,illustration3 ,sweet ,peas and ,butterflies ,the 8,,look ,,about ,,you0 ,nature ,study ,books ,,by ,,thomas ,w4 ,,hoare ,,teacher ,,of ,,nature ,,study to the ,falkirk ,school ,board and ,stirlingshire ,county ,council ,,book ,,iv4 ,illustration3 ,publisher's ,logo ,,london3 ,t4 ,c4 ,e4 ,c4 ,,jack1 ,ltd4 #ce ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,e4,c4 ,,and ,,edinburgh ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,by ,,thomas ,,nelson ,,and ,,sons1 ,,ltd4 ,,preface4 ,this little book should be used as a simple guide to the practical study of ,nature rather than as a mere reader4 ,every lesson herein set down has1 during the author's many years' experience in teaching ,nature ,study1 been taught by observation and practice again and again2 and each time with satisfactory result4 ,the materials required for most of the lessons--whether they be obtained from the naturalist-dealer or from the nearest hedge1 ditch1 or pond--are within everybody's reach4 ,there is nothing that appeals to the heart of the ordinary child like living things1 be they animal or vegetable1 and there is no branch of education at the present day that bears1 in the young mind1 such excellent fruit as the study of the simple1 living things around us4 ,your child is nothing if not curious4 ,he wants to understand everything that lives and moves and has its being in his bright little world4 ,nature ,study involves so many ingenious little deductions1 that the reasoning powers are almost constantly employed1 and intelligence grows proportionately4 ,the child's powers of observation are stimulated1 and his memory is cultivated in the way most pleasing to his inquiring nature4 ,by dissecting seeds1 bulbs1 buds1 and flowers1 his hand is trained1 and methods expeditious and exact are inculcated4 ,by drawing his specimens1 no matter how roughly or rapidly1 his eye is trained more thoroughly than any amount of enforced copying of stiff1 uninteresting models of prisms1 cones1 etc41 ever could train it4 ,the love of flowers and animals is one of the most commendable traits in the disposition of the wondering child1 and ought to be encouraged above all others4 ,it is the author's fondest and most sanguine hope that the working out of the exercises1 of which this booklet is mainly composed1 may prove much more of a joy than a task1 and that the practical knowledge gained thereby may tempt his little readers to study further the great book of ,nature1 whose broad pages are ever open to us1 and whose silent answers to our manifold questions are never very difficult to read4 ,t4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,contents ,,lesson ,,page ,i4 ,structure of ,stems #g ,,ii4 ,bulbs and ,corms #ab ,,iii4 ,what ,goes on ,inside a ,plant #ag ,,iv4 ,snowdrop1 ,crocus1 and ,tulip #bc ,v4 ,vegetable ,fingers #bi ,,vi4 ,the ,great ,water ,beetle #ce ,,vii4 ,daisies #dj ,,viii4 ,chaffinch and ,song-,thrush #df ,,ix4 ,plants that ,arm ,themselves #eb ,x4 ,the ,horse ,pond ,again #eh ,,xi4 ,wasps #fc ,,xii4 ,dandelions #fi ,,xiii4 ,the ,life of a ,trout #ge ,,xiv4 ,silkworms #ha ,appendix #hh 8,,look ,,about ,,you40 ,,book ,,iv4 ,i4--,,structure ,,of ,,stems4 8,we are going to have a peep into the inside of these twigs10 said ,uncle ,george1 as he laid some willow and horse-chestnut twigs on the table4 8,first10 he said1 8let us examine the outside of them40 ,he handed a small willow branch to ,tom and a horse-chestnut branch to ,frank4 8,now1 ,frank1 tell me all you see40 8,i see the rings of scars which mark each year's growth10 said ,frank4 8,this year's growth is at the top1 above the first ring of scars4 ,below this is last year's growth4 ,then comes another ring of marks1 and below this again is the growth of two years ago40#a 8,that is to say10 said his uncle1 8the upper part of your twig is about one year old1 the middle part is two years old1 and the lower part is three years old4 ,go on1 ,frank40 8,the upper part is light brown1 while the middle and lower parts are dark brown40 8,take your lens1 ,frank1 and look at that brown covering carefully40 8,oh1 it is studded all over with little oval marks like pits10 said ,frank4 8,now1 what about the buds80 8,the buds10 said ,frank1 putting down his lens1 8are in pairs2 and the stem is swollen where each pair of buds comes off40 8,very good10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,that is exactly what ,i wanted you to notice4 ,the swollen parts of a stem are called its nodes4 ,in every stem1 buds and leaves occur at the nodes4 ,nodes are very well seen in grass and corn stems40 8,then at the top of the twig there is a very large bud and a pair of small buds1 one on each side of it10 said ,frank4 8,you have described it very well10 said his uncle4 8,now1 ,tom1 what about the willow twig80 8,i see some very tiny marks on it10 said ,tom4 8,there are no rings marking the year's growth2 and the buds are not arranged in pairs40 ,illustration3 ,horse-,chestnut ,twig1 showing ,three ,years' ,growth4 8,that is quite right1 ,tom4 ,willow grows very quickly4 ,your twig is all one season's growth4 ,it is smooth and green--not brown like the horse-chestnut twig4 ,the buds are arranged alternately4 ,that is to say1 there is only one bud at each node40 8,now1 let us see what the horse-chestnut twig is made of40 ,uncle ,george next cut two pieces off the top part of the horse-chestnut twig and handed one to each of the boys4 8,now1 take your knives10 he said1 8and carefully peel off a very small piece of the brown covering4 ,you will have to be very careful1 as it is very thin and rather difficult to remove4 ,ah1 ,frank1 you have done that very nicely4 ,now1 hold it up to the light and tell us what you think it is for40 8,it is the skin or covering of the twig10 said ,frank4 8,it is2 and if you look with your lens you will see that the tiny markings on it are holes4 ,it is really a thin layer of bark or cork4 ,perhaps you can tell me why the twig is covered with a thin layer of cork80 8,to keep water from getting in10 said ,frank4 8,rather to keep water from getting out10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,you must remember that water is continually passing up stems from the roots4 ,water cannot pass through cork4 ,if we were to remove the cork layer from the outside of a growing twig1 that twig would shrivel up and die4 ,there is also a layer of cork protecting the willow twig1 but it is so very thin that we can see through it4 ,remove as much of the cork layer as you can1 and tell me what is underneath40 8,there is a layer of green stuff beneath10 said ,frank4 8,just so10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,now1 if you remember1 ,i once told you that plants took most of their food from the air by means of the green stuff in their leaves4 ,this green layer in the twig does the same thing2 but how can the air get in if it is covered up by a layer of cork80 8,oh1 ,i see now10 said ,tom1 8what the tiny holes or pits are for--to let air in to the green layer underneath40 ,illustration3 ,diagram ,sections of 7,a and ,b7 a ,one-,year ,old and 7,c and ,d7 ,two-,year ,old ,stem4 #a4 ,bark4 #b4 ,green ,layer4 #c4 ,bast4 #d4 ,slippery ,layer4 #e4 ,wood4 #f4 ,pith4 8,that is what they are for1 ,tom10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,scrape away this green layer4 ,it is greenest on the outside and is rather thick4 ,there are really two or three layers there1 but they cannot be separated with a pen-knife4 ,what do you come to next80 8,a white1 woody layer with a very slippery surface10 said ,frank4 8,that slippery surface is itself a layer1 and a very important one10 said his uncle4 8,the wood1 you can see1 is a very thick layer4 ,in the centre you have a mass of dry1 spongy stuff4 ,this is called the pith40 ,uncle ,george then cut the twig straight across1 and the boys saw that each layer formed a ring4 ,in the middle there was a round mass of pith4 ,around this was a thick ring of wood with the thin slippery layer outside4 ,outside this was a fairly thick ring1 the outer half of which was green in colour4 ,and outside the whole lot was the ring of the thin bark or cork which the boys had first examined4 8,we have seen10 said ,uncle ,george1 8how a one-year-old stem is built4 ,let us now make a clean cut through the two-year-old part of the twig1 and another through the three-year-old part4 8,you see there are two rings of wood in the two-year-old part and three rings of wood in the three-year-old part4 ,what does this show us80 8,that a ring of wood is added every year10 said ,frank4 8,and so1 three years ago1 this thick branch was a tiny bud10 said ,uncle ,george1 pointing to the lower part of the twig4 ,exercises on ,lesson ,i4 #a4 ,an apple will keep sound for months if the skin is unbroken4 ,if we remove a small piece of the skin1 the apple soon shrivels up4 ,how is this8 #b4 ,can you explain why we ought not to eat the outer skins of the plum1 grape1 tomato1 pear1 etc48 #c4 ,cut a stout twig of any tree straight through4 ,make a rough sketch showing the different layers1 and tell how old the twig is4 #d4 ,get stout twigs of different trees1 such as ash1 elm1 holly1 sycamore4 ,take about an inch length of each4 ,split these down the centre1 and see if you can make out the different layers on each side of the pith4 ,make an enlarged drawing of one of these4 ,,ii4--,,bulbs ,,and ,,corms4 8,these10 said ,uncle ,george1 8are what we grow our snowdrops and crocuses from40 ,as he spoke he handed each of the boys a few hard1 round objects4 ,some of these were small1 white1 and almost pear-shaped4 ,the others were larger1 rounder1 and brown in colour4 8,the small white ones are snowdrop bulbs10 he continued4 8,the others are crocus corms4 ,there is a great difference between a bulb and a corm1 as we shall see when we examine and compare them40 8,the corm is covered with brown1 papery skins1 and has white buds on the top of it10 said ,frank4 8,these brown skins are leaves10 remarked ,uncle ,george4 8,leaves80 said ,tom4 8,i thought all leaves were green40 8,oh no1 ,tom1 there are other leaves besides green leaves1 called scale-leaves4 ,green leaves1 as you know1 give off the moisture which the roots take up from the soil4 ,they also take in plant-food from the air4 ,scale-leaves protect buds1 flowers1 and tender stems from cold and from insects4 ,these thin brown leaves of the crocus corm are scale-leaves formed underground4 ,please remove the brown scale-leaves from one of the corms1 ,frank40 ,illustration #a4 ,snowdrop4 #b4 ,tulip4 #c4 ,narcissus4 #d4 ,crocus4 ,when ,frank had done so1 it was seen that these leaves were attached in layers all round the corm4 ,the corm was now a white1 rounded lump4 ,the removal of the scale-leaves had left thin rings of leaf-marks2 and on these leaf-marks1 here and there a tiny bud was seen4 8,now10 said ,uncle ,george1 8we can see that a corm is a stout1 swollen1 underground stem4 ,if you could imagine a horse-chestnut stem to be squeezed up into a lump1 you would have something like a corm4 ,these rings of leaf-marks are the nodes1 where leaves and buds are found on all stems4 ,the large buds on the top of the corm correspond to the large buds at the end of your horse-chestnut stem4 ,now1 let us take off one of these large top buds4 ,notice that it is covered with many tough1 protective scale-leaves40 ,illustration3 ,crocus ,bud ,dissected4 #a4 ,scales4 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,parts of ,flower4 #e4 ,leaves4 #f4 ,spathe4 #g4 ,ovary4 #h4 ,young ,corm4 ,a4 ,old ,corm4 ,removing these scales1 ,uncle ,george came to a round object in the centre4 8,this10 he said1 8is a long sack or bag4 ,it contains the flower of the crocus40 ,taking a needle1 he carefully opened this up4 8,now1 boys10 he said1 8take your magnifiers and look carefully40 ,frank and ,tom looked1 and saw a curious little flower1 surrounded by four or five yellow needle-shaped things which1 their uncle told them1 were the young green leaves of the crocus4 8,let us now10 he said1 8examine the snowdrop bulb4 8,here we have thick1 fleshy scale-leaves4 ,if we remove them one by one1 we find that they are all attached to a flat1 button-shaped stem4 ,between the thick scale-leaves we see1 here and there1 a small side bud1 and on the top the baby snowdrop flower snugly wrapped up