,,insects ,,& ,,diseases ,,( ,,trees ,,9 ,,! ,,s\? ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture--,=e/ ,s]vice ,/ate & ,private ,=e/ry--,s\!a/]n ,area ,=e/ ,pe/ ,managem5t ,gr\p ,,introduction ,?is publication has be5 prep>$ to assi/ =e/ manag]s & home[n]s 9 id5tify+ pe/s ( s\!rn trees4 ,! insects & diseases discuss$ are ! m common ones attack+ =e/ & ornam5tal trees4 ,prompt id5tification & treatm5t ( ^! pe/s may mean ! diff]5ce betwe5 los+ or sav+ a valuable %ade tree4 ,und]ly+ all successful =e/ & ornam5tal pe/ control ef=ts1 h[ev]1 is ! necessity to keep trees 9 a heal?y1 vigor\s condition4 ,we h attempt$ to include pictures ( ! damage z well z pictures ( ! damage-caus+ organism or /age4 ,*emical suppression recomm5dations are n includ$ 9 ?is publication4 ,= pe/icide in=mation contact ! local ,/ate or ,f$]al ext5sion speciali/1 =e/]1 entomologi/1 or pa?ologi/4 ,cr$it = "s ( ! pictures 9 ?is guide goes to ! ,s\!rn & ,s\!a/]n ,=e/ ,exp]im5t ,/ations & univ]sities4 ,we ackn[l$ge ! help ( ! ,=e/ ,pe/ ,managem5t field p]sonnel :o assi/$ 9 compil+ ?is booklet4 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,,insects ,h>dwood ,insects ,defoliators ,elm ,spanworm #a ,fall ,cank]worm #b ,a ,loop] #c ,ea/]n ,t5t ,cat]pill> #d ,=e/ ,t5t ,cat]pill> #e ,fall ,webworm #f ,oak ,leaf ,ti] #g ,v>iable ,oakleaf ,cat]pill> #h ,locu/ ,leafm9] #i ,cottonwood ,leaf ,beetle #aj ,walk+/ick #aa ,gypsy ,mo? #ab ,b>k ,beetles & ,bor]s ,hickory ,b>k ,beetle #ac ,small] ,european ,elm ,b>k ,beetle #ad ,columbian ,timb] ,beetle #ae ,cottonwood ,twig ,bor] #af ,cottonwood ,bor] #ag ,:ite ,oak ,bor] #ah ,r$ ,oak ,bor] #ai ,c>p5t]worm #bj ,conif] ,insects ,defoliators ,p9e ,webworm #ba ,bagworm #bb ,p9e ,colaspis #bc ,p9e ,sawfly #bd ,arkansas ,p9e ,sawfly #be ,virg9ia ,p9e ,sawfly #bf ,r$head$ ,p9e ,sawfly #bg ,texas ,leaf ,cutt+ ,ant #bh ,b>k ,beetles & ,bor]s ,s\!rn ,p9e ,beetle #bi ,ips ,engrav] ,beetles #cj ,black ,turp5t9e ,beetle #ca ,ambrosia ,beetle #cb ,s\!rn ,p9e ,sawy]s #cc ,m]i/em ,fe$]s ,nantucket ,p9e ,tip ,mo? #cd ,pales ,weevil #ce ,:ite ,p9e ,weevil #cf ,pit* ,eat+ ,weevil #cg ,deod> ,weevil #ch ,coneworms #ci ,p9e ,se$worms #dj ,sapsuck+ ,insects ,balsam ,woolly ,aphid #da ,,diseases ,conif] ,diseases ,foliage ,ne$le ,ca/ #db ,br[n ,spot #dc ,ne$le ,ru/ #dd ,c$> ,apple ,ru/ #de ,c$> ,blight #df ,/em1 ,bran*1 ,cone ,s\!rn ,fusi=m ,ru/ #dg ,:ite ,p9e ,bli/] ,ru/ #dh ,com&ra ,bli/] ,ru/ #di ,ea/]n ,gall ,ru/ #ej ,cone ,ru/ #ea ,pit* ,cank] #eb ,wood ,decay #ec ,r$ ,he>t #ed ,root & ,butt ,rots ,annosus ,root ,rot #ee ,br[n ,cubical ,rot #ef ,r$ ,root & ,butt ,rot #eg ,littleleaf ,disease #eh ,h>dwood ,diseases ,foliage & ,twig ,sycamore ,an?racnose #ei ,walnut ,an?racnose #fj ,oak ,an?racnose #fa ,dogwood ,an?racnose #fb ,cottonwood ,ru/ #fc ,black ,knot ( ,*]ry #fd ,/em & ,cank] ,nectria ,cank] #fe ,/rumella ,cank] #ff ,spiculosa ,cank] #fg ,irpex ,cank] #fh ,hispidus ,cank] #fi ,botryospha]ia ,cank] #gj ,septoria ,cank] #ga ,cytospora ,cank] #gb ,*e/nut ,blight #gc ,vascul> ,wilts ,oak ,wilt #gd ,dut* ,elm ,disease #ge ,elm ,phloem ,necrosis #gf ,mimosa ,wilt #gg ,v]ticillium ,wilt #gh ,root & ,butt ,rots ,armill>ia ,root ,rot #gi ,cyl9drocladium ,root ,rot #hj ,lucidus ,root & ,butt ,rot #ha ,,insects ,,elm ,,spanworm1 ,ennomos subsign>ius 7,hbn47 ,! elm spanworm is a native insect :i* is widely di/ribut$ ov] ! ea/]n half ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada f ,nova ,scotia s\? to ,georgia & we/ to ,colorado4 ,! mo/ widespread outbreak on record occurr$ dur+ ! p]iod #aied-aifc :5 ov] "o million acres ( h>dwood =e/s 7 defoliat$ 9 ! m\nta9s ( we/]n ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ea/]n ,t5nessee & nor!rn ,georgia4 ,! elm spanworm fe$s ^u hickories & a v>iety ( h>dwoods2 :ite oak1 *e/nut oak1 & nor!rn r$ oak are ! species mo/ heavily defoliat$ 9 ! ,appala*ians4 ,repeat$ defoliation causes gr[? loss1 r$uces ma/ crops1 & w ev5tually kill ! tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,six? in/> elm spanworm l>va4 ,eggs are laid 9 masses ( #ab to #bjj on ! und]sides ( ho/ tree bran*es 9 e>ly ,july4 ,w9t] is sp5t 9 ! egg /age4 ,l>vae hat* 9 e>ly spr+ :5 foliage op5s4 ,! l>val /age is an 8in*worm0 or 8loop]01 approximately #a in*es long :5 mature4 ,l>val color+ v>ies f gre5 or light br[n to black1 dep5d+ ^u population d5sity4 ,! typical color ( ! l>va 9 heavy populations is d>k br[n to black1 ) a d>k-r$ head1 legs1 & anal %ield4 ,! l>vae fe$ = ab\t #a mon?s1 & !n pupate 9 a loose cocoon = six to t5 days4 ,! adult1 a sn[-:ite mo?1 em]ges 9 late ,june or e>ly ,july4 ,!re is "o g5]ation p] ye>4 ,natural enemies help keep populations ( ! elm spanworm 9 *eck4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important is ,tel5omus alsophilae1 a t9y wasp :i* p>asitizes eggs4 ,p]si/5t outbreaks on high-value /&s may require treatm5t ) *emicals4 ,illu/ration3 ,elm span worms fe$+ on oak4 ,,fall ,,cank]worm1 ,alsophila pomet>ia 7,h>ris7 ,! fall cank]worm is widespread 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 rang+ s\? ?r\gh ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s to ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,l>vae defoliate _m species ( h>dwoods1 b 9 ! ,s\? seem to pref] oaks1 hickories1 & a%4 ,illu/ration3 ,mature fall cank]worm l>va4 ,! w+$ male & w+less female adults em]ge on mild days 9 ,novemb] & ,decemb] & mate4 ,females lay #f-cjj eggs 9 neatly arrang$ masses encircl+ small bran*es & twigs4 ,! pale gre5 l>vae hat* 9 late ,april or e>ly ,may4 ,z !y mature !y may rema9 light gre51 or *ange to a v d>k br[ni%-gre5 dep5d+ on ! ho/4 ,newly hat*$ in*-worms 7l>vae7 ( ! fall cank]worm *ew small holes 9 exp&+ leaves ( _! ho/s1 or may completely skeletonize ! leaves4 ,mature l>vae consume all b ! mid-rib & major ve9s ( ! leaf4 ,fe$+ is usually complet$ 9 f\r to five weeks1 at :i* "t l>vae drop to ! gr\nd to pupate 9 ! soil4 ,cold1 wet wea!r dur+ ! e>ly l>val p]iod1 & p>asitization1 are responsible = sudd5 decl9es 9 e/abli%$ populations4 ,*emical control has also be5 effective4 ,a small wasp1 ,tel5omus alsophilae ,vi]eck1 has caus$ a %>p decl9e 9 outbreaks ( cank]worm populations4 ,usually1 h[ev]1 outbreak conditions mu/ exi/ = sev]al ye>s be=e ! p>asite c atta9 ! d5sity ne$$ to cause a decl9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,female cank]worm adult deposit+ eggs4 ,a ,,loop]1 ,phigalia titea 7,cram]7 ,l>vae ( ?is mo?1 "o ( ! measur+ worms1 h p]iodically be5 responsible = scatt]$ mortality ( h>dwoods ?r\gh\t ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,mortality is mo/ likely to occur 9 /&s on l[-quality sites1 p>ticul>ly dur+ p]iods ( dr\ght :i* favor ?is insect's developm5t & fur!r weak5 infe/$ trees4 ,?is species is likely to be f\nd 9 almo/ any h>dwood area 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! insect fe$s on a wide v>iety ( trees & %rubs4 ,ho/ trees 9 ! ,s\!a/ include oaks1 hickories1 black tupelo1 & black locu/4 ,illu/ration3 ,phigalia adult male mo?4 ,phigalia titea ov]w9t]s z a pupa4 ,adults em]ge 9 late ,m>* to mid-,april1 & mate4 ,! female lays h] eggs 9 protect$ sites on bran*es & trunks ( h>dwoods4 ,eggs are mo/ (t5 laid 9 crevices & b5ea? ! b>k ( dead bran*es4 ,eggs hat* 9 ,april1 & l>vae fe$ until e>ly ,june4 ,l>vae (t5 fe$ on unop5$ buds1 caus+ irregul> holes 9 ! develop+ leaves4 ,l>vae fir/ eat j ! surfaces ( leaves1 b lat] consume all leaf tissue betwe5 ! major ve9s4 ,:5 l>vae are dislodg$ by w9d or fe$+ pr$ators !y fall or desc5d on a silk5 ?read & cont9ue fe$+ 9 ! l[] cr[n or on und]/ory vegetation4 ,pupation occurs on ! soil surface or 9 ! litt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,phigalia l>va4 ,wea!r regulates populations ( ?is insect4 ,soil-inhabit+ insects & rod5ts are believ$ to de/roy _m pupae dur+ ! w9t]4 ,,ea/]n ,,t5t ,,cat]pill>1 ,malacosoma am]icanum 7,f47 ,! pres5ce ( ! ea/]n t5t cat]pill> is objectionable m f an ae/hetic /&po9t ?an f its effect on ! ho/ tree4 ,! ugly t5ts con/ruct$ by ! fe$+ l>vae make ?is pe/ highly objectionable on %ade trees4 ,black *]ry & o!r species ( ! g5us ,prunus are pref]r$ ho/s1 b o!r trees 9 ! family ,rosaceae are sometimes attack$4 ,?is insect is widely di/ribut$ :]ev] ho/ trees are f\nd ea/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,l>vae & t5t ( ea/]n t5t cat]pill>4 ,! cat]pill>s appe> at ab\t ! same "t ! leaves ( black *]ry beg9 to unfold4 ,! l>vae con/ruct a web or t5t 9 ! crot* ( a small bran*1 & beg9 fe$+4 ,usually !y consume entire leaves1 except = ! l>ge ve9s4 ,z ! l>vae mature1 !y add to ! t5t1 :i* may rea* a foot 9 diamet] & two feet 9 l5g?4 ,rea*+ maturity 9 ab\t six weeks1 ! l>vae drop to ! gr\nd & pupate4 ,! mo?s em]ge 9 ,june & ! females lay eggs4 ,eggs ( ! ea/]n t5t cat]pill> are %9y black masses :i* encircle ! small] twigs & are q noticeable4 ,! insect ov]w9t]s 9 ! egg /age4 ,control on ornam5tal1 fruit1 & %ade trees is a*iev$ by prun+ (f & burn+ ! t5ts conta9+ ! cat]pill>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,t5t cat]pill>-infe/$ black *]ry4 ,,=e/ ,,t5t ,,cat]pill>1 ,malacosoma dis/ria 7,hbn47 ,! =e/ t5t cat]pill> has caus$ repeat$ s]i\s defoliation ( h>dwood =e/s ?r\gh\t ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,asp51 wat] tupelo1 h>d maple1 gums1 & oaks are pref]r$ ho/s b ?is insect w fe$ on a v>iety ( o!r broadleaf trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,=e/ t5t cat]pill> l>vae4 ,! %9y black egg masses encircl+ ! twigs ( ho/ trees c be se5 dur+ w9t] mon?s4 ,small black1 hairy l>vae hat* out j z ! leaves are beg9n+ to unfold4 ,!y d n con/ruct a t5t1 b make a silk5 mat on ! l>g] bran*es or trunk ( ! tree on :i* !y re/ betwe5 fe$+ p]iods4 ,:5 full gr[n1 ! l>vae are ab\t two in*es long1 br[ni%-black ) di/9ctive :ite1 keyhole-%ap$ spots d[n ! middle ( ! back1 & blue l9es along ! sides4 ,j be=e pupat+1 ! l>vae sp9 a :iti% silk cocoon on ! b>k or leaf ( ! ho/4 ,9 ab\t t5 days ! light br[n mo?s em]ge1 mate1 & ! females beg9 lay+ _! eggs4 ,p>asitic flies are "o ( ! m important ag5ts :i* normally keep ?is insect "u control4 ,outbreaks occur ) "s regul>ity1 h[ev]1 & *emicals may be requir$ to prev5t defoliation4 ,illu/ration3 ,colony ( ?ird in/> l>vae4 ,,fall ,,webworm1 ,hyphantria cunea 7,drury7 ,! fall webworm is n consid]$ an important =e/ pe/4 ,h[ev]1 ugly webs c s]i\sly detract f ae/hetic values4 ,! pref]r$ ho/s 9 ! ,s\? are p]simmon1 pecan1 & s\rwood1 b x is also f\nd on black walnut1 hickory1 *]ry1 sycamore1 crab apple1 & sweetgum4 ,! insects range ?r\gh\t ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fall webworm l>va4 ,! adult is a pure :ite mo? ab\t #a in*es long4 ,! =ew+ is sometimes m>k$ ) blacki% dots4 ,! l>va is ab\t "o in* long :5 full gr[n1 g5]ally pale yell[ or gre5i% ) a broad d>k longitud9al /ripe on ! back & a yell[i% /ripe ext5d+ f black & orange w>ts4 ,! insect has "o g5]ation p] ye> 9 ! nor!rn "p ( its range1 & two 9 ! s\!rn "p4 ,mo?s ( ! fir/ g5]ation em]ge f ,may to ,july & ^? ( ! second 9 ,july & ,augu/4 ,adult females lay #djj-ejj eggs 9 :ite cottony pat*es on ! und]side ( ! leaves ( ho/ plants4 ,! eggs hat* 9 ab\t a week1 & ! l>vae =m a web & beg9 to skeletonize ! leaves by fe$+ 9 r[s4 ,z ! l>vae gr[ !y exp& ! web to cov] ! colony4 ,:5 ! l>vae are ready to pupate1 !y crawl or drop to ! gr\nd & =m a br[ni% cocoon 9 ! duff ar\nd ! tree :]e !y ov]w9t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fall webworm infe/ation4 ,natural enemies usually keep ?is insect "u control4 ,webs c be prun$ f high-value trees 9 sc5ic or recreation areas4 ,,oak ,,leaf ,,ti]1 ,croesia albicomana 7,clem47 ,?is oak leaf ti] has be5 associat$ ) ! decl9e & mortality ( sev]al species ( oak 9 ! nor!a/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & s\!rn ,appala*ians4 ,an outbreak population 9 ! m\nta9s ( ,we/ ,virg9ia & ,virg9ia 9 #aiff-fh result$ 9 ! loss ( sev]al ?\s& acres ( sc>let oak4 ,usually su* outbreaks co9cide ) p]iods ( dr\ght :i* increase ! impact ( defoliation on ! ho/4 ,its ho/s include nor!rn r$ oak1 black oak1 sc>let oak1 & p9 oak4 ,! latt] two species seem to be hit h>de/ by ?is insect4 ,illu/ration3 ,leaf ti] adult & pupa4 ,croesia albicomana sp5ds ! w9t] 9 ! egg /age4 ,eggs are glu$ to small twigs 9 ! cr[n ( ! ho/ tree4 ,hat* occurs f mid-,april to e>ly ,may4 ,"y l>vae1 :i* em]ge be=e bud-break1 bore into & m9e ! exp&+ buds4 ,:5 l>ge numb]s ( ?is insect are pres5t !y c de/roy mo/ ( ! vegetative buds on a tree4 ,lat] ! old] l>vae tie d[n a fold$-ov] portion ( a leaf & fe$ on x4 ,leaves f$ on by ! oak leaf ti] appe> to be full ( %ot holes4 ,z ! l>vae ne> maturity !y may tie ! apical portion ( two or m leaves toge!r & fe$ on !m4 ,mature l>vae !n drop to ! gr\nd to pupate 9 ! litt]4 ,adult mo?s em]ge 9 ,june or e>ly ,july1 mate1 & ! female imm$iately beg9s lay+ eggs4 ,! small1 flat1 oval eggs are deposit$ individually on small twigs1 g5]ally ar\nd nodes or leaf sc>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,sc>let oak kill$ by leaf ti]4 ,little is kn[n ( ! natural factors :i* regulate population levels ( ?is insect1 b und\bt$ly wea!r is important4 ,,v>iable ,,oak ,,leaf ,,cat]pill>1 ,het]ocampa maneto 7,dbldy47 ,! v>iable oak leaf cat]pill> p]iodically defoliates ext5sive areas ( h>dwood =e/ 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,its range cov]s all ( ! s\!rn & ea/]n /ates z f> we/ z ea/ ,texas4 ,! l>vae fe$ prim>ily on oaks b w also fe$ on bee*1 basswood1 bir* & elm4 ,o!r defoliat+ insects may be associat$ ) outbreaks caus+ additional damage4 ,"y l>vae skeletonize ! leaf :ile old] l>vae dev\r ! entire leaf except ! prim>y ve9s4 ,infe/ations are g5]ally m sev]e 9 ! ,s\?1 :]e ! insect has two g5]ations p] ye> caus+ two p]iods ( defoliation 9 a s+le ye>4 ,:ile infe/ations usually subside be=e _m trees are kill$1 heavy defoliation r$uces ! tree's gr[? & vigor4 ,illu/ration3 ,l>va ( ! v>iable oak leaf cat]pill>4 ,! v>iable oak leaf cat]pill> ov]w9t]s z a non-fe$+ l>va 9 a cocoon on ! =e/ floor4 ,x pupates & em]ges z a mo? ! foll[+ spr+4 ,! female mo?1 gray 9 color & ab\t #a in*es long1 lays ab\t #ejj eggs s+ly on ! leaves ( ho/ trees4 ,! l>vae fe$ on foliage = five or six weeks1 drop to ! gr\nd to pupate1 & em]ge z adults 9 mid-summ]4 ,l>vae hat*+ f eggs laid by ! second g5]ation ( mo?s defoliate ! trees = a second "t dur+ late summ]4 ,by late ,octob] ! mature l>vae ( ! second g5]ation h dropp$ to ! =e/ floor to ov]w9t]4 ,! full gr[n l>va is approximately #a in*es long4 ,color v>ies among individuals4 ,! head is g5]ally amb] br[n ) curv$ diagonal :ite & black b&s4 ,! body is usually yell[ gre5 ) a n>r[ :ite /ripe d[n ! c5t] ( ! back bord]$ by wid] d>k b&s4 ,outbreaks ( ! v>iable oak leaf cat]pill> may be sev]e b g5]ally subside be=e s]i\s tree mortality occurs4 ,p>asites & pr$ators are n effective 9 controll+ ris+ populations ( ! insect4 ,mice & pr$ace\s beetles fe$ on ! re/+ l>vae & pupae 9 ! litt] & soil ( ! =e/ floor4 ,:ile no *emical is curr5tly regi/]$ = control ( ?is insect1 *emical spray+ has be5 effective & safe 9 controll+ closely relat$ insects4 ,,locu/ ,,leafm9]1 ,x5o*alepus dorsalis 7,?unb]g7 ,! locu/ leafm9] is a de/ructive pe/ ( black locu/ & honey locu/ 9 bo? ! adult & l>val /ages4 ,x is f\nd ?r\gh\t ! range ( ^! trees 9 ! ea/]n half ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! adults also fe$ on o!r species ( trees4 ,! adult beetles ov]w9t] 9 crevices 9 ! b>k ( trees & "u litt] on ! =e/ floor4 ,! beetles em]ge & beg9 fe$+ 9 ! spr+1 usually aft] mid-,april4 ,aft] fe$+ = a %ort "t !y deposit eggs on ! und]sides ( leaves1 pil+ !m "o ^u ano!r1 some:at %+le-l4 ,eggs are cov]$ ) br[ni% fecal matt]4 ,l>vae soon hat* & eat into ! leaf tissue to =m a m9e4 ,newly em]g$ l>vae fe$ greg>i\sly 9 a s+le m9e = a %ort "t4 ,!y !n con/ruct new m9es :]e ! insects live s+ly4 ,sev]al m9es are con/ruct$ be=e ! l>vae rea* maturity4 ,! l>vae pupate 9 ! m9es & em]ge z adults 9 ,july to beg9 ! second g5]ation4 ,! adult beetles are foliage fe$]s1 eat+ irregul> holes 9 leaves4 ,:5 suffici5t 9 numb] !y may defoliate ho/ trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,damage to black locu/ caus$ by ! locu/ leaf m9]4 ,"u =e/$ conditions no control is recomm5d$4 ,r>ely d trees die f attacks by ?is insect4 ,damage is objectionable mo/ly f an ae/hetic viewpo9t4 ,,cottonwood ,,leaf ,,beetle1 ,*rysomela scripta 7,f47 ,will[s1 popl>s1 asp5s & ald]s are attack$ by ! cottonwood leaf beetle 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,cottonwood is ! mo/ important ho/ 9 ! ,s\?4 ,damage has be5 especially sev]e 9 ,l\isiana & ,mississippi :]e ?