,,manual                                
,,of                                    
,,oriental ,,antiquities                
,,including ,,the                       
,architecture1 ,sculpture1 and          
,industrial ,arts                       
,,of                   ,,chald,a1       
,,assyria1 ,,persia1 ,,syria1 ,,jud,a1  
,,ph,,nicia1 ,,and ,,carthage4          
,,by                                    
,,ernest ,,babelon1          ,librarian 
of the ,department of ,medals and       
,antiques in the                        
,bibliothque ,nationale1 ,paris4        
,,new ,,edition1             ,,with ,a  
,,chapter ,,on ,,the ,,recent           
,,discoveries ,,at ,,susa4              
,with ,two ,hundred and ,fifty-five     
,illustrations4                         
,,new ,,york3 ,g4,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons 
,,london3 ,h4 ,,grevel ,,and ,,co41     
#aijf4    ,printed and bound by ,hazell1
 ,watson  ,viney1 ,ld41 ,london and     
,aylesbury1                             
,england4          ,,preface4      ,the 

domain which we are about to traverse in
 this little work embraces  all the     
civilisations of the ancient ,east      
except that of ,egypt4 ,it  includes the
 ,chaldans1 the ,assyrians1 the         
,persians before ,alexander1  the       
,hittites of ,syria1 ,cappadocia1 and   
,asia ,minor1 the ,jews1 the            
,phnicians1 and even ,cyprus1 ending    
with the ,carthaginians and their       
colonies4 ,so vast a field1 which1 in   
the monumental work of ,,mm4 ,g4        
,perrot and ,c4 ,chipiez1 occupies four 
volumes1 can only be explored here  in a
 summary manner1 and the author claims  
no more than to have written  a modest  
abridgment4 ,it must not be supposed1   
however1 in spite of the  diversity and 
remoteness from one another of the      
peoples that we have  just enumerated1  
that the subject lacks cohesion and     
unity4 ,if the  reader will have the    
goodness to follow us to the conclusion1
 he will  be1 on the contrary1 struck by
 the perfect homogeneity of the book and

  the connection of all its parts4 ,the 
picture1 so to speak1 contains many     
figures1 but all concur in a common     
action1 and the spectator grasps1 at    
the first glance1 the harmony of the    
composition4    ,for1 in these old      
,eastern civilisations which held sway  
over the world  before ,greece and      
,rome1 only two streams of artistic     
influence are  really to be traced--that
 which rises in ,egypt and that which   
issues  from ,assyria4 ,often they took 
a parallel course1 side by side1 sharing
  like brothers the empire of the arts2 
sometimes they opposed or  obstinately  
excluded one another2 or else they      
joined forces1 mingled  closely with one
 another1 and united their original     
capacities in a  common fund4 ,but if   
these varying conditions produced in    
certain  countries a local and          
indigenous art which is neither purely  
,egyptian  nor purely ,assyrian1 we can 
always decompose its elements and make a
  chemical analysis of it1 so to speak2 

and1 when we have restored to  ,egypt   
that which properly belongs to her1 and 
to ,assyria all that has  been borrowed 
from her1 we perceive that nothing      
remains at the bottom  of the crucible4 
,thus it may be said that1 properly     
speaking1 there is  no ,persian art1 or 
,hittite art1 or ,jewish art1 or        
,phnician or  ,carthaginian art2        
everywhere we find the forms of ,egypt  
or those of  ,assyria grouped1 mixed1   
perhaps altered1 in proportions which   
vary  according to time1 environment1   
and political conditions4    ,leaving   
,egypt on one side1 it is the ,asiatic1 
or1 more strictly1 the                  
,chaldo-,assyrian stream that we have   
undertaken to study exclusively4 ,we    
see it at its source1 almost on the site
 of that ,garden of ,eden where         
,genesis and the ,chaldan legends place 
the ancestors of mankind2 we  follow it 
into ,assyria1 and observe its progress 
and transformations4  ,before long it   
overflows and passes on all sides beyond

 the limits of  the basin of the ,tigris
 and ,euphrates2 on one side1 in        
,persia1 it  invades the palaces of     
,susa and ,persepolis2 on the other     
side1 among the  ,hittites1 the ,araman 
populations of ,syria1 and the ,jews1 it
 spreads and  divides into many         
rivulets1 until it arrives at the       
frontier of ,egypt  and the heart of    
,asia ,minor4 ,far from losing itself in
 the waves of the  ,mediterranean1 it   
reaches all the shores of that great    
lake1 ,cyprus1  ,sicily1 ,africa1       
,spain2 even passing beyond the ,pillars
 of ,hercules4    ,it seemed to us1     
then1 that it would be a work of        
interest to draw a  picture of          
,chaldo-,assyrian art not only in its   
native country where it  develops at its
 ease1 but in its many ramifications    
among the  neighbouring nations where it
 comes into collision with its rival and
 is  interpreted by foreigners1 until   
the day when ,greece snatches the torch 
of the arts from the failing hand of the

 ,east4 ,this ,asiatic art1 as we  shall
 see1 has no cause to be ashamed by the 
side of the ,egyptian art4  ,chalda     
possesses a genius as spontaneous as    
that of ,egypt1 and the  valley of the  
,euphrates is not less fertile than that
 of the ,nile4 ,the  ambitions of her   
architects and sculptors were as high   
and noble as  those of the artists who  
flourished at the court of the          
,pharaohs1 and  the staged towers were  
the equals of the ,pyramids4 ,both      
nations pursued  an ideal which contains
 a part of the truth1 for in making a   
building  colossal and imposing by its  
size1 they thought that they attained to
  supreme greatness and perfection4 ,the
 ,greeks1 through their greater         
refinement1 did not fall into these     
excesses4 ,but who will ever be able  to
 say how much the powerful originality  
of the ,hellenic genius borrowed  from  
the imperfect models furnished by ,egypt
 and ,assyria8 ,who will ever  be able  
to define with clearness and precision  

the kind of influence  which            
,chaldo-,assyrian art1 in particular1   
imported by the ships of  ,phnicia into 
all maritime countries1 had on the      
origin of art in  that younger          
civilisation of which ,athens was the   
centre8    ,the ancient peoples of      
,asia1 which form a compact group from  
the point  of view of the history and   
development of the arts1 are also akin  
in the  complete destruction which has  
overtaken their architectural monuments4
  ,as if by a providential chastisement1
 from the table-land of ,iran to the    
,pillars of ,hercules1 at ,susa1 at     
,babylon1 at ,nineveh1 as at ,jerusalem1
  ,tyre1 ,carthage1 and ,gades1 nothing 
is left of those temples1 palaces1  and 
towers which threw a challenge in the   
face of ,heaven1 and which wore  out so 
many generations of slaves in the       
building of them4 ,while the  ,pyramids 
still rise opposite to the ,parthenon1  
and our astonishment is  still excited  
by the imposing ruins of ,egypt1 ,greece

 and ,rome1 nothing  remains of the     
grand monuments which were the pride of 
the capitals of  ,asia4 ,everywhere we  
have to dig into the bowels of the earth
 and uncover  the base of crumbled      
walls4 ,everything is reduced to dust   
like the image  with the feet of clay1  
and a shroud of ashes covers that world 
the  material culture of which is to be 
brought to life again1 as far as        
possible1 in the following pages4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,in the first ,english edition1 ,m4     
,babelon's work was somewhat enlarged1  
and occasionally revised by the         
translator--,mr4 ,b4,t4,a4 ,evetts1 then
 of  the ,department of ,egyptian and   
,assyrian ,antiquities1 ,british        
,museum4 ,in  the present edition will  
be found a new chapter by the author on 
the  recent finds at ,susa4    ,a4,s4,g4
          ,,table ,,of ,,contents4      
,,chapter ,i4    ,,chald,,an ,,art4     
,,page   #a4 ,,architecture             
#c   #b4 ,,statues ,,and ,,bas-,,reliefs

                                        
#bb   #c4 ,,minor ,,sculpture ,,and     
,,the ,,industrial ,,arts               
#ce   #d4 ,,engraved ,,seals            
#dd    ,,chapter ,,ii4    ,,assyrian    
,,architecture4     #a4 ,,the           
,,principles ,,of ,,building            
#eb   #b4 ,,palaces                     
#ff   #c4 ,,temples ,,and ,,staged      
,,towers                                
#gb   #d4 ,,towns ,,and ,,their         
,,fortifications                        
#gi    ,,chapter ,,iii4    ,,assyrian   
,,sculpture ,,and ,,painting4     #a4   
,,statues1 ,,stel1 ,,obelisks           
#he   #b4 ,,bas-,,reliefs               
#ia   #c4 ,,painting ,,and ,,enamelling 
#aad    ,,chapter ,,iv4    ,,the        
,,industrial ,,arts ,,in ,,assyria4     
#a4 ,,ceramics                          
#aba   #b4 ,,metals                     
#abe   #c4 ,,wood ,,and ,,ivory         
#acd   #d4 ,,leather ,,and ,,textiles   
#ach   #e4 ,,ornaments ,,and ,,seals    
#adb    ,,chapter ,v4    ,,persian      

,,art4     #a4 ,,civil ,,architecture   
#adg   #b4 ,,sculpture                  
#aei   #c4 ,,painting ,,and ,,enamelling
                                        
#afg   #d4 ,,religious ,,and            
,,sepulchral ,,monuments                
#agb   #e4 ,,engraved ,,stones ,,and    
,,ornaments                             
#ahj    ,,chapter ,,vi4    ,,the        
,,hittites4     #a4 ,,hittite           
,,monuments ,,in ,,syria                
#ahf   #b4 ,,hittite ,,monuments ,,in   
,,cappadocia                            
#aia   #c4 ,,hittite ,,monuments ,,in   
,,asia ,,minor                          
#aii    ,,chapter ,,vii4    ,,jewish    
,,art4     #a4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of      
,,jerusalem                             
#bje   #b4 ,,the ,,decoration ,,and     
,,furniture ,,of ,,the ,,temple         
#bbc   #c4 ,,civil ,,architecture       
#bcj   #d4 ,,tombs                      
#bcc    ,,chapter ,,viii4    ,,the ,,art
 ,,of ,,ph,,nicia ,,and ,,cyprus4       
#a4 ,,temples                           

#bci   #b4 ,,civil ,,architecture       
#bdf   #c4 ,,tombs                      
#bec   #d4 ,,ph,,nician ,,sculpture     
#bfb   #e4 ,,cypriote ,,sculpture       
#bfi   #f4 ,,ph,,nician ,,and ,,cypriote
 ,,pottery                              
#bgg   #g4 ,,ph,,nician ,,glass         
#bhc   #h4 ,,bronzes ,,and ,,ornaments  
#bhh   #i4 ,,engraved ,,stones          
#bid    ,,chapter ,,ix4                 
,,arch,,ological ,,discoveries ,,at     
,,susa4     #a4 ,m4 ,,de ,,morgan',s    
,,mission ,,in ,,susiana                
#bii   #b4 ,,chronology ,,of ,,the      
,,ruins ,,according ,,to ,,recent       
,,discoveries         #cjc   #c4 ,,the  
,,principles ,,of ,,building            
#cac   #d4 ,,stone ,,sculpture          
#caf   #e4 ,,bronze ,,metal-,,work      
#cbf   #f4 ,,jewellery ,,and ,,the      
,,industrial ,,arts                     
#cca          ,,list ,,of               
,,illustrations4        ,,figure        
,,page       #a4 ,brick from ,tello     
#e     #b4 ,plan of the palace at ,tello

                                        
#i     #c4 ,section of pillar           
#aj     #d4 ,corbelled vaulting at      
,mugheir                                
#ad     #e4 ,socket for pivot of door   
from ,tello                             
#ah     #f4 ,terra-cotta cone from      
,tello                                  
#ah     #g4 ,drainage pipe at ,mugheir  
#bj     #h4 ,foundation cylinder from   
,khorsabad                              
#bb     #i4 ,bas-relief from ,tello     
#bc    #aj4 ,bas-relief from ,tello     
#bd    #aa4 ,the ,vulture ,stela        
#be    #ab4 ,the ,vulture ,stela        
#be    #ac4 ,the ,vulture ,stela        
#bf    #ad4 ,chaldan head               
#bg    #ae4 ,chaldan head               
#bg    #af4 ,chaldan statue             
#bh    #ag4 ,chaldan statue             
#bi    #ah4 ,foot of ,chaldan vase      
#ca    #ai4 ,bas-relief from ,tello     
#cb    #bj4 ,bas-relief from ,tello     
#cb    #ba4 ,the 8,caillou ,michaux0    
#cd    #bb4 ,stela of ,marduk-nadin-akhi

                                        
#cd    #bc4 ,chaldan statuette in bronze
                                        
#ce    #bd4 ,chaldan statuette          
#cf    #be4 ,canephoros of ,kudurmapuk  
#cg    #bf4 ,chaldan statuette in bronze
                                        
#ch    #bg4 ,chaldan statuette in       
terra-cotta                             
#dj    #bh4 ,chaldan statuette in       
alabaster                               
#db    #bi4 ,bas-relief on the tablet of
 the god ,samas                         
#db    #cj4 ,chaldan head in steatite   
#dc    #ca4 ,chaldan cylinder           
#de    #cb4 ,chaldan cylinder           
#df    #cc4 ,chaldan cylinder           
#df    #cd4 ,cylinder of ,sargani       
#dg    #ce4 ,chaldan cylinder           
#dh    #cf4 ,tomb at ,warka             
#ea    #cg4 ,masonry at ,khorsabad      
#ec    #ch4 ,section of wall at         
,khorsabad                              
#ec    #ci4 ,vaulted and domed houses   
#ef    #dj4 ,vaulted drain              

#eg    #da4 ,vaulted drain at ,khorsabad
                                        
#eh    #db4 ,vaulted drain at           
,khorsabad4 ,slope of the bricks        
#ei    #dc4 ,faade with pilasters       
#fb    #dd4 ,base of column             
#fb    #de4 ,assyrian capital           
#fc    #df4 ,capital of ,sassanian      
period from ,warka                      
#fb    #dg4 ,shrine with columns        
#fd    #dh4 ,base of small column       
#fe    #di4 ,plan of ,dur-,sarrukin     
#fg    #ej4 ,plan of the palace of      
,sargon                                 
#fh    #ea4 ,south-eastern faade of the 
palace of ,sargon                       
#fi    #eb4 ,birds'-eye view of the     
palace of ,sargon                       
#ga    #ec4 ,the staged tower of        
,khorsabad                              
#ge    #ed4 ,temple of the god ,haldia  
#gg    #ee4 ,walls of ,babylon          
#hj    #ef4 ,chaldan plan of a fortress 
#ha    #eg4 ,assyrian plan of a fortress
                                        

#hb    #eh4 ,siege of a fortress        
#hc    #ei4 ,plan of a gate at          
,khorsabad                              
#hd    #fj4 ,gate of ,khorsabad         
#hd    #fa4 ,statue of ,assur-nasir-pal 
#hf    #fb4 ,statue in the hareem at    
,khorsabad                              
#hg    #fc4 ,stela of ,samsi-,rammanu   
#hh    #fd4 ,stela of ,assurbanipal     
#hi    #fe4 ,obelisk of ,shalmaneser    
#hi    #ff4 ,assur-nasir-pal sacrificing
 a bull                                 
#ia    #fg4 ,genius with the beak of an 
eagle                                   
#ib    #fh4 ,two-winged genius          
#ib    #fi4 ,four-winged genius1        
,khorsabad                              
#ic    #gj4 ,winged and human-headed    
lion                                    
#id    #ga4 ,front face of a winged bull
                                        
#ie    #gb4 ,battle scene               
#if    #gc4 ,the ,assyrian army in a    
mountainous country                     
#ig    #gd4 ,siege of a fortress        

#ih    #ge4 ,navigation scene           
#ii    #gf4 ,eunuchs                    
#aja    #gg4 ,assurbanipal and his queen
                                        
#ajb    #gh4 ,jewish type from a        
bas-relief from the palace of           
,sennacherib     #ajc    #gi4           
,assurbanipal in his chariot            
#ajb    #hj4 ,sargon                    
#aje    #ha4 ,wounded lioness           
#ajg    #hb4 ,slaves carrying a lion and
 birds4 ,bas-relief                     
#ajh    #hc4 ,envoy bringing apes as    
tribute                                 
#aji    #hd4 ,fragment of threshold1    
,kouyunjik                              
#aaa    #he4 ,slaves dragging a winged  
bull                                    
#aab    #hf4 ,deer-hunt4 ,bas-relief    
#aac    #hg4 ,painting on plaster1      
,nimroud                                
#aae    #hh4 ,portion of an enamelled   
archivolt at ,khorsabad                 
#aaf    #hi4 ,enamelled brick1 ,nimroud 
#aag    #ij4 ,izdubar4 ,terra-cotta     

#abb    #ia4 ,head of a monster4        
,terra-cotta                            
#abb    #ib4 ,tablet with figure of boar
 in relief                              
#abc    #ic4 ,the ,divine ,mother4      
,terra-cotta                            
#abd    #id4 ,istar4 ,terra-cotta       
#abd    #ie4 ,gates of ,balawat         
#abf    #if4 ,fragment of metal band of 
,balawat gates                          
#abg    #ig4 ,bronze dish1 ,nimroud     
#abh    #ih4 ,assyrian archers          
#abh    #ii4 ,various forms of the      
,assyrian helmet                        
#abh    #ajj4 ,bronze lion              
#abi    #aja4 ,bronze siren             
#abi    #ajb4 ,bronze siren             
#acj    #ajc4 ,the demon of the         
south-west wind                         
#acj    #ajd4 ,bronze plaque            
#aca    #aje4 ,bronze plaque            
#acb    #ajf4 ,standard in a bas-relief 
from ,khorsabad                         
#acc    #ajg4 ,foot of a piece of       
furniture                               

#acc    #ajh4 ,tent serving as the royal
 stable                                 
#acf    #aji4 ,sennacherib's throne4    
,bas-relief                             
#acf    #aaj4 ,assyrian chariot         
#acg    #aaa4 ,ivory plaque             
#acg    #aab4 ,assur-nasir-pal offering 
a libation                              
#aci    #aac4 ,richly caparisoned horse 
and rider                               
#adj    #aad4 ,assyrian deities carried 
in procession                           
#adb    #aae4 ,archaic ,assyrian        
cylinder                                
#add    #aaf4 ,assyrian cylinder        
#ade    #aag4 ,assyrian cylinder        
#ade    #aah4 ,assyrian cylinder        
#ade    #aai4 ,median cylinder          
#adf    #abj4 ,platform of the palace of
 ,cyrus                                 
#adi    #aba4 ,basement at ,persepolis  
#aej    #abb4 ,gate and windows of the  
palace of ,darius                       
#aea    #abc4 ,persepolitan capital     
#aec    #abd4 ,plan of the ,apadna of   

,artaxerxes                             
#aed    #abe4 ,susian capital restored  
#aee    #abf4 ,base of a column         
#aef    #abg4 ,faade of the ,apadna of  
,artaxerxes                             
#aeg    #abh4 ,cyrus4 ,bas-relief       
#afj    #abi4 ,bas-relief at ,persepolis
                                        
#afa    #acj4 ,bas-relief at ,persepolis
                                        
#afb    #aca4 ,bas-relief from          
,persepolis                             
#afc    #acb4 ,bas-relief at ,persepolis
                                        
#afd    #acc4 ,bas-relief at ,persepolis
                                        
#afe    #acd4 ,portico at ,persepolis   
#aff    #ace4 ,the lion frieze          
#afh    #acf4 ,susian archer            
#afi    #acg4 ,polychrome decoration of 
the palace of ,artaxerxes               
#aga    #ach4 ,the tower of ,jur4       
,restoration                            
#agc    #aci4 ,the                      
,gabr-i-,madar-i-,soleiman              

#agf    #adj4 ,tomb of ,cambyses ,i4    
#agg    #ada4 ,faade of tomb at         
,nakhsh-i-,rustam                       
#agh    #adb4 ,cylinder of ,darius      
#aha    #adc4 ,persian cylinder         
#ahb    #add4 ,persian seal             
#ahb    #ade4 ,seal of ,artaxerxes      
#ahb    #adf4 ,persian seal4 ,conical   
#ahb    #adg4 ,persian seal             
#ahc    #adh4 ,de ,luynes' bas-relief   
#ahd    #adi4 ,the lion of ,marash      
#ahf    #aej4 ,stela from ,birejik      
#ahg    #aea4 ,fragments of sculpture   
from ,carchemish                        
#ahh    #aeb4 ,bas-relief at ,rum-,qalah
                                        
#ahi    #aec4 ,stela at ,marash         
#ahi    #aed4 ,the sphinx of ,euyuk     
#aib    #aee4 ,rock sculptures at       
,iasili-,kaa                            
#aic    #aef4 ,rock sculptures at       
,iasili-,kaa                            
#aid    #aeg4 ,rock sculptures at       
,iasili-,kaa                            
#aid    #aeh4 ,rock sculpture at        

,iasili-,kaa                            
#aie    #aei4 ,rock sculpture of        
,iasili-,kaa                            
#aie    #afj4 ,rock sculpture of        
,iasili-,kaa                            
#aif    #afa4 ,tomb of ,gherdek-,kaasi  
#aif    #afb4 ,sculpture at ,iasili-,kaa
                                        
#aih    #afc4 ,rock sculptures at       
,ghiaur ,kalesi                         
#aii    #afd4 ,rock sculpture at ,ibriz 
#bjj    #afe4 ,rock sculpture at        
,nymphio                                
#bja    #aff4 ,boss of ,tarkudimme      
#bjc    #afg4 ,hittite cylinder         
#bjc    #afh4 ,site of the ,temple on   
,mount ,moriah                          
#bjf    #afi4 ,plan of ,herod's         
restoration                             
#baa    #agj4 ,the ,jews' ,wailing-place
                                        
#bac    #aga4 ,the western door4        
,present state                          
#bae    #agb4 ,interior view of the     
,double ,gate                           

#baf    #agc4 ,plan of ,herod's ,temple 
#bah    #agd4 ,bird's-eye view of       
,herod's ,temple                        
#bai    #age4 ,the ,altar of            
,burnt-offerings                        
#bba    #agf4 ,egyptian naos and        
cherubim                                
#bbe    #agg4 ,egyptian ark and naos    
#bbe    #agh4 ,egyptian table of        
offerings                               
#bbf    #agi4 ,seven-branched           
candlestick                             
#bbf    #ahj4 ,capital of the bronze    
columns                                 
#bbg    #aha4 ,the brazen sea           
#bbh    #ahb4 ,movable basin            
#bbi    #ahc4 ,the tomb of ,abraham at  
,hebron                                 
#bcc    #ahd4 ,absalom's tomb           
#bcd    #ahe4 ,sepulchral chamber at    
,medan ,salih                           
#bce    #ahf4 ,the monolith of ,siloam  
#bcf    #ahg4 ,tomb in the valley of    
,hinnom                                 
#bcg    #ahh4 ,shrine at ,ain el-,hayt  

#bdj    #ahi4 ,coin of ,paphos          
#bda    #aij4 ,plan of the ,giganteja   
#bdd    #aia4 ,roman wall at ,byrsa     
#bde    #aib4 ,terra-cotta house        
#bdh    #aic4 ,plan of the harbours at  
,carthage                               
#bej    #aid4 ,jetty of ,thapsus        
#beb    #aie4 ,tomb at ,amrith4 ,plan   
#bec    #aif4 ,tomb at ,amrith4 ,section
                                        
#bec    #aig4 ,sepulchral chamber at    
,amrith                                 
#bed    #aih4 ,mighzal at ,amrith       
#bed    #aii4 ,the ,burj el-,bezzk      
#bee    #bjj4 ,chamber of the ,burj     
el-,bezzk                               
#bee    #bja4 ,the ,burj el-,bezzk4     
,restoration                            
#bee    #bjb4 ,section of a tomb at     
,sada                                   
#bef    #bjc4 ,entrance of a tomb at    
,gebal                                  
#bef    #bjd4 ,the sarcophagus of       
,eshmunazar                             
#beg    #bje4 ,sarcophagus in human form

                                        
#beh    #bjf4 ,tomb at ,amathus         
#bfj    #bjg4 ,sepulchral chamber at    
,amathus                                
#bfj    #bjh4 ,plan of a tomb at        
,carthage                               
#bfa    #bji4 ,phnician slab at ,amrith 
#bfc    #baj4 ,cypriote statue          
#bfe    #baa4 ,votive stela from        
,carthage                               
#bff    #bab4 ,stela from ,lilybum      
#bfg    #bac4 ,stela of ,hadrumetum     
#bfh    #bad4 ,colossal head from       
,athieno                                
#bgj    #bae4 ,the colossus of ,amathus 
#bgb    #baf4 ,the priest with the dove 
#bgc    #bag4 ,bas-relief of ,heracles  
and ,eurytion                           
#bgd    #bah4 ,sarcophagus from ,amathus
                                        
#bge    #bai4 ,phnician chariot in      
terra-cotta                             
#bgg    #bbj4 ,pygmy in terra-cotta     
#bgh    #bba4 ,pygmy in terra-cotta     
#bgh    #bbb4 ,terra-cotta head from    

sarcophagus                             
#bgi    #bbc4 ,astarte4 ,phnician       
terra-cotta                             
#bgi    #bbd4 ,terra-cotta from ,cyprus 
#bhj    #bbe4 ,cypriote terra-cotta     
#bhj    #bbf4 ,cypriote terra-cotta     
#bha    #bbg4 ,cypriote terra-cotta     
#bha    #bbh4 ,mask from ,carthage      
#bhb    #bbi4 ,terra-cotta mask from    
,carthage                               
#bhb    #bcj4 ,transparent glass vase   
bearing name of ,sargon                 
#bhe    #bca4 ,phnician glass           
#bhg    #bcb4 ,glass vase from          
,jerusalem                              
#bhh    #bcc4 ,patera from ,palestrina  
#bhi    #bcd4 ,dish from ,dali          
#bij    #bce4 ,handle of a bronze crater
                                        
#bia    #bcf4 ,phnician gold ornament   
#bib    #bcg4 ,phnician earrings        
#bic    #bch4 ,cylinder in the ,de      
,clercq collection                      
#bid    #bci4 ,cylinder in the ,british 
,museum                                 

#bie    #bdj4 ,scaraboid seal           
#big    #bda4 ,scaraboid seal           
#big    #bdb4 ,bone cylinder1 showing   
the earliest stage of cuneiform writing 
#cje    #bdc4 ,fragment of an ,elamite  
tablet inscribed with arithmetical      
calculations                            
#cjf    #bdd4 ,cylinder showing giants1 
lions1 and bulls1 glazed pottery        
#cjg    #bde4 ,brick ,column4 ,susa     
#cae    #bdf4 ,triumphal stela of       
,naram-,sin                             
#cah    #bdg4 ,fragment of bas-relief   
representing figure of ,negrito type    
#cbc    #bdh4 ,stela of ,hammurabi1 on  
which his code of laws is engraved      
#cbd    #bdi4 ,kudurru 7unfinished71    
,kassite period                         
#cbe    #bej4 ,bronze bas-relief        
fragment                                
#cbh    #bea4 ,bronze statuette4 ,temple
 of ,shushinak                          
#cca    #beb4 ,gold and silver          
statuettes                              
#ccb    #bec4 ,silver mask4 ,elamite    

period                                  
#ccc    #bed4 ,head-dress4 ,elamite     
period                                  
#ccd    #bee4 ,figure of a woman1 ivory 
#cce          ,,oriental ,,antiquities4 
,,chapter ,i4    ,,chald,,an ,,art4     
,the extensive region of ,western ,asia 
to which the ,greeks gave the name  of  
,mesopotamia was already1 at the period 
which lies farthest back among  the     
memories of mankind1 the centre of a    
mighty civilisation rivalling  that of  
,egypt1 and disputing with the latter   
the glory of having formed  the cradle  
of the arts in the ancient ,east4       
,babylon and ,nineveh were by  turns1   
according to the course of political    
events1 the intellectual  hearth at     
which the bold and original genius was  
kindled1 which marks  the artistic      
productions of ,chalda and ,assyria1 and
 the reflection of  which is shown in   
the monuments of ,persia1 ,juda1        
,phnicia1 and  ,carthage1 the island of 
,cyprus1 and the ,hittite races4 ,yet it

 is neither  in the capital of ,chalda  
nor in that of ,assyria that the oldest 
traces  have hitherto been found of this
 great civilisation1 extinct now for    
twenty-four centuries2 it is not among  
the ruins of these famous cities  that  
we can hear1 as it were1 an echo of the 
first wailings of the  genius of plastic
 art1 observe its groping efforts1 touch
 with our  finger its rudest attempts4  
,in the country1 formerly so fertile1   
called  ,lower ,chalda1 where1 according
 to the popular tradition preserved by  
,berosus1 the fish-god ,oannes taught   
men in the beginning 8all that  serves  
to soften life10 the traveller comes1   
almost at every step1 upon  artificial  
mounds known as tells1 concealing under 
a veil of dust the  remains of cities   
which yield in point of antiquity       
neither to ,babylon  nor ,nineveh2 and  
it is there that modern archologists    
have had the good  fortune to disinter  
ruins far more ancient than those of the
 palaces of  ,sargon1 ,assurbnipal1 or  

,nebuchadnezzar4 ,though a number of    
tumuli  remain unexplored1 and1 as we   
may conjecture1 future excavations will 
afford much new matter for science1     
nevertheless a brilliant light has      
already been thrown by numerous and     
important discoveries on the  oriental  
origin of art and on the degree of      
material culture reached by  the nation 
which founded ,babel and the other      
,chaldan towns of ,genesis4  ,the ruins 
of ,abu ,habbah1 identified with the two
 ,sipparas 7,sepharvaim1  that of the   
god ,samas and that of the goddess      
,anunit71 have yielded to  our curiosity
 several monuments of the highest       
interest2 those of ,abu  ,shahrein      
7,eridu71 ,senkereh 7,larsa71 ,mugheir  
7,ur1 the native city of  ,abraham71 the
 great necropolis of ,warka 7,uruk1 the 
,erech of the ,bible71  are sites which 
have all furnished already an important 
harvest of  remains belonging to the    
most distant ages1 incomplete as their  
exploration has been4 ,but the extensive

 and methodical excavations  undertaken 
from #ahgg to #ahha by ,m4 ,e4 de       
,sarzec at ,tello 7,tell ,loh7 have     
enriched the ,louvre with a collection  
of monuments unique in the museums  of  
,europe1 and enable us to give1 at the  
present time1 an exact and  precise     
account of the character of ,chaldan    
architecture and sculpture  long before 
,nineveh and ,babylon had succeeded in  
imposing their  supremacy upon these    
regions4 ,tello1 fifteen hours north of 
,mugheir1  twelve hours east of ,warka1 
seems to represent the ancient          
,sirpurla4#a  ,its ruins1 which cover a 
space of four miles and a quarter1      
consist of a  series of mounds at a     
short distance from the course of an    
ancient canal  dug by the hand of man1  
the ,shatt el ,hai1 which starts from   
the  ,euphrates and flows into the      
,tigris twelve hours below ,bagdad4 ,the
  principal tell contained the          
substructures of a palace which was1 two
 or  three thousand years before our    

era1 the dwelling of a prince named1    
according to ,assyriologists1 ,gudea4   
,hither we must especially transport    
ourselves1 as well as to the mounds of  
,mugheir1 ,warka1 and ,abu ,shahrein1   
where the ,english explorers ,loftus and
 ,taylor made some excavations with     
good results4 ,the narrative of these   
excavations and the monuments which     
they have yielded to our museums1 will  
help us to determine the peculiar       
features of an essentially self-made    
art1 born spontaneously on the soil     
where it flourished1 and apparently in  
no degree borrowed from its  neighbours4
      ,i4 ,,architecture4    ,one of the
 fundamental characters of              
,chaldo-,assyrian architecture is  the  
exclusive use of bricks as the          
constructive material4 ,this is         
required by the very nature of the soil 
of ,mesopotamia1 in which               
building-stone and wood suitable for    
carpenters' work are entirely  wanting1 
while the clay is thick1 adhesive1 and  

peculiarly adapted for  fashioning in   
the mould and baking in the kiln4       
,accordingly1 while the  modern         
inhabitants of the country continue to  
make bricks1 their  manufacture is      
already recorded in the biblical        
reminiscences of the  ,tower of ,babel3 
8,go to10 say the men who would build a 
tower that should  reach to ,heaven1    
8let us make brick and burn them        
thoroughly3 and they  had brick for     
stone and slime had they for mortar40#b 
,the prophet ,nahum  informs us of the  
method of brick-making3 8,draw thee     
waters10 he says10  444 go into clay1   
and tread the mortar1 make strong the   
brick-kiln40#c  ,there were two kinds of
 bricks4 ,the unbaked brick is a square 
of whitish  clay1 mixed with fine straw 
and simply dried in the sun when it     
comes  out of the mould2 it was         
generally from #h in4 to #a ft4 square  
by #d in4  thick4 ,the month in which   
the heat of summer first becomes        
intolerable  in these regions1 namely   

the month of ,sivan 7,may-,june7 was    
called 8the  brick month10 or that in   
which the clay cakes were submitted to  
the  action of the sun4 ,to judge by    
what is done in ,egypt at the present   
day1  one workman could by himself make 
from one thousand to fifteen hundred    
bricks a day4 ,the baked brick was      
subjected to the action of fire in      
proper kilns1 like those of our modern  
brickyards2 it acquired1 through  the   
baking1 a reddish colour1 and was less  
sensible than the crude brick  to the   
decomposing action of damp2 it was also 
more limited in its  dimensions1 in     
order that the heat might penetrate the 
internal  substance of the mass1 without
 danger of calcination on the surface4  
,on  one side of every brick1 baked or  
unbaked1 the name and official titles   
of the reigning prince were stamped by  
means of a matrix or a die used  as a   
seal2 thus1 at ,tello most of the bricks
 were marked with the name  of ,gudea1  
and at ,babylon bricks of               

,nebuchadnezzar are found by hundreds   
of thousands4    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#a4--;,brick from ,tello 7,louvre74     
,while describing the construction of   
the fortifications at ,babylon1         
,herodotus shows the process followed by
 the ,chaldans in building a  wall3 8,as
 they dug the moat1 they made bricks of 
the earth taken out of  the trench1 and 
when they had made a certain number of  
bricks they baked  them in kilns4 ,then1
 using boiling bitumen as mortar1 and   
inserting mats  of woven reeds at every 
thirtieth course of bricks1 they built  
first the  borders of the moat1 and next
 the wall itself in the same way40#d    
,mesopotamia possesses abundant wells of
 bitumen1 notably at ,hit and at  ,kalah
 ,shergat2 as for the tall reeds which  
still grow in abundance in  the marshes 
of ,lower ,chalda1 their employment in  
building had the  effect of giving more 
solidity and cohesion to the courses of 
bricks4  ,for walls less carefully      
constructed1 or for partition-walls in  

the  interior of the houses1 a simple   
mortar of clay was used instead of      
bitumen4 ,in great structures1 such as  
,birs ,nimroud at ,babylon1 the  bricks 
are bound together by mortar made of    
lime1 solid enough to stand  all tests4 
,the ruins of ,mugheir have revealed the
 use of a mixture of  ashes and lime1   
which is still employed by the natives1 
and called by  them sharr4    ,the      
necessarily limited size of bricks baked
 in kilns or dried in the  sun must have
 helped to bring about a speedier       
disintegration of the  structures1 and  
have been a serious obstacle to the     
erection of walls of  a height to be    
compared1 for instance1 with that of the
 ,egyptian  temples4 ,at certain seasons
 of the year in ,mesopotamia the rain   
falls in  torrents1 and1 filtering      
through walls in bad repair1 would soon 
open  cracks and bring about the ruin of
 the structure4 ,in these lowlands      
furrowed with watercourses1 the crude   
brick of the foundations often on  this 

account ran the risk of returning to its
 condition of clayey mud  without       
consistency4 ,greek tradition relates   
that the ,medes and  ,chaldans saw a    
part of the walls of ,nineveh fall of   
themselves1 when  they prolonged a      
blockade which forced the besieged to   
admit the waters  of the ,tigris during 
many weeks into the moats beneath the   
ramparts4 ,the  cuneiform inscriptions  
themselves1 while the empire founded by 
,nebuchadnezzar was flourishing1 often  
point out temples and palaces  falling  
to ruin1 which the kings strive without 
ceasing to repair or  rebuild4    ,the  
old sanctuaries of primitive ,chalda1   
,e-saggil1 ,e-zida1 the ,temple  of the 
,great ,light1 ,e-parra1 ,e-anna1       
,e-ulbar1 and others consecrated to     
,sin1 to ,samas1 to ,nana1 to ,bel      
,marduk1 to ,nebo1 are restored at great
  expense by ,nabonidus1 the last ,king 
of ,babylon1 who sets himself the  task 
of recalling in his inscriptions the    
material difficulties of this  work     

worthy of a pious antiquarian4 ,let no  
one be surprised after this  at the     
striking contrast between the ruins of  
,mesopotamia1 and those of  ,egypt as we
 now see them4 ,in the valley of the    
,nile building-stone  abounds1 and the  
architect has only to make his choice   
among the various  qualities of         
material4 ,accordingly he hews out      
gigantic monoliths1  erects imposingly  
majestic pylons1 rears to an aerial     
height forests of  pillars which seem to
 uphold the sky1 plants in the middle of
 the desert  those massive ,pyramids    
which will defy to the end of time even 
the most  determined of ,vandals4 ,on   
the banks of the ,tigris and ,euphrates1
 on the  contrary1 there is now nothing 
but the uniform plain of the desert1    
broken here and there by mounds of dbris
 covered with sand2 here it  may be said
 with truth that the very ruins have    
perished4 ,only in  thought can the     
archologist reconstruct vast buildings  
in accordance  with the vast material   

buried in disorder in the mud4 ,the use 
of bricks  in building has been1 to a   
greater extent than political events1   
the  auxiliary of ,jehovah's wrath      
against ,nineveh and ,babylon4    ,if   
the nature of the soil forced the       
,mesopotamian architect to build  with  
bricks1 the neighbourhood of rivers and 
canals for irrigation and  the want of  
outlet for the water obliged him at the 
same time to have  recourse to an       
expedient peculiar to ,chaldo-,assyrian 
architecture4 ,he  had to raise the     
actual dwelling on an artificial terrace
 removed from  the level of a soil      
impregnated with unwholesome damp4 ,this
 platform or  basement of unbaked brick 
on which the building was placed is met 
with  everywhere1 not only at ,nineveh  
and ,babylon1 but from the beginning in 
the substructures of ,mugheir1 ,tello1  
,warka1 and ,abu ,shahrein4 ,in the     
palace of the patesi ,gudea1 the mass   
forms a sort of immense pedestal  #ci   
ft4 high1 and nearly #fee ft4 at the    

base2 at the present day the  sides form
 in relation to the plain a slope of    
#afd ft4 ,formerly the  platform was    
mounted by a gentle slope intended for  
horses and chariots1  and by one or more
 flights of steps which broke the       
outline of the  terrace4 ,the stone     
staircases by which the terrace of the  
palaces of  ,persepolis is ascended1 are
 still in place2 in ,chalda and         
,assyria1  where they were built of     
brick1 they have almost everywhere      
disappeared4  ,however1 ,taylor         
discovered two on the side of the       
platform of the palace  of ,abu         
,shahrein2 one has only twelve steps #b 
ft4 broad2 but the other  was a         
monumental staircase of stone1 #af ft4  
broad1 with a slope of more  than #fe   
ft4    ,the edifice which surmounts the 
platform at ,tello is of bricks cemented
  together with bitumen2 its exterior   
walls are #e ft4 #aj in4 thick1 and     
form a parallelogram #agc ft4 long and  
#aja ft4 broad4 ,like the palaces of    

,warka and ,mugheir1 its orientation is 
according to the ,assyrian  custom--that
 is to say1 the angles are turned       
towards the cardinal  points1 not the   
sides as in the ,egyptian monuments4    
,the two longer sides  bulge slightly   
towards the middle1 thus describing two 
opposite  elliptical curves--a          
peculiarity which gives to the plan of  
the edifice  something of the appearance
 of    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,plan  
of the palace at ,tello 7after ,heuzey74
    a barrel1 or of two trapeziums      
joined at the base4 ,the outer surface  
of  the walls is not everywhere uniform 
and flat2 the adjacent sides of the     
northern angle are ornamented by        
projections alternately curved and      
rectilineal--a system of decoration     
which has also been observed at  ,warka1
 among the ruins of the temple called   
,wuswas1 and is found later  in the     
,assyrian monuments4 ,the great         
north-eastern faade exhibits in  the    
middle1 besides the outward swell of    

which we have spoken1 a  projection #c  
ft4 #c in4 thick and #ah ft4 long4 ,the 
wings of this  projection are formed of 
square pilasters and half-columns #a ft4
 #g in4  in diameter1 which recall the  
clustered pillars of our cathedrals1 and
  form one of the most interesting      
peculiarities of the primitive          
architecture of ,chalda4 ,taylor#e and  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,section of   
pillar 7after ,heuzey74    ,loftus#f had
 already remarked1 at ,abu ,shahrein and
 ,warka respectively1  pillars and      
half-columns of brick-work2 ,m4 de      
,sarzec has found the same              
architectural features in one of the    
secondary mounds of ,tello1 which he    
calls the tell of pillars1#g and which  
seems to represent the ruins  of the    
temple of the god ,nin ,girsu4 ,two of  
these pillars1 which measured  #f ft4 in
 thickness1 and were separated by a     
space of #f ft41 still  consisted of    
twenty-four courses of bricks4 8,each   
pillar10 says ,m4 de  ,sarzec1 8is      

formed of a cluster of four round       
columns close together1  and built      
entirely of brickwork4444 ,if one of the
 four round columns is  taken to pieces 
it is found that every alternate course 
is formed of a  circular brick in the   
centre1 round which radiate eight       
triangular  bricks grooved at their     
interior angle1 and rounded on the outer
  surface1 so that they describe by     
their union a complete circle4 ,in the  
next course the circle is composed1 on  
the contrary1 of eight triangular       
bricks ending in a point1 which are     
united at the centre of the column1  and
 of six other curved bricks which       
enclose the first eight4 ,the space     
between the four circles thus formed is 
filled up with two large bricks         
hollowed out in the form of an arc of a 
circle1 which fit exactly into  it4     
,these curious pillars1 thus ingeniously
 constructed1 recall the  ,egyptian     
order1 modelled upon vegetable forms1   
which imitates four  lotus-stalks in a  

bouquet2 they show how skilfully the    
,chaldans could  dispense with the stone
 column4 ,the base consisted of a square
 mass of  bricks forming a pedestal     
projecting on all sides #b ft4 #aa in4  
beyond  the shaft4 ,the whole group was 
covered with a thick bed of plaster40#h 
,yet1 whatever skill was displayed in   
the manufacture of these specially      
moulded bricks1 round1 triangular1 or   
forming a section of a circle1  pillars 
of this construction could not1 like the
 ,egyptian column1 show  sufficient     
solidity to support a heavy mass2 they  
would soon have bent  under the burden4 
,accordingly they could only be employed
 exceptionally  and almost entirely for 
decoration1 whether to support the roof 
of a  grand staircase or to shelter the 
cella in which a deity delivered his    
oracles4    ,the defective side of      
,chaldan architecture1 therefore1       
consists in the  lack of stone supports 
rising proudly into space like the      
,egyptian  column1 and upholding on     

their bold heads1 quite as well as the  
thickest  walls1 the foot of the arch1  
the architraves1 the roof1 the upper    
terraces or the upper stories of the    
building4 ,but the proof that the       
architects would have hewn columns of   
stone1 if nature had furnished  them    
with the necessary material1 is just    
this ingenious artifice by  which they  
succeeded in replacing them2 and        
moreover they did not  hesitate to      
employ small columns of wood or metal in
 the construction  of small buildings1  
such as the shrines of their gods4 ,a   
stela of ,king  ,nabu-ablu-iddin 7about 
,b4,c4 #ijj71 found at ,abu ,habbah1    
represents the  shrine of the god       
,samas1 supported by small wooden       
pillars1 covered with  plates of bronze 
overlapping each other so as to resemble
 the trunk of a  palm tree 7see fig4    
#bi74 ,the base and the capital are     
alike2 they are  composed of a double   
volute shaped like a lotus-flower1      
approaching  somewhat the ,ionic        

capital2 in short1 the ,chaldans knew   
how to make use  of the column in minor 
architecture4    ,one doorway at least  
was opened in each faade of the palace  
of ,tello1  but these openings were not 
on the axis of the structure1 nor even  
symmetrical4 ,the principal side 7the   
north-east7 had two entrances2 the      
largest1 nearly in the middle of the    
swell1 had an opening #c ft4 #aa in4    
broad4 ,it was constructed at a later   
period--that is to say1 at the time     
near the ,christian era when the        
,grco-,parthian kings of ,characene     
conceived the idea of restoring ,tello  
and installing themselves there4  ,like 
the ,arab houses of our day1 the outer  
walls of the palace of ,gudea  show no  
other openings2 there are neither       
windows nor lights of any  sort1        
admitting the air and the day1 and      
looking out over the country or  the    
town4    ,let us now penetrate into the 
interior of the ,chaldan edifice1 of    
which  the blind and dumb walls leave in

 our imagination an impression of gloom 
and cold uniformity4 ,the walls seem    
never to have exhibited the smallest    
architectural decoration2 they are      
entirely bare1 and only characterised   
from time to time by depressions and    
projections2 no traces of  mouldings1 of
 plinths1 of cornices1 and of those     
devices to which the  architects of all 
countries have recourse in order to     
break the lines of  the walls1 and to   
call forth effects of light and shade4  
,it must be  supposed that the interior 
decoration of the palace consisted      
entirely  of colouring and hanging      
draperies4 ,the thickness of the wall   
varies  from #h ft4 #f in4 to #b ft4 #g 
in4 ,all the partitions cut one another 
at  right angles1 forming thirty-six    
square or rectangular chambers2 the     
largest measures #ci ft4 #d in4 by #ab  
ft4 #b in41 and the smallest #aj ft4    
#aa in4 by #i ft4 #i in4 ,the           
disproportion which exists1 especially  
in the  state saloon1 between the length

 and breadth1 the extreme thickness of  
the walls1 even of those which are the  
least important in the structure1  form 
essential peculiarities to which we     
shall draw attention later in  the      
,assyrian edifices4 ,at ,nineveh it has 
been proved that it is the  thrust of   
the semicircular vaulting1 which roofs  
the chambers1 that has  forced the      
architect to bring the parallel walls   
near to one another and  to give them an
 enormous thickness4 ,are we1 in the    
absence of palpable  proof1 to draw the 
same conclusion with regard to the      
palaces of old  ,chalda8 ,are we        
authorised to assert that the vault was 
known three  thousand years before our  
era8 ,in a word1 how were the halls of  
,gudea's  building covered8 ,was it     
everywhere by means of transverse       
rafters  supporting a floor and a       
terrace8 or was it oftener by a bricked 
vault8  ,as far as we have read ,m4 de  
,sarzec's narrative1 or ,m4 ,heuzey's   
studies  on the excavations of ,tello1  

we have found no direct answer to this  
question4 ,perhaps the present state of 
the ruins or the successive  alterations
 to which the primitive structure has   
been subjected do not  allow a          
categorical solution of the problem to  
be given4 ,however1  important          
indications authorise us to believe that
 the ,chaldans of the  time of ,gudea   
already understood the vault and used it
 for roofing their  houses4 ,in several 
parts even of the palace of ,tello1 ,m4 
de ,sarzec found  small vaulted         
passages1 #c ft4 #c in4 high and #a ft4 
#aa in4#i thick1 in a  perfect state of 
preservation2 in one of the secondary   
mounds he brought  to light a small     
vaulted drain which carried the sewage  
of the town far  away into the plain4   
,taylor found1 in an underground chamber
 of the  necropolis at ,mugheir1 the    
most primitive kind of vault that has   
ever  been known--that called the       
corbelled vault4 ,in this false vault   
the  courses of bricks ascend in        

parallel rows on each side until they   
meet  one another1 every fresh course   
projecting perceptibly beyond that      
beneath it1 until the opposite courses  
touch and form one4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #d4--;,corbelled vaulting at      
,mugheir 7after ,taylor74    ,it was1   
then1 as it seems1 the ,chaldans who    
invented the vault2#aj the  want of     
timber compelled them in early times to 
contrive to defend  themselves at once  
against the heavy rains and the ardour  
of a torrid  sun2 the creation of the   
vault was in their case instinctive and 
spontaneous4 ,they raised1 two or three 
thousand years before our era1  vaults  
and domes like those which are built to 
this day by the rudest  masons at       
,mosoul or ,bagdad4 ,no doubt the       
present state of the ,chaldan  ruins and
 the insufficient explorations which    
have been undertaken among  them do not 
enable us to say whether these          
,proto-,chaldans knew every  kind of    
vault1 as the ,assyrians did in the age 

of the ,sargonids1 or the  ,babylonians 
at the epoch of ,nebuchadnezzar2 but the
 remarkable  perfection observed in     
their monumental structures1 and in the 
very  manufacture of the bricks1 are so 
many arguments in favour of the         
inference that the palaces and houses of
 the ,chaldans in the time of  ,gudea   
were surmounted1 for the most part1 by  
semicircular vaults or by  cupolas1 as  
were later1 according to ,strabo1#aa the
 houses of the  ,babylonians4 ,the      
vaults supported a terrace formed of    
clay2 this layer  of earth would be less
 thick over rooms roofed only with a    
ceiling of  palm-beams and reed-matting4
 ,the ascent was by staircases1 an      
example of  which seems to have been    
found in the palace at ,tello4#ab       
,while clearing away the material       
accumulated between the courts ,a and   
,b1  the workmen employed by the ,french
 explorer came into contact 7at the     
point ,h7 with a structure of baked     
brickwork1 which proves that the        

,chaldans at the remotest epoch had     
already invented one of the most        
interesting and characteristic elements 
of their architecture--the  zikkurat or 
staged tower4 ,the lower layers in the  
palace of ,gudea  alone exist1 and are  
composed of two solid masses in stages  
one above  the other4 ,in its present   
condition the upper terrace is a mass   
#bf ft4  square1 #ac ft4 less on all    
sides than the lower stage2 perhaps     
there  still exists a third and lower   
step1 which has not been reached by the 
soundings1 which are imperfect at this  
point4 ,the zikkurat of ,tello  was not 
in any case so lofty or so important a  
structure as those of the  ,ninevite    
palaces or those represented by the     
ruins of ,babil or ,birs  ,nimroud at   
,babylon4 ,it was even much less        
considerable than that which  ,taylor   
observed at ,abu ,shahrein1 and which   
was equally old4 ,these towers  always  
had1 from the first1 seven stages1 each 
painted of a different  colour1 and     

connected with the worship of the sun   
7,samas71 the moon  7,sin71 and the five
 planets of the astronomical system of  
the ,chaldans4    ,the disposition of   
the royal apartments showed a striking  
analogy with  that which we shall meet  
with again later in the palaces of      
,nineveh2  there were the convenience   
and comfort which we find in the palaces
 of  modern oriental sovereigns4 ,to the
 ,chaldans again we must give the       
credit of having invented that          
architectural arrangement which springs 
from the necessities of oriental life1  
and is so well fitted to its  needs that
 for four thousand years it has never   
varied4 ,there were in  the palace of   
,gudea three interior courts 7,a1 ,b1   
,c1 fig4 #b71 round each  of which the  
rooms radiated1 and from which they     
received air and light4  ,each of these 
three groups had its own entrance1 and  
communicated with  the next group only  
by a single passage easy to guard or to 
close4 ,the  group of chambers situated 

in the northern angle 7,c7 was          
especially  isolated and removed from   
the others2 it was the hareem or women's
  apartments4 ,at the eastern angle 7,b7
 were the rooms composing the  seraglio 
or selamlik--that is to say1 the part of
 the palace  inhabited by the king and  
his officers2 there was the saloon for  
official receptions1 of which we have   
given the dimensions4 ,this part of  the
 royal dwelling communicated on one side
 with a state courtyard1  measuring #ee 
ft4 #h in4 by #fh ft4 #i in41 and on the
 other with the  outside by means of a  
smaller room serving as an antechamber2 
beside the  door opening on the faade1  
boxes or recesses had been arranged in  
which  the guards were posted4 ,the     
third group of chambers1 on the         
south-east  7,a71 formed the ,khan--that
 is to say1 the dependencies of the     
palace1  the kitchens1 the slaves'      
lodgings1 and the stables4    ,all the  
rooms were paved with bricks2 they very 
rarely led into one  another1 and had an

 opening looking on to the court4 ,the  
largest of the  doorways1 that which    
opened into the state saloon1 was of the
 unusual  breadth of #f ft4 #f in42 it  
was probably a folding door4 ,under each
 of  the principal doors there was a    
great threshold of marble or alabaster1 
sometimes covered with an inscription   
and placed on a bed of bitumen and      
crushed bricks2 under this concrete1    
finally1 cylinders of precious  stone   
and talismanic amulets were generally   
found4    ,the leaves of the door turned
 on pivots1 the point of which rested in
 a  cavity hollowed out for this purpose
 in a great block of diorite4 ,m4 de    
,sarzec brought to the ,louvre a large  
number of these natural blocks1  which  
were found buried in the pavement so as 
only to rise an inch or  two above the  
surface4 ,on the smooth surface of each 
of them it is seen  that the socket1    
hollowed out in the form of a conical   
cup1 has  undergone an incessant        
friction2 round the hole an inscription1

  sometimes circular1 was engraved 7fig4
 #e74 ,to prevent the wooden pivot  of  
the doors from wearing out too rapidly1 
it was enveloped in a metal  sheath1    
which took the form of a funnel1 and    
which was fixed to the wood  by means of
 nails4 ,one of these bronze cups has   
been found at ,tello1  still in place on
 the socket4#ac    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#e4--,socket for pivot of door1 from    
,tello 7,louvre74    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #f4--,terra-cotta cone from ,tello
 7,louvre74    ,the discoveries of      
,loftus and ,taylor show us how the     
faades and the  rooms of the ,chaldan   
palaces were decorated4 ,the principal  
faade of  the buildings at ,abu         
,shahrein and ,warka had a mural        
decoration of a kind  as primitive as it
 was singular4#ad ,first it was         
plastered with a thick  layer of clay   
stucco2 then1 before this plaster was   
completely dry1  cones of baked clay    
were buried in it1 like metal nails4    
,only the head  of these cones is       

visible on the surface of the wall4     
,while the stem is  plunged into the    
thick clay and sticks there unseen4 ,to 
the heads of  these cones1 disposed at  
regular distances1 and acting perhaps   
also as  talismans1 various colours are 
applied2 they are black1 red1 white1 or 
yellow4 ,moreover1 each head is         
separated from its neighbours by        
coloured  geometrical lines1 so that it 
became to the eye the centre of a       
lozenge  or a square4    ,if the        
interior of the rooms was lined in      
monochrome with white stucco1  or with  
fresco painting1 nothing of this        
decoration is left4 ,but we have  in    
sufficiently large quantities1 although 
always much mutilated1 the  remains of  
another more original system of wall    
decoration1 of which the  ,chaldans are 
the inventors--that is to say1 enamelled
 bricks4 ,by  applying a coloured paste1
 which the fire would vitrify1 to one of
 the  surfaces of the bricks before     
baking1 a glaze or enamel was produced1 

closely united to the clay and immovably
 solid4 ,it was again necessity  and    
their ungrateful climate which induced  
the ,chaldans to have  recourse to this 
ingenious method4 ,they were in great   
need of a remedy  for the want of stone 
and a means of preventing the heavy     
rains from  spoiling the colours applied
 to the walls4 ,they succeeded so       
perfectly  in this that even at the     
present day the brilliancy of these     
glazed  tiles is not affected4 ,the     
colours with which they are painted are 
of  the simplest1 and vary little2 they 
are blue1 white1 black1 yellow and  red4
 ,unfortunately1 those fine fragments   
which have been brought to our  museums 
are only so far interesting that they   
teach us the technical  methods of a    
manufacture which involves that of      
opaque glass2 even those  which are     
least mutilated contain at the most a   
few floral designs or  portions of the  
figures of animals1 and moreover these  
last are not  older than the epoch of   

,nebuchadnezzar4    ,the trenches dug   
among the massive terraces of ,chalda   
have revealed  other curious details of 
construction4 ,we know1 for instance1   
what steps  were taken to prevent the   
sewage of the houses or the rain-water  
which  fell upon them from filtering    
through the platforms of crude brick on 
which the buildings stood2 a rapid      
disintegration would have followed4     
,they1 therefore1 planned a complete    
system of water-channels and  drainage4 
,in one of the mounds at ,tello1 ,m4 de 
,sarzec found a series of  cylindrical  
pipes or tubes of baked clay1 fitted    
into one another1 and  forming together 
a conduit for the water4#ae             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,drainage    
pipe at ,mugheir 7after ,loftus74       
,but the place where this method has    
been carried out with peculiarly        
ingenious skill is the necropolis at    
,mugheir4 ,the top of the platform1  in 
the body of which the tombs are sunk1 is
 covered with a brick  pavement laid    

with special care1 in which every chink 
is filled up with  bitumen4 ,under this 
upper crust the coffins are ranged in   
order1 one  above the other1 each one   
being placed separately in a small      
chamber4 ,at  intervals brick tubes are 
met with1 fitted into one another and   
forming  a sort of immense flue hidden  
in the structure4 ,the lower extremity  
of  the pipes opened into a drain2 the  
upper end1 on a level with the  surface 
of the pavement of the terrace1 was     
furnished with a cap pierced  with an   
infinite number of small holes like a   
skimmer4 ,through these the  rain-water 
was carried off1 and this system of     
drainage was so  wonderfully well       
understood and carried out1 that it has 
remained intact  to our own day1 and1   
according to ,loftus1 the tombs have    
been so well  preserved that they are   
found perfectly dry1 including the      
bodies and  their furniture4 ,we shall  
see the ,assyrians take similar         
precautions to  preserve the terraces of

 the ,ninevite palaces from the         
percolation of  water4    ,the          
construction of a temple or palace was  
the occasion of a religious  ceremony   
analogous to that which we call the     
laying of the first stone4  ,in a hollow
 formed in the foundation-wall a        
cylinder of baked clay was  deposited   
7fig4 #h71 on which an inscription was  
written describing the  erection of the 
building and setting forth the piety and
 great deeds of  the prince2 this       
cylinder was accompanied by various     
talismanic objects3  cones and          
statuettes of bronze and baked clay1    
cylindrical seals1 votive  tablets1     
sometimes of silver or gold4 ,among the 
foundations of the  palace of ,gudea1   
,m4 de ,sarzec found four of these      
cavities in the wall  measuring #a ft4  
#a in4 by #aj in4 by #d in42 they still 
contained the  cylinders and amulets    
deposited there4    ,hiding-places of   
the same kind have been observed at     
,senkereh1 at  ,mugheir1 and among the  

ruins of almost all the ,chaldan and    
,assyrian  buildings4 ,the ,assyrians   
themselves1 when they wished to restore 
an old  ruined temple1 took pains first 
to find out the hiding-place of the     
foundation-cylinder or timmennu4    ,the
 last king of ,babylon1 ,nabonidus1     
relates in one of the official          
inscriptions of his reign how he        
happened to find the timmennu of the    
earliest builders of the temple of the  
,sun at ,larsa4 ,king ,kurigalzu  7about
 ,b4,c4 #acej71 and later ,esarhaddon   
7,b4,c4 #fhj-ffg71 and  ,nebuchadnezzar 
himself1 had repaired this venerated    
sanctuary1 and  sought vainly for the   
hiding-place of the talismans4 8,then   
,i1 ,nabonidus1  inspired by my piety   
towards the goddess ,istar of ,agade1 my
 sovereign1  caused an excavation to be 
made4 ,the gods ,samas and ,rammanu     
granted me  their constant favour1 and  
,i found the foundation-cylinder of the 
temple  of ,e-,ulbar40 ,it bore the name
 of the king ,sagasaltias 7about b4c4   

#aejj74  ,after reading the inscription1
 ,nabonidus restored it to its place and
  himself made another cylinder to      
record his researches and his own       
works2 he deposited it in the foundation
 by the side of the ancient  cylinder4  
,modern explorers1 no doubt also        
favoured by ,samas and ,rammanu1  found 
in a sufficiently good state of         
preservation the mysterious             
hiding-places and the precious objects  
which had been piously placed  there    
#eej years before our era4#af           
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#h4--;,foundation-cylinder from         
,khorsabad 7,louvre74      ,,ii4        
,,statues ,,and ,,bas-,,reliefs4    ,the
 discoveries of ,m4 de ,sarzec at       
,tello1 and those of other explorers  in
 ,chalda1 allow us to go back almost to 
the origin of sculpture in  ,western    
,asia4 ,our museums possess1 in fact1   
bas-reliefs and statues  belonging to a 
rudimentary stage of art1 the remote age
 of which is  still attested by the     

archaic inscriptions which accompany    
them1 and  these most ancient           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,bas-relief  
from ,tello 7,louvre74    monuments are 
followed1 as in the case of ,egypt and  
,greece1 by other  statues and          
bas-reliefs which1 descending a         
chronological scale across  the ages1   
represent the graduated phases of       
artistic progress in ,chalda  before the
 ,ninevite supremacy was imposed upon   
this country4 ,among the  fragments of  
sculpture at ,tello1 that which ,m4     
,heuzey considers most  primitive1 and  
which should be placed at the head of   
the productions of  oriental sculpture1 
is a bas-relief of greyish limestone1   
#aj in4 broad  and #e in4 high4 ,four   
figures alone remain of the complicated 
scene which  decorated this stone panel4
 ,one of them is seated1 with the       
profile  turned to the left2 it is a    
beardless man rather than a woman1 and  
his  face is half covered by an         
exaggerated eye seen from the front as  

in  children's drawings4 ,his hair      
consists of two long tresses falling to 
his shoulders1 and almost to be mistaken
 for the lappets of the high  tiara with
 which he is crowned4 ,this tiara seems 
to be adorned with two  bulls' horns4   
,the bust is draped with a large shawl  
which leaves the  right shoulder bare4  
,the hand1 raised to a level with the   
face1 looks  like a simple fork2 it     
holds a cup1 as if the scene represented
 a  libation1 and in fact we still see a
 part of the deity to whom the  offering
 is directed4 ,on the right a bearded   
man with square shoulders1  crowned with
 a low cap1 dressed in a large robe     
without folds1 holds in  his right hand 
a sort of club1 with which he seems to  
deliver a blow  upon the head of his    
companion1 whom he seizes by the hand4  
,it will be  seen that the explanation  
of this picture is exceedingly doubtful2
 but  looking from the point of view of 
the history of art1 we must recognise   
in it without hesitation a fragment     

which comes down from remote  antiquity4
 ,the relief is low1 the outline of the 
figures is timid and  uncertain1 the    
details are disproportioned1 as if the  
rude chisel which  carved them had been 
held in the unskilful hands of a child2 
the design  is full of elementary       
mistakes1 though limestone is soft and  
easily  worked4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#aj4 ,bas-relief from ,tello 7,louvre74 
,a more advanced art marks the fragment 
of a bas-relief which ,m4 ,heuzey       
called 8the ,eagle and ,lion ,tablet10  
and which is dated by an inscription    
mentioning the king ,ur-,nina 7,b4,c4   
#bejj74 ,an eagle is seen here with     
outspread wings standing upon a lion4   
,the sculpture is equally flat and      
without modelling1 but the graceful     
outline of the figures is clearly       
chiselled1 and with a surer hand2 the   
extremities of the wing feathers  of the
 eagle are indented1 the body of the    
lion is remarkably correct in  outline1 
except the head1 which still remains    

barbarous4    ,a third stage of ,chaldan
 sculpture may be represented by the    
8,vulture  ,stela10 on which the names  
of two kings have been read1 one of whom
 is  the son of ,ur-,nina4 ,the three   
fragments of this limestone stela are   
carved on both sides4 ,on one of them a 
flock of vultures carry away  human     
remains in their flight--heads1 hands1  
and arms4 ,the human heads  denote an   
art which has left the gropings of      
childhood behind3 they are  entirely    
shaved1 the nose is always aquiline1 the
 eye of an exaggerated  size and        
triangular4 ,the vultures1 more rudely  
drawn1 are nevertheless  well           
characterised by their long curved beak 
and their claws of  exaggerated length2 
the markings of the feathers and wings  
are brought  out4 ,on another fragment  
of the same stela it seems that we      
witness the  construction of a          
sepulchral tumulus4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #aa4--,the ,vulture ,stela        
7,louvre74    ,illustration3 ,fig4      

