,,insects ,,and ,,diseases ,,of ,,trees ,,in ,,the ,,south ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture--,forest ,service ,state and ,private ,forestry--,southeastern ,area ,forest ,pest ,management ,group ,,introduction ,this publication has been prepared to assist forest managers and homeowners in identifying pests of southern trees4 ,the insects and diseases discussed are the more common ones attacking forest and ornamental trees4 ,prompt identification and treatment of these pests may mean the difference between losing or saving a valuable shade tree4 ,underlying all successful forest and ornamental pest control efforts1 however1 is the necessity to keep trees in a healthy1 vigorous condition4 ,we have attempted to include pictures of the damage as well as pictures of the damage-causing organism or stage4 ,chemical suppression recommendations are not included in this publication4 ,for pesticide information contact the local ,state or ,federal extension specialist1 forester1 entomologist1 or pathologist4 ,credit for some of the pictures in this guide goes to the ,southern and ,southeastern ,forest ,experiment ,stations and universities4 ,we acknowledge the help of the ,forest ,pest ,management field personnel who assisted in compiling this booklet4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,insects ,hardwood ,insects ,defoliators ,elm ,spanworm #a ,fall ,cankerworm #b ,a ,looper #c ,eastern ,tent ,caterpillar #d ,forest ,tent ,caterpillar #e ,fall ,webworm #f ,oak ,leaf ,tier #g ,variable ,oakleaf ,caterpillar #h ,locust ,leafminer #i ,cottonwood ,leaf ,beetle #aj ,walkingstick #aa ,gypsy ,moth #ab ,bark ,beetles and ,borers ,hickory ,bark ,beetle #ac ,smaller ,european ,elm ,bark ,beetle #ad ,columbian ,timber ,beetle #ae ,cottonwood ,twig ,borer #af ,cottonwood ,borer #ag ,white ,oak ,borer #ah ,red ,oak ,borer #ai ,carpenterworm #bj ,conifer ,insects ,defoliators ,pine ,webworm #ba ,bagworm #bb ,pine ,colaspis #bc ,pine ,sawfly #bd ,arkansas ,pine ,sawfly #be ,virginia ,pine ,sawfly #bf ,redheaded ,pine ,sawfly #bg ,texas ,leaf ,cutting ,ant #bh ,bark ,beetles and ,borers ,southern ,pine ,beetle #bi ,ips ,engraver ,beetles #cj ,black ,turpentine ,beetle #ca ,ambrosia ,beetle #cb ,southern ,pine ,sawyers #cc ,meristem ,feeders ,nantucket ,pine ,tip ,moth #cd ,pales ,weevil #ce ,white ,pine ,weevil #cf ,pitch ,eating ,weevil #cg ,deodar ,weevil #ch ,coneworms #ci ,pine ,seedworms #dj ,sapsucking ,insects ,balsam ,woolly ,aphid #da ,,diseases ,conifer ,diseases ,foliage ,needle ,cast #db ,brown ,spot #dc ,needle ,rust #dd ,cedar ,apple ,rust #de ,cedar ,blight #df ,stem1 ,branch1 ,cone ,southern ,fusiform ,rust #dg ,white ,pine ,blister ,rust #dh ,comandra ,blister ,rust #di ,eastern ,gall ,rust #ej ,cone ,rust #ea ,pitch ,canker #eb ,wood ,decay #ec ,red ,heart #ed ,root and ,butt ,rots ,annosus ,root ,rot #ee ,brown ,cubical ,rot #ef ,red ,root and ,butt ,rot #eg ,littleleaf ,disease #eh ,hardwood ,diseases ,foliage and ,twig ,sycamore ,anthracnose #ei ,walnut ,anthracnose #fj ,oak ,anthracnose #fa ,dogwood ,anthracnose #fb ,cottonwood ,rust #fc ,black ,knot of ,cherry #fd ,stem and ,canker ,nectria ,canker #fe ,strumella ,canker #ff ,spiculosa ,canker #fg ,irpex ,canker #fh ,hispidus ,canker #fi ,botryosphaeria ,canker #gj ,septoria ,canker #ga ,cytospora ,canker #gb ,chestnut ,blight #gc ,vascular ,wilts ,oak ,wilt #gd ,dutch ,elm ,disease #ge ,elm ,phloem ,necrosis #gf ,mimosa ,wilt #gg ,verticillium ,wilt #gh ,root and ,butt ,rots ,armillaria ,root ,rot #gi ,cylindrocladium ,root ,rot #hj ,lucidus ,root and ,butt ,rot #ha ,,insects ,,elm ,,spanworm1 ,ennomos subsignarius 7,hbn47 ,the elm spanworm is a native insect which is widely distributed over the eastern half of the ,united ,states and ,canada from ,nova ,scotia south to ,georgia and west to ,colorado4 ,the most widespread outbreak on record occurred during the period #aied-aifc when over one million acres of hardwood forests were defoliated in the mountains of western ,north ,carolina1 eastern ,tennessee and northern ,georgia4 ,the elm spanworm feeds upon hickories and a variety of hardwoods2 white oak1 chestnut oak1 and northern red oak are the species most heavily defoliated in the ,appalachians4 ,repeated defoliation causes growth loss1 reduces mast crops1 and will eventually kill the tree4 ,illustration3 ,sixth instar elm spanworm larva4 ,eggs are laid in masses of #ab to #bjj on the undersides of host tree branches in early ,july4 ,winter is spent in the egg stage4 ,larvae hatch in early spring when foliage opens4 ,the larval stage is an 8inchworm0 or 8looper01 approximately #a inches long when mature4 ,larval coloring varies from green or light brown to black1 depending upon population density4 ,the typical color of the larva in heavy populations is dark brown to black1 with a dark-red head1 legs1 and anal shield4 ,the larvae feed for about #a months1 and then pupate in a loose cocoon for six to ten days4 ,the adult1 a snow-white moth1 emerges in late ,june or early ,july4 ,there is one generation per year4 ,natural enemies help keep populations of the elm spanworm in check4 ,one of the most important is ,telenomus alsophilae1 a tiny wasp which parasitizes eggs4 ,persistent outbreaks on high-value stands may require treatment with chemicals4 ,illustration3 ,elm span worms feeding on oak4 ,,fall ,,cankerworm1 ,alsophila pometaria 7,harris7 ,the fall cankerworm is widespread in the northern part of the ,united ,states1 ranging south through the ,appalachian ,mountains to ,north ,carolina4 ,larvae defoliate many species of hardwoods1 but in the ,south seem to prefer oaks1 hickories1 and ash4 ,illustration3 ,mature fall cankerworm larva4 ,the winged male and wingless female adults emerge on mild days in ,november and ,december and mate4 ,females lay #f-cjj eggs in neatly arranged masses encircling small branches and twigs4 ,the pale green larvae hatch in late ,april or early ,may4 ,as they mature they may remain light green1 or change to a very dark brownish-green depending on the host4 ,newly hatched inch-worms 7larvae7 of the fall cankerworm chew small holes in expanding leaves of their hosts1 or may completely skeletonize the leaves4 ,mature larvae consume all but the mid-rib and major veins of the leaf4 ,feeding is usually completed in four to five weeks1 at which time larvae drop to the ground to pupate in the soil4 ,cold1 wet weather during the early larval period1 and parasitization1 are responsible for sudden declines in established populations4 ,chemical control has also been effective4 ,a small wasp1 ,telenomus alsophilae ,viereck1 has caused a sharp decline in outbreaks of cankerworm populations4 ,usually1 however1 outbreak conditions must exist for several years before the parasite can attain the density needed to cause a decline4 ,illustration3 ,female cankerworm adult depositing eggs4 ,a ,,looper1 ,phigalia titea 7,cramer7 ,larvae of this moth1 one of the measuring worms1 have periodically been responsible for scattered mortality of hardwoods throughout the eastern ,united ,states4 ,mortality is most likely to occur in stands on low-quality sites1 particularly during periods of drought which favor this insect's development and further weaken infested trees4 ,this species is likely to be found in almost any hardwood area in the eastern ,united ,states4 ,the insect feeds on a wide variety of trees and shrubs4 ,host trees in the ,southeast include oaks1 hickories1 black tupelo1 and black locust4 ,illustration3 ,phigalia adult male moth4 ,phigalia titea overwinters as a pupa4 ,adults emerge in late ,march to mid-,april1 and mate4 ,the female lays her eggs in protected sites on branches and trunks of hardwoods4 ,eggs are most often laid in crevices and beneath the bark of dead branches4 ,eggs hatch in ,april1 and larvae feed until early ,june4 ,larvae often feed on unopened buds1 causing irregular holes in the developing leaves4 ,larvae first eat just the surfaces of leaves1 but later consume all leaf tissue between the major veins4 ,when larvae are dislodged by wind or feeding predators they fall or descend on a silken thread and continue feeding in the lower crown or on understory vegetation4 ,pupation occurs on the soil surface or in the litter4 ,illustration3 ,phigalia larva4 ,weather regulates populations of this insect4 ,soil-inhabiting insects and rodents are believed to destroy many pupae during the winter4 ,,eastern ,,tent ,,caterpillar1 ,malacosoma americanum 7,f47 ,the presence of the eastern tent caterpillar is objectionable more from an aesthetic standpoint than from its effect on the host tree4 ,the ugly tents constructed by the feeding larvae make this pest highly objectionable on shade trees4 ,black cherry and other species of the genus ,prunus are preferred hosts1 but other trees in the family ,rosaceae are sometimes attacked4 ,this insect is widely distributed wherever host trees are found east of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,illustration3 ,larvae and tent of eastern tent caterpillar4 ,the caterpillars appear at about the same time the leaves of black cherry begin to unfold4 ,the larvae construct a web or tent in the crotch of a small branch1 and begin feeding4 ,usually they consume entire leaves1 except for the large veins4 ,as the larvae mature1 they add to the tent1 which may reach a foot in diameter and two feet in length4 ,reaching maturity in about six weeks1 the larvae drop to the ground and pupate4 ,the moths emerge in ,june and the females lay eggs4 ,eggs of the eastern tent caterpillar are shiny black masses which encircle the smaller twigs and are quite noticeable4 ,the insect overwinters in the egg stage4 ,control on ornamental1 fruit1 and shade trees is achieved by pruning off and burning the tents containing the caterpillars4 ,illustration3 ,tent caterpillar-infested black cherry4 ,,forest ,,tent ,,caterpillar1 ,malacosoma disstria 7,hbn47 ,the forest tent caterpillar has caused repeated serious defoliation of hardwood forests throughout ,north ,america4 ,aspen1 water tupelo1 hard maple1 gums1 and oaks are preferred hosts but this insect will feed on a variety of other broadleaf trees4 ,illustration3 ,forest tent caterpillar larvae4 ,the shiny black egg masses encircling the twigs of host trees can be seen during winter months4 ,small black1 hairy larvae hatch out just as the leaves are beginning to unfold4 ,they do not construct a tent1 but make a silken mat on the larger branches or trunk of the tree on which they rest between feeding periods4 ,when full grown1 the larvae are about two inches long1 brownish-black with distinctive white1 keyhole-shaped spots down the middle of the back1 and blue lines along the sides4 ,just before pupating1 the larvae spin a whitish silk cocoon on the bark or leaf of the host4 ,in about ten days the light brown moths emerge1 mate1 and the females begin laying their eggs4 ,parasitic flies are one of the more important agents which normally keep this insect under control4 ,outbreaks occur with some regularity1 however1 and chemicals may be required to prevent defoliation4 ,illustration3 ,colony of third instar larvae4 ,,fall ,,webworm1 ,hyphantria cunea 7,drury7 ,the fall webworm is not considered an important forest pest4 ,however1 ugly webs can seriously detract from aesthetic values4 ,the preferred hosts in the ,south are persimmon1 pecan1 and sourwood1 but it is also found on black walnut1 hickory1 cherry1 sycamore1 crab apple1 and sweetgum4 ,the insects range throughout ,north ,america4 ,illustration3 ,fall webworm larva4 ,the adult is a pure white moth about #a inches long4 ,the forewing is sometimes marked with blackish dots4 ,the larva is about one inch long when full grown1 generally pale yellow or greenish with a broad dark longitudinal stripe on the back and a yellowish stripe extending from black and orange warts4 ,the insect has one generation per year in the northern part of its range1 and two in the southern part4 ,moths of the first generation emerge from ,may to ,july and those of the second in ,july and ,august4 ,adult females lay #djj-ejj eggs in white cottony patches on the underside of the leaves of host plants4 ,the eggs hatch in about a week1 and the larvae form a web and begin to skeletonize the leaves by feeding in rows4 ,as the larvae grow they expand the web to cover the colony4 ,when the larvae are ready to pupate1 they crawl or drop to the ground and form a brownish cocoon in the duff around the tree where they overwinter4 ,illustration3 ,fall webworm infestation4 ,natural enemies usually keep this insect under control4 ,webs can be pruned from high-value trees in scenic or recreation areas4 ,,oak ,,leaf ,,tier1 ,croesia albicomana 7,clem47 ,this oak leaf tier has been associated with the decline and mortality of several species of oak in the northeastern ,united ,states and southern ,appalachians4 ,an outbreak population in the mountains of ,west ,virginia and ,virginia in #aiff-fh resulted in the loss of several thousand acres of scarlet oak4 ,usually such outbreaks coincide with periods of drought which increase the impact of defoliation on the host4 ,its hosts include northern red oak1 black oak1 scarlet oak1 and pin oak4 ,the latter two species seem to be hit hardest by this insect4 ,illustration3 ,leaf tier adult and pupa4 ,croesia albicomana spends the winter in the egg stage4 ,eggs are glued to small twigs in the crown of the host tree4 ,hatch occurs from mid-,april to early ,may4 ,young larvae1 which emerge before bud-break1 bore into and mine the expanding buds4 ,when large numbers of this insect are present they can destroy most of the vegetative buds on a tree4 ,later the older larvae tie down a folded-over portion of a leaf and feed on it4 ,leaves fed on by the oak leaf tier appear to be full of shot holes4 ,as the larvae near maturity they may tie the apical portion of two or more leaves together and feed on them4 ,mature larvae then drop to the ground to pupate in the litter4 ,adult moths emerge in ,june or early ,july1 mate1 and the female immediately begins laying eggs4 ,the small1 flat1 oval eggs are deposited individually on small twigs1 generally around nodes or leaf scars4 ,illustration3 ,scarlet oak killed by leaf tier4 ,little is known of the natural factors which regulate population levels of this insect1 but undoubtedly weather is important4 ,,variable ,,oak ,,leaf ,,caterpillar1 ,heterocampa maneto 7,dbldy47 ,the variable oak leaf caterpillar periodically defoliates extensive areas of hardwood forest in the eastern ,united ,states4 ,its range covers all of the southern and eastern states as far west as east ,texas4 ,the larvae feed primarily on oaks but will also feed on beech1 basswood1 birch and elm4 ,other defoliating insects may be associated with outbreaks causing additional damage4 ,young larvae skeletonize the leaf while older larvae devour the entire leaf except the primary veins4 ,infestations are generally more severe in the ,south1 where the insect has two generations per year causing two periods of defoliation in a single year4 ,while infestations usually subside before many trees are killed1 heavy defoliation reduces the tree's growth and vigor4 ,illustration3 ,larva of the variable oak leaf caterpillar4 ,the variable oak leaf caterpillar overwinters as a non-feeding larva in a cocoon on the forest floor4 ,it pupates and emerges as a moth the following spring4 ,the female moth1 gray in color and about #a inches long1 lays about #ejj eggs singly on the leaves of host trees4 ,the larvae feed on foliage for five or six weeks1 drop to the ground to pupate1 and emerge as adults in mid-summer4 ,larvae hatching from eggs laid by the second generation of moths defoliate the trees for a second time during late summer4 ,by late ,october the mature larvae of the second generation have dropped to the forest floor to overwinter4 ,the full grown larva is approximately #a inches long4 ,color varies among individuals4 ,the head is generally amber brown with curved diagonal white and black bands4 ,the body is usually yellow green with a narrow white stripe down the center of the back bordered by wider dark bands4 ,outbreaks of the variable oak leaf caterpillar may be severe but generally subside before serious tree mortality occurs4 ,parasites and predators are not effective in controlling rising populations of the insect4 ,mice and predaceous beetles feed on the resting larvae and pupae in the litter and soil of the forest floor4 ,while no chemical is currently registered for control of this insect1 chemical spraying has been effective and safe in controlling closely related insects4 ,,locust ,,leafminer1 ,xenochalepus dorsalis 7,thunberg7 ,the locust leafminer is a destructive pest of black locust and honey locust in both the adult and larval stages4 ,it is found throughout the range of these trees in the eastern half of ,north ,america4 ,the adults also feed on other species of trees4 ,the adult beetles