,illu/ration3 ,copyright1 ,ew+ ,gall[ay ,! drop =ge4 ,a f\rte5-ton hydraulic press is employ$ 9 =g+ an imm5se op5 he>? /eel plate4 ,,popul> ,,sci5ce ,,libr>y ,,editor-,,9-,,*ief ,,g>rett ,p4 ,,s]viss ,,au?ors ,,william ,j4 ,,mill] ,,hippolyte ,,gru5] ,a4 ,,russell ,,bond ,d4 ,w4 ,,h]+ ,,loomis ,,havemey] ,,erne/ ,g4 ,,m>t9 ,,ar?ur ,,selwyn-,,br[n ,,rob]t ,,*5ault ,,givl] ,,erne/ ,,+]soll ,,wilfr$ ,,mason ,,b>ton ,,william ,b4 ,,scott ,,erne/ ,j4 ,,/reubel ,,norman ,,taylor ,,david ,,todd ,,*>les ,,fitzhugh ,,talman ,,rob9 ,,bea* ,,arrang$ ,,9 ,,sixte5 ,,volumes ,,) ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5ce1 ,,gloss>ies ,,& ,a ,,g5]al ,,index ,,illu/rat$ ,illu/ration3 ,,logo ,,volume ,,five ,p4 ,f4 ,,colli] ,,son ,,company ,,new ,,york ,copyright #aibb ,,by ,p4 ,f4 ,,colli] ,,son ,,company ,,manufactur$ ,,9 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,me*anics ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,ma*9]y ,,by ,a4 ,,russell ,,bond ,,=m]ly ,,manag+ ,,editor1 ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,illu/ration ,p4 ,f4 ,,colli] ,,son ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,preface ,,al?\gh /rictly speak+ ! t]m 8,me*anics0 applies to t bran* ( ,physics t deals ) ! actions ( =ces on mat]ial bodies1 orig9ally ! ^w _h a broad] mean+ embrac+ all ma*9]y & me*anical inv5tions4 ,to-day popul> usage is re/or+ to ! t]m its orig9al broad int]pretation1 & x is 9 ?is popul> b r unor?odox s5se t 8,me*anics0 has be5 *os5 z ! title ( ?is book2 = al?\gh c]ta9 elem5t>y pr9ciples ( me*anics are describ$ & expla9$1 ! major portion ( ! book deals ) ma*9es & _! evolution to _! pres5t /age ( p]fection4 ,ma*9es are man's creation1 & yet 9 a s5se ! man ( to-day is a ma*9e product2 = mod]n civilization owes its mat]ial & 9 l>ge measure its e/hetic developm5t to ma*9]y4 ,! /ory ( ma*9]y1 f primitive man's fir/ attempts to augm5t 8 physical p[]s ) me*anical aids d[n to ! pres5t era ( gigantic1 /eel-muscl$ ma*9]y & m>vel\sly intricate me*anisms1 is ! /ory ( human progress4 ,x is ?is /ory t we h endeavor$ to tell 9 ! foll[+ pages1 b ! subject is too l>ge to be cov]$ 9 a s+le volume or ev5 a doz5 volumes4 ,"u ! circum/ances we h be5 oblig$ to conf9e ourselves to a m]e outl9e1 select+ c]ta9 av5ues ( progress m m>k$ ?an o!rs & pres5t+ brief sket* maps ( !m4 ,we h aim$ 9 ?is way to give a bird's-eye view ( ! :ole /ory ( human progress 9 ?+s mat]ial4 ,! book has n be5 writt5 = ! me*anical eng9e]1 b = ! layman :o w\ld le>n ( ! me*anical contrivances t contribute to 8 mat]ial welf>e2 h5ce te*nical t]ms h be5 avoid$1 z f> z possible1 & :]e unavoidable h be5 expla9$ & def9$4 ,a4 ,,russell ,,bond ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4 ,,tool-,,mak+ ,,animals #i ,,ii4 ,,! ,,anatomy ,,( ,a ,,ma*9e #bj ,,iii4 ,,ma*9es ,,= ,,mak+ ,,ma*9es #db ,,iv4 ,,c\nt+ ,,seconds #eg ,v4 ,,putt+ ,,riv]s ,,to ,,"w #ge ,,vi4 ,,liquid ,,lev]s ,,& ,,ge>s #id ,,vii4 ,,air vs4 ,,wat] #aji ,,viii4 ,,air ,,spr+s ,,& ,,cu%ions #abf ,,ix4 ,,p[] ,,f ,,heat #aci ,x4 ,,burn+ ,,fuel ,,9 ,,! ,,eng9e ,,cyl9d] #aee ,,xi4 ,,:5 ,,coal ,,& ,,oil ,,are ,,exhau/$ #aga ,,xii4 ,,invasion ,,( ,,! ,,sea #ahb ,,xiii4 ,,slid+1 ,,roll+1 ,,walk+1 ,,& ,,creep+ #bjc ,,xiv4 ,,invasion ,,( ,,! ,,sky #bai ,,xv4 ,,help+ ,,! ,,f>m] #bci ,,xvi4 ,,ma*9+ ,,! ,,e>? #bea ,,xvii4 ,,f ,,fib] ,,to ,,fabric #bfh ,,xviii4 ,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,,pap] #bhi ,,xix4 ,,typesett+ ,,& ,,pr9t+ ,,ma*9]y #cjj ,,xx4 ,,ca/ ,,iron1 ,,wr\ght ,,iron1 ,,& ,,/eel #cad ,,xxi4 ,,animat$ ,,ma*9]y #cbf ,,xxii4 ,,heat ,,vacuums #cde ,,xxiii4 ,,eng9es ,,( ,,de/ruction #cei ,,xxiv4 ,,summ>y ,,( ,,me*anical ,,progress #cgf ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations ,,! ,,drop ,,=ge--,,=g+ ,a ,,/eel ,,plate ,frontispiece ,,fac+ ,,page ,,rais+ ,,wat] ,,) ,a ,,*a9 ,,( ,,pots--,a ,,primitive ,,pump ,,us$ ,,9 ,,egypt #cb ,,horse-,,op]at$ ,,*a9 ,,pump ,,us$ ,,9 ,,greece #cb ,,multiple ,,sp9dle ,,drill ,,9 ,a ,,motor ,,c> ,,factory #cc ,,bucket ,,( ,a ,,giant ,,dr$ge ,,) ,,its ,,jaws ,,wide ,,op5 #fd ,,gold ,,dr$ge ,,eat+ ,,its ,,way ,,?r\gh ,,riv] ,,s&s #fe ,,suction ,,dr$ge ,,excavat+ ,a ,,*annel ,,& ,,build+ ,,new ,,l& #fe ,,air ,,lock ,,( ,a ,,pneumatic ,,caisson #if ,,subaque\s ,,tunnel ,,%[+ ,,! ,,%ield ,,9 ,,! ,,backgr\nd #ig ,,:>f ,,protect$ ,,by ,a ,,pneumatic ,,breakwat] #abh ,,sun-,,p[] ,,plant ,,9 ,,egypt #abi ,,close-,,up ,,( ,,"o ,,( ,,! ,,reflectors ,,( ,a ,,sun-,,p[] ,,plant #abi ,,giant ,,caproni ,,hydroa]oplane #afj ,,concrete ,,/eam%ip 8,,fai?0 #afa 8,,virg9ian10 ,,! ,,l>ge/ ,,locomotive ,,9 ,,! ,,_w #afa ,,loom ,,provid$ ,,) ,a ,,jacqu>d ,,atta*m5t #bbd ,,batt]y ,,( ,,mule ,,sp9n+ ,,frames #bbe ,,jacqu>d ,,atta*m5t ,,= ,,loom #bbe ,,digg+ ,a ,,tr5* ,,) ,a ,,ma*9e ,,( ,,! ,,*a9 ,,type #bef ,,multiple ,,pl[+ ,,on ,a ,,we/]n ,,:eat ,,field #beg ,,saw+ ,,logs ,,( ,,pulpwood ,,into #af-;,,in* ,,l5g?s #bhh ,,heat] ,,9 ,a ,,pulp ,,mill ,,:]e ,,! ,,wood ,,pulp ,,is ,,mix$ ,,) ,,clay #bhh ,,mod]n ,,f\rdr9i] ,,pap]-,,mak+ ,,ma*9es #bhi ,,molt5 ,,metal ,,f ,a ,,bla/ ,,furnace #cbj ,,bessem] ,,conv]t] ,,bl[+ ,,air ,,?r\gh ,a ,,mass ,,( ,,molt5 ,,iron #cbj ,,/eel ,,beam ,,pass+ ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,f9i%+ ,,rolls #cba ,,compositor ,,at ,,"w ,,on ,a ,,l9otype ,,ma*9e #ceb ,,! ,,optophone1 ,,:i* ,,enables ,,! ,,bl9d ,,to ,,read ,,pr9t #cec ,,bl9d ,,man ,,read+ ,,) ,,8 ,,e>s #cec ,,*apt] ,i ,,tool-,,mak+ ,,animals ,,:5 we review ! m>vel\s a*ievem5ts ( mod]n civilization we are q will+ to agree ) ! anci5t psalmi/ t man is 8little l[] ?an ! angels40 ,b at ! o!r end ( ! scale our complac5cy is liable to receive a rude %ock2 app>5tly ! b\nd>y betwe5 man & bea/ is n s v easy to draw4 ,we us$ to be told t "o important sup]iority ( mank9d lies 9 ! fact t he makes use ( tools1 :ile ! bea/ nev] uses any implem5t except ^? t nature has furni%$ him z "p ( 8 own organism4 ,b a gorilla w ?r[ /ones at 8 enemy2 & he kn[s h[ to br&i% a club & use x ) tell+ =ce4 ,"s ( ! apes are kn[n to use /icks to knock d[n fruit :i* is out ( ! rea* ( _! h&s1 & !y w crack nuts ) a /one4 ,cle>ly ^! animals are tool us]s4 ,a v intellig5t orang-utan 9 ! ,bronx ,zological ,g>d51 ,new ,york1 aft] try+ = days to wr5* (f a bracket f ! wall ( 8 cage ev5tually us$ ! horizontal b> ( 8 trapeze z a lev] & ) x pri$ ! (f5d+ bracket f its fa/5+s4 ,"h 0 real inv5tion & ! discov]y ( ! pr9ciple ( lev]age4 ,! great black ar>a cockatoo ( ,new ,gu9ea uses 8 beak z a saw to weak5 ! %ells ( h>d nuts1 & to keep 8 bill f slipp+ (f ! smoo? %ell he is +5i\s en\gh to wrap a leaf ar\nd ! nut to hold x /eady4 ,ev5 9 ! insect _w we f9d creatures res\rceful en\gh to make use ( tools4 ,pr(4 ,franz ,d(le9 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,breslau tells ( an int]e/+ /udy ( c]ta9 ants1 kn[n z ! ,oecophylla sm>agd9a1 :o build _! ne/s 9 bu%es by fa/5+ leaves toge!r ) f9e ?reads4 ,b ! ants t build ! ne/s _c sp9 ^! ?reads1 because !y possess no sp9n+ gl&s4 ,!y mu/ dep5d ^u _! l>v = ?is product4 ,:5 a r5t 0 made 9 "o ( ^! ne/s1 a b& ( ! t9y creatures rang$ !mselves side by side along ! torn edge ( ! leaf & rea*$ across ! gap until !y c\ld cat* hold ( ! opposite edge ) _! m&ibles4 ,!n !y drew back /ep by /ep1 ) p]fect teamwork1 until ! two edges 7 br\ght toge!r4 ,9 ! meantime1 o!r ants _h ru%$ to ! nurs]y & ea* "o _h pick$ up a l>va1 n ) ! idea ( be>+ x (f to safety1 b 9 ord] t ! babies might sp9 ! ?read :i* ! adult ants 7 unable to d4 ,! l>v 7 c>ri$ to ! brea* 9 ! ne/ & mov$ back & =? across ! r5t4 ,!y 7 press$ fir/ aga9/ "o side ( ! te> & !n ! o!r & all ! :ile 7 squeez$ tightly1 evid5tly ) ! purpose ( mak+ !m sp94 ,gradually a f9e silky web 0 wov5 across ! torn leaf & ev5tually ! r5t 0 completely pat*$4 ,unque/ionably ^! little ants are tool-us+ animals1 because !y make _! l>v s]ve z sp9n+ sp9dles & also z weav]s' %uttles4 ,h[ev]1 ?is c h>dly be cit$ z a po9t 9 common ) ev5 ! l[e/ type ( man1 = ! ants m]ely use ! tools !y f9d at _! disposal4 ,!y c]ta9ly _c be cr$it$ ) hav+ produc$ or ev5 improv$ ! tool :i* !y use1 :]eas ev5 9 ! mo/ primitive ( m5 we f9d t ! tools us$ are n only c>efully select$ = ! "w to be p]=m$1 b are actually1 %ap$1 be x ev] s crudely1 to suit ! job4 ,cle>ly we mu/ %ift ! b\nd>y betwe5 man & bea/1 di/+ui%+ ! =m] z ! creature :o artificially improves 8 tools4 ,b ev5 "h x is n absolutely c]ta9 t ! b\nd>y w /&4 ,wilhelm ,boels*e1 a well-kn[n ,g]man writ] on natural hi/ory1 calls att5tion to ! 8blacksmi? woodpeck]0 :i* w ?ru/ h>d p9e nuts into cracks 9 ! trunk ( a tree1 s t !y are held z if 9 a vise1 enabl+ ! bird to op]ate ^u ! se$ m easily4 ,fur!rmore1 ?is woodpeck] w actually make a hole 9 ! tree to receive ! nut if !re is n a hole or crack h&y1 s t evid5tly ?is animal does produce or artificially improve ! tool t x uses4 ,!re are a few su* examples 9 nature1 j en\gh to ca/ a bit ( unc]ta9ty on ! b\nd>y we h set4 ,b al?\gh ! actual l9e ( dem>cation may n be cle>1 !re is no "q b t ! l[e/ type ( humanity n[ exi/5t1 or ( :i* we h any record1 is or 0 a tool mak]4 ,*ipp$ /ones evid5tly fa%ion$ by man = "s useful purpose are f\nd ev5 9 ! rema9s ( ! ,middle ,t]ti>y ,epo*4 ,! _s ( inquiry1 ( exp]im5t1 ( inv5tion1 & ! ambition to dom9ate ov] o!r memb]s ( ! animal k+dom or ov] ! ob/acles impos$ by nature1 are to be f\nd m or less active among all peoples1 no matt] h[ l[ly a position !y may occupy 9 ! scale ( civilization4 ,,w> ,,z ,a ,,/imulus ,,( ,,inv5tion ,! mo/ primitive implem5ts 7 probably develop$ = ! purpose ( w>4 ,f ! v e>lie/ times1 d[n to ! pres5t day1 w> has be5 a mo/ pot5t /imulus ( inv5tion4 ,! fir/ tools ev] us$ 7 probably int5d$ to enable ! us] to cope ) dang]\s enemies4 ,!y m>k$ ! fir/ /age 9 ! conque/ ( bra9 ov] m]e brawn4 ,! primitive weapons 7 us$ n only 9 fight+ o!r m51 b 9 fight+ (f dang]\s animals1 & !n 9 hunt+ animals = food4 ,no d\bt ! fir/ implem5t ev] us$ 0 a club1 :i* gave a real advantage ov] ! un>m$1 scrat*+1 te>+1 & bit+ enemy4 ,?is 0 a lev] :i* increas$ ! rea* ( ! fight]1 & also increas$ ! p[] ( 8 bl[4 ,! heavi] ! club1 ! m dang]\s ! weapon1 p>ticul>ly :5 mo/ ( ! weight 0 c5t]$ at ! out] end ( ! /ick4 ,b he 0 a real g5ius :o fir/ fa/5$ a rock to ! end ( 8 club4 ,,! ,,art ,,( ,,break+ ,,/ones ,!n arose ! art ( break+ /ones--break+ !m skillfully1 s z to =m a jagg$ cutt+ edge4 ,:5 man began to fa%ion tools ( /one he left imp]i%able records ( 8 craftsman%ip :i* enable u to trace 8 progress 9 inv5tion4 ,! fir/ f9i%$ tool we f9d 0 ! fi/ hat*et--a /one r\ghly *ipp$ to =m a cutt+ edge & ( conv5i5t %ape = ! grasp ( ! h&4 ,?is primitive tool v sl[ly1 ?r\gh a p]iod cov]+ ?\s&s ( ye>s1 develop$ into all mann] ( cutt+ implem5ts1 "s ) h&les ( wood & bone4 ,! ax head 0 foll[$ by ! spe>head & ?is f9ally by ! arr[head1 %[+ t man _h at la/ f\nd a me*anical sub/itute = 8 muscles to hurl projectiles f>!r & ) great] accuracy ?an he c\ld ?r[ !m by h&4 ,we m>vel at ! res\rcefulness & skill ( ! primitive savage 9 work+ s difficult a mat]ial z /one4 ,x w\ld baffle a mod]n me*anic to be requir$ to %ape a piece ( fl9t into an arr[head ) no o!r tool ?an a piece ( bone4 ,he is s accu/om$ to us+ tools :i* are h>d] ?an ! mat]ial !y are int5d$ to %ape t he _c conceive ( mak+ any impression ^u a piece ( fl9t ) a piece ( bone1 to say no?+ ( a /ick ( h>d wood1 & yet su* tools 7 us$ away back 9 ! ,/one ,age4 ,at fir/ /ones 7 r\ghly %ap$ by hamm]+ !m toge!r4 ,!n ! artisans became m skill$4 ,!y discov]$ t c]ta9 /ones c\ld be *ipp$ m regul>ly & ev5ly1 & ! art ( flak+ (f *ips ( fl9t sprang up4 ,"s specim5s t belong$ to ages long prec$+ t ( record$ hi/ory are beautifully done4 ,! spe>heads are symmetrically %ap$ l a long n>r[ leaf1 & ! /one is ev5ly furr[$ on bo? sides ) a ke5 edge all ar\nd4 ,n only did primitive artisans %ape ! /one implem5ts ) hamm] bl[s1 b !y le>n$ h[ to %ape /one by pressure z well1 us+ a tool t 0 relatively s(t4 ,x is n a v difficult matt] to %ape ev5 s h>d a sub/ance z glass m]ely by pressure4 ,if a piece ( glass is laid on a table ) its edge slightly ov]hang+ t ( ! table1 x is possible to *ip (f ! ov]hang+ edge by press+ a nail or ev5 a h>d /ick ( wood aga9/ ?is edge4 ,a small flake ( glass is ?us remov$1 &1 by cont9u+ ! process1 arr[heads ( any %ape may be =m$4 ,! tool is plac$ n aga9/ ! upp] surface ( ! glass1 b aga9/ ! edge ( ! glass1 s t only ! l[] surface ( x is split or flak$ (f4 ,!n ! glass is turn$ ov] & a *ip is tak5 (f ! opposite face4 ,9 ! ,middle ,/one ,age we f9d ! primitive craftsman equipp$ ) a v complete assortm5t ( /one tools4 ,he _h hamm]s1 *isels1 scrap]s1 drills1 & poli%+ tools4 ,he knew h[ to make useful h\sehold implem5ts1 su* z spoons & ladles1 out ( bone4 ,he poli%$ 8 "w & ornam5t$ ! implem5ts ) c>v+s ( animals4 ,ivory p9s & ne$les %[ t he _h begun to make himself clo?+ f ! sk9s ( animals & t he sew$ !m toge!r ) ?ongs or t5dons4 ,9 ! ,late ,/one ,age he _h le>n$ h[ to make vessels ( fire-bak$ clay4 ,8 axes 7 gr\nd to a %>p edge1 & he bor$ holes 9 ! ax head to receive ! ax h&le4 ,! ,swiss lake dwell]s built h\ses ( wood & fitt$ !m ) all sorts ( wood5 furniture c>v$ ) /one tools4 ,among ! rema9s ( ^! int]e/+ settlem5ts may be f\nd balls ( clay :i*1 f ! fact t "o ( !m 0 discov]$ ) a spool ( flax /ill atta*$ to x1 7 evid5tly us$ z sp9n+ 8:orls0 us$ = sp9n+ flax into ?read4 ,clo?+ ( sk9s 0 giv+ way to or be+ supplem5t$ ) clo?+ ( wov5 fabric4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,lev] ,,& ,,! ,,w$ge ,prior to ! ,/one ,age ! club 0 und\bt$ly us$1 9 "t ( peace--if !re ev] 0 a "t ( peace 9 ^? days--to batt] d[n trees1 to beat ?r\gh entanglem5ts & to dislodge great /ones4 ,"h ! fir/ idea ( lev]age 0 evid5tly employ$4 ,! club ) a rock ti$ to x1 p>ticul>ly if ! rock 0 %ap$ ) a %>p edge1 made a bett] implem5t = hew+ trees4 ,x is q probable t soon aft] ?is /age ( developm5t _h be5 rea*$1 "s "o discov]$ ! use ( ! w$ge1 p>ticul>ly 9 splitt+ timb]4 ,( c\rse1 no "o realiz$ 9 ^? e>ly days :y x 0 t he c\ld pry up a great] weight ) a lev] ?an he c\ld lift directly by h&1 or :y he c\ld split op5 a log by driv+ w$ges into x4 ,! art ( me*anics 0 9 exi/5ce long ages be=e sci5ce ( me*anics began to be /udi$4 ,b x 0 n until m5 began to look into ! :y ( ?+s t rapid progress 0 made4 ,we c g on endlessly ) our speculations on ! evolution ( tools & ma*9]y up to ! "t :5 hi/orians began to record ! me*anical a*ievem5ts ( man4 ,un=tunately ev5 aft] hi/orians began to write !y 7 s fill$ ) admiration = ! de/ructive "w ( man t !y _h no "t to record 8 con/ructive "w4 ,! w>rior :o spread havoc & t]ror receiv$ all ! glory1 & 8 de$s 7 writt5 on p>*m5t1 inscrib$ 9 clay & c>v$ 9 /one2 b ! humble artisan 0 n wor?y ( m5tion4 ,ev5 :5 ! sci5ce ( me*anics came to be /udi$1 x 0 %r\d$ 9 a veil ( my/]y1 & x 0 b5ea? ! dignity ( ! man ( sci5ce to imp>t 8 k to ! artisan4 ,!re 0 a lack ( coop]ation betwe5 sci5ce & indu/ry t has p]si/$ to a c]ta9 ext5t ev5 up to ! pres5t "t4 ,"s ( ! mo/ +5i\s inv5tions ( ! anci5ts 7 employ$ by a corrupt & crafty prie/hood to produce app>5tly miracul\s effects & hoodw9k ! g5]al public2 & s1 9 look+ back to ! e>ly days ( me*anics1 we are oblig$ to draw ^u our imag9ation to trace its evolution1 supplem5t+ ?is by a /udy ( ! tools ( primitive p ( m rec5t "t4 ,practically e =m ( h& tool we n[ use mu/ h be5 kn[n to ! anci5t artisan4 ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,! ,,:eel ,we are n go+ to attempt to write a hi/ory ( ! evolution ( ma*9]y1 b !re is "o inv5tion ^: orig9 is lo/ 9 ! remote prehi/oric ages :i* des]ves m ?an pass+ att5tion4 ,x is a pity t we h no clue z to :o inv5t$ ! :eel or h[ ?is mo/ important elem5t t ent]s into ! con/ruction ( ne>ly all ma*9]y 0 evolv$4 ,! inv5tion call$ = a rem>kable degree ( orig9ality4 ,!re is no?+ l a :eel 9 nature4 ,lev]s we h 9 our own physical frame4 ,b a :eel is some?+ t is di/9ctly a human creation4 ,:oev] inv5t$ x mu/ h be5 a real g5ius1 a ,james ,watt or a ,?omas ,edison ( 8 day4 ,c]ta9ly we owe m to ! inv5tion ( ! :eel ?an we d ev5 to s revolution>y a ma*9e z ! /eam eng9e1 or ! fly+ ma*9e4 ,h[ x 0 ev] fir/ conceiv$ is a my/]y4 ,maybe ?is primeval g5ius got 8 idea f see+ a /one roll+ d[nhill1 or he may h se5 a tumbl+ we$ roll+ along ! gr\nd be=e ! w9d4 ,x may be t ! =]unn] ( ! :eel 0 a roll] %ap$ out ( a log1 = c]ta9ly primitive civilization mu/ h advanc$ en\gh to h kn[n h[ to hew timb] be=e x w\ld h be5 capable ( fa%ion+ a :eel4 ,"s obs]vant man might h notic$ t he c\ld drag a heavy timb] ov] a roll+ log mu* m easily ?an he c\ld along ! b>e gr\nd1 & gradually ! roll] evolv$ into a :eel4 ,we c speculate ^u ! evolution ( vehicles & transportation1 once ! :eel 0 inv5t$4 ,( c\rse1 ! fir/ me?od ( transport+ loads 0 to c>ry !m 9 ! arms4 ,possibly loads 7 plac$ on skids & dragg$ along by "o end4 ,away back 9 e>ly times1 x 0 discov]$ t two p]sons c\ld c>ry m ?an twice z mu* z "o1 if ! load 7 plac$ on a c\ple ( poles4 ,!re 0 no friction to cont5d )1 & n only 0 ! load cut 9 two1 because ea* man bore half ( x1 b ! position ( ! load 0 su* t x c\ld be borne m easily4 ,aft] ! :eel 0 discov]$1 "s "o mu/ h conceiv$ ( ! idea ( disp5s+ ) an assi/ant by plac+ a :eel betwe5 ! poles ( ! /ret*]1 ?us mak+ a crude :eelb>r[4 ,x is m likely t two :eels 7 fir/ us$1 mak+ a c>t ( ! /ret*]1 because ! crude workm5 ( ^? days c\ld h>dly h produc$ any?+ b a v wobbly :eelb>r[4 ,at any rate1 ! :eel1 or pair ( :eels1 robb$ "o man ( 8 job4 ,only "o be>] 0 requir$ :]e be=e two _h be5 us$4 ,labor co/s 7 imm$iately r$uc$ #ej p] c5t4 ,,displac+ ,,m5 ,,) ,,ma*9es ,9 ! v e>lie/ days ( inv5tion ma*9es began to displace m54 ,_h !re be5 unions 9 ^? days1 no d\bt !re w\ld h be5 /r5u\s opposition to ! introduction ( ?is sub/itute = an hone/ work]4 ,b among ! anci5ts1 ev5 m ?an at ! pres5t "t1 inv5tion meant great] production r ?an less "w1 because ! labor] ( t "t 0 n a hir$ man b a slave4 ,!re 0 no object 9 cutt+ d[n labor :5 x co/ practically no?+4 ,! only /imulus to inv5tion 0 great] production4 ,! inv5tion ( ! :eel meant ! dawn ( transportation1 :i* is ! backbone ( civilization1 & f x result$ no end ( o!r inv5tions4 ,x made x possible = communities to come into clos] t\* ) ea* o!r4 ,x meant circulation--an int]*ange ( k & ( products4 ,food 0 transport$ f "o locality to ano!r1 enabl+ c]ta9 communities to disp5se ) agricultural "w & specialize 9 c]ta9 l9es ( manufacture2 = !y c\ld b>t] _! products = food rais$ by o!r communities4 ,!re are "s tribes to-day :i* are mo/ backw>d because !y are sep>at$ f o!r tribes by riv]s1 :ile o!r tribes simil>ly plac$ owe _! progress to ! fact t !y h develop$ suffici5t skill to build crude bridges & ?us ga9 access to ! outside _w4 ,,rais+ ,,wat] ,9 ,egypt ! :eel _h a wond]ful effect on agriculture4 ,9 t dry l& wat] is1 & always has be51 mo/ preci\s4 ,no wond] ! ,nile 0 v5]at$6 ,x meant life--life to crops1 & h5ce life to man4 ,h[ to raise wat] f ?is /ream ( life 9 "t ( dr\ght 0 ! great problem ( ! ,egyptian4 ,z slave labor 0 *eap1 x 0 cu/om>y to haul up ! preci\s wat]1 a bucket at a "t1 & p\r x ov] ! fields4 ,!n "s "o discov]$ t ?is process c\ld be simplifi$ by us+ a %ado( or swape2 9 o!r words1 a long pole fulcrum$ ne> "o end1 ) a heavy rock = a c\nt]balance la%$ to ! %ort] arm1 & a bucket ti$ by a long rope to ! long] arm ( ! lev]4 ,?is primitive ma*9e is /ill to be f\nd 9 "s rural di/ricts4 ,) ?is contrivance1 a heavi] load c\ld be lift$ ?an by h&1 because1 :5 rais+ ! bucket1 ! weight ( ! rock w\ld assi/ 9 lift+ ! wat]4 ,aft] ! swape came all mann] ( +5i\s devices = lift+ ! wat]4 ,!re 7 seesaw arrangem5ts :i* w\ld scoop up "s ( ! wat] at ea* oscillation ( ! seesaw1 & 9 "o +5i\s contrivance !re 0 a succession ( seesaws by :i* ! wat] 0 rais$ to a consid]able height1 :5ce x p\r$ d[n into dit*es t irrigat$ ! fields4 ,!n "s "o inv5t$ a wat] :eel or a great :eel1 fitt$ ) buckets1 :i* 0 turn$ by human or ox p[]1 & :i* p\r$ a /eady /ream ( wat] into ! irrigat+ dit*es4 ,b ! greate/ inv5tion 0 t ( ! eng9e] :o actually made ! riv] turn ! :eel4 ,x 0 probably on ! ,nile t ! noria1 z ?is ma*9e 0 call$1 0 fir/ put into s]vice4 ,! :eel 0 provid$ ) paddles1 s t ! curr5t made x revolve1 & ! wat] spill$ out ( ! buckets into a tr\gh z !y 7 turn$ ov] by ! :eel4 ,we c imag9e ! triumph ( ! anci5t inv5tor :o develop$ t ma*9e4 ,true1 ! riv] might arise 9 its wra? n[ & !n & wreck ! ma*9e1 b 9 wreck+ ! :eel x _h to flood ! l&1 :i*1 aft] all1 0 exactly :at 0 aim$ at4 ,! ang] ( ! riv] 0 %ort-liv$2 x soon quiet$ d[n & w5t on placidly turn+ ! :eel :i* robb$ x ( ! preci\s wat]4 ,x 0 a great ev5t 9 ! hi/ory ( eng9e]+4 ,! ,nile _h be5 h>ness$4 ,"o ( ! great p[]s ( nature _h be5 set to "w4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,anatomy ,,( ,a ,,ma*9e ,,e animal is a complex ma*9e1 provid$ ) its own motive p[] & a bra9 = direct+ ! op]ation ( its own me*anical elem5ts4 ,n satisfi$ ) ! me*anism t nature has put into ! human ma*9e1 man has rea*$ = o!r elem5ts & devis$ me*anisms ( 8 own 9 ord] to supplem5t ! human ma*9e & increase its effici5cy4 ,at fir/1 z we h se51 ^! elem5ts 7 h& tools ( ! crude/ sort2 b !y 7 gradually improv$ & !n !y 7 comb9$ into :at we t]m ma*9es4 ,9 develop+ ^! ma*9es1 he naturally took 8 own sy/em z a patt]n & 0 guid$ to a l>ge ext5t by an exam9ation ( 8 own physical /ructure4 ,we see ?is v cle>ly 9 ! names ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ma*9]y1 :i* are tak5 f ! names ( simil> p>ts 9 ! human frame4 ,almo/ e memb] ( ! body is us$ 9 me*anical t]m9ology4 ,= in/ance1 we h ! 8head0 & ! 8foot10 ! 8arms0 & ! 8legs10 ! 8f+]s0 & ! 8ankles10 8elb[s10 8%\ld]s10 8trunk10 8hips10 & v>i\s p>ts ( ! face1 su* z ! 8eyes10 8e>s10 8nose10 8m\?10 8tee?10 8lips10 & ev5 ! 8gums10 to indicate p>ts ( ma*9]y :i* h "s remote resemblance to ^! features4 ,be=e we c und]/& ma*9]y we mu/ h "s g5]al k ( ! elem5ts ( :i* x is compos$4 ,probably mo/ ( ! read]s ( ?is book already possess a fair k ( ma*9e elem5ts & me*anical movem5ts & !y c well af=d to skip ?is *apt]4 ,h[ev]1 = ! b5efit ( ! un9itiat$1 we mu/ put a ma*9e on ! op]at+ table1 dissect x1 & expla9 its anatomical /ructure4 ,we _c attempt a v detail$ /udy1 b w conf9e ourselves to ! mo/ important elem5ts4 ,e ma*9e is made up ( movable p>ts & fix$ p>ts1 ! latt] s]v+ to guide or con/ra9 ! motion ( ! =m]2 = no comb9ation ( elem5ts w con/itute a ma*9e unless ! p>ts are con/ra9$ to move 9 c]ta9 pr$et]m9$ directions4 ,,! ,,lev] ,among ! mov+ elem5ts ! fir/ to be consid]$ is ! lev]1 :i* really =ms a broad classification compris+ _m elem5ts t w h>dly be recogniz$ z lev]s at fir/ blu%4 ,lev]s 9 "s =m are to be f\nd 9 practically e ma*9e4 ,a :eel1 a ge>1 & a pulley are really lev]s 9 disguise1 z w be expla9$ pres5tly4 ,( c\rse ev]yone kn[s t a simple lev] consi/s ( a rigid b> t sw+s on a fulcrum4 ,! fulcrum may be a knife edge1 a %aft pass+ ?r\gh ! b> or any elem5t on :i* ! b> c be swung or oscillat$4 ,! purpose ( ! lev] is to give a c]ta9 advantage 9 ! application ( a =ce to a load4 ,?is may be a *ange ( spe$ & di/ance ( travel1 & h5ce ( p[]1 or m]ely a *ange ( direction4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,?ree ,,ord]s ,,( ,,simple ,,lev]s ,!re are ?ree types or ord]s ( lev]s produc$ by v>y+ ! relative positions ( ! po9ts :]e ! fulcrum1 ! =ce or ef=t1 & ! weight or load are appli$4 ,^! are %[n 9 ,figure #a4 ,9 ! lev] ( ! fir/ ord] ! fulcrum is plac$ betwe5 ! ef=t & ! weight2 9 ! lev] ( ! second ord] ! weight is appli$ betwe5 ! fulcrum & ! ef=t2 & 9 ! lev] ( ! ?ird ord] ! ef=t is appli$ betwe5 ! fulcrum & ! weight4 ,9 ea* case t "p ( ! lev] :i* ext5ds f ! fulcrum to ! po9t :]e ! ef=t is appli$ is call$ ! ef=t arm1 & t :i* ext5ds f ! fulcrum to ! po9t :]e ! weight is support$ is ! weight arm4 ,! weight t c be lift$ ) a giv5 ef=t dep5ds ^u ! ratio ( ! ef=t arm to ! weight arm4 ,if ! two arms are ( equal l5g?1 ! ef=t is equal to ! weight1 b twice ! weight c be lift$ ) ! same ef=t if ! ef=t arm is twice z long z ! weight arm4 ,y c lift a ton ) an ef=t ( only #ajj p\nds if y\r ef=t arm is tw5ty times z long z y\r weight arm b ! end ( y\r ef=t arm w\ld h to move tw5ty in*es to raise ! ton weight "o in*4 ,we are assum+ 9 all ^! cases t ! lev] itself has no weight & t !re is no friction at ! fulcrum4 ,( c\rse lev]s are n us$ m]ely = ! purpose ( lift+ weight1 b to ov]come any resi/ance or m]ely to apply pressure ^u an object4 ,9 almo/ e h\sehold we may f9d examples ( ! ?ree ord]s ( lev]s4 ,a pair ( %e>s1 = in/ance1 is compos$ ( two lev]s ( ! fir/ ord]1 sw++ on a common fulcrum4 ,! ef=t is appli$ at ! h&les1 & ! weight or load is ! mat]ial t is cut by ! blades or1 speak+ m te*nically1 ! h&les are ! ef=t arms & ! blades are ! weight arms4 ,a mat]ial t is too t\gh to be cut at ! tip ends ( ! blades may be easily cut if we move x 9 ne> ! fulcrum or p9 t h+es ! blades toge!r2 = by do+ ?is we %ort5 ! weight arms1 because ! weight arm is measur$ n to ! end ( ! blade1 b to ! po9t :]e x is cutt+ into ! mat]ial4 ,to cut v t\gh mat]ial1 su* z heavy t9 or %eet /eel1 we use long-h&l$ %ort-blad$ %e>s4 ,! cutt+ pressure dep5ds ^u ! ratio ( ! ef=t arm to ! weight arm4 ,if ! ef=t arms are twice z long z ! weight arms1 ! cutt+ pressure is twice z great z t appli$ at ! h&les4 ,a nutcrack] consi/s ( a pair ( lev]s ( ! second ord]4 ,! fulcrum is at "o end & ! ef=t or pressure is appli$ at ! opposite end ( ! lev]s or h&les1 :ile ! equival5t ( ! weight 79 ?is case ! nut7 is plac$ betwe5 ! ef=t & ! fulcrum4 ,aga9 ! ef=t arm is measur$ f ! fulcrum or h+e p9 ( ! tool to ! po9t :]e ! h& pressure is appli$1 & ! weight arm is measur$ f ! fulcrum to ! nut4 ,! ef=t arm may be f\r or five times z long z ! weight arm1 s t ! pressure ex]t$ on ! nut is f\r or five times z great z t ex]t$ by ! h& on ! ends ( ! h&les4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,an ,,angul> ,,or ,,bell-,,crank ,,lev] ,9 ! case ( a pair ( sug> tongs we h ano!r tool some?+ l ! nutcrack] 9 con/ruction1 b "h ! weight1 i4e41 ! lump ( sug>1 is seiz$ by ! ends ( ! tongs :ile ! h& pressure is appli$ some:]e betwe5 ! fulcrum & ! weight4 ,h5ce we h "h a lev] or pair ( lev]s ( ! ?ird ord]4 ,! ef=t arm ( a pair ( tongs is always %ort] ?an ! weight arm & ! pressure on ! sug> lump is always less ?an t ex]t$ on ! tongs by ! h&4 ,evid5tly ! mo/ p[]ful tool ( ! ?ree is ! nutcrack]1 because ! ef=t arms ext5d ov] ! full l5g? ( ! tool & are always long] ?an ! weight arms4 ,a lev] ne$ n consi/ ( a /raight b>2 ! ef=t arm may =m an angle ) ! weight arm1 =m+ :at is kn[n z an angul> or bell-crank lev] 7,figure #b74 ,:5 a common claw hamm] is us$ to pull out a nail1 ! claws t slip "u ! head ( ! nail =m ! weight arm & ! hamm] h&le ! ef=t arm4 ,a horizontal pull on ! h&le produces a v]tical lift on ! nail4 ,sometimes two or m lev]s are int]connect$1 z 9 ,figure #c1 ! ef=t arm ( "o be+ l9k$ to ! weight arm ( ! o!r4 ,?is s]ves to increase ! lift+ =ce at ! weight & at ! same "t keep ! me*anism )9 compact limits4 ,su* comp\nd+ c g on indef9itely & is subject to all sorts ( v>iations4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,comp\nd ,,lev]age ,"o ?+ we mu/ n =get1 & x is a matt] t is commonly ov]look$ by p]petual motion cranks1 namely1 t :ile a p\nd ( pressure on ! ef=t arm may be made to lift two1 f\r1 or a hundr$ times z _m p\nds on ! weight arm by v>y+ ! relative l5g? ( ^! arms1 x has to move two1 f\r1 or a hundr$ times z f> z ! weight arm1 s t ! "w done on "o side ( ! fulcrum is always exactly equal to t done on ! o!r side4 ,,cont9u\s ,,revolv+ ,,lev]age ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,primitive ,,ge> ,,:eels--,,two ,,coact+ ,,gr\ps ,,( ,,lev]s ,if we take a numb] ( lev]s radiat+ f a common fulcrum l ! spokes ( a c>riage :eel1 we h a primitive ge> :eel4 ,two su* gr\ps ( lev]s may be m\nt$ on p>allel %afts s t :5 "o is turn$ its spokes w successively engage ! spokes ( ! o!r gr\p & make ! latt] turn 7see ,figure #d74 ,ea* spoke is fir/ an ef=t arm on "o side ( ! :eel & !n a weight arm z x turns ar\nd to ! o!r side ( ! :eel1 & z ! ef=t arms & weight arms are ( ! same l5g? !re is no multiplication ( p[]4 ,a p\nd on "o side ( ! :eel _c lift m ?an a p\nd on ! o!r4 ,! driv5 :eel receives ! same p[] z ! driv+ :eel except = su* loss z may be due to friction at ! be>+s or :]e ! spokes contact4 ,! only advantage ( su* a pair ( ge>s is t ! direction ( rotation ( ! driv5 :eel is ! rev]se ( t ( ! driv+ :eel4 ,if ! spokes ( "o :eel are long] ?an ^? ( ! o!r1 we h at once a v>iation 9 ! rate ( rotation proportional to ! relative diamet]s ( ! two :eels4 ,9 ,figure #e1 = in/ance1 ! diamet] ( ! driv+ :eel ,a is twice ! diamet] ( ! driv5 ge> ,b1 & s1 = ea* revolution ( ,a1 ,b mu/ make two revolutions1 i4e41 ! driv] mu/ make two revolutions = ea* revolution ( ! driv5 :eel4 ,9 o!r words1 ! spe$ ( revolution is d\bl$4 ,h[ev]1 if we make ,b ! driv] ! spe$ ( ! driv5 :eel ,a w be half ( t ( :eel ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,coact+ ,,lev]s ,,( ,,unequal ,,l5g? ,9 primitive ma*9es spoke ge>s 7 seldom m\nt$ on p>allel %afts because ( ! difficulty ( keep+ ! spokes 9 alignm5t4 ,in/ead1 "o %aft 0 m\nt$ at "r angles to ! o!r s t "o set ( spokes w\ld cross ! o!r 7,figure #f71 ?us produc+ ! equival5t ( a bevel ge>4 ,?is 0 ( advantage 9 *ang+ ! plane ( rotation4 ,a lat] developm5t 0 ! b>rel or lant]n ge>1 :i* p]mitt$ transf] ( p[] )\t *ang+ ! plane ( rotation4 ,a cyl9drical bundle ( rods con/itut$ "o ( ! :eels 7z %[n 9 ,figure #g74 ,in/ead ( be+ crudely =m$ ( spokes1 ! o!r :eel sometimes consi/$ ( a disk ) p9s radiat+ f its rim4 ,su* ge>s 9 f> m ref9$ =m are /ill us$ 9 mod]n clocks & wat*es4 ,a /ill fur!r developm5t = transmitt+ motion to a plane at "r angles to t ( ! driv+ %aft is %[n 9 ,figure #h4 ,"h we h a cr[n ge> 9 :i* ! p9s in/ead ( radiat+ f ! p]iph]y ( ! disk project f ! side face ( ! ge>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,primitive ,,equival5t ,,( ,,! ,,bevel ,,ge> ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,primitive ,,lant]n ,,ge> ,turn+ back to our fir/ spok$ :eels1 x is v evid5t t we may put a rim ov] ! spokes or ev5 fill 9 betwe5 ! spokes & conv]t ! :eels into solid disks t are 9 frictional engagem5t ) ea* o!r )\t gett+ away f ! fact t we are deal+ ) lev]s4 ,ea* :eel1 !n1 consi/s ( a cont9u\s revolv+ lev]4 ,friction ge>s are us$ q commonly 9 ma*9]y :5 x is desirable to h ! :eels slip if subject$ to excessive /ra94 ,,too!d ,,ge>s ,by =m+ tee? on "o ge> to me% betwe5 simil> tee? on ! o!r1 we conv]t ! friction ge>s into a pair ( spur ge>s 7,figure #i74 ,we ne$ n g into ! intricacies ( ! =m ( ge> tee?4 ,!y are design$ to be 9 cont9u\s roll+ contact :ile !y are 9 me%4 ,! novice is apt to call all spur ge>s 8cog:eels0 & ge>-tee? 8cogs40 ,me*anics1 h[ev]1 recognize a diff]5ce betwe5 cog :eels & spur :eels4 ,9 ! =m]1 ! tee?1 or cogs1 are n ca/ ^u or cut out ( ! :eel body1 b are sep>ate pieces fitt$ to ! :eel4 ,su* :eels are f\nd 9 old wat] mills4 ,!y consi/ ( wood5 :eels ) iron or /eel tee? mortis$ 9 ! wood5 rim ( ! :eel4 ,9 g5]al x is saf] to speak ( spur ge>s because !re are few cog:eels n[ 9 use4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,cr[n ,,& ,,lant]n ,,ge> ,:5 a small ge> engages a l>ge "o1 ! =m] is commonly kn[n z a p9ion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,spur ,,& ,,p9ion ,,ge> ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,,bevel ,,friction ,,ge>s ,if two friction :eels are to turn at "r angles "o to ! o!r1 !y mu/ h conical be>+ surfaces1 z 9 ,figure #aj4 ,! angle betwe5 ! %afts ( ! two ge>s & ! relative size ( ! ge>s may be *ang$ z desir$1 provid$ ea* cone surface has its apex at ! int]section ( ! two %afts or axes4 ,x is easy to und]/& h[ su* conical friction ge>s may be conv]t$ into too!d bevel ge>s 7,figure #aa71 by =m+ tee? on ! conical surfaces1 & x w be evid5t t ! tee? mu/ tap] t[>d ! apex ( ! two cones4 ,two bevel ge>s ( equal diamet]1 & ) %afts set at "r angles "o to ! o!r1 are kn[n z mit] ge>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,too!d ,,bevel ,,ge>s ,s f> we h n %[n any comb9ation ( ge>+ t w multiply p[]4 ,9 ,figure #e1 ! driv] ,a is twice ! diamet] ( ! driv5 :eel ,b1 & ! latt] makes two revolutions = "o ( ,a1 b ! spe$ at ! p]iph]y ( ! two :eels is ! same4 ,a pull ( "o p\nd at ! po9t a produces a pressure ( "o p\nd at b1 & ?is 9 turn produces a lift ( "o p\nd at c because ! lev]s 9 ea* :eel are p]fectly balanc$1 t is1 ea* lev] has equal ef=t & weight arms4 ,! way to obta9 an increase ( p[] & ( p]iph]al spe$ is to fa/5 two :eels ( unequal diamet]s toge!r on ! same c5t] & apply ! ef=t to "o ( ! :eels 7z 9 ,figure #ab7 & ! weight to ! o!r :eel4 ,?is gives u :at is te*nically kn[n z a :eel & axle4 ,! dott$ l9es %[ t we h "h a lev] ( ! fir/ ord] :i* c be us$ to multiply p[] 9 ! same way t a b> lev] does4 ,if "o :eel is twice ! diamet] ( ! o!r !n a p\nd ( ef=t w lift two p\nds ( weight4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,:eel ,,& ,,axle ,,or ,,revolv+ ,,lev] ,,( ,,fir/ ,,ord] ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,revolv+ ,,lev]s ,,( ,,! #b;,d ,,& #c;,d ,,ord] ,figure #ac %[s h[ ! ef=t & weight c be %ift$ ab\t 9 su* fa%ion z to give u a lev] ( ! second & "o ( ! ?ird ord]4 ,! p[] may be enorm\sly increas$ & ! spe$ ( ! f9al :eel greatly r$uc$ by sett+ up a tra9 ( ge>s 9 :i* ! ef=t is receiv$ by ! l>g] "o ( ea* c\ple & is deliv]$ by ! small] "o4 ,9 ,figure #ad ! small] :eels are half ! diamet] ( ! l>g] ones4 ,a p\nd ( pressure at ,a w am\nt to #b at ,b1 #d at ,c1 #h at ,d1 #af at ,e1 & #cb at ,f4 ,on ! o!r h&1 po9t ,a w h to move ?r\gh #cb in*es to make ! po9t ,f move an in*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,rais+ ,,wat] ,,) ,a ,,*a9 ,,( ,,pots ,a primitive pump /ill us$ 9 ,egypt ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,horse-,,op]at$ ,,*a9-,,pump ,,us$ ,,9 ,,greece ,illu/ration3 ,,multiple ,,sp9dle ,,drill ,,9 ,,motor ,,c> ,,factory ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,a ,,tra9 ,,( ,,spur ,,ge>s ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,pulleys ,,( ,,! #a,,/1 #b;,d1 ,,& #c;,d ,,ord]s ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,typical ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,block ,,& ,,tackle ,a pulley is m]ely a modification ( ! :eel4 ,figure #ae %[s h[ x may be arrang$ to correspond to ! ?ree ord]s ( simple lev]s4 ,if ! pulley axis is fix$1 z 9 ! fir/ ord]1 ! ef=t & weight arms are equal & h5ce balanc$4 ,9 ! second ord] ! :eel is bodily movable1 h5ce "o p\nd w raise two p\nds ( weight because ! p[] arm is twice z long z ! weight arm1 :ile 9 ! ?ird ord] x takes two p\nds ( lift to raise "o p\nd ( weight4 ,!re is no end ( possible comb9ations ( pulleys :i* w multiply p[] 9 ! same way t b> lev]s d :5 comp\nd$4 ,a common arrangem5t ( block & tackle is giv5 9 ,figure #af4 ,!re is a f\r-%eave pulley block above & a ?ree-%eave block bel[1 b 9 ord] to trace ! rope cle>ly ! pulley :eels or %eaves are repres5t$ z ( diff]5t diamet]s4 ,! arrangem5t consi/s ( a s]ies ( lev]s ( ! fir/ ord] 9 ! upp] pulley block c\pl$ to a s]ies ( lev]s ( ! second ord] 9 ! l[] block4 ,to f9d ! weight t a giv5 p[] w lift1 multiply ! ef=t by ! numb] ( /r&s ( rope t are support+ ! weight4 ,9 ?is case !re are sev5 su* /r&s1 n c\nt+ ! /r& ,e1 to :i* ! ef=t or pull is appli$4 ,?is means t a pull ( a hundr$ p\nds at ,e w lift #gjj p\nds at ,w4 ,( c\rse a pull ( sev5 feet at ,e w raise ! weight only "o foot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,,incl9$ ,,plane ,,) ,,ef=t ,,p>allel ,,to ,,! ,,incl9$ ,,face ,,! ,,incl9$ ,,plane ,,& ,,its ,,family ,! incl9$ plane con/itutes a second broad classification ( ma*9e elem5ts4 ,! w$ge1 ! screw1 ! cam1 & ! ecc5tric1 all belong to ! family ( ! incl9$ plane4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,incl9$ ,,plane ,,) ,,ef=t ,,p>allel ,,to ,,! ,,base ,a simple =m ( incl9$ plane is pictur$ 9 ,figure #ag1 :i* %[s a weight ,w be+ roll$ up an incl9e4 ,! ef=t requir$ to c>ry x to ! top ( ! incl9e dep5ds1 ( c\rse1 ^u ! /eepness ( ! incl9e4 ,! draw+ %[s a rise ( #c feet on a slope #e feet long1 & ! weight ( ! :eel is1 say #bj p\nds4 ,to f9d ! ef=t requir$1 ! weight is multipli$ by ! rise 7#bj #c #fj7 & divid$ by ! l5g? ( ! slope 7#fj_/e #ab7 & we f9d t x takes only #ab p\nds to roll ! #bj-p\nd :eel to ! top ( ! incl9e4 ,?is holds true :5 ! pull is p>allel to ! incl9$ face4 ,if ! pull is p>allel to ! base ( ! incl9e1 z 9 ,figure #ah1 we mu/ divide by ! l5g? ( ! base in/ead ( ! l5g? ( ! incl9e 7#fj_/d #ae7 & we f9d t x takes #ae p\nds ( ef=t to pull ! weight up ! incl9e4 ,if ! pull is ex]t$ at an angle bo? to ! base & ! incl9$ face1 we h a problem t is slightly m complicat$ & we ne$ n g into x "h because x involves a bit ( trigonometry4 ,9 all cases1 h[ev]1 x may be not$ t ! am\nt ( rope t is tak5 91 9 haul+ ! weight up ! incl9e1 be>s a def9ite relation to ! am\nt ( ef=t requir$ to raise ! weight4 ,9 ,figure #ag1 #e feet ( rope mu/ be pull$ 91 9 ord] to raise ! weight #c feet1 s t ( #bj or #ab p\nds is all t is requir$ to pull up ! weight1 :ile 9 ,figure #ah1 #d feet ( rope is haul$ 9 = a lift ( #c feet1 s t ( #bj or #ae p\nds is requir$ to pull up ! weight4 ,9 ?is respect ! incl9$ plane is exactly l ! lev] or ! pulley1 = ! ef=t multipli$ by ! di/ance ?r\gh :i* x is ex]t$ is always exactly equal to ! weight multipli$ by ! di/ance ?r\gh :i* x moves4 ,?us 9 ,figure #ag1 ! ef=t #ab p\nds multipli$ by ! di/ance #e ! weight #bj p\nds times ! di/ance #c1 & 9 ,figure #ah1 ef=t #ae x di/ance #d weight #bj x di/ance #c4 ,( c\rse1 we are ignor+ ! weight ( ! rope & ! friction :i*1 9 actual practice1 are important factors to be reckon$ )4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,endless ,,screw ,,or ,,worm ,,ge> ,s f> we h consid]$ a fix$ incl9$ plane1 b :5 ! incl9$ plane is mov$ betwe5 ! weight & a fix$ base x is kn[n z a w$ge1 & 9 ?is case1 too1 ! ef=t requir$ to move ! w$ge multipli$ by ! di/ance ! w$ge moves is equal to ! weight multipli$ by ! di/ance x is lift$4 ,! commone/ =m ( incl9$ plane is ! screw :i* is m]ely an incl9$ plane b5t ar\nd a cyl9d]4 ,a screw engag+ a too!d :eel1 z 9 ,figure #ai1 gives a comb9ation kn[n z an 8endless screw10 or1 m commonly1 z a worm ge>4 ,! screw or worm is always ! driv]1 & z x mu/ make a complete turn to move ! ge> ?r\gh a space ( "o too?1 ! p[] ( ?is comb9ation is v great4 ,x is practically impossible to turn ! worm by us+ ! ge> :eel z a driv] because ! friction develop$ at ! po9t :]e ! worm & ge> contact is v great4 ,= ?is reason worm ge>+ is us$ 9 ! /e]+ ge> ( automobiles4 ,! %aft ( ! /e]+ :eel is fitt$ ) a worm :i* me%es ) a worm ge> on ! p>ts connect$ ) ! :eels4 ,x is v easy to turn ! :eels by op]at+ ! /e]+ :eel1 b if ! :eels /rike a rut or a /one !y are n deflect$ f _! c\rse1 because ! worm makes x impossible = !m to turn ! /e]+ :eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,,helical ,,or ,,spiral ,,ge>s ,! spiral ge> %[n 9 ,figure #bj is a cross betwe5 a worm ge> & spur ge>4 ,! tee? are spirals set at an angle ( #de degrees to ! axis ( ! :eel4 ,9 ?is case ei!r ge> c be us$ to drive ! o!r1 & ! advantage ( su* a pair is t p[] is transmitt$ f "o %aft to ano!r 9 a diff]5t plane & at "r angles to ! fir/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,,drum ,,cam ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,pr(ile ,,or ,,disk ,,cam ,cams are usually irregul> revolv+ incl9$ planes4 ,figure #ba1 %[s a cyl9d] or drum cam4 ,a groove is cut 9 ! cyl9drical wall ( ! cam & an arm or lev] is provid$ ) a roll] :i* rolls 9 ! groove4 ,:5 ! cam is revolv$ ! lev] is con/ra9$ to foll[ all ! twi/s & turns ( ! groove4 ,a diff]5t =m ( cam is %[n 9 ,figure #bb4 ,x is =m$ ) an irregul> p]iph]y aga9/ :i* ! roll] is press$ by a spr+4 ,z ! cam :eel revolves1 ! roll] & ! arm to :i* x is atta*$ mu/ move 9 & out ov] all ! hills & valleys ( ! p]iph]y4 ,! cam is "o ( ! mo/ useful elem5ts 9 mod]n ma*9]y1 = x provides a v simple means ( produc+ ! mo/ complicat$ & irregul> motions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,,ecc5tric ,,by ,,:i* ,,rot>y ,,motion ,,is ,,conv]t$ ,,into ,,rectil9e> ,,motion ,we _c attempt to describe all ! diff]5t types ( cams1 b ref]5ce %\ld be made to ! ecc5tric1 :i* is a =m ( cam commonly us$ to op]ate ! valves ( a /eam eng9e4 ,! cam 9 ?is case is a p]fectly circul> disk1 b ! %aft t turns x does n lie at ! c5t] ( ! disk1 consequ5tly an object be>+ aga9/ ! p]iph]y mu/ move t[>d & away f ! c5t] z ! disk revolves4 ,in/ead ( us+ a spr+-press$ roll] to be> aga9/ "o side ( ! disk1 ! :ole disk is encircl$ ) a r+ ( /eel kn[n z an ecc5tric /rap4 ,?is /rap is bolt$ to a valve rod & z ! ecc5tric revolves ! /rap makes ! valve rod move back & =?4 7,see ,figure #bc47 ,a description ( all ! v>i\s comb9ations ( ge>+1 l9k motions1 rat*ets1 escapem5ts1 clut*es1 & miscellane\s movem5ts w\ld easily fill ! re/ ( ?is book1 & we mu/ !re=e cont5t ourselves ) ?is v brief survey ( a few ( ! m important elem5ts employ$ 9 ! con/ruction ( mod]n ma*9]y4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,ma*9es ,,= ,,mak+ ,,ma*9es ,,:ile we may glory 9 ! wond]ful me*anical progress ( to-day1 we mu/ n ov]look ! m>vel\s skill ( ! anci5t artisan nor =get t x is to 8 inv5tive g5ius t we are indebt$ = practically e h& tool we possess4 ,only a few special tools owe _! orig9 to ! mod]n inv5tor4 ,all ! re/ date back beyond ! twilight ( hi/ory4 ,we h m]ely improv$ ^u ^! tools by slight *anges ( design or ! employm5t ( bett] mat]ials 9 _! con/ruction4 ,z us]s ( ^! tools we _c beg9 to comp>e ) ! skill$ workman ( anci5t days4 ,our progress is %[n n 9 ! developm5t ( skill1 b 9 ! loss ( x4 ,we h tak5 ! tool out ( ! human h& & put x into an inanimate ma*9e4 ,x is only v rec5tly t ! tool 0 deliv]$ to ! ma*9e & t act m>k$ ! dawn ( ! pres5t rem>kable me*anical era4 ,ma*9es = mak+ ma*9es date back to ! "t ( ! e>ly ,egyptians4 ,!y _h _! pole la!s & b[ drills1 b ^! ma*9es only p>tially reliev$ ! workman ( 8 labors1 & ! quality ( ! "w /ill dep5d$ ^u a degree ( skill t 0 acquir$ only ?r\gh ye>s ( pati5t appr5tice%ip4 ,! pole la!1 by ! way1 consi/$ m]ely ( a pair ( c5t]s betwe5 :i* ! "w 0 m\nt$1 a pole atta*$ to ! ceil+ & a /rap or rope pass$ ar\nd ! "w & fa/5$ at "o end to a pole & at ! o!r to a p$al re/+ aga9/ ! floor4 7,see ,figure #bd47 ,:5 ! p$al 0 depress$1 ! /rap 0 pull$ d[n & ! "w 0 revolv$4 ,on releas+ ! p$al1 ! spr+ ( ! pole pull$ ! /rap up & rev]s$ ! rotation ( ! "w4 ,?us by alt]nately depress+ & releas+ ! p$al1 ! "w 0 int]mitt5tly revolv$ aga9/ a *isel :i* 0 re/$ on a block & guid$ by ! workman4 ,small "w c\ld be turn$ out on su* a la! ) consid]able precision1 b :5 x came to l>ge p>ts1 p>ticul>ly p>ts ( /eel1 ! workman 0 easily tir$ by ! ef=t ( op]at+ ! p$al & 0 apt to be irregul> 9 ! guid+ ( ! tool4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,primitive ,,pole ,,la! ,up to ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury practically no advance _h be5 made ov] ! anci5t la! ( ! ,egyptians1 & :51 #aej ye>s ago1 ! /eam eng9e 0 inv5t$ ! task ( build+ ! eng9e seem$ almo/ insup]able4 ,james ,watt 0 a mak] ( ma!matical in/rum5ts1 a man ( great skill & precision z a craftsman1 b he dealt ) p>ts ( small dim5sions4 ,:5 he conceiv$ ( 8 /eam eng9e1 he m5tally pictur$ ! v>i\s p>ts z turn$ out ) all ! accuracy & f9i% t 0 possible 9 ! dim9utive memb]s ( a sci5tific in/rum5t4 ,to him x seem$ p]fectly feasible to turn a cyl9d] :i* w\ld be practically p]fect 9 cont\r1 & to fit x ) a pi/on ar\nd :i* no /eam c\ld leak4 ,) ! la! !n 9 exi/5ce su* a fit 0 easily possible on small "w4 ,b :5 he und]took to h ! cyl9d] ( 8 eng9e bor$1 he discov]$ t !re 0 no ma*9e t c\ld beg9 to d ! "w prop]ly4 ,9 fact1 :5 ,smeaton1 :o 0 a prom95t eng9e] ( t "t1 inve/igat$ ,watt's /eam eng9e1 he decl>$ t x 0 su* a complicat$ piece ( "w t nei!r tools nor workm5 exi/$ t c\ld build x4 ,9 ,watt's fir/ eng9e1 ! cyl9d] 0 only six in*es 9 diamet] & two feet long1 & a special type ( bor+ ma*9e 0 devis$ to bore ! =g$ cyl9d]s4 ,b ! bor+ 0 s irregul> t :5 ! pi/on 0 ins]t$ & ! /eam 0 turn$ on1 no?+ w\ld /op ! fl[ ( /eam t leak$ ar\nd ! pi/on4 ,9 va9 did ,james ,watt use cork1 oil$ rags1 t[1 pap]1 & ev5 old hats to /op ! leakage4 ,h[ev]1 ! bor+ ma*9e 0 improv$ & lat] a cyl9d]1 eighte5 in*es 9 diamet]1 0 bor$ ) su* accuracy t ! l>ge diamet] exce$$ ! small diamet] 9 ! wor/ place by only ( an in*4 ,?is ,watt consid]$ a v good bit ( turn+4 ,to-day cyl9d]s ( t size t v>y f true by half ! ?ickness ( ! pap] t ?is is pr9t$ on w\ld be ?r[n out z defective4 ,x 0 9 #agfi t ,watt inv5t$ ! /eam eng9e1 b t great ev5t did n m>k ! dawn ( ! pres5t era ( ma*9]y4 ,= a qu>t] ( a c5tury !reaft] !re 0 little progress 9 ! developm5t ( ma*9e tools4 ,a bor+ ma*9e 0 built t did fair "w4 ,!re 7 a few sawmills 9 :i* w9d p[] 0 employ$ to drive ! saw4 ,b la!s 7 /ill driv5 by foot p[] & ! cutt+ tool 0 /ill held & guid$ by h&4 ,,maudsley',s 8,,g-,,c>t0 ,! real fa!r ( ! pres5t era 0 a v clev] ,briti% me*anical eng9e]1 ,h5ry ,maudsley1 :o und]took to elim9ate ! unc]ta9ties ( ! human h& by clamp+ ! cutt+ tool ( ! la! 9 a re/ & arrang+ ! re/ to slide along ! l5g? ( ! la! or transv]sely t[>d or away f ! c5t]4 ,^! two motions made x possible to accompli% all t ! workman c\ld accompli% by h& & at ! same "t ! tool 0 held s firmly t accuracy & precision ( turn+ 0 assur$4 ,fur!rmore1 he provid$ ?is slide re/ ) a nut t engag$ a screw driv5 ?r\gh suitable ge>+ by ! la! sp9dle4 ,!n1 z ! "w revolv$1 ! slide re/ 0 compell$ to move along ! b$ ( ! la! at a uni=m rate4 ,by v>y+ ! ge>+1 ! spe$ ( ! slide re/ & ! tool x c>ri$ c\ld be v>i$ at w1 ?us mak+ x possible to cut screw ?reads ( any pit* desir$ ) a degree ( accuracy unatta9able by h&4 ,rem>kable z 0 ?is improvem5t1 x met ) ! usual opposition t e real advance 9 ma*9]y receiv$ 9 ^? days4 ,p ref]r$ to ! slide re/ z ,maudsley's 8g-c>t10 b x prov$ su* an important elem5t ( ! la! & s v valuable t be=e long x 0 univ]sally adopt$4 ,f t "t on ! skill ( ! workman began to lose its importance4 ,! man began to give way to ! ma*9e4 ,precision 0 possible 9 l>ge z well z small "w4 ,! human elem5t 0 also disp5s$ ) 9 ! driv+ ( ! la!4 ,! foot p$al 0 sup]s$$ by ! /eam eng9e1 & ! ma*9e came to be kn[n z ! eng9e la!4 ,!re are _m ways ( work+ metals n[ 9 common use4 ,metals may be ca/ 9 a molt5 /ate1 or !y may be press$ & mold$ into %ape 9 a cold /ate1 or !y may be hamm]$ ei!r cold or hot1 b 9 ne>ly all cases 9 :i* metal is remov$ 9 ord] to =m a piece ( "w1 ! *isel is us$ z a cutt+ in/rum5t4 ,?is is p]fectly app>5t 9 la!s & plan]s1 b n q s app>5t 9 saw+1 drill+1 fil+1 & gr9d+4 ,a drill is m]ely a spiral *isel :i* revolves ^u its own c5t]4 ,a saw is a gang ( t9y *isels1 & a file consi/s ( /ill small] *isels :i* are broad] ?an ^? ( ! saw4 ,9 gr9d+ we h r\gh surfaces 9 :i* p>ticles ( em]y or c>borundum act z t9y *isels4 ,! %e>s1 ! pun*1 & ! cutt+ tor* are practically ! only exceptions to ! rule t metals are always cut by *isels1 & ev5 ! %e>s may be conceiv$ z consi/+ ( a pair ( broad coact+ *isels1 :ile x takes little imag9ation to see a =m ( *isel 9 ! pun*4 ,! cutt+ tor* is1 ( c\rse1 9 no s5se a *isel4 ,9 ! cutt+ ( metals ! "w may move aga9/ a fix$ tool or ! tool may move aga9/ a fix$ piece ( "w4 ,9 a la!1 x is ! "w t revolves or rotates aga9/ ! tool4 ,9 ! drill & ! mill+ ma*9e ! tool revolves aga9/ ! "w4 ,9 ! plan]1 ! tool is fix$ & ! "w slides aga9/ x4 ,! %ap] rev]ses ! op]ation2 ! "w is fix$ & ! tool moves 9 a rectil9e> direction4 ,up to ! n9ete5? c5tury practically ! only ma*9es = cutt+ metals 7 ! la! & a crude =m ( bor+ ma*9e4 ,! ma*9i/s ( t day _h n rea*$ ! /age :]e !y 7 able to produce any?+ b r\nd "w on a ma*9e4 ,! plan] _h n be5 born4 ,x 0 = ?is reason t ,watt _h a great deal ( difficulty 9 gett+ rectil9e> motion = ! pi/on ( 8 eng9e4 ,he _h to inv5t a complicat$ sy/em ( l9ks & lev]s 9 ord] to obta9 a practically p>allel motion to guide 8 pi/on 9 & out ( ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! plan] 0 inv5t$ & x 0 possible to produce /raight surfaces ) a consid]able degree ( accuracy1 all ( ,watt's +5i\s p>allel motions1 w5t into ! disc>d & ! cross-head & guides took _! place4 ,x 0 n until long aft] ! plan] _h be5 inv5t$ t ,eli ,:itney1 ! ,am]ican g5ius ( cotton-g9 fame1 conceiv$ ! mill+ ma*9e4 ,he rev]s$ ! op]ation ( ! la! by plac+ ! cutt+ tool on ! revolv+ sp9dle & slid+ ! "w aga9/ x4 ,mill+ cutt]s consi/ ( :eels =m$ ) a numb] ( cutt+ edges or *isels :i* are arrang$ ei!r on ! p]iph]y ( ! :eel or on ! face ( ! :eel4 ,foll[+ ! mill+ ma*9e1 came ! gr9d]1 9 :i* a revolv+ :eel ( an abrasive mat]ial s]v$ to we> away ! surface ( a piece ( "w1 & ) ?is =m ( ma*9e /eels ( great h>dness c\ld be f9i%$ ) accuracy & a high poli%4 ,,! ,,int]*angeable ,,sy/em ,! mo/ notable advance 9 ma*9e "w came e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 :5 :at 0 kn[n z ! 8,am]ican ,sy/em0 ( manufacture1 or ! int]*angeable sy/em1 0 introduc$4 ,z long z me*anics 7 oblig$ to p]=m _! op]ations l>gely by h&1 x 0 impossible to atta9 great accuracy4 ,ea* workman put 8 own individuality into ! "w4 ,z a consequ5ce1 no two pieces 7 ( exactly ! same size or %ape4 ,?is 0 true ev5 ) ! e>ly p[]-driv5 ma*9e tools4 ,! p>ts might be v close to ! same size1 b c>eful measurem5ts %[$ t !y v>i$ by a m9ute fraction ( an in*4 ,h5ce1 :5 a ma*9e 0 assembl$ ! unyield+ metal p>ts _h to be fil$ & trimm$ & hamm]$ to fit !m toge!r4 ,if any accid5t occurr$ to a ma*9e1 ! damag$ "p c\ld n be replac$ by ano!r tak5 f /ock4 ,! entire ma*9e _h to g back to ! %op :]e an exp]i5c$ me*anic w\ld make a new "p to replace ! damag$ "o4 ,9 ^? days a ma*9e 0 n manufactur$ b 0 built z an individual me*anism1 j z a h\se or a boat is built to-day4 ,) ! adv5t ( accurate ma*9e tools came ! idea ( /&>diz+ ! p>ts s t hundr$s & ?\s&s ( pieces c\ld be made ( exactly ! same dim5sions1 & 9 assembl+ a ma*9e ! p>ts c\ld be pick$ at r&om f ! /ock & put toge!r )\t ! use ( special tools & )\t requir+ any special fitt+4 ,?is 0 ( special importance 9 ! tools ( w>f>e1 because armies ne$ quantity production1 i4 e41 rifles1 cannon1 etc4 ,m ma*9es ( ! same k9d 7 requir$ = an army ?an = any o!r organization or l9e ( "w4 ,at ! close ( ! ,napoleonic ,w> ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t _h #bjj1jjj p>ts ( muskets ei!r p>tly f9i%$ or wait+ repairs4 ,_! muskets 7 made aft] ! old sy/em4 ,ea* "o 0 built sep>ately ) its p>ts individually fitt$ toge!r1 s t :5ev] any "p 0 injur$1 ! musket _h to be laid aside & s5t back to ! work%op = repairs4 ,long be=e t "t1 ! idea ( mak+ /&>d guns _h be5 hit ^u 9 ,france4 ,?omas ,jeff]son1 :ile ,m9i/] to ,france1 9 #aghe1 wrote ( ! ,fr5* sy/em :i* 0 !n be+ develop$ by a me*anic nam$ ,le ,blanc4 ,he 0 build+ a musket 9 :i* ! p>ts 7 ( /&>d patt]n1 & :i* c\ld be assembl$ by tak+ pieces haphaz>d z !y came to h& & putt+ !m toge!r )\t special fitt+4 ,?omas ,jeff]son call$ ! att5tion ( ! ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t to ?is sy/em & %[$ t x 0 possible to produce muskets *eap] by t me?od ( manufacture4 ,h[ev]1 our ,gov]nm5t at t "t fail$ to avail itself ( ! opportunity ( utiliz+ ?is sy/em ( manufacture4 ,lat] on1 ! idea 0 tak5 up 9 ?is c\ntry by ,eli ,:itney & by ,simeon ,nor?4 ,:5 ,:itney attempt$ to introduce ! sy/em1 he 0 laugh$ at by ,fr5* & ,engli% ordnance (ficials1 & ev5 our own ,gov]nm5t (ficials 7 skeptical1 p>ticul>ly :5 !y f\nd t x requir$ s mu* prep>ation 9 ! way ( ma*9]y & design+ ( p>ts be=e a s+le musket 0 complet$4 ,x seem$ l a wa/e ( money to inve/ 9 s mu* prep>ation4 ,b ,:itney 0 soon able to sil5ce all 8 critics by tak+ to ,wa%+ton t5 pieces ( ea* "p ( a musket & !n select+ at haz>d f ea* pile ( pieces ! requisite p>ts & putt+ toge!r t5 muskets4 ,x 0 n long be=e ! =eign gov]nm5ts saw ! importance ( ?is me?od ( manufacture4 ,great ,brita9 lat] adopt$ x 9 ! mak+ ( h] own rifles & call$ ! process ! 8,am]ican ,sy/em40 ,b x 0 n only 9 ! field ( rifles t int]*angeable manufacture made itself felt4 ,! ,new ,engl& clock indu/ry provides an int]e/+ illu/ration4 ,at fir/ ! clocks 7 made ( wood1 b e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 a clock mak]1 ,*auncey ,j]ome by "n1 design$ a brass clock 9 :i* ! p>ts 7 made on ! int]*angeable sy/em4 ,in/ead ( build+ ea* clock z a sep>ate piece ( "w1 clocks 7 turn$ out by ! ?\s&s1 & at an extremely l[ price4 ,soon he _h flood$ ?is c\ntry ) 8 clocks & began to look ar\nd = o!r m>kets4 ,ma*9]y _h be5 us$ by o!r clock mak]s 9 produc+ wood5 clocks1 & movem5ts :i* _h co/ #ej ea* 9 #ahdj _h be5 r$uc$ to #e4 ,b ,*auncey ,j]ome's clock 0 made ( brass & by means ( ! int]*angeable sy/em ( manufacture he c\ld produce x = less ?an #ej c5ts4 ,! clock 0 su* a success 9 ?is c\ntry t ,j]ome decid$ to try x abroad4 ,consequ5tly he made arrangem5ts ) an ag5t 9 ,engl& & %ipp$ ov] a l>ge consignm5t4 ,! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t 0 a/oni%$ at ! l[ price ( ! clock & 0 conv9c$ t x _h be5 und]valu$4 ,at t "t1 !y _h a simple & +5i\s me?od ( puni%+ a consign] :o und]valu$ ! goods he wi%$ to introduce into ! c\ntry4 ,?is consi/$ 9 promptly appropriat+ ! prop]ty at ! price giv5 9 ! invoice4 ,9 due c\rse ( "t1 mu* to ,j]ome's a/oni%m5t1 he receiv$ a lett] f ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t /at+ t 8 clocks _h be5 confiscat$1 & ) ! lett] came a *eck pay+ = !m at ! invoice price4 ,j]ome 0 n 9 ! lea/ deject$ by ! rebuke2 on ! contr>y1 he 0 r elat$1 =1 z f> z he c\ld figure x out1 he _h a spot-ca% buy] = 8 goods & no sell+ exp5ses4 ,he did n m9d at all lett+ ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t h ! clocks at ! invoice price4 ,s he decid$ to try aga9 ) a l>g] %ipm5t4 ,to 8 great delight ?is %ipm5t met ! same fate z ! fir/1 & 9 due c\rse ano!r good ,briti% *eck arriv$4 ,?us enc\rag$1 ,j]ome s5t ov] a ?ird & /ill l>g] %ipm5t1 b by t "t ,johnny ,bull began to suspect t ! ,yankee clock mak] 0 gett+ ! be/ ( ! b>ga9 &1 f9ally conv9c$ t clocks really c\ld be produc$ ) pr(it at ! l[ invoice price1 he p]mitt$ !m to ent] 8 c\ntry4 ,) ?is /rik+ example1 ! fame ( ! ,yankee sy/em ( manufacture spread ov] ! _w4 ,9 ord] to h two p>ts alike1 !y mu/ be plac$ "u a ma*9e 9 exactly ! same way4 ,9 o!r words1 !y mu/ be set 9 8jigs0 or frames :i* are fitt$ into ! ma*9e 9 su* a way t ! tools w approa* ! "w f exactly ! same angle or p5etrate ! "w to exactly ! same dep? 9 t51 or a hundr$1 or a ?\s&1 or a million pieces1 z ! case may be4 ,mak+ jigs & dies consumes a great deal ( "t 9 prep>ation "w1 b once ! prep>ation /age has be5 pass$1 articles are produc$ ) wond]ful rapidity & v little wa/e ( "t4 ,=m]ly x 0 necess>y to det]m9e ! location ( ea* hole 9 a ca/+ sep>ately & sp5d preci\s "t 9 adju/+ ! "w to ! prop] position "u ! tool4 ,if ! hole 0 to be ?read$1 x _h to pass ?r\gh sev]al sep>ate op]ations4 ,,! ,,turret ,,la! ,aft] ! slide re/ inv5t$ by ,maudsley1 ! next great improvem5t on ! la! 0 a turret head or a sort ( turntable :i* c>ri$ a numb] ( tools4 ,! tools are arrang$ to come automatically into play "o aft] ! o!r4 ,"o tool1 = in/ance1 may cut a groove 9 ! "w1 ano!r f9i% ! face ( ! "w1 ano!r bore a hole 9 ! piece & ano!r tap ! hole4 ,9 _m cases1 sev]al ( ^! op]ations are p]=m$ simultane\sly4 ,! head ( ! la! is provid$ ) a holl[ sp9dle s t ! "w is automatically f$ to ! tools ?r\gh ?is sp9dle1 & z soon z "o piece is f9i%$1 x is automatically cut (f & ! jaws ( ! clut* :i* holds ! "w1 or /ock z x is call$1 op5 automatically s t a new l5g? may slide =w>d & be op]at$ ^u by ! tools4 ,! ma*9e requires no att5tion once ! tools h be5 set up to ! prop] angle1 except t x mu/ be kept suppli$ ) b>s ( /ock z !y are consum$1 & ) a copi\s fl[ ( lubricant on ! tools4 ,"o op]ator c !re=e take *>ge ( a numb] ( automatic la!s4 ,all he does is to fe$ !m2 !y d ! re/4 ,! mod]n drill has also gone ?r\gh a great _m developm5ts 9 ord] to spe$ up ! "w t x p]=ms4 ,:5 a ca/+ is to h =ty or fifty holes drill$ & tapp$ 9 x1 in/ead ( foll[+ ! old me?od ( drill+ ea* hole sep>ately1 a lot ( sep>ate drill+ sp9dles are us$1 ea* fitt$ ) a drill1 & ^! are br\ght simultane\sly into play4 ,z _m z fifty or sixty holes may be drill$ at a s+le op]ation1 & aft] ! holes h be5 drill$1 ! drill+ sp9dles move to "o side to make way = ! taps1 :i* ?read su* ( ! holes z are to receive screws4 ,by fir/ sett+ ! sp9dles 9 ! prop] position & !n us+ jigs to locate ! "w prop]ly "u !m1 ! assurance is _h t e "o ( ! scores ( holes drill$ w be accurately spac$ ap>t & ! spac+ 9 e ca/+ w be id5tical4 ,! multiple tool sy/em is also us$ 9 mill+ ma*9es 9 :i* a numb] ( mill+ cutt]s ei!r ( ! face or ! end type come into play simultane\sly ^u a piece ( "w set 9 a suitable jig1 & cut ! piece ) absolute precision1 s t all ca/+s w h faces accurately spac$ ap>t & cut to exactly ! same level4 ,x is by su* me?ods z ^! t we are able to produce su* l>ge quantities ( ma*9]y at rem>kably l[ co/4 ,"o ( ! mo/ notable examples ( su* "w 0 ! developm5t ( ! ,lib]ty eng9e dur+ ! ,_w ,w>4 ,?is eng9e did n diff] 9 pr9ciple f o!rs built 9 ,europe or 9 ?is c\ntry1 b its design 0 c>efully adapt$ to p]mit ( int]*angeable manufacture4 ,no c>eful f9i% 0 us$ except :]e indisp5sable4 ,special jigs1 tools1 & fixtures 7 prep>$4 ,+5i\s wr9kles ( ,am]ican manufacture 7 introduc$4 ,all ?is consum$ "t1 & great 0 ! irritation ( ! g5]al public4 ,"u ord9>y conditions1 x w\ld h tak5 ye>s to h develop$ ! ,lib]ty eng9e to ! manufactur+ /age1 b "u ! urg5t /ress ( w>1 ! :ole "w ( design & prep>ation = manufacture 0 cr[d$ into a few %ort mon?s1 & !n ,lib]ty eng9es began to be manufactur$ on a /up5d\s scale4 ,,cutt+ ,,) ,,r$-,,hot ,,tools ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable advances 9 ma*9e tools 0 due to ! /udies ( ,fr$ ,w4 ,taylor4 ,he ent]$ a l>ge /eel plant 9 #ahhj & 0 imm$iately /ruck ) ! enorm\s wa/e ( ef=t on ! "p ( ! m5 9 ! plant4 ,!re 0 at t "t consid]able dissatisfaction among ! workm51 & :5 ,taylor endeavor$ to spe$ up "w he 0 fac$ by ! incontrov]tible argum5t t he _h no idea h[ mu* "w a c]ta9 ma*9e ought to turn out4 ,!re 0 no?