in their sack4 ,this protective sack is called a spathe40 ,uncle ,george then took from his pocket a very large bulb4 8,this10 he said1 8is the bulb of the narcissus or #8white lily4' ,it is almost exactly like the snowdrop bulb1 but it is larger1 so that we can see things much more distinctly40 ,he then split the large bulb down the centre with his knife4 ,with a pin he pointed out the baby flower wrapped up in its spathe4 ,all the parts of the flower were seen1 even the little seed-vessel containing the tiny eggs1 which become seeds after the flower has grown up4 8,if you remember10 said ,uncle ,george1 8in our lesson on seeds we learned that a seed contained a baby plant and a large supply of plant-food4 ,i am now going to show you that both the corm and the bulb contain a large food supply4 ,we have seen that the protective bud-scales in the corm are tough and thin1 while the stem is swollen and hard4 ,in the bulb1 on the other hand1 the bud-scales are thick and fleshy1 while the stem is flat and very small4 ,if we place some of our crocus corms or snowdrop bulbs in pure water1 they will grow and flower just as well as if we had planted them in the garden4 ,what does this show us80 8,that1 like the seeds which we grew in water1 bulbs and corms contain a store of food10 said ,frank4 ,illustration ,a4 ,narcissus ,bulb split open4 s41 stem2 b41 side buds2 s4l41 scale-leaves2 f4l41 leaves4 ,b4 ,snowdrop ,bulb4 ,c4 ,flower of same ,dissected out4 8,that is correct1 ,frank4 ,let us put a corm and a bulb in water4 ,let us also plant one of each in a pot of soil4 ,we will watch them growing and compare them from week to week4 8,now ,i am going to show you a simple experiment4 ,you know that the food we eat is drawn largely from plants4 ,this food which we take from the plant world is chiefly what the chemist calls starch4 ,we have it in bread1 potatoes1 rice1 cornflour1 and in nearly all the vegetables we eat4 8,i have here in this bottle a substance1 called iodine1 dissolved in water4 ,anything containing starch turns blue when touched with iodine4 ,now observe what happens here40 ,uncle ,george poured some of the iodine into a saucer4 ,he then dipped into the iodine a piece of crocus corm1 a thick scale of the snowdrop bulb1 soaked seeds of maize and wheat1 a slice of raw potato1 and a piece of bread4 ,each at once turned dark blue on being dipped into the liquid4 8,now1 boys10 he said1 8what do you learn from this80 8,the food store in bulbs and corms is the same as that in seeds10 said ,tom4 8,the food supply of the bulb is contained in the thick1 fleshy scale-leaves1 while in the corm it is in the stem10 said ,frank4 8,very good10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,it also shows us1 ,i think1 that we ourselves owe a great deal to the plant world40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,ii4 #a4 ,split an onion 7or tulip bulb7 down the centre1 and compare it with the snowdrop bulb4 ,draw it1 giving special attention to the middle part4 #b4 ,take a potato and a crocus corm4 ,observe them both carefully1 and find out 7#a7 how they resemble each other1 and 7#b7 how they differ4 #c4 ,explain how it is that a hyacinth grows so well in water4 #d4 ,take any underground stem 7e4g41 iris or ,solomon's seal7 and compare it with a crocus corm4 ,notice the marks of underground scale-leaves on the former4 ,,iii4--,,what ,,goes ,,on ,,inside ,a ,,plant4 8,we have seen how an ordinary twig is built up10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,let us now try to find out what goes on inside the twig2 and in order to do this we shall have to perform one or two simple experiments40 ,uncle ,george took two wide-mouthed glass jars4 ,they were both perfectly dry1 and each could be closed with a large1 tight-fitting cork4 ,he placed some fresh green leaves inside one of the jars4 ,the other remained empty4 ,then both jars were tightly corked up1 and both corks covered outside with wax4 ,illustration3 ,first ,experiment4 8,that is experiment number one10 he said1 as he placed both jars in the window4 ,he next took a small plant which was growing in a pot4 ,he wrapped the pot up in thick1 dry paper1 so that the paper covered up everything but the plant4 ,the edges of the paper were tied tightly round the lower part of the stem of the plant with a string4 ,the plant was put in the window1 and over it ,uncle ,george placed a glass bell-jar4 ,illustration3 ,second ,experiment4 8,the third experiment is much simpler10 he said4 8,you see ,i just put one of the willow twigs into a glass half filled with water1 and into the water ,i pour some red ink4 ,frank1 place a white pansy in the coloured water beside the willow twig40 ,uncle ,george's fourth experiment was as follows3-- ,he placed four willow twigs in a glass of water4 ,but from two of these twigs he first removed a broad ring of the bark and outer layers1 leaving about an inch of the wood bare near the lower end of the twig4 8,now10 said he1 8we will come back in about an hour1 and ,i think we shall find that some change has taken place in each of our first three jars4 8,the fourth glass one will have to be left for several weeks2 and we must take care to keep water always in the glass containing these four twigs40 ,about an hour afterwards1 ,uncle ,george and the boys came to look at the experiments4 8,let us examine experiment one first10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,the empty jar is just the same as when we put it there10 said ,tom4 8,the jar containing the leaves is all dimmed1 and there are tiny drops of water on the inside of it40 8,where did that water come from1 ,tom80 8,it must have come out of the leaves40 8,exactly so6 ,now look at the second experiment1 and you will see that the bell-jar which covered both plant and pot is also dimmed with moisture4 ,pot and soil were securely covered up1 so that this moisture on the glass must have come from the leaves of the plant4 ,where do you think this water really comes from80 8,from the soil in the pot10 said ,frank4 8,if we did not water those plants which we keep in pots1 they would die40 8,then we have learnt that water travels up the stems of plants10 said ,uncle ,george1 8also that it is drawn from the soil and is given off by the leaves4 ,the third experiment1 where we placed a twig in coloured water1 will1 ,i think1 show us which part of the stem the water travels up40 ,uncle ,george peeled the bark off the lower end of the willow twig which was placed in the mixture of red ink and water4 ,he removed all the layers until he came to the wood4 ,the wood was stained red4 ,he cut slice after slice off the twig1 and it was found that the coloured water had gone quite an inch up through the wood4 ,none of the other layers of the twig were stained red4 8,it travels up through the wood-layer10 said ,frank4 8,and look at the pansy flower4 ,it was white when we put it into the glass1 now it is all streaked with red40 8,the flower itself10 said ,uncle ,george1 8is not near the coloured water40 8,the water must have travelled up the long stalk to the flower10 said ,frank4 ,illustration3 ,the ,fourth ,experiment4 ,the fourth experiment was left in the window1 and two or three weeks passed before any change was noticed in any of the four twigs which had been placed in the water4 ,then roots began to grow4 ,in the two whole twigs these roots grew out at the bottom end4 ,but in those twigs from which the belt of outer layers had been removed1 it was quite different4 ,here the roots grew out--not at the bottom1 but just where the ring of bare wood began and at the top of it4 ,frank and ,tom were quite puzzled4 ,they could not understand why the roots should come at the bottom in two of the twigs and not in the other two4 8,first of all1 then10 said ,uncle ,george1 8these new roots were made from materials which came from inside the plant4 ,these building materials are carried through the plant dissolved in water--just as you dissolve sugar in your tea4 ,water containing these dissolved stuffs in a plant is called sap4 8,we have seen1 by our first three experiments1 that water travels up the wood part of the stem4 ,this experiment shows us that sap travels down the stem in the layers outside the wood4 ,for1 when ,i removed the outer layers and left a bare ring of wood1 the flow of the sap was stopped and the new roots formed there40 8,and where does this sap come from first of all80 ,tom asked4 8,it is really formed in the leaf first of all4 ,i think ,i told you that plants take most of their food from the air by means of their green leaves4 ,in the great quantities of water which pass up the wood and into the air from the leaves there is always a very little mineral matter dissolved4 ,this small quantity of mineral matter comes from the soil4 ,this1 along with water and the large quantity of matter taken from the air1 are changed1 inside the leaf1 into a fluid which we call sap4 8,our four experiments show us that water travels up through the wood-layer from soil to leaf2 and also that sap travels down through one of the outside layers of the stem40 ,questions on ,lesson ,,iii4 #a4 ,how does water travel in a plant8 ,how can you prove this8 #b4 ,if we enclose a leafy plant in a glass vessel1 we see that water is given off by the leaves4 ,how is it that we do not see this water when the plant is grown in the open air8 #c4 ,what is 8sap08 ,where is it first formed8 ,how does it travel in the twig or stem8 #d4 ,if we keep ferns growing under a glass bell--or in a glass case--we never have to water them4 ,can you explain this8 ,,iv4--,,snowdrop1 ,,crocus1 ,,and ,,tulip4 ,the boys watched the growth of the crocuses in water and in soil from day to day1 and made sketches of them once a week4 ,fed by the food contained in the corm1 the top buds of the crocus grew longer4 ,then the scales moved apart and the yellow flower was seen4 ,round about it were four or five narrow green leaves1 each having a pretty white stripe down the middle4 ,both leaves and flower were encircled at the base by long white sheaths4 ,the crocus grown in the pot did not seem to thrive much better than the one in the water4 ,both flowers remained closed for a long time after they were full grown4 ,at last1 on one fine sunny day1 they opened out wide at the top1 and the boys could see right down into them4 ,in the evening they closed up again4 ,next day was a dull day1 and the crocus flowers remained closed4 ,the snowdrops were also watched and sketched4 ,their growth was somewhat different4 ,from the centre of the little bulb two green leaves first appeared4 ,these leaves were much broader and thicker than those of the crocus4 ,from between these leaves a little white1 flat object grew up4 ,this the boys at once recognised as the spathe or bag containing the flower4 ,then more green leaves came up4 ,the flower-stalk grew longer4 ,the spathe split open1 and the flower-bud appeared4 ,this bud grew until it became a beautiful white bell hanging downwards4 ,illustration3 ,crocus ,flowers4 ,in a large pot ,uncle ,george had planted a few tulip bulbs4 ,they were not completely covered with soil1 so that their growth could be watched4 ,their growth was similar to that of the snowdrop4 ,the leaves came first4 ,they were rolled firmly round each other4 ,as each large1 broad1 green leaf unrolled1 another rolled-up leaf was seen under it4 ,these leaves were rolled round a thick stalk1 to which they were attached4 ,when the last leaf unrolled1 a single flower was seen at the top of the stalk4 ,this flower remained closed up like the crocus4 ,when at length1 however1 the warm sun shone in the window1 the tulip flowers opened out very wide indeed2 in fact1 they became almost saucer-shaped4 ,then ,uncle ,george dug the snowdrop and crocus out of their pots4 ,he washed the roots and asked the boys to compare them with those grown in water4 8,the plants grown in soil seem stronger in flower and leaves10 said ,frank4 8,but the greatest difference is in the corm and bulb40 8,that is right1 ,frank10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,look at the crocus corms4 ,they have both shrunk a great deal1 because they have been used up to form what has grown out of them4 ,but the one grown in soil has formed a new corm1 which will produce new flowers next year4 ,this new corm has