2 the canvas freight canoes were commonly of the white man's type having low-peaked ends1 or a modified ,peterborough type4 ,before discussing the methods of construction1 the loading and equipment of the fur-trade canoes should be described from contemporary fur trade accounts4 ,the goods carried in these canoes were packed into easily handled bundles1 or packages1 of from #ij to #ajj pounds weight4 ,wines and liquor were carried in #i-;gallon kegs1 the most awkward of all cargo to portage4 ,in some cases the furs were packed into #hj-or #ij-pound bundles in the ,northwest1 and were repacked into #ajj-pound bundles before being placed on the large canoes of the ,montreal-,great ,lakes route1 but bundles lighter than #ij pounds were made up for the shipment of small quantities of individual goods to isolated posts4 ,the bundles1 or packs1 of furs were formed under screw presses so that #ejj mink skins1 for example1 were made into a package #bd inches long1 #ba inches wide and #ae inches deep1 weighing very close to #ij pounds4 ,buffalo hides formed a larger pack1 of course4 ,in the canoe1 packs were covered by a parala1 a heavy1 oiled red-canvas tarpaulin4 ,boxes called cassettes were carried2 these were #bh inches long and #af inches in width and depth1 made of -inch seasoned pine dovetailed and iron-strapped1 with the lid tightly fitted4 ,the top1 and sometimes the bottom too1 was bevelled along the edges4 ,the lids were fitted with hasps and padlocks and the boxes were as watertight as possible4 ,each box was painted and marked2 in these were placed cash and other valuables4 ,also carried was a travelling case--a lined box for medicine1 refreshments for the officers1 and what would be needed quickly on the road4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ace ,,hudson',s ,,bay ,,company #d-;,,fathom ,,north ,,canoe1 of the type built by ,crees at posts near ,james ,bay in the middle of the #aith century1 for cargo-carrying4 ,provisions such as meat1 sugar1 flour1 etc4 were carried in tins and were stowed in baskets which were usually of the form known to woodsmen as pack-baskets4 ,baskets also served to carry cooking utensils and other loose articles4 ,bedrolls consisted of blankets or robes1 made up in a tarpaulin or oilskin groundsheet and were used in the canoe as pads or seats4 ,the voyageur's term for the canoe equipment--paddles1 setting poles1 sail1 mast1 and yard1 and the rigging and hauling lines--was agrs1 or agrets4 ,the term pacton was applied to packs made up ready for portage2 they were ordinarily made up of two or more packages1 so the weight carried was at the very least #ahj pounds4 ,no self-respecting voyageur would carry less1 as it would be disgraceful to be so weak4 ,the pacton was carried by means of a collier1 or tump-line similar to that used to portage canoes 7see p4 #abb74 ,it was made of three pieces of stout leather4 ,the middle piece was of stout tanned leather about #d inches wide and #ah inches long1 tapered toward each end1 to which were sewn pliant straps #b or #b inches wide and #aj feet long4 ,these were usually slightly tapered toward the free ends4 ,the middle portion of this piece of gear was of thick enough leather to be quite stiff1 but the straps were very flexible4 ,sometimes the middle portion and #b or #c feet of the end straps were in one piece with extensions sewn to the latter4 ,the pacton was lifted and placed so that it rested in the small of the carrier's back1 with its weight borne by the hips4 ,the ends of the collier were tied to the pacton so as to hold it in place1 with the broad central band around the carrier's forehead4 ,on top of the pacton was placed a loose package1 cassette1 or perhaps a keg4 ,the total load amounted to #bgj pounds on the average if the trail was good2 the maximum on record is #fcj pounds4 ,with his body leaning forward to support the load1 the carrier sprang forward in a quick trot1 using short1 quick paces1 and moved at about #e miles an hour over a good trail4 ,a carrier was expected to make more than one trip over the portage1 as a rule4 ,the traditional picture of the fur-trade voyageur as a happy1 carefree adventurer was hardly a true one1 at least in the #aith century4 ,with poor food hastily prepared1 back-breaking loads1 and continual exposure1 his lot was a very hard one at best4 ,the monstrous packs usually brought physical injury and the working life of a packer was very short4 ,in the early days1 and during the time of the ,north ,west ,company1 the canoemen were allowed to do some private trading to add to their wages1 but when the ,hudson's ,bay ,company took over this was not allowed and discipline became far more harsh4 ,as a result1 the ,french ,canadians deserted the trade1 to be replaced with ,indians and half-breeds4 ,the paddling race against time1 to reach the destination before the fall freeze1 was labor comparable to that of a galley slave1 but in a very harsh climate4 ,altogether1 if the brutal truth is accepted1 the life of the canoeman was far more hardship than romance4 ,illustration3 ,figure #acf ,,five-,,fathom ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe ,,from ,,brunswick ,,house1 one of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company posts4 ,the cargo of a fur-trade canoe was not placed directly on the bottom2 light cedar or spruce poles were first laid in the bottom of the canoe and then the cargo loaded aboard4 ,the poles prevented damage to the canoe by any undue concentration of weight4 ,the weight of cargo carried varied with the size of the canoe and with the conditions of the canoe route4 ,the canoes were usually loaded deeply1 except in the case of the light express canoe1 in which the cargo was reduced for sake of rapid travelling4 ,an account written in #ahjj by ,alexander ,henry the younger gives the following list of cargo in a trade canoe on the run to ,red ,river in the ,northwest1 where canoes under #d fathoms were generally used3 ,general trade merchandise1 #e bales2 tobacco1 #a bale and #b rolls2 kettles1 #a bale or basket2 guns1 #a case2 hardware1 #a case2 lead shot1 #b bags2 flour1 #a bag2 sugar1 #a keg2 gunpowder1 #b kegs2 wine1 #aj kegs4 ,this totaled #bh pieces3 in addition the crew had #d bales 7#a for each paddler7 of private property1 #d bags of corn of #a bushels each1 and keg of grease1 plus bedrolls and the canoe gear4 ,the trade goods carried to the posts included such items as canoe awls1 axes1 shot1 gunpowder1 gun tools1 brass wire1 flints 7or1 later1 percussion caps71 lead1 beads1 brooches1 blankets1 combs1 coats1 fire-steels1 finger rings1 guns1 spruce gum1 garters1 birch bark1 powder-horns or cartridge boxes1 hats1 kettles and pans1 knives1 fish line1 hooks1 net twine1 looking glasses1 needles1 ribbons1 rum1 brandy1 wine1 blue and red broadcloth1 tomahawks or hatchets1 tobacco1 pipes1 thread1 vermillion and paint1 and false hair4 ,illustration3 ,figure #acg ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoes ,,on ,,the ,,missinaibi ,,river1 #aija4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47 ,the tarpaulins used to cover the cargo were #h by #aj feet1 hemmed and fitted with grommets around the edges for lashings4 ,the cloth was treated with ochre1 oil1 and wax to give it a dull red color and to waterproof it4 ,one of the tarpaulins usually served as the sail4 ,the fur bales were each sacked1 that is1 wrapped in a canvas cover that was sewed on and stenciled with identification and ownership marks4 ,the cargo manifests were not always the same4 ,compare the previous list with this cargo1 with which two light canoes were each loaded3 #c cassettes1 #a travelling case1 #b baskets1 #a bag of bread1 #a bag of biscuits1 #b kegs of spirits1 #b kegs of porter1 #a tin of beef1 #a bag of pemmican for officers and #b for the crew1 #b tents for officers1 cooking utensils1 canoe equipment1 and #a pacton for each of the #i men in each canoe4 ,the rate of travel varied a good deal1 depending upon the condition of the waterway and of the men4 ,perhaps1 as an average1 #ej miles a day would be the common expectation during a #c-month run into the northwest4 ,traveling fast with good conditions1 an express canoe might average as much as #ge or #hj miles a day1 but this was exceptional4 ,the number of men required to man a fur-trade canoe varied with the use required of the canoe1 with its load1 and its size4 ,there were rare occasions in which a matre canot had #ag paddlers and a steersman1 but normally such a canoe was manned by between #g and #ae men1 depending upon how much space aboard was required by cargo or passengers and upon the difficulties of the route4 ,an express canoe1 traveling light and at high speed1 was manned by #d to #f paddlers1 one of whom acted as steersman or stern paddler1 and one as the equally important bowman in river work4 ,the most valuable information on the construction methods of fur trade canoes was obtained in #aibe from the late ,l4 ,a4 ,christopherson1 a retired ,hudson's ,bay ,company official4 ,he had joined the ,company in #ahgd and retired in #aiai1 after #de years service1 #ch of which he had spent in western ,quebec at the posts on ,lake ,barrire and on ,grand ,victoria4 ,these were canoe-building posts1 and ,christopherson had supervised the construction of both the #e-;and #d-;fathom trade canoes4 ,his posts had built the nearly vertical-ended nadow chiman1 the ,iroquois1 or ,ottawa ,river1 type of ,algonkin canoe4 ,the actual building was done by ,indians1 but the work was directed by the ,company men4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ach ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe ,,brigade1 ,,christopherson',s ,,hudson',s ,,bay ,,company ,,post1 about #ahhe4 ,christopherson in white shirt and flat cap1 sitting with hands clasped4 ,five-fathom canoes1 ,ottawa ,river type4 ,in the building the eye and judgment of the builder were the only guides1 aided by the occasional use of a measuring stick1 and ,christopherson made it abundantly clear that the ,company had no rules or regulations that he knew of1 regarding the size1 model1 and construction of the canoes1 nor any standards for decoration4 ,the model and appearance of the canoes were determined by the preferences of the builders and the size by the needs of the posts4 ,for example1 the #e-;fathom canoe had been built at the ,grand ,victoria post until it was decided there that a #d-;fathom canoe would serve4 ,the decoration1 if any1 was apparently according to the custom of the post4 ,the method of construction described by ,christopherson seems to be largely that of the ,algonkin1 modified slightly by ,ojibway practices4 ,the canoes were built on a plank building bed made of #b-or #b-;inch thick spruce2 its middle was higher than the ends1 as were the earthen beds used in the east1 and holes were bored in it to take the stakes4 ,a stake was placed near the end of each thwart and one between1 along the sides of the canoe4 ,the individual builders had their preferences as to the method of setting stakes2 some set them vertically while others bored the bed so that the stakes stood with their heads pointed outward4 ,a post might have two or more building beds1 one for each size1 or model4 ,canoes were always built by means of a building frame4 ,this was made with four or five crosspieces that determined the fullness or fineness of the bottom of the canoe toward the ends4 ,by altering the lengths of the end crosspieces1 the degree of fullness in the lines of the finished canoe could be predetermined4 ,as a result the bed1 which was usually about #ah inches wider than the building frame1 might have the shape of its frame marked on it twice1 with two sets of holes for stakes4 ,otherwise1 the alteration in the building frame would require a special bed to be used4 ,in addition to the alteration in the ends of the building frame1 there could also be variations in its width amidships4 ,christopherson's posts commonly built canoes intended for fast travel1 so most of them were narrower in beam at the gunwale and across the bottom than were the fur-trade canoes of the period1 and the building frame was likewise narrower4 ,the length of the building frame used in these canoes was the same as the bottom length1 or a little longer than the distance between the two headboards of the finished canoe4 ,thus1 in a #e-;fathom canoe the bottom length would be #cj feet1 and in a #d-;fathom canoe1 #bg feet2 the beds would be some #f feet longer than these lengths4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aci4 ,,forest ,,rangers1 ,,lake ,,timagami1 ,,ontario4 7,canadian ,pacific ,railway ,company photo47 ,as the canoes at ,christopherson's were built for speed and rarely measured more than #dh inches beam between the gunwale members1 the building frame was about #cb inches wide amidships1 or approximately two-thirds the beam inside the gunwales in a #e-;fathom canoe4 ,the beam of his #d-;fathom canoes was less1 say #db inches inside the gunwales and #bg or #bh inches across the building frame1 with a depth1 bottom to top of rail cap1 of between #ai and #ba inches4 ,a #e-;fathom canoe of this narrow model would carry nearly #b short tons with a crew of six1 while the smaller model would carry nearly #b tons4 ,however1 the capacity of a wide canoe was much greater4 ,a #f-;fathom canoe1 the ,rob ,roy1 built by another post about #ahgf to bring in the bishop for the consecration of a church at the ,lake ,temiscaming post1 was described by ,christopherson as being about #f feet beam on the gunwales4 ,considered a fine example of a freight canoe1 the ,rob ,roy was afterwards loaded with #ge bags of flour1 totaling #c tons deadweight1 and carried as well a crew of seven and their provisions and gear4 ,the bark cover was commonly in two lengths on the bottom of the canoe1 summer bark being used4 ,the post maintained a supply of bark for canoe building and sheets #d fathoms in length and #a in breadth were not uncommon4 ,such sheets would have been ample for the cover of a small canoe but would not be expended so needlessly2 hence1 the canoes1 large or small1 had two lengths of bark in their bottoms4 ,the lap was toward the stern4 ,in what appears to have been a local characteristic of the canoes built at ,christopherson's posts1 the bows were indicated by making the thwarts toward that end slightly longer than those toward the stern1 so that the forebody was fuller at sheer than the afterbody2 the canoe master could thus instantly see which end was the bow without having to examine the bottom or the bark cover4 ,the two pieces of bark sewn together were placed on the building bed and the building frame placed on it and weighted down1 in the usual manner4 ,the stakes were then set in the holes in the bed and the bark secured to them with the usual inside stakes1 as well as with the clothespin-like clamps used by the ,algonkin and other ,indian canoe builders4 ,the end stakes were set in a peculiar manner3 a short pair were set with their heads sloping inboard1 for use later to support the sheering of the outwales1 and a long pair were set raking sharply outboard to help support the bark required for the high ends4 ,as the bark cover was made up1 pieces were worked into the ends to allow the high ends to be made4 ,the side panels often seen on the eastern ,indian bark canoe were used1 and the bark doubled at the gunwales4 ,the doubling pieces were put on about #f inches wide and trimmed off after the outwales were in place4 ,the pieces were widest amidships1 and when trimmed would extend about two inches or a little more below the outwales1 narrowing somewhat toward the ends4 ,longitudinal battens to fair the bark along the sides were placed as usual in canoe building4 ,the main gunwales were originally made of white cedar1 but when this became scarce at the posts1 whipsawed spruce was used instead4 ,the gunwales were rectangular in cross section1 with the outer lower corner beveled off4 ,the cross section of the inner gunwale member was smaller1 in proportion1 than the outwale1 compared to a small eastern ,indian canoe4 ,the gunwales were bent on the flat in plan1 and were sheered edge bent4 ,the tenons for the thwart ends were cut slanting1 so that when the gunwales were made up they stood at a flare outward toward the top edge4 ,the gunwales had much taper toward the ends as it was usual to work in some sheer in these members4 ,the canoes built at ,christopherson's posts1 unlike some other trade canoes1 had a good deal of sheer at the ends1 as the main gunwales rose nearly to the top of the stem4 ,the manner of forming the gunwales varied somewhat4 ,if the stakes around the building frame had been set to stand vertically1 it was necessary to assemble the gunwales with temporary crosspieces1 or false thwarts1 each shorter by several inches than would be the finished thwart in their place1 or twice the amount of flare desired4 ,after the gunwale assembly had been set above the building frame on the usual posts to determine its height above the building bed1 the bark cover would be lashed to each gunwale member4 ,this done1 each crosspiece would be removed in turn and replaced with its corresponding thwart4 ,by this means the gunwales would be spread and1 in the process1 lowered in proportion to the change in beam4 ,this would usually make too much sheer4 ,therefore1 if the gunwales were to be spread as a result of the side stakes standing vertically1 they had to be formed with some reverse sheer amidships4 ,this was done as usual1 by first treating each member with hot water and then weighting it on a long plank1 or unused building bed1 over a block placed under it at midlength4 ,the height of the block would determine the amount the sheer was humped in the middle1 usually only an inch or so4 ,the gunwale ends were also treated with hot water and sometimes were split horizontally to get the required sheer there2 they were then bent up and held1 while drying and setting1 by a long cord that was stretched between them and placed under tension by means of a strut1 about #d feet long1 placed under the cord at midlength and stepped on the gunwale member being bent4 ,however1 if the side stakes were set sloping outward1 it was unnecessary to hump the sheer amidships4 ,the reason why many builders preferred to set the stakes on the bed vertically was that it made easy the goring and the sewing of the bark cover side panels2 if the bark available for the cover required little sewing1 the sloping stakes might be preferred4 ,it appears1 however1 that the usual procedure was to set the stakes vertically and to spread the gunwales1 since good bark was usually available4 ,a good deal of judgment was required to estimate the amount of hump or reverse to be worked into the gunwale members2 too much would leave a hump in the sheer of the finished canoe and not enough would cause too much dip amidships4 ,before being bent to sheer1 the gunwale members were worked smooth with a plane or with scrapers made of glass or steel4 ,the building frame was taken apart and removed from the canoe after most of the thwarts were in place4 ,the ribs ,christopherson called timbers and the sheathing1 lathing4 ,the ribs1 commonly of cedar1 were usually to inch thick1 and were #b to #c inches wide in most canoes1 with a long taper so that near the ends the width was about half that at the middle1 and at the ends they tapered almost to a point4 ,some large canoes had ribs #d inches wide at the centerline1 amidships1 but these appear to have been unusual4 ,the ribs were placed on the building frame at their proposed position and the width of the frame at that point was marked on each4 ,after being cut to about the required length and tapered1 the ribs were then treated with hot water1 and were then usually bent over the knee in pairs1 the marks determining where the bending was to be done4 ,in a freight canoe the ribs amidships would be nearly flat across the bottom but in a fast canoe they would be slightly rounded4 ,the parts of the rib nearest the ends were not bent1 and thus the rib would appear dish-shaped when in form4 ,each pair while drying was sometimes held by cords tied across the ends1 or the ribs might be inserted in about their proper location in the unfinished canoe and held in place by battens and struts until they took their final set4 ,the ribs at the extreme ends were often sprung or broken at the centerline to get the ,v-section required there1 particularly in a sharp-ended express canoe4 ,illustration3 ,figure #adj ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe ,,stem-,,pieces1 models made by ,adney3 #a1 ,algonkin type2 #b1 ,iroquois type1 ,ottawa ,river1 old ,french2 #c1 ,christopherson's canoes4 ,the sheathing was about -inch thick and was laid according to the tribal practice of the builder2 ,christopherson appears to have followed the ,algonkin practices generally in this as in other building matters at his posts4 ,whereas ,malecite practice was to lash the bark cover to both inwale and outwale1 in the western type of canoe the cover was lashed to the main gunwale first1 owing to the spread gunwales1 and the outwale was then pegged to the gunwale and also lashed1 the ends being wrapped with figure-eight turns4 ,all gunwale lashing in fur-trade canoes was in groups4 ,because of the sheer at the ends1 the outwales were split horizontally into four or more laminae1 and the splitting extended almost to the end-thwart positions4 ,in a few canoes outwales were omitted or were short and did not extend beyond the end thwarts1 but this practice was relatively uncommon4 ,the outwales were usually rectangular in cross section and much tapered toward the ends4 ,the rail caps were also rectangular in cross section1 but often they had the outboard upper edge rounded off or beveled4 ,the caps were pegged at #a-;foot intervals to the main gunwales1 but at the ends they could only be lashed to the outwale1 as both outwales and caps were so sharply upswept at the ends that they stood almost vertically4 ,the ends were squared off and stood a little above the top of the stems1 so that when the canoe was placed upside down as a shelter for the paddlers and packers it rested upon these members rather than on the sewing of the bark cover on the tops of the stems1 as was usual with all the high-ended ,algonkin and ,ojibway canoes4 ,the stem-pieces and headboards were assembled into single units1 as shown on pages #adi and #aea1 before being installed during construction4 ,the stem-pieces were of white cedar1 about four fingers deep fore-and-aft and laminated1 and about to #a inches wide1 depending upon the size of the canoe and the judgment of the builder4 ,in ,christopherson's area the stem-piece was relatively short1 the head coming up and around and ending at a point far enough under the rail-cap ends for it to be securely lashed to these members and to the outwale ends4 ,it was bent by use of hot water and the laminae were secured by wrapping the stem piece with fine twine4 ,the stem was stiffened by stepping the headboard on its heel in the usual manner1 and the two were held in the required position by two horizontal struts1 the outboard ends of which were lashed to the sides of the stem piece well up above the heel2 the inboard ends were pegged at the sides of the headboard1 in notches1 or were passed through the headboards in slots and the strut ends secured with wedges athwartships on the inboard face of the headboard4 ,the result was a rigid and strong end-frame4 ,more complicated bending was employed at some posts1 where the building of fur-trade canoes followed ,algonkin or ,ojibway practices4 ,in these1 as has been mentioned1 the stem-pieces were brought down and around under the stem-head to the back or inboard edge of the stem-piece and lashed1 then brought inboard horizontally to end in a hole in the headboard1 between struts placed as in the ,christopherson-built canoes4 ,another method was to bring the stem-piece around the stem head and down and around outboard to the inboard face of the stem1 where the end was split and each half lashed to the sides of the stem-piece4 ,in this case there was a lashing between stem-piece and the headboard1 placed where the reverse was made1 inboard and below the top of the stem1 well up on the headboard4 ,the heel of the headboard and stem-piece were pegged together4 ,struts were not required with this construction1 described earlier 7on p4 #abc7 as the ,ojibway method4 ,in bending the stem-piece1 the reverse curve around the stem-head was formed over a short strut that was removed when the stem-piece was dried and set to shape4 ,as a variety of forms were used in shaping these stem-pieces1 it was the ingenuity of the builder that decided just how the end of the stem-piece was best secured and how the whole was to be braced4 ,these details will be better understood by reference to the plans and illustrations on pages #acd to #aea4 ,the headboards were not sprung or bellied1 but stood nearly vertical in the canoes4 ,the inboard face was often decorated2 in the old ,french canoes and in those of the ,north ,west ,company1 the board was carved or painted to represent a human figure1 le petit homme1 which was often made in the likeness of a voyageur in his best clothes4 ,in some canoes1 only a human head was used1 or the top of the headboard1 or button1 was decorated with a rayed compass drawn in colors4 ,the thwarts were usually rather heavy amidships and were made in various forms to suit the taste of the builder4 ,they were commonly of maple1 but ,christopherson's canoes had spruce or tamarack thwarts1 the latter being his preference4 ,these thwarts were not intended to be used as seats1 though the sternman1 or steersman1 often sat on the aftermost one4 ,the paddlers often used seats in the large canoes2 these were planks slung from each end by cords made fast to the gunwales4 ,these cords allowed the height of the seats to be adjusted2 the paddlers usually knelt on the bottom of the canoe with hips supported by the seat4 ,the seats were usually slung before the thwarts1 except amidships1 where the space was taken up by passengers or cargo4 ,the factors often took great pride in the appearance of the canoes from their posts and many1 like ,christopherson1 had the craft gaily painted in a rather barbaric fashion4 ,christopherson's canoes did not use any of the circular decoration forms2 his canoes usually had painted on them1 he recalled1 such names as ,duchess1 ,sir ,john ,a4 ,mac,donald1 ,express1 ,arrow1 and ,ivanhoe4 ,the ends were often painted white1 with the figures or letters on this background4 ,the ,company flag was often painted on the stern with the initials of the ,company1 ,h4,b4,c41 said to mean ,here ,before ,christ by disrespectful clerks4 ,many posts used such figures as the jackfish1 loon1 deer1 wolf1 or bear1 on the bow4 ,the rayed circular devices appear to have been long popular and were said to have been introduced by the ,french4 ,there is no record of any device being officially required in any district but the cassettes of certain districts were marked with distinctive devices at one time2 ,norway ,house used a deer's head with antlers1 ,saskatchewan two buffalo1 ,cumberland a bear1 ,red ,river a grasshopper1 and ,manitoba a crocus4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ada ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe ,,stem-,,pieces1 models made by ,adney3 #a1 ,ttes de ,boule type2 #b1 ,ojibway form2 #c1 old ,algonkin form4 ,during ,christopherson's long service he knew the canoes built in his vicinity at such nearby building posts as ,lake ,abitibi1 ,lake ,waswanipi1 and ,kipewa1 in western ,quebec2 and ,lake ,timagami 7,bear ,island71 ,matachewan on ,montreal ,river1 ,matagama 7west of ,sudbury71 and ,missinaibi1 in nearby ,ontario4 ,these were but a few of the building posts1 of course1 for canoes were built at numerous posts to the west and northward4 ,when portaged1 the large canoes might be carried right side up or upside down1 the former being more usual method4 ,the canot du nord was often light enough to be carried by two paddlers1 one under each end1 with the canoe right side up and steadied by a cord tied to the offside gunwale and held in the carrier's hand4 ,the matre canot required four men to carry it4 ,various methods were used4 ,one was to lash carrying sticks across the gunwales near the ends and to carry the canoe right side up with a man on the end of each stick4 ,another way was for the men to distribute themselves along the bottom of the canoe1 near the ends1 and to use steadying cords4 ,or the canoe might be carried upside down with the men carrying it by placing one shoulder under the gunwales at convenient places4 ,when a bad place in the portage was reached1 the whole crew might have to turn to4 ,the method of portaging had to meet the physical limitation of the portage path and the matter was not so much one of standard procedure as of improvisation of the moment4 ,illustration3 ,figure #adb ,,portaging ,a #d-;,,fathom ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe1 ,,about #aijb1 near the head of the ,ottawa ,river4 ,shows an unusually large number of carriers2 four would be the normal number4 7,canadian ,pacific ,railway ,company photo47 ,the voyageur was particular about his paddle2 no man in his right mind would use a blade wider than between #d and #e inches1 for anything wider would exhaust him in a short distance4 ,the paddle reached to about the users' chin1 when he stood with the tip of the paddle on the ground in front of him4 ,longer paddles1 about #f feet long1 were used by the bow and stern men1 the two most skillful voyageurs in the canoe and the highest paid4 ,these men had1 also1 spare paddles whose total length was #h feet or more2 these were used in running rapids only4 ,the paddles were of hardwood1 white or yellow birch or maple1 as hardwood paddles could be made thin in the blade and small in the handle without loss of strength1 whereas softwood paddles could not4 ,the blades were sometimes painted white1 the tips in some color such as red1 blue1 green or black1 but other color combinations were often used4 ,in ,christopherson's service1 sail was rarely used1 as the canoemen were unskilled in handling it and loss had resulted4 ,in early times1 however1 it appears to have been much used on the ,great ,lakes routes by the ,french and the ,north ,west ,company4 ,a single square-sail was the only rig employed2 the canoes could not be worked to windward under fore-and-aft sails4 ,during the great seasonal movements the trade canoes moved in fleets called brigades1 the usual brigade in early times being three or four canoes1 but later1 when the needs of the individual posts had grown1 the brigade could be of any necessary number of canoes to carry in the required supplies and goods or to bring out the season's catch of furs4 ,the leader of the brigade was the conducteur or guide2 sometimes he was the post's factor4 ,in ,french times the matre canot would be loaded with #fj pieces1 or packs1 to the total of about #c short tons and half a ton of provisions1 and eight men1 each with an allowance of #dj pounds for gear1 so that the whole weight in the canoe would be something over #d short tons4 ,an example of such a canoe measured1 inside the gunwales1 #e fathoms long and #d feet beam4 ,the usual brigade of four of these canoes would thus carry roughly #ab short tons of goods4 ,the ,company would send one brigade after another1 at close intervals of time1 until the whole seasonal movement was in progress4 ,those brigades going the greatest distance were started first4 ,although cargoes left the coast from early spring on to late summer1 the great canoe movement took place towards the fall4 ,canoe travel north and northwestward from the ,great ,lakes had to be carefully timed1 as goods had to be accumulated at the base posts on the ,lakes and the brigades placed in movement at the last safe date which would permit them to reach their destination before the first hard freeze-up4 ,the base posts were those where the run of the matre canot ended and that of the canot du nord began1 the places where reloading for the individual trading posts in the ,northland was necessary4 ,the late start was usually desirable in order to await the arrival at the base posts of all the goods required1 for movements of freight were uncertain before the days of railroads and steamers4 ,illustration3 ,figure #adc ,,decorations3 ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoes4 7,watercolor sketch by ,adney47 ,in the late #ahth and early #aith centuries1 before the whole canoe trade fell under the control of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 it was the custom to distribute #h gallons of rum to each canoe for consumption during the run1 and it was also the custom for all hands to see how much of this they could drink before starting out4 ,this grandiose undertaking usually began as soon as the local priest1 who gave his blessing to the canoemen1 had left the scene4 ,the magnificent drunk lasted one day and the next morning the crew had to be underway4 ,the first day's run1 old accounts repeatedly show1 not only was short but was often beset by difficulties4 ,the era of the bark trading canoe did not close with a dramatic change4 ,its ending was a long1 slow process4 ,by the last decade of the #aith century the bark trading canoe had disappeared from most of the old routes1 and even in the ,northwest it had been almost wholly displaced by ,york boats1 scows1 bateaux1 and canvas or wooden canoes of white-man construction4 ,by the beginning of the first ,world ,war1 the matre canots and canots du nord were finished1 except as curiosities--hardly even as these1 for not one was preserved in a museum4 ,indeed1 so complete was the disappearance of the fur-trade canoe that any attempt to record its design1 construction1 and fitting would have been almost hopeless1 had it not been for the notes1 sketches1 and statements of such men as ,l4 ,a4 ,christopherson1 aided by a few models and pictures1 and for the memories of a few ,indian builders who had worked on the canoes4 ,chapter ,six ,,northwestern ,,canada ,indians of the ,northwest ,territories and the ,province of ,british ,columbia in ,canada1 and the ,states of ,alaska and ,washington1 built bark canoes that may be divided into three basic models4 ,the first may be called the kayak model1 a flat-bottom1 narrow canoe having nearly straight flaring sides and either a chine or a very quick turn of the bilge4 ,these bark canoes were low-sided and were usually partly decked4 ,a number of tribal groups built canoes of this model1 the variation being relatively minor4 ,the rake and form of the ends varied somewhat as did the amount of decking2 there were also some slight variations in structure and method of construction4 ,while these bark canoes had some superficial resemblance in general proportions to the ,eskimo kayaks1 it is necessary to point out that they did not1 particularly in ,alaska1 have the same hull form as the seagoing kayaks in that area4 ,in fact1 the single-chine form of the ,alaskan version of this canoe appears only in the kayaks of northern ,greenland and ,baffin ,island4 ,the ,alaskan seagoing skin kayaks are all multi-chine forms that approximate a round-bottom hull4 ,it has been thought that the flat-bottom seagoing kayak form may have existed in the ,canadian ,northwest1 at the mouth of the ,mackenzie2 a kayak so identified is in the collections of the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7see p4 #bjb71 but there is now doubt among authorities as to the correctness of this identification4 ,as will be shown later1 it seems probable that it has been improperly assigned to the ,mackenzie delta and is1 in fact1 an eastern ,eskimo model4 ,the second model used in the ,northwest area was a narrow-bottom flaring-sided bark canoe with elevated ends1 having1 perhaps1 a faint resemblance to the ,algonkin-,cree canoes of the old type4 ,here too there was some variation among the canoes of tribal groups1 mostly in the shape and construction of the ends and in the fitting of the gunwales4 ,most of the canoes of this type had stem-pieces formed of a plank-on-edge1 but in a few examples the stem-pieces were bent4 ,this model was built by the same tribal groups in ,canada that built the kayak form1 the explanation being that the kayak form was the hunting while the second model was commonly the family or cargo canoe4 ,in ,alaska1 however1 only the kayak-form was used and the family1 or cargo1 canoe was merely an enlargement of it4 ,the third model