overwinter in crevices in the bark of trees and under litter on the forest floor4 ,the beetles emerge and begin feeding in the spring1 usually after mid-,april4 ,after feeding for a short time they deposit eggs on the undersides of leaves1 piling them one upon another1 somewhat shingle-like4 ,eggs are covered with brownish fecal matter4 ,larvae soon hatch and eat into the leaf tissue to form a mine4 ,newly emerged larvae feed gregariously in a single mine for a short time4 ,they then construct new mines where the insects live singly4 ,several mines are constructed before the larvae reach maturity4 ,the larvae pupate in the mines and emerge as adults in ,july to begin the second generation4 ,the adult beetles are foliage feeders1 eating irregular holes in leaves4 ,when sufficient in number they may defoliate host trees4 ,illustration3 ,damage to black locust caused by the locust leaf miner4 ,under forested conditions no control is recommended4 ,rarely do trees die from attacks by this insect4 ,damage is objectionable mostly from an aesthetic viewpoint4 ,,cottonwood ,,leaf ,,beetle1 ,chrysomela scripta 7,f47 ,willows1 poplars1 aspens and alders are attacked by the cottonwood leaf beetle in the eastern ,united ,states4 ,cottonwood is the most important host in the ,south4 ,damage has been especially severe in ,louisiana and ,mississippi where thousands of acres of cottonwood plantations are intensively managed4 ,adult beetles and larvae feed on the foliage4 ,damage is most critical during the first three years after the cottonwood is planted4 ,adults chew holes in the leaves and may attack the terminal shoots causing reduced growth or stem deformity4 ,young larvae skeletonize the foliage but older larvae consume all foliage except the leaf midribs4 ,damage may become severe enough to cause mortality4 ,illustration3 ,cottonwood leaf beetle adult4 ,the cottonwood leaf beetle overwinters in the adult stage4 ,eggs are laid in the spring4 ,the female lays a cluster of about #ge yellowish eggs on the underside of a leaf4 ,as the larvae mature they become yellow with black spots4 ,after about nine days in the larval stage the beetle transforms into the non-feeding pupal stage which lasts five to ten days4 ,the adult is about -inch long and has a black head and thorax4 ,the wing covers are yellow with longitudinal black stripes4 ,the life cycle is completed in #be to #cj days and several generations occur in a single year4 ,illustration3 ,larvae and pupae of the cottonwood leaf beetle4 ,control may be needed in a plantation only during the first three years4 ,chemical sprays have been successful in the past but at the present time no insecticides are registered for cottonwood leaf beetle control4 ,,walkingstick1 ,diapheromera femorata 7,say7 ,the walkingstick is a defoliator of broadleaved trees in ,north ,america4 ,the black oaks1 basswood1 and wild cherry are the most common preferred hosts but numerous other hardwood species are attacked4 ,this insect is widely distributed over the ,united ,states east of the ,rocky ,mountains as well as ,manitoba and ,ontario in ,canada4 ,at times1 populations build in sufficient numbers to defoliate trees over large areas4 ,illustration3 ,male walkingsticks feeding on oak4 ,these slender1 wingless1 stick-like insects are pale green when young1 but gradually change to a dark green1 gray1 or brown at maturity4 ,the adult female measures up to three inches in length and is more stout-bodied than the male4 ,mating usually takes place in ,august and egg laying begins six to ten days later4 ,the eggs are dropped to the ground where they overwinter in the leaf litter4 ,in the northern part of the walkingstick's range the eggs take two years to hatch4 ,in the ,south1 walkingstick eggs hatch the summer after they are laid1 usually starting in mid-,may4 ,the newly hatched walkingstick looks like a miniature adult4 ,parasitic wasps and flies are active against the immature walkingsticks but are not efficient enough to cause a substantial population reduction4 ,flocks of robins1 blackbirds1 and grackles have a much greater impact1 however4 ,the defoliation caused by walkingsticks generally occurs on upland sites in stands which are not of high value or intensively managed4 ,for this reason there has been little interest in control4 ,,gypsy ,,moth1 ,porthetria dispar 7,l47 ,the gypsy moth is an introduced forest insect4 ,it was brought into this country from ,europe in #ahfi and has been restricted to the ,northeast4 ,the gypsy moth feeds aggressively on oak1 alder1 apple1 basswood1 willow1 and birch4 ,as the caterpillars reach maturity they will also feed on hemlock1 cedar1 pine1 and spruce4 ,illustration3 ,gypsy moth larvae4 ,in the ,northeast1 the gypsy moth has a single generation per year1 overwintering in the egg stage4 ,eggs hatch in late ,april and ,may and larvae are present for approximately two months4 ,full-grown caterpillars measure more than two inches long and are easily identified by the five pairs of blue spots and six pairs of red spots arranged in a double row along the back4 ,the adult moths are active from late ,june to early ,september4 ,female moths1 their bodies heavy with eggs1 are unable to fly and must rely on a powerful sex attractant to lure male moths4 ,this sex attractant has been chemically synthesized and is used as a trap bait in surveys designed to determine the presence of gypsy moths in areas suspected to be infested4 ,each female deposits from #bjj to #hjj eggs in a buff-colored mass which she attaches to any convenient surface including cars1 trailers1 and other vehicles4 ,illustration3 ,female gypsy moths depositing egg masses4 ,during the past #ge years the gypsy moth has been the target of many large-scale control programs1 and much money has been spent trying to reduce the impact of gypsy moth infestations4 ,current control efforts are handicapped by the unavailability of a safe and effective persistent chemical4 ,in the ,north two predators and nine parasites have been successfully established to help control the gypsy moth4 ,the greatest problem in controlling gypsy moth spread1 however1 lies in the fact that recreational vehicles transport egg masses and larvae from infested sites into uninfested areas4 ,,hickory ,,bark ,,beetle1 ,scolytus quadrispinosus 7,say7 ,the hickory bark beetle is reported to be the most serious insect pest of hickory in the ,united ,states4 ,population explosions where thousands of trees were killed have been reported from ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,maryland1 ,virginia1 and recently from ,georgia4 ,hickory bark beetles are distributed throughout the range of their host in eastern ,united ,states4 ,all species of hickory are subject to attack1 as well as pecan and possibly butternut4 ,adult beetles emerge in ,may and ,june in the southern portion of their range4 ,they feed for a short time by boring into the petioles of leaves and into small twigs of the host4 ,dying leaves and twigs are the first evidence of attack4 ,after feeding1 the beetles fly to the trunk and larger branches of the host and bore into the inner bark to lay their eggs4 ,short1 longitudinal egg galleries are etched into the sapwood and from #bj to #fj eggs deposited in small niches cut on either side of the gallery4 ,as the larvae develop1 their galleries radiate out from the egg gallery4 ,two generations per year have been reported from northern ,mississippi4 ,the beetle overwinters in the larval stage4 ,with the coming of warm weather in the early spring1 it changes into the pupal stage1 and finally1 in ,may1 to an adult4 ,illustration3 ,hickory bark beetle adult4 ,outbreaks of this insect begin in periods of hot1 dry weather and subside when rains commence4 ,illustration3 ,larval galleries of the hickory bark beetle4 ,,smaller ,,european ,,elm ,,bark ,,beetle1 ,scolytus multistriatus 7,marsham7 ,the smaller ,european elm bark beetle was first reported in the ,united ,states in #aiji4 ,its presence in this country was given significance with the introduction of the ,dutch elm disease in #aicj4 ,the beetle attacks all native and introduced species of elms and now occurs wherever the hosts are present4 ,the feeding of the adult beetles in the spring is responsible for transmitting the ,dutch elm disease from diseased to healthy trees4 ,the ,dutch elm disease is now our most important shade tree disease4 ,illustration3 ,smaller ,european elm bark beetle adult4 ,adult bark beetles emerge in the spring from dead or dying elms and begin feeding on the twigs of healthy elms4 ,the female then excavates an egg gallery in the bark of dead or weakened elms4 ,eggs are deposited along the walls of the gallery4 ,the larvae1 upon hatching1 burrow into the bark at right angles to the egg gallery4 ,pupation occurs at the end of the larval tunnel4 ,new adults tunnel to the bark surface and leave the tree through circular emergence holes4 ,there are usually two generations a year4 ,the beetles overwinter in the larval stage4 ,chemical control and good tree maintenance are the two methods used to reduce bark beetle populations4 ,insecticides are used to prevent feeding by the adults in the spring4 ,tree sanitation involves removal and disposal of dead elms and elm limbs which eliminate breeding and larval development sites4 ,,columbian ,,timber ,,beetle1 ,corthylus columbianus 7,hopkins7 ,all hardwood trees in the eastern half of the ,united ,states are subject to attack by the ,columbian timber beetle1 but oaks1 maples1 birch1 basswood1 yellow-poplar1 and elm are the preferred hosts in the ,south4 ,the beetle causes two major types of damage3 #a7 physical damage caused by the #a_/cb to #a_/af hole excavated by the adult into the sapwood1 and #b7 degrade caused by stain which may extend for a considerable distance above and below the gallery4 ,large diameter trees are preferred as hosts1 but trees as small as one and one-fourth inches in diameter may be attacked4 ,illustration3 ,callow adult and pupae of the ,columbian timber beetle4 ,there are two and sometimes three generations of this insect each year4 ,adults from the first generation emerge from late ,may through ,june and those from the second in ,october4 ,the first evidence of attack is the white dust which collects at the entrance hole4 ,later1 depending on the tree's physiological condition1 a sap-soaked area may develop around the entrance hole4 ,the adult bores a horizontal hole into the sapwood of a healthy tree for a few inches and later constructs two or three shorter lateral branches4 8,cradles0 7or egg chambers7 are then constructed for a short distance perpendicular to these galleries4 ,the female deposits a single egg in each chamber4 ,the offspring spend their entire developmental period within the cradles feeding on fungi which grow on the sapwood4 ,it is this fungus which causes the extensive staining characteristic of ,columbian timber beetle attack4 ,winter is spent in both the pupal and adult stages in the brood galleries4 ,illustration3 ,columbian timber beetle entrance holes in yellow-poplar4 ,chemical control is not practical for forest trees4 ,,cottonwood ,,twig ,,borer1 ,gypsonoma haimbachiana 7,kearfott7 ,the cottonwood twig borer is widely distributed throughout the entire range of eastern cottonwood1 from ,canada to the ,gulf ,states and west to ,missouri4 ,the larvae of the cottonwood twig borer feed in the terminals of the host4 ,this feeding results in reduction of terminal growth and forked and crooked trunks4 ,damage is especially severe on young trees4 ,illustration3 ,cottonwood twig borer damage to cottonwood sapling4 ,illustration3 ,three-year-old cottonwood stunted by twig borers4 ,the female moth lays eggs on the upper surface of leaves along the mid-rib1 singly or in groups of two to eight4 ,hatching occurs in about five days and the young larvae cover themselves with silk mixed with trash1 and then tunnel into the mid-rib4 ,after the first molt1 larvae leave the tunnels and bore into tender shoots4 ,larvae reach maturity in about #ba-bc days and begin moving down the trunk of the tree where they spin cocoons in sheltered bark crevices1 in litter1 or between leaf folds4 ,the adult moths emerge in eight or nine days4 ,it takes from #dj-de days to complete the life cycle in mid-summer4 ,the most effective natural control is a potter wasp1 ,eumenes sp4 which tears open tender cottonwood shoots and removes twig borer larvae from their galleries4 ,other wasps parasitizing the twig borer include ,bracon mellitor 7,say71 ,apanteles clavatus 7,provancher7 and ,agathis sp4 ,,cottonwood ,,borer1 ,plectrodera scalator 7,f47 ,the cottonwood borer is limited in range to the southern half of the ,united ,states4 ,hosts include cottonwood1 poplars and willows4 ,the adults feed on the tender shoots of young trees causing them to shrivel and break off4 ,the larval stage of this insect tunnels in the inner bark and wood at the base of the tree and may kill or severely weaken it4 ,illustration3 ,adult cottonwood borer4 ,the adult beetles appear in midsummer4 ,after feeding briefly on the tender bark of the terminals the adults descend to the bases of host trees where the female deposits her eggs in small pits gnawed in the bark4 ,eggs hatch in about three weeks4 ,the larvae bore downward in the inner bark1 entering a large root by fall4 ,larval feeding continues into the second year as the larvae bore into the inner bark and wood4 ,the larvae transform into the non-feeding pupal stage and finally into an adult in the summer of the second year thus completing a two year life cycle4 ,adult beetles are #a to #a inches long4 ,they are black with lines of cream-colored scales forming irregular black patches4 ,the best control for the cottonwood borer is to maintain a vigorous1 healthy stand4 ,slow growing1 off-site plantings of host trees are the most severely damaged4 ,while some systemic insecticides have shown promise1 there is currently no registered chemical control method4 ,,white ,,oak ,,borer1 ,goes tigrinus 7,de ,geer7 ,a recent survey of damage caused by various wood borers to three species in the white oak group revealed an estimated annual loss in the ,south exceeding #bj million dollars4 ,one of the more important borers responsible for this damage is the white oak borer4 ,illustration3 ,adult white oak borer4 ,usually the white oak borer attacks oaks one to eight inches in diameter4 ,the damage1 like that of other hardwood borers1 is the result of larval feeding in the wood4 ,galleries up to one-half inch in diameter extend upward through the sapwood into the heartwood4 ,the white oak borer takes three to four years to complete one generation4 ,the mated adult female beetle lays her eggs singly in the inner bark through a small oval niche chewed through the outer bark4 ,after about three weeks the eggs hatch and the larvae immediately bore into the sapwood4 ,later they bore upward into the heartwood4 ,the boring frass ejected out of the entrance is evidence of an active infestation4 ,pupation occurs behind a plug of excelsior-like frass at the upper end of the gallery in the heartwood4 ,in about three weeks1 adults emerge by boring separate and perfectly round holes through the wood and bark4 ,in the ,south1 adults generally emerge in ,may and ,june and feed for a short time on oak leaves and the tender bark of twigs before the females lay their eggs4 ,woodpeckers may destroy up to #be percent of the larvae during the winter months1 but this and the small toll taken by insect predators and parasites are not sufficient to keep the white oak borer population low enough to avoid serious economic loss4 ,illustration3 ,entrance and emergence holes in white oak4 ,,red ,,oak ,,borer1 ,enaphalodes rufulus 7,hald47 ,the red oak borer is a serious pest of trees in the red oak group4 ,it ranges throughout eastern ,north ,america wherever host species grow4 ,it is estimated that defects caused by larval tunnels in the sapwood and heartwood of host trees costs the hardwood timber industry millions of dollars each year4 ,illustration3 ,adult red oak borer4 ,eggs of the red oak borer are laid during early and mid-summer in bark crevices or under patches of lichen on host trees4 ,after hatching1 larvae bore into the inner bark region where they feed until mid-summer of the next year4 ,this feeding in the inner bark causes characteristic catfaces or bark pockets4 ,once larvae enter the wood they bore upward through the sapwood and into the heartwood and pupate behind a plug of excelsior-like frass4 ,the larval galleries are from one-fourth to one-half inch in diameter1 and six to ten inches long4 ,usually the galleries are within six inches of the center of the tree4 ,the adult emerges at the lower end of the tunnel1 using a hole cut through the bark by the larva just prior to pupating4 ,adults emerge in ,june and ,july4 ,the timing of the two-year life cycle of the red oak borer is such that the adult population is