+ = him to d b ei!r back d[n or /udy ma*9e tools & discov] _! maximum capacity4 ,?is l$ him to inve/igate ! matt] ( cutt+ spe$s4 ,= ye>s he sp5t all ( 8 sp>e "t /udy+ ?is subject1 tim+ ma*9es & exp]im5t+ ) diff]5t types ( cutt+ tools4 ,he e/imat$ t 9 ! tw5ty-six ye>s ( 8 inve/igation he conv]t$ #hjj1jjj p\nds ( /eel into *ips4 ,:at he wi%$ to discov] 0 ! be/ dep? ( cut1 ! be/ spe$ ( cutt+1 & ! be/ spe$ at :i* ! tool %\ld be f$ into ! "w4 ,he soon discov]$ t1 contr>y to prevail+ op9ion1 ! r\nd-nos$ tool 0 bett] ?an ! diamond-po9t$ tool1 t ! co>se sl[-cutt+ spe$ 0 bett] ?an a f9e cut at high spe$4 ,he discov]$ t ! be/ me?od ( lubricat+ ! tools 0 to keep !m ba!d 9 a heavy /ream ( wat]1 sup]saturat$ ) c>bonate ( soda1 s z to prev5t ! metal f ru/+4 ,! be/ tool /eel ( t day 0 kn[n z a self-h>d5+ /eel4 ,manufactur]s ( ! cutt+ /eels _h w>n$ ,taylor t he mu/ n use wat] on ^! tools4 ,taylor1 h[ev]1 0 n satisfi$ to take ! ^w ( o!rs1 b proce$$ to inve/igate ! matt] himself1 & discov]$ t he c\ld safely increase ! cutt+ spe$ ( 8 tools #cc p] c5t by ! use ( a heavy /ream ( wat] = lubricat+ purposes4 ,?is l$ ,taylor & 8 associate1 ,maunsel ,:ite1 to inve/igate ! diff]5t k9ds ( tool /eels1 & ev5tually !y evolv$ a *rome tung/5 tool :i* c\ld d f two to f\r times ! "w ( o!r tools4 ,lat] vanadium 0 add$ to ! alloy1 fur!r improv+ ! tool4 ,at ! ,exposition 9 ,p>is1 9 #aijj1 =eign manufactur]s 7 a/oni%$ to f9d enorm\s la!s op]at+ at high spe$ ) ! cutt+ tools tak+ su* heavy cuts & fe$+ s fa/ t ! nose ( ! tool 0 actually heat$ to a dull r$ heat1 & yet x kept its cutt+ edge p]fectly4 ,?is 0 a revelation to tool mak]s abroad1 & x l$ imm$iately to ! adoption ( ,am]ican high-spe$ cutt+ tools4 ,! developm5t ( ! automobile1 :i* began to take on s]i\s proportions at ab\t t "t1 is responsible above all o!r ma*9es = improvem5ts 9 ,am]ican ma*9e tools1 & = ! ext5sion ( ! ,am]ican sy/em ( int]*angeable manufacture4 ,:5 automobiles came to be made on ! int]*angeable sy/em & 9 enorm\s quantities s t ! co/ 0 r$uc$ to )9 ! limits ( ! av]age man's pocketbook1 !y began to make me*anics ( m5 :o be=e t _h nev] us$ a tool2 & ?is new & widespread int]e/ 9 ma*9]y /imulat$ ! production ( bett] & m effici5t tools4 ,h5ce ! progress ( ma*9e tools 9 ! pa/ few ye>s has be5 simply ph5om5al4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,c\nt+ ,,seconds ,,y ,,c measure civilization by its timepieces4 ,! high] ! civilization ( a community ! m x appreciates ! value ( "t & ! m m9utely does x measure ! passage ( "t4 ,! savage divides 8 day into b two p]iods3 ! p]iod ( light & t ( d>kness2 ! e>ly ,romans divid$ _! day into eight wat*es1 f\r wat*es ( daylight & f\r ( night1 b ! high] & m complex civilization became1 ! small] became ! subdivisions ( "t4 ,p began to feel ! ne$ ( c>ry+ ! "t ) !m1 & ab\t #aejj ,a4 ,d4 wat*es came into use1 b x 0 n until #affe t wat*es began to be equipp$ ) m9ute h&s1 & x 0 almo/ exactly a c5tury lat] t !y 7 equipp$ ) a second h&4 ,to-day "t means s mu* to u t we w fight our way into a subway express1 in/ead ( rid+ m com=tably 9 a local tra91 m]ely = ! sake ( sav+ five m9utes4 ,! t9y second h&s ( our wat*es divide ! day into eighty-six ?\s& f\r hundr$ p>ts1 & 9 "s op]ations we measure "t int]vals d[n to ! ?\s&? "p ( a second4 ,only among ! mo/ highly civiliz$ nations are timepieces c>ri$ by ! common p4 ,x us$ to be t "t 0 made = slaves1 b n[ "t has made slaves ( u4 ,%ift ! h&s ( ! clock & ! :ole nation is =c$ to *ange its habits4 ,"t-measur+ me*anism is giv5 e>ly prom95ce 9 ?is book because clocks 7 among ! e>lie/ ma*9es inv5t$1 & !y furni% an example ( ! wond]ful +5uity ( inv5tors be=e ! dawn ( ! mod]n era ( ma*9]y4 ,naturally ?is *apt] mu/ be l>gely hi/orical4 ,! fir/ ?\ght ( measur+ "t came f ! anci5t a/ronom]s & a/rolog]s1 :o1 9 wat*+ ! motions ( heav5ly bodies1 ! sun by day & ! moon by day & night1 f\nd x necess>y to keep a record ( ^! motions & s\ght ab\t = "s me*anical means ( do+ s4 ,! /udies ( ! old a/rolog]s 7 closely associat$ ) religion1 & z a consequ5ce ! mo/ advanc$ intellects 7 c5t]$ ^u a/ronomical matt]s & incid5tally ^u horology4 ,=tunately ! design & con/ruction ( me*anisms = measur+ "t 7 n consid]$ b5ea? ! dignity ( ! sci5ti/s ( ^? e>ly days4 ,ma!maticians felt free to record _! inve/igations 9 ?is bran* ( me*anics1 & z a consequ5ce ( ! e>ly coop]ation ( sci5ce & me*anics 9 ?is field mu* real progress 0 made1 & ! developm5t ( timepieces 0 m rapid ?an t ( any o!r ma*9e4 ,,tell+ ,,"t ,,) ,a ,,leaky ,,bucket ,! anci5t ,egyptians e>ly felt ! ne$ ( a bett] clock ?an ! sundial1 because x op]at$ only on cl\dless days & 0 absolutely wor?less to tell (f ! h\rs ( d>kness4 ,realiz+ t "t is a measure ( motion1 !y s\ght = "s sl[ly mov+ body ^: motion c\ld be us$ to measure "t1 & naturally !y turn$ to wat]4 ,! e>lie/ =m ( clock consi/$ m]ely ( a leak+ bucket4 ,ei!r ! bucket 0 fill$ ) wat] :i* 0 all[$ to escape ?r\gh a v t9y orifice1 or else ! heavily load$ bucket 0 plac$ 9 wat] & ! wat] 0 all[$ to leak into ! bucket until x sank4 ,! p]iod x took = a bucket to run dry or = a bucket to fill & s9k indicat$ a lapse ( an h\r or "s o!r /&>d ( "t4 ,! idea ( subdivid+ ?is p]iod 0 a lat] developm5t4 ,z ! wat] leak$ out ( a bucket1 ! wat] level desc5d$1 b un=tunately n at a uni=m rate4 ,! weight ( wat] 9 a full bucket made ! drops come fa/] ?an :5 ! bucket 0 ne>ly empty4 ,consequ5tly ! "t graduations on ! side ( ! bucket _h to be set f>!r ap>t at ! top ( ! bucket ?an at ! bottom4 ,v>i\s +5i\s s*emes 7 devis$ = ma9ta9+ a uni=m dis*>ge4 ,9 "o type ( wat] clock or clepsydra a conical bucket 0 us$ s t !re w\ld be a con/ant relation betwe5 ! head ( wat] & ! volume 9 ! bucket & ! "t graduations c\ld be spac$ uni=mly4 ,,! ,,rem>kable ,,wat] ,,clock ,,( ,,ctesibius ,! mo/ rem>kable clepsydr 7 ^? inv5t$ by an old ,alex&rian ma!matician1 ,ctesibius1 :o liv$ ab\t #bej ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 ,ctesibius introduc$ ! siphon pr9ciple into 8 clocks1 & also employ$ ge> :eels & ev5 a cord & pulley4 ,fur!rmore1 he 0 ! fir/ man to employ jewel$ be>+s 9 a timepiece4 ,! use ( jewels 9 timepieces 0 re9v5t$ 9 #agjd ,a4 ,d4 ,h[ev]1 ,ctesibius us$ 8 jewels 9 a v diff]5t way f t 9 :i* !y are us$ n[1 z w be describ$ bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,! ,,jewel$ ,,wat] ,,clock ,,built ,,by ,,ctesibius ,,ab\t #bej ,b4 ,c4 ,figure #be illu/rates ! mo/ int]e/+ clock he built & x 0 arrang$ to run ye> 9 & ye> out4 ,! clock _h a cyl9drical face m\nt$ on a holl[ p$e/al 9 :i* ! me*anism 0 conceal$4 ,! column 0 divid$ (f into tw5ty-f\r h\rs & a po9t] t rose v]tically m>k$ (f ! lapse ( "t4 ,b "h he 0 fac$ ) a s]i\s complication4 ,h\rs 9 ^? days v>i$ ) ! "t ( ! ye>4 ,a day f sunrise to sunset consi/$ ( twelve h\rs4 ,9 summ]1 :5 ! days 7 long1 ! h\rs 7 long1 & 9 ! %ort days ( w9t] ! h\rs 7 correspond+ly %ort5$4 ,to be sure1 ! v>iations 9 ! l5g? ( ! day are n s great 9 ,egypt z !y are 9 our latitude1 because x is ne>] to ! equator2 nev]!less !re is a diff]5ce :i* ! precise old ma!matician _h to take into acc\nt4 ,9 ord] to provide = v>iations 9 ! h\rs1 ,ctesibius ran ! l9es spirally ar\nd ! column & arrang$ 8 cyl9drical clockface to turn slightly ea* day1 s t 9 ! w9t] mon?s ! clock h& or po9t] mov$ ov] t "p ( ! face :]e ! daylight h\r l9es 7 clos] toge!r & ! h\rs ( night 7 f>!r ap>t1 :ile 9 summ]1 ! rev]se w\ld obta94 ,at ! bottom ( ! column 7 two little *]ubs4 ,! *]ub on ! left 0 a sad little fell[ :o 0 con/antly weep+4 ,te>s trickl$ f 8 eyes & dropp$ into a bas94 ,! te>s pass$ into ! holl[ p$e/al ( ! clock & gradually fill$ a cyl9d] =m$ 9 ! base ( ! clock4 ,a pi/on 9 ?is cyl9d] support$ ! o!r *]ub4 ,z ! wat] gradually fill$ ! cyl9d] ?is *]ub 0 sl[ly rais$ & a w& he held 9 8 h& po9t$ (f ! h\rs on ! clockface4 ,:5 ! tw5ty-f\r? h\r 0 rea*$1 a siphon came into play1 :i* sudd5ly empti$ ! cyl9d]1 p]mitt+ ! po9t] to drop4 ,! siphon dis*>g$ its wat] into a small wat] :eel1 :i*1 by means ( ! sy/em ( ge>s1 turn$ ! column slightly to br+ ! h\r l9es 9 prop] positions = measur+ ! "t int]vals ( ! next day4 ,! column made "o complete turn 9 #cfe days4 ,! jewel$ be>+s1 ref]r$ to above1 7 plac$ 9 ! eyes ( ! weep+ boy1 s t ! holes t pi]c$ !m w\ld n be enl>g$ by ! con/ant we> ( ! wat] & !reby increase ! rate ( fl[4 ,,tim+ ,,anci5t ,,orators ,we h dwelt at consid]able l5g? ^u ?is old clock ( ! pre-,*ri/ian era to %[ ! +5uity ( inv5tors ( t day1 & also ! c>eful /udy t 0 made ( "t by anci5t ma!maticians & a/ronom]s4 ,( c\rse wat] clocks 7 us$ be=e ! "t ( ,ctesibius4 ,9 fact1 we read ( !m 9 ! com$ies ( ,ari/ophanes1 writt5 #djj ,b4 ,c4 ,wat] clocks 7 us$ to limit ! long spee*es ( orators at c\rt1 & 9 "o place we f9d ,demo/h5es accus+ a man ( 8talk+ 9 my wat]10 :ile at ano!r "t1 :5 he 0 int]rupt$1 he call$ to ! (fic] to /op ! wat]1 %[+ t he valu$ e mom5t ( "t allott$ to him = 8 spee*4 ,9 #hjg ,*>lemagne 0 pres5t$ ) a clock by ! ,k+ ( ,p]sia4 ,?is consi/$ ( an elaborate me*anism 9 :i* 7 all mann] ( :eels1 & ! clock w\ld actually /rike ! h\rs4 ,! driv+ p[]1 h[ev]1 0 wat]4 ,b !re 7 s]i\s disadvantages 9 ! use ( wat] = ! measurem5t ( "t4 ,no great accuracy 0 ev] obta9able ) x1 ow+ to ! fact t its volume v>i$ consid]ably ) ! temp]ature1 & also ) ! dryness or moi/ure 9 ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e4 ,! idea ( us+ a weight in/ead ( wat] is claim$ to h orig9at$ z f> back z #iij ,a4 ,d4 ,! next important advance 9 ! motive p[] ( clocks 0 9 #aejj1 :5 ,pet] ,hele ( ,nuremb]g inv5t$ ! ma9spr+4 ,t 0 long be=e ! p5dulum made its appe>ance4 ,! clock me*anism 0 sl[$ d[n & kept "u control by :at 0 kn[n z a balance lev]4 7,see ,figure #bf47 ,?is 0 a horizontal lev] m\nt$ to oscillate 9 a horizontal plane4 ,! lev] 0 fitt$ ) slid+ weights1 s t x c\ld be c>efully adju/$4 ,! la/ :eel ( ! tra9 ( ge>s 0 provid$ ) escapem5t tee?1 some:at simil> to ^? us$ on our clocks & wat*es1 b :i* w\ld alt]nately move ! lev] ?is way & t4 ,! in]tia ( ! lev] ) ! heavy weights on x 0 suffici5t to prev5t ! me*anism f rac+1 & by ?is means1 ! motion 0 gov]n$ & sl[$ d[n1 s t x measur$ "t ) a fair degree ( accuracy4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,p5dulum ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,! ,,balance ,,lev]1 ,,pr$ecessor ,,( ,,! ,,p5dulum ,! p5dulum _h an int]e/+ orig94 ,galileo1 :ile a /ud5t 9 ,pisa 9 #aeha1 0 att5d+ a s]vice 9 ! ca!dral "o day :5 8 att5tion 0 drawn to ! sw++ ( a l>ge hang+ lamp4 ,"o ( ! att5dants _h drawn ! lamp t[>d him1 s t he c\ld rea* x m readily to light x4 ,:5 he let g ! lamp began to sw+ sl[ly back & =?1 & ! obs]vant "y /ud5t notic$ t al?\gh ! oscillations gradually sl[$ d[n ! p]iod ( oscillation 0 con/ant4 ,he _h no wat* ) :i* to measure ! l5g? ( ! p]iod1 b be+ a m$ical /ud5t he knew t he _h a fair timepiece 9 8 own he>tbeats1 & s by c\nt+ 8 pulse he prov$ t x took ! lamp j z long to complete ea* oscillation :5 x swept ?r\gh a long arc z :5 x di$ d[n to b a few in*es4 ,he made note ( ?is peculi> action & began exp]im5t+ ) p5dulums ( diff]5t l5g?s4 ,!n x occurr$ to him t if he c\ld "t ! p5dulum ) 8 pulse he c\ld "t 8 pulse ) a p5dulum4 ,s he devis$ a p5dulum ^: l5g? c\ld be adju/$ until its oscillation w\ld co9cide ) ! ?rob ( a pati5t's pulse1 & !n ! l5g? ( ! p5dulum w\ld give him ! rate ( ! pulse beat4 ,! inv5tion 0 seiz$ ^u by ! m$ical pr(ession ( t day1 & ! pulsilogia1 z x 0 call$1 became an indisp5sable in/rum5t = physicians4 ,illu/ration3 ,,bucket ,,( ,a ,,giant ,,dr$ge ,,) ,,its ,,jaws ,,spread ,,wide ,,op5 ,illu/ration3 ,,gold ,,dr$g] ,,eat+ ,,its ,,way ,,?r\gh ,,riv] ,,s&s ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,suction ,,dr$ge ,,excavat+ ,a ,,*annel ,,& ,,build+ ,,new ,,l& ,! idea ( us+ ! p5dulum to control ! action ( ! clock also occurr$ to ,galileo1 & 9 lat] ye>s1 aft] he _h lo/ 8 sight1 he pass$ ! idea d[n to 8 son1 ,v9c5t4 ,h[ev]1 x is g5]ally conc$$ t ! cr$it = introduc+ ! p5dulum & do+ away ) ! balance lev] belongs to ,*ri/ian ,huyg5s1 ! ,dut* ma!matician1 ^: fir/ p5dulum clock dates back to #afei4 ,ab\t ! same "t ,dr4 ,rob]t ,hooke inv5t$ ! balance spr+ :i* made x unnecess>y to use ! p5dulum 9 portable timepieces4 ,prior to t wat*es 7 fitt$ ) balance lev]s & !y gave a great deal ( tr\ble1 because ! "t v>i$ ) ! position 9 :i* !y 7 c>ri$4 ,b ! balance :eel ov]came all ^! difficulties & made x possible = a p]son to c>ry an accurate timepiece 9 8 ve/ pocket1 al?\gh ! e>ly wat*es 7 v bulky me*anisms4 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,%ip',s ,,*ronomet] ,! importance ( hav+ accurate timepieces abo>d %ip 0 felt z f> back z ! "t ( ,columbus4 ,:5 %ips began to g out beyond ! sight ( l&1 x 0 highly important t !y be equipp$ ) "s means ( locat+ _! position at sea4 ,by not+ ! elevation ( ! sun at noon ) a sextant x 0 possible to det]m9e ! latitude ( ! %ip1 b !re 0 no means ( det]m9+ its longitude1 except by dead reckon+1 t is1 us+ a log to measure ! spe$ ( a %ip1 & e/imat+ its position by calculat+ ! numb] ( miles x _h travel$ s9ce leav+ port4 ,if %ips c\ld be provid$ ) an accurate timepiece :i* w\ld keep ! same "t z t ( "s fix$ obs]vatory1 x w\ld be possible def9itely to locate ! position ( ! %ip ea/ or we/ by not+ h[ fa/ or sl[ ! sun 0 at noon on ! p>ticul> day on :i* ! obs]vation 0 tak54 ,?is use ( ! *ronomet] is common 9 ^! days1 b up to #aej ye>s ago !re 0 no timepiece suffici5tly accurate to p]mit a navigator to tell ) any c]ta9ty j :]e he 04 ,x 0 ,john ,h>rison1 ! son ( a ,york%ire c>p5t]1 :o 0 ! fir/ to build a *ronomet] wor?y ( ! "n4 ,a prize ( #aj1jjj p\nds 0 (f]$ by ! ,briti% ,p>liam5t = anyone :o c\ld inv5t & sell a *ronomet] :i* w\ld enable a %ip to take a voyage f ,engl& to any ( ! ,we/ ,indian isl&s & back & keep track ( ! longitude )9 "o degree4 ,if ?is c\ld be def9$ )9 two-?irds ( a degree1 ! prize w\ld be #ae1jjj p\nds4 ,h>rison made a bid = ?is prize1 & aft] ye>s ( ef=t & pati5t labor1 he succe$$ 9 be+ grant$ a trial4 ,8 son1 ,william1 0 s5t on a %ip to ,jamaica ) ! n[ celebrat$ *ronomet]1 :i* 0 m\nt$ on a l>ge cu%ion4 ,! in/rum5t 0 con/antly att5d$ by ! "y man1 its position be+ adju/$ f "t to "t to suit ! 8lie0 ( ! %ip4 ,:5 ! %ip 0 eighte5 days out1 ! vessel 0 e/imat$ by dead reckon+ to be #ac #ej we/ ( ,portsm\?1 b ! *ronomet] indicat$ ! position z #ae #ai4 ,! timepiece 0 imm$iately condemn$ z wor?less1 b ,william ,h>rison _h n lo/ fai? 9 ! in/rum5t1 & insi/$ t if ! %ip cont9u$ on ! same c\rse1 a c]ta9 isl&1 if prop]ly m>k$ on ! *>t1 w\ld be se5 ! foll[+ day4 ,true to ! pr$iction1 ! next morn+ at sev5 o'clock ! isl& appe>$4 ,by means ( 8 *ronomet] ,william ,h>rison 0 able to pr$ict ! appe>ance ( ! o!r isl&s1 & at ! end ( ! voyage1 :i* occupi$ sixty-"o days1 ! *ronomet] 0 only n9e seconds sl[4 ,:5 he return$ to ,portsm\?1 aft] an abs5ce ( five mon?s1 ! error ( ! *ronomet] 0 only "o m9ute & five seconds1 giv+ an error 9 di/ance ( only eighte5 miles1 :]eas ?irty miles 0 ! m>g9 ( error all[$ by ! prize conditions4 ,su* accuracy seem$ s incr$ible t ! *ronomet] _h to be te/$ on a second voyage1 dur+ :i* x 0 kept "u lock & key & :5 ,william ,h>rison _h to w9d ! in/rum5t he 0 oblig$ to d s 9 ! pres5ce ( two witnesses1 le/ he move ! h& ( ! *ronomet] surreptiti\sly4 ,at ! end ( ! second voyage !re 0 no fur!r d\bt t ,h>rison 0 fully entitl$ to ! prize4 ,*ronomet]s soon came to be us$ ext5sively1 until n[ !y are "o ( ! mo/ p]fect ( ma*9es made by man1 & op]ate ) an accuracy t is almo/ incr$ible4 ,usually a %ip is provid$ ) sev]al *ronomet]s1 s t "o may be us$ z a *eck ^u ano!r4 ,!y are m\nt$ 9 ball sockets & gimbal jo9ts1 s t !y are n affect$ by ! roll ( ! %ip1 b always lie 9 a horizontal position4 ,,m>vel\s ,,precision ,,( ,,mod]n ,,wat*es ,:ile we may well m>vel at ! precision ( ! *ronomet]1 x is equally m>vel\s1 if n m s1 t we may equip ourselves = a few doll>s ) a timepiece :i* is s wond]fully accurate z to v>y little m ?an a second p] day4 ,if "o took ! pa9s to regulate 8 wat* c>efully1 any ( ! bett] makes c\ld be adju/$ to su* accuracy4 ,!re is no?+ v my/]i\s ab\t ! me*anism ( a wat*4 ,x consi/s m]ely ( a tra9 ( ge>s :i* sl[ d[n ! motions ( ! ma9spr+ to a conv5i5t spe$2 & ^! ge>s moreov] keep ! prop] relation betwe5 ! h\r & m9ute & second h&s4 ,b :5 we reflect t a small wat* possesses a t9y second h& :i* travels some?+ l t5 miles 9 a ye>1 & t if c>efully regulat$ x w n v>y f t ( ano!r wat* 9 ! :ole j\rney by m ?an six or eight in*es at ! mo/1 we c]ta9ly h a reason to m>vel4 ,!re are #hf1djj seconds 9 a day1 & a wat* is usually arrang$ to make five beats p] second or #dcb1jjj p] day4 ,! int]val betwe5 beats mu/ be adju/$ ) su* m9ut5ess t "o beat mu/ n diff] f ano!r by #a_/hfjjj "p ( a second1 else ! wat* w regi/] m ?an a second fa/ or sl[ at ! end ( a day4 ,& yet wat*es capable ( su* precision are be+ turn$ out daily by ! ?\s&s4 ,( c\rse1 su* p]fection w\ld be absolutely impossible )\t ! use ( extremely accurate ma*9e tools4 ,x w\ld h be5 impossible z long z we _h to dep5d ^u a wat*mak] to make a wat* by h&4 ,,! ,,pacemak] ,,( ,a ,,wat* ,if we look at ! works ( a clock ! mo/ conspicu\s feature is ! rapidly oscillat+ balance :eel :i*1 by ! way1 is ! mo/ important "p ( ! wat*1 = x gov]ns ! release ( ! p[] /or$ up 9 ! spr+4 ,x controls ! escapem5t :i* br+s ! :ole me*anism ( ! clock to a /&/ill five times ea* second--9 fact x is ! pacemak] ( ! wat*1 = x gives ! wat* a /ep-by-/ep movem5t & fixes ! rate at :i* ! /eps are tak54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,,escapem5t ,,( ,a ,,wat* ,! la/ :eel ( ! wat* tra9 is :at is kn[n z an escape :eel4 ,x is =m$ ) tee? ( an odd %ape1 su* z %[n at ,a 9 ,figure #bg4 ,^! tee? are engag$ by a pair ( pallets ,b & ,c1 c>ri$ by a ?ree-arm$ lev] ,d4 ,! pallets are usually bits ( sapphire or simil> h>d /one to prev5t we>4 ,! ?ird ( ! lev] is slott$ at its extremity to engage a sapphire p9 ,e1 c>ri$ by a disk ,f1 :i* is m\nt$ on ! /aff ( ! balance :eel4 ,! escape :eel ,a revolves 9 ! direction ( ! arr[1 be+ impell$ by ! ma9spr+ act+ ?r\gh ! tra9 ( ge>s4 ,"o ( ! tee? ( ?is :eel engages ! pallet ,b1 caus+ ! lev] ,d to sw+ on its axis & pu% ! sapphire p9 ,e t[>d ! left1 !reby giv+ ! disk ,f an impulse 9 ! same direction4 ,"h a delicate coil spr+1 kn[n z ! hairspr+1 comes into play4 ,)\t ! hairspr+ ! p>ts w\ld /& /ill1 ! escape :eel be+ block$ by ! pallet ,b4 ,! hairspr+ is atta*$ at "o end to ! %aft or /aff ( ! disk ,f & ! o!r to ! frame ( ! wat*4 ,x tries to hold ! disk ,f 9 a fix$ position1 b is di/urb$ by ! action ( ! escape :eel & is con/antly oscillat+ ! disk 9 its ef=t to br+ x back to its normal position4 ,:5 ! disk sw+s ov] to ! left ! pallet ,b is cle> ( ! tee? ( ! escape :eel4 ,?is releases ! escape :eel & x spr+s =w>d 9 ! direction ( ! arr[1 b be=e x c move ?r\gh an int]val ( "o too? x is arre/$ by ! second pallet ,c1 :i* has be5 project$ into its pa? by ! sw+ ( ! lev] ,d4 ,! lev] sw+s back until ! pallet ,c cle>s ! escape :eel & ! pallet ,b engages ! next too?4 ,& s ! action cont9ues1 ! lev] sw++ back & =? & at ea* complete oscillation releas+ "o too? ( ! escape :eel4 ,! hairspr+ takes up ! %ock ( ?is int]mitt5t motion & a balance :eel c>ri$ by ! /aff to :i* ,f is fa/5$ /eadies ! oscillatory motion ( ! lev] ,d4 ,a wat* is full ( microscopic p>ts4 ,9 a small timepiece !re are ma*9e-made screws s small t )\t ! aid ( a magnify+ glass "o _c see ! screw ?reads cut ^u !m4 ,b ! mo/ m>vel\s "p ( ! :ole wat* is ! delicate hairspr+ & ! means ( adju/+ its t5sion & comp5sat+ = its expansion & contraction ) *anges ( temp]ature4 ,,inanimate ,,matt] ,,9 ,,cont9ual ,,motion ,:5 work+ ) m9ute int]vals ( "t _m factors mu/ be consid]$ :i* are n ev5 ?\ght ( 9 ma*9es ( gross] proportions4 ,x nev] occurs to ! man 9 ! /reet t n only ! animate _w b ! inanimate z well is 9 ceaseless & v>iable motion4 ,if our eyes 7 capable ( tak+ 9 m9ute microscopic details1 we %\ld see t ev]y?+ is exp&+ or contract+1 swell+ or %rivel+1 twi/+ & w>p+ 9 response to ! atmosph]ic *anges4 ,our /eel bridges & skyscrap]s are 9 con/ant motion2 solid concrete dams mu/ be provid$ ) expansion jo9ts2 ! ,wa%+ton ,monum5t goes ?r\gh a diurnal gyration 9 response to ! sun's rays4 ,( c\rse all ?is motion is almo/ immeasurably small4 ,a b> ( /eel a mile long w exp& ( an in* = e increase ( a degree ,fahr5heit 9 temp]ature4 ,! expansion ( a hairspr+1 :i* may be n9e or t5 in*es long1 is inf9itesimally small & yet ?is mu/ be consid]$ by ! wat*mak]4 ,we mu/ rememb] t ! escapem5t me*anism divides ! day into #dcb1jjj p>ts1 ea* ( :i* conta9s "s m9ute error1 = absolute p]fection is impossible1 & if we add up all ^! #dcb1jjj errors !y mu/ n foot up to m ?an a second p] day4 ,if ! hairspr+ exp&s ev] s slightly its p[] is weak5$1 b ?is loss ( p[] is comp5sat$ by an +5i\s =m ( balance :eel4 ,! rim is 9 two p>ts1 half ( x be+ atta*$ to "o spoke ( ! :eel & ! o!r half to ! o!r1 z %[n 9 ,figure #bh4 ,ea* half rim is =m$ ( two /rips ( metal1 an inn] /rip ( /eel1 & an out] /rip ( brass fus$ toge!r4 ,brass exp&s & contracts almo/ twice z mu* z /eel1 & h5ce :5 !re is a rise ( temp]ature ! rim sections t5d to curl 91 br++ _! c5t] ( gravity ne>] ! c5t] ( ! :eel & mak+ less ( a load = ! weak5$ hairspr+ to move1 :ile on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! spr+ is contract$ by cold1 ! rims spread out slightly1 giv+ x a great] load to oscillate4 ,! weight ( ! balance :eel is ?us automatically adju/$ aga9/ v>iations 9 p[] ( ! spr+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,! ,,self-,,correct+ ,,balance ,,:eel ,,( ,a ,,wat* ,aside f ?is automatic v>iable adju/m5t1 ! balance :eel mu/ h a prim>y p]man5t adju/m5t4 ,! rim ( ! :eel is load$ by means ( small screws4 ,screws plac$ ne> ! free ends ( ! rim sections w h a great] inw>d or outw>d play z ! rim contracts & exp&s1 & by _! locations 9 diff]5t positions on ! rims ! balance :eel may be adju/$ ) great accuracy to comp5sate = temp]ature v>iation 9 ! hairspr+4 ,,! ,,p5dulum ,,escapem5t ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,p5dulum ,,escapem5t ,9 ! case ( clocks su* delicacy ( adju/m5t is h>dly necess>y4 ,p5dulum clocks1 if !y are to run accurately1 mu/ h _! p5dulums automatically adju/able = v>iations 9 temp]ature1 because ! long] ! p5dulum ! m sl[ly x oscillates4 ,_m ye>s ago a grid type ( p5dulum 0 inv5t$ 9 :i* v>i\s alloys 7 us$1 :i* react$ "o aga9/ ! o!r & pres]v$ ! c5t] ( gravity always at ! same di/ance f ! c5t] ( oscillation4 ,! action ( a p5dulum movem5t is simil> to t ( a balance-:eel movem5t describ$ above4 ,! p5dulum op]ates a pallet lev] simil> to t %[n 9 ,figure #bi4 ,! tee? ( an escape :eel1 :i* are commonly some:at diff]5t f ^? ( ! wat* movem5t1 /rike ! pallets ( ! pallet lev]1 & ! escape :eel is int]mitt5tly /opp$ & p]mitt$ to proce$4 ,! pressure ( ! escapem5t tee? aga9/ ! pallets is j en\gh to keep ! p5dulum sw++ & ! spe$ ( ! clock is regulat$ by l5g!n+ or %ort5+ ! p5dulum4 ,we h add$ little to clock or wat* movem5ts 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,ab\t ! only conspicu\s mod]n inv5tion is ! torsion p5dulum4 ,! p5dulum 9 ?is case is a heavy horizontal disk susp5d$ by a wire1 & ! disk rotates fir/ 9 "o direction & !n 9 ! o!r1 twi/+ & untwi/+ ! wire4 ,! advantage ( ?is p5dulum is t ! oscillations are v sl[1 & h5ce x is possible to keep ! clock go+ = a ye> at a s+le w9d+4 ,! electric regulation ( clocks is ano!r important improvem5t4 ,a clock ne$ n be a v p]fect timepiece1 b if provid$ ) an electric regulator its h&s are br\ght up to ! correct "t e h\r 9 response to an impulse s5t f an accurate ma/] clock :i* 9 turn has its "t correct$ daily f ! ,national ,obs]vatory 9 ,wa%+ton4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,putt+ ,,riv]s ,,to ,,"w ,,fl[+ wat] ex]ts a /range fasc9ation ^u mank9d1 ev5 to ! pres5t day4 ,t\ri/s travel hundr$s ( miles to view ! glori\s spectacle ( a riot\s tumbl+ cat>act4 ,is x /range1 !n1 t 9 ! old5 times1 :5 ! _w 0 peopl$ ) gods & g5ii & /range spirits1 ! anci5ts look$ ^u ceaselessly fl[+ riv]s z ! symbol ( life8 ,x 0 mo/ natural = !m to covet ! endless p[] ( a riv] & ev5tually1 despite _! sup]/itions1 to try to utilize "s ( its en]gy4 ,x may be t sailboats ant$ate ! fir/ wat] :eel1 b x seems mu* m probable t fl[+ wat] 0 ! fir/ inanimate p[] h>ness$ by man4 ,w9dmills 7 c]ta9ly a lat] developm5t4 ,!y possess$ ! advantage t !y c\ld be locat$ any:]e :ile ! wat] mill _h ( necessity to be built along ! bank ( a /ream4 ,h[ev]1 ! p[] ( ! w9d is s unreliable & fluctuates s widely t x 0 little us$1 except 9 flat c\ntries1 :]e !re 0 little if any available wat] p[]4 ,wat] p[] pr$om9at$ until ! /eam eng9e 0 introduc$1 :5 x _h to give way to an ev5 m reliable p[] & "o :i* c\ld be locat$ at any place to :i* fuel c\ld be transport$4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 we are go+ back to our fir/ p[]1 seek+ x out 9 ! mo/ inaccessible m\nta9\s regions1 because we h discov]$ ! means ( tak+ ! p[] x yields & transmitt+ x hundr$s ( miles1 ov] hills & pla9s to ! po9t :]e we c put x to useful s]vice4 ,hydroelectric p[] has v aptly be5 t]m$ 8:ite coal40 ,! fir/ prime motor 0 ! curr5t :eel1 t is1 a :eel fitt$ ) paddles1 :i* 0 j\rnal$ ov] a /ream ) ! paddles project+ into ! wat]4 ,?is 0 a v ineffici5t ma*9e2 x conv]t$ v little ( ! en]gy ( a /ream into useful me*anical p[]4 ,! idea ( damm+ ! /ream & lett+ ! wat]s fl[ ov] ! dam ?r\gh a raceway ^u a wat] :eel 0 a mu* lat] developm5t4 ,,wat] ,,:eels ,?ree types ( wat] :eel :i* 7 9 univ]sal use be=e ! adv5t ( ! /eam eng9e 7 ! und]%ot :eel1 ! ov]%ot :eel1 & ! brea/ :eel 7,figure #cj74 ,9 ! und]%ot :eel ! wat] /or$ back ( a dam is let out ne> ! bottom ( ! dam & /rikes ! "u side ( ! :eel1 s t ! top ( ! :eel turns t[>d ! dam4 ,9 ! ov]%ot :eel1 ! wat] fl[s ov] ! :eel /rik+ ! paddles or buckets on top & on ! =w>d side1 s t ! :eel turns =w>d4 ,9 ! brea/ :eel1 ! wat] /rikes ! paddles half way up ! :eel on ! re> side & drives ! :eel 9 ! same direction z t ( ! und]%ot :eel4 ,:5 we speak ( wat] p[] we are apt to ?9k ( ! wat] z actually furni%+ ! en]gy4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 x is n wat] b gravity t drives ! :eel1 ! wat] be+ m]ely ! m$ium t gravity acts ^u4 ,by hav+ ! wat] drop f a great height1 its velocity is greatly increas$ & ! p[] x imp>ts to ! :eel is mu* high]4 ,9 m\nta9\s regions x is easy to obta9 a high head ( wat] & ?us g5]ate a great deal ( p[] f a relatively small /ream4 ,h[ev]1 ! anci5t type ( :eel ) its paddles or buckets has n[ practically pass$ out ( exi/5ce1 be+ sup]s$$ by ! ,pelton :eel = high heads & ! turb9e = l[ heads ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,und]%ot1 ,,ov]%ot1 ,,& ,,brea/ ,,:eels ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,! ,,pelton ,,:eel ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,a ,,pair ,,( ,,pelton ,,:eel ,,buckets ,,%[+ ,,h[ ,,! ,,wat] ,,jet ,,is ,,divid$ ,,& ,,foll[s ,,! ,,cont\r ,,( ,,! ,,buckets ,9 ,cali=nia1 a numb] ( ye>s ago1 !y made use ( :at 0 kn[n z ! hurdy-gurdy :eel4 ,?is consi/$ ( an ord9>y :eel ) bucket-%ap$ paddles aga9/ :i* 0 direct$ a /ream ( wat] at high velocity ?r\gh a nozzle4 ,!re 0 a c>p5t]1 nam$ ,l4 ,a4 ,pelton1 :o us$ to make a bus9ess ( build+ & repair+ su* :eels & ! flumes t c>ri$ ! wat] to !m4 ,al?\gh un$ucat$1 he 0 possess$ ( consid]able native +5uity & 0 a v obs]vant man4 ,"o day1 :5 he 0 call$ 9 to repair a :eel1 he notic$ t "o ( ! buckets :i* _h be5 misplac$ receiv$ ! wat] f ! nozzle )\t any spla%+4 ,! wat] /ruck ! edge ( ! bucket ) practically no %ock1 :]eas ! o!r buckets produc$ a great deal ( spla%+4 ,pelton _h en\gh k ( ! pr9ciples ( me*anics to realize t a spla% means a wa/e ( en]gy1 & t "h 0 a bucket :i*1 al?\gh out ( plumb & app>5tly defective1 0 really m effici5t ?an any ( ! o!rs 9 ! :eel4 ,x occurr$ to him !n t in/ead ( hav+ ! jet ( wat] /rike ! middle ( ! buckets x ought to /rike ! edge1 s t all its p[] w\ld be absorb$ )\t any wa/eful spla%+4 ,he might h displac$ ! jet lat]ally s z to accompli% ?is result1 b he realiz$ t t w\ld h produc$ a consid]able side ?ru/ on ! :eel1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 w\ld h be5 objectionable1 & s he hit ^u ! plan ( us+ d\ble buckets & lett+ ! /ream ( wat] /rike ! pair ( buckets along _! divid+ l9e4 7,see ,figure #ca47 ,?is w\ld split ! /ream 9 two & let ea* half /rike ! slant+ face ( ! bucket1 & foll[ ! surface ar\nd 9 ! same way t x did on ! s+le misplac$ bucket1 b ! reaction or side ?ru/ on "o bucket w\ld be c\nt]act$ by t on ! o!r4 ,?is idea prov$ successful & out ( x has gr[n ! ,pelton :eel :i* is n[ univ]sally us$ 9 all p[] plants employ+ high heads ( wat]4 ,a #d1jjj-;,,foot ,,head ,,( ,,wat] ,a notable illu/ration ( su* a plant is ! great in/allation at ,big ,creek1 ,cal4 ,big ,creek1 despite its "n1 us$ to be a small /ream fl[+ d[n ! m\nta9s into a canyon4 ,"o w\ld h>dly suppose t x 0 capable ( yield+ mu* p[]1 b x _h its s\rce high up 9 ! ,si]ras & 0 f$ ma9ly by melt+ sn[s4 ,9 ! spr+time1 x swell$ to a good-siz$ torr5t4 ,by build+ ?ree dams ne> ! top ( ! m\nta91 a lake 0 =m$ 9 :i* ! wat] ( ! melt+ sn[ 0 imp\nd$1 s t a /eady /ream ( wat] c\ld be suppli$ ! ye> r\nd = p[] purposes4 ,b ev5 s1 ! /ream h>dly am\nts to v mu* if we consid] only ! quantity ( wat] t passes ?r\gh x4 ,! p>ticul> advantage ( ?is in/allation is ! fact t 9 a di/ance ( six miles f ! dam ! creek falls #d1jjj feet4 ,an inhabitant ( ! ,ea/]n ,/ates :o is unus$ to m\nta9 heights may ga9 "s conception ( ! mean+ ( ?is elevation by gaz+ up to ! p9nacle ( ! ,woolwor? ,t[]1 :i* rises #gie feet above /reet level1 !n m5tally multiply+ its altitude by five4 ,evid5tly ev5 a small /ream ( wat] dropp+ f su* an elevation w\ld develop an enorm\s am\nt ( p[]4 ,9 fact1 x 0 consid]$ inexp$i5t to use ! entire fall at a s+le drop & s x 0 divid$ into two /ages4 ,! wat] is c>ri$ ?r\gh a tunnel ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile long & !n ?r\gh a fl[ pipe along ! face ( ! m\nta9 to a po9t :]e x may drop #b1jjj feet to ! fir/ p[] plant4 ,aft] pass+ ?r\gh ?is plant ! wat] is dis*>g$ into ! creek & is !n div]t$ into a second tunnel f\r miles long & a s]ies ( /eel conduits to a po9t f :i* x may drop #b1jjj feet m to ! second p[] plant4 ,9 ea* p[] h\se !re are two electric g5]ators1 ea* fitt$ ) a pair ( ,pelton :eels4 ,^! :eels are a little less ?an eight feet 9 diamet] & ea* "o develops #bc1jjj horsep[]4 ,! wat] is direct$ into ! buckets ( ! ,pelton :eel 9 a /ream six in*es 9 diamet]1 & x issues f ! nozzle ) a velocity ( #cjj feet p] second or ab\t #baj miles p] h\r4 ,a jet ( wat] is almo/ l a solid b> ( wood4 ,9 fact1 x is impossible to *op ?r\gh x ) an ax4 ,! wat] w\ld sw+ ! ax out ( "o's h& be=e x got "p way ?r\gh ! jet4 ,travel+ at su* a high spe$ ! friction is s great t x w\ld te> ! sk9 (f "o's h&s1 if x did n actually te> ! h& (f ! arm1 & yet x /rikes ! buckets ( ! :eels ) no %ock at all1 = ! fir/ "p ( ! bucket x t\*es is ne>ly p>allel to ! jet1 & z ! wat] sweeps ar\nd ! curv$ face ( ! bucket x loses practically all ( its pressure & velocity & falls into ! tail race4 ,! electric p[] g5]at$ by ! two plants is /epp$ up to #aej1jjj volts & s5t out ov] transmission l9es to po9ts ( s]vice4 ,! /reet c>s ( ,los ,angeles are connect$ by a #bdj-mile electric h>ness to ! hydraulic horses ( ,big ,creek4 ,p[]ful z ?is /ream is1 a /ill high] head is us$ 9 ,switz]l&1 at ,lake ,fully1 :]e !re is a drop ( ov] a mile 9 a di/ance ( #b4h miles4 ,! wat] is c>ri$ by a %ort tunnel ?r\gh ! m\nta91 & !n makes a drop ( ov] #e1jjj feet to ! p[] plant1 :]e x /rikes ! ,pelton :eels at a velocity ( #djj miles p] h\r1 or ab\t sev5 times ! spe$ ( a fa/ express tra94 ,,h>ness+ ,,! ,,mississippi ,9 contra/ to su* high heads1 we h ! l[-head p[] plants :i* are employ$ :]e a l>ge volume ( wat] is available4 ,! mo/ notable in/allation ( ?is type1 & ! l>ge/ 9 ! _w1 is t at ,keokuk1 ,i[a1 :]e a dam has be5 ?r[n across ! ,mississippi ,riv]4 ,= _m ye>s x 0 ?\ght impossible to make any use ( ! va/ volume ( wat] t fl[s ?r\gh ?is great riv]4 ,b above ,keokuk !re us$ to be a rapid ext5d+ back ab\t twelve miles4 ,by build+ a dam across ! riv] j bel[ ! rapid x 0 possible to obta9 a work+ head ( ab\t ?irty-two feet1 & ) ! enorm\s volume ( wat] available ?is provid$ suffici5t en]gy to make ! developm5t wor? :ile4 ,9 m>k$ contra/ to ! in/allation at ,big ,creek1 x is volume r ?an velocity t is employ$1 & h5ce turb9es r ?an ,pelton :eels are us$4 ,m wat] goes ?r\gh a s+le turb9e ?an is us$ 9 ! :ole ( ! city ( ,new ,york ) all its elaborate aqu$uct sy/em4 ,enorm\s turb9es are us$1 fifte5 feet 9 diamet]1 & :5 ! in/allation is complete !re w be ?irty units1 ea* yield+ #aj1jjj horsep[]1 or a total ( #cjj1jjj horsep[]4 ,a turb9e1 x may be expla9$1 diff]s f ! ord9>y wat] :eel 9 ! fact t ! wat] runs ?r\gh ! :eel in/ead ( ar\nd x 7,figure #cb74 ,! wat] may ent] at ! c5t] & !n fl[ out at ! p]iph]y1 or x may ent] at ! p]iph]y & !n be dis*>g$ f ! c5t] ( ! :eel1 or x may run axially ?r\gh ! :eel4 ,9 a ,pelton :eel !re is a s+le jet :i* /rikes b "o pair ( buckets at a "t1 b 9 a turb9e !re are _m jets di/ribut$ all ar\nd ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel4 ,! wat] is divid$ into a s]ies ( jets by be+ =c$ ?r\gh a /ation>y set ( curv$ vanes4 ,! blades ( ! rotor or revolv+ "p ( ! turb9e are oppositely curv$4 ,if ! rotor 7 immovable ! jets w\ld h to *ange _! direction 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! rotor1 b z ! rotor is free to turn1 ! jets react aga9/ ^! blades & set ! :eel to revolv+4 ,! turb9e may be design$ to run ei!r on a horizontal axis or on a v]tical "o4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,turb9e ,,:eels2 ,,infl[ ,,type ,,%[n ,,on ,,! ,,left ,,& ,,outfl[ ,,type ,,on ,,! ,,"r ,! turb9es us$ at ! ,keokuk plant are ( ! infl[ type4 ,! rotor is m\nt$ on a v]tical %aft 9 a scroll-%ap$ concrete *amb]1 some?+ l a snail %ell4 ,wat] p\r+ into ?is *amb] is ?us giv5 a swirl+ motion 9 ! direction ( rotation ( ! :eel4 ,z x fl[s into ! :eel x passes fir/ ?r\gh a r+ ( fix$ vanes1 :i* divide x into ! jets4 ,! highe/ velocity ( a :eel is naturally at ! p]iph]y & ! advantage ( an infl[+ turb9e su* z ?is is t ! wat] is travel+ at its highe/ velocity :5 x /rikes ! p]iph]y ( ! rotor4 ,z x loses its velocity x fl[s 9 t[>d ! sl[]-mov+ portions ( ! rotor4 ,f9ally x rea*es ! c5t]1 aft] giv+ up practically all its en]gy1 & falls into ! tail pool ?r\gh a draft tube at ! c5t] ( ! rotor4 ,! scroll *amb]s at ,keokuk are ?irty-n9e feet 9 diamet] & ! draft tubes are eighte5 feet 9 diamet]4 ,wat] ent]s ! scroll *amb]s ) a velocity ( f\rte5 feet p] second & comes out ( ! draft tubes into ! tail pool ) its velocity cut d[n to b f\r feet p] second4 ,comp>e ?is ) ! velocity ( ! wat] jets at ,big ,creek6 ,! curr5t g5]at$ at ,keokuk goes to ,/4 ,l\is & surr\nd+ t[ns & s]ves a population ( #a1abj1jjj4 ,n[ t we h le>n$ h[ to transmit electrical p[] )\t s]i\s loss ov] enorm\s di/ances1 x is only a "q ( "t be=e all ! wat] p[] 9 ! _w is h>ness$ & put to ! s]vice ( man4 ,! p[] co/s no?+ aft] once ! plant has be5 built2 ! only exp5se is t ( ma9ta9+ ! ma*9]y & keep+ x 9 repair4 ,x is e/imat$ t !re is "s #bjj1jjj1jjj horsep[] available 9 ?is c\ntry1 b ?is includes all fl[+ wat]1 mu* ( :i* x w\ld be impracticable1 if n almo/ impossible1 to utilize4 ,h[ev]1 !re is ab\t #fj1jjj1jjj horsep[] comm]cially available1 accord+ to ! figures ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 ( :i* we h develop$ s f> only #f1jjj1jjj horsep[]4 ,! anci5ts us$ fl[+ /reams n s mu* = p[] purposes z to lift wat] to a high] level s t x w\ld fl[ into _! irrigat+ dit*es4 ,n[adays1 electricity1 /eam1 or air is us$ = elevat+ wat]1 b we h a v +5i\s ma*9e :i* makes ! /ream lift a "p ( itself4 ,?is ma*9e is v diff]5t 9 pr9ciple f ! old ,egyptian noria4 ,x dep5ds ^u ! k9etic en]gy ( wat] 9 motion4 ,y _c pu% a nail into a piece ( wood ) a hamm] b y c easily drive x 9 by /rik+ x ) ! hamm]4 ,z ! hamm] is swung x acquires :at we t]m k9etic en]gy or en]gy ( motion4 ,,sett+ ,,kit*5 ,,faucets ,,to ,,"w ,x is n g5]ally realiz$ t wat] 9 motion also acquires k9etic en]gy4 ,:5ev] a faucet is turn$ (f v quickly1 !re is a hamm]+ s\nd :i* is due to ! fact t ! mov+ wat] 9 ! wat] pipe is br\ght to an abrupt /op4 ,?is puts a sev]e /ra9 on ! pip+4 ,a great deal ( tr\ble 0 exp]i5c$ f ?is s\rce 9 ! e>ly days ( plumb+4 ,at a hospital 9 ,bri/ol1 ,engl&1 !re 0 a lead pipe lead+ f a ci/]n 9 "o ( ! upp] /ories to ! kit*54 ,e "t ! faucets 7 turn$ (f abruptly ! mom5tum ( ! wat] caus$ ! lead pipe to exp&1 & e n[ & !n ! pipe 0 bur/4 ,9 ord] to relieve ! situation1 a plumb] connect$ a pipe to ! faucet & c>ri$ x up ! side ( ! build+ to ! level ( ! ci/]n4 ,8 idea 0 t :5ev] ! wat] 0 turn$ (f sudd5ly x w\ld h a v5t lead+ up to ! level ( ! wat] res]voir4 ,mu* to 8 surprise1 ! wat] issu$ f ! pipe 9 a jet ( consid]able height4 ,to prev5t ! escape ( ! wat]1 he ext5d$ ! pipe consid]ably1 & /ill a jet ( wat] w\ld issue f x4 ,ev5tually ! relief pipe 0 c>ri$ up twice ! height ( ! ci/]n & ev5 !n ! wat] w\ld squirt out occasionally :5 ! faucets 9 ! kit*5 7 turn$ (f v sudd5ly4 ,!n ! idea 0 conceiv$ ( plac+ a res]voir on "o ( ! upp] floors ( ! hospital & lett+ ! jet ( wat] fill ?is res]voir4 ,e "t ! faucet 0 op]at$ 9 ! kit*5 a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat] fl[$ into ! new ci/]n1 & 9 ?is way x 0 kept suppli$ ) en\gh wat] to furni% t :i* 0 requir$ = ! upp] floors ( ! hospital4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,a ,,wat] ,,ram ,x is on ?is pr9ciple t ! hydraulic ram op]ates4 ,wat] f a /ream is made to fl[ d[n a pipe1 & z x ga9s velocity a *eck valve sudd5ly /ops ! fl[ :i* produces en\gh pressure to =ce op5 a valve 9 an air *amb] & let "s ( ! wat] ent] ! *amb]4 ,z soon z ! pressure is reliev$ ! *eck valve op5s & ! valve into ! *amb] closes automatically until a mom5t lat] ! /ream ( wat] has ga9$ suffici5t velocity to repeat ! p]=mance4 ,?us an int]mitt5t jet ( wat] is =c$ into ! air *amb] & !nce ?r\gh a pipe to a res]voir4 ,! height to :i* ! wat] w rise dep5ds entirely ^u ! velocity ( ! wat] fl[+ ?r\gh ! sy/em4 ,! air *amb] is necess>y to cu%ion ! action ( ! hydraulic ram & provide a fairly /eady pressure ^u ! wat] t fl[s up ?r\gh ! v5t pipe4 ,! *eck valve is entirely automatic4 ,x is held op5 aga9/ ! pressure ( ! wat] by a spr+ or a weight1 b :5 ! wat] is 9 motion is dragg$ %ut1 only to spr+ op5 aga9 :5 ! pressure is r$uc$ by ! escape ( ! wat] into ! air *amb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,! ,,gyrat+ ,,wat] ,,met] ,!re is a v +5i\s wat]-driv5 motor :i* is employ$ m]ely to record ! am\nt ( wat] fl[+ ?r\gh x4 ,?is is ! ,?omson wat] met] :i* is illu/rat$ 9 ,figure #cd4 ,x consi/s ( a circul> *amb] ) inw>dly di%$ or conical top & bottom walls4 ,9 ! *amb] is a flat disk ) a ball & socket be>+4 ,at "o side !re is a v]tical diaphragm 9 ! *amb] :i* passes ?r\gh a slot 9 ! disk4 ,?is prev5ts ! disk f revolv+1 b x is free to oscillate4 ,x has a motion simil> to ! gyrations ( a top :5 x is beg9n+ to lose spe$ & die d[n1 except t ! disk does n revolve4 ,:5 ! disk is 9 contact ) ! bottom wall ( ! *amb] on "o side x contacts ) ! top wall on ! o!r s t ! *amb] is virtually divid$ into two comp>tm5ts by ! disk1 b by gyrat+ ! disk ^! comp>tm5ts are made to revolve4 ,wat] ent]s at "o side & dis*>ges at ! o!r side ( ! v]tical diaphragm4 ,n[1 if ! disk is 9 ! position %[n 9 ,figure #cd1 ! wat]1 on ent]+1 be>s ^u ! upp] face ( ! incl9$ disk & w$ges its way betwe5 ! disk & ! upp] wall ( ! *amb]1 mak+ ! disk oscillate on its ball c5t]4 ,z ! edge ( ! disk rises across ! face ( inlet port ! wat] ent]+ ! *amb] be>s aga9/ ! "u side ( ! disk1 cont9u+ ! gyratory motion4 ,! wat] cut (f on ! upp] side ( ! disk is c>ri$ ar\nd to ! outlet & dis*>ges1 :ile a fre% supply fl[s 9 on ! o!r side ( ! v]tical p>tition & at ! next half turn ! wat] 9 ! l[] comp>tm5t dis*>ges at ! outlet side ( ! p>tition1 :ile ! comp>tm5t is fill+ on ! o!r side ( ! p>tition4 ,a measur$ am\nt ( wat] fl[s ?r\gh ! *amb] at ea* gyratory oscillation ( ! disk4 ,a tra9 ( ge>+ is driv5 by ! gyrat+ disk :i* op]ates a set ( dial po9t]s & a measure ( ! am\nt ( wat] pass+ ?r\gh ! met] is indicat$4 ,,digg+ ,,) ,,wat] ,,jets ,we h ref]r$ to ! enorm\s velocity ( ! jets us$ to drive ,pelton :eels4 ,:]e high heads ( wat] are obta9able wat] jets are us$ v effectively = excavat+ purposes1 p>ticul>ly 9 m9+ plants = wa%+ d[n gold-be>+ gravel banks4 ,if wat] is n f\nd ne> su* banks exp5sive canals1 flumes1 & pipe l9es are con/ruct$ & ev5 tunnels are bor$ to br+ ! wat] to ! po9t :]e x c be utiliz$4 ,"s ( ! giant nozzles sp\t /reams f #b to #h in*es 9 diamet] ) a pressure ( f #ej to #bjj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,! p[]ful /reams te> into ! gravel banks1 wa%+ !m away into sluices 9 :i* riffle boxes are plac$ to cat* ! preci\s metal4 ,! back pressure ( ^! nozzles is v heavy & ! l>g] ones h to be provid$ ) /rong an*orages4 ,wat] 9 motion resi/s any *ange ( direction & long lev]s h to be provid$ to p]mit ! m9]s to guide ! nozzles4 ,! hydraulic jet is also us$ = g5]al excavat+ :]ev] wat] p[] is available4 ,sometimes x is employ$ "u wat] :5 cle>+ a *annel to level d[n piles ( /ones t are too l>ge to be pick$ up by a suction dr$ge4 ,holl[ iron piles are driv5 into a s&y bottom by means ( hydraulic jets4 ,no hamm] is ne$$4 ,wat] is pump$ into ! pile & on issu+ f ! bottom ( ! pile x c>ries s& ) x1 mak+ a hole into :i* ! pile s9ks4 ,wood5 piles are driv5 9 ! same way by loosely atta*+ a wat] pipe to !m s t ! pipe may be )drawn :5 ! pile has be5 driv5 f> en\gh4 ,! pile is groov$ at ! l[] end s t ! pipe outlet may be c5t]$ at ! bottom ( ! pile4 ,,compress+ ,,air ,,) ,,wat] ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,,h[ ,,! ,,v5a ,,contracta ,,raises ,,wat] ,a v +5i\s app>atus = compress+ air 0 inv5t$ 9 ! e>lie/ ye>s ( ! iron age to furni% a cont9u\s bla/ ( air = ! ,catalan =ges4 ,?is compressor1 kn[n z a 8trompe10 c h>dly be t]m$ a ma*9e because x conta9s no mov+ p>ts except wat]1 :i* is ! motive p[]1 & ! air :i* x traps & compresses4 ,to und]/& its op]ation we mu/ look into a peculi> prop]ty ( wat] fl[+ out ( a res]voir into a pipe or nozzle4 ,!re is a conv]g+ motion t t5ds to contract ! jet ( wat] j aft] x leaves ! pipe4 ,?is is kn[n z ! v5a contracta4 ,x produces a p>tial vacuum 9 ! pipe4 ,if air ports are op5$ into ! pipe at ?is po9t1 air w be suck$ 9 to fill ! vacuum & w be c>ri$ out ( ! pipe by ! friction ( ! wat]4 ,9 ,figure #ce a pipe is %[n runn+ f ! v5a contracta to a wat] tank bel[4 ,! rise ( wat] 9 ?is pipe indicates ! degree ( vacuum produc$ by ! jet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,,! 8,,trompe0 ,,by ,,:i* ,,compress$ ,,air ,,0 ,,furni%$ ,,= ,,catalan ,,=ges ,?is pr9ciple is us$ 9 ! hydraulic-air compressor or 8trompe0 z x is call$4 ,wat] fl[s out ( "o res]voir ?r\gh a pipe into ano!r res]voir l[] d[n4 7,see ,figure #cf47 ,air ent]s ! pipe ?r\gh ports at ! po9t :]e ! ve9 ( wat] contracts & is c>ri$ d[n into ! second res]voir4 ,?is res]voir is seal$ s t ! air is trapp$ 9 x4 ,! wat] passes out ?r\gh a pipe :i* is c>ri$ high en\gh to keep a c]ta9 pressure ( air 9 ! res]voir & prev5t x f bl[+ out4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,,diagrammatic ,,section ,,( ,a ,,l>ge ,,hydraulic ,,air ,,compressor ,,9 ,,mi*igan ,!re is a compressor ( ?is type1 con/ruct$ on an enorm\s scale1 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ,mi*igan4 ,a sket* ( ! compressor is giv5 9 ,figure #cg4 ,! air res]voir 9 ?is case is a huge und]gr\nd rock-wall$ *amb] ne>ly #cej feet bel[ ! surface1 #h feet wide1 #bf feet high1 & ab\t #bhj feet long4 ,!re are ?ree intake pipes1 #e feet 9 diamet]1 ea* fill$ ) an annul> funnel-%ap$ head1 :i* sucks air into ! wat] & c>ries x d[n into ! *amb]4 ,at ! bottom ( ea* intake pipe !re is a concrete block ) a conical top project+ up into ! pipe4 ,! column ( wat] fl[+ d[n ! pipe is spread out into an annul> /ream by ! conical block & ! bubbles ( air escape into ! *amb]4 ,! wat] outlet ( ! *amb] is an incl9$ %aft :i* leads up ab\t #bgj feet to ! surface ( ! gr\nd :]e x dis*>ges into ! tail race4 ,! wat] is =c$ up ?is incl9$ %aft by ! pressure ( ! air trapp$ 9 ! *amb]4 ,! m\? ( ! %aft is1 ( c\rse1 bel[ ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! *amb] s t !re is no *ance = ! air to escape unless ! pressure becomes excessively high1 :5 x w =ce ! wat] level bel[ ! m\? ( ! %aft & bl[ out4 ,! dis*>ge sometimes =ms a geys] #gjj feet high4 ,! air w cont9ue to bl[ until ! pressure is r$uc$ en\gh = ! wat] level to rise & cut (f access ( ! air to ! m\? ( ! %aft4 ,"u normal conditions !re is a fall ( #cdc feet f ! wat] level at ! top ( ! intake pipe to ! wat] level 9 ! *amb]1 & a v]tical rise ( #bga feet f ! wat] level 9 ! *amb] to ! tail-wat] level4 ,! diff]5ce1 or #gb feet1 repres5ts ! work+ head4 ,) all ?ree intakes op]at+1 a total ( #e1jjj horsep[] is develop$4 ,ea* intake deliv]s #aa1icj cubic feet ( air p] m9ute at a pressure ( #abh p\nds4 ,air ent]s ! intake heads ?r\gh tubes in* 9 diamet] & !re are #a1hjj ( !m to ea* head4 ,! air is employ$ to op]ate ma*9]y & tools 9 an adjac5t m9e4 ,"o advantage ( ?is type ( air compressor is t x cools ! air :ile compress+ x4 ,?is 0 h>dly an advantage 9 ! ,catalan =ges1 b :5 ! air is us$ to drive ma*9]y x is important t x be precool$4 ,:5 air is compress$ by me*anical means a great deal ( heat is g5]at$ & ! ma*9es mu/ be wat] jacket$ to extract ?is heat1 b 9 ! hydraulic compressor ! air bubbles are compress$ z !y pass d[n ) ! wat] to ! res]voir & ! wat] absorbs ! heat1 deliv]+ cool compress$ air at ! bottom ( ! intake pipe4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,liquid ,,lev]s ,,& ,,ge>s ,,_m an inv5tor has /ray$ (f into ! delusive pursuit ( p]petual motion because he did n "k t ! pressure 9 a body ( wat] at any giv5 po9t is equal 9 all directions1 upw>d1 d[nw>d1 or lat]ally4 ,a cubic foot ( wat] weighs #fb p\nds4 ,take a holl[ column ) an int]nal cross-sectional area ( "o squ>e foot & if x be fill$ ) wat] to a dep? ( t5 feet !re w be a weight ( #fbe p\nds ( wat] 9 ! column & h5ce a pressure ( #fbe on ! bottom ( ! tube or #d4cd p\nds on e squ>e in* ( ! bottom4 ,b ! wat] presses on ! sides ( ! tube z well & ! am\nt ( ?is pressure dep5ds ^u ! dep? or 8head0 ( wat] & n ^u ! quantity ( wat]4 ,at ! bottom ( ! tube ! pressure on ! side walls is #fbe p\nds p] squ>e foot or #d4cd p\nds p] squ>e in*2 at a dep? ( "o foot ! pressure on ! side walls is #fb4e p\nds p] squ>e foot or 4#dcd p\nd p] squ>e in*2 at a dep? ( two feet x w be 4#hfd p\nd p] squ>e in*1 etc4 ,! pressure on ea* squ>e in* dep5ds n ^u ! mass ( ! wat] b ^u its dep?4 ,if ! column ( wat] _h a cross-sectional area ( a mile or a ?\s& miles1 ! pressure at a dep? ( "o foot w\ld always be 4#dcd p\nd p] squ>e in*4 7,( c\rse !re are slight v>iations f ?is figure due to salt or o!r sub/ances dissolv$ 9 wat] or to *anges 9 d5sity produc$ by v>iations ( temp]ature1 b we ne$ n consid] su* m9ute diff]5ces "h47 ,t is :y a dam :i* is /rong en\gh to hold back ! wat]s ( a pond w be j z able to hold back ! wat]s ( ! :ole ocean if x be plac$ 9 a %elt]$ bay :]e ocean waves _c te> x to pieces4 ,! ocean1 despite its enorm\s mass1 c ex]t no m pressure p] foot ( dep? ?an ! wat] 9 a ci/]n4 ,,:y ,a ,,%ip ,,floats ,x is because ! pressure ( wat] at a giv5 dep? is ex]t$ upw>d1 z well z lat]ally & d[nw>d1 t a %ip floats4 ,x is ! upw>d pressure ( ! wat] t holds up ! boat4 ,:5 an object is plac$ 9 a res]voir ( wat] x s9ks into zones ( increas+ pressure until x f9ally rea*es a dep? at :i* ! pressure on ! bottom ( ! object balances ! weight ( ! body4 ,if ! body is entirely subm]g$ be=e rea*+ su* a po9t1 x w cont9ue to s9k to ! bottom ( ! res]voir because wat] w fl[ ov] ! top ( ! object & keep add+ d[nw>d pressure to (fset ! increas+ upw>d pressure4 ,! am\nt ( wat] 9 ! res]voir makes no diff]5ce4 ,a battle%ip w float j z high 9 a flood$ dry dock z x w 9 ! op5 ocean4 ,if ! dry dock 7 s n>r[ z to leave a cle>ance ( b a few in*es ( wat] ar\nd ! %ip1 ! latt] w\ld /ill float ev5 ?\gh ! %ip weigh$ consid]ably m ?an ! wat] 9 ! dock4 ,!re is a big diff]5ce1 !n1 betwe5 ! weight ( wat] & ! pressure x ex]ts4 ,9 ,figure #ch we h an ,l-%ap$ receptacle ) ! l[] arm ( ! ,l t]m9at+ 9 a *amb] ,a4 ,! top wall ,b ( ?is *amb] measures t5 squ>e in*es4 ,! tube ,c has a cross sectional area ( "o squ>e in*4 ,if tube ,c is fill$ to a height ( twelve in*es above wall ,b we %all h an upw>d pressure ( #j4dcd p\nd on e squ>e in* ( wall ,b1 or a total ( #d4cd p\nds4 ,if by means ( a plung] ,d we add a hundr$ p\nds ( pressure to ! column ( wat] 9 tube ,c1 we %all be add+ a ?\s& p\nds to ! pressure on ! wall ,b4 ,! side walls & bottom ( ! *amb] ,a w also be subject$ to a pressure ( #a1jjj p\nds p] in* plus ! pressure due to ! dep? or head ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,diagram ,,illu/rat+ ,,hydro/atic ,,pressure ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,air-,,lock ,,( ,a ,,pneumatic ,,caisson ,illu/ration3 ,,subaque\s ,,tunnel1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,%ield ,,9 ,,! ,,backgr\nd ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,! ,,hydraulic ,,press ,"h1 !n1 we h a conv5i5t means ( multiply+ =ce or ef=t & x is a means t is us$ v l>gely 9 c]ta9 classes ( ma*9]y4 ,figure #ci is a diagrammatic repres5tation ( a hydraulic press4 ,x consi/s ( a cyl9d] ,a 9 :i* is fitt$ a ram ,b4 ,an ,l-%ap$ tube ,c connects ) ! cyl9d] & is fitt$ ) a plung] ,d4 ,! cyl9d] & tube are fill$ ) wat] & !n :5 ! plung] is depress$ ! ram ,b has to rise1 ,if ! area ( ! plung] is "o squ>e in* & t ( ! ram ?irty squ>e in*es1 a #ajj p\nds pressure on ! plung] w ex]t #c1jjj p\nds ( lift on ! ram4 ,,hydraulic ,,lev]age ,h[ev]1 we mu/ rememb] t 9 me*anics1 z 9 all walks ( life1 we _c get 8some?+ = no?+40 ,if we multiply ! pressure or =ce1 we mu/ pay = x 9 "s way1 o!rwise we %\ld be gett+ m "w out ( ! press ?an we put 9 x1 :i* is :at ! p]petual motion crank is ev] try+ to d4 ,z ! cross-sectional area ( ! plung] ,d is only #a_/cj? ( t ( ! ram1 ! plung] mu/ desc5d ?irty in*es to raise ! ram "o in*4 ,we ne$ n consid] ! diff]5ce 9 ! head ( wat] because x w\ld n am\nt to m ?an a few ounces at mo/1 nor ne$ we consid] frictional losses4 ,! case is p>allel to t ( ! lev]4 ,9 fact1 we may consid] ! hydraulic press z a fluid lev] ) ! wat] 9 tube ,c z ! ef=t arm & t 9 cyl9d] ,a z ! weight arm4 ,! two arms are "h s proportion$ t ! p[] arm mu/ move ?irty times z f> z ! weight arm4 ,! "w put into ! press is exactly balanc$ by t we get out ( x4 ,an ef=t ( #ajj p\nds ex]t$ ?r\gh a di/ance ( ?irty in*es is exactly balanc$ by ! mov+ ( #c1jjj p\nds ?r\gh a di/ance ( "o in*4 ,x is a decid$ disadvantage to h to move ! plung] s f> & 9 actual comm]cial practice h&-op]at$ hydraulic presses are n work$ 9 t way4 ,a pump is us$ to =ce wat] into ! cyl9d] s t a great _m %ort /rokes may be tak5 9 place ( "o long "o1 & ! pump h&le provides an add$ lev]age1 enabl+ a man ) little ef=t to ex]t an enorm\s lift4 ,! wat] ent]s ! ram cyl9d] ?r\gh a valve1 & ! pressure is ma9ta9$ on ! ram until reliev$ by ! op5+ ( an outlet port4 ,,maudsley',s ,,lea!r ,,coll> ,all ?is seems v simple & "o w\ld suppose t ! inv5tor ( ! hydraulic press mu/ h be5 exceptionally free f ! tr\bles & trials t beset mo/ inv5tors4 ,h[ev]1 !re is a va/ diff]5ce betwe5 a laboratory app>atus & a comm]cial ma*9e4 ,:51 t[>ds ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 ,joseph ,bramah1 ! em95t ,briti% tool build]1 inv5t$ ! hydraulic press1 he exp]i5c$ all sorts ( difficulty 9 hold+ ! wat] 9 ! ram cyl9d]4 ,( c\rse1 ! ram has to slide freely into & out ( ! cyl9d]1 b h[ c\ld he prev5t ! wat] f leak+ out pa/ ! ram8 ,he resort$ to all ! plumb+ exp$i5ts ( ! day4 ,he us$ a /uff+ box & gl&1 b :5 ?is 0 pack$ tight en\gh to hold ! wat] 91 x gripp$ ! ram s tightly t ! latt] w\ld n move d[n into ! cyl9d] on ! return /roke4 ,bramah _h 9 8 employ a v clev] "y me*anic nam$ ,h5ry ,maudsley1 :o lat] became fam\s z an inv5tor & design] ( ma*9e tools4 ,we read ( him 9 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,maudsley attack$ ! baffl+ problem ( ! hydraulic press & provid$ a solution t survives to ?is day4 ,9 place ( ! /uff+ box :i* is a means ( jamm+ a mass ( cotton wa/e ab\t ! coll>1 he provid$ a cupp$ lea!r coll>4 ,:5 ! pressure 0 appli$ x exp&$ ! coll> & made x be> tightly aga9/ ! ram1 b on reliev+ ! hydraulic pressure ! pressure ( ! cup lea!r 0 also r$uc$ automatically4 ,!re are _m ma*9es analog\s to ! hydraulic press 9 pr9ciple4 ,!y d n use wat] 9 e case = ! fluid lev]4 ,:]e ! fluid is us$ ov] & ov] aga9 oil is frequ5tly employ$4 ,! compactness ( ?is =m ( lev] makes x mo/ useful :]ev] an op]ation calls = ! ov]com+ ( a v heavy load or resi/ance ?r\gh a relatively %ort di/ance4 ,= in/ance1 !re are ma*9es = b5d+ pipe1 = curv+ railroad rails1 = pun*+ holes 9 metal1 = pull+ :eels (f _! %afts1 = jack+ up heavy weights1 = bal+ cotton1 pap]1 & o!r mat]ials1 all ( :i* op]ate on ! same pr9ciple z ! hydraulic press4 ,wat] pressure is suppli$ sometimes by a h& pump1 sometimes by a p[]-driv5 pump1 & sometimes x is tak5 f a res]voir 9 :i* compress$ air imp>ts ! requisite pressure to ! wat]4 ,,bla/+ ,,) ,,wat] ,a novel use ( wat] pressure has be5 develop$ 9 ,engl&4 ,9 c]ta9 m9es x is dang]\s to use dynamite = bla/+ purposes ow+ to ! pres5ce ( explosive gases1 & successful exp]im5ts h be5 made ) hydraulic c>tridges4 ,?is consi/s ( a cyl9d] ( /eel fitt$ ) a s]ies ( little plung]s arrang$ 9 a r[ 9 ! cyl9drical wall ( ! c>tridge4 ,z 9 p[d] bla/+1 a s]ies ( holes are drill$ 9 ! face ( ! rock & ! c>tridges ) ! plung]s retract$ are fitt$ into ! holes4 ,!n ! c>tridges are connect$ to a high-pressure wat] supply4 ,! wat] =ces ! plung]s out1 ex]t+ en\gh pressure to bur/ ! rock4 ,n only is ?is sy/em p]fectly safe1 b x is economical1 because ! gall]y does n h to be cle>$ ( workm5 be=e e bla/4 ,!re is m c]ta9ty 9 ! use ( wat] c>tridges1 & ! dang]1 common :]e dynamite is us$1 ( hav+ ! rock drill or pick /rike & explode a /ick ( dynamite :i* fail$ to g (f ) ! re/ ( ! *>ge 9 a previ\s bla/ is avoid$4 ,hydraulic pressure is also us$ 9 jacks = lift+ heavy weights4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! hydraulic jack is ! same z t ( ! hydraulic press4 ,,rais+ ,a ,,bridge ,,span ,,) ,,wat] ,an int]e/+ illu/ration ( ! use ( ^! liquid lev]s 0 af=d$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! ,quebec ,bridge4 ,?is huge bridge1 x w be recall$1 consi/s ( two cantilev]s :i* /ret* out f opposite %ores ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,riv] & support betwe5 !m a c5t] span #fdj feet long & weigh+ #e1djj tons4 ,! span 0 built on b>ges1 t[$ d[n to position betwe5 ! cantilev] arms & !n lift$ up #aej feet to ! floor level ( ! bridge4 ,eight #a1jjj-ton hydraulic lift+ jacks 7 us$1 two at ea* corn] ( ! span4 ,!y 7 ideally suit$ to ?is k9d ( "w4 ,! bridge span _h to be lift$ ) utmo/ c>e & ! motion _h to be simultane\s on all f\r corn]s4 ,if "o corn] 7 rais$ fa/] ?an ano!r ! span w\ld be twi/$ & subject$ to s]i\s /ra9s4 ,9 ! fir/ attempt ! fa/5+ gave way at "o corn] & ! span crumpl$ up & plung$ d[n into ! riv]4 ,b a ye> lat] at ! second attempt ! span 0 hoi/$ successfully to position4 ,! jacks _h a lift ( two feet1 &1 c\nt+ ! "t requir$ to secure ! huge plate *a9s by :i* ! span 0 susp5d$1 move ! jacks d[n & give !m a fre% hold1 x took f\rte5 m9utes to complete ea* two-foot lift4 ,! "w 0 done only dur+ ! daylight h\rs & on ! ?ird day ! span 0 f9ally br\ght into position & made fa/ to ! cantilev] arms by means ( twelve-in* p9s driv5 home at ea* corn]4 ,hydraulic p[] is us$ v l>gely 9 ! op]ation ( cranes4 ,z ! plung] or ram has a v limit$ range ( motion "s means ( multiply+ di/ance ( travel is requir$4 ,"o simple s*eme is to use a set ( pulley :eels or %eaves atta*$ to ! cyl9d] & ano!r set to ! ram & pass ! hoi/+ *a9 ar\nd !m4 ,if we ref] back to ,figure #af1 on page #cd1 we %all see t sev5 feet ( rope mu/ be pull$ 9 at ,e 9 ord] to raise ! l[] pulley block "o foot4 ,x is v evid5t t ! process c be rev]s$4 ,p[] might be appli$ to spread ! two-pulley blocks ap>t :5 a movem5t ( "o foot w\ld produce a travel ( sev5 feet at ,e4 ,t is :at is done on ! hydraulic crane4 ,! ram is lift$1 spread+ ! pulley blocks ap>t & ?us multiply+ ! motion ( ! lift+ cable to any ext5t1 dep5d+ ^u ! numb] ( %eaves1 s t a travel ( b a few feet w result 9 lift+ a load =ty or fifty feet4 ,,hydraulic ,,elevators ,! same pr9ciple is us$ 9 hydraulic elevators4 ,! hydraulic cyl9d] lies horizontally on ! basem5t floor & by means ( pulley ge>+ a %ort motion ( ! plung] is suffici5t to raise ! c> sev]al /ories4 ,9 a m mod]n type ( elevator ! plung] acts directly on ! c>4 ,! plung] is long en\gh to rea* to ! top /ory ( ! build+ :i* means t x mu/ s9k f> into ! gr\nd 9 ord] to let ! c> d[n to ! fir/ /ory or basem5t4 ,a /eel pipe is sunk into ! gr\nd & s]ves z ! cyl9d] & 9 ?is ! long plung] op]ates4 ,9 "o ( ,new ,york's tall build+s ! c>s are lift$ to a height ( #bhb feet4 ,! plung]s are #f in*es 9 diamet] & !y travel at a spe$ ( ov] #djj feet p] m9ute4 ,! c> :i*1 :5 load$1 weighs #a1fag p\nds1 is support$ on ! top ( ! plung]4 ,h[ev]1 c\nt]weights are provid$ :i* balance ! weight ( ! c>1 s t practically ! only weight lift$ by ! plung] is t ( ! pass5g]s4 ,! advantage ( ?is type ( elevator is t x r$uces ! dang] ( accid5t4 ,! motion ( ! c> is /eady & easily controll$4 ,! c> _c move d[n above a giv5 spe$ & ! only possible dang] is t ! plung] might break4 ,h[ev]1 a %aft ( /eel #f in*es 9 diamet]1 ev5 if holl[1 is h>dly likely to give way ev5 "u ! mo/ extraord9>y loads to :i* x might be subject$ 9 elevator s]vice4 ,,lift ,,locks ,,= ,,canals ,!re is ano!r type ( elevator t completely dw>fs any?