,,longmans' ,,civil ,,eng9e]+ ,,s]ies ,,railway ,,con/ruction ,,longmans' ,,civil ,,eng9e]+ ,,s]ies ,,notes ,,on ,,docks ,,& ,,dock ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,c4 ,,colson1 ,c4,b41 ,m4,in/4,c4,e41 ,deputy ,civil ,eng9e]-9-,*ief1 ,loan ,works1 ,admiralty4 ,) #cfe ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo1 #bas4 net4 ,,calculations ,,9 ,,hydraulic ,,eng9e]+3 ,a ,practical ,text-,book = ! ,use ( ,/ud5ts1 ,draughtsm51 & ,eng9e]s4 ,by ,t4 ,,claxton ,,fidl]1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,pr(essor ( ,eng9e]+1 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,dundee4 ,"p ,i4 ,fluid ,pressure & ! ,calculation ( its ,effects 9 ,eng9e]+ ,/ructures4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations & ,examples4 ,m$ium #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,calculations 9 ,hydro-,k9etics4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations & ,examples4 ,m$ium #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,notes ,,on ,,con/ruction ,,9 ,,mild ,,/eel3 ,arrang$ = ! ,use ( ,junior ,draughtsm5 9 ! ,ar*itectural & ,eng9e]+ ,pr(essions4 ,) #dbe ,illu/rations f ,work+ ,draw+s1 ,diagrams & ,tables4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,fidl]1 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,m$ium #hvo1 #afs4 net4 ,,railway ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,mills1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,eng9e]-9-,*ief1 ,great ,nor!rn ,railway ( ,irel&4 ,) #eaf ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo1 #ahs4 net4 ,,pr9ciples ,,& ,,practice ,,( ,,h>b\r ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,,william ,,%ield1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,m4,in/4,c4,e41 & ,executive ,eng9e]1 ,national ,h>b\r ( ,refuge1 ,pet]head1 ,n4,b4 ,) #ig ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo1 #aes4 net4 ,,civil ,,eng9e]+ ,,z ,,appli$ ,,9 ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,,leveson ,,francis ,,v]non-,,h>c\rt1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,in/4,c4,e4 ,) #cfh ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo1 #ads4 net4 ,,sanit>y ,,eng9e]+ ,,) ,,respect ,,to ,,wat]-,,supply ,,& ,,sewage ,,disposal4 ,by ,,leveson ,,francis ,,v]non-,,h>c\rt1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,in/4,c4,e4 ,) #bhg ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo1 #ads4 net4 ,,tidal ,,riv]s3 _! 7#a7 ,hydraulics1 7#b7 ,improvem5t1 7#c7 ,navigation4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,:eel]1 ,m4,in/4,c4,e4 ,) #ge ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo1 #afs4 net4 ,,longmans1 ,,gre51 ,,& ,,co4 ,,london1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,bombay1 ,,& ,,calcutta ,illu/ration3 ,frontispiece4 ,,k9sua ,,viaduct1 ,,erie ,,railway1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,see p4 #ig4 ,,longmans' ,,civil ,,eng9e]+ ,,s]ies ,,railway ,,con/ruction ,,by ,,william ,,hem+way ,,mills1 ,m4,,in/4,c4,e4 ,,pa/ ,,presid5t ,,( ,,! ,,in/itution ,,( ,,civil ,,eng9e]s ,,( ,,irel&1 ,,& ,,eng9e]-,,9-,,*ief ,,( ,,! ,,great ,,nor!rn ,,railway ,,( ,,irel& ,illu/ration ,,) ,,illu/rations ,,f\r? ,,impression ,,longmans1 ,,gre51 ,,& ,,co4 #ci ,,pat]no/] ,,r[1 ,,london ,,new ,,york1 ,,bombay1 ,,& ,,calcutta #aiaj ,all rights res]v$ ,,preface ,! con/ruction & ma9t5ance ( a railway calls = ! application ( s _m bran*es ( eng9e]+ t sev]al volumes w\ld be requir$ to d ample ju/ice to a subject s compreh5sive & ev]-ext5d+4 ,to avoid attempt+ s wide a range1 ! object ( ! foll[+ pages has be5 to describe briefly "s ( ! recogniz$ lead+ features :i* regulate railway con/ruction1 & to assi/ ! explanation ) sket*es ( works select$ f actual practice4 ,:]e ! numb] ( exi/+ good examples is legion1 x is some:at difficult to make a *oice = illu/ration1 & ! c\rse adopt$ has be5 to select su* samples ( /ructures z appe> be/ to elucidate 9 a simple mann] ! diff]5t types ( "w "u consid]ation4 ,9 ! draw+s & diagrams _m important m9or details are necess>ily omitt$1 p>tly to avoid complexity1 b pr9cipally to leave m prom95t ! lead+ features ( ! p>ticul> piece ( "w ref]r$ to 9 ! description4 ,"s ( ! sket*es ( ! l>ge span bridges & l>ge span ro(s are only %[n 9 outl9e2 b1 z _! pr9cipal dim5sions are giv51 a g5]al idea c be obta9$ ( _! actual proportions4 ,no allusion is made to ! requisite /r5g?s ( ! v>i\s /ructures describ$1 nor to ! necess>y dim5sions ( ! mat]ials us$ 9 _! con/ruction1 z ?is w\ld necessitate ! introduction ( a va/ am\nt ( ma!matical =mul :i* does n come "u ! prov9ce ( ! object 9 view1 & :i* ! eng9e] has already at comm& f 8 tra9+ & works ( ref]5ce4 ,nei!r is any m5tion made z to ! probable co/ ( ! diff]5t works ( con/ruction1 z ^! mu/ always v>y to a v l>ge ext5t1 accord+ to ! locality1 facility ( supply1 & curr5t prices ( mat]ials4 ,e railway s*eme :i* is ! outcome ( public ent]prise has its comm]cial aspect & influ5ce4 ,! l>ge sums to be inve/$ 9 its con/ruction are expect$ to yield p]man5t & increas+ returns1 & ?is desirable end c only be atta9$ :]e !re is ?or\gh effici5cy 9 works & equipm5t1 & a full compliance ) ^? national regulations :i* control matt]s connect$ ) public safety4 ,! correct deal+ ) ! te*nical requirem5ts & /ructural features ( ! und]tak+ mu/ always prec$e all o!r consid]ations1 z ! con/itut$ au?orities w exact a prop] fulfilm5t ( all ! /atutory obligations1 reg>dless ( ! prospective remun]ation to ! promot]s4 ,a /roke ( ! p5 may *ange a tra9-s]vice1 or alt] ! rates & t>iffs1 b a modification 9 ! works ( con/ruction aris+ out ( errors or ov]sight1 w\ld entail a heavy exp5diture & t$i\s delay4 ,! ess5tial po9t ( e railway und]tak+ mu/ be its suitability & complet5ess 9 e respect = ! duty = :i* x is int5d$4 ,notes ( :at has be5 done are always valuable = consid]ation & comp>ison1 & t ! foll[+ brief description & sket*es may be f\nd useful = ref]5ce1 is ! e>ne/ wi% ( ! writ]4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,mills1 ,m4,,in/4,c4,e4 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,page ,location ( a l9e ( railway--,gov]nm5t regulations--,que/ions = consid]ation 9 connection ) gauge1 gradi5ts1 & curves #a ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,works ( con/ruction3 ,e>?works1 ,culv]ts1 ,bridges1 ,f\ndations1 ,screw piles1 ,cyl9d]s1 ,caissons1 ,reta9+ walls1 & ,tunnels #fj ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,p]man5t way--,rails--,sleep]s--,fa/5+s--& ,p]man5t-way lay+ #ahb ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,/ations3 ,/ation ,build+s1 ,ro(s1 ,l9es1 & ,sid+s #bdh ,,*apt] ,v4 ,sort+-sid+s--,turn-tables--,trav]s]s--, wat]-,tanks & ,wat]-,columns #bhe ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,comp>ative ,weights ( "s ,types ( ,mod]n ,locomotives #cjd ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,signals--,int]lock+--,block ,telegraph & ,electric ,tra9 ,/aff ,in/rum5ts #cac ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,railways ( diff]5t ranks--,progressive improvem5ts--,gr[+ t5d5cy = increas$ spe$s1 ) correspond+ increase 9 weight ( p]man5t way & roll+-/ock--,electricity z a motive-p[] #cdh ,,index #cfa ,,*apt] ,i4 #a ,location ( a l9e ( railway--,gov]nm5t regulations--,que/ions = consid]ation 9 connection ) gauge1 gradi5ts1 & curves4 ,location4--,! locat+ ( a l9e ( railway1 or ! det]m9ation ( its exact r\te1 is influ5c$ by _m circum/ances4 ,9 a ri* c\ntry1 ) ?ickly populat$ di/ricts & l>ge indu/rial ent]prises1 !re are t[ns to be s]v$1 manufactur+ c5tres to be accommodat$1 & h>b\rs to be br\ght into connection2 :ile1 at ! same "t1 !re may be important e/ates :i* mu/ be avoid$ & private prop]ties :i* mu/ n be ent]$4 ,ea* po9t w pres5t its own individual claim = consid]ation :5 select+ ! r\te :i* promises ! greate/ am\nt ( public conv5i5ce & comm]cial success4 ,9 new c\ntries--9 our colonies1 & especially out 9 ! f> we/ ( ,canada & ! ,unit$ ,/ates--railways h to be laid out 9 almo/ un9habit$ di/ricts1 :]e !re is b little population or comm]ce to s]ve1 & :]e ! pr9cipal object is to obta9 ! be/ & mo/ direct r\te ?r\gh ! va/ t]ritories1 leav+ coloni/s & settl]s to *oose aft]w>ds ! mo/ conv5i5t sites = t[ns & villages4 ,untrammell$ by ! network ( public & private roads & prop]ties :i* are met ) at home1 x might appe> t ! locat+ ( su* a l9e w\ld be comp>atively light2 b ev5 9 su* c\ntries1 :i* at fir/ sight seem to pres5t unlimit$ fre$om = select+ a r\te1 mu* c be done1 & %\ld be done1 by tak+ a c\rse ?r\gh ^? pla9s & di/ricts :i* possess ! be/ natural res\rces = future agricultural1 manufactur+1 or m9]al developm5t4 ,9 addition to ! motives ( conv5i5ce & policy1 ! r\te ( e l9e ( railway mu/ be influ5c$ by ! natural features ( ! c\ntry--! m\nta9s1 valleys1 & riv]s4 ,^! physical ob/acles are 9 "s cases on su* an enorm\s scale z to compel #b long det\rs 9 ! =mation ( a m suitable op5+2 & 9 o!rs1 al?\gh ! difficulties are n insurm\ntable1 !y may involve works ( great magnitude & exp5se4 ,9 a comp>atively ri* c\ntry1 ) a prospect ( l>ge & remun]ative traffic1 a succession ( heavy works1 bridges1 & tunnels may be admissible & exp$i5t2 b 9 new c\ntries economy ( outlay has to be consid]$1 & co/ly works avoid$ z mu* z possible4 ,e "o ( ! heavy works on a l9e1 :e!r l(ty bridges1 long viaducts1 or co/ly tunnels1 n only enorm\sly increase ! orig9al exp5diture ( ! und]tak+1 b also entail l>ge annual outlay 9 ! necess>y con/ant sup]vision & ma9t5ance4 ,ea* p>ticul> s*eme w h to be discuss$ on its own individual m]its4 ,! heavy1 high-spe$ pass5g] traffic l9e w sugge/ light gradi5ts & easy curves1 :ile on second>y l9es & 9 ?9ly populat$ di/ricts x may be prud5t1 = ! sake ( economy1 to introduce %>p] curves & heavi] gradi5ts4 ,ev5 9 ! latt] case1 & especially 9 new c\ntries1 x is well to keep 9 view ! future possibilities ( ! und]tak+4 ,! /eep] ! gradi5ts1 ! great] ! co/ & "t 9 work+ ! traffic1 & if !re is e probability ( e>ly & l>ge developm5t1 ! prospective increase may w>rant an additional outlay 9 ! orig9al con/ruction4 ,l>ge1 op5 pla9s & wide valleys ( important riv]s g5]ally af=d ample latitude = ! selection ( a suitable r\te1 &1 by tak+ advantage ( ! gradations ( altitude1 a fav\rable c\rse may be adopt$ )\t incurr+ excessive gradi5ts4 ,:5 trav]s+ mod]ately hilly di/ricts1 "s l[ ridge or op5+ may be f\nd1 :i* may =m a pass f ! "o side to ! o!r1 & ! l9e may be laid out = a long di/ance to lead gradually up to ! highe/ po9t4 ,b :5 a r\te has to be laid out ov] "s ( ^? l(ty m\nta9 ranges :i* are met ) abroad1 ! locat+ ( a suitable l9e1 or ( any l9e1 becomes p>ticul>ly intricate & difficult4 ,a comp>atively l[ ridge may be f\nd possess+ features 9 fav\r ( ! project1 b ! "q w be h[ to rea* t po9t4 ,! ne>] ! summit ( ^! high m\nta9s1 ! m precipit\s ! sides2 no "o slope c be f\nd suffici5tly long & uni=m to #c p]mit a practical direct asc5t1 & ! only way out ( ! difficulty is to make a s]ies ( det\rs along ! v>i\s spurs ( ! m\nta9s to ga9 l5g? to ov]come ! height4 ,ea* det\r has to be ! subject ( mo/ c>eful /udy4 ,=m+ "p ( a long s]ies ( asc5d+ gradi5ts1 x has to foll[ ! w9d+ ( ! m\nta9-side1 mu/ be laid out to be always ga9+ 9 height1 & w comprise important works1 _m ( !m ( consid]able ext5t1 necess>y = protection aga9/ ! floods & atmosph]ical *anges ( ! locality4 ,9 ^! high] altitudes nature is met ) on ! gr&e/ & mo/ rugg$ scale4 ,deep gorges1 wide rav9es1 & almo/ p]p5dicul> rocks =m ! pa?way along :i* ! l9e mu/ be c>ri$1 & ! skill ( ! eng9e] is tax$ to ! utmo/ to select a c\rse :i* %all comprise a m9imum ( ! works ( magnitude4 ,mile aft] mile ( l9e mu/ be laid out 9 almo/ inaccessible places1 loose or brok5 rocks mu/ be avoid$1 a firm f\ndation mu/ be obta9$ at all po9ts skirt+ high l$ges1 & ample provision mu/ be made = ^? m\nta9 torr5ts :i* rise s sudd5ly1 & are liable to sweep away all be=e !m4 ,_m gr& examples ( ^! det\r l9es are 9 exi/5ce 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w1 & ! travell] pass+ ov] !m c realize ! difficulties t _h to be enc\nt]$1 & ! ma/]ly mann] 9 :i* !y h be5 ov]come4 ,be=e proce$+ to c>ry out ! works ( any l9e ( railway1 x is necess>y to prep>e a complete plan & section ( ! l9e1 %[+ ! r\te to be foll[$ & ! position ( ! v>i\s curves1 gradi5ts1 & pr9cipal works4 ,)9 c]ta9 limits1 ! c\rse ( ! l9e may h to be slightly modifi$ z ! "w proce$s1 9 consequ5ce ( gr\nd turn+ out unfav\rable1 riv]-cross+s trea*]\s1 or ( sites involv+ s _m cont+5t alt]ations t x is f\nd bett] to avoid !m altoge!r4 ,! r\te %\ld1 h[ev]1 be s c>efully /udi$ out be=e complet+ ! f9al plan & section1 z to leave only m9or deviations ( l9e & level to be dealt ) 9 ! actual c>ry+ out ( ! "w4 ,! promot]s ( l9es 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom obta9 valuable assi/ance f ! ordnance maps1 :i* give full & reliable in=mation reg>d+ ! position ( all roads1 riv]s1 & b\nd>ies ( c\nties1 p>i%es1 & t[nl&s4 ,9 _m p>ts abroad #d local maps are sc>ce1 & n always accurate1 & eng9e]s h to dep5d pr9cipally on _! own surveys1 & rely ^u ! resid5t local au?orities = any p>ticul>s z to divisions ( t]ritory4 ,on "s ( our great colonial pla9s1 & out 9 ! f> we/ ( ,am]ica1 a l9e may be laid out = miles )\t a s+le l&m>k to localize x on a plan2 b c>eful sett+ out1 & ! relative levels ( ! gr\nd & gradi5ts1 z %[n on ! section1 w always indicate ! correct position ( any portion ( ! "w4 ,bo? at home & abroad complete plans & sections ( any propos$ railway mu/ be deposit$ ) ! prop] ,gov]nm5t au?orities1 & mu/ be approv$ & sanction$ by !m be=e p]mission c be obta9$ to proce$ ) ! works4 ,! regulations reg>d+ ! scale & g5]al arrangem5t ( ^! plans & sections v>y 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 & are subject to modification f "t to "t4 ,ea* c\ntry has its own special enactm5ts relative to ! me?od ( deal+ ) roads1 riv]s1 /reams1 & public & private prop]ty propos$ to be int]f]$ ) 9 ! con/ruction ( any l9e1 & a k ( ^! is absolutely necess>y = ! promot]s ( any new s*eme1 inasmu* z "s ( ! requirem5ts may1 9 c]ta9 in/ances1 influ5ce ! precise r\te to be select$4 ,! ,engli% ,gov]nm5t has pass$ sev]al ,acts ( ,p>liam5t sett+ =? ! g5]al conditions :i* mu/ be compli$ ) 9 ! con/ruction ( any railway 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,^! conditions1 or /&+ ord]s1 relate bo? to ! acquirem5t ( l& & prop]ty1 ! size & description ( works = public or private accommodation1 & ! inspection & (ficial approval ( ! und]tak+ :5 complet$4 ,^! fix$ regulations are alike valuable to ! promot]s & to ! public2 ! =m] are in=m$ ( ! pr9cipal po9ts ) :i* ! s*eme mu/ con=m1 & ! latt] "k ! limit ( _! legal dem&s4 ,no l9e ( railway1 or ext5sion ( any railway1 w obta9 ,p>liam5t>y sanction unless x c be satisfactorily prov$ 9 ! outset1 t its con/ruction w\ld be ( public advantage4 ,?is po9t is ( p>am\nt importance1 & due weight mu/ be giv5 to x :5 prep>+ to refute ! evid5ce ( oppon5ts to ! s*eme4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,:5 conc$+ ! "r to make any railway1 ,p>liam5t grants ) #f x ! p[] to pur*ase l&s or prop]ty compulsorily1 or by agreem5t1 to *ange & div]t roads & /reams 9 ! mann] %[n on ! deposit$ plans1 & to con/ruct all necess>y bridges & works 9 accordance ) ! /&+ ord]s1 or su* modifications ( !m z may be approv$ by ! ,bo>d ( ,trade4 ,! /&+ ord]s1 or ,gov]nm5t regulations1 are v compreh5sive1 & include mu* detail$ in=mation on all que/ions likely to arise4 ,! foll[+ brief summ>y ( "s ( ! pr9cipal ord]s relat+ to deposit$ plans1 & works ( con/ruction1 w be f\nd useful = ref]5ce4 ,extract f ,gov]nm5t ,/&+ ,ord]s & ,regulations4--,all plans & sections relative to propos$ new railways mu/ be lodg$ ) ! con/itut$ ,gov]nm5t ,au?orities on or be=e ,novemb] #cj4 ,e deposit$ plan mu/ be drawn to a scale ( n less ?an f\r in*es to a mile1 & mu/ describe ! c5tre l9e1 or situation ( ! "w 7no alt]native l9e be+ all[$71 & mu/ %[ all l&s1 g>d5s1 or build+s )9 ! limits ( deviation1 ea* "o be+ numb]$ ) a ref]5ce numb]1 & :]e p[]s to make lat]al deviations are appli$ =1 ! limits ( su* deviation mu/ be m>k$ on ! plan4 ,unless ! :ole ( su* plan be drawn to a scale ( n less ?an #djj feet to an in*1 an enl>g$ plan mu/ be drawn to t scale ( e build+ & g>d5 )9 ! limits ( deviation4 ,! ,railway ,clauses ,act limits ! ext5t ( deviation to #ajj y>ds on ea* side ( ! c5tre l9e 9 ! c\ntry1 & #aj y>ds on ea* side ( ! c5tre l9e 9 t[ns or villages4 ,! di/ances mu/ be m>k$ on ! plan 9 miles & furlongs f "o ( ! t]m9i4 ,! radius ( e curve n exce$+ "o mile mu/ be m>k$ on ! plan 9 furlongs & *a9s4 ,9 tunnels ! c5tre l9e mu/ be dott$1 b no "w mu/ be %[n z tunnell+1 9 ! mak+ ( :i* x is necess>y to cut ?r\gh1 or remove ! surface soil4 ,if x is int5d$ to div]t or alt] any public road1 navigable riv]1 canal1 or railway1 ! c\rse & ext5t ( su* div]sion1 etc41 %all be m>k$ on ! plan4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,:5 a railway is to =m a junction ) an exi/+ railway1 ! #h c\rse ( su* exi/+ railway mu/ be %[n on ! plan = a di/ance ( #hjj y>ds on ea* side ( ! propos$ junction4 ,9 ! case ( ,bills = con/ruct+ subways1 ! plans & sections mu/ indicate ! height & wid? ( su* subway1 & ! nature ( ! approa*es by :i* x is propos$ to af=d access to su* subway4 ,! ,book ( ,ref]5ce mu/ conta9 ! names ( all own]s1 lessees1 & occupi]s ( all l&s & h\ses ( e p>i% )9 ! limits ( deviation4 ,! numb]s on ! ,book ( ,ref]5ce mu/ correspond ) ! numb]s on ! plan1 & opposite to ea* numb] mu/ be ent]$ a brief description ( ! prop]ty1 :e!r field1 g>d51 h\se1 road1 railway1 or riv]4 ,x is int5d$ t ! plan & ,book ( ,ref]5ce toge!r1 %all af=d ample in=mation to enable all p>ties int]e/$ to asc]ta9 to :at ext5t _! prop]ty w be affect$ by ! propos$ und]tak+4 ,! section mu/ be drawn to ! same horizontal scale z ! plan1 & to a v]tical scale ( n less ?an #ajj feet to an in*1 & mu/ %[ ! level ( ! gr\nd1 ! level ( ! propos$ "w1 ! height ( e embankm5t1 ! dep? ( e cutt+1 & a horizontal datum l9e :i* %all be ref]r$ to "s fix$ po9t1 ne> "o ( ! t]m9i4 ,9 e section ( a railway1 ! l9e ( railway m>k$ !reon mu/ correspond ) ! upp] surface ( ! rails4 ,di/ances on ! datum l9e mu/ be m>k$ 9 miles & furlongs to correspond ) ^? on ! plan2 a v]tical measure f ! datum l9e to ! l9e ( ! railway mu/ be m>k$ 9 feet & decimals at ! comm5cem5t & t]m9ation ( ! railway1 & at ea* *ange ( gradi5t1 & ! rate ( incl9ation betwe5 su* v]tical measures mu/ also be m>k$4 ,:]ev] ! l9e ( railway crosses any public c>riage road1 navigable riv]1 canal1 or railway1 ! height ( ! railway ov]1 or dep? b5ea? ! surface !re(1 & ! height & span ( e ar* by :i* ! railway w be c>ri$ ov] ! same1 mu/ be m>k$ 9 figures4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,9 ! case ( a public road level cross+1 x mu/ be describ$ on ! section1 & x mu/ also be /at$ if su* level w be unalt]$4 ,if any alt]ation be int5d$ 9 ! level ( any canal1 public road1 or railway :i* w be cross$ by ! int5d$ l9e ( railway1 ! same mu/ be /at$ on ! section & cross-sections to a horizontal scale ( n less ?an #ccj feet to an in*1 & a v]tical #aj scale ( n less ?an #dj feet to an in* mu/ be add$1 :i* mu/ %[ ! pres5t surface ( su* road1 canal1 etc41 & ! int5d$ surface !re( :5 alt]$1 & ! greate/ ( ! pres5t & int5d$ rates ( incl9ation m>k$ 9 figures1 su* cross-sections to ext5d #bjj y>ds on ea* side ( ! c5tre l9e ( railway4 ,:]ev] ! height ( any embankm5t1 or dep? ( any cutt+1 %all exce$ #e feet1 ! extreme height ov] or dep? b5ea? ! surface ( ! gr\nd mu/ be m>k$ 9 figures ^u ! section4 ,all tunnels & viaducts mu/ be %[n on ! section4 ,at a junction ) an exi/+ railway1 ! gradi5t ( su* exi/+ railway mu/ be %[n on ! section on ! same scale z ! g5]al section = a di/ance ( #hjj y>ds on ea* side ( ! po9t ( junction4 ,:]e ! level ( any turnpike or public road has to be alt]$ 9 mak+ any railway1 ! gradi5t ( any alt]$ road ne$ n be bett] ?an ! mean incl9ation ( ! exi/+ road )9 a di/ance ( #bej y>ds ( ! po9t ( cross+ ! railway2 b :]e ! exi/+ roads h easy gradi5ts1 !n ! gradi5ts ( ! alt]$ roads1 :e!r c>ri$ ov]1 or "u1 or on ! level ) ! railway1 mu/ n be /eep] ?an #a 9 #cj = a turnpike road1 #a 9 #bj = a public c>riage road1 #a 9 #af = a private or occupation road4 ,a good & suffici5t f5ce1 #d feet high at lea/1 %all be made on ea* side ( e bridge1 & f5ces #c feet high on ! approa*es4 ,! application to cross any public road on ! level mu/ be report$ ^u by "o ( ! (fic]s ( ! ,bo>d ( ,trade1 & special p]mission = ! "w mu/ be embodi$ 9 ! ,act4 ,n m ?an #bj h\ses ( ! lab\r+ classes may be pur*as$ 9 any city or p>i% 9 ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 & ,wales1 or m ?an #aj su* h\ses 9 ,irel&1 until approval has be5 obta9$ to a s*eme = build+ su* h\ses 9 lieu !re( z ! au?orities may deem necess>y4 ,e bridge 7unless specially au?oriz$ to be o!rwise7 mu/ con=m ) ! foll[+ regulations3-- ,a bridge ov] a turnpike road mu/ h a cle> span ( #ce feet on ! squ>e betwe5 ! abutm5ts1 ) a headway1 or height1 ( #af feet = a wid? ( #ab feet1 z %[n on ,fig4 #ab4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,a bridge ov] a public road mu/ h a cle> span ( #be feet on ! #ab squ>e betwe5 ! abutm5ts1 ) a headway ( #ae feet = a wid? ( #aj feet1 z %[n on ,fig4 #ac4 ,a bridge ov] a private or occupation road mu/ h a cle> span ( #ab feet on ! squ>e betwe5 ! abutm5ts1 ) a headway ( #ad feet = a wid? ( #i feet1 z %[n on ,fig4 #ad4 ,road bridges ov] ! railway mu/ h ! same cle> wid? betwe5 ! p>apets1 measur$ on ! squ>e1 z ! wid?s prescrib$ = road bridges "u ! railway1 or #ce feet = a turnpike road1 #be feet = a public road1 & #ab feet = private or occupation road4 ,x is n compulsory1 h[ev]1 to con/ruct ! public road bridges ov] or "u ! railway ( a great] wid? ?an ! av]age available wid? ( ! exi/+ roads )9 #ej y>ds ( ! po9t ( cross+ ! railway1 b 9 no case mu/ a bridge h a less wid? ?an #bj feet4 ,%\ld ! n>r[ roads be wid5$ at any future "t1 ! railway company w be "u ! obligation to wid5 ! bridges at _! own exp5se to ! ext5t ( ! /atutory wid?s ( #ce feet = a turnpike road1 & #be feet = a public road4 ,suitable accommodation works 9 ! =m ( bridges1 level cross+s1 gates1 or o!r works1 mu/ be provid$ = ! own]s1 or occupi]s ( l&s1 or prop]ties int]sect$ or affect$ by ! con/ruction ( ! railway2 or paym5ts may be made by agreem5t in/ead ( accommodation works4 ,all que/ions1 or diff]5ces betwe5 ! ,railway ,company1 & ! own]s or occupi]s ( prop]ty affect$1 w be decid$ by ! au?orities duly appo9t$ by ! ,gov]nm5t = ! purpose4 ,9 con/ruct+ ! railway1 ! ,p>liam5t>y plans & sections may be deviat$ f to ! foll[+ ext5t3-- ,! c5tre l9e may be deviat$ any:]e )9 ! limits ( deviation 7#ajj y>ds on ea* side ( ! c5tre l9e 9 c\ntry1 & #aj y>ds ea* side 9 t[ns1 or villages74 ,curves may be %>p5$ up to half a mile radius1 & fur!r1 if au?oriz$ by ! ,bo>d ( ,trade4 ,a tunnel may be made in/ead ( a cutt+1 & a viaduct in/ead ( an embankm5t1 if au?oriz$ by ! ,bo>d ( ,trade4 ,! levels may be deviat$ f to ! ext5t ( #e feet 9 ! c\ntry1 & #b feet 9 a t[n1 or village1 & v>i\s au?orities h p[] to cons5t to fur!r deviations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,gradi5ts may be dim9i%$ to any ext5t1 gradi5ts flatt] ?an #a 9 #ajj may be made /eep] to ! ext5t ( #aj feet 9 a mile1 & #ad gradi5ts /eep] ?an #a 9 #ajj may be made /eep] to ! ext5t ( #c feet 9 a mile1 or to su* fur!r ext5t z may be au?oriz$ by ! ,bo>d ( ,trade4 ,suitable f5ces mu/ be erect$ on ea* side ( ! l9e1 to sep>ate ! l& tak5 = ! use ( ! railway f ! adjo9+ l&s n tak51 & to protect su* l&s f trespass1 or ! cattle ( ! own]s1 or occupi]s !re( f /ray+ on to ! railway4 ,9 addition to ! ,p>liam5t>y plans1 & sections1 & ,book ( ,ref]5ce1 an e/imate ( ! co/ ( ea* sep>ate l9e1 or bran*1 mu/ be prep>$ z ne> to ! foll[+ =m z circum/ances w p]mit4 ,,e/imate ,,( ,,! ,,propos$ 7,,railway74 ,l9e ,no4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,miles4 ,f4 ,*s4 ,:e!r s+le or d\ble4 ,l5g? ( ,l9e3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,cubic y>ds4 ,price p] s4 d4 s4 d4 y>d4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,e>?works3-- ,cutt+s--,rock ,s(t soil ,roads ------------------------------------ ,total ------------------------------------ ,embankm5ts1 includ+ roads1 cubic y>ds ,bridges1 public roads--numb] ,accommodation bridges & works ,viaducts ,culv]ts & dra9s ,metall+s ( roads & level cross+s ,gatekeep]s' h\ses at level cross+s ,p]man5t way1 includ+ f5c+3-- ,miles4 ,f4 ,*s4 ,co/ p] mile4 s4 d4 at ,p]man5t way = sid+s1 & co/ ( junctions ,/ations --------- ,cont+5cies p] c5t4 --------- ,a4 ,r4 ,p4 ,l& & build+s --------- ,total ,dat$ ?is day ( #ah ,witness3 ,eng9e]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,! same details = ea* bran*1 & g5]al summ>y ( total co/4 #af ,e ,railway ,bill mu/ be read twice1 bo? 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons & 9 ! ,h\se ( ,lords4 ,a committee1 duly appo9t$ = ea* ,h\se1 mu/ report ^u x1 & if ! reports f su* committees be fav\rable1 ! ,bill w be read a ?ird "t1 & pass$4 ,:5 x has pass$ bo? ,h\ses1 ! ,bill receives ! ,royal ,ass5t1 & becomes law4 ,! m9imum scale ( f\r in*es to a mile = ! plans is s v small t x is r>ely1 if ev]1 adopt$4 ,x w\ld necessitate enl>g$ plans ( s _m portions to %[ cle>ly ! prop]ty or build+s inside ! limits ( deviation1 t 9 practice x is f\nd exp$i5t to make ! plans to a mu* l>g] scale4 ,figs4 #a & #b %[ a small portion ( a ,p>liam5t>y plan & section drawn to ! m9imum scale all[$1 ) an enl>gem5t ( a small "p to di/+ui% ! h\ses cle>ly4 ,figs4 #c & #d %[ a "p ( ! same plan & section drawn to a scale ( #djj feet to an in*1 a scale :i* is v frequ5tly adopt$1 & is suffici5tly l>ge to di/+ui% ! build+s & small plots1 except 9 closely populat$ di/ricts4 ,?is scale also gives ample room = ref]5ce numb]s4 ,! ,p>liam5t>y plans & sections mu/ be accurate 9 del9eation1 levels1 & description4 ,all prop]ty )9 ! prescrib$ limits ( deviation mu/ be cle>ly %[n1 & ! numb]s & description on ! plans & book ( ref]5ce mu/ be concise & complete1 to enable ! own]s to asc]ta9 to :at ext5t !y w be affect$4 ,9 e place :]e x is propos$ to int]f]e ) any public highway1 /reet1 footpa?1 riv] or canal1 ! mann] ( su* propos$ alt]ation mu/ be %[n & describ$ on bo? plan & section4 ,! comm5cem5t & t]m9ation ( e tunnel mu/ be correctly indicat$1 & ! l5g? giv5 on bo? plan & section4 ,an omission ( any ( ! above requirem5ts might prove v detrim5tal to ! s*eme1 & possibly result 9 ! ,bill be+ ?r[n out ( ,p>liam5t = non-compliance ) /&+ ord]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,9 c>ry+ out ! works ! con/ructors h p[] to deviate ! c5tre l9e ei!r to ! "o side or ! o!r1 provid$ t su* deviation w p]mit ( ! b\nd>y ( ! works1 or prop]ty to be acquir$1 to come )9 ! limits ( deviation or prop]ty #ah ref]5c$1 & !y may also v>y ! levels ( ! l9e to ! ext5t prescrib$ 9 ! /&+ ord]s4 ,figs4 #e & #f are p>ts ( a ,p>liam5t>y plan & section %[+ alt]ation ( a public road ) an ov]l9e bridge--also a div]sion ( a small riv] to avoid two riv] bridges4 ,figs4 #g & #h are p>ts ( a ,p>liam5t>y plan & section %[+ a public road div]t$ & c>ri$ "u ! railway4 ,a /ipulat$ "t is fix$ 9 ! ,bill = ! pur*ase ( ! prop]ty & con/ruction ( ! l9e1 & if ?is "t be exce$$ be=e ! completion ( ! works1 x w be necess>y to obta9 fur!r ,p>liam5t>y p[]s = an ext5sion ( "t4 ,e new railway1 or ext5sion ( railway1 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 mu/ be inspect$1 & c]tifi$1 by "o ( ! inspect+ (fic]s ( ! ,bo>d ( ,trade1 previ\s to ,gov]nm5t sanction be+ grant$ = its op5+ z a pass5g] l9e4 ,to facilitate ^! inspections1 & z a guide bo? to _! own inspect+ (fic]s & ! eng9e]s 9 *>ge ( ! con/ruction1 ! ,bo>d ( ,trade h issu$ a li/ ( ! pr9cipal requirem5ts 9 connection ) all new l9es4 ,! foll[+ is a copy ( ! li/ s f> z relates to works ( con/ruction & signals3-- ,requirem5ts ( ! ,bo>d ( ,trade4--#a4 ,! requisite app>atus = provid+ by means ( ! block telegraph sy/em an adequate int]val ( space betwe5 foll[+ tra9s1 &1 9 ! case ( junctions1 betwe5 conv]g+ or cross+ tra9s4 ,9 ! case ( s+le l9es work$ by "o eng9e "u /eam 7or two or m c\pl$ toge!r7 c>ry+ a /aff1 no su* app>atus w be requir$4 #b4 ,home-signals & di/ant-signals = ea* direction to be fix$ at /ations & junctions1 ) extra signals = su* dock1 or bay l9es1 z are us$ ei!r = ! arrival1 or = ! dep>ture ( tra9s1 & />t+-signals = ea* direction1 at all pass5g] /ations :i* are also block po/s4 ,on pass5g] l9es all cross-ov] roads & all connections = goods1 or m9]al l9es1 & sid+s to be protect$ by home & di/ant signals1 & z a rule at all important runn+ junctions a sep>ate di/ant-signal to be provid$ 9 connection ) ea* home-signal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,signals may be disp5s$ ) on s+le l9es "u ! foll[+ conditions3-- 7a7 ,at all /ations & sid+ connections ^u a l9e work$ by #bj "o eng9e only 7or two eng9es c\pl$ toge!r71 c>ry+ a /aff1 & :5 all po9ts are lock$ by su* /aff4 7b7 ,at any int]m$iate sid+ connection ^u a l9e work$ "u ! tra9 /aff & ticket sy/em1 or "u ! electric /aff or tablet sy/em1 :]e ! po9ts are lock$ by ! /aff or tablet4 7c7 ,at int]m$iate /ations1 :i* are n /aff or tablet /ations1 ^u a l9e work$ "u ! electric /aff or tablet sy/em3 ,sid+s1 if any1 be+ lock$ z 9 7b74 #c4 ,! signals at junctions to be on sep>ate po/s1 or on brackets2 & ! signals at /ations1 :5 !re is m ?an "o arm on "o side ( a po/1 to be made to apply--! fir/1 or upp] arm1 to ! l9e on ! left1 ! second arm to ! l9e next 9 ord] f ! left1 & s on2 b 9 cases :]e ! ma91 or m important l9e1 is n ! "o on ! left1 sep>ate signal-po/s to be provid$1 or ! arms to be on brackets4 ,di/ant-signals to be di/+ui%$ by not*es cut out ( ! ends ( ! arms1 & to be controll$ by home or />t+ signals = ! same direction :5 on ! same po/4 ,a di/ant-signal arm mu/ n be plac$ above a home or />t+ signal arm on ! same po/ = tra9s go+ 9 ! same direction4 ,9 ! case ( sid+s1 a l[ %ort arm & a small signal light1 di/+ui%able f ! arms or lights = ! pass5g] l9es1 may be employ$1 b 9 su* cases disc signals are1 z a rule1 pref]able4 ,e signal arm to be s weight$ z to fly to & rema9 at dang] on ! break+ at any po9t ( ! connection betwe5 ! arm & ! lev] work+ x4 #d4 ,on new l9es work$ indep5d5tly1 ! front signal lights to be gre5 = 8all "r10 & r$ = 8dang]20 ! back lights 7visible only :5 ! signals are at 8dang]07 to be :ite4 ,?is requirem5t n to be obligatory 9 ! case ( new l9es run ov] by tra9s ( o!r companies us+ a diff]5t sy/em ( lights4 #e4 ,fac+ po9ts to be avoid$ z f> z possible1 b :5 !y _c be disp5s$ ) !y mu/ be plac$ z ne> z practicable to ! lev]s by :i* !y are work$ or bolt$4 ,! limit ( di/ance f lev]s work+ po9ts to be #ahj y>ds 9 ! case ( fac+ po9ts1 & #cjj y>ds 9 ! case ( trail+ po9ts on ! ma9 l9e1 or safety po9ts ( sid+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,9 ord] to ensure t ! po9ts are 9 _! prop] position be=e #bb ! signals are l[]$1 & to prev5t ! signalman f %ift+ !m :ile a tra9 is pass+ ov] !m1 all fac+ po9ts mu/ be fitt$ ) fac+-po9t locks & lock+-b>s1 & ) means = detect+ any failure 9 ! connections betwe5 ! signal-cab9 & po9ts4 ,! l5g? ( ! lock+-b>s to exce$ ! greate/ :eel-base betwe5 any two pairs ( :eels ( ! vehicles 9 use on ! l9e1 & ! /ock rails to be ti$ to gauge ) iron or /eel ties4 ,all po9ts1 :e!r fac+ or trail+1 to be work$ or bolt$ by rods1 & n by wires1 & to be fitt$ ) d\ble connect+-rods4 #f4 ,! lev]s by :i* po9ts & signals are work$ to be int]lock$ &1 z a rule1 br\ght close toge!r1 into ! position mo/ conv5i5t = ! p]son work+ !m1 9 a signal-cab9 or on a prop]ly con/ruct$ /age4 ,! signal-cab9 to be commodi\s1 & to be suppli$ ) a clock1 & ) a sep>ate block in/rum5t = signall+ tra9s on ea* l9e ( rails4 ,! po9t-lev]s & signal-lev]s to be s plac$ 9 ! cab9 t ! signalman :5 work+ !m %all h ! be/ possible view ( ! railway1 & ! cab9 itself to be s situat$ z to enable ! signalman to see ! arms & ! lights ( ! signals & ! work+ ( ! po9ts4 ,! back lights ( ! signal lamps to be made z small z possible1 hav+ reg>d to effici5cy1 & :5 ! front lights are visible to ! signalman 9 8 cab9 no back lights to be provid$4 ,! fix$ lights 9 ! signal-cab9 to be scre5$ (f1 s z n to be mi/akable = ! signals exhibit$ to control ! runn+ ( tra9s4 ,if1 f any unavoidable cause1 ! arm & light ( any signal _c be se5 by ! signalman !y mu/1 z a rule1 be repeat$ 9 ! cab94 #g4 ,! int]lock+ to be s arrang$ t ! signalman %all be unable to l[] a signal = ! approa* ( a tra9 until aft] he has set ! po9ts 9 ! prop] position = x to pass2 t x %all n be possible = him to exhibit at ! same mom5t any two signals t c lead to a collision betwe5 two tra9s2 & t1 aft] hav+ l[]$ ! signals to all[ a tra9 to pass1 he %all n be able to move any po9ts connect$ )1 or lead+ to1 ! l9e on :i* ! tra9 is mov+4 ,po9ts also1 if possible1 to be s int]lock$ z to avoid ! risk ( a collision4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,home or />t+ signals next 9 advance ( trad+-po9ts :5 #bd l[]$1 to lock su* po9ts 9 ei!r position1 unless su* lock+ w unduly int]f]e ) ! traffic4 ,a di/ant signal mu/ n be capable ( be+ l[]$ unless ! home & />t+ signals 9 advance ( x h be5 l[]$4 #h4 ,sid+s to be s arrang$ t %unt+ op]ations ^u !m %all cause ! lea/ possible ob/ruction to ! pass5g] l9es4 ,safety-po9ts to be provid$ ^u goods & m9]al l9es & sid+s1 at _! junctions ) pass5g] l9es1 ) ! po9ts clos$ aga9/ ! pass5g] l9es & int]lock$ ) ! signals4 #i4 ,:5 a junction is situat$ ne> to a pass5g] /ation1 ! plat=ms to be s arrang$ z to prev5t1 z f> z possible1 any necessity = /&+ tra9s on ! junction4 #aj4 ,! junctions ( all s+le l9es to be1 z a rule1 =m$ z d\ble-l9e junctions4 #aa4 ,! l9es ( railway lead+ to ! pass5g] plat=ms to be arrang$ s t ! eng9es %all always be 9 front ( ! pass5g] tra9s z !y arrive at & dep>t f a /ation2 & s t1 9 ! case ( d\ble l9es1 or ( pass+ places on s+le l9es1 ea* l9e %all h its own plat=m4 ,at t]m9al /ations a d\ble l9e ( railway mu/ n end z a s+le l9e4 #ab4 ,plat=ms to be cont9u\s1 & n less ?an #f feet wide = /ations ( small traffic1 nor less ?an #ab feet wide = important /ations4 ,! desc5ts at ! ends ( ! plat=ms to be by ramps1 & n by /eps4 ,pill>s = ! support ( ro(s & o!r fix$ works n to be less ?an #f feet f ! edges ( ! plat=ms4 ,! height ( ! plat=ms above rail level to be #c feet1 save "u exceptional circum/ances1 & 9 no case less ?an #b feet #f in*es4 ,! edges ( ! plat=ms to ov]hang n less ?an #ab in*es4 ,z little space z possible to be left betwe5 ! edges ( ! plat=ms & ^? ( ! footbo>ds on ! c>riages4 ,%elt] to be provid$ on e plat=m1 & conv5i5ces :]e necess>y4 ,names ( /ations to be %[n on bo>ds & on ! plat=m lamps4 #ac4 ,:5 /ations are plac$ on1 or ne> a viaduct1 or bridge "u ! railway1 a p>apet or f5ce on ea* side to be provid$ ( suffici5t height to prev5t pass5g]s1 :o may by mi/ake leave ! c>riages :5 n at ! plat=m1 f fall+ f ! viaduct or bridge 9 ! d>k4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 #ad4 ,footbridges or subways to be provid$ = pass5g]s to cross ! #bf railway at all ex*ange & o!r important /ations4 ,/aircases or ramps lead+ to or f plat=ms to be at no po9t n>r[] ?an at ! top1 & ! available wid? to be 9 no case contract$ by any erection or fix$ ob/ruction :atev] bel[ ! top4 ,at all /ations :]e cr[d+ may be expect$1 ! /aircases or ramps to be ( ample wid?1 & b>ri]s = regulat+ ! entrance ( ! cr[d at ! top to be erect$4 ,if 9 su* cases !re are gates at ! bottom1 a speak+-tube or o!r means ( communication betwe5 ! top & bottom to be provid$2 & 9 all cases gates at ! bottom ( a /aircase or ramp to op5 outw>ds4 ,= clos+ ! op5+s at ! top1 slid+ b>s or gates are consid]$ be/4 ,! /eps ( /aircases to be nev] less ?an #aa in*es 9 ! tread1 nor m ?an #g in*es 9 ! rise1 & midway l&+s to be provid$ :]e ! height exce$s #aj feet4 ,effici5t h&rails to be provid$ on bo? /aircases & ramps1 & 9 subways :]e ramps are us$ ! incl9ation n to exce$ #a 9 #h4 #ae4 ,a clock to be provid$ at e /ation1 9 "s conspicu\s position visible f ! plat=ms4 #af4 ,no /ation to be con/ruct$1 & no sid+ to jo9 a pass5g] l9e1 on a /eep] gradi5t ?an #a 9 #bfj1 except :]e x is unavoidable4 ,:5 ! l9e is d\ble1 & ! gradi5t at a /ation or sid+-junction is necess>ily /eep] ?an #a 9 #bfj1 & :5 dang] is to be appreh5d$ f vehicles runn+ back1 a cat*-sid+ ) po9ts weight$ = ! sid+1 or a ?r[-(f swit*1 to be provid$ to int]cept runaway vehicles at a di/ance outside ! home-signal = ! asc5d+ l9e1 great] ?an ! l5g? ( ! longe/ tra9 runn+ ^u ! l9e4 ,"u simil> circum/ances1 :5 ! l9e is s+le1 provision = av]t+ dang] f runaway vehicles to be made-- 7#a7 ,at a /ation 9 "o ( ! foll[+ mann]s3-- 7a7 ,a second l9e to be laid d[n1 a second plat=m to be con/ruct$1 & a cat*-sid+ or ?r[-(f swit* to be provid$ on ! asc5d+ l9e inside ! loop-po9ts4 7b7 ,a loop-l9e to be con/ruct$ l[] d[n ! incl9e ?an ! /ation plat=m ) a simil>ly plac$ cat*-sid+ or ?r[-(f swit*4 7#b7 ,at a sid+-junction 9 "o ( ! foll[+ mann]s1 except :]e #bg x is possible to "w ! traffic ) ! eng9e at ! l[] end ( a goods or m9]al tra91 9 :i* case an und]tak+ 7see ,no4 #ce7 to d s1 giv5 by ! company1 w be accept$ z suffici5t3-- 7a7 ,a simil> loop to be con/ruct$ z 9 ! case ( a /ation4 7b7 ,means to be provid$ = plac+ ! :ole tra9 on sid+s cle> ( ! ma9 l9e be=e any %unt+ op]ations are comm5c$4 #ag4 ,eng9e-turntables ( suffici5t diamet] to enable ! longe/ eng9es & t5d]s 9 use on ! l9e to be turn$ )\t be+ unc\pl$ to be erect$ at t]m9al /ations & at junctions & o!r places at :i* ! eng9es require to be turn$1 except 9 cases ( %ort l9es n exce$+ #ae miles 9 l5g?1 :]e ! /ations are n at a great] di/ance ?an #c miles ap>t1 & ! railway company gives an und]tak+ 7see ,no4 #ce7 to /op all tra9s at all /ations4 ,c>e to be tak5 to keep all turntables at safe di/ances f ! adjac5t l9es ( rails1 s t eng9es1 waggons1 or c>riages1 :5 be+ turn$1 may n f\l o!r l9es or endang] ! traffic ^u !m4 #ah4 ,ca/-iron mu/ n be us$ = railway "u-bridges1 except 9 ! =m ( ar*$-ribb$ gird]s1 :]e ! mat]ial is 9 compression4 ,9 a ca/-iron ar*$ bridge1 or 9 ! ca/-iron gird]s ( an ov]-bridge1 ! break+ weight ( ! gird]s n to be less ?an ?ree times ! p]man5t load due to ! weight ( ! sup]/ructure1 add$ to six times ! greate/ mov+ load t c be br\ght ^u x4 ,9 a wr\ght-iron or /eel bridge1 ! greate/ load :i* c be br\ght ^u x1 add$ to ! weight ( ! sup]/ructure1 n to produce a great] /ra9 p] squ>e in* on any "p ( ! mat]ial ?an five tons :]e wr\ght-iron is us$1 or six tons & a half :]e /eel is us$4 ,! eng9e] responsible = any /eel /ructure to =w>d to ! ,bo>d ( ,trade a c]tificate to ! effect t ! /eel employ$ is ei!r ca/-/eel1 or /eel made by "s process ( fusion1 subsequ5tly roll$ or hamm]$1 & ( a quality possess+ consid]able t\ghness & ductility1 toge!r ) a /atem5t ( all ! te/s to :i* x has be5 subject$4 #ai4 ,9 cases :]e bridges or viaducts are con/ruct$ :olly or #bh p>tially ( timb]1 a suffici5t factor ( safety1 dep5d+ on ! nature & quality ( ! timb]1 to be provid$ =4 ,n4,b4--,! heavie/ eng9es1 boil] trucks1 or travell+ cranes 9 use on railways af=d a measure ( ! greate/ mov+ loads to :i* a bridge c be subject$4 ,! above rules apply equally to ! ma9 transv]se gird]s & rail-be>]s4 #bj4 ,x is desirable t viaducts %\ld1 z f> z possible1 be :olly con/ruct$ ( brick or /one1 & 9 su* cases !y mu/ h p>apet walls on ea* side1 n "u #d feet #f in*es 9 height above ! rail level1 & n less ?an #ah in*es ?ick4 ,:]e x is n practicable to con/ruct ! viaducts ( brick or /one1 & iron or /eel gird]s are made use (1 x is consid]$ be/ t 9 important viaducts ! p]man5t way %\ld be laid betwe5 ! ma9 gird]s4 ,9 all cases sub/antial p>apets1 ) a height ( n less ?an #d feet #f in*es above rail-level mu/ be provid$ by an addition to ! gird]s1 unless ! gird]s !mselves are suffici5tly high4 ,on important viaducts :]e ! sup]/ructure is ( iron1 /eel1 or timb]1 sub/antial outside :eel-gu>ds to be fix$ above ! level (1 & z close to ! out] rails z possible1 b n s z to be liable to be /ruck by any "p ( an eng9e or tra9 runn+ on ! rails4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( ! abutm5ts or pi]s :i* support ! gird]s ( high bridges & viaducts1 ca/-iron columns ( small size mu/ n be us$4 ,9 all l>ge /ructures a w9d-pressure ( #ef lbs4 p] squ>e foot to be assum$ = ! purpose ( calculation1 :i* w be bas$ on ! rules laid d[n 9 ! report1 dat$ #cj? ,may1 #ahha1 ( ! committee appo9t$ by ! ,bo>d ( ,trade to consid] ! "q ( w9d-pressure on railway /ructures4 #ba4 ,! upp] surfaces ( ! wood5 plat=ms ( bridges & viaducts to be protect$ f fire4 #bb4 ,all ca/+s = use 9 railway /ructures to be1 :]e practicable1 ca/ 9 a simil> position to t :i* !y are int5d$ to occupy :5 fix$4 #bc4 ,! jo9ts ( rails to be secur$ by means ( fi%-plates1 or by "s o!r equally secure fa/5+4 ,on ma9 l9es1 & l9es :]e heavy traffic may be work$ at high spe$1 ! *airs n to weigh less ?an #dj lbs42 b on bran* l9es1 or l9es on :i* ! traffic #bi is light1 *airs weigh+ n less ?an #cj lbs4 may be us$4 #bd4 ,:5 *airs are us$ to support ! rails !y mu/ be secur$ to ! sleep]s1 at lea/ p>tially1 by iron spikes or bolts4 ,) flat-bottom$ rails1 :5 !re are no *airs1 or ) bridge rails1 ! fa/5+s at ! jo9ts1 & at "s int]m$iate places1 to consi/ ( fang or o!r ?r\gh-bolts2 & su* rails1 on curves ) radii ( #ae *a9s or less1 to be ti$ to gauge by iron or /eel ties at suitable int]vals4 #be4 ,9 any curve :]e ! radius is #aj *a9s or less1 a *eck-rail to be provid$4 #bf4 ,diamond-cross+s1 z a rule1 n to be flatt] ?an #a 9 #h4 #bg4 ,no /&+ "w 7o!r ?an a pass5g] plat=m7 to be ne>] to ! side ( ! wide/ c>riage 9 use on ! l9e ?an #b feet #d in*es1 at any po9t betwe5 ! level ( #b feet #f in*es above ! rails1 & ! level ( ! upp] p>ts ( ! highe/ c>riage doors4 ,?is applies to all ar*es1 abutm5ts1 pi]s1 supports1 gird]s1 tunnels1 bridges1 ro(s1 walls1 po/s1 tanks1 signals1 f5ces1 & o!r works1 & to all projections at ! side ( a railway con/ruct$ to any gauge4 #bh4 ,! int]vals betwe5 adjac5t l9es ( rails1 :]e !re are two l9es only1 or betwe5 l9es ( rails & sid+s1 n to be less ?an #f feet4 ,:]e additional runn+ l9es ( rails are alongside ! ma9 l9es1 an int]val ( n less ?an #i feet #f in*es to be provid$1 if possible1 betwe5 su* additional l9es & ! ma9 l9es4 #bi4 ,at all level cross+s ( public roads1 ! gates to be s con/ruct$ t !y may be clos$ ei!r across ! railway1 or across ! road at ea* side ( ! cross+1 & a lodge1 or1 9 ! case ( a /ation1 a gatekeep]'s box1 to be provid$1 unless ! gates are work$ f a signal cab94 ,! gates mu/ n be capable ( be+ op5$ at ! same "t = ! road & ! railway1 & mu/ be s hung z n to admit ( be+ op5$ outw>ds t[>ds ! road4 ,/ops to be provid$ to keep ! gates 9 position across ! road or railway4 ,wood5 gates are consid]$ pref]able to iron gates1 & s+le gates on ea* side to d\ble gates4 ,r$ discs1 or t>gets1 mu/ be fix$ on ! gates1 ) lamps = night use1 & semaphore signals 9 "o or bo? directions int]lock$ ) ! gates1 may be requir$4 ,at all level cross+s ( public roads or footpa?s1 a footbridge or a subway may be requir$4 ,at occupation & field cross+s1 ! gates mu/ be kept hung s z #cj to op5 outw>ds f ! l9e4 #cj4 ,sid+s connect$ ) ! ma9 l9es ne> a public road level cross+ to be s plac$ t %unt+ may be c>ri$ on ) z little int]f]5ce z possible ) ! level cross+2 &1 z a rule1 ! po9ts ( ! sid+s to be n less ?an #ajj y>ds f ! cross+4 #ca4 ,at public road level cross+s 9 or ne> popul\s places1 ! l[] portions ( ! gates to be ei!r close b>r$1 or cov]$ ) wire nett+4 #cb4 ,mile po/s1 half-mile1 & qu>t]-mile po/s1 & gradi5t-bo>ds to be provid$ along ! l9e4 #cc4 ,tunnels & long viaducts to be 9 all cases con/ruct$ ) refuges = ! safety ( platelay]s4 ,on "u-bridges )\t p>apets1 h&rails to be provid$4 ,viaducts ( /eel1 iron1 or timb] to be provid$ ) manholes or o!r facilities = inspection4 #cd4 ,cont9u\s brakes 79 accordance ) ! ,regulation ( ,railways ,act ( #ahhi71 comply+ ) ! foll[+ requirem5ts1 to be provid$ on all tra9s c>ry+ pass5g]s1 viz4-- 7#a7 ,! brake mu/ be in/antane\s 9 action1 & capable ( be+ appli$ by ! eng9e-driv] & gu>ds4 7#b7 ,! brake mu/ be self-apply+ 9 ! ev5t ( any failure 9 ! cont9uity ( its action4 7#c7 ,! brake mu/ be capable ( be+ appli$ to e vehicle ( ! tra91 :e!r c>ry+ pass5g]s or n4 7#d7 ,! brake mu/ be 9 regul> use 9 daily work+4 7#e7 ,! mat]ials ( ! brake mu/ be ( a durable "*1 & easily ma9ta9$ & kept 9 ord]4 #ce4 ,any und]tak+ furni%$ by a railway company to be "u ! seal1 & sign$ by ! *airman & secret>y ( ! company4 ,recomm5dations z to ! ,work+ ( ,railways4--#a4 ,!re %\ld be a brake vehicle1 ) a gu>d 9 x1 at or ne> ! tail ( e pass5g] tra92 ?is vehicle %\ld be provid$ ) a rais$ ro( & ext5d$ sides1 glaz$ to ! front & back1 & x %\ld be ! duty ( ! gu>d to keep a con/ant look-out f x along 8 tra94 #b4 ,all pass5g] c>riages %\ld be provid$ ) cont9u\s footbo>ds1 ext5d+ ! :ole l5g? ( ea* c>riage & z f> z #ca ! out] ends ( ! buff] ca/+s4 ,z pass5g] c>riages pass f "o company's l9e to ano!r's1 x is ess5tial = ! public safety t1 al?\gh ! wid?s ( ! c>riages on ! diff]5t l9es may diff] f ea* o!r1 ! wid?s across ! c>riages f ! outside ( ! cont9u\s footbo>d on "o side1 to ! outside ( ! cont9u\s footbo>d on ! opposite side1 %\ld be id5tical = ! c>riages ( all railway companies1 s t ! l9es ( rails may be laid at ! prop] di/ance f ! edges ( ! pass5g] plat=ms4 #c4 ,!re %\ld be effici5t means ( communication betwe5 ! gu>d1 or gu>ds1 ( e pass5g] tra9 & ! eng9e-driv]1 & betwe5 ! pass5g]s & ! s]vants ( ! company 9 *>ge ( ! tra94 #d4 ,! tyres ( all :eels %\ld be s secur$ z to prev5t !m f fly+ op5 :5 !y are fractur$4 #e4 ,! eng9es employ$ ) pass5g] tra9s %\ld be ( a /eady description1 ) n less ?an six :eels1 ) ! c5tre ( gravity 9 front ( ! driv+-:eels1 & ) ! motions balanc$4 ,!y %\ld1 z a rule1 be run *imney 9 front4 #f4 ,records %\ld be c>efully kept ( ! "w p]=m$ by ! we>+ p>ts ( ! roll+ /ock1 to af=d practical in=mation 9 reg>d to !m1 & to prev5t !m f be+ reta9$ 9 use long] ?an is desirable4 #g4 ,9 addition to ! block-telegraph in/rum5ts1 x is desirable t !re %\ld be speak+-in/rum5ts1 or telephones1 = communication betwe5 signalm51 & books = record+ ! runn+ ( ! tra9s4 #h4 ,:5 drov]s or o!r p]sons are p]mitt$ to travel ) goods or cattle tra9s1 suitable vehicles %\ld be provid$ = _! accommodation4 #i4 ,x is consid]$ t1 9 fix$ signals1 ! front lights %\ld %[-- ,gre51 = all "r2 ,r$1 = dang]2 & t back lights1 visible only :5 ! signals are at dang]1 %\ld %[ :ite4 #aj4 ,refuge sid+s %\ld be provid$ at all ma9-l9e /ations :]e sl[ tra9s are liable to be %unt$ = fa/ tra9s to pass !m4 ,if at su* /ations x is impossible to provide refuge sid+s1 & sl[ #cb tra9s h to be %unt$ f "o ma9 l9e to ! o!r to all[ ( fa/ tra9s pass+ !m1 "s simple arrangem5ts %\ld be suppli$ 9 ! signal cab9s to help to rem9d ! signalman ( ! %unt$ tra94 #aa4 ,effici5t means %\ld be adopt$ to prev5t ! accid5tal op5+ ( ! doors ( pass5g] tra9s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to c>ry out ! und]tak+1 ! eng9e] has to prep>e work+ plans & sections to a some:at l>g] scale ?an t adopt$ = ! ,gov]nm5t or ,p>liam5t>y plans1 & on :i* mu/ be m>k$ ! exact positions ( ! comm5cem5t ( ! curves1 /raight l9es1 & gradi5ts4 ,! sites ( all ! ov] & "u bridges mu/ be %[n1 & _! angles ( cross+ not$4 ,all road1 riv]1 or /ream div]sions mu/ be indicat$1 s t ! "w 9 connection ) !m may be laid out on ! gr\nd4 ,all culv]ts & dra9s mu/ be m>k$1 & _! size1 dep?1 & direction describ$4 ,public road level-cross+s1 & f>m or occupation-road cross+s1 mu/ be %[n 9 _! prop] positions4 ,! face-l9es ( ! ends ( all tunnels %\ld be m>k$ on ! work+ plan & section1 & ! position ( any %afts1 :i* may be int5d$ ei!r = use 9 c>ry+ on ! "w or = future v5tilation4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( inve/igation & negotiation w h to be ent]$ into be=e ! locat+ ( ! above works c be f9ally decid$4 ,! desire to meet ! wi%es & conv5i5ce ( all p>ties int]e/$ mu/ ( necessity be controll$ by ! physical circum/ances ( ea* case2 v little alt]ation c be made 9 ! level ( ! rails1 al?\gh "s v>iation may be made 9 _! position4 ,:5 fix+ ! dep?s ( culv]ts & dra9s1 att5tion mu/ be paid to any probable improvem5t 9 ! dra9age ( ! di/rict1 :i* might at "s future "t necessitate ! deep5+ ( su* ( ! ma9 culv]ts :]e ! inv]ts _h be5 laid too high4 ,unless all ^! details are det]m9$1 & %[n on ! work+-plans be=e ! works are comm5c$1 !re is ! risk t embankm5ts may h to be op5$ out to admit ( bridges & culv]ts1 & cutt+s *ang$ to p]mit ( road div]sions4 ,! entire c5tre-l9e ( railway mu/ be c>efully /ak$ out by #cc driv+ /rong wood5 pegs into ! gr\nd at ! end ( e *a9 l5g?1 & along ! c\rse ( ^! pegs ! longitud9al section mu/ be tak54 ,?ree pegs1 "o on ea* side ( ! c5tre peg1 are g5]ally plac$ at ! comm5cem5t & t]m9ation ( ! curves4 ,:5 ! longitud9al section has be5 plott$ to scale1 & ! c\rse ( ! gradi5ts & level portions work$ out & drawn on1 !n ! heights ( ! gr\nd level & =mation level c be m>k$ at ea* *a91 & f !m ! dep?s ( ! cutt+ & ! heights ( ! embankm5ts c be asc]ta9$ & m>k$ at ea* *a94 ,9 addition to ! longitud9al section1 x w be necess>y to take a l>ge numb] ( transv]se or cross sections at ^? pegs1 or int]m$iate po9ts1 :]e ! gr\nd is at all side-ly+ or irregul>4 ,^! cross-sections are necess>y to det]m9e ! side-wid?s1 or di/ances to out] edge ( slopes 9 cutt+s or embankm5ts1 & also to calculate ! actual quantity ( e>?work to be execut$4 ,= conv5i5ce 9 tak+ out ! quantities1 ^! cross-sections are g5]ally plott$ to a natural scale1 t is to say1 to ! same scale horizontal z v]tical1 z %[n 9 ! example ( cross-sections1 ,figs4 #ae to #bd4 ,x is also necess>y to obta9 in=mation1 by bor+ or o!rwise1 z to ! mat]ial ( :i* ! cutt+s are compos$1 :e!r clay1 gravel1 or rock4 ,9 lay+ out l9es ?r\gh fairly level pla9s & popul\s di/ricts1 ! abs5ce ( great natural ob/acles w all[ ! eng9e] to c>efully consid] h[ f> x may be prud5t to div]ge to ! "r or to ! left1 to accommodate t[ns & places :i* w\ld be exclud$ by a m direct ?r\gh r\te4 ,!re w be ample range = selection1 & x w be r ! "q ( policy ?an compulsion :i* w guide him 9 ! r\te to be tak54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd ,:51 h[ev]1 ! locat+ passes f ! l[] gr\nd1 away up among/ ! hills & m\nta9 ranges1 x becomes an intricate /udy :e!r x w be possible to lay out any l9e at all :i* may possess gradi5ts & curves practicable = railway work+4 ,! "q ( prop]ty1 population1 or conv5i5ce ( access1 is "h no long] ! controll+ influ5ce1 b 9 its /ead !re are ! f> m =midable natural difficulties to be ov]come 9 work+ out a trackway to ! inevitable summit level4 ,! *ief endeav\r w be to ga9 l5g?1 & s r$uce z mu* z possible ! /eepness ( ! gradi5ts :i* at ! be/ mu/ necess>ily be sev]e4 ,9 "s ( ! #ce e>li] m\nta9 l9es con/ruct$ abroad ! sy/em ( zigzags 0 introduc$1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #be4 ,^! zigzags 7 laid out on rul+ gradi5ts1 "o above ! o!r1 on ! sides ( ! m\nta9 slopes ) pieces ( level at ! apices1 ,a1 ,b1 & ,c1 on :i* ! eng9e c\ld be *ang$ f "o end ( ! tra9 to ! o!r4 ,al?\gh feasible 9 pr9ciple1 ! sy/em entail$ consid]able loss ( "t 9 tra9-work+1 & 0 n unatt5d$ ) risk4 ,! m mod]n & simple me?od ( work+ out ! same idea is to connect ! ma9 zigzag l9es by curves or spirals1 ?us r5d]+ ! r\te cont9u\s & unbrok54 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! heavy "w & delay 9 />t+ or /opp+ ! tra9 at ! apices1 ,a1 ,b1 & ,c1 z %[n on ,fig4 #be1 is avoid$1 & ! tra9 c proce$ cont9u\sly on its circuit\s j\rney4 ,fig4 #bf %[s an in/ance ( ! zigzags & spirals1 z c>ri$ out on an important railway abroad4 ,to h made a direct l9e f ,d to ,e1 ! mo/ difficult "p ( ! r\te1 w\ld h involv$ a gradi5t ( #a 9 #aa2 b by con/ruct+ ! spiral c\rse1 z %[n1 ! l5g? 0 m ?an trebl$1 & ! gradi5t r$uc$ to #a 9 #ce4 ,fig4 #bg is ano!r example ( spiral zigzags 9 :i* advantage 0 tak5 to cut a %ort tunnel ?r\gh a high n>r[ neck ( rock at ,g1 & !n by skirt+ r\nd ! hill ! l9e 0 tak5 ov] ! top ( ! tunnel & along ! side ( ! m\nta9 to ! summit tunnel at ,h4 ,by ?is means ! l9e f ,f to ,h 0 laid out to an av]age gradi5t ( #a 9 #db4 ,fig4 #bh %[s ! ,cumbres incl9es on ! ,mexican ,railway4 ,! r\te _h to be locat$ ?r\gh "o ( ! rugg$ passes ( ! great ,*a9 ( ! ,&es1 ^: m\nta9-sides rise mo/ abruptly f ! l[] pla9s1 to ! great upp]-l& plateau1 "s eight ?\s& feet above sea-level4 ,! gr\nd to be trav]s$ 0 s /eep & difficult t1 ev5 ) ! be/ available det\rs & greate/ l5g? t c\ld be obta9$1 ! result 0 an av]age cont9u\s gradi5t ( #a 9 #be = #ab miles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi ,fig4 #bi is a plan ( "p ( ! ,/4 ,go?>d ,railway1 %[+ ! pr9cipal tunnel #i miles long1 & "s ( ! adjo9+ spiral tunnels4 ,! long tunnel ?r\gh ! great ,alp9e b>ri] 0 ! only means ( =m+ a railway connection betwe5 ! two po9ts at ,airolo & ,goes*554 ,con/ruct$ 9 a /raight l9e1 ) easy gradi5ts1 #cg fall+ t[>ds ! entrances1 effici5cy ( dra9age has be5 secur$1 & excessive /ra9 on motive-p[] avoid$4 ,! approa*+ valleys on ea* side 7 9 "s places too irregul> & brok5 to admit ( zigzag loops1 & ! spiral tunnels 7 adopt$ in/ead4 ,! enl>g$ plan ( two ( ! spiral tunnels w expla9 ! me?od ( work+4 ,an asc5d+ tra9 ent]s ! fir/ tunnel at ,a1 & aft] pass+ r\nd almo/ an entire circle1 on a ris+ gradi5t1 em]ges at a mu* high] level at ! po9t ,b4 ,proce$+ onw>d1 ! tra9 ent]s ! second tunnel at ,c1 & aft] pass+ r\nd a simil> circle1 on a ris+ gradi5t1 comes out at a /ill high] po9t1 ,d1 & cont9ues its c\rse up ! valley4 ,! la/ five sket*es illu/rate "s ( ! me?ods :i* h be5 adopt$ :5 con/ruct+ railways ?r\gh "s ( ! mo/ difficult m\nta9 ranges4 ,!y %[ :at has be5 done1 & may s]ve z guides 9 work+ out ! location ( a l9e 9 "s hi!rto unexplor$ region4 ,gauge4--,! gauge ( a railway1 or its wid? f inside to inside ( rails1 affects bo? its co/ & effici5cy4 ,if ! gauge be exceptionally wide1 !n ! exp5diture on works & roll+-/ock w be proportionately heavy2 & al?\gh !oretically ! extra wide gauge may possess great] capabilities = accommodation & high-spe$ travell+1 we may f9d 9 practice t ! necess>y requirem5ts may be provid$ on a mu* m mod]ate gauge4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! gauge be exceptionally n>r[1 !re w be dim9i%$ conv5i5ce bo? = pass5g]s & m]*&ise1 & a correspond+ limit to ! spe$ 9 transit4 ,9 isolat$ di/ricts1 :]e pass5g] traffic is ( second>y importance1 & :]e ! pr9cipal m]*&ise w be heavy )\t be+ bulky1 su* z m9]al ores1 slates1 etc41 a comp>ative n>r[ gauge may possibly suit ! purpose4 ,= ma9 trunk l9es1 h[ev]1 :]e a l>ge1 heavy1 & fa/ pass5g] traffic w h to be work$1 & :]e goods ( all k9ds1 _m ( !m bulky )\t be+ heavy1 w h to be c>ri$1 an ample gauge mu/ be select$ to ensure conv5i5ce & safety4 ,a lib]al gauge p]mits ! use ( commodi\s roll+-/ock )\t any great am\nt ( lat]al ov]hang+ weight outside ! :eels2 :]eas ) a n>r[ gauge !re is ! t5d5cy--if n ! necessity--to use vehicles :i* h too great a lat]al ov]hang = prop] /ability1 except at v #ch mod]ate spe$s4 ,! foll[+ li/ %[s ! gauges adopt$ 9 v>i\s c\ntries3-- ft4 ins4 ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 & ,wales #d #h ,irel& #e #c ,unit$ ,/ates #d #h1 ) "s l9es #e ft41 #e ft4 #f ins41 & #f ft4 ,canada #d #h & #e ft4 #f ins4 ,france #d #h ,belgium #d #h ,holl& #d #h ,g]many #d #h ,au/ria #d #h ,switz]l& #d #h ,italy #d #h ,turkey #d #h ,hung>y #d #h ,d5m>k #d #h ,norway #d #h & #c ft4 #f ins4 ,sw$5 #d #h ,mexico #d #h & #c ft4 ,egypt #d #h & #c ft4 #f ins4 ,p]u #d #h ,nova ,scotia #d #h & #e ft4 #f ins4 ,new ,s\? ,wales #d #h ,brazil #d #h1 #e ft4 #c ins41 & #e ft4 #f ins4 ,uruguay ,republic #d #h ,russia #e #j ,s\? ,au/ralia #e #c ,new ,zeal& #c #f ,briti% ,india #e #f & #a metre4 ,ceylon #e #f ,spa9 #e #f ,portugal #e #f ,*ili #e #f ,arg5t9e ,republic #e #f ,cape ,colonies #c #f ,japan #c #f ,aft] _m ye>s' exp]i5ce ( actual work+1 ! broad1 #g feet1 gauge ( ! ,great ,we/]n ,railway has be5 ab&on$ = ! #d feet #h in* gauge4 ,d\btless ?is decision 0 ! result ( mo/ c>eful delib]ation1 & 0 made ^u conv9c+ pro( t ! #d feet #h in* gauge c\ld fulfil all ! advantages claim$ = ! wid] gauge1 :il/ at ! same "t x possess$ ! m]it ( less co/ ( con/ruction & work+1 & great] facilities = ! ex*ange ( traffic ) o!r l9es hav+ ! /&>d gauge4 ,! facility ( ex*ange1 or ?r\gh work+ ( roll+-/ock1 is a lead+ elem5t ( successful railway work+1 & x is difficult to e/imate :at w\ld be ! am\nt ( loss & delay if we _h any great ext5t ( break ( gauge on ! ma9 trunk l9es ( our own c\ntry4 ,al?\gh "s c\ntries h select$ gauges ( #e feet & #e feet #ci #f in*es1 x is int]e/+ to note t ! l>ge/ numb] h adopt$ ! ,engli% /&>d gauge ( #d feet #h in*es1 & t ! miles ( l9e laid to ?is gauge f> outnumb] all ! o!rs4 ,! fact t our own home l9es1 ! pr9cipal ,cont95tal l9es1 & ne>ly all t va/ network ( railways 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 h be5 laid to ! #d feet #h in* gauge1 te/ifies to ! g5]al op9ion ( its utility & effici5cy2 & we "k t includ$ 9 t li/ are ! railways :i* c>ry ! l>ge/1 heavie/1 & fa/e/ tra9 s]vice 9 ! _w4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to trace back1 &1 if possible1 asc]ta9 f :5ce ! exact gauge ( #d feet #h in*es 0 d]iv$4 ,no d\bt1 9 ! e>ly days ( ! pione] iron highways 9 ,engl&1 ! railways 7 made ! same gauge z ! tramroads :i* !y sup]s$$4 ,b :y 0 #d feet #h in*es ! gauge ( ! tramroads8 ,we may reasonably inf] t ! fir/ f\r-:eel$ waggons us$ on ! e>ly tramroads 7 9 reality ! same waggons :i* _h be5 previ\sly us$ on ! common roads = ! conveyance ( coal & m9]als to ! ports = %ipm5t1 & t ! waggons 7 m]ely transf]r$ f ! r\ghly pav$ or macadamis$ roads to ! tramroads4 ,flang$ :eels 7 !n unkn[n1 & ! introduction ( ! tram-plates 0 at fir/ simply design$ to less5 ! resi/ance to haulage4 ,! gauge1 or wid? betwe5 ! :eels1 ( ^! waggons may h be5 ! outcome ( long exp]i5ce z to ! mo/ suitable wid? = conv5i5ce ( load1 /ability dur+ transit1 or = space occupi$ on ! highway4 ,! wid? may h be5 h&$ d[n f g5]ation to g5]ation1 go+ back to ! "t :5 :eel$ vehicles 7 fir/ built 9 ! c\ntry4 ,p]haps 9 ! beg9n+ ! fir/ vehicles may h be5 import$ f ,italy1 or ,greece--c\ntries :i* 9 ! e>li] ages 7 ! mo/ advanc$ 9 matt]s ( luxury & conv5i5ce4 ,:5 9 ,pompeii1 a few ye>s ago1 ! writ] measur$ ! spaces betwe5 a l>ge numb] ( ! :eel-ruts :i* are worn deep into ! pav+-/ones 9 _m ( ! pr9cipal /reets ( t wond]ful une>!d city4 ,^! pav+-/ones1 v irregul> 9 %ape1 & _m ( !m #b feet #f in*es long by #a foot #f in*es wide1 are c>efully fitt$ toge!r1 & =m a compact massive pavem5t f curb/one to curb/one4 ,! :eel-tracks1 :i* are 9 _m places worn into ! /ones to ! dep? ( an in* or an in* & a #dj half1 are always di/9ct1 & !re is no difficulty 9 def9+ ! correspond+ track4 ,! result ( a l>ge numb] ( measurem5ts gave an av]age wid? ( ab\t #d feet #aa in*es f c5tre to c5tre ( ! :eel-tracks1 a curi\s co9cid5ce ) ! gauge ( our own road vehicles at ! beg9n+ ( ! railway era4 ,:e!r our selection ( ! railway gauge ( #d feet #h in*es has be5 ! result ( /udy1 imitation1 or caprice1 we c]ta9ly h ! sil5t te/imony ( ^! old deep-worn /ones to prove t two ?