\s&s ( acres ( cottonwood plantations are int5sively manag$4 ,adult beetles & l>vae fe$ on ! foliage4 ,damage is mo/ critical dur+ ! fir/ ?ree ye>s aft] ! cottonwood is plant$4 ,adults *ew holes 9 ! leaves & may attack ! t]m9al %oots caus+ r$uc$ gr[? or /em de=mity4 ,"y l>vae skeletonize ! foliage b old] l>vae consume all foliage except ! leaf midribs4 ,damage may become sev]e en\gh to cause mortality4 ,illu/ration3 ,cottonwood leaf beetle adult4 ,! cottonwood leaf beetle ov]w9t]s 9 ! adult /age4 ,eggs are laid 9 ! spr+4 ,! female lays a clu/] ( ab\t #ge yell[i% eggs on ! und]side ( a leaf4 ,z ! l>vae mature !y become yell[ ) black spots4 ,aft] ab\t n9e days 9 ! l>val /age ! beetle trans=ms into ! non-fe$+ pupal /age :i* la/s five to t5 days4 ,! adult is ab\t -in* long & has a black head & ?orax4 ,! w+ cov]s are yell[ ) longitud9al black /ripes4 ,! life cycle is complet$ 9 #be to #cj days & sev]al g5]ations occur 9 a s+le ye>4 ,illu/ration3 ,l>vae & pupae ( ! cottonwood leaf beetle4 ,control may be ne$$ 9 a plantation only dur+ ! fir/ ?ree ye>s4 ,*emical sprays h be5 successful 9 ! pa/ b at ! pres5t "t no insecticides are regi/]$ = cottonwood leaf beetle control4 ,,walk+/ick1 ,diaph]om]a femorata 7,say7 ,! walk+/ick is a defoliator ( broadleav$ trees 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! black oaks1 basswood1 & wild *]ry are ! mo/ common pref]r$ ho/s b num]\s o!r h>dwood species are attack$4 ,?is insect is widely di/ribut$ ov] ! ,unit$ ,/ates ea/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s z well z ,manitoba & ,ont>io 9 ,canada4 ,at times1 populations build 9 suffici5t numb]s to defoliate trees ov] l>ge areas4 ,illu/ration3 ,male walk+/icks fe$+ on oak4 ,^! sl5d]1 w+less1 /ick-l insects are pale gre5 :5 "y1 b gradually *ange to a d>k gre51 gray1 or br[n at maturity4 ,! adult female measures up to ?ree in*es 9 l5g? & is m /\t-bodi$ ?an ! male4 ,mat+ usually takes place 9 ,augu/ & egg lay+ beg9s six to t5 days lat]4 ,! eggs are dropp$ to ! gr\nd :]e !y ov]w9t] 9 ! leaf litt]4 ,9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! walk+/ick's range ! eggs take two ye>s to hat*4 ,9 ! ,s\?1 walk+/ick eggs hat* ! summ] aft] !y are laid1 usually />t+ 9 mid-,may4 ,! newly hat*$ walk+/ick looks l a m9iature adult4 ,p>asitic wasps & flies are active aga9/ ! immature walk+/icks b are n effici5t en\gh to cause a sub/antial population r$uction4 ,flocks ( rob9s1 blackbirds1 & grackles h a mu* great] impact1 h[ev]4 ,! defoliation caus$ by walk+/icks g5]ally occurs on upl& sites 9 /&s :i* are n ( high value or int5sively manag$4 ,= ?is reason !re has be5 little int]e/ 9 control4 ,,gypsy ,,mo?1 ,por!tria disp> 7,l47 ,! gypsy mo? is an introduc$ =e/ insect4 ,x 0 br\ght into ?is c\ntry f ,europe 9 #ahfi & has be5 re/rict$ to ! ,nor!a/4 ,! gypsy mo? fe$s aggressively on oak1 ald]1 apple1 basswood1 will[1 & bir*4 ,z ! cat]pill>s rea* maturity !y w also fe$ on hemlock1 c$>1 p9e1 & spruce4 ,illu/ration3 ,gypsy mo? l>vae4 ,9 ! ,nor!a/1 ! gypsy mo? has a s+le g5]ation p] ye>1 ov]w9t]+ 9 ! egg /age4 ,eggs hat* 9 late ,april & ,may & l>vae are pres5t = approximately two mon?s4 ,full-gr[n cat]pill>s measure m ?an two in*es long & are easily id5tifi$ by ! five pairs ( blue spots & six pairs ( r$ spots arrang$ 9 a d\ble r[ along ! back4 ,! adult mo?s are active f late ,june to e>ly ,septemb]4 ,female mo?s1 _! bodies heavy ) eggs1 are unable to fly & mu/ rely on a p[]ful sex attractant to lure male mo?s4 ,?is sex attractant has be5 *emically syn!siz$ & is us$ z a trap bait 9 surveys design$ to det]m9e ! pres5ce ( gypsy mo?s 9 areas suspect$ to be infe/$4 ,ea* female deposits f #bjj to #hjj eggs 9 a buff-color$ mass :i* %e atta*es to any conv5i5t surface includ+ c>s1 trail]s1 & o!r vehicles4 ,illu/ration3 ,female gypsy mo?s deposit+ egg masses4 ,dur+ ! pa/ #ge ye>s ! gypsy mo? has be5 ! t>get ( _m l>ge-scale control programs1 & mu* money has be5 sp5t try+ to r$uce ! impact ( gypsy mo? infe/ations4 ,curr5t control ef=ts are h&icapp$ by ! unavailability ( a safe & effective p]si/5t *emical4 ,9 ! ,nor? two pr$ators & n9e p>asites h be5 successfully e/abli%$ to help control ! gypsy mo?4 ,! greate/ problem 9 controll+ gypsy mo? spread1 h[ev]1 lies 9 ! fact t recreational vehicles transport egg masses & l>vae f infe/$ sites into un9fe/$ areas4 ,,hickory ,,b>k ,,beetle1 ,scolytus quadrisp9osus 7,say7 ,! hickory b>k beetle is report$ to be ! mo/ s]i\s insect pe/ ( hickory 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,population explosions :]e ?\s&s ( trees 7 kill$ h be5 report$ f ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,m>yl&1 ,virg9ia1 & rec5tly f ,georgia4 ,hickory b>k beetles are di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! range ( _! ho/ 9 ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,all species ( hickory are subject to attack1 z well z pecan & possibly butt]nut4 ,adult beetles em]ge 9 ,may & ,june 9 ! s\!rn portion ( _! range4 ,!y fe$ = a %ort "t by bor+ into ! petioles ( leaves & into small twigs ( ! ho/4 ,dy+ leaves & twigs are ! fir/ evid5ce ( attack4 ,aft] fe$+1 ! beetles fly to ! trunk & l>g] bran*es ( ! ho/ & bore into ! inn] b>k to lay _! eggs4 ,%ort1 longitud9al egg gall]ies are et*$ into ! sapwood & f #bj to #fj eggs deposit$ 9 small ni*es cut on ei!r side ( ! gall]y4 ,z ! l>vae develop1 _! gall]ies radiate out f ! egg gall]y4 ,two g5]ations p] ye> h be5 report$ f nor!rn ,mississippi4 ,! beetle ov]w9t]s 9 ! l>val /age4 ,) ! com+ ( w>m wea!r 9 ! e>ly spr+1 x *anges into ! pupal /age1 & f9ally1 9 ,may1 to an adult4 ,illu/ration3 ,hickory b>k beetle adult4 ,outbreaks ( ?is insect beg9 9 p]iods ( hot1 dry wea!r & subside :5 ra9s comm5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,l>val gall]ies ( ! hickory b>k beetle4 ,,small] ,,european ,,elm ,,b>k ,,beetle1 ,scolytus multi/riatus 7,m>%am7 ,! small] ,european elm b>k beetle 0 fir/ report$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 #aiji4 ,its pres5ce 9 ?is c\ntry 0 giv5 significance ) ! introduction ( ! ,dut* elm disease 9 #aicj4 ,! beetle attacks all native & introduc$ species ( elms & n[ occurs :]ev] ! ho/s are pres5t4 ,! fe$+ ( ! adult beetles 9 ! spr+ is responsible = transmitt+ ! ,dut* elm disease f diseas$ to heal?y trees4 ,! ,dut* elm disease is n[ our mo/ important %ade tree disease4 ,illu/ration3 ,small] ,european elm b>k beetle adult4 ,adult b>k beetles em]ge 9 ! spr+ f dead or dy+ elms & beg9 fe$+ on ! twigs ( heal?y elms4 ,! female !n excavates an egg gall]y 9 ! b>k ( dead or weak5$ elms4 ,eggs are deposit$ along ! walls ( ! gall]y4 ,! l>vae1 ^u hat*+1 burr[ into ! b>k at "r angles to ! egg gall]y4 ,pupation occurs at ! end ( ! l>val tunnel4 ,new adults tunnel to ! b>k surface & leave ! tree ?r\gh circul> em]g5ce holes4 ,!re are usually two g5]ations a ye>4 ,! beetles ov]w9t] 9 ! l>val /age4 ,*emical control & good tree ma9t5ance are ! two me?ods us$ to r$uce b>k beetle populations4 ,insecticides are us$ to prev5t fe$+ by ! adults 9 ! spr+4 ,tree sanitation involves removal & disposal ( dead elms & elm limbs :i* elim9ate bre$+ & l>val developm5t sites4 ,,columbian ,,timb] ,,beetle1 ,cor?ylus columbianus 7,hopk9s7 ,all h>dwood trees 9 ! ea/]n half ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are subject to attack by ! ,columbian timb] beetle1 b oaks1 maples1 bir*1 basswood1 yell[-popl>1 & elm are ! pref]r$ ho/s 9 ! ,s\?4 ,! beetle causes two major types ( damage3 #a7 physical damage caus$ by ! #a_/cb to #a_/af hole excavat$ by ! adult into ! sapwood1 & #b7 degrade caus$ by /a9 :i* may ext5d = a consid]able di/ance above & bel[ ! gall]y4 ,l>ge diamet] trees are pref]r$ z ho/s1 b trees z small z "o & "o-f\r? in*es 9 diamet] may be attack$4 ,illu/ration3 ,call[ adult & pupae ( ! ,columbian timb] beetle4 ,!re are two & sometimes ?ree g5]ations ( ?is insect ea* ye>4 ,adults f ! fir/ g5]ation em]ge f late ,may ?r\gh ,june & ^? f ! second 9 ,octob]4 ,! fir/ evid5ce ( attack is ! :ite du/ :i* collects at ! entrance hole4 ,lat]1 dep5d+ on ! tree's physiological condition1 a sap-soak$ area may develop ar\nd ! entrance hole4 ,! adult bores a horizontal hole into ! sapwood ( a heal?y tree = a few in*es & lat] con/ructs two or ?ree %ort] lat]al bran*es4 8,cradles0 7or egg *amb]s7 are !n con/ruct$ = a %ort di/ance p]p5dicul> to ^! gall]ies4 ,! female deposits a s+le egg 9 ea* *amb]4 ,! (fspr+ sp5d _! entire developm5tal p]iod )9 ! cradles fe$+ on fungi :i* gr[ on ! sapwood4 ,x is ?is fungus :i* causes ! ext5sive /a9+ *>act]i/ic ( ,columbian timb] beetle attack4 ,w9t] is sp5t 9 bo? ! pupal & adult /ages 9 ! brood gall]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,columbian timb] beetle entrance holes 9 yell[-popl>4 ,*emical control is n practical = =e/ trees4 ,,cottonwood ,,twig ,,bor]1 ,gypsonoma haimba*iana 7,ke>fott7 ,! cottonwood twig bor] is widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! entire range ( ea/]n cottonwood1 f ,canada to ! ,gulf ,/ates & we/ to ,miss\ri4 ,! l>vae ( ! cottonwood twig bor] fe$ 9 ! t]m9als ( ! ho/4 ,?is fe$+ results 9 r$uction ( t]m9al gr[? & =k$ & crook$ trunks4 ,damage is especially sev]e on "y trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,cottonwood twig bor] damage to cottonwood sapl+4 ,illu/ration3 ,?ree-ye>-old cottonwood /unt$ by twig bor]s4 ,! female mo? lays eggs on ! upp] surface ( leaves along ! mid-rib1 s+ly or 9 gr\ps ( two to eight4 ,hat*+ occurs 9 ab\t five days & ! "y l>vae cov] !mselves ) silk mix$ ) tra%1 & !n tunnel into ! mid-rib4 ,aft] ! fir/ molt1 l>vae leave ! tunnels & bore into t5d] %oots4 ,l>vae rea* maturity 9 ab\t #ba-bc days & beg9 mov+ d[n ! trunk ( ! tree :]e !y sp9 cocoons 9 %elt]$ b>k crevices1 9 litt]1 or betwe5 leaf folds4 ,! adult mo?s em]ge 9 eight or n9e days4 ,x takes f #dj-de days to complete ! life cycle 9 mid-summ]4 ,! mo/ effective natural control is a pott] wasp1 ,eum5es sp4 :i* te>s op5 t5d] cottonwood %oots & removes twig bor] l>vae f _! gall]ies4 ,o!r wasps p>asitiz+ ! twig bor] include ,bracon mellitor 7,say71 ,apanteles clavatus 7,provan*]7 & ,aga?is sp4 ,,cottonwood ,,bor]1 ,plectrod]a scalator 7,f47 ,! cottonwood bor] is limit$ 9 range to ! s\!rn half ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,ho/s include cottonwood1 popl>s & will[s4 ,! adults fe$ on ! t5d] %oots ( "y trees caus+ !m to %rivel & break (f4 ,! l>val /age ( ?is insect tunnels 9 ! inn] b>k & wood at ! base ( ! tree & may kill or sev]ely weak5 x4 ,illu/ration3 ,adult cottonwood bor]4 ,! adult beetles appe> 9 midsumm]4 ,aft] fe$+ briefly on ! t5d] b>k ( ! t]m9als ! adults desc5d to ! bases ( ho/ trees :]e ! female deposits h] eggs 9 small pits gnaw$ 9 ! b>k4 ,eggs hat* 9 ab\t ?ree weeks4 ,! l>vae bore d[nw>d 9 ! inn] b>k1 ent]+ a l>ge root by fall4 ,l>val fe$+ cont9ues into ! second ye> z ! l>vae bore into ! inn] b>k & wood4 ,! l>vae trans=m into ! non-fe$+ pupal /age & f9ally into an adult 9 ! summ] ( ! second ye> ?us complet+ a two ye> life cycle4 ,adult beetles are #a to #a in*es long4 ,!y are black ) l9es ( cream-color$ scales =m+ irregul> black pat*es4 ,! be/ control = ! cottonwood bor] is to ma9ta9 a vigor\s1 heal?y /&4 ,sl[ gr[+1 (f-site plant+s ( ho/ trees are ! mo/ sev]ely damag$4 ,:ile "s sy/emic insecticides h %[n promise1 !re is curr5tly no regi/]$ *emical control me?od4 ,,:ite ,,oak ,,bor]1 ,goes tigr9us 7,de ,ge]7 ,a rec5t survey ( damage caus$ by v>i\s wood bor]s to ?ree species 9 ! :ite oak gr\p reveal$ an e/imat$ annual loss 9 ! ,s\? exce$+ #bj million doll>s4 ,"o ( ! m important bor]s responsible = ?is damage is ! :ite oak bor]4 ,illu/ration3 ,adult :ite oak bor]4 ,usually ! :ite oak bor] attacks oaks "o to eight in*es 9 diamet]4 ,! damage1 l t ( o!r h>dwood bor]s1 is ! result ( l>val fe$+ 9 ! wood4 ,gall]ies up to "o-half in* 9 diamet] ext5d upw>d ?r\gh ! sapwood into ! he>twood4 ,! :ite oak bor] takes ?ree to f\r ye>s to complete "o g5]ation4 ,! mat$ adult female beetle lays h] eggs s+ly 9 ! inn] b>k ?r\gh a small oval ni*e *ew$ ?r\gh ! out] b>k4 ,aft] ab\t ?ree weeks ! eggs hat* & ! l>vae imm$iately bore into ! sapwood4 ,lat] !y bore upw>d into ! he>twood4 ,! bor+ frass eject$ out ( ! entrance is evid5ce ( an active infe/ation4 ,pupation occurs beh9d a plug ( excelsior-l frass at ! upp] end ( ! gall]y 9 ! he>twood4 ,9 ab\t ?ree weeks1 adults em]ge by bor+ sep>ate & p]fectly r\nd holes ?r\gh ! wood & b>k4 ,9 ! ,s\?1 adults g5]ally em]ge 9 ,may & ,june & fe$ = a %ort "t on oak leaves & ! t5d] b>k ( twigs be=e ! females lay _! eggs4 ,woodpeck]s may de/roy up to #be p]c5t ( ! l>vae dur+ ! w9t] mon?s1 b ?is & ! small toll tak5 by insect pr$ators & p>asites are n suffici5t to keep ! :ite oak bor] population l[ en\gh to avoid s]i\s economic loss4 ,illu/ration3 ,entrance & em]g5ce holes 9 :ite oak4 ,,r$ ,,oak ,,bor]1 ,enaphalodes rufulus 7,hald47 ,! r$ oak bor] is a s]i\s pe/ ( trees 9 ! r$ oak gr\p4 ,x ranges ?r\gh\t ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica :]ev] ho/ species gr[4 ,x is e/imat$ t defects caus$ by l>val tunnels 9 ! sapwood & he>twood ( ho/ trees co/s ! h>dwood timb] indu/ry millions ( doll>s ea* ye>4 ,illu/ration3 ,adult r$ oak bor]4 ,eggs ( ! r$ oak bor] are laid dur+ e>ly & mid-summ] 9 b>k crevices or "u pat*es ( li*5 on ho/ trees4 ,aft] hat*+1 l>vae bore into ! inn] b>k region :]e !y fe$ until mid-summ] ( ! next ye>4 ,?is fe$+ 9 ! inn] b>k causes *>act]i/ic catfaces or b>k pockets4 ,once l>vae ent] ! wood !y bore upw>d ?r\gh ! sapwood & into ! he>twood & pupate beh9d a plug ( excelsior-l frass4 ,! l>val gall]ies