+ us$ 9 (fice build+s4 ,on "s canals :]e x is necess>y to make a sudd5 *ange ( level ( consid]able ext5t1 in/ead ( us+ a flight ( locks1 a hydraulic elevator is employ$ to lift or l[] n only ! vessel b ! wat] x is float$ 94 ,!re are two huge tanks :i* ply betwe5 ! upp] & l[] levels ( ! canal4 ,^! are s connect$ t z "o rises ! o!r desc5ds4 ,! tanks are big en\gh to take 9 ! l>ge/ vessels t are likely to use ! canal4 ,!y are fitt$ ) wat]-tight gates at ea* end1 & aft] a vessel has ent]$ "o ( !m1 say at ! l[] level1 ! gate beh9d x is clos$4 ,!n hydraulic me*anism is op]at$ to lift ! tank1 & :5 ! top is rea*$ ! o!r gate is op5$ & ! vessel sails out into ! upp] level4 ,x seems l a trem5d\s und]tak+ to lift a heavy %ip1 b ! two tanks balance ea* o!r & ! only "w t has to be done is to ov]come ! friction & in]tia4 ,no matt] h[ heavy a vessel may be1 x w n di/urb ! balance betwe5 ! two tanks4 ,nor is x necess>y to h a %ip 9 ea* tank1 = ! same dep? ( wat] is ma9ta9$ 9 ! two tanks1 & :5 a %ip ent]s ! weight ( ! tank is n increas$1 = ! %ip displaces its own weight ( wat]4 ,,hydraulic ,,v>iable ,,spe$ ,,ge> ,wat] is frequ5tly us$ to take ! place ( too!d ge>+ = ! transmission ( p[]1 p>ticul>ly :]e x is desirable to v>y spe$4 ,"o ( ! disadvantages ( too!d ge>+ is t a *ange ( spe$ c only be made by %ift+ ge>s4 ,! spe$ _c be v>i$ gradually b is *ang$ by abrupt /eps4 ,! guns ( a battle%ip mu/ be kept tra9$ on ! t>get1 :ile ! %ip rolls 9 ! waves "u !m1 s z to be ready = a broadside at any in/ant4 ,a telescope is secur$ to ! b>rel ( ! gun & a man kn[n z a 8po9t]0 tries to keep ! cross-hairs ( a telescope on ! t>get by con/antly elevat+ or depress+ ! gun4 ,! spe$ ( ! elevat+ ma*9]y mu/ be con/antly *ang+2 n[ runn+ at high spe$1 ! next in/ant b>ely mov+1 & ! next mom5t rev]s+4 ,to produce ^! v>iations a hydraulic v>iable spe$ ge> is us$4 ,! con/ruction is some:at complicat$1 b ! g5]al pr9ciple ( op]ation is simple4 ,9 a common pump wat] is lift$ by op]at+ a plung] 9 & out ( a cyl9d]4 ,x w be readily und]/ood t ! op]ation may be rev]s$1 & if p[] is appli$ to ! wat] to =ce x ?r\gh ! pump1 x w make ! plung]s move 9 & out ( ! cyl9d]4 ,9 ! hydraulic v>iable spe$ ge> ! driv+ %aft is made to op]ate a set ( little pumps :i* are connect$ to a second s]ies ( pumps t act ^u ! driv5 %aft4 ,in/ead ( wat] oil is us$1 & ! oil pump$ by ! driv+ pumps is =c$ into ! driv5 pumps4 ,! latt] pumps are s connect$ to ! driv5 %aft z to cause x to rotate4 ,b by a simple me*anical exp$i5t ! /roke ( ! driv+ pumps c be v>i$ at w f maximum to z]o1 & ! motion ( ! pumps c also be rev]s$4 ,! v>iable am\nt ( oil pump$ into ! driv5 pumps v>ies ! spe$ ( ! driv5 %aft1 = if x takes two /rokes ( a driv+ pump to fill ! cyl9d] ( a driv5 pump ! driv5 %aft w travel at only half ! spe$ ( ! driv+ %aft4 ,9 turb9e-driv5 vessels "s sort ( ge>+ is requir$ betwe5 ! propell] & ! turb9e4 ,9 ord] to op]ate at its be/ effici5cy a turb9e mu/ run at v high spe$1 b ?is spe$ is entirely too high = ! propell]4 ,!re is a limit to ! rate at :i* a propell] may be driv54 ,if ?is limit is exce$$1 ! propell] m]ely bores a hole 9 ! wat]1 =m+ a vacuum :i* produces a drag on ! %ip4 ,x is cu/om>y to int]pose "s =m ( ge>+ betwe5 ! propell] & ! turb9e %aft1 b because ( ! high spe$ & ! va/ am\nt ( p[] to be transmitt$ x is a difficult matt] to design ge>+ t w be reliable4 ,fur!rmore1 x is desirable to v>y ! spe$ ( ! vessel & ev5 to rev]se x )\t sl[+ d[n ! turb9e eng9e4 ,9 "s cases a specially design$ sy/em ( too!d ge>+ has be5 employ$1 9 ano!r ! p[] ( ! turb9e is conv]t$ into electricity & !n reconv]t$ into me*anical p[] by means ( a motor on ! propell] %aft4 ,?is provides a v effici5t transmission1 because ! electricity c be v conv5i5tly controll$ to accel]ate1 ret>d1 or rev]se ! spe$ ( ! propell] motor4 ,! same ?+ c also be done by us+ a hydraulic transmission ge>4 ,?is1 al?\gh q diff]5t f ! v>iable-spe$ ge>1 yet op]ates on ! same g5]al pr9ciple4 ,! turb9e drives a c5trifugal pump & ! wat] ?us pump$ is f$ to a horizontal wat] turb9e on ! propell] %aft4 ,by an +5i\s arrangem5t ( turb9e :eels ! spe$ ( ! propell] %aft may be v>i$ at w4 ,hydraulic ma*9]y is notable = its reliability4 ,sometimes wat] or oil is us$ z a conv5i5t means ( transmitt+ pressure f "o "p ( a ma*9e to ano!r4 ,if we take a tube fill$ ) wat] & fit a plung] 9 ea* end1 !n1 :5 "o plung] is depress$ or pu%$ 91 ! o!r w be express$ or pu%$ out4 ,! pipe may be twi/$ ar\nd 9 any direction or be ti$ up 9 a d\ble b[knot1 & yet pressure appli$ to "o cyl9d] w imm$iately be felt by ! o!r4 ,?is me?od ( transmission may d away ) a va/ numb] ( ge>s or lev]s4 ,wat] is comp>atively incompressible & h5ce n a v adaptable means ( transmitt+ p[]1 b a c]ta9 am\nt ( flexibility is secur$ 9 "s sy/ems by ! use ( :at is t]m$ an 8accumulator40 ,?is consi/s ( a l>ge cyl9d] fitt$ ) a plung]4 ,! plung] is heavily weight$ & x ma9ta9s a con/ant pressure ^u ! column ( wat] 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,if1 = in/ance1 a hydraulic crane is be+ us$ & sudd5ly a l>g] quantity ( wat] is requir$ ?an w\ld normally be deliv]$ by a pump1 x is automatically suppli$ f ! cyl9d] ( ! accumulator1 & at a con/ant pressure4 ,! accumulator is arrang$ to control ! ?rottle valve ( ! /eam pump+ eng9e s t :5 ! plung] ( ! accumulator rea*es a pr$et]m9$ height ! /ream is cut (f & ! eng9e /ops pump+4 ,,transmitt+ ,,p[] ,,) ,,s\nd ,,waves ,dur+ ! w> a new use ( wat] = p[] transmission 0 discov]$ & x is n[ be+ develop$ = ! op]ation ( m9+ ma*9]y4 ,! inv5tor ( ! new transmission is ,george ,con/ant9esco1 a ,rumanian eng9e]4 ,8 fir/ application ( ! inv5tion 0 to a me*anism = syn*roniz+ ! fir+ ( a ma*9e gun ) ! rotation ( an airplane propell]1 s t x 0 possible to fire ?r\gh ! propell] )\t dang] ( /rik+ its blades4 ,!re 7 sev]al exi/+ me?ods ( ge>+ ! propell] to ! ma*9e gun1 b ,con/ant9esco's sy/em prov$ s mu* m reliable t x 0 adopt$ & widely us$ by ! ,briti% 9 _! battle planes4 ,in/ead ( ge>s & lev]s1 ! ,rumanian eng9e] us$ a column ( wat] 9 a heavy /eel tube to conduct impulses f ! propell] to ! ma*9e gun4 ,! pulsations produc$ by ! propell] 7 too rapid to cause an actual displacem5t ( ! :ole column ( wat] 9 ! tube1 b a wave ( pressure travel$ ?r\gh ! wat] column at an enorm\sly high velocity4 ,we are wont to ?9k ( liquids z incompressible1 b !y are actually slightly compressible & highly ela/ic4 ,?is is demon/rat$ by ! subm>9e telephone or ! subm>9e bell4 ,wat]1 we "k1 is an excell5t m$ium = ! transmission ( s\nd1 b s\nd1 we "k1 is produc$ by a succession ( pressure waves4 ,if wat] 7 absolutely incompressible1 x c\ld n convey s\nd f "o po9t to ano!r4 ,:5 s\nd travels ?r\gh a speak+ tube ! :ole column ( air does n move back & =? simultane\sly1 b x is divid$ into a s]ies ( waves4 ,ea* p>ticle ( air has a local oscillatory motion :i* x communicates to its neighbor1 produc+ alt]nate compression & r>efication1 & x is ?is wave action t travels ?r\gh ! column4 ,! same is true ( wat]1 except t ! rate ( travel ( ! pressure wave 9 wat] is mu* high] ?an 9 air1 namely #d1hjj feet p] second4 ,x is ?is wave transmission t ,con/ant9esco employ$ & :i* he calls 8sonic0 wave transmission4 ,to-day sonic wave transmission is us$ to op]ate rock drills4 ,a wave g5]ator is us$1 :i* acts some:at on ! pr9ciple ( a pump4 ,a pair ( plung]s are reciprocat$ at a rate ( =ty /rokes p] second by means ( an electric or gasol9e motor1 & !y produce a tra9 ( pressure waves 9 a column ( wat]4 ,! wat] is conta9$ 9 a specially design$ flexible /eel pip+ :i* runs to ! rock drill4 ,! pressure waves op]ate a plung] 9 ! drill & ! plung] c>ries ! drill /eel4 ,! latt] p\nds ! rock "u ! wave impulses at ! rate ( =ty /rokes p] second4 ,sonic wave transmission is analog\s to alt]nat+ curr5t transmission ( electricity4 ,!re are direct equival5ts 9 ! wave transmission1 ( volts1 amp]es1 frequ5cy1 angle ( phase1 induction1 inductance1 capacity1 resi/ance1 cond5s]s1 trans=m]s1 & s+le-phase or polyphase sy/ems4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,air ,,vs4 ,,wat] ,,! ,,/eam eng9e _h its orig9 9 a kit*52 ! mod]n clock 0 fir/ conceiv$ 9 a ca!dral2 our laws ( motion 7 discov]$ "u an apple tree1 b1 /range/ ( all1 pneumatic eng9e]+ _h its beg9n+ 9 a b>b] %op4 ,9 ea* case x 0 an inquisitive boy :o play$ ! lead+ rle4 ,we d n he> mu* ab\t ! y\?ful fa!r ( pneumatic eng9e]+1 possibly because he liv$ s v long ago1 b 8 /ory is fully z int]e/+ z t ( ,watt or ,galileo or ,newton4 ,"y ,ctesibius dwelt 9 ! city ( ,alex&ria1 ,egypt1 #bej ye>s be=e ! bir? ( ,*ri/4 ,8 fa!r kept a b>b] %op1 & ! "y lad us$ to wat* 8 fa!r practice 8 tonsorial art on ! ,greek & ,egyptian d&ies ( ! "t4 ,no d\bt ,ctesibius's fa!r expect$ to make a fir/-rate b>b] ( 8 son1 b hi/ory does n tell u mu* ab\t 8 e>ly life4 ,! b>b]s ( ^? days _h _! mirrors z d ! b>b]s ( ! pres5t "t4 ,b a mirror 9 ^? days 0 a treasur$ possession4 ,x consi/$ ( a brightly poli%$ plate ( metal 9 :i* a p]son c\ld see himself 8d>kly0 or x might h be5 a plate ( glass ) a black back+4 ,^! mirrors _h to be c>efully pres]v$ f injury & f moi/ure1 & s1 in/ead ( hav+ !m m\nt$ on ! wall z 9 a mod]n b>b] %op1 !y 7 /[$ c>efully away & br\ght out only aft] ! tonsorial arti/ _h complet$ 8 op]ation & 0 ready to exhibit 8 f9i%$ product to ! cu/om]4 ,,! ,,boy ,,:o ,,discov]$ ,,compress$ ,,air ,n[ 9 ! tonsorial p>lors ( ,ctesibius's fa!r ! preci\s mirror 0 susp5d$ above ! head ( ! cu/om] & :5 ! b>b] _h f9i%$ ! %ave or haircut he pull$ d[n ! mirror & let ! cu/om] survey 8 remodel$ c\nt5ance4 ,aft] ! cu/om] view$ himself to 8 he>t's cont5t he m]ely releas$ ! mirror & x 0 automatically drawn back into place by a c\nt]weight t slid 9 a case fa/5$ to ! wall4 ,"y ,ctesibius notic$ t e "t ! mirror 0 releas$ a curi\s :i/l+ s\nd came f ! case 9 :i* ! c\nt]weight mov$4 ,no d\bt ?is ph5om5on _h be5 recurr+ day aft] day = ye>s1 b x excit$ no m curiosity ?an w\ld a squeaky door1 until1 "o day1 ! b>b]'s son happ5$ to notice x4 ,imm$iately he 0 all curiosity4 ,no "o knew any?+ ab\t air 9 ^? days & ! boy c\ld get no satisfactory explanation ( ! ph5om5on1 s he />t$ an inve/igation ( 8 own4 ,he f\nd t ! c\nt]weight fitt$ v closely 9 its case & :5 x dropp$ x =c$ a /ream ( 8w9d0 out ( a crevice :i* produc$ a :i/l+ s\nd4 ,t set ,ma/] ,ctesibius to ?9k+4 ,he _h discov]$ a me?od ( h>ness+ ! w9d4 ,no m b>b] %op = him2 he 0 laun*$ ^u a c>e] ( sci5tific rese>* & inv5tion4 ,! fir/ use he made ( 8 discov]y 0 to build a pipe organ :i* 0 driv5 by a wat] :eel & h5ce 0 kn[n z a wat] organ4 ,b !re 7 o!r & m lucrative fields = ! newly discov]$ p[]4 ,be+ invisible1 compress$ air prov$ a mo/ valuable m$ium = p]=m+ seem+ly miracul\s tricks ) :i* ! corrupt prie/hood ( t "t hoodw9k$ ! public4 ,naturally su* air-controll$ app>atus 0 kept secret1 & we h only a meag] record ( a few ( ! +5i\s devices us$ 9 ! temples4 ,h[ev]1 ,ctesibius made _m sci5tific discov]ies & became ! mo/ fam\s ma!matician & sci5ti/ ( 8 age4 ,we h read 9 ,*apt] ,,iv ( 8 fam\s wat] clock adju/$ to record h\rs ( v>y+ l5g? accord+ to ! season4 ,:ile ,ctesibius is cr$it$ ) be+ ! fir/ man to make sci5tific use ( compress$ air1 ! use ( free air or w9d z a p[] f> ant$ates him4 ,sail+ vessels 7 probably 9 use long be=e w9dmills 7 inv5t$4 ,z po9t$ out else:]e1 w9dmills possess$ an advantage ov] wat] :eels 9 t !y c\ld be plac$ any:]e1 in/ead ( be+ conf9$ to ! banks ( /reams4 ,!y 7 widely us$ = pump+ wat]1 gr9d+ gra91 & saw+ wood until ! /eam eng9e arriv$ & displac$ !m4 ,al?\gh w9d p[] is b little us$ to-day1 air is mu* m widely us$ 9 mod]n ma*9]y ?an is g5]ally realiz$4 ,a catalogue ( ! v>i\s devices 9 :i* x plays a prom95t "p is likely to prove a/oni%+4 ,= in/ance1 we employ x to bore ?r\gh rock1 to /op ! spe$+ express tra91 & ev5 to quell ocean bill[s4 ,be+ ela/ic & compressible1 x makes an ideal spr+ = ! /orage ( p[] & a cu%ion = absorb+ %ocks4 ,x is also us$ to fight back wat] & p]mit m5 to "w 9 ! dep?s ( ! sea or 9 wat]-be>+ s& & e>?4 ,despite 8 ext5sive use ( air ,ctesibius knew no?+ ( ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,x 0 n until ! sev5te5? c5tury t atmosph]ic pressure 0 discov]$ & measur$4 ,x 0 !n le>n$ t !re is no su* ?+ z suction4 ,,rais+ ,,wat] ,,) ,,atmosph]ic ,,pressure ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,a ,,suction ,,pump ,a suction pump %\ld be call$ an atmosph]ic pump4 ,! op]ation ( su* a pump is illu/rat$ 9 ,figure #dj4 ,a pi/on ,a slides 9 a cyl9d] ,b4 ,!re is an op5+ 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] :i* is normally clos$ by a clack valve ,c t op5s upw>dly4 ,!re is a simil> valve ,d 9 ! pi/on ,a4 ,:5 ! pi/on is pu%$ d[n x compresses ! air 9 ! cyl9d]1 clos+ ! valve ,c :ile valve ,d op5s1 p]mitt+ ! air to escape4 ,!n on ! upw>d /roke ! valve ,d closes & valve ,c op5s p]mitt+ air to fl[ into ! cyl9d]4 ,9 ?is way ! air 9 ! pipe & cyl9d] are exhau/$ aft] a few /rokes4 ,z ! air is r>efi$ & ! pressure is r$uc$ above ! column ( wat] 9 ! pipe ! great] pressure ( ! wat] outside ! pipe =ces ! column to rise until x ev5tually fl[s ?r\gh ! valve 9 ! pi/on & out ( ! sp\t ( ! pump4 ,! maximum height to :i* wat] c be rais$ by a suction pump is ?irty-f\r feet b 9 actual practice ! lift seldom exce$s tw5ty-six to tw5ty-eight feet because ! fit betwe5 ! cyl9d] & pi/on is n p]fect4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,,conv5tionaliz$ ,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,a ,,=ce ,,pump ,:5 wat] is rais$ to a great] height a =ce pump is us$4 ,su* a pump is %[n 9 ,figure #da4 ,! pump cyl9d] ,a has two valves ,b & ,c4 ,! valve ,b op5s upw>dly & valve ,c op5s d[nw>dly4 ,! pi/on ,d is a solid memb] conta9+ no valve4 ,:5 ! pi/on rises ! valve ,c closes & valve ,b op5s1 lett+ wat] into ! cyl9d]4 ,on ! rev]se /roke ! valve ,b closes & ! desc5d+ pi/on =ces ! wat] out ?r\gh valve ,c into pipe ,e4 ,! height to :i* ! wat] may be lift$ dep5ds ^u ! p[] appli$ to ! pi/on & n ^u atmosph]ic pressure4 ,9 a fire pump two =ce pumps are us$ :i* alt]nately deliv] wat] into an air *amb]4 ,! air is compress$ by ! wat] t ent]s ! *amb] & ex]ts a /eady pressure on ! wat]1 =c+ x out ?r\gh ! fire hose 9 a /ream t is practically /eady4 ,x is a decid$ disadvantage to in/all a =ce pump 9 a deep well because ( ! me*anical difficulty ( op]at+ ! pi/on at a great dep?4 ,(t5 ! suction & =ce pump pr9ciples are comb9$4 ,! =ce pump pi/on & cyl9d] are locat$ tw5ty-six & tw5ty-eight feet above ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! well ) a pipe lead+ d[n into ! wat]4 ,! wat] is =c$ up into ! cyl9d] by exhau/+ ! air 9 ! cyl9d] & pipe & !n is =c$ out ( ! cyl9d] & up a pipe to ! top ( ! well4 ,?is also has its disadvantages4 ,9 deep wells ! pump pi/on mu/ /ill be locat$ & op]at$ at consid]able dep?4 ,,! ,,air ,,lift ,a mu* m simple pump = deep wells is ! air lift 9 :i* !re are no valves & no pi/on4 ,! pump consi/s ( two pipes t are let d[n into ! wat]4 7,see ,figure #db47 ,! l>g] pipe is op5 at ! top & bottom1 & ! small] pipe dis*>ges air into ! bottom ( ! l>g] "o4 ,?is air be+ direct$ upw>d has a lift+ effect1 & m+l+ ) ! wat] 9 ! pipe produces a sort ( fro? :i* is s mu* light] ?an solid wat] t ! atmosph]ic pressure on ! wat] 9 ! well is suffici5t to raise ! fro?4 ,! wat] is ?or\ghly a]at$ & to a l>ge ext5t purifi$ by ?is sy/em ( pump+1 s t ! air lift comm5ds itself p>ticul>ly = city wat]works4 ,sometimes a s]ies ( air lifts are us$ :i* lift wat] by successive /ages to a great] height ?an w\ld be possible ) a s+le direct lift4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,pump+ ,,wat] ,,) ,,compress$ ,,air ,,excavat+ ,,?r\gh ,,quicks& ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,a ,,pneumatic ,,caisson ,c5turies ago x 0 realiz$ t x w\ld be possible = m5 to desc5d into ! op5 sea if !y 7 protect$ by a bell-%ap$ *amb]1 = ! air trapp$ 9 ! *amb] w\ld furni% !m ) oxyg5 requisite = brea?+ purposes1 & w\ld prev5t ! wat] f dr[n+ !m out4 ,?is same idea ( a div+ bell is us$ on l& :5 s9k+ a %aft ?r\gh quicks& or wat]-be>+ /rata4 ,a l>ge box or caisson is us$4 7,see ,figure #dc47 ,?is box may be ei!r cyl9drical or rectangul>1 & x is op5 at ! top & bottom4 ,! l[] edges ( ! box are %od ) /eel & =m cutt+ edges t w s9k into ! soil t is be+ excavat$4 ,at a height ( ab\t sev5 feet above ! bottom ( ! box !re is a transv]se diaphragm kn[n z ! deck1 & ! space bel[ is kn[n z ! work+ *amb]4 ,?is deck is v /rongly con/ruct$1 z x has to support ! weight ( ! concrete %aft t is built above x4 ,labor]s1 commonly kn[n z 8s& hogs10 ent] ! work+ *amb] & dig out a %all[ pit 9 ! floor ( clay or s&4 ,?is pit is !n ext5d$ to ! cutt+ edges ( ! caisson4 ,! caisson ?us und]m9$ settles d[n into ! excavation & ano!r pit is />t$4 ,9 ?is way1 /ep by /ep1 ! caisson is sunk into ! gr\nd4 ,9 ord] to ov]come ! friction ( ! caisson aga9/ ! sides ( ! excavation & to insure its s9k+1 x is heavily weight$4 ,:5 wat]-be>+ s& is rea*$1 compress$ air is admitt$ into ! work+ *amb] to =ce ! wat] out4 ,:5 ! air pressure is great] ?an ! wat] pressure x drives ! wat] out ( ! s& 9 ! work+ *amb]1 s t ! m5 c "w 9 p]fectly dry gr\nd1 ev5 ?\gh ! surr\nd+ s& may be s saturat$ ) wat] z to =m a quicks&4 ,( c\rse ! f>!r ! excavation proce$s bel[ ! wat] level ! great] ! air pressure requir$1 & ! caisson w\ld be bl[n up out ( ! gr\nd by ?is air pressure or w\ld float on ! wat] 7 x n = ! weights ) :i* x is load$4 ,:5 an op5 %aft is to be dug1 pig iron is load$ on ! caisson to =ce x d[n1 b 9 mo/ "w ! object is m]ely to s9k a concrete column d[n to rock & s ! caisson is fill$ ) concrete above ! deck4 ,sections are add$ to ! caisson z x s9ks into ! gr\nd1 & ^! sections are fill$ ) concrete4 ,?is me?od ( build+ ! column facilitates ! "w ( lay+ ! concrete1 & at ! same "t provides ! weight necess>y to ov]come ! buoyancy ( ! caisson & ! sk9 friction on ! side walls ( ! excavation4 ,aft] ! caisson has be5 c>ri$ d[n to rock & a good seat has be5 bla/$ out ( solid rock1 ! work+ *amb] is completely fill$ ) concrete & ! concrete %aft is ?us an*or$ to ! rock4 ,,! ,,air ,,lock ,access to ! work+ *amb] is _h ?r\gh a c5tral %aft+4 ,9 ord] to hold ! air pressure 9 ! work+ *amb] & yet provide = ! entrance ( m5 & mat]ials1 an air lock is fitt$ to ! upp] end ( ! %aft+4 ,?is air lock1 z %[n 9 ,figure #dc1 consi/s ( a *amb] =m$ ) a trapdoor at ! top & ! bottom4 ,bo? doors op5 d[nw>dly4 ,to ent] ! caisson1 ! bottom door ( ! *amb] mu/ fir/ be clos$ & means are provid$ = do+ ?is f outside ! air lock4 ,! compress$ air 9 ! *amb] is !n let out ?r\gh a valve1 & :5 ! pressure drops almo/ to normal ! upp] trapdoor falls op5 ( its own weight1 giv+ access to ! *amb]4 ,aft] ent]+1 ! upp] door is clos$ :ile compress$ air is admitt$ into ! *amb]2 ! air pressure !n s]ves to hold ! upp] trapdoor clos$4 ,! bottom door1 9 ! meantime1 has be5 kept clos$ by ! air pressure bel[1 :i* is great] ?an t above ! door4 ,b aft] suffici5t air has be5 introduc$ into ! *amb] to equalize ! pressure on bo? sides ( ! l[] trapdoor1 x falls op5 ( its own weight4 ,! occupants ( ! *amb] c !n proce$ d[n a ladd] to ! work+ *amb]4 ,:5 leav+ ! caisson1 ! action ( ! air lock is rev]s$4 ,! bottom door is pu%$ up & held clos$ = a mom5t :ile air is releas$ f ! *amb]1 :5 ! great] pressure b5ea? w hold ! door clos$1 & aft] ! pressure )9 ! air lock has be5 l[]$ practically to normal1 ! upp] door drops ( its own weight1 p]mitt+ ! occupants ( ! *amb] to climb out4 ,! same process mu/ be und]gone by buckets load$ ) s& or e>? f ! excavation & by empty buckets return+ to ! work+ *amb]4 ,m "t is requir$ = a man to pass ?r\gh an air lock ?an = a load ( s& or any inanimate load4 ,9 "s ( ! l>g] caissons a sep>ate small air lock is provid$ j = ! use ( ! workm54 ,9 ! air lock ! pressure mu/ be built up sl[ly s t x w p]meate a man's :ole sy/em4 ,:5 we realize t ! pressure t m5 h to support 9 caisson "w may am\nt to f fifty to "o hundr$ tons on ! :ole body1 x is difficult at fir/ to und]/& :y ! body is n flatt5$ out l a pancake4 ,x is only by p]mitt+ ! sy/em to absorb ! pressure s t !re is z mu* int]nal pressure z t outside t a man is able to ent] a compress$ air *amb] )\t h>mful results4 ,,! ,,caisson ,,disease ,compression is r annoy+ to a man :o has n exp]i5c$ ! s5sation1 b ! pr9cipal dang] comes 9 decompression1 p>ticul>ly aft] a p]son has be5 9 ! work+ *amb] = a long "t4 ,:5 brea?+ compress$ air mu* l>g] volumes ( oxyg5 are tak5 into ! lungs at ea* brea? ?an 9 ! ord9>y atmosph]e1 & "o feels decid$ly exhil>at$ by ?is unusual supply ( /imulat+ oxyg54 ,b ) ! oxyg5 l>ge volumes ( nitrog5 are tak5 into ! sy/em z well4 ,! nitrog5 p]meates ! blood :ile ! oxyg5 is consum$ & exhal$ 9 ! =m ( c>bon dioxide4 ,! long] a man is expos$ to ! pressure ! m nitrog5 does he absorb4 ,:5 ! pressure is releas$ sudd5ly ! nitrog5 beg9s to fro?1 j z a bottle ( soda wat] does :5 ! /opp] is remov$4 ,! nitrog5 bubbles 9 ! small ve9s /op ! circulation & produce ! dread$ 8caisson disease0 :i* makes itself felt 9 ! =m ( sev]e cramps & excruciat+ pa9s4 ,n infrequ5tly ?is disease ends 9 dea?4 ,by r$uc+ ! pressure gradually ! nitrog5 is enabl$ to pass (f completely )\t bubbl+ or fro?+1 j z x is possible to let out ! gas f a soda bottle )\t fro?+ by p]mitt+ x to escape ?r\gh a p9 hole 9 ! /opp]4 ,! sure/ cure = a victim ( ! caisson disease is to put him imm$iately into :at is kn[n z a 8hospital tank0 & build up ! pressure 9 ! tank equal to t :i* he has j be5 subject$ to 9 ! caisson1 aft] :i* ! air 9 ! tank is let out s sl[ly t !re is pl5ty ( "t = ! nitrog5 to pass (f )\t =m+ bubbles4 ,a pressure ( =ty-five p\nds p] squ>e in* above t ( ! atmosph]e is consid]$ a sev]e pressure = excavation "w4 ,b "w has be5 c>ri$ on 9 pressures up to fifty-two p\nds1 correspond+ to a dep? ( #abj feet bel[ wat] level4 ,n[ t ! cause ( ! caisson disease is und]/ood =mulas h be5 work$ out to insure prop] decompression4 ,on "o occasion a div] desc5d$ #cjf feet into ! ocean :]e ! wat] pressure 0 #acc p\nds on e squ>e in* ( 8 body4 ,?is meant t ! air :i* 0 pump$ d[n to him _h to be compress$ to ! same pressure4 ,! div] actually rema9$ at ! bottom only a v %ort "t1 b x took two h\rs & ?ree-qu>t]s to br+ him to ! surface4 ,he came up half ! di/ance v quickly & !n _h to re/ on ! bottom rung ( a ,jacob's ladd]4 ,! rungs on ?is ladd] 7 t5 feet ap>t & he 0 in/ruct$ to re/ on ea* rung a c]ta9 specifi$ "t4 ,:5 he 0 t5 feet bel[ ! surface he _h to wait ?ree-qu>t]s ( an h\r = ! la/ trace ( nitrog5 absorb$ by 8 blood to pass (f4 ,,bor+ ,,tunnels ,,?r\gh ,,riv] ,,b$s ,x is comp>atively simple to s9k a v]tical %aft into wat]-be>+ soil1 b a horizontal %aft involves s]i\s difficulties4 ,! action ( a div+ bell is easily illu/rat$ by inv]t+ a tumbl] & press+ x d[n into a bas9 ( wat]4 ,! air trapp$ 9 ! tumbl] w keep ! upp] "p ( ! glass dry1 & by ins]t+ a tube 9 ! tumbl] x is possible to fill ! tumbl] s full ( compress$ air z to drive out all ! wat]4 ,?is is virtually :at is done 9 ! caisson2 b :5 excavat+ a horizontal bore1 ! caisson mu/ be turn$ on its side4 ,turn ! tumbl] on its side & x is impossible to keep ! wat] out ( x1 no matt] h[ mu* air we may bl[ into x4 ,! reason = ?is is t ! pressure on ! op5 end ( ! tumbl] is n uni=m4 ,at ! bottom1 :]e ! wat] is deep]1 x w be great] ?an at ! top4 ,if air is pump$ 9 to equalize ! wat] pressure at ! upp] edge ( ! glass1 x w n prev5t wat] f fl[+ 9 at ! bottom2 & if x be equal to t at ! bottom1 ! wat] pressure at ! top _c hold ! air 9 & keep x f p\r+ out4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,a ,,tunnel ,,%ield ,=tunately mo/ ( ! soil ?r\gh :i* a subaque\s tunnel is driv5 is n v fluid4 ,x is ei!r /icky1 z 9 clay1 or sluggi% en\gh to prev5t ! wat] f fl[+ 9 rapidly4 ,if !re is en\gh cov] ( silt or e>? above ! tunnel bore1 x w help to hold ! air 9 ! tunnel4 ,:5 ! bore comes v close to ! surface ( ! b$ ( ! /ream t is be+ tunnel$1 loads ( clay are dump$ along ! l9e ( ! tunnel to provide ! requisite cov]4 ,9 tunnel bor+ a %ield is us$ :i* is ! equival5t ( ! caisson 9 v]tical bor+4 ,! %ield is a cyl9drical box ) a diaphragm across x correspond+ to ! deck ( ! caisson4 7,see ,figure #dd47 ,9 front ( ! diaphragm !re is a small work+ *amb] :i* is protect$ above by an ext5sion ( ! %ield kn[n z an apron4 ,9 ! diaphragm !re are a numb] ( doors at diff]5t levels1 :i* may be clos$ 9 case ( dang]4 ,if "w is proce$+ ne> ! top ( ! %ield1 ! upp] doors are op5$ & ! pressure is regulat$ to equal ! wat] pressure at t level4 ,if ! "w is c>ri$ on ne> ! bottom ( ! %ield1 ! upp] doors are clos$ & only ! l[] doors are op51 & ! pressure is increas$ to equal ! wat] pressure at t po9t4 ,sometimes ! mat]ial is ( su* a nature t ! m5 c safely pass out ( ! doors into ! work+ *amb] outside1 b m (t5 x is possible to "w only )9 a limit$ area imm$iately 9 front ( ! doors4 ,:5 ! mat]ial is v s(t x is (t5 unnecess>y to d any actual excavation by h& 9 front ( ! diaphragm4 ,! %ield is m]ely pu%$ =w>d ?r\gh ! mud or silt & ! doors are op5$ to let ! mat]ial fl[ 9 ?r\gh !m4 ,workm5 dig out ?is mud & x is haul$ out ( ! tunnel4 ,:5ev] b[ld]s are enc\nt]$ x is necess>y = ! m5 to "w outside ( ! diaphragm to *ip away ! rocks ) compress$-air drills1 or else bore !m & bla/ !m ) small *>ges ( dynamite4 ,9 quicks& ! mat]ial is s fluid t x is unsafe to op5 ! ord9>y doors ( ! caisson1 & !y are !n provid$ ) %utt]s :i* are rais$ "o at a "t1 to p]mit ( op]at+ on a v small section ( ! head ( ! tunnel4 ,aft] en\gh mat]ial has be5 excavat$ f 9 front ( ! %ield1 ! latt] is pu%$ =w>d & ! excavat+ is r5ew$4 ,unlike caisson "w1 ! weight ( ! %ield is ( no assi/ance 9 mak+ x p5etrate ! soil1 nor is x possible to move ! entire l9+ ( ! tunnel ) ! %ield4 ,! tunnel is l9$ ) r+s ( ca/ iron :i* are bolt$ toge!r1 ! r+s !mselves be+ made up ( heavily ribb$ curv$ plates4 ,! %ield is =m$ ) a 8tail0 :i* fits ov] ! end ( ! tunnel l9e l a cap4 ,:5 ! %ield is to be pu%$ =w>d1 a set ( hydraulic jacks are fitt$ betwe5 ! end ( ! tunnel l9+ & ! diaphragm ( ! %ield1 & by means ( ^! ! %ield is giv5 a %ove =w>d f> en\gh = a new section ( ! ca/-iron l9+ to be add$ )9 ! tail4 ,! tunnel-l9+ r+s are usually sixte5 in*es wide s t x is cu/om>y to move ! %ield ahead sixte5 in*es at a "t or j f> en\gh = a new r+ ( l9+ to be in/all$4 ,( c\rse1 ! tunnel is fitt$ ) air locks by :i* m5 c ent] ! work+ section )\t p]mitt+ ! compress$ air !re9 to escape1 & ^! locks are j l ^? us$ 9 s9k+ a caisson1 except t !y are horizontal in/ead ( v]tical4 ,,quell+ ,,ocean ,,bill[s ,,) ,,air ,air is also us$ 9 ano!r & v novel way to battle aga9/ wat]4 ,9 ?is case x is n quiet wat] pressure1 b ! trem5d\s p[] ( ocean /orms t is combatt$4 ,! influ5ce ( a %oal ^u ocean waves has (t5 be5 obs]v$4 ,a s& b>ri] ev5 :5 subm]g$ to a dep? ( tw5ty or ?irty feet w break ! waves ( a heavy /orm & leave an area ( comp>atively quiet wat] beh9d x4 ,! reason = ?is is t ! wat] 9 ! waves does n travel ) ! waves1 b und]goes local oscillatory motion4 ,?is motion is 9 ! =m ( circul> or elliptical curr5ts :i* travel 9 a v]tical plane4 ,:5 a s& b> is enc\nt]$ x int]f]es ) ^! local curr5ts & breaks up ! waves4 ,kn[+ ?is to be ! case1 x occurr$ to ,mr4 ,philip ,bra%] t "s o!r means ( di/urb+ ! rhy?mic movem5t ( ! wat] might be f\nd1 & he det]m9$ to try ! exp]im5t ( us+ compress$ air = ?is purpose4 ,accord+ly he laid a p]=at$ pipe "u wat] & connect$ x ) an air compressor4 ,!n :5 a /orm arose air 0 pump$ into ! pipe & x rose 9 bubbles ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,! effect ( ?is upw>d movem5t ( air 0 in/antly obs]vable4 ,x upset ! rhy?mic wat] curr5ts & ! waves :i* /ruck ?is wall ( air bubbles curl$ & broke z if !y _h enc\nt]$ a %oal ( s&4 ,sev]al expos$ pi]s on ! ,pacific coa/ h _h a pneumatic breakwat] built ar\nd !m s z to protect !m or %ips ly+ alongside f be+ p\nd$ by ! waves4 ,!re is no exp5se atta*$ to ! breakwat] except 9 "t ( /orm :5 ! air pumps mu/ be kept go+4 ,"o important advantage ( ! breakwat] is t x does n block navigation4 ,a %ip c sail "r ov] ! wall ( bubbles & f9d refuge beh9d x4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,air ,,spr+s ,,& ,,cu%ions ,,unlike wat]1 air is a highly compressible1 ela/ic fluid1 & z su* furni%es an excell5t m$ium = ! /orage ( en]gy4 ,x acts j l a clock spr+ into :i* en]gy may be introduc$ & /or$ by w9d+ or compress+ ! spr+4 ,! en]gy rema9s lock$ up 9 ! spr+ & :5 ! spr+ is releas$1 x gives back j z mu* en]gy z 0 put into x1 except = slight frictional & heat losses4 ,air is a mu* bett] spr+ ?an /eel or any o!r metal because x nev] loses its ela/icity f fatigue & because x has an enorm\s capacity = ! /orage ( en]gy4 ,x possesses "o s]i\s drawback1 h[ev]4 ,mu* ( ! en]gy t is exp5d$ 9 compress+ x is conv]t$ into heat4 ,if ! air 7 to be us$ imm$iately & )\t transmitt+ x to a di/ance1 !re w\ld be no advantage 9 extract+ ! heat1 b heat _c be /or$ 9 air = long & x w\ld gradually escape f ! /orage res]voir or air receiv] & f ! pipes lead+ ! air to ! ma*9es t x 0 to op]ate4 ,z ! heat escap$ x w\ld l[] ! pressure ( ! air & h5ce mu* ( ! en]gy w\ld be lo/4 ,,heat ,,( ,,compression ,9 ,*apt] ,v we describ$ a hydraulic sy/em ( compress+ air & not$ t "o ( ! advantages ( ?is sy/em is t x deliv]s air cool$ to ! temp]ature ( ! wat]4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 does n mean t !re is no loss due to heat4 ,! air bubbles z !y are compress$ are cool$ by ! wat] t compresses !m2 9 o!r words1 ! heat ( compression passes (f into ! wat]1 mak+ ! wat] w>m] ?an x w\ld o!rwise be4 ,heat is n produc$ )\t exp5diture ( en]gy & a c]ta9 proportion ( ! wat] p[] is ?us wa/$4 ,9 mo/ cases air is compress$ by /eam or electrically driv5 compressors1 & 9 su* ma*9es ! heat due to compression is a s]i\s matt]4 ,! air cyl9d]s are wat]-jacket$ to c>ry (f ! heat4 ,b air is a poor conductor2 x acquires heat fa/] ?an x c give x (f to ! wat] surr\nd+ ! cyl9d]s4 ,9 comp\nd air compressors ! air compress$ 9 "o cyl9d] is cool$ be=e be+ pass$ on to ! next cyl9d]1 :]e x is fur!r compress$4 ,! heat loss 9 compress+ air 9 a s+le /age up to #ajj p\nds gauge pressure is ab\t #cj p] c5t4 ,air t ent]s a compressor at ! normal pressure ( ! atmosph]e & ) an initial temp]ature ( #fj degrees ,f41 if n cool$ w become heat$ to #dae p\nds gauge pressure4 ,! high] ! initial heat ( ! air1 ! great] ! rise ( temp]ature4 ,if a volume ( air be subject$ to #bid p\nds gauge pressure1 x w occupy ab\t "o-t5? ( its =m] volume4 ,if ! air 0 introduc$ into ! compressor at z]o1 x w\ld acquire a temp]ature ( ab\t #fej degrees2 if introduc$ at #fj degrees1 x w\ld %[ an increase ( ab\t #hjj degrees2 &1 if />t$ at #ajj degrees1 x w\ld %[ an increase ( #ijj degrees 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! compressor4 ,?is %[s ! advantage ( compress+ ! air 9 /ages & cool+ ! air betwe5 /ages4 ,sometimes ! heat develop$ is suffici5t to produce a disa/r\s explosion4 ,air is noncombu/ible1 b ! oils us$ to lubricate ! compressor are vaporiz$ by ! heat & :5 mix$ ) air =m a p[]ful explosive4 ,c>e has to be tak5 t none b high-grade oil ) a high fla% po9t be us$ 9 ! compressor & t ! temp]ature ( compression does n rise to ne> ! fla% po9t le/ ! vaporiz$ oil be ignit$4 ,t fire c be produc$ by sudd5 compression ( air has long be5 kn[n 9 ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s4 ,! natives use a small air tube ) a close-fitt+ plung]4 ,combu/ible matt] is plac$ 9 ! bottom ( ! tube1 & on /rik+ ! plung] a %>p bl[ ?is is ignit$4 ,:5 compress$ air is us$ 9 an air motor x exp&s & 9 s do+ absorbs heat4 ,! m rapidly x exp&s1 ! m heat x absorbs4 ,?is heat x extracts f ! motor & f ! atmosph]e into :i* x escapes1 & x is a common occurr5ce to f9d a ?ick coat+ ( fro/ ar\nd ! exhau/ port4 ,?is is due to cond5sation ( moi/ure 9 ! atmosph]e or 9 ! compress$ air itself1 :i*1 because ( ! rapid extraction ( heat1 is conv]t$ into sn[4 ,on cold days en\gh fro/ may be produc$ 9 ! exhau/ pipe to clog x & int]rupt ! op]ation ( ! motor1 & fro/ sometimes clogs ! air l9es lead+ to ! motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,,:>f ,,on ,,! ,,pacific ,,coa/ ,,protect$ ,,by ,a ,,pneumatic ,,breakwat] ,air issu+ f ! subm]g$ p]=at$ pipes breaks up ! waves ,illu/ration3 ,,g5]al ,,view ,,( ,a ,,sun ,,p[] ,,plant ,,9 ,,egypt ,illu/ration3 ,,close-,,up ,,( ,,"o ,,( ,,! ,,reflectors ,,%[+ ,,! ,,boil] ,! fact t compress$ air on exp&+ is cool$1 makes x an ideal p[] = use 9 m9+ ma*9]y4 ,/eam is inconv5i5t because ( ! difficulty ( transmitt+ x to ! ma*9es )\t loss ( heat1 because x w\ld heat ! ma*9es s t !y _c be h&l$ readily & because ! exhau/ /eam w\ld fill ! m9e ) an imp5etrable fog2 electricity is dang]\s 9 m9es t are apt to conta9 explosive gases1 because ! wires are liable to be brok5 & cause sp>ks by %ort circuit+1 & because sp>ks are likely to =m betwe5 ! bru%es & commutators ( ! motors2 b compress$ air has none ( ^! objections1 &1 fur!rmore1 ! dis*>ge f ! ma*9es furni%es ! op]ators ) ample supplies ( fre% cool air :i* drives out disagreeable & dang]\s gases4 ,,air-,,driv5 ,,hamm]s ,! ord9>y rock drill is really a pneumatic hamm]4 ,! tool1 :i* is *isel-%ap$1 is us$ z a hamm] to p\nd a hole 9 ! rock4 ,! tool is driv5 up & d[n or 9 & out by compress$ air be>+ alt]nately on opposite sides ( a pi/on4 ,! ela/icity ( ! compress$ air acts z a cu%ion to relieve ! ma*9e f %ock4 ,! drill is m\nt$ ^u a tripod 9 su* a way t x may be op]at$ 9 any direction4 ,! pneumatic rivet] is ano!r =m ( compress$-air hamm]4 ,! ma*9e is held 9 ! h&s1 & ! tool1 :i* is rapidly reciprocat$ by air pressure1 p\nds ! r$-hot %ank ( a rivet4 ,:ile ?is is be+ done an assi/ant holds a hamm] aga9/ ! head ( ! rivet4 ,h[ev]1 !re is a type ( rivet] :i* has a ,u-%ap$ frame4 ,"o arm ( ! frame c>ries ! reciprocat+ tool :ile ! o!r rea*es ar\nd & be>s aga9/ ! head ( ! rivet4 ,all sorts ( tools h be5 built 9 :i* a small air-driv5 motor furni%es ! motive p[]4 ,!re are h& drills 9 :i* ! tool is revolv$ by a set ( pi/ons1 %e>s = %e>+ %eep :i* op]ate some:at on ! pr9ciple ( hair clipp]s1 & pneumatic *isels us$ = *ipp+ /one4 ,pneumatic motors are widely us$ 9 op]at+ cranes & air hoi/s4 ,!y consi/ ( a simple cyl9d] & pi/on1 & are us$ = %ort1 direct lifts ( all sorts4 ,,/opp+ ,,tra9s ,,) ,,air ,air has play$ a mo/ important "p 9 transportation4 ,:5 ! air brake 0 fir/ introduc$ its purpose 0 to prev5t collisions & provide great] safety ( op]ation4 ,x 0 n g5]ally realiz$ t effici5t air brakes are n only a safety precaution1 b a means ( increas+ s*$ule spe$s4 ,! m quickly a tra9 c /op1 ! bett] spe$ x may make1 p>ticul>ly on a s*$ule t calls = frequ5t /ops4 ,9 ! fir/ air brake inv5t$ by ,george ,we/+h\se1 ! locomotive 0 provid$ ) a res]voir 9 :i* air 0 /or$ & compress$ by means ( a /eam-op]at$ air pump4 ,! c>s 7 ea* provid$ ) a cyl9d] & pi/on connect$ to ! air res]voir ?r\gh a valve conv5i5tly locat$ 9 ! eng9e]'s cab4 ,! pi/on ( ! air cyl9d] 0 connect$ ) ! air brakes s t :5ev] ! eng9e] wi%$ to /op 8 tra9 he m]ely turn$ on ! compress$ air & all ! brakes 9 ! tra9 7 op]at$4 ,?is 0 a great sav+ ov] ! previ\s sy/em ( provid+ brakem5 to op]ate h& brakes4 ,un=tunately1 ! problem ( /opp+ a tra9 0 n z simple z all ?is4 ,on a long tra9 ! cyl9d]s ne> ! eng9e 7 ! fir/ to receive pressure suffici5t to op]ate ! brakes1 & z a result1 ! =w>d "p ( ! tra9 0 ret>d$ m ?an ! re> "p at ! />t ( ! brake op]ation1 & ! tra9 came to a /op ) a s]ies ( jolts4 ,ano!r s]i\s disadvantage 0 ! fact t an enorm\s res]voir 0 requir$ to furni% all ! air necess>y = a long tra94 ,b ! mo/ s]i\s drawback 0 ! fact t occasionally a tra9 broke ap>t & !n ! eng9e] 0 p[]less to control ! brakes ( ! deta*$ portion ( ! tra94 ,if ! accid5t occurr$ on a d[n grade1 !re w\ld result a collision betwe5 ! c>s runn+ by _! own mom5tum & gravity & ^? atta*$ to ! eng9e4 ,?is l$ to ! pres5t sy/em ( rev]s+ ! process :i* consi/s 9 keep+ air pressure con/antly 9 ! tra9 pipe & sett+ ! brakes by reliev+ ! pressure 9 ! tra9 pipe4 ,ea* c> is provid$ ) its own cyl9d] :i* furni%es ! necess>y air = ! op]ation ( its brakes4 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 a ma9 cyl9d] on ! locomotive 9 :i* air is pump$ at high pressure by a /eam-op]at$ pump4 ,:5 ! pressure ( ! ma9 res]voir falls bel[ a pr$et]m9$ am\nt1 ! air pump />ts op]at+ automatically & cont9ues until ! requisite pressure is re/or$4 ,air f ! res]voir is f$ to ! tra9 pipe at a c]ta9 pressure & fe$s ! local res]voirs on ! c>s ( ! tra94 ,at ea* c> x passes ?r\gh a v +5i\s triple valve1 :i* consi/s ( a cyl9d] ) a d\ble pi/on1 "o op]at$ by pressure 9 ! tra9 pipe1 & ! o!r by pressure 9 ! local cyl9d]4 ,! pi/on op]at$ by ! pressure ( ! tra9 pipe is l>g] ?an ! o!r & consequ5tly ! valve pi/on is normally press$ back1 uncov]+ a small port ?r\gh :i* air f ! tra9 pipe fe$s into ! local res]voir4 ,9 ?is way ! air 9 ea* local res]voir is ma9ta9$ at ! same pressure z t ( ! tra9 pipe4 ,:5ev] air is let out ( ! tra9 pipe1 ! pi/on is pu%$ out by ! excess pressure on ! local res]voir side & uncov]s ano!r port :i* p]mits air to fl[ f ! local res]voir to ! brake cyl9d] op]at+ ! brakes4 ,! advantage ( ?is sy/em is t ea* c> is always suppli$ ) suffici5t p[] to act on ! brakes imm$iately )\t hav+ to draw its supply ( air f ! ma9 res]voir4 ,9 case ! tra9 breaks ap>t1 ! air 9 ! tra9 pipe escapes & ! brakes are set automatically4 ,!re h be5 a numb] ( improvem5ts 9 air brakes aim$ to make ! op]ation ( ! brakes m uni=m & to insure imm$iate action1 ev5 on a v long tra94 ,mod]n express tra9s weigh+ #ibj tons & travel+ at a velocity ( #fj miles p] h\r1 c be br\ght to a /&/ill 9 #hfj feet1 or practically _! own l5g?4 ,automatic arrangem5ts are provid$ to insure ! application ( ! brakes at graduat$ rate1 except1 ( c\rse1 :5 ! em]g5cy brakes are appli$4 ,z ! spe$ ( ! tra9 sl[s d[n ! pressure is gradually reliev$1 o!rwise ! tra9 w\ld /op ) a sev]e jolt4 ,! rate ( apply+ ! brakes s z to provide a smoo? ret>dation dep5ds 9 l>ge measure ^u ! weight ( ! tra94 ,on ! ,new ,york subways1 x is int]e/+ to note1 e pass5g] :o bo>ds a tra9 has 8 weight record$ by ! brake me*anism1 & all[ance is automatically made = ! in]tia t 8 mass adds to ! tra9 :5 x is 9 motion4 ,! weight op]ates ?r\gh a sy/em ( lev]s to control ! am\nt ( pressure t is appli$ to ! brakes s t :5 ! eng9e] op]ates ! brake lev]1 he does n h to consid] :e!r ! c>s are light or jamm$ full ( pass5g]s2 ! brake me*anism itself takes c>e ( ?is4 ,,propell+ ,,c>s ,,) ,,air ,if air c be us$ to /op a tra91 :y _c air be us$ to propel x8 ,?is "q occurr$ to _m inv5tors & !y answ]$ x by build+ air-propell$ c>s & locomotives4 ,pneumatic c>s 7 tri$ out on /reet railways1 b !y h _h to give way to electric c>s :i* d n ne$ to c>ry _! p[] ar\nd ) !m1 b c draw x f a c5tral p[] plant ?r\gh a trolley wire4 ,9 only a few situations1 su* z 9 m9es :]e electric sp>k+ is fe>$1 are air-propell$ c>s & locomotives /ill us$ to any consid]able ext5t4 ,h[ev]1 air plays ano!r & highly important "p 9 transportation & "h x is employ$ n to deliv] en]gy /or$ 9 x1 b to s]ve z a cu%ion4 ,)\t ! s(t1 flexible grip ( ! air-fill$ rubb] tubes ) :i* automobile :eels are %od1 high-spe$ motor+ w\ld be practically impossible4 ,!re is no?+ t c comp>e ) air = absorb+ %ocks & unev5nesses 9 ! road4 ,:5ev] an ob/ruction is enc\nt]$1 n only is ! %ock absorb$ by ela/icity ( ! air1 b ! impact is imm$iately di/ribut$ uni=mly ov] ! :ole tire1 s t ! /ra9 on ! tire is n localiz$ & ! life ( ! tire is correspond+ly increas$4 ,!re h be5 _m attempts to introduce sub/itutes = pneumatic tires1 su* z comb9ations ( metallic spr+s & /raps1 b ^! h fail$1 *iefly = ! reason t !y _c di/ribute ! %ock z ! pneumatic tire does4 ,consequ5tly !y are n only liable to damage1 b !y d n absorb ! ob/ructions z readily z ! pneumatic tire does & ! vehicle :i* !y c>ry is subject$ to heavy /resses & /ra9s4 ,air z a cu%ion is us$ to prev5t ! reb\nd ( ! spr+s ( an automobile & is also widely employ$ 9 ma*9]y to absorb ! mom5tum ( mov+ p>ts or to sl[ ! action ( a spr+4 ,9 a door *eck1 = in/ance1 a p[]ful spr+ is provid$ :i* w\ld slam ! door %ut 7 x n = ! cu%ion+ action ( air4 ,a plung] is connect$ to ! door & slides 9 a cyl9d] on ! door frame4 ,! air compress$ by ! plung] c escape only v sl[ly ?r\gh a small port4 ,,air ,,cu%ions ,,= ,,elevators ,air cu%ions are us$ 9 elevators to prev5t too rapid a fall ( ! c> 9 case ( accid5t4 ,! l[] "p ( ! elevator %aft is completely inclos$ & fitt$ ) /eel doors to =m an air pocket4 ,! c> fits ! %aft closely en\gh to compress ! air "u x :5 x is mov+ d[nw>d4 ,at normal spe$s1 ?is air escapes q readily ar\nd ! sides ( ! c> & ?r\gh cracks 9 ! doors1 b :5 ! spe$ is excessive ! air _c escape fa/ en\gh & suffici5t pressure is built up to ret>d ! c> s t x w /rike ! bottom ) a mod]ate impact n at all dang]\s to ! pass5g]s4 ,9 ! ,woolwor? ,build+1 ,new ,york1 ! highe/ elevator %afts are #fhj feet high & ! air pockets are #acg feet deep--i4 e41 !y rea* up to ! t5? /ory4 ,if ! c> broke away f its supports at ! top ( ! %aft x w\ld be travel+ at ! rate ( #acb miles an h\r :5 x /ruck ! air pocket1 b be=e x rea*$ ! bottom ! air w\ld br+ x practically to a /op4 ,imag9e a heavy automobile travel+ at #acb miles p] h\r & br\ght d[n to a /&/ill 9 half a city block6 ,! pass5g]s w\ld be hurl$ out ( _! seats1 b 9 an elevator ! pass5g]s are /&+ & c brace !mselves aga9/ ! pressure produc$ by _! own mom5tum4 ,! velocity acquir$ 9 fall+ #edc feet to ! air pocket mu/ be ov]come 9 #acg feet or ( ! di/ance4 ,?is means t ! weight ( ea* pass5g] is multipli$ by f\r4 ,a man :o weigh$ #aej p\nds w\ld f9d t 8 pressure on ! floor ( ! c> _h m\nt$ to #fjj p\nds4 ,"o ( ! inv5tors ( ! pneumatic cu%ion = elevators 0 kill$ :5 te/+ out a c>1 n because ( ! impact ( ! c>1 b because he 0 fooli% en\gh to sit 9 a *air4 ,! *air gave way "u 8 sudd5ly acquir$ weight & ! poor man 0 fatally /abb$ by "o ( ! spl9t]s4 ,air jets are us$ = a v>iety ( purposes rang+ f tamp+ railway tracks to pa9t+ build+s4 ,:5 a track is depress$ "u ! tamp+ action ( tra9s pass+ ov] x ! ties mu/ be rais$ & new balla/ introduc$ "u !m s z to br+ !m up to level4 ,9 ord] to save h& labor & insure ! p]fect fill+ ( all cavities a pneumatic tamp] is sometimes us$4 ,! balla/1 consi/+ ( s& or gravel up to in* 9 diamet]1 is f$ out ( a hopp] & meets a bla/ ( air t hurls x into place l %ot f an air rifle4 ,?is furni%es a v solid & compact road b$4 ,x is 9 mu* ! same way t wea!r-/a9$ /one walls are cleans$ by means ( a s& bla/4 ,! s& p>ticles project$ by ! jet ( air act l myriads ( t9y bullets :i* *ip away ! face ( ! /one4 ,,lay+ ,,cem5t ,,) ,,an ,,airgun ,x is aft] ?is same fa%ion t ! cem5t gun is us$ to project cem5t aga9/ wire re5=cem5t to =m walls ( build+s4 ,c>l ,e4 ,akeley 0 l$ to ! inv5tion ( ! cem5t gun by 8 ef=ts to f9d an exp$iti\s & economical me?od ( m\nt+ specim5s ( l>ge animals = ! ,field ,museum 9 ,*icago4 ,he con/ruct$ a pneumatic device = spray+ cem5t & wat] ^u a canvas-cov]$ framework1 ?us build+ up a body ^u :i* ! sk9 ( ! animal c\ld be m\nt$4 ,?is ma*9e 0 improv$ & tri$ out successfully1 on a l>ge scale1 9 con/ruct+ build+s4 ,! ma*9e z n[ con/ruct$ consi/s ( a hopp] into :i* a prop] mix ( s& & cem5t is introduc$4 ,compress$ air bl[s ?is mixture out ( a nozzle4 ,"h x meets a jet ( wat] also propell$ by compress$ air4 ,! wat]1 s&1 & cem5t comb9e & /rike ! wall or surface to be coat$ ) su* an impact z to make a compact f9e-gra9$ coat+ kn[n to ! trade z 8gunite40 ,l>ge surfaces c be pa9t$ mu* m readily & m ev5ly ) compress$ air ?an ) a bru%4 ,a widely spread+ air jet is us$ :i* draws ! pa9t out ( a receptacle1 break+ x up into m9ute droplets t are project$ z a mi/ aga9/ ! surface1 cov]+ x ) a uni=m coat+4 ,,air ,,z ,a ,,t5sion ,,spr+ ,s f> we h be5 consid]+ air z a compression spr+4 ,x may also be employ$ 9 a mann] some:at analog\s to a t5sion spr+4 ,:5 air is exhau/$ f a receptacle we h a p>tial vacuum :i* w produce "w1 b 9 ! opposite direction f t produc$ by compress$ air4 ,( c\rse !re is no su* ?+ z suction1 & x is ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e :i* is employ$ to d ! "w4 ,we are apt to ov]look ! fact t a vacuum clean] dep5ds ^u atmosph]ic pressure to drag ! du/ & dirt out ( a c>pet4 ,a vacuum clean] w\ld n "w on ! moon1 :]e !re is no atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! app>atus consi/s ( an air pump1 usually driv5 by an electric motor1 :i* exhau/s1 or p>tially exhau/s1 ! air f a foot piece t is dragg$ along ! c>pet4 ,z ! air "u atmosph]ic pressure ru%es 9 ?r\gh ! c>pet to take ! place ( ! air t has be5 pump$ out1 x c>ries ) x all loose p>ticles ( dirt4 ,! dirt is filt]$ out ( ! air or a me*anical trap is provid$ to cat* & reta9 ! dirt :ile ! air is all[$ to escape4 ,l>ge-scale vacuum clean]s are us$ = clean+ city /reets4 ,! dirt is loos5$ by revolv+ bru%es & is !n drawn up by atmosph]ic pressure into a tank4 ,ano!r use ( atmosph]ic pressure is to be f\nd 9 ! pneumatic tubes :i* convey mail f "o po/ (fice to ano!r4 ,air is exhau/$ f ! tube & :5 a c>ri] is ins]t$ :i* fits ! tube closely ! atmosph]ic pressure beh9d x =ces ! c>ri] along to its de/9ation4 ,! same sy/em is us$ to c>ry money to & f ! ca%i]'s (fice 9 dep>tm5t /ores4 ,9 lat] developm5ts ( ! pneumatic mail c>ri] compress$ air 0 us$ back ( ! c>ri]1 b ! pr9ciple ( op]ation 0 n alt]$4 ,9 ei!r case propulsion is effect$ by ! diff]5ce ( air pressure on ! opposite sides ( ! c>4 ,9 #ahfi ,alfr$ ,e4 ,bea* built an exp]im5tal subway l9e "u ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 ne> ,w>r5 ,/reet4 ,! l9e 0 only #bjj feet long4 ,a cyl9drical c> l>ge en\gh to hold eighte5 p1 fitt$ ! bore snugly & 0 propell$ 9 "o direction by compress+ ! air 9 ! tunnel & 9 ! o!r direction by exhau/+ ! air4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,p[] ,,f ,,heat ,,! ,,t]m 8wat] p[]0 is a misnom]4 ,!re is no p[] inh]5t 9 wat]4 ,x is gravity t makes wat] fall 9 cat>acts or fl[ d[n a riv] b$1 & h5ce x is ! =ce ( gravity t is responsible = ! turn+ ( our turb9es & ,pelton :eels4 ,wat] is m]ely ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* ! =ce ( gravity acts4 ,9 ! /eam eng9e1 wat]1 aga91 s]ves z a m$ium & x is ! en]gy ( heat t is actually ! work+ =ce4 ,a clos$ vessel is p>tly fill$ ) wat] & heat is appli$ to x4 ,! wat] gr[s hott] & hott] until at a temp]ature ( #bab degrees x beg9s to vaporize4 ,! temp]ature ( ! wat] rema9s /ation>y until ! space above ! wat] is completely fill$ ) /eam at a pressure equal to t ( normal air pressure4 ,! /eam gauge !n regi/]s z]o4 ,cont9u$ application ( heat raises ! pressure ( ! /eam & also raises ! temp]ature ( ! wat]4 ,:5 ! /eam gauge %[s a pressure ( #be p\nds p] squ>e in*1 ! wat] temp]ature is ne>ly #bfg degrees2 at #ajj p\nds x is ov] #ccg degrees2 at #bjj p\nds x is #chg degrees2 at #ejj p\nds x is ab\t #dfg degrees4 ,z /eam is drawn (f f ! boil] a proportionate am\nt ( wat] turns imm$iately into /eam to take its place4 ,if ! boil] %\ld bur/1 ! entire mass ( wat] w\ld in/antly fla% into /eam because its temp]ature is f> above ! boil+ po9t at normal air pressure4 ,t is :y ! explosion ( a /eam boil] is s viol5t4 ,if ! boil] 7 entirely fill$ ) /eam ! effect ( an explosion w\ld n beg9 to be s de/ructive z if ! boil] 7 half full ( wat]4 ,x is really ! explosion ( wat] t does su* s]i\s damage4 ,:5 ! /eam pressure 9 a boil] corresponds to ! temp]ature ( ! wat] x is said to be saturat$4 ,! wat] 9 a boil] boils viol5tly :5 ! /eam is drawn (f rapidly & t9y droplets ( wat] are c>ri$ (f 9 ! /eam1 produc+ :at is kn[n z wet /eam4 ,/eam t c>ries no wat] p>ticles 9 susp5sion is call$ dry /eam4 ,:5 ! /eam is heat$ above ! temp]ature ( ! wat] by means ( an auxili>y heat+ device or by "s peculi> con/ruction ( ! boil]1 x is call$ sup]heat$ /eam4 ,9 ord] to economize fuel x is highly important t z mu* wat] surface be expos$ to ! heat z possible4 ,?is may be done ei!r by pass+ ! heat 9 tubes ?r\gh ! wat] or by pass+ ! wat] 9 tubes ?r\gh ! fire4 ,locomotive boil]s are ( ! fire-tube type4 ,! flam+ gases ( ! furnace pass ?r\gh ! boil] ?r\gh a s]ies ( tubes t lead to ! /ack4 ,9 ! wat]-tube boil]s x is highly important t a good & rapid circulation ( wat] be ma9ta9$1 o!rwise !re might be local g5]ation ( /eam ) s]i\s consequ5ces4 ,,! ,,giff>d ,,injector ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,,injector ,,= ,,introduc+ ,,wat] ,,into ,a ,,/eam ,,boil] ,z /eam is us$ f a boil] ! wat] is sl[ly exhau/$ & x mu/ be repl5i%$ ) a fre% supply4 ,9 e>ly days ( ! /eam eng9e1 wat] 0 pump$ 9 aga9/ ! boil] pressure by ! use ( p[]ful pumps1 b 9 #aheh a man nam$ ,giff>d inv5t$ a mo/ +5i\s app>atus by :i* /eam ( ! boil] 0 us$ to =ce wat] 9 directly aga9/ its own pressure4 ,?is seems l lift+ oneself by "o's boot /raps4 ,:5 ! injector 0 fir/ inv5t$ x seem$ s impossible = x to "w t eng9e]s w\ld n accept x until x _h repeat$ly demon/rat$ its op]ativ5ess4 ,ev5 aft] x 0 accept$ & 9 common use its my/]i\s op]ation 0 a subject ( discussion = ye>s4 ,a sectional view ( a ,giff>d injector is %[n 9 ,figure #de4 ,/eam f ! boil] comes d[n ! tube ,a & passes out 9 a jet f ! nozzle ,b4 ,a ne$le valve ,c may be mov$ into ! nozzle to r$uce or %ut (f ! jet ( /eam4 ,! jet ent]s a conical *amb] ,d :i* has a tube ,e t runs d[n into ! wat] res]voir4 ,! /eam jet bl[s ! air out ( *amb] ,d1 produc+ a p>tial vacuum :i* draws wat] up ! tube ,e & into ! *amb] ,d4 ,:5 ! wat] rea*es ! /eam jet x is driv5 out ( ! *amb] across a %ort op5 space into a slightly div]g+ tube or receiv+ cone ,f & ?r\gh a *eck valve ,g into ! boil]4 ,at ,h !re is a glass w9d[ ?r\gh :i* ! action ( ! wat] jet z x ru%es into ! receiv+ tube may be wat*$4 ,i is an ov]fl[ pipe lead+ back to ! res]voir4 ,:5 ! /eam fl[s into ! cone ,b x ga!rs mom5tum & issues f ! nozzle 9 a jet ( high velocity4 ,on /rik+ ! wat] x comb9es ) ! wat] & cond5ses1 b at ! same "t x imp>ts its mom5tum to ! wat] s t ! wat] is giv5 m ?an en\gh mom5tum to drive x into ! boil] aga9/ ! pressure 9 ! boil]4 ,! pressure ( /eam is utiliz$ to drive ! pi/on ( an eng9e or ! /eam may be set 9 motion by lett+ x issue f a nozzle1 :5 its mom5tum may be employ$ to drive a /eam turb9e 9 ! same way t a wat] jet drives a ,pelton :eel b 9 ei!r case x is heat t does ! "w4 ,! /eam exp&s z x moves ! pi/on & z x passes ?r\gh ! nozzle its expansion is accompani$ by a correspond+ loss ( heat4 ,z we h already not$1 x 0 = ! purpose ( rais+ wat] t inanimate p[]s 7 fir/ set to "w4 ,x 0 ) ! same object 9 view t /eam 0 fir/ employ$4 ,,h]o',s ,,/eam ,,eng9e ,to be sure ! fir/ /eam eng9e 0 inv5t$ by ,h]o1 ! disciple ( ,ctesibius1 9 ! second c5tury be=e ,*ri/1 & x 0 n a wat]-rais+ ma*9e4 ,x consi/$ ( a holl[ sph]e 7see ,figure #df71 m\nt$ to rotate & f$ ) /eam t ent]$ x ?r\gh ! j\rnals4 ,! /eam issu$ f opposite sides ( ! sph]e ?r\gh two b5t tubes4 ,! /eam 9 issu+ f ! tubes react$ aga9/ ! tubes1 pu%+ !m back & caus+ ! sph]e to revolve4 ,e action is accompani$ by an equal & opposite reaction4 ,a bullet fir$ f a gun kicks ! gun back4 ,9 ord] to pu% ! bullet out ( ! b>rel1 ! p[d] mu/ h some?+ to pu% aga9/ & ! pu% aga9/ ! gun is equal to ! pu% aga9/ ! bullet4 ,ev5 if !re 7 no bullet to be pu%$ ! dis*>ge ( ! p[d] w\ld react aga9/ ! gun4 ,9 ord] to pu% its own gases out ( ! gun1 ! p[d] mu/ pu% back aga9/ ! gun4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,,h]o',s ,,/eam ,,eng9e ,9 ,h]o's eng9e1 ! /eam1 9 ord] to pu% itself out ( ! sph]e1 mu/ pu% aga9/ ! b5t tubes4 ,we h a simil> reaction motor 9 ! revolv+ lawn spr9kl]4 ,! wat] issu+ f ! b5t arms ( ! spr9kl] =ces !m back & causes !m to revolve4 ,7 ! arms radial & n b5t ! reaction w\ld be !re j ! same1 b x w\ld be ex]t$ aga9/ ! c5t] ( ! :eel & h5ce !re w\ld be no rotation4 ,reaction has no?+ to d ) ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e z s _m p imag9e4 ,a gun w\ld kick j z h>d & ! lawn spr9kl] or ,h]o's eng9e w\ld op]ate j z well & z fa/ 9 a p]fect vacuum4 ,x 0 to demon/rate ! pr9ciple ( reaction t ,h]o built 8 /eam eng9e4 ,z f> z we "k x 0 nev] put to useful "w & rema9$ m]ely a sci5tific toy4 ,,newcom5',s ,,atmosph]ic ,,eng9e ,! fir/ practical use ( /eam p[] 0 appli$ to ! pump+ ( wat] f ! deep m9es ( ,cornwall4 ,newcom5's eng9e1 :i* ant$at$ ,watt's by sev]al decades1 0 kn[n z an atmosph]ic eng9e4 ,x consi/$ ( a cyl9d] fitt$ ) a pi/on1 b ! top ( ! cyl9d] 0 op54 ,! pi/on 0 connect$ to "o end ( a lev] or walk+ beam1 ! o!r end ( :i* 0 connect$ by a *a9 ) ! plung] ( a pump situat$ at ! bottom ( ! m9e %aft4 ,little p[] 0 requir$ to lift ! pi/on because x 0 c\nt]balanc$ by ! *a9 & plung] atta*$ to ! opposite end ( ! walk+ beam4 ,! real "w 0 done 9 pu%+ ! pi/on d[n & !reby rais+ ! pump plung]4 ,/eam "u l[ pressure 0 let into ! cyl9d] "u ! pi/on to raise x & !n a jet ( wat] 0 spray$ into ! /eam-fill$ cyl9d]4 ,?is cond5s$ ! /eam1 produc+ vacuum & ! atmosph]ic pressure act+ on ! upp] surface ( ! pi/on =c$ ! pi/on d[n1 rais+ ! pump plung]4 ,! eng9e ran v sl[ly1 mak+ only ab\t #ae /rokes p] m9ute4 ,lat] x 0 improv$1 produc+ ab\t #cj /rokes p] m9ute4 ,,watt',s ,,/eam ,,eng9e ,watt 0 ! fir/ man to build an eng9e 9 :i* ! real "w 0 done by ! pressure ( /eam z 9 mod]n /eam eng9es4 ,z long z ! /eam eng9e 0 us$ = pump+ wat] ! reciprocat+ pi/on c\ld be connect$ directly to ! pump plung] & x 0 unnecess>y to ex]t p[] on bo? sides ( ! pi/on1 b 9 #aghb ,watt obta9$ a pat5t on a d\ble-act+ eng9e4 ,/eam 0 admitt$ fir/ on "o side ( ! pi/on & !n on ! o!r4 ,! walk+ beam 0 connect$ by means ( a connect+ rod to a crank on a %aft t c>ri$ a fly:eel1 & ! seesaw motion ( ! beam 0 conv]t$ into rot>y motion ( ! :eel4 ,?is op5$ up new indu/rial opportunities = ! /eam eng9e4 ,! /eam 0 exhau/$ f ! cyl9d] into a cond5s]1 i4e41 a *amb]1 9 :i* a spray ( wat] conv]t$ ! /eam into wat]1 produc+ a vacuum1 !reby reliev+ ! pi/on ( back pressure & virtually add+ t mu* m p[] to ! /eam op]at+ on ! opposite side ( ! pi/on4 ,a pump driv5 by ! eng9e drew ! wat] & ! air lib]at$ f ! cond5s$ /eam out ( ! cond5s]4 ,watt inv5t$ an +5i\s gov]nor to control ! fl[ ( /eam to ! eng9e & insure a uni=m motion4 7,see ,figure #dg47 ,?is gov]nor consi/$ ( a pair ( lev]s h+$ to a revolv+ %aft & ea* provid$ ) a ball weight at its free end4 ,! %aft 0 revolv$ by ! eng9e & if ! eng9e t5d$ to run too fa/ ! balls 7 ?r[n out by c5trifugal action4 ,9 s do+ !y op]at$ a ?rottle valve cutt+ d[n ! /eam supply4 ,:5 ! eng9e sl[$ d[n ! balls w\ld drop1 admitt+ m /eam4 ,9 ?is way ! spe$ ( ! eng9e 0 kept )9 close limits4 ,! ball gov]nor 9 improv$ =m is /ill widely us$ 9 /ation>y eng9es4 ,,us+ ,,! ,,heat ,,9 ,,! ,,/eam ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,,watt',s ,,ball ,,gov]nor ,ano!r ( ,watt's inv5tions :i* has prov$ ( highe/ importance 9 /eam eng9e]+ 0 ! cut (f4 ,9 8 fir/ eng9e ! pi/on 0 subject$ to ! full boil] pressure ?r\gh\t its /roke1 & ! /eam t p\r$ out ( ! exhau/ port ( ! cyl9d] at ! end ( ! pi/on /roke 0 almo/ z hot z t :i* ent]$ ! cyl9d] at ! beg9n+ ( ! /roke4 ,! heat t goes out 9 ! exhau/ repres5ts j s mu* wa/$ en]gy4 ,watt realiz$ ?is & s he inv5t$ a valve :i* w\ld cut (f ! fl[ f ! boil] be=e ! pi/on _h complet$ its /roke4 ,!n ! /eam back ( ! pi/on w\ld cont9ue to exp& because ( ! heat )9 x & w\ld keep on pu%+ ! pi/on4 ,( c\rse1 ! pressure w\ld gradually dim9i% & !re w\ld be less p[] 9 ! /roke ?an if ! full boil] pressure 7 pu%+ ! pi/on all ! way1 b ?is loss ( p[] is (fset by ! sav+ 9 /eam & 9 ! fuel us$ to heat ! /eam4 ,! po9t at :i* ! cut-(f takes place dep5ds l>gely ^u ! pressure ( ! /eam4 ,if ! /eam is cut (f :5 ! pi/on has made only "o-fif? ( its /roke1 "o-fif? z mu* /eam w be us$ at ea* /roke z w\ld be ! case if ! /eam 7 us$ nonexpansively4 ,h[ev]1 9 actual practice ! expansion ( ! cut-(f /eam in/ead ( be+ five times w\ld be only ab\t f\r times1 because ( ! cle>ance t mu/ be all[$ betwe5 ! pi/on & ! end ( ! cyl9d]4 ,if /eam ( #ajj p\nds absolute pressure is us$1 ! av]age pressure ?r\gh\t ! pi/on w be only ab\t #eg p] c5t ( ! full pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! boil]1 b ea* p\nd ( /eam w actually d 4#eg #d #b4bh times z mu* "w z x w\ld if us$ nonexpansively4 ,all sorts ( valve ge> h be5 inv5t$ to admit /eam quickly & cut x (f at ! prop] po9t to produce ! mo/ effici5t result4 ,9 l[-pressure cyl9d]s 9 ord] to prev5t loss ( heat ?r\gh ! wall ( ! cyl9d]1 ! latt] is /eam-jacket$4 ,9 o!r words1 !re is an out] cas+ surr\nd+ ! cyl9d] & betwe5 ?is cas+ & ! cyl9d] /eam is admitt$ to keep ! cyl9d] walls hot4 ,9 ord] to make full use ( ! heat 9 /eam x is1 9 "s eng9es1 s5t ?r\gh a s]ies ( two1 ?ree1 & ev5 f\r cyl9d]s4 ,! exhau/ f "o cyl9d] goes into a second l>g] cyl9d]4 ,f "h aft] do+ "w on a pi/on x dis*>ges into a ?ird /ill l>g] cyl9d] & f t may be l$ into a f\r? cyl9d]4 ,! cyl9d]s mu/ be progressively l>g] to all[ = ! expansion ( ! /eam4 ,! ord9>y /eam eng9e labors "u ! disadvantage ( hav+ to />t & /op its pi/ons at ! end ( ea* /roke4 ,e body possesses in]tia1 :e!r x be mov+ or at re/4 ,if x be at re/1 x takes mu* m en]gy to set x 9 motion ?an to keep x mov+4 ,9 fact x w\ld keep on mov+ )\t fur!r exp5diture ( en]gy 7 !re no friction & no =ces act+ aga9/ x4 ,9 ord] to /op ! body en]gy mu/ be exp5d$ to ov]come its in]tia4 ,! m rapidly a body is />t$ & ! m quickly x is /opp$1 ! m "w mu/ be done 9 ov]com+ its in]tia4 ,9 a /eam eng9e n only ! pi/on b o!r p>ts connect$ to x may be requir$ to reciprocate sev]al hundr$ times p] m9ute4 ,a great deal ( en]gy is uselessly exp5d$ 9 />t+ & /opp+ ^! p>ts4 ,_m ef=ts h be5 made to produce a rot>y eng9e 9 :i* ! pi/on rotates in/ead ( reciprocat+1 ?us do+ away ) ! "w ( ov]com+ in]tia4 ,h[ev]1 !re are s]i\s ob/acles to ! con/ruction ( su* an eng9e1 & z yet no truly effici5t & practical rot>y eng9e has be5 built4 ,,de ,,laval',s ,,/eam ,,turb9e ,h[ev]1 !re is ano!r type ( eng9e 9 :i* ! /eam is appli$ cont9u\sly & all ! p>ts revolve4 ,su* an eng9e 0 ! reaction turb9e inv5t$ by ,h]o1 to :i* ref]5ce has already be5 made4 ,mod]n turb9es1 h[ev]1 are ( v diff]5t con/ruction4 ,!y resemble ! ,pelton :eels & turb9es us$ 9 develop+ wat] p[]1 diff]+ f !m ma9ly 9 ! fact t use is made ( ! expansive en]gy ( /eam :i* is lack+ 9 wat]4 ,9 ! ,de ,laval /eam turb9e a :eel is us$ :i* has a s]ies ( curv$ buckets all ar\nd its p]iph]y t are clos$ at ! out] end by a circul> rim4 7,see ,figure #dh47 ,/eam is direct$ aga9/ ?is bucket1 n tang5tially z 9 a ,pelton :eel1 b f ! side4 ,sev]al /eam nozzles are employ$ & z ! /eam jets /rike ! buckets & sweep ar\nd _! curv$ surfaces !y react aga9/ ! buckets & drive ! :eel ar\nd4 ,9 ord] to op]ate effici5tly ! velocity ( ! /eam mu/ be v high & ! :eel mu/ also turn at high spe$4 ,:5 /eam fl[s ?r\gh a div]g+ nozzle its velocity is greatly accel]at$ by its expansive ef=t4 ,su* nozzles are us$ 9 ! ,de ,laval turb9es & ! /eam issues f !m ) a velocity :i* may be high] ?an t ( a rifle bullet4 ,! buckets are =g$ & ! h>d-scale surface is left on !m2 o!rwise !y w\ld we> away quickly "u ! action ( ! p[]ful jets ( /eam4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,! ,,de ,,laval ,,/eam ,,turb9e ,! turb9e :eel may revolve at a spe$ ( #cj1jjj revolutions p] m9ute4 ,su* a trem5d\s spe$ has its disadvantages4 ,if a :eel is to run smoo?ly x mu/ revolve on its c5t] ( gravity4 ,a lopsid$ :eel1 or "o t is m\nt$ a little (f c5t]1 produces a p\nd+ action :i* imposes a s]i\s /ra9 ^u ! be>+s & ! revolv+ p>ts4 ,! :eel tries to turn on its own c5t] ( gravity & w d s if p]mitt$ to4 ,x is impossible to balance a :eel s p]fectly t ! axis x turns on passes exactly ?r\gh its c5t] ( gravity4 ,at ord9>y spe$s ?is slight ecc5tricity is s slight t x is practically negligible1 b :5 we h to deal ) #cj1jjj revolutions p] m9ute ! lea/ div]g5ce betwe5 ! c5t] ( rotation & ! c5t] ( gravity w produce dang]\s /ra9s4 ,= ?is reason ! :eel ( ! ,de ,laval turb9e is m\nt$ on a flexible %aft & on float+ be>+s1 s t x w automatically f9d & turn on its own c5t] ( gravity4 ,9 ord] to utilize ! p[] develop$ 9 ! :eel1 ge>+ mu/ be us$ to /ep d[n ! spe$4 ,,p>sons ,,expansion ,,turb9e ,! ,p>sons /eam turb9e resembles a wat] turb9e 9 its action4 ,in/ead ( hav+ a few nozzles direct+ /eam aga9/ ! buckets !re is a nozzle = ea* bucket1 & in/ead ( a s+le :eel !re is a s]ies ( !m ?r\gh :i* ! /eam passes1 successively pass+ ?r\gh a set ( nozzles betwe5 ea* :eel4 ,! nozzles are =m$ ( blades on ! p]iph]y ( /ation>y :eels4 ,^! blades are curv$ 9 ! opposite direction to ! blades on ! revolv+ :eels1 z %[n 9 ,figure #di4 ,/eam 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! r+ ( curv$ /ation>y blades is divid$ up into a s]ies ( jets :i* /rike ! curv$ blades ( ! fir/ :eel4 ,9 pass+ ?r\gh ?is :eel ! direction ( ! /ream is rev]s$1 & x ent]s betwe5 ! second set ( /ation>y blades1 :i* turn x back aga9 & direct x aga9/ ! next :eel4 ,?us ! /eam pursues a s9u\s c\rse ?r\gh ! s]ies ( :eels4 ,to all[ = ! expansion ( ! /eam ! blades are made progressively long] & ! :eels ( progressively l>g] diamet] f ! inlet to ! exhau/ end ( ! eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,p]iph]al ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,blades ,,( ,a ,,p>sons ,,turb9e ,! ,curtis turb9e comb9es ! ,de ,laval & ! ,p>sons pr9ciples4 ,! /eam ent]s ?r\gh a s]ies ( nozzles :i* are ( ! exp&+ type1 !n x goes ?r\gh a s]ies ( mov+ & /ation>y blades1 z 9 ! ,p>sons turb9e1 f :i* x ent]s ano!r set ( exp&+ nozzles & ga9s velocity & mom5tum be=e pass+ ?r\gh ! second s]ies or /age ( mov+ & fix$ blades4 7,see ,figure #ej47 ,/eam turb9es are p>ticul>ly adapt$ = use 9 electric p[] plants4 ,! spe$ ( rotation ( ! ,p>sons & ,curtis types is mu* l[] ?an t ( ! ,de ,laval & h5ce ! electric g5]ators may be directly driv5 by !m )\t ! int]position ( any ge>+4 ,!y c be built ( l>g] p[] ?an ! reciprocat+ eng9es because !y are s economical ( space4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,p]iph]al ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,blades ,,& ,,nozzles ,,( ,a ,,curtis ,,turb9e ,a good comp>ison ( turb9e v]sus reciprocat+ eng9es is (f]$ by ! #gd? ,/reet p[] /ation ( ! ,manhattan ,elevat$ ,railway1 ,new ,york4 ,?is /ation1 :i* 0 complet$ 9 #aija1 0 equipp$ ) eight huge reciprocat+ eng9es1 ea* develop+ #h1jjj horsep[] normally1 & capable ( deliv]+ a maximum ( #ab1ejj horsep[]4 ,! :ole plant1 !re=e1 _h a maximum capacity ( #ajj1jjj horsep[]4 ,gradually ^! units h be5 giv+ way to /eam turb9es ( mu* high] p[]1 & 9 #aiai !re 0 in/all$ "o p[]ful turb9e :i* alone 0 capable ( develop+ z mu* p[] z ! entire plant ( #aija4 ,?is is a triple-comp\nd turb9e compris+ "o high-pressure turb9e & a l[-pressure turb9e at ea* side4 ,/eam ent]s ! high-pressure turb9e at #bje p\nds pressure to ! squ>e in* & !n exhau/s into ! l[-pressure turb9es1 pass+ f !m into cond5s]s :i* op]ate "u #bi in*es vacuum4 ,ea* turb9e drives a sep>ate g5]ator & ! comb9$ horsep[] ( ! :ole unit is ab\t #ajj1jjj1 :ile ! floor space occupi$ is only #ej by #eb feet4 ,! economy ( space & ( fuel (f]$ by ! /eam turb9e is ( great value 9 ! p[] plants ( %ips1 & ?is =m ( prime mov] has be5 in/all$ on mod]n high-spe$ pass5g] l9]s & also on high-spe$ w> vessels4 ,:ile 9 c]ta9 respects ! turb9e is ideal = su* s]vice1 !re are two h&icaps :i* mu/ be ov]come4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! mo/ effici5t spe$ = ! turb9e is consid]ably high] ?an ! effici5t spe$ ( ! propell] & "s means mu/ be provid$ = /epp+ d[n ! spe$4 ,9 ! second place1 ! turb9e _c be z economically controll$ z a reciprocat+ eng9e & its direction ( rotation _c be rev]s$1 s t difficulties are enc\nt]$ 9 maneuv]+ ! %ip 9 h>bors4 ,x is no simple matt] to ge> d[n ! high spe$ & enorm\s p[] ( a turb9e1 ,h[ev]1 an elaborate sy/em ( ge>+ has be5 provid$ = ?is purpose :i* has prov$ satisfactory ev5 9 p[]ful battle cruis]s4 ,! ,briti% battle cruis]s ) a p[] plant ( #acd1jjj horsep[] are driv5 by ge>$ turb9es4 ,to rev]se ! propell]s sep>ate l[-p[] turb9es are us$4 ,a m attractive sy/em ( control is to h ! turb9es drive electric g5]ators & !n use ! electric p[] to drive ! propell]s ?r\gh motors m\nt$ on ! propell] %afts4 ,! electric p[] c easily be controll$ f ! bridge & ! propell]s may be rev]s$ by rev]s+ ! motors4 ,h[ev]1 ! disadvantage ( ! electric sy/em is t x occupies a great deal ( space1 p>ticul>ly 9 plants runn+ ov] #ajj1jjj horsep[]4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,burn+ ,,fuel ,,9 ,,! ,,eng9e ,,cyl9d] ,,"o ,,( ! h&icaps ( /eam p[] is t ! heat produc$ by ! combu/ion ( fuel is n us$ directly to drive ! pi/on4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! heat en]gy 9 coal goes up ! *imney or is wa/$ by radiation f ! furnace walls4 ,) an?racite coal 9 ! furnace ! loss may be z l[ z #bb p] c5t 9 ! v be/ types ( boil]s4 ,9 ! eng9e o!r s]i\s losses occur1 s t 9 ! be/ cond5s+ reciprocat+ /eam eng9es ! p[] deliv]$ is only #aj to #af p] c5t ( t /or$ 9 ! fuel4 ,9 locomotives ! effici5cy is z l[ z #d to #f p] c5t4 ,9 turb9es ! /eam is us$ to bett] advantage & ! actual p[] deliv]$ may run up to #bj p] c5t ( t 9 ! fuel4 ,9 int]nal-combu/ion eng9es ! furnace & boil] losses are l>gely ov]come by burn+ ! fuel "r 9 ! cyl9d]1 :]e ! heat en]gy ( ! combu/ion may be utiliz$ directly ^u ! pi/on4 ,!re are o!r losses1 h[ev]1 s t ! mo/ effici5t gasol9e eng9es deliv] only #bh p] c5t ( ! en]gy 9 ! fuel1 & coal-gas eng9es may run up to #ca p] c5t4 ,a wide range ( fuels may be us$ 9 an int]nal-combu/ion eng9e4 ,!y may be ei!r gase\s1 liquid1 or ev5 solid4 ,9 /ation>y eng9es hydrog51 coal gas1 natural gas1 bla/-furnace gas1 & produc] gas are employ$ to advantage4 ,volatile fuels1 su* z alcohol1 b5sol1 gasol9e1 & k]os5e1 are turn$ into a mi/ or vapor & !n burn$ z a gas4 ,9 eng9es ( ! ,diesel type any liquid fuel rang+ d[n to ?ick crude oils may be employ$1 & 9 "o type ( eng9e1 :i*1 h[ev]1 has n prov$ comm]cially practicable1 coal du/ is burn$ 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,,burn+ ,,air ,,9 ,,! ,,automobile ,,eng9e ,ow+ to ! widespread use ( automobiles1 ! g5]al public is bett] acqua9t$ ) int]nal-combu/ion eng9es ?an ) /eam eng9es4 ,nev]!less1 !re are _m elem5t>y facts 9 connection ) gasol9e eng9es t are n g5]ally kn[n4 ,! av]age motori/ probably does n realize t he burns f> m air 9 8 motor ?an gasol9e1 & he probably does n und]/& :y x is t ! mixture ( gasol9e vapor & air mu/ be compress$ be=e x is ignit$1 or :y only "o out ( f\r /rokes ( ! pi/on is a p[] /roke4 ,if a volume ( gasol9e vapor be ?or\ghly mix$ ) an equal volume ( air1 ! mixture w n explode4 ,only :5 !re is an excess ( air w combu/ion take place1 & ! mo/ int5sive explosion takes place :5 !re are n9e p>ts ( air to "o "p ( gasol9e vapor4 ,:]e gasol9e is vaporiz$ 9 a c>buretor ! be/ mixture is "o "p ( gasol9e-saturat$ air to eight p>ts ( pure air4 ,h5ce x is ma9ly air t is burn$ 9 an automobile eng9e4 ,! en]gy ( combu/ion is mu* great] :5 ! mixture is compress$4 ,! p>ticles ( gasol9e & air are =c$ into m intimate contact by ! compression4 ,! same ?