grown upon the top of the old one4 ,the crocus grown in water has also produced a new corm1 but it is too small to produce a flower next year4 8,then1 again1 take the snowdrop4 ,the one grown in the soil has produced two or three new bulbs1 while that grown in water has not4 ,these new bulbs were the side buds we noticed between the scales when we opened out our snowdrop bulb4 ,in both snowdrops the old bulb has been completely used up to form green leaves and flower4 8,but the bulb grown in soil has not only produced flowers and green leaves4 ,it has gathered up enough material from soil and air to form new bulbs for next year40 ,illustration #a4 ,snowdrop ,flower--,a1 the spathe4 #b4 ,crocus ,plant4 #c4 ,old and ,young ,corms of ,crocus4 #d4 ,young ,snowdrop ,flower enclosed in its spathe4 #e4 ,crocus ,flower4 #f4 ,tulip ,flower dissected4 ,uncle ,george then divided the crocus flower with his knife from top to bottom4 8,at the very bottom of the flower10 he said1 8you see the ovary1 or seed-vessel1 containing the tiny seeds4 ,from the seed-vessel a long thin rod or tube stretches to the very mouth of the flower4 ,you can also see the remains of the spathe which once enclosed the whole flower40 8,and what are those three things covered with orange-coloured dust80 asked ,tom4 8,these10 said his uncle1 8are the stamens or pollen-boxes2 and the orange-coloured powder is the pollen4 ,this pollen is carried about from flower to flower by the bees4 ,pollen is necessary for the production of seeds4 8,do you know why the seed-vessel of the crocus is so far down under the ground8 8,it is because the crocus flowers in winter-time1 and the frost might kill the young seeds4 ,underground they are safe from frost4 ,the snowdrop is a hardy flower1 and1 besides1 the walls of its seed-vessel are very thick4 8,the tulip1 if grown outside1 flowers much later than the other two plants4 8,notice the difference between the flower of the tulip and those of either crocus or snowdrop4 ,its petals are all separate1 while those of the others are joined to form a bell or tube4 ,the seed-vessel of the tulip1 also1 stands right up in the centre of the flower1 while that of the snowdrop 7and crocus7 is placed underneath the flower altogether40 8,how is it1 ,uncle ,george1 that the flowers of both tulip and crocus open out wide when the sun shines and close when the sun goes down80 asked ,frank4 8,plants can feel to a certain extent10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,that is to say1 they are affected by heat and cold1 by light and shade4 ,a great many flowers close up at night--the daisy1 for instance2 and have you never noticed how clover leaves fold up long before night comes80 8,yes1 but why should the crocus and tulip open and close8 ,the snowdrop never closes up40 8,they do so to protect their pollen10 his uncle answered4 8,rain or dew would ruin pollen4 ,those flowers1 like the crocus and tulip1 which open out to the sky must close up1 or the precious pollen would be destroyed4 ,flowers like the snowdrop and bluebell1 which hang downwards1 have no need to close up1 for their pollen is under a roof of joined petals40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,iv4 #a4 ,place an onion or daffodil bulb in the mouth of a bottle containing water4 ,keep it in the dark for about ten days4 ,then place it in the window4 ,make sketches every week4 #b4 ,make a list of all the plants you know which close their flowers1 or fold up their leaves1 at night4 #c4 ,cut open a flower of the daffodil 7or narcissus71 also one of the wallflower4 ,draw both1 naming their parts4 ,what points of difference do you notice in the two flowers8 #d4 ,examine the following flowers1 and see if you can find where the young seeds are3--,hyacinth1 primrose1 violet 7or pansy71 chickweed1 ,christmas rose1 shepherd's purse4 ,v4--,,vegetable ,,fingers4 ,when the sweet-peas in the garden were nearly full grown1 ,uncle ,george sowed some sweet-peas in a pot4 ,in a fortnight those sown in the pot were about four inches in height1 and those in the garden were in flower4 8,let us go into the garden1 boys10 he said1 8and see if we can learn something from the sweet-pea40 ,in the garden the sweet-peas were really lovely4 ,they looked1 as ,frank said1 like so many beautiful butterflies on the wing2 and they filled the air with delicious perfume4 8,i think10 said ,frank1 8that our row of sweet-peas is by far the best thing in the garden40 8,that is quite true1 ,frank10 said his uncle1 8but it is not so much the flowers we are going to study at present4 ,the sweet-pea is certainly one of our finest flowering plants4 ,it is also one of the most interesting4 ,can you tell me why we put stakes up for our sweet-pea plants to cling to80 8,because they have long1 slender stems--too slender and weak to grow up by themselves10 said ,frank4 8,quite right1 ,frank4 ,if the sweet-pea were a wild plant1 where would it grow80 8,in the hedges10 said ,tom4 8,right again10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,if we grow the sweet-pea in the garden1 we must imitate its surroundings in the wild state--we must give it a hedge of some kind to cling to1 otherwise it would trail along the ground40 8,then it would get choked among the other plants10 said ,frank4 ,illustration ,rose ,leaf4 ,vetch ,leaf4 ,ash ,leaf4 8,what do you mean by #8choked1' ,frank80 8,well1 it would die for want of air0---- 8,and light10 his uncle added4 8,no green plant can live without air and sunlight2 and1 in order to get these1 our weak-stemmed sweet-pea has to climb4 ,it clings to its stronger brethren just as the wild peas do in the hedgerow4 ,now notice how it climbs4 ,the end part of each leaf consists of little gripping organs called tendrils4 ,these twine tightly round the smallest twigs near them4 ,illustration #a4 ,ox ,eye4 #b4 ,daisy4 #c4 ,corn ,marigold4 8,here is a rose leaf4 ,it is composed of several leaflets1 and at its base there are two small1 brownish-green things called stipules4 ,if we compare this leaf with the leaf of the sweet-pea1 we find that in some points they are similar1 but in others very different4 ,illustration ,sweet-,pea4 ,edible ,pea4 8,the rose leaf is called a compound leaf1 because it is made up of many small leaflets4 ,the sweet-pea leaf is also a compound leaf1 but it has only two leaflets1 and these are of enormous size4 ,the rose leaf has two small stipules4 ,the stipules of the sweet-pea leaf are large and green4 8,if ,i place the rose leaf beside a sweet-pea leaf1 you will notice that the latter has no upper leaflets40 8,it has tendrils #8instead1'0 said ,frank4 8,exactly60 said ,uncle ,george4 8,these tendrils correspond to leaflets4 ,now1 if the plant has been forced to turn all its leaflets1 except two1 into gripping organs1 how does it manage to make up for this loss of green leaves8 ,illustration3 ,young ,edible ,pea4 8,we have already learned that plants take in food from the air by means of the green substance in their leaves4 ,the more of this green substance a plant possesses1 the more food it can take in from the air4 ,if it sacrifices leaves in order to climb up to the light and air1 its amount of the green material must be lessened4 ,but the sweet-pea makes up for this loss of leaves4 ,can you see how it does so80 8,the stipules are very large10 said ,frank4 8,and the lower part of the leaf-stalk is very flat1 broad1 and green10 added ,tom4 8,very good10 said ,uncle ,george1 8but look at the long1 slender stem4 ,it has flat1 green1 ribbon-like outgrowths on each side throughout its whole length4 ,so1 you see1 what the plant loses in leaves1 it makes up in another way4 8,let us now look at the ordinary pea plant4 ,its leaf has four pairs of leaflets and three pairs of tendrils besides the terminal tendril--seven tendrils altogether4 ,the stipules here are also very large--much larger than those of the sweet-pea4 ,but the stem is round and smooth4 ,there are no green outgrowths4 ,here is a wild pea1 which ,i found to-day1 which has no leaves at all4 ,all its leaflets have been turned into tendrils or gripping organs4 ,but look at the enormous stipules it has6 ,they are much bigger than ordinary pea leaves4 ,illustration ,a ,wild ,pea with no ,leaves4 ,young ,sweet-,peas have no ,tendrils4 8,let us now look at the tendrils of the sweet-pea1 and see how they grip their supports4 ,notice that they begin to twist long before they reach the supporting twig4 ,then1 when they have reached it1 they twist round it in the opposite way--just like a piece of string1 if you twist it at one end1 it untwists at the other40 8,can you see any reason for this coiling before it reaches the twig80 ,as he spoke1 ,uncle ,george pulled a sweet-pea plant out from its supports1 and the boys saw that the tendril was really a spiral spring4 ,the plant could be pulled out a considerable length without breaking the tendril4 8,you see10 ,uncle ,george continued1 8if it were not for that first coiling of the tendril--that is to say1 if the tendril grew out straight and only began to twist when it reached the twig--the first breeze of wind would snap the plant from its supports and it would fall to the ground4 8,look now1 at the young sweet-peas which we grew in the pot4 ,they are without tendrils of any kind4 ,this shows us1 ,i think1 that the sweet-pea was at one time a small plant1 like its relative the clover4 ,it grew in open places and did not have to struggle for light and air4 ,but1 by and by1 when strong growing plants took up the soil1 it became forced to produce climbing organs or become choked out4 ,and1 having turned its leaves into climbing or gripping organs1 it made up for the loss of leaves by producing large stipules and green out-growths to stem and leaf40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,v4 #a4 ,draw a leaf of the wild rose and one of the sweet-pea side by side4 #b4 ,make a list of all the climbing plants you know1 and state how each climbs4 #c4 ,look for stipules on the apple1 pansy1 and bean leaves--make sketches4 #d4 ,those plants of the pea family which have many leaflets have smooth round stems4 ,those which have few leaflets have 8winged0 stems4 ,can you explain this8 ,,vi4--,,the ,,great ,,water ,,beetle4 ,during summer the boys paid many visits to the horse pond4 ,each time they went there they saw something to interest them4 ,their uncle taught them to keep perfectly still while looking into the water4 ,they soon came to know that this was the best way to study pond-life1 for1 whenever they moved1 the creatures they were watching would dart out of sight4 ,one day1 while they were both lying on the bank gazing into the pond1 a huge black beetle came up to the surface of the water4 ,it remained there for a few moments1 with its head hanging downwards and its tail sticking right out of the water4 ,then it dived down out of sight4 ,in a few minutes it came up again1 and this time ,frank's net was under it before it could escape4 ,just as ,frank was putting it into the glass jar1 ,tom whispered1 8,here is another one--quick1 ,frank60 ,but ,frank was too late2 for before he could get the first beetle into the jar1 the second one had dived to the bottom of the pond4 ,the boys waited for a long time1 hoping to see the other beetle again4 ,at last their patience was rewarded4 ,the beetle came up again to the surface4 ,as soon as it did so1 in went the net1 and out came beetle number two4 8,what big beauties10 said ,frank4 8,i wonder what they are4 ,let us hurry home and show them to ,uncle ,george40 ,when they got home1 their uncle placed the two beetles in a glass tank by themselves1 so that they could be more easily observed4 8,what do you call them1 uncle80 asked ,frank4 8,we have never seen such large1 handsome beetles before40 ,illustration3 ,dyticus ,beetle1 male and female4 8,have you not80 his uncle replied4 8,i am surprised at that1 for this beetle is found in nearly all our ponds and ditches4 ,it has a long ,latin name1#b which means ,bordered ,diver1 but it is commonly known as the #8great water beetle4' ,there are several kinds of these diving beetles4 ,this is the largest4 ,can you give me an idea of their size80 ,and ,uncle ,george handed ,frank a small measuring rule which he carried in his pocket4 ,frank looked at the beetles1 and then moved his thumb nail along the rule4 