#ab4--,the ,vulture ,stela 7,louvre74   
,men dressed in a short tunic1 fringed1 
and tightened at the waist1 carry  on   
their heads wicker baskets1 probably    
containing earth to cover the  pile of  
corpses heaped one upon the other in    
symmetrical and alternate  rows4 ,the   
third piece of the same monument seems  
to represent a scene of  carnage4 ,as   
for the back of the stela1 it is less   
ornamented2 however1  on one of the     
fragments 7fig4 #ac71 a pole surmounted 
by an eagle with  outspread wings is    
seen1 and then a large human head1      
incomplete but  highly interesting2 it  
exhibits1 from an anatomical point of   
view1 the  same character as the smaller
 heads which we have just considered2   
but  its head-dress is a most curious   
feature1--a sort of tiara decorated     
with bulls' horns4 8,by an archaic      
conventionality10 observes ,m4 ,heuzey1 
8these two horns are seen in profile1   
curved forwards and backwards2 but  in  
reality they were attached to the sides 

of the cap4444 ,the cap is  also        
surmounted by a crest of four large     
feathers1 in the middle of  which rises 
a cone decorated with a quaint head also
 crowned by a  crescent2 this little    
decorative head1 drawn in full face1 has
 an  exceedingly long and broad nose    
without any sign of a mouth1 so that it 
may be doubted whether it be the head of
 a man or of an animal40#ag ,the  same  
tiara is found with unimportant         
modifications on ,assyrian cylinders    
and bas-reliefs1 in which it forms the  
head-dress of deities or  pontiffs4 ,the
 artistic superiority of the bas-reliefs
 of the ,vulture  ,stela over the       
monuments quoted previously is          
abundantly evident1 and  already allows 
us a foretaste of the sober and vigorous
 art revealed to  us by the large       
statues found in the palace of ,gudea4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,the ,vulture
 ,stela 7,louvre74    ,it was in the    
most spacious court of the palace that  
,m4 de ,sarzec found  assembled nearly  

all the ,chaldan statues which he had   
transported to  the museum of the       
,louvre4 ,to the number of ten1 they are
 of blackish  diorite with a bluish     
tinge2 all are headless and bear        
inscriptions in  the name of ,gudea or  
of ,ur-,bau4 ,at the moment of discovery
 they were  lying on the slabs of the   
court-yard1--on one side those which    
represent  upright figures1 on the other
 the seated statues4 ,a separate head1  
appearing to belong to one of the       
statues1 was also found in the same     
courtyard4 ,the other heads were        
unearthed elsewhere1 and it is          
impossible to say whether they had been 
removed from the headless  statues that 
we know4 ,all these heads1 though       
exhibiting common  characteristics1 are 
distinguished from one another by       
peculiarities  which disclose the       
surprising skill and the fecundity of   
the ,chaldan  genius at this remote     
epoch4 ,the man's head 7fig4 #ad7 found 
in the great  courtyard is of life-size1

 the hair and beard completely shaven1  
as in  certain ,egyptian statues4 ,the  
eyebrows form an exaggerated projection 
above enormous eyes2 the skull is       
remarkably elongated2 the mutilated     
nose alone prevents us from having the  
complete type of the ,chaldan  race1    
with its hard features and thick1       
sensual lips4    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#ad4--;,chaldan head 7,louvre74         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,chaldan    
head 7,louvre74    ,in a neighbouring   
tell ,m4 de ,sarzec found another head  
of the same size  and of an equally     
interesting type4 ,it is less severe in 
aspect than the  preceding one1 but     
carved with equal skill4 ,the face is   
round and  almost smiling1 the chin     
broad and powerful1 the nose flat4 ,the 
very  original head-dress is composed of
 a woollen cap fitting closely to the   
head1 and furnished with a thick border1
 which1 turning up1 forms a sort  of    
crown2 the meshes of the woollen tissue 
are conventionally marked by  a number  

of symmetrical rolls4 ,even at the      
present day in ,lower ,chalda  the      
,christian priests of the ,chaldan rite 
envelop their heads in a  turban of     
black stuff1 which allows of a similar  
arrangement4#ah    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#af4--;,chaldan statue 7,louvre74    ,as
 for the headless statues whether seated
 or standing1 they have all  the same   
characteristics1 exhibit an identical   
type1 and are  incontestably of the same
 school of sculpture4 ,here is a        
personage  seated on a sort of stool not
 fully carved out2 he recalls           
involuntarily  the ,greek statues of the
 sacred way of the ,branchid at         
,miletus1 and is  in the same religious 
attitude4 ,a cloak without sleeves is   
crossed over  his breast and thrown back
 over his shoulder2 a handsome fringe1  
delicately    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#ag4--;,chaldan statue 7,louvre74       
carved1 falls over the whole depth in   
front2 the hands are clasped on  the    
breast in the oriental posture of       

meditation and devotion2 the bare  feet 
are chiselled with an attention to      
detail never to be surpassed in  later  
times1 even by the ,ninevite artists4   
,on the knees of the personage  lies a  
tablet intended to receive an           
inscription or a design4 ,in fact1      
another statue like this1 though of     
smaller proportions1 holds on its  knees
 a similar tablet1 on which the plan of 
a fortress with its  bastions and       
posterns is engraved in outline1 just as
 an architect of  the present day would 
draw it4 ,a graduated rule1 that is to  
say1 one  subdivided into fractions of  
unequal but proportional length1 #aj in4
  long1 is carved in relief beside the  
plan1 for which it serves as a  scale2  
finally1 at the side lies the style with
 which the architect  engraved his      
design 7see fig4 #ec74 ,the standing    
statues answer almost to  the same      
description2 they also are bare-footed1 
with the hands crossed  upon the breast 
but the arrangement of the long shawl1  

which seems to  form the only garment of
 all these personages1 becomes more     
intelligible4 ,the ,arab still drapes   
himself in the same fashion in his      
burnoos1--that garment1 at once so      
simple and so dignified1 of the         
shepherd of the desert4 ,it is a piece  
of woollen stuff1 the borders of  which 
are adorned with a fringe2 it is folded 
in two1 and wrapped round  the body     
obliquely1 so that it covers one arm and
 leaves the other bare2  the upper      
corner1 held fast by wrapping the       
garment once round1 is  enough to keep  
the whole in place4 ,we shall find this 
large shawl again  on the ,ninevite     
bas-reliefs1 just as we shall observe   
the persistence  and exaggeration of    
this sober and nervous style1 which1 as 
early as the  ,proto-,chaldan epoch1    
lays too much stress on the muscles1 and
 lingers  with an excessive fondness    
over anatomical details4    ,the        
,chaldan statues were intended to be    
seen all round1 and not laid  flat      

against a wall2 they are completely     
finished behind as well as in  front4   
,compared with the statues found in the 
temples of ,cyprus1 for  instance1 they 
show us that the artist has sought to   
spare neither his  time nor his trouble4
 ,amid this sobriety of treatment and   
this  uniformity of attitudes we feel   
that ,chaldan art is already far from   
the hesitation and incorrectness of the 
first age2 the chisel attacks  the      
hardest stone with vigour and success2  
the artist's hand is  experienced and   
sure of itself4 ,this archaic art is    
above all realistic1  and aims at a     
precise and even affected following of  
nature4 ,the bare  shoulder is modelled 
and copied with surprising truth1 the   
hands and  feet are studied even to the 
knuckles1 the nails1 the wrinkles of the
  skin4 ,at the same time the figures   
are thick-set and1 it may be said1  far 
too short--a fact which contributes to  
increase the impression of  strength and
 muscular energy produced by an         

attentive observation of  them4    ,the 
suppleness of the ,chaldan genius at the
 time of ,gudea appears again  in a     
singular monument of the ,de ,sarzec    
collection1 which may be taken  to be   
the foot of a vase rather than the base 
of a small column 7fig4  #ah74 ,small   
figures in high relief1 nude1 and seated
 on the ground1 lean  against a         
cylindrical stem4 ,the best preserved   
figure has an oval face  of rare        
refinement1 and of a type entirely      
foreign to that of the large  statues2  
with his beard cut in a point1 and his  
head covered with a  woollen turban1 he 
looks straight in front of him with a   
smiling aspect2  in all ,assyrian       
sculpture no countenance of such        
originality could  perhaps be found4 ,we
 do not know what is the meaning of     
these little  figures crouched round    
this sort of basin4 ,they seem to hold  
the place  of the winged bulls and lions
 or other fantastic genii1 whom         
,assyrian  art will soon multiply       

everywhere in the capacity of           
architectural  supports or ornaments4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--;,foot of    
,chaldan vase 7,louvre74    ,in front of
 the palace at ,tello stood a large     
stone basin decorated with  sculpture1  
some fragments of which have come down  
to us4 ,this monolithic  trough1 #h ft4 
#b in4 long by #a ft1 #g in4 broad1     
served1 perhaps1 to  water the camels   
and the flocks which halted at the gate 
of ,gudea's  dwelling2 or rather1 on    
account of its rich ornamentation1 may  
we  believe that it was a basin         
consecrated to the service of the       
temple1  like the brazen sea in the     
,temple of ,jerusalem1 or the vase of   
,amathus8  ,however it may be1 there    
were1    ,illustration3 ,fig4           
#ai4--;,bas-relief from ,tello 7after   
,heuzey74    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#bj4--;,bas-relief from ,tello 7,rev4   
arch41 t4 i41  #ahhg1 p4 #bfe74    on   
its two longer surfaces1 in low relief1 
women with arms outstretched1  holding  

magic vases1 from which two jets of     
liquid gushed1 on each side  of an ear  
of corn1 a graceful symbol of the       
proverbial fertility of  ,mesopotamia1  
enclosed by the sacred streams of the   
,tigris and ,euphrates1  which were     
adored under the name of ,naharaim1 the 
two rivers par  excellence4 ,the        
fragment reproduced here 7fig4 #ai7     
shows us that the  ,proto-,chaldans     
already gave to flowing water the       
conventional form of  undulating lines  
7see also fig4 #cd72 the woman is drawn 
with surprising  truth4#ai ,the same    
technical skill is remarked in a        
bas-relief from  ,tello1 which          
represents a bearded personage1 in full 
face1 with a  costume in which ,m4      
,heuzey has recognised the fleecy stuff 
called  kaunakes by the ,greeks4        
,observe the delicacy with which the    
,chaldan  artists treated the costume   
and the beard4 ,it may almost be said   
that  ,mesopotamian art has no further  
progress to make1 and that it already   

shows its full proportions at the       
fabulously remote epoch represented by  
the antiquities of ,tello4    ,there is 
less modelling in the figures which     
adorn the upper part of the  ,caillou   
,michaux2 the relief upon it is dry and 
flat1 and the drawing  affects a        
hieratic stiffness which would suggest  
an epoch of decadence1  or at least a   
time when ,chaldan art was arrested in  
its upward march4  ,this monument1 dated
 in the reign of ,marduk-nadin-akhi1    
,king of ,babylon  about ,b4,c4 #aabj1  
was perhaps a stone rolled down by the  
waters of the  river1 which was made    
into a sacred object2 the cuneiform     
inscription  contains the donation of a 
landed estate1 settled as a dowry4#bj   
,the  curious figures1 under the        
protection of which this contract is    
placed1  show us1 as they do in many    
cylinders1 that at this epoch ,chaldan  
mythology was turned to profit by the   
artists1 who knew how to unite  human to
 animal forms without falling into      

monstrosity or deformity1 and  to give  
symbolical figures to the stars and to  
the invisible genii  conceived by their 
wild imagination4 ,the drawing of these 
strange  figures is not unskilful2 they 
inspire terror without degenerating into
  the caricature and grotesque forms    
which mark the images of the gods  among
 barbarous peoples4 ,chaldan art is as  
learned as the secrets of  its mythology
 are complicated4 ,examine1 for         
instance1 this winged goat              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,the ,caillou
 ,michaux 7,cabinet des ,mdailles74     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,stela of    
,maduk-nadin-akhi 7,british ,museum74   
lying before an altar2 the angular      
outlines of its horns are rendered  with
 truth1 the muscles of its legs1 perhaps
 badly placed anatomically1  are        
analysed in their smallest details1 and 
the movement of this animal1  which is  
making an effort to rise1 is very       
natural1 though lacking in  life and    
suppleness4 ,we shall recognise the same

 characters of dryness  and rudeness in 
the black basalt stela of the same king1
  ,marduk-nadin-akhi4 ,here1 as in the  
,caillou ,michaux1 the relief is  flat1 
nothing supple1 graceful1 or amiable2   
the ,chaldan genius cannot  smile4 ,of  
those ample garments of the ,oriental1  
those draperies with  which the ,greek  
artist will be able to produce so       
powerful an effect1  the ,chaldan artist
 is satisfied with scratching in        
outline1 so to  speak1 the folds and    
fringes2 he makes heavy embroidered     
copes of them1  like those of ,catholic 
priests4 ,but1 in compensation1 he looks
 at these  embroideries through a       
magnifying glass1 and excels in         
analysing and  reproducing the richness 
of the tissue1 the innumerable and      
complicated  forms of the design4 ,we   
can henceforth foresee that the         
sculptor1 losing  sight of synthesis so 
as to place his ideal exclusively in the
  infinitely little1 will never rid     
himself of the narrow formula in which  

he so early imprisoned his talent4 ,all 
his figures in statuary or in the       
bas-reliefs1 so highly finished in      
detail1 show as a whole a hieratic  and 
conventional stiffness1 which will      
unhappily descend as a heritage  to the 
,assyrian artist4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #bc4--;,chaldan statuette in      
bronze 7,louvre74      ,,iii4 ,,minor   
,,sculpture ,,and ,,the ,,industrial    
,,arts4    ,the ,chaldans could work in 
bronze as skilfully as in stone4 ,m4 de 
,sarzec has collected some bronze       
figures which1 compared with other      
monuments already secured1 allow us to  
fix some precise landmarks in the       
gradual development of the art of       
casting and chiselling metals in        
,chalda4 ,a certain statuette of a man  
or woman 7fig4 #bc7 may be  considered  
the most rudimentary attempt4#ba ,it has
 simply the shape of  a cylindrical     
stem1 the upper part of which is        
furnished with two arms  and a human    
head like the xoana of the ,greeks4     

,this head1 surmounted  by small horns1 
is strangely barbarous2 it recalls the  
art of the men of  the bronze age and   
the most rustic of the ,cypriote        
terra-cottas4  ,progress is manifest in 
other    ,illustration3 ,fig4           
#bd4--;,chaldan statuette 7,louvre74    
bronzes--separated1 perhaps1 from the   
former by several hundred years4  ,these
 are statuettes which1 instead of being 
fixed on a base1 end in a  reversed and 
much elongated cone1 which must have    
served to plunge them  into a soft      
matter such as mortar4 ,one represents a
 recumbent bull1 the  other 7fig4 #bd7 a
 kneeling man holding in his hands the  
base of the  cone2 he is bearded and    
covered with the tiara with several     
pairs of  horns1 reserved for gods and  
genii4 ,a third1 lastly1 is a woman     
carrying  a basket on her head1 whose   
body has remarkably the appearance of an
  elongated ingot4 ,this canephoros1    
whose female form is only indicated by  
the breasts and the width of the hips1  

leads us naturally to speak of  another 
canephoros 7fig4 #be71 found at ,afaj on
 the ,euphrates1 bearing  the name of   
the king ,kudurmapuk 7,b4,c4 #bjjj74 ,it
 may be seen by this  statuette that the
 art of working in bronze followed      
closely the  progress of sculpture in   
stone4 ,though the head and arms are    
still the  work of half-trained artists1
 the head is very remarkable2 the arch  
of  the eyebrows and the eyes are       
treated as in the large diorite statues2
  the hair is completely shaved4 ,the   
same characters are observed in a       
remarkable figure of a bearded priest1  
wearing a tiara of moderate  height1    
dressed in a long tunic with flounced   
fringes4#bb ,here is a  mutilated       
statuette from ,tello 7fig4 #bf72 it is 
a god standing on a  crouching lion2 the
 head of the roaring beast has a        
ferocious and  natural expression1 but  
the god's robe is cylindrical1 without  
amplitude  and without modelling1 and   
the artist has tried in vain to conceal 

this  stiffness1 which betrays his      
impotence1 by engraving the fringes and 
rosettes of the drapery4 ,remark that   
the long hairs of the lion are  treated 
like the woollen shag of the priest's   
cap which we examined just  now 7fig4   
#ae74 ,the animal has very small wings2 
his forelegs are those  of a bull1 his  
hind-legs end in lion's claws2 the study
 of nature here  is perfect1 but in     
those conventional lines which are meant
 to express  the swell of the muscles1  
we feel the tendency to exaggeration and
  trivial rudeness which we remarked in 
the statues4    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#be4--;,canephoros of ,kudurmapuk       
7,louvre74    ,in one of the smaller    
mounds at ,tello1 ,m4 de ,sarzec        
discovered a  fragment of a large bronze
 statue4 8,it was10 he says1 8a         
life-sized  bull's horn1 of bronze      
plating mounted on a wooden frame1 but  
the wood  was carbonised by the action  
of fire40#bcbd ,he had also found a     
sword1 which was stolen and destroyed by

 an ,arab4 ,but we can cite  another    
weapon of the same kind in the          
possession of ,colonel ,hanbury2  the   
blade1 curved like a scythe1 and        
triangular1 bears a votive  inscription 
in the name of the ,assyrian king       
,rammannirari1 the son of  ,pudil       
7,b4,c4 #acjj74 ,the curious peculiarity
 of this weapon is that on one  of its  
surfaces a small recumbent deer is to be
 seen engraved1 and this  is the maker's
 mark3 from this time onward the        
jealousy of craftsmen  comes into play  
and declares itself by the same measures
 as in our day4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#bf4--;,chaldan statuette in bronze     
7,louvre74    ,surprising as the        
phenomenon is at first sight1 ,chaldan  
pottery was far  from following the     
progress of sculpture4 ,the excavations 
of ,tello have  enriched the museum of  
the ,louvre with five hundred           
terra-cotta cones1  bearing the name of 
,gudea and ,ur-,bau1 but these are only 
industrial  products1 without artistic  

character1 and belonging to the brick   
manufacture4 ,the necropoles of ,warka  
and ,mugheir1 where we might have       
expected to meet with works of art1 as  
in the tombs of ,greece or  ,etruria1   
have only furnished coarse vases which  
bear witness to the  complete           
inferiority of pottery among the        
,chaldo-,assyrians4 ,they are  all      
singularly barbarous and rustic1 whether
 they come from the archaic  tombs of   
,warka and ,mugheir1 or issue from the  
ruins of the palaces  where1            
nevertheless1 the art of sculpture soars
 and displays itself in  its perfect    
development4 ,assyrian pottery1 even    
that of the best epoch1  resembles1     
sometimes so much as to be mistaken for 
it1 the most archaic  pottery of ,greece
 proper and the ,islands of the gean4   
,but here it is  only the beginning of  
art1 the first effort of the potter who 
before  long will fashion masterpieces2 
there1 on the contrary1 these vulgar    
kitchen receptacles form the whole art1 

and represent at once the start  and the
 finish4    ,this neglect of ceramics by
 the ,chaldo-,assyrian artists results  
from  geological and climatic causes    
analogous to those which1 as we shall   
see1 developed sculpture in bas-relief  
to the detriment of sculpture in  the   
round4 ,it is especially owing to the   
bad quality of the clay in              
,mesopotamia1 which1 though quite fit to
 be turned into square bricks1  has not 
a fine enough grain for the purpose of  
fashioning from it the  fragile frame of
 a broad crater1 or of a slim amphora1  
and still less  for the purpose of      
lending itself to all the details of    
face and drapery  in graceful and       
slender figurines like those of         
,tanagra1 ,cyme1 or  ,myrina4    ,the   
cohesion of the ,mesopotamian clay is so
 imperfect that the  ,babylonian        
terra-cottas which have come down to us 
crumble almost at the  first touch1 in  
spite of the process of baking to which 
they have been  subjected4 ,it is       

observed that1 to give some consistency 
to the body of  the vases and to prevent
 cracks1 the potter has been obliged to 
mix the  clayey paste with chopped      
straw4 ,it was impossible then to make  
the  sides thin1 or to fashion them with
 art2 consequently it would not have    
been natural to decorate with rich and  
careful painting vases which  could only
 be heavy and coarse4 ,it was enough to 
trace out geometrical  designs1 bands of
 colour1 ovals1 symmetrical festoons    
round the neck of  the amphor2 nothing  
in this sort of decoration has been     
borrowed from  the animal or vegetable  
world or from history1 of which the     
artist  could1 however1 make so         
wonderful a use in the decoration of    
metal  vases1 or of knicknacks in ivory1
 wood1 or stone4    ,the ,chaldan       
terra-cotta figurines1 however coarse   
they may be1 are not  entirely divested 
of interest for the history of art and  
mythology1 and  ,m4 ,heuzey has been    
able to appreciate them with delicacy   

from this point  of view4#be            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,chaldan    
statuette in terra-cotta4    ,the       
statuettes collected in great quantities
 by ,loftus1 at ,warka1 are of  solid   
clay1 and were manufactured in a mould  
in one piece2 the back is  flat and     
modelled with the hand4 ,the clay is of 
a greenish grey1 or  sometimes brown2 it
 is well baked and very hard4 ,the      
attitude of these  grotesque little     
figures offers singularly striking      
analogies to the  terra-cotta figurines 
of the first ,egyptian dynasty2 they are
 men in  long robes1 with their beards  
cut in the ,assyrian fashion1 women     
dressed  in tight tunics and wearing    
falling head-dresses like the ,egyptian 
figurines2 their hands are clasped on   
their breast in the religious  attitude 
which we know already from the ,tello   
statues4 ,it is1 however1  very         
difficult to give the precise date of   
these figurines1 which1  perhaps1 for   
the most part1 are not anterior to the  

time of  ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,besides1 we  
shall return to them later on4 ,it is   
enough  for the moment to observe how   
little varied and meagre was the theme  
worked out by the ,chaldan modellers in 
clay1 at a time when sculpture  and the 
other arts were nevertheless already    
most flourishing4    ,the monuments     
which we have just reviewed allow us to 
appreciate the  degree of prosperity and
 perfection attained side by side with  
the  higher branches of art by various  
industries in ,chalda1 such as          
tapestry1 weaving1 and the embroidery of
 stuffs4 ,the stela of                  
,marduk-nadin-akhi1 for example 7fig4   
#bb71 bears witness to the wonderful    
skill of the women of the royal hareem1 
or of the men employed in the  workshop1
 whence issued that robe with golden    
fringe1 covered with  elegant designs   
and precious stones set in the web of   
the tissue1 that  tiara adorned with    
feathers and wide-open daisies1 those   
sandals1 the  broad lozenge-shaped      

stitches of which can be counted4    ,m4
 ,heuzey#bf has demonstrated that the   
stuff called kaunakes  77 by the        
,greeks1 who gave this name to a        
,babylonian garment1  goes back at least
 as far as the epoch of ,gudea4 ,the    
representation of  this woollen tissue  
shows several series of tufts arranged  
in rows one  above the other2 the       
principle of the manufacture of the     
kaunakes is  the same as that of plush  
or velvet1 only the woollen pile is     
longer and  arranged less closely4 ,this
 sort of material1 invented by the      
,chaldans1  continued to be made by the 
,assyrians and ,persians2 in this way   
the  ,greeks came to know it1 and       
,aristophanes speaks of it in his comedy
 of  the ,wasps4 ,garments made of      
kaunakes are frequently met with on the 
,chaldan monuments1 especially on the   
cylinders1 where they have been         
mistaken for robes of a gathered and    
gauffered material4 ,they are worn  both
 by women and by men1 as is proved by   

the bearded personage whom we           
reproduced above 7fig4 #bj71 and a      
female statuette in alabaster which     
shows all the characteristics of        
,chaldan art contemporary with the      
monuments of ,tello 7fig4 #bh74         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,chaldan    
statuette in alabaster4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--;,bas-relief 
of the tablet of the god ,samas         
7,british ,museum74    ,the tablet of   
the god ,samas 7fig4 #bi71 found at     
,abu-,habbah 7,sepharvaim71  and dated  
in the reign of the ,babylonian king    
,nabupal-iddin 7,b4,c4 #hej71  shows    
together the two principal ,chaldan     
garments--that made of  kaunakes1 and   
that of a plain material1 open in front1
 which we shall  often meet with again  
in ,assyria4 ,moreover1 this bas-relief1
 if it is  closely studied1 throws a    
remarkable light on the different       
industries  in wood1 iron1 stone and    
wearing material4 ,the tabernacle in    
which the  god ,samas is seated on his  

throne seems to be an iron niche1 the   
upper  part being curved to imitate a   
shallow vault2 in the front of the      
shrine  there are small pillars of wood 
or iron2 the stem is covered with scales
  in imitation of the trunk of the      
palm-tree1 and made1 no doubt1 of       
plates of metal laid over it2 for base  
and capital there are volutes  something
 like the ,ionic capital4 ,the solar    
disk1 the symbol of the god1  is        
supported by cords held in the hands of 
two genii1 who seem to play a  purely   
ornamental and decorative part4 ,the    
throne of the god1 and the  table on    
which the radiated disk is placed1 are  
elegantly sculptured  pieces of         
furniture1 and reveal a civilisation    
which strives after the  highest        
refinement in its luxuries4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--;,chaldan    
head in steatite 7,louvre74    ,as for  
ornaments of precious metal1 none have  
yet been found in ,chalda1  though we   
know that from the most distant ages    

gold and silver flowed  into ,babylon   
and the towns of ,chalda as well as into
 ,egypt4 ,the  goldsmith's art must have
 been on a par with that of the         
seal-engraver1  the monuments of which  
are so numerous1 as we shall now see4   
,to these  branches of art belongs a    
small head in steatite1 carved in the   
round  and forming the gem of the ,tello
 collection2 better than anything else1 
this head1 treated in so realistic and1 
at the same time1 so highly  finished a 
manner1 brings us into contact1 so to   
speak1 with the  brilliant superiority  
of the ,chaldan artist when he devotes  
himself to  these secondary forms of    
art1 which at the present day require   
the use  of the magnifying-glass1 and in
 which we are at a loss whether to      
admire  most the patience of the artist1
 the steadiness of his hand1 or the     
delicacy of his talent4      ,,iv4      
,,chald,,an ,,seal-,,engraving4#bg      
,though we do not yet possess more than 
a limited number of pieces of  sculpture

 and statues1 those imposing witnesses  
of ,chaldan art in the  time of ,gudea  
or ,hammurabi1 we can at least supply   
this want by the  numerous and varied   
productions of the seal-engraver's art4 
,the  ,chaldans invented the carving of 
precious stones1 and no people ever     
made a more constant use of those       
cylinders1 cones and seals of every     
form1 on which are seen1 engraved in    
lines fine and deep1 the same  images   
which monumental sculpture drew upon the
 walls of temples and  palaces4 ,these  
stones carved in intaglio1 whether      
hmatite1 porphyry1  chalcedony1 marbles 
or onyx of every variety1 were worn     
round the neck1  on the finger1 on the  
wrist1 or fastened to the garment2 they 
were at  the same time prophylactic     
amulets against sickness or witchcraft1 
and  seals with which impressions were  
made at the end of public or private    
documents4    ,the most ancient of the  
,chaldan cylinders reveals to our eyes  
the very  origin of seal-engraving1 the 

first attempts to carve the round1      
ovoid1  or cylindrical gems of the      
necklaces of the stone age4 ,the burin  
and the  puncheon1 handled for the first
 time1 do not yet trace out more than   
zigzags1 lozenges1 straight and         
semicircular lines crossing one another4
  ,soon attempts are made to trace      
buildings1 figures of animals1 antelopes
  feeding 7fig4 #ca71 or fish4 ,the     
joints and swells of the quadrupeds'    
bodies are represented by round holes1  
the limbs by simple strokes4            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--;,chaldan    
cylinder 7,de ,clercq collection74      
,soon1 with greater mastery over his    
instruments1 the artist--for we may  now
 give him this name--will seek to       
reproduce on the cylinders the  human   
figure1 and then that of the divine     
beings or the heroes begotten  of       
popular fancy1 whose image is to        
increase the talismanic virtue of  the  
stone4 ,there are monsters standing on  
their hind-legs1 struggling  with one   

another1 and giants killing lions or    
human-faced quadrupeds4 ,m4  ,menant has
 remarked that the figures of animals   
are always represented  in profile1     
while the human figures1 with long      
beards1 are in full face  even when the 
body is in profile4 ,there are          
double-faced genii1  quadrupeds with a  
single head and two bodies4 ,one of the 
most remarkable  cylinders of this      
primitive epoch is1 without             
contradiction1 that of the  rich ,de    
,clercq collection1 the design of which 
we give here 7fig4 #cb74  ,men and      
various animals are here seen3 a goat   
with wavy horns browsing  on the leaf of
 a tree2 a rhinoceros1 antelopes1 bulls1
 fish1 an eagle1  and some trees2 two   
demons subduing fantastic animals1      
scorpions1 and  palm-trees4 ,we think of
 the biblical scene of ,adam and ,eve in
 the  earthly paradise surrounded by all
 the living beings in creation4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--;,chaldan    
cylinder 7,de ,clercq47    ,fresh       

progress is marked by the appearance of 
inscriptions at the sides  of the       
figured scenes4 ,every possessor of a   
cylinder makes a point of  having his   
name or that of a favourite deity       
engraved upon it4  ,accordingly the     
names of several patesis1 who governed  
,chaldan towns  three or four thousand  
years before our era1 have been found   
upon  cylinders4 ,the cylinder on which 
,m4 ,oppert read the name of ,asrinilu1 
patesi of ,umalnaru 7fig4 #cc71         
represents an episode in the ,chaldan   
epic4 ,the hero ,izdubar1 with curly    
beard and hair1 seizes with each hand   
by a hind-leg two lions hanging head    
downwards4 ,the scene is completed  by  
trees1 an antelope1 a small human       
figure1 a lion-headed scorpion1 a       
human-headed bull4 ,what is here        
especially striking is the archaism of  
the cuneiform signs1 formed of strokes1 
which cross one another1 but  have not  
yet the form of wedges1 which they are  
to assume later1 and  also the modelling

 and suppleness of most of the figures2 
the instrument  is no longer felt       
through the work4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #cc4--;,chaldan cylinder 7,de     
,clercq74    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#cd4--;,cylinder of ,sargani 7,de       
,clercq74    ,chaldan seal-engraving    
reaches its apogee with another cylinder
 of the  ,de ,clercq collection1 which  
has the advantage of being dated1 at    
least  relatively3 it bears the name of 
,sargani or ,sargon the ,first1 king of 
,agade1 about #chjj years before our    
era4 ,m4 ,menant mentions it as marking 
an important stage in the history of    
art4 ,the picture1 which is very        
simple1 is composed of two symmetrical  
scenes3 ,izdubar1 with one knee on  the 
ground1 on the bank of a river1 holds   
with both hands the sacred  ampulla1    
from which a double jet of water        
escapes1 and at which a bull  with long 
striated horns comes to drink4#bh ,here 
the artist possesses  all the secrets of
 his art3 never1 at any epoch1 will he  

be able to  reproduce with greater      
delicacy and truth the powerful muscles 
of the  bull and the giant4 ,and as it  
must certainly be admitted that         
monumental  sculpture advances as       
rapidly as seal-engraving1 ,i do not    
know which  should astonish us most--the
 degree of perfection to which the      
,chaldans  had carried the plastic arts1
 or the prodigiously distant epoch to   
which  such monuments transport us4     
,a cylinder in the museum at ,new ,york 
7fig4 #ce71 which from the  characters  
of the writing seems almost contemporary
 with that of ,sargon  the ,first1 is   
executed with a still greater           
perfection4 ,the play and  graceful     
suppleness of the muscles of the bull   
and the lion are rendered  with the     
precision which the direct study of     
nature brings1 and with the  ease which 
betrays an artist who can overcome      
technical difficulties4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--;,chaldan    
cylinder 7,new ,york ,museum1 after     

,menant74    ,if all ,chaldan cylinders 
could be classed chronologically and by 
schools1 epochs of perfection or of     
decadence would no doubt be  observed1  
and also greater activity in some       
artistic centres than in  others1 the   
choice of subjects being modified from  
town to town and from  age to age4 ,in  
the present state of our knowledge we   
can only hazard  conjectures with regard
 to this4 ,m4 ,menant looks upon the    
cylinders  which represent the goddess  
,istar holding her child upon her knees 
and  receiving the homage of the        
faithful1 as issuing from the workshops 
of  ,uruk 7,erech72 it is the prototype 
of the divine mother whose worship is   
to spread even into ,greece4 ,at ,ur    
cylinders of very different types1 but  
of a dry execution1 which is rather a   
mark of decadence than of  archaism1    
were manufactured3 there are scenes of  
worship or initiation  into mysteries1  
and sacrifices1 among which that of the 
kid is the most  frequent4 ,on certain  

monuments ,m4 ,menant recognises a      
representation of  human sacrifices3 the
 most marked scene of this kind shows us
 a  sacrificer1 who1 raising his right  
hand1 brandishes a dagger over a        
kneeling child1 whom he seems to prepare
 to slay1 in the presence of a  pontiff 
and of the statue of the god4 ,one of   
the commonest figures on  ,chaldan      
cylinders is that of the goddess ,istar1
 sometimes decked with  rich ornaments1 
sometimes entirely naked1 in full face1 
with her hands  clasping her breasts3   
this last type1 profusely reproduced by 
the  modellers in clay1 was perpetuated 
all over the ,east up to the time of    
the ,greek and ,roman supremacies4      
,,chapter ,,ii4    ,,assyrian           
,,architecture4      ,assyria1 because  
she lies nearer to the mountains than   
,chalda1 and  because the use of stone1 
without ever being exclusive1 was more  
frequent in northern than in southern   
,mesopotamia1 has left us important     
ruins which have already been partly    

explored1 and which allow us to         
reconstruct the forms of her            
architecture1 without material gaps1    
from  the ninth to the seventh century  
before our era4 ,in temples1 palaces1   
staged towers1 and fortresses1 the art  
of building is revealed to our  eyes by 
means of the excavations of which       
,nineveh and its environs have  been the
 object4 ,but nothing is left of private
 architecture1 and the  same must be    
said of sepulchral architecture1 or     
rather this latter did  not exist in    
,assyria1 which has only yielded to our 
explorers a few jars  filled with bones4
 ,the corpses were generally carried    
away into ,lower  ,chalda1 which        
continued to be for long ages a sort of 
,campo ,santo1 or  vast cemetery at the 
service of the inhabitants of all       
,mesopotamia4 ,down  to the present day1
 the ,persians1 even of the most distant
 provinces1  make a point of having     
their dead buried at ,nejef and         
,kerbela1 near the  mosque of ,ali1 the 

great saint of the ,shiite ,mussulmans4 
,this  traditional superstition is      
turned to profit by a company of        
carriers1  who annually transport more  
than ten thousand corpses4 ,the         
necropolis  of ,mugheir and the         
surrounding tells belongs therefore both
 to ,chalda  and to ,assyria2 corpses   
are piled up there by hundreds of       
thousands1 but  beyond the system of    
drainage1 organised in order to catch   
the  rain-water1 it offers nothing of   
great interest4 ,there were no          
sepulchral monuments2 and as for the    
tombs themselves1 they are  generally   
little brick structures with nothing    
remarkable about them2  the furniture   
consisting of terra-cotta vases and     
figurines1 amulets and  cylinders1 is of
 the most wretched description4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--,tomb at     
,warka 7after ,taylor74    ,the         
principal buildings of ,assyria1 which  
have been methodically and  almost      
completely explored1 are those of       

,khorsabad1 some leagues to the  north  
of ,nineveh1 and those of ,kouyunjik and
 ,nimroud4 ,several hillocks  in which a
 collection of important structures     
would with equal certainty  be found1   
such as the hill of ,nebi ,yunus1 where 
,arab tradition fixes the  tomb of the  
prophet ,jonah1 and ,arvil on the site  
of ,arbela1 have not yet  been tested by
 the explorer's pick2 others1 such as   
the artificial  mounds of ,kalah        
,shergat1 ,balawat1 and ,karamles1 have 
only been  incompletely explored1 and   
though epigraphic material1 extremely   
valuable for history1 and bas-reliefs of
 the highest artistic interest1  have   
been extracted from them1 from the      
architectural point of view at  least   
their imperfect excavation teaches us   
nothing new4    ,the ,babylonian        
buildings of the epoch of               
,nebuchadnezzar and ,nabonidus  must    
have resembled the ,ninevite palaces and
 temples in form and  architectural     
arrangement2 but up to the present time 

we can only speak  of them by           
conjecture1 or according to the inexact 
descriptions of ,greek  travellers1 and 
we cannot regret too much that the      
enormous ,babylonian  tells1 such as    
those called the ,kasr or ,palace1 ,tell
 ,amran1 ,babil and  ,birs ,nimroud have
 yielded hardly anything yet of their   
archological  treasures4 ,we must1 then1
 for the present1 confine ourselves to  
the  description of the ruins of        
,khorsabad1 ,nimroud1 and ,kouyunjik1 in
 order  to reconstruct the principal    
forms of ,mesopotamian architecture at  
the  most splendid period of the        
,ninevite empire4       ,i4 ,,principles
 ,,of ,,construction4    ,the limestone 
which is furnished in abundance by the  
lowest spurs of the  mountains of       
,kurdistan enabled the architects of    
,nineveh not to employ  brick           
exclusively1 and sometimes to erect     
walls of trimmed ashlar4 ,they  used    
limestone especially for the basements  
of the buildings1 which were  more      

particularly exposed to the action of   
damp1 so fatal to crude  brick2 they    
also had recourse to it for the         
construction of the ramparts  of the    
royal palaces4 ,but even here1 on       
account of the dearness of the          
materials1 which it was necessary to    
seek at a distance and to spend  much   
time in hewing1 stone is only employed  
for the outer facing of the  wall2 the  
builders use it sparingly1 and are as   
niggardly of it as they  are prodigal of
 brick4 ,accordingly1 the walls which   
enclose the terrace  of ,sargon's palace
 at ,khorsabad are only of stone on the 
surface2 the  interior1 or rather the   
nucleus of the structure1 is of brick4  
,the  blocks on their external and      
visible surface are of variable length1 
but  are placed upon one another in very
 regular courses of equal height and    
with crossed joints4 ,headers penetrate 
like wedges into the mass of the        
terrace to ease the layers of brick and 
bind them to the stone  structure4 ,in  

the lower courses of the rampart of the 
palace at  ,khorsabad there are         
regularly hewn blocks from #h ft4 #b in4
 to #i ft4 #aj  in4 square2 the blocks  
diminish in volume in proportion to the 
nearness  of the layers to the summit of
 the rampart1 which was #ei ft4 high1   
including the battlements1 which formed 
a parapet all round the terrace4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,masonry at  
,khorsabad 7after ,place74              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,section of  
wall at ,khorsabad 7after ,place74      
,the interior or exterior walls of the  
building which stood upon this  gigantic
 base had no need to fear the           
infiltration of water or the  attacks of
 enemies3 their solidity might be       
lessened without  inconvenience1 by     
economising the stone4 ,as a matter of  
fact1 they are  of brick1 baked or      
crude1 and stone is scarcely employed in
 them except  for the lining and paving 
of a few rooms4 ,in that case great     
slabs of  limestone or gypsum are set   

upright as a plinth against the lower   
part  of the wall1 to preserve it from  
corrosion2 they are adjusted end to  end
 by the edge1 and it was sufficient1 in 
order to fix them1 to pour  between     
their posterior surface and the wall    
mortar which often only  imperfectly    
adhered3 the outer and only visible     
surface of these slabs  was decorated   
with bas-reliefs which served for the   
adornment of the  halls4 ,as for the    
walls themselves1 they were straight and
 perpendicular  in contrast to those of 
the ,egyptian buildings1 which1 seen    
from  without1 seem to lean inwards1 and
 give to the whole building the         
appearance of a truncated pyramid4 ,the 
,assyrian walls rise vertically1  even  
when they enclose vaulted chambers1 or  
when they form part of  staged pyramids2
 each stage forms a perpendicular       
terrace1 not a sloping  one4    ,it has 
been observed that the partitions which 
separate the halls  sometimes look like 
one block set up on end2 the joints and 

the courses  of the brickwork cannot be 
detected1 to such an extent have the    
constructing materials been soldered    
together in a perfect amalgam of  beaten
 clay4 ,this peculiarity1 noticed by    
,victor ,place at ,khorsabad1 can  only 
be explained by admitting that the      
bricks were employed in the  building   
while they were still saturated with    
water1 and before the  process of drying
 was finished4 ,their natural dampness1 
added to that of  the clayey mortar     
which bound them to one another1 has    
formed a sort of  muddy paste which must
 have taken years to harden1 but which  
was  particularly effective against the 
disintegration of the wall1 since it    
became in this way entirely homogeneous4
 ,it was the extraordinary  thickness of
 these walls which prevented them from  
giving way under  their own weight1 and 
even allowed them to uphold those heavy 
beds of  clay which form the vaults and 
terraces of the houses4 ,they thus      
protected the halls most effectively    

from the ardent heat of the sun4 ,at    
the present day the inhabitants of      
,bagdad and ,mosoul take refuge1 during 
summer1 in their sirdab1 a              
half-underground room with extremely    
thick  brick walls1 the single opening  
of which looks to the north4 ,the people
  of ,nineveh and ,babylon1 subject to  
the same climatic conditions1  certainly
 acted in the same manner4 ,as for the  
princes1 they had1 to  defend them      
against the sun1 walls from #ac ft4 to  
#bf ft4 thick1 and  vaultings as        
enormous as the walls4 ,nevertheless1   
the mode of building  with clay which we
 have just noticed was very defective2  
this is the  weak side of ,ninevite and 
,babylonian buildings1 and we understand
 why  the kings are unceasingly obliged1
 as they relate in their inscriptions1  
to repair or rebuild walls which crumble
 under the dissolving action of  water  
from the sky4    ,the unusual thickness 
of the walls1 the long1 narrow form of  
all the  chambers1 are also justified by

 the employment of the vault as the     
essential element of the ,assyrian      
buildings4 ,v4 ,place unearthed at      
,khorsabad a great doorway surmounted by
 a semicircular arch4 ,the sides  of the
 doorway1 as well as the arch itself1   
are of brick2 there are  three rows of  
voussoirs one above the other1 forming  
as it were three  concentric door-frames
 half-fitting into one another4 ,all the
 voussoirs1  which have issued from a   
single mould1 have a slightly           
trapezoidal  shape1 like the stone      
voussoirs of our most carefully built   
edifices4  ,the height of the doorway1  
under the keystone1 is #ai ft4 #h in41  
and the  breadth #aa ft4 ,at other      
points1 ,place recognised that the      
enormous  accumulation of materials     
which filled up the halls could only    
come from  the falling in of the clay   
vaults4 ,some blocks still1 at the time 
of the  excavations1 formed an arch1    
sometimes several yards in diameter1    
solid  enough to serve as shelter for   

the shepherds of the neighbourhood2 they
  were1 on the concave side1 covered    
with carefully laid stucco1 or with     
paintings in fresco--a circumstance     
which proves positively that these      
blocks are sections of crumbled vaults4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,vaulted and 
domed houses 7after ,layard74    ,the   
square chambers were surmounted by a    
dome2 there are in the palace  of       
,sargon two of these rooms as much as   
#dd ft4 square4 ,in a bas-relief        
discovered at ,kouyunjik 7fig4 #ci7 a   
group of houses figures1 among which    
some are surmounted by hemispherical    
cupolas1 others by elongated domes  in  
the form of sugar-loaves4 ,the houses of
 ,babylon were vaulted1 as  ,strabo     
tells us4 ,the ,mesopotamian palaces of 
the ,achmenid1 ,parthian1 or  ,sassanian
 epoch1 the halls of which are          
surmounted by domes which  scarcely     
yield in boldness to those of ,st4      
,sophia1 evidently only handed  on the  
,assyro-,chaldan tradition which is also

 represented before our  eyes by the    
modern houses of ,mosoul1 ,bagdad and   
southern ,persia4 ,the  technical       
methods of contemporary masons also do  
not fail to make known  to us what steps
 their ancestors of the time of ,sargon 
or  ,nebuchadnezzar took to supply the  
want of wood1 and in consequence to do  
without a previous arched framework3    
travellers tell us that they have       
observed the commonest workmen of the   
country erecting their  hemispherical or
 elliptical cupolas by layers in rings1 
laid one above  the other1 and narrowing
 in proportion to their nearness to the 
keystone2 it is the same principle as   
that of the corbelled vaulting4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,vaulted     
drain 7after ,layard74    ,the place    
where it has been possible to observe   
the employment of the  vault in the     
architecture of the ,assyrian palaces1  
is in the very bowels  of the basements 
of these edifices4 ,a vast corridor1    
surmounted by a  semicircular vaulting1 

was discovered by the ,english          
explorers1 in the  flanks of the mound  
of ,nimroud2 the lower courses are of   
enormous slabs  of stone1 all the rest  
is brick4 ,in the scientific system of  
drains  which carried off the sewage of 
the palace of ,sargon1 ,place           
distinguished every kind of vaulting3   
the pointed or ogival vault1 the        
semicircular vault1 the flat-arched     
vault1 the shallow vault1 the           
elliptical vault4    ,never1 at any     
point in their history1 did the         
,egyptians    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#da4--,vaulted drain at ,khorsabad      
7after ,place74    or the ,romans push  
the application of the vault to an equal
 degree of  perfection4 ,in most of the 
halls of ,sargon's palace a slab pierced
 with  a hole was remarked in the middle
 of the bricks which form the pavement3 
this was the orifice of a vertical      
conduit opening into a vaulted drain    
concealed in the terrace4 ,one of these 
drains had an ogival vaulting1  the     

description of which we will borrow from
 ,,mm4 ,perrot and ,chipiez4#bi  8,the  
bricks composing it are trapezoidal in  
shape1 two of their sides  being        
slightly rounded--the one concave1 the  
other convex4 ,the radius of  this curve
 varies with each brick1 being governed 
by its destined place  in the vault4    
,these bricks go therefore in pairs1 and
 as there are four  courses of bricks on
 each side of the vault1 four separate  
and different  moulds would be required1
 besides a fifth1 of which we shall     
presently  have to speak4 ,the four     
narrow sides of these bricks differ     
sensibly  from one another4 ,the two    
curved faces1 being at different        
distances  from the centre1 are of      
unequal lengths2 while1 as the lower    
oblique  edge is some inches below the  
upper in the curve1 these two edges have
  different directions4 ,in their       
disinclination to use stone voussoirs   
the  ,assyrian builders here found      
themselves compelled to mould bricks of 

very complicated form1 and the way in   
which they accomplished their task      
speaks volumes for their skill40 ,the   
two upper voussoirs meeting and         
touching one another by one of their    
corners1 the triangular space left      
empty between their edges was filled up 
either by wedge-shaped bricks or  by    
mortar4 ,the drain which we have just   
given as an example is #d ft4 #g  in4   
high under the keystone and #c ft4 #h   
in4 broad2 the explorers were  able to  
follow it to a length of #baf feet4 ,to 
facilitate its  construction the        
architect conceived the ingenious idea  
of building it  upon an inclined        
plane--that is to say1 that all the rows
 of voussoirs1  instead of being        
perpendicular1 lean considerably        
backwards1 and are  supported one upon  
the other2 this system1 which did not at
 all affect  the solidity of the        
vaulting1 allowed the builders to do    
without  circular wooden frames4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--,vaulted     

drain at ,khorsabad4 ,slope of the      
bricks  7after ,place74    ,so much     
technical skill devoted to the          
construction of simple  subterranean    
conduits makes us particularly regret   
that the deplorable  quality of the     
material did not allow the vaults and   
domes of the  palaces to exist till our 
day4 ,however1 there were not only      
vaulted  halls in the ,ninevite         
buildings2 a certain number of them were
 covered  by flat roofs formed of beams 
of palm-wood1 poplar-wood or cedar-wood1
  which supported light terraces4 ,the  
bas-relief at ,kouyunjik which we  cited
 above shows us flat roofs side by side 
with parabolic and  spheroidal cupolas4 
,nevertheless1 what we said about the   
use of stone in  the ,ninevite          
structures we can repeat here on the    
subject of timber4  ,nineveh1 not being 
too remote from the wooded mountains of 
,armenia1  ,kurdistan and ,masius1 where
 forests of pines1 beeches1 and oaks    
grow1  did not deprive herself of the   

use of these woods in her structures2   
she  had panelled halls in her palaces1 
and1 at the apogee of her power1 when   
thousands and thousands of slaves placed
 their strength at the service  of her  
monarchs1 she had the timber of the     
,amanus and the ,lebanon  transported   
into her buildings4 ,the king           
,assur-nasir-pal 7,b4,c4 #hhb-heg7      
relates in one of his inscriptions that 
he had an enormous quantity of  pines1  
cedars1 and oaks cut down in the ,amanus
 and the ,lebanon in order  to have them
 carried to ,nineveh1 and to employ them
 in the construction  of his palace and 
the temples of his favourite gods4      
,other princes1 such  as ,sargon1       
,sennacherib1 ,assurbanipal and         
,nebuchadnezzar1 make the same  boast of
 having utilised1 in the buildings which
 they erected or  repaired1 beams       
brought from the ,amanus and the        
,lebanon4 8,i caused the  tallest cedars
 of ,lebanon10 says ,nebuchadnezzar1 8to
 be brought to  ,babylon2 the sanctuary 

of ,e-,kua1 in which the god ,marduk    
dwells1 was  freshly covered with beams 
of cedar-wood40#cj ,this is the wood of 
resinous nature1 8the odour of which is 
good10 add the inscriptions4 ,at  the   
,british ,museum fragments of a cedar   
beam1 collected among the ruins  of     
,assur-nasir-pal's palace at ,nimroud1  
are preserved4 ,who will ever be  able  
to say what efforts and how many human  
lives were required to  transport these 
gigantic rafters across a rough country 
without any  roads for traffic1 from the
 ,lebanon as far as the banks of the    
,tigris  and ,euphrates8 ,accordingly it
 may be affirmed that the use of wood   
was  always exceptional in the          
,chaldo-,assyrian structures2 it was    
never  introduced except as an exotic   
element1 of which the monarchs boast on 
account of its rarity4 ,the climate and 
the nature of the ,mesopotamian  soil   
were better suited by thick vaultings1  
which1 then as at the  present day1     
never ceased to be the rule there4      

,quite as little as the ,chaldans1 and  
for the same motives1 did the           
,assyrians make a frequent and regular  
use of the column as an element of      
their architecture4 ,victor ,place      
notices1 like the explorers of ,lower   
,chalda1 several faades in the palace of
 ,sargon adorned with pilasters  and    
half-columns of brick1 projecting beyond
 the plane of the walls1 and  having no 
object except to relieve the monotony of
 the structure4  ,perhaps1 too1 these   
half-columns1 which are found in groups 
of seven1  had1 like the two famous     
pillars in the ,temple of ,solomon1 a   
mystical  and symbolical meaning1 the   
number seven playing an essential part  
among  the mythological conceptions of  
the ,chaldo-,assyrians4 ,elsewhere a few
  bases of columns and a few monolithic 
capitals have been found1 which  prove  
that the ,assyrians used stone supports 
for monumental porches1 as  we          
ascertained in the palace of ,tello4 ,a 
fragment of a bas-relief  preserved at  

the ,british ,museum1 and coming from   
the palace of  ,assurbanipal1 shows us  
7fig4 #dc7 the faade of a great building
 adorned  with a projecting roof1       
supported by four pilasters and four    
columns4  ,the base of these columns    
rests on the back of gigantic lions1    
which  seem to advance to meet one      
another1 two and two4 ,on the back of   
the  lion the architect has placed a    
coussinet1 surmounted by a torus and by 
the stem of the column4 ,in the ruins of
 the palace of ,kouyunjik1 four  bases  
of columns were found still in place1   
and seeming to belong to a  covered     
gallery2 there were also two small      
winged bulls with human  heads1 crowned 
with the tiara1 and supporting on their 
back a spheroidal  base decorated with  
geometrical designs in relief4 ,at      
,nimroud ,sir ,a4 ,h4  ,layard noticed  
also two crouching sphinxes bearing     
bases of columns  7fig4 #dd72 according 
to the same architectural principle the 
foot of the  arches rested upon the     

gigantic bulls which flanked the chief  
entrances  of the palaces4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--;,faade with 
pilasters 7from bas-relief in  ,british 
,museum representing ,babylon74         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--;,base of    
column 7after ,layard74    ,the stem of 
the columns was probably of wood1       
painted or covered with a  metallic     
envelope4 ,round the inner courtyards   
there were1 as in the  courts of        
oriental palaces in our own day1        
porticoes formed of cedar  beams resting
 on bases analogous to those which we   
have just noticed4  ,strabo#ca reminds  
us that in ,babylon beams of palm-wood  
were used in  the construction of       
houses3 8,they are careful10 he says1   
8to wrap round  each palm-wood pillar   
with rush-cords1 which are then covered 
with  several coats of paint40 ,things  
were not done quite in this way in the  
houses of the rich and in princely      
residences4 ,a fragment of a cedar  beam
 of the size of a man was discovered at 

,khorsabad4 ,it was still  overlaid with
 a plating of bronze decorated with     
designs in repouss1  which imitate the  
bark of a palm-trunk4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #de4--;,assyrian capital 7after   
,place1 ,ninive et  l',assyrie1 pl4     
#ce74    ,illustration3 ,fig4           
#df4--;,capital of ,sassanian period    
from ,warka 7,british  ,museum74    ,an 
enormous block of limestone1 #ci ft4 #c 
in4 high1 brought to light at           
,khorsabad1 comprises an entire capital 
and a part of the stem at the  same time
 7fig4 #de72 it is almost the only      
,assyrian capital known4 ,it  affects   
the spheroidal form1 and its convex part
 is decorated with a  double line of    
curved festoons in relief2 there was a  
similar ornament1  no doubt1 at the     
base4 ,several capitals from ,warka are 
also preserved at  the ,british ,museum1
 but they were found among ruins of the 
,sassanian  epoch4 ,nevertheless the    
resemblance which some of them bear to  
the  architectural features of the      

bas-reliefs is so close that they are   
probably representatives of a style     
inherited from a former period4 ,they   
are of that form1 so well known in the  
sculptures1 which has the  character of 
the ,ionic order1 and was probably its  
original4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#dg4--,shrine with columns 7,botta1 ,les
 ,monuments de  ,ninive1 pl4 #aad74     
,in imitation of their southern         
neighbours the ,assyrians used the      
column  especially in chapels of little 
importance1 in which the supports had no
  vault or terrace to uphold4           
,bas-reliefs from ,khorsabad and        
,kouyunjik  represent sanctuaries the   
roof of which is supported by small     
columns  with a base and a capital1     
which partake at once of the ,ionic and 
of the  ,doric order of the ,greeks     
7fig4 #dg74 ,these little structures    
recall the  ,chaldan shrine of the god  
,samas 7fig4 #bi74 ,an object which     
appears to  be the base of a small      
column exists in the ,nimroud ,gallery  

of the  ,british ,museum4 ,it is of     
sandstone1 and1 to judge from its size1 
it must  have formed part of a small    
chapel or shrine1 such as we see in the 
sculptures4 ,the ornamental design upon 
it is partly similar to that of  the    
large capital figured above1 but        
presents some variations from it4       
,there is a small hole into which the   
pillar was doubtless fastened by a  peg 
or metal dowel4    ,the ,assyrian       
palace1 like ,arab houses1 developed    
itself entirely in  area1 and not in    
height2 there was rarely a second story 
on the  platform4 ,nevertheless such a  
second story exists sometimes2 it is    
then  open at the sides1 and the roof is
 supported by small columns4 ,these     
columns1 of wood rather than of stone or
 brick1 form a gallery over the  faade1 
and they are adorned at their upper     
extremity with a double  volute as a    
capital4 ,bas-reliefs show us houses    
thus surmounted by a  colonnade1 which  
supports a light1 flat roof of wooden   

beams4 ,at the  present day1 houses in  
,kurdistan are still built on the same  
lines1 and  show an identical           
arrangement in two stories2 the lower   
without windows1  the upper open at the 
sides4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#dh4--;,base of small column 7,british  
,museum74    ,in a word1 the ,assyrians1
 like the ,chaldans1 not having at their
  disposal building-stone in great      
abundance1 were obliged to construct    
their edifices almost exclusively of    
brick1 the capabilities of which  they  
tried to the utmost4 ,the result of this
 was that they never had  those halls of
 columns which are the triumph of       
,egyptian architecture4  ,however thick 
one may suppose pillars of brick1 or    
columns formed of  bricks moulded in the
 shape of segments of a circle1 to be1  
these  supports will never offer the    
same guarantee of solidity as the stone 
column4 ,wherever a heavy burden1 such  
as a vault or a terrace1 had to be      
supported1 great walls were raised of an

 extraordinary thickness1 which  it     
would have been imprudent to pierce with
 windows capable of  diminishing its    
resistance4 ,air and light only         
penetrated into the  apartments by the  
doors2 often1 too1 an opening was       
contrived at the  summit of the vault or
 dome1 formed of a cylindrical pipe of  
burnt clay  carried through the entire  
thickness of the structure4       ,,ii4 
,,palaces4    ,the town of              
,dur-,sarrukin 7the ,fortress of        
,sargon7 stood three leagues  north of  
,nineveh1 on the ,khaswer1 one of the   
branches of the ,tigris1  where the     
,kurdish village of ,khorsabad has been 
built4 ,discovered in  #ahdc by ,e4     
,botta1 ,french ,consul at ,mosoul1 it  
was almost completely  excavated by this
 illustrious explorer and his successor1
 ,victor ,place1  and it is from        
,khorsabad that most of the ,assyrian   
monuments in the  ,louvre come4 ,it was 
the custom that each of the ,ninevite   
monarchs should  have a special palace  

built at some distance from the great   
,assyrian  capital1 and this became the 
royal residence round which stood the   
dwellings of the court-officers1 the    
guards1 the servants1 and all  persons  
who depended upon the prince or lived at
 his expense4  ,dur-,sarrukin was built 
by ,sargon1 the father of ,sennacherib1 
about the  year #gaj before our era4    
,the palace and the town which was      
annexed to  it formed a group of        
structures contained within a fortified 
enclosure  7fig4 #di7 the plan of which 
was a square of #eije feet4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,plan of     
,dur-,sarrukin 7after ,place1 pl4 #b74  
,the wall of circumvallation1 the angles
 of which pointed to the four  quarters 
of the heavens1 as in the ,chaldan      
buildings1 was crowned with  battlements
 and pierced by eight gates protected by
 towers4    ,the king's palace 7fig4    
#ej7 stood almost in the middle of the  
north-eastern faade1 and a part of its  
structure which projected beyond  the   

ramparts had the appearance of an       
enormous bastion4 ,the structure of     
this palace was supported by a platform 
which formed an acropolis nearly        
twenty-five acres in area4 ,the mass of 
clay which had to be brought to  raise  
the terrace and the walls of the palace 
has been estimated at  #dh1bcc1jjj cubic
 feet4 ,the platform overlooked the     
town1 and was reached  by staircases1   
destroyed at the present day1 but which 
must have been  analogous to the        
monumental staircase which formed the   
ascent to the  palace of ,sennacherib1  
and    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,plan 
of the palace of ,sargon 7after ,place1 
pl4  #g74    the traces of which ,sir   
,a4 ,h4 ,layard recognised4 ,as at      
,tello1 a gentle  ascent on an inclined 
plane was formed for the passage of     
vehicles4 ,the  royal apartments built  
upon the terrace comprised no less than 
two  hundred and nine more or less      
spacious rooms1 the walls of which1 laid
  bare by ,botta and ,place1 are still  

sometimes twenty-six feet high and      
always reach at least ten feet in the   
parts most demolished4 ,it was not  easy
 to determine the destination of these  
different halls4 ,however1 by           
comparison with the    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #ea4--,south-eastern faade of the 
palace of ,sargon  7restoration by      
,place1 pl4 #bj74    present ,turkish   
and ,persian palaces1 in which an       
analogous arrangement  has been         
perpetuated1 with the same usages1 the  
following parts have  been distinguished
 at ,dur-,sarrukin as in the palace of  
,tello3 the  seraglio1 that is to say1  
the reception-rooms and the             
dwelling-rooms  of the prince and the   
men attached to his person2 the hareem1 
or  apartments of the women and their   
children2 the khan1 or the residence  of
 the slaves1 the kitchens1 the stables1 
and the offices4 ,the  seraglio1 the    
most luxurious and most highly decorated
 part1 included  ten courts and more    
than sixty rooms1 adorned with those    

bas-reliefs in  stone which are now the 
glory of the ,louvre4 ,they were paved  
with square  bricks fixed in bitumen4   
,where the ground was not to be covered 
with  carpet1 as before the door1 there 
was a stone pavement in which the       
designs1 skilfully carved in relief1    
imitated those of the carpets           
themselves4 ,to the buildings of the    
seraglio1 situated on the  north-east1  
is attached the staged tower of which we
 shall speak farther  on4 ,the principal
 court of the seraglio had an area of   
#c1bjb square  feet1 and eight doors    
formed a means of communication between 
it and the  rooms of this part of the   
palace2 most of these openings are      
flanked  with colossal lions or bulls   
supporting the feet of semicircular     
arches4  ,the hareem1 which occupied1 on
 the south1 a surface of more than      
#id1gbf square feet1 formed a group of  
structures communicating with the  rest 
of the palace by two doors only4 ,it    
was1 with its lofty blind  walls1 a sort

 of prison in the very bosom of the     
fortress4 ,within1 there  were several  
courts and isolated suites of rooms1 in 
which the  apartments of the women were 
separately arranged4 ,the walls of the  
principal court must have been decorated
 with true ,asiatic luxury1 for  the    
foot of these walls1 when they were laid
 bare about fifty years ago1  was still 
covered with a lining of enamelled      
bricks representing animals  and        
mythological scenes4 ,it was here that  
the shaft of a column was  found1 of    
wood covered with a bronze sheath1 so   
that it is not rash to  affirm that this
 court was furnished with a portico all 
round1 and  perhaps even with an upper  
story with open sides4 ,the khan1       
situated  towards the eastern angle of  
the structure1 occupied an even larger  
space than the hareem2 the treasury or  
bit kutalli1 the cellars1  granaries1   
and storehouse of domestic utensils1    
have been distinctly  recognized1 as    
well as magazines of objects of all     

sorts1 carried off as  plunder by       
,sargon in his expeditions1 and weapons 
of the chase and of  war3 in the very   
stables1 the presence of iron rings     
fixed in the wall  has been ascertained1
 to which horses and camels were        
attached3 lastly1  the small but        
numerous rooms of the servants and      
slaves have been  excavated4 ,ctesias   
brings the number of persons attached to
 the service  of the palace of the      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--;,bird's-eye 
view of the palace of ,sargon at        
,khorsabad 7restoration by ,place1 pl4  
#ah bis74    kings of ,persia up to     
fifteen thousand3 it may easily be      
supposed that  an equal number of hands 
was employed at the court of the haughty
 king  of ,nineveh4    ,the palace of   
,sargon1 the best-preserved of ,assyrian
 edifices1 and that  of which the       
excavation was directed with the        
greatest consistency and  method1       
deserved to be taken as the most perfect
 type of the ,ninevite  palaces4 ,the   

researches of the ,english explorers1   
,sir ,a4 ,h4 ,layard1 ,sir  ,h4         
,rawlinson1 ,g4 ,smith1 and ,h4 ,rassam1
 have procured1 it is true1 for  the    
,british ,museum the incomparable       
galleries of ,assyrian monuments  known 
as those of ,nimroud and ,kouyunjik from
 the name of the principal  tells       
explored2 they have made known the site 
of the royal residences of              
,assur-nasir-pal1 ,shalmaneser1         
,sennacherib1 ,esarhaddon1              
,assur-bani-pal1  and exhumed the fine  
sculptures which decorated their halls2 
but from  the architectural point of    
view these excavations teach us nothing 
remarkable and original1 or rather they 
only confirm what we know of the  art of
 building among the ,assyrians from the 
study of ,khorsabad2 the  elements and  
principles of building show themselves  
to be identical  throughout1 and1 save  
for secondary modifications and variable
  proportions1 it may be said that the  
arrangement and adornment of  ,assyrian 

palaces were everywhere the same1 and   
issued from an uniform  type created in 
,chalda1 which was never remarkably     
modified4       ,,iii4 ,,temples ,,and  
,,staged ,,towers4    ,it was also in   
,chalda1 as we have seen1 that those    
towers in stages  7zikkurat7 were       
invented1 painted in bright and varied  
colours1 which  constitute one of the   
original features of ,mesopotamian      
architecture4 ,if  the staged towers of 
,mugheir1 ,tello and ,abu ,shahrein1 are
 too much  destroyed for us to be able  
to restore their different steps except 
in  thought1 we are sure1 nevertheless1 
that these old ,chaldan edifices  were  
similar to the towers the lower stories 
of which were excavated at  ,kouyunjik1 
,nimroud1 ,khorsabad1 and finally at    
,babylon1 where stood1 from  the        
remotest antiquity1 the two famous      
temples called ,e-saggil and  ,e-zida   
and where ,nebuchadnezzar built1        
according to the testimony of his       
inscriptions1 the famous ,tower of the  

,seven ,lights4 ,who can say whether    
this architectural form was not inspired
 by the sight of the pyramids in  steps 
of the ,nile valley8 ,in any case the   
,greek historians agree in  affirming   
that the staged towers were of a height 
comparable to that of  the loftiest     
,egyptian pyramids1 and the mass of the 
mounds of dbris  which represent the    
ruins of these towers is a sure warrant 
of this  assertion4 ,birs-,nimroud at   
,babylon is still1 at the present day1  
#bce  feet high1 and it has certainly   
lost at least half of its primitive     
height4 ,the ruin of ,babil is still    
#acj feet high4 ,what ,european monument
  is there1 even if built of hewn stone1
 which1 after crumbling in upon  itself1
 would reach #acj feet after thirty     
centuries of ruin and decay8  ,it is    
improbable1 then1 that ,strabo deserves 
to be taxed with  exaggeration when he  
assigns the height of a stadium of #eia 
ft4 #i in41  to the temple of ,bel at   
,babylon4 ,herodotus describes the same 

building  in the following manner3      
8,this temple is square1 and each side  
is two  stadia in length 7#a1ahc ft4 #f 
in474 ,in the centre is a massive tower1
 of  one stadium in length and breadth2 
on this tower stands another tower1  and
 another again upon this1 and so on up  
to eight4 ,a spiral staircase  has been 
built outside leading round all the     
towers4 ,towards the middle  of the     
ascent there is a room1 and there are   
seats upon which visitors  rest2 upon   
the last tower stands a large shrine1 in
 which is a large bed  with rich        
coverings1 and near it a golden table40 
,modern excavations  enable us to affirm
 that this description is exact in all  
points1 and  that all the staged towers 
of ,assyria and ,chalda were constructed
 upon  the same principle4    ,the      
zikkurat of the palace at ,khorsabad1   
placed to the east of the  seraglio     
buildings1 has still at the present day 
three complete steps  and the beginning 
of a fourth2 the first describes on the 

ground a  square of #ada ft4 each way2  
each stage is #bj feet high1 which gives
 us  reason to believe that the         
structure was as high as it was broad at
 the  base--a peculiarity already noted 
by ,herodotus and ,strabo in the temple 
of ,bel4 ,the stages laid bare by the   
,french excavations were still partly   
coloured by means of enamelled stucco1  
the lowest stage white1 the  second     
black1 the third reddish purple1 the    
fourth blue4 ,among the ruins  of the   
tower were found numerous fragments of  
enamelled bricks1 coloured  vermilion1  
silver grey and gold1 which proves that 
the tower had seven  stages of different
 colours4 ,it has been remarked that    
,herodotus 7i4  #ih71 gives to the      
fortress of ,ecbatana1 in ,media1 the   
arrangement of a  gigantic tower in     
stages1 the colours of which are similar
 to those of  the zikkurat of           
,khorsabad4 ,there were1 according to   
him1 seven  concentric enclosures1 the  
most spacious being as large as ,athens1

 while  the battlements of each         
enclosure rose higher than those outside
 them4  8,the battlements of the first  
wall are of white stone2 those of the   
second of black stone2 those of the     
fourth blue2 those of the fifth         
vermilion4444 ,the two last walls are   
plated1 the one with silver1 the  other 
with gold40    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#ec4--,the staged tower of ,khorsabad   
7restoration by  ,v4 ,place74    ,the   
explorers of ,mugheir thought that they 
recognised1 in spite of the  bad state  
of the ruins1 that the zikkurat of ,ur  
was constructed in  such a way that the 
stages did not rise exactly in the      
middle of the  square platform of the   
lower stage which served as their base2 
they were  nearer to one of the sides1  
so that they present on one side much   
narrower terraces than on the other     
three4 ,this observation is confirmed   
by a bas-relief in the ,british ,museum1
 unfortunately very rough1 in  which1   
however1 we distinguish clearly the     

greater width of the terraces  on one   
side and their corresponding narrowness 
on the other4 ,on the  other hand the   
slope of each terrace proves that it    
ascended like a  screw1 and that there  
was no staircase cut in each of the     
stages to put  them in communication    
with each other4 ,this is1 moreover1    
what is  observed at ,khorsabad3 the    
ascent to the summit of the ruins of the
  fourth stage is by a quadrangular     
sloping path which mounts gently as it  
winds round in a spiral form4           
,diodorus ,siculus informs us that the  
top of the staged towers was  occupied  
by statues1 for which the zikkurat would
 only form a sort of  pedestal3 8,at the
 summit of the ascent10 he says1        
8,semiramis placed  three golden statues
 wrought with the hammer40 ,these       
statues were  perhaps in the interior of
 the sanctuary which generally crowned  
the  building2 everything makes it      
probable also that little chapels were  
constructed at each stage in the        

thickness of the structure1 and that    
each of them was consecrated to the     
stellar deity of whom the colour of  the
 stage was emblematic4 ,the chapel on   
the summit was covered by a  gilded     
cupola1 which glittered under the       
glorious sunlight of the pure  eastern  
sky1 and dazzled all beholders4         
,nebuchadnezzar relates in his          
inscriptions that he overlaid the dome  
of the sanctuary of ,bel ,marduk  8with 
plates of wrought gold so that it shone 
like the day40 ,does not  ,herodotus    
tell us that the last stage of the      
citadel of ,ecbatana was  gilded8       
,finally1 ,taylor picked up among the   
ruins on the summit of the  zikkurat at 
,abu ,shahrein1 a large quantity of thin
 plates of gold1  still furnished with  
the gilded nails1 which had served to   
fix them to  the walls4    ,besides     
these sanctuaries erected on the top of 
staged towers1 in which  the priests    
passed the night in watching the courses
 of the stars1 there  were other temples

 not provided with similar basements4   
,thus1 on a  bas-relief from the palace 
of ,sargon1 we see a representation of  
the  pillage of the temple of the god   
,haldia at ,musasir1 in ,armenia 7fig4  
#ed74 ,this sanctuary1 built upon a     
terrace like that of a palace1 has a    
faade decorated with a triangular       
pediment1 like a ,greek temple4         
,instead of a portico with columns to   
support the pediment1 there are  thick  
pilasters to the number of six1 adorned 
at intervals with  projecting horizontal
 lines1 and with disks1 which are seen  
upon the  faade also1 and may be taken  
for votive bucklers4 ,between the two   
middle pilasters is the door of the     
temple1 the opening of which is         
enclosed by an architrave in stone2 on  
each side of the door and of the  same  
height as it1 are two colossal genii in 
human form1 carved in stone  and holding
 lances1 the points of which rise even  
higher than the  pillars2 behind them   
are lions2 lastly1 some distance in     

front of the  door1 two gigantic basins1
 probably of bronze1 resting on tripods1
  recall the great vessel found before  
the faade of the palace of ,tello1  the 
brazen sea in the temple of ,solomon1   
the vase from the temple of  ,amathus3  
they were basins for lustral water4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,temple of   
the god ,haldia 7after a bas-relief at  
,khorsabad1 ,botta1 pl4 #ada74    ,the  
description given by ,herodotus and the 
author of ,bel and the ,dragon  of the  
famous temple of ,bel-,marduk1 in       
,babylon1 acquaints us somewhat  closely
 with the interior arrangement of the   
chapel which crowned the  zikkurat4     
,there was nothing1 ,herodotus relates1 
in the way of  furniture but a bed and a
 golden table2 the walls were panelled  
with  plates of gold1 silver1 and ivory4
 ,the evidence of the ,greek historian  
is confirmed by the text of the         
cuneiform inscriptions3 8,i conceived   
the  idea10 says ,nebuchadnezzar1 8of   
restoring ,e-saggil1 the temple of      

