,transcrib]'s ,notes ,punctuation has be5 /&>diz$4 ,*>act]s 9 small caps h be5 replac$ by all caps4 ,non-pr9table *>act]i/ics h be5 giv5 ! foll[+ translit]ation3 ,italic text3 -- text ,?is book 0 writt5 9 a p]iod :5 _m words _h n become /&>diz$ 9 _! spell+4 ,words may h multiple spell+ v>iations or inconsi/5t hyph5ation 9 ! text4 ,^! h be5 left un*ang$ unless indicat$ ) a ,transcrib]'s ,note4 ,! symbol #8' indicates ! description 9 p>5!sis has be5 add$ to an illu/ration4 ,?is may be ne$$ if !re is no caption or if ! caption does n describe ! image adequately4 ,transcrib] ,notes are us$ :5 mak+ corrections to ! text or to provide additional in=mation = ! mod]n read]4 ,^! notes are n id5tifi$ 9 ! text1 b h be5 accumulat$ 9 a s+le section at ! end ( ! book4 ,,ne>ly ,,ready1 ,clo? ,gilt1 ,,price ,,five ,,%ill+s1 ,elaborately & ,pr(usely ,illu/rat$ by ,,! ,,bro!rs ,,dalziel1 uni=m ) ! ,,boy',s ,,book ,,( ,,indu/rial ,,in=mation4 ,,outl9es ,,( ,,creation4 ,by ,,eli%a ,,noyce4 ,! object ( ! ,au?or is to give a simple1 cle>1 & lucid description ( ! ,univ]se "u ! foll[+ divisions3-- ,! ,sky4 ,! ,e>?4 ,! ,vegetable ,k+dom4 ,! ,air4 ,! ,wat]s4 ,! ,animal ,k+dom4 ,london3 ,,w>d ,,lock1 #aeh1 ,fleet ,/reet4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,composite ( sev]al ,indu/rial ,sc5es47 ,illu/ration3 7 ,illu/rat$ ,title ,page47 ,,! ,,boy',s ,,book ,,( ,,indu/rial ,,in=mation4 ,,by ,,eli%a ,,noyce4 ,,illu/rat$ ,,) ,,?ree ,,hundr$ ,,& ,,sixty-,,five ,,engrav+s1 ,,by ,,! ,,bro!rs ,,dalziel4 ,,london3 ,,w>d ,,lock1 #aeh1 ,,fleet ,,/reet4 #aheh4 ,,preface4 ,9 putt+ ?is "w be=e ! public1 ! ,au?or has endeav\r$ to supply a cle> & brief description ( ! mat]ials1 processes1 & app>atus made use ( 9 ! v>i\s examples ( indu/ry & skill con/antly be=e our eyes1 s t ! read] may acquire a k ( su* ?+s1 & an int]e/ 9 ^?1 :o1 by _! h>d "w & pati5t +5uity1 supply !m2 = e article & process c be made to h a value & an int]e/1 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( k we possess respect+ !m4 99 99 99 99 99 ,!re is no attempt 9 ?is "w to describe e article & process1 b su* only z are mo/ int]e/+ & in/ructive4 ,all ! m]e trades & h&icrafts--! results ( :i* are s v>i\s1 & dep5d s completely ^u ! skill ( ! artisan1 t any description ( _! p>ticul>s w\ld sc>cely be pr(itable or int]e/+ to ! read]--h be5 avoid$4 ,! illu/rations ( ?is "w h be5 prep>$ ) ! greate/ c>e1 & drawn f reality4 ,by ! k9d p]mission ( ,"l ,panmure1 ! arti/s 7 all[$ to make :atev] draw+s 7 necess>y 9 ! ,ars5al at ,woolwi*2 & ?anks are due to _m ( our em95t manufactur]s = simil> fav\rs ) respect to _! sev]al factories & ma*9]y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 ! fir/ division ( ?is "w h be5 plac$ all ^? mat]ials :i* exi/ 9 nature1 ei!r isolat$ or comb9$1 & :i* h m]ely to be extract$ or sep>at$1 z ! e>?s1 metals1 c4 ,"u ! second division1 8,manufactur$ ,products10 su* results ( manufacture z are kn[n by ! common designation 8/uff10 & are ( an uni=m & p>ticul> quality1 z soap1 soda1 c41 n exi/+ 9 ,nature z su*4 ,9 ! ?ird division1 individual articles1 ! result ( skill$ lab\r1 ea* comp\nd$ & made up ( sev]al sub/ances1 or ( p>ticul> =ms4 ,9 ! f\r? section are ! processes made use ( 9 ! production ( ! v>i\s necess>ies or elegancies ( life4 ,"s ( ^! might h be5 plac$ "u ! second & ?ird divisions1 b ! ,au?or ?\ght prop] to place !m "h1 on acc\nt ( ! processes be+ m readily describ$ ?an _! results4 ,! fif? division is devot$ to ! mo/ usual =ms ( ,app>atus & ,ma*9]y ( g5]al application1 avoid+ all m]e tools & ma*9es = specific purposes4 ,! la/ division is a m]e outl9e ( ^? important eng9e]+ works :i* ( late h acquir$ an increas$ int]e/ f ! addition ( railways & electric telegraphs to _! numb]4 ,,introduction4 ,! inquir+ m9d uses all its s5ses to obta9 "s new idea1 & to apply x to "s useful purpose2 x is ?is _s ( rese>* t has l$ to all ! great results 9 ,art & 9 ! me*anical & *emical sci5ces1 :i* we n[ enjoy & admire2 b x is only by v sl[ degrees1 & by great p]sev]ance1 t su* results are obta9$1 al?\gh ! accumulation ( a few ye>s makes an enorm\s aggregate4 ,look back a g5]ation or two--:]e 0 !n ! /eam eng9e1 :]e ! tall /alks :i* indicate ! sites ( complicat$ & +5i\s manufactures8 ! blacksmi? !n work$ at 8 anvil1 & wr\ght out ) 8 h&s :at he requir$ 9 iron2 b :at is n[ done ) ?is treasure ( ! m9e8 behold ! ,levia?an & ! ,britannia ,bridge1--c\nt _! ?\s&s ( tons ( plate iron roll$ out by ma*9]y1 & ?9k ( ! "w ( _! removal1 ! millions ( rivets to fix !m toge!r1 ! elevation ( ! "o1 & ! laun*+ ( ! o!r4 ,c\ld ?is be done )\t t ma*9]y :i* has become gradually p]fect$ by ?\ght & p]sev]ance8 ,visit ! iron works & see ! p[]ful 8/eam hamm]0 m\ld+ into =m a mass ( r$-hot iron1 _m tons 9 weight2 see ! p[]ful & beautiful contrivances = roll+ into plates1 draw+ into b>s & wire1 or cutt+ up ?is /ubborn metal1 & call x /ubborn no m6 ,see ! p[]ful 8locomotive0 c>ry+ along ! trams hundr$s ( tons ( goods at a rate t c h>dly be equall$ by ! bird t flies ?r\gh ! air on its light p9ions2 & ! huge /eam %ips :i* cut _! rapid way across ! seas1 hold+ 9 contempt ^? v w9ds ^u :i* alone ! m>9] us$ to dep5d6 ,see ) :at rapidity & accuracy almo/ e k9d ( 8textile0 mat]ial is produc$ by ! /eam-work$ loom1 & rememb] t ^! h all aris51 ) hundr$s m1 f small beg9n+s1 & /ep by /ep4 ,nor does ! me*anical g5ius b\nd ! works ( civilisation4 ,f /udy+ ! v>i\s prop]ties ( ! elem5ts ( nature1 & ! results ( _! comb9ation 9 v>i\s proportions & "u v>i\s conditions1 ! *emi/ arrives1 n only at _! uses & applications1 b obta9s results be=e q un?\ght (6 ,in/ance ! electric telegraph1 & ?9k h[ x conveys "o's ?\ghts half r\nd ! globe be=e y c express an exclamation ( surprise t su* ?+s c be6 ,see also ! wond]ful results ( ! photographic art1 copy+ ! mo/ elaborate picture1 ma*9e1 or portrait1 9 a few seconds1 & see ! results ( electro-deposition1 :i* by an invisible ag5t1 coats ) pure gold or silv] any article subject$ to its action1 or produces 9 a m\ld ! article itself ( ! mo/ elaborate =m or patt]n1 & 9 solid metal1 extract$ by ?is all-p[]ful ag5t f liquids :i* ! un9=m$ w\ld nev] believe c\ld conta9 any metal at all4 ,?9k ( ! beautiful col\rs ( our c>pets1 drap]ies1 silks1 c4--! *emi/ has devis$ ! dyes ) :i* !y are /a9$2 & 9 our *emical factories1 :at tons ( vitriol1 soda1 blea*+ p[d]1 & scores ( o!r *emical ag5ts are daily produc$4 ,all ?is is ! result ( /udy & p]sev]ance4 ,nei!r h ! ,f9e ,arts be5 beh9d 9 contribut+ to civilisation1 z may be se5 9 ! /ructure & decoration ( our h\ses1 *ur*es1 & public build+s2 9 our glass & pott]y w>e2 pap] hang+s1 & o!r arti/ic designs2 9 engrav+ & ! copi\s illu/ration ( our books1 sav+ a long & t$i\s description1 & (t5 pres5t+ to ! eye =ms t words c\ld n express4 ,& n[ let u consid] "o by "o ! 8mat]ials0 & processes f :i* all ^! results arise4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,natural ,,products3 ,e>?s ,metals & ,alloys ,iron ,copp] ,lead ,t9 ,z9c ,m]cury ,gold ,silv] ,plat9um ,nickel ,coal ,sulphur ,pla/] ( ,p>is ,salt ,/one ,wood ,cotton ,flax ,silk ,india-rubb] ,gutta-p]*a ,wax ,nitre ,blacklead ,sp]maceti ,,manufactur$ ,,products3 ,sug> ,alcohol1 or ,_s ,/>* ,soap ,/e>9e ,soda ,w9es ,v9eg> ,coal ,gas ,t> ,acetic ,acid1 or ,wood ,v9eg> ,v>ni%es ,oils ,inks ,*>coal ,cem5ts ,coke ,gunp[d] ,gun-cotton ,phosphorus ,:ite ,lead ,prussian ,blue ,prussiate ( ,pota% ,sulphate ( ,iron ,sulphate ( ,copp] ,*loride ( ,lime ,sulphuric ,acid ,lea!r ,glue & ,size ,p>*m5t ,catgut ,pap] ,malt ,*ocolate & ,cocoa ,/eel ,t9-plate1 & ,galvanis$ ,iron ,glass ,soda-,wat] ,coal-t> ,nap?a ,wood ,nap?a1 or ,pyroxylic ,_s ,,products ,,( ,,skill$ ,,lab\r3 ,pott]y ,bricks & ,tiles ,tobacco-pipes ,gold-,leaf ,%ot ,files ,type ,lucif]-mat*es ,c&les ,rope ,wire ,cutl]y ,nails ,screws ,p9s ,ne$les ,tub+ ,/eel-p5s ,,arts ,,& ,,trade ,,processes3 ,wood & ,plate ,engrav+ ,li?ography ,pr9t+ ,photography ,bookb9d+ ,pap]-/a9+ ,flax ,manufacture ,glass-pa9t+ ,cotton ,manufacture ,wooll5 ,manufacture ,weav+ ,blea*+ ,calico ,pr9t+ ,dye+ ,cal5d]+ ,bread-mak+ ,sug> ,ref9+ ,brew+ ,di/illation ,gild+ ,silv]+ ,look+ ,glasses ,silv] ,plat+ ,electro-plat+ & ,deposition ( ,metals ,sold]+ & ,braz+ ,! ,smelt+ ( ,metals ,f\nd+ ,glass-bl[+ & ,ca/+ ,glass ,cutt+ ,bricklay+ ,/one-cutt+ ,,app>atus ,,& ,,ma*9]y3 ,/eam ,eng9es ,boil]s ,furnaces ,bell[s & ,bl[+ ,ma*9es ,screw ,propell]s ,an*ors ,*a9s ,cranes ,cranks ,fire-arms & ,projectiles ,p]cussion ,caps ,pumps & ,fire ,eng9es ,valves ,:eels ,wat]mills ,w9dmills ,syphons ,/opcocks or ,taps ,filt]s ,presses ,/ills ,bl[pipes ,!rmomet]s ,b>omet]s ,p5dulums ,pl\ghs ,h>r[s ,roll]s ,m[+ ,ma*9es ,?ra%+ ,ma*9es ,reap+ ,ma*9es ,drills ,,eng9e]+ ,,works3 ,railways ,electric ,telegraphs ,roads ,bridges ,tunnels ,dra9s ,artesian ,wells ,m9es ,%ips ,canals & ,locks ,,natural ,,products4 ,,e>?s4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,illu/rations (37 #a4 ,,em]ald4 #c4 ,,=tification ,,agate4 #e4 ,,diamond4 #b4 ,,g>net4 #d4 ,,ruby4 #f4 ,,rock ,,cry/al4 ,all e>?s are metals 9 comb9ation ) oxyg53 t is to say1 !y c all be sep>at$ into a metal & oxyg54 ,! *ief e>?s us$ are ,alum9a1 f\nd z clay or slate2 ,lime1 f\nd z *alk or lime/one2 & ,silica1 f\nd z s&1 fl9t1 or rock-cry/al4 ,^!1 9 v>i\s proportions1 comb9$ ) "s few o!r matt]s1 =m1 by f>1 ! greate/ portion ( ! e>? we dwell on4 ,! e>?s1 :5 pure1 are all :ite sub/ances1 n v heavy1 & hav+ sc>cely any ( ! prop]ties ( ! metals f :i* !y are d]iv$4 ,! next frequ5t ( ! e>?s are ,b>yta & ,/rontia2 b ^! may be said to be useless :5 comp>$ ) ! ?ree =m]4 ,alum9a1 9 its v>i\s =ms ( clay1 is us$ = brick & tile-mak+1 & = pott]y2 h>d5$ into ! =m ( slate1 x is mu* us$ = ro(+ & = mak+ ci/]ns4 ,lime1 9 ! =m ( c>bonate1 con/itutes ! be/ build+ /ones1 includ+ m>ble1 s valuable = ornam5tal c>v+ & decoration1 & :5 burnt1 to sep>ate ! c>bonic acid1 =ms lime itself1 :i* is invaluable z a cem5t :5 mix$ ) s&2 lime1 9 union ) ano!r acid 7sulphuric7 =ms pla/] ( ,p>is1 also a mo/ useful article 9 ! arts1 c4 ,silica1 9 ! =m ( s&1 is v ext5sively us$ = glass mak+1 &1 9 ! =m ( fl9t1 x is gr\nd & us$ = pott]y3 all su* /ones z qu>tz1 rock-cry/al1 ,scot* pebble1 agate1 cornelian1 c4 are b v>i\s =ms ( ,silica1 ei!r cry/alliz$ or deposit$ 9 lay]s4 ,mo/ ( ! preci\s /ones are compos$ ( ! e>?s 9 a cry/all9e /ate & color$ by "s =eign +r$i5t1 su* are ! em]ald1 ruby1 g>net1 c4 ,! diamond is n an e>? b compos$ ( pure c>bon4 ,,metals ,,& ,,alloys4 ,metals may be kn[n f all o!r sub/ances by c]ta9 prop]ties3 !y h t peculi> brilliancy1 call$1 = t reason1 ! 8metallic0 lu/re2 !y are rapidly heat$1 & z rapidly cool1 h5ce !y are said to be good conductors ( heat2 !y are all opaque1 & mo/ ( !m v heavy2 "s inde$1 z gold & plat9um1 are ! heavie/ sub/ances kn[n1 be+ ab\t tw5ty times heavi] ?an wat]2 !y h1 moreov]1 o!r valuable prop]ties su* z ! capability ( be+ melt$1 ( be+ drawn out into wire1 ( be+ beat5 into ?9 plates1 c4 ,all metals are simple bodies2 t is to say1 !y _c be made out ( o!r sub/ances1 al?\gh two or m metals may be comb9$ & be aga9 sep>at$1 or !y may be comb9$ ) num]\s o!r sub/ances1 z oxyg51 & also aga9 sep>at$4 ,!re are upw>ds ( fifty metals kn[n to *emi/s1 yet b few are us$ to any ext5t 9 ! arts or manufactures4 ,all ! metals 9 use = ! v _m purposes to :i* !y are appli$ are n simple metals1 b are :at are call$ 8alloys10 t is to say1 comp\nds ( two or m metals4 ,! *ief metals 9 use are-- ,,iron1 ,,m]cury1 ,,copp]1 ,,nickel1 ,,lead1 ,,gold1 ,,t91 ,,silv]1 ,,z9c1 ,,plat9um4 ,b 9 ! /ate ( oxide _m are us$ :i* are seldom se5 9 ! metallic /ate1 su* are ! e>?s & alkalies2 & = colors1 & sev]al o!r purposes1 _m o!r prep>ations are 9 use4 ,! *ief alloys1 or comp\nd metals 9 use1 are1 brass1 made ( copp] & z9c2 pewt]1 made ( lead & t92 bell metal & gun metal1 made ( copp] & t92 & sold]1 :i* is a k9d ( pewt]1 & made ( ! same metals2 ! silv]+ = look+-glasses is made ( m]cury & t92 ! gold & silv] us$ = co9 are n pure metals1 b alloy$ ) two p>ts ( silv] or copp] to e tw5ty-two ( ! pure metal1 & ?is =ms ! 8/&>d0 gold or silv]4 ,! gold us$ by jewell]s has (t5 a mu* great] proportion ( alloy--= ?is "n is giv5 bo? to a comp\nd metal & ! *eap] metal made to comb9e ) ! m preci\s4 ,! object ga9$ by ?us alloy+ ! co9age1 is t ( r5d]+ ! metals h>d]1 s t !y %all n suff] mu* loss 9 we>+2 ?us a small quantity ( copp] mix$ ) ei!r gold or silv]1 r5d]s !m bo? h>d]1 al?\gh itself s(t] ?an ei!r4 ,! comb9ation ( c]ta9 metals =m+ alloys1 is (t5 n exactly ! mean ( _! respective qualities1 = in/ance1 a small quantity ( silv] is sometimes fus$ ) ca/ /eel = p5knife blades1 & al?\gh ! silv] is itself mu* s(t] ?an ! /eel1 yet ! comb9ation is f\nd to be bo? clos] 9 ! gra9 & h>d]2 x is kn[n z silv]-/eel 9 comm]ce4 ,bismu?1 al?\gh itself n v fusible1 increases ! fusibility ( o!r metals2 a comb9ation ( #b p>ts t91 #c lead1 & #e bismu?1 =ms a metal fusible by boil+ wat]4 ,,iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,,native ,,oxide ,,( ,,iron4 ,iron /&s fir/ 9 usefulness ( all ! metals1 = railways1 bridges1 %ips1 & a ?\s& o!r purposes2 x c be bo? ca/ & wr\ght1 hav+ t peculi> prop]ty1 ! capability ( be+ 8weld$10 t is to say1 ( s(t5+ :ile hot to su* an ext5t t :5 two pieces are made :ite hot & laid toge!r1 a few bl[s ( ! hamm] w cause !m to unite into "o piece1 & x is by means ( ?is mo/ useful quality t l>ge masses ( wr\ght iron are produc$1 su*1 = in/ance1 z an*ors & cranks = /eam-boats4 ,?is prop]ty ( weld+1 & ! abundance ( ! ores ( iron1 r5d] x "o ( ! mo/ useful mat]ials suppli$ by nature = ! v>i\s purposes ( manufacture4 ,9 comb9ation ) c>bon x =ms t h>dly less useful article kn[n by ! "n ( /eel4 ,ca/ ,iron has sc>cely any ( ! metallic lu/re1 & is only fitt$ = solid "w2 x is brittle1 l /eel1 )\t its ela/icity1 & is too s(t & too por\s to be made into any ( ! num]\s tools & in/rum5ts = :i* /eel is s em95tly suitable4 ,ca/ iron conta9s _m impurities1 ! *ief ( :i* are c>bon1 sulphur1 & silica1 got f ! coke :il/ be+ smelt$ 9 contact ) x1 & f ! fluxes us$ 9 ! process2 x is co>se 9 gra91 & mu* m fusible ?an wr\ght iron1 :i* is iron 9 a ne>ly pure /ate & c be fus$ only by ! v highe/ heat capable ( be+ produc$4 ,ca/ iron is conv]t$ into wr\ght or malleable iron by be+ re-melt$ & /irr$ = a long "t 9 contact ) ! air1 ?is process is call$ 8puddl+10 its object is to get rid ( all ! impurities 7*iefly c>bon & sulphur7 :i*1 by be+ br\ght into contact ) ! air at a high temp]ature1 are said to be burnt out1 t is to say1 !y comb9e ) oxyg5 & =m c>bonic & sulphur\s acids4 ,aft] puddl+1 ! iron is roll$ or hamm]$ out1 fold$ up1 & aga9 ext5d$1 & z a g5]al rule x may be said1 ! m ?is is cont9u$ ! pur] & s(t] is ! iron4 ,,copp]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,native ,,copp]4 ,copp] is a r$di%-col\r$ heavy metal1 mu* us$ = %ea?+ ! "u "p ( %ips1 = mak+ boil]s1 c4 ,x is ab\t eight-&-a-half times heavi] ?an wat]1 & is too valuable to be us$ = _m purposes :]e ei!r iron1 t9n$ iron1 or z9c are appli$1 b = :i* purposes its great durability w\ld fit x1 z x is easily roll$ out or beat5 into plates1 & is n quickly act$ on by ! wea!r4 ,x is us$ z co9 9 p5ce1 halfp5ce1 & f>?+s2 all vessels = cook+ purposes1 :5 made ( copp]1 are t9n$ inside to prev5t ! food becom+ poison\s f v]digris1 :i* is ! ru/ ( copp]1 & is v injuri\s4 ,copp] is f\nd *iefly comb9$ ) sulphur1 =m+ 8native sulphuret ( copp]40 ,copp] melts at a full r$ heat4 ,,lead4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sulphuret ,,( ,,lead4 ,lead is a heavy metal1 ( a dull bluei% t9t1 & v s(t2 x is ext5sively us$ = cov]+ ro(s1 = ci/]ns1 & = pipes = convey+ wat]1 z x is easily b5t & jo9$1 & is n act$ on by ! wat] :i* passes ?r\gh x4 ,lead melts at a heat bel[ t ( r$ness1 &1 9 comb9ation ) oxyg5 & c>bonic acid1 =ms ! 8:ite lead0 ( comm]ce s l>gely us$ z a pa9t4 ,oxide ( lead1 call$ 8li?>ge10 ent]s into ! composition ( fl9t glass1 & 9 comb9ation ) a l>g] quantity ( oxyg5 =ms 8r$ lead10 a sub/ance mu* us$ 9 pa9t+4 ,lead is f\nd 9 _m p>ts ( ,engl&1 especially ,cornwall1 :]e _m lead m9es exi/2 x is got f ! sulphuret call$ 8gal5a10 :i* is lead 9 union ) sulphur4 ,:at is call$ 8black-lead0 is n lead at all1 b is an ore ( iron1 be+ iron 9 comb9ation ) c>bon4 ,lead is ab\t elev5-&-a-half times heavi] ?an wat]4 ,,t94 ,illu/ration3 ,,oxide ,,( ,,t94 ,t9 is a :ite metal1 almo/ z :ite z silv]1 x is f\nd *iefly 9 ,cornwall4 ,x is a light1 s(t metal1 &1 l lead1 is easily melt$2 x is us$ *iefly = coat+ vessels ( h>d] metal1 su* z iron & copp]4 ,x is us$ to mix ) copp] to produce bronze1 bell metal1 & gun metal1 & ) lead to produce pewt]1 :i* us$ to be s ext5sively us$ z table-w>e be=e ! manufacture ( e>!nw>e became g5]al = t purpose4 ,t9 does n easily t>ni% or ru/ by exposure to ! air1 h5ce ! use ( t9n$ iron-plate4 ,t91 unit$ ) m]cury1 =ms ! silv]+ = look+-glasses4 ,t9 is ab\t sev5-&-a-half times heavi] ?an wat]4 ,,z9c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sulphuret ,,( ,,z9c4 ,until ! la/ qu>t] ( a c5tury1 z9c 0 b little us$1 b ( late x has tak5 ! place = _m useful purposes :]e lead 0 =m]ly us$1 pr9cipally ow+ to its *eapness & lightness4 ,z9c is a h>d metal ( a grayi% col\r1 n easily b5t b r brittle1 b :5 made ne>ly r$ hot1 x is capable bo? ( be+ roll$ out into %eets & be+ beat5 into =m by ! hamm]4 ,z9c is ab\t six-&-?ree-qu>t] times heavi] ?an wat]4 ,l _m o!r metals1 z9c is volatile1 t is to say1 :5 heat$ to a c]ta9 ext5t x passes (f into vap\r1 & !re is no d\bt1 ! reason t z9c 0 n kn[n or us$ ( old 0 t x 0 *iefly lo/ 9 8smelt+10 or gett+ x f its ores4 ,z9c is n[ obta9$ by a sort ( di/illation2 ! ores are mix$ ) ! flux1 c41 9 a l>ge e>!n crucible or pot1 f :i* an iron tube passes into a vessel ( wat]1 ! lid is securely fa/5$ on1 & z ! heat is urg$ ! z9c is driv5 (f 9 vap\r1 passes d[n ! tube & cond5ses 9 ! wat]4 ,! z9c ( comm]ce is obta9$ *iefly f ! ore kn[n by ! "n ( 8calam9e /one10 :i* is z9c 9 comb9ation ) oxyg5 & c>bonic acid4 ,a sub/ance call$ 8z9c :ite0 has be5 lately introduc$ z a sub/itute = :ite lead1 & w\ld c]ta9ly sup]s$e x1 b ! z9c is f\nd to be defici5t 9 8body10 :i* means1 ! p[] ( cov]+ any?+ ov] :i* x is laid-on 9 a ?9 lay]1 b z z9c :ite does n black5 9 f\l air1 & :ite lead does1 x has a great advantage1 & x is to be hop$ t "s improvem5t 9 its manufacture may improve its 8body40 ,z9c is *iefly us$ = ro(s1 gutt]s1 wat]-pipes1 ci/]ns1 & v>i\s vessels = hold+ wat]1 z x does n ru/ s easily z iron4 ,:at is call$ 8galvanis$ iron10 is iron dipp$ into melt$ ,z9c 9 ! same way t t9-plate is4 ,,m]cury4 ,m]cury1 or quicksilv]1 is kn[n f all o!r metals by be+ fluid at ! ord9>y temp]ature ( ! air4 ,?is is only ow+ to its extreme fusibility1 = at #gb degrees bel[ ! freez+ po9t ( wat]1 x also becomes solid1 & may be hamm]$ out or cut by a knife2 x is v heavy1 be+ ab\t fifte5-&-a-half times t ( wat]1 s t mo/ ( ! metals w float on its surface2 x has a bright lu/re & is almo/ z :ite z silv]4 ,x is f\nd bo? 9 ! fluid metallic /ate1 & 9 comb9ation ) sulphur1 9 :i* la/ /ate x is call$ 8c9nab>20 ?is is a heavy mass ( a deep r$ color1 & :5 gr\nd to p[d]1 ( a mo/ magnific5t r$1 & is ! v]million s well kn[n z a pigm5t2 ?is v]million is1 h[ev]1 mo/ frequ5tly manufactur$ by comb9+ ! m]cury & sulphur1 bo? fir/ purifi$1 9 ?is way a m brilliant color is produc$ ?an c be got f ! c9nab>4 ,! metal is extract$ by heat+ ! c9nab> ) iron-fil+s or lime 9 a retort1 by :i* means ! m]cury di/ils ov] & ! sulphur is left beh9d unit$ ) ! iron or lime4 ,m]cury is us$ = _m purposes 9 ! arts & sci5ces1 = b>omet]s1 !rmomet]s1 comp5sat+ p5dulums = clocks1 c41 & also 9 ! processes ( wat]-gild+1 look+ glass silv]+1 & 9 ! ,dagu]reotype process4 ,! comb9ations ( m]cury ) o!r metals are call$ 8amalgams40 ,,gold4 ,illu/ration3 ,,gold 7 ,,nugget74 ,gold is ! heavie/ ( ! metals ) ! exception ( ,plat9um1 be+ r m ?an n9ete5 times heavi] ?an wat]2 x is ( a bright yell[ color1 & is n t>ni%$ by exposure to ! air or moi/ure1 h5ce its usefulness 9 ornam5t+ frames1 cornices1 c4 ,gold is *iefly us$1 9 ! =m ( co91 z ! m$ium ( ex*ange2 = ornam5tal purposes1 su* z jewell]y2 = gild+1 & = /a9+ glass1 to :i* x gives a beautiful ruby-r$ color4 ,gold co9 conta9s ab\t "o twelf? "p1 by weight1 ( copp]1 ?is is add$ to give x h>dness & consequ5tly cause x to lose less by we> 9 use4 ,gold is n dissolv$ by any ( ! pure acids1 b a mixture ( hydro*loric & nitric acids w dissolve x 9 consequ5ce ( giv+ out *lor9e1 an elem5t :i* freely dissolves gold4 ,gold is capable ( be+ beat5 out into leaves ( extreme ?9ness1 & also ( be+ drawn into wire ( su* ?9ness t five hundr$ feet ( x weigh b "o gra94 ,,silv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,silv]4 ,silv] is ! :ite/ ( ! metals2 x is ab\t t5-&-a-half times heavi] ?an wat]2 x does n easily t>ni% by ! air1 & is n conv]t$ into dross by heat cont9u$ = any l5g? ( "t1 or1 9 *emical language1 x is n oxydis$2 x is *iefly us$ = co9 & = ornam5tal purposes :]e its cleanl9ess & beauty are /rong qualities to recomm5d x4 ,_m k9ds ( lead ore conta9 silv]1 & :5 ?is is 9 suffici5tly l>ge proportion to pay = its extraction1 ! r$uc$ lead is subject$ to ! flame ( a furnace :i* is bl[n on to x ) a /rong bla/1 ! flame melts ! lead & conv]ts x into an oxide call$ 8li?>ge10 :i* is 9 ! =m ( r$di% scales1 & z ^! are =m$ ! bla/ bl[s !m (f2 9 ?is way ! lead is gradually consum$1 leav+ ! silv] ) b a small quantity ( lead1 ?is is put on to a cup made ( bone a%es call$ a 8cupel10 h5ce ?is op]ation is call$ 8cupellation10 ! heat is !n rais$1 & ! lead :i* rema9s ) ! silv]1 =m+ a liquid glass ) ! bone a%es1 s9ks into !m1 leav+ ! silv] bright & pure4 ,silv] 9 "s di/ricts is extract$ f its ores by :at is call$ 8amalgamation20 ! f9ely p[d]$ ore is mix$ ) wat]1 "s cutt+s ( iron & quicksilv]1 & turn$ r\nd 9 a b>rel = a consid]able "t1 :5 ! quicksilv] is drawn (f ?r\gh a small hole1 & is f\nd to conta9 all ! silv] 9 ! ore1 toge!r ) "s o!r metals4 ,! quicksilv] is got rid (1 fir/ by press+ & !n by di/illation2 s t x is all recov]$ = a second op]ation4 ,:at rema9s is sep>at$ f ! o!r metals1 :i* x may h be5 mix$ ) by diff]5t processes1 accord+ to ! nature ( ^! metals4 ,! /&>d silv] ( ! ,m9t is :at is call$ #bb c>ats f9e 7ne>ly71 t is to say1 #bb p>ts 9 #bd1 ! two p>ts be+ copp]2 ?is is done to h>d5 x4 ,! silv]+ ( look+-glasses is made ( a comp\nd ( t9 & m]cury1 b a process = really silv]+ look+-glasses has be5 pat5t$ by ,mr4 ,drayton2 x consi/s ( precipitat+ silv] f its solution by means ( ! oil ( ,cassia1 or "s o!r volatile oil3 ! process is f> too exp5sive = g5]al use or = l>ge plates4 ,silv] leaf is made & us$ 9 ! same way t gold leaf is4 ,,plat9um4 ,plat9um is a metal ( a :ite color1 & is ! heavie/ sub/ance kn[n1 be+ m ?an tw5ty-"o times heavi] ?an wat]4 ,x is capable ( be+ weld$ & wr\ght out by ! hamm] l iron2 x is n act$ on by any ( ! acids1 b1 l ,gold1 is dissolv$ by *lor9e or a mixture ( hydro*loric & nitric acid2 x does n t>ni% by exposure to air1 & is extremely difficult to melt1 requir+ ! v highe/ heat t c be produc$2 ^! qualities r5d] x "o ( ! mo/ useful ( ! metals to ! *emi/1 furni%+ him ) retorts1 crucibles1 & evaporat+ di%es suitable = _m purposes2 its high price1 h[ev]1 r5d]s x n s g5]ally us$ z x w\ld o!rwise be4 ,,nickel4 ,?is metal is ( a :ite color & v difficult to melt1 x is ab\t eight times heavi] ?an wat] & is *iefly obta9$ f ! ore kn[n z kupf]-nickel1 f\nd v pl5tifully 9 ,g]many2 ?is kupf]-nickel is a native ars5iuret ( nickel1 t is1 nickel 9 *emical comb9ation ) ars5ic4 ,x is v difficult to sep>ate ^! two metals1 b an effectual & *eap process has lately be5 devis$ to d s4 ,nickel is attract$ by ! magnet simil> to iron b 9 an inf]ior degree4 ,till lately nickel 0 b little us$1 b x n[ =ms ! basis ( ^? comp\nd metals kn[n z nickel-silv]1 ,g]man-silv]1 & ,briti%-plate1 all :i* v>ieties are g5]ally employ$ z an economical sub/itute = silv]2 x is also us$ l>gely z a f\ndation on :i* to deposit pure silv] by ! electro-plat+ process1 = :i* purpose x is mo/ admirably suit$ be+ v sup]ior to copp] 9 consequ5ce ( its color1 z ! silv] always we>s (f unequally & exposes ! gr\nd "w ( metal b5ea?4 ,g]man-silv] is compos$ ( copp]1 nickel1 & z9c1 9 v>i\s proportions4 ,nickel always =ms "o ( ! con/itu5ts ( meteoric iron1 ^? my/]i\s masses call$ a]olites1 :i* sometimes fall to ! e>?4 ,,coal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,m9]als 7 ,,indu/rial ,,sc5e74 ,?is1 ! ri*e/ product ( ! m9e1 ! well-kn[n fuel us$ 9 almo/ e bran* ( indu/ry z well z = w>m+ our h\ses1 is got f ! dep?s ( ! e>?1 :]e x exi/s 9 c]ta9 localities =m+ :at are call$ 8coal fields0 or 8bas9s40 ,x is ! result ( *anges produc$ dur+ _m ages ^u vegetable matt] buri$ dur+ ! v>i\s convulsions :i* ! e>? has und]gone1 & press$ into lay]s or /rata ( v>i\s ?icknesses4 ,to raise ?is valuable fuel1 p[]ful ma*9]y is us$ & deep %afts are sunk at an enorm\s exp5se4 ,coal exi/s 9 v>i\s =ms3 ! foll[+ are ! mo/ easily recognis$3-- #a4--;,cubical coal2 %9+ & easily brok5 into squ>i% fragm5ts4 ,x burns brightly4 #b4--,slate coal2 dull 9 color1 splits l slate4 ,burns well4 #c4--;,cannel coal2 dull color1 breaks l res91 & some:at resembles jet4 ,burns brilliantly1 & splits ) a crackl+ noise :5 9 ! fire4 ,x af=ds ! be/ gas4 #d4--;,glance1 or ,kilk5ny coal2 /eel-grey color & metallic lu/re4 ,burns )\t flame or smoke1 some:at l *>coal4 #e4--,lignite1 or br[n coal2 is an imp]fectly =m$ coal4 ,! quantity ( coal us$ is rapidly increas+ ow+ to ! ext5sive numb] ( /eam eng9es us$1 especially = navigation & railway transit2 & x is a problem1 n yet det]m9$1 h[ long ! coal exi/+ 9 ,great ,brita9 is likely to la/2 ! l[e/ /atem5ts make x b little bel[ a ?\s& ye>s4 ,,sulphur4 ,sulphur1 also call$ ,brim/one1 is a natural production1 & is f\nd ei!r pure1 or comb9$ ) metals =m+ ores1 = ! mo/ "p call$ 8pyrites10 z1 iron pyrites1 copp] pyrites1 c4 ,9 *emical language ^! comp\nds are call$ 8sulphurets0 or 8sulphides40 ,sulphur is "o ( ! elem5ts2 t is to say1 x is a simple body1 or "o nei!r capable ( be+ made nor sep>at$ into o!r +r$i5ts4 ,x is cry/all9e1 ( a bright yell[ color1 v inflammable & volatile1 burns ) a blue flame & gives (f pung5t fumes ( sulphur\s acid4 ,x is got pure by di/illation f v>i\s sub/ances conta9+ x1 & 9 ,sicily is f\nd ne>ly pure z a volcanic product4 ,sulphur is *iefly us$ = ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid & gunp[d]1 & 0 also l>gely us$ = mak+ mat*es1 b phosphorus 7a /ill m inflammable sub/ance7 has almo/ sup]s$$ x 9 ! manufacture ( ?is necess>y article4 ,,pla/] ,,( ,,p>is1 ,,or ,,gypsum4 ,pla/] ( ,p>is is sulphate ( lime--a comb9ation ( lime & sulphuric acid2 & exi/s abundantly 9 v>i\s degrees ( purity2 x occurs pl5tifully 9 ! locality ( ,p>is1 & is br\ght "h 9 masses ( a gre5i%1 p9k1 or br[n color4 ,to prep>e ! gypsum x is fir/ made r$ hot1 to sep>ate ! wat] :i* x conta9s1 & !n gr\nd to p[d] ( v>i\s degrees ( f95ess4 ,pla/] ( ,p>is has ! peculi> prop]ty ( unit+ ) a c]ta9 quantity ( wat] & =m+ a solid comp\nd ) x2 ^u ?is prop]ty all its usefulness dep5ds4 ,if a portion ( ,pla/] ( ,p>is be mix$ ) suffici5t wat] to =m a liquid ( ! consi/5ce ( cream1 9 a few m9utes x w h>d5 & become q set1 & z x dries1 x w h>d5 /ill m1 till x is ( a h>dness almo/ equal to /one3 ?is useful prop]ty causes x to be mu* us$ = ca/+ figures & ornam5ts2 *eap pla/] figures1 c41 are g5]ally ca/ holl[1 to save ! pla/]2 ?is is done by p\r+ into ! m\ld a c]ta9 quantity ( ! pla/] mix$ ) wat]1 & quickly turn+ ! m\ld ab\t s t x %all adh]e & =m a lay] on all ! inside ( ! m\ld2 :5 set h>d1 ! m\ld is tak5 to pieces & ! figure f9i%$ by scrap+ (f ! m>ks :]e ! m\ld 0 jo9$4 ,pla/] ( ,p>is1 comb9$ ) :it+1 =ms :at is call$ by pla/]]s 8putty10 & is mu* us$ = ceil+s1 & simil> purposes4 ,,salt4 ,salt is "o ( ! mo/ widely spread & pl5tiful m9]als :i* ! e>? gives = ! use ( man2 all ! wat] ( ! ocean d]ives its sal9e ta/e f salt2 _m spr+s are completely saturat$ & are h5ce call$ 8br9e spr+s10 & x also exi/s cry/alliz$ 9 b$s )9 ! e>? ( imm5se ?ickness & ext5d+ = miles ea* way4 ,! salt m9es ( ,*e%ire are ! f9e/ & mo/ ext5sive 9 ,engl&1 & 9 "s places ! /ratum or lay] ( salt is m ?an "o hundr$ feet ?ick1 p]fectly :ite & cry/alliz$4 ,salt is n a simple body1 b is compos$ ( two simple bodies or elem5ts1 *lor9e & sodium1 h5ce x is call$ by *emi/s ! *loride ( sodium1 x c be =m$ by putt+ c>bonate ( soda into hydro-*loric acid 7sometimes call$ muriatic acid17 until no m eff]vesc5ce takes place1 ! result w ta/e salt & yield pure salt on evaporation4 ,! wat]s ( ! sea are 9 "s places evaporat$ by ! heat ( ! sun 9 %all[ holl[s dug out 9 ! bea*1 ?is is call$ 8bay salt0 & is v impure2 b ! *ief "p ( ! salt ( comm]ce is procur$ by evaporat+ ! wat]s ( br9e spr+s2 ?is wat] is pump$ up into l>ge iron ci/]ns plac$ b5ea? slight %$s to keep ! ra9 (f1 & hav+ flues runn+ b5ea? !m1 ! fir/ impurities are ?r[n away1 & z evaporation goes on1 ! salt cry/allizes & falls to ! bottom ( ! ci/]n 9 a f9e :ite p[d]2 ?is is tak5 out ) wood5 %ovels & plac$ 9 conical vessels ) a hole 9 _! l[] "p to dra9 (f all ! moi/ure2 x is !n dri$ by /oves & is fit = use2 :5 no m salt falls d[n1 ! impure liquor1 call$ 8bitt]n10 is drawn (f & us$ to procure ,epsom salts f1 by mix+ x ) sulphuric acid4 ,! bitt]n conta9s *loride ( magnesium1 & ! sulphuric acid *anges x into sulphate ( magnesia1 :i*1 :5 purifi$1 =ms ! ,epsom salts sold by druggi/s4 ,ab\t half a million tons ( salt are made 9 ,engl& e ye>4 ,salt1 besides its g5]al use z a condim5t1 & 9 pres]v+ food = /or+ %ips1 c41 is also us$ = sev]al manufactur+ purposes4 ,by add+ sulphuric acid & heat+ x1 ! acid call$ 8hydro*loric0 is giv5 (f1 :i* is l>gely us$ = _m purposes2 b ! *ief use made ( salt by ! manufactur+ *emi/ is to prep>e soda = cleans+ & soap mak+4 ,,/one4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/one ,,qu>ry4 ,/one = build+ is *iefly ( f\r k9ds3--lime-/one1 s&-/one1 granite1 & m>ble4 ,slate is nev] us$ = build+1 b is v suitable = ro(+4 ,! mo/ common /one is lime/one1 & t br\ght f ,portl& ,isl& is especially good = build+-/one2 x is call$ ,portl& /one1 & x is ( ?is /one t ,/4 ,paul's ,ca!dral is built1 & mo/ ( ! o!r public build+s ( ,london3 x is r s(t :5 fir/ dug f ! qu>ry1 b h>d5s ) age4 ,s&/one is a v co>se k9d ( /one1 & is only us$ :]e n mu* expos$ to ! wea!r2 x consi/s ( gra9s ( s& adh]+ s firmly toge!r z to =m a /one ( consid]able h>dness4 ,granite is a v h>d /one1 & v durable2 s h>d t x _c well be c>v$1 & is !re=e only us$ :]e durability & pla9 solidity are requir$2 ,london ,bridge & ! ,eu/on ,squ>e ,t]m9us ( ! ,birm+ham ,railway are built ( granite4 ,m>ble is a v f9e heavy k9d ( lime/one1 sometimes q :ite1 & g5]ally p>tly transp>5t2 ! :ite k9d is v exp5sive1 & is us$ = /atu>y1 t is to say1 = c>v+ into figures1 vases1 c42 x is v durable1 b is too exp5sive = g5]al use4 ,*imney-pieces1 slabs = wa%+-/&s1 & o!r articles ( t description1 are also made ( x4 ,lime/one1 m>ble1 & also *alk 7a s(t k9d ( lime/one71 all become *ang$ into lime if made r$ hot1 h5ce ! "n1 lime/one1 is (t5 appli$ to all ?ree4 ,/one qu>ries are ^? places :]e /one exi/s ( a quality suitable = build+ purposes1 & 9 a situation admitt+ ( its easy removal4 ,all /one1 ) ! exception ( granite & m>ble1 exi/s 9 lay]s or /rata z !y are call$1 s t ! /one c be easily split 9 ! direction ( ^! /rata or seams4 ,:5 a l>ge piece ( /one has to be remov$1 w$ges are driv5 9 a r[ into ^! seams1 & :5 ! /one has />t$1 x is not*$ at ! sides & back1 s t 9 g5]al a squ>e piece is ?us remov$2 if x be n s1 x is g5]ally made into a some:at squ>e be=e leav+ ! qu>ry1 h5ce ! "n1 d]iv$ f ! ,fr5* 8qu>re40 ,granite hav+ none ( ! l9es ( cleavage1 z !y are call$1 is brok5 by a r[ ( w$ges driv5 till a crack =ms f "o to ! o!r4 ,slate is a clay-/one f\nd 9 lay]s l lime/one1 b mu* m p]fect2 s mu* s1 inde$1 t x c be split into slices a qu>t] ( an in* ?ick & "o or two feet squ>e2 ^!1 :5 sort$ into sizes1 =m ! slates = ro(+ h\ses4 ,x has be5 mu* us$ ( late 9 ?ick slabs1 cut by circul> saws1 = mak+ ci/]ns1 a purpose = :i* x is well adapt$4 ,,wood4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,logg]s47 ,wood is an article ( univ]sal application2 its lightness1 /r5g?1 & ! facility ) :i* x c be work$1 r5d] x almo/ invaluable2 al?\gh 9 %ip-build+ & _m ( its applications to h\se-build+ iron has to "s ext5t sup]s$$ x1 yet !re are s _m o!r ways 9 :i* x is indisp5sable1 t x may be look$ ^u z "o ( ! greate/ boons to mank9d4 ,!re is sc>cely a use to :i* wood may n be appli$1 :e!r z fuel = fires1 timb] = build+1 furniture bo? useful & ornam5tal1 v>i\s p>ts ( ma*9]y1 vessels to conta9 w9e & o!r fluids1 h&les to in/rum5ts1 7= 9 cold climates & cold wea!r metal _c be h&l$ ) impunity71 & inde$ = all uses 9 :i* lightness1 dryness1 w>m?1 & v>iety ( =m are desirable1 wood s]ves z an excell5t mat]ial4 ,! k9d ( trees t produce wood fit = build+ & o!r useful purposes are ^? call$ by ! botani/s exog5\s4 ,among/ :i* ! p9e tribe1 oak1 a%1 elm1 & bee*1 /& pre-em95t2 :ile mahogany1 walnut1 & rosewood are *iefly us$ = ornam5tal purposes2 box-tree wood is also v useful on acc\nt ( its clos5ess & ev5ness ( gra92 x is ! wood us$ by engrav]s4 ,wood :5 fir/ cut is wet & heavy1 b1 by be+ expos$ to ! air1 x %r9ks & ! sap dries up 9 x1 x is !re=e liable to swell & become damp 9 moi/ situations ?is is detrim5tal to its usefulness2 mo/ woods !re=e are improv$ by be+ soak$ a long "t 9 wat]1 ?is cleanses x f sal9e & extractive matt]s :i* keeps ! wood damp1 b :i*1 :5 sep>at$1 all[ ! wood to %r9k & h>d5 p]man5tly1 ?is process is call$ season+1 ! same effect may be produc$ by exposure to ! air & ra91 x is g5]ally resort$ to :5 ! timb] is cut up into small] pieces4 ,! /ructure ( wood is por\s1 h5ce its lightness1 x has also a gra9 :i* runs ! :ole l5g? ( ! wood 9 circles r\nd its c5tre to ! surface1 "o ( ^! circles is produc$ e ye> :ile ! tree is gr[+2 wood is !re=e capable ( be+ cleft 9 ! direction ( ! gra9 by a w$ge1 9 ?is way build]'s la?s are made4 ,wood _c be cleft across ! gra91 b mu/ be cut by saw+ or o!rwise4 ,! p9e or fir tribe produce ! l>ge/ & /raighte/ timb]1 b x is n s /rong nor s durable z oak & _m o!r woods4 ,"s specim5s ( ! ,arauc>ia ,excelsa or ,norfolk ,isl& p9e1 h /ems upw>ds ( ?ree hundr$ feet high1 & 9 ! ,cry/al ,palace is ! b>k ( ano!r gigantic tree ! ,well+tonia ,gigantea4 ,,cotton4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cotton 7 ,,plant74 ,cotton consi/s ( ! f9e long hairs :i* gr[ f ! se$s ( sev]al v>ieties ( ,gossypium1 a plant belong+ to ! natural ord] ( ,malvace4 ,^! hairs are s long & num]\s t !y completely fill ! pod or se$ vessel2 !y are v delicate1 & ( ! same size ?r\gh\t1 & b seldom jo9t$1 !y are ea* sep>ate f ! o!r4 ,! cotton plant is *iefly cultivat$ 9 ,am]ica & ,india4 ,9 ,india1 & "s ( ! isl&s 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 cotton has be5 cultivat$1 spun1 & wov5 into textures f "t immemorial4 ,cotton fabrics 7 9 use 9 ,mexico be=e its conque/ by ! ,spani>ds1 & h be5 us$ 9 ,*9a = _m hundr$ ye>s2 its *ief s\rce n[ is ,am]ica1 :]e m ?an two hundr$ times ! quantity is gr[n at pres5t ?an 0 gr[n !re half-a-c5tury ago2 b ! int]nal communication br\ght ab\t by railways 9 ,india1 may1 9 all probability1 revive ! cultivation ( cotton 9 t c\ntry2 ! co/ ( conveyance f ! int]ior hav+ be5 "o ( ! greate/ drawbacks to its exportation4 ,cotton is n only *eap] ?an l95 7:i* is wov5 f flax71 b has sev]al advantages ov] x3 x takes dyes mu* bett]1 & produces bright] colors2 ! improvem5ts made 9 ! ma*9]y = sp9n+ & weav+ cotton1 h n only enabl$ u to mat* ! sp9n]s & weav]s ( ,india1 :i*1 = a long "t suppli$ ne>ly ! :ole ( ,europe1 b at ! pres5t "t1 cotton clo?s ( ,engli% manufacture are export$ to ,india = ! purpose ( clo?+ ! natives ( t c\ntry4 ,,flax4 ,illu/ration3 ,,flax 7 ,,plant74 ,flax is obta9$ f ! /alks ( ! flax plant ,l9um ,usitatissimum1 x is suppos$ to h be5 orig9ally br\ght f ,egypt1 :]e l95s h be5 wov5 f its fibres f "t immemorial4 ,x is n[ f\nd gr[+ wild 9 ?is c\ntry1 & is cultivat$ 9 mo/ p>ts ( ,europe1 ei!r = its /alks to make flax1 or = its se$ 7l9se$71 :i* is us$ = fatt5+ cattle1 & yields an oil 7l9se$ oil7 mu* us$ 9 ! mak+ ( pa9t4 ,! plant gr[s to two or ?ree feet 9 height1 be>s a blue fl[] 9 ,july1 & has a great holl[ /em2 :5 ga!r$1 x is pull$ up by ! roots4 ,! fibres ( flax are v long & ev52 x is ! inn] "p :i* yields ! be/ fibres4 ,,silk4 ,illu/ration3 ,,silk 7 ,,worms74 ,silk is by f> ! /ronge/ ( ! textile fabrics1 be+ ne>ly ?ree times z /rong z flax2 x consi/s ( ! filam5ts spun by ! silk-worm1 ,phalna ,bombyx ,anori4 ,^! filam5ts are always d\ble1 proce$+ f two holes 9 ! head ( ! worm1 & are unit$ by a sort ( v>ni% :i* is moi/ & clammy :5 ! ?reads proce$ f ! insect1 & causes !m to adh]e toge!r4 ,! silk-worm 9 sp9n+1 moves ! head backw>ds & =w>ds1 atta*+ ! ?reads on alt]nate sides & all ar\nd till x is completely cov]$ 9 ) a ball ( silk2 9 ?is /ate x is call$ a 8coccoon40 ,! silk-worm1 l o!rs ( its class1 und]goes f\r *anges or metamorphoses--! ,egg1 ! ,grub or ,worm1 ! ,*rysalis1 & ! ,imago or p]fect insect1 :i*1 9 ?is case1 is a mo?4 ,! worm sp9s ! coccoon to def5d itself f injury & cold1 b man1 tak+ advantage ( ! useful qualities possess$ by ^! f9e filam5ts1 sp9s !m into 8 mo/ gorge\s app>el4 ,! coccoons are unw\nd by plac+ !m 9 a bas9 ( w>m wat]1 :i* dissolves ! v>ni%1 & !y are !n sl[ly w\nd (f2 =m]ly ?is 0 done by h&1 b n[ ma*9]y is *iefly employ$ :i* w9ds (f ! silk f a b[l full ( coccoons at ! same "t4 ,! silk is coil$ into hanks or ske9s1 & 9 ?is =m is import$ into ?is c\ntry2 f ^! hanks x is w\nd (f on to l>ge six-sid$ :eels call$ 8swifts10 & f ^! on to bobb9s or reels2 x is !n w\nd (f f two or ?ree ( ^! bobb9s on to "o o!r bobb91 ! ?reads ( silk be+ laid side by side1 & 9 ?is process a twi/ is giv5 to x 9 "o direction & two ( ^! w\nd on to ano!r receiv+ a twi/ 9 an opposite direction1 ?is =ms a f9e cord call$ 8organz9e10 :i* is us$ by ! silk weav] 9 ! same way t y>n is by ! cotton weav]4 ,! %ort & brok5 pieces are c>d$ & spun l cotton1 & is call$ floss silk4 ,! raw silk is ( a bright buff or gold5 yell[ color1 b !re are "s k9ds :i* are :ite4 ,,india-,,rubb]4 ,india-rubb] or ,ca\t*\c :i* 01 a %ort "t back1 us$ only = ! v insignificant purpose ( rubb+ out p5cil m>ks1 is n[ us$ = almo/ innum]able purposes4 ,india-rubb] is ! solidifi$ juice ( sev]al trees1 su* z ! ,siphonia1 ,jatropha ,ela/ica1 ,ficus ,ela/ica1 c41 ! juice is got by mak+ incisions 9 ! trunk ( ! trees dur+ w9t] & collect+ ! juice1 :i* is ca\t*\c comb9$ ) wat]1 9 ! =m ( a milky ?ick fluid1 ! wat] is !n all[$ to evaporate & ! ,india-rubb] rema9s4 ,x is br\ght "h 9 all sorts ( %apes1 & is purifi$ be=e x is fit = comm]cial use by wa%+ 9 w>m wat] or /eam+2 x is !n cut into pieces & put into a knead+ ma*9e :i* cuts & works x toge!r ) su* rapidity t x becomes q hot & ! pieces jo9 into "o mass4 ,aft] hav+ und]gone e k9d ( torture t c be well imag9$ 9 ! =m ( cutt+1 te>+1 & squeez+1 x is f9ally compress$ 9 a squ>e ca/ iron m\ld1 :]e x is kept = a "t1 & !n is fit = any use x has to be appli$ to4 ,:at is call$ vulcaniz$ ,india-rubb] is produc$ by incorporat+ x ) p[d]$ sulphur1 or "s sub/ance conta9+ x1 z sulphuret ( antimony1 or ! vap\r ( sulphur is knead$ into ! mass2 ?is vulcaniz$ rubb] is v ela/ic & does n h>d5 by cold4 ,wat]pro( fabrics are made by /ret*+ ! /uff to be wat]pro($ on a frame1 at "o end ( :i* is a p>tition hav+ a slit 9 x1 ?r\gh :i* x is drawn1 aft] hav+ be5 sme>$ ) a solution ( ,india-rubb] 9 nap?a2 ! slit is s n>r[ t x scrapes (f all sup]flu\s ca\t*\c1 x is !n dri$ 9 ! air4 ,,gutta-,,p]*a4 ,gutta-p]*a is a sub/ance possess+ _m useful & valuable prop]ties2 x 0 unkn[n 9 ,europe until )9 a v rec5t date1 ?\gh x is said to h be5 9 common use1 = a long p]iod previ\s to our discov]y ( its utility1 among/ ! natives ( ! ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 *iefly = mak+ axe-h&les4 ,x is ! concrete juice ( a l>ge tree1 suppos$ to be ! ,ison&ra ,gutta1 & is br\ght to ,europe 9 irregul> masses ( a br[n color1 & conta9s v>i\s impurities :i* are easily got rid ( by work+ x 9 hot wat]4 ,gutta-p]*a possesses ! desirable prop]ties ( be+ solid1 slightly ela/ic1 n brittle1 & v t\gh1 capable ( be+ melt$ at ! heat ( boil+ wat]1 & be+ drawn out or m\ld$ into almo/ any =m2 x resi/s ! action ( wat] & spirits1 unless v /rong1 oils1 alkalies1 & weak acids1 b spirits ( turp5t9e1 *lor(orm1 & nap?a1 ea* dissolve x4 ,a sub/ance :i* has s _m valuable prop]ties z ^!1 ( c\rse ent]s into a multiplicity ( =ms & uses4 ,,wax4 ,?is useful sub/ance is produc$ by bees = ! purpose ( build+ _! comb1 :i* consi/s ( hexagonal cells made ( wax2 :i* sub/ance !y secrete 9 scales1 betwe5 ! sections ( ! abdom51 & draw out = build+ _! beautiful cells4 ,:5 ! honey is dra9$ (f f ! comb1 ?is is wa%$ & melt$1 x !n con/itutes ! yell[ wax ( comm]ce1 commonly call$ 8bee's-wax40 ,to make ?is into ! :ite wax x is boil$ 9 wat]1 spread out into ?9 lay]s1 & expos$ to ! light & air2 ?is is repeat$ until all ! color has gone & ! wax rema9s pure & :ite4 ,pure wax is a s(t-feel+ sub/ance1 h>d] ?an tall[1 & n greasy to ! t\*2 x is easily melt$1 & burns ) a cle> :ite flame1 h5ce its mo/ g5]al use--namely1 t ( mak+ c&les2 x is n soluble 9 wat]1 b unites ) oils & fats4 ,,nitre4 ,?is sub/ance1 kn[n also 9 comm]ce by ! "n ( saltpetre1 is br\ght to ?is c\ntry f ,india1 :]e 9 c]ta9 places1 x =ms a sort ( effloresc5ce on ! soil2 ?is is tak5 (f toge!r ) ! surface ( ! soil1 & mix$ ) wat]1 :i*1 aft] all ! e>? has subsid$ holds ! nitre 9 solution4 ,! wat] is !n evaporat$ & ! nitre cry/allizes 9 six sid$ prisms4 ,on mo/ p>ts ( ! cont95t nitre is manufactur$ f :at are call$ nitre b$s1 ^! consi/ ( old mort> & o!r matt]s conta9+ lime1 z ! dry rubbi% f old build+1 c41 toge!r ) manure & o!r animal refuse4 ,^! b$s are pack$ up & kept f ! ra9 = a c]ta9 "t1 :5 a small "p ( ! lime is f\nd to be conv]t$ into nitrate ( lime1 ?is is ! :ite sub/ance frequ5tly se5 to exude f newly built walls 9 ! =m ( cry/als l sn[4 ,! :ole mass ( ! nitre b$ is next wa%$2 ! wat] us$ = ! fir/ portions be+ p\r$ ov] ! next1 & s on till x is pretty ri* 9 nitrate ( lime1 ?is is !n mix$ ) c>bonate ( pota%1 :i* decomposes ! nitrate ( lime =m+ nitrate ( pota%1 7nitre71 & c>bonate ( lime1 7*alk72 ?is la/ settles d[n & leaves ! solution ( nitre cle>1 :i* is evaporat$1 & ! nitre got pure4 ,nitre is us$ = mak+ gunp[d] & fireworks ( diff]5t k9ds1 also = cur+ meat1 especially pork & beef1 to :i* x imp>ts a r$ color2 x is also us$ = mak+ nitric acid1 9 ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid1 & z a m$ic9e4 ,,blacklead4 ,?is sub/ance1 call$ by m9]alogi/s 8plumbago0 & 8graphite10 is f\nd 9 small quantities 9 v>i\s di/ricts1 & 9 a v pure /ate 9 ,cumb]l&4 ,x is almo/ pure c>bon1 hav+ b a v slight admixture ( iron2 x is us$ to make blacklead p5cils2 = coat+ ! surface ( iron1 giv+ x a bright appe>ance & prev5t+ x f ru/+2 x is also us$ to prev5t friction 9 wood5 ma*9]y1 &1 mix$ ) tall[1 z a lubricate = iron ma*9]y2 blacklead1 mix$ ) clay1 is also us$ to make crucibles = v>i\s purposes1 ^! are especially adapt$ = melt+ glasses & enamels1 & are kn[n 9 ! trade z blue pots4 ,,sp]maceti4 ,?is sub/ance is obta9$ f ! oily matt] conta9$ 9 ! head ( ! sp]maceti :ale1 ,phycet] ,macrocephales1 :i* consi/s ( sp]m oil & sp]maceti4 ,! latt] cry/allizes z ! mass cools1 & is aft]w>ds purifi$4 ,x is :ite & cry/all9e1 is us$ *iefly = c&les1 or mix$ ) oil & wax1 x =ms an o9tm5t4 ,,manufactur$ ,,products4 ,,sug>4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,sug> ,,cane ,,field47 ,sug>1 l />*1 exi/s naturally =m$ 9 _m vegetables1 & has to be sep>at$ f ! v>i\s =eign matt]s ) :i* x is comb9$2 ! sug> us$ 9 ?is c\ntry is all extract$ f ! juice ( ! sug>-cane1 ,arundo ,sac*>if]a1 b 9 ,france a great portion is extract$ f beet-root4 ,! raw1 or ,muscovado sug> z x is call$1 is a br[ni% comp\nd ( small cry/als ( sug> held toge!r by molasses or treacle1 :i* gives ! sug> its color & peculi> moi/ness2 :5 pure1 sug> is q :ite & capable ( cry/allization1 z may be se5 9 sug> c&y1 :i* is cry/alliz$ sug>2 sug>1 if heat$1 becomes conv]t$ into a d>k br[n liquid call$ burnt sug> or 8c>amel10 ?is has an int5sely ri* color1 b sc>cely any sweetness2 x is us$ to color w9es & spirits4 ,! t5d5cy ( sug> to be conv]t$ into c>amel is v great1 & ! :ole difficulty ( sug> ref9+ dep5ds ^u ?is fact1 = a solution ( sug> heat$ is con/antly *ang+ into ?is sub/ance4 ,to obta9 ! sug> f ! sug> cane1 x is fir/ cru%$ betwe5 p[]ful roll]s1 by :i* all ! juice is press$ out1 ?is is imm$iately cl>ifi$ by boil+ x /rongly ) a small quantity ( slak$ lime1 or x w\ld spe$ily f]m5t1 x is !n put into evaporat+ pans1 9 :i* x is evaporat$ till x is ready to cry/allize or granulate2 f ^! pans x is ladl$ out into a cool]1 & f !nce into wood5 boxes :]e x granulates2 ! next process is call$ 8cur+0 ?is consi/s ( dra9+ ! sug> ( its molasses1 = ?is purpose hog%eads or l>ge broad b>rels are arrang$ on a slop+ floor1 & hav+ sev]al holes at _! l[] "p ) a piece ( planta9 leaf put into !m2 ?r\gh ^! holes ! molasses runs out & is collect$ 9 a vessel = ! purpose4 ,! be/ k9ds ( sug> are p>tly purifi$ by a process call$ 8clay+20 ?is consi/s 9 putt+ ! sug> into conical e>!n j>s1 ) a hole at ! po9t :i* is turn$ d[nw>ds2 ! top is pil$ up ) a mass ( wet clay1 ! moi/ure f :i* sl[ly s9ks d[n1 c>ry+ ) x mo/ ( ! color+ matt] ( ! sug>2 ! cone ( sug> is aft]w>ds dri$1 brok5 up1 & ea* "p gr\nd up sep>ately1 z !y =m sug>s ( diff]5t value1 ! po9t be+ ! br[ne/ & ! base ( ! cone ! :ite/4 ,sug> is made f ! beet root 9 ! same way z f ! cane1 ! roots be+ rasp$ up into a pulp by a :eel ) a not*$ edge act+ aga9/ !m4 ,beet-root sug> cry/allizes bett] ?an cane sug>2 o!rwise x is exactly l x1 & purifies z well4 ,,alcohol1 ,,or ,,_s4 ,alcohol1 commonly call$ spirits ( w9e1 is procur$ f any liquid :i* has und]gone ! v9\s f]m5tation1 su* z w9e & be]4 ,! _s us$ 9 ,engl& is procur$ f a wa% made by p\r+ boil+ wat] ^u gr\nd malt1 z = mak+ be]2 ?is1 :5 f]m5t$ & di/ill$1 produces a colorless _s1 :i*1 by be+ aga9 di/ill$ at a g5tle heat1 call$ rectify+1 produces a v /rong _s2 b ev5 ?is conta9s "s consid]able quantity ( wat]1 & to get rid ( ?is1 = c]ta9 *emical purposes1 x is necess>y to add c>bonate ( pota%1 quick lime1 or "s o!r +r$i5t gre$y ( wat]1 & aga9 di/il x4 ,br&y1 rum1 & :iskey1 are b v>i\s =ms ( _s color$ & flavor$ ) diff]5t sub/ances4 ,br&y is di/ill$ f w9e2 rum f ! molasses1 a sort ( treacle produc$ 9 sug> mak+2 & :iskey f malt4 ,! /ronge/ br&y does n conta9 m ?an "o half ( its bulk ( pure _s4 ,alcohol1 :5 pure1 is a v limpid1 colorless fluid1 light] ?an wat]1 9 ! proportion t #gib be>s to #ajjj4 ,x is v volatile1 boil+ at #agb deg4 ( ,fahr5heit1 & highly inflammable1 x dissolves res9s & volatile oils1 & is1 !re=e1 us$ l>gely 9 p]fum]y4 ,! well kn[n lav5d] wat] & eau de ,cologne1 are solutions ( volatile oils ( v>i\s k9ds 9 pretty /rong alcohol1 & :at are call$ _s-v>ni%es1 are mo/ ( !m solutions ( v>i\s k9ds ( res9 9 /rong alcohol1 al?