,,rousseau ,,and ,,romanticism    by    
,,irving ,,babbitt    ,professor of     
,french ,literature in ,harvard         
,university                ,illustration
    ,boston and ,new ,york  ,houghton   
,mifflin ,company    ,the ,riverside    
,press ,cambridge                       
,l'imagination dispose de tout4         
,,pascal        ,le bon sens est le     
matre de la vie humaine4                
,,bossuet        ,l'homme est un tre    
immense1 en quelque sorte1 qui peut     
exister partiellement1 mais dont        
l'existence est d'autant plus           
dlicieuse qu'elle est plus entire et    
plus pleine4                            
,,joubert          ,,contents           
,,introduction                        ix
           ,i4 ,,the ,,terms ,,classic  
,,and ,,romantic       #a          ,,ii4
 ,,romantic ,,genius                    
#cb         ,,iii4 ,,romantic           
,,imagination                #gj        
,,iv4 ,,romantic ,,morality3 ,,the      
,,ideal       #aad           ,v4        

,,romantic ,,morality3 ,,the ,,real     
#ahg          ,,vi4 ,,romantic ,,love   
#bbj         ,,vii4 ,,romantic ,,irony  
#bdj        ,,viii4 ,,romanticism ,,and 
,,nature             #bfh          ,,ix4
 ,,romantic ,,melancholy                
#cjf           ,x4 ,,the ,,present      
,,outlook                #cec           
,,appendix--,,chinese ,,primitivism     
#cie              ,,bibliography        
#cii              ,,index               
#dba          ,,introduction      ,many 
readers will no doubt be tempted to     
exclaim on seeing my title3  8,rousseau 
and no end60 ,the outpour of books on   
,rousseau had indeed in  the period     
immediately preceding the war become    
somewhat portentous4#a  ,this           
preoccupation with ,rousseau is after   
all easy to explain4 ,it is  his        
somewhat formidable privilege to        
represent more fully than any  other one
 person a great international movement4 
,to attack ,rousseau or  to defend him  
is most often only a way of attacking or

 defending this  movement4    ,it is    
from this point of view at all events   
that the present work is  conceived4 ,i 
have not undertaken a systematic study  
of ,rousseau's life  and doctrines4 ,the
 appearance of his name in my title is  
justified1  if at all1 simply because he
 comes at a fairly early stage in the   
international movement the rise and     
growth of which ,i am tracing1 and  has 
on the whole supplied me with the most  
significant illustrations of  it4 ,i    
have already put forth certain views    
regarding this movement in  three       
previous volumes4#b ,though each one of 
these volumes attempts to  do justice to
 a particular topic1 it is at the same  
time intended to be  a link in a        
continuous argument4 ,i hope that ,i may
 be allowed to speak  here with some    
frankness of the main trend of this     
argument both on its  negative and on   
its positive1 or constructive1 side4    
,perhaps the best key to both sides of  
my argument is found in the  lines of   

,emerson ,i have taken as epigraph for  
8,literature and the  ,american         
,college03        ,there are two laws   
discrete      ,not reconciled1--        
,law for man1 and law for thing2        
,the last builds town and fleet1        
,but it runs wild1      ,and doth the   
man unking4    ,on its negative side my 
argument is directed against this undue 
emphasis on the 8law for thing10 against
 the attempt to erect on  naturalistic  
foundations a complete philosophy of    
life4 ,i define two  main forms of      
naturalism--on the one hand1 utilitarian
 and scientific  and1 on the other1     
emotional naturalism4 ,the type of      
romanticism ,i am  studying is          
inseparably bound up with emotional     
naturalism4    ,this type of romanticism
 encouraged by the naturalistic movement
 is  only one of three main types ,i    
distinguish and ,i am dealing for the   
most part with only one aspect of it4   
,but even when thus circumscribed  the  
subject can scarcely be said to lack    

importance2 for if ,i am right  in my   
conviction as to the unsoundness of a   
,rousseauistic philosophy of  life1 it  
follows that the total tendency of the  
,occident at present is  away from      
rather than towards civilization4    ,on
 the positive side1 my argument aims to 
reassert the 8law for man10  and its    
special discipline against the various  
forms of naturalistic  excess4 ,at the  
very mention of the word discipline ,i  
shall be set down  in certain quarters  
as reactionary4 ,but does it necessarily
 follow  from a plea for the human law  
that one is a reactionary or in general 
a traditionalist8 ,an ,american writer  
of distinction was once heard to  remark
 that he saw in the world to-day but two
 classes of persons1--the  mossbacks and
 the mountebanks1 and that for his part 
he preferred to  be a mossback4 ,one    
should think twice before thus          
consenting to seem a  mere relic of the 
past4 ,the ineffable smartness of our   
young radicals  is due to the conviction

 that1 whatever else they may be1 they  
are the  very pink of modernity4 ,before
 sharing their conviction it might be   
well to do a little preliminary defining
 of such terms as modern and  the modern
 spirit4 ,it may then turn out that the 
true difficulty with  our young radicals
 is not that they are too modern but    
that they are  not modern enough4 ,for1 
though the word modern is often and no  
doubt  inevitably used to describe the  
more recent or the most recent thing1   
this is not its sole use4 ,it is not in 
this sense alone that the word  is used 
by writers like ,goethe and             
,sainte-,beuve and ,renan and ,arnold4  
,what all these writers mean by the     
modern spirit is the positive and       
critical spirit1 the spirit that refuses
 to take things on authority4  ,this is 
what ,renan means1 for example1 when he 
calls ,petrarch the  8founder of the    
modern spirit in literature10 or ,arnold
 when he  explains why the ,greeks of   
the great period seem more modern to us 

than  the men of the ,middle ,ages4#c   
,now what ,i have myself tried to do is 
to be thoroughly modern in this  sense4 
,i hold that one should not only welcome
 the efforts of the  man of science at  
his best to put the natural law on a    
positive and  critical basis1 but that  
one should strive to emulate him in     
one's  dealings with the human law2 and 
so become a complete positivist4 ,my    
main objection to the movement ,i am    
studying is that it has failed to       
produce complete positivists4 ,instead  
of facing honestly the emergency        
created by its break with the past the  
leaders of this movement have  inclined 
to deny the duality of human nature1 and
 then sought to  dissimulate this       
mutilation of man under a mass of       
intellectual and  emotional sophistry4  
,the proper procedure in refuting these 
incomplete  positivists is not to appeal
 to some dogma or outer authority but   
rather to turn against them their own   
principles4 ,thus ,diderot1 a  notable  

example of the incomplete positivist and
 a chief source of  naturalistic        
tendency1 says that 8everything is      
experimental in man40  ,now the word    
experimental has somewhat narrowed in   
meaning since the  time of ,diderot4 ,if
 one takes the saying to mean that      
everything in man  is a matter of       
experience one should accept it         
unreservedly and then  plant oneself    
firmly on the facts of experience that  
,diderot and other  incomplete          
positivists have refused to recognize4  
,the man who plants himself1 not on     
outer authority but on experience1  is  
an individualist4 ,to be modern in the  
sense ,i have defined is not  only to be
 positive and critical1 but also--and   
this from the time of  ,petrarch--to be 
individualistic4 ,the establishment of a
 sound type  of individualism is indeed 
the specifically modern problem4 ,it is 
right here that the failure of the      
incomplete positivist1 the man who  is  
positive only according to the natural  

law1 is most conspicuous4  ,what        
prevails in the region of the natural   
law is endless change and  relativity2  
therefore the naturalistic positivist   
attacks all the  traditional creeds and 
dogmas for the very reason that they    
aspire to  fixity4 ,now all the ethical 
values of civilization have been        
associated  with these fixed beliefs2   
and so it has come to pass that with    
their  undermining by naturalism the    
ethical values themselves are in danger 
of being swept away in the everlasting  
flux4 ,because the individual  who views
 life positively must give up unvarying 
creeds and dogmas  8anterior1 exterior1 
and superior0 to himself1 it has been   
assumed  that he must also give up      
standards4 ,for standards imply an      
element of  oneness somewhere1 with     
reference to which it is possible to    
measure  the mere manifoldness and      
change4 ,the naturalistic individualist1
  however1 refuses to recognize any such
 element of oneness4 ,his own  private  

and personal self is to be the measure  
of all things and this  measure itself1 
he adds1 is constantly changing4 ,but to
 stop at this  stage is to be satisfied 
with the most dangerous of half-truths4 
,thus ,bergson's assertion that 8life is
 a perpetual gushing forth of           
novelties0 is in itself only a dangerous
 half-truth of this kind4 ,the  constant
 element in life is1 no less than the   
element of novelty and  change1 a matter
 of observation and experience4 ,as the 
,french have it1  the more life changes 
the more it is the same thing4    ,if1  
then1 one is to be a sound              
individualist1 an individualist with    
human standards--and in an age like this
 that has cut loose from its            
traditional moorings1 the very survival 
of civilization would seem to  hinge on 
its power to produce such a type of     
individualist--one must  grapple with   
what ,plato terms the problem of the    
,one and the ,many4  ,my own solution of
 this problem1 it may be well to point  

out1 is not  purely ,platonic4 ,because 
one can perceive immediately an element 
of unity in things1 it does not follow  
that one is justified in  establishing a
 world of essences or entities or       
8ideas0 above the flux4  ,to do this is 
to fall away from a positive and        
critical into a more  or less           
speculative attitude2 it is to risk     
setting up a metaphysic  of the ,one4   
,those who put exclusive emphasis on the
 element of change  in things are in no 
less obvious danger of falling away from
 the  positive and critical attitude    
into a metaphysic of the ,many4#d ,this 
for example is the error one finds in   
the contemporary thinkers who  seem to  
have the cry1 thinkers like ,james and  
,bergson and ,dewey and  ,croce4 ,they  
are very far from satisfying the        
requirements of a complete  positivism2 
they are seeking rather to build up     
their own intoxication  with the element
 of change into a complete view of life1
 and so are  turning their backs on one 

whole side of experience in a way that  
often  reminds one of the ancient ,greek
 sophists4 ,the history of philosophy   
since the ,greeks is to a great extent  
the history of the clashes of the       
metaphysicians of the ,one and the      
metaphysicians of the ,many4 ,in the    
eyes of the complete positivist this    
history therefore reduces itself        
largely to a monstrous logomachy4       
,life does not give here an element of  
oneness and there an element of  change4
 ,it gives a oneness that is always     
changing4 ,the oneness and  the change  
are inseparable4 ,now if what is stable 
and permanent is felt  as real1 the side
 of life that is always slipping over   
into something  else or vanishing away  
entirely is1 as every student of        
psychology  knows1 associated rather    
with the feeling of illusion4 ,if a man 
attends solely to this side of life he  
will finally come1 like ,leconte  de    
,lisle1 to look upon it as a 8torrent of
 mobile chimeras10 as an  8endless whirl

 of vain appearances40 ,to admit that   
the oneness of life  and the change are 
inseparable is therefore to admit that  
such reality  as man can know positively
 is inextricably mixed up with illusion4
  ,moreover man does not observe the    
oneness that is always changing from    
the outside2 he is a part of the        
process1 he is himself a oneness that   
is always changing4 ,though             
imperceptible at any particular moment1 
the  continuous change that is going on 
leads to differences--those1 let us     
say1 between a human individual at the  
age of six weeks and the same           
individual at the age of seventy--which 
are sufficiently striking3 and  finally 
this human oneness that is always       
changing seems to vanish  away entirely4
 ,from all this it follows that an      
enormous element  of illusion--and this 
is a truth the ,east has always accepted
 more  readily than the ,west--enters   
into the idea of personality itself4 ,if
  the critical spirit is once allowed to

 have its way1 it will not rest  content
 until it has dissolved life into a mist
 of illusion4 ,perhaps  the most        
positive and critical account of man in 
modern literature is  that of           
,shakespeare3                    ,we are
 such stuff      ,as dreams are made on1
 and our little life      ,is rounded   
with a sleep4    ,but1 though strictly  
considered1 life is but a web of        
illusion and a  dream within a dream1 it
 is a dream that needs to be managed    
with the  utmost discretion1 if it is   
not to turn into a nightmare4 ,in other 
words1 however much life may mock the   
metaphysician1 the problem of  conduct  
remains4 ,there is always the unity at  
the heart of the change2  it is         
possible1 however1 to get at this real  
and abiding element and  so at the      
standards with reference to which the   
dream of life may be  rightly managed   
only through a veil of illusion4 ,the   
problem of the  ,one and the ,many1 the 
ultimate problem of thought1 can        

therefore be  solved only by a right use
 of illusion4 ,in close relation to     
illusion  and the questions that arise  
in connection with it is all that we    
have come to sum up in the word         
imagination4 ,the use of this word1 at  
least in anything like its present      
extension1 is1 one should note1         
comparatively recent4 ,whole nations and
 periods of the past can  scarcely be   
said to have had any word corresponding 
to imagination in  this extended sense4 
,yet the thinkers of the past have      
treated1 at  times profoundly1 under the
 head of fiction or illusion the        
questions  that we should treat under   
the head of imagination4#e ,in the      
8,masters  of ,modern ,french           
,criticism0 ,i was above all preoccupied
 with the  problem of the ,one and the  
,many and the failure of the nineteenth 
century to deal with it adequately4 ,my 
effort in this present work is  to show 
that this failure can be retrieved only 
by a deeper insight  into the           

imagination and its all-important rle in
 both literature  and life4 ,man is cut 
off from immediate contact with anything
 abiding  and therefore worthy to be    
called real1 and condemned to live in an
  element of fiction or illusion1 but he
 may1 ,i have tried to show1 lay  hold  
with the aid of the imagination on the  
element of oneness that  is inextricably
 blended with the manifoldness and      
change and to just  that extent may     
build up a sound model for imitation4   
,one tends to  be an individualist with 
true standards1 to put the matter       
somewhat  differently1 only in so far as
 one understands the relation between   
appearance and reality--what the        
philosophers call the epistemological   
problem4 ,this problem1 though it cannot
 be solved abstractly and               
metaphysically1 can be solved           
practically and in terms of actual      
conduct4 ,inasmuch as modern philosophy 
has failed to work out any such         
solution1 it is hard to avoid the       

conclusion that modern philosophy is    
bankrupt1 not merely from ,kant1 but    
from ,descartes4    ,the supreme maxim  
of the ethical positivist is3 ,by their 
fruits shall  ye know them4 ,if ,i      
object to a romantic philosophy it is   
because ,i do  not like its fruits4 ,i  
infer from its fruits that this         
philosophy has  made a wrong use of     
illusion4 8,all those who took the      
romantic promises  at their face value10
 says ,bourget1 8rolled in abysses of   
despair and  ennui40#f ,if any one still
 holds1 as many of the older            
romanticists  held1 that it is a        
distinguished thing to roll in abysses  
of despair  and ennui1 he should read me
 no further4 ,he will have no sympathy  
with  my point of view4 ,if any one1 on 
the other hand1 accepts my criterion    
but denies that ,rousseauistic living   
has such fruits1 it has been my  aim so 
to accumulate evidence that he will be  
confronted with the task  of refuting   
not a set of theories but a body of     

facts4 ,my whole method1  let me repeat1
 is experimental1 or it might be less   
ambiguous to say if  the word were a    
fortunate one1 experiential4 ,the       
illustrations ,i have  given of any     
particular aspect of the movement are   
usually only a small  fraction of those 
,i have collected--themselves no doubt  
only a fraction  of the illustrations   
that might be collected from printed    
sources4 ,m4  ,maigron's investigation#g
 into the fruits of romantic living     
suggests  the large additions that might
 be made to these printed sources from  
manuscript material4    ,my method      
indeed is open in one respect to grave  
misunderstanding4  ,from the fact that  
,i am constantly citing passages from   
this or that  author and condemning the 
tendency for which these passages stand1
  the reader will perhaps be led to     
infer a total condemnation of the       
authors so quoted4 ,but the inference   
may be very incorrect4 ,i am  not trying
 to give rounded estimates of           

individuals--delightful and  legitimate 
as that type of criticism is--but to    
trace main currents as  a part of my    
search for a set of principles to oppose
 to naturalism4  ,i call attention for  
example to the ,rousseauistic and       
primitivistic  elements in ,wordsworth  
but do not assert that this is the whole
  truth about ,wordsworth4 ,one's views 
as to the philosophical value  of       
,rousseauism must1 however1 weigh       
heavily in a total judgment of          
,wordsworth4 ,criticism is such a       
difficult art because one must not  only
 have principles but must apply them    
flexibly and intuitively4 ,no  one would
 accuse criticism at present of lacking 
flexibility4 ,it has  grown so flexible 
in fact as to become invertebrate4 ,one 
of my reasons  for practicing the       
present type of criticism1 is the       
conviction that  because of a lack of   
principles the type of criticism that   
aims at  rounded estimates of           
individuals is rapidly ceasing to have  

any meaning4    ,i should add that if ,i
 had attempted rounded estimates they   
would often  have been more favorable   
than might be gathered from my comments 
here  and elsewhere on the romantic     
leaders4 ,one is justified in leaning   
towards severity in the laying down of  
principles1 but should nearly  always   
incline to indulgence in the application
 of them4 ,in a sense one  may say with 
,goethe that the excellencies are of the
 individual1 the  defects of the age4   
,it is especially needful to recall     
distinctions  of this kind in the case  
of ,rousseau himself and my treatment of
 him4  ,m4 ,lanson has dwelt on the     
strange duality of ,rousseau's nature4  
8,the writer10 he says1 8is a poor      
dreamy creature who approaches  action  
only with alarm and with every manner of
 precaution1 and who  understands the   
applications of his boldest doctrines in
 a way to  reassure conservatives and   
satisfy opportunists4 ,but the work for 
its  part detaches itself from the      

author1 lives its independent life1     
and1 heavily charged with revolutionary 
explosives which neutralize  the        
moderate and conciliatory elements      
,rousseau has put into it for  his own  
satisfaction1 it exasperates and        
inspires revolt and fires  enthusiasms  
and irritates hatreds2 it is the mother 
of violence1 the  source of all that is 
uncompromising1 it launches the simple  
souls  who give themselves up to its    
strange virtue upon the desperate quest 
of the absolute1 an absolute to be      
realized now by anarchy and now by      
social despotism40#h ,i am inclined to  
discover in the ,rousseau who1          
according to ,m4 ,lanson1 is merely     
timorous1 a great deal of shrewdness    
and at times something even better than 
shrewdness4 ,the question is  not       
perhaps very important1 for ,m4 ,lanson 
is surely right in affirming  that the  
,rousseau who has moved the world--and  
that for reasons ,i shall  try to make  
plain--is ,rousseau the extremist and   

foe of compromise2  and so it is to this
 ,rousseau that as a student of main    
tendencies ,i  devote almost exclusive  
attention4 ,i am not1 however1 seeking  
to make  a scapegoat even of the radical
 and revolutionary ,rousseau4 ,one of   
my chief objections1 indeed1 to         
,rousseauism1 as will appear in the     
following pages1 is that it encourages  
the making of scapegoats4    ,if ,i am  
opposed to ,rousseauism because of its  
fruits in experience1 ,i  try to put    
what ,i have to offer as a substitute on
 the same positive  basis4 ,now         
experience is of many degrees3 first of 
all one's purely  personal experience1  
an infinitesimal fragment2 and then the 
experience  of one's immediate circle1  
of one's time and country1 of the near  
past  and so on in widening circles4    
,the past which as dogma the ethical    
positivist rejects1 as experience he not
 only admits but welcomes4 ,he  can no  
more dispense with it indeed than the   
naturalistic positivist  can dispense   

with his laboratory4 ,he insists        
moreover on including  the remoter past 
in his survey4 ,perhaps the most        
pernicious of all  the conceits fostered
 by the type of progress we owe to      
science is  the conceit that we have    
outgrown this older experience4 ,one    
should  endeavor1 as ,goethe says1 to   
oppose to the aberrations of the hour1  
the  masses of universal history4 ,there
 are special reasons just now why  this 
background to which one appeals should  
not be merely ,occidental4  ,an         
increasing material contact between the 
,occident and the ,far ,east  is        
certain4 ,we should be enlightened by   
this time as to the perils  of material 
contact between men and bodies of men   
who have no deeper  understanding4      
,quite apart from this consideration the
 experience of  the ,far ,east completes
 and confirms in a most interesting way 
that of  the ,occident4 ,we can scarcely
 afford to neglect it if we hope to work
  out a truly ecumenical wisdom to      

oppose to the sinister one-sidedness  of
 our current naturalism4 ,now the       
ethical experience of the ,far ,east    
may be summed up for practical purposes 
in the teachings and influence  of two  
men1 ,confucius and ,buddha4#i ,to know 
the ,buddhistic and  ,confucian         
teachings in their true spirit is to    
know what is best and  most             
representative in the ethical experience
 of about half the human  race for over 
seventy generations4    ,a study of     
,buddha and ,confucius suggests1 as does
 a study of the great  teachers of the  
,occident1 that under its bewildering   
surface variety  human experience falls 
after all into a few main categories4 ,i
 myself  am fond of distinguishing three
 levels on which a man may experience   
life--the naturalistic1 the humanistic1 
and the religious4 ,tested by  its      
fruits ,buddhism at its best confirms   
,christianity4 ,submitted to the  same  
test ,confucianism falls in with the    
teaching of ,aristotle and in  general  

with that of all those who from the     
,greeks down have proclaimed  decorum   
and the law of measure4 ,this is so     
obviously true that  ,confucius has been
 called the ,aristotle of the ,east4    
,not only has the  ,far ,east had in    
,buddhism a great religious movement and
 in ,confucianism  a great humanistic   
movement1 it has also had in early      
,taoism#aj a  movement that in its      
attempts to work out naturalistic       
equivalents of  humanistic or religious 
insight1 offers almost startling        
analogies to  the movement ,i am here   
studying4    ,thus both ,east and ,west 
have not only had great religious and   
humanistic disciplines which when tested
 by their fruits confirm one  another1  
bearing witness to the element of       
oneness1 the constant  element in human 
experience1 but these disciplines have  
at times  been conceived in a very      
positive spirit4 ,confucius indeed1     
though a  moral realist1 can scarcely be
 called a positivist2 he aimed rather   

to attach men to the past by links of   
steel4 ,he reminds us in this as  in    
some other ways of the last of the great
 ,tories in the ,occident1  ,dr4        
,johnson4 ,buddha on the other hand was 
an individualist4 ,he wished  men to    
rest their belief neither on his        
authority#aa nor on that  of            
tradition4#ab ,no one has ever made a   
more serious effort to put  religion on 
a positive and critical basis4 ,it is   
only proper that ,i  acknowledge my     
indebtedness to the great ,hindu        
positivist3 my treatment  of the problem
 of the ,one and the ,many1 for example1
 is nearer to  ,buddha than to ,plato4  
,yet even if the general thesis be      
granted that it  is desirable to put the
 8law for man0 on a positive and        
critical basis1  the question remains   
whether the more crying need just now is
 for  positive and critical humanism or 
for positive and critical religion4  ,i 
have discussed this delicate and        
difficult question more fully in my     

last chapter1 but may give at least one 
reason here for inclining to  the       
humanistic solution4 ,i have been struck
 in my study of the past  by the endless
 self-deception to which man is subject 
when he tries  to pass too abruptly from
 the naturalistic to the religious      
level4  ,the world1 it is hard to avoid 
concluding1 would have been a better    
place if more persons had made sure they
 were human before setting  out to be   
superhuman2 and this consideration would
 seem to apply with  special force to a 
generation like the present that is     
wallowing in  the trough of naturalism4 
,after all to be a good humanist is     
merely to  be moderate and sensible and 
decent4 ,it is much easier for a man to 
deceive himself and others regarding his
 supernatural lights than it is         
regarding the degree to which he is     
moderate and sensible and decent4       
,the past is not without examples of a  
positive and critical humanism4 ,i  have
 already mentioned ,aristotle4 ,if by   

his emphasis on the mediatory  virtues  
he reminds one of ,confucius1 by his    
positive method and  intensely          
analytical temper he reminds one rather 
of ,buddha4 ,when  ,aristotle rises to  
the religious level and discourses of   
the 8life of  vision0 he is very        
,buddhistic4 ,when ,buddha for his part 
turns from the  religious life to the   
duties of the layman he is purely       
,aristotelian4  ,aristotle also deals   
positively with the natural law4 ,he is 
indeed a  complete positivist1 and not1 
like the man of the nineteenth century1 
positive according to the natural law   
alone4 ,the ,aristotle that  should     
specially concern us1 however1 is the   
positive and critical  humanist--the    
,aristotle1 let us say1 of the 8,ethics0
 and 8,politics0 and  8,poetics40 ,just 
as ,i have called the point of view of  
the scientific  and utilitarian         
naturalist ,baconian1#ac and that of the
 emotional  naturalist ,rousseauistic1  
so ,i would term the point of view that 

,i  am myself seeking to develop        
,aristotelian4 ,aristotle has laid down 
once for all the principle that should  
guide the ethical positivist4  8,truth10
 he says1 8in matters of moral action is
 judged from facts and  from actual     
life4 ''' ,so what we should do is to   
examine the preceding  statements of    
,solon and other wise men by referring  
them to facts  and to actual life1 and  
when they harmonize with facts we may   
accept  them1 when they are at variance 
with them conceive of them as mere      
theories40#ad    ,it is in this sense   
alone that ,i aspire to be called an    
,aristotelian2  for one risks certain   
misunderstandings in using the name of  
,aristotle4#ae ,the authority of this   
great positivist has been invoked       
innumerable times throughout the ages as
 a substitute for direct  observation4  
,aristotle was not only the prop and    
mainstay of dogma  for centuries during 
the ,middle ,ages1 but dogmatic         
,aristotelianism  survived to no small  

extent1 especially in literature1       
throughout the  neo-classical period4   
,it was no doubt natural enough that the
 champions  of the modern spirit should 
have rejected ,aristotle along with the 
traditional order of which he had been  
made a support4 ,yet if they had  been  
more modern they might have seen in him 
rather a chief precursor4  ,they might  
have learned from him how to have       
standards and at the same  time not be  
immured in dogma4 ,as it is1 those who  
call themselves  modern have come to    
adopt a purely exploratory attitude     
towards life4  8,on desperate seas long 
wont to roam10 they have lost more and  
more  the sense of what is normal and   
central in human experience4 ,but to    
get away from what is normal and central
 is to get away from wisdom4  ,my whole 
argument on the negative side1 if ,i may
 venture on a final  summing up1 is that
 the naturalistic movement in the midst 
of which  we are still living had from  
the start this taint of eccentricity4 ,i

  have tried to show in detail the      
nature of the aberration4 ,as for the   
results1 they are being written large in
 disastrous events4 ,on its             
constructive side1 my argument1 if it   
makes any appeal at all1 will  be to    
those for whom the symbols through which
 the past has received  its wisdom have 
become incredible1 and who1 seeing at   
the same time  that the break with the  
past that took place in the eighteenth  
century  was on unsound lines1 hold that
 the remedy for the partial positivism  
that is the source of this unsoundness1 
is a more complete positivism4  ,nothing
 is more perilous than to be only half  
critical4 ,this is to  risk being the   
wrong type of individualist--the        
individualist who has  repudiated outer 
control without achieving inner control4
 8,people mean  nowadays by a           
philosopher10 says ,rivarol1 8not the   
man who learns the  great art of        
mastering his passions or adding to his 
insight1 but  the man who has cast off  

prejudices without acquiring virtues40  
,that  view of philosophy has not ceased
 to be popular4 ,the whole modern       
experiment is threatened with breakdown 
simply because it has not been          
sufficiently modern4 ,one should        
therefore not rest content until one    
has1 with the aid of the secular        
experience of both the ,east and the    
,west1 worked out a point of view so    
modern that1 compared with it1 that  of 
our young radicals will seem            
antediluvian4          ,,rousseau ,,and 
,,romanticism          ,,chapter ,i     
,,the ,,terms ,,classic ,,and ,,romantic
      ,the words classic and romantic1  
we are often told1 cannot be defined  at
 all1 and even if they could be defined1
 some would add1 we should  not be much 
profited4 ,but this inability or        
unwillingness to define may  itself turn
 out to be only one aspect of a movement
 that from ,rousseau  to ,bergson has   
sought to discredit the analytical      
intellect--what  ,wordsworth calls 8the 

false secondary power by which we       
multiply  distinctions40 ,however1 those
 who are with ,socrates rather than with
  ,rousseau or ,wordsworth in this      
matter1 will insist on the importance   
of definition1 especially in a chaotic  
era like the present2 for  nothing is   
more characteristic of such an era than 
its irresponsible  use of general terms4
 ,now to measure up to the ,socratic    
standard1 a  definition must not be     
abstract and metaphysical1 but          
experimental2  it must not1 that is1    
reflect our opinion of what a word      
should mean1  but what it actually has  
meant4 ,mathematicians may be free at   
times  to frame their own definitions1  
but in the case of words like classic   
and romantic1 that have been used       
innumerable times1 and used not in  one 
but in many countries1 such a method is 
inadmissible4 ,one must  keep one's eye 
on actual usage4 ,one should indeed     
allow for a certain  amount of          
freakishness in this usage4             

,beaumarchais1 for example1 makes       
classic synonymous with barbaric4#af    
,one may disregard an occasional        
aberration of this kind1 but if one can 
find only confusion and  inconsistency  
in all the main uses of words like      
classic and romantic1  the only         
procedure for those who speak or write  
in order to be  understood is to banish 
the words from their vocabulary4    ,now
 to define in a ,socratic way two things
 are necessary3 one must  learn to see a
 common element in things that are      
apparently different  and also to       
discriminate between things that are    
apparently similar4  ,a ,newton1 to take
 the familiar instance of the former    
process1 saw a  common element in the   
fall of an apple and the motion of a    
planet2  and one may perhaps without    
being a literary ,newton discover a     
common  element in all the main uses of 
the word romantic as well as in all  the
 main uses of the word classic2 though  
some of the things to which  the word   

romantic in particular has been applied 
seem1 it must be  admitted1 at least as 
far apart as the fall of an apple and   
the motion  of a planet4 ,the first step
 is to perceive the something that      
connects  two or more of these things   
apparently so diverse1 and then it may  
be  found necessary to refer this       
unifying trait itself back to something 
still more general1 and so on until we  
arrive1 not indeed at anything          
absolute--the absolute will always elude
 us--but at what ,goethe calls  the     
original or underlying phenomenon       
7,urphnomen74 ,a fruitful source  of    
false definition is to take as primary  
in a more or less closely  allied group 
of facts what is actually secondary--for
 example1 to fix  upon the return to the
 ,middle ,ages as the central fact in   
romanticism1  whereas this return is    
only symptomatic2 it is very far from   
being the  original phenomenon4         
,confused and incomplete definitions of 
romanticism  have indeed just that      

origin--they seek to put at the centre  
something  that though romantic is not  
central but peripheral1 and so the whole
  subject is thrown out of perspective4 
,my plan then is to determine to the    
best of my ability1 in connection  with 
a brief historical survey1 the common   
element in the various uses  of the     
words classic and romantic2 and then1   
having thus disposed of  the            
similarities1 to turn to the second part
 of the art of defining  and deal1 also 
historically1 with the differences4 ,for
 my subject is  not romanticism in      
general1 but only a particular type of  
romanticism1  and this type of          
romanticism needs to be seen as a       
recoil1 not from  classicism in general1
 but from a particular type of          
classicism4      ,i    ,the word        
romantic when traced historically is    
found to go back to  the old ,french    
roman of which still elder forms are    
romans and  romant4 ,these and similar  
formations derive ultimately from the   

medival ,latin adverb romanice4 ,roman  
and like words meant  originally the    
various vernaculars derived from ,latin1
 just as the  ,french still speak of    
these vernaculars as les langues        
romanes2  and then the word roman came  
to be applied to tales written in the   
various vernaculars1 especially in old  
,french4 ,now with what features  of    
these tales were people most struck8    
,the reply to this question is  found in
 a passage of a fifteenth-century ,latin
 manuscript3#ag 8,from  the reading of  
certain romantics1 that is1 books of    
poetry composed in  ,french on military 
deeds which are for the most part       
fictitious40#ah  ,here the term romantic
 is applied to books that we should     
still  call romantic and for the very   
same reason1 namely1 because of the     
predominance in these books of the      
element of fiction over reality4    ,in 
general a thing is romantic when1 as    
,aristotle would say1 it is  wonderful  
rather than probable2 in other words1   

when it violates the  normal sequence of
 cause and effect in favor of adventure4
 ,here is  the fundamental contrast     
between the words classic and romantic  
which  meets us at the outset and in    
some form or other persists in all the  
uses of the word down to the present    
day4 ,a thing is romantic when it  is   
strange1 unexpected1 intense1           
superlative1 extreme1 unique1#ai  etc4  
,a thing is classical1 on the other     
hand1 when it is not unique1  but       
representative of a class4 ,in this     
sense medical men may speak  correctly  
of a classic case of typhoid fever1 or a
 classic case of  hysteria4 ,one is even
 justified in speaking of a classic     
example of  romanticism4 ,by an easy    
extension of meaning a thing is         
classical when  it belongs to a high    
class or to the best class4    ,the type
 of romanticism referred to in the      
fifteenth-century manuscript  was1 it   
will be observed1 the spontaneous       
product of the popular  imagination of  

the ,middle ,ages4 ,we may go further   
and say that the  uncultivated human    
imagination in all times and places is  
romantic in  the same way4 ,it hungers  
for the thrilling and the marvellous and
 is1  in short1 incurably melodramatic4 
,all students of the past know how1     
when the popular imagination is left    
free to work on actual historical       
characters and events1 it quickly       
introduces into these characters  and   
events the themes of universal          
folk-lore1 and makes a ruthless         
sacrifice of reality to the love of     
melodramatic surprise4 ,for example1    
the original nucleus of historical fact 
has almost disappeared in the  lurid    
melodramatic tale 8,les quatre fils     
,aymon10 which has continued1  as       
presented in the 8,bibliothque ,bleue10 
to appeal to the ,french  peasant down  
to our own times4 ,those who look with  
alarm on recent  attacks upon           
romanticism should therefore be         
comforted4 ,all children1  nearly all   

women and the vast majority of men      
always have been1 are  and probably     
always will be romantic4 ,this is true  
even of a classical  period like the    
second half of the seventeenth century  
in ,france4  ,boileau is supposed to    
have killed the vogue of the            
interminable  romances of the early     
seventeenth century which themselves    
continue  the spirit of the medival     
romances4 ,but recent investigations    
have  shown that the vogue of these     
romances continued until well on into   
the  eighteenth century4 ,they          
influenced the imagination of ,rousseau1
 the  great modern romancer4    ,but to 
return to the history of the word       
romantic4 ,the first printed  examples  
of the word in any modern tongue are1 it
 would seem1 to be  found in ,english4  
,the ,oxford ,dictionary cites the      
following from ,f4  ,greville's 8,life  
of ,sidney0 7written before #afbh1      
published in #afeb73  8,doe not his     
,arcadian romantics live after          

him80--meaning apparently  ideas or     
features suggestive of romance4 ,of     
extreme interest is the  use of the word
 in ,evelyn's 8,diary0 7#c ,august1     
#afed73 8,were ,sir ,guy's  grot        
improved as it might be1 it were capable
 of being made a most  romantic and     
pleasant place40 ,the word is not only  
used in a favorable  sense1 but it is   
applied to nature2 and it is this use of
 the word in  connection with outer     
nature that ,french and ,german         
literatures are  going to derive later  
from ,england4 ,among the early ,english
 uses of  the word romantic may be      
noted3 8,there happened this            
extraordinary  case--one of the most    
romantique that ever ,i heard in my life
 and could  not have believed10#bj etc4 
8,most other authors that ,i ever read  
either have wild romantic tales wherein 
they strain ,love and ,honor to  that   
ridiculous height that it becomes       
burlesque10#ba etc4 ,the word  becomes  
fairly common by the year #agjj and     

thousands of examples could  be         
collected from ,english writers in the  
eighteenth century4 ,here are  two early
 eighteenth-century instances3          
8,the gentleman ,i am married to made   
love to me in rapture but      it was   
the rapture of a ,christian and a man of
 ,honor1 not a      romantic hero or a  
whining coxcomb40#bb        ,whether the
 charmer sinner it or saint it      ,if 
folly grow romantick ,i must paint      
it4#bc    ,the early ,french and ,german
 uses of the word romantic seem to      
derive  from ,england4 ,one important   
point is to be noted as to ,france4     
,before  using the word romantique the  
,french used the word romanesque in  the
 sense of wild1 unusual1                
adventurous--especially in matters of   
sentiment1 and they have continued to   
employ romanesque alongside  romantique1
 which is now practically used only of  
the romantic  school4 ,a great deal of  
confusion is thus avoided into which we 
fall  in ,english from having only the  

one word romantic1 which must do duty   
for both romantique and romanesque4 ,an 
example of romantique  is found in      
,french as early as #afge2bd but the    
word owed its vogue  practically to the 
anglomania that set in about the middle 
of the  eighteenth century4 ,the first  
very influential ,french example of the 
word is appropriately found in ,rousseau
 in the ,fifth ,promenade 7#aggg73      
8,the shores of the ,lake of ,bienne are
 more wild and romantic than those  of  
the ,lake of ,geneva40 ,the word        
romantique was fashionable in ,france   
especially as applied to scenery from   
about the year #aghe1 but without  any  
thought as yet of applying it to a      
literary school4    ,in ,germany the    
word romantisch as an equivalent of the 
,french  romanesque and modern ,german  
romanhaft1 appears at the end of  the   
seventeenth century and plainly as a    
borrowing from the ,french4  ,heidigger1
 a ,swiss1 used it several times in his 
8,mythoscopia  romantica10#be an attack 

on romances and the wild and vain       
imaginings  they engender4 ,according to
 ,heidigger the only resource against   
romanticism in this sense is religion4  
,in ,germany as in ,france the          
association of romantic with natural    
scenery comes from ,england1  especially
 from the imitations and translations of
 ,thomson's 8,seasons40    ,in the      
second half of the eighteenth century   
the increasingly favorable  use of words
 like ,gothic and enthusiastic as well  
as the emergence of  words like         
sentimental and picturesque are among   
the symptoms of a new  movement1 and the
 fortunes of the word romantic were more
 or less bound  up with this movement4  
,still1 apart from its application to   
natural  scenery1 the word is as yet far
 from having acquired a favorable       
connotation if we are to believe an     
essay by ,john ,foster on the           
8,application of the ,epithet ,romantic0
 7#ahje74 ,foster's point of view is    
not unlike that of ,heidigger4          

,romantic1 he says1 had come to be used 
as a term of vague abuse1 whereas it can
 be used rightly only of the  ascendancy
 of imagination over judgment1 and is   
therefore synonymous  with such words as
 wild1 visionary1 extravagant4 8,a man  
possessing  so strong a judgment and so 
subordinate a fancy as ,dean ,swift     
would  hardly have been made romantic   
''' if he had studied all the books in  
,don  ,quixote's library40 ,it is not1  
,foster admits1 a sign of high endowment
  for a youth to be too coldly judicial1
 too deaf to the blandishments of       
imaginative illusion4 ,yet in general a 
man should strive to bring his          
imagination under the control of sound  
reason4 ,but how is it possible  thus to
 prevail against the deceits of fancy8  
,right knowing1 he asserts  very        
un-,socratically1 is not enough to      
ensure right doing4 ,at this  point     
,foster changes from the tone of a      
literary essay to that of a  sermon1    
and1 maintaining a thesis somewhat      

similar to that of ,pascal in  the      
seventeenth century and ,heidigger in   
the eighteenth1 he concludes  that a    
man's imagination will run away with his
 judgment or reason  unless he have the 
aid of divine grace4      ,,ii    ,when 
,foster wrote his essay there was no    
question as yet in ,england  of a       
romantic school4 ,before considering how
 the word came to be  applied to a      
particular movement we need first to    
bring out more  fully certain broad     
conflicts of tendency during the        
seventeenth and  eighteenth centuries1  
conflicts that are not sufficiently     
revealed  by the occasional uses during 
this period of the word romantic4 ,in   
the contrast ,foster established between
 judgment and imagination he  is merely 
following a long series of neo-classical
 critics and this  contrast not only    
seemed to him and these critics1 but    
still seems  to many1 the essential     
contrast between classicism and         
romanticism4  ,we shall be helped in    

understanding how judgment 7or reason7  
and  imagination came thus to be sharply
 contrasted if we consider briefly  the 
changes in the meaning of the word wit  
during the neo-classical  period1 and   
also if we recollect that the contrast  
between judgment and  imagination is    
closely related to the contrast the     
,french are so fond  of establishing    
between the general sense 7le sens      
commun7 and the  private sense or sense 
of the individual 7le sens propre74     
,in the sixteenth century prime emphasis
 was put not upon common sense1  but    
upon wit or conceit or ingenuity 7in the
 sense of quickness of  imagination74   
,the typical ,elizabethan strove to     
excel less by judgment  than by         
invention1 by 8high-flying liberty of   
conceit02 like ,falstaff  he would have 
a brain 8apprehensive1 quick1 forgetive1
 full of  nimble1 fiery1 and delectable 
shapes40 ,wit at this time1 it should   
be remembered1 was synonymous not only  
with imagination but with  intellect 7in

 opposition to will74 ,the result of the
 worship of wit in  this twofold sense  
was a sort of intellectual romanticism4 
,though its  origins are no doubt       
medival1 it differs from the ordinary   
romanticism  of the ,middle ,ages to    
which ,i have already referred in being 
thus  concerned with thought rather than
 with action4 ,towards the end of the   
,renaissance and in the early           
seventeenth century especially1 people  
were ready to pursue the strange and    
surprising thought even at the  risk of 
getting too far away from the workings  
of the normal mind4  ,hence the 8points0
 and 8conceits0 that spread1 as ,lowell 
put it1 like  a 8cutaneous eruption0    
over the face of ,europe2 hence the     
,gongorists1  and ,cultists1 the        
,marinists and ,euphuists1 the prcieux  
and the  8metaphysical0 poets4 ,and then
 came the inevitable swing away from all
  this fantasticality towards common    
sense4 ,a demand arose for something    
that was less rare and 8precious0 and   

more representative4    ,this struggle  
between the general sense and the sense 
of the individual  stands out with      
special clearness in ,france4 ,a model  
was gradually  worked out by aid of the 
classics1 especially the ,latin         
classics1 as  to what man should be4    
,those who were in the main movement of 
the time  elaborated a great convention1
 that is they came together about       
certain things4 ,they condemned in the  
name of their convention those  who were
 too indulgent of their private sense1  
in other words1 too  eccentric in their 
imaginings4 ,a ,thophile1 for example1  
fell into  disesteem for refusing to    
restrain his imagination1 for asserting 
the  type of 8spontaneity0 that would   
have won him favor in any romantic      
period4#bf    ,the swing away from      
intellectual romanticism can also be    
traced in  the changes that took place  
in the meaning of the word wit in both  
,france and ,england4 ,one of the main  
tasks of the ,french critics of the     

seventeenth century and of ,english     
critics1 largely under the lead of  the 
,french1 was to distinguish between true
 and false wit4 ,the work  that would   
have been complimented a little earlier 
as 8witty0 and  8conceited0 is now      
censured as fantastic and far-fetched1  
as lacking in  judicial control over the
 imagination1 and therefore in general  
appeal4  ,the movement away from the    
sense of the individual towards common  
sense  goes on steadily from the time of
 ,malherbe to that of ,boileau4 ,balzac 
attacks ,ronsard for his individualistic
 excess1 especially for his  audacity in
 inventing words without reference to   
usage4 ,balzac himself  is attacked by  
,boileau for his affectation1 for his   
straining to say  things differently    
from other people4 ,in so far his wit   
was not true  but false4 ,la ,bruyre1 in
 substantial accord with ,boileau1      
defines  false wit as wit which is      
lacking in good sense and judgment and  
8in  which the imagination has too large

 a share40#bg    ,what the metaphysical 
poets in ,england understood by wit1    
according  to ,dr4 ,johnson1 was the    
pursuit of their thoughts to their last 
ramifications1 and in this pursuit of   
the singular and the novel they  lost   
the 8grandeur of generality40 ,this     
imaginative quest of rarity  led to the 
same recoil as in ,france1 to a demand  
for common sense and  judgment4 ,the    
opposite extreme from the metaphysical  
excess is reached  when the element of  
invention is eliminated entirely from   
wit and it is  reduced1 as it is by     
,pope1 to rendering happily the general 
sense--        ,what oft was thought but
 ne'er so well expressed4    ,dr4       
,johnson says that the decisive change  
in the meaning of the word  wit took    
place about the time of ,cowley4        
,important evidences of this  change and
 also of the new tendency to depreciate 
the imagination  is also found in       
certain passages of ,hobbes4 ,hobbes    
identifies the  imagination with the    

memory of outer images and so looks on  
it as  8decaying sense40#bh 8,they who  
observe similitudes10 he remarks        
elsewhere1 making a distinction that was
 to be developed by ,locke and  accepted
 by ,addison1 8in case they be such as  
are but rarely observed  by others are  
said to have a good wit2 by which1 in   
this occasion1 is  meant a good fancy0  
7wit has here the older meaning74 8,but 
they who  distinguish and observe       
differences10 he continues1 8are said to
 have  a good judgment4 ,fancy without  
the help of judgment is not worthy of   
commendation1 whereas judgment is       
commended for itself without the help   
of fancy4 ,indeed without steadiness and
 direction to some end1 a great  fancy  
is one kind of madness40 8,judgment     
without fancy10 he concludes1  8is wit0 
7this anticipates the extreme           
neo-classical use of the word  wit71    
8but fancy without judgment1 not40      
,dryden betrays the influence of ,hobbes
 when he says of the period of          

incubation of his 8,rival ,ladies03     
8,fancy was yet in its first work1      
moving the sleeping images of things    
towards the light1 there to be          
distinguished and either chosen or      
rejected by judgment40 ,fancy or        
imagination 7the words were still       
synonymous71 as conceived by the        
,english neo-classicists1 often shows a 
strange vivacity for a faculty  that is 
after all only 8decaying sense40 8,fancy
 without judgment10  says ,dryden1 8is a
 hot-mouthed jade without a curb40      
8,fancy10 writes  ,rymer in a similar   
vein1 8leaps and frisks1 and away she's 
gone2 whilst  reason rattles the chain  
and follows after40 ,the following lines
 of  ,mulgrave are typical of the       
neo-classical notion of the relation    
between fancy and judgment3        ,as  
all is dullness when the ,fancy's bad1  
,so without ,judgment1 ,fancy is but    
mad4      ,reason is that substantial1  
useful part      ,which gains the ,head1
 while t' other wins the ,heart4#bi     

,the opposition established by the      
neo-classicist in passages of this  kind
 is too mechanical4 ,fancy and judgment 
do not seem to coperate  but to war with
 one another4 ,in case of doubt the     
neo-classicist is  always ready to      
sacrifice fancy to the 8substantial1    
useful part10  and so he seems too      
negative and cool and prosaic in his    
reason1 and  this is because his reason 
is so largely a protest against a       
previous  romantic excess4 ,what had    
been considered genius in the time of   
the  8metaphysicals0 had too often      
turned out to be only oddity4 ,with this
  warning before them men kept their    
eyes fixed very closely on the  model of
 normal human nature that had been set  
up1 and imitated it  very literally and 
timorously4 ,a man was haunted by the   
fear that he  might be 8monstrous10 and 
so1 as ,rymer put it1 8satisfy nobody's 
maggot  but his own40 ,correctness thus 
became a sort of tyranny4 ,we suffer to 
the present day from this neo-classical 

failure to work out a sound  conception 
of the imagination in its relation to   
good sense4 ,because  the neo-classicist
 held the imagination lightly as        
compared with  good sense the romantic  
rebels1 were led to hold good sense     
lightly  as compared with imagination4  
,the romantic view in short is too much 
the neo-classical view turned upside    
down2 and1 as ,sainte-,beuve says1      
nothing resembles a hollow so much as a 
swelling4      ,,iii    ,because the    
classicism against which romanticism    
rebelled was  inadequate it does not    
follow that every type of classicism    
suffers  from a similar inadequacy4 ,the
 great movement away from imaginative   
unrestraint towards regularity and good 
sense took place in the main  under     
,french auspices4 ,in general the       
,french have been the chief  exponents  
of the classic spirit in modern times4  
,they themselves feel  this so strongly 
that a certain group in ,france has of  
late years  inclined to use             

interchangeably the words classicist and
 nationalist4  ,but this is a grave     
confusion1 for if the classic spirit is 
anything  at all it is in its essence   
not local and national1 but universal   
and human4 ,to be sure1 any particular  
manifestation of classicism  will of    
necessity contain elements that are less
 universal1 elements  that reflect      
merely a certain person or persons1 or a
 certain age and  country4 ,this is a   
truth that we scarcely need to have     
preached to us2  for with the growth of 
the historical method we have come to   
fix our  attention almost exclusively on
 these local and relative elements4 ,the
  complete critic will accept the       
historical method but be on his guard   
against its excess4 ,he will see an     
element in man that is set above the    
local and the relative2 he will learn to
 detect this abiding element  through   
all the flux of circumstance2 in        
,platonic language1 he will  perceive   
the ,one in the ,many4    ,formerly1 it 

must be admitted1 critics were not      
historical enough4  ,they took to be of 
the essence of classicism what was      
merely its local  coloring1 especially  
the coloring it received from the       
,french of the  seventeenth century4 ,if
 we wish to distinguish between essence 
and  accident in the classic spirit we  
must get behind the ,french of the      
seventeenth century1 behind the         
,italians of the sixteenth century who  
laid the foundations of neo-classical   
theory1 behind the ,romans who  were the
 immediate models of most               
neo-classicists1 to the source of       
classicism in ,greece4 ,even in ,greece 
the classic spirit is very much         
implicated in the local and the         
relative1 yet in the life of no other   
people perhaps does what is universal in
 man shine forth more clearly  from what
 is only local and relative4 ,we still  
need1 therefore1 to  return to ,greece1 
not merely for the best practice1 but   
for the best  theory of classicism2 for 

this is still found in spite of all its 
obscurities and incompleteness in the   
,poetics of ,aristotle4 ,if we have     
recourse to this treatise1 however1 it  
must be on condition that we do  not1   
like the critics of the ,renaissance1   
deal with it in an abstract  and        
dogmatic way 7the form of the treatise  
it must be confessed gave  them no      
slight encouragement71 but in a spirit  
akin to ,aristotle's own  as revealed in
 the total body of his writings--a      
spirit that is at its  best positive and
 experimental4    ,aristotle not only   
deals positively and experimentally with
 the natural  order and with man so far 
as he is a part of this order1 but he   
deals  in a similar fashion with a side 
of man that the modern positivist  often
 overlooks4 ,like all the great ,greeks 
,aristotle recognizes that  man is the  
creature of two laws3 he has an ordinary
 or natural self  of impulse and desire 
and a human self that is known          
practically as a  power of control over 

impulse and desire4 ,if man is to become
 human he  must not let impulse and     
desire run wild1 but must oppose to     
everything  excessive in his ordinary   
self1 whether in thought or deed or     
emotion1  the law of measure4 ,this     
insistence on restraint and proportion  
is  rightly taken to be of the essence  
not merely of the ,greek spirit but  of 
the classical spirit in general4 ,the   
norm or standard that is to set  bounds 
to the ordinary self is got at by       
different types of classicists  in      
different ways and described variously3 
for example1 as the human  law1 or the  
better self1 or reason 7a word to be    
discussed more fully  later71 or nature4
 ,thus when ,boileau says1 8,let nature 
be your only  study10 he does not mean  
outer nature1 nor again the nature of   
this or  that individual1 but           
representative human nature4 ,having    
decided what  is normal either for man  
or some particular class of men the     
classicist  takes this normal 8nature0  

for his model and proceeds to imitate   
it4  ,whatever accords with the model he
 has thus set up he pronounces  natural 
or probable1 whatever on the other hand 
departs too far from  what he conceives 
to be the normal type or the normal     
sequence of cause  and effect he holds  
to be 8improbable0 and unnatural or     
even1 if it  attains an extreme of      
abnormality1 8monstrous40 ,whatever in  
conduct  or character is duly restrained
 and proportionate with reference to    
the model is said to observe decorum4   
,probability and decorum are  identical 
in some of their aspects and closely    
related in all4#cj  ,to recapitulate1 a 
general nature1 a core of normal        
experience1 is  affirmed by all         
classicists4 ,from this central         
affirmation derives the  doctrine of    
imitation1 and from imitation in turn   
the doctrines of  probability and       
decorum4    ,but though all classicists 
are alike in insisting on nature1       
imitation1  probability and decorum1    

they differ widely1 as ,i have already  
intimated1 in what they understand by   
these terms4 ,let us consider  first    
what ,aristotle and the ,greeks         
understand by them4 ,the first point  to
 observe is that according to ,aristotle
 one is to get his general  nature not  
on authority or second hand1 but is to  
disengage it directly  for himself from 
the jumble of particulars that he has   
before his eyes4  ,he is not1 says      
,aristotle1 to imitate things as they   
are1 but as they  ought to be4 ,thus    
conceived imitation is a creative act4  
,through all  the welter of the actual  
one penetrates to the real and so       
succeeds  without ceasing to be         
individual in suggesting the universal4 
,poetry  that is imitative in this sense
 is1 according to ,aristotle1 more      
8serious0 and 8philosophical0 than      
history4 ,history deals merely with     
what has happened1 whereas poetry deals 
with what may happen according  to      
probability or necessity4 ,poetry1 that 

is1 does not portray life  literally but
 extricates the deeper or ideal truth   
from the flux of  circumstance4 ,one may
 add with ,sydney that if poetry is thus
 superior  to history in being more     
serious and philosophical it resembles  
history  and is superior to philosophy  
in being concrete4    ,the ,one that the
 great poet or artist perceives in the  
,many and that  gives to his work its   
high seriousness is not a fixed         
absolute4 ,in  general the model that   
the highly serious man 7 7 imitates  and
 that keeps his ordinary self within the
 bounds of decorum is not  to be taken  
as anything finite1 as anything that can
 be formulated  once for all4 ,this     
point is important for on it hinges     
every right  distinction not merely     
between the classic and the romantic1   
but  between the classic and the        
pseudo-classic4 ,romanticism has claimed
  for itself a monopoly of imagination  
and infinitude1 but on closer           
examination1 as ,i hope to show later1  

this claim1 at least so far as  genuine 
classicism is concerned1 will be found  
to be quite unjustified4  ,for the      
present it is enough to say that true   
classicism does not  rest on the        
observance of rules or the imitation of 
models but on an  immediate insight into
 the universal4 ,aristotle is especially
 admirable  in the account he gives of  
this insight and of the way it may      
manifest  itself in art and literature4 
,one may be rightly imitative1 he says1 
and so have access to a superior truth  
and give others access to it  only by   
being a master of illusion4 ,though the 
great poet 8breathes  immortal air10    
though he sees behind the shows of sense
 a world of  more abiding relationships1
 he can convey his vision not directly  
but  only imaginatively4 ,aristotle1 one
 should observe1 does not establish  any
 hard and fast opposition between       
judgment and imagination1 an  opposition
 that pervades not only the             
neo-classical movement but also  the    

romantic revolt from it4 ,he simply     
affirms a supersensuous order  which one
 can perceive only with the help of     
fiction4 ,the best art1  says ,goethe in
 the true spirit of ,aristotle1 gives us
 the 8illusion  of a higher reality40   
,this has the advantage of being        
experimental4  ,it is merely a statement
 of what one feels in the presence of a 
great  painting1 let us say1 or in      
reading a great poem4      ,,iv         
,after this attempt to define briefly   
with the help of the ,greeks the        
classical spirit in its essence we      
should be prepared to understand  more  
clearly the way in which this spirit was
 modified in neo-classical  times1      
especially in ,france4 ,the first thing 
that strikes one about  the classicism  
of this period is that it does not rest 
on immediate  perception like that of   
the ,greeks but on outer authority4 ,the
 merely  dogmatic and traditional       
classicist gave a somewhat un-,greek    
meaning  to the doctrines of nature and 

imitation4 ,why imitate nature directly1
  said ,scaliger1 when we have in       
,virgil a second nature8 ,imitation thus
  came to mean the imitation of certain 
outer models and the following  of rules
 based on these models4 ,now it is well 
that one who aims at  excellence in any 
field should begin by a thorough        
assimilation of the  achievements of his
 great predecessors in this field4      
,unfortunately  the neo-classical       
theorist tended to impose a multitude of
 precepts  that were based on what was  
external rather than on what was vital  
in the practice of his models4 ,in so   
far the lesson of form that the  great  
ancients can always teach any one who   
approaches them in the  right spirit    
degenerated into formalism4 ,this       
formalistic turn given  to the doctrine 
of imitation was felt from the outset to
 be a menace  to originality2 to be     
incompatible1 and everything hinges at  
last on  this point1 with the           
spontaneity of the imagination4 ,there  

was an  important reaction headed by men
 like ,boileau1 within the neo-classical
  movement itself1 against the          
oppression of the intuitive side of     
human  nature by mere dogma and         
authority1 above all against the notion 
that  8regularity0 is in itself any     
guarantee of literary excellence4 ,a    
school of rules was succeeded by a      
school of taste4 ,yet even to the  end  
the neo-classicist was too prone to     
reject as unnatural or even  monstrous  
everything that did not fit into one of 
the traditional  pigeon-holes4 ,one must
 grant1 indeed1 that much noble work was
 achieved  under the neo-classical      
dispensation1 work that shows a genuine 
insight  into the universal1 but it is  
none the less evident that the view of  
the imagination held during this period 
has a formalistic taint4    ,this taint 
in neo-classicism is due not merely to  
its dogmatic and  mechanical way of     
dealing with the doctrine of imitation  
but also to  the fact that it had to    

reconcile classical with ,christian     
dogma2 and  the two antiquities1        
classical and ,christian1 if interpreted
 vitally  and in the spirit1 were in    
many respects divergent and in some     
respects  contradictory4 ,the general   
outcome of the attempts at              
reconciliation  made by the literary    
casuists of ,italy and ,france was that 
,christianity  should have a monopoly of
 truth and classicism a monopoly of     
fiction4  ,for the true classicist1 it  
will be remembered1 the two things are  
inseparable--he gets at his truth       
through a veil of fiction4 ,many of  the
 neo-classicists came to conceive of art
 as many romanticists were  to conceive 
of it later as a sort of irresponsible  
game or play1 but  they were1 it must be
 confessed1 very inferior to the        
romanticists  in the spontaneity of     
their fiction4 ,they went for this      
fiction as  for everything else to the  
models1 and this meant in practice that 
they employed the pagan myths1 not as   

imaginative symbols of a higher         
reality--it is still possible to employ 
them in that way--but merely in         
,boileau's phrase as 8traditional       
ornaments0 7ornements reus74 ,the       
neo-classicist to be sure might so      
employ his 8fiction0 as to inculcate  a 
moral2 in that case he is only too      
likely to give us instead of  the living
 symbol1 dead allegory2 instead of high 
seriousness1 its  caricature1           
didacticism4 ,the traditional stock of  
fiction became at  last so intolerably  
trite as to be rejected even by some of 
the late  neo-classicists4 8,the        
rejection and contempt of fiction10 said
 ,dr4  ,johnson 7who indulged in it     
himself on occasion7 8is rational and   
manly40 ,but to reject fiction in the   
larger sense is to miss the true        
driving power in human nature--the      
imagination4 ,before concluding1        
however1 that ,dr4 ,johnson had no      
notion of the rle of the imagination    
one should read his attack on the theory

 of the three unities#ca which  was     
later to be turned to account by the    
romanticists4    ,now the three unities 
may be defended on an entirely          
legitimate  ground--on the ground namely
 that they make for concentration1 a    
prime  virtue in the drama2 but the     
grounds on which they were actually     
imposed on the drama1 especially in     
connection with the ,quarrel of  the    
,cid1 illustrate the corruption of      
another main classical doctrine1  that  
of probability or verisimilitude4 ,in   
his dealings with probability  as in his
 dealings with imitation1 the           
neo-classical formalist did  not allow  
sufficiently for the element of         
illusion4 ,what he required  from the   
drama in the name of probability was not
 the 8illusion of a  higher reality10   
but strict logic or even literal        
deception4 ,he was  not capable of a    
poetic faith1 not willing to suspend his
 disbelief  on passing from the world of
 ordinary fact to the world of artistic 

creation4 ,goethe was thinking          
especially of the neo-classical ,french 
when he said3 8,as for the ,french1 they
 will always be arrested by their       
reason4 ,they do not recognize that the 
imagination has its own laws  which are 
and always must be problematic for the  
reason40    ,it was also largely under  
,french influence that the doctrine of  
decorum1 which touches probability at   
many points1 was turned aside  from its 
true meaning4 ,decorum is in a way the  
peculiar doctrine of the  classicist1 is
 in ,milton's phrase 8the grand         
masterpiece to observe40  ,the doctrines
 of the universal and the imitation of  
the universal go  deeper indeed than    
decorum1 so much deeper that they are   
shared by  classicism with religion4    
,the man who aspires to live religiously
 must  no less than the humanist look to
 some model set above his ordinary  self
 and imitate it4 ,but though the        
classicist at his best meditates1  he   
does not1 like the seeker after         

religious perfection1 see in  meditation
 an end in itself but rather a support  
for the mediatory  virtues1 the virtues 
of the man who would live to the best   
advantage  in this world rather than    
renounce it2 and these virtues may be   
said  to be summed up in decorum4 ,for  
the best type of ,greek humanist1  a    
,sophocles let us say1 decorum was a    
vital and immediate thing4  ,but there  
enters into decorum even from the time  
of the ,alexandrian  ,greeks1 and still 
more into ,french neo-classical decorum1
 a marked  element of artificiality4    
,the all-roundness and fine symmetry1   
the  poise and dignity that come from   
working within the bounds of the  human 
law1 were taken to be the privilege not 
of man in general but of  a special     
social class4 ,take for instance verbal 
decorum3 the ,french  neo-classicists   
assumed that if the speech of poetry is 
to be noble and  highly serious it must 
coincide with the speech of the         
aristocracy4 ,as  ,nisard puts it1 they 

confused nobility of language with the  
language of  the nobility4 ,decorum was 
thus more or less merged with etiquette1
 so  that the standards of the stage and
 of literature in general came to       
coincide1 as ,rousseau complains1 with  
those of the drawing-room4 ,more  than  
anything else this narrowing of decorum 
marks the decline from the  classic to  
the pseudo-classic1 from form to        
formalism4    ,while condemning         
pseudo-decorum one should remember that 
even a  ,greek would have seen something
 paradoxical in a poem like ,goethe's   
8,hermann und ,dorothea0 and its attempt
 to invest with epic grandeur the       
affairs of villagers and peasants4      
,after all1 dignity and elevation  and  
especially the opportunity for important
 action1 which is the  point on which   
the classicist puts prime emphasis1 are 
normally  though not invariably         
associated with a high rather than with 
a mean  social estate4 ,in general one  
should insist that the decorum worked   

out under ,french auspices was far from 
being merely artificial4 ,the  ,french  
gentleman 7honnte homme7 of the         
seventeenth century often  showed a     
moderation and freedom from             
over-emphasis1 an exquisite tact  and   
urbanity that did not fall too far short
 of his immediate model1  ,horace1 and  
related him to the all-round man of the 
,greeks 7  74 ,to be sure an ascetic    
,christian like ,pascal sees in decorum 
a disguise of one's ordinary self rather
 than a real curb upon it1 and  feels   
that the gap is not sufficiently wide   
between even the best type  of the man  
of the world and the mere worldling4    
,one needs1 however1 to  be very austere
 to disdain the art of living that has  
been fostered  by decorum from the      
,greeks down4 ,something of this art of 
living  survives even in a              
,chesterfield1 who falls far short of   
the best type  of ,french gentleman and 
reminds one very remotely indeed of a   
,pericles4  ,chesterfield's half-jesting

 definition of decorum as the art of    
combining the useful appearances of     
virtue with the solid satisfactions  of 
vice points the way to its ultimate     
corruption4 ,talleyrand1 who  marks     
perhaps this last stage1 was defined by 
,napoleon as 8a silk  stocking filled   
with mud40 ,in some of its late         
exemplars decorum had  actually become1 
as ,rousseau complains1 the 8mask of    
hypocrisy0 and the  8varnish of vice40  
,one should not however1 like ,rousseau 
and the romanticists1 judge of  decorum 
by what it degenerated into4 ,every     
doctrine of genuine worth is            
disciplinary and men in the mass do not 
desire discipline4 8,most men10  says   
,aristotle1 8would rather live in a     
disorderly than in a sober  manner40    
,but most men do not admit any such     
preference--that would be  crude and    
inartistic4 ,they incline rather to     
substitute for the reality  of          
discipline some art of going through the
 motions4 ,every great  doctrine is thus

 in constant peril of passing over into 
some hollow  semblance or even1 it may  
be1 into some mere caricature of itself4
 ,when  one wishes therefore to         
determine the nature of decorum one     
should  think of a ,milton1 let us say1 
and not of a ,talleyrand or even of a   
,chesterfield4    ,milton imitated the  
models1 like any other neo-classicist1  
but his  imitation was not1 in          
,joubert's phrase1 that of one book by  
another  book1 but of one soul by       
another soul4 ,his decorum is therefore 
imaginative2 and it is the privilege of 
the imagination to give  the sense of   
spaciousness and infinitude4 ,on the    
other hand1 the  unimaginative way in   
which many of the neo-classicists held  
their  main tenets--nature1 imitation1  
probability1 decorum--narrowed unduly   
the scope of the human spirit and       
appeared to close the gates of  the     
future4 8,art and diligence have now    
done their best10 says ,dr4  ,johnson of
 the versification of ,pope1 8and what  

shall be added will be  the effort of   
tedious toil and needless curiosity40   
,nothing is more  perilous than thus to 
seem to confine man in some pinfold2    
there is  something in him that refuses 
to acquiesce in any position as final2  
he is in ,nietzsche's phrase the being  
who must always surpass himself4  ,the  
attempt to oppose external and          
mechanical barriers to the freedom  of  
the spirit will create in the long run  
an atmosphere of stuffiness  and        
smugness1 and nothing is more           
intolerable than smugness4 ,men were    
guillotined in the ,french ,revolution1 
as ,bagehot suggests1 simply  because   
either they or their ancestors had been 
smug4 ,inert acceptance  of tradition   
and routine will be met sooner or later 
by the cry of  ,faust3 ,hinaus ins      
,freie6    ,before considering the value
 of the method chosen by ,rousseau and  
the romanticists for breaking up the    
8tiresome old heavens0 and  escaping    
from smugness and stuffiness1 one should

 note that the lack  of originality and 
genius which they lamented in the       
eighteenth  century--especially in that 
part of it known as the                 
,enlightenment--was  not due entirely to
 pseudo-classic formalism4 ,at least two
 other main  currents entered into the  
,enlightenment3 first the empirical and 
utilitarian current that goes back to   
,francis ,bacon1 and some would  say to 
,roger ,bacon2 and secondly the         
rationalistic current that goes  back to
 ,descartes4 ,english empiricism gained 
international vogue in  the philosophy  
of ,locke1 and ,locke denies any        
supersensuous element  in human nature  
to which one may have access with the   
aid of the  imagination or in any other 
way4 ,locke's method of precise         
naturalistic  observation is in itself  
legitimate2 for man is plainly subject  
to  the natural law4 ,what is not truly 
empirical is to bring the whole  of     
human nature under this law4 ,one can do
 this only by piecing out  precise      

observation and experiment with dogmatic
 rationalism4 ,one side  of ,locke may  
therefore be properly associated with   
the father of modern  rationalists1     
,descartes4 ,the attempt of the         
rationalist to lock up  life in some set
 of formul produces in the imaginative  
man a feeling  of oppression4 ,he gasps 
for light and air4 ,the very tracing of 
cause  and effect and in general the use
 of the analytical faculties--and  this 
is to fly to the opposite extreme--came 
to be condemned by the  romanticists as 
inimical to the imagination4 ,not only  
do they make  endless attacks on ,locke1
 but at times they assail even ,newton  
for  having mechanized life1 though     
,newton's comparison of himself to a    
child picking up pebbles on the seashore
 would seem to show that he had         
experienced 8the feeling infinite40     
,the elaboration of science into a      
closed system with the aid of logic  and
 pure mathematics is as a matter of fact
 to be associated with  ,descartes      

rather than with ,newton4 ,neither      
,newton nor ,descartes1 one  scarcely   
needs add1 wished to subject man        
entirely to the natural law  and the    
nexus of physical causes2 they were not 
in short determinists4  ,yet the        
superficial rationalism of the          
,enlightenment was in the main  of      
,cartesian origin4 ,this ,cartesian     
influence ramifies in so many           
directions and is related at so many    
points to the literary movement1  and   
there has been so much confusion about  
this relationship1 that we  need to     
pause here to make a few distinctions4  
,perhaps what most strikes one in the   
philosophy of ,descartes is its  faith  
in logic and abstract reasoning and the 
closely allied processes  of            
mathematical demonstration4 ,anything   
that is not susceptible of  clear proof 
in this logical and almost mathematical 
sense is to  be rejected4 ,now this     
,cartesian notion of clearness is fatal 
to a  true classicism4 ,the higher      

reality1 the true classicist maintains1 
cannot be thus demonstrated2 it can only
 be grasped1 and then never  completely1
 through a veil of imaginative illusion4
 ,boileau is reported  to have said that
 ,descartes had cut the throat of       
poetry2 and this  charge is justified in
 so far as the ,cartesian requires from 
poetry  a merely logical clearness4     
,this conception of clearness was also  
a menace to the classicism of the       
seventeenth century which rested  in the
 final analysis not on logic but on     
tradition4 ,this appeared  very clearly 
in the early phases of the quarrel      
between ancients and  moderns when      
literary ,cartesians like ,perrault and 
,fontenelle attacked  classical dogma in
 the name of reason4 ,in fact one may   
ask if any  doctrine has ever appeared  
so fatal to every form of tradition--not
  merely literary but also religious and
 political--as ,cartesianism4  ,the     
rationalist of the eighteenth century   
was for dismissing as  8prejudice0      

everything that could not give a clear  
account of itself  in the ,cartesian    
sense4 ,this riot of abstract reasoning 
7la raison  raisonnante7 that prepared  
the way for the ,revolution has been    
identified by ,taine and others with the
 classic spirit4 ,a more vicious        
confusion has seldom gained currency in 
criticism4 ,it is true that  the ,french
 have mixed a great deal of logic with  
their conception of  the classic spirit1
 but that is because they have mixed a  
great deal  of logic with everything4 ,i
 have already mentioned their tendency  
to  substitute a logical for an         
imaginative verisimilitude2 and         
strenuously  logical classicists may be 
found in ,france from ,chapelain to     
,brunetire4 ,yet the distinction that   
should keep us from confusing mere      
logic with the classic spirit was made  
by a ,frenchman who was himself         
violently logical and also a great      
geometrician--,pascal4 ,one should  keep
 distinct1 says ,pascal1 the esprit de  

gomtrie and the esprit  de finesse4 ,the
 esprit de finesse is not1 like the     
esprit de  gomtrie1 abstract1 but very  
concrete4#cb ,so far as a man possesses 
the esprit de finesse he is enabled to  
judge correctly of the  ordinary facts  
of life and of the relationships between
 man and man4  ,but these judgments rest
 upon such a multitude of delicate      
perceptions  that he is frequently      
unable to account for them logically4   
,it is to  intuitive good sense and not 
to the esprit de gomtrie that the       
gentleman 7honnte homme7 of the         
neo-classical period owed his fine      
tact4 ,pascal himself finally took a    
stand against reason as understood  both
 by the ,cartesian and by the man of the
 world4 ,unaided reason  he held is     
unable to prevail against the deceits of
 the imagination2  it needs the support 
of intuition--an intuition that he      
identifies  with grace1 thus making it  
inseparable from the most austere form  
of  ,christianity4 ,the 8heart10 he     

says1 and this is the name he gives to  
intuition1 8has reasons of which the    
reason knows nothing40 ,a ,plato or  an 
,aristotle would not have understood    
this divorce between reason and         
intuition4#cc    ,pascal seems to get   
his insight only by flouting ordinary   
good sense4  ,he identifies this insight
 with a type of theological dogma of    
which  good sense was determined to be  
rid2 and so it tended to get rid of  the
 insight along with the dogma4          
,classical dogma also seemed at times   
to be in opposition to the intuitive    
good sense of the man of the  world4    
,the man of the world therefore often   
inclined to assail both  the classical  
and the ,christian tradition in the name
 of good sense1  just as the ,cartesian 
inclined to assail these traditions in  
the name  of abstract reason4 ,perhaps  
the best exponent of anti-traditional   
good  sense in the seventeenth century  
was ,molire4 ,he vindicated nature1  and
 by nature he still meant in the main   

normal human nature1 from  arbitrary    
constraints of every kind whether       
imposed by an ascetic  ,christianity or 
by a narrow and pedantic classicism4    
,unfortunately  ,molire is too much on  
the side of the opposition4 ,he does not
 seem  to put his good sense into the   
service of some positive insight of  his
 own4 ,good sense may be of many degrees
 according to the order of  facts of    
which it has a correct perception4 ,the 
order of facts in human  nature that    
,molire's good sense perceived is not   
the highest and so  this good sense     
appears at times too ready to justify   
the bourgeois  against the man who has  
less timid and conventional views4 ,so  
at  least ,rousseau thought when he made
 his famous attack on ,molire4#cd       
,rousseau assailed ,molire in the name  
of instinct as ,pascal would have       
assailed him in the name of insight1 and
 fought sense with sensibility4  ,the   
hostility of ,rousseau to ,molire1      
according to ,m4 ,faguet1 is that  of a 

romantic ,bohemian to a philistine of   
genius4#ce ,one hesitates to  call      
,molire a philistine1 but one may at    
least grant ,m4 ,faguet that  ,molire's 
good sense is not always sufficiently   
inspired4    ,i have been trying to     
build up a background that will make    
clear  why the reason of the eighteenth 
century 7whether we understand  by      
reason logic or good sense7 had come to 
be superficial and  therefore oppressive
 to the imagination4 ,it is only with   
reference  to this 8reason0 that one can
 understand the romantic revolt4 ,but   
neo-classical reason itself can be      
understood only with reference to  its  
background--as a recoil namely from a   
previous romantic excess4  ,this excess 
was manifested not only in the          
intellectual romanticism of  which ,i   
have already spoken1 but in the cult of 
the romantic deed that  had flourished  
in the ,middle ,ages4 ,this cult and the
 literature that  reflected it continued
 to appeal1 even to the cultivated1 well

 on into  the neo-classical period4 ,it 
was therefore felt necessary to frame a 
definition of reason that should be a   
rebuke to the extravagance and          
improbability of the medival romances4  
,when men became conscious  in the      
eighteenth century of the neo-classical 
meagerness on the  imaginative side they
 began to look back with a certain envy 
to the  free efflorescence of fiction in
 the ,middle ,ages4 ,they began to ask  
themselves with ,hurd whether the reason
 and correctness they had won  were     
worth the sacrifice of a 8world of fine 
fabling40#cf ,we must not1  however1    
like ,heine and many others1 look on the
 romantic movement as  merely a return  
to the ,middle ,ages4 ,we have seen that
 the men of the  ,middle ,ages          
themselves understood by romance not    
simply their own kind  of speech and    
writing in contrast with what was       
written in ,latin1 but  a kind of       
writing in which the pursuit of         
strangeness and adventure  predominated4

 ,this pursuit of strangeness and       
adventure will be found  to predominate 
in all types of romanticism4 ,the type  
of romanticism1  however1 which came in 
towards the end of the eighteenth       
century  did not1 even when professedly 
medival1 simply revert to the older     
types4 ,it was primarily not a          
romanticism of thought or of action1    
the types we have encountered thus far1 
but a romanticism of feeling4  ,the     
beginnings of this emotional romanticism
 antedate considerably  the application 
of the word romantic to a particular    
literary school4  ,before considering   
how the word came to be thus applied we 
shall need  to take a glance at         
eighteenth-century sentimentalism1      
especially at  the plea for genius and  
originality that1 from about the middle 
of the  century on1 were opposed to the 
tameness and servile imitation of the   
neo-classicists4          ,,chapter ,,ii
    ,,romantic ,,genius                 
,romanticism1 it has been remarked1 is  

all that is not ,voltaire4 ,the  clash  
between ,rousseau and ,voltaire is      
indeed not merely the clash  between two
 men1 it is the clash between two       
incompatible views of  life4 ,voltaire  
is the end of the old world1 as ,goethe 
has put it1  ,rousseau the beginning of 
the new4    ,one is not to suppose1     
however1 that ,voltaire was a consistent
 champion  of the past4 ,he is indeed   
with all his superficial clearness one  
of the  most incoherent of writers4 ,at 
the same time that he defended classical
  tradition he attacked ,christian      
tradition1 spreading abroad a spirit of 
mockery and irreverence that tended to  
make every traditional belief           
impossible4 ,the 8reason0 to which he   
appeals has all the shallowness  that ,i
 have noticed in the 8reason0 of the    
eighteenth century4 ,though  he does not
 fall into the ,cartesian excess of     
abstract reasoning1 and  though the good
 sense that he most often understands by
 reason is  admirably shrewd within     

certain bounds1 he nevertheless falls   
very  far short of the standards of a   
true classicism4 ,he delights in the    
philosophy of ,locke and has little     
sense for ,greek philosophy or for  the 
higher aspects of ,greek literature4 ,he
 is quite lacking in the  quality of    
imagination that is needful if one is to
 communicate with  what is above the    
ordinary rational level4 ,so far from   
being capable of  high seriousness1 he  
is scarcely capable of ordinary         
seriousness4 ,and  so the nobility1     
elegance1 imitation1 and decorum that he
 is constantly  preaching have about    
them a taint of formalism4 ,perhaps this
 taint  appears most conspicuously in   
his conception of decorum4 ,a man may be
  willing to impose restrictions on his 
ordinary self--and every type of        
decorum is restrictive--if he is asked  
to do so for some adequate end4  ,the   
end of the decorum that an ,aristotle1  
for example1 would impose is  that one  
may become more human and therefore1 as 

he endeavors to show  in a highly       
positive fashion1 happier4 ,the only art
 and literature that  will please a man 
who has thus become human through the   
observance of  true decorum is an art   
and literature that are themselves human
 and  decorous4 ,voltaire for his part  
wishes to subject art and literature  to
 an elaborate set of restrictions in the
 name of decorum1 but these             
restrictions are not joined to any      
adequate end4 ,the only reward he  holds
 out to those who observe all these     
restrictions is 8the merit  of          
difficulty overcome40 ,at bottom1 like  
so many of the ,jesuits from  whom he   
received his education1 he looks upon   
art as a game--a very  ingenious and    
complicated game4 ,the ,french muse he  
compares to a  person executing a       
difficult clog dance on a tight rope1   
and he argues  from this comparison1 not
 that the ,french muse should assume a  
less  constrained posture1 but that she 
should on the contrary be exemplary  to 

the nations4 ,no wonder the romanticists
 and even ,dr4 ,johnson  demurred at    
,voltaire's condemnation of ,shakespeare
 in the name of this  type of decorum4  
,voltaire is therefore1 in spite of all 
his dazzling gifts1 one of  the most    
compromising advocates of classicism4   
,pope also had eminent  merits1 but from
 the truly classical point of view he is
 about as  inadequate as ,voltaire2 and 
this is important to remember because   
,english romanticism tends to be all    
that is not ,pope4 ,the ,english        
romanticists revolted especially from   
the poetic diction of which ,pope  was  
one of the chief sources1 and poetic    
diction1 with its failure  to           
distinguish between nobility of language
 and the language of the  nobility1 is  
only an aspect of artificial decorum4   
,however1 the revolt  from poetic       
diction and decorum in general is not   
the central aspect of  the great        
movement that resulted in the eclipse of
 the wit and man of  the world and in   

the emergence of the original genius4   
,what the genius  wanted was            
spontaneity1 and spontaneity1 as he     
understood it1 involves  a denial1 not  
merely of decorum1 but of something     
that1 as ,i have said1  goes deeper than
 decorum--namely the doctrine of        
imitation4 ,according  to ,voltaire     
genius is only judicious imitation4     
,according to ,rousseau  the prime mark 
of genius is refusal to imitate4 ,the   
movement away from  imitation1 however1 
had already got well started before it  
thus came  to a picturesque head in the 
clash between ,rousseau and ,voltaire1  
and  if we wish to understand this      
movement we need to take a glance at its
  beginnings--especially in ,england4   
,there are reasons why this supposed    
opposition between imitation and  genius
 should have been felt in ,england more 
keenly than elsewhere4 ,the  doctrine of
 imitation in its neo-classical form did
 not get established  there until about 
the time of ,dryden4 ,in the meanwhile  

,england had had  a great creative      
literature in which the freedom and     
spontaneity of the  imagination had not 
been cramped by a too strict imitation  
of models4  ,dryden himself1 though he  
was doing more than any one else to     
promote  the new correctness that was   
coming in from ,france1 felt that this  
correctness was no equivalent for the   
,elizabethan inspiration4 ,the          
structure that he and his contemporaries
 were erecting might be more  regular1  
but lacked the boldness and originality 
of that reared by the  8giant race      
before the flood03        ,our age was  
cultivated thus at length2      ,but    
what we gained in skill we lost in      
strength4      ,our builders were with  
want of genius cursed2      ,the second 
temple was not like the first4#cg       
,this contrast between the imitator and 
the inspired original was  developed by 
,addison in a paper 78,spectator10 #afj7
 that was destined  to be used against  
the very school to which he himself     

belonged4  ,for ,addison was in his     
general outlook a somewhat tame         
,augustan4  ,nevertheless he exalts the 
8natural geniuses0 who have something   
8nobly wild and extravagant0 in them    
above the geniuses who have been        
8refined by conversation1 reflection and
 the reading of the most polite         
authors02 who have 8formed themselves by
 rules and submitted the  greatness of  
their natural talents to the corrections
 and restraints of  art40 8,the great   
danger in these latter kind of geniuses1
 is lest they  cramp their own abilities
 too much by imitation1 and form        
themselves  altogether upon models1     
without giving full play to their own   
natural  parts4 ,an imitation of the    
best authors is not to compare with a   
good  original2 and ,i believe we may   
observe that very few writers make an   
extraordinary figure in the world1 who  
have not something in their way  of     
thinking or expressing themselves that  
is peculiar to them1 and  entirely their

 own40    ,another main influence that  
was making against the doctrine of      
imitation was also largely of ,english  
origin4 ,this was the idea of  progress 
through scientific observation and      
experiment4 ,as a result  of this type  
of positivism1 discovery was being added
 to discovery4  ,science was kindling   
man's imagination and opening up before 
him what  he really craves1 the vista of
 an endless advance4 ,why should not    
literature likewise do something new and
 original instead of sticking  forever  
in the same rut of imitation8 ,in its   
,greek form the doctrine  of imitation  
was1 as ,i have tried to show1 not only 
flexible and  progressive1 but in its   
own way1 positive and experimental4 ,but
 in  modern times the two main forms of 
imitation1 the classical and the        
,christian1 have worked within the      
limits imposed by tradition and         
traditional models4 ,the imitation of   
models1 the ,christian imitation  of    
,christ1 let us say1 or the classical   

imitation of ,horace1 may  indeed be a  
very vital thing1 the imitation of one  
soul by another  soul2 but when carried 
out in this vital way1 the two main     
forms of  imitation tend to clash1 and  
the compromise between them1 as ,i have 
already said1 resulted in a good deal of
 formalism4 ,by its positive  and       
critical method science was undermining 
every traditional belief4  ,both the    
,christian and the classical formalists 
would have been the  first to deny that 
the truths of imitation for which they  
stood could  be divorced from tradition 
and likewise put on a positive and      
critical  basis4 ,the fact is           
indubitable in any case that the        
discrediting of  tradition has resulted 
in a progressive lapse from the         
religious and  the humanistic to the    
naturalistic level4 ,an equally         
indubitable fact  is that scientific or 
rationalistic naturalism tended from the
 early  eighteenth century to produce   
emotional naturalism1 and that both     

forms  of naturalism were hostile to the
 doctrine of imitation4    ,the trend   
away from the doctrine of imitation     
towards emotional  naturalism finds     
revolutionary expression in the literary
 field in such  a work as ,young's      
8,conjectures on ,original ,composition0
 7#agei74 ,addison  had asserted1 as we 
have seen1 the superiority of what is   
original in  a man1 of what comes to him
 spontaneously1 over what he acquires by
  conscious effort and culture4 ,young1 
a personal friend of ,addison's1        
develops this contrast between the      
8natural0 and the 8artificial0 to  its  
extreme consequences4 8,modern writers10
 he says1 8have a choice  to make4 '''  
,they may soar in the regions of        
liberty1 or move in the  soft fetters of
 easy imitation40 8,an original may be  
said to be of a  vegetable nature2 it   
rises spontaneously from the vital root 
of genius2  it grows1 it is not made2   
imitations are often a sort of          
manufacture1  wrought up by those       

mechanics1 art and labor1 out of        
prexistent  materials not their own40   
8,we may as well grow good by another's 
virtue1 or fat by another's food1 as    
famous by another's thought40  ,one     
evidence that we are still living in the
 movement of which ,young  is one of the
 initiators is that his treatise will   
not only seem to  most of us a very     
spirited piece of writing--that it      
certainly is--but  doctrinally sound4   
,and yet it is only one of those        
documents very  frequent in literary    
history which lack intrinsic soundness1 
but which  can be explained if not      
justified as a recoil from an opposite  
extreme4  ,the unsoundness of ,young's  
work comes out clearly if one compares  
it with the treatise on the 8,sublime0  
attributed to ,longinus which  is not a 
mere protest against a previous excess1 
but a permanently  acceptable treatment 
of the same problem of genius and       
inspiration4  ,longinus exalts genius1  
but is at the same time regardful of    

culture  and tradition1 and even        
emphasizes the relation between         
inspiration and  the imitation of       
models4 ,young insinuates1 on the       
contrary1 that one  is aided in becoming
 a genius by being brainless and        
ignorant4 8,some  are pupils of nature  
only1 nor go further to school40 8,many 
a genius  probably there has been which 
could neither write nor read40 ,it      
follows  almost inevitably from these   
premises that genius flourishes most in 
the primitive ages of society before    
originality has been crushed  beneath   
the superincumbent weight of culture and
 critics have begun  their pernicious   
activities4 ,young did not take this    
step himself1 but  it was promptly taken
 by others on the publication of the    
,ossianic  poems 7#agfb74 ,ossian is at 
once added to the list of great         
originals  already enumerated by        
,addison--,homer1 ,pindar1 the          
patriarchs of the  ,old ,testament and  
,shakespeare 7whom ,young like the later

 romanticists  opposes to ,pope74       
8,poetry10 says ,diderot1 summing up a  
whole movement1  8calls for something   
enormous1 barbaric and savage40    ,this
 exaltation of the virtues of the       
primitive ages is simply  the projection
 into a mythical past of a need that the
 man of the  eighteenth century feels in
 the present--the need to let himself   
go4 ,this is what he understands by his 
8return to nature40 ,a whole  revolution
 is implied in this reinterpretation of 
the word nature4  ,to follow nature in  
the classical sense is to imitate what  
is normal  and representative in man and
 so to become decorous4 ,to be natural  
in  the new sense one must begin by     
getting rid of imitation and decorum4   
,moreover1 for the classicist1 nature   
and reason are synonymous4 ,the         
primitivist1 on the other hand1 means by
 nature the spontaneous play  of impulse
 and temperament1 and inasmuch as this  
liberty is hindered  rather than helped 
by reason1 he inclines to look on       

reason1 not as the  equivalent but as   
the opposite of nature4    ,if one is to
 understand this development1 one should
 note carefully  how certain uses of the
 word reason1 not merely by the         
neo-classicists  but by the             
anti-traditionalists1 especially in     
religion1 tended to  produce this denial
 of reason4 ,it is a curious fact that  
some of those  who were attacking the   
,christian religion in the name of      
reason1 were  themselves aware that mere
 reason1 whether one understood by the  
word  abstract reasoning or uninspired  
good sense1 does not satisfy1 that  in  
the long run man is driven either to    
rise higher or to sink lower  than      
reason4 ,st4 ,evremond1 for example1    
prays nature to deliver man  from the   
doubtful middle state in which she has  
placed him--either  to 8lift him up to  
angelic radiance10 or else to 8sink him 
to the  instinct of simple animals40#ch 
,since the ascending path1 the path     
that led to angelic radiance1 seemed to 

involve the acceptance of  a mass of    
obsolete dogma1 man gradually inclined  
to sink below the  rational level and to
 seek to recover the 8instinct of simple
 animals40  ,another and still more     
fundamental fact that some of the       
rationalists  perceived and that        
militated against their own position1 is
 that the  dominant element in man is   
not reason1 but imagination1 or if one  
prefers1 the element of illusion4       
8,illusion10 said ,voltaire himself1    
8is the queen of the human heart40 ,the 
great achievement of tradition  at its  
best was to be at once a limit and a    
support to both reason  and imagination 
and so to unite them in a common        
allegiance4 ,in the  new movement1 at   
the same time that reason was being     
encouraged by  scientific method to rise
 up in revolt against tradition1        
imagination  was being fascinated and   
drawn to the naturalistic level by      
scientific  discovery and the vista of  
an endless advance that it opened up4 ,a

 main  problem1 therefore1 for the      
student of this movement is to determine
  what forms of imaginative activity are
 possible on the naturalistic  level4 ,a
 sort of understanding was reached on   
this point by different  types of       
naturalists in the course of the        
eighteenth century4 ,one  form of       
imagination1 it was agreed1 should be   
displayed in science1  another form in  
art and literature4#ci ,the scientific  
imagination  should be controlled by    
judgment and work in strict             
subordination to  the facts4 ,in art and
 literature1 on the other hand1 the     
imagination  should be free4 ,genius and
 originality are indeed in strict ratio 
to  this freedom4 8,in the fairy land of
 fancy10 says ,young1 8genius may       
wander wild2 there it has a creative    
power1 and may reign arbitrarily  over  
its own empire of chimeras40 7,the      
empire of chimeras was later to  become 
the tower of ivory47 ,this sheer        
indiscipline of the literary            

imagination might seem in contrast with 
the discipline of the  scientific       
imagination an inferiority2 but such was
 not the view of the  partisans of      
original genius4 ,kant1 indeed1 who was 
strongly influenced  in his 8,critique  
of sthetic ,judgment0 by these ,english 
theorists1#dj  inclined to deny genius  
to the man of science for the very      
reason that  his imagination is so      
strictly controlled4 ,the fact would    
seem to be  that a great scientist1 a   
,newton let us say1 has as much right to
 be  accounted a genius as ,shakespeare4
 ,the inferiority of the genius of a    
,newton compared with that of a         
,shakespeare lies in a certain coldness4
  ,scientific genius is thus cold       
because it operates in a region less    
relevant to man than poetic genius2 it  
is1 in ,bagehot's phrase1 more  remote  
from the 8hearth of the soul40    ,the  
scientific and the literary imagination 
are indeed not quite so  sharply        
contrasted by most of the theorists as  

might be inferred  from what ,i have    
said2 most of them do not admit that the
 literary  imagination should be        
entirely free to wander in its own      
8empire of  chimeras40 ,even literary   
imagination1 they maintain1 should in   
some  measure be under the surveillance 
of judgment or taste4 ,one should       
observe1 however1 that the judgment or  
taste that is supposed to  control or   
restrict genius is not associated with  
the imagination4  ,on the contrary1     
imagination is associated entirely with 
the element  of novelty in things1 which
 means1 in the literary domain1 with the
  expansive eagerness of a man to get   
his own uniqueness uttered4 ,the  genius
 for the ,greek1 let us remind          
ourselves1 was not the man who was  in  
this sense unique1 but the man who      
perceived the universal2 and as  the    
universal can be perceived only with the
 aid of the imagination1  it follows    
that genius may be defined as           
imaginative perception of the           

universal4 ,the universal thus conceived
 not only gives a centre and  purpose to
 the activity of the imagination1 but   
sets bounds to the free  expansion of   
temperament and impulse1 to what came to
 be known in the  eighteenth century as 
nature4    ,kant1 who denies genius to  
the man of science on grounds ,i have   
already  mentioned1 is unable to        
associate genius in art or literature   
with this  strict discipline of the     
imagination to a purpose4 ,the          
imagination  must be free and must1 he  
holds1 show this freedom not by working 
but by playing4 ,at the same time ,kant 
had the cool temper of a man  of the    
,enlightenment1 and looked with the     
utmost disapproval on the  aberrations  
that had marked in ,germany the age of  
original genius 7die  ,geniezeit74 ,he  
was not in the new sense of the word nor
 indeed in any  sense1 an enthusiast4   
,and so he wished the reason1 or        
judgment1 to  keep control over the     
imagination without disturbing its free 

play2  art is to have a purpose which is
 at the same time not a purpose4 ,the   
distinctions by which he works out the  
supposed relationship between  judgment 
and imagination are at once difficult   
and unreal4 ,one can  indeed put one's  
finger here more readily perhaps than   
elsewhere on the  central impotence of  
the whole ,kantian system4 ,once        
discredit tradition  and outer authority
 and then set up as a substitute a      
reason that is  divorced from the       
imagination and so lacks the support of 
supersensuous  insight1 and reason will 
prove unable to maintain its hegemony4  
,when  the imagination has ceased to    
pull in accord with the reason in the   
service of a reality that is set above  
them both1 it is sure to become  the    
accomplice of expansive impulse1 and    
mere reason is not strong  enough to    
prevail over this union of imagination  
and desire4 ,reason  needs some driving 
power behind it1 a driving power that1  
when working  in alliance with the      

imagination1 it gets from insight4 ,to  
suppose  that man will long rest content
 with mere naked reason as his guide  is
 to forget that 8illusion is the queen  
of the human heart02 it is  to revive   
the stoical error4 ,schiller1 himself a 
,kantian1 felt this  rationalistic rigor
 and coldness of his master1 and so     
sought1 while  retaining the play theory
 of art1 to put behind the cold reason  
of  ,kant the driving power it lacked2  
for this driving power he looked not  to
 a supersensuous reality1 not to insight
 in short1 but to emotion4  ,he takes   
appropriately the motto for his 8sthetic
 ,letters0 from  ,rousseau3 ,si c'est la
 raison qui fait l'homme1 c'est le      
sentiment qui  le conduit4 ,he retains  
,kant's play theory of art without even 
so much  offset to this play as is      
implied in ,kant's 8purposiveness       
without  purpose40 ,the nobility of     
,schiller's intentions is beyond        
question4  ,at the same time1 by        
encouraging the notion that it is       

possible to  escape from neo-classical  
didacticism only by eliminating         
masculine  purpose from art1 he opens   
the way for the worst perversions of the
  sthete1 above all for the divorce of  
art from ethical reality4 ,in art1      
according to ,schiller1 both imagination
 and feeling should be free and         
spontaneous1 and the result of all this 
freedom1 as he sees it1 will be         
perfectly 8ideal40 ,his suspicion of a  
purpose is invincible4 ,as soon as      
anything has a purpose it ceases to be  
sthetic and in the same measure  suffers
 a loss of dignity4 ,thus the sthetic   
moment of the lion1 he  says1 is when he
 roars not with any definite design1 but
 out of sheer  lustiness1 and for the   
pure pleasure of roaring4    ,one may   
assume safely the sthetic attitude1 or  
what amounts to the  same thing1 allow  
one's self to be guided by feeling1 only
 on the  assumption that feeling is     
worthy of trust4 ,as appears in the very
  motto he took for his 8sthetic        

,letters0 ,schiller was helped to this  
faith in man's native goodness by       
,rousseau4 ,we need to pause for a      
moment at this point and consider the   
background of this belief which  finds  
not only in ,schiller but in ,rousseau  
himself1 with whom it is  usually       
associated1 a rather late expression4   
,the movement that took  its rise in the
 eighteenth century involves1 we should 
recollect1 a  break not with one but    
with two traditions--the classical and  
the  ,christian4 ,if the plea for genius
 and originality is to be largely       
explained as a protest against the      
mechanical imitation and artificial     
decorum of a certain type of classicist1
 the assertion of man's natural         
goodness is to be understood rather as a
 rebound from the doctrine of  total    
depravity that was held by the more     
austere type of ,christian4  ,this      
doctrine had even in the early centuries
 of the faith awakened  certain protests
 like that of ,pelagius1 but for an     

understanding of  the ,rousseauistic    
protest one does not need to go behind  
the great  deistic movement of the early
 eighteenth century4 ,god1 instead of   
being opposed to nature1 is conceived by
 the deist as a power that  expresses   
his goodness and loveliness through     
nature4 ,the oppressive  weight of fear 
that the older theology had laid upon   
the human spirit  is thus gradually     
lifted4 ,man begins to discover         
harmonies instead  of discords in       
himself and outer nature4 ,he not only  
sees virtue  in instinct but inclines to
 turn virtue itself into a 8sense10 or  
instinct4 ,and this means in practice to
 put emotional expansion in the  place  
of spiritual concentration at the basis 
of life and morals4 ,in  studying this  
drift towards an sthetic or sentimental 
morality one  may most conveniently take
 one's point of departure in certain    
,english  writers of deistic tendency1  
especially in ,shaftesbury and his      
disciple  ,hutcheson4 ,considered purely

 as an initiator1 ,shaftesbury is       
probably  more important than ,rousseau4
 ,his influence ramifies out in every   
direction1 notably into ,germany4       
,the central achievement of ,shaftesbury
 from a purely psychological  point of  
view may be said to be his              
transformation of conscience from  an   
inner check into an expansive emotion4  
,he is thus enabled to set  up an       
sthetic substitute not merely for       
traditional religion but for            
traditional humanism4 ,he undermines    
insidiously decorum1 the central        
doctrine of the classicist1 at the very 
time that he seems to be  defending it4 
,for decorum also implies a control upon
 the expansive  instincts of human      
nature1 and ,shaftesbury is actually    
engaged in  rehabilitating 8nature10 and
 insinuating that it does not need any  
control4 ,he attains this expansiveness 
by putting sthetic in the  place of     
spiritual perception1 and so merging    
more or less completely  the good and   

the true with the beautiful4 ,he thus   
points the way very  directly to        
,rousseau's rejection of both inner and 
outer control  in the name of man's     
natural goodness4 ,once accept          
,shaftesbury's  transformation of       
conscience and one is led almost        
inevitably to look  on everything that  
is expansive as natural or vital and on 
everything  that restricts expansion as 
conventional or artificial4 ,villers    
wrote  to ,madame de ,stal 7#d ,may1    
#ahjc73 8,the fundamental and creative  
idea  of all your work has been to show 
primitive1 incorruptible1 nave1         
passionate nature in conflict with the  
barriers and shackles of  conventional  
life4 ''' ,note that this is also the   
guiding idea of the  author of          
#8,werther4'0 ,this contrast between    
nature and convention is  indeed almost 
the whole of ,rousseauism4 ,in          
permitting his expansive  impulses to be
 disciplined by either humanism or      
religion man has  fallen away from      

nature much as in the old theology he   
has fallen  away from ,god1 and the     
famous 8return to nature0 means in      
practice  the emancipation of the       
ordinary or temperamental self that had 
been  thus artificially controlled4     
,this throwing off of the yoke of both  
,christian and classical discipline in  
the name of temperament is the          
essential aspect of the movement in     
favor of original genius4 ,the  genius  
does not look to any pattern that is set
 above his ordinary  spontaneous ego and
 imitate it4 ,on the contrary1 he       
attains to the  self-expression that    
other men1 intimidated by convention1   
weakly  forego4    ,in thus taking a    
stand for self-expression1 the original 
genius is in  a sense on firm ground--at
 least so far as the mere rationalist or
  the late and degenerate classicist is 
concerned4 ,no conventions are  final1  
no rules can set arbitrary limits to    
creation4 ,reality cannot be  locked up 
in any set of formul4 ,the element of   

change and novelty in  things1 as the   
romanticists are never tired of         
repeating1 is at once  vital and        
inexhaustible4 ,wherever we turn1 we    
encounter1 as a romantic  authority1    
,jacob ,boehme1 declares1 8abysmal1     
unsearchable and infinite               
multiplicity40 ,perhaps not since the   
beginning of the world have two  men or 
indeed two leaves or two blades of grass
 been exactly alike4  ,out of a thousand
 men shaving1 as ,dr4 ,johnson himself  
remarked1 no  two will shave in just the
 same way4 ,a person carries his        
uniqueness  even into his thumbprint--as
 a certain class in the community has   
learned to its cost4 ,but though all    
things are ineffably different  they are
 at the same time ineffably alike4 ,and 
this oneness in things  is1 no less than
 the otherwiseness1 a matter of         
immediate perception4  ,this universal  
implication of the one in the many is   
found even more  marked than elsewhere  
in the heart of the individual4 ,each   

man has  his idiosyncrasy 7literally his
 8private mixture074 ,but in addition   
to his complexion1 his temperamental or 
private self1 every man has  a self that
 he possesses in common with other men4 
,even the man who  is most filled with  
his own uniqueness1 or 8genius10 a      
,rousseau1 for  example1 assumes this   
universal self in every word he utters4 
8,jove  nods to ,jove behind us as we   
talk40 ,the word character1 one may     
note1  is ambiguous1 inasmuch as it may 
refer either to the idiosyncratic or  to
 the universal human element in a man's 
dual nature4 ,for example1 an  original 
genius like ,william ,blake not only    
uses the word character  in a different 
sense from ,aristotle--he cannot even   
understand the  ,aristotelian usage4    
8,aristotle10 he complains1 8says       
characters are  either good or bad2 now 
,goodness or ,badness has nothing to do 
with  ,character4 ,an apple tree1 a pear
 tree1 a horse1 a lion are ,characters2 
but a good apple tree or a bad is an    

apple tree still1 etc40 ,but  character 
as ,aristotle uses the word implies     
something that man  possesses and that a
 horse or tree does not possess--the    
power namely  to deliberate and choose4 
,a man has a good or bad character1 he  
is  ethical or unethical1 as one may say
 from the ,greek word for character  in 
this sense 771 according to the quality 
of his choice as it  appears in what he 
actually does4 ,this distinction between
 a man's  private1 peculiar character 77
 and the character he possesses  when   
judged with reference to something more 
general than his own  complexion is very
 similar to the ,french distinction     
between the sens  propre and the sens   
commun4    ,the general sense or norm   
that is opposed to mere temperament and 
impulse may rest upon the ethos of a    
particular time and country--the        
traditional habits and customs that the 
,rousseauist is wont to dismiss  as     
8artificial0--or it may rest in varying 
degrees upon immediate  perception4 ,for

 example1 the ,ismene and ,antigone of  
,sophocles are  both ethical2 but       
,ismene would abide by the law of the   
state1 whereas  ,antigone opposes to    
this law something still more           
universal--the  8unwritten laws of      
heaven40 ,this insight of ,antigone into
 a moral order  that is set not only    
above her ordinary self but above the   
convention  of her time and country is  
something very immediate1 something     
achieved1 as ,i shall try to show more  
fully later1 with the aid of the        
imagination4    ,it is scarcely         
necessary to add that such a perfect    
example of the  ethical imagination as  
one finds in ,antigone--the imagination 
that  works concentric with the human   
law--is rare4 ,in actual life for  one  
,antigone who obeys the 8unwritten laws 
of heaven0 there will  be a thousand    
,ismenes who will be guided in their    
moral choices by  the law of the        
community4 ,this law1 the convention of 
a particular  place and time1 is always 

but a very imperfect image1 a mere      
shadow  indeed of the unwritten law     
which being above the ordinary rational 
level is1 in a sense to be explained    
later1 infinite and incapable  of final 
formulation4 ,and yet men are forced if 
only on practical  grounds to work out  
some approximation to this law as a     
barrier to the  unchained appetites of  
the individual4 ,the elements that enter
 into  any particular attempt to        
circumscribe the individual in the      
interests  of the community are very    
mixed and in no small measure relative4 
,yet  the things that any group of men  
have come together about--their         
conventions in the literal meaning of   
the word--even the tabus of a  savage   
tribe1 are sure to reflect1 however     
inadequately1 the element  of oneness in
 man1 the element which is opposed to   
expansive impulse1  and which is no less
 real1 no less a matter of immediate    
experience1  than the element of        
irreducible difference4 ,the general    

sense therefore  should never be        
sacrificed lightly to the sense of the  
individual4  ,tabu1 however inferior it 
may be to insight1 deserves to rank     
higher  after all than mere             
temperament4#da    ,the original genius 
proceeds upon the opposite assumption4  
,everything  that limits temperamental  
expansion is dismissed as either        
artificial  or mechanical2 everything on
 the contrary that makes for the        
emancipation of temperament1 and so for 
variety and difference1 he  welcomes as 
vital1 dynamic1 creative4 ,now1 speaking
 not metaphysically  but practically and
 experimentally1 man may1 as ,i have    
said1 follow two  main paths3 he may    
develop his ethical self--the self that 
lays hold  of unity--or he may put his  
main emphasis on the element within him 
and without him that is associated with 
novelty and change4 ,in direct          
proportion as he turns his attention to 
the infinite manifoldness of  things he 
experiences wonder2 if on the other hand

 he attends to the  unity that underlies
 the manifoldness and that likewise     
transcends him1  he experiences awe4 ,as
 a man grows religious1 awe comes more  
and more  to take the place in him of   
wonder4 ,the humanist is less averse    
from  the natural order and its         
perpetual gushing forth of novelties    
than the  man who is religious1 yet even
 the humanist refuses to put his final  
emphasis on wonder 7his motto is rather 
nil admirari74 ,to illustrate           
concretely1 ,dr4 ,johnson can scarcely  
conceal his disdain for the  wonderful1 
but being a genuinely religious spirit1 
is very capable of  awe4 ,commenting on 
,yalden's line        ,awhile th'       
,almighty wondering stood1    ,dr4      
,johnson remarks3 8,he ought to have    
remembered that ,infinite  ,knowledge   
can never wonder4 ,all wonder is the    
effect of novelty upon  ,ignorance40    
,granted the justness of the remark1    
,johnson seems inclined  at times to    
forget how wide is the gap in this      

respect between us  and the ,almighty   
and therefore to be unduly hostile to   
the element  of wonder4 ,to take the    
opposite case1 it is not easy to        
discover in  either the personality or  
writings of ,poe an atom of awe or      
reverence4  ,on the other hand he both  
experiences wonder and seeks in his art 
to be a pure wondersmith4 ,it is        
especially important to determine a     
man's attitude towards himself in this  
matter of awe and wonder1 in  other     
words to determine whether he is taken  
up first of all with that  element in   
his own nature which makes him          
incomprehensibly like other  men or with
 that element which makes him           
incomprehensibly different  from them4  
,a man1 the wise have always insisted1  
should look with  reverence but not with
 wonder on himself4 ,rousseau boasts    
that if not  better than other men1 he  
is at least different4 ,by this gloating
  sense of his own otherwiseness he may 
be said to have set the tone for  a     

whole epoch4 ,chateaubriand1 for        
instance1 is quite overcome by his  own 
uniqueness and wonderfulness4 ,at the   
most ordinary happenings he  exclaims1  
as ,sainte-,beuve points out1 that such 
things happen only to  him4 ,hugo again 
is positively stupefied at the immensity
 of his own  genius4 ,the theatricality 
that one feels in so much of the art of 
this  period arises from the eagerness  
of the genius to communicate to others  
something of the amazement that he feels
 at himself4 ,ren's first  concern is to
 inspire wonder even in the women who   
love him4 8,cluta  felt that she was    
going to fall upon the bosom of this man
 as one falls  into an abyss40    ,in   
thus putting such an exclusive emphasis 
on wonder the ,rousseauistic  movement  
takes on a regressive character4 ,for if
 life begins in  wonder it culminates in
 awe4 ,to put 8the budding rose above   
the rose  full-blown0 may do very well  
for a mood1 but as an habitual attitude 
it implies that one is more interested  

in origins than in ends2 and  this means
 in practice to look backward and       
downward instead of forward  and up4    
,the conscious analysis that is needed  
if one is to establish  orderly         
sequences and relationships and so work 
out a kingdom of ends  is repudiated by 
the ,rousseauist because it diminishes  
wonder1 because  it interferes with the 
creative impulse of genius as it gushes 
up  spontaneously from the depths of the
 unconscious4 ,the whole movement is    
filled with the praise of ignorance and 
of those who still enjoy its            
inappreciable advantages--the savage1   
the peasant and above all the  child4   
,the ,rousseauist may indeed be said to 
have discovered the poetry  of childhood
 of which only traces can be found in   
the past1 but at what  would seem at    
times a rather heavy sacrifice of       
rationality4 ,rather  than consent to   
have the bloom taken off things by      
analysis one should1  as ,coleridge     
tells us1 sink back to the devout state 

of childlike  wonder4 ,however1 to grow 
ethically is not to sink back but to    
struggle  painfully forward4 ,to affirm 
the contrary is to set up the things    
that  are below the ordinary rational   
level as a substitute for the things    
that are above it1 and at the same time 
to proclaim one's inability to  mature4 
,the romanticist1 it is true1 is wont to
 oppose to the demand  for maturity     
,christ's praise of the child4 ,but     
,christ evidently praises  the child not
 because of his capacity for wonder but 
because of his  freedom from sin1 and it
 is of the essence of ,rousseauism to   
deny the  very existence of sin--at     
least in the ,christian sense of the    
word4  ,one may also read in the ,new   
,testament that when one has ceased to  
be  a child one should give up childish 
things1 and this is a saying that  no   
primitivist1 so far as ,i am aware1 has 
ever quoted4 ,on the contrary1  he is   
ready to assert that what comes to the  
child spontaneously is  superior to the 

deliberate moral effort of the mature   
man4 ,the speeches  of all the sages    
are1 according to ,maeterlinck1         
outweighed by the  unconscious wisdom of
 the passing child4 ,wordsworth hails a 
child of  six as 8,mighty ,prophet6     
,seer blest60 7,it is only fair to      
,coleridge  to say that he refused to   
follow ,wordsworth into this final abyss
 of  absurdity4#db7 ,in much the same   
way ,hugo pushes his adoration of  the  
child to the verge of what has been     
termed 8solemn silliness0  7niaiserie   
solennelle74    ,to set up the          
spontaneity of the child as a substitute
 for insight1  to identify wonder with  
awe1 romance with religion1 is to       
confuse the  very planes of being4      
,there would appear to be a confusion of
 this kind  in what ,carlyle takes to be
 his own chief discovery1 in his        
8natural  supernaturalism40#dc ,the     
natural order we must grant ,carlyle is 
unfathomable1 but it is not therefore   
awful1 only wonderful4 ,a movement  of  

charity belongs as ,pascal says to an   
entirely different order4#dd    ,the    
spiritual order to which ,pascal refers 
lifts a man so far as he  perceives it  
out of his ordinary self and draws him  
to an ethical  centre4 ,but the         
,rousseauist tends1 as ,i have said1 to 
repudiate  the very idea of an ethical  
centre along with the special forms in  
which it had got itself embedded4 ,every
 attempt1 whether humanistic  or        
religious1 to set up some such centre1  
to oppose a unifying and  centralizing  
principle to expansive impulse1 seems to
 him arbitrary  and artificial4 ,he does
 not discriminate between the ethical   
norm or  centre that a ,sophocles grasps
 intuitively and the centrality that the
  pseudo-classicist hopes to achieve by 
mechanical imitation4 ,he argues  from  
his underlying assumption that the      
principle of variation is alone  vital1 
that one's genius and originality are in
 pretty direct ratio  to one's          
eccentricity in the literal meaning of  

the word2 and he is  therefore ready to 
affirm his singularity or difference in 
the face of  whatever happens to be     
established4 ,this attitude1 it is worth
 noting1  is quite unlike that of the   
humorist in the old ,english sense of   
the  word1 who indulges his bent and is 
at the same time quite unconcerned  with
 any central model that he should       
imitate and with reference to  which he 
should discipline his oddities4 ,the    
idiosyncrasy of the  ,rousseauist is    
not1 like that of the humorist1 genial1 
but defiant4  ,he is strangely          
self-conscious in his return to the     
unconscious4 ,in  everything1 from his  
vocabulary to the details of his dress1 
he is  eager to emphasize his departure 
from the norm4 ,hence the persistent    
pose and theatricality in so many of the
 leaders of this movement1 in  ,rousseau
 himself1 for instance1 or in           
,chateaubriand and ,byron4 ,as for  the 
lesser figures in the movement their    
8genius0 is often chiefly  displayed in 

their devices for calling attention to  
themselves as the  latest and most      
marvellous births of time2 it is only   
one aspect in  short of an art in which 
the past century1 whatever its          
achievement in  the other arts1 has     
easily surpassed all its                
predecessors--the art of  advertising4  
,one needs always to return1 however1 if
 one is to understand the  romantic     
notion of genius1 to a consideration of 
the pseudo-classic  decorum against     
which it is a protest4 ,the gentleman or
 man of the  world 7honnte homme7 was   
not1 like the original genius1 anxious  
to advertise himself1 to call attention 
to his own special note  of originality1
 since his primary concern was with an  
entirely  different problem1 with the   
problem1 namely1 not of expressing but  
of humanizing himself2 and he could     
humanize himself1 he felt1 only  by     
constant reference to the accepted      
standard of what the normal  man should 
be4 ,he refused to 8pride himself on    

anything02 he was  fearful of           
over-emphasis1 because the first of     
virtues in his eyes  was a sense of     
proportion4 ,the total symmetry of life 
to which the  best type of classicist   
refers back his every impulse1 he       
apprehends  intuitively with the aid of 
his imagination4 ,the symmetry to which 
the  pseudo-classicist refers back his  
impulses has ceased to be imaginative   
and has become a mere conformity to an  
outer code or even to the rules  of     
etiquette2 and so1 instead of a deep    
imaginative insight1 he gets  mere      
elegance or polish4 ,the unity that a   
purely external decorum of  this kind   
imposes on life degenerates into a      
tiresome sameness4 ,it  seems an        
unwarranted denial of the element of    
wonder and surprise4  8,boredom was born
 one day of uniformity10 said ,la ,motte
 ,houdard1 who  was himself a           
pseudo-classicist2 whereas variety as   
everybody knows  is the spice of life4  
,the romanticist would break up the     

smooth and  tiresome surface of         
artificial decorum by the pursuit of    
strangeness4  ,if he can only get his   
thrill he cares little whether it is    
probable1  whether it bears any         
relation1 that is1 to normal human      
experience4  ,this sacrifice of the     
probable to the surprising appears1 as  
,i said  at the outset1 in all types of 
romanticism--whether of action or       
thought or feeling4 ,the genuine        
classicist always puts his main  stress 
on design or structure2 whereas the main
 quest of every type  of romanticist is 
rather for the intense and vivid and    
arresting  detail4 ,take1 for instance1 
the intellectual romanticism that       
prevailed  especially in the late       
sixteenth and early seventeenth         
centuries4 ,in  the 8witty and          
conceited0 poets of this period the     
intellect is engaged  in a more or less 
irresponsible vagabondage with the      
imagination as its  free accomplice4    
,the conceits by which a poet of this   

type displays his  8ingenuity0 7genius7 
are not structural1 are not1 that is1   
referred  back to any centre4 ,they     
stand forth each separately and sharply 
from  the surface of the style 7hence   
known to the ,french as 8points071 and  
so arrest the reader by their novelty4  
,their rareness and preciousness1       
however1 are intended to startle the    
intellect alone4 ,they do not  have and 
are not intended to have any power of   
sensuous suggestion4  ,the              
,rousseauistic romanticist1 on the other
 hand1 so far from being                
8metaphysical10 strives to be concrete  
even at the risk of a certain           
materialism of style1 of turning his    
metaphors into mere images4 ,like  the  
intellectual romanticist1 though in a   
different way1 he wishes to  break up   
the smooth and monotonous surface of    
life and style1 and so he  sets up the  
cult of the picturesque4 ,to understand 
this cult one needs  to remember the    
opposite extreme of artificial symmetry4