are f "o-f\r? to "o-half in* 9 diamet]1 & six to t5 in*es long4 ,usually ! gall]ies are )9 six in*es ( ! c5t] ( ! tree4 ,! adult em]ges at ! l[] end ( ! tunnel1 us+ a hole cut ?r\gh ! b>k by ! l>va j prior to pupat+4 ,adults em]ge 9 ,june & ,july4 ,! tim+ ( ! two-ye> life cycle ( ! r$ oak bor] is su* t ! adult population is greate/ 9 odd-numb]$ ye>s4 ,g5]ally1 bor]s su* z ! r$ oak bor] infe/ trees ( poor vigor4 ,x is possible1 !re=e1 to r$uce bor] populations by ma9ta9+ vigor\s /&s & by remov+ cull trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,r$ oak bor] attack on ,nuttall oak4 ,,c>p5t]worm1 ,prionoxy/us rob9iae 7,peck7 ,! c>p5t]worm bores 9 ! wood ( liv+ h>dwood trees1 caus+ co/ly damage to comm]cial timb] species4 ,9 ! ,s\?1 oak species are pref]r$ ho/s b black locu/1 maples1 will[s1 & fruit trees are also attack$4 ,! c>p5t]worm is di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,c>p5t]worm adults4 ,adult mo?s em]ge 9 late ,april to e>ly ,june1 mate1 & ! females lay gr\ps ( eggs 9 b>k crevices or w\nds4 ,ea* female lays #bjj to #ejj eggs dur+ h] "o-week life span4 ,aft] hat*+1 ! l>vae w&] ov] ! b>k = a %ort "t be=e bor+ into ! inn] b>k :]e !y fe$ until half-gr[n4 ,! l>vae !n bore into ! sapwood & he>twood1 return+ occasionally to fe$ 9 ! inn] b>k4 ,! l>val p]iod la/s f two to f\r ye>s4 ,pupation usually occurs deep )9 ! he>twood4 ,j prior to em]g5ce1 ! pupa wiggles to ! entrance hole :]e x rema9s slightly protrud+ until ! adult mo? em]ges4 ,! l>ge w9d+ tunnels con/ruct$ by ! l>vae 9 ! sapwood & he>twood ( liv+ h>dwoods s]ve z an entrance = wood-rott+ fungi & insects su* z ! c>p5t] ant4 ,9 extreme cases1 ! tree may be /ructurally weak5$ & subject to w9d breakage4 ,illu/ration3 ,c>p5t]worm gall]ies 9 nuttall oak4 ,"s *emicals :i* h a fumigat+ action h prov$ effective 9 controll+ ?is insect 9 %ade trees1 b no practical control has yet be5 f\nd = =e/ trees4 ,,p9e ,,webworm1 ,tetralopha robu/ela 7,zell47 ,ugly1 compact masses ( br[n excrem5t or frass pellets ar\nd ! /em ( p9e se$l+s m>k infe/ations ( ! p9e webworm4 ,r>ely is ! defoliation sev]e en\gh to kill ! se$l+s1 b x und\bt$ly has an impact on gr[?4 ,f\nd ?r\gh\t ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! webworm commonly attacks r$1 :ite1 jack1 loblolly1 %ortleaf1 & sla% p9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,p9e webworm damage to loblolly p9e4 ,illu/ration3 7cont47 ,! adult mo? has a w+spread ( ab\t "o in*4 ,! =ew+ usually is gray 9 ! middle portion & d>k] at ! base & tip4 ,! h9d w+s & body are smokey gray4 ,! full-gr[n l>va is a cat]pill> approximately ( an in* long4 ,! head is tan ) d>k] m>k+s & ! body light br[n ) d>k longitud9al /ripes runn+ d[n ea* side4 ,eggs are usually laid on se$l+s1 occasionally on l>g] trees1 betwe5 ,may & ,septemb]4 ,aft] eggs hat*1 ! cat]pill>s live 9 silk5 webs surr\nd$ by masses ( frass1 & fe$ on ! ne$les4 ,g5]ally ea* web conta9s "o or two l>vae b occasionally #be or m may be f\nd4 ,aft] fe$+ is complet$1 ! cat]pill>s drop to ! gr\nd & pupate bel[ ! soil surface4 ,9 ! ,s\?1 !re are usually two g5]ations ea* ye>4 ,9 plantations1 h& pick+ is an effective me?od ( control4 ,:5 high value nurs]y /ock becomes infe/$1 *emical control may become necess>y4 ,,bagworm1 ,?yridopt]yx ephem]ae=mis 7,haw47 ,! bagworm is di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! ea/]n half ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x is g5]ally recogniz$ z a defoliator ( conif]s1 p>ticul>ly junip]1 c$>s1 & arborvitae1 b x is also f\nd on _m h>dwood trees includ+ maple1 wild *]ry1 popl>s1 oaks1 & apple4 ,illu/ration3 ,bagworm cases on p9e4 ,! w+less1 maggot-l adult female bagworms are pres5t 9 ,septemb] & ,octob] & sp5d _! entire lives )9 ! protective cov] ( ! t\gh1 silk5 bag :i* !y con/ruct z l>vae4 ,males are q agile fli]s & c (t5 be se5 9 ! fall fly+ ar\nd infe/$ %rubs 9 se>* ( a mate4 ,mat+ takes place ?r\gh ! op5 end ( ! bag4 ,%ortly !reaft] ! female deposits h] egg mass conta9+ #ejj to #a1jjj eggs 9 h] pupal case4 ,! eggs rema9 9 ! bag ?r\gh\t ! w9t]4 ,9 ! deep ,s\?1 hat*+ c occur z e>ly z ,april1 b occurs 9 ,may or ,june fur!r nor?4 ,dur+ ! e>ly /age ( developm5t1 ! l>vae1 h\s$ 9 _! t9y bags1 are q inconspicu\s4 ,z !y mature1 ! bags become q noticeable1 & ! am\nt ( foliage consum$ increases rapidly4 ,outbreak populations ( bagworm are 9 mo/ cases quickly r$uc$ by l[ w9t] temp]atures & a complex ( sev]al p>asites4 ,on %rubs & %ade trees ar\nd a home1 x is (t5 practical to control bagworms by pick+ & de/roy+ ! bags4 ,,p9e ,,colaspis1 ,colaspis p9i 7,b>b]7 ,colaspis beetles are f\nd ?r\gh\t ! ,s\!a/1 b are m common 9 ! ,gulf /ates4 ,!y seem to pref] sla% p9e b h be5 f\nd on _m ( ! s\!rn p9es4 ,! p9e colaspis beetle is n a s]i\s =e/ pe/ b fe$+ damage caus$ by l>ge populations occasionally produces a spectacul> br[n+ effect ( ! ne$les simil> to t caus$ by fire4 ,illu/ration3 ,adult p9e colaspis beetle fe$+ damage on p9e4 ,! adult beetles *ew ! edges ( ne$les to produce an irregul>1 saw-l edge :i* turns br[n4 ,occasionally only ! tips ( ! ne$les %[ signs ( ! infe/ation4 ,lat]1 h[ev]1 ! entire ne$le may die1 caus+ ! :ole tree to become br[n z ?\gh scor*$ by fire4 ,trees t h be5 attack$ d n die1 & little or no gr[? loss results4 ,attacks usually occur 9 e>ly summ]2 by late summ] ! trees appe> gre5 & heal?y aga94 ,?is pe/ is sporadic 9 its occurr5ce & may n develop aga9 9 ! same area = sev]al ye>s4 ,! adult female lays h] eggs 9 ! soil dur+ ! summ]4 ,l>vae hat* & fe$ on roots ( grasses & o!r vegetation1 & ov]w9t] 9 ?is /age4 ,! l>vae pupate 9 ! spr+2 adults em]ge 9 e>ly summ] to fe$4 ,!re is only "o g5]ation a ye>4 ,"u =e/ conditions1 no control measures are recomm5d$ = ! p9e colaspis beetle4 ,on ornam5tals & %ade trees1 insecticides c be us$ to prev5t unsightly damage4 ,,p9e ,,sawfly1 ,neodiprion excitans 7,roh47 ,?is p9e sawfly is f\nd ?r\gh\t ! s\!a/ f ,virg9ia to ,texas4 ,loblolly & %ortleaf p9e are pref]r$ ho/s1 b pond1 sla%1 longleaf1 & ,sond]egg] p9e are also attack$4 ,! l>vae d n d well on ! latt] two species4 ,z ) mo/ sawflies1 ! l>vae fe$ 9 gr\ps on ! ho/ ne$les4 ,g5]ally ! old ne$les are pref]r$1 b all ( ! ne$les are eat5 :5 l>ge numb]s ( l>vae are pres5t4 ,?ree or f\r "y l>vae usually encircle a ne$le &1 />t+ f ! tip1 consume all b a c5tral core4 ,:5 ne>+ maturity !y eat ! entire ne$le4 ,illu/ration3 ,p9e sawfly l>vae4 ,f\r or five g5]ations ( ?is sawfly may occur ea* ye>4 ,adult females beg9 to lay _! eggs 9 slits cut 9 ! ne$les dur+ late ,m>*4 ,! eggs hat* 9 #aj-ba days1 & ! l>vae fe$ = ab\t five weeks4 ,:5 mature ! l>vae usually crawl to ! gr\nd & sp9 a cocoon 9 ! loose litt] at ! base ( ! tree4 ,al?\gh all /ages ( ! life hi/ory c be f\nd at any "t dur+ ! gr[+ season1 ! peak adult em]g5ce occurs 9 late summ]4 ,l>vae f ?is late summ] g5]ation are responsible = mo/ ( ! damage :i*1 al?\gh nev] directly responsible = mortality1 may pr$ispose ! trees to attack by o!r insects 7p>ticul>ly b>k beetles7 & diseases4 ,natural control factors g5]ally br+ outbreak populations "u control aft] "o season4 ,hogs1 armadillos1 mice1 & %rews are report$ z be+ ( significant value 9 regulat+ ! sawfly population4 ,insect p>asites1 pr$ators1 & disease are also effective control ag5ts4 ,,arkansas ,,p9e ,,sawfly1 ,neodiprion ta$ae l9e>is 7,ross7 ,loblolly & %ortleaf p9es are ! only trees attack$ by ! ,arkansas p9e sawfly4 ,p]iodic outbreaks ( ?is insect ov] l>ge areas 9 ! s\?-c5tral /ates cause sub/antial gr[? losses1 b ! insects seldom kill trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,arkansas p9e sawfly l>vae4 ,?is insect has a s+le g5]ation ea* ye>4 ,9 ! spr+1 eggs :i* h ov]w9t]$ hat* into t9y cat]pill>-l l>vae4 ,! l>vae fe$ 9 gr\ps = #cj-dj days 7prim>ily on ! old] foliage7 be=e crawl+ to ! gr\nd & pupat+ 9 ! topsoil or litt]4 ,adults em]ge dur+ w>m days 9 ,octob] & ,novemb]1 mate1 & ! females beg9 lay+ eggs4 ,sawflies get _! "n f ! mann] 9 :i* ! eggs are laid4 ,! female is equipp$ ) a saw-l 8ovipositor0 ) :i* %e cuts a slit 9 ! ne$le into :i* ! egg is ins]t$4 ,f two to t5 eggs are laid 9 a s+le ne$le4 ,ea* female deposits f #ij to #abj eggs4 ,an important natural control ag5t ( ?is sawfly is a polyh$ral virus disease t sometimes de/roys l>ge numb]s ( ! l>vae4 ,rod5ts de/roy _m cocoons4 ,sev]al species ( l>val p>asites are also kn[n to exi/4 ,( ^!1 a p>asitic fly1 ,an?rax s9uosa 7,wi$47 & an i*neumon wasp1 ,ex5t]us canad5sis 7,prov47 appe> to be ! mo/ important4 ,,virg9ia ,,p9e ,,sawfly1 ,neodriprion pratti pratti 7,dy>7 ,! ,virg9ia p9e sawfly is f\nd f ,m>yl& to ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 & we/ to ,ill9ois4 ,! insect pref]s ,virg9ia & %ortleaf p9e1 b x w also oviposit & fe$ on pit* & loblolly p9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,virg9ia p9e sawfly l>va4 ,on w>m sunny days 9 late ,octob] & e>ly ,novemb]1 ! adult sawflies em]ge f _! cocoons 9 ! litt]1 mate1 & ! females lay eggs4 ,! female is equipp$ ) a saw-l ovipositor ) :i* %e cuts a slit at ! edge ( a ne$le & ins]ts a small1 :ite1 oval egg4 ,sev]al eggs are usually laid at ev5ly spac$ int]vals 9 ea* ne$le1 b 9 only "o ne$le p] fascicle4 ,f #cj to #ajj eggs are deposit$ 9 ?is mann] by ea* female4 ,! eggs hat* ! foll[+ ,april & ! "y l>vae fe$ greg>i\sly on ! old ne$les4 ,l>val developm5t is usually complet$ by ! "t ! new ne$les come out1 giv+ heavily defoliat$ trees a tuft$ appe>ance4 ,mature l>vae crawl to ! gr\nd & sp9 cocoons 9 ! litt] or surface soil4 ,!y rema9 z prepupae until late ,septemb] :5 pupation occurs4 ,illu/ration3 ,p9e defoliat$ by ! ,virg9ia p9e sawfly4 ,heavy defoliation = two or m ye>s c weak5 trees & make !m m susceptible to o!r insects & diseases1 p>ticul>ly :5 associat$ ) dr\ght4 ,9 comm]cial /&s ! gr[? loss caus$ by sev]al ye>s ( #ej defoliation by ?is insect c am\nt to ( ! expect$ gr[?4 ,sev]al p>asites1 pr$ators1 & a virus attack ! ,virg9ia p9e sawfly1 b wea!r conditions seem to be prim>ily responsible = ! dra/ic fluctuations 9 sawfly populations4 ,sev]al *emicals h prov5 effective 9 prev5t+ damage to ornam5tals4 ,,r$head$ ,,p9e ,,sawfly1 ,neodiprion lecontei 7,fit*7 ,! r$head$ p9e sawfly did n become an important pe/ until ext5sive plant+ ( p9e 9 pure plantations began 9 ! #aibj's4 ,s9ce !n1 outbreaks 9 "y natural p9e /&s & plantations h be5 common 9 ! ,s\?1 ! nor?-c5tral /ates1 & ea/]n /ates4 ,fe$+ is prim>ily re/rict$ to ! two- & ?ree-ne$l$ p9es "u fifte5 feet 9 height4 ,%ortleaf1 loblolly1 longleaf1 & sla% are ! species mo/ commonly attack$ 9 ! s\!rn /ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,r$head$ p9e sawfly l>va4 ,9 ! fall1 sawfly l>vae drop to ! gr\nd1 sp9 cocoons 9 ! duff or topsoil1 & ov]w9t] z prepupae 9 a small1 br[n cocoon4 ,) ! com+ ( spr+1 pupation occurs & adult em]g5ce foll[s 9 ab\t two weeks4 ,"s prepupae may rema9 9 a re/+ /age = m ?an "o season be=e em]g+4 ,ea* female lays ab\t #abj eggs4 ,%e cuts a small slit 9 ! edge ( a ne$le & deposits a s+le egg inside ea* slit4 ,eggs laid by a s+le female are g5]ally clu/]$ on ! ne$les ( a s+le twig4 ,eggs hat* 9 ?ree to five weeks1 dep5d+ on temp]ature & locality4 ,l>vae fe$ greg>i\sly on ! ho/ = #be to #cj days4 ,:5 fully gr[n1 l>vae drop to ! gr\nd & sp9 _! cocoons4 ,9 ! ,s\? !re are at lea/ two g5]ations p] ye> ) a maximum ( five be+ record$4 ,colonies ( diff]5t ages may co-exi/ 9 ! late fall or e>ly w9t]4 ,outbreaks occur p]iodically & t5d to subside aft] a few ye>s ( heavy defoliation4 ,num]\s p>asitic & pr$atory insects play an important role 9 caus+ ! decl9e ( infe/ations1 z d adv]se wea!r conditions dur+ ! l>val /age4 ,:5 deem$ necess>y1 *emical treatm5t is an effective control4 ,,texas ,,leaf-,,cutt+ ,,ant1 ,atta texana 7,buckley7 ,damage caus$ by ! ,texas leaf-cutt+ ant1 or t[n ant1 is conf9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates to s\!a/ ,texas & we/-c5tral ,l\isiana4 ,! ant causes damage to a v>iety ( gre5 plants ?r\gh\t ! ye> & causes s]i\s damage to p9e se$l+s dur+ ! w9t] :5 o!r gre5 plants are sc>ce4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod1 /&s ( "y se$l+s may be completely defoliat$ & ! /ems girdl$4 ,! ant c>ries bits ( ne$les1 buds1 & b>k back to its ne/ to s]ve z ! m$ium on :i* x cultivates a fungus4 ,! fungus is ! ant's only kn[n food4 ,illu/ration3 ,texas leaf cutt+ ant4 ,ant colonies are *>act]iz$ by num]\s cresc5t-%ap$ m\nds five to f\rte5 in*es high1 & by a s]ies ( well def9$ =ag+ trails cle>$ ( vegetation4 ,! m\nds may be conf9$ to a relatively small area or ext5d ov] an acre or m4 ,ea* m\nd s]ves z ! entrance to a football-siz$1 hemisph]ical-%ap$ ne/ :i* ! ants con/ruct at dep?s up to #bj feet bel[ ! surface4 ,! ne/s are int]connect$ by a s]ies ( n>r[ tunnels1 & connect$ to lat]al =ag+ tunnels :i* may surface a hundr$ y>ds or m f ! colony4 ,leaf-cutt+ ants1 l _m o!r social insects1 are segregat$ into ca/es4 ,! que5 dom9ates ! colony & is responsible = its reproduction4 ,l>ge work] ants1 or soldi]s1 provide protection f intrusion by o!r insects1 :ile ! small] work]s collect ! leaves & t5d ! fungus g>d5s4 ,v>i\s *emicals su* z fumigants1 contact poisons1 & baits h be5 us$ to control ! leaf-cutt+ ants ) v>y+ success4 ,no natural control has yet be5 f\nd4 ,,s\!rn ,,p9e ,,beetle1 ,d5droctonus frontalis 7,zimm47 ,probably no o!r insect is ( m conc]n to manag]s ( s\!rn p9e =e/s ?an ! s\!rn p9e beetle4 ,loblolly & %ortleaf p9e seem to be pref]r$ ho/s1 b all ( ! s\!rn p9es may be attack$ :]ev] !y occur 9 ,nor? & ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,adult beetles are ab\t ! size ( a gra9 ( rice1 /\t & r$di%-br[n 9 color4 ,:ile !y commonly attack lightn+-/ruck or weak5$ trees1 !y c also quickly build up to high populations capable ( successfully attack+ heal?y trees dur+ p]iods favorable to _! developm5t4 ,adult beetles bore directly ?r\gh ! b>k1 mate1 & ! females beg9 to excavate ,s-%ap$ egg gall]ies 9 ! inn] b>k4 ,eggs are deposit$ 9 ni*es on ei!r side ( ^! gall]ies & hat* into small legless grubs )9 f\r to n9e days4 ,! grubs m9e = a %ort di/ance be=e bor+ into ! out] b>k :]e !y pupate4 ,!re are f ?ree to sev5 g5]ations p] ye> dep5d+ on locality & wea!r4 ,dr\ght seems to be associat$ ) major outbreaks ( ?is insect4 ,illu/ration3 ,adults ( ! black turp5t9e beetle1 ! s\!rn p9e beetle & ?ree species ( ,ips engrav] beetles4 ,control includes rapid salvage & utilization ( infe/$ trees & pil+ & burn+ ( infe/$ mat]ial4 ,outbreaks usually subside ) ! adv5t ( unfavorable wea!r & improv$ ho/ vigor4 ,illu/ration3 ,s\!rn p9e beetle l>val gall]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,s\!rn p9e beetle pit* tubes4 ,,ips ,,engrav] ,,beetles1 ,ips spp4 ,) ! possible exception ( ! s\!rn p9e beetle1 no o!r insects cause z mu* mortality to s\!rn p9e =e/s z d ! ?ree species ( ,ips engrav]s4 ,usually !y attack sev]ely weak5$ trees1 lightn+-/ruck trees1 or fre% sla% left by logg+ op]ations4 ,dur+ dr\ght p]iods !y c successfully attack o!rwise heal?y p9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,p9e %[+ typical symptoms ( ,ips attack4 ,attack$ trees are quickly girdl$ by ! adults z !y con/ruct _! egg gall]ies 9 ! inn] b>k4 ,dea? is usually ha/5$ by ! introduction ( blue-/a9 fungi :i* blocks ! fl[ ( sap4 ,small r$di% pit* tubes are frequ5tly ! fir/ sign ( attack1 b !y are usually abs5t 9 trees suff]+ f dr\ght4 ,peel+ back ! b>k ( an infe/$ tree w reveal typical ,y- or ,h-%ap$ egg gall]ies ) %ort l>val gall]ies ext5d+ p]p5dicul> to !m on ei!r side4 ,ips beetles are easily recogniz$ by _! 