greatest in odd-numbered years4 ,generally1 borers such as the red oak borer infest trees of poor vigor4 ,it is possible1 therefore1 to reduce borer populations by maintaining vigorous stands and by removing cull trees4 ,illustration3 ,red oak borer attack on ,nuttall oak4 ,,carpenterworm1 ,prionoxystus robiniae 7,peck7 ,the carpenterworm bores in the wood of living hardwood trees1 causing costly damage to commercial timber species4 ,in the ,south1 oak species are preferred hosts but black locust1 maples1 willows1 and fruit trees are also attacked4 ,the carpenterworm is distributed throughout the ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,carpenterworm adults4 ,adult moths emerge in late ,april to early ,june1 mate1 and the females lay groups of eggs in bark crevices or wounds4 ,each female lays #bjj to #ejj eggs during her one-week life span4 ,after hatching1 the larvae wander over the bark for a short time before boring into the inner bark where they feed until half-grown4 ,the larvae then bore into the sapwood and heartwood1 returning occasionally to feed in the inner bark4 ,the larval period lasts from two to four years4 ,pupation usually occurs deep within the heartwood4 ,just prior to emergence1 the pupa wiggles to the entrance hole where it remains slightly protruding until the adult moth emerges4 ,the large winding tunnels constructed by the larvae in the sapwood and heartwood of living hardwoods serve as an entrance for wood-rotting fungi and insects such as the carpenter ant4 ,in extreme cases1 the tree may be structurally weakened and subject to wind breakage4 ,illustration3 ,carpenterworm galleries in nuttall oak4 ,some chemicals which have a fumigating action have proved effective in controlling this insect in shade trees1 but no practical control has yet been found for forest trees4 ,,pine ,,webworm1 ,tetralopha robustela 7,zell47 ,ugly1 compact masses of brown excrement or frass pellets around the stem of pine seedlings mark infestations of the pine webworm4 ,rarely is the defoliation severe enough to kill the seedlings1 but it undoubtedly has an impact on growth4 ,found throughout the eastern ,united ,states1 the webworm commonly attacks red1 white1 jack1 loblolly1 shortleaf1 and slash pines4 ,illustration3 ,pine webworm damage to loblolly pine4 ,illustration3 7cont47 ,the adult moth has a wingspread of about one inch4 ,the forewing usually is gray in the middle portion and darker at the base and tip4 ,the hind wings and body are smokey gray4 ,the full-grown larva is a caterpillar approximately of an inch long4 ,the head is tan with darker markings and the body light brown with dark longitudinal stripes running down each side4 ,eggs are usually laid on seedlings1 occasionally on larger trees1 between ,may and ,september4 ,after eggs hatch1 the caterpillars live in silken webs surrounded by masses of frass1 and feed on the needles4 ,generally each web contains one or two larvae but occasionally #be or more may be found4 ,after feeding is completed1 the caterpillars drop to the ground and pupate below the soil surface4 ,in the ,south1 there are usually two generations each year4 ,in plantations1 hand picking is an effective method of control4 ,when high value nursery stock becomes infested1 chemical control may become necessary4 ,,bagworm1 ,thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis 7,haw47 ,the bagworm is distributed throughout the eastern half of the ,united ,states4 ,it is generally recognized as a defoliator of conifers1 particularly juniper1 cedars1 and arborvitae1 but it is also found on many hardwood trees including maple1 wild cherry1 poplars1 oaks1 and apple4 ,illustration3 ,bagworm cases on pine4 ,the wingless1 maggot-like adult female bagworms are present in ,september and ,october and spend their entire lives within the protective cover of the tough1 silken bag which they construct as larvae4 ,males are quite agile fliers and can often be seen in the fall flying around infested shrubs in search of a mate4 ,mating takes place through the open end of the bag4 ,shortly thereafter the female deposits her egg mass containing #ejj to #a1jjj eggs in her pupal case4 ,the eggs remain in the bag throughout the winter4 ,in the deep ,south1 hatching can occur as early as ,april1 but occurs in ,may or ,june further north4 ,during the early stage of development1 the larvae1 housed in their tiny bags1 are quite inconspicuous4 ,as they mature1 the bags become quite noticeable1 and the amount of foliage consumed increases rapidly4 ,outbreak populations of bagworm are in most cases quickly reduced by low winter temperatures and a complex of several parasites4 ,on shrubs and shade trees around a home1 it is often practical to control bagworms by picking and destroying the bags4 ,,pine ,,colaspis1 ,colaspis pini 7,barber7 ,colaspis beetles are found throughout the ,southeast1 but are more common in the ,gulf states4 ,they seem to prefer slash pine but have been found on many of the southern pines4 ,the pine colaspis beetle is not a serious forest pest but feeding damage caused by large populations occasionally produces a spectacular browning effect of the needles similar to that caused by fire4 ,illustration3 ,adult pine colaspis beetle feeding damage on pine4 ,the adult beetles chew the edges of needles to produce an irregular1 saw-like edge which turns brown4 ,occasionally only the tips of the needles show signs of the infestation4 ,later1 however1 the entire needle may die1 causing the whole tree to become brown as though scorched by fire4 ,trees that have been attacked do not die1 and little or no growth loss results4 ,attacks usually occur in early summer2 by late summer the trees appear green and healthy again4 ,this pest is sporadic in its occurrence and may not develop again in the same area for several years4 ,the adult female lays her eggs in the soil during the summer4 ,larvae hatch and feed on roots of grasses and other vegetation1 and overwinter in this stage4 ,the larvae pupate in the spring2 adults emerge in early summer to feed4 ,there is only one generation a year4 ,under forest conditions1 no control measures are recommended for the pine colaspis beetle4 ,on ornamentals and shade trees1 insecticides can be used to prevent unsightly damage4 ,,pine ,,sawfly1 ,neodiprion excitans 7,roh47 ,this pine sawfly is found throughout the southeast from ,virginia to ,texas4 ,loblolly and shortleaf pine are preferred hosts1 but pond1 slash1 longleaf1 and ,sonderegger pine are also attacked4 ,the larvae do not do well on the latter two species4 ,as with most sawflies1 the larvae feed in groups on the host needles4 ,generally the old needles are preferred1 but all of the needles are eaten when large numbers of larvae are present4 ,three or four young larvae usually encircle a needle and1 starting from the tip1 consume all but a central core4 ,when nearing maturity they eat the entire needle4 ,illustration3 ,pine sawfly larvae4 ,four or five generations of this sawfly may occur each year4 ,adult females begin to lay their eggs in slits cut in the needles during late ,march4 ,the eggs hatch in #aj-ba days1 and the larvae feed for about five weeks4 ,when mature the larvae usually crawl to the ground and spin a cocoon in the loose litter at the base of the tree4 ,although all stages of the life history can be found at any time during the growing season1 the peak adult emergence occurs in late summer4 ,larvae from this late summer generation are responsible for most of the damage which1 although never directly responsible for mortality1 may predispose the trees to attack by other insects 7particularly bark beetles7 and diseases4 ,natural control factors generally bring outbreak populations under control after one season4 ,hogs1 armadillos1 mice1 and shrews are reported as being of significant value in regulating the sawfly population4 ,insect parasites1 predators1 and disease are also effective control agents4 ,,arkansas ,,pine ,,sawfly1 ,neodiprion taedae linearis 7,ross7 ,loblolly and shortleaf pines are the only trees attacked by the ,arkansas pine sawfly4 ,periodic outbreaks of this insect over large areas in the south-central states cause substantial growth losses1 but the insects seldom kill trees4 ,illustration3 ,arkansas pine sawfly larvae4 ,this insect has a single generation each year4 ,in the spring1 eggs which have overwintered hatch into tiny caterpillar-like larvae4 ,the larvae feed in groups for #cj-dj days 7primarily on the older foliage7 before crawling to the ground and pupating in the topsoil or litter4 ,adults emerge during warm days in ,october and ,november1 mate1 and the females begin laying eggs4 ,sawflies get their name from the manner in which the eggs are laid4 ,the female is equipped with a saw-like 8ovipositor0 with which she cuts a slit in the needle into which the egg is inserted4 ,from two to ten eggs are laid in a single needle4 ,each female deposits from #ij to #abj eggs4 ,an important natural control agent of this sawfly is a polyhedral virus disease that sometimes destroys large numbers of the larvae4 ,rodents destroy many cocoons4 ,several species of larval parasites are also known to exist4 ,of these1 a parasitic fly1 ,anthrax sinuosa 7,wied47 and an ichneumon wasp1 ,exenterus canadensis 7,prov47 appear to be the most important4 ,,virginia ,,pine ,,sawfly1 ,neodriprion pratti pratti 7,dyar7 ,the ,virginia pine sawfly is found from ,maryland to ,north ,carolina1 and west to ,illinois4 ,the insect prefers ,virginia and shortleaf pine1 but it will also oviposit and feed on pitch and loblolly pine4 ,illustration3 ,virginia pine sawfly larva4 ,on warm sunny days in late ,october and early ,november1 the adult sawflies emerge from their cocoons in the litter1 mate1 and the females lay eggs4 ,the female is equipped with a saw-like ovipositor with which she cuts a slit at the edge of a needle and inserts a small1 white1 oval egg4 ,several eggs are usually laid at evenly spaced intervals in each needle1 but in only one needle per fascicle4 ,from #cj to #ajj eggs are deposited in this manner by each female4 ,the eggs hatch the following ,april and the young larvae feed gregariously on the old needles4 ,larval development is usually completed by the time the new needles come out1 giving heavily defoliated trees a tufted appearance4 ,mature larvae crawl to the ground and spin cocoons in the litter or surface soil4 ,they remain as prepupae until late ,september when pupation occurs4 ,illustration3 ,pine defoliated by the ,virginia pine sawfly4 ,heavy defoliation for two or more years can weaken trees and make them more susceptible to other insects and diseases1 particularly when associated with drought4 ,in commercial stands the growth loss caused by several years of #ej defoliation by this insect can amount to of the expected growth4 ,several parasites1 predators1 and a virus attack the ,virginia pine sawfly1 but weather conditions seem to be primarily responsible for the drastic fluctuations in sawfly populations4 ,several chemicals have proven effective in preventing damage to ornamentals4 ,,redheaded ,,pine ,,sawfly1 ,neodiprion lecontei 7,fitch7 ,the redheaded pine sawfly did not become an important pest until extensive planting of pine in pure plantations began in the #aibj's4 ,since then1 outbreaks in young natural pine stands and plantations have been common in the ,south1 the north-central states1 and eastern states4 ,feeding is primarily restricted to the two- and three-needled pines under fifteen feet in height4 ,shortleaf1 loblolly1 longleaf1 and slash are the species most commonly attacked in the southern states4 ,illustration3 ,redheaded pine sawfly larva4 ,in the fall1 sawfly larvae drop to the ground1 spin cocoons in the duff or topsoil1 and overwinter as prepupae in a small1 brown cocoon4 ,with the coming of spring1 pupation occurs and adult emergence follows in about two weeks4 ,some prepupae may remain in a resting stage for more than one season before emerging4 ,each female lays about #abj eggs4 ,she cuts a small slit in the edge of a needle and deposits a single egg inside each slit4 ,eggs laid by a single female are generally clustered on the needles of a single twig4 ,eggs hatch in three to five weeks1 depending on temperature and locality4 ,larvae feed gregariously on the host for #be to #cj days4 ,when fully grown1 larvae drop to the ground and spin their cocoons4 ,in the ,south there are at least two generations per year with a maximum of five being recorded4 ,colonies of different ages may co-exist in the late fall or early winter4 ,outbreaks occur periodically and tend to subside after a few years of heavy defoliation4 ,numerous parasitic and predatory insects play an important role in causing the decline of infestations1 as do adverse weather conditions during the larval stage4 ,when deemed necessary1 chemical treatment is an effective control4 ,,texas ,,leaf-,,cutting ,,ant1 ,atta texana 7,buckley7 ,damage caused by the ,texas leaf-cutting ant1 or town ant1 is confined in the ,united ,states to southeast ,texas and west-central ,louisiana4 ,the ant causes damage to a variety of green plants throughout the year and causes serious damage to pine seedlings during the winter when other green plants are scarce4 ,during this period1 stands of young seedlings may be completely defoliated and the stems girdled4 ,the ant carries bits of needles1 buds1 and bark back to its nest to serve as the medium on which it cultivates a fungus4 ,the fungus is the ant's only known food4 ,illustration3 ,texas leaf cutting ant4 ,ant colonies are characterized by numerous crescent-shaped mounds five to fourteen inches high1 and by a series of well defined foraging trails cleared of vegetation4 ,the mounds may be confined to a relatively small area or extend over an acre or more4 ,each mound serves as the entrance to a football-sized1 hemispherical-shaped nest which the ants construct at depths up to #bj feet below the surface4 ,the nests are interconnected by a series of narrow tunnels1 and connected to lateral foraging tunnels which may surface a hundred yards or more from the colony4 ,leaf-cutting ants1 like many other social insects1 are segregated into castes4 ,the queen dominates the colony and is responsible for its reproduction4 ,large worker ants1 or soldiers1 provide protection from intrusion by other insects1 while the smaller workers collect the leaves and tend the fungus gardens4 ,various chemicals such as fumigants1 contact poisons1 and baits have been used to control the leaf-cutting ants with varying success4 ,no natural control has yet been found4 ,,southern ,,pine ,,beetle1 ,dendroctonus frontalis 7,zimm47 ,probably no other insect is of more concern to managers of southern pine forests than the southern pine beetle4 ,loblolly and shortleaf pine seem to be preferred hosts1 but all of the southern pines may be attacked wherever they occur in ,north and ,central ,america4 ,adult beetles are about the size of a grain of rice1 stout and reddish-brown in color4 ,while they commonly attack lightning-struck or weakened trees1 they can also quickly build up to high populations capable of successfully attacking healthy trees during periods favorable to their development4 ,adult beetles bore directly through the bark1 mate1 and the females begin to excavate ,s-shaped egg galleries in the inner bark4 ,eggs are deposited in niches on either side of these galleries and hatch into small legless grubs within four to nine days4 ,the grubs mine for a short distance before boring into the outer bark where they pupate4 ,there are from three to seven generations per year depending on locality and weather4 ,drought seems to be associated with major outbreaks of this insect4 ,illustration3 ,adults of the black turpentine beetle1 the southern pine beetle and three species of ,ips engraver beetles4 ,control includes rapid salvage and utilization of infested trees and piling and burning of infested material4 ,outbreaks usually subside with the advent of unfavorable weather and improved host vigor4 ,illustration3 ,southern pine beetle larval galleries4 ,illustration3 ,southern pine beetle pitch tubes4 ,,ips ,,engraver ,,beetles1 ,ips spp4 ,with the possible exception of the southern pine beetle1 no other insects cause as much mortality to southern pine forests as do the three species of ,ips engravers4 ,usually they attack severely weakened trees1 lightning-struck trees1 or fresh slash left by logging operations4 ,during drought periods they can successfully attack otherwise healthy pines4 ,illustration3 ,pine showing typical symptoms of ,ips attack4 ,attacked trees are quickly girdled by the adults as they construct their egg galleries in the inner bark4 ,death is usually hastened by the introduction of blue-stain fungi which blocks the flow of sap4 ,small reddish pitch tubes are frequently the first sign of attack1 but they are usually absent in trees suffering from drought4 ,peeling back the