,illustration3 ,birds in ,winter ,the 8,,look ,,about ,,you0 ,nature ,study ,books ,,by ,,thomas ,w4 ,,hoare ,,teacher ,,of ,,nature ,,study to the ,falkirk ,school ,board and ,stirlingshire ,county ,council ,,book ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,publisher's ,logo ,,london3 ,t4 ,c4 ,e4 ,c4 ,,jack #af ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,w4,c4 ,,and ,,edinburgh ,printed by ,m#8,farlane ,erskine1 ,edinburgh4 ,,preface4 ,this little book should be used as a simple guide to the practical study of ,nature rather than as a mere reader4 ,every lesson herein set down has1 during the author's many years' experience in teaching ,nature ,study1 been taught by observation and practice again and again2 and each time with satisfactory result4 ,the materials required for most of the lessons--whether they be obtained from the naturalist-dealer or from the nearest hedge1 ditch1 or pond--are within everybody's reach4 ,there is nothing that appeals to the heart of the ordinary child like living things1 be they animal or vegetable1 and there is no branch of education at the present day that bears1 in the young mind1 such excellent fruit as the study of the simple1 living things around us4 ,your child is nothing if not curious4 ,he wants to understand everything that lives and moves and has its being in his bright little world4 ,nature ,study involves so many ingenious little deductions1 that the reasoning powers are almost constantly employed1 and intelligence grows proportionately4 ,the child's powers of observation are stimulated1 and his memory is cultivated in the way most pleasing to his inquiring nature4 ,by dissecting seeds1 bulbs1 buds1 and flowers1 his hand is trained1 and methods expeditious and exact are inculcated4 ,by drawing his specimens1 no matter how roughly or rapidly1 his eye is trained more thoroughly than any amount of enforced copying of stiff1 uninteresting models of prisms1 cones1 etc41 ever could train it4 ,the love of flowers and animals is one of the most commendable traits in the disposition of the wondering child1 and ought to be encouraged above all others4 ,it is the author's fondest and most sanguine hope that the working out of the exercises1 of which this booklet is mainly composed1 may prove much more of a joy than a task1 and that the practical knowledge gained thereby may tempt his little readers to study further the great book of ,nature1 whose broad pages are ever open to us1 and whose silent answers to our manifold questions are never very difficult to read4 ,t4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,contents ,,lesson ,,page ,i4 ,birds in ,winter #g ,,ii4 ,seed-,eaters and ,insect-,eaters #ab ,,iii4 ,buds #af ,,iv4 ,a ,baby ,plant #be ,v4 ,how a ,plant ,grows #cj ,,vi4 ,more about ,seeds #cf ,,vii4 ,the ,horse ,pond in ,spring #dd ,,viii4 ,uncle ,george's ,tank #di ,,ix4 ,tadpoles #ed ,x4 ,frogs1 ,toads1 and ,newts #fa ,,xi4 ,underground ,stems #ff ,,xii4 ,caterpillars #gf ,,xiii4 ,the ,white ,butterfly #hb ,,xiv4 ,the ,toiling ,caddis #hh ,appendix #ie 8,,look ,,about ,,you40 ,,book ,,iii4 ,i4--,,birds ,,in ,,winter4 8,when we look out there1 it makes us feel thankful that we have a nice cosy room to play in and a warm fire to sit beside40 ,it was ,uncle ,george who spoke4 ,his two nephews1 ,frank and ,tom1 stood at the window watching the birds feeding outside1 while ,dolly1 their little sister1 was busy with her picture-blocks on the carpet4 8,yes1 it is better to be inside in winter10 said ,frank1 the elder boy4 8,these poor little birds must have a hard time out in the cold all night40 8,i should not mind being a bird during the rest of the year1 though10 said little ,tom4 8,it must be so jolly to be able to fly wherever you like40 ,uncle ,george smiled1 and said1 8,birds are very happy little creatures1 ,tom1 but they have many enemies4 ,their lives are in constant danger4 ,they must always be on the look-out for cats1 hawks1 guns1 and cruel boys4 ,those birds that stay with us all the year round have often a hard fight for life in winter-time4 ,in fact1 many of them starve to death4 8,most of our birds fly to warmer countries in autumn1 and come back to us in spring4 ,these miss the frost and snow1 but a great number of them get drowned while crossing the sea4 ,i think1 as a little boy1 you are much better off4 8,let me see2 have you put out any food for the birds this morning80 8,yes1 ,uncle ,george1 we have done exactly as you told us10 said ,frank4 8,mother made a little net1 which we filled with suet and scraps of meat for the tomtits4 ,we hung it on the ivy1 quite near the window4 ,we also put plenty of crumbs and waste bits from the kitchen on the space you cleared for the birds yesterday40 8,very good10 said ,uncle ,george1 8and ,i see your feathered friends are busy in both places40 ,he looked out and saw a crowd of birds hopping on the frozen lawn round the well-filled dish4 ,the little net1 which hung just outside the window1 was alive with hungry tomtits4 ,they pecked eagerly at the suet1 and chattered their thanks between every mouthful4 8,what a lot of birds we have to-day10 ,uncle ,george remarked4 8,do you know the names of them all1 boys80 8,we know those you pointed out to us yesterday10 said ,frank4 8,there is the chaffinch1 the thrush1 the greenfinch1 the blackbird1 and the hedge-sparrow1 but ,i don't know that one with the bright red breast1 black velvet head1 and grey wings4 ,and there is a new one among the tomtits4 ,he has a very long tail1 and is like a small parrot40 ,illustration3 ,robin4 ,starling4 ,hedge-,sparrow4 ,greenfinch4 ,bullfinch4 ,sparrow4 ,chaffinch4 ,long-tailed ,tit4 ,linnet4 ,blackbird4 ,rook4 ,thrush4 8,oh10 said ,uncle ,george1 8the first you spoke of is the bullfinch4 ,he is so easily tamed that he makes a splendid pet4 ,the hen bullfinch is there too1 ,i see4 ,she has a dull brown breast1 and is not quite so pretty as her husband4 ,the bullfinch is very fond of berries4 ,if we could get some hawthorn or rowan berries1 we should have all the bullfinches in the district around us4 ,the other bird is the long-tailed tit4 ,he is also a very amusing little chap40 ,illustration3 ,bullfinches4 8,why do the tomtits make such a fuss about the suet80 asked ,tom4 8,the bullfinches do not come near it40 8,that is because the tomtit is a flesh-eater1 ,tom4 ,he lives on insects4 ,the bullfinch feeds on berries and seeds4 ,he is also blamed for eating the young buds of fruit-trees in spring-time1 but ,i am not quite sure that he does this40 8,where are all the insects in winter1 ,uncle ,george80 asked ,frank4 8,well1 most of them are buried deep in the ground4 ,some of them are tucked up in warm cases1 and hidden in the chinks of trees and walls40 8,then why don't the birds that feed on insects search those trees and walls for them10 ,frank asked4 8,so the birds do1 but the sleeping insects are very hard to find4 ,the cases which hold them are often coloured exactly like the tree or wall which they are fixed to2 so that even the sharp eyes of a hungry bird cannot see them40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,i4 #a4 ,write out the names of all the wild birds you have seen4 #b4 ,some of these we do not see in winter4 ,how is this8 #c4 ,why should we remember the birds in winter-time8 #d4 ,describe the robin4 ,how does he differ from the bullfinch8 ,,ii4--,,seed-,,eaters ,,and ,,insect-,,eaters4 ,the snow did not go away for some days4 ,while it lasted1 ,frank and ,tom watched the birds very closely4 ,they learned many new and curious things about them4 ,the sparrows and robins had grown so tame that they would fly right up to the window-sill1 and eat the crumbs and seeds that were placed there for them2 while the tomtits paid great attention to the little net bag that hung quite close to the window4 ,so long as they stood back a short distance from the window1 the two boys could watch the funny tricks of these hungry little visitors4 ,amongst other things1 they learned to tell a seed-eating bird from one that feeds on insects4 ,illustration3 ,tomtits4 ,seed-eating birds1 as their uncle told them1 have short1 stout1 hard bills1 just the thing for shelling seeds4 ,the insect-eaters have longer and more slender bills2 while birds that live upon both seeds and insects have bills hard enough to shell seeds and yet long and sharp enough to pick insects out of their hiding-places4 ,so many birds came to the feast1 that ,uncle ,george cleared the snow from another part of the lawn and spread some dry ashes upon it4 ,upon one patch he scattered seeds and crumbs1 and on the other he placed a large flat dish4 ,in this dish were put all sorts of waste scraps from the kitchen1 such as bones1 potatoes1 and pieces of meat4 ,uncle ,george did this so that the boys could tell flesh-eating birds from those that lived upon seeds4 ,illustration3 ,starling4 ,the starlings came to the dish first1 and fought among themselves for the food1 although there was much more than enough for them all4 ,then came a few rooks1 who walked about the dish in quite a lordly way4 ,every now and again one of them would seize a huge crust of bread or a potato in his clumsy bill and fly with it a short distance away4 ,the starlings1 thrushes1 and blackbirds hopped nimbly about1 picking up a choice morsel here and there4 ,the new patch was often crowded with finches of all kinds4 ,the boys noticed that many of the birds fed at both places4 ,among these were sparrows1 robins1 chaffinches1 thrushes1 and starlings4 ,these birds1 their uncle explained to them1 fed on a mixed food of insects1 seeds1 and fruits4 ,it amused them very much to watch how the rooks and jackdaws always dragged the food away from the dish1 as if they were stealing it2 while now and then a blackbird would fly away with a loud chatter1 as if he had been suddenly found out whilst doing something very wrong4 8,these birds10 said ,uncle ,george1 8are looked upon as enemies by farmers and gardeners4 ,they are scared out of our fields and gardens by every possible means4 ,that is what makes them steal even the food that is given to them40 ,illustration3 ,rook4 8,but they pick the newly-sown seeds out of the ground1 and steal the fruit when it is ripe10 said ,frank4 8,that is what the gardener says40 8,if the gardener only knew how much they help him1 by eating up the grubs and beetles that damage his plants1 he would not grudge them a few seeds and berries1 ,frank10 ,uncle ,george replied4 8,the rook is one of the farmer's best friends2 and if it were not for thrushes1 starlings1 blackbirds1 and such insect-eating birds1 our gardens would be overrun with insects4 ,if these insects were allowed to increase1 we should not be able to grow anything4 ,even the sparrow is the gardener's friend4 ,he eats the caterpillars that would spoil our fruit trees and bushes40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,ii4 #a4 ,why do we put out suet and scraps of meat for certain birds in winter8 #b4 ,how can you tell a flesh-eating from an insect-eating bird8 #c4 ,write down the names of all the birds which belong to the crow family4 #d4 ,what makes the jackdaw steal all his food8 #e4 ,why are jackdaws1 rooks1 sparrows1 starlings1 and blackbirds said to be 8the farmer's friends08 ,,iii4--,,buds4 ,uncle ,george and the two boys had been for a long walk4 ,they brought home a lot of twigs which they had cut from trees at the roadside4 ,uncle ,george placed some of these twigs in bottles filled