file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #ejefd-;h4htm or #ejefd-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#ejefd_/pg#ejefd-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#ej efd_/ejefd-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/historyo finkincl#jj;davi ,transcriber's note3 ,words in fonts different from the main text1 used to denote emphasis1 have been surrounded by underscores4 ,superscripts have been indicated by preceding the superscripted letters with 4 ,when more than one character in a row is superscripted1 the letters have been surrounded by 4 ,an attempt has been made to transcribe the handwritten text in plates used to show the different kinds of ink4 ,where the original text was unclear1 dots have been used to mark illegible letters1 surround illegible but obvious letters1 and surround letters deleted by the original scribe4 ,hyphens have been added at the end of lines where appropriate4 ,macrons and tildes on consonants within the plates have not been reproduced4 ,longer illegible sections were replaced by illegible4 ,in some cases1 a descriptive word or phrase has been added and surrounded by square brackets1 for example ,hieratic text4 ,some corrections have been made to the original4 ,these are described in a second transcriber's note at the end of the text4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,history ,,of ,,ink ,,vox ,,dicta ,,perit1 ,,litera ,,scripta ,,manet4 ,,thaddeus ,,davids ,,co4 ,,new ,,york4 ,,snyder1 ,,black ,,sturm1 ,,lithographers1 #ib ,,william ,,st4 ,n4,y4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,ink ,including ,its ,etymology1 ,chemistry1 and ,bibliography4 ,new-,york2 ,thaddeus ,davids ,co4 #abg ,william ,street4 ,illustration3 ,,francis ,,hart ,,co4 ,printers1 #fc ,cortlandt ,st4 ,n4,y4 ,the ,history of ,ink4 ,ink ,,is history1 in the common acceptation of the word2 for1 what is generally denominated history--is ink diffused on paper in certain definite lines4 ,yet ink has no history written or composed hitherto4 ,in view of this deficiency--which betrays a singular negligence 7on the part of historians and all literary men7 and a thoughtless ingratitude to this indispensable means of accomplishing and preserving their work--we propose to supply the desideratum1 by furnishing1 on these little pages1 what is indicated by the above title1 in the fullest sense and widest scope of the term1 including its etymology1 its chemistry1 and all that can be suggested and justified by the title1 or fairly demanded under it1 or claimed from it4 ,the great common error of general historians1 ancient and modern1 7with a very few exceptions among the moderns17 has been1 that they have given to the world little else than narrations and descriptions of wars and treaties1 of governmental changes and political events1 omitting to record the often far more important facts in the history of literature1 science1 and the arts of utility1 by which the progress of civilization and the development of the human race in its higher capacities have been effected or aided4 ,the great 8,instaurator of the ,sciences0 was the first to call attention to these omissions and deficiencies in all previous histories1 and to indicate the duty of historians to avoid these errors1--setting a good example in that respect1 in the specimen1 or model work1 which he produced as a pattern1--his history of the reign of ,henry the ,seventh4 ,since his time1 many special histories of inventions and of the arts of utility have been written2 and the numerous cyclopaedists have largely contributed to this object2 still1 however1 leaving many vacancies to be filled in this department of human knowledge1 of which the one before us can not be considered the least worthy of the labor needful for its investigation4 ,,definition4 ,the word ,,ink has been variously defined by lexicographers1 cyclopaedists and chemists2 but the following terms may be taken as fully expressing the common qualities and essential specific characteristics of all substances included under the name4 ,,ink is a colored liquid employed in making lines1 characters or figures on surfaces capable of retaining the marks so made4 ,the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 7vol4 xii4 p4 #chb1 #ahef17 gives the following definition3 8,,ink4--,the term ink is usually restricted to the fluid employed in writing with a pen4 ,other kinds of ink are indicated by a second word1 such as red ink1 ,indian ink1 marking ink1 sympathetic ink1 printers' ink1 etc4 ,common ink is1 however1 sometimes distinguished as writing ink40 ,as to ,,color1--black is and has always been preferred in ordinary uses4 ,for ornamental purposes and for occasionally useful distinctions1 various other tints have been and are adopted--as blue1 red1 green1 purple1 violet1 yellow--and so on1 according to the fancy of the maker1 or purchaser1 or consumer4 ,the substance employed to receive and preserve the marks thus made is now almost universally ,paper4 ,parchment is still used in many legal documents and writings of form and ceremony4 ,cotton1 linen and silk1 when woven into fabrics for garments and like uses1 are also subjected to marks of ink for the purpose of identifying property4 ,so are wooden and leathern surfaces in similar conditions4 ,it is also employed in writing on stone1 in the quite modern art of lithography4 ,though its great original and continual employment is in writing1 it must be remembered that it is also largely used in the delineation of objects by artists4 ,ink and paint are mutually convertible to each other's uses1 but are yet so distinct in character and objects1 that no one regards the words as synonymous1 and no precise definition is needed to teach the distinction between them4 ,as1 for instance1 in pen-and-ink drawings and sketches1 the ink serves the purpose of paint4 ,so likewise in the letters on sign-boards1 c4 paint may be considered as a substitute for ink4 ,the artist who traces his name on the canvas in a corner of his painting1 employs paint in a similar manner4 ,printing-ink is used as black paint4 ,in the best red inks1 carmine 7a paint in water-colors7 is the essential ingredient4 ,indian ,ink is used here only as paint1--in ,china1 as ink4 ,,etymology4 ,the derivation of the ,english word 8,,ink10 and of its representatives in various modern languages1 has caused much perplexity to philologists1 and has been the subject of many erroneous conjectures4 ,we suffix the names by which it is known in those nations who have most employed it3 ,english1 ,ink4 ,low-,dutch1 ,neder-,duytsch1 ,hollandisch1 ,inkt4 ,german or ,deutsch1 ,dinte and ,tinte4 ,old ,german1 ,anker1 ,tincta1 ,tinta and ,dinde4 ,danish1 ,norwegian1 ,blaek1 7,india ,ink1 ,tusch47 ,norse1 ,icelandic1 ,swedish1 ,blaeck1 7,india ,ink1 ,tusk47 ,french1 ,encre4 ,old ,french1 ,enque4 ,italian1 ,inchiostro4 ,spanish1 ,tinta4 ,portuguese1 ,tinta4 ,illyrian1 ,ingvas4 ,polish1 ,incaust4 ,basque1 ,coransia4 ,latin1 ,atramentum4 ,medival ,latin1 ,encaustum4 ,greek1 ,melan4 ,hebrew1 ,d'yo4 ,chaldee1 ,n'kaso4 ,arabic1 ,nikson1 ,anghas4 ,persian1 ,s'y'ah'o4 ,hindustani1 ,s'yaho1 ,rosh'na1 kali1 shira1 mas1 and ,hindui1 murakkat1 kalik1 midad4 ,sanscrit1 ,kali1 7,black47 ,armenian1 ,syuaghin4 ,we might amuse ourselves by extending this tabular list indefinitely4 ,enough1 however1 has been already shown to illustrate a few remarkable facts which we wish to present that are connected with the etymology of our subject2 but we present a page of ,lithographic illustrations which will enable any 8curious reader0 to trace the word further4 ,no dictionary of the ,english language gives us any help or light about the matter4 ,webster suggests 8inchiostro10 7the ,italian word17 as the source of derivation2 and all the ,italian lexicographers agree that inchiostro is from the later ,latin ,,encaustum1 which is in fact ,greek1 1 7,encauston17 8burned-in or corroded40 ,encaustum became corrupted into 8enchaustrum10 from which the transition to 8inchiostro10 is by the regular form of derivation from the ,latin to the ,italian1--the ,l before a vowel giving place to a short ,i--as 8piano0 from ,,planus4 7,the ,,ch1 in ,italian is always sounded hard1 like the ,english ,k47 ,leaving the ,french word encre as on the middle ground between different etymologies1 and affording no light either way1--we find the ,spanish and ,portugese 8tinta10 and the ,german 7a language widely remote from those of the ,iberian peninsula in origin and affinities7 8dinte1 tinte and tincta10 forcibly reminding us of the ,latin participle ,,tinctus1 ,,tincta1 ,,tinctum1 from the verb ,,tingo1 which is represented in ,english by ,,tinge1 and other derivatives1 such as 8tincture10 c4 ,we cannot refuse to recognize the ,holland-,dutch 8,inkt0 as from the same root to which we have thus traced the corresponding word in a language which we may call its 8cousin-,german20 and it is hard to exclude the ,old ,french 8,enque0 and modern 8,encre0 from this circle of relationship4 ,then1 we are somewhat impressed by the discovery of the word ,ingvas in the ,illyrian1 a language of the ,slavonic 7or more properly ,slovenic7 stock1 like the ,polish1--and1 like that1 enriched by words derived from the ,latin4 ,the ,polish1 however1 presents us with the actual ,graeco-,latin ,encaustrum4 ,still more remote from the ,english and ,italian1 we find among the ,orientals of the ,shemitish race1 ,,anghas and ,,nikson in the ,arabic1 and ,n',,kasho in the ,chaldee1 with a manifest resemblance in sound1 and with an actual possession of the same elements and radical letters1 ,n4 ,k4 ,yet we do not think of suggesting that these words had a common origin with the corresponding ones in ,european ,languages1 though so nearly coincident in sound4 ,the case is simply one of accidental resemblance1 a remarkable coincidence1--7because occurring at three different and remote points17 but yet a coincidence not wholly unparalleled4 ,the probability is that the ,english word1 like the ,dutch1 ,german1 ,spanish1 c41 came from the ,latin ,,tinctum1 but it may be left 8an open question20 for if we had not these instances to direct the formation of our opinions1 we should have no hesitation in acknowledging the ,italian ,inchiostro as the true ,,etymon2 just as1 if we had neither of these in view1 we might suspect the origin of our word to be in the ,oriental ,,anghas or ,,nikson4 ,the ,ethiopic ,,kalama at first sight appears to be related to the ,hindustani ,,kali2 but the latter is merely the word in all the languages of ,hindustan for black1--while the former is but a modification of the ,greek and ,latin ,,calamus1 a reed or pen1--the instrument 7naturally enough7 giving its name to the liquid which was essential to its use4 ,the word ,,encaustum connects1 in a very interesting and instructive manner1 both with the history and the chemistry or manufacture of our modern inks1 and is a satisfactory demonstration of the utility of such etymological researches as those in which we have been here indulging4 ,the one great distinction between the ancient and the modern inks is this3 ,the old inks were ,,paints2 the writing inks now in use by all nations 7excepting those of ,southern ,asia7 are ,,dyes4 ,that is the whole difference4 ,it would be well to give a definition or limitation of the words 8,ancient0 and 8,modern40 ,no one has done it hitherto4 ,we will not attempt to fix the point precisely1 but may reasonably say that the period intervening between ,september1 ,a4,d4 #daj1 7when ,rome was taken by ,,alaric and his ,visigoths7 and ,december #be1 ,a4,d4 #hjj1 7when ,karl the ,great1 otherwise called ,charlemagne1 was crowned in ,rome by ,pope ,leo with the title of ,emperor of the ,holy ,roman ,empire7 contains the interval between antiquity and modern times4 ,the introduction of ,paper as the common material upon which significant characters were to be marked must have had a great agency in producing a change in the composition of the liquid employed in making the marks4 ,,parchment was the substance in use1 among all the ,european nations1 as the substratum of manuscript1 from the time when the ,egyptian papyrus went out of fashion4 ,both the parchment and