bark of an infested tree will reveal typical ,y- or ,h-shaped egg galleries with short larval galleries extending perpendicular to them on either side4 ,ips beetles are easily recognized by their 8scooped out0 posteriors which are surrounded by varying numbers of tooth-like projections4 ,it takes only #ah-be days to complete one generation1 allowing populations of these beetles to increase very rapidly during favorable conditions4 ,at present the best control is the speedy removal and utilization of actively infested trees1 making sure that the bark and slabs are destroyed4 ,,black ,,turpentine ,,beetle1 ,dendroctonus terebrans 7,oliv47 ,the black turpentine beetle is found from ,new ,hampshire south to ,florida1 and from ,west ,virginia to east ,texas4 ,it is a particularly serious pest in the ,gulf ,states where recent outbreaks have killed large acreages of timber4 ,attacks have been observed on all pines native to the ,southeast1 and also on red spruce4 ,illustration3 ,life stages of the black turpentine beetle3 adult1 callow adult1 pupa1 larva and eggs4 ,this is the largest of the southern bark beetles1 varying in length from to of an inch1 or about the size of a raisin4 ,they are reddish-brown to black in color4 ,the beetle attacks fresh stumps and living trees by boring through the bark and constructing galleries on the face of the sapwood where eggs are laid4 ,fifty to #bjj eggs are laid in a group4 ,they hatch into white larvae which feed on the inner bark4 ,the beetle may girdle trees when several broods occur at approximately the same height1 killing the trees4 ,from #gj to #ij percent of the trees attacked by the beetle die4 ,after the larvae complete their development1 they pupate4 ,adult beetles emerge and infest more pine trees4 ,the entire life cycle takes from #b to #d months1 depending on temperature4 ,in the insect's southern range there usually are two generations and part of a third each year4 ,in its northern range1 the third generation does not develop2 consequently the beetle is not a serious pest there4 ,weather is probably the most influential factor in regulating the numbers of this insect4 ,during outbreaks the removal or chemical treatment of infested trees helps to keep losses to a minimum4 ,illustration3 ,close-up of black turpentine beetle pitch tubes4 ,,ambrosia ,,beetle1 ,platypus flavicornis 7,f47 ,ambrosia beetles are represented in the ,south by several species of the genus ,platypus of which only ,p4 flavicornis 7,f47 is known to attack dead or dying southern pines4 ,p4 flavicornis 7,f47 will secondarily invade other conifers and on some occasions may be found in hardwood trees4 ,it is so abundant in the ,south that few dying pines1 stumps1 or logs escape attack4 ,the beetle is found from ,texas east to ,florida and north to ,new ,jersey4 ,illustration3 ,adult of the ,platypus ambrosia beetle4 ,the adult is a reddish-brown elongate beetle approximately one-fourth inch in length4 ,the male of the species has a pair of blunt tooth-like structures on the third abdominal segment4 ,several males are usually found in the presence of a single female4 ,this species requires moist wood which is favorable to the growth of fungi upon which they feed4 ,the adults bore into sapwood or heartwood of logs and lumber1 making pin-sized holes which are stained by the ambrosia fungus4 ,the female lays eggs in small clusters in the tunnel and the developing larvae excavate tiny cells extending from the tunnel parallel to the grain of wood4 ,there may be several generations a year4 ,ambrosia beetle damage to green sawlogs and lumber may result in considerable degrade and strength reduction4 ,the best control is rapid utilization of dead or dying trees4 ,lumber should be seasoned as soon as possible to reduce or eliminate losses4 ,,southern ,,pine ,,sawyers1 ,monochamus spp4 ,in the ,south1 dying pines and fresh logs are quickly attacked by the pine sawyers4 ,in sufficient numbers they may cause a significant loss of wood fiber and degrade sawlogs4 ,these species are commonly found in the ,south infesting southern pine1 fir1 and spruce wherever the hosts grow4 ,illustration3 ,adult southern pine sawyer beetle4 ,the adults emerge in the spring or summer and begin to feed on the bark of twigs4 ,after mating1 the female gnaws pits through the bark of freshly felled or dying pine4 ,the female beetle lays one to several eggs in each pit4 ,after eggs hatch the larvae bore beneath the bark for #dj-fj days1 converting the inner bark into coarse1 shredded frass4 ,the larvae then enter the wood and make deep ,u-shaped cells through the heartwood and sapwood4 ,the entrance is plugged with frass and the far end is excavated into a pupal chamber4 ,the larvae pupate the following spring or early summer1 transform into adults1 and emerge that same season4 ,the insect has two or three generations per year in the ,south4 ,pine sawyers render storm- or fire-damaged pines unfit for salvage and are also a problem in wood-holding yards4 ,rapid salvage and utilization of dead or dying trees or green logs will reduce losses significantly4 ,,nantucket ,,pine ,,tip ,,moth1 ,rhyacionia frustrana 7,comstock7 ,the impact of the ,nantucket pine tip moth on pine plantations varies widely with tree species1 host vigor1 and environmental factors4 ,heavily infested trees may be severely stunted or deformed but mortality is rare4 ,generally1 the tree grows out of the susceptible stage within a few years4 ,in seed orchards1 the tip moth is receiving increasing attention because of its impact on height growth and1 more importantly1 because of its effect on flower and cone production4 ,all species of pine within the range of the tip moth except white pine and longleaf pine1 are attacked4 ,it has been reported from all states in the eastern hard-pine region extending across east ,texas1 ,oklahoma1 ,illinois1 ,indiana1 ,ohio1 and southern ,new ,york ,state4 ,illustration3 ,nantucket pine tip moth larva on pine bud4 ,the tip moths overwinter as pupae in the tips of infested trees4 ,in the ,south the adults emerge on warm days during the late winter months1 mate1 and the females lay eggs in the axils between needles and stem near the terminal bud of host trees4 ,on hatching1 larvae bore first into the base of developing needles1 and later into the new terminal growth or buds4 ,there are two to four generations per year in the southern part of the tip moth's range4 ,chemical control is generally not considered practical in forest plantations1 but several pesticides have proved effective in reducing insect damage in seed orchards4 ,illustration3 ,newly emerged adult tip moth on a damaged shortleaf pine tip4 ,,pales ,,weevil1 ,hylobius pales 7,hbst47 ,pales weevil is perhaps the most serious insect pest of pine reproduction in the southeastern ,united ,states4 ,losses in susceptible areas commonly run #bj-be percent1 but exceed #ij percent under circumstances favoring weevil development4 ,pales weevil is found throughout pine-growing regions of eastern ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,feeding has been reported on most coniferous species1 and all species of southern pines appear to be susceptible in varying degrees4 ,illustration3 ,pitch-eating weevils in the genera ,pachylobius1 ,hylobius1 and ,pissodes4 ,adult weevils are attracted by the odor of fresh pine resin1 and quickly invade logging areas4 ,eggs are laid in lateral roots of fresh pine stumps1 where they hatch in approximately five to ten days4 ,larvae feed on the inner-bark tissues of roots4 ,at maturity1 larvae usually construct a chip cocoon in a chamber cut into the wood1 and pupate in the cocoon4 ,on emerging1 adults feed on the tender bark of seedlings1 or twigs of trees4 ,the small irregular feeding patches in the bark are characteristic of weevil damage4 ,heavy feeding girdles the stem or twig1 causing wilting and eventual death4 ,newly emerged adult females feed for approximately one month before laying eggs4 ,females may lay eggs sporadically through two growing seasons4 ,the average female lays about #ej eggs in her lifetime4 ,in the ,south there are two peaks in adult weevil population each year2 the first occurs in the early spring 7,march-,may7 followed by a second somewhat lower peak in ,july and ,august4 ,this insect can be controlled by delaying planting in cut-over areas for at least nine months1 or by treating seedlings with a suitable insecticide4 ,illustration3 ,adult pales weevil feeding on seedling4 ,,white ,,pine ,,weevil1 ,pissodes strobi 7,peck7 ,the white pine weevil is generally regarded as the most serious insect pest of white pine4 ,although it usually does not cause mortality1 trees suffering repeated attacks become stunted and deformed to the point of being commercially unusable4 ,the weevil has become such a problem in some areas that it prohibits the growing of white pine4 ,in addition to eastern white pine1 the white pine weevils also attack ,norway spruce and jack pine4 ,other pines and spruces are attacked to a lesser degree4 ,the weevil is found throughout the range of eastern white pine4 ,illustration3 ,pine leader damaged by the white pine weevil4 ,during the latter half of ,april1 the adults may be found on the terminal shoots of host trees where the female lays her eggs4 ,up to #bjj eggs are deposited over a six-week period4 ,the eggs are laid in feeding punctures in the bark1 and hatch about two weeks later4 ,characteristically1 the young larvae position themselves around the shoot and begin feeding as a group down the terminal through the inner bark4 ,small holes scattered over the bark are characteristic of white pine weevil attacks4 ,after five or six weeks the larvae construct pupal chambers in the pith or wood of the terminal shoot and transform into adults4 ,the young adults remain in the dead terminal until late ,october and ,november when they move to favorable overwintering sites on the ground1 usually at the base of the host tree4 ,control of the white pine weevil is difficult4 ,it is possible1 however1 to reduce the damage by making conditions in a young stand unfavorable for egg laying4 ,this is possible because the female weevil will only lay eggs within a rather narrow range of temperature and relative humidity4 ,various techniques involving the use of shade from 8nurse trees0 have been developed but require intensive management4 ,under certain circumstances1 chemical control can be used4 ,,pitch-,,eating ,,weevil1 ,pachylobius picivorus 7,germar7 ,in the ,gulf ,coast ,states the pitch-eating weevil is probably the most troublesome insect pest of pine seedlings4 ,no accurate figures are available on the damage directly attributable to this pest1 but mortality losses are estimated to average about #cj percent in susceptible areas4 ,all of the southern hard pines and other conifers are probably suitable breeding and host material for the pitch-eating weevil4 ,its range overlaps that of the pales weevil1 being reported from ,labrador1 ,canada1 south to ,florida and west to ,texas4 ,it occurs in damage-causing numbers only in the ,gulf ,coast ,states4 ,pitch-eating weevils breed in the roots of freshly cut stumps4 ,the adults burrow down through the soil1 sometimes a considerable distance from the stump1 and lay their eggs in niches chewed in the root bark4 ,on hatching1 larvae mine the inner bark1 packing their galleries with frass4 ,pupal cells are excavated in the sapwood1 and a chip cocoon is constructed from the excelsior-like material removed during the cells' construction4 ,development time varies from six to ten months depending on when the stumps are initially infested4 ,emerging adult pitch-eating weevils feed by night on the tender bark of seedlings4 ,small irregular patches of bark are removed1 eventually girdling the seedling and causing its death4 ,the pitch-eating weevil exhibits a population trend similar to that of the pales weevil1 and is a threat mostly in early spring and in the fall4 ,the most effective control for pine reproduction weevils is to wait nine months before replanting or until the stumps in an area are no longer attractive to the weevil4 ,chemical control can be used when such a delay is considered impractical4 ,,deodar ,,weevil1 ,pissodes nemorensis 7,germ47 ,this snout beetle is very similar to the white pine weevil both in appearance and habits4 ,it is found throughout the south- and mid-,atlantic states from southern ,new ,jersey west to ,missouri4 ,although deodar cedar is the preferred host1 ,atlas cedar1 ,lebanon cedar1 and several species of southern pines are also attacked4 ,illustration3 ,galleries and chip cocoons of the deodar weevil4 ,adults emerge from ,april to ,may and feed briefly on the inner bark of leaders and lateral branches of host trees4 ,heavy feeding frequently girdles the stem and can kill small trees4 ,the adults are dormant during the summer1 but resume activity in the fall to lay their eggs4 ,from one to four eggs are deposited in feeding punctures4 ,the newly hatched larvae bore into the inner bark where they construct winding galleries which girdle the stem4 ,evidence of such infestations is often delayed until ,january when the branches begin to turn brown4 ,winter is spent in the larval stage4 ,the larvae pupate in ,march or ,april and the cycle is complete4 ,keeping shade trees in a vigorous condition by proper watering and fertilization helps reduce their susceptibility to weevil attack4 ,,coneworms1 ,dioryctria spp4 ,coneworms are perhaps the most destructive insect pests of pine cones in the ,south4 ,they are particularly serious in superior-tree seed orchards where they frequently cause substantial economic loss4 ,there are five important species of coneworms in the ,south1 one or more of which attack all of the native and exotic pines4 ,illustration3 ,coneworm larva feeding on a pine shoot4 ,although the number of generations per year varies with the species1 their general life history is similar4 ,female moths lay their eggs around wounds1 cankers1 galls1 etc41 but also deposit particularly on terminal growth4 ,eggs generally hatch in about a week4 ,larvae may stay at a single feeding site1 or move to several different sites before completing their development4 ,this latter behavior often results in a single larva destroying several cones or shoots4 ,pupation takes place in a chamber constructed by the larva at the feeding site4 ,depending on the species and time of year1 the adult may emerge in two to three weeks or overwinter in the pupal stage4 ,coneworms cause several kinds of damage4 ,they may mine through the inner bark1 bore up the center of a shoot1 or completely hollow out a cone4 ,their attacks are sometimes marked by fecal pellets and large pitch masses4 ,illustration3 ,slash pine cone damaged by coneworm larva4 ,several parasites attack coneworms but are seldom effective enough to prevent population build-ups4 ,chemical control is often necessary on seed orchards to ensure adequate protection of the cone crop4 ,,pine ,,seedworms1 ,laspeyresia spp4 ,until recent years little has been known about pine seedworms4 ,these insects are found throughout the ,south but seldom have population explosions4 ,an exception to this is on slash pine in ,florida where over #gj percent of one year's cones were reported infested4 ,longleaf pine cones in ,texas and ,louisiana have also had over #fj percent cone infestation on occasion4 ,loblolly and shortleaf pine cones are seldom over #bj percent infested4 ,seedworms have been found infesting longleaf1 loblolly1 shortleaf1 slash1 and ,virginia pine cones4 ,laspeyresia anaranjada ,miller attacks primarily slash pine1 occasionally longleaf pine1 and rarely loblolly pine4 ,l4 ingens ,heinrick attacks primarily longleaf and slash pine4 ,l4 toreuta ,grote attacks ,virginia1 shortleaf1 and loblolly pine in the ,south4 ,illustration3 ,adult pine seedworm4 ,the female moth lays eggs from ,april through ,may on second-year cones4 ,there is one generation per year4 ,larvae feed within developing seeds until the cone matures4 ,in late fall1 larvae either bore into the cone axis or remain in a hollowed-out seed1 and overwinter4 ,pupation occurs within the cone and moths emerge through the hollow seeds4 ,external evidence of seedworm attack is not visible in immature cones4 ,as cones mature1 damaged seeds are retained in the cone4 ,heavily damaged cones do not open properly4 ,in high-value seed orchards and seed production areas some protection from seedworm attack may be obtained through the use of pesticides applied in a carefully timed program4 ,illustration3 ,pine seedworm larva in longleaf pine seed4 ,,balsam ,,woolly ,,aphid1 ,adelges piceae 7,ratzeburg7 ,illustration3 ,eggs and wool-covered adult balsam woolly aphids4 ,the balsam woolly aphid was introduced into northeastern ,north ,america from ,europe around the turn of the century4 ,since then it has become a pest of major importance to true firs on the east and west coasts of the