,marduk4 ,i had the tallest cedars      
brought from ,lebanon2 the sanctuary of 
,e-kua1 in which the god dwells1 was    
covered with cedar beams and  overlaid  
with gold and silver40 ,elsewhere       
relating the construction of  the tower 
of ,borsippa1 where stood the temple of 
,e-zida consecrated to  the god ,nebo1  
the same prince expresses himself as    
follows3 8,in the  middle of ,borsippa  
,i rebuilt ,e-zida1 the eternal house4  
,i raised it to  the highest degree of  
magnificence with gold1 silver1 other   
metals1  stone1 enamelled bricks1 beams 
of pine and cedar wood4 ,i covered with 
gold the wood of ,nebo's resting-place4 
,the posts of the door of oracles  were 
plated with silver4 ,i encrusted with   
ivory the posts1 the threshold  and the 
lintel of the door of the resting-place4
 ,i covered with silver  the cedar posts
 of the door of the women's chamber40   
,on the golden table  in the temple of  
,marduk1 ,nebuchadnezzar lays1 as he    
recounts himself1  offerings of every   

kind3 honey1 cream1 milk1 refined oil2  
to draw upon  himself heavenly blessings
 he pours out great draughts of the wine
 of  different countries into the goblet
 of ,marduk1 and ,zarpanit the          
,babylonian ,astarte4#cb       ,,iv4    
,,towns ,,and ,,their ,,fortifications4 
,in his description of ,babylon1 as     
,nebuchadnezzar and the kings of his    
dynasty made it1 ,herodotus expresses   
himself as follows3 8,this city1        
situated in a vast plain1 forms a       
perfect square of which each side is    
#abj stadia long1 so that the           
circumference is #dhj stadia40          
,pausanias  says that ,babylon was the  
greatest city that the sun had ever seen
 in  his course2 ,aristotle seems to    
compare it to the ,peloponnese in       
size4#cc ,classical authors also assign 
to the walls of the ,chaldan  capital a 
height of #bjj royal cubits 7#cdb ft47  
and a thickness of #he ft4  ,they are   
said to be pierced by a hundred gates1  
flanked by two hundred  and fifty towers

 and protected by a large moat1 into    
which the waters of  the ,euphrates were
 turned4 ,the exactness of these        
descriptions1 which at  first might seem
 hyperbolical1 has been confirmed1 as   
far as the  thickness of the walls is   
concerned1 by the excavations at        
,khorsabad1  the ramparts of which are  
#gh ft4 and even #ij ft4 thick where    
they are  furnished with bastions4 ,the 
extent of the city itself was verified  
on  the spot between #aheb and #ahed by 
the ,french expedition to ,mesopotamia4 
,the great enclosure of ,babylon1 that  
is to say1 the enlarged ,babylon of     
,nebuchadnezzar1 according to ,m4       
,oppert1 is #aii square miles in        
area--that is to say1 seven times the   
extent of the fortified enclosure  of   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,walls of    
,babylon 7,british ,museum74    ,paris4 
,a raised road1 #aif ft4 broad1 ran     
along the interior of this  rampart1 and
 separated it from the interior wall1   
itself four times as  long as the       

circumference of ,paris2 the two        
concentric walls bear in the  cuneiform 
texts the names of ,imgur ,bel and      
,nimitti ,bel4 ,a view of the  walls of 
,babylon seems to be given in one of the
 bas-reliefs from  ,kouyunjik1 which    
represent the campaign of ,assurbanipal 
against his  brother ,samas-sum-ukin1   
king of ,babylon 7,b4,c4 #fea-fdh74     
,nebuchadnezzar  says that his own      
father ,nabopolassar began to build the 
walls1 and that  he himself finished    
them2 but this does not mean that the   
earlier city1  called by ,herodotus the 
,royal ,city1 was not surrounded1 as in 
the  bas-relief1 by a double wall like  
the later4 ,diodorus says that          
,semiramis surrounded the western part  
of the city with three walls1 and  two  
of these are identified by ,m4          
,oppert4#cd ,fifty principal streets1   
twenty-five of which were parallel to   
the ,euphrates1 and twenty-five at      
right angles to it1 leading to the      
hundred gates1 divided the city into    

regular squares2 a single bridge1 formed
 of wooden planks resting on  stone     
piles1 was thrown across the ,euphrates1
 which cut the city in two  diagonally4 
,the limits of the wall of ,nineveh are 
not yet exactly known2  but the         
testimony of the ,bible gives us reason 
to believe that this city  scarcely     
yielded in point of size to ,babylon4   
,the best mode of  reconciling the      
statements of modern explorers with     
those of the ,book of  ,jonah and the   
historian ,ctesias1 is1 perhaps1 to     
adopt the suggestion of  ,schrader1#ce  
and to suppose that 8the ,great ,city0  
of ,genesis x4 #ab was  a group composed
 of the four towns there enumerated1 of 
which ,nineveh  proper was the chief1   
and gave its name to the whole group4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--;,chaldan    
plan of a fortress4    ,in the absence  
of textual evidence1 the very sculptures
 of the ,assyrians  place before our    
eyes numerous fortresses in plan or in a
 bird's-eye  view4 ,one of the statues  

from ,tello represents the patesi ,gudea
 as an  architect1 holding on his knees 
a tablet on which is carved in outline  
the plan of a stronghold 7fig4 #ef74    
,there are six gates flanked by  towers1
 and the walls are surmounted by        
battlements4 ,in all the  bas-reliefs in
 which sieges are represented1 the      
fortress is seen to be  composed of     
several concentric walls supported by   
towers of greater  elevation than the   
rampart from which they project1 and    
surmounted by  denticulated battlements 
7figs4 #eh and #gd71 which stand out on 
corbels  beyond the perpendicular       
surface of the wall4    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #eg4--;,assyrian plan of a        
fortress 7from a bas-relief  in the     
,british ,museum74    ,might we not     
imagine ourselves in presence of a nave 
miniature of the  middle ages1          
representing the siege of a feudal      
castle1 when we examine  in the         
galleries of our museums these ,assyrian
 bas-reliefs1 on which are  carved the  

sieges of fortresses1 which to defend   
themselves against  battering-rams1     
arrows1 and projectiles of all sorts1   
are provided with  redans and round     
towers1 battlemented pierced with       
loopholes1 and  furnished with a system 
of defence which looks like ourdeys and 
machicolations8 ,as in the middle ages1 
a gate is never opened in the  wall of a
 fortified enclosure without being      
provided with a drawbridge1  sheltered  
by two strong towers1 and defended by a 
projecting structure  composed of       
another rampart and two new bastions4   
,the gate is the weak  point2 it is the 
flaw in the cuirass1 the natural breach 
by which the  enemy might enter3 every  
system of defence is there ingeniously  
accumulated1 and the walls are thicker  
at that point4 ,these tall towers1      
these thick walls were guarded by bodies
    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--,siege of
 a fortress 7from a bas-relief in the   
,british ,museum74    of soldiers always
 on the look-out1 who found here a      

pleasant shade to  protect them from a  
scorching sun1 to which even the        
inhabitants of the  city found their way
 when they met to discuss their affairs 
or to  converse upon the news of the    
day4 ,on each side of these long        
passages  recesses were made1 and even  
actual halls for the guards4 ,several of
 the  dramas related in the ,biblical   
books are developed in such places1     
under  such vaults4 ,the present state  
of one of the entrances of ,khorsabad   
enables us to ascertain that the custom 
of assembling at the city gate  goes    
back to the time of the                 
,chaldo-,assyrians4 ,this gate was still
  surmounted by its semicircular arch   
decorated with an archivolt in          
enamelled bricks4 ,the structure formed 
a projection of #hb feet from the  wall2
 built on a rectangular plan1 it was    
itself pierced by an opening  defended  
by two projecting bastions4 ,after      
passing through this first  structure1 a
 court was reached which gave access to 

the opening    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#ei4--,plan of a gate at ,khorsabad     
7after ,place1 pl4  #ah74               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--;,gate of    
,khorsabad 7restoration by ,place1 pl4  
#h7    in the rampart proper flanked by 
two square towers4 ,through this gate a 
second court was reached1 separated     
again from a third court by a new       
opening2 lastly1 the wall at the bottom 
of this third court had again an        
aperture which gave access to the town4 
,thus it was necessary to pass          
successively through four doors to      
penetrate into ,dur-,sarrukin1 and a    
structure1 symmetrical with that on the 
outside1 projected from the wall  into  
the interior of the fortress4 ,these    
massive structures formed by  themselves
 a real stronghold1 #bb1ife feet square1
 with vaulted passages  and galleries1  
the chief of which is not less than #bgh
 ft4 long4 ,it is  clear that such      
buildings1 which would invariably serve 
as  meeting-places1 form fresh and cool 

retreats in countries where the heat  is
 such that it was impossible to gather  
in the ,forum or in the ,agora1  as at  
,rome or ,athens4          ,,chapter    
,,iii4    ,,assyrian ,,sculpture ,,and  
,,painting4       ,i4 ,,statues1 ,,stel1
 ,,and ,,obelisks4    ,the brilliant    
period of ,chaldan statuary1 which      
reached the apogee of  its development  
in the monuments of ,tello1 came to an  
end with the fall  of the petty         
principalities which flourished in      
,lower ,mesopotamia before  the         
,ninevite supremacy4 ,chaldan statuary  
did not emigrate to ,assyria  with the  
other arts1 or rather the ,assyrians    
disdained to receive it4  ,the principal
 cause which prevented this art from    
developing among the  ,ninevites was the
 nearness of the alabaster quarries1 and
 the absence of  marble1 diorite1       
porphyry and other kinds of stone which 
allow of being  carved in the round4    
,alabaster can only be hewn in thin1    
flat pieces1  which1 for this reason1   

lend themselves admirably to be carved  
in  bas-relief1 but are unsuitable for  
statuary4 ,an alabaster statue of       
ordinary human proportions would be     
extremely fragile1 and would run the    
risk of crumbling away in flakes1 at any
 rate in the thinnest parts1  such as   
the feet and hands4 ,on the other hand1 
the abundance of  alabaster in the      
neighbourhood of ,nineveh caused the    
,assyrians to  dispense with the        
importation from distant countries1 at  
great cost1 of  blocks of diorite and   
porphyry like those which the ,chaldans1
 who  possessed neither alabaster nor   
any other stone1 were obliged to procure
  at any price4 ,at least we must admit 
that up to the present time the         
excavations in ,assyria have scarcely   
yielded to our curiosity anything  that 
can enable us to assert that statuary   
flourished in ,northern  ,mesopotamia4  
,on the contrary1 the few ,assyrian     
statues that have come  down to us prove
 the poverty and neglected condition of 

this branch of  sculpture4 ,the         
principal objects that can be cited are 
two statues of  the god ,nebo at the    
,british ,museum1 a statue of the ,king 
,assur-nasir-pal  7,b4,c4 #hhb-heg71 and
 two other figures of priests which took
 the place of  ,caryatids at ,khorsabad4
    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--,statue  
of ,assur-nasir-pal 7,british ,museum74 
,the statue of ,assur-nasir-pal         
represents this king dressed in a long  
robe without folds and devoid of        
ornament1 which almost gives him the    
appearance of a cylindrical ,terminus4  
,his beard and hair lie close to  his   
head and neck1 and in each part it is   
evident that the artist1  through want  
of skill or on account of the           
difficulties he felt in  dealing with   
the block which he had to fashion1 did  
not dare to  attribute to the limbs a   
suppleness and ease that would have     
damaged  their solidity1 nor to give to 
the beard and the delicate parts of his 
work a finish which would have run the  

risk of splitting the stone4    ,the    
fringes of the robe are only indicated  
by slight strokes of the  burin2 the    
arms are united to the bust1 and so are 
the sceptre and the  crook which the    
monarch holds in his hands4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,statue in   
the hareem at ,khorsabad 7after         
,place74    ,the ,atlantes found in     
front of the enamelled walls of the     
hareem at  ,khorsabad seem to have been 
employed in the structure as true       
columns2  on their head-dress they      
support a square plinth which bears     
witness to  their architectural         
function2 their figures are of more than
 human  stature4 ,from the sacred vase  
which they press reverently to their    
breast1 and which we have already seen  
in ,chalda1 flow four streams1  which   
recall the four rivers of ,paradise in  
,genesis2 two of these liquid  jets fall
 directly upon their feet1 while the two
 others1 rising over  their shoulders1  
fall down their back to their feet in   

slightly  undulating bands4#cf    ,the  
scenes upon the bas-reliefs in the      
interior of the palace chambers         
sometimes represent processions in which
 deities1 standing or seated1  are      
carried upon litters by priests or      
slaves 7fig4 #aad73 so there were       
statues at ,nineveh4 ,it is doubtful1   
however1 whether these discoveries  give
 any other impression of ,assyrian      
statuary than that which we have        
described4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#fc4--,stela of ,samsi-,rammanu         
7,british ,museum74    ,instead of      
statues1 the ,assyrians often erected   
stel and obelisks--a  kind of monument  
which holds1 so to speak1 the middle    
place between  statues and bas-reliefs4 
,among the stel the most finished type  
is that  of ,king ,samsi-,rammanu ,,iii4
 7,b4,c4 #hbb--hji74 ,it is a monolith  
of slightly  trapezoidal form1 rounded  
in the upper part4 ,the sides are       
covered with  a cuneiform inscription   
which relates year by year the military 

exploits  of the prince4 ,on the        
anterior surface1 surrounded by a border
 which  forms a frame1 the king1 in high
 relief and seen in profile1 stands in  
adoration before the planetary symbols4 
,it is clear at the first glance  that  
the artist has been bolder than he would
 have been in dealing with  a statue in 
the round4 ,the feet and arms are freer 
and not held so  closely to the figure2 
far from treating the details of the    
costume  roughly1 he takes pleasure1 on 
the contrary1 in laying exaggerated     
stress upon them4    ,in the ,british   
,museum are small stel of a later date1 
bearing figures  of ,assur-bani-pal     
7,b4,c4 #ffh-fff74 ,they show the king  
holding a basket  upon his head1 in the 
same attitude as the early ,canephor of 
,chalda  7see above1 p4 #cg1 fig4 #be74 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,stela of    
,assur-bani-pal 7,british ,museum74     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--,obelisk of  
,shalmaneser 7,british ,museum74        
,assyrian obelisks1 which have nothing  

in common with the gigantic  ,egyptian  
monoliths to which this name is given1  
are1 like the stel1  large boundary     
stones set up in honour of the exploits 
of some prince1  sometimes on the very  
field of battle1 or on the ruins of a   
conquered  town4 ,the most complete and 
best preserved of these monuments is the
  obelisk of ,shalmaneser ,,iii4 7,b4,c4
 #heg-hbb7 found at ,nimroud4 ,this is a
  monolith scarcely more than #f feet   
high2 it is a square pillar1  slightly  
pyramidal in form4 ,the upper part is   
arranged in steps which  recede from one
 another on all sides2 the summit forms 
a platform1 and  has nothing to surmount
 it3 perhaps a statuette of the king or 
his  favourite deity formerly stood     
there4 ,the four faces of the obelisk   
are  covered with inscriptions and      
bas-reliefs arranged in rows one above  
the  other4 ,the lower part1 which is   
entirely bare1 must have been buried up 
to a certain point in the ground4    ,as
 we see1 the stel and obelisks1 which   

take the place of statues1 are  in a    
technical point of view derived from the
 bas-reliefs4 ,if any  ,assyrian statues
 are brought us by future discoveries1  
they will always  be few in number1 and 
poor and timid in style2 there is       
nothing among  them to be compared to   
the ,chaldan statues1 and above all     
nothing to be  placed side by side with 
the innumerable ,egyptian statues1 the  
style of  which sometimes almost attains
 to the perfection of ,greek art2       
,assyria  also was destined to approach 
this ideal1 but only in bas-relief4     
,such was the logical consequence of the
 natural difference of the  environments
 in which the empires of ,egypt and     
,assyria1 those two poles  around which 
the whole of the ancient ,east          
gravitates1 were evolved4 ,on  the banks
 of the ,nile1 stone suited for         
sculpture exists in profusion1  and as  
there was abundant material in the hands
 of the artist1 he was  able to devote  
himself to incessant experiments1 essays

 and trials1  which1 progressively      
repeated from generation to generation1 
only  stopped at the threshold of ,greek
 art4 ,in ,mesopotamia there was little 
or no stone to carve2 it was only rarely
 and at great expense that  precious    
blocks were brought with much trouble   
from a long distance1 and  these were   
too dear and too scarce to allow of     
numerous experiments4       ,,ii4       
,,bas-,,reliefs4    ,to conceal the     
poverty of the material of their brick  
or clay  structures1 the ,assyrians1 as 
we have said1 conceived the idea of     
lining  the walls with thin slabs of    
limestone or gypseous alabaster of a    
yellowish shade1 which they extracted at
 small expense from the  neighbouring   
mountains of ,nineveh4 ,these slabs     
could be sculptured and  polished with  
marvellous ease4    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #ff4--;,assur-nasir-pal sacrificing a  
bull 7,bas-relief  in the ,british      
,museum74    ,the most ancient          
bas-reliefs that the excavations in     

,assyria have  brought to light come    
from the palace of ,assur-nasir-pal     
7,b4,c4 #hhb-heg7  at ,calah 7,nimroud74
 ,what a distance there is between this 
epoch and that  of the ruins of ,tello6 
,but from the reign of this prince to   
the fall of  ,nineveh1 towards the end  
of the seventh century--that is to say1 
during  three centuries--there is an    
abundance of documents for the history  
of  sculpture2 they have been           
disinterred principally from the palaces
 of  ,assur-nasir-pal1 ,shalmaneser1    
,samsi-,rammanu1 ,rammanu-nirari1       
,tiglath-,pileser1 ,sargon1             
,sennacherib1 ,esarhaddon and           
,assurbanipal1--palaces  which these    
princes had built in order to           
immortalise their fame1 and  the walls  
of which they covered with the scenes of
 their valour and the  narrative of     
their exploits4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#fg4--;,genius with the beak of an eagle
 7,bas-relief at  the ,louvre74         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--,two-winged  

genius 7,bas-relief at the ,british     
,museum74    ,besides the interior walls
 of the chambers1 no bas-reliefs were   
found in  the palaces except on the     
principal faade4 ,these sculptures on   
the  faade have peculiar characteristics
 upon which we must lay stress4 ,in  the
 first place1 they are exclusively      
devoted to religious and  mythological  
subjects3 not the smallest allusion is  
found to the  exploits of the prince4   
,they represent especially divine       
heroes1 winged  genii with human bodies 
and eagles' claws and beaks1 winged     
lions and  bulls which guard the royal  
residence and defend the approaches to  
it1  whether against evil spirits or    
against    ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#fi4--;,four-winged genius1 ,khorsabad  
7,louvre1 #i ft4 #aj  in4 high74        
foreign invasion4 ,accordingly the      
figures in these exterior sculptures    
are of colossal proportions1 as it is   
fitting for gods and heroes4 ,there  was
 also a reason drawn from the laws of   

perspective in this enlargement  of the 
figures1 since the faade of the palace  
was intended to be seen  at a greater   
distance4 ,the winged bulls at the      
,louvre1 which come from  ,khorsabad1   
are from #ac ft4 to #af ft4 high4 ,the  
groups which represent  ,izdubar1 the   
,assyrian ,hercules1 strangling a lion  
under his arm1 are as  much as #ai ft4  
,the ,assyrians multiplied their winged 
bulls at the  entrance of the doors4    
,twenty-six pairs of them were found in 
the palace  of ,sargon1 and as many as  
ten in a single faade of the palace of  
,sennacherib4 ,assyrian texts speak of  
them as kirubi 7cherubim87 or  sedi     
7genii74 ,the considerable projection of
 their figures from the  walls makes    
them partake of the bas-relief and of   
the statue in the  round at the same    
time4 ,some of these bulls have a relief
 of about #h  in42 placed at the corner 
of the doors to support the archivolt1  
they  seemed1 like ,atlas upholding the 
world1 to bear upon their heads the     

whole mass of the building4 ,carved on  
two sides1 they are like statues        
half-buried in the thickness of the     
wall4 ,they were generally arranged  in 
fours1 two being on the plane of the    
wall1 facing one another on each  side  
of the door1 and the other two facing   
the visitor as he entered1  while their 
heads stood out from the faade and their
 hinder parts  remained inside the      
passage4 ,the visitor arriving from     
without saw  before him at once the     
bodies of the first two in profile and  
the full  face of the two others4       
,before the building or within the      
doorway he  still saw at the same time  
full faces and bodies in profile4 ,by an
  illusion1 he seemed to behold         
continually1 and in every position1 the 
whole of a bearded monster1 with his    
thick mane on his chest1 his neck       
furnished with tufts of hair1 his legs1 
in which the muscles1 speaking  emblems 
of material strength1 are powerfully    
marked1 his wings formed of  rows of    

plumes1 and reaching1 like gigantic     
fans1 as high as the  archivolt4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4--,winged and  
human-headed lion 7,british ,museum74   
,except in the palace of ,sennacherib1  
these winged bulls1 in order that  the  
illusion may be more complete1 are      
represented with five legs2 two  hind   
legs and three fore legs1 of which two  
are straight and one is  bent4 ,the     
object of this trick was always to show 
four legs1 whatever  might be the       
position of the spectator4 ,in fact1    
standing before the  beast1 the         
spectator sees his two fore legs2 on the
 side1 one of these  two being no longer
 visible1 the artist has replaced it by 
a third which  is seen in profile in the
 background4 ,this quaint device of the 
,assyrian  sculptor is never met with in
 ,egypt4    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#ga4--;,front face of a winged bull from
 ,khorsabad  7,louvre74    ,the         
philosophical idea expressed in these   
bulls and lions1 these  impassible and  

majestic sentinels1 is that of physical 
strength1 calm  and sure of itself2 it  
is the conception of the ,egyptian      
sphinxes and of  the ,grco-,roman       
,hercules in repose1 with a half-smile  
upon his face4  ,only1 while in the     
,greek ,hercules the human element alone
 comes in1 and  in the ,egyptian ,sphinx
 there are only two elements1 the man   
and the  lion1 four1 and even more1 are 
found in the ,assyrian ,kirubu3 the man1
  the bull1 the lion1 and the eagle4    
,the artist's chief merit is that he    
was able to give fair proportions to    
this fantastic beast1 and to  combine   
these various elements which he borrowed
 from nature1 so as to  create a figure 
of harmonious forms1 in which nothing   
shocks the taste1  and the expression of
 which is noble1 majestic1 and natural4 
,to us1  though we are the children of  
another civilisation1 nothing seems     
grotesque or deformed in these fine and 
vigorous creations of the  ,assyrian    
genius1 which could1 as skilfully as the

 ,egyptian genius1  associate the human 
form with the animal form in the        
symbolic  representation of deity and of
 supernatural beings4 ,it is on the     
banks  of the ,tigris that we find the  
prototypes of the ,loves1 the ,centaurs1
  the ,chimras1 the ,sphinxes1 the      
,gryphons1 the ,pegasi1 the ,hippocampi 
of  ,greek art4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#gb4--;,battle scene 7,bas-relief from  
,nimroud1 ,british  ,museum74    ,it has
 been calculated that the series of     
bas-reliefs from the halls of  ,sargon's
 palace at ,khorsabad1 placed end to    
end1 would form a line a  mile and a    
half long4 ,those who have visited the  
,british ,museum will  remember the     
,nimroud and ,kouyunjik galleries1 and  
the ,assyrian ,basement1  each one of   
which is larger than the ,assyrian      
gallery at the ,louvre4  ,what a        
quantity of material for writing the    
history of ,assyrian  sculpture during  
three centuries is here in our hands6   
,in the interval  between every         

campaign1 that is to say1 between two   
springtides1 the  king had bas-reliefs  
sculptured to exhibit before men's eyes 
his prowess  in the chase or in war1 and
 the manifold episodes of official life4
  ,taken as a whole1 the sculptures in  
the interior of the palaces are  always 
in honour of the prince4 ,everything is 
for the king1 who  symbolizes the life  
of his whole people2 he does everything1
 and nothing  is accomplished except by 
his hands or by his orders2 nowhere is  
the  ferocious egotism of ,eastern      
monarchs more conspicuous than in these 
bas-reliefs4 ,egyptian sculptures often 
contain scenes of civil life from  which
 the ,pharaoh is excluded3 agricultural 
labour1 games1 festivals1  public       
markets1 and many other episodes in the 
existence of the ancient  ,egyptian     
,fellaheen4 ,in ,assyria we find nothing
 of this sort2 the  speaking walls      
repeat1 without a moment's pause1 the   
warlike chronicle  of the kings4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4--,the         

,assyrian army in a mountainous country 
7,bas-relief from ,nimroud1 ,british    
,museum74    ,this exclusively official 
side of the ,ninevite sculptures        
compelled art  to confine itself to     
abstract types1 created once for all1   
which1  multiplied to satiety1 produce a
 certain fatigue in our minds4 ,there is
  no more    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#gd4--,siege of a fortress 7,bas-relief 
from ,khorsabad1  ,louvre74             
proportion or scale in the ,assyrian    
bas-reliefs than among the ,egyptians   
or the ,chinese2 perspective is absent1 
or rather the artists made vain  efforts
 to calculate and reproduce its effects4
 ,men are taller than the  chariots that
 they mount and the horses which draw   
them2 they even  overtop the fortresses 
that they besiege4 ,as in ,egypt1 the   
king is  always represented as taller   
than his ministers1 and in general the  
,assyrians are taller than their        
enemies4 ,greek heroes1 in classical    
art1  are also often taller than the    

warriors who surround them2 the same    
facts have been remarked in ,chinese    
art4 ,the practice is nave1 but it  is  
common to all arts and easily explained 
by the absence of  perspective4 ,at the 
present day1 when our artists can at    
their pleasure  arrange several planes  
in their pictures1 and produce distances
 and  backgrounds in the scenes which   
they wish to render1 they are satisfied 
to make the important scene stand out   
and place the principal actors in  the  
foreground4 ,before perspective was     
understood and many planes could  thus  
be created1 there was no means of       
bringing out the principal actors       
except the device of a disproportionate 
enlargement4    ,generally speaking1 the
 ,assyrian artist shows a fondness for  
picturesque  spots1 mountains1 and      
rivers4 ,but he renders them with the   
strangest  errors in the relative       
proportions of the objects3 for         
instance1 the  fish among the waves are 
as large as the boats2 the birds in the 

forests  are as large as the trees or   
the hunters2 the vultures on the field  
of  battle are as big as the horses4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,navigation  
scene 7,bas-relief from ,khorsabad1     
,louvre74    ,when the artist wishes to 
reproduce the human countenance1 he     
always  places the eye in full1 even    
when the face is in profile4 ,when the  
sculptor is obliged to represent his    
figures in full face1 or in any  other  
attitude than the simple profile1 he is 
much embarrassed1 and  shows his        
hesitation and his incapacity2 unable to
 foreshorten the  feet1 he draws them   
entirely in profile1 while the whole of 
the upper  portion of the body is in    
full face--an error which gives an      
appearance  of dislocation to the       
figure4 ,he turns the heads round as if 
they were  put on the wrong way2 the    
hands present the same deformity3 it    
might  sometimes be supposed that the   
artist has put them on backwards4       
,the principal efforts of the sculptor  

were aimed at the head1 the legs1  and  
the arms4 ,he makes the muscles stand   
out enormously1 while they are  not     
always in their proper anatomical       
position4 ,bold curves form the  outline
 of the knee-cap and mark the           
leg-muscles and the biceps2 the  feet   
and hands are not only clearly carved   
out1 but chiselled to an  excessive     
depth4 ,the ,assyrians scarcely knew    
more than two types of the  human head1 
which they constantly reproduce3 the    
bearded head and the  beardless head4   
,an attempt may be made1 however1 to    
establish more exact  definitions and   
distinctions4 ,the bearded head may wear
 its hair curled  in very short         
ringlets1 or else the beard and the hair
 may be twisted in  parallel and        
symmetrical tresses3 this last form is  
reserved for figures  of gods1 heroes1  
kings1 the chief functionaries of the   
court1 and  soldiers4 ,the beardless    
heads must be recognised as the type set
 apart  to represent eunuchs4 ,these    

personages1 some of whom played an      
important  part at court1 like the      
,kislar-,agha1 or chief of the black    
eunuchs at  ,constantinople1 are        
characterised by their fleshy and       
sensual  countenances4    ,among the    
works of ,chaldan and ,egyptian art     
there are faces which  belong to old    
men1 to young men1 and to children4 ,in 
,assyria it may be  said that the faces 
never change1 or rather three or four   
fixed types  are exclusively met with3  
kings1 officers1 slaves1 and even gods1 
have  all the same physiognomy1 which   
belongs to the age between youth and    
maturity4 ,when children are met with1  
they have a prematurely old  appearance1
 and their stature alone distinguishes  
them4 ,the ,ninevite  artists rarely    
represented women1 and when they did so 
proved their  absolute inexperience4    
,their veiled women have vulgar         
features1 from  which all ideas of      
physical beauty are banished4 ,examine  
the scene in  which ,king ,assurbanipal 

and one of his wives are drinking from  
goblets  7fig4 #gg74 ,the face of the   
queen is almost masculine in appearance2
 even  her hair is dressed like that of 
men2 she wears a peculiar diadem1 and   
is draped in sumptuous robes1           
embroidered and enriched with jewels4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4--;,eunuchs    
7,bas-relief from ,khorsabad1 ,louvre74 
,the ,assyrian sculptor had not the     
skill to draw a true portrait and to    
study individual likeness1 except       
perhaps in certain royal heads4#cg  ,nor
 had he the skill    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #gg4--;,assurbanipal and his queen
 7,bas-relief from  ,kouyunjik1 ,british
 ,museum74    to give to the types which
 he created the least expression1       
betraying  any motion whatever of joy or
 sadness3 his figures remain impassive1 
whether taking part in joyous banquets1 
in the excitement of hunting1 in        
battle1 or even amidst the most         
atrocious tortures4 ,the countenance of 
the ,assyrian is always imperturbable1  

never laughs and never weeps2 the       
gestures of his arms alone are designed 
to express and interpret his            
impressions4 ,the hand raised and drawn 
back to the height of the nape of  the  
neck is a sign of introduction or of an 
appeal2 the hand raised in  front of the
 mouth is a sign of mourning and of     
violent grief2 the  hands held in such a
 way that one grasps the wrist of the   
other1 make a  gesture which implies an 
acknowledgment of servitude and absolute
  submission1 due only to the sovereign 
or to the gods4 ,assyrians are          
sometimes seen in the act of prayer1    
raising one hand as high as the  face1  
while the other hangs loosely by the    
side2 but some adopt the  ,christian    
posture in prayer1 raising their two    
hands and pressing the  palms against   
one another4    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#gh4--;,jewish type1 from a bas-relief  
from the palace  of ,sennacherib        
7,british ,museum74    ,as the          
bas-reliefs of the ,ninevite palaces are

 specially devoted to the               
representation of the military campaigns
 of the kings against foreign  nations1 
the artist has often been led to draw   
men or women of distant  countries1     
distinguished from the ,assyrians by    
their national costume or  by certain   
ethnographical characteristics4 ,it is  
sometimes possible to  understand these 
distinctions between ,assyrians and     
foreigners in the  sculptures3 for      
instance1 the ,jewish type could        
scarcely be better  expressed at the    
present day than it is in the figure of 
one of the  captives coming to make     
their submission to ,king ,sennacherib  
in his camp  before the walls of        
,lachish 7fig4 #gh74    ,moreover1 with 
regard to the human form1 the scope of  
,assyrian sculpture  was greatly limited
 in    ,illustration3 ,fig4             
#gi4--;,assurbanipal in his chariot     
7,bas-relief from  ,kouyunjik1 ,louvre74
    consequence of the false modesty of 
the ,east1 which was in existence in    

ancient times as it is in our own day   
among the ,arabs1 and prevented  the    
artist from studying the human frame in 
the nude and in the living  model4 ,the 
,assyrian1 like the ,arab1 is always    
draped in his thick  burnoos1 and this  
fashion1 observed with religious        
strictness1  contributed to no small    
extent to the sudden arrest of the      
progress of  art4 ,the long linen tunic1
 garnished with embroideries1 only      
allows the  head1 feet and fore-arm to  
be seen2 the working dress of the       
slaves1 or  sometimes the tunic of the  
soldiers1 descends no further than the  
knee2  the large fringed shawl1 when it 
is worn1 envelops the body like the     
,arab burnoos and the ,roman toga4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4--,sargon      
7,bas-relief from ,khorsabad1 ,louvre74 
,the ,assyrian1 therefore1 in           
consequence of a ,semitic prejudice1    
could  never express natural and ideal  
beauty3 herein lies his inferiority in  
comparison with the ,egyptian sculptor2 

we know from thousands of  examples how 
the artists of ,thebes or ,memphis      
treated the human torso1  and several of
 their statues and even of their        
bas-reliefs are  masterpieces4 ,rarely  
has the ,ninevite sculptor ventured to  
represent the  human form in the state  
of nudity1 except in the case of the    
goddess  ,istar1 and in that of a few   
figures of slaves or of corpses lying on
 the  battle-field2 and these           
exceptional cases betray his complete   
want of  experience4    ,he tried to    
remedy the defect which we have just    
indicated by striving  after perfection 
in details4 ,no art has treated with    
greater  complaisance and refinement all
 the features of the costume1 not       
forgetting a single tress of the hair or
 a single fringe in the drapery4  ,here 
is1 for instance1 a bas-relief from     
,khorsabad 7fig4 #hj71 which  represents
 ,sargon attended by an eunuch4 ,observe
 with what inimitable  perfection the   
embroidery of the tiara1 of the mantle  

decorated with  rosettes1 and of the    
robe with its elegant diaper pattern is 
rendered2  the silky softness of the    
fringes in the eunuch's dress is almost 
to be  felt4 ,the hands and feet1 beard 
and hair1 of the two figures1 are       
treated with the delicacy of a cameo4   
,secondary matters thus assume an       
exaggerated importance detrimental to   
the effect of the whole2 the  muscles   
are so strongly marked that they become 
monstrous2 the relative  proportions of 
the different parts of the body are no  
longer conformed  to nature4 ,in this   
respect again ,assyrian sculpture       
remains greatly  inferior to its rival  
on the banks of the ,nile4 ,it cannot be
 too often  repeated that the minute    
study of detail and devotion to the     
infinitely  little ruined ,assyrian art 
by helping to make it forget the general
  features of the work2 the sculptor1   
led astray by this false object1  looked
 at his figures too closely1 omitting to
 improve their proportions  and to give 

them more suppleness1 life1 and         
movement2 even when most  finished1 they
 always give us an impression of        
geometrical stiffness4    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #ha4--,wounded lioness           
7,bas-relief from ,kouyunjik1  ,british 
,museum74    ,if the direct study of    
bodily forms was neglected by the       
,assyrian artist  in the case of human  
beings1 it was not so in the case of    
animals4  ,accordingly ,ninevite        
sculpture shows itself to far greater   
advantage in  the representation of the 
animals of different kinds found in     
,mesopotamia4 ,in this province it may  
claim a considerable superiority  over  
,egyptian art1 and reaches1 in the time 
of ,assurbanipal1 that is to  say1 at   
the moment before the fall of ,nineveh1 
a degree of perfection  which may       
sustain comparison with the finest      
creations of ,hellenic art4  ,its       
masterpiece is the figure of a lioness  
succumbing to the shafts of  the        
hunters1 from the palace of             

,assurbanipal at ,kouyunjik4 ,her spinal
  column is broken by an arrow which    
pierces it through2 the blood gushes  in
 streams from the wound1 but though on  
the point of expiring1 the  savage beast
 makes a heroic effort to raise herself 
upon her forelegs  and to utter a last  
roar4 ,in order to render this dramatic 
attitude with  so much truth1 the       
artists must often have followed the    
royal hunting  expeditions and witnessed
 terrible scenes in the deserts where   
the wild  beasts had their haunts4      
,other bas-reliefs show us1 with an     
almost  equally successful execution1   
lions springing on to the royal chariot1
  dashing boldly towards the boats which
 plough the waters of the river1  or1 on
 the other hand1 lying carelessly asleep
 on the plain1 and lazily  stretching   
out their limbs1 the modelling of which 
is free and truthful4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #hb4--,slaves carrying a lion and 
birds4 ,bas-relief  from ,khorsabad     
7after ,place74    ,next to the lion1   

the ,assyrian artist takes the greatest 
pleasure in  representing the horse4 ,in
 one scene it is the wild horse1        
starting and  bounding as he is caught  
by the lasso of the hunters2 in another 
it is  the war-horse1 dashing at full   
gallop towards the enemy1 and ridden by 
a  warrior who draws his bow or         
brandishes his lance2 or again it is the
  draught-horse1 harnessed to the royal 
chariot1 trampling corpses under  his   
feet1 or drawing the heavy waggons in   
which the booty from the  enemy's       
country is transported into ,assyria4   
,such was the skill of the  artist1 that
 naturalists have been able to decide   
from the study of the  bas-reliefs what 
breeds of horses were produced in       
,assyria4 ,the dog1 the  goat and the   
sheep1 the ibex and the wild boar1 the  
bison and the wild  ass1 the deer and   
the gazelle1 the camel and the          
dromedary1 are also  among the animals  
which frequently occur in the           
bas-reliefs designed to  perpetuate the 

memory of particularly successful       
hunting expeditions1  or of the capture 
of herds belonging to a vanquished      
people4 ,the artist  took pleasure in   
placing them in the most fanciful       
attitudes1 sometimes  with the happiest 
effect4 ,it was also his delight to     
introduce in  procession the figures of 
foreign animals1 sent to the ,king of   
,assyria  by tributary nations1 such as 
the elephant1 the ape1 and the          
rhinoceros4  ,but the rarity of such    
animals in ,mesopotamia explains the    
peculiar  clumsiness of the ,assyrian   
sculptor in the reproduction of them4   
,here  are apes treated with an almost  
grotesque navet2 they look like men     
disguised in the skins of animals1 and  
trying to walk on all fours 7fig4  #hc74
    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4--;,envoy  
bringing apes as tribute 7,bas-relief   
from  ,nimroud1 ,british ,museum74      
,among birds we find the eagle1 the     
vulture and the gerfalcon hovering      
heavily and ungracefully over the       

battlefields1 though the anatomical     
details of these birds are sometimes    
executed with skill4#ch ,the  ostrich1 a
 sacred bird1 appears on cylinders and  
among the embroidered  designs on       
official robes4 ,locusts1 that plague of
 the whole ,east1  figure in the        
character of offerings to the gods1 and1
 no doubt1  represent legions of evil   
spirits4 ,in the rivers eels1 crabs1 and
 fish  are placed4 ,in the field1 on the
 mountains1 or on the river-banks we    
find palms and trees of every species1  
onions1 ears of corn1  lotus-flowers1   
vines1 marsh-plants4 ,but if the        
scrupulous imitation of  nature         
sometimes leaves nothing to be desired  
in these sculptured forms1  ignorance of
 the laws of perspective has forced the 
artist to employ  devices of childish   
simplicity4 ,thus1 to indicate that     
trees grow on  each side of a stream1 he
 has placed them upright on the further 
bank1  and stem downwards on the nearer4
    ,in the same way1 when he wishes1   

for instance1 to show us what passes    
within the enclosure of a fortress 7see 
fig4 #eg71 he is reduced to  display it 
on the ground with the bastions and     
battlements in profile  around it1      
turned outward like the points of a     
coronet2 at the same time  he arranges  
all his scenes within this enclosure in 
divisions one above  the other1 without 
regard for the laws of proportion1 and  
without even  taking the trouble to     
contain himself1 as he has done with    
regard to the  enclosure1 within the    
spaces marked out by radii starting from
 the  centre4 ,by a further neglect of  
perspective1 in the representation of an
  ox or other horned animal1 he places  
the horn in profile projecting  forwards
 from the head4    ,besides the         
bas-reliefs which were displayed upon   
the walls of the  palace-chambers1 there
 were secondary pieces of sculpture in  
which the  originality of the ,assyrian 
genius comes to light4 ,a notable       
example is  found in the decoration of  

the thresholds of the palaces1 which    
were  carved in such a way that they    
looked like rich carpets4 ,one of the   
most  remarkable of these is a large    
slab of gypsum found at ,kouyunjik1     
7fig4  #hd71 in which the lotus or      
tulip-flower is combined with rosettes1 
open  daisies and geometrical designs   
most harmonious in effect2 nothing more 
elegant in decorative sculpture has ever
 been conceived4    ,to sum up1         
,assyrian sculpture triumphs in the     
bas-relief1 and in the  patient and     
minute labour of ornamental design4 ,if 
the work of the  ,ninevite chisel is    
compared to that of the ,greeks in the  
archaic period1  down to the appearance 
of the ginetan school1 a surprising     
affinity  will be observed between them4
 ,the stela of ,aristion1 that primitive
  ,athenian bas-relief1 known under the 
incorrect name of the ,warrior of       
,marathon1 looks1 at first sight1 as if 
it had been taken from the walls  of    
,sargon's or ,sennacherib's palace4 ,at 

,khorsabad a cippus1 acquired by        
,victor ,place1 is adorned with parallel
 flutings terminating in a  hemisphere  
of elegant palmettes2 it presents the   
appearance of a ,greek  stela4#ci       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4--;,fragment of
 threshold1 ,kouyunjik 7,british        
,museum74    ,if we compare the         
sculpture of ,kouyunjik1 ,nimroud1      
,khorsabad and ,kalah  ,shergat with one
 another1 we observe1 beneath the       
general uniformity  that we have        
indicated1 differences important enough 
to enable us to  characterise the       
progress of art during the three        
centuries before the  fall of ,nineveh1 
and not simply    ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#he4--,slaves dragging a winged bull4   
,bas-relief from  ,kouyunjik 7,british  
,museum74    the result of the varying  
talent of the artists4 ,we seem to be   
able to  distinguish in ,assyrian art1  
as we learn to know it in the           
bas-reliefs1  three periods or three    
successive developments4 ,under         

,assur-nasir-pal  the figures are       
already bold and powerful1 but          
thick-set1 and they  appear in small    
numbers in the scenes represented2 their
 motions are  sober1 but full of truth4 
,the artist has the singular habit1 only
  observed in ,assyrian art1 of covering
 a portion of his figures with long     
inscriptions explaining the scenes which
 he intends to portray 7see fig4  #hc72 
we have already seen that the ,chaldan  
statues of ,gudea are covered  with     
inscriptions1 and ,herodotus'           
statement#dj that the figures of        
8,sesostris0 in ,ionia1 doubtless the   
,hittite figures described below1  bore 
inscriptions across their breasts is    
probably based on a confusion  with the 
,assyrian figures in ,syria and         
elsewhere4 ,under ,sargon and           
,sennacherib1 the sculptors became more 
experienced and more ambitious4  ,in    
their works the figures are far more    
numerous1 and concur more  visibly in a 
common action2 they have more life and  

movement2 the scenes  representing      
battles1 hunting expeditions1 the       
worship of the gods1 or  slaves engaged 
in public works are more varied2 the    
gestures of the  figures are more marked
 and more energetic1 the muscles of the 
legs and  arms more deeply outlined2    
lastly1 the human forms are no longer   
covered  with inscriptions2 these are   
placed at the side1 as explanatory      
legends4    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#hf4--;,deer hunt4 ,bas-relief from     
,khorsabad 7after  ,place74    ,in the  
time of ,assurbanipal1 a more natural   
art1 and one which conformed  more to   
the true principles of sculpture in     
bas-relief1 came into being4  ,instead  
of giants1 we find on the contrary small
 figures forming a  series of pictures1 
containing the greatest variety of      
scene1 and full  of freshness and       
action4 ,this art reaches its apogee in 
the figure of  the lioness which we have
 cited 7fig4 #ha74 ,it must be added    
that all the  parts of the same         

bas-relief are seldom sculptured by the 
same artist1  and that figures of very  
unequal merit are met with4 ,the        
master's chisel  reserved for itself the
 principal personages1 the royal train  
and the  officers who surrounded it2 the
 disciples worked at the secondary      
portions1 the corpses of the enemy1 the 
processions of prisoners1 the           
background of the landscape4 ,matters   
were not managed differently with       
regard to the sculptures of the         
,parthenon4       ,,iii4 ,,painting     
,,and ,,enamelling4    ,the bricks which
 composed the structure of the walls in 
,chaldan or  ,assyrian edifices were    
nowhere visible4 ,above the slabs       
sculptured in  bas-relief and under the 
spring of the vaults a white stucco was 
applied1 made of plaster and lime1 like 
that still used by the ,orientals  to   
coat their houses2 this custom explains 
the phrase 8whited  sepulchres0 in the  
,gospels4 ,it was doubtless on a plaster
 of this nature  that the mysterious    

hand of which the ,book of ,daniel      
speaks traced out  ,belshazzar's        
sentence of condemnation on the night of
 the ill-famed  banquet3 the sacred     
writer says that the hand wrote 8on the 
plaster of  the wall40 ,this stucco was 
often decorated with paintings in       
distemper1  at any rate in the principal
 chambers1 above the line of the        
bas-reliefs4    ,modern explorers have  
collected some fragments of these       
frescoes or  decorative paintings2 at   
,warka1 among the ruins of the temple   
called  ,wuswas1 ,loftus acquired some  
which belong to the remotest ,chaldan   
period4 ,at ,khorsabad1 ,v4 ,place found
 on some pieces of stucco elegant       
rosettes formed by the application and  
juxtaposition of very decided  colours3 
white1 yellow1 green1 red1 and black4   
,one of the most  remarkable examples of
 this painting is a border of bulls     
painted white  on a yellow ground1 their
 form being relieved by a broad black   
outline  7fig4 #hg74 ,above is a row of 

blue battlements2 below festoons of many
  colours4 ,the effect is harmonious1   
though the tints are flat1 and in  spite
 of the absence of all modelling in the 
figures4#da    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#hg4--,painting on plaster1 ,nimroud    
7after ,layard74    ,the application of 
stucco of different colours is          
particularly  conspicuous in the        
construction of the staged towers1 the  
terraces of  which are1 beginning from  
the lowest1 white1 black1 red1 yellow1  
vermilion1 silver and gold4 ,in the     
interior of the chambers1 to avoid  the 
disagreeable contrast between the       
uniform whiteness of the stone          
bas-reliefs and the brilliancy of the   
many-coloured paintings1 the  fashion   
was to colour the figures in the        
bas-reliefs themselves4 ,some  traces of
 colouring may still be recognised in   
the sculptures preserved  in our        
museums1 and though it is true that they
 are being gradually  effaced1 they were
 quite evident when the slabs were      

disinterred4 ,the  beard1 hair1 weapons1
 and even the face and costume of the   
figures were  coloured in a similar     
manner to the paintings on plaster1 so  
that this  painted stucco seemed to be  
the continuation of the bas-reliefs4    
,there  are1 for instance1 evident      
traces of vermilion paint#db on the     
figures  of demons in the ,assyrian     
basement of the ,british ,museum4 ,the  
,assyrians  obeyed the same laws of     
sthetics as the medival artists1 who    
applied  polychrome colouring to their  
marble or stone statues1 to bring them  
into perfect harmony with the rich      
decoration which filled their           
cathedrals from the floor to the        
keystone of the vault4    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #hh4--,portion of an enamelled   
archivolt at ,khorsabad  7after ,v4     
,place74    ,enamelled brick played the 
same part as painting in fresco1 only it
 was  more solid and was better able to 
resist the action of damp4 ,in ,chalda1 
where it rains oftener than in ,assyria1

 greater use has been made of  enamelled
 brick than in the latter country4 ,the 
,ninevite artists  scarcely ever        
employed this method of decoration1     
except round the  principal doorways and
 to make an elegant border for the      
archivolt4 ,the  bricks of brilliant    
colours1 which are conspicuous from a   
distance1 are  ornamented with floral   
designs and rosettes in exquisite taste4
 ,in  ,sargon's palace    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #hi4--;,enamelled brick1 ,nimroud
 7after ,layard74    ,v4 ,place found   
nearly all the bricks of the archivolt  
of a door4 ,between  two borders of     
white rosettes is a broad frieze        
containing winged genii  and symbolical 
animals bearing the same attributes as  
the similar  figures in the bas-reliefs 
7fig4 #hh74 ,on the lower plinth of the 
chief  door of the hareem there figured 
on the enamelled bricks a lion1 an      
eagle1 a bull1 and a plough2 at the turn
 of the angle stood the king4 ,at       
,nimroud most remarkable enamelled      

fragments were also discovered          
depicting portions of soldiers1 weapons 
and chariots1 and even parts of         
inscriptions4 ,on a single brick1 found 
by ,layard1 a king is seen  offering a  
libation and attended by two warriors   
7fig4 #hi74 ,but in  general each figure
 was made up of a large number of       
bricks1 since the  restricted dimensions
 of a baked brick did not allow more    
than a part of  the subject to be placed
 upon it4 ,the design was executed and  
the  vitrifiable colours applied before 
the baking2 the artist had to  apportion
 to each brick the different parts of a 
figure in such a manner  that when they 
were put together there might be perfect
 agreement in the  lines which had to   
join2 the marks to indicate their       
position1 set on  the backs of the      
tiles1 made this operation1 which       
required great  technical skill1 much   
easier4 ,at ,babylon1 where enamelled   
brick played a  far greater part in the 
decoration of buildings than at         

,nineveh1 the  device was adopted1 in   
order to replace coloured sculpture in  
stone1 of  stamping bricks with figures 
or parts of figures in relief4 ,imagine 
a  slab of soft clay several square     
yards in size2 on the surface of this   
the whole picture was modelled in relief
 as it might have been carved on  stone4
 ,when this operation was finished1 the 
slab of clay was cut into  rectangular  
pieces of the size of ordinary bricks4  
,these pieces1  provided with a mark to 
indicate their position1 were then      
separately  coated with colour and      
varnish1 and afterwards baked4          
,subsequently they  were joined together
 with bitumen1 which formed a strong    
mortar1 and in  this work of            
reconstructing the design the workman   
was guided by the  position-marks4 ,this
 was the first origin of the mosaics in 
relief made  by the ,greeks and ,romans4
 ,the ,achmenid palaces of ,susa were   
decorated  by the same methods1 and     
,persian artists imitated the           

,babylonians in  their execution of the 
great brick bas-reliefs with which the  
expedition  conducted by ,m4 ,dieulafoy 
has enriched the ,louvre4               
,unfortunately only unimportant         
fragments of bricks modelled in relief  
have been1 down to the present time1    
brought to ,europe4 ,travellers pick  up
 hundreds of fragments of flat enamelled
 bricks like those at ,nineveh  on every
 mound which covers the ruins of        
,chalda4 ,those which have been         
deposited in our museums represent      
floral designs1 rosettes1 genii1        
animals1 and human figures4 ,only       
skilfully directed excavations could    
bring to light complete pictures and    
scenes analogous to those  displayed    
upon the walls of the ,ninevite and     
,susian palaces4 ,diodorus1  following  
,ctesias1 relates that at ,babylon1 on  
the walls of the palace  built by       
,nebuchadnezzar1 but which he attributes
 to ,semiramis1 there  were scenes of   
every sort painted on brick4 8,animals  

of every kind10 he  says1 8were here to 
be seen1 copied according to all the    
rules of art  with regard both to form  
and colour4 ,the whole represented the  
hunting  of various animals1 the        
dimensions of which exceeded four       
cubits4 ,in the  midst was ,semiramis on
 horseback1 hurling a javelin at a      
panther1 and  beside her1 her husband   
,ninus striking with his lance a lion   
which he is  attacking at close         
quarters40 ,berosus is no doubt speaking
 of enamelled  bricks in his description
 of the paintings in the ,temple of     
,bel1 in  which were seen 8marvellous   
monsters of every sort presenting the   
greatest variety of forms40 ,lastly1 the
 prophet ,ezekiel1 who lived at         
,babylon1 says1 speaking of ,jerusalem3 
8she saw men pourtrayed upon the  wall1 
the images of the ,chaldans pourtrayed  
with vermilion1 girded with  girdles    
upon their loins1 exceeding in dyed     
attire upon their heads1 all  of them   
princes to look to1 after the manner of 

the ,babylonians of  ,chalda40    ,the  
art of enamelling brick1 handed down by 
the ,babylonians to the  ,persians of   
the ,achmenid period1 long remained     
flourishing in the ,east4  ,the         
decoration of the mosques of ,broussa1  
,tabriz1 and ,ispahan1 which  excites   
the admiration of every traveller1 is   
based on the same  principles as that of
 the ,ninevite1 ,babylonian1 and ,susian
 palaces4  ,only1 instead of figures of 
living beings1 which the ,koran does not
  tolerate1 the enamelled tiles bear    
religious inscriptions in ornamental    
,cufic characters1 and elegant designs  
of flowers and trees4 ,every one  has   
had the opportunity of seeing specimens 
from the workshops which  were still    
flourishing in the last century in ,asia
 ,minor1 and the  productions of which  
adorn the palaces and the richest       
mosques  of the ,mussulman world4 ,this 
art is directly derived from the        
,chaldo-,assyrians1 and it is           
interesting to observe that their       

successors1 down to our own times1 have 
not made the smallest progress  in it4  
,,chapter ,,iv4    ,,industrial ,,arts4 
,i4 ,,ceramics4    ,the causes which    
impeded the development of pottery in   
primitive ,chalda  had the same unhappy 
influence on ,assyrian pottery and on   
,chaldan  pottery in the age of         
,nebuchadnezzar4 ,though a few          
terra-cottas are  fashioned with a      
certain elegance and present graceful   
features1 their  walls are always       
extremely thick1 on account of the      
friable nature of  the clay1 and the    
types created by the modeller are       
totally wanting in  variety4 ,botta     
found under the pavement of the         
courtyards at ,khorsabad  little        
cavities containing1 besides cylinders  
and other amulets1  terra-cotta         
statuettes of talismanic character1     
intended to conjure and  drive away the 
infernal powers4 8,these statuettes10   
says ,m4 ,heuzey1 8are  designed with a 
remarkably sure hand1 in grey clay1     

which is almost  crude1 and pitted with 
small holes1 as if it had been mixed    
with chopped  straw or hay1 according to
 the process followed in the manufacture
 of  bricks40#dc ,the example which we  
reproduce represents the hero ,izdubar1 
so often drawn upon the bas-reliefs and 
cylinders as he is here1 that  is to    
say1 with curled beard and long hair in 
ringlets4 ,his countenance  is          
expressive1 and shows signs of careful  
work4 ,the same praise must be  given to
 the head of a fantastic animal1 also   
found at ,khorsabad 7fig4  #ia72 this   
head1 in whitish clay1 is covered with a
 glaze of a fine  bluish green1         
resembling1 and perhaps imitated from1  
,egyptian pottery2 a  similar figure of 
a monster roaring at winged genii       
appears among the  bronze monuments2 in 
both cases the art is realistic1 and has
 rendered  ugliness and ferocity with   
all the force of ideal expression4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4--;,izdubar4   
,terra-cotta 7,louvre74                 

,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia--;,head of a   
monster4 ,terra-cotta 7,louvre74    ,the
 terra-cotta vases discovered during the
 excavations in ,assyria no  doubt      
denote a real progress when compared    
with ,chaldan ceramics2 but  they are   
still nothing but heavy amphor1 with or 
without handles1 with  a more or less   
elongated neck and a more or less       
broadened body1 and  they could never be
 compared to any but the most archaic   
productions of  ,greece4 ,they are      
sometimes decorated with brown or       
yellowish paintings1  or with designs in
 relief1 representing floral scrolls1   
geometrical  lines or diapers1 but never
 with anything that reflects the beauty 
of  the ,ninevite sculptures4 ,among    
them all there are no vases which formed
  part of the luxuries of a refined     
civilisation1 as the ,greek vases did2  
neither in ,assyria nor in ,chalda have 
any clay vessels been discovered  except
 vulgar jars and pots4 ,this is1        
perhaps1 the place to notice  fragments 

of two small circular vases of steatite 
or soapstone  discovered at ,nimroud and
 ,sherif ,khan1 near ,kouyunjik4 ,they  
are probably  of the age of the         
,sargonids1 and are dedicated to certain
 deities4 ,the  thin walls give these   
vessels almost the appearance of        
porcelain1 of  which ,layard supposed   
them to be1 and the figures carved upon 
them in  relief1 give them an artistic  
character which the ,assyrians could    
never  impart to their pottery4 ,one of 
the fragments is engraved by ,layard4#dd
    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4--,tablet  
with figure of boar in relief 7,british 
,museum74    ,at ,babylon1 whither the  
seat of government was transferred after
 the  fall of ,nineveh1 the modellers   
seem to have made a great artistic      
effort4 ,mr4 ,rassam obtained from the  
ruins of the southern capital a  small  
terra-cotta tablet1 #a in4 by #b in41 on
 which the figure of a  boar1 such as   
lived among the reeds and marshes of    
,mesopotamia1 is  modelled in relief4   

,the forms of the animal are here       
reproduced with all  the excellence of  
the later ,assyrian artists1 by ,azaru1 
of the tribe  ,esaggilai 7doubtless     
connected with the great ,chaldan       
,temple71 whose  name inscribed on the  
back adds to the interest of the little 
work4  ,solid figurines have            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4--,the ,divine 
,mother4 ,terra-cotta 7,louvre74        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4--;,istar4     
,terra-cotta 7,louvre74    been found in
 ,chalda1 like those in ,assyria1       
moulded on one side only  in greenish   
clay1 forming remarkable examples of    
,babylonian art4 ,the  chronological    
position of these figurines is1 however1
 difficult to  determine1 but they seem 
to us to be1 perhaps1 contemporary with 
,nebuchadnezzar4 ,they represent priests
 or gods1 standing upright in  their    
long robes1 with their hands clasped in 
the attitude of respect2  women dressed 
in fringed garments1 carrying a vase    
upon their breast2  nude goddesses1     

standing upright1 and suckling the      
divine child4 ,one of  these last 7fig4 
#ic7 is1 says ,m4 ,heuzey1 8,a purely   
,asiatic type1 the  rather full forms of
 which are modelled with charming truth 
and rare  delicacy2 ,i do not fear to   
describe it as a little wonder of its   
kind40#de ,another and commoner example 
is the goddess ,istar1 nude and  holding
 her hands against her breasts1 adorned 
with bracelets and  necklaces1 with her 
hair elaborately dressed3 this          
naturalism and  immodest freedom in the 
representation of ,istar form a contrast
 with the  ordinary habit of            
,chaldo-,assyrian art4 ,this series of  
figurines is  chronologically terminated
 by the statuettes of the ,achmenid or  
,parthian epoch1 modelled of the same   
clay1 but showing all the               
characteristics of decadence4 ,the forms
 are less carefully studied2  sometimes 
,istar1 the goddess of ,erech1 is       
represented in these figurines  of      
terra-cotta or alabaster1 half-reclining

 on a banqueting couch1 like  that      
described by ,herodotus in the temple of
 ,bel-,marduk at ,babylon2 her  head is 
often crowned with the crescent1 her    
proper symbol1 in the  centre of which a
 garnet or other sparkling stone is set4
 ,in short1  these coarse images of the 
voluptuous goddess condemn at once the  
art  and the manners of the people who  
produced them4       ,,ii4 ,,metals4    
,the art of working in metals1 which was
 already so highly developed  among the 
primitive ,chaldans1 reached its apogee 
under the ,sargonids4  ,we find         
statuettes1 bas-reliefs in repouss1     
vases and utensils of every  sort1      
weapons and ornaments1 so that there is 
no use of the precious  metals1 or of   
iron and bronze1 to which they were not 
put by the  industry of ,ninevite       
craftsmen4 ,among the ruins of ,sargon's
 palace1  objects of iron and bronze1   
such as hooks1 rings1 chains1 pickaxes1 
hammers1 plough-shares1 weapons1        
fragments of chariots1 and tools of all 

sorts1 were picked up4 ,from the        
strictly artistic point of view1 we     
have already described the wooden       
pillars plated with overlapping scales  
of bronze1 so as to imitate the bark of 
the palm tree4    ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#ie4--;,gates of ,balawat4 ,restoration4
    ,the most important of the ,assyrian
 monuments in bronze hitherto           
discovered is the famous decoration of  
the gates of the palace of  ,shalmaneser
 ,,iii4 7#heg-hbb71 at ,balawat4 ,it    
consists of metal bands1 #i  in4 broad1 
decorated in repouss with reliefs       
representing the campaigns  of          
,shalmaneser4 ,they were fixed          
horizontally1 at intervals1 on wooden   
gates1 which may have been quite #g or  
#h yards high2 the scenes are           
reproduced upon them with the same ease 
and the same details as on the          
limestone slabs3 battles1 landscapes1   
trees1 rivers and mountains are to  be  
seen2 the figures1 however1 are treated 
more roughly1 and the muscles  are      

marked with less precision and delicacy4
 ,each band 7fig4 #if7 is  divided into 
two compartments by a row of rosettes1  
imitating the heads  of nails4 8,taking 
them all in all10 says ,m4 ,perrot1     
8these bronze  reliefs are among the    
works which do most honour to ,assyrian 
art40#df    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#if4--;,fragment of metal band of       
,balawat gates  7,british ,museum74     
,the perfection of the work in certain  
,assyrian bronze vessels makes  these   
monuments real masterpieces4 ,pater     
found at ,nineveh1 sometimes  incrusted 
with gold and silver1 present on their  
inner surface1 in an  exquisite style1  
concentric zones of rosettes and        
symmetrical festoons  of figures        
engraved in outline or standing out in  
relief 7fig4 #ig74  ,symbols are        
encountered    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#ig4--;,bronze dish1 ,nimroud 7,british 
,museum74    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#ih4--;,assyrian archers4 7,bas-relief  
in ,british  ,museum47    ,illustration3

 ,fig4 #ii4--,various forms of the      
,assyrian helmet4    which have         
evidently been borrowed from ,egypt1    
such as the winged  scarabus and the    
figures of ,hathor and ,bes4 ,similar in
 form1 in the  metal of which they are  
composed1 in the gold and silver        
incrustations1  and even in the choice  
of subjects1 to the ,phnician vessels   
from  ,cyprus 7figs4 #bcc and #bcd71 the
 pater of ,nineveh are not1 for the most
  part1 of ,assyrian manufacture2 they  
were brought thither by ,phnician       
commerce1 and were probably fashioned in
 the workshops of ,tyre or ,sidon1      
where the artistic traditions of ,egypt 
and ,assyria were united4 ,the  glass   
found among the ,assyrian ruins was also
 probably of ,phnician  manufacture1 as 
it will be seen in the chapter on       
,phnician art4 ,much  more exclusively  
,assyrian are the bronze seals which the
 bas-reliefs  show us in the hands of   
priests or genii4 ,we find among them   
lions'  heads1 flowers and elegant      

rosettes on the bottom1 on the border1  
or at  the point at which the handles   
are attached4    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#ajj4--;,bronze lion 7,louvre74         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4--;,bronze    
siren4    ,the equipment of an ,assyrian
 soldier consists of a bow and arrows1 a
  lance or javelin1 a club1 a sword1 a  
dagger1 a helmet1 a coat of mail1  and a
 buckler2 the battering-rams which sap  
the walls had a metal  carapace and     
head4 ,might it not be imagined that    
these ,assyrian  soldiers1 wearing the  
conical helmet1 and entirely covered1   
with the  exception    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #ajb4--;,bronze siren4            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--,the demon  
of the ,south-west wind4 ,bronze        
7,louvre74    of their arms1 nose and   
eyes1 with a long coat of iron mail1    
were  medival knights8 ,the shape of the
 ,assyrian helmet varies according to   
the time1 and perhaps also according to 
military rank4 ,there is the  helmet    
formed of a conical basin1 without      

ornament1 the helmet provided  with     
cheek-pieces1 as among the ,greeks1 the 
helmet decorated with an  elegant crest 
bearing an aigrette of feathers or of   
horsehair4 ,but the  essential form is  
always that of a hemispherical basin1   
covering the  head1 but leaving the face
 bare4 ,a votive shield1 preserved at   
the  ,british ,museum1 has1 like those  
represented in the bas-reliefs1 the form
  of a large round disk1 convex in its  
central part2 this metal disk1 #cd  in4 
in diameter1 is decorated like the pater
 with a central rosette and  several    
concentric zones containing lions and   
bulls in relief4    ,the preceding      
examples prove the existence of a       
manufacture of metals  which had reached
 a high degree of perfection1 and was in
 possession of  all the technical       
methods4 ,accordingly1 we believe that  
the scanty  number of statues or        
statuettes in bronze of human beings or 
of ,assyrian  deities must be attributed
 to an unfortunate chance4 ,they must   

have been  produced in large numbers1 as
 in ancient ,chalda1 and a good proof of
  this is the large cow's head          
disinterred near ,bagdad and preserved  
at  the ,british ,museum#dg2 another    
example is the statuette of a lion found
  at ,khorsabad 7fig4 #ajj72 this has1  
doubtless1 serious defects1 such as a   
singular disproportion between the head 
and the body1 between the fore  legs and
 the hind legs2 but what truth of       
expression in the muzzle with  its      
gaping mouth1 and in those powerful     
claws6    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#ajd4--;,bronze plaque4 ,de ,clercq     
collection4    ,a statuette in ,m4 de   
,vog's collection1 found at ,van1       
represents a sort  of siren which seems 
to have acted as an ornament attached to
 a vessel  or a piece of furniture      
7figs4 #aja and #ajb74 ,the oriental    
appearance of  the head1 the hair in    
ringlets1 the large eyes1 the bracelets 
upon the  outstretched arms behind the  
wings1 and the artistically marked      

feathers1 make of this little monument  
one of the most precious relics  of the 
art of working in bronze among the      
,assyrians4 ,a similar figure is        
preserved in the ,british ,museum1 and  
in this instance the loose ring by      
which the vessel was held is still in   
place4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#aje4--;,bronze plaque4 ,de ,clercq     
collection 7other  side74    ,the       
,louvre possesses the figure of a       
monster with four wings which           
represents the demon of the south-west  
wind1 as the cuneiform  inscription upon
 it teaches us 7fig4 #ajc74 ,nothing can
 be imagined more  hideous and more     
expressive than the head with its       
glaring eyes1 roaring  throat1 horned   
brows1 crooked fingers and fleshless    
body with lion's  claws4 ,it leads us   
naturally to cite a bronze plaque from  
the collection  of ,m4 de ,clercq1 in   
which ,m4 ,clermont-,ganneau has        
recognised a  representation of the     
,assyrian hell4 ,one    ,illustration3  

,fig4 #ajf4--,standard in a bas-relief  
from ,khorsabad  7,louvre74             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4--;,foot of a 
piece of furniture4 ,de ,vog            
collection4    side 7fig4 #ajd7 is      
occupied by a monster with four wings   
and eagle's  claws1 looking over the top
 of the plaque2 on the other side 7fig4 
#aje7  the monster's head is seen1 and  
under it scenes arranged in four rows3  
first the symbolical figures of the     
stars1 then a procession of seven       
creatures dressed in long robes and     
having the heads of various animals3    
these are the heavenly genii called     
,igigis4 ,below this we witness a       
funeral scene3 two creatures with human 
bodies combined with the head  and body 
of a fish1 like the god ,oannes1 stand  
by a bed on which a  corpse is laid out1
 swathed in its mummy-clothes2 near them
 stand two  monsters like the demons    
which appear in a battle scene belonging
 to  the campaigns of ,assur-nasir-pal1 
and1 of larger size1 on the walls of    

,assurbanipal's palace2 they face one   
another in the same attitude here  as   
there1 and seem to be disputing or      
quarrelling4 ,the lowest row shows  a   
stream of water in which are fish4 ,in a
 boat is a kneeling horse2 on  his back 
is a monster holding serpents in his    
hands2 lion-cubs are  springing forwards
 towards him2 another monster stands on 
the brink of  the water2 in the         
background are trees and fragments of   
different kinds1  looking like the      
remains of a banquet4 ,there is some    
artistic merit in  several portions of  
this curious scene4 ,the monster on the 
other side is  boldly designed1 and his 
form is vigorous and supple4    ,in the 
chiselling of a royal standard 7fig4    
#ajf71 the artist really  attained to   
the highest technical skill3 the bulls' 
heads and the lions'  heads arranged    
along the pole are masterpieces of      
taste1 and might be  proposed as models 
at the present day4 ,in the palaces     
fragments of  thrones have been found   

formed of bronze plating4 ,one of the   
most  remarkable pieces1 found at ,van1 
belongs to ,m4 de ,vog 7fig4 #ajg72 the 
deep sculpture in the claws of the      
crouching lion reminds the spectator  of
 a bronze statuette from ,tello 7fig4   
#bf74       ,,iii4 ,,wood ,,and ,,ivory4
    ,no people of antiquity carried as  
far as the ,chaldo-,assyrians their     
taste for elegant furniture1 which is as
 delicately sculptured among  them as   
the most precious bronze utensils4 ,we  
shall never know1  doubtless1 except    
through the testimony of literature1    
what that carved  wood-work was1 and    
what those ceilings of cedar were1 to   
which the  prophets of ,israel allude   
with such jealous enthusiasm1 and which 
the  kings boast of having had executed1
 speaking to us in their inscriptions   
of palaces in which 8the gates are of   
ebony1 with fittings of silver  plating 
and polished iron1 the pillars of       
cypress-wood1 the posts of  cedar carved
 by skilful craftsmen1 and coated with  

plates of wrought  metal40 ,but the     
bas-reliefs place before our eyes wooden
 furniture in  which the superiority of 
the ,assyrian genius is conspicuous1 and
 which  reveal to us a people gorged    
with wealth1 among whom luxury in       
furniture  holds an important place4    
,the animal and vegetable kingdoms are  
turned  to profit by the craftsmen with 
astonishing skill in the decoration of  
the tables1 stools1 beds1 tripods1      
umbrellas and fly-flaps4 ,at every      
opportunity lions' heads and claws1     
goats1 panthers and bulls occur1        
fancifully arranged1 but always in      
perfect harmony and excellent taste2    
flowers1 festoons1 undulating and       
interlacing lines1 rosettes and         
geometrical figures are all found in    
endless variety and in perfect          
equilibrium2 nowhere has such work been 
better done1 neither in ,egypt  nor in  
,greece4    ,the bas-relief 7fig4 #gg71 
which represents ,assurbanipal drinking 
with  one of his wives1 shows us some of

 the furniture of a royal palace4 ,the  
prince reclines upon a divan1 the queen 
sitting upon a chair1 with a  stool     
under her feet2 before them is a table4 
,are not the sculptured  couch1 the     
table with its feet carved in the form  
of lions' claws1 and  the chair1        
lavishly decorated with sculpture and   
ivory ornaments1 as  rich and as skilful
 in workmanship as any such objects to  
be found in  ,european drawing-rooms8   
,another bas-relief 7fig4 #ajh7 shows a 
tent  erected in the open plain during a
 military expedition2 it is simply the  
stables1 as it seems4 ,notice the       
elegance of the wooden pillars1 the     
shafts of which are decorated with      
geometrical designs1 and terminate in   
floral ornaments on which slender kids1 
ready to spring1 are poised4  ,wood     
formed the framework of these chairs1   
coffers1 and shrines1 but  disappeared  
more or less completely under the bronze
 or gold plating1  the incrustations of 
ivory1 coloured glass1 lapis lazuli1 and

 brilliant  stones1 or1 lastly1 the     
embroidered rugs and the carpets4 ,in   
the camp  before ,lachish1 ,sennacherib 
sits upon a throne1 the sides of which  
are  composed of three rows of figures1 
raising their arms to sustain the  bars 
of the chair4    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#ajh4--,tent serving as the royal stable
 7,bas-relief  in ,british ,museum74    
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#aji4--,sennacherib's throne4           
,bas-relief 7,british  ,museum47        
,wood was the essential part of the     
structure of the chariots1 the wheels   
of which have spokes turned in the      
lathe1 and the body of which is of      
woven wicker-work1 while the pole1      
describing a graceful curve1 ends in  an
 elegant horse's head or in the head of 
a deer1 a bull1 a lion or a  swan4 ,the 
very weapons1 lances1 daggers and bows  
have shafts1 hilts1 and  handles carved 
into figures of animals1 crouching1     
sleeping1 springing  or folded in two1  
similar to the figures drawn and carved 

by the  medival decorators4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--;,assyrian  
chariot 7from a bas-relief74    ,these  
objects1 however1 are not always of     
wood2 oftenest1 perhaps1 they  are of   
bone or ivory1 as it is proved by the   
ivory tablets and the  toilette         
articles1 such as combs and pins1 which 
the excavations have  brought to        
light4#dh    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#aaa4--;,ivory plaque 7,british         
,museum74    ,but side by side with     
these knick-knacks in the ,ninevite     
style1 there  are others which1 though  
found in ,mesopotamia1 seem to be of    
foreign  origin4 ,witness to this is    
borne by an ivory plaque found at       
,nimroud1  which was certainly part of  
the incrustation of a piece of furniture
  7fig4 #aaa74 ,the relief is clear1 the
 work highly finished2 the figure1      
which holds in its hand a large         
lotus-stalk1 has woolly hair like an    
,ethiopian1 and bears the ,egyptian     
,urus on its brow4 ,another tablet  from