+ is true ( gunp[d]4 ,if gunp[d] is ignit$ 9 ! op5 air1 x w burn quickly1 b n ) explosive viol5ce4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! p[d] is compress$ 9 a c>tridge & is !n ignit$1 an explosion takes place4 ,ne>ly twice z mu* gas 0 requir$ 9 ! e>ly noncompression-type motors z is requir$ to-day 9 ! compression motors ( ! same p[]4 ,9 an int]nal-combu/ion eng9e ! cyl9d] s]ves z a furnace4 ,?is 8furnace0 mu/ be *>g$ ) fuel1 & aft] ! fuel has be5 burn$ ! 8a%es0--i4 e41 ! products ( combu/ion--mu/ be remov$4 ,! pi/on s]ves z ! furnace /ok]4 ,9 ! ord9>y f\r-cycle eng9e ! action ( ! pi/on is z foll[s3 ,on ! fir/ or d[n /roke ( ! pi/on a mixture ( air & gasol9e vapor is drawn into ! cyl9d]2 on ! next or ris+ /roke ! *>ge is compress$4 ,!n ! *>ge is ignit$ by an electric sp>k1 & ! rapid combu/ion ( ! *>ge produces gases :i* drive ! pi/on d[n4 ,on ! f\r? /roke ! pi/on rises aga9 & pu%es ! burnt gases out ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! pi/on receives en]gy int]mitt5tly1 or only once out ( f\r /rokes1 & a fly:eel has to keep x go+ ! re/ ( ! "t4 ,x is j l propell+ a bicycle ) a s+le p$al & pu%+ ! p$al e o!r "t x comes out4 ,x c be done z long z ! :eel is mov+ fa/ en\gh to c>ry itself along betwe5 p[] /rokes4 ,naturally a s+le-cyl9d] motor _c be sl[$ d[n v mu* )\t /all+1 & x w n />t ( itself because x ne$s outside help 9 /ok+ its furnace be=e x acquires ! p[] to d ?is job alone4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea--,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,a ,,two-,,cycle ,,eng9e ,!re is a two-cycle type ( motor 9 :i* ! burnt gases are remov$ f ! cyl9d]1 n by ! pi/on1 b by ! injection ( ! unburnt fuel mixture4 ,on ! upw>d or compression /roke ! pi/on n only compresses ! mixture 9 ! cyl9d]1 b draws 9 a fre% *>ge ( fuel into ! crank case1 & :5 ! pi/on is driv5 d[n by ! combu/ion ( ! fuel 9 ! cyl9d]1 ! *>ge 9 ! crank case is compress$ until1 ne> ! end ( its /roke1 ! pi/on uncov]s a port 9 ! cyl9d] ?r\gh :i* ! fuel f ! crank case is =c$ 94 7,see ,figure #ea47 ,j be=e ?is occurs ! pi/on uncov]s an exhau/ port 9 ! opposite side ( ! cyl9d]1 & ! burnt gases />t to fl[ out be=e ! fre% *>ge ( fuel p\rs into ! cyl9d]4 ,! incom+ gas is direct$ upw>d s z to completely scav5ge ! cyl9d] ( all burnt gases4 ,!re are no bo!rsome poppet valves 9 ?is eng9e4 ,! pi/on itself acts z a valve1 op5+ & clos+ ! inlet & exhau/ ports z x slides by !m4 ,e o!r /roke ( ! pi/on is a p[] /roke1 s t ! eng9e acts l a "o-p$al bicycle1 :i* receives a pu% e "t ! p$al comes ar\nd4 ,un=tunately1 ! burnt gases are nev] completely scav5g$1 & ! fre% *>ge ( fuel is always m or less dilut$ by ! product ( combu/ion rema9+ f ! previ\s *>ge4 ,?is repres5ts j s mu* loss ( p[]1 & may int]f]e ) ! ignition ( ! *>ge4 ,= ?is reason ! f\r-cycle eng9e is g5]ally consid]$ m reliable & effici5t1 & is f> m g5]ally us$1 p>ticul>ly on motor vehicles4 ,to ov]come ! int]mitt5t "* ( ! int]nal combu/ion eng9e a numb] ( cyl9d]s are us$1 :i* come into play successively4 ,9 ! f\r-cyl9d] motor "o pi/on is always on ! p[] /roke4 ,9 rec5t ye>s ! numb] ( cyl9d]s has progressively increas$ f f\r to six1 eight1 & twelve cyl9d]s1 :ile 9 rac+ p[] boats ! numb] ( cyl9d]s has gone up z high z tw5ty-f\r4 ,,cool+ ,,! ,,cyl9d]s ,! temp]ature ( ! combu/ion 9 a gasol9e eng9e may be ov] #c1jjj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,evid5tly x w\ld melt ! cyl9d] walls 7 n special provisions tak5 to keep !m cool4 ,! usual me?od is to surr\nd ! cyl9d]s ) wat] :i* absorbs ! heat1 & !n cool ! wat] by pass+ x ?r\gh a radiator4 ,air driv5 by a fan ?r\gh ! radiator c>ries (f ! heat4 ,( c\rse ?is repres5ts j s mu* wa/$ en]gy & l[]s ! effici5cy ( ! motor1 b x is ! mo/ conv5i5t way ( gett+ rid ( ! int5se heat ( combu/ion4 ,small] motors1 su* z are us$ on motorcycles1 h _! cyl9d]s cool$ by direct action ( air on ! out] surface ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! heat radiat$ dep5ds ^u ! surface expos$ & ! velocity ( ! air curr5t4 ,! radiat+ surface ( ! cyl9d]s is increas$ by =m+ !m ) ext]nal ribs or flanges1 s t ! air t fl[s ov] !m1 :ile ! ma*9e is 9 motion1 c>ries (f en\gh heat to keep ! temp]ature ( ! cyl9d]s )9 safe limits4 ,9 "s sy/ems1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! case ( /ation>y eng9es1 to insure a good circulation1 ! air is positively driv5 aga9/ ! flanges by means ( a fan4 ,!re are s]i\s disadvantages 9 us+ wat] to cool an eng9e4 ,besides ! bo!r ( keep+ ! wat] sy/em suppli$ ) wat] !re is ! dang] ( clogg+ ! radiator ) lime deposits1 & 9 extremely cold wea!r ! wat] is liable to freeze & bur/ ! wat] jackets or ! radiator2 = ?is reason1 air cool+ is recomm5d$ by "s = automobile eng9es4 ,9 c]ta9 air-cool$ automobile eng9es ! cyl9d]s are air-jacket$2 t is1 !y are surr\nd$ ) cas+s ?r\gh :i* ! air is suck$ by a p[]ful fan driv5 by ! eng9e %aft1 s t ! air is b\nd to fl[ if ! eng9e is turn+4 ,! cyl9d]s are ribb$1 s t !y pres5t a l>ge radiat+ surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,copyright1 ,kadel ,h]b]t ,,giant ,,caproni ,,hydroa]oplane ,,:i* ,,0 ,,wreck$ ,,at ,,lago ,,maggiore ,seat+ capacity #ajj p]sons2 p[]1 eight #dej-;h4p4 ,lib]ty motors ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,boat ,,( ,,/one--,,! ,,concrete ,,/eam%ip 8,,fai?0 ,illu/ration3 ,,! 8,,virg9ian10 ,,! ,,l>ge/ ,,locomotive ,,9 ,,! ,,_w ,l5g? ov] all1 #ig ft42 weight ( eng9e1 #fhd1jjj lbs42 ( t5d]1 #bad1cjj lbs42 tractive p[]1 simple1 #agf1fjj lbs42 comp\nd1 #adg1bjj ,air-cool$ eng9es h hott] cyl9d]s ?an wat]-cool$ eng9es & h5ce 9 cyl9d]s ( ! same size less fuel is drawn into ! air-cool$ cyl9d]4 ,b ! fuel is us$ m effici5tly because less ( its heat en]gy is wa/$2 s t air-cool$ eng9es %[ a slight fuel economy ov] wat]-cool$ eng9es4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! air-cool$ eng9e is ov]load$ or is run at v high spe$s x is liable to become ov]heat$ & may ignite ! incom+ *>ge ( gas prematurely4 ,,! ,,self ,,ignit+ ,,diesel ,,eng9e ,z has already be5 po9t$ out1 compression ( gas g5]ates heat1 & "o ( ! reasons = cool+ ! cyl9d]s ( an int]nal combu/ion eng9e is to prev5t ! gas f explod+ prematurely on ! compression /roke ( ! pi/on4 ,9 ! ,diesel eng9e1 in/ead ( avoid+ su* a critical temp]ature x is delib]ately s\ght1 because x is ! heat ( compression1 in/ead ( an electric sp>k1 :i* ignites ! *>ge4 ,pure air is drawn into ! cyl9d] on ! suction /roke4 ,?is air is "u ord9>y atmosph]ic pressure :5 x ent]s1 b on ! return /roke ( ! pi/on x is compress$ to ab\t #ejj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,?is raises ! temp]ature up to ! neighborhood ( #ajjj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,into ?is highly heat$ air a spray ( oil is inject$ by air at /ill high] pressure & imm$iately ! oil fla%es into flame & ! gases result+ f ! combu/ion drive ! pi/on d[n4 ,?is is a v economical type ( motor4 ,any liquid fuel may be us$1 f light gasol9e to heavy crude oils1 or ! oils t rema9 aft] ! m volatile fuels h be5 di/ill$ f !m4 ,! heavy oils h m heat value 9 !m ?an is to be f\nd 9 light volatile fuels1 su* z alcohol1 gasol9e1 & k]os5e1 & because ! oils d n ?r[ (f any inflammable vapors unless highly heat$1 !y c be /or$ m safely4 ,?is is ( highe/ importance on subm>9es & ,diesel eng9es are commonly us$ = propulsion on ! surface or to drive ! g5]ators :i* *>ge ! /orage batt]ies = subm]g$ travel4 ,9 ord] to inject ! fuel into ! cyl9d] aga9/ ! pressure ( air !re91 a p[]ful air pump is requir$4 ,?is does n ne$ to be ( v l>ge capacity1 b x mu/ compress ! air to f #gjj to #a1jjj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,x may seem at fir/ z if ! "w done by ! eng9e 9 compress+ ! air 9 ! cyl9d] & 9 op]at+ ! injector pump repres5ts s mu* loss1 b a mom5t's consid]ation w %[ t x is all recov]$4 ,! air 9 ! cyl9d] acts l a spr+1 reb\nd+ :5 ! pi/on />ts d[n on its p[] /roke & add+ its en]gy to t ( ! burn+ gases1 :ile ! air f ! injector pump also ent]s ! cyl9d] & helps to pu% ! pi/on d[n4 ,diesel eng9es are made to op]ate on ! two-cycle z well z ! f\r-cycle pr9ciple4 ,9 "o type ( eng9e1 kn[n z ! semi-,diesel1 a l[] compression is us$ 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,?is is n high en\gh to ignite ! oil t is spray$ 91 & s a hot tube or bulb is employ$ at ! top ( ! cyl9d] aga9/ :i* ! fuel jet is direct$4 ,?is bulb is heat$ to a d>k *]ry r$ by means ( a tor* until ! eng9e has develop$ en\gh heat to keep ! bulb at ! requisite temp]ature4 ,,! ,,d\ble-,,act+ ,,junk] ,,eng9e ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,,! ,,junk] ,,eng9e ,,9 ,,:i* ,,two ,,pi/ons ,,reciprocate ,,t[>d ,,& ,,away ,,f ,,ea* ,,o!r ,an int]e/+ modification ( ! ,diesel eng9e is ! ,junk] eng9e 7,figure #eb7 9 :i* ! cyl9d] consi/s ( a tube op5 at ea* end4 ,9 ?is !re are two pi/ons :i* reciprocate t[>d & away f ea* o!r4 ,air is compress$ betwe5 !m z !y approa* ea* o!r & fuel is inject$ into ?is air1 ignites & =ces !m ap>t4 ,bo? pi/ons are connect$ to ! same crank %aft1 "o pu%+ d[n & ! o!r pull+ up4 ,! pull+ pi/on has a yoke on ! end ( ! pi/on rod f :i* a pair ( connect+ rods run d[n at ei!r side ( ! cyl9d] to a pair ( cranks on ! crank %aft4 ,betwe5 ^! cranks on ! opposite side ( ! %aft is ! crank to :i* ! pu%+ pi/on is connect$4 ,! advantages ( ?is arrangem5t are t ! mov+ masses are p]fectly balanc$1 ! con/ruction ( ! cyl9d] is v simple & especially adapt$ to high pressures1 & ! reaction ( ! gases1 in/ead ( be+ direct$ aga9/ a fix$ "p ( ! eng9e1 is direct$ aga9/ a mov+ pi/on1 ?us r$uc+ ! /ra9 on ! /ructure4 ,( c\rse ! p[] is n d\bl$ or increas$1 because ea* pi/on moves only half z f> z x w\ld = a giv5 expansion ( gas 7 x op]at+ 9 a cyl9d] clos$ by a cyl9d] head4 ,! effici5cy ( ,diesel eng9es1 al?\gh great] ?an t ( ! gas & gasol9e eng9es1 is /ill v l[4 ,! semi-,diesel w yield ab\t #cj p] c5t ( ! en]gy 9 ! fuel1 ! ,junk] eng9e ab\t #cd p] c5t1 & ! be/ ,diesel1 f\r-cycle eng9e 9 l>ge units1 ab\t #cf p] c5t4 ,?is is a wond]fully high effici5cy comp>$ ) t ( a locomotive1 & yet x seems pitiably l[ :5 we consid] t ne>ly two-?irds ( ! en]gy /or$ 9 ! fuel is ?r[n away4 ,,sil5c+ ,,! ,,noisy ,,exhau/ ,! wa/e ( en]gy is cle>ly evid5t 9 ! exhau/ pipe ( an int]nal combu/ion eng9e4 ,! gases aft] do+ _! "w on ! pi/on ru% out ) su* velocity z to produce a %>p explosive s\nd4 ,! noise ( ! exhau/ is highly objectionable 9 automobiles & mu/ be ov]come1 b in/ead ( utiliz+ ! boi/]\s en]gy ( ! escap+ gases & gett+ a little m useful "w out ( !m1 means are provid$ = hu%+ _! noise4 ,?is is done by pass+ !m ?r\gh a s]ies ( baffles :i* r$uces ! pressure ( ! gases be=e !y are dis*>g$ into ! atmosph]e4 ,by lett+ ! gases exp& gradually in/ead ( bur/+ sudd5ly into ! atmosph]e ! noise ( ! dis*>ge is r$uc$4 ,h[ev]1 ?is mu/ n be done at ! exp5se ( ! eng9e p[]4 ,unless ! gases pass quickly ?r\gh ! muffl] !y w *oke & ret>d ! exhau/ & make ! eng9e d useless "w 9 driv+ !m ?r\gh4 ,ev5 ! be/ ( muffl]s w use up ne>ly #e p] c5t ( ! eng9e p[]4 ,! en]gy t escapes at ! exhau/ is n ! only loss4 ,all ! heat t radiates f ! eng9e repres5ts j s mu* wa/$ en]gy4 ,9 our wat] & air-cool$ sy/ems we delib]ately ab/ract heat f ! burn+ gases & ?r[ x away4 ,if we _h mat]ials t w\ld /& ! int5se heat ( burn+ gases & enable u to cons]ve all ! heat develop$ 9 ! cyl9d] we c\ld use our fuels mu* m economically4 ,_m attempts h be5 made to utilize ! wa/$ heat ( int]nal combu/ion eng9es1 b !y h n met ) any consid]able degree ( success1 ) ! exception ( ! inv5tion ( ,william ,joseph ,/ill4 ,?is eng9e1 :i* 0 ! result ( _m ye>s ( pati5t "w1 0 fir/ made public 9 a pap] read be=e ! ,royal ,society ( ,arts 9 ,london1 ,may #bf1 #aiai1 & :5 x 0 %[n t ! new eng9e _h develop$ an effici5cy ( #ch to #da p] c5t x 0 realiz$ t "h 0 a rem>kable advance ov] any o!r ma*9e = turn+ heat into p[]4 ,,comb9$ ,,/eam ,,& ,,oil ,,eng9e ,! ,/ill eng9e is a comb9$ /eam & gas or oil eng9e4 ,! heat t is ord9>ily ?r[n away 9 ! wat] jacket & 9 ! exhau/ is utiliz$ to produce /eam1 & ?is /eam is employ$ to return ! pi/on to ! top ( ! cyl9d] aft] ! gases g5]at$ by ! combu/ion ( fuel h driv5 x d[n4 ,:ile 9 previ\s exp]im5ts "s /eam _h be5 develop$ f ! exhau/ gases x _h n be5 f\nd possible to g5]ate /eam 9 ! wat] jacket because ( ! l[ temp]ature t _h to be ma9ta9$4 ,9 ! /&>d int]nal combu/ion eng9e ! cyl9d] walls are made ( ca/ iron1 ?ick en\gh to )/& ! heavy pressures to :i* !y are subject$ %\ld ! *>ge be ignit$ prematurely4 ,ar\nd !m ! wat] circulates "u practically no pressure & s ! wall ( ! wat] jacket is made comp>atively ?94 ,because ( ! ?ickness ( ! cyl9d] wall ! wat] has to be ma9ta9$ at a comp>atively l[ temp]ature s z to keep ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d] f gr[+ too hot4 ,9 ! ,/ill eng9e ! cyl9d] wall is f "o-?ird to "o-f\r? ! ?ickness ( ! /&>d cyl9d] wall1 :ile ! wat]-jacket wall is ( ?ick /eel4 ,! cyl9d] wall is =m$ ) ribs :i* ext5d to ! wat]-jacket wall1 s t ! latt] w take c>e ( any excessive loads due to premature ignition4 ,figure #ec %[s h[ ! cyl9d] & jacket ( ! ,/ill eng9e comp>e ) ^? ( ! ord9>y motor4 ,! ?9 cyl9d] wall & ! ribs furni% a f> bett] conduction ( heat to ! wat] :i* circulates betwe5 ! ribs4 ,! necess>y cool+ ( ! cyl9d] c be ma9ta9$ ) wat] at a mu* high] temp]ature ?an 9 ! ord9>y eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,,section ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,cyl9d] ,,& ,,wat] ,,jacket ,,( ,,! ,,/ill ,,eng9e ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,,diagrammatic ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,/ill ,,eng9e ,a diagrammatic repres5tation ( a ,/ill eng9e ( ! two-cycle heavy-oil type is %[n 9 ,figure #ed4 ,?is is %[n ) an auxili>y boil] heat$ by an oil burn]4 ,! pi/on ( ?is eng9e has a sleeve :i* fits into an annul> /eam cyl9d]4 ,! latt] is an ext5sion ( ! combu/ion cyl9d]4 ,surr\nd+ ! /eam & combu/ion cyl9d]s are ! /eam & wat] jackets4 ,! draw+ %[s ! pi/on at ! end ( its d[nw>d /roke1 hav+ j be5 driv5 d[n by ! gases ( combu/ion4 ,9 ?is position a scav5g+-air port at ! left is uncov]$ & ! burnt gases are swept out by a bla/ ( air1 pass+ out ( ! exhau/4 ,?is consi/s ( a bank ( tubes or flues :i* pass ?r\gh a wat] heat]4 ,! gases leave ! cyl9d] ) a temp]ature ( #ijj degrees ,fahr5heit & !y issue f ! exhau/ ) a f9al temp]ature ( only #aej degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,/eam n[ ent]s ! annul> /eam cyl9d] f ! /eam jacket1 ?r\gh ! port %[n at ! l[] "r-h& side1 =c+ ! pi/on up & compress+ ! *>ge ( air 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,!n oil is spray$ 9 ?r\gh a nozzle1 n %[n 9 ! draw+1 & is ignit$ by ! heat ( ! compress$ air z 9 a ,diesel eng9e & ! pi/on is driv5 d[n aga9 by ! gases ( ! combu/ion4 ,! wat] surr\nd+ ! combu/ion cyl9d] comes f ! l[] "p ( ! boil] & fl[s by ! exhau/ flues4 ,x is ma9ta9$ at a temp]ature ( #cej degrees 9 ! wat] jacket1 & "h is turn$ into /eam by ! heat ( ! combu/ion4 ,!nce x passes into ! /eam dome ( ! boil]4 ,on ! d[nw>d /roke ( ! pi/on a slide valve1 %[n at ! l[] "r-h& side1 moves d[n & connects ! /eam port ) an exhau/ port ?r\gh :i* ! /eam fl[s out into a cond5s]4 ,wat] f ! hot well ( ! cond5s] ent]s ! sy/em at ! combu/ion exhau/4 ,! arr[s %[ ! c\rse ( ! /eam & wat] & ! temp]ature at v>i\s po9ts is giv54 ,z may be not$ !re are two sy/ems ( /eam & wat] circulation3 "o f ! bottom ( ! boil] ?r\gh combu/ion exhau/ heat] to ! wat] jacket & back to ! top ( ! boil]2 & ! o!r f ! /eam dome ( ! boil] to ! /eam jacket1 to ! /eam cyl9d]1 to ! /eam exhau/1 to ! cond5s] & back aga9 f ! cond5s] into ! combu/ion exhau/ heat]1 :5ce x ent]s ! boil] by way ( ! wat] jacket4 ,,lat5t ,,heat ,:5 wat] turns into /eam a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat is absorb$1 :i* does n %[ 9 ! !rmomet]4 ,?is is kn[n z lat5t heat4 ,if cold wat] is plac$ 9 a kettle & is !n heat$ ! !rmomet] w gradually rise until ! wat] rea*es ! boil+ po9t4 ,!n !re w be no fur!r rise ( temp]ature1 al?\gh heat is /ill appli$ to ! kettle1 until all ! wat] is turn$ into /eam1 aft] :i* ! !rmomet] w beg9 to %[ a rise ( temp]ature1 %[+ t ! /eam is beg9n+ to gr[ s5sibly hott]4 ,9 ! eng9e1 %[n 9 ,figure #ed1 a boil] pressure ( #abj p\nds gauge pressure is ma9ta9$1 & !re=e wat] w n boil until x rea*es #cej degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,! wat] 9 ! wat] jacket regi/]s #cej degrees & is !re=e f> hott] ?an x c\ld possibly be 9 ! op5 atmosph]e4 ,h[ev]1 ! heat f ! combu/ion does n raise ! temp]ature ( ! wat]1 b exp5ds its en]gy 9 conv]t+ ! wat] into /eam4 ,! cyl9d] wall is kept at a temp]ature ( at lea/ #cej degrees all ! "t1 s t ! air t ent]s ! cyl9d] ga!rs heat f ! cyl9d] z well z f its own compression1 & its temp]ature at ! end ( ! compression /roke is high] ?an x w\ld be 9 a cold cyl9d]1 !reby insur+ ! ignition ( ! fuel :5 x is spray$ 94 ,! ,/ill eng9e c also be us$ z a common gasol9e or gas eng9e ( ei!r two or f\r cycle & ! effici5cy 9 su* types is f #ca to #cc p] c5t4 ,?is is mu* bett] ?an ! be/ airplane eng9es1 :i* %[ an effici5cy "u #bg p] c5t4 ,al?\gh #da p] c5t = ! be/ ,/ill heavy-oil eng9e is a rem>kable accompli%m5t1 yet x does n beg9 to comp>e ) ! effici5cy ( ! be/ wat] turb9es & ,pelton :eels1 :i* turn into useful p[] f #ge to #hg p] c5t ( ! k9etic en]gy 9 ! wat] t drives !m4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,:5 ,,coal ,,& ,,oil ,,are ,,exhau/$ ,,9 ,,previ\s *apt]s we h indulg$ 9 a great deal ( hi/oric retrospect4 ,x may be well at ?is po9t1 :ile we are deal+ ) ! subject ( p[]1 to look into ! future & ! prospects t x holds out to u4 ,x 0 ab\t fifty ?\s& ye>s ago1 accord+ to cons]vative e/imates1 t primitive man fir/ began to use tools1 & he manag$ to exi/ & ?rive & develop to a v high degree ( civilization dur+ practically ! :ole ( t p]iod )\t t\*+ ! /ores ( en]gy t lay b5ea? 8 feet4 ,x 0 only ye/]day t ! /eam eng9e 0 inv5t$1 & :5 x 0 discov]$ h[ to turn heat into "w & :at a weal? ( p[] 0 /or$ up 9 ! deposits ( coal !re />t$ a lavi% & pr(ligate squ&]+ ( ! preci\s h]itage ( ! ,c>bonif]\s era4 ,! fossiliz$ vegetation ( by-gone ages is n[ employ$ to drive our locomotives & /eam%ips1 to turn our factory :eels1 to extract metals f ! ore & help u %ape !m accord+ to our ne$s & desires1 to conv]t iron into /eel & to heat & light our h\ses4 ,we all "k t !re is a limit$ supply ( coal 9 ! _w & t "s day ! /ores w be exhau/$1 yet we g on us+ l>g] quantities ( ! fuel ea* ye>4 ,= ! la/ c5tury our dem&s = coal h be5 d\bl+ e t5 ye>s1 until to-day ! _w is us+ ab\t #a1bjj million long tons p] ye>4 ,x is cons]vatively e/imat$ t if our dem&s = coal d n increase !re is en\gh left 9 ! :ole _w )9 a mile ( ! surface to la/ #a1ejj ye>s4 ,=tunately ?is c\ntry is bett] suppli$ ?an _m o!rs1 & x is probable t we c get along on our pres5t rations = #b1jjj ye>s4 ,engl&1 h[ev]1 faces exhau/ion ( h] coal supplies )9 two hundr$ ye>s4 ,aft] liv+ fifty mill5niums on e>? z a be+ cle>ly sup]ior to o!r animals1 man comes into an inh]itance :i* he squ&]s 9 "o or at mo/ two mill5niums4 ,x is n cr$itable to our civilization t we h tak5 no precautions to ration out ?is preci\s /ore ( fuel4 ,,our ,,wa/e ,,( ,,fuel ,z 0 %[n 9 a previ\s *apt]1 we utilize v little ( ! en]gy 9 coal4 ,our /eam railroads squ&] f #id to #if p] c5t ( ! coal !y burn & our be/ turb9e p[] plants ?r[ away ab\t #hj p] c5t4 ,! coal we burn 9 dome/ic furnaces is mo/ wa/efully squ&]$4 ,maybe we %all le>n h[ to use ! en]gy 9 coal m effici5tly & make x la/ long]1 b ev5tually x w all be gone & !n :at are we go+ to d8 ,( ! o!r fuels available1 petroleum takes ! lead+ place1 b we are h>dly m economical 9 our use ( ?is fuel & our oil supplies are dim9i%+ mu* m rapidly ?an ! /ores ( coal4 ,9 #aiai ! ,unit$ ,/ates produc$ #cgf1jjj1jjj b>rels ( oil & consum$ #dah1jjj1jjj b>rels1 hav+ _h to draw on ,mexico = #db1jjj1jjj b>rels4 ,natural gas _c la/ mu* long] & peat bogs are e/imat$ at ab\t half ( "o p] c5t ( ! coal supplies4 ,:]e %all we turn = heat & p[] :5 all ^! /ores ( en]gy are gone8 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t ! wat] p[]s ( ! e>?1 if fully develop$1 w\ld probably supply ab\t half ( ! en]gy t we n[ get out ( coal4 ,?is is a nev]-fail+ supply ( en]gy1 & no d\bt be=e we h begun to scrape ! bottom ( our coal magaz9es e riv] on e>? t is capable ( turn+ a :eel w be do+ s to ! limit ( its capacity4 ,!n !re w be a readju/m5t ( ! manufactur+ c5t]s ( ! e>? & remote regions su* z ,icel&1 = in/ance1 :i* has m available wat] p[] ?an ,switz]l&1 w hum ) ma*9]y1 :ile su* c\ntries z ,great ,brita91 :i* is relatively poor 9 wat] p[]s1 w h to give up manufacture & rev]t to agricultural pursuits4 ,b are !re n o!r p[]s t c be us$8 ,if we c\ld capture all ! en]gy ( ! w9ds we %\ld h ample p[] to d all ! "w t is n[ done on e>? ) a l>ge m>g9 to sp>e4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t ! w9ds conta9 #e1jjj times z mu* en]gy z is obta9$ f coal1 b h[ may we capture s fickle a p[] z ! w9d4 ,x is s v>iable1 sometimes ex]t+ en\gh p[] to lift h\ses f _! f\ndations & uproot giant trees1 & aga9 s9k+ to an absolute calm4 ,9 "s places w9d p[] is turn$ into electricity & !n /or$ up 9 batt]ies2 b ! co/ ( do+ ?is is high & at pres5t uneconomical4 8,,blue ,,coal0 ,! ocean ,is a va/ /oreh\se ( en]gy4 ,! quiet b p[]ful rise & fall ( ocean tides1 & ! trem5d\s en]gy ( ocean waves1 h be5 look$ ^u ) envy by eng9e]s4 ,all sorts ( s*emes h be5 devis$ = captur+ a "p ( ?is en]gy & putt+ x into ! s]vice ( man4 ,wat] p[] has be5 aptly call$ 8:ite coal0 & ocean p[] 8blue coal40 ,wave en]gy is b ano!r =m ( w9d en]gy & h5ce j z fickle4 ,!re is pl5ty ( p[] to be _h1 b x is a co/ly matt] to build a p[] plant on ! %ores ( ! ocean & any day a /orm may arise :i* w da% ! ma*9]y to pieces & sweep away ! :ole plant or conv]t x into a pile ( wreckage4 ,9 a few places1 h[ev]1 ,nature has provid$ a plant :i* ! ocean has be5 unable to de/roy & man has adopt$ ! plant to furni% him ) p[]4 ,!re is a rocky cave on ! ,cali=nia coa/ :i* is expos$ to ! ocean swells4 ,z ! swells sweep into ! cave !y compress ! air !re9 & ?is compress$ air is trapp$ 9 a res]voir4 ,!n ! air t has be5 pump$ by ! ocean is put to useful "w4 ,!re are simil> caves on o!r rocky coa/s :i* c\ld be made to deliv] p[] :5 coal becomes sc>ce & x becomes comm]cially practicable to exploit !m1 b ! am\nt ( p[] !y w\ld furni% w\ld be a m]e drop 9 ! bucket4 ,,sett+ ,,tides ,,to ,,"w ,! ocean tides are also imm5sely p[]ful1 b ! rise & fall ( ! wat] is s slight & s gradual 9 mo/ places t an enorm\s plant is requir$ to obta9 any appreciable am\nt ( p[]4 ,9 c]ta9 regions1 h[ev]1 tidal p[] is actually 9 use to-day4 ,at high tide wat] fl[s into a l>ge bas9 & at ! ebb ( ! tide ! outfl[ ( ! bas9 op]ates a wat] :eel or turb9e4 ,p[] c be obta9$ :ile ! bas9 is fill+ z well z :ile x is empty+4 ,"o s]i\s objection to ?is plan is t ! turb9e op]ates int]mitt5tly & at irregul> int]vals1 sometimes by day & sometimes by night1 dep5d+ ^u ! tide4 ,h[ev]1 tide mills ne$ n be expos$ to ! fury ( ocean /orms z are plants t seek to employ ! p[] ( ocean waves4 ,9 c]ta9 localities ! con=mation ( ! coa/ is su* z to accumulate ! tidal fl[ & produce enorm\s diff]5ces ( level betwe5 ebb & flood tide4 ,9 ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 = in/ance1 ! tide rises sev5ty feet & an appreciable am\nt ( p[] c\ld be obta9$ f ! fl[ ( wat] into & out ( ! bay4 ,if a sea-level canal 7 dug across ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama !re w\ld be a fl[ ( wat] back & =? ?r\gh x because ! tides at ! ,pacific side h a rise & fall ( only two feet :ile on ! ,atlantic side ! tide rises tw5ty-two feet4 ,"s p[] might be obta9$ f ! tidal fl[ ?r\gh ?is canal1 b a fall ( tw5ty feet 9 fifty miles w\ld n produce a v swift curr5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,,! ,,esnault ,,pelt]ie ,,plan ,,( ,,utiliz+ ,,tidal ,,p[] ,,9 ,,! ,,engli% ,,*annel ,if tidal p[] is to be utiliz$ at all x mu/ be done on a gr& scale4 ,a ,fr5* eng9e]1 ,r4 ,esnault ,pelt]ie1 has propos$ a va/ tidal p[] sy/em 9 ! ,engli% *annel :]e ! tide rises high4 7,see map ,fig4 #ee47 ,! plan is a mo/ ambiti\s "o1 b ! p[] t c\ld be obta9$ is enorm\s4 ,he proposes to build concrete dikes across ! *annel at ! ,/raits ( ,calais inclos+ a l>ge bas9 ab\t tw5ty miles wide & turb9es w\ld be op]at$ by ! fl[ ( wat] into & out ( ?is bas94 ,( c\rse locks w\ld h to be provid$ to p]mit ! passage ( %ips ?r\gh ! bas94 ,o!r & l>g] bas9s c\ld be =m$ by wall+ (f ! e/u>y ( ! ,?ames & ! bay ( ! ,se9e on ! ,fr5* coa/4 ,! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,malo c\ld be inclos$ by runn+ a dike f ,cape ,la ,hague to ! isl& ( ,gu]nsey & !nce to ! m\? ( ! ,trieux4 ,^! bas9s w\ld furni% a m9imum ( #hjj horsep[] = ea* squ>e mile1 h5ce ! bas9 across ! ,/raits ( ,calais alone w\ld furni% ne>ly half a million horsep[] :ile ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,malo w\ld furni% ab\t a qu>t] ( ! p[] t ,france n[ uses 9 h] indu/ries4 ,! fir/ co/ ( ! in/allation w\ld be heavy1 b !re w\ld be no exp5se = fuel & ! supply ( p[] w\ld be endless4 ,x has be5 propos$ to dam ! e/u>y ( ! ,sev]n 7,engl&7 :]e ! spr+ tides rise ?irty feet1 & x has be5 e/imat$ t half a million horsep[] w\ld be develop$4 ,"p ( ! p[] w\ld be us$ to pump wat] into an elevat$ res]voir :i* w\ld s]ve z a /orage batt]y1 s t :5 ! tidal plant 0 idle because ( ! turn ( ! tide1 wat] fl[+ out ( ! res]voir w\ld op]ate an auxili>y plant1 !reby furni%+ a cont9u\s supply ( p[]4 ,,p[] ,,f ,,sun%9e ,) ! exception ( ! tides all ! en]gy we use on e>? comes f ! sun4 ,x is ! sun's en]gy t is /or$ 9 coal b$s & oil fields2 x is ! sun's en]gy t raises wat] f ! ocean to ! tops ( our m\nta9s2 x is ! sun's en]gy t makes ! w9ds bl[1 & ?r\gh !m di/urbs ! surface ( ! ocean1 & ev5 ! tides owe a "p ( _! en]gy to ! attraction ( ! sun4 ,:y c we n utilize ! en]gy ( ! sun directly1 in/ead ( at second h&8 ,9 ! sun%9e t beats ^u ! e>? !re is sev5ty-?\s& times z mu* en]gy z we n[ obta9 f coal4 ,un=tunately ! en]gy ( ! sun is s widely disp]s$ t x _c be us$ economically except 9 a v few places :]e cl\ds d n (t5 int]rupt ! direct passage ( ! rays to ! e>?'s surface4 ,ne> ,cairo1 ,egypt1 !re is a plant erect$ by an ,am]ican inv5tor1 ,mr4 ,frank ,%uman1 :i* develops ab\t fifty horsep[]4 ,?is consi/s ( a s]ies ( five huge tr\gh-%ap$ mirrors t focus ! sun's rays ^u boil]s & ?us g5]ate l[ pressure /eam4 ,! mirrors measure #ac feet 9 wid? & #cjd feet 9 l5g? & ^! are m\nt$ on a light /eel framework ) _! axes runn+ nor? & s\? s t !y may be turn$ f ea/ to we/ to foll[ ! c\rse ( ! sun across ! sky4 ,9 ord] to prev5t ! mirrors f %ad+ ea* o!r 9 ! e>ly morn+ & late aft]noon !y are set tw5ty-five feet ap>t4 ,mirrors are made ( ?9 %eets ( w9d[ glass1 silv]$ at ! back4 ,! tr\ghs are p>abolic 9 cross section & at ! focus ( ea* is hung a tubul> boil] pa9t$ black to absorb ! heat rays4 ,! five boil]s fe$ a common /eam res]voir f :i* /eam is f$ to a pump4 ,?is pump raises ab\t #f1jjj gallons ( wat] p] m9ute1 :i* is us$ = irrigat+ purposes4 ,( c\rse at night ! supply ( en]gy is cut (f & on cl\dy or ra9y days no /eam is g5]at$1 b su* days are few 9 ! region ( ,cairo1 & cont9u\s op]ation is n ess5tial to ! op]ation ( irrigat+ sy/ems4 ,!re are localities 9 ,africa1 ,asia ,m9or1 & ev5 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates :]e ! lack ( wat] & ! pitiless rays ( ! sun h turn$ va/ regions into des]ts4 ,"h ! v rays :i* h p>*$ vegetation may be utiliz$ to pump wat] ov] ! ?ir/y l&s & conv]t !m into ri* agricultural regions4 ,!re is ano!r mighty s\rce ( p[] 9 ! int]nal heat ( ! e>?4 ,"h & !re all ov] ! e>? are v5t holes ?r\gh :i* ! p5t-up en]gy makes its escape 9 ! =m ( /eam1 gases1 or molt5 lava4 ,!re is no "q z to ! enorm\s /ores ( en]gy 9 active volcanoes1 & z we appreciate ! value ( heat en]gy our eyes turn covet\sly to ^! great *imneys ( ! subt]ranean furnaces4 ,,h>ness+ ,,volcanoes ,x seems l ! height ( d>+ to attempt to h>ness ! volcanoes1 & yet !re is a plant 9 ,italy :i* utilizes volcanic en]gy & develops useful p[] f x4 ,at ,volt]ra1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,tuscany1 !re is a volcanic region :]e jets ( v hot /eam issue f cracks 9 ! gr\nd4 ,^! /eam jets1 kn[n z s(fioni1 are lad5 ) gases & m9]al matt]4 ,= _m ye>s ! boric acid t !y conta9 0 ab/ract$ f !m1 b ! /eam 0 all[$ to escape4 ,9 "s few in/ances x 0 pip$ into h\ses & us$ = dome/ic heat+4 ,9 #aijh an attempt 0 made to conv]t ! en]gy ( ! /eam into useful p[]4 ,holes 7 bor$ into ! e>? & /eam ( a temp]ature ( #cjb degrees ,fahr5heit came up ! pipes4 ,?is /eam 0 appli$ directly to a =ty horsep[] /eam eng9e1 & = ! fir/ "t volcanic heat 0 set to "w4 ,! /eam1 h[ev]1 conta9$ s _m impurities t x 0 impracticable to use x directly 9 ! eng9e4 ,! valves & cyl9d]s 7 soon clogg$ ) deposits ( boric acid4 ,!n in/ead ( try+ to obta9 p[] directly f ! /eam1 ! latt] 0 us$ to heat a boil] 9 :i* pure /eam 0 g5]at$4 ,?is plan prov$ p]fectly practical & a #cjj horsep[] cond5s+ /eam turb9e 0 driv5 by ! en]gy ?us obta9$ indirectly f volcanic heat4 ,?is p[] 0 conv]t$ into electricity & ! p[] 0 transmitt$ to ! surr\nd+ villages4 ,aft] ! ,_w ,w> broke out & ,italy began to feel ! %ortage ( fuel1 ! price ( coal hav+ ris5 to #ej p] ton1 ! use ( volcanic p[] 0 ext5d$4 ,a #c1jjj kil[att plant 0 in/all$ & electric curr5t 0 transmitt$ to ,flor5ce1 ,leghorn1 ,volt]ra1 & o!r t[ns ( ,tuscany4 ,! exhau/ /eam f ! boil]s 0 utiliz$ 9 ! boric acid indu/ries4 ,o!r projects = utiliz+ ! int]nal heat ( ! e>? h be5 giv5 s]i\s consid]ation 9 ,italy4 ,ne> ,naples !re is ! dormant volcano1 ,solfat>a1 ! crat] ( :i* is fill$ ) a sea ( v hot mud und]ly+ a cool ?9 cru/ ( e>?4 ,holes bor$ into ?is mud to a dep? ( a few feet s5d =? /eam hot en\gh to d useful "w & a plan to utilize ?is /ore ( en]gy is "u way4 ,,p[] ,,f ,,! ,,core ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,!re are regions :]e ! gr\nd is r$-hot at a dep? ( a hundr$ feet4 ,:ile !re is no wat] pres5t to furni% /eam1 x is a simple matt] to s9k a wat] pipe d[n to ! heat$ e>? & !n1 ar\nd ?is pipe1 to drive a r+ ( small] pipes ?r\gh :i* /eam may f9d its way up to ! top & be f$ ei!r into wat] heat]s or directly into /eam eng9es4 ,9 fact x has be5 sugge/$ t su* a s*eme might be us$ almo/ any:]e4 ,if we bore into ! e>?1 we f9d t ! temp]ature gr[s high] ! deep] we g4 ,! rate ( increase ( temp]ature v>ies ) diff]5t localities1 b x is v evid5t t any:]e on e>? temp]atures t w give a /eam pressure ( t5 or m p\nds p] squ>e in* c be obta9$ if we dig d[n f> en\gh1 & :5 we f9d x wor? :ile to d s we %all probably riddle ! e>?'s cru/ ) p]=ations ?r\gh :i* wat] w be s5t d[n to ! subt]ranean furnaces & x w return to u lad5 ) heat en]gy4 ,aft] all1 we %all n be plung$ into dire want :5 our /ores ( coal are exhau/$4 ,!re w be o!r s\rces ( p[] to draw ^u1 mo/ ( :i* w be inexhau/ible4 ,fur!rmore1 we h rec5tly discov]$ 9 atoms ( matt] /ores ( en]gy incomp>ably great] ?an any t h h]et(ore be5 us$ to "w ! w ( man4 ,h[ to utilize ?is en]gy we h n yet le>n$1 b ! en]gy is !re1 & no d\bt1 "s day1 probably long be=e coal takes its place 9 museum collections1 we %all be possess$ ( a new slave1 f> m p[]ful ?an t :i* has s]v$ u s f>4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,invasion ,,( ,,! ,,sea ,,! ,,possibility t ! w9d 0 ! fir/ inanimate p[] utiliz$ by man1 has already be5 ref]r$ to4 ,!re are records ( ! use ( sail+ vessels 9 ,egypt t date z f> back z #f1jjj ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 ,navigators ( t e>ly date1 h[ev]1 c\ld h>dly claim to h ma/]$ ! w9d4 ,!y m]ely us$ w9d p[] :5 ! w9d 0 dispos$ to help !m4 ,if ! w9ds 7 adv]se1 !y _h no rec\rse o!r ?an to furl _! sail1 /ep ! ma/ & dep5d ^u o>s to propel !m to ! desir$ port4 ,x 0 n until ?\s&s ( ye>s lat] t primitive m>9]s le>n$ h[ to tack & pursue a zigzag c\rse aga9/ ! w9d4 ,:5 ?is k 0 acquir$ we d n "k1 b x is c]ta9 t ! ,phnicians1 :o r\nd$ ! cont95t ( ,africa #a1bjj ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 knew h[ to make use ( ! p[] ( oppos+ w9ds4 ,( c\rse !y c\ld n expla9 h[ x 0 t a breeze c\ld be made to drive a vessel 9 a direction across & ev5 oppos$ to t 9 :i* x 0 bl[+4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ?is app>5t p>adox ourselves1 we mu/ g back to ! v elem5ts ( me*anics4 ,,elem5t>y ,,me*anics ,! popul> conception ( =ce is some?+ t produces motion1 b its true def9ition is 8t :i* t5ds to produce or resi/ motion40 ,!re are =ces 9 exi/5ce :5 !re is no motion4 ,:5 y hold a weight 9 y\r h& !re is a =ce t5d+ to pull ! weight to ! e>?1 b ?is =ce is oppos$ by an equal =ce ex]t$ by y\r muscles 9 hold+ up ! weight4 ,!re is no motion because ! two =ces are p]fectly balanc$4 ,if !y 7 unbalanc$1 !re w\ld be motion 9 ! direction ( ! great] =ce4 ,if ! pull ( ! arm is great] ?an t ( gravity1 ! weight w be lift$1 & if ! weight is too heavy = ! arm to support1 x w g d[n despite muscul> ef=ts to prev5t x4 ,9 "o case ! =ce ( gravity w endeavor to de/roy motion by oppos+ ! lift ( ! arm1 & 9 ! o!r case ! arm w endeavor to resi/ motion by oppos+ ! pull ( gravity4 ,a book on a table is motionless & yet x is act$ ^u by two =ces :i* are oppos$ to ea* o!r & h5ce balanc$4 ,! table furni%es a =ce :i* resi/s & balances ! =ce ex]t$ by gravity4 ,if ! book 7 heavy en\gh1 9 o!r words1 if ! =ce direct$ d[nw>d 7 great en\gh1 ! table w\ld be cru%$4 ,:5 two =ces are 9 p]fect balance !y mu/ be equal & opposite4 ,unless ! directions ( ! two =ces are exactly opposite1 !re w be motion 9 "s new direction4 ,suppose we use an app>atus su* z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ef to /udy ! result ( ?ree coact+ =ces4 ,x consi/s ( a ,t-%ap$ frame ) a pulley ,p at ea* end ( ! cross arm4 ,^! pulleys turn v freely on _! axes1 s t we ne$ n be conc]n$ ) any appreciable am\nt ( friction4 ,two f9e cords runn+ ov] ^! pulleys are knott$ at ,o to a ?ird %ort cord4 ,ea* cord is provid$ ) a hook on :i* weights may be hung4 ,n[ if we put a p\nd weight on ea* cord ! two ,a & ,b w raise ! weight ,c until ! angles betwe5 ! cords at ,o are all equal4 ,9 o!r words ea* =ce ( "o p\nd is balanc$ by two o!r =ces ( "o p\nd ea* pull+ at an angle ( #abj degrees to x & to ea* o!r4 ,if we put a #c-p\nd weight at ,a1 a #d-p\nd weight at ,b & a #e-p\nd weight at ,c1 ! cords w come to re/ 9 ! position %[n 9 ,fig4 #eg4 ,! weight ,b be+ heavi] ?an weight ,a w pull ! knot ,o to ! "r until ! angle betwe5 ! cords runn+ to ^! weights is a "r angle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,,balanc$ ,,=ces--,,equal ,,weights ,,p>allelogram ,,( ,,=ces ,al?\gh a =ce is some?+ t _c be pictur$ x c be repres5t$ graphically by means ( a l9e1 lett+ ! direction ( ! l9e repres5t ! direction ( ! =ce & ! l5g? ( ! l9e ! /r5g? ( ! =ce4 ,9 ,figure #eh we may measure (f #c in*es f ,o to a to indicate ! #c-p\nd =ce & #d in*es f ,o to b to repres5t ! #d-p\nd =ce & #e in*es f ,o to c to repres5t ! #e-p\nd =ce4 ,n[ if f a a l9e is drawn p>allel to ,o b & f b a l9e is drawn p>allel to ,o a we %all h a p>allelogram a ,o b d1 & if we ext5d ! l9e ,o c x w bisect ! p>allelogram1 runn+ diagonally f ,o to d1 & ?is diagonal w be f\nd to measure exactly #e in*es :i* repres5ts ! #e-p\nd =ce4 ,?is is :at is kn[n z ! p>allelogram ( =ces4 ,x %[s u ! resultant ( any two =ces t are n directly opposite & x gives u ! direction z well z ! /r5g? or magnitude ( ?is resultant4 ,x is only because we happ5 to *oose ! =ces #c1 #d & #e t ! angle at ,o is a "r angle4 ,9 ,figure #ei1 :]e ! =ces are all equal1 our p>allelogram is loz5ge-%ap$ & ! l9e ,o d is j z long z ! l9e ,o a & ,o b1 %[+ t its magnitude is ! same z t ( ! two =ces t balanc$ x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,,balanc$ ,,=ces--,,unequal ,,weights ,! great] ! angle betwe5 ! two lift+ =ces ! less weight c !y lift4 ,if two m5 are c>ry+ a t5-p\nd sat*el1 ea* w be lift+ five p\nds1 if ! pull is directly upw>d2 b ?is is a r inconv5i5t way ( c>ry+ ! bag & usually !y pull at a slight angle f ! v]tical1 & s ea* mu/ c>ry m ?an half ! weight4 ,if !y move s f> ap>t t ! angle betwe5 !m is m ?an #abj degrees1 ea* w be c>ry+ m ?an ! full weight ( ! bag4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figs4 #eh ,,& #ei4--,,p>allelograms ,,( ,,=ces ,,sail+ ,,aga9/ ,,! ,,w9d ,n[ t we "k some?+ ab\t ! p>allelogram ( =ces we may return to ! problem ( sail+ across & aga9/ ! w9d4 ,9 ,fig4 #fj we are look+ d[n on ! deck ( a %ip & ! w9d is repres5t$ by ! arr[4 ,! dott$ l9e ,a ,b repres5ts ! direction 9 :i* ! boat is travel+ & ! l9e ,c ,d repres5ts ! plane ( a sail4 ,if ! l9e ,e ,f repres5ts ! magnitude & direction ( ! =ce ( ! w9d at ! c5t] ( ! sail1 !n we c tell h[ mu* pressure is be+ ex]t$ directly aga9/ ! sail1 by draw+ ! l9e g ,f p]p5dicul> to ! sail & complet+ ! p>allelogram by draw+ f ,e a l9e p>allel to ! sail int]sect+ g ,f at ,g & ano!r l9e p>allel to g ,f int]sect+ ! plane ( ! sail at ,h4 ,!n ! l5g? ( ! l9e ,g ,f repres5ts ! pressure aga9/ ! sail4 ,if ! l9e ,g ,f is half z long z ! l9e ,e ,f1 !n only half ( ! =ce ( ! w9d is ex]t$ 9 ! direction ,g ,f4 ,9 o!r words1 a w9d pressure ( "o p\nd p] squ>e foot bl[+ 9 ! direction ( ,g ,f w d z mu* "w z two p\nds 9 ! direction ,e ,f4 ,! =ce ( ! w9d has be5 brok5 up into two 8compon5ts10 "o 7,g ,f7 at "r angles to ! sail1 & ! o!r 7,h ,f7 edgewise to ! plane1 & ( c\rse ! latt] has no effect ^u ! propulsion ( ! boat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,=ces ,,t ,,move ,a ,,sailboat ,if !re 7 no?+ to prev5t x1 ! boat w\ld sail 9 ! direction ,g ,f2 b ! keel ( ! boat (f]s resi/ance to motion 9 ?is direction1 & we mu/ con/ruct ano!r p>allelogram ar\nd ! =ce ,g ,f to f9d ! magnitude ( ! =ce ex]t$ 9 ! direction ,a ,b4 ,! l9e ,k ,f is drawn at "r angles to ,a ,b1 & !n ! p>allelogram is complet$ by draw+ a l9e f ,g to ,k p>allel to ! l9e ,a ,b & ano!r f ,g to ,m p>allel to ,k ,f4 ,we h !n resolv$ to =ce ,g ,f into two compon5ts ,m ,f & ,k ,f4 ,! =m] t5ds to pu% ! boat along its c\rse :ile ! latt] t5ds to make x drift to leew>d4 ,! l5g? ( ! l9e ,m ,f is little m ?an a qu>t] ( ! l5g? ( ! w9d =ce ,e ,f & ! leew>d act+ =ce ,k ,f is actually consid]ably great] ?an ! =w>d act+ =ce ,m ,f4 ,ev5 ) a deep keel !re w be "s drift to leew>d4 ,?is is correct$ by means ( ! rudd] ( ! %ip :i* is turn$ to head ! %ip fur!r into ! w9d s t al?\gh ! boat does n actually travel 9 ! direction ( its axis x may be made to travel along ! c\rse ,a ,b4 ,( c\rse ! boat _c sail directly aga9/ ! w9d1 b x c accompli% ! same result by tack+ alt]nately to port & />bo>d s t ev5tually x c rea* a port t lies 9 ! direction f :i* ! w9d comes4 ,,! ,,spe$y ,,clipp] ,be=e ! adv5t ( ! /eam%ip1 sail+ vessels 7 develop$ to a high degree ( effici5cy4 ,! spe$y clipp]s ( #ahaf to #ahde us$ to cross ! ,atlantic at an av]age spe$ ( #f to #i miles p] h\r & sometimes ev5 bett]1 :i* comp>es favorably ) a common /eam freight] ( to-day4 ,! l>ge/ sail+ vessel ev] built 0 ! ,?omas ,w4 ,lawson1 a sev5-ma/$ s*oon]4 ,%e 0 laun*$ 9 #aijb1 b f\nd]$ 9 #aijg (f ! ,scilly ,isl&s4 ,?is great %ip 0 a /eel vessel #cie feet long1 ) a displacem5t ( #aj1jjj tons & a c>go capacity ( #g1ejj tons4 ,%e _h a sail spread ( #dj1fag feet4 ,,f ,,o>s ,,to ,,propell]s ,al?\gh a c5tury has elaps$ s9ce ! fir/ /eam-driv5 vessel made its way across ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 sails h be5 z yet by no means swept (f ! face ( ! sea4 ,nev]!less1 ev5 :5 sail+ vessels _h no competitors !y did n furni% a p]fectly satisfactory means ( transportation4 ,! fickl5ess ( w9d p[] 0 felt 9 ?is application z well z 9 t ( w9dmills1 & inv5tors rack$ _! bra9s = "s m c]ta9 means ( propell+ %ips4 ,naturally1 :5 ! /eam eng9e 0 a prov5 success1 ef=ts 7 made to apply ?is newly discov]$ p[] to %ips4 ,h[ to make /eam drive a %ip 0 a problem4 ,at fir/ x 0 propos$ to use a sy/em ( o>s :i* w\ld be mov$ back & =? 9 imitation ( o>sm5 & ,john ,fit*'s fir/ /eamboat 9 #aghf 0 driv5 by a set ( paddles op]at$ 9 a mann] simil> to t ( paddl+ a canoe4 ,x 0 a v natural evolution f o>s to paddle :eel1 :i* consi/s ( a s]ies ( o>s m\nt$ 9 a :eel s t !y w come into play "o aft] ! o!r4 ,! propell]1 al?\gh n inv5t$ by ,col4 ,john ,/ev5s 7z has be5 popul>ly suppos$71 0 fir/ appli$ by him to /eam navigation :5 he con/ruct$ a small /eamboat on ! ,hudson ,riv] 9 #ahjd4 ,b ! simplicity ( ! paddle :eel & its high effici5cy1 p>ticul>ly 9 quiet h>bors & %all[ inl& wat]s1 gave x pref]5ce ov] ! propell]4 ,9 r\gh seas1 h[ev]1 ! paddle :eel 0 f> f ideal4 ,x 0 too easily brok5 by heavy waves & betwe5 #ahee & #ahfe ! propell] displac$ x completely = ocean-go+ vessels4 ,,wat] ,,jet ,,propulsion ,ano!r curi\s =m ( propulsion1 :i* dates back to ! eighte5? c5tury & is /ill p]iodically reviv$ by inv5tors1 is ! wat] jet4 ,! idea 0 to h ! eng9e op]ate a pump :i* w\ld drive a /ream ( wat] out ( ! /]n ( ! boat & drive ! boat by reaction4 ,! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t actually built two jet-propell$ /eam]s4 ,"o ( !m1 call$ ! ,wat]wit*1 0 a #a1ajj-ton vessel & ! o!r1 ! ,squirt1 0 a small torp$o boat4 ,! latt] atta9$ a spe$ ( b twelve knots :ile a si/] %ip ( ! same /eam p[] driv5 by a propell] atta9$ a spe$ ( sev5te5 knots4 ,! ,wat]wit* 0 ev5 less effici5t4 ,"s ye>s ago exp]im5tal wat]-jet vessels 7 built 9 ,new ,york 9 :i* a jet only in* 9 diamet] ) a pressure ( #b1ejj p\nds p] squ>e in* 0 us$1 b ! exp]im5t prov$ a failure4 ,! propell+ =ce ( a jet is ! reaction ( ! /ream ( wat] aga9/ ! orifice f :i* x issues4 ,! action is j l ,h]o's reaction /eam turb9e ref]r$ to on page #adc4 ,! propulsion w\ld be ! same 7 ! jet dis*>g$ 9 ! op5 air or 9 a vacuum or aga9/ a solid /one wall4 ,,wat] ,,& ,,air ,,resi/ance ,x takes v little p[] to move a boat sl[ly because ! resi/ance t has to be ov]come is m]ely ! p>t+ ( ! wat] at ! b[ & clos+ 9 ( ! wat] at ! /]n & ! sk9 friction along ! sides ( ! hull4 ,9 addition to ?is !re is a simil> resi/ance (f]$ by ! air4 ,at v l[ spe$s ! resi/ances ( ! wat] & ! air are practically negligible4 ,9 p]fectly quiet wat] ) no air /irr+ ! pull ( a cord w move a %ip weigh+ hundr$s ( tons1 b ! motion w be v sl[ inde$4 ,un=tunately ! spe$ ( a %ip does n increase directly 9 proportion to ! p[] t drives x4 ,d\bl+ ! p[] does n d\ble ! spe$4 ,if x takes t5 horsep[] to drive a vessel at a spe$ ( t5 knots x w take n #b b #b or #h times z mu* p[] to drive x at a spe$ ( tw5ty knots4 ,9 o!r words1 ! horsep[] goes up z ! cube ( ! spe$4 ,?is is an av]age condition = ord9>y spe$s4 ,= v high spe$s ! horsep[] may h to be increas$ z ! #d? & ev5 ! #e? p[] ( ! spe$4 ,! %ape ( ! b[ & ! /]n is ( utmo/ importance4 ,! p>t+ & displacem5t ( ! wat] at ! b[ & ! replacem5t at ! /]n produce waves & ! =m+ ( ^! waves repres5ts s mu* wa/$ en]gy4 ,! swell t is kick$ up by a /eam] is evid5ce ( p[] uselessly exp5d$4 ,mu* ( ?is loss c be ov]come by c>eful design ( ! %ip's l9es4 ,a vessel t kicks up a high b[ wave--"o t sails ) a 8bone 9 its tee?0--may pres5t a v pleas+ spectacle & may seem to be travel+ at high spe$1 b ! be/ design$ vessel--! "o t slips ?r\gh ! wat] ) no fuss--is mu* m economical ( p[]4 ,x is easy to und]/& t ! b[ mu/ be c>efully design$ to cut ?r\gh ! wat]1 b x is n s app>5t t ! /]n mu/ also be %ap$ to p]mit ! wat] to fl[ 9 readily & fill 9 ! void beh9d ! %ip4 ,if ! /]n is n c>efully %ap$1 !re w be a s]i\s drag on ! vessel4 ,! sk9 friction ( ! vessel is greatly increas$ by f\l+ ( ! hull ) m>9e gr[?s4 ,at high spe$s ! w9d pressure on ! sup]/ructure is consid]able4 ,e sp> & l9e adds its quota4 ,a boat t is travel+ 9 /ill air at a spe$ ( tw5ty-two knots or tw5ty-five miles p] h\r is enc\nt]+ ! equival5t ( a tw5ty-five mile w9d :i* w ex]t a pressure ( ov] ?ree p\nds p] squ>e foot ( frontage4 ,,fly+ ,,on ,,wat] ,in/ead ( cutt+ ?r\gh ! wat] mod]n spe$ boats are design$ to ride ov] x4 ,! boats h flat bottoms :i* are arrang$ z a s]ies ( flat planes kn[n z hydroplanes4 ,^! planes =m /eps & are set at su* an angle z to make ! boat rise up on ! wat] 9 ! same way t a kite rises 9 ! air4 ,! high] ! spe$ ! high] ! boat rises s t at full spe$ x skims on ! surface4 ,h5ce !re is comp>atively little p[] wa/$ 9 displac+ ! wat]4 ,"s ( ^! boats are driv5 by air propell]s s t wat] resi/ance to ! propell] ge> is avoid$4 ,^! hydroplanes 7!y mu/ n be confus$ ) hydroa]oplanes7 almo/ fly ov] ! wat]4 ,,fir/ ,,ocean ,,/eam] ,x 0 9 #ahjg t ,rob]t ,fulton built ! ,cl]mont & e/abli%$ /eam navigation by runn+ a regul> s]vice betwe5 ,new ,york & ,albany1 & x 0 twelve ye>s lat] t ! ,atlantic ,ocean 0 fir/ cross$ by a /eam-driv5 vessel4 ,x 0 an ,am]ican vessel1 ! ,savannah1 t made ! trip4 ,%e 0 a #chj-ton %ip equipp$ ) /eam p[] to help h] along :5 ! w9d fail$4 ,sev5ty-five tons ( coal & tw5ty-five cords ( k9dl+ wood 7 tak5 abo>d to fe$ h] furnace4 ,?is 0 ?\ght to be ample = ! voyage1 b be=e ! trip 0 complet$ ! fuel 0 all gone4 ,! log ( ! ,savannah be>s ?is entry ! night be=e sight+ ! ,iri% coa/3 8#b ,a4 ,m4 ,calm4 ,no cole to get up /eam40 ,h[ev] ! capta9 did raise /eam j be=e rea*+ ,k9sale1 ,irel&1 by burn+ wood4 ,wat*]s a%ore behold+ ! smoke issu+ f h] /ack 7 conv9c$ t ! vessel 0 afire & boats 7 dispat*$ to ! rescue4 ,! ,savannah made ! trip f ,savannah to ,k9sale 9 #bc days & 0 "u /eam propulsion = only #hj h\rs ( ?is "t4 ,regul> trans-,atlantic /eam s]vice 0 n inaugurat$ until #ahch1 b = _m decades /eam]s 7 equipp$ ) sails to assi/ !m :5 ! w9d 0 favorable4 ,! mo/ notable ( e>ly /eam%ips 0 ! ,great ,ea/]n1 a comb9$ screw & paddle-:eel %ip1 #fib feet long1 built 9 #aheh4 ,%e held ! record = size until #ahii :5 ! ,oceanic1 #gjd feet long1 0 put into s]vice4 ,at pres5t ! ,levia?an1 =m]ly ! ,vat]l&1 holds ! record ) a l5g? ( #ibj feet4 ,x is difficult to judge ( ! size ( a vessel out on ! op5 wat]4 ,if ! ,levia?an 7 plac$ 9 ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 %e w\ld span ne>ly f\r blocks4 ,because ( h] #ajj-;foot beam %e w\ld be too wide to be w$g$ 9 betwe5 ! skyscrap]s t bord] l[] ,broadway4 ,if %e 7 set up on end %e w\ld t[] #aeh feet above ! p9nacle ( ! ,woolwor? ,build+4 ,h] p[] plant consi/s ( f\r turb9es :i* total #ij1jjj horsep[] & ! huge vessel is driv5 at a spe$ ( #be4h knots or ne>ly ?irty miles p] h\r4 ,! wond] ( ^! huge float+ /ructures lies n m]ely 9 _! gigantic proportions b 9 ! fact t !y are able to wea!r ! t]rific wr5*+ /ra9s ( heavy ocean /orms4 ,a skyscrap] is built to )/& only ! /eady & direct pull ( gravity & ! v>iable ?ru/ ( ! w9d :i*1 except 9 we/]n cyclones1 seldom am\nts to ?irty p\nds p] squ>e foot4 ,bridge build+ is m difficult because ( ! lev]age ( ! p>ts ov]hang+ ! f\ndations4 ,w9d pressures mu/ be calculat$ & also ! live load ( objects mov+ ov] ! /ructure4 ,9 naval ar*itecture ent] ! problems ( build+ con/ruction comb9$ ) ^? ( bridge build+1 complicat$ by ! fact t !re is no fix$ f\ndation = ! /ructure to re/ ^u4 ,at "o mom5t a %ip may be spann+ a tr\gh 9 ! seas & at ! next x may be seesaw+ ov] ! cre/ ( ! wave4 ,( c\rse ! bottom ( ! boat is seldom if ev] out ( ! wat] & a c]ta9 am\nt ( support is provid$ ?r\gh\t ! l5g? ( ! vessel1 b ! %ip is subject$ to ! /ra9s ( a cantilev] bridge :5 %e is pass+ ov] a wave1 & to ! /ra9s ( a truss bridge :5 spann+ a wave tr\gh4 ,^! /ra9s are increas$ by ! fact t ! /ructure is 9 con/ant motion4 ,a c]ta9 degree ( flexibility is dem&$ ( ! mat]ials :i* g into ! /ructure & ( ! jo9ts betwe5 ! frame memb]s4 ,,boats ,,( ,,artificial ,,/one ,orig9ally wood 0 us$ = ! hulls ( %ips2 !n betwe5 #ahde & #ahee iron supplant$ wood1 ,betwe5 #ahge & #ahhe /eel supplant$ iron & to-day ef=ts are be+ made to supplant /eel ) concrete4 ,! advantages (f]$ by concrete are *eapness & spe$ ( con/ruction4 ,! fir/ l>ge vessel built ( ?is mat]ial 0 ! ,fai?1 an #h1jjj-ton %ip4 ,?is boat /ood up v well 9 heavy wea!r despite ! rigidity ( h] /ructure4 ,x is d\btful1 h[ev]1 t a l>ge boat comp>able 9 size to ! ,levia?an c\ld wea!r a sev]e ocean /orm4 ,! proposal to build %ips ( cem5t creat$ almo/ z mu* ( a popul> s5sation z did ! fir/ iron boat4 ,al?\gh ! public _h accept$ iron & !n /eel z a p]fectly prop] mat]ial = %ipbuild+1 concrete seem$ too mu* l /one & x did n seem possible t artificial /one c\ld be made to float4 ,!y did n realize t a cubic foot ( /eel weighs f\r times z mu* z ! same volume ( concrete4 ,( c\rse concrete does n beg9 to h ! t5sile /r5g? ( /eel & consequ5tly ! walls ( a concrete %ip mu/ be made relatively ?ick4 ,= ?is reason a concrete vessel is heavi] ?an a /eel vessel4 ,%e draws m wat] & requires a l>g] p[] plant1 & because ( h] great] mass %e is n s readily maneuv]$4 ,,subm>9e ,,navigation ,z 0 expla9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vi1 a body w float only s long z x is light] ?an ! volume ( wat] x displaces4 ,x is almo/ impossible to keep a body susp5d$ 9 wat] unless "s portion ( x is expos$ above ! surface4 ,if x />ts s9k+ x w keep on go+ d[n until x rea*es ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,!re is a popul> notion t at great dep?s wat] becomes d5se en\gh to float solid iron1 b wat] is practically incompressible & its d5sity at a dep? ( five miles is only slightly great] ?an t at ! surface4 ,an object mu/ !re=e ei!r float on ! surface or s9k to ! bottom1 unless its weight is exactly equal to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! upw>d pressure ( ! wat] "u x & ! d[nw>d pressure ( ! wat] above x4 ,su* an ideal balance x is practically impossible to obta9 unless ! object itself is compressible4 ,h[ !n c a subm>9e navigate "u wat] )\t s9k+ to ! bottom8 ,a ,,subm>9e ,,( ,,! ,,sev5te5? ,,c5tury ,! fir/ solution to ?is problem dates back to ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,doctor ,cornelius ,van ,drebel1 a ,ne!rl&]1 :o 0 a gue/ at ! c\rt ( ,k+ ,james ,i ( ,engl&1 built ?ree subm>9es betwe5 #afbj & #afbd4 ,^! 7 r[boats cov]$ ov] ) a wat]-tight deck & propell$ by twelve o>sm54 ,x is record$ t ,van ,drebel discov]$ a means ( hold+ ! boats subm]g$ by obs]v+ "s fi%]m5 t[+ baskets full ( fi% up ! ,?ames4 ,! b>ks to :i* ! baskets 7 atta*$ by cables 7 weight$ d[n by ! load !y 7 t[+1 b :5 ! cables slack5$ ! boats rose a little bit4 ,van ,drebel's me?od ( apply+ ?is pr9ciple 0 evid5tly to atta* a weight to ! boat :i* trail$ along ! bottom4 ,:5 ! o>sm5 propell$ ! boat1 %e 0 pull$ d[n "u ! surface by ! drag1 b :5 ! r[+ ceas$ ! boat w\ld float up to ! surface4 ,k+ ,james himself is said to h made a j\rney ( sev]al h\rs' duration 9 "o ^! boats1 :i* 0 kept at a dep? ( twelve to fifte5 feet bel[ ! surface4 ,progress mu/ h be5 v sl[ because ! range ( ! subm>9e 0 giv5 z five or six miles4 ,dur+ ! ,revolution>y ,w> ,david ,bu%nell built a subm>9e ) :i* attempts 7 made to s9k a ,briti% frigate ly+ 9 ! ,hudson ,riv]4 ,?is subm>9e 0 driv5 by a h&-op]at$ screw propell]4 ,! boat 0 provid$ ) wat] balla/ tanks1 & by press+ a valve ) "o foot he c\ld let 9 wat] en\gh to subm]ge ! boat :ile ) ! o!r foot he c\ld op]ate a pump to empty ! tanks & br+ ! boat to ! surface4 ,:5 ! boat 0 balla/$ s t %e w\ld b>ely float1 a v]tical screw propell] 0 op]at$ to raise or l[] h] z mu* z desir$4 ,a #bjj-p\nd lead weight 0 atta*$ to a long cable :i* pass$ up ?r\gh ! bottom ( ! boat1 & by lett+ out ?is cable ! subm>9e c\ld be made to rise in/antly 9 case ( an accid5t4 ,,fulton',s ,,h&-,,propell$ ,,subm>9e ,to ,rob]t ,fulton1 h[ev]1 belongs ! cr$it ( build+ ! fir/ subm>9e op]at+ on ! pr9ciple t is n[ univ]sally us$4 ,8 boat 0 also driv5 by a h&-op]at$ screw propell] & 0 furni%$ ) wat] tanks :i* c\ld be fill$ or pump$ out at w1 b aft] ! subm>9e 0 weight$ until only ! conn+ t[] %[$ above wat]1 %e 0 subm]g$ or rais$ by means ( horizontal rudd]s or hydroplanes :i* c\ld be tilt$ to any angle desir$4 ,( c\rse ^! rudd]s1 l any o!r rudd]s1 w\ld n op]ate unless ! boat 7 9 motion4 ,su* is ! case ) mod]n subm>9es4 ,l bicycles1 !y mu/ keep on go+ or !y w fall4 ,if !y are heavy1 !y w fall to ! bottom1 & if light !y w 8fall0 to ! surface4 ,:5 9 motion ! hydroplanes w ei!r hold !m d[n or lift !m up accord+ to ! angle to :i* ^! horizontal rudd]s are tipp$4 ,rob]t ,fulton's ,nautilus _h a fi%-%ap$ hull ( copp] plat+ on iron ribs & 0 tw5ty-"o feet ?ree in*es long by six feet five in*es at h] greate/ diamet]4 ,! screw propell] 0 op]at$ by two m54 ,:5 ! boat 0 on ! surface a sail 0 rais$ to assi/ 9 driv+ ! boat4 ,?is sail c\ld be fold$ up l a fan :5 x 0 desir$ to subm]ge4 ,fulton des]ves full cr$it = anticipat+ s _m ( ! ess5tial features ( ! mod]n subm>9e1 b ( c\rse ! ,nautilus 0 a m]e toy comp>$ to ! m>vel\s ma*9es :i* swim "u ! surface ( ! sea to-day4 ,! ,g]man ,u-boats at ! outbreak ( ! w> 7 #aej feet long & c\ld make only n9e knots subm]g$ & twelve knots on ! surface1 b lat] !y grew to a l5g? ( #cjj feet ) a subm]g$ spe$ ( twelve knots & a surface spe$ ( eighte5 knots4 ,! ,briti% 9 ! meantime develop$ a subm>9e t 0 #cdj feet long & _h a displacem5t subm]g$ ( #b1gjj tons z aga9/ #hjj = ! l>ge/ ,g]man ,u-boats4 ,! spe$ ( ?is big ,briti% boat is tw5ty-f\r knots on ! surface & t5 knots subm]g$4 ,,subm>9es ,,z ,,surface ,,boats ,despite _! "n1 subm>9es are really surface boats4 ,only :5 necessity dem&s are !y subm]g$4 ,dur+ ! w> ev5 ! ,u-boats did #ij p] c5t ( _! sail+ on ! surface4 ,origially subm>9es 7 built prim>ily = subm]g$ travel & consequ5tly !y 7 giv5 ! =m ( a fi% or ( a fat cig>1 b su* a %ape 0 n adapt$ = surface sail+4 ,wat] pil$ up on ! nose ( ! boat & t5d$ to be> h] d[n4 ,to ov]come ?is1 subm>9es are n[ %ap$ m l a boat ) a b[ high en\gh to "p ! waves )\t burr[+ into !m4 ,,p[] ,,plant ,,( ,a ,,subm>9e ,! gasol9e eng9es t 7 =m]ly us$ = propell+ ! boats h n[ giv5 way to heavy oil or ,diesel eng9es1 because ( ! great] effici5cy ( ^! eng9es & ! great] safety ( h&l+ heavy oil4 ,"s subm>9es h be5 equipp$ ) /eam p[] plants4 ,su* is ! p[] us$ on ! big ,briti% subm>9es above ref]r$ to4 ,( c\rse any p[] t involves ! burn+ ( fuel c only be us$ on ! surface4 ,z has already be5 expla9$1 an int]nal combu/ion eng9e burns sev5 to n9e times z mu* air z oil & x w\ld be impossible to /ore en\gh air on bo>d to keep ! eng9es go+ v long2 h5ce !y c be op]at$ only :ile ! hat*es are op5 to ! atmosph]e4 ,c\pl$ to ! %afts ( ! eng9es are dynamos :i* g5]ate electricity & fe$ x to /orage batt]ies4 ,a dynamo w s]ve z a g5]ator :5 turn$ by "s me*anical p[] & on ! o!r h& :5 curr5t is f$ into x1 x s]ves z a motor1 s t :5 travel+ subm]g$ & fuel c no long] be us$1 ! g5]ators are disconnect$ f ! eng9es b rema9 connect$ to ! propell] %afts & driv5 by ! v curr5t !y previ\sly /or$ 9 ! batt]ies4 ,,! ,,collapsible 8,,eye0 ,,( ,,! ,,subm>9e ,amid%ips !re is a bridge f :i* ! vessel c be navigat$ :5 on ! surface & a conn+ t[] f :i* %e c be navigat$ :5 runn+ awa%4 ,mo/ ( ! subm]g$ travel is ma9ta9$ at a comp>atively %all[ dep? s t ! subm>9e c keep an 8eye0 on ! surface4 ,! eye is ! p]iscope ( :i* !re are two s t 9 case ( damage to "o ! o!r may be us$4 ,p]iscopes date back to ! 