8,about an inch and a half in length10 he said4 8,that is about right10 said his uncle4 8,are these two beetles exactly alike80 8,they are both about the same shape and colour4 ,one is slightly bigger than the other4 ,they are both greenish-black above and brown below4 ,there is a curious broad border of yellow all round the edge of their bodies10 said ,tom4 8,but they are not both exactly alike10 said ,frank1 8,i notice that one is smooth on the back1 while the other's back is all grooved40 8,you are right1 ,frank10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,the one with the grooved wing-cases is the female4 ,the one with the smooth cases is the male4 ,illustration3 ,fore ,leg of ,male1 showing ,sucker ,organ4 8,notice the long legs they have for swimming1 and how they seem to oar themselves through the water4 ,notice also that the male has a large flat disc upon each of his fore legs4 ,these are suckers1 by which he can cling to things40 8,why do they come up to the surface so often80 ,frank asked4 8,they cannot live without air4 ,they carry a supply of air under their wing-cases4 ,they just come up to renew it from time to time4 ,this is done by thrusting the end of their bodies out of the water as you see40 8,one would think they ought to thrust their heads out to get air10 said ,tom4 8,that seems more natural to us1 because we breathe with our mouths10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,these animals take in air with their tails4 ,a great many pond insects breathe in this curious way40 8,what do they feed upon80 ,frank asked4 8,they are fierce1 greedy creatures10 his uncle replied4 8,they attack and kill worms1 tadpoles1 and even small fishes40 ,uncle ,george threw a small worm into the tank4 ,one of the beetles seized it at once and began to devour it greedily4 ,presently the other beetle seized an end of the worm4 ,the boys watched closely1 and saw that the beetles' jaws moved from side to side like a pair of pincers4 ,next morning1 when ,uncle ,george and the boys went in to see the beetles1 they found only one in the tank4 ,the other had escaped during the night4 ,after a careful search they found it1 at the far end of the room1 dead4 8,now1 how do you think this beetle managed to get out of the tank and travel all that way80 ,uncle ,george asked4 8,it must have crawled up the inside of the tank1 then down the outside4 ,then it must have fallen off the window-sill1 and crawled right across the floor10 said ,frank4 ,uncle ,george shook his head4 8,it might10 he said1 8have managed to crawl up to the edge of the tank so long as its legs were wet4 ,but as its long legs are made for swimming1 and not for crawling with1 ,i can hardly see how it could have crawled or walked all that distance40 8,then how did it get there1 ,uncle ,george80 ,in answer to ,frank's question1 his uncle took the dead beetle1 and placed it on a piece of paper on the table4 ,he next moved aside each of the large black wing-cases with a pin4 ,underneath these wing-cases the boys saw a pair of large wings neatly folded up4 ,uncle ,george removed one of the wing-cases1 and unfolded one of the wings4 ,stretched out1 it was longer than the beetle's body1 and it seemed to be made up of thin1 clear skin1 stretched on a framework of long1 thin supports4 8,why1 these beetles can fly10 said ,tom4 ,illustration3 ,male and ,female ,beetles1 showing ,flying ,wings4 8,of course they can10 said his uncle4 8,all beetles can fly4 ,this creature has evidently been flying about the room all night4 ,these insects are furnished with wings1 so that they may be able to fly to another pool when food gets scarce1 or when their pool dries up40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,vi4 #a4 ,would you keep water beetles1 tadpoles1 and stickle-backs together8 ,give your reasons4 #b4 ,water beetles cannot live without air4 ,explain how they get it4 #c4 ,compare the legs of a water beetle with those of any of our garden beetles4 #d4 ,why are water beetles furnished with wings8 ,,vii4--,,daisies4 ,while ,uncle ,george and ,frank and ,tom were having a game of cricket1 ,dolly was amusing herself in another way4 ,she had pulled a bunch of daisies and was joining them up into a daisy chain4 ,illustration3 ,common ,daisy4 ,she finished her daisy chain just as her uncle and the boys finished their game4 8,we will take some daisies home10 said ,uncle ,george4 ,he stooped down and dug out a whole daisy plant with his knife1 while ,dolly gathered a small bunch of the flowers4 ,when they got home ,uncle ,george placed his daisy plant in a saucer of water1 and told the boys to bring out their magnifiers and sketch-books4 8,first of all10 he said1 8,i want you to look at the daisy plant4 ,notice its leaves4 ,each leaf is broad at the end and narrow where it joins the plant4 ,notice also that the leaves all form a round green mat on the ground4 ,now1 can you tell me what the leaf resembles in shape40 ,illustration #a4 ,daisy ,leaf4 #b4 ,primrose ,leaf4 #c4 ,cowslip ,leaf4 8,it is like a spoon10 said ,tom4 8,it is10 said his uncle2 8and can you see any reason for it being so shaped8 8,you cannot8 ,well1 ,i must tell you4 ,all plants whose leaves are all at the ground have leaves shaped something like this4 ,the primrose and cowslip are good examples4 ,we have seen that plants1 like the pea1 climb up so that their leaves and green parts may get as much light and air as possible4 ,and if you look at any tree1 such as the horse-chestnut1 ash1 elm1 or beech1 you will notice that their leaves are spread out so as to catch as much light as possible40 ,uncle ,george then drew a circle4 ,illustration #a and #b4 ,diagram to show ,leaf arrangement of ,daisy4 #c4 ,head of ,daisy split4 #d4 ,outer ,floret4 #e4 ,inner ,floret4 8,now1 boys10 he said1 8,i want you to try to fill that circle with leaves so shaped that they will fill it without covering one another4 ,the best way to do so is to make them broad at the end4 ,if you make them broad at the base and narrow at the end1 they overlap and rob each other of light and air4 ,now you can see why the leaves of the daisy are so shaped4 8,take up a daisy and split it down the centre with your knife4 ,you will notice that the daisy is not a flower1 but a collection of tiny flowers1 or florets1 all packed closely together upon a pad or disc1 and surrounded outside by many little green things like small leaves4 ,these little leaf-like things are called bracts40 ,illustration3 ,london ,pride1 showing ,leaf arrangement4 8,there are two distinct kinds of florets10 said ,frank1 looking at the split daisy with his lens4 8,yes10 said ,uncle ,george1 8you will see them better if you remove one of each with a pin1 and examine them separately40 8,the outer florets are very large and white10 said ,frank4 8,they are very flat1 while the inner ones are yellow and round4 ,they are very like small crocus flowers4 ,what is that small two-headed thing that comes out in the centre of each floret80 8,that is the part which leads to the seed-vessel4 ,can you see the seed-vessel at the bottom of each floret80 8,yes10 said ,tom1 8it is large and round4 ,on the top of it and all round the petal part of the floret there are long silky hairs40 8,in flowers of this kind1 when the seeds are ripe they are carried away by the wind10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,the petal part withers1 but the tuft of hairs remain4 ,they are to the seed what sails are to a ship4 ,they are much better seen in some other flowers related to the daisy1 such as the thistle4 8,now cut open the seed-vessel and see how many seeds it contains40 8,there is only one1 ,i think10 said ,frank4 8,you think correctly10 said his uncle4 8,each seed-vessel holds a single seed40 8,the seed-vessel in the large white floret is small and flat10 said ,tom4 8,it is10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,in fact1 the outer florets seldom produce seeds40 8,then what is the use of them80 ,tom asked4 8,i'll show you10 said ,uncle ,george4 ,as he spoke he took up a fresh daisy flower4 8,look60 he said1 8what a pretty flower it is1 with its golden centre and its bright white edge tipped with red4 ,it is like a beautiful star40 ,then he pulled off all the large white florets4 8,look at it now10 he said4 8,it is a dingy1 ugly little flower4 ,without its white florets it would not be seen at all4 ,now perhaps you can tell me what the large white florets are for40 8,to help us to see them at a distance10 said ,frank4 8,so that bees and other flying insects may be able to see them10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,insects visit flowers for honey1 and1 in doing so1 carry the yellow dust1 or pollen1 from flower to flower4 ,this pollen1 as ,i told you before1 has to do with the making of seeds3 and stronger seeds are produced if the pollen comes from another flower4 8,now compare a white floret with a yellow one1 and you will notice still another difference between them4 8,round the stigma--that is the forked tube which leads to the seed-vessel--in the yellow florets1 there is a yellow ring of stamens1 or pollen-boxes4 ,it is shaped like a little barrel with its ends knocked out1 and the stigma grows right up through it4 8,in the white florets there are no pollen-boxes of any kind4 8,thus1 we see that the inner florets are perfect florets which produce seeds4 8,the outer florets have all run to petal4 ,their business is to show the way to the plain little florets in the middle4 8,there is another thing about the daisy that ,i should like you to notice10 ,uncle ,george continued4 8,if you go out on a dull day1 or in the evening1 you will find all the daisy flowers closed up4 ,they only open out in bright sunshine1 when all the insects are flying about40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,vii4 #a4 ,daises are called 8composite0 flowers4 ,can you tell why8 ,cut a large 8ox-eye daisy0 or corn marigold through the centre and examine the florets carefully4 #b4 ,using a lens1 draw separately1 an inside and an outside floret4 ,make your drawings large1 and name the various parts of each floret4 #c4 ,take two ox-eye daisies4 ,pull off all the white florets of one of them4 ,then compare them4 ,pin both flowers up on the wall4 ,go back about thirty paces and note which flower is best seen4 #d4 ,the daisy leaves form a little rosette on the ground4 ,make a collection of wild plants which have similar leaves4 ,draw a single leaf of each1 and compare with those of the daisy4 ,illustration3 ,nest of ,chaffinch4 ,,viii4--,,chaffinch ,,and ,,song-,,thrush4 ,it was ,frank who found the chaffinch's nest in the wood4 ,it was built in the fork of a small tree1 about eight feet from the ground4 ,although not surrounded either by branches or leaves1 it was completely hidden1 for the cunning little birds had matched the outside of the nest exactly with the bark of the tree4 ,uncle ,george got an old chaffinch's nest from the gardener1 and showed the boys how it was constructed4 ,horse-hair1 feathers1 and moss were neatly woven together to form the nest4 ,the inside was lined with finer hairs and feathers4 ,the outside was covered with pieces of bark1 lichen1 and faded moss4 ,these were stuck on with silken threads stolen from spider's webs4 ,the whole thing looked at a distance more like a part of the tree than a bird's nest4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,chaffinch',s ,,nest ,illustration3 ,,the ,,thrush ,the next time the boys went to see the nest they found four tiny eggs in it4 ,they were bluish-green in colour1 and splashed with red and brown marks4 ,it was while paying a third visit to the chaffinch's nest that ,uncle ,george found the nest of the song-thrush4 ,high up on a tall tree the cock thrush was pouring out his song1 and filling the woods with melody4 8,can you see him1 boys80 ,uncle ,george asked1 and he handed ,frank a pair of field-glasses which he used for watching the birds4 8,oh1 yes10 said ,frank1 8,i can see him quite plainly4 ,he is a brown bird1 with a white and yellow breast1 all dotted over with small dark spots40 8,he is not such a beautiful bird as the chaffinch10 said ,uncle ,george1 8but he is a much finer singer4 ,our prettiest birds are by no means our best songsters4 ,the lark1 thrush1 linnet1 and nightingale are all plain birds to look