may be called the sturgeon-nose type2 in this the ends were formed with a long1 pointed ram carried well outboard below the waterline as an extension of the bottom line of the canoe4 ,primitive in both model and construction1 it was built in a rather limited area in ,british ,columbia and in the ,state of ,washington4 ,the last canoes built on this form were canvas-covered2 in earlier times spruce or pine bark was usually employed4 ,the birch in most of the ,northwest is a small tree and the bark is of poor quality for canoe building2 hence1 in many areas spruce bark was commonly employed in its place2 a single tribal group might build its canoes of either1 depending upon what was available near the building site4 ,however1 near the ,alaska coast1 where kayak-form bark canoes were used and good birch was usually not available1 some tribes used seal or other skins as a substitute4 ,in the framework spruce and fir were most commonly employed1 but occasionally cedar was available and was used4 ,the canoe-building ,indians in northwestern ,canada were mostly of the ,athabascan family and included the ,chipewyan or ,chipewans1 the ,slave or ,slavey 7 ,etchareottine71 the ,beaver 7 ,tsattine71 the ,dogrib 7 ,thlingchadinne71 the ,tanana 7 ,tenankutchin71 the ,loucheux1 the ,hare 7 ,kawchodinne71 and others4 ,some of these tribal groups built not only bark canoes but also dugouts4 ,there were also some ,eskimo people who built bark canoes for river service1 as well as skin canoes1 on the same model as the bark kayak-form4 ,in the vicinities of ,lake ,athabasca and ,great ,slave ,lake1 the ,chipewyan employed not only their own models of canoes but also that of the western ,cree4 ,the latter had invaded ,chipewyan territory before the arrival of the first white men in the ,northwest and undoubtedly had influenced canoe-building technique during the long period of the fur trade that followed4 ,it is therefore not possible to say where the influence of ,chipewyan building techniques ends and that of the ,cree and the eastern ,indians1 as introduced through the fur-trade canoes1 begins4 ,this raises the question whether the high-ended ,athabascan canoe is itself the result of influence4 ,one may infer from ,samuel ,hearne's description of his travels in this area1 in his ,journey 444 to the ,northern ,ocean1#a that only the kayak-form then existed1 for this type is the only one he describes1 and he describes it in great detail4 ,however1 ,alexander ,mackenzie1 in an entry in his journal for ,june #bc1 #aghi1 refers to the large canoe in a manner indicating that it was a local type4 ,it may well be that then1 as later1 the kayak-form and cargo canoe existed side by side1 or it may be that ,mackenzie was referring to a large kayak-form canoe like the family canoe of the ,alaska ,yukon ,indians4 ,perhaps the reason that ,hearne did not mention the large canoe is that the people he met on his way to the ,coppermine ,river1 and on his way back by way of ,lake ,athabasca to ,hudson ,bay1 did not then use canoes of the second model4 #a ,see bibliography4 ,illustration3 ,figure #add ,,chipewyan #b-;,,fathom hunter's canoe 7top71 with bent stem piece1 and ,athabascan #b-;fathom canoe with plank stem piece4 ,plank and bent stem pieces were both employed in ,athabascan canoes4 ,spruce or birch bark were used without alteration of the design or basic construction methods4 ,narrow-,bottom ,canoe ,because the variations in the second model1 the ,algonkin-,ojibway type1 are relatively slight1 it will be easiest to describe this first4 ,the canoe is known to have been built extensively by the ,chipewyan1 ,dogrib1 and ,slave4 ,the sizes most common were #af to #bb feet over the gunwales1 with a beam of between #cf and #dh inches4 ,the sheer was usually rather straight1 the sharp upward turn to the end taking place very close to the gunwale ends4 ,most of the bottom was straight2 the rocker1 if existing1 occurred close to the ends of the canoe and was moderate4 ,the midsection was dish-shaped and nearly flat across the bottom1 with a rather slack1 well-rounded bilge and almost straight flaring sides1 the amount of flare being usually great4 ,the bottom apparently was never dead flat athwartships1 for in all known examples it was somewhat rounded4 ,near the ends the sections were in the shape of a ,v with apex rounded2 the form of the ends was sharp and without hollow either at the gunwale or at the level lines4 ,the ends of the canoes were never lofty and many had end profiles that were very long fore-and-aft and showed a marked angularity4 ,inwales and outwales formed the gunwale structure2 some canoes also had gunwale caps which stopped well short of the end profiles4 ,the ends of the inwales were carried to the stem-pieces2 they were sharply tapered and curved to sheer1 and were elaborately cross-wrapped to secure them there4 ,the end profiles were formed of a thin plank-on-edge in most canoes1 but some had stem-pieces split into laminae in the usual fashion and bent4 ,in all cases headboards were employed2 the heads were forced under the inwale ends and against the inside face of the stem-piece4 ,the gunwale lashings were in groups1 although some canoes exist in which the outwale was omitted and the lashing was continuous2 these canoes usually had laminated bent stem-pieces and their stem lashing was identical with that of the ,algonkin-,ojibway fur-trade canoes4 ,this departure1 it is reasonable to assume1 was the result of outside influence on the ,athabascan technique4 ,when the stem-piece was of thin plank1 the bark was usually fastened to it by multiple turns of two thongs passed1 one from each side1 through the bark and through holes bored in the stem4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ade ,,athabascan ,,cargo ,,or ,,family ,,canoes ,,with ,,bent ,,stem ,,pieces1 ,chipewyan #b-;fathom 7top7 and ,dogrib #c-;fathom4 ,these canoes were covered with spruce or birch bark4 ,the end profile varied with the tribe of the builder4 ,chipewyan canoes had a very long end profile fore-and-aft2 the heel was angular1 and the outline of the stem then swept forward in an easy curve to a height about two-thirds the depth of the canoe amidships1 then began to tumble in a little1 the curve becoming gradually sharper until the head was reached4 ,the stem-head in its fore-and-aft length was almost one third the height of the ends and was roughly parallel to the bottom of the canoe directly beneath it4 ,because of the rocker of the bottom1 the after end of the head was thus lower than the fore end4 ,the sheer was faired up to the after end of the head in a short1 quick curve4 ,usually the outwales were cut off short of this point1 but in some canoes they were brought up along with the inwales to the stem-head4 ,wedges were used in making up the gunwale-end lashings in both the ,chipewyan and ,dogrib canoes2 these served to tighten the lashings and formed a sort of breasthook4 ,in a few examples of the ,athabascan type1 the stem-pieces were of cedar root without lamination2 this use of the roots enabled the angular form of the plank-on-edge stems to be retained4 ,it cannot be determined whether the root stem-pieces were part of the old ,athabascan technique or were an importation from the western ,cree4 ,the lashing in these canoes followed the forms used in the fur-trade canoes--long-and-short turns in groups generally triangular in shape1 with a spiral turn between groups4 ,illustration3 ,figure #adf ,,plank-,,stem ,,canoes ,,of ,,hybrid ,,forms1 #c-;,,fathom ,slavey 7top7 and #b-;fathom ,algonkin-type ,athabascan1 probably the results of the influence of fur-trade canoe-building4 ,the canoes of the ,dogrib were practically identical with those of the ,chipewyan except that the end profiles were usually slightly deeper fore-and-aft2 also the ,dogrib canoes were perhaps more often of birch bark1 judging from the remaining canoes and models4 ,the form of the ends in the ,dogrib canoes was such that they often appeared higher than they really were1 as the stem-heads stood some distance above the ends of the sheer1 an effect which was heightened by the small fore-and-aft depth of the stem-heads4 ,the large canoes of the ,slave had the same hull characteristics as the others but differed in end profiles and did not have rail caps4 ,in the ,slave canoe1 the ends were formed of thin plank and in profile were almost upright and slightly curved4 ,the stem line came out from the bottom in a sharp1 almost angular curve and ascended with a slight sweep to a point about level with the gunwale amidships 7in some1 to within a few inches of the stem-head72 from there a tumble-home carried it to the stem-head1 which was short fore-and-aft and slightly crowned1 the inboard end dropping vertically downward inside the gunwales4 ,the headboards were under the gunwale ends4 ,inwales and outwales were both carried to the stems but the end lashings were quite short4 ,there were no rail caps4 ,the bark cover was lashed to the stem with an in-and-out stitch from side to side through holes in the plank4 ,the sheer was brought up nearly to the top of the stem in a rather long1 easy sweep beginning inboard at the endmost thwart4 ,the gunwale members in all these ,athabascan canoes were quite light compared with their ,eastern counterparts4 ,a reinforcing strip of bark was placed under the outwales so as to hang down below them some four inches or so amidships and less toward the ends2 this was sometimes decorated with a painted zigzag stripe or with widely spaced circles4 ,the end lashings of the gunwales were protected by short bark deck pieces inserted under the caps4 ,the edges of these deck pieces were trimmed flush with the outboard edges of the caps1 so that no wulegessis resulted4 ,in spruce-bark canoes1 because the bark was stiff the ribs were spaced #f to #h inches1 whereas in birch-bark canoes the ribs were spaced about as usual1 #a to #b inches edge to edge4 ,in the ,dogrib and ,slave canoes the ribs were without taper2 in the ,chipewyan there was usually a slight taper from the bottom to the gunwale end4 ,the ends of the ribs were forced under the gunwales in the usual manner employed in the east1 the gunwales being rectangular in cross-section1 with the lower outboard corner beveled4 ,the thwarts were all parallel-sided1 but tapered toward the ends1 in elevation4 ,the thwart ends were tenoned into the inner gunwale and usually had two holes in each end for the lashings4 ,in the bark cover the horizontal sewing was often over root battens4 ,in many canoes rawhide was used in much of the lashing and sewing1 and in the last-built bark canoes the end lashings of the gunwales were often protected by a decking formed of a small triangular sheet of metal1 obtained from a large can and crimped along its edges so as to clamp the bark and main gunwales4 ,when this metal deck-piece was used1 the cap and outwale ended against the inboard edge of it4 ,for use in open water these canoes were often fitted with a blanket square-sail4 ,the sapling serving as a temporary mast stood in a hole in the second thwart1 and was stepped on a block1 or board1 pegged or lashed to the ribs4 ,the sheathing of all canoes of this class was of the same form--wide1 short strakes amidships1 narrower short strakes afore and abaft4 ,the midship strakes were often quite short and their ends were over the longer end strakes4 ,the end strakes were1 of course1 tapered toward the stems4 ,the placing of the strakes was often irregular1 with the result that the butts were somewhat staggered4 ,some canoes had four strakes to the length1 but three appears to have been most common4 ,the large canoe was employed on the large lakes of the ,mackenzie region2 smaller canoes of the same general form1 #ad to #af feet in length and #cj to #dj inches in beam1 were used on the large rivers and streams4 ,in the smaller canoes of this class1 the flare of the topsides was often less than in the larger craft4 ,the ,cree in this area1 particularly to the south of ,great ,slave ,lake1 also employed the ,athabascan form4 ,this class of canoe1 in general1 appears to have been strongly affected by outside influence2 consequently this description must be understood to cover existing canoes and models1 not pure ,athabascan canoe building4 ,the usual construction methods were employed in building this class of canoe2 the stakes around the building frame were set vertically1 and when the bark cover was lashed to the gunwale members 7inwale and outwale together7 the gunwales were spread and the thwarts inserted in their tenons4 ,skill was required in preshaping the gunwale members1 which1 as in the fur-trade canoes1 had to be arched in sheer amidships to allow for the change in sheer caused by spreading the gunwales in construction4 ,the building bed was also arched at midlength to allow for the lifting of the ends that occurred in spreading the gunwales with the bark cover attached4 ,a typical large ,chipewyan canoe of this class was #ba feet #d inches in overall length1 #dc inches beam and #ad inches in depth amidships4 ,a smaller ,dogrib canoe of the same class was #ad feet #g inches in overall length1 #ca inches beam1 and #aa inches in depth4 ,however1 these smaller canoes appear to have been relatively uncommon1 and the average large canoe was about #bj feet long4 ,kayak-,form ,canoe ,the kayak-form canoe was widely employed in the ,northwest and was highly developed in both model and construction4 ,it was essentially a portage and hunting craft1 ranging in length from #ab to #ah feet and in beam from about #bd to #bg inches1 with a depth between #i and #ab inches4 ,in areas where the kayak form was used as a family and cargo canoe1 the length would be as great as #bj or #be feet and the beam might reach #cj inches4 ,except in the family or cargo canoe1 which had none1 there was usually some decking at the ends1 most of it forward4 ,some tribal groups built the kayak form with its greatest beam at midlength1 but the most common form had its greatest beam abaft midlength and its greatest depth there likewise4 ,many of the kayak forms had unlike end profiles1 so that there was a distinct bow in appearance as well as in fact4 ,there was much variety in end profile1 and the canoes of each tribal group were usually identifiable by this means4 ,the kayak-form bark canoes of the lower ,yukon and neighboring streams had a short overhang1 formed in a curved rake and alike or very nearly so1 at bow and stern4 ,on the upper ,yukon and adjoining streams the canoes had much rake at both ends1 the rake being straight from the bottom outward for some distance1 then curving rather markedly4 ,the bow rake was usually greatest1 but the stern might be higher by one or two inches4 ,the bottom was without rocker1 being straight or even slightly hogged in most of these canoes4 ,the sheer was straight to the point where the rake began1 then rose in a easy sweep to the ends4 ,the end decks on the upper ,yukon canoes were short1 those on lower ,yukon canoes were much longer2 on the latter the bow deck was nearly a third the length of the canoe1 on the former about a fifth4 ,in the ,mackenzie ,basin1 the kayak-form canoes had a moderate rake1 curved in profile1 at bow and stern and a rather low stem-head2 the depth at the stern was noticeably greater than at the bow1 and the deck forward was commonly a little less than a fourth the length of the canoe4 ,in these canoes the greatest beam in most cases was abaft midlength1 and this was also true of the lower ,yukon canoes4 ,on the upper ,yukon and in some of these canoes on the lower ,mackenzie1 the greatest beam was amidships and the depth at bow and stern were equal4 ,illustration3 ,figure #adg ,,eskimo ,,kayak-,,form ,,birch-,,bark ,,canoe ,,from ,,alaskan ,,coast1 with long foredeck batten-sewn to the gunwales1 no afterdeck1 and rigid bottom frame4 ,the variation in depth at bow and stern in some of the kayak-form canoes seems to have been related to the position of the greatest beam2 when the beam was abaft the midlength1 the greatest depth was aft1 whereas when the greatest beam was amidships1 the depth at the ends was equal4 ,with the beam abaft midlength1 the weight of the paddler trimmed the canoe by the stern somewhat1 hence greater depth aft than forward was necessary to make the canoe run easily and turn readily in smooth water4 ,in the sea kayaks of the eastern ,eskimo1 on the other hand1 the depth and the draft were greatest forward1 to bring them head to the sea when paddling ceased4 ,the ,alaskan sea kayaks were commonly of equal draft at bow and stern or might have a slightly greater draft aft than forward4 ,a third variation of the kayak form existed in ,british ,columbia in early times1 and apparently was employed by the ,beaver1 ,nahane1 and ,sekani4 ,it was an undecked bateau-shaped canoe having a fair sheer in a long sweep from end to end1 the stem profiles were nearly straight1 the ends were raked rather strongly1 and the bow was somewhat higher than the stern4 ,the beam was greatest slightly abaft midlength4 ,it is estimated that canoes of this type1 which has long been extinct and now can only be reconstructed from a model1 were about #ad feet #h inches long and #cj to #cf inches in beam1 and probably were built of both spruce and birch4 ,the gunwales of the kayak-form canoes were formed by inwales and outwales2 no caps were employed4 ,in the ,alaskan types and in the extinct ,british ,columbia bateau variation1 the gunwale lashings were continuous1 but in the ,mackenzie models the lashings were in groups4 ,inwales and outwales in all the kayak forms ran to the stem-pieces1 which were plank-on-edge of a thickness that varied according to tribal practice4 ,no headboards were employed4 ,the gunwale members were rectangular in cross-section and were bent square with the flare of the sides4 ,the ends sometimes were swelled and rounded1 and in the bateau variation the gunwales1 in cross section1 appear to have been rounded4 ,six thwarts appear in most of the kayak forms but the ,loucheux model had five and the bateau variation seems to have had but three4 ,illustration3 ,figure #adh ,,athabascan ,,hunting ,,canoes ,,of ,,the ,,kayak ,,form1 showing characteristic hull shape4 ,these canoes were light1 handy1 and fast4 ,reinforcing bark was placed under the outwales in all ,mackenzie ,basin canoes1 but not in the ,alaskan or in the bateau variation4 ,the ribs in all these canoes were small1 usually about inch square1 and widely spaced1 about #i to #ad inches on centers4 ,no ribs were placed in the rake of the ends4 ,the ends of the ribs were chisel-pointed and were forced between the inwale and outwale1 against the inside of the bark cover4 ,in some canoes1 however1 the ribs near the ends of the canoe were forced into short splits on the underside of the inwale4 ,the thwart ends might also be forced into short splits on the inside face of the inwales or might be tenoned there2 in any case a single lashing was used at the thwart ends4 ,thwarts were parallel-sided in plan and slightly tapered toward the ends in elevation2 no shoulders were used4 ,in the bateau variation1 a heavy thwart was placed directly under the middle thwart with its ends against the side battens1 apparently to act as a spreader4 ,each end was notched over the side battens and was held by two lashings to the bottom crosspiece below it4 ,this structure was probably made necessary by the fragile construction of this form of canoe4 ,in all kayak forms there was no complete sheathing--the one1 two1 or three narrow battens to a side above the chine were held in place only by the sprung ribs 7without lashings72 in the bateau form1 however1 the side batten was lashed to each frame after the manner of of an ,eskimo sea kayak4 ,the characteristic detail in the structure of the bark kayak-canoe1 including the bateau variation1 was the bottom framing4 ,it was variously formed1 according to tribal designation4 ,the bottom framing was made up of five or six longitudinal battens 7four in one extinct form of canoe74 ,in the ,yukon canoes six rectangular battens1 all of about the same cross section1 were used with the narrow edge outboard4 ,these battens were held rigidly to form by thin crosspieces1 or splints1 about by #a inch forced athwartships through short splits in the battens and pegged at the ends on the chine battens4 ,the ends of the four inner longitudinals were cut off on the snye to bear on the inside face of the chine battens 7in some instances they were cut short of this74 ,the chine ends were beveled together or lashed to the sides of the stem-pieces4 ,but in the ,mackenzie form of canoe1 the longitudinals had no cross-members and1 like the side battens1 were held in place by the pressure of the sprung ribs against the bark cover4 ,there was a difference in the form of midsection3 in the ,yukon canoes the bottom athwartships was flat1 but in the ,mackenzie canoes there had to be some rounding there4 ,at least one exception existed in the ,mackenzie ,basin1 where the ,loucheux canoe was formed on the ,yukon bottom4 ,another is to be seen in an old model of an extinct ,athabascan kayak form1 which has only four longitudinals and chine members that are very wide and rounded only on the outboard face4 ,between the chine battens are two light rectangular battens4 ,these are all held together by a few splints and by lashings which pass around each individual batten1 thus serving both as lashing and spreader4 ,this canoe has what is apparently a very narrow bottom compared to known types4 ,in some of the ,eskimo-built birch kayak forms1 the separators between the bottom battens were rectangular blocks held in place by a thong threaded through two holes in each batten and block1 to make a round turn1 and tied at one chine4 ,illustration3 ,figure #adi ,,extinct ,,forms ,,of ,,canoes ,,reconstructed ,,from ,,old ,,models1 showing variations in the bottom frame construction and the effects of hull form4 ,dimensions are estimated from the sizes of canoes in the area of each example4 ,in some bateau variations of the kayak-form canoe1 the longitudinals were secured by crosspieces1 the ends of which were tenoned into the inside faces of the chine battens4 ,the three inner battens were below the cross pieces4 ,as a result1 their bottoms were slightly below the bottom of the chine members1 so that in this canoe two chine lines show through the bark cover on each side of the canoe4 ,from tribe to tribe the method of building the kayak-form canoe varied somewhat1 but generally the following procedure was employed4 ,on a smooth1 level piece of ground the form of the canoe was staked out in the usual manner1 using a building frame1 with the stakes sloped outward at the top to match the desired flare of the sides4 ,stem and stern posts were shaped of cedar by charring and scraping4 ,the gunwales were made in the same manner and were then lashed at the desired heights on the stakes4 ,next1 the bark cover was formed1 usually of two or more sheets sewn together4 ,this was placed inside the stakes and the building frame was forced down on it and weighted with stones4 ,the ends were then trimmed and the sides were gored1 sewn1 and trimmed to fit the gunwales1 to which the bark was laced4 ,the stem and the stern post were then placed and lashed to the gunwales and secured to the bark by lashing1 in some instances through holes in the posts4 ,the bark at this stage was usually quite dry and stiff and the gunwales could be freed from the side stakes4 ,the bottom frame1 assembled before other construction had started1 was hogged2 the middle was placed on a log or block and the ends weighted4 ,hot water was often applied to set the bottom frame4 ,next1 the bark cover was thoroughly wetted with boiling water to make it pliable and elastic4 ,the building frame and stones were now removed1 the bottom frame was substituted1 and its ends fastened or engaged to the heels of the stem and stern posts4 ,the bottom frame was then forced flat and held there by stones4 ,this stretched the bottom bark longitudinally1 and increased the sheer slightly toward bow and stern4 ,the hogged bottom frame was known as a sliding bottom by some ,indians4 ,the transverse frames1 or ribs1 had been prebent in the usual manner before assembly began2 a few of these were now put in place1 the ends being forced under the gunwales between their outer faces and the bark1 or into a groove on the underside of the gunwale4 ,this stretched the bark transversely and vertically4 ,once the bark had been forced into form by this method1 the remaining ribs were added1 and these now held the hogged bottom down so that the weights or stones could be removed4 ,the canoe was then turned over1 the seams gummed1 and any tears or rents repaired4 ,this method of building usually produced a slight hogging in both bottom and in the sheer amidships1 but when the canoe was afloat and loaded the light1 flexible construction caused the hogging to disappear4 ,the kayak-form canoes of the ,dn tribe appear to be the most highly developed of all in this type4 ,the decks of many of the kayak-form canoes were made of a triangular sheet of bark cut with the grain of the bark running athwartships1 so that it could be held in place by the curl of its edges1 which clamped under the outwales1 as well as by three lashings4 ,the edges were curled by passing a glowing brand along them4 ,one lashing was around the stem-head and two were at the inboard end of the deck1 around inwale and outwale4 ,if the inboard end of the deck was not on a thwart it was stiffened by a batten lashed on top of the deck athwartship1 at the deck end1 to serve as an exterior deck beam and breakwater in one4 ,if the deck end was on a thwart1 a batten might be pegged athwartship on top of the deck2 sometimes this batten was rolled in a sheet of bark first4 ,another method was to use a small sheet of bark tightly rolled1 with its free edge tucked under the deck end and secured at the ends of the roll by the deck-gunwale lashings there4 ,some canoes had their decks lashed over battens for a short distance along the gunwales4 ,in some ,mackenzie ,basin kayak forms1 the end of the deck at the stem-head was protected by a small paddle-or leaf-shaped piece of bark placed under the lashing there and shaped to reach a little over onto the stem piece so as to seal the seam4 ,the fitting of the bark cover of the kayak-form canoes was not the same in all types4 ,in the ,mackenzie canoes the bottom1 which might be in three1 four1 or five pieces sewn together1 was alike on both sides2 to it the side pieces were sewn at1 or just above1 the chines4 ,the sides were made up of deep panels1 five to nine to a side4 ,there were no horizontal seams other than the one near the chines4 ,in some ,yukon canoes1 however1 the bottom sheet was often made of three pieces and covered not only the bottom but also a portion1 such as the after two-thirds1 of one side4 ,the forward portion of that side would then be covered by a single large panel or perhaps two1 so that the horizontal seam on that side would run from the stem aft to the inboard end of the foredeck and would be just above the chine4 ,on the opposite side a sheet would cover the bottom there and the bow topside from the stem aft for a short way4 ,deep panels would then cover the rest of that side to the stern1 so that the horizontal seam there began forward at the sheer1 some feet abaft the bow1 and swept downward in a gentle curve to near the chine and then ran aft to the stern in a long sheered line just above the turn of the bilge1 rising slightly as it neared the stern4 ,hence the foremost of the panels on that side was nearly triangular and the others were nearly rectangular4 ,inside1 at the chine1 was placed a reinforcing strip of bark wide enough to reach #c inches beyond both sides of each chine longitudinal and running the length of the bottom2 or if a seam near the chine permitted1 the side and bottom pieces were overlapped4 ,as has been noted1 in the ,yukon canoes a reinforcing piece at the outwale was not used1 but was in the ,mackenzie canoes2 it extended down the side about #c inches below the underside of the outwale amidships and ran to the ends of the canoe1 or nearly so1 tapering with the outwales to a width of about #a inches at bow and stern4 ,in these canoes much of the lashing at stem and stern was double-thong2 the longitudinal sewing was often over a batten in the usual spiral stitch1 and a simple spiral stitch was also used to join the panels1 although in-and-out stitching might also be seen in some canoes4 ,in many of the kayak-form canoes two ribs often stood noticeably close together amidships1 and the rest stood parallel to the rake of the end on their side1 respectively1 of the middle ribs4 ,however1 not all these canoes had such double ribs2 some were framed out in the usual manner1 with the ribs widely spaced and canted toward their respective ends of the hull1 away from the midship of the canoe4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aej ,,kayak-,,form ,,canoes ,,of ,,the ,,alaskan ,,eskimos and ,canadian ,athabascan ,indians3 chine form of ,eskimo birch-bark canoe 7above7 and the dish-sectioned form of the ,canadian ,athabascans4 ,in most of these canoes the paddler sat on a sheet of bark secured on the bottom2 this was held in place by one or two false ribs having their ends under the inner gunwales and their middle forced down against the bark on the bottom framework4 ,in place of bark1 some ,eskimo builders of the type used thin splints of wood laced together by two or three lines of double-thong stitching athwartships1 which was passed through two holes in each splint4 ,this might be loose or held in place by a false frame4 ,the paddle was single-bladed and the same as that used with the second class of ,mackenzie ,basin canoe 7fig4 #aea74 ,the blade was parallel-sided with the point formed in a short straight-sided ,v-form2 ,the blade of ,yukon paddles was often taper-sided toward the point1 which was a rounded ,v4 ,other variations in blade form existed1 however1 and the narrow leaf-shaped blade was used in some areas in ,alaska4 ,in the ,mackenzie paddles the handle ended in a knob1 but in ,alaskan versions it ended in a cross-grip like those of paddles used with some ,alaskan sea kayaks4 ,the ,eskimo double-blade paddle was used with the kayak-form canoe by some paddlers2 ,hearne mentions its use4 ,some of the kayak-form canoes were decorated2 in ,alaska this decoration often took the form of a line of colored beads sewn along each side of the afterdeck at the gunwale1 or it consisted of a few oval panels of red1 blue1 or black paint along the sides or centerline of the afterdeck4 ,in some ,mackenzie kayak forms the decks were painted in various designs2 a rather common one seems to have been two or more bands of paint around the deck edges1 along the gunwales1 ending at bow and stern with a full round sweep4 ,painted disk designs appeared on some of the large ,algonkin-,ojibway canoes of the second type4 ,a number of kayak forms became extinct before any accurate1 detailed records of their shape and construction had been made2 models of some of these canoes exist but are not to scale and are untrustworthy as to detail1 since they are often simplified4 ,one model of the extinct ,british ,columbia bateau form1 for example1 showed but three longitudinals in the bottom1 though the probable size of the canoe undoubtedly would have required a greater number4 ,on the other hand1 the model may have represented a spruce-bark canoe constructed for temporary use1 in which case a simplified construction might have been employed4 ,one can only speculate which it was4 ,models of some kayak-form ,yukon canoes show the decks lashed to the gunwales with a very coarse spiral stitch not recorded for any of the observed full-size canoes2 thus it may be a model-maker's method of securing the decking firmly rather than an actual practice used on full-size canoes4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aea ,,kayak-,,form ,,canoe ,,of ,,british ,,columbia and upper ,yukon valley4 ,shows hogged bottom1 usual in the type with a rigid bottom frame1 which becomes straight or cambered when canoe is afloat and manned4 ,original in the ,museum of the ,american ,indian1 ,new ,york4 ,it now remains only to give short descriptions of the various kayak-form canoes that have been observed4 ,the ends of the ,eskimo-built canoes of the lower ,yukon had a short rake1 the heel of the end profile breaking out of the bottom line at a slight angle and sweeping upward and outward in a gentle curve1 often becoming almost straight near the stem head4 ,the bow and stern were nearly the same height1 the bow being a little higher1 about half the midship depth above the sheer amidships4 ,the sheer at each end was almost dead straight until within a few inches of the end2 thence it swept up sharply with the inner gunwale ends1 broadened1 resting on the inboard side of the stem piece4 ,the extreme ends of the inner gunwales were thus at the extreme stem-head4 ,the stem-pieces were of plank1 the cutwater portion outside the bark cover being sharpened the full height of the stems4 ,these lower ,yukon canoes had three side battens above the chine piece1 but not all ran the full length in one piece2 some were in two1 in which case the ends merely ran past one another for a few rib-spaces and were neither butted nor lapped4 ,the forward deck extended nearly one-third the canoe's length and had a batten across the inboard deck-end2 the after deck reached to the after thwart4 ,adney's model of such a canoe shows the after deck lashed to the gunwales with spiral turns over a batten along the deck edges and finished toward the stern with chain stitching1 but no such arrangement was seen in any full-sized canoe4 ,the form of these ,eskimo-built canoes was nearly that of a double-ended flat-bottom skiff2 the bottom being flat athwartships and without rocker fore-and-aft4 ,the sides flared and were nearly straight4 ,the turn of the bilge was quite sharp1 the chine having a very short radius4 ,in plan1 the canoe showed no hollow in the ends1 which were convex both at gunwale and on the bottom frame4 ,in some of the full-sized canoes inspected there appeared to be a slight hog ranging from to inch in the bottom1 but there was no evidence to suggest that this was a result of the drying and shrinkage of the canoe structure with age4 ,hearne's drawing of a kayak-form canoe shows an impossible amount of hog in the bottom1 and he indicates that some hog was intentional in building4 ,this would disappear when the canoe was loaded afloat owing to the light and flexible structure1 and it is evident that the builders usually sought to have the bottom slightly hogged4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aeb ,,construction ,,of ,,kayak-,,form ,,canoe of the lower ,yukon1 showing rigid bottom frame4 7,smithsonian ,institution photo47 ,the kayak-form canoes of the lower ,yukon and neighboring streams all appear to have been small canoes tailored to their owner's weight and height3 #ad to #ae feet in overall length1 #b to #b feet wide1 and #aj to #ab inches deep4 ,the bottom frame was from #ab to #ad inches wide amidships4 ,the kayak-form canoes of the upper ,yukon ,valley and those used in northern ,british ,columbia and in ,yukon ,territory had ends with a long rake that came up in a straight line from an angular break at the bottom line to the height of the sheer amidships or thereabouts2 there a gradual upward curve continued to the stem-head4 ,the stern was #b inches or so higher than the bow1 and the rake of the latter was usually about an equal distance longer than that of the stern4 ,the sheer was nearly straight1 with only about #b inches of sag from the heel of the stem to that of the stern4 ,beyond the heels1 the sheer lifted in a fair sweep1 becoming sharper toward the ends1 where the broadened inwales were secured on top of the stem and stern pieces4 ,there was no rocker in the bottom1 and some examples showed as much as inch of hog amidships4 ,the bottom was flat athwartships and the almost straight sides flared a good deal4 ,the turn of the bilge was on a very small radius and in some canoes appeared angular4 ,the bow deck was usually just under one-fifth the length of the canoe4 ,most of the canoes did not have a stern deck1 at least on the ,yukon headwaters1 but on those that did1 it was about one-ninth the length of the canoe4 ,the greatest beam was abaft amidships and the canoe was usually about #a inches deeper at the heel of the sternpost than at the heel of the stem4 ,in plan1 the ends 7at gunwale and bottom frame7 were convex2 the gunwale ends alone might appear slightly hollow close to the posts in some examples4 ,the canoes in ,alaska and ,british ,columbia and at the headwaters of the ,yukon had a rigid bottom structure1 with the splint spreaders usually numbering five4 ,the #a-man hunting canoes were commonly #ah to #ai feet long1 #bd to #bg inches beam1 and usually #aj to #aa inches deep amidships4 ,the single example of a family or cargo kayak-form that has been measured from this area was #bj feet #a inch overall and #cj inches beam over the gunwales4 ,it was #ah inches wide on the bottom frame1 #ac inches deep amidships1 #ad inches deep at heel of stem1 and #af inches at heel of stem-post4 ,height of the stem was #bi inches1 of the stern #cj inches1 the after rake was #ch inches1 and the fore rake #dj inches4 ,the canoe had no decks and was rather sharp-ended4 ,the kayak-form canoe of the ,athabascan ,loucheux had a rigid bottom-frame2 the bottom was flat athwartships and it had no fore-and-aft rocker4 ,the sides were flaring and slightly curved4 ,both ends were alike1 and the canoe was unusual in having only five thwarts1 with one amidships4 ,the stem was short in rake and curved2 the stem profile came out of the bottom line in a fair1 quick curve which became vertical at a height of little more than two-thirds the depth amidships of the canoe4 ,the height of the stem was almost twice the midship depth4 ,between the end thwarts the sheer was straight1 thence it swept upward in a gradually sharpening curve to the inboard stems2 the inwale ends stood vertical on the face of the stem1 with their ends brought to the top of the stem-head4 ,the stem-pieces were of unusually thick plank1 with the head broadened and the cutwater part outside the bark cover sharpened until near the head1 where it gradually became as wide as inboard4 ,the gunwales were lashed with continuous turns1 as in the ,alaskan canoes4 ,in plan1 the gunwales and bottom frame were full-ended and convex4 ,these canoes were decked equally at both ends4 ,the deck extended inboard far enough to just cover the end thwart1 to which1 in the example seen1 it was lashed with four simple in-and-out passes of rawhide thong4 ,the chine-pieces of the bottom were lashed to the sides of the stem-pieces4 ,the covering was birch bark4 ,two battens on each side were employed with the usual six longitudinals in the bottom frame4 ,these canoes were well-built and their ends resemble those of the seagoing kayaks used at the mouth of the ,mackenzie1 but these for at least the last #gj years of their use were round-bottomed4 ,the ,loucheux canoes were small1 usually about #ae feet long1 #cj inches wide1 and about #ab inches deep amidships4 ,the ,chipewyan kayak-form canoe was of loose-batten bottom frame construction1 with its beam well aft of amidships4 ,its bottom was slightly rounded athwartships1 with a slight rocker fore-and-aft2 the sides flared outward and were nearly straight2 and the turn of the bilge was almost angular4 ,the bow and stern were of the same general shape2 the end profile came out of the bottom line with a quick hard curve and then fell outboard in a long sweep that gradually straightened near the head4 ,the rakes were short1 however1 and the stem was noticeably lower than the stern1 the difference being as much as #f inches in some canoes4 ,the sheer was nearly straight to the end thwarts and thence it curved up in an easy sweep to the ends of the canoe4 ,the canoes were markedly deeper at the stern than at the bow2 the difference being as much as #a inches in some examples4 ,this kayak-form was very sharp-ended2 the gunwales in plan often showed a slight hollow and the chine members came to the posts in an almost straight ,v4 ,as a result1 the end ribs were often intentionally broken to form a narrow-based1 angular ,u4 ,in some ,eskimo-built kayak forms1 a similar result in hull section was obtained in the endmost frames by stepping short struts in splits1 or tenons1 on top of the chine members and on the underside of the main gunwales4 ,this construction was occasionally found in some of the lower ,yukon kayak forms4 ,the ,chipewyan kayak forms were decked at both ends4 ,the fore deck was slightly more than one-fourth the length of the canoe and extended inboard to the second thwart2 the after deck was about one-tenth1 and came inboard to the end thwart4 ,no breakwater batten or bark was employed4 ,there were two battens on the sides1 above the bilges4 ,the gunwale wrappings were in groups4 ,the bark cover was not folded over the top of the inner gunwale but1 as usual in the ,northwest canoes1 was trimmed evenly with the top of the inwale and outwale4 ,reinforcing bark along the gunwales extended downward about #a inches below the bottom of the outwales amidships and about #a inch at the ends4 ,of the bottom longitudinals1 the keel and chine-pieces were roughly rectangular in cross-section1 laid on the flat1 and the intermediate two battens were round2 the ends of the keel piece were merely butted against the stems1 no lashing being used4 ,the stem piece was thick plank and was sharpened outside the bark cover to form a cutwater4 ,the stem lashing was of the usual two-thong form1 and a batten was used in the longitudinal seams of the bark cover4 ,the thwarts1 six in number1 were tenoned through both inwale and outwale and pegged between them4 ,no thwart lashings were used4 ,the decks often were not lashed into place1 being held only by the curling of the edges of the bark sheets4 ,this canoe was a very good one2 it was light and was fitted to the owner's build4 ,in size it would be between #ab and #ad feet long and #bj and #bd inches wide over the gunwales1 and the width of bottom over the chine members amidships would be #aa to #ab inches4 ,the greatest beam would occur #g to #h feet abaft the stem4 ,the depth at heel of stem would be #h to #i inches and at heel of stern1 #aj to #aa inches4 ,the amount of bottom rocker would be between and #a inch1 with its low point about amidships4 ,the cover was usually birch bark1 but sometimes spruce bark was used4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aec ,,model ,,of ,,an ,,extinct ,,form ,,of ,,birch-,,bark ,,canoe1 ,athabascan type1 of ,british ,columbia4 ,in ,peabody ,museum1 ,harvard ,university1 ,cambridge1 ,mass42 entered in the museum catalog as of #ahdi4 ,another kayak-form canoe of unknown tribal designation from the ,mackenzie ,basin was #ac feet #c inches long1 #bg inches beam over the gunwales1 #h inches deep amidships1 #h inches deep at heel of stem1 #aj inches deep at the aftermost thwart1 and with about inch of rocker in the forebody1 none in the afterbody4 ,the greatest beam occurred #g feet #b inches from the stem4 ,the width amidships of the bottom framework of loose longitudinals was #ac inches4 ,the length of the rake foreward was #ab inches and aft1 #ab inches4 ,the fore deck extended inboard to the second thwart1 where a roll of bark formed a breakwater4 ,the after deck extended inboard to the aftermost thwart4 ,between the end thwarts the sheer was practically straight2 at the ends it rose gently1 becoming almost a straight line as it came to the stem and stern1 and without the usual upward hook in the ends of the gunwales4 ,this was a very light and well-built canoe with a birch-bark cover1 a slightly rounded bottom athwartships1 slack bilge1 and flaring sides showing some curve in cross-section4 ,the ends were rather sharp1 the gunwales coming in to them almost straight1 in plan1 as did the chine members4 ,the stem and stern pieces were of wide plank sharpened along their outboard edge outside the bark cover1 for their whole height1 to form cutwaters4 ,the stem and stern profiles were about the same as those of the ,chipewyan canoes4 ,an old model in the ,peabody ,museum of an undecked kayak-form canoe of ,athabascan construction represents a high-ended canoe having ends with a slight rake and a straight cutwater4 ,this form of canoe has long been extinct1 and no description of an actual canoe of the form exists4 ,judging by the model it had a very narrow flat-bottom and rounded flaring sides4 ,the extinct bateau variant has already been described 7pp4 #aei-afa72 it might be considered a primitive form of the kayak-form bark canoes1 were it not that no intermediate type1 between the bateau and the later and highly developed bark kayak-form1 has been found2 as a result1 any such statement can be no more than speculation4 ,sturgeon-,nose ,canoe ,in southern ,british ,columbia and in northern ,washington1 the ram-ended or sturgeon-nose canoes were built4 ,these were the canoes of the ,kutenai1 also spelled ,kootenay1 and of the ,salish tribal groups4 ,used on rivers and lakes1 they were constructed of the bark of birch1 spruce1 fir1 white pine1 or balsam1 whichever was available at the building site4 ,wherever possible a panel of birch bark was worked in along the whole length of the gunwales4 ,the hull form of these canoes varied somewhat1 perhaps by decision of the builder1 or perhaps by local tribal custom4 ,the ends were formed with a marked ram1 the stem profiles running down and out to the nose in a straight or nearly straight line4 ,in some examples the stem profiles were in a hollow curve1 starting down from the gunwales rather steeply and then curving outward more gently to the nose4 ,most examples had a bottom that was straight or slightly hogged1 while those with the hollow curve in the ram often had a slight rocker4 ,it is believed that the intention was always to have the bottom straight but that in construction the center of the canoe lifted somewhat1 thus showing a slight hog in the bottom line4 ,the effects of loading and use on the light and flexible structure of these canoes would cause the bottom to rocker and the outboard ends to lift1 thus causing the hollow in the ram profiles4 ,these effects of loading are confirmed by tests with models of this form of canoe4 ,the midsection was usually quite round1 almost ,u-shaped1 on the bottom1 but some canoes showed the bottom slightly flattened and the sides flared out somewhat4 ,toward the ends1 the ,u-shape became marked1 and near the gunwale ends the sides of the ,u fell inboard slightly as they came to the gunwales1 the bottom of the ,u having a hard turn4 ,in plan1 the gunwales approached the stems without hollow1 being nearly straight or even slightly convex4 ,the ram was long and sharp in its lower level lines and this1 with the form of midsection1 made this model a fast-paddling canoe1 though rather unstable4 ,most of these canoes had but one thwart1 placed at midlength1 but some have been found with three thwarts and a thong tie across the gunwales1 close to the stems1 as well4 ,no stem-pieces were used2 the bark ends were closed by two outside battens1 one on each side1 whose heads were carried some #c inches above the gunwales4 ,a cutwater batten was placed over the edges of the bark between the battens1 and the three were lashed together1 with the bark1 by a coarse spiral wrapping or by group ties4 ,the bark cover was not sheathed inside2 instead1 six battens1 by #a inches1 were placed on each side of the keel piece1 which measured about by #c inches and tapered toward the ends4 ,the battens1 widely spaced1 ran well into the ram ends1 and were held in place1 like sheathing1 by the pressure of the ribs4 ,the ribs1 spaced #h to #ab inches on centers1 were often split saplings2 sometimes they were shaped to approximately by inch4 ,the batten nearest the gunwale on each side was lashed to every rib4 ,in some canoes the heads of the ribs were brought up between the inwale and outwale1 inside the bark cover1 with their ends against the cap4 ,the stitching of the longitudinal seam of the topside panel was passed around these frames and so helped to secure them4 ,in one example1 the ribs were passed through the bark cover just below the horizontal seam of the topside panel2 there a turn of the stitching was passed around each rib2 then the rib was brought inboard again in the seam by being passed between the edges of the bark cover and the panel4 ,in many canoes there were no ribs in the ram ends1 but this was not universal practice2 small light ribs were sometimes placed there1 with their heads caught in the closure lashing of the end4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aed ,,bark ,,canoe ,,of ,,the ,,kutenai ,,and ,,shuswap1 about average in size and proportion4 ,original in the ,museum of the ,american ,indian1 ,new ,york4 ,the canoes had #c-part gunwales consisting of inwale1 outwale1 and cap1 but in many the arrangement of these was such that this nomenclature is misleading4 ,in the latter construction1 a lower inwale was used1 as in the above drawing2 rather small in cross section1 it was almost square1 with rounded edges4 ,the rib ends1 after passing through slits in the bark cover below the lower inwale1 continued upward past it1 outside the bark cover4 ,above the lower inwale and inside the bark cover was a larger upper inwale2 this was flat on the outboard and bottom sides1 the top and inboard sides being rounded into one another4 ,the outwale1 roughly rectangular in cross section1 clamped the bark cover and heads of the ribs between it and the upper inwale4 ,the ribs and bark were trimmed off flush with the tops of the outwale and upper inwale4 ,the thwart amidships was caught1 at the ends1 between the lower and upper inwales4 ,the gunwale members and bark cover were secured by group lashings of small extent and rather widely spaced4 ,the methods of fitting the thwarts differed in this class of canoe1 and it cannot be determined with certainty whether this variation was tribal or the choice of the individual builder4 ,in canoes having the lower inwale arrangement there was but one thwart amidships4 ,as has been said1 its ends were caught between the upper and lower inwales4 ,directly beneath it was a rib whose head was not brought up outside the bark cover but1 after being secured to the uppermost sheathing batten1 was brought around inboard in a quick hard turn and secured along the underside of the thwart with a close spiral lashing4 ,under this rib at the topmost batten was secured a short false rib head by forcing the beveled foot of the false rib between the batten and the true rib1 after lashing2 the head of the false rib was then brought up through and outside the bark cover in the customary manner1 or it might be forced under the lower inwale1 inside the bark cover4 ,in this construction1 the endmost ribs were at the gunwale ends1 and the heads of these were lashed to the stem battens outside the gunwale ends1 on the outside of the bark cover4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aee ,,ojibway ,,canoe ,,construction4 7,see pp4 #abb-aca47 ,peeling bark4 ,staking out bark4 ,assembling bark over on building site4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey photos47 ,making root thongs4 ,setting ribs inside bark cover with a mallet4 ,fitting gunwale caps on new canoe4 ,in canoes having the usual gunwales of inwale1 outwale1 and cap1 the inwale and outwale were roughly rectangular1 with their top sides horizontal1 and the cap1 very small and light1 was flat on the bottom and rounded on top4 ,in this construction1 the rib heads usually were clamped between the inwale and outwale1 inside the bark cover4 ,the ribs of the ends were lighter than those of the main body and more closely spaced1 say #b or #c inches apart4 ,these began about #h or #i inches inboard of the gunwale ends2 the heads did not reach the gunwales1 but instead were caught in the horizontal seam of the side panel and then cut off4 ,usually three ribs were so fitted4 ,the rest of the end ribs1 usually eight in number1 either had their heads caught in the stem lashings or were made up as hoops with the heads overlapped and lashed together1 the ribs being placed so that the overlap came to one side or the other of the canoe4 ,each hoop was usually caught by a turn in the end-closure lashing4 ,to strengthen the ram1 the lower ends of the three stem battens were lashed to the extremities of the inside keel-piece1 which was brought through the bark cover at this point4 ,the opening resulting from this was sealed with gum or pitch4 ,minor variations in construction have been noted in the canoes exhibited in museums2 in one1 for example1 only every fourth rib was caught in the topside panel stitching4 ,in canoes having the usual arrangement of gunwale members1 with the cap over the ends of the ribs1 the ends of the thwart were sometimes carried some #f to #h inches beyond the gunwales1 at each end1 and much reduced in thickness by cutting away about half the depth of the thwart4 ,this part was then wrapped tightly around the inwale1 brought inboard along the underside of the thwart1 and there lashed4 ,examples show that the amount of end brought inboard under the thwart varied with the builder4 ,it should be added that the thwarts were usually no more than barked saplings and were obviously installed in the canoe when green and treated with hot water so they would not break when wrapped around the inwales4 ,in canoes having three thwarts1 all were fitted in this manner1 but often the thwarts on each side of the middle were also wrapped in a long spiral with a thong whose ends were tied to each gunwale4 ,in #c-thwart canoes1 there was commonly a cross tie1 located roughly #ab inches from the gunwale ends and consisting of three or more turns of cord1 or thong1 around the gunwale members on each side and athwartships1 secured by turns of the ends around the cross tie4 ,in one canoe there was a thwart amidships and one at one end1 about halfway between the middle thwart and the gunwale ends2 at the other end were two cross ties1 one replacing the thwart and another a foot inboard of the ends of the gunwales4 ,in this canoe the ribs at the gunwale ends were hoops and there were only three hoop ribs in the ram ends4 ,one canoe1 from ,stevens ,county1 ,washington1 had a peculiar double framing4 ,the sheathing battens1 instead of being on the inside of the bark cover1 rested on light ribs1 spaced about #f inches apart1 that ran only far enough up the sides to have their ends caught in the stitching at the bottom of the topside birch-bark panel along the gunwales4 ,the longitudinal battens were placed inside these1 with the batten nearest the gunwale lashed to the light ribs4 ,inside these battens and spaced about a foot apart was another set of ribs whose heads were secured between the inwale and outwale inside the bark cover2 each of these inside ribs was also lashed to the uppermost batten4 ,only the keel batten was under the small ribs4 ,the thwart ends were wrapped around the main gunwale members1 and the stem battens were secured to the birch topside panels by but one group lashing1 near the gunwales4 ,the bottom cover was stiff pine bark4 ,the topside panel of birch bark was placed in these canoes so that its grain was horizontal instead of the usual vertical4 ,presumably this was done as a maintenance solution3 the panel was much easier to repair or replace than the bottom bark2 and by having the panel placed in this weak mode1 it would split before the bottom bark if too much pressure were brought on the framework in loading4 ,these canoes paddled well in strong winds and in smooth water1 and worked quietly in the marshes where they were much used4 ,canvas canoes of the same model replaced the bark canoes1 indicating that the model was suitable for its locality and use4 ,these sturgeon-nose canoes were so different from other ,north ,american bark canoes that they have been the subject of much speculation1 particularly since ram-ended canoes1 though of different construction1 existed in ,asia4 ,the size of the ,kutenai-,salish sturgeon-nose canoes varied2 the most common size appears to have been between #ad and #bj feet over the ends of the rams1 #bd to #bh inches beam1 and with a depth ranging from #ab to #ac inches amidships and from #ad to #ag inches at the ends of the gunwales4 ,however1 records exist that show rather large canoes were built on this model1 #bd feet over the rams1 #dh inches beam and #bd inches depth4 ,the building methods of this type of canoe have never been reported4 ,probably some kind of a rough building frame was used4 ,perhaps this was comprised of a couple of the battens and the keel piece1 weighted with stones4 ,the building bed was probably level4 ,the main gunwale members were apparently made up temporarily and the bark cover shaped and staked out4 ,from that point the work may have followed the usual canoe-building practices except that the ends could not be closed until the framing there was complete1 otherwise it would have been impossible to fasten the small ribs in the rams4 ,the structure of these canoes appears to have been almost entirely cedar1 except for the bark and lacings which1 in some instances1 were partly some bark fiber as well as roots4 ,in general1 the construction of this class of canoe did not match in quality that of the other bark canoes of the ,northwest4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aef ,,indians ,,with ,,canoe at ,alert ,bay1 on ,cormorant ,island1 ,b4,c4 ,chapter ,seven ,,arctic ,,skin ,,boats ,howard ,i4 ,chapelle ,among the three primitive watercraft of ,north ,america 7the others being the dugout and the bark canoe of the ,american ,indians71 the ,arctic skin boats of the ,eskimos are remarkable for effective design and construction obtained under conditions in which building materials are both scarce and limited in selection4 ,the ,arctic skin boat is almost entirely to be found in the ,north ,american ,arctic from ,bering ,sea to the ,east ,coast of ,greenland4 ,in ,russian ,siberia1 only in a small area of the eastern ,arctic lands adjacent to the ,north ,american continent are any employed4 ,these craft1 an important and necessary factor in the hunting lives of most ,eskimo tribal groups1 have long attracted the attention of explorers and ethnologists1 and many specimens have been deposited in ,american and ,european museums4 ,like bark canoes1 they have unfortunately proved difficult to preserve under conditions of museum exhibit4 ,as a result1 examples of once numerous types have become so damaged that they no longer give an accurate impression of their original form and appearance1 and some have so deteriorated that they have had to be destroyed4 ,among the latter may have been examples of types long since out of use4 ,one such type was represented by a single kayak1 now destroyed2 as a result this form has become extinct1 and only a poor scale model remains to give a highly unsatisfactory representation of it4 ,in #aidf the late ,vilhjalmur ,stefansson1 who was then projecting his ,encyclopedia ,arctica1 asked me to prepare for it a technical article on the ,arctic skin boat4 ,the decision of the sponsors to discontinue the publication1 after the first volume had appeared1 prevented appearance of the article1 but in #aieh1 through the kindness of ,dr4 ,stefansson1 it was returned to the author for publication by the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 ,i have since revised and added to it1 after receiving criticisms and suggestions from ,henry ,b4 ,collins1 of the ,smithsonian's ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 from ,john ,heath1 and from other authorities4#b #b ,for their aid to him the author takes this occasion to extend particular thanks4 ,he also thanks his ,smithsonian ,institution colleagues in the ,division of ,ethnology1 ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum2 members of the staffs of ,the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history and ,the ,museum of the ,american ,indian in ,new ,york1 of the ,peabody ,museum at ,harvard1 and of the ,stefansson ,library at ,dartmouth2 and the ,washington ,state ,historical ,society and ,museum1 and others in the ,northwest who gave both aid and encouragement4 ,the object of the study1 as will be seen1 was to measure the skin boats and to make scale drawings that would permit the construction of a replica exact in details of appearance1 form1 construction1 and also in working behavior4 ,special regard was given to the diversity of types with respect to hull form and construction methods2 but questions of ethnic trends1 tribal migrations1 and such matters1 being outside the scope of the study1 were not considered4 ,wherever possible1 full-size craft were used as the source1 but where only fragments existed1 these had to be supplemented by reference to and interpretation of models of the same type4 ,in spite of the difficulty of locating skin boats of some ,arctic areas1 examples of most of those mentioned by explorers since #ahge have been found and recorded1 so that1 as far as possible1 every distinctive tribal type of ,arctic skin boat which in #aidf was represented by museum exhibits in the eastern ,united ,states is represented in plans here4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aeg ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,lines ,,drawing of a kayak1 from ,labrador or southern ,baffin ,island 7according to ,dr4 ,kaj ,birket-,smith of the ,danish ,national ,museum74 ,note the long stem that is characteristic of present day kayaks from ,labrador4 ,the lettering apparently reads3 ,from ,strait's ,s4 ,david ,a ,canoe--,n4,b4 ,the sections are #b feet asunder from forward ,length #ba'-f ,breadth #b'-a ,depth #j'-h 7,courtesy ,national ,maritime ,museum1 ,greenwich1 ,england47 ,with the material available it was not possible1 of course1 to explore all the individual types and forms in full2 hence1 the geographical range of a type can be stated only approximately1 owing to the overlapping of tribal groups and the almost constant migratory movement of the ,eskimo4 ,originally the #b-;and #c-;cockpit kayaks of ,russian colonial ,alaska had been omitted as being probably the results of ,russian influence4 ,john ,heath1 however1 believing attention should be given to this type1 has very kindly prepared for me a fine draught of such a kayak1 or baidarka 7other spellings of this name are common72 this is shown on page #aig4 ,although the scale drawings accurately represent the form and details of construction1 they necessarily idealize somewhat the primitive boat design4 ,also1 in showing the hull-form1 the usual method of projecting the lines of the hull was discarded as unsuitable4 ,instead structural features have been emphasized1 with the result that round-bottom kayaks appear as multi-chine hulls1 as they properly are4 ,in view of the fluid state of design in ,eskimo craft it is obvious that the examples shown represent the stage of development at the given date1 though the alteration in most designs has been so gradual that the representation could serve to illustrate with reasonable accuracy a tribal or area type for a decade or more4 ,the ,eskimos have produced two types of skin boats that have proved remarkably efficient craft for small-boat navigation in ,arctic waters3 an open boat ranging from about #ae to approximately #fj feet in length for carrying cargo and passengers for long distances1 and a small decked canoe developed exclusively for hunting4 ,with few exceptions these ,arctic skin boats are wholly seagoing craft4 ,the open boat1 called the umiak1 is propelled by paddles or oars or sail or1 in recent years1 by an outboard gasoline engine1 or it may be towed4 ,while fundamentally a cargo carrier the umiak has been employed by some ,eskimo in whaling and in walrus hunting4 ,for these purposes a faster and more developed design is used than that used only to carry families1 household goods1 and cargo in the constant ,eskimo search for new hunting grounds4 ,to a far greater degree than any other boat of similar size1 this ,eskimo boat is characterized by great strength combined with lightness4 ,the decked hunting canoe1 the kayak1 is propelled by paddle alone when used for hunting and fishing1 but is occasionally towed by the umiak when the owner travels4 ,the kayak is perhaps the most efficient example of a primitive hunting boat2 it can be propelled at high speed by its paddler and maneuvered with ease4 ,these hunting kayaks are commonly built to hold but one person1 though one group of ,eskimo built the kayaks to carry two or three4 ,the kayak1 remarkable for its seaworthiness1 lightness and strength1 has been perhaps one of the most important tools in the ,eskimo fight for existence4 ,few tribes have been unacquainted with its use4 ,because of its employment1 the kayak often has to be designed to meet very particular requirements and so there is greater variation in its form and dimensions than in the umiak4 ,seagoing skin boats have not been common outside the ,arctic in historical times4 ,in fact only the ,european ,celts are known with certainty to have used such craft4 ,the ,irish1 in particular1 employed large seagoing skin boats as late as the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth of ,england2 a drawing of one preserved in the ,pepysian ,library was reproduced in the ,mariner's ,mirror 7vol4 #h1 #aibb1 facing p4 #bjj74 ,although there can be little doubt that large seagoing skin craft had been more widely used in prehistoric times1 the perishable nature of the skin covering and the light framework probably account for the lack of any archeological remains that would indicate its range4 ,the availability of the materials required in its construction1 however1 suggest that its use could have been very widespread4 ,the long voyages made by the ,irish1 in the dawning of recorded history1 could well have made its design and construction known to others4 ,there are still many skin boats in use by primitive people and even a few survivals in ,europe1 but with the exception of the ,irish curragh1 these craft are designed for inland waters and are either rather dish-shaped1 or oval in plan1 like half a walnut shell4 ,in design they are related to the coracle of ancient ,britain rather than to a seagoing skin boat of the ,irish or ,eskimo type4 ,both the ,irish curragh and the ,british coracle1 now1 of course1 are covered with canvas rather than hide4 ,traditions of long voyages by the ancient ,irish in the skin-covered curragh make it apparent that such voyages were relatively common1 and the design and construction of existing models of the curragh and umiak indicate that these voyages could have been made with reasonable safety4 ,compared to the dugout canoe1 the skin boat was far lighter and roomier in proportion to length and so could carry a far greater load and still retain enough freeboard to be safe4 ,the size of the early skin boats cannot be established with certainty2 the modern ,irish curragh is probably debased in this respect1 but early explorers of ,greenland reported umiaks nearly #fj feet in length and there is no structural reason why the curragh could not have been as large or even larger4 ,compared with the curragh1 the umiak is lighter1 stronger1 and more resistant to shock4 ,the curragh was built with closely spaced bent frames and longitudinal stringers to support the skin cover1 whereas the umiak has very widely spaced frames and few longitudinals1 giving the skin cover little support4 ,the difference in construction is undoubtedly a result of the type of covering used1 for the curragh was covered with cattle hides1 which were less strong than the seal or walrus skins used by the ,eskimo4 ,the strong and elastic skin cover of the umiak and the lack of a rigid structural support gives this boat an advantage in withstanding the shocks of beaching or of working in floating ice2 and because of its relatively light framework and the method of securing the structural members1 its frame is far more flexible than that of the curragh1 adding to this ability4 ,the skin cover of the curragh was made watertight by rubbing the hides with animal fat1 and the sewn seams were payed with tallow4 ,the ,eskimo soak the skin cover of the umiak with animal oil and pay the seams with blubber or animal fat4 ,both treatments produced a cover initially watertight but requiring drying and reoiling to remain so4 ,under most climatic conditions in the ,north ,atlantic or ,pacific the oiled skins remain watertight from four days to a week4 ,this period can be lengthened by various methods2 skin boats travelling in company can be dried out in turn by unloading one and placing it aboard a companion craft4 ,there is evidence of other methods of treating the skin covering2 waterproofing it with melted tallow1 for example1 or with a vegetable gum or a resin such as pitch1 would enable it to remain watertight for a much longer time1 though such treatments would make the covering less elastic4 ,pitch was also used at one time in curragh building1 and it would be unwise to assume that the oil treatment used by the ,eskimo was their only method of producing watertight skin covers in the period before they were first observed by ,europeans4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aeh ,,western ,,alaskan ,,umiak with eight women paddling1 ,cape ,prince of ,wales1 ,alaska1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 ,illustration3 ,figure #aei ,,western ,,alaskan ,,umiak being beached1 ,cape ,prince of ,wales1 ,alaska1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 ,illustration3 ,figure #afj ,,repairing ,,umiak ,,frame at ,st4 ,lawrence ,island1 ,alaska1 #aicj4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 ,illustration3 ,figure #afa ,,eskimo ,,woman ,,splitting ,,walrus ,,hide to make umiak cover1 ,st4 ,lawrence ,island1 ,alaska1 #aicj4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 ,the fundamental difference between the construction of the curragh and that of the umiak lies in the type of longitudinal strength members and the transverse framing used4 ,the curragh1 like the birch-bark canoe1 depended entirely upon its gunwales for longitudinal strength1 whereas the umiak has a strong keel1 or1 properly1 a keelson since the keel was inside the skin cover4 ,the curragh used longitudinal battens to support the skin cover4 ,the umiak1 on the other hand1 has in its chine timbers rather strong longitudinal members that give additional strength to the bottom4 ,its transverse frames1 unlike those of the curragh which were continuous from gunwale to gunwale1 are in three sections1 two side pieces and a floor1 or bottom1 member and the frame members are joined to gunwale1 chines and keelson by lashings of sinew1 whalebone1 or hide1 a method that1 together with three-part frames1 gives great flexibility to the framework4 ,the frame of the early curragh may have been lashed1 but because of the other fundamental differences in design and construction it was less flexible than that of the umiak4 ,the basic features of the umiak frame are not found in the kayak1 the structure of which in most types approaches that of the curragh4 ,the gunwale is the strength member in the kayak1 and some types have a rather extensive longitudinal batten system as well4 ,in only a few types of kayak is the keelson an important strength member1 and even here the gunwales are of primary importance4 ,the hypothesis has been offered that this indicates a different parentage for the kayak than for the umiak1 and that the umiak represents the earlier type1 it being argued that this type of boat was the one more required in migratory periods1 and so would be first developed4 ,such theories should be accepted with caution1 however1 as the fundamentally different use requirements for the two types of craft might readily explain the variation in their principles of construction4 ,hunting would also have been necessary during migrations1 as existence depended upon food2 the earlier appearance of the umiak cannot be assumed on such limited grounds4 ,illustration3 ,figure #afb ,,fitting ,,split ,,walrus-,,hide ,,cover to umiak at ,st4 ,lawrence ,island1 ,alaska1 #aicj4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 ,illustration3 ,figure #afc ,,outboard ,,motor ,,installed ,,on ,,umiak1 ,cape ,prince of ,wales1 ,alaska1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 ,illustration3 ,figure #afd ,,launching ,,umiak ,,in ,,light ,,surf1 with crew of #ab men4 7,note outboard motor attached71 ,cape ,prince of ,wales1 ,alaska1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 ,eskimo skin boats possess remarkable advantages for their employment and conditions of use4 ,their hulls are light in weight1 simple to build1 and relatively easy to repair1 yet they are highly shock resistant4 ,they