\s& ye>s ago ! *>iots ( ,pompeii 7 ( v simil> gauge to our own ( mod]n times4 ,n>r[-gauge railways1 ( gauges v>y+ f #a foot #aj in*es on ! ,fe/9iog ,railway1 to #c feet1 #c feet #c in*es 7metre71 & #c feet #f in*es1 h be5 made 9 sev]al places bo? at home & abroad4 ,g5]ally speak+1 !y h be5 con/ruct$ z subsidi>y or auxili>y l9es 9 ?9ly populat$ di/ricts1 ) a view to af=d "s railway accommodation :]e x 0 consid]$ t l9es ( ! /&>d gauge w\ld n pay4 ,9 "s in/ances abroad long l9es ( n>r[ gauge--#c feet & #c feet #f in*es--h be5 con/ruct$ z ma9 trunk l9es 9 newly op5$ out di/ricts4 ,"s ( ^! h s9ce be5 alt]$ to a wid] gauge z ! traffic develop$1 & exp]i5ce prov$ t ! n>r[ wid? ( ! vehicles 0 unsuitable = quick transit1 or conv5i5ce 9 ! accommodation ( pass5g]s & goods4 ,! object 9 mak+ a l9e to a n>r[ gauge is d\btless to save co/ 9 ! orig9al con/ruction2 b :5 a s*eme = an alt]$ gauge is put =w>d1 x w be well to consid] :at am\nt ( advantage or sav+ w\ld be effect$ by deviat+ f ! /&>d gauge4 ,if !re be almo/ a c]ta9ty t su* propos$ l9e w always rema9 isolat$ f all o!r exi/+ railways ( ! /&>d gauge1 !n p]haps ! selection ( gauge may be "o ( m9or importance1 & !re rema9s b ! "q :e!r ! description ( traffic1 & ! weights to be c>ri$1 c be work$ to any great] advantage1 or m economically1 by deviat+ f ! /&>d gauge4 ,if1 h[ev]1 !re be a fair probability t su* propos$ l9e may at "s future "t become "p ( an already e/abli%$ railway sy/em1 x w\ld appe> to be m prud5t to make ! l9e to ! /&>d gauge1 & effect economies by introduc+ /eep] gradi5ts1 #da %>p] curves1 & light] p]man5t way1 & keep d[n work+ exp5ses by us+ light] locomotives1 work$ at sl[] spe$s4 ,high spe$s are n expect$ on n>r[ gauge railways1 & no compla9ts are made ab\t pass5g] tra9s ^: highe/ runn+ spe$ does n exce$ #bj miles p] h\r4 ,by conc$+ ! same indulg5ce to light railways made to ! /&>d gauge1 great economies might be introduc$ bo? 9 _! con/ruction & work+4 ,! simil>ity ( gauge w\ld admit ! transit ( ! c>riages & waggons ( o!r /&>d gauge l9es1 & s avoid all co/ & delay 9 trans%ipm5t4 ,! heavy eng9es c\ld be kept = ! ma9-l9e work+1 & light eng9es = sl[ spe$s w\ld s]ve = ! light /&>d-gauge l9es4 ,z traffic develop$1 & ! tra9 s]vice requir$ heavi] & fa/] tra9s1 ! light rails c\ld be remov$1 & replac$ by ^? ( heavi] section to correspond to ! ma9 l9e4 ,! simil>ity ( gauge w\ld p]mit un9t]rupt$ transit ( all vehicles to a common c5tre = repairs1 :]eas ! n>r[ gauge c>riages & waggons1 be+ limit$ to runn+ only on _! own di/rict1 mu/ h sep>ate work%ops = _! repair4 ,:5 consid]+ ! co/ ( con/ruction & work+ ( a n>r[-gauge railway z comp>$ ) "o ( ! /&>d gauge1 !re are c]ta9 items :i* are common to bo?1 & 9 :i* ! n>r[ gauge c\ld n be expect$ to obta9 any advantage ov] ! /&>d gauge4 ,!re w\ld n be any sav+ 9 gett+ up ! s*eme 9 ! fir/ in/ance2 ,nor 9 ! ,p>liam5t>y exp5ses2 ,nor 9 ! eng9e]+ or c>ry+ out ( ! works2 ,nor 9 ! /ation accommodation1 wait+-rooms1 & (fices2 ,nor 9 ! signals & int]lock+ arrangem5ts2 ,nor 9 ! telegraph2 ,nor 9 ! work+ /aff & tra9 m52 ,nor 9 ! ma9t5ance ( ! p]man5t way1 z ! same numb] ( m5 w\ld be requir$ = ! inspection & pack+ ( ! road1 p]haps m4 ,little or no sav+ c\ld be expect$ 9 ! bridges "u ! railway1 z ^! mu/ be made to ! prescrib$ wid?s & heights1 irrespective ( ! gauge ( ! railways4 ,little1 if any1 sav+ c\ld be made 9 riv] or /ream bridges1 z ! #db same am\nt ( wat]way w\ld h to be provid$ 9 ea* case4 ,! same rem>k applies to culv]ts & dra9s4 ,!re w\ld1 on ! o!r h&1 be a small sav+ 9 ! quantity ( l& to be acquir$ to ! ext5t ( a n>r[ /rip or zone1 repres5t$ by ! diff]5ce 9 wid? betwe5 ! n>r[ & /&>d gauges4 ,!re w\ld also be ! same small proportionate sav+ 9 ! embankm5ts & cutt+s to ! ext5t ( ! diff]5ce 9 gauge4 ,also a sav+ 9 ! ov]l9e bridges & road approa*es 9 consequ5ce ( less wid? & height ( ! op5+ ?r\gh ^? bridges4 ,& a sav+ 9 ! rails1 sleep]s1 & balla/ ( ! p]man5t way1 to ! ext5t consi/5t ) effici5cy4 ,t "s sav+ may be effect$ 9 ^! is und\bt$1 b x is necess>y to ex]cise caution1 & n ru% to ! opposite extreme by mak+ ! p>ts too light4 ,a rail %\ld be made n only /rong en\gh to c>ry well ! eng9es t h to pass ov] x1 b x %\ld also be heavy en\gh to /& ! we> ( sev]al ye>s4 ,n>r[-gauge eng9es mu/ be heavy 9 con=mity ) ! loads !y h to haul4 ,! same am\nt ( p[] mu/ be ex]t$ to haul a hundr$ tons on a giv5 gradi5t1 :e!r ! gauge be n>r[ or broad4 ,9 "s cases ( n>r[-gauge railways ! orig9al rails1 :i* weigh$ only #de lbs4 p] y>d1 h s9ce be5 replac$ ) o!rs weigh+ #fj & #fe lbs4 p] y>d4 ,! light #de lb4 rails 7 evid5tly n f\nd to be suffici5tly heavy to keep ! road to prop] l9e & level4 ,! result ( our ev]yday practice seems to prove t !re is n only an advantage1 b an economy1 9 adopt+ rails ( a heavy section1 & exp]i5ce w\ld !re=e indicate t ev5 = a n>r[-gauge railway x may n be exp$i5t to adopt rails weigh+ less ?an #fe lbs4 p] y>d4 ,gradi5ts4--,!re are v few localities :]e ! rails on any l9e ( railway c be laid p]fectly level or horizontal = m ?an comp>atively %ort di/ances4 ,by f> ! great] portion h to be laid on incl9$ planes ( v>y+ rates ( incl9ation to suit ! g5]al =mation ( ! di/rict trav]s$1 & ! circum/ances ( ! l9e to be con/ruct$4 ,! degree1 or rate ( incl9ation1 ( ^! incl9$ planes1 or gradi5ts1 may be express$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,a v g5]al me?od is #dc to /ate ! numb] ( feet1 metres1 etc41 :i* c be measur$ along ! gradi5t be=e an increas$ rise or fall ( "o foot or metre1 etc41 is obta9$4 ,?us a gradi5t ( #a 9 #bjj signifies a rise or fall ( #a foot 9 #bjj feet1 or #a metre 9 #bjj metres4 ,sometimes ! rate ( incl9ation is express$ by /at+ ! numb] ( feet ( rise or fall 9 a mile4 ,9 ?is way a gradi5t w\ld be describ$ z fall+ at ! rate ( #cj feet 9 a mile1 ris+ at ! rate ( #bj feet 9 a mile1 etc4 ,tw5ty feet to a mile is equal to #a 9 #bfd4 ,ano!r me?od is to give ! p]c5tage ( rise or fall4 ,9 ?is way ! incl9ation w\ld be express$ z a #a p] c5t4 gradi5t1 #b p] c5t4 gradi5t1 p] c5t4 gradi5t1 etc41 :i* = comp>ison w\ld signify #a 9 #ajj1 #a 9 #ej1 & #a 9 #bjj respectively4 ,! gradi5ts ( a railway mo/ mat]ially influ5ce its facility & co/ ( work+1 & e ef=t %\ld be us$ to make !m z easy z possible consi/5t ) ! prospect ( ! l9e4 ,/eep gradi5ts signify heavy locomotives1 increas$ co/ ( motive-p[]1 r$uc$ spe$1 & light loads4 ,! foll[+ tabulat$ memor&a %[ ! approximate loads1 exclusive ( eng9e & t5d]1 :i* c be haul$ on ! level & on c]ta9 incl9es at v>i\s spe$s by eng9es ( ! quot$ capacities & /eam admissions4 ,a m$ium-siz$1 ord9>y type ( pass5g] & goods eng9e has be5 select$ = ea* ( ! examples4 ,! work+ ( ! pass5g] eng9e & tra9 is assum$ to be "u fav\rable circum/ances1 ) f9e wea!r1 fairly /raight l9e1 fir/-class p]man5t way1 mod]n roll+-/ock ) oil axle-boxes & p]fect lubrication1 & all ! conditions mo/ suitable to ensure ! lea/ resi/ance to ! mov+ load4 ,= ! goods eng9e & tra9 a great] resi/ance p] ton ( load is assum$1 z ! goods trucks are nev] s p]fect or easy 9 ! runn+ z ! pass5g] c>riages4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( side w9d is tak5 into consid]ation1 & also an all[ance = mod]ately %>p curves1 ! object be+ to indicate :at may be look$ ^u z fair1 av]age1 workable loads4 ,! loads = eng9es ( l>g] or small] dim5sions1 or high] or l[] pressures1 may be obta9$ by work+ out ! proportion betwe5 #dd ! tractive =ce put d[n 9 any ( ! columns ( ! tabulat$ memor&a & ! asc]ta9$ tractive =ce ( any o!r eng9e "u ! same conditions ( cut-(f & spe$4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,pass5g] ,,eng9e4 ,,goods ,,eng9e4 ,six :eels1 driv+ ,six :eels1 all c\pl$1 & trail+ :eels #d ft4 #f ins4 diamet]4 c\pl$1 #f ft4 #f ins4 ,cyl9d]s1 diamet]4 ,cyl9d]s1 #ag ft4 #bd ft4 #ag ft4 #bd ft4 ,lock$-d[n pressure on ,lock$-d[n pressure on safety-valves1 #adj lbs4 safety-valves1 #adj lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,assum$ p] squ>e in*4 ,assum$ pressure at cyl9d]s1 pressure at cyl9d]s1 #abj lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 #abj lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,weight ( eng9e #ci tons4,weight ( eng9e #cd tons4 0 t5d] #bd 0 0 t5d] #bd 0 -- -- #fc 0 #eh 0 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,assum$ cut-(f 0 mean effective pressure1 lbs4 #de #ef #gf #ajj #de #ef #gf #ajj 0 tractive =ce1 lbs4 #djjj #digi #fgeh #hhib #eghj #gaib #igfj #abhdd ,spe$ 9 miles p] h\r #fj #dj #cj #ae #dj #cj #bj #ae ,tons4,tons4,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4,tons4,tons4 ,tons4 ,level #ig #bcj #ddg #hib #bac #ceh #fbc #ijg #a 9 #ajjj #hd #aif #cgc #gjg #ahg #caj #ecb #gfh 0 #hjj #ha #ahh #ceh #fga #aha #bii #eab #gci 0 #fjj #gf #agg #cce #fah #agb #bhe #dhb #fie 0 #djj #fh #aeg #bif #ecc #aeg #beg #dcb #fba 0 #cjj #fj #ada #bfc #dfg #adc #bcc #cij #efj 0 #bej #ee #abi #bda #dbd #acc #baf #cfa #eai 0 #bjj #dg #aad #bac #cgb #abj #aie #cbd #dfg 0 #aej #cg #ic #agg #cjd #aja #afe #bgf #cig 0 #ajj #ba #fc #abf #bag #gd #abc #bjh #cjb 0 #ij -- #ef #aad #aig -- #aac #aia #bgi 0 #hj -- #dh #aja #age -- #aja #agb #bec 0 #ge -- #dc #id #afd -- #ie #afc #bdj 0 #gj -- #ci #hf #aeb -- #hh #aec #bbf 0 #fj -- #bh #gj #abh -- #gd #aca #aif 0 #ej -- -- #ec #aja -- -- #ajg #afc 0 #dj -- -- -- #gc -- -- -- #abg 0 #be -- -- -- #bg -- -- -- #fg ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,note4--,! column loads 9 tons are exclusive ( ! weight ( eng9e & t5d]4 ,f ! above memor&a x w be se5 h[ greatly ! gradi5ts #de affect ! loads4 ,= an important ma9 trunk l9e1 ) a heavy & frequ5t tra9-s]vice ( pass5g]s & goods1 ! introduction ( /eep gradi5ts w\ld n only r$uce ! spe$ ( ! tra9-work+1 b w\ld probably involve ! necessity ( assi/ant eng9es ov] ^? p>ts ( ! l9e2 & x may be prud5t1 :]e possible1 to incur heavi] e>?works1 or consid]able det\rs1 or tunnels1 to obta9 m fav\rable gradi5ts4 ,= su* a l9e ! additional co/1 & ! extra di/ance caus$ by a det\r ( a mile or m1 w be ( f> less importance ?an ! int]ruption 9 ! tra9 s]vice aris+ f a s]i\s r$uction 9 spe$ or tak+ on assi/ant eng9es4 ,on _m railways abroad !re are v int]e/+ examples ( long det\rs ( sev]al miles1 c>efully /udi$ out to obta9 great] l5g? & easi] gradi5ts1 result+ 9 ! con/ruction ( l9es ov] :i* ! traffic c be work$ )\t necessitat+ auxili>y eng9e-p[]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are situations :]e /eep gradi5ts _c be avoid$1 :]e c]ta9 altitudes mu/ be rea*$1 & :]e !re is no alt]native b to face ! inevitable4 ,on second>y l9es1 & %ort bran* l9es1 :]e ! traffic is n expect$ to be heavy1 & :]e spe$ is n s important1 x may be policy to economize outlay & introduce /eep] gradi5ts ?an on ! ma9 l9e4 ,half a mile ( a r /eep gradi5t is n felt s mu* :5 x is situate midway betwe5 two /ations1 because ! atta9$ spe$ ( ! tra9 assi/s ! eng9e ov] ! %ort di/ance to ! summit2 b :5 x occurs z a ris+ gradi5t out ( a /ation1 x =ms a great *eck to ! work+1 p>ticul>ly 9 bad or wet wea!r1 :5 !re is ! risk ( ! eng9e slipp+1 & ! entire tra9 slid+ back into ! /ation4 ,long /eep gradi5ts n only necessitate increas$ motive-p[] = ! asc5d+ tra9s1 b also require increas$ brake-p[]1 & precaution>y measures = ! desc5d+ tra9s4 ,:]e pass5g] tra9s are fitt$ ) cont9u\s brakes1 ! risk ( los+ control is m9imiz$2 b ) goods tra9s compos$ ( waggons1 hav+ only ! ord9>y indep5d5t side-lev] brake1 x w be f\nd absolutely necess>y 9 _m cases to h additional heavy brake-vans = desc5d+ ! incl9es1 & ^! special vans1 un=tunately1 w =m s mu* extra non-pay+ weight to be haul$ up on ! asc5d+ tra9s4 ,( c\rse1 x is q possible--&1 inde$1 9 _m places #df x is cu/om>y--to p9 d[n "s ( ! side-lev] brakes be=e comm5c+ ! desc5t1 b once p9n$ d[n ! brakes _c be eas$ or tak5 (f until ! entire tra9 is br\ght to a /&4 ,e goods waggon %\ld be fitt$ ) a brake1 & x w\ld be ( imm5se value if t brake c\ld 9 all cases be appli$ & controll$ :5 ! tra9 is 9 motion4 ,! ,am]ican type ( long goods waggon1 ) a f\r-:eel bogie-truck at ea* end1 is fitt$ ) a brake v simil> to ^? adopt$ on ! ord9>y horse tram-c>s4 ,on ! top ( ! waggon a horizontal iron h&-:eel1 ab\t #ah in*es 9 diamet]1 is fix$ on to a /rong v]tical iron rod1 :i* works 9 brackets1 & ext5ds d[n bel[ ! und]side ( waggon fram+4 ,"o end ( a %ort l5g? ( *a9 is secur$ to ! foot ( ! v]tical rod1 & ! o!r end is connect$ by light iron rods to ! s]ies ( lev]s :i* pull on ! brake-blocks4 ,by rotat+ ! horizontal h&-:eel ! *a9 is coil$ r\nd ! l[] end ( ! v]tical rod1 ! brake-lev]s are pull$ ov]1 & brake-pressure appli$ to ! :eels ( ! waggon4 ,! brakesman is suppli$ ) a conv5i5t seat & footbo>d1 & on ! floor-level ( ! latt] !re is a pawl & rat*et atta*$ to ! v]tical rod1 :i* p]mits ! brakes to be appli$ to ! ext5t requir$4 ,! pawl reta9s ! brakes 9 position until ! brakesman ) 8 foot pu%es ! pawl out ( ! not* ( ! ra*et & releases ! brake ge>+1 :i* is at once pull$ (f q cle> by /rong b[-/r+s atta*$ to ! framework ( ! bogies4 ,?is type ( h&-brake is1 p]haps1 ! simple/ t c be made4 ,! brakesman has m]ely to put x on1 ! pawl & rat*et keep x on1 & ! b[ spr+s take x (f :5 no long] requir$4 ,ea* "o ( ^! long1 load$ goods waggons becomes a v s]viceable brake-van1 & = asc5d+ & desc5d+ /eep incl9es all t is necess>y is to take on a few additional brakesm5 to manage ! brakes ( z _m suitable waggons4 ,^! incl9e brakesm51 aft] go+ d[n1 c return to ! summit by ! next asc5d+ tra91 _! small weight be+ a m]e no?+ z comp>$ ) t ( special or extra brake-vans4 ,on "s ,european l9es x is ! cu/om to sprag "s ( ! goods waggon :eels :5 go+ d[n exceptionally /eep incl9es1 z well z #dg apply+ ! brakes on ! ord9>y & extra brake-vans4 ,! sprag is a piece ( wood1 circul> 9 section1 ab\t #b feet #f in*es long1 & #e to #f in*es ?ick 9 ! middle1 tap]+ (f to ab\t #b in*es ?ick at ! ends4 ,:5 ! waggon-:eel is j beg9n+ to move1 ! sprag is ins]t$ betwe5 ! spokes1 & be+ caught aga9/ ! waggon framework1 ! :eel is held fa/1 & be+ unable to revolve1 rema9s fix$1 & acts l a skid ^u ! rails4 ,! skidd+ ( ! :eels ^u ! rails we>s flat places on ! :eel tyres1 & x is ne$less to m5tion t ! practice is only resort$ to 9 v extreme cases4 ,al?\gh a v primitive means = *eck+ ! spe$ ( a desc5d+ tra91 or = ma9ta9+ vehicles /ation>y on an incl9e1 !re h be5 _m in/ances :]e lives h be5 sav$ & accid5ts prev5t$ by ! prompt use ( a few sprags4 ,solid or close :eels _c be spragg$1 only :eels :i* h spokes or op5+s1 & = ?is reason alone x w\ld be v desirable t 9 e pass5g] & goods tra9 !re %\ld be "s spoke or op5 :eels :i* c\ld be spragg$ z a la/ res\rce1 9 ! ev5t ( a sudd5 em]g5cy ( brakes fail+ or tra9 becom+ divid$ on an incl9e4 ,on asc5d+ gradi5ts !re is always ! risk ( a c\pl+ break+1 & ! tra9 becom+ divid$4 ,if ! deta*$ portion left beh9d be provid$ ) ample brake-p[]1 h&-brakes1 or o!rwise1 no h>m may take place beyond a little delay2 b if ! brake-p[] be insuffici5t or defective1 & if all ! :eels are solid :eels incapable ( admitt+ a few timely sprags1 !n ! vehicles _c be held1 b mu/ slide back1 & runn+ un*eck$ w\ld soon atta9 su* a velocity z w\ld cause !m ei!r to leave ! rails or da% into ano!r tra9 /&+ at ! la/ /ation4 ,_m lam5table accid5ts h tak5 place aris+ f portions ( tra9s break+ away & runn+ back1 & ! sad exp]i5ce ( ^? casualties %\ld call =? e ef=t to av]t a recurr5ce 9 ! future4 ,x may n always be possible to detect a hidd5 flaw 9 a c\pl+1 or a defect 9 ! brake-ge>+ until ! actual failure occurs2 b x is q possible to gu>d aga9/ disa/r\s results f su* failure1 by provid+ means to hold ! vehicles1 & prev5t !m slid+ back4 ,= "s ye>s ! writ] _h ! entire *>ge ( an important railway abroad on :i* ! gradi5ts 7 v exceptional1 & :]e #dh x 0 absolutely necess>y t he %\ld organize ! mo/ complete precautions to prev5t ! possibility ( tra9s1 or portions ( tra9s1 runn+ back d[n incl9es4 ,/>t+ f sea-level1 ! l9e1 :i* 0 laid to ! #d feet #h in* gauge1 rose to a summit ( ov] #hjjj feet1 & on ! m\nta9 division !re 7 _m long gradi5ts ( #a 9 #dj1 #a 9 #cc1 & 9 "o place a cont9u\s gradi5t ( #a 9 #be = #ab miles4 ,! specially p[]ful eng9es res]v$ = ^! heavy incl9es 7 ea* suppli$ ) an ord9>y h&-brake1 a /eam-brake1 & a ,we/+h\se cont9u\s brake4 ,! pass5g] c>riages1 :i* 7 ( consid]able l5g?1 & c>ri$ on a f\r-:eel$ bogie-truck at ea* end1 7 all fitt$ up ) ! ,we/+h\se brake1 & 9 addition ea* c>riage _h its own h&-:eel brake ) ! pawl & rat*et ge>+4 ,all ! goods waggons1 :i* 7 ( ! ,am]ican type1 7 fitt$ ) h&-:eel brakes simil> to ^? on ! c>riages4 ,special gangs ( tra9$ brakesm5 took *>ge ( ! tra9s on ^! incl9es1 a brakesman to e c>riage or waggon1 & 7 always 9 read9ess 9 case ( ! breakage ( a c\pl+1 or ! failure 9 ! ,we/+h\se brake or brakes on eng9e4 ,! immunity f accid5ts ju/ifi$ ! comb9$ precautions adopt$1 & prov$ ! possibility ( work+ su* sev]e gradi5ts ) p]fect safety4 ,! long-cont9u$ application ( ! brakes on heavy incl9es naturally leads to ! "q z to ! description ( :eel to be adopt$ = ! "w4 ,n only are ! :eels subject$ to v sev]e torsional /ra9s1 b ! temp]ature at ! circumf]5ce is rais$ v high 9 consequ5ce ( ! friction4 ,p]haps1 !oretically1 ! safe/ :eel w\ld be "o made out ( a solid piece ( metal1 simil> to ! *ill$ ca/-iron :eels ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or ! /eel disc :eels us$ on "s l9es 9 ,europe1 9 ei!r ( :i* holes c be left = sprags4 ,:eels ( ?is description c )/& v heavy we> & te>1 !y are n affect$ by increas$ temp]ature1 & !y c]ta9ly h ! m9imum ( p>ts to "w loose4 ,( ! built-up :eels1 ! /rong =g$-iron-spoke :eel ) /eel tyres %[s excell5t results1 & always gives due w>n+ ( loos5+ by indications at ! tyre rivets4 ,! sudd5ness ) :i* ! solid wood5 c5tre :eels sometimes break up & fall to pieces does n comm5d !m = a s]vice :]e !re mu/ be a long-su/a9$ application ( ! brakes4 ,! increas$ temp]ature :i* exp&s ! #di tyre1 contracts ! wood1 & mu/ loos5 & weak5 ! entire :eel4 ,on all /eep gradi5ts ! road-b$ %\ld be ( ! mo/ sub/antial "*1 & ! p]man5t way ( a /rong description1 & ma9ta9$ 9 p]fect ord]1 z ! eng9es = work+ ! traffic mu/ necess>ily be ( a heavy type4 ,! rails w be sev]ely te/$ by ! p\nd+ & slipp+ ( ! eng9es on ! asc5d+ j\rney1 & by ! action ( ! brakes on ! desc5d+ j\rney4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( ! railway sy/em1 rope-haulage 0 adopt$ on "s ( ! ma9 l9es = work+ ! tra9s on /eep incl9es ne> ! pr9cipal t]m9al /ations4 ,a p[]ful /ation>y eng9e1 locat$ at ! highe/ po9t1 0 employ$ to "w an endless rope :i* pass$ r\nd l>ge drums at ! top & bottom ( ! incl9e1 & 0 support$ on %eaves or pulleys fix$ betwe5 ! rails4 ,! connection betwe5 ! c>riages & endless rope 0 effect$ by means ( a %ort piece ( rope call$ ! mess5g]1 :i* 0 coil$ r\nd ! ma9 rope 9 su* a mann] z to be readily deta*$ :5 ! tra9 rea*$ ! summit4 ,!re are _m p]sons :o w rememb] ! "t :5 ! pass5g] tra9s 7 haul$ by an endless rope up ! #a 9 #ff incl9e f ,eu/on to ,camd5 ,t[n1 a di/ance ( ab\t a mile & a half1 & up ! #a 9 #dh incl9e f ,lime ,/reet1 ,liv]pool1 to ,edge ,hill1 a di/ance ( ab\t a mile & a qu>t]1 & sev]al o!rs4 ,! rapid /rides made 9 locomotive con/ruction1 & ! increas$ pressure us$ 9 ! boil]s1 enabl$ mu* m p[]ful eng9es to be built1 until "o by "o ! rope-haulage ma*9]y has disappe>$ f ne>ly all ! incl9es :]e = ye>s x _h be5 consid]$ indisp5sable4 ,rope-haulage on incl9es is n[ v r>ely met )1 except at colli]ies & ironworks1 :]e occasionally ! rope may be se5 s arrang$ t ! load$ waggons desc5d+ pull up ! empty waggons on ! opposite or p>allel l9e4 ,curves4--,! degree ( curvature ( a railway curve is g5]ally express$ by giv+ ! radius 9 feet1 *a9s1 metres1 or o!r national /&>d measure4 ,:5 lay+ out a l9e ( railway1 ! natural features ( ! c\ntry w necessitate ! introduction ( curves1 & ! "q = consid]ation w be :e!r !y are to be made ( small or l>ge radius4 ,9 "s cases %>p curves are inevitable1 except by incurr+ #ej enorm\s works :i* w\ld n appe> to (f] any correspond+ prospective recomp5se4 ,9 o!rs ! curves may be made ( easy radius1 at a comp>ative mod]ate extra outlay1 if ! "* ( ! l9e & description ( traffic to be accommodat$ w w>rant ! exp5diture4 ,= ma9 ?r\gh l9es1 ) heavy1 high-spe$ traffic1 x is advisable to h ! curves ( l>ge radius1 s z to avoid ! necessity ( r$uc+ spe$ :5 pass+ r\nd !m4 ,al?\gh a high-class fa/ tra9 may be all[$ to run r\nd an #hj *a9 7#ebhj feet7 curve at almo/ unre/rict$ spe$1 safety dem&s t !re %\ld be a r$uction ( spe$ on curves ( #dj or #cj *a9s radius1 & a v mu* great] r$uction = curves ( #bj *a9s radius & "u4 ,a %>p curve w 9 "s places =m a great] *eck to fa/ tra9s ?an a l5g? ( mod]ately /eep gradi5t on a /raight l9e4 ,9 ! =m] ! tra9s runn+ 9 ei!r direction mu/ sl[ d[n = "s di/ance be=e rea*+ ! curve1 r\nd :i* !y %\ld pass at greatly r$uc$ spe$1 & !n "s di/ance mu/ be run be=e !y c atta9 _! full spe$ aga94 ,on ! o!r h&1 ) a ris+ gradi5t1 on a fairly /raight l9e1 ! acquir$ mom5tum ( ! tra9 w mat]ially assi/ 9 asc5d+ ! incl9e1 & al?\gh ! spe$ may be slack5$ z ! tra9 advances1 !re may n be any v great dim9ution 9 ! runn+ be=e ! gradi5t is pass$1 & av]age level l9e rea*$ aga94 ,a r$uc$ rate ( runn+ mu/ be ma9ta9$ r\nd curves ( small radius1 =1 h[ev] sub/antial ! works & p]man5t way1 & h[ev] well devis$ & con/ruct$ ! roll+-/ock1 !re is an elem5t ( dang] ev] pres5t :5 pass+ r\nd %>p curves at any?+ m ?an mod]ate spe$4 ,9 ! great ru% = fa/ ?r\gh tra9s ?is po9t is v apt to be ov]look$1 & too little "t all[$ = ! runn+4 ,ev5 ) ! fa/e/ tra9s on any l9e !re are "s portions ( ! r\te :i* mu/ be trav]s$ ) great] caution & less spe$ ?an o!rs1 ei!r on acc\nt ( %>p curves or ( gradi5ts2 & if ^? :o are entru/$ ) ! prep>ations ( ! "t tables d n possess ! te*nical in=mation necess>y to deal prop]ly ) ! "q ( relative spe$s1 !re is ! /rong probability t ! programme prep>$ may be "o bo? difficult & dang]\s to fulfil4 ,! _s ( rivalry is a /rong inc5tive to fa/ runn+1 b prud5ce & common s5se %\ld indicate t record spe$s %\ld only be attempt$ on #ea ! /raight or fav\rable portions ( ! l9e4 ,!re is1 un=tunately1 ! gr[+ t5d5cy to run fa/] & fa/] r\nd ! curv$ portion ( our l9es1 he$less ( ! close approa* to ! limit ( safety1 & unless ?is excessive spe$ be controll$ 9 "t1 ! result mu/ be disa/] on a v l>ge scale4 ,a %>p curve lead+ into or out ( a t]m9al /ation or ma9-l9e /opp+-/ation does n s mu* affect ! tra9 runn+ z a %>p curve at an int]m$iate po9t betwe5 /ations :]e ! tra9 may be expect$ to run at its maximum spe$4 ,:]ev] x is possible x is v desirable to avoid %>p curves on incl9es1 because !re are times :5 desc5d+ tra9s may acquire a consid]able velocity1 & :eels tightly gripp$ by ! brakes h n ! same facility = foll[+ ! curves z :5 !y are runn+ free4 ,9 rugg$ & m\nta9\s di/ricts %>p curves are almo/ unavoidable1 except by introduc+ a s]ies ( tunnels2 b 9 ^! di/ricts bo? ! gradi5ts & curves are alike exceptional1 ! spe$ is necess>ily sl[1 & special precautions are tak5 = ! asc5d+ & desc5d+ tra9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch ,:5 sett+ out rev]se curves on a ma9 l9e a piece ( /raight l9e %\ld always be laid 9 betwe5 ! t]m9ation ( ! "o curve & ! beg9n+ ( ! o!r1 to all[ ( a prop] adju/m5t ( ! rails to suit ! sup]-elevation adopt$ on ea* ( ! adjo9+ curves4 ,9 /ation y>ds & sid+s ?is is n s absolutely necess>y1 ! sort+ ( ! c>riages & waggons & ! m>%all+ ( ! tra9s be+ c>ri$ on at a l[ spe$1 :i* does n necessitate any sup]-elevation ( ! rails on ! curves4 ,! spe$ ( ! tra9 regulates ! am\nt ( sup]-elevation to be giv5 on any p>ticul> curve1 & to ensure smoo? & safe runn+ ?is am\nt mu/ be ma9ta9$ uni=m all r\nd ! curve4 ,on curves ( small radius1 gu>d1 or *eck1 rails are frequ5tly plac$ alongside ! inn] rail1 z 9 ,figs4 #cj to #cc1 to *eck ! t5d5cy ( ! eng9e to leave ! rails & run 9 a /raight l9e4 ,= ! bull-head road a special *air is us$1 :i* holds bo? ! runn+-rail & ! *eck-rail1 z %[n on ! sket*1 ! rails be+ kept ! prop] di/ance ap>t by ! web portion 9 ! c5tre1 :i* =ms "p ( ! ca/+4 ,= ! flange railroad1 *eck-rails are sometimes made ( /rong angle irons plac$ aga9/ ! flange ( ! runn+-rail1 & bolt$ to ! transv]se sleep]s4 ,?is me?od #ec is n ne>ly s /rong or effici5t z ! arrangem5t %[n on ,fig4 #cc1 ) a ca/-iron di/ance-block ab\t six in*es long1 plac$ betwe5 ! runn+-rail & *eck-rail1 & all ti$ toge!r ) a /rong ?r\gh bolt4 ,a bolt-hole is pun*$ 9 ! edge ( ! flange ( *eck-rail1 & a crab bolt & clip holds ! two rails on ! sleep]4 ,! ca/-iron di/ance-blocks are plac$ j outside ! sleep]1 s z n to int]f]e ) ! hold+-d[n bolt4 ,d\btless ^! gu>d rails d good s]vice1 b if ! lead+ :eels ( ! eng9e h %>p or worn flanges !re is ! possibility t ! :eel1 press+ aga9/ ! high rail1 may m\nt ! rail1 & ?r[ ! tra9 (f ! l9e4 ,a m secure me?od is to place ! gu>d outside ! high rail1 z 9 ,figs4 #cd to #ch4 ,?is c be done by secur+ a /rong cont9u\s longitud9al timb] to ! cross-sleep]s--or to ! cross-gird]s 9 ! case ( a gird] bridge--) its out] or /rik+ edge protect$ ) a fairly heavy angle iron4 ,! top ( ?is outside gu>d above ! rail level may be ?ree in*es or m1 accord+ to ! height ( any hang+ spr+1 or portion ( brake app>atus belong+ to ! roll+-/ock4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! /rik+-face ( ! gu>d & ! inside ( head ( rail %\ld be ab\t #e in*es1 or su* wid? t be=e ! flange ( ! :eel c m\nt on ! top ( ! rail1 ! face ( ! :eel-tyre w be br\ght into contact ) ! /rik+-face ( ! outside gu>d1 & ?us effectually prev5t ! :eel leav+ ! rail4 ,! sket*es %[ "s ( ! types applicable to ! *air road1 & to ! flange railroad4 ,9 ,figs4 #cd1 #ce1 & #cg1 ! outside brackets are ( heavy angle iron cut (f 9 l5g?s to correspond to ! wid? ( ! sleep]4 ,9 ,fig4 #cf ! ca/-iron *air is l5g!n$1 & has an end bracket to support ! gu>d timb]4 ,9 ,fig4 #cg a h>d wood bol/] is fa/5$ on ! top ( ea* sleep]1 & on ?is is plac$ ! cont9u\s gu>d timb]4 ,?is me?od ( increas$ security is frequ5tly adopt$ on gird] bridges & long iron viaducts :i* are on ! /raight1 & 9 su* cases x is usual to place ! gu>ds outside ea* ( ! rails =m+ ! track4 ,! introduction ( bogie eng9es & bogie c>riages has conduc$ l>gely to ! safe work+ ( ! tra9-s]vice ov] ! curv$ portions ( _m ( our home railways1 z well z to ! economy 9 ! we> & te> ( p]man5t way & roll+-/ock4 ,! action ( long rigid :eel-base vehicles pass+ r\nd %>p curves is #ed detrim5tal to all ! p>ts br\ght into contact4 ,n only is !re ! con/ant t5d5cy to m\nt ! rails1 & spread ! gauge1 b ! t9y %r$s ( /eel scatt]$ all along close to ! rail--p>ticles gr\nd (f ! rails1 or (f ! :eel-tyres1 or bo?--te/ify to useless we>1 unnecess>y friction1 & great wa/e ( motive-p[]4 ,! gradual increase ( accommodation & conv5i5ces 9 ! c>riage /ock ( ,european railways l$ to ! gradual increase 9 ! l5g? ( ! vehicles4 ,! six-:eel$ c>riage sup]s$$ ! f\r-:eel$ c>riage1 on acc\nt ( its increas$ /ead9ess :5 runn+1 b ! introduction ( long sleep+-c>s1 d9+-c>s1 & corridor c>s necessitat$ "s bett] :eel arrangem5t ?an ! ord9>y six-:eel type c\ld supply4 ,! six :eels _h be5 spread z f> ap>t z 0 admissible = c>ry+ weight & pass+ r\nd curves1 & some?+ _h to be done to meet ! dem& = /ill long] c>riages4 ,_m ( ! six-:eel$ c>riages at pres5t runn+ on our own home l9es h a fix$ :eel-base z long z #bb feet1 & ) ?is l5g? ! horn-plates mu/ und]go a v consid]able /ra9 :5 adapt+ !mselves = ! passage r\nd curves ( small radius4 ,on a curve ( #ae *a9s radius 7#iij feet7 a *ord ( #bb feet w h a v]s$ s9e or (fset ( #jgc ( an in*1 & on a curve ( #aj *a9s radius 7#ffj feet7 an (fset ( #aaj ( an in*4 ,=tunately1 curves ( ! above small radius are n v num]\s on our ma9 l9es2 b :]ev] !y d occur1 ! conflict betwe5 ! long fix$ :eel-base roll+-/ock & ! p]man5t way mu/ be v sev]e to bo?4 ,sev]al descriptions ( eight-:eel$ c>riages h be5 tri$ on our home l9es2 b ! sy/em :i* is n[ mo/ 9 fav\r is ! ord9>y bogie truck1 :i* has be5 9 use = s _m ye>s on all ,am]ican railways4 ,a bogie truck is really a %ort c>riage frame complete 9 itself1 ) its :eels1 spr+s1 & brake appliances1 & is atta*$ to ! "u side ( ! c>riage body by a c5tral pivot1 r\nd :i* ! truck c swivel or rotate suffici5tly to adapt itself to ! curv$ portions ( ! l9e4 ,) a bogie truck at ea* end ( a long c>riage1 ! vehicle w pass z easily r\nd curves z on ! /raight l9e1 side pressure1 or gr9d+ aga9/ ! rails1 is obviat$1 & friction is r$uc$ to a m9imum4 ,! bogie truck may consi/ ( f\r :eels or six :eels1 accord+ to ! l5g? & weight ( ! c>riage to be support$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #db ,figs4 #ci1 #dj1 & #da %[ sket* elevation1 plan1 & transv]se #ef section ( "o patt]n ( f\r-:eel bogie truck l>gely adopt$ 9 ,am]ican c>riage /ock1 & al?\gh !re are o!r types v>y+ 9 detail1 ! g5]al pr9ciple rema9s ! same 9 all4 ,! diagram sket* 7,fig4 #db7 repres5ts ! two bogie trucks slightly swivell$ to adapt !mselves to ! curve r\nd :i* ! c>riage is suppos$ to be pass+4 ,= c>riage or waggon /ock ) an indep5d5t bogie truck at ea* end1 ! c5tral pivot & swivell+ motion supply all ! fre$om t is requisite2 b = locomotives x is necess>y to provide = lat]al z well z = swivell+ movem5t4 ,! driv+ & trail+ :eels--& sometimes "o or two o!r pairs ( :eels--"w rigidly 9 ! frames1 & z ! normal position ( ! c5tre ( ! bogie truck mu/ be 9 ! c5tre l9e ( ! eng9e = ! /raight l9e1 x is evid5t t "s appliance mu/ be introduc$ to all[ ! truck to move lat]ally :5 ! eng9e has to trav]se ! curves4 ,figs4 #dc1 #dd1 & #de give sket* elevation1 plan1 & transv]se section ( a sw+-l9k bogie truck z appli$ to an ord9>y ,am]ican locomotive4 ,its recomm5dations are its simplicity1 its effici5cy1 & its accessibility = inspection & lubrication4 ,! sw+-l9ks1 :i* provide = ! lat]al movem5t1 are direct act+1 & d n require any side spr+s ( /eel or indi>ubb]4 ,all ! pr9cipal p>ts ( ! bogie are visible & n my/]i\sly cas$ 9 ) plate-iron boxwork4 ,9 ! sket*es sev]al m9or details are purposely omitt$ & only suffici5t p>ticul>s %[n to expla9 ! me?od ( work+4 ,! "u side ( ! upp] c5tre plate :i* c>ries ! cyl9d] ca/+s & smoke-box end ( boil] is cup-%ap$1 & fits into an annul> groove or *annel 9 ! l[] c5tre plate1 :i* is susp5d$ f ! framework ( ! truck by ! f\r sw++ l9ks4 ,practically ! entire c>ry+ & swivell+ "w ( ! bogie truck is effect$ by ! annul>-groove ca/+ mov+ r\nd ! cup-%ap$ ca/+1 & ! c5tre p9 is m]ely pass$ d[n ?r\gh ea* to gu>d aga9/ ! risk ( ! "o lift+ out ( ! o!r f sudd5 %ock or d]ailm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #df ,! lat]al movem5t ( ! truck is obta9$ by means ( ! f\r sw+-l9ks4 ,:5 ! eng9e is on ! /raight road ! c5tre l9e ( ! bogie is on ! c5tre l9e ( ! eng9e1 & ! l9ks hang 9 ! positions %[n on ! sket*1 incl9$ t[>ds ! c5tre2 b #eh ^u ent]+ a curve !y come into play1 & all[ ! truck to move out sideways to ! "r or left1 accord+ to ! direction ( ! curve1 ! "o pair ( l9ks assum+ a flatt] angle1 :ile ! o!r pair approa* ne>] to ! v]tical1 ! ext5t ( side movem5t dep5d+ on ! am\nt ( ! curvature4 ,:5 ! eng9e ent]s ! /raight l9e aga91 ! bogie truck resumes its c5tral position4 ,! ,bissell truck consi/s ( "o pair ( :eels connect$ to a triangul> framework1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #df4 ,! axle-boxes are atta*$ to ! side ( ! triangle :i* lies p>allel to ! axle1 ! o!r two sides t]m9ate 9 a circul> r+ :i* works r\nd a c5tre p9 fix$ to ! eng9e4 ,^! two sides are practically ! radii ( a giv5 circle1 & p]mit a l>ge am\nt ( lat]al movem5t1 :i* c be controll$ by plac+ suitable /op-pieces to limit ! side play to ! ext5t desir$4 ,radial axle-boxes h be5 tri$ on ! eng9es ( "s railways4 ,9 ! be/ types ! opposite boxes are brac$ toge!r by a diaphragm1 or plate-iron framework1 to ensure t bo? boxes "w toge!r4 ,! curv$ faces ( ! horn-blocks1 9 :i* ! radial axle-boxes slide1 are /ruck f a c5tre tak5 at "s po9t to ! re> ( ! normal c5tre l9e ( ! axle1 & /ops are plac$ at prop] di/ances to control ! ext5t ( lat]al movem5t4 ,al?\gh ! advocates ( radial axle-boxes may urge "s po9ts 9 _! fav\r1 !re are few eng9e]s1 if any1 among/ ^? :o h _h practical exp]i5ce ( bo? sy/ems1 :o w\ld = a mom5t claim = ! radial axle-box any?+ b a modicum ( ! _m advantages obta9$ by ! f\r-:eel$ bogie truck4 ,z "o ( ! pr9cipal functions ( a f\r-:eel$ bogie truck = an eng9e is to act z a pa?-f9d]1 or guide1 to ! o!r :eels :i* con/itute ! fix$ or rigid :eel-base portion ( ! ma*9e1 x foll[s1 !re=e1 t ! full b5efit ( ! bogie truck c only be obta9$ :5 x is plac$ at ! lead+1 or front1 end ( ! eng9e4 ,9 ?is position ! bogie1 ) its swivell+ arrangem5t & small] weights1 is ! fir/ to pass ov] ! rails1 & 9 do+ s %apes ! c\rse & prep>es ! way = ! easy runn+ ( ! heavi] :eel weights :i* h to foll[4 ,:5 ! bogie truck is plac$ at ! re> end ( ! eng9e1 its action is re/rict$ to af=d+ lat]al movem5t only1 & ! driv+ & c\pl$ :eels h to =ce or p\nd !mselves r\nd ! curves 9 a j]ky1 irregul> mann]1 z comp>$ to _! smoo? runn+ :5 foll[+ #ei ! lead+ or guid+ influ5ce ( a bogie truck 9 front4 ,! :eel-base ( a f\r-:eel$ bogie truck = an eng9e %\ld always be great] ?an ! gauge ( ! l9e ov] :i* ! bogie has to travel ,on ! #d feet #h in* gauge "s ( ! be/ results h be5 obta9$ ) bogies hav+ :eel-bases v>y+ f #f feet to #g feet4 ,:]e ! :eel-c5tres h be5 less ?an #f feet1 ! runn+ has be5 f\nd to be mu* less /eady ?an ) ! wid] spac+2 & :]e ! :eel-base is n m ?an ! gauge1 !re is a t5d5cy = ! bogie to cat*1 or lock1 :5 pass+ r\nd %>p curves4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 #fj ,works ( con/ruction3 ,e>?works1 ,culv]ts1 ,bridges1 ,f\ndations1 ,screw piles1 ,cyl9d]s1 ,caissons1 ,reta9+ walls1 & ,tunnels4 ,e>?works4--,"u ?is head+ may be classifi$ cutt+s & embankm5ts ( e>?1 clay1 gravel1 & rock4 ,:5 sett+ out a l9e & adju/+ ! gradi5ts1 an endeav\r is usually made to s balance ! e>?works t ! am\nt obta9$ f ! cutt+s may be suffici5t to =m ! embankm5ts4 ,) c>e1 ?is may be effect$ to a consid]able ext5t2 b !re w be places :]e ! mat]ial f cutt+ is unavoidably 9 excess1 & o!rs :]e ! cutt+s are too small1 or conta9 good rock1 or gravel1 :i* c be m advantage\sly us$ = build+ & balla/+ purposes ?an = ord9>y embankm5t fill+4 ,or !re may be a l>ge cutt+ :i* w provide en\gh mat]ial to =m ?ree or f\r ( ! adjo9+ embankm5ts2 b ! di/ance1 or lead1 z x is t]m$1 to ! f> embankm5t may be s long1 &1 p]haps1 on a ris+ gradi5t1 t x w\ld be *eap] to run ! surplus cutt+ to spoil1 & borr[ o!r mat]ial = ! f> embankm5t f side cutt+ or else:]e4 ,a long lead adds mat]ially to ! co/ & "t ( =m+ an embankm5t1 z x n only necessitates a consid]able l5g? ( s]vice1 or tempor>y p]man5t way1 b also occupies mu* "t 9 ! haulage ( ! e>? waggons4 ,= di/ances ( half a mile & upw>ds1 a small locomotive is m suitable ?an horses = convey+ ! waggons4 ,to run to spoil is ! t]m appli$ to su* ( ! mat]ial f a cutt+ :i*1 n be+ requir$ or utiliz$ 9 ! =mation ( ! l9e embankm5ts1 is remov$ & tipp$ into m\nds1 or spoil-banks1 9 "s "o or m conv5i5t sites ne> ! m\? ( ! cutt+4 ,sometimes ! surplus mat]ial is dispos$ ( by increas+ ! wid? ( ! embankm5ts4 ,mat]ial excavat$ 9 a #fa tunnel1 & hoi/$ ?r\gh ! %afts to ! upp] surface1 has to be deposit$ 9 spoil-banks along ! c5tre l9e ( ! tunnel4 ,to borr[ mat]ial to =m an embankm5t is ! t]m us$ :5 ! e>?work fill+ is n obta9$ f ! cutt+s on ! l9e4 ,?is borr[+ is g5]ally done by excavat+ a tr5* on ea* side ( ! l9e1 ( su* wid? & dep? z w supply suffici5t mat]ial to =m ! embankm5t4 ,fig4 #dg gives an example ( an embankm5t ?us made f side cutt+4 ,9 "s cases a piece ( high gr\nd adjac5t to ! embankm5t c be utiliz$ = obta9+ a portion1 or ev5 ! :ole ( ! fill+4 ,increas$ mat]ial is sometimes obta9$ by wid5+ ! cutt+1 or flatt5+ ! slopes1 or bo?4 ,! degree ( slope ( a railway cutt+ mu/ be regulat$ by ! nature ( ! mat]ial excavat$4 ,a slope ( #a to #a1 :i* gives = e foot ( v]tical height a wid? ( "o foot #f in*es ( horizontal base1 z 9 ,fig4 #dh1 is usually adopt$ = cutt+s 9 ord9>y e>?1 good clay1 s&1 or gravel4 ,!re are "s descriptions ( /rong clay & m>l :i* w /& at a /eep] slope1 ev5 at #a to #a2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 !re are "s k9ds ( clay :i* mu/ ultimately be tak5 out to #b to #a1 & ev5 #c to #a4 ,x frequ5tly occurs t ! slopes ( a clay cutt+1 tak5 out to #a to #a1 appe> to /& well = a "t1 b aft] exposure to ! fro/ & ra9 ( "o or two seasons1 ! mat]ial becomes loos5$1 & =ms into slipp+ masses1 :i* slide d[n on to ! l9e1 /opp+ all traffic1 & h to be cle>$ away be=e tra9 op]ations c be resum$4 ,cutt+s ?r\gh solid rock may be tak5 out to a slope ( to #a1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #di1 provid$ ! mat]ial is compact1 & !re is n too great a dip 9 ! /rata or rock-b$s4 ,:]e ! rock-b$s lie at a consid]able angle1 ! slope on ! high side w h to be made flatt] ?an ! slope requir$ on ! l[ side1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ej1 & great c>e mu/ be tak5 to remove f ! high side all loose or disconnect$ pieces ( rock :i* might come away & slide d[n on to ! l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg1 #dh1 #di1 #ej1 #ea ,/rong dry *alk w g5]ally /& at a slope ( 1 or to #a1 b :5 wet & mix$ ) fl9ts x w be necess>y to increase ! slope to n less ?an to #a4 ,:]e ! rock is loose & dis9tegrat$1 a slope ( n less ?an or to #a w be requir$1 #fc & at _m po9ts !re w be deta*$ ?reat5+ masses ( rott5 rock :i* mu/ be cle>$ away to a mu* flatt] slope = safety4 ,9 cutt+s ( ?is description x is frequ5tly f\nd necess>y to cle> out a portion ( ! loose pieces ( ! l[] cavities & build 9 _! place a facework ( masonry to support ! sup]9cumb5t rock4 ,spr+s ( wat] ris+ 9 ! rock1 or runn+ ov] any "p ( ! rock slopes1 mu/ be prop]ly provid$ =1 & conduct$ to ! ne>e/ *annel4 ,!y %\ld be c>efully wat*$ dur+ ! w9t] season1 :5 ! fro/1 act+ on ! wat] p5etrat+ ! crevices1 splits & sep>ates l>ge pieces :i* 7 previ\sly firm & secure4 ,in/ances w occur :]e a cutt+ has to be made ?r\gh a ?ick b$ ( rock & sev]al feet ( s(t loose /rata und]nea?4 ,! effect ( =m+ a cutt+ ?r\gh ! s(t /rata is to induce ! heavy b$ ( rock above to squeeze or =ce out ! s(t] mat]ial bel[1 & unless prop] means 7 tak5 to av]t su* a di/urbance1 ! entire cutt+ w\ld h to be excavat$ to a v flat slope4 ,! me?od adopt$ 9 su* a case is to build /rong face-walls ( masonry1 brickwork1 or concrete1 und]nea? ! rock1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ea1 ) /rong inv]ts plac$ at %ort di/ances4 ,suitable arrangem5ts mu/ be made to take away ! dra9age wat] :i* w collect at ! back ( ! walls1 & weep+-holes or outlets mu/ be left 9 ! l[] "p ( ! walls to convey ! wat] into ! wat]-tables on ! l9e4 ,:]e !re is a dep? ( e>? cutt+ on ! top ( ! rock1 ! e>? %\ld be cut away s z to leave a b5* or space ( #c or #d feet betwe5 ! edge ( ! rock cutt+ & ! foot ( ! e>? slopes1 z %[n on ,fig4 #eb4 ,9 cases ( %elv+ rock1 ) e>? or clay on ! top1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ec1 x is frequ5tly f\nd necess>y to remove ! :ole ( ! clay on ! high side to prev5t ! possibility ( its slid+ (f ! rock on to ! l9e bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 #ee1 #ef ,9 l>ge cutt+s x is usual to pu% =w>d a gullet ( suffici5t wid? = "o or two l9es ( waggons1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ed4 ,:5 ?is has advanc$ "s di/ance1 /rong planks or half balks ( timb] are plac$ across ! gullet1 & ! sides or w+s ( ! cutt+ c be excavat$1 ! mat]ial :eel$ to ! gullet1 & tipp$ f ! b>r[s into ! waggons b5ea?4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! "w c be c>ri$ on v exp$iti\sly1 z "o set ( m5 c be engag$ #fe advanc+ ! gullet & lay+ ! track1 :ile o!rs are foll[+ up & tak+ d[n ! sides4 ,a l>ge numb] ( waggons c ?us be fill$ 9 a day1 & a small locomotive kept fully employ$4 ,occasions w arise :]e ! mat]ial f a l>ge cutt+1 situate on a cont9u\s gradi5t1 z 9 ,fig4 #ee1 has to be c>ri$ 9 bo? directions to embankm5t4 ,9 wet wea!r1 or if ! cutt+ is at all wet1 x w\ld be almo/1 if n q1 impossible to c>ry on ! excavation at ! upp] end to ! prop] =mation level4 ,! wat] w\ld collect at ! l[] level1 & n hav+ any means ( escape1 except by pump+1 w\ld /op ! "w4 ,9 su* a case ! be/ way is to take out ! cutt+ at ! upp] end to a slight ris+ gradi5t1 z %[n 9 ! sket*1 suffici5t to c>ry away all wat]1 & aft]w>ds take out ! l[] portion 9 ! work+ f ! o!r end ( ! cutt+4 ,cases w arise :]e x w be necess>y to make a %all[ cutt+ ?r\gh boggy peaty gr\nd4 ,if ! boggy mat]ial be v s(t1 & its ?ickness f ! =mation level to ! solid gr\nd bel[ be n great1 x may be advisable to remove ?is extra ?ickness d[n to ! h>d l[] b$1 & fill 9 up to =mation level ) /rong mat]ial4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! bog or peat be too ?ick to ju/ify its entire removal1 x %\ld be excavat$ say d[n to two feet bel[ =mation level1 & a ?ick lay] ( bran*es ( trees & /rong bru%wood closely laid & pack$ ! full wid? ( ! road-b$4 ,on ?is prep>atory f\ndation mu/ be plac$ good clean balla/ to c>ry ! p]man5t way4 ,two or ?ree extra sleep]s %\ld be all[$ to ! rail l5g?1 & 9 "s in/ances x w be necess>y to introduce two1 or ev5 f\r1 r[s ( /rong longitud9al timb]s--half balks--"u ! transv]se sleep]s4 ,! object ( all ?is extra timb] is to obta9 a l>ge increase ( be>+ area on ! s(t yield+ surface ( ! boggy mat]ial4 ,not)/&+ ^! special precautions1 ! trackway w s9k d[n a little dur+ ! passage ( an eng9e or tra91 b w g5]ally return to its =m] level4 ,good side dra9s or wat]-tables %\ld be =m$ at ea* side ( ! cutt+ to take away all ra9 & surface wat]4 ,9 all cutt+s x is desirable to h ! l9e ( =mation on a slight gradi5t1 suffici5t to c>ry away all ra9 wat] or spr+ wat] :i* may be collect$ 9 ! wat]-tables2 b m #ff p>ticul>ly s is ?is necess>y 9 a rock cutt+1 :]e ! mat]ial1 be+ non-absorb5t z comp>$ ) e>? or gravel1 requires t all dra9age mu/ be c>ri$ away to ! m\? ( ! cutt+4 ,9 c>ry+ out railway embankm5ts & road approa*es1 x is usual to =m ! sides to a slope ( #a to #a1 z %[n on ,fig4 #ef4 ,occasionally ! cutt+s produce mat]ial :i* might /& at a r /eep] slope1 b consid]+ ! effects :i* might aft]w>ds be produc$ by heavy ra9s fall+ on ! sides1 x is m prud5t to adopt ! flatt] slope ( #a to #a4 ,"s descriptions ( clay w n /& at ! above slope1 b require a slope ( #b to #a1 or ev5 #c to #a4 ,:5 proce$+ ) ! e>?works1 x is cu/om>y to fir/ remove & lay aside a lay]1 say #i in*es 9 dep?1 ( soil & e>? f ! seat ( ! embankm5ts & top wid?s ( ! cutt+s1 to be us$ aft]w>ds 9 soil+ ! trimm$ & f9i%$ slopes ( ! cutt+s & embankm5ts4 ,?is soil be+ remov$1 ! actual "w ( ! excavation c be comm5c$4 ,! work+ longitud9al section w give all ! necess>y p>ticul>s z to position ( ! m\?s ( ! cutt+s & ! dep?s at ! v>i\s *a9-pegs1 & ! top wid?s ( ! cutt+s c be asc]ta9$ by calculation1 if on ev5 gr\nd1 or f ! cross-sections if on side-ly+ gr\nd1 accord+ z ! mat]ial may be e>?1 clay1 or rock4 ,= facility ( c>ry+ on ! works1 reliable b5* m>ks1 or r$uc$ level /ations1 mu/ be e/abli%$ at conv5i5t di/ances along ! r\te ( ! l9e1 & f ^! & ! fix$ *a9-pegs ! correct l9e ( =mation level c be *eck$ f "t to "t z ! "w proce$s4 ,= ord9>y e>? or clay cutt+s1 ! usual tools are picks & iron cr[-b>s = loos5+1 or gett+ ! mat]ial1 & %ovels = fill+ into b>r[s1 c>ts1 or waggons4 ,= heavy e>?works1 /eam excavators are n[ l>gely employ$4 ,great improvem5ts h be5 made 9 ?is class ( ma*9]y1 9 ! way ( p]fect+ ! me?od ( excavat+ lift+1 & fill+ ! mat]ial into ! e>?-waggons4 ,9 ne>ly all rock cutt+s ! great] portion ( ! mat]ial has to be tak5 out1 or loos5$1 by bla/+ ) gunp[d]1 dynamite1 or o!r explosive4 ,! numb] & ext5t ( ! *>ges w dep5d ^u ! nature ( ! rock & its /ratification1 & also on its position #fg z reg>ds proximity to build+s or resid5tial prop]ty4 ,:]e ! rock is loose1 or dis9tegrat$1 ! pieces c g5]ally be readily sep>at$ by picks & b>s )\t hav+ to resort to any great ext5t ( bla/+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg1 #eh1 #ei1 #fj1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff ,! fir/ ( ! mat]ial excavat$ 9 ! cutt+s is g5]ally convey$ 9 :eelb>r[s to =m ! comm5cem5t ( ! adjo9+ embankm5ts4 ,:5 ! :eel+ di/ance becomes too f> = economical b>r[ "w1 ord9>y c>ts or ?ree-:eel$ c>ts1 sometimes t]m$ dobb9 c>ts1 are br\ght into op]ation :]e ! cutt+s & embankm5ts are light2 b :]e ! e>?work is heavy1 bo? 9 excavation & fill+1 a s]vice or tempor>y road ( light rails & sleep]s is usually laid d[n to c>ry /rong tip e>?-waggons4 ,= mod]ate di/ances ^! waggons are haul$ by horses1 b = di/ances ov] ?ree-eigh?s ( a mile a small locomotive is m spe$y & economical4 ,fig4 #eg %[s "o =m ( dobb9 c>t2 ! :eels are made ) good broad tyres1 s z n to s9k too deep into ! s(t gr\nd1 & ! body be+ atta*$ to ! framework by a pivot or trunnion on ea* side1 c be readily tilt$ ov]1 & ! e>? tipp$ out1 by releas+ ! hold+-d[n cat*4 ,:]e ! gr\nd is s(t & wet1 or ( a v loose s&y nature1 ! "w ( haul+ ^! dobb9 c>ts is v heavy on ! horses1 & 9 su* cases x soon becomes an advantage to lay d[n a s]vice road ( rails & sleep]s4 ,?is s]vice road is =m$ ( light rails manufactur$ = ! purpose1 or old1 worn rails no long] fit = ma9-l9e "w1 spik$ d[n on to r\gh transv]se wood5 sleep]s4 ,! end ( ! embankm5t 9 c\rse ( =mation1 & :]e ! e>? is be+ tipp$1 is t]m$ ! tip head4 ,two or m roads are requir$ at ! tip head to =m ! embankm5t to its full wid?4 ,fig4 #eh gives a sket* plan ( a s]vice road ne> ! tip head4 ,! wid? is %[n z = a d\ble l9e4 ,! e>?-waggons are haul$ along ! l9e f ! excavation1 & br\ght to a /& at ! po9t ,a4 ,if a locomotive has drawn ! waggons1 x is !n deta*$1 mov$ =w>d1 & %unt$ back into ! sid+ ,,bc4 ,a horse accu/om$ to tipp+ !n takes "o full waggon at a "t ov] "o or o!r ( ! two turn-outs1 ,,def or ,,dgh1 to ! tip head1 suffici5t impetus be+ giv5 to ! waggon to run ! front :eels (f ! ends ( rails on to cross-sleep]s laid close1 ) a /eep rise1 & back$ up ) #fi e>?4 ,?is sudd5ly *ecks ! frame ( ! waggon1 & ! body conta9+ ! excavat$ mat]ial revolves on its trunnion1 tilts up1 & %oots out ! mat]ial well =w>d1 s t ! man 9 *>ge ( ! tip head1 :o also knocks up ! 8tail-bo>d cat*10 is able to level (f ! fill+ )\t assi/ance4 ,! empty waggon is !n haul$ back1 & turn$ into ! sid+ ,,bc1 & ano!r full waggon tak5 =w>d & tipp$1 until all ! waggons ( ! rake are empti$4 ,t5 waggons g5]ally =m a rake :5 ! "w is pu%$ =w>d vigor\sly1 ea* waggon hold+ ab\t ?ree tons4 ,! tip head horse pulls ! waggon by a trace-*a9 hav+ a spr+ cat* at ! end1 by :i* ! driv] releases ! horse at ! "r mom5t4 ,x is v important t ?is spr+ cat* %\ld be kept 9 good ord]1 because occasionally too mu* impetus is giv5 to a waggon1 :i*1 runn+ ov] ! tip head d[n ! slope1 w\ld drag ! horse ) x if ! spr+ cat* did n act prop]ly4 ,good firm foo?old mu/ be provid$ = ! tipp+ horse4 ,! tip head %\ld nev] be c>ri$ across culv]ts or bridges until !y h be5 well back$ up1 & protect$ by a ?ick cov]+ ( e>? or clay1 :eel$ 9 ) b>r[s to an equal height on ea* side ( ! masonry1 s z to prev5t undue side pressure4 ,fig4 #ei gives a sket* ( "o =m ( end-tipp+ waggon4 ,9 "s cases ! :eels are made ( ca/-iron1 b z ^! are readily brok5 dur+ ! r\gh h&l+ to :i* e>? waggons are expos$1 x is que/ionable :e!r ! light wr\ght-iron :eels1 ) light /eel tyres1 us$ on "s works1 are n m economical 9 ! long run4 ,! framework & body are made ( /rong undress$ timb]1 well b\nd & bolt$ toge!r4 ,! tail-bo>d cat* keeps ! body ( ! waggon 9 its prop] horizontal position :ile load+ or runn+1 b :5 releas$ leaves ! body free to tilt up1 & to revolve on ! front trunnion by means ( ! circul> clip ,a4 ,! same pr9ciple is also appli$ to side-tipp+ waggons :i* are us$ = ! wid5+ ( embankm5ts1 or =mation ( plat=ms & load+-banks4 ,! p]man5t way ( ^! s]vice roads is g5]ally made z simple z possible4 ,a pair ( movable rails are us$ in/ead ( swit*es1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fj4 ,^! rails are l9k$ toge!r by iron tie-rods1 & pull$ or pu%$ ov] into position = "o or o!r ( ! roads #gj by means ( ! h&le at ,a4 ,a /\t iron p91 or iron clamp+-plate1 s]ves to reta9 ! rails 9 position dur+ ! pass+ ( ! waggons4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 a %ort rail work+ on a p91 or pivot1 is made to answ] ! purpose ( an ord9>y cross+4 ,! rails are laid complete & cont9u\s = ! "o road1 & = ! second road ! out] rail is laid suffici5tly high to cross ov] ! rail ( ! fir/ road4 ,a piece ( rail is !n secur$ by a c5tre p91 or pivot1 to ! cross-sleep]1 z %[n on ,fig4 #fa4 ,?is pivot$ rail is pull$ ov] into ! position %[n by ! dott$ l9es1 to all[ ! passage ( waggons on ! "o road1 or pull$ across to ! end ( rail at ,b1 = waggons to pass on or (f ! o!r road4 ,9 ! latt] case an iron p9 or clamp s]ves to keep ! pivot$ rail 9 position4 ,z ^! s]vice roads are m]ely laid d[n on ! s(t loose mat]ial br\ght =w>d = fill+1 !y require con/ant pack+ & lift+ to prev5t !m work+ into depressions1 :i* might cause ! waggons to leave ! rails4 ,to indicate ! height ( ! embankm5t fill+1 /rong /akes or poles mu/ be firmly set 9 ! gr\nd at ea* *a9-peg4 ,on ea* ( ^! poles two cross-b>s mu/ be fix$1 ! l[] "o plac$ to ! correct height ( ! embankm5t1 & ! upp] "o to %[ ! am\nt all[$ = subsid5ce4 ,! excavat$ mat]ial1 z br\ght f ! cutt+s1 is 9 a s(t1 loose condition1 & an all[ance mu/ be made = its settlem5t1 or subsid5ce1 z ! embankm5t becomes consolidat$4 ,?is all[ance w1 ( c\rse1 dep5d on ! height ( ! embankm5t & ! quality ( ! mat]ial1 b = ord9>y e>? & clay x is cu/om>y to all[ ab\t "o in* to ! foot ( height1 :i* is equal to ab\t #h p] c5t4 ,:5 =m+ embankm5ts ov] v side-ly+ gr\nd1 x is necess>y to cut /eps 9 ! slop+ surface on :i* ! fill+ mat]ial has to be plac$1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fb4 ,^! /eps give a hold to ! new e>?work1 & *eck ! t5d5cy to slide d[n ! hillside4 ,embankm5ts h frequ5tly to be c>ri$ ov] gr\nd :i* is l[1 s(t1 & wet1 b n boggy4 ,if ! culv]ts & dra9s are suffici5tly l>ge1 & prop]ly arrang$1 ^! places are n likely to cause mu* future tr\ble4 ,= a ?or\ghly s(t deep bog1 h[ev]1 x is mo/ difficult to make any accurate calculation z to ! am\nt ( embankm5t fill+ :i* #ga w be necess>y to =m a p]man5t f\ndation = ! l9e2 & ! con/ruction ( a high heavy embankm5t across su* a place is "o ( ^? und]tak+s :i* e eng9e] is mo/ anxi\s to avoid4 ,a l>ge quantity ( mat]ial may be tipp$ into ! bog1 & seem to /& fairly well = a "t1 & !n sudd5ly disappe> altoge!r4 ,m mat]ial has to be br\ght =w>d1 & w mo/ likely disappe> 9 a simil> mann]4 ,! fill+ mat]ial be+ heavi] ?an ! bog on to :i* x is ?r[n1 falls ?r\gh1 & displac+ ! s(t semi-liquid matt]1 cont9ues to s9k d[n l[] & l[] until x is /opp$ by a h>d] /ratum und]nea?4 ,9 a measure ! op]ation some:at resembles ! tipp+ ( e>? into a lake2 ! mat]ial w g d[n until x meets ) a solid bottom1 & 9 go+ d[n x assumes its own natural slope1 & =ms = itself a wid? ( base correspond+ to its height4 ,x w be readily und]/ood :at an enorm\s am\nt ( fill+ mat]ial w be swall[$ up 9 foll[+ out su* a process4 ,on a v s(t bog1 say #bj feet 9 dep?1 ov] :i* an embankm5t #bj feet high has to be =m$1 ! ext5t ( ! actual e>?work fill+ w v probably closely approa* ! outl9e %[n 9 ,fig4 #fc4 ,! upp] portion1 ,,abcd1 repres5t+ ! embankm5t prop]1 w conta9 ab\t #acc cube y>ds to ! y>d =w>d1 :]eas ! l[] portion1 ,,cdef1 :i* has displac$ ! s(t boggy matt]1 w conta9 ab\t #bff cube y>ds to ! y>d =w>d1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! fill+ :i* is out ( sight w be d\ble ! fill+ :i* is 9 view above ! section gr\nd l9e4 ,ap>t f ! l>ge am\nt ( fill+ consum$ 9 =m+ ?is semi-artificial isl&1 ! progress ( ! "w itself is v p]plex+4 ,a long l5g? ( ! bank may h be5 rais$ aga91 once or twice1 to ! prop] height1 & may h c>ri$ rails & e>?-waggons = "s weeks1 & !n s9k all at once sev]al feet4 ,! s9k+1 too1 may n be uni=m1 b may produce fissures1 depressions1 & sep>ation ( ! e>?work :i* w necessitate mu* c>e :5 br++ =w>d fre% fill+ mat]ial4 ,! bog may n be ( ! same consi/5cy ?r\gh\t1 !re may be "s lay]s ( h>d] mat]ial1 su* z imb$d$ trunks ( trees1 & ^! may su/a9 ! fill+ = a "t1 & !n yield "u ! increas+ weight ( ! sup]9cumb5t mass4 ,ev5 :5 ! embankm5t is f9i%$ ?r\gh\t1 & %[s no sign ( s9k+1 x %\ld be v c>efully wat*$ = a long "t = any indication ( fur!r #gb movem5t4 ,:5 ! bulk ( ! mat]ial has be5 tak5 out ( an e>? or clay cutt+1 ! "w ( trimm+ ! slopes %\ld be put 9 h&1 s t any surplus left on ! w+s1 or sides1 may be remov$1 & c>ri$ away be=e /opp+ ! e>?-waggons4 ,! angle ( slope hav+ be5 decid$1 a batt]+ rule ( light wood5 bo>ds is made to correspond to ! slope1 & 9 =m simil> to t %[n 9 ,fig4 #fd4 ,a plumb-bob is susp5d$ f a fix$ po9t1 ,a2 ! l[] end1 ,b1 is !n held aga9/ a peg or m>k :i* indicates ! correct level & wid? ( ! cutt+ at ! place1 & ! upp] end1 ,c1 is rais$ or l[]$ until ! plumb-bob /r+ co9cides ) ! v]tical l9e m>k$ on ! rule f ,a to ,d1 & ! plumb-bob re/s /eadily 9 ! space cut = x at ,d4 ,) ?is batt]+ rule a l5g? ( sev5 or eight feet1 accord+ to ! size ( ! rule1 is fir/ trimm$ to ! correct slope1 & by cont9u+ ! application ( ! rule up ! side1 a correct slope l9e is obta9$ f bottom to top ( slope at t place4 ,by repeat+ ! process at conv5i5t di/ances along ! cutt+1 a s]ies ( correct slope l9es are obta9$1 & ! int]m$iate space c readily be trimm$ to correspond4 ,! same =m ( batt]+ rule & me?od ( work+ is applicable = trimm+ ! slopes ( ! embankm5ts4 ,:5 ! slopes ( ! cutt+s & embankm5ts h be5 trimm$1 vegetable soil1 :i* has be5 laid aside1 or res]v$ z previ\sly describ$1 %\ld !n be spread ev5ly ov] ! slopes to ! uni=m ?ickness ( n less ?an f\r in*es1 & ! :ole s[n ) good grass se$s to =m a /rong sw>d4 ,! trimm+1 soil+1 & s[+ ( ! slopes n only gives a m f9i%$ appe>ance to ! e>?works1 b ! /rong grass1 :5 once well gr[n1 b9ds ! surface toge!r1 & helps to resi/ ! injuri\s effects ( heavy ra9s & melt+ sn[4 ,!re are _m places abroad :]e a neat f9i% to ! e>?works is consid]$ q a second>y matt]1 or :]e x w\ld be difficult to obta9 suitable soil to spread on ! slopes4 ,! e>?works are hurri$ =w>d to all[ ! iron highway to be laid d[n z quickly z possible1 ! slopes ( ! cutt+s & embankm5ts are only r\ghly trimm$1 & nature is left to supply su* grass or vegetation #gc z may spr+ up1 or be self-s[n4 ,! f5c+ 9 ( a l9e ( railway s]ves ! d\ble purpose ( def9+ ! b\nd>y ( ! company's prop]ty1 & ( =m+ a b>ri] = ! prev5tion ( trespass ( p]sons & animals on to ! l9e4 ,= our home l9es1 f5c+ is compulsory1 & ! same obligation exi/s on _m =eign railways4 ,9 our colonies1 & out 9 ! f> ,we/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & 9 newly op5$ out c\ntries1 f5c+1 except ne> t[ns & villages1 is r ! exception ?an ! rule2 p & animals roam at w f "o side ( ! railway to ! o!r :]ev] !y f9d a conv5i5t cross+ place1 & ! c[cat*] ( ! eng9e has to be dep5d$ ^u = ?r[+ aside any animal :i* may be /&+1 or re/+1 on ! l9e ( rails at ! pass+ ( a tra94 ,! description ( f5ce w be influ5c$ by ! locality1 & ! mat]ials conv5i5tly obta9able4 ,:]e /one is pl5tiful1 p]haps br\ght =w>d out ( ! cutt+s1 & lab\r *eap1 a masonry wall w be f\nd a mo/ suitable p]man5t f5ce4 ,any f5ce to be ( s]vice %\ld n be less ?an f\r feet high4 ,a wood5 po/ & rail f5ce is mu* 9 fav\r 9 "s di/ricts1 ! po/s be+ firmly set or driv5 into ! gr\nd1 & f\r or five /\t b>s nail$ on to1 or set into1 ! upright po/s4 ,?is f5c+ does n la/ v long1 ! pieces are small 9 size1 & soon fail f decay4 ,quick or haw?orn h$ges1 :5 fully gr[n1 make a good f5ce1 b require c>eful att5tion to prev5t gaps be+ made by rov+ cattle4 ,!y also require con/ant trimm+ & cutt+4 ,! quicks are g5]ally plant$ 9 a m\nd =m$ by cutt+ a cont9u\s dit*1 or gripe1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fe4 ,! dit* s]ves z a dra9 to take away wat] runn+ d[n ! slopes ( ! embankm5ts1 small op5+s 9 ! m\nds1 or dra9 pipes ?r\gh !m1 =m+ lead]s to conduct ! wat] to ! dit* or gripe4 ,! out] edge ( ! dit* repres5ts ! b\nd>y ( ! railway prop]ty1 unless specially arrang$ o!rwise4 ,galvaniz$ iron-/eel wire f5c+1 if n made too light1 is /rong & durable1 & v easily kept 9 ord]4 ,! wires may be secur$ to /rong wood5 po/s1 :i* %\ld be creosot$1 & n plac$ too f> ap>t1 or to iron po/s or /&>ds ( angle iron or tee-iron section4 ,! /ra9+-po/s1 :e!r ( iron #gd or timb]1 mu/ be /rong] ?an ! int]m$iate po/s1 firmly fix$ into ! gr\nd1 & well /ay$1 to )/& ! pull+ & tight5+ ( ! wires4 ,!re are _m places :]e a quick f5ce w\ld n gr[1 & :]e ! gr\nd is too s(t to c>ry a wall4 ,9 su* cases a good galvaniz$-wire f5c+ w fulfil all requirem5ts4 ,! /r& wire is bett] ?an ! pla9 wire1 z its me?od ( manufacture necessitates ! use ( a sup]ior mat]ial1 & x is easi] to /raight5 & keep 9 good ord]4 ,an extra /rong f5ce is (t5 made ( six1 eight1 or m r[s ( r\nd rod-iron secur$ to wr\ght-iron uprights ( b>-iron or tee-iron4 ,9 hot c\ntries abroad an excell5t f5ce is obta9$ by plant+ a species ( cactus or aloe 9 a simil> mann] to ! quick f5ces at home1 & z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ff4 ,^! cactus plants are readily obta9$1 are v h>dy & quick 9 gr[?1 & ) _! l>ge spike-%ap$ leaves =m su* an almo/ imp5etrable b>ri] t few animals w attempt to pass4 ,road approa*es to bridges ov] or "u ! l9e1 or to public road level cross+s1 may be f5c$ 9 ! same mann] z ! l9e prop]4 ,if quicks are adopt$1 x w be necess>y to put up a light wood5 f5ce also to protect ! "y plants until !y are well gr[n4 ,ne> t[ns & villages x is frequ5tly f\nd advisable to adopt a specially /rong wood5 f5ce1 or close-bo>d$ f5ce1 :]e ! approa* is an embankm5t1 & too newly made to c>ry a wall4 ,gates = f>m or occupation level cross+s may be made ( wood or iron4 ,z a rule1 iron gates are pref]r$1 z !y c be suppli$ at ! same co/ z wood1 & are v mu* m durable4 ,gates = public road level cross+s h to be s plac$ t !y w ei!r close across ! railway or across ! road2 _! l5g? w !re=e dep5d ^u ! wid? & angle ( ! road cross+4 ,x is bett] to make ^! gates ( wood1 s t1 9 ! ev5t ( a tra9 runn+ ?r\gh !m1 !re may be less risk ( injury to life & roll+-/ock ?an if !y 7 made ( iron4 ,= footpa? cross+s1 small gates1 wickets1 or /iles may be adopt$ ( su* =m z may be f\nd mo/ suitable = ! requirem5ts4 ,culv]ts & ,dra9s4--,be=e proce$+ ) ! =mation ( ! embankm5ts1 x is necess>y to con/ruct ! culv]ts & dra9s :i* w be cov]$ ov] by ! e>?works4 ,any exi/+ dra9s :i* may be ( too light a description mu/ be recon/ruct$ 9 a #ge m sub/antial mann]4 ,x is a simple & comp>atively inexp5sive matt] to rebuild a dra9 be=e ! e>? fill+ is br\ght =w>d1 b x is a co/ly "w to op5 out an embankm5t1 & rebuild a culv]t aft]w>ds4 ,unless ! seat ( an embankm5t is well dra9$ & kept free f ! accumulation ( runn+ wat]1 ! e>?work w be expos$ to wa%+ away ( ! l[] lay]s1 & consequ5t subsid5ce4 ,ea* wat]c\rse or op5 dra9 mu/ be provid$ = ei!r by a sep>ate culv]t ( suitable size or1 z may be done 9 "s cases1 by lead+ two or m wat]c\rses into "o1 & ?us pass+ all ?r\gh "o culv]t ( ample capacity4 ,:5 fix+ ! sizes ( ! culv]ts !y mu/ n be limit$ to ! normal fl[ ( wat]1 b a l>ge m>g9 mu/ be all[$ suffici5t to meet extraord9>y floods4 ,! dep? ( ! b$ or inv]t ( a culv]t is a v important po9t4 ,if laid too high1 & ! /ream above %\ld at any "t deep51 ! high inv]t w\ld *eck ! fl[ ( ! wat]1 & w\ld also incur ! risk ( be+ und]m9$ & gradually c>ri$ away4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! inv]t be laid too l[1 x w gradually silt up to ! level ( ! /ream-b$ alongside1 & !re w be s mu* ( ! culv]t space lo/ = all practical purposes4 ,9 cases :5 ! inv]t ( a culv]t has to be laid at a special l[ dep? to all[ = future improvem5ts 9 dra9age1 x is advisable to give extra height f ! inv]t to ! cr[n1 or top1 s z to provide ample wat]way 9 ! ev5t ( any silt+ up 9 ! mean "t4 ,p>ticul> c>e %\ld be tak5 :5 build+ ! f\ndation ( a culv]t4 ,x has to be laid on ! site ( ! wat]c\rse1 or on a new *annel :i* w ultimately =m ! wat]c\rse1 & x %\ld be built suffici5tly deep into ! gr\nd to av]t z f> z possible ! *ance ( wat] f9d+ a c\rse ?r\gh bel[ ! f\ndation4 ,! inv]t may be ( /one pit*+ or brick if ! curr5t is n rapid1 or liable to br+ d[n /one b\ld]s f its gravelly b$4 ,) a /ream-c\rse hav+ consid]able fall1 & :i* c>ries ) x l>ge /ones1 roots ( trees1 & o!r dbris1 ! inv]t %\ld consi/ ( /rong pit*+1 compos$ ( l>ge-siz$1 r\gh-dress$ /ones ( h>d1 durable quality1 capable ( )/&+ ! p\nd+ ( ! b\ld]s br\ght d[n dur+ floods4 ,a s(t description ( /one w\ld be q unsuitable = ! inv]t ( su* a /ream2 ! pit*+ w\ld we> away quickly1 break1 & become deta*$1 leav+ #gf ! f\ndation & side walls expos$ to ! cutt+ inroads ( ! wat]4 ,:]e l>ge flat b$d$ /ones or flags ( t\gh quality c be obta9$1 !y =m good cov]s1 or tops1 = culv]ts up to two feet 9 wid?4 ,!y %\ld h n less ?an n9e in*es be>+ on ! side walls1 & _! contact edges %\ld be fairly dress$1 s z to fit suffici5tly close to prev5t ! embankm5t fill+ f fall+ ?r\gh4 ,:]e ! /ream1 or run ( wat]1 is v small1 /rong e>!nw>e pipes1 #i in*es or #ab in*es 9 diamet]1 well b$d$1 may be suffici5t to c>ry away all ! wat] likely to arise4 ,= small spr+s 9 l[ swampy gr\nd1 dry /one dra9s may 9 _m cases be us$ ) advantage4 ,^! are made by cutt+ a tr5*1 say two feet deep by twelve or eighte5 in*es wide1 9 ! seat ( ! embankm5t f side to side1 & fill+ x up ) dry rubble /ones1 n b\ld]s1 h&-laid1 ! upp] lay] plac$ on ! flat to keep ! e>?work z mu* z possible f fill+ 9 betwe5 ! /ones4 ,9 s(t boggy gr\nd1 :]e ! dep? to a h>d bottom is v consid]able1 wood5 culv]ts are frequ5tly adopt$4 ,al?\gh ^! _c be class$ z p]man5t /ructures1 /ill1 :5 !y are made ( s\nd well-creosot$ timb]1 & sub/antially put toge!r1 !y la/ = a numb] ( ye>s4 ,sometimes !y are made cyl9drical 9 section--a species ( elongat$ cask ) /rong iron hoops e few feet4 ,o!rs are rectangul> 9 section1 made ) two /rongly truss$ side frames connect$ & cov]$ ) cross-plank+ & longitud9al tie-plank+ on ! top & bottom4 ,wood5 culv]ts are seldom made ( v l>ge size1 r>ely exce$+ an op5+ ( #c feet1 & x is consid]$ pref]able to use two ( ^! culv]ts ( mod]ate dim5sions ?an "o ( l>ge size4 ,figs4 #fg & #fh give sket*es ( wood5 culv]ts ( cyl9drical & rectangul> section1 & ,fig4 #fi ( flag top culv]ts ( #ab-;in*1 #ah-;in*1 & #b-;foot op5+s4 ,9 masonry culv]ts ! side walls are %[n to be ( rubble /onework1 b brickwork c be us$ in/ead1 provid$ ! bricks are well burnt1 h>d1 & capable ( )/&+ ! action ( ! wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga ,9 ,figs4 #gj & #ga are %[n types ( ar*-top culv]ts ( #d feet & #f feet span respectively4 ,! ar* portion is %[n to be ( brick1 :i*1 z a rule1 is *eap] ?an /one r+s1 :i* mu/ be cut & #gh dress$ to suit ! small radius ( ! ar*4 ,! side walls may be ( brick ( good quality4 ,occasionally !y are built ( concrete4 ,! w+ walls may ei!r be c>ri$ out 9 ! direction ( ! /ream1 z 9 ! sket* ( ! #f-;foot culv]t1 or !y may be built transv]se1 z %[n on ! #d-;foot culv]t1 :i*ev] arrangem5t is f\nd to "w 9 ! be/ = ! case 9 "q4 ,= ar* culv]ts on v /eep side-ly+ gr\nd x is bett] to build ! ar*-top 9 /eps1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #gb1 in/ead ( =m+ x p>allel to ! inv]t1 or slope1 ( ! /ream-c\rse4 ,! level portions ( ! ar*+ give a bett] hold = ! embankm5t ?an c\ld be obta9$ on a long incl9$ surface ( brickwork or masonry4 ,! writ] has built a l>ge numb] ( culv]ts ( ?is type = m\nta9 /reams on /eep hillsides1 & has f\nd !m to prove satisfactory 9 e way4 ,9 embankm5ts alongside tidal riv]s1 or across ! corn]s ( e/u>ies ( ! sea1 culv]ts h frequ5tly to be s con/ruct$ t !y w p]mit ! passage ( ! dra9age wat] f ! l&1 or high side1 )\t admitt+ ! tidal wat]4 ,?is c be arrang$ by plac+ at ! l[] end ( ! culv]t close-fitt+ h+$-flap valves op5+ outw>ds4 ,:5 ! tide has gone d[n ! weight ( ! fre%1 or l&1 wat] sw+s ! flap-valve suffici5tly op5 to all[ ( a free passage2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! tide rises1 ! pressure ( ! wat] aga9/ ! face ( ! flap-valve keeps x tightly clos$1 & prev5ts +ress ( ! salt wat]4 ,culv]ts are sometimes fitt$ ) lift+-valves or doors1 :i* c be rais$ or l[]$ to s]ve irrigation purposes4 ,! door1 :i* works 9 guides1 is made suffici5tly heavy to fall ) its own weight1 & ! rais+ is effect$ by means ( a screw$ susp5sion-rod work+ 9 a well-secur$ fix$ nut4 ,9 cases ( s(t or trea*]\s gr\nd1 timb]-pil+ or wide b$-c\rses ( cem5t concrete are necess>y to =m firm f\ndations = culv]ts4 ,dra9s & /reams :i* are int]sect$ by a railway cutt+ h to be dealt ) accord+ to _! size & _! height above ! f9i%$ rail level4 ,! wat] f a small dra9 or field spr+ may be conduct$ 9 pipes d[n ! slope ( ! cutt+ into ! wat]-table1 or side dra91 at =mation level1 & w be ?us c>ri$ away to ! l[] level at ! entrance ( ! cutt+4 ,9 _m cases /reams c be div]t$1 & ! wat] l$ away to "s #gi l[] po9t )\t ! necessity ( actually cross+ ! railway4 ,) a l>ge /ream1 :]e x is ess5tial t ! wat] %\ld be convey$ across ! l9e & cont9ue on its ord9>y c\rse1 x may be c>ri$ ov] 9 iron pipes or iron tr\gh if !re is ample headway1 or 9 iron syphon pipes :]e ! height is n suffici5t4 ,! iron pipes or tr\gh c be support$ on masonry or brick pi]s1 or ca/-iron columns1 ! height f ! rails to ! und]side ( ! conduit be+ n less ?an t adopt$ = ! ov]-l9e bridges4 ,occasionally ! pipes c be c>ri$ across on an ov]-l9e bridge1 ei!r by plac+ !m "u ! roadway or on small brackets outside ! p>apet4 ,) ! syphon arrangem5t ! iron pipes mu/ be laid d[n ! slopes ( ! cutt+ & "u ! road-b$ ( ! p]man5t way4 ,! pipes mu/ be cont9u\s1 /rong1 & firmly connect$ at ! jo9ts to prev5t leakage4 ,! inlet & outlet ends ( ! pipes %\ld be securely built into receiv+-tanks ( masonry1 brickwork1 or concrete1 to ensure an un9t]rupt$ fl[ ( ! /ream1 & also to prev5t any ( ! wat] f p]colat+ ?r\gh "u ! pipes & on to ! railway4 ,z a precaution>y measure1 x is well to place iron grat+s "s little di/ance 9 advance ( ! syphon pipes to int]cept & collect any bru%wood1 /raw1 or o!r ?