with water4 ,these bottles were placed in the window1 so that they could get plenty of sunlight4 ,the rest of the twigs were laid upon the table4 8,now1 boys10 said ,uncle ,george1 8we are going to find out what buds are4 ,here is a twig of the horse-chestnut tree1 and here is one of the beech tree4 ,do you notice any difference between them80 8,oh1 yes10 said ,frank1 8they are very different4 ,the beech buds are longer40 8,anything else80 his uncle asked4 8,the horse-chestnut buds have sticky stuff all over them10 said ,tom4 8,quite right10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,on the beech twig the buds are placed singly on opposite sides4 ,on the horse-chestnut twig the buds are in pairs40 ,then ,uncle ,george cut one of the buds through with his knife1 and they saw that a great number of thick scales were folded round a little green thing in the centre4 ,they saw also a mass of woolly stuff between the scales and the little green object4 ,uncle ,george gave each of the boys a twig1 and showed them how to take the scales off the top bud with a large needle4 ,the outside scales were not easily removed4 ,they were so sticky--they stuck to everything that touched them1 and soon the boys' fingers were covered with the sticky stuff4 ,as they went on with their work1 they found out that the inner scales were not sticky4 ,at last they got all the scales off1 and there was nothing left but a tiny woolly mass4 ,on teasing out1 this woolly bundle was found to be a little branch bearing small leaves4 ,every part of it was covered with wool4 ,illustration3 ,twigs of ,beech and ,chestnut1 showing ,buds4 8,now10 said ,uncle ,george1 8you can perhaps tell me what a bud is40 8,it is just a little baby branch1 snugly tucked up in a tiny blanket and well covered over with many scale-leaves10 said ,frank4 8,very good10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,now tell me why it is tucked up in this warm blanket1 and perhaps ,tom can tell us what the sticky stuff on the outer scales is for40 8,i am sure ,i cannot tell10 said ,frank4 8,just think10 said his uncle kindly4 8,why did you call it a baby branch8 ,is it because it is so small1 or because it is so snugly wrapped up8 ,why are babies wrapped up in soft warm clothing80 8,oh1 ,i know now10 said ,frank1 8,the woolly stuff is to keep out the winter cold40 8,and the sticky stuff on the outside10 said ,tom1 8must be for keeping out the rain40 8,you are both right10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,buds are formed in autumn and early winter4 ,they are1 as you have seen1 very tender little things4 ,frost or wet would kill them4 ,but rolled up in soft woolly clothing1 covered in with many thick scale-leaves1 and made quite waterproof by a thick coat of the sticky stuff1 they do not fear the cold4 8,if you look at your twigs again1 you will find that in taking off the scales you have left a thick ring of marks right round the twig4 8,now1 if you look down the twig1 you will notice another ring of such marks4 ,these are the scale-marks of last year's bud4 ,the part of the twig in between these two ring marks is a year's growth40 8,there is a third ring on mine farther down the stem10 said ,frank4 8,yes1 and another farther down still10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,these are the bud marks of former years4 ,let us measure the distance between them1 for in this way we can tell the kind of summers we have had in past years4 ,illustration3 ,hedge and ,trees in early ,spring ,illustration3 ,plants protected by ,thorns and ,prickles 8,last year's growth1 you see1 is two inches4 ,the growth of the year before is three inches1 and the one beneath that is four and a half inches4 ,this tells us that there was very little sunshine during last summer or the summer before1 and that three years ago there was a warm summer1 causing much growth40 8,i see some other strange marks on the twig10 said ,tom4 8,oh1 you mean the horse-shoe marks4 ,these are the scars left by the big green leaves which fell off in autumn4 ,you will find one of these curious horse-shoe marks under each bud4 ,illustration3 ,hawthorn ,twigs4 8,here is a hawthorn twig4 ,i brought it to let you see another way in which plants protect their buds4 ,in the hawthorn the buds usually occur in pairs together4 ,between each pair of buds there is a long sharp thorn4 8,the reason why every pair of buds is guarded in this way is very clear4 ,the horse-chestnut and beech have tall1 stout stems1 which rear up their branches far out of the reach of grazing animals4 ,the hawthorn is a low growing tree4 ,its branches are within easy reach1 and its tender buds would be nipped off by sheep and cattle if it were not for these sharp thorns4 8,the thorns also prevent the buds from being knocked off by anything rubbing against the hawthorn hedge4 ,you will notice that each thorn is very much longer than the buds beside it4 ,these thorns can give a very cruel prick1 as every boy knows who has tried to cut a twig from the hawthorn hedge4 8,by and by we shall see that there are many plants which arm themselves against animals in this way40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,iii4 #a4 ,take in twigs with buds on them in ,december4 ,place them in water1 and watch them from day to day4 #b4 ,select one bud1 and make a drawing of it every third day from the time it begins to open4 ,keep your drawings4 #c4 ,how are buds protected8 7#a7 from cold2 7#b7 from animals4 #d4 ,what causes the 8horse-shoe0 marks on horse-chestnut twigs8 #e4 ,make a drawing of a small beech twig1 showing buds and leaf-scars4 ,,iv4--,a ,,baby ,,plant4 8,to-day10 said ,uncle ,george1 8we are going to try to find out something about seeds40 ,and he placed upon the table a saucerful of beans which had been soaking in water for two days4 8,first let us look at the seeds as they are when we get them from the shop10 he said1 laying a handful of hard1 wrinkled beans upon the table4 8,they are as hard as stones1 and very much smaller than those we soaked10 said ,frank4 8,yes1 that is one thing we have learned about them already4 ,seeds take in water and swell greatly40 ,as he spoke1 ,uncle ,george gave ,frank1 ,tom1 and ,dolly each a small knife and a needle mounted in a handle4 ,he then laid a small magnifying glass on the table4 8,take a soaked bean and look at it well10 he said4 8,first we will look at the outside of it1 then we will see what it has inside40 8,my bean is covered all over with a smooth skin10 said ,dolly4 8,and there is a long black mark on one side of it10 ,tom added4 8,come on1 ,frank10 said his uncle1 8haven't you got something to say40 8,it is sort of kidney-shaped10 said ,frank4 8,nothing more80 ,frank shook his head4 8,squeeze it10 said ,uncle ,george1 8and tell me what you see40 8,oh1 there is water oozing out of a little hole at the end of the black mark10 said ,frank4 8,that shows us that the seed is not quite covered by its skin10 said their uncle4 8,that little hole is there to allow a tiny root to grow out4 8,now let us remove the skin1 or skins rather1 for there are two of them4 ,begin as far away from the black mark as you can4 ,you see that the outer skin is tough like leather1 while the inner one is soft and silky4 ,now1 if you pull the skins off gently1 you will find something like a stout little root pointing towards the little hole you have already noticed4 ,if you look at the edge of the seed you will notice a thin line or crack4 ,putting the knife into this crack1 we find that the seed consists chiefly of two large1 flat1 white parts or lobes1 with a very small object in between them4 ,let us remove one of these white masses1 and have a look at this small object with the glass40 ,illustration3 ,seed of ,runner ,bean4 7#a7 outside2 7#b7 inside2 7#c7 baby plant1 enlarged4 a1 shoot2 b1 root2 c1 seed coat or skin2 d1 junction of seed-leaves4 ,each of the children had a look through the glass in turn4 8,why10 said ,tom1 8it is very like what we found inside the horse-chestnut bud4 ,i can see two tiny leaves40 8,remove the little object on the point of your needle and look at it again10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,it has got something that your little horse-chestnut shoot did not have1 ,i think40 8,there is a little thing like a root10 said ,tom4 8,it is a little plant with a very fat little root10 said ,frank4 8,that is just what it is10 said his uncle4 8,has every seed got a little plant inside it1 ,uncle ,george80 ,dolly asked4 8,every seed1 ,dolly1 no matter how small40 ,uncle ,george split up one of the hard seeds that had not been soaked1 and showed them a little plant of the same kind inside2 but it was so hard and brittle that he could crumble it up into powder between his fingers4 8,and what are the two large white lobes for80 asked ,frank4 8,these are the seed-leaves4 ,they are stores of plant-food4 ,the young plant is fed by these until its root grows far down into the soil and its shoot grows high up into the air--until it is old enough and strong enough to find food for itself1 in fact4 8,in the bud1 the little shoot is fed by the sap of the mother-plant4 ,here1 in the seed1 we have a baby plant wrapped up in two coats1 one thick and leathery and the other soft and warm2 and1 in place of a large feeding-bottle1 there are two huge masses of plant-food wrapped up with it40 8,why do we put seeds in the ground to make them grow80 asked ,frank4 8,a seed requires three things to make it grow4 ,these three things are--water1 air1 and warmth4 ,we can grow seeds without soil at all if we give them these three things4 ,but if either water1 air1 or warmth be wanting1 your seeds cannot grow40 8,that is why seeds won't grow outside in winter1 then10 said ,frank4 8,that is the reason10 his uncle answered4 8,in winter there is not enough heat to make seeds grow4 ,if you sow seeds in a pot of dry soil in summer1 and do not give them water1 they will not grow40 8,i think a seed is a most wonderful thing10 said ,tom4 8,it is10 said ,uncle ,george1 8wonderful indeed4 ,the most wonderful thing about it is that there is life in it--sleeping life1 awaiting these three things ,i have told you about4 8,dried up1 and as hard as a stone1 it will keep for years2 but when air1 warmth1 and moisture are given it1 it springs into life and becomes a plant1 which grows1 produces seeds1 and dies4 8,now1 we will plant the rest of the soaked beans--not in ground1 for ,i want to let you see that the seed-leaves contain far more food than the tiny plant requires to feed it until it is old enough to take care of itself4 8,we will plant these seeds in damp sawdust1 from which they can get no food4 ,we will see that they get water1 air1 and warmth1 but no food except what is in the big seed-leaves40 ,uncle ,george then got a box filled with sawdust1 and placed the beans in it4 ,he arranged them in different ways4 ,some beans he placed edgeways1 others longways1 others lying on their sides4 8,i am doing this10 he said1 8to show you that1 no matter how a seed happens to lie in the soil1 its root will always grow down and its shoot will always grow up40 ,he then covered them up with a thin layer of sawdust1 and placed the box in a warm corner of the kitchen4 ,the boys promised to water the seeds every day1 and to watch them as they grew4 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,iv4 #a4 ,soak some seeds of broad bean 7or pea7 and maize 7or wheat7 for twenty-four hours4 ,plant some in