can carry large loads1 yet are fast1 they are capable of being propelled by more than one means1 and they are exceptionally seaworthy4 ,floating ice is considered a major hazard to craft of all sizes1 but the umiak1 for example1 can resist the shocks of ramming the ice to a degree beyond the tensile strength of the skin covering1 by reason of the method of attaching the skin cover to the framework of the hull1 and to some extent the form of the boat itself4 ,the skin cover of the umiak is not rigidly attached to the frame in a number of places1 but rather is a complete unit secured only at the gunwales and to the heads of stem and stern4 ,this permits the skin cover to be greatly distorted by a blow1 so that the elasticity of the material at point of impact is assisted by the movement of the whole skin cover on the frame4 ,also1 the frame itself is flexible and allows distortion and recovery not only within the limits of the elasticity of the wooden frame but also by the movement of the lashed joints in the transverse frames4 ,some kayaks have similar characteristics1 though their small size and the light weight of both boat and loading make its resistance to shock of far less importance than that of the umiak4 ,light weight is a highly desirable characteristic for small craft in the ,arctic1 since it permits the boat without the aid of skids or other mechanical contrivances to be removed from the water and carried over obstructions1 and to be transported either by sledge or by manual portage over long distances4 ,lightness is obtained in the ,eskimo skin boats by the small number and small size of the wooden structural members used in their construction4 ,the resulting light weight hull permits heavy loading in proportion to the size of the boat1 and it allows building with a minimum of material1 in a country where such materials as wood are scarce and hard to obtain4 ,for all small craft in ,arctic waters1 where distances between sources of supply may be great and the time that the water is open to navigation is relatively short1 speed is an important and desirable attribute that permits movement with a minimum of effort4 ,the exigencies of ,arctic travel make it further desirable that small craft be capable of propulsion under paddle1 oars1 sail1 or low-powered gasoline motors4 ,the umiak1 because of its form and weight1 can be modified to meet this requirement without loss of other desirable attributes1 and to a slightly lesser degree1 the same may be said of the kayak4 ,simplicity in construction and repair are also basic requirements in the ,arctic1 where an emergency may make it necessary to repair or rebuild a damaged boat out of materials available nearby with the minimum of tools and under adverse weather conditions4 ,the ,eskimo has produced a boat construction that1 as will be seen from the descriptions that follow1 to a high degree meets this requirement4 ,exceptional seaworthiness is required1 as most ,arctic waters are subject to violent storms2 the ,arctic skin boats have been developed with forms and proportions to meet this condition4 ,in this matter1 the light and flexible hull structure gives a special advantage4 ,the kayak1 in its highest state of evolution and in skillful hands is perhaps the most seaworthy of all primitive small craft4 ,the umiak is a close second1 but of the two1 the kayak is safer under all conditions of ,arctic travel4 ,the load-carrying capacity of skin boats has been mentioned4 ,the ,eskimo umiak is notable in this respect1 exceeding the curragh and even craft produced by modern civilization4 ,the umiak possesses this advantage because of its very light hull weight in combination with a nearly flat bottom and flaring sides4 ,the resulting hull-form allows heavy loading with relatively little increase in draft1 as the flaring sides cause the displacement to increase rapidly with the slightest increase in draft4 ,though a similar form exists in the lumberman's drive boat1 the greater hull weight of this type makes it inferior to the umiak4 ,light draft when loaded has very definite advantages in the ,arctic1 for it allows loading and unloading on the beach or afloat1 and allows the boat to be beached at points where this would not be possible with a deeper hull4 ,the light draft also makes the umiak easy to propel manually4 ,the imperative need for very efficient watercraft has made the ,eskimo seek improvements1 and as his needs altered1 so have his skin boats4 ,consequently the designs of these craft have gone through numerous changes since the first of the types were placed in ,american museums4 ,it is noticeable that1 among other changes1 the amount of freeboard of umiaks has been altered as their owners met new conditions imposed by longer voyages1 heavier cargo1 and the outboard motor4 ,the high-sided umiak1 while suited for heavy loads and very seaworthy1 was almost impossible to paddle or even row against a strong gale4 ,when this condition had to be met1 the freeboard and flare were reduced to minimize the windage4 ,in recent years umiaks have appeared with round bottoms to give greater speed under paddle1 the resulting boat being an enlarged kayak in construction4 ,these changes to meet differing use requirements are not necessarily basic improvements1 for they result in the sacrifice of some of the other qualities of the type4 ,nevertheless1 they indicate the fluid state of primitive boat design in the ,arctic1 a condition that has been accentuated in most areas by the increasing influence of white men1 their boats and their motors4 ,illustration3 ,figure #afe ,,umiaks ,,on ,,racks1 in front of village on ,little ,diomede ,island1 ,july #cj1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 ,the ,umiak ,the umiak was undoubtedly more widely employed by the ,eskimo before the coming of the white man than existing records indicate4 ,it was a type of boat most necessary for family migration by sea1 and with it the early ,eskimos could establish themselves on islands far from the mainland and could cross large bodies of water4 ,from some areas where early explorers mention having seen the type1 the umiak has disappeared2 this suggests the possibility that tribes now unacquainted with the umiak had at some time in the past reached a location where such a boat was no longer necessary4 ,the umiak was common in open waters and was found from ,kodiak ,island through the ,aleutians and north and eastward along the west and north coast of ,alaska to the mouth of the ,mackenzie ,river4 ,on the ,siberian coast1 opposite ,alaska and for a short distance westward1 the umiak was also employed4 ,from the ,mackenzie eastward to ,hudson ,bay the umiak has not been employed in recent times1 though it is highly probable that it was used in the migrations that populated this part of the ,arctic coast with ,eskimo4 ,early explorers found umiaks in use along the northwestern coast of ,hudson ,bay and ,foxe ,basin2 the umiak disappeared from these areas during the last century1 but its use continued in ,hudson ,strait and in ,greenland1 where it became highly developed4 ,among the various tribes of ,eskimo known to have employed the umiak in the last century1 the form of the hull varied a good deal1 as did its dimensions4 ,in general its form was something like that of the lumberman's drive boat1 except that most umiaks had a slight ,v-bottom and were quite different from it in the shape of the bow and stern4 ,the size of the umiak does not seem to have been established by a set of measurements as distinct as that used in the building of kayaks1 but rather as the result of utilizing material available locally1 with due regard to the intended use of the craft for relatively heavy transport4 ,such matters as the flare of the sides1 rake and shape of bow and stern1 and width varied from tribe to tribe4 ,the ,asiatic and ,alaskan umiaks were usually rather sharp-ended1 with little spread to the gunwales at bow and stern2 one of the ,asiatic types has the gunwales brought round in a full curve at the ends of the boat4 ,in the ,east the umiaks have rather upright bows and sterns and the gunwales are often rather wide apart to form square ends to the hull4 ,some of the western umiaks were navigated with paddles only2 with others1 before the appearance of the ,russians in the area1 both oar and sail may have been used4 ,in the ,east the umiaks were being paddled1 rowed1 and sailed when white men reached the ,arctic in the #agth century4 ,the ,greenland umiak frame is much heavier and more rigid than the ,alaskan4 ,in comparing eastern and western umiaks the frame of the eastern umiak seems to be somewhat better finished1 but the models of the western umiak are undoubtedly the better4 ,the eastern umiak is not intended for use in hunting but is primarily a cargo carrier2 its use has been confined to women and its chief employment is moving the family and household effects from one hunting ground to another4 ,while it is highly probable that this condition is the result of the disappearance of whaling in this region1 the use of the umiak as a hunting boat ceased so long ago that the eastern umiak model may have degenerated to a great degree4 ,it has been otherwise in the western ,arctic where the use of the umiak in hunting has continued and the boats have been managed1 to a very great extent1 by the men4 ,as a result1 the boats are held in greater respect by their builders and the better models have survived4 ,the tribal distinctions between the western umiaks are therefore more marked than in the east2 including ,siberia1 at least three basic models and a very large variety of tribal variations1 are to be found1 as can be proved by existing models4 ,in the east only two basic and distinct umiak models are known to have existed1 the ,baffin ,island type used on both the north side and on the ,labrador side of ,hudson ,strait1 and the ,greenland type4 ,in the latter1 there were slight tribal distinctions it is true1 but these were minor4 ,the ,asiatic umiaks may be classed into two types1 the ,koryak type of ,eastern ,siberia and the ,chukchi model of the ,siberian side of ,bering ,strait4 ,the ,koryak umiaks illustrated by ,jochelson show a highly developed boat1 rather lightly framed compared to boats on the ,american side4 ,in profile the bow has a long raking curve and the stern much less2 as a result the bottom is rather short compared to the length over the gunwales4 ,viewed in plan1 the gunwales are rounded in at bow and stern to form almost a semicircle4 ,at the bow the gunwales are bent around a horizontal headboard tenoned over the stem head but at the stern there is no headboard4 ,the sheer is moderate and very graceful4 ,the flare of the sides is great and there appears to be a little ,v in the bottom transversely4 ,there is also a slight fore-and-aft rocker in the bottom4 ,the construction is similar to that of the ,alaskan umiaks except that the ,koryak umiaks have double-chine stringers and also a double riser1 or longitudinal stringer1 halfway up the sides4 ,the riser is not backed with a continuous stringer1 as is the chine2 instead three short rods are lashed inside the side frame members4 ,the side stringers do not reach bow and stern4 ,the four thwarts are located well aft1 and between the first and second thwarts is a larger space than between the others1 for cargo4 ,the boats are rowed1 two oarsmen to a thwart4 ,the cover was formerly walrus hides split and scraped thin but more recently the skin of the bearded seal has come into use4 ,a rectangular sail of deer skin is sometimes lashed to a yard and set on a tripod mast about amidships4 ,two legs of the mast are secured to the gunwale on one side1 the remaining leg is lashed to the opposite gunwale4 ,judging by the drawing made by ,jochelson#c this umiak is perhaps the most graceful of all those known today4 #c ,reproduced in ,,james ,,hornell1 ,water ,transport 7,cambridge3 ,university ,press1 #aidf71 p4 #afj4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aff ,,umiak ,,covered ,,with ,,split ,,walrus ,,hide1 ,cape ,prince of ,wales1 ,alaska4 ,the framework can be seen through the translucent hide cover4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 ,the ,asiatic ,chukchi umiak is somewhat similar to that used on the ,american coast but with less beam in proportion to its length and less flare to the sides4 ,the skin cover is of bearded seal4 ,bogoras measured an example and found her #ce feet #i inches long1 #d feet #f inches wide amidships1 #b feet #f inches wide on the bottom over the chines4 7,an ,alaskan umiak measured #cd feet #i inches long1 #h feet #b inches wide at gunwales and #b feet #h inches over the chines47 ,the ,chukchi also use a very small hunting umiak1 #ae to #ah feet long and having two or three thwarts1 much like the small hunting umiaks once used in the ,aleutians4 ,the larger ,chukchi umiaks have rectangular sails set on a pole mast2 some boats carry a square topsail4 ,the sails are lashed to their yards and the lower sail1 or course1 is controlled by sheets and braces4 ,the topsail1 when used1 has braces only4 ,the sails were formerly of reindeer skins1 but now drill is used4 ,these umiaks were formerly paddled1 as indicated by their narrow beam1 but since the advent of the white man oars have come into use1 and it is quite certain that the topsail also is the result of white man's influence1 if not the whole rig4 ,in stormy weather some of these umiaks and also some of those in ,alaska employ weather cloths1 #ah or #bj inches high above the gunwales1 raised on short stanchions lashed to the hull frames4 ,the ends of the stanchions are inserted in slits in the top of the weather cloth1 and in fair weather the cloths are folded down inside the gunwale out of the way4 ,also in some of these ,asiatic and ,alaskan umiaks1 inflated floats1 of seal skin1 are lashed to the gunwales to prevent capsizing in a heavy sea4 ,the ,alaskan umiaks varied much in size but are rather similar in form4 ,the small hunting umiaks used by the ,aleuts are about #ah feet long1 while the large cargo carrying umiaks range up to about #dj feet long1 so far as available records show4 ,they are marked by heavily flared sides and often have a rather strong sheer2 a few1 however1 are rather straight on the gunwales4 ,nearly all existing models and boats were built since #ahhj2 and no information is now available on the forms and dimensions of earlier craft4 ,on page #ahd is a drawing of a small umiak1 used in walrus hunting1 from the ,alaskan coast in the neighborhood of the ,aleutians4 ,in the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum are the remains of a similar boat obtained in #ahhh from ,northern ,alaska4 ,this type of small umiak is also employed in fishing and is rather widely used as a passage boat for short voyages along shore4 ,these craft1 propelled by paddles1 are primarily fast1 handy hunting canoes rather than boats for migration or cargo-carrying4 ,for this reason they are quite sharp-ended and shallow4 ,the construction of this example will serve to illustrate the methods common to this type4 ,the umiak shown is #bj feet #h inches over the headboards1 #d feet #i inches extreme beam and #ag inches depth--apparently an average-sized boat of her class4 ,the width of the bottom over the chine members is #b feet #g inches4 ,the keelson is rectangular in section and in two pieces1 hooked-scarphed together2 each piece is shaped out of the trunk of a small tree with the root knees employed to form the bow and stern posts4 ,the floor timbers are quite heavy and support the chine members by having the floor ends tenoned into the chine pieces4 ,at bow and stern the chines are joined to the keelson in a notched scarph2 at these places the keelson is sided rather wide to give good bearing4 ,it is evident that this portion of the boat's structure is the first built and forms a rigid bottom to the hull4 ,the floor timbers are lashed to the keelson by lacings of sinew1 whalebone1 or hide1 passed through holes bored in both1 as indicated in the plan4 ,the ends of the floors are pegged where they tenon into the chines and the ends of the chines are pegged to the keelson1 but this was evidently not a universal practice1 as there are models showing lashings at floor ends and at chine ends4 ,the headboards are carved out of blocks in a ,t-shape and are stepped on top of the stem and stern posts and lashed4 ,the fit is extremely accurate4 ,the bow headboard is narrower athwartship than the stern headboard4 ,the detail of the hook scarph in the drawing shows a method of lashing that is widely used4 ,illustration3 ,figure #afg ,,small ,,umiak ,,for ,,walrus ,,hunting1 west coast of ,alaska1 #ahhh-hi4 ,reconstructed from damaged umiak formerly in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum1 and from models4 ,because of the manner in which the keelson is cambered and the floor fitted1 the bottom of the covered hull shows in cross section a slight ,v1 reducing toward the bow and stern1 that is typical of the ,alaskan umiak4 ,the amount of deadrise seems to have been determined by the manner of fitting the floor timbers and it helps the boat to run straight under paddle and oars4 ,in present day umiaks the amount of ,v in the bottom is slight2 too much would make the boat difficult to sledge overland without employing chocks to steady the hull4 ,perhaps in the past1 where sledging was not required1 the deadrise was greater1 as indicated by some old models4 ,after the chines and floor are fitted to the keelson1 the frames at the thwarts are made and set up at the desired flare and height1 being held in place by temporary spreaders lashed or braced4 ,these are sometimes stiffened by thongs from frame head to keelson at each pair1 to steady the frame while the gunwale is being bent4 ,as the lengths of the thwarts are controlled by the fairing of the gunwales1 the thwarts are not fitted until after the latter are in place4 ,as shown in the figure above1 the gunwales are round poles1 slightly flattened on the lower side at the headboards1 where they are secured by lashings4 ,in building1 the gunwales are shaped and secured by lashing them to those side frames selected to shape the hull4 ,the lashings that secure the side frames to both gunwale and chine are passed through holes in each member and are hove taut by means of a short lever with a hole bored in it to take the end of the lashing1 which is also wrapped around the lever to give temporary purchase4 ,the side frames have saddle notches to bear on the chine and gunwale4 ,all lashings in the frame1 it will be noted1 pass through holes bored in the members and in some cases the lashings are let in1 so that the sinew is flush with the surfaces of the members1 to prevent the lashing from being damaged by chafing4 ,illustration3 ,figure #afh ,,umiaks ,,near ,,cape ,,prince ,,of ,,wales1 ,,alaska1 showing walrus-hide cover and lacing4 ,frame lashings are walrus-hide thongs4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 ,with the gunwales faired1 the remaining frames are then put in position and lashed to the gunwales and chines4 ,an outside batten is run along each side and lashed by turns of sinew over the batten and around the side frames1 with the lashings let into each member to prevent slipping and chafing4 ,the batten is lashed at bow and stern in some umiaks1 but in many it is stopped just short of coming home on the posts4 ,next1 the short frames at bow and stern are put in place and the risers secured inside the side frames1 then1 with the thwarts fitted and lashed to the risers1 and the ends of the gunwales are lashed together at bow and stern1 the boat is ready to be covered4 ,when ready to cover1 the frame is stiffened by diagonal thong ties1 each of which has one end secured by turns around the gunwale1 with the other end passed through holes in the keelson and secured4 ,these are commonly found in western umiaks2 the small umiak has but one pair placed amidships4 ,the timber used in such craft is fir1 spruce1 and willow1 and is usually driftwood obtained at river-mouth4 ,when this umiak was examined1 the skin cover was in such a condition that the number of hides used could not be determined1 but it probably is comprised of three sea-lion skins sewn together4 ,new skin covers are made by removing the hair and fat from the skins and then sewing them together by the method illustrated on page #ahf1 to obtain proper dimensions4 ,green skins are generally preferred1 since they stretch into shape better than partly or wholly cured ones4 ,once stretched to shape and cured1 the cover can be readily removed and replaced1 without resewing4 ,in fitting a new skin cover the skins are first thoroughly soaked in seawater4 ,the cover is then stretched over the frame and worked taut by lacings4 ,it is wide enough to reach from gunwale to gunwale and a little down inside the boat on each side1 and is laced to the rising batten with turns of rope spaced #c to #e inches apart amidships and closer together in the ends of the hull4 ,at the headboards the cover is laced around the gunwales and through holes in the headboards1 two independent lacings of two turns each being used on each side4 ,at the extreme bow and stern the cover is laced to the gunwale lashings4 ,where the cover will not stretch smooth in fitting1 gores appear to have been cut out and the skin resewn4 ,after being laced1 the cover is allowed to shrink until it becomes smooth and tight1 then it is heavily oiled and the seams rubbed with tallow or blubber4 ,this treatment is repeated at regular intervals4 ,while the boat is in service care is taken to dry out the skin cover once a day1 if possible4 ,illustration3 ,figure #afi ,,umiak1 ,,west ,,coast ,,of ,,alaska1 ,king ,island1 #ahhf4 ,taken off umiak at ,mariner's ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agj ,,making ,,the ,,blind ,,seam3 two stages of method used by the ,eskimo to join skins together4 ,the edge of the skins are placed flesh side to flesh side with one overlapping the other about #b inches4 ,then1 by means of a thin needle and slender sinew1 the skins are sewn together1 with an over-and-over stitch1 care being taken not to penetrate through the lower skin4 ,when this is completed the skins are opened out and the second seam made on the grain side to complete a double seam without penetration of either skin4 ,the width of the seam varies somewhat4 ,the sequence of construction described is not followed universally2 sometimes spreaders are fixed between the gunwales1 which are then sheered by thongs to the keelson1 after which the side frames are put in and the side and rising battens1 and finally the thwarts1 are added4 ,judging by the numerous models seen1 the small hunting umiaks varied a good deal in the rake and sweep of the bow and stern1 even in the same village4 ,these hunting umiaks worked with kayaks in ,aleutian walrus and sea-lion hunting2 a practice that seems to have once been common along the ,western ,alaskan coast and among the islands4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aga ,,north ,,alaskan ,,whaling ,,umiak of about #ahij4 ,drawn from damaged frame1 formerly in a private collection1 now destroyed4 ,the drawing on page #ahf represents a large ,alaskan umiak from ,king ,island4 ,two boats of this model1 but with modern metal fastenings1 are in the ,mariners' ,museum1 ,newport ,news1 ,virginia1 but the drawing shows the methods of fastenings used in #ahhf4 ,the plan is of a burdensome model1 such as is used for travel or other heavy cargo work4 ,the boat is #cd feet #b inches over the gunwales1 #h feet inch extreme beam1 #b feet #c inches deep and #b feet #aj inches beam on the bottom over the chines4 ,the construction follows the general plan of the small umiak just described1 except that another method of fitting the floor timbers to the chines is employed4 ,due to the size and use of the umiak1 two side battens are employed with a single riser4 ,the thwarts are not notched over the frames1 but instead fall between them4 ,as diagonal thong braces from gunwale to keelson would be ineffective in this situation1 two sets of wooden braces that resist not only tension but also compression are used to take the thrust off the thwart lashings4 ,these brace-frames are staggered slightly to allow room to fit them at the keelson4 ,the drawing1 which requires no additional explanation1 shows the plan of construction and the important lashings1 and the method of fitting oars with thong thole loops4 ,boats such as these carried a square sail lashed to a yard1 the mast being stepped in a block on the keelson4 ,no mast thwart is used2 instead stays and shrouds of hide rope supported the mast1 a method that made it easy to step or unstep the mast in a seaway4 ,early umiaks in this area are said to have had mat sails2 later ones used sails of skin and drill4 ,modern umiaks of this class often have rudders hung on iron pintles and gudgeons and the floors fastened to the keelson with iron bolts or screws4 ,the scarphs are also bolted1 but the remaining fastenings are lashings in the old style1 to obtain flexibility in the frame4 ,a ,north ,alaskan whaling umiak1 supposed to have been built about #ahij1 is represented in the drawing of figure #aga4 ,the remains of the boat were sufficient to permit reconstruction of the frame4 ,this umiak is about the size of1 and in profile greatly resembles1 a ,new ,bedford whaleboat4 ,however1 the model is that of the umiak1 rather sharp-ended and strongly sheered4 ,the boat is #bi feet #d inches over the headboards1 #e feet #aj inches extreme beam1 and #b feet #a inches deep4 ,umiaks of this model were used at ,point ,barrow and vicinity in offshore whaling1 and were also used for travel and cargo carrying4 ,paddles were used in whaling1 but in more recent times sail1 oars1 and outboard engines have been employed4 ,the boats of this class appear to have been marked by a very graceful profile and strongly raking ends4 ,despite the resemblances of this type of umiak to the whaleboat1 it is highly doubtful that its model was influenced by the white man's boat4 ,in fact1 it might just as well be claimed that since the whaleboat appears to have been first employed in the early ,greenland whale fishery1 the latter had been influenced by the umiaks found in that area4 ,however1 one might also point to the fact that the model of the early ,european whaleboat is much like that of a ,viking boat1 from which will be seen the danger in accepting chance similarities in form or detail as evidence of relationship1 particularly when it is not impossible that similarities in use and other requirements have produced similar boat types1 the users never having come into contact4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agb ,,baffin ,,island ,,umiak4 ,drawn from model and detailed measurements of a single boat4 ,the whaling umiak has been much used in the western ,arctic by explorers and ,arctic travellers1 who regarded highly its lightness and strength1 and its ability to be easily driven4 ,it is much wider than the ,chukchi umiak and has far more flare4 ,from a study of models and numerous photographs it can be said that the amount of fore-and-aft camber in the bottom varies greatly between individual umiaks1 some of which are almost straight on the bottom4 ,the light framework and elastic construction often cause these umiaks to camber a good deal when heavily loaded2 when sledged1 they are sometimes fitted amidships with a support for a line from bow to stern1 that forms a hogging-brace1 to prevent the boat from losing its camber4 ,it is also apparent that there is no standard practice in fitting floors to the chines2 ,murdock#d shows a rough sketch that indicates the floor ends are often tenoned into the chines1 as in the small umiak4 ,tree-nailing of the floors and chines1 and the keelson1 is common1 and sometimes both treenails and lashings are used in scarphs4 ,in some umiaks both the single side batten and the riser are at the same height1 but only the riser has its ends secured to the posts1 the side battens being cut short and their ends lashed to the riser a few inches inside the posts4 #d ,see bibliography4 ,the skin cover of the north ,alaskan whaling umiak is made of bearded seal or of walrus hide1 which has to be split1 because of its weight4 ,occasionally polar-bear skins are used4 ,lashings of the frame are of whalebone1 sinew1 and hide4 ,the skins are treated with seal oil and caribou fat1 and when the whaling umiak is taken ashore it is usually stored on a stage to keep dogs from destroying the skin cover4 ,in travelling1 however1 it is sometimes propped upside down on one edge and used as a shelter4 ,in winter the skin is removed and stored2 when it is necessary to be replaced on the frame1 the skin cover is soaked in sea water for three to five days1 after which it is laced on in the usual manner1 dried1 and then thoroughly oiled4 ,low1 rather wide sledges are sometimes built to carry the umiak overland1 or on the ice1 but often the regular sledge is used4 ,the boats cannot be sledged against a strong gale because of their windage4 ,the north ,alaskan umiak is usually propelled by paddles1 like the ,chukchi umiak4 ,these paddles range in length from about #ej to #gf inches1 and as a rule have a rather long narrow blade1 though a short and wide blade is occasionally found1 particularly at ,kotzebue ,sound and ,point ,hope4 ,oars for the ,alaskan umiaks range in length from #f feet #c inches to #h feet #f inches1 and also have rather long narrow blades1 #c to #d inches wide4 ,the three examples of ,alaskan umiaks serve to show the features that are most common in the area4 ,however1 models in the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum suggest that there was a greater variety of form and appearance in the past4 ,one model shows the gunwale ends lengthened by pieces shaped very much like the projecting gunwales of the ,malay prah4 ,some show extreme rake at the bow like that of the ,koryak umiak but without the rounded gunwale ends4 ,it is impossible to estimate how far the western ,alaska umiak model has been affected by the early ,russian traders in this area1 but it is quite certain that the use of oars can be traced to this influence4 ,the full-sized umiaks1 and models and photographs1 from the ,bering ,strait area give no real clues to the possible parentage or direction of spread of the ,alaskan umiak types4 ,occasional details in fittings or construction1 such as the gunwale extensions mentioned1 seem to duplicate details in primitive ,asiatic craft1 but the evidence is too scanty to allow a hypothesis based on design and construction alone4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agc ,,east ,,greenland ,,umiak1 drawn from measurements taken off by a ,u4,s4 ,army officer in #aide4 ,no models or photographs have been found of the extinct types of umiaks once used in the northern part of ,hudson ,bay and the sketches of early explorers are too crude to allow useful discussion4 ,from such slight evidence it is impossible to say whether the umiaks in this area were of the western or eastern type4 ,the drawing of a ,baffin ,island umiak on page #ahh is based on measured dimensions of a single boat and upon a small model in the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 ,this model conforms in most respects with the drawings and sketches made by ,boas4#e ,the umiak is a small one1 #bd feet #g inches long1 #e feet #h inches extreme beam1 #c feet #aj inches wide over the chines1 and #a foot #aj inches deep4 ,these measurements show that the bottom of this type of umiak is wider than that of western types4 ,the bottom is flat1 and sheer and camber are both slight4 ,the stem and stern are practically upright and are not formed of knees2 rather1 they are made by fitting the post into the keelson with an open tenon4 ,instead of the carved block headboards seen in the ,alaskan umiaks1 the ,baffin ,island boat has very wide headboards1 and these are tenoned over the posts as in the ,asiatic ,koryak umiaks4 ,the details of the rest of the framing are not dissimilar from those of the ,alaskan umiaks1 except that the ,baffin ,island umiak does not employ any short frames in the end of the hull4 ,the framework is rather heavy and the square-ended appearance of this class of umiak makes it appear more clumsy than is actually the case4 ,the side battens and risers stop short of the posts1 and the risers used in this umiak are notched into the side frames1 whereas in the ,alaskan umiak only the lashings of the riser are let into the frames4 ,the ,baffin ,island umiaks carry a square sail lashed to a yard1 and the mast is placed right up in the eyes of the boat4 ,boas shows that some of these umiaks have rudders hung on metal pintles and gudgeons1 a result of the influence of the white traders1 whalers1 and sealers who had operated in these waters long before ,boas made his investigations4 ,the umiak is rowed in the usual manner1 using thong loops as tholes1 and is usually steered with an oar or long paddle4 #e ,see bibliography4 ,the ends of the gunwales of the ,baffin ,island umiak are cut off a little inside the forward edges of the headboards1 making this the only ,american type that does not have projecting gunwales at bow and stern4 ,the projection of the gunwales undoubtedly serve a practical purpose in lifting the boat out of water1 but obviously this is of minor importance4 ,probably the real reason for these projections is that they originally made building easier by providing space for a retaining lashing when the gunwales were being bent4 ,as the headboards became wider and the spring of the gunwales1 in plain view1 became less acute1 less strain was put on the lashings of the gunwales at the headboards1 but by then the projecting gunwales and their retaining lashings were being utilized in lashing on the skin covering at bow and stern4 ,thus1 beginning as a practical solution of a building problem1 the projecting gunwales may have eventually become a traditional tribal feature of the umiak in many localities4 ,the drawing of an eastern ,greenland umiak on page #ahi was made from measurements taken off during ,world ,war ,,ii and checked against dimensions1 photos1 and descriptions of boats from the same territory4 ,in general design and in construction this umiak differs little from umiaks of the southwest coast of the same island4 ,the eastern ,greenland boats are1 on the average1 much smaller than those on the southwest coast due to the more severe ice conditions met in the east4 ,some of the ,greenland umiaks have flat bottoms like the ,baffin ,island boats1 but the ,v-bottom appears to be more common4 ,the chief characteristics of the ,greenland umiaks are the slight rake in the bow and stern1 the moderate sheer and camber1 and the conservative flare of the sides4 ,the drawing shows the important structural details seen in most of the ,greenland umiaks4 ,the floor timbers are on edge instead of on the flat as in ,alaskan boats and this seems to be characteristic of all eastern umiak construction1 as is the arching of the underside of the floors4 ,another common structural detail is the passing of the risers through the side frames2 in some1 however1 the risers lie in deep notches fashioned in the inside of the frames4 ,the eastern ,greenland umiaks generally have rather wide headboards and somewhat more projection to the gunwales4 ,like the ,baffin ,island umiaks1 the side battens and risers of the ,greenland boats are cut short of the posts1 but the ends of these members are commonly supported by frames placed very far fore and aft1 and often these frames form brace-supports to the headboard1 as in the drawing4 ,the headboards of these umiaks are always tenoned over the top of the posts4 ,some of the ,greenland umiaks have curved side frames which cause the side battens to form knuckles in the skin cover4 ,the eastern ,greenland umiaks rarely if ever carry sail1 but this is common on the western and southwestern coasts1 where a square-sail on a yard is popular1 with the mast usually well forward4 ,hans ,egede in #agbif found ,greenland umiaks fitted with sails of seal intestines and also saw boats about #aj fathoms 7#fj feet7 long2 another early writer1 ,crantz#f states that umiaks were commonly #cf1 #dh1 and even #ed feet long4 ,in the larger umiaks two side battens were employed4 ,the thongs and brace-frames seen in many ,alaskan umiaks do not seem to have been used in eastern waters1 the use of bracing-frames from stem or stern post to the gunwales probably serving the purpose1 but it is noticeable