+s :i* might be br\ght d[n ) ! /ream4 ,fig4 #gc gives an example ( ! syphon arrangem5t z con/ruct$ ) two ca/-iron pipes plac$ side by side4 ,railway works c>ri$ out 9 cities & l>ge t[ns1 :e!r !y take ! =m ( cutt+s1 embankm5ts1 ar*+1 or tunnels1 are c]ta9 to cause a v consid]able di/urbance ( exi/+ dra9s1 corporation sew]s1 gas-pipes1 wat]-ma9s & und]gr\nd telegraph wires4 ,"s ( ^! und]gr\nd works may be s peculi> & complicat$ z to necessitate a slight deviation f ! c\rse orig9ally int5d$ = ! l9e4 ,suitable provision w h to be made = ea* ( ! items int]f]$ ) by ! railway1 & ! sub/itut$ "w mu/ be c>ri$ out to ! satisfaction ( ! con/itut$ au?orities )9 ! municipal b\nd>ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb1 #gc ,bridges4--,among/ ! _m bridges & viaducts :i* h to be built dur+ ! mak+ ( a railway ^? con/ruct$ ov] riv]s & wat]ways are g5]ally ! mo/ important ,! bridg+ across any #ha navigable riv] or tidal wat] c only be effect$ 9 compliance ) conditions impos$ by ! au?orities controll+ ! navigation rights4 ,^! conditions w place re/rictions z to ! numb] & di/ance ap>t ( ! pi]s1 z well z ! height f high wat] level to ! "u side ( ! ar*es or gird]s4 ,= riv]s hav+ a con/ant traffic ( sea-go+ vessels ( l>ge tonnage & l(ty ma/s ! au?orities w dem& great height or headway z well z l>ge spans2 & if to ?is be add$ a deep wat]-way & bad f\ndations1 ! "w to be con/ruct$ becomes "o ( consid]able magnitude4 ,! banks ( ! riv] mu/ be c>efully /udi$ to f9d ! mo/ fav\rable po9t = cross+1 & 9 "s cases x may be prud5t to make a det\r ( two or ?ree miles4 ,! cross+ at a great height involves ! con/ruction ( ! approa* l9es at a great height also4 ,if ! riv] is 9 a deep valley ) high slop+ sides ! natural cont\r ( ! gr\nd facilitates ! =mation ( ! approa* l9es2 b ) a riv] on a l[1 wide1 op5 pla91 incl9$ approa* l9es add enorm\sly to ! co/ ( con/ruction1 z well z to ! co/ ( p]man5t work+4 ,if ! numb] ( sail+ craft pass+ up & d[n ! riv] be mod]ate1 &1 p]haps1 only pass+ at high wat]1 ! au?orities may p]mit a l[-level viaduct ) an op5+ bridge4 ,!re are ?us ! two sy/ems3 ! high-level viaduct1 :i* all[s tra9s to pass ov] & vessels to pass "u at any & all times1 & ! l[-level viaduct ) op5+ bridge1 :i*1 if op5 = vessels1 is clos$ = tra9s1 or vice v]s4 ,e cross+ ( a navigable riv] w h to be consid]$ & dealt ) accord+ to its own individual requirem5ts4 ,an arrangem5t suitable = ! "o may n be admissible or prud5t = ! o!r4 ,a frequ5t & important tra9 s]vice might be mu* int]f]$ ) by an op5+ bridge1 &1 9 a simil> mann]1 an op5+ bridge might cause mu* int]ruption & det5tion to ! navigation ( ! vessels on ! riv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg ,:]e a l[-level viaduct ) op5+ bridge c be adopt$1 !re w be a v great sav+ ( exp5diture2 & !re are numb]s ( su* viaducts 9 exi/5ce1 accommodat+ a l>ge railway & riv] traffic )\t inconv5i5ce4 ,ev5 ) a l[-level viaduct ! height f wat]-level to ! "u side ( ! gird]s ( ! v>i\s #hc fix$-spans w g5]ally be suffici5t = ! passage ( b>ges & small craft1 leav+ ! op5+ portion to be us$ by ! l>g] vessels4 ,! pr9cipal op5+s = ^! l>ge riv] viaducts are g5]ally con/ruct$ = gird]s1 p>tly on acc\nt ( ! great] facility ( gird] "w = l>ge spans1 & also = ! advantage ( hav+ "o uni=m height1 or headway1 f pi] to pi]4 ,= a high-level viaduct across a deep-wat] riv]1 ! co/ ( ! l(ty pi]s =ms a v important "p ( ! und]tak+4 ,ea* pi] w require its own c(f]dam1 caisson1 or o!r appliance = obta9+ a suitable f\ndation4 ,! deep] ! wat]1 ! m co/ly ! arrangem5t = f\ndation2 & ! high] ! pi] to rail-level1 ! great] ! am\nt ( mat]ial 9 ! con/ruction ( ! pi]4 ,! consid]ation ( ^! two po9ts w at once %[ t x is v desirable n to h m ( ^! co/ly pi]s ?an is actually necess>y1 & 9 /udy+ out ! design x w be a "q = calculation h[ f> ! spans may be increas$ s z to disp5se ) "o or m pi]s4 ,9 e "w ( ?is description !re is a relative proportion betwe5 span & height1 :i* w give ! mo/ economical result f a co/ po9t ( view2 ! proportion v>y+ accord+ to ! dep? ( ! wat] & description ( gr\nd = f\ndations4 ,an increase 9 ! span w naturally necessitate an increase 9 ! ?ickness ( ! pi]2 b :]e a c(f]dam1 or arrangem5t = putt+ 9 ! f\ndations1 mu/ 9 any case be made1 a small addition to its wid? may n necess>ily =m a l>ge increase to its co/4 ,figs4 #gd1 #ge1 #gf1 & #gg are sket*es ( high-level railway viaducts :i* h be5 con/ruct$ ) great height1 or headway1 to all[ l>ge vessels to pass "u at all times )\t int]ruption4 ,?is description ( "w is v co/ly1 n only 9 ! deep-wat] f\ndations1 b also 9 ! heavy scaffold+ & appliances requisite = build+ pi]s & gird]s at su* an elevation above ! gr\nd-level4 ,! hoi/+ ( ! mat]ial alone =ms an important item :]e su* va/ numb] ( pieces h to be lift$ to a height ( #hj1 #ij1 or #ajj feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh1 #gi ,figs4 #gh & #gi are sket*es ( l[-level viaducts con/ruct$ ) "o l>ge op5+ span1 or sw+-bridge1 = ! passage ( vessels4 ,! gird]s & roadway ( su* op5+ span are usually con/ruct$ #he z a compact framework1 :i* revolves on a c5tre plac$ 9 ! middle ( a circul> roll] pa? or species ( turn-table4 ,! portions ( ! rotat+ op5+ bridge1 al?\gh n always ! same l5g? on ea* side ( ! c5tre-p91 are g5]ally v c>efully balanc$1 to pres]ve ! equilibrium ( ! entire mass :5 sw++ r\nd = ! passage ( vessels4 ,to ensure /ability 9 work+1 & /ead9ess dur+ heavy gales1 a lib]al diamet] %\ld be giv5 to ! roll] pa? ( all sw+-bridges hav+ l>ge span & great weight4 ,lattice1 or truss1 gird]s are pref]able to plate gird]s = sw+-bridges ( consid]able op5+1 z !y pres5t less surface area to ! action ( ! w9d4 ,! op5+ & clos+ ( ^! bridges is effect$ by :eel-ge>+ actuat$ by hydraulic1 manual1 or o!r motive-p[]4 ,! revolv+ ma*9]y %\ld be set solid & true1 well protect$ f ! wea!r1 &1 at ! same "t1 readily accessible = con/ant inspection1 lubrication1 or repair4 ,figs4 #hj to #he are sket*es ( v>i\s types ( railway bridges con/ruct$ = small] op5+s across n>r[] riv]s1 wat]-ways1 or canals4 ,fig4 #hj is an example ( :at is kn[n z a bascule bridge4 ,?is p>ticul> bridge is made 9 two halves1 meet+ 9 ! c5tre ( ! span1 ! tail end ( ea* half be+ provid$ ) heavy c\nt]weights to assi/ 9 op5+ or tilt+ up ! bridge = ! passage ( vessels1 or l[]+ x d[n = railway traffic4 ,ea* half ( ! bridge sw+s on horizontal axles1 & ! rais+ or l[]+ is effect$ by means ( h& w9*es or o!r motive-p[]1 actuat+ :eel-ge>+ work+ into too!d v]tical segm5ts atta*$ to ! tail end ( ea* half4 ,! same pr9ciple has also be5 appli$ to bridges hav+ only "o leaf to tilt up to cle> ! passage way4 ,railway bridges ( ?is patt]n are n[ v r>ely adopt$4 ,!y h ! great drawback t :5 rais$ to ! v]tical position1 a v l>ge area is pres5t$ to ! action ( ! w9d1 & ?is defect might lead to v s]i\s consequ5ces 9 ! case ( a bridge situat$ 9 an expos$ locality4 ,an op5-"w floor dim9i%es ! w9d area1 b a v l>ge surface mu/ necess>ily rema94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd1 #he ,fig4 #ha illu/rates :at is kn[n z a trav]s+ bridge4 ,9 ?is case ! wid? ( ! op5+ passage-way & ! adjo9+ span are #hg made ! same1 & ! gird]s = ! two spans are con/ruct$ 9 "o cont9u\s l5g?4 ,by means ( ge>+ atta*$ to ! fix$ portion ( ! "w1 ! cont9u\s l5g? ( gird]1 ) its roadway1 is fir/ slightly rais$ or l[]$1 & !n drawn back on roll]s suffici5tly f> to leave ! op5+ span q cle> = ! passage ( vessels4 ,a rev]se movem5t ( ! ge>+ causes ! movable gird]s & roadway to travel back & return to _! orig9al position ready = ! tra9 traffic4 ,op5+ bridges are sometimes con/ruct$ on ?is sy/em 9 cases :]e ! level ( ! rails is only a few feet above ! level ( ! wat]1 & :]e !re is only "o wat] op5+1 & t n m ?an #bj to #cj feet wide4 ,9 su* bridges ! movable portion is roll$ back along iron rails1 or plates secur$ to masonry walls1 or /rong pile-"w4 ,?is class ( bridge is cumb]some1 sl[ to move1 & is n[ b v r>ely adopt$4 ,fig4 #hb %[s a type ( simple lift bridge1 ( :i* !re are b few examples rema9+4 ,9 ?is p>ticul> bridge ! gird]s & roadway =m a solid framework1 :i* re/s on ! abutm5ts dur+ ! passage ( ! tra9s4 ,/rong *a9s1 secur$ to ! corn]s ( ! framework1 pass ov] l>ge %eaves on ! top ( ! iron /&>ds1 & !n r\nd drums plac$ bel[ ! level ( ! rails1 & t]m9ate by atta*m5t to heavy c\nt]-weights susp5d$ 9 iron cyl9d]s4 ,! c\nt]-weights are adju/$ to approximately balance ! bridge1 s t a mod]ate p[] appli$ to ! :eel-ge>+ on ! drums is suffici5t to raise ! roadway to ! requir$ height4 ,?is class ( op5+ bridge is only suitable = ! passage ( b>ges & small craft )\t ma/s2 & x requires ! re-adju/m5t ( ! c\nt]-weights :5 ! roadway v>ies 9 weight1 9 consequ5ce ( ra9 or repairs4 ,figs4 #hc1 #hd1 & #he are sket*es ( small sw+-bridges con/ruct$ = n>r[ wat]ways4 ,al?\gh diff]+ 9 appe>ance1 !y are all practically on ! same pr9ciple1 ) c5tre p9 & roll] pa?1 & are simil> 9 g5]al arrangem5t to ! l>ge-size-op5+ sw+-bridges %[n 9 ,figs4 #gh & #gi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf1 #hg1 #hh ,! sw+-bridge arrangem5t is s simple 9 con/ruction1 conv5i5t = inspection1 & easy to ma9ta91 t :]e possible x is n[ g5]ally adopt$ 9 pref]5ce to any o!r sy/em4 ,! #hi weights on c5tre p9 & roll] pa? may be di/ribut$ z consid]$ mo/ exp$i5t1 & by means ( suitable appliances ! weight may be altoge!r tak5 (f ! c5tre & roll]s :5 ! bridge is clos$ = ! passage ( tra9s4 ,!re are _m wide riv]s :i*1 al?\gh n navigable 9 ! ord9>y acceptance ( ! t]m1 nev]!less require bridges ( l>ge spans to provide free wat]way = ! float+ d[n ( rafts ( timb]4 ,away 9 ! high gr\nd1 9 ! timb]-gr[+ di/ricts1 trees are fell$1 sawn or cut into long poles1 logs1 or scantl+s1 & haul$ to ! banks ( ! riv]4 ,! timb]s are !n =m$ into l>ge rafts ( ! mo/ conv5i5t =m = float+ d[n to ! place ( di/ribution or port = %ipm5t4 ,ev5 ) old exp]i5c$ float]s1 us+ _! long sweeps 9 ! mo/ skilful mann]1 x is difficult to take any?+ b a v irregul> c\rse d[n ! /ream4 ,"u ! mo/ fav\rable circum/ances "o ( ^! l>ge rafts is an unwieldy1 awkw>d craft to manage2 b 9 a riv] full ( twi/s & turns1 ) rea*es v>y+ f comp>ative smoo? wat] to m9iature rapids1 ! curr5t c>ries ! huge mass surg+ along1 & only a cle>1 unob/ruct$ *annel w enable its navigation to be c>ri$ out ) safety4 ,! pres5ce ( a pi] 9 ! ma9 wat]way might cause de/ruction to ! rafts & loss ( life to ! m54 ,! ve/$ int]e/s 9 float+ rights are t5aci\sly gu>d$1 & no new bridge w\ld be sanction$ :i* w\ld 9 any way int]f]e ) ! wat]way or endang] ! passage ( rafts d[n ! riv]4 ,bridges ( ?is description are mu* less co/ly ?an ^? ov] deep wat]--navigable riv]s4 ,except+ ! l>ge spans1 ! re/ ( ! "w is comp>atively simple4 ,! wat] is g5]ally %all[1 & mu* r$uc$ 9 quantity dur+ ! summ] mon?s4 ,good f\ndations c g5]ally be obta9$ )\t go+ to any great dep?4 ,! headway may be kept l[1 or ( su* height z may be/ suit ! purposes ( ! railway1 & be suffici5tly well up out ( ! way ( ! floods :i* may take place f "t to "t on ! riv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi1 #ij ,fig4 #hf is a sket* ( a bridge con/ruct$ ov] a riv] mu* us$ = raft+ purposes4 ,! l>ge span is ov] ! ma9 *annel1 & ! small spans are ov] a wide gravelly =e%ore1 :i* is only cov]$ ) wat] dur+ exceptionally high floods 9 ! autumn or w9t]4 #ia ,no raft+ c be c>ri$ on :5 ! riv] is 9 flood2 ! curr5t w\ld be too /rong to p]mit ( ! raft be+ kept "u control4 ,fig4 #hg is a sket* ( a simil> bridge :]e ! riv] is conf9$ to a regul> *annel betwe5 two slop+ banks ( /rong clay4 ,fig4 #hh %[s a bridge erect$ ov] a n>r[ rocky pass 9 ! riv]4 ,! *annel is hemm$ 9 by ! almo/ p]p5dicul> sides ( m\nta9 granite1 !re are no banks to ov]fl[1 ! flood wat]s _c spread lat]ally1 h[ev] mu* !y may increase 9 dep?1 & ) build+-/one at h& 9 abundance1 & f\ndations =m$ 9 ! solid rock1 ! situation is "o ( ! mo/ fav\rable = a /rong p]man5t bridge4 ,! ca/-iron ar* ( #aej-;feet span has a graceful appe>ance1 & h>monizes well ) ! surr\nd+ sc5]y4 ,a small masonry ar* at ea* end ( ! bridge provides = communication along ! banks ( ! riv]4 ,) riv]s :i* are nei!r "u ! control ( navigation au?orities nor us$ = rafts ( timb]1 !re is mu* great] fre$om = ! design+ & c>ry+ out ( bridges or viaducts suitable = ! actual physical conditions ( ! locality4 ,! headway w be guid$ only by ! height ( ! railway to be c>ri$ across1 & by any flood-wat] levels :i* may affect ! "w4 ,! size ( ! spans w be regulat$ by ! wid? ( ! riv]1 ! dep? ( ! wat]1 & ! nature ( ! gr\nd into :i* ! pi]s h to be built4 ,= broad1 %all[ riv]s ) good firm riv]-b$s1 pi]s may be built at mod]ate co/1 & comp>atively small spans adopt$2 on ! o!r h&1 ) a broad deep riv] x w be bett]1 z previ\sly expla9$1 to r$uce ! numb] ( pi]s & increase ! span4 ,9 ! "o case1 = example1 a riv] #aej feet wide may be cross$ ) ?ree spans & two pi]s 9 ! %all[ wat]1 z 9 ,fig4 #hi2 9 ! o!r x may be m prud5t & economical to cross 9 "o span1 )\t any int]m$iate pi]1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ij4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia ,next 9 importance to ! l>ge bridges & viaducts ov] riv]s are ! viaducts :i* h to be con/ruct$ = ! cross+ ( deep inl& valleys4 ,! occurr5ce ( "o ( ^! deep valleys betwe5 long l5g?s ( av]age table-l& r5d]s necess>y ei!r a s]ies ( cutt+s & fall+ gradi5ts to get d[n to a l[ level1 or ! erection ( high-level works to cont9ue onw>d ! rail-level at ! #ic height already atta9$4 ,a decision to adopt ! latt] c\rse br+s =w>d ! consid]ation z to ! me?od ( c>ry+ out ! "w4 ,to =m a high embankm5t across su* a valley w\ld entail an enorm\s exp5diture = e>?work1 & sev]al op5+s1 or bridges1 w\ld h to be made 9 ! embankm5t = /reams1 riv]s1 & roadways4 ,in/ead1 !re=e1 ( mak+ ?is "p ( ! l9e entirely ( embankm5t1 x is usual to c>ry ! e>?work =w>d until ! height is ab\t #be or #cj feet1 & to =m ! rema9d] ( ! op5+ ( ar*+1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ia4 ,?is arrangem5t is n only less co/ly ?an an embankm5t ( su* height1 b has also ! great advantage t any or all ( ! ar*es are available = ! passage ( /reams1 riv]s1 roads1 & accommodation works4 ,! "* ( ! "w to be c>ri$ out 9 ! con/ruction ( bridges or viaducts ov] riv]s or valleys mu/ greatly dep5d ^u ! description ( mat]ials at comm&4 ,:]e good build+-/one is pl5tiful1 & ! price ( lab\r mod]ate1 works ( masonry %\ld be adopt$ z f> z practicable4 ,brickwork is an excell5t sub/itute = masonry1 provid$ t specially select$ bricks are us$ = all facework1 or p>ts expos$ to ! wea!r4 ,= wat]-wa%$ pi]s & abutm5ts1 ! l[] portion %\ld be fac$ ) good h>d /one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib ,bridges & viaducts consi/+ ( ar*es ( masonry or brickwork =m ! mo/ sub/antial & p]man5t works ( con/ruction = railway purposes2 once prop]ly built1 ! exp5diture on future ma9t5ance or repairs is m]ely nom9al4 ,= viaducts ! span ( ! ar*+ mu/ be regulat$ by ! height ( ! viaduct4 ,! great] ! height ! l>g] ! span4 ,9 "o case #cj-;feet spans may be suitable1 :]eas 9 ano!r x may be m economical to introduce spans ( #fj feet or m1 & s r$uce ! numb] ( l(ty pi]s4 ,f a co/ po9t ( view !re is1 h[ev]1 a limit to ! span ( ar*+1 &1 except = special cases1 :]e exp5diture is ( second>y importance1 l>ge spans are v r>ely adopt$4 ,ar*es ( l>ge spans1 no d\bt1 h be5 built bo? 9 masonry & brickwork1 & h be5 a complete success 9 e way except exp5se4 ,un=tunately1 ! quantity & weight ( mat]ials 9 ar*+1 & ! correspond+ co/1 increase v rapidly z ! span increases1 #ie & = op5+s ( m ?an #fj or #gj feet gird]-"w becomes mu* *eap] ?an ar*+4 ,figs4 #ib & #ic are examples ( viaducts hav+ pi]s ( masonry1 ) gird]s to c>ry ! roadway4 ,9 ! "o case ! roadway is c>ri$ on ! bottom flange ( ! gird]s1 & 9 ! o!r on ! top4 ,! latt] arrangem5t af=ds great] facility = securely brac+ ! gird]s toge!r1 :ile = ! =m] x is claim$ t ! gird]s =m a massive p>apet1 :i* w\ld s]ve z a protection 9 ! ev5t ( an eng9e or vehicles leav+ ! rails4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( railways1 _m l>ge viaducts 7 con/ruct$ hav+ masonry pi]s1 & timb] trusses to c>ry ! roadway4 ,mu* +5uity 0 display$ 9 design+ ! trusses1 & 9 ! introduction ( ca/-iron jo9t-%oes & wr\ght-iron brac+s4 ,_m ( ^! wood5 sup]/ructures s]v$ well = sev]al ye>s1 b !y 7 always expos$ to ! imm95t risk ( de/ruction f fire1 & h[ev] c>efully ! logs may h be5 select$1 ! decay ( ! timb] 0 only a "q ( "t4 ,! det]ioration ( "o piece 0 equival5t to ! weak5+ ( ! entire truss1 & ! r5ewal ( any "p 0 bo? difficult & co/ly4 ,! %r9kage ( ! timb]1 & ! work+ at ! jo9ts1 caus$ ! trusses to deflect consid]ably "u a pass+ load1 & al?\gh ! actual /r5g? ( ! /ructure may n h be5 mu* impair$1 ! creak+ & depression _h any?+ b a reassur+ effect4 ,timb] sup]/ructures = any?+ b small spans are r>ely adopt$ n[1 except = tempor>y works1 or on l9es abroad1 :]e ! transport on gird]-"w w\ld be v co/ly1 & :]e good timb] is v *eap & abundant4 ,ev5 9 ! latt] case ! wood5 sup]/ructure is g5]ally look$ ^u z a tempor>y exp$i5t1 to be replac$ at no v remote date ) iron or /eel gird]s1 :5 ! mat]ials c be convey$ ov] ! entire complet$ l9e4 ,figs4 #id1 #ie1 & #if are sket*es ( ?ree types ( timb] trusses z con/ruct$ 9 viaducts ( sev]al spans4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic ,!re are _m localities1 especially abroad1 :]e suitable /one is mo/ difficult to obta91 & v exp5sive to "w & convey4 ,9 su* cases x is compulsory to use z little ( x z possible1 & to resort to iron or /eel bo? = ! gird]s & a l>ge portion ( ! pi]s4 ,! pi]s may be made ( ca/-iron1 wr\ght-iron1 or /eel1 #ig ( suitable =m & arrangem5t to ensure /r5g? & /ability4 ,n only mu/ ! pi]s be /rong en\gh to c>ry ! weight t may be br\ght ^u !m v]tically1 b !y mu/ h suffici5t wid? ( base to ensure lat]al /ead9ess4 ,! design %\ld admit ( facility ( erection1 ) a m9imum ( scaffold+1 & ! pieces %\ld be ( conv5i5t l5g? & weight = transport4 ,! l[] l5g? ( riv] pi]s1 or portion liable to be 9 contact ) flood-wat]1 %\ld be ( solid masonry1 to resi/ ! action ( ! wat]1 or ( any dbris br\ght d[n by ! curr5t4 ,m ?an "o f9e viaduct has be5 swept away = want ( due att5tion to ! latt] precaution4 ,fig4 #ig illu/rates a type ( pi] compos$ ( ca/-iron columns1 well brac$ & /ay$ ) wr\ght-iron4 ,! ends ( ! columns & all contact surfaces %\ld be prop]ly turn$ & fac$ by ma*9]y to ensure true & p]fect jo9ts1 & ! socket$ ends %\ld be turn$ & bor$ to fit closely4 ,! latt] is important1 & if n c>efully c>ri$ out1 a slight slid+ movem5t ( ! flanges may take place1 & ?r[ undue /ra9 on ! bolts4 ,fig4 #ih %[s a v simil> pi]1 con/ruct$ entirely ( wr\ght-iron or /eel4 ,ea* ( ! above-describ$ pi]s has a lib]al am\nt ( tap] or batt]1 bo? 9 ! front & transv]se elevation4 ,! size & numb] ( ! columns1 & ! dim5sions ( ! braces or /ays1 w dep5d ^u ! height ( ! pi] & ! weights & /ra9s to be su/a9$4 ,_m important & l(ty viaducts h be5 erect$ on ?is pr9ciple ( iron pi]s spr++ f masonry f\ndations1 m p>ticul>ly across deep rugg$ rav9es abroad1 :]e iron pi]s (f]$ ! only practical1 sub/antial means ( deal+ ) :at appe>$ o!rwise an impossibility4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #aja ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig1 #ih ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj ,fig4 #ii is a sket* ( ! ,k9sua ,viaduct on ! ,erie ,railway1 "o ( ! highe/ railway viaducts 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ! transv]se elevation ! pi]s h a l>ge am\nt ( tap]2 b 9 ! front elevation !y are v]tical1 & ( wid? to correspond to "o ( ! small spans ( ! ma9 gird]4 ,?is arrangem5t ( long & wide base gives great /ability to ! pi]4 ,! spans ( ! gird]s1 :i* are ( ! ord9>y lattice type1 are n l>ge1 be+ #fa feet = ! cle> spans1 & #ch feet #f in*es = ^? ov] ! pi]s4 ,! pr9cipal int]e/ is 9 ! great height & simplicity ( ! pi]s4 #ajb ,! rail-level ov] ! top ( ! pi] is #cja feet above ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! ,k9sua /ream4 ,! wid? ( ?is pi] on ! top is #aj feet 7= s+le l9e71 & ! wid? at ! bottom #ajc feet4 ,fig4 #ajj is a sket* ( ! ,loa ,viaduct on ! ,ant(aga/a ,railway1 ,bolivia1 /at$ to be ! highe/ railway viaduct 9 ! _w4 ,! arrangem5t ( spans & pi]s is v simil> to ! ,k9sua ,viaduct4 ,! ma9 spans are #hj feet1 & ! pi] spans #cb feet4 ,! wid? ( ! pi] on ! top is #aj feet #f in*es 7= s+le l9e71 & ! wid? at ! bottom ( ! highe/ pi] is #ajf feet #h in*es4 ,9 contra/+ ^! light iron pi]s ) :at w\ld h be5 requir$ if con/ruct$ ( masonry1 an idea may be =m$ ( ! enorm\s am\nt ( mat]ial1 lab\r1 & "t1 :i* w\ld h be5 exp5d$ to erect ! "w 9 /one4 ,be=e ! pr9ciple ( l(ty iron pi]s _h be5 ?or\ghly develop$1 _m high pi]s _h be5 built ( timb] bo? at home & abroad4 ,m p>ticul>ly 0 ?is ! case 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 :]e ! pres5ce ( magnific5t timb] close to h& (f]$ special inducem5ts = ! use ( wood4 ,l a mammo? scaffold+1 ea* pi] 0 con/ruct$ ) a mo/ lib]al supply ( mat]ial1 judici\sly select$ & c>efully put toge!r1 b ! dang] ( de/ruction by fire 0 ev] pres5t f ! beg9n+4 ,probably m timb] pi]s & bridges h be5 de/roy$ by fire ?an h be5 remov$ on acc\nt ( natural decay4 ,"o ( ! mo/ notable ( ^! timb]-pi] con/ructions 0 t ( ! ,old ,portage ,viaduct1 on ! ,erie ,railway1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,fig4 #aja is a sket* ( "o or two ( ! pi]s4 ,?is viaduct 0 m ?an #hjj feet long1 & #bcd feet high f ! b$ ( ! riv] to ! rail-level4 ,! spans 7 #ej feet ea*4 ,masonry pi]s 7 c>ri$ up to ab\t #be feet above ! ord9>y wat]-level ( ! riv]1 & ^u ^! ! timb] sup]/ructure 0 erect$4 ,ea* timb] pi] consi/$ ( ?ree complete sets ( framework1 securely connect$ toge!r1 & also well /ay$ & brac$ to ! adjo9+ pi]s4 ,?is viaduct 0 de/roy$ by fire 9 #ahge1 & 0 recon/ruct$ ) pi]s & gird]s ( iron4 ,railway bridges ov] or "u public roads ( prim>y or second>y importance mu/ be con/ruct$ to ! wid?s & heights prescrib$ = su* works 9 ! fix$ regulations ( ! c\ntry 9 :i* !y #ajc h to be built4 ,z a rule1 ^! road-bridges are simple & inexp5sive 9 "*1 except 9 t[ns1 or 9 cases :]e ! l9e crosses ! roads v obliquely1 or :]e ! road is situat$ at ! top ( a deep cutt+1 or bottom ( a high embankm5t4 ,away f t[ns & out 9 ! op5 c\ntry1 p]mission is g5]ally obta9$ to div]t ! roads to a mod]ate ext5t1 s z to obta9 a m fav\rable angle & height = ! bridge2 b 9 t[ns1 :]e ! roads become /reets1 sometimes ( great wid?1 ) h\ses & %ops on ea* side1 little or no div]sion c be all[$4 ,a railway pass+ ?r\gh a portion ( a d5sely populat$ t[n mu/ deal ) ! /reets z !y exi/1 z any great alt]ation 9 _! c\rse or cont9uity w\ld involve a l>ge de/ruction ( prop]ty4 ,) c>eful lay+ out x is possible to obta9 fav\rable cross+s = _m ( ! /reets1 b a numb] ( o!rs mu/ be cross$ obliquely1 & ^! oblique cross+s v frequ5tly result 9 a span twice ! wid?1 or ev5 m1 ( :at w\ld be necess>y to cross ! /reet on ! squ>e4 ,bridge-"w 9 t[ns is m co/ly ?an 9 ! c\ntry1 z a high] class ( "w is dem&$1 m f9i% or dress$ "w 9 ! masonry or brickwork1 & m ornam5tation 9 ! scre5s & p>apets 9 connection ) ! iron gird]-"w4 ,! "w itself has to be c>ri$ on 9 a conf9$ locality1 ) limit$ space = mat]ials & appliances1 & :]e ! ?or\ghf>e mu/ be kept op54 ,:]e ! height is suffici5t1 & suitable mat]ials readily obta9$1 x is pref]able to adopt an ar* bridge1 z be+ ( a mu* m p]man5t "* ?an gird]s4 ,fig4 #ajb is an example ( an ord9>y ov]-l9e ar* bridge to c>ry a public road ov] a d\ble l9e ( railway 9 a cutt+ ( mod]ate dep?4 ,fig4 #ajc %[s a some:at simil> ov]-l9e ar* bridge1 b its height f rail to road-level be+ great]1 side ar*es are introduc$ 9 pref]5ce to long heavy w+ walls4 ,fig4 #ajd %[s an ov]-l9e ar* bridge 9 a rock cutt+4 ,9 ?is case1 by increas+ ! span & =m+ ! spr++ b$ 9 ! solid rock1 ! masonry ( abutm5ts & w+ walls may be r$uc$ to a m9imum4 ,fig4 #aje is a sket* ( an ord9>y "u-l9e ar* bridge to c>ry a railway ov] a public road 9 an embankm5t ( mod]ate height4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajd ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg ,fig4 #ajf %[s a simil> "u-l9e bridge1 b ) curv$ in/ead ( #aaj /raight w+ walls4 ,fig4 #ajg is an example ( an "u-l9e ar* bridge 9 a r high embankm5t1 & :]e side ar*es h be5 adopt$ in/ead ( long w+ walls4 ,! above six types are equally applicable = private roads cross+ ! railway1 b1 z previ\sly m5tion$1 a less] wid? & headway w be accept$ = "u-l9e bridges = private or occupation roads1 ?an = public roads4 ,= ! ov]-l9e bridges1 h[ev]1 ! wid? & headway w be regulat$ by ! numb] ( l9es & /&>d height ( ! railway4 ,:5 ^! ar* bridges h to be built on ! skew to suit an oblique cross+ ( ! road1 extra c>e w be necess>y 9 sett+ out ! "w1 & m>k+ on ! c5t]+ ! spiral c\rses ( ! ar*+4 ,ar* bridges may be built ( masonwork or brickwork1 or a comb9ation ( ! two4 ,if ! available qu>ries d n yield good flat b$d$ /ones readily work$1 x is bett]1 :]e possible1 to use /rong h>d bricks = ! ar*+1 & utilize ! /one = ! rema9d] ( ! "w4 ,al?\gh ar*+ und\bt$ly =ms ! mo/ durable type ( bridgework1 numb]s ( cases occur :]e ! available height or space betwe5 rail-level & road-level is too small1 or ! co/ ( masonry & brickwork too great1 to admit ( any?+ b gird]-"w4 ,detail$ sket*es ( "s ( ! _m =ms ( gird] bridges are giv5 9 ,figs4 #acb to #aec1 illu/rat+ v>i\s sy/ems ( roadways & p>apets4 ,9 "s in/ances ! ma9 gird]s are made suffici5tly deep to s]ve z p>apets1 :ile 9 o!rs a %all[] gird] has be5 adopt$1 on top ( :i* has be5 plac$ a light ca/-iron p>apet compos$ ei!r ( close plate-"w or ( ornam5tal op5 rail+s4 ,! op5 ironwork p>apet has a good appe>ance1 b z a scre5 is n s effici5t z ! close ca/-iron plates4 ,9 addition to ! bridges requir$ = ! regul> public roads1 x is usually necess>y to con/ruct a c]ta9 numb] ( occupation or private road bridges ov] & "u ! l9e to accommodate portions ( e/ates & l>ge prop]ties int]sect$ or sev]$ by ! railway1 & :i* w\ld be inadequately provid$ = by ord9>y gate cross+s on ! level4 ,! position & description ( ^! occupation bridges is g5]ally matt] ( private arrangem5t4 ,! bridges w be some:at simil> 9 "* to ! public road #aaa bridges1 b ( mu* less wid? = ! roadway4 ,^? ov] ! railway mu/ h ! /&>d span & height adopt$ z a m9imum = ! o!r ov]-l9e bridges1 & ^? "u ! railway mu/ h ! full wid? on ! top = ! l9es ( rails1 b w h less wid? betwe5 ! abutm5ts = ! roadway4 ,f\ndations4--,s mu* dep5ds ^u ! s\ndness & security ( ! f\ndations ( any bridge1 viaduct1 or l>ge build+1 t x w\ld be almo/ impossible to devote too mu* c>e to ! selection & treatm5t4 ,unless ! f\ndation be firm1 ! entire /ructure w be expos$ to ! risk ( failure1 ei!r 9 subsid5ce ( masonry1 giv+ way ( ar*es1 or depression ( gird]s4 ,a small matt] ov]look$ dur+ ! con/ruction ( ?is "p ( ! "w w be mo/ difficult to correct or adju/ aft]w>ds4 ,! insi/5t weight ( all /ructures built ( masonry or brickwork w cause ! mass to settle to a c]ta9 ext5t1 accord+ z ! jo9ts ( mort> or cem5t become compress$ by ! numb] ( sup]9cumb5t c\rses4 ,9 a simil> mann] ! gravel & clay ( a f\ndation w compress m or less accord+ to its compactness & ! weight ( ! /ructure4 ,no inconv5i5ce w1 h[ev]1 arise if ! settlem5t or compression be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! entire area4 ,9 ord9>y av]age1 dry1 solid gr\nd1 a good f\ndation c usually be obta9$ at a mod]ate dep?4 ,! removal ( a few feet ( ! surface lay]s w g5]ally lead to a good h>d /ratum ( natural mat]ial suffici5tly firm to c>ry ! abutm5ts & pi]s ( railway bridges & viaducts4 ,two or m foot+s are usually adopt$ s z to di/ribute ! weight ov] an increas$ area1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,:]e ! weight to be c>ri$ is consid]able1 x is bett] to increase ! numb] ( ! foot+s1 & give !m a small] projection1 z 9 ,fig4 #aji1 r ?an h a less] numb] & great] projection1 z 9 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,!re is great] liability ( fracture ( ! mat]ial 9 ! latt] ?an 9 ! =m]4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 to di/+ui% betwe5 made gr\nd & natural gr\nd4 ,holl[s :i* h be5 fill$ 9 mu/ n be reli$ ^u to su/a9 heavy weights2 ! mat]ial may h be5 consolidat+ = ye>s1 b x is saf] to cut ?r\gh x & f\nd ^u ! natural /ratum b5ea?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aji1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #abd1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae1 #abe ,soils ( a clayey nature mu/ be dealt ) v cauti\sly4 ,if ! #aac gr\nd be fairly level1 & ! mat]ial firm1 a solid f\ndation may be obta9$1 b ! excavat$ portion %\ld be cov]$ up z quickly z possible to prev5t any decompos+ action tak+ place ^u exposure to ! op5 air4 ,! expansive nature ( "s clays mu/ be c>efully kept 9 view1 s z to gu>d aga9/ any di/urbance 9 ! f9i%$ f\ndation4 ,!re are "s descriptions ( %ale :i* :5 fir/ op5$ out appe> to h ! solidity ( h>d rock1 & yet1 aft] a few days' exposure to ! atmosph]e1 are *ang$ to ! consi/5cy ( s(t mud4 ,s&1 be+ compos$ ( su* small p>ticles1 is almo/ incompressible1 & makes an excell5t f\ndation s long z x c be reta9$ 9 its position4 ,little or no settlem5t w take place if ! s& rema9s undi/urb$1 b s soon z x comes "u ! influ5ce ( runn+ spr+s1 or und]gr\nd dra9age1 ! f9e p>ticles ( ! s& w be gradually b surely c>ri$ away ) ! wat]1 & ! entire f\ndation be und]m9$4 ,! op5+ out ( a neighb\r+ excavation1 or ! c>ry+ out ( "s l[-level dra9age1 w\ld endang] a con/ruction :i* o!rwise w\ld be solid & p]man5t4 ,9 _m cases ( s(t gr\nd1 m p>ticul>ly abroad1 s& piles h be5 adopt$ & h giv5 v good results4 ,! sy/em is c>ri$ out by fir/ driv+ a l>ge wood5 pile d[n ?r\gh ! s(t mat]ial into ! m solid /ratum bel[4 ,! timb] pile is !n c>efully )drawn & ! cavity fill$ ) clean s&4 ,! numb] & di/ance ap>t ( ^! s& piles w dep5d ^u ! nature ( ! gr\nd & description & weight ( /ructure to be c>ri$4 ,clean1 compact gravel is "o ( ! be/ mat]ials to build ^u1 be+ almo/ incompressible & q unaffect$ by exposure to ! atmosph]e4 ,x is easily excavat$ & levell$ (f to ! surface requir$4 ,a f\ndation ( rock may be consid]$ 9 ! ab/ract z ! mo/ solid base to be obta9$1 b x mu/ be treat$ judici\sly1 & a prop] surface secur$4 ,! out] portion ( _m descriptions ( rock consi/s ( blocks or lay]s ( /one p>tially or entirely sep>at$ f ! ma9 b$1 & ^!1 ly+ 9 a loose condition1 are deceptive & trea*]\s z a f\ndation base4 ,! expos$ rock %\ld be c>efully exam9$1 & all deta*$ or outly+ pieces or lay]s remov$ be=e plac+ any f\ndation c\rse4 ,special c>e mu/ be paid to all %elv+ rock1 & a level seat+ cut into x = ! #aad entire wid? ( ! f\ndation1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,a ?ick b$ ( concrete1 z 9 ,fig4 #aji1 makes an excell5t f\ndation c\rse4 ,:5 firmly set x becomes "o solid massive base f end to end1 & prev5ts ! yield+ or dropp+ ( masonry at any int]m$iate po9ts4 ,!re are _m places 9 s(t1 wet gr\nd :]e in/ead ( attempt+ to excavate all ! s(t mat]ial d[n to a h>d] /ratum1 x is bett] to adopt timb] pile f\ndations1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,! size ( ! piles & _! di/ance f c5tre to c5tre mu/ be regulat$ by ! description ( mat]ial into :i* !y h to be driv5 & ! weight !y h to su/a94 ,d\ble wal+ pieces %\ld be prop]ly *eck$ & bolt$ on to ! heads ( ! piles1 & trimm$ or levell$ (f to receive a d\ble floor ( ?ick planks4 ,! spaces r\nd ! heads ( piles & wal+s %\ld be fill$ 9 & levell$ up to "u side ( floor+1 ) cem5t concrete4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aab ,= bridges ( mod]ate span1 ov] s(t gr\nd or ov] %all[ fre% wat]1 /rong ca/-iron screw piles c be adopt$ ) great advantage4 ,fig4 #aab %[s a v usual =m ( screw pile1 made ) an ext]nal screw at ! l[] end & ) a %>p cutt+ edge to facilitate p5etration into ! gr\nd4 ,! upp] portions are made 9 suitable l5g?s1 & all to "o patt]n & template1 = conv5i5ce 9 c>ry+ out ! "w4 ,! screw+ into ! gr\nd is g5]ally effect$ by means ( a cap/an or cross-head fix$ to ! top ( ! fir/ work+ l5g? ( pile1 & :i* is pull$ or turn$ r\nd by ropes work$ f /ation>y w9dlasses4 ,9 "s cases long b>s or lev]s are atta*$ 9 radiat+ positions to ! cap/an-head1 & a numb] ( m5 are employ$ to walk r\nd & r\nd1 pu%+ ! lev]s1 & 9 ?is way screw+ ! pile into ! gr\nd4 ,z ! pile goes d[n ! cap/an-head has to be remov$1 & additional l5g?s bolt$ on1 until ! pile ent]s a solid /ratum1 or is consid]$ deep en\gh = ! duty x has to p]=m4 ,! la/ or top l5g? has g5]ally to be ca/ to a special l5g? to br+ ! "w up to ! exact height to receive ! gird]s4 ,! core ( excavat$ mat]ial passes up into ! int]ior ( ! pile1 & 9 "s cases becomes s compress$ or tight z to require ! use ( an int]nal augur to remove a portion ( x to enable ! screw+ to proce$4 ,! pile %[n 9 ,fig4 #aab is "o ( a numb] :i* 7 successfully screw$ into ! gr\nd to dep?s v>y+ f #db to #dh feet4 ,a too!d or #aaf s]rat$ edge1 z 9 ,fig4 #aac1 is sometimes giv5 to ! l[] edge = screw piles :i* h to cut _! way ?r\gh a h>d /ratum4 ,all bolt+ flanges %\ld be accurately turn$ & fitt$ to ensure close1 p>allel surfaces :5 bolt$ toge!r4 ,! jo9t %[n at ,a1 ,fig4 #aab1 is "o ! writ] has us$ to a l>ge ext5t = ! bolt+ flanges ( ca/-iron screw piles & cyl9d]s4 ,x is v simple 9 =m1 readily coat$ ) :ite lead to ensure a wat]-tight jo9t1 & z ! upp] l5g? is practically recess$1 or let into ! l[] l5g?1 ! exact cont9uity ( ! diff]5t ca/+s is secur$4 ,solid screw piles ( wr\ght-iron or /eel1 simil> to ,fig4 #aad1 are us$ = "s descriptions ( "w4 ,^! are g5]ally made 9 long l5g?s1 9 sizes v>y+ f #d to #h in*es 9 diamet]1 & ) screw blades ( wr\ght-iron or ca/-iron fix$ 9 ! mo/ secure mann] to resi/ ! /ra9 produc$ :5 screw+ into ! gr\nd4 ,! c\pl+s = ^! solid piles mu/ be v c>efully made1 all contact surfaces truly fac$ & fitt$1 bolts turn$1 & bolt-holes drill$4 ,fig4 #aae is a sket* ( a holl[ cyl9drical wat]-jet pile1 :i* has be5 us$ successfully 9 cases ( light s&4 ,! l[] end ( ! pile is made ext]nally 9 ! =m ( a solid disc1 t]m9at+ 9 a conical po9t1 hav+ an ap]ture 9 ! c5tre to correspond to ! wat]-jet4 ,to ! top ( ! pile is secur$ a tight-fitt+ cov] ?r\gh :i* a tube passes f a =ce pump4 ,wat] at high pressure is pump$ into ! tube1 & z x =ces its way out ?r\gh ! conical po9t ! s& is /irr$ up & loos5$1 & ?us all[s ! pile to desc5d4 ,:5 ! pile has be5 l[]$ to a suffici5t dep? ! pumps & tube are remov$1 & ! s& settles d[n into its =m] compact condition4 ,great c>e mu/ be us$ ) ! fir/ two or ?ree l5g?s ( any screw pile to ensure ! pile tak+ a correct or true v]tical position4 ,ea* s]ies ( screw piles %\ld be prop]ly brac$ toge!r to obta9 /ability "u mov+ loads4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag ,holl[ cyl9d]s ( ca/-iron1 wr\ght-iron1 or /eel =m mo/ effici5t f\ndations or pi]s = l>ge bridges ov] s(t gr\nd or fre% wat] ( consid]able dep?4 ,made op5 at ! bottom1 & con/ruct$ ( complete r+s1 or1 if ( l>ge diamet]1 ( r+s built up 9 segm5ts & securely atta*$ toge!r ) wat]-tight #aai jo9ts1 ! cyl9d] is plac$ 9 its prop] position on ! gr\nd or l[]$ into ! wat] prep>atory to s9k+4 ,! l[] l5g? is made ) a %>p cutt+ edge to facilitate p5etration4 ,by excavat+ & remov+ ! mat]ial r\nd ! cutt+ edge & base inside ! l[] l5g?1 ! cyl9d] desc5ds gradually ei!r f its own weight or by assi/$ weights1 & l5g? aft] l5g? is add$ until x is sunk to ! dep? requir$4 ,! excavat$ mat]ial is fill$ into buckets & hoi/$ to ! surface by a w9* fix$ on ! top l5g?4 ,:5 s9k+ 9 wat] ! work+ top ( ! cyl9d] is always kept at a suitable height above ! wat] = conv5i5ce 9 removal ( ! e>? or clay f ! int]ior to b>ges or gangways alongside4 ,"s /rata are m fav\rable = cyl9d] s9k+ ?an o!rs4 ,mat]ial ( a /rong clayey nature admits b a small am\nt ( wat] into ! excavation1 & a mod]ate-siz$ pump w keep ! work+ fairly dry until consid]able dep? has be5 rea*$4 ,"s o!r mat]ials are s op5 t ! wat] _c be kept d[n ) ord9>y pumps1 & ! cyl9d]s c !n only be l[]$ by ! pneumatic process4 ,?is process has be5 c>ri$ out 9 two me?ods1 "o ( !m on ! vacuum pr9ciple1 & ! o!r by air pressure1 or1 z x is t]m$1 ! pl5um sy/em4 ,) ! =m] me?od ! cyl9d] is plac$ 9 position1 & an air-tight cap1 ?r\gh :i* a pipe passes1 is secur$ on ! top4 ,p[]ful air-pumps are !n set to "w1 & ! p>tial vacuum ?us creat$ 9 ! int]ior causes ! mat]ial r\nd ! cutt+ edge & base to be loos5$ & drawn into ! cyl9d]1 ! cyl9d] at ! same "t go+ d[n or s9k+ by its own weight1 or assi/$1 if necess>y1 by add$ weights4 ,! cap is !n tak5 (f1 & ! mat]ial remov$ f ! int]ior1 ! op]ation ( exhau/+ & empty+ ! int]ior be+ repeat$ until ! cyl9d] is sunk to its prop] dep?4 ,?is me?od has be5 f\nd to "w well 9 /rata :i* conta9$ a l>ge proportion ( clay to assi/ 9 exclud+ ! air & wat]1 b 0 n ne>ly s successful :5 appli$ to mat]ial conta9+ /ones & l>ge b\ld]s4 ,! pl5um process is bas$ on ! pr9ciple ( ! div+-bell1 ! wat] be+ prev5t$ f ent]+ at ! bottom by keep+ ! cyl9d] full ( compress$ air4 ,an air-*amb]1 or air-lock1 ) p]fectly air-tight jo9ts1 is securely fix$ to ! top or upp] #abj work+ l5g? ( ! cyl9d]1 & no access c be obta9$ to ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d] )\t pass+ ?r\gh ?is air-lock1 :i* has "o l[] door or valve op5+ into ! cyl9d]1 & an upp] door op5+ out into ! op5 air4 ,tempor>y inside /ag+ is =m$ by putt+ planks across f flange to flange1 & plac+ %ort ladd]s on ^! l&+s = ! use ( workm5 desc5d+ or asc5d+4 ,! excavat$ mat]ial is hoi/$ by a w9*1 g5]ally plac$ on ! l&+ j "u ! air-lock4 ,! air-pump is plac$ 9 "s conv5i5t position outside1 ne> at h&1 ! pressure-pipe pass+ ?r\gh ! air-lock into ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d]4 ,air is =c$ into ! cyl9d] to a pressure suffici5t to drive out & keep out ! wat] f ! int]ior1 & all[ ! workm5 free access = excavat+ ! mat]ial r\nd ! cutt+ edge & base ( cyl9d]4 ,! am\nt ( pressure requir$ w dep5d ^u ! dep? ( ! work+ bel[ ! level ( ! wat] alongside4 ,m5 accu/om$ to ! process c "w )\t mu* inconv5i5ce "u a pressure ( #bj to #bb p\nds p] squ>e in*1 equal to a dep? ( #de to #ej feet2 b :5 ! pressure exce$s #be p\nds1 ! duty becomes v try+1 & is att5d$ ) consid]able risk4 ,in/ances are record$ ( m5 work+ at dep?s ( #aje & #aaj feet1 necessitat+ a pressure ( ov] #de p\nds p] squ>e in*2 b x is v que/ionable :e!r ! m5 expos$ to su* a sev]e ordeal 7 n p]man5tly affect$1 if "s ( !m did n actually succumb4 ,x w sometimes occur t1 aft] s9k+ ?r\gh s(t por\s /rata to a consid]able dep?1 a lay] ( clayey mat]ial is p5etrat$ suffici5tly ret5tive to keep out ! wat] & p]mit ( ! removal ( ! air-lock & ! completion ( ! s9k+ z an op5-top cyl9d]4 ,:5 work+ on ! pl5um sy/em ev]y?+ mu/ pass ?r\gh ! air-lock1 bo? mat]ials & m54 ,! excavat$ mat]ial is hoi/$ up to ! level ( ! air-lock1 ! upp] & l[] doors ( :i* mu/ be clos$1 & ! pressure inside ! air-lock br\ght to ! same z t inside ! cyl9d] by means ( a regulat+ valve4 ,! l[] door is !n op5$ to admit ! excavat$ mat]ial1 & !n clos$ aga9 to cut (f all communication ) ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! upp] door is !n op5$1 & ! mat]ial hoi/$ out into ! op5 air4 ,! same process has to be adopt$ = ! egress ( ! workm51 & ! rev]se arrangem5t = ! +ress ( m5 & #aba mat]ials4 ,! %ape & dim5sions ( ! air-lock may be v>i$ accord+ to circum/ances1 b ! pr9ciple w rema9 ! same4 ,:5 ! cyl9d] has be5 l[]$ to :at is consid]$ a suffici5t dep?1 x is usually load$ ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( dead weight 9 ! %ape ( old iron or o!r conv5i5t mat]ial1 & all[$ to rema9 load$ = "s days to asc]ta9 if x w s9k any fur!r4 ,%\ld ?is te/ be f\nd satisfactory1 ! dead weight is remov$1 & ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d] pump$ dry & c>efully fill$ ) good cem5t concrete4 ,cyl9d]s = f\ndations are g5]ally made circul> 9 section1 t =m be+ ! mo/ conv5i5t = turn+ & fac+ ! flange-jo9ts4 ,!y c1 h[ev]1 be made oval 9 section1 or ( any section t may be f\nd mo/ suitable = ! "w requir$4 ,figs4 #aaf & #aag give ! p>ticul>s ( a d\ble-l9e railway bridge c>ri$ on cyl9d] pi]s across a riv]4 ,! detail sket*es expla9 ! =m ( cutt+ edge1 flange jo9t1 & me?od ( brac+4 ,?is bridge is "o t 0 recon/ruct$ & wid5$ f a s+le-l9e to a d\ble-l9e bridge4 ,traffic 0 c>ri$ ov] on "o l9e :ile ! second l9e 0 be+ erect$1 h5ce ! reason :y "o /rong c5tral gird] 0 n adopt$4 ,cyl9d]s ( #g feet diamet] & upw>ds are sometimes fill$ ) concrete 9 ! l[] portion1 on :i* is built ei!r a circul> l9+ or a solid mass ( masonry or brickwork up to ! level ( ! gird]-blocks4 ,9 "s cases ! cyl9d]s prop]1 toge!r ) _! concrete fill+1 t]m9ate a little above ! wat]-level1 & ^u ^! f\ndations are erect$ /rong ca/-iron columns1 pla9 or ornam5t$ 9 design1 to c>ry ! gird]s & roadway4 ,! cyl9d] itself is g5]ally consid]$ m]ely z a cas+ or m$ium = obta9+ a f\ndation1 ! weight ( ! sup]/ructure be+ c>ri$ on ! int]nal fill+ or l9+4 ,caissons con/ruct$ ( plates ( wr\ght-iron or /eel are mu* us$ = ! f\ndations ( l>ge pi]s 9 deep wat]4 ,practically !y may be consid]$ z cyl9d]s on a l>ge scale1 ) ! diff]5ce t :]eas cyl9d]s are g5]ally cont9u$ up to ! "u side ( ! gird]s ( ! sup]/ructure1 caissons are only c>ri$ up to a %ort di/ance above ! wat]-level4 ,a caisson =ms a /rong wat]-tight iron c(f]dam1 f :i* ! wat] c be exclud$1 & a masonry or #abb brickwork pi] con/ruct$ inside4 ,x may be made all 9 "o piece to correspond to ! =m ( ! pi]1 or 9 sep>ate pieces to =m "o :ole1 ea* be+ sunk indep5d5t ( ! o!r1 & connect$ toge!r aft]w>ds4 ,be+ built up ( plates cut to ! prop] size & %ape1 x is a v simple matt] to rivet on additional ti]s ( plates z ! caisson is l[]$ deep] & deep] into ! b$ ( ! riv]4 ,! l[] l5g? is made ) a cutt+ edge to p5etrate ! gr\nd2 ! ext]ior is made )\t any projection l>g] ?an ! rivet heads1 & ! int]ior is /r5g!n$ ) ,t-irons or d\ble ,l-irons at ! jo9ts1 & /rong cross-brac+ to resi/ ! pressure ( ! wat]4 ,ab\t #g or #h feet above ! cutt+ edge a /rongly fram$ iron floor is rivet$ to ! v]tical sides1 & /r5g!n$ by plate-iron "u-brackets plac$ at %ort di/ances4 ,! excavators "w 9 ! space bel[ ! floor1 & ! excavat$ mat]ial is pass$ up ?r\gh op5+s =m$ 9 ! floor at conv5i5t po9ts to suit ! work+4 ,! me?ods ( l[]+ a caisson are ! same z = l[]+ a cyl9d]4 ,if ! pneumatic sy/em has to be adopt$1 !n two or m air-tight tubes ( lib]al dim5sions 7say #e to #h feet diamet]71 accord+ to ! size ( ! caisson1 mu/ be atta*$ to ! floor1 & on ! top ( ea* ( ^! tubes air-locks mu/ be secur$ = ! removal ( m5 & mat]ials4 ,! masonry or brickwork ( ! pi] is built ^u ! iron floor1 & a portion ( ?is build+ "w is usually c>ri$ on dur+ ! s9k+ ( ! caisson to obta9 weight to assi/ 9 ! l[]+4 ,:5 d[n to ! prop] dep?1 ! space bel[ ! floor is prop]ly cle>$ ( dbris & wat]1 & !n c>efully fill$ 9 ) cem5t concrete4 ,"s caissons are made ) v]tical sides ?r\gh\t _! entire height2 o!rs h an outw>d tap] = #ae or #bj feet on ! l[] end4 ,! =m] are n only simpl] 9 con/ruction1 b are m easily kept 9 a v]tical position dur+ ! s9k+4 ,caissons are usually put toge!r 9 "s conv5i5t place ne> ! edge ( ! wat]1 & !n convey$ on pontoons to ! sites ( ! pi]s4 ,great c>e is requir$ 9 l[]+ !m into position 9 ! b$ ( ! riv]1 & guide-piles1 guy-*a9s1 & o!r appliances are frequ5tly necess>y to keep !m v]tical dur+ ! s9k+4 ,! =m1 dim5sions1 ?ickness ( plates1 cross-brac+1 & g5]al arrangem5t w dep5d ^u ! size & dep? ( ! pi] to be #abc con/ruct$4 ,caissons = heavy "w on difficult or trea*]\s gr\nd require great c>e1 n only 9 _! con/ruction1 b also 9 plac+ !m 9 exact position1 & 9 s9k+ !m correctly to _! prop] dep?4 ,a tilt$ caisson is a mo/ difficult subject to h&le1 & entails heavy exp5diture to re/ore x to a true v]tical position4 ,by mak+ c>eful bor+s1 ! eng9e] c asc]ta9 v closely ! dep? to :i* ! caisson w h to be l[]$ to obta9 a good firm f\ndation4 ,) ?is in=mation ! caisson c be s con/ruct$ t ! upp] portion1 t]m$ ! tempor>y caisson1 comm5c+ a few feet above ! b$ ( ! riv]1 c be deta*$1 & remov$ at ! completion ( ! "w f ! l[] or p]man5t portion sunk bel[ ! gr\nd l9e4 ,fig4 #aah gives sket*es ( a wr\ght-iron plate-caisson appli$ to a deep-wat] riv] pi]1 & l[]$ to its full dep? by ! pneumatic process2 dott$ l9es %[ ! air-tubes ?r\gh :i* ! excavat$ mat]ial is hoi/$ & empti$ into b>ges alongside4 ,_m l>ge & important pi] f\ndations h be5 con/ruct$ on ! sy/em ( brick cyl9d]s or wells1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,india1 :]e ! f\ndations = l>ge riv] viaducts h to be c>ri$ d[n to great dep?s ?r\gh ?ick deposits ( s(t mat]ial4 ,^! wells are built ^u ,v-%ap$ curbs to facilitate ! p5etration :5 s9k+4 ,fig4 #aai is a section ( a well ) a wr\ght-iron curb1 & ,fig4 #abj is a simil> well ) a wood5 curb4 ,! wr\ght-iron curb is made 9 segm5ts = conv5i5ce ( transport1 ! pieces =m+ ! complete r+ be+ bolt$ or rivet$ toge!r at ! site ( ! f\ndations4 ,! wood5 curb is compos$ ( sev]al ?ick lay]s ( h>d wood plank+ cut to ! prop] %ape1 & laid ) brok5 jo9ts1 ! :ole be+ b\nd toge!r ) suitable bolts & spikes4 ,9 "s cases ! l[] or cutt+ edge ( ! wood5 curb is /r5g!n$ or protect$ by a %ea?+ ( wr\ght-iron plates4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aah ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc ,well f\ndations are usually put 9 :5 ! riv]s are at _! l[e/1 & r$uc$ to a few small *annels 9 ! great wid? ( dri$-up riv] b$4 ,?is condition enables ! great] portion ( ! curbs to be conv5i5tly & accurately plac$ 9 position on dry gr\nd1 or on gr\nd :i*1 al?\gh s(t & muddy1 is n cov]$ ) wat]4 ,%\ld ! site ( "o ( ! wells occur 9 "o ( ! small *annels1 ! /ream c be div]t$ to "o side1 & a small #abf artificial isl& made to receive ! curb above wat]-level4 ,:5 a curb is fairly fix$ 9 position1 ! "w ( build+ ! brick well c be comm5c$4 ,) ! wr\ght-iron curb ! triangul> cavity betwe5 ! v]tical plate & slop+ plate mu/ be fill$ ) concrete to =m a level base = ! fir/ c\rse ( brickwork4 ,! wood5 curb be+ compos$ ( horizontal lay]s ( timb]1 is ready to receive ! brickwork )\t fur!r prep>ation4 ,to /r5g!n & keep ! brickwork firmly ti$ toge!r1 /rong wr\ght-iron v]tical tie-rods1 #a or #a in* 9 diamet]1 are g5]ally built into ! "w--z %[n 9 ! sket*es--at di/ances ab\t f\r feet ap>t4 ,! l[] end ( ! bottom ti] ( tie-rods is secur$ to ! curb1 & ! upp] end pass$ ?r\gh a /rong wr\ght-iron plate-r+1 :i* is cont9u\s all r\nd ! brickwork4 ,a long deep nut is screw$ d[n ov] ! top or screw$ end ( tie-rod until ! plate-r+ is d[n tight on ! brickwork4 ,! tight5+ nuts are made suffici5tly deep to receive ! l[] ends ( a second s]ies ( v]tical tie-rods1 :i* 9 l mann] pass ?r\gh ano!r wr\ght-iron plate-r+ on ! next section ( brick well1 & ! same arrangem5t is cont9u$ = ! full height ( ! well4 ,! l5g?s ( ! tie-rods w dep5d ^u ! l5g?s ( ! section ( brickwork to be built at a "t1 & may v>y f #aj to #ae feet4 ,z ! "w ( build+ proce$s ! curb & brick well w s9k gradually into ! gr\nd1 & d[n to a c]ta9 dep?1 v>y+ accord+ to ! mat]ial ( ! riv] b$1 ! weight ( ! brick well itself w effect ! p5etration & l[]+4 ,beyond ?is dep? ! l[]+ mu/ be done by scoop+ or dr$g+ ! mat]ial f ! inside ( ! well1 & plac+ heavy weights ( old railway iron or o!r conv5i5t masses on ! top4 ,:5 "o section or l5g? ( well has be5 sunk d[n1 !n ano!r set ( tie-rods are ins]t$ into ! deep nuts1 & ano!r section ( brickwork comm5c$4 ,! op]ation ( l[]+ is r t$i\s1 z all ! weights h to be hoi/$ up on to ! top ( ! l5g? 9 h&1 & pil$ s z to leave space = lift+ out ! mat]ial dr$g$ f ! int]ior2 & !n1 :5 ! l5g? has be5 l[]$1 all ! weights mu/ be remov$ be=e ! brickwork c be resum$ on ano!r l5g?4 ,:]e ! riv] b$ consi/s ( s(t mat]ial1 ! excavation inside ! well c g5]ally be effect$ by suitable dr$ges or scoops work$ #abg f ! surface or top ( brickwork4 ,%\ld trees or o!r ob/ructive masses be met ) emb$d$ 9 ! /rata1 x w be necess>y to employ div]s to remove !m piecemeal out ( ! way ( ! curb4 ,:5 ! brick well has be5 l[]$ d[n to ! full dep?1 & is ?or\ghly b$d$ 9 a /ratum ( /rong mat]ial1 ! te/ weights %\ld be left on = "s "t to asc]ta9 if !re is any fur!r s9k+4 ,aft] all ! weights h be5 remov$ ! bottom ( ! well c be dr$g$ out clean1 & ! int]ior fill$ 9 ) concrete to su* height z may be consid]$ necess>y4 ,brick wells mu/ be wat*$ c>efully to ensure t !y s9k d[n 9 a p]fectly v]tical position4 ,any incl9ation away f ! p]p5dicul> mu/ be correct$ at once by means ( guys & /ruts1 ! same z 9 s9k+ iron cyl9d]s4 ,! pr9cipal difficulty w be ) ! fir/ #bj or #be feet4 ,! diamet] ( ! well w dep5d ^u ! weight x has to c>ry1 & its height f riv] b$ to "u side ( gird]s4 ,! wells may be ei!r circul> or polygonal 9 section1 & built s+ly or 9 pairs1 z %[n 9 sket*es 7,fig4 #aba74 ,_m pi]s & abutm5ts ( bridges 9 %all[ or mod]ately deep wat] are built by means ( c(f]-dams ( timb] & clay puddle4 ,! c(f]-dam =ms a wat]-tight wall r\nd ! site ( ! f\ndation1 f :i* ! wat] is pump$ out1 & ! excavation c>ri$ d[n to ! dep? requir$4 ,9 v %all[ wat] x is sometimes suffici5t to drive only a s+le r[ ( piles1 & =m a bank ( good clay puddle on ! outside1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #abb4 ,9 deep wat] x is necess>y to drive a d\ble r[ ( piles1 #c or #d or m feet ap>t1 & fill 9 ! space betwe5 ) clay puddle1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #abc4 ,! piles = c(f]-dam "w %\ld be c>efully select$1 ( good timb] /raight1 & correctly sawn on ! contact faces4 ,guide-piles are fir/ driv5 9 prop] l9e & position r\nd ! int5d$ f\ndation4 ,to ^! /rong horizontal d\ble wal+ pieces are securely bolt$1 "o on ea* side ( ! guide-pile1 "o pair ne> ! top1 & ! o!r pair z l[ d[n z c be plac$4 ,! %eet+ piles1 :i* are l[]$ d[n betwe5 ! horizontal wal+ or guid+ pieces1 are driv5 z close to "o ano!r z possible1 be+ assi/$ 9 do+ s by ! %eet-pile %oe1 %[n on ,fig4 #abd1 :i* is made n ) a po9t l an ord9>y pile %oe 7,fig4 #abe71 b ) a #abh cutt+ edge slightly incl9$1 s t 9 driv+ ! t5d5cy ( ! pile is to drift t[>ds ! pile previ\sly driv54 ,sometimes ! out] r[ ( piles consi/s ( :ole balks1 & ! inn] r[ ( half balks2 ! size ( ! piles mu/1 h[ev]1 be regulat$ by ! dep? & curr5t ( ! wat]4 ,:5 bo? r[s ( piles h be5 complet$1 ! space betwe5 %\ld be dr$g$ out1 & !n fill$ ) c>efully prep>$ clay puddle4 ,to enable ! puddle to adapt itself ?or\ghly to ! wood5 sides1 x is desirable to remove ! inside wal+s aft] all ! piles are driv51 z any int]nal projections int]f]e ) ! prop] punn+ & settl+ ( ! puddle4 ,! swell+ ( ! puddl$ clay has a t5d5cy to =ce ap>t ! two r[s ( piles1 & to c\nt]act ?is z mu* z possible1 iron tie-rods %\ld be pass$ ?r\gh f side to side e few feet1 & screw$ up aga9/ l>ge wa%]s plac$ on ! outside ( ! out] wal+s4 ,/rong /ruts or cross-brac+ ( timb] mu/ be plac$ f side to side inside ! c(f]-dam to resi/ ! pressure ( ! wat] 9 ! riv]4 ,?is cross-brac+ c be remov$ gradually z ! "w ( build+ progresses upw>ds1 & be replac$ ) %ort /ruts w$g$ 9 aga9/ ! sides ( ! f9i%$ c\rses4 ,9 cases :]e ! gr\nd is s(t1 & :5 x is n consid]$ prud5t to excavate ! f\ndations deep] = fe> ( di/urb+ ! /ability ( ! c(f]-dam piles1 r[s ( l>ge1 squ>e be>+-piles may be driv5 9 ! floor ( ! f\ndation1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,! tops ( ^! be>+-piles mu/ all be sawn (f to ! same level1 & a plat=m ( /rong d\ble plank+ securely fix$ to ! piles to receive ! f\ndation c\rse ( concrete1 masonry1 or brickwork4 ,! spaces ar\nd ! tops ( ! piles & ! "u side ( ! timb] plat=m %\ld be fill$ 9 ) good cem5t concrete4 ,! int]ior ( ! c(f]-dam is kept dry by con/ant pump+1 ei!r by h& pumps or /eam pumps1 accord+ to ! volume ( wat] f9d+ its way into ! f\ndations4 ,:5 ! f9i%$ pi] or abutm5t has be5 c>ri$ up above ! riv] wat]-level1 ! c(f]-dam is no long] requir$1 & may be remov$4 ,sometimes1 to save ! timb]1 ! piles are drawn by means ( /rong tackle fitt$ up = ! purpose2 b 9 do+ ?is !re is consid]able risk ( di/urbance to ! f\ndations1 & x is bett] to leave ! piles 9 ! gr\nd & employ div]s to cut (f ! tops a little above ! b$ ( ! #abi riv]4 ,9 prep>+ ! design = a l>ge f\ndation x is absolutely necess>y to fir/ asc]ta9 by c>eful bor+s ! description ( mat]ial ^u :i* t f\ndation mu/ be plac$1 s z to proportion ! area ( be>+ surface to ! weight to be su/a9$4 ,"s mat]ials w naturally c>ry m weight ?an o!rs1 & al?\gh ! eng9e] _c always select ! mat]ial he w\ld pref]1 he c1 h[ev]1 control ! sup]ficial area ( ! f\ndations4 ,mu* valuable in=mation has be5 obta9$ bo? f exp]im5ts & f comp>isons ( actual practice1 & ! foll[+ memor&a may be useful = ref]5ce1 z indicat+ ! pressures p] sup]ficial foot :i* may be safely put on v>i\s mat]ials3-- ,mod]ately /iff clay #b tons4 ,*alk #d 0 ,solid blue clay #e 0 ,compact gravel & close s& #f 0 ,solid rock #ab 0 ,d\btless ! above weights h be5 exce$$ 9 _m cases1 b x is bett] to be on ! safe side1 & leave a good m>g9 = /ability4 ,l>ge subaque\s f\ndations = heavy pi]s & abutm5ts are co/ly & t$i\s1 & especially s :5 ! pneumatic process has to be adopt$4 ,special appliances & well-tra9$1 exp]i5c$ workm5 are requisite1 & if all ! m5 & mat]ials h to pass ?r\gh ! air-locks1 ! progress ( ! "w mu/ necess>ily be sl[4 ,:5 ! f\ndations h be5 complet$ up to ! level ( ! wat]1 ! con/ruction c be pu%$ on m rapidly1 z ! "w ( scaffold+1 hoi/+1 & build+1 c all be c>ri$ on 9 ! op5 air4 ,among/ ! v _m types ( ar*-"w & gird]-"w adopt$ = railway purposes1 ! foll[+ examples f actual practice may be useful = ref]5ce3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abf1 #abg ,fig4 #abf repres5ts small #bd-;foot span1 l[ viaduct ar*+ suitable = a l9e pass+ ?r\gh t[ns or villages1 :]e gr\nd is valuable & ! area to be cov]$ mu/ be kept z small z possible4 ,! ar*es may be utiliz$ = /ables1 /ores1 or roads ( communication betwe5 ! l&s & prop]ties int]sect$ by ! railway4 ,! segm5tal =m gives a bett] headway und]nea? ?an ! semicircul>1 besides conta9+ less mat]ial 9 ! ar*+ prop]1 & requir+ a small] am\nt ( c5t]+4 ,e precaution %\ld #aca be tak5 to prev5t wat] p]colat+ ?r\gh any portion ( ! ar*+1 or haun*+1 & a ?ick lay] ( good asphalte %\ld be plac$ ov] ! entire upp] surface1 & c>ri$ well up ! l[] portion ( ! p>apet walls1 z %[n on ! sket*4 ,! ca/-iron pipes ) rose heads =m a v effici5t means ( tak+ away ! ra9-wat] :i* filt]s ?r\gh ! balla/ & fill+4 ,! pipes %\ld be c>ri$ d[n 9 *ases1 or recesses1 built 9 ! fronts ( ! pi]s1 to protect !m z mu* z possible f injury 9 ! y>ds bel[4 ,rose heads1 pi]c$ ) holes1 & surr\nd$ ) small /ones h&-laid1 s]ve well to conduct ! wat] into ! pipes4 ,:]e ! ar*+ is ( consid]able l5g?1 recesses or refuges = ! platelay]s may be obta9$ by sub/itut+ a %ort l5g? ( ca/-iron-plate p>apet1 in/ead ( ! /one or brick p>apet1 ov] "s ( ! pi]s1 z indicat$ 9 ! sket*4 ,fig4 #abg %[s a simil> description ( ar*+ = spans ( #cj feet4 ,! above two examples repres5t pla9 sub/antial "w1 b if circum/ances w>rant m ext]nal f9i%1 ?is c readily be add$ )\t int]f]+ ) ! g5]al arrangem5t4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 if consid]$ pref]able1 ! ar*es may be made semicircul> or elliptical4 ,9 ! sket*es %[n ( ! ar*$ ov]-l9e & "u-l9e bridges1 ! ar*+ & cop+ ( p>apets are 9 brick1 & ! rema9d] ( ! "w 9 /one4 ,9 v _m cases brick w be f\nd *eap] & m exp$iti\s = ar*+ ?an /one1 unless ! qu>ries turn out /one 9 blocks :i* c be conv5i5tly trimm$ = ar*+4 ,all bricks us$ = ar*-"w %\ld be h>d & well burnt1 & special c>e %\ld be tak5 9 ! selection ( ^? to =m ! "u-side c\rse1 :i* w be expos$ to ! atmosph]e4 ,= mod]ate spans ar*es h be5 successfully con/ruct$ ( concrete4 ,= ?is description ( "w ! mat]ials %\ld be c>efully gaug$ & mix$ toge!r1 & ! f9i%$ "w %\ld be all[$ to /& "s "t on ! c5tres to all[ ! concrete to become ?or\ghly set4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aca ,9 ,fig4 #ajb1 ! cutt+ be+ deep1 almo/ up to ! level ( ! public road1 ! f\ndations ( ! w+ walls are built 9 /eps1 result+ 9 a m9imum ( masonry bel[ ! f9i%$ gr\nd l9e4 ,:]e ! cutt+ is %all[1 & ! public road has to be br\ght up to ! bridge on an embank$ approa*1 ! great] portion ( ! w+ #acc walls w h to be built up f ! solid or orig9al gr\nd1 & !re w be a l>ge am\nt ( masonry bel[ ! f9i%$ gr\nd l9e1 z indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #abh4 ,9 "s cases ( ov]-l9e bridges x is necess>y to curve ! w+ walls to correspond to ! road :i* turns (f to ! "r or left aft] cross+ ! railway1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #abi2 or ! w+ walls may h to =m two sep>ate curves :]e ! road bran*es (f 9 two directions aft] leav+ ! bridge1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #acj4 ,fig4 #aca %[s plan1 elevation1 & cross-section ( an "u-l9e ar* bridge1 consid]ably on ! skew1 c>ry+ a railway ov] a riv]4 ,! w+ walls are curv$1 & v simil> 9 type to "s ( ^? 9 prec$+ examples4 ,! riv] b$ & gr\nd alongside be+ ( solid rock1 good f\ndations 7 obta9$ at a v mod]ate co/4 ,on _m railways con/ruct$ 9 ! beg9n+ z s+le l9es only1 ! ov]-l9e bridges h be5 built = d\ble l9e4 ,! additional co/ 9 ! outset has be5 small1 comp>$ ) ! great exp5diture :i* w\ld be incurr$ aft]w>ds 9 recon/ruct+ ! bridges to suit a d\ble l9e4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t ( abutm5ts & w+ walls %[n 9 ! =ego+ examples w apply to simil> classes ( bridges :]e gird]-"w is adopt$ in/ead ( ar*+4 ,!re are _m ways ( =m+ ! floor or deck ( a gird] bridge int5d$ to c>ry a railway ov] a road or /ream4 ,9 "s cases x w be imp]ative to h a ?or\ghly wat]-tight floor to prev5t ra9-wat] p]colat+ ?r\gh to ! roadway bel[2 :ile 9 o!rs1 su* z bridges ov] /reams1 & second>y roads1 ?is special provision w n be necess>y1 & a light] & m economical floorway c be adopt$4 ,a /rong wr\ght-iron or /eel-plate floor+1 ) its correspond+ fill+ & balla/+1 means n only s mu* additional co/ 9 ! floor+ prop]1 b also s mu* additional dead weight to be c>ri$ by ! ma9 gird]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acb1 #acc1 #acd1 #ace1 #acf1 #ada ,fig4 #acb is a sket* ( roll$ joi/-iron ,i-gird]s & timb] floor frequ5tly adopt$ = small f>m roads & cattle creeps ( #aj or #ab feet span4 ,a beam ( timb] is fitt$ 9 betwe5 ! two roll$ joi/-irons1 & ! ?ree pieces securely fa/5$ toge!r ) /rong iron bolts plac$ ab\t #c feet ap>t4 ,^! small comp\nd gird]s re/ on be>+-plates ( wr\ght or ca/ iron1 & are held #ace toge!r & to gauge by tie-rods1 z %[n4 ,! rails are spik$ or bolt$ d[n on to ! timb] beams1 & ! floor+ =m$ ( /rong plank+4 ,fig4 #acc %[s an arrangem5t ( plate gird]s = a #af-;foot op5+ ov] a /ream4 ,! gird]s are plac$ imm$iately "u ! rails1 & are ti$ toge!r by plate-iron cross-brac+ ! same dep? z ! ma9 gird]s4 ,! floor+ consi/s ( #d-;in* plank+ laid ) -in* spaces1 on :i* are laid longitud9al rail-be>]s #ad in*es wide by #g in*es ?ick4 ,fig4 #acd is a sket* ( a some:at simil> arrangem5t = a lattice-gird] bridge1 #de feet span1 c>ry+ a s+le l9e ( railway ov] a riv]4 ,! ma9 gird]s are ti$ toge!r by lattice-"w cross-brac+4 ,! floorway consi/s ( #e-;in* plank+1 laid ) -in* spaces1 on :i* is plac$ ! #ad feet by #g feet longitud9al rail-be>]s4 ,plate-iron outside brackets are rivet$ to ! ma9 gird]s to c>ry ! ends ( ! plank+ & light tube-iron p>apet4 ,fig4 #ace illu/rates an example ( tr\gh gird]s1 con/ruct$ to c>ry a d\ble-l9e railway ov] a c\ntry road #be feet wide1 :]e ! space f "u side ( gird] to rail-level is small4 ,! gird]s are con/ruct$ 9 pairs1 ) %ort1 %all[ cross-gird]s at #c feet #f in* c5tres1 rivet$ 9 betwe5 !m to c>ry longitud9al timb]s on :i* ! rails are laid4 ,bottom plates1 #e_/h in* ?ick1 unite ! two gird]s = ! l5g? ( _! be>+ on ! abutm5ts1 & a simil> plate1 #i in*es wide1 unites !m at ! c5tre2 ! rema9d] ( ! span is left op5 to prev5t ! lodgm5t ( ra9-wat]4 ,?ree /rong tie-rods are plac$ to keep ! gird]s to gauge4 ,curv$ wr\ght-iron balla/-plates are us$ betwe5 ! runn+-rails1 & plank floor+ =ms ! re/ ( ! cov]+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acg ,fig4 #acf is a sket* ( a plate-gird] bridge ov] a c\ntry road #bh feet wide1 ) ! load c>ri$ on ! l[] flange ( gird]4 ,?ree ma9 gird]s c>ry ! d\ble l9e ( railway1 ! c5tre "o hav+ d\ble ! /r5g? ( ea* ( ! outside gird]s4 ,on ! top ( ! cross-gird]s1 /rong angle irons are rivet$ to s]ve z guides & supports = ! longitud9al timb]s :i* c>ry ! rails4 ,e ?ird cross-gird] has rais$ ends to give increas$ lat]al /ability to ! ma9 gird]s4 ,a close ca/-iron plate p>apet =ms a scre5 to ! roadway4 ,wr\ght-iron balla/-plates are us$ betwe5 ! runn+-rails1 & ! rema9d] ( ! floor+ is ( timb]4 ,fig4 #acg gives ! p>ticul>s ( "o #fj-;foot span ( a viaduct #acg c>ry+ a d\ble l9e ( railway ov] tidal wat]4 ,! ma9 gird]s are plac$ "o "u ea* l9e ( rails1 & all ! f\r are /rongly ti$ toge!r by lattice-"w brac+ ! full dep? ( ! gird]s4 ,! outside footpa?s = ! platelay]s are c>ri$ on /rong brackets1 rivet$ to ! ma9 gird]s4 ,longitud9al timb]s1 cop$ ) angle iron1 are plac$ z outside gu>ds1 alongside ea* rail1 = ! full l5g? ( ! viaduct4 ,wr\ght-iron balla/-plates are plac$ betwe5 ! runn+-rails4 ,! rema9d] ( ! footways consi/ ( timb] plank+1 laid ) half-in* spaces1 & cov]$ ) a lay] ( small pebbles z a protection aga9/ fire4 ,fig4 #ach %[s a v simil> arrangem5t 9 a viaduct c>ry+ a s+le l9e ( railway across a riv]4 ,! two ma9 lattice gird]s--#ff feet span--are plac$ at #i-;foot c5tres1 to obta9 great] /ability4 ,! cross-gird]s are ext5d$ to c>ry ! outside footpa?s & h&rail+4 ,outside gu>ds are plac$ alongside ea* rail z 9 ! prec$+ example4 ,wr\ght-iron balla/-plates are fix$ all along betwe5 ! runn+-rails1 & timb] plank+ us$ = ! re/ ( ! floorway4 ,fig4 #aci gives cross-section ( a lattice-gird] bridge1 #hb feet span1 c>ry+ a s+le l9e ( railway ov] a riv]1 ) ! load c>ri$ on ! l[] flange4 ,! cross-gird]s are plac$ at #d feet #c in* c5tres4 ,wr\ght-iron balla/-plates compose ! floorway betwe5 ! rails1 & timb] plank+ cov]s ! re/ ( ! bridge4 ,plate diaphragms1 or /iff5]s1 ( ! =m %[n at ,a1 ,a1 ,a1 ,a1 are rivet$ to ! ma9 gird]s at five places 9 _! l5g?4 ,fig4 #adj %[s cross-section ( a lattice-gird] bridge ( #bjj feet span1 c>ry+ a s+le l9e ( railway ov] a riv]1 ! load be+ plac$ on ! l[] flange4 ,! floorway consi/s ( plate-iron cross-gird]s1 spac$ at #d-;foot c5tres1 on :i* are plac$ ! longitud9al rail-be>]s & plank+1 ! latt] be+ cov]$ ) a lay] ( clean pebbles = ! wid? betwe5 ! runn+-rails4 ,z ! dep? ( ! ma9 gird]s 0 suffici5t to admit ( ov]head brac+1 /rong plate-iron diaphragms1 ( ! =m %[n on ! sket*1 7 rivet$ to ! ma9 gird]s at e #ej feet4 ,^! diaphragms ?or\ghly brace ! two gird]s toge!r1 & effectually prev5t any t5d5cy to side-cant+1 at ! same "t imp>t+ an effective appe>ance to ! bridge4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ach1 #aci1 #adc ,fig4 #ada %[s cross-section ( a plate-gird] bridge1 ( #cf feet #aci span1 c>ry+ six l9es ( way across a /reet4 ,/rong plat$ cross-gird] brac+1 at #d feet #h in* c5tres1 is rivet$ to ! ma9 gird]s1 & ! top is cov]$ ) old ,b>l[ rails1 #ab in*es wide1 & weigh+ #ij lbs4 p] l9eal y>d4 ,a lay] ( asphalte1 ab\t #a in*es ?ick1 is c>efully laid all ov] ! upp] surface ( ^! rails to make a ?or\ghly wat]-tight floor4 ,clean gravel is plac$ on ! top1 on :i* are laid ! sleep]s & rails ( ! p]man5t way4 ,ra9-wat] passes ?r\gh ! gravel into ! holl[s ( ! ,b>l[ rails1 & f9ds its way into suitable dra9s provid$ at ea* abutm5t4 ,?is arrangem5t n only prev5ts ! fall+ ( drip-wat] into ! /reet bel[1 b p]mits ( ! alt]ations ( ! l9es ( way1 or putt+ 9 ( cross-ov] roads on ! surface above4 ,! outside ma9 gird]s are made deep]1 & are surm\nt$ by close ca/-iron p>apets4 ,fig4 #adb gives ! p>ticul>s ( a ?ree-span plate-gird] bridge1 con/ruct$ to c>ry a d\ble l9e ( railway ov] two o!r railways & a canal1 ! load be+ plac$ on ! l[] flange4 ,two ma9 gird]s are us$ = ea* l9e ( way4 ,/rong plat$ cross-gird]s are plac$ at #e feet #c in* c5tres1 & on ! top ( ^! is laid a floor+ ( old ,b>l[ rails1 t]m9at+ at ! sides ) slop+ w+-plates rivet$ to ! cross-gird]s & ma9 gird]s1 ! entire surface be+ cov]$ ) an in* & a half lay] ( asphalte4 ,good gravel balla/ is plac$ on ! top1 on :i* are laid ! sleep]s & rails4 ,"o c5tral ma9 gird] ( suffici5t /r5g? w\ld h be5 z effici5t z ! two c5tral gird]s1 b !re 0 a practical difficulty :i* prev5t$ its adoption4 ,! new gird]-"w 0 built to replace an old /ructure ( peculi> arrangem5t1 & to keep ! traffic go+ on "o l9e !re 0 no alt]native b to make ea* l9e ( way complete 9 itself4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adj1 #add ,fig4 #adc illu/rates an example ( jack ar*es 9 concrete built betwe5 /rong plate-gird]s4 ,! span ( ! gird]s 0 only #af feet1 b ! op5+ or roadway 0 ( consid]able l5g?1 & pass$ "u a portion ( a busy /ation y>d4 ,! gird]s are plac$ at #f-;foot c5tres1 & ti$ toge!r 9 pairs by #a-;in* tie-rods1 ?ree to ! span1 spaces ( #f in*es 9 plan be+ all[$ betwe5 ea* set ( ! rods4 ,! concrete 0 curv$ up to ! top plate ( ! gird]1 z %[n1 & ! entire surface cov]$ ) a ?ick lay] ( asphalte1 on :i* 7 plac$ ! balla/ & p]man5t way4 #ada ,brickwork might h be5 us$ = ! jack-ar*+1 b concrete 0 consid]$ m conv5i5t4 ,fig4 #add %[s ! cross-section ( a truss-gird] bridge ( #abc feet span1 c>ry+ a d\ble l9e ( railway ov] a wide ?or\ghf>e1 ! load be+ plac$ on ! l[] flange4 ,!re are two ma9 gird]s1 ea* #ab feet #f in*es deep 9 ! c5tre1 & #h feet deep at ! ends4 ,plate cross-gird]s are plac$ at #d feet #f in* c5tres1 on :i* is rivet$ longitud9al plate-iron tr\gh+1 ext5d+ across ! bridge & t]m9at+ at ! sides ) w+-plates1 z %[n4 ,! entire floor is cov]$ ) a ?ick lay] ( asphalte previ\s to fill+ 9 ) balla/ to receive ! p]man5t way4 ,plate /iff5]s are adopt$ 9 ?is bridge v simil> to ^? 9 ,fig4 #aci4 ,fig4 #ade gives plan1 elevation1 & cross-section ( a plate-gird] bridge ( #ie feet span1 c>ry+ a d\ble l9e ( railway ov] a v busy /reet4 ,!re are two curv$-top ma9 gird]s1 ea* #aj feet #i in*es deep 9 ! c5tre1 & #f feet #g in*es deep at ! ends4 ,! arrangem5t ( cross-gird]s1 longitud9al plate-iron tr\gh+1 & p]man5t way1 is v simil> to t 9 ! prec$+ example1 b ! side w+-plates are c>ri$ up high]1 & are rivet$ up to ! web-plate ( ma9 gird]1 =m+ cont9u\s /iff5]s f end to end ( ! ma9 gird]s4 ,a light1 ornam5tal1 close ca/-iron p>apet is bolt$ on to ! top ( ! curv$1 or upp]1 boom ( ! ma9 gird]1 ! top l9e ( ! p>apet be+ c>ri$ out p>allel to ! bottom boom ( gird]4 ,?is bridge crosses ! /reet v obliquely1 &1 al?