 ,one needs to  recall1 for example1 the
 neo-classicist who complained of the   
stars  in heaven because they were not  
arranged in symmetrical patterns1 or    
various other neo-classicists who       
attacked mountains because of their     
rough and irregular shapes1 because of  
their refusal to submit to the  rule and
 compass4 ,when beauty is conceived in  
so mechanical a fashion  some one is    
almost certain to wish to 8add          
strangeness0 to it4    ,the cult of the 
picturesque is closely associated with  
the cult of  local color4 ,here as      
elsewhere romantic genius is1 in        
contradistinction  to classical genius  
which aims at the 8grandeur of          
generality10 the  genius of wonder and  
surprise4 ,according to ,buffon1 who    
offers the  rare spectacle of a man of  
science who is at the same time a       
theorist  of the grand manner1 genius is
 shown in the architectonic gift--in    
the power so to unify a subject as to   
keep its every detail in proper         

subordination to the whole4 ,any mere   
wantoning of the imagination  in the    
pursuit of either the precious or the   
picturesque is to be  severely repressed
 if one is to attain to the grandeur of 
generality4  ,buffon is truly classic in
 relating genius to design4             
,unfortunately  he verges towards the   
pseudo-classic in his distrust of color1
 of the  precise word and the vivid     
descriptive epithet4 ,the growing verbal
  squeamishness that so strikes one     
towards the end of the neo-classic      
period is one outcome of artificial     
decorum1 of confusing nobility of       
language with the language of the       
nobility4 ,there was an increasing  fear
 of the trivial word that might destroy 
the illusion of the grand  manner1 and  
also of the technical term that should  
be too suggestive  of specialization4   
,all terms were to be avoided that were 
not readily  intelligible to a lady or  
gentleman in the drawing-room4 ,and so  
it  came to pass that by the end of the 

eighteenth century the grand  manner1 or
 elevated style1 had come to be largely 
an art of ingenious  circumlocution1 and
 ,buffon gives some countenance to this 
conception of  classic dignity and      
representativeness when he declares that
 one should  describe objects 8only by  
the most general terms40 ,at all events 
the  reply of the romantic genius to    
this doctrine is the demand for local   
color1 for the concrete and picturesque 
phrase4 ,the general truth at  which the
 classicist aims the ,rousseauist       
dismisses as identical with  the gray   
and the academic1 and bends all his     
efforts to the rendering  of the vivid  
and unique detail4 ,of the readiness of 
the romantic genius  to show 7or one is 
tempted to say7 to advertise his        
originality by  trampling verbal decorum
 under foot along with every other kind 
of  decorum1 ,i shall have more to say  
later4 ,he is ready to employ not only  
the homely and familiar word that the   
pseudo-classicist had eschewed  as      

8low10 but words so local and technical 
as to be unintelligible to  ordinary    
readers4 ,chateaubriand deals so        
specifically with the ,north  ,american 
,indian and his environment that the    
result1 according to  ,sainte-,beuve1 is
 a sort of 8tattooing0 of his style4    
,hugo bestows a  whole dictionary of    
architectural terms upon the reader in  
his 8,ntre  ,dame10 and of nautical     
terms in his 8,toilers of the ,sea40 ,in
 order to  follow some of the passages  
in ,balzac's 8,csar ,birotteau10 one    
needs  to be a lawyer or a professional 
accountant1 and it has been said that   
in order to do justice to a certain     
description in ,zola one would need  to 
be a pork-butcher4 ,in this movement    
towards a highly specialized  vocabulary
 one should note a coperation1 as so    
often elsewhere1  between the two wings 
of the naturalistic movement--the       
scientific and  the emotional4 ,the     
,rousseauist is1 like the scientist1 a  
specialist--he  specializes in his own  

sensations4 ,he goes in quest of        
emotional  thrills for their own sake1  
just as ,napoleon's generals1 according 
to  ,sainte-,beuve1 waged war without   
any ulterior aim but for the sheer lust 
of conquest4 ,the vivid images and      
picturesque details are therefore  not  
sufficiently structural2 each one tends 
to thrust itself forward  without       
reference to the whole and to demand    
attention for its own sake4    ,the     
pursuit of the unrelated thrill without 
reference to its  motivation or         
probability leads in the romantic       
movement to a sort of  descent--often1  
it is true1 a rapturous and lyrical     
descent--from the  dramatic to the      
melodramatic4 ,it is possible to trace  
this one-sided  emphasis on wonder not  
merely in vocabulary but in the         
increasing  resort to the principle of  
contrast4 ,one suspects1 for example1   
that  ,rousseau exaggerates the         
grotesqueness of his youthful failure as
 a  musical composer at ,lausanne in    

order that his success in the same  rle 
before the king and all the ladies of   
the court at ,versailles may  8stick    
more fiery off40 ,the contrast that     
,chateaubriand establishes  between the 
two banks of the ,mississippi at the    
beginning of his  8,atala0 is so        
complete as to put some strain on       
verisimilitude4 ,one  may note in this  
same description1 as a somewhat         
different way of  sacrificing the       
probable to the picturesque1 the bears  
drunk on wild  grapes and reeling on the
 branches of the elms4 ,to prove that it
 was  possible on some particular       
occasion to look down the vista of a    
forest  glade on the lower ,mississippi 
and see it closed by a drunken bear does
  not meet the difficulty at all4 ,for  
art has to do1 as was remarked long     
ago1 not with the possible but the      
probable2 and a bear in this posture  is
 a possible but scarcely a probable     
bear4    ,to return to the principle of 
contrast3 ,hugo dilates upon his        

puniness  as an infant 78abandoned by   
everybody1 even by his mother07 in order
  to make his later achievement seem    
still more stupendous4#de ,the  use of  
the antithesis as the auxiliary of      
surprise1 the abrupt and  thrilling     
passage from light to shade or the      
contrary1 finds perhaps  its culminating
 expression in ,hugo4 ,a study of this  
one figure as it  appears in his words  
and ideas1 in his characters and        
situations and  subjects1 would show    
that he is the most melodramatic genius 
for whom  high rank has ever been       
claimed in literature4 ,the suddenness  
of ,jean  ,valjean's transformation from
 a convict into a saint may serve as a  
single instance of ,hugo's readiness to 
sacrifice verisimilitude to  surprise in
 his treatment of character4    ,closely
 allied to the desire to break up the   
monotonous surface of  8good form0 by   
the pointed and picturesque style in    
writing is the rise  of the pointed and 
picturesque style in dress4 ,a man may  

advertise  his genius and originality   
7in the romantic sense of these terms7  
by  departing from the accepted modes of
 costume as well as from the  accepted  
modes of speech4 ,gautier's scarlet     
waistcoat at the first  performance of  
,hernani is of the same order as his    
flamboyant epithets1  his riot of local 
color1 and was at least as effective in 
achieving  the main end of his life--to 
be1 in his own phrase1 the 8terror of   
the  sleek1 baldheaded bourgeois40 ,in  
assuming the ,armenian garb to the      
astonishment of the rustics of          
,motiers-,travers1 ,rousseau anticipates
  not merely ,gautier but innumerable   
other violators of conventional         
correctness3 here as elsewhere he       
deserves to rank as the classic         
instance1 one is tempted to say1 of     
romantic eccentricity4 ,la ,bruyre1  an 
exponent of the traditional             
good-breeding against which ,rousseauism
  is a protest1 says that the gentleman 
allows himself to be dressed by  his    

tailor4 ,he wishes to be neither ahead  
of the mode nor behind it1  being       
reluctant as he is in all things to     
oppose his private sense to  the general
 sense4 ,his point of view in the matter
 of dress is not so  very remote from   
that of a genuine classicism1 whereas   
the enthusiast  who recently went about 
the streets of ,new ,york 7until taken  
in by  the police7 garbed as a          
contemporary of ,pericles is no less    
plainly a  product of ,rousseauistic    
revolt4    ,chateaubriand's relation to 
,rousseauism in this matter calls for   
special comment4 ,he encouraged1 and to 
some extent held1 the belief  that to   
show genius and originality one must be 
irregular and  tempestuous in all       
things1 even in the arrangement of one's
 hair4 ,at  the same time he preached   
reason4 ,his heart1 in short1 was       
romantic1  his head classical4 ,both as 
a classicist and a romanticist he was   
ready  to repudiate on the one hand his 
master ,rousseau1 and on the other  his 

own disciples4 ,as a romantic genius he 
wished to regard himself  as unique and 
so unrelated to ,rousseau4 ,at the same 
time he also  looked upon it as a sort  
of insolence for any of his own         
followers to  aspire to such a lonely   
preminence in grief as ,ren4 ,as a      
classicist  he saw that great art aims  
at the normal and the representative1   
and  that it is therefore absurd for    
people to pattern themselves on such    
morbid and exceptional characters as    
,ren and ,childe ,harold4 ,most  of the 
romanticists indeed showed themselves   
very imitative even in  their attempts  
at uniqueness1 and the result was a     
second or third  hand1 or as one is     
tempted to say1 a stale eccentricity4   
,in their mere  following of the mode   
many of the ,french romanticists of     
#ahcj were  ready to impose a painful   
discipline upon themselves#df in order  
to  appear abnormal1 in order1 for      
instance1 to acquire a livid ,byronic   
complexion4 ,some of those who wished to

 seem elegiac like ,lamartine  rather   
than to emulate the violent and         
histrionic revolt of the ,conrads  and  
,laras actually succeeded1 we are told1 
in giving themselves  consumption 7hence
 the epithet cole poitrinaire74    ,in  
outer and visible freakishness the      
,french romanticists of #ahcj  probably 
bore away the palm1 though in inner and 
spiritual remoteness  from normal human 
experience they can scarcely vie with   
the early  ,german romanticists4 ,and   
this is doubtless due to the fact that  
in  ,france there was a more definite   
outer standard from which to advertise  
their departure1 and also to the fact   
that the revolt against this  standard  
was so largely participated in by the   
painters and by writers  like ,gautier  
who were also interested in painting4   
,chateaubriand  writes of the romantic  
painters 7and the passage will also     
serve to  illustrate his attitude       
towards his own disciples73 8,these     
artists  rig themselves up as comic     

sketches1 as grotesques1 as caricatures4
  ,some of them wear frightful          
mustaches1 one would suppose that they  
are going forth to conquer the          
world--their brushes are halberds1      
their paint-scratchers sabres2 others   
have enormous beards and hair  that     
puffs out or hangs down their shoulders2
 they smoke a cigar  volcanically4      
,these cousins of the rainbow1 to use a 
phrase of our old  ,rgnier1 have their  
heads filled with deluges1 seas1 rivers1
 forests1  cataracts1 tempests1 or it   
may be with slaughters1 tortures and    
scaffolds4 ,one finds among them human  
skulls1 foils1 mandolins1 helmets  and  
dolmans4 ''' ,they aim to form a        
separate species between the ape and    
the satyr2 they give you to understand  
that the secrecy of the studio  has its 
dangers and that there is no safety for 
the models40    ,these purely personal  
eccentricities that so marked the early 
stages in  the warfare between the      
,bohemian and the philistine have as a  

matter  of fact diminished in our own   
time4 ,nowadays a man of the distinction
  of ,disraeli or even of               
,bulwer-,lytton#dg would scarcely       
affect1 as  they did1 the flamboyant    
style in dress4 ,but the underlying     
failure  to discriminate between the odd
 and the original has persisted and has 
worked out into even extremer           
consequences4 ,one may note1 as ,i have 
said1 even in the early figures in the  
movement a tendency to play to  the     
gallery1 a something that suggests the  
approach of the era of the  lime-light  
and the big headline4 ,rousseau himself 
has been called the  father of yellow   
journalists4 ,there is an unbroken      
development from  the early exponents of
 original genius down to cubists1       
futurists and  post-impressionists and  
the corresponding schools in literature4
 ,the  partisans of expression as       
opposed to form in the eighteenth       
century  led to the fanatics of         
expression in the nineteenth and these  

have  led to the maniacs of expression  
of the twentieth4 ,the extremists in    
painting have got so far beyond ,czanne1
 who was regarded not long ago  as one  
of the wildest of innovators1 that      
,czanne is1 we are told1 8in  a fair way
 to achieve the unhappy fate of becoming
 a classic40 ,poe  was fond of quoting a
 saying of ,bacon's that 8there is no   
excellent  beauty that hath not some    
strangeness in the proportion40 ,this   
saying  became known in ,france through 
,baudelaire's rendering of ,poe and was 
often ascribed to ,poe himself4 ,it was 
taken to mean that the stranger  one    
became the nearer one was getting to    
perfect beauty4 ,and if we  grant this  
view of beauty we must admit that some  
of the decadents  succeeded in becoming 
very beautiful indeed4 ,but the more the
 element  of proportion in beauty is    
sacrificed to strangeness the more the  
result will seem to the normal man to   
be1 not beauty at all1 but rather  an   
esoteric cult of ugliness4 ,the romantic

 genius therefore denounces  the normal 
man as a philistine and at the same     
time1 since he cannot  please him1 seeks
 at least to shock him and so capture   
his attention  by the very violence of  
eccentricity4    ,the saying ,i have    
quoted from ,bacon is perhaps an early  
example of the  inner alliance between  
things that superficially often seem    
remote--the  scientific spirit and the  
spirit of romance4 ,scientific discovery
 has  given a tremendous stimulus to    
wonder and curiosity1 has encouraged a  
purely exploratory attitude towards life
 and raised an overwhelming             
prepossession in favor of the new as    
compared with the old4 ,baconian  and   
,rousseauist evidently come together by 
their primary emphasis on  novelty4 ,the
 movement towards a more and more       
eccentric conception  of art and        
literature has been closely allied in   
practice with the  doctrine of          
progress--and that from the very dawn of
 the so-called  ,quarrel of ,ancients   

and ,moderns4 ,it is scarcely possible  
to exaggerate  the havoc that has been  
wrought by the transfer of the belief   
that  the latest thing is the best--a   
belief that is approximately true  of   
automobiles--from the material order to 
an entirely different  realm4#dh ,the   
very heart of the classical message1 one
 cannot repeat  too often1 is that one  
should aim first of all not to be       
original1  but to be human1 and that to 
be human one needs to look up to a sound
  model and imitate it4 ,the imposition 
of form and proportion upon one's       
expansive impulses which results from   
this process of imitation is1  in the   
true sense of that much abused word1    
culture4 ,genuine culture  is difficult 
and disciplinary4 ,the mediation that it
 involves between  the conflicting      
claims of form and expression requires  
the utmost  contention of spirit4 ,we   
have here a clue to the boundless       
success  of the ,rousseauistic doctrine 
of spontaneity1 of the assertion that   

genius resides in the region of the     
primitive and unconscious and is        
hindered rather than helped by culture4 
,it is easier to be a genius  on        
,rousseauistic lines than to be a man on
 the terms imposed by the  classicist4  
,there is a fatal facility about        
creation when its quality  is not tested
 by some standard set above the         
creator's temperament2  and the same    
fatal facility appears in criticism when
 the critic does  not test creation by  
some standard set above both his own    
temperament  and that of the creator4   
,the romantic critic as a matter of fact
  confines his ambition to receiving so 
keen an impression from genius1         
conceived as something purely           
temperamental1 that when this creative  
expression is passed through his        
temperament it will issue forth as a    
fresh expression4 ,taste1 he holds1 will
 thus tend to become one with  genius1  
and criticism1 instead of being cold and
 negative like that of  the             

neo-classicist1 will itself grow        
creative4#di ,but the critic who  does  
not get beyond this stage will have     
gusto1 zest1 relish1 what you  will1 he 
will not have taste4 ,for taste involves
 a difficult mediation  between the     
element of uniqueness in both critic and
 creator and that  which is             
representative and human4 ,once         
eliminate this human standard  that is  
set above the temperament of the creator
 and make of the critic  in turn a mere 
pander to 8genius0 and it is hard to see
 what measure  of a man's excellence is 
left save his intoxication with himself2
 and  this measure would scarcely seem  
to be trustworthy4 8,every ass that's   
romantic10 says ,wolseley in his        
,preface to 8,valentinian0 7#afhf7      
8believes he's inspired40    ,an        
important aspect of the romantic theory 
of genius remains to be  considered4    
,this theory is closely associated in   
its rise and growth  with the theory of 
the master faculty or ruling passion4 ,a

 man can  do that for which he has a    
genius without effort1 whereas no amount
  of effort can avail to give a man that
 for which he has no native             
aptitude4#ej ,buffon affirmed in        
opposition to this view that genius is  
only a capacity for taking pains or1 as 
an ,american recently put it1 is  ten   
per cent inspiration and ninety per cent
 perspiration4 ,this notion  of genius  
not only risks running counter to the   
observed facts as to  the importance of 
the native gift but it does not bring   
out as clearly  as it might the real    
point at issue4 ,even though genius were
 shown  to be ninety per cent           
inspiration a man should still1 the     
classicist  would insist1 fix his       
attention on the fraction that is within
 his  power4 ,thus ,boileau says in     
substance at the outset of his 8,art of 
,poetry0 that a poet needs to be born   
under a propitious star4 ,genius  is    
indispensable1 and not merely genius in 
general but genius for the  special kind

 of poetry in which he is to excel4 ,yet
 granting all this1  he says to the     
poetical aspirant1 bestir yourself6 ,the
 mystery of grace  will always be       
recognized in any view of life that gets
 at all beneath  the surface4 ,yet it is
 still the better part to turn to the   
feasibility  of works4 ,the view of     
genius as merely a temperamental        
overflow is as  a matter of fact only a 
caricature of the doctrine of grace4 ,it
 suits  the spiritual indolence of the  
creator who seeks to evade the more     
difficult half of his problem--which is 
not merely to create but to  humanize   
his creation4 ,hawthorne1 for example1  
is according to ,mr4  ,brownell1 too    
prone 7except in the 8,scarlet ,letter07
 to get away from  the clear sunlight of
 normal human experience into a region  
of somewhat  crepuscular symbolism1 and 
this is because he yielded too          
complacently  and fatalistically to what
 he conceived to be his genius4 ,the    
theory  of genius is perhaps the chief  

inheritance of the ,new ,england        
transcendentalists from romanticism4    
,hawthorne was more on his guard        
against the extreme implications of the 
theory than most other members  of this 
group4 ,it remains to be seen how much  
the exaltation of genius  and           
depreciation of culture that marks one  
whole side of ,emerson will  in the long
 run tell against his reputation4 ,the  
lesser ,new ,england men  showed a rare 
incapacity to distinguish between       
originality and mere  freakishness      
either in themselves or in others4      
,it is fair to say that in lieu of the  
discipline of culture the  romantic     
genius has often insisted on the        
discipline of technique2  and this has  
been especially true in a country like  
,france with its  persistent tradition  
of careful workmanship4 ,gautier1 for   
example1  would have one's 8floating    
dream sealed0#ea in the hardest and most
  resisting material1 that can only be  
mastered by the perfect craftsman2  and 

he himself1 falling into a confusion of 
the arts1 tries to display  such a      
craftsmanship by painting and carving   
with words4 ,flaubert1  again1 refines  
upon the technique of writing to a point
 where it  becomes not merely a         
discipline but a torture4 ,but if a man 
is to  be a romantic genius in the      
fullest sense he must1 it should seem1  
repudiate even the discipline of        
technique as well as the discipline of  
culture in favor of an artless          
spontaneity4 ,for after all the genius  
is only the man who retains the virtues 
of the child1 and technical  proficiency
 is scarcely to be numbered among these 
virtues4 ,the ,german  romanticists     
already prefer the early ,italian       
painters because of their  navet and    
divine awkwardness to the later artiste 
who had a more  conscious mastery of    
their material4 ,the whole              
,pre-,raphaelite movement  is therefore 
only one aspect of ,rousseau's return to
 nature4 ,to later  primitivists the    

early ,italians themselves seem far too 
deliberate4  ,they would recover the    
spontaneity displayed in the markings on
  ,alaskan totem poles or in the        
scratchings of the caveman on the       
flint4 ,a prerequisite to pure genius1  
if we are to judge by their own         
productions1 is an inability to draw4   
,the futurists in their endeavor  to    
convey symbolically their own 8soul0 or 
8vision0--a vision be it  noted of pure 
flux and motion--deny the very          
conditions of time and  space that      
determine the special technique of      
painting2 and inasmuch  as to express   
one's 8soul0 means for these moderns1 as
 it did for the  8genius0 of the        
eighteenth century1 to express the      
ineffable difference  between themselves
 and others1 the symbolizing of this    
soul to which  they have sacrificed both
 culture and technique remains a dark   
mystery4    ,an eccentricity so extreme 
as to be almost or quite                
indistinguishable  from madness is then 

the final outcome of the revolt of the  
original  genius from the regularity of 
the eighteenth century4 ,the eighteenth 
century had1 one must confess1 become   
too much like the ,happy ,valley  from  
which ,rasselas1 ,prince of ,abyssinia1 
sought an egress4 ,it was fair  to the  
eye and satisfied all man's ordinary    
needs1 but it seemed at the  same time  
to hem him in oppressively1 and limit   
unduly his horizons4  ,for the modern   
man1 as for the prince in ,johnson's    
tale1 a regular  round of assured       
felicities has counted for nought as    
compared with the  passion for the open2
 though now that he has tasted strange  
adventures1  the modern man will        
scarcely decide at the end1 like the    
prince1 to  8return to ,abyssinia40 ,i  
have already spoken of the rationalistic
 and  pseudo-classic elements in the    
eighteenth century that the romantic    
rebels found so intolerable4 ,it is     
impossible to follow 8reason10 they     
said in substance1 and also to slake    

one's thirst for the 8infinite02  it is 
impossible to conform and imitate and at
 the same time to be free  and original 
and spontaneous4 ,above all it is       
impossible to submit  to the yoke of    
either reason or imitation and at the   
same time to be  imaginative4 ,this last
 assertion will always be the main point
 at issue  in any genuine debate between
 classicist and romanticist4 ,the       
supreme  thing in life1 the romanticist 
declares1 is the creative imagination1  
and it can be restored to its rights    
only by repudiating imitation4 ,the     
imagination is supreme the classicist   
grants but adds that to imitate  rightly
 is to make the highest use of the      
imagination4 ,to understand  all that is
 implied in this central divergence     
between classicist  and romanticist we  
shall need to study in more detail the  
kind of  imaginative activity that has  
been encouraged in the whole movement   
extending from the rise of the original 
genius in the eighteenth  century to the

 present day4          ,,chapter ,,iii  
,,romantic ,,imagination      ,i have   
already spoken of the contrast          
established by the theorists of         
original genius in the eighteenth       
century between the different types  of 
imagination--especially between the     
literary and the scientific             
imagination4 ,according to these        
theorists1 it will be remembered1 the   
scientific imagination should be        
strictly subordinated to judgment1      
whereas the literary imagination1 freed 
from the shackles of imitation1  should 
be at liberty to wander wild in its own 
empire of chimeras1  or1 at all events1 
should be far less sharply checked by   
judgment4  ,it is easy to follow the    
extension of these ,english views of    
genius  and imagination into the ,france
 of ,rousseau and ,diderot1 and then    
the elaboration of these same views1    
under the combined influence of  both   
,france and ,england1 in ,germany4 ,i   
have tried to show that ,kant1          

especially in his 8,critique of         
,judgment10 and ,schiller in his        
8sthetic  ,letters0 7#agie7 prepare the 
way for the conception of the creative  
imagination that is at the very heart of
 the romantic movement4  ,according to  
this romantic conception1 as we have    
seen1 the imagination  is to be free1   
not merely from outer formalistic       
constraint1 but from  all constraint    
whatever4 ,this extreme romantic        
emancipation of the  imagination was    
accompanied by an equally extreme       
emancipation of the  emotions4 ,both    
kinds of emancipation are1 as ,i have   
tried to show1  a recoil partly from    
neo-classical judgment--a type of       
judgment  which seemed to oppress all   
that is creative and spontaneous in man 
under a weight of outer convention2     
partly1 from the reason of the          
,enlightenment1 a type of reason that   
was so logical and abstract that  it    
seemed to mechanize the human spirit1   
and to be a denial of all  that is      

immediate and intuitive4 ,the           
neo-classical judgment1 with its  undue 
unfriendliness to the imagination1 is   
itself a recoil1 let us  remember1 from 
the imaginative extravagance of the     
8metaphysicals10 the  intellectual      
romanticists of the sixteenth and       
seventeenth centuries1  and also1 if we 
take a sufficiently wide view1 from the 
,quixotic type  of romanticism1 the     
romanticism of action1 that we associate
 with the  ,middle ,ages4    ,now not   
only are men governed by their          
imaginations 7the imagination1  as      
,pascal says1 disposes of everything71  
but the type of imagination  by which   
most men are governed may be defined in 
the widest sense  of the word as        
romantic4 ,nearly every man cherishes   
his dream1 his  conceit of himself as he
 would like to be1 a sort of 8ideal0    
projection  of his own desires1 in      
comparison with which his actual life   
seems  a hard and cramping routine4     
8,man must conceive himself what he is  

not10 as ,dr4 ,johnson says1 8for who is
 pleased with what he is80 ,the  ample  
habitation that a man rears for his     
fictitious or 8ideal0 self  often has   
some slight foundation in fact1 but the 
higher he rears  it the more insecure it
 becomes1 until finally1 like ,perrette 
in  the fable1 he brings the whole      
structure down about his ears by the    
very gesture of his dream4 8,we all of  
us10 ,la ,fontaine concludes in  perhaps
 the most delightful account of the     
romantic imagination in  literature1    
8wise as well as foolish1 indulge in    
daydreams4 ,there is  nothing sweeter4  
,a flattering illusion carries away our 
spirits4 ,all  the wealth in the world  
is ours1 all honors and all women10#eb  
etc4  ,when ,johnson descants on the    
8dangerous prevalence of                
imagination10#ec  and warns us to stick 
to 8sober probability10 what he means is
 the  dangerous prevalence of           
day-dreaming4 ,the retreat of the       
,rousseauist  into some 8land of        

chimeras0 or tower of ivory assumes     
forms almost  incredibly complex and    
subtle1 but at bottom the ivory tower is
 only  one form of man's ineradicable   
longing to escape from the oppression   
of the actual into some land of heart's 
desire1 some golden age of  fancy4 ,as a
 matter of fact1 ,rousseau's imaginative
 activity often  approaches very closely
 to the delights of day-dreaming as     
described  by ,la ,fontaine4 ,he was    
never more imaginative1 he tells us1    
than  when on a walking-trip--especially
 when the trip had no definite  goal1 or
 at least when he could take his time in
 reaching it4 ,the  ,wanderlust of body 
and spirit could then be satisfied      
together4  ,actual vagabondage seemed to
 be an aid to the imagination in its    
escape  from verisimilitude4 ,one should
 note especially ,rousseau's account of 
his early wandering from ,lyons to      
,paris and the airy structures that  he 
raised on his anticipations of what he  
might find there4 ,inasmuch  as he was  

to be attached at ,paris to the ,swiss  
,colonel ,godard1 he  already traced for
 himself in fancy1 in spite of his      
short-sightedness1  a career of military
 glory4 8,i had read that ,marshal      
,schomberg was  short-sighted1 why      
shouldn't ,marshal ,rousseau be so too80
 ,in the  meanwhile1 touched by the     
sight of the groves and brooks1 8,i felt
 in  the midst of my glory that my heart
 was not made for so much turmoil1  and 
soon without knowing how1 ,i found      
myself once more among my beloved       
pastorals1 renouncing forever the toils 
of ,mars40    ,thus alongside the real  
world and in more or less sharp         
opposition to  it1 ,rousseau builds up a
 fictitious world1 that pays des        
chimres1  which is alone1 as he tells   
us1 worthy of habitation4 ,to study his 
imaginative activity is simply to study 
the new forms that he gives  to what ,i 
have called man's ineradicable longing  
for some ,arcadia1  some land of heart's
 desire4 ,goethe compares the illusions 

that man  nourishes in his breast to the
 population of statues in ancient ,rome 
which were almost as numerous as the    
population of living men4 ,the          
important thing from the point of view  
of sanity is that a man should  not blur
 the boundaries between the two         
populations1 that he should not  cease  
to discriminate between his fact and his
 fiction4 ,if he confuses  what he      
dreams himself to be with what he       
actually is1 he has already  entered    
upon the pathway of madness4 ,it was1   
for example1 natural  for a youth like  
,rousseau who was at once romantic and  
musical1 to  dream that he was a great  
composer2 but actually to set up as a   
great  composer and to give the concert 
at ,lausanne1 shows an unwillingness to 
discriminate between his fictitious and 
his real world that is plainly          
pathological4 ,if not already a         
megalomaniac1 he was even then on the   
way to megalomania4    ,to wander       
through the world as though it were an  

,arcadia or enchanted  vision contrived 
for one's especial benefit is an        
attitude of  childhood--especially of   
imaginative childhood4 8,wherever       
children  are10 says ,novalis1 8there is
 the golden age40 ,as the child grows   
and  matures there is a more or less    
painful process of adjustment between   
his 8vision0 and the particular reality 
in which he is placed4 ,a little  sense 
gets knocked into his head1 and often1  
it must be confessed1 a  good deal of   
the imagination gets knocked out4 ,as   
,wordsworth complains1  the vision fades
 into the light of common day4 ,the     
striking fact about  ,rousseau is that1 
far more than ,wordsworth1 he held fast 
to his vision4  ,he refused to adjust it
 to an unpalatable reality4 ,during the 
very  years when the ordinary youth is  
forced to subordinate his luxurious     
imaginings to some definite discipline  
he fell under the influence of  ,madame 
de ,warens who encouraged rather than   
thwarted his ,arcadian bent4  ,later1   

when almost incurably confirmed in his  
penchant for revery1 he  came into      
contact with the refined society of     
,paris1 an environment  requiring so    
difficult an adjustment that no one we  
are told could  accomplish the feat     
unless he had been disciplined into the 
appropriate  habits from the age of six4
 ,he is indeed the supreme example of   
the  unadjusted man1 of the original    
genius whose imagination has never      
suffered either inner or outer          
constraint1 who is more of an ,arcadian 
dreamer at sixty perhaps than he was at 
sixteen4 ,he writes to the  ,bailli de  
,mirabeau 7#ca ,january1 #agfg73        
8,the fatigue of thinking becomes every 
day more painful to me4      ,i love to 
dream1 but freely1 allowing my mind to  
wander without      enslaving myself to 
any subject4 ''' ,this idle and         
contemplative      life which you do not
 approve and which ,i do not excuse1    
becomes to me daily more delicious2 to  
wander alone endlessly      and         

ceaselessly among the trees and rocks   
about my dwelling1      to muse or      
rather to be as irresponsible as ,i     
please1 and as      you say1 to go      
wool-gathering2 ''' finally to give     
myself up      unconstrainedly to my    
fantasies which1 thank heaven1 are all  
within my power3 that1 sir1 is for me   
the supreme enjoyment1      than which  
,i can imagine nothing superior in this 
world for a      man at my age and in my
 condition40    ,rousseau1 then1 owes   
his significance not only to the fact   
that he was  supremely imaginative in an
 age that was disposed to deny the      
supremacy  of the imagination1 but to   
the fact that he was imaginative in a   
particular way4 ,a great multitude since
 his time must be reckoned among  his   
followers1 not because they have held   
certain ideas but because  they have    
exhibited a similar quality of          
imagination4 ,in seeking to  define this
 quality of imagination we are therefore
 at the very heart  of our subject4     

,it is clear from what has already been 
said that ,rousseau's imagination  was  
in a general way ,arcadian1 and this1 if
 not the highest1 is perhaps  the most  
prevalent type of imagination4 ,in      
surveying the literature of  the world  
one is struck not only by the           
universality of the pastoral  or idyllic
 element1 but by the number of forms it 
has assumed--forms  ranging from the    
extreme of artificiality and            
conventionalism to the  purest poetry4  
,the very society against the           
artificiality of which  ,rousseau's     
whole work is a protest is itself in no 
small degree a  pastoral creation4      
,various elements indeed entered into   
the life of  the drawing-room as it came
 to be conceived towards the beginning  
of the seventeenth century4 ,the        
,marquise de ,rambouillet and others    
who set out at this time to live in the 
grand manner were in so  far governed   
either by genuine or by artificial      
decorum4 ,but at the  same time that the

 creators of le grand monde were aiming 
to be  more 8decent0 than the men and   
women of the sixteenth century1 they    
were patterning themselves upon the     
shepherds and shepherdesses of          
,d',urf's interminable pastoral         
8l',astre40 ,they were seeking to create
  a sort of enchanted world from which  
the harsh cares of ordinary life  were  
banished and where they might be free1  
like true ,arcadians1 to  discourse of  
love4 ,this discourse of love was       
associated with what  ,i have defined as
 intellectual romanticism4 ,in spite of 
the attacks  by the exponents of        
humanistic good sense 7,molire1         
,boileau1 etc47  on this drawing-room   
affectation1 it lingered on and still   
led in  the eighteenth century1 as      
,rousseau complained1 to 8inconceivable 
refinements40#ed ,at the same time we   
should recollect that there is  a secret
 bond between all forms of ,arcadian    
dreaming4 ,not only was  ,rousseau      
fascinated1 like the early prcieux and  

prcieuses1 by  ,d',urf's pastoral1 but  
he himself appealed by his renewal of   
the main  pastoral theme of love to the 
descendants of these former ,arcadians  
in the polite society of his time4 ,the 
love of ,rousseau is associated  not    
like that of the prcieux1 with the      
intellect1 but with the  emotions1 and  
so he substitutes for a 8wire-drawn and 
super-subtilized  gallantry10 the       
ground-swell of elemental passion4#ee   
,moreover1 the  definitely primitivistic
 coloring that he gave to his           
imaginative  renewal of the pastoral    
dream appealed to an age that was       
reaching the  last stages of            
over-refinement4 ,primitivism is1       
strictly speaking1  nothing new in the  
world4 ,it always tends to appear in    
periods of  complex civilization4 ,the  
charms of the simple life and of a      
return  to nature were celebrated       
especially during the ,alexandrian      
period  of ,greek literature for the    
special delectation no doubt of the most

  sophisticated members of this very    
sophisticated society4 8,nothing10 as   
,dr4 ,santayana says1 8is farther from  
the common people than the corrupt      
desire to be primitive40 ,primitivistic 
dreaming was also popular  in ancient   
,rome at its most artificial moment4    
,the great ancients1  however1 though   
enjoying the poetry of the primitivistic
 dream1 were  not the dupes of this     
dream4 ,horace1 for example1 lived at   
the most  artificial moment of ,rome    
when primitivistic dreaming was popular 
as  it had been at ,alexandria4 ,he     
descants on the joys of the simple life 
in a well-known ode4 ,one should not    
therefore hail him1 like ,schiller1  as 
the founder of the sentimental school   
8of which he has remained the           
unsurpassed model40#ef ,for the person  
who plans to return to nature  in       
,horace's poem is the old usurer        
,alfius1 who changes his mind at  the   
last moment and puts out his mortgages  
again4 ,in short1 the final  attitude of

 the urbane ,horace towards the         
primitivistic dream--it could  hardly be
 otherwise--is ironical4    ,rousseau   
seems destined to remain the supreme    
example1 at least in the  ,occident1 of 
the man who takes the primitivistic     
dream seriously1 who  attempts to set up
 primitivism as a philosophy and even as
 a religion4  ,rousseau's account of his
 sudden illumination on the road from   
,paris  to ,vincennes is famous3 the    
scales1 he tells us1 fell from his eyes 
even as they had from the eyes of ,paul 
on the road to ,damascus1 and  he saw   
how man had fallen from the felicity of 
his primitive estate2  how the blissful 
ignorance in which he had lived at one  
with himself  and harmless to his       
fellows had been broken by the rise of  
intellectual  self-consciousness and the
 resulting progress in the sciences and 
arts4 ,modern students of ,rousseau     
have1 under the influence of ,james1    
taken this experience on the road to    
,vincennes to be an authentic  case of  

conversion1#eg but this is merely one   
instance of our modern  tendency to     
confound the subrational with the       
superrational4 ,what one  finds in this 
alleged conversion when one looks into  
it1 is a sort of  8subliminal uprush0 of
 the ,arcadian memories of his youth1   
especially  of his life at ,annecy and  
,les ,charmettes1 and at the same time  
the  contrast between these ,arcadian   
memories and the hateful constraints  he
 had suffered at ,paris in his attempts 
to adjust himself to an  uncongenial    
environment4    ,we can trace even more 
clearly perhaps the process by which the
  ,arcadian dreamer comes to set up as a
 seer1 in ,rousseau's relation of  the  
circumstances under which he came to    
compose his 8,discourse on the  ,origins
 of ,inequality40 ,he goes off on a sort
 of picnic with ,thrse  into the forest 
of ,st4 ,germain and gives himself up to
 imagining the  state of primitive man4 
8,plunged in the forest10 he says1 8,i  
sought  and found there the image of    

primitive times of which ,i proudly     
drew the history2 ,i swooped down on the
 little falsehoods of men2 ,i  ventured 
to lay bare their nature1 to follow the 
progress of time and  of circumstances  
which have disfigured it1 and comparing 
artificial  man 7l'homme de l'homme7    
with natural man1 to show in his alleged
  improvement the true source of his    
miseries4 ,my soul1 exalted by these    
sublime contemplations1 rose into the   
presence of the ,divinity4 ,seeing  from
 this vantage point that the blind      
pathway of prejudices followed  by my   
fellows was also that of their errors1  
misfortunes and crimes1 ,i  cried out to
 them in a feeble voice that they could 
not hear3 ,madmen1  who are always      
complaining of nature1 know that all    
your evils come  from yourselves alone40
    ,the golden age for which the human 
heart has an ineradicable longing  is   
here presented not as poetical1 which it
 certainly is1 but as a  8state of      
nature0 from which man has actually     

fallen4 ,the more or less  innocent     
,arcadian dreamer is being transformed  
into the dangerous  ,utopist4 ,he puts  
the blame of the conflict and division  
of which he is  conscious in himself    
upon the social conventions that set    
bounds to  his temperament and impulses2
 once get rid of these purely artificial
  restrictions and he feels that he will
 again be at one with himself and       
8nature40 ,with such a vision of nature 
as this it is not surprising  that every
 constraint is unendurable to ,rousseau1
 that he likes1 as  ,berlioz was to say 
of himself later1 to 8make all barriers 
crack40  ,he is ready to shatter all the
 forms of civilized life in favor of    
something that never existed1 of a state
 of nature that is only the  projection 
of his own temperament and its dominant 
desires upon the  void4 ,his programme  
amounts in practice to the indulgence of
 infinite  indeterminate desire1 to an  
endless and aimless vagabondage of the  
emotions with the imagination as their  

free accomplice4    ,this longing of the
 highly sophisticated person to get back
 to the  primitive and nave and         
unconscious1 or what amounts to the same
  thing1 to shake off the trammels of   
tradition and reason in favor of  free  
and passionate self-expression1         
underlies1 as ,i have pointed out1  the 
conception of original genius which     
itself underlies the whole  modern      
movement4 ,a book reflecting the        
primitivistic trend of the  eighteenth  
century1 and at the same time pointing  
the way1 as we shall  see presently1 to 
the working out of the fundamental      
primitivistic  contrast between the     
natural and the artificial in the       
romanticism  of the early nineteenth    
century1 is ,schiller's 8,essay on      
,simple and  ,sentimental ,poetry40 ,the
 poetry that does not 8look before or   
after10  that is free from              
self-questioning and self-consciousness1
 and has a  childlike spontaneity1      
,schiller calls simple or nave4 ,the    

poet1 on the  other hand1 who is        
conscious of his fall from nature and   
who1 from the  midst of his             
sophistication1 longs to be back once   
more at his mother's  bosom1 is         
sentimental4 ,homer and his heroes1 for 
example1 are nave2  ,werther1 who yearns
 in a drawing-room for the ,homeric     
simplicity1 is  sentimental4 ,the       
longing of the modern man for nature1   
says ,schiller1  is that of the sick man
 for health4 ,it is hard to see in      
,schiller's  8nature0 anything more than
 a development of ,rousseau's           
primitivistic  ,arcadia4 ,to be sure1   
,schiller warns us that1 in order to    
recover the  childlike and primitive    
virtues still visible in the man of     
genius1  we must not renounce culture4  
,we must not seek to revert lazily to   
an ,arcadia1 but must struggle forward  
to an ,elysium4 ,unfortunately          
,schiller's ,elysium has a strange      
likeness to ,rousseau's ,arcadia2 and   
that is because ,schiller's own         

conception of life is1 in the last      
analysis1 overwhelmingly sentimental4   
,his most ,elysian conception1  that of 
a purely sthetic ,greece1 a wonderland  
of unalloyed beauty1 is  also a bit of  
,arcadian sentimentalizing4 ,inasmuch as
 ,rousseau's state  of nature never     
existed outside of dreamland1 the ,greek
 who is simple  or nave in this sense is
 likewise a myth4 ,he has no real       
counterpart  either in the ,homeric age 
or any other age of ,greece4 ,it is hard
 to  say which is more absurd1 to make  
the ,greeks nave1 or to turn ,horace    
into a sentimentalist4 ,one should note 
how this romantic perversion  of the    
,greeks for which ,schiller is largely  
responsible is related  to his general  
view of the imagination4 ,we have seen  
that in the  8sthetic ,letters0 he      
maintains that if the imagination is to 
conceive  the ideal it must be free2 and
 that to be free it must be emancipated 
from purpose and engage in a sort of    
play4 ,if the imagination has to        

subordinate itself to a real object it  
ceases in so far to be free4  ,hence the
 more ideal the imagination the farther 
it gets away from a  real object4 ,by   
his theory of the imagination1 ,schiller
 thus encourages  that opposition       
between the ideal and the real which    
figures so largely  in romantic         
psychology4 ,a man may consent to adjust
 a mere dream to  the requirements of   
the real1 but when his dream is promoted
 to the  dignity of an ideal it is plain
 that he will be less ready to make  the
 sacrifice4 ,schiller's ,greece is very 
ideal in the sense ,i have  just        
defined4 ,it hovers before the          
imagination as a sort of ,golden  ,age  
of pure beauty1 a land of chimeras that 
is alone worthy of the  sthete's        
habitation4 ,as an extreme type of the  
romantic ,hellenist1  one may take      
,hlderlin1 who was a disciple at once of
 ,schiller and of  ,rousseau4 ,he begins
 by urging emancipation from every form 
of outer  and traditional control in the

 name of spontaneity4 8,boldly forget10 
he cries in the very accents of         
,rousseau1 8what you have inherited and 
won--all laws and customs--and like     
new-born babes lift up your eyes  to    
godlike nature40 ,hlderlin has been     
called a 8,hellenizing ,werther10  and  
,werther1 one should recollect1 is only 
a ,german ,saint-,preux1 who is  in     
turn1 according to ,rousseau's own      
avowal1 only an idealized image  of     
,rousseau4 ,the nature that ,hlderlin   
worships and which is1 like the  nature 
of ,rousseau1 only an ,arcadian         
intoxication of the imagination1  he    
associates with a ,greece which is1 like
 the ,greece of ,schiller1  a dreamland 
of pure beauty4 ,he longs to escape into
 this dreamland  from an actual world   
that seems to him intolerably           
artificial4 ,the  contrast between his  
8ideal0 ,greece and reality is so acute 
as to make  all attempt at adjustment   
out of the question4 ,as a result of    
this  maladjustment his whole being     

finally gave way and he lingered on for 
many years in madness4    ,the acuteness
 of the opposition between the ideal and
 the real in  ,hlderlin recalls         
,shelley1 who was also a romantic       
,hellenist1 and at  the same time       
perhaps the most purely ,rousseauistic  
of the ,english  romantic poets4 ,but   
,shelley was also a political dreamer1  
and here one  should note two distinct  
phases in his dream3 a first phase that 
is  filled with the hope of transforming
 the real world into an ,arcadia#eh     
through revolutionary reform2 and then a
 phase of elegiac disillusion  when the 
gap between reality and his ideal       
refuses to be bridged4#ei  ,something of
 the same radiant political hope and the
 same disillusion  is found in          
,wordsworth4 ,in the first flush of his 
revolutionary  enthusiasm1 ,france      
seemed to him to be 8standing on the top
 of golden  hours0 and pointing the way 
to a new birth of human nature3         
,bliss was it in that dawn to be alive1 

,but to be young was very heaven6 ,o    
times1      ,in which the meagre stale  
forbidding ways      ,of custom1 law and
 statute1 took at once      ,the        
attraction of a country in romance6     
,when it became evident that the actual 
world and ,utopia did not  coincide     
after all1 when the hard sequences of   
cause and effect that  bind the present 
inexorably to the past refused to yield 
to the  creations of the romantic       
imagination1 what ensued in ,wordsworth 
was not so much an awakening to true    
wisdom as a transformation of  the      
pastoral dream4 ,the ,english ,lake     
,country became for him in some  measure
 as it was later to be for ,ruskin1 the 
ivory tower into which  he retreated    
from the oppression of the real4 ,he    
still continued to  see1 if not the     
general order of society1 at least the  
denizens of his  chosen retreat through 
the ,arcadian mist1 and contrasted their
 pastoral  felicity with the misery of  
men 8barricadoed in the walls of        

cities40 ,i  do not mean to disparage   
the poetry of humble life or to deny    
that many  passages may be cited from   
,wordsworth that justify his reputation 
as an  inspired teacher3 ,i wish merely 
to point out here and elsewhere what is 
specifically romantic in the quality of 
his imagination4    ,after all it is to 
,rousseau himself even more than to his 
,german or  ,english followers that one 
needs to turn for the best examples of  
the all-pervasive conflict between the  
ideal and the actual4 ,the  psychology  
of this conflict is revealed with       
special clearness in the  four letters  
that he wrote to ,m4 de ,malesherbes1   
and into which he has  perhaps put more 
of himself than into any other similar  
amount of his  writing4 ,his natural    
indolence and impatience at the         
obligations and  constraints of life    
were1 he avows to ,m4 de ,malesherbes1  
increased  by his early reading4 ,at the
 age of eight he already knew ,plutarch 
by heart and had read 8all novels0 and  

shed tears over them1 he adds  8by the  
pailful40 ,hence was formed his 8heroic 
and romantic taste0  which filled him   
with aversion for everything that did   
not resemble  his dreams4 ,he had hoped 
at first to find the equivalent of these
  dreams among actual men1 but after    
painful disillusions he had come  to    
look with disdain on his age and his    
contemporaries4 8,i withdrew  more and  
more from human society and created for 
myself a society  in my imagination1 a  
society that charmed me all the more in 
that ,i  could cultivate it without     
peril or effort and that it was always  
at  my call and such as ,i required it40
 ,he associated this dream society  with
 the forms of outer nature4 ,the long   
walks in particular that he  took during
 his stay at the ,hermitage were1 he    
tells us1 filled with  a 8continual     
delirium0 of this kind4 8,i peopled     
nature with beings  according to my     
heart4 ''' ,i created for myself a      
golden age to suit my  fancy40 ,it is   

not unusual for a man thus to console   
himself for his  poverty in the real    
relations of life by accumulating a huge
 hoard of  fairy gold4 ,where the       
,rousseauist goes beyond the ordinary   
dreamer is  in his proneness to regard  
his retirement into some land of        
chimeras as  a proof of his nobility and
 distinction4 ,poetry and life he feels 
are  irreconcilably opposed to each     
other1 and he for his part is on the    
side of poetry and the 8ideal40 ,goethe 
symbolized the hopelessness of  this    
conflict in the suicide of the young    
,werther4 ,but though ,werther  died1   
his creator continued to live1 and more 
perhaps than any other  figure in the   
whole ,rousseauistic movement perceived 
the peril of this  conception of poetry 
and the ideal4 ,he saw phantasts all    
about him who  refused to be reconciled 
to the gap between the infinitude of    
their  longing and the platitude of     
their actual lot4 ,perhaps no country   
and  time ever produced more such       

phantasts than ,germany of the ,storm   
and  ,stress and romantic               
periods--partly no doubt because it did 
not offer  any proper outlet for the    
activity of generous youths4 ,goethe    
himself  had been a phantast1 and so it 
was natural in works like his 8,tasso0  
that he should show himself specially   
preoccupied with the problem  of the    
poet and his adjustment to life4 ,about 
the time that he wrote  this play1 he   
was1 as he tells us1 very much taken up 
with thoughts of  8,rousseau and his    
hypochondriac misery40 ,rousseau for his
 part felt  a kinship between himself   
and ,tasso1 and ,goethe's ,tasso        
certainly  reminds us very strongly of  
,rousseau4 ,carried away by his         
,arcadian  imaginings1 ,tasso violates  
the decorum that separates him from the 
princess with whom he has fallen in     
love4 ,as a result of the rebuffs  that 
follow1 his dream changes into a        
nightmare1 until he finally falls  like 
,rousseau into wild and random suspicion

 and looks on himself as  the victim of 
a conspiracy4 ,in opposition to ,tasso  
is the figure of  ,antonio1 the man of  
the world1 whose imagination does not   
run away with  his sense of fact1 and   
who is therefore equal to the 8demands  
of the  day40 ,the final reconciliation 
between ,tasso and ,antonio1 if not very
  convincing dramatically1 symbolizes at
 least what ,goethe achieved in  some   
measure in his own life4 ,there were    
moments1 he declares1 when  he might    
properly look upon himself as mad1 like 
,rousseau4 ,he escaped  from this world 
of morbid brooding1 this giddy downward 
gazing into  the bottomless pit of the  
romantic heart against which he utters a
  warning in ,tasso1 by his activity at 
the court of ,weimar1 by classical      
culture1 by scientific research4 ,goethe
 carries the same problem of            
reconciling the ideal to the real a     
stage further in his 8,wilhelm          
,meister40 ,the more or less            
irresponsible and ,bohemian youth that  

we  see at the beginning learns by      
renunciation and self-limitation to  fit
 into a life of wholesome activity4     
,goethe saw that the remedy for         
romantic dreaming is work1 though he is 
open to grave criticism1 as ,i  shall   
try to show elsewhere1 for his unduly   
naturalistic conception of  work4 ,but  
the romanticists as a rule did not wish 
work in any sense and  so1 attracted as 
they were by the free artistic life of  
,meister at the  beginning1 they looked 
upon his final adjustment to the real as
 a base  capitulation to philistinism4  
,novalis described the book as a        
8,candide  directed against poetry10 and
 set out to write a counterblast in     
8,heinrich von ,ofterdingen40 ,this     
apotheosis of pure poetry1 as he meant  
it to be1 is above all an apotheosis of 
the wildest vagabondage of the          
imagination4 ,novalis did not1 however1 
as a result of the conflict  between the
 ideal and the real1 show any signs of  
going mad like  ,hlderlin1 or of simply 

fading from life like his friend        
,wackenroder4  ,like ,e4 ,t4 ,a4        
,hoffmann and a certain number of other 
phantasts he had  a distinct gift for   
leading a dual life--for dividing       
himself into  a prosaic self which went 
one way1 and a poetical self which went 
another4    ,this necessary and fatal   
opposition between poetry and prose the 
romanticist saw typified in 8,don       
,quixote10 and of course he sided with  
the idealism of the knight against the  
philistine good sense of ,sancho        
,panza2 and so for the early            
romanticists as well as for those who   
were  of their spiritual                
posterity1--,heine1 for example1 and    
,flaubert1--8,don  ,quixote0 was a book 
to evoke not laughter but tears4    ,to 
the romantic conception of the ideal can
 be traced the increasing  lack of      
understanding between the poet1 or in   
general the creator1 and  the public    
during the past century4 ,many          
neo-classical writers may1  like        

,boileau1 have shown an undue reverence 
for what they conceived to  be the      
general sense of their time1 but to     
measure one's inspiration  by one's     
remoteness from this general sense is   
surely a far more  dangerous error2 and 
yet one was encouraged to do this very  
thing by  the views of original genius  
that were held in the eighteenth        
century4  ,certain late neo-classicists 
lacked imagination and were at the same 
time always harping on good sense4 ,it  
was therefore assumed that to  insist on
 good sense was necessarily proof of a  
lack of imagination4  ,because the      
attempt to achieve the universal had led
 to a stale and  lifeless imitation it  
was assumed that a man's genius consists
 in  his uniqueness1 in his unlikeness  
to other men4 ,now nothing is more      
private and distinctive in a man than   
his feelings1 so that to be  unique     
meant practically for ,rousseau and his 
followers to be unique  in feeling4     
,feeling alone they held was vital and  

immediate4 ,as a  matter of fact the    
element in a man's nature that he       
possesses in  common with other men is  
also something that he senses1 something
  that is in short intuitive and        
immediate4 ,but good sense the genius   
identifies with lifeless convention and 
so measures his originality by  the     
distance of his emotional and           
imaginative recoil from it4 ,of this    
warfare between sense and sensibility   
that begins in the eighteenth  century1 
the romantic war between the poet and   
the philistine is only  the             
continuation4 ,this war has been bad for
 both artist and public4 ,if  the artist
 has become more and more eccentric1 it 
must be confessed  that the good sense  
of the public against which he has      
protested  has been too flatly          
utilitarian4 ,the poet who reduces      
poetry to the  imaginative quest of     
strange emotional adventure1 and the    
plain  citizen who does not aspire      
beyond a reality that is too literal and

  prosaic1 both suffer2 but the sthete  
suffers the more severely--so  much so  
that ,i shall need to revert to this    
conception of poetry in  my treatment of
 romantic melancholy4 ,it leads at last 
to a contrast  between the ideal and the
 real such as is described by ,anatole  
,france  in his account of ,villiers de 
l',isle ,adam4 8,for thirty years10 says
 ,m4  ,france1 8,villiers wandered      
around in cafs at night1 fading away    
like  a shadow at the first glimmer of  
dawn4 ''' ,his poverty1 the frightful   
poverty of cities1 had so put its stamp 
on him and fashioned him so  thoroughly 
that he resembled those vagabonds1 who1 
dressed in black1  sleep on park        
benches4 ,he had the livid complexion   
with red blotches1  the glassy eye1 the 
bowed back of the poor2 and yet ,i am   
not sure we  should call him unhappy1   
for he lived in a perpetual dream and   
that  dream was radiantly golden4 '''   
,his dull eyes contemplated within      
himself  dazzling spectacles4 ,he passed

 through the world like a somnambulist  
seeing nothing of what we see and seeing
 things that it is not given  us to     
behold4 ,out of the commonplace         
spectacle of life he succeeded in       
creating an ever fresh ecstasy4 ,on     
those ignoble caf tables in the  midst  
of the odor of beer and tobacco1 he     
poured forth floods of purple  and      
gold40    ,this notion that literal     
failure is ideal success1 and           
conversely1 has  been developed in a    
somewhat different form by ,rostand in  
his 8,cyrano  de ,bergerac40 ,by his    
refusal to compromise or adjust himself 
to things  as they are1 ,cyrano's real  
life has become a series of defeats4 ,he
 is  finally forced from life by a      
league of all the mediocrities whom his 
idealism affronts4 ,his discomfiture is 
taken to show1 not that he is  a        
,quixotic extremist1 but that he is the 
superior of the successful  ,guise1 the 
man who has stooped to compromise1 the  
,french equivalent  of the ,antonio whom

 ,goethe finally came to prefer to      
,tasso4 ,rostand's  8,chanticleer0 is   
also an interesting study of romantic   
idealism and  of the two main stages    
through which it passes--the first stage
 when  one relates one's ideal to the   
real2 the second1 when one discovers    
that the ideal and the real are more or 
less hopelessly dissevered4             
,chanticleer still maintains his        
idealistic pose even after he has       
discovered that the sun is not actually 
made to rise by his crowing4  ,in this  
hugging of his illusion in defiance of  
reality ,chanticleer  is at the opposite
 pole from ,johnson's astronomer in     
8,rasselas0 who  thinks that he has     
control of the weather1 but when        
disillusioned is  humbly thankful at    
having escaped from this 8dangerous     
prevalence  of imagination10 and entered
 once more into the domain of 8sober    
probability40    ,the problem1 then1 of 
the genius or the artist versus the     
philistine  has persisted without       

essential modification from the         
eighteenth  century to the present      
day--from the suicide of ,chatterton1   
let us  say1 to the suicide of ,john    
,davidson4 ,the man of imagination      
spurns  in the name of his 8ideal0 the  
limits imposed upon it by a dull        
respectability1 and then his ideal turns
 out only too often to lack  positive   
content and to amount in practice to the
 expansion of infinite  indeterminate   
desire4 ,what the idealist opposes to   
the real is not only  something that    
does not exist1 but something that never
 can exist4 ,the  ,arcadian revery which
 should be allowed at most as an        
occasional solace  from the serious     
business of living is set up as a       
substitute for  living4 ,the imaginative
 and emotional dalliance of the         
,rousseauistic  romanticist may assume a
 bewildering variety of forms4 ,we have 
already  seen in the case of ,hlderlin  
how easily ,rousseau's dream of a state 
of nature passes over--and that in spite

 of ,rousseau's attacks on  the         
arts--into the dream of a paradise of   
pure beauty4 ,the momentous  matter is  
not that a man's imagination and        
emotions go out towards  this or that   
particular haven of refuge in the future
 or in the past1  in the ,east or in the
 ,west1 but that his primary demand on  
life is for  some haven of refuge2 that 
he longs to be away from the here and   
now  and their positive demands on his  
character and will4 ,poe may sing of    
8the glory that was ,greece and the     
grandeur that was ,rome10 but he  is not
 therefore a classicist4 ,with the same 
wistfulness innumerable  romanticists   
have looked towards the ,middle ,ages4  
,so ,c4 ,e4 ,norton  says that ,ruskin  
was a white-winged anachronism1#fj that 
he should  have been born in the        
thirteenth century4 ,but one may surmise
 that a  man with ,ruskin's special     
quality of imagination would have failed
  to adjust himself to the actual life  
of the thirteenth or any other  century4

 ,those who put their ,arcadia in the   
,middle ,ages or some other  period of  
the past have at least this advantage   
over those who put it  in the present1  
they are better protected against       
disillusion4 ,the man  whose ,arcadia is
 distant from him merely in space may   
decide to go and  see for himself1 and  
the results of this overtaking of one's 
dream are  somewhat uncertain4 ,the     
,austrian poet ,lenau1 for example1     
actually  took a trip to his primitive  
paradise that he had imagined somewhere 
in the neighborhood of ,pittsburgh4     
,perhaps it is not surprising that  he  
finally died mad4 ,the disenchantment of
 ,chateaubriand in his quest  for a     
,rousseauistic ,arcadia in ,america and 
for ,arcadian savages ,i  describe      
later4 ,in his journey into the         
wilderness ,chateaubriand  reveals      
himself as a spiritual lotos-eater no   
less surely than the man  who takes     
flight into what is superficially most  
remote from the virgin  forest--into    

some palace of art4 ,his attitude       
towards ,america does not  differ       
psychically from that of many early     
romanticists towards ,italy4  ,italy was
 their land of heart's desire1 the land 
that filled them with  ineffable longing
 7,sehnsucht nach ,italien71 a palace of
 art that1  like the ,latin ,quarter of 
later ,bohemians1 had some points of    
contact  with ,mohammed's paradise4 ,a  
man may even develop a romantic longing 
for  the very period against which      
romanticism was originally a protest and
  be ready to 8fling his cap for polish 
and for ,pope40 ,one should add  that   
the romantic ,eldorado is not           
necessarily rural4 ,lamb's attitude     
towards ,london is almost as romantic as
 that of ,wordsworth towards the        
country4 ,dr4 ,johnson cherished urban  
life because of its centrality4  ,lamb's
 imaginative dalliance1 on the other    
hand1 is stimulated by the  sheer       
variety and wonder of the ,london       
streets as another's might be  by the   

mountains or the sea4#fa ,lamb could    
also find an ,elysium of  unmixed       
sthetic solace in the literature of the 
past--especially in  ,restoration       
,comedy4    ,the essence of the mood is 
always the straining of the imagination 
away  from the here and now1 from an    
actuality that seems paltry and faded   
compared to the radiant hues of one's   
dream4 ,the classicist1 according  to   
,a4 ,w4 ,schlegel1#fb is for making the 
most of the present1 whereas  the       
romanticist hovers between recollection 
and hope4 ,in ,shelleyan  phrase he     
8looks before and after and pines for   
what is not40 ,he  inclines like the    
,byronic dandy1 ,barbey d',aurevilly1 to
 take for his  mottoes the words 8,too  
late0 and 8,nevermore40    ,nostalgia1  
the term that has come to be applied to 
the infinite  indeterminate longing of  
the romanticist--his never-ending quest 
after the ever-fleeting object of       
desire--is not1 from the point of  view 
of strict etymology1 well-chosen4       

,romantic nostalgia is not              
8homesickness10 accurately speaking1 but
 desire to get away from  home4         
,odysseus in ,homer suffers from true   
nostalgia4 ,the ,ulysses of  ,tennyson1 
on the other hand1 is nostalgic in the  
romantic sense when he  leaves home 8to 
sail beyond the sunset40 ,ovid1 as      
,goethe points out1  is highly classical
 even in his melancholy4 ,the longing   
from which  he suffers in his exile is  
very determinate3 he longs to get back  
to  ,rome1 the centre of the world4     
,ovid indeed sums up the classic point  
of view when he says that one cannot    
desire the unknown 7ignoti  nulla       
cupido74#fc ,the essence of nostalgia is
 the desire for the  unknown4 8,i was   
burning with desire10 says ,rousseau1   
8without any  definite object40 ,one is 
filled with a desire to fly one knows   
not  whither1 to be off on a journey    
into the blue distance4#fd ,music is    
exalted by the romanticists above all   
other arts because it is the  most      

nostalgic1 the art that is most         
suggestive of the hopeless gap  between 
the 8ideal0 and the 8real40 8,music10 in
 ,emerson's phrase1  8pours on mortals  
its beautiful disdain40 8,away6 away60  
cries ,jean ,paul  to ,music4 8,thou    
speakest of things which throughout my  
endless life ,i  have found not1 and    
shall not find40 ,in musical and other  
nostalgia1  the feelings receive a sort 
of infinitude from the coperation of the
  imagination2 and this infinitude1 this
 quest of something that must  ever     
elude one1 is at the same time taken to 
be the measure of one's  idealism4 ,the 
symmetry and form that the classicist   
gains from working  within bounds are no
 doubt excellent1 but then the          
willingness to work  within bounds      
betokens a lack of aspiration4 ,if the  
primitivist is  ready1 as some one has  
complained1 to turn his back on the     
bright forms  of ,olympus and return to 
the ancient gods of chaos and of night1 
the  explanation is to be sought in this

 idea of the infinite4 ,it finally      
becomes a sort of ,moloch to which he is
 prepared to sacrifice most  of the     
values of civilized life4 ,the chief    
fear of the classicist is  to be thought
 monstrous4 ,the primitivist on the     
contrary is inclined  to see a proof of 
superior amplitude of spirit in mere    
grotesqueness  and disproportion4 ,the  
creation of monsters is1 as ,hugo says1 
a  8satisfaction due to the             
infinite40#fe    ,the breaking down by  
the emotional romanticist of the        
barriers that  separate not merely the  
different literary genres but the       
different  arts is only another aspect  
of his readiness to follow the lure  of 
the infinite4 ,the title of a recent bit
 of ,french decadent  verse--8,nostalgia
 in ,blue ,minor0--would already have   
been perfectly  intelligible to a ,tieck
 or a ,novalis4 ,the ,rousseauist--and  
that from a  very early stage in the    
movement--does not hesitate to pursue   
his ever  receding dream across all     

frontiers1 not merely those that        
separate art  from art1 but those that  
divide flesh from spirit and even good  
from  evil1 until finally he arrives    
like ,blake at a sort of 8,marriage of  
,heaven and ,hell40 ,when he is not     
breaking down barriers in the name of   
the freedom of the imagination he is    
doing so in the name of what he is      
pleased to term love4        8,the      
ancient art and poetry10 says ,a4 ,w4   
,schlegel1 8rigorously      separate    
things which are dissimilar2 the        
romantic delights      in indissoluble  
mixtures4 ,all contrarieties3 nature and
 art1      poetry and prose1 seriousness
 and mirth1 recollection and            
anticipation1 spirituality and          
sensuality1 terrestrial and             
celestial1 life and death1 are by it    
blended together in the      most       
intimate combination4 ,as the oldest    
lawgivers delivered      their mandatory
 instructions and prescriptions in      
measured      melodies2 as this is      

fabulously ascribed to ,orpheus1 the    
first      softener of the yet untamed  
race of mortals2 in like manner      the
 whole of the ancient poetry and art is1
 as it were a      rhythmical nomos     
7law71 an harmonious promulgation of the
      permanently established           
legislation of a world submitted to a   
beautiful order1 and reflecting in      
itself the eternal images of            
things4 ,romantic poetry1 on the other  
hand1 is the expression      of the     
secret attraction to a chaos which lies 
concealed in      the very bosom of the 
ordered universe1 and is perpetually    
striving after new and marvellous       
births2 the life-giving      spirit of  
primal love broods here anew on the face
 of the      waters4 ,the former is more
 simple1 clear1 and like to nature in   
the self-existent perfection of her     
separate works2 the latter1             
notwithstanding its fragmentary         
appearance1 approaches more to      the 
secret of the universe4 ,for ,conception

 can only comprise      each object     
separately1 but nothing in truth can    
ever exist      separately and by       
itself2 ,feeling perceives all in all at
 one      and the same time40#ff        
,note the assumption here that the      
clear-cut distinctions of classicism    
are merely abstract and intellectual1   
and that the only true unity is  the    
unity of feeling4    ,in passages of    
this kind ,a4 ,w4 ,schlegel is little   
more than the  popularizer of the ideas 
of his brother ,friedrich4 ,perhaps no  
one in  the whole romantic movement     
showed a greater genius for confusion   
than  ,friedrich ,schlegel2 no one1 in  
,nietzsche's phrase1 had a more intimate
  knowledge of all the bypaths to chaos4
 ,now it is from the ,german group  of  
which ,friedrich ,schlegel was the chief
 theorist that romanticism  as a        
distinct and separate movement takes its
 rise4 ,we may therefore  pause         
appropriately at this point to consider 
briefly how the epithet  romantic of    

which ,i have already sketched the early
 history came to  be applied to a       
distinct school4 ,in the latter part of 
the eighteenth  century1 it will be     
remembered1 romantic had become a fairly
 frequent  word in ,english and also    
7under ,english influence7 a less       
frequent1  though not rare word1 in     
,french and ,german2 it was often used  
favorably  in all these countries as    
applied to nature1 and usually indeed in
  this sense in ,france and ,germany2   
but in ,england1 when applied to  human 
nature and as the equivalent of the     
,french romanesque1 it had  ordinarily  
an unfavorable connotation2 it signified
 the 8dangerous  prevalence of          
imagination0 over 8sober probability10  
as may be seen  in ,foster's essay 8,on 
the ,epithet ,romantic40 ,one may best  
preface a  discussion of the next       
step--the transference of the word to a 
distinct  movement--by a quotation from 
,goethe's ,conversations with ,eckermann
 7#ba  ,march1 #ahcj73        8,this    

division of poetry into classic and     
romantic10 says      ,goethe1 8which is 
to-day diffused throughout the whole    
world      and has caused so much       
argument and discord1 comes originally  
from ,schiller and me4 ,it was my       
principle in poetry always to      work 
objectively4 ,schiller on the contrary  
wrote nothing that      was not         
subjective2 he thought his manner good1 
and to defend      it he wrote his      
article on nave and sentimental poetry4 
''' ,the      ,schlegels got hold of    
this idea1 developed it and little by   
little it has spread throughout the     
whole world4 ,everybody is      talking 
of romanticism and classicism4 ,fifty   
years ago nobody      gave the matter a 
thought40    ,one statement in this     
passage of ,goethe's is perhaps open to 
question--that concerning the obligation
 of the ,schlegels1 or rather           
,friedrich ,schlegel1 to ,schiller's    
treatise4 ,a comparison of the date  of 
publication of the treatise on 8,nave   

and ,sentimental ,poetry0 with  the date
 of composition of ,schlegel's early    
writings would seem to  show that some  
of ,schlegel's distinctions1 though     
closely related to  those of ,schiller1 
do not derive from them so immediately  
as ,goethe  seems to imply4#fg ,both    
sets of views grow rather inevitably out
  of a primitivistic or ,rousseauistic  
conception of 8nature0 that had  been   
epidemic in ,germany ever since the ,age
 of ,genius4 ,we need also  to keep in  
mind certain personal traits of         
,schlegel if we are to  understand the  
development of his theories about       
literature and art4  ,he was romantic1  
not only by his genius for confusion1   
but also one  should add1 by his        
tendency to oscillate violently between 
extremes4  ,for him as for ,rousseau    
there was 8no intermediary term between 
everything and nothing40 ,one should    
note here another meaning that  certain 
romanticists give to the word           
8ideal0--,hazlitt1 for example1  when he

 says that the 8ideal is always to be   
found in extremes40  ,every imaginable  
extreme1 the extreme of reaction as well
 as the  extreme of radicalism1 goes    
with romanticism2 every genuine         
mediation  between extremes is just as  
surely unromantic4 ,schlegel then was   
very  idealistic in the sense ,i have   
just defined4 ,having begun as an       
extreme  partisan of the ,greeks1       
conceived in ,schiller's fashion as a   
people  that was at once harmonious and 
instinctive1 he passes over abruptly to 
the extreme of revolt against every form
 of classicism1 and then after  having  
posed in works like his 8,lucinde0 as a 
heaven-storming ,titan  who does not    
shrink at the wildest excess of         
emotional unrestraint1  he passes over  
no less abruptly to ,catholicism and its
 rigid outer  discipline4 ,this last    
phase of ,schlegel has at least this    
much in  common with his phase of       
revolt1 that it carried with it a cult  
of the  ,middle ,ages4 ,the delicate    

point to determine about ,friedrich     
,schlegel  and many other romanticists  
is why they finally came to place their 
land of heart's desire in the ,middle   
,ages rather than in ,greece4 ,in       
treating this question one needs to take
 at least a glance at the  modification 
that ,herder 7whose influence on ,german
 romanticism is very  great7 gave to the
 primitivism of ,rousseau4 ,cultivate   
your genius1  ,rousseau said in         
substance1 your ineffable difference    
from other men1  and look back with     
longing to the ideal moment of this     
genius--the age  of childhood1 when your
 spontaneous self was not as yet cramped
 by  conventions or 8sicklied o'er by   
the pale cast of thought40 ,cultivate   
your national genius1 ,herder said in   
substance1 and look back wistfully  at  
the golden beginnings of your           
nationality when it was still nave  and 
8natural10 when poetry instead of being 
concocted painfully by  individuals was 
still the unconscious emanation of the  

folk4 ,herder  indeed expands           
primitivism along these lines into a    
whole philosophy  of history4 ,the      
romantic notion of the origin of the    
epic springs  out of this soil1 a notion
 that is probably at least as remote    
from  the facts as the neo-classical    
notion--and that is saying a great      
deal4 ,any ,german who followed ,herder 
in the extension that he gave  to       
,rousseau's views about genius and      
spontaneity could not only see  the folk
 soul mirrored at least as navely in the
 8,nibelungenlied0 as  in the 8,iliad10 
but by becoming a medival enthusiast he 
could have  the superadded pleasure of  
indulging not merely personal but racial
  and national idiosyncrasy4            
,primitivistic medivalism is therefore  
an  important ingredient1 especially in 
the case of ,germany1 in romantic       
nationalism--the type that has          
flourished beyond all measure during    
the past century4 ,again1 though one    
might1 like ,hlderlin1 cherish an       

infinite longing for the ,greeks1 the   
,greeks themselves1 at least the        
,greeks of ,schiller1 did not experience
 longing2 but this fact came  to be felt
 more and more by ,f4 ,schlegel and     
other romanticists as an  inferiority1  
showing as it did that they were content
 with the finite4  ,as for the          
neo-classicists who were supposed to be 
the followers of  the ,greeks1 their    
case was even worse2 they not only      
lacked aspiration  and infinitude1 but  
were sunk in artificiality1 and had     
moreover become  so analytical that they
 must perforce see things in            
8disconnection  dead and spiritless40   
,the men of the ,middle ,ages1 on the   
other hand1  as ,f4 ,schlegel saw them1 
were superior to the neo-classicists in 
being  nave2 their spontaneity and unity
 of feeling had not yet suffered  from  
artificiality1 or been disintegrated by 
analysis4#fh ,at the same  time they    
were superior to the ,greeks in having  
aspiration and the  sense of the        

infinite4 ,the very irregularity of     
their art testified to  this infinitude4
 ,it is not uncommon in the romantic    
movement thus to  assume that because   
one has very little form one must       
therefore have  a great deal of 8soul40 
,f4 ,schlegel so extended his definition
 of the  medival spirit as to make it   
include writers like ,shakespeare and   
,cervantes1 who seemed to him to be     
vital and free from formalism4 ,the  new
 nationalism was also made to turn to   
the profit of the ,middle ,ages4  ,each 
nation in shaking off the yoke of       
classical imitation and getting  back to
 its medival past1 was recovering what  
was primitive in its own  genius1 was   
substituting what was indigenous for    
what was alien to it4    ,the person who
 did more than any one else to give     
international  currency to the views of 
the ,schlegels about classic and        
romantic and  to their primitivistic    
medivalism was ,madame de ,stal in her  
book  on ,germany4 ,it was with special 

reference to ,madame de ,stal and her   
influence that ,daunou wrote the        
following passage in his introduction   
to ,la ,harpe1 a passage that gives     
curious evidence of the early  attitude 
of ,french literary conservatives       
towards the new school3        8,one of 
the services that he ,la ,harpe should  
render nowadays      is to fortify young
 people against vain and gothic         
doctrines      which would reduce the   
fine arts to childhood if they could    
ever gain credit in the land of ,racine 
and ,voltaire4 ,la ,harpe      uttered a
 warning against these doctrines when he
 discovered      the first germs of them
 in the books of ,diderot1 ,mercier and 
some other innovators4 ,yet these       
writers were far from having            
professed fully the barbaric or childish
 system which has been      taught and  
developed among us for a few years past2
 it is of      foreign origin2 it had no
 name in our language and the name      
that has been given to it is susceptible

 in fact of no precise      meaning4    
,romanticism1 for thus it is called1 was
 imported      into our midst along with
 ,kantism1 with mysticism and other     
doctrines of the same stamp which       
collectively might be named             
obscurantism4 ,these are words which ,la
 ,harpe was happy enough      not to    
hear4 ,he was accustomed to too much    
clearness in his      ideas and         
expression to use such words or even to 
understand      them4 ,he did not       
distinguish two literatures4 ,the       
literature      that nature and society 
have created for us and which for three 
thousand years past has been established
 and preserved and      reproduced by   
masterpieces appeared to him alone      
worthy of a      ,frenchman of the      
eighteenth century4 ,he did not foresee 
that it      would be reduced some day  
to being only a particular kind of      
literature1 tolerated or reproved under 
the name of classic1      and that its  
noblest productions would be put on the 

same level      as the formless sketches
 of uncultivated genius and untried     
talents4 ,yet more than once decadence  
has thus been taken for      an advance1
 and a retrograde movement for progress4
 ,art is so      difficult4 ,it is      
quicker to abandon it and to owe        
everything to      your genius4 '''     
,because perfection calls for austere   
toil you      maintain that it is       
contrary to nature4 ,this is a system   
that      suits at once indolence and   
vanity4 ,is anything more needed to     
make it popular1 especially when it has 
as auxiliary an obscure      philosophy 
which is termed transcendent or         
transcendental8 ,that      is just the  
way sound literature fell into decline  
beginning      with the end of the first
 century of the ,christian era4 ,it     
became extinct only to revive after a   
long period of darkness      and        
barbarism2 and that is how it will fall 
into decline again      if great        
examples and sage lessons should ever   

lose their      authority40    ,the     
general public in ,england became at    
least vaguely aware of the new  movement
 with the translation of ,madame de     
,stal's 8,germany0 7#ahac7  and ,a4 ,w4 
,schlegel's 8,dramatic ,art and         
,literature0 7#ahae74 ,byron wrote  in  
his reply to ,bowles 7#ahba73 8,schlegel
 and ,madame de ,stal have  endeavored  
to reduce poetry to two systems1        
classical and romantic4  ,the effect is 
only beginning40    ,the distinction    
between classic and romantic worked out 
by the  ,schlegels and spread abroad by 
,madame de ,stal was1 then1 largely     
associated with a certain type of       
medivalism4 ,nevertheless one cannot    
insist too strongly that the new school 
deserved to be called romantic1  not    
because it was medival1 but because it  
displayed a certain quality  of         
imagination in its medivalism4 ,the     
longing for the ,middle ,ages is  merely
 a very frequent form of nostalgia1 and 
nostalgia ,i have defined  as the       

pursuit of pure illusion4 ,no doubt a   
man may be medival in  his leanings and 
yet very free from nostalgia4 ,he may1  
for example1  prefer ,st4 ,thomas       
,aquinas to any modern philosopher on   
grounds that are  the very reverse of   
romantic2 and in the attitude of any    
particular  person towards the ,middle  
,ages1 romantic and unromantic elements 
may  be mingled in almost any           
conceivable proportion2 and the same may
 be  said of any past epoch that one    
prefers to the present4 ,goethe1 for    
instance1 as has been remarked1 took    
flight from his own reality1  but he did
 not1 like the romanticists1 take flight
 from all reality4  ,the classical world
 in which ,goethe dwelt in imagination  
during his  latter years1 in the midst  
of a very unclassical environment1 was  
to  some extent at least real1 though   
one can discern even in the case of     
,goethe the danger of a classicism that 
is too aloof from the here  and now4    
,but the medivalist1 in so far as he is 

romantic1 does not  turn to a medival   
reality from a real but distasteful     
present4 ,here  as elsewhere his first  
requirement is not that his 8vision0    
should be  true1 but that it should be  
rich and radiant2 and the more 8ideal0  
the  vision becomes in this sense1 the  
wider the gap that opens between  poetry
 and life4    ,we are thus brought back 
to the problem of the romantic          
imagination or1  one may term it1 the   
eccentric imagination4 ,the classical   
imagination1  ,i have said1 is not free 
thus to fly off at a tangent1 to wander 
wild  in some empire of chimeras4 ,it   
has a centre1 it is at work in the      
service of reality4 ,with reference to  
this real centre1 it is seeking  to     
disengage what is normal and            
representative from the welter of the   
actual4 ,it does not evade the actual1  
but does select from it and seek  to    
impose upon it something of the         
proportion and symmetry of the  model to
 which it is looking up and which it is 

imitating4 ,to say that  the classicist 
7and ,i am speaking of the classicist at
 his best7 gets  at his reality with the
 aid of the imagination is but another  
way of  saying that he perceives his    
reality only through a veil of illusion4
  ,the creator of this type achieves    
work in which illusion and reality  are 
inseparably blended1 work which gives   
the 8illusion of a higher  reality40    
,proportionate and decorous in this     
sense sthetic romanticism can in  no    
wise be1 but it does not follow that the
 only art of which the  ,rousseauist is 
capable is an art of idyllic dreaming4  
,schiller makes a  remark about         
,rousseau that goes very nearly to the  
heart of the matter3  he is either1 says
 ,schiller1 dwelling on the delights of 
nature or  else avenging her4 ,he is    
either1 that is1 idyllic or satirical4  
,now  ,rousseau himself says that he was
 not inclined to satire and in a sense  
this is true4 ,he would have been       
incapable of lampooning ,voltaire in    

the same way that ,voltaire lampooned   
him1 though one might indeed wish  to be
 lampooned by ,voltaire rather than to  
be presented as ,rousseau  has presented
 certain persons in his 8,confessions40 
,in all that large  portion of          
,rousseau's writing1 however1 in which  
he portrays the  polite society of his  
time and shows how colorless and corrupt
 it is  compared with his pastoral dream
 7for his 8nature10 as ,i have said1 is 
only a pastoral dream7 he is highly     
satirical4 ,in general1 he is not       
restrained1 at least in the             
8,confessions10 from the trivial and    
even  the ignoble detail by any weak    
regard for decorum4 ,at best decorum    
seems to him a hollow convention1 at    
worst the 8varnish of vice0 and  the    
8mask of hypocrisy40 ,every reader of   
the 8,confessions0 must be  struck by   
the presence1 occasionally on the same  
page1 of passages  that look forward to 
,lamartine1 and of other passages that  
seem an  anticipation rather of ,zola4  

,the passage in which ,rousseau relates 
how he was abruptly brought to earth    
from his 8angelic loves0#fi is  typical4
 ,in short ,rousseau oscillates between 
an ,arcadian vision that  is radiant but
 unreal1 and a photographic and literal 
and often sordid  reality4 ,he does not 
so use his imagination as to disengage  
the real  from the welter of the actual 
and so achieve something that strikes   
one  still as nature but a selected and 
ennobled nature4#gj 8,it is a very  odd 
circumstance10 says ,rousseau1 8that my 
imagination is never more  agreeably    
active than when my outer conditions are
 the least agreeable1  and that1 on the 
contrary1 it is less cheerful when      
everything is  cheerful about me4 ,my   
poor head cannot subordinate itself to  
things4 ,it  cannot embellish1 it wishes
 to create4 ,real objects are reflected 
in  it at best such as they are2 it can 
adorn only imaginary objects4 ,if ,i    
wish to paint the springtime ,i must be 
in winter10 etc4    ,this passage may be

 said to foreshadow the two types of art
 and  literature that have been         
prevalent since ,rousseau--romantic art 
and  the so-called realistic art that   
tended to supplant it towards the       
middle of the nineteenth century4#ga    
,this so-called realism does not        
represent any fundamental change of     
direction as compared with the  earlier 
romanticism2 it is simply1 as some one  
has put it1 romanticism  going on all   
fours4 ,the extreme of romantic         
unreality has always tended  to produce 
a sharp recoil4 ,as the result of the   
wandering of the  imagination in its own
 realm of chimeras1 one finally comes to
 feel  the need of refreshing one's     
sense of fact2 and the more trivial the 
fact1 the more certain one is that one's
 feet are once more planted  on terra   
firma4 ,don ,quixote is working for the 
triumph of ,sancho  ,panza4 ,besides    
this tendency of one extreme to produce 
the other1  there are special reasons   
that ,i shall point out more fully later

 for  the close relationship of the     
romanticism and the so-called realism   
of the nineteenth century4 ,they are    
both merely different aspects of        
naturalism4 ,what binds together realism
 and romanticism is their  common       
repudiation of decorum as something     
external and artificial4  ,once get rid 
of decorum1 or what amounts to the same 
thing1 the  whole body of 8artificial0  
conventions1 and what will result is1   
according to the romanticist1 ,arcadia4 
,but what actually emerges with  the    
progressive weakening of the principle  
of restraint is la bte  humaine4 ,the   
,rousseauist begins by walking through  
the world as though  it were an         
enchanted garden1 and then with the     
inevitable clash between  his ideal and 
the real he becomes morose and          
embittered4 ,since men  have turned out 
not to be indiscriminately good he      
inclines to look  upon them as          
indiscriminately bad and to portray them
 as such4 ,at  the bottom of much       

so-called realism therefore is a special
 type of  satire1 a satire that is the  
product of violent emotional            
disillusion4  ,the collapse of the      
,revolution of #ahdh produced a         
plentiful crop of  disillusion of this  
kind4 ,no men had ever been more        
convinced of the  loftiness of their    
idealism than the ,utopists of this     
period1 or failed  more ignominiously   
when put to the test4 ,all that         
remained1 many  argued1 was to turn from
 an ideal that had proved so            
disappointing  to the real1 and instead 
of dreaming about human nature to       
observe  men as coolly1 in ,flaubert's  
phrase1 as though they were mastodons or
  crocodiles4 ,but what lurks most often
 behind this pretence to a cold         
scientific impassiveness in observing   
human nature is a soured and  cynical   
emotionalism and a distinctly romantic  
type of imagination4 ,the  imagination  
is still idealistic1 still straining1   
that is1 away from  the real1 only its  

idealism has undergone a strange        
inversion2 instead  of exaggerating the 
loveliness it exaggerates the ugliness  
of human  nature2 it finds a sort of    
morose satisfaction in building for     
itself  not castles but dungeons in     
,spain4 ,what ,i am saying applies      
especially  to the ,french realists who 
are more logical in their disillusion   
than  the men of other nations4 ,they   
often establish the material environment
  of their heroes with photographic     
literalness1 but in their dealings  with
 what should be the specifically human  
side of these characters  they often    
resemble ,rousseau at his worst3 they   
put pure logic into the  service of pure
 emotion1 and this is a way of          
achieving1 not the real1  but a maximum 
of unreality4 ,the so-called realistic  
writers abound in  extreme examples of  
the romantic imagination4 ,the peasants 
of ,zola  are not real1 they are an     
hallucination4 ,if a man is thus to let 
his  imagination run riot1 he might1 as 

,lematre complains1 have imagined       
something more agreeable4    ,the same  
kinship between realism and romanticism 
might be brought out  in a writer whom  
,zola claimed as his master--,balzac4 ,i
 do not refer  to the side of ,balzac   
that is related to what the ,french call
 le  bas romantisme--his lapses into the
 weird and the melodramatic1 his        
occasional suggestions of the claptrap  
of ,anne ,radcliffe and the ,gothic     
romance--but to his general thesis and  
his handling of it4 ,balzac's  attitude 
towards the society of his time is1 like
 the attitude of  ,rousseau towards the 
society of his time1 satirical1 but on  
entirely  different grounds3 he would   
show the havoc wrought in this society  
by its revolutionary emancipation from  
central control of the kind  that had   
been provided traditionally by the      
monarchy and the ,catholic  ,church1 and
 the consequent disruption of the family
 by the violent and  egoistic expansion 
of the individual along the lines of his

 ruling  passion4 ,but ,balzac's        
imagination is not on the side of his   
thesis2  not1 that is1 on the side of   
the principle of control2 on the        
contrary1  it revels in its vision of a 
world in which men are overstepping all 
ethical bounds in their quest of power  
and pleasure1 of a purely  naturalistic 
world that is governed solely by the law
 of cunning and  the law of force4 ,his 
imagination is so fascinated by this    
vision that1  like the imagination of   
,rousseau1 though in an entirely        
different way1  he simply parts company 
with reality4 ,judged by the ultimate   
quality of  his imagination1 and this1  
let me repeat1 is always the chief thing
 to  consider in a creative artist1     
,balzac is a sort of inverted idealist4 
,compared with the black fictions he    
conjures up in his painting of  ,paris1 
the actual ,paris seems pale and        
insipid4 ,his ,paris is not real  in    
short1 but an hallucination--a lurid    
land of heart's desire4 ,as  ,leslie    

,stephen puts it1 for ,balzac ,paris is 
hell1 but then hell is the  only place  
worth living in4 ,the empire of chimeras
 over which he holds  sway is about as  
far on one side of reality as ,george   
,sand's kingdom of  dreams is on the    
other4 ,george ,sand1 more perhaps than 
any other writer  of her time1 continues
 ,rousseau in his purely idyllic manner4
 ,her  idealized peasants are not any   
further from the truth and are certainly
  more agreeable than the peasants of   
,balzac1 who foreshadow the peasants  of
 ,zola4    ,the writer1 however1 who    
shows the conflict between the romantic 
imagination and the real better than    
either ,balzac or ,zola1 better  than   
any other writer perhaps of the modern  
,french movement1 is  ,flaubert4 ,the   
fondness of this founder of realism for 
reality may be  inferred from a passage 
in one of his letters to ,george ,sand3 
8,i  had in my very youth a complete    
presentiment of life4 ,it was like a    
sickly kitchen smell escaping from a    

basement window40 ,in his attitude      
towards the society of his time1 he is1 
in the same sense1 but in  a far greater
 degree than ,rousseau1 satirical4 ,the 
stupidity and  mediocrity of the        
bourgeois are his target1 just as       
,rousseau's target  is the artificiality
 of the drawing-room4 ,at the same time 
that he  shrinks back with nausea from  
this reality1 ,flaubert is like ,gautier
  8full of nostalgias10 even the        
nostalgia of the ,middle ,ages4 8,i am a
  ,catholic10 he exclaims1 8,i have in  
my heart something of the green  ooze of
 the ,norman ,cathedrals40 ,yet he      
cannot acquiesce in a medival  or any   
other dream4 ,even ,rousseau says that  
he was 8tormented at times  by the      
nothingness of his chimeras40 ,flaubert 
was tormented far more  by the          
nothingness of his4 ,perhaps indeed the 
predominant flavor in  ,flaubert's      
writing as a whole is that of an acrid  
disillusion4 ,he  portrays satirically  
the real and at the same time mocks at  

the ideal  that he craves emotionally   
and imaginatively 7this is only one of  
the  innumerable forms assumed by the   
,rousseauistic warfare between the head 
and the heart74 ,he oscillates rapidly  
between the pole of realism as  he      
conceives it1 and the pole of romance1  
and so far as any serious  philosophy is
 concerned1 is left suspended in the    
void4 ,madame ,bovary  is the very type 
of the ,rousseauistic idealist1         
misunderstood in virtue  of her         
exquisite faculty of feeling4 ,she      
aspires to a 8love beyond  all loves10  
an infinite satisfaction that her       
commonplace husband and  environment    
quite deny her4 ,at bottom ,flaubert's  
heart is with ,madame  ,bovary4 8,i am  
,madame ,bovary10 he exclaims4 ,yet he  
exposes pitilessly  the 8nothingness of 
her chimeras10 and pursues her to the   
very dregs  of her disillusion4 ,i have 
already mentioned ,flaubert's cult for  
8,don ,quixote40 ,his intellectual      
origins were all there1 he says2 he  had

 known it by heart even when a boy4 ,it 
has been said that 8,madame  ,bovary0   
bears the same relationship to sthetic  
romanticism that 8,don  ,quixote0 does  
to the romanticism of actual adventure  
of the ,middle  ,ages4 ,yet 8,don       
,quixote0 is the most genial1 8,madame  
,bovary0 the least  genial of           
masterpieces4 ,this difference comes out
 no less clearly in  a comparison of ,m4
 ,homais with ,sancho ,panza than in a  
comparison of  ,madame ,bovary with the 
,knight1 and is so fundamental as to    
throw doubt  on the soundness of the    
whole analogy4    ,in ,m4 ,homais and   
like figures ,flaubert simply means to  
symbolize  contemporary life and the    
immeasurable abyss of platitude in which
  it is losing itself through its lack  
of imagination and ideal4 ,yet  this    
same platitude exercises on him a horrid
 fascination4 ,for his  execration of   
the philistine is the nearest approach  
in his idealism to  a positive content1 
to an escape from sheer emptiness and   

unreality4  ,this execration must       
therefore be cherished if he is to      
remain  convinced of his own            
superiority4 8,if it were not for my    
indignation10  he confesses in one      
place1 8,i should fall flat40           
,unfortunately we come  to resemble what
 we habitually contemplate4 8,by dint of
 railing at  idiots10 says ,flaubert1   
8one runs the risk of becoming idiotic  
one's  self40    ,in his discourse on   
the 8,immortality of the ,soul0 7#afei7 
,henry ,more  speaks of 8that           
imagination which is most free1 such as 
we use in  romantic inventions40 ,the   
price that the romantic imagination pays
  for its freedom should by this time be
 obvious3 the freer it becomes  the     
farther it gets away from reality4 ,we  
have seen that the special  form of     
unreality encouraged by the sthetic     
romanticism of ,rousseau  is the dream  
of the simple life1 the return to a     
nature that never  existed1 and that    
this dream made its special appeal to an

 age that  was suffering from an excess 
of artificiality and conventionalism4   
,before entering upon the next stage of 
our subject it might be well to         
consider for a moment wherein the facts 
of primitive life1 so far as  we can    
ascertain them1 differ from ,rousseau's 
dream of primitive life2  why we are    
justified in assuming that the noble    
savage of ,rousseau1 or  the ,greek of  
,schiller1 or ,hlderlin1 or the man of  
the ,middle ,ages of  ,novalis never had
 any equivalent in reality4 ,more or    
less primitive men  have existed and    
still exist and have been carefully     
studied4 ,some of  them actually recall 
by various traits1 their gentleness1 for
 example1  ,rousseau's aboriginal man1  
and the natural pity that is supposed to
  guide him4 ,why then will any one     
familiar with the facts of aboriginal   
life smile when ,rousseau speaks of the 
savage 8attached to no place1  having no
 prescribed task1 obeying no one1 having
 no other law than his  own will10#gb   

and therefore displaying independence   
and initiative8  ,the answer is of      
course that genuine savages are1 with   
the possible  exception of children1 the
 most conventional and imitative of     
beings4  ,what one takes to be natural  
in them is often the result of a long   
and1  in the ,rousseauistic sense1      
artificial discipline4 ,the tendency to 
take for pure and unspoiled nature what 
is in fact a highly modified  nature is 
one that assumes many forms4 8,when you 
see10 says ,rousseau1  8in the happiest 
people in the world bands of peasants   
regulate the  affairs of state under an 
oak-tree and always behave sensibly1 can
  you keep from despising the           
refinements of other nations which make 
themselves illustrious and miserable    
with so much art and mystery80          
,rousseau is viewing these peasants     
through the ,arcadian glamour4 ,in  much
 the same way ,emerson saw a proof of   
the consonance of democracy  with human 
nature in the working of the ,new       

,england town-meeting4 ,but  both       
,rousseau's ,swiss and ,emerson's ,new  
,englanders had been moulded by         
generations of austere religious        
discipline and so throw little light  on
 the relation of democracy to human     
nature in itself4    ,a somewhat similar
 illusion is that of the man who        
journeys into a  far country and enjoys 
in the highest degree the sense of      
romantic  strangeness4 ,he has escaped  
from the convention of his own society  
and  is inclined to look on the men and 
women he meets in the foreign land  as  
,arcadian apparitions4 ,but these men   
and women have not escaped from  their  
convention4 ,on the contrary1 what most 
delights him in them  7for example1 what
 most delighted ,lafcadio ,hearn in the 
,japanese7 may  be the result of an     
extraordinarily minute and tyrannical   
discipline  imposed in the name of the  
general sense upon the impulses of the  
individual4    ,the relation of         
convention to primitive life is so well 

understood  nowadays that the           
,rousseauist has reversed his argument4 
,since  primitive folk 7let us say the  
,bushmen of ,australia7 are more        
conventional than the ,parisian and     
,londoner we may infer that at some     
time in the future when the ideal is at 
last achieved upon earth1  conventions  
will have disappeared entirely4 ,but    
this is simply to  transfer the ,golden 
,age from the past to the future1 and   
also to miss  the real problem3 for     
there is a real problem--perhaps indeed 
the  gravest of all problems--involved  
in the relation of the individual to    
convention4 ,if we are to grasp the     
nature of this problem we should        
perceive first of all that the          
significant contrast is not that between
  conditions more or less primitive and 
civilization1 but that between a        
civilization that does not question its 
conventions and a civilization  that has
 on the contrary grown self-conscious   
and critical4 ,thus the  ,homeric       

,greeks1 set up by ,schiller as         
exemplars of the simple life1  were     
plainly subject to the conventions of an
 advanced civilization4  ,the ,periclean
 ,greeks were also highly civilized1 but
 unlike the ,homeric  ,greeks1 were     
becoming self-conscious and critical4   
,in the same way  the ,european         
thirteenth century1 in some respects the
 most civilized  that the world has     
seen1 was governed by a great convention
 that  imposed very strict limits upon  
the liberty of the individual4 ,the     
critical spirit was already awake and   
tugging at the leashes of the  outer    
authority that confined it1 but it did  
not actually break them4  ,dante and    
,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas did not1 for      
example1 inquire into the  basis of the 
medival convention in the same way that 
,socrates and the  sophists inquired    
into the traditional opinions of        
,greece4 ,but in the  eighteenth        
century1 especially in ,france1 and from
 that time down to  the present day1 the

 revolt against convention has assumed  
proportions  quite comparable to        
anything that took place in ancient     
,greece4 ,perhaps  no other age has     
witnessed so many individuals who were1 
like ,berlioz1  eager to make all       
traditional barriers crack in the       
interest of their  8genius0 and its full
 expression4 ,the state of nature in the
 name of  which ,rousseau himself       
assailed convention1 though in itself   
only a  chimera1 a mere ,arcadian       
projection upon the void1 did indeed    
tend in a  rationalistic pseudo-classic 
age1 to new forms of imaginative        
activity4  ,in the form that concerns us
 especially the imagination is free to  
give  its magic and glamour and         
infinitude to the emancipated emotions4 
,this  type of romanticism did not      
result in any recovery of the supposed  
primitive virtues1 but it did bring     
about a revaluation of the received     
notions of morality that can scarcely be
 studied too carefully4                 

,,chapter ,,iv    ,,romantic ,,morality3
 ,,the ,,ideal      ,the period that    
began in the late eighteenth century and
 in the midst  of which we are still    
living has witnessed an almost          
unparalleled  triumph1 as ,i have just  
said1 of the sense of the individual    
7sens  propre7 over the general sense of
 mankind 7sens commun74 ,even  the      
collectivistic schemes that have been   
opposed to individualism  during this   
period are themselves1 judged by        
traditional standards1  violently       
individualistic4 ,now the word          
individualism needs as much  as any     
other general term to be treated        
,socratically3 we need in the  interests
 of our present subject to discriminate 
between different  varieties of         
individualism4 ,perhaps as good a       
working classification  as any is to    
distinguish three main varieties3 a man 
may wish to act1  or think1 or feel1    
differently from other men1 and those   
who are  individualistic in any one of  

these three main ways may have very     
little in common with one another4 ,to  
illustrate concretely1 ,milton's  plea  
in his 8,areopagitica0 for freedom of   
conscience makes above all  for         
individualism of action4 7,la foi qui   
n'agit pas est-ce une foi  sincre87     
,pierre ,bayle1 on the other hand1      
pleads in his ,dictionary  and elsewhere
 for tolerance1 not so much because he  
wishes to act or  feel in his own way as
 because he wishes to think his own     
thoughts4  ,rousseau is no less         
obviously ready to subordinate both     
thought and  action to sensibility4 ,his
 message is summed up once for all in   
the  exclamation of ,faust1 8,feeling is
 all40 ,he urges war on the general     
sense only because of the restrictions  
it imposes on the free expansion  of his
 emotions and the enhancing of these    
emotions by his imagination4    ,now the
 warfare that ,rousseau and the         
individualists of feeling have  waged on
 the general sense has meant in practice

 a warfare on two great  traditions1 the
 classical and the ,christian4 ,i have  
already pointed out  that these two     
traditions1 though both holding the idea
 of imitation1  were not entirely in    
accord with one another1 that the       
imitation of  ,horace differs widely    
from the imitation of ,christ4 ,yet     
their diverging  from one another is as 
nothing compared with their divergence  
from  the individualism of the          
primitivist4 ,for the man who imitates  
,christ  in any traditional sense this  
world is not an ,arcadian dream but a   
place of trial and probation4 8,take up 
your cross and follow me40 ,the         
following of this great exemplar        
required that the instinctive self1     
which ,rousseau would indulge1 should be
 either sternly rebuked or else         
mortified utterly4 ,so far from ,nature 
and ,god being one1 the natural  man is 
so corrupt1 according to the more       
austere ,christian1 that the  gap       
between him and the divine can be       

traversed only by a miracle of  grace4  
,he should therefore live in fear and   
trembling as befits a being  upon whom  
rests the weight of the divine          
displeasure4 8,it is an humble  thing to
 be a man40 ,humility indeed is1 in the 
phrase of ,jeremy ,taylor1  the special 
ornament and jewel of the ,christian    
religion1 and one is  tempted to add1 of
 all religion in so far as it is        
genuine4 ,genuine  religion must always 
have in some form the sense of a deep   
inner cleft  between man's ordinary self
 and the divine4 ,but some ,christians  
were  more inclined from the start1 as  
we can see in the extreme forms of  the 
doctrine of grace1 to push their        
humility to an utter despair of  human  
nature4 ,the historical explanation of  
this despair is obvious3  it is a sharp 
rebound from the pagan riot2 an         
excessive immersion in  this world led  
to an excess of otherworldliness4 ,at   
the same time  the conviction as to     
man's helplessness was instilled into   

those1  who1 like ,st4 ,augustine1 had  
witnessed in some of its phases the slow
  disintegration of the ,roman ,empire4 
,human nature had gone bankrupt2  and   
for centuries it needed to be           
administered1 if ,i may continue the    
metaphor1 in receivership4 ,the doctrine
 of grace was admirably adapted  to this
 end4    ,the pagan riot from which the 
church reacted so sharply1 was not1     
however1 the whole of the ancient       
civilization4 ,i have already said  that
 there was at the heart of this         
civilization at its best a great        
idea--the idea of proportionateness4    
,the ancients were in short  not merely 
naturalistic but humanistic1 and the    
idea of proportion  is just as          
fundamental in humanism as is humility  
in religion4  ,christianity1 one        
scarcely need add1 incorporated within  
itself1  however disdainfully1 many     
humanistic elements from ,greek and     
,roman  culture4 ,yet it is none the    
less true that in his horror at the     

pagan  worldliness the ,christian tended
 to fly into the opposite extreme of    
unworldliness1 and in this clash between
 naturalism and supernaturalism  the    
purely human virtues of mediation were  
thrust more or less into the            
background4 ,yet by its very defect on  
the humanistic side the doctrine  of    
grace was perhaps all the better fitted 
for the administration of  human nature 
in receivership4 ,for thus to make man  
entirely distrustful  of himself and    
entirely dependent on ,god1 meant in    
practice to make  him entirely dependent
 on the ,church4 ,man became ignorant   
and fanatical  in the early ,christian  
centuries1 but he also became humble1   
and  in the situation then existing that
 was after all the main thing4  ,the    
,church as receiver for human nature was
 thus enabled to rescue  civilization   
from the wreck of pagan antiquity and   
the welter of the  barbarian invasions4 
,but by the very fact that the bases of 
life in  this world gradually grew more 

secure man became less otherworldly4    
,he gradually recovered some degree of  
confidence in himself4 ,he gave         
increasing attention to that side of    
himself that the ascetic ,christian  had
 repressed4 ,the achievements of the    
thirteenth century which mark  perhaps  
the culmination of ,christian           
civilization were very splendid  not    
only from a religious but also from a   
humanistic point of view4 ,but  although
 the critical spirit was already        
beginning to awake1 it did  not at that 
time1 as ,i have already said1 actually 
break away from the  tutelage of the    
,church4    ,this emancipation of human 
nature from theological restraint took  
place  in far greater measure at the    
,renaissance4 ,human nature showed      
itself  tired of being treated as a     
bankrupt1 of being governed from without
  and from above4 ,it aspired to become 
autonomous4 ,there was in so far  a     
strong trend in many quarters towards   
individualism4 ,this rupture  with      

external authority meant very diverse   
things in practice4 ,for  some who1 in  
,lionardo's phrase1 had caught a glimpse
 of the antique  symmetry it meant a    
revival of genuine humanism2 for others 
it meant  rather a revival of the pagan 
and naturalistic side of antiquity4     
,thus  ,rabelais1 in his extreme        
opposition to the monkish ideal1 already
  proclaims1 like ,rousseau1 the        
intrinsic excellence of man1 while      
,calvin and others attempted to revive  
the primitive austerity of              
,christianity that had been corrupted by
 the formalism of ,rome4 ,in  short1    
naturalistic1 humanistic1 and religious 
elements are mingled in  almost every   
conceivable proportion in the vast and  
complex movement  known as the          
,renaissance2 all these elements indeed 
are often mingled  in the same          
individual4 ,the later ,renaissance     
finally arrived at what  one is tempted 
to call the ,jesuitical compromise4     
,there was a general  revamping of dogma

 and outer authority1 helped forward by 
a society  that had taken alarm at the  
excesses of the emancipated individual4 
,if the individual consented to         
surrender his moral autonomy1 the       
,church for its part consented to make  
religion comparatively easy and         
pleasant for him1 to adapt it by        
casuistry and other devices to a human  
nature that was determined once for all 
to take a less severe and  ascetic view 
of life4 ,one might thus live inwardly  
to a great extent  on the naturalistic  
level while outwardly going through the 
motions  of a profound piety4 ,there is 
an unmistakable analogy between the     
hollowness of a religion of this type   
and the hollowness that one feels  in so
 much neo-classical decorum4 ,there is  
also a formalistic taint  in the        
educational system worked out by the    
,jesuits--a system in all  respects so  
ingenious and in some respects so       
admirable4 ,the ,greek and  especially  
the ,latin classics are taught in such a

 way as to become  literary playthings  
rather than the basis of a philosophy of
 life2 a  humanism is thus encouraged   
that is external and rhetorical rather  
than  vital1 and this humanism is       
combined with a religion that tends to  
stress submission to outer authority at 
the expense of inwardness and           
individuality4 ,the reproach has been   
brought against this system that  it is 
equally unfitted to form a pagan hero or
 a ,christian saint4 ,the  reply to it  
was ,rousseau's educational             
naturalism--his exaltation of  the      
spontaneity and genius of the child4    
,voltaire says that every ,protestant is
 a ,pope when he has his ,bible  in his 
hand4 ,but in practice ,protestantism   
has been very far from  encouraging so  
complete a subordination of the general 
sense to the  sense of the individual4  
,in the period that elapsed between the 
first  forward push of individualism in 
the ,renaissance and the second forward 
push in the eighteenth century1 each    

important ,protestant group worked  out 
its creed or convention and knew how to 
make it very uncomfortable  for any one 
of its members who rebelled against its 
authority4  ,protestant education was   
also1 like that of the ,jesuits1 an     
attempt to  harmonize ,christian and    
classical elements4    ,i have already  
spoken elsewhere of what was menacing   
all these  attempts1 ,protestant as well
 as ,catholic1 to revive the principle  
of authority1 to put the general sense  
once more on a traditional  and dogmatic
 basis and impose it on the sense of the
 individual4 ,the  spirit of free       
scientific enquiry in the ,renaissance  
had inspired great  naturalists like    
,kepler and ,galileo1 and had had its   
prophet in ,bacon4  ,so far from        
suffering any setback in the seventeenth
 century1 science  had been adding      
conquest to conquest4 ,the inordinate   
self-confidence  of the modern man would
 seem to be in large measure an outcome 
of this  steady advance of scientific   

discovery1 just as surely as the        
opposite1  the extreme humility that    
appears in the doctrine of grace1       
reflects  the despair of those who had  
witnessed the disintegration of the     
,roman ,empire4 ,the word humility1 if  
used at all nowadays1 means that  one   
has a mean opinion of one's self in     
comparison with other men1 and  not that
 one perceives the weakness and         
nothingness of human nature in  itself  
in comparison with what is above it4    
,but it is not merely the               
self-confidence inspired by science that
 has undermined the traditional         
disciplines1 humanistic and religious1  
and the attempts to mediate  between    
them on a traditional basis2 it is not  
merely that science  has fascinated     
man's imagination1 stimulated his wonder
 and curiosity  beyond all bounds and   
drawn him away from the study of his own
 nature  and its special problems to the
 study of the physical realm4 ,what has 
been even more decisive in the overthrow

 of the traditional disciplines  is that
 science has won its triumphs not by    
accepting dogma and  tradition but by   
repudiating them1 by dealing with the   
natural law1 not  on a traditional but  
on a positive and critical basis4 ,the  
next step  that might logically have    
been taken1 one might suppose1 would    
have  been to put the human law likewise
 on a positive and critical basis4 ,on  
the contrary the very notion that man is
 subject to two laws has been  obscured4
 ,the truths of humanism and religion1  
being very much bound  up with certain  
traditional forms1 have been rejected   
along with these  forms as obsolescent  
prejudice1 and the attempt has been made
 to treat  man as entirely the creature 
of the natural law4 ,this means in      
practice  that instead of dying to his  
ordinary self1 as the austere ,christian
  demands1 or instead of imposing a law 
of decorum upon his ordinary  self1 as  
the humanist demands1 man has only to   
develop his ordinary  self freely4      