damp sawdust4 #b4 ,what do you see when you open a bean seed8 #c4 ,pick off the little baby plant1 and try to draw it big4 #d4 ,cut down through the centre 7flat side7 of a maize seed4 ,try to make out the little seed plant and the food store4 #e4 ,every third day dig up a growing seed and draw it4 ,put the date beneath each drawing4 ,keep your drawings carefully4 ,v4--,,how ,a ,,plant ,,grows4 ,every day the boys watched their buds and seeds bursting into life4 ,it was slow work2 but1 as winter passed slowly away and they were able to go out for walks more often1 they had much to amuse them4 ,they brought home all sorts of curious things1 and soon had quite a host of living things to watch4 ,illustration3 ,four ,stages in the opening of ,horse-,chestnut ,buds4 ,three weeks passed before the horse-chestnut buds showed any signs of opening4 ,by this time they had swelled out very much4 ,first the sticky scales moved apart1 then folded themselves backwards out of the way1 and at last fell off altogether4 ,this moving apart of the scales was caused by the shoot or branch inside the bud1 which was growing rapidly4 ,before the scales fell off1 it had burst its way through them4 ,it was now a large mass of thick leaves all folded together1 and covered all over with a sort of wool4 ,soon these thick leaves moved apart1 the woolly covering came off1 and what a month ago was a little woolly body1 so tiny that it had to be picked apart with a needle1 was now a large stout branch1 smooth and green1 and bearing beautiful broad leaves4 ,some of the buds brought forth small clusters of little green balls4 ,these the boys at first thought were berries1 but they afterwards found out that they were flowers4 ,after all the buds had quite opened out1 they began slowly to wither4 ,uncle ,george told them the reason of this4 ,it was because the branch had been cut away from the mother-tree1 which drew its food from the soil and air4 ,the growing buds had used up all the sap which the cut branch contained4 ,but by the time their twigs had withered1 the buds outside had began to open--for spring was now at hand4 ,the hedges were becoming greener every day4 ,the birds were heard singing in the woods1 and little green shoots were springing up everywhere under foot4 ,frank and ,tom brought home opening buds of all kinds1 and watched the hedges and trees as they walked daily to school4 ,two of the bean seeds were dug up out of the sawdust every second or third day4 ,in this way the boys were able to see exactly how a bean plant grows from seed4 ,illustration3 ,stages in the ,germination of the ,runner ,bean4 ,in #a and #d1 inside of seed1 growing baby plant is shown4 ,first the seed swells out2 then the skin bursts1 and the little plant in between the two masses of plant-food begins to grow4 ,the root always grows down straight4 ,the little shoot always grows upwards4 ,after the root has grown about an inch it begins to branch2 and in about two weeks these branch branch-roots are searching the soil for food all around the main root4 ,the shoot meanwhile is growing in length and thickness4 ,it remains folded up until it reaches the air and light4 ,then its leaves open out and turn from a creamy colour to bright green4 ,one small box of seeds was placed in a dark cupboard4 ,these beans grew much more quickly than those grown in the light2 but they were pale1 lank1 and sickly4 ,they never turned green4 ,from this the boys learned that the green colour of leaves and stems is due to the action of light4 ,uncle ,george took a few grains of wheat and placed them upon wet blotting-paper4 ,a tumbler turned upside down was placed over them4 ,in a few days the children saw that a few small roots had grown out from the end of each grain4 ,when these roots had grown to about half an inch in length1 great tufts of long slender hairs sprang out all round them near their tips4 ,these1 their uncle told them1 were 8root-hairs40 ,the root-hairs of a plant are so fine that they are always torn off when we dig or pull a plant out of the ground4 ,it is by means of these slender root-hairs that the plant is able to suck water out of the soil2 and this water always contains a very little plant-food in it4 ,the boys noticed that the wheat grain did not sprout in the same way as the bean seed4 ,instead of one stout little root1 three usually came out4 ,the tiny shoot seemed to grow from the outside of the grain1 and the two large masses of plant-food were missing4 ,illustration3 ,stages in the ,germination of ,wheat4 ,some wheat seeds were soaked and cut down the middle4 ,with the aid of the glass1 the boys saw that in the wheat seed the baby plant is attached to one large mass of plant-food1 made up of flour with an outside layer of bran4 ,their uncle then told them that all the flowering plants in the world are of two great families1 namely1 those whose seeds have only one food store1 like the wheat grain1 and those whose seeds have two1 like the bean4 ,exercises on ,lesson ,v4 #a4 ,explain all that happens when a horse-chestnut bud opens4 #b4 ,why do the buds which you force indoors wither after they open8 #c4 ,what changes come over your bean seeds as they grow8 #d4 ,do the young plants draw any food from the sawdust8 ,if not1 what feeds them8 #e4 ,what three things does a seed need in order to start growing8 ,illustration #a4 ,magnified sections of ,maize and ,wheat ,seeds1 showing ,young ,plant1 ,food ,store1 etc4 #b4 ,germination of ,maize4 #c4 ,maize growing in ,sawdust4 #d4 ,maize growing in ,tap ,water4 #e4 ,bean growing in ,bottle over ,water4 ,,vi4--,,more ,,about ,,seeds4 ,it was raining in torrents outside1 and the boys were a little upset inside1 for it was ,saturday4 ,they always looked forward to ,saturday1 for it was their great rambling day4 8,i'm afraid we can't get out to-day10 said ,frank1 sadly4 8,i'm afraid not10 said his uncle4 8,but that is no reason why we should sulk4 ,we have those maize seeds to look over1 you know1 and by the time we have done that perhaps the rain will have stopped40 ,while ,frank and ,tom were bringing the boxes of seeds1 ,uncle ,george and ,dolly were busy getting out knives1 glasses1 mounted needles1 and the books they made their notes and sketches in4 ,there were four small boxes in all4 ,each box had been sown with maize or ,indian corn at times a week apart1 so that the plants in one box were five weeks old1 in the next four weeks old1 and so on4 8,we will begin as we did with the bean4 ,let us cut the seed open first40 ,as he spoke1 ,uncle ,george laid some soaked maize seeds on the table4 8,if you look at these seeds carefully1 you will notice a large mark on one of the flat sides of each40 8,i see it10 said ,frank4 8,it is shaped something like a cone1 and its broad end is at the narrow end of the seed40 8,it is lighter in colour than the rest of the seed10 said ,tom4 8,you are both right10 said their uncle4 8,now ,i want you to cut the seed longways1 right down through the middle of that mark4 ,then use your glass1 and tell me what you see4 8,look closely10 said ,uncle ,george1 8first into one half and then into the other40 8,oh1 ,i see something like a tiny plant10 said ,tom4 8,it is shut off from a great mass of what looks like plant-food1 just like our wheat grains40 ,tom made a rough sketch of it1 and showed it to his uncle4 8,that is the baby plant1 and the great mass above it is plant-food10 said his uncle4 8,come on1 ,frank4 ,don't let ,tom do all the finding out4 ,what have you to say80 8,the maize seed has only one mass of plant-food1 and it does not seem to have two seed coats like the bean10 ,tom replied4 8,you are right10 said ,uncle ,george2 8but if you look again you will see that there is a thick layer of food stuff outside1 which is of a different colour from the rest4 8,this is like the bran layer which is round the food store in the wheat grain4 8,this food store is starch1 or1 as we call it1 flour4 8,now1 let us look at the growing seeds4 ,we will take a few seeds out of each box and see how they differ4 8,the seeds in this box1 the last sown1 are just a week old4 ,you see the root and shoot are just beginning to show4 8,make a sketch1 drawing it as large as you can1 and write under it1 #8,maize seed after a week's growth4' 8,do the same with a seed from each of the other three boxes1 and when you have drawn them all1 tell me of any differences you notice between the growth of maize and that of the bean40 8,they do not grow in the same way at all10 said ,frank1 as he drew his last sketch4 8,in the maize seed the baby plant seems to be stuck on to one of the flat sides of the seed40 8,what about the roots1 ,frank80 8,oh yes1 ,i see that10 ,frank went on4 8,the root branches out all at once in the maize seed4 ,in some of these seeds the main root has scarcely grown at all4 ,their roots are all branch-roots40 8,and1 in the oldest plants1 one great leaf rolls round the shoot and hides it10 said ,tom4 8,in the bean shoot we saw two leaves quite plainly40 8,quite right1 ,tom4 ,now1 boys1 compare your drawings with those you made of the bean4 ,i will grow a maize and a bean seed together1 so that you can watch the growth of both1 and compare them day by day40 ,uncle ,george then got an empty pickle bottle1 and poured some water into it4 ,then he took a soaked bean seed1 and1 having run a thread through it with a needle1 he hung it inside the bottle4 ,he then corked the bottle1 and placed it in the window4 ,he next took an old lamp chimney1 and made a roll of blotting-paper to fit the inside of it4 ,this roll of paper was stuffed with moss4 ,a few maize seeds were pushed in between the glass and the paper1 and the lamp chimney was placed in a saucerful of water in the window4 ,illustration3 ,plants that grow like ,maize4 ,these plants have but one food mass in each of their seeds4 ,illustration3 ,the ,horse ,pond in ,spring4 8,now1 boys10 said ,uncle ,george1 8,i want you to watch these seeds every day4 ,if you do so1 you will learn how a seed grows into a plant2 and you will learn this not from me1 but from the plant itself40 ,uncle ,george filled a wide bottle with water from the tap1 and fixed one of the five-week-old maize plants in it by means of a split cork4 8,i want you to watch this plant growing10 he said1 as he placed the bottle in the window4 8,you ought to draw it once a week4 ,most people think that plants draw their food chiefly from the soil4 ,this is a great mistake4 8,plants take most of their food from the air1 as you will see if you watch the growth of this plant4 ,of course1 it has a good food store in the seed2 but ,i think you will be surprised at the growth it makes from that food store1 the bottle of tap water1 and the air40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,vi4 #a4 ,make sketches of a soaked bean and of a soaked maize seed4 #b4 ,place a few beans 7or peas7 and a few maize 7or wheat7 seeds in a box of damp sawdust4 ,water regularly4 ,after a week dig up a seed of each and draw them4 #c4 ,dig up a seed of each at intervals of two weeks1 three weeks1 and four weeks2 draw and compare them4 #d4 ,sow in a box of sawdust a few of each of the following--date stones1 orange pips1 walnuts1 chestnuts4 ,keep the box in a warm place1 and watch how these seeds grow4 ,,vii4--,,the ,,horse ,,pond ,,in ,,spring4 ,when ,frank and ,tom came home from school one afternoon1 they found their uncle very busy finishing a net he had made of green gauze4 ,it had the shape of a shallow bag1 and was