 ,nimroud represents the head of a      
woman1 whose hair is arranged in        
,egyptian fashion4 ,she is enclosed in a
 frame which resembles a window  with a 
balustrade1 the capitals of which1      
original in style1 seem to  have been   
coloured4 ,an ivory statuette of the    
goddess ,istar1 found at  ,nimroud1 has 
the same heavy coiffure in successive   
rolls1 and resting  upon the shoulders2 
here we have again the ,egyptian style  
with an  exaggerated naturalism proper  
only to the ,phnicians4 ,we may conclude
  that these ivories were fashioned1    
like the bronze dishes1 in the          
workshops of ,phnicia4 ,thence caravans 
transported all these small  objects as 
far as ,nineveh2 we know that the       
merchants of ,tyre and ,sidon  had      
numerous stores in the very heart of    
,mesopotamia4 ,phnician  commerce was   
the great vehicle by which ,egyptian and
 ,assyrian art was  carried abroad4     
,,iv4 ,,leather ,,and ,,stuffs4    ,the 
art of embroidery and tapestry1 which we

 have seen so highly  developed in      
primitive ,chalda1 and a most remarkable
 example of which  was furnished us in  
the costume of ,marduk-nadin-akhi1 did  
not cease to  flourish during the whole 
existence of the ,ninevite empire1 and  
was more  prosperous than ever at       
,babylon in the time of ,nebuchadnezzar4
 ,can robes  of greater richness be     
imagined than these worn by             
,assur-nasir-pal1  ,sargon1             
,sennacherib1 or ,assurbanipal8 ,are    
there1 even at the present  day1 any    
embroideries or tapestries of more      
wonderful delicacy or in  more exquisite
 taste8 ,assyrian stuffs are celebrated 
throughout the  ancient                 
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#aab4--;,assur-nasir-pal#di offering a  
libation  7,bas-relief in the ,british  
,museum74    world for the beauty of    
their varied tints1 and above all for   
the  marvellous embroideries which the  
chisel of the ,assyrian sculptor has so 
delicately reproduced8 ,all this        

decoration1 in which we find figures in 
adoration before the sacred tree or the 
symbol of the supreme deity1  genii     
struggling with lions1 fights between   
animals1 the mystical  pinecone1        
flowers1 and a hundred other varied     
designs elegantly and  symmetrically    
arranged1 reveals extraordinary manual  
skill4 ,history1  mythology1 botany1 and
 real or fanciful zoology are turned to 
profit  with inimitable perfection1 and 
we are forced to take everything        
literally that has been related by      
ancient authors about the tapestries    
which adorned the palace-chambers4 ,in  
the banqueting-hall of ,ahasuerus1  king
 of ,persia1 there were1 according to   
the    ,illustration3 ,fig4             
#aac4--,richly caparisoned horse and    
rider 7,bas-relief  in the ,louvre74    
,book of ,esther1 white1 green1 and blue
 hangings1 fastened with cords of  fine 
linen and purple to silver rings and    
pillars of marble4 ,in the  description 
of a picture portraying the adventures  

of ,themistocles1  ,philostratus the    
,elder also speaks of the various       
subjects embroidered  by the            
,babylonians upon their stuffs1 and of  
the golden threads  skilfully mingled   
with the tissue2 we have seen that the  
,babylonian  stuff called kaunakes1 and 
characterised by rows of long fringes1  
was  still celebrated among the         
,persians and the ,greeks4 ,pliny1 the  
natural  historian1 claims for the      
tapestry-weavers of ,babylon the honour 
of  having been superior to all their   
rivals in other countries in the art  of
 harmonising colours and representing   
figures4 8,in fact10 says ,m4 ,e4       
,mntz1 8the words1 ,babylonian          
tapestries1--,babylonica peristromata1  
recur constantly in the ,latin poets1   
who are never satisfied with  praising  
them4 ,roman connoisseurs bought such   
hangings for their weight  in gold4     
,metellus ,scipio spent #hjj1jjj        
sesterces in triclinaria  ,babylonica4  
,nero paid1 for the same stuffs1 an even

 higher price3  #d1jjj1jjj              
sesterces40#ej    ,thus the ,east1 which
 remains to our days the classical land 
of  embroidery and tapestry1 has only   
perpetuated the traditions bequeathed   
to her by ,nineveh and ,babylon when    
they ceased to exist4    ,the industries
 of saddle-making and working in        
leather1 which are still  so flourishing
 among the ,turks1 ,persians1 and       
,arabs1 can be traced back1  according  
to tradition1 to the ,assyrians who     
raised them to the dignity  of an art4  
,notice the harness of the king's       
chariot horses4 ,the leather  straps1   
embroidered with red and yellow threads1
 form variegated  trimmings4 ,sometimes 
a leather band1 crossing the chest and  
fastened on  the withers1 is decorated  
with a double row of tassels1 and       
finished off  by bells4 ,another        
embroidered band descends from the top  
of the head1  and sustains under the jaw
 a tassel formed of three tufts1 one    
above the  other1 also adorned with     

bells4 ,above the head rises a superb   
plume with  a triple crest4 ,the        
head-piece is adorned with rosettes1 and
 above the  horse's eyes there is a band
 formed of overlapping scales1 joined to
 the  head-stall by a double tassel4    
,everything1 including even the strap   
which holds the bit1 and that passed    
under the nostrils1 is relieved by      
rosettes and brilliant trimmings1 and   
probably also by metal disks1  perhaps  
of gold and silver4       ,v4           
,,ornaments ,,and ,,cylindrical ,,seals4
    ,the excavations in ,chalda and     
,assyria have1 down to this day1        
scarcely  furnished us with any         
ornaments of gold or silver4 ,however1  
we know from  the inscriptions that     
these metals occupied the first rank1   
and were  abundantly employed in the    
ornaments of the ,ninevites and         
,babylonians4  ,the tombs of primitive  
,chalda contained bronze bracelets and  
ear-rings  of the simplest form4 ,these 
are circular rings1 sometimes thinner at

 the  two ends1 which are both pointed4 
,at ,khorsabad ,botta found necklaces   
formed of precious stones pierced with  
holes1 which were spheroidal in  form or
 elongated like olives2 these balls of  
marble1 jasper1  chalcedony1 amethyst1  
lapis lazuli1 were sometimes mixed with 
cylinders  or other seals of conical    
shape4 ,at ,kouyunjik a necklace was    
discovered1  formed of little golden    
balls alternating with little cylinders 
of the  same metal4 ,a bronze bracelet  
at the ,louvre has lions' heads at the  
two  extremities4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #aad4--;,assyrian deities carried 
in procession4  ,bas-relief 7after      
,layard74    ,but we learn more from the
 bas-reliefs about the taste for        
ornament  among the ,assyrians1 and     
about the goldsmiths' work at ,nineveh  
and  ,babylon4 ,kings and genii wear    
necklaces1 ear-rings1 diadems1 and      
bracelets4 ,their forms are always      
elegant and present great variety4 ,the 
diadems are circles1 perhaps of gold1   

broader in the middle1 and  generally   
decorated with a rosette1 in the centre 
of which a glittering  gem was doubtless
 conspicuous4 ,deities carried in       
procession wear high  tiaras also       
surmounted by a rosette1 the essential  
element of which is a  precious stone4  
,bracelets are worn above the elbow and 
on the fore-arm2  these are circular    
disks1 sometimes closed and decorated   
with rosettes1  at other times ending in
 two lions'1 deers'1 rams'1 or serpents'
 heads2  some are twisted two or three  
times round the arm4 ,among the         
ornaments  which hang from the necklace1
 the cross1 of that form which we call  
the  ,maltese cross1 must be cited2 the 
same symbol1 which reminds us of the    
,egyptian crux ansata1 is also found in 
the ear-rings 7fig4 #fc74    ,as for    
seal-engraving1 its abundant examples do
 not surpass in artistic  merit the     
,chaldan work which we have already     
described4 ,assyrian  cylinders1 that is
 to say1 those which were especially    

manufactured at  ,nineveh1 are          
distinguished from those of ,babylon and
 ,chalda by a drier  and more commercial
 style of work4#ea ,inscriptions are    
rarer1 and  engraved in ,ninevite       
characters3 the myths represented by the
 engravers  are the same as at ,babylon1
 but the figures have a more modern     
appearance3 for instance1 the winged    
bulls with human heads1 and the  genii  
with eagle's beaks and four wings1 are  
copied from the bas-reliefs  in the     
palaces of ,khorsabad1 ,nimroud and     
,kouyunjik4 ,the ,assyrian  cylinders of
 the archaic epoch present the technical
 characteristics  that we have already  
indicated in ,chalda3 the joints of the 
limbs are  rendered by means of a drill 
producing small hemispherical holes1 and
  the rest of the body is executed with 
another instrument which hollowed  out  
parallel lines4 ,these peculiarities are
 clearly distinguished on a  fine       
cylinder which we give after ,m4 ,menant
 7fig4 #aae73 it represents  three      

figures who seem to sacrifice upon a    
tripod to the sun1 the moon1  and the   
seven planets4    ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#aae4--;,archaic ,assyrian cylinder     
7after ,menant74    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #aaf4--;,assyrian cylinder4 ,de ,clercq
 collection 7after  ,menant74    ,the   
cylinders of the ,sargonid epoch prove a
 progress parallel to that of  ,chaldan 
glyptics2 the traces left by the action 
of the saw and the  drill have          
disappeared to make room for the        
modelling of the figures1  which        
sometimes reach a degree of suppleness  
true to nature4 ,we will  cite as       
examples a cylinder of the ,de ,clercq  
collection1 representing  two genii in  
adoration before the sacred tree 7fig4  
#aaf71 and a cylinder  in the ,british  
,museum 7fig4 #aag7 on which the god    
,rammanu is seen1 armed  with a bow and 
arrows1 standing upon a crouching lion  
and receiving the  homage of a pontiff4 
,the two cylinders are very fine3 on the
 first1  extreme exactness is to be     

noticed in the details of the costume1  
and  great delicacy in the features of  
the two genii4 ,on the second1 on the   
contrary1 the forms have a freer and    
easier pose1 and the scene has more     
life2 the palm is remarkable for truth2 
the ibexes1 above all1 are  absolutely  
pure in design2 the modelling of their  
thighs and flanks  reminds us of the    
lions on the ,chaldan cylinder which we 
admired before  7see fig4 #ce72 it also 
reminds us of the famous lioness among  
the  sculptures of ,assurbanipal's      
palace 7fig4 #ha71 which is probably    
contemporary with it4 ,assyrian glyptics
 has produced nothing more highly       
finished2 like sculpture on a larger    
scale1 it excels in the rendering  of   
animal forms4    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#aag4--;,assyrian cylinder4 ,de ,clercq 
collection 7after  ,menant74            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4--;,assyrian  
cylinder4 ,de ,clercq collection 7after 
,menant74          ,,chapter ,v4        
,,persian ,,art4      ,illustration3    

,fig4 #aai4--,median cylinder 7after    
,menant74    ,the most ancient#eb       
monuments of ,persia date from no       
earlier period  than the reign of ,cyrus
 7,b4,c4 #edi-ebi74 ,if any ,persian art
 existed in  the previous epoch1 when   
the country was no more than a satrapy  
of the  ,median empire1 its traces have 
not yet been found4 ,median art is      
scarcely known at all1 except by a      
cylindrical seal at the ,british        
,museum1 bearing a ,medic inscription1  
upon which a rider is seen fighting     
with a lion3 the rider's high tiara is  
characteristic1 but the lion is  copied 
from a ,ninevite cylinder 7fig4 #aai74  
,no doubt this monument would  not be   
enough by itself to prove that ,median  
art was tributary to  ,assyrian art2 but
 the description given us by ,herodotus 
of the fortress  of ,ecbatana confirms  
the hypothesis4 ,on the other hand1 it  
is natural to  suppose that the         
,persians1 who were the vassals and     
consequently the  political and         

religious heirs of the ,medes1 should   
have borrowed from  the latter certain  
artistic traditions1 if ,median art had 
any  originality of its own4 ,now1 while
 a threefold foreign influence--that  of
 the ,chaldo-,assyrians1 the ,egyptians1
 and the ,ionic ,greeks1 is  conspicuous
 in ,persian works of art1 there is     
nothing that can be  referred to ,media4
    ,the monuments of the ,achmenid     
dynasty are gathered together upon three
  principal sites1 the ruins of which   
have been explored in a fairly  complete
 manner3 ,susa1 where the ,achmenids1   
including ,darius and his  successors1  
erected their palaces at the spot on    
which the old capital  of ,elam1        
destroyed by ,assurbanipal1 formerly    
stood2 ,persepolis1 the  imposing       
remains of which form two groups1 called
 at the present day  ,takht-i-,jemshid  
and ,nakhsh-i-,rustam2 lastly1 the pile 
of ruins at  ,meshed-,murgab and        
,madar-i-,soleiman1 two ,persian        
villages in the valley  of the ,polvar1 

on the road from ,ispahan to ,shiraz1   
where1 without doubt1  the ancient city 
of ,pasargad must have been4       ,i4  
,,civil ,,architecture4    ,when ,cyrus 
had his new capital1 ,pasargad1 built in
 the valley of the  ,polvar1 he had     
completed the destruction of the kingdom
 of ,crsus1  finished the conquest of   
,asia ,minor1 and made himself master of
 ,babylon4  ,the precise date of the    
monuments of ,meshed-,murgab is fixed by
 the  cuneiform inscriptions1 which1    
while they are all composed in honour of
  ,cyrus1 are written in three versions1
 ,persian1 ,medic1 and ,assyrian1 and   
consequently we cannot place them       
earlier than the conquest of ,chalda  in
 ,b4,c4 #ech4 ,in his victorious        
expeditions through regions remote from 
the table-land of ,fars1 his native     
country1 such as ,mesopotamia1 ,lydia1  
and the coasts of ,asia ,minor1 ,cyrus  
had the opportunity of observing        
monuments which must have astonished him
 by their architecture1 and  palaces    

which seemed to him far finer than those
 inhabited hitherto by  his ancestors1  
princes of proverbial austerity and     
simplicity4 ,he  conceived the idea of  
constructing for himself a royal        
residence as  sumptuous as those of     
,crsus and ,nabonidus1 and of importing 
into the  heart of ,persia the          
architecture of ,babylon and the        
,hellenic  architecture of ,asia ,minor4
 ,his military successes assisted him   
wonderfully in this undertaking4 ,the   
prisoners of war whom he captured  at   
,babylon and in the ,greek cities of    
,ionia became the workmen who built  his
 palaces2 and he allured the architects1
 whom he could not carry away  by force1
 by loading them with wealth and        
honours4 ,the successors of  ,cyrus     
continued1 like him1 to appeal to the   
artists of ,greece1 whose  voluntary    
exile from their native country has     
often been remarked by  historians4     
,pliny1 for instance1 cites a worker in 
bronze1 ,telephanes of  ,phoca1 who     

passed among his contemporaries as a    
worthy rival of  ,polycletus1 ,myron1   
and ,pythagoras1 and whom the kings of  
,persia1 ,darius  and ,xerxes1 attracted
 to their court1 where he exercised his 
craft  during the greater part of his   
career4#ec    ,the structures begun by  
,cyrus at ,pasargad1 which were never   
finished on  account of his death1 which
 abruptly ended the work1 receive their 
inspiration both from ,greek and        
,assyrian art2 there is nothing to be   
referred to the architectural types of  
,egypt1 not yet invaded by the  ,persian
 conquerors4 ,the palaces stand upon    
platforms like those of  ,nineveh and   
,babylon2 but these substructures follow
 the ,greek method of  building4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4--,platform of
 the palace of ,cyrus 7after            
,dieulafoy74    ,the monument called by 
the modern ,persians                    
,takht-i-,madar-i-,soleiman  78throne of
 the mother of ,solomon07 is nothing    
more than the platform of  ,cyrus'      

palace 7fig4 #abj74 ,it is a structure  
built of large stones1 in  which mortar 
is replaced by iron clamps4 ,the facings
 are seldom trimmed1  but only rough    
hewn1 and surrounded by a double        
moulding like rusticated  stonework with
 marginal draftings4 ,the courses are   
alternate rows of  headers and          
stretchers4 ,the nucleus of the         
structure is a mass of blocks  arranged 
in horizontal layers1 always level with 
the facing courses4 ,m4  ,dieulafoy#ed  
observes that the ,lydians practised    
this method of  building from the eighth
 century before our era4 ,the ,assyrians
 did not  proceed in the same manner4   
,at ,khorsabad1 for instance1 no clamps 
bind  the stones of the facing to one   
another2 the wall is straight and       
absolutely vertical1 while in the       
,takht-i-,madar-i-,soleiman the upper   
courses recede from one another like    
steps1 in order to give greater         
thickness to the base4 ,over the greater
 part of the facing1 position  marks    

have been detected1 carved upon them by 
the stone-cutters1 in  order to know the
 place of each hewn stone4 ,these marks 
are conventional  signs1 which do not   
belong1 it is true1 to any alphabet1 but
 which--a  matter worthy of remark--are 
the same as those discovered in ,greek  
buildings4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#aba4--;,basement at ,persepolis 7after 
,flandin and  ,coste1 ,perse ancienne74 
,the palaces of ,persepolis were erected
 by ,darius and ,xerxes only fifty      
years after those at ,pasargad2 but in  
this short interval ,egypt had  been    
conquered by ,cambyses2 and after that  
event the monuments of the  ,pharaohs   
were destined1 for the same reason as   
those of ,assyria and ,asia  ,minor1 to 
exercise a direct influence upon        
,persian art4 ,the latter1  however1    
could never fuse these heterogeneous    
elements together and  assimilate them  
to its own character1 but could only    
group them in a  hybrid style4 ,the     
buildings of ,persepolis are still      

standing to a  considerable extent1 and 
its ruins1 rising in the midst of a vast
  amphitheatre of grey marble rocks1 are
 an object of enthusiastic  admiration  
to all travellers4 ,the palaces rest    
upon a platform built on  the model of  
that of ,takht-i-,madar-i-,soleiman4    
,the outer coating of this  basement is 
formed of carefully trimmed ashlar1 and 
the blocks1 fitted  together without    
mortar1 are fixed by iron clamps4       
,better preserved    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #abb4--;,gate and windows of the  
palace of ,darius  7after ,dieulafoy74  
than the ruins of ,pasargad1 those of   
,persepolis enable us to  reconstruct   
more perfectly the principal forms of   
,achmenid  architecture4 ,the platform  
of the ,persepolitan palaces was        
ascended by a  flight of a hundred and  
eleven steps1 broad enough to be mounted
 by ten  men abreast2 a gently inclined 
roadway1 formed on one side of the      
platform1 enabled carriages to reach the
 summit3 here we have precisely1  except

 in point of material and manner of     
construction1 the platform of  the      
,assyrian palaces4 ,the summit of the   
terrace was crowned1 as at  ,khorsabad1 
with a row of battlements4 ,the         
peculiarity of the artificial  mound    
called ,takht-i-,jemshid by the         
,persians is that it is only an  immense
 basement supporting three other        
terraces of smaller area upon  it4      
,these terraces are of unequal height1  
and communicate with one  another2 they 
are reached by stone staircases4 ,the   
grand staircase1  leading to the second 
platform1 is adorned with a colonnade   
and flanked  by gigantic human-headed   
bulls1 similar to those at ,nineveh4    
,upon the  highest of these three       
platforms were built four palaces1 upon 
the walls  of which the names of        
,darius1 ,xerxes and ,artaxerxes ,ochus 
have been  found4    ,in the buildings  
at ,persepolis and ,susa1 the doorways  
and window-frames  take the form of a   
rectangular parallelogram1 and in their 

architectural  decoration1 besides the  
traditional influence of ,chalda and    
,assyria1  the new exotic element1 that 
we have indicated above1 may be         
recognised2  it is the intrusion of     
,pharaonic art4 ,the doors1 framed in   
three  ,grco-,ionian architraves1       
projecting one beyond the other1 are    
surmounted1 as well as the windows1 by  
an ,egyptian ornament above a line  of  
alternate ovals and disks4 ,in the      
thickness of the doorway sculptures  in 
relief1 copied from those of the        
,chaldo-,assyrian palaces1 show us  the 
king in close combat with a lion or     
fantastic animal1 or else the  king     
sitting on his throne rendering justice 
at his palace gate1 or  again the prince
 solemnly advancing1 surrounded by his  
officers and  dressed in his ceremonial 
robes4    ,m4 ,dieulafoy#ee recognised  
that the greater number of the windows  
were  condemned to lessen the air and   
light in the interior of the rooms2     
these windows filled up by a thinner    

wall1 formed1 on the exterior1  niches  
which broke the uniformity of the faade4
 ,doors1 windows1  staircases and the   
pilasters arranged at the corners1 are  
of white  limestone or of grey porphyry 
with blue veins2 but the walls in which 
these architectural features occur are  
of baked brick coated with  enamelled   
tiles4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#abc4--,persepolitan capital 7after     
,dieulafoy74    ,the architecture of the
 ,achmenid palaces includes the pier and
 the  column as the supports of the     
structure4 ,among the ruins of ,pasargad
 at  present only three piers and one   
column1 the height of which still       
exceeds #cf feet1 are standing4 ,but at 
,persepolis and at ,susa1 the           
,persepolitan capital1 with all its     
elegance and    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#abd4--,plan of the ,apadna of          
,artaxerxes 7after  ,dieulafoy74        
originality1 has been studied in all its
 varieties4 ,it is found in every  part1
 but notably in the great state saloon  

or apadna of the palaces4  ,it is       
thirteen times as high as its diameter  
at the base3 its slender  form reveals  
the imitation in stone of an original   
structure supported  by light trunks of 
trees4 ,the apadna of the palace of     
,xerxes at  ,persepolis1 situated on the
 middle platform1 covered an area of    
nearly  an acre and a quarter1 and its  
roof was sustained by a hundred columns4
  ,before the anterior faade rose a     
portico guarded by two gigantic bulls   
with human heads1 partly built into the 
structure like those in the  ,assyrian  
edifices4 ,the apadna of the palace of  
,artaxerxes at ,susa 7fig4  #abd7 was of
 no less gigantic proportions1 and had a
 double portico on  three of its sides2 
it covers an area of an acre and a half4
 ,the columns  are not less than #ah    
feet #d inches in diameter2 slightly    
conical in  shape1 they are composed of 
long cylindrical drums1 placed end to   
end1  the base and capital being        
separated from the shaft4 ,two varieties

 may  be distinguished4#ef ,the simplest
 type is to be seen in the interior     
halls of the palace of ,xerxes at       
,persepolis4 ,the base is formed of two 
tori placed one above the other on a    
square pedestal2 the shaft is  decorated
 all round with forty-eight flutings2   
the capital includes a  series of       
ornaments borrowed from the architecture
 of ,egypt2 it is    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #abe4--,susian capital restored   
7,louvre74    developed in a succession 
of bells and inverted volutes1 above    
which two  bulls' heads are arranged1   
even with the intercolumniations2 this  
is the  bicephalic capital1             
characteristic of the ,achmenid         
architecture1 which  has never been     
employed except in ,persia4 ,other      
columns differ1 but only  in the base1  
from that which we have just described2 
the double torus  supporting the shaft  
is sometimes placed1 not on a square    
pedestal1 but  on a cylindrical drum1   
decorated with twenty-four vertical     

lines and  growing gradually broader in 
the lower part1 so as to present the    
form  of a much elongated ogee or of a  
bell4 ,at ,susa1 instead of lines1 the  
ornament of the base is sometimes formed
 of elegant inverted foliage  7fig4     
#abf74 ,the comparative study of the    
,achmenid column1 together with  the    
monuments of ,egypt and ,greece1 has led
 ,m4 ,dieulafoy to conclude that  the   
outlines of the ,persepolitan column are
 ,egyptian1 but that its  structure is  
composed of ,grco-,ionian elements4     
,these volutes1 strings  of ovals1 and  
tori at the base1 had already become    
classical in the  ,hellenic world long  
before ,cyrus1 since they are found     
everywhere1 at  ,mycen1 ,segesta and    
,selinus1 in ,attica and in ,ionia3 here
 again we are  forced to recognise that 
the architect1 even when he copies      
motives  derived from ,egypt or         
,assyria1 is imbued with the principles 
of ,hellenic  art4    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #abf4--;,base of a column 7after  

,dieulafoy74    ,besides columns1 the   
,persepolitan and ,susian palaces had   
pilasters  placed at the extremities of 
the porticoes1 as continuations of the  
faades4 ,in the faades of the palace of 
,darius at ,persepolis two square       
pilasters of porphyry are seen1 so      
perfectly preserved that in the upper   
part they still have holes1 cut to      
receive the ends of the entablature4    
,they would suffice to prove1 if any    
proof were wanting1 that in these       
structures1 the columns1 which are      
placed at long intervals and are  tall  
and slender1 did not support stone but  
wooden architraves4 ,these  were        
enormous beams which formed a line even 
with the tops of the  columns1 and1     
running from capital to capital1 and    
placed in grooves  contrived with this  
object1 contributed to give homogeneity 
and solidity  to the structure4 ,upon   
these great beams the rafters of the    
roof were  arranged1 and then a flat    
ceiling supporting neither a terrace nor

 a  second story4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #abg4--;,faade of the ,apadna of  
,artaxerxes  7restoration by ,m4        
,dieulafoy74    ,it is important not to 
lose sight of the fact that the palaces1
 the  elements of which we have just    
described1 constitute an official kind  
of  architecture implanted in ,persia by
 the 8kings of kings0 who were  pleased 
with the monuments that they had        
observed in ,egypt1 ,assyria1 and  ,asia
 ,minor4 ,springing from the caprice of 
sovereigns1 this foreign  architecture  
never took root in the country1 and was 
not required by the  nature of the      
ground and the necessities of existence 
on the mountainous  table-land of       
,persia2 it disappeared with the        
,achmenid dynasty4 ,but by  the side of 
this conventional architecture there was
 that created by the  natives of the    
country1 because it had been imposed    
upon them as a  condition of life4 ,as  
well as the people of ,chalda and       
,assyria1 the  ,persians must have known

 how to build vaulted houses1 alone     
capable of  protecting them from the    
rays of a too ardent sun2 they also     
built1 at  least in the cantons of      
,susiana1 houses with terraces1         
supported by palm  beams and            
trellis-work arranged over the rooms    
which were narrow like  passages4       
,strabo tells us this while speaking of 
,susiana3 8,to protect  the rooms from  
the excessive heat1 the roofs are       
covered with two  cubits' depth of      
earth2 the weight of this earth obliges 
the people to  build all the houses long
 and narrow1 because1 although the beams
 must  not be very long1 nevertheless   
the rooms must be spacious2 otherwise   
the  people would be stifled40 ,even at 
the present day1 since the climatic     
conditions of the country have not      
changed1 the method of building  houses 
is the same as that practised by the    
ancient inhabitants of ,iran4           
,travellers find houses1 according to   
the wealth of the owner1 surmounted  by 

vaults1 domes1 and terraces1 wonderfully
 suited to local  requirements4 ,it is1 
then1 quite certain that the ,iranians  
in the time  of the ,achmenids knew the 
vault and the cupola as well as their   
neighbours on the banks of the ,tigris4 
,but have the vaults and domes of       
,persia1 more fortunate than those which
  rose above the ,mesopotamian edifices1
 come down to us1 at least in a few     
instances8 ,m4 ,dieulafoy believes so4  
,the ruins held to be of the  ,sassanian
 epoch at ,sarvistan1 ,firuzabad1 and   
,ferashbad1 would date1 in  his opinion1
 from the ,achmenid period4 ,a certain  
reserve1 however1 is  required1 from the
 chronological point of view1 in        
speaking of these  monuments in which   
the traveller can still see brick       
cupolas supported  by pendentives1#eg   
these cupolas being #ig ft4 high and #di
 ft4 in  diameter1 semicircular vaults1 
pointed vaults nearly similar to those  
of  our ,gothic churches of the         
thirteenth century--in short1 all the   

elements of ,sassanian and ,byzantine   
architecture4 ,on the other hand1 the   
decoration of these buildings seems to  
have been remarkably poor2 at           
,sarvistan the interior columns are     
heavy and badly hewn1 the cornice       
placed at the foot of the vaulting is   
composed of nothing but a serrated      
ornament2 the interior walls must have  
been coated with red paint2 the         
exterior walls were smooth1 and even the
 faade showed no decoration  except     
groups of half-columns buried in the    
masonry4 ,not the smallest  trace has   
been remarked among these ruins of      
bricks1 whether enamelled  or bearing   
figures in relief1 or of those slabs    
imitating the wall  sculptures of       
,assyria which were such characteristic 
elements of  ,achmenid art4 ,the same   
reflections are applicable to the       
monument of  ,firuzabad1 the            
architectural decoration of which has   
preserved1 perhaps  only by tradition1  
elements of ,persepolitan origin4       

,,ii4 ,,sculpture4    ,in sculpture1    
even more than in architecture1 the     
triple influence1  ,chaldo-,assyrian1   
,egyptian and ,grco-,ionian1 which is   
dominant among the  works of the        
,achmenids1 is to be traced4 ,like the  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4--;,cyrus4    
,bas-relief 7after ,dieulafoy74         
sculptures of ,ninevite palaces1 those  
of ,pasargad and ,persepolis are in  low
 relief1 the figures being always placed
 in profile1 and arranged for  the      
purpose of lining the lower portion of  
the walls4 ,in the execution1  however1 
the chisel of a ,greek artist is felt1  
or at least of one who  has studied     
under ,greek masters4 ,m4,l4 ,heuzey#eh 
reminds us that an  archaic ,greek      
school existed in ,thessaly1 which was  
remarkably  flourishing1 and the        
productions of which1 such as the       
bas-relief known  under the name of the 
,exaltation of the ,flower1 were closely
 analogous  in the details and the      
finish of the work to the ,persepolitan 

and ,susian  sculptures2 there are the  
same draperies with broad flat folds1   
and the  same methods of treatment in   
the muscles of the face and limbs4 ,the 
most  ancient ,persian sculpture known  
is the famous bas-relief in which the   
full-length portrait of ,cyrus himself  
has been preserved for us 7fig4  #abh74 
,cyrus1 of ,iranian origin1 has a face  
like that of an ,european2 he  has      
nothing in common with ,egyptian and    
,assyrian faces2 the top of his  head is
 bald or shaved1 his beard is slightly  
curled1 his hair is short  and matted4  
,but everything else in this royal      
figure is of foreign  importation4 ,his 
head is crowned with a triple disk      
surrounded by ,uri1  in the fashion of  
,egyptian deities2 the king is furnished
 with wings1  like the genii of ,assyria
 and ,chalda1 and these wings1 with rows
 of  well-marked feathers1 are like     
those of the ,ninevite monsters4 ,even  
the  border of the robe is decorated    
with a broad ,assyrian fringe2 finally1 

the king holds in his right hand a      
statuette1 the headdress of which is    
surmounted by the ,egyptian ,urus4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4--;,bas-relief
 at ,persepolis 7after ,flandin and     
,coste74    ,after the portrait of      
,cyrus in chronological order           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4--;,bas-relief
 at ,persepolis 7after ,flandin and     
,coste74    come the bas-reliefs of     
,persepolis4 ,these are sometimes       
episodes in the  ,chaldo-,assyrian epic 
of ,izdubar1 which1 imitated not only in
 ,persia but  also in the ,greek world1 
gave birth to the legends of ,heracles  
and  ,theseus1 so often represented on  
archaic ,greek monuments4 ,in other     
bas-reliefs the court-officers walk in  
procession with the tributary  satraps1 
or else 7fig4 #abi7 the 8king of kings0 
himself1 calm and  impassive like a     
,colossus whom nothing can terrify1     
plunges his dagger1  without moving a   
muscle    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#aca--;,bas-relief from ,persepolis     

7after ,flandin and  ,coste74    of his 
face1 into the heart of a lion1 a bull  
or a fantastic animal1  which rises     
erect upon its hind legs1 ready to      
devour him4 ,do not the  exaggerated    
muscles of the beast betray a servile   
copy of the ,assyrian  monsters8        
,elsewhere1 on the wall which borders   
the staircase of the  palace of ,darius1
 a lion devours a bull 7fig4 #acj72 he  
bites him on the  thigh1 and furiously  
digs his powerful claws into his        
haunches4 ,though  the lifelike attitude
 of the two animals strikes us1 it      
reminds us1 at  the same time1 of the   
,chaldo-,assyrian cylinders in which a  
similar  subject is reproduced4 ,farther
 on1 on the same wall of the staircase1 
servants appear to mount the stairs1    
with their hands loaded with  presents  
of all kinds which they are about to    
offer to the 8king of  kings02 ,assyrian
 sculptures contain analogous scenes4   
,the same must be  said of the          
bas-relief of the central door          

,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4--;,bas-relief
 at ,persepolis 7after ,flandin and     
,coste74    of ,darius' palace1 in which
 the prince is seen attended by two     
servants1  one holding the umbrella and 
the other the fly-flap 7see fig4 #abb72 
how  many times this subject is repeated
 on the ,ninevite walls1 with the same  
nave representation of the king1 like a 
,greek hero1 as of colossal  stature in 
comparison with the persons of his      
suite1 in order to exhibit  his         
superiority and strength6 ,on one of the
 walls of the apadna of  ,xerxes'       
palace1 the prince sitting on a high    
throne1 with a canopy above  his head   
and his feet upon a footstool1 is seen  
surrounded by his  guards4 ,he is       
receiving a personage of high rank1     
doubtless a satrap1  who is bringing on 
his shoulder the tribute of his         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4--;,bas-relief
 at ,persepolis 7after ,flandin and     
,coste74    province4 ,in the           
compartments below rows of ,persian     

soldiers are drawn  up in line1 probably
 those that composed the famous guard of
 the  ,immortals2 they carry lances1    
bows and quivers1 and have swords at    
their sides4 ,the throne is of a truly  
,assyrian form4 8,the canopy1 made  of  
woven stuff10 says ,m4 ,dieulafoy1#ei   
8is decorated with a very  curious      
design4 ,each strip is composed of two  
similar bands heavily  embroidered4 ,a  
band covered with rosettes is followed  
by a band adorned  with bulls like those
 which decorate the cornice of the royal
 tombs2 in  the centre appears the      
winged emblem of ,ahura-,mazda4 ,the    
lower band ends  in a trimming covered  
with rosettes1 and a thick fringe2 round
 patches  adorn the angles4 ,the        
position of the winged emblems on the   
top give  this piece of drapery the     
appearance of an ,egyptian tent1 but the
  procession of bulls1 the trimmings1   
the fringes1 and the rich embroidery    
are of ,assyrian origin40               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4--,portico at 

,persepolis 7after ,flandin and         
,coste74    ,the symbolic figure of     
,ormuzd1 with his winged disk1 is a     
reproduction  of the similar divine     
figure so often seen hovering over the  
king and  his soldiers on the ,assyrian 
bas-reliefs4 ,scenes of most significant
  cruelty also passed from              
,chaldo-,assyrian sculpture into        
,persian  sculpture4 ,on the bas-relief 
which ,darius caused to be carved upon  
the  rock of ,behistun1 to recount his  
exploits to distant posterity1 the king 
is holding his bow as ,sennacherib does1
 and placing his foot on the  breast of 
a prisoner who holds out his hands in   
supplication1 while nine  other kings   
stand bound with chains1 with their     
hands behind their  backs and cords     
around their necks#fj4    ,like the     
porticoes of ,ninevite palaces1 those of
 ,persepolis are  garnished with        
human-headed bulls2 the latter have     
preserved the walking  attitudes1 the   
curled hair1 and often even the high    

tiara decorated with  rosettes and      
feathers1 which characterise their elder
 brothers on the  banks of the ,tigris4 
,only1 while the ,assyrian bulls are    
sometimes placed  even with the surface 
of the faade and facing one another in  
the  doorway1 the ,persepolitan bulls1  
on the contrary1 are always placed      
parallel on each side of the opening and
 look outwards1 facing the  terrace4    
,finally1 in the sculpture of these     
gigantic monsters the  ,persian artist  
shows himself superior to the ,assyrian 
artist3 while  preserving the animals in
 the same hieratic posture1 he has had  
the  skill to soften the modelling of   
the limbs1 and to give to the wings a   
more elegant and graceful curve2 the    
bulls have only four legs instead  of   
five2 their flanks are more supple and  
plumper2 the horns1 emblems of          
strength1 which surround the head of the
 ,ninevite monsters1 are  suppressed2   
the anatomical forms and the respective 
proportions of the  different parts of  

the body are more closely studied2 we   
have here  ,assyrian art interpreted by 
artists formed in the school of the     
,greeks4       ,,iii4 ,,painting ,,and  
,,enamelling4    ,the art of enamelling 
brick1 invented by the ,chaldans1 did   
not perish  with ,babylon4 ,the         
,achmenids    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#ace4--,the lion frieze2 restoration by 
,m4 ,dieulafoy  7,louvre74    adopted   
it1 and seem to have brought it to      
perfection2 the same is true1  as it    
seems1 of that ingenious and delicate   
process which consisted of  stamping    
scenes in relief upon bricks1 a number  
of which thus formed an  enamelled      
frieze1 intended to replace the         
sculptured slabs of ,nineveh4  ,it was  
at ,susa that this system of decoration 
seems to have reached its  ideal        
perfection2 at any rate1 it is only     
among the ruins of this  capital that we
 can study it in detail1 thanks to the  
discoveries of ,m4  ,dieulafoy1 which   
add a new chapter to the history of art4

 ,it has been  possible to reconstruct  
at the ,louvre two entire friezes       
disinterred at  ,susa before the faade  
of the apadna of the palace of          
,artaxerxes  ,mnemon4 ,that of the lions
 7fig4 #ace7 is composed of bricks in   
relief1 #a  ft4 #b in4 long by #g in4   
high and #i in4 thick4 ,the lions1 nine 
in number1  are each #aa ft4 #c in4 long
 by #e ft4 #f in4 high4 ,the ground1 on 
which the  figures stand out1 is a flat 
surface of a turquoise-blue colour2 the 
lions1 which are1 for the most part1 of 
a greyish-white colour1 have  certain   
parts of their body1 for instance the   
mane1 of a watery greenish  blue2 and   
others1 for instance the swell of the   
muscles1 of a deep  yellow4 ,they are   
treated in the ,assyrian manner1 to such
 an extent that1  if it were not for the
 relief1 they would exactly resemble the
 enamelled  lions on flat bricks at     
,khorsabad4 ,as at ,nineveh1 the muscles
 are  exaggerated1 the head and forepart
 of the lion too small4 ,the procession 

of wild beasts is framed in several     
lines of elegant symmetrical  designs3  
rows of chevrons1 of ,egyptian          
palmettes1 and of ,assyrian  daisies4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4--,susian     
archer 7,louvre74    ,the frieze of the 
archers 7fig4 #acf7 represents a        
procession of warriors  in relief1 like 
those on the marble slabs of            
,persepolis2 this is the  most wonderful
 specimen of polychrome ,persian        
enamelling4 ,the materials  of which the
 composition is formed1 instead of      
being1 as in the lion  frieze1 baked    
bricks in the form of elongated         
parallelopipeds1 are  little squares1 of
 which each side is #a ft4 #a in4 long1 
and #c in4 thick1  made of artificial   
concrete1 which combines the whiteness  
of plaster  with the resistance of      
limestone4 ,the soldiers are represented
 in  profile and on the march4 ,they    
carry on the left shoulder a bow        
coloured  yellow1 and a quiver of       
reddish brown4 ,they hold in their hands

 a pike1  the shaft of which ends in a  
silver knob4 ,their tunics1 the colour  
of  which alternates from one figure to 
another1 is golden yellow or white2  the
 shape of it is the same for            
all1--narrow1 open at the side1 with    
very broad gathered sleeves2 it falls to
 the ankles and shows a certain  variety
 of ornament2 the stuff is spangled     
sometimes with green or blue  daisies1  
sometimes with designs in the form of   
lozenges2 the border is  embroidered4 ,a
 greenish turban1 twisted into rolls1 is
 placed on the  head of these oriental  
soldiers1 who wear bracelets1 ear-rings1
 and  yellow or sky-blue leather boots2 
their beard and hair are dressed in     
ringlets1 in the ,assyrian fashion4     
,this is doubtless the rich costume     
which provoked the declamations of      
,greek rhetoricians against the         
effeminacy and corruption of the        
,persians4 ,according to the testimony  
of  ,herodotus 7vii4 #hc71 the twisted  
turban on the hair1 the golden          

ornaments1 and the silver knob on the   
javelin1 were the distinctive  marks of 
the thousand knights and the ten        
thousand immortals who formed  the      
escort of the 8king of kings40 ,there   
can be no doubt1 then1 that we  are in  
presence of a group of this famous troop
 of janissaries1 whom the  ,achmenpi    
monarchs recruited in great part from   
among the blacks of  ,india2 a certain  
number of the figures on the frieze     
acquired by ,m4  ,dieulafoy actually    
have a skin coloured of a deep brown4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4--,polychrome 
decoration of the palace of  ,artaxerxes
 7,louvre74    ,it is observed1 from a  
technical point of view1 that all the   
figures of  one frieze came out of the  
same mould1 and that they are exact     
repetitions one of another1 though      
variously coloured4 ,the vitreous coat  
is transparent and iridescent1 like the 
enamel on porcelain2 the gamut  of the  
colours is poor3 blue1 green1 yellow1   
black1 and white4 ,these  decided tints 

must1 on account of their brilliancy1   
have produced a  striking effect2 and   
under the hot sun of ,susiana1 the      
portico walls of  ,artaxerxes' palace   
sparkled more marvellously than even the
 richly  decorated tiles of ,mussulman  
mosques and palaces4 ,the interior of   
the  apadna seems to have been simply   
coloured by means of a red monochrome   
stucco1 almost completely concealed1    
however1 by the rich carpets and        
embroidered draperies with which the    
walls of all the chambers were  hung4   
,,iv4 ,,religious ,,and ,,sepulchral    
,,monuments4    ,ormuzd 7,ahura-,mazda71
 the great deity of the ,persians1 was  
not to have1  according to the          
regulations in the ,avesta1 either      
temples or statues4  ,the conception of 
the supreme and only ,god1 perfect in   
all things1 was  too vast to suggest any
 shelter for him except the vault of    
heaven in  which he dwelt4 ,herodotus   
did not fail to observe this            
characteristic of  ,mazdeism and this   

absence of temples among the ,persians3 
8,the custom of  the ,persians10 he     
says1 8is not to raise statues1 temples 
and altars to  the gods2 on the         
contrary1 they treat those who do so as 
madmen3 in my  opinion1 this is because 
they do not believe1 like the ,greeks1  
that the  gods have a human form40      
,however1 ,ormuzd is often represented  
on the  monuments of the ,achmenid      
dynasty2 he has the form of a man       
crowned  with the tiara and enclosed in 
a winged disk 7fig4 #ada74 ,this is     
exactly1 except in the modifications    
brought about by the progress of  art1  
the figure of the deity in the ,assyrian
 monuments4#fa ,thus this  symbol1      
borrowed from ,mesopotamia1 is a        
transgression of the precepts  of the   
,avesta1 and an act of tolerance which  
only penetrated into the  monumental    
sculpture of palaces and tombs1 and into
 the glyptic art4 ,the  only symbol     
admitted by the ,avesta is the          
all-purifying flame4 ,hence the  cultus 

of the sacred fire and the fire-altars1 
called pyrea or  atesh-gahs1 erected in 
the open air on heights4 ,the atesh-gahs
 are the  only monuments which represent
 the religious architecture of the      
,persians4 ,their remains are numerous1 
but they do not present many  features  
of archological interest4 ,several of   
them are seen at a short  distance from 
,nakhsh-i-,rustam which seem to be      
earlier than the time of  ,cyrus4 ,on a 
platform reached on all sides by a few  
steps1 an altar is  erected in the form 
of a truncated pyramid1 with four sides4
 ,at the  corners small columns1        
attached to the structure1 support      
semicircular  arches1 which sustain the 
stone slab on which the sacred fire was 
lighted4    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#ach4--,the tower of ,jur4 ,restoration 
by ,m4  ,dieulafoy4    ,after the       
conquest of ,asia the ,achmenids        
generally gave to the  fire-altars the  
form of ,grco-,lycian chapels4 ,in the  
sculptures of a  royal tomb at          

,nakhsh-i-,rustam we see a king in      
adoration before ,ormuzd1  and a        
fire-altar1 which has the form of a     
square block of masonry with            
projections in imitation of pilasters1  
supporting an entablature formed  of    
three steps one above the other2 the    
highest1 larger than the other  two1    
forms the platform on which the fire is 
lighted 7fig4 #ada74fb    ,the          
architectural influence of ,assyria is  
manifest in the construction  of certain
 fire-altars4 ,near ,firuzabad are the  
ruins of ,jur1  particularly interesting
 on account of the remains of an        
atesh-gah  ninety-one feet high1        
described by travellers1 and apparently 
a copy of  the staged towers 7zikkurat7 
of ,chalda and ,assyria1 a type of      
which1  the most complete in existence1 
is here handed down to us4 ,m4          
,dieulafoy  remarks that the atesh-gah  
at ,jur resembles the minaret of the    
mosque of  ,ibn ,tln1 one of the oldest 
,mussulman edifices4 ,thus types of     

religious  architecture invented by the 
,chaldans exercised their influence even
 on  the modern art of the ,east4#fc    
,the funeral rites imposed by the       
,avesta had another consequence--that of
  creating a kind of architecture       
unknown in any country besides ,persia4 
,human corpses might neither be         
committed directly to the ground1 nor   
burnt1 nor thrown into the river1 for   
this would have caused pollution  to    
water1 earth1 and fire4 ,cities of the  
dead had been established in  remote and
 deserted spots3 these were tall round  
towers called  dakhmas1 built of        
masonry1 and showing no architectural   
ornament even  round the top4 ,these    
towers supported a wooden trellis-work  
on which the  corpses were laid2 birds  
of prey came and tore these abandoned   
bodies to  pieces3 they often carried   
off separate limbs to a distance1 where 
wild  beasts devoured what was left of  
them4 ,that which remained in the       
charnel-house was buried1 but previously

 covered with wax to avoid all  direct  
contact with the ground4 ,herodotus has 
preserved a reminiscence  of these      
distressing practices4 8,the corpse of a
 ,persian0 he says1 8is  not buried     
until it has been torn to pieces by dogs
 or birds of prey4444  ,the ,persians   
cover the dead body with wax1 after     
which they inter it40  ,there is still  
at the present day in ,persia a certain 
number of ruins of  the sepulchral      
towers of the ,mazdeans1 and one of the 
best known is not  far from ,teheran4   
,but the dakhmas only served for popular
 burials2 for the ,achmenid  kings1 at  
any rate1 broke the ,mazdean law1 which 
perhaps itself made in  practice an     
exception in favour of the royal family4
 ,the tombs of the  ,achmenid princes   
can be divided1 from the architectural  
point of view1  into two large classes1 
according as they are or are not        
anterior to the  conquest of ,egypt4    
,the former are conceived according to  
the style and  plan of ,grco-,ionian    

tombs1 the latter according to the      
,egyptian  hypoga4    ,in the valley of 
,polvar-,rud1 two and a half miles to   
the south of                            
,takht-i-,madar-i-,soleiman1 stands a   
small rectangular edifice1 the  probable
 burying-place of ,mandane1 the mother  
of ,cyrus2 the ,persians  call it       
,gabr-i-,madar-i-,soleiman1 8tomb of the
 mother of ,solomon0 7fig4  #aci74 ,the 
archaic ,greek character of this        
monument is striking4  ,constructed of  
large blocks in regular courses1 without
 mortar1 the  stones being cut and      
fitted with the greatest exactness1 it  
is provided  with a triangular pediment1
 the only one ever observed in a        
monument of  ancient ,persia2 it is     
reached by six steps running all round  
the little  building4 ,the roof is      
formed of flat slabs1 sloping on each   
side  according to the inclination of   
the pediment4 ,round the roof is a      
cornice composed of a reversed ogee     
enclosed within two fillets1 an         

architectural decoration found repeated 
round the door1 the double frame  of    
which is copied from that of the ,greek 
buildings in the ,ionian style4  ,the   
inner chamber measures scarcely six     
square yards4 ,round                    
,gabr-i-,madar-i-,soleiman was a        
courtyard surrounded by a portico2 the  
chapel was not exactly in the centre of 
the courtyard1 but stood at the  bottom 
of it2 so that an open space was left in
 front4    ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#aci4--,the ,gabr-i-,madar-i-,soleiman  
7after  ,dieulafoy74    ,not far from   
this is the tomb of ,cambyses the       
,first1 the father of  ,cyrus4 ,it is so
 dilapidated that only one faade is     
almost intact2 this  is enough1 however1
 to enable us to compare it with another
 tomb at  ,nakhsh-i-,rustam in a good   
state of preservation4 ,both of them    
were  square towers1 constructed of fine
 and regular masonry1 the mortar being  
replaced by iron clamps4 ,the tower1    
solid at the base1 contains in its      

upper part a chamber1 the ceiling of    
which is formed of large slabs  fitted  
together2 a staircase built outside gave
 access to a small door4  ,the exterior 
faade is furnished on its four sides    
with false windows2  the idea has even  
been adopted of building the back of    
these niches of  black basalt1 in order 
to give them the appearance of true     
apertures4  ,the summit of the edifice  
is composed of a cornice adorned with a 
row of  denticulations4    ,when to all 
these details we add the rustication of 
the stones and the  position-marks found
 on the blocks1 it will be recognised   
that the  architect and workmen came    
from ,asia ,minor and copied in servile 
fashion  the sepulchral structures of   
that country4 ,the architectural form of
  these towers reminds us of the ,lycian
 tombs at ,telmessus1 ,antiphellus1     
,aperl1 and ,myra1 and above all of the 
celebrated ,harpy tomb at ,xanthus4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4--,tomb of    
,cambyses ,i4 7,restoration by ,m4      

,dieulafoy74    ,the descriptions given 
by ,strabo 7x4 #c1 #g71 and ,arrian 7vi4
 #bi71  following ,aristobulus1 of the  
tomb of ,cyrus1 enable us to assert that
 it  was like the square towers of      
,meshed-,murgab and ,nakhsh-i-,rustam3  
8,the  tomb stood in the middle of the  
king's gardens2 it was surrounded by    
trees1 running water and soft turf4 ,it 
was a square tower1 low enough to  be   
hidden under the thick trees which      
surrounded it4 ,the base was solid  and 
composed of large cubical blocks4 ,in   
the upper part was the  sepulchral      
chamber1 covered with a stone roof4 ,it 
was entered by a  narrow door4          
,aristobulus saw in it a golden couch1 a
 table with cups  for libations1 a      
gilded tub for washing and bathing1 and 
a quantity of  garments and ornaments4  
,there was a communication1 by means of 
an inner  staircase1 with the chamber in
 which lived the priests who guarded the
  tomb40 ,it is not permissible1 then1  
to doubt that1 in the time of ,cyrus1   

the kings of ,persia had tombs built    
like those of ,lycia1 and that the      
towers which we have described preserve 
for us specimens of them4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4--;,faade of  
tomb at ,nakhsh-i-,rustam 7after        
,flandin and ,coste1 ,perse ancienne74  
,but after the conquest of ,egypt1      
,darius1 who1 as we saw1 admired the    
monuments in the valley of the ,nile1   
resolved to have a sepulchral cave  hewn
 for himself1 in the form of a speos1 in
 the side of the rock1 and  analogous to
 the sepulchral hypoga of the ,pharaohs4
 ,his successors  acted like him4 ,the  
caverns of ,darius and the princes of   
his dynasty1  which are to be seen in   
the rocks of ,nakhsh-i-,rustam and      
,takht-i-,jemshid1 near ,persepolis1    
differ in all points from the tombs of  
,cambyses ,i4 and ,cyrus3 while the     
latter are square towers of masonry1    
those of the second ,achmenid dynasty   
are cut out side by side in the         
vertical wall of the mountain1 and the  

faade1 like that of the hypoga  at      
,beni-,hassan1 is decorated with        
bas-reliefs4 ,to reach these chambers   
it was necessary in the time of the     
,achmenids1 as in our own day1 to be    
hoisted by ropes to a level with the    
aperture4 ,the exterior sculptures  are 
interesting4 ,a colonnade with          
bicephalic capitals supports an         
architrave1 the frieze of which is      
adorned with a procession of lions  and 
surmounted with bas-reliefs4 ,two rows  
of soldiers fully armed raise  their    
hands to sustain a sort of platform1 the
 borders of which are  decorated with   
two symbolical figures of lions provided
 with bulls'  horns4 ,these ,persian    
warriors remind the spectator of the    
,assyrian  soldiers who form the        
decoration of ,sennacherib's throne4 ,on
 the  platform stands ,darius on a      
pedestal in steps1 dressed in the persis
  described by ,herodotus1 crowned with 
the cidaris1 resting the end of  his bow
 on the ground and stretching out his   

hand4 ,opposite him is a  lighted       
fire-altar and the image of ,ormuzd4    
,round this bas-relief and  serving as  
its frame stand the figures of the      
satraps who helped ,darius  to slay     
,gaumates4 ,the door of the cave is     
opened in the central                   
intercolumniation4 ,the interior of the 
chambers was as severe as  possible2 the
 roof is hewn into the form of a vault2 
in obedience to the  law of ,ormuzd     
there is no trace anywhere of painting  
or inscription4 ,the  cavities for the  
sarcophagi are formed in the side walls1
 as in the  sepulchral caverns of       
,egypt1 ,palestine1 and ,phnicia4       
,v4 ,,engraved ,,gems ,,and ,,ornaments4
    ,the glyptic art and the jewellery  
of the ,persians maintain nobly and     
without any sign of decadence the       
artistic traditions of ,chalda and      
,assyria4 ,assurbanipal and             
,nebuchadnezzar1 when they made         
expeditions  into the most distant      
provinces of ,persia1 ,media1 and       

,armenia1 had  spread through all these 
countries the productions of ,assyrian  
industry  and the taste for luxury and  
works of art2 their artists recruited   
their  disciples there3 like ,alexander1
 they carried the torch of civilisation 
everywhere by their arms1 and when the  
,achmenids took up their  residence at  
,susa and ,ecbatana1 they found the     
inhabitants profoundly  impregnated with
 ,chaldo-,assyrian ideas and customs4   
,to as high a degree  as the            
,babylonians1 the ,persians love full   
dress and ornaments3 each  citizen of   
distinction has his cylinder or his seal
 hung from his neck2  he is covered with
 bracelets1 rings1 necklaces2 his tiara 
is decorated  with pearls and sparkling 
stones2 his tunic1 delicately           
embroidered1 is  encrusted with gems4   
,in his house he displays a luxury in   
furniture  which1 handed on to the      
,parthians1 will astonish the ,romans   
and  ,byzantines3 cups of gold and      
silver enriched with crystal and        

coloured  glass1 and adorned with       
figures in relief2 chairs1 couches and  
tables  overlaid with silver1 gold1 and 
carved ivory4 ,in short1 everything     
begotten of the passion for luxury among
 the ,chaldans in the matter of         
tapestry1 embroidery1 and goldsmiths'   
work1 is also found among the           
,persians4    ,only1 the ,persians were 
not servile imitators2 they could give  
an  original turn to the productions of 
their industry1 even when they  copied  
the ,assyrians4 ,there is in their      
cylinders and their seals a dry  and    
nervous execution which characterises   
them as distinctly as the  bulls of     
,persepolis are distinguished from the  
,ninevite monsters4 ,it  goes without   
saying also that the inscriptions and   
the details of  costume give an         
absolutely precise character to the     
classification of  the productions of   
the glyptic art under the ,achmenids4   
,here is1 for  instance1 the cylinder of
 ,darius1 preserved at the ,british     

,museum4 ,the  whole scene is evidently 
copied from ,assyrian seals1 but the    
figure of  the rampant lion and those of
 the horses are quite different in      
treatment from ,ninevite art2 the       
denticulated tiara of the prince1 the   
disk of ,ormuzd hovering in the air1 and
 finally the inscription traced  with   
mathematical regularity1 complete the   
proofs of ,persian origin in  this fine 
cylinder4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#adb4--;,cylinder of ,darius 7after ,j4 
,menant74    ,as we remove ourselves    
chronologically from the origin of the  
art1 more  perceptible modifications are
 introduced into the technique1 and new 
foreign influences are revealed in      
,persian work4 ,a cylinder 7fig4 #adc71 
which belongs to a ,russian collector1  
represents a scene which might be       
supposed to be imitated from the        
bas-relief at ,behistun4 ,darius is here
  seen slaying with his lance a kneeling
 enemy1 whose head-dress is  ,egyptian4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4--,persian    

cylinder 7after ,j4 ,menant74           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4--,persian    
seal4 ,conical4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#ade4--,seal of ,artaxerxes 7,louvre74  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4--,persian    
seal4 ,conical4    ,the special         
distinctions of the productions of the  
gem-engraver's art  under the ,achmenid 
dynasty are the sobriety and exactness  
of the work  and the conventional       
character of the figured scenes2 besides
 this1 in  consequence of the influence 
of ,egypt and ,phnicia1 the fashion     
spreads more and more of substituting   
for cylinders conical1 rhomboidal  or   
spherical stones1 flattened on one side1
 in order to form a field for  the      
engraving4 ,on these cones of chalcedony
 or agate the most common  subjects are3
 the 8king of kings0 standing or        
kneeling1 crowned with the  denticulated
 tiara or    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#adg4--,persian seal 7,cabinet des      
mdailles74    cidaris1 and drawing his  
bow--a type analogous to that of the    

coins  known under the name of ,daries2 
the king stabbing a lion which stands   
erect before him2 a pontiff before the  
fire-altar1 adoring ,ormuzd2  sphinxes  
and gryphons which remind us of the     
,assyrian kirubu4 ,an opal  seal 7fig4  
#ade7 obtained at ,susa by ,m4          
,dieulafoy1 shows two sphinxes  crowned 
with the tiara of ,upper ,egypt in      
adoration before the winged  disk of    
,ormuzd2 in the centre1 in a little     
medallion1 is the portrait of  the      
,achmenid prince1 no doubt ,artaxerxes  
,mnemon4 ,the delicate execution  of the
 royal portrait is striking1 and the    
elegant forms of the sphinxes  are no   
less worthy of remark4 ,as among the    
,assyro-,chaldans1 it is in  the        
representation of animals--lions1 deer1 
antelopes1 sphinxes1 and  gryphons--that
 the genius of the ,persian engraver    
reveals its full  strength4 ,the winged 
and horned gryphon found on an engraved 
gem 7fig4  #adg7 is significantly       
analogous to a small limestone          

bas-relief in the  ,de ,luynes          
collection 7fig4 #adh7 which shows in   
what fashion ,persian art  interpreted  
the ,assyrian kirubu1 and the           
modifications which it  required4 ,the  
monster has the body and fore paws of a 
lion2 his hind  legs1 armed with        
powerful claws1 are those of an eagle2  
he has the ears  of an ox and the horns 
of a wild goat2 his eye1 face1 and      
half-open beak  belong to the falcon2 a 
bristling mane adorns a neck proudly    
arched like  that of a horse2 he has a  
lion's tail2 his great wings with       
well-marked  feathers resemble in their 
development those of the ,persepolitan  
bulls4  ,we know nothing in ,persian art
 superior to this figure1 the symbol of 
strength and power1 in which so many    
discordant elements are combined  with  
so fortunate a harmony4#fd ,at ,susa and
 ,persepolis1 as at ,nineveh  and       
,babylon1 minor sculpture was not       
inferior to sculpture on a grand  scale1
 and the style of the engraver sometimes

 produced as noble and as  striking     
effects as the chisel of the statuary3  
the copy did not yield  to the model4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4--;,de        
,luynes' bas-relief 7,cabinet des       
mdailles74          ,,chapter ,,vi4     
,,the ,,hittites4#fe      ,the name of  
,hittites 7,khatti1 ,kheta7 appears     
simultaneously in the  ,bible1 the      
hieroglyphic documents1 and the         
cuneiform texts4 ,it is given  to       
populations of different origin who     
inhabited ,syria from the  ,euphrates to
 the borders of ,egypt1 and also        
,cappadocia and the greater  part of    
,asia ,minor from the mountains of      
,armenia to the banks of the  ,halys and
 the ,hermus4 ,but the country which was
 particularly the centre  of the        
,hittite dominions1 and in which they   
established a homogeneous  and lasting  
empire1 is ,northern ,syria1 that is to 
say1 the territory  which extends from  
the great bend of the ,euphrates to the 
,orontes1 and  from the limits of the   

,araman oases of ,palmyra and ,damascus 
to the  mountains of the ,taurus4 ,on   
the ,euphrates they built the fortress  
of  ,carchemish 7,jerablus71 which      
remained like a threatening challenge in
  the face of ,nineveh until the day    
when1 about the year ,b4,c4 #gaj1 the   
,assyrians gained possession of it2 on  
the ,orontes their chief towns were     
,kadesh and ,hamath4 ,it is among the   
ruins of these cities or in the         
neighbouring country1 including         
,cilicia1 a geographical appendage of   
,syria1 and also among the sparsely     
scattered ruins of ,cappadocia and      
,asia ,minor1 that the remains of       
,hittite civilisation have recently been
  discovered1 and that the works of its 
peculiar art have been found which  we  
are about to describe in a few words4   
,i4 ,,hittite ,,monuments ,,in ,,syria4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4--,the lion of
 ,marash 7after ,wright1 pl4 #bg74      
,the ,hittite art of ,syria is derived  
from ,assyrian art2 it has nothing      

original either in the conception of its
 forms or in its technical  execution4  
,to characterise it in one word1 we     
might call it ,assyrian art  interpreted
 by barbarians4 ,in all its             
manifestations it is inferior to  its   
model1 like the works of the barbarians 
who copied ,greek and ,roman  art4 ,in  
imitation of the ,assyrians1 the        
,hittites confined themselves  almost   
exclusively to sculpture in bas-relief4 
,at ,marash1 on the ,pyramus  in        
,cilicia1 it is true1 a fragmentary     
torso has been obtained2 but this  is   
almost the only example of a ,hittite   
statue in the round that we can  cite4  
,this figure1 of coarse workmanship1 is 
dressed in a fringed cloak  like that   
which is to be seen everywhere on the   
walls of ,ninevite  palaces4#ff    ,the 
bulls and other winged monsters1 placed 
at the entrance of ,assyrian  and       
,persian palaces1 which keep the mean   
between statuary and the  bas-relief1   
also find their parallel among the      

,hittites4 ,there is at the  ,imperial  
,museum at ,constantinople a basalt     
lion1 found at ,marash1 the  head and   
neck of which are completely disengaged 
from the stone block2  the fore paws are
 even with the front surface of the     
wall1 and the body  of the beast is     
continued round the corner4 ,thus it is 
sculptured on two  sides in imitation of
 the ,ninevite bulls1 and the extent of 
servility in  the copy is finally proved
 by an inscription in ,hittite          
hieroglyphs  covering the fore paws1 in 
accordance with the singular fashion    
observed  at ,nineveh4    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #aej4--,stela from ,birejik      
7,british ,museum74    ,assyrian        
influence is even more obviously        
conspicuous at ,carchemish1 a  fact to  
which witness is borne by two figures   
standing on a crouching  lion1 which    
remind us of the rock sculptures of     
,sennacherib at ,bavian  and            
,malthaiyah4#fg ,is not a               
pseudo-,assyrian style also to be       

detected  in this figure#fh 7fig4 #aej7 
surmounted by the winged disk1 with his 
tunic open in front8 ,however1 his      
cylindrical tiara1 his twisted hair1    
and the peculiar disks which he holds in
 his two hands1 are features  which the 
artist did not copy from ,mesopotamia4  
,like the ,babylonian ,istar1 the       
,hittite ,astarte is represented        
standing1  in full face and entirely    
nude2 she holds her breasts with the    
same  indecent gesture1 the first       
example of which belongs to the plastic 
art  of ,chalda4 ,nevertheless ,astarte 
is winged and crowned with a conical    
tiara which are peculiarities of        
,hittite symbolism4 ,the priestess      
performing adoration before her is      
veiled1 like the figures of ,assyrian   
women4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#aea4--;,fragments of sculpture from    
,carchemish 7from  the ,graphic1 ,dec4  
#ahhj74    ,sculptures in debased       
imitation of the ,ninevite reliefs were 
ranged on a  series of slabs in the     

,hittite palaces1 as at ,khorsabad or   
,kouyunjik4 ,at  ,sinjerli1 ,m4 ,o4     
,puchstein found still in place1 that is
 to say1 lining  the lower portion of   
the wall of an edifice1 a complete set  
of  bas-reliefs representing a deer     
hunt1 a man struggling with a fantastic 
genius1 and a train of prisoners of     
war4#fi ,in another tell in the  same   
region1 three slabs placed end to end   
contain a scene from a lion  hunt2 the  
king is in his chariot with his         
charioteer1 and draws his bow4          
,everything here--the form of the       
chariot1 the harness of the horses1 the 
costume of the prince covered with his  
coat of mail--betrays a copy of         
,ninevite sculpture4 ,even the lion1 the
 anatomical forms of which are          
learnedly reproduced1 brings to our     
memory the hunting expeditions of       
,assurbanipal4 ,but at the same time the
 inferiority of the imitator is         
conspicuous in the arrangement of the   
scene1 which lacks life and  movement3  

the lion allows the javelins to be      
thrust into his eye and  haunches in the
 most benevolent manner4 ,what a        
difference from the  vigour and         
litheness of the terrible beasts which  
bound roaring around  the hunters1 true 
sons of ,nimrod6    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #aeb4--;,bas-relief at ,rum-,qalah     
7,gazette archol4  #ahhc47    ,when we  
leave the regions which lie near the    
,euphrates1 the imitation of  ,assyria1 
though equally perceptible1 is1 perhaps1
 less servile and more  free2 a larger  
number of original elements enter into  
the composition of  the scenes4 ,at     
,rum-,qalah a bas-relief represents a   
bearded personage1  wearing a cap1 and  
dressed in a long tunic1 drawn apart as 
if in  imitation of the form of the     
drooping wings of ,assyrian genii4 ,at  
his  girdle he carries a dagger2 in his 
left hand is a sort of lyre1 in his     
right a palm-branch2 the handle of a    
leathern bag is passed over his  arm4   
,the coarseness of the workmanship makes

 the imitation itself almost            
unrecognisable4 ,on a basalt stela at   
,marash 7fig4 #aec7 two women1  sitting 
on chairs with backs1 are separated by a
 table similar to those  that we have   
seen in ,assyria2 the costume of these  
women has also much  analogy to the     
,ninevite garments2 however1 their high 
tiara1 under their  long veil1 seems to 
be indigenous4 ,the same characteristics
 of imperfect  and coarse imitation are 
to be observed in other pieces of       
sculpture  from the same place2 the only
 features which are particularly        
original  are the expression of the     
faces1 the diadem1 and the arrangement  
of the  hair3 the spectator feels that  
he is on the confines of a territory    
which is already coming under the direct
 influence of the ,hellenic art  of     
,asia ,minor4#gj    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #aec4--,stela at ,marash 7after        
,hirschfeld74    ,according to these    
examples1 two groups of clearly         
distinguished ,hittite  monuments may be

 established in ,syria itself3 those of 
,carchemish and  the region of the      
,euphrates1 which are colourless copies 
of ,assyrian  works2 and those of       
western ,syria and especially of        
,cilicia1 which1  though also derived   
from ,ninevite art1 separate themselves 
from it to a  greater extent1 are ruder1
 and contain elements at once more      
original  and more barbarous4 ,as       
peculiar characteristics of the         
,hittites1 we will  point out the       
diadem1 the high cap of the women1 to   
which a long veil is  fitted1 and1 above
 all1 the shoes with turned-up points4  
,these shoes1  worn by men and women1   
have been described as the chief mark of
 the  ,hittite monuments2 however1 it   
must not be forgotten that these shoes  
are still worn1 in our own day1 not only
 in ,syria but throughout ,asia  ,minor1
 by the most various races4       ,,ii4 
,,hittite ,,monuments ,,in ,,cappadocia4
    ,a canton of ancient ,cappadocia1   
the ,pteria of ,herodotus1 on the       