that pictures of ,greenland umiaks preserved in some ,european museums show that the hulls have a tendency to twist not seen in ,alaskan boats4 ,the old ,greenland umiaks were built with lashed joints combined with pegging1 or treenailing4 ,in recent times the use of pegging has increased and iron fastenings are now quite common4 ,rigid fastenings of the peg and metal types are used only in scarphs and in securing the chines and keelson to the floors timbers1 as in the modern ,alaskan umiaks4 #f ,see bibliography4 ,the ,kayak ,the ,eskimo hunting boat1 the kayak1 is more widely employed in the ,arctic than the umiak1 and its variations in model1 construction1 and appearance are more distinct and numerous4 ,the kayak is a long1 usually narrow1 decked canoe and is commonly very well finished4 ,in ,alaska a few undecked skin-covered canoes1 used in rivers1 are built on kayak proportions1 but the model of these is quite different from that of the ,alaskan sea-kayaks2 the river canoes are ,v or flat bottomed1 much like the ,greenland kayaks4 ,a similar kayak-type canoe1 flat bottomed but birch-bark covered1 is used by the ,yukon ,indians4 ,undoubtedly a number of such types once existed but most of these became extinct before any attempt was made to preserve models or canoes in museums4 ,few ,eskimo tribes are without kayaks1 only those living inland or where the sea is rarely open are unacquainted with these hunting craft4 ,in very recent times some tribes have ceased to use kayaks1 employing purchased canoes instead4 ,the kayaks of the ,asiatic ,eskimos1 and those from the ,mackenzie to ,hudson ,bay1 are now crudely built and of inferior design4 ,both the ,greenland and the ,alaskan kayaks are highly developed4 ,the ,greenland kayaks are undoubtedly given more intricate equipment in the way of weapons and accessories than the ,alaskan craft1 but it would be difficult to decide which is superior in construction and design4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agd ,,frame ,,of ,,kayak1 ,nunivak ,island1 ,alaska1 with young owner beneath4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 ,the basic models used in ,eskimo kayaks are the multi-chine1 the ,v-bottom and the flat bottom4 ,the multi-chine models1 except for the river kayak-canoe just mentioned1 which probably should be classed as a true open canoe rather than a kayak1 are employed throughout ,alaskan waters4 ,the geographic boundaries of each basic hull form are rather ill-defined4 ,the multi-chine kayak appears as far eastward as the northwest coast of ,hudson's ,bay4 ,in this area1 however1 a ,v-bottom kayak1 now extinct1 seems to have been in use on ,southampton ,island4 ,a flat-bottom kayak1 with the chines snied off much like a ,japanese sampan1 is in use in ,hudson ,strait1 along the shores of ,baffin ,island and ,labrador2 a flat-bottom kayak shaped like a sharpie is used on the northwest coast of northern ,greenland2 and a ,v-bottom hull is employed on the eastern1 southwest1 and south coasts of ,greenland4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,according to the ,danish classification of the coasts of ,greenland1 ,polar is north of ,cape ,york1 ,northern is above ,disko ,island1 ,central is from ,frederikshaab to north of ,disko ,bay1 ,southern is from ,julianhaab to ,cape ,farvell1 and ,east is ,angmagsalik and vicinity4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,there are variations in each of the basic models1 of course1 as the tribal designs used vary a good deal4 ,on the whole1 the kayak is very carefully built to meet the local conditions of hunting1 sea1 and land or ice portaging4 ,as a result1 some types are far more seaworthy than others and the weight of hull varies a great deal1 even within a basic model4 ,the appearance of all the kayaks models1 by tribal classifications1 show the influence of tradition and1 in many cases display1 in either shape or decoration1 a tribal totem or mark4 ,the basic requirements in nearly all kayaks are the same2 to paddle rapidly and easily1 to work against strong wind and tide or heavy head sea1 to be maneuverable1 and to be light enough to be readily lifted from the water and carried4 ,the low freeboard required makes decking a necessity4 ,in general1 the kayak is designed to carry one paddler1 but in ,alaska are kayaks that can carry two or three paddlers1 each in a manhole or cockpit1 or a paddler and one or two passengers4 ,it is generally conceded that the kayak built to carry three in this fashion is the result of ,russian influence4 ,nunivak ,island kayaks had large manholes that carried two people back-to-back4 ,where it is desirable to portage the kayak over ice or land for a great distance the boat is very light and is capable of being carried like a large basket1 by inserting one arm under the decking at the manhole or cockpit1 but where such a requirement is not an important factor1 the kayaks are often rather large and heavy4 ,in the majority of types1 the degree of seaworthiness obtained is very great4 ,some types are built very narrow and sharp-ended2 these usually require a skillful paddler4 ,others are wide and more stable1 requiring less skill to use4 ,in areas where severe weather is commonly met1 the kayaks are usually very strong and well-designed4 ,where ice or other conditions do not allow a heavy sea to make up1 the kayaks are often light1 narrow and very low sided--more like racing shells than working canoes4 ,most ,alaskan kayaks come stern to the wind when paddling stops1 but most of the eastern craft come head to the wind4 ,nearly every type has been developed by long periods of trial and error1 to produce the greatest efficiency in meeting the conditions of use in a given locality4 ,this has made the kayak a more complicated and more developed instrument of the chase than is to be found in any other form of hunting canoe1 due in part1 perhaps1 to the great craftsmanship of the ,eskimo4 ,the construction of the kayak follows a basic plan4 ,in all kayaks the gunwales are the main strength members1 longitudinally4 ,a few designs employ1 in addition1 a stiff keel member1 but most have rather slender and light longitudinal batten systems having little longitudinal strength value1 but which in combination with very light frames1 give transverse support to the skin cover4 ,even in the flat-bottom models1 the kayaks1 unlike the umiaks1 depend entirely upon the gunwales for longitudinal strength4 ,the frames are bent and in one piece from gunwale to gunwale in all but a few flat-bottom kayaks1 of the sampan cross section2 these employ bent frames4 ,the longitudinal batten systems show great variety4 ,the eastern kayaks of the flat-bottom and ,v-bottom models have three longitudinal battens 7including the keel or keelson7 in addition to the heavy and often deep gunwale members2 these are supported at bow and stern either by stem and stern post of shaped plank on edge as in the ,greenland ,v-bottom kayaks1 or by light extensions of the keelson and small end-blocks as in the northern ,greenland1 ,baffin ,island1 and ,labrador types4 ,the multi-chine types of the western ,arctic have from seven to eleven longitudinals 7including the keelson7 in addition to the gunwales4 ,in some of these kayaks there are no stem and stern posts1 the battens and keelson coming together at a blunt point in small head blocks2 but many types have rather intricate stem-pieces1 carved from blocks of wood1 and plank-on-edge stern posts4 ,the ,asiatic kayaks1 curiously enough1 exhibit the construction of both eastern and western ,arctic kayaks1 the crude1 small ,koryak kayak having a #c-;batten ,v-bottom1 while the ,chukchi kayak is built like the kayaks on the east side of the ,bering ,strait4 ,the decking of kayaks is of very light construction2 usually there are two heavy thwarts to support the manhole and from one to three light thwarts afore and abaft these4 ,the ,alaskan kayaks from ,kotzebue ,sound southward have ridged decks supported by fore-and-aft ridge-battens from the ends of the hull to the manhole4 ,elsewhere the deck of the kayak is flat athwartship except at the manhole1 where there is some crown or ridging to increase the depth inside the boat1 particularly forward of the manhole4 ,in the majority of these kayaks short fore-and-aft battens are laid on the thwarts forward of the manhole to support the skin cover in its sweep upward to the manhole4 ,the transverse frames do not come into contact with the skin cover1 to avoid transverse ridges being formed in it2 and the longitudinal battens which support the skin cover form longitudinal ridges1 or chines1 in it4 ,the timber used in the ,eskimo kayak building is usually driftwood4 ,fir and pine1 spruce or willow are available in much of the ,arctic for longitudinals4 ,bent frames are commonly of willow4 ,scarphing in the framework of kayaks was far less common than in umiaks2 the scarphs when found are only in the gunwales4 ,all scarphs are of the hooked type and are usually quite short 7the hooked scarph is the best one when the fastenings are lashings74 ,sinew is generally used in all lashings and for sewing material4 ,the heads of frames are commonly tenoned into the underside of the gunwales and are then either lashed or pegged with treenails of wood or bone to hold them in place4 ,in the joining of frames and longitudinals1 the lashings are commonly individual1 but in some types of kayak continuous lashings 7connections in series using one length of sinew7 are occasionally found4 ,where possible1 the lashings are turned in so that the turns cross right and left4 ,in some parts of the framework two pieces of timber are sewn together2 holes are bored along the edges to be joined and a lacing run in with continuous over-and-over turns4 ,these laced joints are common in the stems of the ,alaskan kayaks4 ,gunwales and battens are most commonly lashed through holes bored in them and in the bow and stern members4 ,care is taken that all lashings are flush on the outside1 so that the skin cover is smooth and chafing will be avoided4 ,bone knobs at stem and stern heads are used in the ,coronation ,gulf kayaks in the west and in many ,greenland models4 ,bone stem bands are more widely employed1 however1 being in use at ,kodiak and ,nunivak ,islands1 in the ,aleutians1 at ,norton ,sound in ,alaska1 and in ,greenland and ,baffin ,island in the east4 ,it is probable that these bands were once in wider use than thus indicated4 ,strips of bone are also used to prevent chafing at gunwale in paddling and for strengthening scarphs in the manhole rim4 ,illustration3 ,figure #age ,,frame ,,of ,,kayak ,,at ,,nunivak ,,island1 ,alaska1 #aibg4 ,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins4 ,it will be noted that all ,eskimo skin boats have a complete framing system1 which is first erected and then fitted with the skin cover4 ,this is a method of construction very different from that of the birch-bark canoes of the ,indians living to the southward of the ,american ,eskimo4 ,the birch-bark canoe is built by forcing a framing system into an assembled cover and holding it in place there by a rigid gunwale structure1 to which the bark cover is lashed4 ,this basic structure is used even in the ,alaskan area1 where there are birch-bark canoes that in hull form and proportions strongly resemble the flat-bottom kayak4 ,the basic difference between the two craft is illustrated by the fact that whereas the removal of the skin cover of the kayak leaves the frame intact1 the removal of the bark cover of the kayak-like birch-bark canoes would result in the collapse of the framework1 except for the gunwale-thwart structure or1 in a few1 the chine-floor structure4 ,because of this basic difference the superficial resemblance of some ,indian bark canoes to kayaks has no meaningful relationship to the possibility of the influence of the kayak on the bark canoe1 or vice-versa4 ,some ,indian tribes have in fact built skin-covered canoes1 as will be seen in chapter #h1 but the framework and structural system used is always that of the bark canoe1 never that of the ,eskimo skin boat4 ,nor is there evidence that the ,eskimo ever used the bark canoe frame-structure in their kayaks or umiaks4 ,hence1 in spite of contact between these peoples1 the watercraft of each remains basically different in structural design4 ,the almost universal method of constructing the kayak is first to shape and fasten together the gunwales and thwarts1 with stem and stern pieces fitted as required1 then to fit and place a few transverse frames to control the shape of the craft4 ,next the longitudinals are fitted and1 finally1 the remaining transverse frames are put in place4 ,in some types the manhole rim is now fitted but in others the manhole rim is put on after the skin cover is in place1 as some kayaks 7the ,alaskan7 have the skin cover placed over the manhole rim and others have it passed under4 ,the skin cover is stretched and sewn over the frame and is rarely secured to it by lashings except at the manhole4 ,due to the shape of bow and stern1 in some types1 difficult and tedious sewing is required to stretch the skins over the ends of the hull4 ,much of the sewing is completed after the skins are stretched over the hull and held by temporary lacings4 ,the blind seam is used but in many kayaks the lap is very short1 about inch being common4 ,the covering most widely used in ,alaskan kayaks was the bearded seal skin and with the ,aleuts the skin of the sea lion was the most popular4 ,throughout the eastern ,arctic seal skin was the preferred covering though caribou skin was occasionally used by the caribou ,eskimos in the central ,arctic4 ,the heavy1 thick hides were first piled and sweated1 until the hair became loose then the skins were scraped until they were clean4 ,they were thin and light and could be air dried and stored until ready for use4 ,the skins had to be well soaked before being stretched over the frame of a kayak or umiak4 ,when dried out on the boat frame they were oiled in the usual manner4 ,it is claimed by the ,eskimos that walrus skin1 though strong1 is not as good as the bearded seal or the sea-lion skin for boat covers1 as the latter two held the oil longer and did not become water soaked as quickly as the walrus hide4 ,the paddler's seat in most kayaks consists of a portion of heavy skin with fur attached4 ,sometimes this is supported by a few short1 thin battens laced loosely together4 ,these1 and the fur seat sometimes are as long as the paddler's legs4 ,no back rest is known to be used4 ,the seat1 and any batten supports1 are loosely fitted and are not part of the permanent kayak structure4 ,the kayak is usually entered by floating the boat near a stone or low bank and stepping into it with one foot1 which has first been carefully wiped4 ,with the body steadied by placing the paddle upright on the shore1 or outside the kayak1 the other foot is then wiped and placed in the boat4 ,the paddler then slides downward and works his legs under the deck until he is seated with his hips jammed into the manhole rim4 ,getting out of a kayak is almost the reverse of this process4 ,great care is exercised to avoid getting dirt into a kayak1 as it might chafe the hide cover4 ,hence the care in wiping the feet before entering4 ,the practice of entering the boat ashore and throwing man and kayak into the water1 undoubtedly very rare1 is said to have been practiced not only at ,king ,island but in some parts of ,greenland4 ,both ,alaskan and ,greenland hunters often lashed two kayaks together1 in order to rest in rough weather4 ,many kayakers using the narrow models laid the paddle athwartships across the deck to help steady the kayak when resting or throwing a weapon2 this is basically the same as holding the sculls of a racing shell in the water1 to steady the boat4 ,lashing two kayaks side by side1 or parallel with spacing rods1 was commonly done to enable the craft to ferry persons or cargo across streams4 ,some ,alaskan ,eskimo thus converted kayaks into catamarans and then fitted a mast and sail1 but such an arrangement was never used in rough water4 ,the methods used by a paddler to right a capsized kayak1 without aid and while he was still in the cockpit1 have aroused the interest of many canoeists4 ,it was used by the ,king ,islanders1 some of the ,aleuts1 and the ,greenlanders1 who at times1 it is said1 would deliberately capsize their kayak to avoid the blow of a heavy breaking sea1 then right it when the sea had passed4 ,the ,eskimo are reported to be gradually losing this skill1 but in late years ,european and ,american kayakers have learned this method1 called the kayak roll1 of righting a decked canoe with paddler in place4 ,it follows in general the ,greenland method4 ,in the ,appendix 7p4 #bbc7 is an illustrated description of the kayak roll1 supplied by ,john ,heath4 ,traditionally1 the weapons used by kayakers were darts and harpoons1 the bow not being employed1 since wetting would damage the weapon4 ,various forms were used1 and many were thrown with the throwing-stick to increase the range and force4 ,an inflated bladder or skin was often carried to buoy the harpoon line and tire the game4 ,bolas and knives were also carried4 ,all eastern kayaks appear to have been propelled with the double-blade paddle1 but folklore suggests that the single-blade kayak paddle may have once been used4 ,greenland kayaks have been reported as carrying a small square sail1 but this was actually a hunting screen1 or camouflage1 to hide the paddler and cause the seal to mistake the canoe for a cake of ice4 ,it was a #aith-century addition1 as was a fin attached to the kayak to counteract the effect of the screen in a beam wind4 ,any effect it had as a sail in a kayak was unintentional1 of course3 it was dismounted in strong winds or when not required for hunting4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agf ,,koryak ,,kayak1 drawn from damaged kayak in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 #aidh4 ,shown above is the plan of an ,asiatic ,koryak kayak4 ,this type1 used in the ,sea of ,okhotsk and on the ,siberian coast of ,bering ,sea1 is the only distinctive ,asiatic type2 the ,chukchi of the ,siberian side of ,bering ,strait uses a kayak that is on the same model as the one found at ,norton ,sound1 in ,alaska4 ,the ,chukchi kayak differs only in the ends1 which are wholly functional and without the handgrips that distinguish the ,alaskan type4 ,there is also a crude ,chukchi river kayak1 covered with reindeer skin1 but its design is not represented in an ,american museum4 ,the ,koryak kayak is a hunting boat well designed for use in protected waters1 but is rather weakly built4 ,in general form it is much like the hunting and fowling skiffs formerly used in ,america4 ,the plan idealizes the kayak somewhat1 for the boat is crude in finish4 ,the only example available for study1 in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 is in poor condition4 ,the hull is short1 wide and shallow1 rather ,v in cross section1 and there is a slight camber in the deck4 ,the length of the ,koryak kayak rarely exceeds #aj feet1 the beam is from #bd to #bf inches1 and the depth between #h and #i inches4 ,the manhole rim is of large diameter1 high and without rake4 ,the gunwales1 although rather slight1 are the strength members4 ,the keelson1 a thin1 flat batten1 forms the stem and stern posts2 it is stiffened amidships by a short batten lashed inside the frames4 ,the chine battens are also slight and do not reach the stem and stern4 ,the frames are widely spaced and are wide and thin1 in one piece from gunwale to gunwale4 ,there are but two thwarts2 these are strong and support the manhole rim1 showing inside the cockpit4 ,two thin longitudinal battens afore and abaft the manhole1 support the deck1 in addition to a light centerline ridge-batten4 ,on the kayak illustrated the outboard battens appear to have had additional support at one time from two pairs of stanchions standing on frames at the chines1 with their heads secured to the deck battens2 a pair being placed before and abaft the manhole4 ,a small plank seat appears to have been used and the boat was propelled by two short one-hand paddles1 secured to the manhole rim by lanyards made of thongs2 these would be only efficient in smooth water4 ,the cover is made from bearded seal skins and passes under the manhole rim being sewn to the rim on the inside at the top1 by coarse sewing passed through holes bored in the manhole rim4 ,there are two thong lifting handles or loops1 one at bow and stern4 ,this kayak is the most primitive of all types and the smallest as well4 ,the ,koryaks are not daring canoemen and do not venture into rough water4 ,nevertheless1 this type of kayak is said to be fast and highly maneuverable4 ,compared to the ,koryak1 the ,alaskan kayak is tremendously advanced4 ,the ,aleuts are daring and accomplished kayakers1 and their craft are among the finest in the ,arctic4 ,the ,kodiak ,island kayak of #ahhe1 shown above1 represents one type used in this area and that from ,unalaska1 shown below1 the other4 ,the ,kodiak boat is rather short and wide1 measuring #ae feet #a inch in length1 #bi inches beam and #ad inches depth to ridge batten of the deck just forward of the manhole4 ,the boat has the humped sheer found in many ,alaskan kayaks and is intended for use in stormy waters4 ,its large manhole1 also a feature of the ,nunivak ,island kayak1 permits two persons to be carried1 one facing forward to paddle and the passenger facing aft1 or the space can be used to carry cargo4 ,the drawing shows the construction and requires no detailed explanation4 ,kayaks from the ,aleutian ,islands eastward to ,kodiak use rod battens2 only the gunwales and keelson are rectangular in section4 ,the frames are thin flat strips bent in one piece from gunwale to gunwale4 ,the ridge-batten of the deck is laminated1 in two pieces4 ,the deck beams and thwarts are notched into the ridge-batten and lashed4 ,the bow piece is carved from a block1 and the longitudinals are lashed to it1 each in a carefully fitted notch4 ,the sternpost is formed of a plank4 ,the skin cover passes over the manhole rim and a line passed outside the rim holds the skin down enough to form a breakwater4 ,the skin cover is sewn to the inside lower edge of the rim1 thus covering it almost completely4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agg ,,kodiak ,,island ,,kayak1 #ahhe1 in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #gfbhe74 ,the identification of this kayak has been questioned by ,henry ,b4 ,collins and ,john ,heath1 but it may represent an old form out of use in the twentieth century4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agh ,,aleutian ,,kayak1 ,unalaska1 #ahid1 in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #gfbhb74 ,the ,unalaska kayak of #ahid 7below7 is a better known type4 ,this design is used throughout the ,aleutians and on the adjacent mainland as far east as ,prince ,william ,sound4 ,it was also employed in the ,pribilof ,islands and at ,st4 ,matthew1 having been used by ,aleuts engaged in sealing expeditions there4 ,all kayaks of this type do not have the same bow and stern profiles as the example2 some have the bifid bow built with the portion above the slit arched upward higher than the outer stem-piece and so more prominent2 there are also minor variations in the stern4 ,the shape of the hull1 however1 is consistently maintained throughout the area in which this type is used4 ,though the deck is ridged1 it is relatively low compared to that of the ,kodiak kayak1 and the thwarts supporting the manhole are heavily arched and in one piece from gunwale to gunwale4 ,the construction is like that of the ,kodiak kayak1 but the gunwales and upper longitudinal battens1 instead of meeting the stern post1 end on a crosspiece well inside the stern to give the effect of a transom stern4 ,however1 some ,aleut kayaks have the normal sharp stern after the fashion of the ,kodiak kayak1 but without the projecting tail or handgrip1 and nearly all have two thwarts between the after manhole thwart and the stern and three forward of the fore manhole thwart4 ,the skin cover passes over the manhole rim as in the ,kodiak type4 ,the bow block is sometimes built up of two blocks sewn or laced together4 ,strengthening pieces of light plank are sometimes fitted from the bow block aft2 these are laced to the top inside edge of the gunwales and pinned to the stem block to form long breast-hooks4 ,in some kayaks with the square stern1 only the gunwale is supported by the crosspiece on the stern1 the two battens on each side being supported by the last frame only1 about #f inches inboard of the crosspiece4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agi ,,kayak ,,from ,,russian ,,siberia1 #b-;hole ,aleutian type1 in ,washington ,state ,historical ,society and ,museum4 ,taken off by ,john ,heath1 #aifb4 ,this type of kayak is the only one known to have been built with more than one manhole4 ,the two-hole kayak is an ,aleut development used in whaling and sea-otter hunting1 so far as is known2 the paddler sits in the after manhole4 ,measurements of a two-hole kayak in the ,united ,states ,national ,museum show it to be #bj feet #g inches long1 #bc inches beam1 and #i inches deep to top of gunwale4 ,the manholes are about #df inches apart edge to edge and the foremost is about #h feet from the bow4 ,the three-holer1 commonly believed to have been introduced by the ,russians1 was used by ,russian officers1 inspectors1 and traders in their explorations and travels on the ,alaskan coast4 ,one of these boats measures #bd feet #h inches long1 #cj inches beam1 and #aj inches deep to top of gunwale4 ,the center manhole is commonly larger in diameter than the other two and is used for either a passenger or cargo4 ,the fore edge of the fore manhole is #h feet to #h feet from the bow and the other manholes are from #d to #d feet apart edge to edge4 ,a large example of this class of kayak measures #bh feet #a inches long1 #ch inches beam and #ab inches deep to top of gunwale4 ,probably none exceed #cj feet in length4 ,both the single-and the double-blade paddle are used by the ,aleuts1 but the double blade is preferred in hunting4 ,the paddle blades are rather narrow and leaf-shaped1 with pointed tips4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahj ,,nunivak ,,island ,,kayak1 ,,alaska1 #ahhi1 in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #afjcde71 showing painted decoration of the mythological water monster ,palriayuk4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aha ,,king ,,island ,,kayak1 ,alaska1 #ahhh1 in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #afjcbf71 collected by ,capt4 ,m4 ,a4 ,healy1 ,u4,s4 ,revenue ,steamer ,bear4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahb ,,norton ,,sound ,,kayak1 ,alaska1 #ahhi1 ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #afjage74 ,the plan of a kayak from ,nunivak ,island 7about due north of ,unalaska and roughly halfway to ,st4 ,lawrence ,island7 is shown on page #aih 7fig4 #ahj74 ,this type of kayak is obviously related to that of ,kodiak ,island1 for it has approximately the same lines and proportions4 ,only the profiles of bow and stern exhibit marked differences4 ,perhaps the most striking feature of the ,nunivak kayak is its bow1 which might represent a seal's head2 a hole through the whole bow structure forms the eyes and also serves functionally as a lifting handle4 ,the stern profile is simpler than that used in the ,kodiak kayaks4 ,the example shows the mythological water monster ,palriayuk1 a painted totem that once distinguished the ,nunivak kayaks2 missionary influence has long since erased such decorations from ,alaskan kayaks4 ,whereas the ,kodiak kayak has eleven battens 7including the keelson7 in its frame1 the ,nunivak kayak has nine1 and all the longitudinals in it are rectangular in section4 ,differences in dimensions of ,nunivak and ,kodiak kayaks are remarkably slight1 the greatest length reported for either type is about #ae feet #i inches and the greatest beam is about #cb inches4 ,both types have a large manhole and carry a passenger back-to-back with the paddler4 ,the single-bladed paddle is used4 ,the kayak is sometimes transported over ice by means of a short sledge1 by one man1 but it is otherwise rather heavy to portage4 ,highly regarded by all who have had contact with it1 this is generally considered one of the safest and most useful of the ,alaskan kayaks4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahc ,,nunivak ,,island ,,kayak with picture of mythological water monster ,palriayuk painted along gunwale4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahd ,,nunivak ,,island ,,kayak in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #gfbhc7 with cover partly removed to show framework4 ,collected by ,ivan ,petroff1 ,march #cj1 #ahid4 ,king ,island1 at the entrance to ,bering ,strait1 is the home of the kayak shown on page #aih 7fig4 #aha74 ,the ,king ,islanders are noted as skillful kayakers and their kayak generally follows the ,nunivak pattern1 but is narrower and more ,v-shaped in cross section1 and the stem and stern are also distinctly different4 ,the ,king ,island craft has a bold upturned stem ending in a small birdlike head1 with a small hole through it to represent eyes and to serve for a lifting grip2 the stern is low and without the projections seen in the ,nunivak type4 ,the fitting of the cockpit rim of the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum kayak is unusual2 the rim is not supported by thwarts but rather is made part of the skin cover and therefore can be moved4 ,this seemed to be intentional1 for there is no evidence of broken or missing members1 but ,john ,heath considers this not typical4 ,a watertight jacket with the skirt laced to the manhole rim is worn by the kayaker to prevent swamping4 ,this practice was common among ,eskimo working in stormy waters4 ,a warm-weather alternate was a wide waistband1 with its top supported by straps over the shoulders and the bottom laced to the manhole4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahe ,,western ,,alaskan ,,kayak1 ,cape ,prince of ,wales1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,henry ,b4 ,collins47 ,a somewhat similar but slightly smaller kayak was used at ,cape ,espenberg2 in these the upturned bow ended in a simple point4 ,the sterns were alike in both types4 ,the ,cape ,espenberg kayak had a fixed cockpit rim however1 as in the ,nunivak type4 ,both types employed the single-bladed paddle4 ,a little to the ,south1 in ,norton ,sound1 the long narrow kayak shown on page #aih 7fig4 #ahb7 is popular4 ,these are somewhat like the ,nunivak kayaks in cross section but with far less beam4 ,they have a slight reverse1 or humped1 sheer and are very sharp ended4 ,the peculiar handgrips at bow and stern are characteristic1 though the shape and size of the grips vary among the villages2 the style shown is that of ,st4 ,michaels4 ,a single-bladed paddle is used4 ,this type is very fast under paddle1 but requires a skillful user in rough water4 ,the ,norton ,sound kayaks are very well finished and strongly built4 ,from ,kotzebue ,sound1 at ,cape ,krusenstern1 along the north coast of ,alaska to near the ,mackenzie ,delta1 the kayaks are very low in the water1 long1 narrow1 and spindle-shaped at the ends4 ,they are distinguished by a very strong rake in the manhole rim1 with an accompanying prominent swell in the deck forward of the manhole4 ,they are built with seven longitudinal battens 7including the keelson7 in addition to the gunwales4 ,in several examples seen1 the latter are sometimes slightly channelled on the inside1 but this may have been the result of shrinkage in the pith of the timber used and not intentional4 ,these kayaks are very light and easily carried4 ,both single-and double-blade paddles are employed2 the single blade is usually used in travelling4 ,on page #bja are shown a kayak from ,cape ,krusenstern 7fig4 #ahf7 and one from ,point ,barrow 7fig4 #ahg74 ,it is reported that these types have now gone out of use4 ,in these boats no stem or stern posts exist1 these usually being replaced by small end blocks4 ,the only important difference in the two types shown is in the style of crowning the deck1 which is ridged in the ,cape ,krusenstern kayak but more rounded in the ,point ,barrow kayak4 ,in spite of their narrow beam and obviously unstable form1 these kayaks are said to have been used by rather unskillful paddlers4 ,in general1 they were not employed in rough weather but were seaworthy in skillful hands4 ,though the ,north ,alaska type of kayak1 as illustrated by the ,point ,barrow model 7fig4 #ahg71 may be said to represent the structural design of kayaks to the eastward as far as ,foxe ,basin1 the ,mackenzie ,delta kayaks are on an entirely different model4 ,due to migration of numerous groups of ,eskimo to this area in the last seventy years1 the design of kayaks here has undergone a great change4 ,in figure #ahh appears the plan of a modern ,mackenzie ,delta kayak4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahf ,,kotzebue ,,sound ,,kayak 7,cape ,krusenstern71 ,alaska1 formerly in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum1 now in ,mariner's ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahg ,,point ,,barrow ,,kayak1 ,alaska1 #ahhh1 in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #egggc74 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahh ,,mackenzie ,,delta ,,kayak1 in ,museum of the ,american ,indian1 ,heye ,foundation4 ,the design is marked by a very narrow flat bottom or a wide keel combined with the ,v-bottom4 ,these boats are well-built and are light and graceful4 ,the wide keel is formed by a thick plank keelson which narrows at bow and stern and is bent up to form the stem and stern4 ,the chine pieces run fore and aft and are lashed to the stem and stern thus formed4 ,the gunwales are about by #a inches4 ,the frames are about by inch bent in a strongly ,u-shaped form1 with their ends tenoned into the bottom of the gunwales4 ,the keelson is only about inch thick and the chines are rather wide thin battens2 about by #a inch4 ,some kayaks have an additional batten in the sides above the chines4 ,the deck is slightly ridged for nearly the length of the boat4 ,the stem and stern are carried up above the sheer to form prominent posts2 some builders carry them higher than shown4 ,the construction is neat and light and the boat is very easily paddled4 ,its narrow beam makes it somewhat treacherous1 however1 in unskilled hands4 ,a double-bladed paddle is generally used with this kayak4 ,while the form appears to vary little among individuals of this class1 the construction varies1 particularly in the number and dimensions of the longitudinals4 ,frames are spaced rather consistently #e to #f inches apart4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahi ,,kayak ,,from ,,point ,,barrow1 ,alaska1 in ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #egggc74 ,collected by ,capt4 ,m4 ,a4 ,healy1 ,u4,s4 ,revenue ,steamer ,bear1 #ahhh4 7,smithsonian photo ,,mnh-#cii-;,a47 ,illustration3 ,figure #aij ,,cockpit ,,of ,,kayak from ,point ,barrow 7,,usnm #egggc71 showing method of lashing skin cover to manhole4 7,smithsonian photo ,,mnh-#cii47 ,illustration3 ,figure #aia ,,kayak ,,in ,u4,s4 ,,national ,,museum 7,,usnm #afjcbe7 cataloged as from ,mackenzie ,river area1 #ahhe1 but apparently an eastern kayak of unidentified origin4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aib ,,coronation ,,gulf ,,kayak1 ,canada1 partially reconstructed from a damaged privately owned kayak 7now destroyed74 ,illustration3 ,figure #aic ,,caribou ,,eskimo ,,kayak1 ,canada1 in ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aid ,,netsilik ,,eskimo ,,kayak1 ,king ,william ,island1 ,canada1 in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,the foregoing design differs greatly in every respect from the example in figure #aia1 collected by the ,u4,s4 ,fish ,commission in #ahhe and identified as a ,mackenzie ,river kayak4 ,it is a large heavy boat compared to the one just described4 ,the model of this old kayak1 and the construction too1 is on the eastern pattern1 such as is used in ,hudson ,strait4 ,the strongly upturned stern and less rising bow resembles the old ,greenland kayaks4 ,the ,v-bottom and #c-;batten construction combined with heavy deep gunwales is not to be found in any of the known ,alaskan kayaks4 ,there is unfortunately no record of the exact location where this kayak was found1 