the papyrus were written upon1 by ,romans1 ,greeks and ,hebrews1 with pens made of small reeds1 dipped in a fluid composed of carbon1 7not dissolved1 but7 held in a state of suspension by an oil or a solution of gum4 ,the letters were originally painted on the surface of the papyrus1 parchment1 board1 or other material so employed--the ink not being imbibed or absorbed by the substance on which it was shed1 but remaining on the surface1 capable of being removed by washing1 scraping1 rubbing1 or any similar process4 ,the surface thus cleansed was then in a state to receive a new inscription2 so that erasions and inscriptions might be indefinitely repeated upon it1 as upon a modern sign-board4 ,,modern ,,ink1 on the contrary1 leaves its marks upon paper1 parchment1 c41 by penetrating the material to such a depth that it cannot be erased 7mechanically7 without the removal or destruction of the surface which it has tinged4 ,chemical agency1 as of various acids1 chlorine and its compounds1 is generally employed1 therefore1 to discharge the color from modern writing-ink-marks4 ,,carbon1 in all its common forms1 7charcoal1 bituminous coal1 anthracite1 jet1 plumbago1 lignite1 ivory-black1 lamp-black and soot17 is wholly unalterable in color by any of these chemical means4 ,,printing ,,ink 7which is composed of carbon suspended in a drying oil7 is1 in essential characteristics1 identical with the writing-inks of the ancient ,romans and ,greeks4 ,it is impressed upon the surface of paper1 7that which is unsized or bibulous being commonly preferred17 and is retained unchanged by the action of moisture1 on account of the insolubility of the carbon and the repulsion between oil and water4 ,these two forms of ink are therefore the exact opposites of each other1 in the qualities on which their use and permanence depend4 ,the most important peculiarity of the modern writing-ink1 as contrasted with the ancient1 naturally suggested the two names which it bore in the ,latin and ,greek of the middle ages1 or 7to speak more definitely17 the time of its invention and first employment4 ,it was a ,tincta1 a ,,dye1 or ,,stain1 which tinged and tinctured the material on which it was placed1 entering among its fibres as coloring fluids do into cloth in the ordinary processes of manufacture4 ,it penetrated the substance of the paper 7as caustics or powerful chemical solvents and corrosives act on the organic fibre73 it bit in1 or burned in1--and was therefore well named ,,encauston and ,incaustum4 ,,chemistry or ,,composition of ,,ink4 ,we do not propose to furnish recipes1 prescriptions1 directions or instructions for the manufacture of this article4 ,no mere statement in words can enable any one to arrive at perfection1 or excellence1 or practical success in the production of this article1 or any articles whatsoever4 ,a skill and carefulness1 which can be acquired only by long and laborious experience1 are indispensable to the management of the various processes4 ,time is an essential element of success in this peculiar art2 and that makes absolutely requisite also1 two other conditions1--patience and capital4 ,we shall therefore be brief on this point1--referring those who wish for minute details1 to the cyclopaedias1 dictionaries of the arts and sciences1 and the larger works on practical chemistry4 ,the following we venture to present as the most correct account of this subject1 derived from the latest scientific and practical authorities4 ,the composition of ink varies according to its colors1 and the purposes to which it is to be applied4 ,,common ,,black ,,writing-,,ink is the tannate of the sesquoxyd of iron mixed with a smaller quantity of the gallate of the sesquoxyd of iron4 ,when in the liquid form1 it is generally the tannate and gallate of the protoxyd2 but after being long kept1 7or put on the paper and drying there17 it absorbs more oxygen from the atmosphere2 and thus the saline compounds become the per-tannate and per-gallate1 which are blacker than the tannate and gallate of the protoxyd4 ,it is thus and therefore that good modern ink is known by the simple test-quality of darkening by age4 ,on the other hand1 when writing becomes yellow1 pale or indistinct by age1 it is from the decay of the imperfectly combined vegetable astringent1--the marks on the paper or parchment being then little more than the stain of the per-oxyd 7that is the sesquoxyd7 of iron4 ,if the written surface be then carefully washed or even moistened with the infusion of nut-galls1 it will be rendered blacker1 and if before indistinct will become legible4 ,this may sometimes be better accomplished by first applying a weak solution of oxalic acid or very dilute muriatic 7hydro-chloric7 acid1 and then delicately laying on the infusion of galls4 ,when the writing paper has been made of inferior rags1 bleached with chlorine1 the best ink used upon it is liable to become discolored4 ,nut-gulls or gall-nuts 7,gall-tinctori7 are excrescences growing upon the leaves or twigs of oak trees1 7especially the ,quercus infectoria17 caused by the puncture of an insect 7the ,cynips gall-tinctori7 which deposits its eggs in the perforations thus made4 ,the ,quercus infectoria is most abundant in ,persia1 ,mesopotamia1 ,syria and ,asia ,minor1 from which countries the galls are brought in large quantities to the manufactories of ,europe and ,america4 ,the best are called 8,,aleppo galls10 from the name of the ,syrian city which is the chief original market for them4 ,those from ,smyrna are also highly esteemed4 ,they contain the vegetable astringent principle called tannin in greater abundance than any other known substance4 ,this is chemically resolved into the acids known as the tannic and gallic4 ,all the woods and barks employed in the manufacture of leather by the tanning of hides contain this astringent matter in various degrees4 ,the oak and the hemlock1 for instance1 are in extensive and familiar use for this purpose in the ,united ,states4 ,the blackness of ink1 as has been already indicated1 is derived from the combination of these two acids with oxydized iron in saline compounds which are insoluble in water1 and are therefore precipitated or deposited at the bottom of the fluid1 unless held mechanically suspended in it1 by gum1 sugar or some similar substance which gives the quality of viscidity to its solutions4 ,the following will serve as a good formula for making common ink1 and will be enough to give an idea of the ordinary and general mode of its composition3--8,take of ,aleppo galls finely bruised1 six ounces1--sulphate of iron1 four ounces1--gum ,arabic1 four ounces1--water1 six pints4 ,boil the galls in the water for about two hours1 occasionally adding water to supply the loss from evaporation2 then add the other ingredients2 and keep the whole for two months in a wooden or glass vessel1 which is to be shaken at intervals4 ,then strain the ink into glass bottles1 adding a few drops of creosote to prevent mouldiness40 ,besides its property of viscidity1 the gum possesses the power of preventing the ink from being too fluid3 and it also serves to protect the vegetable matter from decomposition4 ,the great desideratum or requisite is that the ink should flow with perfect freedom from the pen1 to allow rapid writing1 and that it should adhere to the paper1 or 8bite into it10 so as not to be effaceable by washing or sponging4 ,the great defect to be avoided and prevented is the want of durability4 ,the writing ink of the ancients was characterized by great permanency1 being composed of finely pulverized carbon mixed with a mucilaginous or adhesive liquid4 ,,india or ,,china ,,ink is of this composition3 it is formed of lamp-black and size or fine animal glue1 with the incidental addition of perfumes4 ,it is used in ,china with a brush1 both for writing and painting on ,chinese paper2 and it is employed in other countries for making drawings in black and white1--the different depths of shade being produced by varying the degree of dilution in water4 ,inks of other colors than black were anciently used only for purposes of ornamental and decorative writing4 ,in later and present times1 red and blue inks have been extensively employed in ruling account-books and other paper for like uses4 ,blue ink1 within ten or more years past1 has been1 with many1 a preferred fluid for common writing4 ,blue ink1 when properly made1 flows with great ease and rapidity from the pen1 dries almost instantly on the paper1 and has been supposed or expected to be quite durable1 and unchangeable in color1 under ordinary vicissitudes4 ,yet1 experience has demonstrated the contrary1--though various and well-contrived chemical combinations have been attempted for the purpose4 ,blue inks that change to black some time after writing are very popular4 ,on well-made and high-priced paper1 and with gold pens1 such inks1 if prepared by good chemists1 may ultimately prove worthy of the high esteem in which they are held2 but their absolute and unchangeable durability is yet to be tested by experience1 before they can be safely employed for writings of permanent value1 and relied on for use in making records designed for preservation and reference during a long course of years4 ,there is a compound of bichromate of potash and extract of logwood1 which forms a very cheap and convenient writing fluid4 ,dr4 ,ure pronounces it 8a vile dye40 ,yet it may have its utilities1 in localities remote from the centres of civilization and commerce1--as in the new settlements in western ,america1 in ,australia1 c41 and for travelers in ,africa1 in the ,arctic and other barbarous or uninhabited regions4 ,the following is the best formula which can be given for this compound2 and we present it on the highest chemical authority3--8,take ,bichromate of potash1 #a-d oz4--,extract of logwood #a oz4--,boiling water1 #a gallon40 ,we have taken the trouble to give this prescription or formula1 because some quacks have been peddling it all over the country1 at all sorts of prices1 varying 7according to the credulity and liberality of purchasers7 from #ej cents to #bej4 ,we give it for just what it is worth2 and that is--exactly what this book costs the reader4 ,,bibliography4 ,the longest and most valuable passage which we find in the writings of any ,english author1 who has alluded to our subject1 is the following1 from 8,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,progress ,,of ,,writing10 by ,thomas ,astle1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 ,f4 ,a4 ,s4 c41 pp4 #bji to #bab1 #b;d edition1 ,london1 #ahjc4 8,,of ,,inks4 ,ink has not only been useful in all ages1 but still continues absolutely necessary to the preservation and improvement of every art and science1 and for conducting the ordinary transactions of life4 8,daily experience shows that the most common objects generally prove most useful and beneficial to mankind4 ,the constant occasion we have for ,ink evinces its convenience and utility4 ,from the important benefits arising to society from its use1 and the injuries individuals may suffer from the frauds of designing men in the abuse of this necessary article1 it is to be wished that the legislature would frame some regulation to promote its improvement1 and prevent knavery and avarice from making it instrumental to the accomplishment of any base purpose4 8,simple as the composition of ,ink may be thought1 and really is--it is a fact well known1 that we have at present none equal in beauty and color to that used by the ancients2 as will appear by an inspection of many of the manuscripts above quoted1 especially those written in ,england in the times of the ,saxons4 ,what occasions so great a disparity8 ,does it arise from our ignorance1 or from our want of materials8 ,,from ,,neither1 but from the negligence of the present race2 as very little attention would soon demonstrate that we want neither skill nor ingredients to make ,ink as good now as at any former period4 8,it is an object of the utmost importance that the ,records of ,parliament1 the ,decisions and ,adjudications of the ,courts of ,justice1 ,conveyances from man to man1 ,wills1 ,testaments1 and other ,instruments which affect property1 should be written with ,ink of such durable quality as may best resist the destructive powers of time and the elements4 ,the necessity of paying greater attention to this matter may be readily seen by comparing the ,rolls and ,records that have been written from the fifteenth century to the end of the seventeenth1 with the writings we have remaining of various ages from the fifth to the twelfth century4 ,notwithstanding the superior antiquity of the latter1 they are in excellent preservation2 but we frequently find the former1 though of more modern date1 so much defaced that they are scarcely legible4 8,inks are of various sorts1 as--encaustic or varnish1 ,indian ink1 gold and silver1 purple1 black1 red1 green1 and various other colors4 ,there were also secret and sympathetic ,inks4 8,the ,ink used by the ancients had nothing in common with ours1 but the color and gum4 ,gall-nuts1 copperas and gum make up the composition of our ,ink2 whereas soot1 or ivory-black1 was the chief ingredient in that of the ancients2 so that very old charters might be suspected1 if written with ,ink entirely similar to what we use2 but the most acute and delicate discernment is necessary in this matter2 for some of the black ,inks formerly used were liable to fade and decay1 and are found to have turned red1 yellow or pale4 ,those imperfections are however rare in manuscripts prior to the tenth century4 8,there is a method of reviving the writing2 but this expedient should not be hazarded1 lest a suspicion of deceit may arise1 and the support depended on be lost4 8,,golden ,ink was used by various nations1 as may be seen in several libraries1 and in the archives of churches4 ,,silver ,ink was also common in most countries4 ,red ,ink1 made of vermilion1 cinnabar1 or purple1 is very frequently found in manuscripts2 but none are found written entirely with ink of that color4 ,the capital letters1 in some1 are made with a kind of varnish1 which seems to be composed of vermilion and gum4 ,green ,ink was rarely used in charters1 but often in ,latin manuscripts1 especially in those of the latter ages4 ,the guardians of the ,greek emperors or rather the ,regents of the ,empire made use of it in their signatures1 till the latter the monarchs during minority became of age4 ,blue or ,yellow ,ink was seldom used but in manuscripts4666 ,the yellow has not been in use1 as far as we can learn1 for six hundred years4 8,metallic and other characters were sometimes burnished4 ,wax was used as a varnish by the ,latins and ,greeks1 but much more by the latter1 with whom it continued a long time4 ,this covering or varnish was very frequent in the ninth century4 8,,color4 ,the color of ,ink is of no great assistance in authenticating manuscripts and charters4 ,there is in my library a long roll of parchments1 at the head of which is a letter that was carried over the greatest part of ,england by two devout monks1 requesting prayers for ,lucia de ,vere1 ,countess of ,oxford1 a pious lady1 who died in #aaii1--who had formed the house or convent of ,henningham in ,essex1 and done many other acts of piety4 ,this roll consists of many membranes or skins of parchment sewed together1--all of which1 except the first1 contain certificates from the different religious houses that the two monks had visited them1 and that they had ordered prayers to be offered up for the ,countess1 and had entered her name on their bead-rolls4 ,it is observable that time hath had very different effects on the various inks with which these certificates were written4 ,some are as fresh and black as if written yesterday2 others are changed brown2 and some are of a yellow hue4 ,it may naturally be supposed that there is a great variety of handwritings upon this2 but the fact is otherwise1 for they may be reduced to three4 8,it may be said in general1 that ,,black ink of the seventh1 eighth1 ninth and tenth centuries1 at least among the ,anglo-,saxons1 preserves its original blackness thereby meaning that its 8form had not lost all its original brightness0 much better than that of succeeding ages1--not even excepting the sixteenth and seventeenth1 in which it was frequently very bad4 ,pale ink very rarely occurs before the four last centuries4 ,illustration 8,peter ,caniparius1 ,professor of ,medicine at ,venice1 wrote a curious book concerning ,ink1 which is now scarce1 though there is an edition of it printed in ,london1 in #affj1 quarto4 ,the title is--,de ,atramentis cujuscunque generis opus san novum4 ,hactenus nemine promulgatum4 ,a ,,work ,,actually ,,new1 ,,concerning ,,inks ,,of ,,every ,,kind ,,whatsoever1--,,hitherto ,,published ,,by ,,no ,,one4 ,this work is divided into six parts4 ,the first treats generally of ,inks made from ,,pyrites1 sulphurets of iron and copper1 stones and metals4 ,the second treats more particularly of ,inks made from metals and ,,calxes4 ,better say calces1 or1 to speak chemically1 crystallized salts deprived of their 8water of crystallization10 or carbonic acid1 by the action of heat4--,the third treats of ,ink made from soots and vitriols4--,the fourth treats of the different kinds of ,inks used by the librarii or book-writers1 professional scribes or copyists of manuscripts before the invention of the art of ,printing1 as well as by printers and engravers1 and of staining 7or writing upon7 marble1 stucco or scagliola1 and of ,,encaustic modes of writing2 as also of liquids for painting or coloring of leather1 cloths made of linen or wool1 and for restoring inks that have been defaced by time1 as likewise many methods of effacing writing--restoring decayed paper--and of various modes of secret writing4--,the fifth part treats of ,inks for writing1 made in different countries1 of various materials and colors1--as from gums1 woods1 the juice of plants1 c41 and also of different kinds of varnishes4--,the sixth part treats of the various operations of extracting vitriol1 and of its chemical uses4 8,this work abounds with a great variety of philosophical1 chemical and historical knowledge1 and will give great entertainment to those who wish for information on this subject4 8,many curious particulars concerning ,ink will be found in 8,weckerus de ,secretis40 7,printed at ,basle1 in #afab1 octavo47--,this gentleman also gives receipts for making ,inks of the color of ,gold and ,silver1 composed as well with those materials as without them1--also1 directions for making a variety of ,inks for secret writing1 and for defacing of effacing ,inks4 ,there are many marvelous particulars in this last work1 which will not easily gain credit with the judicious part of mankind40 ,we have chosen to give ,mr4 ,astle's paragraphs on this subject1 entire1 8pure and simple10 7with no corrections or alterations1 except as to a few particulars in spelling1 punctuation1 c417 including some unnecessary formal verbiage1--instead of embodying his facts and observations in our own language4 ,we shall do likewise with other authors whose books we use in this work1 as the most effectual way of giving each of them due credit for their several discoveries and statements1 and1 at the same time1 securing our own just claims to what we herein present as of our own discovery or production4 ,but we will give no credit to a mere compiler or plagiarist4 ,mr4 ,astle was keeper of the ancient ,records of the ,english ,government in the ,tower of ,london1 and thus enjoyed extraordinary facilities for ascertaining such facts1 and making such observations as he furnishes in his very useful1 interesting1 and elegantly illustrated book4 ,as to what he says 7in his seventh paragraph7 about the inexpediency of 8hazarding0 any effort to revive writing which has faded or become illegible1 from fear of 8a suspicion of deceit10--the caution must of course be limited to cases where the words proposed to be restored to legibility have reference to some question of disputed title1 or other matter in litigation or controversy4 ,mr4 ,astle would not have hesitated 7any more than ,angelo ,mai7 to use any possible process for the restoration of a palimpsest manuscript of a long-lost work of ,cicero or ,livy1 or of any document worth the labor and the time requisite to revive the letters or read them4 ,mr4 ,astle's slight lapse of pen or mind in stating 7eighth paragraph7 that 8,blue or yellow ink was seldom used except in manuscripts10 reminds us of ,noah ,webster's reason1 given in the first edition of his quarto dictionary1 for the use of the word 8,iland0 instead of 8,island10 viz41 that the latter spelling was 8found only in books40 ,perhaps the venerable ,mr4 ,astle would have been as much astonished to learn that he himself had always written manuscript1 whenever he put pen to paper1 as the ,bourgeois ,gentilhomme1 in ,moliere's comedy1 was to learn that he 8had been speaking prose all his life40 ,a comparatively recent author gives the following as the sum and substance of his knowledge on this division of the subject of our book4 ,,writing-,,inks4 ,dark-colored liquids were used to stain letters previously engraved on some hard substance1 long before they were made to flow in the calamus or pen for forming them on a smooth surface2 and the ,chinese made their 8,indian ,ink0 in the same manner as now1 #aabj years before the ,christian ,era2 but1 only used it1 at that time1 to blacken incised characters4#a ,ink was termed by the ancient ,latin authors atramentum scriborium1#b or librarium1 to distinguish it from atramentum sutorium or calchantum4 ,it was made of the soot of resin1 or pounded charcoal1 and other substances1 mixed with gum1 and not1 like ours1 of vitriol1 gall-nuts1 alum1 c4 ,the earliest positive mention of ink is perhaps the passage in ,jeremiah1 in the ,vulgate1 8,ego scribebam in volumine1 atramento40#c ,footnote #a3 ,here we might add1 without fear of contradiction1 that ,ink is still extensively used to 8blacken characters10 without regard to the depth of the incision4 ,footnote #b3 ,the specimen of the ,english language which we quote1 is not faultless2 and the ,latin is execrable4 ,there is no such word as scriborium in any language1 ancient or modern4 ,the ,romans called writing-ink atramentum scriptorum4 ,footnote #c3 ,this is a very paltry piece of pedantry4 ,why could not this author 7who shows that he does not understand ,latin17 give us the text in ,english8 ,the passage is in ,jeremiah1 chap4 ,,xxxvi1 verse #ah3 8,i wrote them with ,ink in a book40 ,the only other references in the ,bible to ,ink1 are the following3 #b ,corinthians1 ,,iii1 #c3 8written not with ,ink1 but the spirit40 #b ,john1 ,,xii3 8,i would write with paper and ,ink40 #c ,john1 ,,xiii3 8,i had many things to write1 but ,i will not with ,ink40 ,ezekiel1 ,,ix1 #b3 8with a writer's ink-horn by his side40 ,gold liquids1 and also silver1 purple1 red1 green1 and blue inks1 were eventually used in manuscripts after the fourth century1--red and gold having been employed much earlier4 ,st4 ,jerome speaks of rich decorations1 which must have been executed with colored inks2 but1 before his time1 ,ovid alludes not only to the purple charta1 made use of for fine books1 which were also tinged with an oil drawn from cedar-wood1 to preserve them1 but1 also to titles written in red ink1 which were the first kind of illuminations4 ,the passage occurs in his first elegy1 8,ad ,librum30 8,nec te purpureo velent vaccinia succo2 ,non est conveniens luctibus ille color4 ,nec titulus minio1 nec cedro charta notetur4 ,candida nec nigra cornua fronte geras40 ,the last line proving1 as ,casley observes1 that ,ovid wrote upon a roll4 ,this author1 not having been kind enough to translate ,ovid for us1 we are compelled to do it for him4 ,this 8,elegy0 of the poet is addressed 8,to his ,book20 and the following words contain the meaning of the four lines above quoted3 ,nor shall huckleberries stain literally1 ,,veil thee with purple juice3 ,that color is not becoming to lamentations4 ,nor shall title 7or 8head-letter07 be marked with vermilion1 or paper with cedar1 ,thou shalt carry neither white nor black horns on thy forehead 7or front1 or frontispiece74 ,the word 8huckleberries10 we have rightly spelled here4 ,the dictionaries generally are wrong in spelling the word 8whortleberry40 ,huckleberry1 or ,hockleberry1 is found in the kindred languages of ,northern ,europe4 ,diplomas were seldom written in gold or colored inks2 but some charters of the ,german ,emperors are known1 not only in gold1 but on purple vellum2 and ,leukfeld mentions one of the year #iab1 ornamented also with figures2 while several early ,english charters have gold initial letters1 crosses1 c4 ,the black ink that has kept its color best1 in mediaeval manuscripts1 is that used from the tenth to the thirteenth century4 ,the signatures of the ,eastern ,emperors are frequently in red ink4 ,colored inks were common in mediaeval manuscripts1--the red being most usual for titles1 which has given rise to the term ,rubric4 ,the writers of books 7that is1 the copyists17 often appended their names to the end of the work1 generally in ink of a different color from that of the body of the work1 stating the time and place in which the work was executed4 ,to this may be added1 with advantage1 some instructive account of ,,writing ,,instruments1 whose history is closely connected1 to a great extent1 with that of writing ,,fluids4 ,the ,egyptian1 and all other oriental and ancient scribes1 who wrote upon stone1 employed 7of course7 some instrument similar in character to the chisel of our modern tomb-stone cutters1 or monument letterers4 ,so with the ,greeks and ,romans1 writing on surfaces of wax or wood1 the instruments were the graphium1 or glypheion1 7the graver17 and the stilus1 or caelum1 all of steel or iron4 ,when the use of a dark-colored liquid or ,ink was introduced1 there arose a necessity for instruments of very different material1 and great flexibility1 in opposition to the unyielding rigidity of the tools previously employed4 ,then were invented the first implements properly called ,pens1 or really resembling what we so denominate and use4 ,these were universally made of vegetable material1 growing in the tubular form1 of convenient size1 as the calamus1 arundo1 juncus1 and1 in general terms1 the smaller stems of various plants called 8reeds0 and 8rushes0 in ,english4 ,we have already mentioned the uniform employment of the hair-pencil1 or brush1 by the ,chinese1 from the most ancient time of their writing4 ,the quill1 or feather-pen1 was introduced during the fourth century4 ,we have alluded to the palimpsest manuscripts4 ,this is the term applied to parchments that have been twice written upon1--the first writing being effaced to make room for the second4 ,during the period commonly called 8the dark ages10 the monks and other scribes1 copyists or book-makers1 were in the habit of effacing the letters from old manuscripts1 in order to make a clean surface for a new writing4 ,in this way was caused the deplorable destruction of an immense and an inestimably valuable amount of ancient literature1 of ,greek and ,roman history1 poetry1 eloquence and philosophy1 merely to make room for mass-books1 and other works of stupid superstition and mis-directed devotion1 or1 of scholastic theology and philosophy1 now long ago universally condemned and exploded4 ,within the past and present generation1 however1 the learned world has been delighted by the surprising recovery of some of these long-lost treasures1 through the skilful and ingenious labors of the deservedly famous ,cardinal ,angelo ,mai1 and others1 whose researches in the libraries of ,rome1 ,milan1 ,padua1 ,naples1 ,florence1 and other cities1 have resulted in the restoration of inestimably precious writings1 thus partially obliterated or obscured4 ,brande's ,dictionary of ,literature1 ,science1 and ,art1 gives a brief summary of the same general facts in the article 8,palimpsest40 ,the fullest and most elaborate exposition of the composition and manufacture of ,ink which we have been able to find1 however1 is in the great ,french 8,dictionnaire des ,arts et ,manufactures10 by an association of distinguished savans1 in two volumes1 imperial octavo1 ,paris1 #ahec1 article1 ,,encre4 ,but1 of all articles and treatises on the subject1 which we have examined1 that in the ,english ,penny ,cyclopaedia has the merit of containing1 if not the best and longest account1 a very good and satisfactory one1--because it expresses all the essential facts in the fewest and best-chosen because perfectly intelligible words4 ,as we do not attempt to furnish a text-book for ink-manufacturers1 we do not transcribe in full1 or translate1 from these and other works of great value on this subject4 ,that modern inks do not resist the decomposing and destructive power of chemical agents 7whether acids1 alkalies1 saline bodies or elements17 as well as the ancient inks1 is the result of a necessity existing in their very composition and invention1 and even in the use for which they were designed1 and to which they are applied4 ,a dye 7like modern ink7 is the result of chemical action1 and is therefore subject to chemical re-agents2 yet1 when well made1 it is proof against mechanical action1 such as washing1 rubbing1 and scraping2 nor can it be removed from paper to which it is applied1 without destroying that material1 or rendering that part of it practically useless4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the ancient inks1 which resist all chemical processes1 can be removed by mechanical action1 such as has been named4 ,if a new ink were compounded of the two1 possessing the best properties of each1 any writing executed with it could be effaced by the joint or successive action of mechanical and chemical applications4 ,it must be borne in mind that the ancient inks had one use for which writing ink is now never required2 and that was in making books1 or multiplying copies of manuscripts indefinitely for general reading1 or publication4 ,the invention and universal employment of the art of printing has wholly done away with that4 ,of ,,indelible ,,inks1 or those used for marking fabrics of cotton1 linen1 c41 for the identification of ownership1 it is not necessary to give any particular description4 ,their ordinary composition is very generally understood to be a solution of nitrate of silver1 or some similar caustic1 applied with a pen of proper material1 to a portion of the surface of the cloth1 which has been previously prepared by the absorption of a gummy or mucilaginous fluid dried upon it under pressure4 ,,sympathetic ,,inks are fluids employed in coloring drawings made for parlor amusement1 or the diversion of children and youth4 ,as1 for instance1 a landscape drawn in ordinary colors with a wintry aspect1 cloudy or sombre sky1 snow on the ground1 and leafless trees1 if properly touched with sympathetic inks1 will1 at any time1 when brought near a fire1 or otherwise subjected to a certain degree of warmth1 change to the hues of summer1 the sky becoming of a clear blue1 the trees in full foliage1 and the turf rich with grass1 each with its appropriate shade of verdure1 as also flowers of their various natural colors1 c41 according to the fancy of the artist1 the whole disappearing as the picture grows cold4 ,the chloride1 the nitrate1 the acetate1 and the sulphate of cobalt1 form sympathetic inks1--the first1 blue1 and 7with the addition of nickel17 green2 the second1 red4 ,chloride of copper gives a gamboge yellow2 bromide of copper1 a fine rich brown4 ,letters written with a solution of acetate of lead1 are invisible until exposed to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen1 which makes them distinct1 with the lustrous greyish black of sulphuret of lead1 the same substance which is called galena when it occurs as lead-ore4 ,a weak infusion of galls or other vegetable astringent1 will1 if applied to paper in the form of letters1 become legible when touched with any solution of iron4 ,if written with a solution of ferro-cyanide of potash1 letters will remain invisible until touched with a solution of sulphate of iron4 ,,importance ,,of ,,good ,,ink4 ,astle speaks very impressively and justly on this point2 and we contribute to this part of our subject by calling attention to facts almost daily occurring or brought to notice in this country1 especially in the older cities and states1 where town-records1 parish-registers1 and other documents of ancient date1 and of high importance in history1 chronology1 and genealogy1 7as well as in regard to the title and inheritance of estates17 are found obscured and obliterated1 causing losses1 public and private1 that need but to be mentioned to be properly estimated4 ,in the appendix will be found a fac-simile of a sheet upon which various specimens of ink were thoroughly and fairly tested1 which is a brief but emphatic demonstration of a difference of qualities by difference of results4 ,to show what can be done in the preservation of writing on material even frailer than such paper as we employ1 we need but produce the specimen of ,egyptian writing on papyrus1 pronounced by ,champollion to have been executed more than sixteen hundred 7#afjj7 years before the birth of ,christ1 yet still in preservation and legible1 as may be seen by the representation we give of it4 ,this is undoubtedly as old as any specimen of phonetic characters or written letters 7representing sounds1 not ideas or objects17 extant1 made by marking with a fluid upon any substance4 ,there are inscriptions of letters upon stone1 for which an earlier date of #djjj years ,b4,c41 is claimed with truth4 ,but this is ,,ink-writing1 absolutely #cejj years old6 ,the ,chinese assert that they had the art of writing at a period #biej years before ,christ2 but they have no records or monuments of that date2 and their characters even to the present time1 are entire words1 representing objects1 ideas or things1 not sounds4 ,in the art of printing1 they pretend to have preceded the ,european nations about #bdjj years1 dating their invention of it from the tenth century before ,christ4 ,but they have never advanced beyond the first form of the art--letters engraved on solid wooden blocks--the very method in use by ,koster1 and his associates1 until the invention of moveable types by ,john ,gansfleisch1 otherwise named ,john ,gutenberg or ,guttemberg1 in #adce4 ,in both arts1 writing and printing alike1 the ,chinese have remained stiff1 solid and immovable at the first step1 with the characteristic unchangeability of the yellow races of ,eastern ,asia1 so opposite to the indefinitely progressive and self-improving energy of the nations whose progenitors proceeded west from the original source and centre of the earth's population4 ,the same ink serves the ,chinese both for writing and printing1 as does the same kind of paper4 ,this ink they invented about the end of the first century of the ,christian era2 before which time they wrote on boards or bamboos4 ,having next proceeded to the use of silken cloth for these purposes1 the preparation of paper from that material naturally followed4 ,their ink1 being carbonaceous and oleaginous1 is1 of course1 7like that of the ,egyptians and all the other ancients17 unfading1 and unalterable by chemical agencies1 though capable of being effaced or obscured by watery applications or exposure4 ,as to their claim of having invented the art of printing1 we shall have something to say hereafter4 ,the ,aztecs 7in ,mexico1 before the ,spanish discovery and conquest17 extensively employed a picture-writing1 as a means of recording events1 during a period not exceeding two centuries before that epoch4 ,they had the art of manufacturing materials as a basis of such writing1 from the ,agave or ,american aloe1 and from cotton1 in the form of a very fine cloth4 ,they also used prepared skins for the same purpose1 the best specimens of which are pronounced to be more beautiful than the finest vellum4 ,their manuscripts were sometimes done up in rolls or scrolls1 and frequently on tablets1 in the form of a folding-screen4 ,their inks appear to have been coloring matters in watery solutions4 ,the oldest ,phoenician ink-writing of which any specimen has been preserved1 dates no later than the second century before ,christ1 and may be much older4 ,a fac-simile of a portion of it will be found among our illustrations1 explained by notes referring to each by its number4 ,greek manuscripts in ink 7on papyrus71 of the third