continent1 and threatens some #fj1jjj acres of ,fraser fir in the southern ,appalachians4 ,usually the balsam woolly aphid has two generations per year in the southern ,appalachians4 ,eggs of the first generation hatch in late ,june and ,july followed by the second generation in ,september and ,october4 ,the immature stage of the aphid known as a 8crawler0 is the only motile stage in the aphid's life cycle4 ,once the crawler begins feeding1 it transforms into an adult and never again moves4 ,reproduction is parthenogenic with each female laying approximately #ajj eggs during her lifetime4 ,in the feeding process the aphid injects a salivary substance into the host tree1 which causes growth abnormalities4 ,initial symptoms of aphid attack may include 8gouting0 of buds or twig nodes and some twig and branch die-back4 ,heavy stem attacks reduce the tree's ability to translocate food and water4 ,usually a heavily infested tree dies within two to seven years4 ,chemical control is effective but extremely costly and thus limited to very high-value areas along scenic road-ways4 ,other control measures include removal and destruction of infested material4 ,illustration3 ,fraser fir infested by balsam woolly aphid4 ,,diseases ,,needle ,,cast ,needle cast is a very common disease of conifers throughout eastern and southern ,united ,states4 ,eastern white1 loblolly1 longleaf1 pitch1 pond1 shortleaf1 table mountain1 and ,virginia pines are all susceptible4 ,hypoderma lethale is probably the most common cause of needle cast on the above hosts1 with the exception of longleaf pine4 ,lophodermium pinastri is also associated with needle cast4 ,illustration3 ,hypoderma needle cast on loblolly pine4 ,current pine needles are infected in the early summer1 and by winter or early spring begin to turn brown at the tips4 ,at this time the tree usually has a scorched appearance4 ,later1 the browning progresses down the needle and the fungal fruiting bodies are produced4 ,these are small1 black1 elongated structures known as hysterothecia1 which open along a slit during moist weather to release their spores4 ,the infected needles are often 8cast10 leaving only the new growth1 and causing the tree to have a tufted appearance4 ,controls are seldom needed for this disease in forest stands4 ,infected trees usually recover and put out new foliage the year following heavy attacks4 ,nurseries or plantations should not be established in areas where needle cast is prevalent4 ,illustration3 ,lophodermium needle cast on #b-j nursery stock and #e year old scotch pine1 ,spanish variety4 ,illustration3 7cont47 ,,brown ,,spot ,,needle ,,blight ,brown spot or brown spot needle blight is caused by the fungus ,scirrhia acicola4 ,brown spot occurs in all the coastal states from ,virginia to ,texas1 and inland to ,arkansas and ,tennessee4 ,all southern pines are attacked by the fungus1 but only longleaf pine seedlings are seriously damaged4 ,illustration3 ,brown spot needle blight on longleaf pine reproduction4 ,initial infection of pine needles results in the development of small1 circular spots of grey green color1 which later turn brown4 ,as the fungus continues to grow1 a necrotic area encircles the needle1 appearing as a brown band4 ,the infected area will then increase in size1 eventually resulting in the death of the needle4 ,fruiting bodies1 called acervuli1 develop in the dead areas of the needle4 ,spores are extruded from the acervuli in a water soluble gelatinuous matrix throughout the entire year4 ,the spores are washed apart and splashed short distances by rain drops4 ,these spores spread the disease from seedling to seedling4 ,during the winter and early spring1 the sexual stage of the fungus is produced on dead needles4 ,ascospores1 produced in a fruiting body called a perithecium1 are light and wind-disseminated4 ,these spores are responsible for disease spread4 ,during the grass stage1 seedlings often become heavily infected by the brown spot fungus1 resulting in partial to complete defoliation4 ,seedlings which are nearly defoliated every year remain in the grass stage and eventually die4 ,three successive years of complete defoliation will result in death4 ,the disease is very damaging during wet years1 especially in areas where the fungus has become well established in the absence of controls4 ,the disease can be reduced by control burning during the winter months4 ,on seedlings1 fire burns the diseased needles and reduces the amount of available inoculum for reinfection1 leaving the large terminal bud unharmed4 ,often a single prescribed burn reduces the disease intensity to such low levels that vigorous seedling height growth begins the following year4 ,fungicide sprays will also reduce brown spot on high valued trees4 ,,pine ,,needle ,,rust ,illustration3 ,fruiting bodies of pine needle rust on loblolly pine4 ,nearly all the native pines in southern ,united ,states are attacked by various needle rust fungi of the genus ,coleosporium4 ,this disease is very common1 but causes little harm to the trees4 ,many species of this rust also attack broadleaved weeds in addition to the pines1 needing both host types to complete their life cycle4 ,needle rusts are most prevalent on young trees in the seedling to sapling stage4 ,in the spring or early summer small1 delicate white fungus 8cups0 filled with yellow to orange spores are produced on the needles4 ,from a distance entire seedlings may appear to have a whitish or yellowish cast4 ,individual needles which are heavily infected may die1 turn brown1 and drop from the tree4 ,however1 the entire tree is rarely defoliated4 ,small red 8rust pustules0 form on the undersurface of the weed leaves4 ,these are replaced by dark structures later in the summer4 ,the needle rusts are not important enough to warrant control in natural forests or plantations4 ,if the weed 7alternate7 host is known1 it can be eradicated around nurseries of susceptible pine species4 ,however1 it would be better to establish nurseries in rust free areas4 ,,cedar ,,apple ,,rust ,cedar apple rust1 caused by ,gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae1 is important commercially in the apple-growing regions of the ,virginias1 ,carolinas1 and the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,the alternate hosts of this rust are eastern red cedar and several species of junipers4 ,illustration3 ,fruiting galls containing spores on cedar tree4 ,illustration3 ,fruiting on apple leaf the alternate host4 ,cedar 8apples0 or galls are the characteristic signs of the fungus on cedars4 ,cedar needles are infected in the summer by wind-borne spores from apple leaves4 ,by the next spring or early summer galls begin to appear as small greenish brown swellings on the upper needle surfaces4 ,by fall1 the infected needle turns into a chocolate brown gall covered with small circular depressions4 ,the following spring1 orange jelly-like tendrils protrude from the galls producing an attractive ornament for the cedar tree4 ,spores produced from these orange spore masses are then capable of reinfecting apple leaves1 thus completing the fungus life cycle4 ,no practical control of the rust on cedars is available because of the low value of cedar4 ,however1 considerable effort is expended to protect apple trees4 ,where apple is to be protected1 cedars should be eliminated in the vicinity or1 rust galls should be picked or cut off cedars before the galls mature4 ,,cedar ,,blight ,cedar blight1 caused by ,phomopsis juniperovora1 is most severe on eastern red and ,rocky ,mountain cedars4 ,other hosts include arborvitae1 cypress1 and ,atlantic white cedar4 ,the disease ranges from the mid-,west to the ,atlantic coast and south to ,alabama where it is most common in nurseries4 ,illustration3 ,needle symptoms on #a-j eastern red cedar nursery stock and #e year old ,arizona cypress4 ,illustration3 7cont47 ,symptoms on red cedar resemble that of drought4 ,the tips of branches are killed back and sometimes entire trees will turn brown4 ,the fungus forms black fruiting bodies on needles and stem lesions4 ,fungus spores are distributed by rainwater2 nursery overhead sprinkling systems also facilitate blight spread4 ,control of cedar blight is initiated by removing and burning infected nursery stock early in the season before infection becomes heavy4 ,seedbeds should be well drained4 ,avoid introducing cedar stock to an infected nursery4 ,the location of cedars in the nursery should be changed frequently and1 where possible1 cedar beds should be kept well away from older cedar or cedar hedges4 ,seedlings growing in low-density seed beds are more vulnerable to the blight2 thus beds should be fully stocked4 ,cedar mulch should never be used on cedar beds4 ,avoid wounding nursery transplants4 ,no economically feasible control is available for forest stands4 ,,fusiform ,,rust ,illustration3 ,galls on #a-j pine nursery stock4 ,illustration3 ,damage caused by fusiform rust infection4 ,fusiform rust1 caused by ,cronartium fusiforme1 is one of the most important diseases on southern pines4 ,this rust is found from ,maryland to ,florida and west to ,texas and southern ,arkansas4 ,the rust's most important impact is in nurseries1 seed orchards1 and young plantations4 ,loblolly and slash pines are very susceptible to this rust4 ,pitch and pond pines are moderately susceptible1 longleaf pine is fairly resistant1 and shortleaf pine is highly resistant4 ,the most easily recognized symptom is the spindle-shaped canker on the pine branches or main stem4 ,in early spring these swellings appear yellow to orange as the fungus produces powdery spores4 ,as host tissue is killed1 older stem cankers may become flat or sunken4 ,cankers often girdle trees and wind breakage at the canker is common4 ,fungus spores from the pine infect oak leaves4 ,brown hair-like structures1 produced on the underside of the leaves in late spring1 are the most conspicuous signs4 ,these projections produce spores which in turn reinfect the pine trees1 completing a 8typical0 rust cycle4 ,illustration3 ,fruiting fusiform-shaped canker on main stem of southern pine4 ,silvicultural practices may lessen the incidence of infection in plantations4 ,avoid planting highly susceptible species such as slash and loblolly pines in areas of known high rust incidence4 ,in these areas more resistant species such as longleaf or shortleaf pine should be planted4 ,pruning infected branches will prevent stem infection in young plantations4 ,rust-resistant pines should be readily available from the nurseries in the near future4 ,culling out seedlings with obvious galls before outplanting will reduce the disease incidence in new plantations4 ,,white ,,pine ,,blister ,,rust ,white pine blister rust1 caused by ,cronartium ribicola1 was introduced to ,north ,america on nursery stock about #aijj4 ,it is the most important disease on white pine in the ,united ,states4 ,in the ,south1 the disease is found on eastern white pine in the ,appalachian mountains4 ,illustration3 ,fruiting cankers showing yellow-colored spores of blister rust on eastern white pine4 ,illustration3 7cont47 ,the disease is caused by a fungus that attacks both white pine and wild and cultivated currant and gooseberry bushes1 called ,ribes4 ,both hosts must be present if the fungus is to complete its life cycle4 ,attack by the disease is followed by the development of cankers on the main stem or branches4 ,infected pines die when a canker completely girdles the main stem or when many of the branches are killed by girdling4 ,the most conspicuous symptoms of the disease are the dying branches or crowns 78flags07 above the girdling cankers1 and the cankers themselves4 ,initially1 a narrow band of yellow-orange bark marks the edges of the canker4 ,inside this band are small irregular dark brown scars4 ,as the canker grows1 the margin and bank of dark scars expand and the portion formerly occupied by the dark scars is now the area where the spores that infect ,ribes are produced4 ,during the months of ,april through ,june white sacs or blisters containing orange-yellow spores 7called aeciospores7 push through the diseased bark4 ,the blisters soon rupture and the orange-yellow spores are wind-dispersed for great distances4 ,generally1 there is some tissue swelling associated with the canker1 which results in a spindle-shaped swelling around the infected portion of the stem4 ,loss of white pines from blister rust can be prevented by destroying the wild and cultivated ,ribes bushes4 ,bushes may be removed by uprooting by hand1 grubbing with a hand tool1 or with herbicides4 ,pruning infected branches on young trees will prevent stem infections and probably tree mortality4 ,,comandra ,,blister ,,rust ,illustration3 ,fruit gall showing orange colored spores on loblolly pine4 ,illustration3 ,alternate host--false toadflax4 ,comandra blister rust1 caused by the fungus ,cronartium comandrae1 is a canker disease of hard pines4 ,the disease presently occurs in widely scattered areas throughout the western1 central1 and southern ,united ,states4 ,in the ,south1 the primary hosts are loblolly1 shortleaf1 pond1 and ,virginia pine4 ,herbaceous plants of the genus ,comandra1 commonly known as false toadflax or comandra1 are also attacked4 ,the fungus infects pines through the needles and grows from the needle into the branch or main stem where it forms a gall or canker4 ,dark orange-colored spores which are produced on the surface of the gall in the spring are wind-blown and infect the leaves or stems of the comandra plants4 ,two to three weeks after infection1 urediospores are produced on the underside of the comandra leaf4 ,these are wind-blown and can only infect other comandra plants4 ,eventually hair-like structures known as telia are produced on the comandra leaves and stems4 ,the telia produce spores which are wind-blown and infect the pine host through the needle4 ,the necessary combination of a susceptible pine host1 the alternate host1 and the pathogen is presently known to occur only in northern ,arkansas1 eastern ,tennessee1 and northern ,alabama4 ,no effective method of controlling the disease in forest stands is presently known4 ,silvicultural or forest management practices which reduce the abundance of the alternate host offer promise of long term control4 ,maintenance of dense stands and heavy ground cover as a means of shading out the intermediate host plants1 may be helpful in reducing rust damage in many areas4 ,,eastern ,,gall ,,rust ,eastern gall rust1 caused by the fungus ,cronartium cerebrum1 attacks many species of eastern hard pines4 ,the disease ranges eastward from the ,great ,plains and is most severe in the ,south on ,virginia and shortleaf pines4 ,like most rusts this fungus requires an alternate host in addition to its pine host4 ,in this case oaks1 especially the red oak group 7black1 red1 scarlet and pin7 are the alternate hosts4 ,damage to the oaks is generally not of economic importance as only the leaves are affected4 ,illustration3 ,fruiting gall showing red-orange spores on ,virginia pine4 ,on pines the fungus causes the formation of globose to sub-globose galls4 ,canker formation occurs occasionally but mortality generally results from wind breakage at the gall rather than by canker formation as literally hundreds of galls may appear on a single tree4 ,they are not lethal to the tree1 but may ruin tree form and on a large stem they can lead to an open decayed wound1 as decay fungi are often secondary invaders of rust infections4 ,the shape of galls and the arrangement of the spore sacs filled with red-orange spores present a cerebroid 7brain-like7 appearance4 ,during the spring the bright orange galls are very striking4 ,this disease is sometimes a problem in nurseries where seedlings are attacked and killed4 ,this is where control efforts are concentrated4 ,fungicide protectants are applied to the seedling foliage to prevent infection from spores produced on oaks4 ,contact your local forestry extension agent or the nearest ,division of ,forest ,pest ,management for the latest recommendations4 ,under forest conditions1 control is not economically feasible4 ,trees of poor form should be removed during thinning operations4 ,,southern ,,cone ,,rust ,southern cone rust is caused by the fungus ,cronartium strobilinum4 ,it has been reported to completely destroy slash and longleaf pine cone crops in ,georgia and along the ,gulf ,coast from ,florida to ,texas4 ,illustration3 ,cone rust symptoms on slash pine4 ,illustration3 7cont47 ,like most other rusts1 the fungus requires oaks and pines to complete its life cycle4 ,although infection of oak leaves occurs annually1 no significant economic damage is done to the oaks4 ,fungus spores produced on oak leaves infect the mature female pine flowers about the time of pollination 7,january-,february74 ,the fungus grows through the developing conelet causing it to swell abnormally4 ,by early ,april or late ,may the infected cones