at1 but they are by far our sweetest singers40 8,tell us what you see through the glasses1 ,tom80 8,i can see him nicely10 said ,tom4 8,he holds his head high in the air1 as if he were singing to the sky4 ,his bill is wide open1 and the feathers of his throat are moving rapidly as he sings40 8,i think10 said ,uncle ,george1 8that his nest must be near4 ,let us look for it40 ,just as ,uncle ,george moved1 a brown bird flew out of a low bush close at hand4 8,ah1 ha60 said ,uncle ,george1 8,i thought we should find it4 ,we have disturbed the hen bird4 ,she has been sitting on her eggs all the time40 ,he moved the branches of the bush gently aside1 and the boys saw a large nest made of dried grass4 ,it was not very high up1 and the boys1 by standing on an old tree stump1 could look down into it4 8,oh1 what pretty eggs10 said ,tom4 8,there are four of them1 ,uncle ,george4 ,they are light blue in colour1 and sprinkled with black spots4 ,illustration ,egg of ,song-,thrush4 ,egg of ,chaffinch4 8,the nest is quite smooth and hard inside4 ,what is that queer brown stuff all over the inside of the nest80 8,that is clay1 ,tom4 ,when the thrushes have built their nest1 they line the inside of it with clay4 ,this clay is soft at first1 but it soon dries and turns quite hard4 8,but1 come1 let us go1 boys4 ,the cock thrush has stopped his singing4 ,he and his little wife are flying about in great alarm40 ,when they came to the chaffinch's neat little nest in the fork of the tree1 they got a great surprise4 ,the four little mottled eggs were gone4 ,in their place were four tiny naked creatures1 with little tufts of dark coloured down upon their heads and necks4 ,they had very large mouths1 and their eyes were closed4 8,oh1 what funny little things10 said ,frank4 ,as soon as he spoke1 the baby chaffinches stretched out their slender little necks1 opened their wide1 gaping mouths1 and cried for food4 8,pink1 ,pink1 ,pink60 came from a neighbouring tree4 8,come down1 ,frank60 ,uncle ,george whispered4 8,let us go back from the nest1 and we will perhaps see the old birds feeding them40 ,with another 8,pink1 ,pink1 ,pink10 the cock chaffinch flew down and stood on the edge of the nest4 ,he had something in his bill4 ,this he dropped into one of the gaping little mouths1 and flew away4 ,next came the hen bird with something in her bill4 ,she fed another of the hungry little birds1 and flew away also4 ,the boys were greatly interested4 ,they wanted to stay the whole afternoon and watch the chaffinches feeding their young1 but their uncle would not allow this4 8,no1 no1 my dear boys10 he said1 8we must not annoy our little feathered friends too much1 or they may forsake their beautiful nest and their helpless young ones4 8,we will come back in a fortnight and see the young birds4 ,you will not know them then1 for they will be fully fledged40 8,what do you mean by #8fully fledged1' ,uncle ,george80 ,tom asked4 8,it means covered all over with feathers1 does it not80 said ,frank4 ,their uncle nodded4 8,are these little birds not cold without feathers80 asked ,tom4 8,oh1 dear1 no10 his uncle answered4 8,during the day they cuddle up together in their cosy nest4 ,at night the mother bird folds her wings over the nest40 8,where does the cock bird go at night80 asked ,tom4 8,he sleeps on a branch quite near the nest10 his uncle answered4 ,illustration3 ,rooks and ,nest4 8,i have just two more questions to ask1 ,uncle ,george10 said ,frank4 8,what do the chaffinches feed their young ones on8 and what becomes of the young birds after they are fledged80 8,they feed their young chiefly on small worms1 flies1 grubs1 beetles1 and other insects4 ,when the young chaffinches are fledged1 their parents lead them from the nest4 ,they teach them to fly1 and show them where to find their food4 ,they never lose sight of them until they are quite grown up and able to take care of themselves40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,viii4 #a4 ,describe and compare the nests of rook1 thrush1 and chaffinch4 ,where would you look for each8 #b4 ,how does the chaffinch1 in building his nest1 imitate the colour of the tree it is built on4 ,can you see any special reason for this8 #c4 ,make a list of all the ,british birds you know4 ,then divide this list into--7#a7 pretty birds2 7#b7 plain birds2 7#c7 singing birds4 #d4 ,write a description of any bird's nest you have seen1 stating where and how it was built1 and also what you learned from it4 ,illustration3 ,holly branch4 ,,ix4--,,plants ,,that ,,arm ,,themselves4 8,some time ago10 said ,uncle ,george1 8,i promised to tell you something about how plants arm themselves4 ,and here1 in this hedgerow1 we have some good examples of armed plants40 8,there is the stinging nettle10 said ,tom1 pointing to a large patch at the roadside4 8,the stinging nettle is certainly well protected10 said his uncle4 8,you have only to touch any part of it lightly with your hand to find that out4 ,every part of the plant is covered with small needle-shaped hairs4 ,these hairs are hollow and contain a poisonous juice4 ,at the base of each hair there is a bag filled with this juice1 while the tip of each is sharp and very brittle4 8,when your hand touches a nettle--unless you grasp it tightly--the sharp hair pierces the skin4 ,it's brittle point breaks off and the poisonous juice is poured out40 8,why is the nettle covered with these horrid stings80 asked ,frank4 8,to save it from being eaten up1 of course4 ,the nettle is a tender and juicy plant1 and1 if it were not for its stings it would soon disappear altogether4 8,now1 here is another armed plant1 the blackberry or bramble4 ,the stem and also the backs of the leaves are covered with large curved prickles4 ,these prickles not only protect the plant from grazing animals1 but they help it to climb and scramble up walls and hedges4 8,if you try to pull a bramble branch down out of the hawthorn hedge1 you will find it rather difficult1 for its large prickles are all turned one way4 ,they are really sharp hooks40 8,here is a wild rose bush4 ,it is also covered with large hooked prickles10 said ,frank4 8,yes1 ,tom1 and1 like the bramble1 it threads its way among stronger and taller plants4 8,the wild gooseberry growing close beside it is also armed with prickles4 ,but the prickles of the gooseberry are for protecting its tender leaves4 ,it is not a climbing plant like the rose and bramble4 ,the raspberry also is covered with many sharp little prickles4 ,there is a clump of these plants growing at the other side of the road4 ,let us cut off a small branch of each of these plants and take them home40 ,illustration3 ,armed ,plants4 #a4 ,thistle4 #b4 ,blackberry4 #c4 ,whin4 #d4 ,barberry4 #e4 ,raspberry4 #f4 ,sloe4 #g4 ,buttercup4 8,this is the most prickly plant of all10 said ,frank1 as he halted before a huge thistle4 8,you can scarcely touch it without getting severely pricked40 8,the thistle is well armed10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,there are sharp prickles on its leaves1 on its stem1 and on its flowers40 ,as they walked down the road they came upon a mass of whin bushes4 8,here10 said ,uncle ,george1 8we have a plant which has turned its leaves into sharp spines40 ,he bent down and pulled up a tiny plant which was growing under the larger gorse bushes4 8,look at this little plant1 boys4 ,this is a young whin plant40 8,but it is not a bit like the whin1 ,uncle ,george10 said ,tom4 8,its leaves are soft and flat4 ,they are more like clover leaves4 ,there are no spines or prickles on this little plant40 8,that is so1 ,tom2 but still it is a young whin plant4 ,illustration3 ,young ,whins4 8,there are a great many of these young whins growing under the older bushes4 ,let us take a few of them home4 ,if we grow one of them in a pot1 and supply it with plenty of water1 we will find that it will never produce sharp prickles40 8,that is very wonderful10 said ,frank4 8,it is10 said ,uncle ,george1 8and it teaches us something of the whin's history4 ,like the nettle1 the whin is a juicy plant1 and1 if it were not for its prickles1 would be eaten by cows1 sheep1 and horses4 ,in fact1 some farmers give whins to their horses4 ,of course the whins are passed through a mill first4 ,the mill crushes the whins and destroys the prickles4 8,it shows us that many1 many years ago the whin was a soft-leaved plant like the clover4 ,it grew in moist soil4 ,but by and by other plants invaded the land4 ,these plants grew more quickly than the whin1 and choked it out of the rich moist soil4 ,forced to grow upon bare hill-sides and commons1 the soft-leaved juicy whin would be destroyed by grazing animals if it did not arm itself with sharp spines4 8,here is the blackthorn or sloe4 ,it bears many hard1 sharp-pointed spines4 ,yet1 if we grow a sloe plant in the garden1 we find that its sharp spines gradually disappear4 ,they become branches bearing leaves and flowers4 8,but plants have other ways of protecting themselves against animals4 ,look through the hedge into the meadow and you will notice that while the grass has been eaten bare1 there are other plants which have been left to grow up untouched4 ,buttercups grow up all over the field1 and tall ragwort plants4 ,how is it that the cows do not eat these plants8 ,they are not armed with spines or prickles4 8,they protect themselves in another way4 ,they contain bitter or poisonous juices4 ,no cow will eat a buttercup4 ,if it did so it would be ill and uncomfortable for a time4 8,i want you to notice1 boys1 that--with the exception of those plants1 like the bramble and wild rose1 which use their prickles for climbing as well as for protection--all our armed plants grow in exposed places4 ,the thistle and whin are good examples of this40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,ix4 #a4 ,take in twigs of hawthorn1 barberry1 holly1 bramble1 and gooseberry4 ,examine1 and sketch them so as to show their protective parts4 #b4 ,grow a small whin bush in a pot and water it daily4 ,note that the new growth it makes is tender1 and that no spines are produced4 #c4 ,some plants are covered with dense woolly hairs4 ,these are seldom eaten by cattle4 ,can you explain why8 #d4 ,make a list of all the armed plants you know1 and tell how each is protected4 ,x4--,,the ,,horse ,,pond ,,again4 ,frank and ,tom returned from the horse pond one day with their jars filled with curious creatures4 8,we took the water beetle back to the pond1 ,uncle ,george10 said ,frank1 8and ,i almost felt sorry to let such a cruel and greedy monster loose among the other creatures in the pond40 8,you have here creatures even more cruel and greedy than the diving beetle10 said his uncle1 looking into the glass jars which the boys had brought4 8,here is the larva of the diving beetle1 and a fiercer or greedier creature is not to be found in the whole world40 ,uncle ,george refilled the three large tanks4 ,he poured the contents of one of the jars into one of the tanks4 ,it contained1 besides the larv he spoke of1 a number of tadpoles1 some small stickle-backs1 and a great many water snails or whelks4 ,in addition to these1 there were one or two curious insects1 with a pair of very long legs4 ,they came to the surface every now and then1 and moved their long limbs like oars4 ,whenever the tank was touched1 they would suddenly dive to the bottom4 ,here they would remain for a short time1 then1 returning to the surface1 would 8oar0 themselves along as usual4 8,what are these queer things1 ,uncle ,george80 ,tom asked4 8,they look exactly like little boats40 8,they are beetles10 ,uncle ,george replied1 8and they do resemble little row-boats--so much so that they are called #8water boatmen4' ,this beetle's body is shaped like a boat1 and he lies on his back and moves his very long hind legs exactly like oars4 ,he has a large1 sharp beak1 which you can see if you look closely40 ,just as ,uncle ,george was speaking1 a small fly alighted on the surface of the water4 ,it was immediately seized by a water boatman1 who dived with it to the bottom of the tank4 ,illustration #a4 ,water ,boatman4 #b4 ,water ,whelk4 #c4 ,water ,hog ,louse4 8,that is how the creature feeds10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,when an unlucky fly comes near1 he seizes it with his two fore pairs of short legs1 drives his cruel beak