century before ,christ1 are in existence4 ,we give specimens of the oldest known1--one written in ,egypt1 #bfj ,b4,c41 being an order from ,dioscorides1 an officer of the government of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 to another named ,dorion4 ,the translation of the words is 8,dioscorides to ,dorion1 greeting4 ,of the letter to ,dorion the copy is subjoined40 99 99 99 ,we add other specimens1 of the same and later periods4 ,of ,latin writing with ink1 the earliest we can find is the palimpsest of ,cicero's book1 8,de ,republica10 which had been partly effaced to make room for a copy of ,augustin's commentary on the ,psalms4 ,it is believed by the learned that the original manuscript was executed at least as early as the second or third century of the ,christian era4 ,the restoration of this manuscript1 and the discovery of this long-lost and earnestly sought classic gem1 were the work of ,cardinal ,mai1 as before mentioned4 ,the original words are ,,teterrimus ,,et ,,ex ,,hac ,,vel----1 and are written in two columns on the page1 while the later writing runs completely across the page4 ,of the earliest writing executed in ,france1 after that country received its name from those who conquered it1 we give a specimen from the beginning of a charter of ,king ,dagobert ,i1 executed ,a4,d4 #fbh4 ,the words are--8,,quotiescumque ,,petitionibus0--8,however many times to petitions10 c4 ,it is a confirmation of a partition of property between two heirs4 ,the monogrammatic autograph of the ,great ,karl1 7in modern times called ,charlemagne17 we present also as an object of interest4 ,a4,d4 #hjj4 ,the oldest specimen of writing in ,great ,britain which has been preserved to the nineteenth century1 was a book believed to be not later than the year #fjj of the ,christian era4 ,astle has preserved an engraved specimen of it2 but the priceless original has since been destroyed by fire in the ,british ,museum4 ,it was said to be a book of ,augustin4 ,a specimen still in existence1 dates between the years #ffd and #fgj4 ,it is a charter of ,sebbi1 ,king of the ,east ,saxons1 and is easily read3--8,i1 ,sebbi1 ,king10 c4 ,we subjoin a few words from the commencement of a charter of ,william the ,conqueror1 whose reign commenced in ,england1 ,a4,d4 #ajff3--,,will3 ,,dei ,,gra,,tia ,,rex1 c41 ,,sciatis ,,me ,,concessisse--8,william1 by the grace of ,god1 ,king c43 ,know ye that ,i have granted--0 ,,isaac ,d',,israeli1 in his ,curiosities of ,literature1 7vol4 #b1 page #ahj1 of the ,boston edition17 gives a treatise on the 8,origin of the ,materials of ,writing40 ,he commences it with these remarkable words3 8,it is curious to observe the various substitutes for paper before its discovery40 ,now1 of all 8curiosities of literature10 this little sentence is1 in many respects1 the most curious4 ,he talks of substitutes for a thing not in existence1 and not even a subject of imagination1 conjecture1 or conception4 ,the name of ,d',israeli does not indicate an ,,irish origin1 but there is a strong affinity between this and those curiosities of literature commonly called 8,irish bulls40 ,as for instance1 it reminds us of the couplet composed by an ,irish officer of a garrison in the ,scottish ,highlands1 in commemoration of the 8good works0 of ,general ,wade1 who had caused excellent military roads to be made through some of the previously almost impassable morasses of that region4 8,had you seen these roads before they were made1 ,you'd have lifted your hands and blessed ,general ,wade40 ,now1 by way of comment on ,d',,israeli1 we will say that 8it is very curious10 and moreover very strange1 if not ridiculous1 that he and ,,astle1 7from whom he copies without a full and fair acknowledgment17 while 8deeply complaining of the inferiority of our inks to those of antiquity10 have utterly failed to ascertain the cause or even to notice the occasion of it4 ,they1 as well as other writers on the subject1 observe the excellence of the ink employed in manuscripts of earlier ages1 down to the twelfth century1 and the inferiority of the ink used from that period down to the close of the seventeenth century1 without turning attention to the great historical fact that the ,,first ,,paper-,,mill in ,europe was established in that same twelfth century4 ,a peculiar ,,cachexy 7a variety of the disease known to psycho-nosologists as the cacothes scribendi17 seems to be hereditary in the ,d',israeli family4 ,,benjamin ,d',,israeli1 7the son of ,isaac17 late ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1 c41 when he rose in his place1 as the ,head or ,representative of ,her ,majesty's government in the ,house of ,commons1 to pronounce a eulogy on the recently deceased ,duke of ,wellington1 had the impudence to repeat1 word for word1 a very bald translation of the loge delivered by ,lamartine a few years previous1 on occasion of the death of one of the third-rate marshals of ,napoleon ,i4 ,the ,d',israeli family are evidently 8some0 of the children of ,israel1 who1 7as we are told on good authority17 when they left ,egypt borrowed everything they could get1 and never1 so far as the record shows1 either returned the articles so obtained1 or made proper acknowledgments therefor4 ,the ,chinese did manufacture paper from the bark of the small branches of a tree of the mulberry genus1 7,morus ,multicaulis87 and also from old rags1 silk1 hemp1 and cotton1 as early as the second century of the ,christian era2 and it is supposed that from them the ,arabs derived their knowledge of paper-making1 an art which they introduced into ,europe in the former half of the twelfth century1 when the first paper-mill was put in operation in ,spain1 then under the ,moorish dominion2 and1 in #aaej1 this article1 as manufactured by them1 had become famous throughout ,christendom4 ,we use the words ,arab and ,moor indiscriminately here4 ,the former is the name of the race2 the latter is limited to that portion found in ,northern ,africa4 ,the ,moor is the ,arab of the ,,west1 7,al ,mogreb1 ,el ,gharb17 in the ,arabic1 denominated ,,mogrebyn1--a word which in ,roman and ,european mouths has smoothed and softened itself into a form suggestive of the origin of ,maurus and ,mauritania4 ,now1 without coming to a positive conclusion on this subject1 we feel authorized to pronounce what appears to be a reasonable opinion1 derived from all the facts which we have just placed before the reader1--that the introduction of writing-paper among ,europeans1 was the occasion and cause of the invention and general employment of modern writing-ink by them4 ,the fact that the vegetable astringents form a deep or bluish black color1 when combined with a salt of iron1 had been known from time immemorial4 ,among the ,romans1 the atramentum sutorium1--8shoemaker's ink10--was applied to a solution of sulphate of iron employed by them1 as it is even to this day1 by workers in leather1 to blacken the surface of that material4 ,this it does by uniting chemically with the tannin and gallic acid1 by which the hide was converted into leather1 whose blackened particles are therefore essentially identical with modern ink4 ,the 8copperas-water0 is to be found in every shoemaker's shop1 where it is used to color the cut edges of the heels and the rest of the soles4 ,as soon as the difficulty of writing with convenience and rapidity on paper1 with the ancient carbonaceous ink1 became manifest1 the resort to the atramentum sutorium as a substitute for the atramentum scriptorium1 was a matter of course1 and was but a simple adaptation of a familiar substance to a new purpose1 requiring no great ingenuity1 and no invention whatever4 ,for a time1 perhaps through a period of several centuries1 a mixture of the two kinds of ink was employed by the ,romans2 and this was undoubtedly the best composition that was ever invented for the purpose of deliberate1 careful1 elegant writing1 designed and required to be permanent and unchangeable under constant exposure and handling1--as in the case of manuscript books before the art of printing was known4 ,even as early as the first century of the ,christian era1 in the time of ,pliny the ,younger1 and probably long before that1 a solution of sulphate of iron was commonly or frequently added to the carbonaceous and oleaginous mixture which we have described as the original writing-ink4 ,in short1 the atramentum sutorium was added1 in moderate quantity1 to the atramentum scriptorium1 thus constituting it a ,,chemical as well as a ,,mechanical ink4 ,so1 modern ink may be improved in blackness1 durability and beauty1 and rendered unchangeable in color under the action of the chlorides1 acids1 c41 by the intermixture of a small quantity of the very finest carbon1 in the form of an impalpable powder4 ,but1 the great difficulty is--that the carbon clogs the pen1 and renders the ink too thick to flow easily1 so that it can never be used for rapid or ordinary writing4 ,we can not give1 in our own words1 a better account of this matter than we find in the language of a very learned author in the ,edinburgh ,review1 7volume #dh1 ,dec4 #ahbh74 ,the article here cited is entitled 8,,the ,,recovery ,,of ,,lost ,,writings10 and is nominally a review of #a;,,gaii ,,institutionum ,,commentarii3 #b;,,institutes ,,de ,,gaius1 ,,recemment ,,decouvertes ,,dans ,,un ,,palimpseste ,,de ,,la ,,bibliotheque ,,de ,,chapitre ,,de ,,verone4 #c;,,jurisconsulti ,,ante-,,justinianei ,,reliquiae ,,ineditae1 ex codice rescripto ,bibliothecae ,vaticanae1 curante ,,angelo ,,maio1 ,bibliothecae ejusdem ,praefecti4 ,the article begins on page #cdh of this volume of the ,review4 ,we quote from page #cff2--8,the ink which the ancients generally used1 was composed of lamp-black mixed with gum1 as we are informed by ,dioscorides and others1 who give the receipt recipe8 for making it4 ,ink of this kind may be called carbonic3 it possesses the advantages of extreme blackness and durability1 the writing remaining fresh so long as the substance on which it is written exists2 but as it does not sink into the paper1 it is liable to the great inconvenience of being easily and entirely removed2 for1 if a wet sponge be applied to it1 the writing may be washed away1 and no traces of the characters will remain4 ,the facility with which documents might be thus obliterated1 gave occasion to fraud1 as an artful forger was able to remove such portions of the original writing as he might desire to get rid of1 and thus profit by the absence of material words1 or insert in the blanks which he had made1 such interpolations as might serve his turn4 ,many common accidents1 by which books and writings were exposed to wet1 or even to damp1 were also fatal1 or at least highly injurious1 to compositions and muniments of great value4 ,various expedients were therefore attempted to remedy an imperfection from which many must have suffered severely4 ,,pliny informs us that it was usual1 in his time1 to mix vinegar with the ink1 to make it strike into the paper or parchment1 and that it1 in some degree1 answered the purpose4 ,it should seem that vitriolic ink1 such as we use at present1 was also adopted soon afterwards1 which possesses1 in perfection1 the quality that was desired of sinking instantly into the paper1 so as to make it far more difficult to discharge it without destroying the texture on which it is written1 and of being perfectly secure against water1 by which ,indian and other carbonic ,inks are so easily effaced4 ,,it ,,is ,,not1 however1 ,,equally ,,secure ,,against ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,time2 for vitriolic ink gradually fades away1 becomes paler by degrees1 turns brown and yellow1 and is scarcely legible2 and sometimes1 as the parchment grows yellow and brown with age1 it disappears altogether4 ,a compound kind of ink came next into use1 which united the advantages and avoided the defects of the two simple sorts4 ,such a mixed ink was generally used for several centuries2 and with this1 the manuscripts that are now most fresh and legible appear to have been written4 ,it is evident that the ink with which the original works contained in the ,palimpsest manuscripts that have been deciphered were written1 was at least in part