,at the beginning1 then1 of the slow    
process that ,i have been tracing  down 
in briefest outline from medival        
,christianity1 we find a pure           
supernaturalism2 at the end1 a pure     
naturalism4 ,if we are to understand    
the relationship of this naturalism to  
the rise of a romantic morality1  we    
need to go back1 as we have done in our 
study of original genius1  to the       
,england of the early eighteenth        
century4 ,perhaps the most  important   
intermediary stage in the passage from a
 pure supernaturalism  to a pure        
naturalism is the great deistic movement
 which flourished  especially in the    
,england of this period4 ,deism indeed  
is no new  thing4 ,deistic elements may 
be found even in the philosophy of the  
,middle ,ages4 ,but for practical       
purposes one does not need in one's     
study of deism to go behind ,english    
thinkers like ,shaftesbury and his      
follower ,hutcheson4 ,shaftesbury is a  
singularly significant figure4  ,he is  

not only the authentic precursor of     
innumerable naturalistic  moralists in  
,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 but one
 may also trace  in his writings the    
connection between modern naturalistic  
morality  and ancient naturalistic      
morality in its two main forms--,stoic  
and  ,epicurean4 ,the strict ,christian 
supernaturalist had maintained that the 
divine can be known to man only by the  
outer miracle of revelation1            
supplemented by the inner miracle of    
grace4 ,the deist maintains1 on  the    
contrary1 that ,god reveals himself also
 through outer nature which  he has     
fitted exquisitely to the needs of man1 
and that inwardly man  may be guided    
aright by his unaided thoughts and      
feelings 7according  to the predominance
 of thought or feeling the deist is     
rationalistic  or sentimental74 ,man1 in
 short1 is naturally good and nature    
herself  is beneficent and beautiful4   
,the deist finally pushes this harmony  
in  ,god and man and nature so far that 

the three are practically merged4  ,at a
 still more advanced stage ,god         
disappears1 leaving only nature  and man
 as a modification of nature1 and the   
deist gives way to the  pantheist who   
may also be either rationalistic or     
emotional4 ,the  pantheist differs above
 all from the deist in that he would    
dethrone  man from his privileged place 
in creation1 which means in practice    
that  he denies final causes4 ,he no    
longer believes1 for example1 like that 
sentimental deist and disciple of       
,rousseau1 ,bernardin de ,st4 ,pierre1  
that ,providence has arranged everything
 in nature with an immediate eye  to    
man's welfare2 that the markings on the 
melon1 for instance1 8seem  to show that
 it is destined for the family          
table40#gc    ,rousseau himself1 though 
eschewing this crude appeal to final    
causes1  scarcely got in theory at least
 beyond the stage of emotional deism4   
,the process ,i have been describing is 
illustrated better in some  aspects by  

,diderot who began as a translator of   
,shaftesbury and who  later got so far  
beyond mere deism that he anticipates   
the main ideas  of the modern           
evolutionist and determinist4 ,diderot  
is at once an  avowed disciple of       
,bacon1 a scientific utilitarian in     
short1 and also  a believer in the      
emancipation of the emotions4           
,rousseau's attack  on science is       
profoundly significant for other        
reasons1 but it is  unfortunate in that 
it obscures the connection that is so   
visible in  ,diderot between the two    
sides of the naturalistic movement4 ,if 
men had  not been so heartened by       
scientific progress they would have been
 less  ready1 we may be sure1 to listen 
to ,rousseau when he affirmed that they 
were naturally good4 ,there was another 
reason why men were eager to  be told   
that they were naturally good and that  
they could therefore  trust the         
spontaneous overflow of their emotions4 
,this reason is to be  sought in the    

inevitable recoil from the opposite     
doctrine of total  depravity and the    
mortal constraint that it had put on the
 instincts of  the natural man4 ,i have 
said that many churchmen1 notably the   
,jesuits1  sought to dissimulate the    
full austerity of ,christian doctrine   
and  thus retain their authority over a 
world that was moving away from         
austerity and so threatening to escape  
them4 ,but other ,catholics1  notably   
the ,jansenists1 as well as ,protestants
 like the ,calvinists1  were for        
insisting to the full on man's          
corruption and for seeking to  maintain 
on this basis what one is tempted to    
call a theological reign  of terror4    
,one whole side of ,rousseau's religion 
can be understood  only as a protest    
against the type of ,christianity that  
is found in a  ,pascal or a ,jonathan   
,edwards4 ,the legend of the abyss that 
,pascal saw  always yawning at his side 
has at least a symbolical value4 ,it is 
the  wont of man to oscillate violently 

between extremes1 and each extreme  is  
not only bad in itself but even worse by
 the opposite extreme that  it          
engenders4 ,from a ,god who is          
altogether fearful1 men are ready to    
flee to a ,god who is altogether loving1
 or it might be more correct to  say    
altogether lovely4 8,listen1 my         
children10 said ,mother ,anglique of    
,port-,royal to her nuns a few hours    
before her death1 8listen well to  what 
,i say4 ,most people do not know what   
death is1 and never give the  matter a  
thought4 ,but my worst forebodings were 
as nothing compared  with the terrors   
now upon me40 ,in deliberate opposition 
to such  expressions of the theological 
terror1 ,rousseau imagined the elaborate
  complacency and self-satisfaction of  
the dying ,julie1 whose end was  not    
only calm but sthetic 7le dernier jour  
de sa vie en fut aussi le  plus         
charmant74    ,a sensible member of     
,edwards's congregation at ,northampton 
might  conceivably have voted with the  

majority to dismiss him1 not only       
because he objected to this spiritual   
terrorism in itself1 but  also because  
he saw the opposite extreme that it     
would help to  precipitate--the         
boundless sycophancy of human nature    
from which we are  now suffering4       
,the effusiveness1 then1 that began to  
appear in the eighteenth century  is one
 sign of the progress of naturalism1    
which is itself due to  the new         
confidence inspired in man by scientific
 discovery coupled  with a revulsion    
from the austerity of ,christian dogma4 
,this new  effusiveness is also no less 
palpably a revulsion from the excess of 
artificial decorum and this revulsion   
was in turn greatly promoted by  the    
rapid increase in power and influence at
 this time of the middle  class4        
,reserve is traditionally aristocratic4 
,the plebeian is no less  traditionally 
expansive4 ,it cannot be said that the  
decorous reserve  of the ,french        
aristocracy that had been more or less  

imitated by other  ,european            
aristocracies was in all respects       
commendable4 ,according to  this decorum
 a man should not love his wife1 or if  
he did1 should be  careful not to betray
 the fact in public4 ,it was also good  
8form0  to live apart from one's        
children and bad form to display one's  
affection for them4 ,the protest against
 a decorum that repressed even  the     
domestic emotions may perhaps best be   
followed in the rise of the  middle     
class drama4 ,according to strict       
neo-classic decorum only the            
aristocracy had the right to appear in  
tragedy1 whereas the man of the  middle 
class was relegated to comedy and the   
man of the people to  farce4 ,the       
intermediate types of play that multiply
 in the eighteenth  century 7drame      
bourgeois1 comdie larmoyante1 etc47 are 
the reply  of the plebeian to this      
classification4 ,he is beginning to     
insist that  his emotions too shall be  
taken seriously4 ,but at the same time  

he is1  under the influence of the new  
naturalistic philosophy1 so bent on     
affirming his own goodness that in      
getting rid of artificial decorum  he   
gets rid of true decorum likewise and so
 strikes at the very root  of the drama4
 ,for true drama in contradistinction to
 mere melodrama  requires in the        
background a scale of ethical values1 or
 what amounts  to the same thing1 a     
sense of what is normal and             
representative and  decorous1 and the   
quality of the characters is revealed by
 their  responsible choices good or bad 
with reference to some ethical scale1   
choices that the characters reveal by   
their actions and not by any  explicit  
moralizing4 ,but in the middle class    
drama there is little  action in this   
sense3 no one wills either his goodness 
or badness1  but appears more or less as
 the creature of accident or fate 7in a 
very  un-,greek sense71 or of a         
defective social order2 and so instead  
of  true dramatic conflict and proper   

motivation one tends to get domestic    
tableaux in which the characters weep in
 unison4 ,for it is understood  not only
 that man 7especially the bourgeois7 is 
good but that the  orthodox way for this
 goodness to manifest itself is to      
overflow  through the eyes4 ,perhaps    
never before or since have tears been   
shed  with such a strange facility4 ,at 
no other time have there been so many   
persons who1 with streaming eyes1 called
 upon heaven and earth to bear  witness 
to their innate excellence4 ,a man would
 be ashamed1 says ,la  ,bruyre1 speaking
 from the point of view of l'honnte     
homme and  his decorum1 to display his  
emotions at the theatre4 ,by the time of
  ,diderot he would have been ashamed   
not to display them4 ,it had become     
almost a requirement of good manners to 
weep and sob in public4 ,at the         
performance of the 8,pre de ,famille0 in
 #agfi we are told that every           
handkerchief was in use4 ,the           
,revolution seems to have raised doubts 

as  to the necessary connection between 
tearfulness and goodness4 ,the 8,pre  de
 ,famille0 was hissed from the stage in 
#ahaa4 ,geoffroy commented in  his      
feuilleton3 8,we have learned by a fatal
 experience that forty years  of        
declamation and fustian about           
sensibility1 humanity and benevolence1  
have served only to prepare men's hearts
 for the last excesses of  barbarism40  
,the romanticist indulged in the luxury 
of grief and was not incapable  of      
striking an attitude4 ,but as a rule he 
disdained the facile  lachrymosity of   
the man of feeling as still too         
imitative and  conventional4 ,for his   
part1 he has that within which passes   
show4 ,to  estimate a play solely by its
 power to draw tears is1 as ,coleridge  
observes1 to measure it by a virtue that
 it possesses in common with  the onion2
 and ,chateaubriand makes a similar     
observation4 ,yet one  should not forget
 that the romantic emotionalist derives 
directly from  the man of feeling4 ,one 

may indeed study the transition from the
 one  to the other in ,chateaubriand    
himself4 ,for example1 in his early work
  the 8,natchez0 he introduces a tribe  
of ,sioux ,indians who are still        
governed by the natural pity of         
,rousseau1 as they prove by weeping on  
the slightest occasion4 ,lamartine again
 is close to ,rousseau when he          
expatiates on the 8genius0 that is to be
 found in a tear2 and ,musset  is not   
far from ,diderot when he exclaims1     
8,long live the melodrama at  which     
,margot wept0 7,vive le mlodrame o      
,margot a pleur74    ,though it is usual
 to associate this effusiveness with    
,rousseau it  should be clear from my   
brief sketch of the rise of the forces  
that  were destined to overthrow the two
 great traditions--the ,christian       
tradition with its prime emphasis on    
humility and the classical with  its    
prime emphasis on decorum--that         
,rousseau had many forerunners4 ,it     
would be easy enough1 for example1 to   

cite from ,english literature  of the   
early eighteenth-century domestic       
tableaux#gd that look  forward equally  
to the middle class drama and to        
,rousseau's picture  of the virtues of  
,julie as wife and mother4 ,yet         
,rousseau1 after all1  deserves his     
preminent position as the               
arch-sentimentalist by the  very        
audacity of his revolt in the name of   
feeling from both humility  and decorum4
 ,never before and probably never since 
has a man of such  undoubted genius     
shown himself so lacking in humility and
 decency  7to use the old-fashioned     
synonym for decorum7 as ,rousseau in the
  8,confessions40 ,rousseau feels       
himself so good that he is ready as he  
declares to appear before the ,almighty 
at the sound of the trump of  the last  
judgment1 with the book of his          
8,confessions0 in his hand1  and there  
to issue a challenge to the whole human 
race3 8,let a single  one assert to     
,thee if he dare3 ,i am better than that

 man40 ,as ,horace  ,walpole complains  
he meditates a gasconade for the end of 
the world4  ,it is possible to maintain 
with ,m4 ,lematre that ,rousseau's      
character  underwent a certain          
purification as he grew older1 but never
 at any  time1 either at the beginning  
or at the end1 is it possible1 as ,m4   
,lematre admits1 to detect an atom of   
humility--an essential lack that  had   
already been noted by ,burke4    ,the   
affront then that ,rousseau puts upon   
humility at the very opening  of his    
8,confessions0 has like so much else in 
his life and writings  a symbolical     
value4 ,he also declares war in the same
 passage in the  name of what he        
conceives to be his true self--that is  
his emotional  self--against decorum or 
decency4 ,i have already spoken of one  
of  the main objections to decorum3 it  
keeps one tame and conventional  and    
interferes with the explosion of        
original genius4 ,another and  closely  
allied grievance against decorum is     

implied in ,rousseau's  opening         
assertion in the ,confessions that his  
aim is to show a man  in all the truth  
of his nature1 and human nature can be  
known in  its truth only1 it should     
seem1 when stripped of its last shred of
  reticence4 ,rousseau therefore already
 goes on the principle recently         
proclaimed by the ,irish ,bohemian      
,george ,moore1 that the only thing a   
man should be ashamed of is of being    
ashamed4 ,if the first objection to     
decorum--that it represses original     
genius--was urged especially by the     
romanticists1 the second objection--that
 decorum interferes with truth  to      
nature--was urged especially by the     
so-called realists of the later         
nineteenth century 7and realism of this 
type is1 as has been said1 only         
romanticism going on all fours74        
,between the ,rousseauistic conception  
of nature and that of the humanist the  
gap is especially wide4 ,the  humanist  
maintains that man attains to the truth 

of his nature only by  imposing decorum 
upon his ordinary self4 ,the            
,rousseauist maintains that  man attains
 to this truth only by the free         
expansion of his ordinary  self4 ,the   
humanist fears to let his ordinary self 
unfold freely at the  expense of decorum
 lest he merit some such comment as that
 made on  the 8,confessions0 by ,madame 
de ,boufflers who had been infatuated   
with  ,rousseau during his lifetime3    
that it was the work not of a man but of
  an unclean animal4#ge    ,the passages
 of the 8,confessions0 that deserve this
 verdict do not1 it  is hardly necessary
 to add1 reflect directly ,rousseau's   
moral ideal4  ,in his dealings with     
morality as elsewhere he is1 to come    
back to  ,schiller's distinction1 partly
 idyllic and partly satirical4 ,he is   
satiric in his attitude towards the     
existing forms--forms based upon  the   
,christian tradition that man is        
naturally sinful and that he needs      
therefore the discipline of fear and    

humility1 or else forms based upon  the 
classical tradition that man is         
naturally one-sided and that he  needs  
therefore to be disciplined into decorum
 and proportionateness4  ,he is idyllic 
in the substitutes that he would offer  
for these  traditional forms4 ,the      
substitutes are particularly striking in
 their  refusal to allow any place for  
fear4 ,fear1 according to ,ovid1 created
  the first ,gods1 and religion has been
 defined by an old ,english poet  as the
 8mother of form and fear40 ,rousseau   
would put in the place of  form a fluid 
emotionalism1 and as for fear1 he would 
simply cast it  out entirely1 a         
revulsion1 as ,i have pointed out1 from 
the excessive  emphasis on fear in the  
more austere forms of ,christianity4 ,be
  8natural10 ,rousseau says1 and eschew 
priests and doctors1 and you will  be   
emancipated from fear4    ,rousseau's   
expedient for getting rid of man's sense
 of his own  sinfulness on which fear   
and humility ultimately rest is well    

known4  ,evil1 says ,rousseau1 foreign  
to man's constitution1 is introduced    
into  it from without4 ,the burden of   
guilt is thus conveniently shifted upon 
society4 ,instead of the old dualism    
between good and evil in the breast  of 
the individual1 a new dualism is thus   
set up between an artificial  and       
corrupt society and 8nature40 ,for man1 
let me repeat1 has1  according to       
,rousseau1 fallen from nature in        
somewhat the same way as  in the old    
theology he fell from ,god1 and it is   
here that the idyllic  element comes in1
 for1 let us remind ourselves once more1
 ,rousseau's  nature from which man has 
fallen is only an ,arcadian dream4      
,the assertion of man's natural goodness
 is plainly something very  fundamental 
in ,rousseau1 but there is something    
still more fundamental1  and that is the
 shifting of dualism itself1 the virtual
 denial of a  struggle between good and 
evil in the breast of the individual4   
,that  deep inner cleft in man's being  

on which religion has always put so     
much emphasis is not genuine4 ,only get 
away from an artificial society  and    
back to nature and the inner conflict   
which is but a part of the              
artificiality will give way to beauty   
and harmony4 ,in a passage in his       
8,supplment au voyage de ,bougainville10
 ,diderot puts the underlying  thesis of
 the new morality almost more clearly   
than ,rousseau3 8,do  you wish to know  
in brief the tale of almost all our woe8
 ,there once  existed a natural man2    
there has been introduced within this   
man an  artificial man and there has    
arisen in the cave a civil war which    
lasts  throughout life40    ,the denial 
of the reality of the 8civil war in the 
cave0 involves an  entire transformation
 of the conscience4 ,the conscience     
ceases to be  a power that sits in      
judgment on the ordinary self and       
inhibits its  impulses4 ,it tends so far
 as it is recognized at all1 to become  
itself  an instinct and an emotion4     

,students of the history of ethics      
scarcely  need to be told that this     
transformation of the conscience was led
 up  to by the ,english deists1         
especially by ,shaftesbury and his      
disciple  ,hutcheson4#gf ,shaftesbury   
and ,hutcheson are already sthetic in   
all  senses of the word2 sthetic in that
 they tend to base conduct upon         
feeling1 and sthetic in that they       
incline to identify the good and  the   
beautiful4 ,conscience is ceasing for   
both of them to be an inner  check on   
the impulses of the individual and      
becoming a moral sense1 a  sort of      
expansive instinct for doing good to    
others4 ,altruism1 as thus  conceived1  
is opposed by them to the egoism of     
,hobbes and his followers4    ,but for  
the full implications of this           
transformation of conscience  and for   
sthetic morality in general one needs to
 turn to ,rousseau4  ,most men according
 to ,rousseau are perverted by society1 
but there  are a few in whom the voice  

of 8nature0 is still strong and who1 to 
be good and at the same time beautiful1 
have only to let themselves  go4 ,these1
 to use a term that came to have in the 
eighteenth century  an almost technical 
meaning1 are the 8beautiful souls40 ,the
 belle  me is practically               
indistinguishable from the me sensible  
and has  many points in common with the 
original genius4 ,those whose souls are 
beautiful are a small transfigured band 
in the midst of a philistine  multitude4
 ,they are not to be judged by the same 
rules as those of  less exquisite       
sensibility4 8,there are unfortunates   
too privileged to  follow the common    
pathway40#gg ,the beautiful soul is     
unintelligible  to those of coarser     
feelings4 ,his very superiority1 his    
preternatural  fineness of sensation1   
thus predestines him to suffering4 ,we  
are here  at the root of romantic       
melancholy as will appear more fully    
later4    ,the most important aspect of 
the whole conception is1 however1 the   

strictly ethical--the notion that the   
beautiful soul has only to be           
instinctive and temperamental to merit  
the praise that has in the past  been   
awarded only to the purest spirituality4
 8,as for ,julie10 says  ,rousseau1 8who
 never had any other guide but her heart
 and could have  no surer guide1 she    
gives herself up to it without scruple1 
and to do  right1 has only to do all    
that it asks of her40#gh ,virtue indeed1
  according to ,rousseau1 is not merely 
an instinct but a passion and  even a   
voluptuous passion1 moving in the same  
direction as other  passions1 only      
superior to them in vehemence4 8,cold   
reason has never  done anything         
illustrious2 and you can triumph over   
the passions only  by opposing them to  
one another4 ,when the passion of virtue
 arises1 it  dominates everything and   
holds everything in equipoise40#gi      
,this notion of the soul that is        
spontaneously beautiful and therefore   
good made an especial appeal to the     

,germans and indeed is often  associated
 with ,germany more than with any other 
land4#hj ,but examples  of moral        
stheticism are scarcely less frequent   
elsewhere from  ,rousseau to the        
present4 ,no one1 for example1 was ever 
more convinced  of the beauty of his own
 soul than ,renan4 8,morality10 says    
,renan1 8has  been conceived up to the  
present in a very narrow spirit1 as     
obedience  to a law1 as an inner        
struggle between opposite laws4 ,as for 
me1 ,i  declare that when ,i do good ,i 
obey no one1 ,i fight no battle and win 
no  victory4 ,the cultivated man has    
only to follow the delicious incline of 
his inner impulses40#ha ,therefore1 as  
he says elsewhere1 8,be beautiful  and  
then do at each moment whatever your    
heart may inspire you to do4  ,this is  
the whole of morality40#hb    ,the      
doctrine of the beautiful soul is at    
once a denial and a parody  of the      
doctrine of grace2 a denial because it  
rejects original sin2  a parody because 

it holds that the beautiful soul acts   
aright1 not  through any effort of its  
own but because nature acts in it and   
through  it even as a man in a state of 
grace acts aright not through any merit 
of his own but because ,god acts in him 
and through him4 ,the man who  saw      
everything from the angle of grace was1 
like the beautiful soul or  the original
 genius1 inclined to look upon himself  
as exceptional and  superlative4 ,bunyan
 entitles the story of his own inner    
life 8,grace  abounding to the chief of 
sinners40 ,but ,bunyan flatters himself4
 ,it  is not easy to be chief in such a 
lively competition4 ,humility and  pride
 were evidently in a sort of grapple    
with one another in the  breast of the  
,jansenist who declared that ,god had   
killed three men  in order to compass   
his salvation4 ,in the case of the      
beautiful soul  the humility disappears1
 but the pride remains4 ,he still looks 
upon  himself as superlative but        
superlative in goodness4 ,if all men    

were  like himself1 ,renan declares1 it 
would be appropriate to say of them3    
,ye are ,gods and sons of the most      
high4#hc ,the partisan of grace holds   
that works are of no avail compared with
 the gratuitous and unmerited           
illumination from above4 ,the beautiful 
soul clings to his belief in  his own   
innate excellence1 no matter how        
flagrant the contradiction  may be      
between this belief and his deeds4 ,one 
should not fail to note  some           
approximation to the point of view of   
the beautiful soul in those  forms of   
,christianity in which the sense of sin 
is somewhat relaxed  and the inner light
 very much emphasized--for example among
 the ,german  pietists and the quietists
 of ,catholic countries4#hd ,we even    
hear of  persons claiming to be         
,christians who as the result of        
debauchery have  experienced a spiritual
 awakening 7,dans la brute assoupie1 un 
ange se  rveille74 ,but such doctrines  
are mere excrescences and eccentricities

  in the total history of ,christianity4
 ,even in its extreme insistence  on    
grace1 ,christianity has always tended  
to supplement rather than  contradict   
the supreme maxim of humanistic morality
 as enunciated by  ,cicero3 8,the whole 
praise of virtue is in action40 ,the    
usual result  of the doctrine of grace  
when sincerely held is to make a man    
feel  desperately sinful at the same    
time that he is less open to reproach   
than other men in his actual behavior4  
,the beautiful soul on the  other hand  
can always take refuge in his feelings  
from his real  delinquencies4 ,according
 to ,joubert1 ,chateaubriand was not    
disturbed  by actual lapses in his      
conduct because of his persuasion of his
 own  innate rectitude4#he 8,her conduct
 was reprehensible10 says ,rousseau  of 
,madame de ,warens1 8but her heart was  
pure40 ,it does not matter  what you do 
if only through it all you preserve the 
sense of your own  loveliness4 ,indeed  
the more dubious the act the more       

copious would  seem to be the overflow  
of fine sentiments to which it          
stimulates  the beautiful soul4         
,rousseau dilates on his 8warmth of     
heart10 his  8keenness of sensibility10 
his 8innate benevolence for his fellow  
creatures10 his 8ardent love for the    
great1 the true1 the beautiful1  the    
just10 on the 8melting feeling1 the     
lively and sweet emotion that  he       
experiences at the sight of everything  
that is virtuous1 generous  and lovely10
 and concludes3 8,and so my third child 
was put into the  foundling hospital40  
,if we wish to see the psychology of    
,rousseau writ large we should turn  to 
the ,french ,revolution4 ,that period   
abounds in persons whose goodness  is in
 theory so superlative that it overflows
 in a love for all men1  but who in     
practice are filled like ,rousseau in   
his later years with  universal         
suspicion4 ,there was indeed a moment in
 the ,revolution when  the madness of   
,rousseau became epidemic1 when         

suspicion was pushed  to such a point   
that men became 8suspect of being       
suspect40 ,one of  the last persons to  
see ,rousseau alive at ,ermenonville was
 ,maximilien  ,robespierre4 ,he was     
probably a more thoroughgoing           
,rousseauist than  any other of the     
,revolutionary leaders4 ,perhaps no     
passage that could  be cited illustrates
 with more terrible clearness the       
tendency of the  new morality to convert
 righteousness into self-righteousness  
than  the following from his last speech
 before the ,convention at the very     
height of the ,reign of ,terror4        
,himself devoured by suspicion1 he is   
repelling the suspicion that he wishes  
to erect his own power on the  ruins of 
the monarchy4 ,the idea1 he says1 that  
8he can descend to the  infamy of the   
throne will appear probable only to     
those perverse beings  who have not even
 the right to believe in virtue4 ,but   
why speak of  virtue8 ,doubtless virtue 
is a natural passion4 ,but how could    

they be  familiar with it1 these venal  
spirits who never yielded access to     
aught  save cowardly and ferocious      
passions8 ''' ,yet virtue exists as you 
can  testify1 feeling and pure souls2 it
 exists1 that tender1 irresistible1     
imperious passion1 torment and delight  
of magnanimous hearts1 that  profound   
horror of tyranny1 that compassionate   
zeal for the oppressed1  that sacred    
love for one's country1 that still more 
sublime and  sacred love for humanity1  
without which a great revolution is only
 a  glittering crime that destroys      
another crime2 it exists1 that generous 
ambition to found on earth the first    
,republic of the world2 that egoism  of 
undegenerate men who find a celestial   
voluptuousness in the calm of  a pure   
conscience and the ravishing spectacle  
of public happiness7674  ,you feel it at
 this moment burning in your souls4 ,i  
feel it in mine4  ,but how could our    
vile calumniators have any notion of    
it80 etc4    ,in ,robespierre and other 

revolutionary leaders one may study the 
implications of the new morality--the   
attempt to transform virtue into  a     
natural passion--not merely for the     
individual but for society4 ,m4  ,rod   
entitled his play on ,rousseau 8,the    
,reformer40 ,both ,rousseau and his     
disciple ,robespierre were reformers in 
the modern sense1--that is they  are    
concerned not with reforming themselves1
 but other men4 ,inasmuch  as there is  
no conflict between good and evil in the
 breast of the  beautiful soul he is    
free to devote all his efforts to the   
improvement  of mankind1 and he proposes
 to achieve this great end by diffusing 
the  spirit of brotherhood4 ,all the    
traditional forms that stand in the way 
of this free emotional expansion he     
denounces as mere 8prejudices10  and    
inclines to look on those who administer
 these forms as a gang of  conspirators 
who are imposing an arbitrary and       
artificial restraint on  the natural    
goodness of man and so keeping it from  

manifesting itself4  ,with the final    
disappearance of the prejudices of the  
past and those  who base their usurped  
authority upon them1 the ,golden ,age   
will be  ushered in at last2 everybody  
will be boundlessly self-assertive and  
at the same time temper this            
self-assertion by an equally boundless  
sympathy for others1 whose sympathy and 
self-assertion likewise know no  bounds4
 ,the world of ,walt ,whitman will be   
realized1 a world in which  there is    
neither inferior nor superior but only  
comrades4 ,this vision  7such for       
example as appears at the end of        
,shelley's 8,prometheus07 of  a humanity
 released from all evil artificially    
imposed from without1  a humanity 8where
 all things flow to all1 as rivers to   
the sea0 and  8whose nature is its own  
divine control10 is the true religion of
 the  ,rousseauist4 ,it is this image of
 a humanity glorified through love  that
 he sets up for worship in the sanctuary
 left vacant by 8the great  absence of  

,god40    ,this transformation of the   
,arcadian dreamer into the ,utopist is  
due  in part1 as ,i have already        
suggested1 to the intoxication produced 
in the human spirit by the conquests of 
science4 ,one can discern the           
coperation of ,baconian and ,rousseauist
 from a very early stage of the  great  
humanitarian movement in the midst of   
which we are still living4  ,both       
,baconian and ,rousseauist are          
interested not in the struggle  between 
good and evil in the breast of the      
individual1 but in the  progress of     
mankind as a whole4 ,if the ,rousseauist
 hopes to promote  the progress of      
society by diffusing the spirit of      
brotherhood the  ,baconian or           
utilitarian hopes to achieve the same   
end by perfecting  its machinery4 ,it is
 scarcely necessary to add that these   
two main  types of humanitarianism may  
be contained in almost any proportion in
  any particular person4 ,by his worship
 of man in his future material  advance1

 the ,baconian betrays no less surely   
than the ,rousseauist his  faith in     
man's natural goodness4 ,this lack of   
humility is especially  conspicuous in  
those who have sought to develop the    
positive  observations of science into a
 closed system with the aid of logic and
  pure mathematics4 ,pascal already     
remarked sarcastically of ,descartes    
that he had no need of ,god except to   
give an initial fillip to his           
mechanism4 ,later the mechanist no      
longer grants the need of the initial   
fillip4 ,according to the familiar      
anecdote1 ,la ,place when asked by      
,napoleon in the course of an           
explanation of his 8,celestial          
,mechanics0  where ,god came in1 replied
 that he had no need of a ,god in his   
system4  ,as illustrating the extreme of
 humanitarian arrogance one may take    
the following from the physicist and    
mathematician1 ,w4 ,k4 ,clifford3  8,the
 dim and shadowy outlines of the        
superhuman deity fade slowly from       

before us2 and as the mist of his       
presence floats aside1 we perceive  with
 greater and greater clearness the shape
 of a yet grander and  nobler figure--of
 ,him who made all gods and shall unmake
 them4 ,from  the dim dawn of history   
and from the inmost depths of every soul
 the  face of our father ,man looks out 
upon us with the fire of eternal youth  
in his eyes and says1 #8,before ,jehovah
 was1 ,i am4'0 ,the fire1 one is        
tempted to say1 of eternal lust6        
,clifford is reported to have once hung 
by his toes from the cross-bar of a     
weathercock on a church-tower4 ,as  a   
bit of intellectual acrobatics the      
passage ,i have just quoted has  some   
analogy with this posture4 ,further than
 this1 man's intoxication  with himself 
is not likely to go4 ,the attitude of   
,clifford is even more  extreme in its  
way than that of ,jonathan ,edwards in  
his4 ,however1 there  are already signs 
that the man of science is becoming1 if 
not humble1  at least a trifle less     

arrogant4    ,one can imagine the       
,rousseauist interrupting at this point 
to remark  that one of his chief        
protests has always been against the    
mechanical  and utilitarian and in      
general the scientific attitude towards 
life4  ,this is true4 ,something has    
already been said about this protest and
  it will be necessary to say more about
 it later4 ,yet ,rousseauist and        
,baconian agree1 as ,i have said1 in    
turning away from the 8civil war in  the
 cave0 to humanity in the lump4 ,they   
agree in being more or less  rebellious 
towards the traditional forms that put  
prime emphasis on  the 8civil war in the
 cave0--whether the ,christian tradition
 with its  humility or the classical    
with its decorum4 ,no wonder ,prometheus
 was  the great romantic hero4          
,prometheus was at once a rebel1 a lover
 of man  and a promoter of man's        
material progress4 ,we have been living 
for over  a century in what may be      
termed an age of ,promethean            

individualism4    ,the ,rousseauist     
especially feels an inner kinship with  
,prometheus and  other ,titans4 ,he is  
fascinated by every form of insurgency4 
,cain and  ,satan are both romantic     
heroes4 ,to meet the full romantic      
requirement1  however1 the insurgent    
must also be tender-hearted4 ,he must   
show an  elemental energy in his        
explosion against the established order 
and  at the same time a boundless       
sympathy for the victims of it4 ,one of 
,hugo's poems tells of a ,mexican       
volcano1 that in sheer disgust at  the  
cruelty of the members of the           
,inquisition1 spits lava upon them4     
,this compassionate volcano symbolizes  
in both of its main aspects  the        
romantic ideal4 ,hence the enormous     
international popularity  of ,schiller's
 8,robbers40 ,one may find innumerable  
variants of the  brigand ,karl ,moor who
 uses his plunder 8to support           
meritorious young  men at college40 ,the
 world into which we enter from the very

 dawn of  romanticism is one of         
8glorious rascals10 and 8beloved        
vagabonds40        8,sublime convicts10 
says ,m4 ,lasserre1 8idlers of genius1  
angelic female poisoners1 monsters      
inspired by ,god1 sincere               
comedians1 virtuous courtesans1         
metaphysical mountebanks1      faithful 
adulterers1 form only one half--the     
sympathetic half      of humanity       
according to romanticism4 ,the other    
half1 the      wicked half1 is          
manufactured by the same intellectual   
process      under the suggestion of the
 same revolutionary instinct4      ,it  
comprises all those who hold or stand   
for a portion of      any discipline    
whatsoever1 political1 religious1 moral 
or      intellectual--kings1 ministers1 
priests1 judges1 soldiers1              
policemen1 husbands and critics40#hf    
,the ,rousseauist is ever ready to      
discover beauty of soul in any one  who 
is under the reprobation of society4    
,the figure of the courtesan            

rehabilitated through love that has     
enjoyed such popularity during the  past
 hundred years goes back to ,rousseau   
himself4#hg ,the underlying  assumption 
of romantic morality is that the        
personal virtues1 the  virtues that     
imply self-control1 count as naught     
compared with the  fraternal spirit and 
the readiness to sacrifice one's self   
for  others4 ,this is the ordinary theme
 of the ,russian novel in which  one    
finds1 as ,lematre remarks1 8the        
,kalmuck exaggerations of our  ,french  
romantic ideas40 ,for example ,sonia in 
8,crime and ,punishment0  is glorified  
because she prostitutes herself to      
procure a livelihood  for her family4   
,one does not however need to go to     
,russia for what is  scarcely less the  
assumption of contemporary ,america4 ,if
 it can only  be shown that a person is 
sympathetic we are inclined to pardon   
him  his sins of unrestraint1 his lack1 
for example1 of common honesty4  ,as an 
offset to the damaging facts brought out

 at the investigation  of the sugar     
trust1 the defense sought to establish  
that the late ,h4  ,o4 ,havemeyer was a 
beautiful soul4 ,it was testified that  
he could  never hear little children    
sing without tears coming into his eyes4
  ,his favorite song1 some one was      
unkind enough to suggest1 was 8little   
drops of water1 little grains of sand40 
,the newspapers again reported  not long
 ago that a notorious ,pittsburg grafter
 had petitioned for  his release from   
the penitentiary on the grounds that he 
wished to  continue his philanthropic   
activities among the poor4 ,another     
paragraph  that appeared recently in the
 daily press related that a burglar     
while  engaged professionally in a house
 at ,los ,angeles discovered that the   
lady of the house had a child suffering 
from croup1 and at once came to  her    
aid1 explaining that he had six children
 of his own4 ,no one could  really think
 amiss of this authentic descendant of  
,schiller's ,karl  ,moor4 ,for love1    

according to the ,rousseauist1 is not   
the fulfillment  of the law but a       
substitute for it4 ,in 8,les ,misrables0
 ,hugo contrasts  ,javert who stands for
 the old order based on obedience to the
 law  with the convict ,jean ,valjean   
who stands for the new regeneration of  
man through love and self-sacrifice4    
,when ,javert awakens to the full       
ignominy of his rle he does the only    
decent thing--he commits suicide4  ,hugo
 indeed has perhaps carried the new     
evangel of sympathy as a  substitute for
 all the other virtues further than any 
one else and with  fewer weak           
concessions to common sense4 ,sultan    
,murad1 ,hugo narrates1  was 8sublime40 
,he had his eight brothers strangled1   
caused his uncle to  be sawn in two     
between two planks1 opened one after the
 other twelve  children to find a stolen
 apple1 shed an ocean of blood and      
8sabred the  world40 ,one day while     
passing in front of a butcher-shop he   
saw a pig  bleeding to death1 tormented 

by flies and with the sun beating upon  
its wound4 ,touched by pity1 the ,sultan
 pushes the pig into the shade  with his
 foot and with an 8enormous and         
superhuman gesture0 drives away  the    
flies4 ,when ,murad dies the pig appears
 before the ,almighty and1  pleading for
 him against the accusing host of his   
victims1 wins his  pardon4 ,moral3 8,a  
succored pig outweighs a world          
oppressed0#hh 7,un  pourceau secouru    
vaut un monde gorg74    ,this           
subordination of all the other values of
 life to sympathy is  achieved only at  
the expense of the great humanistic     
virtue--decorum  or a sense of          
proportion4 ,now not to possess a sense 
of proportion is1  however this lack may
 be manifested1 to be a pedant2 and1 if 
there is  ever a humanistic reaction1   
,hugo1 one of the chief products of the 
age  of original genius1 will scarcely  
escape the charge of pedantry4 ,but     
true religion also insists on a         
hierarchy of the virtues4 ,burke speaks 

at least as much from a religious as    
from a humanistic point of view  when he
 writes3        8,the greatest crimes do
 not arise so much from a want of       
feeling for others as from an           
over-sensibility for ourselves      and 
an over-indulgence to our own desires4  
''' ,they the      #8philosophes'       
explode or render odious or contemptible
 that      class of virtues which       
restrain the appetite4 ,these are at    
least nine out of ten of the virtues4   
,in the place of all      this they     
substitute a virtue which they call     
humanity or      benevolence4 ,by these 
means their morality has no idea in it  
of restraint or indeed of a distinct and
 settled principle of      any kind4    
,when their disciples are thus left free
 and guided      only by present        
feeling1 they are no longer to be       
depended      on for good and evil4 ,the
 men who to-day snatch the worst        
criminals from justice will murder the  
most innocent persons                   

to-morrow40#hi    ,the person who seeks 
to get rid of ninety per cent of the    
virtues in  favor of an indiscriminate  
sympathy does not simply lose his scale 
of  values4 ,he arrives at an inverted  
scale of values4 ,for the higher the    
object for which one feels sympathy the 
more the idea of obligation  is likely  
to intrude--the very thing the          
,rousseauist is seeking to  escape4 ,one
 is more irresponsible and therefore    
more spontaneous in the  ,rousseauistic 
sense in lavishing one's pity on a dying
 pig4 ,medical  men have given a learned
 name to the malady of those who neglect
 the  members of their own family and   
gush over animals 7zophilpsychosis74    
,but ,rousseau already exhibits this    
8psychosis40 ,he abandoned his five     
children one after the other1 but had we
 are told an unspeakable  affection for 
his dog4#ij    ,rousseau's contemporary1
 ,sterne1 is supposed to have lavished a
  somewhat disproportionate emotion upon
 an ass4 ,but the ass does  not really  

come into his own until a later stage of
 the movement4  ,nietzsche has depicted 
the leaders of the nineteenth century as
  engaged in a veritable onolatry or    
ass-worship4 ,the opposition between    
neo-classicist and ,rousseauist is      
indeed symbolized in a fashion by  their
 respective attitude towards the ass4   
,neo-classical decorum  was1 it should  
be remembered1 an all-pervading         
principle4 ,it imposed  a severe        
hierarchy1 not only upon objects1 but   
upon the words that  express these      
objects4 ,the first concern of the      
decorous person was to  avoid lowness1  
and the ass he looked upon as hopelessly
 low--so low  as to be incapable of     
ennoblement even by a resort to         
periphrasis4  ,homer therefore was      
deemed by ,vida to have been guilty of  
outrageous  indecorum in comparing ,ajax
 to an ass4 ,the partisans of ,homer    
sought  indeed to prove that the ass was
 in the time of ,homer a 8noble0 animal 
or at least that the word ass was       

8noble40 ,but the stigma put upon       
,homer by ,vida--reinforced as it was by
 the similar attacks of ,scaliger  and  
others--remained4    ,the rehabilitation
 of the ass by the ,rousseauist is at   
once a protest  against an unduly       
squeamish decorum1 and a way of         
proclaiming the new  principle of       
unbounded expansive sympathy4 ,in       
dealing with both words  and what they  
express1 one should show a democratic   
inclusiveness4  ,something has already  
been said of the war the romanticist    
waged in  the name of local color       
against the impoverishment of vocabulary
 by  the neo-classicists4 ,but the      
romantic warfare against the            
aristocratic  squeamishness of the      
neo-classic vocabulary goes perhaps even
 deeper4  ,take1 for instance1          
,wordsworth's view as to the proper     
language of  poetry4 ,poetical decorum  
had become by the end of the eighteenth 
century a mere varnish of conventional  
elegance4 ,why should mere  polite      

prejudice1 so ,wordsworth reasoned1 and 
the 8gaudiness and inane  phraseology0  
in which it resulted be allowed to      
interfere with the  8spontaneous        
overflow of powerful emotion08 ,and so  
he proceeds to set  up a view of poetry 
that is only the neo-classical view     
turned upside  down4 ,for the proper    
subjects and speech of poetry he would  
turn from  the highest class of society 
to the lowest1 from the aristocrat to   
the peasant4 ,the peasant is more       
poetical than the aristocrat because  he
 is closer to nature1 for ,wordsworth as
 he himself avows1 is less  interested  
in the peasant for his own sake than    
because he sees in him  a sort of       
emanation of the landscape4#ia    ,one  
needs to keep all this background in    
mind if one wishes to  understand the   
full significance of a poem like 8,peter
 ,bell40  ,scaliger blames ,homer       
because he stoops to mention in his     
description  of ,zeus something so      
trivial as the eyebrows4 ,wordsworth    

seeks to  bestow poetical dignity and   
seriousness on the 8long left ear0 of an
  ass4#ib ,the ass is thus exalted one  
scarcely need add1 because of  his      
compassionateness4 ,the hard heart of   
,peter ,bell is at last melted  by the  
sight of so much goodness4 ,he aspires  
to be like the ass and  finally achieves
 his wish4    ,the ,french romanticists1
 ,hugo1 for instance1 make an attack on 
decorum  somewhat similar to that of    
,wordsworth4 ,words formerly lived1 says
  ,hugo1 divided up into castes4 ,some  
had the privilege of mounting into  the 
king's coaches at ,versailles1 whereas  
others were relegated to  the rabble4 ,i
 came along and clapped a red liberty   
cap on the old  dictionary4 ,i brought  
about a literary '#ic1ic etc4 ,hugo's   
attack  on decorum is also combined with
 an even more violent assertion than    
,wordsworth's of the ideal of romantic  
morality--the supremacy of pity4  ,he   
declares in the 8,legend of the ,ages0  
that an ass that takes a step  aside to 

avoid crushing a toad is 8holier than   
,socrates and greater  than ,plato40#id 
,for this and similar utterances ,hugo  
deserves to be  placed very nearly if   
not quite at the head of romantic       
onolaters4    ,we have said that the    
tremendous burden put upon sympathy in  
romantic  morality is a result of the   
assumption that the 8civil war in the   
cave0  is artificial and that therefore 
the restraining virtues 7according  to  
,burke ninety per cent of the virtues7  
which imply this warfare  are likewise  
artificial4 ,if the civil war in the    
cave should turn  out to be not         
artificial but a fact of the gravest    
import1 the whole  spiritual landscape  
would change immediately4 ,romantic     
morality would  in that case be not a   
reality but a mirage4 ,we need at all   
events to  grasp the central issue      
firmly4 ,humanism and religion have     
always  asserted in some form or other  
the dualism of the human spirit4 ,a     
man's  spirituality is in inverse ratio 

to his immersion in temperament4 ,the   
whole movement from ,rousseau to        
,bergson is1 on the other hand1 filled  
with the glorification of instinct4 ,to 
become spiritual the beautiful  soul    
needs only to expand along the lines of 
temperament and with this  process the  
cult of pity or sympathy does not       
interfere4 ,the romantic  moralist tends
 to favor expansion on the ground that  
it is vital1  creative1 infinite1 and to
 dismiss whatever seems to set bounds to
  expansion as something inert1         
mechanical1 finite4 ,in its onslaughts  
on  the veto power whether within or    
without the breast of the individual  it
 is plain that no age has ever          
approached the age of original  genius  
in the midst of which we are still      
living4 ,goethe defines the  devil as   
the spirit that always says no1 and     
,carlyle celebrates his  passage from   
darkness to light as an escape from the 
,everlasting ,nay  to the ,everlasting  
,yea4 ,we rarely pause to consider what 

a reversal  of traditional wisdom is    
implied in such conceptions4 ,in the    
past1  the spirit that says no has been 
associated rather with the divine4      
,socrates tells us that the counsels of 
his 8voice0 were always  negative1 never
 positive4#ie ,according to the ancient 
,hindu again the  divine is the 8inner  
check40 ,god1 according to ,aristotle1  
is pure ,form4  ,in opposition to all   
this emphasis on the restricting and    
limiting  power1 the naturalist1 whether
 scientific or emotional1 sets up a     
program of formless1 fearless expansion2
 which means in practice that  he       
recognizes no bounds either to          
intellectual or emotional curiosity4    
,i have said that it is a part of the   
psychology of the original genius  to   
offer the element of wonder and surprise
 awakened by the perpetual  novelty1 the
 infinite otherwiseness of things1 as a 
substitute for  the awe that is         
associated with their infinite oneness2 
or rather to  refuse to discriminate    

between these two infinitudes and so to 
confound  the two main directions of the
 human spirit1 its religious ,east1 as  
one may say1 with its ,west of wonder   
and romance4 ,this confusion may  be    
illustrated by the romantic attitude    
towards what is perhaps the  most       
,eastern of all ,eastern lands1--,india4
 ,the materials for the study  of ,india
 in the ,occident were accumulated by   
,englishmen towards the  end of the     
eighteenth century1 but the actual      
interpretation of this  material is due 
largely to ,german romanticists1 notably
 to ,friedrich  ,schlegel4#if ,alongside
 the romantic ,hellenist and the        
romantic  medivalist we find the        
romantic ,indianist4 ,it is to ,india   
even more  than to ,spain that one needs
 to turn1 says ,friedrich ,schlegel1 for
 the  supremely romantic#ig--that is1   
the wildest and most unrestrained       
luxuriance of imagination4 ,now in a    
country so vast and so ancient as       
,india you can find in some place or at 

some period or other almost  anything   
you like4 ,if1 for example1 ,w4 ,b4     
,yeats waxes enthusiastic  over ,tagore 
we may be sure that there is in the work
 of ,tagore  something akin to sthetic  
romanticism4 ,but if we take ,india at  
the top  of her achievement in the early
 ,buddhistic movement1 let us say1 we   
shall find something very different4    
,the early ,buddhistic movement in  its 
essential aspects is at the extreme     
opposite pole from romanticism4  ,the   
point is worth making because certain   
misinterpretations that  still persist  
both of ,buddhism and other movements in
 ,india can  be traced ultimately to the
 bad twist that was given to the whole  
subject by romanticists like the        
,schlegels4 ,the educated ,frenchman1   
for instance1 gets his ideas of ,india  
largely from certain poems of  ,leconte 
de ,lisle who reflects the ,german      
influence4 ,but the sense of  universal 
and meaningless flux that pervades these
 poems without any  countervailing sense

 of a reality behind the shows of nature
 is a  product of romanticism1 working  
in coperation with science1 and is      
therefore antipodal to the absorption of
 the true ,hindu in the oneness  of     
things4 ,we are told1 again1 that       
,schopenhauer was a ,buddhist4 ,did  he 
not have an image of ,buddha in his     
bedroom8 ,but no doctrine perhaps  is   
more remote from the genuine doctrine of
 ,buddha than that of this  soured and  
disillusioned romanticist4 ,the nature  
of true ,buddhism and  its opposition to
 all forms of romanticism is worth      
dwelling on for  a moment4 ,buddha not  
only asserted the human law with unusual
 power  but he also did what1 in the    
estimation of some1 needs doing in our  
own day--he put this law1 not on a      
traditional1 but on a positive and      
critical basis4 ,this spiritual         
positivism of ,buddha is1 reduced to its
  simplest terms1 a psychology of       
desire4 ,not only is the world outside  
of man in a constant state of flux and  

change1 but there is an element  within 
man that is in constant flux and change 
also and makes itself  felt practically 
as an element of expansive desire4 ,what
 is unstable in  him longs for what is  
unstable in the outer world4 ,but he may
 escape  from the element of flux and   
change1 nay he must aspire to do so1 if 
he wishes to be released from sorrow4   
,this is to substitute the noble  for   
the ignoble craving4 ,the permanent or  
ethical element in himself  towards     
which he should strive to move is known 
to him practically as a  power of       
inhibition or inner check upon expansive
 desire4 ,vital impulse  7lan vital7 may
 be subjected to vital control 7frein   
vital74 ,here  is the ,buddhist         
equivalent of the 8civil war in the     
cave0 that the  romanticist denies4     
,buddha does not admit a soul in man in 
the sense  that is often given to the   
word1 but on this opposition between    
vital  impulse and vital control as a   
psychological fact he puts his supreme  

emphasis4 ,the man who drifts supinely  
with the current of desire is  guilty   
according to ,buddha of the gravest of  
all vices--spiritual or  moral indolence
 7pamda74 ,he on the contrary who curbs 
or reins in  his expansive desires is   
displaying the chief of all the virtues1
  spiritual vigilance or strenuousness  
7appamda74 ,the man who is  spiritually 
strenuous has entered upon the 8path40  
,the end of this  path and the goal of  
being cannot be formulated in terms of  
the finite  intellect1 any more than the
 ocean can be put into a cup4 ,but      
progress  on the path may be known by   
its fruits--negatively by the extinction
 of  the expansive desires 7the literal 
meaning of ,nirvna71 positively by  an  
increase in peace1 poise1 centrality4   
,a man's rank in the scale of being is1 
then1 according to the ,buddhist        
determined by the quality of his        
desires2 and it is within his power to  
determine whether he shall let them run 
wild or else control them to  some      

worthy end4 ,we hear of the fatalistic  
,east1 but no doctrine was  ever less   
fatalistic than that of ,buddha4 ,no one
 ever put so squarely  upon the         
individual what the individual is ever  
seeking to evade--the  burden of moral  
responsibility4 8,self is the lord of   
self4 ,who else  can be the lord8 '''   
,you yourself must make the effort4 ,the
 ,buddhas are  only teachers40#ih ,but  
does not all this emphasis on self1 one 
may  ask1 tend to hardness and          
indifference towards others1 towards the
  undermining of that compassion to     
which the romantic moralist is ready  to
 sacrifice all the other virtues8       
,buddha may be allowed to speak for     
himself3 8,even as a mother cherishes   
her child1 her only child1 so let  a man
 cultivate a boundless love towards all 
beings40#ii ,buddha thus  seems to      
fulfil ,pascal's requirement for a great
 man3 he unites in  himself opposite    
virtues and occupies all the space      
between them4    ,enough has been said  

to make plain that the infinite         
indeterminate  desire of the romanticist
 and the ,buddhist repression of desire 
are the  most different things          
conceivable4 ,chateaubriand it has been 
said was  an 8invincibly restless soul10
 a soul of desire 7une me de dsir71  but
 these phrases are scarcely more        
applicable to him than to many  other   
great romanticists4 ,they are fitly     
symbolized by the figures that  pace to 
and fro in the ,hall of ,eblis and whose
 hearts are seen through  their         
transparent bosoms to be lapped in the  
flames of unquenchable  longing4 ,the   
romanticist indeed bases1 as ,i have    
said1 on the very  intensity of his     
longing his claims to be an idealist and
 even a  mystic4 ,william ,blake1 for   
example1 has been proclaimed a true     
mystic4  ,the same term has also been   
applied to ,buddha4 ,without pretending 
to  have fathomed completely so         
unfathomable a being as ,buddha or even 
the  far less unfathomable ,william     

,blake1 one may nevertheless assert with
  confidence that ,buddha and ,blake    
stand for utterly incompatible views  of
 life4 ,if ,blake is a mystic then      
,buddha must be something else4 ,to  be 
assured on this point one needs only to 
compare the 8,marriage of  ,heaven and  
,hell0 with the 8,dhammapada10 an       
anthology of some of the  most authentic
 and authoritative material in early    
,buddhism4 8,he who  desires but acts   
not1 breeds pestilence4 ''' ,the road of
 excess leads  to the palace of wisdom10
 says ,blake4 8,even in heavenly        
pleasures he  finds no satisfaction2 the
 disciple who is fully awakened delights
  only in the destruction of all        
desires4 ''' ,good is restraint in all  
things10 says ,buddha4 ,buddha would    
evidently have dismissed ,blake as  a   
madman1 whereas ,blake would have looked
 on ,buddhism as the ultimate           
abomination4 ,my own conviction is that 
,buddha was a genuine sage well  worthy 
of the homage rendered him by multitudes

 of men for more than  twenty-four      
centuries1 whereas ,blake was only a    
romantic sthete who  was moving in his  
imaginative activity towards madness and
 seems at the  end actually to have     
reached the goal4    ,i have been going 
thus far afield to ancient ,india and to
 ,buddha1 not  that ,i might1 like a    
recent student of ,buddhism1 enjoy 8the 
strangeness  of the intellectual        
landscape10 but on the contrary that ,i 
might  suggest that there is a centre of
 normal human experience and that       
,buddhism1 at least in its ethical      
aspects1 is nearer to this centre  than 
sthetic romanticism4 ,buddha might      
perhaps marvel with more  reason at our 
strangeness than we at his4 ,buddha's   
assertion of man's  innate moral        
laziness in particular accords more     
closely with what  most of us have      
experienced than ,rousseau's assertion  
of man's natural  goodness4 ,this       
conception of the innate laziness of man
 seems to me  indeed so central that ,i 

am going to put it at the basis of the  
point  of view ,i am myself seeking to  
develop1 though this point of view is   
not primarily ,buddhistic4 ,this        
conception has the advantage of being   
positive rather than dogmatic4 ,it works
 out in practice very much like  the    
original sin of the ,christian          
theologian4 ,the advantage of starting  
with indolence rather than sin is that  
many men will admit that they  are      
morally indolent who will not admit that
 they are sinful4 ,for  theological     
implications still cluster thickly about
 the word sin1 and  these persons are   
still engaged more or less consciously  
in the great  naturalistic revolt       
against theology4    ,the spiritual     
positivist then will start from a fact  
of immediate  perception--from the      
presence namely in the breast of the    
individual  of a principle of vital     
control 7frein vital71 and he will      
measure  his spiritual strenuousness or 
spiritual sloth by the degree to which  

he exercises or fails to exercise this  
power4 ,in accordance with the  keenness
 of a man's perception of a specially   
human order that is  known practically  
as a curb upon his ordinary self1 he may
 be said to  possess insight4 ,the      
important thing is that the insight     
should not  be sophisticated1 that a man
 should not fall away from it into some 
phantasmagoria of the intellect or      
emotions4 ,a man sometimes builds up  a 
whole system of metaphysics as a sort of
 screen between himself and  his        
obligations either to himself or others4
 ,mrs4 ,barbauld suspected  that        
,coleridge's philosophy was only a mask 
for indolence4 ,carlyle's  phrase for   
,coleridge was even harsher3 8putrescent
 indolence10 a phrase  that might be    
applied with more justice perhaps to    
,rousseau4 ,one may  learn from         
,rousseau the art of sinking to the     
region of instinct that  is below the   
rational level instead of struggling    
forward to the  region of insight that  

is above it1 and at the same time       
passing for a  sublime enthusiast2 the  
art of looking backwards and downwards1 
and at  the same time enjoying the honor
 that belongs only to those who look    
forwards and up4 ,we need not wonder at 
the warm welcome that this new  art     
received4 ,i have said that that man has
 always been accounted a  benefactor who
 has substituted for the reality of     
spiritual discipline  some ingenious art
 of going through the motions and that  
the decorum of  the neo-classical period
 had largely sunk to this level4 ,even  
in the  most decorous of modern ages1   
that of ,louis ,,xiv1 it was very       
common1 as  every student of the period 
knows1 for men to set up as personages  
in  the grand manner and at the same    
time behind the faade of conventional   
dignity to let their appetites run riot4
 ,it would have been perfectly          
legitimate at the end of the eighteenth 
century to attack in the name  of true  
decorum a decorum that had become the   

8varnish of vice0 and  8mask of         
hypocrisy40 ,what ,rousseau actually    
opposed to pseudo-decorum  was perhaps  
the most alluring form of sham          
spirituality that the  world has ever   
seen--a method not merely of masking but
 of glorifying  one's spiritual         
indolence4 8,you wish to have the       
pleasures of vice  and the honor of     
virtue10 wrote ,julie to ,saint-,preux  
in a moment of  unusual candor4 ,the    
,rousseauist may indulge in the extreme 
of psychic  unrestraint and at the same 
time pose as a perfect idealist or even1
 if  one is a ,chateaubriand1 as a      
champion of religion4 ,chateaubriand's  
life  according to ,lematre was a       
8magnificent series of attitudes40    ,i
 do not mean to assert that the         
,rousseauist is always guilty of the    
pose and theatricality of which there is
 more than a suggestion in              
,chateaubriand4 ,there is1 however1 much
 in the ,rousseauistic view of  life    
that militates against a complete moral 

honesty4 8,of all the men ,i  have      
known10 says ,rousseau1 8he whose       
character derives most completely  from 
his temperament alone is                
,jean-,jacques40#ajj ,the ugly things   
that  have a way of happening when      
impulse is thus left uncontrolled do    
not1 as we have seen1 disturb the       
beautiful soul in his complacency4  ,he 
can always point an accusing finger at  
something or somebody else4  ,the faith 
in one's natural goodness is a constant 
encouragement to  evade moral           
responsibility4 ,to accept              
responsibility is to follow the  line of
 maximum effort1 whereas man's secret   
desire is to follow1 if  not the line of
 least1 at all events the line of lesser
 resistance4  ,the endless twisting and 
dodging and proneness to look for       
scapegoats  that results is surely the  
least reputable aspect of human nature4 
,rousseau writes to ,madame de          
,francueil 7#bj ,april1 #agea7 that it  
was  her class1 the class of the rich1  

that was responsible for his having  had
 to abandon his children4 ,with         
responsibility thus shifted from  one's 
self to the rich1 the next step is      
inevitable1 namely to start a  crusade  
against the members of a class which1   
without any warrant from  8,nature10    
oppresses its brothers1 the members of  
other classes1 and  forces them into    
transgression4 ,a man may thus dodge his
 duties as a  father1 and at the same   
time pose as a paladin of humanity4     
,rousseau is  very close here to our    
most recent agitators4 ,if a working    
girl falls  from chastity1 for example1 
do not blame her1 blame her employer4   
,she  would have remained a model of    
purity if he had only added a dollar or 
two a week to her wage4 ,with the       
progress of the new morality every  one 
has become familiar with the type of the
 perfect idealist who is  ready to pass 
laws for the regulation of everybody and
 everything  except himself1 and who    
knows how to envelop in a mist of       

radiant words  schemes the true driving 
power of which is the desire to         
confiscate  property4    ,the tendency  
to make of society the universal        
scapegoat is not1 one  scarcely needs   
add1 to be ascribed entirely to the     
romantic moralist4  ,it is only one     
aspect of the denial of the human law1  
of the assumption  that because man is  
partly subject to the natural law he is 
entirely  subject to it2 and in this    
dehumanizing of man the rationalist has 
been at least as guilty as the          
emotionalist4 ,if the ,rousseauist hopes
  to find a substitute for all the      
restraining virtues in sympathy1 the    
rationalistic naturalist1 who is as a   
rule utilitarian with a greater  or     
smaller dash of pseudo-science1 hopes to
 find a substitute for these  same      
virtues in some form of machinery4 ,the 
legislative mill to which  our          
8uplifters0 are so ready to resort1 is a
 familiar example4 ,if our  modern      
society continues to listen to those who

 are seeking to persuade  it that it is 
possible to find mechanical or emotional
 equivalents for  self-control1 it is   
likely1 as ,rousseau said of himself1 to
 show a  8great tendency to degenerate40
    ,the fact on which the moral        
positivist would rest his effort to     
rehabilitate self-control is1 as ,i have
 said1 the presence in man of  a        
restraining1 informing and centralizing 
power that is anterior to  both         
intellect and emotion4 ,such a power1 it
 must be freely granted1 is  not present
 equally in all persons2 in some it     
seems scarcely to exist  at all4 ,when  
released from outer control1 they are   
simply unchained  temperaments2 whereas 
in others this superrational perception 
seems to  be singularly vivid and       
distinct4 ,this is the psychological    
fact that  underlies what the theologian
 would term the mystery of grace4       
,rousseau himself was not quite so      
temperamental as might be inferred  from
 what has been said about his evasion of

 ethical effort4 ,there were  moments   
when the dualism of the spirit came home
 to him1 moments when  he perceived that
 the conscience is not itself an        
expansive emotion  but rather a judgment
 and a check upon expansive emotion4    
,yet his  general readiness to          
subordinate his ethical self to his     
sensibility is  indubitable4 ,hence the 
absence in his personality and writing  
of the  note of masculinity4 ,there is  
indeed much in his make-up that reminds 
one less of a man than of a high-strung 
impressionable woman4 ,woman1  most     
observers would agree1 is more natural  
in ,rousseau's sense1 that  is1 more    
temperamental1 than man4 ,one should    
indeed always temper  these perilous    
comparisons of the sexes with the remark
 of ,la ,fontaine  that in this matter  
he knew a great many men who were women4
 ,now to be  temperamental is to be     
extreme1 and it is in this sense perhaps
 that  the female of the species may be 
said to be 8fiercer than the male40     

,rousseau's failure to find 8any        
intermediary term between everything    
and nothing0 would seem to be a feminine
 rather than a masculine  trait4        
,decorum in the case of women1 even more
 perhaps than in the  case of men1 tends
 to be a mere conformity to what is     
established  rather than the immediate  
perception of a law of measure and      
proportion  that sets bounds to the     
expansive desires4 8,women believe      
innocent  everything that they dare10   
says ,joubert1 whom no one will accuse  
of  being a misogynist4 ,those who are  
thus temperamental have more need  than 
others of outer guidance4 8,his feminine
 nature10 says ,c4 ,e4 ,norton  of      
,ruskin1 8needed support such as it     
never got40#aja    ,if women are more   
temperamental than men it is only fair  
to add that  they have a greater        
fineness of temperament4 ,women1 says   
,joubert again1  are richer in native   
virtues1 men in acquired virtues4 ,at   
times when  men are slack in acquiring  

virtues in the truly ethical sense--and 
some might maintain that the present is 
such a time--the women may  be not only 
men's equals but their superiors4       
,rousseau had this  feminine fineness of
 temperament4 ,he speaks rightly of his 
8exquisite  faculties40 ,he also had no 
inconsiderable amount of feminine charm4
 ,the  numerous members of the ,french  
aristocracy whom he fascinated may be   
accepted as competent witnesses on this 
point4 ,the mingling of sense  and      
spirit that pervades ,rousseau1 his     
pseudo-,platonism as ,i have  called it 
elsewhere1 is also a feminine rather    
than a masculine trait4    ,there is    
likewise something feminine in          
,rousseau's preference for  illusion4   
,illusion is the element in which woman 
even more than man  would seem to live  
and move and have her being4 ,it is     
feminine and  also romantic to prefer to
 a world of sharp definition a world of 
magic  and suggestiveness4 ,w4 ,bagehot 
7it will be observed that in discussing 

this delicate topic ,i am prone to take 
refuge behind authorities7  attributes  
the triumph of an art of shifting       
illusion over an art  of clear and firm 
outlines to the growing influence of    
women4#ajb  ,woman's being is to that of
 man1 we are told1 as is moonlight unto 
sunlight--and the moon is the romantic  
orb4 ,the whole of ,german romance  in  
particular is bathed in moonshine4#ajc  
,the objection of the classicist to the 
so-called enlightenment of the          
eighteenth century is that it did not   
have in it sufficient light4 ,the       
primitivists on the contrary felt that  
it had too much light--that the  light  
needed to be tempered by darkness4 ,even
 the moon is too effulgent  for the     
author of 8,hymns to the ,night40 ,no   
movement has ever avowed  more openly   
its partiality for the dim and the      
crepuscular4 ,the ,german  romanticists 
have been termed 8twilight men40 ,what  
many of them admire  in woman as in     
children and plants1 is her             

unconsciousness and freedom  from       
analysis--an admiration that is also a  
tribute in its way to the  8night side0 
of nature4#ajd    ,discussions of the   
kind in which ,i have been indulging    
regarding the  unlikeness of woman and  
man are very dreary unless one puts at  
least  equal emphasis on their          
fundamental likeness4 ,woman1 before    
being  woman1 is a human being and so   
subject to the same law as man4 ,so far 
as men and women both take on the yoke  
of this law1 they move towards  a common
 centre4 ,so far as they throw it off   
and live temperamentally1  there tends  
to arise the most odious of all forms of
 warfare--that  between the sexes4 ,the 
dictates of the human law are only too  
likely  to yield in the case of both men
 and women to the rush of outer         
impressions and the tumult of the       
desires within4 ,this is what ,la       
,rochefoucauld means when he says that  
8the head is always the dupe of  the    
heart40 ,nevertheless feeling is even   

more likely to prevail over  judgment in
 woman than it is in man4 ,to be        
judicial indeed to the  point of        
hardness and sternness has always been  
held to be unfeminine4  ,it is almost   
woman's prerogative to err on the side  
of sympathy4  ,but even woman cannot be 
allowed to substitute sympathy for true 
conscience--that is for the principle of
 control4 ,in basing conduct  on feeling
 ,rousseau may be said to have founded a
 new sophistry4  ,the ancient sophist at
 least made man the measure of all      
things4 ,by  subordinating judgment to  
sensibility ,rousseau may be said to    
have made  woman the measure of all     
things4    ,the affirmation of a human  
law must ultimately rest on the         
perception  of a something that is set  
above the flux upon which the flux      
itself  depends--on what ,aristotle     
terms an unmoved mover4 ,otherwise      
conscience  becomes a part of the very  
flux and element of change it is        
supposed  to control4 ,in proportion as 

he escapes from outer control man must  
be conscious of some such unmoved mover 
if he is to oppose a definite  aim or   
purpose to the indefinite expansion of  
his desires4 ,having some  such firm    
centre he may hope to carry through to a
 fortunate conclusion  the 8civil war in
 the cave40 ,he may1 as the wise are    
wont to express  it1 build himself an   
island in the midst of the flood4 ,the  
romantic  moralist1 on the other hand1  
instead of building himself an island is
  simply drifting with the stream4 ,for 
feeling not only shifts from man  to    
man1 it is continually shifting in the  
same man2 so that morality  becomes a   
matter of mood1 and romanticism here as 
elsewhere might be  defined as the      
despotism of mood4 ,at the time of doing
 anything1 says  ,mrs4 ,shelley1        
,shelley deemed himself right2 and      
,rousseau says that  in the act of      
abandoning his own children he felt     
8like a member of  ,plato's republic40  
,the man who makes self-expression and  

not self-control his primary  endeavor  
becomes subject to every influence1 8the
 very slave of  circumstance and impulse
 borne by every breath40#aje ,this is   
what it  means in practice no longer to 
keep a firm hand on the rudder of one's 
personality1 but to turn one's self over
 to 8nature40 ,the partisan  of         
expression becomes the thrall of his    
impressions so that the whole           
,rousseauistic conception may be termed 
indifferently impressionistic or        
expressionistic4 ,for the beautiful soul
 in order to express himself has  to    
indulge his emotions instead of         
hardening and bracing them against  the 
shock of circumstance4 ,the very        
refinement of sensibility which         
constitutes in his own eyes his         
superiority to the philistine makes him 
quiver responsive to every outer        
influence2 he finally becomes subject   
to changes in the weather1 or in        
,rousseau's own phrase1 the 8vile       
plaything of the atmosphere and         

seasons40    ,this rapid shifting of    
mood in the romanticist1 in response to 
inner impulse or outer impression1 is   
almost too familiar to need             
illustration4 ,here is an example that  
may serve for a thousand from  that     
life-long devotee of the great god      
,whim--,hector ,berlioz4 ,when at       
,florence1 ,berlioz relates in his      
,memoirs1 he received a letter from  the
 mother of ,camille1 the woman he loved1
 informing him of ,camille's  marriage  
to another4 8,in two minutes my plans   
were laid4 ,i must hurry  to ,paris to  
kill two guilty women and one innocent  
man2 for1 this act  of justice done1 ,i 
too must die40 ,accordingly he loads his
 pistols1  supplies himself with a      
disguise as a lady's maid1 so as to be  
able  to penetrate into the guilty      
household1 and puts into his pockets    
8two little bottles1 one of strychnine1 
the other of laudanum40  ,while awaiting
 the departure of the diligence he      
8rages up and down  the streets of      

,florence like a mad dog40 ,later1 as   
the diligence is  traversing a wild     
mountain road1 he suddenly lets out a   
8#8,ha'6 so  hoarse1 so savage1 so      
diabolic that the startled driver       
bounded aside  as if he had indeed a    
demon for his fellow-traveller40 ,but on
 reaching  ,nice he is so enchanted by  
the climate and environment that he not 
only forgets his errand1 but spends     
there 8the twenty happiest days0 of  his
 life6 ,there are times1 one must admit1
 when it is an advantage to  be         
temperamental4    ,in this exaltation of
 environmental influences one should    
note  again the coperation of           
,rousseauist and ,baconian1 of emotional
 and  scientific naturalist4 ,both are  
prone to look upon man as being made by 
natural forces and not as making        
himself4 ,to deal with the substitutes  
that ,rousseauist and ,baconian have    
proposed for traditional morality1  is  
in fact to make a study of the          
varieties--and they are numerous--of    

naturalistic fatalism4 ,the upshot of   
the whole movement is to discredit      
moral effort on the part of the         
individual4 ,why should a man believe   
in the efficacy of this effort1 why     
should he struggle to acquire  character
 if he is convinced that he is being    
moulded like putty by  influences beyond
 his control--the influence of climate1 
for example8  ,both science and         
romanticism have vied with one another  
in making of  man a mere stop on which  
,nature may play what tune she will4    
,the olian  harp enjoyed an             
extraordinary popularity as a romantic  
symbol4 ,the man  of science for his    
part is ready to draw up statistical    
tables showing  what season of the year 
is most productive of suicide and what  
type of  weather impels bank-cashiers   
most irresistibly to embezzlement4 ,a   
man  on a mountain top1 according to    
,rousseau1 enjoys not only physical but 
spiritual elevation1 and when he        
descends to the plain the altitude  of  

his mind declines with that of his body4
 ,ruskin's soul1 says ,c4 ,e4  ,norton1 
8was like an olian harp1 its strings    
quivering musically in  serene days     
under the touch of the soft air1 but as 
the clouds gathered  and the winds      
arose1 vibrating in the blast with a    
tension that might  break the sounding  
board itself40 ,it is not surprising    
,ruskin makes  other men as subject to  
8skyey influences0 as himself4 8,the    
mountains  of the earth are10 he says1  
8its natural cathedrals4 ,true religion 
can  scarcely be achieved away from     
them4 ,the curate or hermit of the field
  and fen1 however simple his life or   
painful his lodging1 does not often     
attain the spirit of the hill pastor or 
recluse3 we may find in him a  decent   
virtue or a contented ignorance1 rarely 
the prophetic vision or  the martyr's   
passion40 ,the corruptions of ,romanism 
8are traceable for  the most part to    
lowland prelacy40#ajf    ,is then the   
,rousseauist totally unable to regulate 

his impressions8  ,it is plain that he  
cannot control them from within because 
the whole  idea of a vital control of   
this kind is1 as we have seen1 foreign  
to  the psychology of the beautiful     
soul4 ,yet it is1 according to          
,rousseau1  possible to base morality on
 the senses--on outer perception that   
is--and at the same time get the        
equivalent of a free-will based on      
inner perception4 ,he was so much       
interested in this subject that he  had 
planned to devote to it a whole treatise
 to be entitled 8,sensitive  morality or
 the materialism of the sage40 ,a man   
cannot resist an outer  impression but  
he may at least get out of its way and  
put himself in  the way of another      
impression that will impel him to the   
desired course  of conduct4 8,the soul  
may then be put or maintained in the    
state most  favorable to virtue40       
8,climates1 seasons1 sounds1 colors1    
darkness1  light1 the elements1 food1   
noise1 silence1 movement1 rest1         

everything1  acts on our physical       
frame40 ,by a proper adjustment of all  
these outer  elements we may govern in  
their origins the feelings by which we  
allow  ourselves to be dominated4#ajg   
,rousseau's ideas about sensitive       
morality are at once highly chimerical  
and highly significant4 ,here as        
elsewhere one may say with ,amiel  that 
nothing of ,rousseau has been lost4 ,his
 point of view has an  inner kinship    
with that of the man of science who     
asserts that man is  necessarily the    
product of natural forces1 but that one 
may at least  modify the natural forces4
 ,for example1 moral effort on the part 
of  the individual cannot overcome      
heredity4 ,it is possible1 however1 by  
schemes of eugenics to regulate         
heredity4 ,the uneasy burden of moral   
responsibility is thus lifted from the  
individual1 and the moralist  in the    
old-fashioned sense is invited to       
abdicate in favor of the  biologist4 ,it
 would be easy enough to trace similar  

assumptions in the  various forms of    
socialism and other 8isms0 almost       
innumerable of the  present hour4       
,perhaps the problem to which ,i have   
already alluded may as well be  faced   
here4 ,how does it happen that ,rousseau
 who attacked both science  and         
literature as the chief sources of human
 degeneracy should be an  arch-sthete1  
the authentic ancestor of the school of 
art for art's  sake and at the same time
 by his sensitive 7or sthetic7 morality 
play  into the hands of the scientific  
determinist8 ,if one is to enter deeply 
into the modern movement one needs to   
consider both wherein scientific  and   
emotional naturalists clash and wherein 
they agree4 ,the two types  of          
naturalists agree in their virtual      
denial of a superrational realm4  ,they 
clash above all in their attitude       
towards what is on the rational  level4 
,the scientific naturalist is           
assiduously analytical4 ,rousseau1  on  
the other hand1 or rather one whole side

 of ,rousseau1 is hostile  to analysis4 
,the arts and sciences are attacked     
because they are the  product of        
reflection4 8,the man who reflects is a 
depraved animal10  because he has fallen
 away from the primitive spontaneous    
unity of  his being4 ,rousseau is the   
first of the great                      
anti-intellectualists4  ,by assailing   
both rationalism and pseudo-classic     
decorum in the name  of instinct and    
emotion he appealed to men's longing to 
get away  from the secondary and the    
derivative to the immediate4 ,true      
decorum  satisfies the craving for      
immediacy because it contains within    
itself  an element of superrational     
perception4 ,the 8reason0 of a ,plato or
 an  ,aristotle also satisfies the      
craving for immediacy because it        
likewise  contains within itself an     
element of superrational perception4 ,a 
reason  or a decorum of this kind       
ministers to another deep need of human 
nature--the need to lose itself in a    

larger whole4 ,once eliminate the       
superrational perception and reason     
sinks to the level of rationalism1      
consciousness becomes mere              
self-consciousness4 ,it is difficult1 as
  ,st4 ,evremond said1 for man to remain
 in the long run in this doubtful       
middle state4 ,having lost the unity of 
insight1 he will long for the  unity of 
instinct4 ,hence the paradox that this  
most self-conscious  of all movements is
 filled with the praise of the          
unconscious4 ,it  abounds in persons    
who1 like ,walt ,whitman1 would turn and
 live with the  animals1 or who1 like   
,novalis1 would fain strike root into   
the earth  with the plant4 ,animals#ajh 
and plants are not engaged in any moral 
struggle1 they are not inwardly divided 
against themselves4    ,here is the     
source of the opposition between the    
abstract and  analytical head1 deadly to
 the sense of unity1 and the warm       
immediate  heart that unifies life with 
the aid of the imagination--an          

opposition  that assumes so many forms  
from ,rousseau to ,bergson4 ,the        
,rousseauist  always betrays himself by 
arraigning in some form or other1 8the  
false  secondary power by which we      
multiply distinctions40 ,one should     
indeed  remember that there were        
obscurantists before ,rousseau4 ,pascal 
also  arrays the heart against the head2
 but his heart is at the farthest       
remove from that of ,rousseau2 it stands
 for a superrational perception4        
,christians like ,pascal may indulge    
with comparative impunity in a  certain 
amount of obscurantism4 ,for they have  
submitted to a tradition  that supplies 
them with distinctions between good and 
evil and at the  same time controls     
their imagination4 ,but for the         
individualist who  has broken with      
tradition to deny his head in the name  
of his heart is  a deadly peril4 ,he    
above all persons should insist that the
 power by  which we multiply            
distinctions1 though secondary1 is not  

false--that  the intellect1 of however  
little avail in itself1 is invaluable   
when  working in coperation with the    
imagination in the service of either    
inner or outer perception4 ,it is only  
through the analytical head and  its    
keen discriminations that the           
individualist can determine whether  the
 unity and infinitude towards which his 
imagination is reaching 7and  it is only
 through the imagination that one can   
have the sense of unity  and infinitude7
 is real or merely chimerical4 ,need ,i 
add that in making  these distinctions  
between imagination1 intellect1 feeling1
 etc41  ,i am not attempting to divide  
man up into more or less watertight     
compartments1 into hard and fast        
8faculties10 but merely to express1     
however imperfectly1 certain obscure and
 profound facts of experience8    ,the  
varieties of what one may term the      
rationalistic error1 of the  endeavor of
 the intellect to emancipate itself from
 perception and  set up as an           

independent power1 are numerous4 ,the   
variety that was  perhaps formerly most 
familiar was that of the theologian who 
sought  to formulate intellectually what
 must ever transcend formulation4 ,the  
forms of the rationalistic error that   
concern our present subject can  be     
traced back for the most part to        
,descartes1 the father of modern        
philosophy1 and are indeed implicit in  
his famous identification  of thought   
and being 7,je pense1 donc je suis74    
,the dogmatic and  arrogant rationalism 
that denies both what is above and what 
is below  itself1 both the realm of awe 
and the realm of wonder1 which prevailed
  among the ,cartesians of the          
,enlightenment1 combined1 as ,i have    
said1  with pseudo-classic decorum to   
produce that sense of confinement and   
smugness against which the original     
genius protested4 ,man will always      
crave a view of life to which perception
 lends immediacy and the  imagination   
infinitude4 ,a view of life like that of

 the eighteenth  century that reduces   
unduly the rle of both imagination and  
perception  will always seem to him     
unvital and mechanical4 8,the ,bounded10
 says  ,blake1 8is loathed by its       
possessor4 ,the same dull round even of 
a  ,universe would soon become a ,mill  
with complicated wheels40    ,the       
mechanizing of life against which the   
romanticist protested may  as ,i said be
 largely associated with the influence  
of ,descartes4 ,it  is not however the  
whole truth about ,descartes to say that
 he forgot  the purely instrumental rle 
of the intellect and encouraged it to   
set up as an independent power4 ,as a   
matter of fact he also used the         
intellect as an instrument in the       
service of outer perception4 ,taking  as
 his point of departure the precise     
observations that science was           
accumulating1 he sought to formulate    
mathematically the natural law4  ,now   
the more one reduces nature to a problem
 of space and movement1  the more one is

 enabled to measure nature2 and the     
method of exact  measurement may be     
justified1 if not on metaphysical1 at   
least on  practical grounds4 ,it helps  
one1 if not to understand natural       
forces1  at least to control them4 ,it  
thereby increases man's power and       
ministers to utility4 ,in a word1 the   
intellect when thus pressed into  the   
service of outer perception makes for   
material efficiency4 ,in a  sense       
science becomes scientific only in      
proportion as it neglects  the          
qualitative differences between         
phenomena1 e4g4 between light and       
sound1 and treats them solely from the  
point of view of quantity4 ,but  the    
penalty that science pays for this      
quantitative method is a heavy  one4    
,the farther it gets away from the warm 
immediacy of perception  the less real  
it becomes2 for that only is real to a  
man that he  immediately perceives4     
,perfectly pure science tends to become 
a series  of abstract mathematical      

formul without any real content4 ,by his
  resort to such a method1 the man of   
science is in constant danger of        
becoming a mere rationalist4 ,at bottom 
he is ignorant of the reality  that lies
 behind natural phenomena2 he must even 
be ignorant of it1  for it lays hold    
upon the infinite1 and so must elude a  
finite being  like man4 ,but the desire 
to conceal his own ignorance from       
himself and  others1 the secret push for
 power and prestige that lies deep down 
in  the breast of the man of science as 
in that of every other man1 impels  him 
to attach an independent value to the   
operations of the intellect  that have  
only an instrumental value in the       
service of outer perception  and to     
conceive that he has locked up physical 
nature in his formul4  ,the man of      
science thus falls victim to a special  
form of metaphysical  illusion4 ,the    
gravity of the error of the scientific  
intellectualist is  multiplied tenfold  
when he conceives that his formul cover 

not merely  the natural law but the     
human law as well1 when he strives1 like
 ,taine1  to convert man himself into a 
8walking theorem10 a 8living geometry40 
,this denial of every form of           
spontaneity was rightly felt by the     
romanticists to be intolerable4         
,goethe contrasts the smug satisfaction 
of ,wagner in his dead formul  that give
 only what is external and secondary1   
with ,faust's fierce  craving for       
immediacy and therefore his impatience  
with an analysis  that gives only the   
dry bones from which the vital breath   
has departed4  ,wagner is a philistine  
because he is not tormented by the      
thirst for  the infinite4 ,faust1 on the
 other hand1 reaches out beyond the mere
  intellect towards the spirit that is  
behind the shows of nature1 but  this   
spirit appears to him and reduces him to
 despair by declaring that  he is trying
 to grasp something that is not only    
infinite but alien to  him4 ,instead of 
turning from this alien spirit to the   

spirit that is  relevant to man1 a      
spirit that sets bounds to every        
inordinate craving1  including the      
inordinate craving for knowledge 7libido
 sciendi71  ,faust gives himself to the 
devil in what was1 in the time of the   
youthful ,goethe1 the newest fashion3 he
 becomes a ,rousseauist4 ,instead  of   
striking into the ascending path of     
insight1 he descends to the  level of   
impulse4 ,seen from this level the power
 by which we multiply  distinctions     
seems to him1 as it was to seem later to
 ,wordsworth1 not  merely secondary but 
false1 and so definition yields to      
indiscriminate  feeling 7,gefhl ist     
alles74 ,in general the ,rousseauistic  
reply to the  ,cartesian attempt to     
identify thought and being is the       
identification  of being with emotion   
7je sens donc je suis74    ,the         
,mephistopheles of ,goethe has often    
been taken as a symbol of  the          
iconoclastic and ,voltairian side of the
 eighteenth century4 ,the  rationalists 

assailed the traditional forms that     
imply a superrational  realm as mere    
8prejudice10 and1 failing to find in    
insight a substitute  for these         
discarded forms1 they succumbed in turn 
to the emotionalists4  ,a 8reason0 that 
is not grounded in insight will always  
seem to men  intolerably cold and       
negative and will prove unable to       
withstand the  assault of the primary   
passions4 ,the reason of a ,plato or an 
,aristotle  is on a different footing   
altogether because1 as ,i have said1 it 
includes an element of inner perception4
 ,one may note here that the            
difficulties of the present subject     
arise in no small degree from the       
ambiguities that cluster about the word 
reason4 ,it may not only mean  the      
imaginative insight#aji of a ,plato and 
the abstract reasoning  of a ,descartes 
but is often employed by the classicist 
himself as  a synonym of good sense4    
,good sense may be defined as a correct 
perception of the ordinary facts of life

 and of their relation to one  another4 
,it may be of very many grades1         
corresponding to the infinite  diversity
 of the facts to be perceived4 ,a man   
may evidently have good  sense in       
dealing with one order of facts1 and    
quite lack it in dealing  with some     
different order of facts4 ,as the result
 of long observation  and experience of 
a multitude of minute relationships1 of 
the facts  that ordinarily follow one   
another or coexist in some particular   
field1  a man's knowledge of this field 
becomes at last1 as it were1 automatic  
and unconscious4 ,a sea captain for     
example acquires at last an  intuitive  
knowledge of the weather1 the broker1 an
 intuitive knowledge  of stocks4 ,the   
good sense or practical judgment of the 
sea captain in  his particular calling  
and of the broker in his is likely to be
 greater  than that of less experienced 
persons4 ,one cannot1 however1 assert   
that  a man's good sense is always in   
strict ratio to his experience4 ,some   

persons seem to have an innate gift for 
seeing things as they are1  others a    
gift equally innate for seeing things as
 they are not4    ,again the field in   
which one displays one's good sense or  
practical  judgment may fall primarily  
under either the human law or the       
natural  law1 may belong in             
,aristotelian phrase to the domain      
either of the  probable or of the       
necessary4 ,to take a homely            
illustration1 a  man is free to choose  
the temperature of his bath1 but only   
within  the limits of natural           
necessity--in this case the temperature 
at  which water freezes and that at     
which water boils4 ,he will show his    
practical judgment by choosing water    
that is neither too hot nor too  cold   
and this so far as he is concerned will 
be the golden mean4 ,here  as elsewhere 
the golden mean is nothing mechanical1  
but may vary  not only from individual  
to individual but in the same individual
  according to his age1 the state of his

 health1 etc4 ,in determining what      
conforms to the golden mean or law of   
measure there must always be a          
mediation between the particular        
instance and the general principle1  and
 it is here that intuition is           
indispensable4 ,but even so there is  a 
centre of normal human experience1 and  
the person who is too far  removed from 
it ceases to be probable4 ,aged persons 
may exist who find  bathing in ice-water
 beneficial1 but they are not           
representative4  ,now creative art1 in  
distinct ratio to its dignity1 deals not
 with  what may happen in isolated cases
 but with what happens according to     
probability or necessity4 ,it is this   
preoccupation with the universal  that  
as ,aristotle says makes poetry a more  
serious and philosophical  thing than   
history4 ,there enters indeed into true 
art an element of  vital novelty and    
surprise4 ,but the more cultivated the  
audience to  which the creator addresses
 himself the more will it insist that   

the  surprise be not won at the expense 
of motivation4 ,it will demand that     
characters and incidents be not         
freakish1 not too remote from the  facts
 that normally follow one another or    
coexist1 whether in nature  or human    
nature4 ,one needs1 in short1 to deal   
with both art and life  from some       
ethical centre4 ,the centre with        
reference to which one has  good sense  
may be only the ethos of one's time and 
country1 but if  one's good sense has1  
as in the case of the great poets1 the  
support  of the imagination1 it may pass
 beyond to something more abiding4 8,of 
,pope's intellectual character10 says   
,dr4 ,johnson1 8the constituent and     
fundamental principle was good sense1 a 
prompt and intuitive perception  of     
consonance and propriety4 ,he saw       
immediately of his own conceptions  what
 was to be chosen1 and what to be       
rejected40 ,one may grant all this  and 
at the same time feel the difference    
between the 8reason0 of a ,pope  and the

 reason of a ,sophocles4    ,good sense 
of the kind ,dr4 ,johnson describes and 
decorum are not  strictly speaking      
synonymous4 ,to be decorous not only    
must one have  a correct perception of  
what to do1 but one must actually be    
able to  do it2 and this often requires 
a long and difficult training4 ,we have 
seen that ,rousseau's spite against     
eighteenth-century ,paris was largely   
due to the fact that he had not acquired
 young enough the habits that  would    
have made it possible for him to conform
 to its convention4  8,i affected10 says
 ,rousseau with singular candor1 8to    
despise the  politeness ,i did not know 
how to practice40 ,as a matter of fact  
he had  never adjusted himself to the   
decorum and good sense of any community4
  ,his attitude towards life was        
fundamentally ,bohemian4 ,but a person  
who  was sensible and decorous according
 to the standards of some other  country
 might have emphasized the differences  
between his good sense  and decorum and 

the good sense and decorum of           
eighteenth-century ,paris4  ,the        
opponents of the traditional order in   
the eighteenth century  were fond of    
introducing some ,persian or ,chinese to
 whom this order  seemed no true order  
at all but only 8prejudice0 or 8abuse40 
,the  conclusion would seem to be that  
because the good sense and decorum  of  
one time and country do not coincide    
exactly with those of another  time and 
country1 therefore good sense and       
decorum themselves have  in them no     
universal element1 and are entirely     
implicated in the  shifting             
circumstances of time and place4 ,but   
behind the ethos of  any particular     
country1 that of ,greece1 for instance1 
there are1 as  ,antigone perceived1 the 
8unwritten laws of heaven10 and         
something of  this permanent order is   
sure to shine through even the most     
imperfect  convention4 ,though no       
convention is final1 though man and all 
he  establishes are subject to the law  

of change1 it is therefore an           
infinitely delicate and perilous task to
 break with convention4 ,one  can make  
this break only in favor of insight2    
which is much as if one  should say that
 the only thing that may safely be      
opposed to common  sense is a commoner  
sense1 or if one prefers1 a common sense
 that is  becoming more and more        
imaginative4 ,even so1 the wiser the    
man1 one  may surmise1 the less likely  
he will be to indulge in a violent and  
theatrical rupture with his age1 after  
the fashion of ,rousseau4 ,he will  like
 ,socrates remember the counsel of the  
,delphian oracle to follow  the 8usage  
of the city10#aaj and while striving to 
gain a firmer hold  upon the human law  
and to impose a more strenuous          
discipline upon his  ordinary self1 he  
will so far as possible conform to what 
he finds  established4 ,a student of the
 past cannot help being struck by the   
fact  that men are found scattered      
through different times and countries   

and  living under very different        
conventions who are nevertheless in     
virtue  of their insight plainly moving 
towards a common centre4 ,so much so    
that the best books of the world seem to
 have been written1 as ,emerson  puts   
it1 by one all-wise1 all-seeing         
gentleman4 ,a curious circumstance  is  
that the writers who are most universal 
in virtue of their  imaginative reason  
or inspired good sense1 are likewise as 
a rule the  writers who realized most   
intensely the life of their own age4 ,no
 other  ,spanish writer1 for example1   
has so much human appeal as ,cervantes1 
and at the same time no other brings us 
so close to the heart of                
sixteenth-century ,spain4 ,in the       
writings attributed to ,confucius one   
encounters1 mixed up with much that is  
almost inconceivably remote from  us1   
maxims that have not lost their validity
 to-day2 maxims that are  sure to be    
reaffirmed wherever and whenever men    
attain to the level of  humanistic      

insight4 ,in the oldest ,buddhist       
documents again one finds  along with a 
great deal that is very expressive of   
ancient ,india1 and  thus quite foreign 
to our idiosyncrasy1 a good sense which 
is even more  imaginative and inspired1 
and therefore more universal1 than that 
of  ,confucius1 and which is manifested1
 moreover1 on the religious rather  than
 on the humanistic level4 ,we are       
dealing here with indubitable  facts1   
and should plant ourselves firmly upon  
them as against those who  would        
exaggerate either the constant or the   
variable elements in human  nature4     
,enough has been said to show the       
ambiguities involved in the word        
reason4 ,reason may mean the abstract   
and geometrical reason of a  ,descartes1
 it may mean simply good sense1 which   
may itself exist in  very many grades   
ranging from an intuitive mastery of    
some particular  field to the intuitive 
mastery of the ethos of a whole age1    
like the  reason of a ,pope4 ,finally   

reason may be imaginative and be thereby
  enabled to go beyond the convention of
 a particular time and country1  and lay
 hold in varying degrees on 8the        
unwritten laws of heaven40 ,i  have     
already traced in some measure the      
process by which reason in  the         
eighteenth century had come to mean     
abstract and geometrical 7or  as one may
 say ,cartesian7 reason or else         
unimaginative good sense4  ,cartesian   
reason was on the one hand being pressed
 into the service  of science and its   
special order of perceptions2 on the    
other hand it  was being used frequently
 in coperation with an unimaginative    
good  sense to attack the traditional   
forms that imply a realm of insight     
which is above both abstract reason and 
ordinary good sense4 ,men were          
emboldened to use reason in this way    
because they were flushed not  only by  
the increasing mastery of man over      
nature through science1  but by the     
positive and anti-traditional method    

through which this  mastery had been    
won4 ,both those who proclaimed and     
those who denied a  superrational realm 
were at least agreed in holding that the
 faith in  any such realm was           
inseparable from certain traditional    
forms4 ,pascal1  for example1 held not  
only that insight in religion is annexed
 to  the acceptance of certain          
dogmas--and this offended the new       
critical  spirit--but furthermore that  
insight could exist even in the orthodox
  only by a special divine gift or      
grace1 and this offended man's  reviving
 confidence in himself4 ,people were    
ready to applaud when a  ,voltaire      
declared it was time to 8take the side  
of human nature against  this sublime   
misanthropist40 ,the insight into the   
law of decorum on  which classicism must
 ultimately rest was in much the same   
way held  to be inseparable from the    
,grco-,roman tradition2 and so the      
nature  of classical insight as a thing 
apart from any tradition tended to  be  

obscured in the endless bickerings of   
ancients and moderns4 ,the  classical   
traditionalists1 however1 were less     
prone than the ,christian               
traditionalists 7,jansenists1 ,jesuits  
and ,protestants7 to weaken their  cause
 still further by wrangling among       
themselves4    ,inasmuch as both        
,christians and humanists failed to     
plant themselves  on the fact of        
insight1 the insight came more and more 
to be  rejected along with the special  
forms from which it was deemed to be    
inseparable4 ,as a result of this       
rejection 8reason0 was left to cope     
unaided with man's impulses and         
expansive desires4 ,now ,pascal saw     
rightly that the balance of power in    
such a conflict between reason  and     
impulse was held by the imagination1 and
 that if reason lacked  the support of  
insight the imagination would side with 
the expansive  desires and reason would 
succumb4 ,moreover the superrational    
insight1  or 8heart0 as ,pascal calls   

it1 that can alone keep man from being  
thus overwhelmed1 comes1 as he holds1   
not through reason but through  grace   
and is at times actually opposed to     
reason4 78,the heart10 he  says1 8has   
reasons of which the reason knows       
nothing407 ,instead of  protesting      
against the asceticism of this view as  
the true positivist  would do1 instead  
of insisting that reason and imagination
 may pull  together harmoniously in the 
service of insight1 the romantic        
moralist  opposed to the superrational  
8heart0 of the austere ,christian a     
subrational 8heart10 and this involved  
an attempt to base morality  on the very
 element in human nature it is designed 
to restrain4 ,the  positivist will plant
 himself first of all on the fact of    
insight and  will define it as the      
immediate perception of a something     
anterior  to both thought and feeling1  
that is known practically as a power of 
control over both4 ,the beautiful soul1 
as we have seen1 has no place  for any  

such power in his scheme of things1 but 
hopes to satisfy all  ethical elements  
simply by letting himself go4 ,rousseau 
7following  ,shaftesbury and ,hutcheson7
 transforms conscience itself from an   
inner  check into an expansive emotion4 
,while thus corrupting conscience  in   
its very essence he does not deny       
conscience4 ,on the contrary he  grows  
positively rhapsodic over conscience and
 other similar words4  8,rousseau took  
wisdom from men's souls10 says ,joubert1
 8by talking to  them of virtue40 ,in   
short1 ,rousseau displays the usual     
dexterity of the  sophist in juggling   
with ill-defined general terms4 ,if one 
calls for  sharp definition one is at   
once dismissed as a mere rationalist who
  is retreating into a false secondary  
power from a warm immediacy4 ,the       
traditional distinctions regarding good 
and bad were thus discarded  at the same
 time that discredit was cast on the    
keen analysis with  which it would have 
been possible to build up new           

distinctions--all  in favor of an       
indiscriminate emotionalism4 ,this      
discomfiture of both  tradition and     
analysis in the field of the human law  
would not have  been so easy if at the  
same time man's active attention and    
effort had  not been concentrated more  
and more on the field of the natural    
law4  ,in that field imagination and the
 analytical intellect were actually     
pulling together in the service of      
perception with the result that man  was
 constantly gaining in power and        
utility4 ,emotional romanticists and    
scientific utilitarians have thus1 in   
spite of their surface clashes1         
cooperated during the past century in   
the dehumanizing of man4    ,it is not  
enough to say of the representatives of 
both sides of this  great naturalistic  
movement that they eliminate the veto   
power from  human nature while          
continuing to use the old words1 like   
virtue and  conscience1 that imply a    
veto power4 ,we have seen that they     

actually  attack the veto power as      
synonymous with evil4 ,the devil is     
conceived  as the spirit that always    
says no4 ,a purely affirmative morality 
is almost necessarily an emotional      
morality4 ,if there is no region  of    
insight above the reason which is felt  
by the natural man as an  element of    
vital control1 and if cold reason1      
reason unsupported by  insight1 never   
has done anything illustrious1 as       
,rousseau truly says1  it follows that  
the only way to put driving power behind
 reason is to  turn virtue into a       
passion1--a passion that differs from   
other passions  merely in its greater   
imperiousness4 ,for the beautiful soul  
virtue1  as we have seen in the case of 
,robespierre1 is not only a tender1     
imperious and voluptuous passion but    
even an intoxication4 8,i was1  if not  
virtuous10 says ,rousseau1 8at least    
intoxicated with virtue40  ,in its      
extreme manifestations romantic morality
 is indeed only one  aspect1 and surely 

the most singular aspect1 of the        
romantic cult of  intoxication4 ,no     
student of romanticism can fail to be   
struck by its  pursuit of delirium1     
vertigo and intoxication for their own  
sake4 ,it  is important to see how all  
these things are closely related to one 
another and how they all derive from the
 attempt to put life on an  emotional   
basis4 ,to rest conscience1 for example1
 on emotion is to rest  it on what is   
always changing1 not only from man to   
man but from moment  to moment in the   
same man4 8,if10 as ,shelley says1      
8nought is1 but that  it feels itself to
 be10 it will feel itself to be very    
different things  at different times4   
,no part of man is exempt from the      
region of flux  and change4 ,there is1  
as ,james himself points out1 a kinship 
between  such a philosophy of pure      
motion and vertigo4 ,faust after all is 
only  consistent when having identified 
the spirit that says no1 which is  the  
true voice of conscience1 with the      

devil1 he proceeds to dedicate  himself 
to vertigo 7dem ,taumel weih' ich mich74
 ,rousseau also1 as  readers of the     
8,confessions0 will remember1           
deliberately courted  giddiness by      
gazing down on a waterfall from the     
brink of a precipice  7making sure first
 that the railing on which he leaned was
 good and  strong74 ,this naturalistic  
dizziness became epidemic among the     
,greeks  at the critical moment of their
 break with traditional standards4      
8,whirl is ,king10 cried ,aristophanes1 
8having driven out ,zeus40 ,the  modern 
sophist is even more a votary of the god
 ,whirl than the ,greek1  for he has    
added to the mobility of an intellect   
that has no support in  either tradition
 or insight the mobility of feeling4    
,many ,rousseauists  were1 like         
,hazlitt1 attracted to the ,french      
,revolution by its 8grand  whirling     
movements40    ,even more significant   
than the cult of vertigo is the closely 
allied  cult of intoxication4 8,man     

being reasonable10 says ,byron1 with    
true  ,rousseauistic logic1 8must       
therefore get drunk4 ,the best of life  
is  but intoxication40 ,the subrational 
and impulsive self of the man who  has  
got drunk is not only released from the 
surveillance of reason  in any sense of 
the word1 but his imagination is at the 
same tune  set free from the limitations
 of the real4 ,if many ,rousseauists    
have  been rightly accused of being     
8lovers of delirium10 that is because   
in delirium the fancy is especially free
 to wander wild in its own  empire of   
chimeras4 ,to compose a poem1 as        
,coleridge is supposed to have  composed
 8,kubla ,khan10 in an opium dream      
without any participation of  his       
rational self is a triumph of romantic  
art4 8,i should have taken  more opium  
when ,i wrote it10 said ,friedrich      
,schlegel in explanation of  the failure
 of his play 8,alarcos40 ,what more     
specially concerns our  present topic is
 the carrying over of this subrational  

8enthusiasm0  into the field of ethical 
values1 and this calls for certain      
careful  distinctions4 ,genuine         
religion--whether genuine ,christianity 
or genuine  ,buddhism--is plainly       
unfriendly in the highest degree to     
every form of  intoxication4 ,buddhism1 
for example1 not only prohibits the     
actual use  of intoxicants but it       
pursues implacably all the subtler      
intoxications  of the spirit4 ,the      
attitude of the humanist towards        
intoxication is  somewhat more complex4 
,he recognizes how deep in man's nature 
is the  craving for some blunting of the
 sharp edge of his consciousness and  at
 least a partial escape from reason and 
reality2 and so he often  makes a place 
on the recreative side of life for such 
moments of escape  even if attained with
 the aid of wine4 ,dulce est desipere in
 loco4  ,pindar1 who displays so often  
in his verse the high seriousness of the
  ethical imagination1 is simply        
observing the decorum of the occasion   

when he celebrates in a song for the end
 of a feast 8the time when the          
wearisome cares of men have vanished    
from their reasons and on a wide  sea of
 golden wealth we are all alike voyaging
 to some visionary shore4  ,he that is  
penniless is then rich1 and even they   
that are wealthy find  their hearts     
expanding1 when they are smitten by the 
arrows of the  vine40 ,the true ,greek1 
one scarcely needs add1 put his final   
emphasis1  as befitted a child of       
,apollo1 not on intoxication but on the 
law of  measure and sobriety--on        
preserving the integrity of his mind1 to
  render literally the ,greek word for  
the virtue that he perhaps prized  the  
most4#aaa ,one must indeed remember that
 alongside the ,apollonian  element in  
,greek life is the orgiastic or         
,dyonisiac element4 ,but when           
,euripides sides imaginatively with the 
frenzy of ,dionysus1 as he does  in his 
8,bacchae10 though ostensibly preaching 
moderation1 we may affirm  that he is   

falling away from what is best in the   
spirit of ,hellas and  revealing a      
kinship with the votaries of the god    
,whirl4 ,the cult of  intoxication has  
as a matter of fact appeared in all     
times and places  where men have sought 
to get the equivalent of religious      
vision and the  sense of oneness that it
 brings without rising above the        
naturalistic  level4 ,true religious    
vision is a process of concentration1   
the result  of the imposition of the    
veto power upon the expansive desires of
 the  ordinary self4 ,the various       
naturalistic simulations of this vision 
are1 on the contrary1 expansive1 the    
result of a more or less complete       
escape from the veto power1 whether won 
with the aid of intoxicants or  not4    
,the emotional romanticists from        
,rousseau down have left no doubt  as to
 the type of vision they represented4   
,rousseau dilates with a sort  of fellow
 feeling on the deep potations that went
 on in the taverns  of patriarchal      

,geneva4#aab ,renan looks with disfavor 
on those who  are trying to diminish    
drunkenness among the common people4 ,he
 merely  asks that this drunkenness 8be 
gentle1 amiable1 accompanied by moral   
sentiments40 ,perhaps this side of the  
movement is best summed up in the       
following passage of ,william ,james3   
8,the sway of alcohol over mankind  is  
unquestionably due to its power to      
stimulate the mystical faculties  of    
human nature1 usually crushed to earth  
by the cold facts and dry  criticisms of
 the sober hour4 ,sobriety diminishes1  
discriminates and  says no2 drunkenness 
expands1 unites1 and says yes4 ,it is1  
in fact1 the  great exciter of the ,yes 
function in man4 ,it brings its votary  
from  the chill periphery of things to  
the radiant core4 ,it makes him for the 
moment one with truth40#aac    ,the     
,american distiller who named one of his
 brands 8,golden ,dream  ,whiskey0 was  
evidently too modest4 ,if an adept in   
the new psychology he  might have set up

 as a pure idealist1 as the opener up of
 an especially  radiant pathway to the  
8truth40    ,the primitivist then       
attacks sober discrimination as an      
obstacle both  to warm immediacy of     
feeling and to unity4 ,he tends to      
associate the  emotional unity that he  
gains through intoxication with the     
unity of  instinct which he so admires  
in the world of the subrational4 8,the  
romantic character10 says ,ricarda      
,huch1 8is more exposed to waste  itself
 in debaucheries than any other2 for    
only in intoxication1  whether of love  
or wine1 when the one half of its being1
 consciousness1  is lulled to sleep1 can
 it enjoy the bliss for which it envies 
every  beast--the bliss of feeling      
itself one40#aad ,the desires of the    
animal1 however1 work within certain    
definite limits4 ,they are not1  like   
those of the primitivist1 inordinate1   
the explanation being that  they are    
less stimulated than the desires of the 
primitivist by the  imagination4 ,even  

if he gets rid of intellect and moral   
effort1 the  primitivist cannot attain  
the unity of instinct because he remains
 too  imaginative2 at the same time he  
proclaims and proclaims rightly that    
the imagination is the great unifying   
power--the power that can alone  save us
 from viewing things in 8disconnection  
dead and spiritless40  ,we should attend
 carefully at this point for we are     
coming to the  heart of the great       
romantic sophism4 ,the ,rousseauist does
 not attain  to the unity of the man    
whose impulses and desires are          
controlled and  disciplined to some     
ethical centre4 ,he does not1 in spite  
of all his  praise of the unconscious   
and of the 8sublime animals10 attain to 
the  unity of instinct4 ,in what sense  
then may he be said to attain unity8    
,the obvious reply is that he attains   
unity only in dreamland4 ,for  the      
nature to which he would return1 one    
cannot repeat too often1 is  nothing    
real1 but a mere nostalgic straining of 

the imagination away  from the real4 ,it
 is only in dreamland that one can rest 
unity on the  expansive forces of       
personality that actually divide not    
only one  individual from another but   
the same individual from himself4 ,it is
  only in dreamland that1 in the absence
 of both inner and outer control1  8all 
things0 will 8flow to all1 as rivers to 
the sea40 ,such a unity  will be no more
 than a dream unity1 even though one    
term it the ideal  and sophisticate in  
its favor all the traditional terms of  
religion and  morality4 ,a question that
 forces itself at every stage upon the  
student  of this movement is3 ,what is  
the value of unity without reality8     
,for two things are equally indubitable3
 first1 that romanticism on  the        
philosophical side1 is a protest in the 
name of unity against the               
disintegrating analysis of the          
eighteenth-century rationalist2 second1 
that what the primitivist wants in      
exchange for analysis is not reality    

but illusion4 ,rousseau who inclines    
like other sthetes to identify the  true
 with the beautiful was1 we are told1   
wont to exclaim3 8,there is  nothing    
beautiful save that which is not02 a    
saying to be matched with  that of 8,la 
,nouvelle ,hlose03 8,the land of        
chimeras is alone worthy  of            
habitation40 ,similar utterances might  
be multiplied from ,french1  ,english1  
and ,german romanticists4#aae ,to be    
sure1 the word 8reality0  is perhaps the
 most slippery of all general terms4    
,certain recent  votaries of the god    
,whirl1 notably ,bergson1 have promised 
us that if  we surrender to the flux we 
shall have a 8vision0 not only of unity 
but also of reality2 and so they have   
transferred to the cult of their        
divinity all the traditional language of
 religion4    ,we do not1 however1 need 
for the present to enter into a         
discussion as  to the nature of reality1
 but simply to stick to strict          
psychological  observation4 ,from this  

point of view it is not hard to see that
 the  primitivist makes his primary     
appeal not to man's need for unity and  
reality but to a very different need4   
,byron has told us what this need  is in
 his tale 78,the ,island07 of a ship's  
crew that overpowered its  officers and 
then set sail for ,otaheite2 what       
impelled these ,arcadian  mutineers was 
not the desire for a genuine return to  
aboriginal life  with its rigid         
conventions1 but        ,the wish--which
 ages have not yet subdued      ,in     
man--to have no master save his mood4   
,now to have no master save one's mood  
is to be wholly temperamental4  ,in     
,arcadia--the ideal of romantic         
morality--those who are wholly          
temperamental unite in sympathy and     
brotherly love4 ,it remains to  consider
 more fully what this triumph of        
temperament means in the real  world4   
,,chapter ,v    ,,romantic ,,morality3  
,,the ,,real      ,the fundamental thing
 in ,rousseauistic morality is not1 as  

we have  seen1 the assertion that man is
 naturally good1 but the denial of  the 
8civil war in the cave40 ,though this   
denial is not complete in  ,rousseau    
himself1 nothing is more certain than   
that his whole tendency  is away from   
this form of dualism4 ,the beautiful    
soul does the right  thing not as a     
result of effort1 but spontaneously1    
unconsciously and  almost inevitably4   
,in fact the beautiful soul can scarcely
 be said to  be a voluntary agent at    
all4 8,nature0 acts in him and for him4 
,this  minimizing of moral struggle and 
deliberation and choice1 this drift     
towards a naturalistic fatalism1 as it  
may be termed1 is a far more            
significant thing in ,rousseau than his 
optimism4 ,one may as a matter  of fact 
eliminate dualism in favor of nature and
 at the same time look  on nature as    
evil4 ,this is precisely what one is    
likely to do if one  sees no alternative
 to temperamental living1 while judging 
those who  live temperamentally not by  

their 8ideal10 that is by their feeling 
of  their own loveliness1 but by what   
they actually do4 ,one will become  a   
realist in the sense that came to be    
attached to this word during  the latter
 part of the nineteenth century4        
,rousseau himself is often  realistic in
 this sense when he interrupts his      
,arcadian visions to  tell us what      
actually occurred4 ,in the              
8,confessions10 as ,i have said1        
passages that recall ,lamartine         
alternate with passages that recall     
,zola1 and the transition from one type 
of passage to the other is  often       
disconcertingly sudden4 ,in reading     
these realistic passages of  ,rousseau  
we are led to reflect that his 8nature0 
is not1 in practice1  so remote from    
,taine's nature as might at first       
appear4 8,what we  call nature10 says   
,taine1 8is this brood of secret        
passions1 often  maleficent1 generally  
vulgar1 always blind1 which tremble and 
fret  within us1 ill-covered by the     

cloak of decency and reason under which 
we try to disguise them2 we think we    
lead them and they lead us2 we  think   
our actions our own1 they are           
theirs40#aaf    ,the transition from an 
optimistic to a pessimistic naturalism  
can be  followed with special clearness 
in the stages by which the sentimental  
drama of the eighteenth century passes  
over into the realistic drama of  a     
later period4 ,petit de ,julleville     
contrasts the beginning and the end  of 
this development as follows3 8,in the   
eighteenth century to please  the public
 you had to say to it3 #8,you are all at
 least at bottom good1  virtuous1 full  
of feeling4 ,let yourselves go1 follow  
your instincts2  listen to nature and   
you will do the right thing             
spontaneously4' ,how  changed times are6
 ,nowadays#aag any one who wishes to    
please1 to be  read and petted and      
admired1 to pass for great and become   
very rich1  should address men as       
follows3 #8,you are a vile pack of      

rogues1 and  profligates1 you have      
neither faith nor law2 you are impelled 
by your  instincts alone and these      
instincts are ignoble4 ,do not try      
though to  mend matters1 that would be  
of no use at all4'0#aah    ,the         
connecting link between these different 
forms of the drama is  naturalistic     
fatalism1 the suppression of moral      
responsibility for  either man's        
goodness or badness4 ,strictly speaking1
 the intrusion of  the naturalistic     
element into the realm of ethical values
 and the  subversion by it of           
deliberation and choice and of the      
normal sequence  of moral cause and     
effect is felt from the human point of  
view not as  fate at all1 but as chance4
 ,emotional romanticism joins at this   
point  with other forms of romanticism1 
which all show a proclivity to prefer   
to strict motivation1 to probability in 
the ,aristotelian sense1 what is        
fortuitous and therefore wonderful4     
,this is only another way of saying     

that the romanticist is moving away from
 the genuinely dramatic towards         
melodrama4 ,nothing is easier than to   
establish the connection between        
emotional romanticism and the prodigious
 efflorescence of melodrama1  the       
irresponsible quest for thrills1 that   
has marked the past century4  ,what     
perhaps distinguishes this movement from
 any previous one is the  attempt to    
invest what is at bottom a melodramatic 
view of life with  philosophic and even 
religious significance4 ,by suppressing 
the 8civil  war in the cave0 one strikes
 at the very root of true drama4 ,it    
does  not then much matter from the     
dramatic point of view whether the      
burden  of responsibility for good or   
evil of which you have relieved the     
individual is shifted upon 8nature0 or  
society4 ,shelley1 for example1  puts   
the blame for evil on society4          
8,prometheus ,unbound10 in which he  has
 developed his conception1 is1 judged as
 a play1 only an ethereal  melodrama4   