8scoop$ out0 po/]iors :i* are surr\nd$ by v>y+ numb]s ( too?-l projections4 ,x takes only #ah-be days to complete "o g5]ation1 all[+ populations ( ^! beetles to increase v rapidly dur+ favorable conditions4 ,at pres5t ! be/ control is ! spe$y removal & utilization ( actively infe/$ trees1 mak+ sure t ! b>k & slabs are de/roy$4 ,,black ,,turp5t9e ,,beetle1 ,d5droctonus t]ebrans 7,oliv47 ,! black turp5t9e beetle is f\nd f ,new ,hamp%ire s\? to ,florida1 & f ,we/ ,virg9ia to ea/ ,texas4 ,x is a p>ticul>ly s]i\s pe/ 9 ! ,gulf ,/ates :]e rec5t outbreaks h kill$ l>ge acreages ( timb]4 ,attacks h be5 obs]v$ on all p9es native to ! ,s\!a/1 & also on r$ spruce4 ,illu/ration3 ,life /ages ( ! black turp5t9e beetle3 adult1 call[ adult1 pupa1 l>va & eggs4 ,?is is ! l>ge/ ( ! s\!rn b>k beetles1 v>y+ 9 l5g? f to ( an in*1 or ab\t ! size ( a rais94 ,!y are r$di%-br[n to black 9 color4 ,! beetle attacks fre% /umps & liv+ trees by bor+ ?r\gh ! b>k & con/ruct+ gall]ies on ! face ( ! sapwood :]e eggs are laid4 ,fifty to #bjj eggs are laid 9 a gr\p4 ,!y hat* into :ite l>vae :i* fe$ on ! inn] b>k4 ,! beetle may girdle trees :5 sev]al broods occur at approximately ! same height1 kill+ ! trees4 ,f #gj to #ij p]c5t ( ! trees attack$ by ! beetle die4 ,aft] ! l>vae complete _! developm5t1 !y pupate4 ,adult beetles em]ge & infe/ m p9e trees4 ,! entire life cycle takes f #b to #d mon?s1 dep5d+ on temp]ature4 ,9 ! insect's s\!rn range !re usually are two g5]ations & "p ( a ?ird ea* ye>4 ,9 its nor!rn range1 ! ?ird g5]ation does n develop2 consequ5tly ! beetle is n a s]i\s pe/ !re4 ,wea!r is probably ! mo/ influ5tial factor 9 regulat+ ! numb]s ( ?is insect4 ,dur+ outbreaks ! removal or *emical treatm5t ( infe/$ trees helps to keep losses to a m9imum4 ,illu/ration3 ,close-up ( black turp5t9e beetle pit* tubes4 ,,ambrosia ,,beetle1 ,platypus flavicornis 7,f47 ,ambrosia beetles are repres5t$ 9 ! ,s\? by sev]al species ( ! g5us ,platypus ( :i* only ,p4 flavicornis 7,f47 is kn[n to attack dead or dy+ s\!rn p9es4 ,p4 flavicornis 7,f47 w second>ily invade o!r conif]s & on "s occasions may be f\nd 9 h>dwood trees4 ,x is s abundant 9 ! ,s\? t few dy+ p9es1 /umps1 or logs escape attack4 ,! beetle is f\nd f ,texas ea/ to ,florida & nor? to ,new ,j]sey4 ,illu/ration3 ,adult ( ! ,platypus ambrosia beetle4 ,! adult is a r$di%-br[n elongate beetle approximately "o-f\r? in* 9 l5g?4 ,! male ( ! species has a pair ( blunt too?-l /ructures on ! ?ird abdom9al segm5t4 ,sev]al males are usually f\nd 9 ! pres5ce ( a s+le female4 ,?is species requires moi/ wood :i* is favorable to ! gr[? ( fungi ^u :i* !y fe$4 ,! adults bore into sapwood or he>twood ( logs & lumb]1 mak+ p9-siz$ holes :i* are /a9$ by ! ambrosia fungus4 ,! female lays eggs 9 small clu/]s 9 ! tunnel & ! develop+ l>vae excavate t9y cells ext5d+ f ! tunnel p>allel to ! gra9 ( wood4 ,!re may be sev]al g5]ations a ye>4 ,ambrosia beetle damage to gre5 sawlogs & lumb] may result 9 consid]able degrade & /r5g? r$uction4 ,! be/ control is rapid utilization ( dead or dy+ trees4 ,lumb] %\ld be season$ z soon z possible to r$uce or elim9ate losses4 ,,s\!rn ,,p9e ,,sawy]s1 ,mono*amus spp4 ,9 ! ,s\?1 dy+ p9es & fre% logs are quickly attack$ by ! p9e sawy]s4 ,9 suffici5t numb]s !y may cause a significant loss ( wood fib] & degrade sawlogs4 ,^! species are commonly f\nd 9 ! ,s\? infe/+ s\!rn p9e1 fir1 & spruce :]ev] ! ho/s gr[4 ,illu/ration3 ,adult s\!rn p9e sawy] beetle4 ,! adults em]ge 9 ! spr+ or summ] & beg9 to fe$ on ! b>k ( twigs4 ,aft] mat+1 ! female gnaws pits ?r\gh ! b>k ( fre%ly fell$ or dy+ p9e4 ,! female beetle lays "o to sev]al eggs 9 ea* pit4 ,aft] eggs hat* ! l>vae bore b5ea? ! b>k = #dj-fj days1 conv]t+ ! inn] b>k into co>se1 %r$d$ frass4 ,! l>vae !n ent] ! wood & make deep ,u-%ap$ cells ?r\gh ! he>twood & sapwood4 ,! entrance is plugg$ ) frass & ! f> end is excavat$ into a pupal *amb]4 ,! l>vae pupate ! foll[+ spr+ or e>ly summ]1 trans=m into adults1 & em]ge t same season4 ,! insect has two or ?ree g5]ations p] ye> 9 ! ,s\?4 ,p9e sawy]s r5d] /orm- or fire-damag$ p9es unfit = salvage & are also a problem 9 wood-hold+ y>ds4 ,rapid salvage & utilization ( dead or dy+ trees or gre5 logs w r$uce losses significantly4 ,,nantucket ,,p9e ,,tip ,,mo?1 ,rhyacionia fru/rana 7,com/ock7 ,! impact ( ! ,nantucket p9e tip mo? on p9e plantations v>ies widely ) tree species1 ho/ vigor1 & environm5tal factors4 ,heavily infe/$ trees may be sev]ely /unt$ or de=m$ b mortality is r>e4 ,g5]ally1 ! tree gr[s out ( ! susceptible /age )9 a few ye>s4 ,9 se$ or*>ds1 ! tip mo? is receiv+ increas+ att5tion because ( its impact on height gr[? &1 m importantly1 because ( its effect on fl[] & cone production4 ,all species ( p9e )9 ! range ( ! tip mo? except :ite p9e & longleaf p9e1 are attack$4 ,x has be5 report$ f all /ates 9 ! ea/]n h>d-p9e region ext5d+ across ea/ ,texas1 ,oklahoma1 ,ill9ois1 ,indiana1 ,ohio1 & s\!rn ,new ,york ,/ate4 ,illu/ration3 ,nantucket p9e tip mo? l>va on p9e bud4 ,! tip mo?s ov]w9t] z pupae 9 ! tips ( infe/$ trees4 ,9 ! ,s\? ! adults em]ge on w>m days dur+ ! late w9t] mon?s1 mate1 & ! females lay eggs 9 ! axils betwe5 ne$les & /em ne> ! t]m9al bud ( ho/ trees4 ,on hat*+1 l>vae bore fir/ into ! base ( develop+ ne$les1 & lat] into ! new t]m9al gr[? or buds4 ,!re are two to f\r g5]ations p] ye> 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! tip mo?'s range4 ,*emical control is g5]ally n consid]$ practical 9 =e/ plantations1 b sev]al pe/icides h prov$ effective 9 r$uc+ insect damage 9 se$ or*>ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,newly em]g$ adult tip mo? on a damag$ %ortleaf p9e tip4 ,,pales ,,weevil1 ,hylobius pales 7,hb/47 ,pales weevil is p]haps ! mo/ s]i\s insect pe/ ( p9e reproduction 9 ! s\!a/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,losses 9 susceptible areas commonly run #bj-be p]c5t1 b exce$ #ij p]c5t "u circum/ances favor+ weevil developm5t4 ,pales weevil is f\nd ?r\gh\t p9e-gr[+ regions ( ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 ,fe$+ has be5 report$ on mo/ conif]\s species1 & all species ( s\!rn p9es appe> to be susceptible 9 v>y+ degrees4 ,illu/ration3 ,pit*-eat+ weevils 9 ! g5]a ,pa*ylobius1 ,hylobius1 & ,pissodes4 ,adult weevils are attract$ by ! odor ( fre% p9e res91 & quickly invade logg+ areas4 ,eggs are laid 9 lat]al roots ( fre% p9e /umps1 :]e !y hat* 9 approximately five to t5 days4 ,l>vae fe$ on ! inn]-b>k tissues ( roots4 ,at maturity1 l>vae usually con/ruct a *ip cocoon 9 a *amb] cut into ! wood1 & pupate 9 ! cocoon4 ,on em]g+1 adults fe$ on ! t5d] b>k ( se$l+s1 or twigs ( trees4 ,! small irregul> fe$+ pat*es 9 ! b>k are *>act]i/ic ( weevil damage4 ,heavy fe$+ girdles ! /em or twig1 caus+ wilt+ & ev5tual dea?4 ,newly em]g$ adult females fe$ = approximately "o mon? be=e lay+ eggs4 ,females may lay eggs sporadically ?r\gh two gr[+ seasons4 ,! av]age female lays ab\t #ej eggs 9 h] lifetime4 ,9 ! ,s\? !re are two peaks 9 adult weevil population ea* ye>2 ! fir/ occurs 9 ! e>ly spr+ 7,m>*-,may7 foll[$ by a second some:at l[] peak 9 ,july & ,augu/4 ,?is insect c be controll$ by delay+ plant+ 9 cut-ov] areas = at lea/ n9e mon?s1 or by treat+ se$l+s ) a suitable insecticide4 ,illu/ration3 ,adult pales weevil fe$+ on se$l+4 ,,:ite ,,p9e ,,weevil1 ,pissodes /robi 7,peck7 ,! :ite p9e weevil is g5]ally reg>d$ z ! mo/ s]i\s insect pe/ ( :ite p9e4 ,al?\gh x usually does n cause mortality1 trees suff]+ repeat$ attacks become /unt$ & de=m$ to ! po9t ( be+ comm]cially unusable4 ,! weevil has become su* a problem 9 "s areas t x prohibits ! gr[+ ( :ite p9e4 ,9 addition to ea/]n :ite p9e1 ! :ite p9e weevils also attack ,norway spruce & jack p9e4 ,o!r p9es & spruces are attack$ to a less] degree4 ,! weevil is f\nd ?r\gh\t ! range ( ea/]n :ite p9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,p9e lead] damag$ by ! :ite p9e weevil4 ,dur+ ! latt] half ( ,april1 ! adults may be f\nd on ! t]m9al %oots ( ho/ trees :]e ! female lays h] eggs4 ,up to #bjj eggs are deposit$ ov] a six-week p]iod4 ,! eggs are laid 9 fe$+ punctures 9 ! b>k1 & hat* ab\t two weeks lat]4 ,*>act]i/ically1 ! "y l>vae position !mselves ar\nd ! %oot & beg9 fe$+ z a gr\p d[n ! t]m9al ?r\gh ! inn] b>k4 ,small holes scatt]$ ov] ! b>k are *>act]i/ic ( :ite p9e weevil attacks4 ,aft] five or six weeks ! l>vae con/ruct pupal *amb]s 9 ! pi? or wood ( ! t]m9al %oot & trans=m into adults4 ,! "y adults rema9 9 ! dead t]m9al until late ,octob] & ,novemb] :5 !y move to favorable ov]w9t]+ sites on ! gr\nd1 usually at ! base ( ! ho/ tree4 ,control ( ! :ite p9e weevil is difficult4 ,x is possible1 h[ev]1 to r$uce ! damage by mak+ conditions 9 a "y /& unfavorable = egg lay+4 ,?is is possible because ! female weevil w only lay eggs )9 a r n>r[ range ( temp]ature & relative humidity4 ,v>i\s te*niques involv+ ! use ( %ade f 8nurse trees0 h be5 develop$ b require int5sive managem5t4 ,"u c]ta9 circum/ances1 *emical control c be us$4 ,,pit*-,,eat+ ,,weevil1 ,pa*ylobius picivorus 7,g]m>7 ,9 ! ,gulf ,coa/ ,/ates ! pit*-eat+ weevil is probably ! mo/ tr\blesome insect pe/ ( p9e se$l+s4 ,no accurate figures are available on ! damage directly attributable to ?is pe/1 b mortality losses are e/imat$ to av]age ab\t #cj p]c5t 9 susceptible areas4 ,all ( ! s\!rn h>d p9es & o!r conif]s are probably suitable bre$+ & ho/ mat]ial = ! pit*-eat+ weevil4 ,its range ov]laps t ( ! pales weevil1 be+ report$ f ,labrador1 ,canada1 s\? to ,florida & we/ to ,texas4 ,x occurs 9 damage-caus+ numb]s only 9 ! ,gulf ,coa/ ,/ates4 ,pit*-eat+ weevils bre$ 9 ! roots ( fre%ly cut /umps4 ,! adults burr[ d[n ?r\gh ! soil1 sometimes a consid]able di/ance f ! /ump1 & lay _! eggs 9 ni*es *ew$ 9 ! root b>k4 ,on hat*+1 l>vae m9e ! inn] b>k1 pack+ _! gall]ies ) frass4 ,pupal cells are excavat$ 9 ! sapwood1 & a *ip cocoon is con/ruct$ f ! excelsior-l mat]ial remov$ dur+ ! cells' con/ruction4 ,developm5t "t v>ies f six to t5 mon?s dep5d+ on :5 ! /umps are initially infe/$4 ,em]g+ adult pit*-eat+ weevils fe$ by night on ! t5d] b>k ( se$l+s4 ,small irregul> pat*es ( b>k are remov$1 ev5tually girdl+ ! se$l+ & caus+ its dea?4 ,! pit*-eat+ weevil exhibits a population tr5d simil> to t ( ! pales weevil1 & is a ?reat mo/ly 9 e>ly spr+ & 9 ! fall4 ,! mo/ effective control = p9e reproduction weevils is to wait n9e mon?s be=e replant+ or until ! /umps 9 an area are no long] attractive to ! weevil4 ,*emical control c be us$ :5 su* a delay is consid]$ impractical4 ,,deod> ,,weevil1 ,pissodes nemor5sis 7,g]m47 ,?is sn\t beetle is v simil> to ! :ite p9e weevil bo? 9 appe>ance & habits4 ,x is f\nd ?r\gh\t ! s\?- & mid-,atlantic /ates f s\!rn ,new ,j]sey we/ to ,miss\ri4 ,al?\gh deod> c$> is ! pref]r$ ho/1 ,atlas c$>1 ,lebanon c$>1 & sev]al species ( s\!rn p9es are also attack$4 ,illu/ration3 ,gall]ies & *ip cocoons ( ! deod> weevil4 ,adults em]ge f ,april to ,may & fe$ briefly on ! inn] b>k ( lead]s & lat]al bran*es ( ho/ trees4 ,heavy fe$+ frequ5tly girdles ! /em & c kill small trees4 ,! adults are dormant dur+ ! summ]1 b resume activity 9 ! fall to lay _! eggs4 ,f "o to f\r eggs are deposit$ 9 fe$+ punctures4 ,! newly hat*$ l>vae bore into ! inn] b>k :]e !y con/ruct w9d+ gall]ies :i* girdle ! /em4 ,evid5ce ( su* infe/ations is (t5 delay$ until ,janu>y :5 ! bran*es beg9 to turn br[n4 ,w9t] is sp5t 9 ! l>val /age4 ,! l>vae pupate 9 ,m>* or ,april & ! cycle is complete4 ,keep+ %ade trees 9 a vigor\s condition by prop] wat]+ & f]tilization helps r$uce _! susceptibility to weevil attack4 ,,coneworms1 ,dioryctria spp4 ,coneworms are p]haps ! mo/ de/ructive insect pe/s ( p9e cones 9 ! ,s\?4 ,!y are p>ticul>ly s]i\s 9 sup]ior-tree se$ or*>ds :]e !y frequ5tly cause sub/antial economic loss4 ,!re are five important species ( coneworms 9 ! ,s\?1 "o or m ( :i* attack all ( ! native & exotic p9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,coneworm l>va fe$+ on a p9e %oot4 ,al?\gh ! numb] ( g5]ations p] ye> v>ies ) ! species1 _! g5]al life hi/ory is simil>4 ,female mo?s lay _! eggs ar\nd w\nds1 cank]s1 galls1 etc41 b also deposit p>ticul>ly on t]m9al gr[?4 ,eggs g5]ally hat* 9 ab\t a week4 ,l>vae may /ay at a s+le fe$+ site1 or move to sev]al diff]5t sites be=e complet+ _! developm5t4 ,?is latt] behavior (t5 results 9 a s+le l>va de/roy+ sev]al cones or %oots4 ,pupation takes place 9 a *amb] con/ruct$ by ! l>va at ! fe$+ site4 ,dep5d+ on ! species & "t ( ye>1 ! adult may em]ge 9 two to ?ree weeks or ov]w9t] 9 ! pupal /age4 ,coneworms cause sev]al k9ds ( damage4 ,!y may m9e ?r\gh ! inn] b>k1 bore up ! c5t] ( a %oot1 or completely holl[ out a cone4 ,_! attacks are sometimes m>k$ by fecal pellets & l>ge pit* masses4 ,illu/ration3 ,sla% p9e cone damag$ by coneworm l>va4 ,sev]al p>asites attack coneworms b are seldom effective en\gh to prev5t population build-ups4 ,*emical control is (t5 necess>y on se$ or*>ds to ensure adequate protection ( ! cone crop4 ,,p9e ,,se$worms1 ,laspeyresia spp4 ,until rec5t ye>s little has be5 kn[n ab\t p9e se$worms4 ,^! insects are f\nd ?r\gh\t ! ,s\? b seldom h population explosions4 ,an exception to ?is is on sla% p9e 9 ,florida :]e ov] #gj p]c5t ( "o ye>'s cones 7 report$ infe/$4 ,longleaf p9e cones 9 ,texas & ,l\isiana h also _h ov] #fj p]c5t cone infe/ation on occasion4 ,loblolly & %ortleaf p9e cones are seldom ov] #bj p]c5t infe/$4 ,se$worms h be5 f\nd infe/+ longleaf1 loblolly1 %ortleaf1 sla%1 & ,virg9ia p9e cones4 ,laspeyresia an>anjada ,mill] attacks prim>ily sla% p9e1 occasionally longleaf p9e1 & r>ely loblolly p9e4 ,l4 +5s ,he9rick attacks prim>ily longleaf & sla% p9e4 ,l4 toreuta ,grote attacks ,virg9ia1 %ortleaf1 & loblolly p9e 9 ! ,s\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,adult p9e se$worm4 ,! female mo? lays eggs f ,april ?r\gh ,may on second-ye> cones4 ,!re is "o g5]ation p] ye>4 ,l>vae fe$ )9 develop+ se$s until ! cone matures4 ,9 late fall1 l>vae ei!r bore into ! cone axis or rema9 9 a holl[$-out se$1 & ov]w9t]4 ,pupation occurs )9 ! cone & mo?s em]ge ?r\gh ! holl[ se$s4 ,ext]nal evid5ce ( se$worm attack is n visible 9 immature cones4 ,z cones mature1 damag$ se$s are reta9$ 9 ! cone4 ,heavily damag$ cones d n op5 prop]ly4 ,9 high-value se$ or*>ds & se$ production areas "s protection f se$worm attack may be obta9$ ?r\gh ! use ( pe/icides appli$ 9 a c>efully tim$ program4 ,illu/ration3 ,p9e se$worm l>va 9 longleaf p9e se$4 ,,balsam ,,woolly ,,aphid1 ,adelges piceae 7,ratzeburg7 ,illu/ration3 ,eggs & wool-cov]$ adult balsam woolly aphids4 ,! balsam woolly aphid 0 introduc$ into nor!a/]n ,nor? ,am]ica f ,europe ar\nd ! turn ( ! c5tury4 ,s9ce !n x has become a pe/ ( major importance to true firs on ! ea/ & we/ coa/s ( ! cont95t1 & ?reat5s "s #fj1jjj acres ( ,fras] fir 9 ! s\!rn ,appala*ians4 ,usually ! balsam woolly aphid has two g5]ations p] ye> 9 ! s\!rn ,appala*ians4 ,eggs ( ! fir/ g5]ation hat* 9 late ,june & ,july foll[$ by ! second g5]ation 9 ,septemb] & ,octob]4 ,! immature /age ( ! aphid kn[n z a 8crawl]0 is ! only motile /age 9 ! aphid's life cycle4 ,once ! crawl] beg9s fe$+1 x trans=ms into an adult & nev] aga9 moves4 ,reproduction is p>!nog5ic ) ea* female lay+ approximately #ajj eggs dur+ h] lifetime4 ,9 ! fe$+ process ! aphid injects a saliv>y sub/ance into ! ho/ tree1 :i* causes gr[? abnormalities4 ,initial symptoms ( aphid attack may include 8g\t+0 ( buds or twig nodes & "s twig & bran* die-back4 ,heavy /em attacks r$uce ! tree's ability to translocate food & wat]4 ,usually a heavily infe/$ tree dies )9 two to sev5 ye>s4 ,*emical control is effective b extremely co/ly & ?us limit$ to v high-value areas along sc5ic road-ways4 ,o!r control measures include removal & de/ruction ( infe/$ mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,fras] fir infe/$ by balsam woolly aphid4 ,,diseases ,,ne$le ,,ca/ ,ne$le ca/ is a v common disease ( conif]s ?r\gh\t ea/]n & s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,ea/]n :ite1 loblolly1 longleaf1 pit*1 pond1 %ortleaf1 table m\nta91 & ,virg9ia p9es are all susceptible4 ,hypod]ma le?ale is probably ! mo/ common cause ( ne$le ca/ on ! above ho/s1 ) ! exception ( longleaf p9e4 ,lophod]mium p9a/ri is also associat$ ) ne$le ca/4 ,illu/ration3 ,hypod]ma ne$le ca/ on loblolly p9e4 ,curr5t p9e ne$les are infect$ 9 ! e>ly summ]1 & by w9t] or e>ly spr+ beg9 to turn br[n at ! tips4 ,at ?is "t ! tree usually has a scor*$ appe>ance4 ,lat]1 ! br[n+ progresses d[n ! ne$le & ! fungal fruit+ bodies are produc$4 ,^! are small1 black1 elongat$ /ructures kn[n z hy/]o!cia1 :i* op5 along a slit dur+ moi/ wea!r to release _! spores4 ,! infect$ ne$les are (t5 8ca/10 leav+ only ! new gr[?1 & caus+ ! tree to h a tuft$ appe>ance4 ,controls are seldom ne$$ = ?is disease 9 =e/ /&s4 ,infect$ trees usually recov] & put out new foliage ! ye> foll[+ heavy attacks4 ,nurs]ies or plantations %\ld n be e/abli%$ 9 areas :]e ne$le ca/ is preval5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,lophod]mium ne$le ca/ on #b-j nurs]y /ock & #e ye> old scot* p9e1 ,spani% v>iety4 ,illu/ration3 7cont47 ,,br[n ,,spot ,,ne$le ,,blight ,br[n spot or br[n spot ne$le blight is caus$ by ! fungus ,scirrhia acicola4 ,br[n spot occurs 9 all ! coa/al /ates f ,virg9ia to ,texas1 & inl& to ,arkansas & ,t5nessee4 ,all s\!rn p9es are attack$ by ! fungus1 b only longleaf p9e se$l+s are s]i\sly damag$4 ,illu/ration3 ,br[n spot ne$le blight on longleaf p9e reproduction4 ,initial infection ( p9e ne$les results 9 ! developm5t ( small1 circul> spots ( grey gre5 color1 :i* lat] turn br[n4 ,z ! fungus cont9ues to gr[1 a necrotic area encircles ! ne$le1 appe>+ z a br[n b&4 ,! infect$ area w !n increase 9 size1 ev5tually result+ 9 ! dea? ( ! ne$le4 ,fruit+ bodies1 call$ ac]vuli1 develop 9 ! dead areas ( ! ne$le4 ,spores are extrud$ f ! ac]vuli 9 a wat] soluble gelat9u\s matrix ?r\gh\t ! entire ye>4 ,! spores are wa%$ ap>t & spla%$ %ort di/ances by ra9 drops4 ,^! spores spread ! disease f se$l+ to se$l+4 ,dur+ ! w9t] & e>ly spr+1 ! sexual /age ( ! fungus is produc$ on dead ne$les4 ,ascospores1 produc$ 9 a fruit+ body call$ a p]i!cium1 are light & w9d-dissem9at$4 ,^! spores are responsible = disease spread4 ,dur+ ! grass /age1 se$l+s (t5 become heavily infect$ by ! br[n spot fungus1 result+ 9 p>tial to complete defoliation4 ,se$l+s :i* are ne>ly defoliat$ e ye> rema9 9 ! grass /age & ev5tually die4 ,?ree successive ye>s ( complete defoliation w result 9 dea?4 ,! disease is v damag+ dur+ wet ye>s1 especially 9 areas :]e ! fungus has become well e/abli%$ 9 ! abs5ce ( controls4 ,! disease c be r$uc$ by control burn+ dur+ ! w9t] mon?s4 ,on se$l+s1 fire burns ! diseas$ ne$les & r$uces ! am\nt ( available inoculum = re9fection1 leav+ ! l>ge t]m9al bud unh>m$4 ,(t5 a s+le prescrib$ burn r$uces ! disease int5sity to su* l[ levels t vigor\s se$l+ height gr[? beg9s ! foll[+ ye>4 ,fungicide sprays w also r$uce br[n spot on high valu$ trees4 ,,p9e ,,ne$le ,,ru/ ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ bodies ( p9e ne$le ru/ on loblolly p9e4 ,ne>ly all ! native p9es 9 s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates are attack$ by v>i\s ne$le ru/ fungi ( ! g5us ,coleosporium4 ,?is disease is v common1 b causes little h>m to ! trees4 ,_m species ( ?is ru/ also attack broadleav$ we$s 9 addition to ! p9es1 ne$+ bo? ho/ types to complete _! life cycle4 ,ne$le ru/s are mo/ preval5t on "y trees 9 ! se$l+ to sapl+ /age4 ,9 ! spr+ or e>ly summ] small1 delicate :ite fungus 8cups0 fill$ ) yell[ to orange spores are produc$ on ! ne$les4 ,f a di/ance entire se$l+s may appe> to h a :iti% or yell[i% ca/4 ,individual ne$les :i* are heavily infect$ may die1 turn br[n1 & drop f ! tree4 ,h[ev]1 ! entire tree is r>ely defoliat$4 ,small r$ 8ru/ pu/ules0 =m on ! und]surface ( ! we$ leaves4 ,^! are replac$ by d>k /ructures lat] 9 ! summ]4 ,! ne$le ru/s are n important en\gh to w>rant control 9 natural =e/s or plantations4 ,if ! we$ 7alt]nate7 ho/ is kn[n1 x c be eradicat$ ar\nd nurs]ies ( susceptible p9e species4 ,h[ev]1 x w\ld be bett] to e/abli% nurs]ies 9 ru/ free areas4 ,,c$> ,,apple ,,ru/ ,c$> apple ru/1 caus$ by ,gymnosporangium junip]i-virg9ianae1 is important comm]cially 9 ! apple-gr[+ regions ( ! ,virg9ias1 ,c>ol9as1 & ! ,mississippi ,valley4 ,! alt]nate ho/s ( ?is ru/ are ea/]n r$ c$> & sev]al species ( junip]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ galls conta9+ spores on c$> tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ on apple leaf ! alt]nate ho/4 ,c$> 8apples0 or galls are ! *>act]i/ic signs ( ! fungus on c$>s4 ,c$> ne$les are infect$ 9 ! summ] by w9d-borne spores f apple leaves4 ,by ! next spr+ or e>ly summ] galls beg9 to appe> z small gre5i% br[n swell+s on ! upp] ne$le surfaces4 ,by fall1 ! infect$ ne$le turns into a *ocolate br[n gall cov]$ ) small circul> depressions4 ,! foll[+ spr+1 orange jelly-l t5drils protrude f ! galls produc+ an attractive ornam5t = ! c$> tree4 ,spores produc$ f ^! orange spore masses are !n capable ( re9fect+ apple leaves1 ?us complet+ ! fungus life cycle4 ,no practical control ( ! ru/ on c$>s is available because ( ! l[ value ( c$>4 ,h[ev]1 consid]able ef=t is exp5d$ to protect apple trees4 ,:]e apple is to be protect$1 c$>s %\ld be elim9at$ 9 ! vic9ity or1 ru/ galls %\ld be pick$ or cut (f c$>s be=e ! galls mature4 ,,c$> ,,blight ,c$> blight1 caus$ by ,phomopsis junip]ovora1 is mo/ sev]e on ea/]n r$ & ,rocky ,m\nta9 c$>s4 ,o!r ho/s include arborvitae1 cypress1 & ,atlantic :ite c$>4 ,! disease ranges f ! mid-,we/ to ! ,atlantic coa/ & s\? to ,alabama :]e x is mo/ common 9 nurs]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,ne$le symptoms on #a-j ea/]n r$ c$> nurs]y /ock & #e ye> old ,arizona cypress4 ,illu/ration3 7cont47 ,symptoms on r$ c$> resemble t ( dr\ght4 ,! tips ( bran*es are kill$ back & sometimes entire trees w turn br[n4 ,! fungus =ms black fruit+ bodies on ne$les & /em lesions4 ,fungus spores are di/ribut$ by ra9wat]2 nurs]y ov]head spr9kl+ sy/ems also facilitate blight spread4 ,control ( c$> blight is initiat$ by remov+ & burn+ infect$ nurs]y /ock e>ly 9 ! season be=e infection becomes heavy4 ,se$b$s %\ld be well dra9$4 ,avoid introduc+ c$> /ock to an infect$ nurs]y4 ,! location ( c$>s 9 ! nurs]y %\ld be *ang$ frequ5tly &1 :]e possible1 c$> b$s %\ld be kept well away f old] c$> or c$> h$ges4 ,se$l+s gr[+ 9 l[-d5sity se$ b$s are m vuln]able to ! blight2 ?us b$s %\ld be fully /ock$4 ,c$> mul* %\ld nev] be us$ on c$> b$s4 ,avoid w\nd+ nurs]y transplants4 ,no economically feasible control is available = =e/ /&s4 ,,fusi=m ,,ru/ ,illu/ration3 ,galls on #a-j p9e nurs]y /ock4 ,illu/ration3 ,damage caus$ by fusi=m ru/ infection4 ,fusi=m ru/1 caus$ by ,cron>tium fusi=me1 is "o ( ! mo/ important diseases on s\!rn p9es4 ,?is ru/ is f\nd f ,m>yl& to ,florida & we/ to ,texas & s\!rn ,arkansas4 ,! ru/'s mo/ important impact is 9 nurs]ies1 se$ or*>ds1 & "y plantations4 ,loblolly & sla% p9es are v susceptible to ?is ru/4 ,pit* & pond p9es are mod]ately susceptible1 longleaf p9e is fairly resi/ant1 & %ortleaf p9e is highly resi/ant4 ,! mo/ easily recogniz$ symptom is ! sp9dle-%ap$ cank] on ! p9e bran*es or ma9 /em4 ,9 e>ly spr+ ^! swell+s appe> yell[ to orange z ! fungus produces p[d]y spores4 ,z ho/ tissue is kill$1 old] /em cank]s may become flat or sunk54 ,cank]s (t5 girdle trees & w9d breakage at ! cank] is common4 ,fungus spores f ! p9e infect oak leaves4 ,br[n hair-l /ructures1 produc$ on ! und]side ( ! leaves 9 late spr+1 are ! mo/ conspicu\s signs4 ,^! projections produce spores :i* 9 turn re9fect ! p9e trees1 complet+ a 8typical0 ru/ cycle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ fusi=m-%ap$ cank] on ma9 /em ( s\!rn p9e4 ,silvicultural practices may less5 ! incid5ce ( infection 9 plantations4 ,avoid plant+ highly susceptible species su* z sla% & loblolly p9es 9 areas ( kn[n high ru/ incid5ce4 ,9 ^! areas m resi/ant species su* z longleaf or %ortleaf p9e %\ld be plant$4 ,prun+ infect$ bran*es w prev5t /em infection 9 "y plantations4 ,ru/-resi/ant p9es %\ld be readily available f ! nurs]ies 9 ! ne> future4 ,cull+ out se$l+s ) obvi\s galls be=e outplant+ w r$uce ! disease incid5ce 9 new plantations4 ,,:ite ,,p9e ,,bli/] ,,ru/ ,:ite p9e bli/] ru/1 caus$ by ,cron>tium ribicola1 0 introduc$ to ,nor? ,am]ica on nurs]y /ock ab\t #aijj4 ,x is ! mo/ important disease on :ite p9e 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ! ,s\?1 ! disease is f\nd on ea/]n :ite p9e 9 ! ,appala*ian m\nta9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ cank]s %[+ yell[-color$ spores ( bli/] ru/ on ea/]n :ite p9e4 ,illu/ration3 7cont47 ,! disease is caus$ by a fungus t attacks bo? :ite p9e & wild & cultivat$ currant & gooseb]ry bu%es1 call$ ,ribes4 ,bo? ho/s mu/ be pres5t if ! fungus is to complete its life cycle4 ,attack by ! disease is foll[$ by ! developm5t ( cank]s on ! ma9 /em or bran*es4 ,infect$ p9es die :5 a cank] completely girdles ! ma9 /em or :5 _m ( ! bran*es are kill$ by girdl+4 ,! mo/ conspicu\s symptoms ( ! disease are ! dy+ bran*es or cr[ns 78flags07 above ! girdl+ cank]s1 & ! cank]s !mselves4 ,initially1 a n>r[ b& ( yell[-orange b>k m>ks ! edges ( ! cank]4 ,inside ?is b& are small irregul> d>k br[n sc>s4 ,z ! cank] gr[s1 ! m>g9 & bank ( d>k sc>s exp& & ! portion =m]ly occupi$ by ! d>k sc>s is n[ ! area :]e ! spores t infect ,ribes are produc$4 ,dur+ ! mon?s ( ,april ?r\gh ,june :ite sacs or bli/]s conta9+ orange-yell[ spores 7call$ aeciospores7 pu% ?r\gh ! diseas$ b>k4 ,! bli/]s soon rupture & ! orange-yell[ spores are w9d-disp]s$ = great di/ances4 ,g5]ally1 !re is "s tissue swell+ associat$ ) ! cank]1 :i* results 9 a sp9dle-%ap$ swell+ ar\nd ! infect$ portion ( ! /em4 ,loss ( :ite p9es f bli/] ru/ c be prev5t$ by de/roy+ ! wild & cultivat$ ,ribes bu%es4 ,bu%es may be remov$ by uproot+ by h&1 grubb+ ) a h& tool1 or ) h]bicides4 ,prun+ infect$ bran*es on "y trees w prev5t /em infections & probably tree mortality4 ,,com&ra ,,bli/] ,,ru/ ,illu/ration3 ,fruit gall %[+ orange color$ spores on loblolly p9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,alt]nate ho/--false toadflax4 ,com&ra bli/] ru/1 caus$ by ! fungus ,cron>tium com&rae1 is a cank] disease ( h>d p9es4 ,! disease pres5tly occurs 9 widely scatt]$ areas ?r\gh\t ! we/]n1 c5tral1 & s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ! ,s\?1 ! prim>y ho/s are loblolly1 %ortleaf1 pond1 & ,virg9ia p9e4 ,h]bace\s plants ( ! g5us ,com&ra1 commonly kn[n z false toadflax or com&ra1 are also attack$4 ,! fungus infects p9es ?r\gh ! ne$les & gr[s f ! ne$le into ! bran* or ma9 /em :]e x =ms a gall or cank]4 ,d>k orange-color$ spores :i* are produc$ on ! surface ( ! gall 9 ! spr+ are w9d-bl[n & infect ! leaves or /ems ( ! com&ra plants4 ,two to ?ree weeks aft] infection1 ur$iospores are produc$ on ! und]side ( ! com&ra leaf4 ,^! are w9d-bl[n & c only infect o!r com&ra plants4 ,ev5tually hair-l /ructures kn[n z telia are produc$ on ! com&ra leaves & /ems4 ,! telia produce spores :i* are w9d-bl[n & infect ! p9e ho/ ?r\gh ! ne$le4 ,! necess>y comb9ation ( a susceptible p9e ho/1 ! alt]nate ho/1 & ! pa?og5 is pres5tly kn[n to occur only 9 nor!rn ,arkansas1 ea/]n ,t5nessee1 & nor!rn ,alabama4 ,no effective me?od ( controll+ ! disease 9 =e/ /&s is pres5tly kn[n4 ,silvicultural or =e/ managem5t practices :i* r$uce ! abundance ( ! alt]nate ho/ (f] promise ( long t]m control4 ,ma9t5ance ( d5se /&s & heavy gr\nd cov] z a means ( %ad+ out ! int]m$iate ho/ plants1 may be helpful 9 r$uc+ ru/ damage 9 _m areas4 ,,ea/]n ,,gall ,,ru/ ,ea/]n gall ru/1 caus$ by ! fungus ,cron>tium c]ebrum1 attacks _m species ( ea/]n h>d p9es4 ,! disease ranges ea/w>d f ! ,great ,pla9s & is mo/ sev]e 9 ! ,s\? on ,virg9ia & %ortleaf p9es4 ,l mo/ ru/s ?is fungus requires an alt]nate ho/ 9 addition to its p9e ho/4 ,9 ?is case oaks1 especially ! r$ oak gr\p 7black1 r$1 sc>let & p97 are ! alt]nate ho/s4 ,damage to ! oaks is g5]ally n ( economic importance z only ! leaves are affect$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ gall %[+ r$-orange spores on ,virg9ia p9e4 ,on p9es ! fungus causes ! =mation ( globose to sub-globose galls4 ,cank] =mation occurs occasionally b mortality g5]ally results f w9d breakage at ! gall r ?an by cank] =mation z lit]ally hundr$s ( galls may appe> on a s+le tree4 ,!y are n le?al to ! tree1 b may ru9 tree =m & on a l>ge /em !y c lead to an op5 decay$ w\nd1 z decay fungi are (t5 second>y invad]s ( ru/ infections4 ,! %ape ( galls & ! arrangem5t ( ! spore sacs fill$ ) r$-orange spores pres5t a c]ebroid 7bra9-l7 appe>ance4 ,dur+ ! spr+ ! bright orange galls are v /rik+4 ,?is disease is sometimes a problem 9 nurs]ies :]e se$l+s are attack$ & kill$4 ,?is is :]e control ef=ts are conc5trat$4 ,fungicide protectants are appli$ to ! se$l+ foliage to prev5t infection f spores produc$ on oaks4 ,contact y\r local =e/ry ext5sion ag5t or ! ne>e/ ,division ( ,=e/ ,pe/ ,managem5t = ! late/ recomm5dations4 ,"u =e/ conditions1 control is n economically feasible4 ,trees ( poor =m %\ld be remov$ dur+ ?9n+ op]ations4 ,,s\!rn ,,cone ,,ru/ ,s\!rn cone ru/ is caus$ by ! fungus ,cron>tium /robil9um4 ,x has be5 report$ to completely de/roy sla% & longleaf p9e cone crops 9 ,georgia & along ! ,gulf ,coa/ f ,florida to ,texas4 ,illu/ration3 ,cone ru/ symptoms on sla% p9e4 ,illu/ration3 7cont47 ,l mo/ o!r ru/s1 ! fungus requires oaks & p9es to complete its life cycle4 ,al?