vitriolic3 for the letters which had been rubbed out were rendered legible by the application of the infusion of galls4 ,in order to remove the original writing1 the parchments on which the mixed ink had been used were1 probably1 first washed to take off the carbon1 and thus partially to efface the characters1 and were afterwards scraped or rubbed with pumice1 or some other suitable substance1 to complete the process of destruction1 by taking away mechanically the color that the vitriolic portion of the ink still preserved4 ,it is but too probable that many manuscripts1 the characters of which were entirely formed of the more ancient carbonic ink1 have been entirely destroyed1 the letters having been washed off completely1 and by the same simple means as the writing of a school-boy on a slate2 whilst the parchment still remains in our libraries1 and is covered with more modern compositions which have sacrilegiously and too successfully usurped the place of more ancient and more valuable matter4 ,the tirades of ,cyril or of ,jerome1 or the tawdry eloquence of ,chrysostom1 are perhaps firmly established in quarters from whence 8 the ,margites of ,homer1 or the comedies of ,menander1 were miserably dislodged4 8,a manuscript is called ,palimpsest1 from the adjective or 1 signifying twice rubbed2 ,,not as the glossary of ,du ,cange 7membrana iterum abrasa--charta deletilis7 would seem to denote1 because the parchment had twice undergone abrasure1 or the writing been twice obliterated1 but because it had been twice prepared for writing1 which was principally effected by rubbing it with pumice1 first in the course of manufacture1 after the original skin had been cured1 and again by the same process1 after the original writing had been taken away by washing1 or in any other manner4 ,the strict and precise sense of ,palimpsest is therefore #8twice prepared for writing2' the repetition of such preparation being the prevailing idea in the etymology1 and not erasure1 as some have erroneously supposed4 ,it is said to be easy to remove from modern parchment1 especially if what is written be of some standing1 all traces of writing1 by rubbing it with pumice1 or similar substances2 and if the surface be afterwards polished1 no one1 by merely looking on it1 will ever suppose that it had ever been written upon2 but1 if it be washed by an infusion of galls1 the letters will be so far restored1 particularly if it be suffered to remain some time in the light1 that it may be copied by a patient and practiced person1 who is gifted with good eyes3--so deeply had the iron entered into the soul of the parchment6 ,if the erased letters were written in a bold large hand1 the task of deciphering them will of course be less troublesome1 and the results more sure4 ,and such are the characters of the more ancient manuscripts2 for1 the older the manuscript1 the better and more legible is the writing1 as approaching more nearly to the ages of civility and refinement4 ,the method of writing in old times is also favorable1 it is said1 to the restoration of works apparently obliterated4 ,the scribe did not use a flowing ink1 nor a finely pointed pen1 as modern writers are wont2 nor was a small quantity applied so lightly and sparingly as to dry almost as fast as it touches the paper4 ,the ancient ink was thick with gum1 and was supplied copiously by a pen with a broad point1 usually made of a reed2 and the characters were painted rather than written1 the ink rather resembling paint or varnish than our thin liquor4 ,as they rarely wrote in books1 it was not necessary that the page should dry speedily1 or be dried by means of sand and blotting-paper1 in order to prevent the loss of time1 and that the penman might turn over the leaf immediately2 the loose sheets or leaves1 on the contrary1 which were only to be bound up when the whole was completed1 were left to dry slowly1 so that the pools of ink which formed the letters1 stood long on the surface of the parchment2 and that part of the fluid which was of a penetrating nature was gradually absorbed1 and sunk deeply into the substance of the skin1 so as to preserve to us--if we be not wanting to ourselves in diligence--many precious relics of ancient lore4 ,the restoration of the original writing in a palimpsest manuscript will be best explained by referring to one of the many kinds of sympathetic ink1 which is in truth1 making common ink ex post facto1 or uniting the ingredients of which it is composed1 after the fact of writing4 ,if we write with water in which copperas has been dissolved1 the letters will be invisible2 but when the paper has been washed over with an infusion of galls1 they will appear gradually1 and will in time become tolerably legible2 the ink being thus formed upon the paper1 although much less perfectly1 than in the ordinary maceration40 ,little or nothing can be added to the full and elaborate history of ancient and modern inks which is contained in this extract1--so thorough and complete in its analysis of the subject1 and so clear in its distinct statements of the results of investigations in which some of the most acute minds of ,europe have long been successfully employed1 that we will not linger upon it with mere verbal criticism4 ,we can not present a more striking illustration of the change in the composition of inks about the time of the invention of the art of printing1 than is furnished by the annexed fac-simile of a page in the ,,biblia ,,pauperum1 78,bible for poor folks107 the oldest printed book in the world4 ,this extraordinary book is of uncertain date4 7,no printed book has a date prior to #adeg47 ,there are1 as we believe1 only two copies of it in ,america1 one in the possession of ,,james ,,lenox1 of ,new-,york1--the other in the ,,astor ,,library4 ,the maker of this book was the unconscious inventor of the art of printing4 ,wood-engraving was in use for ages before it occurred to the mind of man that a letter might be as easily reproduced in that way as a picture or figure4 ,to convey scriptural history to the minds of the common people1 the wood-engravers 7whose art was invented to multiply and cheapen the production of ,,playing-,,cards7 made little pictures representing scenes described1 and events narrated1 in the ,bible4 ,for the benefit of the few who could read1 it was customary to write on the margin1 or at the foot1 of the page on which the woodcut was printed1 a few words descriptive of the subject or object delineated4 ,this was always done with a pen1 by a regular scribe1 until1 one day1 it occurred to the wood-engraver employed on the ,biblia ,pauperum1 that these words might be as easily engraved as the figures to which they referred1 and of which they were the explanation4 ,he put that idea in practice3 and in an instant the sublime ,,art ,,of ,,printing was an 8accomplished fact40 ,the advocates of the claims of ,koster1 ,gansefleisch1 7or ,gutenberg17 ,faust 7or ,fust17 and ,schoeffer1 to this invention1 have wasted much labor in bringing forth conflicting testimony about them4 ,the long-forgotten and now wholly unknown wood-engraver of the ,biblia ,pauperum had preceded them by half of a generation4 ,such books were in existence before ,a4,d4 #adbj2 and the earliest date which the ,haarlaem ,dutchmen set up for the first printing of their fellow-townsman1 ,lawrence ,koster1 is #adbh4 ,and his pretensions are after all very dubious4 ,indeed they have been generally condemned as utterly fabulous by bibliographical critics and typographical historians4 ,we introduce it here to show the color and the 7thereby indicated7 composition of the ,,ink employed4 ,it was writing-ink4 ,it contained sulphate of iron 7copperas71 in combination with vegetable astringent matter1 and with very little carbon4 ,the vegetable substance1 imperfectly united to the mineral ingredient1 has 7in obedience to the laws of organic matter7 been decomposed and 8resolved into its original elements40 ,it has disappeared2 but the ,,iron remains with its yellow stain1 an imperishable memorial of that humble1 nameless workman1 more enduring than that which the plaintive man of ,uz desired2 for if those words had been 8graven with an ,,iron ,,pen and lead in the rock forever10 that anticipated eternity might have faded of realization by the action of the rain1 the frost1 the dust1 and innumerable imaginable atmospheric vicissitudes1 or1 7what is worse17 8the wrath of man40--,some ,cambyses might have demolished the rock itself1 and left no more of the inscription than can now be read of those once carved on the cliffs of ,edom1 the ,god-created walls of ,petra in the valley of ,,el ,,ghor4 ,this pale rusty ,,word-,,stamping on the fragile and easily combustible paper1 has outlasted the inscriptions once visible in gigantic characters on the four sides of the ,memphitic pyramids2 and it is only an incidental result of the intelligence diffused and the learning promoted by the invention thus begun1 that we can now read the long-buried records of ,nineveh1 the epitaphs of the ,thebaic kings1 and the gravings on the precipitous fronts of the mountains which surround the ruins of ,persepolis4 ,all writers upon this subject have strangely overlooked the fact that the art of impressing or printing letters with a metallic stamp or type on parchment1 as a substitute for pen-work1 is about a thousand years older than the period above specified as the date of the invention of the modern art of printing4 ,the ,,codex ,,argenteus1 7the oldest translation of the entire ,bible into any ,european language17 is a famous book1 in the ,library of the ,university of ,upsala in ,sweden4 7,we give the particulars of its history in our ,appendix47 ,this 8antique0 is on purple vellum1 7which is parchment made of calf-skin17 and all the letters are ,,silver1 7whence the name ,codex ,argenteus1 the 8silver book107 manifestly impressed on the page by a metallic stamp or type1 each letter evidently being on a separate stock or handle1 and applied by manual pressure4 ,we give a specimen of this style of work4 ,it may be called printing1 but can not be denominated manuscript1 for that is 7literally7 8hand-writing10 which this certainly is not4 ,in our ,appendix may be found still earlier instances of this art as practiced by the ancient ,romans on a small scale1 in signatures1 trade-marks1 c4 ,the ,edinburgh review refers to ,pliny and ,dioscorides1 as furnishing directions for the manufacture of ink4 ,the ,edinburgh reviewer says 8receipts10--not recognizing the broad distinction between a receipt and a recipe4 ,the former of these two words was originally intended to convey the idea that the person who signs the paper has got something3 the latter word1 or its representative initial 77 means simply1 8take40 ,the directions of ,pliny are in the following words3-- ,c4 ,plinii ,secundi ,historia ,naturalis4 ,lib4 ,,xxxv1 #be4 ,,atramentum4 ,atramentum quoque inter factitios erit1 quanquam est et terra gemin originis4 ,aut enim salsuginis modo emanat1 aut terra ipsa sulphurei coloris ad hoc probatur4 ,inventi sunt pictores1 qui e sepulcris carbones infectos effoderent4 ,importuna haec omnia1 et novitia4 ,fit enim e fuligine pluribus modis1 resina vel pice exustis4 ,propter quod1 officinas etiam aedificavere1 fumum eum non emittentes4 ,laudatissimum eodem modo fit e tedis4 ,adulteratur fornacum balnearumque fuligine1 quo ad volumina scribenda utuntur4 ,sunt qui et vini faecem exsiccatam excoquant2 adfirmantque1 si ex bono vino faex fuerit1 ,indici speciem id atramentum praebere4 ,polygnotus et ,micon celeberrimi pictores ,athenis1 e vinaceis facere3 tryginon appellant4 ,apelles commentus est ex ebore combusto facere1 quod elephantinum vocavit4 ,adportatur et ,indicum1 inexploratae adhuc inventionis mihi4 ,fit etiam apud infectores ex flore nigro1 qui adhaerescit aheneis cortinis4 ,fit et e tedis ligno combusto1 tritisque in mortario carbonibus4 ,mira in hoc sepiarum natura3 sed ex his non fit4 ,omne autem atramentum sole perficitur1 librarium gummi1 tectorum glutino admixto4 ,quod autem aceto liquefactum est1 aegre eluitur4 7,,translation47 8,,ink 7or literally7 ,,blacking4--,ink also may be set down among the artificial 7or compound7 drugs1 although it is a mineral