8,fifties0 :5 !y 7 us$ on "s exp]im5tal ,european subm>9es4 ,9 ! ,civil ,w>1 :5 ! riv] monitor ,osage ran agr\nd 9 ! ,r$ ,riv]1 h] capta91 n[ ,re>-,admiral ,?omas ,o4 ,selfridge1 rigg$ up a p]iscope ) :i* he c\ld look ov] ! high banks ( ! riv] & direct ! fire ( 8 guns ^u a ,conf$]ate =ce t 0 attack+ him4 ,?is p]iscope consi/$ m]ely ( a ?ree-in* pipe ) a hole at ea* end cut 9 opposite sides ( ! pipe4 ,small mirrors 7 set 9 ! pipe s t ! light com+ 9 ?r\gh ! upp] hole 0 reflect$ d[n ?r\gh ! pipe & out ( ! l[] hole4 ,?is crude p]iscope is ! same 9 pr9ciple z ! mod]n subm>9e p]iscopes except t ! latt] are provid$ ) l5ses to ga!r & focus all ! light possible on ! eyepiece s t ! op]ator w h a p]fectly cle> view4 ,p]iscopes ext5d fifte5 to tw5ty feet above ! ro( ( ! conn+ t[]4 ,:ile p]iscopes are insignificant objects on ! broad seas :5 a subm>9e is mov+ v sl[ly1 !y are made conspicu\s by ! wake ( foam t foll[s !m :5 ! boat is travel+ ev5 at a mod]ate spe$4 ,= ?is reason dur+ ! w> ! ,g]mans develop$ a telescop+ p]iscope :i* c\ld be %ot up to ! surface :5ev] desir$ 9 ord] to give ! comm&] a glimpse ( 8 surr\nd+s4 ,! subm>9e is subm]g$ by lett+ wat] into ! balla/ tanks & !n turn+ ! hydroplanes to a div+ angle4 ,!re is an aft] z well z a =w>d pair ( div+ rudd]s4 ,:5 runn+ completely subm]g$ ! subm>9e is bl9d & solely dep5d5t ^u ! *>t & compass4 ,x is impossible to see f> "u wat]4 ,se>*lights are ( no value at all4 ,!y w n make visible an object a hundr$ feet away4 ,! subm>9e comm&] _c see ev5 ! b[ ( ! boat he is pilot+4 ,! ord9>y magnetic compass w n op]ate :5 entirely incas$ 9 /eel z x is 9 ! hull ( ! subm>9e & s a gyroscope compass has to be us$ in/ead4 ,:ile ! compass s]ves z a guide = travel 9 ! horizontal plane ! dep? gauge mu/ be wat*$ to see t ! boat does n dive too deeply4 ,! pressure ( ! sea increases at ! rate ( #fd p\nds p] foot ( dep?4 ,two hundr$ feet bel[ ! surface ! pressure am\nts to ab\t six tons on e squ>e foot ( ! surface ( ! subm>9e4 ,few subm>9es c /& a great] pressure ?an t )\t be+ cru%$ or at lea/ spr++ s]i\s leaks4 ,:5 com+ to ! surface ! hydroplanes are us$ & if ! boat is to rema9 on ! surface wat] is bl[n out ( ! balla/ tanks4 ,,! 8,,e>s0 ,,( ,a ,,subm>9e ,al?\gh subm>9es may be bl9d "u wat] !y are n deaf4 ,s\nd detectors are us$ :i* enable !m to locate o!r vessels by ! ?robb+ ( _! eng9es or ! beat ( _! propell]s & s !y c avoid collisions :5 com+ up to ! surface4 ,despite ! p]fection ( ! subm>9e ! sea is /ill a great my/]y to u4 ,we "k only its surface & its %all[s4 ,we h s\nd$ a few deep holes & br\ght up samples ( deep-sea life1 b we h n be5 able to p5etrate 9 p]son its pr(\nd dep?s & explore ) our eyes & h&s ! _w t is buri$ b5ea? its waves4 ,?ree qu>t]s ( ! globe is cov]$ by wat] & if we are to claim complete ma/]y ( ! e>? we mu/ f9d "s way ( desc5d+ into ! he>t ( ! ocean & explor+ its deepe/ valleys4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,slid+1 ,,roll+1 ,,walk+1 ,,& ,,creep+ ,,9 ,,all =ms ( transportation friction plays a mo/ important "p4 ,if !re 7 no su* ?+ z friction1 x w\ld be impossible = u to set an object 9 motion by ! means t are n[ commonly 9 use1 & once ! object 7 mov+ x w\ld be impossible to /op x except by br++ x up aga9/ a wall set squ>ely across its pa?4 ,9 transportation on l& friction is a mu* m s]i\s b> to motion ?an x is 9 m>9e or a]ial transportation4 ,!re are two k9ds ( friction t we h to cont5d )2 slid+ friction :5 two contact+ surfaces are dragg$ by ea* o!r2 & roll+ friction :5 "o surface rolls ^u ano!r4 ,x is impossible to obta9 two surfaces t are absolutely smoo?2 !re are m9ute elevations 9 ea* t s9k into m9ute depressions ( ! o!r l int]me%+ tee? & a gr9d+ action takes place z ^! microscopic inequalities are brok5 away4 ,oil r$uces ! friction by fill+ up ^! inequalities1 b ! oil itself (f]s a c]ta9 am\nt ( friction j z wat] does along ! sides ( a mov+ %ip4 ,,roll+ ,,friction ,roll+ friction is ( a diff]5t k9d4 ,! int]me%+ inequalities or microscopic tee? are lift$ out ( contact )1 "o ano!r j z ! tee? ( ge> :eels are c>ri$ out ( me%4 ,b !re is ano!r cause ( friction due to ! fact t no objects are s microscopic t !y d n s9k into ea* o!r to "s ext5t4 ,a :eel is always roll+ out ! surface x is turn+ on j z a roll+ p9 rolls out d\gh4 ,if ! surface is ( ela/ic mat]ial su* z a /eel rail1 x spr+s back into place imm$iately aft] ! passage ( ! :eel1 b ! :eel mu/ con/antly travel 9 ! tr\gh ( a wave :i* accompanies x along ! rail4 ,!re is a simil> wave 9 ! :eel itself & ?is iron+-out action produces heat 9 ! :eel & ! rail4 ,x is p>ticul>ly noticeable 9 ! flexible tires ( automobiles :i*1 aft] a run on ev5 a smoo? road1 become too hot to be grasp$ ) ! b>e h& m]ely because ( ! waves ( compression & decompression to :i* !y are subject$4 ,bo? roll+ & slid+ friction are increas$ by pressure because ! depression is great] & because inequalities are br\ght into m intimate engagem5t ) "o ano!r4 ,! degree ( friction also dep5ds ^u ! nature ( ! sub/ances 9 contact1 b !oretically ! area ( contact does n make any diff]5ce4 ,x is j z h>d to pu% a block along a smoo? surface on its edge z on its side4 ,,putt+ ,,roll]s ,,betwe5 ,,load ,,& ,,road ,z intimat$ 9 ,*apt] ,i ! =]unn] ( ! :eel 0 probably ! roll]4 ,x 0 mu* easi] to move a heavy object on roll]s because roll+ friction 0 sub/itut$ = slid+ friction1 b ! roll]s w\ld n /ay "u ! object2 !y travel$ only half z fa/ z ! load !y c>ri$4 ,to make !m keep up ) ! load !y _h to be m\nt$ on axles :i* 7 fa/5$ ei!r directly to ! load or to a c>t body on :i* ! load 0 support$4 ,?us ! :eel came to be inv5t$1 b except = ! fact t x /ays by its load & does n roll out f "u x a common :eel is n to be comp>$ ) a roll] = effici5cy4 ,to be sure1 x sub/itutes roll+ friction = slid+ friction :]e x contacts ) ! road1 b ! friction at ! axle is slid+ r ?an roll+4 ,h[ev]1 draw+ an object on :eels is a decid$ improvem5t ov] slid+ x along ! road1 = two reasons3 ! slid+ friction at ! axle is r$uc$ to a m9imum by *oos+ mat]ials t w slide ^u ea* o!r ) comp>atively little resi/ance1 by poli%+ !m smoo? & by lubricat+ !m4 ,b ev5 if ^! precautions 7 n tak5 !re w\ld be a di/9ct advantage 9 ! use ( :eels because ( ! relatively %ort] travel at ! axle ?an at ! rim ( ! :eel4 ,if a :eel is ?irty in*es 9 diamet] & turns on an axle "o in* 9 diamet]1 x w travel ?irty times z f> at ! rim z x does at ! axle2 h5ce ! slid+ friction at ! axle is f> less ?an x w\ld be at ! po9t ( contact ) ! gr\nd1 7 ! :eel lock$ s t x c\ld n turn4 ,b x is n necess>y to h any slid+ friction at ! axle if we rev]t to ! old roll] sy/em t prevail$ be=e ! day ( ! :eel4 ,! axle may be consid]$ ! load & ! axle be>+ ! road4 ,we c !n put roll]s betwe5 load & road4 ,because ! road is a circul> "o t travels ) ! load we c l9e x ) roll]s ?r\gh\t its l5g?1 & ! load w nev] lack = roll]s to roll ^u4 ,?us we h ! roll] be>+ :i* is s widely us$ 9 mod]n vehicles4 ,ball be>+s op]ate on ! same pr9ciple except t ! balls furni% less contact+ surface & are n s suitable = support+ heavy loads1 z are roll]s4 ,slid+ friction is almo/ completely elim9at$ & unless heavily load$ a :eel on ball be>+s w n heat ev5 :5 ! be>+s are n lubricat$4 ,,r$uc+ ,,road ,,friction ,:ile !re is little friction betwe5 a :eel & ! roadway ^u :i* x travels1 ! r\ghness ( ! road is a v important factor4 ,e "t a :eel goes ov] a /one ! entire vehicle mu/ be lift$2 ?is repres5ts s mu* wa/$ en]gy4 ,! advantage ( ! pneumatic tire lies 9 ! fact t x absorbs small inequalities )\t mak+ x necess>y = ! entire vehicle to rise ov] !m4 ,?is means less load lift$ & h5ce less "w done4 ,l>ge :eels are bett] ?an small ones because !y d n s9k s deeply into depressions & because !y surm\nt small ob/acles m readily4 ,on a /eel track ! size ( ! :eel does n make s mu* diff]5ce z x does on a road because ! track surface is smoo? & is b little depress$ by ! :eel4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t a horse c pull t5 times z great a load on rails z on an ord9>y macadam$ road4 ,"s ye>s ago broad /eel tracks 7 laid 9 "s ( our city /reets = ! use ( horse-drawn trucks4 ,!y s]v$ v well z f> z ! vehicles 7 conc]n$4 ,! road friction 0 r$uc$ consid]ably1 b ! fact 0 ov]look$ t ! horses ne$$ a good friction surface "u _! feet4 ,two horses c\ld n pull a truck along ! track )\t walk+ on ! track & ! smoo? /eel made su* slipp]y foot+ t ! tracks _h to be torn out & replac$ ) common pav+4 ,,increas+ ,,track ,,friction ,! diff]5ce betwe5 slid+ & roll+ friction is well illu/rat$ 9 a locomotive4 ,! driv+ :eels are turn$ ar\nd by /eam p[]4 ,!y mu/ ei!r roll or slide on ! track & ! load !y w pull )\t slipp+ is a measure ( ! excess ( slid+ friction ov] roll+ friction4 ,to increase ! traction or ! adhesion ( ! locomotive to ! track x is provid$ ) a numb] ( driv+ :eels4 ,9 "s ( our l>ge/ locomotives driv+ :eels are plac$ "u ! t5d] s z to obta9 a maximum ( traction4 ,,anci5t ,,l9eage ,,( ,,! ,,automobile ,:5 x 0 fir/ propos$ to sub/itute /eam propulsion = ! horse x 0 n realiz$ t a rail w\ld furni% en\gh traction to p]mit ( haul+ heavy loads1 & "s ( ! e>ly locomotives t ran on rails 7 provid$ ) too!d :eels t engag$ 9 racks alongside ! rails4 ,9 fact1 ! e>lie/ locomotives 7 n built to run on rails b on ord9>y roads2 9 o!r words1 !y 7 automobiles4 ,! motor c> c !re=e boa/ ( a m anci5t l9eage ?an ! railroad eng9e4 ,joseph ,cugnot ( ,france is said to h built a ?ree-:eel$ /eam c>riage 9 #agfi :i* 0 s top-heavy t x upset :5 mak+ a %>p turn at ?ree miles p] h\r4 ,sev]al /eam c>riages 7 built 9 ,engl& 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 b !y 7 n successful4 ,! real fa!r ( /eam traction 0 ,ri*>d ,trevi?ic1 ( ,camborne1 ,cornwall1 ^: fir/ /eam c>riage1 built 9 #ahja1 c>ri$ eight pass5g]s4 ,8 ?ird ma*9e1 built 9 #ahjd1 0 ! fir/ to run on rails4 ,?is 0 /rictly a locomotive int5d$ to haul c>s4 ,x ran ) its load at ! a/oni%+ spe$ ( five miles an h\r4 ,trevi?ic 0 ! fir/ to exhau/ ! /eam f ! cyl9d]s into ! smoke-/ack & !reby increase ! draft ?r\gh ! furnace & g5]at$ /eam at high] pressure4 ,all ! e>ly locomotives us$ too!d ge>s to turn ! driv+ :eels until ,george ,/eph5son introduc$ connect+ rods to drive ! driv+ :eels direct f ! pi/ons4 ,george ,/eph5son's 8,rocket10 built 9 #ahbi1 won a prize ( #ejj p\nds 9 a spe$ conte/ :5 x e/abli%$ a record ( #bd #a-f miles p] h\r4 ,x also e/abli%$ ! d\btful honor ( be+ ! fir/ me*anical spe$ mon/] to exact ! toll ( human life4 ,on its prize run x ran ov] a man & kill$ him4 ,,/eph5son',s ,,l9k ,,motion ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,,/eph5son',s ,,l9k ,,motion ,/eph5son's son ,rob]t is commonly cr$it$ ) ! inv5tion ( an +5i\s l9k motion1 al?\gh ! inv5tion is also claim$ = ,w4 ,t4 ,james ( ,new ,york4 ,we mu/ pause a mom5t = a description ( ?is +5i\s l9k motion1 because x became a /&>d 9 locomotive con/ruction t is /ill 9 s]vice4 ,z expla9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ix /eam %\ld be us$ expansively 9 ord] to obta9 a maximum ( effici5cy4 ,aft] a c]ta9 am\nt ( /eam has be5 admitt$ into ! cyl9d] x is cut (f f ! boil] & x pu%es ! pi/on by its own expansion4 ,! spe$ ( ! locomotive mu/ be v>i$ by v>y+ ! po9t ( cut-(f1 & ! direction ( motion ( ! locomotive is rev]s$ by rev]s+ ! motion ( ! valve4 ,9 ! ,/eph5son l9k motion ?is is all effect$ by ! op]ation ( a s+le lev]4 ,fig4 #fa %[s ! arrangem5t4 ,! valve is mov$ back & =? by ! rod ,a :i* is connect$ to ! arm ,b susp5d$ f ! frame ( ! locomotive4 ,! drive %aft is %[n at ,c & x c>ries two ecc5trics project+ on opposite sides ( ! %aft :i* move ! rods ,d & ,e back & =?4 ,! out] ends ( ^! rods are connect$ to opposite ends ( a curv$ l9k ,f & a p9 ,g on ! arm ,b engages a slot 9 ! l9k4 ,! l9k is held up by a rod ,h4 ,z ! drive %aft rotates ! slott$ l9k is oscillat$ back & =? on its own c5t]4 ,:5 ! l9k is l[]$ s t ! p9 ,g is at ! c5t] ( ! slot !re is no motion ( ! valve rod ,a1 b :5 ! p9 is at ! top or at ! bottom ( ! slot ! valve rod has its greate/ motion4 ,z ! top ( ! l9k is mov+ 9 "o direction :ile ! bottom is mov+ 9 ! o!r direction1 x w be pla9 t ! action ( ! valve :5 ,g is at ! top ( ! l9k w be ! rev]se ( ! action :5 ,g is at ! bottom4 ,! l9k is rais$ & l[]$ by means ( a lev] ,i :i* is connect$ to "o arm ( a ,t-%ap$ lev] ,j :i* on "o side ( its fulcrum is connect$ to ! rod ,h & on ! o!r to ! c\nt]weight ,k4 ,!re are c]ta9 defects 9 ! ,/eph5son l9k motion t we _c discuss "h4 ,^! became s]i\s z eng9es grew l>g] & m p[]ful s t to-day x has be5 l>gely sup]s$$ by o!r valve ge>s4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! is ! ,wals*a]ts ge>1 inv5t$ by a ,belgian eng9e]4 ,?is ge>1 unlike ,/eph5son's1 is conspicu\sly plac$ outside ! driv]s & is p>ticul>ly noticeable because ( its peculi> gras%opp] motion4 ,! action ( ! ge> is s complicat$ t a description ( x w\ld be out ( place 9 ?is book4 ,,mod]n ,,locomotives ,we _c ent] m9utely into ! developm5t ( ! locomotive f ! crude ma*9e ( ,trevi?ic's "t to mon/]s ( to-day4 ,!re has be5 a progressive gr[? ( locomotives 9 p[] & 9 spe$4 ,our bigge/ freight eng9es are s p[]ful t !y _c be us$ = pull+ alone because !y c pull a great] load ?an ! draw-b>s ( ! c>s c /&4 ,if plac$ at ! head ( a long tra9 !y w\ld yank ! =w>d c>s loose f ! re/4 ,h5ce !y are plac$ at ! re> ( ! tra9 to act z pu%]s or 9 ! middle ( ! tra9 :]e half _! en]gy is exp5d$ 9 pu%+ ! c>s ahead ( !m & ! o!r half 9 pull+ ! re/ ( ! tra94 ,! mo/ p[]ful /eam locomotive ( to-day 7#aiba7 weighs #cdb tons & its t5d] #ajg mak+ a total ( #ddi tons4 ,its l5g? is #aje feet & its boil] #h feet #g in*es 9 diamet]4 ,its l[ pressure cyl9d]s 7#d feet 9 diamet]7 are l>g] ?an ! locomotive boil]s ( #ej ye>s ago4 ,its high pressure cyl9d]s are #cj in*es 9 diamet] & ! /roke is #cb in*es4 ,x may be op]at$ ei!r comp\nd or simple1 i4 e41 ! small] cyl9d]s may exhau/ into ! l>g] ones or !y may take /eam direct f ! boil]4 ,! tractive ef=t comp\nd is #adg1bjj p\nds & simple #agf1fjj p\nds & ! total horsep[] develop$ is #e1jdj4 ,ea* cyl9d] drives five c\pl$ driv]s1 9 o!r words !re are tw5ty p[]-driv5 :eels ) a pair ( trail]s & a pair ( pilot :eels4 ,six & a half tons ( coal are consum$ p] h\r4 ,9 ! matt] ( spe$ a mile p] m9ute has become common & regul> s*$ul$ runs ov] long di/ances at an av]age well above sixty miles p] h\r h be5 ma9ta9$1 b ! pres5t t5d5cy is to r$uce spe$ some:at 9 favor ( safety4 ,!re are two inv5tions t h made possible ! high spe$s ( mod]n railroad travel3 ! air brake1 :i* has already be5 describ$2 & ! block signal sy/em4 ,! latt]1 ( :i* !re are a numb] ( diff]5t types1 be+ electrical1 does n prop]ly belong 9 ?is book4 ,/ok+ a l>ge freight eng9e or a high spe$ pass5g] locomotive is /r5u\s "w4 ,?ree tons ( coal p] h\r is n an uncommon rate ( consumption4 ,! fireman on a fa/ express tra9 gets little re/4 ,to relieve him ( ?is exhau/ive "w automatic /ok]s are n[ be+ us$4 ,^! convey ! coal f ! t5d] to ! fire box & fe$ ! fuel at a uni=m rate4 ,9 place ( solid fuel1 oil is ext5sively us$ 9 regions :]e x may readily be obta9$4 ,?is simplifies ! task ( fir+ ! locomotives4 ,!re has also be5 "s use ( p[d]$ coal :i* is bl[n into ! furnace 9 mu* ! same way z oil is4 ,to-day /eam locomotives h f\nd a s]i\s competitor 9 ! electric locomotive1 :i* is /eadily increas+ 9 favor4 ,:]e traffic is heavy1 :]e long tunnels make ! smoke & gases ( a /eam locomotive dang]\s1 :]e electric p[] is pl5tiful1 ! /eam locomotive mu/ give place to electricity4 ,z ! co/ ( coal m\nts1 ! electrification ( railroads w spread & x w be only a matt] ( "t be=e ! electric locomotive1 :i* is f> m economical 9 its use ( p[]1 w completely supplant ! /eam locomotive4 ,,fir/ ,,automobile ,,accid5t ,z we h already not$1 ! automobile ant$at$ ! railway locomotive4 ,x 0 an accid5t t took ! primitive /eam c>riage (f ! high roads & put x on rails4 ,9 #ahjb ,ri*>d ,trevi?ic1 :ile spe$+ along a road at ! frightful spe$ ( t5 miles p] h\r1 lo/ control ( 8 ma*9e1 ran into a f5ce & ripp$ (f a numb] ( pal+s4 ,t accid5t spell$ ! doom ( ! e>ly automobile4 ,s dang]\s a ma*9e 0 n all[$ to run at l>ge4 ,special tolls & re/rictions 7 plac$ on p[]-driv5 road vehicles4 ,z late z #ahif :5 ! automobile _h become a practical ma*9e 9 ,france & 0 be+ rapidly develop$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 ,engl& /ill _h a law prohibit+ any p[]-propell$ vehicle to travel ov] ! highways at a high] spe$ ?an f\r miles p] h\r & requir$ fur!r t ! vehicle be prec$$ by a man be>+ a r$ flag4 ,! mo/ important e>ly ,am]ican road c> 0 t built by ,ri*>d ,dudgeon 9 #ahee1 :i* made a record spe$ ( =ty miles p] h\r4 ,9 #ahhi ,s]pollet1 9 ,france1 inv5t$ ! fla% boil] & int]e/ 9 /eam-driv5 automobiles 0 reviv$4 ,9 a fla% boil] wat] is turn$ into /eam z x is us$ by inject+ small quantities at a "t 9 a r$-hot tube4 ,9 ! meantime1 h[ev]1 ! int]nal combu/ion eng9e 0 be+ develop$4 ,l5oir1 9 ,france1 0 ! fir/ to build a motor c> driv5 by an int]nal combu/ion eng9e4 ,he obta9$ a pat5t on su* a vehicle 9 #ahfj4 ,h[ev]1 ! real fa!r ( ! mod]n automobile 0 ,gottlieb ,daiml] ( ,g]many1 :o pat5t$ a motor vehicle 9 #ahhd driv5 by an int]nal combu/ion eng9e4 ,! next ye> ,k>l ,b5z1 ano!r ,g]man1 built an automobile4 ,,am]ican ,,pione]s ,,( ,,! ,,motor ,,c> ,pione] "w 9 ?is c\ntry began ) ,*>les ,e4 ,duryea 9 #ahia4 ,five ye>s lat] he took "o ( 8 ma*9es to ,engl&1 :]e x ent]$ a fifty-two-mile race betwe5 ,london & ,brighton4 ,!re 7 _m entrants f ,france1 ,g]many1 & o!r ,european c\ntries4 ,! ,am]ican c> won ! race by ne>ly an h\r ov] its ne>e/ competitor4 ,comm]cial build+ ( automobiles began 9 ,am]ica 9 #ahid4 ,h[ev]1 x 0 n until ! op5+ ( ! tw5tie? c5tury t ,am]ica took hold ( ! motor c> 9 real e>ne/4 ,s9ce !n ! rise ( ! automobile indu/ry has be5 ph5om5al4 ,am]ican me?ods ( manufacture 7 appli$ & c>s 7 turn$ out 9 quantity4 ,9 #aiaf ! annual production exce$$ a million & to-day ! production is ab\t two million pass5g] c>s & ov] ?ree hundr$ ?\s& trucks4 ,! motor c> indu/ry is l>gely responsible = ! wond]ful progress 9 ,am]ican ma*9e tools t has be5 made 9 ! pa/ two decades4 ,on ! race track ! motor c> has e/abli%$ a record spe$ ( #aca miles p] h\r1 b ( great] utility has be5 ! motor truck :i* n[ competes ) railroads 9 ! transportation ( freight4 ,ow+ to ,new ,york's inadequate t]m9al facilities1 x takes less "t to haul a load f ,new ,york to ,philadelphia by motor truck ?an to take ! same load f ! w>eh\se1 transport x across ! ,hudson ,riv]1 & load x on a freight c>4 ,x has made ! c\ntry a "p ( ! city4 ,a %ort run br+s ! f>m]'s produce to ! m>kets & 8 pass5g] c> keeps him 9 close t\* ) city life4 ,! motor tractor has light5$ 8 "w on ! f>m & has enabl$ him to conduct f>m+ op]ations ov] va/ areas4 ,animal p[] is gradually giv+ way to me*anical p[]4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a special bran* ( automotive eng9e]+ :i* we mu/ look into4 ,,:eels ,,vs4 ,,legs ,! success ( ! automobile dep5ds ^u ! "* ( ! roads x has to trav]se4 ,:eels provide ! be/ =m ( transportation ov] a smoo?1 h>d road1 b if ! road is s(t1 ! :eel w s9k into ! surface & w be greatly imp$$4 ,9 travel+ ov] mud or s& runn]s are pref]able to :eels because !y h a broad] & long] be>+ surface4 ,9 ! sn[y regions ( ! nor? & ! s&y regions ( ,africa & ,asia ,m9or1 sl$ges are us$ 9 place ( :eel$ vehicles4 ,slid+ friction is less ?an roll+ friction "u su* conditions4 ,9 fact1 only :]e man has con/ruct$ special roads is x possible to use :eel$ locomotion4 ,x is because 9 nature we mu/ cont5d ) all sorts ( surface conditions1 s(t & h>d & seldom smoo?1 t ! roll+ pr9ciple ( locomotion is n to be f\nd 9 any species ( animal4 ,! legs ( an animal are lev]s1 j z a :eel is a sy/em ( lev]s1 b 9 ! =m] case ! lev]s c be fold$ or ext5d$ to adapt !mselves to all ! unev5nesses ( ! gr\nd4 ,no animal c beg9 to run z fa/ z an automobile on a good road1 b on ! o!r h& we h yet to build a ma*9e :i* w run z fa/ z a horse on s(t & unev5 gr\nd4 ,,walk+ ,,ma*9es ,f>m op]ations mu/ be conduct$ on loose & brok5 surfaces = :i* ! ord9>y :eel$ vehicle is unfitt$4 ,9 "s cases broad :eels are us$ to keep !m f s9k+ into ! soil & !y are furni%$ ) cleats s z to give !m a good grip on ! gr\nd1 b long ago x 0 realiz$ t if ! horse 0 to be completely displac$ on ! f>m a m adaptable =m ( locomotion ?an t ( :eels mu/ be furni%$4 ,inv5tors s\ght to make ma*9es t w\ld walk4 ,"o int]e/+ ma*9e ( ?is class :i* met ) a c]ta9 degree ( success attempt$ to comb9e walk+ & roll+4 ,l>ge :eels 7 us$ :i* 7 provid$ ) a s]ies ( feet or tread plates connect$ by knuckle jo9ts to ! :eel rims4 ,z ! :eels revolv$1 ^! treads came successively into contact ) ! gr\nd & ! ma*9e actually walk$ on its feet4 ,! feet 7 broad en\gh to prev5t ! ma*9e f s9k+ into ! gr\nd & !y adapt$ !mselves to inequalities 9 ! surface4 ,in/ead ( hav+ to roll ov] a rock t lay 9 its pa? ! ma*9e w\ld plant its feet on ! rock & lift itself ov]4 ,a v curi\s ma*9e ( ! walk+ type has be5 develop$ = excavat+ ma*9es t op]ate 9 s(t swampy gr\nd4 ,! ma*9e actually walks ov] surfaces t a light c>riage c\ld n negotiate4 ,x consi/s ( a l>ge c5tral turntable flank$ on ea* side by a pair ( broad & long tread plates :i* s]ve z feet4 ,:5 ! dr$ge is to be mov$1 x plants ! feet on ! gr\nd1 lifts up ! turntable1 moves x =w>d1 & sets x d[n aga92 !n ! feet are lift$1 mov$ =w>d1 & plant$ on ! gr\nd aga9 :ile ! turntable is mov$ =w>d aga94 ,:5 x is desir$ to make a turn ! ma*9e is swivel$ ar\nd to ! desir$ direction :ile sitt+ on ! turntable ) its feet rais$ cle> ( ! gr\nd4 ,( c\rse ! spe$ ( su* a ma*9e is v l[1 b transportation is ( second>y consid]ation4 ,! ma9 purpose ( ! ma*9e is to excavate dit*es 9 s(t gr\nd & only occasionally does x h to move its position4 ,! turntable provides a broad base t di/ributes ! load ov] a comp>atively l>ge area :i* prev5ts ! ma*9e f s9k+ into ! mud1 & if x %\ld s9k into a s(t spot x lifts itself out v]tically in/ead ( hav+ to roll out4 8,,cat]pill>0 ,,traction ,long ago x occurr$ to inv5tors t a ma*9e c\ld travel ov] trackless wa/es if !y c>ri$ _! own tracks ) !m4 ,! idea dates back m ?an a c5tury1 b only 9 comp>atively rec5t times has x be5 develop$ to a practical /age4 ,! track-lay+ me*anism takes diff]5t =ms1 b 9 "o prom95t type x consi/s ( a s]ies ( plates l9k$ toge!r to =m a *a9 or belt t passes ar\nd a s]ies ( :eels4 ,z ! ma*9e progresses ! plates are successively laid d[n 9 front ( ! :eels & pick$ up beh9d !m4 ,! :eels consi/ ( a l>ge numb] ( roll]s ^: axles are spr+-support$ s t !y are capable ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( v]tical movem5t & z ! belt !y roll ^u is made up ( sep>ate plates !y c adju/ !mselves to irregul>ities ( ! gr\nd & creep ov] an unev5 surface4 ,its close resemblance to ! creep+ locomotion ( a cat]pill> has l$ to ! adoption ( ! trade "n 8cat]pill>0 by "o ( ! l>ge tractor manufactur]s4 ,! tractor belt is driv5 by spur :eels at ea* end & ! roll]s s]ve m]ely to di/ribute ! weight ( ! ma*9e along ! belt4 ,! traction is exce$+ly great because ! belt is broad & long1 giv+ x a l>ge gripp+ surface4 ,= ! same reason x w n s9k into pl[$ gr\nd4 ,because ( its flexible tread surface x w creep ov] rocks & /umps1 waddle d[n into a dit* & climb up ! opposite bank4 ,s p[]ful is x t x w cra% ?r\gh und]bru% ) ease & ev5 small trees yield be=e x4 ,x w run ov] s(t mud1 deep s&1 & ev5 sn[ ) equal facility4 ,! tread belts on ei!r side ( ! tractor are sep>ately driv5 & by mak+ "o belt run fa/] ?an ! o!r x is possible to /e] ! ma*9e4 ,9 fact x c be made to turn ar\nd 9 its own l5g? by /opp+ ! belt on "o side & driv+ ! belt on ! o!r4 ,su* a ma*9e is ideal = pl[+ & o!r are haul$ ) ease ov] ! s(t pl[$ gr\nd4 ,= ord9>y f>m+ purposes spe$ is n ess5tial1 b ! possibility ( rapid travel ) tread-belt traction 0 demon/rat$ 9 ! ,_w ,w> :5 small 8tanks0 7 built :i* c\ld run at ! rate ( twelve miles p] h\r4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,invasion ,,( ,,! ,,sky ,,f ! day :5 man began to ass]t 8 sup]iority ov] o!r animals he began to ca/ long+ eyes at ! sky4 ,fir$ ) ambition & /irr$ ) a _s ( ma/]y he *af$ at ! bonds t b\nd him to e>?2 b ! heav5s rema9$ a =bidd5 k+dom to him4 ,_m a bold adv5tur] :o d>$ to emulate ! birds paid ! p5alty ( 8 tem]ity ) a brok5 limb & ev5 ) 8 life4 ,x seem$ z if man 7 de/9$ =ev] to grovel on ! b$ ( ! atmosph]ic ocean ) nev] a *ance to rise except 9 dreams & fancy4 ,x 0 n until ne> ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury t a means ( ris+ (f ! e>? 0 discov]$4 ,two bro!rs1 ,/eph5 & ,joseph ,montgolfi]1 ( ,annonay1 ,france1 7 sitt+ be=e a fire1 wat*+ ! smoke curl up ! *imney1 :5 x occurr$ to "o ( !m t smoke might s]ve z a vehicle to c>ry !m up into ! air4 ,!y belong$ to a prom95t pap]-manufactur+ family & naturally turn$ to t mat]ial z ! mo/ suitable = trapp+ & h>ness+ ! smoke4 ,!y began _! exp]im5ts ) a l>ge bag ( ?9 pap] :i* !y fill$ ) smoke & float$ up to ! ceil+4 ,! next /ep 0 to fa/5 a di% fill$ ) burn+ emb]s to ! bag1 s t ! balloon c>ri$ its own smoke g5]ator4 ,! exp]im5t 0 tri$ 9 ! op5 air & ! balloon arose to a great height4 ,l>g] bags 7 made ( l95 & pap] & on ! fif? clay ( ,june1 #aghb1 a public exhibition 0 giv54 ,a pit 0 dug 9 ! gr\nd 9 :i* a fire 0 light$ & ov] ?is 0 plac$ a huge balloon :i* weigh$ #cjj p\nds4 ,eight m5 7 requir$ to hold x d[n :ile x 0 fill+ ) heat$ air &1 :5 releas$1 x %ot up to an elevation ( ab\t #f1jjj feet & came to e>? ab\t a mile & a half away4 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,hydrog5 ,,balloon ,:5 ! news ( ?is ev5t rea*$ ,p>is a pr(essor ( physics nam$ ,*>les sugge/$ t hydrog51 be+ mu* light] ?an air1 w\ld raise ! balloon )\t ! use ( fire4 ,by a popul> subscription funds 7 rais$ to defray ! exp5ses ( secur+ en\gh iron fil+s & sulphuric acid to g5]ate ! hydrog5 necess>y to fill a balloon ( #bb1jjj cubic-foot capacity4 ,on ! #bg? ( ,augu/1 #aghc1 a flight 0 attempt$4 ,! big bag arose )\t mi%ap & disappe>$ 9 ! cl\ds4 ,?ree qu>t]s ( an h\r lat] x l&$ 9 a field fifte5 miles away mu* to ! a/oni%m5t ( ! villag]s !reab\t :o ga!r$ ar\nd ! /range bobb+ mon/] ) m+l$ fe> & curiosity4 ,"o ( ! numb]1 m d>+ ?an ! re/1 advanc$ & %ot ! balloon1 :]eupon ! cr[d clos$ 9 & tore x to pieces ) _! pit*=ks4 ,9 ,novemb] ( ! same ye> ! ,montgolfi] bro!rs built a balloon #dh feet 9 diamet] & #gd feet high1 & ,jean ,franois ,pilatre de ,rozi]1 a pr(essor ( natural hi/ory1 made sev]al asc5ts ) ! balloon held captive4 ,!n1 9 company ) ! ,m>quis d',arl&es1 ! balloon 0 cut loose & ! balloon voyage 0 und]tak54 ,bel[ ! c> ( ! balloon 0 an iron vessel 9 :i* a fire 0 ma9ta9$ to furni% ! heat$ air4 ,! a]onauts ea* c>ri$ a bundle ( fuel to fe$ ! fire & a wet sponge to ext+ui% sp>ks t might ignite ! bag4 ,despite ?is precaution a numb] ( holes 7 burnt 9 ! envelope1 b nev]!less ! flight 0 successful & ! d>+ voyag]s came to e>? )\t mi%ap aft] a %ort j\rney4 ,m4 de ,rozi]'s c>e] z an a]onaut 0 a %ort "o4 ,! fir/ man to be c>ri$ up 9 a balloon1 he 0 also ! fir/ balloon victim4 ,he und]took to comb9e ! ,montgolfi] & ! ,*>les sy/ems by build+ a balloon t employ$ bo? ! hot air & ! hydrog5 pr9ciples1 b ! balloon took fire & ,de ,rozi] ) 8 companion1 ! ,m>quis de ,maison=t1 7 bo? kill$4 ,two mon?s aft] ,de ,rozi]'s fir/ balloon asc5sion a flight 0 made at ,lyons 9 a huge fire balloon :i* c>ri$ sev5 pass5g]s4 ,?is big bag 0 #ajj feet 9 diamet] & #acj feet high1 ) a capacity ( #eij1jjj cubic feet4 ,! invasion ( ! air 0 n[ well "u way1 al?\gh = a "t x made little real progress4 ,ow+ to ! dang] ( fire1 hot air ev5tually gave way to hydrog5 & lat] to coal gas1 :i*1 al?\gh x did n h half ! lift+ p[] ( hydrog51 possess$ ! advantage ( be+ mu* *eap]4 ,,! ,,weight ,,( ,,air ,x seems h>dly necess>y 9 ?is day & g5]ation to expla9 t a balloon rises because x is light] ?an ! air x displaces1 b x does seem a/oni%+ t a balloon weigh+ sev]al tons may yet be light] ?an an equal volume ( air4 ,we d n ord9>ily ?9k ( air z hav+ any weight4 ,we "k t ! ocean ( air be>s on ! e>? ) a pressure ( ab\t #ad p\nds p] squ>e in*1 or ab\t a ton p] squ>e foot at sea level4 ,?is am\nts to #bh millions tons p] squ>e mile &1 :5 we multiply ?is figure by ! numb] ( squ>e miles ( surface 9 ! total area ( ! e>?1 we f9d t ! :ole ocean ( air has a weight ( #e1ejj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj tons--a figure :i* is f> beyond our conception1 b x does impress u ) ! fact t air is a pond]able sub/ance4 ,( c\rse1 ! atmosph]e t ex]ts a pressure ( #ad p\nds p] squ>e in* is scores ( miles deep1 b ev5 a small quantity ( air has appreciable weight4 ,if weigh$ 9 a vacuum a cubic foot ( air w\ld tip ! scales at #a ounces1 & #ajj cubic feet w\ld weigh close to #h p\nds4 ,! air 9 an empty room #aj feet squ>e & ) a #aj-;foot ceil+ weighs ne>ly #hj p\nds at a temp]ature ( #cb degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,9 o!r words1 if we _h a box measur+ #aj feet on ea* side & weigh+ less ?an #hj p\nds 9 a vacuum x w\ld float 9 ! atmosph]e :5 ! !rmomet] 0 d[n to ! freez+ po9t1 provid$ !re 0 no air 9 ! box to weigh x d[n4 ,vacuum balloons 7 propos$ long be=e ! "t ( ! ,montgolfi]1 b ! problem 0 to con/ruct a vessel /rong en\gh to resi/ ! cru%+ pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! be/ brac+ = ! walls ( ! vessel is "s gas d5se en\gh to ex]t a pressure equal to t ( ! atmosph]e b ^: weight is less ?an t ( ! air4 ,! weight ( ! vessel mu/ !n n exce$ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! weight ( ! gas & an equal volume ( air4 ,! ,montgolfi] bro!rs us$ heat$ air to keep _! box or envelope di/5d$4 ,air exp&$ by heat is light] ?an cold air4 ,h[ev]1 x does n make a v good fill] because #a1jjj cubic feet ( air heat$ to #bab degrees ,fahr5heit weighs #ei p\nds1 leav+ only #ba p\nds on a freez+ cold day = ! absolute weight ( our #a1jjj-;cubic-foot box4 ,coal gas1 on ! o!r h&1 weighs ab\t #dj p\nds p] #a1jjj cubic feet at #cb degrees ,fahr5heit1 :ile ! same volume ( hydrog5 weighs only #e p\nds4 ,if coal gas 7 us$ to brace our box aga9/ ! pressure ( ! air we %\ld h a surplus ( ab\t #dj p\nds = ! weight ( ! box1 :ile hydrog5 w\ld all[ u #gd p\nds4 ,( c\rse1 ! weight ( a volume ( gas dep5ds ^u its d5sity4 ,no matt] h[ small a weight ( gas we plac$ 9 ! box x w\ld fill ! box completely1 b :5 we speak ( a #a1jjj cubic feet ( gas or hydrog5 we mean a volume suffici5tly d5se to be> aga9/ ! conta9] ) ! same pressure t ! atmosph]e presses outside2 i4 e41 #ad p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,temp]ature also affects ! pressure4 ,9 ! case ( fire balloons ! hot air inside ! envelope is less d5se & h5ce light] ?an cool air outside1 b ! pressure is equal because ! =m] is exp&$ by heat4 ,! volume ( gas 9 a hydrog5 or coal-gas balloon v>ies greatly ) ! temp]ature to :i* x is subject$4 ,= in/ance1 if on ris+ ?r\gh a cl\d or a blanket ( fog1 ! balloon %\ld enc\nt] ! rays ( ! sun1 ! heat w\ld bur/ op5 ! envelope 7 no v5t provid$4 ,! m\? ( ! bag is kept op51 h[ev]1 = j su* em]g5cies s t ! surplus gas may escape4 ,on ! o!r h&1 sudd5 *ill+ ( ! gas w contract x & s5d x d[n to e>?1 or ! balloon might enc\nt] a d[nw>d curr5t ( air1 :5 ! only salvation ( ! a]onaut is to ?r[ out ! balla/4 ,,balloon ,,navigation ,balloons seem l v helpless craft1 & yet !y are capable ( skillful navigation at ! h&s ( an exp]i5c$ pilot4 ,al?\gh ! ballooni/ has no means ( self-propulsion & mu/ drift ) ! w9ds1 he is capable ( controll+ motion 9 ! v]tical direction & c *oose ! p>ticul> air curr5ts on :i* he desires to ride4 ,by ?r[+ out s& balla/ ! bag may be made to rise & by lett+ out ! gas x may be made to desc5d1 & a pilot :o is famili> ) prevail+ curr5ts ( ! atmosph]e or able to int]pret meteorological indications1 may locate ! air /ream t w c>ry him to 8 de/9ation4 ,s& is ! ballooni/'s fuel2 :5 t is gone ! balloon may z well come to e>? at once4 ,its c\rse c no long] be direct$ & !re is no?+ to prev5t x f be+ sudd5ly da%$ to e>? %\ld x run into an 8air hole10 :i* is ano!r "n = a d[nw>d air curr5t4 ,:5 a balloon comes to e>? x is liable to be dragg$ by ! w9d & _m accid5ts f dragg+ occurr$ 9 ! e>ly days ( a]onautics until ,john ,wise1 an ,am]ican1 inv5t$ ! rip panel by :i* ! envelope may be ripp$ op5 by pull+ a cord1 ?us free+ ! gas & p]mitt+ ! bag to collapse in/antly4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,loom ,,provid$ ,,) ,a ,,jacqu>d ,,atta*m5t ,note ! belt ( c>ds t det]m9e ! patt]n t is to be wov5 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,batt]y ,,( ,,mule-,,sp9n+ ,,frames ,illu/ration3 ,,jacqu>d ,,atta*m5t ,,= ,,looms ,,sev5 ,,miles ,,above ,,! ,,e>? ,! greate/ altitude ev] atta9$ by a balloon has be5 claim$ = ,glai%] & ,coxwell1 :o 9 #ahfb w5t up to a height ( sev5 miles4 ,bo? m5 7 ov]come by ! extreme r>ity ( ! atmosph]e4 ,coxwell1 h[ev]1 al?\gh ne>ly p>alyz$ & unable to move 8 arms1 succe$$ 9 seiz+ ! safety valve rope 9 8 tee? & pull$ x be=e he lo/ consci\sness4 ,! balloon 0 !n at an altitude ( #bi1jjj feet & ris+ at ! rate ( #a1jjj feet p] m9ute4 ,?irte5 m9utes elaps$ be=e he rega9$ 8 s5ses1 & !n ! balloon 0 fall+ at ! rate ( #b1jjj feet p] m9ute4 ,f ! data furni%$1 x has be5 e/imat$ t an altitude ( #cg1jjj feet 0 rea*$4 ,:ile !re has be5 mu* dispute z to ! au!nticity ( ?is record1 ! altitude ( #ce1ajj feet e/abli%$ 9 #aija by ,pr(essor ,b]son & ,dr4 ,sur+ 9 ! ,g]man balloon ,preuss51 probably repres5ts a high] asc5t ?an t ( ,glai%]'s balloon4 ,! new sy/em ( a]ial transportation prov$ v useful 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,dur+ ! siege ( ,p>is1 9 #ahgj-ahga1 sixty-six balloons arose out ( ! beleagu]$ city1 & all b sev5 made _! escape 9 safety4 ,9 our own ,civil ,w> captive balloons 7 fir/ us$ to direct ! fire ( artill]y4 ,x 0 9 "o ( ^! balloons t ,fri$ri* von ,zeppel91 :o 0 a ,g]man milit>y atta* ) ! ,union =ces1 made 8 fir/ a]ial asc5t4 ,he 0 s impress$ ) ! advantages ( milit>y obs]vation f su* a l(ty a]ie t he became f t mom5t an a]onautical en?usia/1 & on 8 return to ,g]many urg$ ^u ! milit>y au?orities ! importance ( ! balloon 9 w>4 ,x 0 !n t he began 8 a]onautic /udies & exp]im5ts :i* culm9at$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! gigantic %ips ( ! air ) :i* ,g]many und]took to c>ry ! t]ror ( w> into ,engl&4 ,,kite ,,balloons ,9 ! ,_w ,w> captive balloons 7 ext5sively us$ by bo? sides1 an important developm5t be+ ! kite balloon4 ,! common sph]ical captive balloon is v un/eady except 9 p]fectly /ill air4 ,x bobs ar\nd & sw+s & turns1 mak+ an unfavorable base = c>eful obs]vation4 ,9 heavy w9ds x is liable to be da%$ to e>? by sudd5 gu/s4 ,! kite balloon is held up n only by its own buoyancy1 b also by ! w9d 9 ! same way t a kite is support$4 ,! bag is elongat$ 7sausage-%ap$7 & is fa/5$ to ! an*or l9e 9 su* a way t x is tilt$ l a kite4 ,to assi/ 9 hold+ x 9 ?is position ! balloon is balla/$ at ! aft] end & ! balla/1 if y please1 is air4 ,a big air-fill$ bag hangs f ! /]n ( ! balloon & s]ves z a rudd] :ile two o!r horizontal bags s]ve z /abiliz+ f9s4 ,,self-,,propell$ ,,balloons ,no soon] _h ! ,montgolfi] bro!rs prov$ t x 0 possible to rise (f ! e>? ^u a bubble ( hot air1 ?an inv5tors began to devise s*emes ( propell+ ! bubble & controll+ its c\rse4 ,! fir/ dirigible balloon 0 built 9 #aghd &1 /rangely en\gh1 o>s 7 us$ to propel x4 ,! balloon _h a fi%-%ap$ body1 j l t ( mod]n air%ips1 & ! bag 0 kept inflat$ by means ( air z x is to-day4 ,x 0 realiz$ ev5 at t e>ly date t ! envelope mu/ reta9 its %ape if x is to pl[ ?r\gh ! air ) a m9imum ( friction4 ,z ! gas w\ld gradually leak out ( ! envelope ! bag w\ld become flabby & pres5t a crumpl$ b[ to ! ocean ( ! air &1 to ov]come ?is1 a d\ble envelope 0 provid$ & air 0 introduc$ betwe5 ! inn] & out] sk94 ,means 7 provid$ = pump+ air 9 z ! gas sl[ly escap$1 ?us keep+ ! envelope fully inflat$4 ,z ! air 0 pump$ 9 s& balla/ 0 ?r[n ov]bo>d s t ! buoyancy ( ! air%ip 0 n impair$4 ,to-day air is us$ to keep gas envelopes inflat$1 b in/ead ( plac+ ! air 9 an outside envelope x is introduc$ into a small bag inside call$ a 8ballonet40 ,f "t to "t o!r means ( propulsion 7 propos$ & tri$4 ,9 #aheb ,h5ri ,giff>d1 :o is kn[n z ! ,fulton ( a]ial navigation1 built & op]at$ a dirigible driv5 by a /eam eng9e1 :i* he hung at a consid]able di/ance bel[ ! gas bag1 s t ! fire box w\ld n be liable to ignite ! highly inflammable gas4 ,a draft 0 ma9ta9$ 9 ! fire box z x is 9 a locomotive by lett+ ! /eam dis*>ge into ! smoke /ack1 b 9 ?is case ! /ack 0 inv]t$ & ! smoke & gases 7 bl[n d[nw>d & away f ! coal gas ) :i* ! balloon 0 inflat$4 ,! dang] ( fire & ! difficulty ( build+ a p[] plant light en\gh to be c>ri$ al(t & p[]ful en\gh to give ! craft any mat]ial headway 7 ! *ief ob/acles t _h to be ov]come4 ,at ! close ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ,santos ,dumont1 a ,brazilian inv5tor1 built a balloon t 0 driv5 by a gasol9e eng9e4 ,despite ! appreh5sion ( o!r a]onauts ?is ma*9e prov$ an unqualifi$ success4 ,two ye>s lat]1 9 #aijj1 ,c\nt ,zeppel9 introduc$ ! rigid dirigible1 :i* to-day is ! /&>d = l>ge air%ips4 ,,?ree ,,types ,,( ,,dirigibles ,!re are ?ree types ( dirigible air%ips2 ! flexible1 ! semirigid1 & ! rigid4 ,9 ! flexible type1 z we h obs]v$1 ! envelope mu/ be kept tightly fill$ 9 ord] to hold its %ape :5 driv5 aga9/ ! air4 ,! c> is susp5d$ f ! gas bag4 ,9 ! semirigid type a rigid frame or backbone s]ves z a keel = ! gasbag & helps to prev5t x f crumpl+ up4 ,9 ! rigid type a cas+ incloses ! gas or r bags2 = ! gas ,is conta9$ 9 a numb] ( sep>ate bags fitt$ into sep>ate comp>tm5ts4 ,! cas+ is compos$ ( a framework ( duralum91 :i* is an alloy ( alum9um1 ) a p]c5tage ( copp] & nickel4 ,x weighs b little m ?an alum9um1 b is five times z /rong4 ,ov] ! duralum9 framework is /ret*$ a %ea?+ ( rubb]iz$ fabric4 ,because ( ! weight ( ?is cas+ rigid dirigibles mu/ be made 9 l>ge size4 ,,across ,,! ,,atlantic ,,9 ,a ,,dirigible ,be=e ! w> l>ge ,zeppel9s 7 built t 7 fitt$ ) luxuri\s cab9s & d9+ rooms & made regul> s*$ul$ voyages4 ,! big ,briti% dirigibles are ( ! ,zeppel9 type4 ,! ,r-#cd1 0 #fgb feet long & #gi feet 9 diamet]4 ,x 0 fitt$ ) n9ete5 gas bags & _h a total capacity ( ov] two million cubic feet ( hydrog54 ,x 0 driv5 by five eng9es1 ea* develop+ f #bej to #bge horsep[]1 & 0 capable ( mak+ f #ej to #ge miles p] h\r1 dep5d+ ^u :e!r or n ! eng9es 7 pu%$4 ,! big dirigible left ! ,royal ,naval ,air ,/ation1 ne> ,ed9burgh1 on ! #b;d ( ,july1 #aiai1 & l&$ at ! ,roosevelt ,field ne> ,m9eola on ! #f?1 hav+ made ! trip 9 f\r days & two h\rs4 ,! c\rse cov]$ ab\t #c1ajj sea miles1 b ! actual air mileage 0 ab\t #f1cjj miles because head w9ds 7 enc\nt]$4 ,9 a]onautic voyages x is ! di/ance ?r\gh ! air t mu/ be reckon$ r ?an ! di/ance ov] ! gr\nd or sea4 ,an air%ip may be travel+ at ! rate ( #ej miles p] h\r ?r\gh ! air1 b if !re is a w9d ( #cj miles p] h\r bl[+ aga9/ ! c\rse ( ! dirigible1 ! latt] w be mak+ only #bj miles p] h\r ov] ! gr\nd1 or if ! w9d is bl[+ ) ! air%ip x w be mak+ #hj miles p] h\r ov] ! gr\nd4 ,because ( ! head w9ds ! transatlantic flight ( ! ,r-#cd 0 s mu* long] ?an _h be5 anticipat$ t its /ores ( fuel 7 almo/ completely exhau/$4 ,& yet1 :5 ! air%ip />t$ out f ,ed9burgh1 x c>ri$ #ha tanks ( gasol9e1 ea* conta9+ ne>ly #gj gallons1 or a total ( #d1ijj gallons4 ,?is fuel weigh$ ne>ly #af tons4 ,almo/ a ton ( oil & #c tons ( wat] add$ to ! load & ! baggage & crew am\nt$ to #d tons m4 ,! total weight c>ri$ 0 ov] #bd tons & ! dirigible fully load$ weigh$ altoge!r ab\t #fj tons4 ,:5 ! dirigible />t$ out x _h to fly l[1 b z ! fuel 0 consum$ x grew light] & rose high]4 ,! surplus hydrog5 _h to be pump$ into /eel tanks :]e1 ow+ to its compression1 x 0 heavy & s]v$ z balla/ :i* c\ld at any "t be f$ back into ! gas bags to increase ! buoyancy ( ! air%ip4 ,we c no long] ?9k ( air z hav+ no weight :5 we consid] t all ?is tonnage 0 support$ by air4 ,! ,r-#cd 0 by no means ! l>ge/ dirigible built1 b we d>e n boa/ ( ! size ( ! air%ips ( to-day :5 ! a]onautics is 9 its 9-fancy1 because our pres5t dirigibles may seem puny alongside ! big aircraft t may be built to-morr[4 ,! dim5sions ( ! ,r-#cd h be5 giv5 because ( ! hi/oric int]e/ 9 ?is fir/ dirigible to span ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,,heavi]-,,?an-,,air ,,ma*9es ,m>vel\s z 0 ! a*ievem5t ( ! ,montgolfi]s & wond]ful z 7 ! a]onautic developm5ts t foll[$ ! inv5tion ( ! balloon1 ! dom9ion ( ! birds 0 n really conqu]$ until man _h le>n$ h[ to fly 9 a ma*9e heavi] ?an ! air4 ,captive a]oplanes date back to ! remote ages ( anci5t hi/ory4 ,kites are really 8heavi]-?an-air ma*9es40 ,!y ma9ta9 !mselves 9 ! air because !y travel ?r\gh ! air at a consid]able velocity4 ,true1 a kite may be /ation>y1 or practically s ) respect to ! gr\nd1 b if we deta* ourselves f ! gr\nd & view ! situation f a drift+ balloon1 ! e>? w appe> to be mov+ "u u & ! kite w ru% pa/ u z x is dragg$ by ! e>? to :i* x is ti$4 ,! idea ( propell+ a kite ?r\gh ! air1 n by ty+ x to ! e>?1 b by furni%+ x ) its own propell] & p[] plant1 0 conceiv$ long ago1 b ! problem 0 to f9d a p[] plant light en\gh4 ,! honor ( be+ ! fir/ man to rise (f ! gr\nd 9 an a]oplane belongs to ,c4 ,ad]1 :o made sev]al %ort flights betwe5 #ahij & #ahif 9 a ma*9e driv5 by a tw5ty-horsep[] /eam eng9e4 ,our own ,s4 ,p4 ,langley did "s mo/ important pione] "w 9 fly+ & built a man-lift+1 /eam-driv5 ma*9e 9 #aijc :i* w\ld h fl[n _h x n be5 = an accid5t to its laun*+ ge>4 ,9 fact1 ?is v model 0 fl[n successfully a numb] ( ye>s lat]4 ,h[ev]1 x 0 n until ! gasol9e eng9e 0 develop$ t ! p[] plant problem 0 solv$4 ,! int]nal-combu/ion motor 0 made m & m p[]ful 9 proportion to its weight until n[ !re are sev]al types t weigh less ?an two p\nds p] horsep[]4 ,b ! p[] plant 0 only "o ob/acle to be ov]come4 ,! real problem 0 to le>n h[ to control ! ma*9e aft] x rose into ! air4 ,otto ,lili5?al attempt$ to le>n h[ to fly 9 a motorless fly+ ma*9e4 ,he provid$ himself ) w+s &1 jump+ (f a height or runn+ d[n a slope1 dep5d$ ^u gravity to furni% him ) ! necess>y propulsion ?r\gh ! air4 ,un=tunately aft] five ye>s ( glid+ exp]im5ts a fatal accid5t t]m9at$ 8 a]onautic rese>*4 ,,! ,,wright ,,bro!rs ,9 ?is c\ntry ! ,wright bro!rs1 ,orville & ,wilbur1 took up ! "w ( ,lili5?al & !y1 too1 und]took to le>n to fly be=e !y built a fly+ ma*9e4 ,9 all 8 ye>s ( exp]im5t1 ,lili5?al did n h m ?an five h\rs ( exp]i5ce 9 ! air4 ,! ,wright bro!rs det]m9$ to sp5d m "t 9 ! air & less 9 !oretical speculations at home1 s !y built a glid+ ma*9e t w\ld su/a9 a man at a spe$ ( eighte5 miles p] h\r & pick$ out a spot on ! ,atlantic coa/ :]e !y 7 assur$ ( fairly con/ant w9ds ( sixte5 to tw5ty-five miles p] h\r4 ,at fir/ ! ma*9e 0 us$ z a kite & v>i\s exp]im5ts 7 made 9 balanc+ x4 ,!n %ort glid+ flights 7 made f ! tops ( ! s& dunes4 ,n until ! art ( balanc+ ! glid] & controll+ x 9 un/eady air curr5ts 0 any attempt made at build+ a motor-driv5 fly+ ma*9e4 ,x 0 by ^! exp]im5ts t ! ,wright bro!rs discov]$ ! sy/em ( w>p+ ! w+s s z to pres]ve ! lat]al balance ( ! ma*9e4 ,aft] sev]al seasons ( exp]im5tal glid+1 & n until !y felt t !y _h le>n$ h[ to fly1 0 a p[] ma*9e built4 ,?is made its fir/ flight on ,decemb] #ag1 #aijc4 ,! fir/ flight la/$ only twelve seconds1 :ile ! f\r? flight la/$ fifty-n9e seconds4 ,_m mon?s 7 sp5t 9 p]fect+ ! ma*9e & 9 solv+ ! v>i\s problems ( flight1 & n until ,septemb]1 #aije1 did ! ,wright bro!rs feel t !y _h ma/]$ ! art ( fly+4 ,aft] t ?ree ye>s elaps$ be=e ! _w 0 actually conv9c$ ( ! reality ( airplane flight & recogniz$ ! "w ( ! pione]s4 ,,transatlantic ,,a]oplane ,,flights ,! developm5t ( ! heavi]-?an-air ma*9e is s rec5t & is /ill advanc+ s rapidly t we d>e n give m ?an a brief outl9e ( its progress "h4 ,! m important advances are famili> to mo/ ( u & a record ( a*ievem5ts to-day w be hopelessly out ( date to-morr[4 ,! w> gave a trem5d\s impetus to fly+4 ,pilots 7 tra9$ by ! ?\s&4 ,ma*9es grew 9 spe$ up to #aej miles p] h\r4 ,huge bomb+ ma*9es 7 built1 ) a w+ spread ( ov] #abe feet1 & weigh+ t5 to fifte5 tons4 ,^! 7 capable ( c>ry+ a load ( f\r to five tons4 ,! fir/ flight across ! ,atlantic 0 made 9 ,june1 #aiai1 by ! ,unit$ ,/ates navy fly+ boat ,,nc-#d1 :i* flew to ,newf\ndl&1 !n to ! ,azores1 & f !re to ,lisbon1 ,portugal4 ,! trip 0 f9ally complet$ by a flight to ,plym\?1 ,engl&4 ,! fir/ non/op flight 0 made 9 ! same mon? by a ,vick]s ,vimy bomb] :i*1 ) a favor+ w9d ( ?irty miles p] h\r1 made ! trip 9 less ?an eighte5 h\rs at a rate ( #abj miles p] h\r4 ,to-day all-metal a]oplanes are be+ fl[n successfully4 ,plans are "u way to build a]oplanes = s]vice at extremely high altitudes1 :]e great] spe$s are possible ow+ to ! t5uity ( ! air & ! consequ5t l[]+ ( head resi/ance4 ,^! ma*9es are to h inclos$ bodies 9 :i* air at normal pressure w be ma9ta9$ by means ( bl[]s4 ,! bl[]s w\ld also furni% ! eng9es ) air necess>y = prop] combu/ion ( ! fuel4 ,we are n go+ to give a hi/ory ( ! progress ( aviation s9ce ! inv5tion ( ! ,wright biplane1 b in/ead we %all look briefly & 9 a v elem5t>y way into ! pr9ciples und]ly+ ! flight ( heavi]-?an-air ma*9es4 ,,:y ,a ,,kite ,,/ays ,,up ,:at is x t makes a plane or a kite /ay 9 ! air8 ,! answ] is in]tia4 ,! balloon %[s u t air possesses weight2 ! a]oplane %[s u t air possesses in]tia4 ,?is is a natural consequ5ce4 ,e body possesses in]tia & ! heavi] ! body ! great] its in]tia4 ,by in]tia we mean resi/ance to *ange ( motion or re/4 ,! pressure ( air aga9/ ! face ( a fan is due to its resi/ance to a *ange f /ate ( re/ to a /ate ( motion1 :ile ! pressure ( w9d aga9/ a surface repres5ts ! resi/ance ( air 9 motion to be+ br\ght to a /ate ( re/4 ,! m sudd5 ! *ange ! high] is ! resi/ance or pressure develop$4 ,if an op5 newspap] be laid ov] "o half ( a rul]1 :ile ! o!r half ext5ds beyond ! edge ( ! table1 ! rul] may be brok5 by a %>p bl[ on ! ov]hang+ end1 n because ! o!r end is held d[n by ! weight ( ! newspap]1 b because ! in]tia ( ! air be>+ on ! broad area ( ! pap] prev5ts ! rul] "u ! pap] f ris+ 9 response to ! sudd5 bl[ at ! ov]hang+ end4 ,x is ! in]tia ( ! air1 i4 e41 its resi/ance to rapid displacem5t t keeps a p>a*ute f fall+ l a solid %ot to e>?4 ,figure #fb %[s h[ a kite is ma9ta9$ 9 ! air4 ,! l9e ,,ab repres5ts ! plane ( ! kite1 ! l9e ,,co at "r angles to ?is plane is ! pressure aga9/ ! c5t] ( ! kite surface4 ,! w9d pressure ,,d is resi/$ by ! pull ( ! kite /r+ & ex]ts a lift ,,eo1 :i* resi/s ! v]tical pull ( gravity4 ,! sum ( ! =ces ,,d & ,,eo mu/ be equal to ! =ce ,,co4 ,if ,,eo is great] ?an ! =ce ( gravity ! kite w rise1 & if x is less ! kite w fall4 ,! magnitude ( ! =ce ,,eo dep5ds ^u ! velocity ( ! w9d ,,d & ! angle ( ! kite ,,ab to ! w9d4 ,if ! plane ( ! kite 7 p>allel to ! direction ( ! w9d ! angle w\ld be z]o & ! lift w\ld also be z]o4 ,,=ces ,,t ,,support ,,an ,,a]oplane ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,,=ces ,,:i* ,,hold ,,up ,a ,,kite ,9 an a]oplane conditions are j ! same z 9 a kite1 except t a propell] drives ! plane ?r\gh ! air ) a =ce equal to ,,co4 ,! plane is slightly curv$1 s t air :i* is deflect$ or =c$ d[n at ! =w>d edge w cont9ue to press aga9/ ! plane all ! way to ! re> edge4 ,! %ape ( ! top ( ! plane is also important4 ,z ! plane is driv5 ?r\gh ! air a p>tial vacuum is =m$ above ! plane1 s t ! diff]5ce 9 pressure betwe5 ! two sides is increas$ & !re is a great] lift+ effect4 ,?is p>tial vacuum is kn[n z 8cavitation40 ,9 ! e>ly days ( ! a]oplane x 0 n realiz$ h[ important 0 ! effect ( cavitation on rapidly mov+ objects4 ,e sp> & memb] ( ! airplane z x pl[s ?r\gh ! air builds up a head resi/ance 9 front & is foll[$ by a wake ( r>efi$ air unless x is giv5 a /ream-l9e con/ruction4 ,?is is illu/rat$ 9 ,figure #fc1 :i* %[s at ! left a rectangul> body travel+ ?r\gh ! air & at ! "r a /ream-l9$ body4 ,! fl[ ( ! air is indicat$ by ! l9es & x is evid5t t head resi/ance & cavitation are r$uc$ by =m+ ! body ) a bulg+ b[ & tap]+ /]n4 ,to-day all ! expos$ p>ts ( a]oplanes are /ream-l9$ z f> z possible4 ,9 ! e>ly ,wright ma*9es wire braces 7 ext5sively us$4 ,x 0 n suppos$ t a wire w\ld (f] mu* resi/ance to ! air1 b1 ^u inve/igation1 x 0 f\nd t ! wire braces w\ld vibrate lat]ally & pres5t virtually a broad surface :i* mat]ially increas$ ! head resi/ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--;,,fl[ ,,( ,,air ,,ar\nd ,a ,,rectangul> ,,body ,,& ,a ,,/ream-,,l9$ ,,body ,! angle ( ! plane det]m9es to a l>ge ext5t ! head resi/ance ( ! plane4 ,if ! plane is horizontal ! head resi/ance is at a m9imum1 b ! lift is also v slight4 ,if ! w+ planes 7 p]fectly flat1 !re w\ld be no lift at all1 b because ( ! curve ( ! w+s !re is a c]ta9 am\nt ( lift :5 !y are horizontal1 & ev5 :5 !y are tipp$ slightly d[nw>d1 provid$ ! ma*9e is travel+ at high spe$4 ,! angle ( an a]oplane's w+s is !re=e mu* flatt] ?an t ( a kite4 ,,ma9ta9+ ,,! ,,equilibrium ,,( ,,an ,,a]oplane ,9 ord] to ma9ta9 itself 9 equilibrium ! c5t] ( gravity mu/ co9cide ) ! c5t] ( pressure1 o!rwise !re w be a turn+ action ab\t ! c5t] ( gravity & ! ma*9e w upset4 ,! location ( ! c5t] ( pressure dep5ds ^u ! angle ( ! plane4 ,! great] ! angle ! f>!r x is f ! =w>d edge ( ! plane & ! pilot c ma9ta9 =e-&-aft equilibrium by tilt+ ! horizontal planes ( 8 rudd] s z to *ange ! angle ( ! ma*9e1 & h5ce ( ! ma9 or =w>d planes4 ,un=tunately ! air is a turbul5t ocean fill$ ) invisible air curr5ts & ! a]oplane mu/ be capable ( adju/m5t to meet ! v>iations ( pressure due to sudd5 gu/s ( w9d4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true ( lat]al balance4 ,a gu/ com+ f ! side w put a great] pressure on "o side ( ! a]oplane ?an on ! o!r4 ,to meet ?is ! angle ( ! plane at "o side mu/ be less ?an t at ! o!r4 ,?is 0 discov]$ by ! ,wright bro!rs & _! me?od ( ov]com+ ! lat]al v>iations ( pressure 0 ! key to _! e>ly success4 ,!y w>p$ _! w+s or twi/$ !m s t ! angle ( ! w+ 0 r$uc$ on ! side f :i* ! gu/ came & 0 increas$ on ! o!r1 & ?us ! c5t] ( pressure ov] ! :ole w+ 0 kept on ! l9e ( ! c5t] ( gravity4 ,at ! same "t !re 0 a v>iation 9 head resi/ance :i* _h to be correct$ by mov+ ! rudd]1 & ! ,wright bro!rs us$ a s+le lev] to w>p ! w+s & at ! same "t to op]ate ! rudd] s z to keep ! a]oplane on its c\rse4 ,be=e ! ,wright bro!rs made public _! inv5tion o!r a]onauts _h great difficulty 9 mak+ turns4 ,:5 turn+1 "o side naturally has to move ?r\gh ! air fa/] ?an ! o!r4 ,?is produces an increase ( pressure on "o side ov] ! o!r :i* may be c\nt]balanc$ by w>p+ ! w+s4 ,! same effect is produc$ by ! use ( small w+ planes1 call$ 8ail]ons10 at ea* side ( ! ma9 planes4 ,an automatic means ( /abiliz+ an a]oplane has also be5 devis$1 a description ( :i* w be f\nd 9 ,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,help+ ,,! ,,f>m] ,,! ,,fir/ ef=ts at direct+ ! =ces ( nature & employ+ !m 9 ! s]vice ( man 7 made by ! f>m]4 ,! task ( gr[+ food 0 q ! mo/ important ( primitive occupations1 & al?\gh ! virg9 soil 0 ri* & ! yield abundant !re 7 regions :]e crops c\ld n be rais$ except at ! exp5se ( con/ant toil4 ,infrequ5t ra9s made x necess>y to c>ry wat] by h& f wells & riv]s & p\r x ov] ?ir/y l&s4 ,z ! gra9 fields grew m ext5sive1 irrigat+ dit*es 7 us$ :i* sav$ ! toil ( c>ry+ ! wat]1 al?\gh x /ill _h to be rais$ by h&4 ,!n ma*9es 7 inv5t$ by :i* wat] c\ld be rais$ by animal p[] &1 f9ally1 z we h already se51 automatic wat]-lift+ ma*9es 7 con/ruct$ by :i* ! riv] itself 0 con/ra9$ to lift a "p ( itself & p\r ?is "p into ! irrigation dit*es4 ,:ile x is true t ! e>lie/ ma*9es 7 built to light5 ! "w ( ! f>m]1 ! att5tion ( inv5tors 0 soon attract$ to o!r fields ( endeavor & ! f>m] 0 left to toil slavi%ly f daybreak to sund[n ) no fur!r me*anical aid4 ,! tools he us$ 7 improv$ 9 =m & quality4 ,ox5 7 us$ to draw ! pl[4 ,! wood5 pl[ made out ( a =k$ /ick gave way to a bronze pl[ &1 f9ally1 to "o ( iron4 ,! curv$ knife or sickle w5t ?r\gh a simil> process ( evolution f fl9t to iron4 ,x 0 ! only implem5t us$ = cutt+ ! /&+ gra91 & n until comp>atively rec5t times did x give way to ! scy!4 ,practically all ! "w ( till+1 se$+1 cultivat+1 h>ve/+ & ?re%+ 0 done by h& 9 practically ! same way & ) practically ! same tools f ! "t ( ! ,ph>aohs d[n to ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,h>ve/+ ,,ma*9e ,to be sure1 !re is a record ( a h>ve/+ ma*9e built 9 ,gaul1 :ile t prov9ce 0 "u ,roman dom9ion4 ,pl9y describ$ ?is ma*9e 9 #gj ,a4 ,d4 ,x consi/$ ( an ox c>t :i* 0 pu%$ ?r\gh a field ( gra91 in/ead ( be+ pull$ by ! ox4 ,?is c>t c>ri$ a rack or comb :i* caught ! heads ( ! /&+ gra91 te>+ !m (f & deliv]+ !m into ! body ( ! c>t4 ,un=tunately ?is primitive1 b useful1 h>ve/] 0 n ext5sively employ$ & 9 "t x 0 lo/ to agriculture4 ,f>m]s rev]t$ to ! "t-honor$ me?od ( reap+ by h& & ! ox-pu%$ ma*9e 0 =gott54 ,f "t to "t 9 rec5t ye>s ?is ma*9e has be5 re9v5t$ & a ma*9e simil> 9 pr9ciple is us$ to-day to ga!r clov] se$4 ,! scy! 0 a di/9ct improvem5t ov] ! sickle4 ,x enabl$ a man to use two h&s at ! "w ( reap+ in/ead ( "o4 ,x provid$ a mu* long] & heavi] blade1 & h5ce a mu* broad] swa? 0 cut at ea* /roke4 ,a di/9ctly ,am]ican improvem5t on ! scy! is ! gra9 cradle1 consi/+ ( a set ( f+]s above ! blade :i* cat* ! gra9 & lay x 9 a swa? at ! end ( ! /roke4 ,?is important improvem5t rapidly spread to all p>ts ( ! _w & is /ill us$ to-day :]e x is impracticable to use a me*anical reap]4 ,x is claim$ t "o man c cut & b9d m gra9 ) ! cradle ?an ?ree m5 c\ld ) ! sickle4 ,,evolution ,,( ,,! ,,pl[ ,! pl[ has und]gone important developm5ts 9 comp>atively rec5t ye>s4 ,wood5 pl[s 7 /ill 9 use 9 ,am]ica 9 ,revolution>y times2 usually ! po9t 0 %od ) wr\ght iron4 ,h[ev]1 ^! wood5 pl[s spe$ily gave way to metal :5 iron came to be manufactur$ 9 consid]able quantity 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,a pl[ has to cont5d ) two conditions ( s]vice t app>5tly conflict ) ea* o!r4 ,! con/ant friction ( ! soil aga9/ ! blade t5ds to we> x away v rapidly1 h5ce a v h>d surface is requisite4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! pl[ is apt to enc\nt] buri$ /ones & rocks :i* w %att] x unless x is s(t4 ,! problem !n is to make ! pl[ bo? h>d & s(t4 ,! *ill$ iron pl[ 0 inv5t$ by ,oliv]1 9 #ahee1 to meet ! fir/ condition4 ,:5 molt5 iron is p\r$ into an iron mold ! surface t comes into contact ) ! mold is sudd5ly *ill$1 produc+ a v h>d surface t takes a good poli%4 ,?is effect is acc5tuat$ by us+ a holl[ mold ?r\gh :i* wat] is circulat$4 ,! h>d surface ( ! *ill$ iron we>s well 9 s&y & gravelly soil1 x does n ru/ deeply1 & x cle>s well 9 /icky soil4 ,h[ev]1 x is v brittle & is liable to break if /ruck a %>p bl[4 ,a m rec5t improvem5t is ! s(t-c5t] /eel pl[4 ,?is is bo? h>d & s(t4 ,x is compos$ ( ?ree lay]s ( metal2 ! out] lay]s are ( h>d ca/ /eel & ! c5t] "o ( s(t /eel4 ,^! metal lay]s are heat$ to a weld+ heat & !n roll$ toge!r1 produc+ a pl[ t has a h>d out] we>+ surface & at ! same "t is t\gh because ! c5t] lay] ( s(t /eel acts z a cu%ion to absorb %>p bl[s4 ,to increase ! we>+ qualities ( ! pl[ /ill fur!r a pat* ( v h>d ca/ /eel is weld$ ov] ! po9t ( ! %>e4 ,?us bo? conflict+ requirem5ts ( s(tness & extreme h>dness are met4 ,we ?9k ( ! pl[ z a v simple tool1 b ! mod]n implem5t is a product result+ f a va/ am\nt ( /udy & rese>* into ! mat]ials mo/ suitable = its con/ruction & into ! be/ =m ( %>e & moldbo>d4 ,9 place ( a s+le pl[ = all purposes ! mod]n f>m] is (f]$ a l>ge assortm5t to suit v>i\s classes ( "w4 ,at lea/ ?ree diff]5t k9ds ( pl[s are indisp5sable on e f>m2 ! sod pl[1 ! /ubble pl[1 & ! corn-cultivat+ pl[4 ,! sod pl[ is us$ = turn+ ov] ! sod & break+ ! clod4 ,?is is provid$ ) a jo9t] or dim9utive pl[ po9t set above ! %>e1 :i* turns ov] ! edge ( ! furr[ to prev5t grass f gr[+ up betwe5 ! furr[s4 ,! /ubble pl[ has a moldbo>d ) less twi/ ?an t ( ! sod pl[4 ,?is is us$ = pl[+ l& t 0 "u cultivation dur+ ! previ\s ye>4 ,! pl[ ( to-day has become m ?an a h&-guid$1 horse-drawn tool4 ,x has develop$ into a real ma*9e1 m\nt$ on :eels1 ) a disk or c\lt] :eel t cuts ! furr[ cleanly1 means = level+ ! pl[ & regulat+ ! dep? ( ! pl[1 & a seat = ! pl[man4 ,x works ^u soil ) ! same precision t a plan] works ^u a slab ( ca/ iron4 ,! furr[ is neatly slic$1 lift$1 & turn$ ov] ) me*anical accuracy4 ,z ! furr[ slice slides ov] ! moldbo>d ( ! pl[ ! soil is pulv]iz$ by friction4 ,! front furr[ :eel runs 9 ! furr[ previ\sly cut :i* s]ves z a track to guide ! ma*9e4 ,! front & re> furr[ :eels are incl9$ f ! v]tical s z to balance ! ?ru/ ( ! pl[ & !y may be giv5 a lead t[>d or f ! 