fixed to a stout wire ring4 ,this ring was fastened to a walking-stick with a piece of strong string4 ,on the table there were three wide glass jars1 each with a piece of cord tied round the neck to serve as a handle4 8,now10 said ,uncle ,george1 as he finished tying the net to the stick1 8now we are all ready for a visit to that pond of yours40 ,illustration3 ,pond-,net and ,glass ,jars4 ,the pond was about half a mile away1 in the corner of a field near a wood4 ,a small stream ran out of it1 and joined a larger one a short distance away4 ,the last time the boys had seen this pond it was covered with ice1 and they had a merry time skating upon it4 ,when they reached it on this afternoon1 it looked quite different4 ,the grass around its banks was fresh and green1 and rushes were peeping up through the water4 8,listen60 said ,uncle ,george4 8,croak1 croak1 cr-roak0 came from beyond the rushes1 while here and there a little head would bob up and down in the water4 ,illustration3 ,frog and ,spawn in ,water4 8,frogs60 said ,frank4 ,uncle ,george nodded1 and1 stepping to the edge of the pond1 he pulled the net out1 and with it a large mass of what looked like clear jelly1 having a large number of black dots in it4 8,bring the largest jar1 ,tom10 he said1 8we are going to take this home40 8,what is it1 ,uncle ,george80 both boys asked at once4 8,it is a mass of frog's eggs1 called the spawn of the frog10 their uncle replied4 8,now1 ,frank1 hold the jar over the water while ,i try to pour it in40 ,it was no easy matter getting it into the jar4 ,it fell back into the pond several times before it was at last got in the jar4 8,there10 said ,uncle ,george1 as he placed the jar1 now filled with frog spawn1 upon the bank4 8,now1 let us go to another part of the pond and look for something else4 8,keep quite still and look into the water4 ,that is the only way to study pond life4 ,if you move about you will see very little4 ,now tell me if you see anything moving at the bottom of the pond40 8,i see things like little pieces of stick moving slowly about10 said ,tom in a whisper2 8but perhaps it is the water that is moving them40 8,not a bit of it10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,they are not pieces of stick4 ,there is a living creature inside each of them4 ,we must have some of them1 ,tom4 ,they are very interesting creatures40 ,and ,uncle ,george put his hand carefully down and picked several of them up4 8,these are caddis #8worms1'0 said ,uncle ,george4 ,he placed them in the second jar1 and filled it up with water4 ,tom then saw that each of the 8sticks0 was really a little house1 in which was an insect of some sort4 ,the cases were built of all kinds of odds and ends1 glued together by the clever creatures that lived inside them4 ,some were built of little pieces of rush or water-weed1 others of tiny shells1 and others of very small stones4 ,each case was open at one end1 and from this end the little dweller came almost half-way out4 ,they could see his head1 his legs1 and the fore part of his body as he moved along1 dragging his little house after him4 8,uncle ,george1 come here please10 ,frank shouted from the other side of the pond4 8,oh1 such a funny animal--a fish with legs40 8,a fish with legs80 said ,uncle ,george1 laughing4 8,oh1 we must come and see that40 8,why1 that isn't a fish1 ,frank4 ,it is a newt40 ,and ,uncle ,george put in the net to catch him4 ,but the creature was too quick for him4 ,it darted out of sight4 8,here are two others4 ,oh1 such big ones10 said ,tom1 in a loud whisper4 ,this time ,uncle ,george was luckier4 ,when he drew up the net there were two large creatures like lizards in it4 8,this is a lucky find1 boys10 said their uncle4 8,great crested newts1 and what beauties they are60 ,the boys were surprised to see him take one of the newts out of the net in his hand4 ,he turned them over and looked at them closely before putting them into the jar4 8,aren't you afraid they will bite you1 ,uncle ,george80 ,tom asked4 8,no1 they cannot bite1 and for a very good reason4 ,they have got no teeth4 ,they are most harmless creatures4 8,but we must be getting home1 boys4 ,we have done well for our first visit to the pond4 ,i will tell you all about what we have found when we get home1 and you must watch them closely for yourselves40 8,are we going to keep all these animals80 ,frank asked4 8,we will keep them for a little while1 so as to find out what we can about them1 then we will put them in the pond again40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,vii4 #a4 ,what did the boys find in the pond8 #b4 ,what other living things may be seen in ponds8 ,make a list of all the pond creatures you know4 #c4 ,why do caddis 8worms0 build cases round themselves8 #d4 ,can newts bite8 ,give reason4 ,,viii4--,,uncle ,,george',s ,,tank4 ,uncle ,george's tank was very simple4 ,it was made up of several large glass bells1 such as the gardener uses for covering tender plants4 ,illustration3 ,uncle ,george's ,aquarium4 ,each glass bell had a nob on the end of it4 ,uncle ,george got a large block of wood for each bell-jar4 ,this block he hollowed out with a chisel4 ,he next bored a large hole in the centre of the hollow to hold the nob4 ,then he cut a piece of thick green cloth into a round shape1 with a hole in its centre4 ,this piece of cloth was placed over the hollowed out part of the block1 and the bell-jar1 turned upside down1 was placed in the block so that the glass nob fitted into the hole4 ,uncle ,george fitted up four of these tanks and filled them with fresh water4 ,the frog spawn was put into the first vessel4 ,the next was for the newts4 ,the third one held the caddis worms and some other curious creatures that had been found in the ditch4 ,in the fourth vessel were half a dozen pretty little fishes called stickle-backs1 which the boys had caught in the brook4 ,some water weeds and a few water snails or whelks were put into each vessel1 except that with the frog spawn in it4 ,every other morning ,uncle ,george changed the water by means of a tube which he called a siphon4 ,this was a piece of lead pipe1 about two feet long1 and bent in the middle into the form of the letter ,u4 8,the water weeds are very pretty10 said ,frank4 8,they are10 replied his uncle1 8and they are also very useful4 ,they help to keep the water pure4 ,i should have to change the water every day if there were no weeds in it4 ,illustration3 ,stickle-backs1 ,pond ,weed1 etc41 in ,aquarium4 8,the whelks also are most useful4 ,they are the road-men of our ponds and streams4 ,they eat up all the waste matter1 and so keep the water clean and healthy40 ,it was great fun feeding those little fishes4 ,they were fed sometimes on raw meat chopped very fine1 sometimes on little pieces of biscuit4 ,at first they were very shy1 but they soon got over that4 ,in less than a week they were quite at home1 and would come up to the top of the water and take tiny pieces of beef from the boys' fingers4 ,they would swim after ,frank's finger as he drew it round the tank1 and would even leap out of the water for food that was held out to them4 ,at times they darted about as if playing 8hide and seek0 among the water weeds4 ,by and by the boys noticed that every time one of the little fish darted at another1 the three cruel spines rose up on his back1 and that he was really trying to spear his neighbour4 ,one morning a dead stickle-back was found in the bottom of the tank4 ,a few days later another little fish was picked out pale and stiff4 8,they are killing one another10 said ,frank4 8,what shall we do80 8,if any more of this fighting goes on we shall have to put them back into the brook10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,do they always fight80 8,no1 not always--only in spring-time when they are mating4 ,look6 there is one of them getting very pretty4 ,he is the victor--the bully of the pool40 8,let us call him ,bully10 said ,dolly2 8he is bigger than the others1 and oh1 so much more beautiful40 ,next day another stickle-back was found dead1 and ,bully's colours were much brighter4 ,he darted about as if the whole tank belonged to him4 ,he was really a lovely fish now1 and he seemed to know it by the proud way in which he dashed about1 showing off his fine slender body all shiny with crimson1 blue1 and gold4 ,he was1 as ,dolly said1 8,just like a little bit of rainbow40 ,but before the evening a very curious thing took place4 ,bully seemed to have suddenly lost all his fine colours2 and instead of swimming proudly at the top of the tank1 he slunk sulky to the bottom4 ,the strange thing was that another stickle-back--a smaller fish than ,bully--was now brightly coloured1 and seemed to be lord of the tank4 8,bully has been beaten10 said ,uncle ,george1 8and his victor has taken not only the courage but the colour out of him40 8,it serves him right1 ,i think1 for being so proud and so cruel4 ,but what is the meaning of all this fighting and change of colours1 ,uncle ,george80 8,oh1 it is very simple1 ,frank4 ,there is a lady stickle-back in the question2 and1 like the brave knights of old1 our little stickle-backs are trying to win her by fighting4 8,the victor will marry her4 ,they will build a neat little nest for themselves1 and live happily together4 8,to-morrow we will take them back to the brook1 where the weak ones will be better able to escape4 8,in ,june we will visit the brook4 ,if we are lucky enough to find one of their nests1 you will see that after ,lady ,stickle-back lays her tiny eggs in it1 her little husband guards the home night and day4 8,when the family are hatching out1 the plucky little stickle-back bravely defends the nest4 8,he drives away water-beetles1 perch1 and other fishes much larger than himself4 ,for well he knows that these visitors would quickly gobble up his darlings if they got the chance40 ,illustration3 ,stickle-backs and ,nest4 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,viii4 #a4 ,what is an aquarium8 #b4 ,why are water weeds and water snails put into an aquarium8 #c4 ,how do you feed small fish8 ,why should you be careful not to put in more than the fishes can eat8 #d4 ,where does the stickle-back lay its eggs8 ,,ix4--,,tadpoles4 ,the frog spawn1 when first put into the big glass bell1 was just a mass of jelly-like stuff studded all over with black dots4 ,when looked at closely1 it was seen to consist of many round1 clear eggs4 ,each egg was surrounded by a thin skin1 and had1 in its centre1 a little round black ball or yolk4 ,at the end of a week all these black yolks had lost their round shape4 ,they were now long and oval4 ,during the next four days these oval yolks became little moving animals1 each having a head1 body1 and tail1 but no limbs4 ,from the head of each there grew out two pairs of feathery objects4 ,these1 ,uncle ,george told the boys1 were gills or breathing organs4 ,soon another pair of these feathery gills appeared3 so that each little creature had now three on each side of his head4 ,by the end of the second week the little creatures had all wriggled out of the eggs4 ,they hung together by their feathery gills in little black groups4 8,what shall we feed them on80 ,frank asked his uncle4 8,they are not at all nice in their tastes10 ,uncle ,george replied4 8,they will eat almost anything1 from water weeds up to drowned kittens4 ,if they get nothing else1 they will eat one another1 and not mind it a bit40 8,how dreadful10 said ,frank4 8,hadn't we better give