deep into its body1 and dives with it to the bottom of the pool4 ,when he has drowned his victim1 he devours it at leisure4 8,but let us look at the creature ,i first spoke of--the larva of the diving beetle40 ,there were several in the tank4 ,uncle ,george lifted one out with a small gauze net4 ,he placed it in a saucer of water and asked the boys to sketch it4 8,it has six legs10 said ,frank4 8,its head is large and flat1 and there are two things like horns sticking out of it40 8,these are the creature's jaws10 said his uncle4 ,uncle ,george touched the creature's head with the point of his pencil4 ,instantly the long1 curved fangs moved apart1 and the creature sprang at the pencil and closed its fangs upon the wood4 ,illustration #a4 ,larva of ,diving ,beetle4 #b1 #c4 ,head1 showing how ,fangs work4 #d4 ,larva seizing ,tadpole4 8,what a fierce creature10 said ,tom4 8,yes10 replied his uncle4 8,we must remove the others from the tank1 or there will be nothing left alive in it4 ,see1 one of them has caught a tadpole already40 ,and1 sure enough1 the creature had sunk his cruel pincers deep into the body of a tadpole4 ,he shook the tadpole as a dog would shake a rat4 8,those huge fangs are hollow10 ,uncle ,george continued4 8,with them he sucks every drop of blood from his victim's body4 ,in this way he devours tadpoles1 whelks1 little fishes1 and even his own weaker brethren4 8,we shall have to put these larv in a tank by themselves1 and feed them upon pieces of fresh raw meat1 to keep them from devouring one another4 8,now1 boys1 ,i am going to describe this larva4 ,look closely1 and see if ,i am right4 ,you can correct your drawings as we go along4 8,his body1 which is nearly two inches long1 is narrow at each end and broad at the middle4 ,it is divided into twelve segments1 and to each of the first three of these segments a pair of legs are attached4 ,his large1 flat head is almost heart-shaped4 ,at its broad end are a pair of large1 beady eyes1 three pairs of organs which look like feelers1 and the two large1 curved fangs with which he seizes his prey4 8,notice how beautifully the legs are adapted for swimming4 ,they are edged with long1 stiff hairs1 which stand out flat with every down stroke1 but fold in when the legs move upwards4 ,that is how the creature is such a graceful swimmer4 8,the last three segments of his body are thickly covered with long hairs4 ,his tail is divided into two long plumes4 ,you can see what these are for1 ,i hope40 8,oh yes10 said ,frank4 8,like the parent beetle1 the larva comes often to the surface and hangs downwards with his tail exposed to the air4 ,so these plumes must be his breathing organs40 8,and do these long1 slender creatures actually become broad1 stout beetles like the one we returned to the pond to-day80 ,tom asked4 8,yes1 ,tom1 they do4 ,just as your green caterpillar became a beautiful white butterfly4 ,these larv hatched out of eggs which were laid by the female beetle in the stem of some water weed4 ,she first cuts a slit in the water weed1 and then places an egg in the slit4 8,when the larv are full grown1 they crawl out of the pond and bury themselves in ground4 ,here they pass the winter in the pupa stage4 ,they come out in spring1 fully-formed beetles1 and pass the remainder of their lives in the water40 8,what are these curious creatures that crawl among the water weeds80 ,frank asked4 8,they are very like the #8slaters' which we find among old wood-work in the garden40 8,that creature is the #8water hog4' ,its proper name is ,asellus1 and it is very closely related to the garden #8slater' or wood-louse4 8,these water hogs1 like the whelks1 are very useful in an aquarium4 ,they eat up all waste matter1 and so help greatly to keep the water fresh4 8,by the by1 ,i want you to watch the whelks from day to day4 ,they usually lay their eggs in a clear1 broad band on the inside of the glass tank2 and with our lenses we can watch the changes in these eggs nicely40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,x4 #a4 ,procure some 8water boatmen0 from the nearest pond 7see ,appendix71 feed them upon flies1 and watch their habits4 ,notice particularly their method of swimming and of feeding4 #b4 ,we should not keep all our pond animals in one tank4 ,can you explain 7giving examples7 why this is8 #c4 ,write the life-history of the diving beetle4 #d4 ,make large sketches of the diving beetle and its larva4 ,compare them4 ,illustration ,water ,beetles4 ,hog ,lice4 ,water ,whelks4 ,water ,boatman4 ,,xi4--,,wasps4 ,the wasp's nest was found at the edge of the wood1 hanging from the branch of a small tree4 ,it was greyish white in colour1 shaped like a pear1 and about the size of a hen's egg4 ,illustration ,queen ,wasp4 ,worker ,wasp4 ,queen ,bee4 ,worker ,bee4 ,uncle ,george removed it from the branch and carried it home carefully1 for it was very light and very fragile4 ,he took a pair of scissors and cut through the thin walls so as to remove nearly half of the coverings4 ,when he had finished cutting1 two thin1 papery shells fell upon the table1 one a size smaller than the other4 8,examine the stuff the wasp's nest is made of1 and tell me what it is most like1 boys10 he said4 8,it is more like paper than anything else10 said ,tom4 8,it is paper10 said his uncle4 8,where did the wasps find this paper80 ,frank asked4 8,not #8wasps1' ,frank1 but wasp10 his uncle answered1 8for this nest was all built by one wasp4 ,the insect did not find the paper4 ,she made it4 ,it was the wasp who first taught man to make paper4 8,the queen wasp awakens from her winter sleep in spring1 and at once sets about making her nest4 ,she gathers tiny fragments of wood and bark1 chews them up1 and mixes them with a fluid from her mouth4 ,this1 when it hardens1 is paper4 8,first she makes a stiff rod1 or pillar1 of paper4 ,this hangs down from the branch and forms the centre of the nest4 ,round this are built the walls of her house4 8,observe1 boys1 that there are two distinct walls of paper1 one inside the other2 and there is a wide air space between them all the way round4 ,the entrance to the nest is at the bottom4 ,round the centre pillar there is a little thing shaped like an opened umbrella4 ,if you look underneath this1 you will see something curious1 ,i think40 8,oh10 said ,frank1 8it is divided into six cells1 and in each cell there is a small1 stout maggot or grub4 ,i can see them moving40 8,these are the young wasps10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,like your butterflies and caddis flies1 the wasp passes through egg1 larva 7or caterpillar71 and pupa stage before it becomes a perfect insect4 ,these are in the larva stage but1 unlike your caterpillars1 they have no legs1 and they cannot feed themselves40 8,then the mother wasp must have laid an egg in each cell10 said ,frank1 8and these grubs hatched out of them40 8,that is so10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,you see what a clever and industrious creature a wasp is4 ,to build this beautiful nest all alone and unaided1 and to rear and feed her helpless grubs1 is a task indeed40 8,what are the wasp grubs fed on80 asked ,frank4 8,at first10 said ,uncle ,george1 8they are fed on animal food1 and this keeps the queen wasp hunting insects all day long4 ,as they grow older1 they are fed upon honey4 ,illustration ,nest of ,wasp in ,spring4 ,a4 ,outer wall4 ,b4 ,inner wall4 ,c4 ,air space4 ,d4 ,cells with larv4 ,same ,nest in ,autumn4 ,a4 ,combs of cells4 ,b4 ,supporting pillars4 ,c4 ,entrance4 ,,dd4 ,inner and ,outer walls4 ,e4 ,air space4 8,the wasps which come from these first eggs are #8worker' wasps4 ,as soon as they are hatched out1 they begin to enlarge the nest4 ,this they do by removing the inside wall and building a new and larger outer wall4 ,this is done from time to time1 until at last the nest becomes as big as an ordinary-sized turnip4 ,while this is going on1 more and more cells are being built inside1 until at last five or six large combs of cells fill the inside of the nest4 ,the queen wasp lays an egg in each cell as it is formed2 and the worker wasps gather food and nurse the young grubs until they become perfect wasps4 8,by and by some young queens1 or female wasps1 are hatched out4 ,these lay eggs1 and soon the population the paper nest numbers many thousands40 8,and that is why the gardener kills every wasp he sees in spring time10 said ,frank4 8,every wasp we see in spring10 said ,uncle ,george1 8is a queen wasp4 ,if allowed to live1 each queen would become the founder of a nest and the mother of thousands of wasps40 8,but why destroy the wasps80 asked ,tom4 8,because wasps are very destructive and dangerous insects10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,they destroy our best fruit1 and their sting is poisonous1 sometimes causing death40 ,illustration3 ,wasp's ,nest inside ,wren's ,nest4 ,during the summer the boys found several wasp's nests4 ,one was built under-ground at the roadside4 ,another was built inside a wren's nest4 ,the queen wasp who built it had driven the wrens out4 ,a third nest hung from the branch of a gooseberry bush in the garden4 ,illustration3 ,humble ,bees and ,nest4 ,the latter was watched by ,uncle ,george and the boys as it grew larger and larger4 ,soon1 however1 the wasps became too numerous4 ,one day they chased ,tom and ,frank out of the garden and stung them badly4 ,then ,uncle ,george removed the nest4 ,putting on his bee-veil and gloves1 he cut off the branch from which the nest hung4 ,he put nest and branch inside a large box2 and1 having placed a saucer containing burning sulphur inside the box1 he closed the lid4 ,illustration3 ,nest of ,tree ,wasp4 ,in the morning the wasps were all dead1 and the boys examined the huge nest4 ,thus they were able to see queens1 workers1 and male wasps1 eggs1 larv1 and pup1 and to make drawings of each4 8,what becomes of the wasps in winter80 ,frank asked his uncle4 8,they come to a sad end1 ,frank10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,they do not store food like the hive bee1 and so1 when the cold weather comes1 they starve to death4 ,illustration ,queen ,humble ,bee4 ,worker ,humble ,bee4 8,our good-humoured and hard-working friend1 the humble bee1 shares the same fate4 ,a few young queens leave the nest before winter comes on4 ,these bury themselves in mossy banks and sleep the winter through40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,xi4 #a4 ,look under low branches of larch and spruce trees in spring for the nest of the wasp4 ,make a drawing of it4 ,cut it open and examine the interior4 #b4 ,compare a piece of the wall of the nest with the torn edge of 7#a7 a piece of coarse brown paper and 7#b7 a piece of ordinary newspaper4 #c4 ,write out the life-history of a wasp4 #d4 ,compare the combs of the hive bee with those of the wasp4 ,notice that the former are placed vertically in the nest1 the latter horizontally4 ,observe how the wasp's combs are kept apart4 ,,xii4--,,the ,,dandelion4 ,uncle ,george and the boys were having a stroll along a lane where briar and hawthorn and all sorts of wild flowers grew4 ,although it was an ,october day the sun was shining brightly1 and all along the wayside the golden flowers of the dandelion opened wide to the sunlight4 8,i thought that the dandelion was an early summer flower10 said ,frank4 8,so it is10 said his uncle2 8but this year the autumn has been so warm that our dandelions are flowering a second time4 ,this often happens with many of our wild flowers during an extra mild season4 8,you ought to dig up one of these dandelion plants1 take it home and grow it in a pot4 ,it is a most interesting plant to observe1 especially the growth and ripening of its seeds4 ,i see here dandelion flowers in almost every stage of their growth4 8,if you look you will find among the wide open flower-heads many others which are closed4 ,let us split a few of these down the centre1 and we will find that they are not all alike4 8,here is one with a bright yellow tip4 ,this one has not yet opened4 ,if you use your lens you will notice that1 like the daisy1 this is not a single flower1 but is made up of a great many small yellow florets4 ,these florets stand upon a flat round disc1 and they are surrounded by two rings of green things called bracts4 ,one set of these bracts stands up straight4 ,these protect the florets4 ,they open and close the flower4 ,the down pointing bracts protect the flower from ants and crawling insects4 ,illustration3 ,dandelion4 8,now1 ,frank1 look at the split flower and tell me what you see with your glass40 8,the florets are all of one kind10 said ,frank4 8,they are all strap shaped1 and there are a great many of them4 ,the younger florets are in the middle40 8,if you were to pull the florets out and count them you would find about three hundred of them in a single flower-head10 said ,uncle ,george4 ,illustration #a4 ,dandelion ,flower-head not yet opened4 #b4 ,single ,floret of same4 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,flower-head closed for ,seed ripening4 #f4 ,second time of opening4 8,now1 take one single floret and examine it1 please4 ,it is very like the outer 7white7 florets of the daisy4 ,but it is more complete4 ,there is a large seed-vessel at the bottom4 ,just above this there are a great number of long silky hairs4 ,you will see what these are for by and by4 ,the lower part of the floret is tubular1 but it opens up into a long yellow strap-shaped petal4 ,there are really five petals all joined together here40 8,oh yes10 said ,frank1 8at the top of the floret ,i can see five distinct teeth1 and five ridges run down from them4 ,i also see the barrel-shaped ring of stamens40 8,let us gather some more of the closed flowers10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,here are two other closed flowers4 ,one of them has a yellow tip1 withered and faded almost to brown4 ,the other has a white woolly tip40 8,have these not opened yet80 ,tom asked4 8,oh yes6 they have opened and closed up again4 ,the dandelion opens out to the sun so that flying insects may visit it and carry pollen from flower to flower4 ,when it has received1 in this way1 enough pollen to enable its seeds to form1 it closes up completely and remains closed until its seeds are ripened4 ,during this time the short stalk between the seed-vessel and petal part grows long4 ,if you look again at a single floret you will see that this short stout stack bears the long straight hairs ,i spoke of4 ,the flower-head closes so tightly that the yellow strap-shaped petal parts of the florets are squeezed together into a bunch4 ,they soon wither4 ,meantime all the hair-tipped seed-stalks are growing longer and longer4 ,at last they push the bunch of withered petals right out of the flower and it falls off40 ,uncle ,george then gathered a few more closed heads1 and1 by cutting them open1 showed the boys all the stages in the growth of the seeds4 8,when the dandelion flower-head opens for the last time1 instead of a flat golden mass of florets1 this is what appears40 ,as he spoke1 ,uncle ,george pointed to a dandelion head which was one huge fluffy ball of stalked seeds4 ,frank held it up and blew his breath upon it4 ,immediately all the seeds went sailing through the air4 8,why does the flower-head keep closed when the seeds are ripening80 asked ,tom4 8,because10 answered ,uncle ,george1 8not only has the seed to ripen1 but a plumed stalk has to be formed by means of which the seed is carried away from the parent plant4 ,these plumes have to be perfectly dry or they would be of no use as sails to the seed4 ,notice that it is only on dry days that these #8clocks' of the dandelion appear40 8,but1 ,uncle ,george10 said ,frank1 8are these seeds actually fitted with feathery tops so that they may be carried far away from the parent plant80 8,certainly1 my boy4 ,you would not have them all trying to grow in the place where the parent plant grows1 would you8 ,there would be no room for three hundred seeds to grow there4 ,besides that1 the parent plant has already exhausted the soil4 ,it is necessary that they should seek pastures new1 and therefore the seeds of most plants are furnished with some means of travelling40 8,are all seeds carried by the wind80 ,tom asked4 8,oh dear no10 ,uncle ,george replied1 8plants have many ways of scattering their seeds4 ,some plants1 by suddenly bursting their seed-vessels1 shoot their seeds far out2 some seeds are furnished with little hooks which grip on to the fur of passing animals2 some are carried by birds2 but by far the greater number are scattered by the wind4 8,we shall learn more about these at some future time4 ,meantime we will grow a dandelion plant at home1 and watch the opening and closing of its flowers1 and the wonderful way in which its travelling seeds are produced40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,xii4 #a4 ,gather dandelion flowers at different stages of growth4 ,draw1 on a large scale1 a single floret from each1 #b4 ,draw a leaf of the dandelion4 ,compare it with a primrose leaf4 ,see if you can make out1 from the shape of the leaf1 why the plant is called 8dandelion0 7dent de lion 8lion's tooth074 #c4 ,take in a dandelion plant bearing young flowers4 ,keep the root in well-watered soil1 or in water only1 and watch the growth of its flowers4 #d4 ,make a list of all the wind-carried seeds you know1 and give a drawing or short description of each4 ,illustration3 ,,trout ,,xiii4--,,trout4 ,one day in ,november the postman brought ,uncle ,george a small wooden box4 ,there were holes bored in the sides and top of it4 ,the box1 when opened1 seemed to be filled with damp moss2 but when some of this moss was removed there was found in the middle of the box a piece of folded muslin4 ,illustration ,hatching ,bottle4 ,a4 ,supply pipe4 ,b4 ,exhaust pipe4 ,c4 ,trout ,eggs4 ,rearing ,box4 ,c4 ,perforated zinc tray to fit box4 ,uncle ,george laid the muslin on the table1 and opened it out4 ,it contained a number of tiny pink balls1 much smaller than peas4 8,these are the trout eggs you promised to get for us1 are they not80 said ,frank4 8,they are10 said ,uncle ,george1 8and we must put them into running water at once4 ,i have a bottle here ready for them40 ,uncle ,george filled a wide-mouthed bottle with water from the tap and placed the eggs in it4 ,he then corked it with a cork in which he had bored two holes4 ,into each of the holes he had fitted a tube4 ,one tube was long enough to reach almost to the bottom of the bottle4 ,the other was bent over the outside of the bottle4 ,the straight tube was connected with the water tap by a piece of indiarubber tubing4 ,he then turned the tap on gently1 so that the water went in by the straight tube and came dripping out by the bent tube4 8,trout require a constant supply of fresh water10 he said4 8,their eggs are usually laid in shallow streams4 8,now1 boys1 ,i want you to watch these eggs and note down any changes you see in them4 ,you can remove the bottle from the tap at any time1 but you must not keep it more than fifteen minutes at a time1 or your trout will not hatch40 ,at the end of a week the boys noticed two black dots and a coiled white line in each egg4 ,in two weeks more some curious-looking creatures were seen wriggling about among the eggs4 ,as there were some empty egg-skins to be seen1 they guessed that these lively creatures must be young trout4 ,they were not a bit like fish4 ,each seemed to be made up of a long white streak1 which looked like the 8backbone0 of a fish1 a big1 clumsy yellow bag with red veins running through it1 and two large black spots that looked like eyes4 ,in a few days all the eggs hatched out1 and in place of the little pink eggs there was a crowd of these wriggling creatures and a number of empty egg-skins4 ,the boys were puzzled1 and ,uncle ,george had to be consulted4 ,illustration3 ,six ,stages in ,development of ,trout4 8,i don't think these were trout eggs10 said ,frank4 8,the creatures that came out of them are not a bit like fishes4 ,they swim on their sides and have a huge yellow bag attached to their bodies40 8,they are young trout1 ,i can assure you1 ,frank10 said his uncle laughing4 8,if you remember1 your tadpoles were not a bit like frogs when they hatched out of the egg4 ,these huge bags you talk of are called #8yolks4' ,each trout when hatched is furnished with a huge yolk or food supply4 8,the tadpole1 when hatched1 has also got a yolk upon which he lives without eating for four or five days4 ,our trout will require no food for six weeks4 ,during that time the yolk will become smaller and smaller1 and at last disappear entirely4 ,while the yolk is shrinking1 you will notice that the creature gradually assumes the form of a fish40 ,uncle ,george emptied the bottle containing the young trout into a wooden box which he had made4 ,this box was fifteen inches long1 four inches broad1 and four inches deep4 ,the inside of it he had charred with a red-hot iron after it was put together4 ,it was placed under the tap1 and the water dripped into it all day and all night4 ,frank made a small gauze net about the size of a dessert-spoon1 and with this they lifted troutlets out of the box whenever they wanted to examine them4 ,as their uncle had said1 the creatures changed from day to day4 ,by placing a single trout in a white saucer1 the boys could note these changes2 but they were such lively little creatures that making good sketches of them was somewhat difficult4 ,first the big black dots became more like eyes4 ,then delicate fins and tail appeared1 and mouths which opened and shut4 ,at the top of the yolk-sac1 just under the head1 the boys could see a little red thing like a heart beating constantly4 ,as the yolk-sac grew smaller1 the little fish's body grew more shapely1 and tiny brown spots appeared all over it4 ,at last1 at the end of six weeks1 the yolk was completely gone1 and the young trout were now beautiful little fish1 shaped and coloured exactly like big trout4 ,then ,uncle ,george began to feed them4 ,they were fed four times a day on the yolk of an egg which had been boiled for half an hour4 ,a very small quantity of this hard yolk was squeezed through a piece of gauze into the water1 and the little fishes dashed at it and gobbled it up greedily4 ,they were so rapid in their movements1 swimming about and leaping out of the water1 that the boys were never tired of watching them4 8,what are the brown spots on a trout for80 ,frank asked his uncle one day4 8,the trout is protected by his colour10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,each trout is coloured like the bed of the stream he lives in1 and the spots resemble grains of sand and tiny pebbles4 ,the trout can change his colour1 like the frog1 as ,i will show you40 ,uncle ,george took two trout out of the box and placed them in a glass dish4 ,he placed the dish in a white saucer1 and so arranged it that water was kept flowing into and out of it4 ,next day he took two more trout out of the box and placed them in the glass dish4 ,it was then seen that the first two trout had grown quite light in colour4 ,they were much paler than those taken out of the box1 the inside of which was charred and black4 ,one day ,uncle ,george found two of the trout dead in the box4 8,i am afraid1 boys10 he said1 8that we cannot keep them confined any longer4 ,get a large pail full of water1 and we will carry them to the brook40 8,we must come here and fish next year1 ,frank10 said ,tom1 after the trout were transferred to the brook4 8,how long will it be before they become big trout1 ,uncle ,george80 8,they are now about an inch long10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,in a year they will be four inches long4 ,in about three years1 if they are not devoured by larger trout1 they will weigh about a pound apiece40 8,i think it is a shame to kill such pretty little creatures10 said ,frank4 8,i quite agree with you1 ,frank10 said his uncle4 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,xiii4 #a4 ,compare a newly-hatched trout with a seed 7bean74 ,how do they resemble1 and how do they differ from one another8 #b4 ,the trout is protected by its colour markings4 ,make a list of any other animals you know that are 8colour protected40 #c4 ,if you put a fish 7trout7 into water which has been boiled and allowed to cool1 it dies4 ,what are your reasons for this8 #d4 ,make notes1 with sketches1 of the development of a young trout from the time it is hatched until it requires food4 ,,xiv4--,,silkworms4 ,the silkworm eggs came in a very small box4 ,they were sent by a friend of ,uncle ,george's who lived in the south of ,england4 ,the