8l&0 or unpl[$ "p ( ! gr\nd to regulate ! /e]+ automatically4 ,! prop] adju/m5t & balanc+ ( a pl[ calls = consid]able skill4 ,agricultural op]ations are n[ conduct$ on su* a va/ scale t ! s+le pl[ _c beg9 to d ! necess>y "w4 ,in/ead1 sets ( gang pl[s are us$ s t f a doz5 to two doz5 furr[s may be turn$ at a "t4 ,/eam or gasol9e tractors ( ! :eel or track-lay+ type are requir$ to furni% ! tractive ef=t ne$$ to haul ^! huge pl[s4 ,! l>g] tractors are s p[]ful t !y haul n only ! pl[ b a h>r[ beh9d ! pl[ to break up ! clods & a se$] beh9d ! h>r[ to s[ & cov] ! se$ s t all ?ree op]ations are p]=m$ simultane\sly4 ,! disk type ( pl[ is us$ 9 v dry & h>d soil & also 9 v /icky soil4 ,a roll+ disk takes ! place ( ! moldbo>d & %>e1 & 9 ?is way friction is r$uc$ v mat]ially1 ) ! result t less tractive ef=t is requir$ to draw ! ma*9e4 ,!re is sc>cely any agricultural op]ation = :i* a ma*9e has n be5 design$4 ,we _c attempt to describe !m all4 ,= till+ ! soil !re are pl[s1 h>r[s1 drags1 & roll]s ( _m diff]5t v>ieties2 = se$+ & plant+ !re are gra9 & se$ drills1 corn plant]s1 potato plant]s1 etc42 = cultivat+ or work+ ! gr[+ crops !re are cultivators1 we$]s1 f]tiliz] drills1 corn pl[s1 etc42 & = h>ve/+ or ga!r+ ! crops !re are m[]s1 hay rakes & t$d]s1 reap]s & b9d]s1 potato digg]s1 corn b9d]s & husk]s1 corn %ell]s1 etc4 ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,! ,,reap] ,mo/ int]e/+ ( all are ! reap]s because !y repres5t ! fir/ successful ef=ts to introduce ma*9]y into f>m+ op]ations4 ,t[>d ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society ( ,engl& (f]$ a prize = ! inv5tion ( a successful reap]1 :i* /imulat$ inv5tive ef=t 9 ?is field4 ,b al?\gh _m pat5ts on reap+ ma*9es 7 grant$ by ! ,briti% pat5t (fice1 no?+ 0 produc$ t completely met ! requirem5ts4 ,9 fact ev5 z late z #ahea :5 a ,_w's ,fair 0 held 9 ,london ! ,briti% _h no really successful reap] to exhibit4 ,9 ! meantime1 ,am]ican inv5tors _h be5 at "w & two inv5tors 9 p>ticul>1 ,ob$ ,hussey ( ,m>yl& & ,cyrus ,mc,cormick ( ,virg9ia1 _h develop$ ma*9es :i* _h s f> prov$ _! wor? t !y 7 ext5sively us$ on ,am]ican f>ms4 ,^! two inv5tors1 work+ indep5d5tly1 produc$ ma*9es t 7 v simil> 9 basic pr9ciples4 ,z our pat5t regulations ( t p]iod did n call = an ext5sive se>* ( ! prior art !re 0 no (ficial inve/igation to %[ :i* 0 entitl$ to ! honor ( priority ( basic pr9ciples or :e!r bo? did n include 9 _! applications mu* t 0 old4 ,hussey fil$ 8 pat5t on ! la/ day ( #ahcc & ,mc,cormick 9 ,june ( #ahcd4 ,! ma9 /umbl+blocks ( e>li] inv5tors ( reap+ & m[+ ma*9es 0 9 f9d+ a suitable me?od ( cutt+ ! gra94 ,revolv+ combs = te>+ (f ! heads ( gra91 f+]s = ga!r+ ! gra9 & hold+ x aga9/ a revolv+ cutt]1 horizontally reciprocat+ knives--all ^! me?ods 7 tri$ )\t success4 ,ne>ly ?ree ye>s be=e ,hussey obta9$ 8 pat5t1 ,mann+1 ( ,pla9field1 ,new ,j]sey1 solv$ ! problem by inv5t+ a reciprocat+ cutt] ) spe>-%ap$ blades coop]at+ ) a f+] b> t guid$ & held ! gra9 aga9/ ! blades4 ,?is inv5tion 0 app>5tly unkn[n to ei!r ,hussey or ,mc,cormick & _! pat5ts %[ cutt+ means t 7 broadly ! same z t ( ,mann+4 ,,! 8,,fulton0 ,,( ,,agricultural ,,ma*9]y ,( ! two rivals1 ,mc,cormick %[$ ! bett] bus9ess ability 9 p]fect+ 8 inv5tion & promot+ x s t he ev5tually became to be consid]$ ! 8,fulton0 ( agricultural ma*9]y & ! public =got ! pione] "w ( ,hussey4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ,mc,cormick built 8 fir/ successful reap] ?ree ye>s be=e he obta9$ 8 pat5t4 ,f\r horses 7 hit*$ to ! ma*9e & he w5t out into a neighbor+ field ( oats to demon/rate x4 ,9 less ?an half a day he _h reap$ six acres1 :i* 0 a rem>kable p]=mance :5 we consid] t a s+le acre 0 consid]$ a day's "w = "o man4 ,mc,cormick's ma*9e _h a reel above ! cutt] to hold ! gra9 aga9/ ! knife & z ! gra9 0 cut x dropp$ ^u a plat=m4 ,a man walk$ alongside ! ma*9e & remov$ ! gra9 ) a rake4 ,& s ! reap] ) two m5 to op]ate x did ! "w t _h =m]ly requir$ twelve m5 ) ! cradle4 ,! next important improvem5t 0 to provide a seat at "o side ( ! reap] s t ! man ) ! rake c\ld ride4 ,:ile ?is r$uc$ ! labor ( ! man x did n mat]ially increase ! effici5cy ( ! ma*9e4 ,! next /ep1 h[ev]1 0 ( mat]ial importance4 ,9 place ( rak+ (f ! hay by h& an automatic rake 0 furni%$ & ! s]vices ( ! extra man 7 disp5s$ )4 ,"o man c\ld !n d ! "w ( twelve4 ,mc,cormick _h _h difficulty 9 introduc+ 8 ma*9e into public use1 b n[ its sup]iority ov] h& labor 0 s m>k$ t reap]s came to be ext5sively employ$ on ,am]ican f>ms4 ,! reap] _h rea*$ ?is /age ( its developm5t :5 ! ,_w's ,fair ( #ahea 0 held 9 ,london & ,mc,cormick's ma*9e 0 s5t across ! ,atlantic to be display$ at ! exhibition4 ,at ! same "t ,hussey s5t ov] "o ( 8 ma*9es :i* _h rea*$ ! same /age ( developm5t4 ,!re 0 a ,briti% ma*9e also on exhibition bas$ on ! inv5tion ( ,rev4 ,patrick ,bell ( ,scotl& 9 #ahbf1 b 9 a competition ) ! ,am]ican ma*9es x c\ld n beg9 to comp>e 9 effici5cy4 ,! "w ( ! ,am]ican ma*9es 0 a revelation to ! ,briti% f>m]s4 ,! prize 0 c>ri$ (f by ,mc,cormick's ma*9e1 :i* 0 decl>$ by ! judges to be wor? ! :ole co/ ( ! exposition4 ,un=tunately ,hussey 0 n on h& to direct ! op]ation ( 8 ma*9e1 :i* may h _h some?+ to d ) its failure1 = 9 ano!r te/ ! ,hussey reap] 0 f\nd sup]ior to ! ,mc,cormick4 ,! excell5ce ( ,am]ican reap]s 0 n[ well e/abli%$ & _! fame spread ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,9 a competitive te/ held ne> ,p>is 9 #ahee1 ,am]ica won ! highe/ honors by cutt+ an acre ( oats 9 tw5ty-two m9utes z aga9/ sixty-six m9utes = a ,briti% ma*9e & sev5ty-two = an ,alg]ian ma*9e4 ,9 #ahgh ,mc,cormick 0 made a memb] ( ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 honor ( 8 a*ievem5ts4 ,,ty+ ,,knots ,,by ,,ma*9e ,aft] ! self-rak] 0 introduc$ ! next important improvem5t 0 9 ! b9d+ ( ! gra94 ,at fir/ ! cut gra9 0 rak$ into a receptacle :i* 0 dump$ by ! driv] ( ! ma*9e :5 en\gh _h accumulat$ to =m a bundle & ! bundles 7 b\nd by m5 foll[+ ! ma*9e4 ,z 9 ! evolution ( ! rak]1 ! next /ep 0 to provide a plat=m = ^! m5 on ! ma*9e s t !y c\ld ride z !y b\nd ! gra9 & f9ally 9 #ahgc a self-b9d+ atta*m5t 0 inv5t$ :i* increas$ ! effici5cy ( ! ma*9e manifold4 ,?is self-b9d]1 h[ev]1 call$ = ! use ( wire :i* did n meet ) favor z a b9d+ mat]ial because ( ! difficulty ( cutt+ x )\t a special tool4 ,ef=ts 7 !re=e made to introduce tw9e in/ead4 ,b tw9e _c be fa/5$ by m]e twi/+2 x has to be ti$ & a me*anical means ( ty+ a knot 0 f> f an easy problem to solve4 ,:ile x is true t ! human body is a ma*9e & e movem5t ( :i* x is capable may be reproduc$ by me*anical means1 ! difficulty is to copy _m op]ations )\t involv+ su* complexity ( memb]s z to make ! me*anism :olly impracticable4 ,! human h& is really a v intricate piece ( me*anism :i* by long g5]ations ( evolution & developm5t has become wond]fully deft4 ,x exhibits ?is deftness & complexity ( movem5t 9 ty+ knots & ! v intricacy ( ?is op]ation 0 en\gh to baffle ! majority ( inv5tors4 ,!re 0 "o inv5tor1 h[ev]1 :o 0 n to be ?w>t$ ev5 by s =midable an ob/acle z ?is4 ,9 #ahfd ,jacob ,behel secur$ a pat5t on an atta*m5t = b9d]s :i* w\ld actually tie a knot4 ,! me*anism pass$ ! tw9e ar\nd ! gavel ( gra91 =m$ a loop 9 ! two ends1 & ti$ a simple ov]h& knot 9 mu* ! same way t ! h& ties ?is knot4 ,t5 ye>s lat] ,m>quis ,l4 ,gorham improv$ ! me*anism & built a successful tw9e b9d]4 ,f9ally 9 #ahgi ,john ,f4 ,appleby p]fect$ ! b9d+ me*anism1 complet+ ! la/ /age 9 ! developm5t ( ! mod]n automatic self-b9d+ reap]4 ,to keep pace ) ! reap]1 o!r agricultural ma*9es _h to be inv5t$ & develop$4 ,! va/ quantity ( gra9 h>ve/$ c\ld n be ?re%$ by h& & ! old-fa%ion$ flail _h to give way to ! /eam-driv5 ?re%+ ma*9e4 ,f9ally to meet ! requirem5ts ( ! va/ we/]n :eat fields1 ! comb9$ h>ve/] & ?re%] 0 develop$ :i*1 ) a crew ( f\r m51 w reap1 ?re%1 & bag betwe5 two & ?ree ?\s& bu%els p] day4 ,accord+ to /ati/ics ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture x took a man ?ree h\rs & a half to produce a bu%el ( :eat 9 #ahcj z aga9/ t5 m9utes 9 #ahif4 ,surely ! _w owes a trem5d\s debt to ,hussey & p>ticul>ly to ,mc,cormick = introduc+ ma*9]y into agriculture & />t+ ! tra9 ( inv5tions :i* 9 ! space ( two-?irds ( a c5tury h l$ up to ! pres5t rem>kable era ( ma*9e f>m+4 ,!re /ill rema9s "o task ( ! f>m] t has n yet be5 accompli%$ ) unqualifi$ success by ma*9e4 ,! h>ve/+ ( ! corn crop is a t$i\s & disagreeable task & "o :i* ! f>m] w\ld only too gladly turn ov] to ! ma*9e4 ,to be sure1 _m corn-h>ve/+ ma*9es h be5 built & put into s]vice ) m or less success1 b none has rea*$ ! p]fection ( o!r classes ( agricultural ma*9]y4 ,! difficulty lies n 9 ! ma*9e1 b 9 ! fact t corn is s easily beat5 d[n by /orms t at h>ve/ "t ! ma*9e seldom f9ds ! /alks all /&+ up 9 nice /raight r[s4 ,ma*9es mu/ !re=e be provid$ ) means = lift+ up ! fall5 /alks to v]tical position4 ,! /alks are cut & b\nd into bundles & /ood up 9 %ocks4 ,ev5 m difficult ?an cutt+ & b9d+ is ! task ( husk+ ! corn4 ,?is "w 0 always dread$ by f>m h&s1 b n[ ma*9es are provid$ to husk ! e>s & %r$ ! /alks = fodd]4 ,?us ! f>m is be+ reliev$ ( its drudg]y4 ,un=tunately x is only ! l>ge we/]n f>ms t c af=d to avail !mselves ( ! late/ agricultural ma*9]y4 ,on small ea/]n f>ms x does n pay to pur*ase a ma*9e :i* c be us$ = only a few weeks 9 ! ye> & !n mu/ be /or$ away until ! next season1 b small f>m]s are n[ coop]at+ & clubb+ toge!r to buy ! less frequ5tly us$ ma*9es & s ev5 ! small f>m is be+ reliev$ ( its drudg]y1 & ! ardu\s burd5s :i* h always _h a t5d5cy to drive "y m5 away f ! f>m are n[ be+ assum$ by ! unfeel+ ma*9e4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,ma*9+ ,,! ,,e>? ,,! ,,albanian p h a /ory t ! ,creator rec5tly visit$ ! e>? & 0 a/oni%$ to f9d h[ x _h *ang$4 8,:y1 ?is is n ! e>? ,i creat$10 ,he said4 8,ev]y?+ has *ang$4 ,my =e/s are cut d[n2 ,my riv]s h be5 div]t$ f _! c\rses2 ,my hills h be5 bla/$ away1 & ,my m\nta9s h be5 robb$ ( _! m9]als4 ,! :ole face ( ! e>? has be5 alt]$40 ,b 9 ! c\rse ( ,8 roam+s1 ! ,creator sudd5ly came ^u ! l& ( ,albania4 8,ah60 ,he exclaim$ 9 delight4 8,"h is a bit ( e>? unt\*$ by man4 ,x is /ill j z ,i made x40 ,man's ambition to make ov] ! face ( ! e>? to 8 own lik+ dates f> back ( ! pres5t age ( ma*9]y4 ,h[ev]1 ! "w ( ! anci5t eng9e] 0 accompli%$ only at ! exp5se ( decades & g5]ations ( h>d manual labor4 ,to-day1 ) p[]ful & gigantic ma*9]y to d our bidd+1 we d n hesitate to *ange ! c\rse ( riv]s1 to level (f ! hills1 to c>ve highways ?r\gh ! m\nta9s & pi]ce !m ) tunnels1 to bore into _! dep?s = treasure & drive deep holes into ! b[els ( ! e>? 9 que/ ( liquid fuel4 ,we are able to ma*9e ! e>? 9 mu* ! same way z a piece ( metal is ma*9$ 9 ! ma*9e %op4 ,9 fact1 ! drill1 ! circul> saw1 ! slott]1 & ev5 ! mill+ ma*9e h _! c\nt]p>t 9 ! excavat+ ma*9]y ( to-day4 ,( c\rse we _c expect to f9d ! c\nt]p>t ( su* ma*9es z ! la!1 bor+ mill1 & plan]1 9 :i* ! "w revolves aga9/ ! tool1 because ?is planet ( ours is r too big a piece ( /ock to be plac$ betwe5 la! c5t]s or to be bolt$ to a plan] b$4 ,,me*anical ,,mon/]s ,! tw5tie? c5tury f9ds ?is planet aga9 /ock$ ) mon/]s l>g] & m p[]ful ?an ! gigantic saurians t dom9at$ ! e>? 9 ! ,jurassic & ,cretace\s epo*s1 b our mighty fire-brea?+1 /eel-s9ew$ bea/s are humbly subs]vi5t to ! w ( man4 ,! spectacle ( a l>ge /eam %ovel at "w makes "o feel at once v small & v big4 ,be=e ! "w ( ?is mon/] ! human %ovel] %r9ks to ! proportions ( a m]e insect4 ,sev5 to eight cubic y>ds %ovel$ into a c>t is consid]$ a fair day's "w = a labor]1 b a big /eam %ovel c easily gobble up z mu* mat]ial 9 two bites4 ,h[ev]1 :5 we contemplate t ?is mammo? ma*9e is a human creation & an absolute slave to human comm&1 we are r incl9$ to be puff$ up ) ! greatness ( man4 ,/eam %ovels are ideal ma*9es = excavat+ railroad cuts & 7 prim>ily develop$ = j su* "w4 ,! g5]al op]ation ( ! ma*9e is v simil> to t ( h& %ovel+4 ,! %ovel prop] consi/s ( a big scoop or dipp] & a dipp] h&le :i* correspond respectively to ! blade & h&le ( a h& %ovel4 ,l ! %ovel1 ! dipp] is support$ at two po9ts4 ,! dipp] is susp5d$ by a *a9 f ! end ( a boom :ile ! h&le ( ! dipp] is also support$ 9 ! boom4 ,by loos5+ ! hoi/+ *a9 ! dipp] is l[]$ to ! gr\nd1 & by mov+ ! h&le =w>d ! too!d cutt+ edge is made to bite into ! gr\nd or s& bank4 ,! hoi/+ *a9 !n hauls up ! dipp]1 mak+ x scoop out ! bank1 aft] :i* x is swung to "o side ov] a c> on an adjo9+ track4 ,! re> ( ! bucket is fitt$ ) a door :i* is op5$ by a spr+ lat* & ! cont5ts are empti$ out4 ,"s ( ! l>ge/ /eam %ovels = ord9>y grad+ h dipp]s ) a capacity ( #e cubic y>ds4 ,!y are n conf9$ to railroad grad+1 b are applicable to any excavation :]e a firm foot+ is provid$ = ! heavy ma*9e4 ,!y are ev5 us$ = excavat+ ! cell>s ( l>ge city build+s4 ,! ma*9e mu/ be support$ on road :eels or on skids4 ,:5 us$ = excavat+ sew] tr5*es1 x is sometimes m\nt$ on a plat=m spann+ ! tr5*4 ,h[ev]1 ! /eam %ovel is r limit$ 9 its rea*4 ,! l>ge/ ord9>y /eam %ovels h a cle> lift ( b sixte5 feet & c make a cut only sixty feet wide at ! top4 ,= m ext5sive excavat+ z well z = digg+ dit*es & tr5*es ! drag-l9e excavator has rec5tly come 9 to use4 ,9 ^! ma*9es a scrap] takes ! place ( ! dipp]4 ,?is is susp5d$ f ! end ( a long crane & x is dragg$ along ! gr\nd by a cable1 scoop+ up a load ( e>?4 ,9 "s cases ! scoop or scrap] is m]ely atta*$ to a cable lead+ f ! hoi/+ eng9e to an an*orage & back to ! eng9e4 ,to adapt excavat+ ma*9es = s]vice 9 s(t gr\nd !y are m\nt$ on broad :eels or on track-lay+ tractor surfaces4 ,"o peculi> =m ( walk+ traction us$ by a drag-l9e excavator 0 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,dit*+ ,,& ,,tr5*+ ,,ma*9es ,= digg+ n>r[ dit*es & tr5*es1 p>ticul>ly = sew]s1 wat] ma9s1 gas-pipe l9es1 etc41 a numb] ( v int]e/+ ma*9es h be5 inv5t$ :i* are ( two g5]al types1 ! endless *a9 & ! :eel excavators4 ,! fir/ type consi/s ( a traction eng9e ) a ladd] at ! re> t drops d[n into ! tr5*4 ,ab\t ?is ladd] runs an endless *a9 :i* c>ries a s]ies ( scoops or buckets4 ,^! are dragg$ up aga9/ ! brea/ ( ! "w & c>ry ! excavat$ e>? to ! top ( ! ladd] :]e x is dump$ ^u a transv]se belt conveyor & c>ri$ to "o side ( ! tr5*4 ,) ! l>g] sizes ( *a9 excavators1 tr5*es may be dug to a dep? ( tw5ty feet & ! wid? ( ! tr5* may be f two to six feet wide4 ,! :eel type ( tr5*+ ma*9e is simil> 9 pr9ciple to ! *a9 excavator4 ,in/ead ( ! *a9 ( buckets1 x has a :eel fitt$ ) buckets4 ,9 "o prom95t type ! :eel has no hub or spokes1 b consi/s ( a rim t is support$ on & is turn$ by f\r friction roll]s m\nt$ 9 a rigid frame4 ,?is frame is m\nt$ on a boom :i* c be rais$ or l[]$ z desir$4 ,su* ma*9es c commonly dig to a dep? ( a doz5 feet or s4 ,a dit* diff]s f a tr5* 9 ! fact t its side walls are slop+ in/ead ( v]tical4 ,a tr5* is usually a tempor>y excavation = ! lay+ ( pipes or conduits :ile ! dit* is left op5 & s]ves = irrigation or dra9age4 ,!re are *a9 dit*+ ma*9es 9 :i* ! *a9 ( buckets runs lat]ally across ! c\rse ( ! dit*1 dipp+ into ! e>? to =m a ,v-%ap$ *annel4 ,9 connection ) ! dra9+ ( ! ,ev]glades ( ,florida1 a peculi> :eel type ( dit*] 0 built4 ,! :eel is ( gigantic proportions1 consi/+ ( a s]ies ( radiat+ %ovels or scoops %ap$ to con=m to ! outl9e ( ! dit*4 ,z ! :eel revolves x scoops up ! mud :i* slides d[n t[>d ! hub ( ! :eel & is c>ri$ to "o side by a travel+ conveyor4 ,,float+ ,,excavators ,! ma9 difficulty 9 dra9age "w is to provide a good foot+ = ! ma*9e :i* mu/ necess>ily be v heavy4 ,broad cat]pill> tread surfaces are ab\t ! only means ( locomotion4 ,9 v s(t swampy regions dr$ges h to be us$4 ,dr$ges are m]ely float+ excavators4 ,9 !m ! problem ( support & locomotion disappe> & !re are no limitations ( size & weight to be consid]$4 ,float+ excavators are !re=e mu* m p[]ful ?an excavators t run on l&4 ,! ord9>y dipp] dr$ge is m]ely a float+ /eam %ovel ) a mu* long] dipp] h&le & mu* l>g] dipp]4 ,:5 "w on ! slides ( ! ,panama ,canal _h proce$$ f> en\gh to admit ( us+ dr$ges 9 place ( /eam %ovels mat]ial progress 0 made4 ,two enorm\s dipp] dr$ges 7 built1 ea* provid$ ) a dipp] t _h a capacity ( fifte5 cubic y>ds or ab\t tw5ty tons at a s+le lift4 ,! dipp] 0 big en\gh to hold ?irty m54 ,! dipp] h&le 0 sev5ty-two feet long & x c\ld rea* d[n to a dep? ( fifty feet4 ,a small] dipp] ( t5 cubic y>ds capacity 0 also provid$4 ,! p[] ( ^! huge dr$ges 0 illu/rat$ :5 "o ( !m1 :ile us+ its t5-y>d bucket1 pick$ up an enorm\s b[ld] weigh+ =ty tons4 ,x 0 mu* bigg] ?an ! dipp] t _h rais$ x & x 0 f> too big to be plac$ on ! mud sc[ t 0 receiv+ ! spoil br\ght up by ! dr$ge4 ,_h x be5 roll$ (f on ! sc[ x w\ld h cra%$ "r ?r\gh ! bottom ( ! boat & s ! big rock _h to be drill$ & brok5 up on ! dipp] be=e x c\ld be dump$ into ! sc[4 ,= "w on a s(t bottom1 grab buckets are us$ 9 place ( dipp]s4 ,^! may be made ( two scoops z 9 ! clam-%ell bucket or ( f\r leaves z 9 ! orange-peel bucket4 ,no rigid h&le is provid$ = ^! scoops4 ,!y are spread op5 z !y are l[]$ into ! wat] & on haul+ 9 ! hoi/+ cable1 ! scoops or leaves come toge!r bit+ into ! bottom & lift+ up a load ( mud4 ,grab buckets are l>gely us$ = pick+ up coal1 ore1 gravel1 etc4 ,! equival5t ( ! *a9 tr5*-digg+ ma*9e is f\nd 9 ! ladd] dr$ge4 ,a ladd] is hung ov] ! /]n ( ! dr$ge & c>ries a *a9 ( buckets :i* dig into ! bottom & br+ up ! mud or s&4 ,,gold ,,m9+ ,,) ,a ,,dr$ge ,x is a dr$ge ( ?is type t is put to ! peculi> task ( gold m9+4 ,! dr$ge eats its way into gold-be>+ s&s1 ! mat]ial pass+ ?r\gh a sy/em ( sep>ators :i* extract ! gold & !n be+ dis*>g$ at ! re> ( ! dr$ge4 ,! dr$ge floats 9 a pool ( wat] t x c>ries ) x1 = z x excavates ahead x builds up s& banks beh9d4 ,9 ?is way x may travel f> f ! riv] f :i* x fir/ />t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,digg+ ,a ,,tr5* ,,) ,a ,,*a9 ,,type ,,ma*9e ,illu/ration3 ,,multiple ,,pl[+ ,,on ,a ,,we/]n ,,:eat ,,field--,,turn+ ,,fifty ,,furr[s ,,at ,,once ,,suction ,,dr$ges ,suction dr$ges are p>ticul>ly adapt$ = excavat+ s&y bottoms4 ,"o type us$ = dr$g+ *annels consi/s ( a l>ge /eam vessel ) l>ge b9s into :i* ! dr$g$ mat]ial is pump$4 ,at ea* side ( ! boat !re is a long pipe :i* may be let d[n into ! wat]4 ,ea* pipe t]m9ates 9 a drag or footpiece ) grat$ op5+ :i* is design$ to be dragg$ along ! bottom z ! vessel sl[ly /eams ahead4 ,p[]ful pumps suck a /ream ( wat] up ! pipes :i* c>ries ) x a quantity ( s&4 ,! s& & wat] fl[ into ! b9s1 ! solid matt] settl+ to ! bottom :ile ! liquid fl[s out ov] ! top4 ,:5 ! settl+s h fill$ ! tanks1 ! drags are pull$ up & ! vessel /eams out to sea4 ,"h doors 9 ! bottom ( ! b9s are op5$ & ! mat]ial drops ?r\gh4 ,! idea ( op5+ up ! bottom ( a boat to empty x seems r />tl+ until we consid] t ! b9s are seal$ (f f ! re/ ( ! boat & d n contribute to its buoyancy4 ,! s& t is dump$ out ( !m is mu* heavi] ?an ! wat] t takes its place :5 ! b9 doors are op5$4 ,,canal ,,digg+ ,,"u ,,wat] ,! ,ambrose *annel 9 l[] ,new ,york ,bay 0 dr$g$ by means ( suction dr$ges4 ,! *annel is =ty feet deep at l[ wat] & ! bottom _h to be excavat$ f t5 to tw5ty-five feet to atta9 ?is dep?4 ,ab\t sev5ty million cubic y>ds ( mat]ial _h to be excavat$ or ne>ly a ?ird z mu* z 0 excavat$ 9 ! ,panama ,canal4 ,! ,ambrose *annel is sev5 miles long :ile ! ,panama ,canal is =ty-five miles 9 l5g?4 ,two ( ! l>g] dr$ges ea* _h a capacity ( =ty-five hundr$ cubic y>ds 9 _! b9s or en\gh to load a tra9 ab\t a mile long1 compos$ ( #age c>s4 ,x took less ?an ?ree h\rs to fill ! b9s4 ,! op5+s 9 ! grat+s ( ! drags measur$ ab\t eight by n9e in*es & any /ones or solid matt] small en\gh to pass ?r\gh !m 0 easily suck$ up into ! b9s4 ,:5 a pile ( /ones ( l>g] diamet] 0 enc\nt]$ a deep hole 0 dr$g$ ar\nd x & !n by means ( a wat] jet ! /ones 7 =c$ into ! hole4 ,! mat]ial suck$ up by a dr$ge is sometimes dump$ into a sc[ alongside4 ,?is makes ! /ructure ( ! dr$ge less exp5sive1 b :]e "w has to be conduct$ 9 bodies ( wat] expos$ to /orms x is m exp$i5t to let ! dr$ge collect ! mat]ial )9 its own hull4 ,,l& ,,build+ ,,) ,,dr$ges ,! s& drawn up by a suction dr$ge is valuable mat]ial = l& build+4 ,9 fact1 a suction dr$ge is (t5 us$ = ! d\ble purpose ( excavat+ & fill+ 9 l[ l&4 ,sometimes its only purpose is to fill 9 tide flats to above tide level4 ,! mat]ial is dis*>g$ ?r\gh a pipe l9e :i* may be ov] a mile 9 l5g?4 ,?is pipe l9e is support$ on a /r+ ( wood5 or /eel pontoons4 ,! pipe sections are connect$ by means ( heavy rubb] sleeves s z to make ! l9e flexible4 ,?is p]mits ! dr$ge to move ab\t & also all[s ( mov+ ! dis*>ge end ab\t to di/ribute ! s& prop]ly4 ,un=tunately all dr$g+ does n consi/ ( s& & mud4 ,sometimes snags & matt$ roots are enc\nt]$ :i* give tr\ble4 ,= h&l+ su* mat]ial rot>y cutt]s are us$4 ,! b[ ( ! dr$ge is fitt$ ) a h+$ ladd] ab\t sixty to sev5ty feet long 9 :i* ! cutt] is m\nt$4 ,! ladd] also c>ries ! suction pipe close to ! cutt]4 ,! ladd] is l[]$ to ! bottom & ! revolv+ cutt] *ops up ! roots into pieces :i* are drawn up into ! suction pipe4 ,! size ( ! pieces t are sometimes suck$ up is rem>kable4 ,! great] "p ( ! area ( ! ,new ,orleans ,inn] ,h>bor ,navigation ,canal 0 fill$ ) /umps & matt$ cypress roots4 ,! cutt]s tore up & cut ^! roots & /umps & ! pieces 7 transport$ ?r\gh a pipe l9e ab\t #fjj feet long4 ,/umps t 7 too l>ge to be h&l$ 9 ?is way 7 und]cut & sunk bel[ grade4 ,cutt]s are us$ also = loos5+ pack$ h>d bottoms & "s ( !m w dig into h>d pan & ev5 s(t rock4 ,a pressure ( #ajj to #aej p\nds p] squ>e in* is ma9ta9$ 9 a dis*>ge pipe tw5ty to tw5ty-f\r in*es 9 diamet]1 :i* is en\gh to c>ry along heavy b[ld]s dug up by ! cutt]4 ,,! ,,deepe/ ,,m9e ,,%aft ,s f> we h dealt only ) surface conditions1 b man has n be5 cont5t to /ay on ! surface ( ?is planet4 ,true1 we h sc>cely begun to explore ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,! deepe/ m9e 9 ! _w is ! ,morro ,velho 9 ! prov9ce ( ,m9as ,g]aes1 ,brazil4 ,"h ! e>? has be5 p5etrat$ to a dep? ( #f1dbf feet 9 que/ ( gold4 ,?is is a dep? ( less ?an a mile & a qu>t] & x %r9ks into insignificance :5 we reflect t we mu/ g m ?an #c1jjj times t di/ance to rea* ! c5t] ( ! e>?4 ,h[ev]1 we h made mat]ial progress 9 %aft-s9k+ 9 rec5t ye>s1 & x is q likely t ! lure ( sci5tific rese>* may prove ev5 m p[]ful ?an t ( gold & t "s day we %all be induc$ to dig _m miles into ! cru/ ( ! e>? j to le>n some?+ m ab\t ?is globe t :irls u ?r\gh space4 ,we h n yet rea*$ ! po9t at :i* h& labor may be disp5s$ ) 9 tunnel "w1 b !re are ma*9es :i* w d :at =m]ly c\ld only be accompli%$ ) ! manually wield$ pick & %ovel4 ,we h already 79 ,*apt] ,,vii7 describ$ ! pneumatic tunnel %ield & expla9$ h[ x is sometimes driv5 =w>d ?r\gh s(t silt by means ( hydraulic jacks )\t any excavation ( mat]ial4 ,?is me?od ( tunnel+ :i* is analog\s to driv+ a pun* ?r\gh s(t metal1 has a v limit$ field ( application4 ,x is impossible to =ce ! %ield 9 ?is mann] ?r\gh s& or ?r\gh any b v s(t silt4 ,,tunnel+ ,,by ,,ma*9e ,! city ( ,clevel& takes its dr9k+ wat] f ,lake ,erie4 ,9 ord] to obta9 wat] t is n contam9at$ by ! refuse ( ! city1 tunnels are c>ri$ out "u ! bottom ( ! lake ab\t two miles f ! %ore :]e !y t]m9ate 9 wat] intakes f> en\gh bel[ ! surface to avoid float+ impurities & f> en\gh above ! bottom to avoid impurities t h settl$ to ! lake b$4 ,! mat]ial ?r\gh :i* ! tunnels pass is a /iff clay1 t cuts l *eese4 ,s uni=m is ?is mat]ial t a special ma*9e 0 built to bore ! tunnel ?r\gh x4 ,?is ma*9e is some:at simil> to a bor+ mill4 ,x has an arm t revolves aga9/ ! face ( ! tunnel head+ & c>ries a cutt] t travels along ! arm s t x cuts a cont9u\s spiral ribbon ( clay4 ,! clay ribbon passes back ?r\gh ! ma*9e & is load$ into a tra9 ( dump c>s4 ,= bor+ tunnels 9 h>d rock _m diff]5t ma*9es h be5 inv5t$1 b n "o ( !m z yet has prov$ an unqualifi$ success4 ,"o v int]e/+ ma*9e1 :i* 0 tri$ on ! ,new ,york subway excavation at #db;d ,/reet & ,lex+ton ,av5ue1 consi/$ ( a s]ies ( *ipp+ hamm]s :i*1 by means ( pneumatic me*anism1 7 made to hamm] & pulv]ize ! face ( ! rock ) repeat$ bl[s4 ,! hamm]s 7 arrang$ 9 a circle & 7 revolv$ z !y hamm]$ s t ! :ole surface ( ! head+ 0 attack$ & a circul> tunnel 0 cut ?r\gh ! rock4 ,a s]i\s disadvantage "u :i* ! ma*9e labor$ 0 ! fact t ! rock _h to be cru%$ to a p[d] or into small *ips be=e x c\ld be remov$4 ,9 ord9>y rock excavation holes are bor$ into ! head+ & ! rock is !n bl[n out by means ( dynamite or "s o!r explosive4 ,l>ge fragm5ts ( rock are !n brok5 up into pieces small en\gh to be h&l$ readily1 b no en]gy is wa/$ 9 r$uc+ ! mat]ial to a p[d]4 ,! p]cussion drills ) :i* ! rock is bor$ h already be5 briefly describ$4 ,:5 bor+ holes = a bla/ 9 s(t mat]ial1 su* z bitum9\s coal1 a drill is us$ :i* resembles 9 _m respects an ord9>y twi/$ aug] bit except t x is _m feet 9 l5g?4 ,x is driv5 by h& into ! coal by ! use ( a common bit brace4 ,p]cussion drills or pun*es are also us$4 ,^! are driv5 ei!r by pneumatic or electric p[]4 ,,coal-,,cutt+ ,,ma*9]y ,:5 excavat+ coal ! head+ is fir/ und]cut1 t is1 a deep slot is cut 9 ! wall ( coal along ! floor l9e4 ,!n bla/ holes are bor$ into ! coal above ?is cut s t :5 ! *>ges are fir$ ! coal w be brok5 d[nw>d4 ,to und]cut ! coal special ma*9es are us$1 driv5 by compress$ air or electricity4 ,^! h endless *a9s fitt$ ) *isel or pick po9ts t bite into & cut ! coal4 ,aft] ! mat]ial has be5 %att]$ & r$uc$ to fragm5ts ( conv5i5t size special ma*9]y may be employ$ to %ovel x away f ! head+ & into dump c>s4 ,"o electrically driv5 %ovel+ ma*9e :i* 0 tri$ out on "s ( ! ,catskill aqu$uct excavation _h a broad op5 %ovel :i* c\ld be driv5 into ! pile ( rock fragm5ts "u ! control ( an op]ator & w\ld scoop up ! mat]ial1 deliv]+ x ^u a travel+ belt conveyor :i* c>ri$ x on to ! tra9 c>s4 ,_m types ( me*anical %ovel+ & load+ ma*9es h be5 built = use 9 m9es4 ,!y are driv5 ei!r by pneumatic or electric p[]4 ,,explor+ ,,subsurface ,,conditions ,9 all eng9e]+ "w x is highly important to explore subsurface conditions be=e />t+ any con/ruction or ev5 draw+ up plans4 ,! ord9>y pneumatic p]cussion drill w n s]ve = deep holes4 ,in/ead a rot>y bor+ motion is requisite4 ,! tool is m\nt$ ) black diamond cutt]s :i* cut ?r\gh ! h>de/ rock4 ,wat] is introduc$ into ! hole to lubricate ! tool & also to wa% out ! abrad$ mat]ial4 ,by trapp+ ?is mat]ial ! "* ( ! rock p5etrat$ may be det]m9$4 ,! mat]ial1 h[ev]1 is pulv]iz$ & does n furni%1 z a g5]al rule1 a fair sample ( ! rock4 ,:5 x is highly important to det]m9e ! exact nature ( ! rock or o!r mat]ial a core drill is us$4 ,9 o!r words ! drill is a holl[ tube set ) cutt+ cry/als ab\t its p]iph]y4 ,z ! tool is revolv$ x cuts an annul> slot 9 ! rock leav+ a c5tral core /&+4 ,?is core is brok5 (f & drawn to ! surface & furni%es a true sample ( ! mat]ial enc\nt]$ by ! drill4 ,!re is an int]e/+ type ( core drill 9 :i* /eel %ot is us$ 9 place ( diamonds4 ,! cutt+ end ( ! drill is a coll> ) a not*$ edge4 ,/eel balls are f$ into ! drill & "u ! cutt+ head4 ,! balls are caught 9 ! not*es & roll$ ar\nd aga9/ ! rock surface4 ,!re is also a p>tial dragg+ action4 ,! friction is suffici5t to we> away ! rock4 ,z ! balls we> away !y are replac$ ) new ones4 ,v evid5tly su* drill+ co/s less = upkeep ?an diamond drill+1 b x is n z rapid z ! latt]4 ,,locat+ ,,rock ,,"u ,,hudson ,,riv] ,a notable illu/ration ( exploration drill+ 0 furni%$ by ! surveys = ! ,hudson cross+ ( ! ,catskill ,aqu$uct4 ,to br+ wat] f ! ,catskill ,m\nta9s to ,new ,york ,city x 0 necess>y to cross ! ,hudson ,riv]4 ,9 ord] to furni% a p]man5t conduit x 0 decid$ to c>ry ! wat] 9 an inv]t$ siphon bor$ ?r\gh solid rock4 ,x 0 necess>y to obta9 a pr(ile ( ! rock at ! po9t :]e a cross+ seem$ mo/ feasible4 ,bor+s 7 !re=e made f a b>ge an*or$ 9 ! riv]1 b x 0 impossible ) su* an un/eady work+ base to c>ry on ! bor+ to any consid]able dep?4 ,tides1 ! wa% ( pass+ /eam]s1 float+ ice1 all comb9$ to ob/ruct ! "w4 ,drills 7 con/antly brok54 ,f9ally x 0 decid$ to d ! bor+ f opposite banks ( ! riv] at su* an angle t bore holes w\ld meet or pass ea* o!r "u ! middle ( ! riv]4 ,! exploration bor+ f ! b>ges indicat$ t solid rock lay at a consid]able dep? bel[ ! riv] b$ & t ! bore holes w\ld h to be set at a %>p angle to keep f break+ ?r\gh rock4 ,! riv] at t po9t is ab\t #c1jjj feet wide & a bor+ f ! surface at ! middle ( ! riv] _h be5 driv5 to a dep? ( #gfh feet )\t /rik+ solid rock4 ,two %afts 7 sunk to a dep? ( ab\t #bej feet & f ^! diamond drill bor+s 7 />t$ at su* an angle t !y w\ld cross at a dep? ( #a1ejj feet4 ,excell5t rock 0 enc\nt]$ ?r\gh\t ! bor+4 ,!n a second set ( bor+s 0 made :i* cross$ at a dep? ( #iej feet )\t enc\nt]+ any appreciable am\nt ( wat]4 ,x 0 accord+ly decid$ to c>ry ! aqu$uct 9 v]tical %afts1 "o at ea* side ( ! riv]1 at a dep? ( #a1ajj feet bel[ wat] level1 & !n connect ^! %afts ) a horizontal tunnel4 ,x 0 important to h a good solid rock cov] ov] ! tunnel because ! aqu$uct rea*es ! riv] ) a head ( #djj feet :i* add$ to ! #a1ajj feet ( dep? ( ! inv]t$ siphon gave a total head ( #a1ejj feet or a hydraulic pressure ( ab\t =ty-two tons p] squ>e in*4 ,al?\gh ! diamond drill bor+s j m5tion$ 7 rem>kable because ( _! incl9ation & because ( ! cramp$ qu>t]s f :i* !y 7 driv51 !y d n beg9 to comp>e 9 dep? ) "s ( ! bor+s made 9 se>* ( wat] & ( oil4 ,! deepe/ bor+ 9 ! _w to date is ne> ,fairm\nt1 ,we/ ,virg9ia1 :]e a hole six in*es 9 diamet] 0 driv5 to a dep? ( #g1egi feet or ne>ly a mile & a half4 ,at t po9t an e>? slide /opp$ fur!r bor+s4 ,,bor+ ,,= ,,oil ,! "t-honor$ me?od ( bor+ = oil kn[n z ! p]cussive sy/em is to hamm] ?r\gh ! e>? & rock ) a heavy /eel drill4 ,! drill really consi/s ( a long /r+ ( p>ts measur+ altoge!r z mu* z sixty feet 9 l5g?4 7,see ,figure #fd47 ,! drill prop] or bit has a cutt+ edge adapt$ = ! "* ( ! mat]ial x is to p5etrate4 ,! bit is atta*$ to a /eel b> kn[n z ! 8aug] /em0 :i* may be f twelve to =ty-five feet 9 l5g?4 ,!n come ! 8j>s0 or a l9k memb] :i* all[s a play ( ab\t sixte5 in*es4 ,! purpose ( ?is is to assi/ 9 free+ ! bit f ! mat]ial x is p5etrat+ by j>r+ x upw>d on ! up/roke ( ! drill4 ,above ! j>s !re is ano!r b> kn[n z ! s9k]1 & ?is is provid$ ) a rope socket to :i* is atta*$ ! cable t c>ries ! /r+ ( drill p>ts4 ,! cable passes ov] a pulley to a walk+ beam :i* gives ! necess>y up-&-d[n motion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,a ,,/r+ ,,( ,,well-,,drill+ ,,tools ,! loose mat]ial 9 ! bore is remov$ by a s& pump4 ,to protect ! bore f cav+ a cas+ ( /eel pipe mu/ be l[]$ into ! well4 ,! bor+ may proce$ at ! rate ( t5 to sixty feet p] day1 dep5d+ ^u ! mat]ial p5etrat$ & ! dep? ( ! well4 ,all sorts ( difficulties are liable to int]rupt ! "w4 ,! cable may break1 ! /r+ ( tools may become unscrew$1 or ! cas+ may drop into ! hole1 & !n foll[s ! t$i\s process ( fi%+ = ! lo/ p>ts & haul+ !m up out ( ! well4 ,z ! drill+ proce$s1 ! bore becomes progressively small] & cas+s ( small] diamet] mu/ be us$4 ,! well is complet$ by l[]+ a pipe )9 ! cas+ ?r\gh :i* ! oil fl[s to ! surface & is c>ri$ to ! /orage tanks & !nce by pipe l9es to ! ref9]ies4 ,:ile ! p]cussive sy/em ( drill+ is v g5]ally us$ ?r\gh\t ! ,am]ican oil fields1 rot>y me?ods ( drill+ are l>gely employ$ 9 ,cali=nia4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,f ,,fib] ,,to ,,fabric ,,x ,,is ,,n v long s9ce ! sp9n+ :eel & ! clack+ loom 7 an indisp5sable furni%+ ( e f>mh\se & ( _m city dwell+s z well4 ,) inf9ite pati5ce ! fleece ( %eep1 ! l9t ( flax1 ! filam5ts ( silk & ! fib]s ( cotton 7 spun into y>n & !n wov5 into clo?1 & x 0 ! nimble f+]s ( ! h\sewife t c>ri$ ! process ?r\gh f ! matt$ raw product to ! f9i%$ g>m5t4 ,x is comp>atively easy to compreh5d ! developm5t ( ma*9es = deal+ ) su* gross mat]ial z e>?1 rock1 iron1 & wood1 b :5 we come to consid] ! inf9itely delicate & almo/ impond]able fib]s t g to make up our textiles1 ! m>vel is t any b highly skill$ human h&s1 guid$ by ke5 eyesight1 c\ld comb9e ! tangl$ & ob/rep]\s filam5ts into f9e y>n & weave ?is y>n into complicat$ patt]ns ( clo?4 ,b ! sp9n+ :eel & h& loom c\ld n /& long 9 ! pa? ( p[]-driv5 ma*9]y1 & n[ huge1 bl9d ma*9es1 ) /iff1 unb5d+ f+]s ( metal1 comb out ! matt$ masses ( raw mat]ial1 remove ! dirt & twigs1 /raight5 out ! sn>ls f> quick] & bett] ?an c\ld be done by h&1 & trans=m ! fib]s into beautiful fabrics su* z 9 =m] days w\ld h be5 ! envy ( k+s4 ,we _c attempt to describe all ! ma*9]y involv$ 9 ! sp9n+ & weav+ ( y>n1 b x is highly important t e well-in=m$ p]son h a g5]al k ( textile ma*9]y4 ,because cotton clo? is m widely us$ ?an ei!r l95 or wool1 we %all conf9e ourselves to ! cotton bran* ( ! textile indu/ry1 p>ticul>ly z ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! treatm5t ( cotton & o!r textile mat]ials lies *iefly 9 ! prep>ation ( ! ?read or y>n4 ,! pr$om9ance ( cotton among textiles may be trac$ back to ! inv5tion ( a "y ,new ,engl&] fre% f college1 :o w5t to ,georgia z a private tutor1 only to f9d :5 he got !re t "s "o else _h be5 engag$ 9 8 /ead1 leav+ him /r&$ & practically p5niless 9 a /range l&4 ,we _h occasion to ref] to ?is man 9 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,eli ,:itney 0 a born me*anic1 & be=e ent]+ college _h n only %[n great skill b _h actually built up a ?riv+ bus9ess 9 ! manufacture ( nails1 hatp9s & knife blades4 ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,! ,,cotton ,,g9 ,! agricultural condition ( ,georgia & its neighbor+ ,/ates at ! "t t ,:itney arriv$ !re 0 v poor4 ,!re 0 no m>ket = _! products4 ,a spl5did cotton1 ) fib]s f #a to #b in*es long1 0 gr[+ on ! isl&s along ! coa/1 b ?is cotton c\ld n be rais$ inl&4 ,! upl& product1 kn[n z 8gre5 se$0 cotton1 _h a fib] only half z long z ! 8,sea ,isl&0 cotton1 b ! pr9cipal drawback to its use 0 ! difficulty ( sep>at+ ! fib] f ! se$4 ,x 0 a day's "w = "o woman to sep>ate a s+le p\nd ( ! 8gre5 se$0 cotton fib]4 ,8 att5tion hav+ be5 br\ght to ?is matt]1 ,:itney und]took to design a ma*9e :i* w\ld remove ! fib] f ! se$ 9 a small fraction ( ! "t requir$ by h& labor4 ,he 0 visit+ at ! "t at ! plantation ( ,mrs4 ,gre5e1 wid[ ( ,g5]al ,na?aniel ,gre5e1 ( ,revolution>y fame1 & he set himself to ! task ) su* limit$ mat]ials & tools z he c\ld f9d on ! e/ate4 ,9 a c\ple ( weeks he _h built a model :i* conta9$ all ! ess5tials ( ! mod]n cotton g91 ) :i* a s+le man c\ld sep>ate m cotton 9 a day ?an c\ld be produc$ by h& 9 a :ole season4 ,?is 0 9 ! w9t] ( #agib4 ,! effect ( ! inv5tion 0 felt imm$iately4 ,cotton production _h be5 fall+ (f /eadily4 ,9 #agia1 #ahi1caf p\nds ( cotton _h be5 export$4 ,! next ye> !re 0 a fall+ (f to #ach1cbh p\nds1 b foll[+ ! introduction ( ! cotton g9 exports rose to #dhg1jjj p\nds 9 #agic1 #a1fha1jjj 9 #agid1 & #f1bgf1jjj 9 #agie4 ,fifty ye>s lat] ! _w production am\nt$ to #a1afi1fjj1jjj1 ne>ly sev5-eigh?s ( :i* 0 contribut$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( ?is only a small am\nt 0 ,sea ,isl& cotton4 ,a cotton g9 7,fig4 #fe7 consi/s ( a gang ( circul> saws 7,a71 ) =w>dly po9t$ tee? :i* pass betwe5 ! ribs ( an incl9$ grat+ 7,b7 t =ms ! floor ( a *amb] 7,c7 kn[n z a roll box4 ,9 ?is box is m\nt$ a too!d roll] 7,d74 ,! cotton is f$ into ! box & ! fib]s are seiz$ by ! tee? ( ! saws & dragg$ ?r\gh ! grat+ :ile ! se$s1 be+ too l>ge to pass ?r\gh1 are left beh9d &1 roll+ d[n ! grat+1 drop into a hopp]4 ,! action ( ! saws is su* z to imp>t a roll+ motion to ! mass ( cotton1 & h5ce to ! roll] 9 ! roll box4 ,?is t5ds to drag ! cotton into ! roll box & br+ fre% supplies to ! saws4 ,! fleece c>ri$ by ! saw tee? is beat5 (f by a :eel 7,e7 fitt$ ) wire bru%es4 ,^! bru%es1 travel+ 9 ! same direction z ! saw tee?1 b at a high] velocity1 readily dis5gage ! fib]s f ! tee? & create an air bla/ t bl[s ! cotton fleece out ( ! g94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe--,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,a ,,cotton ,,g9 ,,prep>+ ,,cotton ,,= ,,! ,,sp9n+ ,,mule ,cotton z x comes f ! bale is a compact1 matt$ mass1 mix$ ) bits ( se$1 leaves1 s&1 & o!r impurities1 & x mu/ pass ?r\gh a numb] ( ma*9es be=e x comes out z a pure1 light1 fleecy product1 ) ! fib]s comb$ p>allel4 ,ev5 = a m$ium y>n a doz5 ma*9es are requir$ to prep>e ! cotton = ! sp9n+ mule4 ,a sy/em ( 8c\nts0 is us$ to indicate ! size ( y>n & x is bas$ on ! numb] ( hanks x takes to make a p\nd4 ,a hank is always #hdj y>ds & #ej's w\ld mean t ! y>n is ( su* f95ess t x w\ld take #ej #hdj y>ds 7#d1bjj y>ds7 ( x to weigh a p\nd4 ,y>n bel[ #cj's is grad$ z co>se2 betwe5 #cj's & #fj's z m$ium & above #fj's z f9e4 ,to prep>e cotton z x comes f ! bale = a f9e y>n (1 say1 #ajj's1 x mu/ g ?r\gh no less ?an sixte5 ma*9es be=e x rea*es ! mule4 ,we h n ! space to describe all ( ^! ma*9es1 b 9 g5]al x w suffice to say t ! cotton is grad$ by pass+ x ?r\gh a s]ies ( pick]s4 ,^! ma*9es ?r[ out ! fib]s & beat !m s z to knock out ! impurities &1 at ! same "t1 a bla/ ( air bl[s out ! du/4 ,! cotton is treat$ by a numb] ( su* ma*9es 9 succession & is f9ally deliv]$ 9 a broad %eet kn[n z a 8lap10 aft] :i* x passes ?r\gh ! c>d+ ma*9e :i* combs out ! tangl$ bun*es & removes fur!r impurities f ! lap4 ,! lap is !n ga!r$ into a compact rope kn[n z a 8sliv]40 ,! sliv] goes ?r\gh ! draw+ rolls :i* s]ve to p>allelize ! fib]s & make ! sliv] ( ev5 ?ickness1 & at ! same "t to give a mod]ate am\nt ( twi/ s t x w hold toge!r1 & x issues f ! ma*9e z 8rov+40 ,9 ! case ( f9e y>n ! sliv] issu+ f ! c>d+ ma*9e goes ?r\gh a comb+ ma*9e s z to remove ! f9] fib]s4 ,! bobb9s ( ! rov+ are !n plac$ 9 ! sp9n+ ma*9e1 :i* may be ei!r ! sp9n+ mule or ! r+ sp9n+ ma*9e4 ,! pr9cipal diff]5ce betwe5 ! two is t ! sp9n+ mule is int]mitt5t 9 its op]ation1 :ile ! r+ sp9n] n only sp9s ! rov+ into y>n b at ! same "t w9ds x up on a bobb94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,,arkwright',s ,,draw+ ,,rolls ,,arkwright',s ,,draw+ ,,rolls ,! fir/ advance ov] ! old-fa%ion$ sp9n+ :eel1 :i* dates back to ! fifte5? c5tury1 0 9 #aggj1 :5 ! fir/ sp9n+ j5ny 0 inv5t$ by ,h>greaves4 ,?is consi/$ practically ( a multiple sp9n+ :eel by :i* "o man c\ld sp9 a l>ge numb]s ( bobb9s ( y>n at ! same "t4 ,x 0 at ab\t ! same "t t ,arkwright inv5t$ ! draw+ rolls :i* h play$ a mo/ important "p 9 ! prep>ation ( y>n1 & ?is inv5tion is wor?y ( our att5tion because x conta9s an int]e/+ me*anical pr9ciple4 ,z %[n 9 ,figure #ff1 a numb] ( pairs ( rolls are provid$ ?r\gh :i* ! rov+ passes1 b successive pairs op]ate at high] velocities4 ,?us1 ! second pair ( roll]s ?r\gh :i* ! rov+ passes run at a little high] spe$ ?an ! fir/ pair1 ! ?ird a little high] ?an ! second pair1 & s on4 ,z a result1 ! rov+ is drawn out by ! op]ation & issues f ! la/ pair ( roll]s at a high] spe$ ?an x ent]$ ! fir/ pair ( roll]s4 ,! only way 9 :i* x c accommodate itself to ?is accel]at$ motion is to be att5uat$ or drawn out4 ,weights are us$1 z %[n 9 ! draw+1 to press ! upp] roll]s aga9/ ! l[] ones4 ,,! ,,sp9n+ ,,mule ,%ortly aft] ,arkwright's inv5tion came ! mule sp9n]1 inv5t$ by ,crompton betwe5 #aggd & #aggi4 ,ma*9es op]at$ on ! same g5]al pr9ciple z ?is are 9 g5]al use to-day4 ,9 ! old-fa%ion$ me?od ( sp9n+ by h& ! work] took a small quantity ( cotton1 pull$ x out into a long sliv]1 atta*$ "o end to a bobb9 & gave ! bobb9 a twirl betwe5 8 h&s 9 ord] to sp9 ! fib] into y>n2 !n ! y>n 0 w\nd up on ! bobb9 & ! process 0 repeat$4 ,! sp9n+ mule does practically ! same ?+1 b inf9itely fa/] & on a mu* l>g] scale4 ,z %[n 9 ,figure #fg1 ! bobb9s ( rov+ 7,a7 are m\nt$ on a /& & pass$ ?r\gh a set ( draw+ rolls 7,b7 :i* are regulat$ to pull ! rov+s out to ! desir$ ?ickness ( y>n4 ,! rov+ !n passes to ! nose ( a 8cop10 or sp9dle 7,c71 :i* is revolv$ at v high spe$4 ,! cop is c>ri$ by a c>riage 7,d7 :i* moves away f ! bobb9s ( rov+ to ! position indicat$ by dott$ l9es1 :ile ! cop is revolv+4 ,! cop has a travel ( ab\t five feet dur+ ! "t ! y>n is drawn out & spun4 ,!n ! c>riage moves back t[>d ! /& ^u :i* ! bobb9s ( rov+ are m\nt$ & ! spun y>n is w\nd up on ! cop4 ,! reason ! y>n does n w9d up on ! cop :ile x is sp9n+ is because x runs to ! nose ( ! cop &1 at ea* turn ( ! cop1 ! coil twi/s on ! nose & slips (f4 ,on ! return ( ! c>riage1 h[ev]1 a set ( wires 7,e71 call$ 8fall]s10 press ! y>n d[n s t ! revolv+ cop w w9d up ! slack4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,,details ,,( ,a ,,sp9n+ ,,mule ,! cont9u\sly op]at+ r+-sp9n+ ma*9e is provid$ ) a r+ frame 7,figure #fh7 ar\nd ! cop or sp9dle4 ,?is frame1 toge!r ) ! sp9dle1 revolves at high spe$1 b z ! r+ revolves a little m sl[ly ?an ! sp9dle x w9ds ! y>n comp>atively sl[ly ^u ! sp9dle or bobb94 ,,wov51 ,,braid$1 ,,knitt$1 ,,& ,,net ,,goods ,hav+ n[ produc$ our y>n1 we may pause to consid] ! diff]5t types ( fabric into :i* x may be =m$1 & to draw a di/9ction betwe51 wov51 braid$1 knitt$1 & net goods4 ,9 weav+ we h two sets ( ?reads1 "o set runn+ transv]sely to ! o!r2 9 braid$ mat]ials ! ?reads all run longitud9ally & are arrang$ to cross ea* o!r diagonally1 s t !y are int]wov52 9 knitt+ & nett+ !re is a s+le ?read4 ,9 ! case ( nett+ ?is ?read is knott$ :]e x loops back ^u itself1 :]eas 9 knitt+ x is m]ely loop$ )\t knott+4 ,,! ,,loom ,! loom c trace its g5ealogy away back to e>ly ,babylonian times1 & ! mod]n p[]-driv5 ma*9e does n diff] 9 its broad pr9ciples ( op]ation f its anci5t prog5itor--! h& loom4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,,r+-,,sp9n+ ,,frame ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,,! ,,h$dles ,,( ,a ,,loom ,e indu/ry has a vocabul>y ( its own to furni% names = its ma*9e p>ts & products peculi> unto itself1 & 9 ?is respect ! textile indu/ry is by no means an exception4 ,! ?reads t run l5g?wise 9 a piece ( wov5 clo? are kn[n z ! 8weft10 8wo(0 or 8fill+40 ,9 ! loom ! w>p ?reads are ?read$ ?r\gh loops on :at are kn[n z 8h$dles02 9 fact1 !re are two 8h$dles10 ,a & ,b1 ,figure #fi4 ,alt]nate w>p ?reads 7,c7 pass ?r\gh ! loops ( "o h$dle1 & ! o!r ?reads ?r\gh ! loops on ! o!r h$dle4 ,:5 "o h$dle is rais$ & ! o!r l[]$1 ! ?reads =m a w$ge-%ap$ space 7,d7 :i* is kn[n z a 8%$40 ,! fill+ ?read is s5t ?r\gh ! %$ & is !n press$ closely into ! w$ge-%ap$ space aga9/ ! clo? already wov5 by means ( a 8re$0 7,e7 :i* is a comblike memb] ) tee? or flat pieces ( metal t pass betwe5 ! w>p ?reads4 ,?is done1 ! position ( ! h$dles is rev]s$1 s t ,a is n[ l[]$ & ,b rais$1 ?us b9d+ ! w>p ?read 9 place & =m+ ano!r %$ = ! next w>p ?read2 & ?us ! process cont9ues4 ,! fill+ ?read is plac$ 9 a %uttle 7,f7 :i* c>ries a bobb9 on :i* ! ?read is w\nd4 ,z ! %uttle is ?r[n back & =? ?r\gh ! %$1 ! ?read is unw\nd & trails beh9d x4 ,=m]ly ! %uttle 0 ?r[n back & =? by h&1 b ye>s ago1 long be=e ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e1 ! fly+ %uttle 0 inv5t$4 ,9 o!r words1 a me*anism 0 provid$ = /rik+ ! %uttle a bl[ & ?r[+ x across ! w>p f side to side4 ,by ?is means ! spe$ ( op]ations 0 greatly increas$4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury ! drop box 0 inv5t$4 ,?is consi/s ( a receptacle = %uttles c>ry+ diff]5t colors ( ?read :i* may be select$ 9 a def9ite ord] & ?r[n back & =? s z to v>y ! patt]n ( ! clo?4 ,9 pres5t looms a special ma*9e is provid$ = tak+ ! ?reads f ! bobb9s or cops & lay+ !m 9 an ev5 %eet to =m ! w>p ( ! loom4 ,^! are w\nd on a beam & ! ma*9e is kn[n z a beam w>p]4 ,z ! ?reads are apt to be some:at fuzzy x is necess>y to size !m1 & a ma*9e kn[n z a sla%] is employ$ = ?is purpose4 ,?is ma*9e coats ea* ?read ( w>p y>n ) a siz+ comp\nd or an adhesive & dries ! %eet ( w>p prep>atory to its use 9 ! loom4 ,9 common weav+ ! weft or fill+ ?reads run alt]nately "u & ov] ! w>p ?reads ) p]fect regul>ity4 ,a patt]n c be =m$ by pass+ ! weft ?reads "u & ov] alt]nate gr\ps ( w>p ?reads1 & ?is is effect$ 9 ! ord9>y loom by ?read+ ! weft 9 gr\ps ?r\gh ! h$dles1 i4 e41 in/ead ( hav+ e second ?read pass ?r\gh "o h$dle & ! int]v5+ ?reads ?r\gh ! o!r h$dle2 ! ?reads are arrang$ 9 alt]nate gr\ps ( two or m4 ,?is gives a regul> patt]n1 b x may be v>i$ to =m ornam5tal designs if ! gr\ps are v>i$4 ,su* designs us$ to be work$ out by h& v sl[ly & labori\sly1 ) ! result t figur$ weav+ 0 v exp5sive4 ,,! ,,jacqu>d ,,loom ,at ! ,fr5* ,exposition ( #ahja a loom 0 exhibit$ t made a s5sation4 ,) seem+ly human intellig5ce x select$ individual w>p ?reads or gr\ps ( ?reads & rais$ !m or l[]$ !m s z to "w out elaborate ornam5tal designs4 ,! inv5tor1 ,joseph ,m>ie ,jacqu>d1 ( ,lyons1 receiv$ a m$al = 8 m>vel\s inv5tion & 0 decorat$ ) ! ,cross ( ! ,legion ( ,honor4 ,! 8bra9s0 ( ! ,jacqu>d loom is a set ( pa/ebo>d c>ds t are p]=at$ 9 accordance ) a pre>rang$ design4 ,! w>p ?reads1 in/ead ( be+ pass$ ?r\gh ! loops ( two h$dles1 are pass$ ?r\gh :at might be t]m$ individual h$dles1 "o = ea* ?read1 or = a small gr\p ( ?reads4 ,^! consi/ ( cords 9 ea* ( :i* is an eyelet ?r\gh :i* ! w>p ?read passes4 ,! cord is weight$ at its l[] end & its upp] end is fa/5$ to a hook 9 a box at ! top ( ! ma*9e4 ,! hooks engage transv]se b>s kn[n z 8griffes0 or 8knives10 & :5 ! griffes are rais$1 ! hooks engag+ !m are also rais$4 ,9 ?is way ! w>p ?reads t pass ?r\gh ! eyelets t are connect$ to ! hooks are rais$4 ,b runn+ horizontally across ! hooks !re are 8ne$les0 or rods ) eyelets or b5ds 9 !m ?r\gh :i* ! hooks pass4 ,^! ne$les may be mov$ l5g?wise to make ! hoops engage or dis5gage ! knives4 ,! me*anism is illu/rat$ 9 ,figure #gj1 :]e ! knives are %[n 9 section at ,a1 ! hooks at ,b & ! ne$les at ,c4 ,= ! sake ( simplicity only eight hooks & ne$les are %[n2 9 actual practice !re are hundr$s 9 a s+le ma*9e4 ,at ! "r-h& end ( ea* ne$le !re is a spr+ :i* pu%es ! ne$le t[>d ! left1 !reby br++ ! hook ?r\gh :i* x passes into position to be lift$ by its griffe4 ,at ! left-h& side ( ! ma*9e !re is a c>d 7,d7 :i* presses back ! ne$les & !reby b5ds ! hooks out ( position to engage ! griffes4 ,h[ev]1 !re are p]=ations 9 ! c>d ?r\gh :i* c]ta9 ( ! ne$les c pass1 lett+ ! hooks !y control engage ! ne$les4 ,! c>ds ?us select ! p>ticul> weft ?reads t are to be rais$4 ,9 our illu/ration mo/ ( ! ne$les h ent]$ holes 9 ! c>d1 b ! second1 f\r? & six? f ! top h be5 pu%$ back by ! blank wall ( ! c>d & _! hooks h be5 b5t back cle> ( ! griffes4 ,only f\r c>ds are %[n 9 ! draw+ arrang$ 9 a f\r-sid$ box or 8cyl9d]10 & ! c>ds are successively pres5t$ to ! ne$les4 ,= m elaborate designs a l>ge numb] ( c>ds are us$1 arrang$ 9 a slatt$ belt1 & ^! come successively into position4 ,z _m z ?irty ?\s& c>ds h be5 employ$ to c>ry out a s+le patt]n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,,detail ,,( ,a ,,jacqu>d ,,loom ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,! ,,knitt+ ,,ma*9e ,we are wont to call ,necessity ! ,"m ( ,inv5tion2 9 _m cases ,laz9ess has giv5 rise to valuable inv5tions1 b accord+ to leg5d1 ,cupid play$ ! lead+ rle 9 ! developm5t ( ! knitt+ ma*9e4 ,x is said t 9 #aehi ,william ,lee ( ,engl& fell 9 love1 b ! girl :o 0 ! object ( 8 devotion 0 always s busy ) h] knitt+ t %e c\ld n give him ! att5tion he s\ght or ?\ght he des]v$4 ,h[ev]1 ,lee 0 n to be ?w>t$ 9 ?is fa%ion1 s he built a ma*9e to d ! knitt+ 9 ord] t ! girl c\ld devote h]self m completely to him4 ,!re is ano!r less pleasant v]sion ( ! /ory to ! effect t ,lee became s atta*$ to 8 knitt+ ma*9e t he neglect$ ! girl4 ,h[ev]1 9 ei!r case1 love 0 someh[ mix$ up 9 ! inv5tion ( ! knitt+ ma*9e4 ,we are n go+ to attempt to delve into ! complicat$ me*anism ( a mod]n knitt+ ma*9e1 b w m]ely call att5tion to ! fact t mod]n ma*9es p]=m automatically practically all ! movem5ts ( ! human h& 9 h& knitt+4 ,! t5d5cy ( mod]n ma*9]y has be5 to relieve ! h\sewife ( ! t$i\s "w %e =m]ly p]=m$ & to take su* "w away f ! home to ! factory4 ,!re is "o important ma*9e1 h[ev]1 :i* has be5 introduc$ into ! home1 app>5tly to /ay2 = 9 ! majority ( h\ses x is /ill consid]$ indisp5sable4 ,x is a fact t ! introduction ( labor-sav+ ma*9]y into ! h\sehold has1 until rec5tly1 met ) /]n opposition on ! "p ( ! h\sewife4 ,x is all ! m rem>kable1 !re=e1 t 9 ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! sew+ ma*9e began successfully to invade ! home4 ,,h[e',s ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,! ,,sew+ ,,ma*9e ,x 0 9 #ahdd t ,elias ,h[e hit ^u ! brilliant idea ( putt+ an eye at ! po9t ( a ne$le4 ,?is enabl$ him to produce a successful sew+ ma*9e1 because x 0 unnecess>y = him to pass ! ne$le completely ?r\gh ! clo? 9 ord] to pull ! ?read ?r\gh x4 ,:5 ! ne$le po9t p5etrat$ ! clo? a %uttle pass$ ?r\gh ! loop ( ?read t 0 c>ri$ ?r\gh ) ! po9t4 ,?is %uttle c>ri$ a second ?read :i* int]lock$ ) ! ?read ( ! ne$le =m+ :at is kn[n z a 8lock /it*40 ,9 ,h[e's ma*9e ! clo? 0 held v]tically & ! ne$le :i* 0 curv$ 0 c>ri$ by a lev]4 ,! ne$le 0 driv5 ?r\gh ! clo? ) a sw++ motion1 some:at l t ( a pick-ax4 ,! %uttle 0 driv5 back & =? by a pair ( /rik]s aft] ! mann] ( ! fly+ %uttle ( a loom4 ,george ,fi%]1 a fri5d ( ,h[e1 furni%$ #ejj ) :i* ! fir/ successful ma*9e 0 built 9 #ahde1 & ) ?is ma*9e ,h[e sew$ two suits ( clo!s1 "o = ,mr4 ,fi%] & ! o!r = himself4 ,a public exhibition 0 held at :i* ! ma*9e1 crude z x 01 beat five ( ! be/ h&-sew]s t c\ld be f\nd4 ,9 #ahfc ,h[e 0 reap+ a =tune 9 royalties f 8 ma*9e :i* 7 e/imat$ at #d1jjj p] day4 ,! next notable improvem5t 9 sew+ ma*9]y 0 t ( ! rot>y bobb91 inv5t$ by ,a4 ,b4 ,wilson1 :i* 0 pat5t$ 9 #aheb4 ,?is did away ) ! fly+ %uttle & simplifi$ ! ma*9e consid]ably4 ,x made ! sew+ ma*9e comp>atively quiet1 ?us adapt+ x = dome/ic use4 ,9 ,wilson's ma*9e1 a rotat+ hook pass$ ?r\gh ! loop ( ?read & c>ri$ x ar\nd ! bobb9 on :i* ! l[] ?read 0 w\nd4 ,wilson also inv5t$ ! f\r-motion fe$ = fe$+ ! clo? "u ! ne$le4 ,sew+ ma*9es up to t "t _h be5 op]at$ by h&1 b ,isaac ,m]ritt ,s+] introduc$ a foot-p[] ma*9e & by progressive bus9ess me?ods built up a ?riv+ indu/ry & did mu* to e/abli% ! sew+ ma*9e1 n only at home1 b abroad z well4 ,,! ,,s+le-,,?read ,,sew+ ,,ma*9e ,! s+le-?read ma*9e 0 inv5t$ by a ,virg9ia f>m] :o _h nev] se5 a sew+ ma*9e4 ,james ,e4 ,a4 ,gibbs _h se5 a picture ( a sew+ ma*9e &1 unaw>e ( ! fact t !re 0 a %uttle c>ry+ a second ?read on ! re>1 or "u side ( ! clo?1 fell to puzzl+ ov] ! problem ( :at happ5$ to ! ?read c>ri$ by ! ne$le ?r\gh ! clo?4 ,someh[1 x seem$ to him1 ! loop ( ?read mu/ be held until ! next /it* c>ri$ ano!r loop ( ?read ?r\gh x1 ?us =m+ a *a9 /it*4 ,?is l$ him to inv5t an +5i\s revolv+ hook4 ,) inf9ite pati5ce he :ittl$ out a model ( 8 inv5tion1 & x is ?is hook t is ! out/&+ feature ( ! ,wilcox & ,gibbs ma*9e4 ,,ma*9e-,,made ,,embroid]ies ,a notable mod]n developm5t ( ! sew+ ma*9e is its adaptation to ! mak+ ( embroid]ies & ev5 laces4 ,9 ! common dome/ic sew+ ma*9e ! clo? is f$ /ep by /ep "u ! ne$le1 & ! l5g? ( ! /ep regulates ! size or l5g? ( ! /it*es4 ,! fe$ may be set = %ort or long /it*es4 ,x is evid5t t if a great] range ( l5g? ( /it* 7 provid$1 & if1 :ile ! ma*9e 0 op]at+1 ! /it* c\ld be v>i$ at w1 n only 9 l5g? b 9 ! direction z well1 x w\ld be possible to "w out elaborate patt]ns ( embroid]y4 ,?is is :at is done on ! p[]-driv5 embroid]y ma*9es4 ,l ! orig9al ,h[e ma*9e1 ! clo? is held v]tically & a s]ies ( ne$les are us$ :i* pass horizontally ?r\gh ! clo?4 ,z ! ne$le retreats1 ! ?read x c>ries =ms a loop on ! re> or 8wrong0 side ( ! clo?1 & ?r\gh ?is a %uttle is driv5 :i* c>ries a ?read w\nd ^u a bobb94 ,betwe5 /it*es ! clo? is mov$ ?is way & t1 9 accordance ) a pre>rang$ patt]n1 & ?us ! design is embroid]$4 ,a s+le ma*9e may h sev]al hundr$ ne$les &1 z !y all "w 9 unison1 ea* ne$le repeats ! design4 ,! arrangem5t is su* t "o ne$le />ts :]e ! next "o leaves (f1 s t ! embroid]y is cont9u\s4 ,! %uttles :i* op]ate on ! wrong side ( ! clo? are small1 boat-%ap$ p>ts :i* ! ,swiss h nam$ 8s*iffli0 or 8little %ips10 & ?is "n has come to be appli$ to ! :ole ma*9e4 ,! guid+ ( ! clo? to produce ! requir$ design is accompli%$ ei!r by h& or automatically4 ,9 ! h&-guid$ s*iffli ma*9e a skill$ 8/it*]0 seat$ at "o side ( ! ma*9e op]ates a pantagraph1 trac+ an enl>g$ design m\nt$ on a bo>d be=e him4 ,z he moves ! lev] v]tically & horizontally ! frame c>ry+ ! clo? is correspond+ly mov$ be=e ! ne$les4 ,an exp]t /it*] c put a great deal ( individuality into ! "w1 :i* is impossible 9 ! /rictly automatic ma*9e2 accord+ly ! pantagraph is us$ = ! f9] grades ( embroid]ies4 ,9 ! automatic ma*9es a p]=at$ roll l t ( a piano play] is us$4 ,! p]=ations control ! movem5ts ( ! frame t c>ries ! fabric4 ,,f9e ,,ne$lework ,,by ,,ma*9e ,^! ma*9es are ( ,swiss & ,g]man design1 b ,am]ican inv5tors h rec5tly develop$ a ma*9e = produc+ f9e ne$lework :i* imitates v closely ! "w ( ! h&4 ,9 ?is ma*9e ! ne$le passes completely ?r\gh ! fabric z 9 ord9>y h& sew+1 b x does n h to be turn$ ar\nd = ! return /it* because x is po9t$ at ea* end & has ! eye 9 ! middle4 ,! ne$les are held by spr+ clips 9 a sw++ frame4 ,:5 ! frame sw+s t[>d ! clo? ! ne$les are pu%$ ?r\gh ! fabric & _! po9ts are caught by spr+ clips 9 a frame on ! opposite side4 ,! latt] frame draws ! ne$les completely ?r\gh & a set ( hooks cat* ! ?read & pull ! /it* taut4 ,! advantage ( ?is type ( ma*9e is t x produces ! same design on ea* side ( ! clo?2 9 o!r words1 !re is no 8wrong0 side to ! embroid]y4 ,! design is controll$ by a 8/it*]0 op]at+ a pantagraphic sy/em ( lev]s & by skillful manipulation he c completely ov]come ! flat ma*9elike appe>ance ( ! automatic s*iffli ma*9e4 ,laces are v +5i\sly produc$ on s*iffli ma*9es by us+ ! 8burnt-out0 sy/em inv5t$ =ty ye>s ago by a ,g]man1 nam$ ,beckel4 ,?is consi/s 9 ! use ( ?read ( a diff]5t mat]ial f t ( ! fabric1 & aft] ! embroid]y is complet$ ! fabric is remov$ ei!r *emically or by ! application ( heat1 leav+ only ! /it*+1 :i* =ms a delicate lace4 ,= in/ance1 cotton ?read may be embroid]$ on a gr\ndwork ( wool1 or silk ?read is us$ on a fabric ( cotton4 ,laces made 9 ?is way are kn[n z ,plau5 laces1 tak+ _! "n f ! city :]e ,beckel inv5t$ ! process1 & !y =m a l>ge "p ( ! ma*9e-made laces t are n[ s widely us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,saw+ ,,logs ,,into #af-;,,in* ,,l5g?s ,,prior ,,to ,,gr9d+ ,,!m ,,into ,,pulp ,illu/ration3 ,copyright ,kadel ,h]b]t ,,! ,,heat] ,,9 ,a ,,pulp ,,mill ,,:]e ,,! ,,wood ,,pulp ,,is ,,mix$ ,,) ,,clay ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,mod]n ,,f\rdr9i] ,,pap]-,,mak+ ,,ma*9e ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,,pap] ,,! ,,mak+ ( pap] is closely relat$ to t ( textiles4 ,9 ea* case ! same basic mat]ials are us$4 ,a mass ( int]lac+ fib]s is =m$ into a cont9u\s %eet1 b ! me?od ( int]lac+ ! fib]s & hold+ !m toge!r is entirely diff]5t4 ,pap] resembles felt m closely ?an any o!r =m ( fabric4 ,! fib]s are n wov5 b are matt$ toge!r & compress$4 ,9 ! case ( felt ! fib]s ( wool or hair are held toge!r ma9ly by ! microscopic b>bs t !y possess :ile pap] fib]s are held toge!r by means ( siz+4 ,al?\gh pap] gets its "n f papyrus ! latt] 0 n pap]1 = x 0 a felt ( pi? r ?an fib]4 ,! anci5ts produc$ a v fair writ+ mat]ial f ! ru%like plants t grew 9 ! swamps along ! ,nile4 ,! /em ( ! papyrus 0 /ripp$ ( its b>k & ! pi? 0 cut into ?9 ribbons :i* 7 laid side by side to =m a %eet4 ,ov] ^! & at "r angles to !m 0 laid ano!r lay] ( pi? ribbons4 ,! mat]ial 0 !n soak$ 9 wat]1 press$ into a cont9u\s %eet & dri$4 ,^! %eets 7 !n pa/$ toge!r & roll$ up into scrolls4 ,unque/ionably !y play$ a mo/ important "p 9 ! civilization ( anci5t ,egypt1 provid+1 z !y did1 a ready means ( record+ k & dissem9at+ x among ! p4 ,,*9ese ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,pap] ,l s _m inv5tions t are ( vital importance to mod]n civilization1 pap] is a ,*9ese inv5tion4 ,! ,*9ese made pap] f ! fib]s ( trees1 a mat]ial to :i* we h rev]t$ 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,! inv5tion dates f ab\t #aej ,a4 ,d41 :5 "s "o devis$ a process ( r$uc+ ! b>k ( ! mulb]ry tree to a pulp1 beat+ x & boil+ x 9 lye & !n matt+ ! fib]s on a scre5 & press+ !m into a f9i%$ %eet4 ,! process 0 introduc$ into ,europe by ! crusad]s 9 ! #ab? ,c5tury4 ,9 #aaej a pap]-mak+ plant 0 e/abli%$ 9 ,italy & soon ! new writ+ mat]ial 0 be+ made 9 increas+ quantities & became a common article ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,x 0 n until ! end ( ! #ah? ,c5tury t ma*9]y = mak+ pap] came into use4 ,9 ! old h& process :i* is /ill us$ to a v limit$ ext5t = special pap]s1 ! pulp1 aft] be+ r$uc$ to a ?9 milky fluid1 0 dipp$ out ( a vat ) a rectangul> sieve :i* _h a wire scre5 bottom ( f9e me%4 ,! wat] dra9$ (f1 leav+ ! fib]s ^u ! scre54 ,z ! pulp 0 dra9+ ! sieve 0 %ak5 ab\t to di/ribute ! fib]s ev5ly & int]lace !m z mu* z possible4 ,! dep? ( ! sieve det]m9$ ! am\nt ( pulp t 0 dipp$ out & h5ce ! ?ickness ( ! pap]4 ,! s(t1 matt$ mass ( fib]s 0 turn$ out ^u a felt mat & left to dry4 ,soon o!r fib]s came to be us$ & ! f9e/ grades ( pap] 7 made f l95 & cotton rags4 ,! rags 7 c>efully sort$ out & wa%$ aft] :i* !y 7 /or$ 9 a damp place to rot = a numb] ( weeks4 ,!n !y 7 cut & %r$d$ & boil$ until !y 7 conv]t$ into a pulp4 ,! complete process ( mak+ f9e pap] by h& took f two to ?ree mon?s4 ,pap] 0 made 9 small %eets limit$ by ! size ( sieve t c\ld readily be op]at$ by h&4 ,! fir/ man to make a cont9u\s web ( pap] 0 ,ni*olas ,l\is ,rob]t1 a ,fr5*man :o receiv$ a rew>d ( #h1jjj francs f 8 gov]nm5t = 8 inv5tion4 ,rob]t's pat5t rights 7 acquir$ by ! ,f\rdr9i] ,bro!rs 7,h5ry & ,sealy71 ( ,engl&4 ,!y develop$ & p]fect$ ! ma*9e & to !m is ascrib$ ! honor ( f\nd+ ! mod]n pap] indu/ry4 ,,uses ,,( ,,pap] ,pap] is m commonly & ext5sively us$ to-day ?an any o!r product ( manufacture & is employ$ = an a/oni%+ v>iety ( purposes1 rang+ f milk bottles to suits ( clo?+4 ,"o v novel use we might m5tion1 9 pass+1 is to be f\nd on ! sug> plantations ( ,hawaii4 ,aft] ! cane is plant$ ! fields are cov]$ ) a ?ick pap] made1 by ! way1 f sug>-cane fib]4 ,?is cov]+ prev5ts ! we$s f gr[+1 b ! %>p spikes ( ! sug> spr\ts pi]ce ! pap] & gr[ ?r\gh x4 ,by ! "t ! pap] has dis9tegrat$ & ! we$s h a *ance to gr[1 ! cane has su* a />t on !m t !y are kept %ad$ & _c compete ) or *oke out ! cane4 ,,turn+ ,,=e/s ,,into ,,pulp ,be=e we proce$ to describe ! mod]n ,f\rdr9i] ma*9e1 we mu/ look into pres5t day me?ods ( prep>+ pulp4 ,! f9e/ pap]s are /ill made f l95 & cotton rags4 ,esp>to grass is l>gely us$ 9 ,europe4 ,?is comes f ,spa9 & ,nor? ,africa4 ,b by f> ! great] "p ( ! pap] produc$ to-day is made f ! fib] ( trees4 ,p>ticul>ly is ?is true ( our own c\ntry1 :i* consumes half ( ! _w's output ( pap]4 ,x us$ to be t only ! poore/ grades ( pap] 7 made f wood pulp2 n[ h[ev] n only newspap]s b ne>ly all books & magaz9es are pr9t$ on a =e/ product4 ,=m]ly only spruce wood 0 consid]$ suitable = pap] manufacture1 b ! rapid depletion ( ?is raw mat]ial l$ to ! employm5t ( _m o!r species ( trees & our ,gov]nm5t sci5ti/s are con/antly se>*+ = & exp]im5t+ ) new woods = ?is purpose4 ,because ( ! insatiable appetites ( our l>ge newspap] pr9t+ presses & because a newspap] is n int5d$ to be an imp]i%able docum5t b a fleet+ record ( pass+ ev5ts1 quality is ( little importance 9 ! prep>ation ( pulp = newspr9t & ev]y?