\gh ca/-iron columns 7 all[$ at ! edge ( ! footpa?s1 ! ma9 spans are unavoidably l>ge4 ,:5 design+ ! above bridge1 ! writ] _h to adopt a gird] t w\ld =m a scre51 to provide a deck1 or floor-way1 :i* w\ld be n only wat]-tight1 b also dead5 z mu* z possible ! s\nd or vibration ( pass+ tra9s1 & at ! same "t give "s ornam5tal appe>ance to ! gird]s & p>apets4 ,?is bridge c>ries a con/ant s]vice ( heavy tra9s2 x is p]fectly dry und]nea?1 & is rem>kably free f noise or vibration4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adb ,fig4 #adf %[s cross-section ( a plate-gird] bridge ( #dj feet span1 c>ry+ a d\ble-l9e railway ov] a /reet1 9 a situation :]e ! dep? f top ( rails to "u side ( gird]s _h to be made z small z possible4 ,?ree ma9 gird]s 7 us$1 ! c5tre "o be+ #adc d\ble ! /r5g? ( ea* ( ! outside gird]s4 ,in/ead ( ord9>y cross-gird]s1 transv]se plate-iron tr\gh+ 0 adopt$1 v simil> 9 section to ! longitud9al iron tr\gh+ 9 ,fig4 #ade1 b /rong]4 ,! tr\gh+ re/$ on ! angle iron ( bottom flange ( ma9 gird]1 & 0 rivet$ to ! v]tical web-plates ( ma9 gird]s1 %all[ additional v]tical plates be+ ins]t$ alongside web-plates to prev5t any drip-wat] or moi/ure com+ 9 contact ) ! ma9 web-plates4 ,! entire surface ( ! tr\gh+ 0 well cov]$ ) asphalte be=e fill+ ! holl[s ) gravel balla/4 ,an ord9>y transv]se wood5 sleep] 0 plac$ 9 ea* holl[1 & on ^! sleep]s ! rails 7 secur$ z %[n4 ,9 ?is case--z 9 o!rs ( transv]se tr\gh+--! ra9-wat] _h to be convey$ away f ! holl[ ( ea* tr\gh by a sep>ate outlet into longitud9al gutt]s %[n at ,a1 ,b1 & cont9u$ on to ! abutm5ts4 ,transv]se tr\gh+ is always m tr\blesome ?an longitud9al tr\gh+1 z bo? ends ( ea* tr\gh mu/ be effectually clos$ to prev5t ! dra9age wat] leak+ out on to ! web-plates1 or angles ( ! ma9 gird]s4 ,) longitud9al tr\gh+ ! wat] is readily c>ri$ away f ea* holl[1 to cross dra9s con/ruct$ at ! pi]s1 or abutm5ts4 ,fig4 #adg %[s cross-section ( a truss-gird] bridge1 #abj feet span1 c>ry+ a s+le l9e ( railway ov] a riv]4 ,! cross-gird]s are plac$ at #aj-;foot c5tres to correspond to ! v]tical memb]s ( ! ma9 truss-gird]4 ,longitud9al plate-iron rail-gird]s are rivet$ 9 betwe5 ! cross-gird]s1 & ! entire floor is cov]$ ) curv$ wr\ght-iron balla/ plates1 z %[n4 ,! rails are c>ri$ on longitud9al timb]s1 :i* are bolt$ on to ! rail-gird]s4 ,angle iron brackets1 rivet$ on ! top ( ! cross-gird]s1 keep ! rail timb]s 9 position & gauge4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ade ,9 ea* ( ! above examples1 :]e longitud9al rail timb]s are adopt$1 flange rails are %[n1 z _m eng9e]s pref] to h a cont9u\s be>+ = ! rails on bridges1 9 case ( rail fracture4 ,!re is no?+1 h[ev]1 to prev5t ! *air road be+ laid on longitud9al timb]s1 & = ?is purpose ! writ] has us$ *airs ( ! ord9>y patt]n1 specially ca/ ) side lugs to grip ! timb]1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #adh4 ,*airs ( ?is =m h a v firm #ade hold on ! longitud9al timb]1 & ! side lugs *eck any t5d5cy ( ! splitt+ or op5+ ( ! wood :5 putt+ 9 ! spikes or screw bolts4 ,fig4 #adi %[s cross-section ( a plate-gird] ov]-l9e bridge1 #cb feet span1 c>ry+ a private road1 #ab feet wide1 ov] a d\ble-l9e railway4 ,! road traffic be+ small1 ! floorway 0 con/ruct$ ( creosot$ plank+ c>ri$ on roll$ ,i-iron cross-gird]s plac$ at #c feet #h in* c5tres1 & rivet$ to ! ma9 gird]s4 ,! horse-tread track 0 provid$ ) a second lay] ( plank+1 laid transv]sely1 to take up ! we>1 cross batt5s1 #d in*es by #b in*es1 be+ plac$ at #ab-;in* c5tres1 & s& spread betwe5 to give good foo?old4 ,a light lattice-"w p>apet 0 bolt$ on to ! top ( ! ma9 gird]s4 ,fig4 #aej gives cross-section ( a plate-gird] ov]-l9e bridge1 #cj feet span1 c>ry+ a private road1 #bj feet wide1 ov] a d\ble-l9e railway4 ,! ma9 gird]s are ti$ toge!r by lattice-"w brac+1 spac$ at #g-;foot c5tres4 ,curv$ wr\ght-iron plates are laid across f gird] to gird]1 & butt aga9/ a n>r[ horizontal plate1 :i* =ms "p ( ! upp] boom4 ,! curv$ plates are rivet$ on to ! top ( gird]1 & =m a cont9u\s iron floor1 or deck1 f side to side ( ! bridge4 ,^u ?is iron floor is laid an ord9>y asphalte roadway4 ,! outside gird]s are made deep]1 & c>ry an ornam5tal ca/-iron p>apet4 ,9 "s bridges ( a simil> con/ruction1 ! roadway is =m$ ( creosot$ wood5 block pav+1 on a f\ndation ( asphalte4 ,illu/ration3 ,,bridge ,,c>ry+ ,,! ,d4 ,w4 ,,& ,w4 ,,railway 7,,loop ,,l9e7 ,,ov] ,,ami5s ,,/reet1 ,,dubl94 ,to face p4 #add4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adf1 #adg1 #aeh1 #aei1 #adh ,fig4 #aea %[s cross-section ( a plate-gird] ov]-l9e bridge1 #bh feet span1 c>ry+ a public road1 #ce feet wide1 ov] a d\ble-l9e railway4 ,! ma9 gird]s1 #b feet #d in*es deep1 are plac$ at #e feet #b in* c5tres1 & are ti$ toge!r by plate-iron cross-brac+ #b feet deep4 ,jack-ar*es ( brickwork1 #i in*es ?ick1 are built 9 betwe5 ! ma9 gird]s1 ! haun*+ be+ fill$ 9 ) concrete4 ,! entire surface is cov]$ ov] & made wat]tight ) asphalte1 on :i* is laid ! metall+ ( ! roadway4 ,! outside gird]s are made consid]ably deep]1 & h /rong ca/-iron-plate p>apets bolt$ on to ! top booms4 ,!re is no d\bt t jack-ar*+ ( brickwork or concrete makes a v /rong & p]man5t floorway1 b its dead weight is v great1 & its adoption is n to be recomm5d$ #adg :]e iron or /eel plate tr\gh+ c be obta9$ at a mod]ate price4 ,fig4 #aeb gives cross-section ( plate-gird] ov]-l9e bridge1 #da feet #f in* span1 c>ry+ a public road1 #be feet wide1 ov] ?ree l9es ( way4 ,two ma9 gird]s are us$1 ( suffici5t dep? to =m p>apets or scre5s = ! f9i%$ roadway4 ,plate cross-gird]s1 plac$ at #f feet #f in* c5tres1 are rivet$ to ! web-plate & l[] angle irons ( ma9 gird]s2 & on ^! is plac$ a floor+ ( plate-iron longitud9al tr\gh+ to c>ry ! metall$ roadway4 ,fig4 #aec gives ! p>ticul>s ( a plate-gird] ov]-l9e bridge1 c>ry+ an important public road1 #ce feet wide1 ov] sev]al ma9 l9es & sid+s4 ,! c>riage-way is c>ri$ by two gird]s plac$ at #be-;foot c5tres1 & on ! l[] boom ( ^! are rivet$ lattice-"w cross-gird]s to receive ! plate-iron longitud9al tr\gh+ & roadway4 ,! footpa? gird]s are set at a high] level1 & ! load plac$ on ! l[] flange4 ,! curv$ side brackets m]ely act z brac+ betwe5 ! c>riage-way gird]s & footpa? gird]s4 ,a ca/-iron-plate p>apet is bolt$ on to ! top ( ea* ( ! footpa? gird]s1 mak+ a close scre51 #f feet high1 above ! footpa?4 ,lattice-"w cross-gird]s 7 adopt$ = ! conv5i5ce ( support+ small wat] ma9s & gas ma9s bel[ ! road-level4 ,! roadway is =m$ ( ord9>y metall+1 & ! footpa?s ( asphalte pavem5t2 ! k]b+ is ( granite1 & ! side wat]-tables ( cru%$ granite concrete4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adi1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeb ,fig4 #aed is a cross-section ( a small uncov]$ lattice-gird] footbridge #da feet span1 & #e feet wide1 suitable = small roadside /ations4 ,! top & bottom flange consi/ ea* ( two angle irons1 ^? 9 ! bottom flange be+ plac$ table side upw>ds1 s z to br+ ! entire section ( bo? angle irons fairly into play1 & also to provide a bett] be>+ = ! *annel-iron cross-gird]s :i* c>ry ! plank+ ( ! footway4 ,:5 plank+ is c>ri$ on ! inside ( light angle iron1 z 9 ,fig4 #aee1 a sev]e /ra9 is produc$ at ! po9t ,a2 ?is is entirely obviat$ by plac+ ! bottom angle irons table side upw>ds1 z 9 ,fig4 #aef4 ,?ree ( ! *annel-iron cross-gird]s are ext5d$ outw>ds1 & to ! ends ( ^! are rivet$ tee-iron /iff5]s to /eady ! ma9 gird]s4 ,9 "s cases /amp$1 or ribb$1 wr\ght-iron plates are us$ = a footway1 b1 al?\gh m durable1 !y d n give su* a secure or #adi agreeable foo?old z timb]4 ,! asc5t or desc5t ( ! bridge may consi/ ei!r ( /eps & l&+s1 or ( ramps1 accord+ to circum/ances or exp$i5cy4 ,sometimes ^! bridges are made ) curv$ tops1 t]m9at+ 9 /eps :5 ne>+ ! /eps1 or ramps4 ,x is v que/ionable :e!r su* an arrangem5t is a good "o or a safe "o4 ,!re is always a feel+ ( insecurity :5 walk+ ov] a slop+ surface brok5 up by /eps1 & exp]i5ce po9ts out t x is bett] to cont9ue ! footway level "r across to ! place :]e ! pass5g] mu/ *ange 8 direction to g d[n ! /airs or ramp4 ,fig4 #aeg gives cross-section ( a cov]$ lattice-gird] footbridge1 #fb feet #f in*es span1 & #aj feet wide1 suitable = an important /ation4 ,! upp] boom ( gird] consi/s ( two angle irons & top plate1 & ! bottom boom ( two *annel irons4 ,! cross-gird]s are roll$ joi/-irons re/+ on ! top tables ( ! *annel irons4 ,f\r ( ! cross-gird]s are ext5d$ outw>ds1 & c>ry plate-iron outside v]tical brackets to /iff5 ! ma9 gird]s4 ,?ree-in* longitud9al plank+ is laid d[n f end to end ( ! bridge1 & on ?is is laid #a-;in* transv]se floor+1 9 n>r[ wid?s1 to =m ! walk+ deck4 ,! footbridge is light$ f ! sides by cont9u\s glaz$ sa%es fix$ 9 /rong wood5 framework1 z %[n4 ,! ro( is cov]$ ) canvas b$d$ 9 :ite lead1 & pa9t$ 9 ! same way z an ord9>y c>riage ro(4 ,! above examples ( "u-l9e & ov]-l9e bridges are giv5 m ) a view ( illu/rat+ "s ( ! _m diff]5t descriptions ( floor+1 r ?an to po9t out or sugge/ ! type ( ma9 gird] to c>ry ! load4 ,! description & size ( ! ma9 gird]s c be v>i$ to suit ! span ( ! bridge1 ! requirem5ts ( ! traffic1 & ! op9ion ( ! design]4 ,= spans up to #ej feet x w g5]ally be f\nd t web-plate gird]s are bo? simpl] & *eap] ?an lattice or truss gird]s2 at ! same "t1 !re are occasions :]e plate gird]s c be advantage\sly adopt$ = v mu* l>g] spans1 z1 = in/ance1 9 ! example giv5 9 ,fig4 #ade1 :]e ! deep plate gird]s =m a mo/ effici5t scre54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aec ,figs4 #afj to #aid give diagram sket*es ( a few out ( ! _m =ms ( op51 or truss1 gird]s :i* h be5 adopt$ = l>ge spans4 ,!re are _m types f :i* to make a selection1 ea* "o possess+ its own special features & advocates4 ,9 work+ out ! #aea details ( any1 or all ( !m1 !re are "s po9ts :i* %\ld always be kept 9 m9d :5 decid+ ! di/ribution ( mat]ial 9 ! ma9 booms4 ,ra9-wat]1 or moi/ure ( any k9d1 is ! great enemy ( wr\ght-iron or /eel "w1 & !re=e ! plates1 angles1 tees1 or *annel sections1 %\ld be s arrang$ z to af=d ! lea/ possible facility = ! collection or lodgm5t ( wat]4 ,) op51 level booms1 z 9 ,figs4 #acg1 #aci1 #adj1 #add1 & #ade1 ! ra9-wat] _c collect1 b runs (f at ! sides1 & ! plates are quickly dri$ by ! sun & w9d4 ,) tr\gh booms1 z 9 ,fig4 #aeh1 ! collect$ ra9-wat] c only get away ?r\gh holes drill$ = ! purpose 9 ! bottom plates4 ,^! holes are liable to become *ok$ up1 b ev5 :5 op5 !y r>ely c>ry (f all ! accumulat$ wat]2 "s ( x rema9s to corrode ! plates1 & is only dri$ up by evaporation4 ,! inside ( tr\gh booms %\ld be con/antly inspect$1 & ! expos$ plates m frequ5tly pa9t$ ?an ! re/ ( ! gird]4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 9 small d\ble-web lattice gird]s1 ) ! lattice-b>s ins]t$ betwe5 two angle irons1 z 9 ,fig4 #aei1 ! ra9-wat] f9ds its way into ! spaces at ,a1 ,a1 9 spite ( ! mo/ c>eful pack+ or fill+ ) cem5t or asphalte4 ,numb]s ( small gird]s ( ?is latt] type h _h to be tak5 out aft] a comp>ative %ort life1 9 consequ5ce ( ! great corrosion & we>+ away ( ! l[] ends ( ! lattice-b>s & angle irons into :i* !y 7 ins]t$4 ,x is mo/ ess5tial1 also1 t all portions ( ! gird]-"w %\ld be conv5i5tly accessible = inspection & pa9t+4 ,complicat$ connections1 & p>ts :i* are difficult to exam9e1 are liable to be ov]look$1 or1 at ! be/1 only pa9t$ 9 a v imp]fect mann]4 ,neglect$ corn]s soon create det]ioration1 ! pa9t scales (f1 corrosion comm5ces1 & ! work+ section is gradually r$uc$4 ,a discov]$ weakness 9 "s ( ! important p>ts po9ts to an e>ly condemnation ( ! entire /ructure4 ,! difficulty ( access to ! int]ior ( box or tubul> gird]s1 especially ^? ( small or mod]ate dim5sions1 is a great objection to t type ( gird]4 ,exp]i5ce has po9t$ out t op5 gird]s1 free & expos$ to ! light & air1 c be s mu* m effectually inspect$ & pa9t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aed1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afj1 #afa1 #afb1 #afc1 #afd1 #afe1 #aff1 #afg1 #afh ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afi1 #agj1 #aga1 #agb1 #agc1 #agd1 #age1 #agf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agg1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahc ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aib1 #aic1 #aid ,p]haps "o ( ! mo/ anxi\s tasks :i* falls to ! lot ( an eng9e] is ! r5ewal ( "u-l9e bridges & viaducts on a work+ l9e4 ,on a new l9e 9 c\rse ( con/ruction ! entire site #aeh ( ! "w is at ! disposal ( ! erectors1 & ! build+ ( a bridge or viaduct c be c>ri$ on ) a fre$om :i* _c be obta9$ on an op5 l9e4 ,on a work+ railway1 ! tra9 s]vice mu/ be kept go+1 irrespective ( r5ewals1 & v (t5 ! be/ t c be done is to r$uce ! d\ble l9e to s+le l9e work+ at ! site ( ! op]ations4 ,x is n always exp$i5t or possible to make a tempor>y bridge & div]t$ l9e = traffic purposes1 z ! exp5diture to be incurr$ might be too great to w>rant ! outlay1 or !re may be local difficulties to effectually prev5t ! introduction ( a provisional /ructure4 ,! tak+ d[n ( "o half ( ! old /ructure may necessitate ! removal ( /ays & brac+ affect+ ! /ability ( ! half rema9+ to c>ry ! traffic1 & ?us r5d] tempor>y %or+ & brac+ necess>y4 ,! erection ( ! new "w 9 su* a limit$ space has to be wat*$ ) great c>e2 all cranes1 lift+ appliances1 & scaffold+ mu/ be kept cle> ( vehicles mov+ ov] ! runn+-l9e1 & v frequ5tly x is f\nd prud5t to cease erect+ op]ations dur+ ! passage ( a tra94 ,9 v _m cases ( r5ewals1 ! description & arrangem5t ( ! old /ructure w mat]ially influ5ce or control ! design = ! new "o1 & ! details ( ! latt] mu/ be s*em$ out s z to di/urb z little z possible ! /ability ( ! old "w rema9+ z ! work+ road4 ,! foll[+ li/ gives ! l5g?s ( ! ma9 spans ( "s railway bridges1 & may be f\nd useful = ref]5ce3-- ,,l5g?s ,,( ,,ma9 ,,spans ,,( ,,"s ,,l>ge ,,railway ,,bridges4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,"n4 ,span4 ,description4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ feet4 ,=? ,bridge #a1gaj ,cantilev]4 ,niag>a #hba ,susp5sion4 ,sukkur #hbj ,cantilev]4 ,p\ghkeepsie1 ,u4,s4,a4 #edh ,cantilev]4 ,d\ro #ebe ,ar*4 ,/4 ,l\is #ebj ,ar*4 ,c9c9nati #eae ,l9ville truss4 ,ha>lem #eaj ,ar*4 ,kuilemburg #dib ,lattice b[4 ,/4 ,john's ,riv] #dgg ,cantilev]4 ,niag>a #dgj ,cantilev]4 ,britannia #dfj ,tube4#aei ,ohio ,riv]1 ,p5nsylvania #ddb ,pratt ?r\gh truss4 #aei ,salta% #dcd ,tube & gird]4 ,hawkesb]ry ,viaduct #daj ,comp\nd truss4 ,conway #djj ,tube4 ,vi/ula #cig ,lattice4 ,spey ,riv]1 ,g>m\?1 ,n4,b4 #cej ,b[/r+4 ,/4 ,laur5ce #ccj ,tube4 ,hamburg #caf ,d\ble b[4 ,cologne #cac ,lattice4 ,runcorn #cje ,lattice4 ,sund]l& #cjj ,b[/r+4 ,rond\t ,bridge1 ,buffalo #bfd ,pratt ?r\gh truss4 ,new>k ,dyke 7,new7 #bei ,lattice b[4 ,tay ,bridge 7,new7 #bde ,lattice b[4 ,ohio ,riv]1 ,l\isville #bde ,f9k truss4 ,beav] ,bridge1 ,p5nsylvania #bcj ,pratt deck truss4 ,craigella*ie ,bridge #bjj ,lattice4 ,rohrba* ,bridge1 ,/4 ,go?>d ,riv] #aig ,wr\ght-iron ar*4 ,w9dsor ,bridge #ahg ,b[/r+4 ,victoria ,bridge ov] ,?ames #age ,wr\ght-iron ar*4 ,%annon ,riv] ,bridge #afe ,b[/r+4 ,c>ron ,bridge ov] ,spey #aej ,ca/-iron ar*4 ,pre/on ,viaduct #ajb ,ca/-iron ar*4 ,tr5t ,riv] ,bridge #ajj ,ca/-iron ar*4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,reta9+ ,walls4--,in/ances frequ5tly occur dur+ ! con/ruction ( a railway :]e x is advisable1 if n absolutely necess>y1 to sub/itute reta9+ walls 9 pref]5ce to =m+ ! slopes ( cutt+s & embankm5ts4 ,! excavation ( a cutt+ may be greatly r$uc$ 9 quantity by introduc+ l[ reta9+ walls1 z 9 ,fig4 #aie1 & ! sav+ 9 ! mat]ial to be remov$ w be all ! m important 9 ^? cases :]e cutt+ is 9 excess ( embankm5t4 ,! am\nt ( fill+ = an embankm5t & ! l& on :i* x has to be =m$ may bo? be consid]ably dim9i%$ by build+ a l[ reta9+ wall1 say #f or #g feet high1 at ! foot ( ! slope1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aif4 ,su* a reta9+ wall makes a mo/ effici5t f5ce & well def9$ b\nd>y ( prop]ty4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aie1 #aif1 #aig1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bja ,! policy ( adopt+ l[ reta9+ walls 9 cases l ! above #afa w dep5d ma9ly ^u ! co/ ( build+ mat]ials z comp>$ ) ! co/ ( e>?work & l&4 ,:]e l& is v valuable1 & :]e resid5tial prop]ty1 /reets1 or roads mu/ be int]f]$ ) z little z possible1 ! reta9+ walls may h to be c>ri$ up to ! level ( ! orig9al surface ( ! gr\nd1 z 9 ,fig4 #aig1 :i* is %[n z = a cutt+ #be feet deep4 ,! walls may be built ( masonry1 brickwork1 or concrete1 or a comb9ation ( !m1 & ! dim5sions or ?ickness w dep5d ^u ! description ( mat]ial to be support$4 ,weep+ holes1 or small pipe dra9s1 %\ld be =m$ 9 ! walls1 a little above =mation level1 to take away any wat] :i* may collect at ! back4 ,:]e ! cutt+ is ?r\gh s(t1 wet1 trea*]\s clay1 liable to slip or exp&1 x may be necess>y to ins]t ar*$ ?ru/ gird]s ext5d+ f side to side1 z 9 ,fig4 #aih1 s t ! outw>d pressure aga9/ ! "o wall may c\nt]act aga9/ ! outw>d pressure ( ! o!r4 ,! ?ru/ gird]s %\ld be plac$ at f #aj to #ae feet c5tres1 & be well brac$ toge!r 9 plan to enable !m ! bett] to resi/ any t5d5cy ( bulg+ out ( ! walls4 ,a simil> arrangem5t ( high reta9+ wall may be introduc$ 9 embankm5t to less5 ! encroa*m5t on /reets or public roads1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aii4 ,9 mak+ a railway ?r\gh ?ickly populat$ t[ns1 x is g5]ally pref]able to con/ruct ! l9e on ar*es r ?an on e>?work fill+ betwe5 two high reta9+ walls4 ,! num]\s op5+s are available = future /reets1 or means ( communication f "o side to ! o!r1 & ! ar*es !mselves c be pr(itably utiliz$ = /ables1 /ores1 (fices1 & work%ops4 ,fig4 #bjj %[s a n>r[ rocky pass ) deep rapid riv] on ! "o h& & high cliffs on ! o!r1 ! only available l$ge be+ already occupi$ by a public highway4 ,by build+ a reta9+ wall1 z indicat$ on ! sket*1 & excavat+ a little out ( ! cliff1 space may be obta9$ = a l9e ( railway2 or ! arrangem5t may h to be rev]s$1 & ! reta9+ wall = ! railway built along ! m>g9 ( ! riv]1 z 9 ,fig4 #bja4 ,9 bo? ! cases1 ,figs4 #bjj & #bja1 n only mu/ !re be a numb] ( weep+ holes left 9 ! l[] "p ( ! wall1 b !re mu/ be suffici5t well-built dra9s & culv]ts "u ! fill+ & ?r\gh #afb ! wall to c>ry away all ord9>y or flood wat] com+ d[n f ! cliffs & hills above4 ,:]e a reta9+ wall is built along ! m>g9 ( a riv]1 ! l[] portion1 :i* w be 9 contact ) ! wat] :5 ! riv] is full1 %\ld be con/ruct$ ( select$ l>ge heavy /ones to )/& ! sc\r+ action ( ! wat]1 & any bru%wood or float+ timb] :i* may be br\ght d[n by flood wat]4 ,:]e reta9+ walls are built to support wet clay1 or 9 embank$ places on wet side-ly+ gr\nd1 ! effici5cy ( ! "w w be mu* increas$ by con/ruct+ a lay]1 two or ?ree feet 9 ?ickness1 ( dry1 flat1 b$d$ /ones c>efully h&-laid1 f ! f\ndation to ! top ( ! wall1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aii4 ,^! dry /ones =m a cont9u\s v]tical dra9 to take away wat] f any "p ( ! e>?work d[n to ! outlets left 9 ! l[] portion ( ! wall4 ,! build+ ( reta9+ walls entirely ( dry /one is v que/ionable economy1 & entails a con/ant exp5diture 9 ma9t5ance & r5ewal4 ,! work+ out ( "o /one loos5s ! surr\nd+ portion ( ! wall1 & if n at once repair$1 a l5g? ( ! wall w fall d[n1 br++ ) x a l>ge quantity ( ! e>?work4 ,if readily obta9$1 l>ge heavy /ones %\ld be select$ = ! cop+ ( reta9+ walls1 s z to m9imize z mu* z possible ! *ance ( _! di/urbance or displacem5t4 ,:]e light] /ones h to be us$1 or bricks laid on edge1 !y %\ld be b$d$ & po9t$ 9 cem5t4 ,9 _m places x is necess>y to =m wide & massive f\ndations ( concrete on :i* to build ! reta9+ wall2 & 9 "s cases ( s(t1 trea*]\s gr\nd1 timb] pil+ may be necess>y4 ,tunnels4--,x w\ld be difficult to assign a date to ! fir/ examples ( subt]ranean works con/ruct$ = utilit>ian purposes4 ,nature _h furni%$ s _m gr& specim5s ( caves1 grottoes1 & und]gr\nd passages =m$ 9 ! solid rock1 t man soon grasp$ ! pr9ciple1 & essay$ to c>ry out simil> works on 8 own acc\nt4 ,! e>ly attempts w\ld probably be limit$ to =m+ places ( %elt]1 /orage or security4 ,advantage w\ld be tak5 ( ^? rocks :i* f _! locality1 accessibility1 & compactness ( mat]ial1 promis$ fav\rable results4 ,! appliances be+ few & primitive1 ! "w ( con/ruction w\ld be labori\s & sl[4 ,s #afc long1 h[ev]1 z ! work]s re/rict$ _! op]ations to ! solid rock1 !y _h m]ely to cont5d aga9/ ! h>dness ( ! mat]ial1 z ! op5+ or passage-way1 once made1 requir$ no fur!r support or att5tion2 b z ! wave ( progress swept onw>d1 man 0 compell$ to deviate f ! l9es orig9ally foll[$ by nature1 & _h to =m 8 subt]ranean pa?way ?r\gh s(t] mat]ial1 :]e ! work+s requir$ sub/antial support4 ,! se>* = m9]als ( v>i\s k9ds l$ to ! driv+ ( long head+s or gall]ies und]gr\nd1 & z ^! _h frequ5tly to p5etrate ?r\gh /rata ( a s(t & yield+ "*1 /rong timb] framework _h to be introduc$ to af=d /ability to ! works1 & safety to ! work]s4 ,= ord9>y m9+ op]ations1 /rong r\gh timb] supports may meet all requirem5ts1 & may la/ until ! head+ is work$ out & ab&on$2 b = subt]ranean passages or tunnels :i* are int5d$ to =m p]man5t means ( communication1 ! /ronge/ & mo/ durable mat]ials mu/ be us$ to protect ! int]ior z f> z possible f det]ioration or decay4 ,heavy timb]+ might be suffici5t = m]e tempor>y purposes1 b sub/antial masonry or brickwork side walls & ar*+ became necess>y = p]man5t "w 9 ^? portions :]e ! tunnel requir$ artificial support4 ,! fir/ tunnels ( any importance 7 mo/ probably ^? con/ruct$ = canal purposes4 ,_m ( !m 7 ( consid]able magnitude1 & 9 "s in/ances 7 f two to ?ree miles 9 l5g?4 ,!y 7 sub/antially l9$ ) masonry or brickwork at all places :]e ! tunnel pass$ ?r\gh s(t mat]ial or loose rock1 & f ! solid nature ( ! "w1 & ! _m ye>s !y h be5 9 exi/5ce1 !y ?or\ghly te/ify to ! ability ( ! con/ructors4 ,! introduction ( railways involv$ ! mak+ ( a l>ge numb] ( tunnels1 p]haps m s 9 ! beg9n+1 :5 x 0 ?\ght t ! use ( ! locomotive w\ld be conf9$ to v mod]ate gradi5ts1 & :5 eng9e]s hesitat$ to adopt ! /eep] incl9es & %>p] curves :i* =m ! practice ( mod]n times4 ,ano!r elem5t ( consid]ation also consi/$ 9 ! fact t ! fir/ railways 7 design$ to connect ! mo/ popul\s & busie/ di/ricts1 :]e ! prospects ( heavy traffic w\ld appe> to w>rant a l>ge outlay = works ( con/ruction4 ,z ! sy/em spread & railways ext5d$ fur!r away f ! important c5tres1 ! #afd probabilities ( traffic w\ld become less promis+1 & ef=ts w\ld be made to keep d[n co/ ( con/ruction1 & avoid tunnel "w z mu* z possible4 ,x is n easy to def9e :]e cutt+ %\ld end & tunnell+ beg94 ,!re is no practical difficulty 9 mak+ a cutt+ #ej1 #fj1 or #gj feet deep1 ) slopes to suit ! mat]ial excavat$1 & ! e/imat$ co/ p] y>d =w>d may ev5 comp>e fav\rably ) ! co/ ( av]age tunnel-"w4 ,b !re are o!r que/ions :i* mu/ be kept 9 view--! "t requir$ to =m ! cutt+1 ! space to be obta9$ on :i* to deposit ! enorm\s quantity ( excavat$ mat]ial1 & ! probable difficulty 9 obta9+ ! l>ge area ( l& necess>y = ! cutt+4 ,be=e decid+ ! actual position ( a tunnel1 bo? z to l9e & level1 x is necess>y to obta9 ! mo/ reliable in=mation possible reg>d+ ! /rata ?r\gh :i* x has to pass4 ,9 addition to ! geological indications on ! surface & 9 ! locality1 bor+s %\ld be made1 & trial holes or %afts sunk along ! propos$ c5tre l9e ( ! "w1 & f ^! an approximately accurate longitud9al section c be laid d[n on pap]1 %[+ ! respective lay]s ( mat]ial to be cut ?r\gh1 & ! angle at :i* !y lie4 ,) ^! p>ticul>s be=e him1 ! eng9e] may1 9 "s cases1 consid] x m prud5t to *ange ! position ( ! tunnel 9 pref]5ce to incurr+ specially difficult or t$i\s "w 9 deal+ ) "s recogniz$ unfav\rable mat]ial4 ,occasionally ! r\te may be slightly v>i$ & bett] mat]ial obta9$1 b v frequ5tly !re is little to be ga9$ except by a wide deviation f ! orig9al l9e4 ,solid rock1 except = ! sl[ progress1 is p]haps ! mo/ fav\rable mat]ial = tunnell+1 z ! timb]+1 side wall+1 & ar*+ c be almo/1 if n entirely1 disp5s$ )4 ,loose rock1 al?\gh m readily remov$1 necessitates /rong timb]+ to prev5t l>ge masses break+ away & fall+ into ! tunnel4 ,"s clays are v compact & t5aci\s1 & w /& well ) mod]ate timb]+1 b ev5 ^! %\ld n be left long be=e foll[+ up ) ! side walls & ar*+4 ,_m clays give mu* tr\ble by exp&+1 or swell+ out1 :5 ! excavation p5etrates ! lay]1 & al?\gh extra /rong timb]+ #afe may be us$1 & be plac$ clos] toge!r1 ! logs & planks are frequ5tly bulg$ out & brok5 by ! action ( ! clay4 ,specially /rong supports are requir$ = ?is description ( clay1 & extra ?ickness ( mat]ial 9 ! p]man5t "w ( side walls & ar*+4 ,solid unbrok5 b$s ( *alk are n difficult to cut ?r\gh3 ! mat]ial is easy to "w1 & ! excavation w /& ) ord9>y timb]+2 b :]e ! *alk is brok5 & int]sect$ ) deep pockets ( gravel & s&1 ! op]ations are v mu* imp$$4 ,! loose mat]ial1 once set free by cutt+ ?r\gh ! conf9+ b>ri] ( *alk1 w quickly fall into & fill up ! excavation if n held back by /rong timb]+4 ,side walls & ar*+ are g5]ally necess>y = tunnels ?r\gh *alk4 ,s(t wet clay1 quicks&s1 or o!r /rata hav+ spr+s ( wat] p]colat+ ?r\gh !m1 are s]i\s ob/acles 9 ! way ( exp$iti\s tunnell+4 ,no soon] is "o cube y>d ( ?is s(t mat]ial remov$ ?an ano!r slides d[n1 or is wa%$ d[n1 to take its place4 ,:5 once ! excavation taps ! wat]-be>+ /rata1 l>ge volumes ( wat] w f9d _! way into ! work+s1 & mu/ be convey$ away to ! m\? ( ! tunnel1 or pump$ up ?r\gh ! ne>e/ %aft4 ,! timb]+ ( ! sides & ro( ?r\gh ?is description ( work+ is v t$i\s1 & att5d$ also ) a consid]able am\nt ( risk4 ,! abs5ce ( really solid gr\nd on :i* to place or %ore up ! supports1 taxes ! skill ( ! excavators1 & v (t51 :5 a %ort l5g? has be5 made app>5tly secure1 x w come d[n ) a run1 compell+ all h&s to beat a ha/y retreat4 ,! p]man5t l9+ ?r\gh su* trea*]\s mat]ial %\ld foll[ ! excavation v closely1 & special c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ 9 build+ ! walls1 ar*+ & inv]t4 ,9 ! excavation ?r\gh /ratifi$ rocks x is necess>y to note c>efully ! lie ( ! /rata1 :e!r horizontal1 v]tical1 or %elv+1 z ) ea* "o ! excavators are expos$ to risks1 aga9/ :i* e precaution %\ld be tak54 ,a l>ge horizontal slab ( solid-look+ rock w sudd5ly break & fall d[n )\t any w>n+4 ,a heavy mass f a v]tical lay]1 p]haps unkey$1 or loos5$1 by an adjac5t bla/+ op]ation1 drops d[n :5 lea/ expect$2 & pieces f ! high side ( ! %elv+ lay]s deta* !mselves & slide into ! work+ 9 a mo/ unacc\ntable mann]4 ,no attempt %\ld be made to c>ry a tunnel ?r\gh mat]ial :i* has #aff be5 di/urb$ or at all affect$ by any natural slip or cleavage1 z al?\gh ! /rata may be h>d & compact 9 !mselves1 !y h really no solid or fix$ f\ndation4 ,! slid+ away1 once initiat$1 is c]ta9 to cont9ue1 &1 accel]at$ by ! tunnell+ op]ations1 w mo/ likely1 soon] or lat]1 cru% 9 ! tunnel & sweep away e ve/ige ( ! "w4 ,among/ ! great m\nta9 ranges ^! natural di/urbances are by no means r>e1 & x w be wis] to keep away f _! locality1 ev5 at ! exp5se ( a long] tunnel4 ,un=tunately1 in/ances are on record ( tunnels made1 or 9 c\rse ( con/ruction1 ?r\gh hillsides :i* _h already comm5c$ to slide away f ! m solid rock1 & ! ultimate results 7 a fur!r slid+ away & total de/ruction ( ! "w4 ,! l[] slopes & outly+ portions ( high m\nta9s are ! mo/ expos$ to ^! natural slips1 & !y %\ld be mo/ c>efully /udi$ be=e comm5c+ any tunnell+ op]ations ?r\gh !m4 ,to facilitate dra9age1 x is ess5tial t a railway tunnel %\ld be laid d[n ) a gradi5t or gradi5ts fall+ 9 ! direction ( "o or bo? ends ( ! tunnel4 ,9 ne>ly all tunnels a consid]able am\nt ( wat] f9ds its way 9 ?r\gh ! weep+-holes left = t purpose 9 ! side walls1 & mu/ be c>ri$ away 9 suitable dra9s4 ,if ! quantity ( wat] be small1 ord9>y wat]-tables1 "o on ea* side1 may be suffici5t2 b = l>ge volumes ( wat] x w be necess>y to build sub/antial side-dra9s1 or an ample culv]t bel[ ! level ( ! rails4 ,! gradi5ts 9 a tunnel %\ld be mod]ate1 & n by any means excessive1 or likely to tax ! haul+ p[]s ( ! locomotives4 ,:5 an eng9e is work+ ne>ly to ! utmo/ ( its p[] on a /eep tunnel incl9e1 & ! spe$ has become v sl[1 ! exhau/ vap\rs or gases f ! funnel /rike ! ar*+ ) great =ce1 & are deflect$ d[n on to ! footplate 9 su* d5se volumes z to almo/ suffocate ! driv] & fireman4 ,! writ] w nev] =get two or ?ree try+ exp]i5ces 9 =eign tunnels1 :5 he & ! eng9e-/aff 7 compell$ to leave ! footplate & climb =w>d to ! front ( ! funnel1 leav+ ! eng9e to "w its way alone4 ,except = v %ort tunnels x is wis] to h easy incl9es1 & to re/rict ! /eep gradi5ts to ! op5 l9e1 :]e ! v sl[ #afg travell+1 or ev5 ! com+ to a /& f 8slipp+10 may n produce unpleasant or al>m+ consequ5ces4 ,9 tunnels ( any l5g? x is usual1 :]e possible1 to con/ruct %afts ext5d+ f ! surface ( ! gr\nd ov]head d[n to ! tunnel bel[4 ,^! %afts s]ve ! d\ble purpose ( enabl+ ! excavation to be c>ri$ on at an increas$ numb] ( faces1 & act z p]man5t v5tilators aft] completion4 ,9 "s cases ! %afts are sunk exactly ov] ! c5tre l9e ( ! tunnel1 9 o!rs a few y>ds away f ! c5tre l9e4 ,! latt] arrangem5t1 if n q s conv5i5t = hoi/+ mat]ial :ile c>ry+ on ! excavations1 has c]ta9ly ! great aft] advantage t any?+ fall+ or malici\sly ?r[n d[n ! %aft _c /rike a pass+ tra94 ,! %ort side-gall]y1 or space betwe5 ! tunnel & ! %aft1 provides a good refuge = workm5 employ$ 9 repairs1 & a conv5i5t site = /or+ a few mat]ials advisable to keep on h&4 ,occasionally fav\rable opportunities pres5t !mselves = mak+ horizontal %afts4 ,= a portion ( its l5g? ! tunnel may be locat$ at no v great di/ance f ! precipit\s sides ( "s deep m\nta9 rav9e1 or run ne> to ! cliffs on ! sea-coa/1 & advantage c be tak5 to drive a lat]al head+ or gall]y ?r\gh :i* ! mat]ial f ! tunnel excavation may be convey$ & ?r[n out into ! gorge or sea%ore bel[4 ,9 _m cases ! surface ( ! gr\nd rises s abruptly f ! faces ( ! tunnel & asc5ds to s great a height1 t %afts ( any k9d are entirely out ( ! "q1 & ! :ole ( ! "w mu/ be c>ri$ on f ! two ends4 ,! rate ( progress is consequ5tly mu* sl[]1 & ! v5tilation m difficult4 ,9 a %aftless tunnel ( consid]able l5g?1 & ) a frequ5t tra9 s]vice1 ! "q ( provid+ suitable appliances = promot+ artificial v5tilation is ( ! utmo/ importance4 ,:5 ! c5tre l9e ( ! tunnel has be5 accurately set out on ! gr\nd1 & ! levels ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! "w decid$1 ! con/ruction ( ! %afts & ! driv+ ( ! head+s c be comm5c$4 ,work+ %afts int5d$ to s]ve = p]man5t v5tilation are g5]ally made n9e or t5 feet or m 9 diamet]1 & are usually l9$ ) sub/antial brickwork or masonry4 ,:5 ! well-l #afh excavation has be5 c>ri$ d[n a few y>ds1 or z f> z x c be tak5 )\t ! risk ( ! e>? fall+ 9 ^u ! s9k]s1 a /rong curb ( h>d wood or iron ( ! same diamet] z ! f9i%$ %aft is laid d[n p]fectly level & to exact position1 & on ?is curb ! r+ or l9+ ( brickwork or masonry is built up to ! level ( ! gr\nd4 ,! fir/ l5g? f9i%$1 ! excavation d[nw>ds is resum$1 & ! int]ior l9+ cont9u$1 ei!r by all[+ ! fir/ l5g? to slide d[n z ! mat]ial bel[ is gradually remov$1 & build+ fur!r l9+ on ! top1 or by excavat+ & propp+ up ! curb+ ) /rong timb]s bel[4 ,:5 work+ to ! latt] me?od1 /\t wood5 props ( conv5i5t l5g?1 /epp$ on to sole-pieces1 are adju/$ to ! "u side ( ! wood5 curb above1 ! mat]ial is !n remov$ = ! ?ickness ( ! brickwork or masonry1 & ano!r curb accurately set to level & position2 on ?is is built a l5g? ( l9+ up to ! fir/ curb4 ,?is "w ( "u-build+ or "u-p9n+ mu/ be c>ri$ out ) great c>e & 9 segm5ts2 no props mu/ be remov$ until ! curb imm$iately above is well support$ by ! new l9+1 & ! inside ( ! l9+ mu/ be wat*$ & te/$ to prev5t any tilt+4 ,all spaces at ! back ( ! "w mu/ be fill$ 9 & well pack$ ) h>d dry mat]ial4 ,z ! %aft is cont9u$ d[nw>ds ! mode ( work+ may h to be v>i$2 diff]5t descriptions ( mat]ial may be enc\nt]$1 & bla/+1 %or+1 & pump+ may ea* 9 turn be necess>y4 ,:5 d[n to ! full dep?1 ! l[] l5g? ( ! %aft w h to be securely support$ by /rong timb]s1 until x c be prop]ly built into & incorporat$ ) ! ar*+ ( ! tunnel or side gall]y4 ,! completion ( ! %aft enables ! work+s to be comm5c$ on ea* side1 ! excavat$ mat]ial c be hoi/$ to ! surface1 & build+ mat]ial l[]$ d[n4 ,:5 ! tunnel works are f9ally f9i%$1 ! l9+ ( ! %aft %\ld be c>ri$ up until x is #ae or #bj feet above ! level ( ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 & a dome-%ap$ iron grat+ plac$ on ! top z a protection aga9/ /ones or o!r articles :i* malici\s p]sons might attempt to ?r[ d[n ! %aft4 ,"s %afts are only int5d$ = ! tempor>y purpose ( lift+ ! excavations f bel[1 or l[]+ build+ mat]ials d[n1 & :5 #afi ! "w is complet$ !y are fill$ 9 aga9 & clos$4 ,^! s]vice %afts are g5]ally made squ>e 9 section1 & are m]ely l9$ ) wood4 ,/rong v]tical timb]s are plac$ at ! f\r corn]s1 to :i* horizontal d\ble cross-pieces are bolt$1 ?ick plank+ be+ plac$ v]tically at ! back ( ^! cross-pieces to support ! sides ( ! excavation4 ,! head+ ( a tunnel is a n>r[ passage or gall]y cut ?r\gh f end to end ( ! works 9 ! direction ( ! c5tre l9e4 ,:]e !re are %afts1 ! cutt+ ( ! head+ c be pu%$ on f sev]al po9ts1 & be complet$ mu* m rapidly ?an :5 ! work+ is re/rict$ to ! two ends4 ,head+s are usually made j suffici5tly l>ge = ! m9]s to "w1 say ab\t #e feet #f in*es high by ab\t #c feet wide1 ! object be+ r to exp$ite ! driv+ ( ! driftway ?an to remove l>ge masses ( mat]ial4 ,!y mu/ be set out ) great accuracy1 & be con/antly *eck$ z ! driv+ is 9 progress4 ,:5 complet$ f end to end1 ! c5tre l9e c be *eck$ ?r\gh\t1 & ! c\rse actually tak5 comp>$ ) ! c\rse int5d$4 ,if !re has be5 mu* v>iation 9 ! n>r[ pione] pa?way1 ei!r 9 l9e or level1 ! am\nt ( ! div]g5ce mu/ be rectifi$ :5 rang+ ! f9al c5tre l9e = ! full-size excavation4 ,tunnels _c always be delay$ until ! head+ is cut ?r\gh = ! entire l5g?4 ,9 _m cases ! head+1 ! full-size excavation1 & ! p]man5t l9+ h all to be c>ri$ on at ! same "t1 b z ! "w ( ! head+ is small] 9 ext5t1 t portion ( ! op]ations c usually be kept well 9 advance ( ! o!rs4 ,! critical mom5t arrives :5 ! head+s f opposite directions meet1 z any deviation or want ( co9cid5ce mu/ be adju/$ 9 ! portion ( ! tunnel /ill rema9+ to be op5$ out to full size4 ,"s tunnels ( mod]ate l5g? h be5 con/ruct$ )\t any head+ at all1 ! excavation be+ tak5 out to ! full dim5sions f ! comm5cem5t4 ,! head+ ( a tunnel assi/s n only 9 ! correct alignm5t ( ! "w1 b furni%es at ! same "t an accurate k ( ! /rata pass$ ?r\gh4 ,x is also ( s]vice = v5tilation1 communication1 & dra9age4 ,9 "s cases ! head+ is driv5 at ! bottom ( ! tunnel section1 z 9 ,fig4 #baa1 & 9 o!rs at ! top1 z 9 ,figs4 #bjb & #agj #bjd4 ,_m ( ! e>li] tunnels 7 con/ruct$ on ! =m] sy/em1 :ile ( late ye>s ! latt] me?od has be5 v l>gely adopt$4 ,! bottom head+ may p]haps 9 "s in/ances be m efficaci\s = dra9age1 b x is v liable to be frequ5tly *ok$ up :5 tak+ out ! excavation to ! full size1 & ! l[] surface is mu* cut up by ! movem5t & conveyance ( mat]ials4 ,ano!r disadvantage arises f ! necessity ( remov+ su* a l>ge am\nt ( ! cutt+ approa*+ ! tunnel entrance be=e a beg9n+ c be made to ! bottom head+4 ,! top head+ has ! advantage t x requires less removal ( op5 cutt+ previ\s to its comm5cem5t1 &1 be+ high up 9 position1 !re is less *ance ( its be+ /opp$ up by fall+ mat]ial1 ! f9i%$ excavations be+ c>ri$ out on ! sides & bel[ ! head+4 ,:]e ! head+s are cut ?r\gh solid rock1 /iff %ale1 or compact *alk1 little or no supports are necess>y1 b :]e !y pass ?r\gh clay or loose mat]ial1 timb]+ w be requir$ = sides1 ro(1 & floor4 ,r\gh r\nd poles1 ab\t #f in*es 9 diamet]1 are g5]ally us$ = v]ticals1 & are firmly secur$ to transv]se sole-pieces1 & on ! top ( ^! v]ticals /rong transv]se top-sills are fa/5$ by means ( r\gh t5ons or *ecks4 ,/rong bo>ds are ins]t$ at ! back ( ?is framework to keep ! e>? f fall+ into ! work+4 ,! di/ance ap>t ( ! v]ticals w dep5d ^u ! description ( mat]ial excavat$2 9 v s(t places !y w h to be plac$ v close toge!r1 b :]e fairly s\nd & t5aci\s !y may be plac$ at ab\t #c-;foot c5tres4 ,! excavat$ mat]ial mu/ be convey$ away to ! entrance ( ! head+ 9 small h&-trucks runn+ on planks or light rails4 ,! wid5+ out ( ! excavation to ! full size w be a repetition on a l>ge scale ( ! "w c>ri$ out 9 ! head+1 ) ! diff]5ce t1 ! expos$ surfaces be+ ( s mu* great] ext5t1 extra c>e & precautions mu/ be tak5 ) ! framework & %or+ ( ! timb]+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjb1 #bjc ,! =m & arrangem5t ( ! timb]+1 z well z ! numb]1 sizes1 & positions ( ! pieces1 mu/ be det]m9$ by ! mat]ial ( ! excavation & ! cont\r l9e ( ! f9i%$ ar*+ or l9+4 ,! framework1 :i* w\ld be suffici5t to support ord9>y s(t mat]ial1 mu/ be l>gely augm5t$ bo? 9 quantity & scantl+ #agb to meet ! requirem5ts = wet trea*]\s clay4 ,figs4 #bjb & #bjc give end view & longitud9al section ( timb] framework frequ5tly adopt$ = av]age tunnel "w4 ,! positions ( ! diff]5t pieces w expla9 !mselves & ! duty !y h to p]=m4 ,! ma9 /ruts1 or rak+ pieces1 :i* h to su/a9 great pressure1 may be %or$ aga9/ ! f9i%$ l5g?s ( masonry or brickwork4 ,! timb]+ ( ! sides c be remov$ z ! l9+ proce$s1 b 9 _m cases ! r\nd logs & bo>ds ne> ! cr[n _c be )drawn1 & h to be left 9 ! "w1 ! space betwe5 ! top ( ! ar*+ & "u side ( ! bo>ds be+ firmly pack$ ) brickwork1 masonry1 or dry rubble /onework4 ,z ! tunnel l9+ is g5]ally c>ri$ =w>d 9 %ort l5g?s1 foll[+ up ! ma9 excavations1 ! c5t]+ = ! ar*+ %\ld be ( su* description t x c be readily transf]r$ or mov$ =w>d z ! "w proce$s4 ,! =m ( ! c5t]+1 & ! spac+ ( its upright supports1 mu/ admit ( suffici5t wid? = "o or m l9es ( rails = ! waggons requir$ to remove ! excavat$ dbris & convey ! build+ mat]ials us$ 9 ! l9+4 ,picks1 b>s1 & %ovels are ! tools us$ 9 ! excavation ( ! s(t] mat]ial & loose dis9tegrat$ rock1 b = ! h>d rock1 bla/+ w be necess>y4 ,! tunnel op5+ be+ comp>atively small1 only mod]ate bla/+ *>ges c be us$ ) safety1 & ^! mu/ be plac$ s z to break up ! rock-b$ 9 a suitable mann] = work+1 & )\t %ak+ or damag+ ! already complet$ excavation4 ,ord9>y h&-drills1 or jump]s1 may be us$ = =m+ ! *>ge holes1 a numb] ( !m be+ at "w at ! same "t1 & ! *>ges fir$ v closely "o aft] ! o!r4 ,z ! bla/+ op]ations necessitate ! retir+ ( ! m9]s to a consid]able di/ance1 out ( ! way ( fly+ fragm5ts1 & ! rema9+ away until ! f\l air has be5 dispell$1 x is advisable to fire (f sev]al *>ges ab\t ! same "t1 & ?us m9imize z mu* z possible ! /oppage to ! drill+ & cle>+ away ! loos5$ mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #baa ,me*anical drills1 work$ by compress$ air or o!r motive-p[]1 are n[ v ext5sively us$ :]e ! rock is solid & cont9u\s4 ,!y are mu* m exp$iti\s ?an ! h& drills1 b !y are co/ly 9 #agd _! in/allation1 & also 9 _! work+ & ma9t5ance4 ,9 "s tunnels1 :]e ! mat]ial has be5 firm & dry1 ! upp] portion ( ! excavation has be5 fir/ remov$1 & ! masonry & brickwork l9+ built 9 position d[n to ab\t ! spr++ ( ! ar*1 ! rema9d] ( ! excavation be+ aft]w>ds tak5 out1 & ! side walls built by means ( %or+ & und]p9n+4 ,9 o!r tunnels ! complete section has be5 excavat$ & timb]$1 & ! "w ( build+ comm5c$ f ! f\ndation ( ! side walls4 ,a /rong cont9u\s inv]t f side wall to side wall is necess>y :]e pass+ ?r\gh s(t swell+ clay or loose /rata int]sect$ ) small /reams ( wat]4 ,:]e ! mat]ial is v solid & dry1 x is n necess>y to introduce inv]ts1 b ! f\ndations ( ! side walls %\ld be laid at su* a dep? bel[ rail-level z n to be affect$ by dra9-wat] runn+ ?r\gh ! tunnel4 ,! side walls & ar*+ may be ei!r ( masonry or brickwork1 b %\ld be ( ! be/ description1 especially = ! facework4 ,= brick ar*+ only ! be/ h>d-burnt bricks %\ld be us$1 & ! inn] or expos$ r+ %\ld consi/ ( select$ h>d fire-bricks to )/& ! heat & gases escap+ f ! funnels ( ! locomotives4 ,! ?ickness ( ! side walls & ar*+ w dep5d ^u ! description ( mat]ial to be support$4 ,9 "s places a comp>ative ?9 l9+ may be suffici5t1 :ile 9 o!rs extra ?ickness mu/ be giv5 to resi/ ! great pressure ex]t$ by exp&+ clay & loose wet /rata4 ,weep+-holes1 or small dra9-pipes1 plac$ l[ d[n mu/ be left 9 ! side walls e ?ree or f\r y>ds1 or clos] 9 v wet places1 to all[ ! wat] collect$ at ! back ( ! walls to escape into ! side dra9s ( tunnel4 ,9 build+ ! ar* portion e ef=t %\ld be made to h close solid "w )\t any op5 jo9ts or spaces ?r\gh :i* ! wat] may run1 & ! cr[n ( ! ar* & a few feet d[n on ea* side %\ld be coat$ ) cem5t or asphalte to lead all wat] away f ! top to ! sides4 ,wat] dripp+ f ! "u side ( ! ar* on to ! l9e is a great de/ructor ( ! p]man5t way mat]ials1 especially ! fa/5+s2 & bolts1 nuts1 fi%-plates1 & spikes plac$ 9 a wet dripp+ tunnel w n la/ half ! "t !y w\ld out 9 ! op5 l9e1 :]e !y w\ld h ! sun & w9d to dry !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bab1 #bac1 #bad1 #bae1 #baf1 #bag1 #bah1 #bai ,small ar*$ recesses or ni*es %\ld be =m$ 9 ! side walls at #agf conv5i5t di/ances to s]ve z refuges = platelay]s or o!rs work+ 9 ! tunnels4 ,x is mo/ ess5tial t ! space betwe5 ! masonry & brickwork l9+ & ! facework ( ! excavation %\ld be c>efully fill$ 9 & h>d pack$1 s z to prev5t ! possibility ( pieces ( rock or o!r mat]ial fall+ on to ! top ( ! ar*4 ,! neglect ( ?is precaution may lead to a casualty ye>s aft] ! tunnel has be5 complet$4 ,x w\ld be impossible to ov]-rate ! importance ( a con/ant fai?ful sup]vision ( ! build+ ( ! l9+1 especially ! ar*+4 ,! "w has to be c>ri$ on by workm5 9 cramp$ positions1 ) imp]fect light1 & surr\nd$ by all k9ds ( ob/acles & inconv5i5ces1 & unless a detail$ inspection be rigidly ma9ta9$1 a c>elessness 9 ! selection ( ! mat]ials1 & a laxity 9 ! workman%ip1 w be ! inevitable result4 ,figs4 #bjd to #bai are sections ( tunnels :i* h be5 con/ruct$ = d\ble & s+le l9e railways4 ,! sections give ! normal =m & dim5sions adopt$ 9 ea* case1 al?\gh !re may h be5 _m portions ( ! "w :]e unfav\rable or trea*]\s mat]ial necessitat$ an increase 9 ! ?ickness ( ! side walls1 or ( ! ar*+1 or ( bo?4 ,! types v>y 9 accordance ) ! op9ions ( ! design]s z to ! mo/ suitable section = ! purpose1 & range f ! comp>atively ?9 l9+ & v]tical side walls %[n on ,fig4 #bjg1 to ! almo/ circul> =m & v ?ick l9+ %[n on ,fig4 #baf4 ,! latt] is ! section :i* exp]i5ce has prov$ to be ! be/ to su/a9 ! enorm\s all-r\nd pressure ex]t$ by c]ta9 descriptions ( swell+ clay4 ,c>eful judgm5t w be requir$ to decide :i* p>ts ( a rock tunnel may be left unl9$4 ,! app>5tly solid-look+ portions are (t5times deceptive1 & numb]s ( in/ances are on record ( l>ge pieces ( rock fall+ d[n 9 tunnels :i* = _m ye>s _h be5 consid]$ z ?or\ghly secure4 ,:]e !re is any d\bt x is bett] & saf] to put 9 a l9+1 ev5 if only to ! ext5t ( an ar*+ spr++ f side walls ( solid rock1 z %[n on ,fig4 #bjf4 ,a mod]ate additional exp5diture at ! "t ( con/ruction may prev5t a s]i\s cata/rophe aft]w>ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbc ,! faces or entrances to tunnels may be con/ruct$ ) curv$ w+ #agh walls1 z 9 ,fig4 #bbj1 or ) /raight w+ walls1 z 9 ,figs4 #bba1 #bbb1 & #bbc4 ,:]e ! approa* cutt+ is 9 rock1 ! latt] =m is g5]ally adopt$4 ,x w\ld be mislead+ to put d[n any av]age price = tunnel-"w4 ,s mu* dep5ds ^u ! locality1 ! description ( mat]ial to be excavat$1 ! co/ ( masonry or brickwork1 & ! co/ ( lab\r4 ,add$ to ^! come ! un=ese5 tr\bles ( slips & wat]-lad5 /rata1 creat+ difficulties :i* baffle ! m9]s = a "t1 & add enorm\sly to ! exp5diture4 ,"s tunnels = d\ble l9e h be5 con/ruct$ 9 good gr\nd1 & "u fav\rable circum/ances z to build+ mat]ials & lab\r1 = z l[ z #cb p] l9eal y>d2 :ile o!rs1 c>ri$ out "u adv]se conditions1 h co/ z mu* z #aej p] l9eal y>d4 ,a m$ium some:]e betwe5 ! two %\ld repres5t ! co/ ( tunnel-"w ?r\gh gr\nd :i* does n pres5t any special difficulty4 ,at ! same "t x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t simple tunnell+ :i* c be done 9 "o locality = #ej or #fj p] l9eal y>d1 w\ld be increas$ #bj1 #cj1 or #dj p] c5t4 9 ano!r1 :]e build+ mat]ial = ! l9+ is sc>ce & exp5sive4 ,tunnel-"w abroad w g5]ally co/ m ?an ! same "w at home4 ,! native lab\r]s may p]haps be procur$ at l[ rates1 b ! skill$ workm5 mu/ be br\ght f a di/ance1 & w obta9 high wages4 ,ano!r =m ( tunnel-"w1 g5]ally t]m$ ! cov]$-way sy/em1 is frequ5tly adopt$ 9 t[ns & places :]e l& & space are v valuable4 ,?is me?od consi/s 9 ! excavat+ & remov+ ( e>?work to admit ( ! build+ ( ! side walls & ar*+ ( a suitable tunnel-way1 & !n fill+ 9 ov] ! top to a dep? ( ?ree or f\r feet1 or up to ! level ( ! orig9al surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,?is "w may be c>ri$ out by ei!r remov+ ! entire wid? ( ! e>?work be=e ! comm5cem5t ( any build+ op]ations1 or by fir/ =m+ two deep1 well-%or$ tr5*es1 9 :i* to build ! side walls up to ab\t ar*-spr++4 ,9 bad gr\nd ! latt] arrangem5t has ! advantage1 z ! %or+ & /rutt+ to hold up ! slid+ mat]ial is limit$ to ! wid?s ( ! two n>r[ tr5*es1 & ! c5tre block ( e>?work is left unt\*$ z a support to ! /rutt+4 ,:5 ! side walls h be5 built suffici5tly high ! upp] portion ( ! c5tre block ( e>?work c be remov$ to all[ ( ! erection ( c5t]+ & #agi build+ ( ! ar*+1 & aft]w>ds ! rema9+ portion ( e>?work c be remov$ at conv5i5ce4 ,9 ?is mann] a tunnel-way may be con/ruct$ "u /reets1 g>d5s1 & ev5 "u build+s4 ,be+ ne>ly all done 9 ! op51 ! "w is m "u control ?an 9 an ord9>y tunnel1 b x is usually v co/ly4 ,tempor>y or div]t$ roads mu/ be arrang$2 ! excavat$ mat]ial mu/ g5]ally all be remov$ by c>ts1 sometimes to long di/ances2 & provision mu/ be made = div]t+ ! network ( sew]s1 gas1 & wat] pipes :i* are int]cept$ along ! r\te4 ,fig4 #bbd is a sket* ( cov]$-way ) brick ar*+4 ,fig4 #bbe illu/rates ano!r type :]e ca/-iron gird]s & jack-ar*es ( brickwork 7 introduc$ on acc\nt ( ! small headway4 ,9 s(t yield+ clay x is necess>y to con/ruct /rong inv]ts1 z indicat$ 9 ! sket*es4 ,recesses = ! platelay]s %\ld be provid$ e t5 or fifte5 y>ds4 ,! above sy/ems ( cov]$-way 7 l>gely adopt$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! und]gr\nd portions ( ! ,metropolitan ,railway & ,di/rict ,railways 9 & ar\nd ,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbd1 #bbe1 #bbf ,9 addition to ! ord9>y type ( tunnel =m$ by fir/ excavat+ ! mat]ial & !n l9+ ! op5+ ) brickwork or masonry1 tunnels ( mod]ate size h be5 con/ruct$ ( ca/-iron tubes1 simil> 9 section to ,fig4 #bbf4 ,! tubes 7 ca/ 9 %ort segm5ts1 bolt$ toge!r inside1 ! out] circumf]5ce1 or surface 9 contact ) ! e>? or clay1 be+ left free f projections ( any k9d4 ,by mak+ ! segm5ts ) bolt-holes exact to template1 !y 7 readily fitt$ toge!r 9 ! "w1 & a ?9 lay] ( suitable pack+ mat]ial plac$ betwe5 ! bolt+-flanges suffic$ to r5d] ! tubes wat]-tight4 ,! tunnell+ 0 c>ri$ on by means ( a %ort l5g? ( slightly l>g] tube1 or cap1 made ( plate-iron or /eel1 :i* fitt$ ov] ! lead+ end ( ! ma9 tube4 ,! front end ( ?is cap 0 made v /rong1 & provid$ ) doors ?r\gh :i* ! m9]s c\ld "w4 ,a s]ies ( hydraulic presses atta*$ to ! cap 7 br\ght to be> on ! bolt+-flange ( ! la/ complet$ r+1 & z ! excavat$ matt] 0 remov$ by ! m9]s f ! front ! cap 0 =c$ =w>d by ! hydraulic presses1 & ano!r r+ ( ca/-iron segm5ts ins]t$4 ,on ! ,city & ,s\? ,london ,railway1 con/ruct$ on ! above sy/em1 ! small annul> space =m$ r\nd ! ca/-iron tube by ! op]ation ( ! slid+ #aha cap 0 fill$ 9 ) cem5t gr\t+ by means ( an +5i\s ma*9e design$ = ! purpose4 ,l>ge tunnels "u riv]s or tidal e/u>ies mu/ ea* be dealt ) accord+ to ! p>ticul> circum/ances ( dep? bel[ /ream-b$1 mat]ial to be cut ?r\gh1 l5g? ( tunnel1 & gradi5t4 ,! *ief ob/acle to be cont5d$ aga9/ 9 s mu* ( ! riv] tunnel-"w is ! l>ge volume ( wat] :i* p\rs into ! work+s ?r\gh fissures 9 rock or seams ( gravel & s&1 necessitat+ ! con/ant use ( mo/ p[]ful pumps4 ,9 ord9>y l& tunnels ! gradi5ts are g5]ally laid out to fall t[>ds "o or bo? entrances1 & any wat] f9d+ its way into ! excavations may be l$ away to ! entrances by dra9s or pipes4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 a riv] tunnel ! gradi5ts g5]ally fall away f ! entrances d[n t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! riv]1 & all wat] com+ 9 mu/ be pump$ out & rais$ up to at lea/ ! level ( ! riv]4 ,9 places :]e ! wat] comes /ream+ 9 f _m po9ts1 any failure or /oppage ( ! pumps w\ld place ! lives ( ! m9]s1 & ! security ( ! "w itself1 9 great jeop>dy4 ,iron %ields1 or protection *amb]s = ! m9]s advanc+ ! excavation1 h be5 us$ ) great success 9 c>ry+ on "w ?r\gh loose wet /rata :i* appe>$ to defy all o!r means ( progress4 ,solid rock1 *alk1 or compact clay1 may pres5t no difficulty s f> z !y g1 b a cont9u$ dip 9 ! gradi5t1 or a l9e ( fault1 may sudd5ly *ange ! entire c\rse ( op]ations1 & require ! imm$iate use ( ! mo/ p[]ful pump+ ma*9]y & protective appliances4 ,! special features ( ea* case w dem& special precautions1 & ! judgm5t & inv5tive p[]s ( ! eng9e] w be sev]ely te/$ 9 cop+ ) ! difficulties ) :i* he is surr\nd$4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 #ahb ,p]man5t way--,rails--,sleep]s--,fa/5+s--& ,p]man5t way lay+4 ,rails4--,accu/om$ z we n[ are to ! sub/antial "* ( ! p]man5t way ( our railways1 we c sc>cely realize t 9 ! e>li] examples ! rails or tram-plates 7 made ( wood4 ,! fir/ l9es ( :i* we f9d any record 7 ^? con/ruct$ to facilitate ! conveyance ( coal1 iron ore1 /one1 slate1 or o!r heavy mat]ials to %ipp+ ports or po9ts ( di/ribution4 ,spe$ 0 a matt] ( little importance1 ! pr9cipal object be+ to introduce a di/9ct surface or roadway :i* w\ld all[ a heavi] load to be haul$ )\t increas+ ! haul+ p[]4 ,z a heavily load$ :eelb>r[1 difficult to move on an ord9>y road1 c be readily :eel$ along a wood5 plank1 s x may h be5 inf]r$ t /rong timb]1 laid 9 p>allel l9es & level & ev5 on ! upp] surface1 w\ld =m a track1 or roadway1 pres5t+ f> less resi/ance ?an ! ord9>y gravell$ or pav$ roads4 ,! wood5 tramway 0 ! fir/ improvem5t ov] ! ord9>y road4 ,! idea once orig9at$1 v>i\s types 7 soon introduc$1 & ! sket* %[n 9 ,fig4 #bbg illu/rates "o :i* appe>s to h be5 e>ly sugge/$ & l>gely adopt$4 ,wood5 cross-sleep]s1 ,a1 ,a1 7 plac$ at conv5i5t spaces1 & on ! top ( ^! /rong timb] planks or beams1 ,b1 ,b1 7 spik$ at prop] di/ances to suit ! :eels ( ! waggons or f\r-:eel trucks1 :i* _h flat tyres l ord9>y c>ts4 ,! spaces betwe5 ! sleep]s 7 fill$ 9 ) gravel or brok5 /one to =m a roadway or haul+ pa? = ! horses4 ,a little lat] d\ble rails 7 introduc$1 by plac+ a second or upp] timb] on ! top ( ! l[] "o1 z 9 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bce ,?is d\ble rail arrangem5t n only /r5g!n$ ! framework1 b by increas+ ! height all[$ a great] quantity ( suitable #ahd mat]ial to be plac$ ov] ! sleep]s to protect !m f we> by ! horses' feet4 ,x c be easily und]/ood t a wood5 tramway c\ld n be v durable4 ,x w\ld be affect$ by ! sun1 ra91 & sn[1 & p>ticles ( s& & gravel ?r[n on to ! tram beams f ! haul+ pa? w\ld ha/5 ! abrad+ or we>+ away ( ! s(t portions ( ! timb] into holl[s1 leav+ ! h>d knots /&+ out z projections4 ,! unev5 surface w\ld produce a s]ies ( bl[s e "t a load$ truck pass$ along1 loos5+ ! pieces & r5d]+ ! repairs con/ant & exp5sive4 ,to obviate ! rapid we> ( ! tram-timb]s cont9u\s n>r[ b>s ( wr\ght-iron 7 fa/5$ on to ! runn+-surfaces2 ^! 9 a measure prolong$ ! life ( ! timb]s1 b at ! same "t add$ to ! numb] ( ! pieces & fa/5+s to be ma9ta9$4 ,primitive z ?is description ( road appe>s to be1 x 0 9 use = _m ye>s 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 & ev5 aft] ! introduction ( ! e>ly locomotives2 timb] 0 abundant & *eap1 & iron 9 any =m 0 co/ly4 ,^! long ?9 /rips ( iron1 plac$ z 9 ,fig4 #bcb1 _h a t5d5cy to become unfa/5$ at ! ends1 & to curl up 9 a v al>m+ mann]1 :i* e>n$ = !m ! s\briquet ( snake heads4 ,al?\gh iron 0 only us$ to a limit$ ext5t 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 x 0 soon f\nd to be a mu* m suitable mat]ial = a tram-pa? ?an ! be/ timb]4 ,z a next progressive /ep we f9d t ! tram-plates 7 made entirely ( iron1 ( full wid? = ! :eel-tyres1 & ) a guid+ flange to keep ! :eels on ! prop] track4 ,9 "s cases ! guid+ flanges 7 plac$ inside ! :eels1 z 9 ,figs4 #bbi & #bcj1 & 9 o!rs outside1 z 9 ,fig4 #bca4 ,) ! =m] plan a ?ick] cov]+ ( gravel or brok5 /ones c\ld be laid d[n to protect ! sleep]s "u ! horse-pa?4 ,^! solid tram-plates 7 made ( ca/-iron1 t metal be+ consid]$ ! mo/ conv5i5t = manufacture & ! lea/ liable to suff] loss f ru/ & oxidization4 ,ano!r advantage ( ! ca/-iron 0 t brok5 tram-plates c\ld be melt$ d[n & reca/ at a mod]ate co/4 ,long l5g?s ( ^! ca/-iron plate tramways 7 laid d[n 9 ?is c\ntry & abroad1 & %ort portions ( "s ( !m rema9 9 exi/5ce ev5 to ! pres5t day4 ,!y 7 ( imm5se s]vice = #ahe ! transportation ( heavy mat]ials1 & )\t _! adv5titi\s aid _m valuable colli]ies & qu>ries mu/ long h rema9$ idle & undevelop$4 ,9 ?us provid+ a level1 smoo?1 & comp>atively durable :eel-track = ! waggons1 ^! tramways became ! fitt+ pione]s ( ! great railway sy/em :i* 0 to foll[4 ,not)/&+ ! great sup]iority ( ! ca/-iron plates z comp>$ ) ! =m] timb] beams1 mu* inconv5i5ce 0 /ill caus$ by gravel & dirt fall+ on to ! :eel-track & s]i\sly imp$+ ! haulage ( ! waggons4 ,to ov]come ?is difficulty ! next /ep tak5 0 to remove ! guid+ flange f ! tram-plate & transf] x to ! :eel1 ?us develop+ & introduc+ ! orig9al flang$ :eel4 ,?is 0 a mo/ important /ep1 & pav$ ! way = o!r improvem5ts4 ,! rails1 or edge rails1 z !y 7 at fir/ call$1 7 made suffici5tly high to all[ ample space = ! :eel-flanges to cle> ! gr\nd1 & 7 secur$ to ca/-iron *airs plac$ on wood5 cross-sleep]s1 or 9 "s cases to /one blocks1 z %[n 9 ,figs4 #bcc1 #bcd1 & #bce4 ,! n>r[ top ( rail1 & its height above ! horse-pa?1 effectually prev5t$ ! lodgm5t ( gravel or dirt1 & ! flanges on ! :eels ensur$ a m ev5 c\rse4 ,f ! irregul> & easily *ok$-up tram-plate1 ! sy/em *ang$ to ! clean rail & prop]ly def9$ track4 ,waggons c\ld be haul$ ) great] fre$om1 & ) less we> & te> to !mselves & to ! roadway4 ,at ?is "t ! use ( ! /eam-eng9e 0 becom+ m g5]al1 & a f9e field 0 op5$ out = its application z a motive-p[] on ! tramways4 ,/ation>y eng9es1 or w9d+ eng9es1 z !y 7 call$1 7 fir/ employ$ to haul ! trucks by means ( long ropes pass$ r\nd revolv+ drums1 & support$ at int]vals by groov$ pulleys plac$ betwe5 ! rails at suitable di/ances4 ,9 ?is way fair loads c\ld be convey$1 & at mod]ate co/2 b ! sy/em 0 f\nd to be only suitable = %ort di/ances1 & x _h ! great drawback t horses or o!r motive-p[] 7 /ill necess>y = sort+ or di/ribut+ ! trucks be=e & aft] _! transit by rope haulage4 ,! next great advance 0 to place ! /eam-eng9e on :eels1 to enable x to haul & accompany ! trucks4 ,crude & imp]fect z ! primitive locomotives mu/ h be51 a v %ort trial ( !m #ahf s]v$ to %[ t ! rails ( ca/-iron !n 9 use 7 totally unfitt$ to =m a trackway = ! newly inv5t$ ma*9es4 ,! %ort fi%-belli$ ca/-iron rails 7 made 9 l5g?s m]ely to ext5d f *air to *air2 !y possess$ little or no cont9uity1 & f ! inh]5t brittl5ess ( ! mat]ial !y 7 con/antly break+ & giv+ way "u ! increas$ weights impos$ ^u !m4 ,x became necess>y to adopt a m reliable mat]ial1 & att5tion 0 naturally turn$ to =g$ or wr\ght iron4 ,! sugge/ion once made 0 promptly respond$ to by ! iron mak]s4 ,special ma*9]y 0 design$ & con/ruct$1 & v soon wr\ght-iron rails 7 manufactur$ 9 l>ge quantities4 ,at fir/ !y 7 made v simil> 9 section to ! fi%-belly ca/-iron rails1 b 9 l5g?s to ext5d ov] ?ree or f\r sleep]s4 ,! increas$ l5g? gave great] /ability to ! road1 & p]mitt$ an increase ( spe$4 ,! manife/ sup]iority ( ! wr\ght-iron rails l$ to _! univ]sal adoption1 & a great impetus 0 ?us giv5 to _! manufacture4 ,improvem5ts 7 made 9 ! ma*9]y = roll+1 & m c>e 0 be/[$ 9 ! work+ ( ! iron4 ,*anges 7 made 9 ! section ( ! rails2 ! fi%-belly =m 0 disc>d$1 & a d\ble-head type 0 introduc$ to give m lat]al /iffness4 ,at ?is p]iod 9 its hi/ory ! capabilities ( ! iron road began to be m fully recogniz$1 & ! support]s ( ! sy/em =esaw a great future success1 bo? = ! conveyance ( pass5g]s z well z goods4 ,hi!rto ! tramroads or railroads _h be5 us$ = m9]als & m]*&ize only1 b x 0 n[ claim$ t on a c>efully con/ruct$ l9e1 & ) improv$ locomotives & roll+-/ock1 x w\ld be possible to convey pass5g]s m conv5i5tly & rapidly ?an by any o!r me?od4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcf1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bda1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bej1 #bea1 #beb1 #bec1 #bed1 #bee1 #bef1 #beg1 #beh ,inv5tive m9ds 7 at "w to accompli% s desirable an object1 & public ent]prise 0 =?com+ to provide funds = ! purpose4 ,! successful work+ ( ! fir/ pass5g] l9e =m$ ! dawn ( a new era 9 travell+1 & simil> l9es 7 soon project$ = o!r places4 ,! wr\ght-iron rails 9 use at ?is "t 7 g5]ally ( a d\ble head =m1 & r>ely exce$$ #ab or #ae feet 9 l5g?4 ,!y 7 held by wood5 pegs 9 ca/-iron *airs1 :i* 7 secur$ to timb] cross-sleep]s or /one blocks1 z %[n 9 ,figs4 #ahh #bcd & #bce4 ,!y 7 light 9 section1 & x is /at$ t ! fir/ rails on ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway weigh$ only #cc lbs4 p] y>d4 ,! railway sy/em spread rapidly1 & ! con/antly increas+ traffic ( all k9ds soon necessitat$ heavi] rails4 ,v>i\s sections 7 devis$ & tri$ on diff]5t l9es1 "o ( ! ma9 objects 9 view be+ to obta9 a /eady road = ! increas+ spe$s1 z well z "o ( durability4 ,"s ( ^! sections are %[n 9 ,figs4 #bcf to #beh4 ,sections #bcf to #bdh all requir$ *airs to atta* !m to ! sleep]s4 ,! flange rails1 #bdi to #bec1 & bridge rails1 #bed to #bef1 also rail #beg1 7 design$ to re/ direct ^u ! sleep]s )\t ! necessity ( *airs2 & ! ,b>l[ rail1 #beh1 ) its great wid? ( #aa or #ab in*es1 0 int5d$ to be us$ )\t sleep]s ( any k9d1 ! gauge be+ secur$ by means ( angle iron tie-b>s4 ,rails 7 roll$ heavi] & long]1 & m c>e 0 be/[$ on ! fa/5+s2 b1 not)/&+ ^! improvem5ts1 ! rail-jo9ts /ill cont9u$ to be ! weak po9t 9 ! road4 ,ev5 ) an extra l>ge jo9t-*air & /\t wood5 key1 !re 0 mu* v]tical play at ! ends ( ! rails1 produc+ objectionable noise & vibration 9 ! runn+1 & act+ detrim5tally on all ! fa/5+s4 ,! introduction ( fi%-plates at ! rail-jo9ts1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bei1 effect$ an improvem5t :i* _c be ov]rat$1 z by _! adoption su* security1 spe$1 & smoo?ness became atta9able z 7 n be=e possible4 ,) a pair ( simple roll$ wr\ght-iron fi%-plates1 or splices1 & f\r bolts--two ?r\gh ! end ( ea* rail--a bett]1 smoo!r1 & m effectual jo9t 0 obta9$ ?an _h ev] be5 produc$ by ! heavy ca/-iron jo9t-*airs4 ,! sy/em ( fi%+1 or splic+1 0 at once admitt$ to be ! simple/ & mo/ direct me?od ( jo9+ ! rails2 &1 al?\gh m9or detail$ improvem5ts h s9ce be5 made1 ! arrangem5t1 z a pr9ciple1 has nev] be5 sup]s$$4 ,_m miles ( fi%$ rails 7 laid d[n ) a *air1 or support1 plac$ imm$iately "u ! jo9t1 =m+ ! me?od t]m$ ! support$ fi%-jo9t2 b exp]i5ce prov$ t ?is mode ( application did n give su* a good result z ! susp5d$ fi%-jo9t1 & ! latt] plan has n[ be5 adopt$ on almo/ all railways4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bei1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bff1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bfi1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgb ,! exp]i5ce obta9$ ye> aft] ye> 9 ! we> ( rails "u #aij heavy traffic1 l$ to cont9u$ improvem5ts bo? 9 ! me?od ( roll+ & 9 ! selection ( ! iron to =m ! rail-pile2 "o description ( iron 0 f\nd m suitable = ! head1 or runn+ surface1 & ano!r = ! v]tical web2 b1 ev5 ) ! be/ ma*9]y & mo/ c>efully assort$ mat]ials1 high-class wr\ght-iron rails 7 liable to lam9ation1 & long ?9 /rips ( iron became deta*$ f ! upp]1 or we>+1 surface4 ,! rail 0 compos$ ( _m lay]s ( iron1 & x 0 n always possible to ensure t !y 7 all ?or\ghly weld$1 or incorporat$ toge!r4 ,z e>ly z #ahed a few exp]im5tal solid /eel rails 7 laid d[n on "s ( ! pr9cipal railways1 & gave excell5t results z to ev5ness ( we> & durability1 b _! co/ ( manufacture r5d]$ _! ext5d$ use almo/ prohibitory4 ,comp\nd rails ( /eel & wr\ght-iron1 z 9 ,fig4 #bfj1 7 also tri$ on sev]al railways1 b ! practical results 7 n su* z to lead to a v ext5d$ adoption4 ,9 prep>+ ! pile = a comp\nd rail1 suitable wr\ght-iron b>s 7 plac$ to =m ! l[] memb] or flange1 ! web1 & "p ( ! head1 & a slab ( /eel 0 plac$ on ! top to =m ! upp] portion ( head1 or we>+ surface ( ! rail4 ,x 0 int5d$ t 9 ! process ( roll+ ^! di/9ct lay]s 7 to be incorporat$ toge!r1 to =m ! section %[n 9 ,fig4 #bfj4 ,d\btless _m good we>+ rails 7 manufactur$ on ?is sy/em1 b ! inh]5t diff]5ce ( ! two mat]ials1 /eel & iron1 r5d]$ x v difficult to ensure su* uni=m incorporation z w\ld )/& ! con/ant p\nd+ "u heavy1 fa/ traffic4 ,x 0 n until "s ye>s lat] t ! process ( ! ,bessem] ,conv]t] 0 discov]$ & p]fect$1 by means ( :i* /eel c be produc$ 9 l>ge quantities f> m rapidly & at mu* less co/ ?an by any o!r me?od hi!rto adopt$4 ,! introduction ( ?is process = mak+ /eel caus$ a complete revolution 9 ! mat]ial = rails4 ,/eel :i* _h previ\sly be5 exclud$ on acc\nt ( its co/1 c\ld n[ be suppli$ at a mod]ate price1 &1 f its compact & homog5e\s "*1 promis$ a v mu* long] we>+ life ?an ! be/ wr\ght-iron rails t _h ev] be5 roll$4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t ^! promises h be5 fully v]ifi$2 wr\ght-iron rails are ?