them something to eat now1 for fear they may eat each other up40 8,it wouldn't do much good giving them anything to eat now1 for they have no mouths40 ,illustration3 ,the ,development of the ,tadpole4 #a4 ,portion of ,frog ,spawn4 #b4 ,same after ten days4 #c4 ,a ,newly-,hatched ,tadpole4 ,the remaining figures show the same ,tadpole at 7#d7 one week2 7#e7 three weeks2 7#f7 seven weeks2 7#g7 eleven weeks2 7#h7 thirteen weeks2 and 7#i7 fourteen weeks after hatching4 8,no mouths1 ,uncle ,george80 8,no mouths10 ,uncle ,george repeated4 8,is it not curious8 ,for four days the tadpole1 or young frog1 has no mouth1 and yet during that time he grows a great deal4 8,four days after he leaves the egg his mouth appears4 ,it is a very small mouth1 fringed with frilled1 fleshy lips4 ,these lips are moved by a pair of strong1 horny jaws4 ,this mouth is very different from the wide1 gaping mouth of the frog40 ,just as ,uncle ,george had said1 the tadpoles ate nothing for four days4 ,then their mouths appeared1 and they began to eat the water weeds4 ,but ,uncle ,george fed them on raw meat4 ,he said it made them grow quickly4 ,a small piece of raw beef1 tied to the end of a string1 was lowered into the tank1 and the tadpoles swarmed around it4 ,what was left of the beef was pulled out every morning1 and a fresh piece put in4 ,by this means the water was kept clean1 and had only to be changed once a week4 8,why1 they have no gills now10 said ,frank one day1 as he was helping his uncle to change the water4 8,oh yes1 they have1 ,frank4 ,they have gills like a fish now4 8,when they are about four weeks old1 their feathery gills go away2 but1 before this1 four gill-slits are formed in each side of the tadpole's head40 ,uncle ,george took a glass tube about twelve inches long1 and placing his thumb tightly on one end of it1 he pushed it down into the water until the other end was right above a tadpole4 ,then he took his thumb off1 and the tadpole and some water shot up the tube4 ,he then replaced his thumb tightly on the end of the tube1 and lifted it out of the water4 ,the tadpole and water remained in the tube as long as he kept his thumb on the end of it4 ,he emptied the contents of the tube into a little dish1 and ,frank looked at the tadpole with a glass4 8,i can't see the gill-slits10 said ,frank4 8,oh yes1 you can1 if you look closely4 ,what seems to be a big head is really head and body covered over by a cloak of skin40 8,yes1 ,i see the gills now10 said ,frank4 8,they are red in colour4 ,i also see the cloak4 ,there is an opening on the left side of it40 8,that is so10 said his uncle4 8,that opening is there to let the water into the gills40 ,at the end of the fifth week1 ,uncle ,george took some tadpoles out for the boys to look at4 8,do you see any change80 he asked4 8,yes10 said ,tom1 8they have two things like hind legs growing out40 8,these are legs10 his uncle said1 8and in two weeks from now these legs will have movable joints in them40 ,day by day the tadpoles were carefully watched1 and the following wonderful changes were observed4 ,when about seven weeks old1 their hind legs became jointed1 and long toes were formed4 ,the tadpoles were now able to kick out and swim by means of their long hind legs4 ,their gills went away1 and they came to the surface and took mouthfuls of air4 ,they now had lungs instead of gills4 ,but the most striking change came at the end of the eleventh week4 ,one by one they lost the cloak which covered head and body4 ,under this cloak a pair of fore legs had been folded up and hidden for some time4 ,they were now tiny1 wide-mouthed frogs1 with long1 clumsy tails4 ,the clumsy tails grew smaller and smaller daily4 ,at last there was no tail left1 and what was at one time a cluster of black1 wriggling tadpoles1 was now a crowd of lively little dark yellow frogs4 ,the boys wished to keep them longer1 but their uncle told them that they could not do this4 8,your tadpoles are now frogs10 he said4 8,the frog is an insect eater4 ,as we cannot give these little frogs their natural food1 we must place them where they can get it for themselves1 or they will die40 ,so the frogs were carried back to their native pond4 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,ix4 #a4 ,what are tadpoles8 #b4 ,how old is the frog before his hind legs appear8 #c4 ,a tadpole seems to be all head and tail4 ,can you explain this8 #d4 ,how do tadpoles breathe--7#a7 when they are first hatched8 7#b7 when they are four weeks old8 7#c7 when they are eleven weeks old8 ,illustration3 ,frog1 ,toad1 and ,newt--showing ,eggs of ,toad and ,newt1 and ,tadpoles of ,frog and ,toad ,x4--,,frogs1 ,,toads1 ,,and ,,newts4 8,i think we had better take our newts back to the pond now1 ,frank40 8,oh1 do let us keep them for a day or two longer1 ,uncle ,george4 ,they are getting quite tame40 ,as he spoke1 ,frank drew his finger slowly round the outside of the glass vessel that held the newts4 ,one of the creatures swam round1 following his finger4 8,look1 ,uncle ,george6 ,he knows me40 8,he is hungry1 and thinks you ought to have a small worm in your fingers40 8,thinks8 ,uncle ,george4 ,can newts think80 8,it looks as if they could1 does it not8 ,we feed these creatures every day1 and they have got into the habit of looking for food every time we come near them4 ,but here comes ,tom with the worms40 ,it was curious to watch how the newt acted when a tiny worm was given it4 ,at first it seemed not to see the worm1 although it was wriggling at his nose4 ,it crept back slowly about two or three inches1 then all at once it sprang upon the worm and gobbled it up4 8,you must tell us all about the newt1 ,uncle ,george10 said ,tom4 8,i should like to know how much you two boys have found out by feeding and watching these two10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,so just tell me what you know about the newt first1 then perhaps ,i can tell you some things about newts1 frogs1 and toads which you do not know40 8,well10 began ,tom1 8the newt lives in water4 ,he has four feet1 with pretty little toes upon them1 and a long tail4 ,he feeds upon worms1 tadpoles1 and other small animals1 and he swallows them whole1 because he has no teeth4 ,illustration3 ,crested ,newt1 ,male and ,female4 8,the male has a huge crest1 and is gay with bright colours4 8,the female has no crest4 ,she lays her eggs upon the pond weeds4 ,a single egg is laid upon a leaf4 ,the leaf is then rolled round it1 so as to hide it from enemies40 8,very good1 ,tom10 said his uncle2 8but you have not told us about the newt's skin40 8,oh1 ,i forgot that10 ,tom went on4 8,the newt has a lovely silky skin1 which it only wears for about a week1 then it casts it off4 ,now1 tell us something more about them1 ,uncle ,george40 8,the newt does not live in the water all the year10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,during autumn and winter great families of newts sleep together under stones and in dry holes in the earth4 ,they only go to the pond in early spring to lay their eggs40 8,do newts ever become frogs or toads80 asked ,frank4 8,oh no1 ,frank1 never4 ,i know what makes you think that4 ,it is because the young frog1 just before he loses his tail1 is very like a little newt4 8,young newts are tadpoles too1 but they differ very much from frog tadpoles4 ,newt tadpoles live in the pond for more than a year4 ,they have feathery outside gills on all that time4 ,their fore feet are formed first4 ,if you remember1 our frog tadpoles got their hind legs first4 8,long ago people believed all sorts of absurd things about the poor1 harmless newt4 ,they were afraid to touch it4 ,every newt found was killed at once1 for it was thought to have a sting and poison bag4 ,even at the present day many people believe that newts and toads are dangerous animals40 8,how can you tell a toad from a frog1 ,uncle ,george10 ,tom asked4 8,they are very different from each other1 both in shape and in their ways of living4 ,the toad is a fat1 clumsy animal4 ,his skin is dull and warty4 ,he does not hop1 but crawls or walks lazily along4 8,he lives upon flying insects1 which he catches with his curious long tongue4 ,he gets very fat during summer and autumn4 8,before winter comes on1 he looks out a snug hole under a root or stone4 ,here he sleeps the whole winter through4 8,in spring he wakes up1 lean and hungry1 and betakes himself to the pond4 8,the eggs of the toad are laid in the water in long strings1 each like a double row of beads4 ,they hang gracefully upon the water weeds1 and look very pretty4 8,the toad tadpoles are very like those of the frog4 ,they go through the same changes4 8,the toad also casts his skin1 but he does not throw it away like the newt4 ,he takes his old1 cast-off skin1 rolls it up into a neat little ball1 and swallows it4 8,the frog's body is more slender4 ,his skin is slippery4 ,it is not dull and dingy like that of the toad4 ,it is of a bright greenish yellow colour1 marked with black spots of different sizes4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,frog4 #b4 ,toad4 #c4 ,frog catching a ,fly with its tongue4 8,the frog can change his colour from light to dark4 ,he has long hind legs which enable him to hop very high on land and to swim very fast in the pool4 8,he likes the long1 damp grass1 where he catches flies1 beetles1 and slugs4 8,he sleeps through the winter1 buried in the mud at the bottom of the still pool4 8,like the toad1 the frog catches his prey by means of a long1 sticky tongue1 which darts out of his mouth whenever an unlucky insect comes within reach4 8,his tongue is fixed to the floor of his mouth just at his lower lip4 ,it is forked at the end4 ,when not in use1 it lies folded back inside his mouth and points down his throat40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,x4 #a4 ,where are frogs1 newts1 and toads in winter-time8 #b4 ,how could you tell a toad from a frog8 #c4 ,what is the difference between young newts 7tadpoles7 and young frogs 7tadpoles78 #d4 ,write the life of a frog 7or of a toad7 as if told by the creature itself4 ,,xi4--,,underground ,,stems4 ,uncle ,george and his three young pupils had been to the woods4 ,after tea he opened the metal box which he carried1 slung by a strap over his shoulder1 whenever he went out rambling4 ,this box had in it a pond-net and a couple of wide bottles4 ,to-night it was half filled with plants4 ,before laying them on the table1 ,uncle ,george washed the soil from their roots at the tap4 8,now then10 he said1 8let me see how much you remember of our lesson in the woods4 ,i will begin with ,dolly0--and ,uncle ,george held up a lovely white flower4 8,that10 said little ,dolly1 8is the wooden enemy60 ,uncle ,george laughed loudly1 and so did the two boys4 ,dolly laughed too--she did not quite know why4 ,she was a merry little girl1 who laughed whenever she got the chance4 8,you mean wood anemone1 dear1 don't you80 said ,uncle ,george1 as he stroked her pretty curly hair4 8,yes1 ,i mean that1 ,uncle ,george2 but ,i can't say it properly10 said ,dolly1 still laughing4 8,oh yes1 you can if you try--wood a-nem-o-ne4 ,it is easily pronounced4 ,now ,frank1 it is your turn4 ,what is this one with the great number of yellow petals1 the spotted heart-shaped leaves1 and the funny fat roots80 8,the pilewort1 or lesser celandine10 answered ,frank4 8,quite right6 ,now1 ,tom1 here is one for you4 ,this plant1 you see1 has broad kidney-shaped leaves with crimped edges1 large yellow flowers1 and a coarse