are three to four times larger than the normal first-year cones and even exceed the maturing second-year cones in size4 ,the swollen cone scales are reddish in color4 ,cavities in the cone filled with orange-yellow spores burst and the cones become orange-yellow4 ,the swollen orange-yellow cones in the tree crowns can be easily distinguished from normal cones by an observer on the ground4 ,by late summer most of the diseased cones have died and fallen4 ,control at present is confined to seed orchards4 ,hydraulic spraying of the flowers with fungicides gives a significant reduction in infections4 ,consult your local forester1 county extension agent or the nearest ,forest ,pest ,management ,office for current control recommendations4 ,,pitch ,,canker ,pitch canker1 caused by the fungus ,fusarium lateritium forma pini1 is rapidly becoming widespread throughout the ,south4 ,the disease apparently is most serious on ,virginia1 slash and south ,florida slash pine4 ,the fungus also attacks shortleaf1 pitch1 and table-mountain pine4 ,illustration3 ,pitch canker infection in terminal branch and main stem of pine4 ,illustration3 7cont47 ,pitch canker may cause tree mortality4 ,on ,virginia pines the fungus reportedly enters through small insect wounds in the twigs or mechanical wounds in the bole4 ,shoots may be girdled and killed within a few weeks1 but it takes a period of years for the fungus to girdle the bole of larger trees4 ,on slash pine the disease apparently attacks plantations in wave years4 ,during years of heavy attack the fungus can cause rapid crown deterioration in addition to causing bole canker infections4 ,cankers on leaders in the crown can result in death of two-thirds or more of the crown by mid-summer in a tree that appeared healthy in the spring4 ,in the majority of tree infections only the leader and one or two laterals will be infected4 ,the tree recovers in a few years with a crook in the bole as the only evidence of attack4 ,pitch cankers usually retain the bark and old cankers on the hole may be sunken4 ,the most diagnostic characteristic of the disease1 and the one that definitely separates it from similar disease1 is the heavy pitch soak of the wood beneath the canker4 ,pitch cankers are often so soaked with pitch that heavy flow of pitch is observed flowing down the bole4 ,at the present time1 no known method of control exists4 ,observations in slash pine plantations indicate that some trees are resistant while others range in their degree of susceptibility4 ,,wood ,,decay ,wood decay of southern forest trees is responsible for nearly #hj percent of all loss attributed to disease4 ,this decay is caused by fungi which mainly attack heartwood in the central portion of stems1 branches1 and roots4 ,wood-rotting fungi gain entrance into the tree through broken branches1 wounds1 and damaged or exposed roots4 ,spores1 which land at these damaged areas1 germinate and produce a microscopic mycelium which attacks and spreads throughout the heartwood4 ,the decay is caused by the action of the mycelium1 which penetrate the cell walls and dissolve or alter the wood in various ways4 ,fungus development within the tree may continue for many years without any apparent effect on the growth of the host4 ,eventually the mycelium will aggregate and break through the bark to form the reproductive stage1 either before or after the death of the host4 ,the fruiting body 7sporophore1 conk7 produces vast amounts of spores which are capable of spreading the fungus to other trees4 ,heartrots may be separated into broad classes on the basis of the host portion attacked1 such as root rots1 root and butt rots1 stem rots1 and top rots4 ,decay fungi may be further separated into two broad classes based on their effect on wood4 ,the first class causes white rots1 decomposing all components of the wood and reducing it to a spongy mass with white pockets or streaks separated by firm wood4 ,the second class1 causing brown rots1 utilize the cellulose1 leaving the lignin more or less unaffected4 ,this usually results in a rot which appears as some shade of brown4 ,the separation of wood decay fungi on the basis of their host range1 the portion of the host attacked1 and the type of rot produced are useful aids to a pathologist in determining a tentative identification of the fungus responsible for a particular type of rot4 ,however1 there are numerous fungi which cause decay1 many of which are exceptions to the various methods of classification4 ,this forces the pathologist to use microscopic examination and various artificial keys to arrive at the proper identification of a given rot-producing fungus4 ,illustration3 ,sectioned stump showing rot and decay in heartwood4 ,,red ,,heart ,the fungus1 ,fomes pini1 is the cause of a heartrot of widespread distribution4 ,common names for the rot produced by this fungus are3 red heart1 red ring rot1 or white peck4 ,the disease is commonly associated with mature and over-mature conifers1 especially ,douglas fir1 larch1 spruce1 and pine4 ,in the southern ,united ,states1 the fungus attacks all species of mature pine4 ,illustration3 ,fruiting body of redheart on southern pine4 ,generally1 infection of all hosts occurs through dead branch stubs4 ,early stages of decay caused by ,f4 pini are characterized by a discoloration of the heartwood1 often appearing light red to reddish brown4 ,the advanced stages of heartrot appear as elongated white pockets or flecks1 formed parallel to the grain and separated by apparently firm wood4 ,often the pockets become resin filled4 ,on southern pine hosts1 the conks are often bracket-like or hoof-shaped4 ,the upper surface appears dull grey to dark brown1 with concentric furrows parallel to the margin of the fruiting body4 ,the lower side is a light brown to brownish gold1 rimmed by a velvety golden brown margin4 ,swollen knots result from the living wood tissue trying to overgrow the knot where a conk is forming4 ,illustration3 ,cross section of infected tree showing rotted and decayed heart wood4 ,in southern forest stands1 heartrot damage may be reduced by harvesting mature pines prior to the age of extreme susceptibility to fungus attack4 ,some degree of shade tree protection can be obtained by pruning dead and dying branches flush with the main stem4 ,this will allow the knot to be quickly overgrown by sap wood1 preventing the heartrot fungus from entering through the branch stub4 ,,annosus ,,root ,,and ,,butt ,,rot ,illustration3 ,fomes annosus fruiting bodies on stump4 ,annosus root and butt rot is caused by the fungus ,fomes annosus4 ,this pathogen is common throughout coniferous stands of the ,north ,temperate ,zone4 ,hardwoods may be attacked1 but damage is usually of minor consequence4 ,in the ,south1 the disease is most serious in pine plantations on sandy soils with low organic matter4 ,all species of southern pine are susceptible4 ,slash and loblolly plantations are often severely affected4 ,the disease gains entry into plantations by spore infection of freshly cut stumps during thinnings4 ,the fungus then spreads from the infected stumps to residual trees by growth along the roots to points of root contact4 ,residual trees usually begin to die within a few years after thinning4 ,the sporophores or fruiting bodies are generally found at ground line or in the root crotch4 ,pines in initial stages of the disease usually exhibit sparsely foliated crowns2 however1 white pine with full crown may have extensive butt and root decay4 ,occasionally trees may die rapidly with a sudden red discoloration of a nearly full crown4 ,diseased trees are often found in groups or circular pockets in the stand4 ,the indication of ,f4 annosus decay may include the pink to violet stain of incipient decay1 the narrow elongated white pockets and scattered black flecks in the wood of the early decay stages1 and the yellow stringy rot of the late stages of decay4 ,illustration3 ,infection center in pulpwood size pine stand4 ,control includes avoidance of planting on soils of low organic matter and elimination of thinning4 ,stump infection following thinning or harvest may be prevented using various methods4 ,,brown ,,cubical ,,butt ,,rot ,polyporus schweinitzii is a common cause of root and butt rot of conifers throughout ,north ,america4 ,the primary hosts of the fungus are ,douglas fir1 spruce1 and pine4 ,all southern pines are susceptible to attack by ,p4 schweinitzii4 ,common names of the rot are3 red-brown butt rot and brown cubical butt rot4 ,illustration3 ,fruiting body of brown cubical root and butt rot of pine4 ,the fungus enters living hosts through damaged roots1 fire scars1 and other wounds near the tree base4 ,the initial stage of decay appears as a light yellow stain4 ,in the advanced stage1 the heartwood becomes brittle and breaks into large yellow-brown to reddish-brown cubes4 ,the fungus develops primarily in the roots and butt and seldom extends more than #ae or #bj feet up into the stem4 ,diseased trees are subject to wind-throw and wind breakage4 ,although the volume of wood destroyed by the rot is small1 the total volume lost through wind-throw is quite large4 ,mature1 suppressed1 and weakened off-site trees are commonly attacked by the fungus4 ,it is assumed that the fungus may also spread from infected to healthy trees through root contacts and grafts4 ,the only outward signs of decay are the annual sporophores1 which develop in late summer and fall during moist weather4 ,conks formed at the base of infected trees are bracket shaped1 while those arising from decayed roots appear circular1 sunken in the center1 and supported by a short stalk4 ,when fresh1 the upper surface is velvety1 concentrically zoned1 and reddish-brown in color with a light yellow margin4 ,the underside is dark olive or green with large irregular pores4 ,in forest stands1 no method of controlling the disease is known4 ,losses may be prevented to some extent by reducing the amount of root damage and wounding from heavy logging equipment4 ,the prevention of basal fire scars in conifer stands will also reduce the incidence of this disease4 ,trees which show signs of advanced root and butt rot should be removed from around recreation areas1 parking lots1 power lines1 and buildings to avoid damage from wind-throw and wind breakage4 ,,red ,,root ,,and ,,butt ,,rot ,illustration3 ,fruiting body of red root and butt rot of pine4 ,polyporus tomentosus causes red root and butt rot of living conifers throughout ,north ,america4 ,common hosts of the fungus are3 spruce1 larch1 pine1 fir1 ,douglas fir1 hemlock1 and cedar4 ,throughout the southern ,united ,states1 ,p4 tomentosus has been reported in two general areas2 causing extensive degrade of mature shortleaf pine in northern ,arkansas and root and butt rot of slash pine in ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 and ,florida4 ,the fungus is believed to enter living hosts through basal wounds and damaged roots4 ,under ideal conditions1 the fungus may spread from infected to healthy trees by way of root contacts or grafts4 ,growth of the fungus is very slow1 often causing host mortality #bj to #cj years after initial infection4 ,wood decayed initially appears firm1 but dark reddish-brown in color4 ,in advanced stages1 the wood is flecked with elliptical white pockets separated by brown-colored wood4 ,infected conifers generally express typical root rot symptoms4 ,trees show evidence of reduced radial and internodal growth1 accompanied by death of the crown from the base upward4 ,the foliage appears off-color and reduced in length4 ,under moist conditions1 sporophores are produced either at the base of infected trees or on the forest floor4 ,bracket-shaped sporophores are produced at the base of infected trees while stipitate conks are produced on the ground directly over infected or dead roots4 ,fresh sporophores appear yellow-brown in color from above with a lighter colored pore surface below4 ,no effective method of controlling the disease in forest stands is presently known4 ,however1 damage and losses may be reduced by management practices which reduce or eliminate the chance introduction of the disease into healthy stands4 ,in areas where red root and butt rot is common1 attempts should be made to conduct logging and thinning operations during the dry season to avoid mechanical damage to the root systems of the residual trees4 ,,littleleaf ,,of ,,pine ,littleleaf of pine1 caused by ,phytophthora cinnamomi1 is the most serious disease of shortleaf pine in the ,piedmont region of the ,south4 ,loblolly is also affected1 usually where associated with infected shortleaf pine4 ,the disease is most evident in older age classes1 rarely attacking stands under #bj years old4 ,illustration3 ,needle symptoms and damage of littleleaf on shortleaf pine4 ,illustration3 7cont47 ,the disease is caused by a malfunctioning of the root system due to a combination of biological and physical factors4 ,a fungus1 ,phytophthora cinnamomi attacks and kills the root tips4 ,when conditions of moisture1 fertility1 and drainage are adverse1 they reduce tree vigor and prevent the tree from rapidly replacing the destroyed root tips4 ,trees on good sites are reportedly also attacked by the fungus1 but their vigor is such that they quickly overcome the disease by producing new root tips4 ,the disease usually progresses rather slowly4 ,some trees may persist fifteen or more years after the appearance of initial symptoms4 ,in general1 trees live only five or six years after attack1 but they may die in as little as one year4 ,symptoms are those typical of trees in stress due to a malfunction of the root system4 ,in the early stage of the disease the foliage may turn yellow-green and the current year's needles are shorter than normal4 ,later stages of the disease are sparsely foliated crowns with short needles 7reduced from three to five to only one-half to three inches in length7 and dead branches4 ,abundant foliage sprouting on the hole of infected shortleaf is common4 ,losses are minimized by salvage cuttings and by favoring loblolly and hardwoods in regeneration plans4 ,,sycamore ,,anthracnose ,illustration3 ,defoliation of sycamore tree caused by sycamore anthracnose4 ,sycamore anthracnose1 caused by ,gnomonia veneta1 is common on ,american sycamore throughout its range in the eastern ,united ,states4 ,anthracnose is a disease characterized by distinctive limited lesions on stem1 leaf1 or fruit1 often accompanied by dieback or blight and usually caused by fungi that produce slimy spores that ooze from small cup-shaped fruiting bodies that are visible with a hand lens4 ,this disease has four distinct symptom stages identified as twig blight1 bud blight1 shoot blight1 and leaf blight4 ,twig blight appears before leaf emergence and kills the tips of small one-year-old twigs4 ,infection comes initially from leaf litter and twig cankers4 ,the second stage1 bud blight1 develops during bud expansion in ,april and early ,may4 ,shoot blight1 the most frequently observed symptom1 causes the sudden dying of expanding shoots and also young leaves4 ,leaf blight1 the final stage1 involves the actual infection of expanding or mature leaves4 ,diseased portions of the leaf involve irregular brown areas adjacent to the midrib and veins which are dotted with diseased spots4 ,incidence of anthracnose is directly related to the amount of spring rainfall4 ,shoot blight is severe if the weather for two weeks after leaf emergence is cool and moist4 ,the disease may defoliate trees1 which usually put out a new crop of leaves by late spring or summer4 ,control of sycamore anthracnose under forest conditions is not economically feasible4 ,where the disease is prevalent1 other species should be favored during thinnings4 ,in shade and ornamental trees1 pruning of infected twigs1 burning of leaves1 and fertilization will reduce the disease impact4 ,illustration3 ,leaf and twig symptoms4 ,,walnut ,,anthracnose ,walnut anthracnose is a fungus disease caused by ,gnomonia leptostyla4 ,this worldwide disease attacks most species of walnut in the ,united ,states4 ,black walnut is most severely affected1 but with favorable weather for the fungus1 even less susceptible individuals may be defoliated4 ,butternut1 ,persian walnut1 and two species from ,california 7,hinds walnut and ,california walnut7 are all susceptible4 ,anthracnose has also been reported on species of walnut from most of the ,european countries1 ,argentina1 ,canada1 and ,south ,africa4 ,wet weather greatly favors this leaf disease which may defoliate black walnuts by late ,july or early ,august4 ,defoliation slows growth1 weakens trees1 and sometimes causes mortality4 ,infected leaves reveal circular spots of dark brown or black4 ,these spots often grow together1 leaving large dead areas4 ,these spots or blotches are bordered with yellow to golden tissue4 ,while severely affected leaves fall1 some 8anthracnose0 leaves remain on the tree4 ,this disease also