\gh "s ( !m1 z ma/ic v>ni%1 are made ) _s ( turp5t9e1 a volatile oil1 9 place ( alcohol4 ,,/>*4 ,/>* exi/s naturally 9 v>i\s k9ds ( gra91 z :eat & b>ley1 & 9 ! roots & tub]s ( _m plants1 z potatoes4 ,! process ( extract+ ! />*1 & sep>at+ x f ! o!r con/itu5ts ( ! se$ or root1 consi/s1 ess5tially1 ( cru%+ x1 & wi%+ out ! />* ) cold wat]2 ! liquid result+ f ?is mode ( treatm5t is ( a milky :it5ess1 & deposits />* by s$im5t4 ,?is liquid is pass$ ?r\gh five sieves to sep>ate ! husks & sk9s1 & :5 ! />* has settl$1 & ! liquid f]m5t$ & become s\r1 x is drawn (f2 x is all[$ to become s\r z ! glut5 ( ! gra9 is m completely sep>at$ by s do+4 ,! />* is repeat$ly /irr$1 all[$ to settle1 & ! wat] drawn (f1 till x is q pure2 ! top ( ! />* is scrap$ to sep>ate any slime adh]+1 & ! pure />* dug out ) wood5 %ovels & put 9 a box l9$ ) l951 9 :i* ! moi/ure dra9s (f2 ! cakes tak5 f ^! boxes are cut up into squ>es1 put ^u bricks1 & dri$ by a g5tle heat2 ! squ>es are !n scrap$ clean & pack$ 9 pap] = sale1 9 ^! packages x breaks up into pieces1 s t :5 !y are op5$1 ! />* has t peculi> appe>ance s famili>1 & almo/ resembl+ six-sid$ columns4 ,arr[-root is ! />* obta9$ f a ,we/ ,indian plant call$ ,m>anta ,arund9acea4 ,cassava & ,tapioca are />*es f ! manioc1 & ,sago1 f ! sago palm4 ,/>*1 "u ! microscope1 appe>s 9 ! =m ( m9ute globules1 & is q insoluble 9 cold wat]1 9 :i* x falls to ! bottom1 leav+ ! wat] at ! upp] "p q cle>2 b wat] t is ne>ly boil+ 7t is to say at #afj deg4 ( ,fahr5heit's !rmomet]1 or above71 breaks or dissolves ! granules1 & ! />* =ms ) x a sort ( pa/e1 ?is is ! liquid us$ = /iff5+ l95 & o!r articles 9 dome/ic laundry4 ,! />* sold 9 ?is c\ntry is color$ bluei% by smalt or indigo2 b on ! cont95t is us$ ( its natural :ite color4 ,if />* be bak$ 9 an ov5 at ! temp]ature ( ab\t #cjj deg4 x becomes1 to a great ext5t1 soluble 9 cold wat]1 =m+ :at is call$ 8,briti% gum10 ?is is l>gely us$ = calico pr9t+ & o!r purposes2 if boil$ 9 wat] "u great pressure1 s t ! temp]ature c be rais$ to ! same degree1 x is also *ang$ into an adhesive sort ( gum--?is is ! sub/ance made use ( by ! gov]nm5t au?orities to spread ov] ! backs ( po/age & receipt /amps to make !m adh]e4 ,! />* ( gra9 dur+ g]m9ation1 or gr[?1 becomes conv]t$ into sug>2 ! same effect c be produc$ by heat+ />* ) dilut$ sulphuric acid4 ,,soap4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,soap ,,mak+47 ,illu/ration3 ,,cutt+ ,,soap4 ,illu/ration3 ,,copp]s ,,= ,,! ,,mix+ ,,process4 ,?is v useful article is produc$ by a comb9ation ( tall[ or oil ) soda or pota%2 ) soda1 h>d soap is =m$2 ) pota%1 s(t soap4 ,! yell[ soap ( comm]ce has also an addition ( res9 or turp5t9e1 & (t5 palm oil1 ^! give x its yell[ color & peculi> smell2 pure :ite soap is made by boil+ a solution ( soda ) tall[ or olive oil2 ord9>y soaps are g5]ally made by mix+ a solution ( ! soda ( comm]ce1 7c>bonate ( soda7 ) quick lime1 ?is takes away ! c>bonic acid & makes ! soda :at is call$ 8cau/ic20 ?is solution is drawn (f1 & kit*5 /uff1 tall[1 turp5t9e1 & sometimes palm oil1 are add$ & boil$ toge!r1 until all is conv]t$ into soap1 b a l>ge quantity ( wat] rema9+1 x is necess>y to sep>ate ! soap f ?is1 = ?is purpose salt is add$ until ! wat] becomes s heavy t ! soap rises to ! surface1 :5ce x is remov$ into m\lds or frames & all[$ to cool1 :5 x is cut into b>s = sale4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fill+ ,,yell[ ,,soap4 ,illu/ration3 ,,mottl$ ,,soap ,,frames4 ,s(t soap is made 9 ! same way1 us+ pota% in/ead ( soda1 &1 g5]ally1 a l>ge quantity ( tra9-oil4 ,ca/ile soap is pure soda soap1 & ! bluei% or r$ mottl$ appe>ance is produc$ by /irr+ 9 "s sulphate ( iron 7gre5 vitriol72 :5 new x is ( a bluei% color1 b gets r$ by exposure to ! air4 ,oils & fats comb9e ) ! oxides ( sev]al ( ! metals1 & a comb9ation ( oxide ( lead ) olive oil =ms a firm solid sub/ance1 or plai/]1 :i*1 ) ! addition ( a little res91 is us$ 9 surg]y1 & :5 spread ^u l95 or calico1 =ms ! common adhesive plai/]4 ,oils & fats all consi/ ( a comb9ation ( organic acids1 7/e>ic1 oleic1 & m>g>ic71 ) glyc]9e4 ,:5 ^! fats are boil$ ) soda1 pota%1 or metallic oxides1 a comb9ation ( ! oxide & fatty acid takes place1 & ?is con/itutes soap4 ,! glyc]9e is !n set free1 &1 :5 purifi$1 =ms a sweet1 oily1 colorless fluid1 v simil> to syrup1 b n s sweet2 x has lately be5 us$ = sev]al purposes1 especially z a rem$y = *app$ h&s2 a soap call$ 8glyc]9e soap10 has lately be5 us$ = ! same purpose2 x is a soap made )\t sep>at+ ! glyc]9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ma*9e ,,= ,,cutt+ ,,soap ,,9 ,,b>s4 ,! above illu/ration repres5ts an +5i\s contrivance = ! purpose ( cutt+ soap4 ,,/e>9e4 ,! ,/e>9e ,c&les1 s mu* 9 use ( late1 are made ( :at *emi/s call 8/e>ic acid40 ,x is extract$ f tall[ by ! foll[+ process3--,! fat is fir/ melt$1 !n boil$ ) wat] & quick lime2 ! lime =ms a solid insoluble soap ) ! /e>ic acid ( ! fat4 ,?is1 :5 cold1 is dug out ( ! ci/]n & sep>at$ f ! wat]y p>ts2 x is !n melt$ 9 a wood5 ci/]n by means ( p]=at$ iron pipes1 ?r\gh :i* /eam passes2 ! /eam n only melts x1 b cond5ses & runs to ! bottom1 ?or\ghly wa%+ x2 x is aga9 all[$ to cool1 sep>at$ :5 x is mix$1 /irr$ well ) sulphuric acid & a l>ge quantity ( wat]1 & all[$ to settle4 ,?is sep>ates all ! lime1 :i* settles to ! bottom1 leav+ ! /e>9e float+ on ! top1 f :5ce1 :5 cold1 x is tak5 & aga9 well wa%$ ) /eam4 ,! mass1 aft] cool+1 is cut into %av+s by a ma*9e consi/+ ( a :eel1 hav+ knives atta*$ to its edge2 ! %av+s are put into hair-clo? bags & subject$ to ! mo/ p[]ful pressure by means ( ! hydraulic press2 ea* hair-clo? bag hav+ a w>m iron plate int]pos$ betwe5 x & ! next bag4 ,! oily p>ts ( ! mass are1 by ^! means1 all press$ out2 ! rema9d] is aga9 cut up & a second "t press$1 leav+ ! pure /e>9e1 :ite & cry/all9e l sp]maceti4 ,,soda4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,soda ,,furnace47 ,! ,soda ( comm]ce is a c>bonate ( soda1 & x is made f sea salt4 ,x is us$ 9 l>ge quantities = ! g5]al purposes ( wa%+ & cleans+1 & v ext5sively 9 blea*+ & soap mak+4 ,soda occurs 9 two =ms--soda a% & 9 cry/als2 ! fir/ is ! crude soda be=e cry/allization4 ,to make soda1 oil ( vitriol 7sulphuric acid7 is p\r$1 by degrees1 on a lay] ( sea salt1 9 a sort ( funnel connect$ ) a tall *imney2 on ! addition ( ! vitriol1 copi\s fumes ( ! hydro*loric acid are giv5 (f2 ?is is ! acid =m]ly call$ _s ( salt4 ,:5 ! furnace is heat$ & all ! acid driv5 (f1 ! dri$ residue is tak5 out1 x is sulphate ( soda4 ,x 0 =m]ly ! cu/om to all[ ! hydro*loric acid to pass up a v tall *imney s t x may be disp]s$ 9 ! air2 b su* an injuri\s effect 0 produc$ on ! surr\nd+ vegetation t ?is c\ld no long] be all[$2 ! plan adopt$ 01 to cause ! acid to be cond5s$ by fill+ ! *imney ) coke1 & caus+ wat] to trickle ?r\gh x2 ! acid vap\rs1 com+ into contact ) ?is por\s wet surface1 is cond5s$ into a liquid1 :i* runs d[n into a ci/]n plac$ to receive x4 ,! sulphate ( soda1 :5 tak5 f ! furnace & cool$1 is next gr\nd 9 a mill ) r m ?an its weight ( *alk1 & ab\t half its weight ( coal4 ,?is mixture is plac$ 9 a furnace & rais$ to a suffici5t heat to p>tly fuse x1 dur+ :i* "t x is /irr$ ab\t2 ! black mass :i* results is call$ by ! workm5 8black ball40 ,x is tak5 out & put into a ci/]n2 wat] is !n p\r$ ov] x1 & aft] /irr+1 x is dra9$ (f & evaporat$ to a dry mass2 ?is is impure soda4 ,x is mix$ ) coal-du/1 aga9 burnt1 aga9 wa%$ & evaporat$1 by ?is second process ! soda a% is produc$1 :i*1 be+ dissolv$1 filt]$ & evaporat$1 produces l>ge cry/als ( soda4 ,! l>ge quantity ( hydro*loric acid produc$ 9 ! fir/ "p ( ! process1 is us$ 9 ! ( mak+ *loric ( lime4 ,a few ye>s back1 soda 0 got f ! a%es ( ! plant call$ 8salsola soda10 & sold 9 ! =m ( an impure c>bonate call$ 8b>illa40 ,,w9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,w9e ,,mak+4 ,w9e is made f ! juice ( grapes4 ,:5 ! grapes are ripe1 !y are ga!r$ & at once put into a press1 by :i* all ! juice is squeez$ out1 & ! sk9s1 /alks1 & se$s left 9 ! press4 ,?is juice1 :i* is call$ 8mu/10 is all[$ to f]m5t1 :i* x does ( its own accord1 9 ! c\ntries :]e grapes mo/ ab\nd1 & at ! season ( ! ye> :5 !y are ga!r$1 )\t ! addition ( yea/ or o!r f]m5t2 9 a few days ne>ly all ! sug>y matt] conta9$ 9 ! 8mu/0 becomes conv]t$ into _s1 & x has n[ ! pung5t ta/e ( w9e2 7if ! w9e is all[$ to f]m5t too long1 x is v apt to become s\r71 ! w9e is n[ put into casks & kept = a "t1 dur+ :i* a sl[ f]m5tation goes on1 & t sub/ance1 :i* is call$ 8t>t>10 is deposit$ 9 ! =m ( a ?ick cru/ ( an acidulus ta/e & br[n color2 :5 purifi$ till x is q :ite1 x =ms ! cream ( t>t> ( ! druggi/s' %op4 ,! color ( w9e dep5ds ^u ! color ( ! grapes us$1 :e!r :ite or black4 ,w9e1 at a g5]al av]age1 conta9s ab\t #bj p] c5t4 ( _s or alcohol2 :5 port w9e is put into bottles1 a sl[ f]m5tation cont9ues to g on1 & a cru/ ( t>t> is deposit$ simil> to t describ$ above1 & x is ! sep>ation ( ?is t>t> :i* causes port w9e to improve by age4 ,:at are call$ ,briti% w9es1 are liquids mo/ly made by f]m5t+ ! juice ( ! fruits ^: "n !y be>1 z currant w9e1 gooseb]ry w9e1 c42 b z ! climate ( ?is c\ntry is n favorable to ! gr[? ( grapes1 or ! spontane\s f]m5tation ( _! juice1 ! grape w9e ( ,engl& is v inf]ior to ! =eign4 ,! juice ( any fruit requir$ to make w9e (1 has to be f]m5t$ artificially2 ?is is g5]ally done by mak+ x slightly w>m1 & float+ on ! surface a piece ( bread soak$ ) yea/2 ! w9es ?us produc$ are v apt to become s\r1 & x is g5]ally necess>y to add br&y to pres]ve !m4 ,_m ( ! ,briti% w9es sold 9 ,london are made ( an impure weak _s call$ 8fa9ts10 sweet5$ & flavor$ ) v>i\s sub/ances1 z g+]1 orange-peel1 c4 & sell = g+] or orange w9e4 ,,v9eg>4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,v9eg> ,,f]m5tation ,,y>d47 ,v9eg> is produc$ by f]m5t+ & expos+ to ! air any liquor :i* conta9s sug>1 su* z w9e1 infusion ( malt1 cyd]1 c42 by ! addition ( yea/1 ?is sets up a f]m5tation1 by means ( :i* ! sug> 9 any ( ^! liquors is conv]t$1 fir/ into _s1 & aft]w>ds into v9eg>2 ?is conta9s a c]ta9 quantity ( acetic acid1 :i* makes ! v9eg> s\r4 ,9 w>m c\ntries1 v9eg> is made by simply expos+ ! poor] k9ds ( w9e to ! sun's rays1 :5 !y f]m5t & become s\r4 ,9 ,engl&1 all ! v9eg> produc$ is made by f]m5t+ wort made ( malt1 ?is is f]m5t$ = ?ree or f\r days1 & is !n put into casks1 ) ! bunghole left op5 = sev]al weeks1 or until x is ?or\ghly s\r4 ,9 ord9>y v9eg>1 !re is ab\t five or six p>ts only 9 ! hundr$ ( real acetic acid1 b ?is acid1 :5 pure1 is s /rong z to bli/] ! sk9 :5 dropp$ on x2 x is (t5 extract$ f v9eg> = *emical purposes1 & to smell too2 = :5 sc5t$1 x con/itutes aromatic v9eg>4 ,v9eg>1 besides acid & wat]1 conta9s a little un*ang$ _s1 mu* color+ matt]1 & "s mucilage4 ,illu/ration3 ,,boil] ,,or ,,copp]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cool+ ,,app>atus4 ,v9eg> is *iefly us$ z a condim5t1 & = mak+ pickles1 & has consid]able p[]s ( pres]v+ vegetable or animal sub/ances2 if common v9eg> be di/ill$1 a weak colorless acid comes ov]1 commonly kn[n z :ite or di/ill$ v9eg>4 ,x is a common ?+ to spr9kle a sick room ) v9eg>1 "u ! impression t x has dis9fect+ prop]ties1 b ?is is an error2 al?\gh ! od\r is v refre%+4 ,v9eg> has1 ( late1 be5 made by means ( ! v9eg> plant1 :i* is a fungus1 caus+ a species ( sl[ f]m5tation1 & conv]t+ ! sug> or treacle us$ into acetic acid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fill+ ,,casks4 ,! head+ ( ?is section gives a good idea ( ! l>ge scale on :i* v9eg> is made2 be+ an accurate repres5tation ( ! ext5sive works ( ,messrs4 ,beaufoy ,co4 at ,lambe?4 ,,coal ,,gas4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,coal ,,gas ,,di/ill]y47 ,illu/ration3 ,,section ,,( ,,retort4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,retort ,,furnace47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,receiv] ,,tube47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,cond5s]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,res]voir47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,gasomet]47 ,gas1 = light+1 is made f coal1 by subject+ x to heat 9 iron tubes & collect+ & purify+ ! gas :i* is produc$2 ! foll[+ is a summ>y ( ! process3--,! vessels 9 :i* ! coal is put are call$ 8retorts10 !y are six or sev5 feet long1 "o-&-a-half broad1 & "o high1 g5]ally fitt$ up six to a furnace1 9 su* a way t ! flame may entirely surr\nd !m 7see fig4 #a72 f ea* retort an iron tube passes1 & ^! all dip into a l>ge horizontal tube1 rea*+ ne>ly to its bottom 7fig4 #b71 ?is is ! receiv] = all ! gas f ! retorts2 x is connect$ ) a pit = t> & ammonical liquor1 :i* copi\sly cond5ses f ! hot newly-=m$ gas4 ,! object ( caus+ ! tubes to dip ne>ly to ! bottom ( ! receiv] is1 t ! fluid 9 x may close ! end ( ea* tube1 & s prev5t ! gas return+ :5 any ( ! retorts are op5$ = a fre% supply ( coal2 f ! receiv]1 ! gas passes by tubes b5t up & d[n inside ( a great ci/]n ( wat] 7fig4 #c7 kept cold by a con/ant *ange ( its cont5ts2 ?is is ! cond5s]1 x causes ! sep>ation ( all ! t> & ammonia t rema92 b ! gas is /ill contam9at$ ) sulphur1 & ?is is got rid ( by caus+ x to pass into a broad iron cyl9d] p]=at$ ) holes & dipp+ into a res]voir ( lime & wat] mix$ toge!r & /irr$ ab\t ) a ma*9e contriv$ = ! purpose2 ! gas ent]s ?is lime mixture 9 hundr$s ( bubbles ?r\gh ! holes1 & ! sulphur ! gas conta9s is attract$ by ! lime ) :i* x unites4 ,! gas n[ rises to ! top ( ?is res]voir1 :i* is1 ( c\rse1 air tight1 & f !nce passes = use to ! gasomet]2 ?is is ! /ore-h\se :]e ! gas is kept to supply ! s]vice pipes b1 c1 "u ! /reets4 ,! gasomet] is made ( plates ( iron rivett$ toge!r4 ,! l[] "p ( ?is cyl9d] 7see figs4 #d & #e7 is receiv$ into a circul> deep *annel cut 9 ! gr\nd 7b b1 fig4 #e7 & fill$ ) wat]1 s t ! gasomet] d1 :i* is susp5d$ & balanc$ by means ( ! *a9s & weights e e1 may be rais$ or depress$ at pleasure4 ,:5 ! gasomet] is q d[n1 ! inside ( its top1 a1 re/s on ! gr\nd2 :5 ! gas ent]s1 x raises x up till ! l[] edge is b a few in*es bel[ ! wat]1 & is prev5t$ f ris+ high] by frames :i* support x2 :5 "s ( ! weights1 d d1 are remov$1 ! huge cyl9d]1 a1 sl[ly s9ks d[n & =ces ! gas ?r\gh ! tubes1 c c1 to be burnt by ?\s&s ( consum]s4 ,ab\t f\r cubic feet ( gas is produc$ f e p\nd ( coal us$2 ! gas is light] ?an air 9 ! proportion ( #fej to #ajjj1 & x is ow+ to ?is lightness t balloons asc5d :5 fill$ ) x1 n f any peculi> p[] x has ( asc5d+1 b because ! air1 be+ heavi]1 presses d[nw>ds & =ces x up4 ,:5 gas is mix$ ) air x becomes v explosive1 & :5 any escape is suspect$ 9 a room1 ! w9d[s ( ! room %\ld be op5$ at ! top1 & ! door also op5$1 be=e any light is introduc$2 a few m9utes w !n suffice to ensure safety4 ,"o ton ( good coal produces-- #a ,*aldron ( ,coke1 weigh+ #adid lbs4 #ab ,gallons ( ,t> 0 #ace 0 #ab ,gallons ,ammoniacal liquor #ajj 0 #iejj ,cubic feet ( ,gas1 weigh+ #bia 0 ,loss 7*iefly wat]7 0 #bbj 0 -------- #bbdj lbs4 ,a cubic foot ( gas weighs #ead & a-half gra9s4 ,,t>4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,t> ,,factory47 ,t> is "o ( ! results left 9 ! di/illation bo? ( wood & coal2 9 places :]e wood is pl5tiful & t> 9 reque/1 x is produc$ by burn+ ! wood = t purpose2 & 9 "s ( ! pits 9 :i* *>coal is produc$1 an arrangem5t is made to collect ! t> also4 ,coal-t> & wood-t> are diff]5t 9 "s respects1 & are bo? di/ill$ to procure ! nap?as :i* be> ! respective names4 ,f wood-t>1 creaste is also extract$1 & x is ?is sub/ance :i* gives ! peculi> t>ry flavor to provisions cur$ or pres]v$ by be+ smok$ ov] wood fires1 su* z ham1 bacon1 or h]r+s4 ,t> is us$ z a sort ( pa9t = cov]+ wood-"w & cordage1 :5 mu* expos$ to wet1 :i* x resi/s bett] ?an any?+ else at ! same price2 b ! t> *iefly us$ = ^! purposes1 is t produc$ by burn+ fir or deal wood & cond5s+ ! t> 9 a pit bel[ ! /ack ( wood1 x is call$ ,/ockholm t>1 z x comes *iefly f t place4 ,,acetic ,,acid1 ,,or ,,wood ,,v9eg>4 ,acetic acid =ms a consid]able article ( comm]ce4 ,x is n only us$ 9 m$ic9e & ! cul9>y art1 b is ext5sively employ$ 9 =m+ acetate ( iron = dye+ & calico pr9t+4 ,to prep>e x1 l>ge iron cyl9d]s1 ab\t eight feet long & ?ree 9 diamet]1 are emb$d$ 9 brickwork 9 a r[1 & 9 su* a mann] t furnaces plac$ bel[ may heat !m r$-hot2 ^! cyl9d]s h a tube lead+ f ea* into a ma9 tube1 :]e ! liquid products f ea* cyl9d] are receiv$ = cond5sation2 ! o!r end ( ! cyl9d] has a plate ( iron fitt+ closely to x4 ,! cyl9d]s are fill$ ) logs ( wood1 ei!r oak1 bee*1 bir*1 or a%1 ! door is closely fa/5$ & ! jo9ts sme>$ ) clay2 ! fires are n[ light$ & kept up all day1 till ! cyl9d]s are r$-hot2 at night !y are all[$ to cool4 ,ab\t sev5 or eight hundr$ weight ( wood is put into ea* cyl9d]4 ,9 ! morn+1 ! *>coal1 into :i* ! wood is n[ conv]t$1 is )drawn1 & a fre% *>ge suppli$2 f ?is *>ge ( wood ab\t ?irty or =ty gallons ( liquid is cond5s$ 9 ! ma9 tube f ea* cyl9d]1 ! rema9d] be+ *>coal & gases :i* pass (f2 ! liquid is acid1 br[n1 & v (f5sive1 & conta9s acetic acid1 t>1 & sev]al o!r +r$i5ts1 among :i* may be nam$ creasote2 x is f ?is s\rce all ! creasote1 s fam\s = ! cure ( too?a*e1 is obta9$4 ,! next process is to purify ?is liquid2 x is fir/ di/ill$1 & ?is sep>ates mu* t>1 x is !n mix$ ) lime1 evaporat$ to dryness1 & heat$ to expel ! rema9+ t> & o!r impurities2 x is next mix$ ) sulphate ( soda & wat] & ! :ole /irr$ toge!r1 ! soda1 n[ 9 unison ) ! acetic acid1 is wa%$ out f ! lime & /ra9$ q cle>2 x is aft]w>ds evaporat$ till x cry/allizes1 & vitriol 7sulphuric acid7 !n add$2 f9ally1 ! acetic acid is di/ill$ ov]1 & ! acid left 9 unison ) ! soda1 =m+ sulphate ( soda1 to be us$ 9 a simil> process = ! next bat* ( acid2 ! acetic acid is n[ q colorless1 transp>5t1 & v s\r1 possess+ a fragrant & agreeable smell4 ,?is acid is n pure acetic acid1 b conta9s a consid]able quantity ( wat]4 ,! acetic acid ( comm]ce1 mix$ ) sev5 times its bulk ( wat]1 =ms an acid ( ab\t ! /r5g? ( malt v9eg>1 p]fectly :olesome1 &1 to _m1 m agreeable z a condim5t4 ,pure acetic acid may be made by mix+ dry acetate ( pota% ) oil ( vitriol 9 a retort1 & di/ill+ ! acetic acid into a v cold receiv]2 ?is1 :5 flavor$ ) v>i\s volatile oils1 =ms ! aromatic v9eg> sold by druggi/s4 ,x is a v /rong acid1 & if appli$ to ! sk9 w quickly bli/] x4 ,,v>ni%es4 ,v>ni%es are solutions ( v>i\s res9\s sub/ances t w dry ) a bright surface on exposure to ! air4 ,!y are us$ to protect diff]5t sub/ances f ! action ( ! atmosph]e1 & to give !m an elegant bright surface2 woods & pa9t$ "w are ! *ief ?+s v>ni%$2 metals are coat$ ) a k9d ( v>ni% call$ 8lacqu]10 ?is is to prev5t ! bright surface ( ! metal f be+ dull$ by ! air or damp1 & to give an artificial appe>ance to "s metals2 t91 = in/ance1 if lacqu]$ ) yell[ lacqu]1 acquires some:at ! appe>ance ( brass4 ,ma/ic v>ni% is ! v>ni% g5]ally us$ = pap] & pictures2 x is made by dissolv+ gum ma/ic 9 oil ( turp5t9e4 ,copal v>ni% is t mo/ g5]ally us$ = c>riages & wood1 x is made by add+ boil$ l9se$ oil to melt$ copal1 & aft]w>ds ?9n+ x ) oil ( turp5t9e4 ,a common v>ni%1 fit = _m purposes1 may be made by add+ common res9 to oil ( turp5t9e1 & w>m+ x till dissolv$4 ,lacqu]s are made by dissolv+ %ellac & v>i\s o!r gums 9 /rong spirits ( w9e1 & 9 "s cases color+ x1 ei!r yell[1 by means ( gamboge1 or r$1 by dragon's blood 7a k9d ( res974 ,fr5* poli% is ne>ly ! same z lacqu]1 b ! mode ( apply+ x is diff]5t2 ! gra9 ( ! wood is fir/ fill$ up by means ( dry+ oil & *alk rubb$ 91 :5 ?is becomes ?or\ghly dry1 a rubb] ( flannel is cov]$ by a piece or two ( clean old l951 & "s ( ! poli% put on x1 j en\gh to moi/5 x1 & !n a little oil1 ?is is sl[ly rubb$ r\nd & r\nd1 ! v>ni% adh]+ to ! wood1 & ! oil prev5t+ ! rubb] /ick+ to x1 & at ! same "t1 poli%+ ! surface ( ! v>ni% z x dries4 ,?is process requires a good deal ( art to produce a p]fect surface4 ,old "w1 be=e be+ v>ni%$ ) any v>ni% t conta9s oil 7z copal v>ni%71 %\ld be ?or\ghly fre$ f grease or greasy matt]1 or ! v>ni% w nev] dry4 ,good v>ni% %\ld dry 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs s t du/ w n adh]e to x4 ,,oils4 ,illu/ration3 ,,press+ ,,l9se$ ,,= ,,oil4 ,oils1 :e!r animal or vegetable1 h pretty mu* ! same prop]ties4 ,! vegetable oils are got by cru%+ & press+ c]ta9 se$s1 z l9se$2 ! animal oils are obta9$ *iefly f ! :ale & seal tribe1 or f fi%1 z ! cod & /urgeon4 ,!y are viscid & ( a pale yell[ color1 light] ?an wat]1 & !re=e float ^u x1 & are v combu/ible4 ,oils are us$ = a multiplicity ( purposes3 = burn+ 9 lamps1 = mak+ pa9ts & v>ni%es1 prev5t+ ! friction ( ma*9]y1 9 mak+ soap1 & num]\s o!r processes4 ,oils are g5]ally divid$ into fix$ & volatile oils2 z an example ( ! fir/1 l9se$ oil may be select$2 ( ! la/1 oil ( lav5d]4 ,"s ( ! fix$ oils are call$ dry+ oils1 & x is ?is k9d t are us$ = v>ni% mak+2 z l9se$ oil possesses ! prop]ties ( ?is class v p]fectly1 x may s]ve z a description ( all4 ,l9se$ oil has ! p[] ( dry+ :5 spread out 9 a ?9 lay]1 becom+ ( a res9\s consi/5ce l v>ni%1 & ^u ?is quality dep5ds ! dry+ p[]s ( pa9t1 = ! o!r non-dry+ oils1 z olive oil1 may be expos$ to ! air = mon?s )\t dry+ at all2 ! dry+ p[]s ( l9se$ oil are greatly increas$ by boil+ x ) li?>ge 7oxide ( lead74 ,?is =ms ! dry+ or boil$ oil us$ 9 pa9t+1 & is employ$ 9 mak+ v>ni%es1 pr9t]s' ink1 & = o!r purposes4 ,oil$ silk is =m$ by bru%+ silk ov] ) ?is oil & expos+ x to ! air till x is dry2 ?is oil$ silk is ! same t is us$ = sponge-bags & ba?+-caps4 ,( ! non-dry+ oils1 ! *ief are ^? us$ = burn+ 9 lamps1 z sp]m oil4 ,salad oil is express$ f ! olive1 & is call$ olive oil4 ,( ! volatile oils1 ! mo/ useful is oil ( turp5t9e1 commonly call$ _s ( turp5t9e2 x is got by di/ill+ common turp5t9e 7! concrete juice ( trees ( ! fir & p9e tribe71 x has a /rong od\r1 is v inflammable1 & is volatile1 t is to say1 if spread out1 w evaporate1 leav+ no?+ beh9d2 ?is oil is capable ( mix+ ) dry+ oils1 & x n only increases _! dry+ p[]s1 b1 by ?9n+ !m1 makes !m m applicable to _m purposes4 ,oil ( turp5t9e dissolves res9 & _m res9\s sub/ances1 & =ms useful v>ni%es ) !m4 ,ma/ic v>ni% is ma/ic dissolv$ 9 oil ( turp5t9e2 x is ! v>ni% always us$ = v>ni%+ pictures4 ,_m ( ! volatile oils are us$ z p]fumes1 & ! od\r ( plants & fl[]s dep5ds ^u ! volatile oil :i* evaporates f !m1 z lav5d]1 cloves1 & o!rs4 ,pepp]m9t wat]1 dill wat]1 & c9namon wat] are produc$ by di/ill+ wat] mix$ ) ! sub/ances1 & is simply wat] conta9+ a small quantity ( ! volatile oil ( ^! sub/ances 9 solution2 b eau-de-,cologne & lav5d] wat]1 al?\gh call$ 8wat]s10 are mixtures ( volatile oils & _s ( w9e1 & conta9 no m wat] ?an is compreh5d$ 9 ! _s us$4 ,,inks4 ,inks are fluids ( v>i\s k9ds suitable = writ+ ) p5s4 ,! *ief inks 9 use are black1 blue1 & r$ writ+ inks1 & indelible or m>k+ ink1 int5d$ = m>k+ l95 :i* has to be wa%$4 ,indian ink is n us$ z an ink1 prop]ly s call$4 ,all ! black inks 9 use are compos$ ( gre5 vitriol 7sulphate ( iron71 9 union ) "s a/r+5t vegetable matt]1 ! be/ is ! gall-nut1 al?\gh1 = *eapness1 logwood & oak b>k h ea* be5 us$4 ,an excell5t black ink may be made by putt+ into a gallon /one bottle twelve ounces ( bruis$ galls1 six ounces ( gre5 vitriol1 & six ( common gum1 & fill+ up ! bottle ) ra9 wat]1 ?is %\ld be kept ?ree or f\r weeks be=e us+1 %ak+ ! bottle f "t to "t4 ,blue ink has lately be5 mu* us$1 x is made by dissolv+ newly-=m$ ,prussian blue 9 a solution ( oxalic acid4 ,to make x1 dissolve "s yell[ prussiate ( pota% 9 wat] 9 "o vessel1 & "s sulphate ( iron 9 ano!r1 add+ a few drops ( nitric acid to ! sulphate ( iron2 n[ mix ! two liquids1 & a magnific5t blue color w appe> 9 ! =m ( a light s$im5t2 ?is is to be put ^u a pap] filt]1 & well wa%$ by p\r+ ov] x w>m wat] & all[+ x to run ?r\gh2 a w>m solution ( oxalic acid %\ld n[ be mix$ ) x1 & ! ,prussian blue w dissolve into a bright blue ink4 ,r$ ink is made by boil+ *ips or rasp+s ( ,brazil wood 9 v9eg>1 & add+ a little alum & gum2 x keeps well1 & is ( a good color4 ,a r$ ink ( m beautiful appe>ance1 b n s durable1 may be made by dissolv+ a few gra9s ( c>m9e 9 two or ?ree tea-spoonfuls ( _s ( h>t%orn4 ,m>k+ ink is made by dissolv+ nitrate ( silv] 9 wat]1 & !n add+ "s solution ( ammonia1 a little gum wat]1 & "s ,indian ink to color x4 ,pr9t]s' ink is made by gr9d+ dry+ oil ) lamp-black4 ,,*>coal4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,*>coal ,,ov5s47 ,*>coal is made by burn+ wood 9 su* a mann] t b little air %all be admitt$ dur+ ! op]ation1 t is to say1 only suffici5t to keep up ! combu/ion ( ! m easily de/roy$ p>ts ( ! wood1 leav+ a black residue call$ *>coal4 ,! be/ *>coal is made :5 ! wood is q exclud$ f ! air1 z 9 mak+ acetic acid1 b :]e l>ge quantities ( *>coal are us$ = common fuel1 z 9 ,france1 ( c\rse ?is process is too exp5sive4 ,! usual way is to pile up billets ( wood & cov] ! :ole ) turf2 :5 fir$1 ! wood consumes gradually & ! *>coal is left beh9d4 ,*>coal is light & por\s1 & ( a %9+ black color2 x weighs ab\t "o qu>t] z mu* z ! wood us$1 & burns )\t flame or smoke1 giv+ out a /rong heat4 ,:5 *>coal burns1 x comb9es ) "p ( ! air1 & is conv]t$ into a gas call$ c>bonic acid1 :i*1 al?\gh invisible1 is mu* heavi] ?an air1 & is a deadly poison2 x is !re=e necess>y1 :]e *>coal is burn+1 to always h "s op5+ at ! bottom ( ! room4 ,_m fatal accid5ts h aris5 f p sleep+ 9 a small room ) a pot ( burn+ *>coal1 & no outlet = ! poison\s vap\r b ! *imney1 up :i* x w n pass on acc\nt ( its weight4 ,*>coal ent]s into ! composition ( gunp[d]1 & is us$ = sev]al o!r purposes4 ,x is an excell5t sweet5] ( f\l wat]1 & a few pieces %\ld always be kept 9 ! top ( ! filt] :5 ! wat] has any bad od\r1 or 9 ! ci/]n or butt1 :]e a filt] is n us$2 p[d]$ *>coal has also ! p[] ( tak+ away ! color ( _m liquids1 z well z ! bad smell2 v9eg>1 if w>m$ ) p[d]$ *>coal1 & !n /ra9$1 w be almo/ colorless4 ,wat] butts are sometimes burnt or *>r$ inside1 t ! wat] may be ! bett] pres]v$ 9 !m4 ,*emically consid]$1 *>coal consi/s ( c>bon ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( e>?y matt] 7! a%es or e>?y "p ( ! wood f :i* x 0 made71 b ^! a%es may be easily remov$ by mac]ation 9 an acid2 ! *>coal !n rema9s unalt]$ 9 appe>ance & consi/s ( c>bon1 b its /ructure is exce$+ly por\s4 ,,cem5ts4 ,9 v>i\s processes1 cem5ts ( diff]5t descriptions are requir$ = a v>iety ( purposes4 ,! common cem5t us$ 9 build+1 :i* is call$ mort>1 is made ( s& & quicklime mix$ ) wat]4 ,roman & ,portl& cem5ts consi/ ( c]ta9 k9ds ( clay burnt & gr\nd4 ,pla/] ( ,p>is =ms a useful cem5t1 x is to be mix$ ) wat] to ! consi/5ce ( cream1 & x h>d5s 9 a few m9utes4 ,glue is an invaluable cem5t = wood & _m o!r purposes1 x also jo9s any k9d ( brok5 glass or *9a t w n h to be subject$ to mu* wett+4 ,%ellac dissolv$ 9 _s is a useful cem5t2 & is+lass1 dissolv$ 9 weak _s1 & hav+ "s gum ammonicum add$ to x1 =ms ! 8diamond cem5t0 = unit+ *9a4 ,*9a & glass :i* require to be mu* wett$1 are be/ unit$ by be+ made v hot & hav+ ! brok5 edges rubb$ ) a piece ( %ellac1 ?is melts on !m1 & =ms1 :ile hot1 a sort ( cem5t2 if !y be imm$iately appli$ & press$ firmly & accurately toge!r1 & !n p]mitt$ sl[ly to cool1 !y w unite s z to be almo/ z /rong z be=e break+4 ,,coke4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,coke ,,ov5s47 ,coke is produc$ by ! p>tial burn+ ( coal1 9 ! same way t *>coal is f wood4 ,! great s\rce ( coke is ! gas manufactory1 :]e x is sold 9 l>ge quantities1 be+ ! result left 9 ! retorts aft] ! gas has all be5 driv5 (f2 b ! consumption ( coke by locomotive eng9es1 c41 :]e coal w\ld n be admissible on acc\nt ( ! smoke produc$1 has become s great t x is necess>y to burn coals = its production2 ?is is done by a range ( ov5s fitt$ up = t purpose1 hav+ iron doors :i* c be clos$ to any ext5t requir$ s z to regulate ! draught ( air4 ,dr4 ,ure gives ! foll[+ 9 8 acc\nt ( ! coke ov5s belong+ to ! ,london & ,nor? ,we/]n ,railway ,company3--8,an excell5t range ( furnaces = mak+ a sup]ior article ( coke = ! s]vice ( ! locomotive eng9es ( ! ,london & ,birm+ham ,railway ,company1 has be5 erect$ at ! ,camd5 ,t[n ,/ation1 consi/+ ( eighte5 ov5s1 9 two l9es1 ! :ole dis*>g+ _! products ( combu/ion into a horizontal flue :i* t]m9ates 9 a *imney-/alk "o hundr$ & fifte5 feet high4 ,ea* alt]nate ov5 is *>g$1 betwe5 eight & t5 o'clock e morn+1 ) ?ree-&-a-hall tons ( good coals1 a wisp ( /raw is ?r[n 9 on ! top ( ! heap1 :i* takes fire by ! radiation f ! dome1 :i* is 9 a /ate ( dull ignition f ! prec$+ op]ation1 & inflames ! smoke !n ris+ f ! surface by ! reaction ( ! hot sides & bottom ^u ! body ( ! fuel1 9 ?is way ! smoke is consum$ at ! v comm5cem5t ( ! process1 :5 x w\ld o!rwise be mo/ abundant4 ,! coke be+ p]fectly fre$ f all fulig9\s & volatile matt]s by a calc9ation ( upw>ds ( =ty h\rs1 is cool$ d[n to mod]ate ignition by slid+ 9 ! damp]s & slid+ up ! doors1 :i* _h be5 p>tially clos$ dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! process4 ,x is n[ obs]v$ to =m prismatic concretions1 some:at l a column> mass ( basalt4 ,^! are loos5$ by means ( iron b>s1 lift$ out ^u %ovels furni%$ ) long iron %anks1 :i* are pois$ ^u swung *a9s ) hook$ ends1 & ! lumps are ?r[n ^u ! pavem5t1 to be ext+ui%$ by spr9kl+ wat] ^u !m f ! rose ( a wat]+ c1 or !y may be transf]r$ into a l>ge *e/ ( %eet iron set on :eels1 & !n cov]$ up4 ,good coals1 ?us treat$1 yield eighty p] c5t4 ( an excell5t1 compact1 gli/5+ coke1 weigh+ f\rte5 cwt4 p] *aldron40 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,ov5 ,,tools47 ,coke burns )\t smoke1 & n s rapidly by f> z *>coal1 x is1 moreov]1 consid]ably *eap] ?an t article is4 ,,gunp[d]4 ,gunp[d] is a mixture ( nitre1 sulphur1 & *>coal1 & ! m completely !y are mix$1 ! m f9ely gr\nd1 & ! pur] !y are1 ! m p]fect w be ! gunp[d]4 ,! proportions us$ ( ^! +r$i5ts diff] slightly 9 diff]5t p[d] mills2 b ! av]age is ab\t sev5ty-f\r p>ts nitre1 t5 sulphur1 & f\rte5 *>coal1 by weight2 ! sulphur & nitre c easily be completely purifi$1 b ! *>coal diff]s v mu* 9 almo/ e specim51 & *>coal t has be5 burnt long ago & expos$ to ! air & moi/ure is almo/ unfit = ! purpose1 t *>coal :i* has ! lea/ a% :5 burnt is f\nd to be ! be/1 & ! *>coal :i* has be5 made 9 iron cyl9d]s1 is bett] ?an t made 9 ! usual way1 :5 ea* ( ! +r$i5ts are sep>ately p[d]$ & sift$ ?r\gh a k9d ( sieve ( silk call$ a bolt+ ma*9e 7su* z is us$ 9 dress+ fl\r71 !y are mix$ 9 ! prop] proportions & tak5 to ! mill1 :]e !y are moi/5$ ) wat] & gr\nd to a smoo? pa/e1 ?is is press$ h>d & !n brok5 up into pieces :i* are put into a copp] sieve1 ! bottom ( :i* is p]=at$ ) small hole2 a flat wood5 ball is put into ea* sieve ) ! pieces ( damp p[d]1 & ! sieves are all put into a circul> motion by ma*9]y1 ?is causes ! wood5 ball to turn r\nd 9 ! sieve & s rub ! damp p[d] ?r\gh ! little holes2 x is collect$ bel[ 9 small gra9s or 8corns10 ?is process is call$ 8corn+10 ?is is n[ dri$1 & !n put into a 8reel0 7a sort ( b>rel :i* turns r\nd7 & ! gra9s1 by rubb+ aga9/ ea* o!r1 become smoo!d on ! surface2 ! du/ is n[ remov$ by a sieve1 too f9e to let ! gra9s ?r\gh2 ! p[d] is n[ fit = use4 ,gunp[d] 0 fir/ kn[n 9 ,engl& ab\t five hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,x is n only us$ to dis*>ge fire>ms1 b 9 ! m peaceful occupations ( qu>ry+ /one1 m9+1 & to get rid ( rocks bo? bel[ & above wat]2 ^! processes are call$ 8bla/+40 ,,gun ,,cotton4 ,to prep>e gun cotton1 make a mixture ( ?ree p>ts sulphuric acid & "o "p nitric acid2 :5 ?is has cool$ 7= x becomes hot on mix+71 put into x "s cotton wool1 & let x be /irr$ ab\t ) a glass rod1 !n tak5 out1 & all ! sup]flu\s acid /ra9$ f x2 x is !n to be cov]$ up = an h\r or s4 ,x %\ld n[ be ?or\ghly wa%$ 9 cold wat]1 s t all ! acid be remov$2 to ensure ?is completely1 let x be aft]w>ds wa%$ 9 a v weak solution ( pota%1 & !n dri$ by a v g5tle heat1 produc$ by ei!r /eam or hot wat]2 :5 dry1 soak x 9 a solution ( nitre & dry x aga94 ,x is n[ s explosive t great c>e is requir$ 9 its managem5t1 be+ ab\t ?ree times z explosive z gunp[d]4 ,,phosphorus4 ,?is sub/ance1 s9ce ! g5]al use ( lucif]-mat*es1 has become an important article ( manufacture2 :]eas1 b a few ye>s ago1 x 0 a m]e *emical curiosity4 ,x is prep>$ by mix+ bone a%es ) sulphuric acid1 /ra9+ (f ! liquid "p1 & evaporat+ x to a syrupy consi/5ce2 ) ?is1 ab\t a qu>t] ( its weight ( p[d]$ *>coal is mix$1 & ! :ole /irr$ & evaporat$ to a dry p[d]2 ?is is put into e>!nw>e retorts1 :i* are connect$ by copp] tubes to receiv]s fill$ ) wat]2 ! retorts are rais$ to a :ite heat & ma9ta9$ at ?is high temp]ature z long z any phosphor\s passes into ! receiv]s1 ! wat] 9 :i* is kept w>m1 s t ! phosphor\s melts & runs to ! bottom1 f :5ce x is tak5 & /ra9$ ?r\gh *amois lea!r bags1 "u w>m wat]1 & !n ca/ 9 glass tubes into /icks4 ,phosphor\s is ( a :iti% color1 l wax1 is easily melt$1 readily takes fire ev5 by slight friction1 &1 9 ! air1 gives (f fumes :i* 9 ! d>k appe> lum9\s4 ,x is *iefly us$ 9 ! manufacture ( lucif] mat*es1 &1 mix$ ) fl\r1 butt]1 or sug>1 is us$ to poison rats1 mice1 & o!r v]m91 "u ! "n ( 8phosphor\s pa/e40 ,phosphor\s is poison1 & mo/ dang]\s /uff to h&le1 m9ute p>ticles (t5 gett+ "u ! nails & caus+ pa9ful sores4 ,,:ite ,,lead4 ,illu/ration3 ,,:ite ,,lead ,,b$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,lead ,,grate47 ,:ite ,lead is us$ 9 v l>ge quantities by pa9t]s1 n only z :ite pa9t1 b to mix ) & qualify e %ade ( color1 & to give body to !m4 ,x is prep>$ by diff]5t processes1 & sev]al pat5ts h be5 tak5 out = improvem5ts 9 its manufacture2 b ! mo/ usual1 &1 p]haps1 ! be/ process1 is z foll[s3--,a lay] ( sp5t tan 7f ! tann]'s pits7 is spread out ?ree or f\r feet ?ick1 & 9 x a numb] ( e>!n pots are arrang$ 9 r[s1 ea* p>tly fill$ ) a mixture ( v9eg>1 wat]1 & treacle1 or "s o!r acid f]m5t+ liquid1 ea* ( ^! pots is cov]$ ) a piece ( lead made 9 ! =m ( a grat+ 7fig4 #a71 & ov] all ^! a floor+ ( bo>ds1 & !n aga9 a lay] ( tan1 pots cov]$ ) lead1 & bo>ds1 two or ?ree times repeat$2 ?is is call$ a :ite lead b$1 & is left = sev]al weeks2 ! tan f]m5ts & gets w>m1 caus+ ! acid vap\rs to rise & corrode ! lead1 at ! same "t giv+ (f c>bonic acid4 ,at ! end ( ab\t ?ree mon?s ! lead5 cov]s are f\nd to h become completely *ang$ into a :ite %9+ sub/ance 7c>bonate & oxide ( lead71 ?is is wa%$ f impurities & gr\nd 9 a mill1 "u wat]1 to a f9e p[d]4 ,x is ! :ite lead ( comm]ce2 b :at is famili>ly call$ :ite lead1 is ?is sub/ance gr\nd up ) l9se$ oil into a ?ick pa/e s z to be ready = ! use ( pa9t]s4 ,:ite lead is a v poison\s sub/ance1 & produces ! disease call$ pa9t]s' colic1 :5 tak5 into ! sy/em 9 m9ute quantities & = a long "t1 s t all :o h mu* to d ) ?is dang]\s sub/ance1 z h\se-pa9t]s & arti/s1 %\ld be extremely c>eful t _! h&s are well wa%$ frequ5tly1 & especially be=e go+ to meals4 ,ci/]ns ( lead1 us$ = conta9+ wat]1 v soon become coat$ inside ) a ?9 film ( sulphate ( lead1 ?is prev5ts ! wat] f act+ fur!r on ! lead1 & ! wat] f su* ci/]ns is nev] f\nd to be poison\s2 b1 if di/ill$ wat] 7 us$1 x w\ld act rapidly on ! lead1 corrod+ x1 & caus+ a deposit 9 ! wat] ( :ite lead1 :i* w\ld r5d] su* wat] dang]\s 9 ! extreme4 ,,prussian ,,blue4 ,?is beautiful blue color is made by mix+ solutions ( sulphate ( iron 7gre5 vitriol7 & prussiate ( pota% toge!r1 :5 ! ,prussian blue falls 9 ! =m ( a precipitate1 or moi/ p[d]1 ( a pale gre5i% color1 b :i*1 by exposure to ! air & ! addition ( a little nitric acid1 becomes int5sely blue2 b ! ,prussian blue ( comm]ce is nev] pure1 = ! solution ( prussiate ( pota% is us$ z x comes f ! factory1 be=e be+ cry/alliz$1 & conta9s c>bonate ( pota%1 to get rid ( :i*1 alum is add$1 & ! result is1 ! =mation ( a consid]able am\nt ( alum9a1 :i* is a :ite e>? produc$ f ! alum1 & :i* falls d[n 9 ! precipitate mix$ ) ! ,prussian blue1 :i* is !reby increas$ 9 bulk & b little injur$ 9 color2 :5 a l>g] quantity ( ?is alum9a is purposely produc$1 ! result is a blue ( a r less int5se color1 call$ 8,antw]p blue40 ,! *emical "n = pure ,prussian blue is p]cyanide ( iron4 ,*9ese blue is ?is sub/ance 9 its pure/ /ate4 ,,prussiate ,,( ,,pota%4 ,prussiate ( pota% is ! comm]cial "n giv5 to :at *emi/s call 8f]rocyanide ( potassium10 x is us$ l>gely = ! production ( ,prussian blue1 & also 9 ! art ( electro-plat+1 :i*1 ( late1 has greatly increas$ ! dem& = its manufacture1 & _m pat5ts h be5 tak5 out = v>i\s modifications 9 ! =m ( production1 ! result1 h[ev]1 is ! same1 & x occurs 9 comm]ce 9 magnific5t cry/als ( a squ>e =m1 ) bevell$ edges1 & ( a yell[ color2 !re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r k9d call$ ! 8r$ prussiate10 :i* is mu* us$ 9 ! process ( calico pr9t+4 ,prussiate ( pota% is made by heat+ toge!r c>bonate ( pota%1 scraps ( iron1 & any k9d ( animal refuse1 z blood1 horns & ho(s1 clipp+s ( sk9 or old wooll5 rags2 ^! are /irr$ toge!r1 & ! heat rais$1 till !y =m a sort ( pa/e ( a black color1 :i*1 :5 cold1 is ?r[n into wat] & all ! soluble p>ts wa%$ out2 ?is fluid is filt]$ till q cle>1 evaporat$1 & set aside t cry/als may =m2 ^! are dissolv$ & aga9 cry/alliz$4 ,! r$ prussiate is made by pass+ *lor9e ov] ! yell[ prussiate 9 p[d] dissolv+ & cry/alliz+4 ,! mo/ deadly ( all poisons1 prussic or hydrocyanic acid1 is obta9$ f ! f]rocyanide ( potassium1 or prussiate ( pota%1 by add+ dilut$ sulphuric acid & di/ill+ ! vap\r into an ice-cold receiv]4 ,?is exp]im5t %\ld nev] be made by any b ^? well conv]sant ) su* matt]s4 ,,sulphate ,,( ,,iron4 ,also call$ 8,gre5 ,vitriol0 & 8,gre5 ,copp]as10 is a comb9ation ( sulphuric acid & oxide ( iron1 & may be made by putt+ iron fil+s or pieces ( iron into a mixture ( sulphuric acid & wat]1 & :5 all action has ceas$ evaporat+ ! liquid1 & sett+ x by till cry/als =m--^! are ( a pale gre5 color4 ,! sulphate ( iron ( comm]ce is =m$ by expos+ ! iron pyrites f\nd 9 ! coal di/ricts to ! air till x falls to p[d]2 wat] is !n p\r$ ov] ?is sub/ance1 & ! fluid collect$ & evaporat$4 ,sulphate ( iron is us$ *iefly to =m ! black dye s mu* 9 dem& to dye clo?1 & also 9 mak+ writ+ ink4 ,,sulphate ,,( ,,copp]4 ,?is sub/ance is also kn[n by ! names1 8,blue ,vitriol0 & 8,blue ,/one40 ,x is a comb9ation ( sulphuric acid ) oxide ( copp]1 & may be made by unit+ ^? sub/ances2 b :at is us$ on a l>ge scale = comm]cial purposes is obta9$ f ! wat]s :i* fl[ into copp] m9es :]e 8copp] pyrites0 ab\nd2 ?is wat] is evaporat$1 & ! sulphate ( copp] cry/allizes4 ,sulphate ( copp] has ( late be5 9 great dem& = ! electro-deposition ( copp]4 ,,*loride ,,( ,,lime4 ,*loride ( lime or 8blea*+-p[d]0 is made = ! purposes ( blea*+ calicoes1 l95s1 c41 & also = purify+ f\l air1 :i* x does by giv+ out *lor9e1 a gas capable ( unit+ ) & *ang+ ! injuri\s prop]ties ( f\l air 7:i* g5]ally conta9s "s comb9ation ( sulphur & hydrog574 ,*loride ( lime is made on ! l>ge scale by mix+ hydro*loric acid ) black oxide ( manganese4 ,?is mixture gives (f *lor9e4 ,?is is made to pass ov] a lay] ( slak$ lime1 :i* absorbs x gre$ily1 & becomes conv]t$ into ! blea*+ p[d]4 ,! hydro*loric acid us$ is a product result+ f ! manufacture ( soda1 & 0 =m]ly wa/$2 x is n[ us$ 9 l>ge quantities = ! process above describ$4 8,burnett's ,dis9fect+ ,fluid0 is a solution ( *loride ( z9c4 ,x is made by dissolv+ scraps ( z9c 9 hydro*loric acid2 hydrog5 gas is giv5 (f1 ) eff]vesc5ce1 & ! liquid rema9+ is ! solution ( *loride ( z9c1 :i* acts l *loride ( lime1 by giv+ (f *lor9e2 = ! *loride is sl[ly decompos$ by ! air1 ! oxyg5 ( :i* takes ! place ( ! *lor9e1 unit+ ) ! z9c to =m oxide ( z9c1 :ile ! *lor9e is set free4 ,,sulphuric ,,acid4 ,?is 0 =m]ly call$ 8,oil ( ,vitriol10 because x has an oily consi/5ce1 & 0 orig9ally di/ill$ f gre5 vitriol4 ,sulphuric acid is "o ( ! mo/ useful *emical ag5ts kn[n2 sc>cely a process 9 *emical manufacture c be p]=m$ )\t its assi/ance4 ,sulphuric acid is colorless1 & v heavy1 be+ ne>ly d\ble t ( wat] 7! proportion is #ahdb1 :ile wat] is #a1jjj72 x is p[]fully acid1 ev5 :5 l>gely dilut$ ) wat]1 & dur+ ?is mixture ) wat] gives out great heat1 a mixture ( equal p>ts w become hott] ?an boil+ wat]2 if x be mix$1 h[ev]1 ) sn[ in/ead ( wat]1 x becomes extremely cold 7bel[ z]o74 ,sulphuric acid is made by burn+ sulphur 9 a furnace1 & caus+ ! vap\rs to pass into a l>ge *amb] l9$ ) lead1 & hav+ "s wat] at ! bottom2 into ?is *amb] ! vap\rs aris+ f nitre mix$ ) sulphuric acid are also admitt$1 toge!r ) air & a jet ( /eam4 ,^! arrangem5ts require to be prop]ly & nicely regulat$1 & x 0 only by /udy ( ! complicat$ *anges :i* take place betwe5 ^! gases 7sulphur\s acid1 nitric oxide1 & atmosph]ic air71 t ?is arrangem5t has be5 devis$ & adopt$1 a great "p ( ! product hav+ be5 =m]ly wa/$ 9 a m clumsy mode ( prep>ation4 ,! sulphuric acid cond5s$ 9 ! wat] at ! bottom ( ! lead5 *amb] is too weak = use1 & is conc5trat$ by evaporat+ ! wat] f x2 = ?is purpose x is plac$ 9 %all[ lead5 pans plac$ on ! b>s ( a furnace1 & f9ally di/ill$ 9 glass retorts1 or retorts ( iron l9$ ) plat9um4 ,sulphuric acid has su* a p[]ful attraction = wat]1 t an op5 vessel half-full ( /rong acid plac$ 9 a damp situation w attract en\gh wat] f ! atmosph]e to cause x to be q full be=e long4 ,?is p[] ( attract+ wat] has be5 tak5 advantage ( to procure ice 9 ^? places :]e x is n to be _h naturally1 z ,india1 c4 ,if a vessel ( wat] be plac$ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 & ! receiv] exhau/$ ( air1 ! vap\r ( ! wat] w spe$ily fill x1 tak+ ! place ( ! air1 & s /op any fur!r evaporation2 b if ano!r vessel conta9+ "s sulphuric acid be plac$ also 9 ! receiv]1 ! acid w absorb ! vap\r ( wat] z fa/ z x is =m$1 & ?is rapid evaporation cont9u+ produces su* cold1 t ! rema9+ wat] is %ortly froz54 ,iron & z9c dissolve rapidly 9 dilut$ sulphuric acid1 giv+ (f abundance ( hydrog5 gas1 & ?is 0 ! way ?is gas 0 =m]ly produc$ = ! inflation ( balloons1 b ! common coal-gas be+ easily obta9able 9 almo/ any quantity 9 all t[ns1 x is n[ us$ = t purpose in/ead ( hydrog5 gas4 ,sulphuric acid 7*emically consid]$7 consi/s ( #a equival5t ( sulphur ) #c ( oxyg51 & #a ( wat]4 ,pure sulphuric acid 7)\t wat]7 is 9 ! =m ( f9e cry/als1 mu* resembl+ sn[1 :i*1 on exposure to air conta9+ ! slighte/ quantity ( moi/ure1 absorbs x1 & becomes conv]t$ into ! ord9>y sulphuric acid4 ,if ?is acid 7ev5 :5 greatly dilut$7 be spilt on cotton or l95 x de/roys x1 produc+ a hole2 ?is is ow+ to ! acid conv]t+ ! fibre into sug>4 ,a proposition 0 once made to produce sug> f ?is s\rce1 b l95 & cotton rags are 9 too great dem& = pap]-mak+ to all[ ( its be+ done4 ,,lea!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tan-,,y>d ,,& ,,pits4 ,tann+ is ! "n giv5 to ! process = conv]t+ ! sk9s ( animals into lea!r1 by comb9+ !m ) a sub/ance call$ 8,tann940 ,?is tann9 exi/s 9 _m vegetable sub/ances1 su* z oak-b>k1 gall-nuts1 cate*u1 suma*1 c43 all ( ^!1 & _m m1 are us$ = tann+1 b1 on acc\nt ( its *eapness1 oak-b>k is ! usual sub/ance employ$4 ,x is tann9 :i* gives ! quality ( a/r+5cy to _m vegetables1 & ?is v ta/e ( a/r+5cy is produc$ by a p>tial comb9ation ( ! tann9 ) ! surface ( ! m\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,unhair+ ,,! ,,sk94 ,! sk9s 7call$ 8hides0 or 8pelts07 are fir/ fre$ f all loose pieces ( fle%1 fat1 or sk92 ! hair is !n remov$ by soak+ !m 9 lime & wat]4 ,! sk9s are !n laid 9 ! 