nor any information on the builders2 if it is from the ,mackenzie1 the type now appears to be wholly extinct and there has been nothing in recent times in the vicinity faintly resembling it4 ,the kayak is a well-built1 safe1 strong boat2 the high stern would aid it in coming head to sea and wind when paddling stopped2 and it resembles1 more than most1 the early explorers' drawings of ,arctic kayaks4 ,the very high ends indicate that it was not used where high winds are common1 despite the otherwise seaworthy design and construction1 and regardless of the documentation1 it now seems certain that this kayak came from somewhere in the eastern ,arctic4 ,to the eastward of the ,mackenzie1 the kayaks are narrow1 spindle-shaped and very low sided1 in the manner of the northern ,alaskan boats4 ,the drawing of figure #aib was made from the remains of a kayak from ,coronation ,gulf and to insure accuracy was compared with photographs and measurements of some ,copper ,eskimo kayaks4 ,this kayak is characterized by a rather marked reverse sheer and a strongly raked manhole rim4 ,the deck forward of the manhole sweeps up very sharply1 but with a different profile than is seen on the north coast of ,alaska2 the deck of these eastern kayaks sweeps up in a very short hollow curve instead of the long convex sweep popular in ,alaska4 ,the ends of the hull finish in small bone buttons2 the skin cover passes under the manhole rim1 as in the ,cape ,krusenstern and ,point ,barrow types4 ,a two-bladed paddle is commonly used4 ,the hull design is more stable than that at ,point ,barrow and the ends are somewhat fuller1 giving the boat a rather parallel sided appearance2 it has longitudinal battens from the bottom of the hull1 one the keelson2 the gunwales are channelled on the inside and are very light and neatly made4 ,the frames are split willows1 round on the inside4 ,the ,caribou ,eskimo kayak preserved in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history is the best example of the type found4 ,the drawing of figure #aic shows the features of this particular type2 the construction is about the same as that of the ,point ,barrow kayak but is much lighter and weaker4 ,the peculiar projecting stem is formed of a stem block1 scarphed to the gunwales2 to it the beak piece is attached with a lashing4 ,the sharply turned-up stern is formed in a similar manner by two pieces joined together at the tip and lashed to the stern block2 this stern construction is similar to that of the eastern ,arctic kayak shown in figure #aib4 ,both caribou hides and seal skins are used to cover the ,caribou ,eskimo kayak4 ,the seams are rubbed with fish oil and ochre1 a method also used extensively along the north coast of ,alaska to paint the framework of both kayaks and umiaks4 ,the ,netsilik ,eskimo kayak is related to the ,caribou1 but is less stable and has different bow and stern profiles4 ,the example shown in the drawing of figure #aid requires little discussion2 the cover is of seal skin4 ,these kayaks are used only in hunting caribou at stream crossings and are not employed in sealing4 ,the very narrow bottom and narrow beam make this the most dangerous of all kayaks in the hands of a paddler unaccustomed to such craft4 ,neither the ,caribou nor the ,netsilik kayaks are very seaworthy and their construction is inferior4 ,they are characterized by rather heavy gunwales but the other members of their structures are very slight4 ,no examples remain of the old kayaks once used on the ,gulf of ,boothia1 at ,fury and ,hecla ,strait1 and on the west side of ,foxe ,basin4 ,early explorers in this area found kayaks1 but the types used have been long extinct4 ,one kayak1 supposed to have been built at ,southampton ,island1 had been preserved by a private collector1 but when measured was in a damaged state4 ,shown in figure #aie1 it does not conform with the old description of kayaks from the ,melville ,peninsula but does agree reasonably well with the ,boas model of a kayak from ,repulse ,bay in the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #fhabf74 ,on this basis it would appear that in ,boas' time this form of kayak was also used on the east side of the ,melville ,peninsula4 ,the design resembles to some extent the kayaks from the southwest coast of ,greenland1 but the stern is like that used in some ,labrador craft4 ,this old kayak was very light and sharp1 rather slightly built1 but very graceful in model so far as could be determined from the remains of the craft4 ,the foredeck camber is ridged and carried rather far forward4 ,if the identification of this kayak should be correct1 it is apparent that the eastern model of the kayak once extended as far west as the west side of ,foxe ,basin4 ,the kayak of lower ,baffin ,island1 in figure #aif1 is flat-bottomed1 long1 and rather heavy4 ,the gunwale members are very deep and the keelson and chine battens are quite heavy4 ,this type has a slight side-batten between chine and gunwale--in all1 five longitudinal members besides the gunwales--hence this example is the sole exception to the #c-;batten construction that may be said to mark the eastern kayaks4 ,the ,baffin ,island kayak is rather roughly built and the two examples found had many frames cracked at the chines4 ,however1 this kayak has many excellent features1 being easily paddled1 very stable1 and seaworthy4 ,the double-blade paddle used is like that of the ,labrador kayak1 very long with narrow blades4 ,when the paddler is seated1 these kayaks1 like many of their eastern sisters1 draw more water forward than the illustration would indicate 7it should be remembered that the trim of the kayaks in the water is not indicated by the base lines used in the plans74 ,the deeper draft at the bow1 which allows the kayak to hold her course into the wind and to come head to the wind when at rest1 gives a long easy run in the bottom toward the stern4 ,the slight rocker in the bottom shown in the drawing is thus misleading4 ,the stem is formed by the extension of the keelson1 producing the clipper-bow seen in many eastern boats4 ,the stern is shaped by a stern block of simple form into which the gunwales1 keelson and chines are notched4 ,the batten between chine and gunwale stops a little short of both bow and stern4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aie ,,old ,,kayak ,,from ,,vicinity ,,of ,,southampton ,,island1 ,canada4 ,plan made from a much damaged kayak1 now destroyed1 once privately owned4 ,a somewhat similar kayak is used on the ,labrador side of ,hudson ,strait but1 as shown in figure #aig on page #bjg1 the appearance of the craft is distinctive4 ,the kayak is flat-bottomed1 with the snied-off chines seen in the ,baffin ,island boat1 giving a cross section form like that of many ,japanese sampans4 ,the #c-;batten system is used in construction1 and the gunwales are very heavy and deep1 standing vertical in the sides of the boat4 ,the sheer is slightly reversed and there is little rocker in the bottom4 ,one of the most obvious features of the ,labrador kayak is the long grab bow1 which is formed by a batten attached to the end of the keelson4 ,the stern is formed with a very small block inside the gunwales1 and to this the keelson is laced or pegged4 ,it will be noticed that the rake of the manhole is very moderate4 ,these kayaks are heavy and strong1 paddle well1 particularly so against wind and sea4 ,shown in the drawing is the type of long-and narrow-bladed paddle used4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aif ,,baffin ,,island ,,kayak1 from ,cape ,dorset1 ,canada1 in the ,museum of the ,american ,indian1 ,heye ,foundation4 ,this example illustrates better than the ,baffin ,island kayak the combination of deep forefoot and the greatest beam well abaft the midlength that marks many eastern models4 ,when paddled1 the craft always trims so that the kayak draws most water at the fore end of the keelson and the bottom of the stern is usually just awash4 ,this makes the bottom sweep up from the forefoot in a very slight gradual curve to the stern1 when the boat is afloat4 ,as a result1 the kayak may be said to be of the double-wedge form that has been popular in fast low-powered motor boats1 since having the beam far aft gives to the bow a wedge shape in plan1 while the deep forefoot and shallow stern produce an opposite wedge in profile4 ,it would appear that this form had been found by trial and error to produce a fast1 easily paddled rough-water kayak in an otherwise heavy hull4 ,the ,north ,labrador kayaks are the largest in the ,arctic for a single person2 some are reported as long as #bf feet4 ,the long-and narrow-bladed paddle may be explained by the fact that the ,eskimo never produced a feathered double paddle1 with blades set at right angles to one another4 ,to paddle against strong winds1 he developed a blade that was very long and very narrow for a double-paddle1 and therefore offered less resistance to the wind1 yet could be dipped deep so that little propulsion effect was lost4 ,the kayak used on the northeast coast of ,labrador1 shown in figure #aih1 differs slightly from that of ,hudson ,strait4 ,the northeast-coast kayak has a very slight ,v-bottom and a strong concave sheer with relatively great rocker in the bottom4 ,while the craft trims by the bow afloat1 the rocker probably makes it more maneuverable than the ,hudson ,strait kayak1 though less easily paddled against strong winds4 ,the ,v-bottom is formed by using a keelson that is heavier and deeper than the chines4 ,the latter are thin1 wide battens1 on the flat4 ,the ,v-bottom appears to help the boat run straight under paddle and may be said to counteract1 to some extent at least1 the effect of the strongly rockered bottom4 ,the ,polar coast of ,greenland is the home of sharpie-model kayaks having flat bottoms and flaring sides2 the kayaks in figures #aii and #bjj are representative of those used in the extreme north4 ,these have clipper bows1 with sterns of varying depth and shape1 concave sheer and varying degrees of rocker in the bottom4 ,most have their greatest beam well aft and draw more water forward1 as do the ,labrador and ,baffin ,island types4 ,the chief characteristic of the construction of this type is that the transverse frames are in three parts1 somewhat as in the umiak4 ,however1 these kayaks depart from umiak construction in having the frame heads rigidly tenoned into the gunwales4 ,this is done to give the structure a measure of transverse rigidity which would otherwise be lacking1 since light battens are used for the keelson1 stem1 and chines4 ,figure #aii shows the details of the construction used4 ,these kayaks are highly developed craft--stable1 fast1 and seaworthy--and the construction is light yet strong enough to withstand the severe abuse sometimes given them4 ,the cap on the fore part of the manhole is a paddle holder1 for resting the paddle across the deck4 ,some ,eskimos used this as a thole1 and when tired1 rowed the kayak with the paddle1 to maintain control4 ,it will be noted that oval or circular manholes are seldom found in the eastern types of kayaks already described2 ,u-shaped manholes1 or bent-rim manholes approaching this form1 appear in those very stable types which do not require to be righted at sea by the paddler and in which the watertight paddling jacket or waistband is not used4 ,farther south1 on the northern coast of ,greenland1 and apparently also on the opposite coast of ,baffin ,island1 a modified design of kayak is used4 ,this type1 illustrated in figure #bje1 shows relationship to both the flat-bottom kayak of northern ,greenland and to the northeastern ,labrador type4 ,in this model the clipper bow is retained but the stern and cross section resemble those of the ,labrador kayaks4 ,the construction1 however1 is fundamentally that employed in northern ,greenland4 ,as in the ,labrador type1 the deadrise in the bottom is formed by using in the keelson members that are deeper than those in the chine4 ,the gunwales do not flare as in the ,greenland model1 but stand vertical in the side flaring slightly at bow and extreme stern4 ,the frame heads are rather loosely tenoned and are commonly secured to the gunwales with lashings4 ,transverse stiffness is obtained in this model by employing a rather heavy1 rigid keelson fixed to the stern block1 and by a tripod arrangement forward consisting of the stem batten and a pair of transverse frames placed at the junction of stem and keelson with their heads firmly lashed and tenoned into the gunwales4 ,the construction1 though strong1 is rather rough compared to that of other ,greenland types4 ,the manhole rim in this type is not bent1 but is made up of short straight pieces1 as shown in the drawing2 and the double-bladed paddle shown resembles that used in ,labrador4 ,this is a rather heavy kayak of very good qualities but not as maneuverable as some of the flat-bottom kayaks found farther north4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aig ,,kayak ,,from ,,north ,,labrador1 ,canada1 in the ,museum of the ,american ,indian1 ,heye ,foundation4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aih ,,labrador ,,kayak1 ,canada1 in the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #beafic74 ,illustration3 ,figure #aii ,,north ,,greenland ,,kayak1 in the ,museum of the ,american ,indian1 ,heye ,foundation4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bjj ,,north ,,greenland ,,kayak1 in the ,peabody ,museum1 ,salem1 ,mass4 ,taken off by the late ,norman ,l4 ,skene1 #aiba4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bja ,,profile ,,of ,,greenland ,,kayak from ,disko ,bay1 in the ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #gbefd74 ,collected by ,maj4 ,wm4 ,m4 ,beebe1 ,jr41 #ahhb4 7,smithsonian photo #aegbf-;,d47 ,ross found that the ,greenland ,eskimos north of ,cape ,york had ceased to use kayaks in #ahah4 ,not until about #ahfj was the kayak reintroduced here1 by ,eskimos from ,pond ,inlet1 north ,baffin ,island1 who walked over the sea ice4 ,this fact probably accounts for the various sharpie and modified sharpie forms used along the northern and ,polar coasts of ,greenland4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bjb ,,deck ,,of ,,greenland ,,kayak from ,disko ,bay 7,,usnm #gbefd74 7,smithsonian photo #aegbf-;,c47 ,the model of the kayak used on much of the central and southern coasts of ,greenland has changed rather extensively since #ahhc1 and this change has apparently affected the kayaks used on the east coast as well4 ,in this part of the ,arctic1 the ,eskimo are notable kayakers and the boat is not only well designed but also carries highly developed equipment and weapons for its work4 ,the basic model used is a graceful ,v-bottom one1 with raking ends and rather strong sheer4 ,in the old boats represented by the drawings of figures #bjf and #bjg1 the sheer is strong at bow and stern1 but this form has been gradually going out of favor4 ,the kayaks are narrow but their shape gives them much stability4 ,pegged to the bow and stern are plates of bone to protect them from ice2 in rare cases these bone stem bands1 or bang plates1 are lashed in place4 ,the first drawing shows the construction used3 light strong gunwales and a #c-;batten longitudinal system with bent transverse frames4 ,the keelson and chines--light1 rectangular in section and placed on edge--are shaped slightly to fair the sealskin covering4 ,the cover passes under the manhole rim4 ,bow and stern are made of plank on edge1 shaped to the required profile4 ,the gunwales are strongly tapered in depth fore and aft4 ,eight to twelve thwarts1 or deck beams1 are used in addition to the two heavy thwarts supporting the manhole2 usually there is one more forward of the manhole than there is aft1 and all are very light scantlings4 ,the thwart forward of the manhole stands slightly inside the cockpit and is strongly arched2 the after one is clear of the cockpit opening and has very little arch4 ,two light1 short battens1 or carlins1 #bd to #cf inches long support the deck1 where it sweeps up to the raked manhole1 and usually there are two abaft the manhole as well4 ,lashings are used as fastenings except at the ends of the hull1 where pegs secure the keelson to the stem and stern2 at this point1 on some kayaks examined1 sinew lashings are also found4 ,the whole framework is strong1 light1 and neatly made4 ,in a few instances the gunwales do not flare with the sides the whole length and1 thus1 near the stern1 a knuckle is formed in the skin cover1 as in figure #bjg1 opposite4 ,the exact amount of flare and deadrise varies village to village4 ,the old kayaks used in eastern ,greenland had more rake in the bow than the examples illustrated1 and also were marked by a sheer almost straight from the bow to within a foot or so of the stern1 where it turned up sharply to a high stern1 as in the drawing 7fig4 #aia1 p4 #bjc47 ,these kayaks also had less flare and deadrise than most of the southwestern ,greenland models4 ,the amount of rocker in the keelson varies a good deal1 that shown in figure #bjf1 opposite1 appears to have been about the maximum2 a straight keelson does not seem ever to have been used4 ,the manholes are fitted to allow use of the watertight paddling jacket2 the projecting rim shown at the after-side of the manhole in the drawing is primarily to strengthen the manhole rim1 but may also serve to prevent the drawstring holding the skirt of the jacket to the rim from slipping over the top4 ,this old form of ,greenland kayak1 which has been widely described and much admired1 was a fast and handy hunting boat2 but it has become obsolete in most areas1 and seems to have gone out of use more rapidly on the east coast than the west1 where the type represented in the drawing was built as late as #aiei at ,umanak ,fjord4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bjc ,,cockpit of ,greenland kayak from ,disko ,bay4 7,,usnm #gbefd74 7,smithsonian photo #aegbf47 ,illustration3 ,figure #bjd ,,bow ,,view of ,greenland kayak from ,disko ,bay 7,,usnm #gbefd74 7,smithsonian photo #aegbf-;,a47 ,illustration3 ,figure #bje ,,northwestern ,,greenland ,,kayak1 in the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #afjchh74 ,illustration3 ,figure #bjf ,,southwestern ,,greenland ,,kayak1 #ahhc1 in the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #afjcbh74 ,illustration3 ,figure #bjg ,,southwestern ,,greenland ,,kayak1 in the ,peabody ,museum1 ,salem1 ,mass4 ,taken off by the late ,norman ,l4 ,skene1 #aiba4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bjh ,,south ,,greenland ,,kayak1 in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,since the #ahhj's it has been gradually replaced by the type shown above4 ,the modern version has the same construction as the old but1 as can be seen1 the model has undergone much alteration4 ,the rake of the bow and stern have become much greater2 the sheer is now almost straight4 ,the flare of the sides has been increased and the deadrise in the bottom has been reduced4 ,the new model is undoubtedly an improvement over the old type1 being faster 7particularly against a headwind7 and quicker turning4 ,however1 it would probably be found to be somewhat harder than the old model to right when capsized4 ,and although the new model is more stable than the old1 it is not suited for unskilled users2 a few ,american soldiers drowned during ,world ,war ,,ii through rashly venturing into rough water before becoming practiced in the use of these kayaks4 ,the intricate arrangement of deck lashings shown are required to hold weapons and accessories4 ,just ahead of the paddler a stand or tray on low legs holds the coiled harpoon line2 and under the deck lashings are held such weapons as the lance1 darts1 and harpoons4 ,toggles of bone or ivory1 often carved1 are used to tighten and adjust these lines4 ,the ,greenland kayaks carry deck fittings and gear that are far better developed than those seen in any of the western types4 ,chapter ,eight ,,temporary ,,craft ,use of temporary craft seems to have been confined to the ,indians1 who for the most part built them of bark1 although some tribes used skins4 ,however1 very little in the way of information exists on the forms used by the individual tribes1 for early travelers did not always have opportunities to see these emergency craft1 and when they did they rarely took the trouble to record their construction and design4 ,bark ,canoes ,there is ample evidence to support the belief that a great many of the tribes building birch-bark canoes also used temporary canoes of other barks such as spruce and elm1 as has been mentioned in earlier chapters4 ,invariably1 the qualities of these other barks1 particularly spruce1 were such that their use was often somewhat more laborious and the results less satisfactory than with birch2 but the necessities of travel and the availability of materials were controlling factors1 and with care spruce bark could be used to build a canoe almost as good as one of birch bark4 ,the forms of these canoes do not appear to have been as standardized as the tribal forms of the better-built bark canoes2 rather1 the model of the temporary canoe was entirely a matter to be decided by the individual builder on the basis of the importance of the temporary canoe to his needs1 the limitation on time allowed for construction1 and the material available4 ,the reasons for using substitute material are fairly obvious4 ,in forest travel it was not always possible or practical to portage a canoe for a long distance simply to make a short water passage somewhere along the route4 ,war parties and hunters1 therefore1 often found it necessary to build a temporary canoe1 one that could be utilized for a limited water passage and then abandoned4 ,since such a limited use did not warrant expenditure of much time or labor on construction1 the canoe was prepared quickly from readily available material and in order to meet these requirements many ,indian tribes developed canoe forms and building techniques somewhat different from the more elaborate construction using birch or spruce bark4 ,it is obvious that much time and work could be avoided by use of a single large sheet of bark that was reasonably flexible and strong4 ,but many of the barks meeting this specification had a coarse longitudinal grain that split easily1 so forming a canoe by cutting gores was out of the question4 ,this difficulty was avoided by folding1 or crimping1 the bark cover along the gunwales at two or more places on each side of the canoe2 this permitted the bottom to be flattened athwartships and the keel line to be rockered1 both desirable in a canoe4 ,the problem of closing the ends also had to be solved4 ,this was done by clamping the ends of the bark between two battens and1 perhaps1 a bark cord as well1 and then lashing together the battens1 bark ends1 and cord with wrappings of root thongs4 ,cord made from the inner bark of the basswood and other trees could also be used for this purpose4 ,the ends of the canoe could then be made watertight by a liberal application of gum or tallow1 while grass1 shavings1 moss1 or inner bark mixed with gum or even clay could be used to fill the larger openings that might appear in hurried construction4 ,obviously1 a simple wood structure was required by the specifications4 ,therefore1 the gunwales were usually made of saplings with their butts roughly secured together or spliced4 ,this allowed length to be obtained without the necessity of working down large poles to usable dimensions1 a laborious and time-consuming undertaking with primitive tools4 ,the thwarts were commonly of saplings with the ends cut away so that the thin remainder could be wrapped around the main gunwales and lashed underneath the thwarts inboard4 ,ribs were usually of split saplings1 but there is some evidence that in very hurriedly built canoes the whole small sapling was used4 ,the kind of sheathing employed in these canoes during the pre-,columbian era is a mystery4 ,it would be quite unlikely that time was taken to split splints such as were used in the late elm-and spruce-bark canoes1 when steel tools were available4 ,the writers believe that for small canoes it may have been the practice to use a second sheet of stiff bark inside the first and extending only through the middle two-thirds of the length1 across the bottom and up above the bilge but short of the gunwales4 ,this1 with the ribs and a few poles lashed to each rib along the bottom1 would have given sufficient longitudinal strength and a stiff enough bottom for practical use4 ,however1 in large canoes of the type reputedly employed by ,iroquois warriors1 a stronger construction seems necessary1 and these canoes may have had a number of split or whole poles lashed to the ribs along the bottom4 ,with small variations in details1 the general construction outlined above was employed by many ,north ,american ,indians for building temporary canoes for emergency use4 ,in at least one case1 however1 it was also used in canoes of somewhat more permanent status within the boundaries of the powerful ,iroquois ,confederation4 ,on large bodies of water within their territory1 the ,iroquois used dugouts1 but for navigating streams and for use in raiding their enemies they employed bark canoes4 ,while some birch bark was available there1 it was probably widely scattered2 therefore these great warriors used elm or other bark for their canoe building4 ,early ,french accounts show that the ,iroquois built bark canoes of greater size than ordinary2 ,champlain wrote that their canoes were of oak bark and were large enough to carry up to #ah warriors2 later ,french accounts1 as we shall see1 indicate that the ,iroquois used even larger canoes than these4 ,champlain may have been in error about the ,iroquois use of oak bark1 as suggested earlier 7p4 #g71 for experiments have shown that the inner bark of this tree is too thin and weak for the purpose2 the canoes ,champlain saw may have been built of white or red elm bark4 ,the barks of the butternut1 hickory1 white pine1 and chestnut might also have been employed1 as they were usually suitable4 ,it was noted by the early ,french writers that the ,iroquois built their bark canoes very rapidly when these craft were required by a war party in order to attack their enemies or to escape pursuit4 ,in one case at least the canoes for a war party were apparently built in a single day4 ,this was accomplished1 it seems1 by the excellent organization of their war parties1 in which every man was assigned a duty1 even in making canoes4 ,when it was deemed necessary to build a canoe1 certain warriors were to search out and obtain the necessary materials in the order required for construction4 ,to do this effectively1 they had to know the materials in order of their suitability for a given purpose1 for the most desirable material might not be available at the building site4 ,other warriors prepared the materials for construction1 scraping the bark1 making thongs1 and rough-shaping the wood4 ,others built the canoe1 cutting and sewing the bark1 and shaping and lashing the woodwork4 ,these duties1 too1 required intimate knowledge of the different materials that could be used in canoe construction4 ,it would be natural1 of course1 to find that the methods used to construct a temporary craft for a war-party would also be employed at home by the hunter or fisherman1 even when a rather more permanent canoe was desired4 ,these were smaller craft and easily built4 ,only when a long-lasting watercraft was desired would the bark canoe be unsatisfactory2 then the dugout could be built4 ,the early ,french observers agree that though the ,iroquois occasionally used birch-bark canoes1 these were acquired from their neighbors by barter or capture and were not built by the tribesmen of the ,confederation4 ,the details of the construction of elm canoes 7and of other bark than birch7 by the ,iroquois are speculative1 since no bark canoe of their construction has been preserved4 ,this reconstruction of their methods is1 therefore1 based upon the incomplete accounts of early writers and upon what has been discovered about the construction of spruce-and elm-bark temporary canoes by other ,eastern ,indians4 ,in view of what has been reported1 it must be kept in mind that the construction was hasty and that a minimum of labor and time was employed2 hence1 the appearance of the elm-bark canoe of an ,iroquois war-party had none of the gracefulness that is supposed to mark the traditional war canoe of the ,indians4 ,the ends are known to have been square1 that is1 straight in profile1 and the freeboard low4 ,the use of saplings for the gunwales would cause an uneven sheer1 and its amount must have been small2 the high1 graceful ends seen in some birch-bark canoes did not exist in the ,iroquois model4 ,the rocker of the bottom profile was not a fair curve1 but was angular1 made of straight lines breaking under the folds1 or crimps1 in the bark cover at the gunwales4 ,the amount of bark in each crimp and the location of the crimps fore-and-aft would determine the shape of the bottom profile and the amount of rocker1 as well as the flatness of the bottom athwartships in the midbody4 ,it appears that two crimps to the side were employed in most of these canoes1 but perhaps more1 say four to a side1 might have been employed in a very large canoe4 ,the tendency in forming these canoes must have been toward an almost semicircular midsection1 a condition which would have produced an unstable craft if not checked4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bji ,,malecite ,,and ,,iroquois ,,temporary ,,canoes4 ,the ,iroquois #c-;fathom elm-bark canoe1 below1 is designed to carry ten to twelve warriors4 ,the early ,french writers agree that the canoes of ,iroquois war parties were sluggish under paddle4 ,this was due to the fact that the hull form of these canoes was not good for speed1 and also because the bulges at the bottom of the crimps caused them to be markedly unfair at and near the waterline4 ,this handicap in their canoes may have been an inducement for the ,iroquois to waylay their victims at portages when the travellers were usually spread out and easily cut down while burdened with goods4 ,the ,algonkin tribes countered by moving in very large numbers when within striking distance of ,iroquois raiders4 ,hence there were very few recorded instances of battles in canoes2 these took place only when sudden meetings occurred without preparation on either side1 such as when war parties surprised canoemen in narrow waters4 ,the shortcomings of their canoes did not seriously affect the deadliness of the ,iroquois warriors1 for their usual practice was to raid in winter1 when they could travel rapidly on snowshoes and surprise their enemies in winter camps wholly unprepared for defense1 a most pleasing prospect for the attacking warrior4 ,it would be a mistake1 however1 to assume that these factors made the ,iroquois poor canoemen2 the ,french repeatedly stated that they were capable in handling their craft and ran rapids with great daring and skill1 showing that the apparently crude and weak elm-bark canoes were far better craft than they first appeared4 ,the theory that the ,iroquois type of canoe was very like the emergency or temporary elm-and spruce-bark canoes of neighboring tribes is supported by some statements of the early ,french writers1 as well as by a comparison of the rather incomplete descriptions of ,iroquois canoes by later travellers with what is known about the spruce and other temporary bark canoes used in more recent times by the eastern ,indians4 ,m4 ,bacqueville de la ,poterie1 writing of the adventures of ,nicholas ,perrot in the years #affe to #afgj1 tells of an instance in which ,perrot's ,potawatomi mistook the emergency canoes of some ,outaouais 7,ottawa7 for ,iroquois canoes4 ,la,hontan 7#agjj7 gives some general information as well as specific opinions on the speed and seaworthiness of ,iroquois canoes1 saying that-- the canoes with which the ,iroquois provide themselves are so unwieldy and large that they do not approach the speed of those which are made of birch bark4 ,they are made of elm bark1 which is naturally heavy and the shape they give them is awkward2 they are so long and so broad that thirty men can row in them1 two-by-two1 seated or standing1 fifteen to each rank1 but the freeboard is so low that when any little wind arises they are sensible enough not to navigate the lakes in them4 ,la,fiteau1 writing before #agbd1 stated definitely that the ,iroquois did not build any birch-bark canoes1 but obtained them from their neighbors1 and that the ,iroquois elm-bark canoes were very coarsely built of a single large sheet of bark1 crimped along the gunwales1 with the ends secured between battens of split saplings4 ,he noticed that the gunwales1 ribs1 and thwarts were of tree branches1 implying that the bark was not removed from them4 ,the most detailed description was by a ,swedish traveller1 ,professor ,pher ,kalm1 who gave extensive information on the construction of an elm-bark canoe in #agdi2 this account is particularly useful when interpreted in relation to the spruce-and elm-bark canoes of the eastern ,indians4 ,it is upon the basis of ,kalm's account that the procedures used to build an ,iroquois war canoe have been reconstructed4 ,the bark most favored by the ,iroquois was that of the white elm4 ,next most favored was red elm1 and then other barks--certain of the hickories and chestnut are mentioned in various early references4 ,it was necessary to find a tree of sufficient girth and height to the first limbs to give a sound and fairly smooth bark sheet in the length and breadth required4 ,if possible the bark was stripped from the standing tree2 even after steel tools were available1 felling was avoided for fear of harming the bark4 ,great care had to be taken in the operation1 to avoid splitting or making holes in the bark1 and often two or more trees had to be stripped before a good sheet of bark was obtained4 ,in warm weather the bark could be removed without much difficulty1 but in the spring and fall it might be necessary to apply heat2 this was apparently done by means of torches or by the application of hot water to the tree trunk4 ,when the bark was removed from the tree1 the rough outer bark was scraped away2 if the builder was hurried this scraping was confined to the areas to be sewn or folded4 ,the bark was then laid on a cleared piece of ground1 the building bed1 with the outside of the bark up1 so that it would be inside the finished boat4 ,the building bed does not appear to have required much preparation2 apparently not raised at midlength1 it was merely a plot of reasonably smooth ground1 located in the shade of a large tree if building was to be done in summer4 ,it is not wholly clear from the descriptions whether the gunwales were shaped before or after being secured to the bark4 ,however1 extensive experiments in building model canoes show very plainly that it would be easiest to assemble the main gunwale frame and use it in building1 after the fashion of eastern birch-bark canoe construction4 ,with the main gunwales assembled1 the stakes would be placed on the bed1 the bark replaced1 the frame laid on it and weighted1 and the stakes then redriven in the usual way and their heads lashed together in pairs4 ,each gunwale was formed either of two small saplings or of split poles1 with the butts scarfed at the canoe's midlength4 ,the canoe of an ,iroquois war party would probably have gunwales of split saplings so that inwale and outwale for half the length of one side of the canoe would be from a single pole2 this would allow the flat sides to be placed opposite one another1 on each side of the edge of the bark1 to form a firm gunwale structure4 ,however1 when a rather permanent craft was being built1 the poles might be split twice1 or quartered1 to give pieces to make half of the gunwales of a canoe2 these too might be worked nearly round before assembly4 ,that the gunwale joints were scarfed is reasonably certain4 ,the elm-bark canoes of the ,st4 ,francis ,indians are known only from a model1 as are the spruce-bark hunters' canoes of the ,malecite1 but the testimony of old ,st4 ,francis and ,malecite builders support the evidence of the models2 therefore it is probable that the use of scarfed gunwales was common in these canoes1 and1 hence1 also in the canoes of the ,iroquois1 who dwelt nearby4 ,the manner of scarfing is not certain4 ,probably the butts were snied off so that the lap would be flat face1 as was usual in the ,malecite spruce-bark