\gh infection ( oak leaves occurs annually1 no significant economic damage is done to ! oaks4 ,fungus spores produc$ on oak leaves infect ! mature female p9e fl[]s ab\t ! "t ( poll9ation 7,janu>y-,febru>y74 ,! fungus gr[s ?r\gh ! develop+ conelet caus+ x to swell abnormally4 ,by e>ly ,april or late ,may ! infect$ cones are ?ree to f\r times l>g] ?an ! normal fir/-ye> cones & ev5 exce$ ! matur+ second-ye> cones 9 size4 ,! swoll5 cone scales are r$di% 9 color4 ,cavities 9 ! cone fill$ ) orange-yell[ spores bur/ & ! cones become orange-yell[4 ,! swoll5 orange-yell[ cones 9 ! tree cr[ns c be easily di/+ui%$ f normal cones by an obs]v] on ! gr\nd4 ,by late summ] mo/ ( ! diseas$ cones h di$ & fall54 ,control at pres5t is conf9$ to se$ or*>ds4 ,hydraulic spray+ ( ! fl[]s ) fungicides gives a significant r$uction 9 infections4 ,consult y\r local =e/]1 c\nty ext5sion ag5t or ! ne>e/ ,=e/ ,pe/ ,managem5t ,(fice = curr5t control recomm5dations4 ,,pit* ,,cank] ,pit* cank]1 caus$ by ! fungus ,fus>ium lat]itium =ma p9i1 is rapidly becom+ widespread ?r\gh\t ! ,s\?4 ,! disease app>5tly is mo/ s]i\s on ,virg9ia1 sla% & s\? ,florida sla% p9e4 ,! fungus also attacks %ortleaf1 pit*1 & table-m\nta9 p9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,pit* cank] infection 9 t]m9al bran* & ma9 /em ( p9e4 ,illu/ration3 7cont47 ,pit* cank] may cause tree mortality4 ,on ,virg9ia p9es ! fungus report$ly ent]s ?r\gh small insect w\nds 9 ! twigs or me*anical w\nds 9 ! bole4 ,%oots may be girdl$ & kill$ )9 a few weeks1 b x takes a p]iod ( ye>s = ! fungus to girdle ! bole ( l>g] trees4 ,on sla% p9e ! disease app>5tly attacks plantations 9 wave ye>s4 ,dur+ ye>s ( heavy attack ! fungus c cause rapid cr[n det]ioration 9 addition to caus+ bole cank] infections4 ,cank]s on lead]s 9 ! cr[n c result 9 dea? ( two-?irds or m ( ! cr[n by mid-summ] 9 a tree t appe>$ heal?y 9 ! spr+4 ,9 ! majority ( tree infections only ! lead] & "o or two lat]als w be infect$4 ,! tree recov]s 9 a few ye>s ) a crook 9 ! bole z ! only evid5ce ( attack4 ,pit* cank]s usually reta9 ! b>k & old cank]s on ! hole may be sunk54 ,! mo/ diagno/ic *>act]i/ic ( ! disease1 & ! "o t def9itely sep>ates x f simil> disease1 is ! heavy pit* soak ( ! wood b5ea? ! cank]4 ,pit* cank]s are (t5 s soak$ ) pit* t heavy fl[ ( pit* is obs]v$ fl[+ d[n ! bole4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 no kn[n me?od ( control exi/s4 ,obs]vations 9 sla% p9e plantations indicate t "s trees are resi/ant :ile o!rs range 9 _! degree ( susceptibility4 ,,wood ,,decay ,wood decay ( s\!rn =e/ trees is responsible = ne>ly #hj p]c5t ( all loss attribut$ to disease4 ,?is decay is caus$ by fungi :i* ma9ly attack he>twood 9 ! c5tral portion ( /ems1 bran*es1 & roots4 ,wood-rott+ fungi ga9 entrance into ! tree ?r\gh brok5 bran*es1 w\nds1 & damag$ or expos$ roots4 ,spores1 :i* l& at ^! damag$ areas1 g]m9ate & produce a microscopic mycelium :i* attacks & spreads ?r\gh\t ! he>twood4 ,! decay is caus$ by ! action ( ! mycelium1 :i* p5etrate ! cell walls & dissolve or alt] ! wood 9 v>i\s ways4 ,fungus developm5t )9 ! tree may cont9ue = _m ye>s )\t any app>5t effect on ! gr[? ( ! ho/4 ,ev5tually ! mycelium w aggregate & break ?r\gh ! b>k to =m ! reproductive /age1 ei!r be=e or aft] ! dea? ( ! ho/4 ,! fruit+ body 7sporophore1 conk7 produces va/ am\nts ( spores :i* are capable ( spread+ ! fungus to o!r trees4 ,he>trots may be sep>at$ into broad classes on ! basis ( ! ho/ portion attack$1 su* z root rots1 root & butt rots1 /em rots1 & top rots4 ,decay fungi may be fur!r sep>at$ into two broad classes bas$ on _! effect on wood4 ,! fir/ class causes :ite rots1 decompos+ all compon5ts ( ! wood & r$uc+ x to a spongy mass ) :ite pockets or /reaks sep>at$ by firm wood4 ,! second class1 caus+ br[n rots1 utilize ! cellulose1 leav+ ! lign9 m or less unaffect$4 ,?is usually results 9 a rot :i* appe>s z "s %ade ( br[n4 ,! sep>ation ( wood decay fungi on ! basis ( _! ho/ range1 ! portion ( ! ho/ attack$1 & ! type ( rot produc$ are useful aids to a pa?ologi/ 9 det]m9+ a t5tative id5tification ( ! fungus responsible = a p>ticul> type ( rot4 ,h[ev]1 !re are num]\s fungi :i* cause decay1 _m ( :i* are exceptions to ! v>i\s me?ods ( classification4 ,?is =ces ! pa?ologi/ to use microscopic exam9ation & v>i\s artificial keys to arrive at ! prop] id5tification ( a giv5 rot-produc+ fungus4 ,illu/ration3 ,section$ /ump %[+ rot & decay 9 he>twood4 ,,r$ ,,he>t ,! fungus1 ,fomes p9i1 is ! cause ( a he>trot ( widespread di/ribution4 ,common names = ! rot produc$ by ?is fungus are3 r$ he>t1 r$ r+ rot1 or :ite peck4 ,! disease is commonly associat$ ) mature & ov]-mature conif]s1 especially ,d\glas fir1 l>*1 spruce1 & p9e4 ,9 ! s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! fungus attacks all species ( mature p9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ body ( r$he>t on s\!rn p9e4 ,g5]ally1 infection ( all ho/s occurs ?r\gh dead bran* /ubs4 ,e>ly /ages ( decay caus$ by ,f4 p9i are *>act]iz$ by a discoloration ( ! he>twood1 (t5 appe>+ light r$ to r$di% br[n4 ,! advanc$ /ages ( he>trot appe> z elongat$ :ite pockets or flecks1 =m$ p>allel to ! gra9 & sep>at$ by app>5tly firm wood4 ,(t5 ! pockets become res9 fill$4 ,on s\!rn p9e ho/s1 ! conks are (t5 bracket-l or ho(-%ap$4 ,! upp] surface appe>s dull grey to d>k br[n1 ) conc5tric furr[s p>allel to ! m>g9 ( ! fruit+ body4 ,! l[] side is a light br[n to br[ni% gold1 rimm$ by a velvety gold5 br[n m>g94 ,swoll5 knots result f ! liv+ wood tissue try+ to ov]gr[ ! knot :]e a conk is =m+4 ,illu/ration3 ,cross section ( infect$ tree %[+ rott$ & decay$ he>t wood4 ,9 s\!rn =e/ /&s1 he>trot damage may be r$uc$ by h>ve/+ mature p9es prior to ! age ( extreme susceptibility to fungus attack4 ,"s degree ( %ade tree protection c be obta9$ by prun+ dead & dy+ bran*es flu% ) ! ma9 /em4 ,?is w all[ ! knot to be quickly ov]gr[n by sap wood1 prev5t+ ! he>trot fungus f ent]+ ?r\gh ! bran* /ub4 ,,annosus ,,root ,,& ,,butt ,,rot ,illu/ration3 ,fomes annosus fruit+ bodies on /ump4 ,annosus root & butt rot is caus$ by ! fungus ,fomes annosus4 ,?is pa?og5 is common ?r\gh\t conif]\s /&s ( ! ,nor? ,temp]ate ,zone4 ,h>dwoods may be attack$1 b damage is usually ( m9or consequ5ce4 ,9 ! ,s\?1 ! disease is mo/ s]i\s 9 p9e plantations on s&y soils ) l[ organic matt]4 ,all species ( s\!rn p9e are susceptible4 ,sla% & loblolly plantations are (t5 sev]ely affect$4 ,! disease ga9s entry into plantations by spore infection ( fre%ly cut /umps dur+ ?9n+s4 ,! fungus !n spreads f ! infect$ /umps to residual trees by gr[? along ! roots to po9ts ( root contact4 ,residual trees usually beg9 to die )9 a few ye>s aft] ?9n+4 ,! sporophores or fruit+ bodies are g5]ally f\nd at gr\nd l9e or 9 ! root crot*4 ,p9es 9 initial /ages ( ! disease usually exhibit sp>sely foliat$ cr[ns2 h[ev]1 :ite p9e ) full cr[n may h ext5sive butt & root decay4 ,occasionally trees may die rapidly ) a sudd5 r$ discoloration ( a ne>ly full cr[n4 ,diseas$ trees are (t5 f\nd 9 gr\ps or circul> pockets 9 ! /&4 ,! indication ( ,f4 annosus decay may include ! p9k to violet /a9 ( incipi5t decay1 ! n>r[ elongat$ :ite pockets & scatt]$ black flecks 9 ! wood ( ! e>ly decay /ages1 & ! yell[ /r+y rot ( ! late /ages ( decay4 ,illu/ration3 ,infection c5t] 9 pulpwood size p9e /&4 ,control includes avoidance ( plant+ on soils ( l[ organic matt] & elim9ation ( ?9n+4 ,/ump infection foll[+ ?9n+ or h>ve/ may be prev5t$ us+ v>i\s me?ods4 ,,br[n ,,cubical ,,butt ,,rot ,polyporus s*we9itzii is a common cause ( root & butt rot ( conif]s ?r\gh\t ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! prim>y ho/s ( ! fungus are ,d\glas fir1 spruce1 & p9e4 ,all s\!rn p9es are susceptible to attack by ,p4 s*we9itzii4 ,common names ( ! rot are3 r$-br[n butt rot & br[n cubical butt rot4 ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ body ( br[n cubical root & butt rot ( p9e4 ,! fungus ent]s liv+ ho/s ?r\gh damag$ roots1 fire sc>s1 & o!r w\nds ne> ! tree base4 ,! initial /age ( decay appe>s z a light yell[ /a94 ,9 ! advanc$ /age1 ! he>twood becomes brittle & breaks into l>ge yell[-br[n to r$di%-br[n cubes4 ,! fungus develops prim>ily 9 ! roots & butt & seldom ext5ds m ?an #ae or #bj feet up into ! /em4 ,diseas$ trees are subject to w9d-?r[ & w9d breakage4 ,al?\gh ! volume ( wood de/roy$ by ! rot is small1 ! total volume lo/ ?r\gh w9d-?r[ is q l>ge4 ,mature1 suppress$1 & weak5$ (f-site trees are commonly attack$ by ! fungus4 ,x is assum$ t ! fungus may also spread f infect$ to heal?y trees ?r\gh root contacts & grafts4 ,! only outw>d signs ( decay are ! annual sporophores1 :i* develop 9 late summ] & fall dur+ moi/ wea!r4 ,conks =m$ at ! base ( infect$ trees are bracket %ap$1 :ile ^? aris+ f decay$ roots appe> circul>1 sunk5 9 ! c5t]1 & support$ by a %ort /alk4 ,:5 fre%1 ! upp] surface is velvety1 conc5trically zon$1 & r$di%-br[n 9 color ) a light yell[ m>g94 ,! und]side is d>k olive or gre5 ) l>ge irregul> pores4 ,9 =e/ /&s1 no me?od ( controll+ ! disease is kn[n4 ,losses may be prev5t$ to "s ext5t by r$uc+ ! am\nt ( root damage & w\nd+ f heavy logg+ equipm5t4 ,! prev5tion ( basal fire sc>s 9 conif] /&s w also r$uce ! incid5ce ( ?is disease4 ,trees :i* %[ signs ( advanc$ root & butt rot %\ld be remov$ f ar\nd recreation areas1 p>k+ lots1 p[] l9es1 & build+s to avoid damage f w9d-?r[ & w9d breakage4 ,,r$ ,,root ,,& ,,butt ,,rot ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ body ( r$ root & butt rot ( p9e4 ,polyporus tom5tosus causes r$ root & butt rot ( liv+ conif]s ?r\gh\t ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,common ho/s ( ! fungus are3 spruce1 l>*1 p9e1 fir1 ,d\glas fir1 hemlock1 & c$>4 ,?r\gh\t ! s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,p4 tom5tosus has be5 report$ 9 two g5]al areas2 caus+ ext5sive degrade ( mature %ortleaf p9e 9 nor!rn ,arkansas & root & butt rot ( sla% p9e 9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ,georgia1 & ,florida4 ,! fungus is believ$ to ent] liv+ ho/s ?r\gh basal w\nds & damag$ roots4 ,"u ideal conditions1 ! fungus may spread f infect$ to heal?y trees by way ( root contacts or grafts4 ,gr[? ( ! fungus is v sl[1 (t5 caus+ ho/ mortality #bj to #cj ye>s aft] initial infection4 ,wood decay$ initially appe>s firm1 b d>k r$di%-br[n 9 color4 ,9 advanc$ /ages1 ! wood is fleck$ ) elliptical :ite pockets sep>at$ by br[n-color$ wood4 ,infect$ conif]s g5]ally express typical root rot symptoms4 ,trees %[ evid5ce ( r$uc$ radial & int]nodal gr[?1 accompani$ by dea? ( ! cr[n f ! base upw>d4 ,! foliage appe>s (f-color & r$uc$ 9 l5g?4 ,"u moi/ conditions1 sporophores are produc$ ei!r at ! base ( infect$ trees or on ! =e/ floor4 ,bracket-%ap$ sporophores are produc$ at ! base ( infect$ trees :ile /ipitate conks are produc$ on ! gr\nd directly ov] infect$ or dead roots4 ,fre% sporophores appe> yell[-br[n 9 color f above ) a light] color$ pore surface bel[4 ,no effective me?od ( controll+ ! disease 9 =e/ /&s is pres5tly kn[n4 ,h[ev]1 damage & losses may be r$uc$ by managem5t practices :i* r$uce or elim9ate ! *ance introduction ( ! disease into heal?y /&s4 ,9 areas :]e r$ root & butt rot is common1 attempts %\ld be made to conduct logg+ & ?9n+ op]ations dur+ ! dry season to avoid me*anical damage to ! root sy/ems ( ! residual trees4 ,,littleleaf ,,( ,,p9e ,littleleaf ( p9e1 caus$ by ,phytoph?ora c9namomi1 is ! mo/ s]i\s disease ( %ortleaf p9e 9 ! ,pi$mont region ( ! ,s\?4 ,loblolly is also affect$1 usually :]e associat$ ) infect$ %ortleaf p9e4 ,! disease is mo/ evid5t 9 old] age classes1 r>ely attack+ /&s "u #bj ye>s old4 ,illu/ration3 ,ne$le symptoms & damage ( littleleaf on %ortleaf p9e4 ,illu/ration3 7cont47 ,! disease is caus$ by a malfunction+ ( ! root sy/em due to a comb9ation ( biological & physical factors4 ,a fungus1 ,phytoph?ora c9namomi attacks & kills ! root tips4 ,:5 conditions ( moi/ure1 f]tility1 & dra9age are adv]se1 !y r$uce tree vigor & prev5t ! tree f rapidly replac+ ! de/roy$ root tips4 ,trees on good sites are report$ly also attack$ by ! fungus1 b _! vigor is su* t !y quickly ov]come ! disease by produc+ new root tips4 ,! disease usually progresses r sl[ly4 ,"s trees may p]si/ fifte5 or m ye>s aft] ! appe>ance ( initial symptoms4 ,9 g5]al1 trees live only five or six ye>s aft] attack1 b !y may die 9 z little z "o ye>4 ,symptoms are ^? typical ( trees 9 /ress due to a malfunction ( ! root sy/em4 ,9 ! e>ly /age ( ! disease ! foliage may turn yell[-gre5 & ! curr5t ye>'s ne$les are %ort] ?an normal4 ,lat] /ages ( ! disease are sp>sely foliat$ cr[ns ) %ort ne$les 7r$uc$ f ?ree to five to only "o-half to ?ree in*es 9 l5g?7 & dead bran*es4 ,abundant foliage spr\t+ on ! hole ( infect$ %ortleaf is common4 ,losses are m9imiz$ by salvage cutt+s & by favor+ loblolly & h>dwoods 9 reg5]ation plans4 ,,sycamore ,,an?racnose ,illu/ration3 ,defoliation ( sycamore tree caus$ by sycamore an?racnose4 ,sycamore an?racnose1 caus$ by ,gnomonia v5eta1 is common on ,am]ican sycamore ?r\gh\t its range 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,an?racnose is a disease *>act]iz$ by di/9ctive limit$ lesions on /em1 leaf1 or fruit1 (t5 accompani$ by dieback or blight & usually caus$ by fungi t produce slimy spores t ooze f small cup-%ap$ fruit+ bodies t are visible ) a h& l5s4 ,?is disease has f\r di/9ct symptom /ages id5tifi$ z twig blight1 bud blight1 %oot blight1 & leaf blight4 ,twig blight appe>s be=e leaf em]g5ce & kills ! tips ( small "o-ye>-old twigs4 ,infection comes initially f leaf litt] & twig cank]s4 ,! second /age1 bud blight1 develops dur+ bud expansion 9 ,april & e>ly ,may4 ,%oot blight1 ! mo/ frequ5tly obs]v$ symptom1 causes ! sudd5 dy+ ( exp&+ %oots & also "y leaves4 ,leaf blight1 ! f9al /age1 involves ! actual infection ( exp&+ or mature leaves4 ,diseas$ portions ( ! leaf involve irregul> br[n areas adjac5t to ! midrib & ve9s :i* are dott$ ) diseas$ spots4 ,incid5ce ( an?racnose is directly relat$ to ! am\nt ( spr+ ra9fall4 ,%oot blight is sev]e if ! wea!r = two weeks aft] leaf em]g5ce is cool & moi/4 ,! disease may defoliate trees1 :i* usually put out a new crop ( leaves by late spr+ or summ]4 ,control ( sycamore an?racnose "u =e/ conditions is n economically feasible4 ,:]e ! disease is preval5t1 o!r species %\ld be favor$ dur+ ?9n+s4 ,9 %ade & ornam5tal trees1 prun+ ( infect$ twigs1 burn+ ( leaves1 & f]tilization w r$uce ! disease impact4 ,illu/ration3 ,leaf & twig symptoms4 ,,walnut ,,an?racnose ,walnut an?racnose is a fungus disease caus$ by ,gnomonia lepto/yla4 ,?is worldwide disease attacks mo/ species ( walnut 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,black walnut is mo/ sev]ely affect$1 b ) favorable wea!r = ! fungus1 ev5 less susceptible individuals may be defoliat$4 ,butt]nut1 ,p]sian walnut1 & two species f ,cali=nia 7,h9ds walnut & ,cali=nia walnut7 are all susceptible4 ,an?racnose has also be5 report$ on species ( walnut f mo/ ( ! ,european c\ntries1 ,arg5t9a1 ,canada1 & ,s\? ,africa4 ,wet wea!r greatly favors ?is leaf disease :i* may defoliate black walnuts by late ,july or e>ly ,augu/4 ,defoliation sl[s gr[?1 weak5s trees1 & sometimes causes mortality4 ,infect$ leaves reveal circul> spots ( d>k br[n or black4 ,^! spots (t5 gr[ toge!r1 leav+ l>ge dead areas4 ,^! spots or blot*es are bord]$ ) yell[ to gold5 tissue4 ,:ile sev]ely affect$ leaves fall1 "s 8an?racnose0 leaves rema9 on ! tree4 ,?is disease also affects ! gr[? & quality ( ! nuts4 ,nutmeats f infect$ trees are d>k1 unattractive1 & %rivell$4 ,sunk51 kill$ areas appe> on ! husks z d>k circul> spots small] ?an ^? on ! leaves4 ,infect$ nuts1 l ! leaves1 may also fall f ! tree4 ,lesions may appe> on ! curr5t ye>'s %oots & lat] =m dead sunk5 areas t are oval to irregul>ly circul> ) r$di% br[n m>g9s4 ,z ) ! o!r an?racnose diseases1 no practical control is available = =e/ trees4 ,control ( walnut an?racnose on ornam5tals & nut trees is p>tially a*iev$ by rak+ & burn+ ( old leaves4 ,,oak ,,antrhacnose ,illu/ration3 ,leaf symptoms ( oak an?racnose4 ,oak an?racnose is caus$ by ! fungus ,gnomonia v5eta4 ,trees ( ! :ite oak gr\p1 p>ticul>ly :ite oak1 are susceptible to ?is disease4 ,oaks ?r\gh\t ! entire ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates are affect$ by ! disease1 al?