8tan-pit0 betwe5 lay]s ( cru%$ oak-b>k until ! pit is ne>ly full2 wat] is !n pump$ 91 & ! :ole is all[$ to rema9 = sev]al weeks or mon?s 7accord+ to ! ?ickness ( ! sk971 dur+ :i* "t1 h[ev]1 ! sk9s are *ang$ 9 position by remov+ !m f "o pit to ano!r ) fre% b>k 9 x1 s t ^? tak5 f ! top ( ! fir/ are plac$ at ! bottom ( ! next2 & ?is is done f "t to "t1 9 ord] t all may receive ! same pressure & /r5g? ( tan-liquor4 ,v ?ick hides take a ye> to tan p]fectly 9 ?is way1 & consequ5tly _m processes h be5 tri$ to quick5 ! op]ation2 b ! lea!r made mo/ sl[ly seems to we> ! be/1 & consequ5tly fet*es ! high] prices4 ,illu/ration3 ,,dry+ ,,rooms4 ,sk9s :i* are ?91 & to be us$ = fancy "w1 & = book-b9d+ & glove-mak+1 are ei!r tann$ ) 8suma*10 or ) alum & salt made into a pa/e ) fl\r & yolk ( eggs2 ?is is put into a tub1 & ! mixture & sk9s work$ toge!r ) ! h&s till !y are ?or\ghly unit$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,suma* ,,tan ,,tubs4 ,besides boots & %oes1 lea!r is us$ = ! h>ness ( horses1 cov]s = seats1 gloves1 & innum]able o!r purposes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,splitt+ ,,ma*9e4 ,= "s purposes ! lea!r is requir$ to be v ?91 & ( exactly "o ?ickness4 ,?is is obta9$ by ! process ( splitt+1 = :i* a ma*9e is us$ ^: exactness is su*1 t "o slice is tak5 f ! inn] "p ( ! :ole sk91 r$uc+ x 9 ?ickness )\t cutt+ a hole 9 any "p4 ,! sk9 is /ret*$ tightly r\nd a roll]1 :i* sl[ly revolves aga9/ a /raight knife-edge1 fix$ at a c]ta9 di/ance f x1 accord+ to ! ?ickness ( ! sk91 & :i* is pass$ by ! ma*9e backw>ds & =w>ds1 cutt+ ! sk9 a little fur!r ea* "t4 ,,glue ,,& ,,size4 ,glue is made f ! clipp+s ( hides or any o!r refuse ( sk9s1 horn %av+s1 bones1 c4 ,all ^! sub/ances are pil$ up 9 a boil] hav+ a second bottom )91 p]=at$ ) holes1 & kept f ! true bottom by %ort feet2 ?is arrangem5t is to prev5t ! sub/ances boil$ f burn+ at ! bottom ( ! boil]4 ,aft] _m h\rs' boil+ ! liquid is te/$1 & if x 8sets0 into a sort ( jelly readily1 ! liquor is drawn (f into ano!r boil]1 :]e x is kept w>m1 t x may n set till us$4 ,f ?is boil] x is /ra9$ ?r\gh flannel into squ>e wood5 boxes1 hav+ ridges at ! bottom divid+ !m into squ>es 7to direct ! workm5 :]e to cut ! glue :5 cold72 ^! boxes are set ap>t1 & :5 ! cont5ts h become cold & set into a firm jelly1 a knife is pass$ betwe5 ! sides ( ! box & its cont5ts1 & ! glue turn$ out 9 a l>ge solid squ>e4 ,?is is n[ cut by means ( a wire ) a h&le at ea* end into squ>es ( ab\t eight in*es ea* way & an in* ?ick2 ^! are n[ plac$ on nets made ( cord fix$ 9 frames "o above ano!r 9 a 8dry+-room10 :i* is op5 to ! air at ! sides1 & able to be clos$ up 9 case ( wet wea!r4 ,9 ?is room ! glue dries up1 %r9ks1 & h>d5s1 until x is q brittle2 ! m>ks ( ! net c be se5 on e squ>e ( glue4 ,size is ! same z glue1 b in/ead ( be+ dri$ x is put into small b>rels4 ,two qualities ( size are made1 s+le & d\ble size4 ,x is mu* us$ by :itewa%]s1 pap]-hang]s1 & o!rs1 b = any purpose requir+ good size1 x may be made by soak+ is+lass or gelat9e 9 cold wat] till x is s(t5$1 & !n /&+ ! vessel 9 boil+ wat] till x is dissolv$2 ?is produces a jelly ne>ly pure4 ,a *eap] k9d ( size1 almo/ z pure1 may be made by boil+ clipp+s ( clean p>*m5t till !y are dissolv$1 & /ra9+ (f ! solution4 ,gelat9e is ! same z glue1 b made ( mat]ials t are clean & fre%4 ,is+lass is ! 8s\nd0 or swimm+-bladd] ( ! /urgeon1 clean$1 dri$1 & cut up into f9e %r$s4 ,,p>*m5t4 ,p>*m5t is prep>$ f ! sk9s ( %eep1 goats1 calves1 & asses4 ,%eep-sk9s furni% by f> ! great] "p ( all p>*m5t prep>$1 inde$ all t :i* is us$ = de$s & law purposes4 ,f :atev] sk9 prep>$1 x is fir/ soak$ 9 lime & wat] to remove ! hair & greas9ess1 & !n /ret*$ tightly on a frame1 & ! surface rubb$ smoo? ) pumice-/one1 aft] :i* ! sk9 is all[$ to dry4 ,p>*m5t is us$ = de$s1 :i* require to be v durable & n easily torn1 bo? ( :i* qualities x possesses mu* m ?an any k9d ( pap]2 x is also us$ = book-b9d+1 drum-heads1 & _m o!r purposes4 ,clipp+s ( p>*m5t boil$ = "s "t1 & ! liquid /ra9$ (f1 =ms an excell5t colorless size4 ,vellum is a ?ick k9d ( p>*m5t1 made *iefly ( calf-sk94 ,,catgut4 ,:at is call$ catgut is made f ! inn] or l9+ membrane ( ! inte/9es ( %eep4 ,^! are wa%$1 soak$1 scrap$1 & o!rwise prep>$1 to r5d] !m ev5 & cle>2 !y are !n soak$ 9 a solution ( pe>la% to cle> !m f grease1 twi/$1 expos$ to ! vap\r ( sulphur1 poli%$ by rubb+1 & aft]w>ds /ret*$ & dri$4 ,catgut is us$ n only = ! /r+s ( viol9s & o!r musical in/rum5ts1 b also = :at is call$ 8clock-mak]s' cord10 t is to say1 = ! b[ by :i* ! drill is turn$1 & = sev]al o!r purposes4 ,x is v /rong1 & does n easily get ragg$1 z w\ld any hemp5 cord4 ,,pap]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,section ,,( ,,rag ,,eng9e1 ,,) ,,d\ble ,,roll]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,pap]-,,mak+ ,,ma*9e4 ,?is important article ( civilisation is made f rags ( v>i\s descriptions & qualities1 accord+ to ! k9d ( pap] to be made1 ! f9e/ :ite pap] be+ made ( old clean l95 rags1 :ile br[n pap] is made ( all sorts ( old rope-y>ns1 sack+1 c41 & "s k9ds ( pap] h a consid]able am\nt ( /raw blea*$ & work$ up 9 !m4 ,! rags are fir/ sort$ & cut up into small pieces2 !y are !n beat5 on a wire scre5 to sep>ate all du/1 & aft]w>ds put into ! wa%+-ma*9e1 ?r\gh :i* a /ream ( wat] runs1 & 9 :i* !y are knead$ & torn by a broad :eel hav+ iron w$ges or knives fa/5$ to its edge 7fig4 #a7 or surface1 :i* "w z x is turn$ aga9/ knives ( a simil> description fa/5$ to ! bottom ( ! ci/]n4 ,:5 ! rags are ?or\ghly wa%$1 & at ! same "t torn to a co>se pulp1 x con/itutes :at ! workm5 call 8half-/uff40 ,?is is mix$ ) *loride ( lime1 & ! ma*9e aga9 set 9 motion2 ?is is = ! purpose ( blea*+ ! pulp2 aft] ?is has be5 effect$1 m wat] is turn$ on1 z 9 ! fir/ wa%+1 & all ! *loride ( lime wa%$ ?or\ghly away4 ,! pulp is n[ ei!r put into ano!r ma*9e ( ! same description :i* cuts %>p] & f9]1 or else ! same ma*9e us$ at fir/ is s screw$ up z to cause ! knives to come m closely toge!r2 9 ei!r case ! rate ( turn+ is greatly increas$1 s t ! :eel turns at ab\t #aej revolutions p] m9ute1 & completely gr9ds up ! pulp till x is p]fectly smoo?3 at ?is "p ( ! process "s 8indigo0 or 8smalt0 is add$ if ! pap] is to be ( a bluei% t9t1 z 9 8foolscap0 pap]4 ,! 8/uff0 is n[ run (f into a ci/]n ready = use4 ,pap] is n[ ne>ly all made by ma*9]y1 9 pieces ( a c]ta9 wid?1 b ( an indef9ite l5g?1 & is cut up into %eets aft]w>ds by a 8cutt+ ma*9e40 ,^! ma*9es 7fig4 #b7 consi/ ess5tially ( a vat1 ,a1 = ! pulp1 :i* fl[s out on to a b$ ( wire gauze1 ,b ,b ,b1 cov]$ ) felt1 & b\nd$ on ea* side by /raps or deckles1 & =m+ a circle or endless b& by be+ /ret*$ ov] a succession ( roll]s1 ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g1 :i*1 by turn+ r\nd cont9ually1 move its upp] surface onw>ds & betwe5 o!r cyl9d]s1 :i* press out ! sup]flu\s moi/ure2 x is !n c>ri$ =w>d till x arrives at sev]al pairs ( l>ge holl[ cyl9d]s1 ,h ,h ,h1 heat$ by means ( /eam :i* is pass$ ?r\gh !m1 & :i* compress & at ! same "t ?or\ghly dry ! pap]1 :i* comes f !m z pap] p]fectly =m$1 & ( any l5g? t may be requir$4 ,x is !n glaz$ on ! surface by ! roll]s ,i1 & coil$ on ! cyl9d] ,l4 ,any "n1 device1 or wat]-m>k c be work$ 9 ! b$ on to :i* ! pulp fl[s1 & :i*1 be+ repeat$ at def9ite di/ances1 appe>s on ea* %eet into :i* ! pap] is aft]w>ds cut4 ,! app>atus m>k$ ,k is to conduct to ! e>? ! electricity develop$ by ! friction ( ! pap] aga9/ ! roll]s4 ,b5ea? ! b$ ( wire gauze1 on :i* ! pulp is laid is a cavity f :i* ! air is pump$1 & :i* causes ! air to press ^u ! surface ( ! pulp1 & =ce out a great deal ( its moi/ure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,siz+ ,,ma*9e4 ,if ! pap] has to be siz$ 7:i* is ! case 9 all 8h>d0 pap]s7 x has to pass ?r\gh a process1 ! ma*9]y ( :i* is %[n 9 fig4 #c4 ,a is a res]voir = size1 ,b a tr\gh = ! pap] to dip into1 ,c ! reel ( pap] to be siz$1 ,d roll]s to press out all sup]flu\s size1 ,e a pulley to keep ! pap] on ! /ret*1 ,f ,f ,f a succession ( holl[ 8drums10 to prolong ! passage ( ! pap] ?r\gh ! air ( ! dry+-room1 :i* is heat$ by ! furnace ,g & ! tubes ,i ,i4 ,h ,h are op5+s to admit fre% air1 & ,k op5+s to all[ ! exit ( ! /eam f ! pap] z x dries4 ,l is a s]ies ( roll]s to glaze x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,cutt+ ,,ma*9e4 ,! 8cutt+-ma*9e0 be=e ref]r$ to is repres5t$ at fig4 #d4 ,a is a :eel ^u :i* is fix$ a plate ) projections & screws = fix+ ! position ( ! arm atta*$ to ! l9k ,b2 ,b l9k connect+ ! :eel ,a ) ! lev]-arm ,g1 & capable ( adju/m5t by means ( ! plate atta*$ to ! :eel ,a1 & ! screw ,d2 ,d a screw regulat+ ! position ( ! rod ,b2 ,e ! drum by ^: motion ! web ( ! pap] is c>ri$ =w>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,h& ,,process4 ,b ! process1 z conduct$ by h& 7fig4 #e71 w give a mu* bett] notion ( h[ pap] is =m$ f ! pulp4 ,a res]voir1 ,a1 is fill$ ) pulp1 :i* is suppli$ by a :eel 9 ! box ,b1 to a /ra9] ,c1 & pass$ to a vat ,d1 & a man1 ,e1 takes 9 8 h&s a m\ld consi/+ ( a %all[ frame ( wood ( ! size ! %eet ( pap] is to be1 hav+ a bottom ( f9e wires laid side by side1 & hav+ wires cross+ at int]vals to keep !m firm 7! m>ks ( ^! may be se5 9 any %eet ( laid foolscap pap] held up to ! light72 he dips ?is m\ld edgewise into ! res]voir1 & br+s x up horizontally full ( pulp2 ?is he g5tly %akes1 to make ! pulp lie level & all[ all sup]flu\s wat] to dra9 ?r\gh ! wires4 ,x is !n h&$ to ano!r man ,h1 :o has a %eet ( flannel or felt spread out on a table ,f ,g1 on :i* ! m\ld is inv]t$1 & ! %eet ( pulp left on ! flannel1 :i* sucks up m ( its moi/ure2 ov] ?is is plac$ ano!r piece ( flannel1 & !n ano!r %eet ( pulp on x1 & s on to ! numb] ( five or six doz5 ,f1 !n ! :ole is put into a p[]ful press1 & screw$ d[n till all ! wat] is squeez$ out1 :5 !y are pretty firm1 & are lift$ out & hung on l9es to dry1 aft] :i* !y are imm]s$ 9 a ci/]n fill$ ) ?9 size made by boil+ clipp+s ( sk9 9 wat] 7see 8,glue & ,size071 & hav+ "s alum dissolv$ 9 x--!y are once m press$ & dri$4 ,:at is call$ 8hot-press$0 pap] is press$ betwe5 smoo? %eets ( pa/ebo>d1 hav+ a hot iron plate plac$ betwe5 e ?ree or f\r doz5 %eets ( pap]2 ?is gives a smoo? surface to ! pap]4 ,! names1 dates1 & o!r m>ks se5 on h&-made pap] are =m$ by wires work$ into ! bottom ( ! m\ld1 :i*1 project+1 make ! pulp ?9n] 9 ^? places4 ,! wat]-m>k ( ,bank-notes is made 9 ! same way4 ,m ?an half-a-million /]l+ is paid annually = duty ^u pap]--s va/ is ! consumption6 ,,malt4 ,b>ley is ! gra9 g5]ally *os5 = produc+ malt1 al?\gh o!rs may be us$4 ,x is fir/ soak$ 9 cold wat] till x is s(t5$2 x is !n spread out ab\t two feet ?ick on ! floor ( ! malt-h\se1 :]e x beg9s to g]m9ate1 9 ! same mann] z if s[n 9 ! e>?2 ?is is all[$ to g on s f> only till ! fir/ "p ( ! root & /em make _! appe>ance1 9 ! =m ( a little bud & a fibre4 ,dur+ g]m9ation ! malt gives out a poison\s gas call$ 8c>bonic acid10 & becomes w>m1 9 fact x w\ld become too w>m & be injur$1 b x is kept /irr$ by means ( wood5 %ovels f "t to "t1 & ! temp]ature asc]ta9$ by means ( a !rmomet]4 ,z ! process ( g]m9ation goes on1 all ! />*y matt] naturally conta9$ 9 ! gra9 becomes *ang$ into sug>1 & ! malt1 :5 made1 has a sweeti% ta/e4 ,z soon z ! g]m9ation has proce$$ to a c]ta9 ext5t x is /opp$ by dry+2 = ?is purpose ! malt is put into a kiln & heat$ almo/ to scor*+--if b slightly1 x is call$ pale malt or 8amb]10 if m1 8br[n malt0 or roa/$ malt4 ,malt1 if kept dry1 w rema9 a long "t un*ang$4 ,x is us$ = produc+ be] & v9eg>1 & = 8wa%10 f :i* all ! raw _s us$ 9 ,engl& is di/ill$4 ,:iskey is also di/ill$ 9 ,scotl& & ,irel& f malt4 ,malt has ! prop]ty ( conv]t+ ! />* ( b>ley unmalt$ into sug> :ile 9 contact ) x4 ,= example1 if b>ley 7 gr\nd & boil+ wat] p\r$ on x1 x w\ld =m a ?ick sort ( pa/e1 :i* is because x conta9s />* only2 :ile malt treat$ 9 ! same way1 s9ks to ! bottom1 & leaves a cle> limpid 8wort10 :i* c be /ra9$ (f1 because ! />* is *ang$ into sug>1 :i* is soluble4 ,n[1 if equal p>ts ( malt & gr\nd b>ley be also treat$ 9 ! same way1 ! malt v %ortly conv]ts ! />* ( ! b>ley into sug>1 & ! result is ! same z if all _h be5 malt4 ,?is 0 once a matt] ( great importance to ! brew]s1 :o !reby sav$ ! heavy duty impos$ ^u malt4 ,,*ocolate ,,& ,,cocoa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,*ocolate ,,cru%+ ,,ma*9e4 ,*ocolate & cocoa are made f ! se$s or beans ( ! ,!obroma ,cacao4 ,! fruit ( ?is plant some:at resembles a cucumb]1 & conta9s f tw5ty to ?irty se$s2 ^! are dri$ & pack$ = ! m>ket4 ,!y come to ?is c\ntry f ! ,we/ ,indies 7,b]bice & ,dem]>a74 ,! beans are roa/$ 9 an iron cyl9d] ) holes to let out ! vap\r1 c42 :5 cool !y are depriv$ ( _! husks1 & !n cru%$ by means ( roll]s turn+ on a flat slab1 kept w>m by /oves or /eam4 ,! se$s :5 cru%$ on ! w>m slab become almo/ liquid1 ow+ to a k9d ( butt] or concrete oil :i* !y conta91 & :i* melts by a g5tle heat4 ,:5 ! se$s are roll$ by ! ma*9e into a smoo? pa/e1 ?is is ei!r put into a m\ld ( t9 & =m$ into squ>es & v>i\s o!r =ms1 or left r\gh z x is scrap$ f ! slab 7?is is call$ 8rock0 cocoa74 ,= *ocolate x is mix$ ) sug>1 & ei!r dri$ & p[d]$1 or made1 z ! cocoa1 into pa/e4 ,on ! ,cont95t x is flav\r$ ) 8vanilla40 ,,/eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,bessem]',s ,,process4 ,/eel is usually made by a process call$ 8cem5tation40 ,b>s ( ! be/ ,sw$i% or ,russian iron1 ab\t six feet long1 are plac$ 9 an iron box1 ! bottom ( :i* is cov]$ ) a lay] ( *>coal p[d]2 ov] ! fir/ r[ ( iron b>s "s m *>coal is put1 & !n ano!r r[ ( iron b>s1 & s on till ! box is full1 :5 x is c>efully clos$ & kept at a :ite heat = f\r or five days4 ,:5 cold1 ! b>s are f\nd to be conv]t$ into /eel1 &1 be+ r\gh & bli/]$ on ! surface1 are call$ 8bli/]$ /eel20 ?is is brok5 up1 & ! b>s laid side by side & made hot 9 a =ge1 :]e !y are weld$ toge!r by ! bl[s ( a heavy hamm]1 & drawn or roll$ out by ma*9]y into b>s ( 8f9e /eel40 ,/eel diff]s f iron 9 ! clos5ess ( its gra91 9 be+ v mu* 8t\gh]10 & 9 hav+ t v useful & peculi> prop]ty call$ 8temp]10 :i* is ! p[] ( h>d5+ :5 sudd5ly cool$ :ile r$-hot4 ,if a b> ( /eel z s(t z iron be made ( a bright r$ heat1 & !n sudd5ly plung$ into cold wat]1 x w be f\nd to h become h>d] ?an any o!r metal 7s h>d1 inde$1 t x w scrat* glass71 & is z brittle & readily brok5 z fl9t or glass4 ,if n[ a g5tle heat be appli$ to x1 ?is extreme h>dness ( temp] gives way4 ,= in/ance1 if a piece ( bright h>d /eel is held = a mom5t 9 ! holl[ ( a cle> fire1 a pale /raw color appe>s on its surface1 x is n[ /ill v h>d 7b n s h>d z be=e71 & is fit = razors1 surgeons' in/rum5ts1 c2 b if held 9 ! fire a mom5t or two long]1 x becomes ( a bright gold5 yell[1 & is fit = p5knives1 & o!r cutt+ in/rum5ts2 held long] /ill1 x becomes bright blue1 & is fit = wat*-spr+s1 swords1 & o!r purposes requir+ great ela/icity b no great h>dness2 if ! heat be c>ri$ /ill fur!r a br[n t+e is se51 & x is n[ r s(t1 b greatly h>d] ?an iron1 & is /ill ela/ic2 saws1 coa*-spr+s1 & _m o!r articles are made f /eel at ?is temp]4 ,if ! heat be c>ri$ on to r$ness1 ! /eel w\ld be q s(t :5 x _h sl[ly cool$1 b if sudd5ly cool$ 7z by be+ plung$ into wat]7 ! orig9al h>d temp] comes back aga94 ,/eel1 l iron1 may be ca/1 & ca/-/eel is "o ( its mo/ useful =ms1 & mu* resembles 8f9e /eel40 ,! mode ( prep>+ ca/-/eel is to melt ! 8bli/]$ /eel0 9 a crucible1 or e>!n pot1 & !n run x into a m\ld3 ?is =ms an 8+ot0 ( /eel1 :i* may be aft]w>ds roll$ or weld$ z ! case may require4 ,/eel may be drawn into v f9e wire1 or wr\ght into ! mo/ m9ute articles1 z ! spr+s & o!r p>ts ( wat*es4 ,x be>s a v f9e & bright poli%1 & does n ru/ or t>ni% s easily z iron4 ,x has lately be5 propos$ to make heavy cannon ( ca/-/eel1 :i* is mu* t\gh] ?an ei!r ca/-iron or gun-metal4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,fig4 #a4 & ,,fig4 #b47 ,,p]p5dicul> ,,sections ,,( ,,conv]t+ ,,vessel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,outside ,,view ,,( ,,conv]t+ ,,vessel4 ,a process has lately be5 inv5t$ by ,bessem] to sup]s$e ! long & labori\s process ( 8puddl+40 ,x consi/s ess5tially ( transf]r+ ! melt$ iron into a vessel 9 :i* !re are tubes ins]t$ at ! l[] "p1 & ?r\gh :i* air is =c$ at a great pressure1 :i* bubbles up 9 /reams ?r\gh ! melt$ metal1 &1 z x does s1 unites ) ! c>bon & sulphur ( ! iron1 conv]t+ !m into c>bonic & sulphur\s acids1 & at ! same "t produc+ an increas$ heat1 :i* is q necess>y to ! success ( ! process1 = z ! iron becomes pur] x also becomes m difficultly fusible1 & w\ld set into a solid mass1 b t ?is greatly increas$ temp]ature keeps x fluid4 ,?is ris+ ( temp]ature is simil> to :at takes place ^u bl[+ a common fire ) bell[s2 = ! m air t is admitt$ to c>bon rais$ to a v high temp]ature1 ! m rapidly does x comb9e ) its oxyg51 or1 9 o!r words1 ! m rapidly does x burn4 ,s t1 9 ?is process ( ,bessem]'s contriv+1 ! c>bon ( ! iron acts z fuel to keep up ! heat necess>y to ma9ta9 its fusion1 & at ! same "t1 by be+ conv]t$ into c>bonic acid1 escapes 9 bubbles 7l ! bubbles :i* escape f soda-wat]71 & ?is rapid production ( gas 9 e "p ( ! fus$ iron also assi/s 9 br++ ab\t a ?or\gh /irr+-up & mix+ toge!r ( all its p>ts4 ,ref]5ce to ! accompany+ diagrams w illu/rate ! work+ ( ! process4 ,9 figs4 #a & #b1 ,a ,b are l[] *amb]s1 ,c is ! melt$ iron1 ,d is an upp] *amb] = melt+ scrap-iron1 c41 ,e 9 fig4 #a & ,d 9 fig4 #b are op5+s = ! escape ( gas & flame1 ,f ,f is an air-passage runn+ all r\nd & communicat+ by ,g ) ! tuy]e-holes %[n at ,e 9 fig4 #d1 ,h is ! fire-brick l9+ to ! furnace1 & ,i ! tapp+-hole ?r\gh :i* ! fluid iron is dis*>g$4 ,9 fig4 #c1 ,i is ! tapp+-hole1 ,k ! ma9 air-tube lead+ f ! bla/-eng9e1 ,l ,l p]p5dicul> tubes 7m>k$ ,g 9 figs4 #a & #b7 lead+ f circul> air-passage to tuy]e-holes1 ,m is an op5+ = ! ins]tion ( iron into ! upp] *amb]1 opposite to op5+ ,d 9 fig4 #b1 & ,n ! tap = regulat+ ! bla/2 ,o indicates ! out] cas+ ( wr\ght iron4 ,:5 ! process is c>ri$ only to a c]ta9 po9t1 ! result is a sort ( semi-/eel1 :i* ! inv5tor ( ! process expects w be a v useful article ( comm]ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,horizontal ,,section ,,or ,,plan ,,( ,,conv]t+ ,,vessel4 ,dur+ ! bubbl+ up ( ! :ole mass ( iron & ! extreme elevation ( temp]ature caus$ by ! union ( ! c>bon ( ! impure iron ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 ! oxide ( iron z fa/ z x =ms fuses into a sort ( glass1 & ?is unites ) ! e>?y matt]s ( ! impure iron & floats on ! upp] "p z a flux1 ?us ridd+ ! ca/-iron ( all its impurities1 ) no o!r fuel ?an t conta9$ 9 ! iron itself & ! air4 ,! accompany+ illu/ration repres5ts a horizontal section or plan ( ! conv]t+ vessel2 ,a ! c5tral *amb]1 ,b a l9+ ( fire-bricks1 ,c ! ma9 air-tube1 ,d ! tapp+-hole1 ,e ! tuy]e-holes ?r\gh :i* ! air is =c$ into ! melt$ iron to be purifi$1 ,f is ! outside cas+ ( wr\ght-iron4 ,,t9-,,plate1 ,,& ,,galvanis$ ,,iron4 ,:at is usually call$ t9 is1 9 fact1 %eet-iron coat$ ) t91 & ( ?is t9-plate1 kettles1 saucepans1 c41 are made4 ,! art ( coat+ iron plates ) t9 has be5 practis$ 9 ,engl& h>dly m ?an "o hundr$ ye>s4 ,! v be/ s(t iron is us$ = ! purpose ( be+ t9n$4 ,x is roll$ out into ?9 plates1 :i* are cut by %e>s into squ>es ( usually ?irte5 in*es long & t5 broad1 ^! plates are dipp$ into weak acid to clean _! surfaces1 !n rubb$ ) s&1 & f9ally wa%$2 !y are next dipp$ into melt$ tall[1 :i* pres]ves _! surfaces bright till !y c be us$4 ,!y are !n imm]s$ 9 melt$ t91 :i* has its surface cov]$ ) melt$ tall[1 to keep x f be+ conv]t$ into oxide4 ,:5 ! plates h rema9$ = a %ort "t 9 ! t91 !y are remov$1 & ! sup]flu\s t9 is wip$ f ! l[] edge ) a bru% made ( hemp1 & !n clean$ f ! grease ) dry bran4 ,! objects ga9$ by coat+ iron ) t9 are1 increas$ beauty ( appe>ance 7= :5 t9n$ w>e is kept bright1 x has almo/ ! color ( silv]71 & a protection to keep ! surface f ru/+1 & consequ5tly be+ corrod$ into holes4 ,copp] & brass vessels are t9n$ inside1 to prev5t ! =mation ( t poison\s sub/ance call$ v]digris4 ,! mode ( t9n+ !m is z foll[s3--,!y are clean$ inside by means ( vitriol1 & !n made hot1 f9e gra9-t9 & a little ros9 be+ put into !m1 & turn$ ab\t & bru%$ ov] ! surface ) a ball ( t[3 by ?is means1 ! t9 is equally spread ov] ! inn] surface ( ! vessel4 ,t9-tacks1 buckles1 & o!r small articles1 receive a coat+ ( t9 by be+ put into an e>!n pot toge!r ) "s gra9-t9 & a sub/ance call$ 8sal ammoniac10 & ! pot be+ heat$ ov] a fire suffici5tly to melt ! t91 is !n %ak5 up till ! articles inside h receiv$ a coat+ ( t94 ,iron plates h lately be5 coat$ ) melt$ z9c in/ead ( t91 & ! surface ?us cov]$ enables !m to be us$ = v>i\s purposes & 9 situations :]e !y are expos$ to ! action ( ! wea!r1 z on h\setops1 c4 ,! plates1 ?us treat$1 are call$ 8galvanis$ iron10 & !y are g5]ally us$ 9 a corrugat$ =m4 ,!y )/& ! action ( ! wea!r v mu* bett] ?an simple iron plates w\ld1 = ! latt] w\ld be v soon eat5 into holes f ru/+4 ,,glass4 ,?is mo/ useful & elegant mat]ial--n[ an article ( almo/ univ]sal application1 9 v>i\s =ms--is made on a v l>ge scale by fus+ toge!r sea-s& & alkali 7ei!r pota%1 soda1 or lime71 &1 9 ! case ( 8cry/al10 or 8fl9t-glass10 oxide ( lead4 ,! foll[+ is ab\t ! composition ( ! *ief k9ds ( glass 9 use3-- ,,fl9t ,,glass4 ,,p>ts4 ,,plate ,,glass4 ,,p>ts4 ,pure :ite sea-s& #eb ,pure :ite s& #ee ,pota% #ad ,soda #ce ,oxide ( lead #cd ,nitre #h ------ ,lime #b #ajj ----- #ajj ,,cr[n ,,glass4 ,,p>ts4 ,,gre5 ,,bottle ,,glass4 ,,p>ts4 ,f9e :ite s& #fc ,sea-s& #hj ,*alk #g ,salt #aj ,soda #cj ,lime #aj ---- ---- #ajj #ajj ,fl9t-glass or 8cry/al0 is v heavy1 mod]ately s(t 7be+ easily cut ) a file71 & v bright & :ite4 ,x is us$ = all table-glass1 z decant]s1 w9e-glasses1 c41 & = ! drops or lu/res ( *&eli]s4 ,plate-glass is t k9d ( glass n[ 9 su* g5]al use = %op-w9d[s1 look+-glasses1 c4 ,x is ca/ on flat iron tables1 & roll$ out to ! sizes requir$1 !n cut & poli%$ by ma*9]y4 ,9 ! r\gh /ate x is call$ 8r\gh plate10 & is ! sub/ance us$ 9 ! ,cry/al ,palace1 & has ( late become almo/ a sub/itute = gr\nd glass1 :i* is simply ord9>y glass gr\nd or r\gh5$ on ! surface by means ( s&1 s t x w admit light & yet n all[ objects to be se5 ?r\gh x4 ,cr[n-glass is ! ord9>y 8w9d[-glass40 ,x is made 9 great circul> pieces 7see 8,glass-bl[+071 & cut up into ! sizes requir$4 ,cr[n or w9d[-glass made "s ye>s back1 _h a disagreeable t+e ( gre51 :i* has be5 remov$ 9 mod]n glass by ! addition ( a m9ute quantity ( oxide ( manganese4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,ov]head ,,diagram ,,( ,,furnace47 ,! +r$i5ts to be made into glass 7( :atev] k9d x may be7 are ?or\ghly mix$ toge!r & ?r[n a little at a "t into l>ge crucibles or melt+-pots plac$ 9 a circle 7,a ,a1 fig4 #a7 9 a furnace re/+ on buttresses 7,b ,b1 fig4 #a71 & heat$ to :it5ess by means ( a fire 9 ! c5tre1 ,c1 bl[n by a bl[+ ma*9e1 ! tube ( :i* is se5 at ,d4 ,?is furnace is %[n 9 p]spective 9 fig4 #b4 ,! +r$i5ts melt & s9k d[n into a cle> fluid1 ?r[+ up a scum1 :i* is remov$ f "t to "t4 ,?is cle> glass 9 ! fus$ /ate is n[ kept at a :ite heat till all air-bubbles h disappe>$2 ! heat is !n l[]$ to a bright r$ness1 :5 ! glass assumes a consi/5ce & ductility suitable to ! purposes ( ! glass bl[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,ext]ior ,,view ,,( ,,furnace47 ,artificial gems are all b v>ieties ( glass4 ,:at is call$ 8pa/e10 8,fr5* diamonds10 c41 are glasses ( peculi> brilliancy1 well cut & poli%$4 ,g>nets1 em]alds1 & o!r preci\s /ones are imitat$ by color+ ! 8pa/e0 ) v>i\s sub/ances1 *iefly metallic oxides1 z oxide ( cobalt1 :i* produces a blue color1 oxide ( copp] a r$1 & oxide ( *romium a gre5 color1 c4 ,glass is us$ = a v>iety ( purposes besides ! "o great purpose ( admitt+ light to h\ses :ile air & damp are exclud$4 ,x furni%es an imm5se v>iety ( beautiful & useful articles 9 ! =m ( dr9k+-vessels1 vases1 *&eli]s1 c41 & to ! *emi/ & manufactur] g5]ally1 x is invaluable1 = vessels ( glass ?or\ghly resi/ ! action ( all acids 7) ! exception ( ! hydr(luoric7 & ne>ly e o!r sub/ance4 ,x /&s a consid]able heat1 & if made equal 9 sub/ance & r ?91 w n easily crack by sudd5 alt]ations ( temp]ature4 ,)\t glass1 microscopes1 telescopes1 cam]as1 b>omet]s & !rmomet]s--^u :i* "s ( our be/ & mo/ useful k & "s v beautiful results ( *emical action dep5d--c\ld h>dly h be5 con/ruct$4 ,,soda-,,wat]4 ,soda-wat] 0 =m]ly prep>$ by ! ord9>y *emi/1 b s9ce x has become s g5]al a bev]age has be5 made a sep>ate bran* ( *emical manufacture4 ,soda-wat] consi/s ( a v weak solution ( c>bonate ( soda1 hold+ a l>ge quantity ( c>bonic acid 9 solution1 = wat] has ! prop]ty ( absorb+ a c]ta9 quantity ( c>bonic acid1 & ?is quantity is increas$ 9 proportion to ! pressure ex]t$ on ! wat]4 ,?is pressure is secur$ 9 ! fir/ place by ma*9]y1 & aft]w>ds ma9ta9$ by ! bottle be+ closely cork$ & ! cork fa/5$ 9 by means ( wire4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,soda-,,wat] ,,app>atus4 ,9 fig4 #a !re is an illu/ration ( ! ma*9]y us$4 ,x consi/s ( a small vessel hold+ sulphuric acid1 atta*$ to ano!r vessel conta9+ *alk & wat] kept con/antly /irr$ by a small w9dlass pass+ ?r\gh a hole 9 ! top1 & work+ air-tight4 ,:5 "s ( ! sulphuric acid is all[$ to run into ! vessel hold+ ! *alk an eff]vesc5ce takes place1 & a rapid extrication ( c>bonic acid2 ?is is conduct$ by a tube to a gas-hold] z a /ore4 ,a tube leads f ?is gas-hold] into a sort ( air-pump1 & a man1 by turn+ a w9dlass1 n only works ?is & !reby =ces a c]ta9 quantity ( gas into ano!r vessel ( copp] 7plat$ ) silv] inside71 b turns ?is vessel itself rapidly r\nd4 ,9 ?is vessel ! solution ( c>bonate ( soda is plac$1 & is agitat$ "u pressure ) ! c>bonic acid ?us =c$ into x1 & :i* x rapidly absorbs4 ,f ?is vessel x is drawn (f into bottles1 :i* are adroitly cork$ be=e mu* ( ! c>bonic acid c escape1 & !n wir$ d[n1 a fre% supply ( solution ( soda & c>bonic acid be+ con/antly introduc$4 ,pota%-wat] & ,c>r>a wat] are made 9 ! same way1 us+ pota% 9 ! =m]1 & *alk 9 ! latt]1 in/ead ( soda4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,soda-,,wat] ,,bottle47 ,! =m ( a soda-wat] bottle is %[n 9 fig4 #b2 x is made ( v ?ick glass1 t x may resi/ ! outw>d pressure ( ! c>bonic acid1 & s =m$ t x _c /& on its bottom1 & :5 laid on its side ! bubble ( air %all rise up to ! middle ( ! bottle & n to ! cork1 or else x w\ld escape ?r\gh ! cork be=e long1 h[ev] nicely x may be fitt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,disp5s+ ,,bottle47 ,fig4 #c is a conv5i5t vessel = hold+ ab\t a qu>t ( soda-wat] or any o!r eff]vesc+ dr9k1 all ( :i* is n at once requir$4 ,a tube passes f ! top to ne>ly ! bottom ( ! vessel1 & :5 ?is is fill$ ) a]at$ wat]1 ! expansive p[] ( ! c>bonic acid =ces ! wat] up ?is tube & out ( ! sp\t :5 ! h&le is depress$ & ! tap op5$1 & :5 suffici5t is obta9$1 ! tap c be imm$iately clos$4 ,a v conv5i5t app>atus call$ a 8,gasog5e0 has lately be5 con/ruct$4 ,x consi/s ( a d\ble vessel1 into ! upp] "p ( :i* a solution ( any k9d--w9e & wat]1 or ev5 pla9 wat]--is put1 to be saturat$ ) c>bonic acid or 8a]at$10 & into ! l[] "o "s c>bonate ( soda & t>t>ic acid4 ,a tube leads f ?is l[] to ! top ( ! upp] vessel1 :i* screws on & (f4 ,by %ak+ ! app>atus :5 ?us *>g$ & screw$ toge!r1 "s ( ! liquid desc5ds ?r\gh ! tube into ! l[] vessel & moi/5s ! soda & acid1 :i* !re=e act on ea* o!r1 & cause c>bonic acid to be dis5gag$2 ?is1 ris+ up ?r\gh ! tube 7:i* is p]=at$ ) small holes at ! upp] "p71 disp]ses itself ?r\gh ! liquid 9 small bubbles1 & causes suffici5t pressure to enable ! liquid to absorb x1 :i* !re=e eff]vesces :5 drawn (f by ! tap & ?is pressure remov$4 ,,coal-,,t> ,,nap?a4 ,?is is di/ill$ f ! coal-t> produc$ at ! gas-h\se1 ! residuum be+ pit*1 & x has a v (f5sive smell4 ,x is 9 dem& z a solv5t = ,india-rubb]1 & also = use 9 lamps s con/ruct$ z to require no wick1 = nap?a is v volatile1 & ! vap\r is burnt z x rises4 ,,wood ,,nap?a1 ,,or ,,pyroxylic ,,_s4 ,?is is (t5 call$ wood _s1 & is procur$ f ! t> result+ f ! di/illation ( wood = wood v9eg> or pyroligne\s acid4 ,x is colorless1 )\t ! disagreeable od\r ( coal-t> nap?a1 & v inflammable1 burn+ )\t smoke1 v mu* 9 ! mann] ( spirits ( w9e4 ,x is us$ 9 v>ni%-mak+1 & also = burn+ 9 lamps :]e heat & n light is requir$4 ,,products ,,( ,,skill$ ,,lab\r4 ,,pott]y4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,pott]y ,,work]s47 ,illu/ration3 ,,/amp]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fl9t ,,mill4 ,! art ( mak+ vessels ( e>? is "o ( ! olde/ ( all arts2 ! 8pott]'s :eel0 is frequ5tly nam$ 9 ,scripture1 & pott]y is f\nd 9 all ! rema9s ( anci5t nations4 ,e>!nw>e is made f a mixture ( clay & p[d]$ fl9ts2 ! clay is fre$ f all its co>s] p>ts by be+ /irr$ ) wat] & drawn (f aft] ! gross matt]s h settl$2 ! fluid is !n all[$ at leisure to let fall ! pure clay :i* 0 mix$ ) x1 & is !n fit = use4 ,! fl9ts are made r$-hot1 & 9 t /ate ?r[n into cold wat]1 :i* makes !m s brittle t !y c be easily brok5 up by ! 8/amp]s10 :i* are p]p5dicul> pieces ( iron made to rise & fall ) great =ce2 ! fl9ts are !n gr\nd 9 a mill to a p[d]1 :i* is treat$ 9 ! same way t ! clay 04 ,:5 ^! two e>?s are mix$ 9 prop] proportions1 & beat5 toge!r :ile moi/1 !y =m a sub/ance ( ! consi/5ce ( putty1 a lump ( :i* is ?r[n into ! c5tre ( a piece ( bo>d turn$ by means ( a :eel & treadle2 :ile turn+ r\nd1 x is m\ld$ by ! h&s into a r\gh outl9e ( ! vessel requir$1 & aft]w>ds put aside to dry till x becomes ( su* h>dness1 t x c be easily turn$ 9 a common la!1 & =m$ into ! cup1 jug or :atev] else x may be int5d$ =4 ,?is is !n bak$ 9 a 8kiln0 or ov5 s contriv$ t x %all make x r$-hot1 & keep x s = ab\t two days4 ,if x has to be ornam5t$ ) a design-su*1 = in/ance1 z ! 8will[ patt]n0--a numb] ( pr9ts on tissue pap] ( ! subject requir$ are kept ready1 & "o ( ^! is /uck on to ! vessel ) ! pr9t$ side next to ! clay1 & rubb$ smoo?ly on to x2 aft] a little "t ! pap] is wa%$ (f ) wat]1 & ! patt]n is left on ! vessel4 ,! next process is t ( glaz+2 ?is is done by dipp+ ! vessel into a mixture g5]ally made ( gr\nd fl9ts & oxide ( lead made into a ?9 fluid ) wat]2 :5 ! glaz+ is dry ! vessel is once m put into ! kiln1 & made r$-hot1 :5 ! glaz+-mixture on ! surface melts into a smoo? glass4 ,diff]5t col\rs are giv5 to ! patt]n by mix+ c]ta9 metallic sub/ances ) ! ink us$ 9 pr9t+4 ,! h&les1 sp\ts1 & o!r project+ p>ts are fix$ on aft] turn+1 & be=e ! w>e is put into ! kiln4 ,_m k9ds ( pott]y are n turn$ at all1 b made 9 a m\ld by be+ squeez$ =cibly into x2 ?is is ! case :5 ! article to be produc$ is octagonal1 or possess$ ( any =m n r\nd1 & !re=e n to be produc$ by turn+1 & :5 ! surface has a patt]n or figures /&+ out 9 relief4 ,"s ( ^! are made by fill+ %all[ m\lds ) ! clay1 &1 :ile moi/1 affix+ !m to ! surface1 b ! h&les ( common w>e are made by =c+ "s ( ! clay ?r\gh a hole ( ! requir$ =m1 s t x comes out 9 long /rips or rib&s1 :i* are cut up into l5g?s1 b5t into ! prop] =m1 & /uck on to ! w>e1 "s s(t] clay be+ sme>$ r\nd ! jo9t--! :ole1 :5 bak$ 9 ! kiln1 becom+ h>d & /rong4 ,e>!nw>e is (t5 made to possess "s color ?r\gh\t1 z drab1 yell[1 br[n1 or black4 ,^! t9ts are produc$ by admixture ( diff]5t k9ds ( clay & oxides 9 v>i\s proportions1 oxide ( iron g5]ally giv+ a r$ or *ocolate color1 & oxide ( manganese a drab1 br[n1 or black color1 accord+ to ! proportion us$4 ,figures1 bu/s1 & _m o!r articles1 bo? = ornam5t & utility1 are made ( porcela9 by ca/+1 & are produc$ by fill+ holl[ ca/s ( pla/] ( ,p>is ) ! mat]ials = porcela91 mix$ ) wat] to ! consi/5ce ( cream--?is is call$ 8slip10--& :5 ! holl[ ca/ is fill$ ! por\s pla/] absorbs mo/ ( ! moi/ure f ! portion ( liquid 8slip0 next to x1 s t1 aft] a "t1 :at rema9s fluid be+ p\r$ out1 !re is f\nd a coat+ or l9+ ( porcela9 mixture ( consid]able ?ickness adh]+ to ! int]ior ( ! m\ld too solid to be p\r$ out2 ! :ole is !n set 9 a w>m place to dry1 & z ! porcela9 %r9ks z x dries1 x sep>ates itself f ! m\ld--:i*1 be+ made ( sev]al pieces fa/5$ toge!r1 is tak5 ap>t )\t injur+ ! ca/2 aft] x has ?or\ghly dri$ x is bak$ 9 a kiln or furnace4 ,?is is call$ 8,biscuit porcela940 ,,bricks ,,& ,,tiles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pug ,,mill4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/ool1 ,,or ,,work+ ,,%$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,b>r[ ,,= ,,wet ,,bricks4 ,illu/ration3 ,,b>r[ ,,= ,,dry ,,bricks4 ,bricks are made ( clay mix$ ) s& or a%es4 ,! brick-field is fir/ cov]$ ) ei!r ( ^! to ! dep? ( an in* or two1 & is well dug 9 & turn$ ab\t dur+ sev]al weeks2 :5 ! bricks are to be made1 ! mixture is put into a 8pug mill20 ?is is a l>ge tub hav+ an upright iron b> pass+ up f ! bottom1 & hav+ sev]al broad iron blades fix$ to its sides at ! "p :i* is 9 ! tub2 at ! top !re is a cross-b> ( wood1 to :i* a horse is h>ness$2 ! horse1 :5 driv5 r\nd 9 a circle1 turns ! upright iron b> & consequ5tly ! iron blades4 ,into ?is tub ! clay & a%es are n[ put1 a little at a "t1 & z ! horse goes r\nd !y are ?or\ghly mix$ toge!r2 a man takes pieces ( ?is clay ( ! prop] size1 & h&s !m to ano!r :o /&s be=e a table 9 ! %$1 & has a m\ld be=e him2 ?is consi/s ( a piece ( wood ) sides ( ! size ( ! brick1 :i* is always t5 in*es long1 five broad1 & ?ree ?ick1 be=e burn+4 ,! sides ( ?is m\ld c be turn$ up & d[n2 !y are n[ put up1 & ! piece ( clay =c$ into ! m\ld & scrap$ (f ev5 at ! top1 ! sides are put d[n1 & ! brick plac$ c>efully on a b>r[1 :i* :5 fill$ is :eel$ (f by ano!r man1 & its cont5ts arrang$ on ! gr\nd 9 long l9es hav+ a small space betwe5 ea* brick1 t !y may n /ick toge!r & ! air may dry !m4 ,long r[s ( ^! bricks are =m$ "o on ! top ( ! o!r1 = f\r or five deep1 & are *ang$ 9 _! position f "t to "t till !y are q dry & h>d2 !y are n[ ready to be burnt4 ,?is is done made by plac+ ! bricks 9 long r[s1 ) n>r[ spaces betwe5 ea* r[ :i* are fill$ ) /raw or twigs ( wood & c9d]s 7^! c9d]s are got f ! a%es :5 !y are sift$ be=e mix+ ) ! clay72 ! spaces be+ fill$ !y are cov]$ ) o!r bricks1 & !n ! /raw1 c41 is light$4 ,lay] aft] lay] ( bricks are next built up ar\nd ! fire1 s t ! heat %all be well kept 91 & 9 ?is way ! bricks are gradually bak$ till !y are q h>d & fit = use4 ,illu/ration3 ,,burn+ ,,bricks4 ,tiles are ! same z bricks1 b ( a diff]5t =m1 be+ flat1 & hav+ two holes 9 !m to receive nails4 ,^! are us$ to =m ! ro(s ( h\ses1 & are nail$ on to ! raft]s1 ea* lay] ov]lapp+ ! "o bel[ x1 s t ! ra9 fall+ on ! slop+ ro( %all run f ! top to ! bottom )\t com+ ?r\gh4 ,bricks h lately be5 made ) p]=ations ?r\gh !m1 :i* is done by hav+ a m\ld ) a numb] ( iron rods project+ f its bottom1 s t :5 ! clay is =c$ on !m !y pass "r ?r\gh x1 & leave holes4 ,! objects ga9$ by ?is are two2 9 ! fir/ place1 ! bricks are mu* light]1 a great advantage 9 build+1 & 9 ! second place !y d n get s mu* out ( =m 9 burn+1 z !re is no great sub/ance betwe5 ! holes1 & !re=e ! %r9k+ takes place m ev5ly4 ,mo/ ( ^! bricks are ( a light /raw color1 & are us$ = fac+4 ,!y are mix$ ) a quantity ( *alk1 :i* is work$ up ) ! clay1 & are n bak$ at su* a heat z w\ld burn x into lime4 ,illu/ration3 ,,mix+ ,,*alk4 ,,tobacco-,,pipes4 ,tobacco-pipes are made ( a f9e :ite clay1 f\nd *iefly 9 ! isl& ( ,purbeck1 & call$1 f its use1 pipe-clay4 ,dr4 ,ure gives ! foll[+ acc\nt ( ! manufacture ( tobacco-pipes3--8,a *ild fa%ions a ball ( clay f ! heap1 rolls x out into a sl5d] cyl9d] ^u a plank1 ) ! palms ( 8 h&s1 9 ord] to =m ! /em ( ! pipe4 ,he /icks a lump at ! end ( ! cyl9d]1 = =m+ ! b[l2 :i*1 hav+ done1 he lays ! piece aside = a day or two to get m consi/5ce4 ,9 proportion z he makes ^! r\gh figures1 he arranges !m by doz5s on a bo>d1 & h&s !m to ! pipe-mak]4 ,! pipe is f9i%$ by means ( a fold+ brass or iron m\ld1 *annell$ inside ( ! %ape ( ! /em & ! b[l1 & capable ( be+ op5$ at ! two ends4 ,x is =m$ ( two pieces1 ea* holl[$ out l a half pipe cut z x 7 l5g?wise1 & ^! two jaws :5 br\ght toge!r con/itute ! exact space = mak+ "o pipe2 !re are small p9s 9 "o side ( ! m\ld1 correspond+ to holes 9 ! o!r1 :i* s]ve z guides = apply+ ! two toge!r ) precision4 ,! workman takes a long iron wire1 ) its end oil$1 & pu%es x ?r\gh ! s(t clay 9 ! direction ( ! /em1 to =m ! bore1 & he directs ! wire by feel+ ) 8 left h& ! progress ( ! po9t4 ,he lays ! pipe 9 ! groove ( "o ( ! jaws ( ! m\ld1 ) ! wire /ick+ 9 x1 applies ! o!r jaw1 br+s !m sm>tly toge!r1 & unites !m by a clamp or vice1 :i* produces ! ext]nal =m2 a lev] is n[ br\ght d[n1 :i* presses an oil$ /opp] into ! b[l ( ! pipe :ile x is 9 ! m\ld1 =c+ x suffici5tly d[n to =m ! cavity1 ! wire 9 ! mean:ile be+ ?ru/ backw>ds & =w>ds1 s z to pi]ce ! tube completely ?r\gh2 ! wire mu/ become visible at ! bottom ( ! b[l1 o!rwise ! pipe w be imp]fect4 ,! wire is n[ )drawn1 ! jaws ( ! m\ld op5$1 ! pipe tak5 out1 & ! r$undant clay remov$ ) a knife2 aft] dry+ = a day or two1 ! pipes are scrap$1 poli%$ ) a piece ( h>d wood1 &1 ! /ems be+ b5t into ! desir$ =m1 !y are c>ri$ to ! bak+ kiln1 :i* is capable ( fir+ fifty gross 9 f eight to twelve h\rs4 ,a workman & a *ild c easily make five gross ( pipes 9 a day40 ,illu/ration3 ,,furnace4 ,! pipes kn[n z 8me]s*aum0 are cut & %ap$ out ( a natural e>? or m9]al1 f\nd *iefly 9 ! isl& ( ,samos2 x is n a clay1 b consi/s ( silica1 magnesia1 & lime1 & is !re=e a k9d ( magnesian lime/one4 ,x is ne>ly :ite1 v light & por\s1 is easily cut ) a knife1 & be>s a beautiful poli% :5 saturat$ ) ! oil ( ! tobacco1 :i* at ! same "t gives to ! pipes a ri* d>k-br[n color4 ,! me]s*aum pipes sold 9 ,london are saturat$ ) wax or grease1 to cause !m to color m easily1 & _m are n me]s*aum at all1 b are made ( ! du/ produc$ 9 ! cutt+ & bor+ ( ! real me]s*aum pipes1 mix$ up ) size2 ^! fictiti\s pipes are heavi] & less por\s ?an ! true me]s*aum pipes1 & nei!r color s readily nor be> s beautiful a poli%2 !y are1 moreov]1 mu* m easily brok54 ,,gold-,,leaf4 ,= ! purpose ( gild+ v ?9 leaves ( gold are requir$1 s ?91 t al?\gh gold is exp5sive1 yet gild$ articles 7z picture-frames7 are v f> f be+ s4 ,to produce ?is gold-leaf is ! bus9ess ( ! gold-beat]4 ,he fir/ obta9s ! gold 9 a /ate ( purity f ! ref9]1 9 ! =m ( small gra9s1 :i*1 mix$ ) a small quantity ( borax & alloy1 are put into an e>!n pot call$ a crucible 7coat$ be=eh& ) clay to keep x f crack+71 & !n plac$ 9 a furnace :i* is rais$ to a :ite heat4 ,! gold1 :5 melt$1 is p\r$ into an iron m\ld made w>m & greas$ 9 ! inside2 ?is :5 cold =ms an 8+ot10 :i* weighs two ounces1 & is ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* squ>e & n q half-an-in* ?ick4 ,?is +ot is n[ s5t to ! 8flatt5+ mills10 :]e x is pass$ betwe5 sets ( /eel roll]s until x is roll$ out into a sort ( rib& an in* wide & ab\t twelve feet long 7at ?is degree ( ?9ness a squ>e in* w weigh six-&-a-half gra9s74 ,x is n[ cut into #aej pieces1 ea* an in* squ>e1 :i* are pack$ betwe5 pieces ( vellum1 f\r in*es ea* way1 & surr\nd$ by a sort ( bag ( ! same mat]ial1 ! :ole be+ !n subject$ to ! bl[s ( a heavy iron hamm] 7weigh+ ab\t f\rte5 p\nds7 ^u a block ( solid /one1 till ! plates ( gold are beat5 out ne>ly z l>ge z ! vellum1 :5 !y are tak5 out & ea* cut into f\r pieces4 ,^! qu>t]s are treat$ z be=e1 us+ gold-beat]'s 8sk90 in/ead ( vellum 7?is sk9 is prep>$ f ! inte/9es ( ! ox1 & a set ( ^!1 consi/+ ( sev]al hundr$s1 is call$ a 8m\ld071 & ! gold aga9 ext5d$ "u ! hamm] to ! size ( ! m\ld4 ,! process is repeat$ 9 ! same mann] a ?ird "t1 aft] :i* ! leaves ( gold are tak5 out1 cut squ>e on a cu%ion ( lea!r1 lift$ c>efully by means ( a sort ( tongs made ( wood1 & plac$ 9 ! book4 ,!y are n[ betwe5 #fjj & #gjj times ?9n] ?an be=e ! beat+ comm5c$1 & x w\ld take ab\t #bhj1jjj ( ^! leaves to make ! ?ickness ( an in*4 ,! leaves are f ?ree to ?ree-&-a-half in*es squ>e1 & are pack$ 9 books ( pap] hav+ ! surface ( ! leaves rubb$ ) r$ *alk1 to prev5t !m f adh]+ to ! gold2 ea* book conta9s tw5ty-five leaves ( gold4 ,! diff]5t colors ( gold-leaf1 su* z 8pale gold10 8deep gold10 or 8r$ gold10 are produc$ by a small alloy ( copp] or silv]1 ! =m] giv+ a deep] & ! latt] a pal] t+e to ! pure gold4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( alloy is always mix$ ) ! pure metal1 o!rwise x w\ld adh]e to ! m\ld1 & w\ld n "w s well4 ,,%ot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,%ot ,,t[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sieve ,,= ,,mak+ ,,%ot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,section ,,( ,,%ot-,,t[]4 ,%ot are made ei!r ( iron or lead4 ,all %ot = great guns or cannon are made ( iron1 b = small-arms lead5 balls are us$1 :i* are ca/ to fit ! bore ( ! weapon4 ,= sport+ purposes small %ot are made1 ( diff]5t sizes2 !y consi/ ( globules ( lead ) a small proportion ( ars5ic mix$ ) x--! object ( mix+ ars5ic is to make ! %ot divide bett]1 z x has be5 f\nd by exp]i5ce t lead alone does n divide s well--?is mixture1 :ile 9 a fluid /ate1 is p\r$ ?r\gh a col&] or sieve made ( iron & hav+ ! bottom p]=at$ ) small holes1 to suit ! size ( ! %ot to be made4 ,^! col&]s are plac$ at ! top ( a high build+ l a t[]1 & ! melt$ metal runs ?r\gh ! p]=ations 9 f9e /reams & sep>ates into s+le drops z x falls4 ,at ! bottom ( ! build+ ! %ots are receiv$ 9 vessels ( wat]1 to cool !m4 ,9 ^! vessels all ! little globules are n exactly ( ! same size1 al?\gh ! holes 9 ! col&]s regulate ?is to a c]ta9 ext5t1 moreov] !y are n all r\nd2 !y h1 !re=e1 to be sort$1 :i* is done by plac+ ! %ot by h&fuls ^u a bo>d slightly tilt$1 s t ! r\nd ones roll to ! bottom & are receiv$ 9 a box1 ^? t are crook$1 c41 lag beh9d on ! bo>d1 & are put aside to be re-melt$4 ,! %ot 9 ! box h next to be sort$ z to size2 ?is is done by means ( two sieves2 ! holes ( "o sieve are a little l>g] ?an ! size ( ! %ot requir$1 & ?is reta9s !re=e all t are too l>ge1 ! next has holes a little less ?an ! %ot1 & ?is reta9s ! "r size & lets all ! %ot t are too small pass ?r\gh2 by ^! simple means ! %ot are sep>at$ into _m sizes1 :i* are numb]$4 ,! %ot h n[ to be f9i%$1 :i* is done by turn+ !m1 mix$ ) a little black-lead1 9 a sort ( b>rel1 :i* gives !m a beautiful black %9+ surface1 & rubs (f any r\ghness4 ,,files4 ,illu/ration3 ,,file ,,cutt+4 ,files are among ! mo/ useful ( tools = ^? :o "w 9 metals1 & 9 _m o!r sub/ances1 z ivory1 or h>d woods4 ,a file consi/s ( a b> ( /eel ( v>i\s %apes1 su* z flat1 squ>e1 ?ree-corn]$1 r\nd1 & half-r\nd2 on ! surface ( ?is b> ( /eel small furr[s are =m$1 ) r\gh projections betwe5 !m1 & ^! are aga91 9 mo/ k9ds ( files1 cross$ ) o!rs4 ,! mode ( mak+ a file is z foll[s3--,a b> ( wr\ght or ca/ /eel is cut (f ( ! requisite l5g? & ( ! prop] figure1 & =g$ on an anvil to ! requir$ %ape--t is to say1 r tap]+ at ! top & br\ght to a po9t 7call$ ! 8tang07 at ! bottom1 s t x may be driv5 into a wood5 h&le4 ,! file has n[ to be cut4 ,to d ?is requires great manual dext]ity4 ,a man sits be=e a b5*1 & passes a /rap ov] ea* end ( ! file s z to /eady x1 & ^! are kept d[n ) ! feet4 ,a small *isel ( h>d /eel is held 9 ! left h& betwe5 ! ?umb & f+] & /ruck ) a %ort-h&l$ heavy hamm]1 ! effect is to cut a not*1 ) an elevation at ea* side call$ a 8burr20 ! small *isel is slipp$ up to ?is 8burr10 & /ruck aga91 & s on till ! :ole file is cut1 & ?is ) su* rapidity t ! eye c sc>cely foll[ x4 ,:5 ! file is ?us not*$ f end to end1 x has to be h>d5$1 :i* is done by mak+ x r$-hot & sudd5ly plung+ x into cold wat]1 :i* makes x s h>d t x w scrat* glass & cut away any o!r metal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,file4 ,illu/ration3 ,,rasp4 ,= s(t] sub/ances1 su* z wood1 a k9d ( file is (t5 us$ call$ a 8rasp10 :i*1 in/ead ( hav+ furr[s cut on x1 is /ruck into little d9ts by means ( a ?ree-corn]$ piece ( h>d /eel1 :i*1 z x ent]s ! file1 ?r[s up a projection also4 ,= fil+ bone & ivory1 a k9d ( file is us$ ) v l>ge not*es1 n cross$ by o!rs1 ! edge ( ea* ( :i* acts l a plane-iron or *isel1 & takes (f %av+s f ! bone4 ,,type4 ,illu/ration3 ,,type ,,ca/+4 ,! ca/+ ( types = pr9t+ is = ! mo/ "p done by h&1 & s+ly1 & x is "o ( ^? arts 9 :i* extreme dext]ity 7only to be acquir$ by incessant practice7 enables ! f\nd] to accompli% an am\nt ( lab\r :i* w\ld seem to any "o n witness+ ! process impossible4 ,to ca/ ea* piece ( type x is necess>y to dip a little ladle into a pot ( melt$ metal1 to fill ! m\ld1 give x a sudd5 j]k ) ! left h& s z to make ! melt$ metal g well into ! little m\ld1 op5 ! m\ld & take ! type out1 %ut up ! m\ld & fa/5 x1 & yet a skilful workman c p]=m ^! op]ations five hundr$ times 9 an h\r--t is to say1 r m ?an eight times 9 a m9ute--produc+ a type ea* "t2 ?is has aft]w>ds to be f9i%$ (f by o!rs4 ,! metal ( :i* type is made consi/s ( lead & antimony--! antimony h>d5s x & makes x take a %>p] impression4 ,! lett]s are fir/ cut 9 /eel1 & f ^! 8dies0 ! m\lds are made 9 brass1 by /amp+1 & 9 ^! ! types are ca/4 ,/]eotype consi/s ( plates ( metal tak51 by ca/+1 f a =me ( type set up = ! purpose2 an impression 9 pla/] ( ,p>is is fir/ tak51 & f ?is ! metal impression is ca/1 s t ! orig9al =me ( type may be 8di/ribut$0 or tak5 to pieces1 & aga9 us$1 :ile ! /]eotyp$ impression c be pres]v$ = any future pr9t+4 ,,lucif]-,,mat*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fill+ ,,! ,,boxes4 ,^! conv5i5t mat*es1 :i* h completely sup]s$$ ! old app>atus ( fl9t1 /eel1 & t9d]-box1 may be look$ ^u z "o ( ! improvem5ts d]iv$ f *emi/ry1 = phosphorus--! necess>y +r$i5t--till lately sold at half-a-cr[n an ounce2 su* a price w\ld1 ( c\rse1 prev5t its be+ us$ = s g5]al a purpose z mat*-mak+4 ,b :5 *emi/ry devis$ means ( prep>+ x on a l>ge scale1 & at a l[ price1 !n its application 0 soon p]ceiv$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cutt+ ,,! ,,mat*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,frame4 ,"s ye>s ago a k9d ( mat* 0 us$1 made ( *lorate ( pota% & sulphuret ( antimony1 & ignit$ by draw+ ?r\gh a fold$ piece ( glass-pap]4 ,ano!r sort 0 also = a "t 9 use call$ 8,prome!ans10 b f> too exp5sive = g5]al use4 ,!y consi/$ ( /rips ( pap] roll$ up1 ) a little glass cyl9d] full ( sulphuric acid seal$ up 9 ! end ( ea*1 surr\nd$ by *lorate ( pota% 9 p[d]2 ! end ( ! mat* _h to be cru%$ by a small pair ( nipp]s1 & ! glass be+ brok51 ! sulphuric acid came 9 contact ) ! *lorate ( pota%1 caus+ x to take fire4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fill+ ,,! ,,frame4 ,illu/ration3 ,,dipp+ ,,! ,,mat*es4 ,= mak+ lucif]-mat*es ! wood is sometimes split by h&1 & sometimes by ma*9]y4 ,= ^? ! wood ( :i* is r\nd$1 a peculi> app>atus is us$2 x consi/s ( a plate hav+ small /eel cyl9d]s let into x1 s t _! cutt+ edges are rais$ above ! plate1 & ! wood is /ruck ^u ?is1 & n only divid$1 b ea* piece =c$ ?r\gh ! cyl9d]s & s r\nd$4 ,:5 cut1 ! wood is dipp$ 9 bundles into melt$ sulphur1 & aft]w>ds into a composition v>i\sly made1 b usually consi/+ ( phosphorus gr\nd up ) gum arabic & wat]1 color$ ei!r ) r$-lead or ,prussian blue1 & 9 "s cases *lorate ( pota% is add$4 ,?is composition is spread out on a bo>d to ab\t ! t5? ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 & ! mat*es :i* h be5 dipp$ 9 sulphur are pack$ into a frame to ! numb] ( ab\t #cjjj1 & dipp$ by press+ !m on ! bo>d spread ) ! composition1 s t a little is atta*$ to ! ends ( ea* mat*4 ,?is is a mo/ un:olesome & dang]\s employm5t1 & wat] is always at h&1 9 case ( fire1 :i* is *iefly to be fe>$ 9 ! process ( sep>at+ !m & fill+ ! boxes :5 ! composition has dri$4 ,,c&les4 ,illu/ration3 ,,c&le ,,manufactory4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cutt+ ,,! ,,wicks4 ,c&les are made ( ei!r wax1 sp]maceti1 /e>9e1 or tall[1 or "s comp\nd or modification ( ^!2 b ( :atev] !y may be made1 !y are =m$ ei!r by dipp+ or ca/+1 & h5ce ! names 8dips0 & 8m\lds40 ,illu/ration3 ,,horse',s ,,head4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cool+ ,,frame4 ,:5 dips are to be made1 a quantity ( wicks ( spun cotton are prep>$ by a ma*9e1 & d\bl$ s z to =m a loop at ! top1 ?r\gh :i* a /ick is pass$4 ,a numb] ( wicks are arrang$ 9 a l9e on ea* /ick1 & sev]al /icks plac$ side by side on a frame1 :i* is atta*$ to "o end ( a balance beam 7call$ by ! workm5 ! 8,horse's ,head071 ) weights at ! o!r end1 accord+ to ! weight ( ! c&les to be made4 ,! frame1 ) ! wicks ^u x1 is susp5d$ ov] a ci/]n ( melt$ tall[ 7kept w>m by a small fire or flue71 into :i* x is l[]$1 s t ! wicks dip into ! tall[2 ?is is repeat$ two or ?ree times1 till a coat+ ( tall[ is =m$ on ! wicks1 :i* are !n plac$ aside to cool :ile o!rs are s]v$ 9 ! same way1 & s on1 ov] & ov] aga91 till ea* frame weighs en\gh to exactly c\nt]poise ! weight at ! o!r end ( ! beam4 ,illu/ration3 ,,c&le-,,m\lds4 ,m\ld c&les are made by p\r+ melt$ tall[ into a wood5 tr\gh 9 ! bottom ( :i* pewt] m\lds1 ( ! size ( ! c&les requir$1 are fix$ 9 su* a way t !y op5 into ! tr\gh by ! ends :i* correspond to ! bottoms ( ! c&les to be ca/ 9 !m4 ,! o!r end ( ! m\ld is br\ght to a po9t1 ) a small hole 9 x1 ?r\gh :i* ! wick is pass$ & fa/5$ to a /ick runn+ along ! m\lds2 & z ! m\lds are plac$ 9 two l9es1 two /icks are suffici5t = ! tr\gh4 ,melt$ tall[ or sp]maceti is p\r$ into ! tr\gh1 & :5 cold ! sup]flu\s quantity remov$1 & ! c&les drawn out ( ! m\lds4 ,wax c&les are made by p\r+ melt$ wax d[n ! wick till suffici5t has adh]$ to x1 !n roll+ ! c&le on a m>ble slab till x is ev51 & aft]w>ds poli%+ ) a clo?4 ,,rope4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sp9n+ ,,! ,,y>n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sp9n+-,,:eel4 ,is a comb9ation ( ! fibres ( hemp or o!r mat]ial1 s arrang$ z to =m a t5aci\s cord or b&1 reta9+1 z f> z possible1 _! collective /r5g?4 ,! fir/ process 9 rope-mak+ consi/s 9 twi/+ ! hemp into ?ick ?reads1 call$ rope-y>ns4 ,?is1 :i* resembles ord9>y sp9n+1 is commonly p]=m$ by h&1 9 a rope-gr\nd or rope-walk1 an enclos$ level piece ( gr\nd1 ab\t six hundr$ feet 9 l5g?1 at "o end ( :i* a sp9n+-:eel is set up1 t gives motion by a b& to sev]al small roll]s or 8:irls10 ea* ( !m furni%$ ) a hook on ! end ( its axis next ! walk4 ,! rope sp9n] c>ries a bundle ( hemp ab\t ?ree feet long r\nd 8 wai/1 ) ! fibres all laid ev51 & hav+ _! ends 9 front ( him1 & f ^! he pulls out suffici5t = ! ?ickness ( ! 8y>n0 he is sp9n+1 & aft] slightly twi/+ x ) 8 f+]s1 atta*es x to ! hook ( a 8:irl10 :i* is set 9 motion by ! :eel1 & z ! fibres are twi/$ he walks backw>d1 gradually add+ m & m1 a little at a "t1 s z to keep ! y>n ( ! same ?ickness ?r\gh\t4 ,:5 ! sp9n] has trav]s$ ! :ole l5g? ( ! rope-walk1 he /ops1 & ano!r sp9n] deta*es ! y>n f ! :irl1 & x is !n w\nd on a reel or bobb94 ,! y>ns be+ spun1 !y are next 8t>r$0 7if !y are to be mu* expos$ to wet1 z = ! rigg+ ( %ips71 :i* is done by draw+ !m ?r\gh a kettle full ( melt$ t>1 be+ w\nd (f f "o reel on to ano!r1 & ! sup]flu\s t> wip$ away by means ( t[ 7r\gh hemp7 fix$ 9 a hole ?r\gh :i* !y are drawn4 ,illu/ration3 ,,haws]-,,laid ,,rope4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cable-,,laid ,,rope4 ,:at is call$ 8lay+0 ! rope consi/s 9 twi/+ a c]ta9 numb] ( y>ns toge!r1 s z to =m a /r&1 & ^! /r&s into a rope4 ,l>ge ropes are *iefly ( two k9ds1 call$ respectively 8haws]-laid0 & 8cable-laid10 ! latt] includ+ only ! v l>ge/ ropes4 8,haws]-laid0 ropes consi/ ( a c]ta9 numb] ( y>ns 7accord+ to ! size ( ! rope7 twi/$ into a /r&1 & !n ?ree ( ^! /r&s twi/$ toge!r4 ,! 8cable-laid0 rope is compos$ ( n9e /r&s1 t is to say1 ?ree /r&s ea* compos$ ( ?ree o!rs1 & ^! compos$ ( y>ns1 s t ?ree 8haws]-laid0 ropes1 twi/$ toge!r1 w\ld make "o 8cable-laid0 rope4 ,illu/ration3 ,,rope-,,mak+ ,,by ,,ma*9]y4 ,lay+ ! ropes & twi/+ ! y>ns into /r&s are bo? accompli%$ by ! same process4 ,! y>ns are atta*$--9 suffici5t quantity = ! /r&s--to ?ree hooks1 ea* turn+ 9 ! same direction1 :ile ! o!r ends are collect$ toge!r & turn$ 9 ! opposite direction2 ! ?ree hooks twi/ ! y>ns into /r&s1 & a hook at ! o!r end twi/s ! /r&s into rope4 ,( c\rse1 ma*9]y ( v>i\s descriptions has be5 appli$ to rope-mak+1 & ropes are frequ5tly made entirely by ma*9]y ) great rapidity4 ,! annex$ cut repres5ts "o mode ( rope-mak+ by ma*9]y1 9 :i* ! y>n is %[n be+ twi/$ into cord or rope f ! reels or bobb9s on :i* x 0 w\nd aft] sp9n+4 ,,wire4 ,illu/ration3 ,,co>se ,,wire ,,draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,metal ,,+ot1 ,,%eet1 ,,/rips47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,l>ge ,,roll]s47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,cutt+ ,,roll]s47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,close-,,up ,,( ,,cutt+ ,,roll]s47 ,9 ! manufacture ( wire1 ! metal f :i* x is to be made is fir/ ca/ or wr\ght into an +ot 7,a1 fig4 #a72 x is !n pass$ betwe5 roll]s 7fig4 #b7 :i* flatt5 x into a %eet 7,b1 fig4 #a71 :i* is next c>ri$ betwe5 o!r roll]s 7fig4 #c7 hav+ _! surfaces s cut t ! projections on "o ( !m fit into ! holl[s ( ! o!r1 =m+ s _m cutt+ edges or %e>s 7fig4 #d71 f :i* ! %eet ( metal comes =? at ,a1 fig4 #c1 cut into /rips or squ>e rods 7,c1 fig4 #a74 ,^! rods are !n drawn ) great =ce ?r\gh a plate ( h>d5$ /eel hav+ a s]ies ( holes1 gradually dim9i%+ 9 size1 bor$ ?r\gh x1 :i* is call$ ! 8draw-plate20 ! wire 7( :atev] metal x be7 has to be heat$ r$-hot f "t to "t1 to s(t5 or 8anneal0 x1 = ! compression produc$ by ! draw+ s h>d5s x t x becomes brittle4 ,a pair ( nipp]s holds ! end ( ! wire1 & ^! are mov$ along a sort ( b5* by a 8rack & p9ion0 7fig4 #e74 ,:5 all has pass$ ! fir/ hole1 x is drawn ?r\gh ! second1 & s on to ! size requir$4 ,:5 ! wire is pretty f9e1 x is atta*$ to a 8cyl9d]10 :i* on turn+ r\nd w9ds (f ! wire & at ! same "t draws x ?r\gh ! plate1 z %[n 9 ! engrav+1 ! wire be+ made to pass ov] a small *>coal fire previ\s to ent]+ ! draw-plate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,rack ,,& ,,p9ion47 ,illu/ration3 ,,f9e ,,wire ,,draw+4 ,diff]5t metals h diff]5t p[]s ( 8ductility10 t is to say1 "s c be drawn mu* f9] ?an o!rs4 ,dr4 ,turn] says1 8,! only metals rem>kable 9 ?is respect are gold1 silv]1 plat9um1 iron1 & copp]4 ,walli/on devis$ a me?od by :i* gold wire may be obta9$ s f9e t its diamet] %all be only ! #ejjj? "p ( an in*1 & #eej feet ( x are requir$ to weigh "o gra92 he obta9$ a plat9um wire s small t its diamet] did n exce$ ! #cj1jjj? ( an in*4 ,x is s+ul> t ! ductility & malleability ( ! same metal are n always 9 proportion to ea* o!r4 ,iron1 = example1 _c be made into ?9 leaves1 b x may be drawn into v small wires40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7 ,,wire ,,gauge47 ,! sizes ( wires are asc]ta9$ by a small in/rum5t call$ a 8gauge10 :i* is a plate ( /eel ) an op5+ dim9i%+ to a po9t 9 x1 & m>ks on ! sides correspond+ to ! di/ance ! wire w pass d[n ! not* 7fig4 #f74 ,,cutl]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,knife ,,blade47 ,table cutl]y is made 9 ! foll[+ way4 ,! blade is fir/ rudely fa%ion$ f a flat b> ( /eel by ! hamm] & anvil1 & ?is is !n weld$ to a b> ( s(t iron half-an-in* squ>e1 & cut (f1 leav+ suffici5t to =m ! 8%\ld]0 or 8bol/]10 ,a1 & ! 8tang10 ,b1 fig4 #a1 :i* is fir/ made by ! hamm] & !n beat5 into a sort ( m\ld or die4 ,! blade is f9i%$ z f> z c be done ) ! hamm]1 made r$-hot1 & ?r[n into cold wat]1 :i* h>d5s ! /eel1 & !n 8temp]$0 to a full blue color 7see 8,/eel07 aft] :i* x is fit = gr9d+4 ,razors & p5knife-blades are made ( f9e /eel1 & are =g$ & h>d5$ z above1 b ! temp]+ is effect$ by arrang+ !m 9 r[s ) _! backs d[nw>ds on a plate ( hot iron till ! color appe>s on _! surface indicat+ ! temp] !y h receiv$1 :i* = razors is a pale /raw color4 ,cutl]y is gr\nd ^u /ones ( diff]5t sizes1 accord+ to ! k9d ( article2 = saws1 & table-knives1 :i* are to be gr\nd to a flat surface1 v l>ge /ones are us$1 :ile razors1 :i* h a curv$ surface1 & p5knives1 ^: blades are v n>r[1 are gr\nd ^u v small /ones4 ,^! /ones are driv5 by ma*9]y ) great rapidity1 & are arrang$ ov] a tr\gh ( wat]1 s t _! l[] p>ts dip into x1 by :i* plan ! /one is kept wet2 if x 7 us$ dry1 ! /eel w\ld get too hot to hold1 & ! temp] ( x be injur$4 ,! article to be gr\nd is held at ! top ( ! /one4 ,:5 gr\nd1 ! goods are 8glaz$0 by means ( a wood5 :eel ! edge ( :i* is sme>$ ) em]y-p[d]1 & f9ally1 if !y are to be poli%$ 7:i* is only 9 ! case ( ! f9e/ /eel in/rum5ts71 !y are held to ! edge ( a wood5 :eel cov]$ ) buff-lea!r1 & *>g$ ) 8crocus0--?is crocus is a r$ oxide ( iron mu* us$ = poli%+ all sorts ( ?+s1 z x is bo? f9e1 free f grit1 & suffici5tly h>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,balance-,,h&le ,,knife47 ,:at are call$ 8balance-h&le0 table-knives are ^? :i* :5 laid on ! table1 w re/ ) ! blade elevat$ s z n to t\* ! clo? 7fig4 #b74 ,! object s\ght 9 ?is arrangem5t1 is to keep ! clo? f be+ soil$1 & ! mann] ( atta9+ x is simply by mak+ ! %\ld] project a little & runn+ a small quantity ( lead into ! hole ( ! h&le be=e ! 8tang0 ( ! knife is introduc$4 ,! blade & h&le or 8haft0 are unit$ by means ( ros91 :i* is put 9 p[d] into ! holl[ ( ! h&le1 & ! tang1 be+ made hot1 is =c$ 91 melt+ ! ros91 & fix+ :5 cool4 ,,nails4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cutt+ ,,! ,,metal ,,into ,,slips4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,nail ,,) ,,%\ld]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,tack47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,clasp ,,nail47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,brads47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,ma*9$ ,,brads47 ,nails are made bo? by h& & ma*9]y1 ! =m] be+ call$ 8wr\ght10 & ! latt] 8cut0 nails4 ,= mak+ nails by h&1 a hamm] & an anvil only are us$4 ,! 8nailor10 hav+ put sev]al rods ( iron ( ! requir$ size into ! fire to get hot1 t he may use "o aft] ! o!r1 & s lose no "t1 takes "o out & ) ! hamm] beats x to a po9t1 leav+ a little %\ld] 7fig4 #a74 ,he !n places x 7at ! "p :]e ! dott$ l9e is 9 ! figure7 on a w$ge fix$ to ! anvil1 & ) a bl[ ( ! hamm] divides x2 x is tak5 up by tongs1 dropp$ into a hole 9 ! anvil1 & ! %\ld] beat5 flat2 ?is is call$ a 8tack0 7fig4 #b71 = a 8clasp nail0 ! head is made ( a diff]5t =m by a p>ticul> way ( /rik+ x 7fig4 #c71 & ! =m ( ! hole 9 ! anvil det]m9es :e!r !y %all be squ>e or r\nd2 wr\ght 8brads0 h ! =m ( fig4 #d4 ,^! are ! pr9cipal =ms ( nails1 b _m o!rs are made by sold]+ %anks to ca/ heads1 z c(f9-nails1 & "s 7*iefly us$ by g>d5]s & pla/]]s = driv+ into brickwork7 are made ( ca/-iron4 ,ma*9e-made nails are cut by compression f a %eet ( iron4 ,brads are cut out1 simply1 z 9 fig4 #e1 :i* uses up ! :ole ( ! iron )\t any wa/e1 & requires no f9i%+2 b o!r =ms ( nails are cut fir/ into simple w$ges1 & h ! heads f9i%$ aft]w>ds ei!r by ! bl[s ( a hamm] or by compression4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cutt+ ,,brads4 ,mo/ nails are made flat or *isel-%ap$ at ! po9t1 t !y may n split ! wood4 ,9 driv+ a nail ) a flat po9t1 ! l5g? ( ! po9t %\ld be plac$ across ! gra9 ( ! wood1 & !n x w h>dly ev] split x1 b if o!rwise1 ! nail1 act+ z a w$ge1 op5s ! gra9 & splits ! wood4 ,,screws4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,screw ,,m\ld47 ,! screws us$ by c>p5t]s1 smi?s1 & o!rs1 = fa/5+ wood or metal-"w toge!r1 are g5]ally made by ma*9]y4 ,a piece ( wire ( ! requir$ ?ickness & l5g? is fir/ cut (f1 :i* is !n plac$ 9 a hole or m\ld1 ) its upp] orifice 8c\nt]sunk0 z 9 ! annex$ cut1 & ! head ( ! screw is =m$ by beat+ ! upp] "p ( ! piece ( wire into ! c\nt]-s9k+ ( ! m\ld4 ,x is !n call$ a 8blank10 & a numb] ( ^! blanks are dropp$ into holes bor$ r\nd ! p]iph]y ( a :eel :i* revolves sl[ly aga9/ a small circul> saw driv5 ) great rapidity1 & cutt+ a 8?read0 or slit 9 ! head ( ea* blank 9 turn z x comes into contact ) x2 ! :eel cont9u+ to revolve1 ea* screw :5 x gets to ! bottom drops out1 s t ! holes :5 !y aga9 arrive upw>ds are ready to receive fre% blanks4 ,! worm1 if cut by h&1 is made by means ( a die ( h>d /eel1 hav+ a holl[ screw cut 9 x1 :i* is screw$ sl[ly by a backw>d & =w>d movem5t on to ! blank1 cutt+ x into a 8worm20 :5 ?is is done by ma*9]y1 ! die is held fa/ :ile ! screw is work$ by a rotatory movem5t into x4 ,! be/ screws = wood are slightly tap]$1 :i* enables !m to be driv5 mu* m easily1 :ile !y hold equally fa/4 ,l>ge screws = me*anical purposes are cut by a 8la!10 ! b> revolv+ :il/ a cutt] is held to x1 & mov$ onw>ds by a patt]n screw4 ,small screws = v>i\s purposes c be easily cut by means ( a 8screw-plate10 hav+ holes ( graduat$ sizes cut inside into holl[ screws1 :i* is plac$ on ! end ( ! wire1 & g5tly turn$ r\nd till x is suffici5tly cut4 ,,p9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,p9-,,mak+ ,,ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,coil ,,= ,,! ,,heads4 ,p9s are made f brass wire drawn out 9 ! usual mann] 7see 8,wire-draw+074 ,x is fir/ /raight5$ & !n cut (f into l5g?s suffici5t = two p9s2 ^! are po9t$ at ea* end by hold+ !m to a :eel1 ab\t two or ?ree doz5 at a "t1 turn+ !m all r\nd at once by means ( ! ?umb & f+]s4 ,! :eel is n made ( /one1 b ( /eel1 hav+ ! edge cut into f9e not*es l a file 7see 8,file-cutt+074 ,aft] ! wires are po9t$ at ea* end1 !y are cut 9 ! middle4 ,! heads are made by coil+ "s brass wire r\nd ano!r piece ( wire exactly ! size ( ! p9s = :i* !y are int5d$1 & ) a sort ( *isel cutt+ (f two ( ^! coils at a "t4 ,! accompany+ figure repres5ts ! coil to be cut up into a /r+ ( heads1 & "o ( !m sep>ate4 ,^! are fix$ on to ! po9t$ wires by a ma*9e act+ by means ( a lev]1 by :i* !y are compress$ into ! "r %ape & at ! same "t made to hold on tightly4 ,! p9s are !n clean$ by boil+ 9 "s weak acid or a solution ( t>t>1 & h next to be 8t9n$0 or 8:it5$10 :i* is done by plac+ !m 9 lay]s ) gra9-t9 & cream ( t>t>1 & boil+ !m = "s "t till !y are coat$ ) ! t92 ?us !y are truly 8electro-plat$10 al?\gh at ! "t :5 ?is process 0 inv5t$ no k ( electro-plat+ exi/$1 & ! !ory ( ! process 0 n und]/ood4 ,! p9s are aft]w>ds clean$ & bright5$ by %ak+ !m 9 lea!r bags ) bran1 :i* is aft]w>ds bl[n away by a bl[+-ma*9e2 ! p9s are !n plac$ 9 pap]s 7fold$ by a sort ( crimp+-ma*9e71 :i* are put into a k9d ( vice1 hav+ a numb] ( not*es cut 9 x correspond+ to ! numb] ( p9s to be /uck 9 "o r[1 & into ^! not*es & ?r\gh ! pap] ridges ! p9s are rapidly pass$ by *ildr54 ,9 "s manufactories p9s are made entirely by ma*9]y1 & ^! are ! 8solid-head$ p9s10 or p9s :i* h ! head =m$ out ( ! same piece ( wire z ! body1 :i* is *iefly effect$ by compression1 & 9 ord] t ?is may be readily done1 ! wires are previ\sly s(t5$ by heat1 :i* is "o ( ! pr9cipal objections to _! g5]al use1 z1 9 consequ5ce ( ?is s(t5+1 !y b5d too readily4 ,,ne$les4 ,illu/ration3 ,,drill+ ,,! ,,eyes4 ,! manufacture ( ne$les is "o ( ^? arts 9 :i* manual dext]ity is acquir$ by m9ute subdivision ( lab\r1 ea* artisan p]=m+ only a small "p ( ! process1 b s (t51 t ! mo/ wond]ful rapidity & accuracy are obta9$1 insomu* t al?\gh ea* ne$le has to pass ?r\gh ne>ly #aej h&s 7toge!r ) exp5sive ma*9]y7 be=e f9i%+1 yet !y may be b\ght at an a/oni%+ly l[ price4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,/raight5+ ,,plate47 ,! foll[+ is an outl9e ( ! process ( manufacture4 ,! wire is fir/ select$1 ( ! be/ /eel & ( a prop] size1 !n w\nd r\nd a cyl9d] "s fifty times1 & ! coil is cut 9 two places opposite to ea* o!r ?r\gh all ! wires4 ,^! wires are plac$ toge!r 9 bundles sev]al feet long1 ea* conta9+ ab\t a hundr$ wires1 :i* are !n cut up into l5g?s suffici5t = two ne$les by a pair ( %e>s work$ by p[]ful ma*9]y4 ,z ! wires are crook$1 !y h to be /raight5$1 :i* is done by pack+ !m 9 bundles & enclos+ !m 9 two iron r+s s t !y may be roll$ =cibly backw>ds & =w>ds betwe5 /eel plates ) grooves cut 9 !m to receive ! project+ r+s1 & ?is /raight5s !m ?or\ghly4 ,! wires are next gr\nd to a po9t at ea* end by hold+ !m1 a doz5 or two at a "t1 aga9/ a revolv+ /one1 to :i* !y are press$ ) a piece ( lea!r1 at ! same "t turn+ or twirl+ !m betwe5 ! ?umb & f+]s2 :5 po9t$1 !y are cut 9 two by a gauge :i* divides !m 9 ! middle1 & ! blunt ends are spread out 9 ! =m ( a fan on a small anvil by ! ?umb & f+] ( ! left h&1 sev]al at "o "t1 & flatt5$ by ! bl[ ( a small hamm]4 ,?is flatt5+ makes ! ends too h>d = pi]c+1 s t !y h to be s(t5$ by be+ made r$-hot & sl[ly cool$2 !y are !n pi]c$ by *ildr51 :o lay ea* ne$le on a piece ( lead & ) a small pun* & hamm] /rike out ! eye1 b 9 ne>ly all cases ! eye is drill$1 9 :i* case ! wire is held = an in/ant to ! po9t ( a small drill turn$ by ma*9]y4 ,! groove :i* leads to ! eye is made ei!r by ! /roke ( a small file or by compression1 & ! end is next r\nd$ (f4 ,9 "s ne$les ! eyes & grooves are made by pun*+ two 9 ! middle ( a wire1 :i* is aft]w>ds divid$4 ,! ne$les are temp]$1 by plac+ "s ?\s&s ( !m on an iron plate :i* is made r$-hot1 & !n ?r[+ !m sudd5ly into a vessel ( cold wat]2 !y are by ?is means made too h>d1 & h aga9 to be slightly heat$ to give ! prop] degree ( temp] & t\ghness 7see 8,/eel071 :i* is done by putt+ !m 9 boil+ oil4 ,!y h next to be poli%$1 & ?is is ! mo/ t$i\s "p ( _! manufacture4 ,! ne$les1 to ! numb] ( ab\t a hundr$ ?\s&1 are pack$1 toge!r ) oil & em]y-p[d]1 9 a /rong sort ( bag1 s t !y all lie side by side1 & sev]al ( ^! bags or bundles are roll$ backw>ds & =w>ds betwe5 wood5 beams 9 su* a way t e ne$le rubs aga9/ o!rs1 & ! friction ?us produc$ gr9ds !m bright & smoo?4 ,aft] a "t !y are tak5 out1 & ! black pa/e =m$ by ! em]y-p[d]1 oil1 & /eel1 is clean$ (f by putt+ !m into saw-du/1 & turn+ !m 9 a b>rel fix$ 9 a frame = ! purpose2 ! saw-du/ & dirt are !n bl[n away by a bl[+-ma*9e1 & ! ne$les aga9 und]go ! same process sev]al times1 us+ f9] em]y-p[d] ea* "t1 s z to poli% !m2 aft] :i* !y are sc\r$ ) soap & wat] & wip$ dry by roll+ !m 9 dry wa%-lea!r4 ,!y are n[ p]fectly bright1 e r\ghness rubb$ (f1 & a f9i% be+ f9ally giv5 to ! po9ts by h& on a hone :i* turns r\nd1 !y are pack$1 tw5ty-five 9 ea* pap]1 = sale4 ,,tub+4 ,tubes ( lead & brass are ca/ 9 %ort & ?ick pieces1 & !n drawn ?r\gh holes 9 a draw-plate1 simil>ly to wire1 b hav+ a rod or 8m&ril0 pass$ ?r\gh ! l5g? ( ! tube to keep ! holl[ ( ! "r calibre4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tube ,,draw+4 ,iron tub+ = gas & wat] pipes1 if m ?an ab\t two in*es 9 diamet]1 is ca/2 b small]1 or 8s]vice-pipes10 are made ( wr\ght iron plate roll$ on a m&ril1 & weld$ at ! edges by be+ drawn at a :ite heat ?r\gh a draw-plate4 ,,/eel ,,p5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,splitt+ ,,! ,,p54 ,illu/ration3 ,,/amp+ ,,! ,,p5 ,,f ,,! ,,/eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,b5d+ ,,! ,,p54 ,/eel p5s1 :i* h almo/ sup]s$$ quill p5s1 are made 9 great quantities1 &1 l ne$les & p9s1 c only be produc$ at a suffici5tly l[ price to meet ! requirem5ts ( ! p1 by ^? :o h erect$ build+s & fitt$ up ma*9]y s z to make ! process suffici5tly rapid to be *eap4 ,! /eel is fir/ select$ ( ! prop] quality1 & roll$ out into %eets ( ! ?ickness requir$ & ( bread? suffici5t = ! l5g? ( ! p5s to be made2 ^! are pun*$ out ( ! prop] %ape by a pun* work$ by a screw1 :i* cuts out a piece at e bl[1 & also ! p]=ation :i* t]m9ates ! split4 ,! mak]'s "n or any o!r device is /amp$ on ?is flat piece ( /eel1 call$ a 8blank10 :i* is !n coil$ up into ! %ape requir$ 7:e!r a 8b>rel0 p5 or a 8nib07 by a sort ( press1 work$ by a girl1 z se5 9 ! engrav+1 & ! split made by a ma*9e1 also engrav$4 ,9 bo? ^! ma*9es ! screw is work$ ) ! left h&1 :ile ! "r is engag$ 9 plac+ ! p5s "u x & pu%+ out ! p5 ) ! f+] aft] x is b5t or slit1 ^! op]ations1 f con/ant practice1 be+ p]=m$ ) great rapidity4 ,! p5s h next to be temp]$1 by be+ made r$-hot & !n ?r[n into wat] or oil1 & are aft]w>ds poli%$ by putt+ !m into a b>rel ) f9e s&1 :i* is turn$ r\nd by a w9dlass = sev]al h\rs4 ,! nibs or po9ts are !n f9i%$ at a /one :i* turns r\nd1 & a v>ni% ( a br[n color--made by dissolv+ %ellac & asphaltum 9 nap?a--is giv5 to ! surface to keep !m f ru/+4 ,sometimes ! surface is 8blu$10 :i* is done by heat+ ! p5s on an iron plate till ! blue color appe>s 7see 8,/eel074 ,p5s are sometimes made ( o!r metals besides /eel1 z brass1 or z9c1 & sometimes ( gold4 ,^? made ( gold are1 ( c\rse1 too exp5sive = g5]al use1 b z !y are nev] corrod$ by ! ink1 !y la/ a v long "t1 & c always be clean$ by wa%+2 & z ! :ole we> is at ! po9t1 ?is is tipp$ ) an alloy :i* is exce$+ly h>d4 ,,arts ,,& ,,trade ,,processes4 ,,wood ,,& ,,plate ,,engrav+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,wood ,,engrav+4 ,engrav+ consi/s pr9cipally ( two k9ds1 t 9 :i* ! design is made to project1 & t 9 :i* x is cut 9 or ind5t$2 ! fir/ k9d is us$ 9 wood engrav+1 & 9 engrav+ metallic or wood5 blocks & cyl9d]s = calico pr9t+1 ! o!r is call$ 8plate engrav+10 & is us$ to produce copp]1 /eel1 & z9c plates = pr9t+4 ,9 wood engrav+ a block ( box wood is us$1 or sev]al pieces are screw$ or tongu$ toge!r 9 ord] to make a block ( ! requir$ size1 = ! box wood mu/ be cut across ! gra91 !re=e l>ge blocks are n easily procur$4 ,^! blocks are ab\t an in* 9 ?ickness1 s t !y may range ) type & be pr9t$ ) x1 !y are made p]fectly smoo? on ! face1 :i* is rubb$ ) a little flake-:ite & ,ba? brick1 to give x a :iti% & slightly r\gh5$ surface4 ,on ?is prep>$ surface ! design is drawn ) a black-lead p5cil1 & ! block is !n put into ! h&s ( ! engrav]1 :o cuts away--to ! dep? ( ab\t "o-tw5tie? ( an in*--all ^? p>ts :i* h n be5 black5$ by ! p5cil1 leav+ e l9e & dot ( ! draw+ project+1 & ?is s]ves z a sort ( /amp or type1 to pr9t f4 7,see 8,pr9t+407 ,9 ?is way ! illu/rations to ! pres5t "w are produc$4 ,9 plate engrav+ ! design is copi$ f ! orig9al & cut into ! plate 9 a mann] q opposite to t ( engrav+ on wood2 = e l9e int5d$ to be pr9t$1 in/ead ( project+1 is cut 9 ) a %>p edge1 s t !y may be fill$ ) ink1 in/ead ( be+ cov]$1 z 9 wood engrav+4 ,:5 ! design is =m$ entirely by l9es1 x is call$ 8l9e engrav+10 & :5 =m$ by dots1 x is said to be 8/ippl$10 & ^! two k9ds are (t5 comb9$ 9 ! same plate4 ,!re is a process = engrav+ plates1 call$ 8et*+10 by :i* ! l9es or dots on ! plate are n made by cutt+1 b are corrod$ or eat5 9 by ! *emical action ( nitric acid2 & few plates are n[ produc$ by ! grav] alone1 ! design be+ fir/ et*$ & aft]w>ds f9i%$ (f by ! grav]1 b "s are produc$ by et*+ alone1 :5ce !y are call$ 8et*+s40 ,! process ( et*+ is z foll[s3--,! surface ( ! plate is made smoo? & bright1 !n heat$1 & aft]w>ds coat$ ) a mixture ( asphaltum1 wax1 & ma/ic--call$ 8et*+-gr\nd0--a ball ( :i* is ti$ up 9 a piece ( silk1 rubb$ ov] ! hot plate1 & dabb$ ) a dabb] till a smoo? lay] or coat+ is =m$ all ov] x2 x is 8smok$0 ov] ! flame ( a c&le1 to black5 x1 & ! result is a smoo? black v>ni%1 :i* cov]s ! surface ( ! plate1 & is capable ( resi/+ ! action ( nitric acid4 ,on ?is surface ! design is drawn ) an 8et*+-po9t10 a /eel in/rum5t :i* cuts or scrat*es q ?r\gh ! et*+-gr\nd1 expos+ ! surface ( ! copp] at ! bottom ( ea* scrat*4 ,:5 ! design is f9i%$--9 hues or dots1 accord+ to ! /yle requir$--a ridge or bord] ( wax is made all r\nd ! plate s z to =m x into a sort ( %all[ tray1 & into ?is ! nitric acid1 mix$ ) a little wat]1 is p\r$1 & c>efully wat*$ till 9 ! judgm5t ( ! engrav] x has bitt5 into ! plate suffici5tly = ! fa9t] p>ts ( ! design4 ,! acid is !n p\r$ (f1 & ! plate wa%$ & dri$1 aft] :i* ! p>ts int5d$ to rema9 mo/ lightly et*$ are /opp$ out ) v>ni%1 & ! acid aga9 p\r$ on1 to corrode ! l9es left expos$ to its action m deeply4 ,?is is repeat$ two or ?ree times1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! design1 :5 ! plate is aga9 heat$1 to melt ! et*+-gr\nd1 & ! :ole is clean$ (f ) turp5t9e4 ,! plate may n[ be us$ to pr9t f1 or x may be fur!r f9i%$ by ! 8grav]10 8burni%]10 or 8dry po9t10 :i* is simply a po9t ( /eel us$ to make v f9e & fa9t scrat*es in/ead ( cuts1 = ! grav] cuts out ! piece ( copp]1 :ile ! dry po9t m]ely ind5ts x4 ,!re is ano!r k9d ( plate engrav+1 call$ 8mezzo-t9to40 ,?is is done by fir/ cov]+ ! :ole plate ) a r\gh granulat$ surface--call$ a 8mezzo-t9t gr\nd10--by means ( a sort ( not*$ *isel1 call$ a 8cradle0 or 8gr\nd+-tool10 :i* is rock$ to & fro ov] ! surface 9 e possible direction1 till ! :ole is cov]$ ) m9ute dots2 s t if x 7 !n us$ to pr9t f1 x w\ld produce an ev5 d>k surface4 ,on ?is gr\nd ! engrav] works ) a 8scrap]10 scrap+ gradually away all ^? p>ts :i* are to appe> z lights 9 ! f9i%$ picture1 & ! m ! gr\nd is scrap$ away ! light] w be ! t9t1 till1 f9ally1 ^? p>ts :i* are to be q :ite are scrap$ smoo? & burni%$1 s t !y %all hold no ink at all4 ,9 ?is way ! engrav] proce$s till 8 design is f9i%$1 try+ ! effect f "t to "t4 ,?is k9d ( engrav+ is (t5 comb9$ ) et*+1 produc+ great] %>pness ( outl9e ?an mezzo-t9t alone4 ,,li?ography4 ,illu/ration3 ,,li?ographic ,,press4 ,?is is ! art ( produc+ designs ^u /one 9 su* a mann] t impressions may be pr9t$ f !m4 ,x is (t5 miscall$ 8engrav+ on /one20 prop]ly speak+1 x is n engrav+1 b a process dep5d+ on ! want ( aff9ity betwe5 wat]y & greasy matt]s1 ! design be+ made ) a greasy sub/ance1 ei!r 9 ! =m ( ink or crayon call$ 8li?ographic *alk10 z foll[s4 ,a close-gra9$ /one call$ li?ographic /one 7a k9d ( magnesian lime/one7 is gr\nd p]fectly ev5 on ! surface1 & 7if = be+ writt5 ^u7 poli%$ ) pumice-/one1 or 7if = be+ drawn ^u ) *alk7 gra9$ ) f9e s&2 ! design is drawn ) *alk or ink1 ea* ( :i* is made up ( greasy mat]ials--wax1 soap1 & asphaltum1 color$ ) lamp-black4 ,:5 ! design is made1 ! /one is et*$--wa%$ ov] ) a weak mixture ( nitric acid & wat]--:i* answ]s ?ree purposes2 x v slightly bites away ! /one 9 all places except :]e x is cov]$ ) ! ink or *alk1 x smoo!s ! gra9 9 ! same places1 & x conv]ts ! soap ( ! ink or *alk into grease4 ,we h n[ ! surface ( ! /one q wet1 except :]e ! design is1 :i*1 be+ greasy1 keeps q dry4 ,! /one1 plac$ 9 a press1 is roll$ ov] ) a roll] sme>$ ) greasy pr9t+ ink1 :i* w n adh]e to ! wet /one1 b x readily does to all p>ts ( ! design2 a piece ( pap] is plac$ ov] ! /one1 & a flap ( lea!r cov]s x2 along ?is lea!r ! scrap] ( ! press is br\ght v =cibly :5 x is work$1 & on remov+ ! pap] an impression is f\nd to be transf]r$ to x f ! /one4 ,?is process is repeat$ aga9 & aga91 _m hundr$ times1 )\t mu* injury to ! orig9al design4 ,color$ li?ography1 call$ *romo-li?ography1 is produc$ by us+ sev]al /ones consecutively 7ea* transf]r+ a sep>ate color71 s t ! design %all be complete :5 ! :ole are pr9t$4 ,,pr9t+4 ,! art ( pr9t+ consi/s 9 produc+ impressions f a patt]n or types--cut out & project+1 or engrav$ & ind5t$--by sme>+ ! project+ p>ts or fill+ up ! ind5t$ m>k+s ) ink1 s t impressions1 to any numb]1 & exactly resembl+ ea* o!r1 may be tak5 f !m4 ,pr9t+ is comp>atively a mod]n inv5tion1 al?\gh impress+ or tak+ impressions f seals is "o ( ! v olde/4 ,x is divid$ into two k9ds1 plate-pr9t+ & surface-pr9t+4 ,pr9t+ f type or blocks hav+ ! m>ks to be impress$ rais$1 is call$ surface-pr9t+1 :ile t 9 :i* ! l9es or m>ks are cut 91 is call$ plate-pr9t+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pr9t+-,,press4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ink+-,,table4 ,9 surface-pr9t+1 :5 types are us$1 !y are pack$ up closely into masses & w$g$ toge!r 9 iron frames1 s t !y =m1 z x 71 solid blocks2 ! types or wood-blocks :5 requir$ to be pr9t$ f are plac$ 9 ! press1 & roll$ ov] by a roll] sme>$ ) pr9t+-ink--?is roll] is coat$ ) an ela/ic sub/ance made ( glue & treacle1 & resembl+ ,india-rubb]4 ,x is work$ to & fro on ! 8ink+-table0 7a smoo? iron slab fitt$ ) a receptacle = ink71 9 ord] t ! ink may be ev5ly di/ribut$ ov] its surface--a po9t to :i* great c>e & att5tion1 & no little skill1 on ! "p ( ! workman1 is direct$4 ,! ink1 be+ roll$ ov] ! type1 cov]s & adh]es to ! surface ( ! project+ p>ts4 ,! pap] is plac$ on a frame turn+ ^u a h+e1 & is secur$ 9 its place by ano!r frame br\ght d[n ^u x4 ,^! frames1 ) ! pap]1 are n[ turn$ d[n ^u ! black5$ surface ( ! type1 & ! :ole--pap] & type--pass$ "u ! pr9t+ press1 :]e1 by ! work+ ( a h&le1 a piece ( iron is caus$ to desc5d & press ev5ly & ) great =ce ^u !m4 ,on be+ )drawn1 & ! frames op5$1 ! pap] is f\nd to h receiv$ a p]fect impression1 9 ink1 ( ! type ^u :i* x 0 impress$4 ,?is process1 ( c\rse1 c be repeat$ to any ext5t1 & z _m impressions produc$ z may be requir$4 ,9 plate-pr9t+1 ! plate is fir/ w>m$1 & all ! engrav$ p>ts are fill$ 9 ) ink1 ! sup]flu\s ink be+ wip$ (f1 & ! surface clean$ bright by us+ a little :it+ 7:i* is rubb$ on ! h&s71 leav+ only ! ind5t$ p>ts full ( ink4 ,! pap] 79 a damp /ate7 is !n laid on ! plate1 ) a fold or two ( flannel ov] x1 & ! :ole is c>ri$1 by turn+ ! h&les ( ! press1 betwe5 two roll]s1 :i* compress ! plate & pap] toge!r s =cibly t1 :5 remov$1 ! ink is f\nd to h left ! plate & atta*$ itself to ! pap]1 =m+ an impression4 ,pr9t+ is n[ 9 v _m cases done by ma*9]y1 work$ by /eam p[]1 s t a v l>ge numb] ( impressions c be produc$ 9 a v %ort "t1 z 9 ! case ( newspap]s1 ! :ole impression ( :i* 7am\nt+ to _m ?\s&s7 is pr9t$ 9 a few h\rs4 ,pr9t+ 9 colors ( v>i\s t9ts1 s arrang$ z to =m a picture1 has lately be5 mu* resort$ to4 ,! usual me?od pursu$ is to pr9t "o color1 & :5 t is dry1 to pr9t ! next1 & s on till ! picture is complete2 b a ma*9e has be5 inv5t$ by :i* _m colors may be pr9t$ at "o "t4 ,,photography4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cam]a ,,= ,,/]eoscopic ,,pictures4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,r$uc$ ,,view] ,,image47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,l5s ,,arrangem5t47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,image ,,transf]5ce47 ,! pr9ciple ( ?is art dep5ds ^u ! prop]ty :i* c]ta9 *emical prep>ations 7*iefly ^? ( silv]7 possess ( be+ black5$ by exposure to light :ile 9 contact ) organic matt]1 & t 9 s gradual a mann] t e degree ( %ade may be repres5t$4 ,n[1 z ! v>i\s appe>ances ( ev]y?+ we see dep5d ^u ! effects ( light & %ad[ 7toge!r ) ! peculi> color ( ! objects !mselves71 x foll[s t if ^! lights & %ad[s c be transcrib$1 we %all h a repres5tation ( ! objects1 m9us _! own prop] colors--& ?is is :at photography effects4 ,= ! purpose ( br++ ! objects to be tak5 )9 a small compass1 & = increas+ _! vividness1 an in/rum5t is us$ call$ a cam]a1 9 :i* !re is an a*romatic arrangem5t ( l5ses 7%[n 9 figs4 #b & #c71 :i* produces a picture on ! pap] or glass to be affect$ by ! light1 9 ! same way t a common magnify+ glass w1 if held at a prop] di/ance f a piece ( pap]1 b mu* m p]fectly 7fig4 #a74 ,! effect ( ?is cam]a-picture on ! pap] or glass :5 prop]ly prep>$ & subject$ to its influ5ce1 is to d>k5 ! pap] 9 all ^? p>ts :i* 9 ! cam]a-picture are ! brighte/1 & to leave unaffect$ ^? p>ts :i* are ! d>ke/1 ?us produc+ :at is call$ a 8negative picture10 hav+ ! lights repres5t$ by %ad[s & ! %ad[s by lights4 ,?is is us$ to =m ! true or 8positive0 picture1 :i* is done by plac+ ! negative on a piece ( prep>$ pap]1 & expos+ x to ! light4 ,! negative hav+ be5 made p>tly transp>5t by wax 7z w be fur!r expla9$71 & ! p>ts ( ! picture :i* are to be d>k be+ left transp>5t1 ! light passes ?r\gh !m & black5s ^? p>ts ( ! prep>$ pap] beh9d1 :ile ^? :i* are to be light1 be+ d>k 9 ! negative1 exclude ! light & ?us pres]ve ! pap] at ! back f be+ d>k5$2 ! pap] is ?us affect$ 9 ! contr>y way to ! negative1 & is !re=e a true picture ( ! lights & %ad[s ( ! object copi$4 ,?is is ! pr9ciple ( all photographic pictures1 b ) numb]less v>iations 9 its practice2 x w\ld !re=e be impossible "h to describe ! p>ticul>s ( ea* process1 beyond ! mo/ simple4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,photographic ,,plate47 ,p]haps ( all ! v>i\s arts discov]$ by man1 ?is is ! mo/ beautiful1 produc+ a p]fect lik5ess ( any be+ or object 9 a few mom5ts1 & ) a tru? n to be equall$ by ye>s ( /udy & practice 9 o!r ways4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ discov]$ & simple/ modes ( =m+ a sun picture consi/s 9 us+ ! object itself 7:]e ?is is possible7 to =m ! negative4 ,?is c only be done :5 ! object is flat1 z a manuscript1 a picture1 a leaf1 or a piece ( lace-"w2 a piece ( pap] wa%$ ov] ) a solution ( common salt1 dri$1 & aga9 wa%$ ov] ) a solution ( nitrate ( silv]1 w answ] = ?is purpose2 x %\ld be prep>$ by c&le-light1 z daylight black5s x1 & x %\ld be kept f ! light till ! mom5t = use4 ,if ?is pap]1 hav+ ! object to be copi$ plac$ on x & kept flat by a piece ( glass press$ firmly on by a contrivance %[n 9 fig4 #d1 be expos$ to ! sun%9e1 x w be black5$ 9 all places b ^? kept f ! light by ! d>k] p>ts ( ! object1 & ! lights & %ad[s w v>y accord+ly z ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! object itself are m or less transp>5t4 ,:5 ! effect has be5 produc$ to a suffici5t degree1 ! pap] %\ld be remov$ & at once wa%$ 9 a solution ( hyposulphite ( soda1 :i* removes all ! sup]flu\s silv] 7:i* o!rwise w\ld be d>k5$ by ! light72 :5 remov$ f ! hyposulphite ( soda x %\ld be well soak$ 9 clean wat]4 ,?is :5 f9i%$ is a true negative picture ( ! object1 & c be us$ to produce ! positive4 ,! negative %\ld fir/ be made p>tly transp>5t by bru%+ x ov] ) "s melt$ :ite wax1 !n plac+ x betwe5 folds ( blott+ pap] & pass+ a hot iron ov] x1 ! blott+ pap] w absorb all ! sup]flu\s wax1 & ! negative w be fit = use4 ,a piece ( pap] prep>$ l ! fir/ ) salt & nitrate ( silv]1 %\ld be plac$ aga9/ ! front ( ! negative1 kept smoo? by a piece ( glass1 & expos$ to ! sun%9e = a qu>t] ( an h\r or m1 tak+ c>e t ! back ( ! negative is expos$ to ! light & ! prep>$ pap] beh9d2 a positive picture w be produc$1 :i* is to be at once treat$ ) a solution ( hyposulphite ( soda & wa%$ ) clean wat]1 z 0 ! negative4 ,any numb] ( positive impressions may ?us be produc$4 ,! 8,calotype0 or 8,talbotype0 process may be p]=m$ z foll[s1 recollect+ t all ^! processes mu/ be conduct$ by c&lelight1 or 9 a room hav+ ! w9d[ cov]$ ) yell[ silk1 or "s o!r sub/ance exclud+ :ite light4 ,select a piece ( pap] ( an ev5 surface & /ructure1 su* z ,:atman's pap]1 bru% x ov] ) a solution ( nitrate ( silv]--ab\t sixte5 gra9s to an ounce ( wat]--& let x dry1 !n fold up ! edge ( ! pap] all r\nd & dip ! surface to :i* ! solution ( nitrate ( silv] has be5 appli$ into a solution ( iodide ( potassium--an ounce to a p9t ( wat]--conta9$ 9 a %all[ vessel1 & let x p>tly dry2 float x = a qu>t] ( an h\r 9 a vessel ( clean wat]1 mov+ x g5tly ab\t s z to remove all soluble matt]1 & hang x up by a corn] to dry1 tak+ c>e to let no?+ t\* ! surface4 ,:5 ab\t to be us$1 ?is pap] mu/ be bru%$ ov] 7us+ a s(t camel-hair bru%7 ) a mixture1 9 equal quantities1 ( a solution ( nitrate ( silv]--fifty gra9s to an ounce ( wat]--& a saturat$ solution ( gallic acid1 =m+ :at is call$ ! 8gallo-nitrate0 ( silv]4 ,leave ?is solution on ! surface = t5 m9utes1 & aga9 imm]se ! pap] 9 two or ?ree successive portions ( pure wat]1 mov+ x to & fro2 ?is1 :5 ne>ly dry1 is 9 a fit /ate to place 9 ! cam]a1 & is an exce$+ly s5sitive pap]1 :i* 9 a good light w be affect$ 9 a few seconds4 ,:5 ! image has be5 impress$ by ! cam]a1 ! pap] %\ld aga9 be bru%$ ov] ) ! gallo-nitrate ( silv]1 & held ei!r ne> a fire or a plate ( hot iron1 s z to receive a g5tle w>m?2 ! impression w n[ come out1 ( a deep ri* col\r4 ,dip x into w>m wat] = a few m9utes1 & put x into ! hyposulphite ( soda ba?--an ounce to a qu>t ( wat]--f :i* x is f9ally remov$ & plac$ 9 a l>ge vessel ( pure wat] = sev]al h\rs4 ,:5 dry1 x is complete1 =m+ a good negative1 :i*1 :5 wax$1 may be us$ to pr9t positives z be=e describ$4 ,! 8,collodion0 process is conduct$ z foll[s4 ,hav+ select$ a plate ( glass ( ! requir$ size & ( good quality 7pat5t plate answ]s well71 clean x ?or\ghly ) rott5/one & spirits ( w9e1 & poli% x ) a clean dry l95 clo?2 !n hold x on ! tips ( ! f+]s & ?umb 9 a horizontal position1 p\r ^u x a small quantity ( ! 8iodiz$ collodion10 & s incl9e x f side to side1 t all ! surface %all be cov]$ ) ! collodion1 t :i* is sup]flu\s be+ return$ to ! bottle by p\r+ x f "o corn] ( ! glass4 ,9 a few m9utes ! coat+ ( collodion w be dry1 & %\ld =m a p]fectly ev5 surface1 )\t air spots or unev5 m>k+s4 ,! iodiz$ collodion is made by dissolv+ gun-cotton 9 e!r1 & add+ _s ( w9e & iodide ( ammonia4 ,! glass plate coat$ ) collodion is n[ dipp$ into a solution ( nitrate ( silv]--?irty gra9s to an ounce ( wat]--& all[$ to rema9 two or ?ree m9utes2 :5 all ! sup]flu\s fluid has dra9$ (f1 ! plate is ready = use1 & is extremely s5sitive to light4 ,:5 ! impression has be5 produc$ by ! cam]a1 a solution ( pyro-gallic acid1 mix$ ) a little acetic acid1 is p\r$ ov] ! surface1 :i* br+s up ! image2 :5 ?is is develop$ to a prop] ext5t1 ! surface mu/ be wa%$ ) clean wat] & aft]w>ds ) a solution ( hyposulphite ( soda1 :i* dissolves out all ! silv] f ^? p>ts n d>k5$ by ! light 9 ! cam]a1 leav+ ! glass 9 ^? p>ts q transp>5t4 ,a negative is ?us obta9$ fit to pr9t f 9 ! usual way1 b glass be+ m transp>5t ?an ! wax$ pap]1 x produces a m p]fect positive4 ,! surface ?us prep>$ %\ld be coat$ ) a v>ni%1 made by dissolv+ amb] 9 *lor(orm1 :i* is done by p\r+ x on & decant+ ! sup]flu\s v>ni% simil>ly to ! mode ( coat+ ) collodion2 ?is v>ni% dries 9 a few m9utes1 & pres]ves ! surface f injury4 ,sometimes ^! negatives are conv]t$ into positives1 in/ead ( be+ us$ to pr9t f2 9 ^! cases ! surface is coat$ ) black japan1 & ! collodion1 hav+ a :iti% surface1 ow+ to r$uc$ silv]1 %[s up 9 comp>ison ) ! black v>ni% :i* is se5 ?r\gh ! transp>5t p>ts4 ,^! positives are extremely %>p & well def9$4 ,! 8,dagu]reotype0 process consi/s 9 =m+ ! image on ! surface ( a metallic plate 7copp] coat$ ) silv]71 :i* is fir/ poli%$ to a p]fect surface l a look+-glass1 !n expos$ to ! vap\r ( iod9e 9 a prop]ly-con/ruct$ box1 aft]w>ds to ! vap\r ( *loride ( brom9e1 & aga9 to ! vap\r ( iod9e2 ?is produces a ?9 film ( a mixture ( bromide & iodide ( silv]1 :i* cov]s ! surface ( ! plate1 & is v s5sitive to light1 :i* r$uces ! iodide & bromide to ! metallic /ate 9 a few seconds4 ,! plate is !n expos$ to ! action ( ! light 9 ! cam]a1 & :5 suffici5tly affect$1 expos$ to ! vap\r ( m]cury1 ! m]cury be+ put into a box1 & heat$ by a _s lamp2 ! m]curial vap\r adh]es to all ! p>ts ( ! silv] r$uc$ by ! light1 & =ms a light-col\r$ amalgam1 correspond+ to ! lights ( ! objects repres5t$4 ,! plate is !n wa%$ ) a solution ( hyposulphite ( soda1 :i* removes all ! bromide & iodide ( silv] n r$uc$ by ! light1 & exposes ! highly-poli%$ surface ( ! silv]1 :i* =ms ! %ad[s ( ! picture2 ?is is n[ 8fix$0 ) a v weak solution ( *loride ( gold & hyposulphite ( soda1 :i* is p\r$ ov] ! surface & heat$ :ile !re by apply+ ! flame ( ! _s lamp to ! back ( ! plate = a m9ute or two2 ! solution is !n p\r$ (f1 & ! picture :5 wa%$ ) wat] is complete4 ,,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,/]eoscope47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7 ,,/]eoscopic ,,slide ,,box47 ,_m photographic pictures1 :e!r ,talbotype or ,dagu]reotype1 are tak5 d\ble = ! 8/]eoscope0 7fig4 #e74 ,?is is an in/rum5t hav+ two l5ses 7"o = ea* eye71 ?r\gh :i* ! two views may be se54 ,! pr9ciple is ?is3--,e object is se5 by ea* eye 9 a slightly diff]5t view2 = in/ance1 if y look at ! edge ( a pr9t--plac+ ! pr9t$ "p t[>ds y\r "r h&1 & br++ ! edge 9 front ( ! lace betwe5 ! two eyes--by clos+ ! "r eye1 ! left w see ! back ( ! pr9t only1 b by clos+ ! left eye ! front ( ! pr9t may be se51 & ! front only4 ,! /]eoscope pres5ts bo? ( ^! views to ! eyes at once1 z :5 we look ) bo? eyes1 & ! objects h !re=e ! appe>ance ( project+1 z d read objects4 ,to take ^! views1 ! slide aft] "o view is tak5 is mov$ ab\t f\r in*es on "o side1 & !n ! o!r is tak52 ! di/ance mov$ corresponds to ! di/ance betwe5 ! eyes1 & !re=e produces ! correct view = ea*4 ,! box = ! /]eoscopic slide is %[n at fig4 #f1 9 :i* ,a is ! fir/ view to be tak51 :ile ! o!r half ( ! glass is kept d>k1 at ,b1 & ,c is ! %utt] = ,a4 ,,book-,,b9d+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,sew+-,,press47 ,! %eets ( :i* a book is to be made1 :5 prop]ly fold$ 7into half = folio1 qu>t] = qu>to1 c47 are press$ flat 9 a press & !n plac$1 "o or m at a "t1 on a bo>d beh9d a frame call$ a 8sew+-press0 7fig4 #a71 :i* has pieces ( /r+ or cord 7call$ b&s7 ti$ 9 an upright position1 & aga9/ ^! ! fold$ edge ( ! %eet is br\ght 9 su* a mann] t ! b&s may be sewn on to ! back ( ! %eet by a ?read be+ pass$ f ! inn] "p ( ! fold$ %eet to "o side ( ! /r+1 !n 9 aga9 on ! o!r1 & s on = ea* cord till !y are fa/5$ on to ! fir/ %eet1 :5 ano!r is plac$ on ! top ( ! fir/ & sew$ 9 ! same way4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,pl\gh47 ,:5 all are sewn1 ! back is glu$ ?ickly ov]1 & ! book is fix$ betwe5 two bo>ds 9 a press & ! back beat5 till x is curv$2 ! sides & front are !n cut smoo? ) an in/rum5t call$ a pl\gh 7fig4 #b71 :i* works 9 ! grooves ( a press :]e ! book is fix$1 & a knife 7:i* =ms "p ( ! pl\gh7 be+ pass$ backw>ds & =w>ds1 cuts ?r\gh ! edges ( ! book & makes !m smoo?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,cutt+ ,,) ,,%e>s47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,engrav$ ,,tools47 ,! cov]s--made ( a ?ick pa/ebo>d call$ 8millbo>d10 & cut to ! "r size by %e>s 7fig4 #c7--;are fitt$ to ! sides ( ! book1 ! ends ( ! /r+-b&s are !n pass$ ?r\gh holes 9 ! sides ( ! bo>ds1 & are beat5 flat & glu$ d[n4 ,! book is !n cov]$ ) clo?1 vellum1 pap]1 or lea!r1 z desir$1 & f9ally press$ 9 a p[]ful press to make ! leaves smoo?4 ,ornam5ts1 su* z gilt b&s or corn] decorations1 are produc$ by gold-leaf put on & /amp$ by means ( tools engrav$ at _! ends1 or1 :]e ! m>g9 is to h a patt]n or l9e on x1 by means ( :eels ) engrav$ edges 7fig4 #d74 ,lea!r-back$ books are glaz$ on ! outside ) :ite ( eggs1 :i* =ms a k9d ( v>ni% :5 dry4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,book ,,m\ld47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7 ,,glu$ ,,back+47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 7 ,,sewn ,,back+47 ,books h lately be5 b\nd )\t any sew+1 by 8,hancock's ,pat5t0 process4 ,?is consi/s 9 hav+ all ! %eets fold$ into d\ble leaves1 & ! fold$ p>ts all br\ght ev5ly to a curv$ =m = ! back ( ! book by means ( a m\ld or holl[ cut 9 ! edges ( two upright bo>ds 7fig4 #e72 !y are !n remov$ to a press :i* holds ! book tightly toge!r1 leav+ ?is curv$ back j project+ 9 front ( ! press-bo>ds4 ,! back is sme>$ ) ,india-rubb] dissolv$ 9 nap?a1 :i* :5 dry is sev]al times repeat$1 till a coat+ ( suffici5t ?ickness is produc$1 :5 x is cov]$ ) clo? or l95 & ! book is ready to be f9i%$ 9 ! usual way2 ?us ! sew+ is q disp5s$ )1 = ! fold$ edge ( ea* %eet is held to ! next "o by a ?9 coat+ ( ,india-rubb]4 ,?is plan all[s great fre$om 9 op5+1 & = ?ick books produces a level surface mu* sup]ior to ^? b\nd 9 ! old way 7figs4 #f & #g74 ,,pap]-,,/a9+4 ,illu/ration3 8,,gr\nd+0 ,,! ,,pap]4 ,?is "n is giv5 to ! process = mak+ pap]-hang+s = ! decoration ( ! walls ( ap>tm5ts4 ,! colors us$ 9 ?is process are all :at are call$ body-colors1 or ^? :i* are n transp>5t1 b mix$ ) :it+ or prep>$ *alk & a small quantity ( size to ! requir$ t9t4 ,! colors are appli$ by means ( wood5 blocks hav+ _! surfaces s engrav$ t ! patt]n %all project2 all ! patt]n is n engrav$ on "o block1 b only t "p ( x :i* is to be ( "o color1 & ! numb] ( blocks requir$ dep5ds ^u ! numb] ( colors 9 ! patt]n--usually ?ree or f\r4 ,! pap] is pr9t$ 9 pieces ( ab\t twelve y>ds 9 l5g?2 ^! are fir/ 8gr\nd$10 t is1 color$ all ov] ) ! color int5d$ to =m ! gr\nd ( ! patt]n1 & hung on poles to dry4 ,! blocks are appli$ to a sort ( sieve1 ) a lea!r bottom1 on :i* "s color is spread ) a bru%1 & :5 ! block is tak5 up suffici5t ( ! color adh]es to give a good impression on ! pap]4 ,ea* block has a regi/]1 :i* produces a little m>k at ! edge ( ! pap]1 & s]ves z a guide 9 apply+ ! succe$+ blocks1 s t :5 pr9t$ !y fit into & correspond ) ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pr9t+ ,,! ,,patt]n4 8,flock0 pap] is produc$ by pr9t+ "p ( ! patt]n 9 a v>ni% ( boil$ oil & :it+1 & lay+ ! pap] s pr9t$ 9 a tr\gh or tray ov] :i* ! flock is spr9kl$4 ,! flock is made by gr9d+ %r$s ( clo? ( ! requir$ color 9 a mill4 ,?is r\gh surface gives a v ri* & velvety appe>ance to ! pap]4 ,,flax ,,manufacture4 ,flax1 be=e be+ spun into 8y>n0 = weav+ l95s1 und]goes sev]al processes1 to sep>ate its fibres suffici5tly1 & to rid !m ( all %ort & unev5 portions4 ,! fir/ op]ation consi/s 9 a k9d ( f]m5tation call$ 8rett+10 ! /alks ( ! flax be+ pack$ up 9 bundles & /eep$ 9 wat]1 or expos$ to damp air1 spread out1 till !y s(t5 & become fit = ! next process1 call$ 8break+40 ,?is is done by contrivances :i* beat & bruise or give x sev]al %>p b5ds1 ! object be+ to break (f ! out] "p1 call$ ! 