,the unaccountable collapse of ,zeus1 a 
monster of unalloyed  and unmotivated   
badness1 is followed by the gushing     
forth in man of  an equally unalloyed   
and unmotivated goodness4 ,the whole    
genius of  ,hugo1 again1 as ,i have said
 in speaking of his use of antithesis1  
is  melodramatic4 ,his plays may be     
described as parvenu melodramas4 ,they  
abound in every variety of startling    
contrast and strange happening1  the    
whole pressed into the service of       
8problems0 manifold and even of a       
philosophy of history4 ,at the same time
 the poverty of ethical insight  and    
true dramatic motivation is dissimulated
 under profuse lyrical  outpourings and 
purple patches of local color4 ,his     
,hernani actually  glories in not being 
a responsible agent1 but an 8unchained  
and fatal  force10#aai and so more      
capable of striking astonishment into   
himself  and others4 ,yet the admirers  
of ,hugo would not only promote him to  
the  first rank of poets1 but would have

 us share his own belief that he is  a  
seer and a prophet4    ,it may be       
objected that the great dramatists of   
the past exalt this  power of fate and  
thus diminish moral responsibility4 ,but
 the very  sharpest distinction must be 
drawn between the subrational fate of   
the  emotional romanticist and the      
superrational fate of ,greek tragedy4   
,the fate of schylean tragedy1 for      
instance1 so far from undermining  moral
 responsibility rather reinforces it4   
,it is felt to be the  revelation of a  
moral order of which man's experience at
 any particular  moment is only an      
infinitesimal fragment4 ,it does not    
seem1 like the  subrational fate of the 
emotional romanticist1 the intrusion    
into the  human realm of an alien power 
whether friendly or unfriendly4 ,this   
point might be established by a study of
 the so-called fate drama in  ,germany  
7,schicksaltragdie71 which1 though      
blackly pessimistic1 is  closely related
 to the optimistic sentimental drama of 

the eighteenth  century4#abj ,the       
,german fate drama is in its essence    
ignoble because  its characters are     
specimens of sensitive                  
morality--incapable1 that is1  of       
opposing a firm human purpose to inner  
impulse or outer impression4  ,the fate 
that thus wells up from the depths of   
nature and overwhelms  their wills is   
not only malign and ironical1 but as    
,grillparzer says1  makes human deeds   
seem only 8throws of the dice in the    
blind night of  chance40#aba ,it would  
be easy to follow similar conceptions of
 fate  down through later literature at 
least to the novels of ,thomas ,hardy4  
,some of the earlier exponents of the   
sentimental drama1 like ,diderot1  were 
not so certain as one might expect that 
the discarding of  traditional decorum  
in favor of 8nature0 would result       
practically in a  reign of pure         
loveliness4 ,at one moment ,diderot     
urges men to get rid  of the civil war  
in the cave in order that they may be   

,arcadian1 like  the savages of the     
,south ,sea1 but at other moments--as in
 8,rameau's  ,nephew0--he shows a       
somewhat closer grip on the problem of  
what will  actually come to pass when a 
man throws off the conventions of a     
highly  organized civilization and sets 
out to live temperamentally4 ,diderot   
sees clearly that he will be that least 
primitive of all beings1 the  ,bohemian4
 ,rameau's nephew1 in his               
irresponsibility and emotional          
instability1 in the kaleidoscopic       
shiftings of his mood1 anticipates  all 
the romantic ,bohemians and persons of  
8artistic temperament0 who  were to     
afflict the nineteenth century4 ,but he 
is more than a mere  sthete4 ,at moments
 we can discern in him the first        
lineaments of the  superman1 who knows  
no law save the law of might4 ,one      
should recollect  that the actual       
influence of ,diderot in ,france fell in
 the second  rather than in the first   
half of the nineteenth century--was upon

 the  realists rather than upon the     
romanticists4 ,the same men that had a  
cult for ,diderot admired the ,vautrins 
and the ,rastignacs of ,balzac and  the 
,julien ,sorel of ,stendhal4 ,these     
characters are little ,napoleons4  ,they
 live temperamentally in the midst of a 
highly organized society1  but they set 
aside its conventions of right and wrong
 in favor1 not of  sthetic enjoyment1   
but of power4    ,the ideal of romantic 
morality1 as was seen in the last       
chapter1  is altruism4 ,the real1 it    
should be clear from the examples ,i    
have  been citing1 is always egoism4    
,but egoism may assume very different   
forms4 ,as to the main forms of egoism  
in men who have repudiated  outer       
control without acquiring self-control  
we may perhaps revive  profitably the   
old ,christian classification of the    
three lusts--the  lust of knowledge1 the
 lust of sensation1 and the lust of     
power4  ,goethe indeed may be said to   
have treated these three main ways of   

being temperamental in three of his     
early characters--the lust of  knowledge
 in 8,faust10 the lust of sensation in  
8,werther10 and the  lust of power in   
8,gtz40 ,if we view life solely from the
 naturalistic  level and concern        
ourselves solely with the world of      
action1 we are  justified in neglecting1
 like ,hobbes1 the other lusts and      
putting  supreme emphasis on the lust   
for power4#abb ,professor ,f4,j4        
,mather1  ,jr41 has distinguished       
between 8hard0 and 8soft0               
sentimentalists4#abc  ,his distinction  
might perhaps be brought more closely   
into line with  my own distinctions if  
,i ventured to coin a word and to speak 
of hard  and soft temperamentalists4    
,the soft temperamentalist will prove   
unable  to cope in the actual world with
 the hard temperamentalist1 and is  very
 likely to become his tool4 ,balzac has 
very appropriately made  ,lucien de     
,rubempr1 the romantic poet and a       
perfect type of a soft                  

temperamentalism1 the tool of ,vautrin1 
the superman4    ,here indeed is the    
supreme opposition between the ideal and
 the real  in romantic morality4 ,the   
ideal to which ,rousseau invites us is  
either  the primitivistic anarchy of the
 8,second ,discourse10 in which egoism  
is  tempered by 8natural pity10 or else 
a state such as is depicted in the      
8,social ,contract10 in which egoism is 
held in check by a disinterested        
8general will40 ,the preliminary to     
achieving either of these ideals is     
that the traditional checks on human    
nature should be removed4 ,but in  exact
 proportion as this programme of        
emancipation is carried out what        
emerges in the real world is not the    
mythical will to brotherhood1 but  the  
ego and its fundamental will to power4  
,give a bootblack half the  universe1   
according to ,carlyle1 and he will soon 
be quarreling with  the owner of the    
other half4 ,he will if he is a very    
temperamental  bootblack4 ,perhaps      

indeed all other evils in life may be   
reduced to the  failure to check that   
something in man that is reaching out   
for more  and ever for more4 ,in a      
society in which the traditional        
inhibitions  are constantly growing     
weaker1 the conflict ,i have just       
sketched  between the ideal and the real
 is becoming more and more acute4 ,the  
soft temperamentalists are overflowing  
with beautiful professions  of brotherly
 love1 and at the same time the hard    
temperamentalists  are reaching out for 
everything in sight2 and inasmuch as the
 hard  temperamentalists operate not in 
dreamland1 but in the real world1  they 
are only too plainly setting the tone4  
,very often1 of course1  the same       
temperamentalist has his hard and his   
soft side4 ,the triumph  of egoism over 
altruism in the relations between man   
and man is even  more evident in the    
relations between nation and nation4    
,the egoism  that results from the      
inbreeding of temperament on a national 

scale  runs in the case of the strong   
nations into imperialism4#abd ,we have  
not reflected sufficiently on the fact  
that the soft temperamentalist          
,rousseau is more than any other one    
person the father of ,kultur2#abe  and  
that the exponents of ,kultur in our own
 day have been revealed as  the hardest 
of hard temperamentalists4    ,to       
understand the particular craving that  
is met by ,rousseauistic  idealism one  
would need to go with some care into the
 psychology of  the half-educated man4  
,the half-educated man may be defined as
 the man  who has acquired a degree of  
critical self-consciousness sufficient  
to detach him from the standards of his 
time and place1 but not  sufficient to  
acquire the new standards that come with
 a more thorough  cultivation4 ,it was  
pointed out long ago that the           
characteristic of the  half-educated man
 is that he is incurably restless2 that 
he is filled  with every manner of      
desire4 ,in contrast with him the       

uncultivated man1  the peasant1 let us  
say1 and the man of high cultivation    
have few and  simple desires4 ,thus     
,socrates had fewer and simpler desires 
than the  average ,athenian4 ,but what  
is most noteworthy about the            
half-educated  man is not simply that he
 harbors many desires and is therefore  
incurably restless1 but that these      
desires are so often incompatible4  ,he 
craves various good things1 but is not  
willing to pay the price--not  willing  
to make the necessary renunciations4 ,he
 pushes to an extreme  what is after all
 a universal human proclivity--the wish 
to have one's  cake and eat it too4     
,thus1 while remaining on the           
naturalistic level1  he wishes to have  
blessings that accrue only to those who 
rise to the  humanistic or religious    
levels4 ,he wishes to live in 8a        
universe with  the lid off10 to borrow a
 happy phrase from the pragmatist1 and  
at the  same time to enjoy the peace and
 brotherhood that are the fruits of     

restraint4 ,the moral indolence of the  
,rousseauist is such that he is         
unwilling to adjust himself to the truth
 of the human law2 and though  living   
naturalistically1 he is loath to        
recognize that what actually  prevails  
on the naturalistic level is the law of 
cunning and the law  of force4 ,he thus 
misses the reality of both the human and
 the natural  law and in the pursuit of 
a vague ,arcadian longing falls into    
sheer  unreality4 ,i am indeed          
overstating the case so far as ,rousseau
 is  concerned4 ,he makes plain in the  
8,emile0 that the true law of nature  is
 not the law of love but the law of     
force4 ,emile is to be released  from   
the discipline of the human law and     
given over to the discipline  of nature2
 and this means in practice that he will
 have 8to bow his  neck beneath the hard
 yoke of physical necessity40 ,in so far
 the  8nature0 of ,emile is no ,arcadian
 dream4 ,where the ,arcadian dreaming   
begins is when ,rousseau assumes that an

 ,emile who has learned the  lesson of  
force from ,nature herself1 will not    
pass along this lesson  to others1      
whether citizens of his own or some     
other country1 but will  rather display 
in his dealings with them an ideal      
fraternity4 ,in the  early stages of the
 naturalistic movement1 in ,hobbes and  
,shaftesbury1  for example1 egoism and  
altruism1 the idea of power and the idea
 of  sympathy1 are more sharply         
contrasted than they are in ,rousseau   
and the  later romanticists4            
,shaftesbury assumes in human nature an 
altruistic  impulse or will to          
brotherhood that will be able to cope   
successfully  with the will to power    
that ,hobbes declares to be fundamental4
 ,many of  the romanticists1 as we have 
seen1 combine the cult of power with the
  cult of brotherhood4 ,hercules1 as in 
,shelley's poem1 is to bow down  before 
,prometheus1 the lover of mankind4 ,the 
extreme example1 however1  is probably  
,william ,blake4 ,he proclaims himself  

of the devil's party1  he glorifies a   
free expansion of energy1 he looks upon 
everything that  restricts this         
expansion as synonymous with evil4 ,at  
the same time he  pushes his exaltation 
of sympathy to the verge of the         
grotesque4#abf    ,such indeed is the   
jumble of incompatibles in ,blake that  
he would  rest an illimitable compassion
 on the psychology of the superman4 ,for
  nothing is more certain than that the 
8,marriage of ,heaven and ,hell0  is    
among other things a fairly complete    
anticipation of ,nietzsche4  ,the       
reasons are worth considering why the   
idea of power and the idea  of sympathy 
which ,blake and so many other          
romanticists hoped to unite  have once  
more come to seem antipodal1 why in the 
late stages of the  movement one finds a
 ,nietzsche and a ,tolstoy1 just as in  
its early  stages one finds a ,hobbes   
and a ,shaftesbury4 ,it is plain1 first 
of  all1 that what brought the two cults
 together for a time was their  common  

hatred of the past4 ,with the triumph   
over the past fairly  complete1 the     
incompatibility of power and sympathy   
became increasingly  manifest4          
,nietzsche's attitude is that of a      
,prometheus whose sympathy  for mankind 
has changed to disgust on seeing the use
 that they are  actually making of their
 emancipation4 ,humanitarian sympathy   
seemed  to him to be tending not merely 
to a subversion1 but to an inversion  of
 values1 to a positive preference for   
the trivial and the ignoble4  ,he looked
 with special loathing on that side of  
the movement that is  symbolized in its 
homage to the ass4 ,the inevitable      
flying apart of  power and sympathy was 
further hastened in ,nietzsche and      
others by  the progress of evolution4   
,darwinism was dissipating the ,arcadian
  mist through which nature had been    
viewed by ,rousseau and his early       
followers4 ,the gap is wide between     
,tennyson's nature 8red in tooth and    
claw0 and the tender and pitiful nature 

of ,wordsworth4#abg ,nietzsche's        
preaching of ruthlessness is therefore a
 protest against the sheer  unreality of
 those who wish to be natural and at the
 same time  sympathetic4 ,but how are we
 to get a real scale of values to oppose
 to  an indiscriminate sympathy8 ,it is 
here that ,nietzsche shows that he  is  
caught in the same fatal coil of        
naturalism as the humanitarian4  ,he    
accepts the naturalistic corruption of  
conscience which underlies  all other   
naturalistic corruptions4 8,the will to 
overcome an emotion10  he says1 8is     
ultimately only the will of another or  
of several other  emotions40#abh ,all he
 can do with this conception of         
conscience is  to set over against the  
humanitarian suppression of values a    
scale  of values based on force and not 
a true scale of values based on the     
degree to which one imposes or fails to 
impose on one's temperamental  self a   
human law of vital control4 ,the        
opposition between a ,nietzsche  and a  

,tolstoy is therefore not specially     
significant2 it is only that  between   
the hard and the soft temperamentalist4 
,to be sure ,nietzsche  can on occasion 
speak very shrewdly about the evils that
 have resulted  from                    
temperamentalism--especially from the   
passion for an untrammeled              
self-expression4 ,but the superman      
himself is a most authentic  descendant 
of the original genius in whom we first 
saw this passion  dominant4 ,the        
imagination of the superman1 spurning   
every centre of  control1 traditional or
 otherwise1 so coperates with his       
impulses  and desires as to give them   
8infinitude10 that is so as to make     
them reach out for more and ever for    
more4 ,the result is a frenzied         
romanticism4#abi    8,proportionateness 
is strange to us1 let us confess it to  
ourselves10  says ,nietzsche4 8,our     
itching is really the itching for the   
infinite1  the immeasurable40 ,how the  
humanitarian loses proportionateness is 

plain2 it is by his readiness to        
sacrifice to sympathy the ninety  per   
cent or so of the virtues that imply    
self-control4 ,the superman  would      
scarcely seem to redress the balance by 
getting rid of the same  restraining    
virtues in favor of power4 ,he simply   
oscillates wildly  from the excess of   
which he is conscious in others or in   
himself into  the opposite excess1 at   
imminent peril in either case to the    
ethical  basis of civilization4 ,the    
patterns or models that the past had set
  up for imitation and with reference to
 which one might rein in his  lusts and 
impose upon them proportionateness are  
rejected by every  type of romantic     
expansionist1 not only as ,nietzsche    
says1 because  they do not satisfy the  
yearning for the infinite1 but also1 as 
we  have seen1 because they do not      
satisfy the yearning for unity and      
immediacy4 ,now so far as the forms of  
the eighteenth century were  concerned  
the romantic expansionist had legitimate

 grounds for protest4  ,but because the 
rationalism and artificial decorum of   
that period  failed to satisfy1 he goes 
on to attack the analytical intellect   
and decorum in general and this attack  
is entirely illegitimate4 ,it  may be   
affirmed on the contrary that the power 
by which we multiply  distinctions is   
never so necessary as in an             
individualistic age1 an age  that has   
broken with tradition on the ground that
 it wishes to be more  imaginative and  
immediate4 ,there are various ways of   
being imaginative  and immediate1 and   
analysis is needed1 not to build up some
 abstract  system but to discriminate   
between the actual data of experience   
and  so to determine which one of these 
ways it is expedient to follow if  one  
wishes to become wise and happy4 ,it is 
precisely at such moments  of           
individualistic break with the past that
 the sophist stands ready  to juggle    
with general terms1 and the only        
protection against such  juggling is to 

define these terms with the aid of the  
most unflinching  analysis4 ,thus       
,bergson would have us believe that     
there are in ,france  two main types of 
philosophy1 a rationalistic type that   
goes back to  ,descartes and an         
intuitive type that goes back to        
,pascal1#acj and  gives us to understand
 that1 inasmuch as he is an             
intuitionist1 he  is in the line of     
descent from ,pascal4 ,monstrous        
sophistries lurk in  this simple        
assertion1 sophistries which if they go 
uncorrected are  enough to wreck        
civilization4 ,the only remedy is to    
define the word  intuition1 to          
discriminate practically and by their   
fruits between  subrational and         
superrational intuition4 ,when analyzed 
and defined in  this way subrational    
intuition will be found to be associated
 with  vital impulse 7lan vital7 and    
superrational intuition with a power  of
 vital control 7frein vital7 over this  
impulse2 and furthermore  it will be    

clear that this control must be         
exercised if men are to  be drawn       
towards a common centre1 not in         
dreamland1 but in the real  world4 ,so  
far then from its being true that the   
man who analyzes must  needs see things 
in disconnection dead and spiritless1 it
 is only by  analysis that he is1 in an 
individualistic age1 put on the pathway 
of  true unity1 and also of the rle of  
the imagination in achieving this       
unity4 ,for there is need to            
discriminate between the different types
  of imagination no less than between   
the different types of intuition4  ,one 
will find through such analysis that the
 centre of normal human  experience that
 is to serve as a check on impulse 7so  
far at least as  it is something        
distinct from the mere convention of    
one's age and  time7 can be apprehended 
only with the aid of the imagination4   
,this is  only another way of saying    
that the reality that is set above one's
  ordinary self is not a fixed absolute 

but can be glimpsed1 if at all1  only   
through a veil of illusion and is indeed
 inseparable from the  illusion4 ,this  
realm of insight cannot be finally      
formulated for the  simple reason that  
it is anterior to formul4 ,it must      
therefore from  the point of view of an 
intellect it transcends seem infinite   
though in  a very different sense from  
the outer infinite of expansive desire4 
,this inner or human infinite1 so far   
from being incompatible with  decorum1  
is the source of true decorum4 ,true    
decorum is only the  pulling back and   
disciplining of impulse to the          
proportionateness that  has been        
perceived with the aid of what one may  
term the ethical or  generalizing       
imagination4 ,to dismiss like the       
romantic expansionist  everything that  
limits or restricts the lust of         
knowledge or of power  or of sensation  
as arbitrary and artificial is to miss  
true decorum and  at the same time to   
sink1 as a ,greek would say1 from ethos 

to pathos4  ,if one is to avoid this    
error one must1 as ,hamlet counsels1 8in
 the  very torrent1 tempest1 and 7as ,i 
may say7 whirlwind of passion1 acquire  
and beget a temperance that may give it 
smoothness40 ,this is probably  the best
 of all modern definitions of decorum   
simply because it is the  most          
experimental4 ,in general all that has  
been said about the ethical  imagination
 is not to be taken as a fine-spun      
theory1 but as an attempt  however      
imperfect to give an account of actual  
experience4    ,one may report from     
observation another trait of truly      
ethical art1 art  which is at once      
imaginative and decorous4 ,it is not    
merely intense1  as art that is         
imaginative at the expense of decorum   
may very well  be1#aca it has a         
restrained and humanized                
intensity--intensity on a  background of
 calm4 ,the presence of the ethical     
imagination whether in  art or life#acb 
is always known as an element of calm4  

,in art that has the ethical quality1   
and ,i am again not setting up a        
metaphysical theory but reporting from  
observation1 the calm that comes  from  
imaginative insight into the universal  
is inextricably blended  with an element
 of uniqueness--with a something that   
belongs to a  particular time and place 
and individual4 ,the truth to the       
universal1  as ,aristotle would say1    
gives the work verisimilitude and the   
truth  to the particular satisfies man's
 deep-seated craving for novelty2  so   
that the best art unites the probable   
with the wonderful4 ,but  the probable1 
one cannot insist too often1 is won no  
less than the  wonderful with the aid of
 the imagination and so is of the very  
soul  of art4 ,the romanticist who is   
ready to sacrifice the probable to the  
wonderful and to look on the whole      
demand for verisimilitude as an         
academic superstition is prone to assume
 that he has a monopoly of  soul and    
imagination4 ,but the word soul is at   

least in as much need  of ,socratic     
definition as the word intuition4 ,it is
 possible1 for  example1 with the aid of
 the ethical imagination so to partake  
of the  ultimate element of calm as to  
rise to the religious level4 ,the man   
who  has risen to this level has a soul1
 but it is a soul of peace4 ,both  soul 
and imagination are also needed to      
achieve the fine adjustment  and        
mediation of the humanist4 ,it is not   
enough1 however1 to have a  religious or
 a humanistic soul if one is to be a    
creator or even a  fully equipped critic
 of art4 ,for art rests primarily not on
 ethical  but sthetic perception4 ,this 
perception itself varies widely         
according  to the art involved4 ,one    
may1 for instance1 be musically         
perceptive and  at the same time lack   
poetic perception4 ,to be a creator in  
any art  one must possess furthermore   
the technique of this art--something    
that  is more or less separable from its
 8soul0 in any sense of the word4 ,it   

is possible to put a wildly romantic    
soul into art1 as has often been  done  
in the ,far ,east1 and at the same time 
to be highly conventional  or           
traditional in one's technique4 ,writers
 like ,mrime1 ,renan1 and  ,maupassant  
again are faithful in the main to the   
technique of ,french  prose that was    
worked out during the classical period1 
but combine with  this technique an     
utterly unclassical 8soul40    ,rules1  
especially perhaps rules as to what to  
avoid1 may be of aid in  acquiring      
technique1 but are out of place in      
dealing with the soul of  art4 ,there   
one passes from rules to principles4    
,the only rule1 if we  are to achieve   
art that has an ethical soul1 is to view
 life with some  degree of imaginative  
wholeness4 ,art that has technique      
without soul  in either the classical or
 romantic sense1 and so fails either to 
inspire elevation or awaken wonder1 is  
likely to be felt as a barren           
virtuosity4 ,the pseudo-classicist was  

often unduly minute in the rules  he    
laid down for technique or outer form1  
as one may say1 and then  ignored the   
ethical imagination or inner form       
entirely1 or else set up  as a          
substitute mere didacticism4 ,since     
pseudo-classic work of this  type       
plainly lacked soul and imagination1 and
 since the romanticist  felt and felt   
rightly that he himself had a soul and  
imagination1 he  concluded wrongly that 
soul and imagination are romantic       
monopolies4  ,like the                  
pseudo-classicist1 he inclines to       
identify high seriousness  in art1      
something that can only come from the   
exercise of the ethical  imagination at 
its best1 with mere preaching1 only he  
differs from  the pseudo-classicist in  
insisting that preaching should be left 
to  divines4 ,one should insist1 on the 
contrary1 that the mark of genuinely    
ethical art1 art that is highly serious1
 is that it is free from  preaching4    
,sophocles is more ethical than         

,euripides for the simple  reason that  
he views life with more imaginative     
wholeness4 ,at the same  time he is much
 less given to preaching than           
,euripides4 ,he does not1 as            
,fitz,gerald says1 interrupt the action 
and the exhibition of character  through
 action in order to 8jaw philosophy40   
,it is not unusual for the modern artist
 to seek1 like ,euripides1  to          
dissimulate the lack of true ethical    
purpose in his work by  agitating       
various problems4 ,but problems come and
 go1 whereas human  nature abides4 ,one 
may agitate problems without number1 and
 yet  lack imaginative insight into the 
abiding element in human nature4        
,moreover1 not being of the soul of art1
 the problem that one agitates  is in   
danger of being a clogging              
intellectualism4 ,furthermore to seek   
in problems an equivalent for the       
definition and purpose that the  ethical
 imagination alone can give is to renew1
 often in an aggravated  form1 the      

neo-classical error4 ,the moralizing of 
the pseudo-classic  dramatist1 even     
though dull and misplaced1 was usually  
sound enough in  itself2 whereas the    
moralizing of those who seek nowadays to
 use the  stage as a pulpit1 resting as 
it does on false humanitarian           
postulates1  is in itself dubious4 ,the 
problem play succeeds not infrequently  
in  being at once dull and indecent4    
,the problem play is often very superior
 in technique or outer form  to the     
earlier romantic drama1 but it still    
suffers from the same  lack of inner    
form1 inasmuch as its social purpose    
cannot take the  place of true human    
purpose based on imaginative insight    
into the  universal4 ,the lack of inner 
form in so much modern drama and art in 
general can be traced to the original   
unsoundness of the break with           
pseudo-classic formalism4 ,to a         
pseudo-classic art that lacked every    
kind of perceptiveness the ,rousseauist 
opposed sthetic perceptiveness1  and it 

is something1 one must admit1 thus to   
have discovered the  senses4 ,but to his
 sthetic perceptiveness he failed1 as ,i
 have  already said1 to add ethical     
perceptiveness because of his inability 
to distinguish between ethical          
perceptiveness and mere didacticism1    
and so when asked to put ethical purpose
 into art he replied that  art should be
 pursued for its own sake 7l'art pour   
l'art7 and  that 8beauty is its own     
excuse for being40 ,one should note here
  the transformation that this pure     
stheticism brought about in the  meaning
 of the word beauty itself4 ,for the    
,greek beauty resided in                
proportion1#acc and proportion can be   
attained only with the aid of  the      
ethical imagination4 ,with the          
elimination of the ethical element  from
 the soul of art the result is an       
imagination that is free to  wander wild
 with the emancipated emotions4 ,the    
result is likely to be  art in which a  
lively sthetic perceptiveness is not    

subordinated to  any whole1 art that is 
unstructural1 however it may abound in  
vivid and  picturesque details2 and a   
one-sided art of this kind the          
romanticist  does not hesitate to call  
beautiful4 8,if we let the reason sleep 
and  are content to watch a succession  
of dissolving views10 says ,mr4 ,elton  
of ,shelley's 8,revolt of ,islam10 8the 
poem is seen at once to overflow  with  
beauty40#acd ,mere reason is not        
strictly speaking a sufficient  remedy  
for this unstructural type of 8beauty40 
,thus ,chateaubriand's  reason is on the
 side of proportion and all the         
classical virtues but  his imagination  
is not 7and we cannot repeat too often  
that it is what  a man is imaginatively 
and not what he preaches that really    
counts74  ,instead of siding with his   
reason and aiding it to ethical         
perception  ,chateaubriand's imagination
 is the free playmate of his emotions4  
8,what  did ,i care for all these       
futilities0 7i4e4 his functions as      

cabinet  minister71 he exclaims1 8,i who
 never cared for anything except for my 
dreams1 and even then on condition that 
they should last only for a  night40    
,when a man has once spoken in that vein
 sensible people will  pay little heed  
to what he preaches2 for they will be   
certain that the  driving power of his  
work and personality is elsewhere4 ,the 
imagination  holds the balance of power 
between the reason and the perceptions  
of sense1 and ,chateaubriand's          
imagination is plainly on the side of   
sensuous adventure4 ,this vagabondage of
 the imagination appears  especially in 
his imagistic trend1 in his pursuit of  
the descriptive  detail for its own     
sake4 ,to set out like ,chateaubriand to
 restore the  monarchy and the          
,christian religion and instead to      
become the founder  of 8l'cole des      
images  tout prix0 is an especially     
striking form of  the contrast in       
romantic morality between the ideal and 
the real4    ,the attempt that we have  

been studying to divorce beauty from    
ethics  led in the latter part of the   
eighteenth century to the rise of a     
nightmare subject1--sthetics4           
,shaftesbury indeed1 as we have seen    
already1 anticipates the favorite       
romantic doctrine that beauty is  truth 
and truth beauty1 which means in        
practice to rest both truth and  beauty 
upon a fluid emotionalism4 ,thus to deal
 sthetically with truth  is an error of 
the first magnitude1 but it is also an  
error1 though  a less serious one1 to   
see only the sthetic element in beauty4 
,for  beauty to be complete must have   
not only sthetic perceptiveness but     
order and proportion2 and this brings us
 back again to the problem  of the      
ethical imagination and the permanent   
model or pattern with  reference to     
which it seeks to impose measure and    
proportion upon  sensuous perception and
 expansive desire4 ,we should not       
hesitate to  say that beauty loses most 
of its meaning when divorced from ethics

  even though every sthete in the world 
should arise and denounce us as         
philistines4 ,to rest beauty upon       
feeling as the very name sthetics       
implies1 is to rest it upon what is ever
 shifting4 ,nor can we escape  from this
 endless mobility with the aid of       
physical science1 for  physical science 
does not itself rise above the          
naturalistic flux4  ,after eliminating  
from beauty the permanent pattern and   
the ethical  imagination with the aid of
 which it is perceived1 a man will be   
ready  to term beautiful anything that  
reflects his ordinary or temperamental  
self4 ,diderot is a sentimentalist and  
so he sees as much beauty in the        
sentimentalist ,richardson as in ,homer4
 ,if a man is psychically restless  he  
will see beauty only in motion4 ,the    
,italian futurist ,marinetti says  that 
for him a rushing motor car is more     
beautiful than the ,victory of          
,samothrace4 ,a complete sacrifice of   
the principle of repose in beauty       

7which itself arises from the presence  
of the ethical imagination7  to the     
suggesting of motion such as has been   
seen in certain recent  schools1 runs   
practically into a mixture of           
charlatanism and madness4  8,he that is 
giddy thinks the world goes round10 says
 ,shakespeare1  and the exponents of    
certain ultra-modern movements in       
painting are  simply trying to paint    
their inner giddiness4 ,as a matter of  
fact the  pretension of the sthete to   
have a purely personal vision of beauty 
and then treat as a philistine every one
 who does not accept it1 is             
intolerable4 ,either beauty cannot be   
defined at all or we must say  that only
 is beautiful which seems so to the     
right kind of man1 and  the right kind  
of man is plainly he whose total        
attitude towards life  is correct1 who  
views life with some degree of          
imaginative wholeness1  which is only   
another way of saying that the problem  
of beauty is  inseparable from the      

ethical problem4 ,in an absolute sense  
nobody can  see life steadily and see it
 whole2 but we may at least move towards
  steadiness and wholeness4 ,the sthete 
is plainly moving in an opposite        
direction2 he is becoming more and more 
openly a votary of the god  ,whirl4 ,his
 lack of inner form is an error not of  
sthetics but of  general philosophy4    
,the romantic imagination1 the          
imagination that is not drawn back to   
any ethical centre and so is free to    
wander wild in its own empire of        
chimeras1 has indeed a place in life4   
,to understand what this place  is one  
needs to emphasize the distinction      
between art that has high  seriousness  
and art that is merely recreative4 ,the 
serious moments of  life are moments of 
tension1 of concentration on either the 
natural or  the human law4 ,but ,apollo 
cannot always be bending the bow4 ,man  
needs  at times to relax1 and one way of
 relaxing is to take refuge for a  time 
in some land of chimeras1 to follow the 

,arcadian gleam4 ,he may  then come back
 to the real world1 the world of active 
effort1 solaced  and refreshed4 ,but it 
is only with reference to some ethical  
centre  that we may determine what art  
is soundly recreative1 in what forms  of
 adventure the imagination may          
innocently indulge4 ,the romanticist    
should recollect that among other forms 
of adventure is what ,ben ,jonson  terms
 8a bold adventure for hell02 and that a
 not uncommon nostalgia  is what the    
,french call la nostalgie de la         
boue--man's nostalgia for  his native   
mud4 ,because we are justified at times1
 as ,lamb urges1 in  wandering          
imaginatively beyond 8the diocese of    
strict conscience10 it  does not follow 
that we may1 like him1 treat            
,restoration ,comedy as a  sort of      
fairyland2 for ,restoration ,comedy is a
 world not of pure but of  impure       
imagination4    ,lamb's paradox1        
however1 is harmless compared with what 
we have just  been seeing in            

,chateaubriand4 ,with a dalliant        
imagination that entitles  him at best  
to play a recreative rle1 he sets up as 
a religious  teacher4 ,michelet again   
has been described as an 8entertainer   
who  believes himself a prophet10 and   
this description fits many other        
,rousseauists4 ,the sthete who assumes  
an apocalyptic pose is an  especially   
flagrant instance of the huddling       
together of incompatible  desires4 ,he  
wishes to sport with ,amaryllis in the  
shade and at the same  time enjoy the   
honors that belong only to the man who  
scorns delights  and lives laborious    
days4 ,for the exercise of the ethical  
imagination1  it is hardly necessary to 
say1 involves effort4 ,perhaps no one   
has  ever surpassed ,rousseau himself in
 the art of which ,i have already       
spoken1--that of giving to moral        
indolence a semblance of profound       
philosophy4    ,one cannot indeed always
 affirm that the ,rousseauist is by the 
quality  of his imagination an          

entertainer pure and simple4 ,his       
breaking down of  barriers and running  
together of the planes of being results 
at times  in ambiguous mixtures--gleams 
of insight that actually seem to        
minister  to fleshliness4 ,one may cite 
as an example the 8voluptuous           
religiosity0  that certain critics have 
discovered in ,wagner4    ,the          
romanticist will at once protest against
 the application of ethical  standards  
to ,wagner or any other musician4       
,music1 he holds1 is the  most soulful  
of the arts and so the least subject to 
ethics4 ,for the  same reason it is the 
chief of arts and also--in view of the  
fact that  romanticists have a monopoly 
of soul--the most romantic4 ,one should 
not  allow to pass unchallenged this    
notion that because music is filled     
with soul it is therefore subject to no 
ethical centre1 but should be  treated  
as a pure enchantment4 ,the ,greeks were
 as a matter of fact much  concerned    
with the ethical quality of music4      

,certain musical modes1 the  ,doric for 
example1 had as they believed a virile  
8soul10 other modes  like the ,lydian   
had the contrary 78,lap me in soft      
,lydian airs074 ,for  the very reason   
that music is the most appealing of the 
arts 7song1  says ,aristotle1 is the    
sweetest of all things7 they were       
especially  anxious that this art should
 be guarded from perversion4#ace        
,without  attempting a full discussion  
of a difficult subject for which ,i have
  no competency1 it will be enough to   
point out that the plain song that      
prevailed in ,christian churches for    
over a thousand years evidently had  a  
very different 8soul10 a soul that      
inspired to prayer and peace1 from  much
 specifically romantic music that has a 
soul of restlessness1 of  infinite      
indeterminate desire4 ,the result of the
 failure to recognize  this distinction 
is very often a hybrid art4 ,berlioz    
showed a rather  peculiar conception of 
religion when he took pride in the fact 

that his  ,requiem 767 ,mass frightened 
one of the listeners into a fit4    ,the
 ethical confusion that arises from the 
romantic cult of 8soul0 and  the closely
 allied tendency towards a hybrid       
art--art that lacks high  seriousness   
without being frankly recreative--may   
also be illustrated  from the field of  
poetry4 ,many volumes have been         
published and are  still being published
 on ,browning as a philosophic and      
religious  teacher4 ,but ,browning can  
pass as a prophet only with the         
half-educated  person1 the person who   
has lost traditional standards and has  
at the  same time failed to work out    
with the aid of the ethical imagination 
some fresh scale of values and in the   
meanwhile lives impulsively and         
glorifies impulse4 ,like the            
half-educated person1 ,browning is      
capable  of almost any amount of        
intellectual and emotional subtlety1 and
 like  the half-educated person he is   
deficient in inner form3 that is he     

deals with experience                   
impressionistically without reference to
 any  central pattern or purpose4#acf   
,it is enough that the separate moments 
of this experience should each stand    
forth like                  ,the quick  
sharp scratch      ,and blue spurt of a 
lighted match4    ,one may take as an   
illustration of this drift towards the  
melodramatic  the 8,ring and the ,book40
 ,the method of this poem is peripheral1
 that  is1 the action is viewed not from
 any centre but as refracted through    
the temperaments of the actors4 ,the    
twelve monologues of which the  poem is 
composed illustrate the tendency of     
romantic writing to run  into some 8song
 of myself0 or 8tale of my heart40 ,the 
8,ring and the  ,book0 is not only off  
the centre1 but is designed to raise a  
positive  prejudice against everything  
that is central4 ,guido1 for example1   
had  observed decorum1 had done all the 
conventional things and is horrible4    
,pompilia1 the beautiful soul1 had the  

great advantage of having had  an       
indecorous start4 ,being the daughter of
 a drab1 she is not kept  from heeding  
the voice of nature4 ,caponsacchi again 
shows the beauty  of his soul by        
violating the decorum of the priesthood4
 ,this least  representative of priests 
wins our sympathy1 not by his           
,christianity1  but by his lyrical      
intensity3        ,o lyric love1 half   
angel and half bird1      ,and all a    
wonder and a wild desire6    ,browning  
here escapes for once from the clogging 
intellectualism that  makes nearly all  
the 8,ring and the ,book0 an            
indeterminate blend of  verse and prose1
 and achieves true poetry though not of 
the highest  type4 ,the hybrid character
 of his art1 due partly to a lack of    
outer  form1 to a defective poetical    
technique1 arises even more from a lack 
of inner form--from an attempt to give a
 semblance of seriousness to  what is at
 bottom unethical4 ,the aged ,pope may  
well meditate on the  revolution that is

 implied in the substitution of the     
morality of the  beautiful soul for that
 of ,st4 ,augustine4#acg ,in seeming to 
accept  this revolution ,browning's     
,pope comes near to breaking all        
records1  even in the romantic movement1
 for paradox and indecorum4    ,at      
bottom the war between humanist and     
romanticist is so irreconcilable        
because the one is a mediator and the   
other an extremist4 ,browning  would    
have us admire his ,pompilia because her
 love knows no limit2#ach  but a secular
 love like hers must know a limit1 must 
be decorous in  short1 if it is to be   
distinguished from mere emotional       
intensity4  ,it is evident that the     
romantic ideal of art for art's sake    
meant in  the real world art for        
sensation's sake4 ,the glorification of 
a love  knowing no limit1 that a        
,browning or a ,hugo sets up as a       
substitute for  philosophy and even for 
religion1 is therefore closely          
affiliated in  practice with the libido 

sentiendi4 8,it is hard10 wrote         
,stendhal1 in  #ahag1 8not to see what  
the nineteenth century desires4 ,a love 
of strong  emotions is its true         
character40 ,the romantic tendency to   
push every  emotion to an extreme1      
regardless of decorum1 is not much      
affected by  what the romanticist       
preaches or by the problems he agitates4
 ,doudan  remarks of a mother who loses 
her child in ,hugo's 8,ntre ,dame de    
,paris10 that 8her rage after this loss 
has nothing to equal it in the  roarings
 of a lioness or tigress who has been   
robbed of her young4 ,she  becomes      
vulgar by excess of despair4 ,it is the 
saturnalia of maternal  grief4 ,you see 
that this woman belongs to a world in   
which neither the  instincts nor the    
passions have that divine aroma which   
imposes on them  some kind of           
measure--the dignity or decorum that    
contains a moral  principle2 ''' ,when  
the passions no longer have this check1 
they should  be relegated to the        

menagerie along with leopards and       
rhinoceroses1  and1 strange             
circumstance1 when the passions do      
recognize this check  they produce more 
effect on the spectators than           
unregulated outbursts2  they give       
evidence of more depth40 ,this          
superlativeness1 as one may  say1 that  
,hugo displays in his picture of        
maternal grief is not  confined to the  
emotional romanticist4 ,it appears1 for 
example1 among  the intellectual        
romanticists of the seventeenth century 
and affected  the very forms of         
language4 ,molire and others ridiculed  
the adjectives  and adverbs with which  
the prcieuses sought to express their   
special  type of superlativeness and    
intensity 7extrmement1 furieusement1    
terriblement1 etc474 ,alfred de         
,musset's assertion that the chief      
difference between classicist and       
romanticist is found in the latter's    
greater proneness to adjectives is not  
altogether a jest4 ,it has been  said   

that the pessimist uses few1 the        
optimist many adjectives2 but the  use  
of adjectives and above all of          
superlatives would rather seem to  grow 
with one's expansiveness1 and no        
movement was ever more expansive  than  
that we are studying4 ,dante1 according 
to ,rivarol1 is very sparing  of        
adjectives4 ,his sentence tends to      
maintain itself by the verb  and        
substantive alone4 ,in this as in other 
respects ,dante is at the  opposite pole
 from the expansionist4    ,the romantic
 violence of expression is at once a    
proof of 8soul0 and  a protest against  
the tameness and smugness of the        
pseudo-classicist4  ,the human volcano  
must overflow at times in a lava of     
molten words4  8,damnation60 cries      
,berlioz1 8,i could crush a red-hot iron
 between my  teeth40#aci ,the           
disproportion between the outer incident
 and the  emotion that the ,rousseauist 
expends on it is often ludicrous4#adj   
,the kind of force that the man attains 

who sees in emotional intensity  a mark 
of spiritual distinction1 and deems     
moderation identical with  mediocrity1  
is likely to be the force of delirium or
 fever4 ,what one  sees in 8,werther10  
says ,goethe himself1 is weakness       
seeking to give  itself the prestige of 
strength2 and this remark goes far4     
,there is in  some of the romanticists a
 suggestion not merely of spiritual but 
of  physical anmia4#ada ,still the      
intensity is often that of a strong  but
 unbridled spirit4 ,pleasure is pushed  
to the point where it runs  over into   
pain1 and pain to the point where it    
becomes an auxiliary  of pleasure4 ,the 
cre baiser of the 8,nouvelle ,hlose0    
that so  scandalized ,voltaire presaged 
even more than a literary revolution4   
,the  poems of ,a4 de ,musset in        
particular contain an extraordinary     
perversion  of the ,christian doctrine  
of purification through suffering4      
,there  is something repellent to the   
genuine ,christian as well as to the    

worldling in what one is tempted to call
 ,musset's ,epicurean cult of  pain4#adb
    ,moments of superlative intensity   
whether of pleasure or pain must  in the
 nature of the case be brief--mere      
spasms or paroxysms2 and  one might     
apply to the whole school the term      
paroxyst and spasmodist  assumed by     
certain minor groups during the past    
century4 ,the  ,rousseauist is in       
general loath to rein in his emotional  
vehemence1 to  impair the zest with     
which he responds to the solicitations  
of sense1  by any reference to the      
8future and sum of time10 by any        
reference1  that is1 to an ethical      
purpose4 ,he would enjoy his thrill pure
 and  unalloyed1 and this amounts in    
practice to the pursuit of the beautiful
  or sensation-crowded moment4          
,saint-,preux says of the days spent    
with  ,julie that a 8sweet ecstasy0     
absorbed 8their whole duration and      
gathered it together in a point like    
that of eternity4 ,there was for  me    

neither past nor future1 and ,i enjoyed 
at one and the same time the  delights  
of a thousand centuries40#adc ,the      
superlativist one might  suppose could  
go no further4 ,but in the deliberate   
sacrifice of all  ethical values to the 
beautiful moment ,browning has perhaps  
improved  even on ,rousseau3            
,truth1 that's brighter than gem1       
,trust1 that's purer than pearl1--      
,brightest truth1 purest trust in the   
universe--all were for me          ,in  
the kiss of one girl4    ,browning      
entitles the poem from which ,i am      
quoting ,summum ,bonum4 ,the  supreme   
good it would appear is identical with  
the supreme thrill4    ,i have already  
said enough to make clear that the title
 of this  chapter and the last is in a  
way a misnomer4 ,there is no such thing 
as romantic morality4 ,the innovations  
in ethics that are due to  romanticism  
reduce themselves on close scrutiny to a
 vast system of  naturalistic           
camouflage4 ,to understand how this     

camouflage has been  so successful one  
needs to connect ,rousseauism with the  
,baconian  movement4 ,scientific        
progress had inspired man with a new    
confidence  in himself at the same time 
that the positive and critical method   
by which it had been achieved detached  
him from the past and its  traditional  
standards of good and evil4 ,to break   
with tradition on  sound lines one needs
 to apply the utmost keenness of        
analysis not  merely to the natural but 
to the human law4 ,but man's analytical 
powers  were very much taken up with the
 new task of mastering the natural  law1
 so much so that he seemed incapable of 
further analytical effort1  but longed  
rather for relaxation from his sustained
 concentration of  intellect and        
imagination on the physical order4 ,at  
the same time  he was so elated by the  
progress he was making in this order    
that  he was inclined to assume a       
similar advance on the moral plane and  
to believe that this advance could also 

be achieved collectively4 ,a  collective
 salvation of this kind without any need
 of a concentration  of the intellect   
and imagination is precisely what was   
opened up to  him by the ,rousseauistic 
8ideal0 of brotherhood4 ,this 8ideal10  
as ,i  have tried to show1 was only a   
projection of the ,arcadian imagination 
on the void4 ,but in the abdication of  
analysis and critical judgment1  which  
would have reduced it to a purely       
recreative rle1 this ,arcadian  dreaming
 was enabled to set up as a serious     
philosophy1 and to expand  into         
innumerable ,utopias4 ,many who might   
have taken alarm at the  humanitarian   
revolution in ethics were reassured by  
the very fervor  with which its         
promoters continued to utter the old    
words--conscience1  virtue1 etc4 ,no one
 puts more stress than ,rousseau himself
 on  conscience1 while in the very act  
of transforming conscience from an      
inner check into an expansive emotion4  
,we have seen that as a result of this  

transformation of conscience1           
temperament is emancipated from both    
inner and outer control and that  this  
emancipation tends in the real world to 
the rise of two main  types--the        
,bohemian and the superman1 both        
unprimitive1 inasmuch as  primitive man 
is governed not by temperament but by   
convention2 and  that what actually     
tends to prevail in such a temperamental
 world  in view of the superior         
8hardness0 of the superman1 is the law  
of  cunning and the law of force4 ,so   
far as the ,rousseauists set up the     
mere emancipation of temperament as a   
serious philosophy1 they are  to be held
 responsible for the results of this    
emancipation whether  displayed in the  
lust of power or the lust of sensation4 
,but the  lust of power and the lust of 
sensation1 such as they appear1 for     
example1 in the so-called realism of the
 later nineteenth century1 are  not in  
themselves identical with romanticism4  
,many of the realists1  like ,flaubert1 

as ,i have already pointed out1 are     
simply bitter and  disillusioned        
,rousseauists who are expressing their  
nausea at the  society that has actually
 arisen from the emancipation of        
temperament  in themselves and others4  
,the essence of ,rousseauistic as of    
other  romance1 ,i may repeat1 is to be 
found not in any mere fact1 not even  in
 the fact of sensation1 but in a certain
 quality of the imagination4            
,rousseauism is1 it is true1 an         
emancipation of impulse1 especially of  
the impulse of sex4 ,practically all the
 examples ,i have chosen of the  tense  
and beautiful moment are erotic4 ,but   
what one has even here1 as  the         
imagination grows increasingly romantic1
 is less the reality than  the dream of 
the beautiful moment1 an intensity that 
is achieved only  in the tower of ivory4
 ,this point can be made clear only by a
 fuller  study of the romantic          
conception of love4          ,,chapter  
,,vi    ,,romantic ,,love      ,what    

first strikes one in ,rousseau's        
attitude towards love is the            
separation1 even wider here perhaps than
 elsewhere1 between the ideal  and the  
real4 ,he dilates in the 8,confessions0 
on the difference of  the attachment    
that he felt when scarcely more than a  
boy for two  young women of ,geneva1    
,mademoiselle ,vulson and ,mademoiselle 
,goton4 ,his  attachment for the latter 
was real in a sense that ,zola would    
have  understood4 ,his attachment for   
,mademoiselle ,vulson reminds one rather
  of that of a medival knight for his   
lady4 ,the same contrast runs  through  
,rousseau's life4 8,seamstresses1       
chambermaids1 shop-girls10 he  says1    
8attracted me very little4 ,i had to    
have fine ladies40#add ,so  much for the
 ideal2 the real was ,thrse ,levasseur4 
,we are not to suppose that ,rousseau's 
love even when most ideal is  really    
exalted above the fleshly level4 ,byron 
indeed says of ,rousseau  that 8his was 
not the love of living dame but of ideal

 beauty10 and  if this were strictly    
true ,rousseau might be accounted a     
,platonist4  ,but any particular        
beautiful object is for ,plato only a   
symbol or  adumbration of a             
supersensuous beauty2 so that an earthly
 love can be  at best only a            
stepping-stone to the ,uranian          
,aphrodite4 ,the terrestrial  and the   
heavenly loves are not in short run     
together1 whereas the  essence of       
,rousseauistic love is this very        
blending4 8,rousseau10 says  ,joubert1  
8had a voluptuous mind4 ,in his writings
 the soul is always  mingled with the   
body and never distinct from it4 ,no one
 has ever  rendered more vividly the    
impression of the flesh touching the    
spirit  and the delights of their       
marriage40 ,i need not1 however1 repeat 
here  what ,i have said elsewhere#ade   
about this confusion of the planes of   
being1 perhaps the most important aspect
 of romantic love4    ,though ,rousseau 
is not a true ,platonist in his         

treatment of love1 he  does1 as ,i have 
said1 recall at times the cult of the   
medival knight  for his lady4 ,one may  
even find in medival love something that
 is  remotely related to ,rousseau's    
contrast between the ideal and the      
actual2 for in its attitude towards     
woman as in other respects the  ,middle 
,ages tended to be extreme4 ,woman is   
either depressed below the  human level 
as the favorite instrument of the devil 
in man's temptation  7mulier hominis    
confusio71 or else exalted above this   
level as the  mother of ,god4 ,the      
figure of ,mary blends sense and spirit 
in a way that  is foreign to ,plato and 
the ancients4 ,as ,heine says very      
profanely1  the ,virgin was a sort of   
heavenly dame du comptoir whose         
celestial  smile drew the northern      
barbarians into the ,church4 ,sense was 
thus  pressed into the service of spirit
 at the risk of a perilous confusion4   
,the chivalric cult of the lady has     
obvious points of contact with the      

worship of the ,madonna4 ,the knight who
 is raised from one height of           
perfection to another by the light of   
his lady's eyes is also pressing  sense 
into the service of spirit with the same
 risk that the process  may be reversed4
 ,the reversal actually takes place in  
,rousseau and his  followers3 spirit is 
pressed into the service of sense in    
such wise as  to give to sense a sort of
 infinitude4 ,baudelaire pays his homage
 to a  ,parisian grisette in the form of
 a ,latin canticle to the ,virgin4#adf  
,the perversion of medival love is      
equally though not quite so  obviously  
present in many other ,rousseauists4    
,i have said that the ,middle ,ages     
inclined to the extreme2 medival        
writers are1 however1 fond of insisting 
on 8measure02 and this  is almost       
inevitable in view of the large amount  
of classical1  especially ,aristotelian1
 survival throughout this period4 ,but  
the two  distinctively medival types1   
the saint and the knight1 are neither   

of them mediators4 ,they stand1 however1
 on an entirely different  footing as   
regards the law of measure4 ,not even   
,aristotle himself would  maintain that 
the law of measure applies to           
saintliness1 and in general  to the     
religious realm4 ,the saint in so far as
 he is saintly has  undergone           
conversion1 has in the literal sense of 
the word faced around  and is looking in
 an entirely different direction from   
that to which  the warnings 8nothing too
 much0 and 8think as a mortal0 apply4   
,very  different psychic elements may   
indeed appear in any particular saint4  
,a  book has been published recently on 
the 8,romanticism of ,st4 ,francis40    
,the truth seems to be that though ,st4 
,francis had his romantic side1  he was 
even more religious than romantic4 ,one 
may affirm with some  confidence of     
another medival figure1 ,peter the      
,hermit1 that he was1  on the other     
hand1 much more romantic than religious4
 ,for all the  information we have tends

 to show that he was a very restless    
person  and a man's restlessness is     
ordinarily in inverse ratio to his      
religion4    ,if the saint transcends in
 a way the law of measure1 the knight on
  the other hand should be subject to   
it4 ,for courage and the love of        
woman--his main interests in            
life--belong not to the religious but   
to the secular realm4 ,but in his       
conception of love and courage the      
knight was plainly not a mediator but an
 extremist3 he was haunted  by the idea 
of adventure1 of a love and courage that
 transcend the  bounds not merely of the
 probable but of the possible4 ,his     
imagination  is romantic in the sense ,i
 have tried to define--it is straining1 
that is1 beyond the confines of the     
real4 ,ruskin's violent diatribe        
against ,cervantes#adg for having killed
 8idealism0 by his ridicule  of these   
knightly exaggerations1 is in itself    
absurd1 but interesting  as evidence of 
the quality of ,ruskin's own            

imagination4 ,like other  romanticists  
,i have cited1 he seems to have been not
 unaware of his own  kinship to ,don    
,quixote4 ,the very truth about either  
the medival or  modern forms of romantic
 love--love which is on the secular     
level and  at the same time sets itself 
above the law of measure--was uttered by
  ,dr4 ,johnson in his comment on the   
heroic plays of ,dryden3 8,by admitting 
the romantic omnipotence of love he has 
recommended as laudable and  worthy of  
imitation that conduct which through all
 ages the good have  censured as vicious
 and the bad have despised as foolish40 
,the man of the ,middle ,ages1 however  
extravagant in his imaginings1  was     
often no doubt terrestrial enough in his
 practice4 ,the troubadour  who         
addressed his high-flown fancies to some
 fair chtelaine 7usually  a married     
woman7 often had relations in real life 
not unlike those  of ,rousseau with     
,thrse ,levasseur4 ,some such contrast  
indeed between  the 8ideal0 and the     

8real0 existed in the life of one of    
,rousseau's  favorite poets1 ,petrarch4 
,the lover may1 however1 run together   
the  ideal and the real4 ,he may glorify
 some comparatively commonplace  person1
 crown as queen of his heart some       
,dulcinea del ,toboso4 ,hazlitt  employs
 appropriately in describing his own    
passion for the vulgar  daughter of a   
,london boarding-house keeper the very  
words of ,cervantes3  8,he had courted a
 statue1 hunted the wind1 cried aloud to
 the desert40  ,hazlitt like other      
lovers of this type is in love not with 
a particular  person but with his own   
dream4 ,he is as one may say in love    
with love4  ,no subject indeed          
illustrates like this of love the       
nostalgia1 the  infinite indeterminate  
desire of the romantic imagination4     
,something of  this diffusive longing no
 doubt came into the world with         
,christianity4  ,there is a wide gap    
between the sentence of ,st4 ,augustine 
that ,shelley  has taken as epigraph for

 his 8,alastor0#adh and the spirit of   
the  great ,greek and ,roman classics4  
,yet such is the abiding vitality of    
,greek mythology that one finds in      
,greece perhaps the best symbol of  the 
romantic lover4 ,rousseau could not fail
 to be attracted by the  story of       
,pygmalion and ,galatea4 ,his lyrical   
8monodrama0 in poetical  prose1         
8,pygmalion10 is important not only for 
its literary but for its  musical       
influence4 ,the ,germans in particular  
7including the youthful  ,goethe7 were  
fascinated4 ,to the mature ,goethe      
,rousseau's account of the  sculptor who
 became enamored of his own creation and
 breathed into it  actual life by the   
sheer intensity of his desire seemed a  
delirious  confusion of the planes of   
being1 an attempt to drag ideal beauty  
down  to the level of sensuous          
realization4 ,but a passion thus        
conceived  exactly satisfies the        
romantic requirement4 ,for though the   
romanticist  wishes to abandon himself  

to the rapture of love1 he does not wish
 to  transcend his own ego4 ,the object 
with which ,pygmalion is in love is     
after all only a projection of his own  
8genius40 ,but such an object is  not in
 any proper sense an object at all4     
,there is in fact no object in  the     
romantic universe--only subject4 ,this  
subjective love amounts in  practice to 
a use of the imagination to enhance     
emotional intoxication1  or if one      
prefers1 to the pursuit of illusion for 
its own sake4    ,this lack of definite 
object appears just as clearly in the   
,german  symbol of romantic love--the   
blue flower4 ,the blue flower resolves  
itself at last1 it will be remembered1  
into a fair feminine  face#adi--;a face 
that cannot1 however1 be overtaken4 ,the
 color  typifies the blue distance in   
which it always loses itself1 8the      
never-ending quest after the            
ever-fleeting object of desire40 ,the   
object is thus elusive because1 as ,i   
have said1 it is not1 properly          

speaking1 an object at all but only a   
dalliance of the imagination  with its  
own dream4 ,cats1 says ,rivarol1 do not 
caress us1 they caress  themselves upon 
us4 ,but though cats may suffer from    
what the new  realist calls the         
egocentric predicament1 they can        
scarcely vie in the  subtle involutions 
of their egoism with the romantic lover4
 ,besides  creating the symbol of the   
blue flower1 ,novalis treats romantic   
love  in his unfinished tale 8,the      
,disciples at ,sas40 ,he contemplated   
two  endings to this tale--in the one1  
when the disciple lifts the veil  of the
 inmost sanctuary of the temple at ,sas1
 ,rosenbltchen 7the  equivalent of the  
blue flower7 falls into his arms4 ,in   
the second  version what he sees when he
 lifts the mysterious veil is--8wonder  
of  wonders--himself40 ,the two endings 
are in substance the same4    ,the story
 of ,novalis's attachment for a         
fourteen-year-old girl1 ,sophie  von    
,khn1 and of his plans on her death for 

a truly romantic suicide--a  swooning   
away into the night--and then of the    
suddenness with which  he transferred   
his dream to another maiden1 ,julie von 
,charpentier1  is familiar4 ,if ,sophie 
had lived and ,novalis had lived and    
they had  wedded1 he might conceivably  
have made her a faithful husband1 but   
she  would no longer have been the blue 
flower1 the ideal4 ,for one's love  is  
for something infinitely remote2 it is  
as ,shelley says1 in what is  perhaps   
the most perfect expression of romantic 
longing3        ,the desire of the moth 
for the star1        ,of the night for  
the morrow1      ,the devotion to       
something afar        ,from the sphere  
of our sorrow4    ,the sphere of        
,shelley's sorrow at the time he wrote  
these lines to ,mrs4  ,williams was     
,mary ,godwin4 ,in the time of ,harriet 
,westbrook1 ,mary had  been the 8star40 
,the romantic lover often feigns in     
explanation of his nostalgia  that in   
some previous existence he had been     

enamored of a nymph--an  ,egeria--or a  
woman transcending the ordinary         
mould--8some ,lilith or  ,helen or      
,antigone40#aej ,shelley inquires       
eagerly in one of his letters  about the
 new poem by ,horace ,smith1 8,the      
,nympholept40 ,in the somewhat          
unclassical sense that the term came to 
have in the romantic movement1  ,shelley
 is himself the perfect example of the  
nympholept4 ,in this  respect as in     
others1 however1 he merely continues    
,rousseau4 8,if it had  not been for    
some memories of my youth and ,madame   
d',houdetot10 says  ,jean-,jacques1 8the
 loves that ,i have felt and described  
would have been  only with              
sylphids40#aea    ,chateaubriand speaks 
with aristocratic disdain of ,rousseau's
 ,venetian  amours1 but on the 8ideal0  
side he is not only his follower but    
perhaps  the supreme ,french example of 
nympholepsy4 ,he describes his lady of  
dreams sometimes like ,rousseau as the  
8sylphid10 sometimes as his  8phantom of

 love40 ,he had been haunted by this    
phantom almost from his  childhood4     
8,even then ,i glimpsed that to love and
 be loved in a way  that was unknown to 
me was destined to be my supreme        
felicity4 ''' ,as a  result of the ardor
 of my imagination1 my timidity and     
solitude1 ,i did  not turn to the outer 
world1 but was thrown back upon myself4 
,in the  absence of a real object1 ,i   
evoked by the power of my vague desires 
a  phantom that was never to leave me40 
,to those who remember the closely      
parallel passages in ,rousseau1         
,chateaubriand will seem to exaggerate  
the privilege of the original genius to 
look on himself as unique when  he adds3
 8,i do not know whether the history of 
the human heart offers  another example 
of this nature40#aeb ,the pursuit of    
this phantom of  love gives the secret  
key to ,chateaubriand's life4 ,he takes 
refuge in  the ,american wilderness in  
order that he may have in this primitive
  ,arcadia a more spacious setting for  

his dream4#aec    ,if one wishes to see 
how very similar these nympholeptic     
experiences  are not only from          
individual to individual1 but from      
country to  country1 one has only to    
compare the passages ,i have just been  
quoting  from ,chateaubriand with       
,shelley's 8,epipsychidion40 ,shelley   
writes of  his own youth3        ,there 
was a ,being whom my spirit oft         
,met on its visioned wanderings1 far    
aloft1      ,in the clear golden prime  
of my youth's dawn1      ,upon the fairy
 isles of sunny lawn1      ,amid the    
enchanted mountains1 and the caves      
,of divine sleep1 and on the air-like   
waves      ,of wonder-level dream1 whose
 tremulous floor      ,paved her light  
steps2 on an imagined shore1      ,under
 the gray beak of some promontory       
,she met me1 robed in such exceeding    
glory1      ,that ,i beheld her not1    
etc4    ,at the time of writing         
8,epipsychidion0 the magic vision       
happened to  have coalesced for the     

moment with ,emilia ,viviani1 though    
destined soon  to flit elsewhere4       
,shelley invites his 8soul's sister10   
the idyllic  8she10 who is at bottom    
only a projection of his own            
imagination1 to  set sail with him for  
,arcady4 8,epipsychidion10 indeed1 might
 be used as  a manual to illustrate the 
difference between mere ,arcadian       
dreaming  and a true ,platonism4        
,chateaubriand is ordinarily and rightly
 compared with ,byron rather  than with 
,shelley4 ,he is plainly1 however1 far  
more of a nympholept  than ,byron4 ,mr4 
,hilary1 indeed1 in ,peacock's          
8,nightmare ,abbey0 says  to ,mr4       
,cypress 7,byron73 8,you talk like a    
,rosicrucian1 who will love  nothing but
 a sylph1 who does not believe in the   
existence of a sylph1  and who yet      
quarrels with the whole universe for not
 containing a  sylph40#aed ,certain     
distinctions would have to be made if   
one were  attempting a complete study of
 love in ,byron2 yet after all the love 

of  ,don ,juan and ,haide is one that   
,sappho or ,catullus or ,burns would    
have  understood2 and these poets were  
not nympholepts4 ,they were capable  of 
burning with love1 but not1 as ,rousseau
 says of himself1 8without  any definite
 object40#aee ,where ,chateaubriand has 
some resemblance  to ,byron is in his   
actual libertinism4 ,he is however      
nearer than  ,byron to the libertine of 
the eighteenth century--to the ,lovelace
 who  pushes the pursuit of pleasure to 
its final exasperation where it  becomes
 associated with the infliction of pain4
 ,few things are stranger  than the     
blend in ,chateaubriand of this ,sadic  
fury#aef with the new  romantic revery4 
,indeed almost every type of egotism    
that may manifest  itself in the        
relations of the sexes and that pushed  
to the superlative  pitch1 will be found
 in this theoretical classicist and     
champion of  ,christianity4 ,perhaps no 
more frenzied cry has ever issued from  
human  lips than that uttered by        

,atala#aeg in describing her emotions   
when  torn between her religious vow and
 her love for ,chactas3 8,what dream    
did not arise in this heart overwhelmed 
with sorrow4 ,at times in fixing  my    
eyes upon you1 ,i went so far as to form
 desires as insensate as  they were     
guilty2 at one moment ,i seemed to wish 
that you and ,i were  the only living   
creatures upon the earth2 and then      
again1 feeling a  divinity that held me 
back in my horrible transports1 ,i      
seemed to want  this divinity to be     
annihilated provided that clasped in    
your arms ,i  should roll from abyss to 
abyss with the ruins of ,god and the    
world40  ,longing is here pushed to a   
pitch where it passes over1 as in       
,wagner's  8,tristan and ,isolde10 into 
the desire for annihilation4    ,actual 
libertinism is no necessary concomitant 
of nympholeptic longing4  ,there is a   
striking difference in this respect     
between ,poe1 for  example1 and his     
translator and disciple1 ,baudelaire4   

,nothing could be  less suggestive of   
voluptuousness than ,poe's nostalgia4   
8,his ecstasy10  says ,stedman1 8is that
 of the nympholept seeking an evasive   
being of  whom he has glimpses by       
moonlight1 starlight1 even fenlight1 but
 never  by noonday40 ,the embodiments of
 his dream that flit through his tales  
and poems1 enhanced his popularity with 
the ultra-romantic public in  ,france4  
,these strange apparitions nearly all of
 whom are epileptic1  cataleptic1 or    
consumptive made a natural appeal to a  
school that was  known among its        
detractors as l'cole poitrinaire4       
8,tender souls10  says ,gautier1 8were  
specially touched by ,poe's feminine    
figures1 so  vaporous1 so transparent   
and of an almost spectral beauty40      
,perhaps  the nympholepsy of ,grard de  
,nerval is almost equally vaporous and  
ethereal4 ,he pursued through various   
earthly forms the queen of ,sheba  whom 
he had loved in a previous existence and
 hanged himself at last  with what he   

believed to be her garter3 an           
interesting example of the  relation    
between the extreme forms of the        
romantic imagination and  madness4#aeh  
,the pursuit of a phantom of love       
through various earthly forms led  in   
the course of the romantic movement to  
certain modifications  in a famous      
legend--that of ,don ,juan4 ,what is    
emphasized in the  older ,don ,juan is  
not merely his libertinism but his      
impiety--the  gratification of his      
appetite in deliberate defiance of ,god4
 ,he is  animated by ,satanic pride1 by 
the lust of power as well as by the lust
  of sensation4 ,in ,molire's treatment 
of the legend we can also see  the      
beginnings of the philanthropic         
pose4#aei ,with the progress of         
,rousseauism ,don ,juan tends to become 
an 8idealist10 to seek to satisfy  in   
his amorous adventures not merely his   
senses but his 8soul0 and his  thirst   
for the 8infinite40#afj ,along with this
 idealistic ,don ,juan we  also see     

appearing at a very early stage in the  
movement the exotic  ,don ,juan who     
wishes to have a great deal of          
strangeness added to his  beauty4 ,in   
his affair with the 8,floridiennes10    
,chateaubriand shows the  way to a long 
series of exotic lovers4        ,i said 
to my heart between sleeping and waking1
      ,thou wild thing that always art  
leaping or aching1      ,what black1    
brown or fair1 in what clime1 in what   
nation1      ,by turns has not taught   
thee a pit-a-pat-ation8    ,these lines 
are so plainly meant for ,pierre ,loti  
that one learns  with surprise that they
 were written about #agbd by the ,earl  
of  ,peterborough4#afa    ,byron's ,don 
,juan is at times exotic in his tastes1 
but1 as ,i have  said1 he is not on the 
whole very nympholeptic--much less so   
than the  ,don ,juan of ,alfred de      
,musset1 for example4 ,musset indeed    
suggests in  many respects a less       
masculine ,byron--,mademoiselle ,byron  
as he has  been called4 ,in one whole   

side of his art as well as his treatment
  of love he simply continues like      
,byron the eighteenth century4 ,but  far
 more than ,byron he aspires to ideal   
and absolute passion2 so that  the      
,musset of the 8,nuits0 is rightly      
regarded as one of the supreme          
embodiments1 and at the same time the   
chief martyr1 of the romantic  religion 
of love4 ,the outcome of his affair with
 ,george ,sand may  symbolize fitly the 
wrecking of thousands of more obscure   
lives by this  mortal chimera4 ,musset  
and ,george ,sand sought to come        
together1 yet  what they each sought in 
love is what the original genius seeks  
in all  things--self-expression4 ,what  
,musset saw in ,george ,sand was not the
  real woman but only his own dream4    
,but ,george ,sand was not content thus 
to reflect back passively to ,musset his
 ideal4 ,she was rather a ,galatea      
whose ambition it was to create her own 
,pygmalion4 8,your chimera is  between  
us10 ,musset exclaims2 but his chimera  

was between them too4  ,the more ,titan 
and ,titaness try to meet1 the more each
 is driven back  into the solitude of   
his own ego4 ,they were in love with    
love rather  than with one another3 and 
to be thus in love with love means on   
the  last analysis to be in love with   
one's own emotions4 8,to love10 says    
,musset1 8is the great point4 ,what     
matters the mistress8 ,what matters  the
 flagon provided one have the           
intoxication80#afb ,he then proceeds  to
 carry a love of this quality up into   
the presence of ,god and to  present it 
to him as his justification for having  
lived4 ,the art of  speaking in tones of
 religious consecration of what is in   
its essence  egoistic has never been    
carried further than by the             
,rousseauistic  romanticist4 ,god is    
always appearing at the most unexpected 
moments4#afc ,the highest of which man  
is capable apparently is to put  an     
uncurbed imagination into the service of
 an emancipated temperament4  ,the credo

 that ,perdican recites at the end of   
the second act of 8,on ne  badine pas   
avec l',amour0#afd throws light on this 
point4 ,men and women  according to this
 credo are filled with every manner of  
vileness1 yet  there is something       
8sacred and sublime10 and that is the   
union of two  of these despicable       
beings4    ,the confusion of ethical    
values here is so palpable as scarcely  
to call  for comment4 ,it is precisely  
when men and women set out to love with 
this degree of imaginative and emotional
 unrestraint that they come  to deserve 
all the opprobrious epithets ,musset    
heaps upon them4 ,this  radiant         
apotheosis of love and the quagmire in  
which it actually lands  one is1 as ,i  
have said1 the whole subject of 8,madame
 ,bovary40 ,i shall  need to return to  
this particular disproportion between   
the ideal and  the real when ,i take up 
the subject of romantic melancholy4     
,the romantic lover who identifies the  
ideal with the superlative thrill  is   

turning the ideal into something very   
transitory4 ,if the summum  bonum is as 
,browning avers the 8kiss of one girl10 
the summum bonum  is lost almost as soon
 as found4 ,the beautiful moment may    
however be  prolonged in revery4 ,the   
romanticist may brood over it in the    
tower of  ivory1 and when thus enriched 
by being steeped in his temperament it  
may become more truly his own than it   
was in reality4 8,objects make  less    
impression upon me than my memory of    
them10 says ,rousseau4 ,he is  indeed   
the great master of what has been termed
 the art of impassioned  recollection4  
,this art is far from being confined in 
its application  to love1 though it may 
perhaps be studied here to the best     
advantage4  ,rousseau1 one should note1 
had very little intellectual memory1 but
  an extraordinarily keen memory of     
images and sensations4 ,he could  not1  
as he tells us in the 8,confessions10   
learn anything by heart1  but he could  
recall with perfect distinctness what he

 had eaten for  breakfast about thirty  
years before4 ,in general he recalls his
 past  feelings with a clearness and    
detail that are perhaps more feminine   
than masculine4 8,he seems10 says       
,hazlitt1 one of his chief disciples  in
 the art of impassioned recollection1   
8to gather up the past moments  of his  
being like drops of honey-dew to distil 
a precious liquor from  them2 his       
alternate pleasures and pains are the   
bead-roll that he tells  over and       
piously worships2 he makes a rosary of  
the flowers of hope  and fancy that     
strewed his earliest years40#afe ,this  
highly developed  emotional memory is   
closely associated with the special     
quality of the  romantic                
imagination--its cult of ,arcadian      
illusion and the wistful  backward      
glance to the vanished paradise of      
childhood and youth when  illusion was  
most spontaneous4 8,let me still recall 
these memories10  says ,hazlitt1 8that  
they may breathe fresh life into me1 and

 that ,i  may live that birthday of     
thought and romantic pleasure over      
again6  ,talk of the ideal6 ,this is the
 only true ideal--the heavenly tints  of
 ,fancy reflected in the bubbles that   
float upon the spring-tide of  human    
life40#aff ,hazlitt converts criticism  
itself into an art of  impassioned      
recollection4 ,he loves to linger over  
the beautiful moments  of his own       
literary life4 ,the passing years have  
increased the richness  of their        
temperamental refraction and bestowed   
upon them the 8pathos of  distance40 ,a 
good example is his account of the two  
years of his youth  he spent in reading 
the 8,confessions0 and the 8,nouvelle   
,hlose10 and  in shedding tears over    
them4 8,they were the happiest years of 
our life4  ,we may well say of them1    
sweet is the dew of their memory and    
pleasant  the balm of their             
recollection40#afg    ,rousseau's own   
,arcadian memories are usually not of   
reading1 like  ,hazlitt's1 but of actual

 incidents1 though he does not hesitate 
to  alter these incidents freely1 as in 
his account of his stay at ,les         
,charmettes1 and to accommodate them to 
his dream4 ,he neglected the real       
,madame de ,warens at the very time that
 he cherished his recollection of  her  
because this recollection was the       
idealized image of his own youth4  ,the 
yearning that he expresses at the       
beginning of his fragmentary  ,tenth    
,promenade1 written only a few weeks    
before his death1 is for this  idyllic  
period rather than for an actual        
woman4#afh ,a happy memory1  says       
,musset1 repeating ,rousseau1 is perhaps
 more genuine than happiness  itself4   
,possibly the three best known love     
poems of ,lamartine1 ,musset1  and ,hugo
 respectively--8,le ,lac10 8,souvenir10 
and 8,la ,tristesse  d',olympio10 all   
hinge upon impassioned recollection and 
derive very  directly from ,rousseau4   
,lamartine in particular has caught in  
the 8,le  ,lac0 the very cadence of     

,rousseau's reveries4#afi               
,impassioned recollection may evidently 
be an abundant source of genuine        
poetry1 though not1 it must be insisted1
 of the highest poetry4 ,the            
predominant rle that it plays in        
,rousseau and many of his followers  is 
simply a sign of an unduly dalliant     
imagination4 ,experience after  all has 
other uses than to supply furnishings   
for the tower of ivory2  it should      
control the judgment and guide the will2
 it is in short the  necessary basis of 
conduct4 ,the greater a man's moral     
seriousness1  the more he will be       
concerned with doing rather than        
dreaming 7and  ,i include right         
meditation among the forms of doing74   
,he will also  demand an art and        
literature that reflect this his main   
preoccupation4  ,between ,wordsworth's  
definition of poetry as 8emotion        
recollected in  tranquillity10 and      
,aristotle's definition of poetry as the
 imitation  of human action according to

 probability or necessity1 a wide gap   
plainly opens4 ,one may prefer          
,aristotle's definition to that of      
,wordsworth and yet do justice to the   
merits of ,wordsworth's actual  poetical
 performance4 ,nevertheless the tendency
 to put prime emphasis  on feeling      
instead of action shown in the          
definition is closely related  to       
,wordsworth's failure not only in       
dramatic but in epic poetry1 in all     
poetry in short that depends for its    
success on an element of plot and       
sustained narrative4    ,a curious      
extension of the art of impassioned     
recollection should  receive at least   
passing mention4 ,it has been so        
extended as to lead  to what one may    
term an unethical use of literature and 
history4 ,what  men have done in the    
past and the consequences of this doing 
should  surely serve to throw some light
 on what men should do under similar    
circumstances in the present4 ,but the  
man who turns his own personal          

experience into mere dalliance may very 
well assume a like dalliant  attitude   
towards the larger experience of the    
race4 ,this experience  may merely      
provide him with pretexts for revery4   
,this narcotic use of  literature and   
history1 this art of creating for one's 
self an alibi as  ,taine calls it1 is   
nearly as old as the romantic movement4 
,the record  of the past becomes a      
gorgeous pageant that lures one to      
endless  imaginative exploration and    
lulls one to oblivion of everything     
except  its variety and picturesqueness4
 ,it becomes everything in fact except a
  school of judgment4 ,one may note in  
connection with this use of history  the
 usual interplay between scientific and 
emotional naturalism4  ,both forms of   
naturalism tend to turn man into the    
mere product and  plaything of physical 
forces--climate1 heredity1 and the like1
 over  which his will has no control4   
,since literature and history have no   
meaning from the point of view of moral 

choice they may at least be  made to    
yield the maximum of sthetic            
satisfaction4 ,oscar ,wilde argues  in  
this wise for example in his dialogue   
8,the ,critic as ,artist10 and          
concludes that since man has no moral   
freedom or responsibility1 and  cannot  
therefore be guided in his conduct by   
the past experience of the  race1 he may
 at least turn this experience into an  
incomparable 8bower  of dreams40 8,the  
pain of ,leopardi crying out against    
life becomes  our pain4 ,theocritus     
blows on his pipe and we laugh with the 
lips of  nymph and shepherd4 ,in the    
wolf-skin of ,pierre ,vidal we flee     
before  the hounds1 and in the armor of 
,lancelot we ride from the bower of the 
queen4 ,we have whispered the secret of 
our love beneath the cowl of  ,abelard1 
and in the stained raiment of ,villon   
have put our shame into  song10 etc4    
,the assumption that runs through this  
passage that the mere sthetic           
contemplation of past experience gives  

the equivalent of actual  experience is 
found in writers of far higher standing 
than ,wilde--in  ,renan1 for instance4  
,the sthete would look on his dream as a
  substitute for the actual1 and at the 
same time convert the actual  into a    
dream4 7,die ,welt wird ,traum1 der     
,traum wird ,welt47 ,it is  not easy to 
take such a programme of universal      
dreaming seriously4  ,in the long run   
the dreamer himself does not find it    
easy to take it  seriously4 ,for his    
attempts to live his chimera result1 as 
we have  seen in the case of romantic   
love1 in more or less disastrous defeat 
and disillusion4 ,the disillusioned     
romanticist continues to cling to  his  
dream1 but intellectually1 at least1 he 
often comes at the same  time to stand  
aloof from it4 ,this subject of         
disillusion may best be  considered1    
along with certain other important      
aspects of the movement1  in connection 
with the singular phenomenon known as   
romantic irony4          ,,chapter ,,vii

    ,,romantic ,,irony      ,the first  
romanticist who worked out a theory of  
irony was ,friedrich  ,schlegel4#agj    
,the attempt to put this theory into    
practice1 after  the fashion of ,tieck's
 plays1 seemed and seemed rightly even  
to later  representatives of the        
movement to be extravagant4 ,thus       
,hegel1 who  in his ideas on art        
continues in so many respects the       
,schlegels1  repudiates irony4          
,formerly1 says ,heine1 who is himself  
in any larger  survey1 the chief of     
,german romantic ironists1 when a man   
had said a  stupid thing he had said it2
 now he can explain it away as 8irony40 
,nevertheless one cannot afford to      
neglect this early ,german theory4  ,it 
derives in an interesting way from the  
views that the partisans  of original   
genius had put forth regarding the rle  
of the creative  imagination4 ,the      
imagination as we have seen is to be    
free to wander  wild in its own empire  
of chimeras4 ,rousseau showed the       

possibilities  of an imagination that is
 at once extraordinarily rich and also  
perfectly free in this sense4 ,i have   
said that ,kant believed like the       
original genius that the nobility of art
 depends on the free 8play0  of the     
imagination2 though he adds that art    
should at the same time  submit to a    
purpose that is not a purpose--whatever 
that may mean4  ,schiller in his        
8sthetic ,letters0 relaxed the          
rationalistic rigor of  ,kant in favor  
of feeling and associated even more     
emphatically the  ideality and          
creativeness of art with its free       
imaginative play1  its emancipation from
 specific aim4 ,the personal friction   
that arose  between the ,schlegels and  
,schiller has perhaps obscured somewhat 
their  general indebtedness to him4 ,the
 ,schlegelian irony in particular merely
  pushes to an extreme the doctrine that
 nothing must interfere with  the       
imagination in its creative play4 8,the 
caprice of the poet10 as  ,friedrich    

,schlegel says1 8suffers no law above   
itself40 ,why indeed  should the poet   
allow any restriction to be placed upon 
his caprice in  a universe that is after
 all only a projection of himself8 ,the 
play  theory of art is here supplemented
 by the philosophy of ,fichte4#aga  ,in 
justice to him it should be said that   
though his philosophy may  not rise     
above the level of temperament1 he at   
least had a severe and  stoical         
temperament1 and if only for this reason
 his 8transcendental  ego0 is far less  
obviously ego than that which appears in
 the irony  of his romantic followers4  
,when a man has taken possession of his 
transcendental ego1 according to the    
,schlegels and ,novalis1 he looks  down 
on his ordinary ego and stands aloof    
from it4 ,his ordinary ego may  achieve 
poetry but his transcendental ego must  
achieve the poetry of  poetry4 ,but     
there is in him something that may stand
 aloof even from  this aloofness and so 
on indefinitely4 ,romantic irony joins  

here with  what is perhaps the chief    
preoccupation of the ,german            
romanticists1 the  idea of the infinite 
or1 as they term it1 the striving for   
endlessness  7,unendlichkeitstreben74   
,now1 according to the romanticist1 a   
man  can show that he lays hold         
imaginatively upon the infinite only by 
expanding beyond what his age holds to  
be normal and central--its  conventions 
in short2 nay more1 he must expand away 
from any centre he  has himself         
achieved4 ,for to hold fast to a centre 
of any kind implies  the acceptance of  
limitations and to accept limitations is
 to be  finite1 and to be finite is1 as 
,blake says1 to become mechanical2 and  
the whole of romanticism is a protest   
against the mechanizing of life4  ,no   
man therefore deserves to rank as a     
transcendental egotist unless  he has   
learned to mock not merely at the       
convictions of others but at  his own1  
unless he has become capable of         
self-parody4 8,objection10 says         

,nietzsche1 8evasion1 joyous distrust1  
and love of irony are signs of  health2 
everything absolute belongs to          
pathology40#agb    ,one cannot repeat   
too often that what the romanticist     
always sees at  the centre is either the
 mere rationalist or else the           
philistine2 and  he therefore inclines  
to measure his own distinction by his   
remoteness  from any possible centre4   
,now thus to be always moving away from 
centrality is to be paradoxical1 and    
romantic irony is1 as ,friedrich        
,schlegel says1 identical with paradox4 
,irony1 paradox and the idea of  the    
infinite have as a matter of fact so    
many points of contact in  romanticism  
that they may profitably be treated     
together4    ,friedrich ,schlegel sought
 illustrious sponsors in the past for   
his  theory of irony4 ,among others he  
invoked the ,greeks and put himself in  
particular under the patronage of       
,socrates4 ,but ,greek irony always had 
a centre4 ,the ironical contrast is     

between this centre and something  that 
is less central4 ,take for example the  
so-called irony of ,greek  tragedy4 ,the
 tragic character speaks and acts in    
darkness as to  his impending doom1     
regarding which the spectator is        
comparatively  enlightened4 ,to take    
another example1 the ,german            
romanticists  were especially absurd in 
their attempts to set up ,tieck as a new
  ,aristophanes4 ,for ,aristophanes1    
however wild and irresponsible he may   
seem in the play of his imagination1    
never quite loses sight of his  centre1 
a centre from which the comic spirit    
proceeds and to which it  returns4      
,above all1 however far he may push his 
mockery1 he never mocks  at his own     
convictions2 he never1 like ,tieck1     
indulges in self-parody4  ,a glance at  
the parabasis of almost any one of his  
plays will suffice  to show that he was 
willing to lay himself open to the      
charge of  being unduly didactic rather 
than to the charge of being aimless4    

,the  universe of ,tieck1 on the other  
hand1 is a truly romantic universe3 it  
has no centre1 or what amounts to the   
same thing1 it has at its centre  that  
symbol of spiritual stagnation1 the     
philistine1 and his inability  to rise  
above a dull didacticism4 ,the          
romanticist cherishes the  illusion that
 to be a spiritual vagrant is to be     
exalted on a pinnacle  above the plain  
citizen4 ,according to ,professor       
,stuart ,p4 ,sherman1 the  ,irish       
dramatist ,synge indulges in gypsy      
laughter from the bushes1#agc  a good   
description of romantic irony in        
general4    ,the irony of ,socrates1 to 
take the most important example of      
,greek  irony1 is not of the centrifugal
 character4 ,socrates professes         
ignorance1 and this profession seems    
very ironical1 for it turns out  that   
his ignorance is more enlightened1 that 
is1 more central than  other men's      
swelling conceit of knowledge4 ,it does 
not follow that  ,socrates is insincere 

in his profession of ignorance2 for     
though his  knowledge may be as light in
 comparison with that of the ordinary   
,athenian1 he sees that in comparison   
with true and perfect knowledge it  is  
only darkness4 ,for ,socrates was no    
mere rationalist2 he was a man of       
insight1 one would even be tempted to   
say a mystic were it not for the        
corruption of the term mystic by the    
romanticists4 ,this being the case  he  
saw that man is by his very nature      
precluded from true and perfect         
knowledge4 ,a path1 however1 opens up   
before him towards this knowledge1  and 
this path he should seek to follow even 
though it is in a sense  endless1 even  
though beyond any centre he can attain  
within the bounds  of his finite        
experience there is destined always to  
be something still  more central4       
,towards the mere dogmatist1 the man who
 thinks he has  achieved some fixed and 
final centre1 the attitude of ,socrates 
is that  of scepticism4 ,this attitude  

implies a certain degree of detachment  
from the received beliefs and           
conventions of his time1 and it is  all 
the more important to distinguish here  
between ,socrates and the  romanticists 
because of the superficial likeness2 and
 also because  there is between the     
,rousseauists and some of the ,greeks   
who lived  about the time of ,socrates a
 real likeness4 ,promethean             
individualism  was already rife at that 
time1 and on the negative side it       
resulted  then as since in a break with 
tradition1 and on the positive side in  
an  oscillation between the cult of     
force and the exaltation of sympathy1   
between admiration for the strong man   
and compassion for the weak4 ,it  is    
hardly possible to overlook these       
,promethean elements in the plays  of   
,euripides4 ,antisthenes and the cynics1
 again1 who professed to  derive from   
,socrates1 established an opposition    
between 8nature0 and  convention even   
more radical in some respects than that 

established  by ,rousseau4 ,moreover    
,socrates himself was perhaps needlessly
  unconventional and also unduly        
inclined to paradox--as when he         
suggested to the jury who tried him that
 as an appropriate punishment  he should
 be supported at the public expense in  
the prytaneum4 ,yet in  his inner spirit
 and in spite of certain minor          
eccentricities1 ,socrates  was neither a
 superman nor a ,bohemian1 but a        
humanist4 ,now that the  critical spirit
 was abroad and the traditional basis   
for conduct was  failing1 he was chiefly
 concerned with putting conduct on a    
positive  and critical basis4 ,in       
establishing this basis his constant    
appeal is  to actual experience and the 
more homely this experience the more it 
seems to please him4 ,while working out 
the new basis for conduct he  continues 
to observe the existing laws and        
customs2 or if he gets away  from the   
traditional discipline it is towards a  
stricter discipline2  if he repudiates  

in aught the common sense of his day1 it
 is in  favor of a commoner sense4 ,one 
may say indeed that ,socrates and the   
,rousseauists 7who are in this respect  
like some of the sophists7 are  both    
moving away from convention but in      
opposite directions4 ,what the          
romanticist opposes to convention is his
 8genius10 that is his unique  and      
private self4 ,what ,socrates opposes to
 convention is his universal  and       
ethical self4 ,according to ,friedrich  
,schlegel1 a man can never be a         
philosopher but only become one2 if at  
any time he thinks that he is a         
philosopher he ceases to become one4    
,the romanticist is right in thus       
thinking that to remain fixed at any    
particular point is to stagnate4  ,man  
is1 as ,nietzsche says1 the being who   
must always surpass himself1  but he    
has--and this is a point that ,nietzsche
 did not sufficiently  consider--a      
choice of direction in his everlasting  
pilgrimage4 ,the  man who is moving away

 from some particular centre will always
 seem  paradoxical to the man who       
remains at it1 but he may be moving away
  from it in either the romantic or the 
ethical direction4 ,in the first  case  
he is moving from a more normal to a    
less normal experience1  in the second  
case he is moving towards an experience 
that is more  profoundly representative4
 ,the ,new ,testament abounds in        
examples of the  ethical paradox--what  
one may term the paradox of humility4   
7,a man must  lose his life to find it1 
etc47 ,it is possible1 however1 to push 
even  this type of paradox too far1 to  
push it to a point where it affronts    
not merely some particular convention   
but the good sense of mankind  itself1  
and this is a far graver matter4 ,pascal
 falls into this excess  when he says   
that sickness is the natural state of   
the ,christian4 ,as a  result of its    
supreme emphasis on humility            
,christianity from the start  inclined  
unduly perhaps towards this type of     

paradox4 ,it is hardly  worth while1 as 
,goethe said1 to live seventy years in  
this world if all  that one learn here  
below is only folly in the sight of     
,god4    ,one of the most delicate of   
tasks is to determine whether a paradox 
occupies a position more or less central
 than the convention to which  it is    
opposed4 ,a somewhat similar problem is 
to determine which of  two differing    
conventions has the greater degree of   
centrality4 ,for  one convention may as 
compared with another seem highly       
paradoxical4  ,in #ahgj1 it was         
announced at ,peking that his ,majesty  
the ,emperor had  had the good fortune  
to catch the small-pox4 ,the            
auspiciousness of  small-pox was part of
 the ,chinese convention at this time1  
but to  those of us who live under      
another convention it is a blessing we  
would  willingly forego4 ,but much in   
the ,chinese convention1 so far from    
being  absurd1 reflects the ,confucian  
good sense1 and if the ,chinese decide  

to  break with their convention1 they   
should evidently consider long and      
carefully in which direction they are   
going to move--whether towards          
something more central1 or something    
more eccentric4    ,as to the direction 
in which ,rousseau is moving and        
therefore as  to the quality of his     
paradoxes there can be little question4 
,his  paradoxes--and he is perhaps the  
most paradoxical of writers--reduce     
themselves on analysis to the notion    
that man has suffered a loss of         
goodness by being civilized1 by having  
had imposed on his unconscious  and     
instinctive self some humanistic or     
religious discipline--e4g41  8,the man  
who reflects is a depraved animal02     
8,true ,christians are meant  to be     
slaves02 decorum is only the 8varnish of
 vice0 or the 8mask of  hypocrisy40     
,innumerable paradoxes of this kind will
 immediately occur  to one as           
characteristic of ,rousseau and his     
followers4 ,these paradoxes  may be     

termed in opposition to those of        
humility1 the paradoxes of  spontaneity4
 ,the man who holds them is plainly     
moving in an opposite  direction not    
merely from the ,christian but from the 
,socratic  individualist4 ,he is moving 
from the more representative to the less
  representative and not towards some   
deeper centre of experience1  as would  
be the case if he were tending towards  
either humanism or  religion4           
,wordsworth has been widely accepted not
 merely as a poet but  as a religious   
teacher1 and it is therefore important  
to note that his  paradoxes are         
prevailingly of the ,rousseauistic type4
 ,his verse is  never more spontaneous  
or1 as he would say1 inevitable1 than   
when it  is celebrating the gospel of   
spontaneity4 ,i have already pointed out
  some of the paradoxes that he opposes 
to pseudo-classic decorum3 e4g41  his   
attempt to bestow poetical dignity and  
importance upon the ass1  and to make of
 it a model of moral excellence1 also to

 find poetry in  an idiot boy and to    
associate sublimity with a pedlar in    
defiance of  the ordinary character of  
pedlars4 ,in general ,wordsworth        
indulges in  ,rousseauistic paradoxes   
when he urges us to look to peasants for
 the  true language of poetry and would 
have us believe that man is taught  by  
8woods and rills0 and not by contact    
with his fellow men4 ,he pushes  this   
latter paradox to a point that would    
have made even ,rousseau  8stare and    
gasp0 when he asserts that        ,one  
impulse from a vernal wood      ,may    
teach you more of man      ,of moral    
evil and of good      ,than all the     
sages can4    ,another form of this same
 paradox that what comes from nature    
spontaneously is better than what can be
 acquired by conscious effort  is found 
in his poem 8,lucy ,gray03        ,no   
mate1 no comrade ,lucy knew2      ,she  
dwelt on a wide moor1      ,the sweetest
 thing that ever grew      ,beside a    
human door6    ,true maidenhood is made 

up of a thousand decorums2 but this     
,rousseauistic maiden would have seemed 
too artificial if she had been  reared  
in a house instead of 8growing0 out of  
doors2 she might in  that case have been
 a human being and not a 8thing0 and    
this would  plainly have detracted from 
her spontaneity4 ,wordsworth's paradoxes
  about children have a similar origin4 
,a child who at the age of six  is a    
8mighty prophet1 seer blest10 is a      
highly improbable not to say  impossible
 child4 ,the 8,nature0 again of         
8,heart-,leap ,well0 which both  feels  
and inspires pity is more remote from   
normal experience than the  ,nature 8red
 in tooth and claw0 of ,tennyson4       
,wordsworth indeed would  seem to have a
 penchant for paradox even when he is   
less obviously  inspired by his         
naturalistic thesis4    ,a study of     
,wordsworth's life shows that he became 
progressively  disillusioned regarding  
,rousseauistic spontaneity4 ,he became  
less  paradoxical as he grew older and  

in almost the same measure1 one is      
tempted to say1 less poetical4 ,he      
returns gradually to the traditional    
forms until radicals come to look upon  
him as the 8lost leader40 ,he  finds it 
hard1 however1 to wean his imagination  
from its primitivistic  ,arcadias2 so   
that what one finds1 in writing like the
 8,ecclesiastical  ,sonnets10 is not    
imaginative fire but at best a sober    
intellectual  conviction1 an opposition 
between the head and the heart in short 
that  suggests somewhat ,chateaubriand  
and the 8,genius of ,christianity40#agd 
,if ,wordsworth had lost faith in his   
revolutionary and naturalistic  ideal1  
and had at the same time refused to     
return to the traditional  forms1 one   
might then have seen in his work        
something of the homeless  hovering of  
the romantic ironist4 ,if1 on the other 
hand1 he had  worked away from the      
centre that the traditional forms give  
to life  towards a more positive and    
critical centre1 if1 in other words1  he

 had broken with the past not on        
,rousseauistic1 but on ,socratic  lines1
 he would have needed an imagination of 
different quality1 an  imagination less 
idyllic and pastoral and more ethical   
than that he  usually displays4#age ,for
 the ethical imagination alone can guide
 one  not indeed to any fixed centre but
 to an ever increasing centrality4  ,we 
are here confronted once more with the  
question of the infinite  which comes   
very close to the ultimate ground of    
difference between  classicist and      
romanticist4 ,the centre that one       
perceives with the  aid of the classical
 imagination and that sets bounds to    
impulse and  desire may1 as ,i have     
already said1 be defined in opposition  
to the  outer infinite of expansion as  
the inner or human infinite4 ,if we     
moderns1 to repeat ,nietzsche1 are      
unable to attain proportionateness  it  
is because 8our itching is really the   
itching for the infinite1  the          
immeasurable40 ,thus to associate the   

infinite only with the  immeasurable1 to
 fail to perceive that the element of   
form and the curb  it puts on the       
imagination are not external and        
artificial1 but come  from the very     
depths1 is to betray the fact that one  
is a barbarian4  ,nietzsche and many    
other romanticists are capable on       
occasion of  admiring the               
proportionateness that comes from       
allegiance to some  centre4 ,but after  
all the human spirit must be ever       
advancing1 and  its only motive powers1 
according to romantic logic1 are wonder 
and  curiosity2 and so from the         
perfectly sound premise that man is the 
being who must always surpass himself1  
,nietzsche draws the perfectly  unsound 
conclusion that the only way for man    
thus constantly to surpass  himself and 
so show his infinitude is to spurn all  
limits and 8live  dangerously40 ,the    
,greeks themselves1 according to ,renan1
 will some  day seem the 8apostles of   
ennui10 for the very perfection of their

  form shows a lack of aspiration4 ,to  
submit to form is to be static1  whereas
 8romantic poetry10 says ,friedrich     
,schlegel magnificently1 is  8universal 
progressive poetry40 ,now the only      
effective counterpoise to  the endless  
expansiveness that is implied in such a 
programme is the  inner or human        
infinite of concentration4 ,for it is   
perfectly true that  there is something 
in man that is not satisfied with the   
finite and  that1 if he becomes         
stationary1 he is at once haunted by the
 spectre  of ennui4 ,man may indeed be  
defined as the insatiable animal2 and   
the  more imaginative he is the more    
insatiable he is likely to become1 for  
it is the imagination that gives him    
access to the infinite in every  sense  
of the word4 ,in a way ,baudelaire is   
right when he describes  ennui as a     
8delicate monster0 that selects as his  
prey the most highly  gifted natures4   
,marguerite d',angoulme already speaks  
of the 8ennui  proper to well-born      

spirits40 ,now religion seeks no less   
than romance  an escape from ennui4     
,bossuet is at one with ,baudelaire when
 he  dilates on that 8inexorable ennui  
which is the very substance of human    
life40 ,but ,bossuet and ,baudelaire    
differ utterly in the remedies they     
propose for ennui4 ,baudelaire hopes to 
escape from ennui by dreaming  of the   
superlative emotional adventure1 by     
indulging in infinite1  indeterminate   
desire1 and becomes more and more       
restless in his quest  for a something  
that at the end always eludes him4 ,this
 infinite of  nostalgia has nothing in  
common with the infinite of religion4   
,no  distinction is more important than 
that between the man who feels the      
divine discontent of religion1 and the  
man who is suffering from  mere romantic
 restlessness4 ,according to religion   
man must seek the  satisfaction that the
 finite fails to give by looking not    
without but  within2 and to look within 
he must in the literal sense of the word

  undergo conversion4 ,a path will then 
be found to open up before him1 a  path 
of which he cannot see the end4 ,he     
merely knows that to advance  on this   
path is to increase in peace1 poise1    
centrality2 though beyond  any calm he  
can attain is always a deeper centre of 
calm4 ,the goal  is at an infinite      
remove4 ,this is the truth that ,st4    
,augustine puts  theologically when he  
exclaims3 8,for thou hast made us for   
thyself  and our heart is restless until
 it findeth peace in thee40#agf ,one    
should insist that this question of the 
two infinites is not abstract  and      
metaphysical but bears on what is most  
concrete and immediate  in experience4  
,if the inner and human infinite cannot 
be formulated  intellectually1 it can be
 known practically in its effect on life
 and  conduct4 ,goethe says of ,werther 
that he 8treated his heart like a sick  
child2 its every wish was granted it40  
8,my restless heart asked me  for       
something else10 says ,rousseau4 8,ren10

 says ,chateaubriand1 8was  enchanted1  
tormented and1 as it were1 possessed by 
the demon of his  heart40 ,mr4          
,galsworthy speaks in a similar vein of 
8the aching for the  wild1 the          
passionate1 the new1 that never quite   
dies in a man's heart40  ,but is there  
not deep down in the human breast       
another heart that is  felt as a power  
of control over this romantic heart and 
can keep within  due bounds 8its aching 
for the wild1 the passionate1 the new40 
,this is  the heart1 it would seem1 to  
which a man must hearken if he is not   
for  a 8little honey of romance0 to     
abandon his 8ancient wisdom and austere 
control40    ,the romantic corruption of
 the infinite here joins with the       
romantic  corruption of conscience1 the 
transformation of conscience from an    
inner check into an expansive emotion   
that ,i have already traced in          
,shaftesbury and ,rousseau4 ,but one    
should add that in some of its  aspects 
this corruption of the idea of the      

infinite antedates the  whole modern    
movement4 ,at least the beginnings of it
 can be found in  ancient               
,greece1--especially in that 8delirious 
and diseased ,greece0  of which ,joubert
 speaks--the ,greece of the             
neo-,platonists4 ,there is  already in  
the neo-,platonic notion of the infinite
 a strong element  of expansiveness4    
,aristotle and the older ,greeks        
conceived of the  infinite in this sense
 as bad4 ,that something in human nature
 which  is always reaching out for      
more--whether the more of sensation or  
of  power or of knowledge--was1 they    
held1 to be strictly reined in and      
disciplined to the law of measure4 ,all 
the furies lie in wait for the  man who 
overextends himself4 ,he is ripening for
 ,nemesis4 8,nothing too  much40 8,think
 as a mortal40 8,the half is better than
 the whole40 ,in his  attitude towards  
man's expansive self the ,greek as a    
rule stands for  mediation1 and not like
 the more austere ,christian1 for       

renunciation4  ,yet ,plato frequently   
and ,aristotle at times mount from the  
humanistic  to the religious level4 ,one
 of the most impressive passages in     
philosophy is that in which ,aristotle1 
perhaps the chief exponent of  the law  
of measure1 affirms that one who has    
really faced about and  is moving       
towards the inner infinite needs no     
warning against excess3  8,we should not
 give heed10 he says1 8to those who bid 
one think as  a mortal1 but so far as we
 can we should make ourselves immortal  
and  do all with a view to a life in    
accord with the best ,principle in      
us40#agg 7,this ,principle ,aristotle   
goes on to say is a man's true  self47  
,the earlier ,greek distinction between 
an outer and evil infinite  of expansive
 desire and an inner infinite that is   
raised above the  flux and yet rules it1
 is1 in the ,aristotelian phrase1 its   
8unmoved  mover10 became blurred1 as ,i 
have said1 during the ,alexandrian      
period4  ,the ,alexandrian influence    

entered to some extent into             
,christianity  itself and filtered      
through various channels down to modern 
times4  ,some of the romanticists went  
directly to the neo-,platonists1        
especially ,plotinus4 ,still more were  
affected by ,jacob ,boehme1 who  himself
 had no direct knowledge of the         
,alexandrian theosophy4 ,this  theosophy
 appears nevertheless in combination    
with other elements in  his writings4   
,he appealed to the new school by his   
insistence on the  element of appetency 
or desire1 by his universal symbolizing1
 above  all by his tendency to make of  
the divine an affirmative instead of a  
restrictive force--a something that     
pushes forward instead of holding  back4
 ,the expansive elements are moderated  
in ,boehme himself and in  disciples    
like ,law by genuinely religious        
elements--e4g41 humility  and the idea  
of conversion4 ,what happens when the   
expansiveness is  divorced from these   
elements1 one may see in another        