round hollow stem4 ,we found it1 if you remember1 growing in the mud at the edge of the brook40 ,illustration3 ,marsh ,marigold4 8,it is the marsh marigold10 said ,tom4 8,very good6 ,now this one80 ,as he held it up all three answered at once--8,the primrose60 8,we found this one also growing at the edge of the brook40 ,as he spoke1 ,uncle ,george held out a very pretty plant4 ,its flowers were of a pale pinkish blue colour4 ,they were shaped like the flowers of the wallflower1 but were smaller4 ,the flowers were borne up upon a long stalk which sprang from a rosette of pretty little leaves4 8,it is the lady's smock10 said ,dolly2 8,i remembered that one because it is so pretty40 8,well done1 ,dolly60 said her uncle proudly4 8,now1 ,i think we have quite enough to go on with4 ,let us take these up one by one and examine and draw parts of them4 ,first take the wood anemone4 ,what do you call this80 ,uncle ,george pointed to the stout part of the plant that had been in the ground4 8,the root10 said ,frank4 8,no1 ,frank60 his uncle replied4 8,but that is what ,i thought you would say4 ,now1 tell us why you think it is the root40 8,because it grows under ground40 8,but roots do not have buds upon them1 ,frank3 and see6 flower-stalk and leaf-stalk spring from it1 while fibrous1 or string like1 roots hang down from it40 8,it must be a stem1 then10 ,frank ventured4 8,it is the stem10 said his uncle4 8,we have already seen that the creeping crowfoot and ground ivy have stems that creep along on the surface of the ground4 8,many plants have stems which creep along under ground4 ,this is an underground stem2 and this is another40 ,here he pointed to the primrose4 8,why1 ,i always thought that that pink thing was the root of the primrose10 said ,frank2 8but ,i see now that it is really more like a stem4 ,it has marks upon it like scars40 ,illustration3 ,plants with ,underground ,stems ,illustration #a4 ,caterpillar1 ,pupa1 and perfect ,insect of ,tiger ,moth #b4 ,caterpillar1 ,pupa1 and perfect ,insect of ,magpie ,moth #c4 ,white 7,cabbage7 ,butterfly1 ,male and ,female1 with ,caterpillar and ,pupa 8,these are marks where leaves once grew upon it10 his uncle remarked4 8,notice that the primrose leaves form a rosette on the top of this underground stem40 8,is there any reason for these plants having their stems under ground80 ,tom asked4 8,there is a reason for everything in nature1 my boy4 ,can't you see any reason for this yourself80 8,i see one1 ,i think10 said ,frank2 8it enables the plant to creep out to new soil40 8,that is one very good reason1 ,frank4 ,now1 why should it seek other soil80 8,for food60 8,that is right1 ,frank4 ,those plants which have underground stems seem to die down every autumn2 but they are alive all the time under ground1 safe from the frosts and bitter winds which kill tender plants4 ,and they peep up in a new place in spring4 ,illustration3 ,anemone4 8,now ,i want you to tell me why these underground stems are swollen out so4 ,it cannot be for strength1 for creeping stems don't require to be strong4 8,fetch me a raw potato1 ,tom1 please6 8,now10 ,uncle ,george continued1 8tell me what this potato is40 8,it is an underground stem10 said ,frank4 8,yes6 ,why is it swollen8 ,what do we use the potato for80 8,for food4 ,oh1 ,i know10 said ,frank1 8it is a food store40 ,illustration3 ,primrose4 ,illustration3 ,pilewort1 showing ,roots4 8,of course10 said his uncle4 8,it is a supply of food gathered up this year for next year's plant4 ,look at the roots of the lesser celandine4 ,i see ,tom has drawn them4 ,they are swollen4 ,are they roots1 or underground stems80 8,they have neither leaf marks on them1 nor buds10 said ,frank1 8,i think they must be roots40 8,they are roots10 said ,uncle ,george1 8but they are food supplies all the same4 8,there are other underground stems that grow quickly4 ,good examples of these are mint1 couch grass1 and sand sedge4 ,the underground stems of these plants grow so fast that they are always occupying new ground4 ,they have therefore no need to store up a food supply like their slower growing neighbours the primrose1 potato1 anemone1 iris1 and many others40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,xi4 #a4 ,dig up a primrose plant1 and make a rough sketch showing underground stem1 roots1 and leaves4 #b4 ,an underground stem may be of use to a plant in three different ways4 ,can you name them8 #c4 ,there are two distinct kinds of underground stems--those that grow quickly and those that grow slowly4 ,name three of each kind1 and tell how they differ in shape4 #d4 ,compare a potato with a horse-chestnut twig4 ,supposing your twig to be swollen out with plant-food1 what parts of it do the 8eyes0 of the potato represent8 ,what do the scars_/marks near the 8eyes0 represent8 ,,xii4--,,caterpillars4 8,we found these upon the dead-nettle40 ,as he spoke1 ,frank opened a small cardboard box and showed his uncle half a dozen large1 hairy caterpillars4 ,illustration3 ,larva ,cage4 8,splendid10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,we will just put these into the cage40 ,uncle ,george1 who was a very good carpenter1 had of late been busy in his spare time making a box or cage for keeping caterpillars in4 ,he called it a larva cage4 ,it was a curious looking thing1 something like a small meat-safe4 ,three sides and the top of it were covered with gauze4 ,the fourth side was a large pane of glass4 ,the gauze-covered side opposite to this opened as a door4 ,it was divided into an upper and a lower part by a shelf in the middle1 and1 by sliding in two pieces of wood1 it could be divided into four tiny rooms4 ,now that it was finished1 ,uncle ,george wanted to get it stocked1 and his two nephews wanted it stocked too4 8,do you want any more of these woolly caterpillars80 ,frank asked4 8,no1 ,frank1 but you can bring me in some more of a different kind4 ,or1 better still1 let us go out into the garden now and see if we can find any there40 ,the gardener beamed with joy when ,uncle ,george told him what they had come to the garden for4 8,caterpillars80 he said4 8,i wish you would take them all1 sir4 ,they are the worst vermin in the garden4 ,last year they left scarcely a leaf on my currant bushes40 ,our three friends went straight to the currant bushes4 ,here they found a good many pretty little caterpillars of a creamy colour1 richly striped with orange1 and dotted over with black spots4 ,these1 their uncle informed them1 were the caterpillars or larv of the magpie moth4 ,on the cabbages they found several caterpillars of the large white butterfly4 ,these were bluish green in colour1 with three bold yellow stripes running along the whole length of their bodies4 8,what are these1 ,uncle ,george80 ,tom asked1 as he turned up a cabbage leaf and pointed to several white patches on its under side4 ,the leaf next it was spotted just like it4 8,oh1 ,tom1 how lucky we are6 ,these are the eggs of the large white butterfly4 ,now we shall be able to follow up the whole life of this insect1 and a wonderful life it is4 ,let us go right in and examine them4 ,take some cabbage leaves and some currant leaves to feed the hungry caterpillars with40 8,our larva cage is now quite full10 said ,uncle ,george1 when he had put the caterpillars in4 8,why do you not put them into the same room1 ,uncle ,george80 8,there are two reasons for that1 ,frank4 ,first1 they live upon different kinds of food4 ,the hairy caterpillar1 or #8woolly bear1' as boys call it1 feeds upon nettles1 the cabbage caterpillar prefers cabbage leaves1 while the currant caterpillar will only eat currant leaves4 ,illustration #a4 ,caterpillar and ,eggs of ,cabbage ,butterfly4 #b4 ,egg magnified4 8,second1 the woolly bear will sometimes eat up his smooth-skinned friends4 ,now1 get your glasses and have a peep at the beautiful eggs of the #8large white' or #8cabbage' butterfly40 8,why1 they are not at all like eggs10 said ,frank1 as he closely looked at them with his glass4 8,what are they like1 ,frank80 8,they are like little pieces of carved ivory all shaped alike10 ,frank replied4 8,yes1 but that does not give us a very clear idea of their shape10 observed his uncle4 8,come on1 ,tom40 8,they are like little ,indian clubs with the handles cut off1 only they are beautifully marked with long1 slender ridges and cross bars40 8,that is really a very good account of them1 ,tom4 ,they are arranged in patches4 ,count and let me know how many eggs are in each bunch40 ,the boys counted all the groups of eggs1 and found that there were eight eggs in some1 nine in others1 but that most of them contained ten or more4 8,now1 how many egg patches are there80 asked ,uncle ,george4 8,there are seven patches on my leaf10 said ,frank4 8,and ten on mine10 added ,tom4 8,that is about one hundred and fifty eggs altogether10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,has each of these bunches of eggs been laid by one butterfly80 asked ,frank4 8,it is more than probable that one butterfly laid the whole lot10 his uncle replied2 8for the white butterfly lays1 as a rule1 over two hundred eggs40 8,that is about as many eggs as a hen lays in a year10 said ,frank4 8,yes10 said ,uncle ,george1 8a good hen and a white butterfly lay about the same number of eggs in a year2 but the butterfly lays all her eggs in one day4 8,after laying her eggs1 she dies4 ,that is perhaps why she always lays them on the kind of plant which the young caterpillars can feed upon when they hatch out4 8,let us look at the caterpillars now4 ,we need not take them out1 as we can easily see them through the glass side of the cage4 8,notice that the body of the cabbage caterpillar consists of a round1 dark coloured head and a number of broad1 ring-like divisions4 ,how many of these divisions are there80 8,twelve10 said ,frank1 after counting carefully4 8,right60 said his uncle4 8,now1 about legs--how many are there80 8,there are three pairs of legs on the first three divisions of its body1 and a pair of shorter and stouter legs on each of the sixth1 seventh1 eighth1 and ninth divisions1 making seven pairs of legs altogether10 ,frank answered4 ,illustration3 ,caterpillars of ,magpie ,moth4 8,that is quite correct1 ,frank1 and ,i am glad you noticed the difference between the first three pairs and the others4 ,the first three pairs are the creature's real legs4 ,the others are false or temporary legs40 8,there is a row of black spots on the yellow band along its side10 observed ,tom4 8,these are its breathing-holes1 ,tom4 ,we breathe by our lungs only1 but caterpillars and insects have breathing-tubes all over their bodies40 8,the woolly bear and the cabbage caterpillar move about in the same way10 said ,frank4 8,but look at those currant caterpillars1 ,uncle ,george1 what a funny way they have of getting along60 8,these belong to a kind of caterpillars known as #8loopers1'0 said his uncle4 8,they move about by looping up their bodies in this strange manner40 8,i do not like to handle those hairy caterpillars10 ,tom remarked4 8,why are they covered with those nasty long hairs80 8,you have just given the reason1 ,tom4 ,you don't like to touch them on account of these hairs2 neither do animals4 ,no bird will eat one of these4 ,if he does1 he will never eat another4 8,notice how they coil up like a hedgehog when they are touched4 ,this makes them more difficult to swallow4 ,just imagine how a bird would feel with one of these ticklish customers stuck in his throat1 eh8 8,now1 boys1 