8boon10 & leave ! inn] fibres or 8h>l0 free2 ?is1 :i* is ! "p to be us$1 is ?us 9 a great measure fre$ f ! out] "p1 b to d s completely x is scrap$ ) a blunt k9d ( knife till all ! 8boon0 is gone4 ,! next process is call$ 8heckl+10 a sort ( comb+1 9 :i* ! flax is dragg$ ?r\gh bru%es ( f9e iron spikes1 us$ clos] & clos] till ! flax is comb$ out q f9e & p]fectly free f knots or unev5 pieces1 be+ beat5 f "t to "t to break or sep>ate ! fibres4 ,dur+ ?is process mu* ( ! %ort & unev5 fibres collect 9 ! 8heckle10 & is call$ 8t[10 :i* has to be sep>at$ & ! fibres arrang$ simil>ly to 8c>d+0 cotton 7see 8,cotton ,manufacture074 ,! flax has n[ to be drawn out1 d\bl$1 & drawn out aga9 into 8sliv]s10 also 9 ! same way t is describ$ = draw+ out cotton1 & ^! sliv]s are f9ally twi/$ into y>n1 be+ previ\sly wett$ to take (f _! /illness4 ,! y>n is !n w\nd ^u bobb9s1 =m+ ! mat]ial f :i* l95s1 musl9s1 & o!r goods are wov54 ,,glass-,,pa9t+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,c>toon1 ,,or ,,design+ ,,room4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pa9t+4 ,( glass-pa9t+ !re are two k9ds1 ! "o be+ kn[n z 8pa9t$10 & ! o!r z 8/a9$ glass40 ,9 ! =m] ! design & color+ are produc$ by ! application1 to ! surface ( colorless glass1 ( transp>5t pigm5ts ( v>i\s colors1 :i*1 "u ! action ( ! furnace1 become vitrifi$ & incorporat$ ) ! body ( ! glass4 ,9 ?is mann] ( glass-pa9t+--:i* is capable ( none ( ! p[]ful & ri* effects ( color peculi> to /a9$ glass--x w be und]/ood t ! process mu* resembles ! practice ( ! picture pa9t]4 ,9 ! "o case canvasses are us$1 & 9 ! o!r %eets ( colorless glass2 ! picture-pa9t] us+ colors mix$ ) oils & v>ni%es1 ! glass-pa9t] colors made ( e>?s & metals1 & mix$ ) a flux1 :i*1 "u ! action ( fire1 vitrifies 8 "w4 ,x is q possible to produce a l>ge composition1 conta9+ _m figures & a great v>iety ( colors1 on b few pieces ( glass4 ,inde$1 "o ( ! necessities ( mak+ a w9d[ ( 8pa9t$ glass0 9 sev]al pieces1 is simply to avoid ! dang] ( breakage1 9 us+ %eets ( too l>ge a size4 ,! v>i\s pieces are jo9$ toge!r ) lead "w ( precisely simil> nature to t :i* is us$ 9 ! diamond 8qu>ry-glass0 se5 9 ! w9d[s ( c\ntry cottages4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cutt+ ,,room4 ,illu/ration3 ,,glaz+ ,,! ,,"w ,,up4 ,illu/ration3 ,,furnace4 8,/a9$ glass0 diff]s f glass-pa9t+ 9 v _m p>ticul>s4 ,9 ?is case ! colors1 in/ead ( be+ laid on ) a bru% z 9 pa9t$ glass1 are =m$ 9 ! sub/ance ( ! glass itself4 ,?is necessitates ! use ( sep>ate pieces ( glass = e color or t9t requir$1 & ?us ! process 9 "s degree resembles t ( mosaic "w1 a t]m1 inde$1 :i* is (t5 appli$ to ?is k9d ( glass-pa9t+4 ,! fir/ process 9 produc+ a /a9$ glass w9d[ is ! mak+ ( ! design1 color$ or o!rwise4 ,?is (fice is1 ( c\rse1 t ( ! arti/1 :o is at ! head ( 8 e/abli%m5t4 ,f 8 design1 :i* is always made to a small scale1 ! full-siz$ draw+s or c>toons are made1 by ! arti/ & 8 assi/ants4 ,:5 f9i%$1 ) all details & colors det]m9$1 !y are plac$ 9 ! h&s ( ! glazi]1 :o cuts ) 8 diamond ! glass ( ! requir$ %apes & colors1 respectively1 s t :5 8 task is complete1 ! w9d[1 z laid out on ! 8cutt+-bo>d10 mu* resembles a *ild's puzzle--ea* piece ( glass1 al?\gh (t5 ( ! mo/ complicat$ =m & m9ute size1 fitt+ ) accuracy to ! o!r pieces by :i* x is surr\nd$4 ,?is process complet$1 ! next c\rse is = ! pa9t] to produce on ! blank piece ( color$ glass prep>$ = him by ! glazi] ! v>i\s outl9es & %ad+s1 z repres5t$ 9 ! c>toon1 x be+ 8 bus9ess to take su* means z w ensure ! production ( a fai?ful copy4 ,?is outl9+ & %ad+ is produc$ by ! use ( a br[ni% or w>m grey t9t1 :i* is g5]ally us$ a little ov] all ! colors repres5t$ 9 ! "w4 ,!re are "s slight gradations ( ^! br[n t9ts us$ occasionally1 pr9cipally :5 x is desir$ to pa9t ! fle% %ad[s ) "s sep>ate t9t1 b g5]ally x may be und]/ood t ! (fice ( ! pa9t] 9 /a9$ glass is n to produce ! colors1 b by 8 br[n %ad[+ to br+ out ! design & =ms ( ! composition4 ,:5 ! glass1 ?us %ad$ & outl9$1 has pass$ ?r\gh ! furnace--:]e ! %ad[s are vitrifi$--& be5 all[$ gradually to cool1 ! glazi] fits x toge!r ) lead-"w1 sold]+ 9 all ! pieces1 !n ! :ole is made wea!r-tight1 & ! /a9$ glass w9d[ is complete4 ,,cotton ,,manufacture4 ,illu/ration3 ,,mule ,,frames4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fr5* ,,comb+-,,ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 8,,scot*+0 ,,or ,,bl[+ ,,ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,lap ,,frame4 ,illu/ration3 ,,c>d+ ,,ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,draw+ ,,ma*9e4 ,aft] ! cotton is sort$1 & ! gross] impurities pick$ f x by h&1 x is dress$ by ! 8comb+ ma*9e10 or subject$ to a ma*9e 7call$ a 8will[10 z x 0 orig9ally a sort ( basket7 contriv$ to op5 out & mix ! cotton well toge!r1 at ! same "t bl[+ (f all du/ & all[+ ! heavi] impurities to fall ?r\gh a grat+4 ,! next process is call$ 8scot*+10 & ! ma*9e is sometimes call$ a 8bl[+ ma*9e40 ,f ?is ! cotton is pass$ 9 a 8lap0 or ?9 lay]1 :i* is beat5 z x passes1 to get rid ( du/1 & a draught ( air produc$ by a bl[+ app>atus assi/s 9 ! same object2 x is ?us entirely fre$ f all impurities4 ,! cotton is !n c>ri$ to ! 8c>d+ ma*9e10 = ! purpose ( hav+ its fibres all laid p>allel ) ea* o!r2 ?is ma*9e is1 9 fact1 a sort ( comb1 & consi/s ( cyl9d]s hav+ f9e wires project+ f _! surfaces act+ 9 diff]5t directions1 s z to draw out ! fibres till !y all lie 9 "o direction1 =m+ a k9d ( 8fillet10 call$ a 8c>d10 :i* is c>ri$ by roll]s into a t9 c & !n subject$ to a process call$ 8draw+ & d\bl+40 ,z ! 8c>d ends0 are n yet suffici5tly p>allel 9 _! fibres1 !y h to be pass$ betwe5 ?ree sets ( roll]s1 ! und]mo/ ( :i* are flut$ on _! surfaces1 ! upp] ones be+ cov]$ ) flannel4 ,^! roll]s act 9 a peculi> mann]2 ! fir/ pair pass ! cotton at a c]ta9 rate on to ! second pair1 :i* w\ld pass x on to ! ?ird un*ang$ if !y revolv$ at ! same rate z ! fir/ pair1 b !y are turn$ a little fa/]1 & !re=e /ret* ! fillet ( cotton at an ev5 & regul> rate1 & 9 su* a mann] t x is n brok52 ! ?ird pair1 go+ fa/] ?an ! second1 aga9 /ret* ! fillet4 ,aft] ! fillet has pass$ ?r\gh x is d\bl$1 pass$ ?r\gh aga9 & aga91 till x is q uni=m 9 its /ructure1 & drawn out by ^! /ret*+s v f9e1 x is !n call$ a 8sliv]40 ,:5 x is drawn z f9e z ! k9d ( cotton admits1 ! fir/ twi/ is giv5 to x by ! 8rov+0 ma*9e1 :i* twi/s x into a s(t c>d1 deliv]s x w\nd on 8bobb9s10 & x is f9ally twi/$ into y>n by ! 8w9d+ ma*9e40 ,illu/ration3 ,,bobb9 ,,frame4 ,illu/ration3 ,,w9d+ ,,ma*9e4 ,^! processes are c>ri$ on ) great precision & rapidity1 &1 by ! aid ( ^! ma*9es1 "o man is able 9 a day to produce z mu* y>n z ! mo/ exp]t sp9n] by h& c\ld furni% 9 a ye>6 ,cotton1 until ab\t #agfj1 0 all spun by h&4 ,a little lat]1 ,james ,h>greaves inv5t$ ! 8sp9n+-j5ny10 & ,arkwright aft]w>ds improv$ ! 8c>d+ ma*9e20 ! 8mule-j5ny0 7see ,head+71 inv5t$ by ,crompton1 0 a /ill fur!r improvem5t4 ,! cotton1 :5 spun1 is call$ y>n1 :i* is us$ = weav+ into calicoes & o!r cotton goods4 ,cotton ?read is made by twi/+ 7by ma*9]y7 two or m y>ns into "o1 :i* are aft]w>ds dress$ ) />*1 & w\nd on reels or into balls4 ,,wooll5 ,,manufacture4 ,wool is almo/ exclusively d]iv$ f ! fleece ( ! %eep1 goats' wool be+ only occasionally us$4 ,wool diff]s f hair 9 possess+ a not*$ surface1 giv+ x ! v useful quality ( 8felt+10 & enabl+ ! fibres to adh]e into a mass :5 press$ & beat5 toge!r1 ! not*es cat*+ into ea* o!r4 ,wooll5 articles are *iefly ( two k9ds1 8wooll5s10 or ^? p>tly felt$ & made f 8%ort0 or 8clo?+0 wools1 call$ 8clo?s10 & ^? made )\t felt+ f 8comb+0 or 8long0 wools1 z 8m]9os10 8/uffs10 c4 ,wool und]goes a num]\s succession ( processes be=e x is complete 9 its manufacture4 ,x is fir/ sort$ accord+ to ! quality requir$1 next sc\r$ & wa%$ 9 a w>m solution ( soap1 & !n r9s$ 9 cold wat]1 to get rid ( ! 8yelk0 or grease ) :i* ! wool is naturally coat$4 ,x is !n pass$ betwe5 roll]s to dry x1 next dy$1 & !n 8will[$0 7?is la/ process is to dis5tangle ! fibres & at ! same "t get rid ( any du/ :i* may h be5 mix$ ) x72 aft]w>ds x is spread out & spr9kl$ ) a small quantity ( olive oil be+ ?or\ghly beat5 ) rods1 to spread ! oil ov] ! surface ( e fibre4 ,x next und]goes a process call$ 8scribbl+10 :i* is effect$ by a ma*9e :i* combs out ! fibres & lays !m 9 lay]s1 9 a p>allel direction2 ! :eels :i* effect ?is are arm$ on _! surfaces ) wires & ! wool passes f "o set to ano!r1 f9] & f9]1 till at la/ x passes out 9 ?reads or 8c>ds0 & ^! are spun by ! 8slubb+ ma*9e0 into 8y>ns0 = weav+4 ,aft] be+ wov51 ! oil is aga9 wa%$ out ) w>m soap & wat]1 & ! fabric is !n /ret*$ by means ( 8t5t]-hooks0 /uck 9 a m>g9 or 8li/0 ( co>s] wor/$1 left on ea* side ( ! clo? = t purpose1 & x is all[$ to dry 9 ?is position4 ,! mat]ial is n[ fit = 8felt+10 or 8full+10 z x is call$1 :i* is done 9 ! 8full+ mill40 ,! process consi/s 9 ?or\ghly beat+ ! clo? ) heavy wood5 mallets or 8/ocks0 = t5 or twelve h\rs1 x be+ at ! same "t wett$ ) soap & wat]1 & fold$ into a mass ( _m lay]s4 ,?is beat+ causes ! fibres to int]lace & adh]e toge!r till ! cross-b> patt]n made by ! w>p & weft 9 weav+ is oblit]at$1 & ! clo? has ! appe>ance ( a felt$ surface1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is rugg$ & unev54 ,x is next 8teazl$10 a process =m]ly p]=m$ by means ( a bundle ( ?i/le-heads--call$ 8teazles0--:i* 7 dragg$ ov] ! clo?1 s z to raise ! ends ( ! wooll5 fibres p]p5dicul> to ! surface2 b ?is is n[ p]=m$ by ma*9]y1 ! teazles be+ fix$ r\nd a roll] turn+ "o way1 :ile ! clo? is mov$ 9 an opposite direction4 ,9 "s ma*9es wire bru%es are us$ in/ead ( teazles4 ,! clo? is next 8mill$10 or 8%e>$10 :i* is done by /ret*+ x out on a p]fectly level surface1 :]e a pair ( circul> knives fix$ to a :eel "w ov] x & 8%e>0 (f ! fibres1 leav+ ! surface p]fectly ev54 ,x is n[ wett$1 bru%$1 & f9ally dri$ & pack$ 9 a f9i%$ /ate4 ,,weav+4 ,! art ( weav+ ?reads ( v>i\s descriptions is "o ( ! olde/1 & is frequ5tly m5tion$ 9 ! ,scriptures & o!r anci5t records4 ,x consi/s 9 s cross+ or int]lac+ ! fibres t !y %all =m fabrics fitt$ = ! v>i\s requirem5ts to :i* !y are appli$4 ,weav+1 z n[ p]=m$ by ma*9]y1 = ! production ( :at are call$ 8textile fabrics10 is f> too complicat$ to be "h describ$ 9 detail1 ! ma*9es :i* are us$ be+ among/ ! mo/ complicat$ contrivances ( m5's h&s4 ,dr4 ,ure says ( ! weav+ ( 8bobb9-net10--8,x may be said to surpass e o!r bran* ( human indu/ry 9 ! complex +5uity ( its ma*9]y2 "o ( #8,fi%]'s spott+-frames' be+ z mu* beyond ! mo/ curi\s *ronomet] z t is beyond a common roa/+-jack40 ,! pr9ciple is1 h[ev]1 ne>ly ! same1 :e!r p]=m$ by h& or by ma*9]y1 b "s ( ! m complex fabrics c\ld only be produc$ by h&1 & by ^? few :o may h devot$ great tal5ts & ye>s ( application to ! acquirem5t ( ! requisite skill1 :]eas a ma*9e once made c be imitat$ by ord9>y workm51 & itself work$ by unskill$ me*anics4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,l95 ,,weave47 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,jacqu>d ,,loom4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,h$dle ,,rais$47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,%uttle47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,twill$ ,,fabric47 ,9 pla9 weav+1 z 9 fig4 #a1 ( :i* l95 or calico may be ! examples1 ! y>n or ?reads simply cross ea* o!r1 go+ alt]nately above & bel[4 ,! ?read :i* runs f end to end ( ! clo? is call$ ! 8w>p10 & t f side to side ! 8weft0 or 8wo(40 ,9 ne>ly all we>+ ! weft is ! same1 b 9 8figur$0 or 8twill$0 fabrics ! w>p is s arrang$ t a patt]n %all be =m$1 z is se5 on t[els1 table-clo?s1 c4 ,9 pla9 weav+1 ! ?reads are fir/ w\nd (f1 ( ! requir$ quantity & l5g?1 on a frame call$ a 8w>p+ frame20 !y are !n w\nd on a roll]1 side by side1 & atta*$ to ! 8loom10 or ma*9e = weav+1 ?r\gh :i* !y run1 also side by side4 ,ne> ! end !y are atta*$ to :at are call$ h$dles1 :i* consi/ ( ?reads /ret*$ 9 an upright frame1 hav+ loops ne> _! c5tres2 a pair ( ^! is us$ 9 pla9 weav+1 "o half ( ! w>p ?reads be+ atta*$ to ! loops ( "o1 & ! re/ to ^? ( ! o!r h$dle1 alt]nately1 ?us--fir/ a ?read ?r\gh a loop ( "o h$dle1 !n ano!r ?r\gh a loop ( ! o!r h$dle1 & s on4 ,^! h$dles c be rais$ alt]nately by a pulley atta*$ to treadles work$ by ! weav]'s feet1 & x foll[s1 t :5 "o ( ! h$dles is rais$1 e alt]nate ?read ( ! w>p is rais$ also1 a space ( a triangul> =m be+ left 7fig4 #b74 ,?r\gh ?is space ! weav] ?r[s ! 8%uttle0 7fig4 #c71 :i* is a piece ( wood po9t$ at ea* end1 be>+ a reel ( 8weft0 9 its c5tre1 :i* weft-?read unw9ds z x is ?r[n ?r\gh4 ,! o!r h$dle is !n rais$1 & ! %uttle ?r[n back aga91 ea* "t leav+ a l9e ( weft beh9d x4 ,9 ?is way ! cross+s ( all pla9 fabrics are produc$1 a contrivance be+ us$ betwe5 ea* ?r[ to press ! weft close to ! =m] "o4 ,if in/ead ( "o half ( ! w>p-?reads be+ up & ! o!r half d[n at ! "t ! %uttle is ?r[n1 "o only is rais$ at e fif? ?read1 ! int]v5+ f\r be+ d[n1 & ! "o t is rais$ diff]+ at ea* ?r[ ( ! %uttle1 a k9d ( /ructure is produc$ call$ 8tweel$0 or 8twill$10 su* z sat91 bombaz9e1 c42 fig4 #d %[s ! appe>ance ( ! edge ( su* a /ructure4 ,if ! w>p consi/s ( alt]nate ?reads ( diff]5t colors1 :ite & blue = example1 x is cle> t ei!r color w pr$om9ate :]e ! w>p ?read ( t p>ticul> color is mo/ se54 ,9 fig4 #e1 a a a a repres5t :ite1 & b b b b blue ?reads1 & ?is w %[ h[ ! patt]n on any /ructure1 al?\gh ! same on bo? sides1 is blue on ! "o side :]e x is :ite on ! o!r1 z 9 damasks1 or rais$ on "o side :]e x is sunk on ! o!r1 z 9 dimity1 or diap]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,dual ,,color ,,weave47 ,,blea*+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,blea*+ ,,works4 ,! *ief object ( blea*+ is to get rid ( ! natural color+ matt] :i* always t+es cotton1 silk1 c41 z produc$ f ! raw mat]ial1 & also to get rid ( any greasy matt]s1 or /a9s f accid5tal causes4 ,cotton is n only requir$ to be blea*$ :5 int5d$ to rema9 :ite1 b also be=e dye+ or pr9t+1 ! colors be+ !reby r5d]$ m uni=m & brilliant4 ,! olde/ me?od ( blea*+ consi/$ 9 simply expos+ ! goods1 moi/5$ ) wat]1 to ! action ( light & air1 by spread+ !m out on ! grass1 & h5ce ! t]m 8grass-blea*$20 b ?is is by f> too t$i\s a process = ! pres5t day1 :5 ! manufacture is s great & ! consumption s rapid4 ,! process ( blea*+ cotton goods consi/s 9 boil+ !m fir/ 9 wat]1 !n 9 a mixture ( lime & wat]1 & !n 9 a solution ( soda1 soak+ !m 9 a solution ( *loride ( lime1 aft]w>ds 9 wat] acidulat$ ) sulphuric acid1 & f9ally 9 pure wat]4 ,l95s are *iefly blea*$ by repeat$ boil+s 9 solutions ( pota% or pe>la%1 & aft]w>ds 9 *loride ( lime2 wool by soak+ 9 w>m wat]1 expos+ x to ! vap\r ( sulphur1 & f9ally wa%+ 9 a solution ( s(t soap4 ,illu/ration3 ,,s+e+ ,,app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,dry+ ,,app>atus4 ,be=e be+ pr9t$1 x is necess>y t all ! loose fibres %\ld be remov$ f ! surface ( ! goods4 ,?is is effect$ by 8s+e+10 :i* is done by caus+ ! goods to pass ov] a r$-hot roll]1 sett+ fire to ! f9e fibres project+ f ! surface only1 b ) a motion too rapid to all[ ! fabric to be scor*$4 ,?is process1 & also ! app>atus by :i* ! articles are dri$ aft] blea*+1 are %[n 9 ! accompany+ illu/rations4 ,! latt] consi/s ( a s]ies ( holl[ roll]s heat$ by /eam1 ov] :i* ! goods to be dri$ are pass$1 a curr5t ( air be+ admitt$ to c>ry (f ! vap\r4 ,,calico-,,pr9t+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,calico-,,pr9t+ ,,works4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,pr9t+ ,,s*ematic47 ,calico-pr9t+ is execut$ ei!r by h& 7) wood5 blocks hav+ ! patt]n engrav$--project+--on _! surfaces7 or by means ( ma*9]y4 ,pr9t+ by h&-blocks is a t$i\s op]ation1 & is n[ almo/ sup]s$$ by ! cyl9d]4 ,! h& process is v simil> to t made use ( 9 pap]-/a9+ 7:i* see74 ,cyl9d]-pr9t+ is a mu* m rapid process1 conduct$ by means ( a brass cyl9d] ) ! patt]n engrav$ on its surface1 :i* is made to revolve aga9/ ano!r cyl9d] cov]$ ) flannel1 & *>g$ ) color f a tr\gh into :i* its l[] "p is dipp$4 ,! calico is pass$ ov] a l>ge cyl9d] made to revolve 9 contact ) t on :i* ! patt]n is engrav$1 & :i* is *>g$ ) color f ! "o bel[ x4 ,fig4 #a %[s ?is arrangem5t1 a be+ ! l>ge cyl9d] ) ! calico r\nd x1 b ! engrav$ cyl9d]1 c ! color cyl9d]1 & d ! color tr\gh4 ,z ! engrav$ cyl9d] revolves1 x pr9ts ! patt]n at ea* revolution1 & ?is is repeat$ aga9 & aga91 to ! :ole l5g? ( ! piece ( calico4 ,9 "s ma*9es !re are sev]al engrav$ cyl9d]s1 ea* pr9t+ its own color1 & s arrang$ t ! colors %all fit into ! p>ts ( ! design requir+ !m1 ! :ole mak+ up ! complete patt]n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,age+ ,,process4 ,illu/ration3 ,,dry+ ,,room4 ,be=e be+ pr9t$1 ! calico is prep>$ by be+ pass$ ?r\gh a prep>ation1 call$ a mordant1 capable ( fix+ ! colors1 & prev5t+ !m be+ wa%$ out1 & sev]al ( ^! are us$1 accord+ to ! colors requir$4 ,! colors are ?ick5$ ) pa/e1 s z to prev5t !m f runn+ into ea* o!r :5 pr9t$4 ,musl9s1 *9tzes1 c41 are pr9t$ 9 a simil> mann] to calicoes4 ,:5 ! pieces ( calico come f ! pr9t+ cyl9d]s1 !y are made to pass upw>ds ?r\gh holes 9 ! ceil+ to a room above1 :]e !y pass ov] surfaces ( iron heat$ by /eam1 s z to ?or\ghly dry !m2 !y !n desc5d ?r\gh ! floor into ! pr9t+ room1 :]e !y are pack$4 ,! process call$ 8age+0 consi/s 9 expos+ ! calicoes to ! air = a c]ta9 "t1 to take (f ! h>%ness & /iffness peculi> to new goods4 ,9 "s cases ! colors !mselves are n pr9t$ on ! goods1 ! mordants be+ us$ in/ead1 & ! :ole piece is !n boil$ 9 a vat ( dye-/uff1 :i*1 h[ev]1 only adh]es to ! p>ts pr9t$ ) ! mordant1 all ! re/ be+ easily got rid ( by simple wa%+4 ,,dye+4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,dye+ ,,process47 ,! art ( dye+ does n simply consi/ 9 color+ ! diff]5t sub/ances2 if ?is 7 ! case1 ! color w\ld be wa%$ out z easily z imp>t$4 ,ne>ly all ! colors us$ 9 dye+ be+ ( vegetable orig91 x is necess>y to apply "s sub/ances to ! fabrics to be dy$ :i* %all fix ! colors 9 ! gra94 ,( ^! 7call$ 8mordants07 ! *ief are acetate ( alum9a1 acetate ( iron1 & *loride ( t9 7sub/ances well kn[n to *emi/s71 :i* h ! prop]ty ( mak+ ! color+ matt] insoluble1 s t x _c be wa%$ out4 ,!re are v>i\s ways ( dye+4 ,if ! fabric has to be dy$ all "o color1 x is dipp$ 9 ! mordant1 dri$1 & aft]w>ds boil$ 9 a solution ( ! dye-/uff4 ,if a color$ gr\nd ) :ite figures is requir$1 !n ! figures are pr9t$ on x ) :at is call$ a 8resi/10 t is1 "s sub/ance ?ick5$ ) gum1 pa/e1 or pipe-clay1 :i* w resi/ ! action ( ! mordant & dye-/uff1 s t :5 ! fabric is aft]w>ds r9s$ ^! figures rema9 :ite4 ,if ! gr\nd is to be :ite & ! patt]n dy$ on x1 !n ?is is pr9t$ ) ! mordant & ! color adh]es only to ! p>ts pr9t$1 al?\gh ! :ole be boil$ ) ! dye-/uff1 :at little may adh]e to ! gr\nd be+ easily wa%$ out 9 ! r9s+4 ,sometimes ! k9d ( mordant us$ det]m9es ! color ( ! dye2 = in/ance1 madd] w dye r$ ) ! *loride ( t91 & black ) ! acetate ( iron4 ,if we n[ suppose a piece ( clo? to be pr9t$ 9 l9es ( acetate ( iron1 & figures ( *loride ( t91 :5 ! :ole is boil$ 9 ! madd] vat1 ! clo? comes out ) black l9es & r$ figures on a :ite gr\nd4 ,ano!r po9t to be consid]$ is ! k9d ( /uff to be dy$1 :e!r cotton1 silk1 or wooll51 or a mixture ( ei!r1 = :at w take "o k9d ( dye w n always take ano!r1 & advantage is tak5 ( ?is to dye two colors at once1 or "p :ite & "p color$4 ,a table-cov]1 = in/ance1 wov5 ) wor/$ & cotton1 c be boil$ 9 v>i\s k9ds ( dye1 & produce :ite & blue1 or :ite & r$1 = t dye is select$ :i* w atta* itself only to "o k9d ( fabric1 & leave ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sc\r+4 ,_m o!r *emical qualities ( ! sub/ances us$ z dyes1 & ( ! sub/ances to be dy$1 are also tak5 into consid]ation4 ,"o ( ! *ief ( ^! is %[n 9 dye+ ) indigo4 ,?is sub/ance 7a vegetable extract7 z br\ght to ,engl& is q insoluble 9 wat] & unfit = use z a dye2 b x is made soluble1 & at ! same "t almo/ colorless1 by mix+ ) lime1 sulphate ( iron1 & wat]4 ,^! sub/ances deprive x ( its oxyg51 & ! /raw-color$ solution is !n us$ = dye+1 ! sub/ances boil$ 9 x atta9+--z ! indigo rega9s its oxyg5 on exposure to ! air--a deep blue color4 ,) dye+ is (t5 associat$ ! art ( 8sc\r+10 = a k ( ! prop]ties ( ! dye-/uffs us$ enables ! workman to discrim9ate betwe5 :at w bright5 & :at w\ld injure ! goods to be clean$4 ,,cal5d]+4 ,! process ( cal5d]+ is resort$ to = produc+ a f9e smoo? surface on calicoes & o!r goods1 & = r5d]+ !m suffici5tly ev5 to be pr9t$ ^u 7see 8,calico-pr9t+074 ,! cal5d]+ ma*9e consi/s ( a set ( five roll]s1 con/ruct$ to revolve at unequal rates1 s t ! "o :i* turns ^u ! face ( ! calico n only rolls x betwe5 itself & its fell[1 b--turn+ fa/]--rubs x & gives a gloss to ! surface simil> to ! effect :i* w\ld be produc$ if ! goods 7 laid on a table1 & ! roll] rubb$ ov] !m in/ead ( be+ roll$4 ,^! roll]s are v curi\sly con/ruct$4 ,!y are made by pack+ _m hundr$s ( r\nd pieces ( pa/ebo>d--hav+ ea* a squ>e hole 9 ! c5tre1 & sev]al small] circul> ones 9 ! m>g9--on to a c5tral b> ( iron1 ) simil> b>s ?r\gh ! small] holes1 until a suffici5t numb] h be5 add$ to produce ! l5g? ( roll] requir$4 ,nuts are !n fitt$ to ! ends ( ! small] iron b>s1 & ^! be+ screw$ tightly1 compress ! :ole into s solid a mass1 t x c be turn$ 9 a la! to a p]fectly smoo? surface1 :i* is 7unlike wood7 n liable to crack1 &1 be+ slightly ela/ic1 does n cru% ! goods1 z metal roll]s w\ld4 ,,bread ,,mak+4 ,?is process is mu* ! same :atev] k9d ( meal or fl\r may be us$1 :e!r :eat51 b>ley1 c4 ,a c]ta9 portion ( ! fl\r is mix$ ) w>m wat] 79 :i* a little salt is g5]ally dissolv$71 "s yea/ or 8b>m0 7! fro? f ! f]m5tation ( be]7 is add$1 & ! :ole work$ toge!r to a pa/y consi/5ce1 ?is is put into a pan to keep w>m1 & is call$ 8! sponge20 besides fl\r & wat] ne>ly e bak] mixes 8 sponge ) a c]ta9 proportion ( potatoes boil$ to a 8squa%10 & pass$ ?r\gh a sieve to sep>ate ! r9ds4 ,9 an h\r or s x swells up to d\ble its orig9al size1 f ! f]m5tation :i* is go+ on produc+ a k9d ( gas call$ 8c>bonic acid10 :i* be+ =m$ 9 e "p ( ! 8sponge10 inflates x to a great ext5t4 ,aft] a "t x s9ks d[n 7mo/ ( ! gas escap+71 & beg9s to rise aga92 x is !n mix$ ) ! rema9d] ( ! fl\r 7& "s wat] if necess>y71 & ! :ole ?or\ghly knead$ toge!r ) ! h&s till x is all ( an equal consi/5ce--?is %\ld be nei!r too /iff1 nor s s(t z to /ick to ! h&s4 ,x is n[ to be cut up & weigh$ out into pieces to =m ea* loaf4 ,! ov5 9 :i* ! bread is bak$ is made ( 8fire-brick10 & s emb$d$ 9 e>? or brickwork t :5 heat$ x %all n readily cool2 ?is is heat$ ) coal or wood till x is ne>ly r$-hot & ! loaves are put 9 & left till bak$4 ,,sug> ,,ref9+4 ,:5 br[n or raw sug> is ref9$ x =ms ! :ite cry/all9e product kn[n z loaf sug>4 ,! process involves _m +5i\s arrangem5ts 9 its detail1 b ! ess5tial object to be obta9$ is ! sep>ation ( all color+ matt] f ! raw mat]ial )\t produc+ any m by ! process1 :i* is a great] difficulty ?an w\ld at fir/ appe>1 = all solutions ( sug> evaporat$ 9 ! op5 air become to a great ext5t color$1 & ! long] ! exposure1 & ! high] ! temp]ature1 ! worse ! product2 a sub/ance =m+ call$ 8c>amel10 :i* discolors x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,conical ,,pot47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,fill+ ,,conical ,,pots47 ,! br[n sug> is fir/ mix$ ) a v small quantity ( boil+ wat]1 j suffici5t to =m a ?ick pa/y mass1 :i* is put into conical pots 7figs4 #a & #b71 & all[$ to dra91 ! small quantity ( wat] wa%es out only ! br[n "p1 & leaves ! cry/als pretty :ite2 !y are !n dissolv$ 9 wat]1 mix$ ) "s bone-black & bullock's blood2 ! bone-black is ! *>coal f burnt bones1 & has ! p[] ( tak+ away ! color ( mo/ vegetable solutions1 ! bullock's blood is us$ z af=d+ a *eap k9d ( album51 :i* :5 ! solution ( sug> is boil$ coagulates & entangles all ! float+ matt]s s t !y may be remov$ by filtration4 ,illu/ration3 ,,vacuum-,,pan4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,sug> ,,la!47 ,! liquid is boil$ = a "t1 & !n put into a ci/]n exclud$ f ! light1 hav+ holes at ! bottom into :i* long tubes ( ?ick twill$ cotton are fa/5$1 ?r\gh :i* ! solution runs z bright z wat]2 !y all hang d[n into ano!r ci/]n bel[1 also kept f ! light1 f :i* x is pump$ up into ! evaporat+ app>atus--a copp] vessel entirely air-tight1 heat$ by /eam & hav+ a p[]ful air-pump atta*$ to x by :i* all ! vap\r & air are remov$ z ! syrup becomes hot2 ?is is call$ a 8vacuum pan0 7see engrav+71 & by ?is ! syrup is cond5s$ to ! prop] consi/5ce1 & is put into m\lds ( ! %ape ! loaf is to be1 hav+ holes at ! l[] "p :i* are plugg$ up1 ! syrup z x cools =m+ a solid mass ( cry/als2 ^! m\lds are arrang$ 9 r[s ov] a *annel lead+ to a prop] receptacle1 ! plugs are tak5 out f ! holes at ! bottom ( ea* & "s pure conc5trat$ syrup is p\r$ on to ! upp] "p2 ?is sl[ly desc5d+ filt]s ?r\gh ! sug>1 c>ry+ ) x any 8c>amel0 t may h =m$1 f9ally escapes at ! hole1 & runs into ! ci/]n2 ?is completely :it5s ! sug>1 & gives x a bright] & co>s] gra94 ,! loaves are !n tak5 f ! m\lds1 dri$ 9 an ov5 at a g5tle heat1 & f9ally pack$ 9 pap] = sale4 ,if ! po9t$ ends are discolor$ or ragg$ ! loaf is put into a la! 7fig4 #c7 & ! end turn$ to a prop] figure or cut (f4 ,,brew+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,vats4 ,illu/ration3 ,,f]m5t+ ,,room4 ,illu/ration3 ,,eng9e ,,room4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ma% ,,tun4 ,illu/ration3 ,,boil]4 ,be] is made by p\r+ boil+ wat] ^u gr\nd malt1 & aft] a "t draw+ x (f1 :i* is repeat$ until all its soluble p>ts are remov$ & dissolv$ 9 ! wat]2 ! liquor result+ is call$ 8sweet wort10 :i* is !n boil$ ) a c]ta9 proportion ( hops 7! dri$ 8/obules0 or fl[]s ( ! hop plant71 & ! liquor all[$ to cool4 ,x is !n mix$ ) a small quantity ( 8ye/10 :i* is ! scum ?r[n (f by a =m] brew+1 & ! :ole is all[$ to f]m5t till ne>ly all ! sweet sug>y matt] :i* 0 got f ! malt is conv]t$ into _s1 x is !n put into casks & all[$ to f]m5t sl[ly1 9 :i* process x ?r[s (f m ye/1 :i* is collect$1 z se5 9 ! cut1 = ! next brew+4 ,x is !n bung$ up 9 ! b>rels & kept = a "t1 :5 x is fit = use4 ,9 l>ge brew]ies ma*9]y ( v>i\s k9ds is employ$1 su* z pumps = pump+ up wat]1 taps = draw+ x (f ma*9]y = /irr+ up ! ma% 9 ! 8ma% tun10 & also ! hops 9 ! boil]1 to prev5t !m burn+ at ! bottom ( x4 ,! 8cool+ floor0 is a contrivance = cool+ ! wort1 consi/+ ( a s]ies ( pipes :i* pass 9 a s]p5t9e mann] ?r\gh x1 & ?r\gh :i* cold wat] is made to fl[4 ,! k9d ( be]1 :e!r ale or port]1 *iefly dep5ds ^u ! k9d ( malt us$2 = ale1 v pale malt1 call$ 8amb]10 :ile = port]1 burnt malt is employ$1 & h5ce ! color ( ^! two descriptions ( be]4 ,if ! f]m5tation is n c>ri$ f> en\gh ! be] w be too sweet1 & if too f> x w be s\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cool+ ,,floor4 ,,di/illation4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,di/ill]y47 ,! process ( di/ill+ consi/s 9 conv]t+ ! fluid to be di/ill$ into vap\r1 & cond5s+ x into a fluid 9 ano!r vessel4 ,by ?is process ! m volatile p>ts ( any fluid are sep>at$ f ! re/2 = example1 if br&y be di/ill$1 ! _s or alcohol x conta9s w be conv]t$ into vap\r & w cond5se 9 ! receiv] comp>atively pure 7see 8,alcohol071 leav+ beh9d 9 ! /ill ! wat]1 color+ matt]1 c41 s t ! _s is colorless1 al?\gh ! br&y may h be5 q br[n4 ,also1 if common wat] be di/ill$1 pure wat] w pass ov]1 & ! e>?y matt]s :i* ! wat] _h conta9$ w be left beh9d 7= all ord9>y wat] conta9s consid]able quantities ( e>?y matt]s1 dissolv$ out f ! e>? ov] :i* x fl[s74 ,! vessels us$ = di/ill+ are v v>i\s 9 _! =ms1 to suit ! diff]5t fluids1 bo? z to quantity & quality 7see 8,/ill074 ,!re is a contrivance lately us$ = di/ill+ _s f ! f]m5t$ wa% conta9+ x1 by :i* x is all[$ to fl[ into an ap>tm5t full ( d\ble floors1 a few in*es above ea* o!r1 ! upp] ones be+ made ( ?9 copp] p]=at$ all ov] ) m9ute holes1 & on :i* ! wa% is all[$ to fl[ to ! dep? ( ab\t an in*4 ,into ! space betwe5 ! upp] & l[] p>ts ( ea* floor /eam is admitt$1 :i*1 ris+ ?r\gh ! little holes1 is cond5s$ by ! wa%1 giv+ out its heat to ! _s conta9$ !re91 & caus+ x to be conv]t$ into vap\r1 :i* passes (f f ! spaces betwe5 ! floors to a cond5s+ app>atus ) :i* !y all communicate4 ,,gild+4 ,gild+ consi/s 9 cov]+ ! surfaces ( v>i\s articles ) a ?9 lay] ( gold1 & may be divid$ into two k9ds1 q diff]5t processes & practis$ by diff]5t artisans4 ,! fir/ is 8oil-gild+10 :i* is a me*anical application ( gold-leaf to "s adhesive surface1 ! second is 8wat]-gild+10 & is a *emical process4 ,9 oil-gild+1 :]e frames1 c41 are to be cov]$ ) gold-leaf1 ! fir/ ?+ necess>y is to obta9 a smoo? ev5 surface on :i* x w lie1 b z c>v$ frames are exp5sive1 ornam5ts ( a k9d ( putty are fix$ to ! frame1 & coat$ ) :it+ & size4 ,! gold-leaf is made to adh]e easily to ?is clammy surface1 by simply damp+ x1 & press+ ! gold on by means ( a piece ( cotton wool1 aft]w>ds g5tly bru%+ x into all ! m>k+s4 ,wood & o!r articles to be gilt are coat$ ) 8gold-size10--a sort ( v>ni%--& :5 ?is is ne>ly dri$1 s z to be :at is call$ 8tackey10 x w hold ! gold 9 ! same way4 ,:5 lett]+ is to be done 9 gold1 ! pa9t$ or v>ni%$ surface is fir/ bru%$ ov] ) :it+1 :i* prev5ts ! gold adh]+ :]e x is n want$1 ! writ+ is !n execut$ 9 gold-size1 & ! gold-leaf appli$ by press+ ! book on to ! surface1 & f9i%+ (f ) cotton wool1 :i* rubs (f all ! sup]flu\s gold-leaf & smoo?s x on ! surface4 ,wat]-gild+ 7a process1 h[ev]1 9 :i* no wat] is us$7 consi/s 9 cov]+ ! surface ( metal ) a ?9 coat+ ( gold2 ! be/ metal = wat]-gild+ is ei!r brass1 or a mixture ( brass & copp]4 ,a mixture ( gold & m]cury1 9 ! proportion ( "o "p ( gold to eight ( m]cury1 is made hot ov] a fire till !y h unit$2 x is !n put into a bag ( *amois-lea!r1 & ! sup]flu\s m]cury press$ out4 ,:at rema9s is call$ an 8amalgam20 x is s(t1 & ( a greasy nature1 s t x c be sme>$ ov] any surface ) ! f+]s4 ,! articles to be gilt are made p]fectly clean on ! surface1 & a liquid made by dissolv+ m]cury 9 nitric acid 7aqua-=tis7 is bru%$ ov] !m by means ( a bru% made ( f9e brass wire1 call$ a 8scrat*-bru%40 ,! m]cury imm$iately adh]es to ! surface ( ! metal1 mak+ x look l silv]1 :5 ?is is done1 a little ( ! amalgam is rubb$ on1 & ! article ev5ly cov]$ ) x4 ,x is n[ heat$ 9 a *>coal fire till all ! m]cury evaporates1 & ! brass is left ) a coat+ ( gold1 :i* is v dull b may be burni%$ ) a /eel burni%] & made bright if necess>y4 ,9 =m] times articles 7 inlaid ) ?9 plates ( gold1 :i* 7 plac$ 9 holl[s made ) a grav] & melt$ 91 a little borax be+ appli$ betwe54 ,:5 a solution ( 8*loride ( gold0 is mix$ ) e!r1 ! e!r takes ! gold away f ! solution1 & may be p\r$ (f ! top *>g$ ) x4 ,?is solution1 if appli$ to poli%$ /eel by means ( a camel-hair p5cil1 rapidly evaporates1 leav+ a film ( gold adh]+ to ! /eel1 :i*1 :5 burni%$ ) any h>d sub/ance1 has a v elegant appe>ance4 ,9 ?is way any ornam5tal design 9 gold may be produc$1 b x is n v durable4 ,! gilt ornam5ts1 scrolls1 & mottoes on sword-blades1 c41 are sometimes done 9 ?is way4 8,gild+ ref9$ gold0 w\ld appe> a great absurdity1 b some?+ v l x is (t5 practis$ 9 ! process call$ 8color+10 us$ by jewell]s4 ,?is is h[ev] nev] appli$ to 8ref9$ gold0 b to gold t is n q s good 9 color z x %\ld be4 ,x is boil$ 9 a liquid conta9+ *emical sub/ances capable ( dissolv+ ! alloy f ! surface ( ! article & deposit+ a ?9 coat+ ( pure gold1 giv+ x ! appe>ance ( be+ made ( bett] gold ?an x really is4 ,?is is 9 tru? a species ( electro-plat+1 b 0 9 use v _m ye>s be=e ! electro-deposit+ process _h be5 discov]$4 ,,silv]+ ,,look+-,,glasses4 ,al?\gh ?is process is call$ 8silv]+10 yet no silv] is us$2 ! sub/ance at ! back ( ! glass is a mixture ( t9 & m]cury1 call$ an 8amalgam10--inde$1 ! t]m 8amalgam0 applies to all mixtures ( m]cury ) o!r metals4 ,! process is z foll[s3--,a %eet ( 8t9-foil0 7t9 roll$ out to ab\t ! ?ickness ( pap]7 ! size ( ! glass to be silv]$ is plac$ on a p]fectly level table1 cov]$ ) clo?2 ^u ! t9-foil "s m]cury is p\r$1 & spread ev5ly & quickly ov] ! surface ) a h>e's foot4 ,! plate ( glass is 9 ! mean:ile to be made p]fectly clean & dry--n ! slighte/ speck or sme> mu/ rema94 ,a %eet ( tissue pap]1 also clean & dry1 is laid ov] ! surface ( ! m]cury1 ! plate ( glass is plac$ on ! pap] & made to correspond ) ! m]curialis$ t9-foil b5ea?4 ,weights are n[ plac$ on ! plate ( glass to keep x firmly d[n1 & ! %eet ( pap] is drawn out /eadily & sl[ly2 z x passes ov] ! surface ( ! m]cury x br+s away all film or du/1 & ! surface be+ left p]fectly bright1 adh]es s firmly to ! dry glass t x is n easily remov$4 ,a great difficulty is to prev5t air-bubbles f f9d+ _! way betwe5 ! glass & m]cury4 ,! table is n[ rais$ slightly at "o end1 & ! sup]flu\s m]cury all[$ to dra9 (f4 ,aft] a few h\rs ! t9-foil w be f\nd to be completely unit$ all ?r\gh ) ! m]cury1 & w be s brittle t x c be scrap$ (f 9 p[d] f ! glass4 ,great c>e & practice are requir$ to silv] l>ge plates1 b any "o by a few trials may succe$ p]fectly ) a piece ( glass a few in*es squ>e4 ,glass globes are silv]$ inside by %ak+ 9 !m a mixture ( m]cury & t9 fil+s until x adh]es to ! surface ( ! glass1 :i* mu/ fir/ be made p]fectly dry & w>m4 ,,silv] ,,plat+4 ,plat$ goods consi/ ( metallic articles coat$ ) a ?9 plate ( silv]2 ! metal is made ( a mixture ( brass & copp]1 :i* is ca/ into flat slabs or +ots ab\t an in*-&-a-half ?ick1 ! surface on "o or bo? sides is fil$ flat & smoo?1 & a plate ( silv] ( ab\t ! ?irtie? "p ( an in* ?ick1 b a little small] ?an ! metal1 is appli$ smoo?ly to x1 ! edges are cov]$ all r\nd ) borax gr\nd f9e ) wat] & ! plates ti$ tightly toge!r ) wire4 ,! :ole is !n put into a furnace & closely wat*$ till ! silv] beg9s to melt1 :5 x is at once tak5 out & all[$ to cool2 by ?is mode ( treatm5t ! silv] adh]es s firmly to ! metal t !y become z "o piece4 ,x is !n pass$ betwe5 /eel roll]s & roll$ out to ! requir$ sub/ance1 ! silv] & metal bo? becom+ ?9n] 9 ab\t ! same proportion1 s t on a plate ( metal1 ( :atev] ?ickness1 ! silv] is some:]e ab\t a =tie? or =ty-fif? "p ( its ?ickness2 ^! plates ( metal coat$ ) silv] are work$ by /amp+1 pun*+1 or pass+ betwe5 roll]s ! edges ( :i* h m\ld+s1 curves1 c41 cut on !m1 & ! p>ts ( ea* article :5 m\ld$ are aft]w>ds sold]$ toge!r s z to =m :at is int5d$4 ,wires ( v>i\s =ms are plat$ 9 ! same way & aft]w>ds drawn out by means ( draw-plates 7see 8,wire-draw+074 ,electro-plat+ has to a great ext5t sup]s$$ ?is process 7see 8,electro-plat+074 ,,electro-,,plat+ ,,& ,,deposition ,,( ,,metals4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,electro-,,plat+ ,,process47 ,?is art has = its objects ! coat+ ( metallic articles ) o!r metals ( m value1 beauty1 or durability1 su* z gold1 silv]1 or copp]1 by means ( electricity1 & ! =mation 7by ! same means7 ( o!r articles by ! deposition ( metals1 f liquids conta9+ !m1 ^u m\lds or engrav$ surfaces capable ( modell+ !m4 ,:5 ! deposit =ms a coat+ int5d$ to be p]man5t1 & :i* adh]es to ! article s z to be incapable ( removal1 x is call$ 8electro-plat+10 b :5 a fac-simile ( any surface is requir$1 or a ca/ ( a m\ld :i* may be remov$1 =ms ! object to be produc$1 x is call$ 8electrotyp+0 or 8electro-deposit+40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,electro-,,plat+ ,,exp]im5t47 ,illu/ration3 ,,gild+ ,,r+s4 ,by way ( exp]im5t1 procure two vessels1 ,a & ,b1 fig4 #a1 9 "o ( !m1 ,a1 put "s dilute sulphuric acid & two plates1 "o ( z9c1 ,z1 ! o!r ( copp]1 c1 ^! mu/ n t\* ea* o!r1 b may be sep>at$ ab\t half an in* by two or ?ree pieces ( wood or cork1 & b\nd r\nd ) /r+2 ea* ( ^! plates mu/ h a piece ( wire fa/5$ by sold]+ to _! upp] p>ts4 ,9 ! vessel ,b put "s solution ( sulphate ( copp] & a small quantity ( dilute sulphuric acid1 & atta* ano!r copp] plate to ! wire :i* comes f ! copp] plate 9 ! acid2 ?is second copp] plate is to be imm]s$ 9 ! solution ( sulphate ( copp]1 & to ! wire f ! z9c plate is to be fix$ ! object to be coat$ ) copp]4 ,if a m$allion or o!r object is pla/]1 x %\ld be soak$ 9 v hot wax & !n bru%$ ov] ) blacklead until ! surface is p]fectly black5$ & bright2 ! wire %\ld be b\nd all r\nd ! m>g9 & sold]$ 7z x 77 ) melt$ wax to ! m$allion1 tak+ c>e t ?is wax also is well coat$ ) blacklead4 ,if ! object be n[ imm]s$ 9 ! sulphate ( copp] solution & kept at a %ort di/ance f ! plate 7x mu/ n t\* x71 a coat+ ( copp] w soon cov] ! surface & =m a p]fect ca/1 :i* :5 ( suffici5t ?ickness may be remov$ by fil+ ! edge all r\nd 7if in/ead ( ! pla/] ca/ a copp] co9 or o!r copp] object be us$1 ! blacklead+ is n requir$1 b ! surface mu/ be fir/ made clean & bright74 ,) ! same arrangem5t1 b us+ in/ead ( ! sulphate ( copp] a solution made by dissolv+ cyanide ( silv] 9 a solution ( cyanide ( potassium1 a coat+ ( silv] w be deposit$1 & ! same ( gold 7if cyanide ( gold be us$71 b ^! coat+s w n adh]e4 ,if x be int5d$ t ! coat+s %all adh]e1 to plate ! article ) silv] or gold1 x %\ld be fir/ ?or\ghly clean$1 !n bru%$ ov] ) a solution ( nitrate ( m]cury1 wa%$ 9 clean wat]1 & put into ! gold or silv] solution2 ! nitrate ( m]cury w cov] ! copp] article ) a ?9 coat+ ( m]cury1 :i* w be tak5 up z ! gold or silv] is deposit$1 & ?is coat+ w adh]e1 ! article be+ ?us 8electro plat$40 ,z 9 us+ ! solution ( sulphate ( copp]1 a copp] plate 0 imm]s$ 9 ! solution & unit$ by ! wire to ! copp] plate 9 ! vessel ,a1 s 9 us+ ! solution ( cyanide ( silv]1 a silv] plate mu/ be us$1 & 9 ! gold solution a gold plate1 ^! plates be+ dissolv$ z ! metal is deposit$1 ! liquid rema9+ pretty mu* ! same & s]v+ = future op]ations4 ,! gold & silv] ?us deposit$ are dull1 b may be burni%$ ) a /eel burni%]1 all ov] or 9 p>ts z ! design may require4 ,9 manufactur+1 ^! processes are mu* modifi$1 & p[]ful galvanic batt]ies or electro-magnets us$2 9 ! latt] case ! electro-magnetic ma*9e is (t5 driv5 by a /eam-eng9e & ! tr\ghs ( deposit+ liquids conta9 (t5 _m doz5s ( articles1 :i* are all receiv+ a coat+ at once4 ,,sold]+ ,,& ,,braz+4 ,! art ( unit+ metals by ano!r metal or alloy1 is call$ sold]+ 7:i* includes 8h>d & s(t sold]+10 & 8braz+074 ,if any metal be appli$ 9 a melt$ /ate to ! surface ( a piece ( cold metal1 "u ord9>y circum/ances x w n adh]e1 b runs (f 9 globules1 ?is is ow+ to ! surface be+ cov]$ ) 8oxide0 or ru/1 b if ! surface be scrap$ or fil$ bright & "s sub/ance appli$ :i* w def5d x f ! air1 & at ! same "t become fluid at ! heat ( ! melt$ metal1 !n x w adh]e4 ,= ?is purpose borax is us$ 9 h>d sold]+ & braz+1 t is 9 sold]+ ) metals :i* require a consid]able am\nt ( heat to melt !m2 & sal ammoniac1 ros91 oil1 c41 9 cases ( sold]+ ) 8s(t sold]10 or sold] t w readily melt4 ,?is s(t sold] is made ( a mixture ( lead & t91 & if requir$ to melt v easily 7z 9 sold]+ pewt]71 !n "s 8bismu?0 is add$4 ,bismu? itself does n melt m readily ?an lead1 b x has ! prop]ty ( caus+ o!r metals to melt m readily4 ,if ! edges ( two pieces ( t91 = example1 h to be sold]$ toge!r1 an iron ) a wood5 h&le & a piece ( copp] jo9$ to ! o!r end is us$4 ,?is is made r$-hot1 & ! pieces ( t9 be+ plac$ smoo?ly toge!r & _! edges spr9kl$ ) ros9 or sal ammoniac1 ! hot iron 7fir/ t\*$ on a piece ( ros9 to clean x7 is !n appli$ to ! jo9t1 a piece ( s(t sold] be+ appli$ at ! same "t1 & z ?is melts x is drawn 9 a melt$ /ate by means ( ! hot iron 7to :i* x adh]es7 d[n ! jo9t4 ,an excell5t sub/ance = sold]+3 all sorts ( small "w1 su* z pieces ( brass1 copp]1 or t91 is *loride ( z9c-?is may easily be made by putt+ pieces ( z9c into _s ( salt1 7hydro*loric acid71 & all[+ !m to rema9 z long z any eff]vesc5ce cont9ues2 ?is solution may be kept 9 a bottle & appli$ to any edge to be sold]$1 by means ( a small bru% or fea!r4 ,:5 iron & copp] h to be 8braz$10 ! jo9ts are made bright1 & !n coat$ ) borax gr\nd into a pa/e ) wat]4 ,a mixture ( brass & z9c 7call$ spelt]7 9 small gra9s is spr9kl$ on ! jo9t & x is !n put into ! holl[ ( a bright fire :i* is urg$ by bell[s till ! spelt] melts4 ,silv] is jo9$ by h>d or 8silv]0 sold]1 :i* is a mixture ( silv]1 z9c1 & copp]1 & ! fusion is g5]ally effect$ by a bl[-pipe1 7see 8,bl[-pipe072 gold is sold]$ by a mixture ( gold & copp]4 ,lead5 pipes are jo9$ by hav+ ! ends to be unit$ scrap$ bright & introduc$ a %ort way "o )9 ! o!r1 "s melt$ sold] is !n p\r$ f a small iron ladle on ! jo9t at ! same "t t x is rubb$ r\nd ) a piece ( fold$ clo? greas$ on ! surface4 ,jo9ts 9 ci/]ns1 etc41 are g5]ally made by scrap+ ! edges clean ) a /eel scrap]1 & apply+ "s lamp-black & size by means ( a bru% to ! p>ts beyond1 leav+ a bright space ( an in* or s on ea* side ( ! jo9t1 a ladle ( melt$ sold] is !n gradually p\r$ on ! jo9t & rubb$ d[n ) a piece ( greas$ clo?1 ! lamp-black & size prev5t+ ! sold] adh]+ to any "p b t left bright1 & 9 ?is way a /raight neat jo9t is produc$4 ,,! ,,smelt+ ,,( ,,metals4 ,all metals are got f ! e>? :]e !y exi/ 9 ! =m ( 8ores0 79 reality metals comb9$ ) o!r matt]s71 & 8smelt+0 is ! process ( gett+ rid ( ^! o!r matt]s1 ! *ief ( :i* are sulphur & oxyg54 ,! ores :5 dug f ! m9e are g5]ally /amp$ into p[d]1 !n 8roa/$10 t is1 made hot & kept s = "s "t to drive (f wat]1 sulphur1 or ars5ic1 :i* w\ld prev5t ! 8fluxes0 act+ prop]ly4 ,! fluxes are sub/ances :i* w mix )1 melt1 & sep>ate ! matt]s to be got rid (1 ! *ief be+ *>coal1 coke1 & lime/one4 ,! ore is !n mix$ ) ! flux & ! :ole rais$ to a great heat2 z ! metal is sep>at$ x melts1 runs to ! bottom ( ! 8smelt+ furnace0 & is drawn (f into m\lds made ( s&2 x is ?us ca/ into %ort ?ick b>s call$ 8pigs10 s we he> ( pig-iron1 pig-lead1 c4 ,iron is smelt$ f 8iron/one10 :i* is mix$ ) coke & lime/one4 ,! heat requir$ to smelt iron is s v great1 t a /eam-eng9e is n[ always employ$ to bl[ ! furnace 7be=e ! inv5tion ( ! /eam-eng9e1 wat]-mills 7 us$ = ! same purpose74 ,! smelt+ is conduct$ 9 :at is call$ a bla/ furnace4 ,:5 ! metal has all be5 8r$uc$0 or smelt$1 & run d[n to ! bottom ( ! furnace1 a hole is made1 out ( :i* x runs into ! m\lds2 ?is is call$ 8tapp+ ! furnace40 ,smelt+ is (t5 conf\nd$ ) melt+1 z ! names are some:at alike1 b ! processes are entirely diff]5t2 9 melt+1 ! metal is simply liquifi$1 9 smelt+ ! metal has to be produc$ f ores :i* (t5 h no appe>ance ( conta9+ any1 z 9 ! case ( iron-/one1 :i* looks l br[n clay4 ,by way ( exp]im5t let ! read] take a small portion ( 8li?>ge10 :i* is a r$di% p[d]1 mix x ) a drop ( oil into a ?ick pa/e & place x on ! end ( a flat piece ( *>coal or wood1 & direct ! flame ( a c&le ^u x by means ( a bl[-pipe2 a slight hiss+ noise w be he>d1 & 9 a mom5t or two a small1 bright globule ( lead w make its appe>ance4 ,,f\nd+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,g5]al ,,f\ndry1 ,,woolwi* ,,ars5al4 ,f\nd+ is ! art ( ca/+ metals into v>i\s =ms by means ( m\lds4 ,! products ( smelt+ are ( a co>se k9d1 & h to be remelt$ be=e ! process ( ca/+ or f\nd+ beg9s4 ,be=e any article c be ca/ 9 metal1 a patt]n mu/ be =m$ 9 wood1 clay1 or o!r suitable sub/ance4 ,! floor ( ! f\ndry is made up ( s& & p[d]$ *>coal to ! dep? ( sev]al feet1 s]v+ to imb$ ! m\lds :i* are us$1 & 9 sev]al places deep pits full ( ! same mat]ial are =m$ = l>ge ca/+s2 an iron frame1 correspond+ to ano!r l x1 & capable ( be+ unit$ to x by p9s & sockets1 is us$ to conta9 ! m\ld+ s& & patt]n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,gun ,,f\ndry1 ,,woolwi* ,,ars5al4 ,let x be suppos$1 = simplicity1 t a cannon ball has to be ca/1 "o ( ! frames is fill$ ) m\ld+ s& moi/ en\gh to be> a good impression1 & a cannon ball press$ half-way 92 ! surface is n[ du/$ ov] ) r$ o*re 7to keep ! upp] half f /ick+ to x71 & ! o!r frame appli$ & unit$ ) ! l[] "o1 ?is is n[ fill$ ) ! s& & beat5 or trodd5 d[n firmly4 ,on sep>at+ ! two & remov+ ! patt]n1 !re is an impression ( half a ball 9 ea* half ( ! m\ld1 & :5 ^! are aga9 put toge!r !re is a holl[ correspond+ to ! patt]n us$4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 two ?