,english follower  of ,boehme--,william 
,blake4 ,to be both beautiful and wise  
one needs1  according to ,blake1 only to
 be exuberant4 ,the influence of ,boehme
  blends in ,blake with the new         
stheticism4 ,jesus himself1 he says1 so 
far from being restrained 8was all      
virtue1 and acted from impulse not  from
 rules40 ,this purely sthetic and       
impulsive ,jesus has been cruelly       
maligned1 as we learn from the poem     
entitled the 8,everlasting ,gospel10  by
 being represented as humble and chaste4
 ,religion itself thus becomes  in      
,blake the mere sport of a powerful and 
uncontrolled imagination1  and this we  
are told is mysticism4 ,i have already  
contrasted with  this type of mysticism 
something that goes under the same name 
and  is yet utterly different--the      
mysticism of ancient ,india4 ,instead   
of conceiving of the divine in terms of 
expansion the ,oriental sage  defines it
 experimentally as the 8inner check40   
,no more fundamental  distinction       

perhaps can be made than that between   
those who associate  the good with the  
yes-principle and those who associate it
 rather with  the no-principle4 ,but ,i 
need not repeat what ,i have said       
elsewhere on  the romantic attempt to   
discredit the veto power4 ,let no one   
think  that this contrast is merely     
metaphysical4 ,the whole problem of evil
  is involved in it and all the         
innumerable practical consequences that 
follow from one's attitude towards this 
problem4 ,the passage in which  ,faust  
defines the devil as the 8spirit that   
always says no0 would seem  to derive   
directly or indirectly from ,boehme4    
,according to ,boehme  good can be known
 only through evil4 ,god therefore      
divides his will  into two1 the 8yes0   
and the 8no10 and so founds an eternal  
contrast  to himself in order to enter  
into a struggle with it1 and finally to 
discipline and assimilate it4 ,the      
object of all manifested nature  is the 
transforming of the will which says 8no0

 into the will which  says 8yes40#agh   
,the opposition between good and evil   
tends to lose  its reality when it thus 
becomes a sort of sham battle that ,god 
gets  up with himself 7without          
contraries is no progression1 says      
,blake71  or when1 to take the form that
 the doctrine assumes in 8,faust10 the  
devil appears as the necessary though   
unwilling instrument of man's           
betterment4 ,the recoil from the        
doctrine of total depravity was perhaps 
inevitable4 ,what is sinister is that   
advantage has been taken of this  recoil
 to tamper with the problem of evil     
itself4 ,partial evil we are  told is   
universal good2 or else evil is only    
good in the making4 ,for  a ,rousseau or
 a ,shelley it is something mysteriously
 imposed from  without on a spotless    
human nature2 for a ,wordsworth it is   
something  one may escape by            
contemplating the speargrass on the     
wall4#agi ,for a  ,novalis sin is a mere
 illusion of which a man should rid his 

mind if he  aspires to become a 8magic  
idealist40#ahj ,in spite of his quaint  
,tory  prejudices ,dr4 ,johnson is one  
of the few persons in recent times that 
one may term wise without serious       
qualification because he never dodges   
or equivocates in dealing with the      
problem of evil2 he never fades away    
from the fact of evil into some         
theosophic or sentimental dream4    ,the
 rise of a purely expansive view of life
 in the eighteenth century  was marked  
by a great revival of enthusiasm4 ,the  
chief grievance of  the expansionist    
indeed against the no-principle is that 
it kills  enthusiasm4 ,but concentration
 no less than expansion may have its own
  type of enthusiasm4 ,it is therefore  
imperative in an age that has           
repudiated the traditional sanctions and
 set out to walk by the inner  light    
that all general terms and in particular
 the term enthusiasm  should be         
protected by a powerful dialectic4      
,nothing is more perilous  than an      

uncritical enthusiasm1 since it is only 
by criticism that one  may determine    
whether the enthusiast is a man who is  
moving towards  wisdom or is a candidate
 for ,bedlam4 ,the ,rousseauist1        
however1 exalts  enthusiasm at the same 
time that he depreciates discrimination4
  8,enthusiasm10 says ,emerson1 8is the 
height of man4 ,it is the passage  from 
the human to the divine40 ,it is only   
too characteristic of ,emerson  and of  
the whole school to which he belongs1 to
 put forth statements of  this kind     
without any dialectical protection4 ,the
 type of enthusiasm  to which ,emerson's
 praise might be properly applied1 the  
type that  has been defined as exalted  
peace1 though extremely rare1 actually  
exists4 ,a commoner type of enthusiasm  
during the past century is that  which  
has been defined as 8the rapturous      
disintegration of civilized  human      
nature40 ,when we have got our fingers  
well burned as a result of  our failure 
to make the necessary discriminations1  

we may fly to the  opposite extreme like
 the men of the early eighteenth century
 among  whom1 as is well known1         
enthusiasm had become a term of         
vituperation4  ,this dislike of         
enthusiasm was the natural recoil from  
the uncritical  following of the inner  
light by the fanatics of the seventeenth
  century4 ,shaftesbury attacks this    
older type of enthusiasm and at the     
same time prepares the way for the new  
emotional enthusiasm4 ,one cannot  say1 
however1 that any such sharp separation 
of types appears in the  revival of     
enthusiasm that begins about the middle 
of the eighteenth  century1 though some 
of those who were working for this      
revival felt  the need of               
discriminating3        ,that which      
concerns us therefore is to see         
,what ,species of ,enthusiasts we be--  
says ,john ,byrom in his poem on        
,enthusiasm4 ,the different species1    
however1--the enthusiasm of the         
,evangelicals and ,wesleyans1 the       

enthusiasm of those who like ,law and   
his disciple ,byrom hearken back  to    
,boehme1 the enthusiasm of ,rousseau and
 the sentimentalists1 tend to  run      
together4 ,to 8let one's feelings run in
 soft luxurious flow10#aha  is1 as      
,newman says1 at the opposite pole from 
spirituality4 ,yet much of  this mere   
emotional facility appears alongside of 
genuinely religious  elements in the    
enthusiasm of the ,methodist4 ,one may  
get a notion of  the jumble to which ,i 
refer by reading a book like ,henry     
,brooke's  8,fool of ,quality40 ,brooke 
is at one and the same time a disciple  
of  ,boehme and ,rousseau while being   
more or less affiliated with the        
,methodistic movement4 ,the book indeed 
was revised and abridged by  ,john      
,wesley himself and in this form had a  
wide circulation among his              
followers4#ahb    ,the enthusiasm that  
has marked the modern movement has      
plainly not been  sufficiently critical4
 ,perhaps the first discovery that any  

one will  make who wishes to be at once 
critical and enthusiastic is that in a  
genuinely spiritual enthusiasm the inner
 light and the inner check  are         
practically identical4 ,he will find    
that if he is to rise above  the        
naturalistic level he must curb         
constantly his expansive desires  with  
reference to some centre that is set    
above the flux4 ,here let me  repeat is 
the supreme rle of the imagination4 ,the
 man who has ceased  to lean on outer   
standards can perceive his new standards
 or centre of  control only through its 
aid4 ,i have tried to show that to aim  
at such  a centre is not to be stagnant 
and stationary but on the contrary to   
be at once purposeful and progressive4  
,to assert that the creativeness  of the
 imagination is incompatible with       
centrality or1 what amounts to  the same
 thing1 with purpose1 is to assert that 
the creativeness of  the imagination is 
incompatible with reality or at least   
such reality  as man may attain4 ,life  

is at best a series of illusions2 the   
whole  office of philosophy is to keep  
it from degenerating into a series  of  
delusions4 ,if we are to keep it from   
thus degenerating we need to  grasp     
above all the difference between the    
eccentric and the concentric            
imagination4 ,to look for serious       
guidance to an imagination that owes    
allegiance to nothing above itself1 is  
to run the risk of taking some  cloud   
bank for terra firma4 ,the eccentric    
imagination may give access  to the     
8infinite10 but it is an infinite empty 
of content and therefore  an infinite   
not of peace but of restlessness4 ,can  
any one maintain  seriously that there  
is aught in common between the 8striving
 for  endlessness0 of the ,german       
romanticists and the supreme and perfect
  ,centre that ,dante glimpses at the   
end of the 8,divine ,comedy0 and in the 
presence of which he becomes dumb8      
,we are told to follow the gleam1 but   
the counsel is somewhat ambiguous4  ,the

 gleam that one follows may be that     
which is associated with the  concentric
 imagination and which gives steadiness 
and informing  purpose1 or it may be the
 romantic will o' the wisp4 ,one may1 as
 ,i  have said1 in recreative moments   
allow one's imagination to wander       
without control1 but to take these      
wanderings seriously is to engage  in a 
sort of endless pilgrimage in the void4 
,the romanticist is  constantly yielding
 to the 8spell0 of this or the 8lure0 of
 that1 or  the 8call0 of some other     
thing4 ,but when the wonder and         
strangeness  that he is chasing are     
overtaken1 they at once cease to be     
wondrous  and strange1 while the gleam  
is already dancing over some other      
object  on the distant horizon4 ,for    
nothing is in itself romantic1 it is    
only  imagining that makes it so4       
,romanticism is the pursuit of the      
element  of illusion in things for its  
own sake2 it is in short the cherishing 
of glamour4 ,the word glamour introduced

 into literary usage from  popular      
,scotch usage by ,walter ,scott itself  
illustrates this tendency4  ,traced     
etymologically1 it turns out to be the  
same word as grammar4 ,in  an illiterate
 age to know how to write at all was a  
weird and magical  accomplishment1#ahc  
but in an educated age1 nothing is so   
drearily  unromantic1 so lacking in     
glamour as grammar4    ,the final       
question that arises in connection with 
this subject is  whether one may quell  
the mere restlessness of one's spirit   
and impose  upon it an ethical purpose4 
8,the man who has no definite end is    
lost10  says ,montaigne4 ,the upshot of 
the romantic supposition that purpose is
  incompatible with the freedom of the  
imagination is a philosophy like  that  
of ,nietzsche4 ,he can conceive of      
nothing beyond whirling forever  on the 
wheel of change 78the eternal           
recurrence07 without any goal or  firm  
refuge that is set above the flux4 ,he  
could not help doubting  at times       

whether happiness was to be found after 
all in mere endless1  purposeless       
mutation4        ,have ,i still a goal8 
,a haven towards which my sail is set8  
,a good wind8 ,ah1 he only who knoweth  
whither he saileth1      knoweth what   
wind is good1 and a fair wind for him4  
,what still remaineth to me8 ,a heart   
weary and flippant2 an      unstable    
will2 fluttering wings2 a broken        
backbone4        '''        ,where is my
 home8 ,for it do ,i ask and seek1 and  
have      sought1 but have not found it4
 ,o eternal everywhere1 ,o eternal      
nowhere1 ,o eternal--in vain4#ahd    ,to
 allow one's self to revolve passively  
on the wheel of change  7samsra7 seemed 
to the ,oriental sage the acme of evil4 
,an old ,hindu  writer compares the man 
who does not impose a firm purpose upon 
the  manifold solicitations of sense to 
a charioteer who fails to rein  in his  
restless steeds#ahe--;a comparison      
suggested independently  to ,ricarda    
,huch by the lives of the ,german       

romanticists4 ,in the  absence of       
central control1 the parts of the self  
tend to pull each  in a different way4  
,it is not surprising that in so        
centrifugal a  movement1 at least on the
 human and spiritual level1 one should  
find  so many instances of disintegrated
 and multiple personality4 ,the         
fascination that the phenomenon of the  
double 7,doppelgngerei7 had  for        
,hoffmann and other ,german romanticists
 is well known4#ahf ,it may  well be    
that some such disintegration of the    
self takes place under  extreme         
emotional stress4#ahg ,we should not    
fail to note here the  usual coperation 
between the emotional and the scientific
 naturalist4  ,like the romanticist1 the
 scientific psychologist is more        
interested  in the abnormal than in the 
normal4 ,according to the ,freudians1   
the  personality that has become        
incapable of any conscious aim is not   
left  entirely rudderless4 ,the guidance
 that it is unable to give itself is    

supplied to it by some 8wish10 usually  
obscene1 from the sub-conscious  realm  
of dreams4 ,the ,freudian then proceeds 
to develop what may be true  of the     
hysterical degenerate into a complete   
view of life4    ,man is in danger of   
being deprived of every last scrap and  
vestige of  his humanity by this working
 together of romanticism and science4   
,for  man becomes human only in so far  
as he exercises moral choice4 ,he must  
also enter upon the pathway of ethical  
purpose if he is to achieve  happiness4 
8,moods10 says ,novalis1 8undefined     
emotions1 not defined  emotions and     
feelings1 give happiness40 ,the         
experience of life shows  so plainly    
that this is not so that the romanticist
 is tempted to  seek shelter once more  
from his mere vagrancy of spirit in the 
outer  discipline he has abandoned4 8,to
 such unsettled ones as thou1 seemeth   
at last even a prisoner blessed4 ,didst 
thou ever see how captured  criminals   
sleep8 ,they sleep quietly1 they enjoy  

their new security4 '''  ,beware in the 
end lest a narrow faith capture thee1 a 
hard rigorous  delusion6 ,for now       
everything that is narrow and fixed     
seduceth and  tempteth thee40#ahh       
,various reasons have been given for    
romantic conversions to                 
,catholicism--for example1 the desire   
for confession 7though the  ,catholic   
does not1 like the ,rousseauist1 confess
 himself from the  housetops71 the      
sthetic appeal of ,catholic rites and   
ceremonies1 etc4  ,the sentence of      
,nietzsche puts us on the track of still
 another reason4  ,the affinity of      
certain romantic converts for the       
,church is that of the  jelly-fish for  
the rock4 ,it is appropriate that       
,friedrich ,schlegel1  the great apostle
 of irony1 should after a career as a   
heaven-storming  ,titan end by          
submitting to this most rigid of all    
forms of outer  authority4    ,for it   
should now be possible to return after  
our digression on paradox  and the idea 

of the infinite and the perils of       
aimlessness1 to romantic  irony with a  
truer understanding of its significance4
 ,like so much  else in this movement it
 is an attempt to give to a grave       
psychic  weakness the prestige of       
strength--unless indeed one conceives   
the  superior personality to be the one 
that lacks a centre and principle of    
control4 ,man it has usually been held  
should think lightly of himself  but    
should have some conviction for which he
 is ready to die4 ,the  romantic        
ironist1 on the other hand1 is often    
morbidly sensitive about  himself1 but  
is ready to mock at his own convictions4
 ,rousseau was no  romantic ironist1 but
 the root of self-parody is found       
nevertheless  in his saying that his    
heart and his head did not seem to      
belong to  the same individual4         
,everything of course is a matter of    
degree4 ,what  poor mortal can say that 
he is perfectly at one with himself8    
,friedrich  ,schlegel is not entirely   

wrong when he discovers elements of     
irony  based on an opposition between   
the head and the heart in writers like  
,ariosto and ,cervantes1 who love the   
very medival tales that they are        
treating in a spirit of mockery4 ,yet   
the laughter of ,cervantes is not  gypsy
 laughter4 ,he is one of those who next 
to ,shakespeare deserve the  praise of  
having dwelt close to the centre of     
human nature and so can  in only a minor
 degree be ranked with the romantic     
ironists4    ,in the extreme type of    
romantic ironist not only are intellect 
and  emotion at loggerheads but action  
often belies both3 he thinks one  thing 
and feels another and does still a      
third4 ,the most ironical  contrast of  
all is that between the romantic 8ideal0
 and the actual  event4 ,the whole of   
romantic morality is from this point of 
view1 as  ,i have tried to show1 a      
monstrous series of ironies4 ,the       
pacifist1  for example1 has been        
disillusioned so often that he should by

 this  time be able to qualify as a     
romantic ironist1 to look1 that is1 with
  a certain aloofness on his own dream4 
,the crumbling of the ideal is  often so
 complete indeed when put to the test   
that irony is at times1  we may suppose1
 a merciful alternative to madness4     
,when disillusion  overtakes the        
uncritical enthusiast1 when he finds    
that he has taken  some cloud bank for  
terra firma1 he continues to cling to   
his dream1  but at the same time wishes 
to show that he is no longer the dupe of
  it2 and so 8hot baths of sentiment10  
as ,jean ,paul says of his novels1  8are
 followed by cold douches of irony40    
,the true ,german master of  the genre  
is1 however1 ,heine4 ,every one knows   
with what coldness his  head came to    
survey the enthusiasms of his heart1    
whether in love or  politics4 ,one may  
again measure the havoc that life had   
wrought with  ,renan's ideals if one    
compares the tone of his youthful       
8,future of  ,science0 with the irony of

 his later writings4 ,he compliments    
,jesus by  ascribing to him an ironical 
detachment similar to his own4 ,jesus1  
he  says1 has that mark of the superior 
nature--the power to rise above  his own
 dream and to smile down upon it4       
,anatole ,france1 who is even  more     
completely detached from his own dreams 
than his master ,renan1  sums up the    
romantic emancipation of imagination and
 sensibility from  any definite centre  
when he says that life should have as   
its supreme  witnesses irony and pity4  
,irony is on the negative side1 it      
should be remembered1 a way of          
affirming one's escape from traditional 
and conventional control1 of  showing   
the supremacy of mood over decorum4     
8,there are poems old and  new which    
throughout breathe the divine breath of 
irony4 ''' ,within lives  the poet's    
mood that surveys all1 rising infinitely
 above everything  finite1 even above   
his own art1 virtue or genius40#ahi     
,decorum is for  the classicist the     

grand masterpiece to observe because it 
is only  thus he can show that he has a 
genuine centre set above his own ego2   
it is only by the allegiance of his     
imagination to this centre that  he can 
give the illusion of a higher reality4  
,the romantic ironist  shatters the     
illusion wantonly4 ,it is as though he  
would inflict upon  the reader the      
disillusion from which he has himself   
suffered4 ,by his  swift passage from   
one mood to another 7,stimmungsbrechung7
 he shows  that he is subject to no     
centre4 ,the effect is often that of a  
sudden  breaking of the spell of poetry 
by an intrusion of the poet's ego4 ,some
  of the best examples are found in that
 masterpiece of romantic irony1  8,don  
,juan40#aij    ,closely allied to the   
irony of emotional disillusion is a     
certain type  of misanthropy4 ,you form 
an ideal of man that is only an         
,arcadian dream  and then shrink back   
from man when you find that he does not 
correspond  to your ideal4 ,i have said 

that the romantic lover does not love a 
real person but only a projection of his
 mood4 ,this substitution of  illusion  
for reality often appears in the        
relations of the romanticist  with other
 persons4 ,shelley1 for example1 begins 
by seeing in ,elizabeth  ,hitchener an  
angel of light and then discovers that  
she is instead a  8brown demon40 ,he did
 not at any time see the real ,elizabeth
 ,hitchener4  ,she merely reflects back 
to him two of his own moods4 ,the tender
  misanthropy of the ,rousseauist is at 
the opposite pole from that of a        
,swift1 which is the misanthropy of     
naked intellect4 ,instead of seeing     
human nature through an ,arcadian haze  
he saw it without any illusion at  all4 
,his irony is like that of ,socrates1   
the irony of intellect4 ,its  bitterness
 and cruelty arise from the fact that   
his intellect does not1  like the       
intellect of ,socrates1 have the support
 of insight4 ,pascal  would have said   
that ,swift saw man's misery without at 

the same time  seeing his grandeur4 ,for
 man's grandeur is due to his infinitude
 and  this infinitude cannot be         
perceived directly1 but only through a  
veil  of illusion2 only1 that is1       
through a right use of the imagination4 
,literary distinctions of this kind must
 of course be used cautiously4  ,byron's
 irony is prevailingly sentimental1 but 
along with this romantic  element he has
 much irony and satire that ,swift would
 have understood  perfectly4    ,the    
misanthropist of the ,rousseauistic or  
,byronic type has a resource  that was  
denied to ,swift4 ,having failed to find
 companionship among men  he can flee to
 nature4 ,rousseau relates how when he  
had taken refuge on  ,st4 ,peter's      
,island he 8exclaimed at times with deep
 emotion3 ,oh nature1  oh my mother1    
here ,i am under your protection alone4 
,here is no adroit  and rascally man to 
interpose between you and me40#aia ,few 
aspects of  romanticism are more        
important than this attempt to find     

companionship  and consolation in       
nature4          ,,chapter ,,viii       
,,romanticism ,,and ,,nature      ,one  
of the most disquieting features of the 
modern movement is  the vagueness and   
ambiguity of its use of the word nature 
and the  innumerable sophistries that   
have resulted4 ,one can sympathize at   
times with ,sir ,leslie ,stephen's wish 
that the word might be suppressed       
entirely4 ,this looseness of definition 
may be said to begin with  the very rise
 of naturalism in the ,renaissance1 and 
indeed to go  back to the naturalists of
 ,greek and ,roman antiquity4#aib ,even 
writers like ,rabelais and ,molire are  
not free from the suspicion  of juggling
 dangerously on occasion with the       
different meanings of  the word nature4 
,but the sixteenth and seventeenth      
centuries were  not merely naturalistic1
 they were also humanistic1 and what    
they  usually meant by nature1 as ,i    
have pointed out1 was the conception  of
 normal1 representative human nature    

that they had worked out with  the aid  
of the ancients4 ,there is undeniably an
 element of narrowness  and             
artificiality in this conception of     
nature1 and a resulting  unfriendliness1
 as appears in ,pope's definition of    
wit1 towards  originality and invention4
 ,in his 8,art of ,poetry0 ,boileau     
says1 8,let  nature be your sole study40
 ,what he means by nature appears a few 
lines  later3 8,study the court and     
become familiar with the town40 ,to this
  somewhat conventionalized human nature
 the original genius opposed1  as we    
have seen1 the cult of primitive nature4
 ,a whole revolution is  implied in     
,byron's line3        ,i love not man   
the less1 but nature more4    ,any study
 of this topic must evidently turn on   
the question how far at  different times
 and by different schools of thought the
 realm of man  and the realm of nature  
7as ,byron uses the word7 have been     
separated  and in what way1 and also how
 far they have been run together and in 

what way4 ,for there may be different   
ways of running together man  and       
nature4 ,ruskin's phrase the 8pathetic  
fallacy0 is unsatisfactory  because it  
fails to recognize this fact4 ,the man  
who is guilty of the  pathetic fallacy  
sees in nature emotions that are not    
really there but  only in himself4      
,extreme examples of this confusion     
abound in ,ruskin's  own writings4 ,now 
the ancients also ran man and nature    
together1 but in  an entirely different 
way4 ,the ,greek we are told never saw  
the oak tree  without at the same time  
seeing the dryad4 ,there is in this and 
similar  associations a sort of overflow
 of the human realm upon the forms of   
outer nature whereas the ,rousseauist   
instead of bestowing imaginatively  upon
 the oak tree a conscious life and an   
image akin to his own and  so lifting it
 up to his level1 would1 if he could1   
become an oak tree  and so enjoy its    
unconscious and vegetative felicity4    
,the ,greek1 one  may say1 humanized    

nature2 the ,rousseauist naturalizes    
man4 ,rousseau's  great discovery was   
revery2 and revery is just this         
imaginative melting  of man into outer  
nature4 ,if the ancients failed to      
develop in a marked  degree this art of 
revery1 it was not because they lacked  
naturalists4  ,both ,stoics and         
,epicureans1 the two main varieties of  
naturalists  with which classical       
antiquity was familiar1 inclined to     
affirm the  ultimate identity of the    
human and the natural order4 ,but both  
,stoics  and ,epicureans would have     
found it hard to understand the         
indifference  to the intellect and its  
activities that ,rousseauistic revery   
implies4  ,the ,stoics to be sure       
employed the intellect on an impossible 
and  disheartening task--that of        
founding on the natural order virtues   
that  the natural order does not give4  
,the ,epicureans remind one rather in   
much of their intellectual activity of  
the modern man of science4 ,but  the    

,epicurean was less prone than the man  
of science to look on man  as the mere  
passive creature of environment4 ,the   
views of the man of  science about the  
springs of conduct often seem to        
coincide rather  closely with those of  
,rousseau about 8sensitive morality40   
,geoffroy  ,saint-,hilaire says that    
when reclining on the banks of the ,nile
 he felt  awakening within himself the  
instincts of the crocodile4 ,the point  
of  view is ,rousseauistic perhaps      
rather than genuinely scientific4 ,an   
,epicurus or a ,lucretius would1 we are 
probably safe in assuming1 have  been   
disquieted by any such surrender to the 
subrational1 by any such  encroachment  
of the powers of the unconscious upon   
conscious control4    ,it is hard as a  
matter of fact to find in the ancients  
anything  resembling ,rousseauistic     
revery1 even when they yield to the     
pastoral  mood4 ,nature interests them  
as a rule less for its own sake than as 
a background for human action2 and when 

they are concerned primarily  with      
nature1 it is a nature that has been    
acted upon by man4 ,they  have a        
positive shrinking from wild and        
uncultivated nature4 8,the  green       
pastures and golden slopes of ,england10
 says ,lowell1 8are  sweeter both to the
 outward and to the inward eye that the 
hand of man  has immemorially cared for 
and caressed them40 ,this is an attitude
  towards nature that an ancient would  
have understood perfectly4 ,one  may    
indeed call it the ,virgilian attitude  
from the ancient who has  perhaps       
expressed it most happily4 ,the man who 
lives in the grand  manner may indeed   
wish to impose on nature some of the    
fine proportion  and symmetry of which  
he is conscious in himself and he may   
then from  our modern point of view     
carry the humanizing of nature too far4 
8,let  us sing of woods10 says ,virgil1 
8but let the woods be worthy of a       
consul40 ,this line has sometimes been  
taken to be a prophecy of the  ,park of 

,versailles4 ,we may sympathize up to a 
certain point with the  desire to       
introduce a human symmetry into nature  
7such as appears1 for  instance1 in the 
,italian garden71 but the peril is even 
greater here  than elsewhere of         
confounding the requirements of a real  
with those of  an artificial decorum4 ,i
 have already mentioned the             
neo-classicist who  complained that the 
stars in heaven were not arranged in    
sufficiently  symmetrical patterns4     
,what has been said should make clear   
that though both humanist and           
,rousseauist associate man with nature  
it is in very different ways1  and that 
there is therefore an ambiguity in the  
expression 8pathetic  fallacy40 ,it     
remains to show that men may not only   
associate themselves  with nature in    
different ways but that they may        
likewise differ in  their ways of       
asserting man's separateness from       
nature4 ,the chief  distinction to be   
made here is that between the humanist  

and the  supernaturalist4 ,some sense of
 the gap between man and the 8outworld0 
is almost inevitable and forces itself  
at times even upon those most           
naturalistically inclined3        ,nor  
will ,i praise a cloud however bright1  
,disparaging ,man's gifts and proper    
food--      ,grove1 isle1 with every    
shape of sky-built dome1      ,though   
clad in colors beautiful and pure1      
,find in the heart of man no natural    
home4#aic    ,the ,wordsworth who speaks
 here is scarcely the ,wordsworth of    
,tintern  ,abbey or the ,wordsworth     
whose 8daily teachers had been woods and
  rills40 ,he reminds us rather of      
,socrates who gave as his reason for    
going so rarely into the country1       
delightful as he found it when once     
there1 that he did not learn from woods 
and rills but from the 8men  in the     
cities40 ,this sense of the separateness
 of the human and the  natural realm may
 be carried much further--to a point    
where an ascetic  distrust of nature    

begins to appear4 ,something of this    
ascetic distrust  is seen for example in
 the following lines from ,cardinal     
,newman3        ,there strayed awhile   
amid the woods of ,dart      ,one who   
could love them1 but who durst not love2
      ,a vow had bound him ne'er to give
 his heart      ,to streamlet bright or 
soft secluded grove4#aid    ,the origins
 of this latter attitude towards nature 
are to be sought in  medival            
,christianity rather than in classical  
antiquity4 ,no man who  knows the facts 
would assert for a moment that the man  
of the ,middle  ,ages was incapable of  
looking on nature with other feelings   
than  those of ascetic distrust4 ,it is 
none the less true that the man of  the 
,middle ,ages often saw in nature not   
merely something alien but a  positive  
temptation and peril of the spirit4 ,in 
his attitude towards  nature as in other
 respects ,petrarch is usually accounted
 the first  modern4 ,he did what no man 
of the medival period is supposed to    

have  done before him1 or indeed what   
scarcely any man of classical antiquity 
did3 he ascended a mountain out of sheer
 curiosity and simply to enjoy  the     
prospect4 ,but those who tell of his    
ascent of ,mt4 ,ventoux sometimes       
forget to add that the passage of ,saint
 ,augustine#aie that occurred  to him at
 the top reflects the distrust of the   
more austere ,christian  towards the    
whole natural order4 ,petrarch is at    
once more ascetic and  more romantic in 
his attitude towards nature than the    
,greek or ,roman4    ,traces of         
,petrarch's taste for solitary and even 
for wild nature are  to be found        
throughout the ,renaissance and the     
seventeenth century4  ,but the recoil   
from supernaturalism that took place at 
this time led  rather1 as ,i have       
remarked1 to a revival of the           
,grco-,roman humanism  with something   
more of artifice and convention1 and to 
an even more  marked preference#aif of  
the town to the country4 ,an age that   

aims  first of all at urbanity must     
necessarily be more urban than rural in 
its predilections4 ,it was a sort of    
condescension for the neo-classical     
humanist to turn from the central model 
he was imitating to mere  unadorned     
nature1 and even then he felt that he   
must be careful not  to condescend too  
far4 ,even when writing pastorals he was
 warned by  ,scaliger to avoid details  
that are too redolent of the real       
country2  he should indulge at most in  
an 8urbane rusticity40 ,wild nature the 
neo-classicist finds simply repellent4  
,mountains he looks upon as  8earth's   
dishonor and encumbering load40 ,the    
,alps were regarded as  the place where 
,nature swept up the rubbish of the     
earth to clear  the plains of ,lombardy4
 8,at last10 says a ,german traveller of
 the  seventeenth century1 8we left the 
horrible and wearisome mountains and    
the beautiful flat landscape was        
joyfully welcomed40 ,the taste for      
mountain scenery is associated no doubt 

to some extent1 as has been  suggested1 
with the increasing ease and comfort of 
travel that has come  with the progress 
of the utilitarian movement4 ,it is     
scarcely necessary  to point the        
contrast between the ,switzerland of    
which ,evelyn tells in  his diary#aig   
and the ,switzerland in which one may go
 by funicular to  the top of the        
,jungfrau4    ,those who in the         
eighteenth century began to feel the    
need of less  trimness in nature and    
human nature were not it is true        
entirely  without neo-classic           
predecessors4 ,they turned at times to  
painting--as  the very word picturesque 
testifies--for the encouragement they   
failed  to find in literature4 ,a       
landscape was picturesque when it seemed
  like a picture#aih and it might be not
 merely irregular but savage  if it were
 to seem like some of the pictures of   
,salvator ,rosa4 ,this  association of  
even wildness with art is very          
characteristic of  eighteenth-century   

sentimentalism4 ,it is a particular case
 of that  curious blending in this      
period of the old principle of the      
imitation  of models with the new       
principle of spontaneity4 ,there was a  
moment  when a man needed to show a     
certain taste for wildness if he was to 
be  conventionally correct4 8,the fops10
 says ,taine1 describing ,rousseau's    
influence on the drawing-rooms1 8dreamt 
between two madrigals of the  happiness 
of sleeping naked in the virgin forest40
 ,the prince in  ,goethe's 8,triumph of 
,sensibility0 has carried with him on   
his travels  canvas screens so painted  
that when placed in position they give  
him  the illusion of being in the midst 
of a wild landscape4 ,this taste for    
artificial wildness can however best be 
studied in connection with the          
increasing vogue in the eighteenth      
century of the ,english garden as       
compared either with the ,italian garden
 or the ,french garden in the  style of 
,le ,ntre4#aii ,as a relief from the    

neo-classical symmetry1  nature was     
broken up1 often at great expense1 into 
irregular and  unexpected aspects4 ,some
 of the ,english gardens in ,france and 
,germany  were imitated directly from   
,rousseau's famous description of this  
method of dealing with the landscape in 
the 8,nouvelle ,hlose40#bjj  ,artificial
 ruins were often placed in the ,english
 garden as a further  aid to those who  
wished to wander imaginatively from the 
beaten path1  and also as a provocative 
of the melancholy that was already held 
to  be distinguished4 ,towards the end  
of the century this cult of ruins  was  
widespread4 ,the veritable obsession    
with ruins that one finds in            
,chateaubriand is not unrelated to this 
sentimental fashion1 though  it arises  
even more perhaps from the real ruins   
that had been so  plentifully supplied  
by the ,revolution4    ,rousseau        
himself1 it should hardly be necessary  
to say1 stands for far  more than an    
artificial wildness4 ,instead of        

imposing decorum on nature  like the    
neo-classicist1 he preached constantly  
the elimination of  decorum from man4   
,man should flee from that 8false taste 
for grandeur  which is not made for him0
 and which 8poisons his pleasures10#bja 
to nature4 ,now 8it is on the summits of
 mountains1 in the depths of  forests1  
on deserted islands that nature reveals 
her most potent  charms40#bjb ,the man  
of feeling finds the savage and deserted
 nook  filled with beauties that seem   
horrible to the mere worldling4#bjc     
,rousseau indeed did not crave the      
ultimate degree of wildness even  in the
 ,alps4 ,he did not get beyond what one 
may term the middle zone  of ,alpine    
scenery--scenery that may be found      
around the shores of  ,lake ,leman4 ,he 
was inclined to find the most           
appropriate setting for  the earthly    
paradise in the neighborhood of ,vevey4 
,moreover1 others  about the same time  
and more or less independently of his   
influence  were opposing an even more   

primitive nature to the artificialities 
of  civilization4 ,the mountains of     
8,ossian0 are1 as has been said1 mere   
blurs1 yet the new delight in mountains 
is due in no small measure  throughout  
,europe to the ,ossianic influence4     
,the instinct for getting away from the 
beaten track1 for exploration  and      
discovery1 has of course been highly    
developed at other epochs1  notably at  
the ,renaissance4 ,much of the romantic 
interest in the wild  and waste places  
of the earth did not go much beyond what
 might have  been felt in ,elizabethan  
,england4 ,many of the ,rousseauists1   
,wordsworth  and ,chateaubriand for     
example1 not only read eagerly the older
 books  of travel but often the same    
books4 ,the fascination of penetrating  
to  regions 8where foot of man hath     
ne'er or rarely been10 is perennial4    
,it was my privilege a few years ago to 
listen to ,sir ,ernest ,shackleton      
speak of his expedition across the      
,antarctic continent and of the  thrill 

that he and the members of his party    
felt when they saw rising  before them  
day after day mountain peaks that no    
human eye had ever  gazed upon4 ,the    
emotion was no doubt very similar to    
that of 8stout  ,cortez0 when he first  
8stared at the ,pacific40 ,chateaubriand
 must  have looked forward to similar   
emotions when he planned his trip to    
,north ,america in search of the ,north 
,west ,passage4 ,but the passion for    
actual exploration which is a form of   
the romanticism of action is very       
subordinate in the case of              
,chateaubriand to emotional romanticism4
 ,he  went into the wilderness first of 
all not to make actual discoveries  but 
to affirm his freedom from conventional 
restraint1 and at the same  time to     
practice the new art of revery4 ,his    
sentiments on getting  into what was    
then the virgin forest to the west of   
,albany were very  different we may     
assume from those of the early pioneers 
of ,america4  8,when10 he says1 8after  

passing the ,mohawk ,i entered woods    
which  had never felt the axe1 ,i was   
seized by a sort of intoxication of     
independence3 ,i went from tree to tree1
 to right and left1 saying to  myself1  
#8,here are no more roads or cities or  
monarchy or republic  or presidents or  
kings or men4' ,and in order to find out
 if ,i was  restored to my original     
rights ,i did various wilful things that
 made  my guide furious4 ,in his heart  
he believed me mad40 ,the disillusion   
that followed is also one that the early
 pioneers would have had some           
difficulty in understanding4 ,for he    
goes on to relate that while he  was    
thus rejoicing in his escape from       
conventional life to pure nature  he    
suddenly bumped up against a shed1 and  
under the shed he saw his  first        
savages--a score of them both men and   
women4 ,a little ,frenchman  named ,m4  
,violet1 8bepowdered and befrizzled1    
with an apple-green coat1  drugget      
waistcoat and muslin frill and cuffs1   

was scraping on a pocket  fiddle0 and   
teaching the ,indians to dance to the   
tune of ,madelon  ,friquet4 ,m4 ,violet1
 it seemed1 had remained behind on the  
departure  from ,new ,york of           
,rochambeau's forces at the time of the 
,american  ,revolution1 and had set up  
as dancing-master among the savages4 ,he
  was very proud of the nimbleness of   
his pupils and always referred to  them 
as 8ces messieurs sauvages et ces dames 
sauvagesses40 8,was it not  a crushing  
circumstance for a disciple of          
,rousseau10 ,chateaubriand  concludes1  
8this introduction to savage life by a  
ball that the  ex-scullion of ,general  
,rochambeau was giving to ,iroquois8 ,i 
felt very  much like laughing1 but ,i   
was at the same time cruelly            
humiliated40    ,in ,america1 as        
elsewhere1 ,chateaubriand's chief       
concern is not  with any outer fact or  
activity1 but with his own emotions and 
the  enhancement of these emotions by   
his imagination4 ,in him as in many     

other romanticists the different        
elements of ,rousseauism--,arcadian     
longing1 the pursuit of the dream woman1
 the aspiration towards the  8infinite0 
7often identified with ,god7--appear at 
times more or less  separately and then 
again almost inextricably blended with  
one another  and with the cult of       
nature4 ,it may be well to consider more
 in detail  these various elements of   
,rousseauism and their relation to      
nature in  about the order ,i have      
mentioned4 ,the association of ,arcadian
 longing  with nature is in part an     
outcome of the conflict between the     
ideal and  the real4 ,the romantic      
idealist finds that men do not          
understand him3  his 8vision0 is mocked 
and his 8genius0 is unrecognized4 ,the  
result  is the type of sentimental      
misanthropy of which ,i spoke at the end
 of  the last chapter4 ,he feels1 as    
,lamartine says1 that there is nothing  
in common between the world and him4    
,lamartine adds1 however1 8,but  nature 

is there who invites you and loves you40
 ,you will find in her  the             
comprehension and companionship that you
 have failed to find in  society4 ,and  
nature will seem a perfect companion to 
the ,rousseauist  in direct proportion  
as she is uncontaminated by the presence
 of man4  ,wordsworth has described the 
misanthropy that supervened in many     
people  on the collapse of the          
revolutionary idealism4 ,he himself     
overcame  it1 though there is more than 
a suggestion in the manner of his own   
retirement into the hills of a man who  
retreats into an ,arcadian dream  from  
actual defeat4 ,the suggestion of defeat
 is much stronger in  ,ruskin's similar 
retirement4 ,ruskin doubtless felt in   
later life1 like  ,rousseau1 that if he 
had failed to get on with men 8it was   
less his  fault than theirs40#bjd       
,perhaps emotional misanthropy and the  
worship  of wild nature are nowhere more
 fully combined than in ,byron4 ,he     
gives magnificent expression to the most

 untenable of paradoxes--that  one      
escapes from solitude by eschewing human
 haunts in favor of some                
wilderness4#bje ,in these haunts1 he    
says1 he became like a 8falcon  with    
clipped wing10 but found in nature the  
kindest of mothers4          ,oh6 she is
 fairest in her features wild1          
,where nothing polished dare pollute her
 path3        ,to me by day or night she
 ever smiled        ,though ,i have     
marked her when none other hath         
,and sought her more and more1 and loved
 her best in wrath4#bjf    ,he not only 
finds companionship in nature but at the
 same time partakes  of her             
infinitude--an infinitude1 one should   
note1 of feeling3        ,i live not in 
myself1 but ,i become      ,portion of  
that around me2 and to me      ,high    
mountains are a feeling1 but the hum    
,of human cities torture4#bjg    ,in his
 less misanthropic moods the            
,rousseauist sees in wild nature  not   
only a refuge from society1 but also a  

suitable setting for his  companionship 
with the ideal mate1 for what the       
,french term la  solitude  deux4        
,oh6 that the ,desert were my           
dwelling-place      ,with one fair      
,spirit for my minister1      ,that ,i  
might all forget the human race         
,and1 hating no one1 love but only      
her6#bjh    ,the almost innumerable     
passages in the romantic movement that  
celebrate  this ,arcadian companionship 
in the wilderness merely continue in a  
sense the pastoral mood that must be as 
old as human nature itself4  ,but in the
 past the pastoral mood has been        
comparatively placid4  ,it has not been 
associated in any such degree with      
misanthropy and  wildness1 with         
nympholeptic longing and the thirst for 
the infinite4  ,the scene that          
,chateaubriand has imagined between     
,chactas and ,atala in  the primeval    
forest1 is surely the stormiest of      
,arcadias2 so stormy  indeed that it    
would have been unintelligible to       

,theocritus4 ,it is  not certain that it
 would have been intelligible to        
,shakespeare1 who  like the other       
,elizabethans felt at times that he too 
had been born  in ,arcadia4 ,the        
,arcadian of the past was much less     
inclined to sink  down to the           
subrational and to merge his personality
 in the landscape4  ,rousseau describes 
with a charm that has scarcely been     
surpassed by  any of his disciples1 the 
reveries in which he thus descends below
  the level of his rational self4 ,time1
 no longer broken up by the  importunate
 intellect and its analysis1 is then    
felt by him in its  unbroken flow2 the  
result is a sort of 8eternal present    
that leaves  no sense of emptiness40 ,of
 such a moment of revery ,rousseau says1
  anticipating ,faust1 that he 8would   
like it to last forever40 ,bergson  in  
his conception of the summum bonum as a 
state in which time is  no longer cut up
 into artificial segments but is        
perceived in its  continuous stream as a

 8present that endures10#bji has done   
little  more than repeat ,rousseau4 ,the
 sight and sound of water seem to have  
been a special aid to revery in         
,rousseau's case4 ,his accounts of the  
semi-dissolution of his conscious self  
that he enjoyed while drifting  idly on 
the ,lake of ,bienne are justly         
celebrated4 ,lamartine's soul was1  like
 that of ,rousseau1 lulled by 8the      
murmur of waters40 ,nothing again  is   
more ,rousseauistic than the desire     
,arnold attributes to ,maurice de       
,gurin--the desire 8to be borne on      
forever down an enchanted stream40      
,that too is why certain passages of    
,shelley are so near in spirit to       
,rousseau--for example1 the boat revery 
in 8,prometheus ,unbound0 in which  an  
,arcadian nature and the dream companion
 mingle to the strains of  music in a   
way that is supremely romantic4#baj     
,the association of nature with         
,arcadian longing and the pursuit of    
the dream woman is even less significant

 than its association with  the idea of 
the infinite4 ,for as a result of this  
latter association  the nature cult     
often assumes the aspect of a religion4 
,the various  associations may indeed as
 ,i have said be very much blended or   
else  may run into one another almost   
insensibly4 ,no better illustration of  
this blending can be found perhaps than 
in ,chateaubriand--especially  in that  
compendium of ,rousseauistic psychology1
 his 8,ren40 ,the soul  of ,ren1 one    
learns1 was too great to adjust itself  
to the society of  men4 ,he found that  
he would have to contract his life if he
 put himself  on their level4 ,men1 for 
their part1 treated him as a dreamer1   
and so  he is forced more and more by   
his increasing disgust for them into    
solitude4 ,now ,ren rests the sense of  
his superiority over other men  on two  
things3 first1 on his superlative       
capacity to feel grief2#baa  secondly1  
on his thirst for the infinite4 8,what  
is finite10 he says1  8has no value for 

me40 ,what is thus pushing him beyond   
all bounds is  8an unknown good of which
 the instinct pursues me40 8,i began to 
ask  myself what ,i desired4 ,i did not 
know but ,i thought all of a sudden     
that the woods would be delicious to    
me60 ,what he found in this quest  for  
the mystical something that was to fill 
the abyss of his existence  was the     
dream woman4 8,i went down into the     
valley1 ,i strode upon the  mountain1   
summoning with all the force of my      
desire the ideal object  of a future    
flame2 ,i embraced this object in the   
winds2 ,i thought  that ,i heard it in  
the moanings of the river4 ,all was this
 phantom of  the imagination--both the  
stars in heaven and the very principle  
of  life in the universe40 ,i have      
already quoted a very similar passage   
and pointed out the equivalent in       
,shelley4 ,no such close equivalent     
could be found in ,byron1 and           
,wordsworth1 it is scarcely necessary to
  say1 offers no equivalent at all4 ,if 

one reads on1 however1 one finds        
passages that are ,byronic and others   
that are ,wordsworthian4 ,paganism1     
,chateaubriand complains1 by seeing in  
nature only certain definite            
forms--fauns and satyrs and nymphs--had 
banished from it both ,god and  the     
infinite4 ,but ,christianity expelled   
these thronging figures in  turn and    
restored to the grottoes their silence  
and to the woods their  revery4 ,the    
true ,god thus became visible in his    
works and bestowed  upon them his own   
immensity4 ,what ,chateaubriand         
understands by ,god and  the infinite   
appears in the following description of 
the region near  ,niagara seen by       
moonlight4 ,the passage is ,byronic as a
 whole with a  ,wordsworthian touch at  
the end4 8,the grandeur1 the amazing    
melancholy  of this picture cannot be   
expressed in human language2 the fairest
  night of ,europe can give no          
conception of it4 ,in vain in our       
cultivated  fields does the imagination 

seek to extend itself4 ,it encounters on
  every hand the habitations of men2 but
 in these savage regions the soul  takes
 delight in plunging into an ocean of   
forests1 in hovering over  the gulf of  
cataracts1 in meditating on the shores  
of lakes and rivers  and1 so to speak1  
in finding itself alone in the presence 
of ,god40 ,the  relation between wild   
and solitary nature and the romantic    
idea of the  infinite is here obvious4  
,it is an aid to the spirit in throwing 
off  its limitations and so in feeling  
itself 8free40#bab    ,a greater        
spiritual elevation it is sometimes     
asserted is found in  ,wordsworth's     
communings with nature than in those of 
,rousseau and  ,chateaubriand4 ,the     
difference perhaps is less one of spirit
 than  of temperament4 ,in its          
abdication of the intellectual and      
critical  faculties1 in its             
semi-dissolution of the conscious self1 
the  revery of ,wordsworth does not     
differ from that of ,rousseau#bac and   

,chateaubriand1 but the erotic element  
is absent4 ,in the 8,genius of          
,christianity0 ,chateaubriand gives a   
magnificent description of sunset  at   
sea and turns the whole picture into a  
proof of ,god4 ,elsewhere he  tells us  
that it was 8not ,god alone that ,i     
contemplated on the waters  in the      
splendor of his works4 ,i saw an unknown
 woman and the miracle  of her smile4   
''' ,i should have sold eternity for one
 of her caresses4  ,i imagined that she 
was palpitating behind that veil of the 
universe  that hid her from my eyes10   
etc4 ,wordsworth was at least           
consistently  religious in his attitude 
towards the landscape3 he did not see in
 it  at one moment ,god1 and at another 
an unknown woman and the miracle of  her
 smile4 ,at the same time his idea of   
spirituality is very remote  from the   
traditional conception4 ,formerly       
spirituality was held to be a  process  
of recollection1 of gathering one's self
 in1 that is1 towards  the centre and   

not of diffusive emotion2 so that when a
 man wished  to pray he retired into his
 closet1 and did not1 like a ,wordsworth
  or a ,rousseau1 fall into an          
inarticulate ecstasy before the wonders 
of nature4 ,as for the poets of the     
past1 they inclined as a rule to  look  
on nature as an incentive not to        
religion but to love4 ,keble1  following
 ,wordsworth1 protests on this ground   
against ,aristophanes1 and  ,catullus   
and ,horace and ,theocritus4 ,he might  
have lengthened the list  almost        
indefinitely4 ,chateaubriand bids us in 
our devotional moods to  betake         
ourselves 8to the religious forest40 ,la
 ,fontaine is at least  as near to      
normal human experience and also at     
least as poetical when  he warns 8fair  
ones0 to 8fear the depths of the woods  
and their vast  silence40#bad    ,no one
 would question that ,wordsworth has    
passages of great ethical  elevation4   
,but in some of these passages he simply
 renews the error  of the ,stoics who   

also display at times great ethical     
elevation2 he  ascribes to the natural  
order virtues that the natural order    
does not  give4 ,this error persists to 
some extent even when he is turning     
away1  as in the 8,ode to ,duty10 from  
the moral spontaneity of the            
,rousseauist4  ,it is not quite clear   
that the law of duty in the breast of   
man is the  same law that preserves 8the
 stars from wrong40 ,his earlier        
assertion  that the light of setting    
suns and the mind of man are identical  
in  their essence is at best highly     
speculative1 at least as speculative  as
 the counter assertion of ,sir ,thomas  
,browne that 8there is surely a  piece  
of divinity in us2 something that was   
before the elements1 and  owes no homage
 unto the sun40 ,furthermore this latter
 sense of the gap  between man and      
nature seems to be more fully justified 
by its fruits  in life and conduct1 and 
this is after all the only test that    
counts in  the long run4    ,one of the 

reasons why pantheistic revery has been 
so popular is that  it seems to offer a 
painless substitute for genuine         
spiritual effort4  ,in its extreme      
exponents1 a ,rousseau or a ,walt       
,whitman1 it amounts to a  sort of      
ecstatic animality that sets up as a    
divine illumination4 ,even  in its      
milder forms it encourages one to assume
 a tone of consecration  in speaking of 
experiences that are sthetic rather than
 truly  religious4 8',tis only heaven   
that's given away10 sings ,lowell2      
8',tis  only ,god may be had for the    
asking40 ,god and heaven are accorded by
  ,lowell with such strange facility    
because he identifies them with the     
luxurious enjoyment of a 8day in ,june40
 ,when pushed to a certain point  the   
nature cult always tends towards sham   
spirituality4        ,oh ,world as ,god 
has made it        --,all is beauty1    
,and knowing this is love1 and          
,love is duty4    ,it seems to follow   
from these verses of ,browning1 perhaps 

the most  flaccid spiritually in the    
,english language1 that to go out and   
mix  one's self up with the landscape is
 the same as doing one's duty4 ,as  a   
method of salvation this is even easier 
and more sthetic than that  of the      
,ancient ,mariner1 who1 it will be      
remembered1 is relieved of the  burden  
of his transgression by admiring the    
color of water-snakes6    ,the nature   
cult arose at a time when the           
traditional religious  symbols were     
becoming incredible4 ,instead of working
 out new and  firm distinctions between 
good and evil1 the ,rousseauist seeks to
  discredit all precise distinctions    
whether new or old1 in favor of mere    
emotional intoxication4 ,the passage to 
which ,i have already alluded1  in which
 ,faust breaks down the scruples of     
,marguerite by proclaiming  the         
supremacy of feeling1 surpasses even the
 lines ,i have cited from  ,browning as 
an example of sham spirituality3        
,marguerite3        ,dost thou believe  

in ,god8        ,faust3        ,my      
darling1 who dares say1      ,yes1 ,i in
 ,god believe8      ,question or priest 
or sage1 and they      ,seem1 in the    
answer you receive1      ,to mock the   
questioner4        ,marguerite3         
,then thou dost not believe8            
,faust3        ,sweet one6 my meaning do
 not misconceive6      ,him who dare    
name      ,and who proclaim1      ,him  
,i believe8      ,who that can feel1    
,his heart can steel      ,to say3 ,i   
believe him not8      ,the              
,all-embracer1      ,all-sustainer1     
,holds and sustains he not      ,thee1  
me1 himself8      ,lifts not the ,heaven
 its dome above8      ,doth not the     
firm-set earth beneath us lie8      ,and
 beaming tenderly with looks of love    
,climb not the everlasting stars on     
high8      ,do ,i not gaze into thine   
eyes8      ,nature's impenetrable       
agencies1      ,are they not thronging  
on thy heart and brain1      ,viewless1 
or visible to mortal ken1      ,around  

thee weaving their mysterious chain8    
,fill thence thy heart1 how large soe'er
 it be2      ,and in the feeling when   
thou utterly art blest1      ,then call 
it what thou wilt--      ,call it       
,bliss6 ,heart6 ,love6 ,god6      ,i    
have no name for it6      ,feeling is   
all2      ,name is but sound and smoke  
,shrouding the glow of heaven4#bae      
,the upshot of this enthusiasm that     
overflows all boundaries and spurns     
definition as mere smoke that veils its 
heavenly glow is the seduction  of a    
poor peasant girl4 ,such is the romantic
 contrast between the  8ideal0 and the  
8real40    ,those to whom ,i may seem to
 be treating the nature cult with  undue
 severity should remember that ,i am    
treating it only in its                 
pseudo-religious aspect4 ,in its proper 
place all this refining on  man's       
relation to the 8outworld0 may be       
legitimate and delightful2  but that    
place is secondary4 ,my quarrel is only 
with the sthete who  assumes an         

apocalyptic pose and gives forth as a   
profound philosophy  what is at best    
only a holiday or week-end view of      
existence4 ,no  distinction is more     
important for any one who wishes to     
maintain a  correct scale of values than
 that between what is merely recreative 
and  what ministers to leisure4 ,there  
are times when we may properly seek     
solace and renewal in nature1 when we   
may invite both our souls and our       
bodies to loaf4 ,the error is to look on
 these moments of recreation  and relief
 from concentration on some definite end
 as in themselves  the consummation of  
wisdom4 ,rousseau indeed assumes that   
his art of  mixing himself up with the  
landscape is identical with leisure2    
like  innumerable disciples he confuses 
revery with meditation--a confusion  so 
grave that ,i shall need to revert to it
 later4 ,he parodies subtly  what is    
above the ordinary rational level in    
terms of what is below it4  ,he thus    
brings under suspicion the most         

necessary of all truths--that  the      
kingdom of heaven is within us4    ,the 
first place always belongs to action and
 purpose and not to mere  idling1 even  
if it be like that of the ,rousseauist  
transcendental  idling4 ,the man who    
makes a deliberate choice and then plans
 his life  with reference to it is less 
likely than the aimless man to be swayed
  by every impulse and impression4 ,the 
figures of ,raphael according to        
,hazlitt have always 8a set1 determined1
 voluntary character10 they  8want that 
wild uncertainty of expression which is 
connected with the  accidents of nature 
and the changes of the elements40 ,and  
,hazlitt  therefore concludes rightly   
that ,raphael has 8nothing romantic     
about  him40 ,the distinction is so     
important that it might be made the     
basis for a comparison between the      
painting of the ,renaissance and  some  
of the important schools of the         
nineteenth century4 ,here again  no     
sensible person would maintain that the 

advantage is all on one  side4          
,romanticism gave a great impulse to    
landscape painting and to  the painting 
of man in the landscape4 ,few romantic  
gains are more  indubitable4 ,one may   
prefer the best work of the ,barbizon   
school for  example to the contemporary 
product in ,french literature4 ,but even
 here  it must be insisted that painting
 from which man is absent or in which   
he is more or less subordinated to the  
landscape is not the highest  type of   
painting4 ,turner1 one of the greatest  
masters of landscape1  was almost       
incapable of painting the human figure4 
,ruskin is therefore  indulging in      
romantic paradox when he puts ,turner in
 the same class  as ,shakespeare4       
,turner's vision of life as compared    
with that of  ,shakespeare is not       
central but peripheral4    ,the         
revolution that has resulted from the   
triumph of naturalistic over  humanistic
 tendencies in painting extends down to 
the minutest details  of technique2 it  

has meant the subordination of          
design--the imposition1  that is1 on    
one's material of a firm central        
purpose--to light and  color2 and this  
in painting corresponds to the literary 
pursuit of  glamour and illusion for    
their own sake4 ,it has meant in general
 a  tendency to sacrifice all the other 
elements of painting to the capture  of 
the vivid and immediate impression4 ,and
 this corresponds to the  readiness of  
the writer to forego decorum in favor of
 intensity4 ,the  choice that is        
involved1 including a choice of         
technique1 according  as one is a       
naturalist or a humanist1 is brought out
 by ,mr4 ,kenyon ,cox  in his comparison
 of two paintings of hermits1#baf one by
 ,titian and  one by ,john ,sargent3 the
 impressionistic and pantheistic hermit 
of  ,sargent is almost entirely merged  
in the landscape2 he is little more     
than a pretext for a study of the       
accidents of light4 ,the conception  of 
,titian's ,st4 ,jerome in the ,desert is

 perhaps even more humanistic  than     
religious4 ,the figure of the saint on  
which everything converges  is not      
merely robust1 it is even a bit         
robustious4 ,the picture affirms  in its
 every detail the superior importance of
 man and his purposes to  his natural   
environment4 ,so far as their inner life
 is concerned the  two hermits are      
plainly moving in opposite directions4  
,an appropriate  motto for ,sargent's   
hermit would be the following lines that
 ,i take  from a ,french symbolist1 but 
the equivalent of which can be found in 
innumerable other ,rousseauists3        
,je voudrais me confondre avec les      
chases1 tordre      ,mes bras centre la 
pierre et les fraches corces1      ,etre
 l'arbre1 le mur1 le pollen et le sel1  
,et me dissoudre au fond de l'tre       
universel4    ,this is to push the      
reciprocity between man and nature to a 
point  where the landscape is not only a
 state of the soul but the soul is  a   
state of the landscape2 just as in      

,shelley's ,ode1 ,shelley becomes  the  
,west ,wind and the ,west ,wind becomes 
,shelley4#bag ,the changes in  the      
romantic soul are appropriately mirrored
 in the changes of the  seasons4 ,in    
,tieck's 8,genoveva10 for example1      
,golo's love blossoms in  the           
springtime1 the sultry summer impels him
 to sinful passion1 the  autumn brings  
grief and repentance1 and in winter     
avenging judgment  overtakes the        
offender and casts him into the         
grave4#bah ,autumn  is perhaps even more
 than springtime the favorite season of 
the  ,rousseauist4 ,the movement is     
filled with souls who like the hero of  
,poe's 8,ulalume0 have reached the      
,october of their sensations4 ,some     
traces of this sympathetic relation     
between man and nature may indeed  be   
found in the literature of the past4    
,the appropriateness of the  setting in 
the 8,prometheus ,bound0 of schylus     
would scarcely seem to  be an accident4 
,the storm in 8,lear0 may also be       

instanced4 ,but as ,i  have already said
 occidental man did not before ,rousseau
 show much  inclination to mingle with  
the landscape4 ,the parallelism that    
,pater  establishes in 8,marius the     
,epicurean0 between the moods of the    
hero and  the shifting aspects of nature
 is felt as a distinct anachronism4 ,if 
we  wish to find any early              
approximations to the subtleties and    
refinements  of the ,rousseauist in his 
dealings with nature we need to turn to 
the  ,far ,east--especially to the      
,taoist movement in ,china4#bai ,as a   
result  of the ,taoist influence ,china 
had from a very early period poets and  
painters for whom the landscape is very 
plainly a state of the soul4            
,pantheistic revery of the kind ,i have 
been describing leads inevitably  to a  
special type of symbolism4 ,the         
,rousseauist reads into nature          
unutterable love4 ,he sees shining      
through its finite forms the light of   
the infinite4 ,the ,germans especially  

set out to express symbolically  the    
relationship between the love and       
infinitude that they saw in  nature and 
the kindred elements in themselves4 ,any
 one who has  attempted to thread his   
way through the ,german theories of the 
symbol  will feel that he has1 like     
,wordsworth's shepherd1 8been in the    
heart  of many thousand mists40 ,but in 
view of the importance of the subject   
it is necessary to venture for a moment 
into this metaphysical murk4            
,schelling's 8,nature ,philosophy0 is   
perhaps the most ambitious of all  the  
,german attempts to run together        
symbolically the human spirit and       
phenomenal nature4 8,what we call       
nature10 says ,schelling1 8is a poem    
that lies hidden in a secret wondrous   
writing02 if the riddle could be        
revealed we should recognize in nature  
8the ,odyssey of the ,spirit40  8,there 
looks out through sensuous objects as   
through a half-transparent  mist the    
world of phantasy for which we long40   

8,all things are only a  garment of the 
world of spirit40 8,to be romantic10    
says ,uhland1 8is  to have an inkling of
 the infinite in appearances40          
8,beauty10 says  ,schelling in similar  
vein1 8is a finite rendering of the     
infinite40 ,now  the infinite and the   
finite can only be thus brought together
 through  the medium of the symbol4     
,therefore1 as ,a4 ,w4 ,schlegel says1  
8beauty  is a symbolical representation 
of the infinite4 ,all poetry is an      
everlasting symbolizing40    ,this      
assertion is in an important sense true4
 ,unfortunately there  remains the      
ambiguity that ,i have already pointed  
out in the word  8infinite40 ,no one    
would give a high rating to a certain   
type of  allegory that flourished in    
neo-classical times as also in a        
somewhat  different form during the     
,middle ,ages4 ,it is a cold            
intellectual  contrivance in which the  
imagination has little part and which   
therefore fails to suggest the infinite 

in any sense4 ,but to  universalize the 
particular in the classical sense is to 
give access  imaginatively to the human 
infinite that is set above nature4      
,every  successful humanistic creation  
is more or less symbolical4 ,othello is 
not merely a jealous man2 he is also a  
symbol of jealousy4 ,some of the  myths 
of ,plato again are imaginative         
renderings of a supersensuous  realm to 
which man has no direct access4 ,they   
are symbolical  representations of an   
infinite that the romanticist leaves out
 of  his reckoning4 ,the humanistic and 
spiritual symbols that abound in  the   
religion and poetry of the past1 are    
then1 it would seem1 very  different    
from the merely sthetic symbolizing of a
 ,schelling4 ,for  ,schelling is one of 
the chief of those who from ,shaftesbury
 down have  tended to identify beauty   
and truth and to make both purely       
sthetic4  ,but a symbol that is purely  
sthetic1 that is in other words purely a
  matter of feeling1 rests on what is   

constantly changing not only from  man  
to man but in the same man4 ,romantic   
symbolism1 therefore1 though  it claims 
at one moment to be scientific          
7especially in ,germany7 and at  another
 moment to have a religious value1 is at
 bottom the symbolizing  of mood4 ,both 
the imagination and the emotion that    
enter into the  romantic symbol are     
undisciplined4 ,the results of such a   
symbolism do  not meet the demand of the
 genuine man of science for experimental
  proof1 they do not again satisfy the  
test of universality imposed by  those  
who believe in a distinctively human    
realm that is set above  nature4 ,the   
nature philosophy of a ,schelling leads 
therefore on the one  hand to sham      
science and on the other to sham        
philosophy and religion4    ,the genuine
 man of science has as a matter of fact 
repudiated the  speculations of         
,schelling and other romantic physicists
 as fantastic4  ,he may also be counted 
on to look with suspicion on the        

speculations  of a ,bergson who1 more   
perhaps than any living ,rousseauist1   
reminds  one of the ,german romantic    
philosophers4 ,one idea has however     
lingered  in the mind even of the       
genuine man of science as a result of   
all this  romantic theorizing--namely   
that man has access to the infinite only
  through nature4 ,thus ,professor      
,henry ,fairfield ,osborn said in a     
recent  address to the students of      
,columbia ,university3        ,i would  
not for a moment take advantage of the  
present      opportunity to discourage  
the study of human nature and of        
the humanities1 but for what is called  
the best opening for      a constructive
 career give me nature4 ,the ground for 
my      preference is that human nature 
is an exhaustible fountain      of      
research2 ,homer understood it well2    
,solomon fathomed      it2 ,shakespeare 
divined it1 both normal and abnormal2   
the modernists have been squeezing out  
the last drops of      abnormality4     

,nature1 studied since ,aristotle's     
time1 is      still full to the brim2 no
 perceptible falling of its tides       
is evident from any point at which it is
 attacked1 from      nebul to           
protoplasm2 it is always wholesome1     
refreshing and      invigorating4 ,of   
the two most creative literary artists  
of our      time1 ,maeterlinck1 jaded   
with human abnormality1 comes back to   
the bee and the flowers and the 8blue   
bird10 with a delicious      renewal of 
youth1 while ,rostand turns to the      
barnyard4    ,the romanticists acted    
from the start1 following here in the   
wake of  the pseudo-classicists1 on     
,professor ,osborn's assumption that    
normal  human nature is something that  
may be bottled up once for all and put  
by on a shelf1 though they would have   
been pained to learn from him  that even
 abnormal human nature may also be      
bottled up and put by in  the same      
fashion4 ,sophistries of this kind      
should perhaps be pardoned  in the man  

of science when so many men who are     
supposed to stand for  letters have     
shown him the way4 ,great literature is 
an imaginative and  symbolical          
interpretation of an infinite that is   
accessible only to  those who possess in
 some degree the same type of           
imagination4 ,a writer  like            
,maeterlinck1 whom ,professor ,osborn   
takes to be representative of           
literature in general1 is merely a late 
exponent of a movement that  from the   
start turned away from this human       
infinite towards pantheistic  revery4   
,the imagination is1 as ,coleridge says1
 the great unifying power2 it  draws    
together things that are apparently     
remote4 ,but its analogies to  be of    
value should surely have validity apart 
from the mere shifting  mood of the man 
who perceives them4 ,otherwise he simply
 wrests some  outer object from the     
chain of cause and effect of which it is
 actually  a part1 and incorporates it  
arbitrarily into his own private dream4 

,wordsworth is not sparing of homely    
detail in his account of his            
leech-gatherer2 but at a given moment in
 this poem the leech-gatherer  undergoes
 a strange transformation2 he loses all 
verisimilitude as a  leech-gatherer and 
becomes a romantic symbol1 a mere       
projection1 that  is1 of the poet's own 
broodings4 ,to push this symbolizing of 
mood  beyond a certain point is         
incipient hallucination4 ,we are told   
that  when the asylum at ,charenton was 
shelled in the ,franco-,prussian ,war   
of #ahgj1 the lunatics saw reflected in 
the bursting bombs1 each in  a different
 way1 his own madness4 ,one took the    
bombs to be a link in  the plot of his  
enemies against him1 etc4 ,it is hard to
 consider the  symbolizing and visions  
of the extreme romanticist1 such as     
those of  ,william ,blake1 without      
thinking at times of ,charenton4        
,what ,i have said of the romantic      
symbol is true in some degree of  the   
romantic metaphor1 for the symbol and   

even the myth are often  only a         
developed metaphor4 ,the first part of  
the romantic metaphor1  the image or    
impression that has been received from  
the outer world1  is often admirably    
fresh and vivid4#bbj ,but the second    
part of the  metaphor when the analogy  
involved is that between some fact of   
outer  perception and the inner life of 
man is often vague and misty2 for the   
inner life in which the romanticist     
takes interest is not the life  he      
possesses in common with other men but  
what is most unique in his  own         
emotions--his mood in short4 ,that is   
why the metaphor and still  more the    
symbol in so far as they are romantic   
are always in danger of  becoming       
unintelligible1 since it is not easy for
 one man to enter into  another's mood4 
,men accord a ready welcome to metaphors
 and symbols  that instead of expressing
 something more or less individual have 
a  real relevancy to their common       
nature4 ,tribulation1 for example1 means

  literally the beating out of grain on 
the threshing floor4 ,the man  who first
 saw the analogy between this process   
and certain spiritual  experiences      
established a legitimate link between   
nature and human  nature1 between sense 
and the supersensuous4 ,language is     
filled with  words and expressions of   
this kind which have become so current  
that  their metaphorical and symbolical 
character has been forgotten and  which 
have at the same time ceased to be vivid
 and concrete and become  abstract4     
,the primitivistic fallacies of the     
,german romanticists in their  dealings 
with the symbol and metaphor appear in  
various forms in  ,french romanticism   
and even more markedly in its           
continuation known  as the symbolistic  
movement4 ,what is exasperating in many 
of the  poets of this school is that    
they combine the pretence to a vast     
illumination with the utmost degree of  
spiritual and intellectual  emptiness   
and vagueness4 ,like the early ,german  

romanticists they mix  up flesh and     
spirit in nympholeptic longing and break
 down and blur  all the boundaries of   
being in the name of the infinite4 ,of  
this inner  formlessness and anarchy the
 chaos of the vers libre 7in which they 
were also anticipated by the ,germans7  
is only an outer symptom4#bba    ,if the
 ,rousseauistic primitivist recognizes  
the futility of his  symbolizing1 and   
consents to become a passive register of
 outer  perception1 if for example he   
proclaims himself an imagist1 he at     
least  has the merit of frankness1 but  
in that case he advertises by the very  
name he has assumed the bankruptcy of   
all that is most worth while in  poetry4
    ,but to return to romanticism and   
nature4 ,it should be plain from what   
has already been said that the          
romanticist tends to make of nature the 
mere plaything of his mood4 ,when       
,werther's mood is cheerful1 nature     
smiles at him benignly4 ,when his mood  
darkens she becomes for him 8a          

devouring monster40 ,when it grows      
evident to the romanticist that  nature 
does not alter with his alteration1 he  
chides her at times for  her            
impassibility2 or again he seeks to be  
impassible like her1 even if  he can be 
so only at the expense of his humanity4 
,this latter attitude  is closely       
connected with the dehumanizing of man  
by science that is  reflected in a whole
 literature during the last half of the 
nineteenth  century--for instance1 in   
so-called 8impassive0 writers like      
,flaubert  and ,leconte de ,lisle4      
,the causal sequences that had been     
observed in the physical realm  were    
developed more and more during this     
period with the aid of pure  mathematics
 and the mathematical reason 7esprit de 
gomtrie7 into an  all-embracing system4 
,for the earlier romanticists nature had
 at least  been a living presence       
whether benign or sinister4 ,for the    
mathematical  determinist she tends to  
become a soulless1 pitiless mechanism   

against  which man is helpless4#bbb     
,this conception of nature is so        
important  that ,i shall need to revert 
to it in my treatment of melancholy4    
,the man who has accepted the universe  
of the mechanist or determinist  is not 
always gloomy4 ,but men in general felt 
the need of some relief  from the       
deterministic obsession4 ,hence the     
success of the philosophy  of ,bergson  
and similar philosophies4 ,the          
glorification of impulse  7lan vital7   
that ,bergson opposes to the mechanizing
 of life is in  its main aspects1 as ,i 
have already indicated1 simply a return 
to  the spontaneity of ,rousseau4 ,his  
plan of escape from deterministic       
science is at bottom very much like     
,rousseau's plan of escape from  the    
undue rationalism of the ,enlightenment4
 ,as a result of these                  
eighteenth-century influences1 nature   
had1 according to ,carlyle1 become  a   
mere engine1 a system of cogs and       
pulleys4 ,he therefore hails ,novalis   

as an 8anti-mechanist10 a 8deep man10   
because of the way of deliverance  that 
he teaches from this nightmare4 8,i owe 
him somewhat40 ,what ,carlyle  owed to  
,novalis many moderns have owed to      
,bergson1 but it is not yet  clear that 
either ,novalis or ,bergson are 8deep   
men40    ,the mechanistic view of       
nature1 whether held pessimistically or 
optimistically1 involving as it does    
factors that are infinite  and therefore
 beyond calculation1 cannot furnish     
proofs that will  satisfy the true      
positivist3 he is inclined to dismiss it
 as a mere  phantasmagoria of the       
intellect4 ,the ,rousseauistic view of  
nature1 on  the other hand1 whether held
 optimistically or pessimistically1 is  
even less capable of satisfying the     
standards of the positivist and  must be
 dismissed as a mere phantasmagoria of  
the emotions4 ,the fact  is that we do  
not know and can never know what nature 
is in herself4  ,the mysterious mother  
has shrouded herself from us in an      

impenetrable  veil of illusion4 ,but    
though we cannot know nature absolutely 
we can  pick up a practical and         
piecemeal knowledge of nature not by    
dreaming  but by doing4 ,the man of     
action can within certain limits have   
his way  with nature4 ,now the men who  
have acted during the past century have 
been the men of science and the         
utilitarians who have been turning  to  
account the discoveries of science4 ,the
 utilitarians have indeed  derived such 
potent aid from science that they have  
been able to stamp  their efforts on the
 very face of the landscape4 ,the       
romanticists have  not ceased to protest
 against this scientific utilizing of   
nature as  a profanation4 ,but inasmuch 
as these protests have come from men who
  have stood not for work but for revery
 they have for the most part  been      
futile4 ,this is not the least of the   
ironic contrasts that abound  in this   
movement between the ideal and the real4
 ,no age ever grew so  ecstatic over    

natural beauty as the nineteenth        
century1 at the same  time no age ever  
did so much to deface nature4 ,no age   
ever so exalted  the country over the   
town1 and no age ever witnessed such a  
crowding  into urban centres4    ,a     
curious study might be made of this     
ironic contrast as it appears  in the   
early romantic crusade against railways4
 ,one of the romantic  grievances       
against the railway is that it does not 
encourage  vagabondage3 it has a        
definite goal and gets to it so far as  
possible  in a straight line4 ,yet in   
spite of ,wordsworth's protesting sonnet
 the  ,windermere railway was built4    
,ruskin's wrath at railways was equally 
vain4 ,in general1 sentiment is not of  
much avail when pitted against          
industrial advance4 ,the papers         
announced recently that one of the      
loveliest cascades in the ,california   
,sierras had suddenly disappeared  as a 
result of the diversion of its water to 
a neighboring power-plant4  ,the same   

fate is overtaking ,niagara itself4 ,it 
is perhaps symbolic  that a quarry has  
made a hideous gash in the hillside on  
the shores of  ,rydal ,mere right       
opposite ,wordsworth's house4    ,if the
 man of science and the utilitarian do  
not learn what nature  is in herself    
they learn at least to adjust themselves
 to forces  outside themselves4 ,the    
,rousseauist1 on the other hand1 does   
not in  his 8communion0 with nature     
adjust himself to anything4 ,he is      
simply  communing with his own mood4    
,rousseau chose appropriately as title  
for  the comedy that was his first      
literary effort 8,narcissus or the      
,lover  of ,himself40 ,the nature over  
which the ,rousseauist is bent in such  
rapt  contemplation plays the part of   
the pool in the legend of ,narcissus4   
,it  renders back to him his own image4 
,he sees in nature what he himself  has 
put there4 ,the ,rousseauist transfuses 
himself into nature in much  the same   
way that ,pygmalion transfuses himself  

into his statue4 ,nature  is dead1 as   
,rousseau says1 unless animated by the  
fires of love4 8,make  no mistake10 says
 ,m4 ,masson1 8the nature that          
,jean-,jacques worships  is only a      
projection of ,jean-,jacques4 ,he has   
poured himself forth  so complacently   
upon it that he can always find himself 
and cherish  himself in it40 ,and ,m4   
,masson goes on and quotes from a       
curious and  little-known fragment of   
,rousseau3 8,beloved solitude10         
,rousseau sighs1  8beloved solitude1    
where ,i still pass with pleasure the   
remains of  a life given over to        
suffering4 ,forest with stunted trees1  
marshes  without water1 broom1 reeds1   
melancholy heather1 inanimate objects1  
you who can neither speak to me nor hear
 me1 what secret charm brings  me back  
constantly into your midst8 ,unfeeling  
and dead things1 this  charm is not in  
you2 it could not be there4 ,it is in my
 own heart which  wishes to refer back  
everything to itself40#bbc ,coleridge   

plainly only  continues ,rousseau when  
he writes3        ,o ,lady6 we receive  
but what we give1      ,and in our life 
alone does nature live3#bbd      ,ours  
is her wedding-garment1 ours her shroud6
        ,and would we aught behold1 of  
higher worth1      ,than that inanimate 
cold world allow'd      ,to the poor    
loveless ever-anxious crowd1        ,ah6
 from the soul itself must issue forth  
,a light1 a glory1 a fair luminous cloud
        ,enveloping the ,earth4    ,the 
fair luminous cloud is no other than the
 ,arcadian imagination4 8,the  light    
that never was on sea or land1 the      
consecration and the poet's  dream0 of  
which ,wordsworth speaks1 is likewise as
 appears very plainly  from the         
context1#bbe ,arcadian4 ,he should once1
 ,wordsworth writes1  have wished to see
 ,peele ,castle bathed in the ,arcadian 
light1 but now  that he has escaped by  
sympathy for his fellow-men from the    
,arcadian  aloofness1 he is willing that
 it should be painted in storm4 ,mere   

storminess1 one should recollect1 is not
 in itself an assurance that  one has   
turned from the romantic dream to       
reality4 ,one finds in this  movement1  
if nowhere else1 as ,i remarked apropos 
of ,chateaubriand1 the  stormy ,arcadia4
    ,it is not through the ,arcadian    
imagination that one moves towards      
reality4 ,this does not much matter if  
what one seeks in a 8return to  nature0 
is merely recreation4 ,i cannot repeat  
too often that ,i have no  quarrel with 
the nature cult when it remains         
recreative but only when  it sets up as 
a substitute for philosophy and         
religion4 ,this involves  a confusion   
between the two main directions of the  
human spirit1 a  confusion as ,i have   
said in a previous chapter between the  
realm of  awe and the region of wonder4 
,pascal exaggerates somewhat when he    
says  the ,bible never seeks to prove   
religion from the 8wonders0 of nature4  
,but this remark is true to the total   
spirit of the ,bible4 ,a knowledge  of  

the flowers of the ,holy ,land is less  
necessary for an understanding  of the  
gospel narrative than one might suppose 
from ,renan4#bbf ,renan  is simply      
seeking to envelop ,jesus so far as     
possible in an ,arcadian  atmosphere4   
,in so doing he is following in the     
footsteps of the great  father of       
sentimentalists4 ,according to ,m4      
,masson1 ,jesus1 as depicted  by        
,jean-,jacques1 becomes 8a sort of grand
 master of the ,golden ,age40    ,here  
as elsewhere the ,rousseauist is seeking
 to identify the ,arcadian  view of life
 with wisdom4 ,the result is a series of
 extraordinarily  subtle disguises for  
egoism4 ,we think we see the            
,rousseauist prostrate  before the ideal
 woman or before nature or before ,god  
himself1 but  when we look more closely 
we see that he is only 7as              
,sainte-,beuve said  of ,alfred de      
,vigny7 8in perpetual adoration before  
the holy sacrament  of himself40 ,the   
fact that he finds in nature only what  

he has put  there seems to be for       
,rousseau himself a source of           
satisfaction4 ,but  the poem of         
,coleridge ,i have just quoted1 in which
 he proclaims that so  far as nature is 
concerned 8we receive but what we give10
 is entitled  8,ode to ,dejection40 ,one
 of man's deepest needs would seem to be
 for  genuine communion1 for a genuine  
escape1 that is1 from his ordinary      
self4 ,the hollowness of the            
,rousseauistic communion with nature as 
well as other ,rousseauistic substitutes
 for genuine communion is  indissolubly 
bound up with the subject of romantic   
melancholy4          ,,chapter ,,ix     
,,romantic ,,melancholy      ,rousseau  
and his early followers--especially     
perhaps his early ,french               
followers--were very much preoccupied   
with the problem of happiness4  ,now in 
a sense all men--even those who renounce
 the world and mortify  the flesh--aim  
at happiness4 ,the important point to   
determine is what  any particular person

 means by happiness and how he hopes to 
attain it4  ,it should be plain from all
 that has been said that the            
,rousseauist  seeks happiness in the    
free play of the emotions4 ,the         
8,influence of  the ,passions on        
,happiness0 is the significant title of 
one of ,madame  de ,stal's early        
treatises4 ,the happiness that the      
,rousseauist seeks  involves not merely 
a free play of feeling but--what is even
 more  important--a free play of the    
imagination4 ,feeling acquires a sort   
of infinitude as a result of this       
coperation of the imagination1  and so  
the romanticist goes1 as we have seen1  
in quest of the thrill  superlative1 as 
appears so clearly in his nympholepsy1  
his pursuit of  the 8impossible she40   
,but the more imaginative this quest for
 emotional  happiness grows the more it 
tends to become a mere nostalgia4       
,happiness  is achieved so far as it is 
achieved at all in dreamland4 ,rousseau 
says  of himself3 ,mon plus constant    

bonheur fut en songe4 ,every finite     
satisfaction by the very fact that it is
 finite leaves him unsatisfied4  ,ren   
says that he had exhausted solitude as  
he had exhausted society3  they had both
 failed to satisfy his insatiable       
desires4 ,ren plainly  takes his        
insatiableness to be the badge of his   
spiritual distinction4  ,to submit to   
any circumscribing of one's desires is  
to show that  one has no sense of       
infinitude and so to sink to the level  
of the  philistine4    ,but does one    
become happy by being nostalgic and     
hypersthetic1 by  burning with infinite 
indeterminate desire8 ,we have here     
perhaps the  chief irony and            
contradiction in the whole movement4    
,the ,rousseauist  seeks happiness and  
yet on his own showing1 his mode of     
seeking it  results1 not in happiness   
but in wretchedness4 ,one finds indeed  
figures  in the nineteenth century1 a   
,browning1 for example1 who see in life 
first of all an emotional adventure and 

then carry this adventure  through to   
the end with an apparently unflagging   
gusto4 ,one may affirm  nevertheless    
that a movement which began by asserting
 the goodness  of man and the loveliness
 of nature ended by producing the       
greatest  literature of despair the     
world has ever seen4 ,no movement has   
perhaps  been so prolific of melancholy 
as emotional romanticism4 ,to follow it 
from ,rousseau down to the present day  
is to run through the whole gamut  of   
gloom4#bbg        ,infections of        
unutterable sadness1      ,infections of
 incalculable madness1                  
,infections of incurable despair4       
,according to a somewhat doubtful       
authority1 ,ninon de ,lenclos1 8the  joy
 of the spirit measures its force40     
,when the romanticist on the  other hand
 discovers that his ideal of happiness  
works put into actual  unhappiness he   
does not blame his ideal4 ,he simply    
assumes that the  world is unworthy of a
 being so exquisitely organized as      

himself1 and  so shrinks back from it   
and enfolds himself in his sorrow as he 
would  in a mantle4 ,since the          
superlative bliss that he craves eludes 
him  he will at least be superlative in 
woe4 ,so far from being a mark of       
failure this woe measures his spiritual 
grandeur4 8,a great soul10 as  ,ren     
says1 8must contain more grief than a   
small one40 ,the romantic  poets enter  
into a veritable competition with one   
another as to who  shall be accounted   
the most forlorn4 ,the victor in this   
competition  is awarded the palm not    
merely for poetry but wisdom4 ,in the   
words of  ,arnold3                      
,amongst us one        ,who most has    
suffered1 takes dejectedly      ,his    
seat upon the intellectual throne2      
,and all his store of sad experience he 
,lays bare of wretched days4      ,tells
 us his misery's birth and growth and   
signs1        ,and how the dying spark  
of hope was fed1        ,and how the    
breast was soothed1 and how the head1   

,and all his hourly varied anodynes4    
,this for our wisest6 and we others     
pine1        ,and wish the long unhappy 
dream would end1          ,and waive all
 claim to bliss1 and try to bear2       
,with close-lipped patience for our only
 friend1          ,sad patience1 too    
near neighbor to despair4    ,though    
,arnold may in this poem1 as some one   
has complained1 reduce the  muse to the 
rle of hospital nurse1 he is1 like his  
master ,senancour1  free from the taint 
of theatricality4 ,he does not as he    
said of ,byron  make 8a pageant of his  
bleeding heart02 and the ,byronic pose  
has a  close parallel in the pose of    
,chateaubriand4 ,an ,irish girl at      
,london  once told ,chateaubriand that  
8he carried his heart in a sling40 ,he  
himself said that he had a soul of the  
kind 8the ancients called a  sacred     
malady40    ,chateaubriand1 to be sure1 
had his cheerful moments and many of    
them4  ,his sorrows he bestowed upon the
 public4 ,herein he was a true child  of

 ,jean-,jacques4 ,we are told by        
eye-witnesses how heartily ,rousseau    
enjoyed many aspects of his life at     
,motiers-,travers4 ,on his own  showing1
 he was plunged during this period in   
almost unalloyed misery4  ,froude writes
 of ,carlyle3 8,it was his peculiarity  
that if matters were  well with himself1
 it never occurred to him that they     
could be going  ill with any one else2  
and1 on the other hand1 if he was       
uncomfortable1  he required everybody to
 be uncomfortable along with him40 ,we  
can  follow clear down to ,gissing the  
assumption in some form or other that   
8art must be the mouthpiece of misery40 
,this whole question as to the  proper  
function of art goes to the root of the 
debate between the  classicist and the  
,rousseauist4 8,all these poets10       
,goethe complains to  ,eckermann of the 
romanticists of #ahcj1 8write as though 
they were ill1  and as though the whole 
world were a hospital4 ''' ,every one of
 them in  writing tries to be more      

desolate than all the others4 ,this is  
really  an abuse of poetry which has    
been given to make man satisfied with   
the  world and with his lot4 ,but the   
present generation is afraid of all     
solid energy2 its mind is at ease and   
sees poetry only in weakness4 ,i  have  
found a good expression to vex these    
gentlemen4 ,i am going to call  their   
poetry hospital poetry40#bbh    ,now    
,goethe is here1 like ,chateaubriand1   
mocking to some degree his own          
followers4 ,when he suffered from a     
spiritual ailment of any kind he got    
rid of it by inoculating others with it2
 and it was in this way1 as we  learn   
from his ,autobiography1 that he got    
relief from the ,weltschmerz  of        
8,werther40 ,but later in life ,goethe  
was classical not merely in  precept    
like ,chateaubriand1 but to some extent 
in practice4 ,the best of  the poetry of
 his maturity tends like that of the    
ancients to elevate  and console4       
,the contrast between classic and       

romantic poetry in this matter of       
melancholy is closely bound up with the 
larger contrast between  imitation and  
spontaneity4 ,homer is the greatest of  
poets1 according  to ,aristotle1 because
 he does not entertain us with his own  
person but  is more than any other poet 
an imitator4 ,the romantic poet writes1 
on  the other hand1 as ,lamartine says  
he wrote1 solely for the 8relief of  his
 heart40 ,he pours forth himself--his   
most intimate and private self2  above  
all1 his anguish and his tears4 ,in his 
relation to his reader1 as  ,musset     
tells us in a celebrated image1#bbi he  
is like the pelican who  rends and      
lacerates his own flesh to provide      
nourishment for his young  7,pour toute 
nourriture il apporte son cur73         
,les plus dsesprs sont les chants les   
plus beaux1      ,et j'en sais          
d'immortels qui sont de purs            
sanglots4#bcj    ,to make of poetry a   
spontaneous overflow of powerful        
emotion1 usually  of sorrowful emotion1 

is what the ,french understand by       
lyricism 7le  lyrisme72 and it may be   
objected that it is not fair to compare 
an  epic poet like ,homer with a        
lyricist like ,musset4 ,let us then take
 for  our comparison the poet whom the  
ancients themselves looked upon as  the 
supreme type of the lyricist--,pindar4  
,he is superbly imaginative1  8sailing10
 as ,gray tells us1 8with supreme       
dominion through the azure  deep of     
air10 but his imagination is not like   
that of ,musset in the  service of      
sensibility4 ,he does not bestow his own
 emotions upon us  but is rather in the 
,aristotelian sense an imitator4 ,he is 
indeed at  the very opposite pole from  
,rousseau and the 8apostles of          
affliction40  8,let a man10 he says1    
8not darken delight in his life40       
8,disclose not  to strangers our burden 
of care2 this at least shall ,i advise  
thee4  ,therefore is it fitting to show 
openly to all the folk the fair and     
pleasant things allotted us2 but if any 

baneful misfortune sent of  heaven      
befalleth man1 it is seemly to shroud   
this in darkness40#bca  ,and one should 
also note ,pindar's hostility towards   
that other great  source of romantic    
lyricism--nostalgia 78,the desire of the
 moth for  the star071 and the closely  
allied pursuit of the strange and the   
exotic4 ,he tells of the condign        
punishment visited by ,apollo upon the  
girl ,coronis who became enamoured of 8a
 strange man from ,arcadia10 and  adds3 
8,she was in love with things           
remote--that passion which many ere  now
 have felt4 ,for among men1 there is a  
foolish company of those who1  putting  
shame on what they have at home1 cast   
their glances afar1 and  pursue idle    
dreams in hopes that shall not be       
fulfilled40#bcb    ,we are not to       
suppose that ,pindar was that most      
tiresome and  superficial of all        
types--the professional optimist who    
insists on  inflicting his 8gladness0   
upon us4 8,the immortals10 he says1     

8apportion  to man two sorrows for every
 boon they grant40#bcc ,in general the  
,greek whom ,kipling sings and whom we  
already find in ,schiller--the  ,greek  
who is an incarnation of the 8joy of    
life unquestioned1 the  everlasting     
wondersong of youth0#bcd--;is a romantic
 myth4 ,we read  in the ,iliad3#bce 8,of
 all the creatures that breathe or crawl
 upon  the earth1 none is more wretched 
than man40 ,here is the 8joy of life    
unquestioned0 in ,homer4 ,like ,homer   
the best of the later ,greeks  and      
,romans face unflinchingly the facts of 
life and these facts do  not encourage a
 thoughtless elation4 ,their melancholy 
is even more  concerned with the lot of 
man in general than with their personal 
and  private grief4 ,the quality of this
 melancholy is rendered in ,tennyson's  
line on ,virgil1 one of the finest in   
nineteenth century ,english poetry3     
,thou majestic in thy sadness at the    
doubtful doom of human kind4#bcf    ,one
 should indeed not fail to distinguish  

between the note of  melancholy in a    
,homer or a ,virgil and the melancholy  
of the ancients1  whether ,stoic or     
,epicurean1 who had experienced the     
hopelessness and  helplessness of a pure
 naturalism in dealing with ultimate    
problems4  ,the melancholy of the ,stoic
 is the melancholy of the man who       
associates  with the natural order a    
8virtue0 that the natural order does not
 give1  and so is tempted to exclaim at 
last with ,brutus1 that he had thought  
virtue a thing and had found that it was
 only a word4 ,the melancholy of  the   
,epicurean is that of the man who has   
tasted the bitter sediment  7amari      
aliquid7 in the cup of pleasure4 ,it is 
not difficult to  discover modern       
equivalents of both ,stoic and          
,epicurean melancholy4  8,one should    
seek10 says ,sainte-,beuve1 8in the     
pleasures of ,ren the  secret of his    
ennuis10 and so far as this is true     
,chateaubriand is  on much the same     
level as some ,roman voluptuary who     

suffered from  the tdium vit in the time
 of ,tiberius or ,nero4#bcg ,but though 
the ,roman decadent gave himself up to  
the pursuit of sensation and  often of  
violent and abnormal sensation he was   
less prone than a  ,chateaubriand to    
associate this pursuit with the         
8infinite02 and so he  was less         
nostalgic and hypersthetic4 ,his        
,epicureanism was therefore  less       
poetical no doubt1 but on the other hand
 he did not set up mere  romantic       
restlessness as a sort of substitute for
 religion4 ,it was  probably easier     
therefore for him to feel the divine    
discontent and  so turn to real religion
 than it would have been if he had1 like
 the  ,rousseauist1 complicated his     
,epicureanism with sham spirituality4   
,to say that the melancholy even of the 
decadent ancient is less  nostalgic is  
perhaps only another way of saying what 
,i have said about  the melancholy of   
the ancients in general--that it is not 
so purely  personal4 ,it derives less   

from his very private and personal      
illusions  and still less from his very 
private and personal disillusions4 ,in  
its purely personal quality romantic    
melancholy is indeed inseparable  from  
the whole conception of original genius4
 ,the genius sets out not  merely to be 
unique but unique in feeling1 and the   
sense uniqueness in  feeling speedily   
passes over into that of uniqueness in  
suffering--on  the principle no doubt   
laid down by ,horace ,walpole that life1
 which is  a comedy for those who think1
 is a tragedy for those who feel4 ,to be
  a beautiful soul1 to preserve one's   
native goodness of feeling among  men   
who have been perverted by society1 is  
to be the elect of nature  and yet this 
election turns out as ,rousseau tells us
 to be a 8fatal  gift of heaven40 ,it is
 only the disillusioned romanticist1    
however1  who assumes this elegiac tone4
 ,we need to consider what he means by  
happiness while he still seeks for it in
 the actual world and not in  the pays  

des chimres4 ,rousseau tells us that he 
based the sense  of his own worth on the
 fineness of his powers of perception4  
,why  should nature have endowed him    
with such exquisite faculties#bch if  he
 was not to have a satisfaction         
commensurate with them1 if he was  8to  
die without having lived08 ,we have here
 the psychological origins  of the right
 to happiness that the romanticists were
 to proclaim4  8,we spend on the        
passions10 says ,joubert1 8the stuff    
that has been  given us for happiness40 
,the ,rousseauist hopes to find his     
happiness  in the passions themselves4  
,romantic happiness does not involve any
  moral effort and has been defined in  
its extreme forms as a 8monstrous  dream
 of passive enjoyment40 ,flaubert has   
made a study of the right to  happiness 
thus understood in his 8,madame         
,bovary40 ,madame ,bovary1 who  is very 
commonplace in other respects1 feels    
exquisitely2 and inasmuch  as her       
husband had no such fineness the right  

to happiness meant for  her1 as it did  
for so many other 8misunderstood0 women1
 the right  to extra-marital adventure4 
,one should note the germs of melancholy
  that lurk in the quest of the         
superlative moment even if the quest is 
relatively successful4 ,suppose         
,saint-,preux had succeeded in          
compressing  into a single instant 8the 
delights of a thousand centuries02 and  
so  far as outer circumstances are      
concerned had had to pay no penalty4    
,the  nearer the approach to a          
superhuman intensity of feeling the     
greater is  likely to be the ensuing    
languor4 ,the ordinary round of life    
seems pale  and insipid compared with   
the exquisite and fugitive moment4 ,one 
seems  to one's self to have drained the
 cup of life at a draught and save      
perhaps for impassioned recollection of 
the perfect moment to have no  reason   
for continuing to live4 ,one's heart is 
8empty and swollen0#bci  and one is     
haunted by thoughts of suicide4    ,this

 sense of having exhausted life#bdj and 
the accompanying  temptation to suicide 
that are such striking features of the  
malady  of the age are not necessarily  
associated with any outer enjoyment at  
all4 ,one may devour life in revery and 
then the melancholy arises from  the    
disproportion between the dream and the 
fact4 ,the revery that thus  consumes   
life in advance is not necessarily      
erotic4 ,what may be termed  the cosmic 
revery of a ,senancour or an ,amiel#bda 
has very much the  same effect4    ,the 
atony and aridity of which the sufferer 
from romantic melancholy  complains may 
have other sources besides the          
depression that follows  upon the       
achieving of emotional intensity whether
 in revery or in fact2  it may also be  
an incident in the warfare between head 
and heart that  assumes so many forms   
among the spiritual posterity of        
,jean-,jacques4  ,the ,rousseauist seeks
 happiness in emotional spontaneity and 
this  spontaneity seems to be killed by 

the head which stands aloof and         
dissects and analyzes4 ,perhaps the best
 picture of the emotionalist  who is    
thus incapacitated for a frank surrender
 to his own emotions  is the 8,adolphe0 
of ,benjamin ,constant 7a book largely  
reminiscent of  ,constant's actual      
affair with ,madame de ,stal74          
,whether the victim of romantic         
melancholy feels or analyzes he  is     
equally incapable of action4 ,he who    
faces resolutely the rude  buffetings of
 the world is gradually hardened against
 them4 ,the  romantic movement is filled
 with the groans of those who have      
evaded  action and at the same time     
become highly sensitive and highly      
self-conscious4 ,the man who thrills    
more exquisitely to pleasure than       
another will also thrill more           
exquisitely to pain2 nay1 pleasure      
itself  in its extreme is allied to     
pain2#bdb so that to be hypersthetic is 
not an unmixed advantage especially if  
it be true1 as ,pindar says1  that the  

,gods bestow two trials on a man for    
every boon4 ,perhaps the  deepest       
bitterness is found1 not in those who   
make a pageant of their  bleeding       
hearts1 but in those who1 like ,leconte 
de ,lisle#bdc and  others 7les          
impassibles71 disdain to make a show of 
themselves to the  mob1 and so          
dissimulate their quivering sensibility 
under an appearance  of impassibility2  
or1 like ,stendhal1 under a mask of     
irony that 8is  imperceptible to the    
vulgar40    ,stendhal aims not at       
emotional intensity only1 but also      
glorifies the  lust for power4 ,he did  
as much as any one in his time to       
promote the  ideal of the superman4 ,yet
 even if the superman has nerves of     
steel1  as seems to have been the case  
with ,stendhal's favorite1 ,napoleon1   
and  acts on the outer world with a     
force of which the man in search of a   
sensation is quite incapable1 he does   
not act upon himself1 he remains        
ethically passive4 ,this ethical        

passivity is the trait common to all    
those who incline to live purely on the 
naturalistic level--whether  they       
sacrifice the human law and its demands 
for measure to the lust  of knowledge or
 the lust of sensation or the lust of   
power4 ,the man  who neglects his       
ethical self and withdraws into his     
temperamental or  private self1 must    
almost necessarily have the sense of    
isolation1  of remoteness from other    
men4 ,we return here to the psychology  
of  the original genius to whom it was a
 tame and uninteresting thing  to be    
simply human and who1 disdaining to seem
 to others a being of  the same clay as 
themselves1 wished to be in their eyes  
either an  angel or a demon--above all a
 demon4#bdd ,ren does not1 as ,i have   
said1#bde want even the woman who loves 
him to feel at one with him1  but rather
 to be at once astonished and appalled4 
,he exercises upon  those who approach  
him a malign fascination2 for he not    
only lives  in misery himself as in his 

natural element1 but communicates this  
misery to those who approach him4 ,he is
 like one of those fair trees  under    
which one cannot sit without perishing4 
,moreover ,ren disavows  all            
responsibility for thus being a human   
,upas-tree4 ,moral effort is            
unavailing1 for it was all written in   
the book of fate4 ,the victim of        
romantic melancholy is at times tender  
and elegiac1 at other times he  sets up 
as a heaven-defying ,titan4 ,this latter
 pose became especially  common in      
,france around #ahcj when the influence 
of ,byron had been added  to that of    
,chateaubriand4 ,under the influence of 
these two writers a  whole generation of
 youth became 8things of dark           
imaginings10#bdf  predestined to a      
blight that was at the same time the    
badge of their  superiority4 ,one wished
 like ,ren to have an 8immense1 solitary
 and  stormy soul10 and also1 like a    
,byronic hero1 to have a diabolical     
glint  in the eye and a corpse-like     

complexion1#bdg and so seem the 8blind  
and deaf agent of funereal              
mysteries40#bdh 8,it was possible to    
believe  everything about ,ren except   
the truth40 ,the person who delights in 
being as mysterious as this easily falls
 into mystification4 ,byron  himself we 
are told was rather flattered by the    
rumor that he had  committed at least   
one murder4 ,baudelaire1 it has been    
said1 displayed  his moral gangrene as a
 warrior might display honorable wounds4
 ,this  flaunting of his own perversity 
was part of the literary attitude he    
had inherited from the 8,satanic        
,school40    ,when the romanticist is   
not posing as the victim of fate he     
poses  as the victim of society4 ,both  
ways of dodging moral responsibility    
enter into the romantic legend of the   
pote maudit4 ,nobody loves  a poet4 ,his
 own mother according to ,baudelaire    
utters a malediction  upon him4#bdi     
,that is because the poet feels so      
exquisitely that he  is at once odious  

and unintelligible to the ordinary human
 pachyderm4  ,inasmuch as the philistine
 is not too sensitive to act he has a   
great  advantage over the poet in the   
real world and often succeeds in driving
  him from it and indeed from life      
itself4 ,this inferiority in action is  
a proof of the poet's ideality4 8,his   
gigantic wings10 as ,baudelaire  says1  
8keep him from walking40 ,he has1 in    
,coleridgean phrase1 fed on  8honey dew 
and drunk the milk of paradise10#bej and
 so can scarcely  be expected to submit 
to a diet of plain prose4 ,it is hardly 
necessary  to say that great poets of   
the past have not been at war with their
  public in this way4 ,the reason is    
that they were less taken up with  the  
uttering of their own uniqueness2 they  
were1 without ceasing to be  themselves1
 servants of the general sense4         
,chatterton became for the romanticists 
a favorite type of the pote  maudit1 and
 his suicide a symbol of the inevitable 
defeat of the  8ideal0 by the 8real40   

,the first performance of ,vigny's      
,chatterton  7#ahce7 with its picture of
 the implacable hatred of the philistine
  for the artist was received by the    
romantic youth of ,paris with  something
 akin to delirium4 ,as ,gautier says in 
his well-known account  of this         
performance one could almost hear in the
 night the crack of  the solitary       
pistols4 ,the ordinary man of letters1  
says ,vigny in  his preface to this     
play1 is sure of success1 even the great
 writer  may get a hearing1 but the     
poet1 a being who is on a far higher    
level than either1 can look forward only
 to 8perpetual martyrdom and            
immolation40 ,he comes into the world to
 be a burden to others2 his  native     
sensibility is so intimate and profound 
that it 8has plunged  him from childhood
 into involuntary ecstasies1            
interminable reveries1  infinite        
inventions4 ,imagination possesses him  
above all ''' it sweeps  his faculties  
heavenward as irresistibly as the       

balloon carries up  its car40 ,from that
 time forth he is more or less cut off  
from normal  contact with his           
fellow-men4 8,his sensibility has become
 too keen2  what only grazes other men  
wounds him until he bleeds40 ,he is     
thrown  back more and more upon himself 
and becomes a sort of living volcano1   
8consumed by secret ardors and          
inexplicable languors10 and incapable   
of self-guidance4 ,such is the poet4    
,from his first appearance he is  an    
outlaw4 ,let all your tears and all your
 pity be for him4 ,if he is  finally    
forced to suicide not he but society is 
to blame4 ,he is like  the scorpion that
 cruel boys surround with live coals and
 that is  finally forced to turn his    
sting upon himself4 ,society therefore  
owes  it to itself to see that this     
exquisite being is properly pensioned   
and  protected by government1 to the end
 that idealism may not perish from  the 
earth4 ,m4 ,thiers who was prime        
minister at that time is said to  have  

received a number of letters from young 
poets1 the general tenor  of which was3 
8,a position or ,i'll kill myself40#bea 
,a circumstance that should interest    
,americans is that ,poe as  interpreted 
by ,baudelaire came to hold for a later 
generation of  romanticists the place   
that ,chatterton had held for the       
romanticists  of #ahcj4 ,poe was        
actually murdered1 says ,baudelaire--and
 there is an  element of truth in the   
assertion along with much               
exaggeration--by  this great gas-lighted
 barbarity 7i4e41 ,america74 ,all his   
inner and  spiritual life whether       
drunkard's or poet's1 was one constant  
effort to  escape from this antipathetic
 atmosphere 8in which10 ,baudelaire goes
 on  to say1 8the impious love of       
liberty has given birth to a new        
tyranny1  the tyranny of the beasts1 a  
zocracy02 and in this human zoo a being 
with such a superhuman fineness of      
sensibility as ,poe was of course at  a 
hopeless disadvantage4 ,in general our  

elation at ,poe's recognition in        
,europe should be tempered by the       
reflection that this recognition is     
usually taken as a point of departure   
for insulting ,america4 ,poe is  about  
the only hypersthetic romanticist we    
have had1 and he therefore  fell in with
 the main ,european tendency that comes 
down from the  eighteenth century4      
,villiers de l',isle-,adam1 whom ,i have
 already cited  as an extreme example of
 romantic idealism1 was one of ,poe's   
avowed  followers2 but ,villiers is also
 related by his sthetic and 8diabolic0  
,catholicism to ,chateaubriand2 and the 
religiosity of ,chateaubriand  itself   
derives from the religiosity of         
,rousseau4    ,hitherto ,i have been    
studying for the most part only one main
 type of  modern melancholy4 ,this type 
even in a ,chateaubriand or a ,byron and
  still more in their innumerable       
followers may seem at once superficial  
and theatrical4 ,it often does not get  
beyond that ,epicurean toying with      

sorrow1 that luxury of grief1 which was 
not unknown even to classical           
antiquity4#beb ,the despair of          
,chateaubriand is frequently only a     
disguise of his love of literary glory1 
and ,chesterton is inclined to  see in  
the ,byronic gloom an incident of youth 
and high spirits4#bec  ,but this is not 
the whole story even in ,byron and      
,chateaubriand4 ,to  find what is both  
genuine and distinctive in romantic     
melancholy we  need to enlarge a little 
further on the underlying difference    
between  the classicist and the         
,rousseauist4 ,the ,rousseauist1 as     
indeed the  modern man in general1 is   
more preoccupied with his separate and  
private self than the classicist4       
,modern melancholy has practically      
always this touch of isolation not      
merely because of the proneness  of the 
8genius0 to dwell on his own uniqueness1
 but also because of  the undermining of
 the traditional communions by critical 
analysis4  ,the noblest form of the     

8malady of the age0 is surely that which
  supervened upon the loss of religious 
faith4 ,this is what distinguishes  the 
sadness of an ,arnold or a ,senancour   
from that of a ,gray4 ,the  8,elegy0    
belongs to the modern movement by the   
humanitarian note1 the  sympathetic     
interest in the lowly1 but in its       
melancholy it does  not go much beyond  
the milder forms of classical meditation
 on the  inevitable sadness of          
life--what one may term pensiveness4    
,like the  other productions of the     
so-called graveyard school1 it bears a  
direct  relation to ,milton's 8,il      
,penseroso40 ,it is well to retain      
,gray's own  distinction4 8,mine is a   
white ,melancholy1 or rather ,leucocholy
 for the  most part10 he wrote to       
,richard ,west in #agdb1 8but there is  
another  sort1 black indeed1 which ,i   
have now and then felt40 ,gray did not  
experience the more poignant sadness1   
one may suspect1 without some  loss of  
the 8trembling hope0 that is the final  

note of the 8,elegy40 ,no  forlornness  
is greater than that of the man who has 
known faith and  then lost it4 ,renan   
writes of his own break with the        
,church3        ,the fish of ,lake      
,baikal1 we are told1 have spent        
thousands      of years in becoming     
fresh-water fish after being salt-water 
fish4 ,i had to go through my transition
 in a few weeks4 ,like an      enchanted
 circle ,catholicism embraces the whole 
of life with so      much strength that 
when one is deprived of it everything   
seems      insipid4 ,i was terribly     
lost4 ,the universe produced upon me    
the impression of a cold and arid       
desert4 ,for the moment that            
,christianity was not the truth1 all the
 rest appeared to me      indifferent1  
frivolous1 barely worthy of interest4   
,the collapse      of my life upon      
itself left in me a feeling of emptiness
      like that which follows an attack 
of fever or an unhappy                  
love-affair4#bed    ,the forlornness at 

the loss of faith is curiously combined 
in many of  the romanticists with the   
mood of revolt4 ,this type of           
romanticist  heaps reproaches on a ,god 
in whose existence he no longer believes
  7as in ,leconte de ,lisle's 8,quan10  
itself related to ,byron's 8,cain074    
,he shakes his fist at an empty heaven1 
or like ,alfred de ,vigny 7in  his      
,jardin des ,oliviers7 assumes towards  
this emptiness an attitude  of proud    
disdain4 ,he is loath to give up this   
grandiose defiance of  divinity if only 
because it helps to save him from       
subsiding into  platitude4 ,a somewhat  
similar mood appears in the 8,satanic0  
,catholics  who continue to cling to    
religion simply because it adds to the  
gusto  of sinning4#bee ,a ,barbey       
succeeded in combining the rle of       
,byronic  ,titan with that of champion  
of the ,church4 ,but in general the     
romantic  ,prometheus spurns the        
traditional forms of communion whether  
classical  or ,christian4 ,he is so far 

as everything established is concerned  
enormously centrifugal1 but he hopes to 
erect on the ruins of the past  the new 
religion of human brotherhood4          
,everything in this movement from       
,shaftesbury down hinges on the rle that
 is thus assigned to sympathy3  if it   
can really unite men who are at the same
 time indulging each to  the utmost his 
own 8genius0 or idiosyncrasy there is no
 reason why one  should not accept      
romanticism as a philosophy of life4    
,but nowhere else perhaps is the clash  
more violent between the theory  and the
 fact4 ,no movement is so profuse in    
professions of brotherhood  and none is 
so filled with the aching sense of      
solitude4 8,behold me  then alone upon  
the earth10 is the sentence with which  
,rousseau begins  his last book2#bef and
 he goes on to marvel that he1 the 8most
 loving  of men10 had been forced more  
and more into solitude4 8,i am in the   
world as though in a strange planet upon
 which ,i have fallen from the  one that

 ,i inhabited40#beg ,when no longer     
subordinated to something  higher than  
themselves both the head and the heart  
7in the romantic  sense7 not only tend  
to be opposed to one another1 but also1 
each in  its own way1 to isolate4       
,empedocles was used not only by ,arnold
 but by  other victims#beh of romantic  
melancholy1 as a symbol of intellectual 
isolation3 by his indulgence in the     
8imperious lonely thinking power0       
,empedocles has broken the warm bonds of
 sympathy with his fellows3             
thou art      ,a living man no more1    
,empedocles6      ,nothing but a        
devouring flame of thought1--      ,but 
a naked eternally restless mind6    ,his
 leaping into tna typifies his attempt  
to escape from his  loneliness by a     
fiery union with nature herself4        
,according to religion one should seek  
to unite with a something that  is set  
above both man and nature1 whether this 
something is called  ,god as in         
,christianity or simply the ,law as in  

various philosophies  of the ,far       
,east4#bei ,the most severe penalty     
visited on the man who  transgresses is 
that he tends to fall away from this    
union4 ,this is  the element of truth in
 the sentence of ,diderot that ,rousseau
 took as  a personal affront3 8,only the
 wicked man is alone40 ,rousseau        
asserted  in reply1 anticipating ,mark  
,twain1#bfj that 8on the contrary only  
the good man is alone40 ,now in a sense 
,rousseau is right4 8,most men  are     
bad10 as one of the seven sages of      
,greece remarked1 and any one  who sets 
out to follow a very strenuous virtue is
 likely to have few  companions on the  
way4 ,rousseau is also right in a sense 
when he says  that the wicked man needs 
to live in society so that he may have  
opportunity to practice his wickedness4 
,yet ,rousseau fails to face the  main  
issue3 solitude is above all a psychic  
thing4 ,a man may frequent  his fellows 
and suffer none the less acutely1 like  
,poe's 8,man of the  ,crowd10 from a    

ghastly isolation4 ,and conversely one  
may be like the  ancient who said that  
he was never less alone than when he was
 alone4    ,hawthorne1 who was himself a
 victim of solitude1 brooded a great    
deal  on this whole problem1 especially1
 as may be seen in the 8,scarlet        
,letter0 and elsewhere1 on the isolating
 effects of sin4 ,he perceived  the     
relation of the problem to the whole    
trend of religious life in  ,new        
,england4 ,the older ,puritans had a    
sense of intimacy with ,god and  craved 
no other companionship4 ,with the       
weakening of their faith the  later     
,puritans lost the sense of a divine    
companionship1 but retained  their      
aloofness from men4 ,hawthorne's own    
solution of the problem  of solitude1 so
 far as he offers any1 is humanitarian4 
,quicken your  sympathies4 ,let the man 
who has taken as his motto              
,excelsior#bfa  be warned4 ,nothing will
 console him on the bleak heights either
 of  knowledge or of power for the warm 

contact with the dwellers in the        
valley4 ,faust1 who is a symbol of the  
solitude of knowledge1 seeks to  escape 
from his forlornness by recovering this 
warm contact4 ,that the  inordinate     
quest of power also leads to solitude is
 beyond question4  ,napoleon1 the very  
type of the superman1 must in the nature
 of the case  have been very            
solitary4#bfb ,his admirer ,nietzsche   
wrote one day3 8,i  have forty-three    
years behind me and am as alone as if ,i
 were a child40  ,carlyle1 whose 8hero0 
derives like the superman from the      
original  genius#bfc of the eighteenth  
century1 makes the following entry in   
his  diary3 8,my isolation1 my feeling  
of loneliness1 unlimitedness 7much      
meant by this7 what tongue shall say8   
,alone1 alone60#bfd    ,it cannot be    
granted1 however1 that one may escape by
 love1 as the  ,rousseauist understands 
the word1 from the loneliness that      
arises from  the unlimited quest either 
of knowledge or power4 ,for             

,rousseauistic  love is also unlimited  
whether one understands by love either  
passion  or a diffusive sympathy for    
mankind at large4 8,what solitudes are  
these  human bodies10 ,musset exclaimed 
when fresh from his affair with ,george 
,sand4 ,wordsworth cultivated a love for
 the lowly that quite overflowed  the   
bounds of neo-classic selection4 ,it is 
a well-known fact that the  lowly did   
not altogether reciprocate4 8,a         
desolate-minded man1 ye kna10  said an  
old inn-keeper of the ,lakes to ,canon  
,rawnsley1 8',twas potry as  did it40   
,if ,wordsworth writes so poignantly of 
solitude one may infer  that it is      
because he himself had experienced      
it4#bfe ,nor would it be  difficult to  
show that the very philanthropic ,ruskin
 was at least as  solitary as ,carlyle  
with his tirades against philanthropy4  
,i have spoken of the isolating effects 
of sin1 but sin is scarcely the  right  
word to apply to most of the            
romanticists4 ,the solitude of which  so

 many of them complain does1 however1   
imply a good deal of spiritual  inertia4
 ,now to be spiritually inert1 as ,i    
have said elsewhere1 is  to be          
temperamental1 to indulge unduly the    
lust for knowledge or  sensation or     
power without imposing on these lusts   
some centre or  principle of control set
 above the ordinary self4 ,the man who  
wishes  to fly off on the tangent of his
 own temperament and at the same time   
enjoy communion on any except the purely
 material level is harboring            
incompatible desires4 ,for temperament  
is what separates4 ,a sense of          
unlimitedness 78much meant by this0 as  
,carlyle says7 and of solitude  are     
simply the penalties visited upon the   
eccentric individualist4 ,if  we are to 
unite on the higher levels with other   
men we must look in  another direction  
than the expansive outward striving of  
temperament3  we must in either the     
humanistic or religious sense undergo   
conversion4  ,we must pull back our     

temperaments with reference to the model
 that  we are imitating1 just as1 in    
,aristotle's phrase1 one might pull     
back and straighten out a crooked       
stick4#bff ,usually the brake on        
temperament is supplied by the ethos1   
the convention of one's age and         
country4 ,i have tried to show elsewhere
 that the whole programme of  the       
eccentric individualist is to get rid of
 this convention1 whatever  it may be1  
without developing some new principle of
 control4 ,the  eccentric individualist 
argues that to accept control1 to defer 
to some  centre as the classicist       
demands1 is to cease to be himself4 ,but
 are  restrictions upon temperament so  
fatal to a man's being himself8 ,the    
reply hinges upon the definition of the 
word self1 inasmuch as man is  a dual   
being4 ,if a man is to escape from his  
isolation he must1 ,i have  said1 aim at
 some goal set above his ordinary self  
which is at the  same time his unique   
and separate self4 ,but because this    

goal is set  above his ordinary self1 it
 is not therefore necessarily set above 
his  total personality4 ,the limitations
 that he imposes on his ordinary  self  
may be the necessary condition of his   
entering into possession of  his ethical
 self1 the self that he possesses in    
common with other men4  ,aristotle says 
that if a man wishes to achieve         
happiness he must be a  true lover of   
himself4 ,it goes without saying that he
 means the ethical  self4 ,the author of
 a recent book on ,ibsen says that      
,ibsen's message to  the world is summed
 up in the line3        ,this above     
all1--to thine own self be true4    ,it 
is abundantly plain from the context1   
however1 that ,polonius is a  decayed   
,aristotelian and not a precursor of    
,ibsen4 ,the self to which  ,aristotle  
would have a man be true is at the      
opposite pole from the  self that ,ibsen
 and the original geniuses are so eager 
to get uttered4    ,to impose the yoke  
of one's human self upon one's          

temperamental  self is1 in the          
,aristotelian sense1 to work4 ,aristotle
 conceives of  happiness in terms of    
work4 ,all types of temperamentalists1  
on the  other hand1 are from the human  
point of view1 passive4 ,the happiness  
that they crave is a passive happiness4 
,a man may pursue power with the  energy
 of a ,napoleon and yet remain ethically
 passive4 ,he may absorb  whole         
encyclopdias and remain ethically       
passive4 ,he may expand his  sympathies 
until1 like ,schiller1 he is ready to   
8bestow a kiss upon  the whole world0   
and yet remain ethically passive4 ,a man
 ceases to  be ethically passive only   
when he begins to work in the           
,aristotelian  sense1 that is when he   
begins to put the brake on temperament  
and  impulse1 and in the same degree he 
tends to become ethically efficient4    
,by his denial of the dualism of the    
spirit1 ,rousseau discredited this      
inner working1 so that inwardness has   
come to seem synonymous with mere       

subjectivity2 and to be subjective in   
the ,rousseauistic sense is to be       
diffusive1 to lack purpose and          
concentration1 to lose one's self in a  
shoreless sea of revery4    ,the        
utilitarian intervenes at this point and
 urges the romanticist1  since he has   
failed to work inwardly1 at least to    
work outwardly4  ,having missed the     
happiness of ethical efficiency he may  
in this way  find the happiness of      
material efficiency1 and at the same    
time serve  the world4 ,this is the     
solution of the problem of happiness    
that ,goethe  offers at the end of the  
,second ,faust1 and we may affirm       
without  hesitation that it is a sham   
solution4 ,to work outwardly and in the 
utilitarian sense1 without the inner    
working that can alone save from        
ethical anarchy is to stimulate rather  
than repress the most urgent  of all the
 lusts--the lust of power4 ,it is only  
too plain that the  unselective sympathy
 or joy in service with which ,goethe   

would complete  ,faust's utilitarian    
activity is not in itself a sufficient  
counterpoise  to the will to power1     
unless indeed we assume with ,rousseau  
that one  may control expansive impulses
 by opposing them to one another4    ,a 
terrible danger thus lurks in the whole 
modern programme3 it is a  programme    
that makes for a formidable mechanical  
efficiency and so  tends to bring into  
an ever closer material contact men who 
remain  ethically centrifugal4 ,the     
reason why the humanitarian and other   
schemes of communion that have been set 
up during the last century  have failed 
is that they do not1 like the           
traditional schemes1 set  any bounds to 
mere expansiveness1 or1 if one prefers1 
they do not  involve any conversion4    
,and so it is not surprising that the   
feeling  of emptiness#bfg or            
unlimitedness and isolation should be   
the special  mark of the melancholy of  
this period4 ,ren complains of his      
8moral  solitude02#bfh but strictly     

speaking his solitude is the reverse of 
moral4 ,only by cultivating his human   
self and by the unceasing effort  that  
this cultivation involves does a man    
escape from his nightmare of            
separateness and so move in some measure
 towards happiness4 ,but the  happiness 
of which ,ren dreams is                 
unethical--something very private and   
personal and egoistic4 ,nothing is      
easier than to draw the line from  ,ren 
to ,baudelaire and later decadents--for 
instance to ,des ,esseintes1  the hero  
of ,huysmans's novel 8,a ,rebours10#bfi 
who is typical of the  last             
exaggerations of the movement4 ,des     
,esseintes cuts himself off as          
completely as possible from other men   
and in the artificial paradise  he has  
devised gives himself up to the quest of
 strange and violent  sensation2 but his
 dream of happiness along egoistic lines
 turns into  a nightmare1#bgj his palace
 of art becomes a hell4 ,lematre is     
quite  justified in saying of ,des      