+s ( ! pa/1 /eel rails h tak5 _! place1 & c n[ be pur*as$ #aia at a less price p] ton ?an ! iron rails ( tw5ty ye>s ago4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t out ( ! _m v>i$ sections t h be5 design$1 "s ( :i* are %[n 9 ! sket*es describ$1 only two h practically surviv$--! bullhead rail & ! flange rail4 ,! bull-head rail1 ,fig4 #bfa1 has gr[n out ( ! orig9al d\ble-head rail1 :i* _h bo? ! top & bottom memb]s made to ! same section & weight1 ) ! object t1 :5 ! upp] table _h become s mu* worn z to be unfit = fur!r use1 !n ! rail c\ld be turn$1 & ! o!r table1 or head1 br\ght into s]vice4 ,exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 prov$ t turn$ rails =m$ a mo/ unev5 & unsatisfactory road1 ! long contact ) ! ca/-iron *airs result$ 9 s]i\s ind5tations at ! rail-seats1 r5d]+ ! rails totally unfitt$ = smoo? runn+4 ,9 practice1 !re=e1 x has be5 f\nd bett] to re/rict ! runn+ we> to "o head only1 & to give increas$ sectional area to t head1 &1 at ! same "t to dim9i% ! sectional area ( ! l[] memb] to a correspond+ ext5t1 b to reta9 ! same wid?1 s z to obta9 a full be>+ surface on ! ca/-iron *air4 ,/eel bull-head rails are n[ adopt$ on ne>ly all ! pr9cipal l9es at home1 & on sev]al ( ! lead+ l9es abroad4 ,! flange rail1 ,fig4 #bfe1 0 design$ to give a broad1 direct be>+ on ! sleep]s1 & ?us avoid ! necessity ( us+ *airs4 ,rails ( ?is section h be5 laid d[n on _m ( our l9es at home1 & are v l>gely us$ on ! ,cont95t1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 & 9 our colonies g5]ally4 ,?is section is1 also1 ne>ly always adopt$ = n>r[-gauge railways4 ,hav+ few] p>ts1 x makes a *eap] road ?an ! bull-head rail1 b is n consid]$ s /rong or suitable = heavy & fa/ traffic4 ,comp>+ ! two rails %[n 9 ,figs4 #bfa & #bfe1 ea* hav+ exactly ! same size & sectional area 9 ! head1 x w be se5 t !re is m mat]ial 9 ! l[] memb]1 or flange1 ( ! "o rail ?an !re is 9 ! l[] memb] ( ! o!r2 ! weight p] l9eal y>d be+ #gi lbs4 = ! =m] & #ge lbs4 = ! latt]4 ,b ?is small excess 9 ! weight & co/ ( ! flange rail falls v %ort ( ! co/ ( ! ca/-iron *airs & wood5 keys necess>y = ! bull-head rail4 ,up to ! ye>s #ahgj-ahge1 x 0 ! common practice to make ! top1 or we>+ surface ( ! rail1 comp>atively r\nd1 z %[n on ! #aib typical sections1 ,figs4 #bfc & #bfg4 ,! effect ( ?is %>p-curv$ outl9e 0 to limit ! fir/ we>+1 or contact surface to a n>r[ /rip along ! head ( rail1 caus+ a t5d5cy to groove or =m holl[s 9 ! treads ( ! :eel-tyres4 ,z ! rail wore d[n1 ! upp] surface assum$ a mu* flatt] curve1 m closely assimilat$ to ! section ( ! :eel-tyre1 & giv+ bett] results = regul> we> "u heavy traffic4 ,pr(it+ by ?is exp]i5ce1 ! rails ( ! pres5t day are made mu* flatt] on ! head ?an !y 7 =m]ly1 z w be not$ f ! sections %[n on ,figs4 #bfa1 #bff1 & #bfi1 :i* repres5t types ( rails n[ actually 9 use on "s ( ! pr9cipal railways4 ,9 design+ a rail = any giv5 l9e1 ! section & weight ( ! rail mu/ necess>ily be influ5c$ by ! weight ( ! roll+-/ock pass+ ov] x1 & ! am\nt ( ! traffic x has to su/a94 ,! eng9e1 be+ ! heavie/ vehicle 9 ! tra91 w give ! measure ( ! greate/ weight on "o pair ( :eels4 ,eng9es v>y consid]ably on diff]5t l9es1 rang+ f t5 tons to eighte5 tons or m on "o pair ( driv+-:eels1 accord+ to ! description ( "w to be p]=m$4 ,v (t5 second>y or bran* l9es1 ) comp>atively light traffic1 h /eep gradi5ts1 necessitat+ eng9es z heavy z on a ma9 trunk l9e2 b ! numb] ( tra9s on ! =m] may n exce$ tw5ty p] day1 :ile on ! latt] !y may am\nt to "o hundr$ & fifty or two hundr$4 ,x is evid5t t ! rail :i* w\ld la/ = v _m ye>s "u ! small traffic1 w\ld h a v %ort life "u ! frequ5t traffic4 ,h5ce ! reason :y x is f\nd exp$i5t to give a l>ge increase ( mat]ial 9 ! heads ( rails c>ry+ ! heavy1 con/ant tra9 s]vice ( _m ( our ma9 l9es4 ,figs4 #bfa1 #bfb1 & #bfc are sections ( rails 9 use on l9es hav+ heavy eng9es & fa/ tra9s1 b ) a comp>atively small daily tra9 s]vice1 & ,figs4 #bfd1 #bff1 #bfg1 & #bfh are sections ( rails c>ry+ ! heavy1 fa/1 & incessant traffic ( "s ( our lead+ l9es4 ,on l9es hav+ small traffic1 sl[ spe$s1 easy gradi5ts1 & comp>atively light eng9es1 a r$uc$ section ( rail may be adopt$2 b 9 do+ s x is well to all[ = any probable future developm5t ( traffic :i* might cause ! introduction ( heavi] eng9es4 ,figs4 #bfi to #bgb %[ sections ( rails v>y+ f #gb to #fj lbs4 p] #aic y>d1 also a section ( a #de-lb4 /eel flange-rail1 mu* us$ on #c-;foot n>r[-gauge railways4 ,valuable & int]e/+ /ati/ics h f "t to "t be5 record$1 ) a view to asc]ta9 ! av]age life ( a /eel rail1 by obta9+ ! numb] ( million tons ( tra9 load :i* x w\ld su/a9 be=e x became worn d[n to su* an ext5t z to be no long] ( s]vice on ! l9e4 ,x w be readily und]/ood t ! rate ( we> ( a /eel rail w dep5d n only on ! weight & section ( ! rail itself1 b on ! class ( roll+-/ock1 & ! description ( traffic x has to c>ry4 ,x w also be l>gely affect$ by ! circum/ances ( :e!r ! l9e is on a level or on an incl9e4 ,! writ] has _h c>eful measurem5t tak5 ( ! we> ( ! /eel flange-rail 7,fig4 #bfe71 #gi lbs4 p] y>d1 & ! result %[s t ) a traffic n exce$+ tw5ty-f\r goods & pass5g] tra9s p] day1 "o-t5? ( an in* 0 worn (f ! top ( ! rail 9 t5 ye>s on ! comp>atively level portions ( ! l9e2 b t ! same am\nt ( "o-t5? ( an in* 0 worn (f 9 six ye>s by ! same traffic1 on ! same di/rict ( ! l9e1 9 places :]e ! gradi5ts v>i$ f #a 9 #ajj to #a 9 #gj4 ,! heavy p\nd+ ( ! eng9es1 & ! work+ ( ! brakes t5d v mat]ially to %ort5 ! life ( ! rails on ! incl9es4 ,z n[ made1 ! /eel rails manufactur$ "u ! conv]t] process exhibit great simil>ity 9 ! analysis ( _! compon5t p>ts2 at ! same "t x is well kn[n t a slight prepond]ance or r$uction ( "o or m ( ! con/itu5ts w result 9 mak+ ! /eel h>d or s(t4 ,! foll[+ /atem5t gives ! analysis ( twelve /eel rails1 six ( :i* 7 class$ z h>d /eel1 & six z s(t /eel3-- ,,h>d ,,/eel4--,,analysis ,,( ,,six ,,/eel ,,rails ,,:i* ,,broke ,,ei!r ,,9 ,,te/+ ,,or ,,9 ,,l9e4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 #e4 #f4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,c>bon #jdg #jea #jef #jdc #jdg #jed ,silicon #jji #jjh #jjh #jji #jjie #jaba ,sulphur #jjf #jjf #jjf #jjf #jjed #jjef ,phosphorus #jjg #jjf #jjf #jjh #jjh #jjeg ,manganese #abc #aaj #jij #abc #aae #abf ,iron #ihjh #ihai #ihcd #ihaa #ihaea #igiff ---------------------------------------- ---------- #ajjjj #ajjjj #ajjjj #ajjjj #ajjjjj #ajjjjj ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,s(t ,,/eel4--,,analysis ,,( ,,six ,,/eel ,,rails ,,:i* ,,/ood ,,! ,,te/ ,,well1 #aid ,,& ,,b5t ,,freely ,,)\t ,,%[+ ,,any ,,sign ,,( ,,fracture4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 #e4 #f4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,c>bon #jce #jci #jcg #jcd #jce #jbej ,silicon #jjf #jjg #jjg #jjh #jjg #jjfi ,sulphur #jjfb #jjfa #jjfb #jjfa #jjfa #jjdf ,phosphorus #jjfa #jjfa #jjfa #jjfc #jjfb #jjeh ,manganese #jhgj #jhge #jhff #jhfd #jhjj #jfcf ,iron #iheig #ihedc #ihega #iheib #ihfeg #ihida ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #ajjjjj #ajjjjj #ajjjji #ajjjjj #ajjjjj #ajjjjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,_m rails :i* h be5 brok5 9 ! l9e "u traffic h be5 analyz$1 & prov$ to be h>d /eel2 :ile o!rs1 :i* h be5 b5t into all sorts ( %apes1 b n brok5 dur+ accid5ts or d]ailm5ts1 h also be5 te/$1 & prov$ to be ( s(t /eel4 ,"s eng9e]s are advocates = a h>d /eel rail1 & claim = x great] durability & long] we>2 b ev5 suppos+ su* h>d rail %\ld possess a slight sup]iority ov] ! s(t rail1 x is well to consid] :e!r su* assum$ advantage is n obta9$ at ! risk ( incurr+ great] liability to fracture4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t a rail1 once plac$ 9 ! road1 is expos$ to all ! *anges ( temp]ature f heat to fro/1 & has frequ5tly to su/a9 increas$ /ra9s aris+ f loose sleep]s1 :]e ! gravel or balla/ has be5 di/urb$ dur+ heavy ra9s4 ,:5 writ+ a specification = /eel rails1 x is usual to /ate ! numb] ( tons p] squ>e in* 9 t5sile /ra9 :i* ! /eel mu/ be able to su/a9 )\t fracture1 & also to /ipulate t "s ( ! rails w be te/$ by ! fall+-weight te/4 ,9 ! latt] te/ a rail is plac$1 say at #c feet be>+s1 & 9 a simil> position to :at x w\ld occupy 9 ! road1 & a weight ( eighte5 hundr$weight1 or "o ton or m1 accord+ to section ( rail1 is all[$ to fall f a height ( #i or #aj feet1 on to ! rail1 at ! c5tre betwe5 ! be>+s4 ,) ?ree bl[s f ! giv5 height1 ! rail mu/ n b5d or deflect m ?an a specifi$ am\nt4 ,! fall+-weight te/ is1 p]haps1 r a r\gh & ready "o2 b x is always reassur+ to prove t ! rails w )/& su* a sev]e ordeal1 z x mu/ be a v exceptional circum/ance 9 ! r\t9e ( railway work+ :i* w produce a bl[ or %ock equal #aie 9 effect to ! fall+-weight te/4 ,! rails =m su* an important "p ( ! trackway1 almo/ ! v basis on :i* ! traffic has to dep5d = its safety1 t1 ap>t f ! "q ( we>1 no ef=t %\ld be sp>$ to ensure _! ?or\gh s\ndness & effici5cy4 ,9 mod]n practice rails are g5]ally us$ 9 l5g?s v>y+ f #be feet to #cj feet4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 mak+ !m long]2 b any excess ov] ! above l5g?s is f\nd to be inconv5i5t = transport1 = h&l+ 9 ! l9e1 & = mak+ ! necess>y all[ance = contraction & expansion at ! jo9ts4 ,/eel rails are g5]ally m>k$ on ! v]tical web ) ! initials ( ! railway company1 ! "n ( ! manufactur]1 & ! ye> 9 :i* !y are roll$4 ,?is is done by cutt+ out ! lett]s 9 ! la/ pair ( rolls ?r\gh :i* ! rails h to pass be=e !y are complet$1 s t on ! rails !mselves ! lett]s /& out 9 rais$ *>act]s1 ?us3 ,g4,n4,r4,i4444444,c4 ,,cammell ,co #ahif4 ,9 ?is mann] ! rails always c>ry = ref]5ce ! "n ( mak] & date4 ,:5 comp>+ ! relative m]its ( ! flange-rail & bull-head-rail p]man5t way1 ! "q ( /r5g? & durability mu/ be consid]$1 z well z t ( economy4 ,! flange-rail road has und\bt$ly few] p>ts & fa/5+s1 & :5 ! flange is wide1 ! sleep]s s\nd1 & ! rail securely held d[n to ! sleep]s1 ! result is a smoo? runn+ road4 ,s long z ! rail c be ma9ta9$ 9 a con/ant close contact ) ! wood5 sleep]1 ! runn+ is almo/ noiseless1 ! j>r+ on ! rails be+ absorb$ or tak5 (f by ! timb]2 b s soon z a little space or play takes place betwe5 ! spikes or o!r fa/5+s & ! upp] surface ( ! flange1 ! rail obta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( rise1 or lift1 :i* comes into action ^u ! pass+ ( e roll+ load1 produc+ un/ead9ess 9 ! rail & a clatt]+ noise 9 ! runn+4 ,a flange ( #e in*es1 on a sleep] #aj in*es wide1 has a be>+ surface ( #ej squ>e in*es 7assum+ ! sleep] to be squ>e cut1 )\t any wane on ! edges71 & ?is area ( #ej in*es is only ab\t half ( ! be>+ surface on ! sleep] ( an ord9>y mod]n ca/-iron *air4 ,ma9-l9e locomotives h weights on ! driv+-:eels v>y+ f #af to #ah & #bj tons4 ,tak+ #ah tons z repres5t+ a common practice = a l>ge express eng9e1 w\ld give #i tons z ! weight impos$ on #aif ea* rail by ea* driv+-:eel ,assum+ ?is weight to be di/ribut$ ov] ?ree sleep]s w\ld give a dead weight ( #c tons p] sleep]1 or #acd lbs4 on e squ>e in* ( ! #ej squ>e in*es ( surface1 or rail-be>+ area1 on ea* sleep]1 )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! effect ( ! bl[ or p]cussion f ! roll+ load4 ,! pres5ce ( a loose sleep] ?r[s additional weight on ! adjo9+ sleep]s1 & increases ! de/ructive influ5ce on ! timb]4 ,! con/ant application ( heavy roll+ loads on a small be>+ area ( timb] cru%es & we>s away ! timb] v rapidly4 ,! small be>+ surface ( ! flange rail exp$ites ! cutt+ d[n into ! sleep]1 & z ! rail b$s itself fur!r & fur!r into ! wood1 ! fa/5+s mu/ be driv5 or screw$ d[n to foll[ ! flange4 ,spikes may be driv5 d[n1 b ! fur!r !y g !y h a less ?ickness ( timb] = a b$1 & !re=e a dim9i%$ hold4 ,crab bolts are apt to become ru/$ or ironb\nd1 s t !y _c be screw$ fur!r1 & mu/ !n be tak5 out & replac$ ) new ones4 ,! n>r[] ! flange1 ! m rapidly does ! rail-seat cut d[n to a ?ickness inconsi/5t ) safety4 ,! %>p edge ( ! flange-rail has a t5d5cy to cut a *annel 9 ! spike1 & x is n at all an unusual occurr5ce to f9d /rong squ>e %ank$ dog-spikes1 :i* h be5 ?us cut into to ! ext5t ( a ?ird or ev5 half _! ?ickness4 ,! comp>ative n>r[ flange places ! spikes at great disadvantage 9 po9t ( lev]age = hold+ d[n1 & ?is weakness is soon made manife/1 p>ticul>ly on curves1 :]e additional crab bolts or o!r devices are r5d]$ necess>y to c\nt]act ! t5d5cy ( ! rail to rock & tilt ov] sideways4 ,:5 ! head ( ! rail _c be kept 9 its prop] position1 ! gauge becomes wid5$1 & an irregul> s9u\s motion takes place 9 ! runn+ ( ! tra94 ,?is drawback has be5 f\nd to be a s]i\s matt] :]e light n>r[ flange rails h be5 adopt$ to c>ry comp>atively heavy1 %ort :eel-base eng9es4 ,9 "s cases wr\ght-iron sole-plates1 or ev5 ca/-iron bracket-*airs1 h be5 introduc$ to give m be>+ surface on ! sleep] & increas$ support to ! rail1 b nei!r ( ! two me?ods give ! same simple complete hold to ! rail t is obta9$ by ! ca/-iron *air = ! bull-head rail4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! mod]n ca/-iron *air = ! bull-head rail #aig has at lea/ d\ble ! be>+ surface on ! sleep] to t ( ! flange-rail seat1 s t "u ! same circum/ances ( roll+ load z above describ$1 ! weight ( #acd lbs4 p] squ>e in* w\ld be r$uc$ to half1 or #fg lbs4 ,! great] l5g? giv5 to ! *air effectually prev5ts any rock+ action on ! "p ( ! rail1 & r$uces to a m9imum any lift+ action on ! spike4 ,a good fitt+ *air--especially :5 key$ on ! inside--provides a mo/ effectual support to ! rail bo? v]tically & lat]ally1 & ma9ta9s ! rail to accurate gauge4 ,by giv+ prop] cle>ance space at ! tops ( ! *air-jaws1 a bull-head rail c be tak5 out by simply driv+ out ! wood5 keys1 & a new rail ins]t$ )\t 9 any way di/urb+ ! *airs or spikes4 ,to *ange a flange rail necessitates ! slack5+ & removal ( a l>ge numb] ( ! spikes & crab bolts4 ,z ! sleep]s "u ! *air road suff] less f ! cru%+ ( ! timb]1 !y h a mu* long] life 9 ! l9e1 & rema9 s]viceable until !y are incapacitat$ f decay4 ,?is is a v important item 9 places :]e timb] sleep]s are exp5sive4 ,! /ead9ess ( ! *air prolongs ! effici5cy ( ! spikes4 ,z ! actual we>+ portion ( ! rail is ! head1 or :eel contact surface1 a lib]al area--consi/5t ) ! expect$ traffic--mu/ be giv5 to t "p1 :e!r = a bull-head rail or a flange rail4 ,by comp>+ ! two sections1 ,figs4 #bgc & #bgd1 ! "o = an #he-lb4 bull-head rail1 & ! o!r = a #ajj-lb4 flange rail1 x w be se5 f ! dott$ l9es t ! heads ( ea* rail are almo/ id5tical1 ! diff]5ce ( #ae lbs4 be+ dispos$ ( 9 ! flange ( ! heavi] rail4 ,practically1 !re=e1 we h #ae lbs4 p] y>d extra weight ( /eel 9 ! rail1 on ! "o h&1 z aga9/ ! ca/-iron *airs & /eadi] p]man5t way on ! o!r4 ,= l9es :]e ! traffic is small1 weights light1 spe$s l[1 & economy ( con/ruction imp]ative1 ! flange-rail p]man5t way w be v suitable4 ,! writ] has _h long mileages ( ea* description ( p]man5t way "u 8 *>ge1 bo? at home & abroad1 = _m ye>s1 & ! result ( 8 exp]i5ce has %[n t1 al?\gh a fairly good road may be made ) flange rails1 /ill1 = con/ant1 heavy1 fa/ traffic1 ! bull-head rail ) ca/-iron *airs makes a mu* /rong]1 m durable1 & bett] p]man5t way ?an any flange railroad4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgc1 #bgd ,briefly summ>iz$1 ! pr9cipal advantages & disadvantages ( ! #aii two k9ds ( rails /& z foll[s3-- ,,advantages4 ,bull-head ,rail4 ,flange ,rail4 ,l>ge be>+ surface ( *air ,fewness ( p>ts1 & less ^u ! sleep]1 & great] co/4 /ability ( ! rail4 ,small] quantity ( balla/ ,long] life ( wood5 sleep]4 requir$ to cov] up ! foot ( rail4 ,impossibility ( rail tilt+ ov] outw>ds4 ,m lat]al /iffness ?an ! bull-head rail4 ,facility = *ang+ a rail )\t di/urb+ ! fa/5+s 9 ! sleep]s4 ,easi] to ma9ta91 ow+ to less di/urb+ /ra9s on ! fa/5+s4 ,a bull-head rail is m readily set or laid to foll[ l9e ( curve4 ,9 mo/ cases ! "o set ( *airs w s]ve = a second set ( rails4 ,p]fect /raightness ( rail3 x is v r>e to f9d a crook$ bull-head rail4 ,easi] to roll1 & m likely to obta9 uni=mity ( /eel4 ,,disadvantages4 ,bull-head ,rail4 ,flange ,rail4 ,bull-head ,rail4 ,! small rail-seat area on sleep] ?r[s great cru%+ ,great] co/4 weight on ! timb]4 ,m balla/ requir$ to cov] ,%ort] life ( wood5 up ! rail4 sleep]s f ! cutt+ d[n ( rail-seats4 ,less lat]al /iffness ?an ! flange rail4 ,! edge ( flange cuts ! spikes aft] a few ye>s4 ,! undulation ( ! rail "u tra9s t5ds to raise ! spikes1 & causes lat]al movem5t 9 ! rails4 ,m difficult to ma9ta91 9 consequ5ce ( great] t5d5cy ( ! fa/5+s to "w loose4 ,difficulty 9 gett+ flange rails /raight5$ lat]ally4 ,m difficult to set to foll[ regul> l9e ( curves4 ,m difficult to roll1 & less likely to obta9 uni=mity ( /eel4 ,tramway ,rails4--,tramways on /reets or public roads are n[ univ]sally recogniz$ z important bran*es ( ! railway pr9ciple4 ,_! smoo?ness ( movem5t1 increas$ accommodation1 & _m o!r advantages z comp>$ ) ! old road omnibus1 r5d] x no long] necess>y to call = special advocacy :5 !re is a possibility ( _! introduction4 ,!y occupy a position s ?or\ghly appreciat$ #bjj by ! public t any *eck on _! reasonable use or ext5sion w\ld be consid]$ z detrim5tal to ! int]e/s ( ! travell+ community4 ,z a rule1 ^! tramways are laid d[n on /reets or roads previ\sly con/ruct$ = ! ord9>y road traffic1 :]e all ! prelim9>y "w ( e>? fill+1 bridges1 dra9age1 etc41 has already be5 accompli%$1 & !re only rema9s ! selection & lay+ d[n ( ! rails or p]man5t way ov] :i* ! tram-c>s w h to run4 ,! description & weight ( p]man5t way to be adopt$ w dep5d l>gely ^u ! weight ( ! c>s to be us$ & ! sy/em ( motive-p[] decid$ ^u = ! haulage--:e!r horses1 /eam1 cable1 or electricity4 ,z ! portion ( ! /reets or public roads along :i* ! tramway has to be laid w1 9 all probability1 h to be occupi$ & trav]s$ by all k9ds ( vehicles besides ! tram-c>s1 x is absolutely necess>y t ! p]man5t way = ! tramway %\ld be ( su* description z to require ! lea/ possible am\nt ( adju/m5t ( fa/5+s or op5+ out ( ! roadway = repairs4 ,:]e ! entire wid? ( ! /reet1 includ+ ! space betwe5 ! tram-rails1 is pav$ ) /one setts1 ! op5+ out ( ev5 a %ort l5g? = repairs is t$i\s & co/ly1 & causes consid]able ob/ruction to ! /reet traffic4 ,x is mo/ important1 !re=e1 t ! rail & its fa/5+s %\ld n only be /rong en\gh = its own tram s]vice & ! c>ts & drays :i* w pass ov] & across ! track 9 all directions1 b x mu/ possess ! m9imum necessity = di/urbance4 ,figs4 #bge to #bgi are sket*es ( a few ( ! _m types :i* h be5 br\ght into use 9 v>i\s places4 ,:]e ! public roads are wide1 & a space c be set ap>t at ! side = ! special use ( ! tramway1 ! arrangem5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #bge w be simple & effici5t4 ,x is v simil> to an ord9>y railway p]man5t way ) ! balla/ fill$ 9 flu% ) ! top ( ! rails4 ,! rails are %[n z flange or flat-bottom rails1 fi%$ toge!r at ! jo9ts1 & prop]ly secur$ to transv]se sleep]s ( wood1 iron1 or /eel4 ,! space betwe5 & outside ! rails is fill$ 9 ) small-siz$ brok5 /one balla/ or good clean gravel1 & =ms an ev5 surface1 ov] :i* animals or cattle may pass )\t risk ( be+ ?r[n d[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bge1 #bgf1 #bgg1 #bgh1 #bgi ,fig4 #bgf repres5ts a sy/em :i* 0 laid d[n ext5sively1 especially #bjb = horse tramways1 b n prov+ effici5t1 has be5 sup]s$$ by o!r types ( a /rong] & m durable description4 ,! rail 0 roll$ ) a cont9u\s groove to provide cle>ance = ! flanges ( ! c>-:eels1 & ! sides ( ! rail 7 turn$ d[n s z to fit ov] ! longitud9al timb] sleep]1 to :i* ! rail 0 secur$ by /aple-dogs1 z %[n4 ,ca/-iron *airs1 spik$ on to wood5 cross-sleep]s1 held ! longitud9al sleep]s 9 position4 ,! wood5 sleep]s 7 fav\rable = smoo? runn+1 b ! section ( ! rail1 practically a light *annel-iron laid on ! flat1 0 mo/ unsuitable = c>ry+ weight or = mak+ a prop] jo9t4 ,exp]i5ce prov$ ?is road to be v difficult to ma9ta9 9 good ord] = easy traction4 ,! /aple-dogs work$ loose aft] a little "t1 & ! rail1 hav+ sc>cely any v]tical /iffness1 rose & fell dur+ ! passage ( e c>-:eel1 result+ 9 mo/ unev5 jo9ts & a clatt]+ roadway4 ,) ! view to obta9 a /rong] & m p]man5t support = ! rail ?an ! longitud9al timb] sleep] la/ describ$1 v>i\s =ms ( ca/-iron *airs 7 devis$4 ,fig4 #bgg repres5ts "o ( ^! patt]ns4 ,! rail1 :i* is ( ,t-section ) a cont9u\s :eel-flange groove1 is secur$ to ! ca/-iron *air by ! cross-p91 z %[n4 ,al?\gh ?is cross-p9 may 9 "t "w a little loose1 x _c "w out1 be+ kept 9 position by ! pav+-setts on ea* side4 ,! ca/-iron *airs are plac$ at conv5i5t di/ances1 & be+ set 9 a b$ ( concrete1 d n require cross-sleep]s or tie-b>s4 ,?is type makes a /rong road1 b ! rail-jo9ts _c be made s ev5 or effici5t z ) ! m mod]n =m ( rail4 ,rail manufactur]s are n[ able to roll a section ( rail comb9+ ! v]tical /iffness ( ! ord9>y flange1 or flat-bottom1 rail ) ! runn+-head & cont9u\s :eel-flange groove1 consid]$ ! mo/ suitable = heavy tramway traffic4 ,! introduction ( ?is section ( rail has contribut$ greatly to ! increas$ effici5cy & durability ( ! p]man5t way = /reet traffic2 & z ! ends ( ! rails c be secur$ by ord9>y fi%-plates1 !re is ! great acquisition ( ev5 jo9ts & increas$ smoo?ness 9 ! runn+ ( ! tramc>s4 ,?is rail c be roll$ ( v>i\s weights to suit ! roll+ loads4 ,on "s tram-l9es a mod]ately heavy section has be5 adopt$1 & secur$ to transv]se sleep]s ( roll$ iron or /eel laid on a b$ ( concrete4 ,on o!rs simil> roll$ metal sleep]s h be5 us$1 b laid longitud9ally4 ,= "s descriptions #bjc ( traffic a mu* heavi] section ( rail has be5 us$1 hav+ a base suffici5tly wide to provide ample be>+ on a b$ ( concrete )\t ! int]v5tion ( ei!r transv]se or longitud9al sleep]s4 ,fig4 #bgh is a sket* ( ! mod]n rail z laid d[n on a roll$ /eel transv]se sleep]1 ! rail be+ held 9 position ei!r by turn$-up clips1 w$ges1 bolts1 or any ( ! devices 9 use = simil> duty 9 ! roll$-/eel sleep]s = ord9>y railway p]man5t way4 ,fig4 #bgi %[s a mod]n rail ( a heavi] section1 ) a wide flange re/+ direct on a cont9u\s b$ ( concrete4 ,! gauge is ma9ta9$ by b>-iron tie-b>s plac$ v]tically s z to fit 9 betwe5 ! c\rses ( ! pav+-setts1 ! ends be+ =g$ & screw$ to pass ?r\gh holes 9 ! v]tical web ( rail1 & secur$ 9 position by nuts4 ,bo? 9 ?is1 & 9 type ,fig4 #bgh1 ord9>y fi%-plates are adopt$ at ! rail-jo9ts1 z indicat$ by dott$ l9es4 ,9 ! la/ two examples above describ$ all ! mat]ials are ( ! mo/ durable description1 & ! lea/ liable to we> or decay1 b x w be necess>y to gu>d aga9/ mak+ ! fa/5+s & ! b>s too light = ! duty !y h to p]=m4 ,!re %\ld be ample mat]ial 9 ! head ( ! rail to all[ ( a fair we>+ d[n1 & ! cont9u\s flange groove %\ld be suffici5tly deep to meet ?is we>+ away )\t caus+ ! :eel-flanges to /rike ! bottom ( ! groove4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhj1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #bhg1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #bij1 #bia ,fi%-plates4--,9 ! fir/ examples ( ! newly inv5t$ wr\ght-iron fi%-plates !y 7 made to ! dep? to fit 9 betwe5 ! upp] & l[] tables ( ! rail1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bhj1 a small space or cle>ance be+ left betwe5 ! inn] sides & ! v]tical web ( ! rail4 ,ord9>y nuts & bolts 7 us$ 9 mo/ cases1 b 9 "s in/ances "o ( ! fi%-plates 0 tapp$1 z 9 ,fig4 #bha1 =m+ "o long cont9u\s nut1 & 9 o!rs bo? fi%-plates 7 tapp$1 z 9 ,fig4 #bhb1 & "r & left h&$ bolts 7 us$4 ,nei!r ( ! two arrangem5ts ( tapp$ fi%-plates prov$ suffici5tly successful z to lead to _! g5]al adoption4 ,:5 ! bolts became ru/$ 91 or iron-b\nd1 x 0 f\nd to be almo/ impossible to remove !m )\t p]man5tly damag+ ! fi%-plates4 ,) ! f\r "r & left h&$ bolts ! op]ation ( tight5+1 or remov+1 ! fi%-plates 0 v t$i\s1 z ea* bolt _h to be turn$ a v little at a "t1 "o aft] ! o!r4 #bje ,indep5d5t bolts & nuts1 ei!r ( iron or /eel1 are n[ univ]sally us$2 pla9 holes1 ) suffici5t all[ance = "w & expansion1 be+ pun*$ or drill$ 9 ! rails & fi%-plates4 ,= _m ye>s ! dep? ( ! fi%-plates cont9u$ to be made ! same z ! space betwe5 ! upp] & l[] memb]s ( ! rail1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bhj2 b ) ! heavi] loads & high] spe$s ( our mod]n railway work+ x has be5 f\nd necess>y to /r5g!n ! jo9ts by provid+ deep] or /iff] fi%-plates1 z %[n 9 ,figs4 #bhc1 #bhd1 & #bhe4 ,= bull-head rails ! fi%-plates h be5 br\ght d[n und]nea? ! l[] table1 & 9 "s cases ext5d$ d[n suffici5tly f> to admit ( a second set ( fi%-bolts "u ! rail4 ,= flange rails "s fi%-plates are us$ simply ( ! =m ( angle irons1 & o!rs h ! angle portion c>ri$ out beyond ! end ( ! flange1 or foot ( rail1 & !n turn$ d[n v]tically to a dep? ( an in* or m bel[ ! rail4 ,! latt] makes a v /rong fi%-plate4 ,fi%-plates1 l rails1 are n[ almo/ univ]sally made ( /eel4 ,! effici5cy & durability ( a fi%-plate dep5ds mat]ially ^u its angle ( contact ) ! "u side ( ! head ( ! rail1 & ! ext5t ( its contact surface4 ,x w\ld be an error to suppose !re is little or no we>+ away 9 fi%-plates1 z 9 reality !re is v consid]able we>1 & especially 9 rails ( light] section4 ,if ! "u side ( ! head ( rail has a curv$ outl9e1 z 9 ! rail 9 ,fig4 #bhg1 !re w be "s difficulty 9 ensur+ a p]fect fit 9 ! fi%-plates2 ! curve ( ! "o may n q correspond to ! curve ( ! o!r1 & ! contact surface w be v small4 ,x is bett] to make ^! contact surfaces 9 /raight l9es1 & to a wide angle r ?an to an acute angle4 ,9 ,fig4 #bhh ! "u side ( head & correspond+ top ( fi%-plates are set at an acute angle1 & fi%-plates to ?is patt]n w soon we> up to ! v]tical web ( rail1 & cause a loose noisy jo9t4 ,9 ,fig4 #bhd1 %[+ a diff]5t type ( rail1 ! contact surfaces are set at a v mu* wid] angle1 & w all[ mu* m we> be=e ! fi%-plates c "w close up to ! web ( ! rail4 ,:5 once ! fi%-plates are close up to ! web1 ! be/ & #bjf tighte/ bolts _c prev5t ! v]tical play 9 ! ends ( ! rails4 ,a hamm]+ s\nd w ann\nce ea* successive drop ( ! :eels f "o rail to ! o!r1 m di/9ctly1 p]haps1 at sl[ spe$s ?an :5 travell+ quickly1 b exi/+ equally "u bo? conditions4 ,! unpleasant j>r+ s5sation is annoy+ to ! pass5g]s1 & has a /ra9+1 loos5+ effect on all ! bolts & fa/5+s4 ,unless ! fi%-plates h a ?or\gh cont9u\s be>+ aga9/ ! upp] & l[] %\ld]s ( bo? ! rails1 x w be impossible to obta9 a smoo? ev5 jo9t4 ,a road may h good rails1 good *airs1 & good sleep]s1 b if ! fi%-plates are worn & loose ! entire p]man5t way may be pron\nc$ faulty1 & all on acc\nt ( a m9or defect :i* c be easily rem$i$4 ,) /rong1 prop]ly fitt+ fi%-plates1 ! position ( ! jo9ts %\ld be imp]ceptible :5 pass+ ov] !m 9 a tra94 ,! writ] has _h _m miles ( l9e :]e ! fi%-plates h worn h>d up to ! rail web4 ,9 cases :]e ! rails 7 good1 ) ! prospect ( a long life1 new fi%-plates ( suitable section h be5 provid$4 ,9 o!rs1 ?9 wr\ght-iron plate l9]s1 #a_/af or #a_/ab ( an in* ?ick1 h be5 ins]t$1 z 9 ,fig4 #bia1 s z to br+ ! plates well out f ! web1 & all[ ! fi%-bolts & fi%-plates to ex]cise ! free gripp+ action :i* is absolutely necess>y to prev5t ! v]tical ris+ & fall+ ( ! rail-ends dur+ ! passage ( a roll+ load4 ,fi%-plate l9]s ( ! above description h giv5 excell5t results1 & h re/or$ ! effici5cy ( ! fi%-plates = sev]al ye>s4 ,*airs4--,all rails :i* p>take ( ! d\ble head section1 or h a base n wid] ?an ! head1 require supports or c>ri]s to atta* !m to ! sleep]s1 & to secure !m 9 _! prop] upright position4 ,9 ! days ( ! orig9al edge rails1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ! railway era1 ^! supports 7 v appropriately t]m$ *airs1 & ?is "n has n[ be5 adopt$ 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,ca/-iron is ! mo/ suitable mat]ial = railways *airs1 be+ mu* *eap] 9 co/ & less liable to loss or det]ioration f ru/ ?an wr\ght-iron4 ,ca/-iron *airs c be =m$ to suit any section ( rail1 & f ! nature ( ! mat]ial !y _c be b5t or twi/$ out ( %ape s z to int]f]e ) ! gauge or cant4 ,!y may break dur+ an accid5t or d]ailm5t1 b ! fracture c be detect$ at once1 & ! brok5 #bjg *air quickly replac$4 ,! *air p]=ms ! v important duty ( di/ribut+ ! weight ( ! roll+ load on ! upp] surface ( ! sleep]4 ,if ! "u side or base ( ! *air is small1 & ! roll+ load l>ge1 ! *air w v rapidly we> or imb$ itself into ! wood ( ! sleep]1 %ort5+ ! life ( ! latt] 9 a v palpable mann]4 ,! %ort n>r[ *air naturally gives less /ability ?an ! l>g] & broad] *air4 ,! *air %[n 9 ,fig4 #bib1 :i* 0 mu* us$ = #ge lb4 rails "s tw5ty ye>s ago1 has mu* less base area & /ability ?an ! *air %[n 9 ,fig4 #bic1 adopt$ = rails ( a simil> weight 9 ! pres5t day4 ,! =m] _h a be>+ surface on ! sleep] ( only #ec squ>e in*es1 z comp>$ ) #hi squ>e in*es 9 ! latt]4 ,! base area ( ! *air mu/ be 9 proportion to ! weight x has to c>ry & di/ribute1 & x w\ld be false economy to /9t ! surface area ( "o ( ! details :i* influ5ces s mat]ially ! /ability & durability ( ! p]man5t way4 ,z w be se5 9 ,figs4 #bid1 #bie1 & #bif1 ! *airs at pres5t us$ = #hj1 #he1 & #ij lb4 rails h a mu* l>g] be>+ surface ?an ! *air %[n 9 ,fig4 #bib4 ,) ! wid] *air1 a mu* long] & bett] seat c be giv5 to ! "u table ( rail1 & a great] l5g? ( jaw = hold+ ! wood5 key4 ,! long] ! rail-seat ! /eadi] ! rail & ! smoo!r ! runn+4 ,! keys are g5]ally made ( h>d wood1 sometimes compress$ by a special process1 cut slightly tap]1 or w$ge1 %ape1 & driv5 9 betwe5 ! jaw ( ! *air & ! v]tical web ( ! rail4 ,on "s railways ! key is plac$ outside ! rail1 z 9 ,fig4 #big1 & on o!rs inside ! rail1 z 9 ,fig4 #bih4 ,! latt] me?od possesses _m advantages ov] ! =m]4 ,! out] jaw ( ! *air c be br\ght well up to ! "u side ( head ( rail1 giv+ ! rail m lat]al support & bett] means ( pres]v+ ! correct cant2 &1 z 9 ?is *air ! out] jaw p]man5tly fixes ! gauge1 ! work+ out ( "o or m ( ! keys does n leave ! rail expos$ to be =c$ outw>ds & wid5 ! gauge1 z 9 ! case ) dropp$ keys 9 outside key+4 ,ano!r & v important advantage ( inside key+ is t platelay]s1 :5 inspect+ ! road by walk+ betwe5 ! rails1 c readily exam9e ! keys on bo? sides4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bib1 #bic1 #bid1 #bie1 #bif1 #big1 #bih1 #bii1 #cjj1 #cja1 #cjb1 #cjc1 #cjd1 #cje1 #cjf ,*airs h be5 made1 z 9 ,fig4 #bii1 ) a recess 9 ! rail-seat1 #bji to hold a piece ( prep>$ wood1 or o!r suitable semi-ela/ic mat]ial1 ! object be+ to provide a re/1 or cu%ion1 s(t] & m yield+ ?an ! ca/-iron4 ,! idea looks well 9 !ory1 b 9 practice ! p\nd+ on ! rail compresses or cru%es ! wood l[] & l[] into ! recess1 slack5$ keys h to be tight5$1 & :5 ! wood has be5 worn or cru%$ away d[n to ! level ( ! /op ribs1 ,a1 ,a1 ! "u side ( rail has no long] any seat1 or re/1 beyond ! two n>r[ ribs ( ca/-iron4 ,^! af=d su* a v limit$ support t ! rail becomes not*$1 & produces a v r\gh clatt]+ road4 ,x is a v simple matt] to take out an old key & put 9 a new "o1 b to replace a wood5 cu%ion 9 a *air recess involves ! entire removal ( ei!r ! rail or ! *air4 ,*airs ) wood5 cu%ions h n be5 adopt$ to any great ext5t1 ! t5d5cy ( mod]n practice be+ to r$uce z f> z possible ! numb] ( p>ts ( ! p]man5t way1 & to provide ^? p>ts ) ample be>+ or contact surfaces4 ,al?\gh ! g5]al practice has be5 to ca/ ! *airs 9 "o piece1 *airs h be5 made 9 two pieces1 z 9 ,fig4 #cjj1 fa/5$ toge!r & to ! rail by a bolt pass+ ?r\gh ! latt]1 ! ca/+s be+ secur$ to ! sleep] ) spikes4 ,at fir/ sight ?is patt]n ( *air appe>$ to possess "s features 9 its fav\r4 ,! ca/+s 7 simple1 keys 7 disp5s$ ) altoge!r1 & ! "u side ( rail 0 n 9 contact ) ! ca/-iron4 ,a %ort exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 prov$ t ! drawbacks f> outweigh$ ! app>5t advantages4 ,holes = ! ?r\gh-bolts _h to be pun*$ at fix$ di/ances 9 ! rails1 & al?\gh ?is c\ld be readily done at ! works1 = ! g5]al use on ! l9e x 0 necess>y to resort to ! t$i\s process ( drill+ by h& = a l>ge numb] ( holes on curves1 & = rails cut to =m clos]s4 ,sleep]s4--,wood possesses s _m suitable qualities t we c readily und]/& :y x 0 e>ly select$ z ! prop] mat]ial = sleep]s4 ,x c be cut to any size & %ape1 holes c be bor$1 spikes c be driv51 & bolts c be screw$ into x )\t any difficulty & )\t caus+ injury to ! timb]1 :ile ! semi-ela/ic nature ( wood absorbs ! vibration ( ! rails & fa/5+s1 & provides a s\nd-dead5+ seat s conducive to smoo? runn+4 ,its only drawback is t x is p]i%able f we> & #baj decay4 ,7 x n = ?is defect1 railway sleep]s ( wood might be consid]$ z simply p]fect4 ,) a view to great] p]man5cy & durability1 /one sleep]s 7 tri$4 ,^! consi/$ ( squ>e blocks ( good h>d /one1 measur+ ab\t #b feet wide ea* way & #ab in*es ?ick4 ,holes 7 cut 9 ! /one1 & plugs ( h>d wood ins]t$4 ,! ca/-iron *airs 7 !n plac$ on ! top ( ! blocks1 & ! iron spikes driv5 ?r\gh ! *air-holes into ! wood5 plugs4 ,! elem5ts ( p]man5cy 7 !re c]ta9ly1 b a r\gh] road x w\ld be impossible to conceive4 ,! /one 0 solid & unyield+1 !re 0 a total abs5ce ( s(tness & ela/icity1 & ! h>% noisy effect produc$ :5 runn+ ov] ! /one-block road v soon became intol]able4 ,/one-block sleep]s 7 f\nd to be a failure1 & 7 all remov$4 ,on "s ( our old l9es1 numb]s ( !m1 ) ! *air m>ks pla9ly visible1 may be /ill se5 9 load+ banks1 build+s1 sea walls1 & o!r works = :i* !y 7 nev] orig9ally int5d$1 b = :i* _! size & weight r5d] !m v appropriate4 ,wood5 sleep]s are us$ 9 two =ms1 transv]se & longitud9al4 ,9 ! =m]1 z 9 ,fig4 #cja1 ! sleep]s n only c>ry ! rails1 b also pres]ve ! gauge2 9 ! latt] z 9 ,fig4 #cjb1 ! longitud9al sleep]s only support ! rails1 additional timb]s & /rong fa/5+s be+ necess>y to ma9ta9 ! gauge4 ,longitud9al sleep]s h be5 us$ to a l>ge ext5t = bridge rails1 x be+ suppos$ t ) ! broad cont9u\s sleep] a light] & %all[] rail c\ld be adopt$1 :i* w\ld be equally effici5t z a heavi] rail on cross-sleep]s4 ,excell5t runn+ roads h be5 made ) longitud9al sleep]s1 not)/&+ ! difficulty ( mak+ a good bridge-rail jo9t2 b x is well to be> 9 m9d t almo/ all ! l9es :i* orig9ally adopt$ ?is =m ( p]man5t way h s9ce rev]t$ to ! ord9>y cross-sleep] road4 ,! longitud9al sleep] road is an exp5sive road to lay d[n & ma9ta94 ,! ma9 pieces are ( l>ge scantl+1 mu/ be ( good quality ( timb]1 & are consequ5tly co/ly4 ,! cross-pieces1 or transomes1 mu/ be c>efully fitt$ & secur$ ) heavy ironwork4 ,:]e !re is mu* traffic1 ! removal & r5ewal ( "o ( ! long timb]s is mu* m difficult ?an ! r5ewal ( sev]al ord9>y #baa cross-sleep]s4 ,aga91 decay may take place on only "o portion ( a ma9 timb]1 b !re is no alt]native b to remove ! entire piece4 ,= gauges v>y+ f #d feet #h in*es to #e feet #c in*es1 cross-sleep]s are cut to ! l5g? ( #h feet #aa in*es1 & are g5]ally rectangul> 9 section1 z 9 ,fig4 #cjc1 measur+ #aj in*es 9 wid? by #e in*es 9 ?ickness4 ,on "s ( ! light] railways ) small traffic1 sleep]s are (t5 us$ only #i in*es wide by #d in*es ?ick1 :ile occasionally on "s l9es1 & 9 places :]e !re is exceptionally heavy & con/ant traffic1 sleep]s #ab in*es wide by #f in*es ?ick are adopt$4 ,half-r\nd sleep]s1 z 9 ,fig4 #cjd1 are us$ on _m l9es because !y are *eap]4 ,9 "s cases ! flat side ( ! sleep] is plac$ d[nw>ds1 & ! rail or *air is fa/5$ into an adz$ seat cut 9 ! r\nd side2 & 9 ! o!rs ! r\nd side is plac$ d[nw>ds1 & ! flat side ( ! sleep] c>ries ! rail or *air4 ,triangul> sleep]s1 z 9 ,fig4 #cje1 h also be5 us$1 made by cutt+ ! blocks diagonally1 s z to obta9 ! greate/ possible wid?4 ,!y 7 laid ) ! flat side upw>ds1 & ! apex d[nw>ds4 ,!y 7 difficult to keep pack$1 & h n be5 adopt$ to any great ext5t4 ,) ! exception ( a limit$ numb] ( l>* & fir sleep]s gr[n 9 ! c\ntry1 mo/ ( ! sleep]s = our home railways are import$ f ! ,baltic4 ,!y are br\ght ov] 9 logs1 or blocks1 ea* #h feet #aa in*es long1 "s squ>e & o!rs circul> 9 section1 & :5 sawn d[n ! middle1 ea* block =ms two sleep]s4 ,! pres]vation ( timb] f decay is a subject t v e>ly occupi$ ! att5tion ( eng9e]s & all ^? int]e/$ 9 railways4 ,a railway sleep] is p>ticul>ly expos$ to det]ioration ! l[] portion be+ surr\nd$ ) moi/ balla/1 :il/ ! top portion is m or less uncov]$--two diff]5t conditions 9 ! same piece ( timb]4 ,sev]al processes h be5 tri$1 su* z ,kyaniz+1 ,burnetiz+1 ,b\*]iz+1 etc41 b ! sy/em :i* has giv5 ! be/ results1 & is n[ almo/ univ]sally adopt$1 is t kn[n z creosot+4 ,?is me?od consi/s ( =c+ liquid creosote1 "u consid]able pressure1 into sleep]s or railway timb]s :i* h be5 prep>$ or dri$ by ord9>y natural season+ or by special artificial means4 ,creosote is a d>k1 oily liquid1 di/ill$ #bab f coal t>1 v>y+ 9 its composition accord+ to ! quality ( ! coal f :i* x is obta9$1 & rang+ 9 its specific gravity f #aajh to #ajbh4 ,creosote oils ( light specific gravity 7 at "o "t 9 fav\r1 b exp]i5ce prov$ t1 to "s ext5t1 ! light oils 7 volatile & also soluble 9 wat]1 & t heavy ra9s wa%$ out ! con/itu5ts :i* 7 ess5tial = ! pres]vation ( ! timb]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 by heat+ ! heavy oils & us+ high pressure ! nap?al9e :i* is dissolv$ only by ! heat1 is =c$ into ! wood1 fills ! pores1 & solidifies4 ,creosote is obta9able 9 l>ge quantities1 at prices v>y+ f twop5ce to f\rp5ce p] gallon1 accord+ to ! dem& & co/ ( production4 ,newly deliv]$ sleep]s or railway timb] conta9 s mu* sap or wat] t x is impossible to =ce a suffici5t quantity ( creosote into !m until !y are prop]ly season$ or dri$4 ,! season+ is g5]ally arrang$ by saw+ ea* block into two sleep]s1 & !n /ack+ ! sleep]s on edge 9 ti]s1 leav+ a space ( f\r or five in*es betwe5 ea* ( !m = a prop] circulation ( air4 ,! sleep]s %\ld !n be left = n9e to twelve mon?s to season1 al?\gh m may be necess>y 9 "s cases if ! blocks 7 p>ticul>ly wet at ! "t !y 7 sawn4 ,:5 ready = ! process ! sleep]s are plac$ 9 ! creosot+ cyl9d]1 :i* is g5]ally ab\t #fj feet long by #f feet 9 diamet] ) semi-sph]ical ends4 ,"o ( ! ends is fitt$ ) /rong h+es & fa/5+s1 & =ms ! doorway4 ,! sleep]s are pack$ c>efully inside1 & ! doorway made tight4 ,! ma*9]y is !n set to "w to exhau/ ! air f ! cyl9d] & all[ ! creosote to fl[ 9 among/ ! sleep]s4 ,:5 ! cyl9d] is full ! =ce-pumps are />t$ to =ce 9 m creosote up to ! pressure pre>rang$ & regulat$ by ! safety-valve1 9 "s cases #ajj1 #aaj1 or #abj lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,! creosote %\ld be heat$ to #aab or #abj ,fah41 to dissolve ! nap?al9e & r$uce all ! compon5t p>ts to a ?or\ghly fluid condition4 ,! success ( creosot+ dep5ds almo/ entirely ^u ! effectual season+ ( ! timb]4 ,only a v small quantity ( creosote c be =c$ into wet or unseason$ sleep]s1 ev5 ) ! be/ ma*9]y & exceptionally high pressures1 :ile a ?or\ghly dry sleep] w #bac readily absorb f #b to #c gallons4 ,m c\ld be =c$ into ! dry sleep] if necess>y1 b a little consid]ation w %[ !re w\ld be no advantage 9 do+ s4 ,9 railway sleep]s !re are two elem5ts ( de/ruction at "w--"o ! decay ( ! timb]1 & ! o!r abrasion or we>+ away ( ! wood itself f ! con/ant p\nd+ ( ! pass+ loads4 ,m p>ticul>ly does ?is we>+-away take place ) ! flange1 or bridge1 rails1 _! di/ribut$ be>+ surface on ! sleep] be+ less ?an ! ca/-iron *airs4 ,a ?or\ghly well-creosot$ #e-;in* sleep] laid orig9ally ) a ?ickness ( #d- in*es 9 ! c5tre ( rail-seat1 z 9 ,fig4 #cjf1 w we> d[n #a in*es1 ! timb] rema9+ q s\nd4 ,! writ] has _h to take out ?\s&s ( sleep]s :]e ! seats ( ! flange1 or bridge1 rails _h be5 p\nd$ or worn d[n s deep into ! wood z to leave too small a ?ickness ( timb] to c>ry ! rail ) safety4 ,^! sleep]s _h to be tak5 out ( ! road1 n on acc\nt ( decay1 b because !y 7 actually worn d[n too ?9 to be ( s]vice4 ,!y _h done _! "w well = a long s]ies ( ye>s1 & 7 p]fectly s\nd :5 tak5 out4 ,no increas$ quantity ( creosote w\ld h made !m la/ long]1 & any increas$ quantity ( creosote w\ld h be5 wa/e4 ,two & ?ree qu>t] gallons ( creosote is a v good & suitable quantity = a #aj in* by #e in* rectangul> sleep]1 b n m ?an half ?is quantity c be =c$ 9 if ! sleep] is wet or unseason$4 ,sleep]-blocks are g5]ally cut f ! upp] "p ( ! tree1 & d n !re=e consi/ ( ! be/ portion ( ! timb]1 yet sleep]s made f ! s(t1 co>se-gra9$ ,baltic wood1 prop]ly creosot$1 w la/ f twelve to eighte5 ye>s 9 ! l9e 9 ?is c\ntry1 :ile uncreosot$ !y w\ld p]i% f decay 9 six or sev54 ,! b5efit is great :51 by add+ f eightp5ce to a %ill+ = ! co/ ( creosot+1 ! life ( ! sleep] may be d\bl$ or trebl$4 ,( c\rse1 !re are c\ntries1 l ! f> we/ ( ,am]ica1 :]e ! l9es pass ?r\gh va/ =e/s1 & :]e sleep]s may be _h = ! m]e co/ ( cutt+4 ,creosot+ 9 ^? places w\ld be out ( ! "q1 & w\ld co/ f\r or five times ! value ( ! pla9 sleep]4 ,x is f\nd1 also1 t 9 tropical c\ntries & 9 dry climates at high altitudes creosote loses its #bad effici5cy1 & 9 ^? di/ricts ! be/ creosot$ s(t-wood sleep] p]i%es f a species ( dry rot 9 ?ree or f\r ye>s4 ,:]e wood sleep]s h to be us$ 9 tropical climates x is bett] to obta9 !m f ! timb] ( ! di/rict1 al?\gh 9 _m cases suitable trees are difficult to procure & ! co/ ( l& transport is v heavy4 ,! s(t cu%ion-l effect ( a s\nd1 prop]ly pack$ wood5 sleep] contributes s l>gely to =m an easy1 smoo?-runn+ road1 t s long z !y c be obta9$ at a mod]ate co/1 & are fairly durable1 wood5 sleep]s w always be pref]r$ to ^? ( any o!r mat]ial4 ,! great "q w be ! supply4 ,creosot+ & o!r wood-pres]v+ processes h done mu* to prolong ! life ( sleep]s1 b ! rapidly increas+ ext5t ( mileage ?r\gh\t ! _w1 toge!r ) ! enorm\s numb] ( sleep]s requir$ annually = ma9t5ance or r5ewals1 mu/ be=e v long sev]ely tax ! p[]s ( supply4 ,9 ! great timb]-produc+ t]ritories ! axe is (t5 he>d1 b ! plant] is r>ely se54 ,va/ =e/s are cle>$ away1 & _! sites trans=m$ into busy t[ns or cultivat$ l&s2 & unless "s great *ange takes place1 & plant+ be c>ri$ out on a l>ge scale1 "s o!r mat]ial w h to be adopt$ = ?is important item ( our p]man5t way4 ,appe>ances w\ld indicate t at no v di/ant date iron or /eel w take a conspicu\s "p 9 ! =mation ( future railway sleep]s4 ,m ?an ?irty ye>s ago sev]al descriptions ( ca/-iron sleep]s 7 introduc$ into notice & tri$ on "s ( our lead+ home railways4 ,ca/-iron 0 at t "t consid]$ m suitable = ! purpose ?an wr\ght iron1 z x 0 v mu* less co/ly 9 price1 & c\ld be readily work$ into any desir$ =m or size1 ) ! advantage t ! ca/+s w\ld all be duplicates ( "o ano!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjg1 #cjh1 #cji1 #caj1 #caa1 #cab1 #cac ,figs4 #cjg to #cac %[ "s ( ! types t 7 design$ & laid d[n 9 ! road4 ,9 ,fig4 #cjg ! sleep] & *airs 7 all ca/ toge!r 9 "o piece2 ! rail 0 held 9 its place by wood5 keys1 & ! gauge ( ! l9e 0 ma9ta9$ by transv]se wr\ght-iron tie-b>s4 ,! sket* repres5ts "o ( ! sleep]s us$ at ! rail-jo9ts1 & has ?ree *airs1 ! l>g] "o 9 ! c5tre be+ = ! support ( ! ends ( ! rails4 ,?is arrangem5t 0 ! #baf same z 0 !n 9 use on ! ord9>y wood-sleep] road1 :]e an extra l>ge *air 0 plac$ at ! rail-jo9ts1 & 0 ! mo/ approv$ me?od = _m ye>s be=e fi%-plates 7 introduc$4 ,! int]m$iate sleep]s 7 %ort]1 & _h only two *airs4 ,fig4 #cjh repres5ts a long1 flat1 ca/-iron sleep] made 9 two halves1 bolt$ toge!r j bel[ ! "u side ( rail at ea* ( ! ?ree *air-seats4 ,! rail 0 gripp$ & held 9 position )\t ! use ( wood5 keys4 ,?is be+ a jo9t sleep]1 ?ree *airs 7 us$1 z 9 ,fig4 #cjg4 ,only two *airs 7 us$ on ! int]m$iate sleep]s4 ,figs4 #cji & #caj are some:at simil>1 b ! circul> "o is high] & m cup-%ap$ ?an ! o!r ( oval =m4 ,! oval patt]n has two small recesses = hold+ two small h>d-wood cu%ions4 ,! circul> holes %[n 9 ! sides ( ! sleep]s 7 int5d$ to facilitate ! pack+1 or tamp+1 ( ! light s&y balla/4 ,fig4 #caa repres5ts a rectangul> ca/-iron sleep]1 z us$ = ! flange rail4 ,! rail re/s on ca/-iron cross-ribs1 bevell$ to give ! prop] cant1 & is held 9 position by ! tie-b> bolt & clip-piece1 z %[n4 ,! small project+ lug1 =m$ on ! "u side ( sleep]1 fits into a correspond+ not* 9 ! tie-b>1 & keeps ! sleep]s to gauge4 ,! tie-b> passes ?r\gh ! loop end ( ! same bolt :i* secures ! rail1 & is held up tight aga9/ ! "u side ( sleep]4 ,figs4 #cab & #cac1 bo? ! same 9 pr9ciple1 possess$ features :i* appe>$ to give great promise4 ,!y 7 simple 9 con/ruction2 ! rail 0 kept well d[n1 & did n come 9 contact ) ! ca/-iron at any po9t4 ,! long wood5 w$ges1 :i* fitt$ into ! r\gh or s]rat$ sides ( ! ca/+1 act$ z a cu%ion to ! rail1 & 7 int5d$ to s9k deep] into ! recess z ! sup]-impos$ weight increas$1 or ! wood became ?9n] f %r9kage4 ,9 practice1 h[ev]1 x 0 f\nd t ^! sleep]s 7 n ! success t 0 anticipat$4 ,x 0 soon obs]v$ t s& & f9e p>ticles ( gravel f ! balla/ work$ _! way into ! l[] "p ( ! recess1 & became s compact z to prev5t ! wood5 w$ges work+ fur!r d[n to increase _! grip on ! rail4 ,ev5 :5 ! recess 0 kept free & cle> ( s&1 ! enorm\s pressure ex]t$ by ! wood5 w$ges broke ! iron at ,a1 al?\gh an extra ?ickness 0 giv5 to t #bag "p ( ! section4 ,! ca/-iron 0 expos$ to ! greate/ /ra9 at ! po9t :]e x 0 ! lea/ capable ( (f]+ resi/ance4 ,mu* +5uity 0 display$ 9 _m ( ! patt]ns br\ght =w>d1 b 9 deal+ ) a h>d unyield+ mat]ial l ca/-iron1 x is difficult1 if n impossible1 to imp>t any s(t1 ela/ic effect2 & ! diff]5t sy/ems ( ca/-iron sleep]s fail$ to become popul> on our home railways1 on acc\nt ( ! noise & vibration :5 tra9s pass$ ov] !m4 ,ano!r objection 0 ! great multiplicity ( p>ts requir$ 9 _m ( ! types1 & ! con/ant & sev]e /ra9 produc$ on ! fa/5+s on ! pass+ ( e :eel4 ,! bolts might be made tight at fir/1 b ! incessant %ak+ w\ld "w !m loose1 ! ?reads became /ripp$1 & ! rails ceas$ to be held 9 a prop] & secure position4 ,! ca/-iron sleep] road 0 consid]$ unsuitable = ! heavy & fa/ traffic ( our home l9es1 & 0 ultimately all tak5 up & replac$ ) wood5 transv]se sleep]s4 ,at ! same "t1 !re is no d\bt t ca/-iron sleep]s h be5 ( great value 9 ,india & tropical climates1 :]e timb] sleep]s 7 n only sc>ce1 b p]i% v rapidly4 ,v l>ge numb]s ( !m h be5 laid d[n abroad ( patt]ns v simil> to ^? %[n 9 ,figs4 #cji1 #caj1 & #caa1 & h done good s]vice = _m ye>s4 ,!y are n affect$ by ra9 or heat1 b1 un=tunately1 be+ ca/+s1 are liable to consid]able annual loss f breakage4 ,improvem5ts 9 plate-roll+ ma*9]y1 & 9 appliances = b5d+ & /amp+ wr\ght-iron1 h mat]ially assi/$ 9 develop+ ! introduction ( wr\ght-iron & /eel sleep]s4 ,ca/-iron & wr\ght-iron are1 9 ! ab/ract1 h>d & non-ela/ic z comp>$ ) wood2 b :]eas ca/-iron c only be made into fix$1 unyield+ %apes1 wr\ght-iron & /eel c be work$ into =ms t possess a c]ta9 spr+-l effect1 :i* n only enables !m almo/ entirely to resi/ fracture1 b also imp>ts a measure ( ela/icity to ! p]man5t way4 ,! simple/ =m ( wr\ght-iron sleep] w\ld be a pla91 flat plate1 to :i* ! *air1 or rail-bracket1 w\ld be atta*$2 b z ?is =m w\ld h be>+ surface only1 )\t any lat]al hold on ! balla/ to keep ! rails to l9e1 x c\ld n be adopt$4 ,dur+ ! la/ few ye>s v _m types ( wr\ght-iron & /eel #bah sleep]s h be5 introduc$1 & ne>ly all ( !m ( ! transv]se-sleep] patt]n1 =m$ out ( roll$ plates2 ! sides1 & 9 "s cases ! ends also1 are b5t1 or turn$ d[n to obta9 a hold 9 ! balla/4 ,:]e bull-head or d\ble-head rails are us$1 ca/-iron *airs1 or wr\ght-iron bracket *airs1 are bolt$1 or o!rwise secur$ to ! upp] surface ( ! sleep]1 a lay] ( felt1 t>r$ pap]1 or o!r s(t mat]ial be+ plac$ betwe5 ! two metal surfaces4 ,:]e flange rails are us$1 !y are fa/5$ to ! sleep]s ei!r by bolts1 clamps1 or clips rais$ up out ( ! iron sleep]1 & b5t ov] to hold tight5+ keys4 ,roll$ transv]se sleep]s c readily be b5t1 or set 9 ! c5tre to give ! prop] cant at ! rail-seat2 & 9 "s types ! sleep]s are press$ 9 ! ma*9es1 s z to be n>r[] t[>ds ! c5tre1 & ) a deep] turnov]1 to obta9 increas$ /iffness4 ,9 ,figs4 #cad to #cai are %[n "s ( ! patt]ns :i* h be5 br\ght out1 laid d[n 9 actual practice1 & 9 use at ! pres5t "t4 ,f ! fact t wr\ght-iron & /eel sleep]s h be5 laid d[n 9 s _m places :]e ca/-iron sleep]s 7 disc>d$ or refus$ a trial1 x is evid5t t ! =m] are consid]$ to h qualities :i* ! latt] did n possess4 ,roll$ iron or /eel sleep]s are com+ m & m into use1 especially on =eign or colonial railways4 ,s long1 h[ev]1 z good1 well-creosot$ timb] sleep]s c be obta9$ = our home railways at prices f #cs4 #h;d4 to #ds4 #h;d4 ea*1 & la/ f f\rte5 to tw5ty ye>s1 !re is little probability t !y w be supplant$ by iron sleep]s at d\ble ! co/4 ,b abroad ! circum/ances ( co/ & durability are diff]5t1 & !re ! roll$ iron or /eel sleep]s1 :i* w outlive two or ?ree sets ( wood5 ones1 mu/ claim advantages :i* _c be ov]look$4 ,! difficulty w be 9 ! fa/5+s1 ! mode ( atta*+ ! rails to ! sleep]s4 ,! con/ant hamm]+ ( metal ^u metal1 result+ f ! vibrations ( e pass+ load1 w quickly we> or loos5 bolts1 rivets1 or w$ges1 & ! fa/5+s :i* w prove ! mo/ effici5t w be ^? t are ! simple/ & mo/ readily adju/$4 ,fa/5+s4--,figs4 #cbj to #cce illu/rate "s types ( ! pr9cipal fa/5+s us$ 9 connection ) ! *air road1 & ) flat-bottom$ or flange rails4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cad1 #cae1 #caf1 #cag1 #cah1 #cai ,! fi%-bolts1 ,figs4 #cbj & #cba1 are ( a =m :i* is 9 v #bbj g5]al use bo? = /eel bull-head rails & /eel flange rails4 ,by mak+ ! neck squ>e or pe>-%ap$1 to fit into correspond+ hole 9 ! fi%-plate1 ! bolt is prev5t$ f turn+ r\nd :5 ! wr5* or spann] is appli$ to tight5 ! nut4 ,a *annel or groove is sometimes roll$ on ! outside ( fi%-plate to grip bolts made ) squ>e heads4 ,"s eng9e]s adopt two nuts1 o!rs pref] "o nut ( extra dep?4 ,wa%]s are us$ 9 "s cases1 b are n univ]sal4 ,) a deep rail x is pref]able to place ! nuts inside1 s t ! platelay] inspect+ 8 l5g? c see bo? r[s ( nuts z he walks along betwe5 ! rails4 ,) %all[ rails ! nuts mu/ be plac$ outside & ! cup-heads inside1 to give ample cle>ance to ! :eel-flanges4 ,fi%-bolts are subject to v sev]e "w4 ,heavy roll+ loads pass+ ov] ! rail-jo9ts--frequ5tly at v high spe$s--br+ into play all ! gripp+ p[] ( ! fi%-bolts to ma9ta9 a firm support ( ! fi%-plates to ends ( rails1 & ! con/ant action ( pressure & release produces a loos5+ or unscrew+ motion 9 ! bolts :i* is v difficult to c\nt]act4 ,loose fi%-bolts cause clatt]+ jo9ts & unev5 road1 & unless promptly rem$i$1 ! screw ?reads are soon de/roy$ & bolts r5d]$ useless4 ,_m devices h be5 inv5t$ to prev5t or *eck ?is loos5+ ( ! bolts2 "o ( ! me?ods1 & a v simple "o1 consi/s ( a pla9 /eel bolt ) a /eel lock-nut1 made z %[n 9 ,fig4 #cbb4 ,z w be se5 f ! section1 "o-half ( ! nut is tapp$ ( ! same size z ! bolt1 & ! rema9d] ) deep-lock+ ?reads4 ,! fir/ half ( ! nut is readily screw$ on to ! bolt1 b consid]able =ce mu/ be ex]t$ to screw on ! portion hav+ ! deep-lock+ ?reads2 practically ! second half ( ! nut has to cut a new or deep] ?read = itself :5 screw+ r\nd ! bolt4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbj1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cbc1 #cbd1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #cbg1 #cbh1 #cbi1 #ccj1 #cca1 #ccb1 #ccc1 #ccd1 #cce ,! slits or grooves at ! angles ( ! nuts =m f\r di/9ct cutt+ edges = %ap+ ! deep ?reads4 ,z ! upp] "p ( ! lock-nut is divid$ by ! grooves into f\r sep>ate or deta*$ segm5ts1 ^! segm5ts w be =c$ slightly op5 or outw>ds dur+ ! action ( cutt+ ! deep ?read on ! bolt1 & f _! natural t5d5cy to return to _! orig9al position !y mu/ ex]cise a /rong gripp+ p[] on ! bolt4 ,?is comb9$ op]ation ( cutt+ ! deep ?reads & ( =c+ op5 ! upp] or deta*$ #bbb segm5ts1 give an enorm\s hold+ & reta9+ p[] to ! lock-nut1 & enables x to )/& ! tra9 vibrations = a v long "t )\t any p]ceptible slack5+4 ,9 case ( l9e repairs ! nut c be readily unscrew$1 & tak5 (f ! bolt4 ,r\nd iron spikes1 z 9 ,figs4 #cbc & #cbd1 & r\nd wood5 tr5ails1 z 9 ,fig4 #cbe1 are bo? us$ = fa/5+ ca/-iron *airs to ! sleep]s4 ,! spikes are made ) a slightly tap] neck1 ( size r less ?an ! hole 9 ! *air1 to avoid risk ( break+ ! ca/+ :5 driv+ ! spike d[n4 ,tr5ails are made out ( well-season$ h>d wood1 & are compress$ by ma*9]y4 ,:5 driv5 into ! sleep]1 !y exp& by exposure to ! atmosph]e1 & hold ! *air v securely 9 position2 b be+ only wood & ( v small scantl+1 !y are subject to e>ly decay4 ,! head1 :i* is ! only "p 9 sight1 may be p]fectly s\nd1 :ile ! "p betwe5 ! *air-seat & top ( sleep] may be q rott5 & useless4 ,x w\ld be v risky to dep5d ^u tr5ails alone2 "o spike at lea/ %\ld be us$ to e *air4 ,9 "s cases an extra l>ge tr5ail is us$ ) an augur-hole d[n ! c5tre1 ?r\gh :i* ei!r an iron spike is driv5 or a bolt is pass$ & screw$ into a crab-nut on ! "u side ( ! sleep]4 ,?is arrangem5t w "w well = a "t1 b !re w be a great deal ( play 9 ! spike or bolt :5 ! tr5ail becomes mu* decay$4 ,! spikes repres5t$ 9 ,figs4 #cbf1 #cbg1 & #cbh1 are mu* us$ ) flange rails4 ,!y are squ>e 9 section1 & f9i%$ ) ei!r blunt or %>p po9ts1 z %[n4 ,! top ( spike is made ) a doghead & side-lugs to facilitate ! eas+ or )drawal :5 necess>y = r5ewals ( sleep]s1 or alt]ations 9 l9e4 ,by ins]t+ ! curv$ d\ble claw end ( a platelay]s' cr[b>1 ! spike c be rais$ )\t injur+ ! sleep]2 b if x is requir$ to be driv5 into ! same sleep] aga91 a new hole mu/ be bor$1 z ! old hole w be too slack to be ( any s]vice4 ,augur-holes mu/ be bor$ 9 ! sleep]s = ! above spikes4 ,= new roads1 ^! holes c be bor$ by ma*9]y :5 cutt+ ! grooves = rail-seats2 b :5 c>ry+ out alt]ations or repairs1 a l>ge numb] ( spike-holes mu/ be bor$ by h&-augurs1 an op]ation bo? sl[ & labori\s4 ,) ! h&-bor+ !re is ! dang] t ! hole may n be made deep en\gh1 ow+ to ! workman's #bbc endeav\r to avoid damag+ ! po9t ( 8 augur by =c+ x entirely ?r\gh ! sleep]1 & br++ x 9 contact ) a /one4 ,augur-holes bor$ wide to gauge w rema9 out ( gauge1 & al?\gh ! spike may be driv5 d[n firm 9 its position1 a space w be left = play betwe5 ! rail-flange & spike4 ,fig4 #cbi is a sket* ( a dog-spike = flange rails :i* ! writ] has us$ = _m ye>s bo? abroad & at home1 & :i* c be driv5 )\t any bor+ at all4 ,! back ( ?is spike is made p]fectly /raight1 half ( ! front side is made p>allel to ! back1 & ! rema9d] is tap]$ d[n to a *isel po9t n exce$+ #a_/af ( an in* ?ick1 ! ent]+ edge on ! face be+ n>r[$ d[n to #c_/h ( an in* 9 wid?4 ,?ree jags or spurs are cut on ea* side ( ! tap]$ portion1 or twelve 9 all1 & add greatly to ! hold+ p[]4 ,n only c ?is spike be driv5 )\t any bor+1 b x possesses ! additional advantage t 9 driv+ x d[n its tap] or w$ge-l %ape causes x to drift h>d up to ! edge ( ! flange ( rail1 an elem5t ( great value 9 secur+ ! exact gauge ( l9e4 ,) ^! spikes p]man5t-way lay+ c be c>ri$ on v rapidly1 & !y are especially valuable :5 mak+ alt]ations1 z augurs = spike-bor+ c be disp5s$ ) altoge!r4 ,wood screws ) squ>e heads simil> to ,fig4 #ccj are sometimes us$ = fa/5+ flange rails to wood5 sleep]s4 ,!y are pass$ ?r\gh holes pun*$ or drill$ 9 ! flanges ( ! rails1 & are int5d$ to pres]ve ! gauge z well z secure ! rails to ! sleep]s4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t ^! wood screws possess v limit$ hold+ p[]4 ,! screw$ portion ( ! bolt cuts b a v imp]fect & weak hold+ ?read 9 ! s(t wood ( an ord9>y sleep]1 moi/ure ins9uates itself into ! bolt-hole1 ru/+ ! bolts & decay+ ! surr\nd+ timb]1 & 9 a v %ort "t ! bolts become loose & incapable ( hold+ ! rail d[n firmly4 ,z p]man5t-way fa/5+s wood screws are v inf]ior to crab bolts4 ,crab bolts1 z 9 ,fig4 #cca1 may be made ei!r ) squ>e or hexagonal heads1 & ) ?ree spur-nuts or f\r spur-nuts1 z 9 ,a or ,b4 ,! l5g? ( ! bolts w dep5d ^u ! ?ickness ( ! sleep] or timb]-"w ?r\gh :i* !y h to be ins]t$4 ,! bolt is pu%$ d[n ?r\gh ! hole bor$ 9 ! sleep]1 & ! crab-nut put on f und]nea?4 ,) a few turns ( ! bolt1 ! #bbd crab-nut is br\ght close up to ! "u side ( ! sleep]1 ! spur-po9ts become emb$d$ 9 ! wood1 & hold ! nut firmly 9 position dur+ subsequ5t tight5+ ( ! bolt4 ,crab bolts are ext5sively us$ ) flange or flat-bottom$ rails1 & also 9 swit* *airs & 9 cross+s4 ,a l>ge numb] ( flange rails are us$ ) "o hole ?r\gh ! flange at ea* end ( rail1 & a crab bolt pass$ ?r\gh ! hole & ?r\gh ! sleep] next to ! jo9t1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ccb4 ,?is sy/em *ecks ! creep+ ( ! rails by effectually secur+ or an*or+ ea* rail to two ( ! sleep]s4 ,z !re is always a t5d5cy = ^! rails to crack ?r\gh to ! outside at ! flange-holes1 x is v desirable to h z few holes z possible4 ,! two above describ$ w be f\nd suffici5t = all practical purposes4 ,to avoid pun*+ or drill+ m holes 9 ! flanges ( ! rails1 additional or int]m$iate crab bolts c be us$ by means ( ! fang clips %[n on ,fig4 #ccc4 ,! crab bolt is pass$ ?r\gh ! fang clips & ?r\gh ! sleep] close up to ! flange ( rail1 & by screw+ x r\nd 9 ! crab-nut "u ! sleep] ! fang-clip is press$ d[n until ! two spurs are driv5 into ! timb]1 & ! rail held securely 9 its place & to gauge4 ,int]m$iate crab-nuts & fang-clips %\ld always be us$ 9 pairs1 "o on ea* side ( ! rail4 ,possess+ m hold+-d[n p[] ?an ord9>y spikes1 !y are p>ticul>ly valuable on %>p curves4 ,9 "s cases flange rails are laid 9 small ca/-iron saddles1 or *airs1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ccd1 "o end ( ! rail-seat hav+ a recess to prev5t ! rail tilt+ upw>ds & outw>ds4 ,an ord9>y spike may be us$ = ! inside end ( *air1 & a crab bolt ) b5t wa%] = ! o!r4 ,unless ! fa/5+s c be kept always tight1 ! above arrangem5t makes a v noisy1 clatt]+ road1 z !re are s _m metal surfaces 9 contact1 & s little to dead5 ! vibration4 ,= n>r[ flange rails c>ry+ heavy roll+ load1 *airs may be necess>y to increase ! be>+ surface on ! sleep]1 b ) rails hav+ flanges five in*es wide & upw>ds1 x is bett] to let ! flange re/ direct on ! wood ( a prop]ly groov$ sleep]1 & ?us obta9 a smoo!r & less noisy road4 ,on exceptionally %>p curves1 wr\ght-iron or /eel tie-b>s1 z 9 ,fig4 #cce1 are sometimes us$ to ma9ta9 ! l9e to gauge4 ,!y may be made out ( b>s #c in*es wide by an in* ?ick1 turn$ ov] at #bbe ! ends to grip ! outside flanges4 ,be+ made to exact template1 !y h to be ?read$ on to ! rails be=e spik+ d[n1 & are plac$ betwe5 ! sleep]s at di/ances f #g to #aj feet ap>t4 ,lay+ ,p]man5t ,way4--,to pres]ve a good l9e & level to ! p]man5t way1 x is absolutely necess>y t ! road-b$ %\ld be kept ?or\ghly dra9$4 ,if provision be n made = quickly c>ry+ away ! ra9-wat]1 & if x be all[$ to collect "u & ar\nd ! sleep]s1 ! action ( ! pass+ tra9s w "w ! f9] p>ticles ( ! pack+ into ! consi/5cy ( s(t mud1 :i* w be gradually squeez$ away1 leav+ ! sleep]s imp]fectly support$ & insecure4 ,a loose sleep] involves a depression 9 ! rails1 & a correspond+ lur* 9 ! vehicles ( ! tra91 & a s]ies ( ^! depressions may produce su* an oscillation 9 ! tra9 z to cause x to leave ! rails4 ,! height or space f =mation-level to rail-level is g5]ally ab\t #a foot #i in*es = a flange railroad1 & ab\t #b feet = a *air railroad4 ,figs4 #ccf & #ccg %[ cross-sections ( bo? descriptions ( road z laid d[n = a d\ble l9e 9 cutt+4 ,! same arrangem5t applies to simil> roads laid d[n 9 embankm5t1 m]ely omitt+ ! side-dra9s or wat]-tables4 ,! bottom lay] ( balla/ or road-b$ %\ld consi/ ( good h>d1 qu>ri$1 or brok5 /ones1 ea* #f in*es deep1 set on edge1 firmly & closely h&-pack$1 =m+ a f\ndation ?r\gh :i* ! ra9-wat] c be quickly c>ri$ away4 ,on ! top ( ?is bottom pit*+ %\ld be plac$ a #f-;in* lay] ( brok5 /one balla/ or /rong clean gravel1 ( :i* none ( ! /ones %\ld be l>g] ?an w pass ?r\gh a #b-;in* r+4 ,:5 ! sleep]s & rails h be5 laid on ?is second lay]1 & prop]ly pack$ to l9e & level1 ! top balla/+1 or box+1 ( ei!r brok5 /ones or /rong clean gravel1 %\ld be fill$ 9 to ! =m & ext5t specifi$4 ,:]e brok5 /ones are us$ = ! top balla/+ none ( !m %\ld be l>g] ?an w pass ?r\gh a #a-;in* r+4 ,brok5 /one balla/ %\ld only be made f ! h>de/ & s\nde/ description ( rock or b\ld]s1 s t1 h[ev] small ! p>ticles1 !y w rema9 %>p & clean4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cci1 #cch1 #cdj1 #cda1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cdd ,!re are _m k9ds ( rock :i* appe> h>d & compact :5 fir/ excavat$1 b ^u exposure to ! wea!r und]go a complete *ange1 #bbg develop+ into s(t masses conta9+ too mu* clay to all[ ! wat] to pass ?r\gh readily4 ,:]e rock is sc>ce & gravel pl5tiful1 ! l[] lay] may be made ( ! heavi] or co>s] gravel1 leav+ ! f9] gravel = ! upp] lay]1 or box+2 b !re is no d\bt t ! brok5 /one pit*+ makes ! mo/ effici5t bottom lay]4 ,no gravel balla/ %\ld be us$ :i* is n free f clay or e>?y s&4 ,:]ev] !re are p>ticles ( e>?y matt]1 suffici5t to furni% n\ri%m5t = vegetable gr[?1 we$s w quickly spr+ up1 & once e/abli%$ are mo/ difficult1 if n impossible1 to eradicate4 ,! pres5ce ( we$s *ecks dra9age1 & gives an untidy appe>ance to ! l9e1 besides con/antly occupy+ a l>ge portion ( ! platelay]s' "t 9 _! removal4 ,clean c9d]s1 free f du/ or e>?1 are mu* us$ = upp] balla/ & box+1 & be+ light] ?an gravel1 are specially applicable = s(t boggy gr\nd4 ,burnt clay1 brok5 into small pieces1 has be5 l>gely adopt$ 9 di/ricts :]e bo? rock & gravel 7 difficult to obta94 ,*alk1 furnace-slag brok5 small1 cru%$ brick & s&1 are frequ5tly us$ z balla/4 ,s& is objectionable :]e !re is high-spe$ traffic1 z ! f9] p>ticles rise 9 ! =m ( du/ & deposit !mselves on ! vehicles & ma*9]y ( ! tra94 ,! wat]-tables1 or side dra9s 9 ! cutt+s1 %\ld be cut bel[ ! =mation level1 & to a dep? or wid? suffici5t to take away all ra9-wat]1 or wat] aris+ f spr+s4 ,:]e ! mat]ial ( ! cutt+ is ( a loose friable nature1 x may be necess>y to protect ! sides ( ! wat]-tables ) l[ dry /one walls1 z 9 ,fig4 #cch2 or glaz$ e>!nw>e pipes may be laid1 z 9 ,fig4 #cci1 ) op5 jo9ts1 or ) grate op5+s at regul> int]vals4 ,9 "s cases sub/antial side-walls & inv]t are requisite to c>ry away ! fl[ ( wat]4 ,timb] sleep]s int5d$ = ! flange railroad %\ld h ! rail-seats groov$ by ma*9]y to ensure p]fect accuracy 9 ! position ( ! grooves1 & 9 ! angle or incl9ation ( ! rail-seats4 ,fig4 #cdj is a side view ( "p ( a sleep] groov$ to receive a flange rail4 ,! pres5ce ( ! grooves mat]ially facilitate ! lay+ ( ! rails to gauge1 b mu/ n be all[$ to int]f]e ) ! con/ant use ( ! platelay]'s gauge4 ,9 a simil> mann] ! timb] sleep]s = ! *air road frequ5tly h #bbh ! spike-holes bor$ to template by ma*9]y1 z indicat$ on ,fig4 #cda4 ,/eel or iron sleep]s are deliv]$ ) ! recesses = rails1 & holes = bolts or fa/5+s =m$ complete by ma*9]y4 ,! di/ances ap>t ( ! sleep]s w be regulat$ 9 a great measure by ! weight ( ! rails & ! description ( ! traffic4 ,:]e light rails are int5d$ to c>ry heavy eng9es ! sleep]s mu/ be laid clos] toge!r ?an w\ld be necess>y = heavy rails4 ,! jo9t be+ ! weake/ "p ( ! rail1 x is usual to put ! sleep]s clos] toge!r at t place1 ) a view to ga9 additional support1 to assi/ ! fi%-plates 9 pres]v+ z mu* z possible a firm unyield+ surface at ! rail-jo9t4 ,fig4 #cdc %[s an arrangem5t ( sleep]+ l>gely adopt$ = /eel flange rails #bf feet long1 & weigh+ #gi lbs4 p] y>d4 ,! l5g? ( a rail is m a "q ( conv5i5ce ( h&l+1 facility ( tran%ipm5t1 & g5]al use1 ?an ( actual manufacture4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 roll+ rails up to #ej feet 9 l5g?1 or m2 b v long rails are extremely unga9ly ?