make a sketch of one of the tiny eggs1 also one of the big cabbage caterpillar1 and then we will go out and have a game of cricket on the lawn40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,xii4 #a4 ,where would you look for the eggs of the white butterfly8 ,why are they always laid upon the same kind of plant1 and why under the leaf8 #b4 ,explain how caterpillars breathe4 #c4 ,take any caterpillars you find4 ,observe the leaves you find them feeding upon4 ,give them fresh leaves every day1 and watch how they grow4 #d4 ,why has the 8woolly bear0 caterpillar got a hairy coat8 ,what does he usually feed upon8 ,,xiii4--,,the ,,white ,,butterfly4 ,uncle ,george had to go from home for a week1 and his two nephews went part of the way to the railway station with him4 ,as they were about to take a short cut through the wood1 ,uncle ,george went up to a huge beech tree4 ,he looked very closely at its grey trunk for a time1 then stepping back from it about three yards1 exclaimed3-- 8,come here boys6 ,stand beside me1 look closely at this tree1 and tell me if you see any strange objects sticking to the bark40 ,after staring at it for some time1 they both declared that they could see nothing upon it4 8,go nearer--nearer still6 ,now1 do you see anything80 ,the boys shook their heads4 8,go quite close up to the trunk and examine it10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,oh10 said ,frank suddenly1 8,i see queer things like grubs1 coloured almost exactly like the bark4 ,some of them are lighter in colour40 8,look carefully at those lighter ones1 and you will find that they are just empty cases40 8,so they are10 said ,frank1 as he touched one with his finger and saw it crush up4 8,notice how they are fixed to the bark60 said ,uncle ,george4 ,the boys watched as their uncle placed his pencil under one of the darker coloured objects1 and saw that it was slung up to the tree by a loose silken girdle round its middle1 while a tuft of fine threads fastened the lower end to the bark4 ,suddenly1 as if it were annoyed at being touched by the pencil1 the lower half of the object moved from side to side with rapid jerks4 8,why1 it is alive10 said ,tom4 8,yes1 of course it is10 said his uncle4 8,this is another lucky find40 8,what are they80 ,frank asked4 8,can't you guess1 ,frank8 ,don't you remember my telling you that all the insects were asleep in their cases during winter4 8,each of these darker coloured cases contains a white butterfly4 ,they have been here all winter1 and they are just about to hatch out40 8,how do you know that1 ,uncle ,george80 8,i know it because the empty cases tell me that some of the butterflies have just hatched out4 ,this is what your cabbage caterpillar becomes after he is tired of feeding4 8,you have now seen three different stages of the life of this insect4 ,first1 the curious eggs laid on the under side of the cabbage leaf2 next the greedy caterpillar2 and now1 the chrysalis or pupa stage4 8,the caterpillar goes to sleep in autumn as a hard-cased chrysalis1 and wakes up in spring a beautiful butterfly40 8,how strange10 said ,frank4 8,and will our caterpillars remain caterpillars until autumn1 and then tuck themselves up like this and go to sleep for the winter40 8,no1 ,frank6 our caterpillars will go into the chrysalis state in a week or so1 and hatch out as butterflies in ,august4 ,these ,august butterflies will lay eggs4 ,the caterpillars from these eggs will turn into pup in ,september4 8,these ,september pup will supply the white butterflies of next spring and summer4 ,put some of these into your box4 ,watch then carefully1 and you may be lucky enough to see the white butterfly coming out of his winter case40 8,i cannot understand10 said ,tom1 8how a big white butterfly can be inside so small a case4 ,it must be very tightly wrapped up40 8,so it is1 as you will see10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,good-bye1 boys6 and mind1 when ,i come back1 ,i shall expect to see notes and sketches of all that has taken place in the larva cage during my absence40 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 8,won't you let your uncle take his dinner first10 said ,frank's mother1 as she hung ,uncle ,george's overcoat up in the hall4 8,no1 mother6 he must come at once10 said the excited ,frank4 8,there's a butterfly just coming out40 8,oh1 ,i must come and see that10 said ,uncle ,george2 and he allowed his eager nephews to drag him towards the larva cage4 ,by the time they got to the cage the butterfly had hatched1 but they were in time to see it unfurl its wings4 ,the wings were crumpled and twisted1 but the creature slowly straightened them out to dry in the sun4 8,we saw it burst its case10 said ,tom4 8,first a small slit appeared at the head end4 ,this slit grew larger4 ,then the butterfly's head and feet appeared4 ,it squeezed its way and was just half way out1 with its wings crumpled round it1 when you arrived40 8,i arrived just a minute too late1 then10 said his uncle4 ,illustration3 ,white or ,cabbage ,butterfly and ,pupa4 8,oh1 and the eggs have hatched too10 said ,tom4 8,look at them now1 ,uncle ,george60 ,his uncle looked1 and saw that the white patches of eggs had given place to larger patches of little active1 dark coloured maggots4 8,we want to know what has become of the lovely carved shells of the eggs10 said ,tom4 8,they have been eaten up10 his uncle replied4 8,from the moment a caterpillar is born he does nothing but eat--eat--eat4 ,he begins by eating the shell of the egg he comes out of4 8,for the first week of their lives these tiny caterpillars feed together in small bands1 and they grow so fast you can almost fancy you see them growing4 ,after they have grown to a certain size1 each caterpillar starts out for himself40 8,do you see the three butterflies that have hatched out80 asked ,tom4 8,yes1 ,i see them4 ,there are two females and one male10 said ,uncle ,george4 8,how can you tell males from females80 asked ,frank4 8,oh1 that is easy enough10 ,uncle ,george replied4 8,the females are larger1 and have two big black spots on each of their front wings4 ,but ,i only see eight of the large cabbage caterpillars4 ,we put in twelve1 ,i think40 8,look60 said ,frank1 pointing to the roof of the cage4 8,ah1 yes1 ,i see them4 ,two of them have passed into the pup stage1 and are slung up by their silken belts to the wall of the cage4 8,the other two are spinning silken belts round the middle of their bodies1 if they have not already done so4 ,after this belt is finished they will slowly slip their useless green skins off1 and finally get rid of them by sharply jerking the tail end of their pupa cases40 8,yes1 we watched those other two do that10 said ,tom4 8,notice10 continued ,uncle ,george1 8that all your big cabbage caterpillars have lost their yellow stripes and are now of a bluish green colour4 ,they have stopped feeding1 and are now dull and sleepy4 ,this indicates that they are about to enter the pupa stage40 8,but look at the currant and the hairy caterpillars1 uncle10 said ,frank4 8,my dear boy10 said ,frank's mother1 8,uncle ,george must really have food and rest after his long journey4 ,he will hear about the other caterpillars some other time40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,xiii4 #a4 ,explain why the pup of white butterflies are coloured like the objects they are attached to4 #b4 ,write the life of a white butterfly1 and illustrate your description with sketches of caterpillar1 pupa1 and butterfly4 #c4 ,the life of an insect is divided into four distinct stages4 ,name them4 ,which is the longest stage in the case of the white butterfly8 #d4 ,describe1 as you have observed it1 the behaviour of a caterpillar as it passes from the larva to the chrysalis form4 ,,xiv4--,,the ,,toiling ,,caddis4 8,look here1 boys10 said ,uncle ,george1 8you have been paying nearly all your attention to the larva cage during my absence1 and have forgotten the caddis worms40 ,illustration #a4 ,caddis ,cases4 #b4 ,larva out of ,case4 #c4 ,pupa4 #d4 ,caddis ,fly4 ,uncle ,george made believe to be cross4 8,we changed the water every two days10 said ,frank4 8,yes1 ,i know4 ,but you have not reported any changes in the creatures themselves4 ,what has been going on in the larva cage has also been going on here in the water1 for caddis worms are simply water-caterpillars4 ,you nearly missed something of very great interest40 ,uncle ,george laid three saucers on the table1 and continued3-- 8,we are going to look into the life of the caddis fly to-day2 but before ,i take them out of the water1 ,i want you to tell me what you have noted about them up to now40 8,they are always climbing up the water weeds10 said ,frank4 8,they are always adding to their cases10 said ,tom4 8,some of them have died10 said ,frank4 8,what80 said his uncle4 8,do you mean these at the bottom of the tank8 ,these are not dead1 they are only asleep4 ,put your hand in1 and take some of these out40 8,their cases are stuck to the pond weeds and to each other10 said ,frank1 as he lifted a few out1 and placed them in a saucer4 8,ah1 ,i have it1 ,uncle ,george6 ,they have gone into the pupa state4 ,is that not so80 ,uncle ,george nodded4 8,look60 exclaimed ,tom4 8,there are things like earwigs floating on the water40 8,never mind these just now1 ,tom10 said his uncle4 8,i am coming to them by and by4 ,observe the wonderful cases which the caddis worms have made for themselves4 8,here is one whose case1 when we found him1 was made of neatly cut pieces of water rush4 ,he has almost doubled the length of his case since then2 for see1 the front half is made of cut stalks of water weed neatly arranged40 8,he has got a fine collar of green pieces round his neck10 ,frank observed4 8,why are they always adding to the length of their cases80 asked ,tom4 8,because they are always growing10 said ,frank4 8,that is the reason10 said ,uncle ,george2 8and they grow so fast that they have actually to work hard at building4 8,observe those that make their cases out of tiny shells and stones4 ,they have made free use of the coloured beads and small pieces of coal which we put in40 8,how do they manage to stick these things together80 asked ,tom4 8,a caddis worm is a busy creature10 his uncle replied4 8,he does two things besides eating and growing4 ,with those strong pincers1 which you see at his head1 he saws off pieces of weed4 8,near his mouth he has got a kind of loom for spinning silk4 ,these pieces are stuck together with silk1 which is a gluey substance when it first comes from the creature's body4 8,these rough cases are lined with silk40 8,why does he have to make a house for himself1 and carry it about with him80 said ,frank4 ,in answer to this1 his uncle took out a few of the active caddis worms1 and placed them in a saucer with water4 ,he held one up4 8,you see10 he said1 8his case is open at both ends4 ,now1 if ,i tried to get him out from the front1 ,i should never manage it4 ,this is the way to get him out40 ,as he spoke1 ,uncle ,george pushed the head of a pin into the tail end of the case1 and the creature scrambled out at once4 8,it is too bad turning you out of your cosy room1 ,mr ,caddis10 ,uncle ,george observed2 8but you'll go back again as soon as you get the chance1 won't you8 ,i want my nephews to understand why you work so very hard4 8,now1 ,frank1 you can answer your own question1 ,i think--#8,why does the caddis worm build a house8'0 8,because he has a soft body40 8,quite right4 ,but why is