\gh x is less common 9 ! ,nor!a/4 ,infection occurs 9 ! e>ly spr+ or mid-summ]4 ,symptoms on leaves develop z irregul> br[n diseas$ areas 7blot*es7 along ! midrib & ! major side ve9s4 ,^! blot*es may gr[ toge!r by late spr+ or e>ly summ] if infection occurs e>ly4 ,blot*es are usually conf9$ to ! areas bord]$ by ! l>g] ve9s4 ,leaves on ! l[] bran*es are frequ5tly kill$ & occasionally trees w be defoliat$4 ,h[ev]1 a second crop ( leaves soon develops & mortality is r>e4 ,fruit+ bodies ( ,gloeosporium1 ! imp]fect fungus fruit+ /age ( an?racnose1 are locat$ on ! midrib & ve9s ( infect$ leaves4 ,:5 ! disease spreads to ! twigs1 cank]s & cr[n dieback may occur4 ,! an?racnose fungus ov]w9t]s on diseas$ twigs & 9 ! leaf litt]4 ,oak an?racnose has ! same causal ag5t z sycamore an?racnose1 & ! wea!r conditions favor+ ! sycamore disease also increases ! an?racnose on oak4 ,control is simil> to sycamore an?racnose & involves an integrat$ program ( prun+ disease tissue1 f]tilization1 & burn+ ( leaf litt]4 ,no practical control is available = =e/ trees4 ,,dogwood ,,an?racnose ,dogwood an?racnose1 caus$ by ! fungus ,els9oe corni1 occurs 9 /ates bord]+ ! ,atlantic ,ocean & has also be5 report$ 9 ,l\isiana4 ,its prim>y ho/ is fl[]+ dogwood1 ,cornus florida ,l4 ,illu/ration3 ,leaf & fl[] symptoms ( dogwood an?racnose4 ,illu/ration3 7cont47 ,an?racnose occurs 9 ! spr+ & affects n only ! leaves1 b also ! buds & 8fl[]s04 ,! buds may fail to op5 or !y may produce /unt$ fl[]s4 ,^! h _m circul> to elongat$ spots ) light tan c5t]s4 ,m>g9s ( ^! spots are purple to br[n4 ,(t5 ! fl[]s abort be=e developm5t4 ,foliage spots 7#a-b mm4 9 diamet]7 are rais$ at ! m>g9s4 ,!y are purple at ! edges & yell[-gray 9 ! c5t]4 ,lat] c5t]s ( spots may fall out caus+ a 8%o?ole0 effect4 ,doz5s ( spots may be pres5t on a s+le leaf & may be scatt]$ or conc5trat$ at tip1 m>g91 or midrib4 ,twi/+ & mal=mation ( ! leaves are common4 ,9 addition to floral & foliage spots1 infect$ areas may also occur on petioles1 /ems1 & fruit clu/]s4 ,all ?ree areas h spots simil> to ^? on ! foliage4 ,o!r diseases :i* may be confus$ ) an?racnose include ,septoria & ,asco*yta leaf spots4 ,septoria usually beg9s ar\nd ,july & unlike an?racnose has m angul> lesions t are betwe5 ! ve9s4 ,asco*yta spots may be l>g] 7#f mm4 9 diamet]7 ?an an?racnose1 & tissue discoloration may ext5d outside ( _! bord]s4 ,occasionally ! leaves may totally black54 ,?is disease may occur z e>ly z ,june4 ,wet1 humid wea!r at c]ta9 /ages ( plant developm5t is requir$ = infection4 ,home[n]s may obta9 effective control by remov+ & burn+ infect$ plant p>ts4 ,v>i\s fungicide sprays are recomm5d$ by au?ors ( ornam5tal h&books4 ,,cottonwood ,,ru/ ,illu/ration3 ,ru/ infect$ cottonwood leaf4 ,cottonwood ru/1 caus$ by ,melampsora m$usae1 is probably ! mo/ important leaf disease ( cottonwoods :]ev] !y are gr[n4 ,9 ! ,l[] ,mississippi ,valley1 all sizes ( ea/]n cottonwood trees may be infect$ ) ?is ru/4 ,h[ev]1 ! disease is probably ( mo/ importance 9 cottonwood nurs]ies4 ,9 mid-summ]1 yell[ to orange pu/ules conta9+ spores ( ! fungus =m on ! "u surface ( ! cottonwood leaves4 ,9 late summ] & e>ly fall1 d>k br[n fungal gr[?s replace ! orange /ructures4 ,cottonwood may be prematurely defoliat$ or ev5 kill$ by successive attacks4 ,! ru/ may weak5 trees & subject !m to attack by o!r disease-caus+ organisms4 ,also1 !re is (t5 a r$uction 9 gr[? 9 ^! normally fa/ gr[+ species4 ,?is is v important s9ce !re is pres5tly a wide int]e/ 9 ! use ( hybrid popl>s = pulp & timb] production4 ,!re is g5]ally no accept$ control = cottonwood ru/4 ,ru/-resi/ant v>ieties ( hybrid & exotic cottonwoods are be+ develop$ & may provide ! be/ control ( ?is disease4 ,,black ,,knot ,illu/ration3 ,black swell+s ( *]ry black knot4 ,black knot1 caus$ by ,dibotryon morbosum1 is preval5t ?r\gh\t ! ,s\!a/ 7) ! exception ( s\!rn ,florida7 :]ev] black *]ry gr[s1 & 9 or*>ds on plums & dome/ic *]ries4 ,! mo/ prom95t symptoms are ! elongat$ black swell+s :i* appe> 9 summ] on small twigs & bran*es4 ,heavily infect$ trees appe> q grotesque1 ) l>ge swell+s :i* may be sev]al times ! diamet] ( ! twigs4 ,cank]s occurr+ on black *]ry trunks usually ru9 ! comm]cial tree value4 ,initial infection occurs on lat]al bran*es & twigs 9 ! spr+1 b ! swell+s d n become noticeable until ! foll[+ spr+4 ,! mo/ practical control = black knot is removal ( infect$ black *]ry f ! /&4 ,twigs & bran*es ) knots %\ld be burn$4 ,,nectria ,,cank] ,nectria cank] ( h>dwoods1 caus$ by ,nectria gallig5a & ,n4 magnoliae1 is frequ5tly f\nd on yell[ bir* & black walnut4 ,common ho/s also include bigtoo? asp51 sassafras1 nor!rn r$ oak1 r$ maple1 bee*1 ,c>ol9a popl>1 pap] bir*1 & sweet bir*4 ,a closely relat$ cank] disease is also f\nd on yell[-popl> & magnolias4 ,! range ( ?is disease includes ! ,lake ,/ates1 ! ,nor!a/1 & ! s\!rn ,appala*ians4 ,illu/ration3 ,t>get-%ap$ cank] ( ,nectria on sassafras & yell[-popl>4 ,illu/ration3 7cont47 ,old] ,nectria cank]s are easily recogniz$ 9 =e/ /&s because ( _! typical 8t>get0 %ape4 8,t>get0 cank]s h r+s1 ea* ( :i* repres5t a ye>'s gr[?4 ,y\ng] cank]s t5d to be gr[n ov] by b>k & callus tissue attempt+ to heal ! w\nd4 ,su* cank]s are difficult to recognize1 b close exam9ation ( ! affect$ area may reveal t9y r$ bodies1 :i* are ! fruit+ bodies ( ! ,nectria fungi4 ,mortality r>ely occurs f ?is disease1 b /ems may break at cank] locations dur+ high w9ds4 ,control ( ,nectria cank] is ! same z = ,/rumella cank]--! removal ( infect$ trees dur+ ?9n+ op]ations4 ,,/rumella ,,cank] ,/rumella cank] ( h>dwoods1 caus$ by ,/rumella coryneoidia1 mo/ frequ5tly attacks trees ( ! r$ oak gr\p4 ,o!r ho/s include species 9 ! :ite oak gr\p4 ,bee*1 basswood1 blackgum1 %agb>k hickory & r$ maple are also occasionally affect$4 ,?is disease is f\nd 9 ! ,ea/1 f ! s\!rn ,appala*ians to nor!rn ,new ,engl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,/rumella cank] on black oak4 ,/rumella cank]s are ( two types3 diffuse1 & ! m common 8t>get-%ap$40 ,! fir/ develops on smoo?-b>k$ sapl+s & rapidly girdles & kills ! tree4 ,kill+ results because callus tissue1 :i* t5ds to heal ov] cank]s1 does n h "t to develop4 ,t>get-%ap$ cank]s are m common4 8,t>gets0 are =m$ by ! alt]nation ( kill+ ( b>k by ! fungus ar\nd ! cank]'s p]imet] & ! =mation1 9 turn1 ( a callus ridge by ! ho/ tree4 ,! fungus is active usually 9 ! dormant season1 :ile callus+ occurs 9 ! spr+4 ,z ) mo/ cank]-caus+ fungi1 ,/rumella usually ent]s ! tree ?r\gh a bran* /ub4 ,cank]s are q l>ge & may rea* sev]al feet 9 circumf]5ce or l5g?4 ,! pres5ce ( ! causal fungus is reveal$ by d>k br[n1 cu%ion-l /ructures ab\t "o to ?ree millimet]s 9 diamet] on ! dead b>k & surr\nd+ tissue4 ,no feasible control me?od is available "u =e/ conditions4 ,h[ev]1 ! disease impact c be greatly r$uc$ by remov+ cank]$ trees dur+ ?9n+ op]ations4 ,,spiculosa ,,cank] ,spiculosa cank]1 caus$ by ,poria spiculosa1 is f\nd on bottoml& oaks 9 ! ,s\?4 ,occasionally ?is disease w also degrade hickories & honeylocu/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ body ( ,poria rot & cank] on oak4 ,illu/ration3 ,cross section ( tree %[+ rot & decay4 ,spiculosa cank] is consid]$ to be a cank]-rot disease1 a type ( decay 9 :i* ! causal organism incites n only he>t-rot b also l>ge irregul> cank]s4 ,infect$ trees h cank]s t appe> z r\gh circul> swell+s on ! bole4 ,! cank] c5t]s are depress$ & old bran* /ubs are disc]nible4 ,fungus fruit+ bodies1 or conks1 usually are n pres5t on liv+ trees b develop on snags or decay$ logs4 ,! conks gr[ flat "u ! b>k & pu% x (f to expose ! br[n fungus fruit+ surface4 ,control = ,spiculosa cank] is simil> to o!r cank] rots3 salvage to remove undesirable cank]$ trees t may be lat] replac$ by bett] quality trees4 ,,irpex ,,cank] ,irpex cank]1 caus$ by ,irpex mollis1 is preval5t 9 bottoml&s & on upl& areas ( ! ,s\!a/4 ,9 ! bottoms1 ,nuttall1 wat]1 & will[ oaks are affect$4 ,:ite1 *e/nut1 s\!rn r$1 & black oaks are ! ho/s ( ?is disease on upl& sites4 ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ body ( ,irpex rot4 ,illu/ration3 ,cross section ( tree %[+ rot & decay4 ,irpex cank] is also consid]$ to be a cank]-rot disease4 ,symptoms on infect$ trees frequ5tly involve irregul> cank]s up to two feet 9 l5g?4 ,cank]s are usually f\nd on trees eight to t5 in*es 9 diamet] or l>g]1 at a height ( tw5ty feet above ! gr\nd4 ,bran* /ubs1 signify+ probable infection po9ts1 are usually pres5t 9 ! c5t]s ( cank]s4 ,! portion ( ! trunk affect$ is usually swoll5 b sometimes may be sunk54 ,at ! base ( ! sunk5 portion ( ! cank] are small1 creamy-:ite1 too!d fruit+ bodies or conks ) a lea!ry texture4 ,conks also appe> on h>dwood logs4 ,! wood beh9d cank]s is *>act]iz$ by a t\gh1 spongy1 :ite rot :i* ext5ds z mu* z eight feet above & bel[ ! cank]4 ,! decay patt]n may also ext5d d[nw>d into ! roots4 ,9 cross-section1 ! rott$ areas appe> z f+]-l projections radiat+ out t[>d ! sapwood4 ,gradually ! rot column tap]s to a ?9 c5tral core beyond :i* :ite flecks appe>1 & ?is e>ly rot /age is conc5trat$ along ! rays ( ! oaks4 ,control = ,irpex cank] is ! same z = o!r cank]-rots--salvage ( undesirable cank]$ trees4 ,,hispidus ,,cank] ,polyporus hispidus is ! cause ( trunk cank]s & localiz$ decay ( h>dwoods ?r\gh\t ea/]n1 c5tral1 & s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! fungus is also kn[n to attack h>dwoods 9 ,oregon & ,cali=nia4 ,report$ ho/s are3 hickory1 a%1 mulb]ry1 will[1 walnut1 & oak4 ,9 ! s\?1 ,p4 hispidus is common on oaks1 includ+ will[1 wat]1 black1 :ite1 ,nuttall1 & *]ryb>k4 ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ body & cank] ( ,hispidus on oak4 ,! fungus usually ent]s ! tree ?r\gh dead bran* /ubs1 f :i* x gr[s into ! he>twood4 ,aft] becom+ e/abli%$1 ! fungus beg9s p5etrat+ ! sapwood & attacks ! liv+ cambium4 ,callus folds are =m$ by ! ho/ ar\nd ! dead cambial area1 =m+ an elongat$ swoll5 cank]1 commonly ref]r$ to z a 8hispidus cank]04 ,! cank]$ area ( ! /em is b>k-cov]$ & sunk51 usually conta9+ a remnant ( a bran* /ub or bran* sc>4 ,dur+ late summ]1 fall or e>ly w9t]1 ! fungus produces conks 7sporophores7 on ! surface ( ! cank]s4 ,! annual bracket-%ap$ conks are l>ge1 spongy1 & yell[i%-br[n to ru/y-br[n on ! upp] surface4 ,:5 fre%1 ! "u surface is a light tan color4 ,aft] a few mon?s1 ! mature conks dry to a rigid black mass & fall f ! cank]4 ,old conks are commonly f\nd at ! base ( cank]$ trees dur+ ! spr+ & e>ly summ]4 ,decay produc$ by ! fungus appe>s spongy1 light yell[1 & is commonly sep>at$ f ! s\nd wood by a black zone l9e4 ,! rot is ( ! delignify+ :ite rot type4 ,on s\!rn oaks1 ! rate ( cank] elongation has be5 e/imat$ at "o-half foot p] ye>1 ) ! int]nal rot usually ext5d+ ab\t "o foot above & bel[ ! cank]$ area4 ,no effective control 9 =e/ /&s is kn[n4 ,removal ( diseas$ trees provides additional gr[+ space = crop trees4 ,"s degree ( %ade tree protection c be obta9$ by prun+ ( dead bran*es flu% ) ! ma9 /em ( ! tree4 ,,botryospha]ia ,,cank] ,botryospha]ia ribis causes cank]+ & mortality ( m ?an #ej woody plants4 ,! fungus is widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! ea/]n "o-half ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! pa?og5 infects ! foll[+ economically important ho/s3 sweetgum1 r$bud1 will[1 popl>1 tupelo1 pecan1 & hickory4 ,illu/ration3 ,botryospha]ia cank] on sweetgum4 ,! fungus ga9s entry into susceptible ho/s prim>ily ?r\gh w\nds or dead & dy+ twigs4 ,small oval cank]s on /ems or bran*es are ! fir/ symptoms ( infection4 ,z ! fungus cont9ues to attack & kill ! cambium1 ! sunk5 cank]s enl>ge1 ev5tually girdl+ & kill+ ! bran* or /em above ! cank]$ area4 ,9 ! spr+ & e>ly summ]1 cank]s on liv+ portions ( ! ho/ (t5 produce an exudate4 ,infect$ sweetgums g5]ally produce ! exudate 9 great quantities1 to :i* ! common "n ( ble$+ necrosis has be5 appli$4 ,reproductive /ructures call$ /roma are produc$ by ! fungus on dead cank]$ /ems & bran*es dur+ moi/ p]iods ( ! spr+ & summ]4 ,no practical me?od ( control is kn[n4 ,diseas$ trees seldom recov]4 ,infection ( high value %ade & ornam5tal trees may be prev5t$ to "s degree by avoid+ me*anical damage4 ,dead limbs & bran*es %\ld be prun$ & w\nds cov]$ ) a suitable tree pa9t4 ,infect$ trees %\ld be remov$ & burn$4 ,,septoria ,,cank] ,illu/ration3 ,septoria cank] on "y cottonwood sapl+s4 ,septoria cank] is caus$ by ! fungus ,septoria musiva4 ,al?