,esseintes that he is only ,ren or      
,werther  brought up to date--8a        
played-out and broken-down ,werther who 
has  a malady of the nerves1 a deranged 
stomach and eighty years more of        
literature to the bad40#bga             
,emotional romanticism was headed from  
the start towards this bankruptcy       
because of its substitution for ethical 
effort of a mere lazy floating  on the  
stream of mood and temperament4 ,i have 
said that ,buddhism  saw in this ethical
 indolence the root of all evil4        
,christianity in  its great days was    
preoccupied with the same problem4 ,to  
make this  point clear it will be       
necessary to add to what ,i have said   
about  classical and romantic melancholy
 a few words about melancholy in the    
,middle ,ages4 ,in a celebrated chapter 
of his 8,genius of ,christianity0  7,le 
,vague des passions7 ,chateaubriand     
seeks to give to the malady  of the age 
,christian and medival origins4 ,this   
was his pretext1  indeed1 for           

introducing ,ren into an apology for    
,christianity and so1  as ,sainte-,beuve
 complained1 administering poison in a  
sacred wafer4  ,chateaubriand begins by 
saying that the modern man is melancholy
  because1 without having had experience
 himself1 he is at the same  time       
overwhelmed by the second-hand          
experience that has been heaped  up in  
the books and other records of an       
advanced civilization2 and so  he       
suffers from a precocious disillusion2  
he has the sense of having  exhausted   
life before he has enjoyed it4 ,there is
 nothing specifically  ,christian in    
this disillusion and above all nothing  
medival4 ,but  ,chateaubriand goes on to
 say that from the decay of the pagan   
world  and the barbarian invasions the  
human spirit received an impression  of 
sadness and possibly a tinge of         
misanthropy which has never been        
completely effaced4 ,those that were    
thus wounded and estranged from  their  
fellow-men took refuge formerly in      

monasteries1 but now that  this resource
 has failed them1 they are left in the  
world without being  of it and so they  
8become the prey of a thousand          
chimeras40 ,then is  seen the rise of   
that guilty melancholy which the        
passions engender  when1 left without   
definite object1 they prey upon         
themselves in a  solitary heart4#bgb    
,the vague des passions1 the expansion  
of infinite indeterminate  desire1 that 
,chateaubriand here describes may very  
well be related to  certain sides of    
,christianity--especially to what may be
 termed its  neo-,platonic side4 ,yet   
,christianity at its best has shown     
itself a  genuine religion1 in other    
words1 it has dealt sternly and         
veraciously  with the facts of human    
nature4 ,it has perceived clearly how a 
man may  move towards happiness and how 
on the other hand he tends to sink into 
despair2 or what amounts to the same    
thing1 it has seen the supreme          
importance of spiritual effort and the  

supreme danger of spiritual  sloth4 ,the
 man who looked on himself as cut off   
from ,god and so ceased  to strive was  
according to the medival ,christian the 
victim of  acedia4 ,this sluggishness   
and slackness of spirit1 this mere      
drifting  and abdication of will1 may1  
as ,chaucer's parson suggests1 be the   
crime  against the ,holy ,ghost itself4 
,it would in fact not be hard to show   
that what was taken by the ,rousseauist 
to be the badge of spiritual            
distinction was held by the medival     
,christian to be the chief of all  the  
deadly sins4    ,the victim of acedia   
often looked upon himself1 like the     
victim of  the malady of the age1 as    
foredoomed4 ,but though the idea of fate
  enters at times into medival          
melancholy1 the man of the ,middle ,ages
  could scarcely so detach himself from 
the community as to suffer  from that   
sense of loneliness which is the main   
symptom of romantic  melancholy4 ,this  
forlornness was due not merely to the   

abrupt  disappearance of the older forms
 of communion1 but to the failure of    
the new attempts at communion4 ,when one
 gets beneath the surface of  the       
nineteenth century one finds that it was
 above all a period of  violent         
disillusions1 and it is especially after
 violent disillusion  that a man feels  
himself solitary and forlorn4 ,i have   
said that the  special mark of the      
half-educated man is his harboring of   
incompatible  desires4 ,the new         
religions or unifications of life that  
appeared  during the nineteenth century 
made an especially strong appeal to the 
half-educated man because it seemed to  
him that by accepting some one  of these
 he could enjoy the benefits of         
communion and at the same time  not have
 to take on the yoke of any serious     
discipline2 that he could1  in the      
language of religion1 achieve salvation 
without conversion4 ,when  a communion  
on these lines turns out to be not a    
reality1 but a sham1  and its           

disillusioned votary feels solitary and 
forlorn1 he is ready to  blame everybody
 and everything except himself4    ,a   
few specific illustrations will help us 
to understand how romantic  solitude1   
which was created by the weakening of   
the traditional  communions1 was        
enhanced by the collapse of various sham
 communions4  ,let us return for a      
moment to that eminent example of       
romantic  melancholy and disillusion1   
,alfred de ,vigny4 ,his 8,chatterton0   
deals  with the fatal misunderstanding  
of the original genius by other men4    
8,mose0 deals more specifically with the
 problem of his solitude4 ,the  genius  
is so eminent and unique1 says ,vigny1  
speaking for himself from  behind the   
mask of the ,hebrew prophet1 that he is 
quite cut off from  ordinary folk who   
feel that they have nothing in common   
with him4#bgc  ,this forlornness of the 
genius is not the sign of some capital  
error in  his philosophy4 ,on the       
contrary it is the sign of his divine   

election1  and so ,moses blames ,god for
 his failure to find happiness4#bgd ,if 
the genius is cut off from communion    
with men he cannot hope for             
companionship with ,god because he has  
grown too sceptical4 ,heaven is  empty  
and in any case dumb2 and so in the poem
 to which ,i have already  referred 7,le
 ,mont des ,oliviers7 ,vigny assumes the
 mask of ,jesus  himself to express this
 desolateness1 and concludes that the   
just man  will oppose a haughty and     
,stoic disdain to the divine            
silence4#bge    ,all that is left for   
the genius is to retire into his ivory  
tower--a  phrase appropriately applied  
for the first time to ,vigny4#bgf ,in   
the  ivory tower he can at least commune
 with nature and the ideal woman4  ,but 
,vigny came at a time when the ,arcadian
 glamour was being dissipated  from     
nature4 ,partly under scientific        
influence she was coming to seem  not a 
benign but a cold and impassive power1 a
 collection of cruel  and inexorable    

laws4 ,i have already mentioned this    
mood that might  be further illustrated 
from ,taine and so many others towards  
the  middle of the nineteenth           
century4#bgg 8,i am called a #8mother1'0
 ,vigny  makes ,nature say1 8and ,i am a
 tomb40#bgh 78,la ,maison du ,berger072 
and so in the ,maison roulante1 or sort 
of ,arcadia on wheels that he  has      
imagined1 he must seek his chief solace 
with the ideal feminine  companion4 ,but
 woman herself turns out to be          
treacherous2 and1 assuming  the mask of 
,samson 78,la ,colre de ,samson071      
,vigny utters a solemn  malediction upon
 the eternal ,delilah 7,et1 plus ou     
moins1 la ,femme  est toujours ,dalila74
 ,such is the disillusion that comes    
from having  sought an ideal communion  
in a liaison with a ,parisian           
actress4#bgi    ,now that every form of 
communion has failed1 all that is left  
it  would seem is to die in silence and 
solitude like the wolf 78,la ,mort  du  
,loup074 ,vigny continues to hold1      

however1 like the author of the  8,city 
of ,dreadful ,night10 that though men   
may not meet in their joys1  they may   
commune after a fashion in their woe4   
,he opposes to heartless  nature and her
 8vain splendors0 the religion of pity1 
8the majesty of  human sufferings40#bhj 
,towards the end when ,vigny feels the  
growing  prestige of science1 he holds  
out the hope that a man may to a certain
  extent escape from the solitude of his
 own ego into some larger whole  by     
contributing his mite to 8progress40    
,but the symbol of this  communion#bha  
that he has chosen--that of the         
shipwrecked and sinking  mariner who    
consigns his geographical discoveries to
 a bottle in the  hope that it may be   
washed up on some civilized shore--is   
itself of a  singular forlornness4      
,vigny has a concentration and power of 
philosophical reflection that  is rare  
among the romanticists4 ,george ,sand is
 inferior to him in  this respect but   
she had a richer and more generous      

nature1 and is  perhaps even more       
instructive in her life and writings for
 the student  of romantic melancholy4   
,after the loss of the religious faith  
of her  childhood she became an avowed  
,rousseauist4 ,she attacks a society    
that seems to her to stand in the way of
 the happiness of which she  dreams--the
 supreme emotional intensity to be      
achieved in an ideal  love4 ,in         
celebrating passion and the rights of   
passion she is lyrical  in the two main 
modes of the ,rousseauist--she is either
 tender and  elegiac1 or else stormy and
 ,titanic4 ,but when she attempts to    
practice  with ,musset this religion of 
love1 the result is violent disillusion4
  ,in the forlornness that follows upon 
the collapse of her sham communion  she 
meditates suicide4 8,ten years ago10 she
 wrote in #ahde to ,mazzini1  8,i was in
 ,switzerland2 ,i was still in the age  
of tempests2 ,i made up  my mind even   
then to meet you1 if ,i should resist   
the temptation to  suicide which pursued

 me upon the glaciers40 ,and then       
gradually a new  faith dawned upon her2 
she substituted for the religion of love
 the  religion of human brotherhood4    
,she set up as an object of worship     
humanity in its future progress2 and    
then1 like so many other dreamers1  she 
suffered a violent disillusion in the   
,revolution of #ahdh4 ,the  radiant     
abstraction she had been worshipping had
 been put to the test  and she          
discovered that there entered into the  
actual make-up of the  humanity she had 
so idealized 8a large number of knaves1 
a very large  number of lunatics1 and an
 immense number of fools40 ,what is     
noteworthy  in ,george ,sand is that she
 not only saved the precious principle  
of  faith from these repeated shipwrecks
 but towards the end of her life  began 
to put it on a firmer footing4 ,like    
,goethe she worked out to some  extent1 
in opposition to romanticism1 a         
genuinely ethical point of view4        
,this latter development can best be    

studied in her correspondence with      
,flaubert4 ,she urges him to exercise   
his will1 and he replies that he  is as 
8fatalistic as a ,turk40 ,his fatalism1 
however1 was not oriental  but          
scientific or pseudo-scientific4 ,i have
 already cited his demand  that man be  
studied 8objectively0 just as one would 
study 8a mastodon  or a crocodile40     
,flaubert refused to see any connection 
between this  determinism and his own   
gloom or between ,george ,sand's        
assertion  of will and her cheerfulness4
 ,it was simply1 he held1 a matter of   
temperament1 and there is no doubt some 
truth in this contention4  8,you at the 
first leap mount to heaven10 he says1   
8while ,i1 poor  devil1 am glued to the 
earth as though by leaden soles40 ,and  
again3  8,in spite of your great sphinx 
eyes you have always seen the world as  
through a golden mist10 whereas 8,i am  
constantly dissecting2 and when  ,i have
 finally discovered the corruption in   
anything that is supposed  to be pure1  

the gangrene in its fairest parts1 then 
,i raise my head  and laugh40 ,yet      
,george ,sand's cheerfulness is also    
related to her  perception of a power in
 man to work upon himself--a power that 
sets  him apart from other animals4 ,to 
enter into this region of ethical       
effort is to escape from the whole fatal
 circle of naturalism1 and at  the same 
time to show some capacity to mature--a 
rare achievement among  the             
romanticists4 ,the contrast is striking 
here between ,george ,sand  and ,hugo1  
who1 as the ripe fruit of his           
meditations1 yields nothing  better than
 the apotheosis of ,robespierre and     
,marat4 8,i wish to see  man as he is10 
she writes to ,flaubert4 8,he is not    
good or bad3 he is  good and bad4 ,but  
he is something else besides3 being good
 and bad he  has an inner force which   
leads him to be very bad and a little   
good1  or very good and a little bad4 ,i
 have often wondered10 she adds1 8why   
your #8,education ,sentimentale' was so 

ill received by the public1 and  the    
reason1 as it seems to me1 is that its  
characters are passive--that  they do   
not act upon themselves40 ,but the      
,titaness of the period of  8,llia0 can 
scarcely be said to have acted upon     
herself1 so that she is  justified in   
writing3 8,i cannot forget that my      
personal victory over  despair is the   
work of my will1 and of a new way of    
understanding life  which is the exact  
opposite of the one ,i held formerly40  
,how different  is the weary cry of     
,flaubert3 8,i am like a piece of clock 
work1 what  ,i am doing to-day ,i shall 
be doing to-morrow2 ,i did exactly the  
same  thing yesterday2 ,i was exactly   
the same man ten years ago40    ,the    
correspondence of ,flaubert and ,george 
,sand bears interestingly on  another of
 the sham religions of the nineteenth   
century--the religion  of art4 ,art is  
for ,flaubert not merely a religion but 
a fanaticism4 ,he  preaches abstinence1 
renunciation and mortification of the   

flesh in the  name of art4 ,he          
excommunicates those who depart from    
artistic orthodoxy  and speaks of       
heretics and disbelievers in art with a 
ferocity worthy  of a ,spanish          
inquisitor4 ,ethical beauty such as one 
finds in the  ,greeks at their best     
resides in order and proportion2 it is  
not a thing  apart but the outcome of   
some harmonious whole4 ,beauty in the   
purely  sthetic and unethical sense that
 ,flaubert gives to the word is little  
more than the pursuit of illusion4 ,the 
man who thus treats beauty as  a thing  
apart1 who does not refer back his quest
 of the exquisite to  some ethical      
centre will spend his life ,ixion-like  
embracing phantoms4  8,o ,art1 ,art10   
exclaims ,flaubert1 8bitter deception1  
nameless phantom1  which gleams and     
lures us to our ruin60 ,he speaks       
elsewhere of 8the  chimera of style     
which is wearing him out soul and body40
 ,attaching as  he did an almost        
religious importance to his quest of the

 exquisite  he became like so many other
 ,rousseauists not merely sthetic but   
hypersthetic4 ,he complains in his old  
age3 8,my sensibility is sharper  than a
 razor's edge2 the creaking of a door1  
the face of a bourgeois1  an absurd     
statement set my heart to throbbing and 
completely upset me40  ,hardly anywhere 
else1 indeed1 will one find such accents
 of bitterness1  such melancholy welling
 up unbidden from the very depths of the
 heart1  as in the devotees of art for  
art's sake--,flaubert1 ,leconte de      
,lisle1  ,thophile ,gautier4    ,george 
,sand takes ,flaubert to task with      
admirable tact for his failure  to      
subordinate art to something higher than
 itself4 8,talent imposes  duties2 and  
art for art's sake is an empty word40   
,as she grew older she  says she came   
more and more to put truth above beauty1
 and goodness  before strength4 8,i have
 reflected a great deal on what is true1
  and in this search for truth1 the     
sentiment of my ego has gradually       

disappeared40 ,the truth on which she   
had reflected was what she herself      
calls total truth 7le vrai total71 not  
merely truth according to  the natural  
law1 which received such exclusive      
emphasis towards the  middle of the     
nineteenth century as to lead to the    
rise of another  sham religion--the     
religion of science4 8,you have a better
 sense for  total truth10 she tells one 
of her correspondents 8than             
,sainte-,beuve1  ,renan and ,littr4     
,they have fallen into the ,german rut3 
therein lies  their weakness40 ,and     
,flaubert writes to ,george ,sand3      
8,what amazes and  delights me is the   
strength of your whole personality1 not 
that of the  brain alone40              
,furthermore the holding of the human   
law that made possible this  rounded    
development1 this growth towards total  
truth1 was a matter not  of tradition   
but of immediate perception4 ,george    
,sand had succeeded1  as ,taine says1 in
 making the difficult transition from an

 hereditary  faith to a personal        
conviction4 ,now this perception of the 
human law is  something very different  
from the pantheistic revery in which    
,george  ,sand was also an adept4 ,to   
look on revery as the equivalent of     
vision  in the ,aristotelian sense1 as  
,rousseau and so many of his followers  
have done1 is to fall into sham         
spirituality4 ,maurice de ,gurin falls  
into sham spirituality when he exclaims 
8,oh6 this contact of nature  and the   
soul would engender an ineffable        
voluptuousness1 a prodigious  love of   
heaven and of ,god40 ,i am not asserting
 that ,george ,sand herself             
discriminated sharply between ethical   
and sthetic perception or that  she is  
to be rated as a very great sage at any 
time4 ,yet she owes her  recovery of    
serenity after suffering shock upon     
shock of disillusion to  her having     
exercised in some degree what she terms 
8the contemplative  sense wherein       
resides invincible faith0 7le sens      

contemplatif o  rside la foi            
invincible71 and the passages that bear 
witness to her  use of this well-nigh   
obsolete sense are found in her         
correspondence4    ,wordsworth lauds in 
true ,rousseauistic fashion a 8wise     
passiveness40  ,but to be truly         
contemplative is not to be passive at   
all1 but to be  8energetic0 in          
,aristotle's sense1 or strenuous in     
,buddha's sense4 ,it  is a matter of no 
small import that the master analyst of 
the ,east and  the master analyst of the
 ,west are at one in their solution of  
the  supreme problem of ethics--the     
problem of happiness4 ,for there can  be
 no doubt that the energy#bhb in which  
the doctrine of ,aristotle  culminates  
is the same as the 8strenuousness0#bhc  
on which ,buddha puts  his final        
emphasis4 ,the highest good they both   
agree is a contemplative  working4 ,it  
is by thus working according to the     
human law that one  rises above the     
naturalistic level4 ,the scientific     

rationalists of  the nineteenth century 
left no place for this true human       
spontaneity  when they sought to subject
 man entirely to the 8law for thing40   
,this  scientific determinism was       
responsible for a great deal of         
spiritual  depression and acedia1       
especially in ,france during the second 
half  of the nineteenth century4#bhd    
,but even if science is less dogmatic   
and absolute one needs to consider why  
it does not deserve to be given  the    
supreme and central place in life1 why  
it cannot in short take the  place of   
humanism and religion1 and the working  
according to the human  law that they   
both enjoin4    ,a man may indeed effect
 through science a certain escape from  
himself1  and this is very salutary so  
far as it goes2 he has to discipline    
himself to an order that is quite       
independent of his own fancies and      
emotions4 ,he becomes objective in      
short1 but objective according to  the  
natural and not according to the human  

law4 ,objectivity of this  kind gives   
control over natural forces but it does 
not supply the  purpose for which these 
forces are to be used4 ,it gives the    
airship1  for instance1 but does not    
determine whether the airship is to go  
on  some beneficent errand or is to     
scatter bombs on women and children4    
,science does not even set right limits 
to the faculty that it chiefly          
exercises--the intellect4 ,in itself it 
stimulates rather than curbs one  of the
 three main lusts to which human nature 
is subject--the lust of  knowledge4     
,renan1 who makes a religion of science1
 speaks of 8sacred  curiosity40 ,but    
this is even more dangerous than the    
opposite excess  of the ascetic         
,christian who denounces all curiosity  
as vain4 ,the man  of science avers     
indeed that he does subordinate his     
knowledge to an  adequate aim1 namely   
the progress of humanity4 ,but the      
humanity of the  ,baconian is only an   
intellectual abstraction just as the    

humanity of  the ,rousseauist is only an
 emotional dream4 ,george ,sand found1  
as we  have seen1 that the passage from 
one's dream of humanity to humanity  in 
the concrete involved a certain         
disillusion4 ,the scientific or         
rationalistic humanitarian is subject to
 similar disillusions4#bhe  ,science not
 only fails to set proper limits to the 
activity of the  intellect1 but one must
 also note a curious paradox in its     
relation  to the second of the main     
lusts to which man is subject1 the lust 
for emotion 7libido sentiendi74 ,the    
prime virtue of science is to  be       
unemotional and at the same time keenly 
analytical4 ,now protracted  and        
unemotional analysis finally creates a  
desire1 as ,renan says1 for  the        
opposite pole1 8the kisses of the nave  
being10 and in general  for a frank     
surrender to the emotions4 ,science thus
 actually prepares  clients for the     
,rousseauist4#bhf ,the man of science is
 also flattered  by the ,rousseauistic  

notion that conscience and virtue are   
themselves  only forms of emotion4 ,he  
is thus saved from anything so          
distasteful as  having to subordinate   
his own scientific discipline to some   
superior  religious or humanistic       
discipline4 ,he often oscillates between
 the  rationalistic and the emotional   
pole not only in other things but also  
in his cult of humanity4 ,but if        
conscience is merely an emotion there   
is a cult that makes a more potent      
appeal to conscience than the cult  of  
humanity itself and that is the cult of 
country4 ,one is here at the  root of   
the most dangerous of all the sham      
religions of the modern  age--the       
religion of country1 the frenzied       
nationalism that is now  threatening to 
make an end of civilization itself4     
,both emotional nationalism and         
emotional internationalism go  back to  
,rousseau1 but in his final emphasis he 
is an emotional  nationalist2#bhg and   
that is because he saw that patriotic   

8virtue0 is  a more potent intoxicant   
than the love of humanity4 ,the         
demonstration  came in the ,french      
,revolution which began as a great      
international  movement on emotional    
lines and ended in imperialism and      
,napoleon  ,bonaparte4 ,it is here that 
the terrible peril of a science that is 
pursued as an end in itself becomes     
manifest4 ,it disciplines man and  makes
 him efficient on the naturalistic      
level1 but leaves him ethically         
undisciplined4 ,now in the absence of   
ethical discipline the lust  for        
knowledge and the lust for feeling count
 very little1 at least  practically1    
compared with the third main lust of    
human nature--the  lust for power4      
,hence the emergence of that most       
sinister of all types1  the efficient   
megalomaniac4 ,the final use of a       
science that has thus  become a tool of 
the lust for power is in ,burke's phrase
 to 8improve  the mystery of murder40   
,this union of material efficiency and  

ethical unrestraint1 though  in a way   
the upshot of the whole movement we have
 been studying1 is  especially marked in
 the modern ,german4 ,goethe as ,i have 
pointed  out is ready to pardon ,faust  
for grave violations of the moral law   
because of work which1 so far from being
 ethical1 is1 in view of the  ruin in   
which it involves the rustic pair1      
,baucis and ,philemon1 under  suspicion 
of being positively unethical4 ,yet     
,goethe was far from being  a pure      
utilitarian and he had reacted more than
 most ,germans of his  time from        
,rousseauism4 ,rousseau is glorified by 
,germans as a chief  source of their    
,kultur1 as ,i have already pointed out4
 ,now ,kultur  when analyzed breaks up  
into two very different                 
things--scientific  efficiency and      
emotionalism or what the ,germans 7and  
unfortunately not  the ,germans alone7  
term 8idealism40 ,there is no question  
about the  relation of this idealism to 
the stream of tendency of which         

,rousseau  is the chief representative4 
,by his corruption of conscience        
,rousseau  made it possible to identify 
character with temperament4 ,it was easy
  for ,fichte and others to take the    
next step and identify national         
character with national temperament4    
,the ,germans according to ,fichte  are 
all beautiful souls1 the elect of       
nature4 ,if they have no special  word  
for character it is because to be a     
,german and have character are          
synonymous4 ,character is something that
 gushes up from the primordial  depths  
of the ,german's being without any      
conscious effort on his  part4#bhh ,the 
members of a whole national group may   
thus flatter one  another and inbreed   
their national 8genius0 in the romantic 
sense1 and  feel all the while that they
 are ecstatic 8idealists02 yet as a     
result  of the failure to refer their   
genius back to some ethical centre1 to  
work1 in other words1 according to the  
human law1 they may1 so far as  the     

members of other national groups are    
concerned1 remain in a state  of moral  
solitude4    ,everything thus hinges on 
the meaning of the word work4 ,in the   
abstract  and metaphysical sense man can
 know nothing of unity4 ,he may1        
however1  by working in the human sense1
 by imposing1 that is1 due limits on his
  expansive desires1 close up in some   
measure the gap in his own nature  7the 
8civil war in the cave07 and so tend to 
become inwardly one4 ,he  may hope in   
the same way to escape from the solitude
 of his own ego1  for the inner unity   
that he achieves through work is only an
 entering  into possession of his       
ethical self1 the self that he possesses
 in  common with other men4 ,thus to    
work ethically is not only to become    
more unified and happy but also to move 
away from what is less  permanent       
towards what is more permanent and      
therefore more peaceful  in his total   
nature2 so that the problem of happiness
 and the problem  of peace turn out at  

last to be inseparable4    ,souls1 says 
,emerson1 never meet2 and it is true    
that a man never quite  escapes from his
 solitude4 ,that does not make the      
choice of direction  any the less       
important4 ,an infinite beckons to him  
on either hand4 ,the  one inspires the  
divine discontent1 the other romantic   
restlessness4  ,if instead of following 
the romantic lure he heeds the call from
 the  opposite direction1 he will not   
indeed attain to any perfect communion  
but he will be less solitary4 ,strictly 
speaking a man is never happy in  the   
sense of being completely satisfied with
 the passing moment1#bhi  or never1 ,dr4
 ,johnson would add1 except when he is  
drunk4 ,the happiness  of the sober and 
waking man resides1 it may be1 not in   
his content with  the present moment but
 in the very effort that marks his      
passage from a  lower to a higher       
ethical level4    ,the happiness of     
which ,rousseau dreamed1 it has been    
made plain1 was  not this active and    

ethical happiness1 but rather the       
passive enjoyment  of the beautiful     
moment--the moment that he would like to
 have last  forever4 ,after seeking for 
the beautiful moment in the intoxication
 of  love1 he turned as we have seen to 
pantheistic revery4 8,as long as it     
lasts10 he says of a moment of this     
kind1 8one is self-sufficing like       
,god40 ,yes1 but it does not last1 and  
when he wakes from his dream of         
communion with nature1 he is still      
solitary1 still the prisoner of  his    
ego4 ,the pantheistic dreamer is passive
 in every sense4 ,he is not  working    
either according to the human or        
according to the natural law1  and so is
 not gaining either in material or in   
ethical efficiency4  ,in a world such as
 that in which we live this seems too   
much like  picnicking on a battlefield4 
,rousseau could on occasion speak       
shrewdly  on this point4 ,he wrote to a 
youthful enthusiast who wished to come  
and live with him at ,montmorency3 8,the

 first bit of advice ,i should  like to 
give you is not to indulge in the taste 
you say you have for  the contemplative 
life and which is only an indolence of  
the spirit  reprehensible at every age  
and especially at yours4 ,man is not    
made to  meditate but to act40    ,the  
contemplative life is then1 according to
 ,rousseau1 the opposite  of action4    
,but to contemplate is according to an  
,aristotle or a  ,buddha to engage in   
the most important form of action1 the  
form that  leads to happiness4 ,to      
identify leisure and the contemplative  
life  with pantheistic revery1 as       
,rousseau does1 is to fall into one of  
the most vicious of confusions4 ,perhaps
 indeed the most important  contrast one
 can reach in a subject of this kind is 
that between a  wise strenuousness and a
 more or less wise passiveness1 between 
the  spiritual athlete and the cosmic   
loafer1 between a ,saint ,paul1 let us  
say1 and a ,walt ,whitman4    ,the      
spiritual idling and drifting of the    

,rousseauist would be less  sinister if 
it did not coexist in the world of      
to-day with an intense  material        
activity4 ,the man who seeks happiness  
by work according to the  natural law is
 to be rated higher than the man who    
seeks happiness in  some form of        
emotional intoxication 7including       
pantheistic revery74  ,he is not left   
unarmed1 a helpless dreamer in the      
battle of life4 ,the  type of efficiency
 he is acquiring also helps him to keep 
at bay man's  great enemy1 ennui4 ,an   
,edison1 we may suppose1 who is drawn   
ever onward  by the lure of wonder and  
curiosity and power1 has little time to 
be  bored4 ,it is surely better to      
escape from the boredom of life after   
the  fashion of ,edison than after the  
fashion of ,baudelaire4#bij    ,i have  
already pointed out1 however1 the peril 
in a one-sided working  of this kind4   
,it makes man efficient without making  
him ethical4 ,it  stimulates rather than
 corrects a fearless1 formless expansion

 on the  human level4 ,this inordinate  
reaching out beyond bounds is1 as the   
great ,greek poets saw with such        
clearness1 an invitation to ,nemesis4   
,the misery that results from           
unrestraint1 from failure to work       
according to the human law1 is something
 different from mere pain and  far more 
to be dreaded2 just as the happiness    
that results from a right  working      
according to the human law is something 
different from mere  pleasure and far   
more worthy of pursuit4    ,the present 
alliance between emotional romanticists 
and  utilitarians#bia is a veritable    
menace to civilization itself4 ,it  does
 not follow1 as ,i said in a previous   
chapter1 because revery or  8intuition  
of the creative flux0 cannot take the   
place of leisure or  meditation1 that   
one must therefore condemn it utterly4  
,it may like  other forms of romanticism
 have a place on the recreative side of 
life4 ,what finally counts is work      
according to either the human or  the   

natural law1 but man cannot always be   
working4 ,he needs moments  of relief   
from tension and concentration and even1
 it should seem1 of  semi-oblivion of   
his conscious self4 ,as one of the ways 
of winning such  moments of relaxation  
and partial forgetfulness much may be   
said for  revery4 ,in general one must  
grant the solace and rich source of     
poetry  that is found in communion with 
nature even though the final emphasis   
be put on communion with man4 ,it is no 
small thing to be1 as ,arnold  says     
,wordsworth was1 a 8priest of the wonder
 and bloom of the world40  ,one cannot  
however grant the ,wordsworthian that to
 be a priest of  wonder is necessarily  
to be also a priest of wisdom4 ,thus to 
promote to  the supreme and central     
place something that is legitimate in   
its own  degree1 but secondary1 is to   
risk starting a sham religion4    ,those
 who have sought to set up a cult of    
love or beauty or science or  humanity  
or country are open to the same         

objections as the votaries  of nature4  
,however important each of these things 
may be in its own  place1 it cannot     
properly be put in the supreme and      
central place for  the simple reason    
that it does not involve any adequate   
conversion  or discipline of man's      
ordinary self to some ethical centre4 ,i
 have  tried to show that the sense of  
solitude or forlornness that is so      
striking a feature of romantic          
melancholy arises not only from a loss  
of hold on the traditional centres1 but 
also from the failure of  these new     
attempts at communion to keep their     
promises4 ,the number of  discomfitures 
of this kind in the period that has     
elapsed since the  late eighteenth      
century1 suggests that this period was  
even more than  most periods an age of  
sophistry4 ,every age has had its false 
teachers1  but possibly no age ever had 
so many dubious moralists as this1 an   
incomparable series of false prophets   
from ,rousseau himself down to          

,nietzsche and ,tolstoy4 ,it remains to 
sum up in a closing chapter the  results
 of my whole inquiry and at the same    
time to discuss somewhat  more          
specifically the bearing of my whole    
point of view1 especially the  idea of  
work according to the human law1 upon   
the present situation4                  
,,chapter ,x    ,,the ,,present         
,,outlook      ,it has been my endeavor 
throughout this book to show that       
classic and  romantic art1 though both  
at their best highly imaginative1 differ
 in  the quality of the imagination4 ,i 
pointed out in my first chapter that  in
 his recoil from the intellectual       
romanticism of the ,renaissance  and the
 medival romanticism of actual adventure
 the neo-classicist  came to rest his   
literary faith on 8reason0 7by which he 
meant either  ordinary good sense or    
abstract reasoning71 and then opposed   
this  reason or judgment to imagination4
 ,this supposed opposition between      
reason and imagination was accepted by  

the romantic rebels against             
neo-classicism and has been an endless  
source of confusion to the  present day4
 ,though both neo-classicists and       
romanticists achieved much  admirable   
work1 work which is likely to have a    
permanent appeal1 it  is surely no small
 matter that they both failed on the    
whole to deal  adequately with the      
imagination and its rle whether in      
literature  or life4 ,thus ,dryden      
attributes the immortality of the neid  
to its  being 8a well-weighed judicious 
poem4 ,whereas poems which are produced 
by the vigor of imagination only have a 
gloss upon them at the first  which time
 wears off1 the works of judgment are   
like the diamond2 the  more they are    
polished1 the more lustre they          
receive40#bib ,read on  and you will    
find that ,dryden thus stresses judgment
 by way of protest  against the         
,cavalier ,marini and the imaginative   
unrestraint that he  and other          
intellectual romanticists display4      

,dryden thus obscures the  fact that    
what gives the immortalizing touch to   
the neid is not mere  judgment but      
imagination--a certain quality of       
imagination4 ,even the  reader who is to
 enter properly into the spirit of      
,virgil needs more  than judgment--he   
needs to possess in some measure the    
same quality  of imagination4 ,the      
romantic answer to the neo-classic      
distrust of  the imagination was the    
apotheosis of the imagination1 but      
without  sufficient discrimination as to
 its quality1 and this led only too     
often to an anarchy of the              
imagination--an anarchy associated1 as  
we  have seen1 in the case of the       
,rousseauist1 with emotion rather than  
with thought or action4    ,the modern  
world has thus tended to oscillate      
between extremes in its  attitude       
towards the imagination1 so that we     
still have to turn to  ancient ,greece  
for the best examples of works in which 
the imagination  is at once disciplined 

and supreme4 ,aristotle1 ,i pointed out1
 is doing  little more than give an     
account of this ,greek practice when he 
says  that the poet ranks higher than   
the historian because he achieves a     
more general truth1 but that he can     
achieve this more general truth  only by
 being a master of illusion4 ,art in    
which the illusion is not  disciplined  
to the higher reality counts at best on 
the recreative  side of life4           
8,imagination10 says ,poe1 8feeling     
herself for once  unshackled1 roamed at 
will among the ever-changing wonders of 
a shadowy  and unstable land40#bic ,to  
take seriously the creations of this    
type  of imagination is to be on the way
 towards madness4 ,every madhouse1      
indeed1 has inmates who are very        
imaginative in the fashion ,poe here    
describes4 ,we must not confuse the     
concentric or ethical with the          
eccentric imagination if we are to      
define rightly the terms classic  and   
romantic or indeed to attain to sound   

criticism at all4 ,my whole  aim has    
been to show that a main stream of      
emotional sophistry that  takes its rise
 in the eighteenth century and flows    
down through the  nineteenth involves   
just such a confusion4    ,the general  
distinction between the two types of    
imagination would seem  sufficiently    
clear4 ,to apply the distinction        
concretely is1 it must be  admitted1 a  
task infinitely difficult and delicate1 
a task that calls  for the utmost degree
 of the esprit de finesse4 ,in any      
particular  case there enters an element
 of vital novelty4 ,the relation of this
  vital novelty to the ethical or       
permanent element in life is something  
that cannot be determined by any process
 of abstract reasoning or by  any rule  
of thumb2 it is a matter of immediate   
perception4 ,the art of  the critic is  
thus hedged about with peculiar         
difficulties4 ,it does not  follow that 
,aristotle himself because he has laid  
down sound principles  in his ,poetics1 

would always have been right in applying
 them4 ,our  evidence on this point is  
as a matter of fact somewhat scanty4    
,having thus admitted the difficulty of 
the undertaking we may ourselves        
attempt a few concrete illustrations of 
how sound critical standards  tended to 
suffer in connection with the romantic  
movement4 ,leaving  aside for the moment
 certain larger aspects of the ethical  
imagination  that ,i am going to discuss
 presently1 let us confine ourselves to 
poetry4 ,inasmuch as the ethical        
imagination does not in itself give     
poetry but wisdom1 various cases may    
evidently arise3 a man may be wise      
without being poetical2 he may be       
poetical without being wise2 he may  be 
both wise and poetical4    ,we may take 
as an example of the person who was wise
 without being  poetical ,dr4 ,johnson4 
,though most persons would grant that   
,dr4 ,johnson  was not poetical1 it is  
well to remember that this              
generalization has  only the approximate

 truth that a literary generalization   
can have4 ,the  lines on ,levet have    
been inserted and rightly in            
anthologies4 ,if not on  the whole      
poetical1 ,johnson was1 as ,boswell     
says1 eminently fitted to  be a         
8majestic teacher of moral and religious
 wisdom40 ,few men have had  a firmer   
grasp on the moral law or been freer    
from the various forms of  sophistry    
that tend to obscure it4 ,unlike        
,socrates1 however1 of whom he  reminds 
us at times by his ethical realism1     
,johnson rests his insight  not on a    
positive but on a traditional basis4 ,to
 say that ,johnson  was truly religious 
is only another way of saying that he   
was truly  humble1 and one of the       
reasons for his humility was his        
perception  of the ease with which      
illusion in man passes over into        
delusion1  and even into madness4 ,his  
chapter on the 8,dangerous ,prevalence  
of  ,imagination0 in 8,rasselas0 not    
only gives the key to that work but to  

much else in his writings4 ,what he     
opposes to this dangerous prevalence  of
 imagination is not a different type of 
imagination but the usual  neo-classical
 reason or judgment or 8sober           
probability40 ,his defence  of wisdom   
against the gathering naturalistic      
sophistries of his time  is therefore   
somewhat lacking in imaginative         
prestige4 ,he seemed to  be opposing    
innovation on purely formalistic and    
traditional grounds  in an age which was
 more and more resolutely untraditional 
and which  was determined above all to  
emancipate the imagination from its     
strait-jacket of formalism4 ,keats would
 not have hesitated to rank  ,johnson   
among those who 8blasphemed the bright  
,lyrist to his face40    ,keats himself 
may serve as a type of the new          
imaginative spontaneity  and of the new 
fullness and freshness of sensuous      
perception4 ,if  ,johnson is wise       
without being poetical1 ,keats is       
poetical without being  wise1 and here  

again we need to remember that          
distinctions of this  kind are only     
approximately true4 ,keats has written  
lines that have  high seriousness4 ,he  
has written other lines which without   
being wise  seem to lay claim to        
wisdom--notably the lines in which1     
following  ,shaftesbury and other       
sthetes1 he identifies truth and beauty2
 an  identification that was disproved  
for practical purposes at least as  far 
back as the ,trojan ,war4 ,helen was    
beautiful1 but was neither good  nor    
true4 ,in general1 however1 ,keats's    
poetry is not sophistical4 ,it  is      
simply delightfully recreative4 ,there  
are signs that ,keats himself  would not
 have been content in the long run with 
a purely recreative  rle--to be 8the    
idle singer of an empty day40 ,whether  
he would ever  have achieved genuine    
ethical purpose is a question4 ,in      
working out a  wise view of life he did 
not1 like ,dante1 have the support of a 
great  and generally accepted tradition4

 ,it is not certain again that he would 
ever have developed the critical        
keenness that enabled a ,sophocles to   
work out a wise view of life in a less  
traditional age than that of  ,dante4   
,the evidence is rather that ,keats     
would have succumbed1 to his  own       
poetical detriment1 to some of the forms
 of sham wisdom current in  his day1    
especially the new humanitarian         
evangel4#bid    ,in any case we may     
contrast ,sophocles and ,dante with     
,keats as examples  of poets who were   
not merely poetical but wise--wise in   
the relative  and imperfect sense in    
which it is vouchsafed to mortals to    
achieve  wisdom4 ,sophocles and ,dante  
are not perhaps more poetical than      
,keats--it is not easy to be more       
poetical than ,keats4 ,as ,tennyson     
says1  8there is something magic and of 
the innermost soul of poetry in almost  
everything he wrote40 ,yet ,sophocles   
and ,dante are not only superior  to    
,keats1 but in virtue of the presence of

 the ethical imagination in  their work1
 superior not merely in degree but in   
kind4 ,not that even  ,sophocles and    
,dante maintain themselves uniformly on 
the level of  the ethical imagination4  
,there are passages in ,dante which are 
less  imaginative than theological4     
,passages of this kind are even more    
numerous in ,milton1 a poet who on the  
whole is highly serious4#bie ,it  is in 
general easy to be didactic1 hard to    
achieve ethical insight4    ,if ,keats  
is highly imaginative and poetic without
 on the whole rising  to high           
seriousness or sinking to sophistry1    
,shelley1 on the other  hand1           
illustrates in his imaginative activity 
the confusion of values  that was so    
fostered by romanticism4 ,here again ,i 
do not wish to be too  absolute4        
,shelley has passages especially in his 
8,adonais0 that are  on a high level4   
,yet nothing is more certain than that  
the quality of  his imagination is on   
the whole not ethical but ,arcadian or  

pastoral4  ,in the name of his ,arcadia 
conceived as the 8ideal0 he refuses to  
face the facts of life4 ,i have already 
spoken of the flimsiness of his         
8,prometheus ,unbound0 as a solution of 
the problem of evil4 ,what is  found in 
this play is the exact opposite of      
imaginative concentration  on the human 
law4 ,the imagination wanders           
irresponsibly in a region  quite outside
 of normal human experience4 ,we are    
hindered from enjoying  the gorgeous    
iridescences of ,shelley's cloudland by 
,shelley's own  evident conviction that 
it is not a cloudland1 an 8intense      
inane10 but  a true empyrean of the     
spirit4 ,and our irritation at          
,shelley's own  confusion is further    
increased by the long train of his      
indiscreet  admirers4 ,thus ,professor  
,c4,h4 ,herford writes in the           
8,cambridge ,history  of ,english       
,literature0 that what ,shelley has done
 in the 8,prometheus  ,unbound10 is to  
give 8magnificent expression to the     

faith of ,plato and  of ,christ06#bif   
,such a statement in such a place is a  
veritable danger  signal1 an indication 
of some grave spiritual bewilderment in 
the  present age4 ,to show the inanity  
of these attempts to make a wise man  of
 ,shelley it is enough to compare him   
not with ,plato and ,christ1 but  with  
the poet whom he set out at once to     
continue and contradict--with  schylus4 
,the 8,prometheus ,bound0 has the       
informing ethical imagination  that the 
8,prometheus ,unbound0 lacks1 and so in 
its total structure  belongs to an      
entirely different order of art4        
,shelley1 indeed1 has  admirable        
details4 ,the romanticism of            
nympholeptic longing may almost  be said
 to culminate1 at least in ,england1 in 
the passage ,i have  already cited 78,my
 soul is an enchanted boat074 ,there is 
no reason why  in recreative moods one  
should not imagine one's soul an        
enchanted  boat and float away in a     
musical rapture with the ideal dream    

companion  towards ,arcady4 ,but to     
suppose that revery of this kind has    
anything to  do with the faith of ,plato
 and of ,christ1 is to fall from        
illusion into  dangerous delusion4      
,we may doubt whether if ,shelley had   
lived longer he would ever have  risen  
above emotional sophistry and become    
more ethical in the quality  of his     
imagination4 ,such a progress from      
emotional sophistry to ethical  insight 
we actually find in ,goethe2 and this is
 the last and most  complex case we have
 to consider4 ,johnson1 ,i have said1 is
 wise without  being poetical and ,keats
 poetical without being wise2 ,sophocles
 is  both poetical and wise1 whereas    
,shelley is poetical1 but with a taint  
of sophistry or sham wisdom4 ,no such   
clear-cut generalization can be         
ventured about ,goethe4 ,i have already 
quoted ,goethe's own judgment  on his   
8,werther0 as weakness seeking to give  
itself the prestige of  strength1 and   
perhaps it would be possible to instance

 from his early  writings even worse    
examples of a morbid emotionalism 7e4g4 
8,stella074  ,how about 8,faust0 itself8
 ,most ,germans will simply dismiss such
 a  question as profane4 ,with ,hermann 
,grimm they are ready to pronounce      
8,faust0 the greatest work of the       
greatest poet of all times1 and of  all 
peoples4 ,yet it is not easy to overlook
 the sophistical element  in both parts 
of 8,faust40 ,i have already commented  
on those passages  that would seem      
especially sophistical3 the passage in  
which the devil  is defined as the      
spirit that always says no strikes at   
the very root  of any proper distinction
 between good and evil4 ,the passage    
again in  which ,faust breaks down all  
precise discrimination in favor of mere 
emotional intoxication is an extreme    
example of the ,rousseauistic  art of   
8making madness beautiful40 ,the very   
conclusion of the whole  poem1 with its 
setting up of work according to the     
natural law as a  substitute for work   

according to the human law1 is an       
egregious piece  of sham wisdom4 ,the   
result of work according to the human   
law1 of  ethical efficiency in short1 is
 an increasing serenity2 and it is not  
clear that ,faust is much calmer at the 
end of the poem than he is at  the      
beginning4 ,according to ,dr4 ,santayana
 he is ready to carry into  heaven      
itself his romantic restlessness--his   
desperate and feverish  attempts to     
escape from ennui4#big ,perhaps this is 
not the whole truth  even in regard to  
8,faust02 and still less can we follow  
,dr4 ,santayana  when he seems to       
discover in the whole work of ,goethe   
only romantic  restlessness4 ,at the    
very time when ,goethe was infecting    
others with  the wild expansiveness of  
the new movement1 he himself was        
beginning  to strike out along an       
entirely different path4 ,he writes in  
his  ,journal as early as #aggh3 8,a    
more definite feeling of limitation and 
in consequence of true broadening40     

,goethe here glimpses the truth  that   
lies at the base of both humanism and   
religion4 ,he saw that the  romantic    
disease was the imaginative and         
emotional straining towards  the        
unlimited 7,hang zum ,unbegrenzten71 and
 in opposition to this  unrestraint he  
was never tired of preaching the need of
 working within  boundaries4 ,it may be 
objected that ,goethe is in somewhat the
 same  case here as ,rousseau3 that the 
side of his work which has imaginative  
and emotional driving power and has     
therefore moved the world is of an      
entirely different order4 ,we may reply 
that ,goethe is at times both  poetical 
and wise4 ,furthermore in his maxims and
 conversations where  he does not rise  
to the poetical level1 he displays a    
higher quality of  wisdom than          
,rousseau4 ,at his best he shows an     
ethical realism worthy  of ,dr4         
,johnson1 though in his attitude towards
 tradition he is less  ,johnsonian than 
,socratic4 ,like ,socrates he saw on    

what terms a break  with the past may be
 safely attempted4 8,anything that      
emancipates the  spirit10 he says1      
8without a corresponding growth in      
self-mastery1 is  pernicious40 ,we may  
be sure that if the whole modern        
experiment fails  it will be because of 
the neglect of the truth contained in   
this maxim4  ,goethe also saw that a    
sound individualism must be rightly     
imaginative4  ,he has occasional hints  
on the rle of illusion in literature and
 life  that go far beneath the surface4 
,though the mature ,goethe1 then1 always
 stands for salvation by work1  it is   
not strictly correct to say that it is  
work only according  to the natural law4
 ,in ,goethe at his best the imagination
 accepts  the limitations imposed not   
merely by the natural1 but also by the  
human law4 ,however1 we must admit that 
the humanistic ,goethe has had  few     
followers either in ,germany or         
elsewhere1 whereas innumerable  persons 
have escaped from the imaginative       

unrestraint of the emotional            
romanticist1 as ,goethe himself likewise
 did1 by the discipline of  science4    
,the examples ,i have chosen should     
suffice to show how my distinction      
between two main types of               
imagination--the ethical type that gives
  high seriousness to creative writing  
and the ,arcadian or dalliant  type that
 does not raise it above the recreative 
level--works out in  practice4 ,some    
such distinction is necessary if we are 
to understand  the imagination in its   
relation to the human law4 ,but in order
 to  grasp the present situation firmly 
we need also to consider the            
imagination in its relation to the      
natural law4 ,i have just said that     
most men have escaped from the          
imaginative anarchy of the emotional    
romanticist through science4 ,now the   
man of science at his best is  like the 
humanist at his best1 at once highly    
imaginative and highly  critical4 ,by   
this coperation of imagination and      

intellect they are  both enabled to     
concentrate effectively on the facts1   
though on facts  of a very different    
order4 ,the imagination reaches out and 
perceives  likenesses and analogies     
whereas the power in man that separates 
and discriminates and traces causes and 
effects tests in turn these  likenesses 
and analogies as to their reality3 for  
we can scarcely  repeat too often that  
though the imagination gives unity it   
does not  give reality4 ,if we were all 
,aristotles or even ,goethes we might   
concentrate imaginatively on both laws1 
and so be both scientific and           
humanistic3 but as a matter of fact the 
ordinary man's capacity for             
concentration is limited4 ,after a spell
 of concentration on either law  he     
aspires to what ,aristotle calls 8relief
 from tension40 ,now the very           
conditions of modern life require an    
almost tyrannical concentration  on the 
natural law4 ,the problems that have    
been engaging more and more  the        

attention of the ,occident since the    
rise of the great ,baconian  movement   
have been the problems of power and     
speed and utility4 ,the  enormous mass  
of machinery that has been accumulated  
in the pursuit of  these ends requires  
the closest attention and concentration 
if it is  to be worked efficiently4 ,at 
the same time the man of the ,west is   
not  willing to admit that he is growing
 in power alone1 he likes to think  that
 he is growing also in wisdom4 ,only by 
keeping this situation in  mind can we  
hope to understand how emotional        
romanticism has been  able to develop   
into a vast system of sham spirituality4
 ,i have said  that the ,rousseauist    
wants unity without reality4 ,if we are 
to move  towards reality1 the           
imagination must be controlled by the   
power  of discrimination and the        
,rousseauist has repudiated this power  
as  8false and secondary40 ,but a unity 
that lacks reality can scarcely be      
accounted wise4 ,the ,baconian1 however1

 accepts this unity gladly4 ,he  has    
spent so much energy in working         
according to the natural law that  he   
has no energy left for work according to
 the human law4 ,by turning  to the     
,rousseauist he can get the 8relief from
 tension0 that he needs  and at the same
 time enjoy the illusion of receiving a 
vast spiritual  illumination4 ,neither  
,rousseauist nor ,baconian carry into   
the realm  of the human law the keen    
analysis that is necessary to           
distinguish  between genuine insight and
 some mere phantasmagoria of the        
emotions4  ,i am speaking especially1 of
 course1 of the interplay of            
,rousseauistic  and ,baconian elements  
that appear in certain recent           
philosophies like  that of ,bergson4    
,according to ,bergson one becomes      
spiritual by throwing  overboard both   
thought and action1 and this is a very  
convenient notion  of spirituality for  
those who wish to devote both thought   
and action to  utilitarian and material 

ends4 ,it is hard to see in ,bergson's  
intuition  of the creative flux and     
perception of real duration anything    
more  than the latest form of           
,rousseau's transcendental idling4 ,to  
work with  something approaching frenzy 
according to the natural law and to be  
idle according to the human law must be 
accounted a rather one-sided  view of   
life4 ,the price the man of to-day has  
paid for his increase  in power is1 it  
should seem1 an appalling superficiality
 in dealing  with the law of his own    
nature4 ,what brings together ,baconian 
and  ,rousseauist in spite of their     
surface differences is that they are    
both  intent on the element of novelty4 
,but if wonder is associated with the   
,many1 wisdom is associated with the    
,one4 ,wisdom and wonder are moving  not
 in the same but in opposite directions4
 ,the nineteenth century may  very well 
prove to have been the most wonderful   
and the least wise  of centuries4 ,the  
men of this period--and ,i am speaking  

of course of  the main drift--were so   
busy being wonderful that they had no   
time1  apparently1 to be wise4 ,yet     
their extreme absorption in wonder and  
the  manifoldness of things can scarcely
 be commended unless it can be shown    
that happiness also results from all    
this revelling in the element  of       
change4 ,the ,rousseauist is not quite  
consistent on this point4 ,at  times he 
bids us boldly set our hearts on the    
transitory4 ,aimez1  says ,vigny1 ce que
 jamais on ne verra deux fois4 ,but the 
,rousseauist  strikes perhaps a deeper  
chord when looking forth on a world of  
flux he  utters the anguished           
exclamation of ,leconte de ,lisle3      
,qu'est-ce que  tout cela qui n'est pas 
ternel8 ,even as one swallow1 says      
,aristotle1  does not make a spring1 so 
no short time is enough to determine    
whether  a man deserves to be called    
happy4 ,the weakness of the romantic    
pursuit  of novelty and wonder and in   
general of the philosophy of the        

beautiful  moment--whether the erotic   
moment#bih or the moment of cosmic      
revery--is that it does not reckon      
sufficiently with the something  deep   
down in the human breast that craves the
 abiding4 ,to pin one's  hope of        
happiness to the fact that 8the world is
 so full of a number of  things0 is an  
appropriate sentiment for a 8,child's   
,garden of ,verse40  ,for the adult to  
maintain an exclusive ,bergsonian       
interest in 8the  perpetual gushing     
forth of novelties0 would seem to betray
 an inability  to mature4 ,the effect on
 a mature observer of an age so entirely
 turned  from the ,one to the ,many as  
that in which we are living must be that
 of  a prodigious peripheral richness   
joined to a great central void4    ,what
 leads the man of to-day to work with   
such energy according to  the natural   
law and to be idle according to the     
human law is his  intoxication with     
material success4 ,a consideration that 
should  therefore touch him is that in  

the long run not merely spiritual       
success or happiness1 but material      
prosperity depend on an entirely        
different working4 ,let me revert here  
for a moment to my previous  analysis3  
to work according to the human law is   
simply to rein in one's  impulses4 ,now 
the strongest of all the impulses is the
 will to power4  ,the man who does not  
rein in his will to power and is at the 
same time  very active according to the 
natural law is in a fair way to become  
an efficient megalomaniac4 ,efficient   
megalomania1 whether developed  in      
individuals of the same group or in     
whole national groups in their          
relations with one another1 must lead   
sooner or later to war4 ,the  efficient 
megalomaniacs will proceed to destroy   
one another along with  the material    
wealth to which they have sacrificed    
everything else2 and  then the meek1 if 
there are any meek left1 will inherit   
the earth4    8,if ,i am to judge by    
myself10 said an eighteenth-century     

,frenchman1  8man is a stupid animal40  
,man is not only a stupid animal in     
spite  of his conceit of his own        
cleverness but we are here at the source
  of his stupidity4 ,the source is the  
moral indolence that ,buddha with  his  
almost infallible sagacity defined long 
ago4 ,in spite of the fact  that his    
spiritual and in the long run his       
material success hinge on  his ethical  
effort1 man persists in dodging this    
effort1 in seeking to  follow the line  
of least or lesser resistance4 ,an      
energetic material  working does not    
mend but aggravate the failure to work  
ethically and  is therefore especially  
stupid4 ,just this combination has in   
fact led  to the crowning stupidity of  
the ages--the ,great ,war4 ,no more     
delirious  spectacle has ever been      
witnessed than that of hundreds of      
millions  of human beings using a vast  
machinery of scientific efficiency to   
turn life into a hell for one another4  
,it is hard to avoid concluding  that we

 are living in a world that has gone    
wrong on first principles1  a world     
that1 in spite of all the warnings of   
the past1 has allowed  itself to be     
caught once more in the terrible        
naturalistic trap4 ,the  dissolution of 
civilization with which we are          
threatened is likely to  be worse in    
some respects than that of ,greece or   
,rome in view of the  success that has  
been attained in 8perfecting the mystery
 of murder40  ,various traditional      
agencies are indeed still doing much to 
chain  up the beast in man4 ,of these   
the chief is no doubt the ,church4 ,but 
the leadership of the ,occident is no   
longer here4 ,the leaders have          
succumbed in greater or less degree to  
naturalism#bii and so have been         
tampering with the moral law4 ,that the 
brutal imperialist who brooks  no       
obstacle to his lust for dominion has   
been tampering with this law  goes      
without saying2 but the humanitarian1   
all adrip with brotherhood  and         

profoundly convinced of the loveliness  
of his own soul1 has been  tampering    
with it also1 and in a more dangerous   
way for the very  reason that it is less
 obvious4 ,this tampering with the moral
 law1 or  what amounts to the same      
thing1 this overriding of the veto power
 in  man1 has been largely a result1    
though not a necessary result1 of the   
rupture with the traditional forms of   
wisdom4 ,the ,baconian naturalist       
repudiated the past because he wished to
 be more positive and critical1  to     
plant himself upon the facts4 ,yet the  
veto power is itself a  fact1--the      
weightiest with which man has to reckon4
 ,the ,rousseauistic  naturalist threw  
off traditional control because he      
wished to be more  imaginative4 ,yet    
without the veto power the imagination  
falls into  sheer anarchy4 ,both        
,baconian and ,rousseauist were very    
impatient of  any outer authority that  
seemed to stand between them and their  
own  perceptions4 ,yet the veto power is

 nothing abstract1 nothing that one     
needs to take on hearsay1 but is very   
immediate4 ,the naturalistic  leaders   
may be proved wrong without going beyond
 their own principles1  and their       
wrongness is of a kind to wreck         
civilization4    ,i have no quarrel1 it 
is scarcely necessary to add1 either    
with the man  of science or the         
romanticist when they keep in their     
proper place4  ,as soon however as they 
try1 whether separately or in unison1 to
 set  up some substitute for humanism or
 religion1 they should be at once       
attacked1 the man of science for not    
being sufficiently positive and         
critical1 the romanticist for not being 
rightly imaginative4    ,this brings us 
back to the problem of the ethical      
imagination--the  imagination that has  
accepted the veto power--which ,i       
promised a  moment ago to treat in its  
larger aspects4 ,this problem is indeed 
in a peculiar sense the problem of      
civilization itself4 ,a curious         

circumstance should be noted here3 a    
civilization that rests on dogma  and   
outer authority cannot afford to face   
the whole truth about the  imagination  
and its rle4 ,a civilization in which   
dogma and outer  authority have been    
undermined by the critical spirit1 not  
only can  but must do this very thing if
 it is to continue at all4 ,man1 a being
  ever changing and living in a world of
 change1 is1 as ,i said at the  outset1 
cut off from immediate access to        
anything abiding and therefore  worthy  
to be called real1 and condemned to live
 in an element of  fiction or illusion4 
,yet civilization must rest on the      
recognition  of something abiding4 ,it  
follows that the truths on the survival 
of  which civilization depends cannot be
 conveyed to man directly but  only     
through imaginative symbols4 ,it seems  
hard1 however1 for man to  analyze      
critically this disability under which  
he labors1 and1 facing  courageously the
 results of his analysis1 to submit his 

imagination  to the necessary control4  
,he consents to limit his expansive     
desires  only when the truths that are  
symbolically true are presented to him  
as  literally true4 ,the salutary check 
upon his imagination is thus won at  the
 expense of the critical spirit4 ,the   
pure gold of faith needs1 it  should    
seem1 if it is to gain currency1 to be  
alloyed with credulity4  ,but the       
civilization that results from          
humanistic or religious control  tends  
to produce the critical spirit4 ,sooner 
or later some ,voltaire  utters his     
fatal message3        ,les prtres ne    
sont pas ce qu'un vain peuple pense2    
,ntre crdulit fait toute leur science4  
,the emancipation from credulous belief 
leads to an anarchic  individualism that
 tends in turn to destroy civilization4 
,there is some  evidence in the past    
that it is not quite necessary to run   
through this  cycle4 ,buddha1 for       
example1 was very critical2 he had a    
sense of the  flux and evanescence of   

all things and so of universal illusion 
keener  by far than that of ,anatole    
,france2 at the same time he had ethical
  standards even sterner than those of  
,dr4 ,johnson4 ,this is a combination   
that the ,occident has rarely seen and  
that it perhaps needs to see4 ,at  the  
very end of his life ,buddha uttered    
words that deserve to be the  ,magna    
,charta of the true individualist3      
8,therefore1 ,o ,ananda1 be ye  lamps   
unto yourselves4 ,be ye refuges unto    
yourselves4 ,look to no outer  refuge4  
,hold fast as a refuge unto the ,law    
7,dhamma740#cjj ,a man may  safely go   
into himself if what he finds there is  
not1 like ,rousseau1  his own emotions1 
but like ,buddha1 the law of            
righteousness4    ,men were induced to  
follow ,rousseau in his surrender to the
 emotions1  it will be remembered1      
because that seemed the only alternative
 to a  hard and dry rationalism4 ,the   
rationalists of the ,enlightenment were 
for the most part ,cartesians1 but ,kant

 himself is in his main trend a         
rationalist4 ,the epithet critical      
usually applied to his philosophy is    
therefore a misnomer4 ,for to solve the 
critical problem--the relation  between 
appearance and reality--it is necessary 
to deal adequately with  the rle of the 
imagination and this ,kant has quite    
failed to do4#cja  ,modern philosophy is
 in general so unsatisfactory because it
 has raised  the critical problem       
without carrying it through2 it is too  
critical  to receive wisdom through the 
traditional channels and not critical   
enough to achieve insight1 and so has   
been losing more and more its  human    
relevancy1 becoming in the words of one 
of its recent votaries1  a 8narrow and  
unfruitful eccentricity40 ,the          
professional philosophers  need to mend 
their ways and that speedily if the     
great world is not  to pass them        
disdainfully by and leave them to play  
their mysterious  little game among     
themselves4 ,we see one of the most     

recent groups1 the  new realists1 flat  
on their faces before the man of        
science--surely an  undignified attitude
 for a philosopher4 ,it is possible to  
look on the  kind of knowledge that     
science gives as alone real only by     
dodging the  critical problem--the      
problem as to the trustworthiness of the
 human  instrument through which all    
knowledge is received--and it would be  
easy to show1 if this were the place to 
go into the more technical  aspects of  
the question1 that the new realists have
 been doing just  this--whether through 
sheer navet or metaphysical despair ,i  
am unable  to say4 ,the truly critical  
observer is unable to discover anything 
real in the absolute sense since        
everything is mixed with illusion4  ,in 
this absolute sense the man of science  
must ever be ignorant of  the reality   
behind the shows of nature4 ,the new    
realist is1 however1  justified         
relatively in thinking that the only    
thing real in the view  of life that has

 prevailed of late has been its working 
according to  the natural law and the   
fruits of this working4 ,the            
self-deception  begins when he assumes  
that there can be no other working4     
,what ,i have  myself been opposing to  
naturalistic excess1 such as appears in 
the  new realism1 is insight2 but       
insight is in itself only a word1 and   
unless it can be shown to have its own  
working and its own fruits1  entirely   
different from those of work according  
to the natural law1 the  positivist at  
all events will have none of it4    ,the
 positivist will not only insist upon   
fruits1 but will rate  these fruits     
themselves according to their bearing   
upon his main  purpose4 ,life1 says     
,bergson1 can have no purpose in the    
human sense  of the word4#cjb ,the      
positivist will reply to ,bergson and to
 the  ,rousseauistic drifter in general1
 in the words of ,aristotle1 that the   
end is the chief thing of all and that  
the end of ends is happiness4 ,to  the  

,baconian who wants work and purpose but
 according to the natural  law alone1   
the complete positivist will reply that 
happiness cannot be  shown to result    
from this one-sided working2 that in    
itself it affords  no escape from the   
misery of moral solitude1 that we move  
towards true  communion and so towards  
peace and happiness only by work        
according  to the human law4 ,now the   
more individualistic we are1 ,i have    
been  saying1 the more we must depend   
for the apprehension of this law on  the
 imagination1 the imagination1 let me   
hasten to add1 supplemented  by the     
intellect4 ,it is not enough to put the 
brakes on the natural  man--and that is 
what work according to the human law    
means--we must  do it intelligently4    
,right knowing must here as elsewhere   
precede  right doing4 ,even a ,buddha   
admitted that at one period in his life 
he had not been intelligent in his      
self-discipline4 ,i need only to        
amplify here what ,i have said in a     

previous chapter about the proper  use  
of the 8false secondary power0 by those 
who wish to be either  religious or     
humanistic in a positive fashion4 ,they 
will employ their  analytical faculties1
 not in building up some abstract       
system1 but in  discriminating between  
the actual data of experience with a    
view to  happiness1 just as the man of  
science at his best employs the same    
faculties in discriminating between the 
data of experience with a view  to power
 and utility4    ,i have pointed out    
another important use of the analytical 
intellect in  its relation to the       
imagination4 ,since the imagination by  
itself gives  unity but does not give   
reality1 it is possible to discover     
whether a  unification of life has      
reality only by subjecting it to the    
keenest  analysis4 ,otherwise what we   
take to be wisdom may turn out to be    
only  an empty dream4 ,to take as wise  
something that is unreal is to fall     
into sophistry4 ,for a man like         

,rousseau whose imagination was in its  
ultimate quality not ethical at all but 
overwhelmingly idyllic to set  up as an 
inspired teacher was to become an       
arch-sophist4 ,whether or not  he was   
sincere in his sophistry is a question  
which the emotionalist  is very fond of 
discussing1 but which the sensible      
person will dismiss  as somewhat        
secondary4 ,sophistry of all kinds      
always has a powerful  ally in man's    
moral indolence4 ,it is so pleasant to  
let one's self go  and at the same time 
deem one's self on the way to wisdom4   
,we need to  keep in mind the special   
quality of ,rousseau's sophistry if we  
wish to  understand a very extraordinary
 circumstance during the past century4  
,during this period men were moving     
steadily towards the naturalistic       
level1 where the law of cunning and the 
law of force prevail1 and  at the same  
time had the illusion--or at least      
multitudes had the  illusion--that they 
were moving towards peace and           

brotherhood4 ,the  explanation is found 
in the endless tricks played upon the   
uncritical  and still more upon the     
half-critical by the ,arcadian          
imagination4    ,the remedy is not only 
a more stringent criticism1 but1 as ,i  
have  tried to make plain in this whole 
work1 in an age of sophistry1 like  the 
present1 criticism itself amounts       
largely to that art of inductive        
defining which it is the great merit of 
,socrates1 according to  ,aristotle1#cjc
 to have devised and brought to         
perfection4 ,sophistry  flourishes1 as  
,socrates saw1 on the confused and      
ambiguous use of  general terms2 and    
there is an inexhaustible source of such
 ambiguities  and confusions in the very
 duality of human nature4 ,the word     
nature  itself may serve as an          
illustration4 ,we may take as a closely 
allied  example the word progress4 ,man 
may progress according to either the    
human or the natural law4 ,progress     
according to the natural law has  been  

so rapid since the rise of the ,baconian
 movement that it has  quite captivated 
man's imagination and stimulated him to 
still further  concentration and effort 
along naturalistic lines4 ,the very     
magic  of the word progress seems to    
blind him to the failure to progress    
according to the human law4 ,the more a 
word refers to what is above the        
strictly material level1 the more it is 
subject to the imagination and          
therefore to sophistication4 ,it is not 
easy to sophisticate the word  horse1 it
 is only too easy to sophisticate the   
word justice4 ,one may  affirm1 indeed1 
not only that man is governed by his    
imagination but  that in all that       
belongs to his own special domain the   
imagination  itself is governed by      
words4#cjd    ,we should not therefore  
surrender our imaginations to a general 
term  until it has been carefully       
defined1 and to define it carefully we  
need usually to practice upon it what   
,socrates would call a dichotomy4  ,i   

have just been dichotomizing or 8cutting
 in two0 the word progress4  ,when the  
two main types of progress1 material and
 moral1 have been  discriminated in     
their fruits1 the positivist will       
proceed to rate  these fruits according 
to their relevancy to his main goal--the
 goal  of happiness4 ,the person who is 
thus fortified by a ,socratic dialectic 
will be less ready to surrender his     
imagination to the first sophist  who   
urges him to be 8progressive40 ,he will 
wish to make sure first that  he is not 
progressing towards the edge of a       
precipice4    ,rousseau would have us   
get rid of analysis in favor of the     
8heart40  ,no small part of my endeavor 
in this work and elsewhere has been to  
show the different meanings that may    
attach to the term heart 7and the       
closely allied terms 8soul0 and         
8intuition07--meanings that are a world 
apart1 when tested by their fruits4     
,heart may refer to outer perception    
and the emotional self or to inner      

perception and the ethical self4 ,the   
heart of ,pascal is not the heart of    
,rousseau4 ,with this distinction  once 
obliterated the way is open for the     
,rousseauistic corruption of  such words
 as virtue and conscience1 and this is  
to fling wide the door  to every manner 
of confusion4 ,the whole vocabulary that
 is properly  applicable only to the    
supersensuous realm is then transferred 
to the  region of the subrational4 ,the 
impulsive self proceeds to cover its    
nakedness with all these fair phrases as
 it would with a garment4 ,a  recent    
student of war-time psychology asks3    
8,is it that the natural  man in us has 
been masquerading as the spiritual man  
by hiding himself  under splendid       
words--courage1 patriotism1 justice--and
 now he rises up  and glares at us with 
blood-red eyes80 ,that is precisely what
 has been  happening4    ,but after all 
the heart in any sense of the word is   
controlled by  the imagination1 so that 
a still more fundamental dichotomy1     

perhaps  the most fundamental of all1 is
 that of the imagination itself4 ,we    
have seen how often the ,arcadian       
dreaming of the emotional naturalist    
has been labelled the 8ideal40 ,our     
views of this type of imagination  will 
therefore determine our views of much   
that now passes current  as idealism4   
,now the term idealist may have a sound 
meaning3 it may  designate the man who  
is realistic according to the human law4
 ,but  to be an idealist in ,shelley's  
sense or that of innumerable other      
,rousseauists is to fall into sheer     
unreality4 ,this type of idealist       
shrinks from the sharp discriminations  
of the critic3 they are like  the       
descent of a douche of ice-water upon   
his hot illusions4 ,but it  is          
pleasanter1 after all1 to be awakened by
 a douche of ice-water  than by an      
explosion of dynamite under the bed2 and
 that has been the  frequent fate of the
 romantic idealist4 ,it is scarcely safe
 to neglect  any important aspect of    

reality in favor of one's private dream1
 even  if this dream be dubbed the      
ideal4 ,the aspect of reality that one  
is  seeking to exclude finally comes    
crashing through the walls of the  ivory
 tower and abolishes the dream and at   
times the dreamer4    ,the              
transformation of the ,arcadian dreamer 
into the ,utopist is a  veritable menace
 to civilization4 ,the ends that the    
,utopist proposes  are often in         
themselves desirable and the evils that 
he denounces are  real4 ,but when we    
come to scrutinize critically his means1
 what we  find is not a firm grip on the
 ascertained facts of human nature but  
what ,bagehot calls the feeble          
idealities of the romantic imagination4 
,moreover various ,utopists may come    
together as to what they wish to        
destroy1 which is likely to include the 
whole existing social order2  but what  
they wish to erect on the ruins of this 
order will be found  to be not only in  
dreamland1 but in different dreamlands4 

,for with the  elimination of the veto  
power from personality--the only power  
that can  pull men back to some common  
centre--the ideal will amount to little 
more than the projection of this or that
 man's temperament upon the  void4 ,in a
 purely temperamental world an          
affirmative reply may be given  to the  
question of ,euryalus in ,virgil3 8,is  
each man's ,god but his own  fell       
desire80 7,an sua cuique deus fit dira  
cupido87    ,the task of the ,socratic  
critic at the present time is1 then1    
seen  to consist largely in stripping   
idealistic disguises from egoism1 in    
exposing what ,i have called sham       
spirituality4 ,if the word spirituality 
means anything1 it must imply1 it should
 seem1 some degree of escape  from the  
ordinary self1 an escape that calls in  
turn for effort  according to the human 
law4 ,even when he is not an open and   
avowed  advocate of a 8wise             
passiveness10 the ,rousseauistic        
idealist is only  too manifestly not    

making any such effort--it would        
interfere with his  passion for         
self-expression which is even more      
deeply rooted in him  than his passion  
for saving society4 ,he inclines like   
,rousseau to  look upon every           
constraint#cje whether from within or   
from without  as incompatible with      
liberty4 ,a right definition of liberty 
is almost  as important as a right      
definition of imagination and derives   
from  it very directly4 ,where in our   
anarchical age will such a definition   
be found1 a definition that is at once  
modern and in accord with the           
psychological facts8 8,a man has only to
 declare himself free10 says  ,goethe1  
8and he will at once feel himself       
dependent4 ,if he ventures to  declare  
himself dependent1 he will feel himself 
free40 ,in other words  he is not free  
to do whatever he pleases unless he     
wishes to enjoy the  freedom of the     
lunatic1 but only to adjust himself to  
the reality of  either the natural or   

the human law4 ,a progressive adjustment
 to the  human law gives ethical        
efficiency1 and this is the proper      
corrective  of material efficiency1 and 
not love alone as the sentimentalist is 
so  fond of preaching4 ,love is another 
word that cries aloud for ,socratic     
treatment4    ,a liberty that means only
 emancipation from outer control will   
result1  ,i have tried to show1 in the  
most dangerous form of anarchy--anarchy 
of the imagination4 ,on the degree of   
our perception of this fact will  hinge 
the soundness of our use of another     
general term--democracy4  ,we should    
beware above all of surrendering our    
imaginations to this  word until it has 
been hedged about on every side with    
discriminations  that have behind them  
all the experience of the past with this
 form  of government4 ,only in this way 
may the democrat know whether he is     
aiming at anything real or merely       
dreaming of the golden age4 ,here as    
elsewhere there are pitfalls manifold   

for the uncritical enthusiast4 ,a       
democracy that produces in sufficient   
numbers sound individualists who  look  
up imaginatively to standards set above 
their ordinary selves1 may  well deserve
 enthusiasm4 ,a democracy1 on the other 
hand1 that is not  rightly imaginative1 
but is impelled by vague emotional      
intoxications1  may mean all kinds of   
lovely things in dreamland1 but in the  
real world  it will prove an especially 
unpleasant way of returning to          
barbarism4  ,it is a bad sign that      
,rousseau1 who is more than any other   
one person  the father of radical       
democracy1 is also the first of the     
great  anti-intellectualists4    ,enough
 has been said to show the proper rle of
 the secondary power  of analysis that  
the ,rousseauist looks upon with so much
 disfavor4 ,it  is the necessary        
auxiliary of the art of defining that   
can alone save  us in an untraditional  
age from receiving some mere            
phantasmagoria of  the intellect or     

emotions as a radiant idealism4 ,a      
,socratic dialectic  of this kind is    
needed at such a time not only to       
dissipate sophistry  but as a positive  
support to wisdom4 ,i have raised the   
question in  my ,introduction whether   
the wisdom that is needed just now      
should be  primarily humanistic or      
religious4 ,the preference ,i have      
expressed  for a positive and critical  
humanism ,i wish to be regarded as very 
tentative4 ,in the dark situation that  
is growing up in the ,occident1  all    
genuine humanism and religion1 whether  
on a traditional or a  critical basis1  
should be welcome4 ,i have pointed out  
that traditional  humanism and religion 
conflict in certain respects1 that it is
  difficult to combine the imitation of 
,horace with the imitation of  ,christ4 
,this problem does not disappear        
entirely when humanism and  religion are
 dealt with critically and is indeed one
 of the most  obscure that the thinker  
has to face4 ,the honest thinker1       

whatever his  own preference1 must begin
 by admitting that though religion can  
get  along without humanism1 humanism   
cannot get along without religion4  ,the
 reason has been given by ,burke in     
pointing out the radical defect  of     
,rousseau3 the whole ethical life of man
 has its root in humility4  ,as humility
 diminishes1 conceit or vain imagining  
rushes in almost  automatically to take 
its place4 ,under these circumstances   
decorum1 the  supreme virtue of the     
humanist1 is in danger of degenerating  
into some  art of going through the     
motions4 ,such was only too often the   
decorum  of the ,french drawing-room1   
and such we are told1 has frequently    
been  the decorum of the ,chinese       
humanist4 ,yet the decorum of ,confucius
  himself was not only genuine but he   
has put the case for the humanist  with 
his usual shrewdness4 8,i venture to ask
 about death10 one of his  disciples    
said to him4 8,while you do not know    
life10 ,confucius replied1  8how can you

 know about death80#cjf    ,the solution
 of this problem as to the relation     
between humanism and  religion1 so far  
as a solution can be found1 lies in     
looking upon them  both as only         
different stages in the same path4      
,humanism should have  in it an element 
of religious insight3 it is possible to 
be a humble  and meditative humanist4   
,the type of the man of the world who is
 not  a mere worldling is not only      
attractive in itself but has actually   
been achieved in the ,west1 though not  
perhaps very often1 from the  ,greeks   
down4 ,chinese who should be in a       
position to know affirm again  that1    
alongside many corrupt mandarins1 a     
certain number of true  ,confucians#cjg 
have been scattered through the         
centuries from the time  of the sage to 
the present4    ,if humanism may be     
religious1 religion may have its        
humanistic side4 ,i  have said1         
following ,aristotle1 that the law of   
measure does not apply  to the religious

 life1 but this saying is not to be     
understood in an  absolute sense4       
,buddha is continually insisting on the 
middle path in  the religious life      
itself4 ,the resulting urbanity in      
,buddha and his  early followers in     
,india is perhaps the closest approach  
that that very  unhumanistic land has   
ever made to humanism4    ,it is right  
here in this joining of humanism and    
religion that  ,aristotle1 at least the 
,aristotle that has come down to us1    
does not  seem altogether adequate4 ,he 
fails to bring out sufficiently the     
bond between the meditative or religious
 life that he describes at  the end of  
his 8,ethics0 and the humanistic life or
 life of mediation  to which most of    
this work is devoted4 ,an eminent       
,french authority  on ,aristotle1#cjh   
complains that this separation of the   
two lives  encouraged the ascetic excess
 of the ,middle ,ages1 the undue        
spurning  of the world in favor of      
mystic contemplation4 ,i am struck      

rather  by the danger of leaving the    
humanistic life without any support in  
religion4 ,in a celebrated passage1#cji 
,aristotle says that the  8magnanimous0 
man or ideal gentleman sees all things  
including himself  proportionately3 he  
puts himself neither too high nor too   
low4 ,and  this is no doubt true so far 
as other men are concerned4 ,but does   
the  magnanimous man put human nature   
itself in its proper place8 ,does he    
feel sufficiently its nothingness and   
helplessness1 its dependence on  a      
higher power8 ,no one1 indeed1 who gets 
beyond words and outer forms  would     
maintain that humility is a ,christian  
monopoly4 ,pindar is far  more          
humble#caj than ,aristotle1 as humble1  
one might almost maintain1  as the      
austere ,christian4    ,a humanism      
sufficiently grounded in humility is not
 only desirable  at all times but there 
are reasons for thinking that it would  
be  especially desirable to-day4 ,in the
 first place1 it would so far as  the   

emotional naturalist is concerned raise 
a clear-cut issue4 ,the  naturalist of  
this type denies rather than corrupts   
humanism4 ,he is the  foe of compromise 
and inclines to identify mediation and  
mediocrity4  ,on the other hand1 he     
corrupts rather than denies religion1   
turning  meditation into pantheistic    
revery and in general setting up a      
subtle  parody of what is above the     
ordinary rational level in terms of the 
subrational4 ,on their own showing      
,rousseau and his followers are         
extremists1#caa and even more effective 
perhaps than to attack them  directly   
for their sham religion would be to     
maintain against them that  thus to     
violate the law of measure is to cease  
to be human4    ,furthermore1 a critical
 humanism would appear to be the proper 
corrective of the other main forms of   
naturalistic excess at the  present     
time--the one-sided devotion to physical
 science4 ,what keeps  the man of       
science from being himself a humanist is

 not his science but  his               
pseudo-science1 and also the secret push
 for power and prestige  that he shares 
with other men4 ,the reasons for putting
 humanistic  truth above scientific     
truth are not metaphysical but very     
practical3  the discipline that helps a 
man to self-mastery is found to have a  
more important bearing on his happiness 
than the discipline that helps  him to a
 mastery of physical nature4 ,if        
scientific discipline is not            
supplemented by a truly humanistic or   
religious discipline the result  is     
unethical science1 and unethical science
 is perhaps the worst  monster that has 
yet been turned loose on the race4 ,man 
in spite of  what ,i have termed his    
stupidity1 his persistent evasion of the
 main  issue1 the issue of his own      
happiness1 will awaken sooner or later  
to the fearful evil he has already      
suffered from a science that has        
arrogated to itself what does not       
properly belong to it2 and then  science

 may be as unduly depreciated as it has1
 for the past century  or two1 been     
unduly magnified2 so that in the long   
run it is in the  interest of science   
itself to keep in its proper place1     
which is below  both humanism and       
religion4    ,it would be possible to   
frame in the name of insight an         
indictment  against science that would  
make the indictment ,rousseau has framed
  against it in the name of instinct    
seem mild4 ,the critical humanist1      
however1 will leave it to others to     
frame such an indictment4 ,nothing  is  
more foreign to his nature than every   
form of obscurantism4 ,he  is ready     
indeed to point out that the man of     
science has in common  with him at least
 one important idea--the idea of habit1 
though its  scientific form seems to him
 very incomplete4 ,one may illustrate   
from  perhaps the best known recent     
treatment of the subject1 that of ,james
  in his 8,psychology40 ,it is equally  
significant that the humanist can  agree

 with nearly every line of ,james's     
chapter on habit and that  he disagrees 
very gravely with ,james in his total   
tendency4 ,that is  because ,james shows
 himself1 as soon as he passes from the 
naturalistic  to the humanistic level1  
wildly romantic4 ,even when dealing with
 the  8,varieties of ,religious         
,experience0 he is plainly more         
preoccupied  with the intensity than    
with the centrality of this             
experience4#cab  ,he is obsessed with   
the idea that comes down to him straight
 from the  age of original genius that  
to be at the centre is to be            
commonplace4  ,in a letter to ,c4 ,e4   
,norton 7,june #cj1 #aijd7 ,james       
praises ,ruskin's  ,letters and adds3   
8,mere sanity is the most philistine and
 at bottom  unessential of a man's      
attributes40 8,mere sanity0 is not to be
 thus  dismissed1 because to lack sanity
 is to be headed towards misery and     
even madness4 8,ruskin's10 says ,norton1
 who was in a position to know1  8was   

essentially one of the saddest of       
lives40#cac ,is a man to live  one of   
the saddest of lives merely to gratify  
romantic lovers of the  vivid and       
picturesque like ,james8    ,however1 if
 the man of science holds fast to the   
results reached by  ,james and others   
regarding habit and at the same time    
avoids ,james's  romantic fallacies he  
might perceive the possibility of       
extending the  idea of habit beyond the 
naturalistic level2 and the way would   
then  be open for an important          
coperation between him and the humanist4
  ,humanists themselves1 it must be     
admitted1 even critical humanists1  have
 diverged somewhat in their attitude    
towards habit1 and that from  the time  
of ,socrates and ,aristotle4 ,i have    
been dwelling thus far on  the          
indispensableness of a keen ,socratic   
dialectic and of the right  knowledge it
 brings for those who aspire to be      
critical humanists4  ,but does right    
knowing in itself suffice to ensure     

right doing8  ,socrates and ,plato with 
their famous identification of knowledge
 and  virtue would seem to reply in the 
affirmative4 ,aristotle has the         
immediate testimony of consciousness on 
his side when he remarks  simply        
regarding this identification3 ,the     
facts are otherwise4#cad  ,no experience
 is sadder or more universal than that  
of the failure  of right knowledge to   
secure right performance3 so much so    
that the  austere ,christian has been   
able to maintain with some plausibility 
that all the knowledge in the world is  
of no avail without a special  divine   
succor4 ,now the ,aristotelian agrees   
with the ,christian that mere  knowledge
 is insufficient3 conversion is also    
necessary4 ,he does not  incline1       
however1 like the austere ,christian to 
look for conversion to  8thunderclaps   
and visible upsets of grace40 ,without  
denying necessarily  these pistol-shot  
transformations of human nature he      
conceives of  man's turning away from   

his ordinary self--and here he is much  
nearer  in temper to the man of         
science--as a gradual process4 ,this    
gradual  conversion the ,aristotelian   
hopes to achieve by work according to   
the human law4 ,now right knowledge     
though it supplies the norm1 is  not in 
itself this working1 which consists in  
the actual pulling back  of impulse4    
,but an act of this kind to be effective
 must be repeated4  ,a habit is thus    
formed until at last the new direction  
given to the  natural man becomes       
automatic and unconscious4 ,the         
humanistic worker  may thus acquire at  
last the spontaneity in right doing that
 the  beautiful soul professes to have  
received as a free gift from 8nature40  
,confucius narrates the various stages  
of knowledge and moral effort  through  
which he had passed from the age of     
fifteen and concludes3 8,at  seventy ,i 
could follow what my heart desired      
without transgressing the  law of       
measure40#cae    ,the keener the        

observer the more likely he is to be    
struck by the  empire of habit4 ,habit1 
as ,wellington said1 is ten times       
nature1 and  is indeed so obviously a   
second nature that many of the wise have
  suspected that nature herself is only 
a first habit4#caf ,now ,aristotle  who 
is open to criticism1 it may be1 on the 
side of humility1 still  remains        
incomparable among the philosophers of  
the world for his  treatment of habit on
 the humanistic level4 ,any one who     
wishes to learn  how to become moderate 
and sensible and decent can do no better
 even at  this late day than to steep   
himself in the 8,nicomachean ,ethics40  
,one of the ultimate contrasts that     
presents itself in a subject of  this   
kind is that between habit as conceived 
by ,aristotle and nature  as conceived  
by ,rousseau4 ,the first great grievance
 of the critical  humanist against      
,rousseau is that he set out to be an   
individualist  and at the same time     
attacked analysis1 which is             

indispensable if  one is to be a sound  
individualist4 ,the second great        
grievance of the  humanist is that      
,rousseau sought to discredit habit     
which is necessary  if right analysis is
 to be made effective4 8,the only habit 
the child  should be allowed to form10  
says ,rousseau1 8is that of forming no  
habit40#cag ,how else is the child to   
follow his bent or genius and  so arrive
 at full self-expression8 ,the point ,i 
am bringing up is of  the utmost        
gravity1 for ,rousseau is by common     
consent the father of  modern education4
 ,to eliminate from education the idea  
of a progressive  adjustment to a human 
law1 quite apart from temperament1 may  
be to  imperil civilization itself4 ,for
 civilization 7another word that is     
sadly in need of ,socratic defining7 may
 be found to consist above all  in an   
orderly transmission of right habits2   
and the chief agency for  securing such 
a transmission must always be education1
 by which ,i mean  far more of course   

than mere formal schooling4             
,rousseau's repudiation of habit is     
first of all1 it should be pointed  out1
 perfectly chimerical4 ,the trait of the
 child to which the sensible  educator  
will give chief attention is not his    
spontaneity1 but his  proneness to      
imitate4 ,in the absence of good models 
the child will  imitate bad ones1 and   
so1 long before the age of intelligent  
choice and  self-determination1 become  
the prisoner of bad habits4 ,men1       
therefore1  who aim at being civilized  
must come together1 work out a          
convention  in short1 regarding the     
habits they wish transmitted to the     
young4  ,a great civilization is in a   
sense only a great convention4 ,a sane  
individualist does not wish to escape   
from convention in itself2  he merely   
remembers that no convention is         
final--that it is always  possible to   
improve the quality of the convention in
 the midst of which  he is living1 and  
that it should therefore be held        

flexibly4 ,he would  oppose no obstacles
 to those who are rising above the      
conventional  level1 but would resist   
firmly those who are sinking beneath it4
 ,it  is much easier to determine       
practically whether one has to do with  
an  ascent or a descent 7even though the
 descent be rapturous like that  of the 
,rousseauist7 than our anarchical       
individualists are willing to           
acknowledge4    ,the notion that in     
spite of the enormous mass of experience
 that has  been accumulated in both     
,east and ,west we are still without    
light as  to the habits that make for   
moderation and good sense and decency1  
and  that education is therefore still  
purely a matter of exploration and      
experiment is one that may be left to   
those who are suffering from an         
advanced stage of naturalistic          
intoxication--for example1 to ,professor
  ,john ,dewey and his followers4 ,from 
an ethical point of view a child has    
the right to be born into a cosmos1 and 

not1 as is coming to be more  and more  
the case under such influences1         
pitch-forked into chaos4 ,but  the      
educational radical1 it may be replied1 
does stress the idea of  habit2 and it  
is true that he would have the young    
acquire the habits  that make for       
material efficiency4 ,this1 however1    
does not go beyond  ,rousseau who came  
out very strongly for what we should    
call nowadays  vocational training4#cah 
,it is the adjustment to the human law  
against  which ,rousseau and all the    
,rousseauists are recalcitrant4         
,self-expression and vocational training
 combined in various  proportions and   
tempered by the spirit of 8service10 are
 nearly the  whole of the new education4
 ,but ,i have already said that it is   
not  possible to extract from any such  
compounding of utilitarian and  romantic
 elements1 with the resulting material  
efficiency and ethical  inefficiency1 a 
civilized view of life4 ,it is right    
here indeed in  the educational field   

that concerted opposition to the        
naturalistic  conspiracy against        
civilization is most likely to be       
fruitful4 ,if  the present              
generation--and ,i have in mind         
especially ,american  conditions--cannot
 come to a working agreement about the  
ethical  training it wishes given the   
young1 if it allows the drift towards   
anarchy on the human level to continue1 
it will show itself1 however  ecstatic  
it may be over its own progressiveness  
and idealism1 both  cowardly and        
degenerate4 ,it is very stupid1 assuming
 that it is not  very hypocritical1 to  
denounce ,kultur1 and then to adopt     
educational  ideas that work out in much
 the same fashion as ,kultur1 and have  
indeed the same historical derivation4  
,the dehumanizing influences ,i have    
been tracing are especially to be       
deprecated in higher education4 ,the    
design of higher education1 so far  as  
it deserves the name1 is to produce     
leaders1 and on the quality of  the     

leadership must depend more than on any 
other single factor the  success or     
failure of democracy4 ,i have already   
quoted ,aristotle's  saying that 8most  
men would rather live in a disorderly   
than in a  sober manner40 ,this does not
 mean much more than that most men would
  like to live temperamentally1 to      
follow each his own bent and then  put  
the best face on the matter possible4   
,most men1 says ,goethe in a  similar   
vein1 prefer error to truth because     
truth imposes limitations  and error    
does not4 ,it is well also to recall    
,aristotle's saying that  8the multitude
 is incapable of making                 
distinctions40#cai ,now my whole        
argument is that to be sound            
individualists we must not only make the
  right distinctions but submit to them 
until they become habitual4  ,does it   
follow that the whole experiment in     
which we are engaged is  foredoomed to  
failure8 ,not quite--though the         
obstacles to success are  somewhat      

greater than our democratic enthusiasts 
suspect4 ,the most  disreputable aspect 
of human nature1 ,i have said1 is its   
proneness to  look for scapegoats2 and  
my chief objection to the movement ,i   
have  been studying is that more perhaps
 than any other in history it has       
encouraged the evasion of moral         
responsibility and the setting up of    
scapegoats4 ,but as an offset to this   
disreputable aspect of man1 one  may    
note a creditable trait3 he is very     
sensitive to the force of a  right      
example4 ,if the leaders of a community 
look up to a sound model  and work      
humanistically with reference to it1 all
 the evidence goes to  show that they   
will be looked up to and imitated in    
turn by enough of  the rank and file to 
keep that community from lapsing into   
barbarism4  ,societies always decay from
 the top4 ,it is therefore not enough1  
as  the humanitarian would have us      
believe1 that our leaders should act    
vigorously on the outer world and at the

 same time be filled with the  spirit of
 8service40 ,purely expansive leaders of
 this kind we have  seen who have the   
word humanity always on their lips and  
are at the  same time ceasing to be     
human4 8,that wherein the superior man  
cannot  be equalled10 says ,confucius1  
8is simply this--his work which other   
men cannot see40#cbj ,it is this inner  
work and the habits that result  from it
 that above all humanize a man and make 
him exemplary to the  multitude4 ,to    
perform this work he needs to look to a 
centre and a  model4    ,we are brought 
back here to the final gap that opens   
between classicist  and romanticist4 ,to
 look to a centre according to the      
romanticist  is at the best to display  
8reason10 at the worst to be smug and   
philistine4 ,to look to a true centre   
is1 on the contrary1 according  to the  
classicist1 to grasp the abiding human  
element through all the  change in which
 it is implicated1 and this calls for   
the highest use  of the imagination4    

,the abiding human element exists1 even 
though it  cannot be exhausted by dogmas
 and creeds1 is not subject to rules and
  refuses to be locked up in formul4 ,a 
knowledge of it results from            
experience1--experience vivified by the 
imagination4 ,to do justice to  writing 
which has this note of centrality we    
ourselves need to be in  some measure   
experienced and imaginative4 ,writing   
that is romantic1  writing in which the 
imagination is not disciplined to a true
 centre  is best enjoyed while we are   
young4 ,the person who is as much taken 
by  ,shelley at forty as he was at      
twenty has1 one may surmise1 failed to  
grow up4 ,shelley himself wrote to ,john
 ,gisborne 7,october #bb1 #ahba73 8,as  
to real flesh and blood1 you know that  
,i do not deal in those articles2  you  
might as well go to a ginshop for a leg 
of mutton as expect  anything human or  
earthly from me40 ,the mature man is    
likely to be  dissatisfied with poetry  
so unsubstantial as this even as an     

intoxicant  and still more when it is   
offered to him as the 8ideal40 ,the very
 mark  of genuinely classical work1 on  
the other hand1 is that it yields its   
full meaning only to the mature4 ,young 
and old are1 as ,cardinal ,newman  says1
 affected very differently by the words 
of some classic author1  such as ,homer 
or ,horace4 8,passages1 which to a boy  
are but rhetorical  commonplaces1       
neither better nor worse than a hundred 
others which any  clever writer might   
supply ''' at length come home to him1  
when long  years have passed1 and he has
 had experience of life1 and pierce him1
  as if he had never before known them1 
with their sad earnestness and  vivid   
exactness4 ,then he comes to understand 
how it is that lines1 the  birth of some
 chance morning or evening at an ,ionian
 festival or among  the ,sabine hills1  
have lasted generation after generation 
for thousands  of years1 with a power   
over the mind and a charm which the     
current  literature of his own day1 with

 all its obvious advantages1 is utterly 
unable to rival40    ,in the poets whom 
,newman praises the imagination is1 as  
it were1  centripetal4 ,the neo-classic 
proneness to oppose good sense to       
imagination1 and the romantic proneness 
to oppose imagination to good  sense1   
have at least this justification1 that  
in many persons1 perhaps  in most       
persons1 the two actually conflict1 but 
surely the point to  emphasize is that  
they may come together1 that good sense 
may be  imaginative and imagination     
sensible4 ,if imagination is not        
sensible1  as is plainly the case in    
,victor ,hugo1 for example1 we may      
suspect a  lack of the universal and    
ethical quality4 ,all men1 even great   
poets1  are more or less immersed in    
their personal conceit and in the zones 
of  illusion peculiar to their age4 ,but
 there is the question of degree4  ,the 
poets to whom the world has finally     
accorded its suffrage have not  been    
megalomaniacs2 they have not threatened 

like ,hugo to outbellow  the thunder or 
pull comets around by the tail4#cba     
,bossuet's saying  that 8good sense is  
the master of human life0 does not      
contradict but  complete ,pascal's      
saying that 8the imagination disposes of
 everything10  provided only due stress 
be laid on the word human4 ,it would not
 be  easy to live a more imaginative    
life than ,hugo1 but his imagination was
  so unrestrained that we may ask       
whether he lived a very human life1     
whether he was not rather1 in           
,tennyson's phrase1 a 8weird ,titan40   
,man  realizes that immensity of his    
being of which ,joubert speaks only in  
so  far as he ceases to be the thrall of
 his own ego4 ,this human breadth he    
achieves not by throwing off but by     
taking on limitations1 and what he      
limits is above all his imagination4    
,the reason why he should strive  for a 
life that is thus increasingly full and 
complete is simply1  as ,joubert        
suggests1 that it is more delectable1   

that it is found  practically to make   
for happiness4    ,,the ,,end           
,,appendix    ,,chinese ,,primitivism   
,perhaps the closest approach in the    
past to the movement of which  ,rousseau
 is the most important single figure is 
the early ,taoist  movement in ,china4  
,taoism1 especially in its popular      
aspects1 became  later something very   
different1 and what ,i say is meant to  
apply above  all to the period from     
about #eej to #bjj ,b4,c4 ,the material 
for the  ,taoism of this period will be 
found in convenient form in the volume  
of ,lon ,wieger 7#aiac7--,les ,pres du  
,systme taoste 7,chinese texts  with    
,french translations of ,lao-tz1        
,lieh-tz and ,chuang-tz74 ,the ,tao  ,t 
,king of ,lao-tz is a somewhat          
enigmatical document of only a few      
thousand words1 but plainly             
primitivistic in its general trend4 ,the
  phrase that best sums up its general  
spirit is that of ,wordsworth--a  8wise 
passiveness40 ,the unity at which it    

aims is clearly of the  pantheistic     
variety1 the unity that is obtained by  
breaking down  discrimination and       
affirming the 8identity of              
contradictories10 and  that encourages a
 reversion to origins1 to the state of  
nature and the  simple life4 ,according 
to the ,taoist the ,chinese fell from   
the simple  life into artificiality     
about the time of the legendary ,yellow 
,emperor1  ,hoang-ti 7#bgth century     
,b4,c474 ,the individual also should    
look back  to beginnings and seek to be 
once more like the new-born child#cbb   
or1 according to ,chuang-tz1 like the   
new-born calf4#cbc ,it is in  ,chuang-tz
 indeed that the doctrine develops its  
full naturalistic and  primitivistic    
implications4 ,few writers in either    
,east or ,west have  set forth more     
entertainingly what one may term the    
,bohemian attitude  towards life4 ,he   
heaps ridicule upon ,confucius and in   
the name of  spontaneity attacks his    
doctrine of humanistic imitation4#cbd   

,he  sings the praises of the           
unconscious1#cbe even when obtained     
through  intoxication1#cbf and extols   
the morality of the beautiful soul4#cbg 
,he traces the fall of mankind from     
nature into artifice in a fashion  that 
anticipates very completely both        
,rousseau's ,discourse on the ,arts  and
 ,sciences#cbh and that on the ,origin  
of ,inequality4#cbi ,see also  the      
amusing passage in which the brigand    
,chi1 child of nature and  champion of  
the weak against the oppressions of     
government1 paints  a highly            
,rousseauistic picture of man's fall    
from his primitive  felicity4#ccj ,among
 the things that are contrary to nature 
and purely  conventional1 according to  
,chuang-tz and the ,taoists1 are1 not   
only  the sciences and arts and attempts
 to discriminate between good and  bad  
taste1#cca but likewise government and  
statecraft1#ccb virtue  and moral       
standards4#ccc ,to the artificial music 
of the ,confucians1  the ,taoists oppose

 a natural music that offers startling  
analogies to  the most recent           
programmatic and descriptive tendencies 
of ,occidental  music4#ccd ,see         
especially ,chuang-tz's programme for a 
cosmic symphony  in three               
movements#cce--the ,pipes of ,pan as one
 is tempted to call  it4 ,this music    
that is supposed to reflect in all its  
mystery and  magic the infinite creative
 processes of nature is very close to   
the  primitivistic music 78,l'arbre vu  
du ct des racines07 with which  ,hugo's 
satyr strikes panic into the breasts of 
the ,olympians4    ,the ,taoist notion  
of following nature is closely related1 
as in other  naturalistic movements1 to 
the idea of fate whether in its stoical 
or epicurean form4#ccf ,from the        
references in ,chuang-tz#ccg  and       
elsewhere to various sects and schools  
we see that ,taoism was  only a part of 
a great stream of naturalistic and      
primitivistic  tendency4 ,china abounded
 at that time in pacifists1#cch in      

apostles  of brotherly love1 and as we  
should say nowadays ,tolstoyans4 ,a true
  opposite to the egoistic ,yang-chu was
 the preacher of pure altruism  and     
indiscriminate sympathy1 ,mei-ti4       
,mencius said that if the ideas  of     
either of these extremists prevailed the
 time would come1 not only  when wolves 
would devour men1 but men would devour  
one another4#cci  ,in opposing          
discrimination and ethical standards to 
the naturalists1  ,mencius and the      
,confucian humanists were fighting for  
civilization4  ,unfortunately there is  
some truth in the ,taoist charge that   
the  standards of the ,confucians are   
too literal1 that in their defence of   
the principle of imitation they did not 
allow sufficiently for the  element of  
flux and relativity and illusion in     
things--an element for  which the       
,taoists had so keen a sense that they  
even went to the point  of suppressing  
the difference between sleeping and     
waking#cdj and  life and death4#cda ,to 

reply properly to the ,taoist relativist
 the  ,confucians would have needed to  
work out a sound conception of the rle  
of the imagination--the universal key to
 human nature--and this they  do not    
seem to have done4 ,one is inclined to  
ask whether this is the  reason for     
,china's failure to achieve a great     
ethical art like that of  the drama and 
the epic of the ,occident at their best4
 ,the ,taoists were  richly imaginative 
but along romantic lines4 ,we should not
 fail to note  the ,taoist influence    
upon ,li ,po and other ,bohemian and    
bibulous poets  of the ,tang dynasty1 or
 the relation of ,taoism to the rise of 
a great  school of landscape painting at
 about the same time4 ,we should note   
also the ,taoist element in 8,ch'an0    
,buddhism 7the 8,zen0 ,buddhism#cdb of  
,japan71 some knowledge of which is     
needed for an understanding of whole    
periods of ,japanese and ,chinese art4  
,in these later stages1 however1 the    
issues are less clear-cut than  in the  

original struggle between ,taoists and  
,confucians4 ,the total  impression one 
has of early ,taoism is that it is a    
main manifestation  of an age of        
somewhat sophistical individualism4     
,ancient ,chinese  individualism ended  
like that of ,greece at about the same  
time in  disaster4 ,after a period of   
terrible convulsions 7the era of the    
8,fighting ,states071 the inevitable man
 on horseback appeared from the  most   
barbaric of these states and 8put the   
lid0 on everybody4 ,shi  ,hwang-ti1 the 
new emperor1 had many of the scholars   
put to death and  issued an edict that  
the writings of the past1 especially the
 ,confucian  writings1 should be        
destroyed 7#bac ,b4,c474 ,though the    
emperor behaved  like a man who took    
literally the ,taoist views as to the   
blessings of  ignorance1 it is not clear
 from our chief authority1 the historian
  ,ss-ma ,ch'ien1 that he acted entirely
 or indeed mainly under ,taoist         
influence4    ,it is proper to add that 

though ,lao-tz proclaims that the soft  
is  superior to the hard1 a doctrine    
that should appeal to the ,occidental   
sentimentalist1 one does not find in him
 or in the other ,taoists the           
equivalent of the extreme emotional     
expansiveness of the ,rousseauist4      
,there are passages1 especially in      
,lao-tz1 that in their emphasis on      
concentration and calm are in line with 
the ordinary wisdom of the  ,east2 and  
even where the doctrine is unmistakably 
primitivistic the  emotional quality is 
often different from that of the        
corresponding  movement in the ,west4   
,,bibliography      ,my only            
justification for these very            
unsystematic bibliographical notes  is  
that1 bringing together as they do under
 one cover material somewhat  scattered 
and inaccessible to most readers1 they  
may help to add to  the number1 now     
unfortunately very small1 of those who  
have earned  the right to have an       
opinion about romanticism as an         

international  movement4 ,a list of this
 kind is a fragment of a fragment4 ,i   
have  given1 for example1 only a        
fraction of the books on ,rousseau and  
scarcely any of the books1 thousands in 
numbers1 which without being  chiefly on
 ,rousseau1 contain important passages  
on him4 ,i may cite  almost at random as
 instances of this latter class1 the    
comparison  between ,burke and ,rousseau
 in the fifth volume of ,lecky's        
,history of  the ,eighteenth ,century2  
the stanzas on ,rousseau in the third   
canto  of ,childe ,harold2 the passage  
on ,rousseau in ,hazlitt's essay on the 
,past and ,future 7,table ,talk74       
,the only period that ,i have covered   
with any attempt at fullness is  that   
from about #agie to #ahdj4 ,books that  
seem to me to possess literary          
distinction or to deal authoritatively  
with some aspect of the subject  ,i have
 marked with a star4 ,i make no claim1  
however1 to have read  all the books ,i 
have listed1 and my rating will no doubt

 often be  questioned in the case of    
those ,i have read4    ,i have not as a 
rule mentioned articles in periodicals4 
,the files of  the following special    
publications may often be consulted with
 profit4  ,those that have current      
bibliographies ,i have marked with a    
dagger4     ,revue d',histoire littraire
 de la ,france4-- ,annales              
romantiques4-- ,revue germanique 7,eng4 
and ,german74     ,englische            
,studien--,anglia4-- ,mitteilungen ber  
,englische  ,sprache und ,literatur     
7,beiblatt zur ,anglia74-- ,archiv fr   
das ,studium der neueren ,sprachen      
7,herrigs ,archiv74--  ,zeitschrift fr  
franzsische ,sprache und                
,literatur--,kritischer  ,jahresbericht 
der romanischen                         
,philologie--,germanisch-,romanische    
,monatschrift--,euphorion 7,german      
lit474-- ,zeitschrift fr deutsches      
,altertum und deutsche ,literatur4      
,publications of the ,modern ,language  
,association of ,america4--  ,modern    

,language ,notes 7,baltimore74--,modern 
,philology  7,chicago74--,the ,journal  
of ,english and ,germanic ,philology    
7,urbana1  ,ill474-- ,studies in        
,philology 7,univ4 of ,north ,car474--  
,the ,modern  ,language ,review         
7,cambridge1 ,eng474    ,works that are 
international in scope and that fall    
either wholly  or in part in the        
romantic period are as follows3 ,l4 ,p4 
,betz3  ,la  ,littrature ,compare1      
,essai bibliographique1 #b;e d4         
augmente1  #aijd4--;,a4 ,sayous3 ,le    
,x,v,i,i,ie sicle  l'tranger1 #b vols4  
#ahfa4--;,h4  ,hettner3                 
,literaturgeschichte des #ah4 ,jahr4    
#ahgb4 #f vols4 #eth edn4  #aiji4       
7,still standard47--,g4 ,brandes3  ,main
 ,currents in #aith ,century            
,literature1 #f vols4 #aija ff4         
,originally given as lectures in ,danish
 at  the ,university of ,copenhagen and 
trans4 into ,german1 #ahgb ff4 7,often  
marred by political 8tendency407--,t4   
,spfle3 ,geschichte des deutschen       

,kultureinflusses auf ,frankreich1 #b   
vols4 #ahhf-ij4--,v4 ,rossel3 ,hist4  de
 la litt4 fr4 hors de ,france4 #b;e d4  
#ahig4--;,c4 ,e4 ,vaughan3 ,the         
,romantic ,revolt1 #aijj4--,t4 ,s4      
,omond3 ,the ,romantic ,triumph1 #aijj4 
7,a  somewhat colorless book47          
,,english ,,field     ,the ,cambridge   
,history of ,english ,literature1 vols4 
,x1 ,,xi1 ,,xii1 #aiac  ff4 7,excellent 
bibliographies47--,see also articles and
 bibliographies  in  ,dictionary of     
,national ,biography1 ,chambers         
,encyclopdia of  ,english ,literature   
7new edn47 and ,encyclopdia ,britannica 
7#aath  edn474    ,l4 ,stephen3         
,history of ,english ,thought in the    
#ahth ,century1 #ahgf4  7,to be         
consulted for the deistic prelude to    
emotional naturalism4 ,the  author's    
horizons are often limited by his       
utilitarian outlook47--,t4  ,s4         
,seccombe3 ,the ,age of ,johnson1       
#aijj4--;,e4 ,bernbaum's ,english       
,poets of the #ahth ,century1 #aiah4    

7,an anthology so arranged as  to       
illustrate the growth of                
sentimentalism47--,w4 ,l4 ,phelps3 ,the 
,beginnings of the ,english ,romantic   
,movement1 #ahic4--;,h4 ,a4 ,beers3 ,a  
,history of ,english ,romanticism in the
 #ahth ,century1 #ahih4 ,a ,history  of 
,english ,romanticism in the #aith      
,century1 #aija4 7,both vols4 are       
agreeably written but start from a very 
inadequate definition of                
romanticism47--,c4 ,h4 ,herford3 ,the   
,age of ,wordsworth1 #ahig4--;,g4       
,saintsbury3 ,nineteenth ,century       
,literature1 #ahif4--;,a4 ,symons3 ,the 
,romantic ,movement in ,english ,poetry1
 #aiji4 7,ultra-romantic in             
outlook47--,w4 ,j4 ,courthope3 ,history 
of ,english ,poetry1 vols4 ,v and  ,,vi1
 #aiaa4--,o4 ,elton3  ,a ,survey of     
,english ,literature1 #aghj-ahcj1       
#aiab4 7,a distinguished treatment of   
the period1 at once scholarly and       
literary4 ,the point of view is on the  
whole romantic1 as appears in the  use  

of such general terms as 8beauty0 and   
the 8infinite407--,h4 ,richter3         
,geschichte der englischen ,romantik1   
#aiaa ff4--,w4 ,a4 ,neilson3 ,the       
,essentials of ,poetry1 #aiab4 7,the    
point of view appears in a passage  like
 the following1 pp4 #aib-ic3 ,according 
to ,arnold high seriousness  8is the    
final criterion of a great poet4 ,one   
might suggest it as a more  fit         
criterion for a great divine4 ''' ,the  
element for which ,arnold was  groping  
when he seized on the  of ,aristotle was
 not seriousness  but intensity407--,p4 
,e4 ,more3  ,the ,drift of ,romanticism 
7,shelburne  ,essays1 ,eighth ,series71 
#aiac4 7,deals also with the            
international  aspects of the movement1 
especially in the essay on ,nietzsche4  
,the  point of view has much in common  
with my own47    ,george ,lillo3 ,the   
,london ,merchant2 or ,the ,history of  
,george  ,barnwell1 #agca4 ,fatal       
,curiosity1 #agcg4 ,both plays ed4 with 
intro4  by ,a4 ,w4 ,ward1 #aijf4        