affects the growth and quality of the nuts4 ,nutmeats from infected trees are dark1 unattractive1 and shrivelled4 ,sunken1 killed areas appear on the husks as dark circular spots smaller than those on the leaves4 ,infected nuts1 like the leaves1 may also fall from the tree4 ,lesions may appear on the current year's shoots and later form dead sunken areas that are oval to irregularly circular with reddish brown margins4 ,as with the other anthracnose diseases1 no practical control is available for forest trees4 ,control of walnut anthracnose on ornamentals and nut trees is partially achieved by raking and burning of old leaves4 ,,oak ,,antrhacnose ,illustration3 ,leaf symptoms of oak anthracnose4 ,oak anthracnose is caused by the fungus ,gnomonia veneta4 ,trees of the white oak group1 particularly white oak1 are susceptible to this disease4 ,oaks throughout the entire eastern ,united ,states are affected by the disease1 although it is less common in the ,northeast4 ,infection occurs in the early spring or mid-summer4 ,symptoms on leaves develop as irregular brown diseased areas 7blotches7 along the midrib and the major side veins4 ,these blotches may grow together by late spring or early summer if infection occurs early4 ,blotches are usually confined to the areas bordered by the larger veins4 ,leaves on the lower branches are frequently killed and occasionally trees will be defoliated4 ,however1 a second crop of leaves soon develops and mortality is rare4 ,fruiting bodies of ,gloeosporium1 the imperfect fungus fruiting stage of anthracnose1 are located on the midrib and veins of infected leaves4 ,when the disease spreads to the twigs1 cankers and crown dieback may occur4 ,the anthracnose fungus overwinters on diseased twigs and in the leaf litter4 ,oak anthracnose has the same causal agent as sycamore anthracnose1 and the weather conditions favoring the sycamore disease also increases the anthracnose on oak4 ,control is similar to sycamore anthracnose and involves an integrated program of pruning disease tissue1 fertilization1 and burning of leaf litter4 ,no practical control is available for forest trees4 ,,dogwood ,,anthracnose ,dogwood anthracnose1 caused by the fungus ,elsinoe corni1 occurs in states bordering the ,atlantic ,ocean and has also been reported in ,louisiana4 ,its primary host is flowering dogwood1 ,cornus florida ,l4 ,illustration3 ,leaf and flower symptoms of dogwood anthracnose4 ,illustration3 7cont47 ,anthracnose occurs in the spring and affects not only the leaves1 but also the buds and 8flowers04 ,the buds may fail to open or they may produce stunted flowers4 ,these have many circular to elongated spots with light tan centers4 ,margins of these spots are purple to brown4 ,often the flowers abort before development4 ,foliage spots 7#a-b mm4 in diameter7 are raised at the margins4 ,they are purple at the edges and yellow-gray in the center4 ,later centers of spots may fall out causing a 8shothole0 effect4 ,dozens of spots may be present on a single leaf and may be scattered or concentrated at tip1 margin1 or midrib4 ,twisting and malformation of the leaves are common4 ,in addition to floral and foliage spots1 infected areas may also occur on petioles1 stems1 and fruit clusters4 ,all three areas have spots similar to those on the foliage4 ,other diseases which may be confused with anthracnose include ,septoria and ,ascochyta leaf spots4 ,septoria usually begins around ,july and unlike anthracnose has more angular lesions that are between the veins4 ,ascochyta spots may be larger 7#f mm4 in diameter7 than anthracnose1 and tissue discoloration may extend outside of their borders4 ,occasionally the leaves may totally blacken4 ,this disease may occur as early as ,june4 ,wet1 humid weather at certain stages of plant development is required for infection4 ,homeowners may obtain effective control by removing and burning infected plant parts4 ,various fungicide sprays are recommended by authors of ornamental handbooks4 ,,cottonwood ,,rust ,illustration3 ,rust infected cottonwood leaf4 ,cottonwood rust1 caused by ,melampsora medusae1 is probably the most important leaf disease of cottonwoods wherever they are grown4 ,in the ,lower ,mississippi ,valley1 all sizes of eastern cottonwood trees may be infected with this rust4 ,however1 the disease is probably of most importance in cottonwood nurseries4 ,in mid-summer1 yellow to orange pustules containing spores of the fungus form on the under surface of the cottonwood leaves4 ,in late summer and early fall1 dark brown fungal growths replace the orange structures4 ,cottonwood may be prematurely defoliated or even killed by successive attacks4 ,the rust may weaken trees and subject them to attack by other disease-causing organisms4 ,also1 there is often a reduction in growth in these normally fast growing species4 ,this is very important since there is presently a wide interest in the use of hybrid poplars for pulp and timber production4 ,there is generally no accepted control for cottonwood rust4 ,rust-resistant varieties of hybrid and exotic cottonwoods are being developed and may provide the best control of this disease4 ,,black ,,knot ,illustration3 ,black swellings of cherry black knot4 ,black knot1 caused by ,dibotryon morbosum1 is prevalent throughout the ,southeast 7with the exception of southern ,florida7 wherever black cherry grows1 and in orchards on plums and domestic cherries4 ,the most prominent symptoms are the elongated black swellings which appear in summer on small twigs and branches4 ,heavily infected trees appear quite grotesque1 with large swellings which may be several times the diameter of the twigs4 ,cankers occurring on black cherry trunks usually ruin the commercial tree value4 ,initial infection occurs on lateral branches and twigs in the spring1 but the swellings do not become noticeable until the following spring4 ,the most practical control for black knot is removal of infected black cherry from the stand4 ,twigs and branches with knots should be burned4 ,,nectria ,,canker ,nectria canker of hardwoods1 caused by ,nectria galligena and ,n4 magnoliae1 is frequently found on yellow birch and black walnut4 ,common hosts also include bigtooth aspen1 sassafras1 northern red oak1 red maple1 beech1 ,carolina poplar1 paper birch1 and sweet birch4 ,a closely related canker disease is also found on yellow-poplar and magnolias4 ,the range of this disease includes the ,lake ,states1 the ,northeast1 and the southern ,appalachians4 ,illustration3 ,target-shaped canker of ,nectria on sassafras and yellow-poplar4 ,illustration3 7cont47 ,older ,nectria cankers are easily recognized in forest stands because of their typical 8target0 shape4 8,target0 cankers have rings1 each of which represent a year's growth4 ,younger cankers tend to be grown over by bark and callus tissue attempting to heal the wound4 ,such cankers are difficult to recognize1 but close examination of the affected area may reveal tiny red bodies1 which are the fruiting bodies of the ,nectria fungi4 ,mortality rarely occurs from this disease1 but stems may break at canker locations during high winds4 ,control of ,nectria canker is the same as for ,strumella canker--the removal of infected trees during thinning operations4 ,,strumella ,,canker ,strumella canker of hardwoods1 caused by ,strumella coryneoidia1 most frequently attacks trees of the red oak group4 ,other hosts include species in the white oak group4 ,beech1 basswood1 blackgum1 shagbark hickory and red maple are also occasionally affected4 ,this disease is found in the ,east1 from the southern ,appalachians to northern ,new ,england4 ,illustration3 ,strumella canker on black oak4 ,strumella cankers are of two types3 diffuse1 and the more common 8target-shaped40 ,the first develops on smooth-barked saplings and rapidly girdles and kills the tree4 ,killing results because callus tissue1 which tends to heal over cankers1 does not have time to develop4 ,target-shaped cankers are more common4 8,targets0 are formed by the alternation of killing of bark by the fungus around the canker's perimeter and the formation1 in turn1 of a callus ridge by the host tree4 ,the fungus is active usually in the dormant season1 while callusing occurs in the spring4 ,as with most canker-causing fungi1 ,strumella usually enters the tree through a branch stub4 ,cankers are quite large and may reach several feet in circumference or length4 ,the presence of the causal fungus is revealed by dark brown1 cushion-like structures about one to three millimeters in diameter on the dead bark and surrounding tissue4 ,no feasible control method is available under forest conditions4 ,however1 the disease impact can be greatly reduced by removing cankered trees during thinning operations4 ,,spiculosa ,,canker ,spiculosa canker1 caused by ,poria spiculosa1 is found on bottomland oaks in the ,south4 ,occasionally this disease will also degrade hickories and honeylocust4 ,illustration3 ,fruiting body of ,poria rot and canker on oak4 ,illustration3 ,cross section of tree showing rot and decay4 ,spiculosa canker is considered to be a canker-rot disease1 a type of decay in which the causal organism incites not only heart-rot but also large irregular cankers4 ,infected trees have cankers that appear as rough circular swellings on the bole4 ,the canker centers are depressed and old branch stubs are discernible4 ,fungus fruiting bodies1 or conks1 usually are not present on living trees but develop on snags or decayed logs4 ,the conks grow flat under the bark and push it off to expose the brown fungus fruiting surface4 ,control for ,spiculosa canker is similar to other canker rots3 salvage to remove undesirable cankered trees that may be later replaced by better quality trees4 ,,irpex ,,canker ,irpex canker1 caused by ,irpex mollis1 is prevalent in bottomlands and on upland areas of the ,southeast4 ,in the bottoms1 ,nuttall1 water1 and willow oaks are affected4 ,white1 chestnut1 southern red1 and black oaks are the hosts of this disease on upland sites4 ,illustration3 ,fruiting body of ,irpex rot4 ,illustration3 ,cross section of tree showing rot and decay4 ,irpex canker is also considered to be a canker-rot disease4 ,symptoms on infected trees frequently involve irregular cankers up to two feet in length4 ,cankers are usually found on trees eight to ten inches in diameter or larger1 at a height of twenty feet above the ground4 ,branch stubs1 signifying probable infection points1 are usually present in the centers of cankers4 ,the portion of the trunk affected is usually swollen but sometimes may be sunken4 ,at the base of the sunken portion of the canker are small1 creamy-white1 toothed fruiting bodies or conks with a leathery texture4 ,conks also appear on hardwood logs4 ,the wood behind cankers is characterized by a tough1 spongy1 white rot which extends as much as eight feet above and below the canker4 ,the decay pattern may also extend downward into the roots4 ,in cross-section1 the rotted areas appear as finger-like projections radiating out toward the sapwood4 ,gradually the rot column tapers to a thin central core beyond which white flecks appear1 and this early rot stage is concentrated along the rays of the oaks4 ,control for ,irpex canker is the same as for other canker-rots--salvage of undesirable cankered trees4 ,,hispidus ,,canker ,polyporus hispidus is the cause of trunk cankers and localized decay of hardwoods throughout eastern1 central1 and southern ,united ,states4 ,the fungus is also known to attack hardwoods in ,oregon and ,california4 ,reported hosts are3 hickory1 ash1 mulberry1 willow1 walnut1 and oak4 ,in the south1 ,p4 hispidus is common on oaks1 including willow1 water1 black1 white1 ,nuttall1 and cherrybark4 ,illustration3 ,fruiting body and canker of ,hispidus on oak4 ,the fungus usually enters the tree through dead branch stubs1 from which it grows into the heartwood4 ,after becoming established1 the fungus begins penetrating the sapwood and attacks the living cambium4 ,callus folds are formed by the host around the dead cambial area1 forming an elongated swollen canker1 commonly referred to as a 8hispidus canker04 ,the cankered area of the stem is bark-covered and sunken1 usually containing a remnant of a branch stub or branch scar4 ,during late summer1 fall or early winter1 the fungus produces conks 7sporophores7 on the surface of the cankers4 ,the annual bracket-shaped conks are large1 spongy1 and yellowish-brown to rusty-brown on the upper surface4 ,when fresh1 the under surface is a light tan color4 ,after a few months1 the mature conks dry to a rigid black mass and fall from the canker4 ,old conks are commonly found at the base of cankered trees during the spring and early summer4 ,decay produced by the fungus appears spongy1 light yellow1 and is commonly separated from the sound wood by a black zone line4 ,the rot is of the delignifying white rot type4 ,on southern oaks1 the rate of canker elongation has been estimated at one-half foot per year1 with the internal rot usually extending about one foot above and below the cankered area4 ,no effective control in forest stands is known4 ,removal of diseased trees provides additional growing space for crop trees4 ,some degree of shade tree protection can be obtained by pruning of dead branches flush with the main stem of the tree4 ,,botryosphaeria ,,canker ,botryosphaeria ribis causes cankering and mortality of more than #ej woody plants4 ,the fungus is widely distributed throughout the eastern one-half of the ,united ,states4 ,the pathogen infects the following economically important hosts3 sweetgum1 redbud1 willow1 poplar1 tupelo1 pecan1 and hickory4 ,illustration3 ,botryosphaeria canker on sweetgum4 ,the fungus gains entry into susceptible hosts primarily through wounds or dead and dying twigs4 ,small oval cankers on stems or branches are the first symptoms of infection4 ,as the fungus continues to attack and kill the cambium1 the sunken cankers enlarge1 eventually girdling and killing the branch or stem above the cankered area4 ,in the spring and early summer1 cankers on living portions of the host often produce an exudate4 ,infected sweetgums generally produce the exudate in great quantities1 to which the common name of bleeding necrosis has been applied4 ,reproductive structures called stroma are produced by the fungus on dead cankered stems and branches during moist periods of the spring and summer4 ,no practical method of control is known4 ,diseased trees seldom recover4 ,infection of high value shade and ornamental trees may be prevented to some degree by avoiding mechanical damage4 ,dead limbs and branches should be pruned and wounds covered with a suitable tree paint4 ,infected trees should be removed and burned4 ,,septoria ,,canker ,illustration3 ,septoria canker on young cottonwood saplings4 ,septoria canker is caused by the fungus ,septoria musiva4 ,although this is a disease of poplars1 native poplar species are not severely attacked4 ,however1 this is an important problem wherever hybrid or introduced poplars are grown4 ,with the ever-increasing emphasis on poplar planting1 this will probably become a much more important problem in the near future4 ,young stem cankers usually develop around openings such as wounds1 lenticels1 or leaf scars1 appearing first as sunken1 dark areas of the bark4 ,the infected area later becomes more depressed and darker as tissue dies1 and often a black margin will be formed around the canker4 ,small1 pink1 hair-like spore tendrils are produced by the fungus around the canker margin1 especially during moist weather4 ,these tendrils contain spores which can cause further infection1 and arise from small dark fungal fruiting structures called pycnidia4 ,this cankered area is often invaded by insects and other fungi and is also a weakened area at which wind breakage may occur4 ,the fungus also causes a gray to black leaf spot1 which usually has a light colored center4 ,these spots may coalesce on a severely infected leaf and involve the entire leaf surface4 ,this leaf spot in itself causes slight damage1 but acts as a source of fungus spores which can cause stem cankers1 and thus is important in the overall consideration of the disease4 ,illustration3 ,defoliation in cottonwood caused by ,septoria leafspot4 ,a control for this disease is to use native poplars or resistant hybrids wherever possible4 ,wider spacing in plantations may also reduce the humidity1 decreasing the amount of infection4 ,,cytospora ,,canker ,cytospora canker is caused by ,cytospora chrysosperma4 ,this fungus attacks more than #gj species of hardwood trees and shrubs as well as some conifers4 ,poplars and willows are among the most common hosts1 and are attacked throughout their range4 ,trees used for shade or windbreak1 and also cuttings in propagation beds are particularly susceptible to this canker4 ,this disease is most severe on trees growing under stress1 such as those growing on an unfavorable site1 or