+s m to be att5d$ to1 "o is to h an op5+ = ! melt$ metal to be p\r$ 91 ! o!r an op5+ = ! air to escape1 & ?is is effect$ by atta*+ to ! patt]n two pieces ( wood or iron :i* project upw>ds ?r\gh ! upp] half ( ! m\ld1 & :5 ?is is c>efully lift$ up two holes appe> :i* on be+ unit$ to ! l[] half lead into ! r\nd holl[4 ,:5 ! m\lds are ready !y are put into a room heat$ by means ( /oves1 & ?or\ghly dri$4 ,!y are !n buri$ 9 ! floor ( ! f\ndry1 leav+ ! holes = p\r+ ! metal expos$1 *annels be+ =m$ 9 ! s&1 s t :5 ! furnace is 8tapp$0 ! melt$ metal may fl[ d[n ^! & fill ! m\lds4 ,"s =ms are s complicat$ t ! m\lds h to be made 9 sev]al pieces1 & ! +5uity ( ! f\nd] is tax$ to ! utmo/ to produce ^? requir$4 ,,glass ,,bl[+ ,,& ,,ca/+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ca/+ ,,plate ,,glass4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,collect+ ,,glass ,,) ,a ,,puntil47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,bl[+ ,,on ,,! ,,puntil47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,beg9n+ ,,glass ,,=m47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,glass ,,globe ,,) ,,hole ,,at ,,end47 ,glass-bl[+ requires great practice & manual dext]ity1 = ! mat]ial us$ be+ r$-hot _c be t\*$ ) ! h&s1 & has to be v rapidly work$1 or x becomes cool$ & h>d2 to any "o unus$ to "w ) x1 x is ! mo/ unmanageable mat]ial conceivable1 b by practice ! glass-bl[] contrives to produce almo/ any =m requir$1 & ( a size q a/oni%+--z1 = in/ance1 ! globul> bottles se5 9 druggi/s' w9d[s1 :i* (t5 hold twelve gallons1 also glass %ades1 :i* are ( an uni=m ?ickness1 & two or ?ree feet high4 ,?is is all done by means ( a holl[ rod ( iron call$ a 8puntil10 on ! "o end ( :i* a mass ( molt5 glass is collect$ 7fig4 #a71 & ! workman bl[s into ! o!r1 at ! same "t turn+ ! tube rapidly r\nd 9 8 h&s 7fig4 #b74 ,:5 ! k9d ( glass call$ 8cr[n-glass0 has to be made1 ! end ( ! iron tube is put into ! pot ( melt$ glass1 & turn$ r\nd till a ball ( x is collect$ ab\t ! size ( "o's head1 ! workman !n bl[s 9 at ! o!r end1 /ill turn+ ! rod 9 8 h&s2 x has n[ ! appe>ance pres5t$ at fig4 #c4 ,an iron rod is /uck on to ! side ( ! globe opposite to ! 8puntil10 :i* is !n pull$ sudd5ly away1 leav+ a r\nd hole4 ,! globe ( glass is aga9 made r$-hot1 & spun r\nd rapidly1 ! hole increas+ 9 size until x resembles fig4 #d4 ,by cont9u+ ! rapid twirl+ ( ! rod1 ! hole op5s wid] & wid] till at la/ "o broad %eet is produc$2 x is !n sep>at$ f ! rod by putt+ a drop ( cold wat] at its junction ) ! glass1 :i* causes x to crack across at t "p4 ,x is n[ ab\t six feet 9 diamet]1 p]fectly r\nd & flat1 & :5 cold x is cut into halves & pack$ ) /raw 9 a 8crate0 = c>riage4 ,! knot ( glass (t5 se5 9 kit*5 or /able w9d[s1 is ! "p 9 ! c5tre ( ! glass :]e ! iron rod has jo9$ x1 & is call$ ! 8punty40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,elongat$ ,,bl[ ,,glass47 ,%eet-glass is comm5c$ 9 ! same way z cr[n1 b in/ead ( a hole be+ made ! bl[+ is cont9u$ till a great r\nd ball is =m$1 ! rod & ?is ball are !n swung r\nd at arm's l5g?--a hole be+ sunk 9 ! gr\nd = ! purpose--:i* causes ! globe to become elongat$1 z 9 fig4 #e4 ,x is !n laid ^u an iron table1 & rapidly slit up1 ! compress$ air escap+ f )9 op5+ x out into a broad %eet1 :i* is in/antly cut squ>e :ile yet s(t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,glass ,,ca/+4 ,,br++ ,,out ,,! ,,pot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7 ,,gr9d+ ,,! ,,plate ,,glass47 ,plate glass is ca/ by p\r+ x f a l>ge pot on to a flat iron table ) a ridge all r\nd x1 & on :i* an iron roll] is s plac$ t :5 ! molt5 glass fl[s on ! table x passes ov] & flatt5s x out to ! requir$ ?9ness1 :i* is regulat$ by elevat+ or depress+ ! ridges at ! sides ( ! table1 made moveable = t purpose 7! process is illu/rat$ by ! cut at ! head ( ?is article74 ,:5 cold1 ! surface ( ! plate is gr\nd p]fectly flat & ev5 by means ( em]y-p[d] 7fig4 #f71 & !n poli%$ ) a clo? rubb] *>g$ ) a f9e r$ oxide ( iron call$ 8crocus0 7fig4 #g74 ,! gr9d+ & poli%+ are bo? p]=m$ by /eam ma*9]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 7 ,,poli%+ ,,! ,,plate ,,glass47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 7 ,,bl[+ ,,glass ,,into ,,=m47 ,bottles1 & su* l articles are ei!r simply bl[n into ! =m requir$1 or into m\lds made to close ^u ! ball ( s(t glass1 & aga9 op5 :5 ! requir$ =m has be5 giv5 7fig4 #h74 ,_m articles ( glass are ca/1 or 8/ruck-up0 by compression 9 a m\ld1 & are (t5 made to resemble cut-glass articles1 b !y are mu* inf]ior 9 appe>ance4 ,! be/ articles ( glass are fir/ bl[n1 & aft]w>ds cut & poli%$ 7see 8,glass-cutt+074 ,( :atev] k9d ! article ( glass may be1 x is s brittle t ! slighte/ bl[ w\ld break x1 a bad quality :i* is got rid ( by a process call$ 8anneal+40 ,?is consi/s 9 plac+ x :ile q hot on ! floor ( an ov51 :i* is all[$ to cool v gradually inde$4 ,?is sl[ cool+ takes (f ! brittl5ess2 & articles ( glass well anneal$1 w sc>cely break ) boil+ wat]1 & are v mu* t\gh] ?an o!rs4 ,,glass-,,cutt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,glass-,,cutt+4 ,! k9d ( glass g5]ally us$ = ornam5tal cutt+ is fl9t-glass4 ,decant]s1 w9e-glasses1 c41 are also made ( x2 x is v bright1 :ite1 & easily cut4 ,glass is cut by means ( :eels ( diff]5t sizes & mat]ials1 turn$ by a treadle1 z 9 a common la!2 "s are made ( f9e s&/one1 "s ( iron1 o!rs ( t9 or copp]2 ! edges ( "s are squ>e1 "s r\nd1 & "s are %>p4 ,!y are us$ ) s& & wat]1 or em]y & wat]1 b /one :eels are us$ ) wat] only4 ,! glass-cutt] also uses rods ( copp] ) knobs at _! ends1 = mak+ r\nd ind5tations2 ^! turn on _! axis1 s t ! end cuts a r\nd holl[ 9 ! glass4 ,! "w is at fir/ cut r\ghly1 aft]w>ds smoo!d (f ) ! s&/one or t9 :eel 7! latt] has to be sme>$ ) em]y & wat]71 & f9ally poli%$ by a wood5 :eel ) f9ely-p[d]$ pumice-/one appli$ to its edge1 & moi/5$ ) wat]4 ,! glasses = spectacles & optical in/rum5ts are cut by concave or convex m\lds ( brass moi/5$ ) em]y & wat]1 & poli%$ by means ( a m\ld ( pit* wett$ ) crocus & wat]4 ,great art & accuracy are requir$ to gr9d ! glasses = optical in/rum5ts1 especially v l>ge or v small ones1 z = microscopes1 ! v>i\s 8p[]s0 ( :i* con/itute _! *ief exp5se--"o ( ! sixte5? ( an in* 9 diamet] co/+ ab\t twelve p\nds4 ,,bricklay+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,bricklay+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,un/able ,,/ack+ ,,( ,,bricks47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,engli% ,,bond47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,flemi% ,,bond47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,plumb47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,tr[el47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7 ,,hod47 ,ne>ly all h\ses are built ( bricks1 z !y are less exp5sive ?an /one1 & m durable ?an wood1 besides be+ less liable to be burnt4 ,walls ( brick may be =m$ ( any requir$ ?ickness1 & z ! l5g? ( a brick is twice its bread?1 !y admit ( be+ s laid t ! wall %all n "p 9 pieces1 :i* w\ld be ! case if laid z 9 fig4 #a1 z ! seams ( mort> run cont9u\sly ?r\gh ! wall1 :i* 9 bricklay+ is always avoid$1 by diff]5t me?ods4 ,=m]ly bricks 7 laid 9 :at 0 call$ 8,engli% bond0 7fig4 #b71 b ?is is n n[ us$1 8,flemi% bond0 7fig4 #c7 hav+ sup]s$$ x4 ,! mort> ) :i* bricks are laid is made ( lime & s&1 mix$ ) wat] to a conv5i5t consi/5ce2 x sets quickly1 h>d5s ) age1 & resi/s ! action ( ra9 & "t4 ,! ord9>y mode ( lay+ bricks is to /ret* a l9e f end to end ( ! c\rse on :i* !y are to be laid2 ! surface ( ! "u c\rse is spread = a %ort di/ance ) mort>1 & ! bricks int5d$ to =m ! out] surface ( ! wall are laid fir/1 9 an exact l9e ) ! cord1 ! 8plumb0 7fig4 #d7 be+ frequ5tly us$ to asc]ta9 if !y are p]p5dicul>4 ,! 8plumb0 is a piece ( bo>d ) a not* at ! c5tre ( ! top1 & a hole1 also 9 ! c5tre1 ne> ! bottom2 a piece ( cord is pass$ ?r\gh ! not*1 ) a lead5 ball atta*$1 :i* sw+s 9 ! hole z ! plumb is plac$ at ! side ( ! wall4 ,! ball ( lead j falls 9 ! hole if ! wall is upright1 & 9 ?is way a wall may be built to any height1 exactly p]p5dicul>4 ,! corn] ( brickwork :]e w9d[s occur1 is call$ ! 8arris10 & has to be made upright bo? 9 front & at ! side4 ,:5 v ?ick walls are to be made 7z 9 railway cutt+s71 ! out] surface & back ( ! walls are laid 9 ! usual way1 ! space betwe5 is fill$ ) a lay] ( bricks1 & ?9 liquid mort> is p\r$ on & scrap$ ab\t ) a sort ( hoe till ! spaces betwe5 ! bricks are all fill$ up & ! surface left level1 :5 ano!r c\rse is laid 9 ! same mann]4 ,fig4 #e is a tr[el1 or in/rum5t us$ to take up & spread out ! mort>1 & fig4 #f is ! hod1 9 :i* ! lab\r] c>ries supplies ( bricks or mort> to ! spot :]e ! bricklay] is work+4 ,,/one ,,cutt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/one-,,cutt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,iron ,,pick47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,*isel ,,& ,,scrap]47 ,"s /ones1 z 8,ba? /one0 c be cut ) a common too!d saw1 & are b little h>d] ?an *alk2 o!rs1 z m>ble1 ,portl& /one1 c41 require to be cut ) a flat blade ( iron /ret*$ 9 a frame & hav+ a supply ( s& & wat]4 ,a man sits 9 a %$ hav+ ?is heavy saw susp5d$ f two poles1 & balanc$ by a piece ( /one swung ov] a pulley2 he alt]nately pu%es & pulls ! frame1 all[+ ! wat] to trickle into ! seam z x =ms1 ! s& be+ rubb$ betwe5 ! edge ( ! saw & ! /one z ! saw is mov$ backw>ds & =w>ds1 sl[ly cutt+ ! /one 7see illu/ration74 ,by ?is sl[ & t$i\s process build+ /ones are cut into squ>es1 slices1 slabs1 or any o!r =m requir$4 ,granite is too h>d = ev5 ?is sl[ process1 & aft] ! pieces are *os5 z ne>ly z c be got ( ! size & %ape requir$1 !y are work$ ) a heavy iron pick 7fig4 #a71 :i* at ea* bl[ /rikes (f a little piece n bigg] ?an a pea1 by :i* me?od ! /one is %ap$ into ! =m requir$4 ,small] cutt+s ( /one = build+ purposes1 su* z c>v+s1 c41 are =m$ by ! mallet & *isel 7fig4 #b71 ! "w be+ f9i%$ ) a rasp or /eel scrap]4 ,,app>atus ,,& ,,ma*9]y4 ,,/eam-,,eng9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,beam ,,( ,,/eam ,,eng9e1 ,,woolwi* ,,ars5al4 ,! great improvem5ts 9 ma*9]y--:e!r = looms1 locomotive eng9es1 or /eam-%ips1 = =g+ an*ors1 bor+ cannon1 roll+ out & rivett+ iron plates toge!r = tubul> bridges & boil]s1 or any o!r k9d ( "w--are *iefly ow+ to ! wond]ful ease ) :i* ^! ma*9es c be driv5 by ! p[] ( /eam4 ,x matt]s n :e!r ! object to be wr\ght is ! head ( a p91 or ! crank ( a /eam-%ip1 x is done ) bo? delicacy ( t\* & p[] ( arm1 a hundr$fold beyond :at c\ld be effect$ by h& 9 ! same "t4 ,! motive p[] ( /eam is d]iv$ f ! prop]ty :i* wat] has ( be+ exp&$ into vap\r :5 heat$ to a c]ta9 degree1 & ( aga9 resum+ ! =m ( wat] :5 cool$2 ?is moreov] takes place 9 ! mo/ easily manageable mann]1 & ei!r by degrees or sudd5ly1 accord+ z ! heat & pressure balance ea* o!r2 moreov] wat]1 be+ easily obta9$1 & 9 suffici5t quantity = ! purpose1 9 all places :]e ma*9]y is requir$1 c always be appli$4 ,be=e ! use ( /eam1 w9d1 wat]1 horse1 & h& p[] 7 *iefly 9 use2 wat]-mills 71 ( c\rse1 only erect$ 9 ^? situations :]e a good supply ( wat] c\ld be obta9$1 & ?is ev5 (t5 fail$ 9 dry wea!r2 w9dmills also dep5d$ on t unc]ta9 elem5t4 ,horse & h& p[]s are limit$ 9 _! ext5t1 & are moreov] v exp5sive4 ,! fir/ attempts at a /eam-eng9e 7 ^? 9 :i* ! /eam 0 only us$ t by its cond5sation a vacuum might be =m$ 9 a cyl9d] "u a pi/on1 s t ! weight ( ! air %\ld cause ?is to desc5d ) consid]able =ce--#ae lbs4 on ! squ>e in*4 ,! pi/on 0 balanc$ by a weight1 s t ! /eam might raise x ) sc>cely any pressure2 ! /eam b5ea? ! pi/on be+ cond5s$ by a /ream ( cold wat]1 ! weight ( ! air aga9 =c$ d[n ! pi/on into ! vacuum4 ,?is !re=e 0 n a /eam b an air-eng9e1 z all ! p[] ex]t$ 0 d]iv$ f ! weight ( ! air1 & ! /eam m]ely us$ to procure a vacuum4 ,aft] ?is came ! l[-pressure or cond5s+ eng9e1 & !n ! high-pressure or non-cond5s+ eng9e1 bo? ( :i* are n[ us$1 ! =m] 9 m>9e eng9es & ! latt] 9 locomotives4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fly-,,:eel1 ,,woolwi* ,,ars5al4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,boil]s1 ,,woolwi* ,,ars5al4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,boil]s1 ,,woolwi* ,,ars5al4 ,! /eam-eng9e consi/s ess5tially ( a boil] or /eam-g5]ator1 ) a furnace adapt$ to x1 connect$ by a /eam-pipe to a cyl9d] hav+ a pi/on work+ accurately 9 x1 & valves s contriv$ t ! /eam %all ent] alt]nately above & bel[ ! pi/on4 ,9 ! cond5s+ eng9e1 ea* comp>tm5t1 above & bel[ ! pi/on1 communicates ) ! cond5s]--! vessel 9 :i* ! /eam is sudd5ly cond5s$ by cold wat]--& ! valves are s arrang$ t :5 ! /eam ent]s above ! pi/on1 ! space bel[ is op5$ to ! cond5s]1 & is !re=e a p>tial vacuum2 by ! "t ! pi/on is driv5 d[n by ! =ce ( ! /eam above x1 ! space is %ut (f f ! cond5s] & op5$ to ! /eam-pipe1 :ile ! space above is %ut (f f ! /eam-pipe & op5$ to ! cond5s]4 ,9 ?is way "o side ( ! pi/on is alt]nately press$ by ! /eam :ile !re is a vacuum on ! o!r side4 ,9 ! non-cond5s+ eng9e ! space above & bel[ ! pi/on is alt]nately press$ by /eam at a great degree ( t5sion2 :ile at ! opposite side ( ! pi/on1 ! space is op5$ to ! air by a valve4 ,^! valves are :at are call$ 8slid+ valves10 be+ bo? 9 connection ) ! same action1 :i* %uts "o :ile x op5s ! o!r2 t is1 :5 ! pi/on has ne>ly desc5d$1 x slides ! valve :i* %uts (f ! /eam f ! space above & op5s x to ! air1 ! same action op5+ ! /eam-valve bel[ ! pi/on & %utt+ x f ! air4 ,9 ?is k9d ( eng9e ! pi/on is mov$ simply by ! p[] ( ! /eam1 :i* fir/ presses x d[n & !n presses x up aga91 & z ! /eam escapes at ea* /roke ( ! pi/on1 & has to be at a great t5sion or pressure1 a l>ge & rapidly-=m$ supply ( /eam is requir$4 ,9 ! locomotive & o!r high-pressure eng9es ?is is effect$ by hav+ a great numb] ( tubes pass+ ?r\gh ! boil] lead+ f ! fire-place to ! flue1 s t ! fire & heat$ air %all pass ?r\gh !m be=e rea*+ ! flue1 & consequ5tly1 z ^! all pass ?r\gh ! wat] 9 ! boil]1 produc+ a v rapid g5]ation ( /eam4 ,( ! v>i\s =ms ( boil]s1 ! mo/ simple 0 t 9 :i* ! heat 0 m]ely appli$ to ! l[] "p 7fig4 #a72 next may be nam$ ! wagon-head boil]1 9 :i* ! flue pass$ all r\nd2 "s 7 made ) a cyl9drical flue pass+ ?\gh ! :ole l5g?1 & "s ) two 7fig4 #b74 ,( :atev] =m ! boil] may be1 x %\ld be /rong en\gh to well resi/ ! pressure ( ! /eam1 b to make ?is sure1 a contrivance call$ a safety-valve is always us$2 ?is consi/s ( a valve held d[n by a weight1 :i* w\ld be rais$ by ! /eam if x %\ld press s h>d z to endang] ! boil] 9 ! lea/ degree2 :5 ! safety-valve is =c$ up1 ! /eam escapes & ! pressure is tak5 (f4 ,mo/ /eam eng9es require ! up-&-d[n motion ( ! pi/on to be conv]t$ into a circul> motion1 & ?is is effect$ by means ( a 8crank10 7see 8,cranks072 b ?is circul> motion ne$s 9 mo/ cases to be regulat$ by a fly-:eel :i* is s heavy1 t ^u be+ set 9 motion x cont9ues to revolve = a "t by its own weight1 s t ! int]mitt+ pulls ex]t$ by ! pi/on-rod on ! crank are bl5d$ into "o cont9u\s action 7see cut72 b 9 /eam-%ips1 & locomotive eng9es1 fly-:eels _c be us$4 ,9 ^! cases !re are two cyl9d]s & pi/ons1 ea* fix$ to a crank =m$ 9 "o axle unit$ to ! two :eels1 & ^! cranks are s arrang$ t ! greate/ p[] is ex]t$ on "o :5 ! lea/ is ex]t$ on ! o!r1 & = ?is purpose !y are plac$ s t :5 "o crank is upright ! o!r is horizontal4 ,! /roke ( ! pi/on-rod is n always made to act directly on ! crank1 b has a 8beam0 int]pos$ work+ on be>+s 9 its c5tre1 h5ce ! t]m beam-eng9e 7see cut74 ,?is beam moves ! crank at ! opposite end to t :i* is mov$ by ! pi/on & at ! same "t works ! air-pump1 fe$-pump1 & cold-wat]-pump1 by means ( jo9t$ rods4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,gov]nor47 ,9 ^? eng9es :i* h to p]=m unequal "w1 & 9 :i* sometimes a great drag is sudd5ly remov$ f ! eng9e1 "s contrivance is necess>y to prev5t ! too rapid motion :i* w\ld ensue1 to ! great risk ( damag+ ! eng9e2 ?is is effect$ by :at is call$ ! 8gov]nor20 a contrivance by :i* a "p ( ! /eam is /ruck (f :5 ! action is too rapid1 & aga9 let on :5 x has dim9i%$4 ,?is arrangem5t is %[n 9 fig4 #c2 ! two heavy iron balls sw+ r\nd z ! eng9e works1 & ! fa/] !y revolve ! m !y t5d to sep>ate1 f ! natural t5d5cy to fly (f call$ 8c5trifugal =ce10 & 9 sep>at+ !y br+ ! o!r ends ( ! rods to :i* !y are atta*$ ne>] toge!r1 & s pu% up a coll>1 ,a1 atta*$ to ! lev]s :i* turn (f ! /eam-tap2 & z ! action subsides ! balls s9k d[n toge!r & ! coll> also1 ! /eam be+ ?us turn$ on aga94 ,9 ord] t ! pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! boil] may be kn[n1 a 8gauge0 is us$1 :i* acts on ! pr9ciple ( ! b>omet]1 consi/+ ( a column ( m]cury :i* is press$ up by ! =ce ( ! /eam1 ! height to :i* x rises indicat+ ! pressure4 ,) respect to ! details ( ! /eam-eng9e1 !y are too v>i\s & complicat$ to be enum]at$ or describ$ "h2 b ! motion--be+ regul>1 cont9u\s1 & p[]ful--c be appli$ to almo/ any sort ( "w by be+ adapt$ to ! ma*9e suitable = su* "w1 & :i* receives its motion f ! /eam-eng9e1 ! same z ?\gh x 7 work$ by wat] or by h&4 ,,boil]s4 ,boil]s are vessels 9 :i* fluids are boil$ or heat$1 & are almo/ ( e =m & size4 ,"s boil]s1 su* z ^? atta*$ to /eam-eng9es1 are m /rictly call$ 8/eam g5]ators10 z !y are con/ruct$ solely = ! production ( /eam at ! l[e/ possible exp5se ( "t & fuel1 & also to resi/ ! pressure :i* ! /eam ex]ts at high temp]atures2 ^! boil]s are n only us$ to produce ! /eam = ! motion ( eng9es1 b are ext5sively us$ 9 its production = heat+ evaporat+-pans & boil]s 79 ! /rict s5se ( ! ^w71 & also = w>m+ & v5tilat+ build+s4 ,!y are m p>ticul>ly notic$ "u ! head 8,/eam ,eng9es40 ,boil]s = all purposes 7 =m]ly made ( metal 7usually copp] or iron71 & 7 expos$ directly to ! fire int5d$ to heat _! cont5ts1 b s9ce ! prop]ties ( /eam h be5 m fully recognis$1 x is n[ v frequ5tly employ$ = heat+ boil]s--especially :]e a heat at or bel[ ! boil+ po9t ( wat] is requir$4 ,!re are great advantages aris+ f ?is plan1 "o ( :i* consi/s 9 do+ away ) ! risk ( ! mat]ials 9 ! boil] be+ burnt4 ,"s boil]s are n[ made ( wood1 hav+ /eam-pipes runn+ ?r\gh !m1 & 9 ^? cases 9 :i* ! admixture ( wat] is no detrim5t /eam--9 ! =m ( jets--is ?r[n directly into ! fluid to be heat$1 :i* v quickly raises x to ! boil+ po9t4 ,boil]s ( ca/-iron1 l9$ ) plat9um or enamel1 are also us$ = v>i\s purposes1 z ! cond5sation ( acid sub/ances1 c41 :i* w\ld act on mo/ metals4 ,glass & glaz$ pans1 too1 c be us$ ) a /eam app>atus1 )\t any dang] aris+ f breakage1 :i* w\ld frequ5tly occur if !y 7 directly appli$ to ! fire4 ,,furnaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,rev]b]atory ,,furnace47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,bla/ ,,furnace47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,cutaway ,,diagram ,,( ,,bla/ ,,furnace47 ,furnaces are fire-places con/ruct$ to s]ve p>ticul> purposes1 & are *iefly ( two k9ds1 8,w9d furnaces0 & 8,bla/ furnaces40 ,( ! fir/ k9d ! common h\se grate is an in/ance1 ( ! second ! blacksmi?'s =ge4 ,! fire 9 a w9d furnace is m or less %ut up1 s t ! draught ( air ent]+ x %all pass f ! a%-pit "r up into ! fire1 & ?r\gh x into ! flue or *imney--! latt] be+ tall1 & ( c]ta9 proportions1 s z to ensure ! requisite draught4 ,^! furnaces are us$ :]e heat ( ! v highe/ degree is n requir$1 z 9 glass-h\ses1 pott]y-kilns1 c4 ,! 8,rev]b]atory furnace0 is a modification ( ! w9d furnace1 & is us$ to ?r[ heat on to ! surface ( sub/ances1 z 9 roa/+ ores ( metals1 to drive (f ! sulphur1 ars5ic1 c41 or 9 ! mak+ ( soda1 li?>ge1 & o!r processes :]e ! admission ( hot air ) ! flame is ei!r b5eficial1 or at lea/ n detrim5tal2 fig4 #a %[s ! con/ruction ( ?is k9d ( furnace4 ,bla/ furnaces are = ! production ( ! v highe/ degrees ( temp]ature1 & 9 ^! ! air is =c$ into ! fire by bl[+ ma*9es or bell[s1 (t5 work$ by /eam-eng9es2 su* furnaces are us$ = ! smelt+ & ca/+ ( iron1 c4 7fig4 #b74 ,a good bla/ furnace = small purposes may be made by two crucibles--^? made ( co>se blacklead & clay1 & call$ 8,blue pots10 are ! be/--"o plac$ inside ! o!r1 ! out] "o hav+ a hole at ! l[] "p = ! nose ( ! bell[s1 ! inn] "o hav+ ! bottom cut (f & a grat+ ( iron put 9 to lodge j above ! l[e/ "p2 ! space betwe5 ! two %\ld be fill$ ) p[d]$ fire-brick or brok5-up crucibles 7fig4 #c74 ,,bell[s ,,& ,,bl[+ ,,ma*9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,blacksmi? ,,bell[47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,d\ble-,,bell[47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,fan ,,:eel47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,fan ,,:eel ,,h\s+47 ,! common bell[s is ! mo/ famili> =m ( bl[+ ma*9e4 ,x consi/s ( two bo>ds b\nd toge!r ) lea!r1 hav+ folds s arrang$ t ! upp] bo>d may be rais$ or depress$1 & ! :ole is made air-tight2 9 ! l[] bo>d is a hole ) a lea!r flap-valve op5+ inw>ds4 ,:5 ! upp] bo>d is rais$1 ! air ru%es 9 at ! hole1 pu%+ up ! valve1 & :5 ! bo>d is l[]$ ! air presses ! valve d[n1 & s %uts x close1 x has !re=e no exit b at ! nose ( ! bell[s1 f :i* x passes out4 ,blacksmi?s' bell[s 7fig4 #a7 are made d\ble1 = ! purpose ( keep+ up a cont9u\s /ream ( air1 in/ead ( ! sep>ate puffs produc$ by ! common s+le bell[s4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! d\ble bell[s is z foll[s3--,!re are ?ree bo>ds b\nd toge!r ) lea!r fold$ z 9 ! common h\se bell[s2 ! bo>d 9 ! middle is fix$1 & to ?is ! nose is fa/5$1 b x op5s only into ! space above2 ! upp] & l[] bo>ds are unit$ to ! middle "o by a h+e1 & are capable ( be+ mov$ up & d[n2 ! middle & l[] ones h ea* holes & valves op5+ upw>ds z 9 ! common bell[s1 & :5 ! l[] bo>d is rais$ x presses ! air 9 ! space betwe5 x & ! middle bo>d ?r\gh ! hole 9 ! latt]1 into ! space betwe5 x & ! upp] "o1 & s raises x2 ?is has a heavy iron weight plac$ on x :i* makes x s9k d[n & =ce ! air out ?r\gh ! nose4 ,:ile ?is weight is s9k+ ! l[] bo>d is pu%$ d[n1 & is ready to =ce a fre% quantity ( air into ! upp] space1 s t "o cont9u\s /ream ( air issues at ! nose ( ! bell[s4 ,! h&le is fix$ to ! l[] bo>d1 & g5]ally has a cord unit+ x to a wood5 h&le1 :i* is work$ l a pump-h&le 7fig4 #b74 ,= l>ge furnaces1 bl[+ ma*9es ( v>i\s k9ds are us$1 g5]ally consi/+ ( a pair ( l>ge cyl9d]s hav+ pi/ons work$ 9 !m by /eam p[]1 & pump+ air into a l>ge air-*amb]1 f :i* x proce$s 9 ?ree or f\r pipes to ! furnace1 or sometimes to num]\s furnaces1 ea* hav+ a tube & /op-cock by :i* ! 8bla/0 may be turn$ on1 simil>ly to gas or wat]1 ! air-*amb] be+ always kept fill$ at a great pressure by ! cyl9d]s1 & furni%$ ) a safety-valve to prev5t ! pressure bur/+ x4 ,!re is ano!r k9d ( bl[+-ma*9e1 consi/+ ( a fan :eel turn+ v rapidly 9 a r\nd box 7figs4 #c & #d71 f :i* a tube proce$s1 & hav+ holes 9 ! sides to admit ! air1 :i* is ?r[n =w>ds by ! fans ( ! :eel4 ,,screw ,,propell]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,screw ,,/eam-,,vessel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,screw ,,/eam-,,vessel1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,fan4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,propell]47 ,^! are in/rum5ts plac$ at ! back "p ( /eam-vessels = ! purpose ( propell+ !m ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,fig4 #a w %[ ! position !y occupy1 & fig4 #b ! %ape ( ! propell]4 ,:5 fir/ us$1 !y _h "o or two entire turns r\nd ! axis1 b are n[ made ) two blades1 ea* =m+ ab\t "o-six? "p only ( "o turn1 & ?is is f\nd to give m p[] ) less friction4 ,! propell] is turn$ rapidly r\nd 9 ! wat]1 f :i* x meets ) resi/ance 9 a direction p]p5dicul> to ! surface ( its blades1 b z ?is is oblique to ! direction ( rotation ! =ce is ex]t$ 9 two directions1 "o directly opposes ?is rotation1 & is ov]come by ! p[] ( ! /eam-eng9e1 ! o!r is 9 a direction t[>ds ! %ip1 ov]com+ ! in]tia ( ! vessel & ! friction & resi/ance ( ! wat]1 s t ! %ip is mov$ along1 & ! propell] w9ds its way ?r\gh ! wat] 9 a spiral direction z an ord9>y screw does ?r\gh ! holl[ screw made to fit x1 ! vessel travell+ at a spe$ proportionate to ! screw's revolutions4 ,,an*ors4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,an*or ,,) ,,wood ,,/ock47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,an*or ,,) ,,iron ,,/ock47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,space-,,sav+ ,,an*or47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,an*or ,,at ,,re/47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 8,,weigh+0 ,,an*or47 ,^! pond]\s in/rum5ts are us$ = ! purpose ( secur+ %ips & o!r vessels1 t !y may n be driv5 onw>ds by ! w9d or tide4 ,!y are atta*$ to a /rong rope or *a91 call$ ! 8cable10 & :5 n 9 use are kept swung at ! =e-"p or b[ ( a %ip1 ! cable be+ w\nd r\nd an app>atus call$ ! cap/an1 :i* s]ves to let x out or draw x 94 ,an*ors are made ( iron1 & are ( ! =m del9eat$ 9 fig4 #a4 ,! /raight "p f ! r+ to ! b5d is call$ ! 8%ank10 ! curv$ "p is made up ( ! two 8arms10 & ! c5tre :]e x jo9s ! %ank is call$ ! 8cr[n40 ,at ! end ( ea* arm is a plate ( iron ( triangul> =m1 call$ a 8fluke10 & cross+ ! %ank close to ! r+ is ! 8/ock10 :i* is made ( two pieces ( oak b\nd toge!r ) iron b&s2 sometimes x is made :olly ( iron1 z 9 fig4 #b1 9 :i* case x runs ?r\gh a hole 9 ! %ank1 & has "o ( its ends curv$ = ! purpose ( pack+ m closely & sav+ space 7fig4 #c74 ,! an*or1 :5 let fall f ! %ip1 c>ries ! cable ) x1 & g5]ally falls on ! cr[n1 !n tilts ov] s t ! /ock lies flat on ! bottom & "o ( ! flukes s9ks 9 to a consid]able dep? by its great weight2 :5 ! %ip drags at ! cable x lifts up ! /ock & ?r[s ! :ole weight ( ! an*or on ! fluke1 & makes x s9k completely2 any fur!r pull mu/ br+ up a l>ge piece ( ! e>? be=e x c be mov$4 ,9 8weigh+0 an*or1 t is 9 pull+ x up f ! bottom to br+ x on bo>d aga91 ! cable is sl[ly w\nd up by ! cap/an1 & z ! cable is %ort5$ ! %ip is drawn along to a po9t ne>ly ov] :]e ! an*or re/s1 :5--! pull at ! cable cont9u+--! %ank is rais$ into an upright position1 & ! fluke & arm1 in/ead ( dragg+ up a great piece ( e>?1 remove b a small portion1 z may be se5 by ! dott$ l9es 9 figs4 #d & #e1 :i* %[ ! e>? to be remov$ be=e ! an*or c be drawn f its hold4 ,l>ge vessels c>ry f\r an*ors1 ! 8be/ b[]10 ! 8small b[]10 ! 8%eet10 & ! 8sp>e0 an*ors1 _! size dep5d+ on ! size ( ! %ip1 ! rule 9 ! ,royal ,navy be+ a hundr$-weight = ea* gun2 s t an eighty-gun %ip c>ries an*ors ( f\r tons ea*1 or eighty hundr$weight4 ,an*ors are made ( ! be/ & t\ghe/ wr\ght iron1 & ! greate/ c>e is necess>y 9 =g+ !m 9 ord] t !re may be no flaw 9 ! weld+1 = a %ip may be lo/ by an an*or break+4 ,,*a9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,l9k ,,*a947 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,:eel ,,*a947 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,*a9 ,,) ,,/ay47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,*a9 ,,) ,,ext5d$ ,,/ay47 ,*a9s are made up ( sep>ate l9ks ( rigid metal :i* hav+ no flexibility 9 !mselves are yet s unit$ t ea* %all move freely on ! next l9ks to x1 & ?us produce a flexible :ole4 ,= ornam5tal purposes !re is almo/ an endless v>iety ( patt]ns1 z may be se5 9 jewell]y-"w--b = ! purposes ( bus9ess & ma*9]y !re are *iefly b two1 ! ord9>y1 z fig4 #a1 & t :i* w only b5d 9 "o plane1 z 9 fig4 #b--?is is *iefly made use ( 9 pass+ r\nd :eels1 z 9 clocks4 ,*a9s are us$ :]e r\gh we> is requir$1 9 :i* case rope w\ld be rapidly worn ?r\gh4 ,cables ( *a9 are n[ mu* m g5]ally us$ ?an hemp5 ones1 z !y are m to be dep5d$ on1 take up less room1 & are n s liable to be cut or worn by r\gh rocks at ! bottom4 ,9 *a9 cables a 8/ay0 is plac$ 9 e l9k 7fig4 #c71 :i* greatly increases its /r5g?1 b ! be/ =m ( *a9 cable is %[n at fig4 #d2 9 ?is ! l9ks are some:at angul>1 & ! /ays long]4 ,*a9s are *iefly made by ma*9]y2 ! rods are fir/ drawn out ( ! prop] size1 pieces ( ! requir$ l5g? are !n cut (f & b5t to ! "r =m1 & ! /ay & ?is l9k are !n bo? made :ite hot1 plac$ 9 _! "r position1 & weld$ toge!r by pressure4 ,,cranes4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,y>d ,,crane47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,:eel ,,assembly47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,floor ,,crane47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,l&+ ,,crane47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,l&+ ,,crane47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,jib ,,crane47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7 ,,sw+ ,,crane47 ,^! ma*9es are us$ = rais+ heavy bodies 9 a p]p5dicul> direction4 ,!y are ( v>i\s =ms suitable = almo/ e purpose1 & to mo/ ( !m are adapt$ two or m :eels ) tee?1 "o small & "o l>ge1 = ! purpose ( obta9+ p[] at ! exp5se ( "t 7fig4 #a72 ! small :eel is turn$ by a w9dlass1 & turns ! l>g] "o v sl[ly b ) great p[]4 ,! common w>eh\se or cell> crane is g5]ally an iron frame ) two pulleys1 & ! arrangem5t %[n at fig4 #a4 :i* is usually inside ! w>eh\se1 :ile ! crane is outside to raise goods f c>ts1 c41 into ! floors above 7fig4 #b74 ,cranes at ! sides ( canals or riv]s = l&+ goods are sometimes made z figs4 #c & #d2 9 ! la/ !re is a heavy /one plac$ to balance ! weight at ! end ( ! crane4 ,:at is call$ ! 8jib crane0 is (t5 8rigg$0 up on %ipbo>d = %ipp+ & un%ipp+ goods 7fig4 #e74 ,cranes = v heavy purposes h be5 made ^u ! tubul> pr9ciple & consi/ ( iron plates rivett$ toge!r s z to =m a holl[ curv$ crane1 simil> to ! holl[ gird]s us$ 9 bridges4 ,:]e goods h to be br\ght f "o p>ticul> spot to ano!r1 z 9 fig4 #f1 ! sw+ crane is us$4 ,among/ cranes may be nam$ ! hydraulic lift2 ?is is exactly simil> to ! hydraulic press1 only appli$ 9 a diff]5t mann]1 & is us$ to lift v heavy weights b %ort di/ances1 z = rais+ heavy goods on to railway trucks1 c4 ,,cranks4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,knife-,,gr9d]47 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,pi/on ,,crank47 ,cranks are b5ds 9 ! axle ( any "p ( a ma*9e by :i* an up-&-d[n motion is conv]t$ into a circul> or rotatory "o1 z 9 ! common knife gr9d]'s ma*9e2 9 ?is arrangem5t a fly-:eel is necess>y to cont9ue by its mom5tum 7t5d5cy to g on7 ! motion begun by ! upw>d & d[nw>d action ( ! treadle1 pi/on-rod1 c41 z ! case may be4 ,! cranks ( /eam-vessels are among ! heavie/ pieces ( =g+ t are wr\ght by ,nasmy?'s /eam hamm]1 ca/-iron be+ too brittle to be us$ = ! purpose4 ,,fire-,,arms ,,& ,,projectiles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,ma*9e ,,= ,,mak+ ,,m9i ,,rifle ,,bullets4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,musket ,,bor+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,rifl+ ,,process4 ,9 ! manufacture ( fire-arms ! *ief p>ts consi/ ( ! metal tube f :i* ! projectiles are to be expell$1 ! /ock ( ! musket & ! c>riages ( great guns or cannon be+ only v>ieties ( ! same ?+1 namely a conv5i5t plat=m f :i* to fire ! tube1 :i* is ! real in/rum5t4 ,9 ! manufacture ( muskets1 pi/ols1 & *eap f[l+-pieces1 ! b>rel is made f a %eet ( s(t iron roll$ up l5g?wise r\nd a rod or 8m&ril10 ! edges ov]lapp+ ea* o!r1 :i* are !n weld$ toge!r2 b 9 ! be/ guns ! b>rels are twi/$1 t is1 a slip or fillet ( iron half-an-in* broad & ( suffici5t l5g? is twi/$ 9 a spiral r\nd ! m&ril1 & !n ! :ole is weld$ toge!r4 ,! b>rel is 8bor$0 by means ( a squ>e-head$ drill ( /eel turn$ 9 a k9d ( la! 7fig4 #a71 & ! int]ior aft]w>ds poli%$ ) oil & em]y-p[d] until x is p]fectly bright & ev52 ! bree* is !n made sep>ately1 & screw$ 94 ,! be/ iron = gun-b>rels is call$ 8/ubb iron10 consi/+ ( old horse-%oe nails weld$ toge!r1 & is v s(t & ev5 9 its gra94 ,! b>rel is made r$-hot & suff]$ to cool v sl[ly2 ?is is call$ 8anneal+10 & x prev5ts any "p be+ brittle1 & !re=e liable to bur/ ) ! *>ge 9 fir+4 ,rifl$ b>rels are ^? :i* h "o or m grooves cut 9 ! inside ( ! b>rel f ! muzzle to ! bree* 9 a spiral direction1 ea* mak+ "o turn be=e x completes ! l5g? ( ! b>rel 7fig4 #b74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,p]cussion ,,cap ,,bree*47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,hamm] ,,me*anism47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,rifle ,,) ,,bayonet47 ,! old 8fl9t0 lock has n[ q gone out ( use1 hav+ be5 sup]s$$ by ! 8p]cussion40 ,?is is a contrivance to cause t "p ( ! lock call$ ! cock or hamm] to /rike ! p]cussion cap ) great =ce1 & s dis*>ge x 7figs4 #c & #d74 ,! cap is put on to a small projection call$ ! 8nipple10 :i* has a hole at ! top communicat+ ) ! b>rel1 & d[n :i* ! sp>k f ! p]cussion cap passes4 ,9 rifl$ guns1 ( late1 ! use ( conical balls has be5 introduc$1 = ! effect ( ! *>ge 9 propell+ a ball rapidly out ( a b>rel ) spiral grooves is to turn x z x passes out ( ! b>rel1 & consequ5tly to 8sp90 x ) great velocity 9 "o direction1 l a top2 ! effect ( ?is is to balance e "p ( ! ball 9 ! air & s cause x to take a true direction1 = if ! m]e/ not* or holl[ exi/$ 9 a sph]ical ball1 t "p be+ lighte/ & hav+ ! lea/ mom5tum w\ld n ma9ta9 its rate s long1 & by lagg+ beh9d cause ! ball to describe a "p ( a circle 9 its c\rse4 ,x is ?us t ! balls f common muskets1 al?\gh rightly direct$1 (t5 fall extremely wide ( ! m>k4 ,milit>y muskets & rifles are fitt$ ) bayonets1 t !y may act bo? z lances & fire-arms 7fig4 #e74 ,illu/ration3 ,,gun-,,m\ld4 ,illu/ration3 ,,gun-,,bor+ ,,ma*9e4 8,ordnance10 or great guns are made ( ca/-iron or ( gun-metal 7a mixture ( copp] & t971 b exp]im5ts h lately be5 made ) wr\ght-iron & ca/-/eel1 ) ! view ( obta9+ a t\gh] & m durable mat]ial4 ,!y are ca/ solid1 & aft]w>ds bor$ ) a ma*9e4 ,! foll[+ acc\nt ( gun-ca/+ at ,woolwi* ,ars5al appe>$ 9 ! 8,times0 ( ,janu>y #bb1 #aheh3--8;,z ! plug 0 drawn ! gl[+ mass leapt out l a /ream ( silv]1 fill+ up ! m\lds = two twelve-p\nd] h[itz]s t 7 to be ca/1 & leav+ a bright1 hungry-look+ flame play+ ov] !m1 mak+ ev]y?+ r$-hot :i* x approa*$4 ,9 ?is work%op ab\t tw5ty m5 & boys produce twelve brass guns p] week1 z well z tang5t-scales = %ips' guns1 lock-cov]s1 brass fitt+s = ma*9]y1 c41 & iron ca/+s4 ,ea* gun ca/ requires two days to cool1 :5 x is remov$ to ! turn]y to be bor$2 & x 0 to ?is work%op t ! royal p>ty next proce$$1 & saw ! guns 9 all _! /ages ( trimm+1 f9i%+1 & bor+4 ,?ree-qu>t]s ( an h\r suffice to cut a gun to its prop] l5g? & remove ! r\gh s& :i* adh]es to x aft] ca/+4 ,x is !n turn$ ov] to ano!r man & ano!r ma*9e1 & ! :ole ( its outside %ap+ & m>k+ is completely f9i%$ 9 two days1 :5 x is aga9 turn$ ov] to a fre% ma*9e1 & bor$ & drill$ ready = s]vice 9 a day-&-a-half m4 ,) ! pres5t ma*9]y ! turn]y at ,woolwi* c\ld f9i% ?irty brass guns 9 a week1 ?\gh at ?is "t x nev] completes m ?an t5 or twelve40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7 ,,field ,,gun74 ,! ord9>y =m ( 8gun0 is %[n by fig4 #f4 ,! knob at ! "r-h& side ( ! cut is call$ ! 8button10 ! next division ! 8v5t field10 beyond ?is to ! rim ! 8fir/ re9=ce10 fur!r on1 ! 8second re9=ce10 f :i* a cyl9drical b> projects on ea* side = atta*+ ! gun to ! c>riage1 call$ 8trunnions40 ,beyond ?is to ! next rim is call$ ! 8*ace10 & beyond ?is aga9 to ! end ! 8muzzle40 ,guns are *iefly us$ to ?r[ solid r\nd %ot ( ca/-iron1 accurately turn$ to a sph]e1 & ! weight ( ^! det]m9es ! "* ( ! gun1 z a ?irty-two p\nd]1 c41 ! words 8heavy0 & 8light0 designat+ ! ?ickness & consequ5t weight ( ! metal compos+ x4 ,!re is a small] & %ort] k9d ( gun1 call$ a 8c>ronade10 :i* is held to ! c>riage by a projection und]nea?1 hav+ a hole = a bolt to secure x1 in/ead ( trunnions4 ,ano!r k9d ( gun1 call$ a 8h[itz]10 is ( %ort] proportions ?an ! ord9>y gun & l>g] 9 ! bore2 x is *iefly int5d$ to ?r[ %ells at a slight elevation4 ,! mort> is /ill %ort]1 & ( mu* ?ick] metal2 x is held to a sort ( plat=m by trunnions at its extreme end1 & is int5d$ to ?r[ %ells to great di/ances1 & at a great elevation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,%ell ,,ca/+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,bullet-,,ca/+1 ,,woolwi* ,,ars5al4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 7 ,,bullet ,,m\ld47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 7 ,,bullets47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 7 ,,nipp]s47 ,illu/ration3 ,,prep>+ ,,lead ,,= ,,bullets4 ,! sizes ( h[itz]s & mort>s are express$ by ! diamet] ( ! %ell !y are int5d$ to ?r[2 ! l>ge/ ( :i* at pres5t 9 g5]al use is ! 8?irte5-in*40 ,?is imm5se %ell :5 *>g$ weighs ne>ly #bjj p\nds4 ,^! %ells or 8bombs0 z !y 7 =m]ly call$1 are ca/ holl[ 7fig4 #g71 ) a small op5+ into :i* a 8fuze0 or wood5 tube fill$ ) combu/ible matt] is ins]t$2 !y are *>g$ ) gunp[d]1 :i* on be+ ignit$ by ! fuze burn+ d[n to x1 explodes & bur/s ! %ell into fragm5ts1 :i* fly ab\t ) t]rible =ce4 ,:at are call$ 8%rapnel-%ells10 are ^? %ells :i* are fill$ ) bo? gunp[d] & lead5 bullets1 to be scatt]$ ab\t by ! explosion4 ,case-%ot is a "n giv5 to a packet ( bullets inclos$ 9 a t9 cani/] & us$ z a projectile1 ! case bur/s & ! bullets are scatt]$4 ,grape-%ot is ! "n giv5 to a collection ( n9e iron balls pack$ up s z to be us$ z "o4 ,h&-gr5ades are small %ells ( ab\t ?ree p\nds' weight1 to be ca/ by h&4 ,bullets = ! ord9>y musket are simple balls ( lead1 9 "s cases ca/ six at a "t 9 m\lds 7fig4 #h71 & com+ out 9 "o piece z se5 at fig4 #i1 :i* are aft]w>ds sep>at$ & f9i%$ (f by a sort ( nipp]s z se5 9 fig4 #aj2 b = ! mo/ "p musket & rifle bullets are =m$ by compression4 ,! bullets = ! ,m9i rifle are made by ma*9]y2 !y are ( a conical =m1 ) a holl[ at ! base into :i* a small plug ( box wood is fitt$1 ?is end be+ t[>ds ! p[d] receives ! :ole =ce ( ! explosion1 ! effect ( :i* is to drive 9 ! plug & op5 out ! bullet1 ?us fitt+ x tightly into ! grooves ( ! rifle & prev5t+ any loss ( p[] by ! escape ( ! gases result+ f ! combu/ion ( ! p[d]4 ,! ma*9e = mak+ ^! bullets is %[n at fig4 #aa4 ,! foll[+ is an acc\nt ( x1 tak5 f ! 8,times03-- 8,l all ! ma*9es "h1 ^! are p]fectly automatic4 ,coils ( solid lead5 pip+ are hung 9 x1 :i* x unw9ds1 cuts to ! requir$ l5g?1 /amps ) /eel dies into ! =m ( a ,m9i bullet1 & !n conveys away into boxes4 ,ea* ma*9e has f\r dies1 :i* cut1 /amp1 & pass into boxes ?irty-six bullets p] m9ute1 giv+ = ea* ma*9e an av]age ( #g1jjj p] h\r4 ,!re are f\r ( su* ma*9es1 :i* ?us ea* day turn out #cjj1jjj ,m9i bullets2 b1 ( c\rse1 z !y nev] tire1 ! numb] produc$ c at any "t be d\bl$ by leav+ !m to "w all night4 ,!y are s simple 9 _! con/ruction t "o man c\ld easily att5d to !m all4 ,x 0 a curi\s contra/ to ! sil5t rapidity ) :i* ^! deadly mess5g]s 7 =m$1 to wat* a numb] ( m5 & boys work+ ne> !m ca/+ r\nd musket-balls = ,%rapnel %ells1 9 ! old /yle ( h& "w4 ,by ?is me?od two p]sons c only r\gh-ca/ sev5 cwt4 ( bullets p] day1 or ab\t #ab1ejj1 :i* x takes two p]sons ano!r day to trim4 ,?us1 f\r h&s1 ) a great consumption ( fuel to keep ! lead always melt$ c only produce #f1jjj bullets p] day or #a1jjj less ?an ea* ma*9e produces 9 "o h\r40 ,! ma*9es = mak+ ! box wood plugs are also describ$3-- 8,ea* ( ^! 0 manag$ by a *ild1 :o kept x prop]ly f$ ) small /icks ( box1 :i* ! ma*9e conv]t$ into plugs at ! rate ( #ae1jjj 9 n9e h\rs1 or ne>ly #cjj1jjj p] day = !m all40 ,rockets1 z us$ = projectiles1 are simil> to ^? 9 ord9>y use1 b t !y h iron cases & are made to />t f an iron tube1 d[n :i* ! /ick passes1 & :i* directs ! c\rse ( _! flight4 ,!y are made ( v>i\s weights1 ! l>ge/ be+ ?irty-two p\nds4 ,^! enorm\s rockets pass to a v great di/ance & are made ei!r to explode l %ells1 or burn fi]cely = sev]al m9utes1 l :at are call$ 8c>cases10 ?us sett+ fire to h\ses1 c41 aga9/ :i* !y may be direct$2 b hi!rto _! c\rse has be5 b little "u control1 & !re=e n mu* to be dep5d$ on4 ,!y cause great confusion 9 masses ( troops1 :5 direct$ aga9/ !m4 ,,p]cussion ,,caps4 ,illu/ration3 ,,p]cussion ,,cap ,,ma*9e1 ,,woolwi* ,,ars5al4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,p]=at$ ,,copp]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,cap47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,p]=at$ ,,plate47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,spread+ ,,fulm9at+ ,,p[d]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,tamp+ ,,ma*9e47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7 ,,v>ni%+ ,,ma*9e47 ,^! are little holl[ cups ( copp] hav+ a fulm9at+ sub/ance at ! bottom1 s t :5 put on to ! 8nipple0 ( ! gun & /ruck by ! 8hamm]10 ! fulm9at+ p[d] explodes1 & ! sp>k pass+ d[n ! hole 9 ! nipple dis*>ges ! gun4 ,to prep>e ! fulm9at+ p[d] = ^! caps1 let #ajj gra9s ( m]cury be dissolv$ 9 a measur$ ounce-&-a-half ( nitric acid1 & :5 cold let two ounces ( spirits ( w9e be add$1 & ! :ole put into a ,flor5ce-oil flask made p]fectly clean1 & let x be plac$ 9 ! op5 air2 copi\s fumes w pass (f & a viol5t action take place1 dur+ :i* a :ite cry/all9e p[d] w be deposit$2 z soon z all action has ceas$ & ! liquid cool$1 p\r ! :ole on a filt] ( blott+ pap]1 & let ! fluid pass ?r\gh1 wa% ! p[d] :i* rema9s on ! filt] ) a little wat]1 & let x dry1 )\t heat4 ,?is is fulm9at+ m]cury1 :i* is a highly dang]\s comp\nd1 & %\ld be kept 9 a bottle ) a cork1 & n a /opp]1 z ! friction ( ?is aga9/ ! neck ( ! bottle might cause an explosion4 ,at ! ,ars5al at ,woolwi* is a ma*9e 7%[n at ! head ( ?is article7 :i* makes ! caps complete4 ,x is f$ by a b& ( ?9 copp] ab\t two in*es wide1 out ( :i* pieces are pun*$ 9 ! =m ( a ?ick cross1 leav+ ! p]=at$ copp] z %[n 9 fig4 #a2 ^! pieces are pun*$ or 8/ruck up10 & expell$ z p]fect caps ( ! =m ( fig4 #b1 at ! rate ( ab\t #ajjj p] m9ute4 ,! caps h next to receive _! *>ge ( fulm9at+ p[d]1 :i* is done by dropp+ !m into a p]=at$ plate 7fig4 #c71 capable ( receiv+ _m hundr$s2 ?is is cov]$ ov] by two o!r plates1 ea* p]=at$ to correspond1 b ! upp] "o made to %ift1 s t 9 "o position ! holes correspond1 & 9 ! o!r !y d n1 b rema9 z small %all[ d9ts4 ,a portion ( ! fulm9at+ p[d] is put on ?is plate & scrap$ all ov] x by means ( a piece ( pa/e-bo>d 7fig4 #d71 s z to fill all ! little d9ts2 ! plate is !n %ift$ & ! holes made to correspond1 :5 ! p[d] falls ?r\gh into ! p]cussion caps1 ea* "o ( :i* ?us receives a def9ite *>ge4 ,! next process is to press x d[n into ! cap1 s z to prev5t x fall+ out4 ,= ?is purpose ! plate full ( caps is remov$ to a ma*9e 7fig4 #e71 hav+ a r[ ( little /opp]s1 :i* are mov$ rapidly up & d[n1 ! pressure be+ exactly regulat$ by flat lead5 weights1 susp5d$ s z to give only s mu* pressure z w consolidate ! p[d]1 )\t explod+ x4 ,!y are next remov$ to a ?ird ma*9e call$ ! 8v>ni%+ ma*9e0 7fig4 #f74 ,?is has a tr\gh ( v>ni%1 made by dissolv+ %ellac 9 spirits ( w9e1 into :i* a r[ ( wires dip1 & by a turn ( ! h& convey ! m9ute portion ( v>ni% on _! po9ts into ! caps1 r[ aft] r[4 ,?is v>ni% dries 9 a few m9utes1 & causes ! fulm9at+ p[d] to adh]e2 ! caps are n[ complete4 ,! old =m ( caps 0 a simple %ort cyl9d]1 b x is f\nd bett] to all[ ! f\r little flaps to rema9 on1 t ! "r end may be di/+ui%$ & in/antly plac$ on ! nipple ! prop] side d[nw>ds1 :i* _c o!rwise s readily be done 9 ! d>k1 & :5 ! h&s are b5umb$ ) cold4 ,,pumps ,,& ,,fire ,,eng9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,common ,,lift+ ,,pump47 ,pumps are us$ = lift+ fluids above _! level into "s high] situation1 su* z f ! hold ( a %ip or f a well4 ,fig4 #a %[s ! diff]5t p>ts ( a common 8lift+ pump20 a a is a cyl9d]1 b a pi/on rod or 8plunge10 c ! suck] made ( lea!r to fit nicely ! cyl9d]1 d a valve 9 ! suck] to op5 upw>ds1 e a valve fix$ to ! cyl9d]1 also to op5 upw>ds1 f a box ) a sp\t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,air ,,pump47 ,! pi/on be+ rais$ by l[]+ ! h&le ( ! pump1 a p>tial vacuum is =m$ bel[ ! upp] valve1 :i* %uts d[n directly ! pi/on is rais$ by ! pressure ( ! air2 ?is vacuum causes ! ext]nal air to =ce ! wat] "s way up ! tube g4 ,on ! pi/on desc5d+1 ! l[] valve is =c$ d[n & ! upp] "o op5$1 ?is keeps ! wat] :]e x is & all[s ! pi/on to desc5d )\t =c+ ! wat] d[n aga91 & on its be+ rais$ a second "t ! upp] valve %uts & ! l[] "o op5s1 ! wat] be+ drawn up /ill high]1 & ?is takes place till ! box at ! top is full to ! sp\t1 :5 x runs out4 ,! air-pump is on ! same pr9ciple1 & is g5]ally made ) two cyl9d]s work$ by means ( a 8rack0 & :eel 7fig4 #b72 ?is is only to save "t1 in/ead ( pump+ wat] x pumps out air f any vessel call$ a 8receiv]10 because x receives any object to be plac$ 9 a 8vacuum10 t is to say a p>tial vacuum1 = ! air-pump _c produce a vacuum1 z ! air is only p>tly remov$ by ea* /roke ( ! pi/on1 leav+ ! air m r>efi$ inside2 & al?\gh ea* /roke ( ! pi/on increases ! r>efaction1 yet x _c get all1 z x m]ely takes "p1 & always leaves "p4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,fire ,,eng9e47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,air ,,*amb]47 ,fire & g>d5 eng9es are only applications ( ! pump to diff]5t purposes4 ,! fire-eng9e has g5]ally two cyl9d]s & pi/ons1 & has moreov] an air-*amb] = ! purpose ( mak+ ! /ream ( wat] cont9u\s4 ,x acts 9 ?is way3--,! wat] is =c$ by ! p[] ( ^? :o are pump+ ! eng9e into a vessel air-tight & full ( air1 hav+ an op5+ :i* jo9s ! 