derived from two sources4 ,for1 it is sometimes developed in the form of a saline efflorescence1--or is a real mineral of sulphureous color--chosen for this purpose4 ,there have been painters who dug up from graves colored coals 7,,carbon74 ,but all these are useless and new-fangled notions4 ,for it is made from soot in various forms1 as 7for instance7 of burnt rosin or pitch4 ,for this purpose1 they have built manufactories not emitting that smoke4 ,the ink of the very best quality is made from the smoke of torches4 ,an inferior article is made from the soot of furnaces and bath-house chimneys4 ,there are some 7manufacturers7 also1 who employ the dried lees of wine2 and they ,,do say that if the lees so employed were from good wine1 the quality of the ink is thereby much improved4 ,polygnotus and ,micon1 celebrated painters at ,athens1 made their black paint from burnt grape-vines2 they gave it the name of ,,trygynon4 ,,apelles1 we are told1 made ,,his from burnt ivory1 and called it elephantina 8ivory-black40 ,indigo has been recently imported1--a substance whose composition ,i have not yet investigated4 ,the dyers make theirs from the dark crust that gradually accumulates on brass-kettles4 ,ink is made also from torches 7pine-knots71 and from charcoal pounded fine in mortars4 8,the cuttle-fish0 has a remarkable quality in this respect2 but the coloring-matter which it produces is not used in the manufacture of ink4 ,all ink is improved by exposure to the sun's rays4 ,book-writers' ink has gum mixed with it1--weaver's ink is made up with glue4 ,ink whose materials have been liquified by the agency of an acid is erased with great difficulty40 ,this sounds very much like nonsense3 but it is exactly what the 8,great ,naturalist10 ,pliny1 meant when he wrote all that he knew1 and probably all that was then known on the subject of ink1 black paints and dyes1 and very dark-colored fluids generally1 which were then employed by painters1 dyers1 weavers1 writers and physicians4 ,to make his chapter on this subject fully intelligible to us1 we must bear in mind the fact1 that the great science of ,chemistry had no existence till many centuries after ,pliny wrote4 ,and thus1 it never occurred to him that there was but one substance1 7now known to be elementary17 ,,carbon1 which gave the quality of blackness to all the materials which he names1 with the exception of one salt of copper1 and probably one of iron1 7the sulphate17 and ,,indigo1 a purely vegetable substance1 the dried coloring matter of a plant in ,india1 7,indicofera anil17 and named by the ,romans from the country that produced it1 and first made it known to them4 ,,pedanius ,,dioscorides1 born in ,anazarbus1 7a city of ,cilicia1 about fifty miles from ,,tarsus1 the birth-place of the ,apostle ,paul17 wrote a book on the ,materia ,medica1 or the qualities of drugs1 a little after the time when ,pliny composed his ,natural ,history4 ,neither of them seems to have been acquainted with the writings of the other4 ,apparently1 they lived1 wrote and died nearly or actually cotemporary1 in the same empire1 utterly ignorant of each other's existence1--though they are now universally recognized as the two most eminent writers of all antiquity on the subjects of ,natural ,history and the ,materia ,medica4 ,they both lived in the reign of ,nero1 and the date of the active or middle part of both their lives may be reasonably placed at or about the year #ajj of the ,christian ,era4 ,from ,dioscorides to ,,linn,,us1 7in the last century17 the ,materia ,medica made no actual progress and received no scientific improvement2 yet1 eminent as is ,dioscorides1 he was so little known to his own generation or that next following1 that it is now impossible to ascertain the exact date of his birth or of his death1 or any facts in his life1 but that he wrote two books1 of which that here quoted is the best known1 and has made him known #agjj years after his birth4 7,we may mention that this ,dioscorides was1 in no traceable degree1 related to the person of the same name1 whose manuscript we have copied in our illustrations as the oldest extant specimen of ,greek ink-writing47 ,we give a translation of his brief but complete description of the ink used in his time1 and the ,latin version1 that those who wish may satisfy themselves of the correctness of our rendering4 ,it will be seen that it occurs at the close of the great work of ,dioscorides3-- ,atramentum1 quo scribimus1 e fuligine taedarum collecta conficitur4 ,in singulas gummi uncias ternae fuliginis unciae adjiciuntur4 ,fit etiam e resinae fuligine et pictoria illa modo dicta4 ,hujus fuliginis autem sumi oportet minam unam1 gummi sesquilibram1 taurini glutinis et chalcanthi singulorum sesquiunciam4 ,idoneum est ad septica2 et confert ambustis ex aqua paullo crassius inunctum et tamdiu dimissum1 donec cicatrix obducatur1 sanatis nimirum ulceribus sponte sua excidit4 ,atque jam1 carissime ,aree1 tum pro operis modo1 quem proposueramus1 tum pro materiae auxiliorumque copia1 quam colligere licuit1 hucusque dicta sufficiant4 ,libri quinti et ultimi de ,materia ,medica finis4 ,pedanii ,dioscoridis ,anazarbei ,de ,materia ,medica4 ,,translation4 ,the 8,,ink with which we write is composed of the soot of torches1 collected4 8,to each ounce of gum1 add three of soot4 8,it is also made of the soot of resin and of that lately called #8painters' black4' ,of this soot1 however1--take one ,,mina1--of gum1 half a pound1--of ox-glue and of copperas1 each1 half an ounce4 8,it is a good application in cases of gangrene1 and is useful in scalds1 if a little thickened and employed as a salve1 and permitted to remain until a new cuticle is formed1 when it will spontaneously fall off from the healed sore4 8,and now1 my very dear ,areas1 in due proportion to the work which we had undertaken1 and the quantity of the materials and contributions which we could gather1 what we have thus far said must suffice4 8,end of the fifth and last book on ,the ,materia ,medica4 8,the book of ,pedanius ,dioscorides on the ,materia ,medica40 ,we have followed the text of ,karl ,gotleib ,kuhn4 ,medicorum ,graecorum1 opera quae extant4 ,leipzig1 #ahbi4 ,among the fantastic trifles with which ,,dean ,,swift was accustomed to amuse his leisure1 is a little string of verses on this subject which are appended1 not as being of any poetic merit1 but as a 8curiosity of literature0--not out of place here3-- ,on ,ink4 ,i am jet black1 as you may see1 ,the son of pitch and gloomy night2 ,yet all who know me will agree ,i'm dead1 except ,i live in light4 ,sometimes in panegyric high1 ,like lofty ,pindar1 ,i can soar1 ,and raise a virgin to the sky1 ,or her to a 99 99 99 99 99 ,my blood this day is very sweet1 ,to-morrow of a bitter juice2 ,like milk1 'tis cried about the street ,and so applied to different use4 ,most wondrous is my magic power3 ,for with one color ,i can paint4 ,i'll make the devil a saint this hour1 ,next make a devil of a saint4 ,through distant regions ,i can fly1 ,provide me with but paper wings1 fairly show a reason why ,there should be quarrels among kings4 ,and1 after all1 you'll think it odd1 ,when learned doctors will dispute1 ,that ,i should point the word of ,god1 ,and show where they can best confute4 ,let lawyers bawl and strain their throats1 ',tis ,i that must the lands convey1 ,and strip their clients to their coats1-- ,nay1 give their very souls away4 ,we find also in ,pope's epistle of ,heloise to ,abeillard an allusion to the power of letters1 as conveying ideas1 which seems appropriate in this connexion as illustrating the uses of ink4 ,heaven first taught letters for some wretch's aid1 ,some banished lover1 or some captive maid3 ,they live1 they speak1 they breathe what love inspires1 ,warm from the soul1 and faithful to its fires2 ,the virgin's wish without her fears impart1 ,excuse the blush1 and pour out all the heart1 ,speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul1 ,and waft a sigh from ,indus to the pole4 ,the genius of ,,byron 7in a playful flash7 has illuminated our subject with one of his most brilliant passages3-- ,but words are things3 and a small drop of ,,ink1 ,falling like dew upon a thought1 produces ,that which makes thousands 7perhaps millions7 think4 ,a less distinguished poet has1 in expressive1 and though in quainter1 humbler1 yet in noble strain1 said what is equally appropriate in this place3-- ,books are a part of man's prerogative3 ,in formal ,,ink1 they thought and voices hold1 ,that we to them our solitude may give1 ,and make time present travel as of old4 ,,celsus1 who lived in this world1 about the commencement of the ,christian era1 has left a little memorandum on this subject which is worth quoting4 ,we give his words entire3-- ,there are two kinds of bald spots occurring on the human head1--one of them a baldness which creeps over the scalp like a serpent1--the other showing itself in the form of round spaces uncovered by hair4 ,some recommend the use of acrid irritant articles1 combined with oils1 c4 ,but there is nothing better for you than to have the bald place shaved every day with a very dull razor1 and1 after having done that1 you needn't do anything else but rub on the place thus shaved a little atramentum sutorium--78shoemakers' ink10 8copperas-water107--solution of the ,di-proto sulphate of the 7per7 sesquoxyd of iron4 ,the editor of the printed copy of the edition of the works of ,,aulus ,,cornelius ,,celsus which was printed in ,padua1 made a material error on this point4 ,the word 8sutorium0 7being unintelligible to the ignorant monk who superintended the printing7 was changed to 8scriptorium10--that is1 8writing-ink10 instead of 8shoemakers'-ink40 ,it is well-known that a solution of copperas properly made1 will remedy or prevent premature baldness2 but we assert that no quantity of lamp-black and gum1 or grease1 will be found effectual for that purpose4 ,in the time of ,celsus1 the sulphate of iron 7copperas7 had not yet become an essential ingredient of writing-ink2 and even after that its combination with carbonaceous and oleaginous matters entirely neutralized the power which renders it applicable and useful in such cases4 ,,conclusion4 ,we have thus herein attempted the fulfilment of the promise 7with which we began7 to produce a 8,,history ,,of ,,ink10--a thing never before done or even proposed to be done4 ,if not successful in our attempt1 we hope that we have at least1 in this little book1 furnished hints and suggestions on this subject which the learned may employ hereafter when the history of this important material of history shall be undertaken and executed on a larger scale4 ,in view of which possibility1 we may1 with a pardonable self-gratulation1 say1--in the words of ,martin ,luther1--8,we have given to other and higher spirits occasion to reflect40 ,but we are loth to leave this subject 7which has grown into our affections as we have dwelt upon it7 without giving a blow or a kick to one monstrous absurdity which has prevailed among the learned1 8falsely so-called10--from the time when the ,jesuits returned from ,china with their 8edifying and curious0 tales about the huge antiquity of all the arts and some of the sciences of civilization among the people of what they called the 8,celestial ,empire10--a term wholly unknown to the ,chinese1 in any form or variation of expression4 ,the simple facts are that--the ,chinese derived their knowledge of ,,ink 7of writing with a colored liquid7 from ,europe4 ,so did they obtain their knowledge of the art of printing1 carried to them by ,venetian travelers1 8overland10 just at the moment before the clumsy engraved wood-blocks were superseded by the moveable types of ,gansefleisch or ,gutenberg4 ,so was it with the ,mariner's ,compass1 the manufacture of gunpowder1 and all their boasted 8inventions10--among which may be included their calculation of eclipses backward through fabulous cycles of centuries1 and the morals of ,confucius or ,kong-foo-tsee1 a mythical personage unmentioned in the history of ,china until the contents of the ,new ,testament had been made known there1--and that--many ages after the date of his supposed life and death4 ,but for their derivation and