,halys1  where the first meeting between
 ,cyrus and ,crsus took place1 contains 
a considerable number of ,hittite ruins 
which have been particularly  explored  
by ,,mm4 ,perrot and ,guillaume1 and    
form a group by themselves in  the      
history of oriental art4 ,the village of
 ,boghaz-,keui1 the ancient  capital of 
the ,pterians has still1 besides its    
fortifications #c miles  in             
circumference1 bas-reliefs carved upon  
rocks which are called  ,iasili-,kaa1   
8the inscribed stone10 and remains of   
buildings not  completely               
indistinguishable4 ,the royal palace1   
almost rased to the  level of the       
ground1 is a parallelogram #acf ft4 by  
#ahe ft4 ,in the blocks  which compose  
the wall1 holes are observed for iron   
clamps1 as in the  ,achmenid edifices2  
as in the latter also1 the stones are   
large but  irregular2 the upper portion 
of the wall was of brick-work1 as at    
,nineveh and ,persepolis2 lastly1 the   
palace of ,boghaz-,keui was built on  an

 artificial terrace4 ,in the arrangement
 of the rooms1 details peculiar  to     
princely residences in all oriental     
countries are to be recognised4  ,the   
principal door forms an independent     
structure1 to be compared to  that of   
the palace at ,khorsabad3 it is #eh ft4 
high2 two lions' heads1  original in    
style1 project on each side of the      
aperture1 above  monolithic doorposts4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4--,the sphinx 
of ,euyuk 7from ,perrot and             
,guillaume#ga74    ,the palace of       
,euyuk1 as well as that of              
,boghaz-,keui1 presents striking        
features of resemblance to those of     
,nineveh2 its terrace1 #hab ft4  square1
 still rises to the height of #ci ft4   
,the corners are turned  towards the    
four cardinal points4 ,the principal    
doorway is #aa ft4  broad1#ga and on    
each side stand two sphinxes1 in place  
of the  human-headed bulls4 ,next to    
these1 all along the faade1 was a series
 of  bas-reliefs1 the arrangement of    

which was the same as that upon the     
faades of ,khorsabad and ,kouyunjik2    
only1 the sphinx1 which is not          
,assyrian1 discloses another foreign    
influence--that of ,egypt4  ,cappadocian
 art was able to interpret the ,egyptian
 type1 and1 on this  occasion1 did not  
limit itself to a dull copy4 8,in       
,egypt10 observes ,m4  ,perrot1 8the    
sphinx1 to whatever variety of the type 
it belongs1 is  always represented in   
the reclining posture1 never standing as
 here3  instead of being treated as a   
bas-relief and placed in front of the   
doorway1 it is sculptured in the round  
and set on both sides of the  entrance1 
perpendicular to the path1 towards the  
axis of which it  looks40#gb ,besides1  
in the sphinxes on the banks of the     
,nile1 the  extremities of the hair1 on 
each side of the head1 fall straight    
without  forming the curls which we see 
here4 ,at ,euyuk1 the ,egyptian sphinx  
is  treated in the ,assyrian style2 the 
place which it occupies on the sides  of

 the doorway1 and the position of its   
paws1 turn it into a sort of  compromise
 between ,egypt and ,assyria1 which vied
 with one another in  this land of      
,cappadocia1 in artistic influence as in
 political  preponderance4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4--,rock       
sculptures at ,iasili-,kaa 7after       
,perrot  and ,guillaume74    ,this      
double tendency is also observed at     
,iasili-,kaa4 ,here a rectangular       
chamber has been found #ha ft4 by #cg   
ft41 hewn in the rock on three  sides2  
the walls are covered with bas-reliefs  
forming a plinth4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #aef4--,rock sculptures at        
,iasili-,kaa 7after ,perrot  and        
,guillaume74    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#aeg4--,rock sculptures at ,iasili-,kaa 
7after ,perrot  and ,guillaume74        
,another smaller chamber and a corridor 
contain similar sculptures2 the  height 
of the figures varies from #d ft4 #f in4
 to #b ft4 #c in4 ,two  processions of  
figures go round the larger chamber and 

meet one another3  on the right1 women  
dressed in long robes with trains1 their
 hair  falling upon their shoulders1    
wearing a round tiara like the women at 
,marash2 on the left the men1 with the  
conical cap assigned by ,herodotus  to  
the ,cimmerians1 and a short tunic      
reaching no lower than the knees in     
front1 but longer behind4 ,in each group
 the figures grow larger in  proportion 
to their nearness to the centre4 ,many  
of them are not human  beings1 but      
winged genii1 satyrs with goats' feet1  
dog-headed monsters4  ,nearly all hold  
in their hands sceptres1 curved staves1 
two-edged  hatchets2 some stand upon    
quadrupeds4 ,two are seen perched upon a
  two-headed eagle2 another1 accompanied
 by a kid1 stands on the  shoulders of  
two porters4    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#aeh4--,rock sculpture at ,iasili-,kaa  
7,perrot and  ,guillaume74              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4--,rock       
sculpture of ,iasili-,kaa 7after ,perrot
  and ,guillaume74    ,close to the     

entrance of this vast hall1 a separate  
relief represents a  giant standing on  
two mountains4 ,this personage holds in 
his right hand  a shrine1 and in his    
left hand has a sort of long staff1 the 
lower end  of which is curved like a    
crosier2 he wears a hemispherical       
skull-cap1  and is dressed in a long    
robe open at the side4 ,the shrine which
 this  deity holds is provided with two 
,ionic columns supporting the winged    
disk2 beneath the disk is a figure      
between two bulls seen in full face4    
,at some distance a group of two figures
 is observed4 ,one of them1 of  colossal
 proportions1 is found elsewhere        
standing upon a quadruped4  ,here1 he   
wears a highly decorated conical tiara1 
and is armed with a  sword and clothed  
in a short tunic4 ,he stretches out his 
right hand as  if to carry or to seize a
 child standing before him4 ,the second 
figure1  protected by the deity1 who    
passes his left arm round his neck and  
holds his hand1 is the same as he whom  

we noticed just before4    ,the         
sculptures which decorate the walls of  
the vestibule in the palace  of ,euyuk  
have so great an analogy to those of    
,iasili-,kaa that it is  impossible not 
to recognise their common style and     
origin4 ,we observe  among them a woman1
 seated upon a throne1 with her hair    
flowing down  upon her shoulders1       
decorated with a necklace and bracelets1
 who reminds  us of the ,assyrian queen 
sharing the banquet of ,assurbanipal2   
she raises  a goblet to her lips1 and   
holds a flower in her hand4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4--,rock       
sculpture of ,iasili-,kaa 7after ,perrot
  and ,guillaume74    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #afa4--,tomb of ,gherdek-,kaasi   
7after ,perrot and  ,guillaume74    ,all
 these scenes are priestly and          
religious1 and not1 as in ,assyria1     
devoted to the glory of the king and to 
the memory of his warlike  exploits4    
,they refer to the worship of the god   
,mn or of the goddess ,m  or ,enio1 the 

,cappadocian name of ,anatis or         
,astarte1 whose rites ,strabo  describes
 as performed in the two towns of       
,comana4    ,to this ,cappadocian       
civilisation1 again1 purely oriental and
 anterior to  ,greek influence as it is1
 the sculpture of tombs observed at     
,gherdek-,kaasi1 near ,boghaz-,keui and 
,euyuk1 must be referred4 ,the          
principal of these caves hewn in the    
rock1 like those of ,phnicia and        
,nakhsh-i-,rustam1 has a faade adorned  
with a portico with three low           
colonnades1 the style of which closely  
resembles the ,greek ,doric order  7fig4
 #afa74 ,at the extremities of this     
portico are the doors of two  chambers  
intended to contain sarcophagi4 ,both of
 them have windows  opened in the wall  
of rock2 the sepulchral couches are hewn
 in the wall  like alcoves4 ,there is   
something in these monuments which      
partakes of  the character both of the  
,phrygian tombs and of those of         
,nakhsh-i-,rustam2 and perhaps they are 

not anterior to the destruction of      
,pteria by ,crsus in ,b4,c4 #edi4    ,to
 sum up3 we must conclude1 with ,m4     
,perrot1#gc that the monuments of       
,boghaz-,keui and ,euyuk1 witnesses of  
primitive ,cappadocian civilisation1    
underwent ,assyrian influence as well as
 those of ,northern ,syria4 ,the        
palaces look like 8a reduced copy of the
 great royal edifices on the  banks of  
the ,tigris and ,euphrates40 ,the winged
 figures1 the monsters  with eagles' and
 lions' heads1 are ,assyrian1 and so are
 the deities  borne on the backs of     
different quadrupeds1 the flowers in the
 hands of  the figures and the winged   
disk1 the symbol of the deity4 ,various 
elements of the ,cappadocian sculptures 
seem1 upon no less evidence1 to  have   
been borrowed from ,egypt1 ,persia1 and 
even from the ,greeks of ,asia  ,minor1 
but this is exceptional4 ,in any case   
there is nothing original  and          
individual in this ,hittite art of      
,pteria1 except the eagle with two      

heads 7fig4 #afb71 which is evidently   
connected with the most ancient         
,asiatic worship1 and suggests          
reminiscences of the ,sirens2 except    
also  the long curved lituus1 the robe  
cut in the form of a chasuble1 the      
peaked tiara1 the pointed shoes2 details
 of dress more interesting for  the     
history of costume than for that of art4
    ,illustration3 ,fig4                
#afb4--,sculpture at ,iasili-,kaa4      
,the connection of the sculptures of    
,pteria with those of ,hittite ,syria   
is quite clear2 there are the same      
hieroglyphs1 the same short tunic1  the 
same long robe1 the same shoes1 the same
 peaked tiara1 and the same  round      
skull-cap4 ,the female garments are     
almost identical at ,marash and         
,iasili-,kaa2 the deities have similar  
attributes2 the lion and the bull  are  
the animals which both regions prefer to
 represent4 ,we must conclude  that the 
same semi-barbarous race1 powerless to  
free itself1 whether in  art or         

politics1 from the yoke of ,egypt and   
,assyria1 inhabited both the  slopes of 
the ,taurus2 we will now examine how far
 this ,hittite race  extended its       
branches towards the west1 and what     
monuments it left in  ,asia ,minor      
beyond the ,halys4       ,,iii4         
,,hittite ,,monuments ,,in ,,asia       
,,minor4    ,to the north of the ,taurus
 and beyond the ,halys1 the monuments   
belonging  to ,hittite civilisation are1
 as in ,cappadocia1 bas-reliefs carved  
on the  sides of rocks or not4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4--,rock       
sculptures at ,ghiaur-,kalesi 7after    
,perrot  and ,guillaume1 pl4 x474    ,at
 ,kalaba1 near ,ancyra1 in ,galatia1 ,m4
 ,perrot discovered a large slab 7#d    
ft4 #d in4 by #b ft4 #f in47 on which is
 carved a lion1 analogous in style  to  
those which we have met in ,syria or in 
,cappadocia4#gd ,a nine hours'  journey 
south-west of ,ancyra1 among the ruins  
called ,ghiaur-,kalesi1 the  same       
scholar found two large figures1 cut    

this time on the side of the  rock4     
,these are warriors1 like several of    
those at ,boghaz-,keui2 both  wear a    
conical helmet or tiara1 to which a     
piece of stuff is attached  behind1     
which covers the nape of the neck2 they 
are clothed in a short  tunic1 drawn in 
at the waist by a sash2 their feet are  
shod with curved  boots4    ,the        
sculpture at ,ibriz1 in ,lycaonia1      
consists of an inscription in  ,hittite 
hieroglyphs and two colossal figures1   
one #ai ft4 #i in4 high1 the  other #aa 
ft4 #i in4 ,a priest is standing in     
adoration before his deity4  ,the god   
holds in his left hand an ear of corn1  
and in his right hand the  branches of a
 vine which grows from the ground behind
 him4 ,his tiara is  provided with      
several pairs of horns1 and his beard   
and hair are curled  in the ,assyrian   
fashion4 ,the pontiff is thoroughly     
,assyrian in  appearance and costume2   
his robe edged with fringes is decorated
 with  square or lozenge-shaped designs1

 which remind us of the tunic of        
,marduk-nadin-akhi 7fig4 #bb71 and also 
of the ornaments of the                 
,phrygo-,hellenic tomb called that of   
,midas4    ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#afd4--,rock sculpture at ,ibriz 7from  
,wright1 ,empire  of the ,hittites74    
,the ruins of ,eflatoun1 in ,lycaonia1  
scarcely consist of anything more at    
the present day than the faade of a     
ruined edifice2 it is adorned with  a   
bas-relief in which the winged solar    
disk is to be distinguished1 the  symbol
 of the deity in ,egypt and in ,assyria2
 below are two other smaller  disks2    
then come two rows of figures with their
 arms raised above their  head1 as if to
 support an entablature4                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4--,rock       
sculpture at ,nymphio 7,revue arch41 t4 
xiii1 #ahff74    ,hittite monuments grow
 more rare as we leave ,cilicia1        
,lycaonia1  ,cappadocia and ,phrygia to 
penetrate into more western regions4    
,however1  fresh monuments are met with 

every day in ,lydia and even on the     
coast of  ,ionia1 accompanied by        
hieroglyphs which do not allow us to    
doubt of the  origin of the people who  
carved them on the rocks4 ,herodotus    
attributed  to ,sesostris two ,hittite  
bas-reliefs1 near ,smyrna1 which are to 
be seen  at the present day4 ,one1 at   
the village of ,nymphio1 on the side of 
a  rock which overhangs a branch of the 
river ,hermus1 rises at least #afb  ft4 
above the ravine4 ,in a niche1 #h ft4   
high1 a warrior is seen wearing  the    
conical tiara and clothed in a short    
tunic2 he carries a lance and a  bow2 he
 is shod with the pointed boots4 ,the   
second monument alluded to  by          
,herodotus has been lately discovered by
 ,m4 ,humann2 it is less well           
preserved1 and represents an almost     
exactly similar warrior4#ge  ,besides   
traces of ,hittite inscriptions1 the    
style of these rock  sculptures1 the    
costume and attitude of the figures     
connect them  inevitably with the       

bas-reliefs of ,cilicia1 ,lycaonia1     
,cappadocia and  ,syria2 there is the   
same indistinct outline and the same    
lack of  modelling4 ,wherever the       
,hittite people went1 they remained     
feeble  imitators2 the works of art     
which they have left us can be referred 
to  two or three types1 copied from     
,assyrian and sometimes from ,egyptian  
sculpture1 but always much inferior to  
the model4    ,less mediocre is the     
manufacture of models in serpentine     
which have come  down to us1 and which  
were employed by ,hittite or            
,lydo-,phrygian  goldsmiths in making   
metal ornaments or talismanic figures4  
,the two most  curious of these matrices
 are that which is preserved in the     
,cabinet de  ,mdailles under the name of
 ,baphomet1 and another1 found a few    
years  ago near ,thyatira in ,monia4#gf 
,the latter1 which is #c in4 high by #d 
in4 broad and  in4 thick1 shows us a    
naked woman1 with her hands upon  her   
breasts like the ,babylonian ,istar2    

next a man1 perhaps ,bel-,marduk1       
clothed in the ,chaldan robe with a     
series of fringes one above the  other4 
,farther on there is a lion with a ring1
 intended to hang the  ornament when it 
came out of the mould2 a sort of altar2 
and1 finally1  the planetary symbols    
found on a large number of ,assyrian    
monuments4    ,in the glyptic art1      
,hittite engravers surpassed themselves1
 and showed  themselves worthy of their 
,ninevite masters4 ,far be it from us to
 treat  with disdain the                
seal-impressions on terra-cotta1 the    
seals of precious  stone and the        
cylinders1 the inscriptions and figures 
upon which have  only recently attracted
 the attention of archologists4 ,the    
silver seal1  now lost1 of the king     
,tarkudimme1 bears a bilingual          
inscription in  ,hittite hieroglyphs and
 in ,assyrian cuneiform4 ,a cylinder at 
the ,louvre1  found at ,adin1 in ,lydia1
 shows a scene of presentation to a     
deity 7fig4  #afg74 ,three figures walk 

in the same direction1 with their hand  
upon  their mouth1 carrying the curved  
sceptre which we noticed in the rock    
sculptures of ,iasili-,kaa2 a large     
table1 supported by two lions1 is  laden
 with offerings4 ,then comes an         
,assyrian genius with two faces1 a      
deity sitting upon a throne1 and some   
secondary figures4 ,m4 ,heuzey#gg  has  
observed that though the subject is     
almost entirely ,assyrian1 there  is1   
nevertheless1 a national element in it2 
this is the decorative part  of the     
cylinder4 ,the ornamental design        
occupies1 indeed1 a considerable  place 
on the surface2 it is composed of a     
double border of interlacing  lines and 
symmetrical scrolls1 which are never met
 with except in  monuments of the       
,hittite glyptic art4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #aff4--;,boss of ,tarkudimme      
7after ,wright74    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #afg4--;,hittite cylinder 7,louvre74   
,,chapter ,,vii4    ,,jewish ,,art4     
,palestine1 which unites ,syria to      

,egypt1 was inhabited by numerous       
,semitic and ,canaanitish tribes which  
have left us very meagre remains of     
their art4 ,like that of the ,hittites1 
this art drew its inspiration both  from
 ,assyria and ,egypt1 though it never   
did more than imperfectly  imitate them4
 ,pharaonic influence is1 however1 more 
deeply to be felt  here than among the  
,hittites1 since ,palestine was nearer  
to the valley  of the ,nile4 ,the most  
important inhabitants of this region    
were the  ,jews1 and in spite of the    
poverty of our archological documents1  
numerous scholars have1 for three       
centuries1 taken a special interest in  
the works of this people who played so  
extraordinary a part on the stage  of   
the world4 ,it must be added that almost
 all these researches have  been        
concentrated upon the exploration of the
 ,temple of ,jerusalem and  its         
furniture1 which in fact were the       
highest effort of ,jewish art2 and      
though the monuments themselves are no  

longer in our hands or before our  eyes1
 there is not a single edifice in all   
oriental or classical  antiquity of     
which we possess written descriptions so
 circumstantial and  so numerous4 ,a    
hundred restorations of the ,temple1    
taking these as their  basis1 have been 
attempted2 the least complicated system1
 and that which  has obtained the       
greatest scientific credit1 is that of  
,m4 de ,vog4 ,we  will correct and      
complete it by means of the more recent 
researches of  ,english explorers4      
,accordingly1 all the art of ,palestine 
being  concentrated in the ,temple of   
,jerusalem and its furniture1 we shall  
only  speak incidentally of the few     
other ruins anterior to the ,macedonian 
epoch that have been remarked1 whether  
in ,juda or among other nations  of     
southern ,syria1 and even among the     
,nabatan ,arabs4       ,i4 ,,the        
,,temple ,,of ,,jerusalem4    ,the city 
of ,jerusalem occupies at the present   
day the southern extremity  of a plateau

 bounded on the east by the ,valley of  
,kedron1 and on the  west and south by  
the ,valley of ,hinnom4 ,this plateau is
 cut in two from  north to south by a   
ravine called the ,tyropon ,valley1 so  
that it  forms two hills--one on the    
east1 ,mount ,moriah1 the southern      
extremity  of which1 called ,ophel1 was 
,sion or the city of ,david2 the other  
on the  west1 of much larger extent1 to 
which the name of ,sion is improperly   
given at the present day1 and to which  
the city began to extend only  under the
 kings of ,judah4 ,when ,solomon        
ascended the throne1 ,jerusalem         
consisted only of ,sion or the city of  
,david--that is to say1 the narrow  hill
 of ,ophel1 between the ,kedron and     
,tyropon valleys4 ,mount ,moriah1  on   
the north1 was given up to cultivation1 
and a rich man of ,jerusalem1  ,araunah1
 possessed some ground there1 with a    
threshing-floor on which  camels and    
oxen trod out the corn at the time of   
harvest4 ,david had  bought the field of

 ,araunah in order to build upon it the 
,temple of the  true ,god1 and before   
beginning the construction he had       
erected an altar  on the threshing-floor
 in order that sacrifice might at once  
be offered  to ,jehovah4 ,the materials 
were collected in great part before the 
work  began2 architects1 workmen and    
artists recruited at ,tyre1 thanks to   
the  assistance of ,king ,hiram1        
hastened to the spot1 and the building  
began  in the fourth year of ,solomon's 
reign 7,b4,c4 #ajac74    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #afh4--,site of the ,temple on    
,mount ,moriah4#gh    ,the summit of    
,mount ,moriah1 the centre of which     
formed the  threshing-floor of ,araunah1
 had to be levelled in order to serve as
 the  site of the structure of the      
temple4 ,in one place the hollows had to
 be  filled1 in another the ridges had  
to be cut away4 ,the central crest was  
therefore surrounded by an immense      
quadrangular rockwork bounded by        
,cyclopean walls of the height of the   

truncated summit4 ,these supporting     
walls1 extraordinarily thick1 formed of 
enormous blocks fastened by  iron       
clamps1 were also embanked on the       
outside at the base1 and all the  empty 
spaces and interstices between the      
interior wall and the living  rock were 
filled up with a nucleus of rockwork1 so
 as to form on the  upper part a square 
platform4 ,a ,f ,g ,l is the            
threshing-floor thus  surrounded4 ,at   
the north-western angle--that is to say1
 ,a ,b ,c ,d--it was  necessary not to  
construct a supporting rampart and fill 
up the  declivity of the mount1 but1 on 
the contrary1 to cut away the natural   
rock into the form of an angle1 so that 
at this point the enclosure of  the     
temple was bounded by a natural wall    
rising perpendicularly to the  height of
 #bf ft4 ,a trench dug by the ,english  
explorers at the  north-eastern angle ,b
 ,l ,k proved that at this point1 on the
 contrary1  the artificial rockwork of  
the temple basement must have reached   

the  colossal height of #abc feet4 ,on  
the south1 at ,e ,f ,g ,h1 a labyrinth  
of  vaults and corridors1 supporting a  
mass of collected material1 was         
contrived in the substructure1 which at 
the south-eastern angle1 at the  point  
,g1 forms at the present day a terrace  
#de ft4 high2 and yet the  accumulated  
rubbish causes the foot of the wall to  
be more than #fe ft4  below the present 
surface of the ground6 ,by the system of
 levelling  which we have described an  
irregular quadrilateral was obtained1   
the  eastern and southern sides of which
 are #aebj ft4 and #afaa ft4 long1 and  
the northern and southern side #ajag ft4
 and #iba ft4    ,as ,mount ,moriah     
extended in a northern direction beyond 
the temple  enclosure1 the platform was 
on this side accessible to all comers4  
,to  remedy this inconvenience1 and turn
 the new structure into an isolated     
citadel as well as a temple1 a broad    
trench was hewn in the rock on the      
north-east1 ,a ,b2 and on the           

north-west1 ,b ,l1 a gigantic moat      
called  ,birket-,isral1 which at the    
present day1 though filled up to the    
extent  of two-thirds1 is still #ajd ft4
 broad and #fe ft4 deep4 8,thus10       
concludes  ,m4 de ,vog1 8we have a large
 quadrilateral excavated on the north1  
supported on the south by vaulted       
substructures1 and surrounded on three  
sides by terraces and on the fourth side
 by a broad moat4 ,such is the  entirely
 homogeneous whole of the ,haram        
esh-,sherif2 such almost it has  existed
 for long centuries1 for successive     
destructions and rebuildings  have      
little altered the primitive plan40#gi  
,we shall see directly1 in  the company 
of the same scholar1 that this immense  
pedestal1 the work of  ,solomon1 was    
only modified and enlarged by ,herod on 
one of its sides4    ,however1 the      
platform thus prepared was not quite    
level with the natural  crest of rock   
which crowns ,moriah4 ,the culminating  
point of this rock1  called ,sakhra1    

still rose #af ft4 above the terrace4   
,instead of sapping  this peak of chalky
 limestone and removing it1 it was taken
 as the level  of a second platform     
above the first1 but concentric with it 
and much  smaller4 ,this is the upper   
terrace which at the present day        
supports the  domed building improperly 
called the ,mosque of ,omar1 which would
 better  be designated by its true name1
 ,kubbet es-,sakhra1 8,dome of the      
,rock40  ,according to ,m4 de ,vog1 the 
threshing-floor of ,araunah1 on which   
,david  set up the altar of ,jehovah1   
was a little to the north of the        
,sakhra1  where later the altar of      
burnt-offerings was placed4    ,after   
building the platform1 ,solomon occupied
 himself with the  structure properly so
 called4 ,the temple1 or more plainly1  
the house of  ,jehovah1 was to be       
enclosed in two concentric courts4      
,solomon had only  time to finish the   
first court1--that which immediately    
surrounded the  edifice1 and then the   

eastern side of the second2 this was not
 completed  till long after his death1  
in the reign of ,manasseh4 ,as soon as  
the  interior building was ready1       
,solomon resolved to devote it to the   
worship of ,god1 without waiting for the
 completion of the second court4  ,he   
celebrated the solemn dedication of the 
temple only seven years after  the      
laying of the first stone of the        
substructure4 ,the ,bible has           
bequeathed to us the description of the 
interior magnificence of this           
sanctuary1 built and decorated by       
,phnician workmen1 and of the works  of 
art collected within it by the most     
sumptuous of ,jewish monarchs4 ,the     
architecture and the interior ornaments 
were all ,egyptian in style1 like  the  
,phnician temples themselves4 ,but      
nothing is left of the building  of     
,solomon except the cisterns and the    
eastern side of the second court4  ,this
 court is decorated with a portico1     
under which ,solomon had the  royal     

throne placed on which he sat when he   
was present at public  ceremonies2 it   
was still called1 even after ,herod1 the
 ,porch of ,solomon4    ,under the kings
 of ,judah there were numerous works of 
enlargement and  restoration2 but all   
was destroyed in ,b4,c4 #ehh1 when      
,jerusalem was taken  by the ,chaldans4 
,nebuzar-adan1 ,nebuchadnezzar's        
lieutenant1 caused the  temple to be set
 on fire1 and all was over with the     
legendary  magnificence of the son of   
,david4    ,fifty-two years later the   
,jews who had been taken captive to     
,babylon  were set free by ,cyrus1 and  
their leader ,zerubbabel at once        
undertook  to restore the temple of the 
true ,god4 ,the work1 hindered by the   
jealousy of the ,samaritans1 was not    
finished till ,b4,c4 #eaf4 ,sufficiently
  similar in plan to that of ,solomon1  
the new temple was less beautiful  and  
less grand in its proportions2 the old  
men wept when they remembered  the      
former house4 ,in the course of         

centuries the new temple underwent  many
 modifications1 at least in its         
exterior1 although the original plan    
was not upset to any considerable       
extent4 ,for instance1 in the time of   
the ,maccabees1 the exterior enclosure  
was extended on the north1 and at  the  
north-eastern angle the fortress named  
,baris was built1 which  ,herod altered 
in later times and which became the     
famous tower of  ,antonia4 ,however the 
temple of ,zerubbabel lasted for nearly 
five  centuries without being destroyed1
 and had the good fortune1 rare in the  
ancient ,east1 to pass through the      
period of ,seleucid rule and the ,roman 
conquest under ,pompey1 without being   
either pillaged or demolished4  ,herod1 
a man of ,iduman race1 appointed king of
 the ,jews by the ,romans1  conceived   
the project of making himself popular   
among his people by  rebuilding the     
temple in all the splendour which       
,solomon had originally  bestowed upon  
it4 ,in the first place1 he brought all 

his efforts to bear  upon the enclosure1
 which he resolved to enlarge2 he       
doubled it1  according to ,josephus4    
,instead of four stadia in circumference
 it grew  to six1 preserving its former 
length on the smallest side1 so that in 
fact it became geometrically double in  
area4 ,this enlargement took place  on  
the south1 towards ,ophel1 so that the  
actual edifice of the temple1  instead  
of standing in the middle of its        
peribolus1 was removed to the  north4   
,the tower of ,baris or ,antonia        
continued to form the northern          
boundary4 ,in the annexed figure1 ,a ,b 
,c ,d is the ancient peribolus1 ,t the  
temple1 and ,c ,d ,e ,f the square      
portion added by ,herod4                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4    8,in order
 to carry out this plan10 says ,m4 de   
,vog1 8,herod had the  ancient terraces 
rased to the ground and rebuilt1 as well
 as the  colonnades which crowned them4 
,only he respected and enclosed the     
eastern colonnade called the ,porch of  

,solomon and its fine supporting  wall4 
,this is the only part of the former    
temple that he seems to have  preserved3
 all the rest was destroyed in order to 
be born again1  restored to youth1 and  
enlarged2 the inner sanctuary was       
demolished to  its foundations40#hj ,the
 work undertaken by ,herod began about  
the year  ,b4,c4 #ah4 ,ten thousand     
workmen were employed upon it under the 
direction  of a thousand priests1 who   
alone might work with their hands in the
 ,holy  ,place and the ,holy of ,holies4
 ,eighteen months were enough to raise  
the  inner building1 but eight years    
were required to rebuild the court and  
the colonnades4 ,the accessory          
structures were not finished till the   
year  #fd after ,christ1 in the reign of
 ,nero2 at this date the work was       
occupying eighteen thousand workmen4    
,the foregoing historical considerations
 compel us to conclude1 with ,m4  de    
,vog1 that the ,haram-esh-,sherif       
represents the very enclosure  enlarged 

by ,herod4 ,in fact1 the southern side  
of the ,haram is #iai ft4  long1 the    
circumference is #e1jjf ft41 which1 with
 the addition of #ejh  ft4 for the      
projection formed by the tower of       
,antonia1 make #e1ead  ft4--that is to  
say1 six times the length of the        
southern side4 ,besides1  ,herod could  
not develop the enclosure on the north  
on account of the  tower of ,baris and  
the gigantic moat ,birket-,isral1 which 
bounded it  on that side1 nor on the    
east on account of the abrupt declivity 
which  forms the side of the valley of  
,kedron1 nor on the west where the      
,tyropon valley is4 ,the enlargement    
could only take place on the  south1    
and1 moreover1 as the ground was        
sloping1 it was necessary1 in  order to 
remove the declivity1 to proceed as     
,solomon had done3 that is  to say1 to  
construct an immense artificial         
platform1 supported on three  sides by  
high terraces4 ,the great substructures 
of the ,haram esh-,sherif  are the      

remains of ,herod's gigantic work4 ,if  
since the time of that  prince the      
structure of the temple has been several
 times overthrown  from top to bottom   
and continually rebuilt1 these          
successive  restorations have not       
altered the original plan of the        
substructure2 the  fragments of wall    
which remained in place served as bases 
for the new  edifices4 ,the consequence 
of this is that in these walls different
  layers of masonry are perceived one   
above the other like geological  strata1
 the original ,herodian courses being   
naturally the lowest4    ,the most      
ancient masonry visible1 the lowest1 is 
formed of the largest  blocks2 the      
courses are from a yard to two yards    
high2 the length of the  blocks varies  
between #g yds4 and #b ft4 ,one block is
 to be observed at  the south-eastern   
angle which is #ac yards long4 ,each    
layer recedes #b  in4 from that beneath 
it2 the stones1 carefully trimmed1 are  
laid  without mortar4 ,these large      

blocks are marginal-drafted--that is to 
say1  each stone is1 as it were1 bounded
 by a groove which marks the courses    
and the joints4 ,besides the groove1    
each block is framed in a chiselled     
band smooth but not deep1 which forms a 
second frame1 carved within the  groove 
round the surface of the hewn block4    
,the lower masonry of the  temple is1   
then1 drafted and chiselled at the edge2
 besides1 at  intervals1 the surface of 
the blocks is provided with projecting  
tenons1  no doubt contrived to          
facilitate the placing of them4 ,the    
best preserved  portion of this masonry 
is the ,heit el ,maghreby1 8the western 
wall10  where the ,jews come every      
,friday to weep over the destruction of 
,jerusalem and to await the ,messiah2 it
 is the ,wailing-place4 ,recent         
,english excavations1 carried #ajg ft4  
below the present surface of the        
ground1 have proved that this masonry is
 to be found all round the  enclosure of
 the ,haram4    ,illustration3 ,fig     

#agj4--,the ,jews' ,wailing-place 7after
 ,m4 de ,vog74    ,the system of        
construction immediately above the      
drafted blocks is  characterised by     
,roman masonry formed of smooth stones  
without grooves1  their outer surface   
being carefully fluted by means of a    
chisel with  very fine teeth4 ,the      
blocks1 about a yard square1 are laid   
with  sharp-edged joints4 ,this system  
is especially remarked on the western   
and southern sides4 ,the following      
systems1 in the order of their  position
 one above the other1 do not deserve to 
be described2 they are  relatively      
modern and belong to all epochs1 but    
chiefly to the ,saracenic  period4      
,not far from the ,wailing-place1 #ci   
ft4 from the south-eastern corner1 is   
the celebrated beginning of the bridge  
which united the temple to the  city1   
crossing over the ,tyropon2 it belongs  
to the first system of  the             
substructure1 and forms part of it4 ,the
 ,english excavations have  brought one 

of the piers to light2 they have shown  
that the roadway of  the bridge is #bie 
ft4 long1 and that the breadth of each  
arch amounts to  #af yards4 ,while      
digging at the foot of the pier a       
pavement was  discovered which no doubt 
represents the street which passed along
 there  before ,herod's epoch1 or rather
 even before the destruction of the     
,temple by the ,chaldans4 ,some         
foundation is formed for this conjecture
  by the fact that when the ,english    
broke up this pavement and dug lower    
still they found the extrados of a      
vault3 this was nothing less than the   
arch of another bridge of colossal      
masonry1 which in the course of         
centuries had been buried under masses  
of rubbish3 ,herod1 and perhaps         
,zerubbabel before him1 built over the  
ruins without even trying to clear  away
 the bridge4 ,who knows whether this    
arch1 called ,robinson's arch1  from the
 excavator's name1 is not the remains of
 a bridge erected by  ,solomon8    ,in  

the mass of substructure beneath the    
,haram1 the existence of vaults  and of 
a network of corridors of drafted       
masonry has been proved1 and  these     
must1 from the character of the work1 be
 contemporary with ,herod4  ,on the     
platform1 two cisterns are seen which   
probably date from  ,solomon's time1 if 
they are not even earlier1 though it    
must be admitted  that they have been   
subjected to successive restorations4   
,one is under  the rock ,sakhra1 the    
other in front of the mosque of ,el     
,aksa3 the  latter1 especially1 which is
 the largest1 is a superb artificial    
grotto1  upheld by pilasters contrived  
in the side of the rock4 ,the descent   
into  that under the rock ,sakhra is by 
a flight of fifteen steps2 in the       
centre is a well which by means of a    
subterranean canal opens into the       
valley of ,kedron1 and was perhaps used 
by ,araunah the ,jebusite4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4--,the western
 door4 ,present state 7after ,m4 de     

,vog74    ,the outer enclosure built by 
,herod was pierced by several gates     
giving  access to the terrace1 which are
 still partly preserved4 ,they are      
subterranean with regard to the         
platform2 their threshold was of course 
on a level with the ground outside1 and 
they opened on the staircases  formed in
 the thickness of the terrace4 ,at the  
present day1 as the  ground outside has 
been raised by rubbish of all kinds1    
,herod's doorways  are filled up either 
entirely or partly4 ,the ,western ,gate 
7fig4 #aga71  near the ,wailing-place1  
is at the present day buried to the     
extent of  two-thirds4 ,it is surmounted
 by a great monolithic lintel #af ft4   
long1  and its structure belongs to the 
,herodian system of masonry1 but it has 
undergone subsequent alterations within4
    ,the two most important of the      
ancient gates are on the southern side2 
they are called the ,double ,gate and   
the ,triple ,gate1 on account of  the   
number of their arches4                 

,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4--;,interior  
,view of the ,double ,gate4    ,the two 
arched apertures of the ,double ,gate   
give access to a large  vestibule1 the  
vaulting of which is supported by an    
enormous central  column2 here the      
hottest hours of the day might be passed
 in comfort4  ,from this vestibule there
 is an ascent to the upper platform by  
two  parallel flights of steps separated
 by a row of pillars4 ,there is  nothing
 left of the time of ,herod but the two 
outer jambs of the door1  the middle    
pier1 two monolithic lintels similar to 
those of the ,western  ,gate1 and1      
lastly1 the central column of the       
vestibule4 ,this column is  squat1 for  
it is only four of its own diameters in 
height2 it has no  base4 ,its capital1  
which broadens into the form of a       
basket1 is  decorated with acanthus     
leaves in very low relief all round4    
,the ,triple ,gate1 also situated on the
 southern side of the ,haram1 #fg  yards
 from the ,double ,gate1 is similar to  

the latter1 except that  instead of two 
arches it has three2 besides this1 a    
triple sloping  corridor led to the     
upper platform4    ,the ,golden         
,gate1#ha opened in the eastern side of 
the enclosure1 was  in its original form
 similar to the ,double ,gate and the   
,triple ,gate2  and1 like them1 it is   
about #f yds4 below the level of the    
platform to  which it gave access2      
nothing is left of the first structure  
except the  two monolithic jambs #aj ft4
 and #ac ft4 high1 which seem to be even
  earlier than ,herod's building4 ,on   
the north1 there was only one  entrance1
 on a level with the platform1 which    
communicated with the  outside by a     
bridge thrown across the great moat4    
,now that we have arrived at the terrace
 we are going to pass through the       
different parts of the buildings4 ,they 
are commanded by the tower of  ,antonia1
 which was built by the ,asmonan kings1 
under the name of ,baris1  and enlarged 
and embellished by ,herod2 it occupied  

the north-eastern  angle of the         
structure4 ,its base was a scarped rock1
 the flanks of which  had been cut away 
by human hands2 its outer wall of       
enclosure was three  cubits thick4 ,an  
enormous trench cut in the rock isolated
 the fortress  on the north1 and four   
turrets flanked the outer curtains at   
the angles4  ,two flights of steps led  
straight down from the fortress into the
 outer  court of the ,temple4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4--,plan of    
,herod's temple 7after ,m4 de  ,vog74#hb
    ,the great outer court was on three 
of its sides surrounded by a double     
portico--that is to say1 by two rows of 
columns of the ,doric order1 #be  cubits
 high2 the roof1 upheld by this double  
portico1 which was #cj  cubits broad1   
rested upon the outer wall4 ,or the     
south1 instead of a  portico there was a
 basilica1 that is to say1 8a building  
with three  naves of unequal height1    
supported by columns40 ,the aisles were 
#cb ft4  broad and #ej ft4 high2 the    

central nave was #dh ft4 broad and #ajj 
ft4  high4 ,there were #da columns in   
each row1 which gave #ged ft4 for the   
whole length of the basilica4 ,the      
central nave was supported by three     
rows of ,corinthian columns1 and there  
were columns attached to the side  walls
 which corresponded to each row4 ,the   
building had a panelled  ceiling of     
carved wood4 ,the basilica opened on the
 bridge which cut the  valley of the    
,tyropon1 and its axis was in a straight
 line with the  axis of the bridge4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4--;,bird's-eye
 view of ,herod's ,temple 7,restoration 
by ,m4 de ,vog74    ,such was the court 
of the ,gentiles1 accessible to all     
visitors4 ,a  barrier1 only three cubits
 high1 prevented profane intruders from 
penetrating into the enclosure reserved 
for the ,israelites1 which was          
contained within that of the ,gentiles4 
,m4 de ,vog thinks that this low  wall  
of separation1 on the southern side1    
must have corresponded to the  boundary 

of the outer enclosure of the ancient   
temple of ,solomon4    ,the enclosure   
reserved for the ,israelites included   
the women's court  and the men's court1 
or that of ,israel4 ,from the ,gentiles'
 court  access was obtained to the      
women's court by a flight of fourteen   
steps4  ,this court had1 at its four    
angles1 square chambers which served for
 the  stores of the ,temple1 for the    
ablutions and other pious exercises2    
there  was also the ,treasury chamber1  
in which the specie was kept which was  
coined for the exclusive use of the     
temple4 ,between these chambers rose    
porticoes4 ,on the inner side1 the      
women's court was separated from the    
court of ,israel by a series of         
buildings which opened on the court of  
,israel1 and the entrance into this     
court was by three gates1 each  provided
 with porches and five steps4 ,the      
principal gate1 celebrated  under the   
name of the ,gate of ,nicanor1 on       
account of its fine  architectural      

proportions and the richness of its     
construction1 was a  folding gate of    
,corinthian bronze3 twenty men were     
needed to open and  shut it2 before it  
was a semicircular flight of fifteen    
steps4    ,the court of ,israel1        
reserved for the men who had            
accomplished certain  acts of           
purification1 was #aa cubits broad4 ,the
 chambers which surrounded  it on three 
sides were used as appendages to ,divine
 worship2 their  faade was provided with
 porches4 ,each of them was consecrated 
to a  special service3 the skins of     
victims were salted and washed in them1 
musical instruments1 salt1 the perpetual
 fire1 and wood were kept in  them2 the 
hall in which the ,sanhedrim held its   
sessions was one of them4    ,a step one
 cubit broad1 which the priests alone   
might cross1 separated  the court of    
,israel from the court of the priests1  
and1 in the middle  of this court1 the  
temple properly so called and the altar 
of burnt  offerings stood4 8,the altar  

of burnt offerings was formed of three  
stages of rough-hewn stone1 each stage a
 cubit less on all sides than  that     
beneath it2 the base formed a square of 
#cb cubits2 the total height  was #ae   
cubits high2 the ascent was by an       
incline situated on the south1  #cj     
cubits long2 two smaller staircases led 
to the intermediate platform4  ,on the  
upper surface the sacrificial fire      
burnt1 and at the four corners  were    
horns on which the blood was sprinkled  
and libations of wine and  water were   
poured4 ,a conduit situated at the      
southern corner of the  altar received  
these liquids1 and carried them off into
 the subterranean  drains1 and thence   
into the valley of ,kedron40#hc ,at the 
north of the  altar of burnt offerings  
six rows of iron rings were seen fixed  
to the  ground in order to fasten the   
animals to them2 there were also eight  
small columns to which the victims were 
suspended that they might be cut  to    
pieces and flayed1 and eight tables upon

 which the flesh was placed4            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4--,the ,altar 
of ,burnt-offerings 7,restoration74     
,the temple properly so-called1 which   
stood #bb cubits to the west of the     
altar of burnt offerings1 was built on a
 terrace six cubits high1  mounted by a 
flight of twelve steps4 ,there was thus 
a difference of #bg  ft4 between the    
level of the temple platform and the    
court of the  ,gentiles4 ,as for the    
architectural arrangement of the        
building1 it was  similar to that of    
,solomon4 ,the anterior pylon was #ajj  
cubits high and  #bj deep2 at each      
extremity there were chambers in which  
the sacred  knives were kept1 which were
 used for slaying the victims4 ,the     
,holy  ,place or ,hekal1 and the ,holy  
of ,holies or ,debir1 only separated by 
a  veil1 were both #fj cubits high1 #cj 
broad1 and together #fe cubits long     
measured from outside4 8,a series of    
thirty chambers and three stories  was  
attached to the sanctuary1 as in the    

ancient temple1 for a length of  #ae    
cubits1 measured without1 and this gave 
to the sanctuary outside the  appearance
 of a basilica4 ,the whole edifice was  
roofed with terraces1 on  which gilded  
points were fixed to drive away the     
birds40#hd    ,the ,jewish ,temple was  
one of the grandest architectural works 
that the  genius of the ancients        
produced4 ,the successive enclosures    
raised one  above the other1 and crowned
 by the gigantic pylons of the          
sanctuary1  built of white marble1 were 
the result of an inspiration of genius  
that  has never been realised except in 
this instance1 and all antiquity had    
but one voice to proclaim its imposing  
majesty4 8,when the rays of the  rising 
sun struck upon the metal plates which  
covered the doors and roof  of the      
sanctuary1 when they illuminated the    
gilding on the faade1 and  the gigantic 
golden vine which spread its tendrils   
over the white marble  of the pronaos1  
the spectator's eyes were dazzled1 and  

he was forced to  turn them away1 and   
the stranger who perceived the temple in
 the  distance thought he saw a mountain
 covered with glittering snow40#he      
,such was the temple of the ,god of     
,abraham1 ,isaac and ,jacob1 restored by
  ,herod1 in which many of the scenes of
 the ,gospels took place1 and which  was
 destined for so dramatic and mournful a
 fate4 ,at once a public  market1 a     
house of prayer1 and a fortress1 it was 
condemned to be the  tomb of ,jewish    
nationality4 ,besieged and taken by the 
,romans1 after a  resistance unique in  
the annals of antiquity for its heroic  
desperation1  it succumbed before the   
violence of ,titus1 and was profaned by 
,roman  legionaries with torches and    
pickaxes in their hands4 ,the echo of   
its  fall1 solemnly marked in the pages 
of human destiny1 still resounds  among 
us1 for it was the overthrow of         
antiquity1 and the irreparable          
destruction of the old civilisation of  
the ,east4       ,,ii4 ,,the            

,,decoration ,,and ,,furniture ,,of     
,,the ,,temple4    ,the house of the    
,eternal was adorned with unheard-of    
splendour2 precious  woods1 gold1       
silver1 ivory and gems--nothing was     
spared by this people1  jealous for the 
honour of their ,god2 the accessories   
also of the worship  of ,jehovah1 sacred
 vessels1 knives1 basins and utensils of
 every kind  were works of art in which 
the chiseller and the metal-founder had 
each  emulated the other's skill4 ,but  
the artists who decorated the former    
temple1 let us not forget it1 were      
,phnicians4 ,now1 the ,phnicians  always
 confined themselves to the imitation of
 ,egypt and ,assyria2 their  technique  
has a hybrid character1 which is1 like  
,syria itself from a  geographical point
 of view1 a sort of compromise between  
,asia and ,egypt4  ,on these principles 
of criticism alone can we attempt to    
restore the  decoration and furniture of
 ,solomon's temple4    ,the veil hung   
between the ,holy ,place and the ,holy  

of ,holies1 and  concealing the latter  
from sight1 was a large piece of silk1  
on which  the skilful hand of ,eastern  
embroideresses had represented the image
 of  the world2 the four colours which  
entered into its composition were the   
symbols of the elements3 purple         
represented the sea1 saffron fire1      
hyacinth air1 byssus earth4 ,the inner  
walls were panelled with carved  planks 
of cedar4 ,in the ,holy ,place these    
wood-carvings represented  colocynths   
and open flowers2 in the ,holy of       
,holies1 palm-trees and  fantastic      
animals or cherubim were mixed with the 
flowers4 ,this  decoration was relieved 
by plates of gold fixed on the wood with
 nails  of the same metal4 ,the ,ark of 
the ,covenant1 in the ,holy of ,holies1 
was  sheltered under the wings of two   
immense cherubim of wood overlaid with  
plates of gold4 ,the different parts of 
these monstrous figures were  borrowed  
from the animal world1 like those of the
 winged bulls in the  ,ninevite palaces4

 ,according to the ,bible1 the cherubim 
are winged and  have bulls' feet2 they  
draw ,jehovah in his chariot or carry   
,him upon  their back1 like the         
,assyrian deities4 ,each cherub has at  
the same time  a human face and a lion's
 face4 ,they form a silent procession   
upon the  cedar panels1 the leaves of   
the olive-wood doors1 and the veil      
before  the ,holy of ,holies1           
alternating with palms and colocynths1  
which1 at  ,jerusalem1 are substituted  
for the ,egyptian lotus4                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4--;,egyptian  
naos and cherubim 7,m4 de ,vog1 p4      
#cc74    ,in the ,holy of ,holies there 
were two colossal statues of cherubs1   
#aj  cubits high1 overlaid with gold1   
which guarded the ,ark of the ,covenant4
  ,each cherub had two gigantic wings1  
one outspread and drooped over the  ark 
which it overshadowed1 the other        
symmetrically outspread in the  opposite
 direction and raised towards the       
ceiling4 ,m4 de ,vog  ingeniously       

compares with this description the      
,egyptian representations  of two       
figures with long wings1 kneeling on    
each side of the symbolic  scarabus or  
the solar disk supported by uri1 which  
they cover with  their wings4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4--;,egyptian  
ark and naos 7from an ,egyptian         
painting74    ,the ,ark of the ,covenant
 itself resembled those naoi or bari    
which we  see carried by ,egyptian      
priests upon their shoulders4 ,it was of
  acacia-wood 7shittim71 covered with   
plates of gold both inside and  outside4
 ,it was about #a yards long1 #b ft4 #h 
in4 broad and high4 ,the lid  was called
 the ,throne of ,jehovah4 ,the ark      
contained the two tables of  stone upon 
which the law of ,sinai was engraved4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4--;,egyptian  
table of offerings 7,m4 de ,vog1 p4     
#cc74    ,in the ,holy ,place was the   
altar of incense1 on which incense was  
burnt  in honour of ,jehovah2 this was  
probably a sort of tripod1 surmounted by

  a bowl with a lighted brazier4 ,there 
was also the table of shew-bread  and   
the seven-branched candlesticks4 ,the   
table1 on which twelve loaves  were     
placed every week1 was undoubtedly      
analogous to the tables of  offerings to
 the gods so often represented in       
,egyptian bas-reliefs1 with  loaves     
piled upon wine-pitchers2 furniture of  
the same kind also seems  to be spoken  
of in the cuneiform inscriptions of     
,nebuchadnezzer4 ,the  bas-relief on the
 ,arch of ,titus at ,rome represents    
,jewish captives  carrying on their     
shoulders the furniture of their ruined 
temple1 and  among this spoil figures   
the table of shew-bread such as it was  
in  ,herod's ,temple1 under the form of 
a square cippus4    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #agi4--,seven-branched candlestick 7,m4
 de ,vog1 p4  #cc47    ,the             
seven-branched candlesticks1 ten in     
number1 had a peculiar form1  also      
revealed to us by the ,arch of ,titus   
and some other monuments4 ,on  the base 

with two steps a central stem is fixed1 
to which six branches  are fitted1 three
 on each side1 arranged in the shape of 
a fan4 ,each of  the seven branches is  
adorned with three flowers and a socket4
 ,on the  base1 fantastic animals are   
seen in relief4 ,hiram-,abi1 the famous 
worker  in metals from ,tyre1 in        
,solomon's pay1 also 8made lamps and    
tongs of  gold1 and bowls and snuffers  
and basons and spoons and censers of    
pure  gold10#hf shovels and goblets of  
bronze4 ,the candlesticks and other     
treasures of the ,temple1 carried away  
to ,rome by ,titus1 were seized by      
,genseric during the sack of the city by
 the ,vandals 7,a4,d4 #dee74 ,they  were
 removed to ,carthage1 but1 on the      
conquest of the ,vandals by             
,belisarius1 were taken in triumph to   
,constantinople4 ,the ,jews petitioned  
the ,emperor ,justinian to restore these
 treasures to the ,holy ,city1 to  which
 they rightfully belonged1 and he is    
said to have ordered that they  should  

be sent to one of the ,christian        
,churches in ,jerusalem1 but we  hear no
 more of their fate in the pages of     
history4#hg    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#ahj4--;,capital of the bronze columns4 
7,restoration by  ,m4 de ,vog74    ,in  
the court of the priests1 before the    
vestibule of the ,temple1 there  were   
two separate bronze columns1 reminding  
us of ,egyptian obelisks1  named ,jachin
 and ,boaz4 ,the restoration of these   
two columns1 marvels of  ,phnician art1 
and invested in the eyes of the ,jews   
with a talismanic  power1 has often been
 attempted4 ,they were hollow1 and their
 metal walls  were #c in4 thick4 8,their
 capital1 #e cubits high1 had the form  
of  fleur-de-lis1 the lower part of     
which1 swelling outwards1 was covered   
with a reticulated ornament enclosed    
within two rows of  pomegranates40#hh   
,the total height of each column was #da
 ft41 the  diameter of the shaft was #f 
ft4 #e in41 the pomegranates1 #bjj in   
number1  formed a double collar round   

each capital4    ,in the court of the   
priests1 near the altar of              
burnt-offerings1 which  was itself      
covered with bronze1 the famous brazen  
sea was placed1 a  great reservoir from 
which the priests drew water to purify  
themselves  before the sacrifice4 ,this 
bronze basin1 which resembled the calyx 
of a  tulip1 was five cubits high 7#h   
ft4 #g in471 and ten cubits 7#ag ft4 #b 
in47  in diameter2 its exterior was     
decorated with two rows of colocynths in
  relief3 the wall was #c ft4 thick1 as 
in the bronze columns2 it  contained at 
least #h1hjj gallons4 ,instead of feet1 
the brazen sea was  upheld by twelve    
bronze figures of oxen1 in groups of    
three1 which1 in  accordance with the   
proportion of the basin1 must have been 
larger than  life4    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #aha4--,the brazen sea4           
7,restoration47    ,this gigantic basin 
was fixed and immovable2 for the purpose
 of drawing  water1 wheeled basins had  
been constructed1 ten in number1 also of

  bronze1 into which the water intended 
for ceremonial purposes was  poured4    
,each had four wheels1 like a chariot2  
the wheels supported a  square box1     
above which was placed the cylindrical  
basin1 large enough  to contain from    
#aej to #agj gallons4 ,the walls of the 
receptacle and of  the box which        
supported it were decorated with palms1 
colocynths1 oxen  and winged lions in   
relief4    ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#ahb4--,movable basin4 7,restoration47  
,such were the principal features of the
 temple furniture2 smaller  utensils1   
knives1 pincers1 tongs1 dishes1 are     
scarcely known to us4 ,an  exact idea of
 them can1 however1 be formed by an     
examination of the  products of         
,egyptian and ,assyrian industry1       
especially of the dishes1  vases1 and   
utensils found among the substructures  
of the ,phnician  temples in the island 
of ,cyprus4    ,various passages in the 
,bible enumerate the ornaments of the   
priests1  such as the ephod1 which1 in  

certain cases1 signifies the liturgical 
vestment2 in others a sort of sacred    
casket1 containing two talismanic       
cubes1 called urim and thummim4 ,the    
priestly costume of ,aaron is an        
embroidered garment in which gems are   
set1 according to the ,book of  ,exodus4
 ,as early as the period of ,genesis1 we
 see the children of ,israel  making use
 of seals of precious stone1 precisely  
as their neighbours the  ,egyptians and 
,chaldans did4 ,a certain number of gems
 carved in intaglio  have come down to  
us which bear names apparently ,jewish3 
,shebaniah1  ,nathanyahu1 ,hananyahu1   
,obadyahu4 ,these seals for the most    
part only bear  the name of their       
possessor2 they have neither ornament   
nor symbol4       ,,iii4 ,,civil        
,,architecture4    ,the temple of       
,jerusalem1 in which the national life  
of the ,jews was  concentrated1 was     
also1 as we have said1 the summary of   
their art and  industry4 ,in vain have  
many archologists1 during the last sixty

 years1  made efforts to discover in    
,palestine1 or in the other regions of  
southern ,syria1 and even in the heart  
of ,arabia1 traces of an art which      
might have flourished in these regions  
before the arrival of the ,greeks  and  
,romans4 ,travellers have indeed        
observed at ,ala-,safat1 at             
,jebel-,musa1  in the land of ,moab1 on 
the ,bahr-el-,huleh in ,galilee1 near   
,hesban1 and  in many other places1     
dolmens and upright stones1 analogous to
 those in  ,africa1 in ,brittany1 and on
 ,salisbury ,plain1 and remains of walls
 of  ,cyclopean masonry1 no doubt built 
by those giants1 the ,rephaim and the   
,anakim1 who1 as the ,bible tells us1   
were the first inhabitants of these     
regions4 ,certain circles of great      
blocks1 like those of ,minyeh and ,deir 
,ghuzaleh in the land of ,moab1 may have
 marked the bounds of sacred            
enclosures1 temples in the open air1    
that is to say1 of those bmoth1  or     
8high places0 of which the ,scriptures  

so often speak4 ,but these  barbaric    
remains1 like the borders of certain    
wells at which1 perhaps1  the flocks of 
the patriarchs slaked their thirst1 have
 little interest  for the history of    
art4 ,no idea can be formed of civil    
architecture  except by imaginary       
restorations4 ,solomon's palace1 which  
communicated  with the temple and was   
situated to the south1 upon ,ophel1 was 
demolished and rebuilt twenty times with
 incessant modifications1 until  its    
final ruin4 ,the principal building1    
standing in the middle of a  spacious   
court1 enclosed by supporting walls     
which bounded the hill like  the        
temple-enclosure1 was called the ,house 
of ,lebanon1 after the place  whence the
 timber was brought of which it was     
partly constructed4 ,it was  #ajj cubits
 long1 #ej broad and #cj high2 its walls
 were built of large  blocks2 forty-five
 cedar columns were counted in it1      
divided into three  rows1 and supporting
 architraves of the same sweet-smelling 

wood4#hi  ,this edifice was used as an  
arsenal3 like the monarchs of ,nineveh1 
the  kings of ,judah had a magazine of  
weapons in their palace4    ,behind were
 the royal apartments1 consisting of a  
hall of columns1 and  another room      
panelled with cedar1 called the         
throne-room2 in front of  the former    
stood a porch #ej cubits long by #cj    
broad4 ,there were also  the selamlik   
and the hareem1 arranged as in all      
oriental palaces4  ,the offices         
communicated with the city by means of  
the ,horse ,gate2 the  ,upper ,gate gave
 access to the temple-enclosure4 ,this  
is the extent of  our information upon  
the subject of ,solomon's palace4       
,the palace of ,hyrcanus1 at ,arak      
el-,emir1 and the fortifications of     
,jerusalem and of the ,tower of         
,antonia1 are purely ,grco-,roman1 and  
do  not come within the sphere of our   
work4 ,however1 the ,english explorers  
discovered by their soundings on the    
slope of ,ophel1 above ,kedron1 a       

fortified wall which presents several   
kinds of masonry one above the  other2  
the lowest masonry is perhaps earlier   
than the rebuilding of the  ramparts by 
,nehemiah after the ,babylonian         
captivity3 in this case it  would date1 
if not from the reigns of ,david and    
,solomon1 at least from  the time of    
,jotham and ,manasseh4 ,the base of the 
quadrangular bastions  is formed of very
 regular courses1 sometimes rusticated2 
the blocks are  #h ft4 long by #c ft4 #c
 in4 high2 the marginal draft is even   
found in  places4 ,this tradition of    
bevelled masonry has been already       
noticed in  the ,herodian substructure  
of the ,temple2 it is also to be seen in
 the  wall of ,hebron 7fig4 #ahc74      
,in a country which generally lacks     
drinking water1 the building of         
cisterns is a matter of importance1 and 
this is the case in ,juda4 ,one  of the 
most remarkable works of this kind is   
that which carries the  waters of the   
,fountain of the ,virgin to the ,pool of

 ,siloam4 ,in the  tunnel an inscription
 has been found which enables us to fix 
the date of  the work about the reign of
 ,king ,hezekiah1 and teaches us by what
  methods this subterranean canal1      
#a1gej ft4 long1 was successfully hewn  
in the rock4 ,two bands of workmen      
attacked the mountain on both sides at  
once1 and the miners1 after numerous    
windings1 which increased the  labour   
and the length of the tunnel1 at last   
struck 8pick against pick10  says the   
inscription1 8and heard one another     
shout0 on each side of the  barrier4    
,thus the water was carried along a     
passage not more than #b ft4  broad and 
of a height which varies from #a ft4 #e 
in4 to #ad ft4 #g in4  ,but bold as this
 work may appear in the hands of ,jewish
 engineers1 who  possessed neither      
compass nor exact geometrical           
instruments1 it teaches  us nothing from
 the point of view of art1 any more than
 the aqueducts  hewn in the rock which  
are found in other parts of ,palestine4 

,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4--,the tomb of
 ,abraham at ,hebron 7after ,vog1 p4    
#aai74       ,,iv4 ,,tombs4             
,palestine and the north-east of ,arabia
 are covered with sepulchral  monuments1
 but there are few which date from the  
pre-,hellenic epoch4  ,abraham bought a 
cave called ,machpelah from the         
,hittites of ,hebron for  #djj shekels  
of silver1 and was buried there1 as well
 as    ,illustration3 ,fig4             
#ahd4--;,absalom's tomb 7after ,f4 de   
,saulcy1 ,voyage  autour de la ,mer     
,morte74    the other patriarchs of his 
race4 ,the site of the cave is at the   
present  day covered by a mosque1 and in
 the crypt of this mosque the bodies of 
the patriarchs are supposed to lie4     
,now1 the wall of the crypt1 a superb   
piece of masonry of imposing appearance1
 is incontestably contemporary  with    
,herod2 there is the same marginal draft
 that we have studied in the  enclosure 
of the temple built by that prince4 ,the
 tomb called ,absalom's  is also a small

 building not earlier than the time of  
the ,seleucids1 and  if it preserves1   
like the ,palestinian structures of the 
same epoch1 a  few architectural        
reminiscences of ,phnician art1 it has  
columns1  capitals1 and mouldings which 
are entirely ,greek4 ,we need not1      
therefore1 occupy ourselves with these  
monuments1 or with the tomb of  the     
,maccabees at ,modin1 or with the not   
less celebrated hypoga known  under the 
name of ,kebr-el-,melk1 or 8,tombs of   
the ,kings10 ,tomb of  ,jehoshaphat1 of 
,saint ,james1 with its ,doric portico1 
or ,tomb of  ,zacharias3 sepulchral     
chambers which are visited by pilgrims  
in the  neighbourhood of ,jerusalem1 and
 the date of which ,saulcy has in vain  
tried to place even farther back than   
the ,babylonian captivity4 ,the tomb  of
 ,joshua1 among the ruins known under   
the name of ,khirbet-,tibneh1           
north-west of ,jifneh 7,gophna71 does   
not seem to be more ancient4    ,in     
,arabia1 at ,medan ,salih1 several tombs

 have been observed hewn in the  rock1  
the faade and inner arrangement of which
 are identical with those  of the       
,palestinian caves4 ,there are ,greek   
columns1 pediments and  mouldings mixed 
with a few traditional motives1 the     
original birthplace  of which is in     
,assyria or on the banks of the ,nile2  
cavities for  sarcophagi are arranged   
around the chambers as in the ,jewish   
tombs4 ,the  inscriptions obtained at   
,medan ,salih prove that these          
burying-places  were formed during the  
first eighty years of our era4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4--,sepulchral 
chamber at ,medan ,salih4 7,doughty1    
,doc4 ,epigr4 du nord de l',arabie47    
,however1 at the village of ,siloam1    
near ,jerusalem1 there is a tomb1  known
 under the name of the ,egyptian        
,monolith1 which seems to be far        
earlier than all those of which we have 
spoken2 there are some who would  even  
assign it to the epoch of ,solomon4     
,this trapezoidal monolith1  ,egyptian  

in style1 is #ac ft4 high1 and the      
platform measures #ai ft4 #aj  in4 by   
#ag ft4 #aj in4 ,the door which looks   
westward gives access to a  square      
ante-chamber which leads into a room #h 
ft4 long on each side4 ,the  ceiling of 
the chamber is slightly convex1 like    
many ,egyptian hypoga2  two large niches
 are contrived in the walls4 ,outside1  
the monument is  provided with an       
,egyptian cornice4 ,all tends to        
demonstrate that this  tomb is earlier  
than the ,babylonian captivity1 in spite
 of the  architectural alterations to   
which it has been subjected at a        
relatively  modern period4 ,besides1 to 
whatever date the sepulchral caves of   
,palestine belong1 they are all         
conceived in accordance with the same   
traditional type1 which is also that of 
,phnicia1 and which we shall  find at   
,carthage2 there is always a speos hewn 
in the rock1 a faade  with ,egyptian1   
,assyrian1 or ,greek ornaments1         
according to the date1 then  a vestibule

 giving admission through a low1 narrow 
doorway into a  sepulchral chamber4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--,the        
monolith of ,siloam 7after ,saulcy1     
,voyage  autour de la ,mer ,morte74     
,from this chamber the visitor          
penetrates through one of several       
apertures into other rooms2 and round   
these more or less numerous  chambers   
the cavities for sarcophagi are cut4    
,thus the cave of ,machpelah  at ,hebron
 must have been arranged as early as the
 time of ,abraham1 and  in the same     
fashion1 without doubt1 the sepulchral  
cavern was formed in  which the ashes of
 the kings of ,jerusalem were deposited4
 ,the discovery  of the hypogum         
containing the sarcophagi of the princes
 of the house of  ,david would doubtless
 be more important for epigraphy than   
for  archology properly so called4 ,it  
would only confirm the verdict          
pronounced upon ,jewish art3 that it is 
entirely wanting in variety and         
originality in every instance except in 

the ,temple of ,jerusalem4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4--,tomb in the
 valley of ,hinnom 7after ,saulcy74     
,,chapter ,,viii4    ,,ph,,nician ,,and 
,,cypriote ,,art4      ,the ,phnicians1 
established on the coast of northern    
,syria1 were not  simply the agents of  
commerce2 they also carried the art of  
the great  ,asiatic civilisations to all
 the coasts upon which they set up their
  factories1 and among all the races    
with whom they formed relations of      
business4 ,their manufactured products  
have no more marked originality  than   
those of the ,jews and ,canaanites3 a   
mixture of ,egyptian and  ,assyrian art 
is observed in them4 ,these two powerful
 foreign factors1 if  they had been     
brought into action by an ingenious and 
enquiring people1  would no doubt have  
begotten a new art which would have     
summed them up  and absorbed them1 by   
combining them with the peculiar        
inventions of the  national genius3 this
 was the case in ,greece1 for example4  

,but the  ,phnicians1 exclusively       
occupied with business1 were content to 
seek  sometimes from ,assyria and       
sometimes from ,egypt the elements of a 
bastard industry1 in which the exotic   
forms are so little disguised and  so   
imperfectly fused that it is as easy as 
possible to detect them4    ,if ancient 
authors and epigraphic texts attest the 
importance of the  ,phnician factories  
in ,greece1 ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,gaul1     
,spain1 and  ,africa1 none of the great 
nations of antiquity has left fewer     
material  traces than this of its       
industrial and artistic life4 ,in       
,syria1 ,cyprus1  ,malta1 and ,carthage 
we have great trouble in finding        
vestiges of the  structures raised by   
the ,phnician architects1 or statues or 
ornaments which can be attributed to the
 craftsmen of this nation3 the          
historian of art is obliged to glean in 
any direction that he can the  poor     
waifs and strays which he considers1 in 
spite of himself1 as  extremely         

precious1 but which he would often      
disdain if they came from  ,assyria or  
,egypt4 ,cyprus1 partly inhabited by a  
,hellenic population and  thrown by     
nature like a bridge between ,asia and  
,greece1 scarcely forms  an exception to
 this rule1 although it offers by itself
 alone a larger  material for oriental  
archology than all the other ,phnician  
countries put together4       ,i4       
,,temples4    ,before the introduction  
of ,egyptian and ,assyrian influence    
into ,syria1  the ,semitic and          
,canaanitish races of this country held 
the high places  7bmoth7 in veneration4 
,on the highest summit of the mountains1
 in  spots which recalled ancient       
memories1 on peaks that had been struck 
by  lightning1 stone altars were raised 
and victims were immolated upon  them2  
the surrounding forest became a sacred  
grove4 ,in the same way our  ,celtic    
ancestors erected their dolmens4        
,soon1 under ,egyptian influence1 the   
,phnicians began to construct  temples4 

,the maabed 7temple7 of ,amrith#ij is   
still an ,egyptian temple  on a small   
scale2 as in the latter1 there is a     
cella or tabernacle of  stone1 within   
which the divine image was contained4   
,it is composed of  slabs erected on    
three sides4 ,one side remained open1   
and was only  closed by a curtain4 ,the 
monolithic slab of the roof is adorned  
on its  four edges with a light border  
with mouldings1 and projects like eaves 
above the door2 in the interior it is   
cut in a semicircular form1 so  that it 
presents the appearance of a shallow    
vault4 ,the rock which forms  the base  
has been isolated from the mountain by  
sapping1 and thus the  chapel1 including
 this natural pedestal1 reaches #bb feet
 in height4 ,at  the edge of the        
surrounding court were certain          
structures1 doubtless a  colonnade      
bordering the sacred enclosure2 but this
 has disappeared4    ,the maabed of     
,amrith is the most important remaining 
representative of  the temples of       

,phnicia4 ,at ,ain el-,hayt1 however1   
two shrines have  been discovered       
similar to that of ,amrith2 one 7fig4   
#ahh7 tolerably well  preserved1        
consists of a monolithic cella1 resting 
on a substructure  of large blocks2 the 
whole is #ag ft4 high4 ,above the door a
 row of  ,egyptian uri is seen2 the     
ceiling within is perceptibly cut into  
the  form of a vault on which two pairs 
of wings1 surrounding the ,egyptian     
solar disk1 are sculptured in relief4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4--,shrine at  
,ain el-,hayt 7,renan1 ,mission de      
,phnicie74    ,the famous temples of    
,melkarth at ,tyre1 and of ,astarte at  
,sidon and at  ,gebal 7,byblos71 which  
excited the admiration of ancient       
travellers1 are  no longer known except 
in memory4 ,the maabed of ,amrith alone 
gives us  some idea of their            
architectural arrangement2 they         
consisted of courts1  in the centre of  
which rose the shrine of the deity built
 upon a  platform4 ,the ,phnician and   

,canaanitish temple showed therefore a  
strong resemblance to the temple of     
,jerusalem and also to the great  mosque
 of ,mecca1--the only monument which    
perpetuates this architectural  type    
among us4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#ahi4--;,coin of ,paphos    ,nothing but
 a few fragments is now left of the     
temples built by the  ,phnicians in     
,cyprus4 ,the great prosperity of this  
island under the  ,romans and in the    
middle ages is the direct cause of the  
destruction of  the monuments of an     
earlier age4 ,the superb cathedrals of  
,famagusta and  ,nicosia1 the fine      
churches built under the ,lusignan      
dynasty1 the  formidable ramparts       
constructed by the ,venetians1 rose at  
the expense of  ancient buildings1 the  
materials of which were turned to profit
 as  stone-quarries4 ,the celebrated    
sanctuary of ,astarte at ,paphos1 for   
instance1 is only known to us by the    
conventional representation of it  upon 
coins belonging to the ,roman period4   