+s to move ab\t1 & are m expos$ to receive p]man5t b5ds or k9ks 9 unload+1 besides requir+ great] spaces at ! jo9ts to all[ = contraction & expansion4 ,fig4 #cdd is an example ( sleep]+ = a *air railroad1 = /eel bull-head rails #bf feet long1 & weigh+ #he p\nds p] y>d4 ,l9e /akes & level pegs mu/ be put 9 at suitable di/ances to guide ! platelay]s 9 lay+ ! rails to ! correct l9e & level1 & on ! curves ! prop] am\nt mu/ be m>k$ (f = ! sup]-elevation ( ! out] rail4 ,:5 ! second lay] ( balla/ has be5 spread = its full wid? & dep? ! sleep]s c be di/ribut$1 & ! rails or *airs spik$ d[n to ! correct gauge4 ,be=e putt+ on ! fi%-plates spaces mu/ be left at ! ends ( ! rails to all[ = contraction & expansion1 ! am\nt dep5d+ ^u ! temp]ature at ! "t ( lay+ d[n ! rails4 ,z ! rails w exp&1 or increase 9 l5g?1 ) ! heat1 x is necess>y to all[ m space = expansion = rails laid d[n 9 ! cold1 or w9t] mon?s4 ,on our home railways rails are v r>ely laid d[n :5 ! temp]ature is l[] ?an #be ,f41 or high] ?an #abe ,f41 & ?is range ( #ajj may be consid]$ z cov]+ all ! v>iations likely to occur 9 ord9>y practice4 ,! great] portion ( ! p]man5t-way lay+ is #bbi c>ri$ on :5 ! temp]ature is betwe5 #dj & #ge4 ,! results ( v c>efully conduct$ exp]im5ts %[ t an increase ( temp]ature ( #a ,f4 w cause an iron or /eel b>1 or rail1 to exp& or l5g!n to ! ext5t ( sev5 "o-million?s ( its l5g?4 ,work+ ?is out = a range ( #ajj ,f4 w\ld give an increase 9 l5g? ( sev5 hundr$ "o-million?s1 :i* w\ld be equal to an ext5sion ( #jbahd ( an in* 9 a #bf-;foot rail4 ,= our home railways1 !re=e1 a space ( #e_/af ( an in* w be f\nd amply suffici5t to meet ! v>iations 9 l5g? betwe5 ! extremes ( w9t] & summ]1 = a rail f #bf feet to #cj feet 9 l5g?4 ,too mu* all[ance = expansion is detrim5tal to ! rails1 because :]e ! spaces are excessively l>ge ! :eels drop into ! holl[ & hamm] or spread ! ends ( ! rails4 ,! fi%-bolts %\ld n be completely tight5$ up until ! p]man5t way is ?or\ghly set1 & pack$ to its f9i%$ l9e & level4 ,on /raight l9e ! rail-jo9ts %\ld be laid squ>e & opposite to ea* o!r4 ,p]man5t-way lay+ ) brok5 jo9ts is r>ely adopt$1 except on curves or /ation-y>ds4 ,on curves ! jo9ts ( ! inn] rails ga9 on ! jo9ts ( ! out] rails to ! ext5t (-- radius gauge -------------- l5g? ( rail4 radius ,! am\nt ( ?is ga91 or lead1 is adju/$ by cutt+ (f a portion ( ! end ( ! inn] rails at c]ta9 int]vals4 ,assum+ ! fi%-bolt holes to be spac$ z %[n on ,fig4 #cdb1 !n1 :5 ! inn] rail is lead+ to ! ext5t ( #b in*es1 a piece #d in*es long is cut (f1 z %[n by dott$ l9es1 leav+ ! orig9al second fi%-bolt hole to s]ve z fir/ or end fi%-bolt hole1 & a new or second bolt-hole is drill$ by h& at ,a4 ,?is me?od sets back ! jo9t #b in*es f ! squ>e1 & ! lead is all[$ to g on aga9 until x becomes necess>y to cut (f ano!r piece ( #d in*es4 ,ano!r mode is to h a proportion ( ! rails roll$ #b or #c in*es %ort] = use on ! curves4 ,on curves ( a #ajjj feet radius & upw>ds1 ! rails %\ld be laid to ! normal gauge1 b on curves ( less] radius ! gauge may be slightly increas$1 & z mu* z ( an in* all[$ on a curve ( #ejj feet radius4 ,! am\nt ( cant1 or sup]-elevation1 to be giv5 to ! out] rail #bcj on curves mu/ be regulat$ by ! spe$ ( ! tra9 & ! gauge ( ! l9e4 ,_m =mul h be5 compil$ to det]m9e ! necess>y am\nt ( sup]-elevation1 b exp]i5ce has %[n t by "s ( !m ! calculat$ am\nts 7 excessive4 ,possibly dur+ pa/ ye>s too mu* cant has be5 giv5 9 _m cases4 ,! foll[+ simple =mula approa*es v closely to practical exp]i5ce-- 7velocity 9 miles p] h\r7#b gauge 9 feet ! sup]-elevation ---------------------------------------- ------- ( out] rail radius 9 feet #abe 9 in*es4 ,= high-spe$ tra9s uni=mity ( cant is ( ! utmo/ importance1 m s ev5 ?an ! exact am\nt4 ,any irregul>ity 9 ! sup]-elevation ( ! out] rail1 sometimes high & sometimes l[1 w produce a dang]\s sway+ movem5t 9 ! tra91 :i*1 if n promptly *eck$1 w\ld lead to d]ailm5t4 ,m injury is done to curves by spread+1 aris+ f rigid :eel-bases ( eng9es & t5d]s1 ?an f any want ( c\nt]action to c5trifugal =ce4 ,:5 a long l5g? ( p]man5t way has be5 l9k$ 91 rails spik$ to gauge1 & fi%-plates bolt$ toge!r1 ! platelay]s c proce$ to ! f9al adju/m5t to l9e & level 9 accordance ) ! /akes & pegs provid$ = _! guidance4 ,! sett+ to exact l9e is effect$ by means ( long po9t$ r\nd iron cr[b>s1 :i* are /ruck =cibly into ! balla/ alongside ! rails1 & s]ve z p[]ful h&-lev]s to pull or pu% ! rails to ! "r or left z direct$ by ! =eman /&+ "s di/ance back at "o ( ! l9e-/akes4 ,! m5 ) ! cr[b>s pass f rail-l5g? to rail-l5g?1 until a long /ret* ( road has be5 pull$ into correct l9e4 ,! adju/m5t to rail-level is done by fir/ pack+ up ! sleep]s to ! correct height at ! v>i\s level-pegs1 & !n pack+ up ! int]m$iate sleep]s s t ! surface ( ! top ( ! rails =ms "o uni=m ev5 l9e f level-peg to level-peg4 ,on new l9es x is usual to pack a little high 9 ! fir/ in/ance to all[ = ! subsid5ce or compression :i* inv>iably takes place on ! passage ( heavy tra9s ov] fre% balla/4 ,! =m or cont\r l9e ( ! top balla/ w v>y accord+ to #bca circum/ances4 ,9 /ation-y>ds x is usual to fill 9 ! balla/ almo/ up to ! level ( ! top ( ! rails = ! conv5i5ce & safety ( ! m5 :o are con/antly mov+ ab\t m>%all+ ! c>riages & waggons4 ,out on ! op5 l9e betwe5 /ations1 ! balla/ on "s railways is fill$ 9 up to rail-level1 :ile on o!rs x is only fill$ 9 up to ! tops ( ! sleep]s1 leav+ ! rails & *airs q cle> ( ! balla/4 ,on o!rs1 aga91 ! balla/ is fill$ well up to ! rails & *annell$ 9 ! c5tre1 z %[n on ! sket*es ,figs4 #ccf & #ccg4 ,*annell+ ! c5tre ( ! road r$uces ! quantity ( balla/ p] mile1 ensures good dra9age1 & also /ability by n p]mitt+ any c5tral support to ! sleep]s4 ,by cov]+ up ! l[] table & sides ( rails ! noise is r$uc$ to a m9imum1 vibration is absorb$1 & a m sil5t road is ! result4 ,! contact ) ! balla/ also pres]ves ! rail f ! extremes ( temp]ature4 ,:]e ! balla/+ is n *annell$ !re is "s risk ( ! sleep]s break+ 9 ! middle4 ,! con/ant pack+ ( ! sleep]s j "u ! rails has a t5d5cy to drift "s ( ! balla/ inw>ds t[>ds ! middle ( ! sleep]1 =m+ a h>d compact mass1 & ?is mass1 act+ z fulcrum1 ?r[s consid]able /ra9 on ! middle ( ! sleep] :5 ! tra9s pass ov] & depress ! ends4 ,:]e ! balla/ is fill$ 9 level ) ! rails on top ( sleep]s x %\ld be loos5$ occasionally 9 ! middle to prev5t x becom+ too h>d4 ,connections ) ! rails ( ! ma9 l9e w h to be made 9 v>i\s =ms to suit ! circum/ances ( ! jo9+ l9es or sid+s4 ,fig4 #cde %[s a simple d\ble-l9e junction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cde1 #cdf1 #cdg1 #cdh1 #cdi1 #cej1 #cea1 #ceb1 #cec1 #ced1 #cee1 #cef ,fig4 #cdf %[s an example ( :at is t]m$ a fly+ junction1 or a junction ( two d\ble l9es arrang$ 9 su* a mann] z to cause ! lea/ int]ruption to a con/ant tra9 traffic pass+ ,,up & ,,d[n ov] bo? l9es4 ,^u ref]r+ to ,fig4 #cde x w be se5 t a tra9 f ,f1 turn+ (f at ! po9ts ,e & proce$+ to ,g1 mu/ block1 or close = traffic ! section ,,abc dur+ its passage ov] t l9e t[>ds ,g4 ,) a cr[d$ tra9-s]vice ! block+ ( bo? ,,up & ,,d[n ma9 l9es = ! work+ ( "o tra9 w\ld cause mu* int]ruption1 & to obviate su* delay ! fly+ junction is sub/itut$4 ,fig4 #cdf %[s h[ a tra9 f ,f is turn$ (f at ! po9ts ,j & proce$s on to ,k1 :]e by means ( a bridge x passes ei!r ov] or "u bo? ma9 l9es1 & #bcc cont9ues on to ,g )\t 9 any way int]f]+ ) ! tra9 s]vice on ,,abc4 ,fig4 #cdg is an ord9>y pla9 sid+ or turn-out1 includ+ ! necess>y ?r[-(f or trap-po9ts & %ort dead end4 ,fig4 #cdh is an ord9>y cross-ov] road f ,,d[n ma9 l9e to ,,up ma9 l9e1 & vice v]s4 ,fig4 #cdi is a d\ble cross-ov] road1 g5]ally t]m$ a scissors cross-ov]4 ,fig4 #cej is a simple ?r\gh cross-ov] road f ,,d[n ma9 l9e to sid+ alongside ,,up ma9 l9e4 ,fig4 #cea is a simil> arrangem5t ( ?r\gh cross-ov] road ) ! addition ( a pair ( slip po9ts at ,s to make a connection ) ! ,,up ma9 l9e1 ?us comb9+ ! facilities ( ! ord9>y cross-ov] & ?r\gh cross-ov] road4 ,fig4 #ceb %[s a set ( ?ree ?r[-swit*es ) all ! slid+ tongues plac$ side by side2 & ,fig4 #cec %[s ano!r arrangem5t ( ?ree ?r[s ) ! slid+-rails ( ! second set ( swit*es plac$ j beh9d ! heel ( ! fir/ set ( swit*es4 ,! latt] me?od works v well :]e !re is suffici5t l5g? = ! purpose4 ,fig4 #ced %[s a squ>e cross+1 :]e "o l9e ( railway crosses ano!r l9e ( railway on ! same level4 ,fig4 #cee %[s a connection ) a sid+ by means ( an ord9>y c>riage or waggon turn-table4 ,fig4 #cef %[s a set ( 8runaway0 po9ts :i* are sometimes plac$ 9 ! ma9 l9e at ! top ( an incl9e close to a /ation1 ! object be+ to int]cept or ?r[ (f any portion ( a tra9 :i* may h become deta*$1 & :i* w\ld1 if un*eck$1 run away back d[n ! incl9e4 ,by means ( a weight$ lev] or spr+ ! po9ts are set to ! normal position ( op5 to ! sid+1 & z !y are 8trail+0 po9ts = ! runn+ road !y are readily clos$ by a pass+ tra94 ,"o or o!r ( ! above =ms ( connections1 or a comb9ation ( !m1 w meet all ! requirem5ts :i* usually occur 9 railway "w4 ,fig4 #ceg is an enl>g$ sket* ( an ord9>y cross-ov] road1 & ,fig4 #ceh ( a d\ble or scissors cross-ov]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ceg1 #ceh ,fig4 #cei %[s a s+le-slip po9t connection1 & ,fig4 #cfj a d\ble-slip po9t connection4 ,9 places :]e slip connections c be introduc$ !y add greatly to ! facilities = tra9 movem5ts #bce )\t curtail+ ! available /&+-room = vehicles on ! l9es & sid+s4 ,!y are simple 9 con/ruction1 d n require cross+s1 & 9 _m cases save a complete cross-ov] road4 ,at ! same "t slip connections c only be laid d[n :]e ! angle ( ! int]sect+ l9es is suffici5tly flat to admit ( a connect+ curve ( workable radius4 ,fig4 #cfa is an enl>g$ sket* ( a set ( ord9>y #ae-;foot swit*es or po9ts4 ,by plac+ !m ab\t ! middle ( ! /ock rails ! jo9ts ( ! latt] are kept well beyond ! slid+ rails1 & ! road is held firmly toge!r4 ,x is necess>y to place ! sleep]s clos] toge!r at ! swit*es to all[ = ! r$uction 9 section ( ! slid+ rails1 :i* results f plan+ !m d[n to ! requisite %ape4 ,by sub/itut+ two long timb]s = ! ord9>y sleep]s at ! po9ts ( ! swit* rails1 z %[n on ! sket*1 a m effici5t support is obta9$ = ! swit*-box or crank 9 ! case ( rod-work$ swit*es1 & ! work+ di/ance f ! rails is accurately ma9ta9$1 irrespective ( any pack+ or pull+ ( ! road4 ,9 ! sket* a /eel bull-head rail is %[n on "o side1 & a /eel flange rail on ! o!r1 ea* bolt$ to an ord9>y ca/-iron swit* *air4 ,swit* *airs are sometimes made ( plates ( wr\ght-iron or /eel1 =g$ to ! correct %ape1 & rivet$ toge!r4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 mu* m co/ly ?an ca/-iron *airs1 & det]iorate m quickly f corrosion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cei1 #cfj ,fig4 #cfb is an enl>g$ sket* ( an ord9>y cross+ simil> to ! "o indicat$ at ,c 7,fig4 #cei71 & compos$ ( a ca/-/eel rev]sible block4 ,! ends & lugs1 ,l1 ,l1 are =m$ to suit ! connect+ rails & fi%-plates1 z %[n 9 ! cross-sections4 ,! ca/+ is secur$ to ! cross+ timb]s by bolts pass+ ?r\gh ! side lugs1 ,s1 a ca/-iron pack+-wa%]1 ,w1 be+ plac$ betwe5 ! lug & ! timb] to ensure a solid seat & avoid rock+4 ,a v important po9t 9 ! con/ruction ( ^! block cross+s is to h ! groove or flange-pa? suffici5tly deep to prev5t ! /rik+ or t\*+ ( ! flange ( a mu*-worn tyre4 ,a well-made1 c>efully anneal$ /eel-block rev]sible cross+ is v smoo? 9 ! road1 & has a long life4 ,x is all 9 "o solid piece2 !re are no p>ts to "w loose or spread2 ! we> ( ! runn+ surface is v uni=m1 & :5 ! "o side is mu* worn d[n1 !re is ! o!r ready = s]vice4 ,! writ] has _h _m ( ^! /eel-block rev]sible cross+s 9 use "u heavy & fa/ traffic #bcg = six & eight ye>s )\t turn+4 ,fig4 #cfc %[s an ord9>y cross+ made ( /eel bull-head rails secur$ 9 /rong ca/-iron *airs2 & ,fig4 #cfd is a simil> cross+ made ( /eel flange rails4 ,9 "s cases ! two rails =m+ ! ,v are weld$ toge!r at ! po9t ,b1 & 9 o!rs !y are rivet$ or bolt$ toge!r4 ,fig4 #cfe %[s a diamond or ?r\gh cross+ simil> to ! "o indicat$ at ,d1 ,fig4 #cei1 made ( /eel bull-head rails & *airs4 ,cross+s are con/ruct$ 9 a v>iety ( =ms1 :e!r on ! pr9ciple ( ! ca/-/eel block1 or made out ( ord9>y /eel rails2 & ! above sket*es m]ely illu/rate "s well-recogniz$ types :i* exp]i5ce has prov$ to be effici5t & durable 9 ! road4 ,! angles ( ! cross+s w dep5d ^u ! div]g5ce ( ! int]sect+ l9es to be connect$2 ord9>y cross+s1 to ! angle ( #a 9 #aj1 "w 9 = v g5]al use 9 /ation-y>ds1 b _m are requir$ ( angles v>y+ f #a 9 #f to #a 9 #ad1 & 9 "s cases #a 9 #af4 ,z a rule1 eng9e]s endeav\r z f> z possible to avoid us+ ord9>y cross+s flatt] ?an #a 9 #ab1 or diamond cross+s flatt] ?an #a 9 #i1 because ! gap betwe5 ! runn+ rails becomes v consid]able beyond ^? angles4 ,at ! same "t1 !re are _m cases ( ord9>y cross+s ( #a 9 #af1 & diamond cross+s ( #a 9 #ab & #a 9 #ac laid d[n 9 exceptional places1 & :i* h c>ri$ heavy & fa/ traffic = _m ye>s4 ,all cross+s %\ld be well protect$ ) w+ rails & gu>d rails1 z %[n on ! sket*es4 ,fig4 #cff illu/rates a me?od ( br++ ! ,,up & d[n l9es ( a d\ble l9e ( railway close to ea* o!r1 & pass+ !m ov] a s+le-l9e op5+ bridge1 or a bridge :]e ! works = ! second l9e h n be5 complet$4 ,?is arrangem5t avoids ! necessity ( any swit*es1 & prev5ts any accid5ts :i* w\ld arise f a misplac$ swit*4 ,ea* set ( tra9s is effectually kept to its own l9e ( rails4 ,) prop] signall+ or pilot work+1 ! d\ble-l9e traffic c be work$ ov] ! s+le-l9e bridge )\t difficulty4 ,! writ] has adopt$ ! above arrangem5t 9 _m cases :5 r5ew+ d\ble-l9e bridges or viaducts :]e ! wid? = traffic work+ has be5 re/rict$ to half ( ! bridge4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfa1 #cfb1 #cfc1 #cfd1 #cfe ,9 "s in/ances ! same sy/em has be5 ext5d$ to ! c>ry+ ( #bci f\r l9es ( rails ov] a d\ble-l9e bridge1 z %[n on ,fig4 #cfg4 ,! pr9cipal tool us$ by platelay]s = lift+ ! p]man5t way is a long iron-%od wood5 lev]1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #cfh4 ,! po9t ( ! l[] end is pu%$ "u ! sleep]1 & ! curv$ %\ld] plac$ on a l>ge /one or piece ( wood z a support1 & !n by pull+ d[n ! upp] end ( ! lev] ! road c be lift$ to ! height requir$4 ,screw lift+-jacks ( v>i\s k9ds are also us$ = ! same purpose1 ! foot or base ( ! jack re/+ on ! balla/1 :ile ! claws grasp ! "u side ( ! rail1 & raise x by means ( ! screw4 ,) appliances :i* lift by ! rails1 ! sleep]s h to be rais$ by ! hold+ p[] ( ! spikes or bolts1 an op]ation :i* is apt to ?r[ undue /ra9 on spikes4 ,:]e possible x is pref]able to lift f ! "u side ( ! sleep]s4 ,beat]s simil> to ! "o %[n on ,fig4 #cfi are us$ = pack+ ! balla/4 ,"o end ( ! beat] is po9t$ l a pick1 & s]ves to loos5 ! balla/ or brok5 /one1 & ! o!r end is made some:at 9 ! hamm]-head =m to pack or beat ! balla/ "u ! sleep]4 ,) skill$ m5 ! beat] is a mo/ useful tool1 spe$y & effective 9 its action4 ,held 9 bo? h&s1 x is rais$ slightly1 & !n br\ght d[n %>ply1 ! hamm]-head /rik+ ! gravel or brok5 /one plac$ alongside = pack+ "u ! sleep]4 ,a s]ies ( sm>t bl[s c be giv5 ) rapidity & )\t requir+ any great muscul> ef=t4 ,9 "s =eign c\ntries !re is difficulty 9 initiat+ ! natives to "w ) ! ord9>y beat]1 on acc\nt ( ! /oop+ position necess>y = its use4 ,to meet ?is difficulty ! writ] has 9 _m cases sub/itut$ a pack+ or tamp+ b>1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #cgj4 ,?is b>1 ab\t #e feet long1 is made ( light r\nd wr\ght-iron or /eel1 ) a r+-%ap$ h&le at "o end1 & an ord9>y beat] head at ! o!r4 ,! workman us+ ?is b> /&s upright1 guides ! b>1 held loosely1 ) 8 left h&1 & ) 8 "r gives a cont9uance ( sm>t bl[s4 ,?is tool works well 9 ! h&s ( light active natives1 :o c ?us give a numb] ( rapid /rokes )\t mu* ex]tion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cff1 #cfg1 #cfh1 #cga1 #cfi1 #cgj1 #cgb ,! simple rail-b5d]1 or ,jim ,cr[1 ( ! =m %[n 9 ,fig4 #cga1 is mu* us$ by platelay]s = giv+ a slight b5d or set to rails :i* h to be laid d[n on %>p curves on ma9 l9e or cross-ov] roads4 ,! rail is laid across ! two arms1 & ! screw turn$ r\nd #bda & d[nw>ds by means ( an iron b> lev] us$ z a spann] or wr5* to ! nut %[n on ! sket*4 ,! same tool is also s]viceable = /raight5+ rails :i* h become crook$ or k9k$4 ,l>ge & m compreh5sive ma*9es are us$ = b5d+ rails 9 l>ge quantities or sett+ !m to exact curvature1 b1 be+ heavy & cumb]some1 !y are r>ely tak5 away f ! /ore-y>ds4 ,/rong /eel %ovels ( ! =m %[n 9 ,fig4 #cgb are ! mo/ suitable = platelay]s' g5]al use :5 work+ ) gravel1 s&1 or brok5 /ones4 ,= driv+ iron spikes & wood5 keys 9 ca/-iron *airs a long-h&l$ hamm] is ! mo/ conv5i5t = "w1 & its long sw++ action produces consid]able =ce )\t mu* actual lab\r4 ,road-gauges1 nut-wr5*es1 %ort /raight-edges1 _s-levels1 rat*et-drills1 augurs1 & cold setts ( well-temp]$ /eel = cutt+ rails1 are all requir$ by ! m5 engag$ 9 lay+ p]man5t way4 ,! foll[+ summ>ies give ! e/imat$ co/ ( mat]ials alone = "o mile ( /eel bull-head rail & /eel flange rail p]man5t way ( diff]5t weights4 ,! #ij-lb4 /eel bull-head rail is at pres5t ! heavie/ ( t section laid d[n to any ext5t on our home railways1 & ! *airs & fa/5+s are made heavy to correspond to ! rail & ! traffic = :i* x is int5d$4 ,z ! rails 9 ! summ>ies become light]1 ! weights ( ! *airs & fa/5+s are decreas$4 ,z yet !re are n _m samples ( ! #ajj-lb4 /eel flange rail2 b 9 ^? places :]e x has be5 laid d[n x has be5 support$ ) a lib]al supply ( sleep]s1 to obta9 increas$ be>+ surface4 ,) a #e-;in* flange1 & a rectangul> sleep] #aj in*es wide1 ! be>+ surface on ! wood is only ab\t #ee squ>e in*es1 z comp>$ ) ab\t #ajj squ>e in*es1 ! be>+ surface ( a l>ge ca/-iron *air = a heavy bull-head rail4 ,z previ\sly expla9$1 a small be>+ surface on a sleep] t5ds to ! cutt+ d[n into ! wood1 & r5d]+ ! sleep] unsafe & useless ev5 be=e x has become uns]viceable f decay3 h5ce ! reason = ample be>+ surface on ! sleep]4 ,! la/ two summ>ies ref] to #c-;foot n>r[-gauge l9es4 ,9 m ?an "o in/ance ! #de-lb4 rails fir/ laid d[n h be5 f\nd mu* too light = ! eng9es requir$ to "w ! traffic1 & :5 mak+ ext5sions ( ! sy/em #bdb #fe-lb4 rails h be5 adopt$4 ,inde$1 :5 tak+ into consid]ation ! weight ( mo/ ( ! n>r[-gauge eng9es1 g5]ally f #bd to #bh tons 9 work+ ord]1 & _! %ort :eel-base1 x w\ld appe> t a #fe-lb4 rail is ! m9imum :i* %\ld be us$ bo? = /ability & economy 9 ma9t5ance4 ,! summ>ies are prep>$ f examples 9 actual use1 & repres5t ! numb] & weight ( sleep]s1 *airs1 & fa/5+s 9 ea* in/ance4 ,ev5 ) ! same weight ( rail1 ! practice diff]s on v>i\s l9es z to ! weights ( ! *airs & fa/5+s2 & ! selections h be5 made to %[ a fair av]age4 ,on "s railways ! *airs are secur$ p>tly by tree-nails & p>tly by spikes1 or crab bolts2 on o!rs only spikes are us$4 ,! prices put d[n are ! e/imat$ values ( ! mat]ials deliv]$ into ! ,p]man5t ,way ,/ores ( our own home railways1 & are exclusive ( all co/s ( freight1 c>riage1 or di/ribution to ! site ( lay+ d[n4 ,! prices are only comp>ative1 & fluctuate up or d[n accord+ to ! curr5t value ( ! raw mat]ials f :i* ! v>i\s items are manufactur$4 ,light] rails & small] fa/5+s co/ m p] ton ?an ^? ( a heavi] type1 z !y involve m lab\r & workman%ip4 ,,/eel ,,bull-,,head ,,rails 7#ij ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel bull-head rails1 #ij lbs4 p] y>d 7#cj-;ft4 l5g?s7 #ada #h #b #j #e #j #j #gjg #b #f ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #da lbs4 p] pair #f #aj #j #j #f #ae #j #dc #ag #f ,fi%-bolts & nuts #a #d #j #j #ab #ae #j #ae #f #j #baab creosot$ sleep]s1 #i ft4 #aj 94 #e 94 -- #j #c #aj #djd #af #j #dbbd ca/-iron *airs1 ea* #ej lbs4 #id #e #c #j #c #aj #j #ccj #j #a #hddh iron cup-head$ spikes #c #ae #b #j #aj #j #j #cg #ae #j #hddh tree-nails1 at p] #ajjj -- #c #aj #j #bi #aa #d #dbbd oak keys1 at p] #ajjj -- #e #j #j #ba #b #e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #aehi #aj #aj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,/eel ,,bull-,,head ,,rails 7#he ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 #bdc ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel bull-head rails1 #he lbs4 p] y>d 7#bf-;ft4 l5g? 7 #acd #j #j #j #e #j #j #fgj #j #j ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #ch lbs4 p] pair #f #ag #c #j #f #ae #j #df #i #aj ,fi%-bolts & nuts #a #d #c #j #ab #ae #j #ae #ae #g #bjcj creosot$ sleep]s1 #i ft4 #aj 94 #e 94 -- #j #c #aj #chi #a #h #djfj ca/-iron *airs1 ea* #de lbs4 #ha #aa #a #j #c #aj #j #bhe #i #e #habj iron cup-head$ spikes #c #ab #b #j #aj #j #j #cf #e #j #djfj tree-nails1 at p] #ajjj -- #c #aj #j #ad #d #b #djfj oak keys1 at p] #ajjj -- #e #j #j #bj #f #j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #adgg #aa #h ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,/eel ,,bull-,,head ,,rails 7#hj ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel bull-head rails1 #hj lbs4 p] y>d 7#bf-;ft4 l5g?s7 #abe #ad #j #j #e #j #j #fbh #aj #j ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #cg lbs4 p] pair #f #ad #a #j #f #ae #j #de #f #b ,fi%-bolts & nuts #a #d #c #j #ab #ae #j #ae #ae #g #bjcj creosot$ sleep]s1 #i ft4 #aj 94 #e 94 -- #j #c #aj #chi #a #h #djfj ca/-iron *airs1 ea* #dj lbs4 #gb #aj #j #j #c #aj #j #bec #ae #j #habj iron cup-head$ spikes #c #ab #b #j #aj #j #j #cf #e #j #djfj tree-nails1 at p] #ajjj -- #c #aj #j #ad #d #b #djfj oak keys1 at p] #ajjj -- #e #j #j #bj #f #j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #adjc #c #g ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,/eel ,,bull-,,head ,,rails 7#ge ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel bull-head rails1 #ge lbs4 p] y>d 7#bf-;ft4 l5g?s7 #aag #j #j #j #e #j #j #ehe #j #j ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #ce lbs4 p] pair #f #g #j #j #f #ae #j #db #ag #c ,fi%-bolts & nuts #a #d #c #j #ab #ae #j #ae #ae #g #bjcj creosot$ sleep]s1 #i ft4 #aj 94 #e 94 -- #j #c #aj #chi #a #h #djfj ca/-iron *airs1 ea* #cg lbs4 #fg #a #a #j #c #aj #j #bcd #ad #e #ab1ahj iron cup-head$ spikes #e #h #c #j #aj #j #j #ed #g #f #djfj oak keys1 at p] #ajjj -- #e #j #j #bj #f #j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #acdb #b #e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,/eel ,,bull-,,head ,,rails 7#gj ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 #bdd ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel bull-head rails1 #gj lbs4 p] y>d 7#bf-;ft4 l5g?s7 #aaj #j #j #j #e #j #j #eej #j #j ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #cb lbs4 p] pair #e #af #j #j #f #ae #j #ci #c #j ,fi%-bolts & nuts #a #b #j #j #ab #ae #j #ad #j #f #bjcj creosot$ sleep]s1 #i ft4 #aj 94 #e 94 -- #j #c #aj #chi #a #h #djfj ca/-iron *airs1 ea* #cd lbs4 #fa #ab #b #j #c #aj #j #bae #ac #i #habj iron cup-head$ spikes #c #c #b #j #aj #j #j #ca #ae #j #djfj oak keys1 at p] #ajjj -- #d #aj #j #ah #e #e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #abeg #ai #d ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,/eel ,,bull-,,head ,,rails 7#fe ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel bull-head rails1 #fe lbs4 p] y>d 7#bf-;ft4 l5g?s7 #ajb #c #j #j #e #e #j #ecf #e #i ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #bh lbs4 p] pair #e #a #b #j #g #j #j #ce #aj #f ,fi%-bolts & nuts #a #a #j #j #ac #j #j #ac #ac #j #bjcj creosot$ sleep]s1 #i ft4 #i 94 #d 94 -- #j #c #j #cjd #aj #j #djfj ca/-iron *airs1 ea* #bh lbs4 #ej #ae #j #j #d #j #j #bjc #j #j #habj iron cup-head$ spikes #b #ai #j #j #aj #aj #j #cj #ai #f #djfj oak keys1 at p] #ajjj -- #d #j #j #af #d #i ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #aadj #c #f ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,/eel ,,flange ,,rails 7#ajj ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel flange rails1 #ajj lbs4 p] y>d 7#cj-;ft4 l5g?s7 #aeg #c #j #j #e #j #j #ghe #ae #j ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #db lbs4 p] pair #f #ab #j #j #f #aj #j #db #ah #j ,fi%-bolts & nuts #a #e #j #j #ab #ae #j #ae #ah #i #bdfd creosot$ sleep]s1 #i ft4 #aj 94 #e 94 -- #j #c #aj #dgb #e #d #hddh dog-head spikes #c #f #j #j #ab #aj #j #da #e #j #gjd fang clips #j #h #c #j #ac #aj #j #e #ah #b #adjh crab bolts #a #f #c #j #ab #aj #j #af #ad #e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #achj #ad #h ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,/eel ,,flange ,,rails 7#gi ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 #bde ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel flange rails1 #gi lbs4 p] y>d 7#bf-;ft4 l5g?s7 #abe #j #j #j #e #j #j #fbe #j #j ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #cg lbs4 p] pair #f #ad #a #j #f #aj #j #dc #ab #h ,fi%-bolts & nuts #a #d #j #j #ab #ae #j #ae #f #j #bjcj creosot$ sleep]s1 #i ft4 #aj 94 #e 94 -- #j #c #aj #chi #a #h #fdif dog-head spikes #b #aj #c #j #ab #aj #j #ca #ad #e #hab fang clips #j #aj #j #j #ac #aj #j #f #ae #j #afbd crab bolts #a #aj #c #j #ab #aj #j #ai #d #e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #aacj #ad #b ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,/eel ,,flange ,,rails 7#gd ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel flange rails1 #gd lbs4 p] y>d 7#cj-;ft4 l5g?s7 #aaf #e #c #j #e #j #j #eha #h #i ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #cj lbs4 p] pair #d #ae #c #j #f #aj #j #ca #b #e ,fi%-bolts & nuts #a #a #j #j #ab #ae #j #ac #g #i #aicf creosot$ sleep]s1 #i ft4 #aj 94 #e 94 -- #j #c #aj #cga #a #d #fccf dog-head spikes #b #i #b #j #ab #aj #j #cj #ah #i #gjd fang clips #j #h #c #j #ac #aj #j #e #ah #b #adjh crab bolts #a #f #c #j #ab #aj #j #af #ad #e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #ajej #aa #g ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,/eel ,,flange ,,rails 7#fe ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel flange rails1 #fe lbs4 p] y>d 7#cj-;ft4 l5g?s7 #ajb #c #j #j #e #aj #j #efa #af #f ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #bg lbs4 p] pair #d #d #c #j #g #e #j #cj #ad #e ,fi%-bolts & nuts #a #j #j #j #ac #j #j #ac #j #j #aicf creosot$ sleep]s1 #i ft4 #aj 94 #e 94 -- #j #c #aj #cga #a #d #fccf dog-head spikes #b #i #b #j #ab #aj #j #cj #ah #i #gjd fang clips #j #h #j #j #ac #aj #j #e #h #j #adjh crab bolts #a #f #c #j #ab #aj #j #af #ad #e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #ajbi #ac #e ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,/eel ,,flange ,,rails 7#fj ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 #bdf ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel flange rails1 #fj lbs4 p] y>d 7#cj-;ft4 l5g?s7 #id #e #c #j #e #aj #j #eah #aa #g ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #be lbs4 p] pair #c #ah #b #j #g #e #j #bh #i #b ,fi%-bolts & nuts #a #j #j #j #ac #j #j #ac #j #j #baab creosot$ sleep]s1 #i ft4 #aj 94 #e 94 -- #j #c #aj #djd #af #j #gjdj dog-head spikes #b #ae #j #j #ab #aj #j #cd #g #f #gjd fang clips #j #h #j #j #ac #aj #j #e #h #j #adjh crab bolts #a #f #c #j #ab #aj #j #af #ad #e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #ajba #f #h ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,/eel ,,flange ,,rails 7#ej ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel flange rails1 #ej lbs4 p] y>d 7#cj-;ft4 l5g?s7 #gh #aa #b #j #e #ae #j #dea #af #a ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #bb lbs4 p] pair #c #i #a #j #g #aj #j #be #ai #e ,fi%-bolts & nuts #j #ah #j #j #ac #aj #j #ab #c #j #baab creosot$ sleep]s1 #i ft4 #i 94 #d 94 -- #j #c #j #caf #af #j #gjdj dog-head spikes #b #g #a #j #ac #j #j #cj #ad #c #gjd fang clips #j #f #a #j #ad #j #j #d #g #f #adjh crab bolts #a #b #j #j #ac #j #j #ad #f #j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #hef #b #c ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,/eel ,,flange ,,rails 7#fe ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e 7#c-;ft4 gauge74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel flange rails1 #fe lbs4 p] y>d 7#cj-;ft4 l5g?s7 #ajb #c #j #j #e #aj #j #efa #af #f ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #bg lbs4 p] pair #d #d #c #j #g #e #j #cj #ad #e ,fi%-bolts & nuts #a #j #j #j #ac #j #j #ac #j #j #bbhh creosot$ sleep]s1 #f ft4 #i 94 #d 94 -- #j #b #c #beg #h #j #ggdd dog-head spikes #b #ag #j #j #ab #aj #j #ce #ab #f #gjd fang clips #j #g #b #j #ac #aj #j #e #a #c #adjh crab bolts #b #b #j #j #ab #aj #j #bf #e #j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #ibi #ag #h ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,/eel ,,flange ,,rails 7#de ,,lbs4 ,,p] ,,y>d74 #bdg ,e/imat$ ,co/ ( ,mat]ials = ,"o ,mile ( ,s+le ,l9e 7#c-;ft4 gauge74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,weight p] mile ,price4 ,am\nt4 ( s+le l9e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,/eel flange rails1 #de lbs4 p] y>d 7#bf-;ft4 l5g?s7 #gj #ad #a #j #e #ae #j #djf #ab #j ,/eel fi%-plates 7deep71 #af lbs4 p] pair #b #ah #j #j #g #aj #j #ba #ae #j ,fi%-bolts & nuts #j #ah #j #j #ac #aj #j #ab #c #j #bbcc creosot$ sleep]s1 #f ft4 #h 94 #d 94 -- #j #a #aj #bjd #ac #aj #gcjh dog-head spikes #b #ad #j #j #ac #j #j #ce #b #j #hab fang clips #j #e #j #j #ad #j #j #c #aj #j #afbd crab bolts #j #ah #j #j #ac #j #j #aa #ad #j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #fie #i #aj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,*apt] ,,iv4 #bdh ,/ations3 ,/ation ,build+s1 ,ro(s1 ,l9es1 & ,sid+s4 ,/ations4--,:5 select+ a site = a /ation1 n only %\ld due reg>d be paid to ! proximity & conv5i5ce ( access to ! t[n or place to be s]v$1 b att5tion %\ld be giv5 to ! gradi5ts ( ! l9e ne> ! propos$ /ation4 ,if x c possibly be avoid$1 a /ation %\ld n be plac$ 9 a holl[ at ! foot ( two incl9es1 z su* a position w\ld always entail heavy "w />t+ tra9s on ! asc5d+ gradi5ts1 ) ! risk ( slid+ back into ! /ation aga9 9 unfav\rable wea!r2 & = arriv+ tra9s !re w\ld be increas$ difficulty 9 prop]ly controll+ ! vehicles on ! desc5d+ gradi5ts s z to br+ !m to a /& 9 ! ev5t ( any sudd5 /oppage be+ requir$4 ,) /ations on a summit1 hav+ gradi5ts fall+ 9 ea* direction1 ! />t+ tra9s c get away m readily1 & ! arriv+ tra9s h ! b5efit ( ! ris+ gradi5t to assi/ !m 9 com+ to a /&4 ,possibly ! be/ selection w\ld be a long l5g? ( level1 bo? 9 ! /ation prop] & = a consid]able di/ance on ea* side2 b x is n (t5 t su* a comb9ation c be obta9$ )\t incurr+ extra exp5diture4 ,! /ation-y>d itself %\ld1 h[ev]1 be on ! level1 or z ne>ly s z possible1 = ! conv5i5ce & safety ( m>%all+ or %unt+ c>riages or waggons4 ,no sid+ %\ld be laid on su* a gradi5t z w\ld r5d] x possible = vehicles to />t into motion dur+ high w9ds4 ,c>riages & waggons hav+ good oil axle-boxes w />t !mselves on a gradi5t ( #a 9 #cjj "u ! influ5ce ( a mod]ately /rong breeze1 & a slight pu% w />t !m on a gradi5t ( #a 9 #djj4 ,! numb] & arrangem5t ( ! l9es1 sid+s1 plat=ms1 load+ banks1 & o!r conv5i5ces ( a /ation1 w dep5d ^u ! description & am\nt ( traffic to be accommodat$4 ,!re is a wide #bdi range f ! simple village /ation1 ) its "o %ort sid+1 to ! great city t]m9us1 ) its labyr9? ( l9es & sid+s1 & its gr\ps ( plat=ms1 (fices1 w>eh\ses1 & o!r accessories4 ,ea* /ation %\ld be laid out ) a view to meet ! special requirem5ts ( ! pr9cipal traffic likely to arise1 :e!r pass5g]1 timb]1 coal1 /one1 cattle1 or g5]al m]*&ise1 & ample space %\ld be reta9$ to p]mit fur!r enl>gem5t & additional sid+s at any future "t4 ,if provision is n made = ! latt] 9 ! outset x w c]ta9ly lead to l>ge exp5diture at "s lat] date4 ,l& adjo9+ a railway /ation is quickly appropriat$ by ! public on acc\nt ( its proximity & conv5i5ce = conveyance1 & soon cov]$ ) /ore-y>ds1 w>eh\ses1 & o!r build+s1 & :5 any portion ( ^! h to be acquir$ = /ation enl>gem5ts1 !y c only be obta9$ at a l>ge co/1 v (t5 t5 times z mu* z ! value ( ! orig9al gr\nd4 ,:5 lay+ out approa* roads to goods or pass5g] /ations1 :e!r int]m$iate or t]m9al1 due importance %\ld be giv5 to ! advantage ( mak+ !m wide1 easy 9 gradi5t1 & fairly /raight4 ,a n>r[1 crook$ access to a busy goods y>d is a great imp$im5t to ! exp$iti\s work+ ( a heavy traffic2 & road waggons convey+ long pieces ( timb] or ironwork along su* a r\te1 w\ld be v apt to block ! roadway & delay ! passage ( o!r vehicles4 ,a /eep gradi5t w prev5t ! c>ri]s tak+ full loads1 & w add to ! co/ & "t ( deliv]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgc ,an approa* road to a l>ge pass5g] /ation %\ld be laid out ) a long frontage to a wide footpa? to enable ! num]\s int5d+ pass5g]s to alight conv5i5tly f ! conveyances :i* br+ !m to ! /ation4 ,a portion ( ! footpa? & c>riage-way 9 front ( ! entrance to ! book+-hall %\ld be cov]$ ov] ) a light ro( to provide %elt] dur+ inclem5t wea!r4 ,! footpa? %\ld be on ! same level z ! ve/ibule or book+-hall1 s t ! public may pass at once to ! ticket-(fice & _! luggage be :eel$ on h&-b>r[s direct to ! plat=m or luggage-room4 ,e ef=t %\ld be made to avoid introduc+ /eps f ! footpa? to ! book+-hall1 z !y *eck ! prop] +ress ( ! pass5g]s1 & are v sev]e on eld]ly p]sons & invalids1 besides necessitat+ ! dilatory me?od ( c>ry+ ea* piece ( ! pass5g]s' luggage by h&4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n ! inconv5i5ce ( #bea /eps to be s great t 9 _m cases a l>ge exp5diture has aft]w>ds be5 incurr$ to d away ) !m1 & br+ ! sett+-d[n footpa? to ! same level z ! book+-hall4 ,= a l>ge /ation ! book+-hall %\ld be spaci\s & well provid$ ) sep>ate ticket w9d[s = ! diff]5t classes ( pass5g]s & di/ricts ( ! l9e2 & ! access or communication ) ! plat=m %\ld be ample & free f ob/ruction4 ,small doors & n>r[ passage-ways *eck ! movem5ts ( ! pass5g]s & create confusion & delay4 ,wait+-rooms = ! diff]5t classes ( pass5g]s1 inquiry-(fices1 luggage-rooms1 lavatories1 etc41 w h to be provid$ accord+ to ! am\nt ( traffic to be accommodat$4 ,9 l>ge /ations x may be necess>y to h two or m gr\ps ( su* rooms to suit ! diff]5t sets ( plat=ms4 ,at ! mo/ important t]m9al /ations ( our home railways x is usual to lay d[n ! ma9-l9e arrival plat=ms ) a cab or c>riage rank alongside1 s t ! pass5g]s alight+ f ! railway c>riages h m]ely to walk across ! plat=ms1 & /ep into ! cabs or vehicles wait+ to take !m & _! luggage away f ! /ation4 ,?is arrangem5t is n only a great conv5i5ce to ! pass5g]s1 b exp$ites ! cle>+ ( ! plat=m & ! mak+ way = ano!r incom+ tra94 ,x w\ld n1 h[ev]1 be ( any s]vice on cont95tal l9es1 or o!r =eign railways1 :]e all arriv+ luggage mu/ fir/ be tak5 to ! g5]al luggage room1 to be exam9$ by ! local cu/oms1 or octroi (fic]s1 be=e be+ all[$ to pass out ( ! /ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgd1 #cge ,ma9-l9e dep>ture plat=ms %\ld be ( ample wid? to all[ ( ! free movem5t ( ! pass5g]s1 ticket exam9]s1 (ficials1 & m5 :eel+ pass5g]s' luggage4 ,! accommodation %\ld n only be suffici5t = ! normal traffic1 b all[ance %\ld be made = ! l>ge cr[ds :i* may assemble = excursion tra9s dur+ ! holiday season or o!r occasions ( national ga!r+4 ,additional or local plat=ms1 frequ5tly t]m$ dock plat=ms1 may be requir$ = suburban tra9s1 & may be made n>r[] 9 wid?1 & )\t cab ranks1 z ! pass5g]s us+ !m only travel %ort di/ances & r>ely h m luggage ?an !y c>ry 9 _! h&s4 ,^! dock plat=ms are g5]ally made available = outgo+ z well z #bec incom+ tra9s4 ,! l5g?s ( ! ma9-l9e or local plat=ms w be regulat$ by ! numb] ( c>riages =m+ a tra94 ,fig4 #cgc is a diagram sket* ( a l>ge t]m9al pass5g] /ation1 ) ma9 & local plat=ms z above describ$4 ,x is m]ely typical to illu/rate ! pr9ciple1 & may be multipli$ & v>i$ to any ext5t 9 ! way ( l9es & plat=ms4 ,9 ! sket* ! ma9 gr\ps ( (fices1 wait+-rooms1 etc41 are %[n at ! end ( ! /ation2 b !y may be equally well plac$ at ! side1 z _! actual location is pr9cipally a "q ( proximity or conv5i5ce ( access to "s ma9 /reet or ?or\ghf>e4 ,! l[] or plat=m-level rooms ( su* a build+ are ma9ly devot$ to ! public = book+-(fices1 wait+-rooms1 refre%m5t-rooms1 lavatories1 (fices = p>cels1 telegraph & inquiry1 suitable rooms be+ set ap>t = lamps1 foot-w>m]s1 gu>ds1 & port]s4 ,above ?is l[] /ory a range ( (fices c be built = ! use ( ! pr9cipal (fic]s & /aff ( ! diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( ! company4 ,fig4 #cgd is a plan ( a small t]m9al /ation on a s+le l9e ( railway1 :]e ! pass5g] traffic is small1 & "o plat=m is made to s]ve alt]nately bo? = arrival & dep>ture tra9s4 ,! book+-hall1 wait+-rooms1 (fices1 etc41 are laid d[n p>allel to ! l9e ( rails1 & ! approa* road & footpa? are p>allel to ! build+4 ,! plat=m ro( ext5ds to ! out] wall1 & provides %elt] = ! pass5g]s on ! plat=m1 & =ms a %$ = ! c>riages at night4 ,fig4 #cge is a sket* ( an int]m$iate or roadside /ation on a s+le l9e ( railway4 ,all ! (fices1 wait+-rooms1 etc41 are on "o plat=m1 :i* s]ves = tra9s travell+ 9 ei!r direction4 ,! dott$ l9es %[ ! additions :i* w\ld be necess>y to make ! /ation a /opp+-place = tra9s work+ 9 opposite directions4 ,fig4 #cgf %[s an ord9>y int]m$iate or roadside /ation on a d\ble l9e ( railway1 ) two pass5g] plat=ms1 & a connection betwe5 !m ei!r by subway or ov]-l9e footbridge4 ,! pr9cipal (fices & wait+-rooms are %[n on ! "o side1 & only small wait+-rooms1 etc41 on ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgg1 #cgh ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgi1 #chj ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cha1 #chb ,fig4 #cgg is a sket* ( a d\ble-l9e int]m$iate or roadside /ation at ! junction ( a small s+le-l9e bran* railway4 ,bran*-l9e pass5g]s to & f ! ma9 ,,d[n-l9e tra9s m]ely walk across ! plat=m to get into _! respective tra9s1 & ^? to or f #beh ! ma9 ,,up tra9s walk across ! footbridge or subway to get to ! opposite plat=m4 ,fig4 #cgh is a plan ( a d\ble-l9e roadside /ation1 ) two ma9-l9e pass5g] plat=ms & a dock l9e & plat=m = ! use ( local or bran*-l9e tra9s4 ,?is arrangem5t is applicable :]e ! actual junction ) ! ma9 l9e is at a little di/ance f ! /ation1 b n suffici5tly f> away to w>rant an additional junction /ation z %[n 9 ,fig4 #cgg4 ,fig4 #cgi %[s a simil> roadside /ation laid out ) a m compreh5sive arrangem5t ( dock-l9es & plat=ms4 ,! l9es alongside ! ma9 pass5g] plat=ms are turn-outs f ! ma9-l9e prop]1 & leave ! latt] free = ! passage ( fa/ ?r\gh tra9s or goods tra9s :5 an ord9>y pass5g] tra9 is /&+ alongside ! plat=m4 ,9 ?is way a fa/ non-/opp+ tra9 c ov]take & be s5t =w>d 9 advance ( a sl[ pass5g] tra94 ,fig4 #chj %[s a roadside /ation ) two d\ble plat=ms1 ! inn] l9es & plat=ms be+ res]v$ = ma9-l9e pass5g] tra9s1 & ! out] l9es = bran*-l9e tra9s4 ,by ?is arrangem5t c>riages c be quickly transf]r$ f a bran*-l9e tra9 to a ma9-l9e tra91 & vice v]s2 access f ! public road1 or f "o plat=m to ! o!r1 c be obta9$ ei!r by subway or ov]-l9e footbridge4 ,fig4 #cha is a sket* plan ( an isl& plat=m = a d\ble-l9e roadside /ation1 ne> :i* !re are junctions ) two bran* l9es4 ,! ,,up & ,,d[n ma9 l9es run alongside ! wide portion ( ! plat=m1 & ! bran* l9es run into ! two dock plat=ms4 ,! wait+-rooms1 refre%m5t-rooms1 etc41 are plac$ 9 gr\ps on ! wide plat=m1 spaces be+ left betwe5 ! blocks = ! conv5i5ce ( access f side to side4 ,! book+-(fice & p>cels-(fice are plac$ alongside ! approa* road on ! high] level4 ,an ov]-l9e footbridge ext5ds f ! book+-hall to ! dock plat=ms1 t]m9at+ ) /eps on "o side & an incl9$ ramp ( #a 9 #h on ! o!r4 ,9 c>ry+ out ! above plan = a railway on an embankm5t1 ! access f ! book+-hall to ! plat=m w\ld be provid$ by a subway in/ead ( an ov]-l9e footbridge4 ,fig4 #chb %[s ano!r =m ( isl& plat=m1 also arrang$ = ,,up & ,,d[n ma9-l9e tra9s1 & two bran*-l9e tra9s4 ,! access is obta9$ f a public-road ov]-l9e bridge cross+ ! #bei railway1 & ! book+-(fice is plac$ at ! top ( an incl9e1 or ramp1 lead+ d[n to ! plat=m4 ,! dock-l9e plat=ms are arrang$ diff]5t to ^? 9 ! prec$+ example1 ) ! object ( provid+ long] plat=ms = ! ma9-l9e tra9s4 ,?is result1 h[ev]1 is obta9$ at "s little inconv5i5ce to ! dock-l9e tra9s1 z ! pass5g]s f "o ( ^! mu/ walk r\nd a portion ( two plat=ms to get into ! o!r dock-l9e tra91 in/ead ( m]ely walk+ across ! plat=m z 9 ,fig4 #cha4 ,9 "s cases ( isl& plat=ms ! total wid? ( ! /ation build+s & plat=ms is made mu* great] ?an indicat$ 9 ! above sket*es1 & a wide1 easy incl9e con/ruct$ f an ov]-l9e public-road bridge1 to all[ cabs & c>riages to come d[n to a l>ge pav$ area betwe5 ! plat=ms1 = ! conv5i5ce ( sett+ d[n & tak+ up ! tra9 pass5g]s & _! luggage4 ,! isl&-plat=m arrangem5t possesses _m advantages = ! ex*ange ( pass5g] traffic4 ,all ! plat=ms are connect$ & on "o level1 & pass5g]s1 toge!r ) _! luggage1 c be quickly transf]r$ f "o tra9 to ano!r4 ,"o set ( wait+-rooms1 refre%m5t-rooms1 etc41 are suffici5t1 & are available = ! pass5g]s ( all ! f\r tra9s4 ,a small] numb] ( /ation m5 are requir$ = ! "w1 z ! /aff c be m conc5trat$ & bett] utiliz$ ?an :5 !re are sep>ate plat=ms on opposite sides ( ! l9e4 ,! numb]1 size1 & arrangem5t ( wait+-rooms & o!r (fices = ! public at a l>ge /ation w dep5d ^u ! am\nt & description ( traffic to be dealt ) at ! p>ticul> /ation "u consid]ation4 ,:]e ! pass5g] traffic is to a l>ge ext5t ( a local or %ort di/ance "*1 a mod]ate am\nt ( wait+-room space may be suffici5t1 z ^! local pass5g]s regulate _! arrival s z to avoid wait+ any great l5g? ( "t = ! tra9s4 ,an enorm\s suburban pass5g] traffic is c>ri$ on 9 _m places ) a v limit$ wait+-room accommodation1 ! frequ5cy ( ! tra9s & ! r\t9e ( ! travell]s r$uc+ ! necessity ( su* rooms to a m9imum4 ,a m ample wait+-room space w be necess>y :5 provid+ = a l>ge1 long j\rney1 or ?r\gh traffic1 & = /ations at seaports1 z ! int5d+ pass5g]s1 p>ticul>ly ^? l&+ f /eam]s1 g5]ally rea* ! /ation a consid]able "t be=e ! dep>ture ( ! tra9s to take !m #bfj =w>d4 ,= ?is class ( traffic x w also be necess>y to provide suitable refre%m5t-rooms4 ,at l>ge t]m9al /ations x is frequ5tly f\nd m conv5i5t = ! work+ ( ! traffic to h two or m sets ( wait+-rooms1 etc41 sep>at+ ! local & long-j\rney pass5g]s1 & plac+ ! rooms alongside ! correspond+ plat=ms4 ,lavatories & conv5i5ces at l>ge /ations %\ld be provid$ on a lib]al scale1 & fitt$ up 9 ! mo/ sub/antial & effici5t mann]4 ,n only %\ld !y be ?or\ghly well v5tilat$1 b !y %\ld h abundance ( light4 ,no?+ t5ds s mu* to ensure ord] & cleanl9ess 9 ^! places z pl5ty ( light4 ,x w frequ5tly be f\nd t at _m ( ! l>ge important /ations !re are local surr\nd+s & circum/ances ( level & f\ndations1 :i* w to a great ext5t influ5ce ! arrangem5t ( ! rooms & (fices to be devot$ to ! public s]vice4 ,no fix$ or /&>d type c\ld be adopt$ = all cases4 ,ea* "o w h to be /udi$ out to suit ! locality1 & ! gr\p+ mu/ be made to "w 9 ) ! be/ facilities obta9able4 ,9 all su* cases "o ( ! pr9cipal po9ts is to select a conv5i5t position = ! book+-hall1 easy ( access to all p]sons ent]+ ! /ation premises4 ,on no acc\nt %\ld ! ticket-(fice be plac$ 9 a position t5d+ to block ! ?or\ghf>e on to ! plat=ms4 ,a l>ge numb] ( int5d+ pass5g]s may already be 9 possession ( tickets1 & ! /ation arrangem5ts %\ld enable ^! pass5g]s to proce$ at once to ! plat=ms )\t hav+ to /ruggle or =ce _! way ?r\gh cr[ds ( o!r pass5g]s ga!r$ r\nd ! ticket w9d[s4 ,9 "s in/ances x is f\nd exp$i5t to provide auxili>y book+-(fices = excursion traffic1 to be us$ only on special occasions1 ?us re/rict+ ! pr9cipal book+-(fices to ! ord9>y ma9-l9e book+4 ,:5 lay+ out small int]m$iate or roadside /ations = ei!r d\ble or s+le l9e1 or small t]m9al /ations on %ort bran* l9es 9 ?9ly populat$ di/ricts1 x becomes a "q h[ to provide ! requisite /atutory accommodation ) a m9imum am\nt ( build+4 ,! foll[+ sket*es tak5 f actual examples may be ( use = ref]5ce4 ,fig4 #chc %[s ! smalle/ size ( /ation build+ t c v well be con/ruct$ to be ( any practical s]vice4 ,x comprises an (fice = ! /ation-ma/]1 :o has to att5d to ! tickets1 #bfa p>cels1 & telegraph2 a wait+-hall ) glaz$ front2 a small wait+-room & ,w4,c4 = ladies2 & a y>d ) conv5i5ces = g5tlem51 coal /ore1 etc4 ,access to ! /ation is obta9$ ?r\gh a gateway 9 ! plat=m f5c+4 ,fig4 #chd %[s a some:at simil> arrangem5t1 b ) two additional rooms4 ,! road approa* to ! /ation is br\ght alongside & p>allel to ! build+1 & access to ! plat=m is obta9$ by pass+ ?r\gh ! book+-hall1 :i* has a glaz$ front to ! l9e4 ,fig4 #che gives ! p>ticul>s ( a build+ conta9+ r m accommodation ?an ! two prec$+ examples4 ,fig4 #chf %[s a small t]m9al /ation = a %ort bran* l9e :]e !re is a mod]ate t\ri/ traffic dur+ ! season4 ,9 addition to ! regul> /ation accommodation1 a refre%m5t-room is add$ = ! conv5i5ce ( ^? pass5g]s :o h to drive into ! c\ntry1 or h arriv$ at ! /ation by road conveyance4 ,! plat=m ro(1 :i* is ext5d$ out ov] ! l9e ( rails1 z %[n on ! transv]se section1 =ms a complete cov]+ = ! plat=m1 & s]ves = a c>riage-%$ at night4 ,! above sket*es m]ely illu/rate types ( "s small /ations suitable = home or colonial l9es1 & may be built ( /one1 brick1 concrete1 iron1 or timb]4 ,= t[ns ( m importance1 ! (fices & rooms w\ld h to be increas$ bo? 9 numb] & size4 ,on =eign l9es x is cu/om>y to provide an (fice & l>ge hall fitt$ up ) c\nt]s = ! use ( ! ,local ,excise ,au?orities 9 ! exam9ation ( pass5g]s' luggage2 & at "s /ations "o or m rooms h to be set ap>t = ! use ( ! milit>y au?orities4 ,n>r[ plat=ms %\ld always be avoid$1 especially 9 front ( ! (fices & wait+-rooms4 ,no?+ t5ds m to *eck ! prop] exp$iti\s work+ ( ! traffic ?an a conf9$ space = ! movem5t ( ! pass5g]s & ( ! /ation /aff c>ry+ luggage4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chc1 #chd1 #che ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chf ,9 cases :]e ! traffic w w>rant ! exp5diture1 x w be f\nd an advantage to con/ruct a light ro( or v]&ah ov] a portion ( ! plat=ms ( roadside /ations4 ,?is cov]+ w provide a conv5i5t %elt] = ! pass5g]s & _! luggage1 & prev5t ! cr[d+ ( book+-halls & doorways dur+ inclem5t wea!r4 ,9 hot c\ntries a v]&ah or awn+ ( "s description on ! plat=ms is an absolute necessity1 & ^? travell]s :o h #bfd _h any exp]i5ce ( railways "u a tropical sun1 w call to m9d ! cel]ity ) :i* ! pass5g]s seek su* welcome %ade4 ,a v important item 9 ! con/ruction ( a l>ge t]m9al /ation is ! ro( ov] ! l9es & plat=ms4 ,wr\ght-iron & /eel c n[ be obta9$ 9 s _m conv5i5t sections1 & at su* mod]ate prices1 t timb]-fram$ ro(s1 except = v small spans1 are n[ r>ely us$ = railway "w4 ,! metallic /ructure is mu* light] 9 appe>ance & m durable1 besides be+ less expos$ to de/ruction by fire4 ,! introduction ( iron & /eel has enabl$ ro(s to be con/ruct$ ( v mu* l>g] spans ?an w\ld h be5 prud5t to h attempt$ 9 timb]2 at ! same "t x mu/ be kept 9 m9d t1 not)/&+ ?is increas$ facility ( con/ruction1 ! co/ ( a ro( p] relative area cov]$ increases v rapidly z ! span increases4 ,! ext5t ( space to be ro($ ov] 9 "s ( our mod]n t]m9al /ations is s l>ge t ! "q ( ro(-spans to be adopt$ has to be consid]$ v c>efully4 ,x has be5 argu$ by "s t if ! area be divid$ out into small or mod]ate spans1 ! pres5ce ( ! r[s ( columns = support+ ! ro( might preclude ! possibility ( any future re-location ( ! l9es & plat=ms except by an entire re>rangem5t ( ! ro(-"w4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x may also be /at$ t railway eng9e]s h n[ obta9$ su* a ?or\gh exp]i5ce ( ! necess>y relative proportions ( plat=ms & c>riage-l9es = l>ge /ations1 z to enable !m to lay out ^! works )\t any risk ( requir+ alt]ations = _m ye>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chg1 #chh1 #chi1 #cij1 #cia1 #cib1 #cic ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cid1 #cie1 #cif1 #cig1 #cih ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cii1 #djj1 #dja1 #djb ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djc1 #djd1 #dje ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djg1 #djh1 #dji1 #daj ,!re are s _m descriptions ( ro(-pr9cipals us$ 9 railway /ations t x w\ld be impossible "h to introduce m ?an a few examples4 ,figs4 #chg to #dje illu/rate by diagram sket*es a s]ies ( types tak5 f actual practice4 ,fig4 #djf gives m 9 detail ! p>ticul>s ( ! ro(-pr9cipal ( #fj feet span1 ,fig4 #cib4 ,z w be not$ f ,fig4 #djf1 ! wid? ( #abj feet betwe5 ! walls is divid$ into two spans ( #fj feet ea*1 ! ends ( ! pr9cipals 9 ! c5tre ( ! #abj feet be+ c>ri$ on ar*$ wr\ght-iron gird]s ( #dh feet span1 support$ on /rong ornam5tal ca/-iron columns plac$ at #dh-;foot c5tres4 ,! ra9-wat] f ! l>ge c5tre gutt] is tak5 d[n inside ! columns & convey$ away to dra9age pipes laid d[n = ! purpose4 ,! #fj-;foot pr9cipal above describ$ =ms a v /rong ro(1 & is light 9 co/ & #bga ma9t5ance4 ,! weight ( ironwork1 bo? wr\ght & ca/1 9 ! pr9cipals1 ar*$ wr\ght-iron gird]s1 ca/-iron columns1 c5tre gutt]s1 etc41 is only #jea ( a ton p] squ>e 7( #ajj squ>e feet7 ( area cov]$4 ,= comp>ison1 ! weight ( ironwork 9 ! ro(1 ,fig4 #djb1 ( #aih feet span is #adb ton p] squ>e ( area cov]$2 & ( ! ro(1 ,fig4 #djd1 ( #baj feet span1 is #bjg tons p] squ>e4 ,?is increase 9 weight p] squ>e z ! spans g on increas+ results1 n only 9 a mu* l>g] outlay = orig9al con/ruction1 b entails also a proportionally heavi] exp5diture = ma9t5ance & pa9t+4 ,! item ( pa9t+ alone is an exp5sive "o 9 all iron-ro( "w1 & mu/ be att5d$ to regul>ly = ! prop] protection & appe>ance ( ! ironwork4 ,) ! small] spans1 ! ro(-trusses =m v conv5i5t supports = pa9t]s' scaffold+ or plank+1 b ) ! v l>ge spans ! great] height & ! =m ( ! ro(-pr9cipals r5d] specially design$ scaffold+ & appliances necess>y = ! pa9t+ & repairs4 ,d\btless !re is some?+ v attractive ab\t a l>ge span ro(1 its bold outl9e /ret*+ f side to side ( a wide cov]$ area imp>ts an impos+ effect :i* _c be claim$ = small] or m mod]ate spans2 b :]e ro(s are con/ruct$ = purely utilit>ian purposes x becomes a "q wor?y ( grave consid]ation :e!r a s]ies ( small] spans w\ld n provide ! same practical b5efits z w\ld be obta9$ f "o v l>ge span4 ,^u ref]r+ to ! typical sket* ( a t]m9al /ation1 ,fig4 #cgc1 x w be se5 t ! total wid? f inside to inside ( ma9 walls is #bdj feet4 ,! l9es & plat=ms are s arrang$ t by plac+ r[s ( columns at ,a1 ,a1 ,b1 ,b1 & ,c1 ,c1 ! entire wid? may be divid$ out into f\r spans ( #fj feet2 or1 if pref]r$1 a r[ ( columns at ,b1 ,b may be adopt$1 result+ 9 two spans ( #abj feet1 or ! entire wid? may be includ$ 9 "o l>ge span ( #bdj feet4 ,any "o ( ! ?ree arrangem5ts w provide an effectual ro(-cov]+1 & ! selection mu/ be decid$ by ! co/ or exp$i5cy4 ,ano!r way to avoid ! introduction ( l>ge span-ro( pr9cipals1 & to pres]ve ! cov]$ area free f int]v5+ columns1 is to erect /rong truss-gird]s ext5d+ across at "r angles f ! ma9 walls4 ,^! truss-gird]s are plac$ at suitable di/ances1 & #bgb c>ry simple ro(-pr9cipals ( conv5i5t spans4 ,9 "s cases ! ro(-pr9cipals are plac$ z %[n 9 ,figs4 #djg & #djh1 & 9 o!rs z 9 ,fig4 #dji4 ,9 ano!r sy/em ! ro(-pr9cipals are incorporat$ ) ! ma9 truss-gird]s1 z 9 ,fig4 #daj4 ,) ! above type ( cov]+ ! truss-gird]s take ! place ( ! ar*$ wr\ght-iron gird]s & ca/-iron columns1 z illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #djf1 b w be m co/ly1 z may be ga!r$ f ! foll[+ brief comp>ison3 ,assum+ ! area to be cov]$ z #dhj feet long & #ahj feet wide1 !n ! wid? ( #ahj feet c\ld be divid$ into ?ree spans ( #fj feet ea*1 or "o c5tre span ( #fe feet1 & two ( #eg feet #f in*es if !y w\ld "w 9 m conv5i5tly4 ,) columns at #dh-;foot c5tres longitud9ally1 ! ?ree-span arrangem5t w\ld conta9 ! foll[+3--,tw5ty ca/-iron columns 9 ! two r[s1 or tw5ty-two columns if two columns are plac$ side by side at ! extreme end2 #ifj l9eal feet ( light ar*$ wr\ght-iron gird]s 9 tw5ty gird]s ( #dh feet span4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ) ! truss-gird]s plac$ at #dj-;foot c5tres to suit ro(-pr9cipals re/+ on ! tops ( gird]s1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dji1 or to suit ! arrangem5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #djg1 !re w\ld be twelve heavy truss-gird]s1 ea* ( #ahj feet span1 mak+ a total l5g? ( #bafj l9eal feet ( deep truss-gird] "w1 exclusive ( ab\t ano!r #fj l9eal feet1 :i* w\ld be requir$ = ! be>+s on ! side walls4 ,! successful light+ by day ( a l>ge ro($-9 /ation w dep5d pr9cipally ^u an appropriate di/ribution ( ! glaz$ portions4 ,) a l>ge span1 & ! glass skylights plac$ ne> ! apex1 ! side l9es & plat=ms w be mu* less effici5tly light$ ?an ^? ne> ! c5tre2 & aga91 if ! glaz$ p>ts are only at ! sides1 !n ! c5tre portion w be r 9 ! %ade4 ,:]e possible x is bett] to place ! glaz$ portions & slat$ portions alt]nately1 s z to obta9 a m uni=m light all ov] ! c5tre area1 some:at simil> to ! arrangem5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #djf4 ,ro(s ov] pass5g] plat=ms at roadside /ations are made 9 _m types1 ! arrangem5t dep5d+ 9 a great measure ^u ! wid? ( plat=m to be cov]$4 ,9 _m ( ! e>li] /ations ! ro( 0 ext5d$ across f side to side1 & includ$ ! l9es ( rails z well z ! ,,up & ,,d[n plat=ms1 a sy/em :i* 0 n only co/ly1 b _h ! disadvantage t ! /eam & smoke f pass+ #bgc tra9s rema9$ = "s "t "u ! ro( be=e x 0 ?or\ghly disp]s$4 ,! m mod]n & m economical plan is to put ! ro( or %elt] ov] ! plat=ms only1 & all[ ! /eam & smoke to pass away into ! air4 ,9 design+ ! latt] class ( ro(1 ! few] support+ columns ! bett]1 s z to dim9i% z f> z possible ! ob/ructions on ! plat=ms4 ,:]e ! plat=m is unavoidably n>r[1 ! ro( may be c>ri$ on curv$ brackets project+ out f ! walls4 ,except 9 tropical c\ntries1 :]e %ade is m acceptable ?an /rong light1 a lib]al am\nt ( glass %\ld be provid$ 9 ^! plat=m ro(s4 ,on _m ( our home railways !y are entirely cov]$ ) glass1 & ! abundance ( light is f\nd to be ( great assi/ance 9 ! work+ ( ! traffic4 ,figs4 #daa to #dbj are sket*es ( a few out ( ! _m types ( small ro(s :i* h be5 erect$ ov] s+le & isl& plat=ms4 ,goods-%$s4--,! =m & dim5sions ( a goods-%$ = any /ation mu/ be det]m9$ by ! description & am\nt ( traffic to be transact$ at ! p>ticul> place4 ,) an e/imate ( ! traffic be=e him1 ! eng9e] mu/ consid] ! int]nal arrangem5t ( build+ mo/ suitable = ! bulk ( ! m]*&ise to be accommodat$4 ,! pr9cipal object ( ! %$ is to p]mit ( goods be+ transf]r$ "u cov] f or to railway trucks or c>ts )\t be+ expos$ to ! wea!r1 & ! transf] w be exp$it$ if ! arrangem5ts are made ! mo/ conv5i5t = ! p>ticul> class ( m]*&ise pres5t$4 ,= "s commodities x is consid]$ pref]able to unload direct f ! railway trucks into c>ts1 or vice v]s1 & ?us h only "o h&l+ ( ! goods4 ,to comply ) ?is me?od1 ! c>tway mu/ be made almo/ d[n to ! same level z ! rails1 to all[ ! c>ts or drays to be drawn close up alongside ! railway trucks1 z %[n 9 ,figs4 #dbg & #dbh4 ,?is type ( %$ implies a con/ant supply ( c>ts1 s z n to deta9 ! railway trucks1 or necessitate ! /ack+ or /or+ ( goods on ! l[ level floor 9 ! way ( c>t+ movem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #daa1 #dab1 #dac1 #dad ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dae1 #daf1 #dag1 #dah1 #dai1 #dbj ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dba1 #dbb1 #dbc1 #dbd1 #dbe ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbf1 #dbg1 #dbh1 #dbi ,= g5]al m]*&ise 9 boxes or bales1 a rais$ load+-bank inside ! %$ is usually f\nd to be ! mo/ conv5i5t arrangem5t bo? = load+ & unload+4 ,! top ( ! load+-bank %\ld be a little bel[ ! level ( ! railway-truck floor to give cle>ance to all truck-doors op5+ outw>ds4 ,by means ( %ort portable gangways or l&+s1 ! mod]ate-siz$ packages are readily #bgh transf]r$ to or f ! trucks1 ei!r by h& or by small two-:eel$ trolleys1 ! heavi] pieces be+ lift$ by cranes4 ,! c>tway %\ld run p>allel to ! rails on ! opposite side ( ! load+-bank1 & may be ei!r inside or outside ! build+1 accord+ to ! importance ( ! place4 ,:5 ! c>tway is inside1 ! entire front ( ! load+-bank is available = c>t traffic1 b ?is advantage entails a consid]able increase 9 ! size & co/ ( ! build+4 ,:5 ! c>tway is outside1 ! c>t traffic is work$ ?r\gh l>ge doorways plac$ at suitable di/ances1 & fitt$ ) project+ ro(s or awn+s to protect ! goods dur+ ! load+ or unload+4 ,at "s ( ^! doorways1 %ort docks ab\t #aj feet squ>e1 or m1 are =m$ 9 ! load+-bank1 into :i* ! c>ts may be set back fairly into ! %$ = ! great] conv5i5ce ( ! tran%ipm5t ( ! goods by h& or crane p[]4 ,:]e ! /ack+ space is ample1 ! cont5ts ( sev]al railway trucks may be dis*>g$ on to ! load+-bank )\t any delay 9 wait+ = c>ts1 & ! same railway trucks may be load$ ) o!r goods & dispat*$ outw>ds1 or may be tak5 away empty if ! load+-bank is res]v$ = arriv+ goods only4 ,:]e ! traffic is l>ge & con/ant !re is an advantage 9 hav+ sep>ate goods-%$s = ! inw>ds & outw>ds "w4 ,! foll[+ diagram sket*es w illu/rate "s ( ! _m types ( goods-%$s 9 use on railways3-- ,fig4 #dba %[s a %$ suitable = g5]al m]*&ise at a small roadside /ation4 ,= economy ( con/ruction1 ! l9e ( rails & c>tway are bo? plac$ outside ! build+4 ,a small goods-(fice is built at "o end1 9 :i* is fix$ ! p$e/al & lev] indicator ( ! c>t-weigh+ ma*9e4 ,! ro( is project$ outw>ds ov] ! doorways = ! railway trucks & = c>ts4 ,! railway truck doorways are spac$ to correspond to ! l5g? ( ! trucks4 ,a n>r[ plat=m1 ab\t #c feet wide1 is =m$ outside ! %$ alongside ! trucks = ! conv5i5ce ( ! m5 :5 load+ or unload+4 ,fig4 #dbb repres5ts a r l>g] %$1 ) ! l9e ( rails inside ! build+ & c>tway outside4 ,) ?is type ! railway trucks are entirely "u cov]1 & c be unload$ or load$ m conv5i5tly4 ,x has also ! additional advantage t ! trucks & _! cont5ts c be left secure :5 ! %$ is lock$ up at clos+ "t4 ,fig4 #dbc %[s a %$ ) a l9e ( rails d[n ! c5tre1 & a #bgi load+-bank on ea* side1 ! c>tways be+ outside ! build+2 "o load+-bank is = inw>ds goods1 & ! o!r = outw>ds goods4 ,on ! arrival ( a load$ railway truck1 ! door on "o side is op5$1 & ! cont5ts unload$ on to "o ( ! load+-banks4 ,! door is !n clos$1 & ! opposite door op5$ = load+ f ! o!r load+-bank4 ,by ?is me?od a railway truck c be unload$ & load$ aga9 )\t *ang+ its position4 ,fig4 #dbd repres5ts a %$ ) two l9es ( rails d[n ! c5tre & load+-banks on ea* side1 ! c>tways be+ outside ! build+4 ,"o l9e ( rails & correspond+ load+-bank is = inw>ds goods1 & ! o!r l9e ( rails & load+-bank = outw>ds goods4 ,:5 ! railway trucks on ! arriv+ l9e are unload$1 !y are ei!r drawn out ( ! %$ & %unt$ on to ! opposite l9e to be load$ aga91 or transf]r$ direct on to ! opposite l9e by turn-tables1 or trav]s]s1 plac$ at conv5i5t di/ances betwe5 ! columns support+ ! ro(4 ,fig4 #dbe illu/rates a %$ 9 :i* bo? ! l9e ( rails & c>tway are plac$ inside ! build+4 ,?is is no d\bt ! mo/ conv5i5t type = transf] ( g5]al goods1 z all ! op]ations ( tran%ipm5t are c>ri$ on entirely "u cov]2 b x is ! mo/ co/ly1 on acc\nt ( ! l>ge build+ & ro( area requir$4 ,fig4 #dbf %[s a l>ge d\ble %$ simil> 9 g5]al arrangem5t to ! type repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #dbe1 b ) ?ree l9es ( rails d[n ! c5tre4 ,! l9e ,a may be us$ = inw>ds goods1 & ,c = outw>ds4 ,by means ( turn-tables1 or trav]s]s1 connect+ ! ?ree l9es at conv5i5t di/ances 9 ! l5g? ( ! build+1 ! unload$ trucks c be transf]r$ on to ! f> l9e1 ,c1 = load+ aga91 or on to ! l9e ,b1 to be drawn away out ( ! build+4 ,! l9es ,a & ,c may bo? be us$ = inw>ds traffic1 or bo? = outw>ds1 & ! l9e ,b us$ = tak+ away or br++ 9 empty trucks4 ,fig4 #dbg repres5ts a %$ ) ! l9e ( rails & c>tway inside ! build+1 & bo? v ne>ly on ! same level4 ,?is class ( %$ is (t5 consid]$ ! mo/ suitable = fruit1 vegetables1 & c]ta9 light goods :i* require prompt deliv]y & c>eful h&l+4 ,fig4 #dbh %[s a =m ( %$ ) a rais$ load+-bank on "o side #bhj ( a l9e ( rails1 & a c>tway on ! o!r4 ,) ?is arrangem5t ! railway trucks may be load$ or unload$1 ei!r f ! rais$ load+-bank or direct f c>ts & drays drawn up alongside ! trucks1 accord+ to ! description ( m]*&ise pres5t$4 ,fig4 #dbi %[s a type ( umbrella ro( sometimes erect$ ov] a n>r[ load+-bank outside ( a goods-%$4 ,x is simple & economical 9 con/ruction1 & provides good accommodation = load+ & unload+ "u cov] packages & goods ( second>y importance4 ,! above sket*es illu/rate "s ( ! _m arrangem5ts = goods-%$s1 & c be modifi$ & ext5d$ 9 sev]al ways4 ,! lead+ dim5sions1 wid?s ( load+-banks1 c>tways1 & gauge ( l9es1 w h to be adju/$ to suit circum/ances4 ,look+ at a goods-%$ m]ely z a m$ium = ! conv5i5t transf] ( m]*&ise betwe5 ! railway & ! roadway1 ! inf]5ce is soon drawn t ! removal ( ! goods into trucks or c>ts %\ld be effect$ z spe$ily z possible1 o!rwise a l>ge ext5t ( %$-room w be requir$ = c>ry+ on a mod]ate am\nt ( "w4 ,e ef=t %\ld be made to cle> ! goods f ! load+-bank z soon z !y h be5 prop]ly unload$ & *eck$4 ,any laxity 9 ?is respect w cause an outcry = increas$ accommodation1 :i* a little m en]gy & c>eful organization w\ld h prev5t$4 ,timb] plank floors are g5]ally pref]r$ = inside load+-banks4 ,inside c>tways %\ld be =m$ ei!r ( granite setts or wood5-block pav+2 ! latt] is bett]1 be+ less noisy1 &1 if occasionally spr9kl$ ) s&1 w af=d a good foo?old = ! horses4 ,a macadamiz$ roadway "u cov] is nev] satisfactory1 z x is always dry1 & nev] b9ds toge!r into a compact ev5 surface4 ,slid+ or roll+ doors are ! be/ = goods-%$s1 z !y are m out ( ! way1 & "u bett] control dur+ high w9ds4 ,cranes ( appropriate /r5g?s1 & work$ by h& or o!r motive-p[]1 %\ld be di/ribut$ 9 suitable positions ?r\gh\t ! %$4 ,!y %\ld be plac$ s t !y c1 :5 requir$1 lift direct out ( a railway truck on ! "o side1 & deposit into a c>t or dray on ! opposite side ( ! load+-bank4 ,goods-%$s may be built ( /one1 brick1 iron1 or timb]1 or a #bha comb9ation ( all ( !m4 ,:]e ! requirem5ts are well prov$1 & ! traffic c]ta91 x is bett] to build a sub/antial p]man5t /ructure4 ,iron %$s1 ) sides & ro(s ( galvaniz$ corrugat$ iron %eets1 w la/ = _m ye>s if n made ( too light mat]ials4 ,!re are _m cases :]e x is m prud5t to put up a goods-%$ 9 timb] ?an to incur ! co/ ( "o ( m p]man5t "*4 ,:]e ! traffic is unc]ta91 or ! f\ndations bad1 or out 9 undevelop$ di/ricts abroad1 a build+ ( timb] w s]ve ! purpose = a numb] ( ye>s1 or until ! p]iod ( probation has pass$1 & ! actual requirem5ts are accurately asc]ta9$4 ,9 a timb]-built %$1 ! decay usually comm5ces ab\t ! gr\nd l9e1 b if ! nature ( ! soil w p]mit ( ! con/ruction ( a small dw>f f\ndation wall ( masonry or concrete up to ab\t n9e in*es above ! gr\nd l9e1 ! life ( ! build+ w be prolong$ = sev]al ye>s4 ,! be/ me?od ( admitt+ daylight into a goods-%$ is f ! ro(1 & a lib]al ext5t ( ro(-glaz+ %\ld be provid$ = ! full l5g? ( ! build+1 & s di/ribut$ z to be well ov] ! load+-banks4 ,9 tropical c\ntries ! am\nt ( ro( light mu/ be r$uc$1 on acc\nt ( ! great gl>e f ! sunlight4 ,an ample supply ( artificial light w be necess>y :5 work+ aft] d>k or dur+ ! night4 ,9 "s in/ances ! goods-%$s 9 l>ge & important bus9ess c5tres h "o or m upp] /orys1 9 :i* goods are w>eh\s$ p5d+ ! own]s' in/ructions1 ! goods be+ transf]r$ betwe5 ! load+-banks & upp] floors by lifts or cranes4 ,a prop] supply ( weigh+ ma*9es = c>ts1 drays1 railway trucks1 & packages on ! load+-banks w be necess>y to facilitate ! *eck+ ( ! goods4 ,!re is always a l>ge proportion ( traffic :i* c be dealt ) outside ! goods-%$s1 ei!r on load+-banks or c>tways alongside ! sid+s4 ,outside load+-banks %\ld be ( good wid?1 ) approa* roads ( easy gradi5t4 ,9 tropical c\ntries a light %$1 op5 on all sides1 is frequ5tly erect$ ov] a portion ( ^! outside banks1 to protect ! goods & workm5 f ! heat ( ! sun4 ,fix$ cranes or travell+ cranes w be requir$ = lift+ ! l>ge packages1 heavy ca/+s1 & logs ( timb]4 ,:]e !re is a l>ge cattle traffic1 sep>ate sid+s1 load+-banks1 & approa* #bhb roads %\ld be set ap>t = ! purpose1 ) suitable wat]-tr\ghs & cleans+ appliances4 ,horses c be unload$ at any load+-bank1 b = ! m valuable class ( animals & = c>riages x is usual to con/ruct a special horse & c>riage dock1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dcj1 ! c>riages be+ :eel$ (f ! end ( ! c>riage truck1 z indicat$ 9 ! section4 ,c>tways alongside ! sid+s are v conv5i5t = unload+ coals1 /one1 bricks1 s&1 lime1 & _m o!r mat]ials :i* h to be pass$ out ( ! trucks 9 small quantities at a "t4 ,to enc\rage & facilitate traffic at roadside /ations1 trad]s are frequ5tly all[$ to /ack or /ore l>ge supplies ( "s ( ! above mat]ials on gr\nd set ap>t = ! purpose ne> "s conv5i5t sid+1 ! /ock be+ dispos$ ( 9 detail to suit ! local requirem5ts4 ,coal-drops are sometimes adopt$ :]e !re is a l>ge trade 9 t commodity4 ,!y are con/ruct$ by c>ry+ ! l9e ( rails on /rong balks ( timb] or small gird]s plac$ across ! top ( wall$-9 coal-y>ds or divid$ areas4 ,! coal is ?r[n out ( ! trucks1 & falls a dep? ( #ae or #bj feet into ! y>d bel[4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! height f rail-level to gr\nd a l>ge tonnage c be pil$ up1 & /or$ 9 a small area1 & ! unload+ ( ! trucks effect$ v rapidly1 p>ticul>ly s :]e special trucks ) op5+ floors or h+$ bottoms are us$ = ! purpose4 ,9 _m cases capaci\s ro($-9 %$s are built = /or+ coals1 lime1 cem5t1 gra91 or o!r mat]ials liable to det]ioration f ! wea!r4 ,^! %$s are built alongside a sid+2 ! cont5ts ( ! trucks are unload$ or ?r[n into ! %$s ?r\gh doors spac$ to correspond to ! railway-truck doors1 & are c>t$ away ?r\gh doorways on ! opposite side4 ,x is cu/om>y to place buff]-/ops ( "s =m at ! t]m9ation ( dead-end sid+s 9 a /ation1 to br+ to a /& su* c>riages or waggons z may be approa*+ ) too mu* spe$ to be /opp$ )\t ! int]position ( "s sub/antial b>ri]4 ,figs4 #dcj1 #dca1 #dcb1 & #dcc are sket*es ( "s ( ! _m k9ds ( buff]-/ops1 & w expla9 !mselves4 ,9 ,fig4 #dcj ! buff]-/op is made ( flange rails1 & is %[n z fitt$ 9 a c>riage-dock ) wr\ght-iron plate l&+1 ,a1 & plate-iron h+$ flaps1 ,b1 ,b4 ,! latt] are turn$ ov]1 & re/ on ! floor ( ! c>riage-truck1 to =m a pa?way :5 tak+ on or (f a vehicle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcj1 #dca1 #dcb1 #dcc ,fig4 #dca %[s a buff]-/op made ( d\ble-head or bull-head rails2 #bhd & ,fig4 #dcb is a buff]-/op made ( heavy timb]s4 ,fig4 #dcc %[s a v simple buff]-/op frequ5tly adopt$ = sid+s :]e !re is n mu* traffic4 ,x is made ( good old sleep]s b\nd toge!r ) old d\ble-head rails1 & ! int]ior fill$ ) e>? or clay4 ,9 addition to ! build+s allud$ to 9 ! =ego+ description1 ! eng9e] has to design & con/ruct v _m o!rs 9 connection ) railways4 ,^! w include l>ge runn+-%$s = /abl+ work+ locomotives2 %$s = h\s+ c>riages2 work%ops = build+ & repair+ eng9es1 c>riages1 & waggons2 f\ndries2 l>ge /ores = mat]ials2 (fices2 dwell+-h\ses2 mess-rooms1 etc42 _m ( !m involv+ que/ions ( difficult f\ndations1 & ne>ly all ( !m requir+ special /r5g? & /ability to meet ! heavy weights & vibrations to :i* !y are subject$4 ,,*apt] ,v4 #bhe ,sort+-sid+s--,turn-tables--,trav]s]s--, wat]-,tanks & ,wat]-,columns4 ,sort+-sid+s4--,on _m important long ma9 l9es x is necess>y to e/abli% special indep5d5t sid+s = sort+ or arrang+ waggons ( m]*&ise & m9]als4 ,:]e !re are only two l9es ( rails to s]ve = ! ,,up & ,,d[n s]vice ( a heavy pass5g] & goods traffic1 x is imp]ative to re/rict ^? l9es z mu* z possible to ! actual transit ( tra9s1 & n to block !m by unnecess>y occupation = %unt+ purposes4 ,a goods tra9 runn+ a long di/ance collects waggons f _m roadside /ations1 & at "s ( !m sev]al waggons w be tak5 on1 to be =w>d$ to v>i\s & widely di/ant de/9ations4 ,! accumulat$ tra9 comprises waggons :i* mu/ be divid$ out into gr\ps1 to be pass$ on ei!r to di/ant sections ( ! same railway sy/em1 or on to neighb\r+ l9es4 ,to avoid int]ruption to ! tra9-work+1 & ! delay ( complicat$ %unt+ op]ations at ! roadside /ations1 ! waggons are atta*$ j z !y are dick$ up1 & ! "w ( sort+ is all[$ to /& ov] until ! tra9 arrives at ! place assign$ = ! purpose4 ,a site = sort+-sid+s is g5]ally select$ :]e ! gr\nd & gradi5t are fav\rable1 & :]e ample room c be obta9$ = a l>ge numb] ( %ort p>allel l9es1 ) space = future ext5sions4 ,! arrangem5t t naturally sugge/s itself is t ( a s]ies ( fan-%ap$ sid+s lead+ out ( ma9 %unt+ l9es1 sep>ate f ! ma9-traffic l9es4 ,9 "s cases ! sort+-sid+s are laid d[n ) dead-ends1 z 9 ,fig4 #dcd1 & 9 o!rs !y are made z ?r\gh sid+s1 connect+ at bo? ends ) %unt+ l9es & ma9-traffic l9es1 z 9 ,fig4 #dce4 ,ea* ( ! sid+s is usually made suffici5tly long to hold a complete tra9 ( sort$ waggons1 & ! numb] ( !m w dep5d ^u ! numb] #bhg ( sections to be s]v$1 & ! am\nt ( waggons to be sort$4 ,sometimes ! sid+s are laid ) a slight fall+ gradi5t lead+ away f ! ma9 %unt+ l9es1 to facilitate ! runn+ out ( ! waggons into ! respective sid+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcd1 #dce ,an arriv+ goods tra9 is fir/ drawn out ( ! ma9-traffic l9es into "o ( ! %unt+ l9es1 & !n h&$ ov] to ! /aff ( m5 9 *>ge ( ! sort+ op]ations1 :o at once m>k ! waggons accord+ to ! numb] or designation ( ! p>ticul> sid+ into :i* !y h to be plac$4 ,a suitable eng9e is g5]ally set ap>t = ?is "w1 & 9 a v %ort "t ! entire tra9 is divid$ out by "o or m waggons at a "t1 & di/ribut$ into ! v>i\s sid+s1 repres5t+ diff]5t sections ( ! l9e1 or gr\ps to be h&$ ov] to neighb\r+ railways4 ,:5 "o ( ^! sort+-sid+s conta9s a full complem5t ( waggons1 an eng9e is atta*$1 & ! tra9 despat*$ to its de/9ation1 leav+ ! sid+ cle> = ano!r set ( waggons4 ,:]e ! tra9s to be sort$ are v num]\s1 two or m %unt+-eng9es may be engag$ work+ at ! same "t on di/9ct sets ( %unt+ l9es & sid+s4 ,sometimes x may be exp$i5t to h "o lot ( sort+-sid+s lead+ (f ! ,,up l9e1 & ano!r lot lead+ (f ! ,,d[n l9e1 to meet ! requirem5ts ( tra9s com+ & go+ 9 bo? directions4 ,) sid+s well laid out1 & fitt$ ) ample facilities1 a well-organiz$ /aff c c>ry out a v l>ge am\nt ( "w bo? exp$iti\sly & economically4 ,!re are sev]al ( ^! sort+-sid+s /ations 9 op]ation1 :]e f "o ?