7,bibliography47--,e4 ,bernbaum3 ,the   
,drama of  ,sensibility1 #afif-aghj1    
#aiae4    ,s4 ,richardson1 #afhi-agfa3  
,novels1 ed4 ,l4 ,stephen1 #ab vols4    
#ahhc4    ,d4 ,diderot3 ,eloge de ,r41  
#agfa4 ,reprinted in uvres compltes1    
vol4  v4--,j4 ,jusserand3 ,le ,roman    
,anglais1 #ahhf4--;,j4 ,o4 ,e4 ,donner3 
,r4 in  der deutschen ,romantik1        
#ahif4--,w4 ,l4 ,cross3 ,the            
,development of the  ,english ,novel    
7chap4 ,,ii1 8,the #ahth ,century       
,realists071 #ahii4--;,j4  ,texte3      
,j4-,j4 ,rousseau et les ,origines du   
,cosmopolitisme littraire4  ,eng4 trans4
 by ,j4,w4 ,matthews1 #ahii4--;,c4 ,l4  
,thomson3 ,samuel ,richardson3  a       
,biographical and ,critical ,study1     
#aijj4--;,a4 ,dobson3 ,s4 ,r41 #aijb4   
,l4 ,sterne1 #agac-fh3 ,collected       
,works1 ed4 ,g4 ,saintsbury1 #f vols4   
#ahid4  ,ed4 ,w4 ,l4 ,cross1 #ab vols4  
#aijd4    ,p4 ,fitzgerald3 ,life of ,s41
 #b vols4 #ahfd4 #c;d edn4 #aijf4--,p4  
,stapfer3  ,laurence ,sterne1           

#ahgj4--;,h4 ,d4 ,traill3 ,sterne1      
#ahhb4--,l4 ,stephen3  ,sterne4 ,hours  
in a ,library1 vol4 ,,iii1 #ahib4--;,j4 
,czerny3 ,sterne1  ,hippel1 und ,jean   
,paul1 #aijd4--;,h4 ,w4 ,thayer3 ,l4 ,s4
 in ,germany1  #aije4--,p4 ,e4 ,more3   
,shelburne ,essays1 #c;d ,series1       
#aije4--,w4 ,l4 ,cross3  ,the ,life and 
,times of ,l4 ,s41 #aiji4--,w4 ,sichel3 
,sterne1 #aiaj4--,l4  ,melville3 ,the   
,life and ,letters of ,l4 ,s41 #b vols4 
#aiaa4--;,f4 ,b4 ,barton3  ,etude sur   
l'influence de ,s4 en ,france au        
,x,v,i,i,ie sicle1 #aiaa4    ,henry     
,mackenzie3 ,the ,man of ,feeling1      
#agga4--;,horace ,walpole3 ,the  ,castle
 of ,otranto1 #agfe4--;,clara ,reeve3   
,the ,champion of ,virtue1 #aggg4       
,title changed to ,the ,old ,english    
,baron in later edns4--,thomas ,amory3  
,life of ,john ,buncle1 ,esq41 #d vols4 
#agef-ff4 ,new edn4 7with intro4  by ,e4
 ,a4 ,baker71 #aijd4--;,henry ,brooke3  
,the ,fool of ,quality1 #e vols4        
#agff-gj4 ,ed4 ,e4 ,a4 ,baker1          

#aijf4--,william ,beckford3 ,an ,arabian
 ,tale  ,vathek1 #aghf4 ,in ,french1    
#aghg4 ,ed4 ,r4 ,garnett1 #ahic4--,l4   
,melville3  ,the ,life and ,letters of  
,william ,beckford1 #aiaj4--,p4 ,e4     
,more3 ,w4 ,b41  in ,the ,drift of      
,romanticism1 #aiac4    ,edward ,young1 
#afhc-agfe3 ,works1 #f vols4 #ageg-gh4  
,poetical ,works  7,aldine ,poets71     
#aheh4--;,george ,eliot3 ,the ,poet ,y41
 in ,essays1 #b;d  edn4 #ahhd4--,w4     
,thomas3 ,le pote ,e4 ,y41 #aija4--;,j4 
,l4 ,kind3 ,e4 ,y4 in  ,germany1        
#aijf4--;,h4 ,c4 ,shelley3 ,the ,life   
and ,letters of ,e4 ,y41 #aiad4         
,james ,macpherson1 #agcf-if3 ,fingal1  
#agfb4 ,temora1 #agfc4 ,the ,works  of  
,ossian1 ed4 ,w4 ,sharp1 #ahif4--;,for  
bibliography of ,ossian and the         
,ossianic controversy see ,lowndes's    
,bibliographer's ,manual1 part ,,vi1    
#ahfa4--;,j4 ,s4 ,smart3  ,james        
,macpherson1 #aije4    ,thomas ,percy3  
,reliques of ,ancient ,english ,poetry1 
#c vols4 #agfe4 ,ed4  ,h4 ,b4 ,wheatley1

 #c vols4 #ahgf and #ahia4--;,a4 ,c4 ,c4
 ,gaussen3 ,percy1  ,prelate and ,poet1 
#aijh4    ,thomas ,chatterton1 #ageb-gj3
 ,complete ,poetical ,works1 ed4 with   
intro4 and bibliography by ,h4 ,d4      
,roberts1 #b vols4 #aijf4 ,poetical     
,works1 with intro4 by ,sir ,s4 ,lee1 #b
 vols4 #aijf-ji4--;,a4 de ,vigny3       
,chatterton4 ,drame1 #ahce--;,d4        
,masson3 ,chatterton in ,essays1        
#ahef4--,t4 ,watts-,dunton3             
,introduction to poems of ,c41 in       
,ward's ,english  ,poets4--,c4 ,e4      
,russell3 ,thomas ,chatterton1          
#aiji4--;,j4 ,h4 ,ingram3 ,the  ,true   
,chatterton1 #aiaj4    ,thomas ,warton3 
,the ,history of ,english ,poetry1      
#aggd-hh4--;,c4 ,rinaker3  ,thomas      
,warton1 #aiaf4--;,joseph ,warton3      
,essay on the ,genius and  ,writings of 
,pope1 #b vols4 #agef-hb4--,paul-,henri 
,mallet3 ,introduction   l',hist4 de    
,dannemarc1 #b vols4 #agee-ef--;,f4 ,e4 
,farley3 ,scandinavian  ,influence on   
the ,english ,romantic ,movement1 #aijc 

7,bibliography74--,r4  ,hurd3 ,letters  
on ,chivalry and ,romance1 #agfb2 ed4   
,e4 ,j4 ,morley1 #aiaa4    ,w4 ,godwin1 
#agef-ahcf3 ,political ,justice1 #agic4 
,caleb ,williams1  #agid4    ,c4 ,k4    
,paul3 ,w4 ,g41 his ,friends and        
,contemporaries1 #b vols #ahgf4--,w4    
,hazlitt3 ,w4 ,g41 in ,the ,spirit of   
the ,age1 #aijb4--,l4 ,stephen3 ,w4     
,g4's ,novels4 ,studies of a            
,biographer1 vol4 ,,iii1 #aijb4--,p4    
,ramus3  ,w4 ,g4 der ,theoretiker des   
kommunistischen ,anarchismus1           
#aijg4--;,h4  ,saitzeff3 ,w4 ,g4 und die
 ,anfnge des ,anarchismus im xviii      
,jahrhundert1  #aijg4--;,helene ,simon3 
,w4 ,g4 und ,mary ,wollstonecraft1      
#aiji4--;,h4  ,roussin3 ,w4 ,g41 #aiab4 
,r4 ,burns1 #agei-if3 ,the ,complete    
,poetical ,works1 ed4 ,j4 ,l4           
,robertson1 #c vols4 #ahif4--;,j4 ,c4   
,ewing3 ,selected ,list of the ,works of
  ,r4 ,b41 and of ,books upon his ,life 
and ,writings1 #ahii4    ,w4            
,wordsworth3 ,letter to a ,friend of ,r4

 ,burns1 #ahaf4--,t4 ,carlyle3  ,burns1 
#ahbh4 ,rptd4 #ahed4 ,on ,heroes and    
,hero-,worship1 #ahda4--;,j4  ,g4       
,lockhart3 ,life of ,r4 ,burns1         
#ahbh4--;,h4 ,a4 ,taine3 ,histoire de la
  ,littrature ,anglaise1 vol4 ,,iii1    
#ahfc-fd4--;,j4 ,c4 ,shairp3 ,r4 ,burns1
  #ahgi4--,r4 ,l4 ,stevenson3 ,familiar 
,studies of ,men and ,books1 #ahhb4--,m4
  ,arnold3 ,essays in ,criticism1       
,second ,series1 #ahhh4--;,a4           
,angellier3   ,r4 ,burns3 la vie et les 
uvres1 #b vols4 #ahic4--,t4 ,f4         
,henderson3 ,r4  ,burns1 #aijd4--,w4 ,a4
 ,neilson3 ,burns3 ,how to ,know ,him1  
#aiag4    ,w4 ,blake1 #agei-ahbg3 ,the  
,poetical ,works1 ed4 with an intro4 and
  textual notes by ,j4 ,sampson1 #aiac4 
,a4 ,gilchrist3 ,life of ,b41 #b vols4  
#ahfc4 ,new edn4 #aijf4--;,a4  ,c4      
,swinburne3 ,w4 ,b41 #ahfh4 ,new edn4   
#aijf4--;,a4 ,t4 ,story3 ,w4  ,b41      
#ahic4--;,j4 ,thomson 7,b4,v473 ,essay  
on the ,poems of ,w4 ,b41 in            
,biographical and ,critical ,studies1   

#ahif4--,w4 ,b4 ,yeats3 ,ideas of ,good 
and ,evil1 #aijc4--;,f4 ,benoit3 ,un    
,matre de l',art4 ,b4 le ,visionnaire1  
#aijf4--,p4 ,e4 ,more3 ,shelburne       
,essays1 ,fourth ,series1 #aijf4--,p4   
,berger3  ,w4 ,b41 #aijg4--,s4 ,a4      
,brooke3 ,studies in ,poetry1           
#aijg4--;,e4 ,j4 ,ellis3  ,the ,real    
,b41 a ,portrait ,biography1            
#aijg4--;,b4 de ,selincourt3 ,w4  ,b41  
#aiji4--;,g4 ,saintsbury3 ,a ,history of
 ,english ,prosody1 vol4 ,,iii1         
#aiaj4--;,j4 ,h4 ,wicksteed3 ,b4's      
,vision of the ,book of ,job1           
#aiaj4--;,h4 ,c4  ,beeching3 ,b4's      
,religious ,lyrics1 ,essays and ,studies
 by ,members of the  ,eng4 ,association1
 vol4 ,,iii1 #aiab4--;,a4 ,g4 ,b4       
,russell3 ,the ,engravings  of ,w4 ,b41 
#aiab4    ,w4 ,wordsworth1 #aggj-ahej3  
,poetical ,works1 ed4 ,t4 ,hutchinson1  
#aijd4  ,poems1 chosen and edited by ,m4
 ,arnold1 #ahgi4 ,prose ,works1 ed4 ,w4 
,knight1 #b vols4 #ahif4 ,wordsworth's  
,literary ,criticism1 ed4 ,n4 ,c4       

,smith1 #aije4    ,w4 ,hazlitt3 ,the    
,spirit of the ,age1 #ahbe4--;,c4       
,wordsworth3 ,memoirs of  ,w4 ,w41 #b   
vols4 #ahea4--,t4,b4 ,macaulay3         
,critical and ,historical ,essays1      
#aheb4--;,j4 ,r4 ,lowell3 ,among my     
,books1 #ahgj4--,r4 ,h4 ,hutton3 ,essays
  ,theological and ,literary1 #b vols4  
#ahga4--;,j4 ,c4 ,shairp3 ,w41          
#ahgb4--,s4  ,a4 ,brooke3 ,theology in  
the ,english ,poets1 #ahgd4 #ajth edn4  
#aijg4--;,e4  ,dowden3 ,studies in      
,literature1 #ahgh4 ,new ,studies in    
,literature1  #ahie4--,w4 ,bagehot3     
,literary ,studies1 #ahgi4--;,f4 ,w4 ,h4
 ,myers3 ,w41  #ahha4--;,j4 ,h4         
,shorthouse3 ,on the ,platonism of ,w41 
#ahhb4--,w4 ,a4 ,knight3  ,memorials of 
,coleorton1 #b vols4 #ahhg4 ,letters of 
the ,wordsworth  ,family from #aghg to  
#ahee1 #aijg4--,m4 ,arnold3  ,essays in 
,criticism1  ,second ,series1           
#ahhh4--,p4 ,bourget3 ,etudes et        
,portraits1 vol4 ,,ii1  #ahhh4--,w4 ,h4 
,pater3 ,appreciations1 #ahhi4--,l4     

,stephen3 ,hours  in a ,library1 vol4   
,,ii1 #ahib4 ,studies of a ,biographer1 
vol4 ,i1  #ahih4--;,dorothy ,wordsworth3
 ,journals1 ed4 ,w4 ,knight1 #b vols1   
#ahig4--;,e4  ,legouis3  ,the ,early    
,life of ,w41 #aggj-ih4 ,trans4 by      
,j4,w4 ,matthews1  #ahig4--;,e4         
,yarnall3 ,w4 and the ,coleridges1      
#ahii4--,w4 ,a4 ,raleigh3 ,w41          
#aijc4--,k4 ,bmig3 ,w4 ,w4 im ,urteile  
seiner ,zeit1 #aijf4--;,a4 ,c4 ,bradley3
  ,eng4 ,poetry and ,german ,philosophy 
in the ,age of ,w41 #aiji4--,m4         
,reynolds3 ,the ,treatment of ,nature in
 ,eng4 ,poetry between ,pope and  ,w41  
#aiji4 7,bibliography47--,l4 ,cooper3 ,a
 ,concordance to the ,poems of  ,w4 ,w41
 #aiaa4--;,e4 ,s4 ,robertson3           
,wordsworthshire4 ,an ,introduction to a
  ,poet's ,country1 #aiaa4    ,w4       
,scott1 #agga-ahcb3 ,poetical ,works1   
ed4 ,j4 ,l4 ,robertson1 #aijd4  ,the    
,waverly ,novels 7,oxford edn471 #be    
vols4 #aiab4 ,the ,miscellaneous  ,prose
 ,works1 #cj vols4 #ahcd-ga4    ,w4     

,hazlitt3 ,the ,spirit of the ,age1     
#ahbe4--;,j4 ,g4 ,lockhart3  ,memoirs   
of the ,life of ,sir ,w4 ,s4 ,baronet1  
#b vols4 #ahcg-ch4--,t4 ,carlyle3 ,sir  
,w4,s41 #ahch4--;,g4 ,grant3 ,life of   
,sir ,w4 ,s41 #ahdi4--,l4 ,stephen3     
,hours  in a ,library1 vol4 ,i1 #ahgd4  
,the ,story of ,s4's ,ruin1 ,studies of 
a  ,biographer1 vol4 ,,ii1 #ahih4--,r4  
,h4 ,hutton3 ,sir ,w4 ,s41 #ahgf4--,w4  
,bagehot3 ,the ,waverley ,novels in     
,literary ,studies1 vol4 ,,ii1          
#ahgi4--;,g4  ,smith3 ,sir ,w4 ,s41 in  
,ward's ,english ,poets1 vol4 ,,iv1     
#ahhc4--,r4  ,l4 ,stevenson3 ,a ,gossip 
on ,romance in ,memories and ,portraits1
  #ahhg4--;,j4 ,veitch3 ,the ,feeling   
for ,nature in ,scottish ,poetry1 #b    
vols4  #ahhg4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,history and  
,poetry of the ,scottish ,border4 #b;d  
edn4  #b vols4 #ahic4--;,c4,d4 ,yonge3  
,life of ,sir ,w4,s4 7bibliography by   
,j4,p4  ,anderson71 #ahhh4--,v4 ,waille3
 ,le ,romantisme de ,manzoni1           
#ahij4--;,a4  ,lang3 ,life and ,letters 

of ,j4,g4 ,lockhart1 #b vols4 #ahif4 ,l4
 and the  ,border ,minstrelsy1          
#aiaj4--;,f4,t4 ,palgrave3 ,landscape in
 ,poetry1  #ahif4--;,a4,a4 ,jack3       
,essays on the ,novel as illustrated by 
,s4 and ,miss  ,austen1 #ahig4--;,g4    
,saintsbury3 ,sir ,w4,s41 #ahig4--,l4   
,maigron3  ,le  ,roman historique       
l'poque romantique4 ,essai sur          
l'influence de ,w4,s41  #ahih4--,w4,l4  
,cross3 ,development of the ,english    
,novel1 #ahii4--,m4  ,dotti3 ,delle     
derivazioni nei ,promessi sposi di ,a4  
,manzoni dai ,romanzi  di ,w4,s41       
#aijj4--,w4,h4 ,hudson3 ,sir ,w4,s41    
#aija4--,w4,s4 ,crockett3 ,the  ,scott  
,country1 #aijb4 ,footsteps of ,s41     
#aijg4 ,the ,scott ,originals1          
#aiab4--;,a4 ,ainger3 ,s4 ,lectures and 
,essays1 vol4 ,i4 #aije4--;,a4,s4,g4    
,canning3 ,history in ,s4's ,novels1    
#aije4 ,sir ,w4,s4 studied in ,eight    
,novels1 #aiaj4--;,g4 ,agnoli3 ,gli     
,albori del romanzo storico in ,italia e
  i primi imitatori di ,w4,s41          

#aijf4--;,c4,a4 ,young3 ,the ,waverley  
,novels1  #aijg4--;,g4 ,wyndham3 ,sir   
,w4,s41 #aijh4--;,f4,a4 ,mac,cunn3 ,sir 
,w4,s4's  friends1 #aiji4    ,s4 ,t4    
,coleridge1 #aggb-ahca3 ,dramatic       
,works1 ed4 ,d4 ,coleridge1 #aheb4      
,poetical ,works1 ed4 with biographical 
intro4 by ,j4,d4 ,campbell1 #ahic4      
,complete ,poetical ,works1 ed4 ,e4,h4  
,coleridge1 #b vols4 #aiab4 ,prose      
,works1 #f vols4 in ,bohn's ,library1   
#ahfe ff4--,biographia ,literaria1  ed4 
with his sthetical essays by ,i4        
,shawcross1 #b vols4 #aijg4 ,anima      
,poetae1 ed4 ,e4,h4 ,coleridge1 #ahie4  
,c4's ,literary ,criticism1 with  intro4
 by ,j4,w4 ,mackail1 #aijh4 ,biographia 
epistalaris1 ed4 ,a4 ,tumbull1  #b vols4
 #aiaa4    ,w4 ,hazlitt3 ,mr4 ,c41 in   
,the ,spirit of the ,age1 #ahbe4--,t4   
,allsop3  ,letters1 ,conversations1 and 
,recollections of ,s4,t4,c41 #b vols4   
#ahcf4--,t4 ,carlyle3 ,life of ,john    
,sterling 7part ,i1 chap1 ,,viii71      
#ahea4--,sara ,coleridge3 ,memoirs and  

,letters of ,sara ,coleridge1 #b  vols4 
#ahgc4--;,h4,d4 ,traill3 ,coleridge1    
#ahhd4--;,a4 ,brandl3 ,s4,t4,c4  und die
 englishe ,romantik1 #ahhf4 ,eng4 trans4
 by ,lady ,eastlake1  #ahhg4--,w4       
,pater3 ,coleridge4 ,appreciations1     
#ahhi4--,t4 ,de ,quincey3  ,s4,t4,c41   
#ahhi4--,l4 ,stephen3 ,coleridge1 ,hours
 in a ,library1 vol4  ,,iii1            
#ahib4--;,j4,d4 ,campbell3 ,s4,t4,c41   
#ahid4 #b;d edn42 #ahif4--;,e4 ,dowden3 
,c4 as a ,poet4 ,new ,studies in        
,literature1 #ahie4--;,e4,v4 ,lucas3    
,charles  ,lamb and the ,lloyds1        
#ahih4--,r4,h4 ,shepherd3 ,the          
,bibliography of ,c41  #aijj4--;,c4     
,cestre3 ,la ,rvolution franaise et les 
potes anglais  7#aghi-ahji71            
#aijf4--;,j4 ,aynard3 ,la vie d'un pote4
 ,coleridge1  #aijg4--;,a4,a4           
,helmholtz3 ,the ,indebtedness of       
,s4,t4,c4 to ,a4,w4 ,schlegel1          
#aijg4--;,a4,a4 ,jack and ,a4,c4        
,bradley3 ,short ,bibliography of ,c41  
#aiab4    ,c4 ,lamb1 #agge-ahcd3 ,life  

and ,works1 ed4 ,a4 ,ainger1 #ab vols4  
#ahii-aijj4 ,the ,works of ,charles and 
,mary ,l41 ed4 ,e4,v4 ,lucas1 #g vols4  
#aijc-je4 ,the ,works in ,prose and     
,verse of ,charles and ,mary ,l41 ed4   
,t4  ,hutchinson1 #b vols4 #aijh4 ,the  
,letters of ,c4,l4 ,intro1 by ,h4,h4    
,harper1  #e vols4 #aijg4 ,dramatic     
,essays of ,c4,l41 ed4 ,b4 ,matthews1   
#ahia4    ,g4 ,gilfillan3 ,c4,l41 vol4  
,,ii1 #aheg4--;,b4,w4 ,proctor3 ,c4,l41 
#ahff4--,p4  ,fitzgerald3 ,c4,l41       
#ahff4--;,a4 ,ainger3 ,c4,l41 a         
,biography1 #ahhb4  ,lectures and       
,essays1 vol4 ,,ii1 #aije4--,w4 ,pater3 
,c4,l4 ,appreciations1  #ahhi4--;,e4,v4 
,lucas3 ,bernard ,barton and his        
,friends1 #ahic4 ,c4,l4 and  the        
,lloyds1 #ahih4 ,the ,life of ,c4,l41 #b
 vols4 #aije4--;,f4 ,harrison3 ,l4  and 
,keats1 #ahii4--;,g4,e4 ,woodberry3     
,c4,l41 #aijj4--;,h4 ,paul3 ,c4,l4      
,stray  ,leaves1 #aijf4    ,w4 ,hazlitt1
 #aggh-ahcj3 ,works1 edd4 ,a4,r4 ,waller
 and ,a4 ,glover1 #ab  vols4 and index1 

#aijb-jf4    ,l4 ,hunt3 ,autobiography1 
#c vols4 #ahej4--,w4 ,c4 ,hazlitt3      
,memoirs of ,w4  ,h41 #b vols4 #ahfg4   
,four ,generations of a ,literary       
,family1 #b vols4  #ahig4 ,lamb and ,h41
 #ahii4--;,g4 ,saintsbury3 ,h4 ,essays  
in ,english  ,literature 7#aghj-ahfj71  
#ahij4--,l4 ,stephen3 ,hours in a       
,library1 vol4  ,,ii1 #ahib4--;,a4      
,birrell3 ,w4 ,h41 #aijb4--,p4 ,e4      
,more3 ,the ,shelburne  ,essays1 ,second
 ,series1 #aije4--;,j4 ,douady3 ,vie de 
,w4 ,h41 #aijg4--,liste  chronologique  
des uvres de ,w4 ,h41 #aijf4    ,lord   
,byron1 #aghh-ahbd3 ,the ,works of ,lord
 ,b41 ed4 by ,r4 ,h4 ,coleridge  and ,r4
 ,e4 ,prothero1 #ac vols4 #ahih-aijd4   
,complete ,poetical ,works1 ed4  with   
intro41 etc41 by ,p4 ,e4 ,more1         
#aije4--,poetry of ,b41 chosen and      
arranged by ,m4 ,arnold1 #ahha4    ,s4  
,e4 ,brydges3 ,letters on the ,character
 and ,poetical ,genius of ,lord  ,b41   
#ahbd4--,t4 ,medwin3 ,journal of the    
,conversations of ,lord ,b41            

#ahbd4--,l4 ,hunt3 ,lord ,b4 and ,some  
of his ,contemporaries1 #c vols4        
#ahbh4--;,j4 ,galt3 ,the ,life of ,lord 
,b41 #ahcj1 #aijh4--,v4 ,e4 ,p4         
,chasles3  ,vie et influence de ,b4 sur 
son poque1 #ahej4--,t4 ,b4 ,macaulay3   
,lord  ,b41 #ahec4--;,h4 ,beyle3 ,lord  
,b4 en ,italie1 in ,racine et           
,shakespeare1  #ahbd4--,k4 ,elze3 ,lord 
,b41 #ahgj4--;,h4 von ,treitschke3 ,lord
 ,b4 und  der ,radicalismus1 in         
,historische und politische ,aufstze1   
vol4 ,i1  #ahga4--;,e4 ,castelar3 ,vida 
de ,lord ,b41 #ahgc4--;,a4 ,c4          
,swinburne3 ,b41  in ,essays and        
,studies1 #ahge4--;,c4 ,cant3 ,lord ,b4 
and his ,works1  #ahhc4--;,j4 ,c4       
,jeaffreson3 ,the ,real ,lord ,b41 #b   
vols4 #ahhc4--,m4 ,arnold3   ,essays in 
,criticism1 ,second ,series1 #ahhh4--,r4
 ,noel3 ,life of  ,b4 7bibliography by  
,j4 ,p4 ,anderson71 #ahij4--,o4         
,schmidt3 ,rousseau  und ,b41           
#ahij4--,s4 ,singheimer3 ,goethe und    
,lord ,b41 #ahid4--,k4  ,bleibtreu3 ,b4 

der bermensch1 #ahig4 ,das              
,byron-,geheimnis1 #aiab4--,r4          
,ackermann3 ,lord ,b41 #aija4--;,f4     
,melchior3 ,heines ,verhltnis zu ,lord  
,b41 #aijb4--;,g4 ,k4 ,chesterton3 ,the 
,optimism of ,b41 in ,twelve ,types1    
#aijb4--;,e4 ,koeppel3 ,lord ,b41       
#aijc4--;,j4 ,c4 ,collins3 ,the ,works  
of ,lord  ,b41 in ,studies in ,poetry   
and ,criticism1 #aije4--,w4 ,e4         
,leonard3 ,b4  and ,byronism in         
,america1 #aije4--,m4 ,eimer3 ,lord ,b4 
und die ,kunst1  #aijg4--;,e4 ,estve3   
,b4 et le romantisme franais1           
#aijg4--;,j4 ,calcao3  ,tres ,poetas    
pesimistas del siglo xix 7,lord ,b41    
,shelley1 ,leopardi71  #aijg4--,p4 ,h4  
,churchman3 ,b4 and ,espronoeda1        
#aiji4--,r4 ,edgcumbe3 ,b42  ,the ,last 
,phase1 #aiji4--;,b4 ,miller3 ,leigh    
,hunt's ,relations with ,b41            
#aiaj4--;,c4 ,m4 ,fuess3 ,lord ,b4 as a 
,satirist in ,verse1 #aiab4--;,e4 ,c4   
,mayne3 ,b41 #b vols4 #aiab4    ,t4 ,de 
,quincey1 #aghe-ahei4 ,select ,essays1  

ed4 ,d4 ,masson1 #b vols4  #ahhh4       
,collected ,writings1 ed4 ,d4 ,masson1  
#ad vols4 #ahhi-ij4 ,literary           
,criticism1 ed4 ,h4 ,darbishire1 #aiji4 
,a4 ,h4 ,japp3 ,t4 ,de ,q43 ,his ,life  
and ,writings44 #b vols4 #ahgg4 ,new    
edn4 #ahij4 ,de ,q4 ,memorials1 #b vols4
 #ahia4--,s4 ,h4 ,hodgson3 ,outcast     
,essays1 #ahha4--;,d4 ,masson3 ,t4 ,de  
,q41 #ahha4--;,g4 ,saintsbury3 ,de ,q4  
,essays in ,english ,literature         
7#aghj-ahfj71 #ahij4--,l4 ,stephen3     
,hours in  a ,library4 ,new edn4 vol4   
,i4 #ahib4--;,j4 ,hogg3 ,de ,q4 and his 
,friends1  #ahie4--;,a4 ,barine3        
,nvross3 ,de ,q41 etc41 #ahih4--;,a4    
,birrell3 ,essays  about ,men1 ,women   
and ,books1 #aija4--;,h4 ,s4 ,salt3 ,de 
,q41 #aijd4--;,j4 ,a4  ,green3 ,t4 ,de  
,q43 a ,bibliography1 #aijh4    ,p4 ,b4 
,shelley1 #agib-ahbb3 ,complete         
,poetical ,works1 ed4 ,t4  ,hutchinson1 
#aijd4 ,prose ,works1 #d vols4 ,ed4 ,h4 
,b4 ,forman1 #ahhj4  ,prose ,works1 ed4 
,r4 ,h4 ,shepherd1 #b vols4 #ahhh1      

#aiab4 ,s4's ,literary  ,criticism1 ed4 
,j4 ,shawcross1 #aiji4 ,letters to      
,elizabeth ,hitchener1  ed4 ,b4 ,dobell1
 #aiji4 ,the ,letters of ,s41 ed4 ,r4   
,ingpen1 #b vols4 #aiji4  ,new edn4     
#aiab4    ,l4 ,hunt3 ,lord ,byron and   
his ,contemporaries1 #ahbh4--,t4        
,medwin3 ,the  ,shelley ,papers1 #ahcc4 
,life of ,s41 #b vols4 #ahdg4 ,ed4 ,h4  
,b4 ,forman1  #aiac4--,t4 ,j4 ,hogg3    
,life of ,s41 #b vols4 #aheh4 ,ed4 ,e4  
,dowden1 #aijf4--;,e4  ,j4 ,trelawny3   
,recollections of the ,last ,days of ,s4
 and ,byron1 #aheh4  ,ed4 ,e4 ,dowden1  
#aijf4--;,d4 ,masson3 ,wordsworth1 ,s41 
,keats1 and other  ,essays1 #ahgd4--;,j4
 ,a4 ,symonds3 ,s41 #ahgh4--;,j4        
,todhunter3 ,a ,study  of ,s41          
#ahhj4--,shelley ,society ,publications1
 #ahhd-hh4--;,f4 ,rabbe3  ,s41          
#ahhg4--;,j4 ,c4 ,jeaffreson3 ,the ,real
 ,s41 #b vols4 #ahhe4--;,e4  ,dowden3   
,life of ,s41 #b vols4 #ahhf4 ,revised  
and condensed1 #ahif4--,w4  ,sharp3     
,life of ,s41 #ahhg4--,m4 ,arnold3      

,essays in ,criticism1 ,second  ,series1
 #ahhh4--;,f4 ,s4 ,ellis3 ,a ,lexical   
,concordance to the ,poetical  ,works of
 ,s41 #ahib4--,w4 ,bagehot3 ,literary   
,studies4 ,new edn41 vol4 ,i1           
#ahie4--;,h4 ,richter3 ,p4 ,b4 ,s41     
#ahih4--,w4 ,b4 ,yeats3 ,the ,philosophy
 of  ,s4's ,poetry1 #aijc4--,s4 ,a4     
,brooke3 ,the ,lyrics of ,s41 etc4      
,studies  in ,poetry1 #aijg4--;,e4 ,s4  
,bates3 ,a ,study of ,s4's ,drama ,the  
,cenci1  #aijh4--;,f4 ,thompson3 ,s41   
#aiji4--;,a4 ,c4 ,bradley3 ,s4's ,view  
of ,poetry1  in ,oxford ,lectures on    
,poetry1 #aiji4 ,short ,bibliography of 
,s41  ,english ,association ,leaflet1   
no4 #bc1 #aiab4--;,a4 ,clutton-,brock3  
,s41  the ,man and the ,poet1           
#aiaj4--,p4 ,e4 ,more3 ,s41 in          
,shelburne ,essays1  ,seventh ,series1  
#aiaj4--;,a4 ,h4 ,koszul3 ,la ,jeunesse 
de ,shelley1  #aiaj4--;,h4 ,r4 ,angeli3 
,s4 and his ,friends in ,italy1         
#aiaa4--;,f4 ,e4  ,schelling3 ,the      
,english ,lyric1 #aiac4--;,h4 ,n4       

,brailsford3 ,s4 and  ,godwin1          
#aiac4--,r4 ,ingpen3 ,s4 in ,england1 #b
 vols4 #aiag4    ,j4 ,keats1 #agie-ahba3
 ,poetical ,works1 ed4 with an intro41  
etc41  by ,h4 ,b4 ,forman1 #aijf4       
,poems1 ed4 ,sir ,s4 ,colvin1 #b vols4  
#aiae4  ,letters4 ,complete revised     
edn41 ed4 ,h4 ,b4 ,forman1 #ahie4 ,keats
  ,letters1 ,papers and other ,relics1  
ed4 ,g4 ,c4 ,williamson1 #aiad4    ,m4  
,arnold3 ,selections from ,k4's ,poems1 
with ,introduction1 in  ,ward's ,english
 ,poets1 vol4 ,,iv1 #ahhj4 ,also in     
,essays in ,criticism1  ,second ,series1
 #ahhh4--;,a4 ,c4 ,swinburne3           
,miscellanies1 #ahhf4--,w4 ,m4          
,rossetti3 ,life of ,j4 ,k4             
7bibliography by ,j4 ,p4 ,anderson71    
#ahhg4--,s4  ,colvin3 ,k41 #ahhg4--,w4  
,watson3 ,excursions in ,criticism1     
#ahic4--;,j4  ,texte3 ,k4 et le         
neo-hellnisme dans la posie anglaise in 
,etudes  de littrature europenne1       
#ahih4--,p4 ,e4 ,more3 ,shelburne       
,essays1  ,fourth ,series1 #aijf4--,s4  

,a4 ,brooke3 ,studies in ,poetry1       
#aijg4--;,a4 ,e4  ,hancock3 ,j4 ,k41    
#aijh4--;,a4 ,c4 ,bradley3 ,the ,letters
 of ,k41 in ,oxford  ,lectures on       
,poetry1 #aiji4--,l4 ,wolff3 ,an ,essay 
on ,k4's ,treatment of  the ,heroic     
,rhythm and ,blank ,verse1 #aiji4 ,j4   
,k41 sa vie et son uvre1  #aiaj4--;,j4  
,w4 ,mackail3 ,lectures on ,poetry1     
#aiab4--,sir ,s4 ,colvin3   ,life of ,j4
 ,k41 #aiag4      ,,french ,,field      
,bibliography3 ,g4 ,lanson3  ,manuel    
bibliographique de la litt4 fr4         
moderne1 #aejj-aijj1 vols4 ,,iii and    
,,iv4 ,nouvelle d4 revue et complte1    
#aiae4--;,h4 ,p4 ,thieme3 ,guide        
bibliographique de la litt4 fr4 de      
#ahjj-aijf1 #aijg4--;,asselineau3       
,bibliographie romantique1 #c;d edn41   
#ahgc4 ,histories of ,french            
,literature3 ,d4 ,nisard3 ,histoire de  
la litt4  fr41 #d vols4 #ahdd-fa4 7,for 
,n4's type of classicism see my ,masters
  of ,mod4 ,fr4 ,crit41 pp4 #hg         
ff47--,f4 ,brunetire3 ,manuel de        

l'histoire  de la litt4 fr41            
#ahii4--;,g4 ,lanson3  ,histoire de la  
litt4 fr4 #aath  edn4 #aiji4--;,c4 ,h4  
,c4 ,wright3 ,a ,history of ,fr4 ,lit4  
7bibliography71  #aiab4--;,c4-,m4 ,des  
,granges3 ,histoire illustre de la litt4
 fr41 #aiae4    ,eighteenth century3 ,f4
 ,baldensperger3 ,lnore de ,brger dans  
la litt4  fr41 in ,etudes d'hist4 litt4 
#a;e srie1 #aijg4 ,young et ses ,nuits  
en ,france1 ibid4--,j4 ,reboul3 ,un     
grand prcurseur des romantiques1        
,ramond 7#agee-ahbg71 #aiaa4--;,d4      
,mornet3 ,le romantisme en ,fr4 au      
,x,v,i,i,ie  sicle1 #aiab4--,p4 van     
,tieghem3 ,ossian en ,fr41 #b vols4     
#aiag4    ,e4 ,bersot3 ,etudes sur le   
,x,v,i,i,ie sicle1 #ahee4 ,hist4 des    
ides  morales et politiques en ,fr4 au  
,x,v,i,i,ie sicle1 #b vols4             
#ahfe-fg4--;,h4  ,taine3  ,l',ancien    
,rgime1 #ahgf4 ,vol4 ,i of ,les         
,origines de la ,fr4                    
contemporaine4--,e4 ,faguet3            
,x,v,i,i,ie sicle1 #ahib4--,rocafort3   

,les  ,doctrines litt4 de               
l',encyclopdie1 #ahij4--;,g4 ,lanson3   
,le ,rle de  l'exprience dans la        
formation de la philosophie du          
,x,v,i,i,ie sicle1  #aiaj4    ,abb      
,prvost3 ,manon ,lescaut1               
#agca4--;,harrisse3 ,bibliographie et   
,notes  pour servir  l'hist4 de ,manon  
,lescaut1 #ahge4 ,l',abb ,prvost3 hist4 
de sa vie et de ses uvres1              
#ahif4--;,heilborn3 ,abb ,prvost und    
seine  ,beziehungen zur deutschen ,lit41
 #ahig4    uvres compltes de ,gessner1  
trad4 par ,huber1 #c vols4 #agfh4 ,h4   
,heis3 ,studien aber einige ,beziehungen
 zwischen der deutschen und der         
franzsischen ,lit4 im ,,xvii4 ,jahr4 ,i4
 ,der ,uebersetzer und ,vermittler      
,huber1 #aiji4    ,g4 ,lanson3  ,nivelle
 de ,la ,chausse et la comdie           
larmoyante1 #ahhg4  #b;d edn4           
#aijc4--;,e4 ,lintilhac3 ,beaumarchais  
et ses uvres1 #ahhg4--,l4  ,bclard3     
,sbastien ,mercier1 #aijc4--;,gnther3   
,l'uvre dramatique de  ,sedaine1        

#aijh4--;,f4 ,gaiffe3 ,etude sur le     
drame en ,fr4 au ,x,v,i,i,ie  sicle1    
#aiaj4    ,j4-,j4 ,rousseau1 #agab-aggh3
 ,discours sur les sciences et les arts1
  #agej4 ,discours sur l'origine et les 
fondements de l'ingalit1 #agee4         
,nouvelle ,hlose1 #agfa4 ,emile1 #agfb4 
,le contrat social1 #agfb4  ,ed4        
,dreyfus-,brisc1 #ahif4 ,ed4 ,beaulavon1
 #aijc4 #b d4 revue1 #aiad4             
,confessions1 #aghb-hh4 ,ed4 ,a4 van    
,beyer1 #aiad4  ,the ,political         
,writings of ,r41 ed4 with intro41 etc4 
by ,c4 ,e4 ,vaughan1 #b vols4 #aiae4    
7,excellent work on the text4 ,the      
estimate of the political influence     
seems to me to lack penetration47       
,collected works3 ,ed4 ,petitain1 #bb   
vols4 #ahai-bj4 ,ed4 ,musset-,pathay1   
#bc vols4 #ahbc-bf4 ,ed4 ,hachette1 #ac 
vols4 #ahhg4 7,no good collected ed4 as 
yet47    ,streckeisen-,moultou3 uvres et
 ,correspondance indites de ,j4-,j4 ,r41
  #ahfa4 ,j4-,j4 ,r41 ses amis et ses   
ennemis 7,lettres  ,r471 #ahfe43 ,e4    

,asse3 ,bibliographie de ,j4-,j4 ,r4 no 
date4 ,for current bibliography  see    
,annales de la ,socit ,j4-,j4 ,rousseau1
 #aije ff4 ,extraits de  ,j4-,j4 ,r4    
publis avec intro4 p4 ,l4 ,brunel4 #c;e 
d4 #ahif4--,morceaux  choisis de ,j4-,j4
 ,r4 avec intro4 etc41 p4 ,d4 ,mornet1  
#aiaa4    ,studies 7chiefly             
biographical73 ,musset-,pathay3         
,histoire de la ,vie  et des ,ouvrages  
de ,j4-,j4 ,r41 #b vols4                
#ahba4--;,gaberel3 ,r4 et les  ,gnevois1
 #aheh4--;,h4 ,beaudoin3 ,la ,vie et les
 uvres de ,j4-,j4 ,r41 #b  vols4 #ahia  
7bibliography74--,f4 ,mugnier3 ,mme4 de 
,warens et ,j4-,j4 ,r41  #ahia4--;,f4   
,macdonald3 ,studies in the ,france of  
,voltaire and ,r41 #ahie4  ,j4-,j4 ,r41 
a ,new ,criticism1 #b vols4 #aijf4 7,the
 evidence offered as to  the tampering  
with the memoirs of ,mad4 d',epinay is  
of value4 ,the work  is in general      
uncritical47--,e4 ,ritter3  ,la famille 
et la jeunesse  de ,j4-,j4 ,r41         
#ahif4--,stoppolini3 ,le donne nella    

vita di ,g4-,g4 ,r41  #ahih4--;,e4 ,rod3
 ,l'affaire ,j4-,j4 ,r41 #aijf4--;,comte
 de ,girardin3   ,iconographie de       
,j4-,j4 ,r41 #aijh4 ,iconographie des   
uvres de ,j4-,j4  ,r41 #aiaj4--;,h4     
,buffenoir3 ,les ,portraits de ,j4-,j4  
,r4--,e4 ,faguet3 ,vie  de ,r41         
#aiab4--;,g4 ,gran3 ,j4-,j4 ,r41 #aiab4 
,hume3 ,expos succint de la contestation
 qui s'est leve entre ,m4 ,hume  et ,m4 
,rousseau1 #agff4--;,dussaulx3 ,de mes  
rapports avec ,j4-,j4 ,r41              
#agih4--;,comte d',escherny3 ,mlanges de
 littrature1 etc41 #ahaa4--;,d4         
,guillaume3 ,j4-,j4 ,r4  ,motiers1      
#ahfe4--,metzger3 ,j4-,j4 ,r4  l'le     
,saint-,pierre1 #ahge4 ,la conversion de
 ,mme4 ,warens1 #ahhg4 ,une  poigne de  
documents indits sur ,mme4 ,warens1     
#ahhh4 ,penses de ,mme4  ,warens1 #ahhh4
 ,les dernires annes de ,mme4 ,warens no
 date4 ,g4  ,desnoiresterres3 ,voltaire 
et ,j4-,j4 ,r4 7vol4 ,,vi of  ,voltaire 
et la  socit fr4 au ,x,v,i,i,ie sicle7  
#b;e d4 #ahge4--;,g4 ,maugras3 ,voltaire

  et ,j4-,j4 ,r41 #ahhf4--;,f4          
,berthoud3 ,j4-,j4 ,r4 au ,val de       
,travers1  #ahha4 ,j4-,j4 ,r4 et le     
pasteur de ,montmollin1 #ahhd4--,t4 de  
,saussure3  ,j4-,j4 ,r4  ,venise1 notes 
et documents1 recueillis par ,victor    
,ceresole #ahhe4--,p4 ,j4 ,mbius3       
,j4-,j4 ,r4's ,krankheitsgeschichte1    
#ahhi4--;,chatelain3 ,la ,folie de      
,j4-,j4 ,r41 #ahij4--;,f4 ,mugnier3     
,nouvelles  ,lettres de ,mme4 ,warens1  
#aijj4--;,a4 de ,montaigu3 ,dmls du     
,comte  ,montaigu et de son secrtaire   
,j4-,j4 ,r41 #aijd4--;,b4 de            
,saint-,pierre3  ,la ,vie et les        
,ouvrages de ,j4-,j4 ,r41 d4 critique p4
 par ,m4 ,souriau1  #aijg4--;,c4        
,collins3 ,j4-,j4 ,r4 in ,england1      
#aijh4--;,a4 ,rey3 ,j4-,j4 ,r4  dans la 
valle de ,montmorency1 #aiji4--;,d4     
,cabans3 ,le ,cabinet secret  de        
l'histoire1 #c;e srie1 #aiji4--;,f4     
,girardet3 ,la ,mort de ,j4-,j4 ,r41    
#aiji4--,p4-,p4 ,plan3 ,r4 racont par   
les gazettes de son temps1 #aiac4       

,general ,studies 7chiefly critical73   
,bersot3 ,etudes sur le ,x,v,i,i,ie     
sicle1 t4 ,,ii1 #ahee4--;,j4 ,morley3   
,r41 #ahgc4 #b;d edn4 #b vols41         
#ahhf--,saint-,marc ,girardin3 ,j4-,j4  
,r41 sa vie et ses uvres1               
#ahgd4--;,h4-,f4 ,amiel3 ,caractristique
 gnrale de ,r41 in ,j4-,j4 ,r4  jug par 
les ,gnevois d'aujourd'hui1             
#ahgh4--,mahrenholtz3 ,j4-,j4 ,r4's     
,leben1 #ahhi4--;,chuquet3 ,j4-,j4 ,r41 
#ahic4--;,h4 ,hffding3 ,r4 und seine    
,philosophie1 #ahig4--;,j4-,f4          
,nourrisson3 ,j4-,j4 ,r4 et le          
,rousseauisme1  #aijc4--;,brdif3 ,du    
,caractre intellectuel et moral de      
,j4-,j4 ,r41  #aijf4--;,j4 ,lematre3    
,j4-,j4 ,r41 #aijg4--,l4 ,claretie3     
,j4-,j4 ,r4 et  ses amis1 #aijg4--,l4   
,ducros3 ,j4-,j4 ,r4 7#agab-eg71 #aijh4 
,j4-,j4 ,r4  7#ageg-fe71 #aiag4--;,b4   
,bouvier3 ,j4-,j4 ,r41 #aiab4           
,special ,studies 7chiefly critical73   
,sainte-,beuve3  ,lundis1 t4 ,,ii  7,r4 
et ,mme4 de ,franqueville71 #ahej2 t4   

,,iii 7les ,confessions71  #ahej2 t4    
,,xv 7uvres et ,correspondance indites71
 #ahfa4 ,nouveaux  ,lundis1 t4 ,,ix     
7,mad4 de ,verdelin71 #ahfe4--;,j4 ,r4  
,lowell3 ,r4 and  the ,sentimentalists1 
in ,lit4 ,essays1 ,,ii1                 
#ahfg4--;,brunetire3 ,etudes  critiques1
 t4 ,,iii 7#ahhf7 et ,,iv 7#ahij74--;,c4
 ,borgeaud3 ,j4-,j4 ,r4's               
,religionsphilosophie1 #ahhc4--;,a4     
,jansen3 ,r4 als ,musiker1 #ahhd4  ,r4  
als ,botaniker1 #ahhe4--;,espinas3 ,le  
systme de ,r41 #ahie4--,t4  ,davidson3  
,j4-,j4 ,r4 and ,education according to 
,nature1 #ahih4--,m4  ,liepmann3 ,die   
,rechtsphilosophie des ,j4-,j4 ,r4      
#ahih4--;,f4 ,haymann3  ,j4-,j4 ,r4's   
,sozial-,philosophie1 #ahih4--,p4 ,e4   
,merriam3 ,history of  the ,theory of   
,sovereignty since ,r41 #aijj4--;,e4    
,duffau3 ,la profession  de foi du      
,vicaire ,savoyard1 #aijj4--;,j4 ,l4    
,windenberger3 ,essai sur le  ,systme de
 politique trangre de ,j4-,j4 ,r41      
#aijj4--;,a4 ,pougin3 ,j4-,j4  ,r4      

musicien1 #aija4--;,g4 ,schumann3       
,religion und ,religion-,erziehung  bei 
,r41 #aijb4--;,faguet3 ,politique       
compare de ,montesquieu1 ,voltaire  et  
,r41 #aijb4--,m4 ,gascheau3 ,les ,ides  
conomiques chez quelques  philosophes du
 ,x,v,i,i,ie sicle1                     
#aijc4--;,grand-,carteret3 ,la ,montagne
   travers les ges1 #aijc4--;,albalat3  
,le ,travail du ,style enseign par  les 
corrections manuscrites des grands      
crivains1 #aijc4--;,a4 ,geikie3         
,landscape in ,history and other        
,essays1 #aije4--;,b4                   
,lassudrie-,duchesne3  ,j4-,j4 ,r4 et le
 ,droit des gens1 #aijf4--;,g4 del      
,vecchio3 ,su la teoria  del ,contratto 
,sociale1 #aijf4--,p4 ,e4 ,more3        
,shelburne ,essays1 ,,vi  7,studies in  
,religious ,dualism71 #aiji4--;,d4      
,mornet3 ,le sentiment  de la nature en 
,france1 de ,j4-,j4 ,r4  ,b4 de ,s4     
,pierre1 #aijg4--,l4  ,gignoux3 ,le     
thtre de ,j4-,j4 ,r41 #aiji4--;,h4      
,rodet3 ,le ,contrat ,social  et les    

ides politiques de ,j4-,j4 ,r41         
#aiji4--;,a4 ,schinz3 ,j4-,j4 ,r41 a    
,forerunner of ,pragmatism1 #aiji4--;,g4
 ,fusseder3 ,beitrge zur ,kenntnis  der 
,sprache ,r4's1 #aiji4--;,j4-,j4        
,tiersot3 ,r41 #aiab 7,les ,matres de   
la ,musique74--,g4 ,vallette3 ,j4-,j4   
,r4 ,gnevois1 #aiaa4--;,e4 ,faguet3 ,r4 
contre ,molire1 #aiab4 ,les ,amies de   
,r41 #aiab4 ,r4 ,artiste1 #aiac4 ,r4    
,penseur1 #aiac4    ,sources3 ,dom      
,cajot3 ,les ,plagiats de ,j4-,j4 ,r4 de
 ,genve sur  l',education1 #agfe4--;,j4 
,vuy3 ,origine des ides politiques de   
,j4-,j4 ,r41 #ahgh4--;,g4 ,krger3       
,emprunts de ,j4-,j4 ,r4 dans son       
premier ,discours1 #ahia4--;,j4 ,texte3 
,j4-,j4 ,r4 et les origines du          
,cosmopolitisme littraire au ,x,v,i,i,ie
 sicle1 #ahie4--;,c4 ,culcasi3 ,degli   
influssi italiani nell' opera di ,j4-,j4
 ,r4--,g4 ,chinni3 ,le fonti dell'      
,emile de ,j4-,j4 ,r41 #aijh4--;,d4     
,villey3 ,l'influence de ,montaigne sur 
les  ides pdagogiques de ,locke et de   

,r41 #aiaa4    ,reputation and          
,influence3 ,mme4 de ,stal3 ,lettres sur
 le caractre et  les ouvrages de ,j4-,j4
 ,r41 #aghh4--,mercier3 ,de ,j4-,j4 ,r4 
considr comme  l'un des premiers auteurs
 de la ,rvolution1 #agia4--,kramer3     
,a4-,h4  ,francke1 ,j4-,j4 ,r41 ,h4     
,pestalozzi1 #ahed4--;,e4 ,schmidt3     
,richardson1  ,rousseau und ,goethe1    
#ahge4--;,dietrich3 ,kant et ,r41       
#ahgh4--,nolen3  ,kant et ,j4-,j4 ,r41  
#ahhj4--,o4 ,schmidt3 ,r4 et ,byron1    
#ahhg4--,pinloche3  ,la rforme de       
l'ducation en ,allemagne au ,x,v,i,i,ie 
sicle1 ,basedow  et le                  
philanthropinisme1 #ahhi4 ,pestalozzi et
 l'ducation populaire  moderne1         
#ahia4--,lvy-,bruhl3 ,l',allemagne      
depuis ,leibnitz1 #ahij4  ,la           
,philosophie de ,jacobi1 #ahid4--;,j4   
,grand-,carteret3 ,j4-,j4 ,r4  jug par  
les ,franais d'aujourd'hui1 #ahij4--,r4 
,fester3 ,r4 und  die deutsche          
,geschichtsphilosophie1 #ahij4--;,h4    
,gssgen3 ,r4 und  ,basedow1 #ahia4--;,c4

 ,h4 ,lincoln3 ,j4-,j4 ,r4 and the      
,french ,revolution1  #ahih4--;,a4      
,chalybans3 ,j4-,j4 ,r4's ,einfluss auf 
die franzsische  ,revolution und die    
,socialdemokratie1 #ahii4--,v4 ,delbos3 
,essai sur  la formation de la          
philosophie pratique de ,kant1          
#aijc4--;,c4 ,cestre3  ,la ,rvolution   
franaise et les ,potes anglais1         
#aijf4--,p4 ,lasserre3   ,le ,romantisme
 franais1 #aijg4--,natorp3 ,gesammelte  
,abhandlungen  zur ,sozialpdagogik1     
erste ,abteilung3 ,historisches         
7,pestalozzi  et ,r471 #aijg4--,m4      
,schiff3 ,editions et traductions       
italiennes des  uvres de ,j4-,j4 ,r41   
#aijh4--;,h4 ,buffenoir3 ,le ,prestige  
de ,j4-,j4  ,r41 #aiji4--;,e4 ,champion3
 ,j4-,j4 ,r4 et la ,rvolution franaise1 
#aiaj 7superficial74--,a4 ,meynier3     
,j4-,j4 ,r4 rvolutionnaire1 #aiac       
7superficial74--,revue de mtaphysique et
 de morale1 ,may1 #aiab4  ,symposium on 
,r4 and his influence by ,e4 ,boutroux1 
,b4 ,bosanquet1 ,j4  ,jaurs1 etc4 ,for  

similar symposium 7by ,g4 ,lanson1 ,h4  
,hffding1 ,e4  ,gosse1 etc47 see        
,annales de la ,soc4 ,j4-,j4 ,r41 ,,viii
 7#aiab74 ,for  symposium by ,italian   
writers see ,per il ,i,io centenario di 
,g4 ,g4 ,r4  7,studi pubblicati dalla   
,rivista pedagogica71 #aiac4--,p4 ,m4   
,masson3   ,la ,religion de ,j4-,j4 ,r41
 #c vols4 #aiag4 7,a storehouse of      
information  for the growth of deism and
 religious sentimentalism in ,france in 
the  #ahth century4 ,unfortunately the  
author is himself confused as to the    
difference between genuine religion and 
mere religiosity47    ,d4 ,diderot1     
#agac-hd3 uvres1 p4 par ,asszat et      
,tourneux1 #bj vols4  #ahge-gi4         
,diderot4 ,extraits1 avec intro41 etc41 
par ,j4 ,texte1 #aiji  7excellent74     
,pages choisies de ,d41 p4 avec intro4  
par ,g4 ,pellissier1  #aiji 7excellent74
    ,naigeon3 ,mmoire sur la vie et les 
ouvrages de ,d41 #agih4 ,mmoires  de    
,mme4 de ,vandeul1                      
#ahcj4--,sainte-,beuve3 ,portraits      

litt41 ,i 7#ahcj74  ,lundis1 ,,iii1     
7#ahea74--,rosenkranz3 ,d4's ,leben und 
,werke1 #b vols4  #ahff4--;,e4 ,scherer3
  ,d41 #ahhj4--;,caro3 ,la fin du       
,dix-huitime  ,sicle1 t4 ,i1            
#ahhj4--;,e4 ,faguet3 ,dix-huitime      
,sicle1 #ahib4--;,j4  ,morley3  ,diderot
 and the ,encyclopdists1 #b vols4       
#ahia4--,l4 ,ducros3  ,d41 l'homme et   
l'crivain1 #ahid4--;,j4 ,reinach3 ,d41  
#ahid4--;,a4  ,collignon3 ,d41 sa vie1  
ses uvres1 sa correspondance1           
#ahie4--;,bersot3  ,etudes sur le       
,dix-huitime ,sicle1 t4 ,,ii1           
#ahee4--;,brunetire3 ,etudes  critiques1
 t4 ,,ii4 ,les ,salons de ,d41          
#ahhj4--;,j4 ,bdier3 ,le ,paradoxe  sur 
le ,comdien est-il de ,d48 ,etudes      
,critiques1 #aijc4    ,bernardin de     
,saint-,pierre1 #agcg-ahad3 ,etudes de  
la nature1 #c  vols4 #aghd2 #d vols4    
#aghg 7#dth vol4 contains ,paul et      
,virginie72 d4  augmente1 #e vols4      
#agib4 uvres compltes1 p4 par ,aim      
,martin1 #ab  vols4 #ahah-bj4           

,supplment1 #ahbc4 ,correspondance1 p4  
par ,a4 ,martin1 #c  vols4 #ahbf4--;,a4 
,barine3 ,b4 de ,saint-,pierre1         
#ahia4--;,f4 ,maury3 ,etude  sur la vie 
et les uvres de ,b4 de ,saint-,pierre1  
#ahib4    ,nineteenth ,century3 ,a4     
,nettement3 ,histoire de la litt4 fr4   
sous le  gouvernement de juillet1 #b    
vols4 #ahed4--;,a4 ,michiels3 ,histoire 
des  ides lit4 en ,fr41 #b vols4        
#ahdb4--;,g4 ,pellissier3  ,le mouvement
  litt4 au ,x,i,xe sicle4 7,eng4 trans47
 #fth edn4 #aijj4--;,e4 ,faguet3 ,le    
,x,i,xe sicle1 #ahhg4  ,politiques et   
,moralistes du ,x,i,xe sicle1 #c  vols4 
#ahia-ii4--;,f4 ,brunetire3             
,l',evolution de la posie lyrique  en   
,fr4 au ,x,i,xe sicle1 #b vols4         
#ahid4--;,c4 ,le ,goffie3 ,la ,litt4 fr4
  au ,x,i,xe sicle1 #aiaj4--;,f4        
,strowski3 ,histoire de la litt4 fr4 au 
,x,i,xe sicle1 #aiaa4 ,important        
material bearing on the romantic period 
will also be found in the critical      
essays of ,g4 ,planche1 ,d4 ,nisard1    

,sainte-,beuve1 ,a4 ,vinet1 ,e4         
,scherer1 ,barbey d',aurevilly1 ,h4     
,taine1 ,e4  ,montgut1 ,f4 ,brunetire1  
,p4 ,bourget1 ,e4 ,bir1 ,e4 ,faguet1 ,j4
 ,lematre1  ,g4 ,larroumet1 ,g4         
,pellissier1 ,r4 ,doumic1 etc4 ,for     
fuller information  see bibliography of 
my ,masters of ,mod4 ,fr4 ,crit41 #cie  
ff4 ,for tables  of contents of the     
different volumes of these and other    
critics see  ,thieme3 ,guide            
bibliographique1 #dii ff4    ,history1  
,critical ,studies and ,special ,topics3
 ,stendhal3 ,racine  et ,shakespeare1   
#ahbc4--;,d4 ,sauvageot3 ,le ,romantisme
 7t4 ,,viii de  ,l',hist4 de la ,litt4  
fr41 publie sous la direction de ,petit 
de  ,julleville74--,t4 ,gautier3 ,hist4 
du ,romantisme1 #ahgd4--;,fournier3     
,souvenirs potiques de l',ecole         
,romantique1 #ahhj4--,r4 ,bazin3        
,victor ,pavie1 #ahhf4--,t4 ,pavie3     
,victor ,pavie1 sa jeunesse1 ses        
relations littraires1 #ahhg4--,l4       
,derme3 ,les ditions originales  des    

romantiques1 #b vols4 #ahhg4--;,g4      
,allais3 ,quelques vues gnrales  sur le 
,romantisme fr4 #ahig4--;,j4 ,texte3    
,l'influence allemande dans  le         
,romantisme fr41 in ,etudes de litt4    
europenne1 #ahih4--;,e4 ,asse3  ,les    
petits romantiques1 #aijj4--;,e4        
,dubedout3 ,le sentiment chrtien  dans  
la posie romantique1 #aija4--,le ,roy3  
,l',aube du thtre  romantique1          
#aijb4--,r4 ,canat3 ,du sentiment de la 
solitude morale  chez les romantiques et
 les parnassiens1 #aijd4--;,e4 ,barat3  
,le style  potique et la rvolution      
romantique1 #aijd4--;,h4 ,lardanchet3   
,les  enfants perdus du romantisme1     
#aije4--;,a4 ,cassagne3 ,la thorie de   
l'art  pour l'art en ,france1           
#aijf4--;,e4 ,kircher3 ,philosophie der 
,romantik1  #aijf4--;,e4 ,estve3  ,byron
 et le ,romantisme fr41                 
#aijg4--,lasserre3   ,le ,romantisme    
fr41 #aijg4 7,a very drastic attack on  
,rousseau and  the whole ,rousseauistic 
tendency47--,l4 ,sch3 ,le ,cnacle de ,la

 ,muse  ,fr4 7#ahbc-bg71 #aijh4--;,e4   
,seillire3 ,le ,mal romantique1 essai   
sur  l'imprialisme irrationnel1 #aijh4  
7,one of about #ah vols4 in which ,s4   
attacks the underlying postulates of the
 ,rousseauist4 ,like the other  leaders 
of the crusade against romanticism in   
,france1 ,s4 seems to me  unsound on the
 constructive side47--,a4 ,pavie3       
,mdaillons romantiques1  #aiji4--,w4    
,kchler3 ,franzsische ,romantik1        
#aiji4--;,c4 ,lecigne3 ,le  ,flau       
romantique1 #aiji4--,p4 ,lafond3        
,l',aube romantique1 #aiaj4--,l4        
,maigron3  ,le ,romantisme et les murs1 
#aiaj4 ,le ,romantisme et  la mode1     
#aiaa4--;,g4 ,michaut3 ,sur le          
,romantisme1 une poigne de  dfinitions  
7extraits du ,globe7 in ,pages de       
critique et d'hist4  litt41 #aiaj4--;,j4
 ,marsan3 ,la ,bataille romantique1     
#aiab4--,p4 van  ,tieghem3 ,le          
,mouvement romantique1 #aiab4--;,g4     
,pellissier3 ,le ,ralisme  du           
romantisme1 #aiab4--;,a4 ,bisi3         

,l',italie et le romantisme franais1    
#aiad4--;,c4 ,maurras3 ,l',avenir de    
l'intelligence4 #b;e d4 #aiag4--,l4     
,rosenthal3 ,du ,romantisme au ralisme1 
#aiah4    ,a4 ,jullien3 ,le ,romantisme 
et l'diteur ,renduel1 #ahig4--,p4       
,nebout3 ,le  ,drame romantique1        
#ahig4--;,f4 ,baldensperger3  ,goethe en
 ,france1 #aijd4  ,bibliographie        
critique de ,goethe en ,france1         
#aijg4--;,c4 ,latreille3  ,la ,fin du   
thtre romantique et ,franois ,ponsard1  
#ahii4--,r4 ,canat3  ,la renaissance de 
la ,grce antique 7#ahbj-ej71            
#aiaa4--;,g4 ,gendarme  de ,bvotte3 ,la 
,lgende de ,don ,juan1 #b vols4         
#aiaa4--,l4 ,sch3 ,le  ,cnacle de       
,joseph ,delorme1 #b vols4 #aiab4--;,j4 
,l4 ,borgerhoff3 ,le  thtre anglais     
,paris sous la ,restauration1           
#aiac4--,m4 ,souriau3 ,de  la convention
 dans la tragdie classique et dans le   
drame romantique1  #ahhe4               
,anthologies3 ,anthologie des potes fr4 
du ,x,i,xe sicle 7,lemerre71 #d  vols4  

#ahhg-hh4--;,french ,lyrics of the      
,nineteenth ,century1 ed4 by ,g4  ,n4   
,henning1 #aiac4 7,an excellent         
selection47--,the ,romantic ,movement in
  ,french ,literature1 traced by a      
series of texts selected and edited by  
,h4 ,f4 ,stewart and ,a4 ,tilley1 #aiaj4
    ,the ,press3 ,la ,muse ,franaise1   
#ahbc-bd4 ,reprinted with intro4 by ,j4 
,marsan1 #b vols4 #aijg-ji4--,p4 ,f4    
,dubois3 ,fragments litt41 articles     
extraits du ,globe1 #b vols4 #ahgi4--,t4
 ,ziessing3 8,le ,globe0 de #ahbd       
#ahcj1 considr dans ses rapports avec   
l'cole romantique1 #ahha4--;,f4  ,davis3
 ,french ,romanticism and the ,press1   
8,the ,globe01 #aijf4--;,c4 ,m4         
,desgranges3  ,le ,romantisme et la     
critique1 la presse litt4 sous la       
,restauration1 #aijg4    ,b4 ,constant3 
,adolphe1 #ahaf2 avec prface de         
,sainte-,beuve1 #ahfg2 de  ,p4 ,bourget1
 #ahhh2 d',a4 ,france1                  
#ahhi4--,sainte-,beuve3 ,portraits      
litt41  #ahdd4 ,lundis1 ,,xi 7sur       

,adolphe72 ,nouveaux ,lundis1 ,i1       
#ahfb4--;,e4  ,faguet3 ,politiques et   
,moralistes1 #are srie1 #ahia4--;,g4    
,rudler3 ,la  jeunesse de ,b4 ,constant 
7#agfg-id71 #aiji4 ,bibliographie       
critique des  uvres de ,b4 ,c41         
#aijh4--;,j4 ,ettlinger3 ,b4 ,c41 der   
,roman eines ,lebens1  #aiji4    ,madame
 de ,stal1 #agff-ahag3 ,de la           
littrature1 #ahja4 ,delphine1  #ahjb4   
,corinne1 #ahjg4 ,de l',allemagne1      
#ahad4 uvres compltes1 #c  vols4 #ahcf4 
,biography3 ,mme4 ,necker de ,saussure3 
,notice en tte de l'dition des  uvres1  
#ahbj4--,mme4 ,lenormant3 ,mme4 de ,s4  
et la grande duchesse  ,louise1 #ahfb4  
,mme4 ,rcamier1 #ahgb4--;,a4 ,stevens3  
,mme4 de ,s41 #b  vols4                 
#ahha4--;,d',haussonville3 ,le ,salon de
 ,mme4 ,necker1 #ahhb4--,lady           
,blennerhassett3  ,mme4 de ,s4 et son   
temps1 traduit de l'allemand p4  ,a4    
,dietrich1 #c vols4 #ahij4--;,a4 ,sorel3
 ,mme4 de ,s41 #ahij4--;,dejob3 ,mme4   
de ,s4 et l',italie1 #ahij4--;,e4       

,ritter3 ,notes sur ,mme4 de ,s41       
#ahii4--,p4  ,gautier3 ,mme4 de ,s4 et  
,napolon1 #aijc4    ,critical ,studies3 
,sainte-,beuve3 ,portraits ,littraires1 
t4 ,,iii1 #ahcf4  ,portraits de ,femmes1
 #ahdd4 ,nouveaux ,lundis1 t4 ,,ii1     
#ahfb4--,vinet3  ,etudes sur la litt4   
franaise4 ,mme4 de ,s4 et               
,chateaubriand1 #ahdi4 ,new  edn4       
published by ,p4 ,sirven1               
#aiaa4--;,faguet3 ,politiques et        
,moralistes1  #ahia4--;,f4 ,brunetire3  
,evolution de la ,critique1 #ahib4--,u4 
,mengin3  ,l',italie des ,romantiques1  
#aijb4--,maria-,teresa ,porta3 ,mme4 de 
,s4 e  l',italia 7bibliographia71       
#aiji4--;,g4 ,muoni3 ,ludovico di ,breme
 e le  prime polemiche intorno a ,mme4  
de ,s4 ed al ,romanticismo in           
,italia4--,e4  ,g4 ,jaeck3 ,mme4 de ,s4 
and the ,spread of ,german ,literature1 
#aiae4--,p4  ,kohler3 ,mme4 de ,s4 et la
 ,suisse1 #aiaf4--,r4 ,c4 ,whitford3    
,mme4 de ,s4's  ,reputation in ,england1
 #aiah4    ,franois ,ren de             

,chateaubriand1 #agfh-ahdh4 ,essai sur  
les  ,rvolutions1 #agig4--;,atala1      
#ahja4 ,le ,gnie du ,christianisme1     
#ahjb4 ,ren1 #ahjb4 ,les ,martyrs1      
#ahji4 ,mmoires d',outre-,tombe1        
#ahdi-ej2 d4 ,bir1 #f vols4 #ahih-aija4 
uvres compltes1 #ab vols4  #ahei-fa4    
,correspondance gnrale1 p4 par ,l4      
,thomas1 vols4 ,i-,,iv1                 
#aiab-ac4--,rocheblave3 ,pages choisies 
de ,c41 #ahif4--,v4 ,giraud3  ,mmoires  
d',outre-,tombe3 ,pages choisies1 #aiab4
    ,biography3 ,vinet3 ,etudes sur la  
litt4 franaise4 ,mme4 de ,stal et  ,c41 
#ahdi4 ,new edn4 published by ,p4       
,sirven1 #aiaa4--;,a4 ,france3 ,lucile  
de ,chateaubriand1 #ahgi4--;,a4         
,bardoux3 ,mme4 de ,beaumont1 #ahhd4    
,mme4  de ,custine1 #ahhh4 ,mme4 de     
,duras1 #ahih4--;,f4 ,saulnier3 ,lucile 
de  ,chateaubriand1 #ahhe4--;,g4        
,pailhs3 ,mme4 de ,c41 #ahhg4 ,mme4 de  
,c41  lettres indites  ,clausel de      
,coussergues1 #ahhh4 ,c41 sa femme et   
ses  amis1 #ahif4 ,du nouveau sur       

,joubert1 ,c41 etc41 #aijj4--;,j4       
,bdier3 ,c4  en ,amrique1 #ahii4 ,etudes
 critiques1 #aijc4--;,e4 ,bir3 ,les     
dernires  annes de ,c4 7#ahcj-dh71      
#aijb4--;,a4 ,le ,braz3 ,au pays d'exil 
de ,c41  #aiji4--;,a4 ,beaunier3 ,trois 
amies de ,c41 #aiaj4--;,a4 ,cassagne3   
,la vie  politique de ,c41 #aiaa4       
,critical ,studies3 ,sainte-,beuve3     
,portraits ,contemporains1 t4 ,i1 #ahcd1
  #ahdd4 ,lundis1 ts4 ,i1 ,,ii1 #ahej2  
,x1 #ahed4 ,nouveaux ,lundis1 t4 ,,iii1 
#ahfb4  ,c4 et son groupe littraire sous
 l',empire1 #ahdh4    ,villemain3 ,c41  
#ahec4--;,comte de ,marcellus3 ,c4 et   
son temps1  #ahei4--,p4 ,bourget3 ,c41  
in ,etudes et ,portraits1 #ahhi4--;,c4  
,maurras3  ,trois ides politiques 7,c41 
,michelet1 ,sainte-,beuve71 #ahih4--;,f4
  ,gansen3 ,le rapport de ,v4 ,hugo     
,c41 #aijj4--,lady ,blennerhassett3     
,die ,romantik und die                  
,restaurationsepoche in ,frankreich1    
,c41  #aijc4--;,e4 ,dick3 ,plagiats de  
,c41 #aije4--;,g4 ,daub3 ,der           

,parallelismus  zwischen ,c4 und        
,lamartine1 #aiji4--;,e4 ,michel3 ,c41  
interprtation  mdico-psychologique de   
son caractre1 #aiaa4--,portiquet3 ,c4 et
  l'hystrie1 #aiaa4--,v4 ,giraud3       
,nouvelles tudes sur ,c41 #aiab4--;,j4  
,lematre3 ,c41 #aiab4--;,g4 ,chinard3   
,l',exotisme amricain dans l'uvre  de   
,c41 #aiah4 7,this volume with its two  
predecessors3 ,l',exotisme  amricain au 
,x,v,ie sicle 7#aiaa71 and ,l',amrique  
et le rve exotique  au ,x,v,i,ie et au  
,x,v,i,i,ie sicle 7#aiac7 is an         
important repertory of  material for the
 legend of the 8noble savage0 and allied
 topics47    ,e4 ,p4 de ,senancour1     
#aggj-ahdf3 ,rveries1 #agih1 #ahjj4 ,ed4
 critique1  pub4 par ,j4 ,merlant1 vol4 
,i1 #aiaa4 ,obermann1 #ahjd1 #b;d edn4  
with  preface by ,sainte-,beuve1        
#ahcc4--;,j4 ,levallois3 ,un prcurseur1 
,senancour1 #ahig4--;,a4 ,s4 ,tornudd3  
,s41 #ahih--;,j4 ,troubat3 ,essais      
critiques1 #aijb4--;,j4 ,merlant3 ,s41  
pote1 penseur religieux et  publiciste1 

#aijg4--,r4 ,bouyer3 ,un contemporain de
 ,beethoven1 ,obermann  prcurseur et    
musicien1 #aijg4--;,g4 ,michaut3 ,s41   
ses amis et ses  ennemis1 #aiji4        
,charles ,nodier1 #aghc-ahdd3 uvres1 #ac
 vols4 #ahcb-da  7incomplete74--,s4 de  
,lovenjoul3 ,bibliographie et critique1 
#aijb4  uvres choisies de ,n4 ,notices  
p4 ,a4 ,cazes1 #aiad4--,sainte-,beuve3  
,portraits littr41 ,i1 #ahdj4--,p4      
,mrime3 ,portraits histor4 et  littr41  
#ahgd4--;,e4 ,montgut3 ,nos morts       
contemp41 ,i1 ,,ii1 #ahhd4--,m4         
,salomon3 ,c4 ,n4 et le groupe          
romantique d'aprs des documents indits1 
#aijh4--;,j4 ,marsan3 ,notes sur ,c4    
,n41 documents indits1 lettres1 #aiab4  
,alphonse de ,lamartine1 #agij-ahfi3    
,mditations potiques1 #ahbj4  ,nouvelles
 mditations potiques1 #ahbc4 ,harmonies 
potiques et  religieuses1 #ahcb4        
,jocelyn1 #ahcf4 uvres compltes1 #da    
vols4  #ahfj-ff4 uvres 7d4 ,lemerre71   
#ab vols4 #ahhe-hg4 ,correspondance1 p4 
par ,v4 de ,lamartine1 #f vols4         

#ahgb-ge4    ,biographical and ,general 
,studies3 ,f4 ,falconnet3 ,a4 de ,l41   
#ahdj4--;,chapuys-,montlaville3 ,l41    
#ahdc4--;,e4 de ,mirecourt3 ,l41        
#ahec4--;,e4 ,ollivier3 ,l41            
#ahgd4--;,h4 de ,lacretelle3 ,l4 et ses 
amis1 #ahgh4--,p4 ,bourget3 ,l41 in     
,etudes et ,portraits1 #ahhi4--;,de     
,pomairols3 ,l41 #ahhi4--;,baron de     
,chamborand de ,prissat3 ,l4 inconnu1   
#ahia4--;,f4 ,reyssi3 ,la jeunesse de   
,l41 #ahib4--;,deschanel3 ,l41          
#ahic4--;,a4 ,france3 ,l',elvire de ,l41
 #ahic4--,r4 ,doumic3 ,elvire           
,aix-les-,bains1 in ,etudes sur la litt4
 franaise1 #f;e srie1 #aiji4  ,l41      
#aiab4--,zyromski3 ,l4 pote lyrique1    
#ahig4--,larroumet3 ,l41 in  ,nouvelles 
tudes de litt4 et d'art1 #ahii4--,l4    
,sch3 ,l4 de #ahaf   #ahcj1 #aije4 ,le  
,roman d',elvire1 #aiji4 ,les amitis de 
,l41 #are  srie1 #aiaa4--;,e4 ,sugier3  
,l41 #aiaj4--,p4-,m4 ,masson3 ,l41      
#aiaa4--,p4 de  ,lacretelle3 ,les       
origines et la jeunesse de ,l41 #aiaa4  

,critical ,studies3 ,g4 ,planche3       
,portraits littraires1 t4 ,i1 #ahcf4    
,nouveaux ,portraits1                   
#ahed4--,sainte-,beuve3  ,lundis1 ts4   
,i1 ,,iv1  ,x1 #ahdi-ed4 ,portraits     
contemporains1 t4 ,i1 #ahcb-ci4--;,j4   
,lematre3  ,les ,contemporains1 #f;e    
srie1 #ahif4--;,e4 ,faguet3 ,x,i,xe     
sicle1  #ahig--;,brunetire3 ,l'volution 
de la posie lyrique en ,france au       
,x,i,xe  sicle1 #ahid4--;,a4 ,roux3 ,la 
question de ,jocelyn1 #ahig4--,m4       
,citoleux3  ,la posie philosophique au  
,x,i,xe sicle1 ,l41 #aije4--;,c4        
,marchal3  ,le vritable ,voyage en      
,orient de ,l41 #aijh4--,p4 de          
,lacretelle3 ,les  origines et la       
jeunesse de ,l41 #aiaa4--,l4 ,sch3 ,les 
,amitis de ,l41  #aiab4--,r4 ,doumic3   
,l41 #aiab4--;,h4 ,r4 ,whitehouse3 ,the 
,life of ,l41 #b  vols4 #aiah4          
,alfred de ,vigny1 #agig-ahfc3 ,eloa1   
#ahbd4 ,pomes antiques et  modernes1    
#ahbf4 ,cinq-,mars1 #ahbf4 ,chatterton1 
#ahce4 ,les  ,destines1 #ahfd4 uvres    

7,lemerre71 #h vols4 #ahhc-he4 ,le      
,journal  d'un pote1 p4 par ,l4         
,ratisbonne1 #ahfg4 ,la ,correspondance 
d',a4 de  ,v41 #aijf 7incomplete74--,s4 
de ,lovenjoul3 ,les ,lundis d'un        
chercheur1  #ahid4--;,e4 ,asse3 ,a4 de  
,v4 et les ditions originales de ses    
posies1  #ahie4--;,j4 ,langlais3 ,essai 
de bibliographie de ,a4 de ,v41 #aije4  
,biography3 ,l4 ,sch3 ,a4 de ,v4 et son 
temps no date4--,e4 ,dupuy3  ,la        
,jeunesse des ,romantiques1 #aije4 ,a4  
de ,v41 ses amitis1 son rle  littraire1 
#b vols4 #aiab4    ,critical ,studies3  
,sainte-,beuve3 ,portraits littraires1  
t4 ,,iii1 #ahdd4  ,nouveaux ,lundis1 t4 
,,vi1 #ahfc4--;,barbey d',aurevilly3    
,les uvres et  les ,hommes1 ,,iii1      
#ahfb4--;,a4 ,france3 ,a4 de ,v41       
#ahfh4--,p4 ,bourget3  ,etudes et       
,portraits1 #ahhi4--;,brunetire3        
,l'volution de la posie  lyrique1       
#ahid4--;,faguet3 ,x,i,xe sicle1        
#ahig4--,palologue3 ,a4 de  ,v41        
#ahia4--;,dorison3 ,a4 de ,v4 pote1     

philosophe1 #ahia4--;,j4 ,lematre3      
,contemporains1 ,,vii1 #ahii4--;,e4     
,sakellarids3 ,a4 de ,v41 auteur        
dramatique1 #aijb4--,marabail3 ,de      
l'influence de l'esprit militaire  sur  
,a4 de ,v41 #aije4--;,h4 ,schmack3 ,a4  
de ,v4's ,stello und ,chatterton1       
#aije4--,p4-,m4 ,masson3 ,a4 de ,v41    
#aijh4--,p4 ,buhle3 ,a4 de ,v4's        
biblische  ,gedichte und ihre ,quellen1 
#aiji4--;,e4 ,lauvrire3 ,a4 de ,v41     
#aiaj4--;,f4  ,baldensperger3 ,a4 de    
,v41 #aiab4--,l4 ,sch3 ,a4 de ,v41 #b   
vols4  #aiad4--;,a4 ,desvoyes3 ,a4 de   
,v4 d'aprs son uvre1 #aiad4--;,j4       
,aicard3 ,a4  de ,v4 #aiad4    ,victor  
,hugo1 #ahjb-he3 uvres compltes1 ed4 ne 
varietur d'aprs  les manuscrits         
originaux1 #dh vols4 #ahhj-he4 uvres    
indites1 #ad  vols4 #ahhf-aijb4         
,correspondence 7#ahae-hd71 #b vols4    
#ahif4 ,lettres   la fiance 7#ahbj-bb71 
#aija4    ,biography3 ,mme4 ,victor     
,hugo3 ,v4 ,h4 racont par un tmoin de sa
  vie1 #b vols4 #ahfc4--;,e4 ,bir3 ,v4  

,h4 avant #ahcj1 #ahhc4 ,v4 ,h4 aprs    
#ahcj1 #b vols4 #ahia4 ,v4 ,h4 aprs     
#aheb1 #ahid4--;,g4 ,larroumet3 ,la     
maison de ,v4 ,h41 impressions de       
,guernsey1 #ahie4--;,a4 ,jullien3 ,le   
,romantisme et l'diteur ,renduel1       
#ahig4--;,a4 ,barbou3 ,la ,vie de ,v4   
,h41  #aijb4--;,g4 ,simon3 ,l',enfance  
de ,v4 ,h41 #aijd4--;,e4 ,dupuy3 ,la    
,jeunesse  des ,romantiques1            
#aije4--;,c4 ,marchal3 ,lamennais et ,v4
 ,h41 #aijf4--,l4  ,sch3 ,le ,cnacle de 
,joseph ,delorme4 ,i1 ,v4 ,h4 et les    
,potes4  ,,ii1 ,v4 ,h4 et les artistes1 
#aiab4--,l4 ,guimbaud3 ,v4 ,h4 et       
,juliette  ,drouet1 #aiad4    ,critical 
,studies3 ,g4 ,planche3 ,portraits      
littraires1 ts4 ,i1 ,,ii1 #ahcf4        
,nouveaux ,portraits littraires1 t4 ,i1 
#ahed4--;,barbey d',aurevilly3 ,les     
,misrables de ,m4 ,victor ,hugo1        
#ahfb4--,sainte-,beuve3 ,portraits      
litt41  t1 ,i 7#ahbg72 t4 ,,ii 7#ahdj72 
t4 ,,iii 7#ahbi72 ,portraits            
contemporains1  t4 ,i                   

7#ahcj-ce74--,rmusat3 ,critiques et     
tudes littraires du pass  et du prsent1 
#b;e d41 #aheg4--;,e4 ,zola3 ,nos       
auteurs dramatiques1  #ahha4 ,documents 
littraires1 #ahha4--;,a4 ,c4 ,swinburne3
 ,essay on  ,v4 ,h41 #ahhf4--;,e4       
,dupuy3 ,v4 ,h41 l'homme et le pote1    
#ahhg4--;,g4  ,duval3 ,dictionnaire des 
mtaphores de ,v4 ,h41 #ahhh4--,p4       
,bourget3 ,v4  ,h41 in ,etudes et       
,portraits1 #ahhi4--,nisard3 ,essais sur
 l'cole  ,romantique1 #ahia4--,l4       
,mabilleau3 ,v4 ,h41 #ahic4--;,c4       
,renouvier3 ,v4  ,h41 le pote1 #ahic4   
,v4 ,h41 le philosophe1 #aijj4--;,a4    
,ricard3 ,mgr4  de ,miollis1 vque de    
,digne1 #ahic4--;,brunetire3 ,l'volution
 de la  posie lyrique1 #ahid4 ,les      
poques du thtre franais1 #ahib4--;,a4   
,blanchard3 ,le thtre de ,v4 ,h4 et la  
parodie1 #ahid4--,morel ,fatio3         
,l',histoire dans ,ruy ,blas1 in ,etudes
 sur l',espagne1 #are srie1             
#ahie4--;,a4 ,j4 ,theys3 ,mtrique de ,v4
 ,h41 #ahif4--,m4 ,souriau3 ,la prface  

de ,cromwell1 #ahig4 ,les ides morales  
de ,v4 ,h41 #aijh4--;,a4 ,rochette3     
,l',alexandrin chez ,v4 ,h41 #ahii and  
#aiaa4--;,f4 ,ganser3 ,beitrge zur      
,beurteilung des ,verhltnisses von ,v4  
,h4 zu ,chateaubriand1 #aijj4--;,e4     
,rigal3 ,v4 ,h4 pote pique1 #aijj4--,p4 
,stapfer3 ,v4 ,h4 et la grande  posie   
satirique en ,france1 #aija4--,t4       
,gautier3 ,v4,h41 #aijb4--,p4  and ,v4  
,glachant3 ,essai critique sur le thtre 
de ,v4 ,h41 ,drames  en vers4 ,drames en
 prose1 #b vols41 #aijb and #aijc4--,p4 
,levin3 ,v4  ,h41 #aijb4--,leons faites 
l',ecole ,normale sous la direction de  
,f4  ,brunetire1 #b vols4 #aijb4--;,f4  
,gregh3 ,etude sur ,v4 ,h41 #aijb4--;,h4
  ,peltier3 ,la philosophie de ,v4 ,h41 
#aijd4--;,h4 ,galletti3 ,l'opera di     
,v4,h4 nella letteratura italiana1      
#aijd4--;,e4 ,huguet3 ,la couleur1 la   
lumire et l'ombre dans les mtaphores de 
,v4 ,h41 #aije4--,l4 ,lucchetti3  ,les  
images dans les uvres de ,v4 ,h41       
#aijg4--,p4 ,bastier3 ,v4 ,h4 und  seine

 ,zeit41 #aijh4--,maria ,valente3 ,v4   
,h4 e la lirica italiana1  #aijh4--;,a4 
,guiard3 ,la fonction du pote1 tude sur 
,v4 ,h41 #aiaj4  ,virgile et ,v4 ,h41   
#aiaj4--;,c4 ,grillet3 ,la ,bible dans  
,v4 ,h41 #aiaj4--,p4  ,berret3 ,le moyen
 ge europen dans ,la ,lgende des        
,sicles1 #aiaa4--;,a4  ,rochette3       
,l',alexandrin chez ,v4 ,h41 #aiaa4--,p4
 ,dubois3 ,v4 ,h4 ,ses ,ides            
religieuses de #ahjb-be1 #aiac4    ,h4  
,berlioz3 ,correspondance indite        
7#ahai-fh71 pub4 par ,d4 ,bernard1      
#ahgi4 ,lettres intimes1 pub4 par ,ch4  
,gounod1 #ahhb4 ,berlioz2 les  annes    
romantiques 7#ahai-db71 ,correspondance1
 pub4 par ,j4 ,tiersot1  #aijg4--;,a4   
,boschot3 ,la ,jeunesse d'un romantique1
 ,h4 ,berlioz 7#ahjc-ca71  #aijf4 ,un   
romantique sous ,louis ,philippe1       
,berlioz 7#ahca-db71 #aijh4 ,le         
,crpuscule d'un romantique1 ,berlioz    
7#ahdb-fi71 #aiac4    ,alexandre ,dumas1
 #ahjc-gj3 ,henri ,,iii et sa cour1     
#ahbi4 ,antony1  #ahca4 ,les ,trois     

,mousquetaires1 #ahdd4 ,le ,comte de    
,monte ,cristo1  #ahdd-de4    ,j4       
,janin3 ,a4,d41 #ahga4--;,b4 ,matthews3 
,in ,fr4 ,dramatists of the #aith  cent4
 1 #ahha4--;,b4 de ,bury3 ,a4 ,d41      
#ahhe4--;,e4 ,courmeaux3 ,a4 ,d41       
#ahhf4--;,j4 ,j4 ,weiss3 ,le thtre et   
les murs1 #c;e d4 #ahhi4--;,h4          
,parigot3 ,le drame d' ,a4 ,d41 #ahih4  
,a4 ,d41 #aija4--;,h4 ,lecomte3 ,a4     
,d41 #aijc4--;,j4 ,lematre3 ,impressions
 de thtre1 t4 ,,iii 7#ahij71 ,,iv       
7'#ie71 ,,viii 7'#ie71 ,,ix 7'#if74--,r4
 ,doumic3 ,de ,scribe  ,ibsen1 #ahif2   
also in ,hommes et ides du ,x,i,xe      
,sicle1 #aijc4    ,george ,sand1        
#ahjd-gf3 ,indiana1 #ahcb4 ,llia1 #ahcc4
 ,jacques1  #ahcd4 ,consuelo1 #ahdb-dc4 
,la petite ,fadette1 #ahdi4 ,histoire   
de ma vie1 #d vols4                     
#ahed-ee4--;,correspondance1 #f vols4   
#ahhb-hd4  ,correspondance de ,g4 ,s4 et
 d' ,a4 de ,musset1 p4 par ,f4 ,decori1 
#aijd4  uvres compltes 7d4 ,c4 ,lvy71   
#aje vols4--,s4 de ,lovenjoul3 ,etude   

bibliographique sur les uvres de ,g4    
,s41 #ahfh4    ,biography3 ,h4 ,lapaire 
and ,f4 ,roz3 ,la bonne dame de ,nohant1
  #ahig4--;,ageorges3 ,g4 ,s4 paysan1   
#aija4--;,a4 ,le ,roy3 ,g4 ,s4 et ses   
amis1  #aijc4--;,h4 ,harrisse3 ,derniers
 moments et obsques de ,g4 ,s41         
souvenirs  d'un ami1 #aije4--;,a4 ,sch  
and ,j4 ,bertaut3 ,la vie anecdotique et
  pittoresque des grands crivains1 ,g4  
,s41 #aiji4    ,critical ,studies3 ,g4  
,planche3 ,portraits littraires1 t4     
,,ii1 #ahcf4  ,nouveaux ,portraits      
littraires1 t4 ,,ii1                    
#ahed4--,sainte-,beuve3   ,lundis1 t4   
,i1 #ahej4 ,portraits ,contemporains1   
#ahcb4--;,e4 ,caro3 ,g4  ,s41           
#ahhg4--,p4 ,bourget3 ,etudes et        
,portraits1 #ahhi4--;,j4 ,lematre3  ,les
 ,contemporains1 t4 ,,iv1 #ahhi4        
,impressions de thtre1 ts4 ,i1 ,,iv1    
#ahhh-ib4--,marillier3 ,la sensibilit et
 l'imagination chez ,g4 ,s41            
#ahif4--,w4 ,karnine3 ,g4 ,s41 #c vols4 
#ahii-aiab4--,r4 ,doumic3 ,g4 ,s41      

#aiji4--,l4 ,buis3 ,les thories sociales
 de ,g4 ,s41 #aiaj4--;,e4 ,moselly3  ,g4
 ,s41 #aiaa4    ,grard de ,nerval1      
#ahjh-ee3 uvres compl41 #e vols4 #ahfh4 
,m4  ,tourneux3 ,g4 de ,n41 #ahfg4--,t4 
,gautier3 ,portr4 et souvenirs  littr41 
#ahge4--;,arvde ,barine3 ,les ,nvross1  
#ahih4--,mlle4  ,cartier3 ,un           
intermdiaire entre la ,france et        
l',allemagne1 ,g4 de  ,n41              
#aijd4--;,gauthier-,ferrires3 ,g4 de    
,n41 la vie et l'uvre1  #aijf4--;,j4    
,marsan3 ,g4 de ,n41 lettres indites1   
#aiji4--;,correspondance  7#ahcj-ee71 p4
 par ,j4 ,marsan1 #aiaa4--;,a4 ,marie3  
,g4 de ,n41 #aiae4    ,alfred de        
,musset1 #ahaj-eg3 uvres ,compltes      
7,charpentier71  #aj vols4 #ahff1 #aj   
vols4 7,lemerre71 #ahhf4 #i vols4 p4 par
 ,e4 ,bir1  #aijg-jh4--,rocheblave3     
,lettres de ,george ,sand  ,musset et   
,sainte-,beuve1 #ahig4--;,correspondance
 de ,george ,sand et d',a4 de ,m41  p4  
par ,f4 ,decori1                        
#aijd4--;,correspondance d',a4 de ,m41  

p4 par ,l4 ,sch1  #aijg4--,s4 de        
,lovenjoul3 ,etude critique et          
bibliographique des uvres  d',a4 de ,m41
 #ahfg4--,m4 ,clouard3 ,bibliographie   
des uvres d',a4 de ,m41  #ahhc4         
,biography3 ,g4 ,sand3 ,elle et ,lui1   
#ahei4--,p4 de ,musset3 ,lui et ,elle1  
#ahei4 ,biographie d',a4 de ,m41        
#ahgg4--,louise ,colet3 ,lui1           
#ahei4--,s4 de  ,lovenjoul3 ,la vritable
 histoire de ,elle et ,lui1 #ahig4--,p4 
,mariton3  ,une histoire d'amour1       
,george ,sand et ,a4 de ,m41            
#ahig4--;,e4 ,lefbure3  ,l'tat psychique
 d',a4 de ,m41 #ahig4--;,e4 ,faguet3    
,amours d'hommes de  lettres1           
#aijf4--,l4 ,sch3 ,a4 de ,m41 #aijg4 ,la
 ,jeunesse dore sous  ,louis-,philippe1 
#aiaj4    ,critical ,studies3           
,sainte-,beuve3 ,portraits              
,contemporains1 t4 ,,ii1  #ahcc4        
,lundis1 ,i41 #ahej1 ,,xiii1            
#aheg4--;,d4 ,nisard3 ,etudes d'hist4 et
  de lit41 #ahei4 ,mlanges d'hist4 et de
 lit41 #ahfh4--,p4 ,lindau3 ,a4  de ,m41

 #ahgf4--;,h4 ,james3 ,fr4 ,poets and   
,novelists1 #ahgh4--;,d',ancona3  ,a4 de
 ,m4 e l',italia1 in ,varieta ,storiche 
e ,letterarie1 #b vols4  #ahhc-he4--;,j4
 ,lematre3 ,impr4 de thtre1 ,i1 ,,ii    
7'#hh71 ,,vii 7'#ic71 ,,ix  7'#if71 ,x  
7'#ih74--;,arvde ,barine3 ,a4 de ,m41   
#ahic4--,l4 ,p4 ,betz3 ,h4  ,heine und  
,a4 de ,m41 #ahig4--,l4 ,lafoscade3 ,le 
thtre d',a4 de ,m41  #aija4--;,g4       
,crugnola3 ,a4 de ,m4 e la sua opera1 #b
 vols4 #aijb-jc4--;,j4  d',aquitaine3   
,a4 de ,m41 l'uvre1 le pote1            
#aijg4--;,gauthier-,ferrires3  ,m41 la  
vie de ,m41 l'uvre1 ,m4 et son temps1   
#aiji4--,m4 ,donnay3 ,a4 de  ,m41       
#aiad4--;,c4 ,l4 ,maurras3  ,les ,amants
 de ,venise1 ,nou4 d41 #aiag4           
,thophile ,gautier1 #ahaa-gb3 ,les      
,jeune-,france1 #ahcc4 ,mlle4 de        
,maupin1 #ahcf-cf4 ,emaux et ,cames1    
#aheb4 ,histoire du romantisme1  #ahgd4 
uvres ,compl4 7d4 ,charpentier74 #cg    
vols4 #ahhc4--,m4 ,tourneux3  ,t4 ,g41  
sa bibliographie1 #ahgf4--,s4 de        

,lovenjoul3 ,histoire des uvres  de ,t4 
,g41 #b vols4 #ahhg4    ,sainte-,beuve3 
,premiers ,lundis1 t4 ,,ii1 #ahch4      
,portraits  ,contemporains1 ,,ii4 #ahdf4
 ,nouveaux ,lundis1 ,,vi1               
#ahfc4--;,barbey  d',aurevilly3 ,les    
uvres et les ,hommes1                   
#ahfe4--;,baudelaire3 ,l',art           
romantique1 #ahgd4--;,e4 ,feydeau3 ,t4  
,g41 souvenirs intimes1 #ahgd4--;,h4    
,james3 ,fr4 ,poets and ,novelists1     
#ahgh4--;,e4 ,bergerat3 ,t4 ,g41        
#ahhj4--,m4 ,du ,camp3 ,t4 ,g41         
#ahij4--;,e4 ,richet3 ,t4 ,g41 l'homme1 
la vie  et l'uvre1 #ahic4      ,,german 
,,field    ,bibliography3 ,goedeke3     
,grundriss zur ,geschichte der deutschen
  ,dichtung1 #b edn4 vol4 ,,vi1         
#ahih4--,r4 ,m4 ,meyer3 ,grundriss der  
neuren  deutschen ,literaturgeschichte1 
#b edn4 #aijg4--;,a4 ,bartels3 ,handbuch
  zur ,geschichte der deutschen         
,literatur1 #b edn4                     
#aiji4--;,jahresberichte  fr neuere     
deutsche ,literaturgeschichte1 #ahib ff4

 7bibliographical  notes on romanticism 
by ,o4 ,f4 ,walzel74    ,general        
,studies3 ,h4 ,heine3  ,die romantische 
,schule1 #ahcf4 ,eng4  trans1 in ,bohn's
 ,library4 7,filled with political      
8tendency40 ,a  brilliant attack on     
romanticism by a romanticist47--,j4 v4  
,eichendorff3  ,ueber die ethische und  
religise ,bedeutung der neuren          
romantischen  ,poesie in ,deutschland1  
#ahdg4--;,j4 ,schmidt3 ,geschichte der  
,romantik im  ,zeitalter der            
,reformation und der ,revolution1 #b    
vols4 #ahdh-ej4--;,h4  ,hettner3  ,die  
romantische ,schule in ihrem inneren    
,zusammenhange  mit ,goethe und         
,schiller4--,r4 ,haym3  ,die romantische
 ,schule1  #ahgj4 ,unrevised reprint1   
#aijb4 7,heavy reading but still the    
standard  treatment47--,ricarda ,huch3  
,bltezeit der ,romantik1 #ahii4         
,ausbreitung und ,verfall der ,romantik1
 #aijb4 7,attractively written4  ,the   
point of view1 like that of practically 
all ,germans1 is very                   

romantic47--,marie ,joachimi3 ,die      
,weltanschauung der deutschen           
,romantik1 #aije4--,o4 ,f4 ,walzel3     
,deutsche ,romantik1 #c edn4 #aiab4--,r4
  ,m4 ,wernaer3 ,romanticism and the    
,romantic ,school in ,germany1 #aiji4   
7,the outlook1 which professes to be    
humanistic1 seems to me in the  main    
that of the beautiful soul47--,a4       
,farinelli3 ,il romanticismo in         
,germania1 #aiaa4 7,simply reeks with   
the 8infinite0 in the romantic  sense4  
8,sono1 ahim1 stoffa di ribelle         
anch'io40 ,useful bibliographical       
notes47--,a4 ,w4 ,porterfield3 ,an      
,outline of ,german ,romanticism1 #aiad4
  7,of no importance from the point of  
view of ideas4 ,the bibliography is     
useful47--,j4 ,bab3 ,fortinbras1 oder   
der ,kampf des #ai4 ,jahr4 mil dem      
,geist der ,romantik1 #aiab4 7,an attack
 on romanticism47    ,see also ,a4      
,kobersteim3 ,geschichte der deutschen  
,nationalliteratur1  vol4 ,,iv1 pp4     
#edc-iee1 #ahgc4--;,g4 ,g4 ,gervinus3   

,geschichte der deutschen  ,dichtung1   
vol4 ,v1 pp4 #fca-haf1 #ahgd4--,r4 ,m4  
,meyer3 ,die deutsche  ,literatur des   
#ai4 ,jahr41 pp4 #a-bdc1 #ahih4--,r4 v4 
,gottschall3  ,die deutsche             
,nationalliteratur des #ai4 ,jahr41 vol4
 ,i1 #aija4--,k4  ,francke3 ,a ,history 
of ,german ,literature1 #aija4 7,the    
point of view  is sociological rather   
than literary47--,w4 ,scherer3          
,geschichte der  deutschen ,literatur1  
pp4 #fad-gbj1 #aijh4--;,c4 ,thomas3 ,a  
,history of  ,german ,literature1 pp4   
#cbh-gf1 #aiji4--;,j4 ,g4 ,robertson3   
,outlines  of the ,history of ,german   
,literature1 pp4 #agh-bec1 #aiaa4--;,a4 
,biese3  ,deutsche ,literaturgeschichte1
 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bhh-fic1 #aiab4        
,anthologies3 ,strmer und ,drnger4 ,an  
anthology ed4 by ,a4 ,sauer4  ,deutsche 
,nat4 ,lit41 vols4 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1       
#ahhc4--,sturm und ,drang4  ,dichtungen 
aus der ,geniezeit1 ed4 by ,karl        
,freye4--,a4 ,spiess3 ,die  deutschen   
,romantiker1 #aijc4 7,poetry and        

prose47--,f4 ,oppeln-,bronikowski  and  
,l4 ,jacobowski3 ,die blaue ,blume4     
,eine ,anthologie romantischer  ,lyrik1 
#aijh4    ,philosophy3 ,l4 ,noack3      
,schelling und die ,philosophie der     
,romantik1  #b vols4 #ahei4--;,e4       
,grucker3 ,franois ,hemsterhuis1 sa vie 
et ses  uvres1 #ahff4--;,e4 ,meyer3 ,der
 ,philosoph ,f4 ,hemsterhuis1           
#ahic4--,w4  ,dilthey3  ,leben          
,schleiermachers1 #ahgj4--;,j4 ,royce3  
,the ,spirit of  ,modern ,philosophy1   
#ahib4--,l4 ,lvy-,bruhl3 ,la            
,philosophie de ,jacobi1  #ahid4--;,h4  
,hffding3 ,a ,history of ,modern        
,philosophy 7bk4 ,,viii3 ,the           
,philosophy of ,romanticism71           
#aijj4--,r4 ,burck3 ,h4 ,steffens1 ,ein 
,beitrag  zur ,philosophie der          
,romantik1 #aijf4--,w4 ,windelband3     
,geschichte der  neuren ,philosophie1 #d
 edn4 #b vols4 #aijg 7,eng4 trans474    
,music and painting3 ,h4 ,riemann3      
,geschichte der ,musik seit  ,beethoven1
 #ahjj-aijj1 pp4 #ajf-cef1 #aija4--;,d4 

,g4 ,mason3 ,the ,romantic  ,composers1 
#aijf4--;,e4 ,istel3  ,die ,bltezeit der
 musikalischen  ,romantik in            
,deutschland1 #aiji4-- ,the ,oxford     
,history of ,music1  vol4 ,,vi 7,the    
,romantic ,period1 #aije74--;,c4        
,gurlitt3 ,die deutsche ,kunst  des #ai4
 ,jahr41 especially pp4 #ahj-bgi1       
#ahii4--;,a4 ,aubert3 ,runge und  die   
,romantik1 #aiji4--,r4 ,muther3         
,geschichte der ,malerei1 #c vols4      
7vol4 ,,iii for romantic period in      
,germany and other countries71 #aiji4   
,special ,topics 7#ahth and #aith       
,centuries73 ,l4 ,friedlnder3 ,ueber die
  ,entstehung und ,entwickelung des     
,gefhls fr das ,romantische in der      
,natur1 #ahgc4--;,j4 ,minor3 ,j4 ,g4    
,hamann in seiner ,bedeutung fr die     
,sturm und ,drangperiode1 #ahha4 ,das   
,schicksalsdrama4 ,deutsche ,nation4    
,lit41 vol4 #aea4 ,die                  
,schicksalstragdie in ihren             
,hauptvertretern1  #ahhc4--,r4 ,unger3  
,hamann und die ,aufklrung1 #aiaa4--;,g4

 ,bonet-,maury3  ,brger et les origines 
anglaises de la ballade littraire en    
,allemagne1 #ahij4--,s4 ,lublinski3 ,die
 ,frhzeit der ,romantik1 #ahii4--,t4    
,s4 ,baker3 ,the ,influence of ,l4      
,sterne upon ,german ,literature in     
,americana ,germanica1 vol4 ,,ii1       
#aijj4--,r4 ,tombo3 ,ossian in ,germany1
  #aijb 7bibliography74--,e4            
,ederheimer3 ,jakob ,boehme und die     
,romantiker1  #aijd4--,l4 ,hirzel3      
,wieland's ,beziehungen zu den deutschen
 ,romantikern1  #aijd4--,k4 ,joel3      
,nietzsche und die ,romantik1           
#aijd4--,s4 ,schultze3  ,die            
,entwickelung des ,naturgefhls in der   
deutschen ,literatur des  #ai4 ,jahr4   
#aijf4--,m4 ,joachimi-,dege3 ,deutsche  
,shakespeare-,probleme  im #ah4 ,jahr4  
und im ,zeitalter der ,romantik1        
#aijg4--;,e4 ,vierling3  ,z4 ,werner3   
,la conversion d'un romantique1         
#aijh4--;,e4 ,glckner3  ,studien zur    
romantischen ,psychologie der ,musik1   
#aiji4--,r4 ,benz3  ,mrchen-,dichtung   

der ,romantiker1 #aiji4--;,f4           
,brggemann3 ,die ,ironie  als           
entwicklungsgeschichtliches ,moment1    
#aiji4--,o4 ,f4 ,walzel3 ,das           
,prometheussymbol von ,shaftesbury zu   
,goethe1 #aiaj4--;,f4 ,strich3 ,die     
,mythologie in der deutschen ,literatur 
von ,klopstock bis ,wagner1             
#aiaj4--;,f4 ,g4 ,shneider3 ,die        
,freimaurerei und ihr ,einfluss auf die 
geistige ,kultur in ,deutschland am     
,ende des #ah4 ,jahr4 #aiji4--,r4       
,buchmann3 ,helden und ,mchte des       
romantischen ,kunstmrchens1 #aiaj4--,k4 
,g4 ,wendriner3 ,das romantische ,drama1
 #aiji4--,o4 ,f4 ,walzel and ,h4 ,hub3  
,zeitschriften der ,romantik1           
#aijd4--;,j4 ,bobeth3 ,die              
,zeitschriften  der ,romantik1          
#aiaj4--;,j4 ,e4 ,spenl3 ,rahel1 ,mme4  
,varnhagen v4 ,ense4  ,histoire d'un    
salon romantique en ,allemagne1         
#aiaj4--,p4 ,wchtler3 ,e4  ,a4 ,poe und 
die deutsche ,romantik1 #aiaj4--,w4     
,brecht3 ,heinse und das  sthetische    

,immoralismus1 #aiaa4--;,e4 ,mrmig3     
,calderon und die ltere  deutsche       
,romantik1 #aiab4--;,g4 ,gabetti3 ,il   
dramma di ,z4 ,werner1  #aiag4--;,j4 ,j4
 ,a4 ,bertrand3 ,cervantes et le        
,romantisme allemand1 #aiag4    ,j4 ,g4 
,herder1 #agdd-ahjc3 ,fragmente ber die 
neuere deutsche  ,literatur1 #agfg4     
,kritische ,wlder1 #agfi4 ,volkslieder1 
#aggh4  ,vom ,geist der ,ebrischen      
,poesie1 #aghb4 ,ideen zur ,philosophie 
der  ,geschichte der ,menschheit1       
#aghd-he4 ,smt4 ,werke1 ed4 ,b4 ,suphan1
 #cb  vols4 #ahgg-ii4--;,joret3 ,herder1
 #ahgf4--,r4 ,haym3 ,herder nach seinem 
,leben und seinen ,werken dargestellt1  
#b vols4 #ahhe4--;,e4 ,khnemann3        
,herder1 #b edn4 #aijg4    ,j4 ,w4 v4   
,goethe1 #agdi-ahcb3 ,gtz von           
,berlichingen1 #aggc4 ,die  ,leiden des 
jungen ,werthers1 #aggd4 ,faust3 ,ein   
,fragment1 #agij4  ,collected ,works    
7,jubilums ,ausgabe71 ed4 ,e4 von der   
,hellen1 #dj vols4  #aijb-ab4--,t4      
,carlyle3 ,essays on ,g4 in ,critical   

and ,mis4 ,essays1 vols4  ,i1 ,,iv1     
#ahbh-cb4--;,j4 ,w4 ,appell3  ,werther  
und seine ,zeit41 #ahee4  #d edn4       
#ahif4--;,e4 ,schmidt3 ,richardson1     
,rousseau und ,g41 #ahge4--;,a4         
,brandl3 ,die ,aufnahme von ,g4's       
,jugendwerken in ,england4              
,goethe-,jahrb41  vol4 ,,iii1           
#ahhc4--,r4 ,steig3 ,g4 und die ,gebrder
 ,grimm1 #ahib4--;,j4 ,o4 ,e4  ,donner3 
,der ,einfluss ,wilhelm ,meisters auf   
den ,roman der ,romantiker1             
#ahic4--;,e4 ,oswald3 ,g4 in ,england   
and ,america1 #ahii4--;,a4 ,brandl3     
,ueber  das ,verhltnis ,g4's zu ,lord   
,byron4 ,goethe-,jahrb41 vol4 #bj1      
#aijj4--,k4  ,schddekopf and ,o4 ,f4    
,walzel3  ,goethe und die ,romantik1    
,briefe mit  ,erluterungen1 vols4 #ac   
and #ad of the pub4 of the              
,goethegesellschaft1  #ahic-id4--,s4    
,waetzold3 ,g4 und die ,romantik1 #b    
edn4 #aijc4--,o4  ,baumgarten3 ,carlyle 
und ,g41 #aijf4--;,h4 ,rhl3 ,die lteste 
,romantik und  die ,kunst des jungen    

,g41 #aiji4    ,j4 ,c4 ,f4 ,schiller1   
#agei-ahje3 ,die ,ruber1 #agha4 ,briefe 
ber  die sthetische ,erziehung des      
,menschen1 #agie4 ,ueber nave u4        
sentimentalische ,dichtung1 #agie-if4   
7,trans4 of these and other  sthetic    
treatises of ,s4 in ,bohn's ,library47  
,collected works1 ed4  ,e4 von der      
,hellen1 #af vols4 #aijd-je4--;,c4 ,alt3
 ,s4 und die ,brder  ,schlegel1         
#aijd4--;,e4 ,spenl3 ,schiller et       
,novalis1 in ,etudes sur  ,schiller     
publies pour le ,centenaire1            
#aije4--;,a4 ,ludwig3  ,schiller  und   
die deutsche ,nachwelt 7especially pp4  
#eb-bjb71 #aiji4    ,j4 ,p4 ,f4         
,richter1 #agfc-ahbe3 ,titan1 #ahjc4    
,flegeljahre1 #ahjd4  ,die ,vorschule   
der sthetik1 #ahjd4 ,selected works with
 intro4 by ,r4  ,steiner1 #h vols4      
7,cotta1 no date74--,p4 ,nerrlich3 ,jean
 ,paul und seine  ,zeitgenossen1 #ahgf4 
,jean ,paul2 sein ,leben und seine      
,werke1 #ahhi4--;,j4  ,mller3 ,jean     
,paul und seine ,bedeutung fr die       

,gegenwart1 #ahid4  ,jean               
,paul-,studien1 #aijj4--,w4 ,hoppe3 ,das
 ,verhltnis ,jean ,pauls zur            
,philosophie seiner ,zeit1 #aija4--;,h4 
,plath3 ,rousseau's ,einfluss auf  ,jean
 ,paul's 8,levana01 #aijc4    ,j4 ,c4   
,f4 ,hlderlin1 #aggj-ahdc3 ,gesammelte  
,dichtungen4 ,int4 by ,b4  ,litzmann1 #b
 vols4 7,cotta1 no date74 ,werke1 ed4   
,m4 ,joachimi-,dege1  #aiac4 ,hlderlin's
 ,leben in ,briefen von und an          
,hlderlin1 ed4 ,k4 ,k4  ,t4 ,litzmann1  
#ahij4--;,c4 ,mller-,rastatt3 ,f4 ,h4   
,sein ,leben und seine  ,dichtungen1    
#ahid4--,w4 ,dilthey3  ,das ,erlebnis   
und die ,dichtung1 pp4  #ccj-dee1       
#aijg4--;,e4 ,bauer3 ,h4 und ,schiller1 
#aijh4--,l4 ,bohme3 ,die  ,landschaft in
 den ,werken ,h4's und ,jean ,pauls1    
#aijh4    ,friedrich ,leopold1 ,freiherr
 von ,hardenberg 7,novalis71 #aggb-ahja3
  ,die ,lehrlinge zu ,sas1 #agih4 ,die  
,christenheit oder ,europa1 #agii4      
,heinrich von ,ofterdingen1 #ahjj4      
,hymnen an die ,nacht1 #ahjj4           