8hose0 at its l[] "p2 ! result is1 t z ! wat] is =c$ 9 fa/] ?an x c well escape1 ! air above x--becom+ greatly compress$1 & by its expansion betwe5 ea* /roke ( ! pi/ons--=ces ! wat] out1 & s cont9ues ! /ream or jet4 ,fig4 #c %[s ?is air-*amb]2 a jo9s to ! hose c1 & b is 9 union ) ! =c+-pumps ( ! eng9e4 ,! air is repres5t$ z x w\ld be compress$ to ab\t half its bulk1 = x at fir/ fill$ all ! air-*amb] d[n to ! op5+s4 ,,valves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,flapp] ,,valve47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,ball ,,valve47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,plug ,,valve47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,clos$ ,,pi/on ,,valve47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,op5 ,,pi/on ,,valve47 ,valves are contrivances to admit ! passage ( fluids or gases by _! own pressure 9 "o direction1 & 9 su* a mann] t ! same pressure %all ( itself prev5t _! return or passage 9 ! opposite direction1 z 9 fig4 #a1 :i* is ! pi/on ( a common pump4 ,!re are almo/ innum]able v>ieties ( valves1 "o consi/s ( a ball ( metal fitt+ into a cup :i* has a hole at ! bottom 7fig4 #b74 ,ano!r 7fig4 #c71 is a plug ( a conical %ape fitt+ 9 ! same way1 & hav+ a rod affix$ to ! top :i* passes ?r\gh a hole 9 a piece ( metal s z to guide x 9 its asc5t & desc5t2 ?is is ! k9d ( valve us$ z a 8safety-valve0 9 /eam boil]s1 b hav+ ! pressure regulat$ by a spr+ or weights4 ,figs4 #d & #e are repres5tations ( a k9d ( valve :i* =ms ! pi/on itself1 & is v useful z a pi/on = a squ>e wood5 tube = tempor>y purposes1 z on bo>d %ip1 :]e any numb] may be fitt$ up at little tr\ble1 "t1 or exp5se4 ,!re are _m o!r valves besides ^!1 z ! slid+ valves ( /eam-eng9es1 c4 ,,:eels4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,fly-,,:eel47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,p[] ,,ge>s47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,bevel$ ,,ge>s47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,side-,,cogg$ ,,ge>47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,rat*et ,,ge>47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7 ,,cap/an47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 7 ,,pulleys47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 7 ,,endless ,,b& ,,pulleys47 ,sc>cely any k9d ( ma*9]y c be con/ruct$ )\t :eels ( "s k9d--!y s]ve almo/ numb]less purposes4 ,! fly-:eel 7fig4 #a7 s]ves to produce a cont9u\s motion1 f its size & weight giv+ x a t5d5cy to g on1 & 9 ?is way caus+ x to fill up ! int]vals ( unequal action1 z 9 ! asc5t & desc5t ( ! pi/on 9 a /eam-eng9e4 ,! too!d-:eel s]ves to give motion to o!r :eels1 & ?is at a c]ta9 rate ei!r great] or less ?an its own1 accord+ to its size1 & consequ5tly ! numb] ( its tee?2 ?us a :eel ) a hundr$ 8cogs0 or tee? unit$ to "o ) b fifty1 causes ?is to g r\nd twice :ile ! l>g] "o passes r\nd b once2 b a l>ge :eel turn$ r\nd by a small "o1 al?\gh x moves m sl[ly yet does s ) increas$ p[] j 9 proportion to its sl[ness 7fig4 #b74 ,! bevel-:eel 7fig4 #c7 is us$ to *ange ! direction ( a %aft1 & = all ! o!r purposes ( a too!d-:eel1 f :i* x diff]s only 9 ! position ( ! tee? or cogs4 ,:eels are sometimes made to answ] ! purposes ( bevel :eels1 by hav+ ! cogs on ! surface ( ! "o :eel1 & ! o!r z an ord9>y too!d-:eel 7fig4 #d74 ,! rat*et-:eel 7fig4 #e7 is a :eel ) its tee? po9t+ 9 "o direction l ! tee? ( a saw1 & into :i* a tongue ( iron is made to fall1 s t ! :eel c only be turn$ 9 "o direction4 ,^! :eels are us$ :]e ! ma*9]y is liable to run back if left1 z 9 ! 8crane10 c4 ,! cap/an 7fig4 #f7 is a k9d ( rat*et :eel1 & is s made t long spokes may be plac$ 9 ! holes1 to be mov$ r\nd by m51 & tak5 away :5 out ( use2 x is a v p[]ful piece ( ma*9]y1 & is us$ = 8weigh+ an*or0 7see 8,an*ors074 ,! pulley 7fig4 #g7 is a s]ies ( :eels us$ to increase p[] by dim9i%+ ! rate ( movem5t2 !y are mu* us$ 9 ! rigg+ ( %ips1 & are !n call$ 8blocks40 ,!re are diff]5t ways ( connect+ :eels s z to communicate ! motion ( "o to ano!r2 !y may be too!d z be=e describ$1 or a 8la!-b&0 may be pass$ ov] !m4 ,?is may be ei!r r\nd or cord-l1 & made ( cat-gut1 or flat & made ( lea!r or gutta-p]*a4 ,?is mode ( produc+ motion is v useful :]e ev5ness & smoo?ness ( action are requir$1 or :]e ! :eels are at a consid]able di/ance ap>t2 !y h _! ends unit$ s z to =m a r+1 or endless b&1 & are sometimes us$ to communicate motion to a great _m :eels1 z se5 9 fig4 #h4 ,! ecc5tric-:eel has its axis out ( ! c5tre2 x is us$ = ! same purpose z a crank1 b ! action is m cont9u\s & ev54 ,:ile ! crank is mo/ frequ5tly us$ to produce a circul> or rotatory motion f an up-&-d[n motion1 ! ecc5tric-:eel is m commonly us$ to produce an up-&-d[n motion f a rotatory "o 7fig4 #i74 ,:eels take almo/ e v>iety ( =m1 & are n1 9 "s cases1 ev5 r\nd2 9 w9d+ y>n on to bobb9s1 :]e a motion is requir$ ( a con/antly v>y+ rate1 two elliptical :eels are made to act on ea* o!r1 ! end ( "o be+ approximat$ to ! c5tre ( ! long axis ( ! o!r1 7fig4 #aj74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 7 ,,ecc5tric-,,:eel47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 7 ,,two ,,ecc5tric-,,:eel ,,ge>s47 ,:eels = c>riages are us$ to dim9i% friction1 by caus+ ! 8tire0 or smoo? out] edge to roll ^u ! surface in/ead ( be+ rubb$2 all ! friction 9 :eels is 9 ! c5tre or axle1 :i* be+ turn$ smoo?1 & greas$ or oil$1 works v easily4 ,c>riage :eels are made to revolve ^u a fix$ axle1 & ea* :eel revolves indep5d5tly ( ! o!r1 b 9 railway-c>riages & eng9es1 ! :eels are unit$ 9 pairs1 & ! axle revolves ) !m1 ! weight be+ borne outside ( ! :eel on a small "p ( ! axle :i* projects4 ,! v>i\s p>ts ( a :eel are ! box or 8nave0 :i* is ! c5tre "p1 ! 8spokes0 or ^? b>s :i* connect x ) ! c5tre edge or felloes1 & ! 8tire10 an iron b& b9d+ ! :ole toge!r4 ,:eels = gun-c>riages are made at ,woolwi* ,ars5al by ma*9]y4 ,! foll[+ is a description ( !m1 tak5 f ! 8,times0 newspap]3-- 8,"h a few unskill$ lab\r]s sup]9t5d+ ! ma*9es produce =ty complete gun-c>riage :eels a day1 ?\gh all _! compon5t p>ts are made ( ! h>de/ woods--viz41 elm = ! naves1 oak = ! spokes1 & a% = ! felloes4 ,! novelty "h 0 ! new mode 9 :i* a :eel is fitt$ toge!r4 ,in/ead ( by h&1 z =m]ly1 ! pieces are all laid toge!r on ! gr\nd1 & ( c\rse 9 a circle1 ar\nd ! outside ( :i* are six small hydraulic rams1 ) ! head ( ! pi/on ( ea* curv$ s z to =m a segm5t ( a circle t\*+ ! outside portion ( ! :eel4 ,"o small /eam-eng9e pumps ! wat] into all ^! ) an equal pressure1 :i*1 z x increases1 =ces ! felloes into ! spokes & ! spokes into ! nave ( ! :eel1 ) su* =ce z to compress ! :ole1 by a /ra9 ( #bej tons1 into ! solidity ( "o piece40 ,paddle-:eels are made to revolve ) _! l[] "p 9 wat]1 & are furni%$ ) a s]ies ( %ort bo>ds fix$ to ! tire ( ! :eel1 :i* is g5]ally d\ble1 t !y may be bett] held on2 ^! bo>ds or paddles take a great hold on ! wat] & cause ! resi/ance :i* is necess>y to move ! vessel4 ,! :eel ( a wat]mill is con/ruct$ 9 ! same way4 ,,wat]mills4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,wat]mill47 ,wat]mills are ^? k9d ( mills1 ! motion ( :i* is d]iv$ f ! fl[ ( a /ream ( wat] aga9/ ! l[] "p ( a l>ge :eel1 provid$ ) paddle-bo>ds simil>ly to ! paddle-:eels ( /eam-vessels2 or else by ! weight ( a /ream ( wat] fall+ aga9/ ! upp] "p ( ! :eel f a sp\t or tr\gh2 ! =m] ( ^! is call$ ! "u-%ot1 & ! latt] ! ov]-%ot mill4 ,! =m] is us$ :]e !re is a l>ge body ( wat] fl[+ at a suffici5tly rapid rate1 & ! latt] k9d :]e !re is b a small supply1 ! :ole ( :i* is (t5 us$ = driv+ ! mill2 b o!r circum/ances1 ( position1 c41 may det]m9e :i* %all be us$4 ,! l>ge :eel be+ ?us driv5 r\nd1 any k9d ( ma*9]y may ( c\rse be atta*$1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! "w to be done4 ,l w9dmills ^! wat]mills are = ! great] "p sup]s$$ by /eam p[]2 ! locality1 c41 mu/ det]m9e :i* c be us$ ) mo/ advantage4 ,,w9dmills4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,w9dmills47 ,^! picturesque objects are build+s conta9+ ma*9]y1 to be driv5 by ! w9d1 = gr9d+ corn1 saw+ wood1 & any o!r purpose t may be requir$4 ,!y consi/ ( a basem5t1 g5]ally ( /one or brick1 & a sup]/ructure surm\nt$ by a sort ( dome capable ( be+ turn$ r\nd4 ,f ?is dome projects ! %aft ( a :eel1 & on ?is is fa/5$ f\r fans or sails made ( long b>s ( wood cross$ by %ort] ones2 ^! be+ cov]$ ) canvass1 =m a surface to cat* ! w9d4 ,^! sails are plac$ obliquely to ! front ( ! cross1 s t :5 ! w9d bl[s ^u !m "r 9 front1 !y are at an angle ) x1 !y are !re=e turn$ r\nd2 = ! w9d :i* pu%es !m f ! front1 z !y are oblique1 t5ds also to pu% !m on "o side2 :5 once 9 motion1 be+ heavy1 !y =m a sort ( fly-:eel to ! ma*9]y4 ,! dome has sev]al small :eels atta*$ to its l[] bord]1 to act z friction roll]s & cause x to be easily turn$ r\nd 7:i* is (t5 requir$71 t ! sails may be made to face ! w9d 9 :atev] direction x may bl[2 ?is is sometimes done by ropes atta*$ to ! dome1 b is m frequ5tly effect$ by means ( a small set ( sails1 %[n 9 ! cut1 :i* are plac$ at "r angles to ! l>ge set1 s t :5 ! w9d acts on ! l>ge sails ! small ones are n affect$2 b %\ld ! w9d %ift1 ^! small ones beg9 to move1 & !y are connect$ ) a too!d :eel act+ ^u a b& :i* surr\nds ! dome2 ?is is !re=e caus$ to turn r\nd :5ev] ! small sails are turn$1 & z ! dome turns1 x br+s ) x ! l>ge sails until !y are 9 ! "r position4 ,^! sails are g5]ally fix$ n q upright1 b incl9$ ) _! fronts look+ a little upw>ds1 :i* is f\nd to be ! be/ position to cat* ! w9d4 ,,syphons4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,suck+ ,,syphon47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,glass ,,ball ,,on ,,suck+ ,,tube47 ,syphons are b5t tubes = draw+ (f liquids f ci/]ns1 butts1 c41 :]e !re is no tap1 & :]e x w\ld be inconv5i5t to make any second op5+4 ,fig4 #a gives ! outl9e ( ! mo/ usual =m ( syphon2 ^! are only us$ = liquids t may be drawn into ! m\? )\t injury1 su* z spirits f casks4 ,! mode ( us+ ! syphon is ?is--! bottom ( ! longe/ leg a is /opp$ ) ! palm ( ! h&1 ! tap is !n turn$ on & ! m\? appli$ to ! small tube c1 ! air is !n drawn out by suck+2 ! liquid rises & fills bo? legs ( ! in/rum5t1 ! tap is turn$ (f1 & ! syphon is full4 ,n[ z ! leg a is long] ?an ! leg b1 ! fluid 9 x weighs m ?an t 9 b1 & s9k+ d[n draws ! fluid 9 b up1 & s on till all is drawn f ! cask4 ,syphons are g5]ally made ( copp]1 b gutta-p]*a w\ld answ] exce$+ly well4 ,fig4 #b repres5ts a contrivance = draw+ (f acids1 c41 :i* w\ld injure ! m\?2 ! ball prev5ts ! acid ris+ into x1 z ! m\? is remov$ directly x beg9s to fill1 :i* z ! in/rum5t is ( glass1 c easily be se54 ,,/op-,,cocks ,,or ,,taps4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,op5 ,,tap47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,clos$ ,,plug47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,op5 ,,plug47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,clos$ ,,tap47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,sp\t$ ,,tap47 ,taps are us$ = ! purpose ( lett+ (f or /opp+ at pleasure ! fl[ ( liquids f vessels or ?r\gh pipes4 ,! =ms ( /op-cocks are v v>i\s1 b ! =m %[n at fig4 #a is by f> ! mo/ g5]al2 x consi/s ( a %ort curv$ tube1 hav+ an upright cyl9d] 9 ! c5tre 9 :i* a plug ) a h&le turns2 ?is plug is p]=at$ 9 ! direction ( ! l5g? ( ! h&le1 s t :5 ?is is turn$ crosswise ! communication is %ut (f 7figs4 #b1 #c1 & #d74 ,! 8nose0 or end ( ! tap is sometimes prolong$ into a sp\t1 = fill+ bottles1 c41 z 9 fig4 #e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7 ,,op5 ,,safety ,,tap47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 7 ,,clos$ ,,safety ,,tap47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 7 ,,am]ican ,,wood5 ,,tap47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 7 ,,safety ,,tap ,,key47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 7 #d-,,way ,,tap 7a-b1 c-d747 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 7 #d-,,way ,,tap 7a-c1 b-d747 ,! safety tap diff]s some:at f ! ord9>y tap1 a section is se5 9 figs4 #f & #g2 ! plug is holl[ & =ms ! nose or sp\t itself1 ?is plug is only p]=at$ on "o side1 s t x has to be turn$ r\nd half-way in/ead ( qu>t]-way z 9 ! common tap4 ,! upp] "p ( ! cyl9d] has an op5+ 7( diff]5t %apes7 lead+ to ! top ( ! plug1 c41 a key be+ made to fit x 7fig4 #i74 ,! ,am]ican wood5 taps 7fig4 #h71 are j l x1 b h ! h&le unit$ in/ead ( a key4 ,! f\r-way tap is a clev] contrivance = unit+ f\r passages 9 alt]nate pairs2 figs4 #aj & #aa indicate ! diff]5t positions ( ! plug4 ,?is k9d ( tap 0 =m]ly an important "p ( ! /eam-eng9e1 & all[$ ! /eam alt]nately to ent] above & bel[ ! pi/on4 ,,filt]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,blott+-,,pap] ,,filt]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,filt]+ ,,/one47 ,filt]s are contrivances = sep>at+ sub/ances f liquids :i* are n dissolv$ 9 !m2 b 9 ! mo/ common acceptation ( ! t]m1 filt]s are vessels us$ = sep>at+ ! impurities f wat]4 ,filt]s on ! v l>ge scale requir$ by ! wat] companies consi/ ( s& or gravel s contriv$ t ! wat] %all dra9 ?r\gh !m4 ,?is1 inde$1 is ! natural way 9 :i* well or spr+ wat] is filt]$2 = ! ra9 fall+ on ! surface ( ! e>? s9ks d[n ?r\gh su* sub/ances z gravel & s&1 & lies 9 b$s at ! bottom1 :5 x meets ) /one or clay1 ?r\gh :i* x _c s9k 7see 8,artesian ,wells074 ,?is wat] :5 drawn up is 9 mo/ cases v bright1 z x has be5 /ra9$ ?r\gh ! s& or gravel 9 pass+ d[nw>ds4 ,! be/ sub/ance ?r\gh :i* to filt] wat] = h\sehold use is sponge press$ toge!r ) "s =ce1 & ?is is ! usual plan adopt$ 9 all ! e>!nw>e filt]+ vessels sold2 b !re is usually a lay] ( s& or "s o!r sub/ance plac$ bel[1 :i* is useless or worse1 z x (t5 becomes f\l & ta9ts ! wat]4 ,if ! wat] has a bad od\r1 a few pieces ( newly-burn$ *>coal plac$ 9 x above ! sponge w purify x 7see 8,*>coal074 ,filt]s = o!r purposes1 & = any small quantity ( liquid1 may be made by cutt+ a piece ( :ite blott+ pap] r\nd1 & !n fold+ x into qu>t]s & p>tially op5+ x 7fig4 #a72 ?is if put into a funnel =ms a conv5i5t filt] = any sub/ance to be bright5$1 z wat]1 v9eg>1 or w9e4 ,a p>ticul> k9d ( por\s s&/one us$ to be holl[$ out & us$ z a filt]1 b ^! filt]+-/ones are n[ b seldom us$1 except 9 ! case ( self-filt]+ ci/]ns1 :i* are made by enclos+ ! inn] op5+ = ! tap 9 slabs ( por\s /one1 s z to =m a box )9 ! ci/]n 7fig4 #b72 by ?is contrivance1 :5 ! tap is turn$1 only t wat] escapes :i* has be5 filt]$4 ,x is necess>y to h an air-tube to let ! air 9 z ! filt]$ wat] runs out1 & to let ! air out z ! wat] filt]s 9 f ! ci/]n4 ,ev5 9 ^! ci/]ns a box ( slate or o!r sub/ance hav+ sev]al holes ) sponges press$ into !m w\ld answ] mu* bett]1 z ^! c\ld be remov$ f "t to "t1 wa%$1 & return$4 ,filt]s1 ( c\rse1 c only sep>ate me*anical impurities1 su* z du/1 insects1 c41 = if sug> or salt 7 put into ! wat]1 all ! filt]+ t c\ld be us$ w\ld n sep>ate !m :5 dissolv$1 & ?us x is t well & spr+ wat]1 al?\gh p]fectly bright1 are /ill v impure1 conta9+ mu* lime & c>bonic acid dissolv$ 9 !m1 toge!r ) o!r matt]s1 z iron1 c41 :i* are n sep>able by filtration2 if x be desirable to sep>ate !m1 di/illation mu/ be _h rec\rse to 7see 8,di/illation074 ,"s ( ^!1 h[ev]1 z lime1 may be sep>at$ by boil+ ! wat] = "s "t1 :i* causes ! lime to fall d[n 9 ! =m ( *alk1 & adh]e to ! bottom ( ! vessel--h5ce ! 8fur10 z x is call$1 9 kettles4 ,wat] conta9+ lime1 al?\gh q 8h>d0 & unfit = wa%+ purposes1 is made suffici5tly 8s(t0 = use by boil+4 ,,presses4 ,presses are contrivances = compress+ or squeez+ toge!r sub/ances t may require to be s treat$1 z 9 ! case ( extract+ ! oil f se$s1 c4 ,! e>lie/ presses 7 simply heavy /ones or pieces ( metal1 put on "o aft] ! o!r2 b ! great inconv5i5ce & loss ( "t incurr$ 9 putt+ on & tak+ (f ^!1 soon l$ to ! screw & lev]1 :i* =m ! usual screw press4 ,! screw is fix$ at "o end 9 a socket & is turn$ r\nd by a long b> ( iron or wood1 & z ! 8worm0 works 9 a correspond+ holl[ screw :i* is fix$1 x asc5ds or desc5ds sl[ly b ) great p[]4 ,b by f> ! mo/ p[]ful contrivance ( ?is k9d is ! 8hydraulic0 press2 ?is ma*9e is n only us$ z a press1 b also to raise great weights1 & = _m o!r purposes4 ,! hydraulic press consi/s ( a /rong iron cyl9d] hav+ a solid pi/on exactly fitt+ to x1 ?is pi/on is rais$ by =c+ wat] "u x by means ( a pump2 ! pr9ciple dep5ds ^u ! peculi> prop]ty :i* wat] & e o!r fluid has1 ( ex]t+1 :5 conf9$ 9 a giv5 space1 an equal pressure ^u e "p ( t space2 ?us if "o p\nd pressure be made ^u "o squ>e in*1 ! wat] w press ) "o p\nd p[] ^u e squ>e in* ( surface t x comes into contact )2 = example1 suppose a cyl9d]1 ! pi/on ( :i* is "o foot measurem5t on ! face--?is foot conta9s #add squ>e in*es--& f ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] a tube %\ld be made to rise a few feet above ! pi/on1 & t ?is tube %\ld h an area ( "o in*2 !n "o p\nd weight ( wat] p\r$ 9 at ! top ( ?is tube w\ld raise #add p\nds weight plac$ on ! pi/on1 = ^! #add p\nds w\ld press b "o p\nd on ea* in*1 & ! p\nd ( wat] w\ld h ! :ole ( its weight on ! "o in* ( ! tube1 !y w\ld !re=e balance ea* o!r4 ,b in/ead ( p\r+ 9 ! wat]1 let a pi/on be fitt$ to ! tube2 a man ) 8 h& c easily ex]t #ajj p\nds pressure on ?is1 & ! result w\ld be t he w\ld raise #ad1djj p\nds or ne>ly six-&-a-half tons1 & if to ?is small pi/on a h&le & valves be fix$ s z to make a pump ( x he c easily pump 9 wat] at a pressure ( two or ?ree hundr$ p\nds to ! squ>e in*2 & if in/ead ( ! l>ge pi/on conta9+ "o foot area x has ?ree or f\r feet1 !n ! weight rais$ w\ld be v great2 inde$ !re is no limit to ! p[] ( ?is in/rum5t b ! /r5g? ( ! mat]ial us$4 ,x mu/ h[ev] be obs]v$ t :5 ! pi/on desc5ds1 say six in*es1 x does n raise ! six-&-a-half tons six in*es1 b only a hundr$-&-=ty-f\r? "p ( t di/ance1 s t ! pi/on w\ld h to be rais$ & depress$ six in*es #add times 9 ord] to raise ! six-&-a-half tons six in*es4 ,b ?is is su* a sav+ & conc5tration ( lab\r t ! application ( ! hydraulic press is becom+ m 9 dem& e day4 ,,/ills4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,retort47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,common ,,/ill47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,small ,,portable ,,cond5s]47 ,^! are vessels ( diff]5t k9ds us$ 9 di/ill+1 t is1 :5 any volatile product has to be conv]t$ into vap\r & aft]w>ds cond5s$1 = ! purpose ( sep>at+ x f v>i\s matt]s n o!rwise sep>able4 ,"o ( ! olde/ =ms ( /ill is t ev5 yet us$ 9 mo/ *emical op]ations1 call$ ! 8retort0 7fig4 #a74 ,x is bl[n out ( glass 9 "o piece1 is easily made ( all sizes1 n exce$+ a few gallons2 x is *iefly us$ = di/ill+ small quantities ( fluids1 & ^? :i* act on metals1 z ! acids4 ,= "s purposes1 *iefly ^? requir+ a v high temp]ature1 e>!nw>e retorts are us$1 & 9 o!r cases retorts made ( plat9um2 ! retort is (t5 8tubulat$10 a "n giv5 to ^? ) an orifice 9 ! upp] "p hav+ a /opp] fitt$ to x1 ?is op5+ is useful to introduce any sub/ance :ile ! body ( ! retort is already p>tly fill$ ) its cont5ts1 or to add m ( any?+ f "t to "t z x di/ils ov]4 ,an indisp5sable adjunct to ! retort is a 8receiv]0 = cond5s+ ! liquid di/ill$2 ?is is g5]ally ( a globul> =m1 ) an op5+ to receive ! sp\t ( ! retort1 :i* is also frequ5tly 8tubulat$0 t x may be atta*$ by a b5t tube to a second or ?ird receiv]4 ,! receiv] is to be kept cool1 & ?is is g5]ally done by a /ream ( cold wat] be+ p\r$ on x1 or a clo? dipp$ 9 cold wat] be+ spread ov] x1 c4 ,! /ills prop]ly s call$1 su* z are us$ 9 ! manufacture ( l>ge quantities ( liquids1 z1 = example1 9 ! di/illation ( _s1 are g5]ally made ( copp] t9n$ inside to prev5t ! =mation ( v]digris1 & consi/ ( a body1 a head1 & a cond5s]1 ! common =m ( :i* is se5 at fig4 #b4 ,! cond5s] consi/s ( a long tube coil$ up into a spiral & plac$ 9 a l>ge tub ( wat]1 hav+ a supply tube to let 9 cold wat] at ! bottom1 & "o = ! exit ( ! hot wat] at ! top1 = hot wat] be+ light] ?an cold1 rises up to ! top ( ! tub4 ,a v good =m = a small portable cond5s] may be se5 at fig4 #c1 9 :i* a con/ant curr5t ( cold wat] is made to pass ?r\gh ! out] tube1 & s keep ! inn] "o cold4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,flasks ,,& ,,b5t ,,tube47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,two ,,tubes47 ,a di/ill+ app>atus = exp]im5ts 9 *emi/ry c easily be made ) flasks & b5t glass tubes1 fig4 #d1 or ev5 by means ( pieces ( tube alone z 9 fig4 #e1 "o be+ b5t & ! o!r /raight2 ! tubes & flasks c be unit$ by means ( corks p]=at$ by a r\nd or keyhole file4 ,empty oil-flasks s]ve well = ?is purpose1 !y c readily be cleans$ by putt+ a little oil ( vitriol into !m1 %ak+ x well ab\t1 & !n wa%+ !m out ) clean wat]4 ,,bl[pipes4 ,illu/ration3 a4 7 ,,common ,,bl[pipe47 ,illu/ration3 b4 7 ,,res]voir ,,bl[pipe47 ,illu/ration3 c4 7 ,,res]voir ,,bl[pipe47 ,illu/ration3 d4 7 ,,home-,,made ,,bl[pipe47 ,bl[pipes may be consid]$ z m9iature bla/-furnaces4 ,!y are little in/rum5ts us$ to =ce--by means ( air bl[n f ! m\?--! flame ( a lamp or c&le into a jet ( flame s fi]ce t ! v highe/ heat c be produc$ by x4 ,v>i\s =ms ( bl[pipes are %[n 9 ! figures2 ! common bl[pipe1 us$ by gas-fitt]s1 t9m51 c41 is %[n at a2 bett] bl[pipes h g5]ally "s res]voir to conta9 ! cond5s$ brea? & s prev5t x issu+ into ! jet2 ! bulb %[n at b is = ?is purpose & also ! conical "p ( c4 ,v good & *eap bl[pipes may be made by b5d+ a piece ( glass tube into ! =m %[n at d1 add+ a p]=at$ cork & a small piece ( b5t glass tube fix$ z 9 ! figure4 ,! end ( ! small tube1 int5d$ to produce ! jet1 %\ld be held 9 ! flame ( a lamp or gas till x is r$ hot & turn$ r\nd all ! :ile2 9 ?is way ! hole w gradually become small] z ! melt$ sides collapse1 =m+ a neat r\nd hole ab\t ! size to admit a f9e ne$le2 ) ?is bl[pipe a v great heat c be produc$1 & x c be easily repair$4 ,! oxy-hydrog5 bl[pipe is a contrivance = =c+ a jet ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 gases--mix$ toge!r 9 ! proportions 9 :i* !y =m wat]--?r\gh a small orifice & sett+ fire to x2 ?is produces ! v highe/ heat4 ,almo/ any sub/ance c be fus$ by x1 b ! exp]im5t %\ld n be made unless ) a prop] app>atus1 z ! flame w be sure to run d[n ! tube & explode ! mix$ gases ) dang]\s viol5ce4 ,a common flame is m]ely a cone ( vap\r burn+ on ! surface :]e x comes into contact ) ! air1 & !re=e gives out b little heat1 b :5 air is =c$ into x1 a small blue cone ( solid flame is project$1 :i* gives (f m heat ?an ! holl[ cone4 ,,!rmomet]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,bulb ,,& ,,/alk ,,) ,,m]cury47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,scal$ ,,!rmomet]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,regi/] ,,!rmomet]s47 ,! !rmomet] is an in/rum5t = det]m9+ ! temp]ature ( ! air or any o!r fluid into :i* x may be introduc$4 ,! !rmomet]s 9 g5]al use conta9 m]cury1 b "s conta9 color$ _s2 yet1 z m]cury is mo/ g5]ally us$1 x w be only necess>y to say ( _s !rmomet]s1 t !y act on ! same pr9ciple4 ,a !rmomet] consi/s ( a glass ball hav+ a long ?9 holl[ tube ris+ out ( x & atta*$ to a graduat$ scale--! bore or holl[ ( ! tube is v small1 sc>cely suffici5t to admit a piece ( sew+ cotton4 ,! ball or bulb & "p ( ! /alk are fill$ ) m]cury by hold+ a lamp to ! ball till ! air is ne>ly all expell$ by its expansion--= heat exp&s air v greatly--& putt+ ! end ( ! /alk into a vessel ( ! fluid4 ,:5 ! lamp is remov$ ! air 9 ! bulb cools & !re=e contracts1 by :i* means ! m]cury is =c$ up ! f9e tube1 v ne>ly fill+ ! bulb4 ,! bulb is !n held d[nw>ds & ! m]cury s heat$ t x exp&s1 z did ! air1 till x fills ! :ole ( ! bulb & /alk up to ! v top2 ! top is !n melt$ ) ! bl[-pipe 7see 8,bl[pipes071 & ! glass1 runn+ toge!r1 closes up ! bore at ! end4 ,z ! m]cury cools x contracts1 & consequ5tly1 occupy+ less space1 falls d[n 9 ! /alk pretty close to ! bulb1 ! space above x is !re=e empty1 & =ms a 8vacuum40 ,n[1 !re=e1 we h an in/rum5t1 consi/+ ( a bulb & /alk half-fill$ ) m]cury 7fig4 #a74 ,^u any am\nt ( heat be+ appli$ to ! bulb1 ! m]cury 9 x exp&s1 & rises 9 ! /alk 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( heat appli$1 or %r9ks & s9ks d[n aga9 z x cools4 ,! next ?+ to be done is to =m a 8scale0 by :i* ! height ( ! m]cury 9 ! /alk may indicate "s kn[n or recognis$ temp]ature4 ,!re are ?ree scales 9 use1 8,fahr5heit's10 8,reaumur's10 & ! 8c5tigrade40 ,! scale univ]sally us$ 9 ,engl& is ,fahr5heit's1 al?\gh bo? ?is & ,reaumur's are sometimes m>k$ on ! same !rmomet] 7fig4 #b74 ,fahr5heit's scale is =m$ ?us3--,! bulb ( ! !rmomet] is plac$ 9 boil+ wat]1 & ! height to :i* ! m]cury rises is m>k$ by a scrat* on ! /alk2 x is !n put into sn[ or ice 9 ! act ( melt+1 & ano!r scrat* is made :]e ! m]cury has desc5d$ to4 ,! space betwe5 ^! two m>ks is divid$ into #ahj equal p>ts call$ degrees1 & ^! divisions are c>ri$ upw>ds to ne>ly ! end ( ! /alk & d[nw>ds to ne> ! bulb2 ! upp] scrat*1 indicat+ ! heat ( boil+ wat]1 is m>k$ #bab1 & ! l[] "o1 :i* m>ks ! freez+ po9t ( wat]1 be+ #ahj divisions l[]1 w be #cb2 & ( c\rse1 #cb degrees l[] w be #j1 & is call$ 8z]o40 ,on ! scale ( ,reaumur's !rmomet] ! z]o or po9t m>k$ #j1 is at ! freez+ po9t ( wat]1 & ! boil+ po9t is m>k$ #hj 7fig4 #b74 ,! c5tigrade diff]s f ,reaumur's only 9 hav+ ! space betwe5 ! boil+ & freez+ po9t ( wat] divid$ into #ajj p>ts in/ead ( #hj4 ,:at are call$ 8regi/] !rmomet]s0 h two bulbs1 /alks1 & scales1 on ! same in/rum5t 7fig4 #c72 "o bulb is fill$ ) m]cury1 & ! o!r ) color$ _s4 ,9 ea* /alk a piece ( enamel1 ab\t half-an-in* long & fitt+ ! cavity1 is introduc$2 ! "o 9 ! m]cury is to regi/] ! highe/1 & t 9 ! _s to regi/] ! l[e/ degree ( heat4 ,!y act 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,! _s1 be+ v liquid or ?9 9 its nature1 wets ! enamel & passes by x :5 x rises 9 ! /alk1 s t ! elevation ( temp]ature does n affect its position1 b :5 ! _s s9ks d[n x drags ! enamel ) x1 ?us regi/]+ ! l[e/ temp]ature1 s t ! di/ance ! enamel is f\nd d[n ! /alk indicates h[ l[ ! _s may h desc5d$ 9 any p>ticul> "t1 say a night4 ,) respect to ! m]cury1 x is n ( a nature to adh]e to ! enamel1 & !re=e in/ead ( pass+ x pu%es x up 9 ! /alk z x rises1 b on desc5d+ leaves x beh9d1 ! height at :i* ! enamel is f\nd up ! /alk indicat+ ! highe/ po9t to :i* ! m]cury _h ris51 & consequ5tly ! highe/ temp]ature4 ,to adju/ ! in/rum5t1 a slight tap or %ake w make ! index 9 ! _s tube fall to ! surface ( ! _s1 :]e x is held by ! adhesive quality ( ! liquid1 & by ! same process t 9 ! m]curial /alk w fall to ! surface ( ! m]cury1 b w n p5etrate x1 ow+ to its great d5sity4 ,,b>omet]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,b5t ,,glass ,,tube47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,tube ,,imm]s$ ,,9 ,,m]cury47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,wea!r ,,glasses47 ,! b>omet] is design$ to indicate ! weight or pressure ( ! air on any surface1 at any p>ticul> "t or place2 = ! air1 al?\gh invisible1 is /ill ( consid]able weight1 z !re are _m miles ( x press+ f above d[nw>ds on all p>ts ( ev]y?+ ^u ! e>?1 & ! b>omet] is = ! purpose ( asc]ta9+ h[ mu* ?is pressure am\nts to4 ,x is =m$ z foll[s3 a piece ( glass tub+1 ab\t ?ree feet long1 is fir/ clos$ at "o end1 !n turn$ up at ! o!r & exp&$ 7fig4 #a72 :5 ?is tube is fill$ ) m]cury & held ) ! bulb d[nw>ds1 ! m]cury s9ks 9 ! /alk to a c]ta9 height 7say tw5ty-n9e in*es71 & t height %[s ! weight or pressure ( ! air4 ,! reason ( ?is w be und]/ood by suppos+ a piece ( /raight glass tub+1 ?ree feet long1 to be clos$ at "o end & !n fill$ ) m]cury2 if ! f+] be plac$ on ! end n clos$1 & t end turn$ d[nw>ds & put into a bas9 ( m]cury 7fig4 #b7 be=e ! f+] is )drawn1 ! fluid1 if ! air ex]t$ no pressure1 w\ld all s9k d[n f ! inside ( ! tube into t 9 ! bas91 leav+ a 8vacuum0 or empty space 9 ! holl[ ( ! tube1 b x is evid5t if ! air ex]t$ any pressure on ! surface ( ! m]cury 9 ! bas91 ?is pressure w\ld =ce ! m]cury up ! tube 7= !re is no oppos+ pressure 9 an empty space71 & t ! m]cury w\ld rise high] & high] ! great] ! ! pressure4 ,well1 !n1 ! air really ex]ts ?is pressure1 & to su* an ext5t z to raise ! m]cury some:]e ab\t ?irty in*es 9 height1 & ! pressure necess>y to d ?is is f\nd by calculation to be ab\t fifte5 p\nds ^u e squ>e in* ( surface4 ,! b>omet] tube is divid$ into a scale ( in*es & fractions ( in*es4 ,:at are call$ wea!r glasses1 are b>omet]s hav+ ! l[] "p br\ght up by a curve1 & a small weight re/+ on ! m]cury 9 x1 :i* be+ atta*$ to a correspond+ weight by means ( a cord runn+ ov] a little :eel or pulley fix$ to h&s mov+ r\nd a sort ( dial1 turns !m z ! m]cury rises or s9ks 7fig4 #c71 = z ! m]cury falls 9 ! /alk x mu/ ( c\rse rise 9 ! %ort /alk ( ! curve2 ! h&s by ^! means are turn$ r\nd1 & ! rise or fall ( ! fluid w cause !m to po9t to 8fair10 8ra910 c41 z ! case may be1 = ^! names are m>k$ :]e a correspond+ *ange ( ! wea!r may s influ5ce ! weight ( ! air1 z to raise or depress ! m]cury1 & s br+ ! h&s 9 a position to po9t to !m4 ,,p5dulums4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,gridiron ,,p5dulum47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,m]curial ,,p5dulum47 ,any weight atta*$ to a rod or wire s t x c sw+ freely may be call$ a 8p5dulum40 ,b = ! purpose ( "t-keep+1 a mu* m accurate in/rum5t is requir$2 ! rate ( vibration or oscillation ( ! p5dulum1 does n dep5d ^u ! weight ( ! ball or 8bob0 at ! l[] end1 b ^u ! di/ance ( ?is f ! po9t at :i* ! upp] end turns1 nor does ! rate ( oscillation dep5d ^u ! di/ance ?r\gh :i* ! weight trav]ses1 = e p5dulum w vibrate at ! exact rate 7) c]ta9 re/rictions7 at :i* x is set (f1 until x ceases1 al?\gh ! di/ance ?r\gh :i* x trav]ses1 decreases at e vibration2 ^! facts are tak5 advantage ( 9 adapt+ ! p5dulum to ! purposes ( regulat+ ! "t a clock %all keep--! long] ! p5dulum ! sl[] ! vibrations4 ,n[1 z ev]y?+ 9 nature is exp&$ by heat & contract$ by cold1 s a p5dulum is con/antly v>y+ 9 l5g? by e *ange ( temp]ature1 &1 z a consequ5ce1 ! rate ( ! clock to :i* x is atta*$ w also v>y4 ,p5dulums :i* h an arrangem5t to obviate ?is v>iation1 are call$ 8comp5sat+0 p5dulums2 ! be/ 9 use are ( two k9ds1 "o call$ 7f its appe>ance7 ! 8gridiron10 ! o!r ! 8m]curial10 ?is la/ is ! mo/ accurate1 & is us$ 9 ne>ly all good a/ronomical clocks4 ,! gridiron p5dulum is made ( iron & brass1 or z9c1 & is con/ruct$ z %[n 9 fig4 #a2 ! rod & out] frame1 ,a1 is made ( iron1 ! two rods inside ?is ( z9c or brass1 ,b ,b4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! in/rum5t is ?is--brass or z9c contract & exp& mu* m ?an iron does1 & ! %ort b>s ( ^! metals w exp& or contract z mu* z ! long b> ( iron =m+ ! rod ( ! p5dulum1 s t z ?is exp&s & lets ! 8bob0 d[n1 ! %ort b>s exp& & draw x upw>ds s t x keeps its place at any temp]ature2 ?is requires v accurate adju/m5t4 ,! m]curial p5dulum is %[n at fig4 #b2 x is on ! same pr9ciple1 b is easi] to regulate1 & m manageable1 ! vessel 9 ! c5tre be+ p>tly fill$ ) m]cury1 & =m+ ! weight itself1 & ?us z ! m]cury exp&s upw>ds x comp5sates = ! elongation ( ! rod1 ! same z 9 ! gridiron p5dulum4 ,! ne>] any p5dulum is to ! c5tre ( ! e>? ! m quickly does x vibrate2 ?is has be5 us$ by sci5tific m51 to det]m9e by ! diff]5ce ( rate 9 "o plac$ on a hill1 & ano!r at ! bottom ( a deep m9e1 ! am\nt ( matt] :i* con/itutes our globe2 inde$ by ^! trials ! _w may fairly be said to h be5 weigh$6 ,,pl\ghs4 ,pl\ghs are in/rum5ts us$ to p]=m m rapidly :at may be effect$ by ! spade1 namely1 ! cutt+-up & turn+-ov] ! surface ( ! gr\nd s z to de/roy all grass & we$s gr[+ 9 x1 loos51 s z to expose x to ! influ5ce ( ! air1 & r5d] x fit to receive ! se$4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,pl\gh47 ,! pl\gh has be5 9 use f ! v e>lie/ ages1 & has be5 b little alt]$ = _m c5turies2 x is drawn by horses atta*$ to ! *a9 ,a at ! end ( ! 8beam10 & guid$ by a man hold+ ! 8/ilts0 or h&les ,b ,b1 ! c\lt]1 ,c1 cuts a p]p5dicul> slice 9 ! gr\nd1 & ! 8%>e0 or 8slade10 ,d1 foll[+1 cuts horizontally1 s z to sep>ate a long piece ( e>? :i* ! brea/ or m\ld-bo>d ,e1 plac$ obliquely1 turns ov] on "o side2 ! pl\gh return+ at regul> di/ances1 successive cutt+s are ?us laid side by side1 =m+ n>r[ ridges2 ,f is an additional c\lt] call$ ! 8skim-c\lt]10 = remov+ ! surface ( ! e>?1 & is only occasionally us$4 ,!re are a great _m k9ds ( pl\ghs1 ea* suitable to ! k9d ( soil to be pl\gh$1 :e!r light & dry or heavy & moi/4 ,,h>r[s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,h>r[4 ,^! in/rum5ts are us$ to /ir up1 pulv]ise1 & mix toge!r ! e>?1 also to te> up any roots t may be left aft] pl\gh+1 & to cov] up ! se$ aft] s[+4 ,! cut repres5ts ! usual =m ( h>r[1 hav+ a numb] ( iron spikes or tee? atta*$ to frames ( :i* two or m are unit$ toge!r by *a9s & atta*$ to a b>1 t ! horses may drag !m ov] ! surface ( ! soil4 ,bu%-h>r[s consi/ ( a bundle ( bru%-wood held toge!r by a pair ( frames1 & drawn ov] ! soil :5 x is v dry & light2 !y are us$ *iefly to cov] up ! se$ aft] 8drill+40 ,,roll]s4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,undulat$ ,,roll]s47 ,9 clay & o!r heavy soils1 x is necess>y aft] pl\gh+ to break up ! l>ge pieces by means ( roll]s1 & 9 light soils to press x toge!r2 = ^! purposes roll]s are us$1 ei!r ) smoo? or undulat$ surfaces1 z 9 ! figure2 ^! la/ =m furr[s into :i* ! se$ falls1 caus+ x to come up 9 r[s4 ,roll]s ( a light] k9d are us$ aft] m[+ to level ! surface4 ,,m[+ ,,ma*9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,scy!47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,dray ,,m[+ ,,ma*9e47 ,m[+ is an op]ation g5]ally p]=m$ by manual lab\r1 by means ( t well-kn[n in/rum5t1 ! scy! 7fig4 #a71 :i* is a long1 flat1 curv$ blade ( /eel atta*$ to a h&le hav+ a peculi> b5d1 & ) two %ort pieces ( wood atta*$1 by :i* ! m[] sw+s x r\nd ) a measur$ sweep1 cutt+ (f ! grass almo/ close to ! gr\nd1 walk+ gradually =w>d z he m[s2 b ( late ye>s ma*9es ( v>i\s k9ds h be5 inv5t$ & us$ = ?is purpose4 ,fig4 #b repres5ts "o :i* n only m[s1 b at ! same "t rolls ! grass1 s z to make x smoo? & level4 ,x consi/s ( a heavy iron roll] turn+ a l>ge :eel1 :i*1 be+ unit$ to a small "o1 causes x to revolve v rapidly4 ,9 connection ) ! small :eel is a s]ies ( f\r spiral knives w\nd r\nd a cyl9d]1 :i* cut (f ! grass close to ! gr\nd1 ?r[+ x up into a box plac$ to receive x4 ,!re are sev]al v>ieties1 b ?is is ! k9d made by ,dray ,co41 ,london1 = m[+ %ort grass1 z 9 g>d5s & lawns4 ,^? us$ = cutt+ long grass = hay1 are exactly simil> to ! reap+ ma*9es4 ,,?ra%+-,,ma*9es4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,?ra%+ ,,ma*9e47 ,! op]ation ( ?ra%+1 p]=m$ = ages by means ( ! 8flail0--two /icks ti$ toge!r & wield$ by ! h&s1 inflict+ heavy bl[s on ! bundle ( corn spread on ! ?ra%+-floor1 s z to sep>ate ! gra9s f ! e>--is n[ be+ rapidly sup]s$$ by ! ?ra%+-ma*9e4 ,x is a sort ( box hav+ a cyl9d] inside ) an iron :eel at ea* end unit$ by b>s ( iron2 ?is :eel revolves by /eam1 caus+ ! b>s to fall ^u ! corn ) a glid+ motion1 ?ra%+ out ! gra91 :i* falls ?r\gh & is receiv$ bel[4 ,,reap+ ,,ma*9es4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,dray7 ,,reap+ ,,ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sickle4 ,ma*9es h lately be5 produc$ to effect m rapidly1 :at has hi!rto be5 done by h&1 ) ! sickle1 namely1 ! reap+ ( corn4 ,^! ma*9es are ( v>i\s k9ds1 b ! "o t seems mo/ p]fect has be5 pat5t$ by ,messrs4 ,dray ,co42 x consi/s ( a heavy wood5 frame drawn by a horse1 & hav+ :eels atta*$1 :i* on turn+ r\nd set 9 motion a l9e ( spe>-head$ knives2 ^! knives are made %>p at ea* side1 to cut bo? ways4 ,! motion communicat$ to !m is v rapid1 & f side to side1 s z to cause ! knives to pass ?r\gh long n>r[ op5+s made to fit !m 9 a s]ies ( iron po9ts :i* are plac$ "o betwe5 ea* knife4 ,?is action causes ! po9t & knife to act l ! blades ( a pair ( scissors1 only t ! po9ts are fix$ & ! blades move ?r\gh !m1 cutt+ (f ! corn at any di/ance f ! gr\nd t may be requir$2 at ! side fur!/ f ! horse is a po9t ( iron1 hav+ two div]g+ pieces prolong$ f x1 & :i* pi]ces ! corn & sep>ates ! portion to be cut f :at is to be cut at ! next return ( ! ma*9e2 = x is drawn up & d[n1 cutt+ at ea* "t a belt ab\t f\r or five feet wide2 :5 cut1 ! corn falls on a plat=m balanc$ on its c5tre1 & capable ( be+ turn$ s z to incl9e =w>ds or backw>ds4 ,a man sits on ! ma*9e ) a rake1 & z ! plat=m fills ) cut corn1 he pu%es x ) ! rake1 tilt+ ! plat=m back & deliv]+ ! corn beh9d1 :]e wom5 att5d to b9d x up4 ,^! ma*9es c reap t5 or elev5 acres 9 a day4 ,,drills4 ,illu/ration3 ,,drill4 ,! drill is us$ :5 x is desirable to s[ se$ 9 r[s at int]vals f ea* o!r1 s z to give room = ! plants to gr[1 to free !m f we$s & admit air1 light1 & moi/ure2 x is a ma*9e :i* conta9s ! se$ = s[+1 & at ! same "t makes a s]ies ( furr[s to receive x4 ,!re are a great _m v>ieties ( drills1 b !y act ^u ! same pr9ciple1 namely1 t ( a cyl9d]1 tak+ up & p\r+ small portions ( ! se$ into funnels s arrang$ t !y %all foll[ a set ( small c\lt]s =m+ furr[s 9 ! gr\nd1 into :i* ! se$ falls2 ! drill is g5]ally foll[$ by a bu%-h>r[ :i* cov]s up ! se$4 ,"s drills h two comp>tm5ts1 "o = conta9+ manure1 ! o!r = se$2 ! manure mu/ be dry & pulv]is$1 su* z gr\nd bones1 a%es1 c41 :i* arrangem5t all[s ! se$ & manure to be bo? drill$ toge!r1 s t ! manure %all only be appli$ :]e x is want$4 ,! cut repres5ts ?is ma*9e2 ,a ,a are portions ( ! cyl9d]s :i* are turn$ r\nd by too!d :eels atta*$ to ! ord9>y :eels ( ! ma*9e1 & :i* c be put 9 or out ( ge> at any "t1 s z to /op ! action ( ! drill2 ,b ,b repres5t ! funnels into :i* ! se$ is p\r$1 & ,c ,c ! c\lt]s :i* cut ! furr[s = ! se$4 ,^! c\lt]s are press$ into ! gr\nd by means ( iron weights atta*$ to ! ends ( lev]s jo9$ to !m1 & :i* c be regulat$ by small *a9s4 ,,eng9e]+ ,,works4 ,,railways4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,locomotive ,,& ,,t5d]47 ,! great advantage ( railways ov] ord9>y roads is ! dim9i%$ friction1 :i* is produc$ by ! :eels pass+ ov] ! smoo? iron in/ead ( r\gh /ones4 ,x 0 f\nd :5 iron rails 7 fir/ us$1 be=e ! introduction ( locomotives1 t ! horse-p[] requisite 0 dim9i%$ to "o-=tie?2 = in/ance1 t5 horses on a railway c\ld d ! "w ( f\r hundr$ on a common road1 ?is be+ ! case1 & ! great p[] ( ! locomotive eng9e be+ sup]add$1 !re c be no wond] t ! diff]5ce ( ! rate ( spe$ betwe5 ! tra9 & ! wagon %\ld be s great4 ,:5 x has be5 settl$ :at g5]al direction ! railway %all take1 x is !n to be det]m9$ :e!r or to :at ext5t ! elevations or depressions t may occur c be conv5i5tly ov]come1 s t ! l9e may take a /raight c\rse1 or :e!r ! road %all g out ( ! /raight l9e1 & h[ f> to avoid !m4 ,! r\te x %\ld !re=e take ought to exactly balance ! objections to ea* extreme1 t is ! exp5se1 c41 ( go+ /raight on ?r\gh hills & ov] valleys on ! "o side1 & ! increas$ di/ance & consequ5t loss ( "t :i* a w9d+ track w\ld cause to ! transit on ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,t]ra9 ,,s*ematic47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,t]ra9 ,,s*ematic47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,rail ,,types47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,rail 8,,*air407 ,) respect to ! 8level0 at :i* ! l9e %\ld be laid1 a section ( ! r\te1 %[+ all ! elevations & depressions1 is fir/ made1 !n su* a c\rse is *os5 t ! mat]ial produc$ by cutt+ ?r\gh ! high] p>ts %all be j suffici5t to =m ! embankm5ts = fill+ up ! l[] p>ts2 fig4 #a w give "s idea ( ?is arrangem5t4 ,( c\rse a l9e p]fectly level w\ld be ! be/1 j z w\ld be "o p]fectly /raight2 b z ! difficulties ( ! "o mu/ be balanc$1 s mu/ ^? ( ! o!r1 & a l9e z ne>ly level %\ld be obta9$ z is consi/5t ) exp5se4 ,= in/ance1 suppose ,a & ,b1 fig4 #b1 to be t[ns to be connect$ by a l9e ( railway1 & ! *ief ( ! int]m$iate gr\nd to be above _! level2 ( c\rse x w\ld be v exp5sive to cut ?r\gh ! :ole di/ance1 z %[n at ! dott$ l9e a1 ?is level w\ld !re=e be too l[2 b if a high] level 7 tak51 z at ! dott$ l9e b1 !n only ! c5tre ( ! di/ance w\ld h to be cut ?r\gh1 & ! mat]ial 7e>?1 c47 produc$ by ! cutt+s w\ld suffice to fill up ! holl[s at ! ends4 ,^! consid]ations & _m o!rs mu/ !re=e det]m9e ! level at :i* ! railway %all be con/ruct$2 b ! l9e is seldom 7if ev]7 on "o level f end to end1 nor at "o cont9u\s 8gradi5t0 or slope1 = ! c\rse ( ! l9e is s arrang$ z to make z little cutt+ & fill+ up z is consi/5t ) a road ^: gradi5ts %all nev] exce$ a specifi$ am\nt1 :i* mu/ be det]m9$ by local circum/ances4 ,! excavation & fill+ up be+ f9i%$1 ! 8trams0 h to be laid2 ^! are b>s ( wr\ght iron ab\t fifte5 feet long1 ( ! =m %[n at ,a & ,b1 fig4 #c4 ,! mo/ usual =m is t m>k$ ,a4 ,!y are made ( wr\ght-iron1 pass$ :ile hot betwe5 roll]s cut at _! edges into ! =m requir$4 ,^! trams are laid ^u b>s ( wood call$ 8sleep]s10 at ab\t f\r feet ap>t1 & unit$ to !m by :at are call$ 8*airs10 :i* are pieces ( ca/-iron ( ! =m %[n at fig4 #d1 fa/5$ to ! sleep]s by iron spikes1 & into ^! ! trams1 or 8metals10 z !y are call$ by ! workm5 are w$g$4 ,^! b>s ( iron are laid v ev5ly & p]fectly p>allel at a c]ta9 di/ance ap>t1 :i* mu/ exactly correspond to ! di/ance betwe5 ea* :eel ( a pair belong+ to ! c>riages & eng9es2 ?is di/ance is call$ ! 8gauge10 ! wide gauge 7z on ! ,great ,we/]n7 is sev5 feet1 & t call$ ! 8n>r[ gauge10 is f\r feet eight-&-a-half in*es1 & ! space betwe5 ! l9es is ( suffici5t wid? to prev5t any dang] ( collision 9 ! tra9s on pass+ ea* o!r2 !y are g5]ally six feet ap>t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,railway ,,swit*47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7 ,,turn-,,tables47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 7 ,,locomotive ,,on ,,turn-,,table47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 7 ,,:eel ,,) ,,flange47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 7 ,,c>riage ,,buff]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 7 ,,c>riage ,,buff]47 ,z x is necess>y t tra9s %\ld at c]ta9 places be 8%unt$0 or %ift$ f "o l9e ( rails to ano!r1 p>ticul>ly at /ations :]e a great _m tracks run side by side1 & cross ea* o!r to bran* (f to diff]5t p>ts1 !re are arrangem5ts call$ 8po9ts10 %ift$ by a lev] or 8swit*10 s t !y %all direct ! c\rse ( ! tra91 & cause x to leave ! =m] track & ent] ^u a new "o2 ?is arrangem5t may be se5 at fig4 #e1 :]e ! po9ts are 9 ! position to direct ! eng9e com+ 9 ! direction ( ! arr[ on to ! curv$ l9e ,a1 & ! dott$ l9es indicate ! position into :i* !y w\ld be %ift$1 if necess>y = ! tra9 to g /raight on to ! l9e ,b2 ?is action is effect$ by mov+ a lev] :i* %ifts ! two b>s a few in*es ei!r way4 ,:5 an eng9e or c>riage has to be turn$ on to a track at "r angles to ! "o on :i* x re/s1 or :]e !re is n room = 8%unt+10 an app>atus call$ a 8turn-table0 is us$1 :i* is %[n at figs4 #f & #g2 x is a r\nd plat=m ( iron turn+ on its c5tre1 & support$ by friction roll]s at ! edge1 hav+ on its surface rais$ rails 9 two or m directions1 s t x may be turn$ r\nd half or qu>t] di/ance1 accord+ to ! position requir$4 ,! eng9es & c>riages us$ to run on railways are ( v>i\s con/ructions1 b to a c]ta9 ext5t agree 9 _! *ief p>ticul>s2 ! :eels are fix$ to _! axles1 s t ea* pair & ! axle :i* jo9s !m may be consid]$ z "o piece4 ,! axle projects a little way beyond ! :eel1 & on ?is "p x supports ! eng9e or c>riage1 :i* is wid] ?an ! di/ance f "o :eel to its fell[4 ,!y are !re=e entirely und]nea?4 ,!y are ( iron1 made by ma*9]y & h a project+ edge on ! inside ( ! 8tire0 ( ea*1 :i* is call$ ! 8flange0 7see fig4 #h72 ?is flange does n run on ! rail b )9 x to prev5t ! :eels f slipp+ (f4 ,^! flanges1 :5 ! pair ( :eels & axle are unit$1 exactly fit 9 betwe5 ! rails1 s z to t\* ! inside ( ea* & =m a sort ( guide4 ,ea* c>riage has two pairs 7except 9 a few cases1 :]e ?ree pairs are us$71 ! eng9es h usually ?ree1 & sometimes f\r pairs4 ,! c>riages re/ ^u p[]ful spr+s1 & are moreov] furni%$ ) spr+s to dim9i% ! concussion ( "o c>riage aga9/ ano!r2 ^! la/ are act$ on by a sort ( pi/on-rod1 "o ( :i* is plac$ at ea* corn] ( ! c>riage1 & are call$ 8buff]s0 7figs4 #i & #aj72 !y all co9cide ) ea* o!r1 & =m a set ( spr+s all along ! tra91 :i* greatly r$uces ! %ock :i* w\ld o!rwise be felt :5 x is /opp$4 ,ano!r set ( spr+s is connect$ ) ! b9d+ screws :i* unite ea* c>riage1 & ^! prev5t ! sudd5 j]k :i* w\ld result f ! />t+ (f ( a tra9 q inela/ic 9 its l5g?4 ,! eng9es us$ are ( t class call$ high-pressure or non-cond5s+1 & !re are two cyl9d]s & pi/ons1 :i* h a /roke ( ab\t eighte5 in*es4 ,! boil] is s contriv$ t a l>ge quantity ( /eam %all be rapidly produc$2 = ?is purpose tubes ( brass are made to pass side by side f ! fireplace ?r\gh ! boil]1 & ?r\gh ^! tubes ! flame & hot air mu/ g be=e rea*+ ! funnel1 giv+ out 9 its c\rse a great am\nt ( heat to ! wat] & conv]t+ x rapidly into /eam4 ,! /eam f ea* cyl9d] passes at ea* /roke ( ! pi/on into ! funnel1 assi/+ to =m a draught :i* draws ! flame f ! fire ?r\gh ! tubes & increases ! fi]c5ess ( ! combu/ion4 ,! necessity = two cyl9d]s & pi/ons is ow+ to ! impossibility ( hav+ a fly-:eel1 & z ! driv+ :eels ( ! eng9e h to be turn$ at an equal rate1 ! axle has two cranks s plac$ t ! greate/ p[] ( "o pi/on is ex]t$ :]e ! o!r ex]ts ! lea/ 7see 8,/eam-eng9e074 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 7 ,,signal ,,t[]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 7 ,,signal ,,t[]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 7 ,,signal ,,lamps47 ,z ! tra9s :5 go+ at a consid]able spe$ _c be sudd5ly /opp$1 x is necess>y to h signals plac$ 9 c]ta9 conspicu\s positions1 t ! eng9e driv] may beg9 to /op ! tra9 7:5 necess>y7 9 "t2 ?is he effects by :at is call$ a 8break10 a contrivance by :i* two pieces ( wood are made 7by turn+ a screw7 to grasp firmly ea* ( a pair ( :eels1 & s prev5t !m turn+ r\nd1 ?is produces s mu* friction aga9/ ! trams t 7aft] ! /eam is turn$ (f7 ! onw>d motion ( ! tra9 is soon /opp$4 ,! signals are ( ?ree k9ds g5]ally1 a r$ flag to indicate dang]1 a gre5 "o to caution1 & a :ite "o to %[ t ! way is cle>2 ^! are 7on mo/ occasions7 held by a man & wav$ to & fro to attract att5tion1 b !re are h[ev] a great _m occasions = fix$ signals1 z at /ations & b5ds 9 ! l9e :]e ! eng9e driv] c only see a %ort di/ance ahead2 ^! fix$ signals consi/ ( tall po/s plac$ :]e !y c be se5 at a consid]able di/ance4 ,^! po/s h an arrangem5t at ! top consi/+ ( a lamp ) a 8bull's-eye0 or l5s at ea* side po9t+ up & d[n ! l9e1 & a pair ( arms capable ( be+ let d[n into ! po/1 rais$ at "r angles ) x1 or into a position midway betwe5 ! po/ & a "r angle 7z %[n 9 figs4 #aa & #ab74 ,"o side ( ea* arm is pa9t$ r$1 ! o!r :ite1 "o arm s]v+ = a signal up ! l9e & ! o!r d[n2 atta*$ to ! jo9t ( ea* arm1 close to ! po/1 are two iron frames ea* hold+ a piece ( color$ glass1 "o r$ ! o!r gre51 & s arrang$ t :5 ! arm is at "r angles to ! po/1 ! r$ glass is be=e ! lamp & :5 ! arm is let half way d[n ! gre5 glass comes 9 front ( ! lamp 7fig4 #ac71 ?us ! same action s]ves bo? = day & night signals4 ,:5 ! arm %[+ ! r$ side projects 9 a horizontal direction1 x indicates 79 ! day7 8dang]10 & s does ! r$ light at night2 :5 ! arm is let d[n half way1 x %[s t caution is requir$1 & ! gre5 glass !n be=e ! lamp %[s ! same signal at night2 :5 ! arm is let q d[n out ( sight1 x %[s safety1 & s does ! :ite light ( ! lamp ?us fre$ f bo? scre5s ( color$ glass4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 7 ,,eng9e ,,:i/le47 ,ea* eng9e is provid$ ) a :i/le 7fig4 #ad7 bl[n by /eam turn$ on f ! boil]1 :i* is us$ z a signal at any p>ticul> "t1 especially 9 tunnels or :5 !re is a fog2 !re is also an arrangem5t by :i* ea* eng9e presses on a lev] at ! side ( ! tram z x passes1 & causes a bell to r+ at ! /ation1 to ann\nce its approa*1 :5 ab\t a qu>t] ( a mile (f4 ,9 "s cases1 z 9 foggy wea!r1 :5 ! usual signals _c be se51 a packet ( fulm9at+ p[d] is plac$ on ! rail1 & ?is be+ explod$ by ! :eel ( ! eng9e z x passes ov] x1 gives notice ( its approa*1 c4 ,!re are o!r signals1 b ^! are ! *ief4 ,,electric ,,telegraphs4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,electric ,,telegraph47 ,! p[] ( transmitt+ messages to any di/ance or place to :i* a wire c be c>ri$1 & 9 a space ( "t too small to be reckon$1 is )\t d\bt "o ( ! mo/ wond]ful inv5tions ev] c>ri$ out by m5's h&s4 ,al?