appropriation or theft of the great arts from the ,west1 the ,chinese and all ,oriental nations1 from the ,euphrates to the ,pacific1 including the ,japanese1 would have remained to this day in the condition in which the ,mexicans and ,peruvians were found by the ,spanish and ,italian robbers who first explored the ,western ,hemisphere1 and murdered its inhabitants for their land1 and the fruits and the gold and silver of that land4 ,whatever arts the ,chinese or ,japanese or ,jesuits may have invented or preserved1 the art of ,,telling ,,the ,,truth is evidently1 to all of them1 one of 8,,the ,,lost ,,arts18--lost irretrievably and forever6 ,illustration3 ,blackwood's ,black ,ink4 ,davids ,co's ,limpid ,writing ,fluid4-- ,harrison's ,columbian ,ink4 ,steel-,pen ,ink1 ,thaddeus ,davids4 ,maynard ,noye's ,black ,writing ,ink4-- ,written1 ,augt4 #ad1 #ahee1 to test permanence by long exposure to ,sun ,rain-- ,james ,r4 ,chilton1 ,,md4 ,chemist ,the above is a close fac-simile of a paper upon which ,i wrote with ,several ,kinds of ,ink1 as it appeared after being exposed to the weather for five months4 ,james ,r4 ,chilton1 ,,md4 ,chemist4 ,new ,york1 ,march #ae1 #ahef4 ,snyder1 ,black ,sturn1 #ib ,william ,st4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,plates4 ,no4 #a4--;,a fac simile of the oldest ,hieratic writing extant--about the #aeth century ,b4,c4 ,the hawk 7the emblem of ,divinity7 and the man stand on something that 8teters0--the circle between them 7a serpent biting its own tail7 is the ancient symbol of eternity4 ,the ,deity overbalances the man4 ,no4 #b4--;,from a ,greek ,,ms4 buried at ,herculaneum in the year #bi ,b4,c4 ,no4 #c4--,written on papyrus in ,egypt2 in the #c;d century ,b4,c4 ,no4 #d4--,written on papyrus #bfj years ,b4,c4 ,no4 #e4--,specimen of a ,palimpsest copy of ,cicero's 8,republic0 in the ,vatican ,library4 ,no4 #f4--,phnician writing on papyrus4 ,no4 #g4--;,from a ,pentateuch in the ,bibe4 ,nate4 ,paris1 ,a4,d4 #dej4 ,no4 #h4--;,from a ,greek ,copy of the ,book of ,genesis1 written in gold on purple vellum1 ,a4,d4 #djj4 ,no4 #i4--;,from a ,,ms4 on papyrus written in ,egypt #c;d century ,b4,c4 ,no4 #aj4--;,from a ,charter of ,childebert ,,iii4 ,a4,d4 #gjc4 ,no4 #aa4--;,from a ,charter of ,charlemagne1 about ,a4,d4 #ghe4 ,no4 #ab4--;,from a ,charter of the ,emperor ,conrad ,i4 ,a4,d4 #ihh4 ,no4 #ac4--,specimen of 8,roman ,saxon10 ,a4,d4 #fjj4 ,no4 #ad4--;,from a ,charter of ,dagobert ,i4 about ,a4,d4 #fbj4 ,no4 #ae4--;,from an early ,glic ,,ms4 ,no4 #af4--;,from a ,deed of ,william the ,conqueror4 ,no4 #ag4--,the monogram signature to a ,charter of ,charlemagne about ,a4,d4 #ghe4 ,no4 #ah4--;,from a ,charter of the reign of ,hugh ,capet1 ,a4,d4 #ihh4 ,no4 #ai4--;,from a ,deed of ,henry ,i4 ,no4 #bj4--;,from a ,deed of ,stephen1 dated ,a4,d4 #aaci4 ,no4 #ba4--;,from a ,deed of the reign of ,richard ,i4 ,no4 #bb4--;,from a ,,ms4 of ,wyckliffe's translation of the ,bible4 ,no4 #bc4--8,set ,saxon10 ,a4,d4 #hej4 8,qui sub ,pontio ,pilato crucifixus est1 et sepultus1 tertia die resurrexit40 ,no4 #bd4--;,from a ,charter of ,sebbi1 ,king of the ,east ,saxons1 ,a4,d4 #ffd1 8,ego ,sebbi ,rex ,east ,sax7onum7 pro--confirmatione ,subscripsi40 ,no4 #be4--,part of a ,charter of ,alfred the ,great1 ,a4,d4 #hjj4 ,no4 #bf4--;,from a ,charter of ,edward the ,confessor1 ,a4,d4 #ajde4 ,no4 #bg4--;,from a ,deed of the reign of ,edward ,i4 ,no4 #bh4--;,from a ,deed of ,william the ,conqueror4 ,no4 #bi4--;,from a ,deed of the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 ,edwardus ,dei gratia ,rex ,anglias ,dominus ,hiberni1 ,dux ,aquitani1 c4 ,no4 #cj4--;,from the ,will of ,william ,mikelfeld1 ,nov4 #g1 #adci4 ,no4 #ca4--;,from a ,deed of the reign of ,edward ,,iv4 ,no4 #cb4--;,from a ,grant by ,william ,wallace4 ,no4 #cc4--;,from a ,deed of ,richard ,,iii4 ,no4 #cd4--;,from a ,deed of the reign of ,john4 ,no4 #ce4--;,autograph of ,lord ,macaulay4 ,no4 #cf4--;,from a ,deed of ,henry ,,vii4 ,no4 #cg4--;,from an ,english translation of the works of ,chauliac1 ,a4,d4 #adjj4 ,no4 #ch4--;,from a ,deed of ,henry ,,viii4 ,no4 #ci4--;,from a ,,ms4 in the rounded hand of ,italy1 #aeth century4 ,no4 #dj4--,letter from ,columbus to the ,viceroy of ,castile1 #aeth century4 ,no4 #da4--,letter of ,anne of ,brittany1 #aead4 ,no4 #db4--,signature of 8,bayard10 the ,chevalier4 ,no4 #dc4--,letter from ,charles ,v4 to ,francis ,i4 ,no4 #dd4--,letter from ,calvin1 #aeei4 ,no4 #de4--,letter of the ,earl of ,essex1 #aefg4 ,no4 #df4--,letter of ,copernicus1 #adgc4 ,no4 #dg4--,william ,h4 ,prescott4 ,no4 #dh4--,letter of ,charles the ,,xii of ,sweden4 ,no4 #di4--,rosseau1 #ageg4 ,no4 #ej4--,letter of ,erasmus1 #adgf4 ,no4 #ea4--,letter of ,queen ,elizabeth to ,henry ,,iv of ,france4 ,no4 #eb4--;,christina of ,sweden1 #afbf4 ,no4 #ec4--;,charles ,i4 to his sister4 ,no4 #ed4--,oliver ,cromwell1 #afdc4 ,no4 #ee4--;,duke of ,marlborough1 ,june1 #agjf4 ,no4 #ef4--,the ,empress ,catherine ,,ii4 of ,russia1 ,july1 #aggc4 ,no4 #eg4--,washington1 #fth ,sept4 #aghh4 ,no4 #eh4--,louis ,,xvi1 ,june #cj1 #aggc4 ,no4 #ei4--,robespierre4 ,no4 #fj4--,napoleon to ,soult4 ,no4 #fa4--,wellington1 ,june #ai1 #ahae4 ,no4 #fb4--,lord ,byron1 ,nov4 #d1 #ahba4 ,no4 #fc4--,voltaire1 ,july #bi1 #ageg4 ,no4 #fd4--;,edmund ,burke4 ,no4 #fe4--,william ,pitt1 ,march #bg1 #ahjc4 ,no4 #ff4--,wellington1 ,april #ba1 #ahcd4 ,the colored engraving is an illustration of the picture writing of the ,mexicans1 from ,lord ,kingsborough's great work4 ,the blue border represents a series of years1 distinguished by the dots4 ,the compartment with five dots representing the fifth year of the reign1 that with ten the tenth1 and so on4 ,the pictures of the acts of the ,prince being connected with each special year by means of a connecting line4 ,the additional symbols have different significations--that of the flower signifying a calamitous year1 c4 ,in this plate ,king ,acamapich is represented in the first and sixth year of his reign2 at the top of the page are warlike instruments1 signifying his preparation for war2 the figures below1 on the right1 are the four cities--,quahnahuac1 ,mezquic1 ,cuitlhuac and ,xochimilco--represented by descriptive symbols4 ,the four heads on the left are those of the respective kings or chiefs of these cities1 beheaded by ,acamapich1 each distinguished by the iconographic symbol by which his name was expressed in this system of writing4 ,these picture records1 which would have illustrated the unknown history of this continent1 were destroyed in 8mountain heaps0 by the first ,spanish archbishop of ,mexico--an act of fanatical vandalism equalled only by the burning of the ,alexandrian ,library1 and the vast hoard of ,moorish literature at ,granada by ,ximenes4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #a4 #a4 ,hieratic text #b4 4444 4 444 4 444 - - - #c4 - #d4 4 - ,snyder ,black ,sturn #ib ,william ,st ,illustration3 ,pl4 #b4 #e4 teterrimus et ex hac vel homines heretici maxime quia non ds illam dedit -catur2 quia et legem ds dedit -varet propter certam #f4 ,phnician text #g4 1 #h4 - ,snyder ,black ,sturn #ib ,william ,st ,illustration3 ,pl4 #c4 #i4 #aj4 flourish representing 8,i7n7 ,c7hristi7 ,n7omine70 ,childeberths #aa4 ,et nostra indulgentia in aelimosina #ab4 ,et ut hus cplacitationis pcept firm stabileq2 #ac4 abbas sirum pater #ad4 quotienscumque petitionibus ,snyder ,black ,sturn #ib ,william ,st ,illustration3 ,pl4 #d4 #ae4 ,nirsatimini curio annso #af4 ,w rex anglorum #ag4 ,,karolvs #ah4 in eisdem degentium orem nostre celsitudinis #ai4 h4 dei gra rex #bj4 ,s rex--,anno m4cxxix #ba4 ,ricard di gra ,rex ,angl #bb4 ,,in e biginyng was e wrd and e ,snyder ,black ,sturn #ib ,william ,st ,illustration3 ,pl4 #e4 #bc4 qui sub pontio pilato crucifixus3 sepultus tertia die resurrexit #bd4 ego sebbi rex east sax pro #be4 dccclxxvo--,ego alfred gratia di rex hanc #bf4 nomina hic caraxata sunt--,,eaduueardus #bg4 ,istud starr recog est ,snyder1 ,black ,sturn1 #ib ,william ,st4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #f4 #bh4 ,will di gra rex--,sciatis me concessisse #bi4 ,edwardus dei gra ,rex ,angl ,dominus ,hibnie ,dux ,a #cj4 ,this is the laste ,wil indentid of me ,willia ,meklfeld ,esquyer being ,snyder1 ,black ,sturn1 #ib ,william ,st4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #g4 #ca4 ,edwardus dei gr ,rex ,anglie c #cb4 ,wlls ,walays miles ,custos regni #cc4 ,ricardus dei gratia ,rex ,anglie c4 #cd4 ,johannes ,dei ,gra ,rex ,angl #ce4 ,t ,b ,macaulay #cf4 ,henricus dei gr ,rex ,anglie ,francie ,snyder1 ,black ,sturn1 #ib ,william ,st4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #h #cg4 it was saide aboue in e chapitle of #ch4 ,henricus octavus dei gr ,angl ,francie rex #ci4 fecunditatem modo celi per multra #dj4 ,seor dejado n se puede #da4 ,monsieur mon bon frere #db4 ,bayart ,snyder ,black ,sturn1 #ib ,william ,st4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #i4 #dc4 monsr mon bon frer ,charles #dd4 le #bb de ,decembre #aeei #de4 ,i4 ,caluin #df4 singularj1 qua studiosos prosequi solet #dg4 ,w ,h ,prescott #dh4 illegible ,snyder1 ,black ,sturn1 #ib ,william ,st4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #aj4 #di4 ne rentre pas dans l'ame aussi #ej4 at ego n possum omnem #ea4 affection solide ,amitie #eb4 ,vostre approbation #ec4 ,i cannot refuse this #ed4 reade and expound the ,scriptures ,snyder ,black ,sturn1 #ib ,william ,st4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #aa4 #ee4 happy success in this #ef4 ,j'ai lue le memoire #eg4 well affected to the #eh4 votre amour pour le bien public #ei4 ,le comite a pris toutes les mesures #fj4 les anglais ont bombard ,granville la division de bateaux canonniers ayant bord la #bd;e lgre a march eux #fa4 ,wellington ,waterloo1 ,june #ai #ahae ,snyder ,black ,sturn1 #ib ,william ,st4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #ab4 #fb4 ,they are very civil about 8,cain0 but alarmed at its tendency--as they #fc4 faites je vous en pris le moins #fd4 you have an armed ,tyranny to deal with2 #fe4 ,i conclude from your letter #ff4 ,wellington c ,snyder ,black ,sturn1 #ib ,william ,st4 ,illustration ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,word ,,ink ,,in ,,different ,,languages ,hebrew3,illustration ,chaldaic3,illustration ,d ,sanskrit3,illustration ,greek3 7,melan7 ,latin3,,atrameutum 7,scriptorum7 ,mediaeval ,latin3,,encanstum ,china3,illustration ,m,h ,,shwuy 7liquid ,ink7 ,illustration ,m,h 7,chinese ,ink7 ,canton dialect3 ,,mak ,,shuy ,hindostan3,illustration ,,kali ,bengal3,illustration ,,kali ,shingalese3,illustration ,burmese3,illustration ,malayhim3,illustration ,persia3,illustration ,,siyahi ,sinic3,illustration ,turkey3,illustration ,,murekkeb ,armenia3,illustration ,thibet3,illustration ,anamitic3,,muc,c ,,vi,t ,malay3,illustration ,,daw,t ,japan3,illustration ,java3 ,,manulysan ,egyptian3,illustration ,coptic3,illustration ,amharic3,illustration ,algerian3,illustration ,,simekh ,aethiopic3,illustration ,arabic3,illustration ,,hbr1 ,,hibr1 ,,hibar4 ,old ,french,,enque ,french3,,encre ,breton,,lyou ,provincal,,ancra ,low ,dutch ,german3,illustration 7,tinte47 ,flamande ,,ink ,hollandais ,spanish3,,tinta ,portugese3,,tinta ,italian3,,inchiostro ,piedmontese3,,inciostr4 ,russian3,illustration ,lettish,,blakka ,lettauish,,tinta ,polish3,,inkaust ,hungarian3,,tenta ,bunda or ,argolense3,,tinta ,bohemia3,,ingaust ,basque3,,coransia ,illyrian3,,ingoas ,danish3,,bl,c ,swedish3,,bl,,ck ,laplandish3,,blekk ,greenlandish3,,blek ,icelandish3,,blek ,english3,,ink ,old ,english,,enke1 ,,inke1 ,,ynke ,anglo-,saxon,,bl,c ,welsh3,,du1 ,,enge ,gaelic3,,dubhadh ,irish3,illustration ,,dubh ,peruvian3,,yanatullpu ,chilian3,,chillcamom ,mexican3,,thlli ,guarani3,,tiv,,tirv 7,tinta7 ,caribee ,islands3 ,o,,liti ,,or ,o,,litacle 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,some corrections have been made to the original text1 including standardizing the punctuation4 ,further corrections are listed below3 p4 #ab unparalelled - unparalleled p4 #bf ,flenningham - ,henningham p4 #cf ,dictionaire - ,dictionnaire p4 #cf pschyo - psycho p4 #df elog - loge p4 #gg ,macauley - ,macaulay ,other spelling and hyphenation inconsistencies have been retained as printed4