eggs were stuck to pieces of paper in scattered groups4 ,some pieces of paper had only one or two eggs on them1 others had as many as forty4 ,they were small1 round things1 flattened on the top1 and coloured light green4 ,they reminded the boys of small mustard seeds1 but they were not so round4 ,in answer to ,frank's question as to why the eggs were laid in irregular groups1 ,uncle ,george answered3 8,when the silk-moth emerges from her pupa case1 she lays her eggs anywhere on the floor of her cage4 ,as the eggs are coated with a gluey material when newly laid1 they stick firmly to the floor4 8,those people who rear silkworms always have a sheet of clean paper covering the floor of the cage before egg-laying commences4 ,after the eggs are laid1 they are found adhering to this sheet of paper4 ,the paper is taken out of the larva cage1 and those parts containing eggs are cut out with scissors40 8,how many eggs are laid by one moth10 ,frank asked4 8,from four to five hundred10 his uncle replied4 8,let us get our larva cage cleaned out1 and we will put these eggs in the lower part of it and await their hatching40 8,why in the lower part10 ,frank asked1 as he set about cleaning the cage4 8,because its floor is a drawer which can be pulled out4 ,if you put them in the upper part1 you must lay a sheet of paper on the floor first1 for your silkworms must not be handled on any account40 8,and how long do we have to wait for these eggs to hatch80 asked ,tom4 ,illustration3 ,larva ,case4 8,that depends altogether upon the amount of warmth they receive1 ,tom4 ,they will remain unhatched ever so long if kept in a cool place2 but whenever they are placed where they can get the necessary amount of warmth1 they begin to hatch4 ,let us put them in the front window1 where they can get most sunshine40 ,about a week after the larva cage was placed in the window1 ,frank reported to his uncle that some of the eggs had turned white4 8,take your lens and examine carefully those eggs which have lost their colour10 said ,uncle ,george4 ,lifting out one of the small pieces of paper with eggs on it1 ,frank examined it with the glass4 8,oh10 he said1 8these colourless eggs are just empty shells1 and there are two small creatures crawling along the edge of the paper4 ,how small they are6 ,they are no longer than the breadth of a pin-head4 ,they are almost black in colour1 covered all over with hair1 and have very large heads40 8,well1 these are newly-hatched silkworms10 said ,uncle ,george1 8and they are already looking for food4 ,run out to the garden and bring in some fresh lettuce leaves40 ,uncle ,george carefully dried the lettuce leaves before putting them into the cage4 ,in two days all the eggs were hatched1 and in their place were as many black1 hairy1 crawling little creatures with clumsy heads4 ,although they did not seem to eat much1 they grew very rapidly4 ,when three days old1 they were fully twice as big as when hatched4 ,in five days the silkworms seemed to have increased in number as well as in size4 ,in fact1 there seemed to be twice as many grubs as there were of eggs4 ,then ,uncle ,george explained that half of these were not grubs1 but simply empty skins4 8,the silkworm1 in order to grow1 must cast its skin10 he said4 8,it does this four times during its lifetime4 ,look out for another moult1 or skin-casting1 in four days' time40 ,four days later the grubs cast their skins again1 just as ,uncle ,george had said4 ,they were now about half an inch in length1 and much lighter in colour4 ,in six further days they moulted a third time4 ,instead of dingy1 hairy grubs1 they were now hairless caterpillars1 yellowish-white in colour1 and with round black heads4 ,their fourth and last moult took place in another week4 ,by this time they were over an inch in length4 ,they now began to eat the lettuce leaves ravenously1 and grew very fast4 ,for ten days they ate much and grew rapidly4 ,then they seemed to get tired of feeding1 and began to crawl lazily up the sides of their cage4 ,illustration3 ,silk ,moth4 #a4 ,eggs4 #b4 ,larva4 #c4 ,silk ,cocoon4 #d4 ,chrysalis4 8,they are full grown now1 boys10 said ,uncle ,george1 8and will soon begin to spin their silken cocoons4 8,they are now about three inches long1 and very different from the tiny hairy grubs which came out of the eggs over a month ago40 8,we have been comparing drawings of them with drawings we made of the caterpillar of the white cabbage butterfly10 said ,frank1 8and we find that they are very much alike40 8,that is good10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,they are1 indeed1 very much alike4 ,the body is made up of thirteen segments1 and they have the same number of legs4 ,they differ from the cabbage caterpillar1 however1 in size and colour4 ,notice the little horn which sticks up out of the twelfth segment4 ,your cabbage caterpillar did not have that4 ,if you look closely you will notice a long silk thread issuing from the head of one of these silk-spinning caterpillars4 ,this one has just begun to make his cocoon2 and1 in order to prevent his threads becoming entangled with those of the other caterpillars1 ,i will place this small paper cone over him40 ,next day ,uncle ,george covered several of the caterpillars with paper cones4 ,on the roof of the cage the boys saw one caterpillar surrounded with a flimsy web of silk of a golden-yellow colour4 ,as they watched the creature turning its head round and round inside the silky veil1 their uncle told them that the creature was spinning silk at the rate of about a foot per minute4 ,in three days each caterpillar had surrounded itself with a dense silken cocoon as large as a walnut4 ,then ,uncle ,george took one of the cocoons1 and1 cutting it open1 showed the boys the brown1 shining chrysalis inside4 ,he took another cocoon1 and1 having dipped it into warm water1 began to wind the silken thread on to a piece of card4 ,both ,frank and ,tom were amazed at the length of this silken thread4 ,they were more surprised when they were told that each caterpillar produces a silk thread more than half a mile long4 8,tell us1 please1 ,uncle ,george10 said ,frank1 8why the creature spins all this silk1 and how it makes it80 8,you are asking a difficult question10 said his uncle1 8but ,i will tell you something about it4 ,illustration ,s4 ,silk ,fibres4 ,w4 ,wool4 ,c4 ,cotton4 7,all highly magnified47 8,the creature spins this cocoon to protect its chrysalis1 of course4 ,the silk is produced in two long1 coiled tubes1 which occupy nearly the whole length of the creature's body4 8,silk1 before it issues from the caterpillar's body1 is a fluid4 ,whenever it comes out into the air1 it becomes horny4 ,two strands are produced at once--one from each of the long coiled tubes4 ,before they leave the caterpillar's body they are pressed together to form one flat1 ribbon-like thread4 ,silk is one of the strongest fibres in the world4 ,it is nearly as strong as steel1 and much stronger than many of our metals4 8,in a fortnight your silken cocoons will produce white1 fluffy moths4 #8,then you can supply your friends with hundreds of #8silkworm' eggs1 and still have enough over to stock your larva cage40 ,illustration3 ,silk ,moths--,male and ,female4 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,xiv4 #a4 ,are 8silkworms0 really worms8 ,what creatures do they most resemble8 #b4 ,many of our common caterpillars spin silk of a kind4 ,take in 8woolly bear0 caterpillars4 ,feed them on the plants you find them on4 ,compare the cocoons they make with those of the 8silkworm40 #c4 ,compare egg1 larva1 pupa1 and perfect insect of the 8silkworm0 with that of the white cabbage butterfly4 ,does the caterpillar of the latter spin any silk8 #d4 ,make a list of all the spinning insects you know1 and try to explain the use of the 8silk0 thread in each case4 ,,appendix4 ,,hints ,,to ,,teachers4 ,,structure ,,of ,,stems4--,one- and two-year-old twigs of horse-chestnut1 elm1 and willow should be cut into half-inch lengths and distributed among the class4 ,if cut straight across with a sharp pen-knife1 the different layers can be seen with the naked eye4 ,afterwards these pieces should be slit longitudinally1 and the various tissues peeled off by the pupils4 ,,bulbs ,,and ,,corms4--,bulbs of snowdrop and tulip1 and corms of crocus1 can be bought from seedsmen1 from ,september to ,january1 at from #f;d4 to #as4 per #ajj4 ,at any other season of the year the onion will make a good substitute4 ,,willow ,,twigs will root readily if placed in water and kept near the hot pipes in school4 ,,vegetable ,,fingers4--,to illustrate this lesson1 peas 7of any kind7 ought to be grown in school4 ,branches of the many wild peas and vetches are to be found in abundance in every hedgerow during spring1 summer1 and autumn4 ,branches of ,virginia creeper1 clematis1 tropolum 7,indian cress7 may be shown with advantage4 ,the compound leaves of the rose1 ash1 or mountain ash should be shown along with those of sweet-pea and edible pea1 and the amount of green 7assimilating7 area compared4 ,,the ,,great ,,water ,,beetle is found in nearly every pond4 ,one or two should be kept and fed upon small worms4 ,these beetles can also be obtained from any naturalist dealer4 ,the larv of this beetle is found in ponds in summer months4 8,,water ,,boatman0 ,,beetles 7notonecta and corrixa7 are common to all our ponds4 ,,plant ,,armour4--,branches of whin1 bramble1 hawthorn1 and barberry1 and leaves of holly1 thistle1 and nettle will be found to illustrate this lesson4 ,young whin plants are to be found plentifully in spring1 growing under the old bushes4 ,one of these should be grown in a pot in school and kept well watered4 ,it will produce no prickles4 ,,trout ,,eggs are obtainable from any of the fisheries--e4g41 ,howietoun ,fisheries1 ,stirling1 or ,solway ,fisheries1 ,dumfries1 at about #as4 per #ajj1 from ,october till ,april4 ,they are easily hatched and reared wherever running water can be obtained4 ,if not hatched in a bottle1 as described in ,lesson ,,xiii41 the ova ought to be placed in a shallow trough of perforated zinc suspended in a small wooden box4 ,the inside of the box must be charred with a red-hot iron to prevent fungal growths4 ,when the yolk-sac is completely absorbed1 the young trout should be fed on yolk of hard-boiled egg1 and1 later on1 on a mixture of this and chopped raw beef4 ,in each case the food should be squeezed through perforated zinc4 8,,silkworms40--,eggs of the silk-bearing moth 7,bombex ,mori7 can be had from ,messrs ,watkins ,doncaster1 #cf ,strand1 ,london1 and other dealers1 at #d;d4 and #f;d4 per #ajj4 ,the larva should be fed on mulberry or lettuce leaves1 and the leaves should never be given wet4 ,caterpillars of ,tiger ,moth 7,arctia caja71 ,emperor ,moth 7,saturnia carpini71 or ,puss ,moth 7,cerura vinula7 should be kept for comparison4 ,footnotes #a,see ,book ,,iii4 ,lesson #c4 #b;,dyticus ,marginalis4 ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,by ,,thomas ,,nelson ,,and ,,sons1 ,,ltd4 ,the following ,list gives a rough idea of the main ,contents in each ,volume of this ,series3-- ,vol4 ,i4 ,jack ,frost1 ,woods and ,fields in ,spring1 ,holly and ,fir1 ,the ,rook1 ,chicks1 ,hedgehog1 ,beetle1 ,humble ,bee4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,sowing the ,seed1 ,life of a ,plant1 ,a ,country ,walk1 ,harvest ,time1 ,gulls1 ,squirrels1 ,air1 ,fire1 ,dew1 ,rain1 etc4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,birds--,seed ,eaters and ,insect ,eaters1 ,a ,baby ,plant1 ,uncle ,george's ,tank1 ,tadpoles1 ,frogs4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,snowdrop1 ,crocus1 ,tulip1 ,daisies1 ,water-beetle1 ,life of a ,trout1 ,silkworms1 ,chaffinch1 ,song ,thrush4 ,vol4 ,v4 ,some ,british ,forest ,trees--,oak1 ,ash1 ,horse-chestnut1 ,elm1 ,birch1 ,willow1 ,beech1 ,the ,fir ,tribe4 ,vol4 ,,vi4 ,bats1 ,field-mice1 ,the ,water-vole1 ,mole1 ,weasel1 ,reptiles1 ,newts1 ,stickle-backs1 ,crayfish1 etc4 ,vol4 ,,vii4 ,butterflies and ,moths1 and how to collect them1 ,caterpillars1 ,beetles1 ,flies1 etc4 ,transcriber's ,notes --,retained publication information from the printed exemplar 7this e,book is in the public domain in the country of publication47 --,only in the text versions1 delimited italicized text with underscores4 --,silently corrected several typos4