\gh ! signals are c>ri$ f place to place ) a rapidity almo/ incr$ible1 yet ! electric fluid travels at a c]ta91 al?\gh m>vell\sly rapid rate4 ,x is ?\ght t light & ! electric fluid bo? travel at ! same rate1 namely1 #aib1jjj miles 9 a second1 & if s1 a message might be s5t r\nd ! _w 77 x possible to c>ry on a wire7 ?rice 9 t small space ( "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,acid ,,batt]y ,,cell47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,batt]y ,,s]ies47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,gr\nd+ ,,effect47 ,! con/ruction ( ! electric telegraph is pretty mu* ! same ev]y:]e1 only t modifications ( ! same ag5t are us$ 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 & diff]5t signals =m$2 b :e!r ?is ag5t or influ5ce is obta9$ f magnetic or galvanic s\rces1 ! result is exactly ! same4 ,:5 a pair ( metallic plates are imm]s$ 9 a fluid :i* acts *emically m rapidly on ! "o ?an ! o!r1 & a wire connects ! upp] p>ts ( ^! plates1 ?is wond]ful ag5cy is set 9 motion1 & circulates f ! "o plate to ! o!r 7fig4 #a74 ,?is arrangem5t may be be/ %[n by us+ "o plate ( z9c & ! o!r ( copp]1 & a dilute solution ( sulphuric acid = ! liquid2 ?is1 h[ev]1 produces by f> too little ( ! ag5t to be us$ on a telegraphic l9e1 !re are !re=e comb9ations ( su* pairs ( plates s arrang$ t ! p[] ( "o pair %all be add$ to ! next 9 su* a way t at ! end ( ! s]ies 7call$ a 8batt]y07 !re %all be a great increase ( ! p[] accumulat$--?is arrangem5t is %[n 9 fig4 #b4 ,n[ 7if ! p[] be suffici5t7 x does n signify :at l5g? ( wire !re may be betwe5 ! two ends ( ?is arrangem5t or 8batt]y10 :e!r ! ends be connect$ by a few feet ( wire1 or z _m hundr$ miles--! electricity passes in/antane\sly f "o end to ! o!r2 & fur!rmore1 x has be5 f\nd 9 practice1 t ?is electrical influ5ce c be transmitt$ ?r\gh ! e>? 9 "o direction if s5t by a wire 9 ! o!r2 = in/ance1 if a wire f "o end ( ! batt]y be c>ri$ on f ,london to ,liv]pool2 in/ead ( hav+ ano!r f ,liv]pool to ,london1 to connect ! two ends ( ! batt]y1 x is f\nd to answ] ! same purpose if ! end ( ! wire at ,liv]pool be fa/5$ to a plate ( metal buri$ b5ea? ! surface ( ! e>? & ! o!r end ( ! batt]y at ,london1 furni%$ ) a simil> plate also buri$4 ,9 ?is arrangem5t1 ! electricity w pass b5ea? ! surface ( ! e>? f ,liv]pool to ,london1 & ?r\gh ! wire f ,london to ,liv]pool1 ?us complet+ ! circuit4 ,! end f :i* ! electricity passes is call$ ! 8positive electrode10 t to :i* x returns ! 8negative electrode40 ,fig4 #c w %[ ?is arrangem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,electro-,,magnet47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 7 ,,electro-,,magnet ,,turn$ ,,on47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7 ,,angl$ ,,view ,,( ,,electro-,,magnet47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 7 ,,eight ,,ne$le ,,positions47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 7 ,,telegraph ,,poles47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 7 ,,wire ,,insulator47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 7 ,,six-,,wire ,,cable47 ,if a b>-magnet be susp5d$ on a pivot s t x may turn freely1 x w 7z is well kn[n7 turn ) "o end to ! nor?1 :i* is ow+ to a curr5t ( natural electricity pass+ r\nd ! e>? 9 ! direction ( ea/ & we/1 ! magnet cross+ ! curr5t at a "r angle2 & if a coil ( wire coat$ ) silk 7to keep "o "p ( ! coil f ano!r7 be plac$ r\nd1 above & bel[ ! long axis ( a b> ( /eel z %[n at fig4 #d1 & a curr5t ( electricity pass$ ?r\gh ?is wire1 ! /eel becomes a magnet & w take a direction simil> to ! natural magnet1 m or less at "r angles to ?is coil1 z 9 fig4 #e1 accord+ to ! int5sity ( ! curr5t2 & ! in/ant ?is electrical curr5t is /opp$ x w resume its =m] direction4 ,?is fact has be5 made use ( to =m ! pr9cipal feature ( all ,engli% telegraphs2 9 ! telegraph su* a ne$le is m\nt$ 9 an upright position1 & in/ead ( its t5d5cy to turn to ! nor?1 a t5d5cy to ma9ta9 ! upright position is giv5 to x by hav+ "o ( ! arms ( ! magnet a little heavi] ?an ! o!r2 su* a magnet hav+ a coil ( wire surr\nd+ x4 ,:5 ! electric curr5t passes ?r\gh ! coil1 x w turn out ( ! upright position to ei!r "o side or ! o!r1 accord+ to ! direction ( ! curr5t1 f its t5d5cy to assume a position at an angle to ! curr5t 7fig4 #f72 if ! curr5t be /opp$ ev5 = an in/ant1 !n ! ne$le or magnet w aga9 assume its upright position4 ,! pivot ( ?is magnet is br\ght =w>d & has on its front "p ano!r ne$le1 :i* be+ on ! same pivot turns ) x2 ?is is visible on ! outside ( ! app>atus1 & is look$ at to asc]ta9 ! movem5t ( ! "o )94 ,!re is also an arrangem5t call$ a 8commutator10 s contriv$1 t by mov+ a h&le to ! "r or left1 a connection %all be made ) ei!r end ( ! batt]y1 & !reby cause ! direction ( ! curr5t & ne$le to be *ang$ at pleasure2 also by mov+ ! h&le into an upright position ! curr5t %all be /opp$2 & f9ally1 by a ?ird movem5t1 a bell %all be rung4 ,n[1 z has already be5 expla9$1 :5 ! curr5t goes 9 "o direction1 ! magnetic ne$le is deflect$ 9 t direction2 & :5 ! curr5t is rev]s$ ! position ( ! ne$le is also rev]s$1 & :5 ! curr5t is cut (f ! ne$le w resume its p]p5dicul> position4 ,if two su* ne$les & two su* h&les be at ea* /ation1 :5 ! h&les at "o /ation are mov$1 ! ne$les at ! o!r /ation w take on a simil> movem5t2 & :5 ! h&les at t /ation are mov$1 ! ne$les at ! fir/ /ation w be mov$ to correspond4 ,?is con/itutes ! sy/em ( communication kept up by ! electric telegraphs 9 ,engl&2 b x rema9s to be %[n h[ all ! lett]s ( ! alphabet1 ! num]als1 c41 c be repres5t$ by ! movem5ts ( ! two h&les4 ,^! h&les c be plac$ 9 eight positions 7besides ! upright "o7 by a s+le movem5t ( ea* h&1 z may be se5 9 fig4 #g2 & ^! eight signals if repeat$1 or made twice 9 rapid succession w make eight m1 & by be+ repeat$ ?ree times w con/itute a ?ird eight1 mak+ tw5ty-f\r2 f9ally1 by a rapid motion "r & left1 !y may be caus$ to signify a f\r? eight1 or ?irty-two signals1 :i* are f\nd to be suffici5t = e purpose1 & by practice may be bo? produc$ & read (f ) facility4 ,be=e a message is ab\t to be deliv]$ ! commutator is s plac$ z to r+ a bell1 :i* is done by ! same arrangem5t z 9 a common al>m-clock1 b ! action is set 9 motion by a peculi> contrivance1 :i* dep5ds ^u ! prop]ty a b> ( s(t iron has ( becom+ magnetic :5 a wire is w\nd r\nd x & a curr5t ( electricity pass$ ?r\gh ?is wire2 ?is magnetic prop]ty exi/s only z long z ! curr5t passes1 & /ops ! in/ant x is cut (f4 ,! cat* ( ! al>m is dis5gag$ by ! movem5t ( a b> ( iron be+ drawn to ! magnet :ile ! curr5t passes1 & =c$ back aga9 by a spr+ :5 x is /opp$1 ?us sett+ 9 action ! me*anism ( ! al>m1 or 9 "s cases !re is a simple contrivance = caus+ a rapid fl[ & /oppage ( ! electricity1 s t ! b> is alt]nately attract$ by ! magnet & releas$ by ! spr+1 & ?is motion ( ! b> r+s ! bell z long z x is cont9u$4 ,! bell is always rung to give notice t a message is ab\t to be s5t1 & at ! /ation :]e ! bell r+s1 ! bell at ! =m] /ation is rung 9 return1 to %[ t !y are prep>$ to receive ! message2 ! message is !n spelt lett] by lett]1 by mov+ ! h&les into ! prop] positions1 & z ! message is be+ s5t1 ! eye is kept on ! dials hav+ ! ne$les :i* w communicate any message 9 return f ! /ation to :i* ! message is be+ s5t1 su* z 8repeat10 8n und]/ood10 c41 c41 = :i* c]ta9 s+le signs are made & recognis$4 ,! wires :i* convey ! electricity f /ation to /ation1 are made ( galvaniz$ iron 7iron coat$ ) z9c71 & mu/ be kept f all communication ) ! e>? by "s sub/ance incapable ( conduct+ x2 !y are !re=e /ret*$ betwe5 wood5 poles 7fig4 #h71 & re/ ^u sockets or supports ( glass or glaz$ e>!nw>e1 :i* are bo? sub/ances incapable ( conduct+ ! electricity to ! e>? 7fig4 #i74 ,9 c]ta9 localities1 z 9 t[ns1 ! wires are coat$ ) gutta p]*a 7ano!r non-conductor71 & laid side by side 9 a tube "u gr\nd2 ?is is also done 9 ! long] tunnels4 ,9 ! cables :i* conduct ! electric p[] along ! bottom ( ! sea z f ,dov] to ,calais2 ! wires are fir/ coat$ ) gutta p]*a1 !n b\nd ) y>n soak$ 9 t>1 & f9ally coat$ ) galvaniz$ iron wires w\nd r\nd spirally l ! /r&s ( a rope 7fig4 #aj71 ! :ole =m+ a cable :i* is coil$ up 9 ! hold ( a vessel1 & let out z ! vessel crosses f "o side to ! o!r2 9 ?is way ! cable is deposit$ on ! b$ ( ! sea or *annel1 =m+ an electrical connection f c\ntry to c\ntry4 ,^! cables are made 9 "o piece by ma*9]y4 ,t f ,dov] to ,calais is tw5ty-five miles long1 conta9s f\r copp] conduct+ wires1 & weighs ab\t #age tons2 t f ,dov] to ,o/5d conta9s six conduct+ wires1 is sev5ty miles long1 weighs ne>ly #ejj tons1 & co/ ab\t #cj1jjj2 its /ructure 7! real size7 is %[n at fig4 #aj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,electric ,,"t ,,ball1 ,,*>+ ,,cross4 ,! electric cable n[ con/ruct$ to be laid d[n betwe5 ,irel& & ,am]ica1 is compos$ ( sev5 small copp] wires twi/$ into "o1 & surr\nd$ by gutta p]*a2 ?is is !n surr\nd$ by eighte5 small wire-ropes1 ea* compos$ ( sev5 small wires twi/$ toge!r1 ! :ole be+ 9 its section n l>g] ?an a f\r-p5ny-piece2 #bjjj miles ( ?is cable are n[ ready to be laid d[n4 ,a plan 0 "s "t ago put 9 practice by :i* ! correct "t c\ld be kept at v>i\s places by electric communication ) ! "t at ,gre5wi*2 a clock ?us regulat$1 is situat$ at ,*>+ ,cross1 & a ball plac$ at ! top ( ! electric telegraph /ation !re1 is caus$ by ! same means to fall exactly at "o o'clock4 ,a contrivance has ( late be5 pat5t$ to "w ! electric telegraph by /eam1 & ! foll[+ acc\nt ( x is extract$ f ! 8,times30-- 8,a s]ies ( gutta p]*a b&s1 ab\t six in*es wide & a qu>t] ( an in* ?ick1 are coil$ on :eels on drums arrang$ = ! purpose4 ,^! b&s are /udd$ d[n bo? sides ) a s+le r[ ( holes at %ort int]vals ap>t4 ,:5 a message is to be s5t ! cl]ks w9d (f ^! b&s1 ins]t+ 9 ! holes small brass p9s1 :i*1 accord+ to _! comb9ations 9 twos or ?rees 7) blank holes betwe571 repres5t c]ta9 words or lett]s4 ,9 ?is mann] ! message is1 z x 71 8set up0 9 ! b&s ) great rapidity1 & if ! numb] ( b&s employ$ is suffici5tly l>ge--say z num]\s z ! compositors employ$ 9 a l>ge pr9t+-(fice--messages equal 9 l5g? to five or six columns ( ?is j\rnal c\ld be set up & ready = transmission 9 ! c\rse ( a s+le h\r4 ,( c\rse ?is op]ation 9 no respect int]f]es ) ! telegraph wire itself1 :i* cont9ues free = use until ! b&s ( messages are actually be+ despat*$4 ,! gutta p]*a b&s :5 full are remov$ to ! in/rum5t-room1 a mo/ simple appliance prev5t+ any d]angem5t or fall+ out ( ! p9s :ile be+ mov$ ab\t4 ,9 ! in/rum5t-room ! b&s are connect$ ) ord9>y /eam ma*9]y1 by :i* !y are drawn 9 regul> ord] ) ! utmo/ rapidity betwe5 ! *>g$ poles ( an electrical ma*9e 9 su* a mann] t1 dur+ ! mom5t ( ea* p9's pass+1 x =ms electrical communication betwe5 ! in/rum5t & ! telegraph1 & a signal is transmitt$ to ! o!r end ( ! wire1 :]e ! sp>k p]=ates a pap] & records ! message4 ,! only limit to ! rapidity ( ! op]ation is ! rate at :i* ! b&s c be drawn1 s9ce ! electrical contact ( ea* p91 ev5 = ! #bjj? "p ( a second1 is m ?an suffici5t to transmit a ^w or signal f ,london & regi/] x 9 ,am]ica4 ,( c\rse1 z ! message is record$ 7we w say 9 ,am]ica7 ) ! same rapidity z t ) :i* x is transmitt$ f ,london1 a numb] ( read+ cl]ks w be requisite 9 ord] to translate x1 by divid+ x into small portions1 ) almo/ z mu* facility z x has be5 s5t40 ,,roads4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,tra9 ,,bridge ,,ov] ,,road47 ,roads1 :i* 7 =m]ly ( ! utmo/ importance z ! only means ( communication betwe5 di/ant places1 & on :i* an enorm\s am\nt ( lab\r & capital h be5 exp5d$1 are n[ becom+ rapidly subord9ate to railways2 h[ev] ?is may be1 x is q cle> t roads c nev] be sup]s$$ by ! latt]4 ,! num]\s /reets ( great t[ns are s _m %ort roads1 & on "s ( !m ! am\nt ( traffic is s v great1 t ! utmo/ skill ( ! eng9e] is requir$ to resi/ ! consequ5t we> & te>4 ,! ,roman roads1 :i* h be5 ! means ( civilisation to ! great] "p ( ,europe1 7 con/ruct$ 9 a v solid & durable mann]1 by fir/ lay+ d[n a lay] ( r\gh /one set 9 cem5t1 & ^u ?is1 /ones ei!r squ>$ or nicely fitt$ toge!r & also cem5t$2 ! :ole =m$ a solid mass ( masonry1 n unlike ! wall ( an old ca/le laid horizontally4 ,basalt 7a volcanic product7 0 ! /one us$ = ?is purpose1 :]e x c\ld be procur$4 ,^! roads 7 g5]ally rais$ above ! surr\nd+ gr\nd1 b excavations1 bridges1 & tunnels 7 made :]e ^! 7 f\nd necess>y to cont9ue ! road 9 a direct c\rse4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,lab\r]s ,,ramm+ ,,surface47 ,roads are n[ g5]ally made 9 a less c>eful mann]1 & ! same obs]vations z to c\rse & levell+ w apply to !m1 t are made on ^! subjects 9 ! article 8,railways10 only t less cutt+ & fill+ up are requir$1 z ! gradi5ts on common roads are all[able ( mu* great] /eepness ?an on railways2 "o 9 tw5ty-five is h[ev] ab\t ! greate/ declivity t %\ld be made1 al?\gh old roads exi/ ) slopes mu* great]4 ,! surface ( a road %\ld be slightly ar*$ & a dra9 made on ea* side1 t pools ( wat] may n collect on its surface & s(t5 x s t x w "w into holes4 ,ord9>y roads are made by lay+ d[n a /ratum ( brok5 granite or o!r h>d /one a few in*es deep1 ea* piece be+ ( ab\t half a p\nd weight1 :5 ?is fir/ lay] is work$ 9 by traffic1 a second is laid1 & s on till ! surface has become q firm & level1 b 9 ! /reets ( t[ns m c>e is requir$4 ,9 ! suburbs ( ,london1 ! usual plan is1 to lay a deep /ratum ( rubbi%1 consi/+ ( brok5 bricks1 pott]y & oy/]-%ells 7obta9$ f ! du/-b9s ( ,london7 ne>ly a foot 9 ?ickness1 & on ?is1 brok5 /one or %+le 7consi/+ ( pebble /ones7 is laid 9 repeat$ lay]s z x consolidates1 b 9 ! /reets hav+ m traffic ! roadway is made by a f\ndation ( 8concrete10 consi/+ ( co>se gravel & lime made into a sort ( pa/e1 :i* sets into a h>d cem5t 9 a day or two2 on ?is f\ndation 7:i* is c>efully smoo!d on ! surface7 is laid a pav+ ( squ>$ granite blocks1 plac$ c>efully side by side ei!r 9 l9es at "r angles to ! road or else diagonally4 ,:5 ^! are all laid d[n & ramm$ to a p]fectly ev5 surface1 a mixture ( quick lime & s& is made into a ?9 pa/e ) wat]1 p\r$ on & swept all ov] ! surface ) brooms1 s z to fill up ! int]/ices & cem5t ! blocks ( granite firmly toge!r4 ,9 ,london ! roadways are always made ar*$1 s t ! c5tre is a few in*es high] ?an ! sides1 & a gutt] or dra9 is plac$ on ei!r side betwe5 x & ! pavem5ts :i* run on ea* side1 b 9 _m t[ns 9 ! c\ntry1 & on ! cont95t1 ! gutt] is plac$ 9 ! middle ( ! road & ea* side made to slope slightly t[>ds x4 ,,bridges4 ,! e>lie/ ef=ts ( ! civil eng9e] 7 9 all probability direct$ to ! con/ruction ( roads1 b x w\ld be evid5t t unless !y c\ld be made to cross riv]s & wat]-c\rses1 !y c\ld cont9ue b a %ort di/ance 9 any requir$ direction4 ,bridges ( "s sort mu/ !re=e be con/ruct$2 small brooks 7 d\btless bridg$ ov] ) timb] laid across !m1 & 8=ds0 or %all[ p>ts ( riv]s tak5 advantage ( :5 ! /ream 0 too wide to be spann$ 9 ?is way4 ,t ^! =ds 7 once v num]\s 9 ,engl&1 is %[n by ! con/ant recurr5ce ( su* names z ,/rat=d1 ,br5t=d1 c41 & inde$ =ds are n[ 9 use 9 _m places :]e ! /ream is %all[1 & ! traffic too little to pay = con/ruct+ a bridge4 ,! next improvem5t 9 all probability consi/$ 9 plac+ /ones 9 ! =ds to enable pass5g]s to /ep f "o to ! next1 & cross ! /ream dry-foot$1 :i* 7 call$ 8/epp+ /ones20 b ! e>lie/ bridges prop]ly s call$1 7 probably /ones pil$ ^u ea* o!r & unit$ by beams ( timb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,viaduct4 ,! ,*9ese1 ,romans1 & sev]al o!r nations 7 acqua9t$ ) ! use & prop] mode ( con/ruct+ bridges1 _m c5turies ago1 :5 no su* works _h be5 attempt$ 9 ,engl&4 ,! mat]ials *iefly n[ 9 use = bridges are /one1 brick1 iron1 & wood1 & by f> ! greate/ numb]1 till )9 ! la/ half c5tury1 7 con/ruct$ ( /one1 b iron seems to be rapidly tak+ its place1 especially s9ce ! mode ( con/ruct+ susp5sion bridges has be5 m p]fect$4 ,!re are sev]al ways ( =m+ ! f\ndation = ! pi]s1 or ^? p>ts on :i* ! bridge re/s4 ,old ,london bridge & _m o!rs ( consid]able size 7 bas$ ^u 8piles10 ^! piles consi/ ( great pieces ( timb] po9t$ at "o end & driv5 deep d[n into ! b$ ( ! riv] close toge!r1 s z to =m a solid mass on ! top ( :i* ! /ones = ! pi]s 7 laid2 ^! piles h be5 f\nd sc>cely alt]$ aft] sev]al c5turies ( imm]sion 9 ! mud1 b at ! p>ts expos$ to ! action ( ! wat] !y soon become decay$ & eat5 away by its inhabitants4 ,= _m bridges1 :5 !re is good f\ndation1 ! /onework is laid at once on ! b$ ( ! riv]1 b 9 ord] t ?is may be got at1 a d\ble r+ ( piles is driv5 close toge!r ar\nd ! "p :]e ! pi] is to be built2 ^! piles are ( a flat =m1 & ! two r[s inclose a space ( ab\t a foot betwe5 !m1 :i* space is fill$ ) clay1 well ramm$ 91 & ! wat] )9 ! b>ri] pump$ out1 ?is =ms :at is call$ a 8c(f]-dam10 & is an exp5sive proce$+4 ,! bottom ( ! riv] ?us expos$ c be built ^u 9 ! usual way4 ,ano!r way ( =m+ a f\ndation = pi]s consi/s 9 l[]+ l>ge wood5 frames or boxes fill$ ) concrete :i* h>d5s & =ms a solid basis1 ^! are call$ 8cassons40 ,wood5 bridges are n[ seldom made ( any great size1 b are v num]\s 9 c\ntry places = cross+ n>r[ /reams1 on acc\nt ( _! *eapness & ! facility ) :i* !y c be con/ruct$4 ,bridges ( brick are n mu* us$1 b 8viaducts0 ( ?is mat]ial (t5 occur 9 ! l9es ( railways1 & v h&some ar*es ( brick-"w are us$ to span /reets 9 t[ns :]e railways pass4 ,iron gird] bridges also1 are frequ5tly employ$ = ?is purpose2 !y are made ) gird]s ( wr\ght or ca/ iron :i* g5]ally pass 9 a /raight l9e ov] ! roadway f pi] to pi]4 ,"s ( !m are made ( iron-plate rivett$ toge!r1 :ile o!rs are /rong gird]s ( ca/ iron hav+ small ar*es ( brick-"w built on !m1 runn+ ! l5g? ( ! gird]s & re/+ ^u ridges 9 !m1 s z to fill up ! space betwe5 ea* gird]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,britannia ,,tubul> ,,bridge4 ,iron bridges are ( almo/ e =m & con/ruction conceivable2 "s are tubes ( iron-plate1 z ! ,britannia ,bridge1 rivett$ toge!r2 "s ( solid ca/ iron "w z ,s\?w>k ,bridge1 o!rs call$ susp5sion bridges are hung by rods ( wr\ght iron1 f l>ge *a9s susp5d$ f pi] to pi]1 z ,hung]=d ,bridge4 ,9 _m places bridges ( boats are us$2 ! boats are moor$ to ! riv]'s-b$ & h timb]-"w connect+ !m4 ,ano!r k9d1 :i* c h>dly lay claim to ! "n ( bridge1 call$ ! 8float+-bridge10 is us$ = ! conveyance ( c>ts1 horses1 pass5g]s1 or m]*&ise1 f "o side ( a riv] to ! o!r4 ,x consi/s ( a sort ( plat=m guid$ by *a9s laid d[n = ! purpose1 :i* pass ov] :eels or drums on ! side ( ! bridge4 ,! motive p[] necess>y = turn+ ^! :eels1 is suppli$ by a /eam-eng9e )9 ! /ructure itself4 ,,tunnels4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,,railroad ,,tunnel47 ,tunnels are und]gr\nd passages made = ! purpose ( cont9u+ roads1 railways1 or canals ?r\gh hills or elevat$ p>ts ( ! gr\nd4 ,9 slight elevations 8cutt+s0 are g5]ally made1 & x becomes a "q ( exp$i5cy = ! eng9e] z to :i* ( ! two %all be *os51 z !re w be a mu* great] quantity ( e>? to remove f a deep cutt+ ?an f a tunnel2 9 fact1 ! "q is (t5 at once det]m9$ by ! dem& = ?is mat]ial1 = if x %\ld s happ5 t ! level ( ! road is su*1 t _m or l>ge embankm5ts are requir$1 ! e>? tak5 f ! cutt+s w be want$ to con/ruct !m4 ,z a g5]al rule1 tunnels are only made :]e a hill has to be p5etrat$ :i* is too high to be cut ?r\gh2 ano!r object s\ght by tunnell+ is to cause ! road to pass b5ea? a canal1 riv]1 build+s1 or roads1 :]e ! level ( ! road or railway is f> bel[ !m4 ,! ,?ames ,tunnel is ! mo/ rem>kable example ( ?is k9d ( "w4 ,tunnels 7 con/ruct$ by ! anci5t ,greeks & ,romans1 *iefly = ! purpose ( =m+ aqu$ucts1 & = dra9+ lakes4 ,a few ye>s back1 tunnels 7 n v frequ5tly und]tak51 ^? t 7 made be+ *iefly on ! l9es ( canals1 b !y are n[ f> m num]\s1 on acc\nt ( ! great numb] ( railways1 on :i* !y frequ5tly occur4 ,be=e a tunnel is und]tak51 ! nature ( ! soil %\ld be ?or\ghly exam9$ by means ( 8bor+s10 sunk d[n to ! int5d$ level1 "s soils be+ mu* less fav\rable ?an o!rs = ?is purpose4 ,quicks&1 or s& p]colat$ by wat]1 is "o ( ! greate/ imp$im5ts to tunnell+1 :ile rock 7contr>y to :at w\ld at fir/ be ?\ght7 is "o ( ! lea/1 z 9 ?is case !re is no occasion to l9e ! tunnel ) brickwork1 :i* m ?an saves ! extra exp5se ( excavation1 z t c be rapidly done by bla/+1 :]e x is too h>d to dig1 :ile 9 ! =m] case ! difficulty ( dra9+ (f ! wat]1 & ! co/ ( brickwork ( suffici5t solidity to support su* loose e>?1 (t5 prev5t ! und]tak+4 ,tunnels ( great l5g? are sometimes begun at sev]al diff]5t p>ts by means ( %afts sunk d[n to ! requir$ level1 & ea* made to unite into "o1 b ?is dep5ds ^u :]e ! e>? is to be deposit$2 on railways x is common t ! 8level0 is s *os5 t ! e>? f tunnels & cutt+s is always want$ to fill up holl[s 9 _! imm$iate vic9ity 7see 8,railways071 & :5 ?is is ! case a s]ies ( 8trucks0 drawn by an eng9e on tempor>y tramways remove ! e>? f ! tunnel z x progresses1 to ! next embankm5t1 bo? works proce$+ at ! same "t4 ,:5 a small portion ( ! tunnel is excavat$1 ! cas+ ( brickwork is begun f ! m\? ( x1 & cont9u$ a small piece at a "t1 foll[+ closely ! excavation4 ,! brickwork is g5]ally begun at ea* side1 & c>ri$ up to ! height at :i* ! ar* spr+s2 an inv]t$ ar* is !n con/ruct$ f "o side to ! o!r to =m ! floor1 & 8c5tre+s0 re/+ ^u uprights are plac$1 to 8turn0 ! ar* ^u4 ,^! c5tre+s are only ab\t two feet deep1 & span ! ar* f side to side2 ! m5 "w ) _! backs to ! "p be+ excavat$1 & are able to rea* across ! n>r[ c5tre+ to lay ! bricks4 ,:5 complet$ all r\nd1 & ! spaces betwe5 ! brickwork ( ! ar* & ! surface ( ! excavation fill$ up ) e>?1 ! c5tre+ is %ift$ fur!r 9 & a fre% r+ ( brickwork comm5c$1 ! excavation go+ on at ! same "t4 ,9 _m tunnels1 l>ge p]p5dicul> %afts are sunk d[n = ! purposes ( v5tilation & light+4 ,,dra9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,dra9 7 ,,diagram74 ,illu/ration3 ,,dra9-,,pipes ,,& ,,tiles4 ,dra9s are con/ruct$ = ! purpose ( c>ry+ (f f ! surface ( ! gr\nd all sup]flu\s fluid1 :e!r x may arise f want ( a prop] exit = ! ra91 f spr+s ris+ 9 ! gr\nd to be dra9$1 or f wat] com+ f "s high] level4 ,dra9s are made 9 t[ns to c>ry (f ! ra9 f ! surface1 & all liquid refuse f ! h\ses4 ,:5 ! surface ( any portion ( l& has to be dra9$ ( its accumulat$ wat]1 :]e ! soil is ( an imp]vi\s nature1 l clay1 x is usual to cut deep furr[s f ! high] to ! l[] p>ts & fill ^! up ) gravel /ones or bru%wood2 ! moi/ure :i* collects 9 ^! is made to fl[ into ! l[e/ "p1 & !re =m a pond1 f :i* x evaporates z fa/ z ! dra9s supply x2 or if ! quantity be too great1 a ma9 dra9 or dit* c>ries x onw>ds to "s /ream or riv]4 ,! furr[s be=e be+ fill$ up ) any por\s sub/ance are (t5 laid d[n ) 8dra9-tiles20 tiles b5t into ! =m ( half a cyl9d]1 & plac$ ) two edges on a flat tile at ! bottom ( ! dra91 or pieces ( tub+ made ( tile4 ,! wat] f9ds its way readily into ^! ?r\gh ! crevices4 ,9 "s cases1 wat] c be kept f fl[+ ov] l&s & =m+ m>%es1 by embankm5ts4 ,^! are m especially useful 9 l& ly+ bel[ ! level ( riv]s & lakes2 imm5se tracts are ?us pres]v$ 9 ,holl&4 ,:5 ^! embankm5ts are v ext5sive1 !re is a con/ant filtration ( ! wat] ?r\gh !m2 dra9s are !re=e con/ruct$ to collect x into c]ta9 spots1 & mills erect$ to pump x ov] ! banks4 ,^! are usually small w9dmills1 work+ a l>ge wood5 screw 9 a cyl9drical b>rel1 caus+ ! wat] to rise up ! cyl9d] into a tr\gh1 f :i* x is p\r$ ov] ! embankm5t2 ^! mills require little or no att5tion1 & "w at all times :5 ! w9d bl[s4 ,:5 wat] accumulates 9 valleys ly+ above ! sea1 deep cutt+s or ev5 tunnels may be necess>y to c>ry (f ! wat]2 at ,neuf*tel 9 ,switz]l&1 v ext5sive tracts ( l& h be5 reclaim$1 by bor+ a tunnel ?r\gh ! surr\nd+ hills1 & ?us lett+ (f ! wat] f ! lakes =m$ by ! ra94 ,sometimes l& may be dra9$ by bor+ ?r\gh ! clay or o!r imp]vi\s soil1 d[n to a por\s /ratum1 su* z s& or gravel4 ,a k ( ! /ructure ( ! :ole di/rict is necess>y to det]m9e :e!r ?is is likely to be ( s]vice or n4 ,by bor+ deep pits 9 ! dra9s cut 9 peat mosses1 ! weight ( ! mosses w cause ! wat] to be squeez$ out1 :i* ris+ 9 ^! holes fl[s (f by ! dra91 produc+ ! same effect z if x 7 cut to ! dep? ( ! pits4 ,dra9s are frequ5tly made by means ( n>r[ curv$ spades1 b ! dra9+ pl\gh effects ! purpose m rapidly1 & is v g5]ally us$4 ,! dra9age ( ,london & o!r l>ge t[ns consi/s ( small dra9s f ea* h\se1 made ( e>!nw>e tubes lead+ to a sew] ( brickwork1 runn+ along ea* /reet & unit+ ) l>g] ones4 ,! "q ( effectually dra9+ ,london is a v difficult "o1 s*emes ( v>i\s k9ds be+ at ?is "t prop\nd$1 :i* w\ld co/ sev]al millions ( p\nds to put into practice2 at pres5t all ! sewage runs into ! riv] ,?ames1 & x is a matt] ( s]i\s importance to obviate ?is1 by c>ry+ x (f to "s o!r place4 ,,artesian ,,wells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,b5t ,,tube47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,tapp$ ,,b5t ,,tube47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,artesian ,,bas947 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 7 ,,drill ,,bit47 ,! con/ruction ( artesian wells dep5ds ^u ! fact t wat]1 be+ at lib]ty to fl[1 w always s9k to a level2 by :i* x is meant t ! p>ts :i* are highe/ press ^u ^? t are l[]1 & t5d to raise !m1 ! high] p>ts s9k+ 9 ! same proportion t ! l[] p>ts are elevat$2 ?is cont9ues until bo? are ^u a level4 ,suppose a b5t glass tube ( ! =m ( fig4 #a1 be p>tly fill$ ) wat]1 ! surfaces ( ! wat] 9 bo? arms ( ! tube w ea* be ^u a level ) ! o!r2 suppose n[ ano!r su* tube to h a small hole at ,a1 ! wat] s9k+ 9 ea* arm w =ce out a jet ( wat]1 & if a tube be ins]t$ into ?is hole x w repres5t an artesian well1 & ! wat] w rise 9 x till all ?ree are on a level 7fig4 #b74 ,in/ead ( ^! tubes !re is a lay] ( "s por\s mat]ial1 z gravel1 at "s di/ance b5ea? ! surface ( ! e>?1 ris+ at ea* end & =m+ a sort ( bas9 7fig4 #c71 :i* is b\nd$ above & bel[ by "s imp]vi\s sub/ance z clay or /one2 ! well be+ sunk at any "p 7z at a1 b1 or c7 bel[ ! level ( ! gravel1 :]e x =ms ! surface ( ! e>?1 mu/ cut ?r\gh ! upp] /ratum ( clay or /one1 & ?us =m a tube into ! por\s gravel :i* holds ! wat]2 ?is wat] is obta9$ f ! ra91 :i*1 fall+ on ! surface ( ! e>?1 dra9s ?r\gh ! gravel & fills its l[] "p4 ,! wat] w rise 9 ! bore at a height accord+ to circum/ances1 if ! gravel at ea* side ( ! bore rises to high] gr\nd1 a jet ( wat] w be =c$ out1 if n s high1 ! well w only p>tly fill1 & s on4 ,artesian wells are sunk or bor$ by means ( in/rum5ts screw+ on to ! end ( a set ( iron rods ea* screw+ into ! end ( ! o!r z %[n 9 fig4 #d4 ,! fir/ piece is g5]ally a sort ( g\ge 7a7 two or ?ree in*es wide1 & s made z to br+ up a cyl9drical piece ( e>? :5 =c$ 9 & screw$ r\nd1 ! weight ( ! rods aft] a few pieces are add$ is suffici5t to =ce ! g\ge into ! e>?1 except 9 /ony places1 :5 a sort ( 8pick0 is us$4 ,! (ficial report ( ,g5]al ,desvaux on ! artesian bor+s execut$ 9 ! ,des]t ( ,zah>a ( ! prov9ce ( ,con/ant9e1 9 #ahef-g1 /ates1 8t a spr+ af=d+ #djaj qu>ts ( wat] p] m9ute1 0 ! result ( "o ( ! bor+s1 & t o!rs af=d+ #ce1 #abj1 & #d1cjj qu>ts respectively 7 successively complet$40 ,& he goes on to say3 8,:5 ! %\ts ( ! soldi]s ann\nc$ ! gu%1 ! ,arabs sprang 9 cr[ds to ! spot1 lav+ !mselves 9 ! welcome abundance1 into :i* mo!rs dipp$ _! *ildr52 :ile ! old ,%eik fell ^u 8 knees & wept1 return+ ?anks to ,allah & ! ,fr5*4 ,at ,oum ,?i\r a well sunk to ! dep? ( #agj metres & yield+ #ahj qu>ts a m9ute 0 at once tak5 z ! c5tre ( a settlem5t by a portion ( a previ\sly nomadic tribe4444 ,z soon z ! wat] appe>$ !y began ! con/ruction ( a village1 ! plantation ( #a1bjj date trees1 & entirely r5\nc$ _! w&]+ exi/5ce40 ,accord+ to ,g5]al ,desvaux's report1 ^! artesian wells are likely to h a mo/ important influ5ce on ,arab life1 & greatly to subdue ! rov+ prop5sities ( _m ( ! tribes4 ,,m9es4 ,m9es are excavations made 9 ! e>? = ! purpose ( rais+ ! v>i\s m9]als :i* exi/ bel[ its surface1 su* z coal1 rock-salt1 & ! v>i\s ores f :i* metals are extract$ 7see 8,smelt+074 ,m9es consi/ ( ^? :i* conta9 m9]als t lie 9 /rata p>allel 7or ne>ly s7 to ! surface ( ! e>?1 z coal1 rock-salt1 or iron-/one1 & ^? conta9+ ! ores & m9]als :i* are imb$d$ 9 seams or fissures ( ! primitive rocks1 & are ne>ly p]p5dicul> to ! surface4 ,( ! =m] k9d1 coal-m9es =m ! *ief examples4 ,:5 indications ( coal are discov]$1 a 8bor+0 is comm5c$ to asc]ta9 its exi/5ce1 & ! dep? at :i* x is plac$ bel[ ! surface4 ,ea* piece ( e>? rais$ by ! bor+-tools is plac$ "o beside ! o!r1 9 ! exact ord] 9 :i* !y are rais$1 s z to %[ ! k9d ( e>? be+ bor$ ?r\gh1 & ! ?ickness ( ea* /rata betwe5 ! surface ( ! e>? & ! seam ( coal2 & x sometimes happ5s t ! bor+ is /opp$ on arriv+ at c]ta9 k9ds ( rock--! old r$ s&/one1 = example--= x w\ld be useless to cont9ue bor+ beyond ?is1 no coal ev] exi/+ bel[ x4 ,:5 coal is f\nd1 & its quality & ! ?ickness ( ! seam asc]ta9$ to be su* z to w>rant fur!r exp5se1 a %aft is dug d[n ( "s eight or t5 feet diamet]1 cas$ ) brickwork or wood to prev5t ! fall+-9 ( its sides1 & 9 "s cases p[]ful ma*9]y has to be erect$ to pump out ! wat] :i* fl[s 94 ,on rea*+ ! coal1 gall]ies--call$ 8gates10 or 8bords0--are dug 9 x 9 opposite directions1 =m+ "o long /raight passage1 & f ?is o!r small] ones1 call$ 8headways10 are dug1 at "r angles1 to ! dep? ( ab\t tw5ty-f\r feet1 & f ^! o!r 8gates0 are c>ri$ p>allel ) ! fir/1 =m+ a s]ies ( roadways jo9$ by %ort passages1 & hav+ squ>es ( coal betwe5 !m2 ! height ( all ^! passages is det]m9$ by ! ?ickness ( ! seam ( coal1 usually f ?ree to t5 feet4 ,! great masses ( coal =m+ ! squ>es betwe5 ^! passages are gradually dug away 7z f> z c be done ) safety7 & ! gates cont9u$ onw>ds1 b be=e long ! v5tilation becomes imp$$1 & ! air f\l & dang]\s f 8fire-damp0 7c>burett$ hydrog57 or 8*oke-damp0 7c>bonic acid71 gases :i* are giv5 (f f ! fissures 9 ! coal4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to produce a cont9u\s curr5t ( fre% air 9 e "p ( ! m9e1 :i* is done by s9k+ ano!r %aft at ! fur!/ "p ( ! m9e & keep+ a l>ge fire burn+ at its m\?1 ov] :i* a tall %aft is g5]ally erect$1 f :i* a column ( light air asc5ds1 draw+ fre% air d[n ! o!r %aft & ?r\gh e "p ( ! m9e1 to supply ?is 8up-ca/0 %aft1 z x is call$4 ,?is supply ( fre% air is economis$ & regulat$ by doors or valves1 s plac$ t any "p requir+ extra v5tilation c obta9 x at any mom5t by %utt+ ^! doors & lett+ ! :ole curr5t g ?r\gh t p>ticul> "p4 ,! removal ( coal is effect$ p>tly by digg+ ) ! 8pick10 & p>tly by bla/+ ) gunp[d]2 a l>ge squ>e mass is cut all r\nd1 & a *>ge ( p[d] fir$ beh9d x1 s z to br+ d[n at once sixty or eighty tons ( coal1 :i* is br\ght along ! gates on 8trams0 to ! bottom ( ! %aft1 :]e 8corves0 or baskets fill$ ) x are drawn up to ! 8pit's-m\?0 by /eam ma*9]y1 "o corve asc5d+ full :ile ano!r is desc5d+ empty4 ,! m9es f :i* mo/ m9]als1 su* z sulphuret ( lead 7gal5a7 or ( copp]1 are drawn1 belong to ! second class1 or ^? ^: %afts 8cut0 ! ve9 ( m9]al at a v acute angle4 ,:5 ! exi/5ce ( ! requir$ m9]al & its 8dip0 or incl9ation is asc]ta9$1 a %aft is sunk s z to cut its upp] surface1 & !n c>ri$ ?r\gh x1 cross-cuts be+ =m$ on to ! ve91 & 8levels0 or gall]ies "r & left 9 ! direction ( ! ve94 ,f ^! levels 8w9zes0 or small %afts are cut at int]vals f "o level to t bel[ x1 ?us leav+ squ>e portions ( ! m9]al ve9 to be explor$1 :i* is done by digg+ away ! ro( or upp] "p1 s t ! rubbi% & ore falls d[n1 :5 x is sort$ & c>ri$ away4 ,,%ips4 ,illu/ration3 ,,build+ ,,slips4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 7 ,,keel ,,con/ruction47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7 ,,tre5ail47 ,! fir/ "p ( a %ip 8laid d[n0 is ! 8keel20 ?is is ! projection :i* runs along ! :ole l5g? & =ms ! l[e/ "p ( ! %ip4 ,! %ip is built 9 :at is call$ ! 8build+ slip10 :i* slopes t[>ds ! wat]2 9 ?is 8slip0 a r[ ( oak5 blocks are plac$ at a few feet ap>t1 & ab\t ?ree feet high1 on :i* ! keel is laid2 ^! blocks are = ! purpose ( all[+ ! workm5 to cross f side to side bel[ ! keel & to =m a f\ndation = ! %ip to re/ on4 ,9 fig4 #a1 ,a is ?is arrangem5t ( blocks1 ,c ! keel1 at ! h9d] "p ( :i* is ! 8dead wood10 or ! timb]s fill+ up ! space betwe5 ! keel & ! curv$ bottom ( ! %ip1 :i* is m curv$ ?an ! keel1 & v mu* s t[>ds ! 8/]n0 or h9d]mo/ "p4 ,across ! keel are laid ! 8floor-timb]s0 or 8ribs10 ,b1 :i* are curv$ timb]s laid at "r angles to ! keel & pass+ outw>ds & upw>ds 9 ! exact curve :i* ! sides ( ! %ip are to assume2 ^! are too curv$ & too long to be ( "o piece1 o!rs1 !re=e1 are add$1 & jo9$ end to end ) ! fir/ by wood5 bolts or 8d[els20 ^! curv$ timb]s are cut to a patt]n1 *alk$ on ! floor ( ! 8m\ld-l(t40 ,! ribs z !y cross ! keel are b\nd to x by a piece ( /rong timb] runn+ along inside ( or above !m1 b p>allel to1 & exactly ov] x1 :i* is call$ ! 8keelson10 & is bolt$ to ! keel ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ea* l[] piece ( ! ribs or floor-timb]s2 x is %[n at ,d1 fig4 #a4 ,9 l>ge %ips !re are ?ree ( ^! keelsons1 runn+ side by side1 & =m+ a /rong support to ! ma/s1 :i* re/ ^u !m4 ,at ea* end ( ! keel a b> ( timb] rises1 ! h9d]mo/ be+ call$ ! 8/]n-po/10 & t 9 front ! 8/em-po/0 7m>k$ ,e & ,f 9 fig4 #a74 ,across ! ribs on ! outside & p>allel to ! keel1 are laid ! 8planks10 :i* are bo>ds ( oak ( f two to six in*es ?ick1 laid close toge!r & t\*+ at _! edges2 ^! are fa/5$ to ! ribs by plugs ( oak1 call$ 8tre5ails10 go+ "r ?r\gh ! planks & ribs1 & w$g$ at ea* end 7fig4 #b74 ,9 l>ge %ips1 simil> planks l9e ! inn] side ( ! ribs1 & oblique or diagonal braces are also sometimes us$1 to /r5g!n ! %ip & keep x f curv+ or 8ar*+0 :5 9 ! wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7 ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,hull47 ,illu/ration3 ,,ma/ ,,h\se4 ,! ma/s ( a 8%ip0 are ?ree 9 numb]1 a 8s*oon]0 has two1 & a 8sloop0 b "o4 ,^! ma/s pass "r d[n ?r\gh ! decks1 & re/ ^u ! keelson4 ,9 small vessels ea* division is made ( "o piece1 b 9 l>g] %ips !y are made up ( a c5tral piece1 ) o!rs fa/5$ r\nd x s z to enl>ge & /r5g!n x4 ,! fir/ or l[] division ( ! c5tral ma/ is call$ ! 8ma90 ma/1 & t above x ! 8ma9top0 ma/2 ! =e ma/ is divid$ into 8=e0 ma/ & 8=etop0 ma/1 & ! aft] ma/ is call$ ! 8miz50 & 8miz5top0 ma/1 & ! pieces above ^! ! 8=etop gallant0 ma/1 8ma9top gallant0 ma/1 & 8miz5top gallant0 ma/4 ,^! ma/s are made1 & rais$ by cranes 9 a build+ call$ a ma/-h\se1 & plac$ 9 ! "r position 9 ! %ip float+ b5ea?4 ,! outside ( %ips1 z high z ! 8wat]-l9e10 is cov]$ ) a %ea?+ ( copp] to def5d x f ! action ( ! 8worm0 7,t]$o navalis71 :i* bores into & de/roys ! wood expos$ to its ravages2 ! copp] also pres5ts a smoo? surface to ! wat]1 & facilitates ! motion ( ! vessel4 ,at ! /]n ( ! %ip is plac$ ! 8rudd]10 a wood5 con/ruction turn+ l a door on fa/5+s1 & :i*1 by be+ mov$ on "o side1 pres5ts a great] am\nt ( resi/ance to ! wat]1 & consequ5tly t5ds to turn ! /]n ( ! %ip away f t side1 ?us alt]+ its c\rse4 ,! decks ( a %ip are l ! floors ( a h\se1 runn+ across f side to side1 & support$ on /rong beams bolt$ into ! sides2 !y are slightly ar*$1 to increase _! /r5g?1 z !y h 9 %ips ( w> to support ! weight ( ! guns1 c4 ,a section ( ! decks & o!r p>ts ( a %ip is %[n at fig4 #c4 :]e ! g5]al figure & ! diff]5t p>ts describ$ may be se52 ! section is ?r\gh ! middle1 f side to side4 ,mo/ %ips ( any consid]able size c>ry sev]al boats ) !m1 ei!r on deck or susp5d$ betwe5 ! ma/s1 to s]ve z a means ( escape 9 case ( fire1 or any o!r accid5t requir+ ! crew to leave ! %ip1 also z a means ( keep+ up communication ) ! %ore4 ,%ips ( w> are nam$ accord+ to ! numb] ( guns !y c>ry1 z a sev5ty-f\r1 a hundr$-&-tw5ty-gun %ip1 c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,repair+ ,,dock4 ,:5 %ips h to be repair$ !y are br\ght into ! repair+ dock1 :i* has a pair ( gates %utt+ x (f f ! riv]2 :5 !y are clos$ 7at l[ wat]7 ! wat] is pump$ out f ! dock1 & ! repairs done2 :5 f9i%$ ! wat] is let 91 & ! %ip floats out4 ,9 small vessels x is sometimes suffici5t to haul !m on %ore at high tide1 s t :5 ! tide is d[n !y may be left high & dry & repair$1 & :5 ! tide is at ! highe/1 haul$ (f aga94 ,/eam %ips are con/ruct$ to be propell$ ei!r by paddle :eels hav+ flat bo>ds fix$ to _! circumf]5ces1 :i* on be+ turn$ r\nd1 take a great hold 9 ! wat]1 & s cause ! motion ( ! %ip2 or by ! screw-propell]1 :i* has be5 describ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,paddle ,,& ,,sail+ ,,%ip4 ,illu/ration3 ,,break+ ,,up4 ,! iron %ips1 :i* ( late h almo/ sup]s$$ ^? ( wood1 are made ( plates ( wr\ght iron1 roll$1 :ile r$ hot1 betwe5 roll]s to ! ?ickness requir$1 :i* is g5]ally half-an-in*2 ^! plates h holes pun*$ all r\nd !m by ma*9]y1 & are unit$ by rivets plac$ 9 ! holes r$-hot & rivett$ by heavy hamm]s4 ,! mo/ magnific5t specim5 ( iron %ipbuild+ ev] attempt$ is ! ,levia?an4 ,?is %ip is #fhj feet long1 & is n made ( "o ?ickness or case ( iron plates1 b is ^u a new pr9ciple call$ ! 8cellul>10 consi/+ ( an out] & inn] cas+ ( iron plates held toge!r by p>titions ( iron s z to sep>ate !m into squ>e comp>tm5ts or 8cells40 ,! objects ga9$ by ?is arrangem5t are great] /r5g?1 & great] safety1 = 9 case ( injury to ! out] portion1 ! wat] w\ld ent] only betwe5 ! two 9 t comp>tm5t :]e ! injury happ5$ to be1 & s fill only t small portion ) wat]4 ,! :ole %ip is also divid$ into comp>tm5ts by means ( d\ble scre5s ( iron1 mak+ x l a fire-pro( box1 & ev5 if a fire %\ld occur 9 "o ( ^!1 ! o!rs w\ld be pres]v$ f its effects4 ,! ma/s & y>ds ( ?is great %ip are also ( holl[ wr\ght iron plates rivett$ toge!r1 & are bo? /rong] & light] ?an !y w\ld be ( wood4 ,a ma*9e is plac$ at ! l[] "p ( ea* ma/ :i* by compress+1 c cru% x up1 & cause x to break (f & fall ov] ! side ( ! vessel 9 case su* a ?+ %\ld be requir$1 z 9 a v viol5t /orm2 & ! /&+ rigg+1 :i* is ( wire-rope1 c be let loose 9 a few m9utes s z to completely free ! %ip ( ! ma/4 ,?is great %ip is con/ruct$ to be propell$ bo? by screw & paddles2 ! screw eng9es are f\r 9 numb]1 & are ea* ( #a1fjj horse p[]1 ! paddle eng9es are also f\r1 ( #ajjj horse p[] ea*1 be+ #aj1hjj altoge!r4 ,!y w require ab\t #ahj tons ( coal a day to "w !m2 #ab1jjj tons ( :i* are capable ( be+ c>ri$4 ,! ,levia?an w h six ma/s1 & be able to spread #f1ejj y>ds ( sail1 w accommodate #djjj pass5g]s1 & :5 ready to sail1 ) all on bo>d1 w weigh ab\t #be1jjj tons4 ,,canals ,,& ,,locks4 ,illu/ration3 ,,d\ble ,,lock4 ,canals are artificial wat]-c\rses1 ei!r = ! purpose ( connect+ riv]s1 or = =m+ wat] communication = ! conveyance ( goods4 ,!re are ab\t #bbjj miles ( canal-way 9 ,engl&1 :i* is /ill 9 complete requisition1 & b little affect$ by ! enorm\s goods traffic ( ! railways4 ,canals af=d a means ( sl[ b *eap conveyance = heavy or bulky goods1 n requir+ a rapid transit1 = ! m rapid ! pace ! great] ! resi/ance ( ! wat]4 ,! usual rate ( transit is some:]e ab\t two-&-a-half miles an h\r1 at :i* pace a horse c draw ab\t f\r times z mu* on wat] z he c on a railway1 & ab\t ?irty times z mu* z on a level turnpike road2 b if a great] spe$ 7 to be obta9$1 x is f\nd t ! resi/ance ( ! wat] w\ld imp$e x s mu*1 t at ! rate ( five miles an h\r a horse c\ld draw no m ?an he c\ld on a railway1 & at t5 miles only a qu>t] z mu*4 ,9 con/ruct+ canals1 x is important to h a good supply ( wat]1 & ?is is g5]ally secur$ by turn+ all ! spr+s & /reams 9 its c\rse into x1 or d]iv+ its s\rce at its highe/ level f a l>ge riv]4 ,! same works h (t5 to be con/ruct$ on ! l9e ( canals t are requir$ on railways1 su* z bridges1 cutt+s1 embankm5ts1 tunnels1 c41 & besides ^!1 contrivances peculi> to canals1 call$ 8locks10 :i* are n[ to be describ$4 ,locks are b>ri]s or doors con/ruct$ s t ^! artificial riv]s may be c>ri$ ov] ris+ gr\nd & ?r\gh valleys1 )\t ! lab\r & exp5se ( cutt+ ?r\gh ! hills & fill+ up ! holl[s z w\ld be requir$ )\t !m4 ,railways c be con/ruct$ on gr\nd :i* is n q level )\t any embankm5t or cutt+1 z x is n absolutely requir$ t railways %all be p]fectly level4 ,b wat] always w be level1 unless x is con/antly fl[+1 z is ! case ) /reams1 & ^! only s9k a few in*es 9 a mile1 or else !y become s rapid1 t if attempt$ to be imitat$ 9 canals1 !y w\ld be useless2 = x w\ld require too mu* p[] to draw any vessel up ! canal aga9/ su* a /ream1 & w\ld moreov] require m wat] to supply !m ?an c commonly be obta9$4 ,! means !re=e adopt$ to ov]come ?is difficulty are gates1 or 9 o!r words1 a pair ( 8locks40 ,! canal is con/ruct$ 9 su* a mann] t x %all be p]fectly level = a c]ta9 di/ance1 !n s9k d[n "s t5 or twelve feet at once1 & aga9 fl[ on a level & s9k d[n4 ,^! sudd5 l[]+s are effect$ z foll[s3 two pairs ( ?ick solid doors ( wood are fitt$ to %ut 9 ! wat]1 & ano!r pair a %ort di/ance fur!r on2 beh9d ^! ! b$ ( ! canal is l[]$ ! requir$ di/ance4 ,:5 a b>ge or o!r vessel has to pass d[n ! canal ! fir/ pair ( gates are op5$1 & ! b>ge float$ 9 betwe5 !m & ! second pair1 ! fir/ pair are n[ clos$1 & ! wat] beyond ! second pair be+ l[]1 t betwe5 ! gates 9 :i* ! b>ge floats is let out by means ( a valve work$ by a rack & :eel2 :5 ?is valve is rais$ ! wat] fl[s out & s9ks d[n to ! level ( ! wat] beyond1 c>ry+ ! b>ge ) x2 9 a few m9utes x is s l[ t1 ! second gates be+ op5$1 ! b>ge is drawn out & cont9ues on its way4 ,b suppose ! b>ge _h to be br\ght up ! canal1 !n x is float$ into ! space betwe5 ! gates 7z be=e71 & ! "o beh9d ! b>ge clos$1 ! wat] beyond ! gate 9 front be+ high]1 is let into ! space :]e ! b>ge is by a valve1 & ?is fill+1 lifts up ! b>ge to ! level ( t 9 front1 ! front gates are !n op5$ & ! b>ge proce$s onw>ds4 ,^! gates are nev] made to %ut level1 b meet at an angle ) ! po9t t[>ds ! highe/ wat]1 :i* is done t !y may resi/ ! great pressure :i* ! wat] ex]ts1 & = turn+ ?is to advantage1 = ?is v pressure %uts ! gates & keeps !m close toge!r4 ,! canals :i* h mu* traffic on !m h d\ble locks1 z 9 ! engrav+1 t b>ges may g up & d[n at ! same "t )\t hav+ to wait = ea* o!r4 ,! b>ges & boats are g5]ally 8t[$0 or drawn by a horse atta*$ to a rope1 & walk+ on a 8t[+ pa?0 or road at ! side ( ! canal4 ,,! ,,end4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes4 ,unit #a1 ,section3 ,,sulphur4 - #8sulphr\s' replac$ ) #8sulphur\s' 7fumes ( sulphur\s acid7 ,unit #a1 ,section3 ,,flax4 - #8,llnun' replac$ ) #8,l9um' 7! flax plant ,l9um ,usitatissimum7 ,unit #a1 ,section3 ,,silk4 - #8bodd9s' replac$ ) #8bobb9s' 7on to bobb9s or reels27 ,unit #b1 ,section3 ,,sug>4 - #8e>!rn' replac$ ) #8e>!n' 7into conical e>!n j>s17 ,unit #b1 ,section3 ,,v>ni%es4 - #8v>nis$' replac$ ) #8v>ni%$' 7be=e be+ v>ni%$7 ,unit #b1 ,section3 ,,:ite ,,lead4 - #8e>!rn' replac$ ) #8e>!n' 7a numb] ( e>!n pots7 ,unit #b1 ,section3 ,,:ite ,,lead4 - #8extremly' replac$ ) #8extremely' 7%\ld be extremely c>eful7 ,unit #b1 ,section3 ,,:ite ,,lead4 - #8flim' replac$ ) #8film' 7a ?9 film ( sulphate ( lead7 ,unit #d1 ,section3 ,,gild+4 - #8is' replac$ ) #89' 7sometimes done 9 ?is way7 ,unit #d1 ,section3 ,,electro-,,plat+4 - #89' replac$ ) #8is' 7or o!r object is pla/]17 ,unit #e1 ,section3 ,,fire-,,arms ,,& ,,projectiles4 - #8,,m9ie' replac$ ) #8,,m9i' 7,,ma*9e ,,= ,,mak+ ,,m9i ,,rifle ,,bullets47 ,unit #e1 ,section3 ,,p]cussion ,,caps4 - #8,wool:i*' replac$ ) #8,woolwi*' 7,at ! ,ars5al at ,woolwi*7 ,unit #e1 ,section3 ,,pl\ghs4 - ,! #8skim-c\lt]' ,f is %[n 9 ! pl\gh illu/ration z ,e4 ,unit #f1 ,section3 ,,railways4 - #8waggon' replac$ ) #8wagon' 7! wagon %\ld be s great47 ,unit #f1 ,section3 ,,railways4 - duplicate ^w #8"p' remov$ 7& on ?is "p x supports7 ,unit #f1 ,section3 ,,railways4 - #8effect' replac$ ) #8effects' 7?is he effects by :at7 ,unit #f1 ,section3 ,,electric ,,telegraphs4 - #8commniucation' replac$ ) #8communication' 7f all communication ) ! e>?7 ,unit #f1 ,section3 ,,artesian ,,wells4 - ,,fig4 #a4 & ,,fig4 #b4 7 rev]s$4 ,unit #f1 ,section3 ,,artesian ,,wells4 - #8,artisian' replac$ ) #8,artesian' 7,artesian wells are sunk7 ,unit #f1 ,section3 ,,m9es4 - #8ncess>y' replac$ ) #8necess>y' 7,x is !re=e necess>y7 ,unit #f1 ,section3 ,,%ips4 - #8,f' omitt$ f ,,fig4 #a