\s& to two ?\s& waggons are sort$ & m>%all$ into tra9s e tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! above diagram sket*es m]ely illu/rate ! g5]al pr9ciple ( ! sort+-sid+s1 & may be modifi$ & enl>g$ 9 _m ways to suit ! traffic requirem5ts & local surr\nd+s4 ,turn-tables4--,turn-tables revolv+ on fix$ c5tres are made ( v>i\s sizes accord+ to _! use = eng9es1 c>riages1 or waggons4 ,! c>ry+-beams may be made ( ca/-iron1 wr\ght-iron1 or /eel1 b ! latt] mat]ial is ! mo/ suitable = tables ( m ?an #bj feet diamet]4 ,= small turn-tables1 ca/-iron beams w s]ve v well1 = al?\gh m liable to fracture1 !y w n suff] s mu* f ru/ & oxidization z wr\ght-iron or /eel4#bhh ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcf1 #dcg1 #dch1 #dci1 #ddj ,op9ions z to ! mo/ conv5i5t position & use ( turn-tables #bhi h und]gone a consid]able modification dur+ ! pa/ tw5ty or tw5ty-five ye>s4 ,circul> & semi-circul> runn+-%$s = eng9es1 z 9 ,figs4 #dcf & #dcg1 are n s (t5 adopt$ n[ z =m]ly4 ,al?\gh compact & accessible 9 !ory1 !y possess ! "o great drawback t :5 ! turn-table 9 ! c5tre becomes d]ang$ by we> or accid5t1 none ( ! eng9es on ! /&+-l9es inside ! build+ c be tak5 out until ! turn-table is aga9 put into work+ ord]4 ,a /ock ( f tw5ty to ?irty eng9es might ?us be put entirely out ( ! s]vice = a day or m4 ,?is objection is consid]$ to be ( s s]i\s a nature t runn+-%$s are n[ almo/ always con/ruct$ ( rectangul> =m1 ( :i* ,fig4 #dch is a type4 ,) ?is description ( %$1 ! l9es ( rails are laid d[n p>allel to "o ano!r1 & ! eng9e turn-table is plac$ on a l9e sep>ate & di/9ct f ^? l9es =m+ connections ) ! %$4 ,:]e !re is a l>ge goods traffic1 an endeav\r is g5]ally made to s lay d[n ! goods-%$s & approa* l9es & sid+s1 t ! full complem5t ( waggons may be %unt$ 9 or out ( ! %$ at "o op]ation4 ,?is arrangem5t1 :i* disp5ses ) turn-tables altoge!r1 admits ( ! ready removal ( a c5tral or f>-end waggon1 )\t ! necessity ( tak+ out s _m o!rs 9 front "o by "o ov] ! turn-table4 ,at ! same "t1 !re are l>ge numb]s ( ^! waggon turn-tables 9 use1 & !re are _m cases :]e access to side %$s or deta*$ /ores c only be obta9$ by turn-tables4 ,a goods-%$ & l9es laid d[n ) turn-tables1 z 9 ,fig4 #dci1 w always be m t$i\s & co/ly to "w ?an "o laid d[n ) direct ?r\gh l9es1 z 9 ,fig4 #ddj4 ,%\ld ei!r ( ! turn-tables %[n on ,fig4 #dci get out ( ord] & become incapable ( turn+1 !n ! entire side ( ! %$ controll$ by t table w be r5d]$ useless until ! defect be rem$i$4 ,eng9e turn-tables are r>ely made ) m ?an "o road on ! top4 ,! mo/ mod]n types g5]ally consi/ ( two /rong wr\ght-iron or /eel-plate gird]s well brac$ toge!r & securely atta*$ to a middle framework :i* re/s on & revolves r\nd a c5tre-piece fix$ on a solid f\ndation ,to ! ends ( ! gird]s are atta*$ #bij l>ge roll] :eels :i* travel r\nd a solid iron or /eel roll]-pa? laid d[n along ! circumf]5ce4 ,^! mod]n turn-tables are g5]ally work$ on ! balanc+ pr9ciple1 by br++ ! eng9e & t5d] to a /& 9 su* a position on ! rails t ! great] portion ( ! weight is ?r[n on to ! cup-%ap$ /eel c5tre1 s t a small =ce appli$ to ! long outrigg$ h&-lev]s at ! ends is suffici5t to turn "o ( ! heavie/ locomotives4 ,figs4 #dda & #ddb give sket* plan & section ( "o ( ^! /eel-plate gird] turn-tables1 :i* has few p>ts1 & v little to get out ( ord]4 ,! end roll]s guide ! table :5 mak+ any portion ( a revolution1 & c>ry su* "p ( ! weight z may n be tak5 up by ! c5tre4 ,a recess is %[n 9 side wall to facilitate ! inspection ( end roll]s4 ,9 ! e>li] =ms ( eng9e turn-tables1 ! revolv+ movem5t 0 effect$ by atta*+ to ! upp] portion ( ! gird]s a /rong w9*1 :i* act$ ^u ge>+ fix$ ei!r to ! end roll]s1 or direct on to a too!d r+ =m+ "p ( ! roll]-pa?4 ,9 cases :]e ! eng9e turn-table 0 9 con/ant use1 z 9 connection ) a l>ge runn+-%$1 ! w9* 0 sometimes driv5 by a small /eam-eng9e to exp$ite ! movem5t4 ,! great increase 9 ! l5g?s & weights ( mod]n locomotives has necessitat$ ! removal ( _m ( ! old small turn-tables1 & replac+ !m ) o!rs ( #de or #ej feet1 or m1 9 diamet]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dda1 #ddb1 #ddc1 #ddd1 #dde ,an eng9e turn-table is a co/ly item 9 railway requirem5ts1 n only 9 ! gird]-"w1 b 9 ! l>ge am\nt ( build+ 9 ! side walls & c5tre pi]1 & an ef=t is always made to avoid ! outlay unless ! table c be plac$ :]e x may be ( p]man5t use4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( =eign railways1 & 9 our colonies1 :]e ! l9es are op5$ 9 sections z ! "w goes =w>d1 ! tempor>y arrangem5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #ddc is frequ5tly us$ in/ead ( an eng9e turn-table4 ,! sket* w almo/ expla9 itself4 ,on ! ma9 l9e1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 swit*es are plac$ at ,b & ,c1 f :i* turn out curv$ l9es1 unit+ at ! swit*es ,e4 ,an eng9e proce$+ f ,a1 & pass+ r\nd ! curve ,b1 ,e1 ,g1 !n r\nd curve ,g1 ,e1 ,c1 & back along ma9 l9e1 ,d1 ,c1 ,b1 ,a1 w be turn$ r\nd z effici5tly z on a turn-table4 ,! writ] has us$ ?is arrangem5t abroad ) great advantage4 ,x involves v little "w or exp5se beyond lay+ d[n ! p]man5t way1 & s soon z ! tempor>y t]m9us ( ! #bib l9e has be5 advanc$ fur!r ahead1 ! rails & sleep]s c be lift$ & us$ aga9 else:]e4 ,figs4 #ddd & #dde give sket* plan & section ( a waggon turn-table :i* has be5 l>gely adopt$4 ,! c5tre %\ld be securely fix$ on a solid f\ndation ( masonry1 brickwork1 or concrete4 ,! deep out] ca/-iron r+ is made 9 segm5ts1 prop]ly fitt$ & bolt$ toge!r1 & fa/5$ d[n to ! f\ndation c\rse4 ,! /op-*ecks are ca/ on to ?is out] r+4 ,two roads1 at "r angles to ea* o!r1 are laid on ! turn-table1 s t waggons to or f ! goods-%$ h only to make "o qu>t] turn ( ! table4 ,! top is g5]ally cov]$ ) ei!r *equ]$ iron plates or timb] to give good foo?old = ! m5 & horses :i* h to pass ov] 9 mov+ ! waggons4 ,if prop]ly balanc$1 ! table is easily turn$ by m5 pu%+ at ! opposite corn]s ( ! waggon1 or by a horse & tail-rope1 or by hydraulic p[] ?r\gh a cap/an4 ,9 _m cases ( bad or s(t f\ndations ^! small turn-tables are erect$ on a /rong framework ( creosot$ timb]4 ,c>riage turn-tables are n[ v r>ely us$4 ,) ! old %ort f\r-:eel$ c>riages ! mod]ate-size turn-table 0 conv5i5t = transf]r+ an extra c>riage to or f a sp>e c>riage-l9e alongside ! mak+-up tra9 at a plat=m1 b mod]n c>riages are n[ s mu* long]1 "s ( !m twice ! l5g?1 or m1 ?an =m]ly1 t no?+ less ?an an eng9e turn-table w\ld be l>ge en\gh = !m4 ,sometimes a c>riage trav]s] is us$ = ?is /ation "w1 b mu* m frequ5tly ^! long c>riages are %unt$ on or (f ! mak+-up tra9 by simply runn+ !m 9 or out ?r\gh ! ne>e/ swit*es & cross-ov] road4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddf1 #ddg ,fig4 #ddf is a sket* ( a c>riage-trav]s]1 ( l5g? to suit an ord9>y six-:eel$ c>riage4 ,! l5g?1 h[ev]1 may be ext5d$ to take on a bogie c>riage or any o!r long c>riage4 ,! fram+ is made ( wr\ght-iron or /eel1 well brac$ toge!r4 ,! c>ry+ :eels1 ,w1 ,w1 run ^u rails laid at "r angles to ! runn+-l9e or sid+1 & ! c>riage is mov$ on to or (f ! trav]s] by means ( ! h+$ ramps %[n at ,r1 ,r4 ,a c>riage1 once on ! trav]s]1 may be mov$ across "o or sev]al l9es ( runn+ road1 accord+ to ! ext5t ( trav]s] l9e laid d[n2 & ?is appliance is v suitable = l>ge t]m9al /ations & c>riage-repair %ops4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! op]ations ( ! #bid turn-table & ! trav]s] are q di/9ct4 ,) ! =m] a vehicle c be transf]r$ f "o l9e to ano!r1 & also turn$ completely r\nd2 b ) ! trav]s] ! vehicles are simply mov$ 9 a p>allel direction1 f "o l9e to ano!r1 & :5 x is necess>y to turn or *ange a vehicle end = end1 z 9 ! case ( a mail-bag-cat*+ app>atus van or a special saloon1 !n resort mu/ be _h to a turn-table4 ,cranes4--,a l>ge portion ( ! m]*&ise convey$ on railways mu/ be lift$ into or out ( ! trucks by cranes4 ,! position1 description1 & capacity ( ^! w dep5d ^u ! mat]ials to be h&l$4 ,l>ge sl[-work+ p[]ful cranes w be necess>y = rais+ heavy ca/+s1 l>ge logs ( timb]1 or massive blocks ( /one2 :ile ! small quick-act+ cranes w be m suitable = deal+ ) ! light] packages1 casks1 & bales4 ,fig4 #ddg %[s a gantry or ov]head crane1 us$ = lift+ heavy weights out ( an ord9>y road-waggon1 c>ry+ !m a %ort di/ance1 & !n deposit+ !m 9 a railway truck1 or vice v]s4 ,d\ble-flang$ roll]s1 atta*$ to ! ends ( ! plat=m ,c1 ,c1 run ^u ! rails ,r1 ,r1 :i* are fix$ on ! top ( ! beams ,b1 ,b1 secur$ to ! v]ticals ,a1 ,a4 ,! work+ l5g? ( ! gantry is only limit$ by ! numb] ( ! v]ticals1 & ?is1 be+ ! fix$ portion ( ! "w1 may be ext5d$ out to any di/ance requir$4 ,! travell+ or c>ry+ gird]s ( ! plat=m ,c1 ,c may be made ( wr\ght-iron1 /eel1 or timb]4 ,!y mu/ be /rongly fram$ & brac$ toge!r z a plat=m to c>ry ! lift+ ma*9]y & weight lift$1 & h conv5i5t ge>+ = effect+ ! transv]se or side-to-side movem5t1 z well z a horizontal movem5t along ! l9e ( rails on top ( ! v]ticals4 ,:]e ! fix$ portion ( ! gantry is ( consid]able l5g?1 two or m travell+ plat=ms c be us$4 ,9 ! sket* giv5 above1 ! entire gantry is %[n z made ( timb]1 b iron or /eel c be equally well adopt$1 & cont9u\s masonry or brickwork walls may be built to s]ve z v]ticals4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddh1 #ddi1 #dej ,fig4 #ddh is a sket* ( a small h&y crane = w>eh\se "w2 x is quick 9 action1 & re/rict$ to weights n exce$+ twelve hundr$weight4 ,?is =m ( crane may be /r5g!n$ to lift /ill great] loads1 b 9 do+ s ! additional size ( ! p>ts1 & ! correspond+ extra lab\r 9 work+1 detract f its effici5cy #bif z a quick-act+ crane = light weights4 ,fig4 #ddi %[s an ord9>y fix$ ?ree-ton jib crane1 a v conv5i5t size = g5]al /ation "w4 ,! c5tre pill> is fix$ into a b$ ( masonry or a solid block ( concrete4 ,! jib is ( wr\ght-iron or /eel1 ^? mat]ials be+ s mu* m reliable ?an timb]1 & v little m exp5sive4 ,?is crane mu/ be fix$ s t 9 "o direction ! jib may comm& ! c5tre ( a railway truck1 :ile 9 ! o!r x c conv5i5tly raise ! packages to or f ! c>ts or load+-bank alongside4 ,9 ! sket* ! crane is %[n z plac$ on ! load+-bank1 b x may be plac$ on ! same level z ! rails if pref]r$4 ,cranes ( ?is type & /r5g? are frequ5tly f\nd necess>y = ! inside "w ( goods-%$s1 :]e packages ( consid]able weight h to be h&l$4 ,a v simil> class ( jib-crane is con/antly made = lift+ weights ( five or t5 tons or m1 ! diff]5t p>ts be+ made /rong] & heavi] to correspond to ! weights to be rais$4 ,fig4 #dej %[s a five-ton travell+ crane4 ,al?\gh m co/ly1 x has ! advantage ov] a fix$ crane t x c be mov$ ab\t f place to place4 ,x is m\nt$ on a v /rong waggon framework1 & provid$ ) spr+s & spr+ buff]s4 ,in/ead ( mov+ r\nd a long deep c5tre1 ! jib ( ! travell+-crane is arrang$ to "w r\nd a bevell$ metal roll]-pa? laid d[n on ! plat=m ( ! waggon1 & has a heavy c\nt]weight load$ to correspond to its capacity4 ,be=e comm5c+ to lift any weight /rong oak blocks or fill+ pieces are ins]t$ betwe5 ! tops ( ! axle-boxes & ! "u side ( ma9 beams ( waggon1 to relieve ! spr+s ( ! pressure :i* w\ld arise f ! weight lift$4 ,f ! f\r corn]s ( ! waggon are susp5d$ *a9s c>ry+ gripp+-hooks to be atta*$ or clipp$ r\nd ! rails4 ,^! gripp+-hooks1 :5 firmly secur$ to ! rails1 prev5t ! crane f tilt+ ov]1 z ! weight ( ! waggon & also ( ! rails & sleep]s are br\ght into play to c\nt]act any t5d5cy to ?r[ ! crane (f its prop] balance4 ,) ! l>g] size travell+ cranes1 capable ( lift+ t5 or fifte5 tons or m1 outrigg]s ( joi/ or ,i-iron1 mov+ 9 slides1 are run out at "r angles on ei!r side1 & c be load$ ) b>s ( iron or o!r weights to =m a c\nt]poise4 ,a m$ium-siz$ travell+-crane is a mo/ useful appliance ab\t a #big railway /ation2 x has a mu* great] range ( utility ?an a fix$ crane1 b x is n always appreciat$ z x %\ld be4 ,x m]ely requires a l9e ( rails laid d[n p>allel to ! rails ( sid+1 & may be plac$ ei!r on ! same level z ! sid+1 or on ! level ( ! load+-bank4 ,be+ laid flu% ) ! roadway1 ! rails d n pres5t any ob/acle to ! passage ( c>ts or movem5t ( m]*&ise4 ,z "o waggon on ! sid+ is load$ or unload$1 ! crane c be mov$ along its own l9e ( rails1 & be put to "w at ano!r )\t ! necessity ( mov+ or draw+ out any ( ! railway waggons on ! sid+4 ,five1 t51 or tw5ty1 or m railway waggons c be dealt ) 9 ?is way1 accord+ to ! l5g? ( crane-l9e laid d[n4 ,! crane c also be readily remov$ to ano!r "p ( ! /ation-y>d1 or to ano!r /ation along ! l9e4 ,= /ations ) an int]mitt5t or spasmodic traffic 9 heavy timb]1 l>ge blocks ( /one1 or o!r unwieldy articles1 a travell+-crane is p>ticul>ly suitable1 z x w meet all ! wants s f> z ! lift+ is conc]n$1 & :5 ! ru% ( traffic is ov]1 x c be easily transf]r$ to "s o!r sph]e ( usefulness4 ,! crane-sid+ itself is nev] v co/ly1 z ! rails are g5]ally old rails tak5 out ( ! ma9 l9e1 & laid on good second-h& sleep]s4 ,!y h little to d1 & m]ely =m a track = ! mov+ crane4 ,fig4 #dea is a sket* ( an ord9>y ,golia? crane con/ruct$ ( timb]4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t & capabilities ( ?is crane are some:at simil> to ^? ( ! gantry %[n 9 ,fig4 #ddg4 ,bo? ( !m are design$ to lift heavy weights1 & move !m sideways into1 or out (1 ord9>y road waggons1 b ! me?ods ( application are diff]5t4 ,9 ! gantry ! v]ticals are p]man5tly fix$1 :]eas 9 ! ,golia? ! v]ticals & ov]head gird]s are all atta*$ & brac$ toge!r1 =m+ a complete framework :i* is c>ri$ by d\ble flang$ roll]s runn+ on ! l9es ( rails ,r1 ,r4 ,! w9*es or ge>+ = lift+ ! weights1 or sl++ !m sideways1 or = propell+ ! crane =w>d on ! rails1 are atta*$ to ! v]ticals z %[n1 & are work$ f ! gr\nd-level in/ead ( ! ov]head plat=m1 z indicat$ 9 ! gantry4 ,z ea* ,golia? crane is complete 9 itself1 !re is no?+ to prev5t two or ?ree ( !m work+ at ! same "t on a long l5g? ( crane-l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dea1 #deb ,fig4 #deb %[s an ord9>y d]rick crane1 :i*1 on acc\nt ( ! #bii l>ge & v>y+ sweep ( ! jib1 is f\nd v conv5i5t = c]ta9 classes ( "w4 ,x occupies a consid]able am\nt ( room1 & its adoption is !re=e limit$ to situations :]e space is ( second>y importance4 ,all ! cranes describ$ above are %[n z work$ by h&-p[]1 b !y may be work$ by /eam1 hydraulic ma*9]y1 or electricity4 ,manual p[] w be ! mo/ economical :]e ! use ( a crane is only occasional1 b x w\ld be too sl[ & co/ly :]e !re is con/ant heavy "w4 ,wat]-tanks4--,a supply ( good wat] =ms an important item 9 railway work+1 & ample provision mu/ be made at all pr9cipal /ations = ! requirem5ts ( eng9es & g5]al /ation purposes4 ,accord+ to ! locality1 ! wat] may ei!r be procur$ f ! ma9 ( "s e/abli%$ wat]works company1 or be pump$ f a well1 or =c$ up f a /ream by a ram1 or br\ght d[n by gravitation 9 pipes f a spr+ or /ream at a di/ance4 ,wat] ?us obta9$ is conduct$ into tanks plac$ at a height ( #ah or #bj feet1 or m1 above ! level ( ! rails1 & =ms a /orage supply f :i* deliv]ies c be made at a fair pressure & 9 l>ge volume4 ,! tanks may be made ( ca/-iron1 wr\ght-iron1 or /eel1 or ev5 ( wood4 ,9 ! great timb]-produc+ c\ntries abroad1 wat]-tanks1 "s ( !m ( l>ge capacity1 are v frequ5tly made ( wood1 ! circul> or half-cask =m be+ pref]r$2 b at home1 & on ,european l9es g5]ally1 wood5 tanks are r>ely us$ except = tempor>y purposes4 ,ca/-iron be+ less liable to det]ioration f ru/ ?an wr\ght-iron or /eel1 is mu* us$ = wat]-tanks4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dec1 #ded1 #deg1 #dee1 #def1 #dfa1 #dfj1 #dei1 #dfb1 #dfc1 #dfd1 #deh ,figs4 #dec to #deg are sket*es ( a m$ium-siz$ ca/-iron wat]-tank1 to hold ab\t #ghjj gallons4 ,! size may be v>i$ bo? 9 l5g?1 wid?1 & dep?1 )\t 9 any great measure alt]+ ! type4 ,! l[] portion1 or tank-h\se1 may be ( /one1 brick1 wood1 or iron framework1 & may be utiliz$ z a pump-room1 /ore1 or lamp-room4 ,9 ! sket* giv5 a r[ ( ca/-iron gird]s are plac$ across ! top ( ! walls ( ! tank-h\se1 to c>ry ! tank1 ! plate-jo9ts ( ! latt] be+ made to co9cide ) ! c5tre l9es ( ! gird]s4 ,! l[] & upp] edges ( ! tank-plates are %[n curv$ 9 section1 ! =m] = appe>ance & facility ( clean+1 & ! latt] to *eck ! t5d5cy ( ! wat] rippl+ or spla%+ #cja ov] ! sides :5 di/urb$ dur+ high w9ds4 ,! l>ge pipe1 ,a1 is securely bolt$ at ! bottom ( ! tank1 & =ms a %ield or funnel ?r\gh :i* ! supply pipe1 ,b1 passes upw>ds into ! tank4 ,c is an ov]fl[1 or wa/e pipe1 to c>ry away any surplus :i* may f9d its way into ! tank aft] ! wat] has ris5 to its fix$ maximum height4 ,all ! contact surfaces ( ! ca/-iron tank-plates mu/ be accurately *ipp$ or plan$1 & fitt$ to ensure wat]-tight jo9ts4 ,/ay-rods mu/ be plac$ at frequ5t int]vals1 connect+ ! v]tical or out] plates to ! horizontal or floor plates4 ,:5 requir$ to hold m ?an #bj1jjj gallons1 x is bett] to make ! tank 9 two p>ts1 by plac+ a p]man5t plate p>tition across ! middle1 9 reality mak+ two sep>ate tanks1 :i* c be connect$ or disconnect$ at w4 ,! d\ble tank arrangem5t gives additional /r5g?1 & possesses ! advantage t ! "o tank c be empti$ & clean$ out :ile ! o!r rema9s 9 s]vice4 ,wat]-tanks con/ruct$ ( wr\ght-iron or /eel plates are usually made circul> 9 =m1 ) v]tical sides4 ,! floor-plates mu/ be ei!r c>ri$ on small gird]s1 z 9 ! ca/-iron tank1 or be /r5g!n$ int]nally ) angle-irons1 tee-irons1 & tie-rods4 ,! rivett+ mu/ be well done1 all jo9ts s\nd & wat]tight4 ,?is class ( tank mu/ be kept well pa9t$1 or oxidization w take place v rapidly4 ,! arrangem5t ( inlet1 wa/e-pipe1 & deliv]y pipe may be ! same z = ! ca/-iron tank4 ,al?\gh frequ5tly se5 abroad1 ^! circul> wr\ght-iron tanks are n (t5 adopt$ at home4 ,by _m ! appe>ance ( ! circul> tank is consid]$ inf]ior to "o ( neat rectangul> %ape1 & ! =m ( ! r\nd t[] does n l5d itself s conv5i5tly = use z a pump-room or /ore4 ,!re may be no practical difficulty 9 con/ruct+ a l>ge circul> wood5 vat or wat]-tank1 b !re _c be any great actual economy1 except 9 ^? c\ntries :]e suitable timb] is v *eap1 & iron v de>4 ,! wood5 tank mu/ be made ( select$ mat]ials1 & by skill$ workm52 b h[ev] c>efully con/ruct$ x _c be expect$ to la/ s long z an iron tank4 ,9 _m p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica !re are excell5t examples ( ! circul> wood5 tank1 /rongly put toge!r1 & cov]$ ) a light ornam5tal ro(4 ,numb]s ( ^! wood5 tanks h be5 erect$ !re 9 places :]e ! co/ ( c>riage alone ( an iron tank w\ld h be5 a s]i\s item1 & :]e suitable timb] 0 =tunately #cjb close at h&4 ,9 cases :]e eng9es are wat]$ direct f a wat]-tank1 a simple deliv]y-valve1 z %[n 9 ! sket* 7,fig4 #deh71 w answ] ! purpose4 ,?is valve has to be pull$ op5 by ! *a9 & lev]1 ,d1 & :5 releas$ falls ) its own weight1 & is kept clos$ by ! pressure ( ! wat] above4 ,! deliv]y-pipe %\ld n be less ?an #g or #h in*es 9 diamet]1 to accel]ate ! fill+ ( ! t5d]s4 ,:]e wat] has to be deliv]$ to eng9es at two or m places 9 a /ation-y>d1 & ! supply d]iv$ f ! same pr9cipal tank1 ! result may be obta9$ ei!r by lay+ d[n #g or #h-;in* ma9 pipes f ! pr9cipal tank to sep>ate wat]-columns1 or by erect+ two or m p$e/al wat]-tanks1 simil> to ,figs4 #dei to #dfb1 ea* ( :i* holds a little m ?an ! av]age quantity = "o t5d]1 & c be f$ f ! pr9cipal tank by a comp>atively small pipe ( #c or #d in*es 9 diamet]4 ,x is simply a "q ( exp5se--:e!r x is *eap] to lay d[n a long l5g? ( #g or #h-;in* ma9 pipe & ord9>y wat]-columns1 or to adopt ! small pipes & p$e/al tanks4 ,figs4 #dei to #dfb are sket*es ( a m$ium-siz$ p$e/al wat]-tank to hold #abjj gallons4 ,! support+ column mu/ h a v wide base1 bolt$ d[n to a solid f\ndation4 ,! tank itself1 made circul> 9 plan1 is g5]ally con/ruct$ ( light plates ( wr\ght-iron or /eel1 ! l[] portion or floor ( tank be+ v securely atta*$ to ! v]tical column4 ,not)/&+ _! top-heavy appe>ance1 ^! p$e/al tanks c be made v firm & /eady if en\gh wid? be giv5 to ! base-plate1 & ! tank prop]ly fix$ to ! column4 ,wat] is l$ into ^! p$e/al tanks by a small pipe pass+ up inside ! support+ column1 & ! deliv]y may be effect$ by a simple valve1 z expla9$ = ,fig4 #deh4 ,fig #dfc %[s "o type ( wat] column = wat]+ eng9es4 ,! wide base-plate is bolt$ d[n on to a f\ndation ( /onework1 brickwork1 or concrete1 & ! ma9 supply pipe 7n less ?an #g or #h in*es 9 diamet]7 is c>ri$ up inside ! column1 & connect$ ) ! screw valve1 ,a1 :i* regulates ! deliv]y to ! t5d]s4 ,! curv$ top1 :i* =ms ! outlet1 & c>ries a lea!r hose1 works on a swivel jo9t1 & c be swung r\nd1 ei!r to ! "r or left1 = conv5i5ce ( supply+ eng9es on "o or two /&+-l9es4 ,! deliv]y valve c be op5$ or clos$ by ! #cjc small h&-:eel ,b1 :i* is conv5i5tly accessible to ! man on ! t5d]4 ,on ! above sket* 7,fig4 #dfc7 ! wat] column is %[n plac$ at an ord9>y normal di/ance f ! rails2 b 9 cases :]e !re is consid]able space betwe5 ! two l9es ( rails1 or :]e a plat=m int]v5es1 ! sw++ arm may be ext5d$ out to ! necess>y l5g?1 & c\nt]balanc$ z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dfd4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 #cjd ,comp>ative ,weights ( "s ,types ( ,mod]n ,locomotives4 ,weights ( ,locomotive ,eng9es4--,! dem& = high] spe$s ( pass5g] tra9s1 ) m conv5i5ces1 luxuries1 & consequ5t increas$ weights 9 ! c>riages1 has naturally l$ to greatly increas$ p[] & weight ( ! locomotives devot$ to ! pass5g] s]vice4 ,al?\gh ^! eng9e weights h s l>gely increas$ dur+ ! pa/ tw5ty-five ye>s1 !re is no?+ to indicate t !y h yet rea*$ ! maximum4 ,! t5d5cy is /ill to increase1 & w d\btless cont9ue1 s long z ! p]man5t way c be made to su/a9 su* enorm\s roll+ loads4 ,locomotives = goods tra9s h also increas$ 9 p[] & size1 b p]haps n 9 ! same proportion z ^? = ! pass5g] s]vice4 ,!re is n ! same disposition to exp$ite ! transit ( goods & m9]als1 :i* d n det]iorate dur+ a long j\rney4 ,p]i%able articles1 su* z fi%1 fruit1 & milk1 are usually convey$ by pass5g] tra9s1 or tra9s set ap>t specially = ! purpose4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfe1 #dff1 #dfg ,! heavi] eng9e d\btless possesses great] tractive p[]1 b ap>t f ! "q ( tractive p[] is ! all-important "o ( /ead9ess & safety on ! rails4 ,a locomotive pass+ r\nd a curve1 ev5 at a mod]ate velocity1 produces di/urbances 9 proportion to ! capability ( ! ma*9e to adapt itself to ! alt]$ position1 & if bo? ! eng9e & p]man5t way are con/ruct$ s z to be almo/ unyield+1 !n de/ructive we> & te> & increas$ risk ( d]ailm5t mu/ ensue4 ,! adoption ( ! f\r-:eel bogie truck to ! locomotives on our home & cont95tal l9es--al?\gh v sl[ 9 com+--has contribut$ greatly to _! improvem5t1 enabl+ ! weight to be di/ribut$ ov] a long]1 yet m flexible :eel-base1 af=d+ great] facility & comp>ative safety 9 trav]s+ curves2 & roll+1 or pass+ ov] ! rails1 #cjf ) z little injuri\s effect to !m z possible4 ,x is /range to f9d t ! f\r-:eel bogie truck1 orig9ally design$ 9 ,engl& 9 ! e>ly days ( ! railway era1 %\ld = s long h met ) s little fav\r on ?is side ( ! ,atlantic4 ,! ,am]icans1 at all times prompt to recognize any appropriate me*anical arrangem5t1 adopt$ ! bogie truck ^u its fir/ introduction into ! ,/ates4 ,!y h work$ out _m improvem5ts 9 ! details1 & ^u ! ?\s&s ( locomotives on _! va/ network ( railways1 ! bogie truck1 9 "o =m or ano!r1 has be5 univ]sally adopt$ f ! beg9n+4 ,on our home & cont95tal l9es1 ! mod]n express locomotive1 ) a f\r-:eel bogie truck 9 front1 is a mu* long] vehicle ?an its pr$ecessors1 & its total weight is di/ribut$ ov] a great] :eel-base2 b ! actual weight plac$ ^u ! driv+-:eels1 or on ! c\pl$ :eels1 is n[ v mu* 9 excess ( =m] practice1 & mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation :5 work+ out ! details ( gird]s & cross-gird]s ( "u-l9e bridges4 ,numb]s ( gird] bridges h _h to be tak5 d[n & replac$ ) /rong] /ructures1 n = reasons ( we> or decay1 b simply because !y 7 incapable ( c>ry+ ) safety ! mod]n heavy roll+ loads4 ,pres5t exp]i5ce po9ts out ! exp$i5cy ( provid+ 9 all new "u-l9e bridges a lib]al m>g9 ( /r5g? to meet future developm5ts4 ,figs4 #dfe to #dgi are diagram sket*es ( a few mod]n types ( locomotives1 giv+ lead+ dim5sions & weights1 & may be f\nd useful = ref]5ce :5 work+ out ! necess>y /r5g?s ( ! v>i\s portions ( bridge-"w4 ,^u comp>+ "s ( ! pr9cipal p>ticul>s ) ^? ( ! e>li] class1 x w be not$ t 9 _m ( ! mod]n types ! pi/on area has be5 d\bl$1 ! boil]-pressure d\bl$1 & ! weight ( ! eng9e d\bl$ also4 ,! eng9es %[n 9 ,figs4 #dfe & #dfg h great weights plac$ on ! s+le driv+-:eels1 & %\ld only be us$ :]e !re is a v /rong p]man5t way4 ,) ! f\r-:eel c\pl$ eng9es1 ! weight = adhesion c be di/ribut$ betwe5 ! driv+ & trail+ :eels4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfh1 #dfi1 #dgj ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dga1 #dgb1 #dgc ,fig4 #dgc repres5ts a v excell5t type ( ,am]ican eng9e :i* has be5 ext5sively adopt$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates = _m ye>s4 ,! six c\pl$ :eels di/ribute ! weight ov] a fairly long :eel-base1 #cji reta9+ _! unit$ weight = adhesion4 ,! f\r-:eel bogie truck 9 front =ms a valuable pa?-f9d] to ! eng9e1 bo? = pass+ r\nd curves or on /raight l9e4 ,?is class ( eng9e is v s]viceable = v>i\s k9ds ( traffic1 & is p>ticul>ly suitable = l9es :]e ! rails & fa/5+s are comp>atively light4 ,9 ! example %[n1 ! flanges are turn$ (f ! c5tre pair ( c\pl$ :eels2 b = l9es :]e ! curves are ( small radius1 ! flanges may be turn$ (f ! lead+ pair ( c\pl$ :eels1 in/ead ( ! c5tre pair1 to r$uce ! l5g? ( rigid :eel-base4 ,?is type ( eng9e has latt]ly be5 introduc$ on v>i\s ,european & =eign railways1 & rec5tly on ! ,highl& ,railway ( ,scotl&1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dgj4 ,! writ] has _h eng9es ( ?is class "u 8 *>ge abroad1 & f\nd !m to be mo/ useful = heavy pass5g] & goods-tra9 s]vice4 ,!y run v /eadily1 are easy on ! p]man5t way1 & light 9 repairs4 ,z !y become bett] kn[n !y w be m appreciat$1 & w d\btless be=e long sup]s$e 9 _m cases ! rigid six-:eel-c\pl$ goods eng9e4 ,! pr9cipal objection ( any importance t c be rais$ aga9/ !m is t on _m l9es ! pres5t eng9e turn-tables are too small = su* long eng9es2 b x w\ld be f> m economical 9 ! long run to enl>ge a few turn-tables ?an to cont9ue ! adoption ( rigid eng9es :i* f _! =m & arrangem5t t5d to unnecess>y we> to !mselves & ! p]man5t way4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgd1 #dge1 #dgf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgg1 #dgh1 #dgi ,fig4 #dgf %[s an av]age sample ( ! ord9>y six-:eel-c\pl$ goods eng9e 9 use on s _m ( our home railways4 ,:]e ! curves are easy & ! p]man5t way /rong1 ! drawback ( ! long rigid :eel-base may n be s app>5t2 b = a l9e ab\nd+ 9 %>p curves1 p]haps no m de/ructive ma*9e c\ld possibly be devis$ ?an ! ord9>y six-:eel-c\pl$ goods eng9e4 ,)\t any flexibility1 =c$ along ) great p[]1 & too (t5 driv5 at unnecess>y high spe$s1 eng9es ( ?is type h too small a m>g9 ( safety :5 trav]s+ ! curv$ portions ( ! road4 ,a slight unev5ness 9 ! rails1 or a %>p flange on ! :eel may supply all t is want+ to cause ! eng9e to leave ! track1 & ! probability t su* risks are m common ?an is suppos$1 is f> f satisfactory4 ,! great weight ( ! eng9e d\btless t5ds to keep x on ! track1 b ! rapid we> ( ! tyres1 & ( ! #cab inside ( ! rail-heads cle>ly demon/rate ! enorm\s am\nt ( friction & abrasion t takes place4 ,fig4 #dgg repres5ts a type ( eight-:eel-c\pl$ eng9e design$ = haul+ pass5g] or goods tra9s ov] long l5g?s ( heavy m\nta9 incl9es4 ,! eng9e is a l>ge "o 9 e way1 & ( great total weight1 b ! weight is di/ribut$ ov] a long :eel-base & )\t impos+ a great] tonnage p] pair ( :eels ?an is done 9 "s ( ! small] & less p[]ful eng9es4 ,! flanges are turn$ (f ! lead+ pair & ?ird pair ( c\pl$ :eels r$uc+ ! rigid :eel-base = curves to #i feet #h in*es4 ,! f\r-:eel bogie truck 9 front c>ries only a mod]ate weight1 be+ s close to ! c\pl$ :eels4 ,eng9es ( ?is description require a /rong p]man5t way1 z !re is a total weight ( #fj tons on ! f\r pairs ( c\pl$ :eels /&+ on a :eel-base ( #ae feet #f in*es4 ,figs4 #dgh & #dgi are types ( tank-eng9es 9 use on "s ( ! n>r[-gauge 7#c feet7 railways4 ,9 g5]al design !y are some:at simil> to ! mod]n class ( eng9e on ma9 l9es ( #d feet #h in*es gauge1 ) f\r-:eel bogie truck 9 front1 & f\r :eels or six :eels c\pl$1 b ) all ! p>ts & weights small]1 to suit ! n>r[ gauge & light] p]man5t way4 ,! ext5d$ use ( ! bogie truck is an admission ( its advantage ov] ! fix$-:eel arrangem5t1 bo? = di/ribution ( weight & facility 9 pass+ r\nd curves2 b al?\gh x is n[ s l>gely adopt$ = eng9es & c>riages on our home & cont95tal railways1 x is some:at ( an anomaly to f9d x s v r>ely us$ = t5d]s4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates all ! locomotive t5d]s--& _m ( !m ( v l>ge size & weight--are c>ri$ on two f\r-:eel bogie trucks1 & trav]se ! curves z easily z ! eng9es4 ,on ?is side ( ! ,atlantic1 ! prevail+ cu/om is to m\nt ! t5d] on six rigid :eels2 & z _m ( ^! t5d]s weigh z mu* z f #ce to #dj tons 9 work+ ord]1 & h a rigid :eel-base ( #ae feet1 x w be se5 at a glance t mu* unnecess>y friction & we> & te> w\ld be avoid$ by sub/itut+ two f\r-:eel bogie trucks = ! fix$ :eels4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 #cac ,signals--,int]lock+--,block ,telegraph & ,electric ,tra9 ,/aff ,in/rum5ts4 ,signals4--,railway tradition alleges t on "o ( ! e>ly l9es op5$ = pass5g] traffic1 ! precautions = public safety 7 consid]$ to h be5 fulfill$ by provid+ a man on horseback to ride along ! track betwe5 ! rails 9 ! front ( ! locomotive eng9e1 to give w>n+ to p]sons /roll+ on ! l9e1 & to *eck ! advance ( ! tra9 :5 necess>y4 ,a v %ort exp]i5ce ( ?is me?od ( work+ prov$ t ! full capabilities ( ! locomotive c\ld n be obta9$ f a re/rict$ spe$ ( sev5 or eight miles an h\r1 & a m compreh5sive sy/em ( signall+ _h to be devis$4 ,by f5c+ 9 on bo? sides ( ! l9e1 ! public 7 prev5t$ f mak+ a g5]al highway or prom5ade along ! railway1 & ! problem 0 r$uc$ !re=e to ! signall+ = ! tra9s alone4 ,flags ( diff]5t col\rs1 held by flagm5 /ation$ at suitable places1 answ]$ ! purpose = a :ile1 or s long z ! au?oriz$ runn+ spe$ did n prev5t ! tra9 be+ br\ght to a /& aft] sight+ a flag w>n+ ! eng9e-driv] to /op4 ,z spe$s 7 increas$1 a long] or m di/ant view ( signals became imp]ative1 & tall po/s1 or semaphore signals1 7 introduc$4 ,well-def9$ blades or discs plac$ on high po/s 7 easily work$ f ! gr\nd-level1 & c\ld be se5 = long di/ances1 ?us enabl+ ! tra9s to be controll$ or br\ght to a /& be=e rea*+ ! signal4 ,! effici5cy ( ! pr9ciple once recogniz$1 improvem5ts & additions 7 made f "t to "t1 until we h ! simple act+ tall semaphore signal s univ]sally 9 use at ! pres5t "t4 ,! position ( ! signal arms or blades 9 ! daylight1 & ! col\rs %[n by ! lamps at night1 =m ! code ( signals = ! prop] work+ ( ! tra9 s]vice2 & z ! signal arms & lamps are bo? work$ simultane\sly by ! same ge>+1 x is only #cad necess>y to light ! lamps to put ! signals 9 complete condition = night-work+4 ,= "s ye>s1 :5 ! traffic 0 small1 ) tra9s at l[ spe$s & at consid]able int]vals1 "o d\ble-arm semaphore signal-po/ at a /ation 0 made to s]ve = all purposes2 b z ! tra9 s]vice became m frequ5t & m rapid1 x 0 f\nd t ano!r semaphore or tall po/ signal1 0 necess>y to give w>n+ to ! eng9e-driv] "s di/ance back be=e rea*+ ! /ation or home signal4 ,m p>ticul>ly 0 ?is necess>y at ^? /ations :]e x 0 n int5d$ t e tra9 %\ld /op4 ,?is new signal1 call$ ! di/ant signal1 v soon came into g5]al use4 ,x 0 plac$ at di/ances v>y+ f #djj to #hjj y>ds away back f ! /ation or home signal1 & 0 work$ by a long /ra9$ wire ext5d+ f ! di/ant signal to a gr\nd-lev] plac$ ne> ! home signal1 ! lev]s = ^! di/ant signals & home signals be+ ?us ne> toge!r & "u ! control ( "o man4 ,m rec5tly x 0 f\nd necess>y to introduce ano!r important wire-work$ signal call$ a />t+ signal1 :i* is plac$ at ! outgo+ or dep>ture end ( ! pass5g] plat=ms1 l9es1 or /ation sid+s1 to prev5t any tra9 or eng9e />t+ or proce$+ on its j\rney until su* />t+ signal is l[]$ to indicate t ! l9e is cle>4 ,^! simple1 indep5d5t1 h&-work$ semaphore signals did good s]vice = _m ye>s1 b be+ indep5d5t & 9 no way physically connect$ ) "o ano!r at junctions1 or /ations1 or ) ! swit*es !y 7 int5d$ to control1 x 0 q possible = mi/akes to arise :]e ev]y?+ dep5d$ ^u ! accuracy & prompt decision ( ! signalman4 ,! possibility t su* mi/akes c\ld occur1 & ! c]ta9ty t !y actually did occur1 & too (t5 ) mo/ disa/r\s results1 l$ gradually to ! gr\p+ & int]lock+ ( a l>ge numb] ( signal lev]s & swit* lev]s toge!r 9 "o signal cab94 ,! advantages ( ! conc5trat+ & int]lock+ ( signals & swit*es are tw(old4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 "o man 9 ! signal cab9 c "w & control ! lev]s = a l>ge numb] ( swit*es & signals1 :]e =m]ly sev]al m5 7 requir$ to be locat$ at v>i\s places 9 ! /ation-y>d2 b ! second1 & by f> ! mo/ important advantage1 is t ) prop] int]lock+ arrangem5ts x is practically impossible to give conflict+ signals4 ,) a mod]n int]lock+ frame1 & assum+ ! normal position ( #cae all ! signals to be at dang]1 !n be=e a signal c be l[]$ = an approa*+ eng9e or tra9 all ! swit*es & correspond+ signals1 f any l9es or sid+s connect+ ) ! l9e to be signall$ cle> mu/ fir/ be set s z to prev5t any eng9e or tra9 com+ out ( su* connect+ l9es or swit*es on to ! l9e to be made cle>4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 be=e ! po9ts & signals c be set to p]mit an eng9e or tra9 to pass f a sid+ on to ! ma9 l9e all ! necess>y signals mu/ fir/ be set to dang] to prev5t ! approa* 9 ei!r direction ( any eng9e or tra9 on ! ma9 l9e ab\t to be occupi$4 ,! me*anical arrangem5ts ( ! int]lock+ frame are s exact & complete z to effectually prev5t any b ! prop] comb9ation be+ made4 ,an untra9$ or inexp]i5c$ signalman might inadv]t5tly attempt to pull ov] a wrong lev]1 only to f9d x securely lock$ & immovable "u ! control ( o!r lev]s4 ,! prop] sequ5ce ( lev]s mu/ be made1 & ! accurately adju/$ me*anism automatically prev5ts mi/akes :i* =m]ly occurr$ ) ! old h&-work$ signals f ! ov]sight or confusion ( ! signalman4 ,! int]lock$ swit*es or po9ts are work$ f ! signal-cab9 by light wr\ght-iron tub+ 7t]m$ rodd+7 or *annel-%ap$ iron b>s support$ on fix$ iron roll]s1 & ! signals by galvaniz$ wires runn+ ov] light pulleys4 ,mod]n signals are always weight$ at ! signal-po/1 s t 9 ! ev5t ( ! break+ ( ! pull+-wire !y w fly back to _! normal position ( dang]4 ,! facility & precision secur$ by ! int]lock+ ma*9]y enabl$ o!r valuable accessories to be introduc$ = ! m complete signall+ & protection ( tra9-work+4 ,among/ ^! may be m5tion$ ! fac+-po9t bolt-lock & rock+-b>1 signal-detectors at po9ts1 & ?r[-(f or trap po9ts4 ,) ! old-fa%ion$ h&-work$ swit*es ! man /&+ alongside c\ld see :e!r ! slid+-rails 7 prop]ly clos$1 & also :5 ! la/ vehicle ( ! tra9 _h pass$ ov] !m2 b :5 important ma9-l9e-fac+ swit*es or po9ts are work$ by rodd+ f a signal-cab9 "s di/ance away1 x is necess>y to h "s reliable means to ensure t ! slid+-rails are actually br\ght close home1 & also to prev5t ! swit*es be+ mov$ aga9 until #caf ! entire tra9 has pass$ ov] !m4 ,a set ( swit*es may be c>efully made & "w well1 b x is q possible = "s fracture or ob/ruction1 to int]v5e & prev5t !m clos+ prop]ly4 ,if a tra9 or eng9e 7 pass+ ?r\gh !m 9 a trail+ direction1 z indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #cde1 ! :eels w\ld mo/ probably =ce ! slid+-rail home1 & no di/urbance w\ld arise4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! tra9 7 com+ 9 ! opposite or fac+ direction1 ! *ances are t "s ( ! :eels w\ld take "o road & "s ! o!r1 & cause a d]ailm5t4 ,! same casualty w\ld occur if ! swit*es 7 mov$ dur+ ! passage ( ! tra94 ,to gu>d aga9/ ! above cont+5cies1 ! fac+-po9t bolt-lock & rock+-b> h be5 introduc$4 ,! sy/em is appli$ 9 v>i\s =ms1 b ! arrangem5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #dhj w expla9 ! pr9ciple g5]ally4 ,a /rong ca/+1 ,a1 is securely bolt$ to ! top ( ! sleep] c>ry+ ! *airs on :i* re/ ! po9t ends ( ! slid+-rails4 ,?is ca/+ has an int]nal groove or *amb] =m$ = its entire l5g? f ,c to ,d1 z indicat$ by ! dott$ l9es1 & 9 :i* slides ! lock+-bolt ,b4 ,! po9t ends ( ! swit* or slid+-rails are connect$ by ! transv]se rod ,e1 :i* is =g$ into a v]tical b> =m = t portion ( its l5g?1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! op5+1 ,f1 prep>$ = x 9 ! ca/+ ,a4 ,9 ?is v]tical b> a hole or slot is cut to correspond to ! exact size ( ! lock+-bolt ,b1 & at a di/ance to suit ! slid+-rails :5 pull$ ov] to _! prop]ly clos$ position4 ,?is lock+-bolt1 ,b1 w n pass ?r\gh ! hole 9 ! v]tical b> until ! slid+-rails are q close home1 & :5 once ?r\gh ! hole ! slid+-rails _c be mov$ until ! lock+-b> is )drawn4 ,9 "s cases two holes or slots are cut 9 ! v]tical b> to enable ! po9ts to be bolt-lock$ = bo? directions4 ,! rock+-b> is design$ to prev5t ! )drawal ( ! lock+-bolt be=e all ! vehicles h pass$ ov] ! po9ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhj1 #dhc1 #dha1 #dhb ,?is rock+-b> consi/s ( an angle iron or tee-iron b> ( a l5g? equal to ! longe/ :eel-base ( ! roll+-/ock1 & is c>ri$ on %ort pivot$ arms work+ 9 ca/-iron or wr\ght-iron brackets secur$ to ! rails z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dha4 ,! pivot$ arms h a movem5t backw>d or =w>d1 & :5 at ei!r ! "o or ! o!r extremity1 ! upp] surface ( ! rock+-b> is suffici5tly bel[ #cah ! top ( ! rail to be well cle> ( ! flange ( any pass+ :eel2 b :ile *ang+ f ! "o to ! o!r position1 & :5 ! pivot$ arms are v]tical1 or at half-/roke1 ! upp] surface ( ! rock+-b> is ab\t level ) ! top ( ! rail1 & "r 9 ! pa?way ( ! :eel-flange4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t :5 ! pivot$ arms are set 9 ! =w>d or backw>d position1 & "o ( ! :eels ( a tra9 or vehicle has pass$ on to ! rail ov] ! rock+-b>1 ! latt] _c be *ang$ or rais$ & pull$ ov] to ! opposite extremity s long z any "o ( ! :eels ( ! tra9 or vehicles rema9 ov] ! rock+-b>4 ,z ! same gr\nd-crank :i* pulls ov] ! pivot$ arms f backw>d to =w>d also )draws ! lock+-bolt ,b1 ! latt] is ?us held securely 9 ! hole or slot ( ! transv]se rod1 ,e1 until all ! :eels ( ! tra9 h pass$ (f ! rock+-b>4 ,! op]ation ( *ang+ ! po9ts f "o road to ano!r is v simple4 ,by means ( ! rodd+ ,g1 work$ by a lev] 9 ! signal-cab91 ! lock+-bolt ,b is fir/ )drawn f ! slot2 ! po9ts are !n pull$ ov] into ! rev]se position by ! rodd+ ,h1 & ! lock+-bolt ,b is aga9 set back into "o ( ! slots by ! rodd+ ,g4 ,sometimes1 = economy1 ! po9ts1 bolt-lock1 & rock+-b>1 are all ?ree work$ by "o lev] 9 ! signal-cab91 & "o set ( rodd+ on ! gr\nd1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dhb2 b ! arrangem5t is nei!r s p]fect nor s secure z t %[n 9 ,fig4 #dhj4 ,:]e !re are two sets ( rodd+ & ge>+1 ! failure or break+ ( ei!r ( !m prev5ts ! complete comb9ation be+ made1 & indicates at once to ! signalman t some?+ is wrong2 b :5 !re is only "o set ( rodd+ a breakage may occur )\t giv+ any tangible evid5ce to ! signalman ( ! defect1 & he may proce$ to pull ov] 8 signal lev] 9 ignorance t ! po9ts h n be5 prop]ly made & bolt$4 ,to avoid an accid5t tak+ place f ! failure ( ei!r rodd+ or ge>+1 ! signal-detector has be5 devis$1 s z to prev5t ! possibility ( pull+ ov] ! signal wire until ! po9ts & lock+-b> are bo? 9 _! prop] positions4 ,! signal-detector is appli$ 9 sev]al =ms2 ! "o %[n 9 ,figs4 #dhj & #dhc w expla9 ! pr9ciple on :i* its efficacy dep5ds4 ,a transv]se rod1 ,i1 atta*$ to ! slid+-rail1 ext5ds #cai out beyond ! rails1 & is =m$ into a flat b> or plate1 ,j1 slid+ ?r\gh ! guide-holes ,k1 ,k 9 ! ca/+ ,l4 ,%ort upright lev]s1 ,m & ,n1 "w on trunnions fix$ 9 ! ca/+1 & to ,m & ,n are atta*$ ! wires lead+ f ! signal-cab9 & cont9u+ on to ! signal-po/s1 z %[n 9 elevation 9 ,fig4 #dhc4 ,two slots are cut 9 ! plate ,j to receive ! curv$ arms ( ! lev]s ,m & ,n :5 !y are drawn d[nw>ds to pull (f ! correspond+ signals4 ,nei!r ( ! lev]s1 ,m or ,n1 c be drawn ov] unless !re is a slot imm$iately "u ! curv$ arm into :i* x c ent]4 ,:5 !re is solid plate "u a curv$ arm1 ! %ort lev] _c be pull$ ov]1 & ! signal !re=e rema9s at dang]4 ,! slots 9 ! plate ,j are spac$ s t "o w be br\ght into position = "o ( ! curv$ arms1 :5 ! po9ts are close home = ! ma9 l9e1 & ! o!r slot = ! o!r curv$ arm1 :5 ! po9ts are set = ! bran* l9e or sid+4 ,! two slots _c be "u ! two curv$ arms at "o & ! same "t1 z "o ( ! signals corresponds to ! ma9 l9e & ! o!r to ! bran* l9e or sid+4 ,9 "s =ms ( signal-detector ! transv]se rod ,i is jo9$ on to a v]tical b> :i* slides ?r\gh guide-holes 9 a ca/+ some?+ simil> to ! arrangem5t %[n 9 ! ca/+ ,l4 ,longitud9al guide-holes1 p>allel to ! l9e ( rails1 are made 9 ! ca/+ a little above ! transv]se rod-b>1 & ?r\gh ! longitud9al guide-holes slide two v]tical b>s :i* are atta*$ to1 & =m "p (1 ! wire connections to ! two signals4 ,! wire b>s h ea* a small tongue or rectangul> f9 =g$ on to ! "u side ( ! b>1 & !re is "o correspond+ *annel cut 9 ! transv]se rod-b>4 ,:5 ! swit*es are prop]ly clos$ 9 "o position1 ! *annel cut ( transv]se b> w be opposite "o ( ! wire b> f9s1 & w all[ "o ( ! signals to be pull$ ov]1 b ! o!r wire b> _c be mov$4 ,! clos+ ( ! swit*es 9 ! rev]se position moves ! *annel cut s z to all[ ! o!r wire b> to be pull$ ?r\gh1 b z !re is only "o *annel cut 9 ! transv]se b>1 only "o signal c be pull$ ov] = ea* position ( ! swit*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhd1 #dhe1 #dhf1 #dij1 #dia1 #dhg1 #dib1 #dhh1 #dic1 #dif1 #dhi1 #did1 #die1 #dig ,?r[-(f or trap po9ts1 are introduc$ to ?r[ an eng9e or tra9 (f ! rails ( a sid+ on to ! balla/1 & s avoid a collision ) any o!r tra9 :i* may be /&+ or pass+ on ! l9e ( rails ) :i* su* sid+ =ms a connection4 ,fig4 #dhd is a diagram #cba sket* ( ! arrangem5t1 9 :i* ! ma9-l9e po9ts are indicat$ by ! lett] ,a1 & ! trap po9ts by ! lett] ,b2 "o s]ies ( rodd+ actuat$ by "o lev] 9 ! signal-cab9 works bo? ! ma9-l9e po9ts & ! trap po9ts at ! same "t & by ! same movem5t4 ,! connections are s made t :5 ! po9ts ,a are set = ! passage ( tra9s on ! ma9 l9e1 ! trap po9ts ,b are set op5 to ?r[ (f on to ! balla/1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dhd2 & :5 ! ma9-l9e po9ts ,a are set to all[ a tra9 to pass f ! sid+ on to ! ma9 l9e1 ! trap po9ts ,b are clos$1 z %[n on ,fig4 #dhe4 ,a disc or o!r signal1 work$ or int]lock$ ) ! po9ts1 is plac$ ne> ,b to notify ! eng9e-driv] :5 he may pass out ( ! sid+ on to ! ma9 l9e2 b %\ld he f any cause proce$ be=e ! po9ts are prop]ly set & ! correspond+ signal giv51 8 eng9e w\ld run (f at ! ends ( ! rails ,c1 ,c1 & be d]ail$ on to ! balla/4 ,! inconv5i5ce caus$ by su* d]ailm5t w\ld be trifl+ comp>$ ) :at might result f a collision ) a tra9 /&+ or pass+ on ! ma9 l9e4 ,9 "s cases ! sid+ is cont9u$ onw>ds = a consid]able di/ance f ! trap-po9t rails ,c1 ,c1 z indicat$ by ! dott$ l9es ,d ,d1 & t]m9ates ) a dead end4 ,:5 ?is arrangem5t c be adopt$1 d]ailm5t is obviat$1 & ! eng9e is br\ght to a /& by a buff]-/op at ! end ( sid+4 ,on no acc\nt %\ld trap po9ts be plac$ close to ! top edge ( a high embankm5t1 or up to ! abutm5t or w+ walls ( an "u-l9e bridge1 :]e an eng9e runn+ ?r\gh !m accid5tally might fall d[n a consid]able height1 & cause s]i\s results4 ,all sid+s jo9+ on to ma9 l9es %\ld be trapp$ z above describ$1 & :5 prop]ly signall$ & int]lock$ 9 ! signal-cab91 ! traffic-work+ c be c>ri$ on ) increas$ facility & security4 ,fig4 #dhf is a sket* ( an av]age sample ( an ord9>y s+le-arm wood5 signal-po/1 ) signal-arm1 lamp1 spectacles1 ladd]1 & ge>+ complete = wire connection to signal-cab94 ,:5 ! arm /&s out 9 ! horizontal position1 repres5t+ ! dang] or /op signal1 ! r$ spectacles w be 9 front ( ! lamps1 & w %[ a r$ light to an approa*+ tra94 ,:5 ! arm is l[]$1 z indicat$ by ! dott$ l9es1 ! second spectacle w be 9 front ( ! lamps1 & w %[ ei!r a :ite or gre5 light 7accord+ to ! accept$ code7 z an all-"r signal = ! #cbb tra9 to proce$4 ,= _m ye>s a :ite light 0 adopt$ = ! all-"r signal1 b latt]ly1 to prev5t confusion ) o!r :ite lights ab\t a /ation1 !re has be5 an increas+ disposition to use a gre5 light z an all-"r signal4 ,sev]al railway companies h already effect$ ! *ange1 & o!rs h arrang$ to foll[ _! example4 ,! c\nt]-weight ,w keeps ! signal-arm to ! dang] position1 except :5 x is rais$ by ! pull+ ov] ( ! signal-wire f ! signal-cab9 work+ ov] ! pulley ,p4 ,%\ld ! wire break :5 be+ pull$1 ! weight ,w falls d[n to ! /op-plate1 & ! signal-arm rises to dang]4 ,! signal-po/s may be ( wood1 wr\ght-iron1 /eel lattice-"w1 or ca/-iron4 ,! arms ( di/ant signals %\ld be cut to a fi%-tail %ape1 z 9 ,fig4 #dhg1 to di/+ui% !m f o!r signals4 ,goods-l9e signals %\ld h a ?9 %eet-iron r+1 z 9 ,fig4 #dhh4 ,sometimes purple glass is us$ in/ead ( r$ glass = ! spectacles ( goods signals4 ,lett]s or numb]s may be atta*$ to signal-arms to signify ! l9es or sid+s to :i* !y correspond4 ,special signals are sometimes made ) ! arm work+ on a c5tre p91 z 9 ,fig4 #dhi4 ,at junctions or places :]e two or ?ree signals h to be fix$ ne> toge!r1 x is cu/om>y to c>ry !m on a bracket signal-po/1 z 9 ,figs4 #dij & #dia4 ,! =m] repres5ts ! home signals at an ord9>y junction1 ! tall] signal be+ = ! ma9 l9e & ! l[] "o = ! bran* l9e4 ,fig4 #dia %[s ! home signals at a junction :]e !re is "o l9e turn+ out ( ! ma9 l9e to ! left & ano!r to ! "r4 ,! tall] signal 9 ?is case also s]ves = ! ma9 l9e & ! two l[] signals = ! bran* l9es4 ,9 important /ation-y>ds1 :]e !re are a l>ge numb] ( l9es & sid+s runn+ side by side1 x is n always conv5i5t or possible to place ! respective signal-po/s 9 suitable positions betwe5 ! l9es4 ,to ov]come ! difficulty1 ! signals are erect$ on light ov]head lattice gird]s1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dib4 ,9 "s cases1 = want ( a bett] position1 or to obta9 a m compreh5sive view ( ! l9es & signals1 ! signal-cab9 is built on lattice gird]s1 z 9 ,fig4 #dic4 ,gr\nd or disc signals are fix$ at ! gr\nd-level1 & are work$ 9 conjunction ) trap po9ts or outlet swit*es f sid+s4 ,9 "s cases !y are work$ direct by a connect+-rod f ! #cbc swit*es1 & s]ve m]ely z indicators to %[ :e!r ! swit*es are ly+ = or aga9/ an eng9e pass+ out ( ! sid+4 ,9 o!r cases !y are work$ indep5d5tly f ! signal-cab9 by a sep>ate lev] & wire connection1 ! int]lock+ be+ s arrang$ t ! lev] work+ ! swit*es mu/ be pull$ ov] be=e ! lev] work+ ! disc signal c be mov$4 ,9 "o type ! disc signal is fix$ to a %ort v]tical axis1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #did1 & by means ( a crank$ arm is made to rotate a qu>t] ( a circle1 s z to exhibit ei!r a /op or advance signal accord+ to ! position 9 :i* ! swit*es are ly+4 ,9 ano!r type1 ! lamp is fix$1 & ! r$ disc1 ) a r$ glass 9 ! c5tre1 is made to assume a horizontal or v]tical position by a rod & crank1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #die4 ,a simple arrangem5t ( rodd+ & roll]s = swit* connections is %[n 9 ,fig4 #dif1 ! numb] ( sets ( rodd+ be+ det]m9$ by ! numb] ( connections to be made4 ,fig4 #dig is a rodd+ comp5sator1 to comp5sate or adju/ = ! diff]5ce 9 l5g? ( ! rodd+ aris+ f v>iations 9 ! temp]ature4 ,! comp5sator may be us$ ei!r v]tically or horizontally1 accord+ to space or circum/ances4 ,/rong wr\ght-iron or /eel cranks ( diff]5t angles w be requir$ :5 *ang+ ! direction ( ! rodd+1 or connect+ to swit*es & fac+ po9t-locks4 ,!y mu/ be firmly secur$ to /rong timb] framework well b$d$ 9 ! balla/4 ,= cranks work+ swit*es & bolt-locks1 x is bett] to use extra long timb]s "u ! rails in/ead ( ! ord9>y sleep]s4 ,cross-pieces c be bolt$ to ! ends ( ! long timb]s1 & ! cranks plac$ practically on ! same timb]s c>ry+ ! p]man5t way4 ,by ?is means ! rails & cranks c always be ma9ta9$ 9 _! prop] relative positions z to di/ance1 l9e1 & level4 ,)\t a l>ge s]ies ( diagrams x w\ld be impossible to adequately describe ! ext5t ( signall+ & int]lock+ requir$ at l>ge t]m9al /ations & important roadside /ations1 b "o or two simple examples may s]ve to illu/rate ! g5]al pr9ciples4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dih1 #dii ,fig4 #dih repres5ts ! mod]n gr\p+ ( signals consid]$ necess>y at an ord9>y d\ble-l9e junction1 %[+ all ! signals at _! normal or dang] position4 ,! numb]s m>k$ on ea* indicate ! numb]s ( ! lev]s 9 ! int]lock+ frame ( ! #cbe signal-cab94 ,f\r di/9ct sets ( tra9s h to be dealt ) at ?is class ( junction1 & ! int]lock+ mu/ be s arrang$ t :5 ! signals are l[]$ = ! advance ( any "o tra91 no conflict+ signals c be giv5 to any o!r tra94 ,assum+ a tra9 approa*+ f ,a1 :i* has to cont9ue on ! ma9 l9e pa/ ,b on t[>ds ,c1 !n ! lev]s 9 ! signal-cab9 mu/ fir/ be pull$ ov] to set ! po9ts #i & bolt-lock #h 9 prop] position = ! ma9 l9e2 & ?is op]ation w release ! lev]s :i* h to be pull$ ov] to l[] ! signals #e1 #d1 & #f1 b at ! same "t w lock1 & prev5t ! pull+ ov] ( ! lev]s or l[]+ ( ! signals #b & #a = a tra9 f ,a to ,b & ,d1 or ( ! signals #ad & #ae = a tra9 f ,d to ,b & ,a4 ,! lev]s w1 h[ev]1 be free to pull ov] = sett+ ! po9ts #ab & l[]+ ! signals #af1 #ag1 & #ac = a tra9 on ! ma9 l9e f ,c to ,b & ,a4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 assum+ a tra9 approa*+ f ,d1 :i* has to cont9ue up to ! ma9 l9e at ,b & on t[>ds ,a1 !n ! lev] 9 ! cab9 mu/ fir/ be pull$ ov] to set ! trail+ po9ts #ab 9 prop] position2 & ?is op]ation w release ! lev]s :i* h to be pull$ ov] to l[] ! signals #ad & #ae1 b at ! same "t w lock1 & prev5t ! pull+ ov] ( ! lev]s or l[]+ ( ! signals #e & #d = a tra9 f ,a to ,b & ,c1 or ( ! signals #af & #ag = a tra9 f ,c to ,b & ,a4 ,! lev]s w1 h[ev]1 be free to pull ov] = sett+ ! po9ts #i & bolt-lock #h & l[]+ ! signals #b & #a = ! passage ( a tra9 on to ! bran* l9e f ,a to ,b & ,d4 ,= a tra9 f ,c to ,b & ,a1 ! lev]s #ab1 #af1 #ag1 & #ac w\ld be requir$1 & ^! w\ld lock lev]s #ad & #ae1 & prev5t ! approa* ( any tra9 f ,d to ,b1 b !y w\ld leave free ! lev]s necess>y ei!r = a tra9 f ,a to ,b & ,c1 or = a tra9 f ,a to ,b & ,d1 b only "o ( !m at a "t1 ! sett+ ( ! "o s]ies lock+ ! o!r s]ies4 ,a tra9 f ,a to ,b & ,d w\ld require ! prop] sett+ ( ! po9ts #i1 bolt-lock #h1 & signals #b1 #a1 & #c2 & ^! w\ld lock #e & #d1 b w\ld leave free ! lev]s necess>y ei!r = a tra9 f ,c to ,b & ,a1 or = a tra9 f ,d to ,b & ,a1 b only "o ( !m at a "t4 ,! cross-ov] road f ! ,,up to ,,d[n ma9 l9e1 ne> ! lett] ,b #cbf on sket*1 is only int5d$ = use 9 case ( break-d[n or accid5ts1 & ! normal position ( ! po9ts is to lie cle> = ! passage ( tra9s on ! ma9 l9es4 ,to use ! cross-ov] road1 ! :ole ( ! signals mu/ fir/ be set to dang] be=e ! po9ts #g & #g c be op5$ to p]mit ! passage ( an eng9e or tra9 f ! "o ma9 l9e to ! o!r4 ,! />t+ signals #f & #c %\ld be plac$ suffici5tly f> away t ! longe/ pass5g] or goods tra9 may /& betwe5 !m & ! cle>ance po9ts at ,g & ,e4 ,^! />t+ signals are ( great s]vice to tra9-work+ at junctions4 ,suppos+ a ma9-l9e tra9 f ,a arriv+ at ,b be=e ! section f ,b to ,c 0 cle>1 su* tra9 c\ld be br\ght to a /& at signal #f1 & rema9 !re :ile ano!r tra9 f ,a 0 all[$ to pass ,b1 & proce$ onw>ds t[>ds ,d2 or a bran*-l9e tra9 f ,a to ,d c\ld be br\ght to a /& at #c1 to all[ a ma9-l9e tra9 to proce$ onw>ds f ,a to ,b & ,c4 ,! />t+ signal #ac %\ld be plac$ well 9 advance ( ! cross-ov] road to control any?+ pass+ f "o l9e to ! o!r4 ,fig4 #dii %[s ! mod]n gr\p+ ( signals = an ord9>y s+le-l9e junction4 ,! arrangem5t is almo/ practically ! same z = ! d\ble-l9e junction %[n 9 ,fig4 #dih1 !re be+ ! same f\r di/9ct sets ( tra9s to be controll$1 b n any cross-ov] road4 ,! signal-cab9 is plac$ on ! ma9 l9e1 a little 9 advance ( ! fac+ po9ts1 & a well-f5c$-9 gangway1 ! same height z ! eng9e footplate1 is c>ri$ out ! prop] di/ance f ! rails1 on :i* ! signalman c /& to h& ov] or receive ! tra9 /aff f ! eng9e-driv] :5 pass+4 ,at /ations & places :]e !re are sev]al sid+s & l9es connect+ ) ! ma9 l9es1 at consid]able di/ances ap>t1 x w be necess>y to h two or m signal-cab9s plac$ 9 suitable positions1 n only = exp$it+ ! work+ ( ! con/ant %unt+ movem5ts1 b also to insure t !re is a signal-cab9 )9 ! regulation di/ance ( all fac+ po9ts on ! ma9 l9e4 ,s f> z ! ma9 l9e is conc]n$1 ! int]lock+ ( ^! cab9s mu/ be connect$1 ! "o ) ! o!r1 by slott+1 or co-act+ ge>+1 9 su* mann] t ! cab9 9 advance %all always be able to control ! cab9 9 ! re> 9 ! l[]+ ( ! ma9-l9e signals = an approa*+ tra94 ,fig4 #cgf is a diagram sket* ( a #cbg typical d\ble-l9e roadside /ation ) two signal-cab9s4 ,! ,,nor? cab9 has to "w ! signals & po9ts 9 connection ) ! goods-%$1 goods-sid+s1 & m>ket bran*1 & ! ,,s\? cab91 ^? 9 connection ) ! coal & cattle sid+s2 & ea* ( ! cab9s to "w ! signals & po9ts ( t portion ( ! ma9 l9e adjo9+ its own cab94 ,= sid+ work+1 ea* cab9 is q di/9ct & indep5d5t ( ! o!r1 b = ma9-l9e work+ ! l[]+ ( ! signals c only be effect$ by ! jo9t op]ation or co-act+ ( bo? cab9s4 ,assum+ a tra9 approa*+ f ,a to proce$ 9 ! direction t[>ds ,b1 !n1 be=e ! signalman 9 ! ,,nor? cab9 c l[] ! ,,up home-signal ,c1 ! signalman 9 ! ,,s\? cab9 mu/ fir/ pull ov] 8 lev] & release ! slot :i* reta9s ! signal ,c at dang]1 & 9 do+ s ! lev]s 9 8 own cab9 w /& lock$1 & prev5t ! l[]+ ( ! signal ,d1 or op5+ ( po9ts ,e to all[ access f ! sid+s to ,,up ma9 l9e4 ,! cross-ov] road ,f ,g w also be lock$ = ma9 l9e cle>4 ,:5 ! slot has be5 releas$ f signal ,c1 ! signalman 9 ,,nor? cab9 c l[] ! ,,up home signal ,c1 b be=e he c pull ov] ! lev] = ?is purpose he mu/ fir/ lock ! po9ts ,h1 to prev5t access f ! sid+s to ! ,,up ma9 l9e1 & also ! po9ts ,k ,l ( ! cross-ov] road1 to keep ! ma9 l9e cle>4 ,a simil> op]ation has to be gone ?r\gh = a tra9 approa*+ f ,b to proce$ 9 ! direction t[>ds ,a1 :5 ! signalman 9 ,,nor? cab9 mu/ fir/ )draw ! slot f ! ,,d[n home-signal ,m be=e ! signalman 9 ! ,,s\? cab9 c l[] t signal4 ,a small automatic disc is plac$ 9 ! cab9 to indicate to ! signalman :5 ! slot has be5 )drawn by 8 colleague 9 ! neighb\r+ cab91 & = facility ( work+1 ! two cab9s are usually plac$ 9 communication ) ea* o!r by telegraph or telephone4 ,at "s /ations simil> to ! above1 :]e !re is a v frequ5t tra9 s]vice1 ) sev]al ( ! tra9s runn+ ?r\gh )\t /opp+1 x is ! practice to h a second or l[] arm to ! home signals ,c & ,m1 z %[n on ! diagram1 ^! l[] arms be+ only pull$ (f = ?r\gh or non-/opp+ tra9s1 z an indication to ! eng9e-driv] t ! l9e is cle> 9 ! section ahead4 ,9 addition to ! lead+ signals %[n 9 ! sket*es1 !re #cbh are %unt+ signals = ! movem5t & m>%all+ ( tra9s--sett+-back signals 9 connection ) ! mak+ up ( pass5g] tra9s2 tak+ on or (f pass5g] c>riages2 or mov+ out empty pass5g] c>riages2 & _m o!r special signals :i* become necess>y = ! work+ ( a l>ge & complicat$ tra9 s]vice4 ,! above simple diagrams w expla9 "s ( ! pr9cipal requirem5ts to be kept 9 view :5 work+ out signall+ arrangem5ts4 ,:]e ! l9es & sid+s are v num]\s1 z at important junctions & l>ge t]m9al /ations1 ! signall+ becomes v intricate1 & may require ?ree or f\r cab9s1 slott$ toge!r 9 su* mann] t ! necess>y co-act+ may be insur$ = ! prop] controll+ ( ! ma9l9e signals4 ,_m ( ^! signal-cab9s conta9 a l>ge numb] ( lev]s1 "s ( !m hav+ z _m z a hundr$1 & a few ( !m two hundr$ & =ty lev]s1 or m1 all ( !m s c>efully arrang$ t no conflict+ signal c be giv54 ,n only has mu* skill to be ex]cis$ 9 ! accurate adju/m5t ( ! int]lock+ ma*9]y1 b mu* /udy mu/ be devot$ to det]m9e ! exact duty ( e lev]1 = ! lock+ or releas+ ( o!r lev]s4 ,signal-cab9s may be built ( /one1 brick1 or wood4 ,!y %\ld be roomy1 well v5tilat$1 & h abundance ( light4 ,e signal-cab9 %\ld be plac$ 9 ! position f :i* ! signalman c obta9 ! be/ view ( ! signals & po9ts "u 8 *>ge4 ,! height ( ! cab9 floor w dep5d ^u any ob/acles t may int]v5e betwe5 ! cab9 & ! signals1 su* z ov]-l9e bridges1 /ation ro(s1 build+s1 or o!r ob/ructions4 ,sometimes ! floor has to be kept z l[ z five feet above rail-level1 to secure a l9e ( sight "u ! ov]-l9e bridges2 & 9 o!rs ! floor has to be rais$ tw5ty1 or ev5 ?irty feet above rail-level4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejj1 #ejh1 #eja1 #ejb1 #ejf1 #ejg ,figs4 #ejj1 #eja1 & #ejb %[ plan1 transv]se section1 & elevation ( a signal-cab9 suitable = a small roadside /ation4 ,! l[] /ory & *imney-/ack are ( brick1 & ! upp] /ory ( wood1 ) slat$ ro(4 ,!re is room = an int]lock+ frame ( tw5ty or tw5ty-five lev]s1 & space at ! end ( ! cab9 = ! block-telegraph in/rum5ts1 or electric tra9-/aff in/rum5ts4 ,! ro(-"w is op5 up to ! slatebo>ds1 to obta9 z mu* air capacity z possible4 ,9 ! transv]se section a w9* = work+ me*anical gates is %[n at ! end ( ! int]lock+ frame4 ,!re #ccj is a lib]al am\nt ( glass1 & two or ?ree slid+ w9d[s1 :i* ! signalman c op5 to enable him to speak to ! eng9e-driv]s or o!rs dur+ %unt+ op]ations4 ,! l[] /ory ( ! cab9 c be utiliz$ = trimm+ lamps & keep+ a small supply ( coals & o!r /ores4 ,:5 work+ aft] d>k ! lamps 9 ! cab9s %\ld be well protect$ by %ades1 to prev5t ! lights be+ se5 by eng9e-driv]s1 & mi/ak5 = signals4 ,int]lock+4--,!re are sev]al sy/ems ( int]lock+1 ea* ( !m v>y+ consid]ably 9 ! =m & mode ( application1 b all ( !m hav+ ! same g5]al object ( secur+ or releas+ ! necess>y lev]s = ea* comb9ation ( signall+ movem5ts4 ,a brief description ( "o ( ! sy/ems w expla9 ! ord] 9 :i* ! movem5ts h to be made1 & ! security :i* c be obta9$ by ! lock+4 ,figs4 #ejc1 #ejd1 & #eje1 are sket*es illu/rat+ "o ( ! types ( w$ge & tappet int]lock+4 ,ea* lev] works on a fulcrum or p9ion z at ,a1 & has a l[] arm ,b = lift+ ! rods lead+ (f to po9ts or signals1 & an arm ,c to c>ry a c\nt]weight :5 necess>y4 ,ca/-iron braces ,d are plac$ at conv5i5t di/ances betwe5 ! s]ies ( lev]s to c>ry ! top frame ,e on :i* ! lev] floor cas+ ,f is bolt$4 ,?is cas+ is cont9u\s f end to end ( ! lock+ frame1 ) ! exception ( ! n>r[ op5+s ?r\gh :i* ! lev]s travel :5 mov+ backw>ds or =w>ds4 ,! sleeve-block ,g1 re/+ 9 ! depress$ portions ( ! arc1 reta9s ! lev] 9 position4 ,:5 tak+ hold ( ! ma9 lev] ,l1 ! signalman's h& draws ! small side lev] ,m1 close to ! ma9 lev]1 & raises ! sleeve-block ,g suffici5tly high to pass ov] ! top ( arc ,f1 ! lev] ,l c !n be pull$ or pu%$ ov]1 & ! block ,g w fall into ! depression at ! end ( ! /roke :5 ! h& is remov$4 ,n is a tappet or ?9 flat b> atta*$ to ! ma9 lev]1 & :i* works backw>ds or =w>ds betwe5 ! w$ges 9 ! w$ge frame ,o4 ,! w$ges move horizontally betwe5 guide pieces1 & "w ei!r s+ly or are connect$ by ! l[] slide b>s to o!r w$ges "s di/ance away on ! frame accord+ to ! position ( ! lev]s :i* h to /& or move 9 unison = ! releas+ or lock+4 ,a /rong cov] is plac$ ov] ! w$ge frame to keep out ! dirt4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejc1 #ejd1 #eje ,figs4 #ejd & #eje %[ plan views ( f\r lev]s 9 a signal cab9 #ccb tak5 j above ! level ( ! tappets4 ,9 ,fig4 #ejd1 all ! lev]s are 9 _! normal or =w>d position1 ) ! home & di/ant signals at dang]1 & ! fac+ po9ts lead+ into loop or sid+ ly+ = ma9 l9e4 ,previ\s to ! approa* ( a tra9 on ! ma9 l9e1 ! home & di/ant signals h to be l[]$1 & w require ! pull+ ov] ( lev]s #a & #b2 b ^! lev]s _c ( !mselves be mov$1 z ! w$ges ,p & ,q are lock$ by ! /raight side ( lev] #c4 ,! op]ation w\ld !re=e be z foll[s3--po9ts lev] #d be+ set 9 its normal position = ! ma9 l9e w\ld rema9 =w>d1 lev] #c work+ ! fac+ po9t bolt-lock w\ld be pull$ ov]1 & 9 do+ s w\ld move ! w$ge ,r to ! "r into ! recess ( tappet ( lev] #d1 lock+ t lev]1 & pres5t+ ! recess ( its own tappet ready to receive ! w$ge ,q4 ,lev] #b c !n be pull$ ov]1 & w move ! w$ge ,q to ! "r into ! recess ( tappet ( lev] #c1 & pres5t its own recess = w$ge ,p4 ,! pull+ ov] ( lev] #a completes ! s]ies1 by mov+ ! w$ge ,p ov] to ! "r into ! recess ( tappet ( lev] #b4 ,fig4 #eje %[s ! positions ( ! tappets & w$ges ) ! lev]s #a1 #b1 & #c1 pull$ ov] to make ! comb9ation describ$4 ,^u exam9ation1 x w be se5 t lev]s #b1 #c1 & #d1 are all securely lock$1 ! po9ts _c be mov$1 nor ! fac+ po9t bolt-lock )drawn1 nor ! home signal *ang$ until ! lev] #a is pu%$ ov] aga9 into its normal or dang] position4 ,to re/ore ! lev]s to _! =w>d position1 !y mu/ be set back 9 ! rev]se ord] to :i* !y 7 pull$ ov]4 ,to simplify ! explanation1 only f\r lev]s are %[n 9 ! above sket*es1 b ! pr9ciple is con/antly ext5d$ out to a v l>ge numb] ( lev]s1 & 9 _m cases necessitates ! introduction ( sev]al r[s ( w$ges z indicat$ by ! dott$ l9es4 ,9 "s in/ances a comb9ation is effect$ by pull+ a c]ta9 lev] only half ov]4 ,9 "s sy/ems ! prelim9>y action or spr+ h&le lock+ is adopt$1 9 :i* ! lock+ is actuat$ by ! small side lev]1 simil> to ! "o m>k$ ,m on ,fig4 #ejc4 ,! advocates ( ?is arrangem5t claim increas$ security & precision 9 ! int]lock+1 :ile on ! o!r h& x is alleg$ t ! me*anism is r5d]$ m complicat$ )\t any correspond+ advantage4 ,deta*$ ,lock4--,sometimes !re is 9 ! vic9ity ( a railway /ation1 #ccc a sid+ :i* is too f> away to be work$ direct f a signal cab91 & n suffici5tly us$ to w>rant a sep>ate cab94 ,su* sid+s c be work$ by a small gr\nd frame op5$ or lock$ by a special key atta*$ to ! int]lock+ ma*9]y 9 ! adjo9+ signal cab9 on a d\ble-l9e railway1 or atta*$ to ! tra9 /aff on a s+le l9e4 ,fig4 #ejf %[s ! arrangem5t appli$ to a d\ble l9e ) ! outly+ sid+ turn+ out ( ! ,,up ma9 l9e1 ! po9ts ly+ 9 a trail+ direction = ! runn+ tra9s4 ,be=e ! special & only key c be )drawn f its seat 9 ! int]lock+ frame ( ! signal cab91 all ! ,,up ma9 l9e signals mu/ be set to dang]1 & _c be mov$ f dang] until ! key is re/or$ to its prop] seat aga94 ,:5 ! key is remov$ f ! signal cab91 x c be tak5 to ! gr\nd frame at ,a1 ins]t$ 9 ! key op5+1 & by turn+ x p>tly r\nd1 w release ! b> :i* locks ! lev]s ( ! fac+ po9t bolt-lock & ! po9ts4 ,:5 ^! two lev]s are free ! po9ts c be op5$1 & vehicles mov$ into or out ( ! sid+ ,b ,c1 b ! special key _c be )drawn f ! gr\nd-frame ,a1 until ! po9ts & fac+ po9t bolt-lock are put back aga9 into _! normal position = ma9 l9e work+4 ,:5 ! op]ations at ! sid+ are complet$1 ! special key c be remov$1 & tak5 back to its prop] place 9 ! signal-cab91 & ord9>y work+ be resum$4 ,fig4 #ejg %[s ! application ( ! deta*$ locks on a s+le l9e1 & is a sket* ( a portion ( railway on :i* !re is a small /ation ,b1 ) a goods sid+ ,f ,g1 :]e ! traffic is too small to require any?