,we are able to distinguish in  this    
figure a court surrounded by a          
balustrade1 and beyond the court a      
structure which reminds us of the pylons
 of ,egyptian temples3 it is a  gigantic
 gate between two towers1 provided with 
a large aperture through  which we      
perceive the sacred stone1 flanked by   
two candelabra2 above  hover the star   
and crescent4 ,the roof1 on which doves 
are resting1 was  supported by columns  
forming a portico4 ,tacitus1 who relates
 the visit  of ,titus to the temple of  
,paphos1 says that the goddess was      
represented  in it under 8the form of a 
circular block1 rising in the form of a 
cone1  gradually diminishing from the   
base to the summit40 ,this description  
corresponds with the stone which the    
medals show us4 ,according to the       
excavations carried on by ,p4 di        
,cesnola on the site of the temple1 the 
building was almost #bbj ft4 long by    
#afd ft4 broad2 the peribolus  measured 
#fhh ft4 by #edj ft42 the principal     

gate1 perhaps that which  figures on the
 coin1 had an aperture more than #af ft4
 broad4    ,the temple of ,golgoi       
7,athieno71 the ruins of which were     
disinterred by  ,cesnola1 was a         
rectangular building constructed of     
bricks dried in the  sun2 the           
substructure alone was of stone4 ,on the
 north and on the east  were doors with 
wooden frames4 ,within1 wooden pillars1 
surmounted by  stone capitals1 supported
 the roof1 formed of pieces of wood     
placed  close together1 on which mats   
and reeds were arranged with a thick    
layer  of beaten earth4 ,the exterior of
 the temple1 coated with white          
rough-cast1 must have been of a most    
modest appearance4 ,the interior1 on    
the contrary1 was laden with the richest
 ornaments4 ,in the middle of the       
enclosure a tall cone of grey stone was 
found1 a yard high1 which must  have    
been the sacred stone of the goddess1   
and reminds us of the image  at ,paphos 
described by ,tacitus4 ,round the mystic

 cone1 a whole  population of stone     
statues painted in brilliant colours1   
set in a line  along the walls or ranged
 in files in the centre of the building1
  formed1 as at ,tello1 the dumb train  
of worshippers of the goddess4  ,votive 
offerings were hung on the walls above a
 row of bas-reliefs1  analogous to those
 of the ,assyrian palaces4 ,stone lamps 
in the form of  shrines1 fastened to the
 walls1 lighted up this curious scene4  
,in the temple of ,curium1 ,cesnola     
ascertained the existence of a crypt to 
which a staircase gave access2 it was   
composed of four subterranean  chambers 
cut in the form of apses in the rock and
 communicating with one  another by     
doors and a passage4 ,these chambers are
 about #bb ft4 long on  each side1 and  
#ac ft4 high2 it was here that the      
famous treasure of  ,curium was found1  
consisting of the plate of the temple1  
and of votive  offerings made to the    
deity4    ,the recent excavations which 
we have shortly described1 though they  

have  scarcely brought more than        
substructures to light1 yet enable us to
  describe the ,cypriote temples with   
some exactness4 ,while those of         
,phnicia are built on heights1 reminding
 us of the primitive  high-places1 the  
sanctuaries of ,cyprus are generally in 
the plain1 in  the midst of fertile     
fields1 like the temples of ,egypt4 ,the
 shrine of  the deity was under the open
 sky like the ,greek temples2 around1   
and at  a greater or less distance1 rose
 a gallery covered with a roof supported
  within by colonnades forming a        
portico1 and without resting upon the   
wall of enclosure4    ,a ,phnician      
inscription of the fourth century before
 ,christ relates  the erection of       
several temples to various deities1     
notably to the god  ,sadambaal and to   
the goddess ,astarte in the island of   
,gaulos 7,gozo74 ,the  remains of these 
sanctuaries are still in existence3 they
 are called the  ,giganteja1 or         
8,giant's dwelling10 and consist of two 

neighbouring  enclosures not            
communicating with one another4         
,constructed of irregular  masonry1     
formed of enormous blocks1 they are     
parallel1 and their gates  open on the  
same faade2 though one is larger than   
the other they both  follow the same    
interior arrangement4 ,each is composed 
of two oval or  elliptical chambers next
 to one another1 and communicating by a 
narrow  passage2 the farther chamber    
contains also a semicircular apse4 ,the 
great temple is #aai feet long from the 
entrance to the bottom of the  apse2 its
 greatest breadth is #ge feet4 ,the area
 is uncovered2 in one of  these         
enclosures a conical stone has been     
discovered analogous to those  in the   
temples of ,phnicia and ,cyprus4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4--,plan of the
 ,giganteja4 7,nouv4 ,annales de        
l',institut arch4 de ,rome1 #ahcb1 pl4  
ii47    ,at ,malta1 ruins of temples    
have been discovered constructed on the 
same  principles as the ,giganteja of   

,gozo4 ,the ,hagiar ,kim1 8stones of    
adoration10 near the village of ,casat  
,crendi1 presents identical             
architectural features1 with the        
enormous blocks of its irregular        
masonry4 ,the plan1 however1 is a little
 more complicated3 it is a series  of   
seven ellipsoid chambers built next to  
one another4    ,not a single stone is  
left above ground of the temples raised 
by the  ,phnicians in ,sicily1          
,sardinia1 ,spain1    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #aia4--,roman wall at ,byrsa      
7,boul1 ,fouilles   ,carthage74    and  
even ,carthage1 ,the famous sanctuary of
 ,astarte1 which stood on the  scarped  
peak which overlooks ,eryx1 in ,sicily1 
has perished2 so has the  temple of     
,baal-,hammon at ,marsala 7,lilybum7 and
 the ,sardo-,phnician  sanctuaries of   
,baal-,samaim1 ,astarte1 ,eshmun1 and   
,baal-,hammon indicated  by the ,punic  
inscriptions discovered at ,sulci4 ,the 
temple of ,melkarth1  at ,gades1 so much
 resorted to in the time of ,strabo has 

left no traces4  ,it is in vain that the
 name of the powerful city of ,carthage 
and of the  illustrious men whom she    
brought forth excite our enthusiastic   
curiosity2 to no purpose has the site   
upon which she was built become  ,french
 soil3 the ,romans respected nothing in 
the city of their most  formidable      
enemies4 ,the destruction which followed
 ,scipio's conquest1 in  the year #adf  
before our era1 was systematic1 and     
extended to the very  foundation of the 
walls4 ,what did escape was altered and 
transformed for  the profit of the      
,roman colony which rose upon the ,punic
 ruins1 and  which was itself upon two  
occasions the object of a savage        
demolition4  ,there is1 therefore1      
nothing ,phnician to be expected from   
the  archological excavations at        
,carthage from the architectural point  
of  view2 except mutilated inscriptions1
 almost all that is discovered is       
,roman1 ,christian1 or ,byzantine4 ,the 
,chapel of ,saint ,louis1 near which    

,boul undertook his excavations1 stands 
on the site of the famous temple  of    
,eshmun in the middle of the acropolis  
of ,byrsa2 on the neighbouring  hill was
 the temple of ,tanit1 whom the ,romans 
called ,virgo  clestis2 between ,byrsa  
and the harbour1 beside the forum1 in   
the  neighbourhood of which ,i carried  
on some excavations with ,m4,s4 ,reinach
  in #ahhd1 rose the temple of          
,baal-,hammon4 ,to these topographical  
indications the memorials of the        
sanctuaries of ,hannibal's city are     
limited4       ,,ii4 ,,civil            
,,architecture4    ,if hardly anything  
is left of the ,phnician temples on all 
the shores  of the ,mediterranean1 it   
must be admitted that the state of the  
case is  almost the same with regard to 
civil monuments4 ,the position of the   
formidable ramparts of ,tyre1 which held
 conquerors of cities like  ,sargon1    
,nebuchadnezzar1 and ,alexander so long 
in check1 can with  difficulty be       
recognised at a single point3 it is     

probably marked by a  submarine wall of 
enormous blocks1 bonded with a concrete 
in which lime  is mixed with crushed    
bricks2 these walls1 according to       
,arrian1 were #adg  ft4 high4    ,the   
enclosure of ,banias 7,balaneum71       
between ,tortosa and ,latakieh1 is      
still partly standing2 but is it of     
,phnician or of ,pelasgic origin8  ,it  
extends to a length of about #a1igj ft42
 the wall1 pierced by three  gates1 from
 #bf ft4 to #cb ft4 broad1 is built of  
blocks of grey  limestone of irregular  
form1 which are neither trimmed nor     
cemented4 ,it  is from #af ft4 to #bf   
ft4 thick1 and1 in places1 is still as  
much as #cb  ft4 high4 ,broken lines1   
recesses and projections seem to        
announce the  approaching appearance of 
bastions and towers in the art of       
fortification4 ,the ,pelasgic walls of  
,euba1 ,tiryns and ,sipylus  present    
analogous features4    ,what remains of 
the substructures of the walls of       
,aradus1 ,berytus1 and  ,sidon1         

indicates the employment of large and   
fine blocks irregularly  laid4 ,in the  
,carthaginian ramparts of ,eryx1 in     
,sicily1 the stones bear  ,phnician     
letters which acted as position marks   
for the masons1 but  this fortified     
enclosure does not date from an earlier 
period than the  fourth century1 and the
 ,punic architects must have imitated   
their  neighbours the ,greeks4 ,the     
walls of ,carthage1 which roused the    
astonishment of the ancients1 were from 
six to seven leagues in  circumference2 
they consisted1 at least at certain     
points1 of three  concentric walls1     
arranged in steps in consequence of the 
declivity of  the ground4 ,nothing is   
left of them except a sort of talus at  
intervals1  which serves as the boundary
 of cultivated fields4 ,constructed of  
hewn  stone1 they were1 according to the
 statements of ancient writers1 #gg ft4 
high and #cd ft4 thick2 the towers were 
still higher and stronger4    ,since    
temples and ramparts have always been   

constructed in the most  solid form1 and
 that most capable of resisting the     
attacks of time and  of men1 if very    
little of these is left there is a much 
stronger reason  why hardly anything    
should remain of civil monuments and    
private houses4  ,in the soft limestone 
of the ,phnician coast the primitive    
inhabitants hewed out their dwellings   
like ,troglodytes4 ,in later times1  by 
the aid of civilisation1 the tombs alone
 were opened in the sides of  the       
mountains1 and the living cut out       
enormous blocks of stone with  their    
picks1 in which they hewed doors and    
chambers4 ,at ,amrith there is  a       
monolithic house cut in this fashion1   
which ,m4 ,renan considers as the  type 
of the genus4 ,it is #ih ft4 square and 
#ga ft4 high2 the walls are #b  ft4 #g  
in4 thick2 in the interior three        
chambers are divided by thin  partitions
 contrived during the hollowing of the  
rock4 ,sometimes only  the lower part of
 the walls have been hewn in the rock1  

which thus only  forms a monolithic     
plinth one or several yards high1 and   
completed to  the roof by light masonry4
    ,at ,cyprus traces of structures    
which could be attributed to the period 
of ,phnician dominion are sought in     
vain4 ,the only monuments which  give   
some idea of the civil architecture of  
this famous island are  models of houses
 in terra-cotta1 found at ,dali and     
preserved at the  ,louvre 7#g in4 high74
 ,the most remarkable of these little   
buildings has  a door guarded by a      
sphinx4 ,at the two windows appear the  
heads of  women2 on each side of the    
door1 columns with capitals in the form 
of  lotus-flowers support a projecting  
roof4 ,but of what architectural value  
can such a toy1 modelled in so coarse a 
manner1 be8    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#aib4--,terra-cotta house4 7,louvre47   
,the poverty of monuments is even more  
absolute in the case of ,carthage  and  
the western basin of the ,mediterranean4
 ,what travellers who visit  the site of

 the old city admire above everything   
are the unheard-of  efforts made by the 
ancients to catch the water from the sky
 and store  it in vast covered basins1  
or else to bring water from springs at  
great  distances4 ,nowhere throughout   
the ,east1 where there has always been  
the  greatest anxiety to provide        
water--not at ,jerusalem1 where the     
,siloam  aqueduct was tunnelled1 nor at 
,tyre1 where the aqueduct was dug which 
brought the waters of ,ras el-,ain into 
the city--are such grand traces  left of
 the works undertaken with this useful  
object4 ,only the gigantic  viaduct     
which goes for several leagues to bring 
the waters of ,mount  ,zaghouan to      
,carthage1 does not date1 as it is at   
the present day1 from  an earlier period
 than the reign of ,hadrian2 and the    
same must be said  of those immense     
vaulted cisterns1 near ,byrsa1 in which 
a whole ,arab  village lodges at the    
present day1 and in which tourists take 
drives3 it  has never been possible to  

say exactly how much is anterior to the 
period at which the ,roman colony was   
founded4 ,the ,carthaginians1 two       
hundred years before our era1 certainly 
knew the vault and the dome1 the        
natural and primordial elements of      
oriental architecture1 as well as the   
,romans4 ,the walls1 vaults1 and domes  
of the cisterns of ,carthage are of  a  
mediocre stone1 furnished by the        
quarries of ,zaghouan3 small irregular  
blocks are buried in a very thick mortar
 of lime1 so excellent that it  unites  
with the stone and gives to the whole   
structure the homogeneous  character of 
one single immense block4 ,the          
,byzantine ruins which cover  the plain 
of ,carthage are built with equally bad 
materials and an  equally good cement4  
,we must now enquire whether any trace  
remains of the constructions which  the 
,phnicians must have    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #aic4--,plan of the harbours at   
,carthage 7after ,daux1  ,emporia       
phniciens74    undertaken in order to   

establish or maintain those ports on the
  ,mediterranean coasts in which their  
vessels found a sure refuge4 ,these     
works must have shown the most          
characteristic side of the art of       
building among this nation of merchants4
 ,however1 they have perished  almost   
entirely like the rest1 or else they are
 still buried under the  sand4 ,tyre and
 ,sidon had two harbours1 of which only 
the site is now to  be distinguished4   
,the two harbours at ,carthage1 the     
commercial harbour  and the cothon or   
military harbour1 are still there1 but  
three-quarters  of them are covered with
 sand1 and they no longer contain more  
than a  pool of shallow water4 ,lengthy 
and costly excavations1 of which those  
undertaken at ,utica may give some idea1
 could alone tell us what they  formerly
 were4 ,at present we can only confirm  
the exactness of ,appian's  description 
when he says3 8,the harbours of         
,carthage were constructed in  such a   
way that ships passed from one into the 

other2 on the side of the  sea they had 
only one entrance1 #gj ft4 broad1 which 
was closed by iron  chains4 ,the first  
harbour1 intended for merchant vessels1 
was furnished  with numerous and various
 mooring-cables4 ,in the middle of the  
second  there was an island2 round this 
island1 as on all the edges of the      
basin1 were large quays4 ,the quays     
presented a series of docks which  could
 contain a hundred and twenty vessels4  
,above the docks1 storehouses  had been 
constructed for the rigging4 ,before    
each dock rose two columns  of the      
,ionic order1 which gave to the circuit 
of the harbour and the  island the      
appearance of a portico4 ,in the island 
a pavilion had been  built for the      
admiral1 from which trumpet-signals     
sounded1 and orders  were transmitted by
 the herald1 and in which the admiral   
kept his  look-out4 ,the island was     
situated near the mouth2 its surface had
 a  perceptible elevation above the     
plane of the water1 so that the admiral 

might see all that passed on the sea    
without those who were coming from  the 
open being able to distinguish what was 
being done within the  harbour4 ,even   
the merchants who found shelter in the  
first basin could  not see the arsenals 
in the second2 a double wall separated  
them from  it1 and a special entrance   
gave them admission into the town       
without  having to pass through the     
military harbour40 ,go at the present   
day to  ,carthage1 and you will observe 
with astonishment the modest extent of  
these two reservoirs1 which formed the  
harbour of the great ,african  city4    
,they are parallel to the sea1 from     
which a narrow strip of land  separates 
them2 the admiral's island is still in  
the centre of the  cothon1 which is     
circular in form1 and communicates by a 
narrow canal  with the merchant harbour2
 the latter forms a large rectangle1 and
 opens  into the ,mediterranean by a    
mouth a few yards wide4 ,the            
,carthaginian  vessels were scarcely    

larger than our fishing-smacks4 ,the    
jetty which  sheltered them on their    
entrance into the harbour of ,carthage  
has left a  trace marked by large       
blocks1 which at certain points reach   
the level  of the sea4 ,the two harbours
 of ,utica were not more spacious3 one  
was  only #cbh ft4 by #ajh ft41 the     
other #ghj ft4 by #cbg ft4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4--;,jetty of  
,thapsus4 7,restoration by ,daux1       
,emporia phniciens47    ,of all the     
,phnician towns1 that which has         
preserved the most  remarkable remains  
of its ancient jetty is ,thapsus        
7,dimas71 on the  eastern coast of      
,tunis4 ,the mole which1 though         
dilapidated1 still rises  #h ft4 above  
the waves1 is #hej ft4 long1 and its    
breadth is #ce ft4 ,the  peculiarity of 
its construction is that it is pierced  
by a series of  small passages1 arranged
 in three rows3 their object was to     
deaden the  violence of the shock of the
 waves1 by allowing them to pass through

 the  openings4 ,here again it is       
uncertain whether we are looking at a   
work  exclusively ,phnician1 ,roman1 or 
,byzantine4       ,,iii4 ,,tombs4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4--,tomb at    
,amrith4 ,plan 7after ,renan74          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4--,tomb at    
,amrith4 ,section 7after ,renan74       
,the most important of the monuments    
discovered in ,phnicia are the  tombs4  
,nearly all are hewn in the rock1 and   
are1 as in ,juda and ,arabia1  great    
caves in which the sarcophagi of an     
entire family were deposited4  ,the     
necropolis of ,marath 7,amrith71        
explored by ,m4 ,renan1 furnished       
specimens of tombs which seem to be the 
most ancient1 the most spacious1  and   
hewn with the greatest skill4 ,the      
descent into them is by a shaft1  as in 
,egypt1 and notches are cut in the wall 
of the rock into which the  hands and   
feet must be inserted2 but in the more  
recent tombs a flight  of steps is      
substituted for the shaft4 ,at the      

bottom a low door is found  on two      
sides1 leading into a larger or smaller 
number of rectangular  chambers4 ,these 
rooms communicate with one another by   
means of passages  in which a few steps 
are generally found1 so that the most   
distant  chambers are at a lower level  
than the others4 ,sometimes there are   
even  two stories of chambers2 in the   
partition of rock which forms the       
intermediate ceiling a shaft is pierced 
by which they are entered from  above4  
,the sarcophagi are ranged round the    
walls1 or placed in niches or  cavities 
for coffins1 hollowed out on the sides3 
once filled1 these  niches were closed  
by a large slab1 on which an inscription
 might be  written in honour of the     
dead4 ,the necropoles of ,tyre and      
,adlun present  the same types of       
sepulchral caves4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #aig4--,sepulchral chamber at     
,amrith 7after ,renan74                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4--,mighzal at 
,amrith 7,restoration by ,m4 ,renan74   

,now1 may we ask1 what was the outer    
aspect of a ,phnician necropolis  in    
which the tombs were thus hidden under  
the ground8 ,often1 especially  when the
 tombs were those of rich men1 a stela  
or cippus of small size  appeared above 
them1 and marked the position of the    
cave and the opening  of the shaft4     
,tombstones of this kind1 either        
monoliths or constructed  of masonry1   
are scattered over the plain of ,amrith2
 they are called on  the spot meghazil  
7in the singular1 mighzal72 one of them 
7fig4 #aih7  is described by ,m4 ,renan 
as 8a master-piece of proportion1       
elegance1 and  majesty03 it is #cb ft4  
high1 and consists of a base from which 
four  lions project1 two cylindrical    
drums placed one above the other and    
decorated with denticulated sculpture1  
and1 finally1 a small  hemispherical    
dome carved in the block4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4--,the ,burj  
el-,bezzk4 ,section 7after ,renan74     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4--;,chamber of

 the ,burj el-,bezzk 7after ,renan74    
,a sepulchral monument at ,amrith1 the  
,burj el-,bezzk1 is entirely            
distinguished from caves and structures 
of the form which we have just          
described2 it rises above the ground1   
like an ordinary house1 and is  built1  
without mortar1 of regular masonry1 with
 blocks #af ft4 long4 ,it  terminated   
formerly in a pyramidal roof1 and its   
full height was #eb ft4  ,in the        
interior1 there are only two chambers   
one above the other1 each  communicating
 with the outside by a narrow aperture4 
,round the walls of  these chambers     
there were numerous niches for coffins1 
separated one  from another by          
partitions4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#bja4--,the ,burj el-,bezzk4            
,restoration4 7,renan1  ,mission de     
,phnicie47    ,the necropolis of ,sidon1
 which is more considerable than that of
 ,amrith1  presents the same            
peculiarities3 the caves are constructed
 in the same  manner2 only at the       

present day no meghazil are any longer  
to be seen  near the orifice of the     
shaft4 ,in the poorest caves the corpses
 were  laid upon the ground or deposited
 in graves2 in other sepulchres         
cavities for coffins are hewn out all   
round the chambers2 in the  richest1    
finally1 the bodies were placed in      
sarcophagi buried in the  floor of the  
chamber4 ,the hypoga of ,gebal differ   
from the type observed  at ,sidon1      
,tyre1 and ,amrith1 by the peculiarity  
that the descent into  them is neither  
by a shaft nor by a staircase2 the      
aperture is formed in  the vertical side
 of the mountain1 and is sometimes      
surmounted by a  pediment and a few     
decorative mouldings 7fig4 #bjc74       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4--,section of 
a tomb at ,sada 7after ,renan74         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4--;,entrance  
of a tomb at ,gebal 7after ,renan74     
,of all the sarcophagi found in the     
,phnician necropoles1 perhaps not  one  
can be attributed to an earlier date    

than the reign of ,cyrus4 ,the  simplest
 are    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjd4--,the
 sarcophagus of ,eshmunazar4 7,louvre47 
large monolithic troughs1 provided with 
a convex or triangular lid4 ,some  of   
them are decorated with garlands1       
foliage1 and chaplets2 the corners  of  
the lid are sometimes provided with     
acroteria4 ,the only ones which  have a 
real artistic interest are the          
sarcophagi in the form of human         
figures1 or rather of mummy-cases1 the  
head of the dead person1 and  sometimes 
the arms also1 being carved in relief on
 the lid4 ,these  sepulchral urns were  
coloured in imitation of the wooden     
sarcophagi of  the ,egyptians1 which    
they copy in their form2 while the      
carved work of  the faces shows us that 
,assyrian influence was dominant in     
,phnicia  long after the disappearance  
of ,nineveh4 ,the sarcophagi of ,tabnit 
and  ,eshmunazar1 which only date from  
the year ,b4,c4 #cej1 disclose to us a  
remarkable peculiarity in the means     

adopted by the ,phnicians1  merchants   
and navigators before all things1 in    
order to furnish the  tombs of their    
dead with stone coffins4 ,these peculiar
 monuments1 of  black amphibolite1 issue
 from the ,egyptian quarries of         
,hammamat near  ,cosseir1 and they      
originally contained ,egyptian mummies4 
,phnician  sailors stole them or bought 
them for money2 the ashes which they    
contained were thrown to the four winds1
 the hieroglyphic inscriptions  and the 
,egyptian scenes1 carved or painted upon
 the plaster which  covered the stone1  
were entirely or partly removed and     
replaced by the  epitaphs of ,tabnit and
 ,eshmunazar4 ,a considerable number of 
,phnician  sarcophagi are thus borrowed 
coffins1 and by no means the work of    
indigenous artists4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #bje4--,sarcophagus in human form4
 7,louvre47    ,sarcophagi in the form  
of the human figure have been discovered
 in  nearly all the countries in which  
the ,phnicians established their        

factories1 in ,cyprus1 ,sicily1 and     
,malta1 and they everywhere present the 
same characteristics3 only the head of  
the dead man is in relief4 ,at  ,sada1 a
 sarcophagus was found in which the arms
 are carved beside the  body2 the sleeve
 of the garment ends above the elbow1   
and the left hand  holds an alabastron4 
,in the museum at ,palermo a sarcophagus
 is preserved  which came from ,solus1  
the lid of which has the form of a true 
reclining  statue like a medival tomb3  
it is a woman clothed in a long peplos  
over  a short tunic1 the sleeves of     
which end at the shoulder2 the left hand
  also holds a vase for perfume4#ia     
,besides stone sarcophagi1 leaden and   
terra-cotta troughs have been found in  
the necropoles of the ,syrian  coast1   
and also coffins of cedar-wood1         
decorated with metal ornaments1         
generally bronze lions' heads4    ,the  
sepulchral chambers of ,phnicia contain 
mortuary furniture not  without         
interest4 ,it consists of alabastra of  

glass1 terra-cotta and  alabaster1      
standing against the wall2 and of idols 
in terra-cotta1  representing           
,baal-,hammon sitting between two rams1 
the god ,bes1 of  ,egyptian origin1 the 
god ,pygmus1 ,astarte sitting or        
standing with a  dove in her hand1 and1 
lastly1 terra-cotta chariots holding one
 or two  figures1 with two or four      
horses harnessed to them4 ,besides these
  objects of ,phnician manufacture1     
amulets and statuettes1 imported  from  
,egypt1 are found4 ,the body of the     
deceased was enveloped in bands2  the   
mouth and eyes were often covered with  
gold leaf1 and rich men often  placed a 
complete mask1 formed of gold leaf1 in  
which all the features  of the face are 
marked3 it is thus seen to what an      
extent ,egyptian  habits were implanted 
in ,phnicia4 ,lamps1 amphor1 amulets and
  ornaments are also found in the tombs 
of the ,syrian coast4 ,women were       
buried with their necklaces1 their      
rings1 their bracelets1 their           

ear-rings1 their metal mirror1 their    
pyxes for cosmetics and perfumes1  and  
their toilet articles4 ,rings1 provided 
with engraved stones which  served as   
seals1 are also found2 nowhere1 except  
in ,cyprus1 have weapons  been          
discovered in the tombs of this nation  
of merchants4    ,in the ,cypriote      
necropolis at ,dali 7,idalion7 there are
 often at the side  of the corpses      
pieces of pottery with geometrical      
decorations1 bronze  weapons1 gold      
ornaments1 metal dishes with figures    
engraved on the  inner side1 statuettes 
of ,astarte1 of warriors1 of chariots   
and of  riders similar to those on the  
,phnician coast4    ,among the tombs at 
,amathus which are ,phnician and date   
from the  fourth century1 there are some
 constructed of fine regular masonry1   
with  a door framed in a fillet1 and a  
flat roof1 or one with a double slope   
like those of our houses4 ,these tombs  
sometimes contain several  chambers1    
along the walls of which the sarcophagi 

were set in a row1  sometimes in the    
human form1 sometimes with a triangular 
lid4    ,illustration3 ,fig4            
#bjf4--,tomb at ,amathus 7after         
,cesnola1 ,cyprus74    ,the ,phoenician 
tombs found in ,malta1 in ,sicily and in
 ,sardinia1 present  the same           
arrangement as those on the coasts of   
,syria and ,cyprus3 the  descent into   
the cave is by a sunken shaft or by a   
flight of steps1 and  the chambers      
resemble those that we have described4  
,at ,caralis and at  ,tharras pyramidal 
cippi have been found in situ1 above    
ground1 which  marked the position of   
the burial-places1 as we have already   
seen in  ,phnicia3 in these tombs the   
furniture is imported from ,egypt1      
,etruria and ,asia4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #bjg4--,sepulchral chamber at     
,amathus 7after ,cesnola1  ,cyprus74    
,the necropolis of ,mehdia1 on the      
eastern coast of ,tunis1 contains       
tombs1 the descent into which is by     
shafts as at ,aradus4 ,the tombs of     

,thina 7,then7 near ,sfax1 those of     
,carthage on the hill near the town     
called ,jebel ,kawi1 have all been      
violated in antiquity or by the ,arabs4 
,constructed on an uniform plan1 they   
consist of a rectangular chamber1  the  
descent into which is by a flight of    
steps4 ,all round this room1 the        
orifices of the coffin-niches are seen  
like the mouths of ovens4 ,the          
staircase may have as many as ten steps2
 the chamber is #f ft4 high1  from #ai  
ft4 to #ba ft4 long1 and #i ft4 broad4  
,the walls are coated with  a white     
stucco which sometimes was adorned with 
figures in relief2 the  fragmentary     
subjects which ,i was able to detect    
seemed to me to be ,greek  and perhaps  
,roman in style4    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #bjh4--,plan of a tomb at ,carthage    
7,boul1 ,fouilles   ,carthage74    ,to  
sum up1 the ,phnician tomb represented  
only two types3 the erect  tomb above   
ground1 and the subterranean tomb4 ,the 
first was monolithic1  or built like a  

house2 the second was either on a level 
with its  entrance in the side of the   
rock1 or else it was reached from above 
by  means of a shaft or a staircase4    
,both contained a greater or smaller    
number of chambers according to the     
number of corpses to be buried in  it4  
,these bodies were1 save in rare        
exceptions1 placed in sarcophagi        
sometimes deposited in cavities         
contrived in the wall of the chamber1   
sometimes in ditches hewn out in the    
floor1 sometimes simply deposited  along
 the walls4 ,the mortuary furniture     
varied according to the wealth  of the  
families2 it included1 together with    
amulets and figures of  deities1 all the
 toilet articles and ornaments used by  
the deceased  during his earthly        
existence4       ,,iv4 ,,ph,,nician     
,,sculpture4    ,phnicia1 it must not be
 forgotten1 was by turns subjected to   
the  yoke of the ,egyptians and         
,assyrians1 who introduced into it1 with
 their  garrisons1 their art1 their     

customs1 their industries and all that  
characterised the peculiar genius of    
their civilisation4 ,the conquerors     
were the masters of the ,phnician       
artists1 and the few objects which  came
 from the hands of the latter were      
inspired by ,egypt or ,assyria2 it  is  
only from the time of ,alexander that a 
third element1 ,greek art1  begins to   
reveal its action in ,syria4    ,the    
field of study offered by ,phnician     
sculpture is remarkably  limited3 it    
consists of the bas-reliefs of certain  
sarcophagi1 of votive  stel and of      
meagre fragments of stone statues4 ,the 
sarcophagi in human  form1 of which we  
have already spoken1 though not of an   
earlier date  than the ,hellenic epoch1 
show us very clearly the ,egyptian and  
,assyrian  influences at work in ,syria4
 ,if the form of the troughs is         
,egyptian1 if  the finest of them have  
actually been imported from ,egypt1 the 
sculptures with which they are decorated
 are altogether ,assyrian4 ,the         

symmetrically undulating curls of the   
beard are like those of the  ,ninevite  
colossi2 only it is to be observed that 
the artist can handle  his chisel like a
 ,greek4 ,from the time of the          
,seleucids1 the physiognomy  of these   
heads which stand out in high relief on 
the lid of the  sepulchral trough1 grows
 more and more ,hellenic1 and is        
modified in  accordance with ,greek     
models2 so that if a chronological      
classification  of all these monuments  
is undertaken1 the most ancient would be
 those in  which ,egyptian and ,assyrian
 influence is most marked2 the most     
recent  are those in which the ,greek   
style finally prevailed4                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4--,phnician   
slab at ,amrith 7after ,renan74    ,in  
the rare fragments of buildings anterior
 to the ,macedonian epoch1  observed in 
,phnicia1 the elements of decorative    
sculpture are  borrowed from ,egypt and 
,assyria3 nowhere has an original motive
 of  indigenous inspiration been found4 

,the gate of a structure described by   
,m4 ,renan at ,umm el-,awamid has a     
lintel on which two small figures of    
,egyptian appearance are sculptured in  
adoration before the winged disk        
supported by uri4#ib ,the ,phnicians    
imported this solar globe1 even  more   
ancient in ,egypt than in ,assyria1 into
 every coast4 ,it is found in  ,cyprus1 
,malta1 ,sardinia and ,carthage1 where  
it is carved on the votive  stel of     
,tanit and ,baal-,hammon4 ,the sphinx is
 also one of the principal  elements of 
,phnician sculptures3 not only its form1
 but even its  posture1 is copied from  
the sphinxes of the ,egyptian temples2  
it  reclines on a pedestal1 and has upon
 its head the pshent and the urus2  but 
it has more than the ,pharaonic         
sphinx--namely1 wings borrowed from  the
 ,assyrian and ,persian genii4 ,other   
fragments of architecture show us  the  
motives of their decoration1--rosettes1 
palmettes1 guilloches and  denticulated 
designs of ,assyria4    ,astarte1 on the

 stela of the king of ,gebal1           
,jehaw-melek1 has the  costume1         
attitude1 and attributes of the         
,egyptian ,isis1 while the king1        
standing before her1 resembles the      
,ninevite monarchs in adoration before  
their favourite deities1 or ,darius and 
,xerxes on the bas-reliefs of           
,persepolis4 ,a stela at ,amrith        
represents a deity standing on a lion1  
an  ,assyrian subject already reproduced
 in ,hittite bas-reliefs2 a still       
greater similarity is seen in the lion's
 cub held by the figure as by  the hero 
,izdubar1 and the energetic modelling of
 his limbs bears witness  that the      
artist was educated at the school of    
,nineveh4 ,and yet the god's            
head-dress1 and the winged disk placed  
above his head1 are ,egyptian in        
form4#ic    ,the study of sculpture in  
the round leads to the same conclusions4
 ,the  ,phnician patci1 images of the   
god ,pumai 7a word from which  ,pygmy   
and ,pygmalion are derived71 were only  

copies of the ,egyptian  gods ,bes or   
the embryo ,ptah3 this type of ugliness 
united to strength  was carved in wood  
at the bows of the ships1 in order to   
terrify the  enemy4 ,while statues found
 in ,phnicia are clothed with the       
,egyptian  shenti1 lions forming the    
doorposts at ,umm el-,awamid are only   
half  sculptured in the round3 the head1
 fore-quarters and front paws are the   
only parts carved4 ,nothing could more  
directly recall the lions of the        
,assyrian palaces4    ,if the ,chaldans1
 as early as the time of ,gudea1 were   
accustomed to  erect in their temples   
statues of kings1 of pontiffs1 or even  
of private  individuals1 whose image    
thus remained always present before the 
eyes of  the deity1 the ,phnicians took 
care not to renounce this habit4 ,m4    
,renan relates that in an underground   
chamber near the maabed of ,amrith a    
considerable number of fragments of     
white limestone statues was  discovered2
 they were also found at ,cyprus 7fig4  

#baj74 ,these statues are  iconic in    
character2 they are portraits of the    
8masters of the  sacrifices10 as the    
,phnician texts call the devotees who   
had  themselves represented in the very 
act of accomplishing their vows1 in     
order that the deity might not forget   
them4 ,the archaic statues lately  found
 on the ,acropolis at ,athens seem also 
to have1 if not the same  iconic        
character1 at any rate the same symbolic
 meaning4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#baj4--;,cypriote statue 7,new ,york    
,museum74    ,carthage1 which was a city
 of warriors as well as of merchants1   
had  despoiled all the towns that she   
had conquered of their artistic wealth1 
in order to adorn her temples and       
palaces4 ,this systematic depredation   
was so great a scandal in antiquity that
 when ,scipio took possession of        
,rome's haughty rival1 he invited the   
inhabitants of the ,sicilian towns  to  
come and point out their artistic       
property1 and resume their  ownership of

 it2 all that was not reclaimed was     
carried away to ,rome1  and a nation of 
statues was seen passing along in       
procession behind the  triumphal car4   
,besides these ,grco-,roman works1 the  
fruit of pillage1  which adorned the    
public places of ,carthage1 there were  
those which were  the work of the ,greek
 artists whom ,carthage was pleased to  
summon to her  bosom2 there were also   
those of ,carthaginian craftsmen        
educated at the  school of the ,greeks3 
these last alone interest us here1 and  
the scanty  specimens which exist of    
them confirm us in the opinion that the 
,carthaginians were not more artistic   
than the ,phnicians4    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #baa4--,votive stela from         
,carthage4 7,corpus inscript4           
,semitic47    ,these monuments consist  
almost exclusively of votive stel       
anterior to  the taking of ,carthage by 
the ,romans in ,b4,c4 #adf4 ,these      
boundary stones1  from #aa in4 to #ai   
in4 long by about #e in4 broad1 were    

intended to be  fixed in the ground1 and
 therefore the lower part is still in   
the rough2  the upper part1 trimmed on  
its four sides1 is particularly well    
smoothed  on one of its larger faces2 on
 this side alone is found a votive      
inscription addressed to the goddess    
,tanit1 the ,punic ,astarte1 and to     
,baal-,hammon4 ,above the inscription   
various symbols are represented in      
engraved lines1 rarely in relief4 ,the  
stela terminates in an imitation  of a  
gabled roof1 often provided with two    
acroteria4 ,the decoration of  these    
,punic stel is1 however1 still ,greek1  
as is proved by the design  of the      
acroteria1 ovals1 triglyphs1 volutes1   
pediments1 and even ,ionic  columns     
which figure in it4 ,the symbols1 carved
 in the most barbarous  fashion by      
workmen who could not claim the title of
 artists1 are  borrowed from the ,punic 
religion and from the fauna and flora of
 ,africa4  ,the commonest is the open   
hand1 raised towards the sky and        

generally set  at the point of the      
gable2 the ,arab still paints it in     
black on the  white lime with which he  
plasters his house3 it averts the evil  
eye4 ,we  find also the ,egyptian urus2 
the solar disk with the crescent1 a     
symbol  of ,tanit2 the ram1 the symbol  
of ,baal-,hammon2 the caduceus1 the     
horse1  the elephant1 the bull1 the     
rabbit1 fish1 the palm1 the rudder1 the 
anchor1 the hatchet1 the lotus-flower1  
vases of various shapes1 ships  and     
fruit4 ,we also meet with the ,divine   
,mother holding her child in her  arms2 
a young child standing or crouching with
 an apple in its hand2 or  a funeral    
banquet1 as on ,greek stel4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab4--,stela from 
,lilybum4 7,corpus inscript4  ,semit47  
,the great female deity of the          
,carthaginian ,pantheon1 ,tanit1 is     
found not  only under the form of a     
human figure1 but very often under that 
of a  symbol difficult to describe4 ,it 
is a sort of triangular mannikin 7fig4  

#bab71 the traditional and degenerate   
representation of a sacred stone2  this 
triangle is furnished with protuberances
 in its upper part1 and  resembles to   
some extent a man clothed in a long     
robe1 who straddles his  legs and raises
 his outstretched arms to heaven3 this  
sacred cone with  arms corresponds well 
enough to the description by ,tacitus of
 the  ,paphian ,aphrodite4 ,the supreme 
,trinity1 consisting of ,baal-,hammon1  
,tanit  and ,eshmun1 is also frequently 
symbolised by three cippi of unequal    
height1 placed side by side1 and joined 
on a common base4 ,this symbol is  also 
represented on the stel at ,hadrumetum  
and ,lilybum2 the cippi are  broader at 
the base than at the summit1 and the    
middle one is surmounted  by the solar  
disk and the reversed crescent4         
,sometimes a fire-altar  served by a    
pontiff burns at the feet of this       
symbolical figure 7fig4  #bab74         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4--,stela of   
,hadrumetum4 7,gazette arch41 #ahhd1    

pl4 vii47    ,one of the most           
interesting ,punic stel that can be     
cited was found at  ,hadrumetum 7fig4   
#bac74 ,an image of two columns is seen 
upon it1  supporting a complicated      
entablature4 ,the base of the columns is
 very  elegant1 and resembles a large   
vase from which acanthus leaves emerge2 
from the middle of this tuft of leaves a
 fluted stem rises1 the upper  part of  
which is fashioned like a woman's bust4 
,this woman is seen in  full face1 and  
holds her hands clasped upon her breast1
 which is also  adorned with the round  
disk and the crescent2 she has a similar
 disk  upon her head4 ,in the           
entablature a row of lotus-flowers1 a   
winged disk  supported by two uri1 and a
 row of uri seen in full face and with  
heads erect are distinguished2          
everything in this monument is oriental1
  or1 rather1 ,egyptian4 ,even in       
,sardinia and the ,balearic ,islands the
  votive stel of ,tanit and             
,baal-,hammon enable us to follow the   

track of  the preponderating influence  
of ,egyptian art in ,carthaginian       
symbolism4       ,v4 ,,cypriote         
,,sculpture4    ,if the very vestiges of
 ,cypriote architecture have            
disappeared1 it is  not so with the     
works of the sculptor4 ,the quarter of a
 century which  has just passed has seen
 disinterred as if by enchantment from  
the  bowels of the great eastern island1
 and then transported into the chief    
museums of ,constantinople1 ,paris1     
,london1 ,berlin1 and especially ,new   
,york1 hundreds of stone statues and    
thousands of terra-cotta figurines  of  
strange appearance1 with picturesque    
head-dresses and with  foolishly-smiling
 visages1 which form a group apart in   
the history of  art1 since they are     
neither purely ,asiatic nor purely      
,greek4 ,save in  rare exceptions1 the  
monuments of ,cypriote sculpture were   
not imported  from abroad2 they are the 
work of that mixed race of ,greeks and  
,asiatics1 which1 by means of the       

,phnician ships1 was in constant        
relation with ,syria1 ,egypt1 and ,asia 
,minor4    ,the productions of ,cypriote
 sculpture which seem to be the most    
ancient  remind us of the figures in the
 ,assyrian bas-reliefs2 the costume is  
the same3 a conical cap1 a curled beard1
 a long tunic1 and a short cloak  passed
 over the shoulder4 ,however1 there are 
essential differences3 the  muscles are 
far from being expressed with the same  
vigour2 no figure  wears that long beard
 like a regular screw1 which is so      
characteristic  of ,ninevite sculpture4 
,we feel that the ,cypriote artist works
 at a  distance from a model which he   
only sees with the eye of memory1 or    
else  that he imitates at second-hand1  
and is compelled to interpret a         
,phnician work which is itself only an  
interpretation of an ,assyrian          
prototype4 ,the most ancient statues    
discovered in the temple of ,golgoi  may
 date back from the epoch at which the  
,assyrian conqueror ,sargon  erected at 

,citium 7,larnaca7 the triumphant stela 
on which he relates  that his vessels   
have vanquished ,cyprus4 ,they are of   
all sizes4 ,there is  a colossal head #b
 ft4 #i in4 high 7fig4 #bad74 ,it wears 
a conical helmet2  the eyes are         
prominent1 the nose is straight and     
regular1 the mouth  small but           
full-lipped1 the cheek-bones projecting2
 the beard is composed  of long parallel
 tresses slightly curled at the end4    
,this fine head1  more than half        
oriental1 may be considered as the type 
of its kind4    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#bad4--;,colossal head from ,athieno4   
7,new ,york  ,museum47    ,after the    
overthrow of the ,sargonid dynasty1     
,cyprus was given up to  ,egyptian      
influence1 which reigned there during   
the period which extends  from the fall 
of ,nineveh1 at the end of the seventh  
century ,b4,c41 to the  ,achmenid       
dynasty4 ,but here again the imitation  
is only partial1 and not  as servile as 
in ,phnicia4 ,we find ,egyptian fashion 

modified in  ,cyprus by the taste of a  
foreign race4 ,the figures are half-nude
 instead  of being entirely draped2 they
 have no garment except the shenti1 tied
  round the waist and adorned with uri2 
the bust is bare2 the arms are  bare1   
but adorned with bracelets and held     
close to the body2 the  headdress is the
 ,egyptian pshent scarcely modified2 the
 hair1 cut  straight and falling in     
compact masses behind the beardless     
head1  reminds us of the ,klaft4#id     
,during the same period1 but especially 
under the ,persian dominion1 we  witness
 the interpenetration of the two        
influences--that of ,egypt and  that of 
,assyria--in ,cypriote art3 it is the   
marriage of the two styles1  the union  
of the two streams4 ,in the statues at  
,athieno1 for instance1  the head is    
,assyrian in the features of the face1  
the curled beard and  the headdress     
formed of a peaked cap1 but all the rest
 is ,egyptian3 the  nude torso1 the     
necklace1 the shenti round the waist    

quaintly loaded  with ornaments1 the    
symbolical meaning of which the artist  
no longer  understands4 ,a striking     
example of this hybrid style is the     
famous  colossus of ,amathus1 which is  
#ac ft4 #aa in4 high and #f ft4 broad   
across the shoulders4 ,he is a ,hercules
 who offers a mixture of the  athletic  
proportions of the ,assyrian ,izdubar1  
with the type of ugliness  symbolized in
 the god ,bes4 ,he has short horns1 a   
low forehead1 large  ears2 his hair and 
beard are treated in the ,assyrian      
manner2 he has a  lion's skin round his 
waist2 in his two powerful hands1       
pressed against  his breast1 he holds   
the hind paws of a lioness4 ,is he not  
the giant  ,izdubar1 whom ,assyrian     
artists so often took pleasure in       
representing8  ,on the other hand1 his  
tattooed arms1 his hairy skin1 his      
lion's skin  fastened round his body1   
his bestial and ,silenus-like face1 his 
legs  like the paws of a wild beast1 are
 all copied from those figures of the   

god ,bes1 which the excavations in the  
,nile valley bring to light by          
hundreds4 ,at the same time the artist  
handles his chisel as a ,greek  might4  
,the limbs are plump and rounded3 no    
more of those exaggerated  muscles which
 characterise ,assyrian art2 nothing    
,eastern in the  insignificant features 
of the face4 ,we have already1 in       
certain points1  the ,hellenic          
,heracles1 with whom the ,cypriote god  
is soon to be  confounded4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4--,the        
colossus of ,amathus4 7,gazette arch41  
#ahgi1 pl4 xxi47    ,in fact1 the third 
element which comes into ,cypriote      
sculpture is the  ,greek element1 with  
all its    ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#baf4--,the priest with the dove4 7,new 
,york ,museum47    methods1 as the      
colonies on the coast of ,asia ,minor   
understood them as  early as the sixth  
century4 ,in the year ,b4,c4 #ejj       
,cyprus made an alliance  with the      
cities of ,ionia2 and ,cimon's          

expedition in ,b4,c4 #dej determined    
the definite preponderance of ,hellenic 
civilisation in that island4 ,the       
statues in which ,greek inspiration is  
recognised have something original      
which distinguished them at first sight 
7fig4 #baj74 ,the physiognomy  recalls  
that forced smile which has been called 
the ginetan smile2  the heads are freed 
from those conical head-dresses so dear 
to oriental  art1 which ,greek art      
repudiated in order to replace them by a
 diadem or  a high crown2 the hair is no
 longer in ringlets and scarcely forms a
 row  of flat curls to frame the        
forehead2 the play of the drapery is    
quite  different from that which comes  
from ,nineveh1 and reveals a good taste 
which is quite charming4 ,in short1 the 
,cypriote monuments1 which  correspond  
to this description1 only form a branch 
of ,greek archaic art1  and we must no  
longer treat of them in a book devoted  
to the ,east4 ,let  us only cite1 as an 
example1 the famous statue of the priest

 with the  dove1 which seems to date    
from the ,grco-,persian period4 ,it is a
  colossal statue #h ft4 high1          
representing a man holding in his hands 
a  cup and a pigeon4 ,his head-dress    
consists of a hemispherical cap which   
terminates in the head of an animal2    
three tresses of hair1 a  characteristic
 sign of ,greek archaism1 fall          
symmetrically from the back  of his head
 on the front of each shoulder4 ,the    
rows of curls in the  beard which covers
 his mouth and chin are visibly imitated
 from the  ,assyrian fashion of dressing
 the hair4 ,the fringes and draperies of
 the  garment still remind us1 indeed1  
as well as the square form of the       
shoulders and breast1 of the statues of 
,tello2 but how much more ample  and    
harmoniously arranged they are6 ,we have
 here ,greek taste still  imprisoned in 
the hieratic formula bequeathed to it by
 the ,east4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#bag4--;,bas-relief of ,heracles and    
,eurytion4  7,colonna-,ceccaldi1 ,monum4

 antiques de ,cypre1 pl4 v47    ,to the 
same ,grcizing art belong all those     
iconic statues from the  temples of     
,golgoi and ,amathus1 which1 instead of 
the peaked cap or of  the pshent1 wear  
on their heads garlands of foliage or of
 narcissus1  more or less high and more 
or less rich1 but infinite in their     
variety4  ,like the statues found in    
,phnicia to which we alluded above1 they
  are portraits of priests1 priestesses1
 or other personages who offer to  the  
god for perpetuity the object which they
 hold in their hand3 a  flower1 a fruit1
 a branch1 a patera1 a pyx1 an          
alabastron1 a bull's head  or a pigeon4 
,few bas-reliefs have been noticed in   
,cyprus4 ,however1 a colossal statue  of
 ,heracles in the ,grcizing style1 found
 at ,golgoi1 had a pedestal  decorated  
with a most remarkable bas-relief1      
reminding us of those in  the ,ninevite 
palaces4 ,the ground is painted red to  
make the figures  stand out2 the relief 
is low and flat1 the anatomical details 

of the  figures are carefully studied   
and exaggerated in the ,assyrian manner4
  ,the scene represents ,heracles       
driving away the herds of ,geryon1 a    
subject which seems to be of ,tyrian    
origin4 ,heracles1 nude1 with the       
lion's skin on his back1 was probably   
holding his bow1 which has  disappeared 
as well as his head2 like the giant     
,izdubar1 he is of  colossal stature2   
before him is the dog ,orthros1 with    
three heads1  already pierced by an     
arrow shot at him by ,heracles2         
,eurytion flees with  his herds2 his    
beard and hair are treated in the       
,assyrian manner4 ,he  carries a whole  
tree1 with which he was no doubt lashing
 his oxen2 this  tree is treated like   
those that figure on the walls of       
,nineveh4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#bah4--,sarcophagus from ,amathus4 7,new
 ,york ,museum47    ,certain ,cypriote  
sarcophagi are also decorated with      
,greek subjects1  treated in the        
oriental manner3 the birth of ,chrysaor1

 who issues from  the neck of ,medusa1  
for instance1 is seen2 banqueting scenes
 and bull or  boar hunts are found4 ,a  
picture represented on the principal    
side of a  sarcophagus from ,amathus    
7fig4 #bah7 is copied in servile fashion
 from  the sculptures of ,assyria and   
,egypt2 there are rows of pearls1       
lotus-flowers and daisies2 a climbing   
plant is even to be remarked here  like 
the sacred tree on the ,ninevite        
bas-reliefs4 ,one of the figures  holds 
the ,asiatic umbrella1 and the tassels  
of the horses are ,assyrian4  ,however1 
the figures of the cortge are ,greek in 
style1 attitude and  costume4 ,on the   
smaller sides are two oriental subjects3
 at one end four  figures of ,astarte in
 full face1 of the type reproduced in   
profusion in  ,chalda and ,phnicia2 at  
the other four figures of the god       
,pygmus1  who is made up1 as we have    
seen1 of ,bes and ,izdubar together4    
,in two words1 ,cypriote sculpture1     
fruitful as it is1 lacks variety1 like  

,egyptian sculpture and ,assyrian       
sculpture1 its two mistresses4 ,it lives
  only by borrowing1 and has invented   
nothing4 ,what characterises the  stone 
statues which it produced is immobility 
and hieratic stiffness1  together with  
finish in the details and decoration4   
,they have no  features which proceed   
from a realistic study of nature4 ,it   
has been  remarked that these statues1  
intended to be set in rows along the    
inner  walls of the temples1 are        
scarcely at all modelled behind1 and are
  flattened as if they had been carved  
out of slabs of insufficient  thickness2
 moreover1 though broad in the chest1   
they are narrow in the  hips and feet2  
the legs are pressed closely together1  
so that they have  to some degree the   
appearance of reversed cones4 ,cypriote 
art has no  originality except in the   
,hellenic element1 which it assimilates2
 the  ,cypriote artist is a ,greek who  
has served his apprenticeship among the 
,orientals4       ,,vi4 ,,ph,,nician    

,,and ,,cypriote ,,ceramics4    ,the    
triple influence that we have remarked  
in ,phnician and ,cypriote  sculpture is
 observed no less clearly in pottery4   
,in the seventh century  ,assyria       
carried on the artistic education of    
,phnicia2 then it was  ,egypt till the  
end of the sixth2 finally ,greece enters
 into the lists in  her turn1 bringing  
her peculiar genius which1 especially in
 ,cyprus1  joins hands with its two     
elder brothers4 ,the ,phnicians1 then1  
learnt  first of all from the ,assyrians
 and ,egyptians how to model clay1 and  
to  fashion of it figures and vases of  
every form4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#bai4--,phnician chariot in terra-cotta4
  7,louvre47    ,in the list of         
terra-cottas from ,phnicia which depend 
upon ,ninevite  art1 and which were     
found at ,amrith 7,marathus71 chariots  
holding four  warriors and drawn by two 
or four horses hold the first rank4 ,the
  figures1 generally bearded1 and       
wearing the conical cap1 present in     

their features the purest ,semitic type1
 like certain ,babylonian  terra-cottas2
 the harness of the horses shows the    
minute detail of the  ,ninevite         
equipages4 ,besides these chariots1     
figurines have been obtained  from the  
,phnician necropoles1 which represent   
,astarte1 nude1  standing upright1      
carrying her hand to her breast1 or else
 sitting and  clothed in a long robe    
down to her feet without folds2 she     
often wears  a high calathos of ,asiatic
 origin1 which has been observed on the 
head  of captives in the ,assyrian      
bas-reliefs4    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#bbj4--,pygmy in terra-cotta4 7,louvre47
    ,we know that ceramics was never    
highly developed in ,assyria and        
,chalda2  accordingly1 as soon as       
,egyptian influence could show itself in
 the  political sphere in ,phnicia1 the 
pseudo-,egyptian style was not slow  to 
replace the pseudo-,assyrian style in   
ceramics4 ,the figurines of the  new    
school1 fashioned like the preceding    

ones in orange-red clay1  represent     
women standing or sitting1 sometimes    
suckling a child1 holding  a fan1 a     
pigeon1 or the lunar disk4 ,the         
,phnicians even learned from  the       
,egyptians to coat their statuettes with
 green or blue enamel1  analogous to    
that which is called ,egyptian faence1  
so that it is  sometimes difficult to   
say whether the enamelled statuettes    
found in the  tombs of ,phnicia are     
imported from ,egypt or are works of    
native  industry4 ,in their course of   
servile imitation ,phnician craftsmen   
have reproduced even the hieroglyphic   
characters1 which they distorted        
because they did not understand the     
sense of them4    ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#bba4--,pygmy in terra-cotta4 7,louvre47
    ,the type most frequently copied by 
the ,phnicians is the grotesque  god    
,bes or the embryo god ,ptah1 whom they 
turned into the god ,pygmus1  called    
,patcus by ,herodotus4 ,this            
large-headed and bandy-legged dwarf1  of

 repulsive obesity1 the type of         
deformity and ugliness1 is met with     
everywhere in ,phnician pottery4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4--,terra-cotta
 head from sarcophagus4 7,louvre47      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4--;,astarte4  
,phnician terra-cotta4 7,louvre47       
,the pseudo-,hellenic or ,grcizing style
 has furnished numerous  terra-cotta    
monuments in ,phnicia1 as is attested by
 the large head  found in the necropolis
 of ,amrith1 which is nothing less than 
part of  the lid of a sarcophagus in    
human form4 ,the head is vulgar1 and has
  neither an ,egyptian nor an ,assyrian 
appearance2 it was inspired by ,greek   
art1 but to some extent followed        
oriental tradition4 ,among the          
,phnician statuettes which may be       
referred to ,greek archaic art there    
are figurines of ,aphrodite standing    
upright1 clothed in a long tunic1  the  
folds of which the goddess grasps in one
 hand1 while she holds a  pigeon in the 
other4 ,tresses of hair fall over the   

breast on each side  of the head4 ,on   
other occasions the costume of these    
women is composed  of a long robe and a 
mantle fastened by a brooch on the      
shoulder2 they  hold their arms close to
 the sides of the body4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4--,terra-cotta
 from ,cyprus4 7,louvre47               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4--;,cypriote  
terra-cotta4 7,louvre47    ,the clay of 
,cyprus lends itself better than that of
 ,phnicia to  moulding and to baking1   
therefore in very early times it could  
be  utilised for this purpose2 and a    
considerable number of its productions  
take us back to a very primitive stage  
of art4 ,the most ancient of the        
,cypriote figurines follow oriental and 
,asiatic traditions4 ,they  represent   
,astarte1 the goddess of fecundity2 they
 are modelled with the  thumb1 with     
lines traced with a point1 and bands of 
black or red for all  their ornament4   
8,the head is almost formless10 says ,m4
 ,perrot2#ie 8a  curved1 beak-like nose1

 a pair of large round eyes1 and        
monstrous ears  may be distinguished1   
each of the latter pierced with two     
holes at the  place of attachment of the
 heavy elaborate earrings worn by       
,phnician  and ,babylonian women4 ,the  
arms are bent round horizontally1 so    
that the  hands lie either on the chest 
or the stomach4444 ,the extreme width of
  the hips seems to give a promise of   
maternity4 ,the scratches on the clay   
may be meant to represent a loin-cloth4 
,the legs are held tightly  closed2 they
 taper rapidly downwards1 and end in    
feet scarcely large  enough to give     
stability40 ,to the same period belong  
those vases in the  form of animals or  
human heads1 those strange statuettes of
  foot-soldiers1 of riders covered with 
speckled armour1 and of  war-chariots1  
which one might suppose to be modelled  
by children4  ,cypriote figurines are so
 numerous1 however1 that they can be    
arranged  in a scale so as to mark      
without gaps the gradual stages in the  

progress  of the art4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #bbf4--;,cypriote terra-cotta4    
7,louvre47    ,in ,cyprus the grotesque 
god ,pygmus1 whom we noticed in         
,phnicia1 is  often met with1 and he    
offers the same characteristics here as 
on the  coast4 ,we have always the      
mixture of the pseudo-,egyptian and     
pseudo-,assyrian styles combined in     
different degrees with the archaic      
,greek style4 ,we will cite1 following  
,m4 ,heuzey1 some statuettes of women   
with their hair dressed in ,egyptian    
fashion1 and marked by the gesture  of  
the divine mother1 holding her hand to  
her breast1 and by the gesture  of the  
goddess of generation 7fig4 #bbg72 this 
last1 which reminds us of  the          
,aphrodite of ,cnidos1 is not found in  
purely oriental art4 ,here we  catch in 
the very act the fusion of ,asiatic     
traditions with ,hellenic  ideas4 ,such 
was the skill of ,cypriote artists in   
pottery that they  manufactured         
terra-cotta statues of life-size2 in    

this case they have  all the            
characteristics that we noticed in      
statuary4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#bbg4--;,cypriote terra-cotta4          
7,louvre47    ,phnician vessels carried 
far away into the whole basin of the    
,mediterranean the products of          
,phnician1 ,rhodian1 and ,cypriote      
pottery4 ,at ,corinth1 for instance1 a  
small aryballus in the form of a        
helmeted head1 of pseudo-,egyptian style
 and of ,phnician  workmanship1 was     
found4 ,the helmet covers the whole     
head1 except the  eyes1 nose1 and mouth4
 ,there is an ,egyptian cartouche       
containing the  name of the king        
,uahabra 7,apries71 ,b4,c4 #eii--efi4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4--,mask from  
,carthage4 7,louvre47    ,on the site of
 ,carthage1 a large mask in terra-cotta 
coloured  reddish-brown was disinterred1
 which recalls at once the mask of      
,amrith  and the lids of the ,egyptian  
sarcophagi in human form 7fig4 #bbh74   
,the  hair is dressed in ,egyptian      

fashion1 the ears pierced to receive    
rings1  and the cheeks marked with a    
groove at the natural limit of the      
beard4  ,the modelling alone is rather  
,assyrian1 and shows signs of ,asiatic  
softness4 ,in the excavations near the  
harbours ,i obtained one of the  most   
remarkable examples of ,punic pottery   
that can be cited 7fig4 #bbi74  ,the    
cheerful smile of this head of ,astarte 
gives it a strong family  likeness to   
the head of ,tanit on ,carthaginian     
coins1 and even to the  archaic heads of
 ,athena on the most ancient            
tetradrachms of ,athens4                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4--,terra-cotta
 mask from ,carthage4 7,cabinet des     
,mdailles47    ,the terra-cottas found  
at ,tharras and at ,sulci in ,sardinia1 
present the  same types and the same    
hybrid character as those of all        
,phnician  countries4 ,even the ,chaldan
 goddess has been observed among them1  
nude1 in full face1 holding her hands to
 her breast1 and sometimes  disguised in

 an ,egyptian head-dress2 figures of    
,pygmies1 and of ,astarte  sitting on a 
throne1 holding a pigeon or a lunar     
disk1 have also been  found4    ,thus1  
from one end of the ,mediterranean to   
the other1 wherever the  ,phnicians     
established their factories1 they       
carried with them their  hybrid art1 in 
which the fusion of the elements is not 
sufficiently  marked to prevent those   
that are borrowed from being recognised4
 ,the  dissection and analysis of each  
of the products of ,phnician art1  both 
in the terra-cottas and in sculpture1   
enable us to restore to  ,assyria1      
,egypt1 and ,greece what belongs to each
 of them2 this work done1  nothing is   
left which is the property of the       
,phnicians except the  execution4       
,,vii4 ,,ph,,nician ,,glass4            
,according to ,pliny's testimony the    
invention of glass has long been        
attributed to the ,phnicians4 ,the      
following is a translation of his       
account3 8,in that part of ,syria which 

is called ,phnicia1 and which  lies next
 to ,juda1 a marsh named ,cendevia      
exists at the foot of ,mount  ,carmel4  
,it is regarded as the source of the    
river ,belus 7,nahr-,halu71  which1     
after a course of five miles1 falls into
 the ,mediterranean not  far from the   
colony of ,ptolemais4 ,the waters of    
this river flow slowly2  they are deep1 
muddy and unhealthy1 but religious rites
 have made them  sacred4 ,the ,belus    
only deposits sand at its mouth2 and    
this sand1  formerly unfit for any use1 
becomes white and pure as soon as the   
waves  of the sea have rolled and washed
 it4 ,the bank measures at the most     
five hundred paces1 and yet for many    
centuries this small space has  sufficed
 for the manufacture of glass4 ,it is   
related that  nitre-merchants1 alighting
 on this shore1 were about to prepare   
their  meal1 when they perceived that   
there were no stones to support the     
pots4  ,they ran in all directions      
without finding any1 and then in despair

 they  took the blocks of nitre with    
which the vessels were laden and made an
  impromptu furnace4 ,but scarcely was  
the fire lighted1 when the salt  melting
 mixed with the sand1 and streams of a  
transparent liquid1  unknown till then1 
were seen to flow4 ,such was the origin 
of glass40#if    ,it is easy enough to  
recognise the kernel of historical truth
 contained  in the fable echoed by      
,pliny4 ,the ,phnician merchants having 
lighted  their fire by chance in the    
cavity of a rock which concentrated the 
heat1 obtained a commencement of        
vitrification of nitric salt3 in this   
no doubt the invention of the ,phnicians
 consisted4 ,they had  discovered white 
transparent glass1 while before them the
 ,egyptians and  the ,assyrians only    
knew an opaque glass produced by the    
combustion of  certain plants4          
,opaque glass1 or rather glass paste1   
seems to be of ,egyptian origin4 ,the   
vitreous substance serves as a varnish  
to terra-cotta from the time of  the    

first dynasty1 and it is found thus     
employed on the posts of the  sepulchral
 door of the step-pyramid at ,sakkara4  
,in later times it is  applied as a     
glaze to scarabi1 sepulchral figurines1 
and paintings4  ,soon it was perceived  
that this material had consistency      
enough to be  used by itself3 8,from    
that time10 says ,m4 ,frhner1 8the      
manufacture  of what we call glass-ware1
 that is to say1 of small ornaments1    
beads1  armlets1 and figurines of opaque
 glass1 isochrome1 or of several        
colours1 was invented2 it did not stop  
here1 and commerce spread its  products 
everywhere40#ig ,the invention of       
glass-blowing soon followed3  the oldest
 coloured glass vase known bears the    
name of ,thothmes ,,iii4  7,eighteenth  
,dynasty74 ,white glass appears in      
,egypt much later2 bottles  of          
transparent glass1 preserved at the     
,british ,museum1 are of the            
,twenty-sixth ,dynasty4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4--,transparent

 glass vase bearing name of ,sargon4    
7,british ,museum47    ,in ,chalda and  
,assyria1 the progress must have been   
the same as in  ,egypt2 the vitreous    
substance was employed at first as      
varnish on  bricks1 statuettes and      
vases2 then opaque glass and finally    
transparent  glass were arrived at      
gradually1 perhaps under the influence  
of ,egypt4  ,assyrian objects of        
vitreous paste1 such as rings1          
necklace-beads1 small  vases1 are not   
rare in our museums2 but transparent    
white glass seems to  have been imported
 from ,phnicia1 and never used to more  
than a  limited extent in ,mesopotamia4 
,the celebrated transparent glass vase  
of  ,sargon 7,b4,c4 #gbb-gje7 at the    
,british ,museum is well known3 in spite
 of  its cuneiform inscription1 it is   
,phnician in style and matter1 so  that 
we are obliged to suppose that it was   
executed in the workshops of  ,sidon at 
the time when ,sargon was master of the 
country4 8,this vase10  says ,m4        