+ mu/ be sacrific$ = spe$4 ,! pulp is made ( 8gr\nd0 wood z di/+ui%$ f ! *emically prep>$ wood pulp kn[n z 8sulphite40 ,! wood is fir/ /ripp$ ( its b>k & !n cut into pieces runn+ f two to f\r feet 9 l5g?1 dep5d+ ^u ! size ( ! magaz9e ( ! gr9d]4 ,! wood is press$ aga9/ a revolv+ gr9d/one by hydraulic pressure & at su* an angle t ! fib]s torn (f w be z long z possible4 ,! fib]s are borne (f by a /ream ( wat] :i* c>ries !m ?r\gh a set ( scre5s4 ,^! remove any ungr\nd sliv]s1 & ev5tually ! pulp is dra9$ ( wat] & press$ into laps1 or1 if x is to be us$ imm$iately1 x goes directly to ! beat+ eng9e4 ,"h x is mix$ ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( 8sulphite pulp10 usually f #bj to #be p] c5t4 ,to correct ! yell[i% color ( ! pulp1 a small am\nt ( blue & r$ color+ is add$4 ,to give body to ! pap] f #e to #ae p] c5t ( clay is mix$ into ! pulp &1 to b9d ! fib]s toge!r & give ! pap] a f9i% t w be at lea/ p>tly nonabsorb5t1 a quantity ( ros9 & soda a% is add$ ) en\gh alum to precipitate ! ros9 ^u ! fib]s4 ,! beat] ?or\ghly mixes ! mass ( mat]ial & conv]ts x into a fluid ( ! consi/5cy ( ?9 milk1 :i* !n passes on to ! ,f\rdr9i] ma*9e4 ,,gett+ ,,d[n ,,to ,,! 8,,bones0 ,,( ,,! ,,wood ,pap] made f gr\nd wood pulp soon discolors & becomes brittle ow+ to ! pres5ce ( ! lign9 & res9 ( ! tree4 ,! sup]iority ( sulphite pulp is due to ! fact t *emical processes are us$ to remove ^! di/urb+ +r$i5ts1 leav+ only ! 8bones0 ( ! tree1 t is1 ! pure cellulose fib]4 ,spruce wood is usually us$ & aft] be+ fre$ ( its b>k & ?or\ghly clean$1 all knots are cut out & x is saw$ into %ort l5g?s :i* are !n split & cut up into little *ips f to in* long4 ,^! *ips are boil$ "u pressure 9 a solution ( sulphur dioxide & slak$ lime4 ,! 8dige/]s0 9 :i* ! *ips are boil$ are l>ge /eel cyl9d]s l9$ ) brick set 9 cem5t & coat$ ) li?>ge & glyc]91 s z to prev5t ! sulphite liquor f com+ into contact ) ! metal4 ,a /eam pressure ( sev5ty to eighty p\nds is ma9ta9$ = eight to t5 h\rs & !n ! dige/]s are dis*>g$ into vats4 ,! sulphite liquor 9 :i* ! res9\s matt] is dissolv$ is dra9$ away & ! pulp is wa%$4 ,s(t woods1 su* z popl>1 basswood1 etc41 are boil$ 9 cau/ic soda1 produc+ :at is kn[n z 8soda pulp40 8,sulphate pulp0 is made by boil+ 9 a solution ( sodium sulphate1 to :i* a c]ta9 am\nt ( sodium c>bonate & cau/ic soda are add$4 ,?is process is us$ = produc+ pulp = s-call$ 8,kraft0 pap] & br[n wrapp+ pap]4 ,=m]ly pulp 0 always made 9 ! pap] mill & h5ce ! mills _h to be locat$ ne> ! s\rce ( wood supply1 b to-day ! mak+ ( pulp is c>ri$ on z an indep5d5t indu/ry 9 remote =e/ regions :]e wat] p[] is pl5tiful4 ,! pulp is press$ into laps & compress$ into bales weigh+ ab\t #djj p\nds4 ,^! are s5t ov] long di/ances by rail or /eam%ip to pap] mills locat$ 9 or ne> ! big cities1 s t ! pap] may be made ne> ! po9ts ( consumption4 ,bal$ pap] pulp has to be reconv]t$ into a smoo? milklike fluid4 ,a %r$d+ ma*9e is us$ = ?is purpose1 :i* te>s ! pulp ap>t & mixes x ) wat]4 ,!n x goes to ! beat] :]e x receives its quota ( sulphite pulp1 color+ matt]1 clay1 & siz+1 z expla9$ be=e4 ,aft] an h\r ( treatm5t 9 ! beat]1 x passes on to a tank 9 :i* x is fur!r dilut$ ) wat] & is !n put ?r\gh a ,jordan eng9e4 ,?is consi/s ( a conical cyl9d] 9 :i* is plac$ a conical roll4 ,bo? cyl9d] & roll are =m$ ) knives t ext5d longitud9ally1 b ! revolv+ knives are set at a slight angle to ! fix$ knives1 some:at aft] ! fa%ion ( a lawn m[]4 ,! conical =m p]mits ( c>eful adju/m5t ( ! roll] 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,! pulp mixture ent]s at ! small] end & dis*>ges at ! l>g] end4 ,?is ma*9e gives ! pulp its f9al beat+ & r$uces x to a v smoo? consi/5cy4 ,,! ,,f\rdr9i] ,,pap]-,,mak+ ,,ma*9e ,f ! ,jordan eng9e ! pulp is pass$ on into ! ,f\rdr9i] ma*9e1 :i* we are n[ ready to inve/igate4 ,! pr9cipal elem5t ( ?is ma*9e is a travel+ belt ( copp] wire gauze :i* takes ! place ( ! scre5 or sieve us$ 9 ! h& process4 ,to conf9e ! pulp to ! belt !re are two endless b&s ( rubb]1 kn[n z 8deckles10 along ea* edge ( ! scre51 :i* travel ) ! scre54 ,to insure prop] int]lac+ ( ! fib]s1 z 9 ! h& process1 ! scre5 is %ak5 lat]ally at ! rate ( ab\t #cjj vibrations p] m9ute4 ,! fluid pulp ent]s ! ma*9e ?r\gh a fl[ box1 :]e a con/ant hydraulic head is ma9ta9$1 s z to pres]ve a uni=m dis*>ge to ! wire gauze4 ,! milky /ream issues ?r\gh a n>r[ op5+ 9 ! fl[ box1 kn[n z a 8slic]40 ,?is may be adju/$ to alt] ! wid? & also ! ?ickness ( ! /ream4 ,no "o w\ld suspect f ! appe>ance ( ! milky fluid t x is fill$ ) fib]s1 b a microscopic exam9ation ( a drop ( ! ?9 liquid %[s t x is fill$ ) t9y p>ticles float+ 9 ! wat] l logs 9 a riv]4 ,x is int]e/+ to wat* ?is /ream1 z x passes out ^u ! scre51 *ange magically be=e "o's eyes1 f a milky /ream into solid mass ( pulp4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,diagrammatic ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,f\rdr9i] ,,pap]-,,mak+ ,,ma*9e ,a4 ,fl[ ,box ,b4 ,copp] ,gauze ,belt ,c4 ,roll]s ,d4 ,deckles ,conf9+ ,pulp ,,ee4 ,pulleys ,,ff4 ,drums ,g4 ,suction ,boxes ,h4 ,d&y ,roll ,i4 ,! ,f9al ,suction ,box = ,dry+ ,j4 ,c\* ,roll ,k4 ,canvas ,belt ,9 ,figure #ga1 :i* is a diagrammatical view ( a portion ( a ,f\rdr9i] ma*9e1 ! fl[ box is %[n at ,a & ! copp] gauze belt at ,b4 ,?is belt is support$ on a s]ies ( roll]s1 ,c4 ,! deckles :i* conf9e ! pulp along ! m>g9s ( ! scre5 are %[n at ,d4 ,^! belts travel ) ! wire gauze = a c]ta9 di/ance & !n pass back ov] ! pulleys1 ,,ee1 :ile ! wire clo? passes on & ar\nd ! drums1 ,,ff4 ,z soon z ! pulp fl[s out ^u ! wire gauze1 ! wat] x conta9s beg9s to dra9 away ?r\gh ! gauze4 ,b x does n d ?is fa/ en\gh "u ! m]e pull ( gravity & x mu/ be help$ by means ( suction4 ,at ,,gg !re are boxes or tr\ghs t fit aga9/ ! "u side ( ! wire gauze4 ,9 !m a p>tial vacuum is ma9ta9$ by means ( suction pumps & a l>ge "p ( ! wat] rema9+ 9 ! pulp is suck$ out "h4 ,a d&y roll is %[n at ,h1 :i* presses lightly ^u ! moi/ pulp1 squeez+ out ! moi/ure 9 x1 & at ,i !re is a f9al suction box :i* fur!r dries ! web ( fib]s4 ,x is ! d&y roll t puts a patt]n$ surface on ! pap]4 ,if ! face ( ! d&y roll is ( f9ely wov5 wire clo? ) diagonal me%1 a 8wove0 pap] is produc$1 :ile if x is ( su* surface z to impress p>allel l9es 9 ! half-=m$ pap]1 8laid0 pap] is produc$4 ,wat] m>ks are also produc$ by plac+ a suitable rais$ or depress$ patt]n on ! d&y roll1 produc+ a correspond+ ?ick5+ or ?9n+ ( ! pulp4 ,ev5 aft] pass+ ! la/ suction box1 ! ?9 web ( pap] is /ill v wet & s flimsy t x _c be h&l$4 ,"r "h comes ! mo/ delicate "p ( ! :ole process4 ,! web mu/ be pick$ (f ! wire clo? & c>ri$ across a n>r[ gap to a felt belt :i* conducts x ?r\gh ano!r set ( roll]s1 ,a felt-cov]$ roll1 ,j1 kn[n z a 8c\*0 roll1 presses d[n ^u ! web & ! latt] cl+s to ! felt 9 place ( ! wire clo? :i* passes d[n ar\nd ! roll] ,f4 ,9 />t+ a web ( pap] v skillful manipulation is requir$ to transf] ! web f ! c\* roll to ! felt belt1 b aft] x has once bridg$ ! gap x has en\gh t5sional /r5g? to pull itself across ! gap4 ,! felt belt c>ries ! web ?r\gh a pair ( heavy roll]s :i* press out m ( ! wat]4 ,because ! pap] passes ?r\gh ! rolls ) ! felt belt x receives an impression f ! felt on ! "u side4 ,?is is n[ correct$ by runn+ ! pap] ?r\gh a second pair ( rolls 9 ! rev]se direction1 & on a second felt belt1 s t bo? sides ( ! pap] receive ! same impression4 ,f "h on ! pap] passes ?r\gh a long s]ies ( /eam-heat$ dry+ rolls & em]ges ev5tually z a p]fectly dry %eet4 ,our l>ge/ ,f\rdr9i] ma*9es make a web #bjj in*es wide & !y c be run at a rate ( #hjj feet p] m9ute1 or m ?an n9e miles p] h\r4 ,! pap] is made 9 l5g?s eight miles long1 :i* are w\nd up into rolls to be f$ into ! huge pr9t+ presses ( our metropolitan newspap] plants4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! mak+ ( news pr9t & f9] pap]s lies *iefly 9 ! quality ( pulp us$ & ! quantity ( clay & siz+ add$4 ,aft] ! f9] grades h issu$ f ! dry+ rolls1 !y are put ?r\gh cal5d]s to give !m a glaz$ surface4 ,?is consi/s virtually 9 iron+ ! pap] betwe5 smoo? rolls ( iron on "o side & compress$ pap] or cotton on ! o!r4 ,j z 9 iron+ clo!s1 ! pap] mu/ be moi/5$ be=e be+ iron$ & /eam is us$ to supply ! necess>y moi/ure4 ,9 "s cases a high glaze is giv5 to "o side only ( ! pap] by means ( friction4 ,! pap] passes betwe5 two roll]s ( diff]5t size4 ,! small] "o travels fa/] ?an ! l>g] "o & consequ5tly x slips on ! pap]1 giv+ x a v smoo? surface4 ,,! ,,cyl9d] ,,ma*9e ,,= ,,mak+ ,,pap] ,!re is ano!r type ( pap]-mak+ ma*9e :i* is us$ = co>se pap]s1 pa/ebo>d1 etc4 ,?is is kn[n z a cyl9d] ma*9e4 ,! wire gauze is =m$ into a cyl9d] :i* revolves 9 ! liquid pulp4 ,a slight suction is ma9ta9$ 9 ! cyl9d] :i* causes ! wat] to fl[ 9 ?r\gh ! gauze2 leav+ ! fib] dra9$ on ! surface4 ,! cyl9d] revolves1 c>ry+ ! dra9$ pulp on its surface until x enc\nt]s a felt roll t picks (f ! web & c>ries x to ! press+ & dry+ rolls4 ,"o disadvantage ( ?is type ( ma*9e is t ! cyl9d] 9 dragg+ ! dra9$ pulp ?r\gh ! wat] causes ! fib]s to be comb$ 9 a direction p>allel to ! run ( ! pap] web1 s t ! pap]1 :ile /rong 9 ! direction ( its l5g?1 is comp>atively weak 9 ! transv]se direction4 ,?is is correct$ to a c]ta9 degree by ! use ( 8riffles0 or devices t produce eddies :i* di/urb ! ev5 fl[ ( ! pulp4 ,9 ! mak+ ( pa/ebo>d1 a numb] ( cyl9d]s contribute _! webs to =m a s+le %eet ( sev]al plies4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,typesett+ ,,& ,,pr9t+ ,,ma*9]y 8,,:o ,,won ! w>80 ,! "q imm$iately br+s =? num]\s cont5d]s :o claim ! honor1 respectively1 = ! aviator1 ! *emi/1 ! eng9e]1 ! me*anic1 ! f>m]1 ! %ipbuild]1 etc4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 all ^! & _m o!rs z well 7 invaluable contributors to ! f9al success1 & 8!re is glory en\gh = all40 ,! "q1 8,:at bran* ( te*nology or :at bran* ( ma*9]y has done mo/ = civilization80 f9ds a simil> division ( op9ion1 ) p>tisans 9 favor ( ! /eam eng9e1 ma*9e tools1 electrical ma*9]y1 iron manufacture1 pap] mak+1 pr9t+1 etc4 ,aga91 x is cle>ly evid5t t all h be5 mo/ valuable contributors & none may c>ry (f all ! honors4 ,h[ev]1 p>tisans ( ! pr9t+ press are entitl$ to place t ma*9e among ! =emo/ because x has c]ta9ly be5 mo/ useful 9 pres]v+ & dissem9at+ all classes ( k & 9 promot+ ! progress ( civilization4 ,,e>ly ,,*9ese ,,pr9t+ ,x is h>dly necess>y = u to ref] to ,johann ,gut5b]g's inv5tion 9 #adcf ( sep>ate type = ea* lett]4 ,_m c5turies be=e t ! ,*9ese _h made wood engrav+s ( complete pages & pr9t$ !m on pap]4 ,_! me?od 0 to prep>e an ink copy on a %eet ( pap] & !n transf] ! copy by press+ ! pap] on ! wood be=e ! ink 0 dry1 aft] :i* !y c>v$ away all ! surface except ^? p>ts :i* 7 ink$4 ,?is gave !m a rev]se plate f :i* any numb] ( copies c\ld be pr9t$4 ,! inv5tion ( individual type :i* c\ld be us$ ov] & ov] aga9 = sett+ new copy 0 a m>k$ improvem5t ov] ! ,*9ese sy/em4 ,,developm5t ,,( ,,pr9t+ ,,presses ,! primitive screw press saw little improvem5t except 9 m9or details d[n to ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,!n /eam began to take ! place ( h& p[] & ! idea 0 conceiv$ ( us+ a rot>y cyl9d] 9 place ( a flat press4 ,! types 7 tap]$ s t !y c\ld be fitt$ ab\t a cyl9d]4 ,! pap] 0 f$ betwe5 ! type cyl9d] & a s(t impression cyl9d] fac$ ) lea!r4 ,! ink 0 appli$ to ! type by means ( a roll] :i* 0 f$ by an ink+ app>atus4 ,9 #ahad two rot>y presses 7 in/all$ 9 ! (fices ( ! ,london 8,times10 mak+ x possible to turn out t newspap] at ! m>vel\s rate ( #aa1jjj impressions p] h\r4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 ,ri*>d ,m>% ,hoe inv5t$ a ma*9e 9 :i* f\r1 six1 eight1 or t5 impression cyl9d]s op]at$ on a s+le =m ( type1 !reby increas+ ! output ( ! press correspond+ly4 ,! fir/ ma*9e1 a f\r-impression cyl9d] press1 0 us$ by ! ,philadelphia 8,l$g]0 9 #ahdf1 & x pr9t$ #h1jjj pap]s p] h\r4 ,next came ! 8p]fect+0 press t pr9t$ on bo? sides ( ! pap]1 & !n came ! cont9u\s web press1 9 :i* ! pap] 0 f$ f a roll z a cont9u\s %eet &1 aft] receiv+ ! type impression1 0 cut1 fold$1 & deliv]$ z a complete newspap]4 ,,! ,,/]eotype ,,plate ,mean:ile /]eotyp+ 0 introduc$ into newspap] pr9t+4 ,9 /]eotyp+ an impression 9 pla/ic mat]ial is made ( ! type face & !n a ca/+ is made f ?is impression :i*1 ( c\rse1 exactly duplicates ! type face4 ,! type is ?us reliev$ f we> 9 ! press & x is imm$iately releas$ = use 9 sett+ up o!r copy :ile ! pr9t+ is done f ! /]eotype plate4 ,:ile ! use ( /]eotyp+ 9 book pr9t+ dates back to ! eighte5? c5tury1 x 0 n ?\ght practicable = newspap] pr9t+ because ( ! l5g? ( "t tak5 9 mak+ ! plate1 b 9 #ahfa papi]-ma* 0 introduc$ z a matrix mat]ial & a sy/em ( rapidly dry+ ! mold 0 develop$ s t a plate c\ld be ca/ 9 a comp>atively %ort "t2 fur!rmore1 impressions c\ld be made f a flat face ( type & !n ! mold c\ld be b5t s z to make curv$ /]eotype plates = use on ! cyl9d] presses4 ,9 newspap] "w x takes b five m9utes to make a /]eotype plate4 ,/]eotype metal does n /& ! we> ( pr9t+ v long & ! plates mu/ be r5ew$ f "t to "t4 ,?is fits 9 well ) newspap] requirem5ts because clean cut "w is n call$ =1 & z ! news keeps com+ 9 new editions mu/ con/antly be pr9t$1 :i* means t new plates mu/ be made f "t to "t4 ,= ! f9] pr9t+ ( magaz9es & books1 copp]-fac$ electrotype plates are us$ 9 place ( ! s(t /]eotype plates ( newspap] pr9t+4 ,,mod]n ,,newspap] ,,presses ,a mod]n l>ge newspap] press is a bewild]+ sight to behold2 !re is su* a va/ numb] ( rolls & cyl9d]s1 & ! web ( pap] moves s rapidly4 ,b1 aft] all1 ! ma*9e is multiplex r ?an complex4 ,x consi/s ( a l>ge numb] ( pr9t+ cyl9d]s1 all op]at+ 9 a s+le frame4 ,take1 = in/ance1 a d\ble-octuple1 color-comb9ation press4 ,x consi/s really ( two sep>ate presses1 ea* op]at+ on f\r webs ( pap] t fe$ f opposite ends t[>d ! middle4 ,!re are two type cyl9d]s = ea* web1 "o = ea* side ( ! pap]4 ,ea* cyl9d] is long en\gh to take f\r /]eotype plates side by side1 & s9ce ea* plate ext5ds b half way ar\nd ! cyl9d] we h eight pages pr9t$ on ea* side ( ! web4 ,?is makes sixte5 pages p] web or sixty-f\r = ea* half ( ! ma*9e1 giv+ a total ( #abh page impressions at ea* turn ( ! cyl9d]s4 ,x is seldom t a #fd-page pap] is requir$1 h5ce ! webs are slit 9 two by a revolv+ knife blade & ea* section ( ! press has two fold+ me*anisms s t two sets ( #af-page pap]s are pr9t$1 fold$1 & deliv]$ by ea* section4 ,arrangem5ts are provid$ :]eby ! product may consi/ ( #cb-page pap]s4 ,! pap]s are deliv]$ by a travel+ conveyor & e fiftie? pap] is pu%$ out ahead ( ! o!rs s z to provide a simple me?od ( keep+ c\nt ( ! product4 ,,pr9t+ #bdj1jjj ,,pages ,,p] ,,h\r ,! cyl9d]s turn at ! rate ( #cjj revolutions p] m9ute :i* means t ! pap] runs ?r\gh ! ma*9e at ne>ly #ad miles p] h\r4 ,summ+ up all ! webs we h a total consumption ( #ajh miles ( pap] p] h\r4 ,! pap] is #f feet wide & ! weight ( pap] 9 an h\r's run is ab\t #ah tons & ! h\rly production is #aej1jjj sixte5-page pap]s4 ,:5 color is us$1 ! press w deliv] #ej1jjj #bd-page pap]s p] h\r ) ! two outside pages pr9t$ 9 ?ree colors & black4 ,! c\rse ( ! color pr9t$ web mu/ necess>ily be diff]5t f t ( ! pla9 black pr9t$ web4 ,x mu/ pass ?r\gh a numb] ( pr9t+s2 & to prev5t ! moi/ ink f transf]r+ to ! impression rolls & f !m back to a succe$+ page1 ?us soil+ or blurr+ ! impression1 an extra roll ( ?9 pap] is pass$ betwe5 ! pr9t$ web & ! impression cyl9d]s4 ,?is acts 9 a measure z a blott]4 ,! (fset pap] is tak5 up on a roll & us$ ov] & ov] aga94 ,x is us$ n only = color "w1 b also :5 f9e half tone engrav+s are to be pr9t$ s t a clean] impression may be obta9$4 ,! ink+ sy/em ( pr9t+ press is v elaborate4 ,x is highly ess5tial t ! ink be spread ^u ! type surface 9 j suffici5t quantity to be pick$ up by ! pap] & t ! ink be uni=mly di/ribut$ ov] ! :ole surface4 ,!re is an ink res]voir & a set ( ink+ roll]s = ea* cyl9d]4 ,! res]voir consi/s ( a tr\gh runn+ ! :ole l5g? ( ! cyl9d]4 ,at ea* turn a revolv+ roll] dips into ! ink & transf]s a ?9 film ( ink to a s]ies ( small roll]s4 ,^! are gr\p$ ab\t a l>ge roll] to :i* !y deliv] ! ink4 ,! small roll]s h an axial reciprocat+ motion :]eby ! ink is uni=mly spread ov] ! l>ge roll]4 ,! latt] transf]s its ?9 coat+ ( ink to a pair ( roll]s kn[n z 8=m roll]s0 & ^! 9 turn deliv] ! ink to ! pr9t+ cyl9d]4 ,a ,,sea ,,capta9',s ,,contribution ,! fold+ me*anism ( a pr9t+ press is int]e/+4 ,! pap] is fir/ f$ ov] a w$ge-%ap$ =m :i* folds ! pap] l5g?wise & !n x is giv5 a cross-wise fold4 ,curi\sly en\gh ! fold+ me*anism = pr9t+ presses 0 fir/ inv5t$ by a ,yankee sea capta91 nam$ ,cromwell1 :o c\ld n read a draw+ b develop$ 8 inv5tion by :ittl+ out wood5 models4 ,he also contribut$ o!r valuable improvem5ts = ! pr9t+ press work$ out 9 ! same primitive way4 ,! rot>y press 0 evolv$ especially = ! pr9t+ ( daily pap]s & = a long "t magaz9es cont9u$ to be pr9t$ on flat-b$ presses4 ,b z ! circulation ( magaz9es grew into ! hundr$s ( ?\s&s x became necess>y to build high spe$ presses to turn out ^! l>ge editions4 ,accord+ly rot>y ma*9es 7 con/ruct$ simil> 9 design to newspap] presses1 b ) ref9em5ts to enable !m to produce ! bett] class ( "w requir$ ( magaz9e pr9t+4 ,al?\gh !re are _m magaz9es /ill pr9t$ on flat b$ presses1 p>ticul>ly ^? :i* publi% small editions ( less ?an a hundr$ ?\s&1 all ! big national weekly j\rnals & mon?ly magaz9es are pr9t$ on rot>y presses & "s ( !m ev5 use web presses4 ,,ga!r+ ,,& ,,b9d+ ,,magaz9es ,:5 a newspap] leaves ! press x is fold$1 cut1 & ready = ! news /&4 ,n s ) ! book & magaz9e press4 ,!re are too _m pages to be h&l$ by a s+le press1 &1 fur!rmore1 ! pages mu/ be b\nd toge!r4 ,"s l>ge magaz9es conta9 regul>ly m ?an #ejj pages & occasionally !y w run ov] a ?\s& pages4 ,obvi\sly no s+le press c\ld h&le s _m pages & x takes ! product ( _m presses to make up a s+le copy4 ,ea* press pr9ts :at is kn[n z a =m or signature & ^! signatures f ! diff]5t presses are !n ga!r$1 wire-/it*$1 & b\nd into individual copies4 ,!re are ma*9es :i* w d ?is "w ( ga!r+ & b9d+ at ! rate ( sixty #a1jjj-page magaz9es or catalogues e m9ute4 ,! ma*9es are adju/able = pages ( diff]5t dim5sions4 ,! =ms may consi/ ( f\r1 eight1 sixte51 or ?irty-two pages4 ,a sep>ate comp>tm5t is provid$ = ea* signature4 ,a l>ge ma*9e w h&le ?irty-six #cb-page signatures4 ,! comp>tm5ts are kept suppli$ by an op]ator1 !re be+ usually six comp>tm5ts = ea* op]ator to att5d to4 ,! bottom signature 9 ea* comp>tm5t is br\ght into position by a suction device :i* seizes ! signature & draws x out1 deposit+ x 9 a /eel tr\gh4 ,"h a belt conveyor moves ! signature along at ! "r spe$ to c>ry x be=e ! next comp>tm5t j z a signature is be+ )drawn !refrom4 ,?us ! magaz9e or book is progressively built up & ! signatures rea* ! end ( _! c\rse prop]ly assembl$4 ,a v delicate adju/m5t is provid$ to insure ! prop] adju/m5t ( signatures4 ,! gripp]s are adju/$ to receive signatures ( a c]ta9 ?ickness4 ,if ! op]ator %\ld make a mi/ake & put a signature ( a wrong size 9 ! comp>tm5t ! :ole ma*9e w\ld come to a /&/ill4 ,! adju/m5t is s delicate t ev5 a v>iation ( a s+le ?ickness ( pap] is en\gh to op]ate ! /op me*anism4 ,ea* assembly ( signatures z x rea*es ! end ( ! tr\gh is squ>$ up & !n b\nd ) wire /it*+4 ,f ?is po9t x moves on to receive its cov]4 ,a ?9 coat+ ( hot glue is appli$ to ! re> edge ( ! signatures4 ,! cov] is automatically appli$ & firmly press$ into place4 ,! f9i%$ book is !n c>ri$ on out ( ! ma*9e & deposit$ neatly on a pile ( previ\sly b\nd books4 ,to op]ate su* a ma*9e !re are requir$ "o *ief op]ator & an assi/ant & six girls to fe$ ! signatures to ! comp>tm5ts4 ,,sett+ ,,type ,,by ,,ma*9e ,! publication ( a mod]n daily newspap] ) its _m special editions w\ld be well nigh impossible if we /ill _h to dep5d ^u h& sett+ ( type4 ,t5s ( ?\s&s ( type *>act]s are requir$ to make up a s+le newspap] page1 & al?\gh skill$ h& compositors "w ) extreme rapidity x w\ld take a l>ge corps ( m5 to set type = ev5 a small newspap] 9 ! %ort "t available4 ,spe$ is ( prime importance 9 newspap] "w & ! task ( h&l+ ?\s&s ( little pieces ( type metal & arrang+ !m correctly into words & s5t5ces 0 long recogniz$ z a s]i\s h&icap1 b ! problem ( do+ ?is "w by ma*9e 0 by no means simple "o & baffl$ inv5tors = ye>s4 ,"o ( ! pr9cipal difficulties lay 9 ! size & %ape ( ! type & ano!r 0 t ( ju/ify+ ! l9es1 t is1 provid+ j ! "r wid? ( spaces betwe5 words to fill out ! l9es completely s t !y w\ld all be ( equal l5g?1 giv+ a /raight in/ead ( a ragg$ m>g9 to ! column4 ,aft] t came ! problem ( r$i/ribut+ ! type4 ,! fir/ really successful compos+ ma*9e 0 ! inv5tion ( ,ottm> ,m]g5?al] 9 #ahhh4 ,m]g5?al] ov]came ! difficulties t _h balk$ o!r inv5tors by attack+ ! problem f a radically new angle4 ,in/ead ( sett+ preca/ type1 8 ma*9e ca/ its own type f a set ( matrices4 ,by op]at+ a keybo>d1 ! matrices 7 assembl$ 9 a l9e :i* 0 ju/ifi$ automatically aft] ! l9e 0 compos$ & !n ! :ole l9e ( type 0 ca/ 9 a s+le slug4 ,h5ce 8 ma*9e e>n$ ! "n 8l9otype40 ,!n ! matrices 7 return$ automatically di/ribut$ to ! prop] *annels ( ! matrix magaz9e ready to be us$ ov] aga9 = succe$+ slugs4 ,,! ,,l9otype ,,matrix ,,& ,,space ,,b> ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb--;,a ,,l9otype ,,matrix ,a picture ( a l9otype matrix is %[n 9 ,figure #gb4 ,x is a plate ( brass =m$ ) e>s ,a at ! f\r corn]s4 ,! type mold is %[n at ,b & ( c\rse ! ?ickness ( ! matrix v>ies ) ! wid? ( ! type lett] x is design$ to ca/4 ,9 ! top ( ! matrix !re is a ,v-%ap$ slot ,c =m$ ) tee? :i* are design$ to engage grooves 9 a ,v-%ap$ b> ov] ! matrix magaz9e4 ,! tee? on ! matrices are v>i\sly cut away & s]ve z keys to ! diff]5t *annels ( ! magaz9e4 ,!re is a diff]5t comb9ation ( tee? = ea* lett] ( ! alphabet & all matrices ( ! same lett] h ! same comb9ation ( tee?4 ,! tee? on ! di/ribut+ b> are also cut away accord+ to v>i\s comb9ations4 ,aft] ! l9e has be5 ca/ ! matrices are all rais$ by _! e>s & f$ "o by "o ^u ! di/ribut+ b>4 ,ea* matrix moves along until x arrives ov] ! *annel x is design$ to ent] :5 x comes to a gap 9 ! tee? ( ! b> t are support+ x & drops into ! magaz9e4 ,al?\gh !re are b sev5 tee? on ea* side ( ! ,v-%ap$ b>1 !re are m ?an en\gh comb9ations possible to provide a *>act]i/ic "o = e key ( ! keybo>d4 ,a matrix always has at lea/ "o pair ( tee? 9 engagem5t ) ! b> until x rea*es ! gap t lets x fall into its own special *annel ( ! magaz9e4 ,! numb] ( matrices ( ea* "* v>ies ) ! normal frequ5cy ( use ( t lett]4 ,= in/ance1 ! lett] e is v commonly us$1 & !re mu/ be _m m e matrices ?an z matrices1 b 9 any case ! numb] ne$ n be v l>ge because ! process ( ca/+ a l9e & r$i/ribut+ ! type does n take v long & ! matrices are soon back 9 ! magaz9e ready to be us$ ov] aga94 ,! ca/+ & di/ribut+ op]ations are entirely automatic & :ile !y are 9 process ! compositor is sett+ a new l9e4 ,! me?od ( spac+ :i* 0 a lat] developm5t ( ! l9otype is also v +5i\s4 ,! compositor does n h to bo!r ) ! wid? ( spaces requir$ to fill out a l9e4 ,he m]ely t\*es ! space key at ! end ( ea* ^w & & a space b> drops into place4 ,ea* space b> is =m$ ( a pair ( w$ges & aft] ! l9e has be5 assembl$ ! space b>s are automatically exp&$ to fill out ! l9e completely by me*anism :i* holds d[n "o w$ge memb] 7,a1 ,figure #gc7 & slides up ! o!r 7,b74 ,,individual ,,type ,,ca/+ ,,& ,,compos+ ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,a ,,l9otype ,,space ,,b> ,! difficulties ( ca/+ ! l9otype slug prov$ a s]i\s h&icap 9 ! e>li] days ( ! l9otype4 ,! product ( ! ma*9e c\ld n comp>e 9 quality ) preca/ h&-set individual type1 al?\gh x s]v$ v well = newspap]s2 b ! ma*9e is n[ s f> p]fect$ t x is widely us$ = magaz9e & book composition4 ,h[ev] be=e ?is /age ( p]fection 0 rea*$ ! dem& = a ma*9e t c\ld d a high] grade ( "w l$ to ! inv5tion ( ano!r ma*9e kn[n z ! 8monotype40 ,! monotype consi/s actually ( two ma*9es1 "o ( :i* is op]at$ by a compositor & ! o!r op]at$ entirely automatically by ! product ( ! fir/ ma*9e4 ,! compositor op]ates a keybo>d & !reby cuts p]=ations 9 a long /rip ( pap]4 ,^! p]=ations are arrang$ 9 *>act]i/ic gr\ps "o = ea* key4 ,! p]=at$ pap] is !n run ?r\gh ! second ma*9e & 9 accordance ) ! v>i\s p]=ations ! sep>ate types are ca/ & assembl$ into ju/ifi$ l9es4 ,air fl[+ ?r\gh ! p]=ations op]ates a pneumatic me*anism :i* br+s ! prop] molds into position & ca/s ! sep>ate types4 ,! me?od ( ju/ify+ ! l9es is v int]e/+4 ,z 9 ! l9otype ! op]ator m]ely t\*es a space key at ! end ( ea* ^w1 b at ! end ( ! l9e ! me*anism automatically e/imates ! spaces to be fill$ & divides ?is by ! numb] ( spaces s t a *>act]i/ic gr\p ( p]=ations is pun*$ :5 ! compositor %ifts to ! next l9e4 ,9 ! ca/+ ma*9e ! pap] ribbon runs ?r\gh backw>d & ! space gr\p ( p]=ations is enc\nt]$ be=e ! l9e is ca/4 ,?is automatically adju/s ! me*anism to ca/ spaces ( ! requisite size to fill out ! l9e exactly4 ,,writ+ ,,by ,,ma*9e ,9 "o s5se we h tak5 up ! v>i\s ma*9es employ$ 9 pr9t+ 9 rev]se ord]4 ,( c\rse ! fir/ ma*9e us$ is ! typewrit]1 aft] :i* comes ! compos+ ma*9e1 & f9ally ! press4 ,x 0 9 #ahff t two inv5tors1 ,c4 ,la?am ,%oles & ,samuel ,w4 ,s\le1 und]took to make a ma*9e = pr9t+ numb]s 9 s]ial ord] ^u ! pages ( a blankbook4 ,c>los ,glidd51 ano!r inv5tor1 :o 0 engag$ 9 develop+ a spad+ ma*9e design$ to take ! place ( a pl[1 saw _! "w & sugge/$ t !y make _! ma*9e write lett]s & words z well z numb]s4 ,! ?ree comb9$ & proce$$ to evolve ! new ma*9e4 ,by ! end ( ! summ] ( #ahfg !y _h produc$ a typewrit+ ma*9e t c\ld be op]at$ fairly rapidly & t produc$ fair "w4 ,x 0 "o ( ! lett]s writt5 by ?is ma*9e t br\ght ,james ,d5smore into ! ent]prise4 ,he furni%$ ! money ne$$ to improve ! crude typewrit] & make x a comm]cial ma*9e4 ,_m models 7 built b no?+ 0 produc$ t seem$ good en\gh = comm]cial production4 ,?is developm5t "w 0 too sl[ & disc\rag+ = ,s\le & ,glidd5 & !y dropp$ out1 b ,%oles inspir$ by ,d5smore p]sev]$ until at la/ 9 #ahgc he _h produc$ a ma*9e :i* he c\ld (f] = manufacture4 ,! typewrit] 0 !n tak5 to ! ,rem+ton factory at ,ilion1 ,n4 ,y41 & ! next ye> x 0 plac$ on ! m>ket & began its public c>e]4 ,su* is ! /ory ( ! e>ly developm5t ( ! typewrit]4 ,x has become s widely us$ & is s indisp5sable a "p ( ! bus9ess (fice t x ar\ses ! utmo/ a/oni%m5t to le>n t !re /ill are a few old-fa%ion$ h\ses s cons]vative & s f> beh9d t !y cont9ue to write _! bus9ess lett]s ) ! p54 ,s common a ma*9e1 x is h>dly necess>y = u to describe 9 detail except to m5tion two /eps 9 ! developm5t ( ! ma*9e1 namely ! arrangem5t ( ! type b>s :]eby ! typewrit+ is visible to ! typi/1 & secondly ! ef=t to ov]come noise by limit+ ! /roke ( ! type b> & mak+ x imp+e ^u ! pap] ) a pressure /roke r ?an a hamm] bl[4 ,a rec5t developm5t is ! 8/5otype10 a small ma*9e :i* pr9ts %or?& *>act]s1 ?us exp$it+ ! tak+ ( rapid dictation4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,ca/ ,,iron1 ,,wr\ght ,,iron1 ,,& ,,/eel ,,x ,,us$ to be t w>s 7 f\ght = gold1 b n[adays ! possession ( ri* iron m9es is en\gh to ar\se ! cupidity ( neighbor+ nations less favor$ by nature4 ,9 fact1 ev5 ?\gh an ounce ( gold is wor? twice z mu* z a ton ( iron1 ! value ( ! iron we dig out ( ! e>? ea* ye> is f> great] ?an t ( gold4 ,:5 t r\gh ore is conv]t$ into iron & /eel & !n into ?\s&s ( useful articles1 its value m\nts s high t x _c be e/imat$4 ,! qualities ( iron & its alloys are s excell5t & s v>i$ "u diff]5t treatm5t t ?is metal may truly be said to =m ! f\ndation ( all our me*anical progress4 ,on ! "o h& x spans our wide riv]s1 c>ries ! burd5 ( heavy freight tra9s1 or1 9 ! =m ( armor plate1 resi/s ! t]rific impact ( high-p[]$ %ells2 on ! o!r h& ! same metal1 spun into a hair spr+1 gov]ns ! %ip's *ronomet]1 or1 9 ! compass1 po9ts a trembl+ f+] to guide ! navigator on 8 c\rse4 ,,iron ,,9 ,,anci5t ,,days ,! fir/ use ( iron 9 ! s]vice ( man dates f> back into ! ages4 ,an iron tool 0 f\nd 9 ! pyramid ( ,kephron :i* mu/ h be5 us$ #c1ejj ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 ,h[ev]1 because ( ! difficulty ( work+ x1 iron 0 n ext5sively employ$ except = swords & cutl]y4 ,! conv]sion ( iron into /eel & ! temp]+ ( /eel blades grew to be an art :i* gave ,damascus & ,tol$o a _w-wide reputation t dates back ov] a ?\s& ye>s4 ,! anci5ts us$ to smelt _! iron ore 9 :at 0 kn[n z a ,catalan =ge because ( its ext5sive use 9 ,catalonia1 ,spa94 ,:e!r ! =ge 0 inv5t$ !re or n we _c say4 ,simil> =ges h be5 f\nd 9 ,india & o!r widely remote places4 ,!y compris$ an incl9$ tray lead+ to a pot :i* =m$ ! furnace & 9 :i* a *>coal fire 0 k9dl$4 ,! ore & *>coal 7 plac$ on ! tray & f "t to "t 7 rak$ d[n into ! furnace & air 0 =c$ into ! bottom ( ! furnace by means ( bell[s4 ,9 an improv$ =m ( ! ,catalan =ge air 0 furni%$ by means ( an air compressor op]at$ by a /ream ( wat]4 ,?is has already be5 ref]r$ to & illu/rat$ on page #ij4 ,lime/one s]v$ z a flux to melt ! e>?y matt]4 ,! iron obta9$ f ^! primitive furnaces 0 n heat$ suffici5tly to fl[ z a /ream1 b 0 m]ely r$uc$ to a pa/y mass :i* 0 !n hamm]$ into %ape by ! blacksmi?4 ,t5 or twelve p\nds ( metal p] day 0 consid]$ a fair output = "o ( ^! =ges4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,coke ,x 0 n until ! middle ( ! #ad? ,c5tury t a bla/ furnace1 crudely simil> to ^? we h to-day1 0 fir/ built & ) x a temp]ature 0 obta9$ t 0 high en\gh to turn ! metal into a liquid :i* c\ld be ca/ 9 molds4 ,*>coal cont9u$ to be ! fuel us$ until ab\t f\r c5turies lat]1 :5 ,abraham ,d>by discov]$ t by bak+ coal to remove its free gases1 he c\ld produce a new fuel kn[n z coke :i* 0 a good sub/itute = *>coal4 ,?is gave a wond]ful impetus to ! iron indu/ry 9 ,engl& :]e !re 7 ample deposits ( coal adjac5t to ! iron m9es4 ,%ortly aft] t1 ,mr4 ,h5ry ,cort ( ,gasport1 ,engl&1 inv5t$ ! processes ( puddl+ & roll+ ! product ( ! bla/ furnace1 ?us conv]t+ ! iron into a t\gh1 malleable metal4 ,,alloys ,,( ,,c>bon ,,& ,,iron ,we mu/ pause "h to le>n ! diff]5ce betwe5 ca/ iron1 wr\ght iron & /eel4 ,iron1 z we "k1 has a high aff9ity = oxyg54 ,:5 expos$ to air & moi/ure x oxidizes1 ru/s v quickly4 ,! iron we f9d 9 nature is l>gely oxidiz$4 ,9 o!r words1 x is ru/y4 ,x is also f\nd 9 comb9ation ) o!r elem5ts z well4 ,! object ( putt+ iron ore ?r\gh a furnace is to rid x ( oxyg5 & ?is is mo/ readily accompli%$ by melt+ x 9 a c>bon fire4 ,! highly heat$ c>bon comb9es ) ! oxyg5 & passes (f z c>bon dioxide & c>bon monoxide gas4 ,b a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bon unites ) ! iron & x is ?is alloy ( c>bon & iron t makes ca/ iron s /iff & brittle4 ,! less c>bon pres5t ! s(t] is ! metal & pure iron is v ductile4 ,x 0 to rid ca/ iron ( its c>bon cont5t t ,cort inv5t$ ! puddl+ process4 ,z ! metal came out ( ! bla/ furnace x ran into a 8rev]b]atory0 furnace :]e1 )\t com+ 9 contact ) coke or o!r c>bon fuel1 x 0 expos$ to flames f an adjo9+ furnace :i* burn$ out ! c>bon1 & !n ! c>bon-free iron 0 ca/ into l>ge pieces kn[n z blooms :i* 7 hamm]$ to rid !m ( slag4 ,! f9al product 0 kn[n z wr\ght iron4 ,wr\ght iron !n diff]s f ca/ iron 9 hav+ no c>bon4 ,/eel1 on ! o!r h&1 /&s half way betwe5 wr\ght iron & ca/ iron 9 hav+ a small p]c5tage ( c>bon4 ,h[ /eel is made w be describ$ lat]4 ,,me*anical ,,h&l+ ,,( ,,ore ,( c\rse ma*9]y plays a l>ge "p 9 ! mod]n iron indu/ry4 ,x w\ld be an endless task ev5 to load "o ( ! big bla/ furnaces by h& & !n ! enorm\s output ( molt5 metal--#dj tons = e p\nd produc$ by ! old ,catalan furnaces--c\ld n be h&l$ )\t pond]\s ma*9es ^: huge arms & f+]s are n scor*$ & bli/]$ by ! int5se heat4 ,along ! ,great ,lakes va/ load+ ma*9es fill ! holds ( ore vessels & at ! plant !re are enorm\s unload+ ma*9es t travel on rails4 ,^! h long bridgelike arms t rea* out ov] ! ore boat & drop huge clam-%ell buckets into _! holds4 ,! buckets quickly unload ! boats & dump ! ore on %ore :]e o!r buckets pick up ! ore1 c>ry x back & pile x up 9 big heaps t look l m\nds ( r$di% e>?4 ,,! ,,mod]n ,,bla/ ,,furnace ,bla/ furnaces are t[]+ cyl9drical /ructures ( /eel l9$ ) fire brick4 ,!y are load$ f ! top ) alt]nate lay]s ( coke & ore4 ,lime/one also is add$ to act z a flux = ! e>?y matt]1 z expla9$ above4 ,runn+ ar\nd ! furnace ne> ! base !re is a l>ge pipe kn[n z ! 8bu/le0 pipe4 ,?r\gh ?is air is f$ to a set ( 8tuy]es0 :i* lead to ! base ( ! furnace & admit bla/s ( air requisite to ma9ta9 combu/ion at an int5se heat4 ,! gases ( combu/ion are n all[$ to escape freely into ! atmosph]e4 ,! top ( ! furnace ?r\gh :i* ! ore & fuel is admitt$ is clos$ by an air lock & ! flam+ hot gases are l$ into 8/oves0 :]e !y give up a l>ge "p ( _! heat to preheat ! air :i* is pump$ to ! bla/ furnace4 ,! gases be+ ma9ly compos$ ( c>bon monoxide are fur!r combu/ible & may be us$ = heat1 light1 & p[] purposes4 ,9 fact1 !y are commonly us$ to drive ! air compressors :i* fe$ ! bla/ furnaces4 ,! bla/ furnace has two op5+s1 "o above ! o!r4 ,?r\gh ! upp] "o slag is drawn (f :ile ! molt5 iron :i* trickles d[n & collects at ! bottom ( ! furnace is tapp$ (f ?r\gh a hole ne> ! base ( ! furnace4 ,! fi]y /ream p\rs out into a lot ( small tr\gh-%ap$ molds & is ?us =m$ into 8pigs40 ,^! pigs are all connect$ to ! ma9 body ( ! metal /ream & mu/ be brok5 (f4 ,to save ! "t ( cool+ & ( break+ (f ! pigs a ma*9e is us$ :i* consi/s ( a s]ies ( molds connect$ to =m an endless belt4 ,! molt5 iron is p\r$ into ^! molds :i* 9 _! c\rse dip into a tr\gh ( wat]4 ,"h ! iron is cool$ & solidifi$4 ,! molds !n run up an incl9e & f9ally dump ! pigs directly into railway c>s :i* haul !m away4 ,,burn+ ,,out ,,! ,,c>bon ,! production ( /eel economically & on a l>ge scale dates back to ! inv5tions ( ,h5ry ,bessem]4 ,:ile se>*+ = an improv$ me?od ( mak+ big guns1 ,bessem] hit ^u ! idea ( =c+ a bla/ ( air ?r\gh ! molt5 iron & ?us burn+ away c>bon1 silicon1 & manganese 9 ! ca/ iron4 ,no fuel 0 suppli$ except ! c>bon & silicon 9 ! iron itself4 ,9 burn+ out ?is c>bon suffici5t heat 0 g5]at$ to keep ! metal fluid4 ,:5 ,bessem] made ! ann\ncem5t ( 8 new process be=e ! ,briti% ,association 9 #ahef1 8 pap] met ) skepticism1 b he 0 able to demon/rate by actual exp]im5t t ca/ iron c\ld be conv]t$ into malleable iron 9 ?is way4 ,h[ev]1 :5 sev]al firms op]at+ "u lic5ses f ! inv5tor endeavor$ to reproduce 8 exp]im5t on a comm]cial scale !y 7 unsuccessful1 & aft] co/ly exp]im5ts ! process 0 giv5 up z a failure4 ,bessem]1 h[ev]1 p]si/$ 9 8 ef=ts & succe$$ ev5tually 9 produc+ malleable iron ( a quality equal if n sup]ior to t on ! m>ket4 ,b iron mak]s aft] ! failure ( ! fir/ exp]im5ts w\ld h no?+ to d ) ! new process until ,bessem] began to turn out quantities ( iron at #ajj a ton bel[ ! prevail+ m>ket price4 ,!n iron mak]s woke up & ,bessem] _h no difficulty 9 plac+ 8 process ) numb]s ( firms on a v pr(itable royalty basis4 ,?is process p]ta9$ to ! mak+ ( iron & n /eel4 ,:5 ,bessem] tri$ to produce /eel he 0 confront$ ) s]i\s difficulties4 ,! /eel he obta9$ 0 v brittle4 ,he tri$ pur] ores ) little bett] success4 ,!n a solution ( 8 problem 0 (f]$ by ,rob]t ,f4 ,mu%et1 :o discov]$ a comp\nd :i* w\ld be add$ to ! molt5 metal to purify x4 ,?is comp\nd :i* is kn[n z 8spiegeleis50 is compos$ ( iron1 c>bon1 & manganese4 ,x removes ! oxide ( iron & ! sulphur & regulates ! am\nt ( c>bon 9 ! /eel4 ,a ,bessem] conv]t] furni%es by f> ! mo/ spectacul> op]ation 9 /eel manufacture4 ,! conv]t] consi/s ( a l>ge bottle-%ap$ vessel l9$ ) refractory mat]ial4 ,9 ! bottom ( ! vessel !re are op5+s ?r\gh :i* ! air bla/ is admitt$4 ,! molt5 metal is p\r$ into ! flask & !n ! air bla/ is turn$ on4 ,! metal beg9s to boil viol5tly4 ,a dazzl+ly brilliant bla/ ( flame & sp>ks comes ro>+ out ( ! m\? ( ! conv]t]4 ,bubbles ( metal are ?r[n high into ! air :]e !y bur/ into %[]s ( sp>ks4 ,! effect is simil> to t ( a volcanic eruption4 ,9 f t5 to tw5ty m9utes ! eruption subsides & !n a quantity ( spiegeleis5 is add$4 ,! conv]t] is m\nt$ on trunnions s t :5 ! op]ation is complet$ ! vessel is tilt$ ov] & ! *>ge ( molt5 metal n[ conv]t$ into /eel is p\r$ out4 ,,op5 ,,he>? ,,furnaces ,illu/ration3 ,,molt5 ,,metal ,,f ,a ,,bla/ ,,furnace ,illu/ration3 ,,bessem] ,,conv]t] ,,bl[+ ,,air ,,?r\gh ,a ,,mass ,,( ,,molt5 ,,iron ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,/eel ,,beam ,,pass+ ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,f9i%+ ,,rolls ,,( ,a ,,/eel ,,mill ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,a ,,reg5]ative ,,op5-,,he>? ,,furnace ,:ile ! ,bessem] conv]t] provides a v economical & exp$iti\s me?od ( conv]t+ ca/ iron into /eel1 x is difficult to regulate ! c>bon cont5t ) great accuracy & h5ce ! use ( ! op5-he>? furnaces :i* furni% a sl[] me?od ( burn+ out ! c>bon4 ,figure #gd is a diagrammatic repres5tation ( su* a furnace4 ,bel[ ! he>? ( ! furnace !re are two pairs ( *amb]s1 ,a1 ,b & ,c1 ,d1 fill$ ) a *eck]work ( bricks4 ,gas is pass$ ?r\gh "o *amb] ,a1 & air ?r\gh ! o!r ,b1 & !y comb9e to =m a v int5se flame above ! he>? ,e 9 :i* ! metal is plac$4 ,! burnt gases pass ov] & ?r\gh ! o!r pair ( *amb]s1 ,c1 ,d1 on _! way to ! /ack4 ,by ?is means ! bricks 9 ! latt] *amb]s are rais$ to a :ite heat4 ,!n ! process is rev]s$2 air fl[s ?r\gh ! hot *eck]work ( bricks 9 ! *amb] ,c & gas ?r\gh ! hot *eck]work 9 *amb] ,d1 & aft] combu/ion 9 ! furnace ! burnt gases are drawn ?r\gh ! bricks ( ! fir/ pair ( *amb]s4 ,by alt]nat+ ! direction ( fl[ ! air & gas f$ to ! furnace are always preheat$ by ! /or$-up heat ( ! previ\sly burn$ gases4 ,:ile x takes b a few m9utes to conv]t ca/ iron into /eel 9 ! ,bessem] conv]t]1 ! op5-he>? process occupies f eight to twelve h\rs4 ,! /eel produc$ 9 ! op5-he>? furnaces is p\r$ into +ot molds4 ,^! are approximately rectangul> 9 section & slightly l>g] at ! bottom ?an at ! top4 ,!y are op5 at ! top & bottom1 b at ! bottom re/ ^u a base plate4 ,z soon z ! /eel has h>d5$ ! plung] ( a /ripp+ ma*9e holds d[n ! gl[+ +ot :ile a pair ( hooks lift (f ! mold1 leav+ ! +ot re/+ on ! base plate4 ,,roll+ ,,+ots ,,into ,,rails ,9 ! manufacture ( railroad rails ! +ots are plac$ on a travel+ 8table0 consi/+ ( a s]ies ( rapidly turn+ roll]s4 ,^! c>ry ! +ot to a pair ( l>ge /eel rolls betwe5 :i* x passes4 ,! rolls compress ! +ot slightly & x is automatically turn$ ov] & pass$ ?r\gh a second pair ( rolls4 ,aft] pass+ ?r\gh f\r 8/&s0 ( rolls1 turn+ ov] betwe5 ea* /&1 x is consid]ably r$uc$ 9 cross-sectional area & correspond+ly l5g!n$4 ,x is n[ t]m$ a 8bloom40 ,! bloom goes ?r\gh a s]ies ( roll]s :i* gradually r$uce its section until x is "s =ty feet long4 ,!n x is cut 9 two & ea* section passes ?r\gh o!r rolls1 until f9ally x is r$uc$ to ! requir$ rail section4 ,ea* section is !n ab\t a hundr$ & tw5ty feet long & ! gl[+ wri?+ rail passes on to ! saws :]e x is cut into t5-y>d l5g?s4 ,a simil> process is employ$ 9 roll+ o!r =ms ( rails & 9 mak+ /eel plates & %eets4 ,,/eel ,,= ,,big ,,guns ,! l>ge/ ma*9es employ$ 9 ! /eel indu/ry are ^? us$ = ! manufacture ( armor & big guns4 ,a mod]n l>ge high-p[]$ gun is n a s+le solid ca/+ or =g+1 b is made up ( a s]ies ( /eel tubes t are %runk "o ^u ano!r s t ! inn] tube is compress$4 ,! reason = ?is is t ! explosives us$ are s p[]ful t !y w\ld exp& ! inn] tube or l9+ ( ! gun beyond its ela/ic limit & 9 t way enl>ge ! bore4 ,by hav+ x compress$ to />t ) x c exp& f>!r )\t exce$+ ! ela/ic limit4 ,?is expansion takes place s sudd5ly t ! l9+ reb\nds or returns to its orig9al dim5sions be=e ! out] tubes h felt ! full pressure & !y too are ?us prev5t$ f be+ exp&$ too f>4 ,9 "s cases ! compression is effect$ by w9d+ ! gun ) a heavy wire ( rectangul> cross section4 ,,squeez+ ,,out ,,! 8,,pipes0 ,/eel = guns & armor is made 9 ! op5-he>? furnace :]e ! quality ( ! metal may be regulat$ to a nicety4 ,gun tubes are ca/ 9 v]tical molds & dur+ ! cool+ ( ! +ot x is subject$ to pressure s z to prev5t segregation & ! =m+ ( 8pipes40 ,pipes are cavities t are liable to =m 9 ! c5t] ( ! +ot due to contraction dur+ cool+4 ,/eel1 z we h le>n$1 is n pure iron1 b an alloy1 & ! v>i\s con/itu5ts h diff]5t temp]atures ( solidify+1 consequ5tly !y exhibit a t5d5cy to segregate4 ,x is to ov]come su* t5d5cies t a s-call$ 8fluid0 compressor is us$4 ,?is is virtually a hydraulic press ) a plung] t be>s d[n on ! fluid metal z x is solidify+4 ,mod]n big guns are enorm\sly l>ge4 ,a sixte5-in* #ej-;calib] gun1 = in/ance1 is ne>ly sev5ty feet long1 consequ5tly ! +ot mu/ be ev5 long] ?an ?is & ! fluid compressor = s l>ge a piece mu/ be correspond+ly p[]ful4 ,aft] ! +ot has be5 ca/ & cool$1 ! ends are cut (f & x is bor$ to =m a tube4 ,!n x is plac$ 9 a furnace & rais$ to a :ite heat1 aft] :i* a b> or m&rel is ins]t$ 9 ! bore & ! tube is plac$ "u ! hydraulic =ge press4 ,?is is a v p[]ful ma*9e ) an imm5se hamm] t is actuat$ by hydraulic pressure4 ,! /roke ( ! hamm] is c>efully regulat$ s t ! =g+ z x is turn$ 9 ! =ge is subject$ to equal bl[s4 ,9 ! =ge ! tube is r\ghly =m$ to ! dim5sions x is ev5tually to h :5 f9i%$4 ,! process ( =g+ subjects ! metal to /ra9s :i* mu/ be reliev$ & s ! tube has to g to ! anneal+ ov5 :]e x is rais$ to a temp]ature :i* de/roys cry/allization4 ,9 ?is ov5 x is all[$ to cool v sl[ly1 lett+ ! molecules ( ! metal adju/ & re>range !mselves4 ,:5 ! temp]ature ( ! tube has be5 l[]$ to a c]ta9 po9t x is tak5 out & plung$ into a ba? ( oil4 ,?is sudd5 cool+ temp]s ! metal1 giv+ x a high degree ( ela/icity & t5sile /r5g?4 ,aga9 ! tube mu/ be anneal$ to relieve x ( any /ra9s occasion$ by ! temp]+1 & !n x goes to ! %op to receive its f9i% bor+ & turn+4 ,! process z "h briefly describ$ seems simple en\gh1 b we mu/ n =get ! enorm\s size ( ^! pieces & _! trem5d\s weight4 ,!y w\ld be difficult en\gh to h&le :5 cold1 b mu* ( ! "w is done :ile ! pieces are at a :ite heat s t ! m5 :o control & op]ate ! ma*9]y t h&les ! big =g+s mu/ keep _! di/ance4 ,! ca/+1 anneal+1 & temp]+ op]ations are p]=m$ ) ! piece 9 v]tical position1 & l(ty ma*9es & cranes are requir$ to deal ) ^! tall ca/+s4 ,a visit to a plant :i* manufactures big guns is b\nd to impress ! visitor ) awe & give him increas$ respect = ! m5 :o are able to h&le su* huge masses ( metal & also = ! m5 :o h conceiv$ & develop$ su* gigantic op]ations4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,animat$ ,,ma*9]y ,,9 ,,m>k$ contra/ to ! massive ma*9]y & app>atus describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 & fully z wond]ful1 is a class ( ma*9]y to :i* we might apply ! t]m 8animat$40 ,by ?is we d n mean manik9s or toys1 b c]ta9 high] types ( ma*9es :i* seem to be possess$ ( p[]s t we %\ld expect to f9d only 9 liv+ be+s--ma*9es t h a s5se ( t\*1 sight1 & he>+--ma*9es t w reason out a ma!matical problem2 t w talk2 t h ! equival5t ( a memory4 ,9 ?is broad classification we may include su* widely diff]5t ma*9es z ! motion-picture cam]a & projector1 & t my/]i\s me*anism :i* seems animat$ ) /range p[]s ( its own--- ! gyroscope4 ,,ma!matical ,,ma*9es ,add+1 subtract+1 multiply+1 divid+1 & ! work+ out ( complex ma!matical problems by ma*9e seems wond]ful until we /op to reflect t ma!matics is ! mo/ precise & me*anical ( all sci5ces4 ,9 ! simpl] =ms ^! ma*9es are m]e c\nt+ me*anisms 9 :i* ! c\nt+ is done v rapidly by ! aid ( int]me%+ ge>s4 ,! add+ ma*9e is 9 no s5se possess$ ( any reason+ p[]1 b bl9dly obeys ! simple/ ( me*anical laws4 ,!re are r[s ( :eels ) numb]s runn+ f #j to #i pr9t$ on _! p]iph]ies4 ,"o :eel repres5ts 8digits10 ! next 8t5s10 ! next 8hundr$s10 etc4 ,! :eels are int]connect$ by means ( ge>+ s t :5 ! digits :eel makes a complete turn1 ! t5s :eel makes #a-aj? ( a turn1 & :5 ! t5s :eel completes a rotation ! hundr$s :eel makes #a-aj? ( a turn4 ,keys numb]$ f 8#j0 to 8#i0 are provid$1 :i* respectively turn ea* :eel ?r\gh angles f #a-aj? to #aj-aj?s ( a rotation4 ,?us suppose ! digit :eel has already be5 turn$ ?r\gh #i-aj?s ( a rotation & regi/]s ! figure 8#i10 & ! 8#h0 key is depress$1 ! :eel w be giv5 an additional turn ( #h-aj?s ( a rotation & w regi/] ! figure 8#g10 b ! t5s :eel to ! left w also move ?r\gh #a-aj? ( a rotation1 s t ! two :eels w regi/] 8#ag40 ,su* is ! und]ly+ pr9ciple ( ! add+ ma*9e1 b v>i\s ref9em5ts are add$4 ,= in/ance1 ! numb]s t are be+ add$ are record$ 9 pr9t1 & ! total sum ( ! numb]s is n pr9t$ until ! op]ator desires to foot up ! column4 ,m complicat$1 ( c\rse1 are ! ma!matical ma*9es :i* "w out involv$ equations1 b !y are all bas$ on simple me*anical op]ations4 ,9 ! ,wea!r ,bureau at ,wa%+ton !re is a tide-pr$ict+ ma*9e1 :i* has be5 call$ a 8great brass bra940 ,its brass ge>s may be set to all[ = all ! v>y+ factors ( app>5t sol> & lun> motions1 & !y w "w out ! tide = any pa/ or future data 9 a few mom5ts1 solv+ me*anically a ma!matical problem t1 by h&1 w\ld take h\rs & h\rs ( we>y figur+4 ,,he>+ ,,& ,,talk+ ,,) ,a ,,me*anical 8,,e>0 ,x 0 9 #ahgg t ,edison />tl$ ! _w ) a ma*9e t c\ld actually talk4 ,o!rs _h be5 work+ on ?is problem = ye>s1 b !y _h be5 try+ to copy ! human m\? & organs ( spee*4 ,edison attack$ ! problem f a new angle4 ,he 0 n aim+ to produce spee* b to reproduce x4 ,let ! human vocal organs modulate ! s\nd waves s t !y w\ld produce spok5 words2 he w\ld provide a ma*9e ) no m\? b only an e> & a v ret5tive memory :i* w\ld li/5 to ^! s\nd waves & make an impression ( !m on its s(t t9foil or wax bra94 ,!n1 at any "t by ! pr9ciple ( 8rev]sal10 ! record c\ld be made ! transmitt] in/ead ( ! receiv] ( s\nd waves1 & x w\ld actuate ! e> s t x w\ld repeat ! s\nd vibrations x _h =m]ly receiv$4 ,?us ,edison made ! e> ( 8 ma*9e s]ve ! d\ble (fice ( he>+ & talk+4 ,:5 ,edison's phonograph 0 li/5+ x _h a %>p ne$le atta*$ to ! e>-drum or diaphragm ( ! s\nd box1 :i* cut a hill & dale groove 9 ! bra9 or cyl9d] record ( ! ma*9e2 :5 reproduc+1 a blunt ne$le 0 us$ :i* fai?fully foll[$ ! hills & dales ( ! groove )\t cutt+ a pa? ( its own4 ,! next notable improvem5t 9 ! phonograph 0 t ( ,emile ,b]l9]1 :o 9 #ahhg inv5t$ ! lat]ally vibrat+ ne$le :i* cut a zigzag groove 9 ! record in/ead ( a hill-&-dale groove4 ,9 o!r words1 in/ead ( hav+ 8 record+ ne$le move 9 & out z 9 ! ,edison ma*9e1 x mov$ sidewise4 ,he also inv5t$ ! flat-disk record1 :i* has almo/ completely supplant$ ! cyl9drical record4 ,,ma*9es ,,t ,,picture ,,motion ,9 a measure associat$ ) ! phonograph is ! motion-picture ma*9e1 a ma*9e ) an eye & a ret5tive memory1 :i* records on a s5sitive ret9a a s]ies ( pictures t x is able to reproduce at any "t4 ,! record+ ( /ill photographs is rem>kable en\gh 9 itself1 b photography does n prop]ly belong 9 a book on ma*9]y4 ,! tak+ ( motion pictures1 h[ev]1 & ! projection ( ^! pictures ^u ! scre51 involves ! use ( ma*9]y1 & we mu/ ref] to ^! ma*9es briefly1 ow+ to _! widespread use at ! pres5t "t4 ,long ye>s ago x 0 obs]v$ t :5 a picture is sudd5ly fla%$ be=e ! eye an image is impress$ ^u ! ret9a1 :i* p]si/s = a brief int]val ev5 aft] ! picture itself has be5 )drawn f view4 ,by prep>+ a s]ies ( pictures ( a figure :i* %[ x 9 progressive positions & fla%+ ^! pictures 9 rapid succession be=e ! eye1 p]si/5ce ( vision w bridge ! gaps betwe5 pictures & ! figure w appe> to move4 ,?is pr9ciple 0 fir/ us$ z e>ly z #ahcd 9 an +5i\s toy kn[n z 8zoetrope10 :i* consi/$ ( a c>dbo>d cyl9d] ) a s]ies ( pictures drawn on ! inn] surface4 ,!re 7 slots cut 9 ! cyl9d] ?r\gh :i* ^! pictures on ! opposite face ( ! cyl9d] c\ld be se54 ,z ! cyl9d] 0 revolv$ ! eye caught only mom5t>y glimpses ( ^! pictures1 "o aft] ! o!r1 produc+ a s5se ( motion4 ,9 #ahgj1 ,h5ry ,heyl ( ,philadelphia prep>$ a progressive s]ies ( photographs ea* sep>ately pos$ be=e ! cam]a4 ,f ^! he made glass positives & project$ !m on a scre5 9 rapid succession s t ! picture appe>$ to move4 ,9 #ahhj1 ,edw>d ,muybridge set up a batt]y ( cam]as & took a succession ( in/antane\s pictures ( a gallop+ horse4 ,! %utt]s 7 op]at$ by /r+s /ret*$ across ! c\rse & z ^! 7 successively snapp$ by ! horse ! pictures 7 progressively expos$4 ,glass positives ( ^! pictures 7 ?r[n on ! scre5 by means ( a ma*9e to :i* he gave ! =midable "n 8zopraxiscope40 ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,! ,,photographic ,,film ,no "o at t e>ly date _h ?\ght ( us+ any?+ b glass plates1 & !y 7 difficult to h&le1 bo? 9 ! cam]a & 9 ! projector4 ,x 0 n until #ahhg t ! celluloid film 0 inv5t$ by ,rev4 ,hannibal ,goodw91 & !n x became possible = ,edison to inv5t a cam]a ) a film t 0 int]mitt5tly mov$ s z to take a s]ies ( pictures4 ,f ! negative ?us obta9$ a positive film 0 !n made & plac$ 9 a ma*9e kn[n z a 8k9etoscope40 ,look+ ?r\gh a peephole 9 ?is ma*9e ! pictures 7 fla%$ be=e ! eye 9 rapid succession4 ,f9ally1 9 #ahic1 ,c4 ,francis ,j5k9s1 ( ,wa%+ton1 develop$ a projector simil> to ^? n[ 9 use by :i* ! pictures c\ld be ?r[n on a scre54 ,?us 0 born ! motion-picture indu/ry :i* has tak5 su* a /rong hold on ! public4 ,x is n[ possible to project pictures 9 _! natural color s z to add to _! realism1 b "o m /ep is ne$$ to give a s5se ( real life4 ,! figures on ! scre5 mu/ talk z well z move4 ,ef=ts to comb9e ! phonograph ) motion pictures h s f> be5 only p>tially successful4 ,p]fect syn*ronism is v difficult to obta91 b x is highly probable t ob/acles :i* hi!rto h be5 mo/ tr\blesome & seem+ly insurm\ntable w1 9 "t1 be ov]come4 ,!n ! 8sil5t drama0 w no long] be sil5t & we %all h 8animat$ pictures0 t w be really animat$4 ,9 addition to ma*9es t talk we h ma*9es t he>--ma*9es t w respond to s\nd waves4 ,a diaphragm flex$ by s\nd waves closes an electric circuit & />ts ! op]ation ( a ma*9e4 ,"s toys h be5 made :i* op]ate on ?is pr9ciple4 ,exp]im5ts h be5 made ) a typewrit] t w respond to a spok5 message1 b s f> !y h n be5 att5d$ ) mu* success4 ,boats h be5 built ^: /e]+ ge> may be controll$ by s\nd waves1 b z yet no?+ ( comm]cial importance has be5 develop$ 9 ma*9es controll$ by s\nd4 ,,ma*9es ,,t ,,see ,mu* m has be5 done ) ma*9es t see4 ,!re is a delicate device kn[n z a 8sun valve10 :i* is us$ on beacon lights s t z soon z x gr[s d>k or v foggy ! lamp is automatically light$1 & :5 ! day dawns or light breaks ?r\gh ! fog ! light is ext+ui%$4 ,! sun valve has two rods1 "o brightly poli%$ & ! o!r a dead black4 ,light & its att5dant radiant heat waves are absorb$ by ! black rod1 b are reflect$ f ! bright rod4 ,z a consequ5ce1 ! black rod gr[s hott] ?an ! poli%$ rod & exp&s4 ,! diff]5ce ( expansion betwe5 ! two rods is utiliz$ to op]ate a valve :i* controls ! supply ( gas to ! lamp4 ,?is valve is v s5sitive & m>vel\sly responsive to v>iations ( light4 ,!re is a *emical elem5t call$ sel5ium1 :i* is peculi>ly s5sitive to light4 ,:5 light %9es ^u sel5ium its electrical resi/ance is l[]$1 & h5ce x c be us$ z a light-op]at$ valve to control ! fl[ ( electric curr5t4 ,a ,,ma*9e ,,t ,,reads ,,pr9t ,"o ( ! mo/ m>vel\s ma*9es ( ! pres5t day is "o :i* w actually read ord9>y pr9t$ type1 utt]+ musical s\nds t v>y = ea* lett]1 s t a bl9d man aft] le>n+ ?is new musical language c read any book4 ,?is ma*9e1 kn[n z ! optophone1 is ! inv5tion ( ,pr(4 ,e4 ,f\rni] d',albe1 & 0 develop$ to a comm]cial success la/ ye> 7#aibj74 ,) x bl9d op]ators are able to read at ! rate ( tw5ty-five words p] m9ute4 ,! op]ation ( ?is wond]ful ma*9e c be/ be und]/ood by ref]5ce to ! accompany+ diagrams1 ,figures #ge & #gf4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagrammatic ,arrangem5t ( ,optophone4 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,end ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,optophone ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,side ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,optophone ,!re is an electric lamp 9 ! ma*9e be=e :i* !re is a disk t is revolv$ by a small motor4 ,9 ?is disk !re are five circul> r[s ( slots & ! light %9+ ?r\gh ^! slots is cut up into five pulsat+ beams ( light4 ,^! beams are br\ght to a focus 9 a v]tical r[ ^u ! type page4 ,f ! pap] !y are reflect$ to a sel5ium cell or bridge4 ,! sel5ium bridge =ms "p ( ! circuit ( a telephone receiv] & ! diaphragm is ?us made to vibrate at ! same frequ5cy z ! light beams d4 ,by v>y+ ! numb] ( slots 9 ea* r[ 9 ! disk ! beams ( light are giv5 diff]5t p]iods ( pulsation or vibration & !y produce a s\nd *ord or 8scala0 9 ! telephone receiv]4 ,! spe$ ( ! disk & ! disposition ( ! slots is s *os5 t ! notes produc$ are ,g ,c ,d ,e ,g ( ! musical scale4 ,only :ite pap] reflects ! light beams2 ! black surface ( ! pr9t$ type absorbs !m4 ,?us1 z ! r[ ( beams is swept across a l9e ( pr9t$ matt]1 ! beams w be ext+ui%$ 9 v>i\s ord]s ( succession1 or simultane\sly 9 accordance ) ! %ape ( ! p>ticul> type-"* !y enc\nt]4 ,! middle ?ree beams correspond to notes ,c1 ,d & ,e1 & play ^u ! small lett]s1 :ile ,g plays up ! upp] "p ( capital lett]s1 & ,g ^u ! tails ( su* lett]s z y1 p1 etc4 ,if ! scala passes ov] ! lett] 8,v10 = in/ance1 fir/ ! top note ,g is sil5c$1 !n ,e1 ,d1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e & ,g 9 succession4 ,?is arrangem5t con/itutes :at is kn[n z ! 8:ite s\nd+0 optophone1 because ! full *ord is s\nd$ con/antly1 except :5 ! type matt] is enc\nt]$4 ,to simplify ! read+ an improv$ type ( optophone has be5 made1 :i* is kn[n z ! 8black-read+0 optophone1 ,) ?is ma*9e !re is no s\nd produc$ except :5 ! type is enc\nt]$4 ,! lett] 8,v0 is !n id5tifi$ by ! s\nd+1 in/ead ( ! sil5c+ ( ! notes ,g1 ,e1 ,d1 ,c1 ,e & ,g4 ,! lett] 8,a0 produces ! s\nds ,c1 ,d1 ,,de1 ,,dg1 ,,de1 ,d & ,c4 ,?is result is obta9$ by us+ two sel5ium bridges1 z %[n bett] 9 ! side view1 ,figure #gf4 ,!re is a concave reflect+ l5s1 :i* reflects half ( ! light ^u ! second cell1 kn[n z ! balanc] sel5ium bridge4 ,electric curr5t pass+ ?r\gh ! balanc] opposes ! curr5t pass+ ?r\gh ! ma9 sel5ium bridge1 & h5ce !re is sil5ce 9 ! telephone receiv] :5 ! scala passes ov] pla9 :ite pap]1 b :5 type is enc\nt]$ & c]ta9 ( ! beams are n reflect$ aga9/ ! ma9 sel5ium bridge ! s\nds are produc$ ?r\gh ! balanc] bridge4 ,! success ( ! optophone leads "o to hope t x may be b ! =]unn] ( a ma*9e t w translate ! :ole _w ( light & color into "o ( music1 & p]mit ! bl9d n only to read by e>1 b also to see _! fri5ds & _! surr\nd+s ?r\gh ! s5se ( he>+4 ,9 fact ef=ts to make su* an app>atus prec$$ ! inv5tion ( ! optophone4 ,,! ,,willful ,,gyroscope ,z intimat$ above1 we h includ$ ! gyroscope among ! high] type ( ma*9es1 because x seems possess$ ( a /ubborn w ( its own1 & app>5tly defies ! laws ( gravity4 ,!re is no?+ my/]i\s ab\t its me*anism4 ,x is m]ely a :eel ) a heavy rim & ) its axis m\nt$ 9 gimbals1 s t x may turn freely 9 any direction4 ,! :eel1 :5 at re/1 behaves no diff]5tly f any o!r me*anism4 ,b once ! :eel is set to sp9n+ at a high velocity x seems to acquire m>vel\s p[]s & ob/9ate notions ( its own z to :at x w d & :at x won't d4 ,y may lift x1 or l[] x1 or move x sideways 9 any direction1 & x w n %[ ! lea/ sign ( rebellion s long z ! plane ( its rotation is n deflect$1 b attempt to twi/ its plane ( rotation & x w resi/ ) ! p[] ( a giant4 ,! resi/ance t ev5 a small gyroscope w develop is a/\nd+4 ,a :eel weigh+ n m ?an #aj p\nds may develop s mu* en]gy t a man tw5ty times z heavy pu%+ ) all 8 might _c turn x ov]4 ,n only does x resi/ ! pu%1 b x actually leans back aga9/ ! pu%]4 ,!n x has ! peculi> habit ( turn+ at "r angles to ! direction 9 :i* x is pu%$4 ,suppose1 = in/ance1 ! axis ( ! gyroscope is horizontal & x is re/+ freely on a pair ( supports1 "o at ea* end4 ,remove "o ( ! supports & ! gyroscope does n fall4 ,to d s x w\ld h to sw+ ar\nd ! o!r po9t ( support z a c5t]2 9 o!r words1 ! plane ( rotation w\ld h to be turn$ angul>ly & su* a motion ! gyroscope resi/s4 ,! unsupport$ end ( ! axis dips mom5t>ily "u ! pull ( gravity1 b imm$iately recov]s & actually rises above ! horizontal1 !n x beg9s to revolve sl[ly 9 a horizontal circle ab\t ! support$ end ( ! axis--a motion :i* is te*nically kn[n z 8precession04 ,! pull ( gravity ex]t$ 9 a d[nw>d direction results 9 a horizontal motion at "r angles !reto4 ,x seems z if ! gyroscope 0 bidd+ defiance to laws t gov]n o!r objects1 b1 ( c\rse1 su* is n ! case4 ,! gyroscope is z submissively ob$i5t to ! laws ( gravity z any o!r object or ma*9e1 b ! =ces :i* act ^u x are s complicat$ t x is difficult = "o to compreh5d !m )\t /udy4 ,9 fact1 x is almo/ impossible to expla9 ! /range behavior ( a gyroscope )\t ! use ( ma!matics t is too involv$ to be pres5t$ 9 ?is book4 ,( c\rse1 ! und]ly+ cause ( gyroscopic action is in]tia2 i4 e41 ! t5d5cy ( a body to reta9 its /ate ( re/ or uni=m motion4 ,a bullet is =c$ out ( a gun by ! sudd5 expansion ( gases beh9d x1 b aft] x leaves ! muzzle & ! influ5ce ( ! gases1 :y does x keep on travel+8 ,we may j z well rev]se ! "q & ask :y x %\ld ev] /op4 ,hav+ once acquir$ a c]ta9 velocity x keeps t velocity because ( its in]tia or me*anical helplessness1 & x w\ld keep on go+ =ev] 7 x n = ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! air & ! pull ( gravity1 :i* gradually draws x d[n to e>?4 ,x takes a deal ( en]gy to div]t ! bullet f its c\rse4 ,9 a gyroscope we h a simil> condition4 ,,=ces ,,develop$ ,,9 ,a ,,gyroscope ,we may conceive ( a gyroscope z consi/+ ( a /ream ( bullets all ti$ to a c5t]1 s t !y fly ar\nd 9 a circle4 ,any ef=t to deflect ! bullets out ( _! c\rse w be resi/$ by ea* bullet z x comes to ! deflector4 ,"h ea* bullet acts individually1 b 9 a gyroscope :eel ! equival5t ( ! /ream ( bullets is a solid rim1 ea* p>ticle ( :i* is rigidly connect$ to e o!r p>ticle1 & s ! :ole :eel imm$iately feels ! deflect+ =ce & resi/s x4 ,z long z ! :eel is ma9ta9$ 9 its own plane ( rotation1 or mov$ into p>allel planes1 !re is su* a p]fect balance ( all =ces t no m resi/ance is (f]$ to ! motion ( ! :eel z a :ole ?an w\ld be (f]$ by any o!r object ( equal mass4 ,b :5 ! :eel's plane ( rotation is mov$ angul>ly1 a complicat$ s]ies ( =ces is develop$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,,"s ,,( ,,! ,,=ces ,,develop$ ,,9 ,a ,,gyroscope ,,:5 ,,its ,,plane ,,( ,,rotation ,,is ,,subject$ ,,to ,,angul> ,,motion ,"s idea ( ! nature ( ^! =ces & :y !y give rise to precession may be und]/ood by ref]5ce to ! diagram1 ,figure #gg4 ,"h we h a disk ) a heavy rim turn+ on ! axis ,x1 ,x4 ,at ,a1 ,b1 ,c & ,d are f\r p>ticles ^: flights we are go+ to consid]4 ,suppose ! :eel to be at re/2 !n if ,x1 ,x is tilt$ 9 ! direction ( ! arr[s x x1 ! :eel w turn ab\t ! l9e ,y ,y2 ,d w move =w>d t[>d ,d1 & ,b backw>d t[>d ,b1 b ,a & ,c w rema9 :]e !y are4 ,n[1 suppose1 ! :eel to be revolv+ clockwise1 or 9 ! direction ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 !n ! p>ticle ,a w pursue a spiral c\rse t w br+ x to ,b1 & ,c w pursue a spiral c\rse t w br+ x to ,d4 ,h[ev]1 p>ticle ,d w h an irregul> c\rse1 z indicat$ by ! dott$ l9e1 />t+ fir/ to move =w>d & !n curv+ back t[>d ,a4 ,! same w be true ( ,b1 except 9 ! rev]se direction4 ,! c\rse ( p>ticles ,d & ,b is1 !re=e1 mat]ially diff]5t f t ( ,a & ,c4 ,n[1 ! p>ticle ,d w resi/ be+ deflect$ f its c\rse & w develop an oppos+ =ce repres5t$ by ! arr[ d4 ,a mom5t lat] ?is is rev]s$ z ! p>ticle b5ds back t[>d ! axis ,y ,y1 & we may repres5t ! new =ce by ! arr[ d4 ,x may be prov$ t ! =ce d is m p[]ful ?an t ( d4 ,! p>ticle ,a 9 ! meantime ex]ts a =ce oppos+ its deflection1 :i* is repres5t$ by ! arr[ a4 ,on ! o!r half ( ! :eel !re are simil> b opposite =ces1 b1 b & c4 ,! sum ( ^! =ces gives ! :eel a t5d5cy to turn ab\t ! axis ,z ,z4 ,to avoid complicat+ our diagram ) too _m arr[s1 we _h bett] ref] to a new diagram 7,figure #gh7 :i* %[s only ! resultant ( ! =ces develop$4 ,! application ( ! =ces x x1 :i* w\ld h turn$ ! :eel on ! axis ,y ,y1 _h x be5 /ation>y1 h result$ 9 ! developm5t ( =ces z z at "r angles to x x1 t5d+ to turn ! :eel ab\t ! axis ,z ,z4 ,n[1 if we g ?r\gh ! same processes ( reason+ z be=e1 x w be evid5t t ! =ces z z w result 9 a ?ird set ( =ces y y at "r angles to z z t5d+ to turn ! :eel ab\t ! axis ,y ,y4 ,! =ces y y exactly balance ! =ces x x1 & h5ce ! :eel does n turn ab\t ! axis ,y ,y 9 response to ! orig9al =ces1 b />ts in/ead to revolve sl[ly ab\t ! axis ,z ,z4 ,because ! =ces x x & y y balance ea* o!r1 !re is no f\r? c\ple develop$ & h5ce no opposition to ! =ces z z4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,,diagram ,,expla9+ ,,precessional ,,movem5t ,,( ,a ,,gyroscope ,! gyroscope 0 us$ z a toy ages ago4 ,! top1 :i* is "o =m ( gyroscope1 0 a favorite play?