injured by drought1 frost1 fire1 or severe pruning4 ,the fungus is a normal inhabitant of the bark and becomes parasitic only when the tree is weakened4 ,illustration3 ,cytospora canker on cottonwood4 ,a canker begins as a gradual1 circular killing of the bark of a limb or stem4 ,this infected tissue soon appears as a brownish1 sunken patch1 around which the host often produces raised callus tissue4 ,small black fungal structures 7pycnidia7 appear as small pimples on the dead bark4 ,during moist weather1 thin threads of spores exude out from the pycnidia4 ,the inner diseased bark becomes dark and odorous4 ,the cambium is killed and the sapwood becomes watery and reddish brown as it becomes infected4 ,water spouts may form below the canker before the tree dies4 ,since this disease is most severe on weakened trees1 shade trees should be watered and fertilized to maintain healthy1 vigorous growth4 ,wounding and severe pruning should be avoided4 ,cuttings should be selected from healthy planting material grown in disease free areas4 ,if cuttings are to be stored for any length of time1 they should be kept at a temperature below #ce4 ,this low temperature will keep new infections from occurring1 even if spores are present4 ,,chestnut ,,blight ,illustration3 ,stem canker caused by chestnut blight organism4 ,chestnut blight is caused by the fungus ,endothia parasitica4 ,it can be found on ,american chestnut throughout its range where it has virtually eliminated this valuable species from eastern hardwood forests4 ,the chestnut blight fungus is also parasitic on other hosts including common chinkapin1 ,spanish chestnut1 and post oak4 ,japanese and ,chinese chestnuts are resistant4 ,stem cankers are either swollen or sunken and the sunken type may be grown over with bark4 ,the fungus forms fruiting bodies some distance back from the advancing cankers1 and the spores may exude from bark crevices as orange curl-like masses during moist weather4 ,young cankers are yellow-brown in sharp contrast to the normal olive-green color of the bark4 ,the chestnut is a vigorous sprouting species but the fungus survives in previously killed stumps and later kills the new sprout growth4 ,no effective control has been developed for chestnut blight1 even after several decades of intensive research4 ,the most promising control involves the development of a blight-resistant species4 ,research is presently underway on this matter but results are inconclusive4 ,illustration3 ,fruiting bodies on surface of canker4 ,,oak ,,wilt ,this serious vascular wilt of oaks is caused by the fungus ,ceratocystis fagacearum4 ,at least fifty species and varieties of oak are susceptible4 ,the disease has been most damaging in the ,lake ,states but is also found in the eastern ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,oak wilt symptoms on red oak trees and leaves4 ,illustration3 7cont47 ,oak wilt symptoms are most noticeable during late spring or early summer4 ,red oaks may be killed in as little as three weeks1 the lower branches being affected last4 ,in white oaks1 symptoms are usually confined to a few branches each year and trees may live several years before death4 ,leaf symptoms are similar for both red and white oaks4 ,leaves turn yellow or brown and become dry progressively from the edge or tip to the midrib and base4 ,mature leaves may fall at any symptom stage from green to brown4 ,premature leaf shedding is the most outstanding symptom4 ,a definite characteristic of the disease is the raising and cracking of the bark due to pressure of mats of the fungus growing between the bark and wood4 ,oak wilt is spread over long distances by insects that pick up spores while crawling on the mats of infected trees4 ,the disease may also spread from tree to tree via root graft4 ,short-distance spread is controlled by severing all roots of living trees around infected trees by use of a ditchdigger4 ,another control is to fell all trees in a #ej-;foot radius of infected trees2 felling and burning of all parts of infected trees is sometimes done to prevent overland spread4 ,,dutch ,,elm ,,disease ,illustration3 ,dying tree infected with ,dutch elm disease4 ,dutch elm disease1 caused by ,ceratocystis ulmi1 is the most devastating disease of elm trees in the ,united ,states4 ,this disease has been recorded in most states east of the ,mississippi and as far as ,idaho in the ,northwest and ,texas in the ,southwest4 ,all of the native elm species are susceptible1 while many of the ornamental ,asiatic species are highly resistant4 ,trees suffering from ,dutch elm disease may show a variety of symptoms4 ,leaves become yellow1 wilt1 and turn brown4 ,premature defoliation and death of branches usually occurs1 causing the crown to appear thin and sparse4 ,internally1 a brown discoloration appears in the outer sapwood4 ,c4 ulmi is transmitted from diseased to healthy elms by elm bark beetles1 mainly the small ,european elm bark beetle and the native elm bark beetle4 ,these beetles make characteristic galleries under the bark of dead and dying elms4 ,adult beetles pick up the sticky fungus spores from under the bark and then feed on the young tender elm twigs of healthy trees1 inadvertently inoculating the healthy tree with the fungus4 ,the fungus may also spread from diseased elms to adjacent healthy elms through root grafts4 ,illustration3 ,discoloration and streaking symptoms in the sapwood4 ,controls to combat this disease generally involve sanitary measures aimed at the beetles4 ,dead and dying elms should be burned4 ,this eliminates the elm wood which normally serves as a breeding place for elm bark beetles and thus reduces the beetle population4 ,in areas where most native elms are infected1 other tree species or resistant elm species1 such as the ,chinese or ,siberian elm1 should be planted rather them native elms4 ,,elm ,,phloem ,,necrosis ,elm phloem necrosis is a disease of elm1 caused by a virus or virus-like organism4 ,the disease has occurred in the ,united ,states for many years1 probably as early as #ahhb4 ,the pathogen is transmitted from infected to healthy trees by the adult white-banded elm leafhopper1 ,scaphoideus luteolus1 which feeds on the leaf veins4 ,it is now present throughout most of the central1 eastern1 and southern portions of the ,united ,states4 ,the disease is known to occur on ,american and winged elm1 but all native elms are probably susceptible to attack by the pathogen4 ,illustration3 ,foliage symptoms of elm phloem necrosis4 ,the earliest symptoms of the disease appear in the top of the crown1 at the outer tips of the branches4 ,here the elm leaves suddenly wilt1 turn yellow1 the margins curl upward and the leaves die4 ,leaf-fall causes the crown to appear sparse4 ,in large trees1 the foliage symptoms may initially appear on one branch or only a portion of the crown4 ,however1 the symptoms during the advanced stage of the disease are exhibited throughout the crown4 ,the most reliable symptom appears as a yellow to butterscotch discoloration on the inner bark surface or phloem4 ,this symptom initially appears under the bark of large roots1 later spreading to the base of the main stem and finally to the larger branches4 ,phloem and cambial discoloration is often found in advance of the foliage symptoms4 ,the moderately discolored phlomen has a slight odor of wintergreen4 ,thus far1 all trees known to be infected with the pathogen have died4 ,acutely infected trees1 while initially appearing healthy1 may wilt and die in three to four weeks4 ,illustration3 ,stem sample showing discoloration of sapwood4 ,no effective controls are known4 ,the 8,christine ,buisman0 elm1 which is highly resistant to ,dutch elm disease1 has demonstrated resistance to elm phloem necrosis4 ,,mimosa ,,wilt ,illustration3 ,mimosa branches showing wilt symptoms4 ,a vascular wilt of the mimosa 7silktree7 is caused by the fungus ,fusarium oxysporum forma perniciosum4 ,the fungus is known only to attack the mimosa1 a tree imported from eastern ,asia and grown throughout the southeast as an ornamental4 ,since the discovery of the disease in ,north ,carolina in #aice1 the fungus has spread north to ,maryland1 south to ,florida1 and west to ,texas4 ,the fungus causing mimosa wilt is soil-borne and gains entrance into the tree by attacking the roots4 ,once entrance is gained by the fungus1 the pathogen enters the outer water-conductive system in the sapwood4 ,as the fungus grows throughout the system1 it hinders or completely inhibits the water movement from the roots to the aerial portion of the tree4 ,the first outward symptom of disease is the wilting of leaflets1 usually in the upper portion of the crown4 ,the wilted leaflets turn yellow1 then brown1 and die4 ,often a branch or two will succumb at a time until the entire crown is dead4 ,a second symptom of the disease is found in the outer sapwood of the tree4 ,a brown discoloration1 appearing as spots or a ring1 is observed by cutting into the outer sapwood of the infected stem or branch4 ,control of the fungus is very difficult1 since it is soil-borne and enters through the roots4 ,however1 resistant varieties of mimosa trees1 developed by the ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 are now available at most commercial nurseries4 ,illustration3 ,branch sample showing brown discoloration of sapwood4 ,,verticillium ,,wilt ,verticillium wilt1 caused by common soil-inhabiting fungi belonging to the genus ,verticillium1 is found on a number of hardwood hosts4 ,in southern and eastern ,united ,states elms and maples are attacked throughout their natural ranges4 ,illustration3 ,wilting foliage and defoliation of elms caused by ,verticillium wilt4 ,infected trees may die within a few weeks after the first symptoms are observed1 or they may survive for years4 ,the first symptoms of the disease involve a wilting of the foliage1 with the leaves turning yellow and finally brown4 ,the early symptoms are often restricted to a single limb or portion of the crown4 ,vascular discoloration1 which is brown in elms and green in maples1 is present in the outer sapwood4 ,in elms1 this discoloration is similar to that produced in trees having ,dutch elm disease4 ,this disease is not of serious consequence in forest stands4 ,however1 it is often extremely important in high value shade trees4 ,dead or dying limbs on lawn trees may be pruned out4 ,this may not always save the tree1 but may help keep it alive for years4 ,trees should be well watered and fertilized as necessary4 ,if a lawn tree dies from ,verticillium wilt1 it should be replaced by a resistant species4 ,,armillaria ,,root ,,and ,,butt ,,rot ,illustration3 ,mushroom or fruiting bodies of the 8honey mushroom0 rot4 ,armillaria root and butt rot is caused by the fungus ,armillaria mellea4 ,this disease is common in orchards1 vineyards1 gardens1 parks1 and forests throughout the world4 ,both coniferous and hardwood forest trees are attacked4 ,the fungus is especially troublesome in plantations1 particularly in stands recently thinned4 ,the fungus is spread by spores produced by honey-colored mushrooms1 rhizomorphs1 and root contacts between diseased trees or stumps and healthy trees4 ,rhizomorphs are visible strands of compacted mycelium 7fungus material7 that appear as black or reddish-brown 8shoestrings40 ,they may be flattened when found between bark and wood or cylindrical when found in decayed wood or soil4 ,rhizomorphs increase in length at their tips and in this manner the fungus may move through the soil from infected trees to uninfected trees4 ,the honey-colored mushrooms are produced annually and are fairly short lived2 they are subject to desiccation1 and are favored by small mammals4 ,the size of the top varies from two to five inches in diameter4 ,the top is usually flecked with dark brown scales4 ,white to light yellow gills are borne underneath4 ,crown symptoms of the trees affected are similar to those caused by any malfunctioning of the roots4 ,a reduction in size and production of leaves or needles1 a general thinning of the crown1 branch dying1 and yellowing of foliage may precede death or trees may die rapidly with a rapid red discoloration of the foliage4 ,trees often die in groups1 but single-tree kill is also common4 ,cankers bleeding resin1 gum or other exudate at the tree base are common symptoms4 ,control is not attempted for this disease under forest conditions4 ,losses may be reduced by following proper planting procedures1 and by salvage cutting4 ,illustration3 ,shoestrings of armillaria4 ,,cylindrocladium ,,root ,,rot ,this nursery disease is caused by two fungi species4 ,cylindrocladium scoparium and ,c4 floridanum3 ,cylindrocladium root rot has been found on two hardwoods 7yellow-poplar and black walnut7 and two conifers 7white pine and ,fraser fir7 in forest tree nurseries in six southern states4 ,these include ,virginia1 ,west ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 ,tennessee1 ,alabama1 and ,mississippi4 ,illustration3 ,leaf symptoms on #a-j black walnut nursery stock4 ,root rot symptoms on hardwoods and conifers are quite different4 ,the most characteristic root symptoms on yellow-poplar and black walnut are the blackened and longitudinally-cracked infected roots that are in sharp contrast with healthy white roots of these two species4 ,infected seedling leaves become yellow and later turn reddish-brown4 ,root rot symptoms on conifers involve either rotting of the seed or seedling 7pre-emergence damping off7 before emergence from the soil or seedling root rot following emergence4 ,these symptoms also involve a shrivelling and reddening of foliage1 needle blight1 and stem cankers4 ,the most characteristic symptoms are the 8patchy0 irregularly scattered pattern of infection in conifer seedling beds and the loosening of the root epidermis on infected roots--making it very easy to pull off4 ,illustration3 ,root symptoms on #a-j yellow-poplar nursery stock4 ,the most practical and effective control for root rot diseases of this type involves strict quarantine to either keep the disease out of the nursery or keep it confined to known infected areas by avoiding the transportation of root material1 organic matter1 and soil from infected to non-infected seed beds4 ,soil fumigation may control this disease if applied under favorable conditions4 ,,lucidus ,,root ,,and ,,butt ,,rot ,illustration3 ,fruiting body of ,lucidus root and butt rot on mimosa4 ,polyporus lucidus is the cause of root and basal stem decay of hardwood trees throughout the eastern1 central1 and southern portions of the ,united ,states4 ,the fungus is known to attack and kill maple1 hackberry1 orange1 lemon1 ash1 sweetgum1 oak1 locust1 elm1 tupelo1 willow1 and mimosa4 ,mimosa trees are very susceptible to attack by ,p4 lucidus throughout the ,south4 ,the disease is characterized by a rapid decline and death of the host4 ,examination of infected roots will reveal a soft spongy white rot with black spots scattered throughout4 ,fruiting bodies are formed at the base of infected trees or on the surface of exposed roots4 ,the mature fruiting bodies are a reddish brown above and white below1 with the tops and stems appearing glazed or varnished4 ,the fungus is believed to gain entrance into the host through bark and root injuries and can spread from infected to healthy trees through root contacts and grafts4 ,no control is known for this disease4 ,avoidance of lawnmower and other mechanical injuries to the base of roots of susceptible shade trees will reduce the chance of infection by the fungus4 ,the spread of the disease from infected to healthy trees can be reduced by planting at a wide enough spacing to avoid root contacts and grafts4 ,if you find damage on your trees from insects or diseases you may consult with any of the following offices or your state forester4 ,,field ,,offices3 ,alexandria ,office ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service #bejj ,shreveport ,highway ,pineville1 ,louisiana #gacfj ,phone ,a_/,c #cah #dde-feaa ,ext4 #caa ,,for ,,states ,,of3 ,alabama ,arkansas ,louisiana ,mississippi ,oklahoma ,texas ,asheville ,office ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service ,p4,o4 ,box #ehie ,asheville1 ,north ,carolina #bhhjc ,phone ,a_/,c #gjd #bed-jifa ,ext4 #fbe ,,for ,,states ,,of3 ,florida ,georgia ,kentucky ,north ,carolina ,south ,carolina ,tennessee ,virginia ,,area ,,office ,group ,leader ,forest ,pest ,management ,group ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service #agbj ,peachtree ,street1 ,n4,w4 ,atlanta1 ,georgia #cjcji ,phone ,a_/,c #djd #ebf-cgcd ,illustration3 ,forest ,environment3 ,,weather ,,fire ,,people ,,soil ,,abuse ,,pests ,,forest ,,pest ,,management ,,group ,southeastern ,area ,s4 and ,p4 ,f4--#g #aigb ,transcriber's ,notes --,silently corrected a few palpable typos4 --,in the text versions1 delimited italics or underlined text in underscores 7the ,,html version reproduces the font form of the printed book47