,frhner1 8is the prototype of the       
unguent-flasks of which we  have so many
 specimens in alabaster 7alabastra7 of  
,egyptian and  ,phnician manufacture4   
,very heavy in form1 and consequently of
 a very  archaic style1 it resembles a  
purse2 its walls are thick1 and two     
square  appendages form the handles4    
,the technical process followed in its  
manufacture is no less primitive1 for it
 was not blown2 the workman took  a     
piece of cooled glass2 then with a lathe
 he rounded the body and  hollowed out  
the interior1 exactly as if he were     
working in alabaster4  ,to put it in its
 true place1 we must remember that the  
,phnicians  were the first to produce   
white glass of this purity of tone40    
,but before chance taught them to       
utilise the fine sand on the banks of   
the ,belus and to manufacture from it   
that fine transparent glass so much     
vaunted by ancient authors1 the         
,phnicians had borrowed from their      
neighbours the ,egyptians and ,assyrians

 the art of employing vitrifiable       
matter as enamel4 ,at ,rhodes1 ,salzmann
 discovered enamelled vases of          
,phnician origin2 the geographer ,scylax
 informs us1 on the other  hand1 that   
,phnician merchants exported objects of 
vitreous paste1  that is to say1 amulets
 and necklace beads1 even beyond the    
pillars of  ,hercules4 ,the necropoles  
of ,cyprus have furnished some glasses  
with  thick walls1 slightly transparent1
 which were certainly manufactured in   
the workshops of ,tyre or ,sidon4 ,m4   
,g4 ,rey brought from ,phnicia to  the  
,louvre an idol of vitreous paste in the
 form of a cone placed  between two     
quadrupeds2 but the most interesting    
,phnician monument  in vitreous paste   
that we can cite is the necklace from   
,tharras in  ,sardinia4 ,it is formed of
 forty beads1 two cylinders1 four bulls'
  heads1 and a large grotesque mask of  
,pygmus 7,louvre74    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #bca4--,phnician glass4 7,louvre47
    ,from the foregoing facts1 it       

results that though the ,phnicians had  
for many ages a monopoly of the         
glass-manufacture1 they cannot be       
considered as its inventors4 ,they only 
made admirable use of the  material     
placed by nature in their hands4 ,the   
wonderful properties of  the sand of the
 ,belus are vaunted not only by ,pliny  
but by ,josephus and  ,tacitus4 ,the    
glass manufactured by the ,phnicians was
 purer and  clearer than that of ,egypt1
 and consequently more sought after2 not
 only  alabastra and amphoriskoi1 worthy
 of medival ,venetian artists1 issued   
from their workshops1 but also false    
gems of coloured vitreous paste1        
imitating precious stones so as to be   
mistaken for them2 hence the  prosperity
 and reputation of the manufactures of  
,tyre and ,sidon4 ,lucian  says of the  
complexion of a beautiful young girl    
that it is more  diaphanous than the    
glass of ,sidon4#ih    ,this last city  
was the centre of the ,phnician glass   
manufacture from  the remotest antiquity

 to the ,roman period2 but remains of   
ancient  furnaces1 glass fragments of   
various colours1 and scori1 have been   
found at ,tyre1 which attest the        
existence there also of important       
glass-works4    ,a fine glass flask1    
moulded and decorated with fruit1 found 
at  ,jerusalem1 has been attributed to  
the age of the independence of ,juda2   
but it may well be not earlier than the 
,grco-,roman period1 like the  ornaments
 of vitreous paste found in the tombs of
 the kings by ,saulcy4  ,these objects1 
as well as flakes of greenish glass1    
found in ,palestine1  probably came from
 the workshops of ,hebron or ,aleppo1   
which are in  activity to the present   
day1 and produce before our eyes vases  
which  imitate the ancient specimens to 
perfection4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#bcb4--;,glass vase from ,jerusalem4    
7,louvre47    ,the glass-workers of     
,tyre and ,sidon signed their works at  
the  ,grco-,roman period1 like their    
colleagues the potters4 ,those of ,sidon

  added the name of the workshop to     
their own2 the ,greek or ,latin stamp   
placed in relief on the thumb-rest or   
handles had the double advantage  of    
giving the name of the manufacturer and 
of presenting a rough  surface1 which   
made it easier to hold the vase4 ,the   
best known of the  ,sidonian            
glass-workers1 ,artas1 lived in the     
first century of our era2  the          
productions of his workshops are found  
with his mark in all the  countries     
bordering upon the ,mediterranean4      
,,viii4 ,,bronzes ,,and ,,ornaments4    
,one of the most original sides of      
,phnician art consists of the           
manufacture of bronze1 silver or gold   
dishes1 on which various subjects  in   
,assyro-,egyptian style are             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4--,patera from
 ,palestrina4 7,kircher ,museum1        
,rome47    chiselled1 engraved1 or even 
hammered in repouss4 ,the skill of the  
,tyrian and ,sidonian artists in this   
branch of art was celebrated from  the  

highest antiquity4 ,solomon appeals to  
them for the furniture of  ,jehovah's   
,temple2 in ,homer1 ,achilles offers as 
a prize for the races1 in  the games    
organised for the funeral of ,patroclus1
 8a crater of chiselled  silver1 holding
 six measures1 and without rival on     
earth for beauty3  skilful ,sidonian    
craftsmen made it20 elsewhere the poet  
speaks of a  silver crater1 the work of 
,hephaistos1 which a king of ,sidon     
gives to  ,menelaus4 ,the ,phnician     
dishes found at ,nimroud 7fig4 #ib71 in 
,cyprus1  and at some points of the     
,mediterranean coasts1 are specimens of 
those  goldsmiths' works which          
astonished ,homer's ,greeks4 ,they are  
pater  without feet1 shallow and        
hemispherical1 such as those seen in the
 hands  of the ,assyrians in the        
bas-reliefs of ,nineveh4 ,the figures   
which  decorate them are on the inner   
surface1 and arranged in concentric     
zones4 ,engraved or hammered in repouss1
 these subjects seem sometimes  to      

represent1 not trivial figures nor      
images of deities1 but1 on the          
contrary1 genre pictures1 and scenes    
like those in the ,egyptian  paintings4 
,thus the subject which decorates the   
silver-gilt patera 7fig4  #bcc7         
discovered in #ahgf at ,palestrina1 the 
ancient ,prneste1 in ,latium1  has been 
ingeniously explained by ,m4            
,clermont-,ganneau4#ii ,in the          
concentric zone bordered by a long      
serpent a small drama is developed in   
relief in a series of successive phases2
 it might be called 8,a ,hunting  ,day1 
or ,piety ,rewarded4 ,an oriental play  
in two acts and nine tableaux40  ,we    
see3 7#a7 the hero leaving his house in 
his war-chariot2 7#b7 he  alights to    
shoot a deer2 7#c7 capture of the deer2 
7#d7 halt in a wood  after the hunt2 the
 horses are unharnessed2 7#e7           
preparations for the  meal1 in which the
 deer is to be eaten2 7#f7 an ape       
attacks the hero1  who1 fortunately1 is 
protected by a winged deity2 7#g7 the   

ape is pursued  and thrown down by the  
horses2 7#h7 the hunter kills the savage
 beast2  7#i7 triumphal entry into the  
house4 ,the interpretation would be     
complete  if a mythical name could be   
given to the hero of the drama4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4--;,dish from 
,dali4 7,louvre47    ,hunting scenes of 
the same kind1 but not so easy to       
explain1 decorate a  silver dish from   
,cre in ,etruria1 of the same           
manufacture as the pater  of ,phnicia1  
or ,cyprus4 ,on one of the silver dishes
 from ,dali  7,idalion7 possessed by the
 ,louvre1 there is a lion hunt2 on the  
patera  from ,amathus there is the siege
 of a fortress4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#bce--;,handle of a bronze crater4 7,new
 ,york ,museum47    ,the treasury of    
,curium furnished ,cesnola with a large 
number of these  pater in silver or     
electrum1 on which appeared engraved    
subjects of the  same inspiration and   
the same style3 figures with four wings1
 struggling  with a lion2 ,astarte with 

her hand upon her breast1 beside hideous
  patci1 ,isis-,hathor1 ,egyptian       
sphinxes and sparrow-hawks2 hunts1      
battles1 religious sacrifices4          
,everywhere on these monuments1 which1  
as  the ,homeric poems show us1 were so 
greatly sought for by the ,greeks of    
the heroic age1 and imported by         
,sidonian merchants1 we find copies of  
the usual designs on the ,egyptian and  
,assyrian monuments1 an unconscious     
mixture of hybrid scenes1 which have    
nothing original except this quaint     
amalgam itself1 even more striking here 
than in the other manifestations  of    
,phnician and ,cypriote art4 ,if we had 
a larger number of these  curious       
dishes1 we should find1 no doubt1 that  
the motives are little  varied1 often   
repeated1 even in subjects as           
interesting as the ,hunting  ,day1 and  
that the effort of imagination here made
 by the ,phnician  artist has been      
little inventive4 ,fortunately for the  
reputation of  ,phnician and ,cypriote  

goldsmiths1 other monuments show that   
their  metallurgy was not limited to    
these interesting pater4 ,thus1 for     
instance1 ,cesnola brought from his     
excavations in ,cyprus a fragment of a  
large bronze crater1 the handles of     
which are decorated in the most         
original fashion4 ,we here find lions   
standing on their hind legs holding     
nocho1 and clothed in fishes' scales1   
like the god ,anu in  ,assyro-,chaldan  
symbolism4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#bcf4--,phnician gold ornament4    ,in  
,cypriote furniture and ornaments we    
observe the same characteristics  of a  
hybrid art4 ,there are little silver    
vases chiselled in the ,assyrian  style 
with rare elegance1 handles of sceptres1
 and other precious  utensils like those
 of ,nineveh4 ,certain ornaments1       
intended for women's  head-dresses1 are 
of exquisite workmanship2 so are the    
ear-rings1 the  necklaces of gold1 gems 
and glass2 with figures of lions1 rams1 
deer1  masks with curled beards in the  

,assyrian fashion1 heads of             
,isis-,hathor  and lotus-flowers4 ,some 
of these necklaces and bracelets end in 
lions'  or serpents' heads1 and form    
models which ,greek artists needed only 
to  copy1 for they are masterpieces in  
their kind4 ,we have seen that the      
,ninevite excavations brought to light  
ivory tablets carved by  ,phnician      
artists1 and imported into ,mesopotamia 
by commerce3 plaques  of the same style 
have been obtained from ,phnicia itself3
 they were  ornaments of precious       
caskets4 ,these products of ,phnician   
industry  were imported into all the    
coasts of the ,mediterranean2 and1 at   
,palestrina1 in ,latium1 an ivory tablet
 was found1 on which a vessel  manned by
 rowers is engraved1 similar to those in
 the ,egyptian  paintings4              
,ostrich-eggs1 found in ,etruria1       
arranged to serve as vases1  are adorned
 with engraved figures1 the ,phnician   
character of which  could scarcely be   
disputed3 there are zones of warriors on

 foot1 on  horseback1 and in their      
war-chariots2 files of animals1 fights  
of lions  with bulls in semi-,egyptian  
style2 the frame of these scenes is     
borrowed  from ,assyria2 the whole is   
relieved by iridescent colours4#ajj     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4--,phnician   
ear-rings4    ,if we had in ,phnicia    
bas-reliefs like those of ,assyria1 and 
paintings like those of ,egypt1 we      
should be able to give some account of  
those brilliant stuffs of dyed purple1  
described by classical antiquity  with  
so much enthusiasm4 ,it was to the      
,tyrian god1 ,melkarth1 that  tradition 
assigned the invention of this dye1     
obtained1 as it is well  known1 from the
 juice of a marine shell1 the murex1    
which is found  especially on the coast 
of ,phnicia4 ,we can only affirm1       
according to  literary testimony1 that  
the workshops of ,tyre and ,sidon       
produced stuffs  in abundance1 the      
colour of which1 as the ancients        
remarked1 instead of  being altered and 

deteriorated by a bright light1 was only
 rendered more  vivid and brilliant by  
it4       ,,ix4 ,,engraved ,,gems4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bch4--;,cylinder  
in the ,de ,clerq collection 7after     
,menant74    ,the glyptic art1 through  
the multiplicity of its productions1 is 
one of  the principal elements of       
,phnician archology1 and teaches us more
  than the miserable fragments which    
remain of pottery or sculpture4 ,here1  
more clearly than in the other branches 
of art1 we find imitation of  ,egypt and
 ,assyria taken for granted1 as a       
witness of the poverty of  invention of 
the ,phnician intellect4 ,two cylinders 
exist in the ,de  ,clercq collection    
which bear a cuneiform inscription by   
the side of  ,egyptian figures4 ,that   
which we give as an example 7fig4 #bch71
 after ,m4  ,menant1#aja is the seal of 
8,annipi1 son of ,addume the ,sidonian40
 ,thus  the owner of the cylinder is a  
,phnician2 he has inscribed his name  in
 ,assyrian beside the god ,set1#ajb     

,reseph1 the warrior god1 and ,horus    
with the hawk's head4 ,the style of the 
inscription1 like that of the  figures1 
betrays1 however1 the unskilful hand of 
the ,sidonian imitator4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4--;,cylinder  
at the ,british ,museum 7after          
,menant74    ,we possess1 on the other  
hand1 cylinders on which the figures are
 purely  ,assyrian1 while the           
inscription is in ,phnician or ,aramaic 
characters4 ,this one at the ,british   
,museum is the 8seal of ,akadban1 son   
of ,gebrod the eunuch1 worshipper of    
,hadad0 7fig4 #bci74 ,the style of the  
figures and the details of the costume  
are so clearly ,assyrian that this      
monument discloses to us the            
plagiaristic method to which the idle   
imagination of the ,phnicians had       
recourse4 ,these merchants found it     
simpler and speedier to appropriate     
,assyrian or ,persian cylinders1        
satisfied with having their names       
engraved upon them4 ,they did not blush 

to wear during their life the ornaments 
of other nations1 until their  ashes    
should rest in sarcophagi stolen from   
the ,egyptians4    ,however1 in ,cyprus1
 they tried to engrave cylinders for    
themselves4 ,the  recent excavations    
have disinterred a large quantity of    
them1 and1 by  the side of cylinders    
brought from the continent by commerce1 
some have  been found which were        
certainly manufactured in the island4   
,but what  astonishes us in these       
monuments is their extreme barbarism2   
the design  is most summary1 the figures
 are scarcely sketched1 and the chisel  
has  only made rough scratches on the   
jasper1 the hmatite1 or the  chalcedony4
 ,and even the figures of men or        
animals1 the trees and the  geometrical 
ornaments with which the ,cypriote      
cylinders are covered1 are  copied by   
unskilful workmen from the productions  
of the ,assyro-,persian  or ,egyptian   
glyptic art4    ,after all1 ,phnician   
cylinders are rare enough4 ,practical   

before  everything1 the merchants of    
,tyre and ,carthage preferred flat seals
 of  multiple form to cylinders1 the use
 of which was difficult2 they           
manufactured scarabi1 scaraboids1       
ellipsoids1 cones1 octagonal  conoids1  
these last especially in the            
,aramo-,persian period1 and lastly      
bezels for rings4 ,among the numerous   
gems which have come down to us1  and   
which must be attributed either to the  
,phnicians themselves or  to the ,araman
 populations of ,syria1 some have still 
preserved their  mounting3 a ring in the
 form of a horse-shoe enabled the owner 
to turn  the stone on its axis and to   
hang it from a necklace4 ,the           
inscription of  one or two lines1 when  
it exists1 gives the name of the owner1 
his  father's name1 and sometimes his   
quality4 ,the subjects1 naturally more  
limited than those of the cylinders1 are
 always of ,egyptian1 ,persian1 or      
,assyro-,chaldan inspiration4 ,there    
are1 for instance1 the winged and       

radiated disk1 deer1 lions1 bulls1      
sphinxes1 gryphons1 the divine bust  in 
a winged disk1 a pontiff sacrificing at 
an altar1 or in adoration  before the   
pyreum4 ,the ,louvre possesses a        
scaraboid of red agate  acquired in     
,mesopotamia by ,m4 de ,sarzec2 a god is
 seen upon it1 holding  a serpent in    
each hand1 like the ,egyptian ,horus2 he
 has four wings1 and  bears on his head 
the solar disk supported by two horns4  
,the name1  ,baalnathan1 indicates that 
its owner was probably an ,ammonite or a
  ,moabite4 ,it may be admitted1 with   
,m4 de ,vog1#ajc that among the         
,phnician1 ,araman and ,jewish intagli1 
those in which ,egyptian  influence     
appears exclusive are the most ancient1 
that is to say1  anterior to the        
,assyrian rule in ,syria4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdj4--,scaraboid  
seal4    ,illustration3 ,fig4           
#bda4--,scaraboid seal 7after ,menant74 
,from the seventh century ,b4,c4 the    
action of ,assyria appears in the       

,aramo-,phnician glyptic art1 sometimes 
allied to the ,egyptian  influence1     
sometimes exclusive as on a scarabus in 
the museum at  ,vienna1 bearing the name
 of ,akhotmelek1 wife of ,josuah1 on    
which a deity  is seen sitting on a     
throne and receiving a libation from a  
standing  pontiff 7fig4 #bdj74 ,a fine  
scarabus in green jasper at the ,british
  ,museum 7fig4 #bda71 with the name1 in
 ,phnician characters1 of ,hodo1  the   
scribe1 shows a principal scene inspired
 by an ,assyrian cylinder1  while on the
 field the ,egyptian crux ansata        
figures1 and the  scaraboidal form of   
the gem is certainly of ,pharaonic      
origin4    ,in this hybrid coupling of  
,egyptian to ,assyrian art the least    
trained  observer can discern what      
belongs to each of the two constituent  
elements4 ,the position of the          
outstretched wings1 one raised1 the     
other  lowered1 before and not behind   
the figures1 the uri1 the pshent1 the   
shenti1 the hawk-headed gods1 the       

lotus-flower1 the sphinx1 and the  crux 
ansata1 properly belong to ,egypt4 ,the 
long-fringed robe of the  priests1 the  
curled hair and beard1 the cylindrical  
tiara1 the  fire-altar1 the sacred tree1
 and the lions are1 besides other       
features1  the property of ,assyria and 
,chalda4 ,the writing alone is ,aramaic 
or  ,phnician4 ,at the ,achmenid epoch1 
seals are found in ,phnicia1  the       
workmanship of which shows signs of     
,persian influence2 sometimes  even the 
legend1 although ,araman1 gives us a    
,persian name4    ,from the fourth      
century ,b4,c41 lastly1 the glyptic art1
 following the  same laws as the other  
branches of art1 is rapidly invaded by  
the ,greek  genius4 ,engraved stones    
with ,cypriote or ,phnician legends show
  subjects incontestably interpreted by 
,greek artists1 even when the  incidents
 are oriental2 at last we find ,greek   
subjects1 so that the  oriental         
influence is only shown by the legend1  
which still remains  ,phnician4 ,we are 

then arrived at the age of ,alexander1  
and the  ancient civilisations of the   
,east have ceased to live4              
,,chapter ,,ix4    ,,arch,,ological     
,,discoveries ,,at ,,susa4       ,i4 ,m4
 ,,de ,,morgan',s ,,mission ,,in        
,,susiana4    ,the progress of oriental 
archology leads us from one surprise to 
another4 ,year after year discoveries   
are made in rapid succession1 which  we 
watch with breathless interest as they  
transform and elucidate some  chapter in
 the history of those primitive         
civilizations from which our  own is in 
part derived4 ,following the discoveries
 made in ,chalda1  ,assyria1 and        
,phnicia1 another region of the ,east   
now takes its turn  in throwing light on
 the past--the country of ,elam1 or     
,susiana1 a region  hitherto almost     
unknown to us1 although in the earliest 
ages of the  world it played an         
important part4    ,the ruins of ,susa1 
situated at the north of ,ahwaz1 form a 
number of  immense tells which cover an 

extent of four and a half to six square 
miles on both banks of the river        
,kerkha4 ,the plain1 which is dominated 
by these majestic mounds as far as the  
banks of the ,karn1 stretches far  to   
the north1 where it is bounded by the   
,bakhtiyari mountains4 ,southward  it   
extends to the ,shatt al ,arab and      
,lower ,chalda4    ,what new material   
may we draw from this ancient soil of   
,elam1 to provide  food for our         
chimra-like appetite for universal      
knowledge2 a soil where  countless      
generations of human beings lie buried1 
piled on each other  like so many       
geological stratifications1 and         
surrounded by all the  appurtenances of 
their earthly existence8 ,the ,greeks   
have merely  transmitted to us baseless 
fables concerning the history of ,elam4 
,ignoring all local traditions1 the     
writers of the ,macedonian period       
related that the mythical founder of    
this region was ,memnon1 son of         
,tithonus1 and of ,aurora2 that he led a

 body of black warriors to the aid  of  
,troy when besieged by the ,greeks1 and 
was slain in a duel by  ,achilles4 ,eos1
 or ,aurora1 wept for her son1 and      
according to a pretty  fiction it is the
 tears of this inconsolable mother which
 form the  morning dew4 ,classical      
antiquity was cradled in such poetic    
stories of  the mysterious regions of   
the rising sun1 without any attempt to  
discover the actual facts4 ,it is the   
,bible alone that has preserved the     
name of one of the kings of ,susa1      
,chedorlaomer1 a contemporary of        
,abraham4    ,in the present day1       
however1 the power of deciphering the   
,chaldan  cuneiform texts has rendered  
us acquainted with isolated episodes of 
the  political relations between the    
,elamites and the ,babylonians and      
,ninevites4    ,in #ahaj ,macdonald     
,kinnear and ,monteith accompanied      
,general ,malcolm on  his mission to the
 ,shah of ,persia2 in #ahbf ,sir ,henry 
,rawlinson1 and  later again ,sir ,a4   

,h4 ,layard1 visited the tells of ,susa1
 and copied  several inscriptions which 
had been laid bare by the heavy rains4  
,as the  monuments emerged from the     
rubbish1 it became evident that only    
excavation could compel the mounds of   
,susa to yield the secrets they         
contained4    ,these excavations were   
commenced in #ahea by ,sir ,kenneth     
,loftus and  ,colonel ,williams1 who    
cleared the wells of the palace of      
,darius ,i41 son  of ,hystaspes4 ,the   
researches were then abandoned1 and it  
was only in  #ahhe that the ,french     
,government commissioned ,m4 ,dieulafoy 
to carry on  the work begun by ,loftus4 
,he laid bare the ,apadana of           
,artaxerxes1 and  deposited in the      
,louvre ,museum the magnificent         
,achmenid fragments  described in       
,chapter ,v4 of this volume 7p4 #adf et 
seq74 ,but various  remains and         
fragments of inscriptions of an age far 
more remote showed  that merely the     
surface of the ruins had been touched1  

and that it would  be necessary to      
undertake systematic excavations of     
greater depth4 ,a  diplomatic treaty    
signed ,may #abth1 #ahie1 renewed and   
confirmed in ,paris  in #aijj by the    
,shah of ,persia1 accorded to ,france   
the exclusive right to  carry out       
archological excavations over the whole 
extent of the ,persian  ,empire4 ,m4    
,jacques de ,morgan was appointed       
,delegate-,general of  ,antiquities in  
,persia1 with a special mission to carry
 on the researches  at ,susiana4        
,after encountering difficulties of     
every kind1 ,m4 de ,morgan1 accompanied 
by a number of colleagues1 among whom we
 must mention one of the most  eminent  
of contemporary ,assyriologists1 ,pre   
,v4 ,scheil1 arrived at the  site of the
 ruins of ,susa on the #afth of         
,december1 #ahig1 and commenced  work   
there4 ,the first results sent to ,paris
 formed a special exhibition  at the    
,grand ,palais des ,champs ,elyses1 in  
the spring of #aija1 and  occasioned    

great surprise and admiration4 ,these   
remains consist of  immense numbers of  
inscribed bricks1 of bas-reliefs1 of    
stel covered  with cuneiform writing of 
most archaic appearance1 and of works of
 art  of a style hitherto unknown4      
,thus1 in beginning the publication of  
these  monuments1 and the translation of
 the texts1 ,m4 ,scheil could write     
without exaggeration or hyperbole3 8,it 
is here that the history of the  country
 of ,elam begins02 and he then proceeds 
to deal with those great  problems of   
history1 of which the solution had      
become the question of  the moment4     
,what were the earliest civilizations of
 the ,east1 and to what period do  they 
carry us back8 ,to what ethnic groups do
 the ,elamites belong8 ,what  connection
 is there between ,elam1 ,anzan1 and    
,susa1 the three names given  in the    
original texts to ,susiana8 ,did there  
actually exist in that  country a       
combination of institutions1 political  
or religious1 of a  distinctive and     

independent character8 ,what languages  
and what races of  mankind met in that  
region which adjoins the land of the    
,semites1 the  ,arians1 and perhaps the 
,turanians8    ,these are questions of  
deep moment1 and they have obtained from
 the  early excavating campaigns a      
hesitating and partial reply1 which does
  not satisfy our thirst for the whole  
truth regarding the origins of the      
earliest civilizations4 8,the           
proto-archaic texts10 says ,m4 ,scheil  
regretfully1 8will show how limited is  
our knowledge both of the  origins1     
which are continually becoming more     
remote1 and of the primary  factors of  
civilization1 the number of which is    
steadily increasing40    ,we can only   
give a general sketch of the            
archological results obtained  up to    
,july #aije1 the date of the            
inauguration at the ,louvre of the      
gallery devoted to the objects          
discovered up to that time4 ,the work is
  still proceeding1 and we may hope that

 it will be brought to a  conclusion    
without interruption4 ,between ,january 
#a1 #ahig and ,april #ae1  #aije ,m4 de 
,morgan has dug more than #bhj1jjj cubic
 metres of earth and  dbris of all      
kinds1 and he estimates further that it 
will be necessary  to remove #a1bhj1jjj 
cubic metres in order to bring the      
excavations to a  final conclusion4     
,working at the rate of #ce1jjj cubic   
metres yearly1 the  archological        
excavations at ,susa will occupy not    
less than #ce  years4#ajd       ,,ii4   
,,chronology ,,of ,,the ,,ruins         
,,according ,,to ,,recent ,,discoveries4
    ,the researches we have just        
described1 so far as they have been     
carried  at present1 show that many of  
the mounds of ,susa1 formed of an       
accumulation of dbris and covered with a
 thin layer of sand deposited  by the   
desert winds1 were inhabited from       
prehistoric times to the ,arab  period4 
,the prehistoric remains are found at a 
depth of over #hj feet1  below the      

evidences of more advanced              
civilizations4    ,after digging through
 the accumulated remains of forty       
centuries1 the  virgin soil is reached1 
and here are found worked flints1       
primitive  pottery1 and other objects   
similar to those found on all           
prehistoric  sites4 ,above the level of 
the worked flints1 and the rough1       
hand-made  pottery1 shaped without the  
aid of the wheel1 another civilization  
is  found1 more advanced1 although still
 prehistoric1 which produced vases  in  
sandstone and calcite of various sizes1 
and--far more important and             
fundamental--seals or stamps1 proofs of 
a culture widely removed from           
barbarism4 ,these seals are             
hemispherical in form1 and pierced with 
a  hole for suspension4 ,the base or    
flat face is decorated with figures of  
animals engraved in rudimentary fashion 
by means of the drill and point4  ,the  
most usual subject is a lion1 or lion's 
head4 ,but nowhere at this  level of the

 remains has the slightest trace of     
writing been found4 ,the  dwellings were
 huts1 made either of beaten earth or of
 crude bricks4    ,a thick layer of     
cinders and other unequivocal           
indications1 enable us to  assert that  
this primitive civilization disappeared 
owing to the  massacre of the           
inhabitants and the burning of their    
dwellings4 ,at this  early period1 to   
which it is impossible to assign even an
 approximate  date1 ,susa suffered from 
some foreign invasion1 and the pillagers
  installed themselves in place of the  
indigenous inhabitants1 whom they       
destroyed4 ,it is1 therefore1 a new     
civilization we find above the  remains 
of the prehistoric people1 and which    
introduces us to the domain  of actual  
history1 the commencement of the        
,elam-,anzanite period4    ,it is to    
this invading race that ,susa owes her  
first written documents4  ,these        
inscriptions1 although they are in a    
language almost unknown to  us1 are     

undoubtedly the most important that this
 period has hitherto  yielded4    ,the  
earliest text known is engraved on a    
bone cylinder 7fig4 #bdb74 ,the  mere   
appearance of the signs strikes us with 
the remote antiquity to  which they must
 be assigned2 they are actually         
hieroglyphs4 ,among them  apparently    
there can be distinguished an insect1 a 
double comb1 a  quadruped1 a bird1 some 
grains of wheat1 and a man carrying a   
double  load on his shoulders4 ,on the  
lower part of the cylinder two bulls are
  depicted1 each with his head over a   
manger4    ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#bdb4--;,bone cylinder1 showing the     
earliest stage of  cuneiform writing    
7,louvre74    ,this object1 which so far
 seems to be the sole representative of 
the  earliest stage of cuneiform        
writing1 and which leads us to question 
whether this mode of writing was not    
invented at ,susa1 is followed by a     
series of clay tablets ranging in size  
from #b to #i inches at the sides1  and 

with the principal face covered with    
writing1 of which the signs are  almost 
cuneiform4 ,dr4 ,scheil1 however1 says  
of these that apparently 8we  have here 
a system of cuneiform writing other than
 that of primitive  ,chaldan1 or at     
least the result of an extremely        
independent evolution1  very different  
to that which has given us the signs    
known as the  ,babylonian3 evidently    
these signs1 instead of being extremely 
archaic  are linear in character1 and   
geometric rather than hieroglyphic40    
,dr4 ,scheil recognises that these texts
 are arithmetical1 and he has  already  
been able to distinguish the elements of
 ,elamite numeration  7fig4 #bdc74 ,any 
one studying them from the point of view
 of workmanship1  will notice1 as ,dr4  
,scheil again observes1 that the signs  
are inscribed  with a neatness and      
certainty that indicate previous long   
practice on  the part of the scribe4    
,nowhere can we discern errors or rough 
work1  such as would be the results of  

early attempts and experiments4 ,thus we
  arrive at the conclusion that those   
texts were written by the invaders1  who
 were already in possession of this     
system of writing when they  arrived at 
,susa4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#bdc4--;,fragment of an ,elamite tablet 
inscribed with  arithmetical            
calculations 7,louvre74    ,it is at    
this period that we first find cylinders
 covered with  representations of       
animals1 engraved on the surface before 
the tablets  were baked or dried in the 
sun4 ,these cylinders are of greenish   
enamelled paste and very hard2 only a   
small number has been discovered  at    
present1 but impressions made with some 
of the objects of this class  agree for 
the greater part with the clay tablets4 
,we give a reproduction  of one of the  
most curious of these impressions 7fig4 
#bdd74 ,here we can  distinguish giants1
 leonocephalic and taurocephalic1 taming
 lions and  bulls apparently for        
amusement4 ,in this instance the style  

is very  remarkable1 and recalls that of
 certain animals on the finest of the   
,chaldan cylinders4    ,of this same    
civilization there is also a large      
number of alabaster  vases2 these are   
frequently decorated with incised lines1
 forming  geometric designs2 in some    
instances these vases have animal forms1
 such  as ducks1 pigs1 fish1 or seated  
monkeys1 types generally figured in a   
summary and rudimentary fashion4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdd4--;,cylinder  
showing giants1 lions1 and bulls1       
glazed pottery 7,louvre74    ,above the 
proto-,elamite zone the ruins become    
confused and belong to  different       
periods4 ,it is obvious that the soil of
 ,susa was constantly  overturned and   
pillaged4 ,happily the beacon light of  
history now begins  to guide our        
footsteps1 and enables us to classify   
chronologically those  remains1 which   
are discovered in disorder4 ,the written
 texts1 which are  increasingly         
numerous1 from this time are divided    

into two main classes2  the first       
written in a ,semitic dialect1 the      
second in the ,anzanite  language4 ,this
 shows that in the country of ,elam at  
that remote period  an ethnic dualism   
existed1 which corresponds with the     
double name for  the capital of ,anzan  
and ,susa--a dualism which certain      
sculptured  representations of the human
 figure also exhibit from the           
anthropological and ethnological point  
of view4 ,the ,anzanite  inscriptions   
are still only partly decipherable1     
notwithstanding the  insight shown by   
,dr4 ,scheil in commencing a study of   
them4    ,as to the inscriptions in the 
,elamite language1 over a thousand have 
been brought to the ,louvre4 ,they are  
on slabs of stone1 on blocks which  have
 served as sockets for doors1 and yet   
more are inscribed with a  stylus on    
bricks4    ,these have been deciphered  
by ,dr4 ,scheil2 they give the names of 
the  kings by whose commands the        
buildings were erected1 in which they   

were  employed4 ,with the help of these 
clues1 and guided by some more explicit 
texts and by the information about ,susa
 already afforded us in the             
inscriptions of ,chalda and ,assyria1 it
 has been possible to establish  the    
first landmarks of the history of that  
powerful ,elamite empire1  whose        
complete annals will shortly provide a  
new chapter of the history  of the      
,ancient ,world4    ,after the mythical 
period1 in which such kings as ,humbaba 
and ,kudur  appear1 whose names so far  
only occur in legendary poems and       
stories1  the earliest historical texts 
introduce us to the princes of ,elam as 
vassals of the ,mesopotamian suzerains4 
,of these the first is called           
,ur-iti-,adad1 vassal successively of   
the two kings of ,agade1                
,sargani-sar-ali1 and ,naram-,sin1 about
 ,b4,c4 #cgej4 ,one of his successors1  
,karibu-,sa-,susinak1 patesi of ,susa1  
sakkanak of ,elam1 boasts of  having    
built the temple of the god ,sugu 8the  

ancient10 and of having  constructed the
 canal of ,sidur2 he is a vassal of     
,dungi1 king of ,ur1  and of ,gudea1    
patesi of ,sirpurla4    ,to the rule of 
the patesis at ,elam succeeded that of  
the ,sukkal-mah4  ,this was occasioned  
by a change in the suzerainty1 which    
from being  ,chaldan now became         
,elamite4    ,about ,b4,c4 #bbhj the    
king of ,susa1 ,kudur-,nakhunta1        
effected the conquest  of ,mesopotamia  
and decorated his capital with the      
spoils of the towns of  ,chalda2 notable
 among these was the statue of the      
goddess ,nana1 which  he caused to be   
transported from ,uruk 7,erech7 to      
,susa4    ,long after1 ,hammurabi1 king 
of ,babylon1 delivered ,chalda from the 
domination of ,elam1 and one of his     
successors1 ,kuri-galsu1 even  succeeded
 in entering ,susa as a conqueror4 ,but 
later again the ,susians  gained their  
revenge2 they took ,babylon by assault1 
and carried away the  statue of ,bel4   
,a king of ,susa1 ,shutruk-,nakhunta1   

boasts of having devastated ,chalda1    
and of having seized the stel of        
,melishikhu2 he records that he took    
some hundreds of towns1 brought back    
several kings as captives1  and built a 
large number of temples at ,susa4 ,his  
grandson1  ,shilkhak-in-,shushinak1     
restored these buildings1 where the     
stel1 the  kudurru1 and the statues of  
,chaldan divinities were placed1 with   
all  the precious objects taken from the
 towns of the ,tigris valley4    ,the   
names of about twenty other ,susian     
kings are known2 they belong to  two or 
three different dynasties1 and we can   
trace the existence of  conflicting     
races in ,susa itself4 ,this fact is    
further shown by the  variety of        
languages which are found written in    
cuneiform character4    ,by turns       
conquerors and conquered1 the ,susians  
passed from the rle of  oppressors to   
that of oppressed2 raid succeeded to    
raid1 with results as  contradictory as 
the gusts of wind in a gale4 ,the kings 

of ,nineveh1 who  during the twelfth    
century ,b4,c4 became the most powerful 
rulers of this  part of the world1 were 
the dominating power in ,chalda and     
constituted  themselves protectors of   
the country against the incursions of   
the  ,susians4 ,under ,sargon1 king of  
,assyria 7,b4,c4 #gbb-gje7 and his      
successors  there began a mighty        
struggle1 which ended with the ruin of  
,susa by  ,assurbanipal in ,b4,c4 #fdg4 
,we must here recall that strange and   
tragic  episode of the annals of the    
,assyrian monarchy4    ,the king of     
,nineveh1 relating his conquests in the 
land of ,elam1 records  that sixteen    
centuries earlier ,kudur-,nakhunta1 king
 of ,susa1 had invaded  ,mesopotamia1   
and carried away the statues of the     
,chaldan gods1 more  especially the     
image of the great goddess ,nan1 which  
thus remained  prisoner until he1       
,assurbanipal1 went to her rescue3 8,the
 ,king of ,elam1  ,kudur-,nakhunta      
placed his hands on the temples of the  

country of ,accad1  and he carried away 
the statue of the goddess ,nana3 ,his   
days had been  multiplied and his power 
was very great4 ,the great gods         
permitted these  things1 and for the    
space of #afce years this image remained
 in the power  of the ,elamites4 ,that  
is wherefore ,i1 ,assurbanipal1 the     
prince who  adores the great gods1 ,i   
conquered the land of ,elam4444 ,the    
statue of  the goddess ,nana had been in
 adversity for #afce years2 she had been
  carried into captivity in ,elam a     
country which was not consecrated to    
her4 ,the goddess with the gods1 her    
fathers1 proclaimed my name as          
sovereign of the nations1 from this time
 forth1 and she entrusted to me  the    
task of rescuing her statue4 ,she said3 
,assibanipal will cause me to  come     
forth from ,elam1 a land of the enemy   
and will establish me again in  the     
,temple ,e-anna4 ,this divine command   
was pronounced in bygone days1  but it  
was only those of my own time who       

explained it4 ,then ,i seized the  hands
 of the statue of the great goddess1    
and1 in order to rejoice her  heart1 ,i 
caused her to take a direct road to the 
,temple ,e-anna4 ,the  first day of the 
month of ,kislev1 ,i caused her to enter
 into the city of  ,uruk1 and ,i        
reinstated her in the eternal tabernacle
 of ,e-anna1 the  temple of her choice40
    ,the ,ninevite bas-reliefs1 which   
accompany these curious inscriptions1   
effectively represent a procession of   
,assyrian priests and soldiers1         
carrying the reconquered ancient idols  
on their shoulders with great  pomp4    
,at the time of the destruction by      
,assurbanipal1 ,elamite ,susa contained1
  not only the objects of art1 the      
statues and valuable monuments relating 
to the history of ,elam and the cult of 
her gods1 but also1 under the  title of 
spolia opima1 all the valuables which   
had been brought by the  kings of ,elam 
from their expeditions into ,chalda as  
trophies of  victory4 ,assurbanipal     

recovered the greater part of these     
objects1 and  replaced them in the towns
 from which they had been taken2 the    
booty was  immense1 as he himself       
records4 ,but much would naturally have 
been  effectually concealed1 and this he
 would be forced to leave behind at  the
 time of the sack of the town2 he also  
left a number of objects of  secondary  
importance1 such as certain statues1    
stel1 and kudurru1  which had originally
 come from ,chalda4    ,undermining and 
incendiarism destroyed all that could   
not be laden on  the backs of the       
soldiery and animals of the ,assyrian   
army1 and thus  ,assurbanipal effected  
the complete ruin of ,susa4    ,this    
explains the circumstance that a number 
of monuments and objects of  ,chaldan   
origin are found in the ruins of ,susa  
among others indigenous  to ,elam4      
,the capital of ,elam appears to have   
been built once more after the          
departure of the ,assyrians1 for a      
cylinder of ,nebuchadnezzar informs us  

that this prince built many temples     
there1 as well as at ,babylon4    ,susa 
never again really recovered her ancient
 splendour until the time  of the second
 dynasty of the ,achmenid kings of      
,persia4 ,darius1 son of  ,hystaspes1   
made it the capital of his realms1 and  
until the rise of  ,alexandria1 ,susa   
remained the most important centre of   
art1 and of  ,persian civilization 7see 
,chapter ,v474    ,at this period1 ,susa
 was once more the theatre of events    
similar to  those which so many         
centuries before had agitated her       
existence4 ,when  the entire ,east1     
,susa1 as well as ,babylon1 and even    
,sardis1 had fallen  into the power of  
the ,persian ,achmenids1 and when       
,darius and1 later1  ,xerxes1 invaded   
,greece in ,b4,c4 #dib and #dhj1 the    
,hellenic sanctuaries  were pillaged in 
their turn4 ,the ,persians carried away 
their treasures1  statues1 and ex-votos 
across ,asia as far as ,susa1 and there 
placed them  in their own temples as    

trophies of their victories4 ,when1 in  
his turn1  ,alexander in ,b4,c4 #cca    
invaded the ,east1 as avenger of the    
,hellenic  race1 he laid a heavy hand on
 the treasures of ,susa2 in that capital
 he  discovered the great works of art  
of ,greece1 more especially the bronze  
statues of the ,tyrannicides1 ,harmodius
 and ,aristogiton1 which ,xerxes had    
carried away from ,athens3 these the    
conquering ,macedonians were  delighted 
to restore to the ,athenians4 ,the      
temple of ,didyma near  ,miletus1 like  
all others1 had been pillaged by        
,darius1 and its treasures  carried off4
 ,what must have been the astonishment  
of ,m4 de ,morgan when  he discovered in
 the course of his excavations a huge   
bronze  knuckle-bone1 weighing more than
 #aeb lb4 and bearing a ,greek          
inscription  of the seventh century     
,b4,c41 recording that this singular    
object was  dedicated by a dweller in   
,miletus to ,apollo ,didymus4    ,thus  
we find an ex-voto from the ,temple of  

,didyma carried to ,susa by the         
,persians under ,darius1 and which has  
now found its way to the banks of  the  
,seine1 an object of astonishment to    
visitors to the ,louvre4 ,this  enormous
 knuckle-bone is provided with two      
handles to facilitate  transport4 ,the  
upper one1 worn through by              
long-continued friction1 shows  traces  
of the iron bar or hook passed through  
it for its long journey  from ,miletus  
to ,susa4 ,thus history--,proteus with  
his thousand  forms--repeats itself     
unceasingly under its many              
transformations2 even  modern times     
furnish us with numerous episodes       
similar to those just  related4         
,,iii4 ,,the ,,principles ,,of          
,,building4    ,speaking generally1     
there can be no study of the            
architecture in  elevation1 as the ruins
 afford no examples of building in      
stone4 ,we are  forced to confine       
ourselves to examining the ground plans 
of the  buildings1 the pavements1 and   

the foundations4 ,everything else has   
fallen to pieces1 or been reduced to    
powder4 ,in some of the tells of        
,chaldea1 however1 remains of temples   
and palaces have been found with  the   
lower courses still in position4    ,it 
is in consequence of this that we have  
been able to give ,m4 de  ,sarzec's     
reconstruction of the plan of the palace
 of ,gudea at ,tello  7fig4 #b1 p4 #i74 
,the ,american ,archological ,mission   
has also discovered  at ,niffer         
7,nippur7 the lower courses of a        
zikkurat1 or staged tower1  in excellent
 preservation4 ,in this region the      
building materials were  frequently     
kiln-baked bricks1 and mortar made of   
bitumen of such  exquisite quality as to
 render the walls of such consistency   
that at the  present day it is necessary
 to use powder to demolish them4    ,at 
,susa1 so far as investigations have    
been carried at present1 it  appears    
that crude bricks were usually employed 
in building1 and without  the bitumen   

mortar1 with the result that the walls  
were easily  demolished1 both by the    
pick-axe of the intentional devastator  
and by  the corrosive action of the     
weather4 8,thus on all sides10 says ,m4 
de  ,morgan1 8reigns the greatest of    
confusion of piled-up materials40       
,one exception has thus far been found1 
a small temple of the god  ,shushinak1  
where the plan can be traced1 owing to  
the basement having  been constructed of
 baked bricks1 with revetments of glazed
 sandstone4  ,large numbers of tiles    
have also been found1 enamelled with    
yellow or  pale green and bearing the   
name of king ,shutruk-,nakhunta4 ,this  
is the  class of decoration which       
developed during the ,achmenid period1  
of  which we have previously given some 
specimens4#aje    ,the hiding-places    
found under the pavement of the temple  
yielded a  number of votive objects1    
which are exceedingly interesting and   
valuable4 ,of these we shall speak      
later2 we must now only mention the     

brick columns1 the principle of which   
has been studied1 and of which we  give 
a representation 7fig4 #bde74           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4--;,brick     
,column1 ,susa4    ,this column is      
composed of a number of bricks1 all of  
which bear the  name and protocol       
formula of the royal builder1           
,shutruk-,nakhunta4 ,some  of these     
bricks are square1 others round1 and    
others are segments of  circles4 ,the   
figure here given sufficiently indicates
 how they are  arranged1 and it will be 
seen that the principle is precisely the
 same  as in the similar constructions  
at ,tello 7see p4 #aj1 fig4 #c74        
,observations made on the spot show that
 the column was worked over from  the   
foundation after its construction1 for  
many bricks with the name of            
,shutruk-,nakhunta are reversed1 and    
there are others with names of other    
kings4 ,to obtain more precise          
information on ,elamite architecture and
  building1 we must wait for further    

discoveries1 which will surely not be   
long deferred4       ,,iv4 ,,stone      
,,sculpture4    ,the earliest example of
 the sculptor's art found by the de     
,morgan  ,mission up to the present time
 is a ,chaldan stela1 transported from  
,babylonia to ,susa as the result of    
some victory4 ,it is an obelisk of      
black diorite1 similar to the statues   
discovered by ,m4 de ,sarzec at  ,tello1
 of pyramidal form with a rectangular   
base4 ,it measures #d ft4 #c  in4 in    
height4 ,the four faces are covered with
 cuneiform inscriptions in  a language  
which is a mixture of ,sumerian and     
,semitic4 ,the writing is  very fine1   
inscribed with care and delicacy1 and   
the text comprises not  less than #g1fjj
 signs4 ,it refers to a king named      
,manishtu-,irba1 as  purchaser of lands 
in the neighbourhood of ,kis1 to the    
north of  ,babylon4 ,this monument is   
purely epigraphic1 and bears no         
sculptures1 at  any rate in its present 
condition4#ajf    ,another example dates

 back to the same period1 and is also   
,chaldan in  origin4 ,it is a fragment  
of sandstone pavement 7#cg  #ag inches7 
on  which is sculptured in relief one of
 those fantastic genii peculiar to      
,chaldan mythology4 ,he has a human     
head1 and is standing1 holding with     
both hands the boughs of a sacred tree  
similar to that represented on  the     
,chaldan cylinders4 ,the eye is enormous
 and disproportionate1 the  nose        
prominent and arched1 the chin          
retreating3 above the mouth there is  a 
small drooping moustache1 while the     
beard1 formed at first of small  regular
 curls1 divides into a series of        
straight locks and falls square  over   
the breast4 ,a striped band1 finished   
with an ornament shaped like  the ear of
 an animal1 forms the head-dress1 and   
from it a heavy coil or  twist of hair  
falls to the shoulder4 ,there is a pair 
of immense horns on  the top of the     
head4 ,the body ends at the loins with  
animal's feet and a  lion's tail4 ,the  

style and type of this genius recalls in
 a striking  manner the most archaic of 
the bas-reliefs of ,tello4#ajg    ,on   
other stone reliefs are unfolded before 
our eyes a convoy of  prisoners in      
chains1 or again1 the episodes of a     
siege1 the immolation  of prisoners1    
vultures devouring the corpses on a     
field of battle2 on  another there is a 
figure of a god with long twisted beard1
 and massive  shoulders1 placidly seated
 on his throne and receiving the homage 
of the  prince who is under his         
protection4 ,these scenes1 at once      
expressive  and severely simple1 are    
excellent specimens of primitive        
,chaldan art  as revealed to us at      
,tello4 ,imported into ,susa by         
conquest1 there is  nothing ,susian     
about them4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#bdf4--,triumphal stela of ,naram-,sin4 
,the most interesting of these ,chaldan 
monuments discovered in the  rubbish of 
the ,elamite capital is undoubtedly the 
triumphal stela of the  king ,naram-,sin

 7fig4 #bdf71 which attracted much      
attention immediately  after the        
notification of its discovery by ,m4 de 
,morgan and ,dr4 ,scheil  in #ahih4     
,this stela is sculptured on a block of 
sandstone1 covered with  bas-reliefs and
 inscriptions4 ,it is #f ft4 #d in4 high
 and #c ft4 #b in4  wide2 the outline is
 irregular and the sculptor has utilized
 the whole  for his composition1 without
 attempting to get rid of the           
irregularities1 as though the block     
itself possessed somewhat of a  sacred  
character and was held inviolate1 even  
before the addition of the  sculptures  
with which it is decorated4    ,a       
primary inscription relates that        
,naram-,sin1 king of ,agade in lower    
,chalda1 #djjj ,b4,c4 caused this stela 
to be erected1 in order that there      
should be engraved on it the account of 
his warlike deeds against the  people of
 ,lulubi4    ,but the stela bears a     
second inscription1 added long after the
 time of  ,naram-,sin4 ,this new        

cuneiform text is not ,chaldan2 it is in
 the  ,anzanite language and bears the  
name of ,chutruk-,nakhunta1 king of the 
,elamites4    ,notwithstanding the      
uncertainty which still attends the     
interpretation  of ,anzanite texts1 ,dr4
 ,scheil has been able to ascertain that
 in this  inscription1                  
,chutruk-,nakhunta boasts that he has   
carried off the stela  of ,naram-,sin   
from the town of ,sippara in ,chalda1   
after a victory1 and  has had it removed
 to ,susa1 and caused this inscription  
to be cut on it1  mentioning his victory
 and the removal of the stela4 ,thus    
this monument1  discovered by ,m4 de    
,morgan1 was originally a trophy of     
victory of the  ,chaldan king1          
,naram-,sin1 which later became a       
similar trophy of  ,chutruk-,nakhunta1  
when the ,elamites took vengeance on the
 ,chaldans and  succeeded in invading   
,chalda4    ,the curious bas-relief     
which decorated the greater part of the 
stela1  dates back to primitive times1  

and represents1 not the conquest of the 
,elamite kings1 but those far earlier   
victories of the ,chaldan1  ,naram-,sin4
 ,m4 de ,morgan thus describes it3 8,the
 king1 victorious over  the ,lulubis and
 their allies1 is pursuing his enemies  
in the mountains4  ,at the head of his  
army he climbs the heights2 corpses     
cover the ground  and roll over the     
precipices2 the vanquished1 who have    
taken refuge in  the forest1 are        
imploring mercy from their conquerors1  
to escape falling  under their weapons4 
,the stars of heaven1 favourable to the 
armies of  ,agade1 are illuminating with
 their glow the glories of ,naram-,sin4 
,such  is the motif that guided the     
sculptor1 and such no doubt was the     
leading idea given him by the king4 ,as 
to the interpretation1 the  arrangement 
of the figures1 and grouping of the     
whole scene1 that is the  work of the   
artist4    8,the composition of the     
bas-relief of ,susa is clever in its    
simplicity4  ,only eight armed men are  

figured1 to represent the army of       
,agade1 which  is led by ,naram-,sin in 
person4 ,two act as scouts in the       
forest1 while  six represent the body of
 the troops4 ,three men are falling dead
 and one  wounded under the blows of the
 king1 to express the carnage wrought on
  the foe by the conqueror1 and four    
fugitives are holding up their hands  to
 figure the submission of the conquered4
 ,two trees remind us by their  shape1  
of the sparsely wooded forests which    
cover the mountains of  ,kurdistan40    
,such is the summary synthesis of the   
victories of ,naram-,sin1 the sight  of 
which must have struck the imagination  
of the ,chaldans1 reminding  them of the
 mountainous and wooded country which   
had been the theatre of  so terrible a  
slaughter4    ,the country which forms a
 setting for this scene is depicted with
 the  same simplicity we find later in  
the ,chaldan and ,ninevite sculptures1  
and may be compared more especially with
 the ,chaldan work on the  ,vulture     

,stela found by ,m4 de ,sarzec at ,tello
 7see pp4 #be1 #bf1 figs4  #aa1 #ab1    
#ac74 ,an enormous cone1 with various   
undulations surrounding it1  represents 
the mountainous country that is pervaded
 by the army of  ,naram-,sin4 ,a few    
trees suggest the forest1 superposed    
registers take the  place of            
perspective4 ,the figure of the king is 
colossal1 to assert his  superiority--a 
convention possessed by ,chaldan art1 in
 common with the  art of ,egypt and     
,assyria4 ,his calm attitude indicates  
that he has gained  the victory without 
the slightest difficulty4 ,on him1 thus 
figured after  the manner of a ,greek   
hero as a demi-god1 the artist has      
concentrated  his principal efforts2 it 
is he on whom attention must be centred4
 ,his  body is well proportioned and    
well drawn1 although stiffened into a   
conventional attitude1 the eye is large1
 the nose short1 the beard silky  and   
flowing long over the breast1 and the   
working of the muscles is  powerful and 

remarkably realistic4    ,it may be     
objected that the figure is too narrow1 
and we should consider  it altogether   
too slender1 were it not that the same  
defect appears in  the other figures4   
8,the only defensive armour worn by     
,naram-,sin10 remarks ,m4 de ,morgan1 is
  a casque4 ,this is a pointed cap1     
ogive in form1 which rests on a band    
surrounding the forehead4 ,this band has
 two pointed pads reaching to the  top  
of the cap--one in front1 the other     
behind--and is adorned with two  horns1 
whose curves harmonise with the outline 
of the head-dress4 ,a  metal screen     
falls over the nape of the neck1        
protecting the neck and  shoulders4     
,with his left arm the king is clasping 
to his breast his bow  and battle-axe1  
in the right hand he holds an arrow1    
hesitating as the  suppliants kneel     
before him1 whether to deal one more    
blow with his  weapons4444              
8,naram-,sin fought half naked1 wearing 
only one tight narrow garment1  which   

affords full value to all the parts of  
his body4    8,the tunic1 crossed on the
 chest1 is embroidered at the collar2 it
 is  drawn tightly round the body and   
knotted at the side4 ,two long folds    
fall below the knee2 on the neck is an  
amulet2 heavy bracelets are on  the     
wrists1 and a long girdle round the     
waist4 ,the legs are bare1 and on  the  
feet are sandals with flat soles1       
similar to those worn at the  present   
day by many ,orientals1 fixed on by     
straps passed between the  toes1 and    
fastened together above the ankle40     
,on close examination it will be seen   
that the two groups of warriors         
depicted1 the victors and the           
vanquished1 clearly indicate their      
distinguishing characteristics1 from the
 ethnical and anthropological  point of 
view4 ,the first--the conquerors--have  
the ,semitic profile1  while the        
second--the conquered--have a profile   
approaching the ,negritic  type4 ,thus1 
in this carefully sculptured piece of so

 remote a date1 we  find realism1 which 
is most minute in detail1 associated    
with most  fantastic conventions as     
regards the general arrangement of the  
composition--a double characteristic    
which1 as we have repeatedly            
maintained1 has always remained the     
original stamp of oriental art4    ,the 
ethnic peculiarities of the ,negrito    
race are even more strikingly  indicated
 on a fragment of bas-relief which      
represents the bust of some  person1    
nude1 bearded1 with a small cord tied   
round the head 7fig4 #bdg74  ,what      
living realism there is in this lean    
body1 bony and loose jointed6  ,what    
close study of nature in the knitting of
 the muscles1 the crisp  thick beard1   
the enormous projecting lips1 the nose  
with its distended  cartilages1 and the 
disproportionate eye presented full     
face6 ,in all  this is there not an     
amount of character which bespeaks a    
sincere art1  observant of nature1 and  
capable of rendering it with brutal     

frankness8    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#bdg4--;,fragment of bas-relief         
representing figure of  ,negrito type4  
,the celebrated code of laws of         
,hammurabi1 the most important monument 
which up to the present time has been   
exhumed from the ruins of ,susa1  is1   
also1 not of ,susian origin 7fig4 #bdh74
 ,hammurabi was king of  ,babylon1 and  
the stela on which his law is engraved  
was taken from  ,chalda4 ,the text      
itself tells us its origin4 ,it was     
originally at  ,sippara1 in the temple  
of the sun1 the god who inspired the    
precepts  engraved on the monument4     
,shutruk-,nakhunta caused it to be      
transported  to ,susa after his         
victorious campaign into ,chalda4 ,it is
 a block of  diorite1 with a            
circumference of about #f feet at the   
base1 and is #g ft4  #c in4 in height4  
,it resembles an enormous ovoid pebble1 
carefully  polished but not shaped1 a   
characteristic which we have observed in
 the  stela of ,naram-,sin and a large  

number of ,chaldan monuments1 ,the whole
  surface is covered with fine close    
writing1 engraved with most careful     
precision4 ,the space at the top of the 
stela is reserved for  representations  
in high relief of the god ,samas1       
holding out his hand to  the king1 who  
is standing before him1 giving him the  
stylus1 with which  to write his laws4  
,the costume both of god and king is    
purely ,chaldan4    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #bdh4--,stela of ,hammurabi1 on which  
his code of laws  is engraved4    ,again
 ,chaldan in origin1 although of far    
later date1 is a small diorite  fragment
 of bas-relief called the bas-relief of 
the ,spinner4#ajh ,it  represents a     
woman sitting on a stool1 her legs      
crossed and feet behind  in the tailor's
 attitude4 ,she is holding her spindle  
with both hands2 in  front of her is a  
fish lying on a table1 and behind her a 
slave is  waving the fly-flap4    ,the  
round chubby faces of the figures recall
 the bas-reliefs of  ,khorsabad1 which  

represent the eunuchs of the ,ninevite  
palace4    ,among other stone monuments 
with which the excavations at ,susa have
  enriched the ,louvre ,museum1 there is
 a considerable series of large  ovoid  
diorite blocks1 similar to the famous   
,caillou ,michaux1 which is  figured    
earlier in the book 7page #cd1 fig4     
#ba74 ,the original name of  these      
objects is ,kudurru1 which corresponds  
with the idea of 8limit1  boundary40    
,these are titles of rural properties   
given to important  personages1 or to   
temples1 by the kings of ,babylon4 ,in  
addition to the  inscriptions1 which fix
 our attention1 these kudurru are       
covered with  bas-reliefs of monstrous  
figures of gods and demons1 under whose 
supervision the contract is placed1 or  
who would punish those who should  dare 
to change the object and its            
inscriptions4 ,those bas-reliefs1 where 
the ,babylonian divinities are seen     
accompanied by their totems1 are only   
of mediocre workmanship1 but the figures

 carved on them are exceedingly         
interesting and curious4 ,at the top of 
these objects there is generally  the   
figure of the celestial serpent rolled  
up or outstretched4 ,the  kudurru found 
at ,susa do not differ from those of    
,chalda1 and are  undoubtedly imported  
from that country4    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #bdi4--,kudurru 7unfinished71     
,kassite period4    ,one of the most    
remarkable is that of ,melisihu1 king of
 ,babylon4#aji  ,another1 which deserves
 special notice1 is that of             
8,nazi-maruttas1 king  of ,kis1 son of  
,kurig-alzu1 descendant of              
,burna-buryas1 king of  ,babylon40#aaj  
,by way of a specimen we give here an   
illustration of one  which offers a     
special peculiarity--it is unfinished   
7fig4 #bdi74 ,it will  be seen that the 
figures are winged4 ,huntsmen1 gods1    
serpents1 lions1  and birds1 the usual  
decorations of the kudurru1 are well    
engraved1  but the cuneiform text is    
absent4 ,the space reserved for it is   

framed by  two columns1 the body of a   
serpent and a crenellated frieze4 ,it   
appears1  therefore1 that this object   
must have been seized in ,chalda by the 
,susians1 before it had been utilised   
and consecrated4    ,from this general  
sketch of the stone sculptures which so 
far have been  recovered from the ruins 
of ,susa1 one essential fact stands out 
prominently2 stone-carving was not      
practised in ,susa3 all the monuments   
hitherto discovered were brought from   
,chalda4 ,they are ,chaldan  sculptures 
imported into ,susa by the victorious   
,elamites4       ,v4 ,,bronze           
,,metal-,,work4    ,owing to the fact   
that they lived in a country where stone
 could not be  obtained without great   
difficulty1 the ,susians built their    
houses1  palaces1 and temples with      
brick3 and it was doubtless due to the  
same  cause that they showed themselves 
so eager to carry off the stone  statues
 and bas-reliefs that adorned the       
,chaldan cities1 and which they  seized 

by right of conquest1 to embellish their
 own capital4 ,the same  reason will    
also explain the extraordinary          
development we find in the              
metal-working of the ,elamites from the 
earliest times4 ,with them1 bronze  took
 the place of stone4 ,they made bronze  
statues1 bronze bas-reliefs1  bronze    
beams1 and such was their knowledge and 
technical dexterity1 that  we might     
almost assert without fear of           
exaggeration1 that bronze  metal-working
 was as advanced three thousand years   
before our era1 as  it has ever been in 
modern times4    ,m4 de ,morgan brings  
this to the proof by exhibiting at the  
,louvre1 among  his ,susian discoveries1
 a bronze cylinder #ad ft4 #c in4 in    
length1 cast  in one piece1 like a      
cannon of average calibre1 and covered  
over the  whole surface with archaic    
cuneiform inscriptions1 in the name of  
the  ,elamite king1                     
,shilhak-in-,shushinak4 ,another        
cylinder of the same class1  but not    

quite so long1 is larger in diameter4   
,what can have been the purpose of these
 colossal tubes1 which are  cylindrical1
 except at the ends where they are      
squared8 ,one of them is  inlaid with   
small gold studs4 ,it is improbable that
 they were columns2  it appears more    
likely that they were placed            
horizontally as beams1 or  railings1    
intended for the protection of a nation 
of giants4    ,another bronze object not
 less strange1 is a species of altar1 or
 rather  a sacrificial table4 ,this also
 is made in one single casting1 #e ft4  
#c  in4 long1 #bg in4 broad1 and #ab in4
 deep4 ,it is pierced like a stone      
sink1 to allow liquids to escape1 and   
round the sides it is decorated  with   
two enormous serpents4 ,there are also  
five human busts1 ,atlas-like  figures1 
who support the altar on their powerful 
shoulders4  ,unfortunately1 this        
colossal object has been mutilated with 
unusual  fury2 it bears many traces of  
blows from a mallet1 and all the        

protruding parts have suffered4 ,the    
five ,atlas heads have been broken  off 
and have disappeared4 ,the victorious   
pillagers1 it appears1 only  stopped    
their vengeance when their strength was 
exhausted1 and when the  enormous metal 
slab1 reduced to a shapeless block      
without projections1  resisted all their
 efforts4 ,a large number of other      
objects found by ,m4  de ,morgan1 both  
in stone and bronze1 bear alas6 similar 
traces of the  merciless and brutal     
hatred displayed by the various races   
which  disputed the domination of ,elam4
    ,in consequence of this treatment1  
it is impossible to judge the           
sacrificial table from the artistic     
side4 ,for this point of view we must   
turn to a bronze bas-relief1 dated in   
the reign of ,shutruk-,nakhunta1  which 
may be considered the earliest artistic 
monument1 well-preserved  in the        
essential portions1 which is also       
actually ,elamite 7fig4 #bej74  ,this   
bas-relief is damaged at the sides1 and 

pieces have been violently  broken off1 
but a fragment still remains1 #c ft4 #c 
in4 in length1 and  about #b ft4 in     
height4 ,the most deeply cut reliefs    
project about half an  inch4 8,it       
consists10 says ,m4 de ,morgan1 8of     
three superposed registers2  the upper  
one is almost completely destroyed1 and 
only enough remains to  enable us to    
discover the subject depicted on it3    
these are figures of  human beings and  
of animals4 ,the middle register is     
rather more than #af  in4 in height1 and
 on it are seven figures #ad in4 high1  
walking towards  the right4 ,the lower  
register was greatly neglected and      
merely contains  drawings of birds and  
trees1 worked with the burin4444        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bej4--;,bronze    
bas-relief fragment 7,louvre74    8,the 
seven personages in the middle register 
are all alike4 ,the left  hand is       
lowered and holds a bow with a double   
curve1 while the right  brandishes a    
large curved dagger over the head4      

,behind the right  shoulder the quiver  
can be seen full of arrows1 and the     
strap worn  across the breast4 ,they    
wear large head-dresses1 below which    
hangs their  long hair4 ,the beard is   
worn long1 and from their general       
appearance  they appear to belong to the
 ,semitic races4 ,the tunic which covers
 the  body is confined at the waist by a
 belt1 and falls below the knees1 open  
in front4 ,although they are carefully  
studied and rendered with  tolerably    
correct proportions1 these figures are  
far from presenting the  artistic       
qualities of the sculptures on the stela
 of ,naram-,sin4 ,they are  stiff1 too  
slender1 their limbs are lanky1 and     
their feet  disproportionately long4    
8,notwithstanding these defects1 they   
are superior to ,assyrian work1 and     
show that the ,elamites possessed       
artistic instincts to which we are not  
accustomed among ,semitic people of this
 period40#aaa    ,the inscriptions      
accompanying these figures are in the   

,elamite language2  they are votive1 and
 refer to the building of temples in    
honour of  various divinities4    ,thus1
 possessing no stone for carving        
bas-reliefs comparable to those of      
,nineveh1 the ,susians supplied the     
deficiency by casting gigantic          
bas-reliefs in bronze4 ,their knowledge 
of metallurgy1 which was so             
marvellously developed1 extended yet    
further3 having no means of  obtaining  
great blocks of diorite such as were    
employed by the ,chaldans  for the      
statue of ,gudea at ,tello1 they        
demanded of their  bronze-founders1     
statues of that metal1 similar to those 
of their  neighbours4 ,they succeeded in
 producing statues more than life-size  
at  one single casting1 in solid bronze4
    ,on entering the ,salle ,susienne at
 the ,louvre1 one's attention is        
immediately drawn to the bronze statue  
of queen ,napir-,asu1 wife of king      
,untash-,gal1 who reigned ,b4,c4 #aejj4 
,this statue1 of which the head         

unfortunately is lost1 is life-size4    
,with outstretched fingers the queen    
crosses her hands over the breast1 on   
her wrists there are quadruple          
bracelets1 and on the fourth finger of  
the left hand she is wearing a  ring2   
the anatomical details of the           
finger-joints are particularly well     
rendered4 ,the costume consists of a    
long fringed robe that falls to the     
feet4 ,the general outline of the skirt 
is bell-shaped1 and is striped  and     
sprinkled with stars1 no doubt intended 
for spangles worked into the  tissue4   
,the bodice is tight-fitting1 and shows 
the outlines of the  figure2 on the     
shoulder there is a jewelled fibula1 and
 down the length  of the sleeves there  
are elegant clasps4 ,finally1 a large   
embroidered  shawl is thrown over the   
shoulders2 one end hangs in a point in  
front1  like the enormous wing of some  
bird4 ,it is1 indeed1 marvellous that   
such  details could be accurately       
rendered in a statue of solid bronze1   

weighing ,i know not how many tons4     
,in addition to these gigantic specimens
 of ,elamite bronze-casting1 we  possess
 a large number of votive statuettes in 
bronze as well as  utensils of every    
kind and form4 ,in the foundations of   
the temple of the  god ,shushinak1 more 
especially1 a number of bronze          
statuettes were  discovered4 ,these     
represent generally figures of men      
standing1 the  hands raised to the body1
 either holding a bird as though making 
an  offering to the god1 or in other    
instances in the ,chaldan attitude of   
prayer 7fig4 #bea74    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #bea4--;,bronze statuette4 ,temple
 of ,shushinak  7,louvre74    ,in the   
example we give here1 the figure is     
holding a bird with both  hands1 the    
head is completely shaved as in the     
diorite statues from the  palace of     
,gudea 7see p4 #bg1 fig4 #ad74 ,in all  
these instances1 the  metal-work of     
,susa is a copy or imitation of ,chaldan
 sculpture4       ,,vi4 ,,jewellery     

,,and ,,the ,,industrial ,,arts4    ,one
 of the most sensational discoveries    
effected by the ,french ,mission  in    
,susa was that of ,january #bb1 #aijd1  
when a gold and a silver statuette  were
 found in perfect preservation and      
original in style 7fig4 #beb74  ,that   
they were votive offerings is shown by  
their having been found  under the      
pavement of the ,temple of ,shushinak   
with other offerings of  less surpassing
 interest1 among which was a small      
diorite staff with the  head of a lion  
in gold filigree1 executed with         
marvellous delicacy4 ,as  it is         
necessary to make a selection in order  
to keep within limits1 ,i  must content 
myself with describing the gold         
statuette4 ,it is #b in4 in  height1 not
 including the bronze pedestal on which 
it is placed4 ,it was  worked over with 
the burin and punch after being cast1   
and1 as in the  case of the bronze      
statuettes1 the figure recalls the      
products of  ,chaldan art 7compare1 for 

example1 fig4 #bg1 p4 #dj74 ,it         
represents a man  standing dressed in a 
garment delicately fringed round the    
lower edge1  below which the feet are   
partly visible4 ,his right arm is       
raised1 the  hand outstretched in the   
attitude of prayer2 with the left he is 
holding  a young bird to his breast1 an 
offering to the god whose protection he 
is imploring2 again the usual subject of
 the bronze statuettes4 ,he has a  long 
beard1 his nose is straight and         
prominent1 his eyes  disproportionately 
large1 and the chin is retreating4 ,his 
abundant hair  is expressed by fine     
reticulated lines1 and on his immense   
head there is  a tiara1 which resembles 
in form a twisted piece of material4    
,the dress  on the front of the body is 
sprinkled with small stars2 round his   
waist  is a girdle1 and the skirt of his
 robe is dotted with small holes made   
with a punch1 which no doubt represent  
embroideries or gems worked into  the   
material4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       

#beb4--;,gold and silver statuettes     
7,louvre74    ,the silver statuette     
found with the gold figure is almost    
exactly like  it1 and is also in perfect
 preservation4 ,both are probably       
figures of  the king who was founder of 
the temple1 and supreme pontiff2 he is  
bringing to the god the victim to be    
sacrificed on the occasion of  laying   
the first stone4 ,we might dwell at     
length on the want of  proportion in the
 different parts of these statuettes2   
the head is too  large1 the ears badly  
placed1 the chin too low on the chest4  
,they are  nevertheless exquisite       
examples of goldsmith's work1 of unusual
 size1  and essential as illustrating   
the history of ,elamite art4            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bec4--,silver     
mask4 ,elamite period 7,louvre74        
,there is another piece1 that would be  
even more important than these          
statuettes had it reached us in a better
 state of preservation 7fig4  #bec74    
,this is a silver mask in repouss work1 

and one hand of the same  metal1 which  
formed part of a statue probably of     
wood1 the nude parts1  the face and     
hands1 being of silver4 ,numerous silver
 studs which remain  riveted in position
 must have been intended to fix the     
metal to the  wood4 ,the wood has       
decomposed1 and only the oxidised metal 
remains4 ,the  statue must have been    
one-third of life-size4    ,judging from
 the features1 the head represents a    
woman of ,semitic type2  it may perhaps 
have been an image of the goddess ,nana4
 ,the two hands  were closed1 holding   
some objects which have now disappeared1
 the large  eyes were made of carved    
ivory1 and the pupil1 which has also    
disappeared1 was probably made of some  
glittering gem4 ,at the same time  that 
the silver mask was recovered1 two      
head-dresses of glazed sandstone  were  
found 7fig4 #bed74 ,one of these is in  
the form of a wig divided into  two     
parts1 one covering the head1 the other 
falling over the neck4 ,the  front of   

the headpiece is decorated with a       
projecting gold button in the  centre1  
and there are also thirty-five gold     
studs arranged in front2 the  back and  
sides are decorated with silver and     
brass studs4    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#bed4--;,head-dress4 ,elamite period    
7,louvre74    ,the second of these      
head-dresses is also in glazed          
sandstone1 and is a  kind of cap or     
turban1 shaped like the knob of a stick1
 and decorated  over the whole surface  
with nine rows of bronze disks held in  
place by  nails of the same metal       
arranged quincunx fashion4#aab ,this    
kind of cap  was usual among the        
,chaldans1 and we find examples both on 
bas-reliefs  and cylinders4    ,there   
are numerous objects in ivory which date
 back to the primitive  period of the   
history of ,elam4 ,these consist of     
engraved plaques1  figures of animals1  
statuettes1 and small implements4 ,of   
this series we  must call attention to a
 delightful ivory figure #d in4 high1 of

 which  unfortunately the head is       
missing 7fig4 #bee74 ,it represents a   
woman  standing1 her hands crossed on   
her breast1 as in the ,tello statues4   
,her  costume consists of a long dress  
reaching to the ankles made in one      
piece with only a trimming of braid     
round the bottom1 and a different       
pattern of braid on the bosom4 ,it      
covers the shoulders like a cape1       
leaving the fore-arms bare4 ,the        
modelling of the arm has been studied   
with elaborate care4 ,a fringed shawl in
 narrow pleats is thrown over the  right
 shoulder above the dress1 and falls    
over the back and the front as  low as  
the knee4 ,a hole pierced in the neck   
shows that the head must  have been     
separate and fixed on2 possibly it was  
of gold1 and a deep  groove on the      
border of the cape at the neck and over 
the elbow  indicates that it also was of
 gold4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#bee4--;,figure of a woman1 ivory       
7,louvre74    ,the lists of objects of  

all kinds found up to the present time1 
with the  fine works of art we have been
 considering1 have already filled       
several  volumes3 ,this means that these
 industrial objects almost enable us to 
evoke the daily life of the ancient     
inhabitants of ,elam4 ,there are        
cylinders1 some in glazed pottery1      
others in ivory1 hmatite1  chalcedony1  
and jasper1 which were employed to seal 
their contracts2  alabaster vases of    
various shapes2 an immense number of    
small gold1  silver1 and bronze rings1  
and also flat disks in these metals1    
which may  have been used for money2 a  
dove in lapis-lazuli1 studded with gold2
  magnificent gold bracelets and others 
of silver and bronze1 often  worked with
 great delicacy1 pins1 fibul1 pendants1 
beads in glass1  alabaster1             
lapis-lazuli1 and pottery1 sometimes    
incised with geometric  designs3        
domestic utensils1 heads of staves or   
sceptres1 axes1 knives1  and various    
weapons3 there is nothing missing of the

 ordinary outfit of  the subjects of    
,shutruk-,nakhunta1 king of ,elam1 the  
great conqueror and  builder4    ,two   
horns made of alabaster1 bearing        
inscriptions in the name of this        
prince1 must have belonged to an        
enormous bull's head4#aac ,there are    
numbers of objects of a votive          
character1 which appear to have been    
thrown in quantities into the           
foundations of the temple of ,shushinak4
  ,griffins' heads in gold1 animals'    
heads in pottery1 lions carved in  agate
 in the round1 bulls' heads in lapis1   
pendants in carnelian mounted  in gold1 
sheets of gold with ,anzanite           
inscriptions4 ,there is ample space  in 
this new field of archology for studying
 these objects1 for  classifying and    
comparing them1 and drawing from them   
all the  information that can be        
afforded by their examination4    ,want 
of space forbids our dwelling longer on 
this subject1 and for the  same reason  
we will say nothing about the numerous  

monuments of the  period of the ,persian
 ,achmenids1 nor with yet stronger      
reason1 of the  time of the ,parthians1 
,arsacids1 and ,sassanians1 which does  
not enter  into the scheme of our       
present volume4 ,and yet1 in bringing   
this rapid  sketch to a conclusion1 we  
will remark that1 of all the discoveries
 made  by ,m4 de ,morgan1 that which is 
perhaps most admired by the public is   
the  gold jewellery1 set with precious  
stones1 which came from the tomb of a   
woman of the period of the ,persian     
,achmenids4 ,it is advisable to  compare
 it from a technical point of view with 
the more ancient  jewellery of the      
,elamite period4    ,these bracelets1   
pendants1 and gold beads1 these multiple
 rows of the  richest necklaces1 bear   
witness to the extraordinary luxury of  
the  courts of ,darius and ,xerxes1 and 
may well dazzle us4 ,noticeable among   
these treasures are pendants formed of  
minute gold curls1 in imitation  of the 
curled and wavy manes of lions4 ,here ,i

 believe we find an  artistic innovation
 of striking originality in a form of   
art bound by  conventions and           
traditions4    ,the setting of the gems 
in gold mounts of marvellous delicacy   
has not in  any civilisation attained a 
higher level than in ,achmenian ,susa4  
,it is  necessary to use a magnifying   
glass to examine this minute and        
delicate  work4 ,here is the perfection 
of the goldsmith's art1 and these       
,persian  jewels of the fifth century   
,b4,c4 now form a preponderant and      
essential  factor in the question round 
which so much controversy rages1 of the 
origin of cloisonn jewellery4           
,,index4      ,absalom1 ,tomb of1 #bcd4 
,abu ,habbah1 #b1 #ab1 #db4    ,abu     
,shahrein1 #b1 #c1 #aj1 #ah1 #gc1 #gf4  
,achmenid dynasty1    ,palaces of1 #ef1 
#aah1 #adg ff4    jewellery1 #ccg4      
,addume1 #bid4    8ginetan smile10 #bgc4
    ,afaj1 #cf4    ,agade1 #dg1 #cjh1   
#cai1 #cbj4    ,ahasuerus1 #aci4        
,ahura-mazda1 #afe1 #aff1 #agb1 #agi4   