\gh ?is is a disease ( popl>s1 native popl> species are n sev]ely attack$4 ,h[ev]1 ?is is an important problem :]ev] hybrid or introduc$ popl>s are gr[n4 ,) ! ev]-increas+ emphasis on popl> plant+1 ?is w probably become a mu* m important problem 9 ! ne> future4 ,"y /em cank]s usually develop ar\nd op5+s su* z w\nds1 l5ticels1 or leaf sc>s1 appe>+ fir/ z sunk51 d>k areas ( ! b>k4 ,! infect$ area lat] becomes m depress$ & d>k] z tissue dies1 & (t5 a black m>g9 w be =m$ ar\nd ! cank]4 ,small1 p9k1 hair-l spore t5drils are produc$ by ! fungus ar\nd ! cank] m>g91 especially dur+ moi/ wea!r4 ,^! t5drils conta9 spores :i* c cause fur!r infection1 & arise f small d>k fungal fruit+ /ructures call$ pycnidia4 ,?is cank]$ area is (t5 invad$ by insects & o!r fungi & is also a weak5$ area at :i* w9d breakage may occur4 ,! fungus also causes a gray to black leaf spot1 :i* usually has a light color$ c5t]4 ,^! spots may coalesce on a sev]ely infect$ leaf & involve ! entire leaf surface4 ,?is leaf spot 9 itself causes slight damage1 b acts z a s\rce ( fungus spores :i* c cause /em cank]s1 & ?us is important 9 ! ov]all consid]ation ( ! disease4 ,illu/ration3 ,defoliation 9 cottonwood caus$ by ,septoria leafspot4 ,a control = ?is disease is to use native popl>s or resi/ant hybrids :]ev] possible4 ,wid] spac+ 9 plantations may also r$uce ! humidity1 decreas+ ! am\nt ( infection4 ,,cytospora ,,cank] ,cytospora cank] is caus$ by ,cytospora *rysosp]ma4 ,?is fungus attacks m ?an #gj species ( h>dwood trees & %rubs z well z "s conif]s4 ,popl>s & will[s are among ! mo/ common ho/s1 & are attack$ ?r\gh\t _! range4 ,trees us$ = %ade or w9dbreak1 & also cutt+s 9 propagation b$s are p>ticul>ly susceptible to ?is cank]4 ,?is disease is mo/ sev]e on trees gr[+ "u /ress1 su* z ^? gr[+ on an unfavorable site1 or injur$ by dr\ght1 fro/1 fire1 or sev]e prun+4 ,! fungus is a normal inhabitant ( ! b>k & becomes p>asitic only :5 ! tree is weak5$4 ,illu/ration3 ,cytospora cank] on cottonwood4 ,a cank] beg9s z a gradual1 circul> kill+ ( ! b>k ( a limb or /em4 ,?is infect$ tissue soon appe>s z a br[ni%1 sunk5 pat*1 ar\nd :i* ! ho/ (t5 produces rais$ callus tissue4 ,small black fungal /ructures 7pycnidia7 appe> z small pimples on ! dead b>k4 ,dur+ moi/ wea!r1 ?9 ?reads ( spores exude out f ! pycnidia4 ,! inn] diseas$ b>k becomes d>k & odor\s4 ,! cambium is kill$ & ! sapwood becomes wat]y & r$di% br[n z x becomes infect$4 ,wat] sp\ts may =m bel[ ! cank] be=e ! tree dies4 ,s9ce ?is disease is mo/ sev]e on weak5$ trees1 %ade trees %\ld be wat]$ & f]tiliz$ to ma9ta9 heal?y1 vigor\s gr[?4 ,w\nd+ & sev]e prun+ %\ld be avoid$4 ,cutt+s %\ld be select$ f heal?y plant+ mat]ial gr[n 9 disease free areas4 ,if cutt+s are to be /or$ = any l5g? ( "t1 !y %\ld be kept at a temp]ature bel[ #ce4 ,?is l[ temp]ature w keep new infections f occurr+1 ev5 if spores are pres5t4 ,,*e/nut ,,blight ,illu/ration3 ,/em cank] caus$ by *e/nut blight organism4 ,*e/nut blight is caus$ by ! fungus ,endo?ia p>asitica4 ,x c be f\nd on ,am]ican *e/nut ?r\gh\t its range :]e x has virtually elim9at$ ?is valuable species f ea/]n h>dwood =e/s4 ,! *e/nut blight fungus is also p>asitic on o!r ho/s includ+ common *9kap91 ,spani% *e/nut1 & po/ oak4 ,japanese & ,*9ese *e/nuts are resi/ant4 ,/em cank]s are ei!r swoll5 or sunk5 & ! sunk5 type may be gr[n ov] ) b>k4 ,! fungus =ms fruit+ bodies "s di/ance back f ! advanc+ cank]s1 & ! spores may exude f b>k crevices z orange curl-l masses dur+ moi/ wea!r4 ,"y cank]s are yell[-br[n 9 %>p contra/ to ! normal olive-gre5 color ( ! b>k4 ,! *e/nut is a vigor\s spr\t+ species b ! fungus survives 9 previ\sly kill$ /umps & lat] kills ! new spr\t gr[?4 ,no effective control has be5 develop$ = *e/nut blight1 ev5 aft] sev]al decades ( int5sive rese>*4 ,! mo/ promis+ control involves ! developm5t ( a blight-resi/ant species4 ,rese>* is pres5tly und]way on ?is matt] b results are inconclusive4 ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ bodies on surface ( cank]4 ,,oak ,,wilt ,?is s]i\s vascul> wilt ( oaks is caus$ by ! fungus ,c]atocy/is fagace>um4 ,at lea/ fifty species & v>ieties ( oak are susceptible4 ,! disease has be5 mo/ damag+ 9 ! ,lake ,/ates b is also f\nd 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,oak wilt symptoms on r$ oak trees & leaves4 ,illu/ration3 7cont47 ,oak wilt symptoms are mo/ noticeable dur+ late spr+ or e>ly summ]4 ,r$ oaks may be kill$ 9 z little z ?ree weeks1 ! l[] bran*es be+ affect$ la/4 ,9 :ite oaks1 symptoms are usually conf9$ to a few bran*es ea* ye> & trees may live sev]al ye>s be=e dea?4 ,leaf symptoms are simil> = bo? r$ & :ite oaks4 ,leaves turn yell[ or br[n & become dry progressively f ! edge or tip to ! midrib & base4 ,mature leaves may fall at any symptom /age f gre5 to br[n4 ,premature leaf %$d+ is ! mo/ out/&+ symptom4 ,a def9ite *>act]i/ic ( ! disease is ! rais+ & crack+ ( ! b>k due to pressure ( mats ( ! fungus gr[+ betwe5 ! b>k & wood4 ,oak wilt is spread ov] long di/ances by insects t pick up spores :ile crawl+ on ! mats ( infect$ trees4 ,! disease may also spread f tree to tree via root graft4 ,%ort-di/ance spread is controll$ by sev]+ all roots ( liv+ trees ar\nd infect$ trees by use ( a dit*digg]4 ,ano!r control is to fell all trees 9 a #ej-;foot radius ( infect$ trees2 fell+ & burn+ ( all p>ts ( infect$ trees is sometimes done to prev5t ov]l& spread4 ,,dut* ,,elm ,,disease ,illu/ration3 ,dy+ tree infect$ ) ,dut* elm disease4 ,dut* elm disease1 caus$ by ,c]atocy/is ulmi1 is ! mo/ deva/at+ disease ( elm trees 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?is disease has be5 record$ 9 mo/ /ates ea/ ( ! ,mississippi & z f> z ,idaho 9 ! ,nor?we/ & ,texas 9 ! ,s\?we/4 ,all ( ! native elm species are susceptible1 :ile _m ( ! ornam5tal ,asiatic species are highly resi/ant4 ,trees suff]+ f ,dut* elm disease may %[ a v>iety ( symptoms4 ,leaves become yell[1 wilt1 & turn br[n4 ,premature defoliation & dea? ( bran*es usually occurs1 caus+ ! cr[n to appe> ?9 & sp>se4 ,int]nally1 a br[n discoloration appe>s 9 ! out] sapwood4 ,c4 ulmi is transmitt$ f diseas$ to heal?y elms by elm b>k beetles1 ma9ly ! small ,european elm b>k beetle & ! native elm b>k beetle4 ,^! beetles make *>act]i/ic gall]ies "u ! b>k ( dead & dy+ elms4 ,adult beetles pick up ! /icky fungus spores f "u ! b>k & !n fe$ on ! "y t5d] elm twigs ( heal?y trees1 inadv]t5tly inoculat+ ! heal?y tree ) ! fungus4 ,! fungus may also spread f diseas$ elms to adjac5t heal?y elms ?r\gh root grafts4 ,illu/ration3 ,discoloration & /reak+ symptoms 9 ! sapwood4 ,controls to combat ?is disease g5]ally involve sanit>y measures aim$ at ! beetles4 ,dead & dy+ elms %\ld be burn$4 ,?is elim9ates ! elm wood :i* normally s]ves z a bre$+ place = elm b>k beetles & ?us r$uces ! beetle population4 ,9 areas :]e mo/ native elms are infect$1 o!r tree species or resi/ant elm species1 su* z ! ,*9ese or ,sib]ian elm1 %\ld be plant$ r !m native elms4 ,,elm ,,phloem ,,necrosis ,elm phloem necrosis is a disease ( elm1 caus$ by a virus or virus-l organism4 ,! disease has occurr$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates = _m ye>s1 probably z e>ly z #ahhb4 ,! pa?og5 is transmitt$ f infect$ to heal?y trees by ! adult :ite-b&$ elm leafhopp]1 ,scaphoideus luteolus1 :i* fe$s on ! leaf ve9s4 ,x is n[ pres5t ?r\gh\t mo/ ( ! c5tral1 ea/]n1 & s\!rn portions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! disease is kn[n to occur on ,am]ican & w+$ elm1 b all native elms are probably susceptible to attack by ! pa?og54 ,illu/ration3 ,foliage symptoms ( elm phloem necrosis4 ,! e>lie/ symptoms ( ! disease appe> 9 ! top ( ! cr[n1 at ! out] tips ( ! bran*es4 ,"h ! elm leaves sudd5ly wilt1 turn yell[1 ! m>g9s curl upw>d & ! leaves die4 ,leaf-fall causes ! cr[n to appe> sp>se4 ,9 l>ge trees1 ! foliage symptoms may initially appe> on "o bran* or only a portion ( ! cr[n4 ,h[ev]1 ! symptoms dur+ ! advanc$ /age ( ! disease are exhibit$ ?r\gh\t ! cr[n4 ,! mo/ reliable symptom appe>s z a yell[ to butt]scot* discoloration on ! inn] b>k surface or phloem4 ,?is symptom initially appe>s "u ! b>k ( l>ge roots1 lat] spread+ to ! base ( ! ma9 /em & f9ally to ! l>g] bran*es4 ,phloem & cambial discoloration is (t5 f\nd 9 advance ( ! foliage symptoms4 ,! mod]ately discolor$ phlom5 has a slight odor ( w9t]gre54 ,?us f>1 all trees kn[n to be infect$ ) ! pa?og5 h di$4 ,acutely infect$ trees1 :ile initially appe>+ heal?y1 may wilt & die 9 ?ree to f\r weeks4 ,illu/ration3 ,/em sample %[+ discoloration ( sapwood4 ,no effective controls are kn[n4 ,! 8,*ri/9e ,buisman0 elm1 :i* is highly resi/ant to ,dut* elm disease1 has demon/rat$ resi/ance to elm phloem necrosis4 ,,mimosa ,,wilt ,illu/ration3 ,mimosa bran*es %[+ wilt symptoms4 ,a vascul> wilt ( ! mimosa 7silktree7 is caus$ by ! fungus ,fus>ium oxysporum =ma p]niciosum4 ,! fungus is kn[n only to attack ! mimosa1 a tree import$ f ea/]n ,asia & gr[n ?r\gh\t ! s\!a/ z an ornam5tal4 ,s9ce ! discov]y ( ! disease 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a 9 #aice1 ! fungus has spread nor? to ,m>yl&1 s\? to ,florida1 & we/ to ,texas4 ,! fungus caus+ mimosa wilt is soil-borne & ga9s entrance into ! tree by attack+ ! roots4 ,once entrance is ga9$ by ! fungus1 ! pa?og5 ent]s ! out] wat]-conductive sy/em 9 ! sapwood4 ,z ! fungus gr[s ?r\gh\t ! sy/em1 x h9d]s or completely inhibits ! wat] movem5t f ! roots to ! a]ial portion ( ! tree4 ,! fir/ outw>d symptom ( disease is ! wilt+ ( leaflets1 usually 9 ! upp] portion ( ! cr[n4 ,! wilt$ leaflets turn yell[1 !n br[n1 & die4 ,(t5 a bran* or two w succumb at a "t until ! entire cr[n is dead4 ,a second symptom ( ! disease is f\nd 9 ! out] sapwood ( ! tree4 ,a br[n discoloration1 appe>+ z spots or a r+1 is obs]v$ by cutt+ into ! out] sapwood ( ! infect$ /em or bran*4 ,control ( ! fungus is v difficult1 s9ce x is soil-borne & ent]s ?r\gh ! roots4 ,h[ev]1 resi/ant v>ieties ( mimosa trees1 develop$ by ! ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 are n[ available at mo/ comm]cial nurs]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,bran* sample %[+ br[n discoloration ( sapwood4 ,,v]ticillium ,,wilt ,v]ticillium wilt1 caus$ by common soil-inhabit+ fungi belong+ to ! g5us ,v]ticillium1 is f\nd on a numb] ( h>dwood ho/s4 ,9 s\!rn & ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates elms & maples are attack$ ?r\gh\t _! natural ranges4 ,illu/ration3 ,wilt+ foliage & defoliation ( elms caus$ by ,v]ticillium wilt4 ,infect$ trees may die )9 a few weeks aft] ! fir/ symptoms are obs]v$1 or !y may survive = ye>s4 ,! fir/ symptoms ( ! disease involve a wilt+ ( ! foliage1 ) ! leaves turn+ yell[ & f9ally br[n4 ,! e>ly symptoms are (t5 re/rict$ to a s+le limb or portion ( ! cr[n4 ,vascul> discoloration1 :i* is br[n 9 elms & gre5 9 maples1 is pres5t 9 ! out] sapwood4 ,9 elms1 ?is discoloration is simil> to t produc$ 9 trees hav+ ,dut* elm disease4 ,?is disease is n ( s]i\s consequ5ce 9 =e/ /&s4 ,h[ev]1 x is (t5 extremely important 9 high value %ade trees4 ,dead or dy+ limbs on lawn trees may be prun$ out4 ,?is may n always save ! tree1 b may help keep x alive = ye>s4 ,trees %\ld be well wat]$ & f]tiliz$ z necess>y4 ,if a lawn tree dies f ,v]ticillium wilt1 x %\ld be replac$ by a resi/ant species4 ,,armill>ia ,,root ,,& ,,butt ,,rot ,illu/ration3 ,mu%room or fruit+ bodies ( ! 8honey mu%room0 rot4 ,armill>ia root & butt rot is caus$ by ! fungus ,armill>ia mellea4 ,?is disease is common 9 or*>ds1 v9ey>ds1 g>d5s1 p>ks1 & =e/s ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,bo? conif]\s & h>dwood =e/ trees are attack$4 ,! fungus is especially tr\blesome 9 plantations1 p>ticul>ly 9 /&s rec5tly ?9n$4 ,! fungus is spread by spores produc$ by honey-color$ mu%rooms1 rhizomorphs1 & root contacts betwe5 diseas$ trees or /umps & heal?y trees4 ,rhizomorphs are visible /r&s ( compact$ mycelium 7fungus mat]ial7 t appe> z black or r$di%-br[n 8%oe/r+s40 ,!y may be flatt5$ :5 f\nd betwe5 b>k & wood or cyl9drical :5 f\nd 9 decay$ wood or soil4 ,rhizomorphs increase 9 l5g? at _! tips & 9 ?is mann] ! fungus may move ?r\gh ! soil f infect$ trees to un9fect$ trees4 ,! honey-color$ mu%rooms are produc$ annually & are fairly %ort liv$2 !y are subject to desiccation1 & are favor$ by small mammals4 ,! size ( ! top v>ies f two to five in*es 9 diamet]4 ,! top is usually fleck$ ) d>k br[n scales4 ,:ite to light yell[ gills are borne und]nea?4 ,cr[n symptoms ( ! trees affect$ are simil> to ^? caus$ by any malfunction+ ( ! roots4 ,a r$uction 9 size & production ( leaves or ne$les1 a g5]al ?9n+ ( ! cr[n1 bran* dy+1 & yell[+ ( foliage may prec$e dea? or trees may die rapidly ) a rapid r$ discoloration ( ! foliage4 ,trees (t5 die 9 gr\ps1 b s+le-tree kill is also common4 ,cank]s ble$+ res91 gum or o!r exudate at ! tree base are common symptoms4 ,control is n attempt$ = ?is disease "u =e/ conditions4 ,losses may be r$uc$ by foll[+ prop] plant+ proc$ures1 & by salvage cutt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,%oe/r+s ( armill>ia4 ,,cyl9drocladium ,,root ,,rot ,?is nurs]y disease is caus$ by two fungi species4 ,cyl9drocladium scop>ium & ,c4 floridanum3 ,cyl9drocladium root rot has be5 f\nd on two h>dwoods 7yell[-popl> & black walnut7 & two conif]s 7:ite p9e & ,fras] fir7 9 =e/ tree nurs]ies 9 six s\!rn /ates4 ,^! include ,virg9ia1 ,we/ ,virg9ia1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,t5nessee1 ,alabama1 & ,mississippi4 ,illu/ration3 ,leaf symptoms on #a-j black walnut nurs]y /ock4 ,root rot symptoms on h>dwoods & conif]s are q diff]5t4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic root symptoms on yell[-popl> & black walnut are ! black5$ & longitud9ally-crack$ infect$ roots t are 9 %>p contra/ ) heal?y :ite roots ( ^! two species4 ,infect$ se$l+ leaves become yell[ & lat] turn r$di%-br[n4 ,root rot symptoms on conif]s involve ei!r rott+ ( ! se$ or se$l+ 7pre-em]g5ce damp+ (f7 be=e em]g5ce f ! soil or se$l+ root rot foll[+ em]g5ce4 ,^! symptoms also involve a %rivell+ & r$d5+ ( foliage1 ne$le blight1 & /em cank]s4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic symptoms are ! 8pat*y0 irregul>ly scatt]$ patt]n ( infection 9 conif] se$l+ b$s & ! loos5+ ( ! root epid]mis on infect$ roots--mak+ x v easy to pull (f4 ,illu/ration3 ,root symptoms on #a-j yell[-popl> nurs]y /ock4 ,! mo/ practical & effective control = root rot diseases ( ?is type involves /rict qu>ant9e to ei!r keep ! disease out ( ! nurs]y or keep x conf9$ to kn[n infect$ areas by avoid+ ! transportation ( root mat]ial1 organic matt]1 & soil f infect$ to non-infect$ se$ b$s4 ,soil fumigation may control ?is disease if appli$ "u favorable conditions4 ,,lucidus ,,root ,,& ,,butt ,,rot ,illu/ration3 ,fruit+ body ( ,lucidus root & butt rot on mimosa4 ,polyporus lucidus is ! cause ( root & basal /em decay ( h>dwood trees ?r\gh\t ! ea/]n1 c5tral1 & s\!rn portions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! fungus is kn[n to attack & kill maple1 hackb]ry1 orange1 lemon1 a%1 sweetgum1 oak1 locu/1 elm1 tupelo1 will[1 & mimosa4 ,mimosa trees are v susceptible to attack by ,p4 lucidus ?r\gh\t ! ,s\?4 ,! disease is *>act]iz$ by a rapid decl9e & dea? ( ! ho/4 ,exam9ation ( infect$ roots w reveal a s(t spongy :ite rot ) black spots scatt]$ ?r\gh\t4 ,fruit+ bodies are =m$ at ! base ( infect$ trees or on ! surface ( expos$ roots4 ,! mature fruit+ bodies are a r$di% br[n above & :ite bel[1 ) ! tops & /ems appe>+ glaz$ or v>ni%$4 ,! fungus is believ$ to ga9 entrance into ! ho/ ?r\gh b>k & root injuries & c spread f infect$ to heal?y trees ?r\gh root contacts & grafts4 ,no control is kn[n = ?is disease4 ,avoidance ( lawnm[] & o!r me*anical injuries to ! base ( roots ( susceptible %ade trees w r$uce ! *ance ( infection by ! fungus4 ,! spread ( ! disease f infect$ to heal?y trees c be r$uc$ by plant+ at a wide en\gh spac+ to avoid root contacts & grafts4 ,if y f9d damage on y\r trees f insects or diseases y may consult ) any ( ! foll[+ (fices or y\r /ate =e/]4 ,,field ,,(fices3 ,alex&ria ,(fice ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice #bejj ,%reveport ,highway ,p9eville1 ,l\isiana #gacfj ,phone ,a_/,c #cah #dde-feaa ,ext4 #caa ,,= ,,/ates ,,(3 ,alabama ,arkansas ,l\isiana ,mississippi ,oklahoma ,texas ,a%eville ,(fice ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice ,p4,o4 ,box #ehie ,a%eville1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a #bhhjc ,phone ,a_/,c #gjd #bed-jifa ,ext4 #fbe ,,= ,,/ates ,,(3 ,florida ,georgia ,k5tucky ,nor? ,c>ol9a ,s\? ,c>ol9a ,t5nessee ,virg9ia ,,area ,,(fice ,gr\p ,lead] ,=e/ ,pe/ ,managem5t ,gr\p ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice #agbj ,pea*tree ,/reet1 ,n4,w4 ,atlanta1 ,georgia #cjcji ,phone ,a_/,c #djd #ebf-cgcd ,illu/ration3 ,=e/ ,environm5t3 ,,wea!r ,,fire ,,p ,,soil ,,abuse ,,pe/s ,,=e/ ,,pe/ ,,managem5t ,,gr\p ,s\!a/]n ,area ,s4 & ,p4 ,f4--#g #aigb ,transcrib]'s ,notes --,sil5tly correct$ a few palpable typos4 --,9 ! text v]sions1 delimit$ italics or und]l9$ text 9 und]scores 7! ,,html v]sion reproduces ! font =m ( ! pr9t$ book47