,schriften1 ed4 ,e4 ,heilborn1 #c vols4 
#aija4 ,schriften1 ed4 ,j4 ,minor1 #d   
vols4 #aijg4 ,werke1 ed4 ,h4 ,friedemann
 #aiac4--;,carlyle3 ,n41 in ,crit4      
,essays1 vol4 ,,ii1 #ahbi4--;,friedrich 
v4 ,hardenberg4 ,a collection of        
documents from the family archives by a 
member of the family1 #ahgc4--;,j4      
,bing3 ,novalis1 #ahic4--;,c4 ,busse3   
,n4's ,lyrik1 #ahih4--;,e4 ,heilborn3   
,n41 der ,romantiker1 #aija4--;,e4      
,spenl3  ,novalis1 #aijd4--,w4          
,olshausen3 ,f4 v4 ,hardenbergs         
,beziehungen zur ,naturwissenschaft     
seiner  ,zeit1 #aije4--,w4 ,dilthey3    
,das ,erlebnis und die ,dichtung1 pp4   
#bja-hb1 #aijf4--;,h4 ,lichtenberger3   
,novalis1 #aiab4    ,a4 ,w4 v4          
,schlegel1 #agfg-ahde3 ,vorlesungen ber 
dramatische ,kunst und  ,literatur1     
#ahji-aa4 ,eng4 trans4 #ahad4 ,fr4      
trans4 #ahae4 ,ital4 trans4  #ahag4     
,smtliche ,werke1 #ab vols4 #ahdf-dg2   
also uvres crites en  franais1 #c vols4 
and ,opera latine scripta1 #a vol4      

#ahdf4--,vorlesungen  ber schne         
,literatur und ,kunst 7#ahja-jc71 ed4   
with intro4 by ,j4  ,minor in           
,literaturdenkmler des #ah4 und #ai4    
,jahrs4 nos4 #ag-ai1                    
#ahhd4--,selections with intro4 by ,o4  
,f4 ,walzel in ,deutsche ,nat4 lit41    
vol4 #adc4--,m4 ,bernays3 ,zur          
,entstehungsgeschichte des              
,schlegelschen  ,shakespeare1           
#ahgb4--;,e4 ,sulger-,gebing3 ,die      
,brder ,a4 ,w4 und ,f4  ,schlegel in    
ihrem ,verhltnisse zur bildenden ,kunst1
 #ahig4    ,friedrich v4 ,schlegel1     
#aggb-ahbi3 ,lucinde1 #agii4 ,ueber die 
,weisheit und ,sprache der ,indier1     
#ahjh4 ,smt4 ,werke1 #ae vols4  #ahdg4  
,jugendschriften 7#agid-ahjb71 ed4 ,j4  
,minor1 #aijf4 ,f4  ,schlegels          
,philosophische ,vorlesungen aus den    
,jahren #ahjd bis #ahjf4  ,aus dem      
,nachlass1 von ,c4 ,f4 ,h4              
,windischmann1 #b vols4 #ahcf-cg4--  ,f4
 ,schlegel's ,briefe an seinen ,brder   
,august ,wilhelm1 ed4 ,o4 ,f4  ,walzel1 

#ahij4 ,schleiermacher3 ,vertraute      
,briefe ber die ,lucinde1  #ahjj4 7,new 
edn4 ed4 by ,r4 ,frank1 #aijg47--;,i4   
,rouge3 ,f4 ,schlegel et  la gense du   
,romantisme allemand1 #aijd4--;,dorothea
 und ,f4 ,schlegel4  ,briefe an die     
,familie ,paulus1 ed4 ,r4 ,unger1       
#aiac4--;,c4 ,enders3 ,f4  ,schlegel4   
,die ,quellen seines ,wesens und        
,werdens1 #aiac4 7,attaches great       
importance to the influence on ,s4 of   
,hemsterhuis1 a philosopher of          
,neo-,platonic and ,rousseauistic       
tendency47--,h4 ,horwitz3 ,das          
,ich-,problem  der ,romantik4 ,die      
historische ,stellung ,f4 ,s4's         
innerhalb der modernen                  
,geistesgeschichte1 #aiaf4    ,j4 ,l4   
,tieck1 #aggc-ahec3 ,william ,lovell1   
#agif4 ,der blonde ,eckbert1  #agif4    
,prinz ,zerbino1 #agih4 ,franz          
,sternbalds ,wanderungen1 #agih4  ,leben
 und ,tod der heiligen ,genoveva1 #agii4
 ,schriften1 #bh vols4  #ahbh-ed4       
,ausgewhlte ,werke1 ed4 ,h4 ,welti1 #h  

vols4 #ahhh4 ,two of  the tales trans4  
in ,carlyle's ,german ,romance1 #ahda4  
,briefe an  ,ludwig ,tieck1 selected and
 edited by ,k4 von ,holtei1 #d vols4    
#ahfd4--;,h4  ,petrich3 ,drei ,kapitel  
vom romantischen ,stil1 #ahgh4--;,j4    
,minor3  ,t4 als ,novellendichter1 in   
,akademische ,bltter1 pp4 #abh-fa and   
#aic-bbj1 #ahhd4--;,j4 ,ranftl3 ,l4     
,t4's ,genoveva als romantische         
,dichtung  betrachtet1 #ahii4--,k4      
,hassler3 ,l4 ,t4's ,jugendroman        
,william ,lovell und  der ,paysan       
perverti1 #aijb4--;,h4 ,gnther3         
,romantische ,kritik und ,satire  bei   
,l4 ,t41 #aijg4--;,g4 ,h4 ,danton3 ,the 
,nature ,sense in the ,writings of  ,l4 
,t41 #aijg4--;,f4 ,brggemann3 ,die      
,ironie in ,t4's ,william ,lovell und   
seinen ,vorlufern1 #aiji4--,s4 ,krebs3  
,philipp ,otto ,runge und ,l4 ,t41      
#aiji4--,w4 ,steinert3 ,l4 ,t4 und das  
,farbenempfinden der romantischen       
,dichtung1 #aiaj4--;,e4 ,schnebeck3 ,t4 
und ,solger1 #aiaj4    ,w4 ,h4          

,wackenroder1 #aggc-ih3                 
,herzensergiessungen eines              
kunstliebenden  ,klosterbruders1 #agig1 
ed4 by ,k4 ,d4 ,jessen1 #aijd4 ,tieck   
und  ,wackenroder 7,phantasien ber die  
,kunst71 ed4 ,j4 ,minor in ,deutsche    
,nat4 ,lit41 vol4 #ade4--,p4 ,koldewey3 
,wackenroder und sein ,einfluss auf     
,tieck1 #aijc4    ,friedrich ,baron de  
,la ,motte ,fouqu1 #aggg-ahdc3 ,undine1 
#ahaa4  ,lebensgeschichte des ,baron ,f4
 de ,la ,m4 ,fouqu1 ausgezeichnet durch 
ihn  selbst1 #ahdj4 ,ausgewhlte ,werke1 
#ab vols4 #ahda4--,w4 ,pfeiffer3 ,ueber 
,fouqus ,undine1 #aijc4--,l4 ,jeuthe3   
,fouqu als ,erzhler1 #aiaj4    ,e4 ,t4  
,a4 ,hoffmann1 #aggf-ahbb3 ,smt4 ,werke4
 ,intro4 by ,e4 ,grisebach1  #ae vols4  
#ahii4 ,ausgewhlte ,erzhlungen4 ,bcher  
der ,rose series1  vol4 #f1 #aiaa4      
,contes fantastiques1 trad4 par         
,love-,veimars1 #bj vols4  #ahbi-cc4 ,g4
 ,ellinger3 ,e4 ,t4 ,a4 ,h43 sein ,leben
 und seine ,werke1  #ahid4--;,g4        
,thurau3 ,h4's ,erzhlungen in           

,frankreich1 #ahif4--;,a4 ,barine3      
,potes et ,nvross1 pp4 #a-eh1           
#aijh4--,p4 ,cobb3 ,the ,influence of   
,h4  on the ,tales of ,e4 ,a4 ,poe1     
#aijh4--;,a4 ,sakheim3 ,hoffmann3       
,studien zu  seiner ,persnlichkeit und  
seinen ,werken1 #aijh4--;,c4 ,schaeffer3
 ,die  ,bedeutung des ,musikalischen und
 ,akustischen in ,h4's literarischen    
,schaffen1 #aiji4--;,e4 ,kroll3 ,h4's   
musikalische ,anschauungen1 #aiji4--,p4 
,sucher3 ,les sources du merveilleux    
chez ,h41 #aiab4    ,heinrich v4        
,kleist1 #aggg-ahaa3 ,smt4 ,werke1 ed4  
,f4 ,muncker1 #d  vols4 #ahic4 ,werke1  
ed4 ,e4 ,schmidt #aije4--;,a4           
,wilbrandt3 ,h4 v4  ,k41 #ahfc4--,r4    
,bonafous3 ,h4 de ,k4 ,sa vie et ses    
uvres1 #ahid4--;,g4  ,minde-,pouet3 ,h4 
v4 ,k4 ,seine ,sprache und sein ,stil1  
#ahig4--,r4 ,steig3  ,k4's ,berliner    
,kmpfe1 #aija4--,s4 ,rahmer3 ,das       
,kleist-,problem1 #aijc4  ,h4 v4 ,k4 als
 ,mensch und ,dichter1 #aiji4--,m4 ,lex3
 ,die ,idee im ,drama  bei ,goethe1     

,schiller1 ,grillparzer1 ,k41           
#aijd4--;,e4 ,kayka3 ,k4 und die        
,romantik1 #aijf4--,w4 ,herzog3 ,h4 v4  
,k4 ,sein ,leben und seine ,werke1      
#aiaa4--;,h4 ,meyer-,benfey3 ,das ,drama
 ,h4 v4 ,k4's1 #b vols4 #aiaa-ac4--,k4  
,gnther3 ,die ,entwickelung der         
novellistischen ,kompositionstechnik    
,k4's  bis zur ,meisterschaft1          
#aiaa4--,w4 ,khn3 ,h4 v4 ,k4 und das    
deutsche  ,theater1 #aiab4    ,c4 ,m4   
,brentano1 #aggh-ahdb3 ,gesammelte      
,schriften1 #i vols4 #aheb-ee4  ,godwi1 
ed4 ,a4 ,ruest1 #aijf4--;,a4 ,kerr3     
,godwi2 ein ,kapitel deutscher          
,romantik1 #ahih4    ,a4 v4 ,chamisso1  
#agha-ch3 ,peter ,schlemihls wundersame 
,geschichte1  #ahad4 ,gesammelte ,werke1
 ed4 ,m4 ,koch1 #d vols4 #ahhc4 ,werke1 
ed4 ,o4 ,f4  ,walzel4 ,deutsche ,nat4   
,lit41 vol4 #adh1 #ahib4 ,werke1 ed4 ,m4
 ,sydow1  #b vols4 #aiab4 ,aus          
,chamisso's ,frhzeit4 ,ungedruckte      
,briefe1 ed4 ,l4  ,geiger1 #aije4--,k4  
,fulda3 ,chamisso und seine ,zeit41     

#ahha4--,x4 ,brun3  ,a4 de ,chamisso de 
,boncourt1 #ahif4    ,achim v4 ,arnim1  
#agha-ahca3 ,des ,knaben ,wunderhorn    
7first #c vols471  #ahjh4 ,werke1 ed4   
,m4 ,jacobs1 #b vols4 #aiaj4 ,arnims    
,trst ,einsamkeit1  ed4 ,f4 ,pfaff1     
#ahhc4--,r4 ,steig and ,h4 ,grimm3  ,a4 
v4 ,arnim und die ihm  nahe standen1 #c 
vols4 #ahid-aijd4--;,f4 ,rieser3 ,des   
,knaben ,wunderhorn  und seine ,quellen1
 #aijh4--,k4 ,bode3 ,die ,bearbeitung   
der ,vorlagen in  des ,knaben           
,wunderhorn1 #aiji4    ,j4 ,l4 ,uhland1 
#aghg-ahfb3 ,werke1 ed4 ,h4 ,fischer1 #f
 vols4 #ahib4  ,gedichte1 ed4 ,e4       
,schmidt and ,j4 ,hartmann1 #b vols4    
#ahih4--;,f4 ,notter3  ,l4 ,u42 seine   
,leben und seiner ,dichtungen1          
#ahfc4--,k4 ,mayer3 ,l4  ,u42 seine     
,freunde und ,zeitgenossen1 #ahfg4--;,a4
 v4 ,keller3 ,u4 als  ,dramatiker1      
#ahgg4--;,g4 ,schmidt ,u4's ,poetik1    
#aijf4--,w4 ,reinhhl3 ,u4  als          
,politiker1 #aiaa4    ,j4 v4            
,eichendorff1 #aghh-aheg3 ,aus dem      

,leben eines ,taugenichts1  #ahbf4      
,werke1 ed4 ,r4 v4 ,gottschall1 #d vols4
 no date4--,j4 ,nadler3  ,eichendorff's 
,lyrik und ihre ,geschichte1 #aijh4     
,heinrich ,heine1 #agig-ahef3 ,smt4     
,werke1 ed4 ,e4 ,elster1 #g vols4       
#ahhg-ij4 ,h4's ,autobiographie1 nach   
seinen ,werken1 ,briefen und            
,gesprchen1 ed4 ,g4 ,karpeles1 #ahhh4   
,trans4 by ,arthur ,dexter1 #ahic4      
,erinnerungen an ,h4 ,h4 und seine      
,familie by his brother1 ,maximilien    
,heine1 #ahfh4--;,a4 ,meissner3 ,h4 ,h43
 ,erinnerungen1 #ahef4--;,a4            
,strodtmann3  ,h4 ,h4's ,leben und      
,werke1 #ahhd4--,m4 ,arnold3  ,h4 ,h41  
in ,essays  in ,criticism1 #dth edn41   
#ahhd4--;,george ,eliot3 ,german ,wit3  
,h4 ,h41  in ,essays1 #ahhe4--,k4 ,r4   
,prlls3 ,h4 ,h43 ,sein ,lebensgang und  
seine  ,shriften1 #ahhf4--;,g4          
,karpeles3 ,h4 ,h4 und seine            
,zeitgenossen1 #ahhh4  ,h4 ,h43 ,aus    
seinem ,leben und aus seiner ,zeit41    
#ahii4--;,a4 ,kohut3 ,h4  ,h4 und die   

,frauen1 #ahhh4--,wm4 ,sharp3 ,life of  
,h4 ,h4 7bibliography by  ,j4 ,p4       
,anderson71 #ahhh4--,t4 ,odinga3 ,ueber 
die ,einflsse der ,romantik  auf ,h4    
,h41 #ahia4--,t4 ,gautier3 ,portraits et
 souvenirs littraires1  pp4 #ajc-bh1    
#ahib4--,l4 ,p4 ,betz3 ,die franzsische 
,litteratur im ,urteile  ,h4 ,h4's41    
#ahig4 ,h4 ,h4 und ,a4 de ,musset1      
#ahig4--;,j4 ,legras3 ,h4 ,h41  ,pote1  
#ahig4--;,g4 ,m4 ,c4 ,brandes3 ,ludwig  
,brne und ,h4 ,h41 #bn ed4  #ahih4--,o4 
zur ,linde3 ,h4 ,h4 und die deutsche    
,romantik1 #ahii4--;,f4  ,melchior3 ,h4 
,h4's ,verhltnis zu ,lord ,byron1       
#aijc4--;,e4 ,a4 ,schalles3  ,h4's      
,verhltnis zu ,shakespeare1 #aijd4--;,a4
 ,w4 ,fischer3 ,ueber die  volkstmlichen
 ,elemente in den ,gedichten ,h4's1     
#aije4--,w4 ,ochsenbein3  ,die ,aufnahme
 ,lord ,byrons in ,deutschland und sein 
,einfluss auf den  jungen ,h41          
#aije4--,r4 ,m4 ,meyer3 ,der ,dichter   
des ,romanzero in ,gestalten  und       
,probleme1 pp4 #aea-fc1 #aije4--;,a4    

,bartels3 ,h4 ,h43 ,auch ein  ,denkmal1 
#aijf4--;,h4 ,reu3 ,h4 ,h4 und die      
,bibel1 #aiji4--;,c4 ,puetzfeld3  ,h4   
,h4's ,verhltnis zur ,religion1 #aiab4  
,nikolaus ,lenau1 #ahjb-ej3 ,smt4       
,werke1 ed4 ,a4 ,grss no year4--,a4  ,x4
 ,schurz3 ,l4's ,leben1 #b vols4        
#ahee4--,l4 ,a4 ,frankl3 ,zur           
,biographie  ,l4's41 #ahhe4--,t4 ,s4    
,baker3 ,l4 and ,young ,germany in      
,america1  #ahig4--,l4 ,roustan3 ,l4 et 
son temps1 #ahih4--;,j4 ,saly ,stern3   
,la vie  d'un pote1 essai sur ,l41      
#aijb4--;,a4 ,w4 ,ernst3 ,l4's          
,frauengestalten1  #aijb4--,t4 ,gesky3  
,l4 als ,naturdichter1 #aijb4--;,c4 v4  
,klenze3 ,treatment  of ,nature in the  
,works of ,n4 ,l41 #aijc4--,l4 ,reynaud3
 ,n4 ,l41 pote  lyrique1 #aije4         
,,footnotes      #a ,see1 for example1  
in vol4 ,,ix of the ,annales de la      
,socit  ,jean-,jacques ,rousseau the    
bibliography 7pp4 #hg-bgf7 for          
#aiab--the year  of the bicentenary4    
#b ,literature and the ,american        

,college 7#aijh72 ,the ,new ,laokoon    
7#aiaj72 ,the ,masters of ,modern       
,french ,criticism 7#aiab74    #c ,see  
his ,oxford address ,on the ,modern     
,element in ,literature4    #d ,these   
two tendencies in ,occidental thought go
 back respectively at  least as far as  
,parmenides and ,heraclitus4    #e ,in  
his ,world as ,imagination 7#aiaf7 ,e4  
,d4 ,fawcett1 though  ultra-romantic and
 unoriental in his point of view1 deals 
with a  problem that has always been the
 special preoccupation of the ,hindu4   
,a ,hindu1 however1 would have entitled 
a similar volume ,the ,world  as        
,illusion 7my74 ,aristotle has much to  
say of fiction in his  ,poetics but does
 not even use the word imagination 774  
,in the  ,psychology1 where he discusses
 the imagination1 he assigns not to it1 
but to mind or reason the active and    
creative rle 7 74  ,it is especially the
 notion of the creative imagination that
 is  recent4 ,the earliest example of   
the phrase that ,i have noted in ,french

  is in ,rousseau's description of his  
erotic reveries at the ,hermitage       
7,confessions1 ,livre ,,ix74    #f      
,essay on ,flaubert in ,essais de       
,psychologie contemporaine4    #g ,le   
,romantisme et les murs 7#aiaj74    #h  
,annales de la ,socit ,jean-,jacques    
,rousseau1 ,,viii1 #cj-ca4    #i ,i     
should perhaps say that in the case of  
,buddha ,i have been able to  consult   
the original ,pli documents4 ,in the    
case of ,confucius and the  ,chinese ,i 
have had to depend on translations4     
#aj ,see appendix on ,chinese           
primitivism4    #aa ,see1 for example1  
,majjhima 7,pli ,text ,society71 ,i1    
#bfe4 ,later  ,buddhism1 especially     
,mahyna ,buddhism1 fell away from the   
positive and  critical spirit of the    
founder into mythology and metaphysics4 
#ab ,buddha expressed on many occasions 
his disdain for the ,vedas1  the great  
traditional authority of the ,hindus4   
#ac ,i have explained the reasons for   
giving this place to ,bacon in  chapter 

,,ii of ,literature and the ,american   
,college4    #ad ,eth4 ,nic41 #aagi a4  
#ae ,i scarcely need remind the reader  
that the extant ,aristotelian  writings 
which have repelled so many by their    
form were almost  certainly not meant   
for publication4 ,for the problems      
raised by these  writings as well as for
 the mystery in the method of their     
early  transmission see ,r4 ,shute1     
,history of the ,aristotelian ,writings 
7#ahhh74 ,the writings which ,aristotle 
prepared for publication and  which     
,cicero describes as a 8golden stream of
 speech0 7,acad4 ,,ii1  #ch1 #aai7 have1
 with the possible exception of the     
recently recovered  ,constitution of    
,athens1 been lost4    #af ,see his     
,essai sur le genre dramatique srieux4  
#ag ,quoted in ,grimm's ,dictionary4    
#ah ,ex lectione quorundam romanticorum1
 i4e4 librorum compositorum  in gallico 
poeticorum de gestis militaribus1 in    
quibus maxima pars  fabulosa est4    #ai
 ,perhaps the most romantic lines in    

,english are found in one of  ,camillo's
 speeches in ,the ,winter's ,tale 7,,iv1
 #d73            a wild dedication of   
yourselves      ,to unpath'd waters1    
undream'd shores4    ,this 8wild        
dedication0 is1 it should be noted1     
looked upon by ,camillo  with disfavor4 
#bj ,pepys's ,diary1 #ac ,june1 #afff4  
#ba ,thomas ,shadwell1 ,preface to the  
,sullen ,lovers1 #affh4    #bb          
,spectator1 #adb1 by ,steele4    #bc    
,pope1 #b;d ,epistle1 ,of the ,character
 of ,women4    #bd ,cf4 ,revue d'hist4  
litt41 ,,xviii1 #ddj4 ,for the ,early   
,french  history of the word1 see also  
the article ,romantique by ,a4 ,franois 
in ,annales de la ,soc4 ,j4-,j4         
,rousseau1 ,v1 #aii-bcf4    #be ,first  
edition1 #afih2 second edition1 #agcb4  
#bf ,cf4 his ,elgie  une dame4          
,mon me1 imaginant1 n'a point la        
patience      ,de bien polir les vers et
 ranger la science4      ,la rgle me    
dplat1 j'cris confusment3      ,jamais  
un bon esprit ne fait rien qu'aisment4  

'''      ,je veux faire des vers qui ne 
soient pas contraints      '''          
,chercher des lieux secrets o rein ne me
 dplaise1      ,mditer  loisir1 rver    
tout  mon aise1      ,employer toute une
 heure  me mirer dans l'eau1      ,our1 
comme en songeant1 la course d'un       
ruisseau4      ,ecrire dans un bois1    
m'interrompre1 me taire1      ,composer 
un quatrain sans songer  le faire4      
#bg ,caractres1 ch4 ,v4    #bh ,his     
psychology of the memory and imagination
 is still  ,aristotelian4 ,cf4 ,e4      
,wallace1 ,aristotle's ,psychology1     
,intr41  lxxxvi-cvii4    #bi ,an ,essay 
upon ,poetry 7#afhb74    #cj ,the       
,french ,academy discriminates in its   
,sentiments sur le ,cid  between two    
types of probability1 8ordinary0 and    
8extraordinary40  ,probability in       
general is more especially reserved for 
action4 ,in the  domain of action       
8ordinary0 probability and decorum run  
very close  together4 ,it is1 for       
example1 both indecorous and improbable 

that  ,chimne in the ,cid should marry  
her father's murderer4    #ca ,in his   
,preface to ,shakespeare4    #cb ,for a 
similar distinction in ,aristotle see   
,eth4 ,nic41 #aadc b4    #cc ,the       
,platonic and ,aristotelian reason or   
mind 77 contains an  element of         
intuition4    #cd ,in his ,lettre       
d',alembert sur les spectacles4    #ce  
,rousseau contre ,molire1 #bch4    #cf  
,letters on ,chivalry and ,romance4     
#cg ,see verses prefixed to ,congreve's 
,double-,dealer4    #ch        ,change  
l'tat douteux dans lequel tu nous       
ranges1      ,nature lve-nous  la clart 
des anges1      ,ou nous abaisse au sens
 des simples animaux4                   
,sonnet 7#afeg874    #ci ,see1 for      
example1 ,a4 ,gerard's ,essay on ,genius
 7#aggd71 passim4    #dj ,the ,english  
translation of this part of the         
,critique of  ,judgment1 edited by ,j4  
,c4 ,meredith1 is useful for its        
numerous  illustrative passages from    
these theorists 7,young1 ,gerard1 ,duff1

 etc474    #da ,mrs4 ,katharine         
,fullerton ,gerould has dealt           
interestingly with this  point in an    
article in the ,unpopular ,review       
7,october1 #aiad7 entitled  ,tabu and   
,temperament4    #db ,see ,biographia   
literaria1 ch4 ,,xxii4    #dc ,this     
message came to him in any case straight
 from ,german  romanticism4 ,see        
,walzel1 ,deutsche ,romantik1 #bb1 #aea4
    #dd 8,de tous les corps et esprits1 
on n'en saurait tirer un  mouvement de  
vraie charit2 cela est impossible1 et   
d'un autre ordre1  surnaturel40 ,penses1
 ,article ,,xvii4 8,charit10 one should 
recollect1  here has its traditional    
meaning--the love1 not of man1 but of   
,god4    #de ,see poem1 ,ce sicle avait 
deux ans in the ,feuilles d',automne4   
#df ,for amusing details1 see ,l4       
,maigron1 ,le ,romantisme et la mode    
7#aiaa71 ch4 ,v4    #dg ,for ,disraeli  
see ,wilfrid ,ward1 ,men and ,matters1  
#ed ff4 ,of  ,bulwer-,lytton at ,nice   
about #ahej ,princess von ,racowitza    

writes  as follows in her ,autobiography
 7p4 #df73 8,his fame was at its        
zenith4 ,he seemed to me antediluvian1  
with his long dyed curls and  his       
old-fashioned dress ''' with long coats 
reaching to the ankles1  knee-breeches1 
and long colored waistcoats4 ,also1 he  
appeared always  with a young lady who  
adored him1 and who was followed by a   
man  servant carrying a harp4 ,she sat  
at his feet and appeared as he did  in  
the costume of #ahcj1 with long flowing 
curls called ,anglaises4  ''' ,in       
society1 however1 people ran after him  
tremendously1 and spoilt  him in every  
possible way4 ,he read aloud from his   
own works1 and1 in  especially poetic   
passages1 his #8,alice' accompanied him 
with arpeggios  on the harp40    #dh    
,see essay by ,kenyon ,cox on ,the      
,illusion of ,progress1 in his  ,artist 
and ,public4    #di ,see ,creative      
,criticism by ,j4 ,e4 ,spingarn1 and my 
article on  ,genius and ,taste1         
reviewing this book1 in the ,nation     

7,new ,york71 #g  ,feb41 #aiah4    #ej  
,one should note here as elsewhere      
points of contact between  scientific   
and emotional naturalism4 ,take1 for    
example1 the educational  theory that   
has led to the setting up of the        
elective system4 ,the  general human    
discipline embodied in the fixed        
curriculum is to be  discarded in order 
that the individual may be free to work 
along the  lines of his bent or         
8genius40 ,in a somewhat similar way    
scientific  naturalism encourages the   
individual to sacrifice the general     
human  discipline to a specialty4    #ea
 ,see his poem ,l',art in ,emaux et     
,cames4    #eb        ,quel esprit ne   
bat la campagne8      ,qui ne fait      
chteaux en ,espagne8      ,picrochole1  
,pyrrhus1 la laitire1 enfin tous1       
,autant les sages que les fous          
,chacun songe en veillant2 il n'est rien
 de plus doux4      ,une flatteuse      
erreur emporte alors nos mes2           
,tout le bien du monde est  nous1       

,tous les honneurs1 toutes les femmes4  
,quand je suis seul1 je fais au plus    
brave un dfi1      ,je m'carte1 je vais 
dtrner le sophi2        ,on m'lit roi1  
mon peuple m'aime2      ,les diadmes    
vont sur ma tte pleuvant3      ,quelque 
accident fait-il que je rentre en       
moi-mme1        ,je suis gros ,jean     
comme devant4    #ec ,rasselas1 ch4     
,,xliv4    #ed ,nouvelle ,hlose1 ,pt4   
,,ii1 ,lettre ,,xvii4    #ee ,rostand   
has hit off this change in the ,balcony 
,scene of his  ,cyrano de ,bergerac4    
#ef ,essay on ,simple and ,sentimental  
,poetry4    #eg ,the life of ,rousseau  
by ,gerhard ,gran is written from this  
point of  view4    #eh        ,the      
world's great age begins anew1          
,the golden years return1 etc4          
,hellas1 vv4 #ajfj ff4    #ei ,for an   
excellent analysis of ,shelley's        
idealism see ,leslie  ,stephen's ,godwin
 and ,shelley in his ,hours in a        
,library4    #fj ,letters1 ,,ii1 #bib4  
#fa ,see his letter to ,wordsworth1 #cj 

,january1 #ahja4    #fb ,dramatic ,art  
and ,literature1 ch4 ,i4    #fc ,cf4    
,voltaire3 ,on ne peut dsirer ce qu'on  
ne connat pas4  7,zare47    #fd ,cf4    
,sainte-,beuve1 ,causeries du lundi4    
,,xv1 #cga3 8,le romantique  a la       
nostalgie1 comme ,hamlet2 il cherche ce 
qu'il n'a pas1 et jusque  par del les   
nuages2 il rve1 il vit dans les songes4 
,au dix-neuvime  sicle1 il adore le     
moyen ge2 au dix-huitime1 il est dj     
rvolutionnaire avec ,rousseau10 etc4    
,cf4 also ,t4 ,gautier as quoted in  the
 ,journal des ,goncourt1 ,,ii1 #ea3     
8,nous ne sommes pas ,franais1 nous     
autres1 nous tenons  d'autres races4    
,nous sommes pleins de nostalgies4  ,et 
puis quand  la nostalgie d'un pays se   
joint la nostalgie d'un  temps ''' comme
 vous par exemple du dix-huitime sicle  
''' comme moi de  la ,venise de         
,casanova1 avec embranchement sur       
,chypre1 oh6 alors1 c'est  complet40    
#fe ,see article ,got in ,postscriptum  
de ma vie4    #ff ,schlegel's ,dramatic 

,art and ,literature1 ,lecture ,,xxii4  
#fg ,for a discussion of this point see 
,i4 ,rouge3 ,f4 ,schlegel et la  ,gense 
du romantisme allemand1 #dh ff4    #fh  
,for a development of this point of view
 see the essay of ,novalis3             
,christianity or ,europe4    #fi        
,confessions1 ,livre ,,ix 7#agef74      
#gj ,this is ,goethe's very classical   
definition of genius3 ,du nur1  ,genius1
 mehrst in der ,natur die ,natur4    #ga
 ,greek literature1 after it had lost   
the secret of selection and  the grand  
manner1 as was the case during the      
,alexandrian period1 also  tended to    
oscillate from the pole of romance to   
the pole of so-called  realism--from the
 ,argonautica of ,apollonius of ,rhodes1
 let us say1 to  the ,mimes of          
,herondas4    #gb ,emile1 ,livre ,,ii4  
#gc ,etudes de la nature4    #gd ,see1  
for example1 ,tatler1 #ag ,november1 #ca
 ,december1 #agji 7by  ,steele74    #ge 
,see her letter to ,gustavus ,,iii1     
,king of ,sweden1 cited in ,gustave     

,,iii et la cour de ,france1 ,,ii1 #djb1
 par ,a4 ,geffroy4    #gf ,see ,hastings
 ,rashdall3 ,is ,conscience an ,emotion8
 7#aiad71  especially ch4 ,i4 ,cf4      
,nouvelle ,hlose4 7,pt4 ,,vi1 ,lettre   
,,vii73  8,saint-,preux fait de la      
conscience morale un sentiment1 et non  
pas un  jugement40    #gg ,nouvelle     
,hlose1 ,pt4 ,v1 ,lettre ,,ii4    #gh   
,ibid4    #gi ,ibid41 ,pt4 ,,iv1 ,lettre
 ,,xii4    #hj ,schiller's definition is
 well known3 8,a beautiful soul we call 
a state where the moral sentiment has   
taken possession of all the  emotions to
 such a degree that it may              
unhesitatingly commit the  guidance of  
life to instinct10 etc4 7,on ,grace and 
,dignity47 ,cf4  ,madame de ,stal3 8,la 
vertu devient alors une impulsion       
involontaire1  un mouvement qui passe   
dans le sang1 et vous entrane           
irrsistiblement  comme les passions les 
plus imprieuses40 7,de la ,littrature3  
,discours  prliminire47    #ha ,avenir  
de la ,science1 #ced4    #hb ,ibid41    

#agi-ahj4    #hc ,avenir de la ,science1
 #dgf4    #hd ,madame de ,warens felt   
the influence of ,german pietism in her 
youth4 ,see ,la ,jeunesse de ,j4-,j4    
,rousseau par ,e4 ,ritter2 ch4 ,,xiii4  
#he ,lettre  ,m4 ,mol 7#ba ,october1    
#ahjc74    #hf ,le romantisme franais1  
#bae4    #hg ,see ,les ,amours de       
,milord ,bomston at the end of ,la      
,nouvelle  ,hlose4    #hh ,sultan       
,mourad in ,la ,lgende des ,sicles4     
#hi ,correspondence1 ,,iii1 #bac 7,june1
 #agia74 ,the date of this letter       
should be noted4 ,several of the worst  
terrorists of the ,french  ,revolution  
began by introducing bills for the      
abolition of capital  punishment4    #ij
 ,see ,burton's ,hume1 ,,ii1 #cji 7note 
#b74    ,this sentimental trait did not 
escape the authors of the               
,anti-,jacobin3        ,sweet child of  
sickly ,fancy--,her of yore      ,from  
her lov'd ,france ,rousseau to exile    
bore2      ,and while midst lakes and   
mountains wild he ran      ,full of     

himself and shunn'd the haunts of man1  
,taught her o'er each lone vale and     
,alpine steep      ,to lisp the stories 
of his wrongs and weep2      ,taught her
 to cherish still in either eye      ,of
 tender tears a plentiful supply1       
,and pour them in the brooks that       
babbled by--      ,taught her to mete by
 rule her feelings strong1      ,false  
by degrees and delicately wrong1        
,for the crush'd ,beetle1 first--the    
widow'd ,dove1      ,and all the warbled
 sorrows of the grove1      ,next for   
poor suff'ring ,guilt--and last of all1 
,for ,parents1 ,friends1 or ,king and   
,country's fall4    #ia                 
,shepherds1 dwellers in the valleys1 men
      ,whom ,i already loved2--not      
verily      ,for their own sakes1 but   
for the fields and hills      ,where was
 their occupation and abode4            
,michael    #ib        ,once more the   
,ass1 with motion dull1      ,upon the  
pivot of his skull      ,turned round   
his long left ear4    8,the bard who    

soars to elegize an ass0 and the        
8laureate of the  long-eared kind0      
7,english ,bards and ,scotch ,reviewers7
 is1 however1  not ,wordsworth but      
,coleridge4 ,see his poem ,to a ,young  
,ass1 its mother  being tethered near   
it4    #ic ,see the poem ,acte          
d'accusation in ,les ,contemplations4   
#id ,le ,crapaud in ,la ,lgende des     
,sicles4    #ie ,see ,apology #ca;,d4   
#if ,his ,language and ,wisdom of the   
,hindus appeared in #ahjh4    #ig ,see  
,jugendschriften1 ed4 by ,j4 ,minor1    
,,ii1 #cfb4    #ih ,dhammapada4    #ii  
,sutta-,nipta1 v4 #adi 7,metta-sutta74  
#ajj ,second ,dialogue4    #aja         
,letters1 ,,ii1 #bih4 ,for ,ruskin and  
,rousseau see ,ibid4 ,i1 #cfj3  8,ruskin
 said that great parts of ,les          
,confessions were so true to  himself   
that he felt as if ,rousseau must have  
transmigrated into his  body40    #ajb  
8,if a poet wishes an atmosphere of     
indistinct illusion and of  moving      
shadow1 he must use the romantic style4 

''' ,women1 such as we know  them1 such 
as they are likely to be1 ever prefer a 
delicate unreality  to a true or firm   
art40 ,essay on ,pure1 ,ornate1 and     
,grotesque ,art in  ,english ,poetry    
7#ahfd74    #ajc 8,die ,romanze auf     
einem ,pferde0 utters the following     
lines in the  ,prologue to ,tieck's     
,kaiser ,octavianus3                    
,mondbeglnzte ,zaubernacht1      ,die   
den ,sinn gefangen hlt1                 
,wundervolle ,mrchenwelt      ,steig'   
auf in der alten ,pracht4    ,a special 
study might be made of the rle of the   
moon in ,chateaubriand  and             
,coleridge--even if one is not prepared 
like ,carlyle to dismiss  ,coleridge's  
philosophy as 8bottled moonshine40      
#ajd ,o4 ,walzel points out that as soon
 as the women in ,h4 von ,kleist's      
plays become conscious they fall into   
error 7,deutsche ,romantik1 #c4         
,auflage1 #adg74    #aje ,byron1        
,sardanapalus1 ,,iv1 #e4 ,cf4 ,rousseau1
 ,neuvime ,promenade3  8,domin par mes  

sens1 quoi que je puisse faire1 je n'ai 
jamais pu  rsister  leurs impressions1  
et1 tant que l'objet agit sur eux1 mon  
cur ne cesse d'en tre affect40 ,cf4 also
 ,musset1 ,rolla3        ,ce n'tait pas 
,rolla qui gouvernait sa vie1           
,c'taient ses passions2 il les laissait 
aller      ,comme un ptre assoupi       
regarde l'eau couler4    #ajf ,modern   
,painters1 ,part ,v1 ch4 ,,xx4    #ajg  
,confessions1 ,pt4 ,,ii1 ,livre ,,ix    
7#agef74    #ajh        ,with nature    
never do they wage      ,a foolish      
strife2 they see      ,a happy youth and
 their old age      ,is beautiful and   
free4                                   
,wordsworth3 ,the ,fountain4    #aji    
,the phrase imaginative insight is1 ,i  
believe1 true to the spirit  of ,plato  
at his best1 but it is certainly not    
true to his terminology4  ,plato puts   
the imagination 77 not only below       
intuitive  reason 77 and discursive     
reason or understanding 771 but  even   
below outer perception 774 ,he          

recognizes indeed that it  may reflect  
the operations of the understanding and 
even the higher  reason as well as the  
impressions of sense4 ,this notion of a 
superior  intellectual imagination was  
carried much further by ,plotinus and   
the neo-,platonists4 ,even the          
intellectual imagination is1 however1   
conceived of as passive4 ,perhaps no    
,greek thinker1 not even ,plato1  makes 
as clear as he might that reason gets   
its intuition of reality  and the ,one  
with the aid of the imagination and1 as 
it were1 through  a veil of illusion1   
that1 in ,joubert's phrase1 8l'illusion 
est une  partie int1 grante de la ralit0
 7,penses1 ,titre ,,xi1 ,,xxxix74       
,joubert again distinguishes 7ibid41    
,titre ,,iii1 ,,xlvii1 ,,li7 between    
8l'imaginative0 which is passive and    
8l'imagination0 which is active  and    
creative 78l'il de l'me074 ,in its      
failure to bring out with  sufficient   
explicitness this creative rle of the   
imagination and in  the stubborn        

intellectualism that this failure       
implies is to be found1  if anywhere1   
the weak point in the cuirass of ,greek 
philosophy4    #aaj ,see ,xenophon1     
,memorabilia1 ,,iv1 #af1 #c4    #aaa 4  
#aab ,see his ,lettre  d',alembert4     
#aac ,varieties of ,religious           
,experience1 #chg4    #aad ,bltezeit der
 ,romantik1 #abf4    #aae 8,parfaite    
illusion1 ralit parfaite0 7,alfred de   
,vigny74 8,die  ,welt wird ,traum1 der  
,traum wird ,welt0 7,novalis74 8,this   
sort of dreaming  existence is the best2
 he who quits it to go in search of     
realities  generally barters repose for 
repeated disappointments and vain       
regrets0  7,hazlitt74    #aaf ,lit4     
,ang41 ,,iv1 #acj4    #aag ,about #ahhe4
    #aah ,le ,thtre en ,france1 #cjd4   
#aai                      ,je suis une  
force qui va6      ,agent aveugle et    
sourd de mystres funbres4    #abj ,e4g41
 ,lillo's ,fatal ,curiosity 7#agcf7 had 
a marked influence on  the rise of the  
,german fate tragedy4    #aba        ,wo

 ist der1 der sagen drfe1      ,so will 
ich's1 so sei's gemacht1      ,unser    
,taten sind nur ,wrfe      ,in des      
,zufalls blinde ,nacht4                 
,die ,ahnfrau4    #abb 8,so that in the 
first place1 ,i put for a general       
inclination of  all mankind1 a perpetual
 and restless desire of ,power after    
power1 that  ceaseth only in ,death40   
,leviathan1 ,part ,i1 ch4 ,,xi4    #abc 
,see ,unpopular ,review1 ,october1      
#aiae4    #abd ,e4 ,seillire has been   
tracing1 in ,le ,mal romantique and     
other volumes1 the relation between     
,rousseauism and what he terms an       
8irrational imperialism40 ,his point of 
view is on the constructive side  very  
different from mine4    #abe ,the best  
account of ,rousseau's ,german influence
 is still that of  ,h4 ,hettner in his  
,literaturgeschichte des #ah4           
,jahrhunderts4 ,compared  with          
,rousseau's ,german influence1 says     
,professor ,paul ,hensel in his         
,rousseau 7#aijg71 8his influence in    

,france seems almost trifling40 ,in     
,germany 8,rousseau became the basis not
 of a guillotine but of a new  culture  
7,kultur74 ''' ,we have drawn his spirit
 over to us1 we have made  it our own40 
7#aba47 ,see also ,professor ,eugen     
,khnemann1 ,vom ,weltreich  des         
deutschen ,geistes 7#aiad71 #ed-fb1 and 
passim4 ,german idealism is1  according 
to ,khnemann1 the monument that does the
 greatest honor to  ,rousseau4    #abf  
,a robin redbreast in a cage      ,puts 
all ,heaven in a rage4      '''      ,he
 who shall hurt the little wren         
,shall never be belov'd by men4      ,he
 who the ox to wrath has mov'd          
,shall never be by woman lov'd4      '''
      ,kill not the moth nor butterfly1 
,for the ,last ,judgment draweth nigh4  
,auguries of ,innocence4    #abg ,see   
,hart-,leap ,well4    #abh ,beyond ,good
 and ,evil1 ch4 ,,iv4    #abi 8,out into
 distant futures1 which no dream hath   
yet seen1 into  warmer souths than ever 
sculptor conceived4 ''' ,let this love  

be your new  nobility1--the undiscovered
 in the remotest seas10 etc4 7,thus     
,spake  ,zarathustra1 translated by     
,thomas ,common1 #bdj1 #bdh47    #acj   
8,on trouverait1 en rtablissant les     
anneaux intermdiaires de  la chane1 qu' 
,pascal se rattachent les doctrines     
modernes qui font  passer en premire    
ligne la connaissance immdiate1         
l'intuition1 la vie  intrieure1 comme   
,descartes ''' se rattachent plus       
particulirement les  philosophies de la 
raison pure40 ,la ,science franaise     
7#aiae71 ,i1 #ag4    #aca ,cf4          
,tennyson3            ,fantastic beauty1
 such as lurks          ,in some wild   
poet when he works      ,without a      
conscience or an aim--    #acb ,addison 
writes3        ',twas then great        
,marlbro's mighty soul was proved1      
,that1 in the shock of changing hosts   
unmoved1      ,amidst confusion1 horror1
 and despair1      ,examin'd all the    
dreadful scenes of war2      ,in        
peaceful thought the field of death     

survey'd4    ,so far as ,marlborough    
deserved this praise he was a general in
 the  grand manner4    #acc 8,beauty    
resides in due proportion and order10   
says ,aristotle  7,poetics1 ch4 ,,vii74 
#acd ,a ,survey of ,english ,literature1
 #aghj-ahcj 7#aiab71 ,,ii1 #aia4    #ace
 ,confucius and the ,chinese sages were 
if anything even more  concerned than   
,plato or ,aristotle with the ethical   
quality of music4    #acf ,like ,bishop 
,blougram's his 8interest's on the      
dangerous edge of  things40    #acg     
,does he take inspiration from the      
church1      ,directly make her rule his
 law of life8      ,not he3 his own mere
 impulse guides the man4      '''       
,such is1 for the ,augustine that was   
once1      ,this ,canon ,caponsacchi we 
see now4                                
,x1 #aiaa-bh4    #ach ,see ,x1 #acfg-fh4
    #aci ,letter to ,joseph d',ortigue1 
,january #ai1 #ahcc4    #adj ,here is an
 extreme example from ,maigron's        
manuscript collection  7,le ,romantisme 

et les murs1 #aec74 ,a youth forced to  
be absent  three weeks from the woman he
 loves writes to her as follows3 8,trois
  semaines1 mon amour1 trois semaines   
loin de toi6 ''' ,oh6 ,dieu m'a maudit6 
''' ,hier j'ai err toute l'aprs-midi    
comme une bte fauve1 une bte  traque4   
''' ,dans la fort1 j'ai hurl1 hurl comme
 un dmon ''' je me suis  roul par terre 
''' j'ai broy sous mes dents des        
branches que mes mains  avaient         
arraches4 ''' ,alors1 de rage1 j'ai pris
 ma main entre mes dents2  j'ai serr1   
serr convulsivement2 le sang a jailli et
 j'ai crach au  ciel le morceau de chair
 vive ''' j'aurais voulu lui cracher mon
 cur40    #ada ,maxime ,du ,camp asserts
 in his ,souvenirs littraires 7,i1 #aah7
  that this anmia was due in part to the
 copious blood-letting to which  the    
physicians of the time1 disciples of    
,broussais1 were addicted4    #adb ,this
 perversion was not unknown to classical
 antiquity4 ,cf4  ,seneca1 ,to          
,lucilius1 ,,xcix3 8,quid turpius quam  

captare in ipso luctu  voluptatem2 et   
inter lacrymas quoque1 quod juvet1      
qurere80    #adc ,nouvelle ,hlose1 ,pt4 
,,iii1 ,lettre ,,vi4    #add            
,confessions1 ,livre ,,iv4    #ade ,the 
,new ,laokoon1 ch4 ,v4    #adf          
,franciscae me laudes1 in ,les ,fleurs  
du mal4    #adg ,architecture and       
,painting1 ,lecture ,,ii4 ,this diatribe
 may have  been suggested by ,byron's   
,don ,juan1 ,canto ,,xiii1 ,,ix-,,xi3   
,cervantes smiled ,spain's chivalry     
away3      ,a single laugh demolished   
the right arm      ,of his own country1 
etc4    #adh 8,nondum amabam1 et amare  
amabam1 qurebam quid amarem1 amans      
amare40    #adi ,cf4 ,shelley's         
,alastor3                               
,two eyes1      ,two starry eyes1 hung  
in the gloom of thought      ,and seemed
 with their serene and azure smiles     
,to beckon4    #aej 8,some of us have in
 a prior existence been in love with an 
,antigone1 and that makes us find no    
full content in any mortal tie40        

,shelley to ,john ,gisborne1 ,october   
#bb1 #ahba4    #aea ,confessions1 ,livre
 ,,xi 7#agfa74    #aeb ,mmoires         
d',outre-,tombe1 ,november1 #ahag4      
#aec 8,je me faisais une flicit de      
raliser avec ma sylphide mes  courses   
fantastiques dans les forts du ,nouveau 
,monde40    ,mmoires d',outre-,tombe1   
,december1 #ahba4    #aed ,peacock has  
in mind ,childe ,harold1 canto ,,iv1    
,,cxxi ff4    #aee ,rousseau plans to   
make a nympholept of his ideal pupil1   
,emile3  8,il faut que je sois le plus  
maladroit des hommes si je ne le rends  
d'avance passionn sans savoir de quoi01 
etc4 ,emile1 ,liv4 ,,iv4    #aef ,cf4   
,ren's letter to ,cluta in ,les         
,natchez3 8,je vous ai tenue  sur ma    
poitrine au milieu du dsert1 dans les   
vents de l'orage1  lorsque1 aprs vous   
avoir porte de l'autre ct d'un torrent1 
j'aurais  voulu vous poignarder pour    
fixer le bonheur dans votre sein1 et    
pour me  punir de vous avoir donn ce    
bonheur40    #aeg ,the romantic lover1  

it should be observed1 creates his dream
  companion even less that he may adore 
her than that she may adore him4    #aeh
 ,walter ,bagehot has made an           
interesting study of the romantic       
imagination in his essay on a figure who
 reminds one in some respects  of ,grard
 de ,nerval--,hartley ,coleridge4       
#aei ,don ,juan bids his servant give a 
coin to the beggar not for the  love of 
,god but for the love of humanity4      
#afj        ,demandant aux forts1  la   
mer1  la plaine1      ,aux brises du    
matin1  toute heure1  tout lieu1        
,la femme de son me et de son premier   
voeu6      ,prenant pour fiance un rve1 
une ombre vaine1      ,et fouillant dans
 le cur d'une hcatombe humaine1         
,prtre dsespr1 pour y trouver son ,dieu4
                                   ,a4  
de ,musset1 ,namouna4    8,don ,juan    
avait en lui cet amour pour la femme    
idale2 il a couru le  monde serrant et  
brisant de dpit dans ses bras toutes les
 imparfaites  images qu'il croyait un   

moment aimer2 et il est mort puis de    
fatigue1  consum de son insatiable      
amour40 ,prvost-,paradol1 ,lettres1     
#adi4    #afa ,see ,scott's 7#b;d7      
edition of ,swift1 ,,xiii1 #caj4    #afb
        ,aimer c'est le grand point4    
,qu'importe la matresse8                
,qu'importe le flacon pourvu qu'on ait  
l'ivresse8    #afc ,it has been said    
that in the novels of ,george ,sand when
 a lady  wishes to change her lover ,god
 is always there to facilitate the      
transfer4    #afd 8,tous les hommes sont
 menteurs1 inconstants1 faux1 bavards1  
hypocrites1 orgueilleux ou lches1       
mprisables et sensuels2 toutes  les     
femmes sont perfides1 artificieuses1    
vaniteuses1 curieuses et  dpraves2 le   
monde n'est qu'un gout sans fond o les  
phoques les  plus informes rampent et se
 tordent sur des montagnes de fange2    
mais  il y a au monde une chose sainte  
et sublime1 c'est l'union de deux de    
ces tres si imparfaits et si affreux4   
,on est souvent tromp en amour2  souvent

 bless et souvent malheureux2 mais on   
aime et quand on est sur  le bord de sa 
tombe1 on se retourne pour regarder en  
arrire1 et on se  dit3 ,j'ai souffert   
souvent1 je me suis tromp quelquefois1  
mais j'ai  aim4 ,c'est moi qui ai vcu1  
et non pas un tre factice cr par mon    
orgueil et mon ennui40 7,the last       
sentence is taken from a letter of      
,george ,sand to ,musset47 ,on ne badine
 pas avec l',amour1 ,,ii1 #e4    #afe   
,table-,talk4 ,on the ,past and ,future4
    #aff ,the ,plain ,speaker4 ,on      
,reading ,old ,books4    #afg ,the      
,round ,table4 ,on the ,character of    
,rousseau4    #afh 8,aujourd'hui1 jour  
de ,pques fleuries1 il y a prcisment    
cinquante ans de ma premire connaissance
 avec ,madame de ,warens40    #afi ,even
 on his death-bed the hero of           
,browning's ,confessions gives  himself 
up to impassionated recollection3       
,how sad and bad and mad it was--       
,but then1 how it was sweet4    ,in his 
,stances  ,madame ,lullin ,voltaire is  

at least as poetical and  nearer to     
normal experience3        ,quel mortel  
s'est jamais flatt      ,d'un           
rendez-vous  l'agonie8    #agj ,see     
especially ,lyceum fragment1 no4 #ajh4  
#aga ,a well-known example of the       
extreme to which the romanticists       
pushed their ,fichtean solipsism is the 
following from the ,william  ,lovell of 
the youthful ,tieck3 8,having gladly    
escaped from anxious  fetters1 ,i now   
advance boldly through life1 absolved   
from those irksome  duties which were   
the inventions of cowardly fools4       
,virtue is1 only  because ,i am2 it is  
but a reflection of my inner self4 ,what
 care ,i for  forms whose dim lustre ,i 
have myself brought forth8 ,let vice and
 virtue  wed4 ,they are only shadows in 
the mist10 etc4    #agb ,beyond ,good   
and ,evil1 ch4 ,,iv4    #agc ,on        
,contemporary ,literature1 #bjf4 ,the   
whole passage is excellent4    #agd ,m4 
,legouis makes a similar remark in the  
,cambridge ,history of  ,english        

,literature ,,xi1 #ajh4    #age ,i      
scarcely need say that ,wordsworth is at
 times genuinely  ethical1 but he is    
even more frequently only didactic4 ,the
 ,excursion1  as ,m4 ,legouis says1 is a
 8long sermon against pessimism40       
#agf 8,quia fecisti nos ad te et        
inquietum est cor nostrum1 donec        
requiescat in te40    #agg ,eth4 ,nic41 
#aagg b4    #agh ,cf4 the chapter on    
,william ,law and the ,mystics in       
,cambridge  ,history of ,english        
,literature1 ,,ix1 #cda-fg2 also the    
bibliography of  ,boehme1 ibid41        
#efj-gd4    #agi ,see ,excursion1 ,i1   
,,vv4 #idc ff4    #ahj ,in his attitude 
towards sin ,novalis continues ,rousseau
 and  anticipates the main positions of 
the ,christian ,scientist4    #aha      
,prune thou thy words1        ,the      
thoughts control      ,that o'er thee   
swell and throng4        ,they will     
condense within the soul      ,and      
change to purpose strong4      ,but he  
who lets his feelings run        ,in    

soft1 luxurious flow1      ,shrinks when
 hard service must be done        ,and  
faints at every foe4    #ahb ,wesley had
 no liking for ,boehme and cut out from 
,brooke's book  the theosophy that had  
this origin4    #ahc ,writing was often 
associated with magic formul4 ,hence    
also gave ,fr4 8grimoire40    #ahd ,thus
 ,spake ,zarathustra1 ,,lxix 7,the      
,shadow to ,zarathustra74    #ahe       
,katha-,upanishad4 ,the passage is      
paraphrased as follows by ,p4 ,e4  ,more
 in his ,century of ,indian ,epigrams3  
,seated within this body's car          
,the silent ,self is driven afar1       
,and the five senses at the pole        
,like steeds are tugging restive of     
control4          ,and if the driver    
lose his way1        ,or the reins      
sunder1 who can say        ,in what     
blind paths1 what pits of fear          
,will plunge the chargers in their mad  
career8          ,drive well1 ,o mind1  
use all thy art1        ,thou           
charioteer6--,o feeling ,heart1         

,be thou a bridle firm and strong6      
,for the ,lord rideth and the way is    
long4    #ahf ,see ,brandes3 ,the       
,romantic ,school in ,germany1 ch4 ,,xi4
    #ahg ,alfred de ,musset saw his     
double in the stress of his affair with 
,george ,sand 7see ,nuit de ,dcembre71  
,jean ,valjean 7,les ,misrables7  sees  
his double in the stress of his         
conversion4 ,peter ,bell also sees  his 
double at the emotional crisis in       
,wordsworth's poem of that name4    #ahh
 ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1 ,,lxix4     
#ahi ,f4 ,schlegel3 ,lyceumfragment1 no4
 #db4    #aij ,e4g41 canto ,,iii1       
,,cvii-,,cxi4    #aia ,confessions1     
,livre ,,xii 7#agfe74    #aib ,cf4 ,th4 
,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 ,i1 #djb4   
#aic ,wordsworth3 ,miscellaneous        
,sonnets1 ,,xii4    #aid ,in much the   
same spirit the ,japanese hermit1 ,kamo 
,chmei  7thirteenth century71 expresses 
the fear that he may forget ,buddha     
because of his fondness for the         
mountains and the moon4--,see article on

  nature in ,japan by ,m4 ,revon in     
,encyclopedia of ,religion and ,ethics4 
#aie ,confessions1 ,bk4 ,x1 ch4 ,,ix4   
#aif ,cf4 ,cicero3 8,urbem1 urbem1 mi   
,rufe1 cole et in ista luce vive40  7,ad
 ,fam41 ,,ii1 #bb47    #aig ,march #bc1 
#afdf4    #aih ,it was especially easy  
for the poets to go for their landscapes
  to the painters because according to  
the current theory poetry was  itself a 
form of painting 7ut pictura poesis74   
,thus ,thomson writes in  ,the ,castle  
of ,indolence3          ,sometimes the  
pencil1 in cool airy halls1        ,bade
 the gay bloom of vernal landskips rise1
        ,or autumn's varied shades      
embrown the walls3        ,now the black
 tempest strikes the astonish'd eyes2   
,now down the steep the flashing torrent
 flies2        ,the trembling sun now   
plays o'er ocean blue1        ,and now  
rude mountains frown amid the skies2    
,whate'er ,lorrain light touch'd with   
softening hue1      ,or savage ,rosa    
dash'd1 or learned ,poussin drew4       

7,c4 ,i1 st4 #ch47    #aii              
,disparaissez1 monuments du gnie1       
,pares1 jardins immortels1 que ,le ,ntre
 a plants2      ,de vos dehors pompeux  
l'exacte symmtrie1      ,etonne         
vainement mes regards attrists4         
,j'aime bien mieux ce dsordre bizarre1  
,et la varit de ces riches tableaux     
,que disperse l',anglais d'une main     
moins avare4    ,bertin1 #ai;e ,elgie of
 ,les ,amours4    #bjj ,pt4 ,,iv1       
,lettre ,,xi4    #bja ,nouvelle ,hlose1 
,pt4 ,,iv1 ,lettre ,,xi4    #bjb ,ibid4 
#bjc ,ibid41 ,pt4 ,,iv1 ,lettre ,,xvii4 
#bjd ,confessions1 ,livre ,v 7#agcb74   
#bje ,see especially ,childe ,harold1   
canto ,,ii1 ,,xxv ff4    #bjf ,ibid41   
canto ,,ii1 ,,xxxvii4    #bjg ,ibid41   
canto ,,iii1 ,,lxxii4    #bjh ,ibid41   
canto ,,iv1 ,,clxxvii4    #bji ,see ,la 
,perception du changement1 #cj4    #baj 
,,asia          ,my soul is an enchanted
 boat1        ,which like a sleeping    
swan1 doth float      ,upon the silver  
waves of thy sweet singing2        ,and 

thine doth like an angel sit            
,beside a helm conducting it1           
,whilst all the winds with melody are   
ringing4        ,it seems to float ever1
 for ever        ,upon that many-winding
 river1        ,between mountains1      
woods1 abysses1        ,a paradise of   
wildernesses6      '''        ,meanwhile
 thy spirit lifts its pinions        ,in
 music's most serene dominions2         
,catching the winds that fan that happy 
heaven4        ,and we sail on away1    
afar1        ,without a course1 without 
a star1        ,but by the instinct of  
sweet music driven2        ,till through
 ,elysian garden islets        ,by thee1
 most beautiful of pilots1        ,where
 never mortal pinnace glided        ,the
 boat of my desire is guided2           
,realms where the air we breathe is     
love--                                  
,prometheus ,unbound1 ,act ,,ii1 ,sc4   
,v4    #baa 8,si tu souffres plus qu'un 
autre des choses de la vie1 il ne faut  
pas t'en tonner2 une grande me doit     

contenir plus de douleurs qu'une        
petite40    #bab ,cf4 ,shelley1 ,julian 
and ,maddalo3                           
,i love all waste      ,and solitary    
places2 where we taste      ,the        
pleasure of believing what we see       
,is boundless1 as we wish our souls to  
be4    #bac ,cf4 for example1 the       
passage of ,rousseau in the seventh     
,promenade 78,je sens des extases1 des  
ravissements inexprimables   me fondre  
pour ainsi dire dans le systme des      
tres10 etc47 with the  revery described 
by ,wordsworth in ,the ,excursion1 ,i1  
#bjj-bah4    #bad ,o belles1 craignez le
 fond des bois1 et leur vaste silence4  
#bae ,faust 7,miss ,swanwick's          
translation74    #baf ,artist and       
,public1 #acd ff4    #bag        ,make  
me thy lyre1 even as the forest is3     
,what if my leaves are falling like its 
own6      ,the tumult of thy mighty     
harmonies        ,will take from both a 
deep1 autumnal tone1      ,sweet though 
in sadness4 ,be thou1 ,spirit fierce1   

,my spirit6 ,be thou me1 impetuous one6 
,drive my dead thoughts over the        
universe      ,like withered leaves1    
etc4    ,cf4 ,lamartine3        ,quand  
la feuille des bois tombe dans la       
prairie1      ,le vent du soir s'lve et 
l'arrache aux vallons2      ,et moi1 je 
suis semblable  la feuille fltrie2      
,emportez-moi comme elle1 orageux       
aquilons4                               
,l',isolement4    #bah ,cf4 ,hettner1   
,romantische ,schule1 #aef4    #bai ,see
 appendix on ,chinese primitivism4      
#bbj ,g4 ,duval has written a           
,dictionnaire des mtaphores de ,victor  
,hugo1 and ,g4 ,lucchetti a work on ,les
 ,images dans les uvres de ,victor      
,hugo4 ,so far as the ethical values are
 concerned1 the latter title is  alone  
justified4 ,hugo is1 next to            
,chateaubriand1 the great imagist4      
#bba ,the ,french like to think of the  
symbolists as having rendered  certain  
services to their versification4 ,let us
 hope that they did1  though few things 

are more perilous than this transfer of 
the idea of  progress to the literary   
and artistic domain4 ,decadent ,rome1 as
 we  learn from the younger ,pliny and  
others1 simply swarmed with poets who   
also no doubt indulged in many strange  
experiments4 ,all this poetical         
activity1 as we can see only too plainly
 at this distance1 led nowhere4    #bbb 
,grant ,allen writes of the laws of     
nature in ,magdalen ,tower3        ,they
 care not any whit for pain or pleasure1
      ,that seems to us the sum and end 
of all1      ,dumb force and barren     
number are their measure1      ,what    
shall be shall be1 tho' the great earth 
fall1      ,they take no heed of man or 
man's deserving1      ,reck not what    
happy lives they make or mar1      ,work
 out their fatal will unswerv'd1        
unswerving1      ,and know not that they
 are6    #bbc ,fragment de l',art de    
jouir1 quoted by ,p4-,m4 ,masson in ,la 
,religion de ,j4-,j4 ,rousseau1 ,,ii1   
#bbh4    #bbd ,if nature merely reflects

 back to a man his own image1 it follows
  that ,coleridge's celebrated          
distinction between fancy and           
imagination  has little value1 inasmuch 
as he rests his proof of the unifying   
power of the imagination1 in itself a   
sound idea1 on the union the            
imagination effects between man and     
outer nature--and this union is on  his 
own showing fanciful4    #bbe ,if ,i had
 had this consecration ,wordsworth says1
 addressing ,peele  ,castle1        ,i  
would have planted thee1 thou hoary     
,pile1      ,amid a world how different 
from this6      ,beside a sea that could
 not cease to smile2      ,on tranquil  
land1 beneath a sky of bliss4      '''  
,a ,picture had it been of lasting ease1
      ,elysian quiet1 without toil or   
strife1 etc4    ,elegiac ,stanzas       
suggested by a picture of ,peele ,castle
 in a storm4    #bbf ,cf4 ,doudan1      
,lettres1 ,,iv1 #baf3 8,j'ai parcouru le
 ,saint-,paul  de ,renan4 ,je n'ai      
jamais vu dans un thologien une si      

grande  connaissance de la flore        
orientale4 ,c'est un paysagiste bien    
suprieur   ,saint-,augustin et          
,bossuet4 ,il sme des rsdas1 des        
anmones1 des  pquerettes pour recueillir
 l'incrdulit40    #bbg ,in his ,mal     
romantique 7#aijh7 ,e4 ,seillire labels 
the  generations that have elapsed since
 the rise of ,rousseauism as follows3   
#a4 ,sensibility 7,nouvelle ,hlose1     
#agfa74        #b4 ,weltschmerz         
7,schiller's sthetic ,letters1 #agie74  
#c4 ,mal du sicle 7,hugo's ,hernani1    
#ahcj74        #d4 ,pessimism 7vogue of 
,schopenhauer and ,stendhal1 #ahfe74    
#e4 ,neurasthenia 7culmination of fin de
 sicle movement1 #aijj74    #bbh        
,eckermann1 ,september #bd1 #ahbg4      
#bbi ,see ,la ,nuit de ,mai4    #bcj    
,these lines are inscribed on the statue
 of ,musset in front of the  ,thtre     
,franais4 ,cf4 ,shelley3        ,our    
sweetest songs are those that tell of   
saddest thought4    #bca ,translation by
 ,j4 ,e4 ,sandys of fragment cited in   

,stobus1 ,flor4  ,,cix1 ,i4    #bcb     
,pythian ,odes1 ,,iii1 #bj ff4    #bcc  
,pythian ,odes1 ,,iii1 #ha-hb4    #bcd  
,song of the ,banjo1 in the ,seven      
,seas4    #bce ,,xvii1 #ddf-dg4    #bcf 
,a brief survey of melancholy among the 
,greeks will be found in  ,professor ,s4
 ,h4 ,butcher's ,some ,aspects of the   
,greek ,genius4    #bcg ,the exasperated
 quest of novelty is one of the main    
traits  both of the ancient and the     
modern victim of ennui4 ,see ,seneca1   
,de  ,tranquillitate animi3 8,fastidio  
illis esse cpit vita1 et ipse mundus2   
et subit illud rabidorum deliciarum3    
quousque eadem80 7,cf4 ,la ,fontaine3   
,il me faut du nouveau1 n'en ft-il plus 
au monde47    #bch 8,a quoi bon m'avoir 
fait natre avec des facults exquises    
pour  les laisser jusqu' la fin sans    
emploi8 ,le sentiment de mon prix       
interne en me donnant celui de cette    
injustice m'en ddommageait en  quelque  
sorte1 et me faisait verser des larmes  
que j'aimais a laisser  couler40        

,confessions4 ,livre ,,ix 7#agef74      
#bci ,nouvelle ,hloise1 ,pt4 ,,vi1      
,lettre ,,viii4    #bdj 8,encore enfant 
par la tte1 vous tes dj vieux par le    
cur40  ,ibid4    #bda ,see the examples 
quoted in ,arnold3 ,essays in           
,criticism1 ,second  ,series1 #cje-jf4  
#bdb ,this is the thought of ,keats's   
,ode to ,melancholy3        ,ay1 in the 
very temple of ,delight        ,veil'd  
,melancholy has her sovran shrine1      
,though seen of none save him whose     
strenuous tongue        ,can burst      
,joy's grape against his palate fine4   
,cf4 ,chateaubriand3 ,essai sur les     
,rvolutions1 ,pt4 ,,ii1 ch4 ,,lviii3    
8,ces  jouissances sont trop poignantes3
 telle est notre faiblesse1 que les     
plaisirs exquis deviennent des          
douleurs10 etc4    #bdc ,see his sonnet 
,les ,montreurs4 ,this type of          
,rousseauist is  anticipated by         
8,milord0 ,bomston in ,la ,nouvelle     
,hlose4 ,rousseau  directed the engraver
 to depict him with 8un maintien grave  

et stoque  sous lequel il cache avec    
peine une extrme sensibilit40    #bdd   
8,qui es-tu8  coup sr tu n'es pas un tre
 ptri du mme limon et  anim de la mme   
vie que nous6 ,tu es un ange ou un dmon 
mais tu n'es  pas une crature humaine4  
''' ,pourquoi habiter parmi nous1 qui ne
 pouvons  te suffire ni te comprendre80 
,g4 ,sand1 ,llia1 ,i1 #aa4    #bde ,see 
p4 #ea4    #bdf ,see ,lara1 ,,xviii1    
,,xix1 perhaps the best passage that can
 be  quoted for the ,byronic hero4      
#bdg ,cf4 ,gautier1 ,histoire du        
romantisme3 8,il tait de mode  alors    
dans l'cole romantique d'tre ple1       
livide1 verdtre1 un peu  cadavreux1 s'il
 tait possible4 ,cela donnait l'air     
fatal1 byronien1  giaour1 dvor par les  
passions et les remords40    #bdh ,hugo1
 ,hernani4    #bdi        ,lorsque1 par 
un dcret des puissances suprmes1        
,le ,pote apparat dans ce monde ennuy1  
,sa mre pouvante et pleine de blasphmes 
,crispe ses poings vers ,dieu1 qui la   
prend en piti4                          

,fleurs du mal3 ,bndiction4    ,cf4     
,nouvelle ,hlose1 ,pt4 ,,iii1 ,lettre   
,,xxvi3    8,ciel inexorable6 ''' ,o ma 
mre1 pourquoi vous donna-t-il un fils   
dans sa  colre80    #bej ,coleridge has 
a side that relates him to the author of
 ,les  ,fleurs du mal4 ,in his ,pains of
 ,sleep he describes a dream in which   
he felt        ,desire with loathing    
strangely mix'd1      ,on wild or       
hateful objects fix'd4    #bea ,keats   
according to ,shelley was an example of 
the pote maudit4  8,the poor fellow0 he 
says 8was literally hooted from the     
stage of  life40 ,keats was as a matter 
of fact too sturdy to be snuffed out by 
an  article and had less of the         
quivering ,rousseauistic sensibility    
than  ,shelley himself4 ,cf4 letter of  
,shelley to ,mrs4 ,shelley 7,aug4 #g1   
#ahbj73  8,imagine my despair of good1  
imagine how it is possible that one of  
so weak and sensitive a nature as mine  
can run further the gauntlet  through   
this hellish society of men40    #beb   

,euripides speaks of the   in his       
7,latin1  8dolendi voluptas02 ,german1  
8die ,wonne der ,wehmut074    #bec      
,chesterton is anticipated in this      
paradox by ,wordsworth3        ,in youth
 we love the darksome lawn      ,brushed
 by the owlet's wing4      ,then        
,twilight is preferred to ,dawn         
,and autumn to the spring4      ,sad    
fancies do we then affect      ,in      
luxury of disrespect      ,to our own   
prodigal excess      ,of too familiar   
happiness4                        ,ode  
to ,lycoris4    #bed ,souvenirs         
d'enfance et de jeunesse1 #cbi-cj4      
#bee 8,villiers tait de cette famille   
des no-catholiques  littraires dont     
,chateaubriand est le pre commun1 et qui
 a produit  ,barbey d',aurevilly1       
,baudelaire et plus rcemment ,m4        
,josphin ,peladan4  ,ceux-l ont got     
par-dessus tout dans la religion les    
charmes du  pch1 la grandeur du         
sacrilge1 et leur sensualisme a caress  
les  dogmes qui ajoutaient aux volupts  

la suprme volupt de se perdre40 ,a4     
,france1 ,vie ,littraire1 ,,iii1 #aba4  
#bef ,premire ,promenade4    #beg ,ibid4
    #beh ,e4g41 ,hlderlin and ,jean     
,polonius4    #bei ,a striking passage  
on solitude will be found in the ,laws  
of  ,manu1 ,,iv1 #bdj-db4 78,alone a    
being is born3 alone he goes down to    
death40 ,his kin forsake him at the     
grave2 his only hope then is in the     
companionship of the ,law of            
righteousness ,dharma4 8,with the ,law  
as  his companion he crosses the        
darkness difficult to cross407    #bfj  
8,be good and you will be lonely40      
#bfa ,in the poem by the ,swiss poet ,c4
 ,didier from which ,longfellow's  poem 
seems to be derived1 the youth who      
persists in scaling the heights  in     
spite of all warnings is ,byron6        
,et ,byron ''' disparat aux yeux du ptre
 pouvant4    7,see ,e4 ,estve1 ,byron en
 ,france1 #adg74    #bfb ,in the        
,mmoires d',outre-,tombe ,chateaubriand 
quotes from the  jottings of ,napoleon  

on the island of ,elba4 8,mon cur se    
refuse aux  joies communes comme  la    
douleur ordinaire40 ,he says of         
,napoleon  elsewhere in the same work3  
8,au fond il ne tenait  rien3 homme     
solitaire1 il se suffisait2 le malheur  
ne fit que le rendre au dsert  de sa    
vie40    #bfc ,the solitude of the      
8genius0 is already marked in ,blake3   
,o6 why was ,i born with a different    
face8      ,why was ,i not born like the
 rest of my race8      ,when ,i look1   
each one starts2 when ,i speak1 ,i      
offend2      ,then ,i'm silent and      
passive and lose every friend4    #bfd  
,froude's ,carlyle1 ,,ii1 #cgg4    #bfe 
,no finer lines on solitude are found in
 ,english than those in  which          
,wordsworth relates how from his room at
 ,cambridge he could look  out on       
,the antechapel where the statue stood  
,of ,newton with his prism and silent   
face1      ,the marble index of a mind  
for ever      ,voyaging through strange 
seas of thought alone4                  

7,prelude ,,iii1 #fa-fc47    ,cf4 also  
the line in the ,sonnet on ,milton3     
,his soul was like a star and dwelt     
apart4    #bff ,eth4 ,nic41 #aaji b4    
#bfg ,james ,thomson in ,the ,city of   
,dreadful ,night says that he would     
have entered hell                       
gratified to gain      ,that positive   
eternity of pain      ,instead of this  
insufferable inane4    #bfh ,r4 ,canat  
has taken this phrase as the title of   
his treatment of  the subject3 ,la      
,solitude morale dans le mouvement      
romantique4    #bfi ,decadent ,rome had 
the equivalent of ,des ,esseintes4      
,seneca 7,to  ,lucilius1 ,,cxxii7 speaks
 of those who seek to affirm their      
originality  and attract attention to   
themselves by doing everything          
differently  from other people and1 8ut 
ita dicam1 retro vivunt40    #bgj       
,tennyson has traced this change of the 
sthetic dream into a  nightmare in his  
,palace of ,art4    #bga ,contemporains1
 ,i1 #ccb4    #bgb ,gnie du             

,christianisme1 ,pt4 ,,ii1 ,livre ,,iii1
 ch4 ,,ix4    #bgc        ,l'orage est  
dans ma voix1 l'clair est sur ma bouche2
      ,aussi1 loin de m'aimer1 voil     
qu'ils tremblent tous1      ,et quand   
j'ouvre les bras1 on tombe  mes genoux4 
#bgd        ,que vous ai-je donc fait   
pour tre votre lu8      '''      ,hlas6 
je suis1 ,seigneur1 puissant et         
solitaire1      ,laissez-moi m'endormir 
du sommeil de la terre6    #bge         
,le juste opposera le ddain  l'absence  
,et ne rpondra plus que par un froid    
silence      ,au silence ternel de la   
,divinit4    #bgf ,see ,sainte-,beuve's 
poetical epistle ,a4 ,m4 ,villemain     
7,penses  d',aot #ahcg74    #bgg ,see   
,masters of ,modern ,french ,criticism1 
#bcc1 #bch4    #bgh ,wordsworth writes  
,a piteous lot it were to flee from man 
,yet not rejoice in ,nature4            
7,excursion1 ,,iv1 #ead47    ,this lot  
was ,vigny's3        ,ne me laisse      
jamais seul avec la ,nature      ,car je
 la connais trop pour n'en avoir pas    

peur4    #bgi ,madame ,dorval4    #bhj  
,la ,maison du ,berger4 ,note that in   
,wordsworth the 8still sad  music of    
humanity0 is very closely associated    
with nature4    #bha ,la ,bouteille  la 
,mer4    #bhb ,see ,book ,,ix of the    
,nicomachean ,ethics4    #bhc 8,all     
salutary conditions have their root in  
strenuousness0  7appamda71 says ,buddha4
    #bhd ,see ,masters of ,modern       
,french ,criticism1 ,essay on ,taine1   
passim4 ,paul ,bourget in his ,essais de
 ,psychologie contemporaine 7#b  vols47 
has followed out during this period the 
survivals of the older  romantic        
melancholy and their reinforcement by   
scientific determinism4    #bhe 8,le    
pauvre ,m4 ,arago1 revenant un jour de  
l',htel de ,ville en #ahdh  aprs une    
pouvantable meute1 disait tristement    
l'un de ses aides  de camp au ministre  
de la marine3 #8,en vrit ces gens-l ne  
sont pas  raisonnables4'0 ,doudan1      
,lettres1 ,,iv1 #cch4    #bhf ,see      
,preface 7pp4 viii-ix7 to his ,souvenirs

 d'enfance et de  jeunesse and my       
comment in ,the ,new ,laokoon1 #bjg-jh4 
#bhg ,most of the political implications
 of the point of view ,i am  developing 
,i am reserving for a volume ,i have in 
preparation to be  entitled ,democracy  
and ,imperialism4 ,some of my           
conclusions will be  found in two       
articles in the 7,new ,york7 ,nation3   
,the ,breakdown of  ,internationalism   
7,june #ag and #bd1 #aiae71 and ,the    
,political ,influence  of ,rousseau     
7,jan4 #ah1 #aiag74    #bhh ,reden an   
die deutsche ,nation1 ,,xii4    #bhi ,i 
should perhaps allow for the happiness  
that may be experienced  in moments of  
supernormal consciousness--something    
quite distinct from  emotional or other 
intoxication4 ,fairly consistent        
testimony as to  moments of this kind is
 found in the records of the past from  
the early  ,buddhists down to ,tennyson4
    #bij ,i scarcely need say that ,i am
 speaking of the man of science only  in
 so far as he is purely naturalistic in 

his point of view4 ,there may  enter    
into the total personality of ,edison or
 any particular man of  science other   
and very different elements4    #bia ,m4
 ,ren ,berthelot has written a book on  
pragmatism and similar  tendencies in   
contemporary philosophy entitled ,un    
,romantisme  utilitaire4 ,i have not    
read it but the title alone is worth    
more than  most books on the subject ,i 
have read4    #bib ,dedication of the   
neis 7#afig74    #bic ,adventure of one 
,hans ,pfaal4    #bid ,his attempt to   
rewrite ,hyperion from a humanitarian   
point of  view is a dismal failure4     
#bie ,there is also a strong idyllic    
element in ,paradise ,lost as  ,rousseau
 7,emile1 ,v7 and ,schiller 7,essay on  
,nave and ,sentimental  ,poetry7 were   
among the first to point out4 ,critics  
may be found even  to-day who1 like     
,tennyson1 prefer the passages which    
show a richly  pastoral imagination to  
the passages where the ethical          
imagination  is required but where it   

does not seem to prevail sufficiently   
over  theology4    #bif ,,xii1 #gd4     
#big ,three ,philosophical ,poets1 #ahh4
    #bih ,after telling of the days when
 8il n'y avait pour moi ni pass  ni     
avenir et je gotais  la fois les dlices 
de mille sicles10  ,saint-,preux        
concludes3 8,hlas6 vous avez disparu    
comme un clair4 ,cette  ternit de       
bonheur ne fut qu'un instant de ma vie4 
,le temps a repris  sa lenteur dans les 
moments de mon dsespoir1 et l'ennui     
mesure par  longues annes le reste      
infortun de mes jours0 7,nouvelle       
,hlose1  ,pt4 ,,iii1 ,lettre ,,vi74     
#bii ,the ,church1 so far as it has     
become humanitarian1 has itself         
succumbed to naturalism4    #cjj ,sutta 
of the ,great ,decease4    #cja ,if a   
man recognizes the supreme rle of       
fiction or illusion in  life while      
proceeding in other respects on ,kantian
 principles1 he  will reach results     
similar to the 8,as-if ,philosophy0     
7,philosophie  des ,als ,ob7 of         

,vaihinger1 a leading authority on ,kant
 and co-editor  of the ,kantstudien4    
,this work1 though not published until  
#aiaa1 was  composed1 the author tells  
us in his preface1 as early as #ahge-gh4
 ,it  will be found to anticipate very  
strikingly pragmatism and various  other
 isms in which philosophy has been      
proclaiming so loudly of late  its own  
bankruptcy4    #cjb 8,c'est en vain     
qu'on voudrait assigner  la vie un but1 
au sens  humain du mot40 ,l',evolution  
cratrice1 #ee4    #cjc ,metaphysics1    
#ajgh b4    #cjd ,in the beginning was  
the ,word6 ,to seek to substitute1 like 
,faust1  the ,deed for the ,word is to  
throw discrimination to the winds4 ,the 
failure to discriminate as to the       
quality of the deed is responsible  for 
the central sophistry of ,faust 7see p4 
#cca7 and perhaps of our  modern life in
 general4    #cje 8,j'adore la libert2  
j'abhorre la gne1 la peine1             
l'assujettissement40 ,confessions1      
,livre ,i4    #cjf ,analects1 ,,xi1     

,,cxi4 ,cf4 ibid41 ,,vi1 ,,cxx3 8,to    
give one's self  earnestly to the duties
 due to men1 and while respecting       
spiritual  beings1 to keep aloof from   
them1 may be called wisdom40 ,much that 
has  passed current as religion in all  
ages has made its chief appeal1 not  to 
awe but to wonder2 and like many        
humanists ,confucius was somewhat       
indifferent to the marvellous4 8,the    
subjects on which the ,master did  not  
talk were3 extraordinary things1 feats  
of strength1 disorder and  spiritual    
beings0 7ibid41 ,,vii1 ,,cxx74    #cjg  
,one of the last ,chinese1 ,i am told1  
to measure up to the  ,confucian        
standard was ,tsng ,kuo-fan 7#ahaa-ahgb7
 who issued forth  from poverty1 trained
 a peasant soldiery and1 more than any  
other one  person1 put down the ,taiping
 ,rebellion4    #cjh ,see ,j4 ,barthlemy
 ,saint-,hilaire's ,introduction to his 
translation  of the ,nicomachean        
,ethics1 p4 cxlix4    #cji ,eth4 ,nic41 
#aabb-be4    #caj ,i have in mind such  

passages as ,p41 ,,viii1 #gf-gh1 #ib-if2
 ,n41  ,,vi1 #a-d2 ,n41 ,,xi1 #ac-af4   
#caa 8,,ii n'y eut jamais pour moi      
d'intermdiaire entre tout et rien40     
,confessions1 ,livre ,,vii4    #cab     
,some wag1 it will be remembered1       
suggested as an alternative  title for  
this work3 ,wild ,religions ,i have     
known4    #cac ,letters1 ,,ii1 #bih2 cf4
 ibid41 #bia3 8,i have never known a    
life  less wisely controlled or less    
helped by the wisdom of others than his4
  ,the whole retrospect of it is        
pathetic2 waste1 confusion1 ruin of one 
of the most gifted and sweetest natures 
the world ever knew40    #cad ,nic4     
,eth41 #aade b4 ,the opposition between 
,socrates or ,plato  and ,aristotle1    
when put thus baldly1 is a bit          
misleading4 ,socrates  emphasized the   
importance of practice 77 in the        
acquisition of  virtue1 and ,plato has  
made much of habit in the ,laws4    #cae
 ,analects1 ,,ii1 ,,civ4    #caf ,this  
belief the ,oriental has embodied in the

 doctrine of ,karma4    #cag 8,la seule 
habitude qu'on doit laisser prendre     
l'enfant est de  n'en contractor        
aucune40 ,emile1 ,livre ,i4    #cah     
,emile was to be trained to be a        
cabinet-maker4    #cai ,eth4 ,nic41     
#aagb b4    #cbj ,doctrine of the ,mean 
7c4 ,,xxxiii1 v4 #b74    #cba ,see his  
poem ,ibo in ,les ,contemplations4      
#cbb ,la4 #ee1 p4 #ea4 7,in my          
references ,la4 stands for ,lao-tz1 ,li4
 for  ,lieh-tz1 ,ch4 for ,chuang-tz4    
,the first number gives the chapter2 the
  second number the page in ,wieger's   
edition47    #cbc ,ch4 #bb ,c1 p4 #cia4 
#cbd ,ch4 #ab n1 p4 #cje4    #cbe ,ch4  
#aa ,d1 p4 #bia4 ,ibid4 #ae1 p4 #cca4   
,see also ,li4 #ca1 p4 #aac4    #cbf    
,ch4 #ai ,b1 p4 #ceg4    #cbg ,ch4 #ai  
,l1 p4 #cfe4    #cbh ,ch4 #aj1 pp4      
#bgi-hj4    #cbi ,ch4 #i1 pp4 #bgd-ge4  
#ccj ,ch4 #bi1 pp4 #dfg ff4    #cca ,ch4
 #b1 p4 #bbc4    #ccb ,la4 #bg1 p4 #cg4 
#ccc ,ch4 #h ,a1 p4 #bga4    #ccd ,li4  
#e1 p4 #adc4    #cce ,ch4 #ad ,c1 p4    

#cba4    #ccf ,for an extreme form of   
,epicureanism see the ideas of          
,yang-chu1  ,li4 #g1 pp4 #afe ff4 ,for  
stoical apathy see ,ch4 #f ,c41 p4 #bec4
 ,for fate  see ,li4 #f1 p4 #afe1 ,ch4  
#f ,k1 p4 #bfc4    #ccg ,ch4 #cc1 pp4   
#dii ff4    #cch ,ch4 #cc ,c1 p4 #ejc4  
#cci ,bk4 ,,iii1 ,part #b1 ch4 #i4      
#cdj ,li4 #c1 p4 #aaa4 ,ch4 #bd1 pp4    
#bbe-bg4    #cda ,ch4 #f ,e1 p4 #bee4   
#cdb ,see ,the ,religion of the         
,samurai3 a ,study of ,zen ,philosophy  
7#aiac7 by ,kaiten ,nukariya 7himself a 
,zenist71 p4 #bc4          ,,index ,,of 
,,names          ,abelard1 #bch4        
,addison1 #ab1 #ce1 #cg1 #ch1 #bjb n4   
schylus1 #bib1 #cei4        ,ajax1 #add4
        ,allen1 ,grant1 #bii n4         
,amiel1 #cae4        ,ananda1 #cgj4     
,anglique1 ,mother1 #abc4               
d',angoulme1 ,marguerite1 #bea4         
,antisthenes1 #bdd4        ,apollonius  
of ,rhodes1 #ajd4        ,aquinas1 ,st4 
,thomas1 #aja1 #aab4        ,arago1 #bdd
 n4        ,ariosto1 #bfd4              

,aristophanes1 #aha1 #bdc1 #bhe4        
,aristotle1 xv n41 xix1 xxi1 xxii1 #d1  
#ab n41 #ae-ai1 #bd1 #bh      n41 #bi1  
#cc1 #dg1 #adh1 #aff1 #aga1 #agc1 #bjb1 
#bje n41 #baa1 #bbb1      #bcg1 #bec1   
#bed1 #bie1 #cbi1 #ccj1 #cdc1 #cdi1     
#ced1 #cee1 #cfc1 #cfe1      #cgb1 #cgd1
 #cha1 #chb1 #che1 #chf1 #chi1 #cij4    
,arnold1 ,matthew1 xi1 #bha1 #cjh1 #cae 
n41 #cbc1 #cbe1 #cea4        ,augustine1
 ,st41 #aaf1 #bac1 #bbd1 #beb1 #bgc1    
#cjd n4          ,bacon1 ,f41 xxi n41   
#bf1 #fc1 #fd1 #aai1 #abb4              
,bacon1 ,roger1 #bf4        ,bagehot1   
,w41 #be1 #da1 #aei1 #bca n41 #cgg4     
,balzac1 #aa1 #eh1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aib1    
#aic4        ,barbauld1 ,mrs41 #aed4    
,barbey d',aurevilly1 #ib1 #cbd4        
,baudelaire1 #fc1 #bbb1 #bcj1 #bea1     
#cai1 #cba1 #cbd n41 #ccb1 #cej4        
,bayle1 ,pierre1 #aad4                  
,beaumarchais1 #b4        ,bergson1     
,henri1 xii1 xiii1 #a1 #adg1 #afg1 #ahf1
 #bjj1 #bha1 #bie1      #cjj1 #cfd1     
#cgb4        ,berlioz1 #gi1 #aab1 #afb1 

#baa1 #bae4        ,berthelot1 ,ren1    
#cej n4        ,bertin1 ,edouard1 #bge  
n4        ,blake1 ,william1 #dg1 #id1   
#aeb1 #afh1 #aif1 #aig1 #bdb1 #bed-bef1 
#big1      #cbg n4        ,boehme1      
,jacob1 #df1 #bed1 #bee1 #beh4          
,boileau1 #e1 #aa1 #af1 #bj1 #ba1 #bg1  
#ff1 #gf1 #hg1 #bfh4        ,bossuet1   
#bea1 #cjd n41 #cib4        ,boswell1   
#cef4        ,boufflers1 ,mme4 de1 #abi4
        ,bourget1 ,paul1 xvi1 #cdc n4   
,bowles1 ,samuel1 #aja4        ,brandes1
 ,g41 #bfb n4        ,brooke1 ,henry1   
#beh4        ,broussais1 #bae n4        
,browne1 ,sir ,thomas1 #bhf4            
,brownell1 ,w4 ,c41 #fg4                
,browning1 ,robert1 #baa-bac1 #baf1     
#bag1 #bcd1 #bcf n41 #bhg1 #cjg4        
,brunetire1 ,f41 #bh4        ,buddha1   
xix-xxi1 #adi-aec1 #bgb n41 #cdc1 #cdi1 
#cfg1 #cgj1 #cgb1      #cha4            
,buffon1 #ef1 #eg1 #ff4                 
,bulwer-,lytton1 #fb4        ,bunyan1   
#acc4        ,burke1 ,edmund1 #abh1     
#adb1 #adg1 #cdf1 #chj4        ,burns1  

,robert1 #bbi4        ,burton1 #adc n4  
,butcher1 ,s4 ,h41 #cab n4              
,byrom1 ,john1 #beg1 #beh4              
,byron1 #ed1 #aja1 #afa n41 #aha1 #ahf1 
#bbj1 #bbc n41 #bbh1 #bbi1      #bcb1   
#bff1 #bfi1 #bhj1 #bhc1 #cjh1 #cah1     
#cbb1 #cbd1 #cbg n4          ,calvin1   
#aah4        ,canat1 ,r41 #ccb n4       
,carlyle1 #eb1 #ec1 #adg1 #aed1 #aei n41
 #aic1 #cjj1 #cji1 #cbg-cbi4            
,catullus1 #bbi1 #bhe4                  
,cervantes1 #ii1 #agf1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bfd4
        ,czanne1 #fc4        ,chapelain1
 #bh4        ,charpentier1 ,julie von1  
#bbf4        ,chateaubriand1 #ej1 #ed1  
#eg1 #eh1 #fj1 #fa1 #ia1 #abf1 #acd1    
#aea1 #aee1      #aei n41 #bjf1 #bjg1   
#bji1 #bbg-bbi1 #bcb1 #bdi1 #beb1       
#bgf-bgh1 #bha1      #bhc-bhe1 #big n41 
#cjd1 #cji1 #caj1 #cac1 #caf n41 #cah1  
#cbb1 #cbd      n41 #cbg n41 #ccc1 #ccd4
        ,chatterton1 #ij1 #cbj1 #cba4   
,chaucer1 #ccd4        ,chesterfield1   
#bd1 #be4        ,chesterton1 ,g41 #cbb4
        ,christ 7,jesus71 #cf1 #eb1     

#aae1 #bed1 #bfe1 #cjd1 #ccf1 #cei1     
#cfj1 #cgi4        ,cicero1 xxii1 #acd1 
#bgc n4        ,clifford1 ,w4 ,k41 #ach1
 #aci4        ,coleridge1 ,hartley1 #bca
 n4        ,coleridge1 ,samuel ,t41 #ea1
 #eb1 #abf1 #adf n41 #aed1 #aei n41     
#aha1 #bif1 #cjc1 #cje1 #cai n4         
,common1 ,t41 #aih n4        ,confucius1
 xix-xxi1 #agf1 #baa n41 #chj1 #chf1    
#cij4        ,congreve1 #ce n4          
,constant1 ,benjamin1 #caf4             
,cortez1 ,f41 #bgg4        ,cowley1 #ab4
        ,cox1 ,kenyon1 #fd n41 #bia4    
,croce1 ,benedetto1 xiii4               
,dante1 #aab1 #bae1 #bei1 #ceg1 #ceh4   
,daunou1 #ii4        ,davidson1 ,john1  
#ij4        ,descartes1 xvi1 #bf1 #bg1  
#ach1 #afh1 #afi1 #agb1 #agf1 #bjj4     
,dewey1 ,john1 xiii1 #chh4              
,diderot1 xi1 xii1 #ch1 #gj1 #ajj1 #abb1
 #abf1 #acj1 #aia1 #aib1 #cbf4          
,didier1 ,c41 #cbg n4        ,disraeli1 
#fb4        ,dorval1 ,mme41 #ccg n4     
,doudan1 #bad1 #cjd n41 #cdd n4         
,dryden1 #ac1 #cd1 #bbc1 #cec1 #ced4    

,du ,camp1 ,m41 #bae n4        ,duff1   
#dj n4        ,d',urf1 #gf4             
,duval1 ,g41 #big n4                    
,eckermann1 #if1 #cji4        ,edison1  
#cej4        ,edwards1 ,jonathan1 #abc1 
#abd1 #aci4        ,elton1 ,o41 #bjf4   
,emerson1 ,r4 ,w41 x1 #fg1 #ic1 #aaa1   
#agf1 #beg1 #cdh4        ,epicurus1     
#bgj4        ,euripides1 #ahc1 #bjd1    
#bdd1 #cbb n4        ,evelyn1 #f1 #bgd4 
,faguet1 ,e41 #cj4        ,fawcett1 ,e4 
,d41 xv n4        ,fichte1 #bda1 #cdg4  
,fitz,gerald1 #bjd4        ,flaubert1   
xvi n41 #fg1 #hg1 #aje1 #ajg-aji1 #bah1 
#bii1 #cad1      #cci-cdb4              
,fontenelle1 #bg4        ,foster1 ,john1
 #h1 #i1 #if4        ,france1 ,a41 #hh1 
#bfe1 #cbd n41 #cgj4        ,francis1   
,st41 #bbb4        ,franois1 ,a4 ,f41 #g
 n4        ,francueil1 ,mme4 de1 #aee4  
,froude1 #cji1 #cbg n4                  
,galileo1 #aai4        ,galsworthy1     
,john1 #beb4        ,gautier1 ,t41 #fj1 
#fa1 #fg1 #ic n41 #ajh1 #bcj1 #cah n41  
#cbj1 #cda4        ,geffroy1 ,a41 #abi  

n4        ,gerard1 ,a41 #dj n4          
,grard de ,nerval1 #bcj1 #bca n4        
,gerould1 ,katherine ,f41 #di n4        
,gisborne1 ,john1 #bbg n41 #cia4        
,gissing1 ,george1 #cji4        ,godard1
 ,colonel1 #gc4        ,godwin1 ,mary1  
#bbf4        ,goethe1 xi1 xvii1 xviii1  
#b1 #ai1 #bb1 #bc1 #cb1 #gc1 #he1 #hf1  
#hi1 #ib1      #if1 #aja1 #ajc n41 #adg1
 #agj1 #aga1 #aib1 #bae1 #bbd1 #bdf1    
#beb1 #bge1      #cji1 #caj1 #cca1 #cci1
 #cdf1 #cfj-cfc1 #cgh1 #chi4            
,gomperz1 ,th41 #bfh n4        ,gran1   
,gerhard1 #gh n4        ,gray1 #caa1    
#cbc4        ,greville1 ,f41 #f4        
,grillparzer1 #aia4        ,grimm1 ,h41 
#cfj4        ,gurin1 ,m4 de1 #bha1 #cdb4
        ,gustavus ,,iii1 #abi4          
,hardy1 ,t41 #aia4        ,havemeyer1   
,h4 ,o41 #ada4        ,hawthorne1 ,n41  
#fg1 #cbf1 #cbg4        ,hazlitt1 #ig1  
#aha1 #ahf n41 #bbd1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bhi4  
,hearn1 ,lafcadio1 #aaa4                
,heidigger1 #g1 #h4        ,heine1 #ca1 
#bba1 #bfe4        ,hensel1 ,p41 #aid n4

        ,heraclitus1 xiii n4            
,herder1 #ig1 #ih4        ,herford1 ,c4 
,h41 #cei4        ,herondas1 #ajd4      
,hettner1 ,h41 #aid n41 #bib n4         
,hitchener1 ,elizabeth1 #bff4           
,hobbes1 #ab1 #ac1 #aca1 #aib1 #aif1    
#aig4        ,hoffmann1 ,e4 ,t4 ,a41    
#hf1 #bfb4        ,hlderlin1 #ha1 #hb1  
#hf1 #ij1 #ih1 #aaj1 #cbe n4            
,homer1 #ch1 #hj1 #ib1 #add1 #adf1 #bjh1
 #bie1 #caa1 #cab1 #cia4        ,horace1
 #bd1 #cf1 #gg1 #ha1 #aae1 #bhe1 #cgi1  
#cia4        d',houdetot1 ,mme41 #bbg4  
,huch1 ,ricarda1 #ahd1 #bfa4            
,hugo1 #ej1 #eb1 #eg1 #ei1 #id1         
#adj-adb1 #adf1 #ahi1 #aij1 #bac1 #bad1 
#bcf1 #big n41 #cjg n41 #cah n41 #cdj1  
#cib1 #cic4        ,hurd1 #ca4          
,hutcheson1 #dd1 #aba1 #aca1 #agi4      
,huysmans1 #ccb4          ,ibsen1 ,h41  
#ccj4          ,james1 ,w41 xiii1 #gh1  
#aha1 #ahc1 #chd4        ,johnson1 ,dr4 
,samuel1 xx1 #ab1 #ba1 #be1 #cc1 #df1   
#ej1 #fi1 #ga1 #gb1      #ia1 #agd1     
#bbc1 #bef1 #cdh1 #cef1 #ceg1 #cfj1     

#cfb1 #cgj4        ,jonson1 ,ben1 #bji4 
,joubert1 #acd1 #aeh1 #agb n41 #agi1    
#bba1 #bec1 #cad1 #cic4          ,kamo  
,chmei1 #bgb n4        ,kant1 xvi1 #dj1 
#db1 #dc1 #gj1 #cgj4        ,keats1 #caf
 n41 #cba n41 #ceg1 #ceh1 #cfj4         
,keble1 #bhe4        ,kepler1 #aai4     
,kipling1 #cab4        ,kleist1 ,h4 von1
 #afj n4        ,khn1 ,sophie von1 #bbf4
        ,khnemann1 ,e41 #aid n4         
,la ,bruyre1 #aa1 #abe4        ,la      
,fontaine1 #ga1 #gb1 #aeg1 #bhe1 #cac n4
        ,la ,harpe1 #ajj4               
,lamartine1 #fa1 #ajc1 #abf1 #ahg1 #bcf1
 #bgi1 #bha1 #bib n41 #caj4             
,lamb1 ,charles1 #ia1 #ib1 #bji4        
,la ,motte ,houdard1 #ee4               
,lanson1 ,gustave1 xvii1 xviii4         
,la ,place1 #ach4        ,la            
,rochefoucauld1 #afj4        ,lasserre1 
,pierre1 #adj4        ,law1 #beh4       
,leconte de ,lisle1 xiv1 #adi1 #bii1    
#cag1 #cbd1 #cda1 #cfe4        ,legouis1
 ,e41 #bdi n41 #bej n4        ,lematre1 
,jules1 #ajf1 #abg1 #ada1 #aee1 #ccb4   

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#cef4        ,lillo1 #aij n4            
,lionardo da ,vinci1 #aag4              
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#cb4        ,longfellow1 ,h4 ,w41 #cbg  
n4        ,longinus1 #cg4               
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#aed4        ,lowell1 ,j4 ,r41 #aj1     
#bgj1 #bhf1 #bhg4        ,lucchetti1    
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,maeterlinck1 #eb1 #bie1 #bif4          
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 ,m41 #cjb1 #cjc n41 #cjd4              
,mather1 ,f4 ,j41 ,jr41 #aib4           
,maupassant1 #bjc4        ,mazzini1     

#cch4        ,mercier1 #ajj4            
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#bfh4        ,montaigne1 #bfj4          
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#baf1 #bca n41 #bcb-bcd1 #bcf1      #bfb
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#ccj1 #cdf4        ,nero1 #cac4         
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#cib4        ,newton1 #b1 #bf1 #bg1 #da4
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#aig-aii1 #bdb1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bej1 #bfj1 
#bfc1      #cbg1 #ceb4        ,nisard1  
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#aeh1 #afc1 #chd4        ,novalis1 #gd1 
#hf1 #id1 #ii n41 #aaj1 #aff1 #ahf n41  
#bbf1 #bda1      #bef1 #bfb1 #cjj4      

d',ortigue1 ,j41 #bae n4        ,osborn1
 ,henry ,fairfield1 #bie1 #bif4         
,ossian1 #ch1 #bgf4        ,ovid1 #ib1  
#abi4          ,parmenides1 xiii n4     
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#gh1 #cdi4        ,peacock1 #bbi4       
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#fj4        ,perrault1 #bg4             
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,peter the ,hermit1 #bbb4        ,petit 
de ,julleville1 #ahh4        ,petrarch1 
xi1 xii1 #bbd1 #bgc4        ,pindar1    
#ch1 #ahb1 #caa1 #caf1 #chb4            
,plato1 xiii1 xx1 #bi1 #adf1 #afa1 #aff1
 #aga1 #baa n41 #bbj1 #bba1      #bec1  
#bid1 #cei1 #cfj1 #che4        ,pliny1  
the ,younger1 #bih n4        ,plotinus1 
#aga n41 #bed4        ,plutarch1 #hd4   
,poe1 ,e4 ,a41 #ej1 #fc1 #bcj1 #bib1    
#cba1 #cbf1 #ced1 #cee4                 
,polonius1 ,jean1 #cbe n4        ,pope1 

#f n41 #ab1 #be1 #cc1 #cd1 #ch1 #ia1    
#agd1 #agg1 #bfh4        ,poussin1 #bgd 
n4        ,prvost-,paradol1 #bca n4     
,rabelais1 #aag1 #bfh4        ,racine1  
#ajj4        ,racowitza1 ,princess von1 
#fb n4        ,radcliffe1 ,anne1 #ajf4  
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,renan1 xi1 #acc1 #ahc1 #bjc1 #bch1     
#bea1 #bfe1 #cjd1 #cbc1 #cdb1 #cdd1     
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,e41 #acd n4        ,rivarol1 xxiii1    
#bae1 #bbe4        ,robespierre1 ,m41   
#ace1 #acf1 #ahj1 #cdj4                 
,rochambeau1 #bgh4        ,ronsard1 #aa4
        ,rosa1 ,salvator1 #bgd4         
,rostand1 #gf n41 #hi1 #bie4            
,rouge1 ,i41 #if n4        ,rousseau1   
ix1 xv n41 xvii1 xviii1 #a1 #e1 #g1     
#bc-be1 #cj1 #cb1 #cd1      #dc-de1 #dg1
 #ej1 #ed1 #eh1 #fj1 #fa1 #fc1 #fh1 #gj1

 #gb-hb1 #he-hg1 #ij1      #ic1 #ig1    
#ih1 #ajb-ajd1 #ajf-ajh1 #aaj-aab1 #aad1
 #aae1 #aag1 #aai1 #abb1      #abc1     
#abf-acb1 #ace1 #acf1 #adj1 #adc1 #add1 
#adg1 #aec-aeh1 #afj-afg1      #agd1    
#age1 #agi-aha1 #ahc1 #ahe1 #ahg1 #ahh1 
#aic-aig1 #baj1 #baf1 #bah1      #bbj1  
#bba1 #bbd1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #bcd1 #bcf1     
#bde1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bec1 #bef1      #beh1
 #bfc1 #bfg1 #bfi1 #bgj1 #bge1 #bgh1    
#bgi1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhd-bhf1 #bhi1       
#bib1 #cjj1 #cjb1 #cjc1 #cje-cjg1 #cji1 
#cad1 #cag n41 #cbb1 #cbe1 #cbf1        
#ccj1 #cca1 #cdb1 #cde-cdi1 #ceb1 #ceh  
n41 #cfa1 #cfb1 #cfd1 #cgj1 #cgc1       
#cge1 #cgg1 #cgi1 #chj1 #chb1 #chc1     
#chf-chh4        ,ruskin1 #hc1 #ij1     
#aeh1 #afc1 #afd1 #bfi1 #bgi1 #bij1     
#cja1 #cbh1 #chd4        ,rymer1 ,t41   
#ac1 #ad4          ,sainte-,beuve1 xi1  
#ad1 #ej1 #eg1 #eh1 #ic n41 #cje1 #cac1 
#ccc1 #ccf1      #cdb4                  
,saint-,evremond1 #ci1 #aff4            
,saint-,hilaire1 ,geoffroy1 #bgj4       
,saint-,hilaire1 ,j4 ,barthlemy1 #cha n4

        ,saint-,pierre1 ,b4 de1 #abb4   
,sand1 ,george1 #ajg1 #bcb1 #bcc n41    
#bfb n41 #cah n41 #cbh1      #cch-cdb1  
#cdd4        ,sandys1 ,j4 ,e41 #caa n4  
,santayana1 ,g41 #gg1 #cfa4             
,sappho1 #bbi4        ,sargent1 ,john1  
#bia4        ,scaliger1 #ai1 #add1 #adf1
 #bgc4        ,schelling1 #bic-bie4     
,schiller1 #dc1 #dd1 #gj1 #gg1 #hj-hb1  
#if-ih1 #ajb1 #aaj1 #aab1 #abi1 #acb    
n41 #adj1 #ada1 #bda1 #cjg n41 #cab1    
#ccj1 #ceh n4        ,schlegel1 ,a4 ,w41
 #ib1 #id-ig1 #aja1 #adi1 #bda1 #bic4   
,schlegel1 ,f41 #ie-ii1 #adh1 #adi1     
#ahb1 #bda1 #bdb1 #bde1 #bea1 #bfc-bfe  
n4        ,schomberg1 ,marshal1 #gc4    
,schopenhauer1 #adi1 #cjg n4            
,scott1 ,walter1 #bcb n41 #bfj4         
,seillire1 ,e41 #aid n41 #cjg n4        
,senancour1 #cjh1 #cae1 #cbc4           
,seneca1 #baf n41 #cac n41 #ccb n4      
,shackleton1 ,sir ,ernest1 #bgg4        
,shadwell1 ,t41 #f n4                   
,shaftesbury1 #dd1 #de1 #aba1 #abb1     
#aca1 #agi1 #aif1 #aig1 #bjg1 #bec1     

#beg1 #bid1 #cbd1 #ceg4                 
,shakespeare1 #ba n41 #cc1 #ch1 #da1    
#ii1 #bjh1 #bfd1 #bha1 #bij1 #bie4      
,shelley1 #hb1 #acg1 #afa1 #ahj1 #aif1  
#bjf1 #bbd1 #bbe n4-#bbh1 #bef1         
#bff1 #bhb-bhd n41 #bia1 #caj n41 #cba  
n41 #ceh-cfj1 #cgf1 #cia4               
,shelley1 ,mrs41 #afa1 #cba n4          
,sherman1 ,stuart ,p41 #bdc4            
,shute1 ,r41 xxii n4        ,sidney1    
,sir ,phillip1 #f1 #ah4        ,smith1  
,horace1 #bbg4        ,socrates1 #a1    
#aab1 #adf1 #adg1 #age1 #aie1 #bdb-bde1 
#bff1 #bgb1 #cef1      #cfb1 #cgd1 #cge1
 #che4        ,solomon1 #bie4           
,solon1 xxi4        ,sophocles1 #bc1    
#dh1 #ec1 #agd1 #bjd1 #ceh1 #cfj4       
,spingarn1 ,j4 ,e41 #fe n4        ,stal1
 ,mme4 de1 #de1 #ii1 #aja1 #acb n41     
#cjf1 #caf4        ,stedman1 ,e4 ,c41   
#bcj4        ,steele1 #f n41 #abg n4    
,stendhal1 #aib1 #bac1 #cjg n41 #cag4   
,stephen1 ,leslie1 #hb n41 #ajg1 #beh4  
,sterne1 ,l41 #add4        ,stobus1 #caa
 n4        ,swanwick1 ,miss1 #bhh n4    

,swift1 #h1 #bff1 #bfg4        ,synge1  
#bdc4          ,tagore1 #adi4           
,taine1 #bh1 #hi1 #agj1 #ahh1 #bcg1     
#bge1 #ccg1 #cdc n4        ,talleyrand1 
#bd1 #be4        ,tasso1 #he1 #hi4      
,taylor1 ,jeremy1 #aae4                 
,tennyson1 #ib1 #aig1 #bjb n41 #cab1    
#ccb n41 #cdh n41 #ceh1 #cic4           
,theocritus1 #bch1 #bha1 #bhe4          
,thiers1 #cba4        ,thomson1 ,james  
7author of ,the ,seasons71 #h1 #bgd n4  
,thomson1 ,james 78,b4,v4071 #ccb n4    
,tiberius1 #cac4        ,tieck1 #id1    
#aei n41 #bda n41 #bdc1 #bib4           
,titian1 #bia4        ,tolstoy1 #aig1   
#aih1 #ceb4        ,tsng ,kuo-fan1 #cha 
n4        ,turner1 #bij4        ,twain1 
,mark1 #cbf4          ,uhland1 #bic4    
,vaihinger1 ,h41 #cgj4        ,vida1    
#add4        ,vidal1 ,pierre1 #bch4     
,vigny1 ,a4 de41 #ahf n41 #cje1 #cbj1   
#cbd1 #cce-cch1 #cfe4        ,villemain1
 #ccf n4        ,villers1 #de4          
,villiers de l',isle ,adam1 #hh1 #cbb1  
#cbd n4        ,villon1 #bch4           

,violet1 #bgh4        ,virgil1 #ai1     
#bga1 #cab1 #ced1 #cgg4        ,viviani1
 ,emilia1 #bbh4        ,voltaire1       
#cb-cd1 #ci1 #ic n41 #ajj1 #ajc1 #aai1  
#agg1 #baf1 #bcf      n41 #cfi4         
,wackenroder1 #hf4        ,wagner1 #agj1
 #baj1 #bcj4        ,wallace1 ,e41 #ab  
n4        ,walpole1 ,h41 #abg1 #cad4    
,walzel1 ,o4 ,f41 #eb n41 #afj n4       
,ward1 ,wilfrid1 #fb n4        ,warens1 
,mme4 de1 #gd1 #acd n41 #ace1 #bcf4     
,wellington1 #chf4        ,wesley1      
,john1 #beh4        ,west1 ,richard1    
#cbc4        ,westbrook1 ,harriet1 #bbf4
        ,whitman1 ,walt1 #acg1 #aff1    
#bhf1 #cdi4        ,wilde1 ,oscar1 #bch4
        ,williams1 ,mrs41 #bbf4         
,wolseley1 ,r41 #fe4        ,wordsworth1
 xvii1 #a1 #eb1 #gd1 #hc1 #ia1 #ib n41  
#ade1 #adf1 #aff      n41 #aga1 #aig1   
#bcg1 #bdg-bej n41 #bef1 #bfb n41 #bgb1 
#bgg1      #bgi1 #bhc-bhe1 #bic1 #bif1  
#cja-cjc1 #cbb n41 #cbh1 #ccg n41 #cdc1 
#cea4          ,xenophon1 #age n4       
,yalden1 #ej4        ,yeats1 ,w4 ,b41   

#adi4        ,young1 ,e41 #cg1 #ch1 #dj4
          ,zola1 #eh1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #ajg1 
#ahg1 #bbj4