+ m ?an gr\nd frames & deta*$ locks4 ,an eng9e-driv] be=e leav+ ! /ation ,a1 receives a tra9 /aff1 :i* gives him possession ( ! l9e z f> z ,c1 includ+ ( c\rse ! int]m$iate /ation ,b1 & ?is /aff he mu/ c>ry ) him & h& ov] to ! signalman on 8 arrival at ! end ( ! section at ,c4 ,at ea* ( ! po9ts ,d & ,e is plac$ a two lev] gr\nd frame1 simil> to ! "o %[n 9 ,fig4 #ejf1 & atta*$ to ! tra9 /aff is a key1 :i* w op]ate ei!r ( ! two gr\nd frames1 b only "o at a "t1 z ! key mu/ be ins]t$ be=e ! lev]s c be mov$4 ,:5 ! tra9 is proce$+ 9 ! direction f ,a to ,c1 x w be m conv5i5t to %unt vehicles into or out ( ! sid+ ,f ,g1 by means ( ! po9ts ,e1 b :5 proce$+ f ,c to ,a1 ! po9ts ,d w be m conv5i5t4 ,:i*ev] ( ! po9ts #ccd be us$1 !y mu/ be set1 & bolt lock$ = ! ma9 l9e be=e ! tra9 /aff & its key c be )drawn f ! gr\nd frame & re/or$ to ! eng9e-driv]4 ,z ! sid+ is trapp$ at ,f & ,g1 x is impossible = any vehicles to be mov$ out on to ! ma9 l9e except ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! tra9 /aff & key4 ,! same arrangem5t ( deta*$ lock is equally available = a s+le sid+ ) only "o set ( po9ts4 ,electric ,repeat]4--,x w sometimes occur t on acc\nt ( a curve or o!r ob/acle1 ! arms & back lights ( a di/ant or o!r signal _c be se5 f ! signal cab91 & x is necess>y to introduce an electric repeat]4 ,?is little in/rum5t consi/s ( a m9iature semaphore signal fix$ 9 a metallic box ) a glass front1 & plac$ on a /& ab\t a foot above ! floor level imm$iately 9 front ( ! signal lev] = :i* x is int5d$ to s]ve z an indicator4 ,l ! signal prop]1 ! normal position ( ! m9iature semaphore is at dang]1 b :5 ! signal lev] is pull$ ov] 9 ! cab91 ! rod t pulls d[n ! arm on ! signal po/ effects a contact ) an electric circuit :i* l[]s ! arm ( ! m9iature semaphore at ! same mom5t t ! signal arm prop] is l[]$1 & gives visible indication 9 ! cab9 t ! signal is work+4 ,fig4 #ejh is a sket* ( "o =m ( electric repeat]4 ,detonators or fog signals are l>gely us$ 9 foggy wea!r & sn[/orms1 :5 ! out-door signals _c be se5 f an approa*+ tra94 ,at su* times ! atmosph]e is s d5se1 & ! surr\nd+ objects s obscur$1 t an eng9e-driv] is totally unable to di/+ui% ! usual l&m>ks :i* guide him on ! approa* to a /ation or semaphore1 & he might easily pass by a signal unless he receiv$ an audible signal to indicate ! position ( ! "o t is invisible4 ,detonators are usually made 9 ! =m ( a circul> t9 or metallic case ab\t two in*es 9 diamet]1 & ?ree eigh?s ( an in* ?ick1 ) s(t metal clips on opposite sides = b5d+ ov] & secur+ to ! rails4 ,! case is fill$ ) detonat+ p[d]1 :i* is cru%$ by ! fir/ :eel pass+ ov] x1 & explodes ) a l\d report4 ,x is cu/om>y to use ^! detonators 9 pairs plac$ a %ort di/ance ap>t 9 case "o ( !m %\ld fail to explode4 ,fog-signall+ regulations v>y on diff]5t railways1 b ! #cce arrangem5ts are g5]ally c>ri$ out some:at 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,dur+ ! preval5ce ( a fog or sn[/orm1 a fog signalman is plac$ ne> ea* ( ! signal-po/s to be protect$1 & is suppli$ ) a h& signal-lamp1 h&-flags1 & a packet ( detonators4 ,s long z ! arm ( ! signal-po/ at :i* he is alongside /&s at dang]1 he mu/ keep two detonators on ! rail ( t l9e :i* ! signal controls1 & also %[ a ,,r$ h&-signal 7h&-flag by day1 & h&-lamp aft] d>k7 to ! approa*+ tra94 ,:5 ! signal arm is l[]$ to %[ t ! l9e is cle> = ! passage ( ! tra91 ! fog signalman mu/ remove ! two detonators1 & %[ a ,,gre5 h&-signal 7flag1 or lamp7 to ! approa*+ tra94 ,:5 an eng9e driv] he>s ! report ( a detonator cru%$ by 8 eng9e1 x is 8 duty to %ut (f /eam imm$iately1 & br+ 8 eng9e to a /&1 aft] :i* he mu/ proce$ v cauti\sly1 until he receives fur!r signals by h& or o!rwise1 or receives ! l9e-cle> signal to cont9ue on 8 j\rney4 ,detonators are also ( great s]vice bo? 9 f9e or bad wea!r1 9 cases ( a wa% away1 a failure ( works1 or ob/ruction on ! l9e1 :5 a h&-signal may n be se51 b a detonator mu/ be he>d4 ,me*anical ,gates4--,me*anical gates1 work$ & controll$ f ! inside ( a signal-cab91 are n[ v l>gely adopt$ = public road level-cross+s in/ead ( ord9>y h&-gates1 op5$ & clos$ by a gateman walk+ f side to side ( ! l9e across ! rails4 ,be+ work$ f inside ! cab91 !y remove all possibility ( ! gateman be+ /ruck by a pass+ tra92 !y move simultane\sly1 & c be op5$ or clos$ 9 v mu* less "t ?an h&-work$ gates1 :i* h to be mov$ "o by "o1 & be+ int]lock$ ) ! signals1 ! me*anical gates _c be plac$ across ! l9es ( rails until ! tra9-signals 9 ea* direction are set at dang]4 ,:5 set = ei!r tra9 traffic or public road traffic1 ! gates are held firmly 9 position by metal /ops1 ris+ out ( ca/-iron boxes ly+ flu% ) ! gr\nd1 & work$ by a sep>ate lev] 9 ! signal-cab94 ,assum+ ! gates to be set = tra9 traffic1 & x is desir$ to op5 !m = ! public road traffic1 ! fir/ op]ation w be to pull ov] ! lev]s1 & raise ! signals 9 ea* direction to dang]1 & ?us release ! /op-lev]1 :i* c !n be pull$ ov]1 to l[] ! gate-/ops & all[ ! gate-w9* to be turn$1 & ! gates mov$ r\nd into correct position4 ,! /op-lev] mu/ #ccf !n be set back to raise ! /ops & hold ! gates secure4 ,! tra9-signals w be reta9$ at dang] by ! int]lock+ ge>+1 & _c be l[]$ until ! gates are set back aga9 across ! public road1 & ! gate-/ops rais$4 ,x is frequ5tly urg$ t ! cel]ity ) :i* me*anical gates c be swung r\nd & clos$ across ! public road1 is 9 itself a s\rce ( dang]1 & t p]sons prep>+ to cross ! l9e might be /ruck by a mov+ gate1 unless !y receiv$ a di/9ct w>n+ t su* clos+ 0 ab\t to take place4 ,!re is no d\bt p]sons h be5 /ruck by su* gates :5 clos+ across ! road1 & heavy claims = injuries h be5 decre$ aga9/ railway companies1 :o 7 unable to prove t ! man 9 *>ge _h call$ out or giv5 w>n+ be=e mov+ ! gates4 ,to ensure t due & und5iable w>n+ %all always be giv51 a firm ( signal-mak]s h pat5t$ an appliance by :i* a p[]ful electric gong1 fix$ on ! top ( a tall po/ close to ! gates1 is s\nd$ automatically by ! gate ma*9]y itself1 & be=e ! gates actually comm5ce to move4 ,z previ\sly describ$1 ! pull+ ov] ( ! lev] to l[] ! gate-/ops is ! fir/ op]ation to be p]=m$ :5ev] x is necess>y to *ange ! position ( ! gates1 & x is ! pull+ ov] ( ?is lev] :i* actuates ! app>atus1 by br++ two electric po9ts into contact1 & ?us />t+ ! r++ ( ! gong or al>m4 ,! gong cont9ues to s\nd until ! gates are mov$ ov]1 ! gate-/ops rais$1 & ! /op-lev] put =w>d aga9 into its normal position4 ,! arrangem5t is v simple & v effective1 & be+ purely automatic mu/ "w z regul>ly z ! /op-lev]4 ,! tone & volume ( ! gong c be v>i$ to suit circum/ances4 ,! public soon become famili> ) its s\nd1 & recognize its mean+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eji1 #eaj ,figs4 #eji & #eaj give sket* plan & elevation ( a set ( me*anical gates = a public road level cross+ on a d\ble l9e ( railway4 ,! signal-cab9 %\ld be plac$ )9 a few y>ds ( ! gates1 to enable ! man 9 *>ge to h a good view ( ! p]sons & vehicles pass+ ov] ! roadway4 ,! und]gr\nd ge>+ = work+ ! gates & /ops1 mu/ be protect$ by iron or wood5 cas+4 ,! sw++ portion ( ! wicket gates is clos$1 & held by a sep>ate lev]4 ,! gates %[n on ! sket* are = a cross+ on ! squ>e1 b !y c be equally well arrang$ = an oblique #cch cross+1 & ( wid?s to suit ! locality4 ,block-,telegraph ,signall+4--,h[ev] complete ! outdoor signals & int]lock+ at any /ation1 !y c only control ! movem5t ( tra9s )9 _! range1 & some?+ m is requisite to ensure ! safe work+ ( ! traffic ov] ! long l5g?s ( l9e betwe5 /ations4 ,= "s ye>s a "t-int]val 0 all[$ = ! work+ ( tra9s foll[+ "o ano!r on ! ,,up & ,,d[n l9es ( a d\ble l9e railway1 no tra9 be+ all[$ to leave a /ation soon] ?an a fix$ numb] ( m9utes aft] a previ\s tra9 _h />t$ 9 ! same direction4 ,) ?is sy/em !re 0 always ! risk t ! fir/ tra9 might be ov]tak5 & ran into by ! second1 & especially 9 ! night "t1 or :5 ! atmosph]e 0 at all foggy4 ,! electric telegraph 0 !n call$ 9 to assi/ 9 ! tra9-work+1 & brief telegrams 7 pass$ betwe5 ! /ations ann\nc+ ! dep>ture & arrival ( tra9s4 ,! increas$ security & conv5i5ce ?us obta9$ l$ to ! introduction ( special electric telegraph in/rum5ts1 devot$ to ! exclusive duty ( tra9-work+4 ,^! in/rum5ts1 t]m$ block telegraph in/rum5ts1 are n[ almo/ univ]sally us$ on all d\ble l9es ( railway1 & h l>gely contribut$ to ! safe & effici5t work+ ( an ev] increas+ traffic4 ,!y are made 9 v>i\s =ms1 b ! object ( ea* is to ensure t be=e any tra9 is all[$ to />t f1 or pass any /ation1 ! signalman at t /ation %all receive f ! signalman 9 ! cab9 9 advance a di/9ct visible signal t ! l9e is cle>1 & free ( any tra9 up to ! cab9 9 advance2 & also t aft] ! tra9 has be5 despat*$1 ! signalman 9 ! re> %all be at once advis$ :5 ! tra9 has arriv$ at ! signal-cab9 9 advance4 ,fig4 #eaa is a sket* ( "o type ( block-telegraph in/rum5t1 9 :i* ! lead+ feature is ! m9iature signal-po/ ) its two arms1 an arrangem5t :i* readily appeals to ! eye ( ! signalman z be+ s simil> 9 =m & action to ! fix$ signals 9 ! /ation4 ,ea* in/rum5t is suppli$ ) a bell or gong1 by :i* ! adjac5t signalm5 c communicate ) ea* o!r1 9 accordance ) a fix$ code ( signals :i* def9es ! relative numb]s ( /rokes ( ! bell or gong1 to repres5t c]ta9 regulation calls & answ]s4 ,9 ! signal-cab9s ( ! int]m$iate /ations1 two block-telegraph #cci in/rum5ts are requir$1 "o = ! section ( ! l9e to ! left h& ( ! cab91 & ! o!r = ! section to ! "r4 ,at ! t]m9al /ations only "o in/rum5t is requir$4 ,9 ! in/rum5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #eaa1 ! upp] arm ( ! m9iature signal-po/ is col\r$ ,,r$1 & is mov$ by electricity ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! block telegraph in/rum5t 9 ! signal-cab9 9 advance2 & until ?is ,,r$ signal be l[]$ to ! l9e cle> position by ! signalman 9 ! cab9 9 advance1 no tra9 mu/ be all[$ to />t f or pass ! cab9 9 ! re>4 ,! l[] signal-arm col\r$ ,,:ite is l[]$ by ! plung] ,a on its own in/rum5t by ! signalman 9 *>ge1 & at ! same mom5t l[]s by electricity ! upp] or ,,r$ arm ( ! block-telegraph in/rum5t 9 ! signal-cab9 at ! o!r end ( ! section4 ,! l[] or ,,:ite arm is ?us re/rict$ to ! signals s5t away f ! signal-cab91 :ile ! upp] or ,,r$ arm is re/rict$ to signals receiv$ 9 ! signal-cab94 ,9 ! c5tre !re is a r\nd h&le ,b1 :i* rotates a circul> disc inside ! in/rum5t1 & on ?is disc are pa9t$ ?ree di/9ct tra9 inscriptions1 only "o ( :i* c be se5 at a "t ?r\gh ! glaz$ op5+4 ,"o inscription has ! words ,,all ,,cle> pa9t$ 9 black lett]s on a ,,:ite gr\nd2 ano!r has ! words ,,tra9 ,,on ,,l9e pa9t$ 9 :ite lett]s on a ,,r$ gr\nd2 & ! ?ird has ! words ,,tra9 ,,(f1 ,,b ,,section ,,block$ pa9t$ 9 black lett]s on a ,,gre5 gr\nd4 ,! in/rum5t is consid]$ to be 9 its normal position :5 ! ,,gre5 inscription is 9 view1 & bo? ! m9iature signal-arms rais$ to dang]4 ,fig4 #eab repres5ts a portion ( d\ble l9e divid$ out into sections1 or work+ blocks1 betwe5 ! /ations ,b1 ,c1 & ,d4 ,ea* /ation is provid$ ) ! necess>y block-telegraph in/rum5ts1 & ! usual di/ant1 home1 & />t+ semaphore signals4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eaa1 #eab1 #eac ,fig4 #eac is a diagram sket* %[+ ! pair ( in/rum5ts z !y /& on ! in/rum5t-tables 9 ! signal-cab9s ,b & ,c1 :]e ,b#b & ,c#a are ! in/rum5ts :i* "w toge!r = ! block section ,,bc4 ,suppos+ a ,,d[n tra9 proce$+ f ,a 9 ! direction ( ,f1 & approa*+ ! signal-cab9 ( ! block /ation at ,b1 ! ,,d[n />t+ signal /&+ at dang]2 !n by ! code ( signals on ! bell or gong ! signalman at cab9 ,b w\ld communicate ) ! signalman at cab9 ,c1 to obta9 l9e cle>1 s z to all[ ! #cda approa*+ tra9 to proce$ on to ,c4 ,if ! previ\s tra9 9 ! same direction _h already pass$ ,c1 & !re 0 n any ob/ruction on ! l9e1 ! signalman at ,c w\ld give l9e cle> = ! ,,d[n tra91 & to d s he w\ld turn 8 circul> disc to %[ ! ,,:ite inscription ,,all ,,cle>1 & !n pu% 9 ! plung] ( 8 ,c#a in/rum5t1 l[]+ ! ,,d[n or :ite arm1 ,k1 ( 8 own in/rum5t to ! position %[n by ! dott$ l9es1 :i* op]ation w\ld at ! same mom5t l[] by electricity ! ,,d[n or r$ arm1 ,g1 ( ! in/rum5t ,b#b 9 cab9 ,b to ! position ( ! dott$ l9es4 ,! signalman at ,b w\ld !n l[] 8 />t+ signal1 to all[ ! ,,d[n tra9 to proce$ on t[>ds ,c1 & imm$iately ! tra9 _h pass$ ! />t+ signal he w\ld1 by means ( 8 bell or gong advise ! signalman at ,c t ! tra9 _h ent]$ ! section1 or block ,,bc1 & ! signalman at ,c w\ld at once turn 8 circul> disc to %[ ! ,,r$ inscription ,,tra9 ,,on ,,l9e1 & use 8 plung] to raise to dang] ! ,,d[n or :ite arm1 ,k1 ( 8 own in/rum5t1 & at ! same "t raise by electricity ! ,,d[n or r$ arm1 ,g1 to dang] 9 ! in/rum5t ,b#b 9 cab9 ,b4 ,! section ,,bc w\ld !n rema9 block$ until ! ,,d[n tra9 _h arriv$1 or pass$ ! /ation ,c1 :5 ! signalman !re w\ld1 by means ( 8 bell or gong advise ! signalman at ,b t ! ,,d[n tra9 _h pass$ out ( ! section1 & w\ld turn 8 circul> disc to %[ ! ,,gre5 inscription ,,tra9 ,,(f1 ,,b ,,section ,,block$4 ,bo? in/rum5ts w\ld !n be 9 _! normal positions1 ) ! arms rais$ to dang]1 & ready = fur!r tra9 op]ations4 ,9 a simil> mann] = ! ,,up-l9e tra9s on ! section or block betwe5 ,c & ,b1 ! signalman 9 ,b cab9 w\ld turn 8 circul> disc1 & use 8 plung] to l[] ! ,,up or :ite arm1 ,h1 9 8 own in/rum5t1 ,b#b1 & at ! same mom5t l[] by electricity ! ,,up or r$ arm1 ,i1 ( ! in/rum5t ,c#a 9 cab9 ,c1 ! o!r op]ation = tra9 on l9e & tra9 (f be+ c>ri$ out = ! ,,up tra9 9 ! same r\t9e z = ! ,,d[n tra94 ,! outdoor fix$ signals1 or di/ant home & />t+ semaphore signals1 h all to be work$ to correspond to ! block telegraph signals1 & z ! latt] are always receiv$ well 9 advance ( an approa*+ tra91 x foll[s t :5 ! l9e is cle>1 ! outdoor signals c be l[]$ s z to all[ a ?r\gh or non-/opp+ tra9 to pass a block-telegraph /ation at full spe$4 ,:]e ! traffic is mod]ate1 x may be suffici5t to h #cdb block-telegraph in/rum5ts at ea* ( ! /ations1 b ) a v frequ5t tra9 s]vice x w be f\nd necess>y to divide ! l9e into %ort] sections1 & erect signal-cab9s & block-telegraph in/rum5ts at int]m$iate po9ts betwe5 /ations4 ,! code ( bell or gong signals is ext5d$ to include v>i\s matt]s 9 connection ) ! tra9-work+4 ,= example1 :5 a ,,d[n tra9 is pass+ cab9 ,b at full spe$1 ! signalman may obs]ve t !re is some?+ wrong--a c>riage or waggon on fire1 a tail-lamp miss+1 or o!r irregul>ity4 ,x is too late to /op ! tra9 ) 8 own signals1 b by means ( 8 bell or gong he c call ^u ! signalman 9 cab9 ,c to /op & exam9e ! tra91 & ! ,,d[n di/ant & home signals at ,c c be rais$ to dang] be=e ! tra9 rea*es ! cab9 at ,c4 ,9 e block-telegraph signal-cab9 !re is a tra9-book 9 :i* ! signalman has to write d[n ! "t & description ( e arriv+ or pass+ tra91 &1 z ?is book lies be=e him1 he has a complete record ( ! tra9-work+1 ) ! p>ticul>s ( ! exact times :5 ! l9e cle> signals 7 giv51 & also :5 ! tra9 arriv$ or pass$ 8 signal-cab94 ,to gu>d aga9/ ! possibility ( a signalman inadv]t5tly giv+ l9e cle>1 or all[+ ano!r tra9 to pass 8 cab9 be=e ! previ\s tra9 _h rea*$ ! signal-cab9 9 advance1 "s railways h adopt$ ! lock & block sy/em4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! />t+ signal at any cab9 is electrically & me*anically lock$ f ! cab9 9 advance1 & c only be releas$ or l[]$ by ! action ( ! outgo+ tra9 itself :5 pass+ ov] a treadle or o!r appliance connect$ ) ! rails ( ! runn+-l9e at ! signal-cab9 9 advance4 ,?is me?od practically gives ! tra9 ! complete control ( ! section2 & any signalman attempt+1 9 error1 to l[] 8 />t+ signal w\ld f9d x to rema9 fix$ to dang] & immovable1 until releas$ by ! arrival ( ! tra9 at ! advance cab94 ,tra9-/aff = ,s+le ,l9e4--,:5 !re is only a s+le l9e ( railway = bo? an ,,up & ,,d[n tra9-s]vice1 v def9ite precautions mu/ be adopt$ to prev5t ! meet+ or collision ( tra9s travell+ 9 opposite directions4 ,:]e ! piece ( s+le #cdc l9e is %ort1 & c be work$ by "o eng9e 9 /eam1 or two c\pl$ toge!r1 no collision c take place1 z ! tra9-s]vice w be limit$ to ! "o tra9 mov+ backw>ds & =w>ds ov] ! section2 b ) a long l5g? ( s+le l9e1 includ+ a l>ge numb] ( /ations1 necessitat+ sev]al tra9s1 "s cle> & compreh5sive regulations mu/ be introduc$4 ,= a long "t ! simple tra9-/aff 0 f\nd to give ! desir$ security2 !re 0 only "o /aff = ea* pair ( adjo9+ /aff-/ations1 & no tra9 0 au?oriz$ to run )\t ! /aff1 & z ! /aff c\ld only be on "o tra9 at a "t1 ! precaution aga9/ collisions 0 look$ ^u z complete4 ,^! /affs1 :i* 7 g5]ally made ( brass1 or o!r metal1 7 suffici5tly l>ge to be conspicu\s :5 plac$ 9 ! /& prep>$ = !m on ! eng9e4 ,!y 7 lett]$ to correspond to ! /ations to :i* !y belong$1 & 7 made 9 diff]5t patt]ns to di/+ui% !m = _! respective sections4 ,no tra9 0 all[$ to />t f a /ation until ! eng9e-driv] receiv$ f ! /ation-ma/] ! prop] /aff to au?orize him to proce$ to ! next /ation1 & on 8 arrival !re x 0 ! duty ( ! eng9e-driv] to h& ov] ! tra9-/aff to ! /ationma/] ( t place1 & wait = ano!r tra9-/aff to au?orize him to proce$ ov] ! next section4 ,s long z ! tra9 s]vice c\ld be ev5ly arrang$1 & t !re 0 always an ,,up tra9 to take back a tra9-/aff :i* has be5 c>ri$ out by a ,,d[n tra91 ! simple /aff work$ mo/ effici5tly2 b z ! traffic increas$1 & two or m tra9s _h to be despat*$ 9 ! ,,d[n direction be=e "o _h to run 9 ! ,,up direction1 "s auxili>y arrangem5t _h to be introduc$4 ,?is 0 effect$ by issu+ tra9 tickets1 kept 9 a lock$-up box1 :i* c\ld only be op5$ by ! key atta*$ to ! tra9-/aff4 ,a prop]ly dat$ tra9-ticket 0 h&$ to ! eng9e-driv] ( ! fir/ ,,d[n tra91 &1 if necess>y1 a second tra9-ticket to ! eng9e-driv] ( a second ,,d[n tra91 & !n ! tra9-/aff itself 0 h&$ to ! eng9e-driv] ( ! ?ird ,,d[n tra94 ,!re 7 "o or two s]i\s drawbacks to ?is tra9-/aff & ticket-work+4 ,z !re 0 only a "t int]val betwe5 ! />t+ ( ! tra9s1 ! "o tra9 might ov]take & run into ! o!r ) disa/r\s results4 ,aga91 a second or ?ird tra91 :i* 0 put d[n 9 ! s*$ule1 might be )drawn at ! la/ mom5t1 & ! /aff left beh9d at a /ation :5 x 0 requir$ at ! opposite end ( ! section1 ?us caus+ #cdd mu* confusion & delay4 ,! ord9>y electric telegraph c\ld h be5 utiliz$ to assi/ 9 regulat+ ^! tra9 movem5ts1 b x 0 felt t a m]e telegraph message 0 n suffici5t to ensure positive safety1 & t some?+ m tangible 0 requir$ 9 ! %ape ( a /aff1 or tok51 )\t :i* no tra9 %\ld be all[$ to travel on a s+le l9e ( railway4 ,to meet ?is requirem5t1 ! electric tra9-tablet1 & ! electric tra9-/aff in/rum5ts h be5 inv5t$1 ea* ( !m be+ s arrang$ t ^u any "o section1 or pair ( in/rum5ts1 a tablet or tra9-/aff may be tak5 out f ! in/rum5t at ei!r end ( ! section1 b :5 once tak5 out1 no o!r tablet or tra9-/aff c be )drawn f ei!r in/rum5t until ! fir/ has be5 deliv]$ & plac$ aga9 9 "o or o!r ( ! two in/rum5ts4 ,figs4 #ead1 #eae1 & #eaf are sket*es ( an electric tra9-/aff in/rum5t :i* has be5 v l>gely adopt$ on s+le l9es1 bo? at home & abroad4 ,9 a simil> mann] to ! block-telegraph in/rum5ts = d\ble l9e1 ! electric tra9-/aff in/rum5ts h ea* a bell or gong by :i* ! adjac5t signalm5 c communicate _! calls & answ]s 9 accordance ) a regulation code4 ,9 ! signal-cab9s ( ! int]m$iate /ations two in/rum5ts are requir$1 "o = ! /affs belong+ to ! section to ! left ( ! cab91 & ! o!r = ! /affs ( ! section to ! "r4 ,at a t]m9al /ation only "o in/rum5t is requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ead1 #eaf1 #eae1 #eag ,! head ( ! in/rum5t conta9s ! electrical & me*anical lock+ app>atus :i* controls ! )drawal ( a tra9-/aff1 or is act$ ^u by its ins]tion4 ,! circul> "n-plates & po9t]s1 toge!r ) ! galvanomet] 9 ! c5tre1 s]ve z indicators to guide ! signalm5 9 c>ry+ out ! v>i\s op]ations4 ,! /affs usually consi/ ( ?9 /eel tubes1 solid at ! ends1 ) metal r+s fix$ ^u !m1 z %[n 9 ! sket*1 ! numb] & position ( ! r+s v>y+ accord+ to ! section or pair ( /aff /ations to :i* !y belong2 ?is diff]5ce 9 ! r+s effectually prev5t+ ! possibility ( "o set ( /affs be+ us$ or ins]t$ 9 ei!r ( ! in/rum5ts ( ! adjo9+ sections4 ,! /affs re/ normally 9 ! long v]tical slot ,a1 ) ! r+s fitt+ 9 v]tical grooves1 :i* prev5t ! removal ( any /aff except by pass+ x along ! curv$ slot ,,bc1 & out by ! op5+ #cdf ,d1 ( l>ge diamet]4 ,! electrical & me*anical lock+ app>atus is plac$ at ! curv$ slot1 & until ! lock+-bolt1 :i* /&s across ! passage ( ! curv$ slot1 be lift$ by ! jo9t op]ations ( ! signalm5 & _! in/rum5ts at bo? ends ( ! section1 no /aff c be )drawn4 ,:5 ! in/rum5ts are /&+ 9 _! normal position ( 8/affs 910 ! signalm5 c arrange betwe5 !m to )draw a /aff--say ei!r f ! ,,nor? cab9 in/rum5t or f ! ,,s\? cab9 in/rum5t ( ! section1 b only f "o ( !m2 & ! act ( tak+ out t /aff automatically locks bo? in/rum5ts1 & prev5ts ! possibility ( tak+ out any o!r /aff f ei!r in/rum5t until ! /aff already remov$ is re/or$ & ins]t$ 9 "o or o!r ( ! in/rum5ts4 ,f ! above description x w be se5 t ! electric tra9-/aff in/rum5t provides = ! safe work+ ( two or m tra9s proce$+1 "o at a "t1 9 ! same direction ov] a section ( s+le l9e1 ea* "o be+ suppli$ ) a tra9-/aff1 :i* mu/ be h&$ ov] at ! end ( a section be=e ano!r /aff c be issu$ = a foll[+ tra94 ,%\ld ! tra9-/affs accumulate 9 "o in/rum5t1 9 consequ5ce ( m tra9s runn+ 9 "o direction ?an ano!r1 a re-di/ribution ( /affs is effect$ by ! au?oriz$ p]sons accord+ to fix$ regulations4 ,9 ! diagram sket*1 ,fig4 #eag1 a piece ( s+le l9e is %[n divid$ into sections or blocks1 ) loops or pass+-places at ! /ations4 ,at ! /ation ,e a tra9-/aff tak5 out ( ! in/rum5t ,f s]ves = ! section up to ! in/rum5t ,l at ! /ation ,h2 & on ! tra9-/aff is a key :i* w op5 ! deta*$ locks on ! po9ts ( ! small int]m$iate /ation1 ,g1 z describ$ 9 ,fig4 #ejg1 9 connection ) ! work+ ( deta*$ locks4 ,at ! /ation ,h ! eng9e-driv] receives ano!r /aff f ! in/rum5t ,m1 :i* takes him to ! in/rum5t ,n at /ation ,k1 & 9 l mann] on ?is /aff is a key :i* w op5 ! deta*$ lock on ! colli]y sid+ po9ts at ,i4 ,at /ations ,h & ,k are %[n loops1 or %ort pieces ( d\ble l9e1 ) plat=m to enable an ,,up tra9 to cross or pass a ,,d[n tra94 ,! di/ance ap>t ( ! electric tra9-/aff /ations w dep5d greatly ^u ! numb] ( ! tra9s1 & = a frequ5t tra9-s]vice x may be necess>y to h ! in/rum5ts at e /ation1 :e!r l>ge or small4 ,! electric tra9-/aff is ( great advantage 9 ! work+ ( balla/ or con/ruction tra9s1 z #cdg a /aff may be tak5 out ( ! in/rum5t ,f at /ation ,e1 :i* w give possession ( ! section z f> z /ation ,h1 & :5 ! balla/+ op]ations--:i* may be v ne> to ,e--are complet$1 ! tra9 c return to ,e1 & deliv] ! /aff aga9 to ! in/rum5t ,f1 in/ead ( hav+ to run ! entire di/ance to /ation ,h4 ,al?\gh c>ry+ a tra9-/aff1 ! eng9e-driv] mu/ approa* /ations cauti\sly1 & obey ! fix$ signals 9 ! usual mann]4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 #cdh ,railways ( diff]5t ranks--,progressive improvem5ts--,gr[+ t5d5cy = increas$ spe$s1 ) correspond+ increase 9 weight ( p]man5t way & roll+-/ock--,electricity z a motive-p[]4 ,look+ at railways 9 _! pres5t /age ( developm5t1 !y appe> to be divid$ into ?ree ranks1 ea* "o di/9ct f ! o!r z reg>ds its importance1 capability1 & prospects4 ,9 ! fir/ rank are ! great trunk l9es1 :i*1 at home or abroad1 pass ?r\gh ?ickly populat$ di/ricts1 ri* 9 manufactures1 m9]als1 or %ipp+ indu/ries1 ) _! enorm\s movem5t ( mat]ials & p1 & consequ5tly requir+ ! mo/ ample works1 equipm5t1 & appliances = security4 ,9 ! second rank may be class$ ^? railways :i* run ?r\gh ranges ( c\ntry :]e ! population is mod]ate1 or :]e ! manufactur+ indu/ries are few 9 numb] & ( m9or importance4 ,al?\gh ( ! utmo/ value to ! community ( ! long s]ies ( small t[ns & agricultural di/ricts ?r\gh :i* !y pass1 & =m+ ! only great comm]cial highway1 or connect+ l9k1 ) "s di/ant seaport1 or lead+ bus9ess c5tre1 ! traffic returns ^u su* l9es are too small to p]mit ( ! introduction ( ! m complete appliances & luxuries to be met ) on ! ri*] railways4 ,9 newly op5$-out c\ntries1 & 9 di/ant colonies1 su* l9es h (t5 to /ruggle on = ye>s aga9/ f9ancial returns s small z to b>ely enable !m to ma9ta9 a condition ( effici5cy2 b :]e !re are natural advantages 9 soil & climate1 comb9$ ) a judici\s developm5t ( all ! available res\rces1 ! result w be ! rais+ ( ! /&>d ( ! railway itself1 & ! enri*m5t ( ! entire di/rict ?r\gh :i* x passes4 ,:5 lay+ out l9es ( ?is description1 x may be necess>y to curtail z mu* z possible ! exp5diture on works & equipm5t1 b !re %\ld be no hesitation 9 obta9+ lib]al quantities ( l& = future enl>gem5t ( /ations1 or = con/ruct+ additional #cdi /ations on promis+ sites4 ,! value ( ! l& may be small 9 ! outset1 b w be enhanc$ enorm\sly z ! b5efits ( ! und]tak+ become appreciat$4 ,9 ! ?ird rank may be gr\p$ ^? bran* l9es :i*1 />t+ f a ma9 pass5g] or goods l9e1 are laid d[n to "s outly+ t[n1 seaport1 or m9+ c5tre1 :i*1 al?\gh small1 is consid]$ ( suffici5t importance to be br\ght into railway communication4 ,9 g5]al1 ^! l9es are laid to ! same gauge z ! l9e ) :i* !y connect1 & ! transf] ( m]*&ise waggons is readily effect$ at ! po9t ( junction4 ,o!rs1 f motives ( economy1 h be5 laid d[n to a n>r[ gauge1 involv+ ! tran%ipm5t ( all goods & cattle at ! /ation :]e ! break ( gauge takes place4 ,mo/ ( ^! bran* l9es are laid out ?r\gh ! op5 c\ntry1 l an ord9>y /&>d railway1 b ) a m9imum ( works & appliances4 ,o!rs are laid d[n p>tly on level public roads1 & p>tly ?r\gh ! fields1 & are 9 consequ5ce subject to a /atutory l[ rate ( spe$ :5 travell+ ov] ^? portions on ! public roads4 ,9 _m cases ! con/ruction ( second & ?ird rank railways1 bo? at home & abroad1 has be5 l>gely assi/$ by /ate or prov9cial aid4 ,su* assi/ance mu/ always be valuable to poor or undevelop$ di/ricts1 b judgm5t %\ld be ex]cis$ s z n to enc\rage ! introduction ( any s*eme :i* w\ld int]f]e or become competitive ) any exi/+ und]tak+ con/ruct$ by public ent]prise4 ,s long z capitali/s inve/ _! money m f comm]cial motives ?an f feel+s ( philan?ropy1 x w\ld1 to say ! lea/1 be unju/ & impolitic = any c\ntry to adopt a c\rse ( competition by national funds1 & s *eck ! fl[ ( public money into public und]tak+s4 ,ord9>y public comm]cial competition may be bus9ess1 z ea* p>ty c value & comp>e _! own prospects2 b ! competition ( a s*eme enjoy+ national aid & free money grants is v apt to become "o-sid$4 ,!re is e indication t ev5 :at may be t]m$ a f\r?-rank type ( railway is de/9$ to play a v important "p 9 ! indu/rial ent]prises ( _m c\ntries1 & t 9 ! =m ( little l9es1 made to any conv5i5t gauge1 & laid ei!r along public roads or op5 c\ntry1 or bo?1 ! produce f isolat$ manufactories1 =e/s1 qu>ries1 & l>ge f>ms w be convey$ to #cej ! ne>e/ railway /ations ) great] facility & at mu* less exp5se ?an by c>t+ along ! public highway4 ,su* little l9es are available 9 places :]e ! mo/ sangu9e promot] w\ld hesitate to sugge/ an ord9>y railway1 & may be f\nd to supply :at is felt to be ! miss+ l9k 9 ! economical transport ( a long li/ ( mat]ials ( ev]yday use4 ,z !y w\ld be almo/ exclusively int5d$ = m]*&ise purposes1 ! /atutory requirem5ts w\ld be on ! mo/ mod]ate scale1 & z !y w\ld be g5]ally con/ruct$ at ! co/ ( ! p>ties :o _h to op]ate !m1 ! outlay w\ld be re/rict$ to ! actual works necess>y = conv5i5ce & effici5cy4 ,simil> little l9es h be5 9 use = _m ye>s 9 ! busy y>ds ( l>ge ironworks1 %ipbuild]s1 & _m o!r localities1 :]e weighty masses ( mat]ials h to be mov$ f place to place 9 ! c\rse ( manufacture1 & x w\ld be m]ely c>ry+ out ! same idea to a m ext5d$ range4 ,! pr9cipal inducem5t = _! introduction is ! great advantage1 bo? 9 conv5i5ce & co/1 t is obta9$ by haul+ a ton ( mat]ials ov] a pair ( rails z comp>$ ) c>t+ ! same weight along an ord9>y road2 & z ! fact becomes m & m prov$ by exp]i5ce1 ^! little f\r?-rank l9es w become m g5]al4 ,numb]s ( !m are 9 use at ! pres5t "t1 & "s ( !m1 ev5 ( only #b-;feet gauge1 are do+ good s]vice1 ! little trucks convey+ manufactur$ goods to ! ne>e/ railway /ation & return+ load$ ) coals & o!r mat]ials4 ,by mak+ suitable arrangem5ts = pass+ places & junctions1 ! sy/em c\ld be c>ri$ out to consid]able di/ances 9 ?9ly populat$ di/ricts1 & be made available by means ( local sid+s1 to sev]al places along ! r\te4 ,) a n>r[-gauge type !re w\ld1 ( c\rse1 always be ! "t & exp5se ( tran%ipm5t to or f ! ord9>y railway trucks 9 ! same way z ) ! road c>ts1 b ! "t & exp5se may be less5$ by s con/ruct+ ! little n>r[-gauge trucks t ! bodies may be readily lift$ (f ! frames & :eels1 & be plac$ l pack+-cases 9 ! railway waggons4 ,x is natural to look to ! railways ( ! fir/ rank = ! late/ advances 9 con/ruction1 appliances1 & equipm5t1 & x is g5]ally !re !y are f\nd4 ,great trunk l9es1 cr[d$ ) traffic ( all k9ds1 h n only ! opportunity & means1 b all ! /rong inducem5ts to try or adopt any arrangem5t :i* promises #cea great] facilities = deal+ ) ! ev]-increas+ dem&s made on _! c>ry+ p[]s4 ,pass5g] & goods traffic are s dissimil> 9 _! requirem5ts t :5 bo? ( !m are /eadily increas+ x becomes difficult1 if n impossible1 to "w ! two classes ov] an ord9>y d\ble l9e4 ,9 "s cases mu* assi/ance has be5 obta9$ by %ort5+ ! l5g?s ( ! work+ sections & introduc+ int]m$iate electric telegraph block /ations betwe5 ! ord9>y /ations4 ,long refuge-sid+s h also be5 introduc$ at _m ( ! signal-cab9s or /ations1 into :i* goods tra9s c be %unt$ out ( ! way to all[ fa/ pass5g] tra9s to pass ?r\gh )\t /opp+4 ,up to a c]ta9 ext5t ?is arrangem5t works fairly well1 b :]e !re is a v frequ5t s]vice ( fa/ & sl[ pass5g] tra9s1 comb9$ ) a heavy & con/ant s]vice ( goods & m9]al tra9s1 ! two l9es ( way are practically incapable ( accommodat+ su* a numb] ( mix$ tra9s )\t caus+ s]i\s det5tions4 ,! goods tra9s mu/ %unt out ( ! way "s "t be=e a pass5g] tra9 is due1 & ?is frequ5t %unt+ into sid+s results 9 h\rs ( delay 9 ! transit ( ! goods & cattle traffic2 & :5 "o ( su* tra9s is all[$ to proce$ aga9 on its way up to ano!r /ation1 dove-tail$ z x may be betwe5 two fa/ pass5g] tra9s1 !re is always ! t5d5cy to run at a mu* high] rate ( spe$ ?an is prud5t = ! class ( roll+-/ock ( :i* ! goods tra9 is compos$4 ,to ov]come ?is difficulty "s railways h introduc$ additional ,,up & ,,d[n l9es on ! busie/ "p ( _! sy/em1 mak+ f\r l9es ( way 9 all1 two ( ^! be+ res]v$ = ! fa/ pass5g] & ?r\gh tra9s1 & ! o!r two = sl[ tra9s1 goods1 & m9]al tra9s4 ,?is arrangem5t ( ! f\r l9es has af=d$ great relief to ! traffic ( all k9ds1 & has enabl$ ! s]vice to be work$ ) mu* great] facility & punctuality4 ,! goods tra9s be+ re/rict$ to _! own sep>ate l9es1 c proce$ regul>ly 9 _! ord]1 at _! uni=m work+ spe$1 )\t hav+ to resort to ! spasmodic fa/ runn+ too (t5 expect$ f !m :5 pass+ ov] "s p>ts ( an ord9>y d\ble l9e4 ,d\btless ?is f\r-l9e sy/em1 or r ! pr9ciple ( lay+ d[n two additional l9es ( way1 w g on ext5d+1 & w be accel]at$ 9 its accompli%m5t by ! gr[+ dem& = /ill high] spe$ ( our fa/ pass5g] tra9s1 & /ill long] di/ances to be trav]s$ )\t /opp+4 ,high-spe$ long-di/ance ?r\gh #ceb tra9s c only p]=m _! j\rneys ) punctuality1 :5 ! r\te is kept cle> ( all o!r tra9s or ob/ructions :i* might int]f]e ) _! free runn+4 ,any *eck or /oppage 9 _! c\rse w\ld cause loss ( "t & pre/ige4 ,x is to be regrett$ t 9 s _m ( ! cases :]e two additional l9es ( way h be5 laid d[n1 m space 0 n left betwe5 ! sets ( rails = ! fa/ traffic & ^? = ! sl[4 ,9 _m in/ances ! divid+ space is n m ?an #g or #h feet4 ,x w\ld h be5 bett] & saf] if x c\ld h be5 made #bj feet4 ,an ord9>y goods tra9 is made up ( sev]al k9ds ( trucks1 "s empty1 "s load$1 _m ( !m unequally load$1 all ( !m subject to heavy "w & r\gh h&l+1 & m likely to give tr\ble ?an ! high] class vehicle1 ! pass5g] c>riage4 ,! break+ d[n or d]ailm5t ( "o or two goods trucks on a l9e ( rails close alongside ! fa/ pass5g] rails1 w\ld 9 all probability s f\l & ob/ruct ! pass5g] l9e z to cause a v s]i\s accid5t to an express tra9 :i* c\ld n be /opp$ 9 "t4 ,! great] wid? w\ld n only provide m cle>ance 9 case ( breakd[ns1 b w\ld af=d increas$ safety to ! platelay]s & o!r workm5 engag$ on ! l9e4 ,! p]man5t-way m5 h to be v wat*ful to keep out ( dang] on an ord9>y busy d\ble l9e1 b !y mu/ be v mu* m on ! al]t :]e !re are f\r l9es ( way close toge!r side by side4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( l>ge cities & important manufactur+ c5tres1 railways h creat$ a di/9ct traffic = !mselves by provid+ means = a l>ge portion ( ! population to reside 9 conv5i5t suburbs4 ,local tra9s runn+ at suitable bus9ess h\rs h induc$ p ( all classes to select homes a few miles away f t[n1 & ! gradual gr[? ( ?is suburban traffic has produc$ its own advantages & requirem5ts4 ,at ! l>ge t]m9al /ations plat=m aft] plat=m has be5 add$ to accommodate ! increas$ numb] ( tra9s :i* arrive 9 ! busy p>ts ( ! morn+ or dep>t 9 ! ev5+4 ,e facility has to be provid$ to p]mit ( ! exp$iti\s +ress & egress ( ! l>ge cr[ds =m+ ! respective tra9s--ample plat=ms1 ov]-l9e foot-bridges1 subways1 conv5i5t book+-(fices1 wait+-rooms1 & left-luggage rooms4 ,! enorm\s tra9 s]vice on "s ( ^! fir/-rank l9es dem&s #cec ! highe/ effici5cy 9 ! signall+ & int]lock+ arrangem5ts1 & ! use ( any devices :i* w ensure increas$ facility & safety 9 ! work+ ( ! traffic4 ,) a cr[d ( tra9s pass+ a signal-cab9 9 bo? directions1 & (t5 ov] f\r l9es ( way1 x is q possible = a signalman to make a mi/ake :i* _c be rectifi$ 9 "t to prev5t an accid5t4 ,to obta9 increas$ security _m railways h adopt$ ! lock & block sy/em previ\sly describ$1 or "s adaptation ( ! same pr9ciple1 & ?is me?od ( work+ w g on ext5d+ z ! traffic increases4 ,^! additional appliances entail additional c>e & inspection1 = al?\gh automatical ma*9]y may be exempt f ! human frailty ( preoccupation ( m9d or =getfulness1 x is some:at delicate 9 its organization1 & requires con/ant sup]vision to ma9ta9 its effici5cy4 ,on _m ( ! l>ge l9es1 mu* has be5 done to give improv$ c>riage accommodation4 ,c>riages h be5 made long]1 easi] on ! road1 l(ti]1 bett] furni%$1 & bett] light$2 b !re is /ill a v great defici5cy 9 ^? conv5i5ces s ess5tially necess>y1 especially on tra9s runn+ long di/ances )\t /opp+4 ,draw+-room c>s & d9+-room c>s are no d\bt attractive1 & may contribute consid]ably to ! popul>ity ( c]ta9 r\tes2 b x is que/ionable :e!r _m ( ! l9es at home & abroad :i* h adopt$ su* luxuries1 h n 9 do+ s comm5c$ at ! wrong end1 & :e!r x w\ld n h be5 m to ! public satisfaction to h begun by fir/ provid+ ^? conv5i5ces :i* are f\nd 9 e c>riage on e l9e 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x is satisfactory to f9d t !re is a /eadily gr[+ t5d5cy to s con/ruct pass5g] c>riages t _! occupants may1 by passages or corridors1 communicate ) all p>ts ( ! same c>riage or ) ! adjo9+ c>riages2 & !re is e reason to assume t ! c>riage ( ! future1 ei!r by legislation or cons5t1 w comb9e bo? ! items ( conv5i5ces & int]communication1 & w conf] n only great] com=t to ! pass5g]s1 b also increas$ protection aga9/ ^? outrages :i*1 un=tunately1 too frequ5tly occur "u ! sy/em ( isolat$ comp>tm5ts4 ,x w be in/ructive to wat* ! results ( ! pass5g] receipts #ced on ^? l9es :]e only fir/ & ?ird-class c>riages are us$4 ,! elim9ation ( ! second class may at fir/ sight appe> an innovation2 b if !re is n any pecuni>y loss su/a9$1 !re mu/ be a ga9 9 ! r$uction ( unoccupi$ seats to be haul$4 ,x is cu/om>y to provide 9 e tra9 a lib]al numb] ( sp>e seats ( ea* class to meet cont+5cies2 & ! omission ( "o class may mean ! sav+ ( two or ?ree c>riages--a v important item 9 locomotive p[]4 ,on important ?r\gh l9es high-spe$ runn+ has become a lead+ feature1 & compels a v effici5t /&>d ( p]fection 9 works & roll+-/ock to effect its atta9m5t4 ,!re is no indication ( rema9+ cont5t$ ) :at has be5 already accompli%$2 on ! contr>y1 ! _s ( re/lessness is always urg+ to d some?+ m4 ,! travell+ public speak z calmly n[ ( a spe$ ( sev5ty miles an h\r z !y did ( ?irty-five a few ye>s ago2 !y ?or\ghly recognize ! value ( railways1 & !y m]ely desire to travel /ill fa/]4 ,! inc5tives ( emulation & competition are ev] pres5t to enc\rage fur!r & fur!r r$uction ( ! runn+ "t1 & ! railway t (f]s a special fa/ ?r\gh s]vice = "s ( its pass5g] & mail tra9s1 reasonably expects its popul>ity & patronage to be 9 ! asc5dant4 ,mu* has be5 done 9 p]man5t way & equipm5t to make ! pres5t high spe$s possible1 b m w be requir$ if ! spe$s are to g on increas+4 ,! pass5g] c>riages = su* "w mu/ be v sub/antial1 & naturally heavy4 ,! locomotives to haul a long tra9 mu/ h increas$ p[] & weight1 & w necessitate /rong] rails to c>ry ! great] roll+ loads4 ,) ! pres5t sy/em ( motive-p[]1 ! heavie/ item is ! locomotive1 & its weight mu/ always det]m9e & regulate ! "* ( ! works & p]man5t way4 ,rails weigh+ #ij p\nds p] y>d are becom+ common1 & !re is cle> indication t be=e v long sections weigh+ f #ajj to #abj p\nds1 or m1 p] y>d w be br\ght into use on _m l9es4 ,!re w be no difficulty 9 mak+ a p]man5t way /rong en\gh = roll+ loads v f> 9 excess ( any?+ 9 ! pres5t practice2 b x w be co/ly1 & ! extra exp5se p] mile1 ext5d$ ov] a few hundr$ miles1 w repres5t a sum s l>ge z to raise ! "q 9 _m cases :e!r ! probable advantages & additional remun]ation to be obta9$ w w>rant ! outlay4 ,to "s ext5t ! increas$ spe$ may be atta9$ by divid+ ! #cee pres5t long tra9s into two %ort] tra9s1 ) a fair int]val ( "t betwe5 !m4 ,!re are _m spl5did locomotives n[ runn+1 :i* on a fairly level l9e c rea* a spe$ ( consid]ably ov] sev5ty miles an h\r ) a %ort tra91 b w\ld be q incapable ( do+ s ) a long tra94 ,at ! same "t x is possible t if pass5g]s increase 9 ! same proportion z ! inducem5ts provid$1 ! %ort tra9 might n be suffici5t = ! numb]s pres5t$1 & !re w\ld be no o!r alt]native b to resort to /ill great] roll+ loads & /rong] haul+ p[]4 ,p]haps electricity1 :i* has already a*iev$ s _m m>vels1 is de/9$ to take a /ill m prom95t "p z a motive-p[] 9 ! work+ ( ord9>y railways1 & may help out ( ! difficulty by inaugurat+ /ill high] spe$s )\t ! necessity ( incurr+ /rong] works or heavi] p]man5t way4 ,9 addition to its success 9 ! telegraph1 9 ! telephone1 & 9 its brilliant light1 electricity is e day com+ m & m to ! front z a motive-p[]4 ,at pres5t _m tramways & %ort l9es1 "s ( !m 9 tunnel1 "s above gr\nd1 & _m ( !m ) v /eep gradi5ts1 are successfully work$ by electricity2 b ^!1 be+ ( mod]n con/ruction1 7 specially design$ & equipp$ = t me?od ( work+1 & none ( !m z yet resort to high spe$s4 ,su* rapid /rides h1 h[ev]1 be5 already made 9 ! progress ( ?is sy/em ( haulage1 z to promise t bo? increas$ p[] & spe$ w be =?com+ :5 ! dem& = !m is made manife/4 ,v>i\s modes ( application are be+ tri$3 ov]head wires1 und]gr\nd wires1 conductors on ! level ) ! rails1 /orage batt]ies or accumulators1 & self-conta9$ electric motors1 ea* & all ( !m be+ c>efully te/$ to asc]ta9 ! comp>ative co/ & effici5cy4 ,mu* w dep5d ^u ! localities & advantages to be obta9$ = ! respective g5]at+ /ations4 ,9 places :]e a l>ge1 con/ant1 & unutiliz$ wat] supply is available1 a great sav+ may be effect$ 9 ! mo/ exp5sive item ( electric work+1 b 9 ! great] numb] ( cases /eam-p[] w h to be adopt$ = driv+ ! g5]at+ ma*9]y4 ,! ma9 "q w be :e!r electricity 9 its mo/ approv$ =m ( application c haul a ton ( pay+ load = "o mile at a less av]age co/1 & at z great or great] spe$ ?an ! ord9>y locomotive4 ,until !re is #cef v cle> evid5ce t electricity is *eap]1 !re w n be any great inducem5t = its g5]al use z a motive-p[] on ord9>y railways4 ,exp]im5ts h be5 made on "s exi/+ railways to asc]ta9 h[ f> ?is new motive-p[] c be made s]viceable "u special circum/ances4 ,9 "o case1 a p[]ful electric motor-c> has be5 introduc$ = work+ frequ5t & heavy tra9s ?r\gh a long tunnel1 :]e ! atmosph]e ) ord9>y /eam locomotives became f\l almo/ to suffocation1 & ! result has %[n t ! traffic c be haul$ effici5tly by electricity1 & ! air 9 ! tunnel ma9ta9$ pure & cle>4 ,9 ?is in/ance1 ! "q ( co/ 0 ( second>y importance1 ! prim>y object be+ to avoid ! asphyxiat+ gases emitt$ f ! ord9>y locomotives4 ,9 o!r cases1 specially design$ electric motor-c>s h be5 con/ruct$ ) a view to obta9 a high] spe$ = pass5g] tra9s ?an is at pres5t atta9$ ) ! locomotives1 & ! trials made h prov$ t ^! c>s c\ld rea* a high spe$1 b s f> only ) limit$ loads4 ,exp]im5ts are /ill go+ on ) l>g] & improv$ ma*9es1 f :i* x is expect$ to obta9 bo? high spe$ & mu* increas$ haul+ p[]4 ,x is m ?an probable t among/ ! e>lie/ practical applications ( electric motive-p[] on exi/+ railways w be its introduction z an auxili>y on ! /eep gradi5ts ( "s ( ! m\nta9 railways abroad4 ,9 _m ( ^! regions !re are millions ( gallons ( wat] runn+ to wa/e d[n ! rav9es1 a portion ( :i* c\ld be utiliz$ 9 work+ p[]ful g5]at+ plant1 to drive /rong electric motor-c>s = assi/+ ! ord9>y locomotives up ! /eep incl9es4 ,9 su* localities1 ) free wat]-p[]1 ! co/ ( ! electricity w\ld be at a m9imum1 :ile ! co/ ( ! ord9>y locomotive w\ld be at a maximum4 ,9 :atev] =m ! electric motor-c> may be design$1 we are br\ght face to face ) ! old axiom1 t !re mu/ be a c]ta9 am\nt ( weight to obta9 a c]ta9 am\nt ( adhesion2 b !re w be "o important po9t 9 fav\r ( ! motor-c>1 t :]eas 9 ! ord9>y locomotive ! weight = traction c only be di/ribut$ ov] a few work+ :eels1 ! electric arrangem5t may di/ribute x ov] a mu* great] numb]1 & s dim9i% ! insi/5t weight ( ea* :eel ^u ! rails4 ,!re w\ld also be ! #ceg sav+ ( ! dead weight ( ! t5d]1 ! fuel1 wat]1 & o!r m9or accessories1 z well z ! advantage t ! active p[] w\ld be appli$ 9 a rot>y =m in/ead ( reciprocat+4 ,!re are important int]e/s at /ake 9 ! p]fect+ ( ?is new sy/em ( haulage1 & day by day new developm5ts are be+ made to add to its effici5cy & r$uce its co/4 ,exi/+ railways w1 h[ev]1 naturally require "s v conv9c+ pro( ( ! all-r\nd sup]iority ( electricity be=e adopt+ t p[] g5]ally 9 place ( _! pres5t locomotives4 ,! latt]1 ) _! correspond+ work%ops & appliances1 repres5t s l>ge an am\nt ( inve/$ capital1 z to dem& mo/ ?or\gh trials & inve/igation ( ! new p[] be=e !y are sup]s$$2 nev]!less1 if fur!r exp]i5ce proves t electrical p[] is bett] & *eap] ?an ! ord9>y /eam locomotives1 !n ! *ange w und\bt$ly be made4 ,"u :atev] sy/em ( haulage ! accel]ation ( tra9s be obta9$1 ! increas$ spe$ w call = increas$ precautions 9 ! selection & prov+ ( ! mat]ials to be us$ 9 su* s]vice4 ,rails mu/ be made m uni=m 9 quality1 & mu/ be free f ! imputation ( fracture "u regul> we>4 ,not)/&+ ! great improvem5ts made 9 ! prep>ation ( ! /eel1 & 9 ! roll+1 !re are /ill f> too _m /eel rails :i* break "u traffic to all[ rail-mak]s to re/ satisfi$ ) _! "w4 ,some?+ is /ill want+ 9 ! manufacture to effectually remove ?is disposition to fracture4 ,! safe rail1 ! rail ( ! future1 mu/ be "o t may b5d & may we>1 b w nev] break "u ord9>y use 9 ! road4 ,axles mu/ be /rong] & t\gh]1 z !y w h to be> great] torsional /ra9s ?an are n[ impos$ ^u !m2 & ! :eels1 ( :atev] type !y are made1 mu/ be incapable ( collaps+ or fall+ to pieces ^u ! sudd5 & sev]e application ( ! brake-blocks4 ,a tra91 ru%+ along at a spe$ ( #gj or #hj miles an h\r1 may on an em]g5cy h to be br\ght to a /& 9 ! %orte/ di/ance possible1 & ! failure ( ei!r axles or :eels 9 ! endeav\r to av]t "o =m ( accid5t w\ld inevitably initiate ano!r4 ,to p]mit ( un*eck$ high-spe$ runn+1 _m %>p curves w h to be flatt5$1 bridges w h to be built at busy level cross+s2 & po9ts1 cross+s1 & junctions on ! ma9 l9es w #ceh h to be r$uc$ to ! smalle/ possible numb]4 ,x w\ld be difficult to =m an op9ion z to h[ f> pass5g] traffic w g on exp&+1 b if x cont9ues to increase at ! same rate z at pres5t1 "s railways may f9d x exp$i5t1 & ev5 absolutely necess>y1 to con/ruct new l9es altoge!r sep>ate & ap>t f ! exi/+ r\tes1 & = ! sole use ( _! fa/ ?r\gh traffic4 ,z roadside or int]m$iate traffic w\ld n =m any "p ( ! s*eme1 su* l9es c\ld be laid out s z to keep away f ! popul\s di/ricts1 :]e prop]ty w\ld be co/ly1 & pass in/ead ?r\gh ^? p>ts ( ! op5 c\ntry :]e ! mo/ direct c\rse & easie/ gradi5ts c\ld be obta9$4 ,/ations w\ld only be requir$ at ! v l>ge & important places1 & at long di/ances f ea* o!r4 ,l9es ( ?is description1 res]v$ = ?r\gh traffic only1 tak5 alone1 might n pay1 b tak5 9 conjunction ) ! exi/+ l9es1 ( :i* !y w\ld =m a "p1 !y might prove to be ! be/ solution ( ! problem ( deal+ ) a cr[d$ tra9 s]vice1 ! remun]ative e>n+s ( :i*1 plac$ toge!r1 might yield a ri* return ov] ! entire sy/em4 ,a project = a sep>ate ?r\gh l9e might at fir/ appe> a little />tl+1 b we h well-kn[n prec$5ts 9 ! va/ exp5diture already incurr$ 9 ! con/ruct+ ( enorm\s viaducts & connect+ l9es to avoid long det\rs on c]ta9 ?r\gh r\tes4 ,! wid5+ out ( an ord9>y d\ble l9e into a f\r-l9e road 0 at fir/ consid]$ z a r v5turesome dep>ture2 & x mu/ always be co/ly because1 9 addition to ! e>?works & p]man5t way1 !re is ! d\bl+ ( all ! ov] & "u bridges & wat]ways1 besides ! great & exp5sive alt]ations at /ations4 ,practically x is almo/ l mak+ a second railway1 & yet ! con/ant ext5sion ( ! pr9ciple is an admission t ! work+ results h prov$ satisfactory1 9 spite ( ! l>ge outlay4 ,a little lat] ! "q w =ce itself m prom95tly into notice1 :e!r ! f\r-l9e track or ! sep>ate fa/ ?r\gh traffic l9es1 w be/ answ] ! purpose4 ,! =m] possesses c]ta9 advantages1 b ! latt] w\ld give m fre$om = high-spe$ runn+4 ,eng9e]s h br\ght railways to _! pres5t /age ( p]fection1 & ! public w expect !m to devise & c>ry out /ill fur!r improvem5ts z ! m>* ( developm5t moves onw>d4 ,x is a simple #cei matt] to arrange ! traffic on a railway :5 all ! works & appliances are appropriate = ! s]vice to be p]=m$2 b ! advances :i* are made foll[ "o ano!r s rapidly z to necessitate con/ant /udy & organization to effect ! /ructural alt]ations & additions requisite to ma9ta9 an up-to-date /&>d ( effici5cy4 ,! traffic manag] on a railway receives 8 in/ructions f ! directors or controll]s ( ! company z to ! work+ out ( ! tra9 s]vice1 rates1 *>ges1 & o!r items ( 8 dep>tm5t1 b ! eng9e] has to /& alone1 & 8 te*nical k & pr(essional skill mu/ enable him n only to design & con/ruct works suitable 9 "*1 ext5t1 & /r5g? to ! duty = :i* !y are int5d$1 b also to decide :5 /ructures are no long] capable ( prop]ly su/a9+ ! increas+ loads br\ght ^u !m1 & mu/ be tak5 d[n & replac$ ) o!rs ( a /rong] description4 ,= ?is reason ! eng9e] mu/ c>efully consid] e circum/ance & local feature :i* may influ5ce ! design to be prep>$2 he mu/ ?or\ghly inve/igate ! nature ( ! gr\nd = f\ndations1 z ! description :5 asc]ta9$ w frequ5tly det]m9e ! class ( "w to be erect$1 :e!r 9 viaducts1 bridges1 or build+s2 & 9 8 selection ( mat]ials & calculations = /r5g?1 he mu/ all[ ample m>g9 to meet fur!r increas$ weights1 z well z = natural det]ioration4 ,he %\ld1 inde$1 g a little fur!r1 & z 8 p]ceptive ability & tra9+ w always enable him ! m readily to =e%ad[ ! direction 9 :i* improvem5ts or *anges are t5d+1 he %\ld /udy out & be prep>$ ) 8 s*emes to meet ! new dep>tures z ! requirem5ts gradually arise4 ,/r5g? & effici5cy are ! lead+ po9ts :i* mu/ be always kept 9 view1 & ! eng9e] mu/ nev] =get t he is solely responsible = ! safety ( ! l9e & works1 & ( ! public pass+ ov] ! same4 ,,index #cfa ,a ,accommodation works1 #ab ,air-lock1 #aai ,air-pump1 #abj ,all[ances = s9kage on embankm5ts1 #gj ,alt]ation ( gradi5ts1 #ab ---- ( roads1 #f1 #aj ,am]ican h&-brake1 #df ,analysis ( /eel rails1 #aic ,approa* roads to /ations1 #bdi ,ar* culv]ts1 #gf ,automatical gate-al>m1 #ccf ,b ,balla/1 #bbe ,bascule bridge1 #he ,batt]+-rule1 #gb ,be>+-weights ( v>i\s mat]ials1 #abi ,beat]1 #bci ,b5* m>ks1 #ff ,bissell truck1 #eh ,block cross+1 ca/ /eel1 #bce ---- telegraph signall+1 #ah1 #cch ,bo>d ( ,trade requirem5ts1 #ah ,bog-cutt+1 #fe ,bogie c>riage1 #ed ---- eng9e1 #ef1 #cjf ,book+-hall1 #bdi1 #bfj ,book ( ref]5ce1 #h ,bor+s = f\ndations1 #abi ---- = tunnel "w1 #afd ,borr[$ e>?work1 #fa ,bottom-pit*+1 #bbe ,bracket signals1 #bj1 #cbb ,brake-p[] on gradi5ts1 #de ,brakes = goods waggons1 #df ,brick-well f\ndations1 #abc ,bridges1 #gi ---- ov] public roads1 #aj ,brok5 /one balla/1 #bbe ,buff]-/ops1 #bhb ,bull-head rail1 #aia ,c ,cab-rank1 #bea ,caisson f\ndations1 #aba ,cant ( rail1 #bcj ,c>riage accommodation1 #cec ---- bogie1 #ed ---- dock1 #bhb ---- trav]s]1 #bib ,ca/-iron column pi]s1 #ig ---- 9 bridges1 #bg ---- saddles1 #bbd ---- sleep]s1 #bad ---- tram-plates1 #ahd ---- tube tunnels1 #agi ---- wat]-tanks1 #bii ,cat*-sid+1 #bf ,c5tre l9e ( railway1 #cb ,*airs1 #bjf ,*annell+ balla/1 #bca ,*eck-rails on %>p curves1 #bi1 #ea ,c9d] balla/1 #bbg ,circul> runn+-%$1 #bhi ,clay puddle1 #abg ,clocks at /ations1 #bf ,coal-drops1 #bhb ,c(f]-dams1 #abg ,comp>ison ( bull-head & flange rails1 #aii ,comp\nd rails1 #aij ,concrete f\ndations1 #aad ,cont9u\s brakes1 #cj ,co/ ( p]man5t way1 #bda1 #bdb #cfb ,cov]$-way tunnels1 #agh ,crab bolts1 #bbc ,cranes1 #bhj1 #bid ,creosot$ sleep]s1 #baa ,cross-ov] road1 #bcc ,cross+s made ( rails1 #bcg ,cross-sections1 #cc ,culv]ts & dra9s1 #gd ,curve alt]ations1 #ab ,curves1 #di ,cutt+ rails on curves1 #bbi ,cyl9d] f\ndations1 #aaf ,d ,datum l9e1 #h ,deck or floor ( gird] bridges1 #acc ,deposit$ plans1 #d1 #f ,dep?s ( cutt+s1 #aj ,d]rick crane1 #bii ,deta*$ lock1 #ccb ,detonator or fog signals1 #ccd ,det\rs on m\nta9-sides1 #c ,deviation1 limits (1 #f ---- ( c5tre l9e1 #ab ---- ( levels1 #ab ,diagram sket*es ( bridges1 #adi ,diamond cross+1 #bcg ,disc or gr\nd signals1 #cbb ---- :eels1 #dh ,di/ant signal1 #ah1 #cad1 #cbb ,div]sion ( roads1 etc41 #f ,dobb9-c>t1 #fg ,dock plat=ms1 #bea ,d\ble-l9e junction1 #bca ---- slip po9ts1 #bcc ,dry /one back+1 #afb ,e ,e>?works1 #fj ,edge rails1 #ahe ,electric motive-p[]1 #cee ---- repeat]1 #bb1 #ccd ---- tra9-/aff in/rum5t1 #cdd ,embankm5t on bog1 #ga ,eng9e bogie1 #ec1 #ef1 #cjd ---- triangle1 #bij ,eng9e turntables1 #bg1 #bhi ,enl>gem5ts on p>liam5t>y plans1 #af ,entrances to tunnels1 #agf ,e/imate1 #ad ,expansion ( rails1 #bbh ,extract f ,gov]nm5t ,/&+ ,ord]s & ,regulations1 #f ,f ,fac+-bolt lock1 #cae ---- po9ts1 #bj ---- ---- di/ance1 #bj ---- po9t locks1 #bb ,fang clips1 #bbd ,fa/5+s1 #bah ,f5ces enclos+ l9e1 #ad1 #gc ---- on bridges1 #aj ---- on road approa*es1 #aj ,fi% bolts1 #bjc1 #bbj ---- plates1 #ahh1 #bjc ---- plate l9]s1 #bjf ,flag signals1 #cac ,flag-top culv]ts1 #gf ,flange rail1 #aia ,floor or deck ( gird] bridges1 #acc ,floors = goods-%$s1 #bhj ,fly+ junction1 #bca ,fog or detonator signals1 #ccd ,footbridges1 #bf1 #adg1 #adi ,foot+s ( f\ndations1 #aaa ,f\ndations1 #aaa ,f\r-l9e sy/em1 #cea ,g ,gantry crane1 #bid ,gate-al>m1 #ccf ,gates = level cross+s1 #gd ,gauge ( railways1 #cg1 #ch ,gird] bridges1 #aaj ,glaz$ ro(s ov] plat=ms1 #bgb ,golia? crane1 #big ,goods-%$s1 #bgc ,gov]nm5t grants to railways1 #cdi ---- ,/&+ ,ord]s1 #d1 #f ,gradi5t alt]ations1 #ab ,gradi5ts1 #db ---- influ5c+ loads1 #dc ---- 9 tunnels1 #aff ,gravel balla/1 #bbe ---- f\ndations1 #aac ,gu>d-rails1 #ea ,guide-piles1 #abg ,h #cfc ,half-r\nd sleep]s1 #baa ,h&-brakes on trucks1 #df ,head+s 9 tunnels1 #afi ,headway & span ( public-road bridges1 #aj ,height ( plat=ms1 #bd ,heights ( embankm5ts1 #aj ,high-level viaduct1 #ha1 #hc ,high-spe$ runn+1 #ced ,home signals1 #ah1 #cad ,h\ses ( lab\r+ classes1 #aj ,i ,incl9ation ( ramps1 #bf ,inside keys = *airs1 #bjg ,inspection ( new l9e1 #ah ---- ( tunnel "w1 #agf ,int]lock+ ( signals1 #bb1 #cad1 #ccj ,iron-tube tunnels1 #agi ,isl&-plat=m /ation1 #beh ,j ,jack-ar*es ( brickwork1 #ade ---- ( concrete1 #aci ,jib crane1 #bif ,jim ,cr[1 #bci ,junction signals1 #bj1 #cbc ---- ) exi/+ l9e1 #f ,k ,keys = *airs1 #bjg ,k9sua ,viaduct1 #ig ,l ,lavatories & conv5i5ces1 #bfj ,lay+ p]man5t way1 #bbe ,level cross+s1 #aj ,life ( /eel rails1 #aic ,lift-bridge1 #hg ,light railways /&>d gauge1 #da ,limits ( deviation1 #f1 #af ,loa ,viaduct1 #ajb ,loads ( locomotive eng9es1 #dd ,location ( railway1 #a ,lock & block signals1 #cdb1 #cec ,longitud9al sleep]s1 #baj ,l[ viaduct ar*+1 #abi ,l[-level viaduct1 #ha1 #hc ,m ,made gr\nd1 #aaa ,m>k+ /eel rails1 #aie ,me*anical drills1 #agb ---- gates1 #cce ,mile-po/s1 #cj ,n ,names ( /ations1 #bd ,n>r[-gauge railways1 #dj ,natural features ( c\ntry1 #a ---- gr\nd1 #aaa ,navigable riv]s1 #ha ,o ,occupation bridges1 #aaj ,ord9>y cross+1 #bce ,ordnance maps1 #c ,outside gu>d-rails1 #ec ---- keys = *airs1 #bjg ,ov]-l9e ar* bridges1 #ajc ,p ,p>apets on viaducts1 #bh ,p>liam5t>y e/imate1 #ad ---- plan & section1 #f1 #h ,p$e/al wat]-tanks1 #cjb ,pi]s ( ca/ iron1 #ig ---- ( masonry1 #ie ---- ( timb]1 #ajb ---- ( wr\ght-iron & /eel1 #ig ,pile f\ndations1 #aad ,plate-iron tr\gh+1 #adc ,plat=m ro(s1 #bfd ,plat=ms 7requirem5ts (71 #bd ,pl5um sy/em ( s9k+1 #aai ,pneumatic process ( s9k+1 #abi ,po9ts1 or swit*es1 #bce ,portage viaduct1 #ajb ,p[] to pur*ase l&1 #f ,pres]vation ( timb]1 #baa ,private-road bridges1 #aaj ,prov9cial grants to railways1 #cdi ,public-road bridges1 #aj1 #ajc ---- level cross+1 #h ,r #cfd ,radial axle-boxes1 #eh ,rails1 #ahb ,railway bills1 #af ---- ,clauses ,act1 #f ---- f5ces1 #ad ---- slope1 #fa1 #ff1 #gb ,railways ( diff]5t ranks1 #cdh ,ramps to plat=ms1 #bd ,recomm5dations z to work+ ( railways1 #cj ,rectangul> runn+-%$s1 #bhi ,r$uc$ spe$ on curves1 #ej ,refuge sid+s1 #ca1 #cea ,relative co/s ( n>r[-gauge & light railways1 #da ,r5ewal ( "u-l9e bridges1 #aea ,repeat] signal1 #bb1 #ccd ,requirem5ts ( ,bo>d ( ,trade1 #ah ,reta9+ walls1 #aei ,rev]se curves1 #ea ,roadside /ation1 #bec ,rock f\ndations1 #aac ,rock+-b>1 #caf ,ro(-pr9cipals1 #bfd ,ro(s ov] roadside plat=ms1 #bgb ,rope-haulage1 #di ,r\te ( railway1 #a ,royal ass5t1 #af ,runaway po9ts1 #bcc ,s ,safety-po9ts1 #bd1 #cai ,s&y f\ndations1 #aac ,scales = ,p>liam5t>y plans1 #f1 #af ,scissors cross-ov]1 #bcc ,screw piles1 #aad ,semaphore signals1 #cac ,semi-circul> runn+-%$s1 #bhi ,sep>ate l9es = ?r\gh traffic1 #ceh ,s]vice roads1 #fi ,%afts 9 tunnels1 #afg ,%eet+-piles1 #abg ,side-cutt+1 #fa ,side recesses 9 tunnels1 #agf ,sid+s1 #bd ,signal-cab9s1 #cbh ,signal-detector1 #cae1 #cah ,signals1 #cac ---- at junctions1 #bj1 #cbc ,signals 7requirem5ts (71 #bj ,six-:eel$ c>riage1 #ed ,sleep]s1 #bji ,slip-po9ts1 #bcc ,slope ( cutt+1 #fa ---- ( embankm5t1 #ff ,slott$ signals1 #cbf ,snake-heads1 #ahd ,s(t deep bog1 #gj ,soil+ e>?work1 #ff ,sort+-sid+s1 #bhe ,span & headway ( ,p4 ,r4 bridges1 #aj ,spans ( l>ge railway bridges1 #aeh ,spikes1 #bbb ,spirals1 #ce ,spoil-bank1 #fj ,sprags1 #df ,squ>e cross+1 #bcc ,/&+ ord]s1 #d1 #f ,/>t+-signal1 #ah1 #cad ,/ation build+s1 #bfj ---- ro(s1 #bfd ,/ations1 #bdh ---- ne> viaducts1 #bd ---- on gradi5ts1 #bf ,/eel & wr\ght-iron sleep]s1 #bag ---- rails1 #aij ,/eps = side-ly+ gr\nd1 #gj ---- ( /aircases1 #bf ,/one sleep]s1 #baj ,/ra9 on /eel1 #bg ---- on wr\ght-iron1 #bg ,suburban traffic1 #ceb ,subways1 #bf ,sup]-elevation ( rail1 #bcj ,sup]vision ( tunnel-"w1 #agf ,sw+-bridges1 #hc1 #hg ,swit*es or po9ts1 #bce ,syphon culv]ts1 #gi ,t ,tamp+-b>1 #bci ,t]m9al /ation1 #bec ,te/s = /eel rails1 #aid ,?ree-?r[ swit*es1 #bcc ,?ru/-gird]s = reta9+ walls1 #afa ,tie-b>s1 #bbd ,timb] bridges1 #ie ,timb]+ ( tunnels1 #agj ,timb]-pile f\ndations1 #aad ,"t = con/ruction1 #ah ,tip head1 #fg #cfe ,tip-waggon1 #fi ,tools = p]man5t way1 #bci ---- = tunnel-"w1 #agb ,trail+-po9ts1 #bj ,tra9-/aff on s+le l9e1 #cdb ,tra9-tickets1 #cdc ,tramplates ( ca/-iron1 #ahd ,tramway rails1 #aii ,trap-po9ts1 #cai ,travell+-crane1 #bif ,trav]s+ bridge1 #he ,trimm+ slopes1 #gb ,tr\gh gird]s1 #ace ,tunnel faces1 or entrance1 #agf ---- head+s1 #afi ---- sections1 #agf ---- %afts1 #afg ,tunnels1 #f1 #aj1 #afb ---- compos$ ( ca/-iron segm5ts1 #agi ---- dra9age (1 #aff ---- ?r\gh cities1 #agh ---- "u riv]s1 #aha ,turn-out1 #bcc ,turntables1 #bhg ,u ,"u-l9e ar* bridges1 #ajc1 #abi ,v ,vacuum sy/em ( s9k+1 #aai ,v]&ah on plat=m1 #bfa ,viaduct p>apets1 #bh ,viaducts ( timb]1 #ie ---- ov] riv]s1 #hc ,viaducts ov] valleys1 #ia ---- to be %[n on section1 #aj ,w ,waggon turn-table1 #bib ,wait+-rooms1 #bea ,w>eh\se crane1 #bid ,wat]-column1 #cjb ,wat]-jet piles1 #aaf ,wat]-tables1 #bbg ,wat]-tanks1 #bii ,we> ( fi%-plates1 #bje ,we> ( /eel rails1 #aic ,weep+-holes1 #afa1 #agd ,weights ( locomotive eng9es1 #cjd ,well f\ndations1 #abc ,:eel-base ( eng9e bogie1 #ei ,:eel-gu>ds on viaducts1 #bh ,wid?s ( public-road bridges1 #aj ,w9d+ eng9es1 #ahe ,w9d-pressure1 #bh ,wood5-c5tre :eels1 #dh ,wood5 culv]ts1 #gf ---- screws1 #bbc ---- tramway1 #ahb ---- wat]-tanks1 #cja ,work+ plans & sections1 #cb ,wr\ght-iron column pi]s1 #ig ---- & /eel sleep]s1 #bag ---- piles1 #aaf ---- rails1 #ahf ---- wat]-tanks1 #cja ,z ,zigzags1 #ce ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,william ,,cl[es ,,& ,,sons1 ,,limit$1 ,,london ,,& ,,beccles4 ,,eng9e]+1 ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,mat]ials1 ,,etc4 ,,! ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,mat]ials ,,& ,,/ructures3 ! ,/r5g? ( ,mat]ials z dep5d+ on _! ,quality & z asc]ta9$ by ,te/+ ,app>atus4 ,by ,sir ,j4 ,,&]son1 ,c4,e41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,) #ff ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,railway ,,appliances3 a ,description ( ,details ( ,railway ,con/ruction subsequ5t to ! completion ( ! ,e>?works & ,/ructures4 ,by ,sir ,,john ,,wolfe ,,b>ry1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #bah ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,me*anics ,,appli$ ,,to ,,eng9e]+4 ,by ,,john ,,goodman1 ,:4,s*41 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,m4,i4,m4,e41 ,pr(essor ( ,eng9e]+ 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,le$s4 ,) #gad ,illu/rations & num]\s ,examples4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #is4 net4 ,,railway ,,appliances ,,& ,,op]ations4 ,= ! ,use ( ,railway ,employs4 ,by ,,edw>d ,s4 ,,hadley1 ! ,great ,we/]n ,railway's ,divisional ,sup]9t5d5t's ,(fice1 ,newport1 ,monm\?4 ,9 ! press4 ,,eng9e]',s ,,valu+ ,,assi/ant3 be+ a ,practical ,treatise on ! ,valuation ( ,coll]ies & ,o!r ,m9es1 etc4 ,by ,h4 ,d4 ,,hoskold4 ,) an ,introductory ,note by ,,pet] ,,gray4 #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,practical ,,hydraulic 7,,wat] ,,supply ,,& ,,dra9age7 ,,tables ,,& ,,diagrams4 ,by ,c4 ,e4 ,,h\sd54 ,) #f ,plates & #g ,diagrams 9 ! ,text4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,practical ,,e>?work ,,tables4 ,by ,c4 ,e4 ,,h\sd54 ,) #i ,plates4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,pocket-,,book ,,= ,,me*anical ,,eng9e]s4 ,by ,,david ,,allan ,,l[ 7,:itwor? ,s*ol>71 ,m4,i4,me*4,e41 ,pr(essor ( ,eng9e]+1 ,ea/ ,london ,te*nical ,college4 ,) ov] #a1jjj specially prep>$ ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo1 gilt edges1 r\nd$ corn]s4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,me*anics ,,= ,,eng9e]s3 a ,text-book ( ,int]m$iate ,/&>d4 ,) #bjj ,diagrams & num]\s ,examples4 ,by ,,ar?ur ,,morley1 ,m4,sc41 ,pr(essor ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]+ 9 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,nott+ham4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #ds4 net4 ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,mat]ials4 ,by ,,ar?ur ,,morley1 ,m4,sc41 ,pr(essor ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]+ 9 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,nott+ham4 ,) #bdh ,diagrams & num]\s ,examples4 #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,light ,,railway ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,,ri*>d ,,m>ion ,,p>k9son1 ,assoc4 ,m4,in/4,c4,e4 ,) #he ,diagrams4 #hvo1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,graphics2 or1 ! ,art ( ,calculation by ,draw+ ,l9es1 appli$ especially to ,me*anical ,eng9e]+4 ,by ,,rob]t ,h4 ,,smi?1 =m]ly ,pr(essor ( ,eng9e]+1 ,mason ,college1 ,birm+ham4 ,"p ,i4 ,) sep>ate ,atlas ( #bi ,plates conta9+ #ig ,diagrams4 #hvo1 #aes4 6--#che4png-- ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,/resses ,,9 ,,gird]s ,,& ,,simil> ,,/ructures2 ) ,practical ,obs]vations on ! ,/r5g? & o!r ,prop]ties ( ,mat]ials4 ,by ,,b9don ,b4 ,,/oney1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,) #e ,plates & #adc ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 ,royal #hvo1 #cfs4 ,,! ,,te/+ ,,( ,,mat]ials ,,( ,,con/ruction4 ,a ,textbook = ! ,eng9e]+ ,laboratory & a ,collection ( ! ,results ( ,exp]im5t4 ,by ,w4 ,,caw?orne ,,unw91 ,f4,r4,s41 ,b4,sc4 ,) #e ,plates & #ahh ,illu/rations & ,diagrams4 #hvo1 #afs4 net4 ,,eng9e]+ ,,con/ruction ,,9 ,,iron1 ,,/eel1 ,,& ,,timb]4 ,by ,,william ,,h5ry ,,w>r54 ,) #ac ,fold+ ,plates & #cge ,diagrams4 ,m$ium #hvo1 #afs4 net4 ,,! ,,sea ,,coa/3 ,de/ruction1 ,littoral ,drift1 ,protection4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,:eel]1 ,m4,in/4 ,c4,e4 ,) #ch ,illu/rations & ,diagram4 ,m$ium #hvo1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,a ,,practical ,,manual ,,( ,,tides ,,& ,,waves4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,:eel]1 ,m4,in/4 ,c4,e4 ,) #ai ,illu/rations4 #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design4 ,by ,,david ,,allan ,,l[1 ,m4,i4,me*4,e4 ,) #aec ,illu/rations & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,pocket-,,book ,,= ,,me*anical ,,eng9e]s4 ,by ,,david ,,allan ,,l[1 ,m4,i4,me*4,e4 ,fcp4 #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,diagram ,,measur]4 ,an ,in/rum5t = ,measur+ ! ,areas ( ,irregul> ,figures1 & specially useful = det]m9+ ! ,mean ,effective ,pressure f ,indicator ,diagrams f ,/eam1 ,gas & o!r ,eng9es4 ,by ,,david ,,allan ,,l[1 ,m4,i4,me*4,e4 ,) full in/ructions1 #as4 ,a ,,manual ,,( ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design4 ,by ,,david ,,allan ,,l[ & ,,alfr$ ,,william ,,bevis4 ,) ov] #gjj ,illu/rations4 #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,ma*9e ,,design1 ,,con/ruction ,,& ,,draw+3 a ,textbook = ! ,use ( ,"y ,eng9e]s4 ,by ,,h5ry ,j4 ,,spoon]1 ,c4,e41 ,m4,i4,me*4,e41 ,f4,g4,s41 etc41 ,director & ,pr(essor 9 ! ,polyte*nic ,s*ool ( ,eng9e]+4 ,) #hf ,tables & num]\s ,ex]cises4 ,illu/rat$ by ov] #a1djj ,draw+s & ,figures4 #hvo1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design ,,= ,,beg9n]s3 an ,introductory ,"w = ! ,use ( ,te*nical ,/ud5ts4 ,by ,,h5ry ,j4 ,,spoon]1 ,c4,e41 ,m4,i4,me*4,e41 ,f4,g4,s41 etc41 ,director & ,pr(essor 9 ! ,polyte*nic ,s*ool ( ,eng9e]+4 ,cr[n #dto1 price #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,ma*9e ,,design4 ,,"p ,i4 ,g5]al ,pr9ciples2 ,/r5g? ( ,mat]ials2 ,rivets1 ,bolts1 & o!r ,fa/5+s2 ,j\rnals & ,%aft+2 ,c\pl+s2 ,p$e/als2 ,transmission ( ,p[] by ,ge>+1 ,belt+1 ,ropes1 & ,*a9s4 ,by ,w4 ,,caw?orne ,,unw91 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,b4,sc41 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,hon4 ,mem4 ,in/4 ,me*4 ,e41 ,hon4 ,mem4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,me*4 ,e41 ,=eign ,hon4 ,mem4 ,am4 ,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces4 ,) #chg ,figures4 #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,*iefly on ,eng9e ,details4 ,) #bei ,diagrams1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #fs4 ,,longmans1 ,,gre51 ,,co4 ,,london1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,bombay1 ,,& ,,calcutta4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,unpr9t$ punctuation 0 add$1 :]e appropriate4 ,! illu/rations id5tifi$ z numb]$ figures are all full-page )\t captions4 ,:5 illu/rations int]rupt ! text ( a p>agraph1 !y 7 mov$ to prec$e t p>agraph4 ,= ease ( use ( ! index1 page numb]s are display$ 9 ! "r m>g9 = only pages t conta9 text4 ,words & phrases 9 italics are surr\nd$ by und]scores1 l ?is4 ,sup]script$ lett]s & numb]s are prec$$ by a c>at1 e4g4 ,co4 ,use ( hyph5s 0 made consi/5t4 ,obsolete & alt]native spell+s 7 left un*ang$4 ,spell+ corrections are not$ bel[3 #8tran%ipm5t' to #8trans%ipm5t' 444 delay 9 trans%ipm5t444 pg #da #8/eepi]' to #8/eep]' 444 introduce /eep] gradi5ts 444 pg #de #8guage' to #8gauge' 444 #h in* gauge1444 pg #dh #8guage' to #8gauge' 444 on #c-;foot n>r[-gauge railways 444 pg #aic #8breaks' to #8brakes' 444 ! work+ ( ! brakes4444 pg #aic #8petition' to #8p>tition' 444 plate p>tition across 444 pg #cja #8close' to #8clos$' 444 is kept clos$ by ! pressure 444 pg #cjb