he forced to protect his body80 8,fishes would eat him40 8,right again1 ,frank4 ,if trout could speak1 they might tell you that the sweetest morsel in the stream is the caddis worm4 ,now1 take your lens1 please1 and tell me something about him40 8,his body is divided into rings1 and there are the same number of them as we found in the caterpillar40 8,very good1 ,frank4 ,now give ,tom a chance40 8,his head and the first three divisions of his body are hard cased4 ,they are black and yellow in colour40 8,he has six legs10 said ,frank1 8and they are attached to the first three divisions of his body40 8,what about the last division of his body80 ,uncle ,george asked4 8,oh1 how funny60 said ,frank4 8,it is divided into two large things like horns40 8,these10 said his uncle1 8are the hooks by which he fixes himself so firmly in his case40 8,and what are all these curious big bristles for80 asked ,tom4 8,they are all over his body40 8,these are his breathing organs10 ,uncle ,george answered4 8,the caterpillar1 if you remember1 had breathing-holes along the sides of his body4 ,by moving his long body1 the caddis worm causes a constant current of water to pass through his dwelling4 8,look at the fourth segment of his body4 ,how does it differ from the others80 8,it is the broadest segment10 said ,frank1 8and there is a stout rounded thing in the middle of it40 8,yes10 his uncle replied1 8and if we can get him turned on his back we shall see two more of these stout outgrowths below1 one on each side of the same segment4 ,this is really very clever4 ,by it the animal keeps himself in the middle1 so that the current of water must flow all around him4 8,now1 look at the case of a sleeping caddis40 8,the front of the case is closed10 said ,frank4 8,how is it closed1 ,frank80 8,well1 there is a network of threads over it10 answered ,frank4 8,yes2 you see a caddis worm cannot do without fresh water1 even when he is asleep2 so1 before going to sleep1 he builds a grating over the entrance4 8,when he wakes up1 he has quite a new shape altogether4 ,and this brings us to those things which ,tom said were like #8earwigs4' ,there are five of them floating on the water1 and two of these are dead4 ,if you look1 you will find five empty caddis cases in the tank40 8,how does he get out of the case80 inquired ,tom4 8,easily enough4 ,look at the strong pair of pincers he has got for cutting his way through the silken grating with4 ,no longer burdened with his heavy case1 he floats up to the surface4 ,he crawls up out of the water into the air4 8,if there are no rushes or floating leaves about1 he is sure to drown2 for your caddis is no longer a water insect1 but a fly inside a thin skin4 8,now1 boys1 ,i am going to show you something wonderful40 ,uncle ,george then took out the three living pup that were floating on the water1 and placed them on the table4 ,the boys watched them for a long time4 ,they were beginning to get impatient1 when suddenly the skin of one of the creatures burst along the back1 and a lovely little fly1 with brown1 gauzy wings and long feelers1 came out4 ,after airing its wings for about a minute1 it flew to the window4 ,the other two acted in just the same way4 8,now1 my dear boys1 ,i think you know something about the life of the caddis fly4 ,for a whole year of his life he is a crawling water insect1 then1 for about a single day1 he is a lively fly40 8,how does the caddis larva first get into the water80 asked ,frank4 8,as an egg1 ,frank4 ,the female caddis fly lays her eggs in the water4 ,she sometimes even crawls down right into the water to lay them4 8,a tiny caddis grub1 no bigger than this pin-head1 comes out of each egg4 ,as soon as he hatches out1 he begins to build his case1 to eat1 and to grow2 and from the moment of his birth up to the closing up of his tube1 he is scarcely a moment idle40 ,exercises on ,lesson ,,xiv4 #a4 ,turn a caddis worm out of his case in the way described in the lesson4 ,place the insect in a saucer half filled with water1 and make a rough sketch of it4 #b4 ,when you have finished your sketch1 place the empty caddis case in the saucer1 and watch how the creature gets into it4 #c4 ,make two columns by drawing a line down the centre of a page of your note-book4 ,in the first column1 describe the structure of the caddis larva and fly2 in the second1 that of the cabbage caterpillar and butterfly4 ,compare them4 #d4 ,in the same way describe the mode of life of the caddis fly 7,column #a71 and of the white butterfly 7,column #b74 ,,appendix4 ,,hints ,,to ,,teachers4 ,,buds4--,twigs of beech1 horse-chestnut1 lilac1 and hawthorn ought to be taken in in ,december and placed in water4 ,they should have as much warmth and light as possible4 ,willow twigs 7for catkins7 might also be forced in this way4 ,,seeds4--,seeds should be soaked for twenty-four hours and then sown in sawdust in boxes #d inches deep4 ,they should be sown in presence of the pupils4 ,in winter these boxes should be kept on the hot pipes in school4 ,the sawdust should not be allowed to get dry1 neither should it be deluged with water1 but kept evenly moist if possible4 ,be careful to use water not colder than the temperature of the room in which the seeds are grown4 ,nothing checks growth more effectively than chilling with icy-cold water4 ,it is a good plan to keep the watering-pan full of water near the hot pipes1 refilling it always after use4 ,seeds germinate best in the dark1 but whenever the plumule shows above the sawdust1 the box containing them should be placed in the light4 ,sufficient seeds should be sown at one time to supply a plant to each pupil once a week for at least four weeks4 ,a number of seeds or plants should be dug up once a week and sketched by the children4 ,each sketch should be compared with that of the previous week1 and all changes duly noted down4 ,the best seeds to grow are3--,broad bean1 common or 8large white0 maize1 runner bean 78,painted ,lady071 ,french bean1 kitchen pea 78,stratagem071 and white mustard4 ,a few seeds of white mustard should be sprinkled on a small piece of moist blotting-paper1 and covered over by a small glass bell-jar or an inverted tumbler4 ,in less than a week the root-hairs may be seen4 ,if hot-water pipes are available1 the following seeds should be grown1 as their germination is interesting3--date stones1 walnuts1 chestnuts1 almonds1 cherry stones1 orange pips1 seeds of cucumber and sunflower4 ,after maize and bean 7or pea7 plants have reached the height of #e inches1 they should be transferred to bottles of tap water--as described at the end of ,lesson ,,vi4--and the continuous growth sketched and noted from week to week4 ,,pond ,,and ,,ditch ,,hunting4--,make a ring of stout brass wire about #h or #aj inches in diameter1 and to this attach a bag net made of mosquito netting not more than #i inches deep4 ,in making the wire ring1 leave attached to it about #e inches of the twisted ends of the wire4 ,such a net as this can be easily carried and quickly attached to the end of a walking-stick by means of a piece of string4 ,the best 8finds0 are often made by sweeping the net under banks and among pond weeds4 ,,frog ,,spawn4--,frog spawn is abundant in ponds and ditches everywhere in ,march4 ,it should be kept immersed in as much water as possible in a large vessel1 preferably of glass4 ,whenever the water show signs of fouling1 it should be changed2 but1 as changing water containing tadpoles is somewhat difficult1 the fewer changes the better4 ,as in the case of seed growing1 the development of the tadpole should be learnt by weekly sketches and notes4 ,,newts4--,newts can be taken with the gauze-net or in the following way3--,tie a piece of small worm on to the end of a cotton thread fastened to the end of a willow or hazel switch4 ,cast into the part of the pond where the newts are1 and await results4 ,live newts1 fish1 frog spawn1 etc41 may be obtained from ,messrs ,willson1 ,live ,stock ,providers1 #cg ,new ,oxford ,street1 ,london2 ,thomas ,bolton1 #be ,balsall ,heath ,road1 ,birmingham1 and other dealers4 ,newts should be fed once a day on pieces of small worms4 ,,caterpillars4--,caterpillars and pup1 if not obtainable in local woods1 fields1 and gardens1 can be had from ,messrs ,watkins ,doncaster1 #cf ,strand1 ,london1 and others4 ,,caddis ,,larv4--,caddis worms are to be found in almost every stream1 pond1 and ditch4 ,most of them are vegetable feeders3 therefore a plentiful supply of water weeds should be placed in their tank4 ,carnivorous caddis worms may be fed on small pieces of raw meat4 7,see ,stickle-backs47 ,,stickle-,,backs4--,stickle-backs are common in canals and streams4 ,they are easily caught with the net4 ,they should be fed once a day on grated biscuit1 and occasionally on raw meat4 ,the meat should be chopped very fine1 and then pressed through a piece of perforated zinc4 ,very little food suffices4 ,if too much is put in1 the residue should be removed by means of a glass tube1 as described in ,lesson ,,ix41 p4 #ef4 ,if no green water plants are obtainable1 the water should be changed at least every second day by means of a siphon4 ,once a month is quite often enough if sufficient green plants are kept in the tank and decaying matter carefully removed4 ,do not over-stock--few fishes and much water is the rule4 ,,water ,,plants4--,it is best to take the water plants which are found growing locally4 ,the following are fairly common3--,elodea canadensis1 water millfoil2 ,potamogeton 7nitens1 crispus1 or filiformis71 8water soldier02 ,vallisneria spiralis1 ,chara1 ,nitella1 water star-wort and watercress4 ,a good selection of excellent aquarium plants are advertised at a cheap rate by the ,solway ,fishery ,co41 ,dumfries4 ,water plants1 if not rooted in the tank1 should be renewed occasionally4 ,,larv ,,cage4--,take four square pieces 7about #a inches square7 of wood1 each a foot long1 and nail or screw them upright into the four corners of a square piece of -inch deal measuring a foot each way4 ,stretch mosquito netting over sides1 end1 and top1 arranging that one side can be opened4 ,this can be managed by fastening the last fold of netting to one of the upright posts by three drawing-pins4 ,fresh leaves should be supplied daily4 ,for those caterpillars which pupate in the soil1 a shallow earthenware flower-pot--known in the trade as a 8seed-pan0--should be supplied4 ,the seed-pan should be filled with soil1 the pup placed on the surface1 and a layer of moss placed over them4 ,once a week the moss should be dipped in water1 squeezed almost dry1 and replaced on the pup4 ,,aquarium4--,procure from a local florist or seedsman what is known as a 8propagating bell40 ,these cost from #as4 up to #bs4 #f;d4 ,a block of wood #ab inches square and #d or #e inches in thickness is also required4 ,bore a hole about #b inches in diameter right through the centre of the block1 to hold the knob of the bell4 ,then1 with a gouge chisel1 make a saucer-shaped hollow round the hole1 to roughly fit the rounded end of the bell4 ,before fitting the bell into the block1 interpose a thin layer of moss4 ,this makes an excellent aquarium--elegant and serviceable4 ,keep the aquarium in a window1 but shade it from bright sunlight4 ,transcriber's ,notes --,retained publication information from the printed exemplar 7this e,book is in the public domain in the country of publication47 --,only in the text versions1 delimited italicized text with underscores4 --,silently corrected several typos4