+ ( anci5t ,egypt4 ,b al?\gh kn[n ^! _m c5turies1 x is only 9 ! pa/ few ye>s t any real ef=t has be5 made to set ! top to "w4 ,because x p]si/s 9 ma9ta9+ its plane ( rotation x has prov$ mo/ useful on subm>9e torp$oes to control ! rudd] & hold ! torp$o on a true c\rse to its t>get4 ,,! ,,gyroscope ,,z ,a ,,compass ,ano!r mo/ important use = ! gyroscope is f\nd 9 ! subm>9e itself4 ,! ne$le ( a magnetic compass is kept po9t+ nor? by action ( ! magnetic l9es ( =ce :i* surr\nd ?is e>?4 ,:5ev] a l>ge mass ( iron is plac$ ne> ! compass ! magnetic field is di/ort$ & ! compass ne$le is deflect$ f ! true nor?4 ,on mod]n /eel vessels ! compass has to be c>efully correct$ by us+ iron masses to c\nt]balance o!r di/urb+ masses4 ,h[ev]1 9 a subm>9e ! :ole %ell ( ! vessel is ( /eel & ! magnetic l9es ( =ce fl[ along ?is %ell4 ,! compass ne$le is virtually insulat$ f ! t]re/rial magnetism by ! surr\nd+ /eel hull4 ,b1 =tunately1 ! gyroscope may be us$ z a compass & x is 9 no way affect$ by magnetism4 ,once ! gyroscope is set sp9n+ ) its axis po9t+ to ! ,nor? ,pole ( ! heav5s x w cont9ue to po9t 9 t direction no matt] h[ devi\s a c\rse ! vessel may pursue4 ,if po9t$ 9 "s o!r direction1 ! precessional =ces set up by ! rotation ( ! e>? w turn x due nor?4 ,z ! vessel rolls or pit*es1 di/urb+ precessional movem5ts are likely to be set up4 ,^! are ov]come by special me*anism1 s t ! gyroscopic compass may n[ be dep5d$ ^u z a p]fectly reliable in/rum5t4 ,,prev5t+ ,,%ips ,,f ,,roll+ ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable rec5t developm5ts ( ! gyroscope is its use z a /abiliz] 9 %ips to keep !m f roll+ 9 a heavy sea4 ,a comp>atively small :eel is m\nt$ 9 ! hold ( ! vessel ) p]fect fre$om to turn 9 any direction4 ,if ! :eel is clamp$ s t x _c precess1 ! vessel w roll & pit*1 b ! in/ant ! gyroscope is releas$ x ex]ts its wond]ful p[]s4 ,! %ip rides smoo?ly & its groan+ & creak+ ceases1 %[+ t x is no long] subject$ to sev]e /ra9s4 ,( c\rse1 x rises & falls ) ! waves1 b x ma9ta9s an ev5 keel z if sail+ 9 smoo? wat]4 ,! object ( /abiliz+ a %ip is n m]ely to cat] to ! com=t ( pass5g]s :o are subject to seasickness1 b to save we> & te> on ! vessel & also to economize "t & fuel4 ,an un/abiliz$ %ip rid+ a heavy sea pursues a v s9u\s c\rse2 9 o!r words1 x mu/ travel f>!r ?an x w\ld 9 smoo? wat]4 ,! rudd] mu/ con/antly be turn$ to keep ! %ip on its c\rse1 & ?is acts z a drag on ! progress ( ! %ip1 sl[+ x d[n & wa/+ ! p[] ( ! eng9e4 ,z ! %ip wall[s 9 ! sea x displaces mu* m wat] ?an x does :5 rid+ on an ev5 keel & "h !re is a fur!r loss4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t a #ae1jjj-ton vessel runn+ at #ah knots may wa/e z mu* z #a1jjj to #a1bjj horsep[] 9 a heavy sea4 ,if /abiliz$ ) a gyroscope1 practically all ?is wa/$ horsep[] w\ld be sav$ at ! exp5se ( a v small am\nt ( p[] us$ 9 keep+ ! gyroscope sp9n+4 ,! fir/ man to /abilize a %ip ) a gyroscope 0 ,dr4 ,s*lick1 :o demon/rat$ ! p[]s ( ?is my/]i\s me*anism 9 #aijf4 ,8 /abiliz]1 h[ev]1 0 n s5sitive en\gh to provide p]fect /abiliz+4 ,! %ip _h to roll "s be=e ! gyroscope ex]t$ its corrective =ces4 ,rec5tly1 h[ev]1 ,mr4 ,elm] ,a4 ,sp]ry has improv$ ! /abiliz]1 mak+ x s s5sitive t !re is practically no roll+ or pit*+ ( ! vessel4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 ! gyroscope may be us$ n only to keep a %ip f roll+1 b also to make x roll4 ,%\ld a vessel run ^u a mud flat x may be rock$ by brak+ or accel]at+ ! precessional motion ( ! gyroscope4 ,9 ?is way ! %ip may "w itself out ( ! mud bank4 ,ice break]s are equipp$ ) gyroscopes1 s t !y may be roll$ to prev5t !m f be+ froz5 into an ice pack & to assi/ !m 9 cru%+ _! way ?r\gh ! ice4 ,,! ,,mono-,,rail ,,c> ,9 #aijg a s5sation 0 creat$ by ! exhibition ( a c> :i* ran on a s+le rail4 ,! inv5tor ( ?is monorail c> 0 ,mr4 ,l\is ,br5nan4 ,! public 0 a/oni%$ at ! ease ) :i* ?is c> ma9ta9$ its balance on ! rail1 lean+ 9 z x r\nd$ a curve to keep its equilibrium4 ,pass5g]s c\ld move ab\t at w )\t ! slighte/ dang] ( upsett+ ! c>2 9 fact1 if a heavy weight 0 plac$ on "o side ( ! c> t side w\ld rise r ?an fall4 ,! c> c\ld run ) equal ease ^u a cable ( a crook$ pipe l9e4 ,! gyroscope t ma9ta9$ ! balance ( ! c> consi/$ ( a c\ple ( small :eels :i* revolv$ 9 a vacuum *amb] at ! rate ( #g1jjj revolutions p] m9ute4 ,once />t$1 little p[] 0 requir$ to keep !m go+4 ,int]e/+ z ?is c> 01 x did n (f] suffici5t advantages ov] ! pres5t-day d\ble rail c>s & locomotives to ju/ify its developm5t on a comm]cial scale4 ,al?\gh witnesses ( ! exhibition m>vel$ at ! /range spectacle ( ?is me*anical tight-rope walk]1 !y did n realize t !y !mselves _h _h gyroscopic c>s 9 _! mid/ = ye>s4 ,! gyroscopic action ( ! :eels ( a motorcycle is v m>k$4 ,x is ?is action :i* is ma9ly responsible = hold+ ! ma*9e upright4 ,! same is true ( a bicycle1 al?\gh ! gyroscopic effect is n q s m>k$1 because ( ! l[] velocity ( ! :eels4 ,h[ev]1 we all "k t any t5d5cy = ! ma*9e to fall to "o side or ! o!r may be correct$ by a slight turn ( ! front :eel 9 t direction :i* at once has ! effect ( br++ ! bicycle back to v]tical position4 ,,! ,,automatic ,,a]oplane ,,pilot ,/ill ano!r rec5t developm5t ( ! gyroscope is its use z an 8automatic pilot0 on a]oplanes4 ,two s5sitive gyroscopes are us$ to /abilize ! a]oplane4 ,if a gu/ ( w9d t5ds to tilt ! ma*9e1 ! gyroscopes imm$iately s5se ! deviation & by clos+ electrical circuits op]ate ! ail]ons to br+ ! ma*9e back to a horizontal plane4 ,an aviator possesses a c]ta9 s5se ( balance :i* is highly develop$ by exp]i5ce & long practice1 b at its be/ x does n beg9 to comp>e ) s5se ( balance possess$ by ! gyroscope4 ,n only w x keep ! ma*9e f tipp+ lat]ally1 b x w also hold x on a level keel & c be us$ to /e] ! a]oplane 9 any desir$ direction1 s t ! human pilot may surr5d] ! helm to ! fai?ful me*anical pilot ) p]fect confid5ce 9 ! ability ( ?is animat$ ma*9e to hold ! a]oplane on a true c\rse despite ! vag>ies ( ! w9d4 ,:ile ?is is !oretically possible1 9 practice c]ta9 difficulties are enc\nt]$ :i* up to ! pres5t h prev5t$ gyroscopic control ( a]oplanes f be+ entirely successful4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,heat ,,vacuums ,,9 ,,! prec$+ *apt] we dealt ) high temp]atures & _! employm5t 9 melt+1 mold+1 & work+ /eel into useful =ms4 ,x w be well = u to pause "h to consid] temp]atures at ! o!r end ( ! !rmomet] scale1 h[ !y are obta9$1 & ! important "p !y play 9 mod]n civilization4 ,x is n absolutely correct to speak ( produc+ 8cold40 ,we are apt to =get t cold is m]ely abs5ce ( heat4 ,/rictly speak+1 !re is no?+ cold on e>?4 ,ev]y?+ is m or less hot4 ,a piece ( ice at #cb degrees ,f4 is hot comp>$ ) a lump ( froz5 alcohol1 & ! latt] at its freez+ po9t is hot comp>$ ) a lump ( froz5 air1 :ile air at its freez+ po9t is hot comp>$ ) a lump ( solid helium4 ,9 o!r words1 froz5 alcohol w be melt$ by ! heat 9 ! ice2 froz5 air w be melt$ by ! heat 9 froz5 alcohol1 & froz5 helium w be fus$ by ! heat 9 froz5 air4 ,ev]y?+ conta9s heat1 & "o object is cold] ?an ano!r only because x conta9s less heat4 ,( c\rse1 ! temp]ature ( ice may v>y4 ,"o block ( ice may be t51 fifty1 or a hundr$ degrees w>m] ?an ano!r1 b ice _c be heat$ above #cb degrees ,f4 at ! normal pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,ice is really a p>tial heat vacuum1 a *amb] p>tially exhau/$1 into :i* heat w fl[ if x gets a *ance4 ,we pack x away 9 sawdu/1 granulat$ cork1 or o!r mat]ials ?r\gh :i* heat c ) difficulty p5etrate1 & !n 9 hot wea!r cakes ( ice are plac$ 9 our h\sehold refrig]ators1 s t ! heat t is 9 our food w h some?+ to fl[ into4 ,:5 we place our h&s ne> a cake ( ice1 !y feel cool & x seems z if ice radiat$ cold j z a /ove radiates heat2 b1 ( c\rse1 su* is n ! case4 ,! heat ( our h&s radiates m rapidly 9 ! direction ( ! cake ( ice ?an 9 o!r directions1 because !re is a p>tial heat vacuum = ! heat to fl[ into & ! result is a s5sation ( cold4 ,we no long] dep5d ^u cold w9t]s = our supply ( ice4 ,we h le>n$ h[ to pump heat & we c make heat vacuums1 any:]e & at any "t1 ev5 9 ! he>t ( ! tropics1 & regions 9 :i* no natural ice is ev] obta9able h ! b5efits ( refrig]ation4 ,fur!rmore1 we are n dep5d5t ^u ice = cool+ foods4 ,9 _m cases x is n necess>y or ev5 desirable to r$uce temp]atures to ! freez+ po9t ( wat]4 ,a mod]ate *ill+ is all t is requir$ = c]ta9 foods4 ,by ! prop] use ( refrig]at+ ma*9]y any degree ( temp]ature may be obta9$ & ma9ta9$4 ,to-day small refrig]at+ plants are con/ruct$ = dome/ic purposes1 s z to r5d] ! h\sewife indep5d5t ( ! ice man4 ,) refrig]ator c>s & refrig]at+ plants on %ipbo>d1 fruit f ! f> we/ & f tropical l&s may be br\ght to our breakfa/ table4 ,meats f nor!rn slaught]h\ses may be transport$ 9 p]fect condition into hot s\!rn climes4 ,!re are also c]ta9 indu/ries :i* are dep5d5t on ! use ( ! l[ temp]atures4 ,9 brew]ies1 dairies1 m>g>9e factories1 etc41 refrig]ation is ( ! utmo/ importance1 & refrig]at+ ma*9]y is us$ = cool+ & dry+ ! air bla/ = bla/ furnaces4 ,9 "s few places refrig]at+ ma*9]y is us$ to cool build+s 9 w>m wea!r & make life m be>able 9 summ] wea!r4 ,x is highly probable t refrig]ation ( dwell+s w be m & m ext5sively develop$4 ,9 w9t] "t we c make ! climate 9 our h\ses any?+ we please4 ,:y %\ld we n control ! indoor climate 9 summ] "t z well8 ,,absolute ,,z]o ,! volume ( a gas v>ies inv]sely 9 accordance ) ! pressure to :i* x is subject$1 & also directly accord+ to ! temp]ature4 ,if we />t ) a gas at ! freez+ po9t 7#cb degrees ,f47 & r$uce its temp]ature #a degree 7or to #ca degrees ,f471 we f9d t ! volume ( ! gas is r$uc$ #a_/dib4f ( its orig9al volume1 provid$1 ( c\rse1 t we d n v>y ! pressure on x4 ,9 fact1 = e r$uction ( #a degree bel[ ! freez+ po9t !re is a r$uction ( #a_/dib4f ( its volume1 & = e degree ( increas$ temp]ature !re is an increase ( #a_/dib4f ( ! volume4 ,f ?is x is assum$ t at #dib4f degrees bel[ ! freez+ po9t1 or #dfj4f degrees bel[ z]o ,f41 we w rea* ! absolute z]o1 or ! po9t at :i* !re is no m heat 9 ! gas4 ,we h n yet succe$$ 9 rea*+ ! extreme ( l[ temp]ature1 al?\gh we h come v ne> x 9 laboratory exp]im5ts4 ,helium is liquefi$ at -#ddh degrees ,f41 :i* is v ne> to ! absolute z]o4 ,at ! o!r end ( ! scale we h atta9$ enorm\sly high temp]atures4 ,! heat ( ! electric arc1 = in/ance1 is betwe5 #f1ejj & #g1bjj degrees ,f41 & t is ! highe/ degree ( temp]ature t we h be5 able s f> to atta94 ,human life occupies a v limit$ zone 9 ?is range ( temp]atures4 ,we mu/ ma9ta9 our blood at a temp]ature ( #ih degrees ,f4 ,a v>iation ( #h degrees ei!r way is fatal4 ,by pil+ on heat insulators1 su* z fur clo?+1 to reta9 ! heat ( our bodies & keep x f fl[+ out too rapidly1 we c ma9ta9 ! blood temp]ature at #ih :ile ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e may be #gj or #hj degrees bel[ z]o4 ,!re are int]nal fires )9 u t g5]ate heat :i* radiates f ! body1 & by *eck+ ?is radiation by suitable clo?+ we c ma9ta9 our blood at ! normal temp]ature4 ,b :at c we d :5 ! surr\nd+ temp]ature is high] ?an blood heat8 ,! outside heat may be kept f fl[+ 9 by surr\nd+ ourselves ) heat-insulat+ clo?+1 b ! int]nal heat !n has no means ( radiat+ away f our bodies2 x accumulates1 & we become ov]heat$4 ,h[ev]1 ,nature provides a cool+ sy/em 9 ! p]spiration :i* oozes f our pores1 & z ?is evaporates x cools ! sk9 & enables u to ma9ta9 our normal blood heat1 al?\gh subm]g$ 9 an atmosph]e ( a high] temp]ature4 ,if ! air is dry1 ! evaporation is m rapid & ! cool+ is great] ?an 9 a moi/ atmosph]e4 ,t is :y a temp]ature ( #aje degrees on our ,we/]n pla9s may be m endurable ?an a temp]ature ( #ie degrees 9 ! moi/ atmosph]e ( ,new ,york4 ,! importance ( keep+ d[n ! temp]ature ( ! blood is p>ticul>ly appreciat$ by physicians1 & = ?is reason ! e>lie/ attempts at artificial cool+ 7 made by physicians4 ,,e>ly ,,uses ,,( ,,l[ ,,temp]atures ,v e>ly 9 8 hi/ory man discov]$ fire1 le>n$ h[ to k9dle x & h[ to use x = 8 good4 ,t discov]y plac$ him imm$iately on a level f> above ! bea/s4 ,h[ev]1 x is only 9 comp>atively rec5t times t he has le>n$ ! uses ( l[ temp]atures4 ,nature's /ores ( ice 7 drawn ^u1 & me?ods ( pres]v+ ice ?r\gh w>m wea!r 7 discov]$ 9 anci5t times4 ,n]o _h ice h\ses built = him 9 ,rome1 b he c\ld /ock ^! build+s only ) ! ice t nature furni%$ him4 ,freez+ mixtures ( salt & ice1 su* z we use 9 our ice-cream freez]s to-day to obta9 temp]atures f> bel[ ! freez+ po9t ( wat]1 7 probably kn[n 9 e>ly times1 b ! anci5ts did n "k h[ to produce ice4 ,artificial ice 0 probably fir/ made 9 ,india1 :]e x has long be5 ! practice to produce ice by evaporation4 ,wat] is plac$ 9 %all[ pans & !n dry air is circulat$ ov] x1 caus+ s rapid a vaporization z to cool ! wat] to ! freez+ po9t4 ,! idea ( cool+ wat] by evaporation belongs to v anci5t times4 ,wat] plac$ 9 por\s e>!n vessels 0 f\nd to be cool] ?an wat] kept 9 wat]-tight j>s4 ,! moi/ure t escap$ ?r\gh ! vessel w\ld evaporate1 & 9 s do+ draw heat out ( ! vessel & its cont5ts4 ,to-day camp]s keep wat] cool by putt+ x 9 canvas buckets & hang+ ! buckets 9 ! w9d1 s t ! moi/ure ooz+ ?r\gh ! canvas w evaporate quickly4 ,x 0 n until #agee t a me*anical means ( produc+ l[ temp]atures 0 develop$4 ,! inv5tor 0 ,dr4 ,cull51 & he us$ an evaporation sy/em1 exp$it+ ! evaporation by produc+ a p>tial vacuum ov] ! wat]4 ,b ne>ly a c5tury elaps$ be=e ! fir/ comm]cially successful refrig]at+ ma*9e 0 built4 ,ev5 !n ! advantages ( artificial refrig]ation 7 n fully realiz$1 & x 0 n until late 9 ! la/ c5tury t real progress 0 made4 ,s9ce !n ! developm5t ( artificial refrig]ation has be5 truly rem>kable4 ,,heat ,,& ,,me*anical ,,en]gy ,!re is a def9ite relation betwe5 heat & me*anical en]gy1 9 fact ! two are mutually conv]tible4 ,! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( a p\nd ( wat] #a degree ,f4 is call$ a ,briti% !rmal unit or a ,b4 t4 u4 ,?is measure is tak5 at #ci4a degrees ,f41 because at t temp]ature wat] is at its d5se/4 ,s9ce heat & me*anical en]gy are mutually conv]tible1 we c express foot-p\nds or horsep[] 9 ,b4 t4 u4 ,"o ,b4 t4 u4 is equival5t to #ggh foot-p\nds ( en]gy4 ,9 o!r words1 ! am\nt ( heat t w\ld raise ! temp]ature ( a p\nd ( wat] #a degree ,f4 w\ld1 if conv]t$ into me*anical en]gy1 be suffici5t to raise a weight ( #ggh p\nds to a height ( "o foot1 or "o p\nd to a height ( #ggh feet4 ,a horsep[] is equival5t to #b1ede ,b4 t4 u4 p] h\r4 ,heat f burn+ coal is us$ to g5]ate /eam1 & ?is 9 turn is us$ to op]ate a /eam eng9e & ?us heat is conv]t$ into me*anical en]gy 7un=tunately mo/ ( ! orig9al heat units 9 ! coal are wa/$1 z 0 po9t$ out 9 a previ\s *apt]72 b heat w n fl[ f "o body into ano!r ( high] temp]ature )\t ! exp5diture ( me*anical en]gy4 ,x always fl[s f a hot body into a cold "o1 & n f ! cold body into ! hot "o1 unless x is actually pump$ up to ! high] heat level by "s me*anical means4 ,a refrig]at+ ma*9e is actually a heat pump ) :i* we produce a p>tial heat vacuum4 ,:5ev] a gas is compress$1 heat is g5]at$4 ,anyone :o has op]at$ a tire pump kn[s h[ hot ! pump becomes f ! heat t is seem+ly squeez$ out ( ! compress$ air4 ,z 0 not$ 9 ,*apt] ,,viii1 heat is liable to give tr\ble 9 an air compressor1 & sometimes ! temp]ature rises to su* a po9t t !re is an explosion ( ! air & ! vapors com+ f ! oil us$ to lubricate ! ma*9e4 ,! compress$ air is !re=e cool$ by means ( wat] jackets or coils ( pipe ?r\gh :i* wat] is pass$4 ,9 ?is way ! excess heat is c>ri$ (f4 ,:51 h[ev]1 cool$ compress$ air is reliev$ ( pressure & all[$ to exp& aga9 ! process is rev]s$4 ,a p>tial heat vacuum is =m$ & heat f surr\nd+ objects fl[s into ! vacuum4 ,9 o!r words1 ! surr\nd+ objects are cool$4 ,,cold ,,air ,,ma*9es ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,,cold ,,air ,,ma*9e ,x is a simple matt] to make a ma*9e :i* w alt]nately compress1 cool1 & exp& air 9 su* a way z to produce a l[]$ temp]ature4 ,su* a ma*9e is indicat$ diagrammatically 9 ,figure #gi4 ,!re are two cyl9d]s1 ,a & ,b1 & a cond5s] at ,c4 ,:5 ! pi/on a 9 cyl9d] ,a desc5ds x compresses ! air 9 ! cyl9d]2 ?is air fl[s into ! cond5s] ,c4 ,!re is a coil ( pipe 9 ?is cond5s] ?r\gh :i* wat] circulates4 ,?is c>ries (f ! heat ( compression & !n a valve is op5$ :i* p]mits ! cool] air to pass (f into cyl9d] ,b4 ,z ! air exp&s 9 ?is cyl9d] x becomes *ill$4 ,?is *ill$ air is !n =c$ out ( cyl9d] ,b by means ( pi/on b & fl[s into ! refrig]ator or cold /orage room ,d4 ,z ! air is liable to take up moi/ure & to introduce objectionable vapors f oil us$ to lubricate ! pumps1 x is usually conf9$ 9 pipes 9 ! refrig]ator & !n return$ to ! cyl9d] ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,compositor ,,at ,,"w ,,on ,a ,,l9otype ,,ma*9e ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,optophone ,an in/rum5t :i* enables ! bl9d to read common pr9t ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,bl9d ,,man ,,read+ ,,) ,,8 ,,e>s ,?is is a type ( a refrig]at+ ma*9e t is us$ v ext5sively on %ips = *ill+ p]i%able foods4 ,h[ev]1 air has only a v l[ capacity = heat1 & 9 ord] to obta9 an appreciable am\nt ( refrig]ation v l>ge volumes ( air mu/ be h&l$4 ,?is means t cold-air ma*9es mu/ be v l>ge & bulky4 ,! effici5cy ( su* ma*9es is l[1 b !y f9d favor on %ipbo>d because !re are no inflammable or poison\s gases to be dealt )4 ,9 ! /&>d ma*9e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,navy air is compress$ to #bfj p\nds2 & 9 ! expansion is rais$ to #fj p\nds pressure1 :i* is en\gh to r$uce ! temp]ature to betwe5 #gj to #ij degrees bel[ z]o4 ,,lat5t ,,heat ,f> m effici5t are ! ma*9es :i* utilize lat5t heat4 ,z expla9$ 9 a previ\s *apt]1 :5ev] a solid is conv]t$ into a liquid or into a gas a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat is absorb$ & /or$ up 9 su* a way z n to become app>5t to ! s5ses or to a !rmomet]4 ,su* heat is kn[n z 8lat5t heat40 ,= in/ance1 we c add a p\nd ( wat] at #ej degrees temp]ature to a p\nd ( wat] at #bjj degrees1 & ! mixture w h a temp]ature ( #abe degrees1 or ! mean ( #bjj #ej degrees4 ,b a p\nd ( ice at #cb degrees mix$ ) a p\nd ( wat] at #bjj degrees w n give u #aaf degrees 77#bjjcb7_/b71 b only #dd degrees4 ,9 o!r words1 ab\t #adc heat units w be r5d]$ lat5t 9 conv]t+ solid wat] into liquid wat]1 r$uc+ ! temp]ature ( ! wat] to #eg degrees & !n ! mean ( #eg & #cb is #dd4e 7#bjj-adceg1 7#egcb7_/b #dd74 ,a m /rik+ exp]im5t is to mix a p\nd ( wat] cool$ to #cb degrees ,f4 ) a p\nd ( wat] at #age degrees ,f41 & ! result w be two p\nds ( wat] at #ajc4e degrees1 b if we mix a p\nd ( *opp$ ice at #cb degrees ,f4 ) a p\nd ( wat] at #age degrees ,f41 ! result w be two p\nds ( wat] cool$ to ! freez+ po9t4 ,9 pass+ f a liquid into a gas wat] absorbs f> m heat & r5d]s x lat5t4 ,= ea* p\nd ( wat] conv]t$ into /eam at atmosph]ic pressure #igj ,b4 t4 u4 are absorb$4 ,?is /orage ( lat5t heat is utiliz$ to good advantage 9 refrig]at+ ma*9]y4 ,! vacuum ma*9e inv5t$ by ,dr4 ,cull5 9 #agee 0 a lat5t heat ma*9e4 ,,vacuum ,,ma*9es ,z we h obs]v$ be=e1 ! boil+ po9t ( a liquid dep5ds ^u ! pressure to :i* x is subject$4 ,"u ! normal atmosph]ic pressure ( #ad4g p\nds p] in* ! boil+ po9t ( wat] is #bab degrees ,f41 b if ! pressure be increas$ ! boil+ po9t rises1 & if x be r$uc$ ! boil+ po9t is l[]$4 ,9 a p>tial vacuum ( t5 p\nds absolute pressure ! boil+ po9t is #aic4b degrees1 at "o p\nd x is #ajb4a degrees1 & if ! pressure is r$uc$ to 4#jhi p\nd wat] w boil at #cb degrees1 or its normal freez+ po9t4 ,dr4 ,cull51 by exhau/+ ! air f a vessel conta9+ wat]1 made ! wat] boil or vaporize at a l[ temp]ature4 ,9 ord] to boil x _h to absorb heat1 & n be+ suppli$ ) any ext]nal heat x _h to draw ^u itself1 ?us produc+ ice4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,,diagrammatic ,,view ,,( ,a ,,vacuum ,,refrig]at+ ,,ma*9e ,dr4 ,cull5's ma*9e has be5 improv$ ^u by us+ v>i\s *emical sub/ances to absorb ! wat] vapor4 ,su* a ma*9e is %[n 9 ,figure #hj4 ,! vacuum *amb] ,a is p>tly fill$ ) br9e1 :i* may be cool$ bel[ ! freez+ po9t ( pure wat] )\t congeal+4 ,a pump1 ,b1 ma9ta9s a vacuum 9 ! *amb]4 ,9 ! upp] "p ( ! vacuum *amb] !re is a vessel1 ,c1 into :i* sulphuric acid is spray$ f a res]voir1 ,d4 ,?is acid has a /rong aff9ity = wat] vapor & ha/5s ! evaporation by absorb+ ! vapor ) :i* x comes 9 contact4 ,! mix$ sulphuric acid & wat] fl[s ov] into a receiv]1 ,e4 ,! acid is reconc5trat$ by /eam heat s t x c be us$ ov] aga94 ,h[ev]1 ?is feature ( ! process is n %[n 9 ! diagram4 ,br9e f ! *amb] ,a passes ?r\gh a coil ( pipe ,f 9 ! tank ,g1 :]e ! ice is made1 & x is return$ to ! vacuum *amb] by an injector ,h1 :i* at ! same "t introduces fre% wat] into ! *amb] to take ! place ( t absorb$ by ! acid4 ,! fre% wat] & br9e ent] z a spray at ,i1 s z to increase ! rate ( evaporation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,,orig9al ,,absorption ,,ma*9e ,,! ,,absorption ,,process ,ano!r =m ( refrig]ation is kn[n z ! absorption sy/em1 & /rangely en\gh direct heat is appli$ to ! ma*9e 9 "o place 9 ord] to ab/ract heat f x 9 ano!r4 ,a diagrammatic repres5tation ( ! fir/ ma*9e ( ?is type 7:i* 0 inv5t$ by ,fr$]ick ,c>r7 is %[n 9 ,figure #ha4 ,two vessels1 ,a & ,b1 are employ$1 :i* are connect$ by a tube ,c4 ,! vessel ,a conta9s ammonia solution4 ,a lamp1 ,d1 is plac$ "u ! vessel ,a4 ,suffici5t heat is produc$ to vaporize ! ammonia1 ^: boil+ po9t is v l[1 & di/ill x out ( ! wat] 9 ! solution4 ,x passes ?r\gh tube ,c into vessel ,b4 ,?is vessel is surr\nd$ by a tank1 ,e1 conta9+ cold wat]1 :i* cond5ses ! ammonia vapor into liquid ammonia1 !n ! process is rev]s$4 ,! circulation ( wat] ?r\gh tank ,e is *eck$ & wat] f pipe ,f is spray$ on vessel ,a4 ,?is cools ! cont5ts ( vessel ,a1 produc+ a p>tial vacuum4 ,! ammonia 9 *amb] ,b boils & its vapors pass back into *amb] ,a1 :]e !y are reabsorb$ by ! wat] 9 t *amb]4 ,! rapid vaporization 9 *amb] ,b absorbs heat f ! imm$iate surr\nd+s & w freeze wat] plac$ 9 ! tank ,e4 ,9 comm]cial practice ! absorption sy/em is v ext5sively employ$4 ,! ammonia is plac$ 9 a l>ge cyl9d] kn[n z a g5]ator & is heat$ by /eam coils4 ,! ammonia vapor passes ?r\gh an analyz] :i* traps any wat] vapor x may conta91 & !n x goes ?r\gh a s]ies ( cond5s+ coils1 :i* are cool$ by wat]4 ,9 ^! cond5s+ coils ! ammonia vapor is liquefi$ by ! pressure 9 ! g5]ator & collects 9 a receiv]1 :5ce x passes ?r\gh an expansion valve into ! cool+ coils 9 ! br9e tank4 ,f ! cool+ coils ! ammonia gas passes back ?r\gh an absorb] :i* rev]ses ! op]ation ( ! g5]ator4 ,"h weak aqua ammonia is spray$ on ! ammonia gas & absorbs x4 ,! ri* ammonia solution is !n pump$ into ! g5]ator4 ,!re are sev]al auxili>y app>atus :i* are omitt$ 9 ?is brief description 9 ! int]e/ ( cl>ity4 ,,! ,,compression ,,sy/em ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,,diagrammatic ,,view ,,( ,a ,,compression ,,ma*9e ,"o m type ( refrig]at+ ma*9e rema9s to be describ$ & t is ! compression type4 ,?is 0 inv5t$ by ,jacob ,p]k9s 9 #ahcd1 b 0 n develop$ into a comm]cial ma*9e until #ahej4 ,?is ma*9e is ! mo/ important ( !m all4 ,9 "s respects x is l ! absorption process1 b 9 place ( add+ direct heat a compress+ ma*9e is employ$4 ,figure #hb illu/rates ! sy/em diagrammatically4 ,at ,a is ! compressor :i* compresses ammonia gas4 ,! gas :i* is heat$ by ! compressor is !n cool$ & liquefi$ 9 ! cond5s] ,b4 ,!nce x passes into a br9e tank ,c1 :]e x exp&s & absorbs heat4 ,f ?is po9t x is drawn back into ! compressor1 ?us complet+ ! cycle4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ammonia mu/ absorb z mu* heat f ! br9e z is tak5 out ( x at ! cond5s]4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii ,,eng9es ,,( ,,de/ruction ,,at ,,! ,,v beg9n+ ( ?is book we obs]v$ t w> is a mo/ pot5t /imulus to inv5tion among primitive m54 ,despite all our advances 9 civilization we /ill h our w>s1 ea* m dreadful ?an ! prec$+ "o2 = ea* important conflict br+s =? new eng9es ( de/ruction or /imulates ! inv5tion ( new dea?-deal+ ma*9es :i* are develop$ dur+ int]vals ( peace4 ,s t]rible has mod]n w> become t ) ea* great conflict x has seem$ z if its v dreadfulness w\ld /ay ! h& ( ! invad] & make him hesitate to expose 8 m5 to ! horrible mon/]s :i* sci5ce & inv5tion h creat$4 ,to-day1 aft] a titanic /ruggle :i* co/ millions ( human lives1 :i* de/roy$ billions ( doll>s' wor? ( prop]ty1 & :i* made itself felt to ! remote/ corn]s ( ! e>?1 s]i\s ef=ts are be+ made to bani% w>1 b at ! same "t inv5tors "h & abroad are busy inv5t+ new & m p[]ful eng9es ( dea?1 & ! prospects are t ! next big w>1 %\ld !re ev] be "o1 w be ev5 m horrible & de/ructive ?an ! "o we h j pass$ ?r\gh4 ,=tunately eng9es ( dea? are n ! only inv5tions produc$ by w>4 ,_m ma*9es1 app>atus1 & processes are orig9at$ or develop$ :i* h a di/9ct value 9 "t ( peace2 h5ce w> is a great con/ructive z well z a de/ructive ag5cy4 ,9 ?is respect ! great ,_w ,w> 0 no exception & we are already reap+ b5efits :i* 9 a small way comp5sate = ! havoc t 0 wr\ght4 ,x advanc$ sci5tific rese>* to a po9t x w\ld n h rea*$ 9 fifty ye>s ( peace4 ,! /imulus 0 felt 9 e field ( sci5ce f *emi/ry to ac\/ics1 f geology to meteorology4 ,wond]ful progress 0 made 9 radiotelephony1 9 subm>9e navigation1 9 aviation1 & !re 7 scores ( inv5tions :i* w add to our com=t & aid u 9 ! ma/]y ( ,nature4 ,_m ( ^! inv5tions h already be5 describ$2 o!rs d n prop]ly belong 9 ?is volume z !y h to d *iefly ) electricity or *emi/ry4 ,9 ?is *apt] we %all take up ma9ly ! ma*9es built = ! purpose ( de/roy+ m5 & _! works4 ,,primitive 8,,eng9es0 ,,( ,,w> ,( c\rse ! ma9 objects ( w> are (f5se & def5se1 ! de/ruction ( ! oppon5t & ! protection ( "o's self4 ,?is fir/ fight+ 0 a h&-to-h& /ruggle :i* gave way to fight+ at a di/ance z spe>s & arr[s 7 inv5t$4 ,%ields & armor 7 !n inv5t$ to w>d (f ^! missiles4 ,cities 7 surr\nd$ ) walls to hold (f ! enemy4 ,!n came ! ,roman w> 8eng9es10 catapults & batt]+ rams1 to de/roy ! walls & t[]s :i* w\ld enable ! besieg]s to fight on an equal level & 9 p]sonal contact ) ! besieg$4 ,al?\gh a battle might />t ) long-di/ance fight+ x 0 always a h&-to-h& enc\nt] t cl9*$ ! victory4 ,ev5 to-day1 al?\gh we h our big guns :i* fight at ranges ( five to tw5ty miles1 x is ! rifle or bayonet :i* w9s or loses ! battle4 ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,gunp[d] ,! introduction ( gunp[d] f ,*9a 9 ! fifte5? c5tury did n imm$iately revolutionize w>f>e4 ,x 0 us$ only 9 cannon or mort>s = hurl+ l>ge /ones at city walls4 ,! range ( ^? cannon 0 s limit$ & ! "t x took to load & fire !m 0 s great t !y 7 ( little use on an op5 battlefield4 ,a cannon1 al?\gh a comp>atively p[]ful (f5sive weapon1 0 helpless aga9/ attack & 0 only suitable = use 9 =ts or beh9d brea/works4 ,lat] :5 its range 0 increas$ & x came to be us$ on ! battlefield x _h to be protect$ f capture by m5 suppli$ ) small arms4 ,?is defect ( ! cannon also appli$ to ! use ( ! h& gun4 ,its range 0 small & consequ5tly ! blund]buss type 0 inv5t$ to spread ! *>ge ( %ot z mu* z possible s z to te> a wide gap 9 ! enemy's l9e & prev5t x f clos+ 9 ^u ! op]ator ( ! gun4 ,b ! load+ & fir+ ( ^! e>ly fire>ms 0 extremely sl[ & ! battle-ax & ev5 ! arr[ & ! crossb[ 7 mu* m effective weapons4 ,s unreliable 7 ! muskets ( our ,revolution>y ,w> t 9 battle m dep5d5ce 0 plac$ ^u ! bayonet ?an ! fire>m4 ,,! ,,sp9n+ ,,bullet ,?ree important improvem5ts 7 necess>y to make ! small gun a really effective weapon4 ,fir/ 0 ! inv5tion ( a reliable means ( ignit+ ! p[d]2 second ! rifl+ ( ! b>rel s t ! bullet w\ld n tumble b w\ld hold a true c\rse1 & f9ally ! inv5tion ( a c>tridge & a rifle t c\ld be load$ f ! bree*4 ,^! improvem5ts 7 n completely effect$ until ! "t ( ! ,civil ,w>4 ,s9ce !n !re h be5 fur!r m>k$ improvem5ts3 ,! p[] ( c>tridges has be5 increas$2 ! bullets h be5 giv5 a /ream-l9e =m s z to increase ! range ( ! rifle & its p[] ( p5etration2 ! rifle has be5 equipp$ ) a magaz9e = c>ry+ a numb] ( c>tridges2 & a simple me*anism has be5 provid$ = dis*>g+ empty %ells & ins]t+ fre% c>tridges 9 a m9imum ( "t4 ,gyroscopic action plays a v important "p 9 ! flight ( a bullet or %ell4 ,! spiral grooves cut 9 ! bore ( ! rifle give ! projectile a twi/ t sets x to sp9n+ rapidly4 ,! sp9n+ bullet is virtually a gyroscope & ma9ta9s its axis 9 ! l9e ( flight4 ,h5ce x is possible to use a long po9t$ bullet in/ead ( ! r\nd ball ( e>li] days & to give ! projectile a %ape t w enable x to cut ?r\gh ! air ) comp>atively little resi/ance4 ,! same bullet fir$ f a smoo? bore gun w\ld beg9 to tumble & w\ld enc\nt] s mu* air resi/ance t x w\ld fall %ort 9 ! space ( a few hundr$ feet1 besides :i* x w\ld w&] f> (f its c\rse4 ,,ma*9e ,,guns ,a rifle is really a ma*9e = hurl+ small projectiles4 ,dur+ ! ,civil ,w> a ,*icago physician nam$ ,gatl+ fell to pond]+ ov] ! ineffici5cy ( us+ a ma*9e t w\ld fire only "o bullet at a "t ) a consid]able int]val ( "t betwe5 %ots = reload+1 & he hit ^u ! idea ( develop+ a ma*9e t w\ld dis*>ge a cont9u\s /ream ( bullets4 ,s he built a t5-b>rel revolv+ gun op]at$ by a h& crank4 ,! b>rels 7 automatically load$ & fir$ "o aft] ! o!r4 ,al?\gh x 0 sl[ to accept ! ,gatl+ ma*9e gun1 ! ,u4 ,s4 ,army aft] once accept+ x 0 loa? to give x up ev5 aft] bett] ma*9e guns 7 inv5t$4 ,,utiliz+ ,,! ,,kick ,,( ,a ,,gun ,9 ! ,gatl+ gun h& p[] 0 requir$ to op]ate ! load+1 fir+ & %ell-eject+ me*anism1 b x occurr$ to ano!r inv5tor t a small portion ( ! en]gy develop$ 9 explod+ ! c>tridge c\ld v well be utiliz$ to replace ! h& p[] & ?us make ! ma*9e gun completely automatic4 ,x 0 ,hiram ,maxim :o fir/ c>ri$ out ?is idea to a successful conclusion4 ,:5 a rifle is fir$ ! sudd5ly exp&+ gases pu% back aga9/ ! bree* ( ! gun ) j z mu* pressure z !y d aga9/ ! bullet & ?is %[s itself 9 ! recoil or 8kick0 ( ! gun4 ,maxim utiliz$ ! kick ( ! gun to cock ! gun1 op5 ! bree*1 eject ! empty %ell1 take a fre% c>tridge out ( a magaz9e belt1 ins]t x 9 ! bree* *amb]1 lock ! bree* & fire ! gun4 ,all ^! op]ations occupi$ b an in/ant ( "t & ! gun kept on fir+ z long z ! belt ( c>tridges held out4 ,john ,m4 ,br[n+1 inv5tor ( ! ,colt gun1 in/ead ( us+ ! recoil1 employ$ a small portion ( ! gases to op]ate ! me*anism4 ,a m9ute hole 9 ! b>rel ( ! gun1 ne> ! muzzle1 communicat$ ) a small cyl9d] 9 :i* 0 a spr+-press$ pi/on4 ,! gases pursu+ ! bullet out ( ! b>rel w\ld f9d ?is t9y hole &1 ent]+ x1 pu% back ! pi/on4 ,! pressure aga9/ ! pi/on w\ld be only a small fraction ( t ex]t$ aga9/ ! bullet & w\ld la/ = only ! briefe/ "p ( a second1 f ! "t ! bullet uncov]$ ! hole to ! "t x em]g$ f ! b>rel & lib]at$ ! gases1 b ?is m9ute portion ( ! en]gy ( ! p[d] 0 suffici5t to actuate ! me*anism :i* p]=m$ all ! op]ations necess>y to reload & fire ! gun4 ,,cool+ ,,! ,,gun ,,b>rel ,! advantage ( ^! ma*9e guns ov] ,gatl+'s lay n only 9 ! sav+ ( human labor1 b 9 ! fact t a s+le b>rel 0 employ$ 9 place ( t51 !reby greatly r$uc+ ! weight ( ! gun4 ,b a s]i\s h&icap 0 enc\nt]$ 9 ! heat develop$ by ! burn+ p[d]4 ,dr4 ,gatl+1 by us+ t5 b>rels1 c\ld let n9e be cool+ :ile ! t5? 0 dis*>g+1 b ev5 he f\nd x necess>y to place a wat] jacket ab\t half ! l5g? ( ! b>rels4 ,9 ! ,maxim ma*9e gun a l>ge wat] jacket envelop$ ! :ole l5g? ( ! b>rel & :5 ! gun 0 fir+ cont9u\sly at a mod]ate rate ! #g p9ts ( wat] conta9$ 9 ! wat] jacket w\ld come to a boil inside ( a m9ute & a half1 & !reaft] m ?an a p9t w\ld be evaporat$ ea* m9ute ( fir+1 or ab\t a p9t & a half p] ?\s& r\nds4 ,! necessity ( us+ wat]-cool+ add$ consid]ably to ! weight ( ! gun & made x occupy 9 ! s]vice an int]m$iate place betwe5 ! %\ld] rifle & ! big gun4 ,ano!r me?od ( cool+ 0 to use a b>rel ) a l>ge out] diamet] & dep5d ^u ! radiation ( heat f ! out] surface to prev5t ov]heat+4 ,?is 0 lat] improv$ by putt+ flanges on ! out] surface ( ! b>rel1 s z to increase ! radiat+ surface1 9 ! same way t ! cyl9d]s ( a motorcycle are kept cool4 ,! b>rel 0 made easily deta*able & a sp>e "o provid$1 s t z soon z ! b>rel grew excessively hot x c\ld be remov$ & replac$ ) a cool b>rel4 ,! fault ( ov]heat+ is n t x might explode ! c>tridge prematurely b t ! bore w be enl>g$ by heat expansion s t ! bullets w n take ! rifl+ & w come out ( ! b>rel z if f a smoo?-bore gun4 ,9 a te/ ( a ,hot*kiss ma*9e gun :i* 0 fir$ cont9u\sly ! expansion 0 suffici5t at ! end ( f\r m9utes to make ! c\rse ( ! bullets v unc]ta9 & 9 sev5 m9utes ! bullets1 em]g+ )\t any sp91 tumbl$ ov] & ov] & fail$ to c>ry m ?an ?ree hundr$ y>ds4 ,a ,,gun ,,t ,,fans ,,itself ,! next m>k$ /ep 9 ! developm5t ( ! ma*9e gun 0 to make x fan itself & ?us keep its b>rel cool4 ,col4 ,i4 ,n4 ,lewis design$ a gun op]at$ by gas pressure some:at on ! pr9ciple ( ! ,colt gun & ar\nd ! b>rel he fitt$ sixte5 deep flanges or f9s ( alum9um t ran l5g?wise ( ! gun4 ,ar\nd ^! f9s he fitt$ a cas+1 ?us =m+ #af long n>r[ *amb]s ab\t ! b>rel4 ,! cas+ 0 op5 at ! bree* end1 b at ! out] end 0 contract$ into a n>r[ m\?piece t ext5d$ beyond ! muzzle4 ,! m\?piece 0 s =m$ t z ! bullets pass$ ?r\gh x !y suck$ air ?r\gh ! *amb]s1 !reby cool+ ! gun4 ,! air travels ?r\gh ! cas+ at ! rate ( ab\t sev5ty miles p] h\r4 ,?is design p]mitt$ ,col4 ,lewis to build a v light gun4 ,its total weight 0 b #be p\nds & x c\ld be h&l$ by a s+le man if ! muzzle 0 support$ on "s sort ( a re/4 ,x repres5t$ a m>k$ /ep t[>d a %\ld] ma*9e gun :i* w\ld increase enorm\sly ! effici5cy ( infantry equipp$ ) ?is weapon4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 rifle fire & ma*9e-gun fire has be5 lik5$ to ! diff]5ce betwe5 try+ to hit a t9 c ) a /one & ) a /ream ( wat] f a hose4 ,9 ! latt] case ! hose may be rais$ or l[]$ to correct ! c\rse ( ! /ream & br+ x to be> on ! t>get4 ,9 ! same way by wat*+ ! effect ( ! ma*9e-gun bullets ! lead5 /ream may be correct$ to br+ x directly ^u ! t>get4 ,! advantages ( a weapon su* z ?is1 :i* may be fir$ f ! %\ld] or f ! hip1 are p]fectly obvi\s4 ,z ! w> 0 ne>+ its end ,john ,m4 ,br[n+ produc$ two ma*9e guns1 "o a wat]-cool$ heavy model fir$ f a /&4 ,! total weight ( ?is gun 0 #cd p\nds & ) ! wat] jacket empty x weigh$ b #bb p\nds4 ,x 0 op]at$ by ! recoil ( ! gun1 b ! me*anism 0 greatly simplifi$ & !re 7 b few p>ts4 ,^! c\ld be tak5 ap>t & replac$ ) new ones 9 a m9imum ( "t 9 case ( breakage4 ,! o!r gun 0 a %\ld] rifle weigh+ only #af p\nds1 :i* c>ri$ a clip ( tw5ty c>tridges4 ,^! c\ld be fir$ s+ly or 9 rapid succession 9 ! space ( two & a half seconds4 ,only a second 0 requir$ to replace ! empty clip ) a fill$ "o4 ,no special cool+ app>atus 0 provid$ because x 0 n likely t a %\ld] rifle w\ld be fir$ long en\gh at a "t to become excessively heat$4 ,,pocket-,,siz$ ,,ma*9e ,,gun ,! late/ developm5t 9 ma*9e guns is a pocket edition weapon--a fire>m weigh+ only #g p\nds & measur+ b #bb in*es ov] all4 ,?is little gun :i* is too small to be class$ z a rifle & yet r l>ge = a pi/ol1 has two grips s t x may be fir$ f ! wai/ l9e1 & x may be fitt$ ) a gun butt s t x may be fir$ f ! %\ld]4 ,x op]ates at ! a/\nd+ rate ( #a1ejj %ots p] m9ute or ?ree times ! spe$ ( ! av]age ma*9e gun4 ,! c>tridges are f$ ei!r f a box magaz9e conta9+ #bj r\nds or f a drum-%ap$ magaz9e load$ ) #ej to #ajj c>tridges4 ,! op]at+ me*anism ( ?is gun is entirely diff]5t f any?+ produc$ h]et(ore & dep5ds ^u a discov]y made by ,comm&] ,bli% ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,navy4 ,he f\nd t a w$ge ( a c]ta9 angle w hold a bree*block clos$ aga9/ ! pressure ( an explod+ c>tridge :ile ! pressure is high1 b w slide :5 ! pressure falls4 ,app>5tly at fir/ ! adhesion due to friction is too great to p]mit ! w$ge to move1 b ! adhesion falls (f m rapidly ?an ! pressure does & a po9t is rea*$ at :i* ! w$ge yields to ! pressure4 ,9 ! 8subma*9e0 gun1 z ! new weapon is call$1 ! b>rel 7or r an ext5sion ( ! b>rel7 & ! receiv]1 9 :i* ! op]at+ me*anism is conta9$1 are lock$ toge!r by a w$ge4 ,! w$ge slides 9 slots set at an angle ( #hj degrees ) ! axis ( ! b>rel4 ,:5 a c>tridge is fir$ ! w$ge rema9s fa/ :ile ! bullet is travel+ ?r\gh ! bore1 b :5 x em]ges & ! pressure ( ! gases falls (f ! w$ge slides1 unlock+ ! bree* me*anism4 ,! gun is rem>kable = its simplicity & ! fewness ( its p>ts4 ,x has be5 adopt$ by ! ,police ,dep>tm5t ( ,new ,york ,city4 ,,artill]y ,,vs4 ,,armor ,z has be5 /at$ above1 gunp[d] 0 fir/ introduc$ 9 w>f>e n = ! purpose ( de/roy+ m51 b = sma%+ city walls & =tifications1 s t infantry c\ld p\r ?r\gh ! bree*es made by ! heavy /one or iron projectiles4 ,z artill]y grew m p[]ful & ! aim m accurate walls ( masonry gave way to e>?works & to masses ( concrete & armor$ /eel4 ,h[ev] ! ,_w ,w> demon/rat$ ! impossibility ( build+ any =tifications above gr\nd t w\ld /& up aga9/ mod]n high-p[]$ guns4 ,,guns1 ,,mort>s1 ,,& ,,h[itz]s ,9 milit>y p>lance a 8gun0 is a long-b>rel$ piece t fires its projectiles ) a flat trajectory1 t is1 ! projectile is fir$ at a l[ angle & describes a long flat curve4 ,a 8mort>0 is a %ort-rang$ weapon :i* fires at a high angle s z to l& its projectile ov] ! walls ( a =tification4 ,! b>rel ( ! mort> 0 =m]ly v %ort & _h a smoo? bore1 b lat] ! b>rel 0 ext5d$ & ! bore rifl$ s z to give a great] range1 develop+ :at is kn[n z ! 8h[itz]40 ,! fam\s #db-;c5timet] gun ) :i* ! ,g]mans />t$ ! w> 0 a h[itz] :i* fir$ a %ell a y>d & a half long weigh+ #b1ajh p\nds4 ,we h big guns to def5d our coa/s :i* fire a %ell #af in*es 9 diamet]1 :i* is half an in* less ?an #db c5timet]s1 & ! weight ( ! %ell is #b1djj p\nds4 ,b ! />tl+ ?+ ab\t ! ,g]man big h[itz]s 0 t !y 7 portable & c\ld be br\ght up to sma% fix$ def5ses4 ,z ! w> proce$$ enorm\s guns z well z h[itz]s 7 set on railroad m\nts & mov$ ab\t f "t to "t to avoid discov]y by spy+ aviators4 ,,! #gf-,,mile ,,gun ,! #gf-mile gun :i* bomb>d$ ,p>is fir$ projectiles ( only #h4bg-;in* calib]4 ,! projectile describ$ a wide curve :i* c>ri$ x ab\t tw5ty-f\r miles above ! surface ( ! e>? or ab\t #c times z high z ! greate/ altitude ev] rea*$ by man 9 an a]oplane4 ,_h x pursu$ a p]fectly /raight l9e f ! =e/ ( ,/4 ,goba9 to ,p>is its c\rse w\ld h c>ri$ x #c1gej feet bel[ ! surface1 because ( ! curvature ( ! e>?4 ,! range ( ! projectile 0 v mat]ially increas$ by ris+ to su* a great elevation because ( ! extreme t5uity ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! air resi/ance t a %ell is oblig$ to ov]come is n g5]ally appreciat$4 ,9 ! d5s] /rata ( ! l[] atmosph]e ! resi/ance is v great1 b z a %ell m\nts to high] levels ! air resi/ance falls (f consid]ably & at tw5ty miles x is practically nonexi/5t4 ,x 0 n until ! summ] aft] ! armi/ice t details ( ?is gun 7 disclos$4 ,!re 7 sev5 ( ^! p[]ful guns t p>ticipat$ 9 ! v>i\s bomb>dm5ts4 ,!y wore out v quickly "u ! t]rific /ra9 to :i* !y 7 subject$ & 7 rebor$ to a diamet] ( #i4d in*es4 ,9 ! la/ bomb>dm5t a numb] ( %ells ( ?is size rea*$ ,p>is4 ,! guns 7 fir$ at an angle ( #ee degrees f ! horizontal s z to pass quickly ?r\gh ! d5s] lay]s ( ! air4 ,! %ell left ! muzzle ( ! gun ) ! velocity ( ab\t #e1jjj feet p] second & arriv$ 9 ,p>is ab\t ?ree m9utes lat] ) a velocity ( ab\t half t am\nt4 ,! enorm\s muzzle velocity 0 obta9$ by us+ a v long gun s t ! p[d] c\ld keep pu%+ ! projectile = a comp>atively long "t4 ,! guns 7 built out ( worn-out #ae-;in* naval guns4 ,^! guns :i* 7 #ef feet long 7 rebor$1 fitt$ ) a heavy tube & piec$ out to a l5g? ( #aah feet4 ,! la/ #bj feet ( ! bore 0 n rifl$ & s]v$ z a guide to keep ! %ell 9 p]fect axial alignm5t :5 x em]g$ f ! muzzle4 ,a comp>atively sl[ p[d] 0 us$ s z n to put too sev]e a /ra9 on ! gun at ! bree*1 b gradually to accel]ate ! %ell 9 its travel ?r\gh ! bore4 ,spectacul> z 0 ! p]=mance ( ^! huge guns1 !y 7 ( little milit>y value4 ,! slighte/ v>iation 9 ! p[d] w\ld cause a wide v>iation ( range & !y c\ld n hope to hit a t>get small] ?an a l>ge city4 ,all sev5 guns fir$ a total ( #cjc %ells 9 #dd days ( bomb>dm5t1 only #ahc ( :i* fell )9 ! city4 ,!y kill$ #bef p]sons & w\nd$ #fbj4 ,f> m damage at f> less exp5se c\ld h be5 effect$ by dropp+ bombs f aircraft4 ,a #aba-,,mile ,,gun ,j z a problem 9 ordnance1 ,am]ican (fic]s design$ a gun #bbe feet long :i* w\ld fire a #djj-p\nd %ell ( #aj-;in* calib]4 ,x 0 e/imat$ t ) a *>ge ( #a1ddj p\nds ( p[d] ! %ell w\ld leave ! muzzle ) a velocity ( #h1ejj feet p] second &1 if fir$ at an angle ( #ee degrees1 w\ld h a range ( #aba miles4 ,! %ell w\ld rise to a height ( #df miles above ! e>? & w\ld make ! #aba miles 9 ab\t #d m9utes4 ,! gun 0 nev] built1 because its milit>y value w\ld 9 no way be comm5surate ) its co/ ( con/ruction & op]ation4 ,! purpose ( ! ,g]man long-range bomb>dm5t 0 to produce a moral r ?an a milit>y effect4 ,! ,g]mans hop$ to intimidate ! ,fr5* p by ?is spectacul> p]=mance1 & 9 ?is !y fail$ completely4 ,,tim$ ,,& ,,p]cussion ,,%ells ,9 mod]n w>f>e l>ge guns are us$ ei!r to ra9 a /orm ( dea? ^u infantry or to de/roy _! def5sive works4 ,9 e>li] days ! effectiv5ess ( gunfire aga9/ a *>g+ enemy 0 increas$ by ! use ( grape%ot4 ,a cannon 0 ?us conv]t$ into a gigantic %otgun4 ,b al?\gh a wide disp]sion ( projectiles 0 obta9$ ! range 0 v limit$4 ,?is h&icap 0 !n ov]come by hav+ ! gun fire ano!r gun :i* w\ld dis*>ge :5 x _h rea*$ ! enemy's l9es4 ,9 o!r words1 ! grape%ot or lead5 balls 7 pack$ into a %ell :i* 0 fir$ l a solid projectile1 & ?is explod$ :5 x /ruck ! t>get1 scatt]+ dea? broadca/4 ,an improvem5t on ?is 0 ! tim$ %ell1 :i* w\ld explode :ile /ill 9 ! air & scatt] its ra9 ( lead ov] a wide area4 ,! "t fuse ( a %rapnel %ell mu/ be v delicately adju/$ to explode at ! desir$ in/ant4 ,a tra9 ( p[d] is us$ :i* may be %ort-circuit$ to give ! exact l5g? requir$ = any giv5 di/ance4 ,! p[d] is ignit$ by a cap :i* is explod$ by concussion :5 ! gun is fir$4 ,! fuse !n burns until x rea*es ! ma9 *>ge ( ! %ell4 ,?is explodes1 bur/+ ! %ell op5 & scatt]+ %ell fragm5ts z well z ! scores ( lead balls ) :i* ! %ell is pack$4 ,%\ld ! fuse fail1 a detonat+ p9 is provid$ :i* w explode ! %ell :5 x rea*es ! gr\nd4 ,:]e ! object is to de/roy def5sive works ! %ell is *>g$ ) a high explosive :i* is detonat$ n by a "t fuse1 b by concussion :5 ! %ell /rikes its t>get4 ,! w> br\ght =? _m new types ( projectiles3 %ells load$ ) le?al gases2 %ells :i* left a trail ( smoke :]eby _! c\rse c\ld be foll[$ :5 fir$ at aircraft2 %ells t illum9at$ ! battlefield at night1 etc4 ,! se>*light %ells c>ri$ a numb] ( 8c&les10 ea* furni%$ ) a little p>a*ute s t :5 ! %ell explod$ ! burn+ c&les w\ld settle sl[ly to ! gr\nd1 all ! :ile ca/+ a brilliant light on op]ations bel[4 ,,a]ial ,,bombs ,obvi\sly1 hurl+ projectiles f ! air is a mu* simpl] matt] ?an project+ !m f ! gr\nd4 ,no propellant is requir$ to c>ry !m to ! t>get & no rifl+ is necess>y to keep !m head-on 9 ! direction ( flight4 ,!y are pull$ in/ead ( be+ pu%$ & c easily be kept 9 _! c\rse by means ( rudd] planes4 ,b hitt+ a t>get f an a]oplane is l hitt+ a swiftly mov+ object f ! gr\nd4 ,! t>get is seem+ly fly+ pa/ ! a]oplane & 9 calculat+ :]e ! a]ial bomb w /rike ! spe$ ( ! plane ?r\gh ! air & its height above ! gr\nd mu/ all be tak5 into consid]ation4 ,naval w>f>e is a fight ( =t aga9/ =t & consequ5tly ! high explosive projectile is ! pr9cipal "o us$4 ,! %ells mu/ be able to p5etrate heavy /eel armor & explode )9 ! hull ( ! vessel4 ,9 addition to ^! we h ! torp$oes fir$ by de/roy]s & subm>9es :i* explode an enorm\s quantity ( high explosive aga9/ ! hull ( ! vessel4 ,no attempt is made to p5etrate ! sk9 ( ! vessel1 b ! explosive1 tamp$ by a consid]able dep? ( wat]1 deliv]s a v heavy cru%+ bl[ aga9/ ! side ( ! hull4 ,,automatic ,,control ,,( ,,subm>9e ,,torp$oes ,x is wrong to speak ( fir+ a torp$o4 ,a torp$o is really an automatic1 self-propell$1 subm>9e boat4 ,all t ! de/roy] or subm>9e does is to set ! /e]+ ge> 9 ?is little boat & !n laun* x at ! enemy ) a bla/ ( air t ejects x f ! torp$o tube4 ,mo/ ( ! body ( ! torp$o is fill$ ) compress$ air :i* drives a small air motor c\pl$ to a pair ( propell]s4 ,^! propell]s run 9 opposite directions s z to balance ea* o!r & !y drive ! torp$o ?r\gh ! wat] at a spe$ ( ab\t =ty miles p] h\r4 ,! spe$ falls (f gradually z ! air supply is exhau/$4 ,to hold ! torp$o on its c\rse horizontal & v]tical rudd]s are employ$4 ,! v]tical rudd] is controll$ by a gyroscope :i* turns x ?is way or t accord+ z ! torp$o t5ds to ve] (f its c\rse4 ,! value ( a torp$o lies 9 its concealm5t4 ,7 x to travel on ! surface ! vessel aga9/ :i* x 0 direct$ might be able to avoid x2 fur!rmore ! action ( ! waves w\ld t5d to di/urb ! gyroscopic /e]+ me*anism & ! torp$o w\ld pursue an erratic c\rse4 ,= ?is reason x mu/ travel "u wat] at a dep? suffici5t to avoid surface di/urbances4 ,!re is also a di/9ct advantage 9 hav+ a good cov] ( wat] ov] ! torp$o :5 x /rikes its t>get because ! =ce ( ! explosion1 al?\gh felt 9 all directions1 is ma9ly exp5d$ along ! l9e ( ! lea/ resi/ance4 ,if ! dep? ( wat] ov] ! torp$o is slight1 mo/ ( ! =ce w be exp5d$ upw>d & only a comp>atively small "p w act aga9/ ! hull ( ! vessel4 ,x 0 ! practice ( ! ,g]mans to set _! torp$oes = a dep? ( ab\t t5 feet4 ,to hold a torp$o at a fix$ dep? a v delicate hydro/atic valve is employ$ :i* op]ates ! div+ rudd]s4 ,! valve is set = a c]ta9 dep? or weight ( wat]4 ,if ! torp$o goes bel[ ?is dep?1 ! weight ( ! wat] be>+ on ?is valve presses x d[n & !reby tilts ! div+ rudd]s until ! torp$o comes back to ! requir$ dep?4 ,if x rises above ! dep? = :i* x is set1 ! valve feels ! r$uction ( wat] pressure & tilts ! rudd]s 9 ! opposite direction to correct ! deviation f ! pr$et]m9$ l9e ( travel4 ,once ! valve has be5 set ! torp$o takes c>e ( itself automatically4 ,x may be dis*>g$ f any dep? or be dropp$ f torp$o tubes on ! deck ( a %ip & aft] a few undulations x w f9d its dep? & hold x z long z x keeps runn+4 ,torp$oes h actually be5 dis*>g$ f a]oplanes & x is possible t 9 ! next great w> swiftly fly+ a]oplanes may actually br+ dea? & de/ruction to p[]ful dreadn\ghts4 ,9 fact w+$ de/roy]s & battle cruis]s ( ! air may r5d] obsolete all our mod]n fight+ ma*9es4 ,z we h already obs]v$1 x 0 w> t fir/ ar\s$ ! inv5tive in/9cts 9 man4 ,=tunately ?is in/9ct 0 n conf9$ to de/ructive devices & eng9es1 & ! me*anical conque/ ( ! e>?1 al?\gh x cont9ues to d]ive mu* b5efit f ! /imulus ( w>1 may well af=d to break (f relations ) s grim & horrible a p>tn] & proce$ to develop "u ! /imulus ( its own successes4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv ,,summ>y ,,( ,,me*anical ,,progress ,,! ,,real beg9n+ ( ! pres5t age ( ma*9]y dates f ,watt's inv5tion ( ! d\ble-act+ /eam eng9e :i* 0 pat5t$ 9 #aghb4 ,prior to t date ! /eam eng9e 0 us$ m]ely = pump+ wat]1 b n[ 9 its new =m x 0 adapt$ = use 9 driv+ indu/rial ma*9]y4 ,b1 z we h %[n 9 ano!r *apt]1 x 0 n until ,john ,wilk9son inv5t$ 8 bor+ ma*9e 9 #aggd t x 0 possible to bore ! cyl9d]s t ,watt us$ 9 8 eng9e4 ,9 ! field ( ma*9e tools !re 7 sev]al notable inv5tions4 ,h5ry ,maudslay inv5t$ ! slide re/ = la!s & lat] 9 #agig ! screwcutt+ la!4 ,joseph ,bramah inv5t$ ! hydraulic press & ,maudslay furni%$ ! cup lea!r pack+ t made x a success4 ,woodwork+ ma*9]y1 & p>ticul>ly mortis+ ma*9es = mak+ pulley blocks1 7 inv5t$ by ,samuel ,b5?am & pat5t$ 9 #agia & #agic4 ,9 ! textile indu/ry we f9d ! sp9n+ j5ny inv5t$ by ,h>greaves 9 #aggj1 ,ri*>d ,arkwright's roll-draw+ sp9n+ ma*9e inv5t$ 9 #agfi & #agge1 & ,crompton's mule sp9n] inv5t$ betwe5 #aggd & #aggi1 b nev] pat5t$4 ,9 addition to ?is !re 0 ! inv5tion ( ! cotton g9 9 #agid by our own ,eli ,:itney & ,dr4 ,c>twright's s]ies ( pat5ts on ! p[]-driv5 loom grant$ betwe5 #aghe & #aghh4 ,9 #agii ,l\is ,rob]ts inv5t$ a ma*9e t w\ld make a cont9u\s web ( pap]4 ,! ma*9e 0 develop$ 9 ,engl& by ! ,f\rdr9i] ,bro!rs & has ev] s9ce borne _! "n4 #ahja-ahaj ,j be=e ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury dawn$ ! pat5ts on ,watt's /eam eng9e expir$ & ! inv5tion became public prop]ty4 ,trevi?ic appli$ /eam p[] to ! propulsion ( a coa* 9 #ahja4 ,?is 0 ! =]unn] ( ! automobile & x l$ to ! inv5tion ( ! fir/ /eam railway & locomotive ?ree ye>s lat]4 ,/eam 0 also appli$ to ! propulsion ( boats 9 ?is decade & rea*$ ! practical /age :5 ,fulton built ! ,cl]mont 9 #ahjg4 ,! fir/ application ( /eam to ! driv+ ( a loom is accr$it$ to ,william ,horrocks 9 #ahjc4 ,jacqu>d's loom atta*m5t = produc+ v>i\s patt]ns 0 inv5t$ 9 #ahja4 ,! fir/ knitt+ ma*9e 9 :i* ! lat* ne$le 0 us$ 0 pat5t$ 9 ,france 9 #ahjf by ,je&eau4 ,among ! ma*9e-tool developm5ts ! mo/ important 7 ,bramah's inv5tion ( ! plan] 9 #ahjb & ,brunel's mortis+ ma*9e 9 #ahja4 ,a process ( mak+ malleable iron ca/+s 0 inv5t$ by ,lucas 9 #ahjd4 ,! p]cussion lock = guns 0 inv5t$ by ,=sy? 9 #ahjg4 #ahaa-ahbj ,! second decade saw a mu* wid] application ( /eam & consid]able developm5t 9 locomotives4 ,h$ley's 8,puff+ ,billy0 0 built 9 #ahac1 & ,/eph5son's fir/ locomotive 9 #ahad4 ,9 ! same ye> ,fulton built ! fir/ /eam w> vessel & five ye>s lat] ! ,atlantic 0 cross$ = ! fir/ "t by a /eam]1 ! ,savannah4 ,! rot>y /eam pr9t+ press belongs to ?is decade4 ,! circul> knitt+ ma*9e 0 inv5t$ by ,brunel 9 #ahaf4 ,ab\t #ahah ,eli ,:itney inv5t$ ! mill+ ma*9e1 & 9 #ahai ,blan*>d inv5t$ 8 8gun-/ock+0 la! ) :i* irregul> =ms c\ld be turn$ out4 ,! bree*-load+ musket 0 pat5t$ 9 ?is c\ntry by ,?ornton & ,hall 9 #ahaa4 #ahba-ahcj ,9 ?is decade we f9d ! conv]sion ( electricity into me*anical motion & _m o!r important electrical developm5ts1 :i*1 h[ev]1 are omitt$ f ?is li/ z we are conf9+ ourselves to me*anical inv5tions4 ,!re 7 m>k$ developm5ts 9 /eam railroads4 ,/eph5son built ! 8,rocket0 :i* won prizes on ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway1 & ! fir/ locomotive 0 import$ into ?is c\ntry 9 #ahbi4 ,! tubul> locomotive boil] 0 inv5t$ by ,segu9 9 #ahbh & ,ericsson's portable /eam fire eng9e 0 built 9 #ahcj4 ,9 ! previ\s ye> an important improvem5t 9 sp9n+ mules 0 made :5 ,john ,?orpe inv5t$ ! r+ frame4 #ahca-ahdj ,important railroad developm5ts m>k ! op5+ ( ?is decade4 ,! fam\s locomotive 8,john ,bull0 0 import$ f ,engl& 9 #ahca to op]ate on ! ,camd5 & ,amboy ,railroad4 ,! foll[+ ye> saw ! fir/ ,am]ican-built locomotive1 8,old ,ironsides10 :i* 0 built at ,philadelphia by ! ,baldw9 ,locomotive ,works4 ,/eph5son's l9k motion1 also claim$ by ,w4 ,t4 ,james1 0 inv5t$ 9 #ahcb4 ,h[ev]1 ! mo/ important developm5t ( ! decade 0 ! inv5tion ( ! reap]4 ,hussey's pat5t 0 obta9$ 9 #ahcc & ,mc,cormick's ! foll[+ ye>4 ,colt's revolv] 7#ahcf72 ,p]k9's portable ice ma*9e 7#ahcd72 ,an?ony's 7#ahca71 ,tolle's 7#ahcd71 & ,burd5's 7#ahce7 developm5ts 9 ma*9es = mak+ horse%oes2 & ,isaac ,babbit's antifriction-be>+ metal are o!r notable developm5ts4 #ahda-ahej ,x 0 9 #ahda t ,f4 ,e4 ,sickels inv5t$ ! drop cut-(f valve ge>1 & ! ,corliss valve ge> 0 pat5t$ 9 #ahdi & #ahea4 ,nasmy?'s /eam hamm] 0 inv5t$ 9 #ahdb4 ,hoe's revolv+ pr9t+ press 0 inv5t$ 9 #ahde4 ,! next ye> ,sloan pat5t$ ! gimlet-po9t$ screw4 ,9 #ahdg ,savage inv5t$ ! "t lock1 & 9 #ahdi ,hibb]t pat5t$ ! lat* ne$le = knitt+ ma*9es4 ,am]ican ma*9e-made wat*es appe>$ 9 #ahej4 ,h[ev]1 ! mo/ important inv5tion ( ! decade 0 ,h[e's sew+ ma*9e 9 #ahde4 #ahea-ahfj ,! ye> #ahea saw an important improvem5t 9 ! h>ve/] :5 ,seym\r inv5t$ 8 self-rak]1 also an advance 9 fire>ms :5 ,mayn>d inv5t$ ! bree*-load+ rifle4 ,?ree ye>s lat] ,smi? ,wesson came =? ) _! magaz9e rifle :i* 0 ! =]unn] ( ! 8,w9*e/]40 ,9 t ye> ,wilson inv5t$ ! f\r-motion fe$ = sew+ ma*9es4 ,"o ( ! mo/ notable inv5tions ( ! decade 0 ,bessem]'s conv]t] = produc+ /eel 7#ahee71 & ! foll[+ ye> ,siem5s produc$ ! reg5]ative furnace4 ,gif=d's injector 7#aheh7 m>k$ a mo/ important advance 9 /eam eng9e]+4 ,! h&-turn$ turret = la!s 0 inv5t$ by ,/eph5 ,fit* ab\t #ahec1 & ! automatically revolv+ turret 0 br\ght out 9 #ahee4 ,o!r inv5tions ( ! decade 7 ,h]man's diamond drill 7#ahed71 ,ericsson's air eng9e 7#ahee71 ! p$al-op]at$ bicycle by ,erne/ ,mi*aux 7#ahee71 use ( wood pulp 9 ! manufacture ( pap] by ,voelt] 7#aheh71 & ! ammonia absorption ice ma*9e inv5t$ by ,c>r4 #ahfa-ahgj ,! ,civil ,w> direct$ att5tion ( inv5tors to milit>y & naval improvem5ts4 ,dr4 ,gatl+ inv5t$ 8 ma*9e gun 9 #ahfb1 ! same ye> t ,ericsson built ! 8,monitor40 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ! revolv+ turret 0 pat5t$ 9 t ye> by ,!odore ,r4 ,timby4 ,dynamite 0 inv5t$ 9 #ahfg1 & ! ,:itehead torp$o 9 ! same ye>4 ,b>b$ wire 0 inv5t$ 9 #ahfa4 ,! same ye> saw ! fir/ pass5g] elevator inv5t$ by ,otis2 ! %oe-sew+ ma*9e inv5t$ by ,mc,kay1 & ,col4 ,gre5's inv5tion ( ! drive well1 :i* 0 br\ght ab\t by ! necessity ( supply+ 8 troops ) wat]4 ,! pneumatic rock drill 0 inv5t$ by ,burleigh 9 #ahff1 & ,we/+h\se inv5t$ ! air brake 9 #ahfi4 ,! latt]1 ) ,%oles's inv5tion ( ! typewrit] 9 ! previ\s ye>1 7 und\bt$ly ! mo/ notable inv5tions ( ! decade4 ,9 #ahfe ! cyl9drical gr9d] m>k$ a decid$ =w>d /ep 9 ma*9e tools4 #ahga-ahhj ,?is decade 0 m>k$ by great activity1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! field ( electricity4 ,:ile we are conf9+ ourselves to me*anical inv5tions we _c b m5tion ,bell's telephone 7#ahgf71 ,edison's c>bon filam5t lamp 7#ahgh71 & ,b]l9]'s transmitt] & ,edison's c>bon microphone :i* belong to ! decade1 al?\gh _! pat5ts 7 n issu$ until #ahia & #ahib respectively4 ,! web pr9t+ press 0 inv5t$ by ,hoe 9 #ahga4 ,+]soll's compress$ air rock drill appe>$ 9 ! same ye>4 ,a m>k$ improvem5t 9 ! ,we/+h\se air brake 0 pat5t$ 9 #ahgb1 & ! automatic c> c\pl] appe>$ 9 #ahgc4 ,! positive motion loom 0 inv5t$ by ,lyall 9 #ahgb4 ,! h>ve/] 0 improv$ by ,gorham's tw9e b9d] 9 #ahgd1 & 9 ! same ye> a ma*9e = mak+ b>b$ wire 0 produc$4 ,! ,c5t5nial ye> saw an important developm5t 9 mill+ processes :5 ! roll] mill 0 introduc$ to take ! place ( ! "t-honor$ mill/ones4 ,! middl+s purifi] 0 inv5t$ by ,george ,t4 ,smi? 9 #ahge4 ,! hydraulic dr$ge 0 inv5t$ 9 #ahgf1 also ! univ]sal gr9d]1 & a ma*9e = mak+ cig>ettes4 ,edison's inv5tion ( ! phonograph & ,otto's inv5tion ( ! gas eng9e give prom95ce to ! ye> #ahgg & ! ,rem+ton typewrit] to ! ye> #ahgh4 #ahha-ahij ,! inv5tions ( mo/ f>-rea*+ importance 9 ?is decade 7 ,m]g5?al]'s l9otype ma*9e1 :i* 0 inv5t$ 9 #ahhd & fur!r develop$ into a practical ma*9e 9 #ahij2 ,gottlieb ,daiml]'s inv5tion ( ! automobile 9 #ahhc1 & ,j4 ,b4 ,dunlop's inv5tion ( ! pneumatic tire 9 #ahij4 ,b]l9] 9 #ahhg inv5t$ ! flat-disk talk+ ma*9e kn[n z ! 8,gramophone40 ,! snap%ot 8,kodak0 cam]a appe>$ 9 #ahhh4 ,9 ?is ye> ,de ,laval inv5t$ 8 /eam turb9e1 :ile ,h>vey inv5t$ 8 process = anneal+ armor plate4 ,! foll[+ ye> nickel /eel 0 inv5t$4 ,9 #ahhc ,sir ,hiram ,maxim inv5t$ ! ma*9e gun4 ,hugo ,bilgram's g5]at+ sy/em ( ge> cutt+ 0 inv5t$ 9 #ahha4 ,a less prom95t1 ?\gh v important1 inv5tion ( ! same ye> 0 ! buttonhole ma*9e pat5t$ by ,reece4 ,incid5tally ?is decade saw ! completion ( ! ,brooklyn ,susp5sion ,bridge 9 #ahhc1 & ! ,great ,=? ,bridge 9 #ahij4 #ahia-aijj ,! la/ decade ( ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury gave u ,p>son's /eam turb9e 7#ahia7 & ,curtis's /eam turb9e 7#ahif72 also ,rudolf ,diesel's heavy-oil eng9e4 ,langley's model = a motor-driv5 airplane 0 built 9 #ahif & actually flew4 ,santos-,dumont made 8 fir/ asc5sion 9 a dirigible 9 #ahih1 & ,c\nt ,fri$ri* von ,zeppel9 built 8 fir/ rigid dirigible 9 #aijj4 ,j4 ,b4 ,holl& built a /eam-driv5 subm>9e1 & ,simon ,lake con/ruct$ ! fir/ subm>9e to be driv5 by an int]nal combu/ion eng9e4 ,?is decade 0 l>gely devot$ to ! developm5t ( ! automobile1 :i* gradually evolv$ into a truly comm]cial ma*9e4 ,ab\t #aijj1 ,b5jam9 ,holt inv5t$ ! 8cat]pill>0 tractor4 ,! decade also saw ! inv5tion ( ! ,lan/on 8monotype10 & ,h5ry ,wise ,wood's 8autoplate0 ma*9e :i* revolutioniz$ /]eotyp+4 ,9 #ahii ,william ,drap] br\ght out a loom ) an automatic %uttle-*ang+ me*anism4 ,hulett inv5t$ ! automatic ore unload] 9 #ahih4 ,improvem5ts 7 also made 9 automatic ma*9e tools4 ,j4 ,e4 ,gleason improv$ ! ,bilgram ge> cutt] 9 #ahih1 & at ! close ( ! c5tury ,taylor & ,:ite br\ght out _! high-spe$ cutt+ tools :i* revolutioniz$ ma*9e tools4 ,! decade 0 also rem>kable = ! inv5tion ( ,x-rays1 wireless telegraphy1 & c]ta9 *emical processes1 none ( :i* really belong 9 ?is summ>y4 #aija-aiaj ,9 ?is decade ! automobile rea*$ a m>vel\s /ate ( p]fection & a trem5d\s indu/ry 0 built up :i* _h a m>k$ influ5ce on ! developm5t ( ma*9e tools & ! production ( iron & /eel4 ,james ,a4 ,gailey inv5t$ a drybla/ process = /eel production1 gett+ rid ( ! moi/ure 9 air by subject+ x to a freez+ process4 ,fell['s ge>-cutt+ ma*9e 0 p]fect$ & ,bull>d br\ght out ! v]tical turret la!4 ,!re 7 important developm5ts ( ! /eam turb9e4 ,!re is "o inv5tion t makes ?is decade /& out f among all o!rs4 ,on ,decemb] #ag1 #aijc1 ! ,wright bro!rs made a successful flight 9 a biplane driv5 by a gasol9e eng9e1 & op5$ up a new _w = conque/4 ,man took to w+s & ! dream ( ages 0 realiz$4 ,dur+ ! decade rapid progress 0 made 9 develop+ ! fly+ ma*9e4 ,! inv5tion ( ! monoplane soon foll[$4 ,x 0 9 ?is decade t ! gyroscope em]g$ f ! laboratory & toy %op & began to be appli$ to practical uses4 ,s*lick utiliz$ ! gyroscope to prev5t %ips f roll+4 ,! gyrocompass 0 inv5t$ & rea*$ a comm]cial /age 9 #aiaj4 #aiaa-aibj ,x is difficult to pick out ! mo/ important inv5tions ( ?is decade because suffici5t "t has n elaps$ to det]m9e :i* are mo/ des]v+ ( m5tion4 ,! ,great ,_w ,w> /imulat$ inv5tion 9 all civiliz$ l&s4 ,a]onautics develop$ fa/] 9 ! five ye>s ( w> ?an x c\ld 9 tw5ty-five ye>s ( peace4 ,( c\rse1 eng9es ( w> develop$ to a rem>kable degree4 ,among ! light] pieces we saw ! developm5t ( ! ,lewis gun1 & !n ! ,br[n+ gun4 ,! mo/ important inv5tion 0 ! tank4 ,_m advances %\ld be class$ z rem>kable developm5ts r ?an basically new inv5tions4 ,! w> ( & aga9/ ! subm>9e br\ght =? _m +5i\s devices4 ,( ! peace-"t inv5tions1 ! mo/ rem>kable is ! optophone1 ! in/rum5t :i* enables ! bl9d to read ord9>y pr9t$ matt]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,& ?us ! m>* ( progress cont9ues un*eck$4 ,we are tempt$ to give our imag9ations free play & =eca/ ! developm5ts t ! future holds 9 /ore = u1 b un=tunately we _c claim any prophetic in/9ct or inspiration4 ,,transcrib]',s ,,note3 --,obvi\s pr9t & punctuation errors 7 correct$4