,ain el-,hayt1 #bdj4    ,alabaster1--   
thresholds of1 #ag4    statuette of1    
#db4    uses of1 in ,assyrian           
architecture1 #he4    ,phnician mortuary
 vases of1 #bei4    vases1 #cjg1 #cce4  
beads1 #ccf4    horns1 #ccf4            
,ala-,safat1 #bcj4    ,alexander the    
,great1 #cab4    ,altar of              
burnt-offerings1 the1 #bba4    bronze1  
#cbg4    ,amanus1 #fj4    ,amathus1--   
vase of1 #ca1 #gg4    tombs at1 #bfj4   
colossus of1 #bga1 #bgb4    iconic      
statues from1 #bgd4    sarcophagus from1
 #bia4    patera from1 #bia4            
,amethyst1 #adb4    ,ampulla1 sacred1 on
 cylinder1 #dg4    ,amrith1 #bci1 #bdh1 
#bec1 #bfd1 #bgg4    ,amulets1 #ag1 #ba1
 #dd1 #ea1 #bei4    ,animals1--         
figures of1 on ,chaldan tiles1 #ai4     
representation of1 in ,assyrian         
sculpture1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji4    ,annipi1
 #bid4    ,antiphellus1 #agg4           
,antonia1 ,tower of1 #baj1 #baa1 #bab1  
#bah1 #bcb4    ,anunit1 the goddess1 #b4
    ,anzan1 #cjb4    ,anzanite          

inscription1 #cjd1 #cjg1 #cai4    on    
gold sheets1 #ccf4    8,apadna0 of      
,persian palaces1 #aed1 #aeg1 #afh1     
#cja4    ,aperl1 #agg4    ,apes1 in     
,assyrian sculpture1 #aji4    ,appian1  
on harbours of ,carthage1 #bej4         
,aradus1 #bdg4    ,arak et ,emir1 #bcb4 
,araunah1 #bje1 #bjh1 #bae4    ,arbela  
7see ,arvil74    ,arch1 use of1 by      
,assyrians1 #ee4    of ,titus1 #bbf4    
,archers1 frieze of1 at ,susa1 #afi1    
#agj4    ,architraves1 #gg1 #aeb4       
,archivolt1 at ,khorsabad1 #aaf4        
,aristophanes1 #da4    ,aristotle1 on   
,babylon1 #gi4    ,ark1 ,jewish1 #bbd1  
#bbe4    ,armenia1 #gf4    ,arrangement 
of rooms in ,chaldan palaces1 #af4      
,arrian1 on tomb of ,cyrus1 #agg4       
,artaxerxes ,mnemon1 #afh1 #ahc4        
,artaxerxes ,ochus1 #aeb4    ,arvil1    
#ea4    ,asmonan kings of ,juda1 #bah4  
,asrinilu1 #df4    ,assurbanipal1 #fj1  
#gb1 #ib1 #caj4    campaign of1 against 
his brother1 #hj4    as canephoros1 #hi4
    with his wife1 #aja1 #ajb4          

progress of sculpture in time of1 #aac4 
furniture of1 #ace4    ,assur-nasir-pal1
 #fj1 #fa1 #gb1 #ia1 #ib1 #ach1 #aci4   
statue of1 #hf4    progress of art      
under1 #aab4    ,astarte1 #bda1 #bdc1   
#bde1 #bfj1 #bfd1 #bgi4                 
8,atesh-gahs10 #agc1 #agd4    ,athieno1 
#bdb1 #bgj1 #bga4    ,attitude of prayer
 7see ,,gestures74      ,baal-,hammon1  
#bde1 #bdf1 #bfc1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bfi4     
,baal-,samaim1 #bde4    ,babel1 ,tower  
of1 #d4    ,babil1 mound of1 #af1 #eb1  
#gc4    ,babylon1 #a1 #fj1 #aah4        
walls of1 #e1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha4            
modelling in clay at1 #ci1 #abc4        
buildings at1 #eb4    temple of ,bel at1
 #gc4    extent of1 #gi4    ,bagdad1    
#ae4    ,bahr-el-,huleh1 #bcj4          
,balaneum 7see ,banias74    ,balawat1   
#ea4    gates of1 #abf1 #abg4           
,banias1 #bdf4    8,baphomet10 #bjb4    
,baris1 ,tower of 7see ,,antonia74      
,basalt stela1 #cd4    ,base of columns1
 #aa1 #ab1 #dc1 #fd1 #fe4    ,basement  
7see ,,platform74    ,basilica of       

,herod1 #bai4    ,basin1 movable1 in    
,jewish ,temple1 #bbi4    ,basins before
 temples1 #ca1 #gg4    ,basket1         
mystical1 #cf1 #cg1 #hi4                
,bas-reliefs1--    ,chaldan1 #bc-f1     
#cbd4    ,assyrian1 #ed1 #ia-c1 #caa4   
,persian1 #aei-ff4    ,hittite1 #ahg-ia1
 #aic-bjb4    ,phnician1 #bfb-d4        
,carthaginian1 #bff-i4    ,cypriote1    
#bgd-f4    ,elamite1 bronze1 #cbg4      
,battlements1--    of platform at       
,khorsabad1 #ec4    of walls of         
,assyrian towns1 #ha1 #hb1 #aaj4    of  
platform at ,persepolis1 #aeb4          
,bavian1 #ahg4    ,beads1 #ccf4    ,bel1
 the god--    temple of1 at ,babylon1   
#g1 #gc1 #gd1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1 #aai1 #abe4
    ,bel and the ,dragon1 ,book of1 #gg4
    ,belisarius1 #bbg4    ,belshazzar1  
#aad4    ,belus1 the river1 #bhc1 #bhg4 
,berosus1 #b1 #aai4    ,berytus1 #bdg4  
,bes1 the god1 #bei1 #bfd1 #bga1 #bgb4  
,birds1 treatment of1 in ,chaldan art1  
#be4    in ,assyrian art1 #aji4         
offered to the gods1 #cca1 #ccb4        

,birejik1 stela from1 #ahg4             
,birket-,isral1 #bjh4    ,birs ,nimroud1
 ,mound of1 #f1 #af1 #eb1 #gc4          
,bit-kutalli1 #gj4    ,bitumen1 use of1 
as mortar1 #e1 #f1 #h1 #ag1 #bj1 #cad4  
,boar on ,babylonian tablet1 #abh4      
,boaz1 the column so-called1 #bbg4      
,boghaz-,keui1 #aia4    ,borsippa1 #gh4 
,botta1 ,e41 #ff1 #adb4    ,boul1 ,m41  
#bdf4    ,bracelets1 ,assyrian1 #adb1   
#adc4    ,elamite1 #cce4    ,achmenian1 
#ccg4    8,brazen ,sea0 in ,jewish      
,temple1 #gg1 #bbh4    ,branchid1 #bh4  
,brick column at ,susa1 #cae4           
,bricks1--    use of1 by ,chaldans1     
#c-h1 #aj1 #ag1 #ai4    by ,assyrians1  
#ec1 #fe1 #gd1 #aaf-bj4    by ,persians1
 #afg-gb4    by ,hittites1 #aia4    by  
,elamites1 #cad4    ,bronze1 #ab1 #ah1  
#ce-g1 #fc1 #gj1 #abe-cd1 #bbg-i1       
#bhh-ib4    use of1 in ,susa1 #cbf4     
altar1 #cbg4    cylinders1 #cbg4        
bas-relief1 #cbg4    statues1 #ccj4     
knuckle-bone1 ,temple of ,didyma1 #cac4 
,bulls1--    winged and human-headed1   

#ib-f1 #aed1 #afg1 #bbd4    in ,assyrian
 decorative designs1 #aad1 #aae4    in  
,persian sculpture1 #afb1 #afc4    on   
,elamite cylinders1 #cje1 #cjg4         
,bulls' horns on tiara1 #bc1 #bf4       
,burin1 #de1 #cjh4    ,burj el-,bezzk1  
#bee4    ,byrsa1 #bdf4    ,byzantine    
architecture1 #aei4      8,caillou      
,michaux10 #cc1 #cd1 #cbe4    ,calah1   
#ia4    ,cambyses ,i41 #agf4            
,cambyses ,,ii41 #aej4    ,candlesticks1
 ,jewish1 #bbf1 #bbg4    ,canephoros1   
#cf1 #cg1 #hi4    ,canopy of ,persian   
throne1 #afe4    ,capitals1 #ab1 #dc1   
#fc1 #fd1 #aee1 #aef1 #bbg1 #bdb1 #bdh4 
,cap of ,chaldan statue1 #bh1 #ccd4     
,caralis1 #bfj4    ,carchemish1 #ahe4   
,carthage1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bdi4            
,caryatids1 #hf1 #hg1 #cbg4    ,casat   
,crendi1 #bdd4    ,cedar-wood1 use of1  
in ,assyria and ,babylon1 #fj1 #fa1 #gh4
    ,cemetery1 ,assyrian1 #ej4          
,ceramics1--    ,chaldan1 #ch-dj4       
,assyrian1 #aba-e4    ,phnician1 #bgg-i4
    ,cypriote1 #bhj-a4    ,carthaginian1

 #bhb4    ,cesnola1 ,p4 di1 #bdb1 #bdc4 
,chair1 ,assyrian1 #ace4    ,chalcedony1
 #dd1 #adb1 #ahb1 #cce4    ,characene1  
#ab4    ,chariots1 ,assyrian1 #acf1     
#acg4    ,chedorlaomer1 #cjj4           
,cherubim1 #ic1 #bbd4    ,cidaris1 #agi4
    ,cippi1 #aaa1 #bfj1 #bfh4           
,cisterns1--    ,jewish1 #bae1 #bcb1    
#bcc4    ,carthaginian1 #bdi4           
,citium1 #bgj4    ,clamps1 use of1 in   
building1 #adi1 #aej1 #aia4    ,clay1 in
 building1 #d1 #f1 #ci1 #dj1 #ed1 #ef4  
tablets1 ,elamite1 #cje4    ,clercq1 ,m4
 de1 #de1 #df1 #dg4                     
,clermont-,ganneau1 on ,phnician patera1
 #bij4    ,cloisonn1 #ccg4    ,coffins1 
at ,mugheir1 #bj4    ,phnician1 #bef-i4 
,colocynths1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #bbh1 #bbi4    
,columns1--    ,chaldan1 #i-ab4         
,assyrian1 #fa-f4    ,persian1 #aec-f4  
,jewish1 #bag1 #bbg1 #bca4    ,cypriote1
 #bda1 #bdb1 #bdh4    ,elamite1 #cae4   
,concrete1 #ag4    ,cone1 mystical1     
#bdb4    ,cones1 #ah1 #ba1 #cf1 #ch4    
,contracts under protection of gods1    

#cbf4    ,corbelled vault1 #ad4         
,courts1--    of ,chaldan palaces1 #af1 
#ag4    of ,assyrian palaces1 #fi1 #gj4 
of ,jewish ,temple1 #bah-ba4    ,crater1
 #bib4    ,cross1 as ,assyrian ornament1
 #adc4    ,ctesias1 #gj1 #ha1 #aai4     
,cuneiform writing1 origin of1 #cje1    
#cjf4    ,curium1 #bdc4    ,cylinder1-- 
foundation1 #ba1 #bb4    inscribed1     
#cje1 #cjf1 #cjg4    huge bronze1 #cbg4 
,elamite1 #cce4    seals1 #cce4         
,cylindrical seals1 #ag1 #ba1 #dd-i1    
#adb-e1 #adf1 #ahj-d1 #bjc1 #bid-h4     
,cyrus1 #adf4    his portrait1 #afj4    
,dakhmas1 #agd1 #age4    ,dali1 #bei4   
,daniel1 ,book of1 #aad4    ,darius1    
#aej1 #aeb1 #cja1 #cab4    bas-relief   
of1 #aff4    tomb of1 #agh-hj4          
cylindrical seal of1 #aha4    ,david1   
#bje1 #bcb4    ,decoration1--    of     
,chaldan vases1 #ci1 #dj4    of ,chaldan
 walls1 #i1 #ab4    of ,assyrian vases1 
#abb1 #abc4    of ,hittite cylinder1    
#bjc4    of ,holy ,place in ,jewish     
,temple1 #bbd4    of ,phnician          

sculpture1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bfi4
    ,deir ,ghuzaleh1 #bca4    ,demons1  
#aaf1 #acj1 #acb-d4    ,didyma1 ,temple 
of1 #cac4    ,dieulafoy1 ,m41 #aah1     
#adi1 #afe1 #agd4    ,dimas1 #beb4      
,diodorus ,siculus1 #gf1 #hj1 #aai4     
,diorite1 #ag1 #bf1 #caf1 #cbc4         
,disk1 winged1 #aff1 #agb1 #ahg1 #bja1  
#bdj1 #bfc1 #bfi1 #bif4    ,disks1      
metal1 used as money 787 #cce4          
,divan1 ,assyrian1 #ace4    ,divine     
,mother1 ,the1 #dh1 #abd1 #bfg1 #bha4   
,dolmens1 #bcj1 #bca4    ,domes1 #ae1   
#ef1 #aeh1 #aei4    ,doors1 #ag1 #aeb4  
8,double ,gate0 of ,jewish ,temple1     
#baf1 #bag4    ,dowry1 record of1 #cc4  
,drainage1 #bj1 #ba1 #ea1 #eg-i4        
,drapery1--    treatment of1 in ,chaldan
 sculpture1 #cd1 #ce4    treatment of1  
in ,assyrian sculpture1 #aje4           
treatment of1 in ,persian sculpture1    
#afa1 #afe1 #aff4    in ,cypriote art1  
#bgc1 #bgd4    ,drill1 use of1 by       
,assyrian seal-engravers1 #add4         
,dungi1 #cji4    ,dur-,sarrukin1 #ff1   

#fi4      ,eagle and ,lion ,tablet1 #bd4
    ,e-anna1 ,temple of1 #f1 #caj1 #caa4
    ,ecbatana1 #gd1 #ge1 #adf4          
,eflatoun1 #bjj4    ,egyptian style1--  
in pater from ,assyria1 #abh4    in     
ivories from ,assyria1 #acg1 #ach4    in
 ,persian architecture1 #aef4           
sarcophagi in ,phnicia1 #beg1 #beh4     
,e-kua1 ,temple of1 #fj1 #gh4    ,elam1 
#bii4    ,elam-,anzanite period1 #cjd4  
,elephant in ,assyrian sculpture1 #aji4 
,embroidery1--    ,chaldan1 #cd1 #da4   
,assyrian1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ach-da4         
,persian1 #agb1 #ahj4    ,jewish1 #bbd4 
,enamelled bricks1 #ai1 #gj1 #gd1 #hc1  
#aaf-bj1 #aec1 #afg-gb1 #ccf4           
,enamelled statuettes in ,phnicia1 #bgh4
    ,enio1 the goddess1 #aif4           
,e-parra1 ,temple of1 #f4    ,ephod1    
#bcj4    ,erech1 #b1 #dh1 #abe1 #cji4   
,eridu1 #b4    ,eryx1 #bdg4             
,e-saggil1 ,temple of1 #f1 #gc1 #gh4    
,esarhaddon1 #bb1 #gb1 #ib4    ,eshmun1 
the god1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bfh4              
,eshmunazar1 #beg4    ,esther1 ,book of1

 #adj4    ,e-ulbar1 ,temple of1 #g1 #bb4
    ,eunuchs1 #ajj1 #cbd4    ,euphrates1
 #cb4    ,euyuk1 #aib4    ,ex votos1    
#cab1 #ccf4    8,exaltation of the      
,flower10 bas-relief of1 #afj4          
,ezekiel1 #aai4    ,e-zida1 ,temple of1 
#f1 #gc1 #gh4      ,faade at ,abu       
,shahrein1 #ah4    at ,warka1 #ah4    on
 bas-relief from ,assurbanipal's palace1
 #fb4    of temple of god ,haldia1 #gf1 
#gg4    of ,assyrian palaces1 #ib1 #ic4 
at ,persepolis and ,susa1 #aef1 #aeg4   
,ferashbad1 #aeh    ,figurines in       
terra-cotta1--    from ,chalda1 #dj1    
#da4    in ,assyrian tombs1 #ea    from 
,khorsabad1 #aba1 #abb    from ,babylon1
 #abd1 #abe4    from ,phnicia and       
,cyprus1 #bgg-ha4    ,fire-altars1 #agc4
    ,firuzabad1 #aeh1 #aei4    ,flints1 
worked1 #cjc4    ,floral designs--    on
 ,babylonian tiles1 #ai1 #aah4          
,flowers1 treatment of1 in ,assyrian    
sculpture1 #aaj4    ,fly-flaps1 #ace1   
#afd1 #cbd4    ,fortress1--    ,assyrian
 representation of1 #aaj4               

,foundation-cylinder1 #ba1 #bb4         
,friezes1--    from ,susa1 #afh-ga4     
,fringes1--    in ,chaldan drapery1 #bh1
 #cf1 #cg1 #da1 #bjb4    in ,assyrian   
drapery1 #aje1 #ajf4    in ,elamite     
drapery1 #ccb4    ,frhner1 ,m41 on the  
glass vase of ,sargon1 #bhf4            
,furniture1--    ,chaldan1 #dc4         
,assyrian1 #acd-f4    of ,jewish temple1
 #bbc-g4                                
,gabr-i-,madar-i-,soleiman1 #age4       
,gates1--    of ,assyrian fortresses1   
#hb-d4    of ,balawat1 #abf1 #abg4    of
 ,jewish ,temple1 #bae-ag4    ,gaulois1 
#bdc4    ,gaumates1 #agi4    ,genesis1--
    on bricks at ,babel1 #d4    on the  
8,great ,city10 #ha4    ,genii1--    on 
the 8,caillou ,michaux10 #cc4    wear   
tiara with horns1 #cf4    on ,chaldan   
cylindrical seals1 #de4    before temple
 of ,haldia1 #gg4    on faades of       
,assyrian palaces1 #ib-if4    identified
 with cherubim1 #ic1 #bbd4    in        
,persia1 #afa4    animal's feet and     
tail1 #cag4    ,genseric1 #bbg4         

,gestures1--    in ,assyrian            
bas-reliefs1 #ajb1 #ajc4    ,chaldan    
attitude of prayer1 #cca1 #ccb4         
,ghiaur-,kalesi1 #aii4    ,giants1 #cjg4
    ,giganteja1 #bdc4    ,glass1 #bhc-h4
    vase of ,sargon1 #bhe4              
transparent1 invention of1 by           
,phnicians1 #bhc4    opaque1 origin of1 
in ,egypt1 #bhd4    manufacture of1 at  
,tyre and ,sidon1 #bhg4    ,glazed      
statuettes in ,phnicia1 #bgh4           
sandstone1 #cad1 head-dress1 #ccd4      
,glazed tiles1--    in ,chalda1 #ai4    
in ,assyria1 #aaf-bj4    in ,persia1    
#afg-gb4    in ,susa1 #cad4    ,gold--  
disks as money1 #cce4    rings1 #cce4   
studs1 #cbh1 #ccd4    statuette1 #cca4  
filigree1 #cca4    settings for gems1   
#ccg4    pendants1 #ccg4    8,golden    
,gate0 of ,jewish ,temple1 #bag4        
,golgoi1 #bdb4    ,gophna1 #bce4        
,gozo1 #bdc4    ,grco-,parthian kings1  
#ab4    8,great ,city10 ,the1 #ha4      
,greek--    artists in ,persia1 #adh1   
#afj4    influence in ,cypriote art1    

#bgb1 #bgc1 #bgf1 #bha4    influence in 
,jewish art1 #bcd1 #bcf4    ,griffin's  
head1 #ccf4    ,gudea1 #cji4    palace  
of1 at ,tello1 #c1 #h-bj4    cones      
bearing name of1 #ch4    statues of1    
#bf-i4    plan of fortress upon statue  
of1 #ha4    inscriptions upon statues   
of1 #aab4    ,gypsum1 #ec4              
,hadrian1 #bdi4    ,hadrumetum1 #bfh4   
,hmatite1 #dd1 #ccd4    ,hagiar ,kim1   
#bbd4    ,hair--    shaved in ,chaldan  
statuettes1 #cf4    treatment of1 in    
,assyrian sculpture1 #ajj4    in        
,persian art1 #afj1 #agj4    in ,hittite
 art1 #ahh1 #aij1 #aic1 #aid1 #aif1     
#bjj4    in ,phnician art1 #bfb4    in  
,cypriote art1 #bgj1 #bgc1 #bgd4        
treatment of1 in ,elamite art1 #cbi4    
shaved in ,elamite statuettes1 #cca4    
,haldia1 the god1 #gf1 #gg4    ,hamath1 
#ahe4    ,hammurabi1 #dd1 #cji1 #cbc4   
,hanbury1 ,col41 ,chaldan sword         
belonging to1 #cg4    ,haram            
esh-,sherif1 #baa4    ,harbours of      
,carthage1 #bej4    of ,tyre and ,sidon1

 #bej4    of ,thapsus1 #beb4    of      
,utica1 #beb4    ,hareem of ,chaldan    
palace1 #af4    of ,assyrian palace1    
#fi1 #gj4    of ,solomon's palace1 #bcb4
    ,harness1 ,assyrian1 #ada4          
,phnician1 #bgg4    ,head-dress1--      
,chaldan1 #bc1 #bf1 #bh1 #dj1 #da1 #cba4
    of gods and genii1 #cf1 #bjj1 #cag4 
,assyrian1 #aja1 #adc4    ,median1 #adf4
    ,persian1 #agj1 #agi1 #aha4         
,hittite1 #ahh1 #aia1 #aie1 #aih1 #bjj4 
,cypriote1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgc4    ,hebron1
 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bcd4                      
8,heit-el-,maghreby10 #bac4    ,helmets1
 ,assyrian1 #abh4    ,heracles1 #bgd4   
,herod1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #baa1 #bab1   
#bad1 #bbc4    ,herodian masonry1 #bab1 
#bac1 #bae1 #baf1 #bcb1 #bcd4           
,herodotus1--    on use of bricks at    
,babylon1 #e4    on temple of ,bel at   
,babylon1 #gc1 #gd1 #gg1 #gh4    on     
fortress of ,ecbatana1 #gd1 #ge4    on  
the royal city of ,babylon1 #hj4    on  
figures of 8,sesostris0 in ,ionia1 #aab1
 #bja4    on absence of temples and     

statues in ,persia1 #agb4    on         
treatment of dead by ,persians1 #age4   
on 8persis10 #agi4    ,heuzey1 ,m41--   
on sculpture at ,tello1 #bc4    on eagle
 and lion tablet1 #bd4    on 8kaunakes10
 #cb1 #da4    on ,assyrian statuettes1  
#aba4    on statuette of the 8,divine   
,mother10 #abd4    on archaic school of 
art in ,thessaly1 #afj4    ,hezekiah1   
#bcc4    ,hieroglyphs1 ,elamite1 #cje4  
8,high places10 #bca1 #bci4    ,hinnom1 
valley of1 #bje4    ,hiram1 #bjf4       
,hiram-,abi1 #bbf4    ,hit1 #e4    ,holy
 of ,holies1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bbe4    ,holy 
,place1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bbf4    ,horn1     
bronze1 discovered at ,tello1 #cg4      
,horns1--    as ornaments of head-dress1
 #bc1 #bf1 #cf1 #bjj1 #cag1 #cba4    of 
bronze statuette1 #ce4    bull's1       
alabaster1 #ccf4    ,horses in ,assyrian
 sculpture1 #ajh1 #ada4    ,houses1     
,phnician and ,cypriote1 #bdg1 #bdh4    
,humann1 ,m41 #bja4    ,humbaba1 #cjh4  
,hyrcanus1 palace of1 #bcb4             
,iasili-,kaa1 #aia1 #aic-h4    ,ibn     

,tln1 mosque of1 #agd4    ,ibriz1 #bjj4 
,iconic statues1 #bfe1 #bgd4            
,idalion1 #bei4    ,ilu1 the god1 #agb  
7note74    8,immortals10 the1 #afe1     
#agj4    ,inscriptions on figures on    
bas-reliefs1 #aab4    ,ionia1 #aab4     
,ionic capital1 #ab1 #dc1 #fd4    ,iron1
 #dc1 #abe4    ,istar1 the goddess1 #di1
 #abd1 #abe1 #ahh1 #bjb4    ,ivory1     
#acg1 #ach1 #cce4    ,izdubar1--    on  
,chaldan cylindrical seals1 #df1 #dg4   
on ,assyrian bas-reliefs1 #ic4          
statuettes of1 #aba1 #abb4    in        
,persian art1 #afb4    compared with    
colossus of ,amathus1 #bga4             
,jachin1 columns so called1 #bbg4       
,james1 ,saint1 tomb of1 #bcd4          
,jasper1 #cce4    ,jebel-,musa1 #bcj4   
,jehoshaphat1 tomb of1 #bcd4            
,jerablus1 #ahe4    ,jerusalem1--       
extent of1 #bje4    glass vase found at1
 #bhh4    ,jetty of ,thapsus1 #beb4     
,jewellery1 ,achmenian1 #ccf4    ,jews  
in ,assyrian sculpture1 #ajc4           
,jifneh1 #bce4    ,joints1 treatment of1

 in ,chaldan seal-engraving1 #de4       
,jonah1 ,book of1 on size of ,nineveh1  
#ha4    ,joshua1 tomb of1 #bce4         
,jotham1 #bcb4    ,jur1 #agc1 #agd4     
,justinian1 #bbg4      ,kadesh1 #ahe4   
,kalaba1 #aii4    ,kalah ,shergat1 #e1  
#ca1 #aaa4    ,karamles1 #ea4           
,karibu-sa-,susinak1 #cjh4    ,kasr1    
mound of the1 #eb4    8,kaunakes10 #cb1 
#da1 #db4    ,kebr-el-,melk1 #bcd4      
,kedron1 valley of1 #bje1 #bab1 #bba1   
#bcb4    ,kerbela1 #ej4    ,khan1--     
of palace at ,tello1 #ag4    of palace  
at ,khorsabad1 #fi4    ,khorsabad1 #ea1 
#eb1 #ed1 #ee1 #fc1 #ff-gb1 #gc1 #gd1   
#ge1 #gi1 #hc1 #hf1 #ic1 #ajf1 #aaa1    
#aad1 #aca1 #adb1 #adi1 #cbd4           
8,kirubi0 identified with cherubim1 #ic4
    combination of various elements in1 
#ie4    modification of1 in ,persian    
art1 #ahc4    ,kis1 #cag1 #cbf4         
8,klaft10 #bga4    ,kouyunjik1 #ea1 #eb1
 #ef1 #gb1 #gc1 #aaa4    ,kubbet        
es-,sakhra1 #bjh4    ,kudur1 #cjh4      
,kudurmapuk1 #cf4    ,kudur-,nakhunta1  

#cji1 #caj4    ,kudurru1 #cji1 #caa1    
#cbe4    ,kurigalzu1 #ba1 #cji4         
,lachish1 #ajc1 #acf4    ,lagas1 #c     
7note74    ,lapis-lazuli1 #adb4         
,larnaca1 #bgj4    ,larsa1 #b1 #ba4     
,layard1 ,sir ,a4 ,h41 #fb1 #fh1 #gb1   
#abc1 #cjj4    ,leather1 working in1    
among ,assyrians1 #ada4    ,lebanon1    
#fj1 #gh4    ,limestone1 #bc1 #eb1 #aec4
    ,lion1 #cjd1 #cjg4    head in gold  
filigree1 #cca4    ,lioness in ,assyrian
 bas-relief1 #ajg4    ,lions1 winged1   
#ib1 #id4    in ,hittite art1 #ahf1     
#ahg1 #ahi4    in ,assyrian art1 #ajg1  
#ajh4    ,loftus1 ,mr41 #c1 #aj1 #ah1   
#ba1 #dj1 #aad4    ,lotus1--    in      
bas-reliefs1 #aaj4    on ivory plaque   
from ,assyria1 #acg4    columns         
imitating stalks of1 #aa4    on         
sculptured threshold1 #aaj4    ,louvre1 
#bf1 #cjc1 #cac4    ,lozenge ornament in
 ,chalda1 #ai1 #de4    ,lulubi1 people  
of1 #cai4    ,lycian tombs1 compared    
with ,persian1 #agg4    ,lydian method  
of building1 #adi4      8,maabed10      

#bci-da4    ,maccabees1 tomb of the1    
#bcd4    ,temple1 in time of the1 #baj4 
,machicolations1 #hb4    ,machpelah1    
#bcc4    ,malta1 #bdd4    ,malthaiyah1  
#ahg4    ,manasseh1 #bji1 #bcb4         
,mandane1 tomb of1 #age4                
,manistu-,irba1 #caf4    ,marash1--     
lion at1 #ahf4    basalt stela at1 #aij4
    ,marble1 #dd4    ,marduk-nadin-akhi1
 #cc1 #cd1 #da4    ,marginal drafting1--
    in ,persian masonry1 #adi4    in    
,jewish masonry1 #bac1 #bcb1 #bcd4      
,matting used in brickwork1 #e4    to   
cover the roofs1 #ae1 #bdb4    ,m4 de   
,morgan1 #cja1 et seq4    on            
,naram-,sin1 #cbj1 #cba4    ,mecca1     
mosque of1 #bda4    ,medan ,salih1 #bce4
    ,median art1 #adf4    ,mehdia1 #bfj4
    ,melisihu1 #cbe4    ,memnon1 #cjj4  
,menant1--    on cylindrical seal of    
,sargon ,i41 #dg4    on seals from      
,uruk1 #dh4    on representation of     
human sacrifices1 #di4                  
,meshed-,murgab1 #adg4                  
,mesopotamia1--    want of stone and    

timber in1 #c1 #d4    quality of clay   
in1 #d1 #ci4    quantity of rain in1 #f4
    ,metals in ,assyria1 #abe-cd4       
,metellus ,scipio1 #ada4    ,michaux1   
the ,caillou ,michaux1 #cc1 #cd1 #cbe4  
8,mighzal10 #bed4    ,miletus1 #bh4     
,minyeh1 #bca4    ,moab1 #bcj1 #bca4    
,models of houses from ,cyprus1 #bdh4   
,money1 probable use of metal disks1    
#ccf4    ,monolith of ,siloam1 #bce4    
,moriah1 ,mount1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bjh4
    ,mortar used in ,assyria1 #ed4      
used in ,elam1 #cad4    ,moulds1        
,hittite1 #bjb4    ,mugheir1 #b1 #c1 #f1
 #h1 #ad1 #bj1 #ba1 #ch1 #ea1 #gc1 #ge4 
,mntz1 ,m41 on ,babylonian embroidery1  
#adj4    ,musasir1 #gf4    ,muscles1    
treatment of1 in ,assyrian art1 #ajj4   
,myra1 #agg4    ,mythological figures in
 ,chaldan art1 #cc4      ,nabonidus1--  
restoration of buildings by1 #g1 #bb4   
foundation-cylinder of1 #ba1 #bb4       
architecture of time of1 #eb4           
,nabopolassar1 #hj4                     
,nabu-ablu-iddin1--    stela of1 #ab1   

#db4    8,naharaim10 #cb4    ,nahum1 on 
brick-making1 #d4    ,nakhsh-i-,rustam1 
#adg1 #agc1 #agf1 #agi4    ,name1       
stamped upon bricks1 #e1 #caf4    ,nana1
 the goddess1 #g1 #cji1 #caj1 #ccc4     
,napir-,asu1 ,queen1 #ccj4              
,naram-,sin1 #cjh1 #cah4    stela1 #cai 
et seq4    ,nazi-,maruttas1 #cbe4       
,nebi ,yunus1 #ea4    ,nebo1 the god1   
#g1 #hf4    ,nebuchadnezzar1 #da1 #gi1  
#aai1 #bji1 #bbf4    bricks bearing name
 of1 #e4    architecture of time of1    
#eb4    brings cedars from ,lebanon1    
#fj1 #gh4    builds ,tower of the ,seven
 ,lights1 #gc4    restores ,e-saggil1   
#gh4    restores ,e-zida1 #gh4    builds
 walls of ,babylon1 #hj4                
,nebuzar-adan1 #bji4    ,necropolis1--  
at ,mugheir1 #ad1 #bj1 #ba1 #ch4    at  
,warka1 #ch4    at ,marath1 #bec-e4     
at ,sidon1 #bee1 #bef4    at ,dali1     
#bei4    at ,amathus1 #bfj4    at       
,mehdia1 #bfj4    at ,thina1 #bfa4    at
 ,tyre1 #bed4    at ,adlun1 #bed4    at 
,gebal1 #bef4    at ,caralis1 #bfj4     

at ,tharras1 #bfj4    at ,jebel ,kawi1  
#bfa4    ,negritic type1 #cbb4          
,nehemiah1 #bcb4    ,nejef1 #ej4        
,nero1 #ada1 #baa4    ,nicanor1 ,gate   
of1 #bbj4    ,nimroud1 #ea1 #eb1 #fa1   
#fb1 #gb1 #aaa4    ,nineveh1--    walls 
of1 #f4    vaulting at1 #ac4    extent  
of1 #ha4    ,nin ,girsu1 #aj4    ,ninus1
 #aai4    ,numeration1 ,elamite1 #cjf4  
,nymphio1 #bja4      ,oannes1 #b4       
,onyx1 #dd4    ,ophel1 hill of1 #bje1   
#baj1 #bca1 #bcb4    ,oppert1 #df1 #gi1 
#ha4    ,orientation of ,chalda         
buildings1 #h4    of ,assyrian          
buildings1 #fg4    ,ornaments1 #adb1    
#adc4    ,ourdeys1 #hb4    ,ovoid gems1 
#de4      ,painted bricks1--            
,chaldan1 #ai4    ,assyrian1 #gd1       
#aaf-bj4    ,persian1 #afg-gb4          
,painting1--    on faades of ,chaldan   
palace1 #ah1 #ai4    on stucco in       
,assyrian palaces1 #ef1 #aad1 #aae4     
on ,assyrian bas-reliefs1 #aae1 #aaf4   
on ,assyrian vases1 #abb4    on walls of
 ,persian buildings1 #aei1 #agb4    in  

,cypriote pottery1 #bhj4    ,palace1--  
of ,gudea at ,tello1 #h-bb4    of       
,sargon at ,khorsabad1 #fg-gb4    of    
,cyrus at ,madar-i-,soleiman1 #adh-ej4  
of ,darius at ,nakhsh-i-,rustam1 #aej4  
of ,xerxes1 #aej-h4    of ,artaxerxes1  
#aeg4    of ,solomon1 #bca4             
,palestrina1 #bij1 #bic4    ,palm-wood1 
use of1 in roofing houses1 #ae1 #fj1    
#aeh4    pillars of1 #fc4    ,paphos1   
#bda1 #bdb4    ,parthians1 #ab1 #ef4    
,partitions of rooms1 #ac1 #ed1 #ee4    
,pasargad1 #adg1 #adh1 #aej1 #aea1 #afj4
    ,passages1 vaulted1 at ,tello1 #ad4 
,patci1 #bfd4    ,pater1 #abg1 #abh1    
#bhi1 #bij4    ,patesi1 #h1 #df1 #ha1   
#cjh4    ,pausanias1 on size of         
,babylon1 #gi4    ,pediments1 #gf1 #gg1 
#age1 #bce1 #bef1 #bfg4    ,pendants1   
#ccf1 #ccg4    ,pendentives1 #aei       
7note74    ,perrot1--    on ,assyrian   
voussoirs1 #eh1 #ei4    on gates of     
,balawat1 #abf1 #abg4    on ,hittite    
sphinx1 #aic4    on ,hittite            
bas-reliefs1 #aii4    on ,cypriote      

terra-cottas1 #bhj4    ,persepolis1 #h1 
#adg1 #aej1 #afb4    ,persepolitan      
capital1 #aec-f4    ,persis1 #agi4      
,perspective1 ignorance of laws of1     
among ,assyrians1 #ih1 #aaj4            
,philostratus1 #adj4    ,phnician       
bronzes in ,assyria1 #abi4    ivories in
 ,assyria1 #ach4    artists employed in 
,jewish ,temple1 #bbd4    ,pilasters1   
#i1 #fa1 #gg4    ,pillars1 #aj1 #aa1    
#fc4    7see ,,columns74    ,pine-cone  
in ,assyrian art1 #aaa1 #aci4    ,pipes 
for drainage1 #bj4    ,pivot of door1   
#ag1 #ah4    ,place1 ,m4 ,v41 #ed1 #ee1 
#fa1 #ff1 #aag4    ,plan of ,chaldan    
fortress1 #bi1 #ha4    ,plaque1--    of 
bronze1 #aca-d4    of ivory1 #acg1 #ach4
    ,plaster1 use of1 in ,chalda1 #aa1  
#ah4    in ,assyria1 #ef1 #aad1 #aae4   
in ,persia1 #agb4    ,platforms of      
buildings1--    in ,chalda1 #h4    in   
,assyria1 #eb1 #ec1 #fg1 #fh4    in     
,persia1 #adi-eb4    in ,juda1 #bjg1    
#bjh4    in ,susa1 #cad4    ,pliny1--   
on ,babylonian embroidery1 #adj4    on  

,telephanes1 #adh4    on invention of   
glass1 #bhc4    ,porphyry1 #dd1 #aec4   
,position-marks on masonry1 #adi4    on 
bricks1 #aag1 #aah4    ,pottery1        
inferiority of1 in ,chalda1 #ch1 #ci4   
prehistoric1 ,elam1 #cjd4    ,prneste1  
patera from1 #bhi-ic4    ,prehistoric   
remains1 ,susa1 #cjc4    ,progress of   
art in ,assyria1 #aaa-ac4    in ,cyprus1
 #bgj-c4    ,pshent1 #bfc-ga4           
,pteria1 #aia4    ,pudil1 #ch4          
,pygmus1 the god1 #bei1 #bgf1 #bgi4     
,rammanu1 the god1 #bb1 #add4           
,rammanu-nirari1 #ch1 #ib4    ,ras      
el-,ain1 #bdi4    ,rassam1 ,mr4 ,h41    
#gb4    ,rawlinson1 ,sir ,h41 #gb1 #cjj4
    ,renan1 ,m4 ,e41 #bfc1 #bfe4        
,reseph1 the god1 #bid4    ,rings1 #cce4
    ,robinson's ,arch1 #bad4    ,rule1  
graduated1 #bi4      ,sacrifice1 human1 
#di4    ,sadambaal1 the god1 #bdc4      
,sagasaltias1 #bb4    ,sakhra1 #bjh4    
,sakkanak1 #cjh4    ,samas1 the god1 #b1
 #bb1 #cbc1 #cbd4    shrine of1 #ab1    
#db1 #dc1 #fd4    ,samas-sum-ukin1 #hj4 

,samsi-,rammanu ,,iii41 #hh1 #ib4       
,sandals1 #cbb4    ,sandstone1 #cjd1    
#cag4    ,sarcophagi1 ,phnician1 #bef-i4
    ,sargani 7see ,,sargon ,i474        
,sargani-sar ali1 #cjh4    ,sargon ,i41 
#dg1 #dh4    ,sargon ,,ii41 #ec1 #eg1   
#ij1 #fa1 #ff1     #gf1 #ib1 #ic1 #if1  
#ajf1 #aac1 #aaf1 #aag1 #bgj1 #bhe4     
,sarvistan1 #aeh1 #aei4    ,sarzec1 ,m4 
de1 #b1 #aj4    ,sassanian buildings1   
#ef1 #fc1 #aeh1 #aei4    ,saulcy1 ,f4   
de1 #bce4    ,scheil1 ,pre ,v41 #cja4   
on inscriptions1 #cje1 #cjf1 #cai4      
,schrader1 ,e41 #ha4    ,scipio         
,africanus1 #bff4    ,seals1--          
,chaldan1 #dd-i4    ,assyrian1 #adc-e4  
,median1 #adf4    ,persian1 #ahj-c4     
,hittite1 #bjc4    ,jewish1 #bcj4       
,phnician1 #bid-h4    ,elamite1 #cjd1   
#cce4    ,selamlik1 #af4    ,seleucids1 
#baj1 #bcd4    ,semiramis1 #gf1 #hj1    
#aai4    ,senkereh1 #b1 #ba4            
,sennacherib1 #fj1 #ff1 #fg1 #gb1 #ib1  
#ic1 #ajc1 #aac1 #aci 7note74           
,sepharvaim1 #b1 #db4    ,sepulchral    

architecture in ,assyria1 #ej4    towers
 in ,persia1 #ad    ,seraglio1 #af1 #fi4
    ,sesostris1 #aab1 #bja4    ,set1 the
 god1 #bid4    ,sewage1 disposal of1    
#bj4    ,shalmaneser ,,iii41 #gb1 #hi1  
#abf4    8,sharur10 #f4    ,shat        
el-,hai1 #c4    8,shenti10 #bfd4        
,shew-bread1 #bbf4    ,shilkhak in      
,shushinak1 #cji4    ,shushinak1 ,temple
 of1 #cad1 #ccj1 #cca1 #ccf4            
,shutruk-,nakhunta1 #cji1 #cad1 #cae1   
#cai1 #cbc1 #ccf4    ,sidon1 #bdg1 #bej1
 #bee1 #bhi4    ,sidur canal1 #cjh4     
,siloam1 #bcb1 #bce4    ,silver1 use    
of1--    in ,chalda and ,assyria1 #ba4  
in ,elam1 statuette1 #ccb4      mask1   
repouss1 #ccc4      studs1 #ccd4        
rings1 #cce4      disks1 #ccf4    ,sin1 
the god1 #af4    ,sinjerli1 #ahh4       
,sippara1 #b1 #cbc4    ,sirens1 bronze1 
#abi-cj4    ,sirpurla1 #c4    ,sivan1   
#d4    ,smith1 ,g41 #gb4    ,sockets for
 pivot of door1 #ag1 #ah1 #cjh4         
,solomon1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 
#baa1 #bae1 #bai1 #bba1 #bbd1 #bcb1     

#bce4    palace of1 #bca-b4    porch of1
 #bji1 #baa4    ,solus1 #beh4           
,sophia1 church of ,saint1 #ef1 #aei    
7note74    ,sphinxes1--    ,persian1    
#ahc4    ,hittite1 #aib1 #aic4          
,phnician1 #bfc4    ,stables1 #ag1 #fi1 
#gj1 #acf4    ,staged towers1 #ae1 #af1 
#gb-f1 #agd1 #cad4    ,staircases1 #h1  
#fg1 #aea1 #aeb4    ,standard1          
,assyrian1 #acc1 #acd4    ,state saloon 
in ,chaldan palace1 #ag4    ,statues1-- 
from ,tello1 #bf-cj4    of              
,assur-nasir-pal1 #hf4    caryatid1 #hf1
 #hg4    iconic1 in ,cyprus1 #bfe4      
captured by ,scipio at ,carthage1 #bff4 
colossal1 in ,cyprus1 #bgj-bgb4    of   
priest with dove1 #bgc4    bronze from  
,elam1 #ccj4    ,statuettes1--          
bronze1 from ,chalda1 #ce-h4    of      
canephoros1 #cf1 #cg4    kneeling1 with 
cone1 #cf4    of figure standing upon   
lion1 #cg1 #ch4    terra-cotta1 from    
,warka1 #dj4    alabaster1 from ,chalda1
 #db4    terra-cotta from ,khorsabad1   
#aba1 #abb4    of ,izdubar1 #abb4    of 

,istar1 #abc-be4    terra-cotta1 from   
,phnicia and ,cyprus1 #bgg-hb4    of    
,divine ,mother1 #abd1 #bha4    from    
,elam1 bronze1 #ccj4      gold1 #ccb4   
silver1 #ccb4      ivory1 #cce4         
,steatite1 #dc1 #abc4    ,stela1--      
the 8,vulture ,stela10 #bd-f1 #cba4     
of ,samsi-,rammanu1 #hh4    of          
,assurbanipal1 as canephoros1 #hi4      
,hittite1 from ,birejik1 #ahg4          
votive1 from ,carthage1 #bff4           
,chaldan from ,elam1 #cag4      of      
,manishtu ,irba1 #caf4      of          
,naram-,sin1 #cai et seq4    ,stone1--  
want of1 in ,mesopotamia1 #d4           
staircase of1 at ,abu ,shahrein1 #h4    
scanty use of1 in ,assyria1 #ej1 #fe4   
facing of1 at ,khorsabad1 #eb1 #ec4     
use of1 in ,persia1 #adi4    want of1 in
 ,persia1 #cbf4    ,stool1 #ace4        
,strabo1--    on use of vault in        
,babylonia1 #ae1 #ef4    on use of      
palmwood pillars at ,babylon1 #fc4    on
 height of temple of ,bel1 #gc4    on   
tomb of ,cyrus1 #agg4    on rites of    

,cappadocian ,astarte1 #aig4    ,stucco1
 #ah1 #aad1 #agb4    ,stuffs            
manufactured in ,chalda1 #da4    in     
,assyria1 #aje1 #ach1 #aci4    ,stylus1 
#cjh1 #cbd4    ,sukkal-mah1 #cji4       
,sulci1 #bhb4    ,sumerian language1    
#caf4    ,susa1 #adg1 #afh4    ,mission 
in1 #bii et seq4    ,susiana1 #aeh4     
,sword1 ,chaldan1 #bg4      ,tablet1    
,eagle and ,lion1 #bd4    ,tablets1--   
votive1 #ba4    clay1 ,elam1 #cje4      
,tabnit1 #beg4    ,tacitus1 on temple of
 ,paphos1 #bdb4    ,takht-i-,jemshid1   
#aeb1 #agi4                             
,takht-i-madar-i-,soleiman1 #adi4       
,talisman1 #ag1 #bcj4    ,tanit1 the    
goddess1 #bdf1 #bfc1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bfi4  
,tapestry1 #ach-dj4    ,tarkudimme1     
#bjc4    ,taylor1 ,j4 ,e41 #c1 #h1 #i1  
#ah1 #gf4    ,telephanes of ,phoca1     
#adh4    ,tell ,amran1 #eb4    ,tello1  
#b1 #c1 #e1 #h1 #i1 #ad1 #ah1 #bj1 #bc1 
#cb1 #gc1 #ha1 #he1 #cae1 #cag1 #cah4   
,tells1 #b1 #aj1 #cjj4    ,telmessus1   
#agg4    ,temple of the ,great ,light1  

#f4    of ,e-anna1 #caj4    ,temple of  
,didyma1 #cac4    of ,shushinak1 #cad1  
#ccj1 #cca1 #ccf4    ,tent1 #acf4       
,terrace 7see ,,platform74              
,terra-cotta1 #ch1 #ci-da1 #ea1 #aba-e1 
#bdh1 #bgg4    ,thapsus1 #beb4          
,tharras1 #bfj4    ,then 7see ,,thina74 
,thessaly1 archaic school of art in1    
#afj4    ,thina1 #bfa4    ,thresholds1  
#aaj1 #aaa4    ,throne1--    of         
,sennacherib1 #acf4    of ,darius1 #afe4
    ,thyatira1 #bjb4    ,tiara1--    on 
,tello bas-relief1 #bc4    on ,vulture  
,stela1 #bf4    on ,marduk-nadin-akhi1  
#da4    of ,sargon1 #ajf4    on ,median 
cylinder1 #adf4    of ,persian          
human-headed bulls1 #afg4    of ,darius1
 #aha4    on stela from ,birejik1 #ahh4 
of ,hittite deity1 #aie4    on ,elamite 
statuette1 #ccb4    ,tiglath-,pileser1  
#ib4    ,tigris1 the1 #cb4    ,timber1  
use of1 in ,assyria1 #fj1 #fa4          
8,timmennu10 #ba1 #bb4    ,titus1 arch  
of1 #bbf4    ,tomb1--    of ,mandane1   
#age4    of ,cambyses ,i41 #agf1 #agg4  

of ,cyrus1 #agg4    of ,darius1 #agi4   
,tombs1--    at ,mugheir1 #bj1 #ba4     
at ,warka1 #ch4    in ,assyria1 #ej4    
of ,achmenids1 #age-hj4    at ,marath1  
#bec-ee4    at ,sidon1 #bee1 #bef4    at
 ,dali1 #bei4    at ,amathus1 #bfj4     
at ,mehdia1 #bfj4    at ,thina1 #bfa4   
at ,tyre1 #bed4    at ,adlun1 #bed4     
at ,gebal1 #bef4    at ,caralis1 #bfj4  
at ,tharras1 #bfj4    at ,jebel ,kawi1  
#bfa4    ,totems1 with ,babylonian      
deities1 #cbe4    ,tower1--    of ,seven
 ,lights1 #gc4    staged 7see           
,,zikkurat74    of ,jur1 #agc1 #agd4    
,trees1 ,treatment of1 in ,assyrian art1
 #aaj4    ,trinity1 ,phnician1 #bfh4    
,triple gate of ,jewish ,temple1 #bag4  
,tulip in ,assyrian decorative design1  
#aaj4    ,tunnel of ,siloam1 #bcb1 #bcc4
    ,turanians1 #cjb4    ,types of human
 figure in ,assyrian art1 #ajj-b4    in 
,chaldan art1 #cba1 #cbb4    in ,elamite
 art1 #cbi1 #ccc4    ,tyre1 #bdi1 #bhg4 
,tyropon1 valley of1 #bje1 #bab1 #bad1  
#bai4      ,umalnaru1 #df4              

,umbrella1--    ,assyrian1 #ace4        
,persian1 #afd4    ,umm el-,awamid1     
#bfc4    ,ur1 #b1 #dh1 #ge4    ,urus1-- 
on ivory plaque from ,assyria1 #acg4    
in head-dress of ,cyrus1 #afa4    in    
,phnician sculpture1 #bdj1 #bfc4    on  
stela of ,hadrumetum1 #cfi4    ,ur-,bau1
 #ch4    ,urim and ,thummim1 #bcj4      
,ur-iti-,adad1 #cjh4    ,ur-,nina1 #bd4 
,uruk1 #b1 #dh1 #cji4    ,utica1 #beb4  
,vandals1 seizure of treasures of       
,jewish temple by1 #bbg4    ,vases1--   
,assyrian1 #abb1 #abc4    ,chaldan1 #ci4
    ,elamite1 #cjd1 #cjg1 #cce4         
,vault1--    at ,tello1 #ad4    at      
,mugheir1 #ad4    at ,babylon in time of
 ,strabo1 #ae4    at ,khorsabad1 #ee1   
#eg1 #eh1 #ei4    in drain at ,nimroud1 
#eg4    in ,persia1 #aeh1 #aei4    ,veil
 in ,jewish ,temple1 #bbd4              
,vermilion1 use of1 in ,assyrian art1   
#aaf1 #aai4    ,vog1 ,m4 de1 #bje4    on
 platform of ,jewish ,temple1 #bjh4     
on ,herod's restoration1 #baa4    on    
,golden ,gate1 #bag 7note74    on altar 

of burnt offerings1 #bba4    on chambers
 attached to ,temple1 #bbb4    on       
appearance of ,temple1 #bbb1 #bbc4    on
 cherubim1 #bbe4    on columns before   
,temple1 #bbg4    ,voussoirs1 #ee1 #eh1 
#ei4    8,vulture ,stela10 #bd-f1 #cba4 
,walls1--    of ,chaldan palace1 #ab1   
#ac4    of ,assyrian palace1 #ed-f4     
of ,babylon1 #gi1 #hj4    of ,nineveh1  
#ha4    of ,khorsabad1 #gi4    of       
,jewish ,temple1 #bab-ad4    of         
,jerusalem1 #bcb4    of ,banias1 #bdf4  
of ,carthage1 #bdg4    of ,eryx1 #bdg4  
of ,elam1 #cad4    ,warka1 #b1 #i1 #ah1 
#dj1 #fc1 #aad4    ,weapons1--          
,chaldan1 #cg1 #ch4    ,assyrian1 #abi1 
#acg4    ,windows of ,persian palaces1  
#aeb4    ,women1 treatment of1 in       
,assyrian art1 #aja4    ,wood1--    want
 of1 in ,chalda1 #d4    use of1 in      
,assyria1 #fj1 #acd-g4    ,woodwork1    
carved1 #acd-g4    ,wuswas1 #i1 #aj1    
#aad4      ,xanthus1 #agg4    ,xerxes1  
#adh1 #aej1 #aeb1 #aed1 #afd4           
,zacharias1 tomb of1 #bcd4    ,zaghouan1

 #bdi4    ,zarpanit1 the goddess1 #gh4  
,zerubbabel1 #baj1 #bad4    ,zikkurat1--
    in ,chalda1 #ae1 #af4    in         
,assyria1 #gb-f4    in ,persia1 #agd4   
in ,elam1 #cad4           99       99   
99       99       99    ,printed and    
bound by ,hazell1 ,watson  ,viney1 ,ld41
 ,london and ,aylesbury1  ,england4     
,,footnotes3     #a ,the authority of a 
syllabary and a bilingual text enables  
us   to correct the pronunciation of    
this name to ,lagas4 ,see ,pinches in   
,babylonian and ,oriental ,record1 vol4 
iii41 p4 #bd4 ,translator's   note4     
#b ,genesis xi4 #c4     #c ,nahum iii4  
#ad4     #d ,herodotus i4 #agi4     #e  
,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic         
,society1 vol4 xv41 p4 #djf4     #f     
,travels and ,researches in ,chalda and 
,susiana1 p4 #age4     #g ,dcouvertes en
 ,chalde1 p4 #fb4     #h ,see ,heuzey1  
,un palais chalden1 pp4 #cg-eh4     #i  
,e4 de ,sarzec1 ,dcouvertes en ,chalde1 
pp4 #cd1 #ce4     #aj ,see1 however1    
,garstang1 ,the ,third ,egyptian        

,dynasty1 ,constable1   #aijd1 pp4      
#bh-bi1 plates1 v41 xiv4     #aa ,strabo
 xvi4 ,i1 #e4     #ab ,e4 de ,sarzec1   
op4 cit41 p4 #cg4     #ac ,e4 de        
,sarzec1 op4 cit41 p4 #ei4     #ad      
,loftus1 ,travels and ,researches1 pp4  
#ahg-ahi4     #ae ,e4 de ,sarzec1 op4   
cit41 p4 #fj4     #af ,m4 ,babelon's    
statement that the cylinder of          
,sagasaltias was   found by modern      
explorers with that of ,nabonidus is    
unfortunately   inaccurate4 ,only the   
records of ,nabonidus were discovered4  
,see ,taylor1   ,journal of the ,royal  
,asiatic ,society1 vol4 xv4     #ag     
,heuzey1 ,gazette ,arch41 #ahhd1 p4     
#aie4     #ah ,e4 de ,sarzec1           
,dcouvertes1 p4 #fa4     #ai ,l4        
,heuzey1 ,un palais chalden1 pp4        
#ei-aag4     #bj ,see the translation   
which ,i have given of it in ,lenormant 
and   ,babelon1 ,histoire ancienne de   
l',orient1 vol4 v41 p4 #hd4     #ba     
,perrot and ,chipiez1 op4 cit41 vol4    
ii41 p4 #aib f4 ,eng4 ed4     #bb       

,perrot and ,chipiez1 op4 cit41 vol4    
ii41 p4 #aie1 fig4 #ajf4     #bc ,e4 de 
,sarzec1 ,dcouvertes1 p4 #fa4     #bd   
,revue archologique1 #ahhc 7#c;e srie1  
t4 ii47 pl4 xx4     #be ,les figurines  
antiques du ,muse du ,louvre1 p4 #a ff4 
#bf ,revue archol41 mai-juin1 #ahhg4    
#bg ,see especially ,j4 ,menant1 ,la    
,glyptique orientale1 t4 i41 and ,l4    
de ,clercq1 ,catalogue de sa collection1
 fasc4 #a-c4     #bh ,heuzey1 ,un palais
 chalden1 p4 #ia4     #bi ,history of   
,art in ,assyria and ,chalda1 vol4 i41  
p4 #bbh f4 ,eng   ,ed4     #cj          
,lenormant and ,babelon1 ,hist4 ,anc4 de
 l',orient1 vol4 iv41 p4 #daa4     #ca  
xvi41 #a1 #e4     #cb ,lenormant and    
,babelon1 ,hist4 anc4 de l',orient1 v4  
iv41 p4 #dab4     #cc ,what ,aristotle  
really says is3 8,it is not a wall that 
makes a   city1 for the ,peloponnese    
might be enclosed within a wall4        
,babylon1   perhaps1 is a city of such  
sort1 and so is any other1 the walls of 
which enclose a nation rather than a    

city4 ,they say that when ,babylon   had
 been taken for three days part of the  
inhabitants were unaware of   the       
fact40--,pol4 i4 #c4     #cd ,exp4 en   
,msopotamie1 t4 i41 p4 #aid ff4     #ce 
,cun4 ,inscr4 and the ,o4,t41 vol4 i41  
p4 #gi4     #cf ,heuzey1 ,un ,palais    
,chalden1 p4 #ha4     #cg ,menant1      
,remarques sur les portraits des rois   
assyro-chaldens1   #ahhb4     #ch       
,layard1 ,monuments of ,nineveh1 vol4   
i41 pl4 #bf1 and passim4     #ci ,perrot
 and ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in      
,chalda and ,assyria1 vol4   i41 p4     
#beg4     #dj ,herod4 ii4 #ajf     #da  
,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art  
in ,chalda and ,assyria1 vol4   ii41 p4 
#bid ff4     #db ,cf4 ,ezekiel xxiii4   
#ad4     #dc ,l4 ,heuzey1 ,les          
,figurines de terre cuite du ,muse du   
,louvre1 p4   #a4     #dd ,nineveh and  
,babylon1 p4 #ceh4     #de ,heuzey1 op4 
cit41 p4 #b4     #df ,history of ,art in
 ,chalda and ,assyria1 vol4 ii41 p4     
#bag4     #dg ,perrot and ,chipiez1     

,history of ,art1 vol4 ii41 p4 #adc4    
#dh ,perrot and ,chipiez1 op4 cit41 vol4
 ii41 p4 #cai ff4     #di ,wrongly      
called ,sennacherib by ,m4 ,babelon4    
#ej ,e4 ,mntz1 ,la ,tapisserie1 p4 #bb4 
#ea ,see especially ,j4 ,menant1 ,la    
,glyptique ,orientale1 t4 ii4     #eb   
,for the recent discoveries at ,susa and
 discussion of ,elamite   remains1 see  
,chapter ,,ix4 of this volume4     #ec  
,heuzey1 in the ,revue politique et     
littraire1 #ahhf1 p4 #ffa4     #ed      
,l'art antique de la ,perse1 t4 i41 p4  
#h4     #ee ,l'art antique de la ,perse1
 t4 ii41 p4 #cg4     #ef ,dieulafoy1 op4
 cit41 t4 ii41 p4 #hj4     #eg          
,pendentives are generally held to have 
been introduced   into architecture     
several centuries after our era1 and to 
have   first appeared in a perfect form 
in the ,church of ,st4 ,sophia at       
,constantinople1 the dome of which1 as  
,procopius says 7,de dificiis1   ,bk4   
,i41 c4 i47 seems to hang by a golden   
chain from the sky4     #eh ,revue      

politique et littraire1 #ahhf1 p4 #ffa4 
#ei ,op4 cit41 t4 iii41 p4 #ahf4     #fj
 ,lenormant and ,babelon1 ,hist4 anc4 de
 l',orient1 t4 vi41 p4 #ah1 f4     #fa  
,the existence of a supreme god1 ,ilu1  
among the ,assyrian deities   is not    
proved1 though assumed by ,m4 ,babelon1 
who supposes that the   winged figure on
 the ,assyrian bas-reliefs is ,ilu4     
#fb ,coste and ,flandin1 ,la ,perse     
ancienne1 pl4 #afd4     #fc ,dieulafoy1 
,l'art antique de la ,perse1 t4 iv41 p4 
#gi4     #fd ,compare ,flandin and      
,coste1 ,perse ancienne1 pl4 #aeb4      
#fe ,see especially ,w4 ,wright1 ,the   
,empire of the ,hittites1   #hvo1 #bnd  
ed41 ,london1 #ahhf2 ,perrot and        
,chipiez1 ,hist4 de l'art   dans        
l'antiquit1 t4 iv41 pp4 #dhc to #hab2   
,o4 ,hirschfeld1 ,die   ,felsen-reliefs 
in ,kleinasien und das ,volk der        
,hittiter 7,abhandlungen   der ,berliner
 ,akademie1 #ahhf74     #ff ,perrot and 
,chipiez1 op4 cit41 t4 iv41 p4 #edg4    
#fg ,perrot and ,chipiez1 op4 cit41 t4  

iv41 p4 #edi4     #fh ,there is some    
doubt whether this figure is ,hittite at
 all4 ,it may   be of ,babylonian       
origin4 7,see ,perrot and ,chipiez1     
,hist41 t4 iv41 #eej   f47 ,the boots   
are so slightly turned up at the points 
that they are   more like those worn by 
,babylonian kings than the              
characteristic boots   of the ,hittites4
 ,the stela was brought from the castle 
of ,birejik1 not   from the site of     
,carchemish1 as ,m4 ,babelon states4    
#fi ,perrot and ,chipiez1 op4 cit41 t4  
iv41 p4 #ecd4     #gj ,perrot and       
,chipiez1 op4 cit41 t4 iv41 p4 #eei4    
#ga ,perrot and ,guillaume1 ,exploration
 archol4 de la ,galatie1 etc41   pl4    
lxv4     #gb ,hist4 de l'art dans       
l'antiquit1 t4 iv4 p4 #ffg4     #gc     
,perrot and ,chipiez1 op4 cit41 t4 iv41 
p4 #fig4     #gd ,perrot and ,chipiez1  
op cit41 t4 iv41 p4 #gac4     #ge       
,perrot and ,chipiez1 op4 cit41 t4 iv41 
p4 #gej4     #gf ,s4 ,reinach1 ,rev4    
,archol41 #ahhe 7#c se4 t4 v471 p4 #ed1 

ff4     #gg ,gazette archol41 #ahhg 7t4 
xiii4 p4 #fj74     #gh ,from ,wilson and
 ,warren1 ,the ,recovery of ,jerusalem1 
p4 #bih   7#ahga74     #gi ,m4 de ,vog1 
,le ,temple de ,jrusalem1 p4 #c4     #hj
 ,m4 de ,vog1 ,le ,temple de ,jrusalem1 
pp4 #ba and #bb4     #ha ,this name is  
at present given to a building which has
 nothing   in common with this door of  
the ,temple4--,m4 de ,vog1 ,le ,temple  
de   ,jrusalem1 p4 #ab1 note4     #hb   
,a1 ,ophel4--,b1 ,bridge4--,c1          
,tyropon4--,d1 ,causeway4--,e1 ,tower of
 ,baris   or ,antonia4--,f1             
,portico4--,g1 ,court of the            
,gentiles4--,h1 ,court of the           
women4--,k1 ,court   of ,israel4--,l1   
,altar of burnt-offerings4--,m1   ,court
 of the priests4--,n1 ,solomon's porch4 
,o1   ,moat called ,birket ,isral4 ,,pp1
 ,double gate and triple   gate4--,q1   
,golden gate4--,r1 ,kedron valley4      
#hc ,m4 de ,vog1 ,le ,temple1 p4 #ef4   
#hd ,m4 de ,vog1 ,le ,temple1 p4 #cg4   
#he ,m4 de ,vog1 ,le ,temple1 p4 #eh4   

#hf #a ,kings vii4 #di-ej4     #hg      
,procopius1 ,de ,bello ,vandalico1 ii41 
chap4 #i2 ,theophanes1   ,chronographia1
 p4 #afh1 and ,georg4 ,cedrenus1 ,hist4 
,comp41 p4 #fjf   7,ed4 ,bonn1 #ahcc7   
#hh ,m4 de ,vog1 ,le ,temple1 p4 #cd2   
,perrot and ,chipiez1 op4 cit41   t4 iv4
 p4 #cae ff4     #hi ,perrot and        
,chipiez1 op4 cit41 t4 iv41 p4 #dfc4    
#ij ,renan1 ,mission de ,phnicie pl4 #aj
     #ia ,see ,perrot and ,chipiez1     
,history of ,art in ,phnicia and its    
,dependencies1 vol4 i41 p4 #aic ,eng4   
,ed44     #ib ,renan1 ,mission de       
,phnicie1 p4 #daa4     #ic ,perrot and  
,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,phnicia1 
vol4 ii41 p4 #ab4     #id ,see ,perrot  
and ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in       
,phnicia1 etc41 vol4   ii41 p4 #abc     
#ie ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,history of   
,art in ,phnicia1 etc41 vol4 ii41   p4  
#adh f4     #if ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat41   
xxxvi4 #fg4     #ig ,w4 ,frhner1 ,la    
,verrerie ,antique1 ,coll4 ,charvet1 p4 
#aj4     #ih ,amores1 ch4 xxvi4     #ii 

,l'imagerie phnicienne et la mythologie 
iconologique chez les   ,grecs1 part i41
 #ahhj4     #ajj ,see ,perrot and       
,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,phnicia1 
etc4 vol4   ii4 p4 #djd f4     #aja     
,menant1 ,la ,glyptique orientale1 t4   
ii4     #ajb ,the figure representing   
the god ,set has not a hawk's head1 as  
,m4   ,babelon states1 following ,m4    
,menant4 ,here1 as always1 ,set has the 
head   of a nondescript animal1 somewhat
 resembling an ass6     #ajc ,revue     
archol4 t4 xxvii4 #ahfh1 p4 #dcb ff4    
#ajd ,in proportion to the amount of the
 discoveries1 the results   are         
published1 and the monuments reproduced 
and commented on1 in the   vast         
publication entitled ,dlgation en       
,perse1 ,mmories publis sous   la       
direction de ,m4 ,j4 de ,morgan1        
dlgu-gnral 7quarto1 ,leroux1   editeur1 
,paris74 ,eight volumes have already    
appeared1 the ninth is in   the press   
7,november #aije74     #aje ,see pp4    
#afh1 #afi1 #aga 7figs4 #ace1 #acf1     

#acg74     #ajf ,mmoires de la ,mission1
 vol4 i41 pl4 ix4     #ajg ,mmoires de  
la ,mission1 vol4 vii41 pl4 i41 fig4 ,a4
     #ajh ,mmoires de la ,mission1 vol4 
i41 pl4 xi4     #aji ,mmoires de la     
,mission1 vol4 ii41 pl4 xxiv4     #aaj  
,mmoires de la ,mission1 vol4 ii41 pl4  
xviii41 xix4     #aaa ,mmoires1 vol4 i4 
7#aijj71 pp4 #afc-afd4     #aab ,mmoires
 de la ,mission1 vol4 vii41 pl4 x4      
#aac ,mmoires de la ,mission1 vol4 xix1 
p4 #ij and pl4 iii4      ,typographical 
errors corrected by the etext           
transcriber3    burn them throughly burn
 them thoroughly pg #d    represents    
this king dresse represents this king   
dressed pg #hd    if it were not for the
 relief if were not for the relief pg   
#afi    with unheard-of spendour with   
unheard-of splendour pg #bbc            
,memories publis sous ,mmories publis   
sous pg #cjc