canoes of this same class4 ,the butts were secured together by lashings--apparently let into shallow grooves around the members4 ,in a very hastily built canoe the butts might be merely lapped for a short distance1 one butt above the other1 and lashed2 this1 of course1 would make a jog in the sheer1 but do no harm1 as the jog would occur in both inwale and outwale1 and the bark would lay up between these and be trimmed to suit4 ,the thwarts were described in old accounts as very small saplings1 or tree branches1 with their ends sharply reduced in thickness so that they were thin and pliable enough to be bent around the gunwales and brought inboard under the thwart1 as done by some ,kutenai in the ,west 7see p4 #afi74 ,the thwart ends might be lashed or1 as in some eastern spruce-bark canoes1 brought up through a hole in the thwarts to the top where it could be jammed or lashed4 ,in the ,iroquois canoe it seems probable that the thwart ends passed around the main gunwales only and were secured under the thwarts for1 as noted1 the evidence strongly suggests that the main gunwale members were preassembled1 a procedure that requires the thwarts to be in place4 ,in the small hunters' canoes1 however1 some eastern builders apparently put in a temporary spreader in place of a single thwart until the canoe was completed to the point where the outwales were in place1 then the thwarts were added1 the ends passing over and around both inwale and outwale and through the bark cover below1 to the underside of the thwart4 ,one requirement in building these canoes was to crimp the edges of the bark at the gunwales in such manner that the bottom of the canoe would be rockered and at the same time would be moulded athwartships4 ,first steps in the process were to set into the building bed two heavy stakes on each side of the stems1 a little inboard of the ends1 and to tie the heads of each pair together with a heavy bark cord or a rawhide thong4 ,then a sling was made1 the bight of which went under the bottom of the bark cover near its ends1 and the ends of the sling were made fast to the heads of the stakes4 ,by taking up on these slings1 the ends of the bark cover were sharply lifted and then the folding of the bark along the gunwales could be easily accomplished1 as they then formed naturally1 without strain4 ,the crimps were commonly located a fourth to a fifth the length of the canoe inboard of the ends1 about where the end thwarts would be located4 ,in small hunters' canoes the end thwarts were often replaced by twisted cords across the gunwales1 but in the large ,iroquois canoes there were probably five or seven or perhaps as many as nine thwarts according to length4 ,the ends of the gunwales were simply lashed together with cords or thongs in shallow grooves to prevent slipping4 ,they were raised by a small inside post1 its heel placed on the bark near the stem and its head brought under the gunwales1 so that it served the purpose of a headboard in sheering the gunwales4 ,the procedure in building to this point1 then1 appeared to follow the general plan used in birch-bark construction4 ,next1 the stakes were redriven in the bed around the gunwale frame1 which was weighted on the bark with stones1 and the sides of the bark cover were brought upright4 ,apparently only a few stakes were considered necessary--three or four to a side and two pairs of end stakes to raise the stems4 ,the gunwale frame was then lifted to the required height of side and lashed temporarily to the side stakes1 the ends of the bark cover were creased to form bow and stern1 and the headboard posts were inserted to support the ends of the inwales and to sheer the canoe4 ,before this1 of course1 the ends of the bark cover had been raised by means of the slings to the end stakes4 ,the outwales of split saplings were now put into place1 with the edges of the bark cover lashed between the flat surfaces of the inwale and outwale1 the gunwales having been assembled with the flat face of the longitudinal members outboard4 ,the lashings were in small groups spaced #e to #g inches apart so as not to split the bark1 and these not only secured the bark in place but also held the inwales and outwales tightly together1 to clamp the edges of the bark cover4 ,at the thwarts1 the outwales were notched on their inboard face to allow them to come up against the bark pressed against the face of the inwales 7in some eastern canoes the bark cover was notched at the thwart ends to lay up smoothly there1 and this may have also been done in the ,iroquois canoes74 ,in placing the outwales1 the crimps were carefully formed and held by the clamping action of the inwale and outwale1 and reinforced by a lashing through the crimp or by two lashings close to the sides of the fold4 ,the fold of the bark forced the outwale away from the inwale1 and although this was counteracted to some extent by the lashings1 the gunwales were unfair at these points4 ,the crimps were formed so that the maximum fold in the bark took place at the gunwales2 below this the fold tapered away to nothing1 ending low in the side with an irregular bulge in the bark4 ,such a bulge could only be avoided by goring1 which is impractical with elm1 pine1 chestnut1 or hickory barks4 ,illustration3 ,figure #baj ,,hickory-,,bark ,,canoe ,,under ,,construction1 showing the sling with which the ends are elevated and the crimp which takes up the slack in the sides of the bark4 ,excess bark above the gunwales to be trimmed off4 ,completed model in ,the ,mariners' ,museum1 ,newport ,news1 ,va4 ,illustration3 ,figure #baa ,,detail ,,of ,,thwart used in ,malecite temporary spruce-bark canoe4 ,the ends of the canoe were closed1 as has been mentioned1 by use of split-sapling battens on the outside of the bark4 ,the ,iroquois and some other builders also employed at the stems a thong or a twisted cord made of the inner bark of some such tree as the basswood2 this was wrapped around the ends of the bark cover abreast the headboard posts inside the canoe1 so that the lashing stood vertically4 ,then the split battens were placed on each side of the bark cover1 just outboard of the cord1 and the whole was secured by a coarse spiral lashing of root or rawhide1 which passed inboard of the cord lashing and the headboard post1 as well as around them and the split battens outside of the bark cover4 ,some builders apparently added a split-root batten over the edges of the bark cover1 as a sort of stem-band2 this was secured by the turns of the stem closure lashing1 which passed around them as well as the edges of the bark and the split side battens4 ,it can be seen that this closure formed a strong stem structure4 ,watertightness was insured by merely forcing clay into the stems from the inside1 or by forcing in a wad of the pounded inner bark of a dead red elm which would swell when damp4 ,still other methods included the use of grass or moss impregnated with warm tallow from the cooking pot4 ,if available1 the stems would be liberally smeared with spruce or other gum1 of course4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bab ,,iroquois ,,elm-,,bark ,,canoe1 after a drawing of #ahdi1 equipped with paddles for a crew of six1 with owners' personal marks on blades4 ,length of canoe #be feet1 with capacity for a war party of a dozen or more men4 ,note supporting piece of cord tied in with the end battens4 ,far gunwales are improperly sketched4 ,while the ribs were customarily tree branches or small saplings1 in some canoes the saplings were split and bent so their flat face was against the bark4 ,in the ,east1 hunters' canoes were often given the lath-like ribs of the birch-bark canoes1 for when steel tools became available such ribs were easily made during the winter for use in the spring1 when the temporary canoe would be needed4 ,according to the early reports1 the ribs were placed some #f to #aj inches apart in the bark cover1 with the heads forced under the inwales against the bark1 and were supported there by the outwales as well4 ,no mention is made of any sheathing2 ,kalm refers to a piece of bark and some saplings or tree branches laid over the ribs to protect the bottom inboard4 ,in the large ,iroquois canoes it would have been possible and practical to employ a piece of bark inside the main bark cover1 as noted on page #bac2 this inside piece needed to be only long enough to reach to the end thwarts1 or abreast the crimps1 and wide enough to cover the bottom and bilges up to #c or #d inches short of the inwales4 ,with the ribs over this inner sheet1 a stiff bottom would result4 ,in a long canoe1 split poles could be laid lengthwise inside the bottom of the canoe and fastened there by lashing them to a few ribs2 these would serve to protect the bottom in loading and to stiffen the bark cover4 ,however1 in a small canoe the stiffness of elm bark when the rough outside layer was not fully scraped off would make sheathing of any kind unnecessary1 and the bark mat inside the ribs1 mentioned by ,kalm1 would be sufficient4 ,the difficulty in reconstructing the building methods of the large ,iroquois canoes on the same basis is that ,kalm's description is of a rather small canoe2 the information on the temporary canoes of the eastern ,indians also deals with short craft4 ,it is evident1 however1 that poles were not usually placed between the bark and the ribs1 as in temporary skin canoes built by ,indians4 ,it is also apparent that splints were not used by the ,iroquois for sheathing large canoes4 ,the ends of the outwales in the ,iroquois canoes seem to have been secured by snying them off on the outside face and holding these thin ends by the cord around the ends1 as well as by the closure battens of the stems4 ,in some eastern canoes1 notably the elm-bark canoes of the ,st4 ,francis1 the outwale ends projected slightly outboard of the stems and were lashed across them by a simple athwartship lashing which passed through the bark cover and under and over the lashing at the inwale ends4 ,in a drawing of an ,iroquois canoe made about #ahdi1 the cord around the stems is shown together with the outside stem battens and lashing2 the ends of the outwales are apparently under the cord and perhaps under the stem battens4 ,the stem batten is in one piece sharply bent under the stems in ,u-form4 ,the end lashing shown seems to be in groups and the bottom1 for a little distance inboard of the stems1 is also shown as lashed4 ,three thwarts are shown4 ,it may be that this drawing was made not from a full-size canoe but from a model1 for the proportions are obviously incorrect4 ,this possibility casts some doubt on the picture as evidence of the building practices1 for in ,indian-built models simplified construction details not used in actual canoe building are often found4 ,according to early accounts and the statements of eastern ,indians1 these emergency canoes were often heavy and unsuitable for portaging4 ,by #agej1 at least1 the ,iroquois were using blanket square-sails in their elm-bark canoes4 ,skin ,boats ,among the other forms of temporary or emergency canoes used by ,north ,american ,indians1 the most widespread was some form of skin boat4 ,these would not require description here were it not for the fact that the ,indian skin boats were usually built by bark-canoe methods of construction rather than by methods such as used by the ,eskimo4 ,to build their skin boats--kayaks and umiaks--the ,eskimo first constructed a complete framework1 and this was then covered with skins sewn to fit4 ,this process of building required a rigid framework capable of not only standing without a skin covering but also of giving both longitudinal and transverse strength sufficient to withstand loading1 without the slightest support from the skin covering4 ,hence1 the framework of the ,eskimo craft was made with the members rigidly lashed and pegged together4 ,the majority of ,indian skin canoes1 however1 required the covering to hold the framework together1 as in a birch-bark canoe4 ,an example is the ,malecite skin-covered hunters' canoe4 ,according to available information1 the ,malecite hunter would leave two or three moose skins on stretchers for use in building a skin canoe in the early spring4 ,sometimes the hair was removed from the hides and sometimes it was not4 ,spare time during the winter hunt might be spent in preparing the wooden framework1 but if this were not done the delay would not be very great4 ,the gunwale frame was first made of four small sapling poles roughly scarfed at the butts4 ,from a small sapling a middle thwart was made in the manner of the elm-bark canoe thwarts1 the ends tapered enough to allow them to be wrapped around the gunwales and secured under the thwart by lashings4 ,the ends of the gunwales were merely crossed and lashed4 ,where end thwarts would be placed1 it was usual to use a cross tie made of twisted rawhide or cords of bark fiber4 ,holes were then drilled at intervals in the underside of the gunwale to take the heads of the ribs4 ,stem-pieces about #c feet long were prepared of short saplings and bent to the desired profile2 one builder used a full-length keel-piece1 instead of the short stem-pieces4 ,the ribs were usually of small saplings that could be bent green without the use of hot water4 ,for sheathing a number of small saplings were also gathered1 and from them were made poles in lengths about equal to three-quarters1 or a little more1 of the intended length of the canoe1 which would be determined by the size of the skins available4 ,the average canoe was about #ab feet long1 roughly #dj inches beam1 and #ad to #ai inches in depth4 ,the skins were sewn together lengthwise1 lapped about #f inches or a little less1 and secured by a double row of stitching4 ,if the hair had not been removed1 it had to be scraped away along the sewn edges4 ,in such a case the hair would usually be on the outside of the finished canoe4 ,also1 before work was started on assembling a canoe1 the skins were worked pliable1 and tallow and gum were accumulated4 ,when an emergency canoe was ready to be assembled a smooth place was prepared2 either an open bit of ground or the floor of the hunter's hut1 if large enough1 might be used4 ,the outlines of the gunwales were fixed by a few stakes temporarily driven around it and then pulled up4 ,the skins were then laid on the bed and the gunwale frame placed on them and weighted with stones4 ,then the skins were left to dry for awhile until they became somewhat stiff2 the proper condition was indicated by the curling of the edges4 ,when the skin was sufficiently stiff1 the gunwale frame was lifted and temporarily secured to the stakes redriven in the bed1 the sides of the skin were turned up1 the skin was gored1 and sometimes the ends of the gunwales were sheered up slightly at the end stakes2 this latter was not always done1 for in some canoes the sheer was quite flat4 ,the skins were now trimmed to the sheer of the gunwales and the edges lashed to these members with rawhide1 the gores also having been sewn4 ,next the stem-pieces were put into place and the stem heads lashed inside the apex formed by the ends of the gunwales4 ,some ribs were then bent and forced down on the stiff skin cover1 the rib ends being worked into the holes prepared for them on the underside of the gunwales4 ,these ribs usually stood approximately square to the curve1 or rocker1 of the bottom4 ,now the skin could be trimmed to the stem profiles and sewn4 ,the stitching was usually done so as to be outside the stem-pieces1 with an occasional turn going around inside them to help hold the structure in place4 ,some builders first put in the stems temporarily and then trimmed the skins to match2 after this was done the stem-pieces were removed to allow easy sewing4 ,when they were replaced and secured permanently1 a few more stitches were added along the stems to secure the woodwork4 ,the next step was to sheath the canoe inside with the small poles2 these were placed a few inches apart transversely and their ends worked under the most inboard of the ribs on the stem-pieces1 then held in place1 while the necessary adjustments were made1 by a few temporary ribs4 ,then the ribs were forced into place1 one by one1 each prebent to the desired section1 just as in birch-bark canoe construction4 ,in this final shaping1 the skin cover might have to be wetted again to soften the material and to allow stretching4 ,the seams were then payed with gum or tallow1 and the canoe was ready for launching4 ,the description is for canoes of minimum finish2 builders often used split and shaped gunwales1 split ribs1 and splint sheathing if these could be prepared during the winter4 ,the construction of a skin canoe was not a specialized process in which a hunter consistently built this one type2 the selection was determined by natural conditions4 ,if he were to come out of the woods too early in the spring to make the construction of a spruce-bark canoe easy1 then he would resort to skin construction2 the statements of old ,malecite hunters leads to the conclusion that as emergency craft they used spruce-bark canoes most often4 ,perhaps the most primitive of the skin boats built by the ,north ,american ,indian was the so-called bull-boat of the ,plains ,indians4 ,these were not canoes but coracles--bowl-shaped and suitable only for use on streams1 where ferrying would be the main requirement4 ,the boats were covered with buffalo-hides and their framework was usually made of the willow shoots found along the streams4 ,the framework followed1 to some extent at least1 the basketwork principle1 a circular gunwale or rim being used4 ,the ribs were set in two groups1 half at right angles to the other half in very irregular fashion4 ,this construction formed a sort of rough grating in the bottom4 ,the ribs were lashed together with rawhide and apparently the craft was built up on the skin as were the ,malecite skin canoes4 ,battens in circular form were used on the sides to fair the cover4 ,the form of the bull-boat varied somewhat among individual builders2 sometimes it assumed almost a dish shape with shallow flaring sides1 but more commonly the sides were nearly upright2 the bottom was always flat1 or nearly so4 ,these bull-boats appear always to have been small4 ,judging by the examples preserved1 a bull-boat #e feet over the rim or gunwale1 or made of more than one skin1 was extremely rare1 and most examples are nearer #d feet and built on a single skin4 ,many were too small to carry a person2 these were intended to be loaded with cargo to be kept dry and towed by a swimmer4 ,when they were large enough to be paddled1 the paddler worked over the bow1 as in a coracle4 ,probably all the ,plains ,indians living near streams once used the bull-boat1 but existing records show only the ,mandan1 ,omaha1 ,kansas1 ,hidatsa1 and ,assiniboin to have used it4 ,the ,blackfoot 7,siksika7 and ,dakota are said to have used some kind of a skin boat in which their tepee poles were employed as a temporary frame1 but nothing is recorded of their form4 ,the use of spruce bark as a building material in the ,northwest and throughout the extreme northern range of the birch-bark canoe has been discussed in earlier chapters 7pp4 #aee to #aeh74 ,in these areas1 the emergency canoe was usually built of caribou skin4 ,on the ,alaskan coast seal skin may also have been used1 but generally it was used for the permanent kayak-type canoe and not for a hastily built temporary craft4 ,the caribou-skin canoe was also built as a permanent type1 in either kayak form or somewhat on the model of the spruce-or birch-bark canoe of the area4 ,however1 although references to temporary craft covered with caribou skin exist in early accounts of the fur trade1 there is no record of their form or details of their construction4 ,early in the present century some of the ,indians of the ,mackenzie ,river country built skin canoes much like the modern canvas-covered freight canoes4 ,also1 some of these skin canoes were built so that they resembled ,york boats or the whaleboats of the white man4 ,no observer has described the methods used to construct the emergency canoe of the ,northwest2 we do not know whether they resemble those used in the ,indian bark canoe or in the ,eskimo skin boat4 ,retrospect ,in view of the inclusion of skin boats in this discussion of bark canoes1 it may be well to emphasize again the fact that the ,north ,american ,indian's method of constructing bark canoes and of temporary skin canoes was on an entirely different principle than that used by the ,eskimo in building their skin boats4 ,this is even true of the kayak-form bark canoes of the ,northwest1 despite their superficial similarity in design and proportions to the ,eskimo skin kayak4 ,as has been stated1 the ,eskimo construction required a rigid frame1 with all members fastened together with lashings and pegs1 the skin cover being merely the watertight envelope and not a strength member4 ,this system of construction marks primitive skin-boat design in most parts of the world4 ,the ,indian bark construction1 on the other hand1 did not have a rigid frame1 and all but a few of the structural members were held in place by pressure alone3 the sheathing was held against the bark cover by pressure of the ribs2 the stem-pieces1 in most cases1 were held in place by pressure of the ribs1 gunwale sheering1 or headboards4 ,in fact without the bark cover in place1 the greater part of the wooden structure of the bark canoe would collapse4 ,not only was the bark cover the fundamental basis of construction1 it was to a great extent a strength member1 though by clever design the loading of the bark was minimized4 ,this fundamental difference in construction must be recognized in comparisons of ,eskimo and ,north ,american ,indian watercraft4 ,here1 too1 it might be observed that one should view with skepticism any claim that widespread similarity of certain structural practices is evidence of some ancient connection between types of canoes4 ,in most cases these similarities were imposed by the working characteristics of the materials employed4 ,similarly1 limitations in materials available for construction have their effect upon building techniques4 ,the practice of employing pressure members in bark-canoe construction1 particularly where birch bark was employed1 was the result of the need to stretch this material by gentle and widespread pressure1 whereas the skin cover could be stretched by the concentrated pull of stitching alone1 or by force applied in a small area4 ,bark canoes built in areas where skin-kayak construction is carried on nearby show a greater rigidity of structure4 ,thus1 in the lower ,yukon ,valley in ,alaska the bottom frame of the canoes built there was a rigidly constructed unit1 even though the side longitudinals were held in place by rib pressure alone4 ,and it is reasonable to theorize that the ,malecite1 who through habit still employed bark-canoe construction practices in building their skin craft1 would have eventually come to the ,eskimo method of construction had conditions required them to use skins exclusively4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bac ,,large ,,moose-,,hide ,,canoe of upper ,gravel ,river1 ,mackenzie valley4 7,photo1 ,george ,m4 ,douglas47 ,appendix ,the ,kayak ,roll ,john ,d4 ,heath ,the most extraordinary feat of kayak handling is the ability to right the craft after a capsize4 ,this maneuver1 called rolling1 is usually practiced by capsizing on one side and recovering on the other4 ,under emergency conditions1 a kayaker will recover on whichever side is more convenient4 ,when rolling1 a kayaker wears a waterproof jacket having long sleeves and a hood4 ,the waist1 face1 and wrist openings are fitted with drawstrings1 so that when the waist opening is fitted over the cockpit rim1 the kayak and kayaker become a waterproof unit4 ,thus equipped1 the kayak is the most seaworthy craft of its size1 this quality being limited only by the skill and stamina of the kayaker4 ,the art of kayak rolling was highly developed in ,alaska and ,greenland4 ,eskimos in both of these regions depended upon seal hunting by kayak as a major part of their economy1 hence the ability to roll was an important means of survival4 ,very little detailed information exists regarding ,alaskan kayakers1 but the ,greenlanders have been the object of intensive study by ethnographers and explorers4 ,the earliest detailed record of rolling was that of ,david ,crantz1 a ,european missionary1 who in #agfg enumerated ten methods of rolling in his ,history of ,greenland4#g ,his description follows4 #g ,see bibliography4 #a4 ,the ,greenlander lays himself first on one side1 then on the other1 with his body flat upon the water1 7to imitate the case of one who is nearly1 but not quite overset7 and keeps the balance with his pautik or oar1 so that he raises himself again4 #b4 ,he overturns himself quite1 so that his head hangs perpendicular underwater2 in this dreadful posture he gives himself a swing with a stroke of his paddle1 and raises himself aloft again on which side he will4 ,these are the most common cases of misfortune1 which frequently occur in storms and high waves2 but they still suppose that the ,greenlander retains the advantage of his pautik in his hand1 and is disentangled from the seal-leather strap4 ,but it may easily happen in the seal-fishery1 that the man becomes entangled with the string1 so that he either cannot rightly use the pautik1 or that he loses it entirely4 ,therefore they must be prepared for this casualty4 ,with this view #c4 ,they run one end of the pautik under one of the cross-strings of the kajak1 7to imitate its being entangled7 overset1 and scrabble up again by means of the artful motion of the other end of the pautik4 #d4 ,they hold one end of it in their mouth1 and yet move the other end with their hand1 so as to rear themselves upright again4 #e4 ,they lay the pautik behind their neck1 and hold it there with both hands1 or1 #f4 ,hold it fast behind their back2 so overturn1 and by stirring it with both their hands behind them1 without bringing it before1 rise and recover4 #g4 ,they lay it across one shoulder1 take hold of it with one hand before1 and the other behind their back1 and thus emerge from the deep4 ,these exercises are of service in cases where the pautik is entangled with the string2 but because they may also quite lose it1 in which the greatest danger lies1 therefore1 #h4 ,another exercise is1 to run the pautik through the water under the kajak1 hold it fast on both sides with their face lying on the kajak1 in this position overturn1 and rise again by moving the oar secundum artem on the top of the water from beneath4 ,this is of service when they lose the oar during the oversetting1 and yet see it swimming over them1 to learn to manage it with both hands from below4 #i4 ,they let the oar go1 turn themselves head down1 reach their hand after it1 and from the surface pull it down to them1 and so rebound up4 #aj4 ,but if they can't possibly reach it1 they take either the hand-board off from the harpoon1 or a knife1 and try by the force of these1 or even splashing the water with the palm of their hand1 to swing themselves above water2 but this seldom succeeds4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bad ,,the ,,standard ,,greenland ,,roll ,the solid lines represent the starting position for a clockwise roll 7disregard the phantom lines until later74 ,the paddle is held blade-on-edge along the starboard gunwale1 with one end near the right hip1 and the other end toward the bow4 ,the kayaker leans forward and faces slightly to starboard4 ,his left forearm is against1 or near1 the foredeck1 and his left hand reaches across the starboard gunwale to grasp the paddle near1 but short of1 the middle4 ,the right hand holds the paddle near the end1 about even with the hip4 ,the palms of both hands pass over the paddle1 so that the knuckles are outboard4 ,the kayaker takes a deep breath1 leans to starboard and capsizes4 7,now turn the page upside down7 ,illustration3 ,figure #bad ,the same lines which represented the starting position now represent a fish-eye view of the fully capsized position4 ,the phantom lines represent the upright position1 or goal4 ,to right himself1 the kayaker-- 7#a7 ,flicks his wrists to swing his knuckles toward his face1 thus causing the outboard edge of the paddle to assume a slight planing angle 7not shown7 with the water surface4 ,the remaining steps constitute one continuous movement1 to be done as quickly as possible4 7#b7 ,with his hips and right hand serving as pivot points1 he sweeps his forward paddle blade1 and his torso1 outward in a #ij-;degree planing arc on the water surface1 as shown from position 7#a7 to 7#c71 while pulling down on his left hand and pushing up on his right1 thus lifting himself to the surface4 7#c7 ,completes the roll by flicking his wrists to flatten the blade angle1 then sharply increasing his opposing hand pressures1 thus raising himself in a chinning attitude as the paddle blade sinks and is drawn inward4 ,the roll is now completed4 ,since ,crantz's time1 various authors have described kayak rolling4 ,at least #cj methods of rolling have been known in ,greenland4 ,there are possibly many more1 because the variations and combinations are numerous4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bae ,,the ,,critical ,,stage ,,of ,a ,,capsize ,,recovery ,the start 7solid lines7 and finish 7phantom lines7 of a planing sweep are shown head-on4 ,success is almost certain if the kayaker has surfaced by the time he has completed the #ij-;degree sweep4 ,some minor refinements of rolling are apparent4 ,the left forearm is shown right against the foredeck 7a convenient means of orientation71 the leading shoulder is nearer the surface 7to gain lift when the torso is swung outward71 and the hips right the kayak as far as possible while the torso is still partly submerged 7to avoid having to lift torso and kayak at the same time74 ,although kayaking as a sport first became popular in the #ahfj's1 it was not until the #aibj's that the value of learning to roll began to be fully realized by the recreational kayaker4 ,interest has grown steadily since that time1 and rolling instruction has been included as a regular part of many club training courses4 ,a preliminary step in mastering the roll consists of using the paddle to prevent a capsize1 by turning the blade parallel to the water surface and pressing down sharply on the side toward which the kayak is capsizing1 while exerting an upward pressure with the other hand4 ,this produces a rotary movement which restores the kayak to an even keel4 ,recreational canoeists call this maneuver a paddle brace4 ,most kayak rolls are based upon one or more of three basic movements4 ,these are the paddle brace1 the sculling stroke1 from which lift is obtained by moving the paddle back and forth through a small arc with the leading edge of the blade at a slight planing angle1 and the sweep1 from which lift is obtained by sweeping the blade through a large arc at a slight planing angle4 ,the method of rolling shown in the sketches is the standard ,greenland roll1 so called because it is the most common roll encountered in ,greenland4 ,a slightly modified version of this roll is called by recreational canoeists the ,pawlata roll in honor of the ,european who introduced it to them4 ,many skillful kayakers could not roll1 and sometimes a highly skilled roller would fail to recover4 ,such men could be rescued by their companions by either of two common methods4 ,one method was executed by placing the bow of the rescue craft within reach of the capsized paddler's hand1 so that he could pull himself up by a one-handed chinning motion4 ,the other method was executed by bringing the rescue kayak alongside the capsized kayak so that the two craft were parallel and about two feet apart4 ,the rescuer then laid his paddle across both craft and holding it with one hand1 reached down and grabbed the capsized paddler's arm4 ,he then pulled him up between the two kayaks4 ,this method enabled an enfeebled or unconscious kayaker to be rescued4 ,illustration3 ,figure #baf ,hand positions used with the standard roll3 7#a7 ,the extended paddle position is the common method1 and it gives maximum leverage4 ,it is similar to the ,pawlata ,roll position used by recreational kayakers4 7#b7 ,the normal paddling position is more convenient1 but gives less leverage4 ,this is called the ,screw ,stroke position4 7#c-f7 ,difficult trick positions demonstrated by ,enoch ,nielsen of ,igdlorssuit1 ,west ,greenland1 to ,kenneth ,taylor1 a ,scottish canoeist1 in #aiei4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bag ,kayak rescue1 bow-grab method ,illustration3 ,figure #bah ,kayak rescue1 paddle-grab method ,both of the above methods of rescue were completed with the capsized victim still in his craft4 ,this prevented his kayak from swamping and also protected him from exposure1 since his waterproof kayak jacket remained tied to the cockpit hoop4 ,little detailed information has been recorded on the methods of rolling known outside of ,greenland1 but there are many photographs of ,bering ,strait kayakers rolling with the single bladed paddle4 ,a study of ,alaskan rolling methods is now in progress1 and it is hoped that much information can be recovered and preserved4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bai ,,preparing ,,for ,,demonstration4 ,jonas ,malakiasen puts on his tuvilik 7a waterproof kayak jacket1 pronounced in ,english tooey-leek74 ,when it is fastened tightly about his face1 wrists1 and the cockpit hoop1 he can capsize without getting water in the kayak4 ,igdlorssuit1 ,west ,greenland1 summer #aiei4 7,photo by ,kenneth ,taylor47 ,illustration3 ,figure #bbj ,,getting ,,aboard4 ,enoch ,nielsen1 best kayak roller in the village of ,igdlorssuit1 ,west ,greenland1 wriggles into his kayak on the beach before embarking on a kayak rolling exhibition4 ,note that he is leaving the harpoon line stand and gun bag in place4 7,photo by ,kenneth ,taylor47 ,illustration3 ,figure #bba ,,pausing ,,on ,,surface4 ,kayaker supports himself on the surface of the water by a sculling stroke before starting the roll4 ,note that ,enoch ,nielsen's body is twisted so that his shoulders are parallel with the surface1 thus submerging as much of the body as possible in order to gain buoyancy4 7,photo by ,kenneth ,taylor47 ,illustration3 ,figure #bbb ,,fully ,,capsized1 view from forward quarter1 looking aft4 ,enoch ,nielsen prepares to roll up by the standard method4 ,note the planing angle of his paddle blade as he prepares for the next step1 the planing sweep of the blade across the surface4 7,photo by ,kenneth ,taylor47 ,illustration3 ,figure #bbc ,,emerging ,,from ,,roll1 view from forward quarter1 looking aft4 ,from the position of ,enoch ,nielsen's hands1 this appears to be the standard roll4 ,he has just completed the planing sweep and is halfway up4 ,the inboard hand is a pivot point for the sweep and a fulcrum for the lift4 7,photo by ,kenneth ,taylor47 ,illustration3 ,figure #bbd ,,righting ,,the ,,kayak4 ,enoch ,nielsen emerges from roll with a final downward thrust of the paddle blade4 7,photo by ,kenneth ,taylor47 ,bibliography ,,adney1 ,,edwin ,,tappan4 ,klondike stampede4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,bros41 #aijj4 ----4 ,how an ,indian birch-bark canoe is made4 ,harper's ,young ,people 7,july #bi1 #ahij74 ,supplement4 ,,beard1 ,,daniel ,,carter4 ,boatbuilding and boating4 ,new ,york3 ,c4 ,scribner's ,sons1 #aiaa4 7,chapter #f1 pages #dh-fa1 is a revision of ,adney's articles on canoe building47 ,,beauchamp1 ,,william ,m4 ,aboriginal use of wood in ,new ,york4 7,new ,york ,state ,museum ,bulletin #hi47 ,albany1 #aije1 pp4 #aci-adi4 ,,birket-,,smith1 ,,kai4 ,ethnography of the ,egedesminde district4 7,vol4 #ff of ,meddelelser om ,grnland1 #ahgi-aica47 ,copenhagen3 ,c4 ,a4 ,reitzel1 #ai8 ,,boas1 ,,franz4 ,the ,central ,eskimo4 7,pp4 #dji-ffi in ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 ,sixth ,annual ,report1 #ahhd-he47 ,washington3 ,smithsonian ,institution1 #ahhh4 ,,bogoras1 ,,vladimir4 ,the ,chukchi4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,e4 ,stechert1 #aijd-ji4 ,also as ,memoir of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 vol4 #aa2 and as publications of the ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 vol4 #g1 issued in three parts4 ,,cartier1 ,,jacques4 ,the voyages of ,jacques ,cartier4 7,canadian ,archivist ,publications ,no4 #aa47 ,transl4 ,h4 ,p4 ,biggar4 #aiad4 7,another edition3 ,ottawa3 ,f4 ,a4 ,acland1 #aibd47 ,,cartwright1 ,,captain ,,george4 ,captain ,cartwright and his ,labrador journal4 ,edit4 ,charles ,w4 ,townsend4 ,boston3 ,d4 ,estes ,co41 #aiaa4 ----4 ,a journal of transaction and events1 during a residence of nearly sixteen years on the coast of ,labrador 444 #c vols4 ,newark1 ,england3 ,allin and ,ridge1 #agib4 ,,champlain1 ,,samuel ,,de4 ,les ,voyages de la nouvelle ,france4 ,paris3 ,c4 ,collet1 #afcb4 ----4 ,oeuvres de ,champlain4 #e vol4 in #f4 ,quebec3 ,g4 ,e4 ,desbarats1 #ahgj4 ,,crantz1 ,,david4 ,the history of ,greenland4 ,ed4 and transl4 of part ,john ,gambold4 #b vols4 ,london3 ,moravian ,brethren ,society1 #agfg4 ,,dawson1 ,,george ,,mercer4 ,notes on the ,shuswap people of ,british ,columbia4 ,proceedings and ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada for the year #ahia 7,montreal1 #ahib71 vol4 #i1 sec4 #b1 pp4 #c-dd4 ,,denys1 ,,nicolas4 ,the description and natural history of the coasts of ,north ,america4 ,transl4 and edit4 ,w4 ,f4 ,ganong4 ,toronto3 ,the ,champlain ,society1 #aijh4 ,,dunbar1 ,,seymour4 ,a history of travel in ,america4 #b vols4 ,new ,york3 ,tudor ,publishing ,co41 #aicg4 ,,durham1 ,,bill4 ,canoes and kayaks of ,western ,america4 ,seattle3 ,copper ,canoe ,press1 #aifj4 ,early narratives of the ,northwest1 #afcd-afii4 ,edit4 ,l4 ,p4 ,kellogg4 ,new ,york3 ,c4 ,scribner's ,sons1 #aiag4 ,,eckstrom1 ,mrs4 ,,fannie ,,hardy4 ,the handicrafts of the modern ,indians of ,maine4 7,lafayette ,national ,park ,museum ,bulletin47 ,bar ,harbor1 #aicb4 ,,egede1 ,,hans4 ,a description of ,greenland4 ,transl4 from the ,danish4 ,london3 ,c4 ,hitch1 #agde4 ,,elliott1 ,,henry ,,wood4 ,the ,seal ,islands of ,alaska4 ,washington 7,government ,printing ,office71 #ahha4 ,,franquet1 ,col4 ,voyages et mmoires sur le ,canada1 par ,franquet4 ,institut canadien de ,qubec1 ,annuaire 7#ahhi71 pp4 #bi-abi4 ,,godsell1 ,,phillip ,h4 ,the ,ojibwa ,indian4 ,canadian ,geographical ,journal4 7,january #aicb74 ,,hadlock1 ,,wendell ,s4 and ,,dodge1 ,,ernest ,s4 ,a canoe from the ,penobscot ,river4 ,american ,neptune 7,october #aidh71 vol4 #h1 no4 #d1 pp4 #bhi-cja4 7,detailed description of early birch-bark canoe1 with lines and numerous drawings of construction details47 ,,hearne1 ,,samuel4 ,a journey from ,prince of ,wales fort in ,hudson's ,bay to the ,northern ,ocean1 #agfi1 #aggj1 #agga1 #aggb4 ,dublin3 ,p4 ,byrne and ,j4 ,rice1 #agif4 ,,henry1 ,,alexander1 ,jr4 ,new light on the early history of the greater ,northwest4 ,the manuscript journals of ,alexander ,henry 444 and of ,david ,thompson 444 #agii-ahad4 ,ed4 ,elliott ,coues4 ,new ,york3 ,f4 ,p4 ,harper1 #ahig4 ----4 ,travels and adventures in ,canada and the ,indian territories4 ,ed4 ,james ,bain4 ,boston3 ,little1 ,brown and ,company1 #aija4 ,,hoffman1 ,,walter ,,james4 ,the ,menomini ,indians4 ,part #a1 7pp4 #c-cbh of ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology3 #adth ,annual ,report1 pt4 #a1 #ahib-ic47 ,washington3 ,smithsonian ,institution1 #ahif4 ,,holm1 ,,gustav ,,frederik4 ,the ,ammassalik ,eskimo1 contributions to the ethnology of the ,east ,greenland natives4 ,vol4 #a4 ,ed4 ,william ,thalbitzer4 ,copenhagen3 ,b4 ,luno1 #aiad4 ,also as vols4 #ci-dj1 ,meddelelser on ,grnland4 ,,hornell1 ,,james4 ,british ,coracles and ,irish ,curraghs4 ,london3 ,society for ,nautical ,research1 #aich4 ----4 ,water transport1 origins early evolution4 ,cambridge3 ,the ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #aidf4 ,,howley1 ,,james ,,patrick4 ,the ,beothucks1 or red ,indians4 ,cambridge3 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #aiae4 7,a very complete study47 ,,jenness1 ,,diamond4 ,the ,indians of ,canada4 7,bulletin #fe1 ,anthropological ,series ,no4 #ae1 ,national ,museum of ,canada47 #eth ed4 #aifj4 ,the ,jesuit relations and allied documents1 #afaj-agia4 ,ed4 ,r4 ,g4 ,thwaites4 ,cleveland3 ,burrows ,bros4 ,co41 #ahif-aija4 ,,jochelson1 ,,waldemar ,,vladimir4 ,the ,koryak4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,e4 ,stechert1 #aijh4 ,also as ,memoir of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 vol4 #i2 and as ,publications of the ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 vol4 #f1 published in two parts1 #aije-jh4 ,,kalm1 ,,pehr4 ,travels into ,north ,america4 ,transl4 ,john ,r4 ,forster4 #b vols4 ,london1 #aggj-ga4 ,,kroeber1 ,,alfred ,,louis4 ,the ,eskimo of ,smith ,sound4 ,bulletin of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history 7,feb4 #ai1 #aijj71 vol4 #ab1 art4 #ba1 pp4 #bfe-cbg4 ,,lafiteau1 ,,joseph ,,fran,,ois4 ,moeurs des sauvages ,ameriquains4 ,paris3 ,saugrain1 #agbd4 ,,lahontan1 ,,louis ,,armand1 ,,baron ,,de4 ,nouveaux voyages de ,m4 le baron de ,la,hontan1 dans l',amerique septentrionale4 ,la ,haye3 ,chez les ,frres l',honore1 #agjc4 ,,leclerq1 ,father ,,chr,,tien4 ,nouvelle relation de la ,gaspesie4 ,paris1 #afia4 ,,lyon1 ,,george ,,francis4 ,the private journal of ,captain ,lyon of ,n4 ,m4 ,s4 ,hecla4 ,boston3 ,wells and ,lilly1 #ahbd4 ,,mackenzie1 ,sir ,,alexander4 ,voyages from ,montreal1 444 to the frozen and ,pacific ,oceans2 444 #aghi and #agic4 #b vols4 ,from ,york3 ,new ,amsterdam ,book ,co41 #aijc4 ,,mason1 ,,otis ,t4 and ,,hill1 ,,meriden ,s4 ,pointed bark canoes of the ,kutenai and ,amur4 7,pp4 #ebc-ecg of ,report of ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum for #ahii47 ,washington3 ,smithsonian ,institution1 #aija4 ,,mitman1 ,,carl ,,weaver4 ,catalogue of the watercraft collection in the ,united ,states ,national ,museum4 7,u4,s4 ,national ,museum ,bulletin #abg47 ,washington3 ,smithsonian ,institution1 #aibc4 ,,morgan1 ,,lewis ,,henry4 ,league of the ,ho-,de-,no-,sau-,nee1 or ,iroquois4 ,new ,york3 ,m4 ,h4 ,newman ,co41 #ahea4 ,,murdoch1 ,,john4 ,ethnological results of the ,point ,barrow expedition4 7,pp4 #c-dda of ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 #ith ,annual ,report1 #ahhg-hh47 ,washington3 ,smithsonian ,institution1 #ahib4 ,,murray1 ,,alexander ,,hunter4 ,journal of the ,yukon1 #ahdg-dh4 ,ottawa 7,government ,printing ,bureau71 #aiaj4 ,,nansen1 ,,friotjof4 ,the first crossing of ,greenland4 #b vols4 ,transl4 ,nubert ,m4 ,gepp4 ,london3 ,longmans1 ,green and ,co41 #ahgj4 ----4 ,the ,norwegian north polar expedition1 #ahic-ahif4 #f vols4 ,london3 ,longmans1 ,green and ,co41 #aijj-jf4 ----4 ,in northern mists4 ,transl4 ,arthur ,g4 ,chater4 #b vols4 ,new ,york3 ,frederick ,a4 ,stokes ,co41 #aiaa4 ----4 ,farthest north4 #b vols4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahig4 ,,nelson1 ,,edward ,,william4 ,the ,eskimo about ,behring ,strait4 7,pp4 #c-eah of ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 #ahth ,annual ,report1 #ahif-ig47 ,washington3 ,smithsonian ,institution1 #ahii4 ,,paris1 ,,edmond4 ,essai sur la construction navale des peuples extra-europens4 ,paris3 ,a4 ,bertrand1 n4d44 ,,parry1 ,sir ,,william ,,edward4 ,journal of a second voyage for the discovery of a northwest passage4 ,london3 ,j4 ,murray1 #ahbd4 ,,patterson1 ,rev4 ,,george4 ,the ,beothiks or red ,indians of ,newfoundland4 ,proceedings and transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada for the year #ahia 7,montreal1 #ahib71 vol4 #i1 p4 #acg4 ,,poterie1 ,,claude ,,charles ,,le ,,roy ,,bacqueville ,,de ,,la4 ,historie de l',amerique septentrionale 444 #b vols4 ,paris1 #agbb4 ,,richardson1 ,sir ,,john4 ,arctic searching expedition3 ,a journal of a boat voyage 444 in search of discovery ships 444 of ,sir ,john ,franklin4 ,london3 ,longman1 ,brown1 ,green1 and ,longmans1 #ahea4 ,,ritzenhalter1 ,,robert ,,eugene4 ,the building of a ,chippeway ,indian birch-bark canoe4 ,bulletin of the ,public ,museum of the ,city of ,milwaukee 7,november #aiej71 vol4 #ai1 no4 #b1 pp4 #ec-ij4 7,the modern method of building47 ,,rosier1 ,,james4 ,a true relation of the most prosperous voyage made this present year1 #afje1 by ,captain ,george ,waymouth in the land of ,virginia4 ,londini2 #afje4 ,,ross1 ,,alexander4 ,the fur hunters of the ,far ,west4 ,london3 ,smith1 ,elder and ,co41 #ahee4 ,,schoolcraft1 ,,henry ,,rowe4 ,information respecting the history conditions and prospects of the ,indian tribes of the ,united ,states4 #f vols4 ,philadelphia3 ,lippincott1 ,grambo1 #aheb-eg4 ,,schoolcraft1 ,,henry ,,rowe4 ,the ,indian tribes of the ,united ,states4 #b vols4 ,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott ,co41 #ahhd4 ,,skinner1 ,,alanson ,,buck4 ,notes on the eastern ,cree and northern ,saulteaux4 7,anthropological ,papers of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 vol4 #i1 pt4 #a74 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,,snell1 ,,george ,f41 ,jr4 ,pine country ,hiawatha4 ,sports ,afield 7,august #aide71 vol4 #abj1 no4 #b4 7,describes modern ,ojibway canoe building47 ,,stefansson1 ,,vilhjalmur4 ,my life with the ,eskimo4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 #aiac4 ----4 ,ultima ,thule4 ,new ,york3 ,macmillan ,company1 #aidj4 ,,turner1 ,,lucien ,,mcshaw4 ,ethnology of the ,ungava ,district3 ,hudson ,bay ,territory4 ,edit4 ,john ,murdoch4 7,pp4 #aei-cej of ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 #aath ,annual ,report47 ,washington3 ,smithsonian ,institution1 #ahid4 ,,warren1 ,,william ,,whipple4 ,history of the ,ojibways4 ,st4 ,paul3 ,minnesota ,historical ,society ,collections1 #ahhe4 ,vol4 #e1 pp4 #ba-cid4 ,,whitbourne1 ,sir ,,richard4 ,westward hoe for ,avalon in the new-found-land4 ,edit4 and illus4 ,t4 ,whitburn4 ,london3 ,s4 ,low and ,marston1 #ahgj4 ,,willoughby1 ,,charles ,,clark4 ,antiquities of the ,new ,england ,indians4 ,cambridge1 ,mass43 ,peabody ,museum of ,american ,archaeology1 ,harvard ,univ41 #aice4 ,,wissler1 ,,clark4 ,indians of the ,united ,states4 ,new ,york3 ,doubleday1 ,doran ,co41 #aidj4 ,wood3 ,a manual for its use in wooden ships4 ,washington3 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 #aide4 ,wood handbook4 ,washington3 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 #aiee4 7,basic information on wood as a material for construction47 ,index ,abitibi1 ,lake1 ,post 7,hudson's ,bay ,company71 #aea ,abitibi ,river1 #acb ,abnaki 7,indians71 #ab canoe1 #hh-hi2 dimensions1 #hi1 #aad-aae ,admiralty ,collection of ,draughts1 #ab1 #ac ,adney1 ,edwin ,tappan1 #d-e1 #eg1 #ajj2 papers1 #d1 #e1 #f2 parents1 #d2 wife1 #d2 work and career1 #d-e ,adney1 ,glenn 7son of ,e4 ,t4 ,a471 #d ,adney1 ,h4 ,h4 7father of ,e4 ,t4 ,a471 #d ,adney1 ,minnie ,bell ,sharp 7wife of ,e4 ,t4 ,a471 #d ,adney1 ,ruth ,shaw 7mother of ,e4 ,t4 ,a471 #d ,adney papers1 #d1 #e1 #f ,alaska1 #e1 #aha1 #ahb ,alaskan canoe1 #ee ,alaskan kayak1 #aed1 #aij1 #aia1 #aib1 #aie1 #aif ,alaskan umiak1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahg ff4 ,albany boat1 #ac ,alberta1 #acb ,aleutian ,islands1 #aha1 #ahc1 #aid ff4 ,aleutian kayak1 #aie ff4 ,algonkian ,family1 #ii ,algonkin 7,indians71 #ii1 #ajg1 #aac2 canoe1 #aac-abb ,america 7#dd-;gun ship1 ,,rn71 #fe ,american ,neptune 7periodical71 #gd ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 #hi1 #aie1 #bjd ,androscoggin 7,indians71 #hh ,anson1 ,lord1 #ab ,art ,students' ,league of ,new ,york1 #d ash1 white1 #ag2 black1 #ag2 splitting qualities1 #ag ,asiatic kayak1 #aib1 #aie ,assiniboine 7,indian tribe71 #acb ,athabaska1 ,lake1 #acb1 #aee ,athabascan ,indians1 #aed1 #aef awl1 bone1 #ai2 steel 7canoe71 #ba axe1 steel1 #bj1 #ba2 cedar1 #ba ,baffin ,island1 #hb1 #ahi1 #aia1 #aib1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #bjh2 umiak1 #ahi1 #aij2 kayak1 #bjd ff4 baidarka 7,russian kayak71 #age bang plate1 #bjh bark1 basswood1 #ae birch1 #i1 #ee1 #fj1 #fc1 #if1 #abj1 #acb1 #adg1 #adh1 #aed2 description1 #ad-ae2 selection and preparation1 #bd-bf2 handling1 #bi-ca2 use in building canoes1 #da-ea butternut1 #bac chestnut1 #ae1 #bac cottonwood1 #ae elm1 #ae1 #bab ff4 hickory1 #ae1 #bac1 #bag spruce1 #ae1 #ag1 #bd1 #acb1 #aeh1 #bab1 #bac1 #baf white pine1 #bac bark cover1 piecing1 #db1 #dc1 #de1 #ee2 ,micmac1 #fc2 ,beothuk1 #ih2 ,algonkin1 #abj2 ,western ,cree1 #acb1 #acc2 fur-trade1 #adg1 #adh2 kayak-form1 #afb ,barrire1 ,lake1 #ajg1 #adf basket 7pack71 in fur trade1 #adc basswood1 bark1 #ae bateau1 #ac bateau-shape canoe1 #aei-afa batten 7in skin boat construction71 #ahf1 #ahh ff41 #aie ff41 #aii1 #bjd ff41 #bjh ,beard1 ,daniel1 #d ,beaver 7,indians71 #aed2 kayak-form canoe1 #aei ,beothuk 7,indian tribe71 #f1 #id-ih canoe1 #id1 #ie2 dimensions1 #id1 #ih2 form1 #if2 keel1 #if1 #ig1 #ih2 reconstruction of1 #if ff4 ,bering ,sea1 #aie ,bering ,strait1 #ahb1 #ahi1 #aii bifid bow1 #aif1 #aig big river canoe1 #eh1 #fe birch bark1 #i1 #ee1 #fj1 #fc1 #if1 #abj1 #acb1 #adg1 #adh1 #aed2 description1 #ad-ae2 selection and preparation1 #bd-bf2 handling1 #bi-ca2 use in building canoes1 #da-ea bladder1 skin 7float71 #aid ,boas1 ,franz1 #ahi1 #bjd boat1 ,arctic skin1 #agd-bab2 ,viking1 #ahg2 temporary skin1 #bai-bbj2 bull1 #bbj ,bogoras1 ,vladimir1 #ahc bola 7hunting71 #aid bone fittings1 kayak1 #aic1 #bjd1 #bjh1 #baa ,bonshere ,river1 ,ontario1 #aac bottom-frame1 kayak-form canoe1 #afj ff4 bow drill1 #ai1 #bj breakwater1 canoe1 #afb1 #aff1 #afg2 kayak1 #aif ,british ,columbia1 #e2 kayak-form canoe1 #afe2 sturgeon-nose canoe1 #afh bucksaw1 #bc building bed1 locating1 #cg2 preparation of1 #cg2 stakes1 #dj1 #da1 #de ff41 #adf1 #adh2 repair to1 #da2 of plank1 #ef1 #adf1 #adg2 ,micmac1 #fb1 #fc2 ,malecite1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd2 ,st4 ,francis1 #ia1 #ib2 ,beothuk1 #if1 #ig2 ,eastern ,cree1 #aja2 ,algonkin1 #aaf2 ,ojibway1 #abg2 ,western ,cree1 #acb2 fur-trade1 #adf1 #adg2 narrow-bottom1 #aeh2 kayak-form1 #afa2 sturgeon-nose1 #agc2 temporary canoe1 #baf1 #bai building frame1 #bf1 #cg1 #ed ff42 ,eastern ,cree1 #aja2 ,algonkin1 #aae1 #aaf2 ,ojibway1 #abg2 ,western ,cree1 #acb2 fur-trade1 #adj1 #ada1 #adf1 #adg2 narrow-bottom1 #aeh2 kayak-form1 #afa2 sturgeon-nose1 #agc bull-boat1 #bbj butternut bark1 #bac camber 7rocker of bottom71 #bh1 #cg1 #ch1 #da 7see also rocker7 canoe1 birch bark1 ,adney on1 #d ff42 scale models of1 #d1 #e2 plans of1 #e1 #f2 speed of1 #g1 #bi1 #acg2 origin of name1 #ac2 requirements for1 #bg2 types1 #bg2 forms discussed1 #bg-cf ff41 #ei 7see also under tribal types72 tribal classification1 #bg ff4 7see under tribal names72 effects of bark characteristics on1 #bi ff42 construction discussed1 #cf-eg 7see also under tribal types72 compared with ,eskimo skin boat1 #aic elm bark1 #bab1 #bai hickory bark1 #bac1 #bag skin1 #bai-bba2 moosehide1 #gb1 #bai2 temporary1 #bai-bba spruce bark1 #acb1 #aeh1 #bab1 #bac1 #baf temporary1 #bai-bba canoe awl1 #ba canoe birch 7see under bark7 canoe brigade1 #aeb canoe building1 ,trois ,rivires factory1 #ac1 #ace1 #acf2 for fur trade1 #ace1 #acf1 #adf ff41 #adh ff42 at ,hudson's ,bay ,company ,posts1 #aea canoe ends1 details of construction1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf2 ,micmac1 #eh1 #ei2 ,malecite1 #gj1 #gf1 #gg1 #aee1 #aef2 ,chipewyan1 #aef1 #aeg2 ,dogrib1 #aef1 #aeg2 slave1 #aeg1 #aeh2 kayak-form1 #aeh1 #aei2 sturgeon-nose1 #afh canoe loading1 fur-trade1 #add1 #ade1 #aeb1 #aec canoe portaging1 #abb1 #aea1 #aeb canoe roads1 #ach canoe sails 7see sails7 canoe shoes1 ,malecite1 #gi1 #hj canoe types1 ,abnaki1 #hh-hi ,alaskan1 #ee ,algonkin1 #aac-abb ,beaver1 #aei ,beothuk1 #id-ih ,big ,river1 #eh1 #fe bateau-shape1 #aei-afa ,british ,columbia1 #afe1 #afh ,chipewyan1 #aee-aeh ,cree1 ,central1 #cd2 ,eastern1 #aja-ajf2 ,western1 #acb-acd1 #aee crooked1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajf ,dogrib1 #aee-aeh express1 #acg1 #ada fur-trade 7see under fur-trade7 hunting 7,micmac71 #eh1 #fe1 #gj kayak-form 7see under kayak-form7 light1 #acg1 #ada long nose1 #abe1 #acj1 #acb ,loucheux1 #afa1 #aff ,mackenzie ,basin1 #aei1 #afa1 #afb ,montagnais1 #cd1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajf ,malecite1 #cd1 #cf-eg1 #gj-ic1 #aad1 #aae1 #bai1 #bba ,micmac1 #ab1 #bg1 #cd1 #eh-fi ,nahane1 #aei narrow-bottom1 #aac1 #aad1 #ace1 #aed-aeh ,northwest1 #aed1 #aee-aeg 7narrow-bottom72 #aeh-afh 7kayak-form7 ,ojibway1 #abb-aca one-piece1 #bab open-water1 #eh1 #fd1 #fe ,passamaquoddy1 #gd1 #ge1 #hb1 #hc ,peterborough1 #fe porpoise hunting1 #gd1 #ge portage1 #eh1 #fe1 #abc ,restigouche1 #fe river 7,malecite71 #gj-gi ,st4 ,francis1 #hh-ic1 #aad1 #aae skiff-canoe1 #fe ,slave1 #aee-aeh straight-bottom1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajf1 #aee sturgeon-nose1 #aed1 #afh-agc temporary1 #bab-bai ,ttes de ,boule1 #cd1 #ajg-aab1 #aaf1 #abb ,v-bottom1 #gd ff41 #hi1 #if1 #ih1 #ajj1 #ajg1 #aac war1 #aj1 #eh1 #fe1 #gj wide-bottom1 #ed woods1 #eh1 #fe ,western ,cree1 #gb1 #acb-acd1 #aee ,yukon ,river1 #aei1 #afd1 #afe1 #aff1 #aij canot 7canoe71 #ac2 du matre 7see fur-trade canoe71 #ii1 #ajf1 #ace2 du nord 7see fur-trade canoe71 #aea1 #aec2 lger 7see light canoe71 #acg ,cape ,york1 #bjh ,carib ,indians1 #ac ,caribou ,eskimo kayak1 #bjd caribou-skin boat1 #bbj ,cartier1 ,jacques1 #g1 #fh ,cartwright1 ,lieut4 ,john1 #id1 #ie cedar1 northern white1 roots1 #af2 splitting qualities1 #ag1 #ah ,celts1 #agf ,champlain1 ,samuel de1 #g1 #aj1 #bac ,champlain1 ,lake1 #g ,chatham dockyard1 #ab chestnut bark1 #ae1 #bac chine1 #afd1 #aff1 #ahd1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #aie1 #bjb1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjf ,chippewa 7,chippeway2 ,indian tribe71 #abb ,chipewyan 7,indian tribe71 #aed1 #aee canoe1 #aee-aeh2 ends1 #aef1 #aeg2 spreading gunwales1 #aeh2 dimensions1 #aeh2 kayak-form1 #aff1 #afg chisel1 #bc ,christopherson1 ,l4 ,a4 7,hudson's ,bay ,company ,factor71 #ade1 #adf2 on fur-trade canoe construction1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi1 #aej1 #aea ,chukchi umiak1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahh2 kayak1 #aie cockpit1 kayak1 #age1 #agf1 #aib1 #aie ff41 #aig1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjh1 #baa ,coffin1 ,samuel1 #ie ,collins1 ,henry ,b4 7,bureau of ,american ,ethnology71 #agd ,colliers 7magazine71 #d construction methods1 ,malecite1 #cf-eg1 #gb-gd2 ,micmac1 #eh1 #ei-fd2 ,st4 ,francis1 #ij-ic2 ,beothuk1 #if-ih2 ,eastern ,cree1 #ajd-ajf2 ,ttes de ,boule1 #ajh-aab2 ,algonkin1 #aae-abb2 ,ojibway1 #abe1 #abg ff42 ,western ,cree1 #acb1 #acc2 fur-trade1 #adf-aea2 narrow-bottom1 #aee ff42 kayak-form1 #afj ff42 sturgeon-nose1 #afh-agb2 umiak1 #agf ff41 #ahb1 #ahd-ahg2 kayak1 #aib-aid2 temporary canoes1 #bab-bah2 temporary skin boats1 #bah-bbj ,copper ,eskimo kayak1 #bjd ,coppermine ,river1 #aee coracle1 #agf ,coronation ,gulf1 #aic1 #bjd ,coronation ,gulf kayak1 #bjd cottonwood bark1 #ae ,cowassek 7,coosuc2 ,indian tribe71 #hh ,crantz1 ,david 7missionary71 #aij1 #bbc ,cree ,indians1 central1 #cd2 eastern1 #ii1 #aja-ajf2 western1 #acb-acd1 #aee crew1 fur-trade canoe1 #ade crimping bark 7in canoe building71 #bi1 #cj1 #bab1 #bad1 #baf1 #bag crooked canoe1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajf crooked knife 7tool71 #ba1 #bc curragh1 #agf1 #agh2 waterproofing skins for1 #agf2 compared with umiak and kayak1 #agh ,coosuc 7,indian tribe71 #hh dart 7for hunting71 #aid deck1 kayak-form canoe1 #aei1 #afb1 #afc1 #afd1 #afe1 #aff1 #afg2 kayak1 #agf1 #aie ff41 #aii1 #bjb1 #bjd1 #baa decorations1 #ec2 ,micmac1 #fg1 #fh2 ,malecite1 #hb ff42 ,st4 ,francis1 #ij1 #ia2 ,ttes de ,boule1 #aab2 ,algonkin1 #abb2 fur-trade1 #adf1 #aej1 #aea2 kayak-form1 #afc2 kayak1 #aig1 #aii ,dn 7,indian tribe71 #afb ,denys1 ,nicolas1 #eg1 #fh1 #fi ,dibble1 ,lt4 ,col4 ,herbert1 #ge dimensions1 canoe 7see under tribal type72 old canoes1 #g ff4 ,dogrib ,indians1 #aed1 #aee2 canoe1 #aee-aeh drill 7tool71 #ai dugout1 #aj1 #bac eastern canoe construction1 #ed ,eastern ,cree ,indians1 #ii1 #ajj1 #aja-ajf canoe1 #aja-ajf2 dimensions1 #ajf ,eastport 7,maine71 #ge ,egede1 ,hans 7missionary71 #aij elm bark1 #h1 #ae1 #bab1 #bac1 #bad1 #bae ,encyclopedia ,arctica1 #f ends 7canoe71 #ca1 #cb1 #ee1 #ef1 #gj1 #gb1 #gf1 #gg1 #aee ff41 #afh1 #bag engine1 outboard gasoline1 #age1 #ahg ,eskimo1 #aed1 #aei1 #age1 #agf1 #ahb1 #aij1 #aia1 #aie ,eskimo roll1 #aid1 #bbc-bbg ,eskimo skin boat 7see kayak1 umiak7 ,espenberg1 ,cape1 kayak1 #bjj express canoe1 #acg1 #ada ,fort ,chimo1 #ii1 #ajj ,foxe ,basin1 #ahb1 #bjd frames 7ribs71 #ai1 #cb2 number of1 #ea2 making and bending1 #ea2 fitting1 #ea1 #eb1 #ef2 temporary1 #ea1 #eb2 ,micmac1 #fj1 #fb2 ,malecite1 #gc1 #gg2 ,st4 ,francis1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib2 ,eastern ,cree1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf2 ,ttes de ,boule1 #aaj1 #aab2 ,algonkin1 #abb2 ,ojibway1 #acj2 ,western ,cree1 #acb2 fur-trade1 #adh1 #adi2 narrow-bottom1 #aeh2 kayak-form1 #afj1 #afb ff42 sturgeon-nose1 #afh1 #agb2 umiak1 #ahd ff41 #ahi1 #aij2 kayak1 #aib1 #aid ff41 #bjb1 #bjd ff41 #baa2 rough construction of1 #bac2 for temporary bark canoe1 #bah2 for temporary skin canoe1 #bai ,franquet1 ,colonel 7,french military engineer-in-chief71 #ac froe 7steel tool71 #bj1 #ba frog 7headboard support71 #ce1 #fa fur trade1 canoe cargoes in1 #adb1 #ade1 #adg1 #aeb1 #aec2 handling furs1 #adb2 pack loads1 #adb ff42 bundles and boxes1 #adb1 #adc2 brigades1 #aeb1 #aec fur-trade canoe1 #e1 #aj ff41 #cf1 #cg1 #ii1 #aab1 #aac1 #aah1 #aai1 #abb1 #acj1 #ace-aec1 #aef2 described1 #ace1 #aec2 names applied to1 #ace1 #adg1 #aej2 forms and categories1 #acf2 dimensions of1 #ach1 #ada1 #adb2 construction methods1 #adf ff42 gunwales1 #acf1 #adh1 #aej2 sheathing1 #adi2 stem-pieces1 #aej2 headboards1 #aej2 paint1 #aej1 #aea ,fury ,strait1 #bjd ,gay1 ,john1 #id1 #if ,gilbert1 ,sir ,humphrey1 #id gimlet 7tool71 #ba ,golden ,lake ,algonkin ,reserve 7,canada71 #aac gores 7bark canoes71 #cj1 #ca1 #da1 #db1 #dh1 #ej2 spacing1 #eg2 ,micmac1 #fj2 ,eastern ,cree1 #aja2 ,ttes de ,boule1 #ajh2 ,algonkin1 #aag2 fur-trade1 #adh2 in umiak1 skin cover1 #ahf ,grand ,victoria ,lake1 #ajg1 #adf great canoe 7see fur-trade canoe71 #ace ,great ,lakes1 #e1 #h1 #aj1 #ab ,great ,slave ,lake1 #aee ,greenland1 #agf1 #aha1 #ahg1 #aia1 #aid ,greenland kayak1 #aij ff41 #aie1 #bjb1 #bje2 #bjf 7northern coast1 ,polar coast71 #bjh 7southern coast71 #baa 7modern7 ,greenland roll1 #bbc ff4 ,greenland umiak1 #ahb1 #aij ,gulf of ,boothia1 #bjd gum1 #ag2 spruce1 #ag1 #bd1 #be2 tempering1 #bd1 #be2 repairs with1 #be1 #bf2 paying seams with1 #ej1 #ec gunwale1 making1 #ai1 #ch2 profile of1 #bh1 #bi2 plan view of1 #bi2 forms of1 #ca2 ends of1 #ca1 #ch2 inner1 #ca2 outer1 #ca1 #dg ff41 #ee1 #fj1 #gb1 #gc1 #aah1 #aai1 #aej1 #aee1 #aef1 #afi2 lashing1 #ca ff41 #dd1 #de1 #dh1 #fj1 #ajh1 #aji1 #abj1 #adi1 #aee1 #aef1 #aei1 #afi 7see also under lashing72 securing bark to1 #ca1 #cc2 setting up1 #cg2 use as building frame1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #da2 size of1 #ch2 variations in construction of1 #ee2 ,micmac1 #fj1 #fa2 hogged1 #ee1 #ei1 #fb1 #fc2 ,malecite1 #gb ff42 ,st4 ,francis1 #hi2 ,beothuk1 #ig1 #ih2 ,eastern ,cree1 #aja2 ,ttes de ,boule1 #ajh1 #aab2 spreading1 #aag1 #aah1 #abg1 #adh1 #aeh2 ,algonkin1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aah1 #aai2 ,ojibway1 #abg2 ,western ,cree1 #acb2 fur-trade1 #acf1 #adh1 #aej2 narrow-bottom1 #aee1 #aef2 kayak-form1 #aei1 #afj1 #afd ff42 sturgeon-nose1 #afh1 #afi1 #agb2 umiak1 #ahb1 #ahd ff41 #aij2 kayak1 #aib ff41 #bjb1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #baa2 temporary canoe1 #bab1 #bac1 #baf1 #bai1 #bbj gunwale cap1 making and fitting1 #eb1 #ec2 ,micmac1 #fj1 #fa2 ,malecite1 #gc2 ,eastern ,cree1 #ajd2 ,ttes de ,boule1 #ajh1 #aji2 ,algonkin1 #aah1 #aai2 fur-trade1 #acf1 #aej2 narrow-bottom1 #aee2 sturgeon-nose1 #agb handgrip1 #aig1 #aii1 #bjj ,hare 7,indian tribe71 #aed ,harper's ,weekly1 #d ,harper's ,young ,people ,magazine1 #d harpoon 7hunting weapon71 #aid headboard1 #ce1 #cf2 support1 #ce1 #fa2 making and fitting1 #eb2 ,micmac1 #fa2 ,malecite1 #gd1 #gh1 #gi2 ,st4 ,francis1 #hi2 ,eastern ,cree1 #aja2 ,ttes de ,boule1 #aji1 #aaj2 ,algonkin1 #aac1 #aai2 ,ojibway1 #abc1 #abe1 #abg2 fur-trade1 #aej2 narrow-bottom1 #aee1 #aeg2 umiak1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aij2 post used as1 #bag ,hearne1 ,samuel 7explorer71 #aee1 #afd ,heath1 ,john1 #agd1 #age1 #aid1 #aii1 #bbc ,hecla ,strait1 #bjd ,henry1 ,jr41 ,alexander1 #ac hickory bark1 #ae1 #bac ,hill1 ,frederick 7,director1 ,mariners' ,museum71 #d hogged bottom 7center upcurved lengthwise71 #cj1 #afa1 #afb1 #afd1 #afe1 #afh hogged gunwale1 #ee1 #ei1 #fb1 #fc hogging brace1 umiak1 #ahh hot water1 use of in bending wood1 #bj1 #aag ,howley1 ,james ,patrick1 #ie1 #if ,hudson ,bay1 #e1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahi1 #aia ,hudson ,strait1 #ahb1 #aia1 #bjb1 #bje ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 #d1 #ac1 #ii1 #ajg1 #acf1 #add1 #aea hunting canoe1 ,micmac1 #eh1 #fe1 #gj2 kayak-form1 #afe hunting screen1 kayak1 #aie ,huron ,indians1 #acb ,huron1 ,lake1 #aac ,indian migrations1 #e1 #bg 7see also under tribal names7 ice1 skin-boats in1 #ahj ,illinois ,indians1 #acb ,irish1 #agf2 curragh1 #agf1 #agh ,iroquois canoe1 in fur trade1 #acf 7see fur-trade canoe7 ,iroquois ,indians1 #g1 #aj1 #ii1 #aad canoe 7temporary71 #bac-bai jack pine roots 7for canoe lashings71 #af jacket1 watertight1 #aii1 #baa ,james ,bay1 #ii1 #acb ,japanese sampan1 #aia1 #aib1 #bje1 #baa ,jochelson1 ,waldemar1 #ahb ,joliet1 ,louis1 #h kayak1 #agd1 #agf1 #aij-baa2 multi-chine hull1 #age1 #aia1 #aii2 cockpit1 #age1 #agf1 #aib1 #aie ff41 #aii1 #bjj1 #bje1 #bjh1 #baa2 deck1 #agf1 #aib1 #aie ff41 #aii1 #bjd1 #baa2 structure1 #agh1 #ahj2 keelson1 #agh1 #aib1 #aie1 #bjj1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #baa2 gunwales1 #agh1 #aib ff41 #bjb1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #baa2 geographic distribution1 #aij1 #aia2 v-bottom1 #aij ff41 #aie1 #bjb1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #baa2 risers1 #aij2 flat bottom1 #aij ff41 #bjd ff42 ,alaskan1 #aij ff41 #aie1 #aif2 distribution1 #aij1 #aia2 design1 #aia1 #aib2 handling and use1 #aia1 #aid1 #aie1 #aii2 portaging1 #aia1 #aii2 construction1 #aib-aid2 keel1 #aib2 frames1 #aib1 #aid ff41 #bjb1 #bjd ff41 #baa2 bone fittings1 #aic1 #bjd1 #bjh1 #baa2 seat1 #aid2 skin cover1 #aid2 paddle1 #aid1 #aie1 #aig1 #bjb1 #bjd1 #bje2 as catamaran1 #aid2 righting1 #aid1 #bbc-bbg2 hunting screen1 #aie2 thwarts1 #aie ff41 #aii1 #bjh2 ,koryak1 #aie2 ,kodiak ,island1 #aie1 #aif2 breakwater1 #aif2 decorations1 #aig1 #aii2 ,aleutian1 #aif1 #aig2 ,unalaska1 #aif1 #aig2 two-passenger1 #aig2 three-passenger1 #aig2 ,nunivak ,island1 #aig1 #aii2 ,king ,island1 #aii1 #bjj2 ,cape ,krusenstern1 #bjj2 ,cape ,espenberg1 #bjj2 ,point ,barrow1 #bjj2 ,norton ,sound1 #bjj2 ,mackenzie ,delta1 #bjj1 #bjb2 ,kotzebue ,sound1 #bjj2 sheer1 #bjj1 #bjd ff41 #bjh1 #baa2 ,copper ,eskimo1 #bjd2 ,coronation ,gulf1 #bjd2 ,caribou1 #bjd2 ,netsilik1 #bjd2 ,baffin ,island1 #bjd1 #bje2 ,labrador1 #bje1 #bjf2 rocker 7camber7 of bottom1 #bje1 #bjf1 #baa2 ,greenland1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #baa2 flare1 #bjf2 rake of ends1 #bjh kayak-form canoe1 #aed1 #aeh-afh2 ,sekani1 #aei2 ,nahane1 #aei2 bateau-shaped1 #aei2 rake of ends1 #aei1 #afd2 ,loucheux1 #afa1 #aff2 bottom frame of1 #afj ff42 paddler's seat1 #afc2 hunting1 #afe2 ,british ,columbia1 #afe2 family1 #afe1 #aff2 keel1 #aff2 ,chipewyan1 #aff1 #afg keel1 ,beothuk canoe1 #if1 #ig1 #ih2 kayak-form canoe1 #aff2 kayak1 #aib keelson1 umiak1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #ahh2 kayak1 #aib1 #aie1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #baa keg 7in fur trade71 #adb ,kennebec ,indians1 #gj ,king ,island kayak1 #aid1 #aii1 #bjj ,king ,island umiak1 #ahg ,kipewa ,post 7,hudson's ,bay ,company71 #aea knife1 stone1 #ai2 crooked1 #ba1 #bc ,kodiak ,island1 #aha1 #aib ,kodiak ,island kayak1 #aie1 #aif1 #aig1 #aii ,koryak umiak1 #ahb1 #ahi ,koryak kayak1 #aib1 #aie ,kotzebue ,sound1 #ahh1 #bjj2 kayak1 #bjj ,krusenstern1 ,cape1 #bjj1 #bjd ,krusenstern kayak1 #bjj1 #bjd ,kutenai 7,kootenay7 ,indians1 #afh1 #agb ,labrador1 #ii1 #aia1 #aib1 #bje1 #bjf ,labrador kayak1 #bje1 #bjf ,laet1 ,joann de1 #id ,la,fiteau1 #ab1 #bae ,la,hontan1 ,baron de1 #h1 #aj1 #bae larch1 splitting qualities1 #ag ,la ,salle1 ,robert ,cavalier de1 #h lashing1 canoe gunwale1 #ca ff41 #dd1 #de1 #dh2 ,micmac1 #fj2 ,ttes de ,boule1 #ajh1 #aji2 ,algonkin1 #abj2 fur-trade1 #adi2 narrow-bottom1 #aee1 #aef2 kayak-form1 #aei1 #afj-aff2 sturgeon-nose1 #afi lashing skin cover1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #aij 7see also sewing1 stitching7 lathing 7see sheathing7 light 7express7 canoe1 #acg1 #ada ,london ,chronicle1 #d long-nose canoe1 #abe1 #acj1 #acb longitudinal strength 7see gunwale1 keelson chine1 keel1 stringers1 etc47 ,loucheux ,indians1 #aed2 kayak-form canoe1 #afa1 #aff ,mac,kenzie1 ,alexander1 #ac ,mac,kenzie ,basin canoe1 #aei1 #afa1 #afb ,mackenzie ,river1 #aed1 #aha1 #aia ,mackenzie ,river kayak1 #bjb1 #bjd matre canot 7see fur-trade canoe71 #ii1 #ajf1 #abb1 #ace1 #ach1 #aea1 #aec ,malecite ,indians1 #d1 #aj2 composition of tribe1 #gj2 canoe1 #aad1 #aae2 sheathing1 #cd2 construction1 #cf-eg2 bark covers over gunwale ends1 #dh2 described1 #gj-hh2 ends1 #gj1 #gf1 #gg2 of spruce bark1 #gb2 temporary 7skin71 #bai1 #bba2 dimensions of1 #gc ff41 #gh1 #gi ,manitoba1 #ii1 #acb maple1 hard1 splitting qualities1 #ag ,marquette1 ,father ,jacques1 #h ,mariners' ,museum 7,newport ,news1 ,va471 #d1 #e1 #ahg mast1 ,micmac1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg2 tripod1 #ahb ,matachewan ,post 7,hudson's ,bay ,company71 #aea ,matagama ,post 7,hudson's ,bay ,company71 #aea maul1 #ai1 #bc ,mc,gill ,university ,museum1 #d measurement1 of canoes1 early1 #g1 #h1 #i2 units of 7,french71 #h1 #cf2 ,indian1 #cf1 #cg1 #ej1 #ea1 #ib1 #ic ,melville ,peninsula1 #bjd ,memphremagog1 ,lake1 #hh ,menominee ,indians1 #abb1 #abc ,micmac ,indians1 #aj1 #ab1 #eh canoe1 #ab1 #bg2 sheathing1 #cd2 described1 #eh-fi2 ends1 #eh1 #ei2 form1 #ei2 construction1 #fb1 #fc2 range1 #fe migrations1 ,indian1 #e2 effect on canoes1 #bg ,missinaibi ,river1 #acb ,missinaibi ,post 7,hudson's ,bay ,company71 #aea ,mohigan ,indians1 #hh ,montagnais ,indian canoe1 #cd1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajf ,montreal1 #h1 #aj1 #ac ,moose ,factory 7,hudson's ,bay ,company ,post71 #acb moosehide canoe1 #gb1 #bai multi-chine hull1 kayak1 #aed1 #age1 #aia1 #aii nabiska 7rabeska2 see fur-trade canoe71 #abb1 #ace nadow chiman 7see fur-trade canoe71 #acf ,nahane ,indian kayak-form canoe1 #aei nail1 in canoe construction1 #ff1 #fi1 #aag narrow-bottom canoe1 #aac1 #aad1 #ace1 #aed-aeh2 ,northwest1 #aee1 #aeg2 spruce bark1 #aeh ,nascapee ,indians1 #ii1 #ajj ,national ,maritime ,museum 7,greenwich1 ,england71 #ab ,netsilik kayak1 #bjd ,new ,bedford whaleboat1 #ahg ,nipigon1 ,lake1 #abc ,north ,alaskan whaling umiak1 #ahg1 #ahh ,north ,bay 7,ontario71 #abe north canoe 7see fur-trade canoe71 #ace ,north ,west ,company1 #acf1 #ach1 #adc1 #aeb ,north ,west narrow-bottom canoe 7see narrow-bottom71 #aee-aeg ,norton ,sound kayak1 #bjj ,nunivak ,island kayak1 #aib1 #aig1 #aii1 #bjj ,oar1 umiak1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahg ff4 ,ojibway ,indians1 #abb canoe1 sheathing1 #cd2 construction1 #abb-aca1 #aga ,oka1 ,lake1 #aac one-piece bark canoe1 #bab open-water canoe1 #eh2 sails1 #fd2 dimensions1 #fe ,ossipee ,indians1 #hh ,ottawa ,river1 #ab1 #aac ,outing ,magazine1 #d outwale 7see gunwale7 owner's mark1 #hc1 #hd1 #he overhang1 in ends of kayak-form canoe1 #aei paddle1 material and manufacture1 #ec2 ,micmac1 #ff1 #fg1 #fi2 ,malecite1 #hj1 #ha1 #hb2 ,beothuk1 #if2 ,eastern ,cree1 #aaf2 ,ttes de ,boules1 #aab2 ,algonkin1 #abb2 ,ojibway1 #acj2 ,western ,cree1 #acc2 fur-trade1 #aeb2 kayak-form1 #afc2 umiak1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahg ff42 kayak1 #aie paddle guard1 ,micmac1 #fd paddler's seat1 kayak-form canoe1 #afc2 kayak1 #aid paint 7on canoes71 ,malecite1 #gg2 fur-trade1 #aej1 #aea ,passamaquoddy ,indians1 #gj canoe1 #gd1 #ge1 #hb1 #hc ,peabody ,museum 7,salem1 ,mass471 #e1 #gd1 #afh peg1 outwale1 #dh1 #aag2 keel1 #if ,peterborough canoe1 #fe ,pennacook ,indians1 #hh ,penobscot ,bay1 #g ,penobscot ,indians1 #gj ,pepysian ,library1 #agf ,pequawket ,indians1 #hh ,perrot1 ,nicholas1 #bae ,pillagers 7,indian tribe71 #abb pine1 white1 bark1 #bac plane1 smoothing 7tool71 #ba planking 7see sheathing7 ,plains ,indians1 #bbj ,point ,barrow 7village71 #ahg ,point ,barrow kayak1 #bjj1 #bjd ,point ,hope 7village71 #ahh ,pond ,inlet1 #bjf porpoise-hunting canoe1 #gd1 #ge portage canoe1 #eh1 #fe1 #abc 7,ojibway7 portaging1 canoe1 #abb1 #aea1 #aeb2 ,umiak1 #ahh2 kayak1 #aia1 #aii ,poterie1 ,bacqueville de la1 #ab1 #bae prah1 ,malay1 #ahi ,pribilof ,islands1 #aif ,prince ,william ,sound1 #aif quill decoration1 ,micmac1 #fh rabeska 7see fur-trade canoe71 #abb1 #ace rake of ends1 kayak-form canoe1 #aei1 #afd2 umiak1 #ahb1 #ahg1 #aij2 kayak1 #bjh ram-form1 #cd1 #afh ,ramezay1 chateau de1 #gh rawhide1 sewing with1 #acb1 #aeh 7see sewing2 stitching2 lashing7 ,red ,paint ,people 7,indian tribe71 #id ,repulse ,bay1 #bjd ,restigouche canoe1 #fe ribs 7see frames7 risers1 umiak1 #ahb1 #ahg ff41 kayak1 #aij river canoe1 ,malecite1 #gj-gi ,rivire du ,loup1 #gh rocker 7camber2 convex lengthwise curve of keel71 #bh1 #cg1 #ch1 #da2 effect of gores on1 #eg2 ,micmac1 #ei1 #fc3 ,labrador1 #ii1 #ajj2 ,eastern ,cree1 #aja2 ,algonkin1 #aac2 ,ojibway1 #abe2 ,western ,cree1 #acb2 fur-trade1 #acf2 ,northwest1 #aee2 kayak-form1 #aei1 #afd2 umiak1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahh1 #ahi2 kayak1 #bje1 #bjf1 #baa2 elm-bark canoe1 #bad roots1 for sewing1 #ae1 #af2 varieties used1 #af2 splitting and peeling1 #bj ,ross1 ,sir ,james ,clark1 #bjh rudder1 umiak1 #ahg1 #ahi ,russian influence on skin boat design1 #age1 #ahi1 #aib1 #aig ,saginaw 7,michigan71 #abc ,saguenay ,river1 #ii sails1 canoe1 ,micmac1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg2 ,passamaquoddy1 #ge2 ,malecite1 #ge2 ,eastern ,cree1 #ajf2 fur-trade1 #aeb2 narrow-bottom1 #aeh2 blanket 7,iroquois71 #bai2 umiak1 #age1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #ahi kayak1 #aie umiak1 #age1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #aij ,st4 ,croix ,river1 #gj ,st4 ,francis ,abnaki ,indians1 #hh canoe1 #hh-ic2 dimensions1 #hi1 #aad1 #aae ,st4 ,john ,lake1 #ii ,st4 ,john ,river1 #gj ,st4 ,joseph ,lake1 #acb ,st4 ,lawrence ,island1 #aig ,st4 ,lawrence ,river1 #e1 #ac1 #gj1 #gh ,st4 ,matthew 7,alaska71 #aif ,st4 ,maurice ,river1 #ajg ,st4 ,michaels kayak1 #bjj ,salish ,indians1 #afh1 #agb ,saltreaux 7,indian tribe71 #abb sampan1 #aia1 #aib1 #bje1 #baa scale-model canoe1 #d1 #e ,schenectady boat1 #ac scow1 #ac scraper 7tool71 #ai sea otter hunting1 #aig seal1 bearded1 #ahh1 #aie ,sekani ,indians1 kayak-form canoe1 #aei setting up canoe 7on building bed71 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #dd1 #de ,seton1 ,ernest ,thompson1 #d sewing 7stitching1 lashing71 #ae1 #bi1 #cj2 on building bed1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #dh1 #di1 #ej2 ,micmac1 #fc2 ,malecite1 #gi2 ,st4 ,francis ,abnaki1 #ia2 ,eastern ,cree1 #aja2 ,ttes de ,boule1 #ajh1 #aji2 ,algonkin1 #abj2 rawhide1 #acb1 #aeh2 narrow-bottom1 #aeh2 kayak-form1 #afb2 sturgeon-nose1 #afh2 skin cover1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #aij2 kayak1 #aic1 #aid1 #aif2 temporary canoe1 #bbj ,sharp1 ,minnie ,bell 7,mrs4 ,edwin ,tappan 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#bjf1 #bjh1 #baa umiak1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahi ,v-,form 7see ,v-bottom7 ,viking boat1 #ahg voyageur1 #adc2 loads carried by1 #adc1 #add2 number required for a canoe1 #ade2 paddle requirement1 #aeb wabinaki chiman 7,algonkin canoe71 #aad1 #aai1 #aca walrus skin1 for umiak1 #ahc2 for kayak1 #aid war canoe1 #aj2 ,micmac1 #eh1 #fe2 ,malecite1 #gj war party1 ,malecite1 #ga2 traveling1 #bab2 ,iroquois1 #bad ,waswanipi1 ,lake1 ,post 7,hudson's ,bay ,company71 #aea water1 ,indian methods of boiling1 #bj weapons1 for kayaks1 #aid1 #baa weather cloth1 #ahc wedge1 #ch1 #aef ,western ,cree ,indians1 #acb1 #aee2 canoe1 #gb1 #acb-acd1 #aee ,wewenoc ,indians1 #hh ,weymouth1 ,captain ,george1 #g whaleboat1 #ahg whaling umiak1 #ahg1 #ahh ,whitbourne1 ,captain ,richard1 #id ,white ,fish ,people 7,indian tribe71 #ajg wide-bottom canoe1 #ed willow1 #ag ,winnipeg1 ,lake1 #acb wood 7for kayaks71 #aib1 #bjj1 #bjd wood bending1 by hot water1 #bj2 over a fire1 #fi wood splitting1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai woods canoe1 #eh1 #fe ,woodstock1 ,new ,brunswick1 #d1 #ge wulegessis1 #gb1 #gc1 #gg1 #hb1 #ij1 #abj1 #aba ,york boat1 #bbj ,yukon ,indians1 #aij ,yukon ,river canoe1 #aei2 kayak-form1 #afd1 #afe1 #aff1 #aij ,u4,s4 ,,government ,,printing ,,office3 #aigc ,o--#dia-bcj 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,silently corrected simple spelling1 grammar1 and typographical errors4 ,retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed4