,,the ,,origin                          
,,of ,,the ,,knowledge ,,of             
,,right ,,and ,,wrong                   
,,the ,,origin                          
,,of ,,the ,,knowledge ,,of             
,,right ,,and ,,wrong                   
,,by ,,franz ,,brentano                 
,,english ,,translation                 
,,by ,,cecil ,,hague                    
,,formerly ,,lector ,,at                
,,prague ,,university                   
,,with ,a ,,biographical ,,note         
,,westminster                           
,,archibald ,,constable  ,,co ,,ltd     
#b ,,whitehall ,,gardens                
#aijb                                   
,,butler  ,,tanner1                     
,,the ,,selwood ,,printing ,,works1     
,,frome1 ,,and ,,london4      ,the      
present translation owes its origin to a
 desire on the part of the  translator  
of bringing to the wider notice of his  
fellow-countrymen a  work which has     
proved beneficial and stimulating to    
himself4 ,written  during short         

intervals of leisure while studying with
 ,professor ,anton  ,marty of ,prague   
,university1 it has had the advantage of
 his careful and  constant supervision4 
,without his aid it would scarcely have 
seen the  light4 ,the translator has    
especially to thank ,professor ,s4 ,a4  
,alexander1  of ,owens ,college1        
,manchester1 for his valuable help in   
the general  revision and the           
translation of several difficult        
passages4 ,it is now1  alas1 too late to
 do more than record the translator's   
debt to the late  ,professor ,adamson1  
of ,glasgow ,university1 whose revision 
and correction  of this essay was one of
 the last services rendered to the cause
 of  truth by a life-long disciple4     
,west ,dulwich1 #aijb4                  
,,author',s ,,preface      ,this        
lecture1 which ,i now bring before the  
notice of a larger public1  was         
delivered by me before the ,vienna ,law 
,society on ,january #bc1 #ahhi4  ,it   
then bore the title3 8,of the ,natural  

,sanction for ,law and ,morality40      
,this title ,i have changed in order to 
bring its general purport more  clearly 
into prominence2 otherwise ,i have made 
scarcely any further  alteration4       
,numerous notes have been added1 and an 
already published  essay3 8,miklosich on
 ,subjectless ,propositions0 appended4  
,in what way it  bears upon inquiries   
apparently so remote will be evident in 
the sequel4    ,the occasion of the     
lecture was an invitation extended to me
 by ,baron  ,von ,hye1 ,president of the
 ,society4 ,it was his wish that what   
had been  said here a few years ago by  
,ihering1 as jurist1 in his address1 ber
  die ,entstehung des ,rechtsgefhls1    
might in the same ,society be           
illustrated by me from the philosophic  
point of view4 ,it would be a  mistake  
to assume from the incidental nature of 
the circumstances to  which it owed its 
first appearance that the ,essay was    
only a fugitive1  occasional study4 ,it 
embraces the fruits of many years'      

reflection4 ,the  discussions it        
contains form the ripest product of all 
that ,i have  hitherto published4       
,these thoughts form a fragment of a    
,descriptive ,psychology1 which1 as ,i  
now venture to hope1 ,i may be enabled  
in the near future to publish in  its   
complete form4 ,in its wide divergence  
from all that has hitherto  been put    
forward1 and especially by reason of its
 being an essential  stage in the       
further development of some of the views
 advocated in my  ,psychology from the  
,empirical ,standpoint it will be       
sufficiently  evident that during the   
period of my long literary retirement ,i
 have not  been idle4    ,specialists in
 philosophy will find also in this      
lecture what will be at  once recognized
 as new4 ,as regards the general reader1
 the rapidity with  which ,i pass from  
one question to another might at first  
completely  conceal many a sunken reef  
which required to be circumnavigated1   
many a  precipice which had to be       

avoided4 ,surely ,i1 if any one1 have   
reason1  owing to the conciseness of    
statement employed1 to remember the     
saying  of ,leibnitz and pay little     
attention to refutation and much to     
demonstration4 ,a glance at the         
notes--which1 were they to do full      
justice to the subject1 would need to be
 multiplied an hundredfold--will  give  
him a further idea of those bye-paths   
which have misled so many1  and         
prevented their finding an issue to the 
labyrinth4 ,meantime ,i would  be well  
content--nay1 ,i would regard it as the 
crown to all my  efforts--should all    
that has been said appear so            
self-evident to him  that he does not   
deem himself bound to thank me once in  
return4    ,no one has determined the   
principles of ethics as1 on the basis of
 new  analyses1 ,i have found it        
necessary to determine them1 no one1    
especially among those who hold that in 
the foundation of those  principles the 
feelings must find a place1 have so     

radically and  completely broken with   
the subjective view of ethics4 ,i except
 only  ,herbart4 ,but he lost himself in
 the sphere of aesthetic feeling1 until 
at last we find him so far from the     
track that he1 who in the  theoretical  
philosophy is the irreconcilable enemy  
of contradiction1  nevertheless in      
practical philosophy 7i4e4 ethics7      
tolerates it when his  principles--the  
highest universally valid ideas--rush   
into conflict with  one another4 ,still 
his teaching remains in a certain aspect
 truly  related with mine1 while1 on    
other sides1 other celebrated attempts  
to  discover a basis for ethics find in 
it points of contact4    ,in the notes1 
individual points are more sharply      
defined1 a very  detailed examination of
 which would have been too prolix in the
 lecture4  ,many an objection already   
urged has been met1 many an expected    
rejoinder  anticipated4 ,i also hope    
that some will be interested in the     
several  historical contributions1      

especially in the inquiries concerning  
,descartes1 where ,i trace back the     
doctrine of evidence to its causes and  
point out two further thoughts1 one of  
which has been misunderstood1 the  other
 scarcely noticed1 neither treated with 
the consideration they  deserve4 ,i     
refer to his fundamental classification 
of mental states and  to his doctrine of
 the relation of love to joy1 and of    
hate to sadness4    ,with several highly
 honoured investigators of the          
present--assuredly not  least honoured  
by myself--,i have entered into a       
polemical debate1 and  indeed most      
vigorously with those whose previous    
attack has compelled  me to a defence4  
,i hope that they do not regard it as a 
violation of  their claims1 when ,i     
seek1 to the utmost of my power1 to help
 the  truth1 which we in common serve1  
to her rights1 and ,i assure them in    
turn1 that as ,i myself speak frankly1  
so also none the less do ,i welcome     
with all my heart every sincere word of 

my opponent4    ,,franz ,,brentano4     
,,contents      ,,the ,,origin ,,of     
,,the ,,knowledge ,,of ,,right ,,and    
,,wrong    ,a ,,lecture                 
,,page    #a4 ,value of ,history and    
,philosophy for ,jurisprudence2 the new 
proposals  for the reform of legal      
studies in ,austria                     
#a    #b4 ,our theme2 ,relation to      
,ihering's lecture before the ,vienna   
,law  ,society                          
#b    #c4 ,twofold meaning of the       
expression 8natural right0              
#b    #d4 ,points of agreement with     
,ihering2 rejection of the 8jus naturae0
  and 8jus gentium02 pre-ethical        
political statutes                      
#c    #e4 ,opposition to ,ihering2      
,there exists a universally valid       
naturally  recognizable moral law4      
,relative independence of the question  
#d    #f4 ,the notion 8natural sanction0
                                        
#d    #g4 ,manifold misconception of the
 same by philosophers                   

#f    #h4 ,habitually developed feeling 
of compulsion as such is no sanction    
#f    #i4 ,motives of hope and fear as  
such not yet sanction                   
#f    #aj4 ,the thought of the arbitrary
 command of a higher power is not the   
natural sanction                        
#g    #aa4 ,the ethical sanction is a   
command similar to the logical rule     
#h    #ab4 ,the aesthetic point of view2
 as little in ethics as in logic  the   
right one                               
#i    #ac4 ,kant's ,categorical         
,imperative an impracticable fiction    
#aj    #ad4 ,necessity for preliminary  
psychological inquiries                 
#aj    #ae4 ,no willing without a final 
end                                     
#aj    #af4 ,the problem3 which end is  
right8 the chief problem of ethics      
#aa    #ag4 ,the right end is the best  
among attainable ends2 obscureness   of 
this definition                         
#aa    #ah4 ,of the origin of the       
conception of the good2 it has not its  

origin in  the sphere of the so-called  
external impression                     
#ab    #ai4 ,the common characteristic  
of everything psychical                 
#ab    #bj4 ,the three fundamental      
classes of psychical phenomena2 idea    
7,vorstellung71 judgment1 feeling       
7,gemtsbewegung7                     #ac
    #ba4 ,the contrasts1 belief and     
denial1 love and hate                   
#ae    #bb4 ,of these opposed modes of  
relation one is always right1 one wrong 
#ae    #bc4 ,the conception of the good 
#ae    #bd4 ,distinction of the good in 
the narrow sense from what is good for  
the sake of some other good             
#af    #be4 ,love is not always a proof 
that an object is worthy to be loved    
#af    #bf4 8,blind0 and 8self-evident0 
judgment                                
#ag    #bg4 ,analogous distinction in   
the sphere of pleasure and displeasure2 
criterion of the good                   
#ah    #bh4 ,plurality of the good2     
problems associated therewith           

#ba    #bi4 ,whether by 8the better0 is 
to be understood that which deserves  to
 be loved with more intensity           
#ba    #cj4 ,right determination of the 
conception                              
#bb    #ca4 ,when and how do we         
recognize that anything is in itself    
preferable8  ,the case of the opposite1 
of absence1 of the addition of  like to 
like                                    
#bc    #cb4 ,cases where the problem is 
insoluble                               
#be    #cc4 ,whether the ,hedonists in  
this respect would have the advantage   
#bf    #cd4 ,why these failures prove   
less disadvantageous than might  be     
feared                                  
#bg    #ce4 ,the sphere of the highest  
practical good                          
#bh    #cf4 ,the harmonious development 
#bh    #cg4 ,the natural sanction       
respecting the limits of right          
#bi    #ch4 ,the natural sanction for   
positive ethical laws                   
#bi    #ci4 ,the power of the natural   

sanction                                
#cj    #dj4 ,true and false relativity  
respecting ethical rules                
#cj    #da4 ,derivation of well known   
special enactments                      
#cb    #db4 ,why other philosophers1 by 
other ways1 arrive at the same goal     
#cb    #dc4 ,whence arise the           
universally extended ethical truths8    
,unclearness  concerning processes in   
one's own consciousness                 
#cc    #dd4 ,trace of the influence of  
the moments severally mentioned         
#ce    #de4 ,lower currents exercising  
an influence                            
#cg    #df4 ,necessity of guarding      
against overlooking the distinction     
between  ethical and pseudo-ethical     
development                             
#ci    #dg4 ,value of such developments 
in the pre-ethical time2 establishment  
of the social order2 formation of       
dispositions2 outlines of laws  at the  
disposal of legislative ethical         
authority2 security against  doctrinaire

 tendencies                             
#ci    #dh4 ,beneficent influences which
 still operate continually  from this   
side                                    
#da    #di4 ,a further word on the      
reform of politico-legal studies        
#db          ,,notes4                   
,,page    #ac4 ,in defence of my        
characterization of ,herbart's ethical  
criterion  #dd    #ad4 ,of ,kant's      
,categorical ,imperative                
#dd    #af4 ,the ,nicomachean ,ethics   
and ,ihering's 8fundamental idea0 in    
his work2 ,der ,zweck im ,recht         
#df    #ag4 ,of the cases of smaller    
chances in the effort after higher ends 
#df    #ah4 ,of the dependence of the   
conceptions upon concrete perceptions   
#df    #ai4 ,the term 8intentional0     
#dg    #ba4 ,the fundamental            
classification of mental states in      
,descartes      #dg    #bb4             
,windelband's error in respect of the   
fundamental classification of  mental   
states2 short defence of various attacks

 upon my ,psychology  from the          
,empirical ,standpoint2 ,land1 on a     
supposed improvement on  formal logic2  
,steinthal's criticism of my doctrine of
 judgment        #ej    #bc4 ,in        
criticism of ,sigwart's theories of the 
existential and  negative judgments     
#ee    #bd4 ,descartes on the relation  
of 8love0 to 8joy0 and of 8hate0 to     
8sadness0                               
#fi    #be4 ,of the notions of truth and
 existence                              
#fi    #bf4 ,of the unity of the notion 
of the good                             
#ga    #bg4 ,of 8evidence40 ,descartes  
8,clara et distincta perceptio40        
,sigwart's  doctrine of 8evidence0 and  
his 8postulates0                        
#ga    #bh4 ,of ethical subjectivism4   
,aristotle's oversight in respect of the
  source of our knowledge of the good4  
,parallels between his  error in respect
 of the feelings 7,gemtsthtigkeit71 and 
,descartes'  doctrine of the 8,clara et 
distincta perceptio0 as a pre-condition 

of the logically justified judgment2    
modern views which approach  to this    
doctrine                                
#gh    #bi4 ,of the expressions 8gut    
gefallen0 and 8schlecht gefallen0       
#hd    #ca4 ,typical case of a constant 
geometrical relation of mental values   
#he    #cb4 ,cases in which something at
 the same time both pleases and         
displeases                              
#he    #cc4 ,establishment of universal 
laws of valuation on the basis of a     
single experience                       
#hf    #cd4 ,certain moments in the     
theory of ethical knowledge are of more 
importance for the theodicy than for    
ethics itself                    #hg    
#ce4 ,explanation of the manner in which
 anything in certain cases is           
recognized as preferable                
#hg    #cf4 ,the two cases1 unique in   
their kind1 in which preferability      
becomes  clear for us from a certain    
character in the act of preference      
#hg    #ci4 ,gauss on the measurement of

 intensities                            
#hi    #dj4 ,against exaggerated        
expectations from the so-called         
psycho-physical  law                    
#hi    #dj4 ,defence against the        
objection of a too great ethical rigour 
#ij    #da4 ,love of neighbour in       
harmony with greater care of one's own  
good  #ia    #dc4 ,why the narrowness of
 human foresight should not do injury to
  moral courage                         
#ib    #dd4 ,in criticism of ,ihering's 
view of the notion of right and of his  
criticism of older views                
#ic    #de4 ,of the provisional ethical 
sanction of objectionable laws          
#if    #fj4 ,self-contradiction of      
,epicurus                               
#ig    #fd-fe4 ,proof for the law of    
addition of like to like2 testimony for 
it in  the teaching of the ,stoa1 of the
 theistic ,hedonists1 and in the  demand
 for immortality2 ,helmholtz            
#ih    #fg4 ,the great theologians are  
opponents of the arbitrary character of 

the divine law of morals                
#ii    #fh4 ,john ,stuart ,mill on the  
doctrine of the distinction between     
8blind0 and 8self-evident judgments0    
#ii    7,the numbers missing in the     
index contain only literary references47
      ,,miklosich ,,on ,,subjectless    
,,propositions    7,appendix to pages   
#ad and #ee74    ,i4 ,short sketch of   
the essential features treated in       
,miklosich's  article                   
#aje    ,,ii4 ,critical remarks         
#aaj    ,biographical ,note             
#aai          ,a ,,lecture      #a4 ,the
 invitation to lecture extended to me by
 the ,law ,society was the  more binding
 as it gave expression in strong terms  
to a conviction  which1 unfortunately1  
seems on the point of falling into      
abeyance4  ,proposals for a reform of   
legal studies have been heard 7and they 
are  even said to have proceeded from   
university circles7 which can only mean 
that the roots of jurisprudence deeply  
implanted as they are in the  spheres of

 ethics and national history may be     
severed1 without the  organism itself   
suffering any vital injury4    ,as      
regards history1 this counsel is to me1 
,i confess1 utterly  inexplicable2 in   
respect of philosophy1 ,i can excuse it 
only on the  ground that the men who at 
present occupy the chairs in the legal  
faculty have taken a deep and gloomy    
impression of the mistakes of a  period 
which has lately passed away4 ,a        
personal reproach may therefore  well be
 spared them4 ,yet indeed such          
suggestions were every bit as wise  as  
would be the case if a medical faculty  
were to propose to erase from  their    
plan of obligatory studies zoology1     
physics and chemistry4    ,if ,leibnitz 
in his ,vita a se ipso lineata1 speaking
 of himself1 says3  8,i found that my   
earlier studies in history and          
philosophy lightened  materially my     
study of law10 and if1 as in his        
,specimen difficultatis  in jure1       
deploring the prejudices of contemporary

 jurists1 he exclaims3  8,oh6 that those
 who busy themselves with the study of  
law would throw  aside their contempt of
 philosophy and see that without        
philosophy most  of the questions of    
their jus form a labyrinth without      
issue60 what  indeed would he say were  
he to rise again to-day1 to these       
retrograde  reform movements8      #b4  
,the worthy ,president of the ,society1 
who has retained such a lively  and wide
 sense of the real scientific needs of  
his profession1 expressed  to me his own
 special wishes respecting the theme to 
be chosen4 ,the  question as to the     
existence of a natural right was1 he    
said1 a subject  which enjoyed an       
exceptional interest with the members of
 the ,law  ,society2 and he himself was 
anxious to learn what attitude ,i would 
adopt  with regard to the views there   
expressed by ,ihering some years ago4#a 
,i consented gladly1 and have therefore 
designated as the subject of my  lecture
 the natural sanction for law and       

morality1 wishing thereby1 at  the same 
time1 to indicate in what sense alone ,i
 believe in a natural  right4      #c4  
,for a two-fold meaning may be          
associated with the term 8natural03--   
7#a7 ,it may mean as much as 8given by  
nature10 8innate10 in                   
contradistinction to what has been      
acquired during historical              
development either by deduction or by   
experience4         7#b7 ,it may mean1  
in contradistinction to what is         
determined by the       arbitrary will  
of a dictator1 the rules which1 in and  
for       themselves and in virtue of   
their nature are recognized as right    
and binding4    ,ihering rejects natural
 right in either of these meanings4#b   
,i1 for my  part1 agree as thoroughly   
with him regarding the one meaning as ,i
 differ  from him regarding the other4  
#d4 ,i agree completely with ,ihering   
when1 following the example of ,john    
,locke1 he denies all innate moral      
principles4    ,further1 like him1 ,i   

believe neither in the grotesque jus    
naturae1  i4e4 quod natura ipsa omnia   
animalia docuit1 nor in a jus gentium1  
in a right which1 as the ,roman jurists 
defined it1 is recognized as a  natural 
law of reason by the universal agreement
 of all nations4    ,it is not necessary
 to have gone deeply into zoology and   
physiology in  order to see that we can 
no longer use the animal world as a     
criterion  for the setting up of ethical
 standards1 even if one is not disposed 
to  go so far as ,rokitansky in         
pronouncing protoplasma1 with its       
aggressive  character1 an unrighteous   
and evil principle4    ,as to a common  
code of right for all nations1 such a   
belief was a  delusion which might hold 
good in the antique world2 in modern    
times  when the ethnographical horizon  
has been extended1 and the customs of   
barbarous races drawn upon for          
comparison1 these laws can no longer be 
recognized as a product of nature1 but  
only as a product of culture  common to 

the more advanced nations4    ,as       
regards all this1 therefore1 ,i am in   
agreement with ,ihering2 ,i am  also    
substantially in agreement with him when
 he asserts that there have  been times 
without any trace of ethical knowledge  
and ethical feeling2  at any rate       
without anything of the kind that was   
commonly accepted4    ,indeed ,i        
acknowledge unhesitatingly that this    
state of things continued  even when    
larger communities under state          
government had been  constituted4 ,when 
,ihering1 in support of this view1      
points to ,greek  mythology with its    
gods and goddesses destitute of moral   
thought and  feeling1 and maintains     
that1 by the lives of the gods1 the life
 of  mankind in the period in which     
these myths took shape may be           
interpreted1#c he does but use a method 
of proof which ,aristotle has  already  
employed in a similar manner in his     
,politics4#d ,this also  must therefore 
be conceded him1 and we shall1 on this  

ground1 no longer  deny that the        
earliest political laws supported by    
penal sanction were  established without
 the help of any feeling of right       
founded upon moral  insight4 ,there are1
 therefore1 no natural moral laws and   
legal precepts  in the sense that they  
are given by nature herself1 that they  
are  innate2 in this respect1 ,ihering's
 views have our entire approval4        
#e4 ,we have now to meet the second and 
far more important question3 ,do  there 
exist truths concerning morality1 taught
 by nature herself1 and is  there moral 
truth1 independent of all               
ecclesiastical1 political1 in fact      
every kind of social authority8 ,is     
there a natural moral law which1 in  its
 nature1 is universally and             
incontestably valid for men of every    
place and time1 valid indeed for every  
kind of thinking and sentient  being2   
and does the knowledge of it lie within 
the realm of our mental  faculties8     
,here we are at the point where ,i join 

issue with ,ihering4 ,to  this question1
 which ,ihering answers in the negative1
 ,i return a decided  affirmative4      
,which of us is here in the right our   
present inquiry into  the natural       
sanction for law and morality will1 ,i  
hope1 make clear4    ,at any rate1 the  
decision as to the former question1     
whatever ,ihering#e  himself may think  
to the contrary1 does not in any way    
prejudge the  latter4 ,innate prejudices
 do exist2 these are natural in the     
former  sense1 but they lack natural    
sanction2 whether true or false1 they   
possess no immediate validity4 ,on the  
other hand1 there are many  propositions
 recognized after a natural manner1     
which are incontestably  certain and    
have universal validity for all thinking
 beings1 which1  however1 as1 for       
example1 the ,pythagorean theorem are   
anything but  innate1 else the blissful 
first discoverer had never offered his  
hecatomb to the god4      #f4 ,in what  
has been said ,i have made it           

sufficiently evident how1 when ,i  speak
 of natural sanction1 ,i understand the 
notion of sanction4 ,yet it  will be    
well to linger a moment in order to     
exclude another inadequate  view4       
8,sanction0 signifies 8making fast40    
,now a law may be fixed in a double     
sense3         7#a7 ,it may be fixed in 
the sense of becoming law1 as when a    
proposed law receives validity by       
ratification on the part of the         
highest legislative authority4          
7#b7 ,in the sense of being rendered    
more effectual by attaching to       it 
positive punishments1 perhaps also      
rewards4    ,it is in this latter sense 
that sanction was spoken of by writers  
of  antiquity1 as when ,cicero#f says of
 the leges ,porciae3 8,neque quicquam   
praeter sanctionem attulerunt novi02 and
 ,ulpian3#g 8,interdum in  sanctionibus 
adijicitur1 ut qui ibi aliquid commisit1
 capite puniatur40  ,it is in the former
 sense that the expression is more usual
 in modern  times2 a law is said to be  

8sanctioned0 when it secures validity by
  receiving confirmation at the hands of
 the highest authority4    ,manifestly  
sanction in the second sense presupposes
 sanction in the  first1 which sanction 
is the more essential1 since1 without   
it1 the law  would not truly be law at  
all4 ,such a natural sanction therefore 
is of  the last necessity if anything   
whatever is to bear by nature the stamp 
of law or morality4      #g4 ,if we now 
compare with such a view what has been  
said by philosophers  concerning the    
natural sanction for morality1 it will  
be easily seen how  often they have     
overlooked its essential character4     
#h4 ,many think that they have          
discovered a natural sanction in respect
 of  a certain line of conduct when they
 have shown that a certain feeling of   
compulsion so to act is developed within
 the individual4 ,since every  one1 for 
example1 renders services to others in  
order to receive similar  services in   
return1 there at last arises a habit of 

performing such  services even in cases 
where there has been no thought of      
recompense4#h  ,this it is which is     
thought to constitute the sanction for  
love of our  neighbour4    ,but this    
view is entirely erroneous4 ,such a     
feeling of compulsion is  certainly a   
force driving to action1 but it is      
assuredly not a sanction  conferring    
validity4 ,besides1 the inclination to  
vice develops according  to the same law
 of habit1 and exercises1 as an impulse1
 the most  unbounded sway4 ,the miser's 
passion which leads him1 in his desire  
of  amassing riches1 to submit to the   
heaviest sacrifices and to commit the   
most extreme cruelties1 certainly       
constitutes no sanction for his         
conduct4      #i4 ,again1 motives of    
hope or fear that a certain manner of   
behaviour1  as1 for example1 regard for 
the general good1 will render us        
agreeable  or disagreeable to other and 
more powerful beings1 these it has often
  been sought to regard as a sanction   

for such conduct4#i ,but it is  manifest
 that the most cringing cowardice1 the  
most servile flattery  might then boast 
a natural sanction4 ,as a matter of fact
 virtue shines  out most brightly where 
neither threats nor entreaties are able 
to  divert her from the right path4     
#aj4 ,some speak of an education in     
which man1 as belonging to an order of  
living beings accustomed to live in     
society1 receives from those by whom  he
 is surrounded4 ,an injunction is       
repeatedly laid upon him1 the  command3 
8,you ought40 ,it lies in the nature of 
things that certain  actions are very   
frequently and generally required of    
him4 ,there is thus  formed an          
association between his mode of action  
and the thought3 8,you  ought40 ,and so 
it may happen that he may come to       
regard1 as the source  of this command1 
the society in which he lives1 or even  
something  vaguely conceived to be      
higher than an individual1 that is to   
say1  something regarded in a way as    

superhuman4 ,the 8ought0 associated by  
him  with such a being would then       
constitute the sanction of              
conscience4#aj    ,in this case the     
natural sanction would then consist in  
the naturally  developed belief in the  
command of a more powerful will4    ,but
 it is manifest that such a belief in   
the command of a more powerful  being   
contains1 as yet1 nothing which deserves
 the name of a sanction4  ,such a       
conviction is shared by one who knows   
himself to be at the mercy  of a tyrant 
or of a robber horde4 ,whether he obey1 
or bid defiance1 the  command itself    
contains nothing able to give to the    
required act a  sanction similar to that
 of the conscience4 ,even if he obey he 
does so  through fear1 not because he   
regards the command as one based on     
right4    ,the thought1 therefore1 that 
an act is commanded by some one does not
  constitute a natural sanction4 ,in the
 case of every command issued by an     
external will the question arises3 ,is  

such a command authorized or is  it not8
 ,neither is there any reference here to
 a command enforced by a  still higher  
power enjoining obedience to the former4
 ,for then the  question would again    
reappear1 and we should proceed from one
 command to  another enjoining obedience
 to the former1 and from that to a third
  enjoining in like manner obedience to 
the second1 and so on ad infin4    ,just
 as in the case of the feeling of       
compulsion1 and in that of the  fear or 
hope of recompense1 so also the thought 
of the command of an  external will     
cannot possibly be the sanction for law 
and morality4      #aa4 ,but there are  
also commands in an essentially         
different sense2  commands in the sense 
in which we speak of the commands of    
logic  respecting our judgments and     
conclusions4 ,we are not here concerned 
with  the will of logic1 since a will   
logic manifestly has not1 nor with the  
will of the logician1 to which we have  
in no way sworn allegiance4 ,the  laws  

of logic are naturally valid rules of   
judging1 that is to say1 we  are obliged
 to conform to them1 since conformity to
 these rules ensures  certainty in our  
judgments1 whereas judgments diverging  
from these rules  are liable to error4  
,what we therefore mean is a natural    
superiority  which thought-processes in 
conformity with law have over such as   
are  contrary to law4 ,so also in       
ethics1 we are not concerned with the   
command of an external will but rather  
with a natural preference similar  to   
that in logic1 and the law founded on   
that preference4 ,this has been         
emphasized not only by ,kant but also by
 the majority of great thinkers  before 
him4 ,nevertheless there are still      
many--unfortunately even among  the     
adherents of the empirical school to    
which ,i myself belong--by whom  this   
fact has neither been rightly understood
 nor appreciated4      #ab4 ,in what    
then lies this special superiority which
 gives to morality  its natural         

sanction8 ,some regarded it as1 in a    
sense1 external1 they  believed its     
superiority to consist in beauty of     
appearance4 ,the ,greeks  called noble  
and virtuous conduct  1 the beautiful1  
and the  perfect man of honour 2 though 
none of the philosophers of  antiquity  
set up this aesthetic view as a         
criterion4 ,on the other hand1  ,david  
,hume#aa1 among modern thinkers1 has    
spoken of a moral sense of  the         
beautiful which acts as arbiter between 
the moral and the immoral1  while still 
more recently the ,german philosopher1  
,herbart1#ab has  subordinated ethics to
 aesthetics4    ,now ,i do not deny that
 the aspect of virtue is more agreeable 
than that  of moral perversity4 ,but ,i 
cannot concede that in this consists the
 only  and essential superiority of     
ethical conduct4 ,it is rather an inner 
superiority which distinguishes the     
moral from the immoral will1 in the     
same way that it is an inner superiority
 which distinguishes true and  self     

evident judgments and conclusions from  
prejudices and fallacies4  ,here also it
 cannot be denied that a prejudice1 a   
fallacy has in it  something            
unbeautiful1 often indeed something     
ridiculously  narrow-minded1 which makes
 the person so scantily favoured by     
,minerva  appear in a most              
disadvantageous attitude2 yet who1 on   
this account1  would class the rules of 
logic among those of aesthetics1 or make
 logic  a branch of aesthetics8#ac ,no1 
the real logical superiority is no mere 
aesthetic appearance but a certain      
inward rightness which then carries     
with it a certain superiority of        
appearance4 ,it will1 therefore1 be     
also a certain inward rightness which   
constitutes the essential  superiority  
of one particular act of will over      
another of an opposite  character2 in   
which consists the superiority of the   
moral over the  immoral4    ,the belief 
in this superiority is an ethical       
motive2 the knowledge of it  is the     

right ethical motive1 the sanction which
 gives to ethical law  permanence and   
validity4      #ac4 ,but are we capable 
of attaining to such knowledge8 ,here   
lies the  difficulty which philosophers 
have for a long time sought in vain to  
solve4 ,even to ,kant it seemed as      
though none had found the right end of  
the thread by means of which to unravel 
the skein4 ,this the ,categorical       
,imperative was to do4 ,it resembled    
however1 rather the sword drawn by      
,alexander to cut the ,gordian knot4    
,with such a palpable fiction the       
matter is not to be set right4#ad       
#ad4 ,in order to gain an insight into  
the true origin of ethical  knowledge it
 will be necessary to take some account 
of the results of  later researches in  
the sphere of descriptive psychology4   
,the limited  time at my disposal makes 
it necessary for me to set forth my     
views very  briefly1 and ,i have reason 
to fear that by its conciseness the     
completeness of the statement may       

suffer4 ,yet it is just here that ,i ask
  your special attention1 in order that 
what is most essential to a right       
understanding of the problem be not     
overlooked4      #ae4 ,the subject of   
the moral and immoral is termed the     
will4 ,what we  will is1 in many cases1 
a means to an end4 ,in that case we will
 this end  also1 and even in a higher   
degree than the means4 ,the end itself  
may  often be the means to a further    
end2 in a far reaching plan there may   
often appear a whole series of ends1 the
 one being always connected in          
subordination to the other as a means4  
,there must be present1 however1  one   
end1 which is desired above all others  
and for its own sake2 without  this     
essential and final end all incentive   
would be lacking1 and this  would       
involve the absurdity of aiming without 
a goal at which to aim4      #af4 ,the  
means we employ in order to gain an end 
may be manifold1 may be  right or wrong4
 ,they are right when they are really   

adapted to the  attainment of the end4  
,the ends1 also1 even the most essential
 and final ends1 may be manifold4  ,it  
is a mistake which appeared especially  
in the eighteenth century1  nowadays the
 tendency is more and more to abandon   
it1 that every one  seeks the same end1 
namely1 his own highest possible        
pleasure4#ae  ,whoever can believe that 
the martyr facing with full             
consciousness the  most terrible        
tortures for the sake of his            
conviction--and there were  some who had
 no hope of recompense hereafter--was   
thus inspired by a  desire after the    
greatest possible pleasure1 such a man  
must have either  a very defective sense
 of the facts of the case1 or1 indeed1  
have lost  all measure of the           
intensities of pleasure and pain4       
,this1 therefore1 is certain3 even final
 ends are manifold1 between them  hovers
 the choice1 which1 since the final end 
is for everything the  determining      
principle1 is of the most importance4   

,what ought ,i to strive  after8 ,which 
end is the right one1 which wrong8      
,this1 as ,aristotle long  ago declared1
 is the essential1 the cardinal question
 in ethics4#af      #ag4 ,which end is  
right1 for which should our choice      
declare itself8    ,where the end is    
fixed and it is merely a question as to 
the choice of  means1 we reply3 ,choose 
means which will certainly attain the   
end4 ,where  it is a question as to the 
choice of ends we would say3 ,choose an 
end  which reason regards as really     
attainable4 ,this answer is1 however1   
insufficient1 many a thing attainable is
 rather to be shunned than  sought      
after2 choose the best among attainable 
ends1 this alone is the  adequate       
answer4#ag    ,but the answer is        
obscure2 what do we mean by 8the best08 
what can be  called 8good0 at all8 and  
how can we attain to the knowledge that 
one  thing is good and better than      
another8      #ah4 ,in order to answer  
this question satisfactorily1 we must1  

above all1  inquire into the origin of  
the conception of the good1 which lies1 
like  the origin of all our conceptions1
 in certain concrete impressions4#ah    
,we possess impressions with physical   
content4 ,these exhibit to us  sensuous 
qualities localized in space4 ,out of   
this sphere arise the  conceptions of   
colour1 sound1 space and many others4   
,the conception of  the good1 however1  
has not here its origin4 ,it is easily  
recognizable  that the conception of the
 good like that of the true1 which1 as  
having  affinity1 is rightly placed side
 by side with it1 derives its origin    
from concrete impressions with psychical
 content4      #ai4 ,the common feature 
of everything psychical consists in what
 has been  called by a very unfortunate 
and ambiguous term1 consciousness2 i4e4 
in  a subject-attitude2 in what has been
 termed an intentional relation to      
something which1 though perhaps not     
real1 is none the less an inner  object 
of perception#ai ,no hearing without the

 heard1 no believing  without the       
believed1 no hoping without the hoped   
for1 no striving  without the striven   
for1 no joy without the enjoyed1 and so 
with other  mental phenomena4      #bj4 
,the sensuous qualities which are given 
in our impressions with  physical       
content exhibit manifold differences4   
,so also do the  intentional relations  
given in our impressions with psychical 
content4  ,and1 as in the former case1  
the number of the senses is determined  
by  reference to those distinctions     
between sensuous qualities which are    
most fundamental 7called by ,helmholtz  
distinctions of modality71 so in  the   
latter case the number of fundamental   
classes of mental phenomena is  fixed by
 reference to the most fundamental      
distinctions of intentional             
relation4#bj    ,in this way we         
distinguish three fundamental classes4  
,descartes in his  ,meditations#ba was  
the first to exhibit these rightly and  
completely2  but sufficient attention   

has not been paid to his observations1  
and they  were soon quite forgotten1    
until in recent times1 and independently
 of  him1 these were again discovered4  
,nowadays they may lay claim to         
sufficient verification4#bb    ,the     
first fundamental class is that of ideas
 7,vorstellungen7 in the  widest sense  
of the term 7,descartes' ideae74 ,this  
class embraces  concrete impressions1   
those for example which are given to us 
through  the senses1 as well as every   
abstract conception4    ,the second     
fundamental class is judgment           
7,descartes' judicia74 ,previous  to    
,descartes these were thought of as     
forming1 along with ideas1 one          
fundamental class1 and since ,descartes'
 time philosophy has fallen once  more  
into this error4 ,this view regarded    
judgment as consisting  essentially in a
 combination or relation of ideas to one
 another4 ,this  was a gross            
misconception of its true nature4 ,we   
may combine or relate  ideas as we      

please1 as in speaking of a golden      
mountain1 the father of a  hundred      
children1 a friend of science2 but as   
long as nothing further  takes place    
there can be no judgment4 ,equally true 
is it that an idea  always forms the    
basis of a judgment1 as also of a       
desire2 but it is not  true that1 in a  
judgment1 there are always several ideas
 related to one  another as subject and 
predicate4 ,this is certainly the case  
when ,i say3  8,god is just10 though not
 when ,i say3 8,there is a ,god40       
,what1 therefore1 distinguishes those   
cases where ,i have not only an idea    
but also a judgment8 ,there is here     
added to the act of presentation a      
second intentional relation to the      
object given in presentation1 a         
relation either of recognition or       
rejection4 ,whoever says3 8,god10 gives 
expression to the idea of ,god2 whoever 
says3 8,there is a ,god10 gives         
expression to a belief in him4    ,i    
must not linger here1 and can only      

assure you that this1 if anything1      
admits to-day of no denial4 ,from the   
philological standpoint ,miklosich      
confirms the results of psychological   
analysis4#bc    ,the third fundamental  
class consists of the emotions in the   
widest sense  of the term1 from the     
simple forms of inclination or          
disinclination in  respect of the mere  
idea1 to joy and sadness arising from   
conviction and  to the most complicated 
phenomena as to the choice of ends and  
means4  ,aristotle long since included  
these under the term 4 ,descartes  says 
this class embraces the voluntates sive 
affectus4 ,as in the  second fundamental
 class the intentional relation was one 
of recognition  or rejection1 so in the 
third class it is one of love or hate1  
7or1 as  it might be equally well       
expressed17 a form of pleasing or       
displeasing4  ,loving1 pleasing1 hating1
 displeasing1 these are given in the    
simplest  forms of inclination or       
disinclination1 in victorious joy as    

well as in  despairing sorrow1 in hope  
and fear1 and in every form of voluntary
  activity4 8,plait-il80 asks the       
,frenchman2 8es hat ,gott gefallen10 one
  reads in 7,german7 announcements of a 
death2 while the 8,placet10 written     
when confirming an act1 is the          
expression of the determining fiat of   
will4#bd      #ba4 ,in comparing these  
three classes of phenomena it is found  
that the  two last mentioned show an    
analogy which1 in the first1 is absent4 
,there  exists1 that is1 an opposition  
of intentional relation2 in the case of 
judgment1 recognition or rejection1 in  
the case of the emotions1 love or  hate1
 pleasure or displeasure4 ,the idea     
shows nothing of a similar  nature4 ,i  
can1 it is true1 conceive of opposites1 
as for example white  and black1 but    
whether ,i believe in this black or deny
 it1 ,i can only  represent it to myself
 in one way2 the representation does not
 alter  with the opposite act of        
judgment2 nor again1 in the case of the 

feelings1 when ,i change my attitude    
towards it according as it pleases  or  
displeases me4      #bb4 ,from this fact
 follows an important conclusion4       
,concerning acts of  the first class    
none can be called either right or      
wrong4 ,in the case of  the second class
 on the other hand1 one of the two      
opposed modes of  relation1 affirmation 
and rejection1 is right the other wrong1
 as logic  has long affirmed4 ,the same 
naturally holds good of the third class4
 ,of  the two opposed modes of relation1
 love and hate1 pleasure and            
displeasure1 in each case one is right  
the other wrong4      #bc4 ,we have now 
reached the place where the notions of  
good and bad1  along with the notions of
 the true and the false which we have   
been  seeking1 have their source4 ,we   
call anything true when the recognition 
related to it is right4#be ,we call     
something good when the love  relating  
to it is right4 ,that which can be loved
 with a right love1 that  which is      

worthy of love1 is good in the widest   
sense of the term4      #bd4 ,since     
everything which pleases does so1 either
 for its own sake1 or  for the sake of  
something else which is thereby         
produced1 conserved or  rendered        
probable1 we must distinguish between a 
primary and a secondary  good1 i4e4 what
 is good in itself1 and what is good on 
account of  something else1 as is       
specially the case in the sphere of the 
useful4    ,what is good in itself is   
the good in the narrower sense4 ,it     
alone can  stand side by side with the  
true4 ,for everything which is true is  
true  in itself1 even when only         
mediately known4 ,when we speak of good 
later  we shall therefore mean1 whenever
 the contrary is not expressly          
asserted1 that which is good in itself4 
,in this way we have1 ,i hope1 made     
clear the notion of good4#bf      #be4  
,there follows now the still more       
important question3 ,how are we to  know
 that anything is good8 ,ought we to say

 that whatever is loved and  is capable 
of being loved is worthy of love and is 
good8 ,this is  manifestly untrue1 and  
it is almost inconceivable that some    
have fallen  into this error4 ,one loves
 what another hates1 and1 in accordance 
with a  well known psychological law    
already previously referred to it often 
happens that what at first was desired  
merely as a means to something  else1   
comes at last from habit to be desired  
for its own sake4 ,in such a  way the   
miser is irrationally led to heap up    
riches and even to  sacrifice himself   
for their sake4 ,the actual presence of 
love1  therefore1 by no means testifies 
unconditionally to the worthiness of    
the object to be loved1 just as         
affirmation is no unconditional proof of
  what is true4    ,it might even be    
said that the first statement is even   
more evident  than the second1 since it 
can hardly happen that he who affirms   
anything  at the same time holds it to  
be false1 whereas it frequently happens 

that a person1 even while loving        
something1 confesses himself that it is 
unworthy of his love3         8,video   
meliora proboque1      ,deteriora       
sequor40    ,how then are we to know    
that anything is good8      #bf4 ,the   
matter appears enigmatical1 but the     
enigma finds a very easy  solution4     
,as a preliminary step to answering the 
question1 let us turn our glance  from  
the good to the true4    ,not everything
 which we affirm is on this account     
true4 ,our judgments  are frequently    
quite blind4 ,many a prejudice which we 
drank in1 as it  were1 with our mother's
 milk presents to us the appearance of  
an  irrefutable principle4 ,to other    
equally blind judgments all men have1 by
  nature1 a kind of instinctive         
impulsion1 as1 for example1 in trusting 
blindly to the so-called external       
impression1 or to a recent  remembrance4
 ,what is so recognized may often be    
true1 but it may equally  well be false 
since the affirming judgment contains   

nothing which gives  to it the character
 of rightness4    ,such1 however1 is the
 case in certain other judgments1 which 
in  contradistinction to these blind    
judgments may be termed 8obvious10      
8self-evident0 judgments2 as1 for       
example1 the ,principle of              
,contradiction1 and every so-called     
inner perception which informs me  that 
,i am now experiencing sensations of    
sound or colour1 or think and  will this
 or that4    ,in what1 then1 does the   
distinction between these lower and     
higher forms  of judgment essentially   
consist8 ,is it a distinction in the    
degree of  belief1 or is it something   
else8 ,it is not a distinction in the   
degree  of belief2 the instinctive blind
 assumptions arising from habit are     
often not in the slightest degree       
weakened by doubts1 and we are unable   
to get rid of some even when we have    
already seen their logical falsity4     
,but such assumptions are the results of
 blind impulse1 they have nothing  of   

the clearness peculiar to the higher    
forms of judgment4 ,were the  question  
to be raised3 8,what is then your reason
 for believing that80 no  rational      
answer would be forthcoming4 ,it is     
quite true that if the same  inquiry    
were to be made respecting the          
immediately evident judgment here  also 
no reason could be given1 but in face of
 the clearness of the  judgment the     
inquiry would appear utterly beside the 
point1 in fact  ridiculous4 ,every one  
experiences for himself the difference  
between  these two classes of judgment1 
and in the reference to this experience1
  consists1 as in the case of every     
conception1 the final explanation4      
#bg4 ,all this is1 in its essentials1   
universally known1#bg and is  contested 
only by a few1 and then not without     
great inconsistency4 ,far  fewer have   
noticed an analogous distinction between
 the higher and lower  forms of the     
feelings of pleasure and displeasure4   
,our pleasure or displeasure is often   

quite like blind judgment1 only an      
instinctive or habitual impulse4 ,this  
is so in the case of the miser's        
pleasure in piling up1 in those powerful
 feelings of pleasure and pain          
connected in men and animals alike with 
the appearance of certain  sensuous     
qualities1 moreover1 as is especially   
noticeable in tastes1  different species
 and even different individuals1 are    
affected in a  quite contrary manner4   
,many philosophers1 and among them very 
considerable thinkers1 have  regarded   
only that mode of pleasure which is     
peculiar to the lower  phenomena of the 
class1 and have entirely overlooked the 
fact that there  exists a pleasure and a
 displeasure of a higher kind4 ,david   
,hume1 for  example1 betrays almost in  
every word that he has absolutely no    
idea of  the existence of this higher   
class4#bh ,how general this oversight   
has  been may be judged from the fact   
that language has no common name for    
it4#bi ,yet the fact is undeniable and  

we propose now to elucidate it by  a few
 examples4    ,we have already said that
 we are endowed by nature with a        
pleasure for  some tastes and an        
antipathy for others1 both of which are 
purely  instinctive4 ,we also naturally 
take pleasure in clear insight1         
displeasure in error or ignorance4 8,all
 men10 says ,aristotle in the  beautiful
 introductory words of his              
,metaphysics1#cj 8naturally desire      
knowledge40 ,this desire is an example  
which will serve our purpose4 ,it  is a 
pleasure of that higher form which is   
analogous to self-evidence  in the      
sphere of judgment4 ,in our species it  
is universal4 ,were there  another      
species which1 while having different   
preferences from us in  respect of      
sensible qualities1 were opposed to us  
in loving error for  its own sake and   
hating insight1 then assuredly we should
 not in the  latter as in the former    
case say3 that it was a matter of taste1
 8de  gustibus non est disputandum02    

rather we should here answer decisively 
that such love and hatred were          
fundamentally absurd1 that such a       
species  hated what was undeniably good1
 and loved what was undeniably bad in   
itself4 ,now why1 where the feeling of  
compulsion is equally strong1 do  we    
answer differently in the one case than 
in the other8 ,the answer is  simple4   
,in the former case the feeling of      
compulsion was an instinctive  impulse2 
in the latter the natural feeling of    
pleasure is a higher love1  having the  
character of rightness4#ca ,we therefore
 notice when we  ourselves have such a  
feeling1 that its object is not merely  
loved and  lovable1 its opposite hated  
and unlovable1 but also that the one is 
worthy of love1 the other worthy of     
hatred1 and therefore that one is  good1
 the other bad4    ,another example4 ,as
 we prefer insight to error1 so also1   
generally  speaking1 we prefer joy      
7unless indeed it be joy in what is bad7
 to  sadness4 ,were there beings among  

whom the reverse held good1 we should   
regard such conduct as perverse1 and    
rightly so4 ,here too it is because  our
 love and our hatred are qualified as   
right4    ,a third example is found in  
feeling itself so far as it is right and
 has  the character of rightness4 ,as   
was the case with the rightness and     
evidence of the judgment1 so also the   
rightness and higher character of  the  
feelings are also reckoned as good1     
while love of the bad is itself  bad4#cb
    ,in order that1 in the sphere of    
ideas1 we may not leave the             
corresponding experiences unmentioned3  
here in the same way every idea  is     
found to be something good in itself1   
and that with every enlargement  in the 
realm of our ideas1 quite apart from    
what of good or bad may  result         
therefrom1 the good within us is        
increased4#cc    ,here then1 and from   
such experiences of love qualified as   
right1 arises  within us the knowledge  
that anything is truly and unmistakably 

good in  the full extent to which we are
 capable of such knowledge4#cd    ,this 
last clause is added advisedly2 for we  
must not1 of course1 conceal  from      
ourselves the fact that we have no      
guarantee that everything which  is good
 will arouse within us a love with the  
character of rightness4  ,wherever this 
is not the case our criterion fails1 and
 the good then1 so  far as our knowledge
 and practical account of it are        
concerned1 is as  much as               
non-existent4#ce      #bh4 ,it is1      
however1 not one but many things which  
we thus recognize as  good4 ,and so the 
questions remain3 ,in that which is     
good1 and especially  in what1 as good1 
is attainable1 which is the better8 and 
further1 which  is the highest practical
 good8 so that it may become the        
standard for  our actions4      #bi4 ,we
 must first inquire3 ,when is anything  
better than anything else  and          
recognized by us as better8 and what is 
meant by 8the better0 at  all8    ,the  

answer now lies ready to hand though not
 in such a way as to render  it         
unnecessary to exclude a very possible  
error4 ,if by 8good0 is meant  that     
which is worthy of being loved for its  
own sake1 then by 8better0  appears to  
be meant that which is worthy of being  
loved with a greater  love4 ,but is this
 really so8 ,what is meant by 8with     
greater love08 ,is it  spatial          
magnitude8 ,hardly2 no one would propose
 to measure pleasure or  displeasure in 
feet and inches4 8,the intensity of the 
pleasure10 some  will perhaps say1 8is  
what is meant in speaking of love as    
great40  ,according to this 8better0    
would mean that which pleases with a    
more  intense pleasure4 ,but such a     
definition closely examined would       
involve  the greatest absurdities4      
,according to this view1 each single    
case in  which joy is felt in anything  
would seem only to admit of a certain   
measure of joy1 whereas one would       
naturally think that it could not       

possibly be reprehensible to rejoice in 
what is really good to the  fullest     
extent possible4 ,or1 as we say1 8with  
all one's heart40  ,descartes has       
already observed that the act of loving 
7when directed  towards what is good at 
all7 can never be too intense4#cf ,and  
he is  manifestly right4 ,were it       
otherwise what cautiousness should we   
not be  called upon to exercise         
considering the limits of our mental    
strength6  ,every time one wished to    
rejoice over something good1 an anxious 
survey  would be necessary respecting   
other existing goods in order that the  
measure of proportion to our total      
strength might in no way be exceeded4   
,and if one believes in a ,god1         
understanding thereby the ,infinite     
,good1  the ,ideal of all ideals1 then1 
since a man1 even with his whole soul   
and  strength can only love ,god with an
 act of love of finite intensity he     
will therefore be compelled to love     
every other good with an infinitely     

small degree of intensity1 and1 since   
this is impossible1 must cease as  a    
matter of fact to love it at all4       
,all this is manifestly absurd4         
#cj4 ,and yet it must be said that the  
better is that which is rightly  loved  
with a greater love1 which is rightly   
more pleasing1 though in  quite another 
sense4 ,the 8more0 refers not to the    
relation of intensity  between the two  
acts1 but rather to a peculiar species  
of phenomena  belonging to the general  
class of pleasure and displeasure1 i4e41
 to the  phenomena of choice4 ,thereby  
are meant relating acts which in their  
peculiar nature are known to every one  
in experience4 ,in the province of      
ideas there is nothing analogous4 ,in   
the province of judgment there are1  it 
is true1 alongside the simple1          
subjectless propositions1 predicative   
judgments which are acts of a relative  
character1 but this resemblance  is very
 imperfect4 ,the case here which has    
most similarity is that of a  decision  

respecting a dialectically propounded   
question3 8,is this true  or false80 in 
which a sort of preference is given to  
one above the  other4 ,but even here it 
is always something true which is1 so to
 speak1  preferred to something false1  
never something more true over something
  less true4 ,whatever is true is true  
in a like degree1 but whatever is  good 
is not good in equal degree1 and by     
8better0 nothing else is meant  than    
what1 when compared with another good1  
is preferable1 i4e4  something which for
 its own sake1 is preferred with a right
 preference4  ,for the rest a somewhat  
wider usage of language allows us also  
to speak  of a good as 8better0 over    
against a bad or purely indifferent1 or 
even  to call something bad over against
 something still worse 8the better40    
,we then say not of course that it is   
good1 but still better than the  other4 
,this shortly in explanation of the     
notion of the better4      #ca4 ,next   
the question3 ,how do we know that      

anything is really the  better8         
,assuming the existence of simple       
knowledge of things as good and  bad1 we
 appear1 so analogy suggests1 to derive 
this insight from certain  acts of      
preferring which have the character of  
rightness4 ,for1 like the  simple       
exercise of pleasure1 so also the act of
 preferring is sometimes  of a lower or 
impulsive1 and sometimes of a higher    
kind1 and like the  evident judgment1 is
 qualified as right4 ,the cases in point
 are1  however1 of such a nature that   
many might say1 and perhaps with a      
better  right1 that it is analytical    
judgments which furnish us here with the
  means of progress1 and that instead of
 our learning the preferability  from   
the actual preferences1 the preferences 
have the qualification of  rightness    
because they already presume the        
recognition of the standard  of         
preferability4#cg    ,chiefly belonging 
to this class are obviously 7#a7 the    
case where we  prefer something good1   

and recognized as good1 to something    
bad1 and  recognized as bad4 ,also 7#b7 
the case where we prefer the existence  
of  something recognized as good to its 
non-existence1 or the non-existence  of 
something recognized as bad to its      
existence4    ,this case embraces in    
itself a series of important cases1 as  
the case  where we prefer a good to the 
same good with an admixture of the bad2 
and1 on the other hand1 where we prefer 
something bad1 with an admixture  of    
good1 to the same bad purely for its own
 sake4 ,further1 the cases in  which we 
prefer the whole of a good to its part1 
and again1 the part of  something bad to
 its whole4 ,aristotle has already      
called attention to  the fact that in   
the case of the good the sum is always  
better than the  separate parts which   
together make up its sum4 ,such a case  
of summation  presents itself wherever a
 state has a certain permanence4 ,the   
same  amount of joy which endures an    
hour is better than if it only lasted   

for  a moment4 ,whoever denies this1    
like ,epicurus when he would console us 
on  account of the mortality of the     
soul1 may easily be led into still more 
striking absurdities4 ,for then an      
hour's torture would be no worse than   
that of a moment4 ,and1 by combining    
both these propositions1 we should  have
 to assume that an entire life full of  
joy with a single moment of  pain is in 
no way preferable to an entire life full
 of pain with a  single moment of joy4  
,this is a result at which not only     
every sound  mind in general would      
demur1 but also one respecting which    
,epicurus in  particular1 expressly     
asserts the contrary4    ,closely       
related to this is the case 7#c7 where  
one good is preferred to  another1      
which1 while forming no part of the     
first1 is yet similar in  every respect 
to one of its parts4 ,it is not merely  
by adding a good to  the same good but  
also by adding it to a good which is in 
every respect  similar that we get a    

better for total4 ,the case is analogous
 when to a  similar bad another bad is  
thought of as added4 ,when therefore1   
for  example1 a fine picture is seen1   
the first time as a whole1 the second   
time only partially though exactly in   
the same way1 we must then say  that the
 first view1 considered in itself1 is   
better3 ,or1 when one  imagines         
something that is good and a second time
 not only imagines it  even as perfectly
 as before1 but also loves it1 this     
latter sum of  psychical acts is then   
something better4    ,cases of          
difference in degree belong also to this
 third class1 and are  especially worthy
 of mention4 ,if one good1 e4g4 one joy 
is in every  respect quite equal to     
another1 only more intense1 then the    
preference  which is given to the more  
intense is qualified as right1 the more 
intense is the better4 ,conversely1 the 
bad which is more intense1 e4g4 a  more 
intense pain1 is worse4 ,that is to say3
 the degree of intensity  corresponds   

with the distance from the zero point1  
and the distance of  the greater degree 
of intensity from zero is compounded of 
its distance  from the weaker degree of 
intensity plus the distance of this from
 zero4  ,we have1 therefore1 really to  
do with a kind of addition1 a view which
  has been disputed4      #cb4 ,many a  
one will1 perhaps1 think to himself that
 the three cases  which ,i have set     
forth are so self-evident and           
insignificant that it is  a matter for  
surprise that ,i have lingered over them
 at all4  ,self-evident they are of     
course1 and this must be so1 since we   
have  here to do with what has to serve 
as a fundamentum4 ,the case would be    
worse if they were insignificant2 for1  
,i confess it frankly1 ,i have  scarcely
 another further case to add3 in all1   
or1 at any rate1 most of  the cases not 
here included a criterion fails us      
completely4#ch    ,an example4 ,all     
insight is1 we have said1 something good
 in itself1 and  all noble love is      

likewise something good in itself4 ,we  
recognize both  these things clearly4   
,but who shall say whether this act of  
insight or  that act of love is in      
itself1 the better8 ,there have1 of     
course1 not  been wanting those who have
 given a verdict on this point2 some    
have  even asserted that it is certain  
every act of noble love for its own     
sake is a good so high that1 taken by   
itself1 it is better than all           
scientific insight taken together4 ,in  
my judgment this view is not only       
doubtful but altogether absurd4 ,for a  
single act of noble love worthy as  it  
is1 is yet a certain finite good4 ,but  
every act of insight is also a  finite  
good and if ,i keep adding this finite  
quantity to itself ad  libitum1 its sum 
is bound some time to exceed every given
 finite  measure of good4 ,on the other 
hand1 ,plato and ,aristotle were        
inclined to  regard the act of knowing  
considered in itself as higher than     
ethically  virtuous acts1 this also     

quite unjustly1 and ,i only mention it  
since the  opposition of opinions here  
is a confirmatory proof of the absence  
of  any criterion4 ,as often happens in 
the sphere of the psychical1#ci so  also
 here1 real measurements are impossible4
 ,now where the inner  preference is not
 to be detected there holds good here   
what was said in  a similar case of     
simple goodness--as far as our knowledge
 and practical  concern go it is as good
 as non-existent4      #cc4 ,there are  
some who1 in opposition to the clear    
teaching of  experience1 assert that    
only pleasure is good for its own sake1 
and  pleasure is the good4 ,assuming    
this view to be right1 would it have    
the advantage1 as many have believed1   
and as ,bentham in particular           
maintained in its favour1#dj that we    
should at once attain to a              
determination of the relative value of  
goods1 seeing that now we should  have  
only homogeneous goods and these admit  
of being measured side by  side8 ,every 

more intense pleasure would then be a   
greater good than one  less intense1 and
 a good having double the intensity     
would be equal to  two of half the      
intensity4 ,in this way everything would
 become clear4    ,a moment's reflection
 only is needed to shatter an illusion  
born of such  hope4 ,are we really able 
to find out that one pleasure is twice  
as great  as another8 ,gauss#da himself1
 who knew something about measurements1 
has denied this4 ,a more intense        
pleasure is never really made up of     
twelve less intense pleasures           
distinguishable as equal parts within   
it1  as a foot is made up of twelve     
inches4 ,so the matter presents itself  
even in simpler cases4 ,but how foolish 
would any one appear were he to  assert 
that the pleasure he had in smoking a   
good cigar increased #abg1  or1 let us  
say1 #ajgg times in intensity yielded a 
measure of the  pleasure experienced by 
him in listening to a symphony of       
,beethoven or  contemplating one of     

,raphael's madonnas6#db ,i think ,i have
 said enough1  and do not need to allude
 to the further difficulty involved in  
comparing the intensity of pleasure with
 that of pain4      #cd4 ,only therefore
 to this very limited extent are we able
 to derive  from experience a knowledge 
of what is better in itself4    ,i can  
well understand how any one1 reflecting 
upon this for the first  time1 will be  
led to fear that the great gaps which   
remain must1 in  practice1 prove in the 
highest degree embarrassing4 ,yet as we 
proceed  and make a vigorous use of what
 we do possess1 we shall find that the  
most sensible deficiencies may          
fortunately turn out harmless in        
practice4      #ce4 ,for1 from the cases
 we adduced of preference qualified as  
right1 the  important proposition       
follows that the province of the highest
 practical  good embraces everything    
which is subject to our rational        
operation in  so far as a good can be   
realized in such matter4 ,not merely the

 self but  also the family1 the town1   
the state1 the whole present world of   
life1  even distant future times1 may   
here be taken into account4 ,all this   
follows from the principle of the       
summation of the good4 ,to promote as   
far as possible the good throughout this
 great whole1 that is manifestly  the   
right end in life1 towards which every  
act is to be ordered2 that is  the one1 
the highest command upon which all the  
rest depend4#dc  ,self-devotion and1 on 
occasion1 self-sacrifice are1 therefore1
 duties2  an equal good wherever it be1 
and therefore in the person of another  
also1 is1 in proportion to its value1   
and1 therefore1 everywhere equally  to  
be loved1 and jealousy and malignant    
envy are excluded4      #cf4 ,and now1  
since all lesser goods are to be made   
subservient to the  good of this widest 
sphere1 light may also be shed from     
utilitarian  considerations upon those  
dark regions where before we found a    
standard  of choice wanting4 ,if1 for   

example1 it was true that acts of       
insight and  acts of noble love are not 
to be measured as to their inner worth  
in  terms of one another1 it is now     
clear that at any rate neither of these 
two sides may be entirely neglected at  
the expense of the other4 ,if one       
person had perfect knowledge without    
noble love1 and another perfect  noble  
love without knowledge1 neither would be
 able to use his gifts in  the service  
of the still greater collective good4 ,a
 certain harmonious  development and    
exercise of all our noblest powers      
seems1 therefore1  from this point of   
view to be1 at any rate1 what we must   
strive  after4#dd      #cg4 ,and now    
after seeing how many duties of love    
towards the highest  practical good come
 to light1 we proceed to the origin of  
duties of law4  ,that association which 
renders possible a division of labour is
 the  indispensable condition of the    
advancement of the highest good as we   
have learnt to understand it4 ,man      

therefore is morally destined to live   
in society1 and it is easily            
demonstrable that limits must exist in  
order that one member of society may not
 be more of a hindrance than a  help to 
another1#de and that these limits       
7though much in this respect  is settled
 by considerations of natural           
common-sense7 require to be more        
exactly marked by positive laws1 and    
need the further security and  support  
of public authority4    ,and while in   
this way our natural insight demands and
 sanctions positive  law in general1 it 
may1 in particular1 raise demands on the
 fulfillment  of which depends the      
measure of the blessing which the state 
of law is  to bring with it4    ,in this
 way does truth1 bearing the supreme    
crown1 give1 or refuse1 to  the products
 of positive legislation its sanction1  
and it is from this  crown that they    
derive their true binding force4#df ,for
 as the old sage  of ,ephesus says in   
one of his pregnant ,sibyl-like         

utterances3 8,all human  laws are fed   
from the one divine law40#dg      #ch4  
,besides the laws referring to the      
limits of right1 in every society  there
 are other positive enactments as to the
 way in which an individual  is to act  
inside his own sphere of right1 how he  
is to make use of his  liberty and his  
property4 ,public opinion approves      
industry1 generosity1  and economy each 
in its place1 while disapproving        
idleness1 greed1  prodigality and much  
else4 ,in the statutes no such laws are 
to be found1  but they stand written    
within the hearts of the people4 ,nor   
are reward  and punishment lacking as   
regards this kind of positive law4      
,these  consist in the advantages and   
disadvantages of good and bad           
reputation4  ,there exists here1 as it  
were1 a positive code of morality1 the  
complement of the positive code of law4 
,this positive code of morality  also   
may contain both right and wrong        
enactments4 ,to be truly binding  they  

need to be in accord with the rules     
which1 as we have already seen1  are    
capable of recognition by the reason1 as
 a duty of love towards the  highest    
practical good4    ,and so we have      
really found the natural sanction of    
morality which we  sought4      #ci4 ,i 
do not linger here to show how this     
sanction operates4 ,every one  would    
rather say to himself3 8,i am acting    
rightly10 than 8,i am acting            
foolishly40 ,and to no one capable of   
recognizing what is better is this  fact
 entirely indifferent in choosing4 ,in  
the case of some it is nearly  so1      
whereas for others it is of the very    
first importance4 ,innate  dispositions 
are themselves diverse and much advance 
may be made by  education and one's own 
ethical conduct4 ,enough1 truth speaks1 
and  whoever is of the truth hears her  
voice4      #dj4 ,throughout the        
multiplicity of derived laws graven by  
nature herself  upon the tables of the  
law1 utilitarian considerations1 as we  

have seen1  form the standard4 ,as now1 
in different situations1 we resort to   
different means1 so also with regard to 
these different situations  different   
special precepts must hold good4 ,they  
may be quite conflicting  in their      
tenour without of course being really   
contradictory1 since they  are intended 
for different circumstances4 ,in this   
sense1 then1 a  relativity in ethics is 
rightly asserted4    ,ihering has drawn 
attention to this1#dh but he is not as  
he seems to  think1 one of the first4   
,on the contrary the doctrine was known 
of old  and is insisted upon by ,plato  
in his ,republic4#di ,aristotle in his  
,ethics1 and with special emphasis in   
his ,politics has affirmed  it4#ej ,the 
scholastic philosophers also held fast  
to the doctrine1 and  in modern times   
men even of such energetic ethical and  
political  convictions as ,bentham#ea   
have not denied it4 ,if the fanatics of 
the  ,french ,revolution failed to      
recognize it1 still the clear-headed    

among  their fellow-citizens1 even in   
that time1 did not fall into such a     
delusion4 ,laplace1 for example1 in his 
,essai philosophique sur les            
probabilits occasionally bears witness  
to the true teaching and raises  his    
voice in warning4#eb    ,thus it happens
 that the distinguished investigator who
 has disclosed to  us the spirit of     
,roman law and to whom1 as the author of
 ,der ,zweck im  ,recht1 we also are    
bound in many respects to tender our    
thanks1 has yet  here1 as we see1 done  
nothing else than render the doctrine   
unclear by  confounding it with an      
essentially different and false doctrine
 of  relativity4 ,according to this     
doctrine1 no proposition in ethics1 not 
even the proposition that the best in   
the widest sphere ought to be the       
determining standard of action1 would   
have unexceptional validity4 ,in        
primitive times and even later1         
throughout long centuries1 such a       
procedure would1 he expressly says1 have

 been as immoral as1 in later  times1   
the opposite conduct4 ,we must1 he      
thinks1 on looking back into  the times 
of cannibalism sympathize rather with   
the cannibals1 and not  with those who  
perhaps1 in advance of their time1      
preached even then the  universal love  
of neighbour4#ec ,these are errors which
 have been  crushingly refuted not      
merely by philosophical reflection upon 
the  fundamental principles of ethics1  
but also by the successes of ,christian 
missionaries4      #da4 ,thus the road  
leading to the goal which we set before 
us has been  traversed4 ,for a time it  
led us through strange and rarely       
trodden  districts1 finally1 however1   
the results at which we have arrived    
smile  upon us like old acquaintances4  
,in declaring love of neighbour and     
self-sacrifice1 both for our country and
 for mankind to be duties1 we  are only 
echoing what is proclaimed all around   
us4 ,we should also find  by going      
further into particulars that lying1    

treachery1 murder1  debauchery and much 
besides that is held to be morally base 
are1  measured by the standard of the   
principles we have set up1 condemned1   
one as unjust1 another as immoral4      
,all this would seem1 in a measure1     
familiar to us as the shores of his     
native land to the sea-farer when1 after
 a voyage happily consummated1  he sees 
them rise suddenly into view1 and the   
smoke curling from the old  familiar    
chimney4      #db4 ,and certainly we are
 at liberty to rejoice over this4 ,the  
absolute  clearness with which all this 
follows is good omen for the success of 
our undertaking1 since it is the method 
by which we arrived at our  result1     
which is obviously the most essential   
feature in it4 ,without it  what        
advantage can our inquiry be said to    
have over that of others8  ,even ,kant1 
for example1 whose doctrines concerning 
the principles of  ethics were quite    
different1 arrived1 in the further      
course of his  statement1 pretty much to

 the popular view4 ,but what we miss in 
him is  strict logical coherence4       
,beneke has shown that the ,categorical 
,imperative as ,kant used it1 may be so 
employed as to prove1 in the same  case1
 contradictory statements and so        
everything and nothing4#ed ,if1  none   
the less1 ,kant is able to arrive so    
often at right conclusions1  this must  
be attributed to the fact that from the 
outset he had  harboured such opinions4 
,even ,hegel1 had he not known in other 
ways that  the sky was blue1 would      
certainly never have succeeded by means 
of his  dialectic in deducing this      
priori4 ,did he not equally succeed in  
demonstrating that there were seven     
planets1 a number accepted in his  day1 
but which in our time science has long  
left behind8    ,the causes of this     
phenomenon1 therefore1 are easily       
understood4      #dc4 ,but there is     
another point which appears enigmatical4
 ,how does it  happen that the          
prevailing public opinion respecting law

 and morality is  itself1 in so many    
respects1 obviously right8 ,if a thinker
 like ,kant was  unable to discover the 
sources from which ethical knowledge    
flows1 how  can we believe that the     
common folk succeeded in drawing        
therefrom8 ,and  if this were not the   
case1 how were they able1 while ignorant
 of the  premises1 still to reach the   
conclusions8 ,here the phenomenon cannot
  possibly be explained from the fact   
that the right view was long before     
established4    ,this difficulty also   
resolves itself in a very simple manner 
when we  reflect that much in our store 
of knowledge exists1 and contributes    
towards the attainment of new knowledge1
 without the knowledge of the  process  
itself being clearly present to         
consciousness4    ,it must not be       
supposed that in saying this ,i am an   
adherent of the  wonderful philosophy of
 the unconscious4 ,i am speaking here   
only of  undeniable and well known      
truths4 ,thus it has often been observed

 that  for thousands of years men have  
drawn right conclusions without bringing
  the procedure and the principles which
 form the condition of the formal       
validity of the inference into clear    
consciousness by means of  reflection4  
,indeed when ,plato first took the step 
of reflecting upon it1  he was led to   
set up an entirely false theory which   
assumed that every  inference was a     
process of reminiscence4#ee ,what was   
perceived and  experienced on earth     
recalled to the memory knowledge        
acquired in a  pre-mundane existence4   
,nowadays this error has disappeared4   
,still1 false  theories concerning the  
fundamental principles of syllogism are 
continually emerging1 as1 for example1  
when ,albert ,lange1#ef finds them  in  
space-perceptions and in synthetic      
propositions  priori1 or  ,alexander    
,bain#eg in the experience that the     
moods ,barbara1 ,celarent1  etc41 have  
up to the present time been found to be 
valid in every case3  mere crude errors 

which overlook the immediate intuitions 
forming the  conditions of right        
conclusions1 but which do not prevent   
,plato1 ,lange1  and ,bain from arguing 
in general exactly like other people4   
,in spite of  their false conception of 
the true fundamental principles1 these  
still  continue to operate in their     
reasoning4    ,but why do ,i go so far  
for examples8 ,let the experiment be    
made with the  first 8plain man0 who has
 just drawn a right conclusion1 and     
demand of  him that he give you the     
premises of his conclusion4 ,this he    
will  usually be unable to do and may   
perhaps make entirely false statements  
about it4 ,on requiring the same man to 
define a notion with which he is        
familiar1 he will make the most glaring 
mistakes and so show once again  that he
 is not able rightly to describe his own
 thinking4      #dd4 ,meantime1 however 
dark the road to ethical knowledge might
 appear1  both to the 8plain man0 and to
 the philosopher1 we must still expect1 

since the process is a complicated one  
and many combined principles  operate   
therein1 that the traces of the         
operation of each separate  principle   
will be evident in history1 and this    
fact1 even more than  agreement in      
respect of the final results1 is a      
confirmation of the  right theory4      
,this also1 if only the time permitted1 
in what fulness would ,i not be  able to
 lay before you6 ,who is there1 for     
example1 who would not1 as we  have     
done1 regard joy as something evidently 
good in itself1 if only it  were not joy
 in what is bad4 ,nor has there been any
 lack of writers on  ethics who have    
asserted that pleasure and the good were
 strictly  identical conceptions4#eh    
,opposed to these were others who bore  
witness  to the inner worth of insight  
and such will be supported by all       
unprejudiced minds4 ,many philosophers  
have wished to exalt knowledge  above   
all else as the highest good4#ei ,they  
recognized1 however1 at the  same time1 

a certain inner worth in each act of    
virtue1 while others  have carried this 
view so far as to recognize only in     
virtuous action  the highest good4#fj   
,on the one hand1 therefore1 we have had
 sufficient confirmatory tests in       
support of our view4    ,next with      
regard to the principles of choice1 how 
often do we not see  the principle of   
summation applied as1 for example1 when 
it is said that  the measure of the     
happiness of life as a whole and not    
that of the  passing moment is to be    
considered4#fa ,and1 again1 passing     
beyond the  limits of the self1 when1   
for example1 ,aristotle says1 that the  
happiness of a nation seems to be a     
higher end than that of an  individual  
happiness1#fb and that in the same way  
in a work of art1 or  in an organism and
 similarly in the case of the family1   
the part always  exists for the sake of 
the whole2 everything is here           
subordinate to the  8common0 78  074#fc 
,even in the case of the whole creation 

he makes the same principle hold good4  
8,in what10 he asks1#fd  8regarding all 
created things consists the good1 and   
the best1 which is  its final aim08 ,is 
it immanent or transcendent8 ,and he    
answers3 8,both10  setting forth as the 
transcendent aim the divine first cause1
 likeness  to which everything strives  
after1 while the immanent aim is the    
world-order as a whole4 ,the like       
testimony to the principle of summation 
might be taken from the lips of the     
,stoics4#fe ,it reappears in every      
attempt to construct a theodicy from    
,plato down to ,leibnitz and even       
later4#ff    ,in the precepts of our    
popular religion1 again1 the operation  
of this  principle is also distinctly   
visible4 ,when it ordains us to love our
  neighbour as ourselves1 what else is  
taught but that1 in the right  choice1  
equality 7be it our own or that of      
others7 shall fall with equal  weight   
into the balance1 from which follows the
 subordination of the  single individual

 to the good of the collective whole2   
just as the  ethical ideal of           
,christianity--the ,saviour--offers     
himself as a  sacrifice for the         
salvation of the world4    ,and when it 
is said3 8,love ,god above all else0    
7and ,aristotle also says  that ,god is 
much rather to be called the best than  
the world as a  whole71#fg here also    
there is a special application of the   
law of  summation4 ,for how else do we  
think of ,god than as the sum of all    
that  is good raised to an infinite     
degree8    ,and so the two propositions3
 that we should love our neighbour as   
ourselves1 and love ,god above all else1
 are manifestly so closely  related that
 we are no longer surprised to find     
added the words that the  one law is    
like unto the other4 ,the law that we   
are to love our  neighbour1 it should be
 carefully noted1 is not subordinated to
 that of  love of ,god1 and derived from
 it1 it is1 according to the ,christian 
view1 not right because ,god has        

required it1 rather he requires it      
because it is by nature right2#fh and   
this rightness is made manifest  in the 
same way1 and with the same clearness by
 means1 so to speak1 of  the same ray of
 natural knowledge4    ,sufficient      
testimony has perhaps been offered to   
the shaping operation  of those factors 
which have been separately set forth by 
us1 and so we  have1 on the one hand1 a 
strengthening of our theory while1 on   
the other  hand1 we have in essentials  
the explanation of that paradoxical     
anticipation of philosophical results4  
#de4 ,we are not to suppose1 however1   
that all has now been said4 ,not  every 
opinion regarding law and morality      
holding good in society to-day1  and    
which has also the sanction of ethics1  
flows from these pure and  noble sources
 which1 even when hid1 have none the    
less discharged their  waters in rich   
abundance4 ,many such views have arisen 
in a way quite  unjustifiable from a    
logical point of view1 and an inquiry   

into the  history of their origin shows 
that they take their rise in lower      
impulses1 in egoistic desires through a 
transformation due1 not to  higher      
influences1 but simply to the           
instinctive force of habit4 ,it is      
really true1 as so many utilitarians    
have pointed out1 that egoism  prompts  
men to make themselves agreeable to     
others and that such  conduct           
continually practised1 develops finally 
into a habit which is  blind to the     
original ends4 ,the chief reason for    
this is the limits of  our mind1 the    
so-called 8narrowness of consciousness10
 which does not  allow of our always    
keeping clearly before us the more      
remote and final  ends side by side with
 what is immediately in question4 ,in   
such a way  many a one may be frequently
 led1 by the blind force of habit1 to   
have  regard also for the well-being of 
others with a certain                   
self-forgetfulness4 ,further1 it is     
true1 as some have particularly         

insisted1 that in history it must often 
have happened that a powerful  person   
has selfishly reduced to subjection a   
weaker individual1 and  transformed him 
by force of habit more and more into a  
willing slave4  ,and then in this       
slave-soul an   comes in the end to     
operate  with a blind1 but none the less
 powerful force1 an impelling 8you      
ought10 as though it were a revelation  
of nature regarding good and bad4  ,on  
every violation of a command he feels   
himself1 like a well-trained  dog1      
uneasy and inwardly tormented4 ,when    
such a tyrant had1 in this way1  reduced
 many to subjection his prudent egoism  
would cause him to give  commands       
helpful to the maintenance of his horde4
 ,these orders would in  the same       
slavish manner become habitual1 and as  
it were1 natural to his  subjects4 ,and 
so regard for the whole of this         
community would gradually  become for   
each subject something into which he    
felt himself driven in  the manner above

 described4 ,at the same time1 we may   
easily recognize  how1 owing to the     
constant care exercised towards his     
subjects1 habits  must be formed in the 
tyrant himself favourable to a regard   
for the  welfare of the community4 ,it  
may even happen at last that1 just as in
  the case of the miser1 who sacrifices 
himself for the sake of his gold1  the  
tyrant may be ready to die for the      
maintenance of his people4  ,throughout 
the whole process thus described ethical
 principles do not  exercise the        
slightest influence4 ,the compulsion    
which in this way  arises1 and the      
opinions which as a result approve or   
disapprove of a  certain procedure have 
nothing whatever to do with the natural 
sanction  and are devoid of all ethical 
worth4 ,it may1 however1 be easily      
understood--especially if one considers 
how one tribe enters into  relations    
with another and considerations of      
friendliness begin here too  to prove   
advantageous1--how this kind of training

 may lead1 indeed one  may venture to   
say must1 sooner or later1 lead to      
opinions in  agreement with the         
principles springing from a true        
appreciation of the  good4      #df4    
,thus also the blind1 purely habitual   
expectation of similar events  under    
similar circumstances which animals1 and
 also we ourselves1  practise in        
countless instances1 often coincide with
 the results which a  complete induction
 according to the principles of the     
calculation of  probability would1 in   
the same case1 have brought about4 ,the 
very  similarity of result has led      
people even with a psychological        
education1#fi to regard the two         
processes as exactly identical1         
although they stand wide as the poles   
asunder1 the one completing itself  by  
means of a purely blind instinct1 while 
the other is illumined by  mathematical 
evidence4 ,we ourselves should1         
therefore1 be well on our  guard against
 supposing in such pseudo-ethical       

developments the  concealed influence of
 the true ethical sanction4      #dg4   
,great1 however1 as is the contrast1    
still even these lower processes  have  
their worth4 ,nature--and this has been 
often insisted  on#gj--;frequently does 
well in leaving much which concerns our 
welfare  to instinctive impulses like   
hunger and thirst rather than leave     
everything to our reason4 ,this1 also1  
is confirmed in our case4    ,in those  
very early times in which1 as ,i        
conceded to ,ihering1 7why you  will1   
perhaps1 now be better able to see17    
nearly every trace of ethical  thought  
and feeling was absent1 much            
nevertheless was done which was a       
preparation for true virtue4 ,public    
laws1 however much in the first         
instance established under the influence
 of lower motives1 were yet  preliminary
 conditions for the free unfolding of   
our noblest capacities4    ,nor is it a 
matter of no consequence that1 under the
 influence of this  training1 certain   

passions became moderated and certain   
dispositions  implanted which made it   
easier to follow the true moral law in  
the same  direction4 ,catiline's courage
 was assuredly not the true virtue of   
courage if ,aristotle is right when he  
says that they only have such who  go to
 danger and to death 8  10 8for the sake
 of the  morally beautiful40#ga         
,augustine might have made use of this  
instance  when he said3 8virtutes       
ethnicorum splendida vitia40 ,but who   
will deny  that if such a man as        
,catiline had been converted1 the       
dispositions he  had acquired earlier   
would have made it easier for him to    
venture to  extremes in the service of  
the good too8 ,in this way1 the ground  
was  made receptive for the admission of
 truly ethical impulses and therein  lay
 a powerful encouragement to the        
propagation of truth on the part of     
those who were foremost in the discovery
 of ethical knowledge1 and first  to    
hear the voice of a natural sanction4   

,it is in this sense that  ,aristotle   
observed that it is not every one who   
can study ethics4 ,he who  is to hear   
about law and morality1 must be already 
well conducted by  dint of habit4 ,in   
the case of others1 he thinks1 it is but
 a waste of  pains4#gb    ,indeed1 still
 more may be said in praise of the      
services rendered to the  recognition of
 natural law and morality by these      
pre-ethical1 though not  pre-historical1
 times4 ,the legal ordinances and       
customs formed in this  time1 owing to  
the reasons previously assigned1        
approached so closely to  what ethics   
demands1 that this peculiar kind of     
mimicry blinded many to  the absence of 
a more thorough going affinity4 ,what1  
in the one case1 a  blind impulse and in
 the other1 knowledge of the good exalts
 into a law1  is often completely the   
same in substance4 ,the legislative     
moral  authority found therefore in     
these already codified laws and customs 
the  rough drafts1 as it were1 of laws1 

which with a few changes1 it could      
sanction without more ado4 ,these were  
the more valuable because1 as  seems    
required from a utilitarian point of    
view1 they were adapted to  the special 
circumstances of the people4 ,a         
comparison of the one  constitution with
 the other made this noticeable1 and    
early helped to  lead to the important  
knowledge of the real relativity of     
natural right  and of natural morality4 
,who knows whether otherwise1 it would  
have been  possible1 even for an        
,aristotle1 to succeed to the degree in 
which he  did in steering clear of all  
cut and dried doctrinaire theories8     
,so much1 therefore1 concerning the     
pre-ethical times1 in order that  these 
may not be denied the acknowledgment    
which they deserve4      #dh4           
,nevertheless it was then night2 though 
a night which heralded the  coming day1 
and the dawn of that day witnessed      
assuredly the most  glorious sunrise    
which1 in the history of the world is   

yet to rise into  full splendour4 ,i    
say1 is to rise1 not has risen1 for we  
still see the  light struggling with the
 powers of darkness4 ,true ethical      
motives1 in  private as in public life1 
are still far from being everywhere the 
determining standard4 ,these forces--to 
use the language of the  poet,a--prove  
themselves still too little developed to
 hold together  the structure of the    
world2 and so nature1--and we have need 
to be  thankful that it is so--keeps the
 machine going by hunger and love1 and1 
we must also add1 by all those other    
dark strivings which1 as we have  seen1 
may be developed from self-seeking      
desires4     ,a ,schiller4      #di4 ,of
 these1 and their psychological laws the
 jurist must1 therefore1  if he would   
truly understand his time1 and influence
 it beneficially1  take cognizance1 as  
well as of the doctrines of natural     
right and  natural morality which our   
inquiry has shown to be not the first   
but--in  so far as hope in the          

realization of a complete ideal may be  
cherished  at all--will be the last in  
the history of the development of law   
and  morality4    ,thus the near        
relationships of jurisprudence and      
politics of which  ,leibnitz spoke1     
become evident in their full range4     
,plato has said3 8,it will never be well
 with the state until the true          
philosopher is king1 or kings           
philosophize rightly40 ,in our          
constitutional times we should express  
ourselves better by saying that  there  
will never be a change for the better   
regarding the many evils in  our        
national life until the authorities1    
instead of abolishing the  limited      
philosophical culture required for law  
students by the existing  regulations1  
shall rather strive hard to secure that 
for their noble  profession they shall  
really receive an adequate philosophical
 culture4          ,,notes       #a 7p4 
#b74 ,cf4 8ber die ,entstehung des      
,rechtsgefhls40 ,lecture by   ,dr4      

,rudolf von ,ihering1 delivered before  
the ,vienna ,law ,society1 ,march   #ab1
 #ahhd 7,allgem4 ,juristenzeitung1 #g   
,jahrg41 ,no4 #aa seq41 ,vienna1        
,march #af-;,april #ac1 #ahhd74 ,cf4    
further1 v4 ,ihering1 ,der ,zweck im    
,recht1 vol4 ii4 ,leipzig1 #ahgg-hc4    
#b 7p4 #b74 ,for the first point1 cf4   
,allgem4 ,juristenzeitung1 #g   ,jahrg4 
p4 #abb seq41 ,zweck im ,recht1 vol4 ii4
 p4 #aji seq4 ,for the   second point   
,allgem4 ,juristenzeitung1 #g ,jahrg4 p4
 #aga1 ,zweck im   ,recht1 pp4 #aah-abc4
 ,it is here denied that there is any   
absolutely   valid ethical rule 7pp4    
#aah1 #abb seq472 further every         
8psychological0   treatment of ethics1  
according to which ethics is represented
 8as twin   sister of logic0 is         
contested4     #c 7p4 #d74 ,allgem4     
,juristenzeitung1 #g ,jahrg41 p4 #adg2  
cf4 ,zweck   im ,recht1 vol4 ii4 p4 #abd
 seq4     #d 7p4 #d74 ,aristotle1       
,politics1 i4 #b1 p4 #abeb b4 #bd4      
#e 7p4 #d74 ,cf4 e4g4 ,allgem4          

,juristenzeitung1 #g ,jahrg4 p4 #adf4   
#f 7p4 #e74 ,rep4 #b4 #ca4     #g 7p4   
#e74 ,dig4 #a4 #h1 #i4     #h 7p4 #f74  
,amongst the numerous adherents of this 
view and one of   its best advocates is 
,j4 ,s4 ,mill in his ,utilitarianism1   
chap4 iii4     #i 7p4 #f74 ,here also1  
along with many others1 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill   
may   be cited4 ,the motives of hope and
 fear are1 according to him1 the        
external2 the motives first described1  
the feelings developed by   habit1 the  
internal sanction4 ,utilitarianism1     
chap4 iii4     #aj 7p4 #g74 ,cf4 espec4 
here a discussion in ,james ,mill's     
,fragment   on ,mackintosh1 printed by  
,j4 ,s4 ,mill in the second edition of  
his   ,analysis of the phenomena of the 
human mind1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cji seq42   and
 ,grote's powerful essay published by   
,a4 ,bain under the title1   8,fragments
 on ,ethical ,subjects1 by the late     
,george ,grote1 ,f4,r4,s410   being a   
selection from his posthumous papers1   
,london1 #ahgf2 ,espec4   ,essay #a1 ,on

 the ,origin and ,nature of ,ethical    
,sentiment4     #aa 7p4 #i74 ,d4 ,hume1 
,an ,enquiry concerning the ,principles 
of   ,morals1 ,london1 #agea4     #ab   
7p4 #i74 ,herbart1 ,lehrbuch zur        
,einleitung in die ,philosophie1   #ha  
seq4 ,collected ,works1 vol4 i4 p4 #abd 
seq4     #ac 7p4 #i74 ,this comparison  
with logic should be my best defence    
against the charge of placing ,herbart's
 doctrine in a false light4   ,were the 
logical criterion to consist in         
judgments of taste   experienced on the 
appearance of thought-processes in      
accordance with   or opposition to rule1
 it would then1 in comparison with what 
it   actually is 7the internal          
self-evidence of a process in accordance
   with rule7 have to be called         
external4 ,similarly ,herbart's         
criterion   of ethics is rightly        
characterized as external1 however      
loudly   ,herbartians may insist that in
 the judgment of taste which arises     
spontaneously on the contemplation of   

certain relations of will1 an   inner   
superiority regarding these relations is
 recognizable4     #ad 7p4 #aj74 ,in his
 ,grundlegung zur ,metaphysik der       
,sitten1 ,kant   enunciates his         
,categorical ,imperative in the         
following forms3 8,act   only in        
accordance with that maxim which you can
 at the same time   will should become a
 universal law10 and 8,act as if the    
maxim of your   action were by your will
 to be raised to a universal law40      
,in the ,critique of ,practical ,reason 
it runs 8,act so that the   maxim of    
your will could on each occasion be     
valid as a universal   legislative      
principle10 i4e4 as ,kant himself       
explains1 in such a way   that the      
maxim1 when raised to a universal law1  
does not lead to   contradictions and   
consequent self-abrogation4 ,the        
consciousness of   this fundamental law 
was1 for ,kant1 a fact of pure reason1  
thereby   proclaiming itself to be      
legislative 7sic volo sic jubeo74       

,beneke has   already observed          
7,grundlinien der ,sittenlehre1 vol4 ii4
 p4 xviii41   #ahda2 cf4 his            
,grundlegung zur ,physik der ,sitten1 a 
counterpart to   ,kant's ,grundlegung   
zur ,metaphysik der ,sitten1 #ahbb7 that
 it is   nothing more than a            
8psychologische ,dichtung10 and to-day  
no one able   to judge is any longer in 
doubt concerning it4 ,it deserves to be 
noted   that even philosophers like     
,mansel1 who have the highest reverence 
for ,kant1 admit that the ,categorical  
,imperative is a fiction and            
absolutely untenable4     ,the          
,categorical ,imperative has at the same
 time another and not less   serious    
defect1 i4e4 that even when admitted1 it
 leads to no ethical   conclusions4     
,kant fails1 as ,mill 7,utilitarianism1 
chap4 i47 rightly   says 8in an almost  
grotesque fashion0 to deduce what he    
seeks4 ,his   favourite example of a    
deduction1 by which he illustrates his  
manner   of procedure not only in his   

,grundlegung zur ,metaphysik der ,sitten
   but also in the ,critique of         
,practical ,reason is as follows3 ,may  
a person1 he asks1 retain for himself a 
possession which has been   entrusted to
 him without a receipt or other         
acknowledgment8 ,he   answers1 ,no4 ,for
 he thinks1 were the opposite maxim to  
be raised to   a law1 nobody1 under such
 circumstances1 would entrust anything  
to   anybody4 ,the law would then be    
without possibility of application1     
therefore impracticable and so          
self-abrogated4     ,it may easily be   
seen that ,kant's argumentation is      
false1 indeed   absurd4 ,if1 in         
consequence of the law1 certain actions 
ceased to be   practised1 the law       
exercises an influence2 it therefore    
still exists   and has in no way        
annulled itself4 ,how ridiculous would  
it appear if   the following question   
were treated after an analogous fashion3
 8,may   ,i yield to a person who       
desires to bribe me80 ,yes1 since1 were 

,i to   think of the opposite maxim as  
raised to a universal law1 then nobody  
would seek any longer to bribe another2 
therefore the law would be   without    
application1 therefore1 impracticable1  
and so self-abrogated4     #ae 7p4 #aa74
 ,cf4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,system of         
,deductive and ,inductive   ,logic1 vol4
 iv4 chap4 iv4 section vi4 7towards the 
end72 vol4 vi4   chap4 ii4 section iv4  
and elsewhere1 e4g4 in his              
,utilitarianism1   ,essays on ,religion1
 and in his article on ,comte and       
,positivism1   part ii4     #af 7p4     
#aa74 ,cf4 with what has been said in   
the lecture the first   chapter of the  
,nicomachian ,ethics1 and it will be    
seen that ,ihering's   8fundamental     
thought0 in his work ,der ,zweck im     
,recht1 vol4 i4 p4   vi41 viz43 8that no
 legal formula exists which does not owe
 its origin   to an end10 is as old as  
ethics itself4     #ag 7p4 #ab74 ,cases 
may arise where the consequence of      
certain   efforts remains in doubt1 and 

two courses are open3 one presenting    
the prospect of a greater good but with 
less probability1 the other a   lesser  
good but with a greater probability4 ,in
 choosing here1 account   must be taken 
of the degree of probability4 ,if ,a is 
three times better   than ,b1 but ,b has
 ten times as many chances of being     
attained as ,a1   then practical wisdom 
will prefer course ,b4 ,supposing that1 
under   like circumstances1 such a      
procedure always takes place1 then 7in  
accordance with the law of great        
numbers7 the better would1 generally    
speaking1 be realized1 a sufficient     
number of cases being assumed1   and so 
such a manner of choosing would still   
obviously correspond to   the principle 
laid down in the text1 i4e4 8,choose the
 best that is   attainable40 ,the full  
significance of this remark will be made
 still   more evident in the course of  
the inquiry4     #ah 7p4 #ab74 ,this    
truth was familiar to ,aristotle 7cf4   
e4g4 ,de   ,anima1 iii4 #h74 ,the       

,middle ,ages maintained it1 but        
expressed it   unfortunately in the     
proposition3 nihil est in intelluctu1   
quod   non prius fuerit in sensu4 ,the  
notions 8willing10 8concluding0 are     
not gained from sensuous perception2 the
 term 8sensuous0 would in   that case   
have to be taken so generally that all  
distinction between   8sensuous0 and    
8super-sensuous0 disappears4 ,these     
notions have   their origin in certain  
concrete impressions with psychical     
content   7,anschauungen psychischen    
,inhalts74 ,from the same source arise  
the   notions 8end10 8cause0 7we        
observe1 for example1 a causal relation 
existing between our belief in the      
premises and in the conclusion71        
8impossibility0 and 8necessity0 7we gain
 these from judgments which   accept or 
reject not merely assertorically1 but1  
as it is usually   expressed1           
apodictically17 and many other notions  
which some modern   philosophers1       
failing in detecting the true origin of 

them1 have   sought to regard as        
categories given  priori4 ,i may        
mention1 by   the way1 that ,i am well  
aware ,sigwart and others influenced by 
him   have recently questioned the      
peculiar nature of apodictic as opposed 
to assertorical judgments4 ,but this is 
a psychological error which it   is not 
the place to discuss here4 ,cf4 note    
#bg1 p4 #hc sub4     #ai 7p4 #ab74 ,this
 doctrine in germ is also found in      
,aristotle2 cf4   espec4 ,metaph43  #ae1
 p4 #ajba a4 #bi4 ,this term            
8intentional10 like   many other terms  
for important notions1 comes from the   
scholastics4     #bj 7p4 #ac74 ,the     
question of the grounds of this division
   is discussed in more detail in my    
,psychologie vom empirischen            
,standpunkte 7#ahgd1 ,bk4 ii4 chap4 vi42
 cf4 also chap4 i4 section #e74   ,the  
statements there made regarding this    
division ,i still consider to   be      
substantially correct in spite of many  
modifications respecting   points of    

detail4     #ba 7p4 #ac74 ,meditat4 iii4
 8,nunc autem ordo videtur exigere1 ut  
prius omnes meas cogitationes 7all      
psychical acts7 in certa genera         
distribuam4444 ,quaedam ex his tanquam  
rerum imagines sunt1 quibus   solis     
proprie convenit ideae nomen1 ut cum    
hominem1 vel chimaeram1   vel coelum1   
vel angelum1 vel ,deum cogito2 aliae    
vero alias quasdam   praeterea formas   
habent1 ut cum volo cum timeo1 cum      
affirmo1 cum nego1   semper quidem      
aliquam rem ut subjectum meae           
cogitationis apprehendo1   sed aliquid  
etiam amplius quam istius rei           
similitudinem cogitatione   complector2 
et ex his aliae voluntates sive affectus
 aliae autem   judicia appellantur40    
,strangely enough this clear passage has
 not prevented ,windelband   7,strassb4 
philos4 ,abhandl4 p4 #aga7 from         
ascribing to ,descartes the   view that 
the judgment is an act of volition4     
,what led him astray   is a discussion  
in the fourth ,meditation on the        

influence of the   will in the formation
 of judgment4 ,even scholastics like    
,suarez had   ascribed too much to this 
influence1 and ,descartes goes so far in
   exaggeration of this dependence that 
he considers every judgment 7even   the 
self-evident judgments7 as the work of  
the will4 ,but to 8produce   the        
judgment0 and 8to be the judgment0 are  
yet manifestly not one   and the same4  
,and1 therefore1 although ,descartes1 in
 the passage   cited1 allows his view as
 to the influence of the will to appear1
 and   probably it is only on this      
account that he assigns to the judgment 
the third place in the fundamental      
classification of psychical   phenomena1
 yet none the less he says without      
contradiction3 aliae   voluntates--aliae
 judicia appellantur4     ,more illusive
 are a couple of passages in his later  
writings1 i4e4   in his ,principia      
,philosophiae 7i4 #cb71 published three 
years after   the ,meditations1 and in a
 work also written three years later3   

,notae   in ,programma quoddam1 sub     
finem ,anni #afdg in ,belgio editum1 cum
   hoc ,titulo3 ,explicatio mentis      
humanae sive animae rationalis1 ubi     
explicatur quid sit1 et quid esse       
possit40 ,particularly might the        
passage in the ,principles lead to the  
opinion that ,descartes must   have     
changed his view1 and it is astonishing 
that ,windelband has not   appealed to  
this passage rather than to that in the 
,meditations4 ,we   read here3--,ordines
 modi cognitandi quos in nobis          
experimur1 ad   duos generales referri  
possunt2 quorum unus est1 perceptio sive
   operatio intellectus2 alius vero     
volitio sive operatio voluntatis4   ,nam
 sentire1 imaginari1 et pure            
intellegere1 sunt tantum diversi modi   
percipiendi2 ut et cupere1 aversari1    
affirmare1 negare1 dubitare1   sunt     
diversi modi volendi4     ,at first     
sight this passage appears to be so     
clearly in contradiction   to the one in
 the third ,meditation that1 as we have 

said1 it is   scarcely possible to avoid
 the supposition that ,descartes had    
meantime   rejected his thesis as to the
 three fundamental classes of psychical 
phenomena1 so shunning ,scylla only to  
plunge into ,charybdis2 avoiding   the  
old mistake of confusing the judgment   
with the idea 7,vorstellung71   he would
 now seem to confound it with the will4 
,but a more attentive   examination of  
all the circumstances will suffice to   
exonerate   ,descartes from such a      
charge1 and this on the following       
grounds3 7#a7   ,there is not the       
slightest sign that ,descartes was ever 
conscious of   having become untrue to  
the view expressed in the ,meditations4 
7#b7   ,further1 in the year #afdg      
7three years after the publication of   
the   ,meditations and shortly before   
writing the ,notae to his ,programma7   
the   ,meditations appeared in a        
translation revised by ,descartes       
himself1   where1 remarkably enough1 not
 the slightest alteration is to be      

found in the decisive passage in the    
third ,meditation4 8,entre mes          
penses10 it reads1 8quelques unes sont  
commes les images des choses1   et c'est
  celles-l scules que convient          
proprement le nom d'ide4444   ,d'autres1
 outre cela ont quelques autres formes2 
444 et de ce genre de   penses les unes 
sont appeles volonts ou affections1 et  
les autres   jugements40 7#c7 ,in the   
,principles itself he says directly     
after   7i4 ,no4 #db7 that all our      
errors depend upon our will 7a voluntate
   pendere72 but so far is he from      
regarding the 8error0 as an act of      
volition1 that he says there is no one  
who errs voluntarily 7nemo est   qui    
velit falli74 ,still clearer is it that 
he does not regard the   judgment like  
the desires and dislikes as inner       
activities of the will   itself1 but    
only as a product of the will1 since he 
at once adds3   sed longe aliud est     
velle falli quam velle assentiri iis1 in
 quibus   contingit errorem reperiri10  

etc4 ,he does not say of the will that  
it   desires1 affirms1 assents1 but that
 it wills the assent2 so also1 not      
that it is true but that it desires the 
truth 7veritatis assequendae   cupiditas
 444 efficit1 ut 444 judicium ferant74  
,as to ,descartes' real view1 therefore1
 there can be no doubt2 his   doctrine  
has not in this respect suffered the    
slightest change4   ,it only remains1   
therefore1 to come to an understanding  
of his   obviously variable modes of    
expression1 and this is1 ,i believe1    
solved incontrovertibly in the following
 manner4 ,descartes1 while   regarding  
will and judgment as two classes        
differing fundamentally1   none the less
 finds that in contradistinction to the 
first fundamental   class--that of      
ideas--these have something in common4  
,in the third   ,meditation he          
designates 7cf4 the above passage7 as   
the common element   the fact that      
although essentially based upon an idea1
 in both alike   there is contained a   

further special form4 ,in the fourth    
,meditation   a further common character
 appears1 i4e4 that the will decides    
concerning them2 not only can it        
determine and suspend its own acts1     
but also those of the judgment4 ,it is  
this common character which he   was    
bound to regard as especially1 indeed   
all important1 in the first   part of   
the ,principles1 xxix4-xlii4            
,accordingly1 he classes them1 in       
opposition to the ideas 7which he calls 
operationes intellectus7 under   the    
term operationes voluntatis4 ,in the    
,notae to the ,programma he   calls them
 distinctly in the same sense1          
8determinationes voluntatis40   8,ego   
enim1 cum viderem1 praeter perceptionem1
 quae praerequiritur   ut judicemus1    
opus esse affirmatione vel negatione ad 
formam   judicii constituendam1 nobisque
 saepe esse liberum ut cohibeamus       
assensionem1 etiamsi rem percipiamus1   
ipsum actum judicandi1 qui non   nisi in
 assensu1 hoc est in affirmatione vel   

negatione consistit1 non   retuli ad    
perceptionem intellectus sed ad         
determinationem voluntatis40   ,he does 
not even hesitate in the ,principles to 
term both these two   classes of modi   
cogitandi1 8modi volendi0 the context   
seeming   sufficiently to indicate that 
he means only to express thereby the    
fact that they fall within the domain of
 the will4     ,in further support of   
this explanation we may compare the     
scholastic   terminology into which     
,descartes as a young man was initiated4
 ,it was   customary to denote under the
 term actus voluntatis not merely the   
movement of the will itself but also the
 act performed in obedience   to the    
will4 ,in accordance with this custom1  
the actus voluntatis   fell into two    
classes2 the actus elicitus voluntatis  
and the actus   imperatus voluntatis4   
,in a similar manner ,descartes groups  
the class   which1 according to him1 was
 only possible as an actus imperatus of 
the will along with his actus elicitus4 

,there is here1 therefore1 no   question
 of a common fundamental character of   
the intentional relation4     ,clear as 
all this is to those who carefully      
attach due weight to   the various      
moments1 it would yet appear that       
,spinoza 7probably   misled rather by   
the passage in the ,principles than by  
that cited   by ,windelband71           
anticipates ,windelband in this         
misunderstanding of   the ,cartesian    
doctrine4 ,in his ,ethics1 ii4 prop4    
#di1 he actually1   and in the most real
 sense1 regards the affirmatio and      
negatio   as 8volitiones mentis10 and by
 a further confusion1 comes finally   to
 obliterate the distinction between the 
two classes ideae and   voluntates4     
8,voluntas et intellectus unum et idem  
sunt0 his thesis   now reads1 so        
overthrowing not only the three-fold    
classification of   ,descartes1 but also
 the old ,aristotelian dual             
classification4 ,spinoza   has here1 as 
usual1 done nothing else than corrupt   

the teaching of his   great master4     
#bb 7p4 #ac74 ,i do not mean to say that
 the classification is1   universally   
recognized to-day4 ,it would not even be
 possible to regard   as certain the    
,principle of ,contradiction if in order
 to do so we   were to await universal  
assent4 ,in the present instance it is  
not   difficult to understand that old1 
deeply-rooted prejudices cannot all   at
 once be banished4 ,but that even under 
such circumstances it has not   been    
possible to urge a single important     
objection affords the best              
confirmation of our doctrine4     ,some1
 as for instance1 ,windelband--while    
giving up the attempt at   including    
judgment and idea 7,vorstellung7 in one 
fundamental class1   on the other hand  
believe it possible to subsume judgment 
under   feeling1 thus falling back into 
the error which ,hume committed earlier 
in his inquiry into the nature of       
belief4 ,according to these writers1    
to affirm implies an act of approval1 an

 appreciation on the part of   the      
feelings1 while denial is an act of     
disapproval1 a feeling of   repugnance4 
,despite a certain analogy the confusion
 is hard to understand4 ,there   are    
people who recognize both the goodness  
of ,god and the wickedness   of the     
devil1 the being of ,ormuzd and the     
being of ,ahriman1 with an   equal      
degree of conviction1 and yet1 while    
prizing the nature of the   one above   
all else1 they feel themselves          
absolutely repelled by that   of the    
other4 ,since we love knowledge and hate
 error it is1 of course1   proper that  
those judgments we hold to be right 7and
 this is true   of all those judgments  
which we ourselves make7 are for this   
very   reason dear to us1 i4e4 we       
estimate them in some way or other      
through   feeling4 ,but who on this     
account would be misled into regarding  
the   judgments themselves which are    
loved as acts of loving84 ,the confusion
   would be almost as gross as if we    

should fail to distinguish wife and     
child1 money and possessions1 from the  
activity which is directed   towards    
these1 inasmuch they are the objects of 
affection4 ,cf4 also   what has been    
said 7note #ba7 with regard to          
,windelband1 where1   misunderstanding  
,descartes1 he ascribes to him the same 
teaching2   further1 note #bf 7on the   
unity of the idea of the good7 as well  
as   what is urged by ,sigwart in the   
note 7in part much to the point7 on     
,windelband 7,logic1 vol4 i4 chap4 ii4  
p4 #aef seq474 ,to those who1   despite 
all that has been said1 still wish      
further arguments for the   distinction 
between the second and third fundamental
 classes1 ,i may1   perhaps1 be allowed 
to refer them1 by anticipation1 to my   
,descriptive   ,psychology1 which ,i    
have alluded to in the preface as an    
almost   completed work1 and which will 
appear if not as a continuation1 yet    
still as a further development of my    
,psychology from the ,empirical         

,standpoint4     ,as against            
,windelband1 ,i here add the following  
observations3     #a4 ,it is false and a
 serious oversight1 as he himself will  
be   convinced on reading again in my   
,psychology1 vol4 i4 p4 #bfb1 when   he 
7p4 #agb7 makes me assert1 and that too 
as a quotation from my own   work1 that 
8love and hate0 is not an appropriate   
term for the third   fundamental class4 
#b4 ,it is false1 and a quite           
unjustifiable supposition when 7p4 #agh7
   he ascribes to me the opinion that   
the classification of judgments         
according to quality is the only        
essential classification belonging   to 
the act of judgment itself4 ,i believe  
exactly the contrary4 ,i   regard1 for  
example 7of course in opposition to     
,windelband71 the   distinction between 
assertorical and apodictic judgments    
7cf4 here   note #bg1 p4 #hc71 as also  
the distinction between self-evident and
   blind judgments as belonging and     
highly essential1 to the act of         

judgment itself4 ,other differences1    
again1 especially the distinction       
between simple and compound acts of     
judgment1 ,i might mention4 ,for   it is
 not every compound judgment that can be
 resolved into quite   simple elements1 
and something similar takes place also  
in the case   of certain notions1 a fact
 known to ,aristotle4 ,what is          
red8--,red   colour4 ,what is           
colour8--,the quality of colour4 ,the   
difference1 it is   seen1 contains in   
both cases the notion of the genus4 ,the
 separating   of the one logical element
 from the other is only possible from   
the   one side4 ,a similar one-sided    
capacity to separate appears also in    
certain compound judgments4 ,j4 ,s4     
,mill is1 therefore1 quite wrong when   
he 7,deductive and ,inductive ,logic1   
vol4 i4 chap4 iv4 section #c71   regards
 as ridiculous the old classification of
 judgments into simple   and compound1  
and thinks that the procedure in such a 
case is exactly   as if one should wish 

to divide horses into single horses and 
teams   of horses2 otherwise the same   
argument would hold good against the    
classification of conceptions into      
simple and compound4     #c4 ,it is     
false1 though an error which finds      
almost universal   acceptance1 and one  
from which ,i myself at the time of     
writing the   first volume of my        
,psychology was not yet free1 that the  
so-called   degree of conviction        
consists in a degree of intensity of the
   judgment which can be brought into   
analogy with the intensity of   pleasure
 and pain4 ,had ,windelband charged me  
with this error ,i   would have         
acknowledged the complete justice of the
 charge4 ,instead   of this he finds    
fault with me because ,i recognize      
intensity with   regard to the judgment1
 only in a sense analogous1 and not     
identical   to that in the case of      
feeling1 and because ,i assert the      
impossibility   of comparing in respect 
of magnitude1 the supposed intensity of 

the   belief and the real intensity of  
feeling4 ,here we have one of the       
results of his improved theory of       
judgment6     ,if the degree of         
conviction of my belief that #b  #a  #c 
were one of   intensity how powerful    
would this be6 ,and if the said belief  
were to   be identified1 as by          
,windelband 7p4 #ahf71 with feeling1 not
 merely   regarded as analogous to      
feeling1 how destructive to our nervous 
system would the violence of such a     
shock to the feelings prove6 ,every     
physician would be compelled to warn the
 public against the study   of          
mathematics as calculated to destroy    
health4 7,cf4 with regard to   this     
so-called degree of conviction the view 
of ,henry ,newman in his   interesting  
work3 ,an ,essay in ,aid of a ,grammar  
of ,assent--a work   scarcely noticed in
 ,germany47     #d4 ,when ,windelband   
7p4 #ahc7 wonders how ,i can regard the 
word 8is0 in   such propositions as     
8,god is10 8,a man is0 7ein ,mensch     

ist71 8,a lack   is0 7ein ,mangel ist71 
8,a possibility is10 8,a truth is10     
7i4e4 ,there is   a truth71 etc41 as    
having the same meaning and finds it    
extraordinary   7#ahd1 note #a7 in the  
author of ,von der mannigfachen         
,bedeutung des   ,seienden nach         
,aristoteles that he should fail to     
recognize the   manifold significance of
 8to be10 ,i can only reply that he who 
in   this view does not perceive the    
simple consequence of my theory of   the
 judgment can hardly have understood    
this doctrine4 ,with regard to          
,aristotle it never occurs to him1 while
 dividing the 80 in the sense   of      
reality into various categories1 and    
into an 8   and    01 to do the same    
with the 80 transforming what is the    
expression of an idea into that of a    
judgment and the 8  0   as he calls it4 
,this could only be done by those who1  
like ,herbart   and many others after   
him1 did not know how to hold apart the 
notion   of being in the sense of       

absolute position and being in the sense
 of   reality 7cf4 the following note74 
#e4 ,i have just said that there exist  
simple and compound judgments1   and    
that many a compound judgment is not1   
without a residue1   resolvable into    
simple judgments4 ,special attention    
must be paid to   this in seeking to    
convert judgments otherwise expressed   
into the   existential form4 ,it is     
self-evident that only simple judgments1
 i4e4   such as are1 strictly speaking1 
without parts1 are so convertible4 ,i   
may therefore be excused for not        
thinking it necessary to emphasize      
this expressly in my ,psychology4 ,if   
this restriction hold good   universally
 it is1 of course1 valid also of the    
categorical form4   ,in the propositions
 categorical in form1 which the formal  
logicians   have denoted by the signs   
,a4,e4,i4 and ,o4 they wish to express  
strictly   simple judgments4 ,these are 
therefore one and all convertible into  
the existential form 7cf4 my            

,psychology1 vol4 i4 p4 #bhc74 ,the     
same1   however1 will not hold good when
 propositions categorical in form       
contain in consequence of an ambiguity  
of expression 7cf4 p4 #abj1 note   to   
,appendix7 a plurality of judgments4 ,in
 such a case the existential   form may 
certainly be the expression of a simple 
judgment equivalent   to the compound   
one1 but cannot be the expression of the
 judgment   itself4     ,this is a point
 which ,windelband ought to have        
considered in examining   7p4 #ahd7 the 
proposition3 8,the rose is a flower0    
with respect to its   convertibility    
into an existential proposition4 ,he is 
quite right   in protesting against its 
conversion into the proposition3 8,there
   is no rose which is not a flower10   
but he is not equally right in          
ascribing this conversion to me4        
,neither in the passage cited by him    
nor elsewhere have ,i made such a       
conversion1 and ,i consider it just as  
false as that attempted by ,windelband  

and all such as may be attempted   by   
anybody else4 ,the judgment here        
expressed in the proposition is   made  
up of two judgments of which one is the 
recognition of the   subject 7whether it
 be that thereby is meant 8rose0 in the 
ordinary   sense1 or 8what is called    
rose10 8what is understood by rose071   
and   this1 as we have just said1 is not
 always the case where a proposition    
is given of the form3 ,all ,a is ,b4    
,unfortunately ,land also has overlooked
 this1 the only one among   my critics  
who has succeeded in comprehending1 in  
their necessary   connection with the   
principle1 what ,windelband has termed  
the   8mysterious0 hints which ,i have  
thrown out towards the reform of        
elementary logic1 and in deducing them  
correctly from it4 7,cf4 ,land1   8,on a
 supposed improvement in ,formal ,logic0
 in the papers of the ,kgl4             
,niederlndischen ,akademie der          
,wissenschaften1 #ahgf47     ,i conclude
 with a curiosity recently furnished by 

,steinthal in his   ,zeitschrift fr     
,vlkerpsychologie 7chap4 xviii4 p4      
#age74 ,i there   read with             
astonishment3 8,brentano's confusion in 
completely severing   judgments from    
idea and thoughts 767 and grouping the  
judgments as   acts of recognition or   
rejection1 with love and hate 7667 is   
instantly   removed if such 787 a       
judgment1 as an aesthetic judgment is   
termed   8,beurteilen0 7674 ,probably   
,steinthal has never once glanced into  
my   ,psychology1 and has only read     
,windelband's statement concerning it2  
this1 however1 so hastily that ,i hope  
he will not be ungrateful at my         
sending his lines to ,windelband for    
correction4     #bc 7p4 #ad74           
,miklosich1 ,subjectlose ,stze1 second  
edition1   ,vienna1 #ahhc4     ,in order
 to make the reader familiar with the   
contents of this   valuable little book 
a notice written at the time for the    
,vienna   ,evening ,post may prove      
useful4 ,through an oversight it was    

printed   as a feuilleton in the ,vienna
 newspaper4 ,as no one certainly would  
look for it there1 ,i will include it   
here by way of an appendix4   ,meantime1
 ,sigwart's monograph1 ,the             
,impersonalia has appeared1 in   which  
he opposes ,miklosich4 ,marty has       
submitted this1 as well as   7shortly   
before7 the corresponding section in    
,sigwart's ,logic to a   telling        
criticism in the ,vierteljahrsschrift fr
 wissenschaftliche   ,philosopie1 with  
regard to which criticism ,sigwart1     
though without   any reasonable ground1 
has shown himself highly indignant4 8,il
 se   fache10 the ,french say1 8donc il 
a tort40 ,that ,sigwart's theory in     
its essential points has not succeeded1 
even ,steinthal really allows1   though 
in his ,zeitschrift 7chap4 xviii4 p4    
#agb seq47 he burns thick   clouds of   
incense to the writer of the monograph1 
and even in his   preface to the fourth 
edition of his ,origin of ,language     
applauds   a form of conduct which every

 true friend of that deserving man      
7,sigwart7 must regret4 ,after the high 
praise awarded to him at the   outset1  
one feels somewhat disappointed finally 
by the criticism4   ,steinthal rejects  
7pp4 #agg-ahj7 ,sigwart's theory on its 
grammatical   side4 ,there would only   
remain therefore as really successful   
,sigwart's   psychological theory4 ,but 
the psychological portion is not that   
concerning which ,steinthal's estimate  
is authoritative2 for in that   case1   
one would be bound to take seriously the
 following remark3 8,in   the           
proposition3 8,da bckt sich's hinunter  
mit liebendem ,blick0 7a   line from    
,schiller's ,diver71 it is obvious that 
everybody must think   of the king's    
daughter1 but it is not she which stands
 before me but   a subjectless 8sich    
hinunter-bcken10 and now ,i have all the
 more   fellow-feeling for her4         
,according to my 7,steinthal's7         
psychology1 ,i   should say the idea of 
the king's daughter 8fluctuates0        

7schwingt7 but   does not enter into    
consciousness40 ,this calls for         
something more than   the old saying3   
,sapienti sat4       ,i     ,the        
psychological theory of ,sigwart shows  
itself in all its weakness   when he    
seeks to give an account of the notion  
of 8existence40 ,it   has been already  
recognized by ,aristotle1 that this     
notion is gained   by reflection upon   
the affirmative judgment4 ,but ,sigwart1
 like most   modern logicians1 neglects 
to make use of this hint4 ,instead of   
saying   that to the existent belongs   
everything of which the affirmative     
judgment is true1 he becomes repeatedly1
 and once more in the second   edition  
of his logic 7pp4 #hh-ie7 involved in   
diffuse discussions upon   the notion of
 being and upon existential             
propositions1 which cannot   in any way 
conduce to clearness1 seeing that they  
move in false   directions4     8,to    
be10 according to ,sigwart1 expresses a 
relation 7pp4 #hh1 #ie72   if it be     

asked3 ,what kind of a relation8 the    
answer would1 at first   sight 7#ib71   
appear to be1 a relation to me as       
thinking4 ,but no2 the   existential    
proposition asserts just this3 8that the
 existing also   exists1 apart from its 
relation to me and to another thinking  
being40   ,it cannot1 therefore1 be 8a  
relation to me as thinking40 ,but what  
other relation can be meant8 ,not until 
p4 #id is this brought out more         
clearly4 ,the relation ought to mean 7of
 course he adds 8zunchst01              
provisionally7 the agreement 78identity0
 ib47 of the thing represented   with a 
possible impression 78einem             
,wahrnehmbaren0 ib4 8something which    
may be perceived by me10 ib4 p4 #ij74   
,now it will be immediately recognized  
that this notion of existence is   too  
narrow2 for it might very well be       
asserted that much exists which   it is 
not possible to perceive1 e4g4 a past   
and a future1 an empty   space1 and any 
sort of deficiency1 a possibility or    

impossibility1   etc41 etc4 ,it is      
therefore not surprising that ,sigwart  
himself seeks   to widen the notion4    
,but he does this in a manner which ,i  
find it   difficult to understand4 ,at  
first sight he appears to say in order  
that something may exist it is not      
necessary that it can be perceived   by 
me2 it is enough if it can be perceived 
by anybody4 ,or what else   can be meant
 when ,sigwart1 after what has just been
 said1 that   existence was the         
agreement of the thing represented with 
a possible   impression1 thus continues3
 8,that which exists stands not merely  
in   this relation to me but to all     
other existing beings80 ,it cannot      
surely mean that ,sigwart is inclined to
 ascribe to every existing   being the  
capacity to receive every impression4   
,it may be he only   wishes to say that 
everything which exists stands to every 
other   existing being in the relation  
of existence1 and then it might be      
concluded from what immediately follows 

that this rather meaningless            
definition is intended to express that  
existence is the capacity to   act or to
 be acted upon4 78,what exists 444      
stands in causal relations   to the rest
 of the world02 similar also is p4 #ia1 
note3 the existent   is something which 
8can exercise effects upon me and       
others407   ,finally1 however1 there is 
some ground for thinking ,sigwart would 
say3 what exists is that which can be   
perceived or can be inferred   as       
perceivable1 for he adds3 8hence 7on    
account of this causal   relation7 from 
what is perceivable also an existence   
which is merely   inferred may be       
asserted40     ,that all this is equally
 to be rejected it is not difficult to  
recognize4     ,for 7#a7 ,to 8infer0 the
 existence of something does not mean so
 much as   8to infer that it is capable 
of being perceived40 ,if1 for example1  
the   existence of atoms and of empty   
spaces could be assured by inference1   
we should still be very far from proving

 their perceptibility either   to       
ourselves or to some other being4 ,if   
any one were to conclude the   existence
 of ,god while giving up the attempt 8to
 give vividness0 to   the thought by    
anthropomorphic means1 he would not on  
this account   believe that ,god must be
 perceptible to one of his creatures or 
even   that he is the object of his own 
perception4     #b4 ,from this point of 
view it would be absurd for any one to  
say3 8,i   am convinced that there is   
much the existence of which can neither 
be   perceived at any time or even      
inferred by anybody40 ,for that would   
mean3 8,i am convinced that much can be 
perceived or can be inferred   to be    
capable of perception which yet can     
never be perceived or   inferred40 ,who 
does not recognize here how far ,sigwart
 has strayed   from the true notion of  
existence6     #c4 ,should ,sigwart wish
 in this passage to widen the notion of 
existence to such a degree as to think  
that existence is that which   can      

either be perceived or inferred from    
some perceivable object1 or   again1    
stands in some sort of causal relation  
to what is perceivable1   it might be   
replied--if indeed such a monstrous     
notion of existence   still require     
refutation--that even this notion is    
still too narrow4   ,if1 for example1 ,i
 say3 ,it may be that an empty space    
exists but   this can never with        
certainty be known by any one1 ,i       
thereby confess   that existence may    
perhaps belong to empty space2 but ,i   
deny most   definitely that it is       
perceptible1 or that it is to be        
inferred from   that which is           
perceptible4 ,in regard to relations of 
cause and effect   on the other hand1 it
 is of course impossible that empty     
space 7which   is certainly no thing7   
can stand in such a relation to anything
   perceivable4 ,we should thus once    
again arrive at an absurd meaning in    
interpretation of an assertion in no way
 absurd4     ,how wrongly ,sigwart has  

analysed the notion of existence is also
   proved very simply by means of the   
following proposition3 ,a real   centaur
 does not exist2 a centaur in idea1     
however1 certainly   exists1 and that as
 often as ,i imagine it4 ,whoever does  
not clearly   recognize here the        
distinction of the 8   i4e4 in the sense
   of existing1 from  in the sense of   
real 7wesenhaft7 will ,i fear   hardly  
be brought to recognize it by the       
fullest illustrations which   might be  
furnished by further examples4 ,we may1 
however1 also consider   briefly the    
following point3 ,according to ,sigwart1
 the knowledge of   the existence of    
anything consists in the knowledge of   
the agreement   of something represented
 in idea with1 let us say1 1 since ,i do
   not clearly understand with what4    
,what now is necessary in order to      
recognize the agreement of something    
with something else8 ,manifestly1   the 
knowledge of everything which is        
required in order that this   agreement 

should really exist4 ,but this requires 
7#a7 that the one   element exist1 7#b7 
that the other element exist1 and 7#c7  
that between   them there exist the     
relation of identity since what does not
 exist   can be neither like something  
nor different from it4 ,but the         
knowledge   of the first element        
constitutes already in itself a         
knowledge of   existence4 ,hence the    
knowledge of the two remaining elements 
is no   longer necessary to the         
recognition of any existence1 and       
,sigwart's   theory leads to a          
contradiction4 7,cf4 with what has been 
said here1   ,sigwart's polemic against 
my ,psychology1 book ii4 chap4 vii4 in  
his   work2 ,the ,impersonalia1 p4 #ej  
seq41 and ,logic1 vol4 i4 second        
edition1 p4 #hi seq4 note1 as well as   
,marty's polemic against ,sigwart   in  
the articles3 8ber ,subjectlose ,stze0  
in the ,vierteljahrsschrift   fr        
wissenschaftliche ,philosophie1 viii4 i4
 seq47,a      ,a ,i had already written 

my ,critique of ,sigwart's notion of    
existence   when ,i became aware of a   
note in his ,logic1 second ed1 p4 #cij1 
a   passage which1 while it has not made
 it necessary to alter anything   which 
,i had written1 has led me to insert it 
for the purpose of   comparison4 8,das  
,seiende berhaupt10 ,sigwart writes1    
8kann nicht als   wahrer                
,gattungsbegriff zu dem einzelnen       
,seienden betrachtet werden2   es ist1  
begrifflich betrachtet1 nur ein         
gemeinschaftlicher ,name4   ,denn1 da   
#8,sein' fr uns ein ,relationsprdikat   
ist1 kann es kein   gemeinschaftliches  
,merkmal sein1 es msste denn gezeigt    
werden1 dass   dieses ,prdikat in einer 
dem ,begriffe alles ,seienden           
gemeinsamen   ,bestimmung wurzle40 ,i   
fear that the reader will1 just as      
little as   myself1 attain by this      
explanation to clearness concerning     
,sigwart's   notion of existence4 ,he   
will perhaps the better understand why  
all my   efforts regarding it have      

proved futile4   s   ,sigwart has failed
 to grasp the nature of judgment in     
general he   is not1 of course1 able to 
understand that of the negative judgment
   in particular4 ,he has gone so far in
 error as to deny to it an equal   right
 as species along with the positive     
judgment2 no negative   judgment is1 he 
thinks1 a direct judgment1 its object is
 rather always   another actual judgment
 or the attempt to form such a judgment4
     ,in this assertion ,sigwart is     
opposed to some important psychological 
views which ,i have made good in my     
lecture4 ,it would therefore seem       
fitting to resist his attack4 ,for this 
purpose ,i shall show3 7#a7   that      
,sigwart's doctrine is badly founded2   
7#b7 that it leads to an   irremediable 
confusion1 as in that case ,sigwart's   
affirmative judgment   is a negative    
judgment1 while his negative judgment if
 indeed a   judgment at all1 and not    
rather the absence of one1 is a positive
   judgment1 and that moreover his      

positive judgment really involves a     
negative one1 along with other similar  
confusions4 7#c7 ,finally ,i think   it 
will be possible--thanks to ,sigwart's  
detailed explanations--to   show the    
genesis of his error4     #a4 ,the first
 inquiry in the case of an assertion so 
novel and so   widely diverging from the
 general view1 will be as to its        
foundation4   ,with regard to this1 he  
insists above all 7p4 #aej7 that the    
negative   judgment would have no       
meaning if the thought of the positive  
attribution of a predicate had not      
preceded4 ,but what can this mean8      
,either there is here a clear petitio   
principii1 or it cannot mean   anything 
more than that a connection of ideas    
must have preceded4 ,now   granting this
 for a moment 7although ,i have in my   
,psychology shown   its falsity7 this   
would by no means prove his proposition1
 since   ,sigwart himself recognizes 7p4
 #hi note1 and elsewhere7 that such a   
8subjective connexion of ideas0 would   

still not be a judgment2 that   there   
needs rather to be added to it a certain
 feeling of constraint4     ,an argument
 follows later 7p4 #aea7 the logical    
connexion of which ,i   understand just 
as little4 ,it is rightly observed that 
in and for   itself we have the right to
 deny of anything an infinite number of 
predicates1 and it is with equal right  
added that in spite of this1   we do not
 really pass all these negative         
judgments4 ,and now what   conclusion is
 drawn from these premisses8 ,perhaps   
this1 that the   fact that a certain    
negative judgment is warranted is not   
sufficient   in itself to explain the   
entrance of the judgment4 ,this we may  
without hesitation admit4 ,but ,sigwart 
concludes quite otherwise2 he   permits 
himself to assert1 it follows from this 
that the further   condition which is   
here lacking is that the corresponding  
positive   affirmation has not yet been 
attempted4 ,this is indeed a bold leap1 
and one which my logic at least is not  

able to follow4 ,and why1 if   one were 
to inquire further1 are not all the     
positive judgments here   concerned     
really attempted8 ,the most probable    
answer1 judging by the   examples given 
by ,sigwart 7this stone reads1 writes1  
sings1 composes2   justice is blue1     
green1 heptagonal1 rotating71 is1 that  
this has   not been done because the    
negative judgment has already been made 
with evident certainty2 for this would  
best explain why there is no   8danger  
of any one attributing these predicates 
to the stone or to   justice40 ,if1     
however1 any one prefer to answer that  
8the narrowness   of consciousness0     
makes it impossible to attempt at the   
same time   an infinite number of       
positive judgments1 ,i am content with  
this   expedient also1 only it must then
 be asked if this appeal ought not to   
have been made directly and earlier1    
since ,sigwart himself calls the        
possible negative judgments an          
8immeasurable quantity40     ,it is also

 a curious error 7,marty has already    
called attention to it71   when ,sigwart
 asserts that in contradistinction to   
what holds good of   the negative       
judgment 8every subject admits only of a
 limited number   of predicates being   
affirmed40 ,but why8 ,can we not1 for   
example1 say a   whole hour is greater  
than half an hour1 greater than a third1
 greater   than a fourth and so on ad   
infin48444 ,if then1 notwithstanding1 ,i
 do   not really make all these         
judgments1 there are evidently good     
reasons   for this2 above all that the  
8narrowness of consciousness0 forbids   
it4   ,but then this might also be      
applied most successfully in regard to  
negative judgments4     ,somewhat later 
we meet a third argument which1 as ,i   
have already by   anticipation refuted  
it in my ,psychology 7book ii4 chap4 #g1
 section   v471 will be treated quite   
shortly here4 ,if the negative judgment 
were a direct one1 co-ordinated with the
 affirmative judgment as   species then1

 thinks ,sigwart 7p4 #aee seq471 whoever
 in an affirmative   categorical        
proposition regards the affirmation of  
the subject as   involved must1 to be   
consistent1 regard the denial of the    
subject   as involved in the negative   
proposition1 which is not the case4 ,the
   latter observation is correct1 the   
former assertion1 however1 quite        
untenable1 as it involves in itself a   
contradiction4 ,for exactly   because   
the existence of each part in a whole is
 involved in the   existence of the     
whole1 the whole no longer exists if but
 one of its   parts is missing4     ,it 
only remains now to consider a point of 
language by which ,sigwart   believes   
himself able to support his view4 ,a    
testimony for it is1   he thinks1 to be 
found in the fact that the symbol for   
the negative   judgment is formed in    
every case by means of a combination    
with the   symbol of affirmation1 the   
word 8not0 being added to the copula4   
,in   order to judge what is here       

actually the fact1 we will glance for a 
moment at the sphere of feeling4        
,sigwart agrees1 ,i think1 with me and  
everybody else that pleasing and        
displeasing1 rejoicing and sorrowing1   
loving and hating1 etc41 are co-ordinate
 with each other4 ,yet a   complete     
series of expressions denoting a        
disinclination of feeling   are found in
 dependence upon the expression for the 
corresponding   inclination4 ,for       
example1 inclination1 disinclination2   
pleasure1   displeasure2 ease1 disease2 
,wille1 ,widerwille2 froh1 unfroh2      
happy1   unhappy2 beautiful1            
unbeautiful2 pleasant1 unpleasant2--even
 8ungut0   is used4 ,the explanation of 
this is1 ,i believe1 not difficult for  
the   psychologist1 notwithstanding the 
equally primordial character of   these 
opposite modes of feeling4 ,ought then  
the explanation of the   phenomenon     
lying before us in the expression of the
 negative judgment1   closely related as
 it is to the before mentioned          

phenomenon1 to be   really so very      
difficult1 even assuming the primordial 
character8     ,as a matter of fact the 
case must be very bad when thinkers like
   ,sigwart in making statements so     
important in principle1 and at the      
same time so unusual1 have to resort to 
arguments so weak4     #b4 ,the grounds 
on which ,sigwart's doctrine concerning 
the negative   judgment rest have1      
therefore1 each and all proved          
untenable4 ,this   must be so2 for how  
could the truth of any doctrine be shown
 which   would plunge everything into   
the greatest confusion8     ,sigwart    
finds himself compelled to distinguish  
between the positive   and the          
affirmative judgment1 and the           
affirmative judgment--one hears   and   
wonders at the new terminology--is      
according to him1 closely   examined1 a 
negative judgment4 ,on page #aej he says
 literally3 8,the   primordial judgment 
can certainly not be termed the         
affirmative   judgment1 but is better   

described as the positive judgment1 for 
only in opposition to the negative      
judgment1 and in so far as it   rejects 
the possibility of a negation1 is the   
simple statement ,a is   ,b an          
affirmation10 and so on4 ,inasmuch as it
 8rejects40 ,what else   can that mean  
than 8so far as it denies08 ,as a matter
 of fact only   those negations can1    
according to this new and extraordinary 
use of   language1 be called            
affirmations6 ,yet this would really    
mean1 and   particularly when it is said
 that the proposition ,a is ,b is often 
such a negation 7cf4 the expressions    
just quoted71 that the use   of language
 would be reduced to a confusion quite  
unnecessary and   altogether            
unendurable4     ,not only is the       
affirmation--as set forth--according to 
,sigwart really   a negation but also1  
paradoxical as it may seem1 the         
negation1 on   close consideration1     
proves to be a positive judgment4 ,it is
 true1   ,sigwart protests against those

 who1 like ,hobbes1 would regard all    
negatives as affirmative judgments with 
negative predicates4 ,but1   following  
,sigwart1 if this is not so1 then these 
must be affirmative   judgments with    
affirmative predicates1 since he teaches
 that the   subject is in every case a  
judgment1 the predicate being the notion
 of   invalidity4 ,on p4 #afj he says in
 the note the negation does away with   
a supposition1 denies the validity1 and 
this expression1 considered   in itself1
 might be taken to mean that ,sigwart   
assumes here a special   function of    
denial 7absprechen7 the contrary of that
 of affirmation   7zusprechen74 ,but no2
 a negative copula 7cf4 p4 #aec7        
according to him   there is not4        
,now what in the world is one to        
understand by 8denial0 7absprechen78    
,does it mean the simple suppression    
7,aufhrenlassen7 of the positive        
judgment upon the given subject matter1 
that is1 according to ,sigwart1   the   
falling away of the feeling of          

compulsion previously given in   a      
connexion between ideas8 ,this is       
impossible1 since the removal   of this 
would bring about a condition in which  
the connexion of   ideas remains1       
without being either affirmed or denied4
 ,how often   does something of which we
 were previously certain become         
uncertain   without our on this account 
denying it4 ,what then is this denying8 
,may we perhaps say that according to   
,sigwart it is a feeling oneself        
compelled 7sich-gentigt-fhlen7 to annul1
 whereas affirming is a   feeling       
oneself compelled to posit8 ,we should  
then have to say that   all the while we
 are passing a negative judgment1 we are
 in reality   always seeking to pass a  
positive judgment1 but that we          
experience a   hindrance in so doing4   
,the same consciousness1 however1 is    
felt by   one who is clearly aware of   
the entire absence of a positive ground4
   ,for how can any one succeed in      
believing anything which he at the      

same time holds to be entirely          
ungrounded8 ,of no one1 especially if   
,sigwart's definition of the judgment be
 applied as the standard1   is this     
conceivable2 that is to say1 every one  
in such a case will   experience failure
 in such an attempt4 ,accordingly there 
is1 as   yet1 no negative judgment4 ,if 
then the rejection does not signify a   
negative copula it must manifestly be   
regarded as an instance of the          
affirmation of the predicate 8false10 or
 7to use ,sigwart's term7 as   its      
8identification0 with the judgment which
 in this case should be   the subject4  
,this 8false0 also cannot simply mean   
8untrue10 for ,i   can assert 8untrue0  
of thousands of things with regard to   
which the   predicate 8false10 which    
appears in certain judgments1 would not 
be   in place4 ,if only judgments are   
true1 then of everything which is not   
a judgment the predicate 8untrue0 must  
be affirmed1 though certainly   not on  
that account the predicate 8false40     

8,false0 must therefore be   regarded as
 a positive predicate2 and so from      
,sigwart's point of view   absolutely   
false in principle1 certain as it is    
that the merely not   being convinced   
7nicht-berzeugt-sein7 is no denial1 it  
is equally   certain that we have       
actually no choice2 we should be        
compelled to   regard every negative    
judgment as a positive judgment with a  
positive   predicate4 ,so we arrive at a
 second and greater paradox4     ,but   
here a third factor enters which        
completes the confusion4 ,if   we       
examine ,sigwart's view as to the nature
 of judgment in general1   it may be    
shown in the clearest manner possible   
that the simple   positive judgment     
itself involves in turn1 a negative     
judgment4 ,that   is to say1 following  
,sigwart1 every judgment involves       
besides a   certain combination of      
ideas1 a consciousness of the necessity 
of   our 8identification0 7unseres      
,einssetzens7 and the impossibility of  

its contradictory 7cf4 espec4 p4 #ajb71 
the consciousness1 moreover1   of such a
 necessity and impossibility valid for  
all thinking beings   7cf4 pp4 #ajb and 
#ajg71 which1 by the way1 is of course  
quite as false   as ,sigwart's whole    
view of the nature of judgment in       
general4 ,all   judgments without       
exception are1 on account of this       
peculiarity1   called by ,sigwart       
apodictic3 nor will he admit the        
validity of any   distinction between   
the assertorical and apodictic forms of 
judgment   7cf4 p4 #bbi seq474 ,i now   
ask3 ,have we not here a negative       
judgment   distinctly involved8         
,otherwise what meaning can be given to 
the   statement when we hear ,sigwart   
speak of a 8consciousness of the        
impossibility of the contradictory40    
,further ,i have already shown in   my  
,psychology how all universal judgments 
are negative1 since to   be conscious of
 universality means nothing else than to
 be convinced   that there exists no    

exception2 if this negative be not      
added1 the   most extensive list of     
positive assertions will never          
constitute a   belief in universality4  
,when therefore1 a consciousness that   
every   one must so think is here spoken
 of1 there is in this fact a further    
proof of what ,i have asserted1 namely  
that according to ,sigwart's   doctrine 
of judgment the simplest positive acts  
of judgment must   involve a negative   
act of judgment4 ,and yet we are called 
upon at the   same time to believe that 
the negative judgment1 as set forth 7p4 
#aei   seq471 arose relatively late1 and
 that therefore on this1 as well as   on
 other grounds1 it is unworthy of being 
placed side by side1 with   the positive
 judgment as a species equally          
primordial6 ,sigwart would   surely not 
have expected this of us had he been    
conscious of all that   ,i have here set
 forth in detail1 and which is the more 
clearly seen to   be involved in his    
exposition1 often so difficult to       

comprehend the   more carefully it is   
submitted to reflection4 ,of course     
expressions   may be found where        
,sigwart1 respecting this or that point 
of detail1   asserts the contrary of    
what is here deduced2 for what else can 
be   expected where everything is left  
in such ambiguity1 and where the        
attempt to make things clear exhibits   
the most manifold contradictions8       
#c4 ,finally1 we have still to show the 
genesis of the error in which   this    
able logician has involved himself in a 
relatively simple   question after      
having once mistaken the nature of the  
judgment4 ,the   proton pseudos is to be
 sought in a delusion which has come    
down   to us from the older logic that  
to the essence of the judgment there    
belongs the relation of two ideas with  
one another4 ,aristotle has   described 
this relation as combination and        
separation 7    7 although he was well  
aware of the imperfect propriety of     
the expressions1 adding at the same time

 that in a certain sense   both         
relations might be described as a       
combination 71 cf4   de ,anima1 iii4    
#f74 ,scholastic and modern logic held  
fast to the   expressions 8combination0 
and 8separation02 in grammar1 however1  
both these relations were termed        
8combination10 and the symbol for   this
 combination the 8copula40 ,sigwart now 
takes seriously the   expressions       
8combination0 and 8separation10 and so a
 negative copula   seems to him a       
contradiction 7cf4 p4 #aec71 the        
positive judgment1   on the other hand1 
appears to be a presupposition of the   
negative   judgment1 since1 before a    
combination has been set up1 it cannot  
be   separated4 ,and so it appears to   
him that a negative judgment without   a
 preceding positive judgment is quite   
meaningless 7cf4 p4 #aej and   above74  
,consequently we find this celebrated   
inquirer in a position   which compels  
him to put forth the most strenuous     
efforts all to no   purpose--the        

negative judgment remains inexplicable4 
,in a note 7p4 #aei7 he gives us1 as a  
result of such attempts1 a   remarkable 
description of the process by which we  
arrive at the   negative judgment--a    
result in which he believes himself     
finally   able to rest satisfied4 ,in   
this account the false steps which he   
successively makes become1 each in turn1
 evident to the attentive   observer4   
,long before the point is reached where 
he believes himself   to have come upon 
the negative judgment1 he has as a      
matter of fact   already anticipated it4
     ,he sets out with the correct      
observation that the first judgments    
which we make are all positive in       
character4 ,these judgments are         
evident and made with full confidence4  
8,now1 however10 he continues1   8our   
thought goes out beyond the given2 by   
the aid of recollections   and          
associations1 judgments arise which are 
at first also formed in   the belief    
that they express reality0 7which means1

 according to   other expressions of    
,sigwart1 that the ideas are combined   
with the   consciousness of objective   
validity2 for this 7xiv4 p4 #ih7 belongs
   to the essence of the judgment7 8as1 
for example1 when we expect to   find   
something with which we are acquainted  
in its usual place or   pre-suppose     
respecting a flower that it smells4     
,now1 however1 a part   of what is thus 
supposed contradicts our immediate      
knowledge40 7,we   leave ,sigwart to    
show here how we are able to recognize  
anything as   8contradictory0 when we   
are not as yet in possession of negative
   judgments and negative notions4 ,the 
difficulty becomes still more   sharply 
apparent as he proceeds37 8when we do   
not find what we   expected1 we become  
conscious of the difference between what
 exists   merely in idea and what is    
real40 7,what does 8not find0 mean here8
   ,i had not found it previously2      
obviously ,i now find that what was     
erroneously supposed to be associated   

with another object is without   it1 and
 this ,i can only do by recognizing the 
one and denying the   other1 i4e4       
recognize it as not being with it4      
,further what is meant   here by        
8difference08 ,to recognize difference  
means to recognize that   of two things 
the one is not the other4 ,what is meant
 by existing   8merely in idea08        
,manifestly1 8what exists in idea which 
is not at   the same time also real40   
,it would seem1 however1 that ,sigwart  
is   still unaware that in what he is   
describing the negative function   of   
the judgment is already more than once  
involved4 ,he continues37   8,that of   
which we are immediately certain is     
another than that0   7i4e4 it is not the
 same1 it is indeed absolutely          
incompatible with   that7 8which we have
 judged in anticipation1 and now0 7i4e4 
after and   since we have already passed
 all these negative judgments7 8appears 
the negation which annuls the           
supposition and denies of it validity4  

,and here a new attitude is involved in 
so far as the subjective   combination  
is separated from the consciousness of  
certainty4 ,the   subjective combination
 is compared with one bearing the stamp 
of   certainty1 its distinction         
therefrom recognized1 and out of this   
arises the notion of invalidity40 ,this 
last would almost seem to be   a        
carelessness of expression1 for if      
invalid were to mean as much   as       
8false0 and not 8uncertain0 it could not
 be derived from the   distinction      
between a combination with and a        
combination without   certainty1 but    
only from the opposition existing       
between combination   which is denied   
and one which is affirmed4 ,as a matter 
of fact1 the   opposite affirmative     
judgment is not at all necessary to it4 
,the   opposition1 the incompatibility  
of the qualities in a real1 is already  
evident on the ground of the combination
 of ideas representing the   opposite   
qualities which1 as ,i repeat once more1

 cannot1 according to   ,sigwart himself
 7p4 #hi note2 and p4 #ih seq471 be     
called an attempt   at positive         
judgment4 ,although this may now and    
again happen in the   case of           
contradictory ideas1 it certainly does  
not happen always4 ,if1   for example1  
the question is put to me3 ,does there  
exist a regular   chiliagon with #ajja  
sides8 then--assuming that ,i am not    
perfectly   clear in my own mind1 as    
will be the case with most men1 that    
there   does exist a regular chiliagon1 
,i certainly do not attempt to form a   
judgment 7i4e4 according to ,sigwart1   
confidently assume7 that there   exists 
a regular chiliagon having #ajja sides  
before forming the   negative judgment  
that no such figure exists on the ground
 of the   opposition between the        
qualities4     ,sigwart himself1 as his 
language frequently betrays 7cf4 e4g4   
pp4 #aeb   and #aej7 recognizes at      
bottom1 as he is bound to recognize1 in 
spite   of his attack upon the negative 

copula1 that negation and denial are    
just as much a special function of the  
judgment as affirmation and             
recognition4 ,if this be granted1 then  
the range of their application   is by  
no means so limited as he erroneously   
asserts4 ,it is false that   in every   
case where a denial takes place the     
predicate denied is the   notion        
8valid40 ,even of a judgment we may deny
 now its validity1 now   its certainty1 
now its  priori character4 ,and just in 
the same way   the subject of the       
judgment can change most frequently4 ,of
 a judgment   we may deny certainty1 and
 validity2 of a request1 modesty2 and so
   in every case1 universally expressed1
 we may deny ,b of ,a4 ,sigwart         
himself1 of course1 does this just like 
any one else4 ,indeed he   sometimes    
speaks unintentionally far more         
correctly than his theory   would admit1
 and witnesses1 as it were1             
instinctively to the truth2   as1 e4g4  
p4 #aea1 where he declares not--as he   

elsewhere teaches--that   the subject of
 a negative proposition is always a     
judgment1 and its   predicate the term  
8valid10 but 8that of every subject 444 
a   countless number of predicates may  
be denied40 ,this is certainly   true   
and just on this account the old        
doctrine holds that affirmation   and   
denial are equally primordial species4  
#bd 7p4 #ae74 ,the discovery that every 
act of love is a 8pleasing10   every act
 of hate a 8displeasing10 was very near 
to ,descartes when   he wrote his       
valuable little work on ,the            
,affections4 ,in the second   book1 ,des
 ,passions1 ii4 art4 #aci1 he says3     
8,lorsque les choses   qu'elles 7l'amour
 et la haine7 nous portent  aimer sont  
vritablement   bonnes1 et celles        
qu'elles nous portent  har1 sont        
vritablement   mauvaises1 l'amour est   
incomparablement meilleure que la haine2
 elle   ne saurait tre trop grande et   
elle ne manque jamais de produire la    
joie02 and this agrees with what he says

 a little later3 8,la haine1 au         
contraire ne saurait tre si petite      
qu'elle ne nuise1 et elle n'est   jamais
 sans tristesse40     ,in ordinary life1
 however1 the expressions 8joy0 and     
8sadness10   8pleasure0 and 8pain0 are  
only used when the pleasure and         
displeasure   have attained a certain   
degree of liveliness4 ,a sharp boundary 
in   this unscientific division there is
 not2 we may1 however1 be allowed   to  
make use of it as it stands4 ,it is     
enough that the expressions1            
8pleasure0 and 8displeasure0 are not    
narrowed down by any such limit4     #be
 7p4 #af74 ,the expressions 8true0 and  
8false0 are employed in a   manifold    
sense2 in one sense we employ them in   
speaking of true and   false judgments2 
again 7somewhat modifying the meaning71 
of objects1   as when we say1 8a true   
friend10 8false money40 ,i need scarcely
   observe that where ,i use the        
expressions 8true0 and 8false0 in this  
lecture1 ,i associate therewith not the 

first and proper meaning1 but   rather a
 metaphorical one having reference to   
objects4 ,true1 is1   therefore1 what   
is2 false1 what is not4 ,just as        
,aristotle spoke of 8    0 so we might  
also say1 8  40     ,of truth in its    
proper sense it has often been said that
 it is   the agreement of the judgment  
with the object 7adequatio rei et       
intellectus1 as the scholastics said74  
,this expression1 true in a   certain   
sense1 is yet in the highest degree open
 to misunderstanding1   and has led to  
serious errors4 ,the agreement is       
regarded as a kind of   identity between
 something contained in the judgment1 or
 in the idea   lying at the root of the 
judgment and something situated without 
the mind4 ,but this cannot be the       
meaning here2 8to agree0 means here     
rather as much as 8to be appropriate10  
8to be in harmony with10   8suit10      
8correspond40 ,it is as though in the   
sphere of feeling one   should say1 the 
rightness of love and hate consists in  

the agreement   of the feelings with the
 object4 ,properly understood this also 
would   be unquestionably right2 whoever
 loves and hates rightly1 has his       
feelings adequately related to the      
object1 i4e4 the relation is            
appropriate1 suitable1 corresponds      
suitably1 whereas it would be           
manifestly absurd were one to believe   
that in a rightly directed love   or    
hate there was found to be an identity  
between these feelings or   the ideas   
lying at their root on the one hand1 and
 something lying   outside the feelings 
on the other1 an identity which is      
absent where   the attitude of the      
feelings is unrightly directed4 ,among  
other   circumstances this              
misunderstanding has also conduced      
towards bringing   the doctrine of      
judgment into that sad confusion from   
which to-day   psychology and logic seek
 with such painful efforts to set       
themselves   free4     ,the conceptions 
of existence and non-existence are the  

correlates   of the conceptions of the  
truth of the 7simple7 affirmative and   
negative judgments4 ,just as to judgment
 belongs what is judged1 to   the       
affirmative judgment what is judged of  
affirmatively1 to the   negative        
judgment1 what is judged of negatively1 
so to the rightness   of the affirmative
 judgment belongs the existence of what 
is judged   of affirmatively1 to the    
rightness of the negative judgment the  
non-existence of what is judged of      
negatively2 and whether ,i say an       
affirmative judgment is true1 or1 its   
object is existent2 whether ,i   say a  
negative judgment is true1 or its object
 is non-existent2 in   both cases ,i am 
saying one and the same thing4 ,in the  
same way1 it is   essentially one and   
the same logical principle whether ,i   
say1 in each   case either the 7simple7 
affirmative or negative judgment is     
true1 or1   each is either existent or  
non-existent4     ,thus1 for example1   
the assertion of the truth of the       

judgment1 8a man   is learned10 is the  
correlate of the assertion of the       
existence of   the object1 8a learned   
man02 and the assertion of the truth of 
the   judgment1 8no stone is alive10 is 
the correlate of the assertion of   the 
non-existence of its object1 8a living  
stone40 ,the correlative   assertions   
are here1 as everywhere1 inseparable4   
,the case is exactly   the same as in   
the assertions ,a  ,b and that ,b  ,a2  
that ,a is the   cause of ,b1 and that  
,b is produced by ,a4     #bf 7p4 #af74 
,the notion of the good1 in and for     
itself1 is   accordingly a unity in the 
strict sense1 and not1 as ,aristotle    
teaches   7in consequence of a confusion
 which we shall have to speak of later7 
a unity in a merely analogous sense4    
,german philosophers also have   failed 
to grasp the unity of the conception4   
,this is the case with   ,kant1 and1    
quite recently1 with ,windelband4 ,there
 is a defect in our   ordinary way of   
speaking which may prove very misleading

 to ,germans   inasmuch as for the      
opposite of the term 8good0 there is no 
common   expression current1 but this is
 designated now as 8schlimm10 now   as  
8bel10 now as 8bse10 now as 8arg10 now  
as 8abscheulich10 now   as 8schlecht10  
etc4 ,it might very well1 as in similar 
cases1 come   to be thought that not    
only the common name is wanting1 but    
also   the common notion4 ,and if the   
notion is wanting on the one side of    
the antithesis1 it would also be wanting
 on the other1 and so the   expression  
8good0 would seem an equivocal term4    
,of all the expressions quoted1 it seems
 to me 7and philologists   also1 whose  
advice ,i have asked1 are of the same   
opinion71 that the   expression         
8schlecht10 like the ,latin 8malum10 is 
most applicable as   the opposite of the
 good in its full universality1 and in  
this way ,i   shall allow myself to use 
this expression in what follows4        
,the fact that ,i adhere to the view of 
a certain common character   regarding  

the intentional relation of love and    
hate does not debar my   recognizing    
along with this view1 special forms for 
particular cases4   ,if1 therefore1     
8bad0 is a truly universal simple class 
conception1   there may yet be          
distinguished special classes within its
 domain of   which one may be suitably  
termed 8bse10 another 8bel10 etc4       
#bg 7p4 #ah74 ,the distinction between  
8self-evident0 and 8blind0   judgments  
is something too striking to have       
altogether escaped notice4   ,even the  
sceptical ,hume is very far from denying
 the distinction4   ,self-evidence1     
according to him 7,enq4 concerning ,hum4
 ,underst4   iv47 may be ascribed1 on   
the one hand1 to analytic judgments 7to 
which   class belong also the axioms of 
mathematics and the mathematical        
demonstrations71 and1 on the other hand1
 to certain impressions1 but   not to   
the so-called truths of experience4     
,reason does not lead us   here1 but    
rather habit1 after a manner entirely   

irrational2 belief1 in   this case is   
instinctive and mechanical 7ib4 v474    
,but to observe a fact does not mean to 
set forth its nature clearly   and      
distinctly4 ,as the nature of the       
judgment has1 until recent times1   been
 almost universally misunderstood1 how  
could it be possible   rightly to       
understand its self-evidence8 ,it is    
just here that even   ,descartes'       
discernment fails him4 ,how very closely
 the phenomenon   occupied him a passage
 in the ,meditations bears witness3     
8,cum hic dico   me ita doctum esse a   
natura 7he is speaking of the so-called 
external   impressions7 intelligo tantum
 spontaneo quodam impetu me ferri ad    
hoc credendum non lumine aliquo naturali
 mihi ostendi esse verum1   quae duo    
multum discrepant4 ,nam quaecunque      
lumine naturali mihi   ostenduntur 7ut  
quod ex eo quo dubitem sequatur me esse 
et similia7   nullo modo dubia esse     
possunt quia nulla alia facultas esse   
potest1   cui aeque fidam ac lumini     

isti1 quaeque illa non vera esse possit 
docere2 sed quantum ad impetus naturales
 jam saepe olim judicavi me   ab illis  
in deteriorem partem fuisse impulsum cum
 de bono eligendo   ageretur1 nec video 
cur iisdem in ulla alia re magis        
fidam40--7,medit4   iii474     ,that    
,descartes did not mark the fact of     
self-evidence1 that he did not   observe
 the distinction between intuition and  
blind judgment certainly   cannot be    
affirmed from the above4 ,but1 while    
separating the judgment   as a class    
from the idea1 he still leaves behind in
 the class of ideas   the character of  
self-evidence which distinguishes the   
judgments of   intuition4 ,it consists1 
according to him1 in a special mark of  
the   perception1 that is1 of the idea  
lying at the root of the judgment4      
,descartes even goes so far as actually 
to call this act of perception   a      
8cognoscere10 a 8knowing40 ,a 8knowing10
 that is1 and still not an   act of     
judgment6 ,these are rudimentary organs 

which after the progress   made1 owing  
to ,descartes1 in the doctrine of       
judgment1 remind us of   a stage of life
 in ,psychology which has been          
surmounted2 but with   this distinction1
 in opposition to similar phenomena in  
the history of   the development of the 
species1 that these organs1 in no way   
adapted1   become in the highest degree 
troublesome1 and render all ,descartes' 
further efforts for the theory of       
knowledge ineffective4 ,he remains1   to
 use ,leibnitz' phrase1 8in the         
antechamber of truth0 7cf4 here   note  
#bh1 towards the end74 ,only in this way
 does ,descartes' clara et   distincta  
perceptio--concerning which term itself 
it is so difficult   to gain a clear and
 distinct idea--in its curious dual     
nature become   perfectly intelligible4 
,the only means of overcoming this      
confusion   is to seek that which       
distinguishes insight in opposition to  
other   judgments as an inner quality   
belonging to the act of insight itself4 

,it is true that some who have sought   
here have yet failed to find4 ,we   saw 
7cf4 note #bc7 how ,sigwart conceives   
the nature of the judgment4 ,to   this1 
he teaches1 there belongs a relation of 
ideas to one another1   and along with  
this a feeling of obligation respecting 
this connexion4   7,cf4 sections #ad and
 #ca1 espec4 #d and #e47 ,such a feeling
 therefore1   always exists even in the 
case of the blindest prejudice4 ,it is  
then   abnormal1 but is held 7as        
,sigwart expressly explains7 to be      
normal and   of universal validity4 ,and
 what now in contrast to this case1 is  
given   in the case of insight8 ,sigwart
 replies that its evidence consists   in
 the same feeling 7cf4 e4g4 section #c7 
which now1 however1 is not   merely held
 to be normal and universally valid1 but
 is really normal   and universally     
valid4     ,it seems to me that the     
weakness of this theory is at once      
apparent2   and it is on many grounds to
 be rejected4     #a4 ,the peculiar     

nature of insight1 the clearness and    
evidence of   certain judgments from    
which their truth is inseparable has    
little   or nothing to do with any      
feeling of compulsion4 ,it may well     
happen   that at a given moment ,i      
cannot refrain from so judging1 yet none
 the   less the essence of its clearness
 does not consist in the feeling of     
compulsion1 and no consciousness of an  
obligation so to judge could1   as such1
 afford security as to its truth4 ,he   
who disbelieves in every   form of      
indeterminism in respect of judging1    
regards all judgments   under the       
circumstances in which they were passed 
as necessary1 but he   does not--and    
with indisputable right--regard all of  
them as on that   account true4     #b4 
,sigwart1 in seeking the consciousness  
of insight in a feeling   of necessity  
so to think1 asserts that the           
consciousness of one's   being compelled
 is1 at the same time1 a consciousness  
of a necessity   for all thinking beings

 whenever the same grounds are present4 
,if   he means1 however1 that the one   
conviction is doubtless connected   with
 the other1 this is an error4 ,why1 when
 a person feels bound to   pass a       
judgment upon certain data1 should the  
same compulsion hold   good in respect  
of every other thinking being to whom   
the same data   are also given8 ,it is  
obvious that only an appeal to the law  
of   causality which1 under like        
conditions demands like results1 could  
be the ground of the logical connexion4 
,its application1 however1   to the     
present case would be entirely          
erroneous1 since this would   involve   
the ignoring of the special psychical   
dispositions1 which1   although they do 
not directly enter into consciousness at
 all1 must   yet be regarded1 along with
 the conscious data1 as pre-determining 
conditions1 and these are very different
 in the case of different   persons4    
,hegel and his school1 misled by        
paralogisms1 have denied the   principle

 of contradiction2 ,trendelenburg1 who  
opposed ,hegel1 has at   least          
restricted its validity 7cf4 his        
,abhandlungen ber ,herbarts             
,metaphysik74 ,the universal            
impossibility of inwardly denying the   
principle which ,aristotle asserted     
cannot therefore1 to-day1 be any        
longer defended2 ,aristotle himself1    
however1 for whom the principle   was   
self-evident1 assuredly found its denial
 impossible4     ,whatever is evident to
 any one is of course certain not only  
for him1   but also for every one else  
who1 in the same way1 sees its evidence4
   ,the judgment1 moreover1 which is    
seen to be evident by any one has   also
 universal validity1 i4e4 the           
contradictory of what is seen to be     
evident by one person1 cannot be seen to
 be evident by another person1   and    
every one who believes in its           
contradictory is in error4 ,further1    
since what is here said belongs to the  
essence of truth1 whoever has   evidence

 of the truth of anything may perceive  
that he is justified   in regarding it  
as true for all4 ,but he would be guilty
 of a flagrant   confusion of ideas who 
should regard such a consciousness that 
a   truth is true for all1 as equivalent
 to a consciousness of a universal      
necessity of thinking4     #c4 ,sigwart 
involves himself in a multitude of      
contradictions4 ,he   asserts and must  
assert--if he is not to yield to the    
sceptics and   relinquish his entire    
logical system--that evident judgments  
are   not merely different from         
non-evident judgments1 but that they are
   also distinguishable in              
consciousness4 ,the one class must      
therefore   appear as normal and of     
universal validity1 the other class as  
not so4 ,but if evident and non-evident 
judgments alike carry with   them the   
consciousness of universal validity1    
then the two classes   would at first   
sight exactly agree in the manner in    
which they   present themselves1 and    

only as it were1 afterwards 7or at the  
same   time1 though as a mere           
concomitant71 and by reflection upon    
some   sort of criterion which is       
applied to them as a standard could the 
distinction be discovered4 ,and passages
 are actually to be found in   ,sigwart 
where he speaks of a consciousness of   
agreement with the   universal rules    
which accompany the fully evident       
judgment4 7,cf4   e4g4 ,logic1 #bnd ed41
 #ci1 p4 #caa47 ,but apart from the fact
 that   this contradicts experience--for
 long before the discovery of the       
syllogism1 conclusions were reached     
syllogistically and with complete       
evidence--it is also to be rejected     
inasmuch as1 seeing that the rule       
itself must be assured1 it would lead   
either to an infinite regress1   or to a
 circulus vitiosus4     #d4 ,another    
contradiction with which ,i have to     
charge ,sigwart 7though   in my opinion 
it might have been avoided even after   
his erroneous   view as to the nature of

 the judgment and as to the nature of   
self-evidence71 we meet with in his     
doctrine of self-consciousness4   ,the  
knowledge that ,i am contains only      
self-evidence1 and this exists          
independent of any consciousness of an  
obligation so to think and of   a       
necessity which is common to all alike4 
7,at least ,i am not able   otherwise to
 understand the passage1 ,logic1 #bnd   
ed41 p4 #caj3 8,the   certainty that ,i 
am and think is the absolutely last and 
fundamental   one--the condition of all 
thinking and certainty at all2 here1    
only   immediate evidence can be given2 
one cannot even say that this thought   
is necessary1 since it is previous to   
all necessity1 and just as   immediate  
and evident is the conscious certainty  
that ,i think this   or that2 it is     
inextricably interwoven with my         
self-consciousness2   the one is given  
with the other407 ,after ,sigwart's     
doctrine already   examined1 this would 
appear to be a contradictio in adjecto  

and1 as   such1 quite indefensible4     
#e4 ,further contradictions appear in   
,sigwart's very peculiar and   doubtful 
doctrine concerning the postulates1     
which he opposes to the   axioms4 ,the  
latter are to be regarded as certain on 
the ground of   their real intellectual 
necessity2 the former1 not on the ground
 of   purely intellectual motives1 but  
on psychological motives of another     
kind1 on the ground of practical needs4 
7,logic1 #bnd ed4 p4 #dab seq47   ,the  
law of causality3 e4g4 is1 according to 
him1 not an axiom1 but a   mere         
postulate2 we regard it as certain1     
since we find that without   affirming  
it we should not be able to investigate 
nature4 ,sigwart1   by this mode of     
accepting the law of causality1 that is1
 affirming1   out of mere good-will1    
that in nature under like conditions1   
the same   results would constantly be  
forthcoming1 manifestly takes it for    
granted without being conscious of its  
intellectual necessity4 ,but1 if   all  

8taking-as-true0 7,frwahrhalten7 is an  
act of judgment1 this is   quite        
incompatible with his views as to the   
nature of the judgment4   ,sigwart has  
here1 as far as ,i can see1 but one way 
of escape1 i4e4 to   confess that he    
does not believe in what1 as a          
postulate1 he accepts   as certain 7as  
e4g4 the law of causality72 then1       
however1 he will be   hardly serious in 
hoping for it4     #f4 ,this point      
becomes still more doubtful on          
reflection upon what   7#b7 has been    
previously discussed4 ,the consciousness
 of a universal   necessity of thought  
does not1 according to ,sigwart1 belong 
to the   postulates1 but rather to the  
axioms4 7,cf4 #e47 ,but ,sigwart could  
only   with any plausibility exhibit the
 consciousness of this universal        
necessity of thinking as operating in   
the consciousness of one's   personal   
necessity of thinking by making use of  
the universal law   of causation4 ,but  
this causal law is itself merely a      

postulate2 it   is destitute of         
self-evidence4 ,it is therefore obvious 
that the   universal thought-necessity  
in the case of the axioms is also a     
postulate1 and consequently they lose   
what1 according to ,sigwart1 is   their 
most essential distinction from the     
postulates4 ,it may perhaps   be in     
accordance with this that ,sigwart calls
 the belief in the   trustworthiness of 
8self-evidence0 a postulate4 ,but how   
the statement   so interpreted1 can be  
brought into harmony with the remaining 
parts   of his doctrine ,i am at a loss 
to conceive4     #g4 ,sigwart denies    
7#ca7 the distinction between           
assertorical and   apodictic judgments1 
since in every judgment the sense of    
necessity   in respect of its function  
is essential4 ,consequently this        
assertion   likewise hangs together with
 his erroneous fundamental view of   the
 judgment2 he would appear to identify  
the feeling which he   sometimes calls  
the feeling of evidence with the        

apodictic character   of a judgment4    
,but it would be quite unjustifiable to 
overlook the   modal peculiarity of     
certain judgments1 as for example1 the  
law of   contradiction in distinction   
from other forms of judgment like that  
of   the consciousness that ,i am4 ,in  
the first instance1 we have to do with  
what is 8necessarily true or false10 in 
the second instance only with   what is 
8true or false as a matter of fact10    
though both are in the   same sense     
evident and do not differ in respect of 
their certainty4   ,only in the case of 
judgments like the former1 not1 however1
 from such   as the latter do we draw   
the notions of impossibility and        
necessity4     ,that ,sigwart1 in       
opposing the view which regards the     
apodictic   judgment as a special class1
 also occasionally bears witness against
   himself is clear from what has been  
already said 7#d74 ,the knowledge   that
 ,i am1 he calls1 in opposition to the  
knowledge of an axiom1 the   knowledge  

of a simple actual truth 7p4 #cab74     
,here he speaks more   soundly than his 
general statements would really allow4  
,sigwart's theory of self-evidence is1  
therefore1 essentially false4   ,as in  
the case of ,descartes1 so here it      
cannot be said that ,sigwart   was not  
conscious of the phenomenon2 indeed1 we 
must rather say in   his praise1 that   
with the greatest zeal he has sought to 
analyze it1   but as is the case with   
many in psychological analysis1 it would
 seem   that in the eagerness of        
analyzing he did not stop at the right  
point1   and has sought to resolve into 
one another phenomena very distinct in  
nature4     ,it is obvious that an error
 respecting the nature of evidence is   
fraught with the gravest consequence for
 the logician4 ,it might well   be said 
that we have here touched upon the      
deep-seated organic disease   in        
,sigwart's logic1 if this may not rather
 be said to consist in a                
misunderstanding of the nature of the   

judgment in general4 ,again and   again 
its evil results become manifest1 as for
 example1 in ,sigwart's   inability to  
understand the most essential causes of 
our errors1 ,cf4   ,logic1 vol4 i4 #bnd 
ed4 p4 #ajc1 note1 where1 with strange  
partiality   he assigns the chief blame 
to the defective development of our     
language4     ,for the rest1 many       
another celebrated logician in recent   
times can   claim no superiority over   
,sigwart here4 ,as a further example we 
need   only observe how the doctrine of 
evidence fares at the hands of the      
admirable ,j4 ,s4 ,mill4 ,cf4 note #fi1 
p4 #ii4     ,owing to the great         
unclearness as to the nature of         
evidence1 almost   universal1 it becomes
 conceivable why1 as often happens1 we  
meet   with the expression 8more or less
 self-evident40 ,even ,descartes and    
,pascal use such expressions1 although  
it is clearly quite unsuitable4         
,whatever is self-evident is certain1   
and certainty in the real sense   knows 

no distinctions of degree4 ,even quite  
recently we find the   opinion expressed
 in the ,vierteljahrsschrift fr         
wissenschaftliche   ,philosophie 7and   
the writer is manifestly quite serious71
 that   there exist self-evident        
suppositions which1 in spite of their   
self-evidence1 may quite well be false4 
,it is unnecessary to add that   ,i hold
 this to be opposed to reason4 ,i may   
here1 however1 express   regret that    
lectures delivered by me at a time when 
,i still regarded   degrees of          
conviction as intensities of judgment1  
seem to have given   an occasion for    
such confusions4     #bh 7p4 #ai74 ,cf4 
,hume's ,essay1 already cited3 ,an      
,enquiry   concerning the ,principles of
 ,morals4 ,other philosophers1 who have 
placed the foundation of ethics in the  
feelings1 as e4g4 ,beneke and   ,uberweg
 7who follows him7 have seen further    
than ,hume here4 7,cf4 the              
presentation of ,beneke's ethics in his 
,grundriss der ,geschichte der          

,philosophie1 iii47 ,herbart comes still
 nearer to the truth when he   speaks of
 self-evident judgments of taste 7these1
 however1 are really   not judgments at 
all1 but feelings1 and as such are not  
self-evident1   but can only be said to 
have something analogous to self-evident
   judgments7 and when he further       
opposes to the merely pleasurable   the 
beautiful1 ascribing to the latter as   
distinct from the former1   universal   
validity and undeniable worth4          
,unfortunately1 there is   always       
something false mixed up with his view1 
and ,herbart loses at   once and for    
ever the right path1 so that his ethics 
in its course   diverges much further   
from the truth than the doctrine of     
,hume4     ,those thinkers who have     
completely overlooked the distinction   
between   pleasure with the character of
 rightness and pleasure which is not    
so qualified1 are in danger of falling  
into opposite errors4 ,the one   class  
view the matter as though all pleasure  

had the character of   rightness1 the   
other class as though no pleasure were  
so qualified4   ,by the one class the   
notion of the good as that which rightly
   pleases1 is entirely given up2       
8worthy of desire0 7begehrenswert7 in   
distinction from 8desirable0            
7begehrbar71 is an unmeaning expression4
   ,for the other class1 8worthy of     
desire0 7begehrenswert7 remains as a    
separate notion1 so that there is no    
tautology in their saying nothing   is  
in itself desirable except in so far as 
it is in itself worthy of   desire1 is  
good in itself4 ,manifestly they must1  
to be consistent1   assert this1 and    
this they have really taught4 ,the      
extreme hedonists   all belong to this  
class2 but1 along with them1 many       
others2 in the   ,middle ,ages1 for     
example1 the teaching is found in       
,thomas ,aquinas1   whose greatness     
receives fresh appreciation from        
,ihering 7cf4 ,summ4   theol4 ,i4a4 qu4 
#hj1 qu4 #hb1 art4 #b ad4 #a1 etc474    

,but even then such a view cannot be    
maintained in the light of the   facts  
without exposing the nature of good and 
bad to a falsification   which involves 
a form of subjectivism similar to that  
formerly   committed by ,protagoras     
respecting the notions of truth and     
falsehood4   ,just as1 according to this
 subjectivist in the sphere of the      
judgment1   man is the measure of all   
things1 and often what is true for one1 
may at the same time be false for       
another--so the advocates of the   view 
that only the good can be loved1 only   
the bad hated1 are really   compelled to
 assume that1 in this sphere1 each is   
himself the measure   of all things2 for
 the good1 in that it is good2 for the  
bad1 that it   is bad2 so that often    
something is1 in itself and at the same 
time1   both good and bad3 good in      
itself1 in the case of all who love it  
for   its own sake2 bad in itself1 in   
the case of all who hate it for its     
own sake4 ,this is absurd1 and the      

subjectivistic falsification of the     
notion of the good is to be rejected    
equally with the subjectivistic         
falsification of the notions of truth   
and existence by ,protagoras1   but with
 this difference3 that the              
subjectivistic error in the sphere   of 
what is rightly pleasing and displeasing
 takes root more easily   and infects   
most ethical systems even to-day4 ,some1
 as recently1   ,sigwart 7,vorfragen der
 ,ethik1 p4 #f71 confess it openly2     
others fall   into this error without   
themselves becoming clearly conscious of
 the   subjectivistic character of their
 view4,a      ,a ,those especially who  
teach that generally speaking the       
knowledge1   pleasure1 and perfection of
 each individual is1 for him1 good1     
their   opposites bad1 and that all else
 is in itself indifferent1 will         
perhaps protest against my classing them
 among the subjectivists4   ,it might   
even seem on a superficial survey1 that 
they have set up a   doctrine of the    

good equally valid for all4 ,but on a   
more careful   examination we find that 
this teaching does not even in a single 
instance1 hold one and the same object  
to be good universally4   ,for example1 
my own knowledge is1 according to this  
view1 for me   worthy of love2 for every
 one else indifferent in itself1 while  
the   knowledge of another individual is
 in itself for me indifferent4 ,it   is 
curious to observe theistic thinkers1 as
 often happens1 setting   up a          
subjectivistic view respecting the good1
 valid of all mortal   loving and       
willing1 while1 at the same time        
assuming that ,god1 without   respect of
 person1 estimates every perfection by a
 kind of objective   standard4 ,this    
exception with regard to the loving and 
willing of   ,god and the notion of ,him
 as eternal ,judge is then meant to     
render   harmless in respect of its     
practical consequences1 the egoism which
   such a principle implies4            
elebrated controversy between ,bossuet  

and ,fenelon it may be said that   the  
great bishop of ,meaux advocated a kind 
of subjectivism4 ,fenelon's   theses1   
though he advocated a system of morality
 neither ignoble nor   unchristian1 were
 finally condemned by the ,church of    
,rome1 though it   did not go so far as 
to reject his teaching as heretical4    
,otherwise   one would really be        
compelled to condemn also those fine    
glowing lines   attributed by many to   
,st4 ,theresa1 that in a very imperfect 
,latin   translation have found their   
way into many ,catholic prayer-books    
which   is much more than their escaping
 the ecclesiastical censor4 ,i give     
them translated directly from the       
,spanish        ,nicht ,hoffnung auf des
 ,himmels sel'ge ,freuden      ,hat     
,dir1 mein ,gott1 zum ,dienste mich     
verbunden4      ,nicht ,furcht1 die ich 
vor ew'gem ,graus empfunden1      ,hat  
mich bewegt der ,snder ,pfad zu meiden4 
,du ,herr bewegst mich1 mich bewegt     
,dein ,leiden4      ,dein ,anblick in   

den letzten1 bangen ,stunden4      ,der 
,geisseln ,wuth4 ,dein ,haupt von ,dorn 
umwunden4      ,dein schweres ,kreuz    
und--ach6--,dein bittres ,scheiden4     
,herr1 ,du bewegest mich mit solchem    
,triebe1      ,das ich ,dich liebte1 wr'
 kein ,himmel offen4      ,dich         
frchtete1 wenn auch kein ,abgrund       
schreckte2      ,nichts kannst ,du      
geben1 was mir ,liebe weckte2      ,denn
 wrd' ich auch nicht1 wie ich hoffe1    
hoffen1      ,ich wrde dennoch lieben1  
wie ich liebe40     ,the teaching of    
,thomas ,aquinas has often been so      
represented as though   it were pure    
subjectivism4 ,it is true that much of  
his teaching   sounds quite             
subjectivistic 7cf4 e4g4 ,summ4 theol4  
#a;a4 q4 #hj1 art4   #a1 especially the 
objections and replies as well as the   
passages in   which he declares that the
 happiness of each is the highest and   
final   end1 asserting even of the      
saints in heaven that each rightly      
desires   more his own blessedness than 

the blessedness of all others74 ,along  
with these1 however1 are to be found    
statements in which he soars   above    
this subjectivistic view as1 for        
example1 when he declares 7as   ,plato  
and ,aristotle before him and ,descartes
 and ,leibnitz after7 that   everything 
which exists is good as such1 not good  
merely as a means   but also--a point   
which pure subjectivists 7as recently   
,sigwart1   ,vorfr4 d4 ,ethik1 p4 #f7   
expressly deny--good in itself1 and     
again1   when he affirms that in case   
any one--an impossible case--had at any 
time to choose between his own eternal  
ruin and an injury to the   ,divine     
love1 the right course would be to      
prefer his own eternal   unhappiness4   
,there the moral feeling of western     
,christendom touches the feeling of     
the heathen ,hindu1 as is shown in a    
somewhat strange story of a maiden   who
 renounces her own everlasting          
blessedness for the salvation of the    
rest of the world2 as also that of a    

positivist thinker like ,mill when   he 
declares sooner than bow in prayer      
before a being not truly good1   8to    
hell he will go40 ,i knew a ,catholic   
priest who1 on account of this          
utterance of ,mill's1 voted for him at  
the parliamentary election4  ,whoever1  
as ,i have said1 has once accepted the  
view that nothing can   please except in
 so far as it is really good1 nothing   
displease1   except in so far as it is  
really bad1 is on a way which1 if       
consistently followed1 must lead him to 
subjectivism4 ,this is   evident as soon
 as it is admitted 7and at first sight1 
it is true1   it may be denied7 that    
opposite tastes1 here desire1 there     
dislike1   may be associated with the   
same sense phenomenon4 ,one might1 in   
defence1 argue that here1 in spite of   
the similarity of the external          
stimulus the corresponding subjective   
idea may have an essentially   different
 content4 ,but such a view refutes      
itself in those cases   where we        

ourselves repeatedly experience the same
 phenomenon1 and1 in   consequence of a 
further development in age or by reason 
of a changed   habit 7cf4 text #be1 p4  
#af7 thereby experience a different     
feeling1   dislike for desire1 or desire
 for dislike4 ,there remains1 then1 no  
doubt1 that as a fact the feelings may  
take an opposed attitude   towards the  
same phenomenon3 and again1 in the case 
where ideas   instinctively repel us1   
while at the same time arousing within  
us a   pleasure of a higher kind 7cf4   
note #cb1 p4 #ib71 what has been said is
   also clearly evident4     ,finally1  
we should expect from one who thinks    
that every act of simple   pleasure is  
right1 and that one act never           
contradicts another1 a   similar        
doctrine in respect of the act of       
choosing4 ,but the reverse   is here so 
obvious that the advocates of this view 
have in striking   contrast always      
asserted in the most definite manner    
that different   individuals have       

preferences opposite in character1 and  
that one is   right1 the other wrong4   
,glancing back from the disciples of    
,aristotle in the ,middle ,ages to   the
 master himself1 we find his teaching   
appears to be a different   one4        
,aristotle recognizes a right and a     
wrong kind of desire 7       7 and that 
what is desired 77 is not   always the  
good4 7,de ,anima1 iii4 #aj47 ,in the   
same way he affirms in   respect of     
pleasure 77 in the ,nicomachian ,ethics 
that not every   pleasure is good2 there
 is a pleasure in the bad1 which is     
itself bad   7,nic4 ,eth4 x4 #b74 ,in   
his ,metaphysics he distinguishes       
between a   lower and a higher kind of  
desire 7 and 72 whatever is   desired by
 the higher kind for its own sake is    
truly good 7,metaph4    #g1 p4 #ajgb a4 
#bh74 ,a certain approach to the right  
view seems already   to have been       
reached here4 ,it is of special interest
 7a point ,i have   only discovered     
later7 that ,aristotle has suggested an 

analogy between   ethical subjectivism  
and the logical subjectivism of         
,protagoras1 and   equally repudiates   
both 7,metaph4  #f1 p4 #ajfb b4 #af1 and
 #ajfc a4 #e74   ,on the other hand it  
would appear from the lines immediately 
following   as though ,aristotle had    
fallen into the very obvious temptation 
of   believing that we can know the good
 as good1 independent of the            
excitation of the emotions4 7,metaph4   
#bi2 cf4 ,de ,anima1 iii4 #i and   #aj47
     ,in close connection with this     
appears to be the passage 7,nic4 ,eth4  
i4 #d7 where he denies that there is any
 uniform notion of the good             
7understanding1 of course1 the good in  
itself1 cf4 respecting this1   note #bf1
 p4 #gg71 thinking rather that only by  
way of analogy does   there exist a     
unity in the case of the good of        
rational thinking   and seeing1 joy1    
etc41 and when1 in another passage      
7,metaph4  #d1   p4 #ajbg b4 #be71 he   
says that the true and the false are not

 in the   things1 where the good and the
 bad are1 i4e4 the former predicates    
7e4g4 true ,god1 false friend7 are      
ascribed to the things only in   respect
 of certain mental acts1 the true and   
false judgments1 while   the latter1 on 
the other hand1 are not in a similar way
 ascribed to   them merely in respect of
 a certain class of mental              
activities3--all   of which1 incorrect  
as it is1 is still connected as a       
necessary result   with the aforesaid   
error4 ,he is more in agreement with the
 true   doctrine of the origin of our   
notion and knowledge of the good1 when  
7,nic4 ,ethics1 x4 #b7 he adduces as an 
argument against the assumption   that  
joy does not belong to the good1 the    
fact that all desire it1   and adds3    
8,for if only irrational beings desired 
it1 the opposition   to this argument   
would still contain a certain           
justification2 but if   every rational  
being also does so1 how can anything be 
said against   it80 ,yet even this      

utterance is reconcilable with his      
erroneous view4     ,considered in this 
aspect1 the moralist of sentiment       
7,gefhls-moralist71 ,hume1 has here the 
advantage of him1 for ,hume   rightly   
urges1 how is any one to recognize that 
anything is to be   loved without       
experiencing the love8     ,i have said 
that the temptation into which          
,aristotle has fallen   appears quite   
conceivable4 ,it arises from the fact   
that1 along with   the experience of an 
emotion qualified as right there is     
given at the   same time the knowledge  
that the object itself is good4 ,thus it
 may   easily happen that the relation  
is then perverted and the love is       
thought to follow as a consequence of   
the knowledge1 and recognized as   right
 by reason of its agreement with this   
its rule4     ,it is not without        
interest to compare the error here made 
by ,aristotle   in respect of emotion   
qualified as right with that which we   
have seen   was committed by ,descartes 

in respect of the similarly qualified   
judgment 7cf4 note #bg1 p4 #gh74 ,the   
cases are essentially analogous2 in     
both cases the distinguishing mark is   
sought in the special character   of the
 idea which forms the basis of the act  
rather than in the act   itself         
qualified as right4 ,in fact it seems to
 me evident from various   passages in  
his treatise ,des ,passions1 that       
,descartes himself has   treated the    
matter in a way quite similar to that of
 ,aristotle1 and in   a manner          
essentially analogous to his doctrine of
 the self-evident   judgment4     ,at   
the present time many approach very near
 to ,descartes' error in   respect of   
the marks of self-evidence 7if we are   
not rather to say   that the error is   
really implicitly contained in their    
statements7   when they regard the      
matter as though in the case of every   
self-evident judgment a criterion were  
referred to4 ,in this case it   must    
have been previously given somewhere1   

either as recognized--and   this would  
lead to infinity--or 7and this is the   
only alternative71   it is given in the 
idea4 ,it may be said that here also the
 temptation   to such a misconception   
lies ready to hand and this may well    
have   exercised a misleading influence 
upon ,descartes4 ,aristotle's error   is
 less general1 though only because the  
phenomenon of the emotion   qualified as
 right has1 generally speaking1 come    
less frequently under   consideration   
than that of the similarly qualified    
judgment4     ,if the nature of the     
former has been misunderstood1 the      
latter has   often been so overlooked as
 not even to admit of its essential     
nature   being misinterpreted4     #bi  
7p4 #ai74 ,when ,i affirmed that the    
language of common life   offers no     
suitable terms for activities of feeling
 qualified as right1   ,i did not mean  
thereby to deny that certain expressions
 are1 in   themselves1 well suited1     
indeed they would seem to have been     

created   for this purpose1             
particularly1 for example1 the          
expressions 8to be   well pleasing10 and
 8to be ill pleasing0 7gut gefallen and 
schlecht   gefallen71 as distinct from  
the simple 8to be pleasing0 and 8to be  
mis-pleasing40 ,though1 however1 it     
might seem advisable to limit these     
terms in this way and so to make them   
serve as scientific terms1   scarcely   
any trace of such a limitation is to be 
found in ordinary   language4 ,one does 
not1 of course1 care to say3 8the good  
pleases him   ill10 8the bad pleases him
 well10 though one still says that to   
one   this tastes good1 to another that1
 and so on1 i4e4 the expression   8to be
 well pleasing0 is applied              
unhesitatingly even in the case   where 
pleasure is given in the lowest         
instinctive form4 ,indeed the           
term-8impression0 7,wahrnehmung7 has    
degenerated in an almost similar   way4 
,only really appropriate in respect of  
knowledge1 it came to be   applied in   

the case of the so-called external      
impression 7ussere   ,wahrnehmung71 i4e4
 in cases of a belief1 blind1 and in its
 essential   relations1 erroneous1 and  
consequently would require1 in order1 as
 a   terminus technicus to have         
scientific application1 an important    
reform   of the usual terminology and   
one which would essentially narrow the  
range of the term4     #cj 7p4 #ai74    
,metaph41  #a1 p4 #ihj a4 #bb4     #ca  
7p4 #bj7 i4e41 8,als richtig            
characterisiert40 ,this phrase1 which   
occurs frequently1 ,i have translated   
sometimes as above1 sometimes by        
8qualified as right40 ,by this phrase   
and its equivalents is meant that   the 
act 7sc4 of loving1 hating1 or          
preferring17 is at once perceived   by  
us to be a right one1 bears the mark or 
character of rightness4     #cb 7p4     
#bj74 ,in order to exclude a            
misunderstanding and the   doubts       
necessarily connected therewith1 ,i add 
the following remark   to what has been 

suggested shortly in the text4 ,in order
 that an   act of feeling may be called 
purely good in itself it is requisite3  
7#a7 that it be right2 7#b7 that it be  
an act of pleasing and not an   act of  
displeasing4 ,if either condition be    
absent1 it is already1   in a certain   
respect1 bad in itself2 pleasure at the 
misfortunes of   others 7,schadenfreude7
 is bad on the first ground2 pain at the
 sight   of injustice1 on the second    
ground4 ,if both conditions are lacking1
   the act is still worse1 in accordance
 with the principle of summation   of   
which we shall speak later in the       
lecture4 ,according to this same        
principle1 where a feeling is good1 its 
increase increases also the   goodness  
of the act1 while1 similarly1 where an  
act is purely bad1 or   at least        
participates in any respect in the bad1 
with the intensity   of the feeling     
increases the badness of the act4 ,when 
the act is a   mixed one1 good and bad  
manifestly increase1 or diminish1 in    

simple   proportion to one another4 ,the
 8plus0 belonging to the one or the     
other side1 must therefore1 with the    
increase in intensity of the   act      
become ever greater1 with its decrease  
ever smaller4 ,and so the   surplus of  
good in the act may1 under certain      
circumstances in spite   of its         
impurity1 be described as a very great  
good1 while conversely1   the surplus of
 the bad may1 despite the admixture of  
the good1 be   described as something   
very bad 7cf4 note #cf74     #cc 7p4    
#bj74 ,it may happen that1 at the same  
time1 one and the   same thing is both  
pleasing and displeasing4 ,first1       
something in   itself displeasing may   
yet be pleasing as a means to something 
else1   and vice versa2 then a case may 
arise where something instinctively     
repels us1 while at the same time it is 
loved by us with a higher   love4 ,we   
may thus have an instinctive repugnance 
to a sensation1 which   is yet at the   
same time 7and every idea1 qua idea1 is 

good71 a welcome   enrichment of our    
world of ideas4 ,aristotle has said3    
8,it happens   that desires enter into  
conflict with each other4 ,this happens 
when   the reason 77 and the lower      
desires 77 are in opposition   7,de     
,anima iii4 #aj74 ,and again3 8,now the 
lower desires 77   gain a victory over  
the higher1 now the higher over the     
lower1 and as0   7according to the      
ancient astronomy7 8one celestial sphere
 the other1   so one desire draws off   
the other with it when the individual   
has lost   the firm rule over himself0  
7,de ,anima ii474     #cd 7p4 #ba74     
,just as love and hate may be directed  
towards single   individuals1 so also   
they may be directed to whole classes4  
,this   ,aristotle has already observed4
 ,we are1 he thinks1 8not only angry    
with the individual thief who has robbed
 us1 and with the individual   sycophant
 who deceives our confiding nature1 but 
we hate thieves and   sycophants in     
general0 7,rhet4 ii4 #d74 ,acts of      

loving and hating1   where in this way  
there is an underlying general          
conception1 also   possess frequently   
the character of rightness4 ,and so     
quite naturally   along with the        
experience of this given act of love or 
hate1 the   goodness or badness of the  
entire class becomes manifest at one    
stroke1 and apart from every induction  
from special cases4 ,in this   way1 for 
example1 we attain to the general       
knowledge that insight as   such is     
good4 ,it is easy to understand how near
 the temptation lies1   in the case of  
such knowledge of a general truth       
without any induction   from single     
cases otherwise demanded in truths of   
experience1   entirely to overlook the  
preparatory experience of a feeling     
having   the character of rightness1 and
 to regard the universal judgment   as  
an immediate synthetic  priori form of  
knowledge4 ,herbart's   very remarkable 
doctrine of a sudden elevation to       
general ethical   principles seems to me

 to point to the fact that he had       
observed   something of this peculiar   
process without at the same time        
becoming   quite clear about it4     #ce
 7p4 #ba74 ,it is easy to see how       
important this proposition may   become 
for a theodicy4 ,as regards ethics it   
might be feared that   its security     
becomes thereby seriously endangered1   
perhaps1 indeed1   completely destroyed4
 ,to see how unfounded such a fear is1  
cf4 note   #dc1 p4 #ii4     #cf 7p4     
#bb74 ,it seems to me evident even from 
analysis of the   notion of choice 7#a7 
that everything which is good is to be  
preferred1   i4e4 that in an act of     
choice it shall fall as a reasonable    
moment   into the balance2 7#b7 that    
everything bad forms a reasonable       
anti-moment1 and therefore also that    
7#c7 in such cases--partly by   direct  
means1 partly by an addition in which   
the good and the bad   are to be taken  
into account as quantities with opposite
 signs--the   preponderance in which    

right choice is to be grounded may      
become   evident1 i4e4 the preferability
 or superiority of the one as opposed   
to the other4 ,according to this view1  
it does not1 closely examined1   require
 the special experience of an act of    
preference having the   character of    
rightness1 but only the experience of   
simple similarly   qualified acts of    
pleasing and displeasing1 in order to   
attain in the   above-mentioned cases to
 the knowledge of the better4 ,and      
therefore   ,i have said that we derived
 our knowledge of preferability1 not    
from   the fact that our experience has 
the character of rightness1 but   that  
the said preferences possess the        
character of rightness because   the    
knowledge of preferability has here been
 made the determining   standard4 ,i do 
not1 however1 mean to say that the same 
distinguishing   character which was    
previously insisted upon in the case of 
certain   simple acts of pleasing is not
 also here really present4     #cg 7p4  

#bd74 ,in order that the procedure here 
might have been   rendered quite exact  
and really exhaustive1 two other very   
important   cases would still need to   
have been mentioned in the lecture4 ,the
 one   case is that of pleasure in the  
bad1 the other that of displeasure   in 
the bad4 ,if we enquire3 ,is pleasure in
 the bad good8 the answer   has already 
been given in a measure quite rightly by
 ,aristotle3 ,no4   8,no one10 he says  
in the ,nicomachian ,ethics 7x4 #b1 p4  
#aagd a4 #a71   8would wish to feel joy 
in what is shameful even if it were made
   certain to him that no harm would    
result therefrom40 ,the hedonists1   to 
which class belonged such noble men as  
,fechner 7cf4 his work on   ,the        
,highest ,good7 contradicted this view4 
,their teaching is to be   rejected2 in 
practice as ,hume has observed1 they    
fortunately proved   much better than in
 theory4 ,there is still1 however1 a    
grain of truth   in their view4 ,the    
pleasure in the bad is1 qua pleasure1   

good1 and   only at the same time bad as
 a wrong activity of feeling1 and       
though1   by reason of this perversion1 
it may be described as a preponderance  
of the bad1 it cannot be regarded as    
something purely bad4 ,while1           
therefore1 abhorring it as bad1 we are  
really making an act of choice   in     
which freedom from what in the object is
 bad is preferred to the   possession of
 what is good4 ,and when we recognize   
the aversion as   right1 this is        
possible only because the preference has
 the character   of rightness4     ,the 
case is similar when we inquire if a    
similarly qualified   displeasure in the
 bad is good1 as e4g4 where a noble     
heart feels pain   on seeing the        
innocent oppressed1 or where some one1  
looking back upon   his past life1 feels
 remorse at the consciousness of a bad  
action4   ,here the case is in every    
respect the reverse of the one          
preceding4   ,such a feeling arouses a  
state in which pleasure preponderates1  

but   this pleasure is not pure2 it     
cannot be called a pure good like the   
joy which would have arisen were the    
opposite of that over which we   now    
mourn a fact1 hence ,descartes' advice  
7cf4 #bd1 p4 #ge7--to turn the          
attention and feeling in an equal degree
 rather to the good--would   really not 
lose its significance4 ,we recognize all
 this clearly1 and   have therefore1    
once more a preference with the         
character of rightness   as the source  
of our knowledge of what is worthy of   
preference4     ,in order not to        
introduce too many complications1 ,i    
omitted in my   lecture when discussing 
preferences to mention these cases4 ,and
 this   seemed to me the more           
admissible1 because it would practically
 lead   to the same result1 if 7like    
,aristotle in the case of disgraceful   
pleasure7 one were to treat hate        
qualified as right on the one hand   and
 love qualified as right on the other1  
as phenomena of simple   disinclination 

and inclination4     ,it may be easily  
seen that from these special cases of a 
possible   determination of a           
quantitative relation between good and  
bad pleasure   and displeasure1 on the  
one hand1 and of rightness and          
unrightness on   the other hand 7cf4 for
 these also ,note #ca1 p4 #ia7 there is 
no hope of   filling in the great gaps  
referred to in the lecture in a way     
valid   for all cases4     #ch 7p4 #bf74
 ,cf4 my ,psych4 from the ,empirical    
,standpoint1 book   ii4 chap4 iv4       
#ci 7p4 #bf74 ,e4 ,dumont4 ,traits de   
lgislation civile et pnale1   extraits  
des manuscrits de ,j4 ,bentham2 espec4  
in the section bearing   the title3     
8,principes des lgislation10 chap4 iii4 
section #a towards   the end2 chap4 vi4 
section #b towards the end2 and chaps4  
viii4 and ix4     #dj 7p4 #bg74 ,s4     
,rudolph ,wagner4 ,der ,kampf um die    
,seele1 vom   ,standpunkt der           
,wissenschaft4 7,sendschreiben an ,herrn
 ,leibarzt ,dr4   ,beneke in            

,oldenburg47 ,gttingen1 #aheg1 p4 #id   
note4 8,gauss said1 the   author 7of a  
certain psychological work7 spoke of a  
want of exact   measurements in the case
 of psychical phenomena1 but it would be
 good   if we only had clumsy ones1 one 
could then make a beginning2 but we     
have none4 ,there is here wanting the   
conditio sine qu non of all             
mathematical treatment1 i4e4 whether and
 how far the changing of an   intensive 
into an extensive quantity is possible4 
,yet this is the   first and            
indispensable condition2 then there were
 also others4 ,on   this occasion ,gauss
 spoke also about the usual incorrect   
definition   of quantity as an #8ens'   
which is capable of being increased or  
diminished2 one ought rather to say1 an 
#8ens' that admits of being   divided   
into equal parts44440     #da 7p4 #bg74 
,fechner's psycho-physical law1 even    
were it assured1   whereas it awakens   
continually increasing doubt and        
opposition1 could   only be used as a   

means of measuring the intensity of the 
content   of certain concrete           
perceptions1 not1 however1 for measuring
 the   strength of the emotions like joy
 and sorrow4 ,attempts have been made   
at determining the measure of feelings  
by means of the involuntary   movements 
and other externally visible changes    
accompanying them4 ,to   me1 this seems 
very much as if one were to seek to     
reckon the exact   date of the day of   
the month by means of the weather4 ,the 
direct inner   consciousness1 however   
imperfect its testimony may be1         
nevertheless   offers here far more4 ,at
 least one draws from the spring itself1
   whereas in the other case one has to 
do with water rendered impure by   a    
variety of influences4     #db  3 7p4   
#bg74 ,sigwart1 in his ,vorfragen der   
,ethik 7p4 #db71  emphasizes the fact   
that no more must be required from the  
human will  than what it is able to     
perform4 ,this utterance1 which coming  
from the  lips of so decided an         

indeterminist 7cf4 ,logic1 ii4 p4 #eib7 
may  especially excite surprise1 hangs  
together with his subjective view of    
the good1 from which view1 in my        
opinion1 there is offered no logical1   
normal path to the peace of all who     
possess a good will4 7,cf4 e4g4 the  way
 in which ,sigwart1 p4 #ae1 passes over 
from egoism to regard for the  general  
good47    ,but similar expressions are  
also heard from others4 ,and it might   
really  appear doubtful whether the     
sublime command which bids us to        
subordinate  all our actions to the     
highest practical good is really the    
right  ethical principle4 ,for1 putting 
aside cases of want of reflection1 which
  do not1 of course1 enter here into    
consideration1 the demand for such      
complete self-devotion still seems too  
stringent1 since there is no one1       
however carefully he may conduct        
himself1 who1 looking sincerely into    
his heart1 will not frequently be       
compelled to say with ,horace3--        

8,nunc in ,aristippi furtim praecepta   
relabor1       ,et mihi res1 non me     
rebus subjungere conor40    ,and yet the
 doubt is unfounded1 and a comparison   
may serve to make this  clear4 ,it is   
certain that no one can entirely avoid  
error2 still1  avoidable or unavoidable1
 every error remains a judgment1 which  
is what  it should not be1 and is       
opposed to the indispensable demands of 
logic4  ,what applies to logic in       
respect of weakness of thought applies  
to  ethics on the ground of weakness of 
will4 ,ethics cannot cease to demand    
from a man that he should love the      
acknowledged good and prefer that  which
 is recognized to be better1 not putting
 anything else before the  highest      
practical good4 ,even were it proved    
7which is not the case71  that in a     
definite class of cases all men without 
exception in respect  of these were     
never able to remain true to the highest
 practical good1  this would still not  
afford the slightest justification for  

setting  aside the fundamental ethical  
demand4 ,even then it would still remain
 an  evident and unchangeable truth1 the
 sole and only right rule1 here as      
everywhere1 to give the preference to   
the better over what is less good4      
,j4 ,s4 ,mill fears that this would lead
 to endless self-reproaches and  that   
these constant reproaches would embitter
 the life of each  individual4 ,this1   
however1 is so little implied by the    
rule that it is  easily demonstrable    
that such a result is excluded4 ,goethe 
well  understood this1--        8,nichts
 taugt ,ungeduld0    i4e4 impatience in 
respect of one's own imperfections1 he  
says in one of  his by no means lax     
sayings1--        8,noch weniger ,reue10
    --giving way to the stings of       
conscience1 when fresh joyous resolve is
  alone available1--        8,jene      
vermehrt die ,schuld1       ,diese      
schafft neue40,a     ,a                 
8,impatience naught avails       ,nor   
more availeth rue1       ,one addeth to 

the fault1       ,the other maketh      
new40--,tr4      ,in an album ,i once   
found in the hand of the pious ,abbot   
,haneberg1  afterwards ,bishop of       
,spires1 the following lines1 written to
 the same  effect3--        8,sonne dich
 mit ,lust an ,gottes ,huld1       ,hab'
 mit allen--auch mit dir1 ,geduld40,b   
,b        8,bathe thyself with delight  
in the sunshine of heavenly grace1      
,let patience toward all men            
abound--e'en with thyself find a        
place40--,tr4       #dc 7p4 #bh74 ,it is
 necessary to be on one's guard against 
drawing   from the principle of love of 
our neighbour the conclusion that each  
has to care for every other individual  
in the same degree as for   himself1    
which1 far from conducing towards the   
universal good1 would   rather          
essentially prejudice it4 ,this is seen 
by reflecting on the   circumstance that
 to ourselves we stand in a position    
different from   that in which we stand 
to everybody else1 while again in       

respect of   these others we are in a   
position to help1 or to injure1 one     
more1   the other less4 ,if there are   
human beings in ,mars the inhabitants of
   the earth can and ought to wish them 
good also1 not however to strive   after
 their good in the same manner as for   
himself and his fellow-men4     ,it is  
in this connexion that the injunction to
 take thought in the   first instance   
for oneself1 a precept to be found in   
every system   of morality1 is          
justifiable3 8 10 8,sweep before your   
own   doorstep10 etc4 ,the demand to    
seek first of all the welfare of wife   
and child1 home and fatherland1 is also 
universal4 ,the command3 8,take   no    
thought for the morrow10 in the sense in
 which it really offers   wise counsel1 
also flows as a result from the same    
source4 ,that   my future happiness     
ought not to be so dear to me as my     
present   happiness is not here implied4
     ,so regarded1 the communistic      
doctrines which illogical impetuosity   

would seek to derive from the lofty     
principle of universal brotherhood   are
 shown to be unjustifiable4     #dd 7p4 
#bi74 ,the fact that we are often unable
 to measure the more   remote results of
 our actions offers a more serious      
difficulty4     ,but even this thought  
will not discourage us if we love the   
universal   good4 ,it may be said of all
 results which are unrecognizable in an 
exactly equal degree1 that one has just 
as many chances in its favour   as the  
others4 ,according to the law of great  
numbers a compensation   will on the    
whole result1 and so whatever calculable
 good we create   will stand as a plus  
on the one side and1 just as though it  
stood   alone1 will justify our choice4 
,from the same point of view1 as ,i have
 already suggested in the   lecture 7p4 
#bb71 the doubt is removed which in a   
similar manner might   arise through    
uncertainty as to whether everything    
that is good draws   from us a love     
having the qualification of rightness1  

and whether1   therefore1 we are able to
 recognize it as good and to take due   
account   of it4     #de 7p4 #bi74 ,that
 in the case of the limits of right     
7,rechtsgrenzen7 we have essentially to 
do with spheres which lie at   the      
disposal of the individual will has been
 frequently emphasized   both by        
philosophers 7cf4 in this respect e4g4  
,herbart's ,idea of   ,right7 and by    
able jurists4 ,ihering in his ,geist des
 rmischen   ,rechts1 iii4 #a 7p4 #cbj   
note71 demonstrates this with numerous  
citations4 ,arndt e4g4 in his ,handbuch 
der ,pandekten defines law as           
8supremacy of the will regarding an     
object02 for ,sintenis it is1 8the      
will of one person raised to the        
universal will40 ,windscheid defines    
it as 8a certain volition               
7,willensinhalt7 of which the legal code
 in   a concrete case affirms that it   
may be made valid as against every      
other will40 ,puchta1 who has perhaps   
expressed the thought in the   most     

manifold ways1 says in his digest of    
,roman law1 section #bb1 8as   the      
subjects of such a will thought of      
potentially men are called   persons1   
444 personality is therefore the        
subjective possibility of   the         
legalized will1 of a legal power40 ,in  
the same work 7section #aah1   note b7  
he observes in regard to a want of      
personality3 8,the principle   of modern
 law is inability to dispose of         
property02 many other of his            
expressions convey the same meaning4    
,as however these legal authorities have
 concentrated their attention           
exclusively upon legal duties1 and do   
not touch upon the problem as to   the  
way in which the individual will has to 
rule in its legal sphere1   ,ihering has
 interpreted them as meaning that they  
considered the   true and highest good1 
and the most intrinsic and final end1   
towards   which the legal code strives1 
to be the exercise of the will as will1 
the joy of the individual in his        

volitional activity2 8the final end   of
 all law is1 for them1 willing0 7pp4    
#cbj1 #cbe72 8the end of law            
7according to them7 consists once for   
all in the power of the will1   in its  
supremacy0 7p4 #cbf74 ,one can well     
understand how he comes to   condemn a  
theory so interpreted 7p4 #cbg71 and    
even that he succeeds   in making it    
appear ridiculous4 8,according to this  
view10 he says1   7p4 #cbj7 8all private
 right is nothing less than an arena in 
which   the will moves and exercises    
itself2 the will is the organ by which  
the individual enjoys his right1 the    
profit obtained from legal right        
consists in feeling the joy and glory of
 power1 in the satisfaction of   having 
realized an act of will1 e4g4 of having 
effected a mortgage1   transferred a    
title1 and so proved oneself to be a    
legal personality4   ,what a poor thing 
would the will be if the bare and low   
regions of law   were the proper 8sphere
 of its activity60     ,certainly the   

heaviest charges of absurdity and       
ridiculousness would   be well deserved 
if those scholars who regard the        
immediate aim of   law as consisting in 
a limitation of the spheres at the      
disposal of   the will had intended in  
so doing to disavow all regard for the  
final   ethical end1 i4e4 the           
advancement of the highest practical    
good4   ,there is1 however1 absolutely  
nothing to justify this insinuation1    
and therefore one could perhaps with    
more right smile at the zeal   of an    
attack which is really levelled merely  
against windmills4   ,moreover1 what    
,ihering proposes to set in its place is
 certainly a   bad substitute4 ,for1 in 
regarding the sphere ascribed by the    
legal   authority to the individual     
simply as a sphere consigned to their   
egoism 7a view which1 as the author of  
,der ,zweck im ,recht1 he   perhaps no  
longer holds71 he is thus led to his    
definition3 8,law   7,recht7 is legal   
security for enjoyment10 whereas he     

would have been   more correct in       
saying3 8,law is legal security for the 
undisturbed   disposal of individual    
power in the advancement of the highest 
good40   ,is then injustice something   
which exhausts bad conduct8 ,by no      
means2   legal duties have limits2 duty 
in general governs all our actions1     
and this our popular religion expressly 
emphasizes1 as1 for instance1   when it 
asserts that for every idle word the    
individual must render an   account4    
,besides this first objection1 which    
rests upon a simple   misunderstanding  
of the intention1 ,ihering has also     
raised several   others which are       
essentially due to imperfections in the 
use of   language4 ,if the legal code   
essentially consists in setting certain 
limits to the activity of the individual
 will in order that one person   may not
 disturb the other in striving after the
 good1 it follows that   he who has1 or 
had1 or will have no will has also no   
legal sphere4 ,i   say1 8has1 or had1 or

 will have10 for obviously regard must  
be paid to   the past and to the future4
 ,a dead man often exercises an         
influence   extending into the far      
distant future1 so that ,comte well     
says3 the   living are more and more    
dominated by the dead4 ,in like manner1 
the   situation will entail that1 in    
respect of many problems1 we leave   the
 decision to the future1 i4e4 renounce  
the sovereignty in favour   of a future 
will4 ,this consideration resolves many 
a paradox urged   by ,ihering 7pp4      
#cbj-cbe72 not however1 all4 ,in the    
case of one who   from birth has been an
 incurable imbecile1 it is obvious that 
no   power of will whatever can be      
found1 to which regard for the highest  
practical good might allow a sphere2    
there remains therefore to him1         
according to our view1 really no legal  
sphere1 and yet on every hand   we hear 
of a right which he possesses in his own
 life2 even under   some circumstances1 
we refer to him as the owner of a great 

estate1   or ascribe to him the right of
 a crown or kingly rule4 ,on examining  
the relations closely1 we find that we  
are never concerned here with   a true  
legal sphere respecting a subject       
incapable of being held   responsible1  
but rather with the legal spheres of    
other individuals1   as1 for example1   
that of a father who1 in providing for  
his imbecile   child1 gives instructions
 in his will concerning his property1   
the   dominion of whose will is         
safeguarded after his death by the law  
of   the land2 or 7as1 for example1 the 
case where the imbecile's life is   held
 to be sacred71 quite apart from the    
injury done to the simple   duty of     
affection which this would involve1     
there is also in question   the ,state's
 legal sphere1 which permits no one else
 to commit a fatal   attack1 and        
accordingly often imposes a punishment1 
even in the case   of an attempt at     
suicide4     ,a third objection of      
,ihering's1 i4e4 that by a limitation of

 rights   as affecting spheres of will1 
even the most senseless dispositions of 
will must be allowed legal validity 7p4 
#cbe71 this offers1 after what   has    
been said1 hardly any further           
difficulty4 ,certainly many a foolish   
disposition of will must be allowed4    
,were the ,state not to admit   this1   
then it alone would possess a definitive
 right of disposal2 all   private right 
would be at an end4 ,so long as not     
merely subjects1 but   also governments1
 are liable to commit acts of           
foolishness1 such an   extension of the 
power of the ,state cannot be           
recommended4 ,for the   rest1 just as   
secondary ethical rules in general      
suffer exceptions1   and in particular  
expropriations in the case of private   
owners are   frequently necessary1 so   
also it is clear and to be admitted     
without   contradiction1 that senseless 
dispositions or dispositions which have 
evidently lost all meaning and reference
 to the highest practical good   can be 

annulled by the ,state4 ,regard for the 
highest practical good   is here1 as is 
the case of every other so-called       
collision of duties1   decisive4     #df
 7p4 #bi74 ,that a law1 which in and for
 itself is bad and   contrary to nature1
 however condemnable from an ethical    
point of view1   and its modification   
urgently necessary1 may yet in many     
cases receive   a provisional sanction  
from the reason1 this has long been     
recognized   and made clear1 as e4g4 by 
,bentham in his ,traits de ,lgislation  
civ4 et pn4 ,in antiquity ,socrates1 who
 deemed himself worthy to be   feasted  
in the ,prytaneum1 died for the sake of 
this conviction4 ,the   positive legal  
code1 despite all its defects1 creates a
 condition   of things which is better  
than anarchy1 and since each act of     
insubordination to the law threatens to 
injure its force in general1   so in    
those circumstances brought about by the
 law itself1 it may be   that           
provisionally and for the individual a  

mode of action even from   the rational 
standpoint is right1 which1 apart from  
this1 would be in   no way justifiable4 
,all this results without doubt from the
 relativity   of the secondary ethical  
rules1 which will be treated later4     
,it may be added that errors respecting 
the laws of positive morality   7a point
 shortly to be discussed in the lecture7
 in a similar way   demand1 under       
certain circumstances1 to be taken into 
account4     ,it dare not1 on the other 
hand1 be overlooked that there are here 
limits1 and that the saying3 8,we ought 
to obey ,god rather than man10   may    
not1 in its free and sublime range1 be  
allowed to suffer injury4     #dg 7p4   
#bi74 ,heraclitus of ,ephesus 7,b4,c4   
#ejj71 the   oldest of the ,greek       
philosophers1 of whose philosophy we    
possess   rather extensive fragments4   
#dh 7p4 #ca74 ,ihering1 ,der ,zweck im  
,recht1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aai1 and   other   
passages4     #di 7p4 #ca74 ,politics1  
vol4 i4 chap4 #e4     #ej 7p4 #ca74     

,nic4 ,ethics1 v4 #ad1 p4 #aacg b4 #ac4 
,politics1 iii4   and iv4     #ea 7p4   
#ca74 ,cf4 ,discours prliminaire to the 
,traits de   ,lgislation1 also the      
section 8,de l'influence des temps et   
des lieux   en matire de lgislation0 of 
that work4     #eb 7p4 #ca74 ,philos4   
,versuch ber die ,wahrscheinlichkeiten  
von   ,laplace1 translated from the     
sixth edition of the original text by   
,n4   ,schwaiger1 ,leipzig1 #ahhf1 p4   
#ic seq4 7,application of the           
calculation   of probabilities to moral 
science47     #ec 7p4 #cb74 ,cf4 ,allg4 
,juristenzeitung1 vii4 p4 #aga2 ,zweck  
im   ,recht1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aah2 #abb seq4
     #ed 7p4 #cc74 ,grundlegung zur     
,physik der ,sitten4 ,cf4 above note    
#ad1 p4 #di4     #ee 7p4 #cd74 ,cf4 e4g4
 the ,meno dialogue4     #ef 7p4 #cd74  
,friedr4 ,alb4 ,lange1 ,logische        
,studien1 ein ,beitrag zur              
,neubegrndung der formalen ,logik und   
der ,erkenntnislehre4 ,iserlohn1        
#ahgg4     #eg 7p4 #cd74 ,alex4 ,bain1  

,logic1 pt4 #a4 ,deduction4 ,london1    
#ahgj1   p4 #aei seq4     #eh 7p4 #ce74 
e4g4 ,bentham1 also1 in antiquity1      
,epicurus4     #ei 7p4 #ce74 e4g4 ,plato
 and ,aristotle1 and following them     
,thomas   ,aquinas4     #fj 7p4 #ce74   
,the ,stoics1 and in the ,middle ,ages1 
the followers of   ,scotus4     #fa 7p4 
#cf74 ,this even ,epicurus did not deny 
7little in harmony as   it is with his  
utterance quoted p4 #ed74     #fb 7p4   
#cf74 ,nic4 ,ethics1 ,i4 i4     #fc 7p4 
#cf74 ,metaph4  #aj4     #fd 7p4 #cf74  
,metaph4  #aj4     #fe 7p4 #cf74 ,they  
made the relation to the greater whole  
serve as   an argument in favour of the 
view that the practical life 7of the    
politician7 stands higher than that of  
the theorist4     #ff 7p4 #cf74 ,this   
testimony to the principle of summation 
likewise   reappears as often as in a   
theory based upon egoistic and          
utilitarian   grounds1 the notion of    
,god is employed in the construction of 
ethics   7e4g4 ,locke2 ,fechner in his  

work on the highest good2 cf4 also for  
,leibnitz1 ,trendelenburg1 ,histor4     
,beitrge1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bde74 ,god1   so 
runs their argument1 loves each of ,his 
creatures1 and therefore   their        
totality more than the single           
individual2 ,he therefore approves   and
 rewards the sacrifice of the individual
 to the whole1 while   disapproving and 
punishing self-seeking injury4     ,in  
the desire after immortality also1 the  
influence of the principle   of         
summation is manifest4 ,thus ,helmholtz1
 7ber die ,entstehung des               
,planetensystems1 lecture delivered at  
,heidelberg and ,cologne1 #ahga71   in  
seeking to offer a hopeful prospect to  
those who cherish this   desire1 says3  
8,the individual 7if that which we      
achieve can ennoble   the lives of those
 who succeed us7 may face fearlessly the
 thought   that the thread of his own   
consciousness will one day be broken4   
,but   to the thought of a final        
annihilation of the race of living      

mortals1   and with them1 the fruits of 
the striving of all past generations1   
even men of minds so unfettered and     
great as ,lessing and ,david ,strauss   
could scarcely reconcile themselves40   
,when it is scientifically shown   that 
the earth will one day be incapable of  
supporting living beings1   then1 he    
thinks1 the need of immortality will    
irresistibly return1 and   we shall feel
 bound to cast about for something which
 will afford us   the possibility of    
assuming it4     #fg 7p4 #cd74 ,metaph4 
#aj4     #fh 7p4 #cg74 ,this is the     
standing doctrine of the great          
theologians1 as e4g4 ,thomas ,aquinas in
 his ,summa ,theologica4   ,only certain
 nominalists1 like ,robert ,holcot1     
teach the complete   arbitrariness of   
the divine commands4 ,cf4 my essay on   
the ,geschichte   der kirchlichen       
,wissenschaften im ,mittelalter1 in     
,mhler's ,church   ,history 7published  
by ,gams1 #ahfg7 vol4 ii4 #ebf seq41    
respecting   which1 however1 the reader 

is asked not to overlook the revision of
   the printer's errors in the 8errata10
 p4 #ajc seq41 at the end of that       
work4     #fi 7p4 #ci74 ,at a time when 
psychology was far less advanced   and  
inquiries into the province of the      
calculation of probability   had not    
brought sufficient clearness into the   
process of rational   induction1 it was 
possible even for a ,hume to fall a     
victim to this   gross confusion4 ,cf4  
his ,enq4 concern4 ,hum4 ,underst41     
chaps4 v4   and vi4 ,more striking is it
 that ,james ,mill and ,herbert ,spencer
 have   still not advanced in the       
slightest degree beyond ,hume2 7,cf4    
,anal4   of the ,phen4 of the ,hum4     
,mind1 vol4 ii4 chap4 ix4 and note      
#ajh71 and   that even the acute        
thinker1 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 although        
,laplace's ,essai   ,philosophique sur  
les ,probabilits lay at his disposal1   
never arrived   at a clear distinction  
of the essential difference between     
these two   forms of procedure4 ,this   

hangs together with his failure to      
appreciate   the purely analytic        
character of mathematics and the import 
of the   deductive procedure in general4
 ,indeed he has absolutely denied that  
the syllogism leads to new knowledge4   
,whoever bases the whole of             
mathematics upon induction cannot       
possibly justify mathematically the     
inductive procedure4 ,it would be for   
him a circulus vitiosus4 ,it is   here  
beyond question that ,jevon's ,logic    
takes a truer view4     ,even in the    
case of ,mill1 it sometimes appears as  
if an inkling of   the immense          
difference had begun to dawn upon him1  
as when1 in a note   to his ,analysis of
 the ,phenomena of the ,human ,mind     
7vol4 i41 chap4   xi4 p4 #djg71 in      
criticizing his father's theory1 he     
says3 8,if belief   is only an          
inseparable association1 belief is a    
matter of habit   and accident and not  
of reason4 ,assuredly an association1   
however   close1 between two ideas is   

not a sufficient ground 7the italics    
are his own7 of belief2 it is not       
evidence that the corresponding   facts 
are united in external nature4 ,the     
theory seems to annihilate   all        
distinction between the belief of the   
wise1 which is regulated   by evidence  
and conforms to the real successions and
 co-existences   of the facts of the    
universe1 and the belief of fools which 
is   mechanically produced by any       
accidental association that suggests    
the idea of a succession or co-existence
 to the mind2 a belief aptly            
characterized by the popular expression1
 believing a thing because   they have  
taken it into their heads40 ,this is all
 excellent4 ,but it   is robbed of its  
most essential worth1 when1 in a later  
note 7vol4   i4 p4 #dch4 note #aaj7 we  
hear ,j4 ,s4 ,mill say3 8,it must be    
conceded to   him 7the author of the    
,analysis7 that an association          
sufficiently   strong to exclude all    
ideas that would exclude itself1        

produces   a kind of mechanical belief1 
and that the processes by which the     
belief is corrected1 or reduced to      
rational bounds1 all consist in   the   
growth of a counter-association tending 
to raise the idea of a   disappointment 
of the first expectation1 and as the one
 or the other   prevails in the         
particular case1 the belief or          
expectation exists or   does not exist  
exactly as if the belief were the same  
thing with the   association10 and so   
on4     ,there is much here that calls  
for criticism4 ,when ideas are mentioned
   which mutually exclude one another it
 may well be asked what kind   of ideas 
these are8 ,according to another        
utterance of ,mill's 7vol4   i4 p4 #ih  
seq4 note #cj and elsewhere71 he knows  
8no case of absolute   incompatibility  
of thought except between the thought of
 the   presence of something and that of
 its absence40 ,but are even these      
incompatible8 ,mill himself teaches     
elsewhere the very opposite when he     

thinks that along with the idea of      
existence there is always given at   the
 same time the idea of non-existence 7p4
 #abf1 note #ci2 8we are only           
conscious10 he says1 8of the presence of
 an object by comparison with   its     
absence074 ,apart1 however1 from all    
this1 how strange is it that   ,mill    
here overlooks the fact that he abandons
 entirely the distinctive   character of
 self-evidence1 and retains only that   
blind and mechanical   formation of     
judgment1 which he rightly treats with  
contempt4 ,the   sceptic ,hume stands in
 this respect far higher1 since he at   
least sees   that such an empirical     
7empiristisch7 view of the process of   
induction   does not satisfy the        
requirements of our reason4 ,sigwart's  
criticism   of ,mill's theory of        
,induction 7,logic1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cga7   
contains   here much that is true1      
though in appealing to his postulates he
 has   certainly not substituted        
anything truly satisfactory in the place

 of   what is defective in ,mill4       
#gj 7p4 #dj74 ,cf4 ,hume1 ,enquiry      
concerning ,human ,understanding1   vol4
 ii4 towards the end4     #ga 7p4 #dj74 
,nic4 ,ethics1 iii4 #aj4 ,cf4 the subtle
 discussions in   the subsequent chapter
 on the five kinds of false courage4    
#gb 7p4 #da74 ,nic4 ,ethics1 i4 #b4     
,,appendix ,i          ,i               
8,subjectless propositions0 so the      
celebrated philologer has entitled a    
little work which1 on its first         
appearance1 bore the title1 ,the ,verba 
,impersonalia in the ,slav ,languages4  
,the change of name may well be         
connected with considerable additions in
  the second edition4 ,the new          
designation would1 however1 even in the 
earlier form1 have been the more        
suitable title4 ,for1 far from treating 
the special nature of merely one family 
of languages1 the author sets  up a     
theory of wide-reaching significance1   
which1 while contradicting  the         
prevailing view1 only deserves all the  

more on this account general  attention4
 ,not only philology1 but also          
psychology and metaphysics have  an     
interest in the problem4 ,moreover1 the 
new doctrine promised to bring  profit  
not only to the inquirer in these lofty 
spheres but also to the  schoolboy at   
present tortured by the school-master   
with impossible and  incomprehensible   
theories 7cf4 p4 #bc seq474    ,such an 
influence1 however1 the treatise has not
 exercised4 ,the earlier  views still   
hold unbroken sway even to-day1 and     
although the appearance  of the         
monograph in a new edition bears        
testimony to a certain interest  in     
wider circles1 this is manifestly not   
due to the circumstance that  the work  
was believed to have thrown light upon  
old doubts and errors4  ,darwin's       
epoch-making work1 quite apart from the 
truth of its  hypothesis1 had1 even for 
its opponents1 an indisputable worth2   
the  wealth of important observations   
and ingenious combinations every one    

had to acknowledge with admiration4 ,so 
also in the case of ,miklosich1  who has
 compressed into a few pages a rich     
store of learning and  interspersed the 
most subtle observations4 ,many who have
 withheld their  assent to his principal
 thesis may still feel indebted to him  
for many  points of detail4    ,here1   
however1 we wish chiefly to consider the
 main problem and1 very  briefly1 to    
make ourselves clear respecting that    
with which it really  deals4    ,it is  
an old assertion of logic that the      
judgment consists essentially  in a     
binding or separating1 in a relation of 
ideas to one another4 ,this  view1      
almost unanimously maintained for two   
thousand years1 has  exercised an       
influence upon other disciplines4 ,and  
so we find  grammarians from very early 
times teaching that no more simple form 
of  expression in the case of the       
judgment exists1 or can exist1 than the 
categorical1 which combines a subject   
with a predicate4    ,that the carrying 

out of this doctrine brings with it     
difficulties could  not1 of course1 be  
permanently concealed4 ,propositions    
like3 it rains1  it lightens1 appear as 
though they had no wish to conform to   
this view4  ,yet none the less the      
majority of inquirers were so firmly    
convinced1  that in such cases they felt
 compelled1 not so much to doubt the    
universal validity of their theory as   
rather to search for the subjects1      
which in their view were only apparently
 missing4 ,many really believed         
themselves to be in possession of the   
same4 ,now1 however1 in marked  contrast
 to the unity which had hitherto        
prevailed1 they branched off in  the    
most varied directions4 ,and if we      
examine somewhat closely and in  detail 
the various attempts at an explanation1 
we shall easily be able  to understand1 
why none of these were able to give     
permanent  satisfaction1 or even for a  
time to bring about unanimity4          
,science explains by reason of its      

comprehending a multiplicity as a       
unity4 ,here also1 of course1 every     
effort has been made to accomplish      
this1 but every attempt has proved      
futile4 ,when we say3 it rains1 many    
have supposed that the unnamed subject  
denoted by the indefinite 8it0 is       
8,zeus03 ,zeus rains4 ,but when we say3 
8es rauscht10 it is obvious that  ,zeus 
cannot be the subject4 ,others again    
have thought that the subject  is here  
8das ,rauschen02 consequently the       
meaning of the proposition  would be3   
8das ,rauschen rauscht40 ,the previous  
example they also  completed in the same
 manner3 8,raining1 7or the rain7       
rains40    ,when1 however1 we now say3  
8es fehlt an ,geld10 the meaning must   
therefore be3 8das ,fehlen an ,geld     
fehlt an ,geld40 ,but this is absurd4   
,it  was therefore explained that the   
subject here is 8,geld10 and the meaning
  of the proposition is3 8,geld fehlt an
 ,geld40 ,closely examined1 this  would 
seem to strike a blow at the wished-for 

unity of explanation4 ,if1  however1 by 
closing one eye1 the failure here may be
 partially ignored1  even this is       
useless when we stumble upon            
propositions like3 8es giebt  einen     
,gott10 respecting which we arrive at no
 satisfactory meaning  either in the    
proposition3 8das einen ,gott geben     
giebt einen ,gott2 das  ,geben giebt    
einen ,gott10 or in the proposition1    
8,gott giebt einen ,gott40    ,it was   
therefore necessary to look for an      
explanation of an entirely  different   
character4 ,but where was such an       
explanation to be found8 ,and  even if  
ingenuity were here able to hit upon    
some expedient1 what  availed such      
leaping from case to case1 which could  
only be called the  caricature of a     
truly scientific explanation8 ,not a    
single designation  of the subject which
 has been so far suggested1 can be      
termed suitable1  unless indeed it be a 
saying of ,schleiermacher's4 ,for if    
this  philosopher 7cf4 p4 #af7 has      

really asserted that the subject in such
  cases is chaos1 this utterance must be
 regarded1 not so much as an  attempt at
 explanation as rather a satire upon the
 hypotheses hitherto  set up by         
philologists4    ,many inquirers are    
therefore of opinion that the real      
subjects of such  propositions as3 it   
rains1 it lightens1 have1 up to the     
present time1  not been discovered1 and 
that even at the present time it is the 
business of science to find them4 ,but1 
would it not be strange if the  tracing 
of a subject1 which is thought of by    
everyone1 and which1 though             
unexpressed1 forms the basis of the     
judgment1 should yet offer such         
extraordinary difficulties8             
,steinthal seeks to explain this by     
saying that by the grammatical  subject 
something is suggested1 which is yet    
unthinkable4 ,but many will  reply with 
,miklosich 7p4 #bc73 8,we would not1 ,i 
think1 be going too far  in asserting   
that grammar is not concerned with the  

unthinkable40    ,the totality of the   
phenomena and the absolutely grotesque  
failure of  every attempt to determine  
the nature of the subject1 however often
 and  however ingeniously this has been 
attempted1 are the chief grounds on     
which ,miklosich bases his assertion    
that1 generally speaking1 the  supposed 
subject in the case of such propositions
 is a delusion1 that  the proposition is
 no combination of subject and          
predicate1 that1 as  ,miklosich         
expresses it1 the proposition is        
subjectless4    ,further reflections go 
to confirm this view1 and among these   
one  consideration as to the nature of  
the judgment requires to be emphasized  
on account of its special importance4   
,miklosich combats those who1 like      
,steinthal1 deny that there is any      
reciprocal relation between grammar  and
 logic1 at the same time repelling the  
attacks which1 on the ground  of such a 
reciprocal relation1 might be made      
against his doctrine by  psychologists  

and logicians4 ,indeed he arrives at the
 result that1 in  consequence of the    
special peculiarity of certain          
judgments1 subjectless  propositions    
must from the very first be expected in 
language4 ,according  to his view it is 
wrong to suppose that every judgment is 
a relation  existing between ideas4 ,it 
often happens that in a proposition only
 one  fact is affirmed or denied4 ,in   
such cases a mode of expression is also 
necessary1 and it is obvious that this  
cannot well consist in a  combination of
 subject and predicate4 ,miklosich shows
 how philosophers  have been repeatedly 
led to this knowledge1 though1 as a     
rule1 they have  not appreciated        
sufficiently the significance of their  
discovery4 ,not  sufficiently clear     
themselves as to the new truth to which 
they gave  expression1 and1 at the same 
time1 clinging with strange indecision  
to  certain residues of the older view1 
it came about that what at first  they  
affirmed they at last essentially deny4 

,thus ,trendelenburg chose to  find     
expressed in the proposition1 8it       
lightens10 in the last resort1 no  real 
judgment1 but only the rudiments of a   
judgment which precedes the  notion of  
lightning and settles down into it1     
thereby forming the basis  for the      
complete judgment1 8lightning is        
conducted by iron40 ,herbart  finally   
declared such judgments as 8es rauscht10
 to be no judgments in  the ordinary    
sense1 not1 he thought1 what in logic   
is1 strictly  speaking1 termed a        
judgment4 ,the passage in which our     
author censures  the inconsistency of   
these philosophers1 and shows that the  
source of  their confusion lies in their
 misunderstanding of the nature of      
judgment  and in their erroneous        
definition of it 7p4 #ba seq471 is      
excellent4    ,from all this ,miklosich 
draws the conclusion that his           
subjectless  propositions are completely
 assured4 ,and not only does he consider
 their  existence beyond doubt1 he      

further shows that their appearance is  
by no  means so rare as might be        
supposed from the controversy into which
 it  has been necessary to enter        
concerning them4 ,their great variety   
had led  him1 in the second part of his 
treatise 7pp4 #cc-gb7 to set forth their
  chief classes1 and there we find      
subjectless propositions with the       
,active ,verb1 the ,reflexive ,verb1 the
 ,passive ,verb and the verb 8to be10   
each of these four classes being        
illustrated by means of numerous        
examples from the most various          
languages4 ,this is especially the case 
with the first class1 where he makes an 
eightfold division with the  object of  
grouping the propositions according to  
the difference in their  content4 ,he   
mentions as universally true 7p4 #f7    
that the finite verb of  the subjectless
 propositions always stands in the third
 person singular1  and1 where the form  
admits a difference of gender1 in the   
neuter4    ,in other directions also he 

traces the matter further4 ,he shows how
  these propositions did not arise later
 than those which predicate  something  
of a subject1 but appear from the very  
outset among the  various forms of      
propositions 7p4 #ac seq41 p4 #ai71 and 
how1 in the  course of time1 they have  
disappeared from several languages 7p4  
#bf74 ,he  proves that the languages in 
which they are preserved enjoy an       
advantage1 inasmuch as their application
 lends to the language a special        
liveliness 7#bf71 and he shows how in   
other respects also it is not  always   
possible to substitute for the          
subjectless proposition the  categorical
 form1 with which it is supposed to be  
identical4 8,ich  friere0 is1 for       
instance1 not fully identical with 8mich
 friert40  ,instead of1 was frierst du  
draussen8 ,komme doch herein6 we cannot 
say3  was friert dich's draussen8 etc4  
8,mich friert0 cannot be applied if ,i  
expose myself voluntarily to the cold   
7p4 #cg74      ,,ii    ,this1 shortly1  

is the substance of his book1 regarding 
which ,i venture  to make a few critical
 observations4    ,i have sufficiently  
expressed in this summary1 my approval  
of the  treatise in general1 especially 
in respect of the main argument4 ,the   
proofs appear to me to be of so cogent a
 nature1 that even the unwilling  will  
scarcely be able to escape from the     
truth4 ,quite independent of  these     
arguments1 however1 ,i had myself1 long 
ago1 arrived at the same  view1 by way  
of a purely psychological analysis1 and 
gave1 in the most  decisive manner1     
public expression to it1 when in #ahgd  
,i published my  ,psychology4    ,great1
 however1 as were the pains ,i then took
 to set the teaching in a  clear light  
and to show every former view untenable1
 my success so far  has been slight4    
,apart from isolated individuals1 ,i    
have been just as  little able to       
convince the philosopher1 as ,miklosich1
 in his first  edition1 was able to     
convince philologists4 ,where a         

prejudice has1  during centuries1 become
 ever more and more firmly rooted1 where
 a  doctrine has penetrated even to the 
primary school1 when a theory has  come 
to be regarded as fundamental upon which
 much else rests1 and so1  as it were1  
by its weight rendered the foundation   
immovable1 in such a  case1 it is not to
 be expected that the error will        
immediately disappear  as soon as its   
refutation is established2 on the       
contrary1 it is to be  feared that      
distrust of the new view will be so     
great1 as not even to  admit of a closer
 examination being made regarding the   
grounds on which  it rests4 ,and yet    
when two investigators completely       
independent of each  other agree in     
their testimony1 when by quite different
 paths they  arrive at the same goal1 it
 may be hoped that this concurrence will
 not  be regarded as a mere coincidence1
 but that a more careful attention  will
 be bestowed upon the arguments on      
either side4 ,i hope that this  will be 

so in the case of the new edition of    
,miklosich1 in which ,i am  glad to see 
regard paid to my own work4    ,the     
agreement with regard to the main points
 makes subordinate points1  in respect  
of which we differ1 of less moment4 ,i  
shall1 notwithstanding1  briefly touch  
on these4    ,miklosich has termed those
 simple propositions1 in which there is 
contained no combination of subject and 
predicate1 and in the  recognition of   
which ,i am in agreement with him1      
8subjectless  propositions40 ,i am not  
able entirely to approve his use of the 
term  and the grounds which he has given
 for its use4    ,subject and predicate 
are correlative conceptions and stand or
 fall  together4 ,a proposition which is
 truly without a subject must with equal
  right be regarded as without a        
predicate4 ,it does not therefore seem  
to  me quite fitting that ,miklosich    
should always term such propositions    
subjectless1 and it is quite incorrect  
when he calls them mere  predicative    

propositions4 7,cf4 pp4 #c1 #be1 #bf1   
and elsewhere47 ,this might  suggest the
 view that he likewise believes a second
 conception 7the  subject7 is understood
 though not expressed1 had he not in the
 most  decided manner denied this 7p4 #c
 seq4 and elsewhere72 or that he        
regarded such propositions as stunted   
forms of categorical propositions1  and 
the latter form as the original1 had he 
not expressly refuted this  also 7p4 #ac
 seq474 ,his view rather seems to be1   
that the natural  development from the  
simple to the categorical form in       
thinking and  speaking is generally     
accomplished in such a way that the     
notion which  stands alone in the former
 proposition is combined with a second  
as  subject4 8,the subjectless          
propositions10 he says1 p4 #be1 8are    
propositions which consist only of a    
predicate1 of what1 in the natural      
process of thought-formation must1 in a 
great number of propositions1 be        
regarded as the prius1 for which a      

subject may1 but not necessarily  must  
be sought40    ,but this also can hardly
 be right1 and the expression 8subject0 
scarcely  seems to favour this view4    
,that which forms the basis is1 of      
course1  certainly that which in the    
construction of the judgment stands     
first4  ,the temporal succession of the 
words also agrees ill with such a view1 
since1 in the categorical proposition1  
we usually begin with the  subject4 ,in 
opposition to such a view it may also be
 contended that the  emphasis usually   
falls upon the predicate 7and           
,trendelenburg has made  use of this to 
indicate that the predicate is the main 
conception1 and  even with exaggeration 
goes on to say3 8,we think in           
predicates10 cf4 p4  #ai74 ,if the      
predicative conception is what is newly 
added1 it will1  accordingly1 be the    
object of greater interest4 ,on the     
other hand1 we  would be compelled to   
expect exactly the opposite if the      
notion of the  subject contained the    

newly added moment4    ,it may just as  
truly be said1 8a bird is black10 as1   
8something black is  a bird02 8,socrates
 is a man10 as1 8a man is ,socrates02   
but ,aristotle has  already observed    
that only the former predication is     
natural1 the latter  form is opposed to 
the natural order4 ,and this is really  
so far true1  that we naturally make    
that term the subject to which we first 
pay  regard in forming a judgment1 or to
 which the hearer must first attend  in 
order to understand the proposition1 or 
to gain knowledge as to its  truth or   
falsity4 ,we can be assured of the      
existence of a black bird by  seeking it
 among birds or among black objects1    
more easily1 however1  among the former4
 ,in the same way we may be more easily 
assured that an  individual belongs to a
 particular species or genus by         
analysing its  nature than by running   
over the entire range of the            
corresponding  general notion4 ,the     
cases of exceptions clearly confirm the 

rule and the  grounds on which it rests1
 as1 for instance1 when ,i say3 8,there 
is  something black2 this something     
black is a bird10 in which case it is   
just because ,i have first recognized   
the colour that ,i accordingly make  it 
the subject in the categorical          
proposition so formed4    ,of the two   
categorical ,sorites1 the ,aristotelian 
and the ,goclenian1 the  former in every
 succeeding link makes that term the    
subject which is  common to it and to   
the one preceding1 the latter form makes
 it the  predicate4 ,it is just on this 
account that the former appears the more
  natural1 and as such is generally     
regarded as the regular1 the latter as  
the reversed form4 ,in like manner      
where1 to a proposition not consisting  
of a combination of ideas1 we add a     
categorical proposition having one  term
 in common with the former1 we usually  
apply this not as a predicate  but as a 
subject1 and we should therefore prefer 
to say that a predicate  has been sought

 for a subject rather than that a       
subject has been  sought for a          
predicate4 ,for example3 es rauscht2 das
 ,rauschen kommt von  einem ,bache      
7there is a sound of running water2 the 
sound comes from the  brook74 ,es       
donnert2 der ,donner verkndet ein       
nahendes ,gewitter 7it  thunders2 the   
thunder heralds an approaching storm74  
,es riecht nach  ,rosen2 dieser         
,rosengeruch kommt aus dem              
,nachbargarten 7there is a smell  of    
roses2 the rose-scent comes from a      
neighbour's garden74 ,es wird  gelacht2 
das ,gelchter gilt dem ,hanswurste      
7there is laughter2 the  laughter is due
 to the clown74 ,es fehlt an ,geld2     
dieser ,geldmangel ist  die ,ursache der
 ,stockung der ,geschfte 7there is a    
lack of money2 this  dearth of money is 
the cause of the depression in trade74  
,es giebt einen  ,gott2 dieser ,gott ist
 der ,schpfer des ,himmels und der ,erde
 7there is a  ,god2 this ,god is the    
maker of heaven and earth71 etc41 etc4  

,only in one sense1 therefore1 does the 
term 8subjectless proposition0  appear  
to me justifiable1 and even perhaps     
deserving of recommendation1  in so far 
as regard is paid to the fact1 that the 
notion which is  contained thereby is   
the only1 and therefore1 of course1 the 
main  conception2 a preference which in 
the categorical proposition belongs1  as
 we have seen1 to the predicate4        
,similarly also in respect of           
categorical in relation to hypothetical 
propositions we would much  rather say  
that they are propositions without an   
antecedent1 than  propositions without a
 consequent proposition2 not as though  
we meant  that where there is no        
antecedent there may still be a         
consequent  proposition1 but that in the
 hypothetical construction the          
consequent is  the main proposition4 ,in
 this way then ,i might perhaps agree   
with the  author respecting the term    
8subjectless proposition40    ,another  
point1 however1 in which ,i am unable   

fully to agree with him is  the question
 as to what extent subjectless          
propositions are applicable4  ,miklosich
 rightly emphasizes the fact that the   
limits are on no account  to be drawn   
too tightly4 ,but he thinks such limits 
at any rate exist1  and this is just    
what is shown most clearly in his       
attempt to classify  and divide the     
varied nature of the matter capable of  
being expressed by  subjectless         
sentences4 ,but this appears to me      
incorrect4 ,the  applicability of the   
subjectless form may1 strictly speaking1
 be rather  regarded as unlimited1      
since--as ,i believe ,i have already    
shown in my  ,psychology--every         
judgment1 whether expressed in          
categorical1  hypothetical or           
disjunctive form admits1 without the    
slightest  alteration in the sense1 of  
being expressed in the form of a        
subjectless  proposition or1 as ,i      
expressed it1 of an existential         
proposition4 ,thus  the proposition1 8,a

 man is ill10 is synonymous with 8,there
 is a sick  man02 and the proposition1  
8,all men are mortal10 with the         
proposition1  8,there is no immortal    
man10 and the like4,a     ,a            
,supplementary note4 ,what is here said 
of the general applicability   of the   
existential form holds good only with   
the one manifest   limitation1 in       
respect of judgments which are really   
completely   simple4 ,in expressing such
 judgment logic has always made use of  
the categorical form2 in common life    
they are often applied as the           
expression of a plurality of judgments  
based upon each other4 ,this   is       
clearly the case in the proposition1    
8this is a man40 ,in the   demonstrative
 8this0 the belief in existence is      
already included2 a   second judgment   
then ascribes to him the predicate      
8man40 ,similar   cases are frequent    
elsewhere4 ,in my opinion it was the    
original   purpose of the categorical   
form to serve as a means of expressing  

such double judgments 7,doppelurteile71 
which recognize something   while       
affirming or denying something else of  
it4 ,i also believe that   the          
existential and impersonal forms have1  
by a change in function1   proceeded    
from this form4 ,this does not alter its
 essential nature3   a lung is not a    
swim-bladder 7,fisch-blase7 even though 
it has   developed therefrom1 and the   
word 8kraft0 is none the less a merely  
syncategorematic word 7,cf4 ,mill1      
,logic1 i4 #b1  #b71 even though its    
origin may be traced to a substantive4  
,in yet another direction ,miklosich    
appears to me to have limited too       
narrowly the applicability of his       
subjectless propositions4 ,we have      
heard that such propositions constitute 
8an excellence in a language10          
8respecting which all languages are very
 far from being able to boast0  7p4     
#bf74 ,this1 however1 appears scarcely  
credible if it be true1 as in  another  
passage he has so convincingly shown1   

that there are and always  have been    
judgments which do not consist in any   
combination of two ideas  with each     
other1 and which therefore it is        
impossible to express by  means of a    
connexion of a subject with a predicate 
7p4 #af74 ,from this  must follow1 not  
merely1 as ,miklosich affirms1 the      
necessary existence  of subjectless     
propositions generally1 but further     
7which he denies7  the existence of such
 propositions in all languages4    ,that
 the author has here fallen into error  
seems to me partly explicable  from the 
fact that in order to proceed with the  
utmost caution and lay  claim to no     
unwarrantable example1 he has not       
ventured to regard certain  propositions
 as subjectless1 which1 in truth1 really
 are so4 ,we saw that  ,miklosich       
expressed the view that the finite verb 
of subjectless  propositions always     
stands in the third person of the       
singular1 and1  when the form admits a  
difference of gender1 in the neuter4    

,this was  certainly too narrow a limit1
 a limit which he himself transgresses1 
though this appears in a much later     
passage4 ,in the second part of his     
treatise he says3 8,in #8es ist ein     
,gott1' the notion #8,gott' is affirmed 
absolutely without a subject1 and this  
is also the case in the  proposition    
#8es sind ,gtter'02 and he adds3 ,the   
8ist0 of the  existential proposition   
takes the place of the so-called copula 
8ist10  which in many1 though by no     
means in all1 languages1 is             
indispensable to  the expression of the 
judgment1 and has the same significance 
as the  termination of person in the    
finite verb as is clearly shown in the  
proposition 8es ist ,sommer1 es ist     
,nacht0 alongside the propositions1  8es
 sommert1 es nachtet40 8,ist0 is        
accordingly not a predicate 7p4 #cd2    
cf4 also p4 #ba above74 ,as a matter of 
fact1 if the proposition1 8es  giebt    
einen ,gott10 is to be considered       
subjectless1 so also must the           

proposition1 8es ist ein ,gott10 and    
therefore also1 8es sind ,gtter02  and  
thus the rule previously laid down has  
proved to be too narrow4 ,that  the     
existential propositions and other      
analogous forms1 which may be  found1   
are all to be reckoned as subjectless   
propositions may serve to  confirm what 
we have sought to show above1 i4e4 that 
no language exists1  or can exist1 which
 entirely dispenses with these simplest 
forms of  propositions4 ,only certain   
special kinds of subjectless            
propositions  therefore1 am ,i able1    
with ,miklosich1 to recognize as the    
peculiar  advantage of certain          
languages4    ,these are the criticisms 
which ,i have thought it necessary to   
make4 ,it  will be seen that1 if found  
to be justified1 they do not in the     
slightest degree prejudice either the   
correctness or the value of the         
author's main argument1 but rather lend 
to it a still wider  significance4 ,and 
so ,i conclude by expressing once again 

the wish that  this suggestive little   
work1 which1 on its first appearance did
 not  meet with sufficient general      
recognition1 may in its second          
edition--where individual points have   
been corrected1 much extended1 and      
particularly the critical objections of 
scholars like ,benfey1 ,steinthal  and  
others1 refuted with a laconic brevity1 
yet rare dialectical  power--find that  
interest which the importance of the    
inquiry and its  excellent treatment    
deserve4          ,,appendix ,,ii       
,franz ,brentano1 son of ,christian     
,brentano1 and nephew of ,clemens       
,brentano and ,bettina von ,arnim1 was  
born on ,january #af1 #ahch1 at         
,marienberg1 near ,boppard on the       
,rhine4 ,he early embraced the study of 
philosophy and theology1 both at        
,berlin1 under ,trendelenburg1 and also 
at ,munich4 ,in #ahfd he was ordained   
priest1 and two years later became      
privat docent in the ,university of     
,wrzburg4 ,in #ahgc he was appointed    

professor there1 but in the same year   
resigned his office in consequence  of  
his changed attitude towards the        
,church1 and as an opponent of the      
,vatican ,council4 ,somewhat later1 in  
response to this change in his          
convictions1 he separated himself       
definitely from the ,church4    ,in     
#ahgd ,brentano received a call to the  
,university of ,vienna1 and  continued  
there teaching ,philosophy until #ahie1 
first as ordinary  professor1 and       
afterwards1 having meantime renounced   
his professorship1  as privat docent4   
,the reasons which led him to retire    
from this post  also1 are set forth in  
his work1 ,my ,last ,wishes for ,austria
  7,stuttgart1 #ahie74 ,after           
withdrawing from his post as teacher he 
took up  his residence at ,florence4    
,brentano regards ,aristotle as his real
 teacher in philosophy1 and his  two    
earliest publications1 ,von der         
mannigfachen ,bedeutung des ,seienden   
nach ,aristoteles 7,freiburg1 i4 ,br4   

#ahfb71 and ,die ,psychologie des       
,aristoteles insbesondere seine ,lehre  
vom   7,mainz1 #ahfg71  are a testimony 
to his comprehensive study and thorough 
knowledge of  ,aristotelian philosophy4 
,especially is he in agreement with the 
,stagirite regarding the high position  
he would assign to the application  of  
the empirical method as the only one    
which1 in regard alike to  scientific   
and philosophical problems1 is able by  
cautious and gradual  advance1 to attain
 to knowledge4 ,these first principles  
of method1  especially in their relation
 to psychological research1 he has set  
forth  and practised in his first       
systematic work1 ,psychologie vom       
,empirischen  ,standpunkte 7vol4 i41    
,leipzig1 #ahgd74 ,it was also his      
regard for this  method of inquiry which
 early imbued him with a special        
interest for the  works of the most     
eminent ,english philosophers of modern 
times1 not only  ,john ,locke and ,david
 ,hume1 but also ,bentham1 the two      

,mills1 ,jevons and  others4 ,a study of
 these writers led ,brentano to enter at
 length in his  ,wrzburg lectures into a
 critical and explanatory treatment of  
,english  psychology and logic1         
characterizing it as a source of        
instruction and  inspiration at a time  
when other distinguished advocates of   
,german  philosophy looked askance at   
this attitude towards ,english thought1 
believing that by its contact with      
,english writers the peculiar  character
 of ,german thought might suffer4 ,it   
will be observed that only  the first   
volume of the ,psychology from the      
,empirical ,standpoint has  hitherto    
appeared1 and it seems hardly likely    
that the work in its  present form will 
be continued1 for further reflection    
convinced  ,brentano that descriptive,a 
psychology1 or ,psychognosy1 as of most 
importance in the examination and       
presentation of psychological  problems1
 must be separated from genetic         
psychology1,b a study  necessarily half 

physiological in character2 and that the
 former problem  as the naturally       
earlier and least difficult study should
 first be as  far as possible completed4
     ,a i4e4 the closest possible       
description and analysis of psychical   
events and their contents1 on the basis 
of inner observation4     ,b i4e4 the   
more difficult inquiry into the laws    
underlying the   origin of phenomena4   
,such psychognostical inquiries1        
although not yet in principle  separated
 from genetic inquiry1 occupy by far the
 greater part of the  first volume of   
the ,psychology from the ,empirical     
,standpoint4 ,among  the subjects there 
treated are3 #a1 the fundamental        
revision of the  classification of      
psychical phenomena1 and their division 
into the three  main classes3 ideas1    
judgments1 and phenomena of love and    
hate2 #b1 and  in particular1 a new and 
more appropriate characterization of the
  judgment4    ,the insufficiency of the
 old doctrine according to which        

judgment  consists essentially in a     
connexion of ideas1 had already been    
shown by  ,hume1 and more recently was  
strongly emphasized by ,mill1 though    
neither  was able to arrive at perfect  
clearness respecting its real nature4   
,notwithstanding this1 the affinity of  
,brentano's doctrine of the  judgment   
with that of ,mill1 led to a scientific 
correspondence1 and  later to           
arrangements for a personal interview1  
when1 at the last  moment1 the plan was 
frustrated by the death of the great    
,english  investigator4    ,the new     
description of the judgment and its     
essential qualities form the  basis for 
a reform of logic even in its most      
elementary stages1 a reform  which1 in  
its essential features1 is suggested in 
the above-mentioned  work1 and also     
touched upon in the ,essay here         
translated2 but this truer  description 
of the phenomenon of judgment also      
throws light upon the  description and  
classification of the modes of speech   

from the point of  view of their        
function or meaning1--a classification  
based upon true  and most essential     
distinctions4 ,in comparison with       
phonetics this  branch is still little  
developed4 ,what is here said1 was seen 
by eminent  philologists like ,fr4 von  
,miklosich1 the pioneer in the sphere of
 ,slav  comparative philology4 ,in the  
appendix will be found an article       
bearing  upon this view4    ,while      
engaged in a profound study of the      
descriptive peculiarities  connected    
with the third fundamental class of     
psychical states above  referred to--a  
study analogous to that previously      
undertaken by him with  regard to the   
judgment--,brentano was led to the      
discovery of the  principles of ethical 
knowledge which form the subject of this
  lecture4 ,the author1 in his lectures 
delivered before students of all        
faculties1 but especially to students in
 the faculty of law1 during each  winter
 session throughout many years1         

presented a complete and fully          
developed system of ethical teaching    
based upon these principles4,a          
,unfortunately1 this lecture still      
remains unpublished4 ,the same holds    
good of many of his inquiries into      
8descriptive psychology10 or            
psychognosie1 e4g4 inquiries into the   
nature of sense perceptions  according  
to their qualitative and spatial nature1
 the nature of the  continuum1 the time 
phenomenon1 etc41 the results of which  
are hitherto  familiar only to those who
 have either attended his lectures1 or  
have  been present during private       
conversations4     ,a ,since this essay 
was written the statements as to the    
principles   here developed have been   
modified only in respect of two points  
which1   if not practically important1  
are still theoretically so1 and these1  
with the author's permission1 may be    
here shortly referred to3--     #a4 ,in 
the lecture 7p4 #ae7 it is said that    
anything may be either   affirmed or    

denied1 and that if the affirmation is  
right its denial   must be considered   
wrong1 and vice vers4 ,it is also stated
 that this   is true analogously in     
respect of love and hate4     ,this     
,brentano no longer asserts1 but rather 
observes that whereas the   whole must  
be denied1 if but a part is untrue1 a   
sum of good and bad1   on the other     
hand1 may be of such a nature as        
nevertheless as a whole   to be worthy  
of love4 ,it may be also so constituted 
that good and bad   remain in           
equilibrium4     #b4 ,in the lecture 7p4
 #bd71 and in the corresponding note #cg
 7p4 #hg71   it is said that our        
preference qualified as right in the    
case where1   for instance1 to one good 
another is added1 is drawn1 not from our
   knowledge of the preferability of the
 sum as opposed to the parts1   but that
 analytic judgments here yield the means
 of our advance in   knowledge1 and that
 the corresponding preferences are      
therefore   qualified as right1 since   

the knowledge 7given analytically7 is   
here   the criterion4 ,here it is       
overlooked that without the experience  
of   acts of preferring we neither have 
nor could have the conception1   and    
therefore also our notion of            
preferability4 ,and so it is also   true
 that it is by no means evident from    
analysis that one good plus   another is
 preferable to each of these goods taken
 singly4 ,here also a   complete analogy
 to the sphere of the true is wanting4  
,one truth added to another does not    
yield something more true4 ,on   the    
other hand1 one good plus another good  
yields a better4 ,but that   this is so 
can only be understood by means of a    
special experience   belonging          
peculiarly to this sphere1 i4e4 by means
 of the experience   of acts of         
preferring which are qualified as right4
    ,as to the other branches of        
philosophy1 the work of ,brentano       
already  published forms but a          
portion--often but the smaller          

portion--of  investigations1 which1 in  
the manner above described1 have become 
known  to a larger or smaller circle of 
disciples4 ,this explains the striking  
fact that1 in proportion to the extent  
of what has been published1 an          
unusually large number of investigators 
and scholars appear in a greater  or    
lesser degree to have been influenced by
 ,brentano4 7berweg-,heinze1  in the    
eighth edition of the ,grundriss der    
,geschichte der ,philosophie1  reckons1 
as belonging to his school1 six names of
 men at present  occupying important    
positions as teachers of philosophy47   
,one section of ,brentano's doctrine of 
sense-perception forms the  substance of
 a lecture1 ,zur ,lehre von der         
,empfindung1 delivered at the  ,third   
,international ,psychological ,congress 
held in ,munich 7#ahif71 and  published 
in the report of its proceedings        
7#ahig74 ,a fragment of the  above      
system of ethical inquiry1 ber das      
,schlechte als ,gegenstand              

dichterischer ,darstellung 7,leipzig1   
#ahib71 treats of the worth and         
preferability of the ideas employed by  
the artist4    ,with regard to          
psycho-genetic problems1 apart from the 
question as to  the meaning and validity
 of ,fechner's psycho-physical law1 a   
question  discussed in the first volume 
of his ,psychology and elsewhere1 and   
that of the spirituality and immortality
 of the soul1 which formed  repeatedly  
the substance of lectures at ,vienna    
,university1 ,brentano has  especially  
occupied himself with the laws of the   
association of ideas4  ,one result of   
this study is his lecture1 ,das ,genie1 
published in #ahib1  which seeks to     
explain the artistic productions of men 
of genius--often  regarded as something 
quite unique and inexplicable--as a     
development of  psychical events which  
universally control our imaginative     
life4    ,of ,brentano's researches in  
metaphysics and in the theory of        
knowledge it must also be said that     

hitherto they remain still  unpublished1
 though they are familiar to a greater  
or smaller circle of  disciples4 ,in    
this latter sphere are to be mentioned  
particularly his  inquiries respecting  
the nature of our insight into the law  
of  causality1 the logical justification
 of induction1 the a priori nature  of  
mathematics1 and the nature of analytic 
judgments4 ,in ontological  questions   
also psychognosie has proved fruitful to
 the investigator in  leading him to an 
understanding and to an analysis based  
upon  experience1 of the most important 
metaphysical notions1 as1 for  instance1
 causality1 substance1 necessity1       
impossibility1 etc41 notions  which     
some1 despairing of the task rightly    
insisted upon by ,hume1 of  showing     
their origin to be based upon perception
 and experience1 have  sought to explain
 straight away as a priori categories4  
,for the rest1 ,brentano1 in regard to  
metaphysics1 is a decided theist4  ,he  
is an adherent of the theory of         

evolution1 while denying that           
accidental variations and natural       
selection in the struggle for  existence
 render explicable the phenomena of     
evolution and the  teleological         
character of the organism1 basing his   
objections1 among  other things1 upon   
the fact that this attempt at a solution
 not only  leaves unexplained the first 
beginnings of an organism1 but also     
takes  too little account of the fact   
that with the increasing perfection and 
complication of the organism it becomes 
more and more improbable that an        
accidental variation will lead to an    
improvement upon that which already     
exists4 ,and yet if there is to be      
progress1 the organisms which1 in the   
struggle for existence1 survive must not
 only be more perfect than those  which 
perish1 but also more perfect than the  
organisms through which  they themselves
 are descended4    ,brentano's views on 
the historical development of           
philosophical inquiry  and the causes   

determining that development1 the       
present state of  philosophy and its    
views regarding the future1 he has set  
forth in  various publications3 ,die    
,geschichte der ,philosophie im         
,mittelalter  7,mhler's                 
,kirchengeschichte1 vol4 ii4 #ahfh72 ber
 die ,grnde der  ,entmutigung auf       
philosophischem ,gebiete 7,vienna1      
#ahgd71 delivered as an  inaugural      
address on entering upon his work at    
,vienna ,university2 ,was  fr ein       
,philosoph manchmal ,epoche macht       
7,vienna1 #ahgf72 ber die  ,zukunft der 
,philosophie 7,vienna1 #ahic72 and ,die 
vier ,phasen der  ,philosophie und ihr  
augenblicklicher ,stand 7,stuttgart1    
#ahie74    ,in the last work a concise  
survey is made of the entire course of  
the  ,history of ,philosophy1 and it is 
there shown how in the three periods1   
rightly regarded as distinct 7,greek    
,philosophy1 the ,philosophy of the     
,middle ,ages1 and ,modern ,philosophy71
 there is each time an analogous        

change1 a rising or blossoming period1  
and three periods of decadence1  of     
which those which succeed are always the
 psychologically necessary  result of   
the preceding4 ,that in so doing        
,brentano has characterized the  latest 
phase of ,german philosophy1 the        
so-called idealistic direction  from    
,kant to ,hegel as the third or mystic  
period of decadence 7howbeit  with all  
due recognition of the talents of these 
writers7 has naturally  aroused violent 
opposition1 though it has not found any 
real refutation4    ,it has been already
 said that ,brentano's earliest efforts 
were directed  to historical inquiries  
and especially to a presentation of the 
,aristotelian psychology and to         
important sections of his ,metaphysics4 
,the results of these researches1       
diverging as they did in many respects  
from the traditional view1 did not fail 
to awaken the attention of other        
investigators4 ,their attitude1 however 
7with a few exceptions like             

,trendelenburg1 and in part also        
,grote71 was1 on the whole1 hostile and 
polemic4 ,this was especially so in the 
case of ,e4 ,zeller1 in the later       
edition of his ,greek ,philosophy1 and  
in view of the reputation which  this   
work enjoys1 ,brentano thought it       
necessary to offer1 as against          
,zeller's attacks1 at least with regard 
to one point1 an apology for his  own   
view1 a point where the threads of      
metaphysics and psychology become  most 
intimately related1 and where at the    
same time1 the contrast  between the    
opposing views of these two writers in  
the psychological and  metaphysical     
spheres alike culminate4 ,and so there  
appeared in the  ,report of the         
,proceedings of the ,imperial ,academy  
of ,sciences in  ,vienna 7#ahhb7        
,brentano's article3 8ber den           
,creatianismus des  ,aristoteles1 in    
regard to which ,e4 ,zeller in the same 
year1 in the  ,report of the            
,proceedings of the ,royal ,prussian    

,academy of ,sciences in  ,berlin1 7vol4
 #di71 published a detailed reply under 
the title3 8ber  die ,lehre des         
,aristoteles von der ,ewigkeit des      
,geistes40 ,the charge  which is there  
made by ,zeller against ,brentano of    
interpreting ,aristotle  without        
sufficient confirmation and with        
over-confidence1 ,brentano has          
sufficiently repelled in his ,offener   
,brief an ,herrn ,prof4 ,dr4 ,e4        
,zeller 7,leipzig1 #ahhc71 and the      
proofs which are here offered of the    
way in which ,zeller1 on his part1 bases
 his own attempts at explanation  and   
his charges against ,brentano show      
distinctly that1 if here one of  the two
 opponents is really open to the charge 
of over-confidence1 it is  at any rate  
not ,brentano4           99       99    
99       99       99      ,dante and    
,giovanni del ,vergilio    ,by ,,philip 
,h4 ,,wicksteed1 ,m4,a41 and  ,,edmund  
,g4 ,,gardner1 ,m4,a4    ,demy #hvo4    
#abs4                                   

,the ,mind of ,tennyson                 
,,his ,,thoughts ,,on ,,god1 ,,freedom1 
,,and ,,immortality                     
,by ,e4 ,,hershey ,,sneath1 ,,ph4,d4    
,professor of ,philosophy in ,yale      
,university4                ,crown #hvo4
      #es4 net4      ,third ,edition4   
8,admirably sums up for us ,tennyson's  
philosophic ideas and the creed he  had 
ultimately arrived at4 ,since ,mr4      
,stopford ,brooke's comprehensive       
survey of ,tennyson1 nothing so         
excellent has been written on the poet's
  ideas40--,spectator4                  
,the ,teachings of ,dante               
,by ,,charles ,,allen ,,dinsmore        
,with ,frontispiece4      ,crown #hvo4  
#es4 net4    8,the author of this       
delightful volume takes his reader1 as  
it were1  behind the scenes and shows   
him of the inner life and thought of the
  master4444 ,mr4 ,dinsmore has a grip  
of the religious teaching of ,dante     
which few men have attained1 and the    
whole volume is wondrously  suggestive  

of the deep truths that underlie the    
marvellous imagery of  the poet40--,the 
,rock4                             ,the 
,chronicle of ,villani                  
,translated by ,,rose ,e4 ,,selfe4      
,edited by ,rev4 ,p4 ,h4 ,,wicksteed    
,crown #hvo4      #fs4    8,perhaps no  
one book is so important to the student 
of ,dante as the  chronicle of his      
contemporary ,villani40--,athenum4      
,tiberius the ,tyrant              ,by  
,j4 ,c4 ,,tarver1 ,author of 8,gustave  
,flaubert10 etc4               ,with a  
,portrait4      ,demy #hvo4      #aes4  
net4    8,mr4 ,tarver has drawn a       
lifelike portrait1 amid a group of      
others  vigorous1 real1 and living2     
especially the women40--,cambridge      
,review4    8,not for a long time has a 
historical volume so deeply interested  
me as  ,mr4 ,tarver's #8,tiberius the   
,tyrant1' which has the dramatic        
movement of a  romance at the same time 
that it lights up and gives life to a   
story  worth telling4444 ,his style has 

the transcendent virtue of clearness1   
and he happily selects the modern       
analogies by which he illustrates the   
conditions and the problems of the age  
of which he treats4 ,the  comparison of 
ancient with modern conditions gives the
 work a second  interest as a criticism 
of contemporary ideas and movements4444 
,the  author is to be congratulated on a
 volume which will attract many  readers
 to a subject that is just now          
exceptionally worthy of                 
attention40--,mr4 ,,spenser ,,wilkinson 
in the ,morning ,post4           99     
99       99       99       99           
,maximilian ,i41 ,holy ,roman ,emperor  
7,stanhope ,prize ,essay47 ,by ,r4 ,w4  
,,seton ,,watson                        
,illustrated4      #es4 net4    8,a     
sound and well-considered piece of      
historical criticism40--,daily  ,news4  
8,a notable essay40--,morning ,post4    
,by ,g4 ,s4 ,,street1 ,author of 8,the  
,trials of the ,bantocks10              
8,the ,autobiography of a ,boy10 8,a    

,book of ,stories10 etc4                
,crown #hvo4      ,cloth ,gilt4         
#fs4    ,a volume of essays divided     
under three headings3 7#a7 ,london2 7#b7
 ,books  and ,men2 7#c7 ,various4       
,studies in the ,lives of the ,saints   
,by ,,edward ,,hutton1 ,author of       
8,frederic ,uvedale40                   
,fcap4 #hvo4      #cs4 #f;d4 net4       
,ephemera ,critica                      
,,plain ,,truths ,,about ,,current      
,,literature                            
,by ,,john ,,churton ,,collins          
,second ,edition4      ,crown #hvo4     
#gs4 #f;d4    8,a book of uncommon      
interest and importance4 ,a collection  
of essays  united in a common aim1 and  
inspired by a genuine enthusiasm for    
literature2 it has something to say and 
says it without fear or                 
favour40--,literature4                  
,chalmers on ,charity    ,a ,selection  
of ,passages and ,scenes to illustrate  
the ,social ,teaching and               
,practical ,work of ,,thomas ,,chalmers1

 ,d4,d4                   ,arranged and 
,edited by ,n4 ,,masterman1 ,m4,a4      
,eighteen years ,member of the ,london  
,charity ,organization ,society1        
and some time ,guardian in the ,parish  
of ,kensington4         #dad pp4        
,price #gs4 #f;d4 net4      ,with a     
,frontispiece4    8,we should advise    
such of our readers as care to know the 
arguments  against public poor relief to
 look at a book which has just been     
published by ,mr4 ,n4 ,masterman4444 ,he
 has succeeded in making the  unpopular 
side of a dry subject keenly            
interesting40--,spectator4              
,human ,immortality       ,by ,,william 
,,james1 ,professor of ,philosophy at   
,harvard ,university4                   
,fourth ,edition4      #afmo4      #bs4 
#f;d4    8,professor ,james is well     
known as one of the most suggestive and 
original writers1 and as certainly the  
most brilliant psychologist  living4    
,whatever1 therefore1 he has to say on  
this subject is worth  listening to2 for

 he thinks freely1 and he knows all that
 the scientist  knows1 and more         
too40--,spectator4           99       99
       99       99       99             
,a ,,catalogue ,,of ,,books             
,,published ,,by                        
,archibald ,constable  ,co ,ltd         
#b ,,whitehall ,,gardens                
,,westminster                           
,,page    ,,history1 ,,biography1 ,,and 
,,criticism     #c    ,,travel          
#ad    ,,sport                          
#ag    ,,naval ,,and ,,military         
#ah    ,,fine ,,art                     
#bj    ,,educational ,,and ,,technical  
#bb    ,,religious                      
#ca    ,,fiction                        
#cc    ,,poetry                         
#db    ,,books ,,for ,,the ,,young      
#dg    ,,index                          
#di    ,,books ,,arranged ,,in ,,order  
,,of ,,prices    #ec           99       
99       99       99       99           
,,the ,,ancestor                        
,a ,quarterly ,review of ,county and    

,family ,history1 ,heraldry             
and ,antiquities                        
,,edited ,,by ,,oswald ,,barron1        
,f4,s4,a4                      ,large   
,super ,royal1 in paper boards          
with numerous ,illustrations            
#es4 net ,quarterly    8,thoroughly     
original in scope and style1 the        
publishers are to be  congratulated on  
its effective appearance4 ,the ,ancestor
 intends to  apply the spirit of a new  
and conscientious criticism to the      
revived  interest in genealogy and      
family history40--,,the ,,athen,,um4    
8,such a new departure is certainly     
designed to fill a want which has  long 
been felt1 and the names of its         
contributors guarantee the accuracy  and
 importance of its contents40--,,the    
,,times4    8,printed in old-faced type1
 and neatly bound in studious-looking   
boards1  the new periodical makes a very
 handsome appearance4 ,the pages of ,the
  ,ancestor are brightened by portraits1
 illustrations of old armorial  glass1  

and so on4 ,it is edited carefully and  
with knowledge1 and should  command     
popularity among the large number of    
readers to whom it  appeals40--,,the    
,,standard4    8,clearly printed on good
 paper1 and freely and excellently      
illustrated4  ,the literary contents of 
the number are of solid and varied      
interest4  ,altogether ,the ,ancestor is
 quite admirable in its aims1 which it  
seems  determined to achieve in         
scholarly and attractive                
fashion40--,,the ,,globe4    8,the      
promise of a really authoritative       
periodical of ,english genealogy  and   
family history will be received with    
general satisfaction4 ,this is  given us
 in the announcement of ,the ,ancestor1 
a quarterly to be edited  by ,mr4       
,oswald ,barron and published by        
,archibald ,constable  ,co41 ,london4   
,mr4 ,barron's unusual knowledge in the 
field to be covered is well known  to   
many who are interested in it4 ,the list
 of contributors1 including  among      

others ,sir ,george ,sitwell1 ,sir ,h4  
,maxwell-,lyte1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,horace        
,round1 and ,mr4 ,st4 ,john ,hope1      
besides the editor1 certainly supports  
the  promise of accuracy and            
authority40--,,the ,,nation1 ,,new      
,,york4             99       99       99
       99       99                      
,history1 ,biography1 and               
,criticism4           ,,anitchkow1      
,,michael4 ,war and ,labour4 ,demy #hvo4
 #ahs4         ,,anon4 ,regeneration4 ,a
 ,reply to ,max ,nordau4 ,demy #hvo4    
#ads4         ,,arnold1 ,t4 ,w41 ,b4,a4 
,the ,preaching of ,islam4 ,a ,work on  
the ,spread of       the ,mohammedan    
,religion by ,missionary ,methods4 ,demy
 #hvo4 #abs4         ,,bain1 ,r4        
,,nisbet4 ,the ,daughter of ,peter the  
,great 7,the ,empress       ,elisabeth74
 ,a ,history of ,russian ,diplomacy and 
of the ,russian       ,court1           
#agda-agfb4 ,with ,photogravure         
,frontispiece and several               
,portraits4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4           

----  ,peter ,,iii4 ,emperor of ,russia4
 ,the ,story of a ,crisis and a         
,crime4 ,illustrated with ,photogravure 
and ,collotype reproductions4           
,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4            
,,beatty1 ,,william1 ,m4,d4 7,surgeon of
 ,h4,m4,s4 ,victory74 ,an ,authentic    
,narrative of the ,death of ,nelson4    
,with two ,illustrations4 ,crown        
#hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,second ,edition4 
,,bertram1 ,,james4 ,some ,memories of  
,books1 ,authors and ,events4           
,recollections of ,sir ,walter ,scott1  
,de ,quincey1 ,john ,gibson             
,lockhart1 etc4 ,with ,photogravure     
,frontispiece4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4   
,,birrell1 ,,augustine1 ,q4,c4 ,see     
,boswell4         ,,boswell4 ,boswell's 
,life of ,johnson4 ,edited by ,augustine
 ,birrell1       ,q4,c4 ,with           
,frontispiece in ,photogravure to each  
volume by ,alexander       ,ansted4 #f  
vols4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,cloth gilt1 designed
 by ,gleeson ,white1       or paper     
label uncut4 #abs4 net the set4 ,also   

half leather4 #ahs4 net       the set4  
,limited ,edition4 ,illustrated with    
#ajj ,portraits selected       by       
,ernest ,radford4 #f ,volumes4 ,crown   
#hvo4 ,bound in red buckram1       paper
 label1 gilt top4 ,sold only in sets4   
,price #cfs4 net4         ----          
,boswell's ,account of ,dr4 ,johnson's  
,tour to the ,hebrides4 ,with           
,photogravure ,frontispieces4 ,uniform  
with #8,boswell's ,johnson4' ,cloth     
gilt or paper label4 #ds4 net the two   
vols4 ,also in half leather4       #fs4 
net the two vols4         ,,bradley1 ,a4
 ,g4 ,the ,fight with ,france for ,north
 ,america4 ,new       ,illustrated      
,edition4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #fs4      
,,bright1 ,,charles1 ,f4,r4,s4,e4       
,science and ,engineering1 #ahcg-ahig4  
,large       ,crown #hvo4 ,paper        
wrapper4 #as4         ,,bright1 ,e4 ,b41
 and ,,charles1 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,the ,life 
of ,sir ,charles       ,tilston ,bright4
 ,with many ,illustrations1 ,portraits1 
and ,maps4 #b       vols4 ,demy #hvo4 #c

 #cs4 net4         ,,brown',s ,,letters4
 ,edited by ,sidney ,t4 ,irwin4 ,see    
page #h4         ,,burroughs1 ,,john4   
,whitman3 ,a ,study4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth
 gilt4 #fs4 net4         ,,campbell1    
,,lord ,,archibald4 ,highland ,dress1   
,arms1 and ,ornament4                   
,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #bes4 net4    
#8,,centurion4' ,army ,administration4  
,crown #hvo4 ,paper4 #as4               
,,chailley-,,bert1 ,j4 ,the             
,colonisation of ,indo-,china4 ,with    
,maps4 ,crown       #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4    
,,chamberlain1 ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,joseph1   
,m4,p41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d4 ,patriotism4
 ,bound       in buckram4 ,demy #hvo4   
#bs4         ,,collins1 ,j4 ,,churton4  
,ephemera ,critica3 ,plain ,truths about
 ,current       ,literature4 ,crown     
#hvo4 ,second ,edition4 #gs4 #f;d4      
,,courtney1 ,w4 ,l4 ,the ,idea of       
,tragedy4 ,with a ,prefatory ,note by   
,a4 ,w4       ,,pinero4 ,fcap4 #hvo4    
#cs4 #f;d4 net4         ,,currie1       
,,major-,,general ,,fendall4 ,below the 

,surface4 ,sketches of ,civil       and 
,native ,life in ,india4 ,crown #hvo4   
#fs4         ,,curzon1 ,,rt4 ,,hon4     
,,george ,n4 7,lord ,curzon of          
,kedleston1 ,viceroy of       ,india74  
,problems of the ,far ,east--,china1    
,japan1 ,korea4 ,with       numerous    
,illustrations and ,maps4 ,extra ,crown 
#hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4         ,,dale1 ,t4    
,f41 ,m4,a4 7,stoneclink74 ,the ,history
 of the ,belvoir ,hunt       from the   
,year #agbj4 ,see page #ag4         ----
  ,the ,eighth ,duke of ,beaufort and   
the ,badminton ,hunt4 ,see page         
#ag4         ,,davidson1 ,,thomas4 ,a   
,history of ,education4 ,crown #hvo4    
#es4 net4         ,,de ,,bury1 ,,mlle4  
,,blaze4 ,french ,literature of ,to-day4
 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4         ,,deighton1  
,,kenneth4 ,conjectural ,readings in the
 ,old ,dramatists4       ,crown #hvo4   
#cs4 #f;d4 net4         ,,dinsmore1     
,,charles ,a4 ,the ,teachings of ,dante4
 ,with illustrations4       ,crown #hvo4
 #es4 net4         ,,duff1 ,c4 ,,mabel4 

,the ,chronology of ,india4 ,from the   
,earliest ,times to       the ,beginning
 of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,demy #hvo4
 #aes4 net4         ,,dutt1 ,,romesh    
,,chunder1 ,c4,i4,e4 ,the ,literature of
 ,bengal4 ,crown #hvo4       #fs4       
,,fox1 ,,arthur ,w41 ,m4,a4 ,a ,book of 
,bachelors4 ,essays on ,ten ,celebrated 
,bachelors4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,demy  
#hvo4 #afs4         ,,gairdner1 ,,james4
 ,the ,paston ,letters1 #adbb-aeji4     
,crown #hvo4 #d vols4       ,vol4 ,i41  
,henry ,,vi41 #adbb-adfa4 ,vol4 ,,ii41  
,edward ,,iv41 #adfa-adga4       ,vol4  
,,iii41 #adga-aeji4 ,vol4 ,,iv4         
,introductory and ,supplementary4       
,edited by ,,james ,,gairdner1 of the   
,public ,record ,office4 ,photogravure  
,frontispiece to each vol4 #bas4 net4   
,vol4 ,,iv4 sold separately1 #ajs4      
#f;d4 net4         ,,godkin1 ,e4 ,l4    
,problems of ,modern ,democracy4 ,large 
,crown #hvo4 #gs4       #f;d4           
----  ,reflections and ,comments4       
#ahfe-ahie4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #gs4    

#f;d4         ,,godkin1 ,e4 ,l4         
,unforeseen ,tendencies of ,democracy4  
,large ,crown #hvo4       #fs4 net4     
,,gomme1 ,g4 ,,laurence1 ,f4,s4,a4      
7,statistical ,officer to the ,london   
,county ,council74 ,the ,principles of  
,local ,government4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4   
,,gribble1 ,,francis4 ,lake ,geneva and 
its ,literary ,landmarks4               
,illustrated with ,photogravure and     
,collotype reproductions4 ,demy         
#hvo4 #ahs4         ,,haileybury        
,,college1 ,,memorials ,,of ,,old4 ,by  
,,brand ,,sapte1 ,sir ,,monier          
,,monier-,,williams1 ,,frederick        
,,charles ,,danvers1 ,,percy ,,wigram1  
,sir       ,,steuart ,,colvin ,,bayley1 
and others4 ,with numerous              
,illustrations and       ,plans4 ,fcap4 
#dto4 #bas4 net4         ,,hake1 ,a4    
,,egmont1 and ,,wesslau1 ,o4 ,e4 ,the   
,coming ,individualism4 ,demy           
#hvo4 #ads4         ,,hanna1 ,,col4 ,h4 
,b4 ,the ,second ,afghan ,war4 ,demy    
#hvo4 ,vol4 ,i4 now       ready1 #ajs4  

net4      ,backwards or ,forwards8      
,can ,russia ,invade ,india8      ,see  
page #ah4    ,india's ,scientific       
,frontier4          ,,hayden1 ,,eleanor 
,g4 ,travels ,round our ,village4 ,a    
,berkshire ,book4       7,dedicated by  
permission to ,lady ,wantage47 ,with    
numerous       illustrations by ,l4     
,,leslie ,,brooke4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4     
#f;d4 net4         ,,hewitt1 ,j4 ,f4    
,the ,ruling ,races of ,prehistoric     
,times in ,india1       ,south-,western 
,asia1 and ,southern ,europe4 ,with     
,diagrams and ,maps4       ,demy #hvo4  
,vol4 ,i41 #ahs42 ,vol4 ,,ii41 #abs4    
,,holden1 ,,edward ,s4 ,the ,mogul      
,emperors of ,hindustan1 ,a4,d4         
#acih-agjg4       ,with a chapter by    
,sir ,w4 ,w4 ,,hunter4 ,with            
,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4       #ajs4
 #f;d4         ,,houfe1 ,c4 ,a4 ,the    
,question of the ,houses4 ,small #afmo4 
#bs4 #f;d4         ,,irwin1 ,,sidney ,t4
 ,letters of ,t4 ,e4 ,brown1 ,author of 
#8,betsy ,lee' and       #8,foc's'le    

,yarns4' #b vols4 ,crown #hvo4 #abs4    
,,james1 ,,william 7,professor of       
,philosophy at ,harvard ,university74   
,human ,immortality4 ,two ,supposed     
,objections to the ,doctrine4 #afmo4    
#bs4 #f;d4         ,,krehbiel1 ,,henry  
,,edward1 ,author of #8,how to ,listen  
to ,music4' ,music       and ,manners in
 the ,classical ,period4 ,crown #hvo4   
#fs4         ,,lane-,,poole1 ,,stanley4 
,the ,mohammedan ,dynasties4 ,containing
       ,chronological ,tables of all the
 ,dynasties of the ,mohammedan ,empire  
from the ,foundation of the ,caliphate  
to the ,present ,day4 ,crown #hvo4      
#abs4 net4         ,,leach1 ,a4 ,f41    
,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,english ,schools at  
the       ,reformation--#aedf-dh4 ,demy 
#hvo4 #abs4 net4         ,,legg1 ,l4 ,g4
 ,,wickham1 and ,,hope1 ,w4 ,h4 ,,st4   
,,john4 ,inventories of                 
,christchurch1 ,canterbury4 ,demy #hvo4 
#bas4 net4         ,mc,c,r,i,n,d,l,e1   
,j4 ,w4 ,ancient ,india as described in 
,classical       ,literature4 ,crown    

#hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4                   
,,macgeorge1 ,g4 ,w4 ,ways and ,works in
 ,india4 ,being an ,account of the      
,public ,works in that ,country from the
 ,earliest ,times to the ,present       
,day4 ,fully ,illustrated and ,five     
,maps4 ,demy #hvo4 #afs4                
,mc,n,a,i,r1 ,,major ,j4 ,f4 ,a4        
,prisoners their own ,warders4 ,a       
,record of the       ,convict ,prison at
 ,singapore4 ,with many ,illustrations  
and ,maps4 ,demy       #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4
         ,,manchester ,,stage1          
#ahhj-aijj4 ,criticisms reprinted from  
,the       ,manchester ,guardian4 ,fcap4
 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4                  
,,masterman1 ,n41 ,m4,a4 ,chalmers on   
,charity4 ,a ,selection of ,passages    
and ,scenes to ,illustrate the ,social  
,teaching and ,practical ,work of       
,thomas ,chalmers1 ,d4,d4 ,arranged and 
,edited by ,n4 ,,masterman1 ,m4,a4      
,extra ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4     
,,meredith4 ,birthday ,book4 ,compiled  
and arranged by ,d4 ,m4 ,cloth gilt4    

#ds4 #f;d4         ,,metcalfe1 ,,charles
 ,,theophilus1 ,c4,s4,i4 ,two ,native   
,narratives of the       ,mutiny in     
,delhi4 ,translated from the ,originals 
by the late ,c4 ,t4       ,,metcalfe1   
,c4,s4,i4 ,with ,map and ,two           
,illustrations4 #abs4                   
,,mitchell1 ,,prof4 ,h4 ,g4 ,the ,world 
before ,abraham1 according to           
,genesis i4-xi4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 net4  
,,morison1 ,m4 ,time ,table of ,modern  
,history1 ,a4,d4 #djj-ahgj4 ,oblong     
,folio4 ,cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4        
,,contents4--,parallel ,tables1         
,genealogical ,tables4--,ruling         
,monarchs4--,general ,chart of ,ancient 
and ,modern                             
,history4--,index4--,maps showing       
,europe at various ,periods4            
,,morison1 ,,theodore1 ,m4,a4 ,imperial 
,rule in ,india4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4
         ,m,,nsterberg1 ,,professor     
,,hugo4 ,psychology and ,life4 ,demy    
#hvo4 #fs4       net4         ,,national
 ,,worthies4 ,see page #ba4             

,,newberry1 ,,percy ,e4 ,the ,life of   
,rekhmara1 ,vzir of ,upper ,egypt under 
,thothmes ,,iii4 and ,amenhetep ,,ii4   
7circa ,b4,c4 #adga-addh74 ,with #bb    
,plates4 #bas4 net4 ,only #bej printed4 
----  ,the ,gardens of the ,ancient     
,world4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,demy      
#hvo4 ,in preparation4         ,,nisbet1
 ,,john4 ,burma ,under ,british ,rule4  
#b ,volumes4 ,demy #hvo1 with           
,frontispiece to each volume4 ,maps and 
,plans4 ,price #cbs4 net4               
,,oppert1 ,,gustav1 ,ph4,d4 7,professor 
of ,sanscrit in the ,university of      
,madras74 ,the ,original ,inhabitants of
 ,india4 ,demy #hvo4 #bjs4              
,,palmer1 ,,walter1 ,m4,p4 ,poultry     
,management on a ,farm4 ,an account of  
three years' work with practical results
 and balance sheets4       ,illustrated4
 ,demy #hvo4 #as4         ,,popowski1   
,,joseph4 ,translated by ,,arthur       
,,baring ,,brabant1 and edited       by 
,,chas4 ,e4 ,d4 ,,black4 ,the ,rival    
,powers in ,central ,asia4 ,with a      

large ,map of the ,pamir ,region4 ,demy 
#hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4         ,,rait1       
,,robert ,s4 ,five ,stuart ,princesses4 
,with ,photogravure and       full-page 
,portraits4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4
         ----  ,lusus ,regius4 ,a       
,volume of hitherto unpublished         
autograph       works by ,king ,james   
,i4 ,edited by ,,robert ,s4 ,,rait1     
,fellow of ,new       ,college1 ,oxford4
 ,illustrated by ,photogravure and      
,collotype       reproductions4 ,only   
#bge copies of this work have been      
printed1 #bej       numbered copies     
being for sale4 ,price #dbs4 net4       
,,rice1 ,,louis4 ,the ,mysore           
,gazetteer4 #b vols4 ,demy #hvo4 #cjs4  
net4         ,,roosevelt1 ,,theodore4   
,oliver ,cromwell4 ,fully ,illustrated4 
,demy #hvo4       #ajs4 #f;d4 net4      
,,round1 ,j4 ,,horace1 ,m4,a4 ,the      
,commune of ,london1 and other ,studies4
       ,with a ,prefatory ,letter by    
,sir ,,walter ,,besant4 ,demy #hvo4     
#abs4 #f;d4       net4         ,,ryley1 

,g4 ,,buchanan1 and ,j4 ,m4             
,m',,candlish4 ,scotland's ,free        
,church4       ,with an ,etched         
,portrait and a ,photogravure and       
numerous other       ,illustrations4    
,fcap4 #dto4 #ajs4 #f;d4                
,,schweitzer1 ,,georg4 ,emin ,pasha3    
,his ,life and ,work4 ,with an          
,introduction by ,r4 ,w4 ,,felkin1      
,m4,d4 ,with ,portrait1 ,facsimiles1 and
       ,map4 #b vols4 ,demy #hvo4 #cbs4 
,,scott1 ,,eva 7late ,scholar of        
,somerville ,college1 ,oxford74 ,rupert1
       ,prince ,palatine4 ,with         
,photogravure ,frontispiece4 ,large     
,crown #hvo4       #fs4 ,second         
,edition4         ,,seton-,,watson1 ,r4 
,w4 ,maximilian4 ,stanhope ,essay4      
,illustrated4 ,crown       #hvo4 #es4   
net4         ,,siborne1 ,,captain       
,,william4 ,the ,waterloo ,campaign1    
#ahae4 ,with #ac       ,portraits of    
,generals1 and #ae ,maps and ,plans4    
,crown #hvo4 #hcb pages4       ,new     
,edition4 #fs4         ,,sichel1        

,,edith4 ,the ,household of the         
,lafayettes4 ,with ,photogravure        
,frontispiece4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 
,second ,edition4         ,,sichel1     
,,edith4 ,women and ,men of the ,french 
,renaissance4       ,illustrated4 ,demy 
#hvo4 ,price #afs4 net4         ,,smith1
 ,,edward4 ,england and ,america4 ,a    
,short ,examination of their            
,international ,intercourse4 #aghc-ahgb4
 ,demy #hvo4 #ads4         ,,smythe1 ,a4
 ,j4 ,the ,life of ,william ,terriss1   
,actor4 ,illustrated4 ,demy       #hvo4 
#abs4 #f;d4         ,,sneath1 ,e4       
,,hershey 7,ph4,d41 ,professor of       
,philosophy in ,yale       ,university74
 ,the ,mind of ,tennyson4 ,his ,thoughts
 on ,god1 ,freedom1       and           
,immortality4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 net4    
,,spalding1 ,,thomas ,,alfred4 ,the     
,life and ,times of ,richard ,badiley1  
,vice-,admiral of the ,fleet4 ,demy     
#hvo4 #aes4         ,,stein1 ,m4 ,a4    
,kalhana's ,rajatarangini4 ,a ,chronicle
 of the ,kings of       ,kashmir1 with  

#c ,maps4 ,translated1 with an          
,introduction1 ,commentary       and    
,appendices4 #b ,volumes4 #c #cs4 net4  
,,street1 ,g4 ,s4 ,a ,book of ,essays4  
,crown #hvo4 #fs4         ,,stuart1     
,,john4 ,pictures of ,war4 ,illustrated 
with ,maps and ,plans4       ,crown     
#hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4         ,,thornton1    
,,surgeon-,,general1 ,c4,b4 ,memories of
 ,seven ,campaigns4 ,with       numerous
 ,illustrations by ,george and ,kate    
,thornton4 ,large ,demy #hvo4           
#ags4 #f;d4 net4         ,,townsend1    
,,meredith4 ,asia and ,europe4 ,being   
,studies presenting the                 
conclusions formed by the ,author in a  
long life devoted to the       subject  
of the relations between ,asia and      
,europe4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4       #f;d4  
net4         ,,traill1 ,h4 ,d4 ,england1
 ,egypt1 and the ,sudan4 ,with ,maps4   
,demy #hvo4       #abs4                 
,,vallery-,,radot1 ,,ren4 ,the ,life of 
,pasteur4 ,translated from the          
,french by ,mrs4 ,r4 ,l4 ,,devonshire4  

#b ,volumes4 ,demy #hvo4 ,with          
,frontispiece ,portrait of ,pasteur4    
,price #cbs4         ,,vibart1 ,,colonel
 ,,henry ,m4 ,addiscombe3 ,its ,heroes  
and ,men of ,note4       ,with a        
,preface by ,,lord ,,roberts of         
,kandahar4 ,fully ,illustrated4         
,fcap4 #dto4 #bas4 net4                 
,,whiteway1 ,r4 ,s4 7,bengal ,civil     
,service1 retired74 ,the ,rise of       
,portuguese ,power in ,india1           
#adig-aeej4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 net4      
,,wicksteed1 ,,rev4 ,p4 ,h4 ,the        
,chronicle of ,villani4 ,translated by  
,,rose       ,e4 ,,selfe and edited by  
the ,rev4 ,p4 ,h4 ,,wicksteed4 ,crown   
#hvo4 #fs4         ,,wicksteed1 ,,philip
 ,h41 ,m4,a41 and ,,gardner1 ,,edmund   
,g41 ,m4,a4 ,dante and       ,giovanni  
del ,virgilio4 ,including a ,critical   
,edition of the text of       ,dante's  
#8,eclogae ,latinae1' and of the ,poetic
 ,remains of ,giovanni       del        
,virgilio4 ,demy #hvo4 ,price #abs4     
,,wilkinson1 ,,spenser4 ,war and        

,policy4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4         ---- 
,the ,nation's ,awakening4 ,essays      
,towards a ,british ,policy4            
,crown #hvo4 #es4         ,,winslow1    
,,anna ,,green4 ,diary of a ,boston     
,school ,girl4 ,edited by ,,alice       
,,morse ,,earle4 ,with #g               
,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4       
,,wood1 ,,walter4 ,with the ,flag at    
,sea4 ,illustrated with numerous        
full-page plates by ,h4 ,c4 ,,seppings  
,,wright4 ,cloth gilt4 ,extra ,crown    
#hvo4 ,price #fs4           99       99 
99       99       99    ,travel4        
,,battye1 ,,aubyn ,,trevor-1 ,f4,l4,s41 
,f4,z4,s4 ,author of #8,icebound on     
,kolguev4'         ,a ,northern ,highway
 of the ,czar4 ,fully ,illustrated4     
,crown #hvo4 #fs4         ,,constable',s
 ,hand ,atlas of ,india4 ,a new series  
of ,sixty ,maps and       ,plans        
prepared from ,ordnance and other       
,surveys under the direction       of   
,j4 ,g4 ,,bartholomew1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41    
,f4,r4,s4,e41 etc4 ,crown #hvo4         

,strongly       bound in ,half ,morocco4
 ,price #ads4         ,this ,atlas will 
be found of great use not only to       
tourists and       travellers1 but also 
to readers of ,indian history2 it       
contains       twenty-two plans of the  
principal towns of our ,indian ,empire1 
based       on the most recent surveys  
and officially revised to date in       
,india4    ,constable's ,hand ,gazetteer
 of ,india4 ,compiled under the         
direction of ,j4  ,g4 ,,bartholomew1    
,f4,r4,g4,s41 and ,edited with          
,additions by ,,jas4 ,,burgess1         
,c4,i4,e41 ,,ll4,d41 etc4 ,crown #hvo4  
,half ,morocco4 ,price #ajs4 #f;d4      
,the ,hand ,gazetteer of ,india is based
 on the ,index to ,constable's          
,hand ,atlas of ,india1 which contains  
nearly #ab1jjj place-names4 ,to         
these have been added very largely from 
various sources1 bringing       the     
number of entries to close upon #bj1jjj4
 ,the populations of       districts1   
towns1 and villages1 and the position of

 each place are       clearly indicated1
 thus forming within a small compass a  
general       reference book to the     
topography of ,india1 and a companion   
volume       to the ,hand ,atlas of     
,india4    ,,conway1 ,,sir ,,william    
,,martin4 ,the ,alps from ,end to ,end4 
,with over #ej full  page ,illustrations
 by ,a4 ,d4 ,m',,cormick4 ,large ,crown 
#hvo4 #fs4 ,new ,edition4    ,,durand1  
,,lad4 ,an ,autumn ,tour in ,western    
,persia4 ,demy #hvo4 ,illustrated4      
,,elliott1 ,,robert ,h4 ,gold1 ,sport1  
and ,coffee ,planting in ,mysore4 ,being
 the  ,thirty-eight ,years' ,experience 
of a ,mysore ,planter4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4
 #f;d4    ,,engelhardt1 ,,alexander     
,,platonovich1 ,governor of the         
,province of  ,archangel4 ,a ,russian   
,province of the ,north 7,archangel74   
,translated from  the ,russian by       
,,henry ,,cooke4 ,with #ij              
,illustrations and #c ,maps4 ,royal     
#hvo4  #ahs4    ,,filippi1 ,,filippo    
,de4 ,the ,ascent of ,mount ,st4 ,elias 

7,alaska74 ,by ,h4,r4,h4  ,prince       
,,luigi ,,amedeo ,,di ,,savoia1 ,duke of
 the ,abruzzi4 ,narrated by ,,filippo   
,,de ,,filippi4 ,illustrated by         
,,vittoria ,,sella1 and ,translated by  
,,signora  ,,linda ,,villari4 #dto4     
#cas4 #f;d4 net4 ,edition de ,luxe1 #c  
#cs4 net4    ,,hodgson1 ,,randolph      
,,llewellyn4 ,on ,plain and ,peak4      
,sport in ,bohemia and  ,tyrol4         
,illustrated by ,h4,s4,h4 ,,princess    
,,mary ,,of ,,thurn ,,and ,,taxis1 and  
from  ,photographs4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4    
#f;d4    ,,lachambre1 ,,henri1 and      
,,machuron1 ,,alexis4 ,andre and ,his   
,balloon4 ,with a  ,coloured            
,frontispiece and #dj ,full-page ,plates
 after ,photographs taken by  the       
,authors during the time of preparation 
and at the time of start4  ,crown #hvo4 
#fs4    ,,meakin1 ,,annette ,m4 ,b4 ,a  
,ribbon of ,iron4 ,fully ,illustrated4  
,crown #hvo4  ,price #fs4         ,this 
is an account of a journey over the     
,great ,siberian ,railway and       down

 to the lower part of the ,amur ,river  
to ,blagovestchensk and       thence to 
,vladivostok4 ,the author relates her   
adventures in a novel       field 7which
 just at present has a special interest7
 in plain and       natural language4   
,the account of the outbreak of         
hostilities at       ,blagovestchensk   
will be found particularly interesting4 
,,nansen1 ,,fridtjof4 ,farthest ,north4 
,a ,new ,edition4 ,with #bj full-page   
,illustrations and #b ,maps4 ,crown     
#hvo4 #fs4    ,,ookhtomsky1 ,,prince ,e4
 ,travels in the ,east of ,his ,imperial
 ,majesty ,czar  ,nicholas ,,ii of      
,russia3 when ,cesarewitch4 ,written by 
order of ,his  ,imperial ,majesty and   
translated by ,,robert ,,goodlet4 ,in #b
 vols41 with  about #ejj ,illustrations 
engraved on wood and numerous           
,heliogravure  ,plates4 ,edited by ,,sir
 ,,george ,,birdwood1 ,m4,d41           
,k4,c4,i4,e4 ,imperial #dto4 #e  #es4   
net4         ,also a ,hand-made ,paper  
,edition4 ,limited to #cj copies for    

,england       and ,america4 #be guineas
 net4         ,,prichard1 ,,hesketh4    
,where ,black ,rules ,white4 ,across and
 about the       ,black ,republic of    
,hayti4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4
 #abs4         ,,roberts1 ,,morley4 ,the
 ,western ,avernus4 ,a new edition1 with
       ,illustrations by ,a4 ,d4        
,m',,cormick1 and from ,photographs4    
,crown #hvo4       #gs4 #f;d4 net4      
,,sangermano1 ,,father4 ,burma a        
,hundred ,years ,ago4 ,edited with      
,notes       and ,introduction by the   
,,hon4 ,,mr4 ,,justice ,,jardine4 ,with 
a ,map4 ,demy       #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4   
,,stadling1 ,j4 ,through ,siberia4      
,edited by ,dr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4             
,,guillemard4       ,fully ,illustrated4
 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4         ,,waddell1   
,surg4-,maj4 ,l4 ,a4 ,among the         
,himalayas4 ,with numerous              
,illustrations by ,a4 ,d4 ,m',,cormick1 
the ,author1 and from ,photographs4     
,large ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,second        
,edition4         ,,young1 ,,ernest     

7,late of the ,education ,department1   
,siam74 ,the ,kingdom       of the      
,yellow ,robe4 ,being ,sketches of the  
,domestic and ,religious       ,rites   
and ,ceremonies of the ,siamese4 ,with  
numerous ,illustrations by       ,e4 ,a4
 ,,norbury1 ,r4,c4,a41 and from         
,photographs4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #fs4  
,second ,edition4          ,sport4      
,,dale1 ,t4 ,f4 7,stoneclink47 ,history 
of the ,belvoir ,hunt4 ,with ,map and   
many ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #bas4  
net4         ----  ,the ,eighth ,duke of
 ,beaufort and the ,badminton ,hunt4    
,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 ,price #bas4  
,,elliott1 ,,robert ,h4 ,gold1 ,sport1  
and ,coffee ,planting in ,mysore4       
,being the ,thirty ,years' ,experience  
of a ,mysore ,planter4 ,crown #hvo4     
#gs4 #f;d4         ,,hodgson1 ,,randolph
 ,,llewellyn4 ,on ,plain and ,peak4     
,sport in ,bohemia       and ,tyrol4    
,illustrated by ,h4,s4,h4 ,,princess    
,,mary ,,of ,,thurn ,,and ,,taxis1      
and from ,photographs4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 

#f;d4         ,,kennedy1 ,,admiral4     
,sport in the ,navy4         ,,walker1  
,,charles4 ,shooting on a ,small        
,income4 ,illustrated4 ,crown           
#hvo4 #es4         ----  ,amateur ,fish 
,culture4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,naval and ,military4                   
,,anitchkow1 ,,michael4 ,war and        
,labour4 ,demy #hvo4 #ahs4              
#8,,centurion4' ,army ,administration4  
,crown #hvo4 ,paper1 #as4               
,,hanna1 ,,col4 ,h4 ,b4 ,can ,russia    
,invade ,india8 7,indian ,problems ,no4 
#a47       ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4      
----  ,india's ,scientific ,frontier4   
,where is it8 ,what is it8 7,indian     
,problems ,no4 #b47 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4   
#f;d4         ----  ,backwards or       
,forwards8 7,indian ,problems ,no4 #c47 
,crown #hvo4       #bs4 #f;d4           
----  ,the ,second ,afghan ,war4        
#ahgh-hj4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4   
net4         ,,mayo1 ,,john ,,horsley4  
,medals and ,decorations of the ,british

 ,army and       ,navy4 ,with numerous  
,coloured ,plates and other             
,illustrations4 #b       vols4 ,demy    
#hvo4 #c #cs4 net4         ,,siborne1   
,,captain ,,william4 ,the ,waterloo     
,campaign1 #ahae4 ,with #ac             
,portraits of ,generals1 and #ae ,maps  
and ,plans4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #hcb    
pages4 #fs4         ,,spalding1 ,,thomas
 ,,alfred4 ,the ,life and ,times of     
,richard ,badiley1       ,vice-,admiral 
of the ,fleet4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4        
,,vibart1 ,,colonel ,h4 ,m4 ,addiscombe4
 ,see page #ac4         ,,wilkinson1    
,,spenser4 ,the ,brain of an ,army4 ,a  
,popular ,account of the       ,german  
,general ,staff4 ,with ,letters from    
,count ,moltke and ,lord       ,roberts1
 and #c ,plans4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 
----  ,the ,command of the ,sea1 and    
,the ,brain of the ,navy4 ,crown #hvo4  
,cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4         ----         
,lessons of the ,war4 ,a ,weekly        
,comment to the ,relief of              
,ladysmith4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4     

----  ,the ,nation's ,awakening4 ,essays
 towards a ,british ,policy4            
,crown #hvo4 #es4                       
,,contents4      ,our ,past ,apathy4    
,the ,aims of the ,great ,powers4       
,the ,defence of ,british ,interests4   
,the ,organization of ,government for   
the ,defence of ,british ,interests4    
,the ,idea of the ,nation4    ----  ,the
 ,volunteers and the ,national ,defence4
 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4    ----
  ,war and ,policy4 ,essays4 ,demy #hvo4
 #aes4           99       99       99   
99       99                             
,fine ,art4           ,,brownell1 ,w4   
,c4 ,french ,art4 ,classic and          
,contemporary ,painting and             
,sculpture4 ,with #dh ,illustrations4   
,small ,imperial #hvo4         ,,cole1  
,,alan ,s4 ,ornament in ,european       
,silks4 ,with #afg ,illustrations4      
,bound in half vellum4 ,crown #dto4     
#cbs4 net4         ,,cunynghame1        
,,henry4 ,art-,enamelling upon ,metals4 
,containing both a       ,history of the

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,manufacture of the same4 #b            
,coloured ,plates and #bj               
,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 net4  
,second       ,edition4                 
,,daniell1 ,a4 ,e4 ,london ,city        
,churches4 ,with numerous ,illustrations
 by       ,,leonard ,,martin1 and a     
,map4 ,imperial #afmo4 #fs4 ,second     
,edition4         ----  ,london         
,riverside ,churches4 ,with #hd         
,illustrations and a       ,photogravure
 ,frontispiece by ,,alexander ,,ansted4 
,imperial #afmo4 #fs4         ,,granby1 
,,marchioness ,,of4 ,portraits of ,men  
and ,women4 ,a series of #ea            
reproductions of the ,marchioness of    
,granby's ,pencil ,portraits of         
well-known ,men and ,women of the ,day4 
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,,john1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,the ,stall ,plates of
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half leather gilt1 price       #f net2  
plates and sheets loose in a portfolio1 
#e #ajs4 net2       without binding or  
portfolio1 #e net4         ,,hyde1      
,,william4 ,the ,nature ,poems of       
,george ,meredith4 ,with #bj            
,full-page ,pictures in ,photogravure by
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to #cej copies4 ,bound in cloth4 #b     
#abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,also a large paper    
edition of #aej copies1 #e #es4 net4    
,,hyde1 ,,william1 and ,,meynell1       
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,,alice       ,,meynell4 ,royal ,quarto4
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hand-made       paper1 bound in vellum  
gilt4 #h #hs4 net4         ,,legg       
7,,leopold ,g4 ,,wickham1 ,b4,a47       
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,illustrated ,edition limited to #ejj   

copies4 ,imp4 #hvo4 #cas4 #f;d4 net4    
,,mayo1 ,,john ,,horsley4 ,medals and   
,decorations of the ,british ,army and  
,navy4 ,with a large number of ,coloured
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 #b vols4 ,demy #hvo4 #c #cs4 net4      
,,national ,,worthies4 ,a selection of  
,portraits from the ,national           
,portrait ,gallery of ,london4 #adj     
,illustrations and ,biographical        
,notes to each4 ,bound in full leather  
gilt1 tooled4 ,crown #dto4 #b       #bs4
 net4         ,,newberry1 ,,percy ,e4   
,the ,life of ,rekhmara4 ,see page #aj4 
----  ,the ,gardens of the ,ancient     
,world4 ,see page #aj4         ,,the    
,,st4 ,,george',s ,,calendar for #aijb4 
,illustrated1 with #ab ,coloured        
,plates of the ,arms of a ,family of    
,distinction1 with a short note of      
its origin4 ,price #as4 net4            
99       99       99       99       99  
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,,arber1 ,,prof4 ,,edward1 ,f4,s4,a4    
,works ,edited by4         ,english     

,reprints4 ,edited by ,prof4 ,,edward   
,,arber1 ,f4,s4,a41 ,fellow of          
,king's ,college1 ,london1 late ,english
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,university1 and also at the ,victoria  
,university1 ,manchester4 ,cloth1       
gilt4       #a4 ,,milton--,areopagitica4
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,,latimer--,the ,ploughers4 #aedi4 #as4 
net4     #c4 ,,gosson--,the ,school of  
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,,sidney--,an ,apology for ,poetry4     
8#aehj4 #as4 net4     #e4 ,,webbe1      
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net4     #g4 ,,ascham--,toxophilus4     
#aedd4 #as4 net4     #h4                
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#aj4 ,,villiers--,the ,rehearsal4 #afga4
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#ab4 ,,earle--,micro-cosmographie4      
#afbh4 #as4 net4    #ac4 ,,latimer--#g  

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#as4 #f;d4 net4    #ad4 ,,more--,utopia4
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,,puttenham--,the ,art of ,english      
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,,evesham--,the ,revelation1 etc4       
#aahf-adaj4 #as4 net4    #ai4 ,,james   
,i4--,a ,counterblast to ,tobacco1 etc4 
#afjd4 #as4 net4    #bj4                
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#as4 net4    #ba4 ,,watson--,poems4     
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,,habington--,castara4 #afdj4 #as4 net4 
#bc4 ,,ascham--,the ,schoolmaster4      
#aegj4 #as4 net4    #bd4 ,,tottel',s    
,,miscellany--,songs and ,sonnets4      
#aeeg4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4    #be4          
,,lever--,sermons4 #aeej4 #as4 net4     
#bf4 ,,webbe1 ,w4--,a ,discourse of     
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#bg4 ,,lord ,,bacon--,a ,harmony of the 

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#bh4 ,,roy1 ,etc4--,read me1 and be not 
,wroth6 #aebh4 #as4 #f;d4 net4    #bi4  
,,raleigh1 ,etc4--,last ,fight of the   
#8,revenge4' #aeia4 #as4 net4    #cj4   
,,googe--,eclogues1 ,epitaphs1 and      
,sonnets4 #aefc4 #as4 net4              
,english ,scholar's ,library1 ,the4     
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#hvo1       cloth1 gilt4       #a4      
,,william ,,caxton--,reynard the ,fox4  
#as4 #f;d4 net4     #b4 ,,john          
,,knox--,the ,first ,blast of the       
,trumpet4 #as4 #f;d4 net4     #c4       
,,clement ,,robinson and ,others--,a    
,handful of ,pleasant ,delights4 #as4   
#f;d4 net4     #d4 ,,simon ,,fish--,a   
,supplication for the ,beggars4 #as4    
#f;d4 net4     #e4 ,,rev4 ,,john        
,,udall--,diotrephes4 #as4 #f;d4 net4   
#f4 8--,the ,return from ,parnassus4    
#as4 #f;d4 net4     #g4 ,,thomas        
,,decker--,the ,seven ,deadly ,sins of  
,london4 #as4 #f;d4 net4     #h4        
,,edward ,,arber--,an ,introductory     

,sketch to the #8,martin ,marprelate'   
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#i4 ,,rev4 ,,john ,,udall--,a           
,demonstration of ,discipline4 #as4     
#f;d4 net4    #aj4 ,,richard            
,,stanihurst--neid ,i4-,,iv41 in        
,english ,hexameters4 #cs4 net4    #aa4 
,,martin ,,marprelate--,the ,epistle4   
#as4 #f;d4 net4    #ab4 ,,robert        
,,greene--,menaphon4 #as4 #f;d4 net4    
#ac4 ,,george ,,joy--,an ,apology to    
,william ,tyndale4 #as4 #f;d4 net4      
#ad4 ,,richard ,,barnfield---,poems4    
#cs4 net4    #ae4 ,,bishop ,,thomas     
,,cooper--,an ,admonition to the ,people
 of ,england4 #cs4 net4    #af4         
,,captain ,,john ,,smith--,works4 #aabj 
pp4 ,six ,facsimile ,maps4 #b vols4     
#abs4 #f;d4 net4      ,out of print4    
,garner1 ,an ,english4 ,new ,edition in 
preparation4         ,this ,miscellany  
embodies the results of more than       
fifteen years'       persistent search  
after the rarest and most valuable      
,tracts and       ,poems in our         

,literature that are not generally      
known4 ,only one copy       now survives
 of the original edition of many of     
these ,texts2 and       that copy is    
often not to be found in any ,public    
,library4         ,these volumes        
constitute a charming ,pleasure ,series 
of ,english       ,literature2 full of  
most varied and graphic ,narratives1 and
 of most       delightful and           
diversified ,poetry4         ,but a much
 higher use than that can be made of    
this ,english       ,garner4 ,all       
,history is ultimately based upon       
eye-witness       testimony1 or upon    
written documents4 ,this ,series will   
throw floods       of light upon many   
little-known facts1 or periods1 of      
,england's       past story4         ,an
 ,english ,garner also contains many    
hundreds of ,poems1 many of       them  
written in the ,golden ,age of ,english 
,song4 ,this ,poetry       represents   
almost every conceivable form of        
,english versification2       and its   

topics range        #8,from grave to    
gay1 from lively to severe2'            
or1 to put it in another way1 from ,sir 
,j4 ,,davies' poem on the               
#8,immortality of the ,soul1' down to   
#8,old ,king ,cole4'         ,,ballin1  
,,mrs4 ,,ada4 ,from ,cradle to ,school4 
,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4                 
,,bankes1 ,,roden4 ,a ,story ,book for  
,lesson ,time4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth1 #as4
         ,,beaumont1 ,w4 ,,worby1 ,m4   
,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,motor ,vehicles and      
,motors4 ,their       ,design1          
,construction1 and ,working by ,steam1  
,oil1 and ,electricity4       ,with over
 #cjj ,illustrations and ,working       
,drawings4 #dto4 #dbs4 net4             
,,blount1 ,,bertram4 ,practical         
,electro-,chemistry4 ,fully             
,illustrated4       ,demy #hvo4 #aes4   
net4         ,,bonavia1 ,,emmanuel1     
,m4,d4 ,the ,flora of the ,assyrian     
,monuments4 ,with       numerous        
,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 net4  
----  ,studies in the ,evolution of     

,animals4 ,with over #ajj               
,illustrations4 ,fcap4 #dto4 #bas4 net4 
,,bright1 ,,charles1 ,f4,r4,s4,e4       
,science and ,engineering1 #ahcg-ahig4  
,large       ,crown #hvo4 ,paper        
wrapper4 #as4         ,,coldstream1 ,j4 
,p4 ,the ,institutions of ,austria4     
,fcap4 #hvo4 ,cloth1       #bs4         
----  ,the ,institutions of ,italy4     
,fcap4 #hvo4 ,cloth1 #bs4               
,,constable',s ,,hand ,,atlas ,,of      
,,india4 ,see page #ad4                 
,,constable',s ,,hand ,,gazetteer ,,of  
,,india4 ,see page #ad4                 
,,cunynghame1 ,,henry1 ,c4,b41 ,m4,a4   
,art-,enamelling upon ,metals4 ,with    
many       coloured and other           
,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 net4  
,second       ,edition4                 
,,davidson1 ,,thomas 7,author of        
#8,aristotle and the ,ancient           
,educational       ,ideals1' #8,rousseau
 and ,education according to ,nature1'  
etc474 ,a       ,history of ,education4 
,crown #hvo4 #es4 net4         ,,gall1  

,,john1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,b4 7,late         
,professor of ,mathematics and ,physics1
       ,canning ,college1 ,lucknow71 and
 ,,robertson1 ,,david1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,b41
 ,b4,sc4       ,popular ,readings in    
,science4 ,with many ,diagrams1 a       
,glossary of       ,technical ,terms1   
and an ,index4 ,crown #hvo1 pp4 #dfh4   
#ds4 ,new ,edition4         ,,hackel1   
,,eduard4 ,the ,true ,grasses4          
,authorized ,translation4 ,with over    
#ij ,illustrations and ,diagrams1 and a 
voluminous ,glossary of       ,technical
 ,terms4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4   
,,holland1 ,,clive4 ,the ,use of the    
,hand ,camera4 ,with an ,introduction by
       ,a4 ,,horsley ,,hinton1 and #bb  
,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth1    
#bs4 #f;d4         ,,james1 ,,william4  
,human ,immortality4 #afmo4 #bs4 #f;d4  
,fourth ,edition4         ,,leach1 ,a4  
,f41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,english ,schools
 at the ,reformation4       #aedf-h4    
,demy #hvo4 #abs4 net4         ,,leaf1  
,,cecil ,h41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,the  

,surgical ,anatomy of the               
,lymphatic ,glands4 ,with numerous      
,coloured ,plates4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4    
#f;d4       net4         ,,leaf1 ,h4    
,m41 ,a4,m4,inst4,c4,e41 ,m4,i4,m4,e4   
,the ,internal ,wiring of               
,buildings4 ,with numerous              
,illustrations4 ,new ,edition in        
preparation4         ,,lewes1 ,,vivian  
,b4 ,acetylene4 ,a ,handbook for the    
,student and       ,manufacturer4 ,with 
over #bjj ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4   
#cas4 #f;d4 net4         ----           
7,professor of ,chemistry1 ,royal ,naval
 ,college71 and ,,brame1 ,j4       ,s4  
,s4 7,demonstrator in ,chemistry1 ,royal
 ,naval ,college1 and       ,assistant  
,examiner in ,chemistry1 ,science and   
,art ,department74       ,laboratory    
,note ,book for ,chemical ,students4    
#ds4         ,,morison1 ,m4 ,time ,table
 of ,modern ,history1 ,a4,d4 #djj-ahgj4 
,see page       #i4                     
,m,,nsterberg1 ,,professor ,,hugo4      
,psychology and ,life4 ,demy #hvo4 #fs4 

net4         ,,peel1 ,,mrs4 ,c4 ,s4 ,the
 ,new ,home4 ,how to ,furnish on ,small 
,incomes4       ,with many              
,illustrations by ,,agnes ,,walker4     
,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4         ----    
,ten ,shillings a ,head per ,week for   
,house ,books4 ,a ,manual for       the 
,economical ,housekeeper4 ,containing a 
large number of ,new       ,recipes4    
,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4                 
,,rogers1 ,c4 ,j4 ,coin ,collecting in  
,northern ,india4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4      
,,scrutton1 ,,percy ,e4 ,electricity in 
,town and ,country ,houses4 ,fully      
illustrated4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4    
,third ,edition4         ,,spenser4 ,the
 ,faerie ,queene4 ,edited by ,,kate ,m4 
,,warren4 ,with a       ,glossary and   
,notes to each volume4 ,in #f vols4     
,fcap4 #hvo4 ,cloth1 #as4       #f;d4   
net per vol4 ,cloth gilt1 with          
,photogravure ,frontispiece1 #bs4       
#f;d4 net per vol4 ,each vol4 sold      
separately4         ,,tarver1 ,j4 ,c4   
,some ,observations of a ,foster        

,parent4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4       ,second
 ,edition4         ----  ,debateable    
,claims4 ,essays on ,secondary          
,education4 ,crown #hvo4       #fs4     
----  ,tiberius the ,tyrant4 ,demy #hvo4
 #afs4 net4         ,,the ,,prevention  
,,of ,,disease4 ,prophylaxis in ,surgery
 ,operations1 ,the       ,treatment of  
,fractures and ,dislocation1 ,wounds1   
,deformities and       ,tumours1        
,medicine and ,insanity4 ,by ,,dr4      
,,bing1 ,vienna2 ,,dr4 ,,einhorn1       
,new ,york2 ,,dr4 ,,fischl1 ,prague2    
,,dr4 ,,flatau1 ,berlin2 ,,dr4 ,,fuchs1 
,ernmendingen2 ,,dr4 ,,goldschmidt1     
,reichenhall2 ,,dr4 ,,greve1 ,magdeburg2
       ,,dr4 ,,hoffa1 ,wrzburg2 ,,dr4   
,,max ,,joseph1 ,berlin2 ,,dr4          
,k,,nigsh,,fer1       ,stuttgart2 ,,dr4 
,,kollmann1 ,leipzig2 ,,dr4             
,,lilienfeld1 ,wrzburg2 ,,dr4           
,,martius1 ,rostock2 ,,dr4 ,,mendelsohn1
 ,berlin2 ,,dr4 ,j4 ,v4 ,,notthefft1    
,mnchen2 ,,dr4 ,,rosen1 ,berlin2 ,,dr4  
,o4 ,,schaeffer1 ,heidelberg2 ,,dr4     

,,windscheid1 ,leipzic4 ,with an        
,introduction by ,h4 ,,timbrell         
,,bulstrode1       ,m4,a41 ,d4,p4,h4    
,royal ,college of ,physicians and      
,surgeons1 ,m4,r4,c4,s4       ,eng41    
,l4,r4,c4,p4 ,london4 ,medical          
,inspector ,h4,m4 ,local ,government    
,board4 ,demy #hvo4         ,,thomson1  
,,prof4 ,j4 ,j41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,the         
,discharge of ,electricity through      
,gases4 ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo4 #ds4 
#f;d4 net4         ,,torrey1 ,,joseph4  
,elementary ,studies in ,chemistry4     
,crown #hvo4 #fs4       net4            
,,turner1 ,h4 ,h41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,modern    
,astronomy4 ,being some ,account of the 
,revolution of the ,last ,quarter of the
 ,century4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 net4       
,,warren1 ,,kate ,m4 ,see ,spenser1     
,faerie ,queene4         ,,webb1        
,,surgeon-,,captain ,w4 ,w4 ,the ,coins 
of the ,hindu ,states of                
,rajputana4 ,with #ab ,plates1 and a    
,map in colours4 ,royal #hvo4 #afs4     
net4         ,,zimmermann1 ,,dr4 ,a4    

,botanical ,microtechnique4 ,by ,,dr4   
,a4 ,,zimmermann4       ,with ,sixty    
,illustrations and ,diagrams4 ,demy     
#hvo4 #abs4 net4           99       99  
99       99       99                    
,religious ,books4           ,,arnold1  
,t4 ,w4 ,the ,preaching of ,islam4 ,demy
 #hvo4 #abs4         ,,books ,,of ,,the 
,,bible4 ,the ,psalms4 ,st4 ,matthew4   
,st4 ,mark4 ,st4 ,luke4       ,st4      
,john4 ,printed in red and black by ,t4 
,a4 ,constable4 ,bound in       cloth   
label1 #as4 net per vol42 cloth gilt1   
#as4 #f;d4 net per vol42       leather  
gilt1 #bs4 #f;d4 net per vol4 ,also     
,the ,four ,gospels4 ,in one volume4    
,paper label1 #bs4 #f;d4 net2 gilt      
cloth1 #cs4 net2 leather1 #es4 net4     
,,daniell1 ,a4 ,e4 ,london ,city        
,churches4 ,with numerous ,illustrations
 by       ,,leonard ,,martin1 and a     
,map4 ,imperial #afmo4 #fs4         ----
  ,london ,riverside ,churches4 ,with   
numerous ,illustrations by              
,,alexander ,,ansted4 ,imperial #afmo4  

#fs4         ,,four ,,gospels4 ,see     
#8,books of the ,bible4'                
,,harald1 ,j4 ,h4 ,the ,knowledge of    
,life4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4                
,,james1 ,,william 7,professor of       
,philosophy at ,harvard ,university74   
,human ,immortality4 ,two supposed      
,objections to the ,doctrine4 #afmo4    
#bs4 #f;d4         ,,madge1 ,h4 ,d4     
,leaves from the ,golden ,legend4       
,chosen by ,h4 ,d4 ,,madge1             
,,ll4,m4 ,with numerous ,illustrations  
by ,h4 ,m4 ,,watts4 ,pott #hvo4 ,half   
linen1 gilt top1 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,second
 ,edition4         ,,mitchell1 ,,prof4  
,h4 ,g4 ,the ,world before ,abraham4    
,according to       ,genesis i4-xi4     
,crown #hvo4 #es4 net4         ,,psalms4
 ,see #8,books of the ,bible4'          
,,ryley1 ,g4 ,,buchanan1 and ,j4 ,m4    
,m',,candlish4 ,scotland's ,free        
,church4       ,see page #aa4      ,,st4
 ,,john4        ,,st4 ,,luke4     ,see  
#8,books of the ,bible4'    ,,st4       
,,mark4        ,,st4 ,,matthew4         

,,sinclair1 ,,ven4 ,,archdeacon1 ,d4,d4 
,simplicity in ,christ4 ,sermons        
preached in ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral and 
elsewhere4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4      
,,skrine1 ,j4 ,,huntley4 ,a ,goodly     
,heritage4 ,sermons4 ,crown #hvo4       
,cloth1       #bs4 #f;d4                
,,sneath1 ,e4 ,,hershey1 ,ph4,d4        
7,professor of ,philosophy in ,yale     
,university74 ,the ,mind of ,tennyson4  
,his ,thoughts on ,god1 ,freedom1       
and ,immortality4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 net4
         ,,wilson1 ,j4 ,m41 ,m4,a4      
7,archdeacon of ,manchester74 ,truths   
,new and ,old4       ,sermons4 ,crown   
#hvo4 #fs4         ,,wilson1 ,,sarah4   
,the ,romance of our ,ancient ,churches4
 ,with about #bjj       ,illustrations  
by ,,alexander ,,ansted4 ,crown #hvo4   
#fs4           99       99       99     
99       99                             
,fiction4           #8,,alien1' ,author 
of #8,daughter of the ,king1' etc41 etc4
 ,another       ,woman's ,territory4    
#bnd ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4        

,,andom1 ,r4 7,author of #8,we ,three   
and ,troddles'71 and ,,harewood1 ,,fred4
       ,the ,fortune of a ,spendthrift  
and other ,items4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4     
#f;d4         ,,anon4 ,all ,expenses    
,paid4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4     
----  ,muggleton ,college3 ,its ,rise   
and ,fall4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,paper1 #as4    
,,argyll1 ,,duke ,,of4 ,adventures in   
,legend4 ,illustrated by ,,fairfax      
,,muckley and ,,harrison ,,miller4      
,crown #hvo4 #fs4         ,,bates1      
,,arlo4 ,the ,puritans4 ,crown #hvo4    
#fs4         ,,berthet1 ,e4 ,the        
,catacombs of ,paris4 ,a ,thrilling     
,story of ,life in       ,paris during  
the #ahth ,century4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4   
,,bidder1 ,m4 ,in the ,shadow of the    
,crown4 ,with an ,introduction by       
,,maurice ,,hewlett4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4  
,second ,edition4         ,,bower1      
,,marian4 ,the ,puppet ,show4 ,crown    
#hvo4 #fs4         ,,bryden1 ,h4 ,a41   
,author of #8,gun and ,camera in ,south 
,africa4' ,tales of       ,south        

,africa4 #cs4 #f;d4         ,,cairnes1  
,,captain ,w4 ,e4 ,the ,coming          
,waterloo4 #dth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4  
#fs4         ,describes an imaginary    
campaign against a ,continental ,power1 
and       gives an exposition of the use
 of modern arms and appliances in       
warfare4 ,a sketch map of the scene of  
operations is included in the           
volume4         ,,capes1 ,,bernard4     
,author of #8,the ,lake of ,wine1' etc4 
,love like a       ,gipsy4 ,crown #hvo4 
,cloth1 #fs4         ,,carmichael1 ,m4  
,sketches and ,stories1 ,grave and ,gay4
 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4       #f;d4          
,,chambers1 ,r4 ,w41 ,author of #8,ashes
 of ,empire1' #8,the ,king in ,yellow1' 
etc4 ,cardigan4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth1    
#fs4         ,,charles1 ,,joseph ,f4 ,a 
,statesman's ,chance4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 
,,charrington1 ,,charles4 ,a ,sturdy    
,beggar and ,lady ,bramber's ,ghost4    
,two       ,stories4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4  
#f;d4         ,,cooper1 ,e4 ,h41 ,author
 of #8,mr4 ,blake of ,newmarket4' ,the  

,enemies4       ,crown #hvo4 #fs4       
,,cornish1 ,f4 ,,warre4 ,sunningwell4   
,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,second ,edition4     
,,coxon1 ,,ethel4 ,within ,bounds4 ,cr4 
#hvo4 #fs4         ,,dale1 ,t4 ,f4      
7,stoneclink71 and ,,slaughter1 ,f4 ,e4 
7,trant74 ,two       ,fortunes and ,old 
,patch4 ,a ,sporting ,novel4 ,crown     
#hvo4 #fs4         ,,darnley1 ,,the     
,,countess ,,of1 and ,r4 ,ll4 ,,hodgson4
 ,elma ,trevor4 ,crown       #hvo4 #fs4 
,,denny1 ,,charles ,e4 ,the ,failure of 
the ,wanderer4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4        
,,doyle1 ,c4 ,w4 ,the ,taming of the    
,jungle4 ,bound in a cover specially    
designed by ,j4 ,t4 ,,nettleship4 ,fcap4
 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4          ----  ,the   
,shadow of ,quong ,lung4 ,crown #hvo4   
#cs4 #f;d4         ,,flowerdew1         
,,herbert1 ,author of #8,the ,celibate's
 ,wife1' and #8,the       ,realist4'    
,retaliation4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4         
,,forbes-,,robertson1 ,,frances4 ,the   
,potentate4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4           
----  ,odd ,stories4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4  

,,ford1 ,,paul ,,leicester4 ,janice     
,meredith4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4            
----  ,the ,story of an ,untold ,love4  
,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,third ,edition4      
----  ,tattle ,tales of ,cupid4 ,crown  
#hvo4 #fs4         ,,glasgow1 ,,ellen1  
,author of #8,the ,voice of a ,people1' 
etc4 ,the ,battle       ,ground4 ,crown 
#hvo4 #fs4         ,,gwynn1 ,,paul4     
,marta4 ,a ,novel4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4    
,,hannan1 ,,charles1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4       
,chin-,chin-,wa4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4
         ,,harris1 ,,joel ,,chandler    
7,uncle ,remus74 ,sister ,jane4 ,crown  
#hvo4 #fs4         ,,hewlett1 ,,maurice4
 ,author of #8,the ,forest ,lovers1'    
#8,richard ,yea or       ,nay4' ,new    
,canterbury ,tales4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth1
 #fs4         ,,hutten1 ,,baroness      
,,von4 ,marr'd in ,making4 ,photogravure
 ,frontispiece4       ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 
,,james1 ,,henry4 ,the ,wings of the    
,dove4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4                
,,johnston1 ,,mary4 ,by ,order of the   
,company4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,tenth      

,edition4         ,,johnston1 ,,mary4   
,the ,old ,dominion4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4  
,seventh ,edition4         ----         
,audrey4 ,with ,illustrations in ,colour
 by ,f4 ,c4 ,,yohn4 ,crown       #hvo4  
#fs4         ,,kingsley1 ,,charles4     
,westward ,ho6 ,fully ,illustrated and  
,edited with       an ,introduction by  
,g4 ,,laurence ,,gomme1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,crown
 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4         ,,lafargue1   
,,philip4 ,stephen ,brent4 #b vols4     
,crown #hvo4 #abs4         ----  ,the   
,salt of the ,earth4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4  
#f;d4         ,,le ,,goffic1 ,,charles4 
,the ,dark ,way of ,love4 ,translated by
 ,e4 ,,wingate       ,,rinder4 ,crown   
#hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4         ,,loti1        
,,pierre4 ,impressions4 ,translated from
 the ,french4 ,with an                  
,introduction by ,,henry ,,james4 ,fcap4
 #dto4 ,half vellum1 gilt4 #ajs4 #f;d4  
,,love ,,of ,,an ,,obsolete ,,woman4    
,chronicled by ,herself4 ,fcap4 #hvo4   
,cloth       gilt1 #bs4 #f;d4           
,,lover1 ,,samuel4 ,the ,stories of4    

,centenary ,edition4 ,edited with       
,introduction and ,notes by ,j4 ,t4     
,o',,donoghue4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 
per vol4          ,vol4 #a4 ,handy      
,andy4         8   #b4 ,rory ,o',more4  
8   #c4 ,treasure ,trove2 or1 #8,he     
would be a ,gentleman4'         8   #d4 
,legends and ,stories of ,ireland 7#ast 
,series74         8   #e4 ,legends and  
,stories of ,ireland 7#bnd ,series74    
8   #f4 ,further ,stories of ,ireland4  
,the last volume includes ,stories which
 have never been previously  collected1 
completing the issue4         ,,lytton1 
,,lord4 ,harold1 the ,last of the       
,saxons4 ,fully ,illustrated and        
edited with an ,introduction by ,g4     
,,laurence ,,gomme1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,crown    
#hvo4       #cs4 #f;d4                  
,,macfarlane1 ,,charles4 ,the ,camp of  
,refuge4 ,fully ,illustrated and        
edited with an ,introduction by ,g4     
,,laurence ,,gomme1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,crown    
#hvo4       #cs4 #f;d4         ----     
,reading ,abbey4 ,fully ,illustrated and

 edited with an       ,introduction by  
,g4 ,,laurence ,,gomme1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,crown
 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4         ,,machray1    
,,robert1 ,author of #8,the ,vision     
,splendid1' ,sir ,hector3 ,the          
,story of a ,scots ,gentleman4 ,crown   
#hvo4 ,cloth1 #fs4         ,,macilwaine1
 ,,herbert ,c4 ,fate the ,fiddler4      
,crown #hvo4 #fs4         ----          
,dinkinbar4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,second   
,edition4         ,,macleod1 ,,fiona4   
,the ,dominion of ,dreams4 ,crown #hvo4 
#fs4 ,fourth       ,edition4            
----  ,the ,laughter of ,peterkin4      
,illustrated by ,,sunderland            
,,rollinson4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #fs4   
----  ,green ,fire4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4   
#f;d4         ,mc,i,l,w,r,a,i,t,h1      
,,jean1 part ,author of #8,the ,span of 
,life4' ,the ,curious       ,career of  
,robert ,campbell4 ,illustrated by      
,,frank ,,schoonover4 ,crown       #hvo4
 #fs4         ,mc,l,a,w,s1 ,,lafayette4 
,when the ,land was ,young4 ,illustrated
 by ,,will       ,,crauford4 ,crown     

#hvo4 ,cloth1 #fs4         ,,mason1 ,a4 
,e4 ,w41 ,author of #8,miranda of the   
,balcony1' etc4 ,ensign                 
,knightley1 and other ,stories4 ,crown  
#hvo4 #fs4         ,,meredith1 ,,george4
 ,the ,novels of4 ,library ,edition4    
,complete in #ae       vols41 with      
,photogravure ,frontispiece to each4    
,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 each4                   
,,meredith1 ,,george4 ,the ,novels of4  
,in #ae ,volumes4 ,pocket ,edition4     
,printed on thin opaque paper1 specially
 manufactured for this       edition1   
bound in red cloth1 gilt lettered on    
back and side1 gilt       top4 #bs4     
#f;d4 net per volume1 or #cs4 #f;d4 net 
in full leather per       volume4       
,,the ,,ordeal ,,of ,,richard ,,feverel4
        ,,rhoda ,,fleming4              
,,sandra ,,belloni4        ,,vittoria4  
,,diana ,,of ,,the ,,crossways4         
,,the ,,adventures ,,of ,,harry         
,,richmond4        ,,beauchamp',s       
,,career4        ,,the ,,egoist4        
,,the ,,tragic ,,comedians4             

,,evan ,,harrington4        ,,short     
,,stories3--,the ,tale of ,chloe4 ,the  
,house on the ,beach4 ,farina4 ,the     
,case of ,general ,ople and ,lady       
,camper4        ,,the ,,shaving ,,of    
,,shagpat4        ,,the ,,amazing       
,,marriage4        ,,one ,,of ,,our     
,,conquerors4        ,,lord ,,ormont    
,,and ,,his ,,aminta4           ,,an    
,,essay ,,on ,,comedy4 ,uniform with the
 ,library ,edition of the ,novels       
of ,,george ,,meredith4 ,crown #hvo4    
#fs4         ,,tale ,,of ,,chloe4       
,pocket ,edition4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4       
,,the ,,story ,,of ,,bhanavar4 ,pocket  
,edition4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4               
,,merejkowski1 ,,dmitri4 ,the ,death of 
the ,gods4 ,translated by ,,herbert     
,,trench1 late ,fellow of ,all ,souls4  
,crown #hvo4 ,cloth1 #fs4         ----  
,the ,resurrection of the ,gods4        
,translated by ,,herbert ,,trench4      
,crown #hvo4 ,cloth1 #fs4               
,,montague1 ,,charles4 ,the ,vigil4 ,a  
,romance of ,zulu ,life4 ,with #ad      

full-page ,illustrations by ,a4 ,d4     
,m',,cormick4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4         
,,mowbray1 ,j4 ,p4 ,a ,journey to       
,nature4 ,coloured end papers1 and      
specially designed head and tail pieces4
 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4            
----  ,the ,making of a ,country ,home4 
,illustrated by ,,charles ,e4           
,,hooper4 ,demy #hvo4 #fs4 net4         
,,newman1 ,,mrs4 ,his ,vindication4     
,crown #hvo4 #fs4         ,,parker1     
,,nella4 ,dramas of ,to-day4 ,crown     
#hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4         ,,payne1       
,,will1 ,author of #8,jerry the         
,dreamer1' etc4 ,the ,story of ,eva4    
,crown #hvo4 #fs4         ,,penrose1    
,,mrs4 ,h4 ,h4 ,the ,modern ,gospel4    
,crown #hvo4 #fs4         ,,perks1      
,,mrs4 ,,hartley1 ,author of #8,from    
,heather ,hills4' ,among the            
,bracken4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4       
,,pickering1 ,,sidney4 ,the ,romance of 
his ,picture4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4   
,,prichard1 ,k4  ,,hesketh1 ,joint      
,authors of #8,a ,modern ,mercenary4'   

,karadac4 ,with ,photogravure           
,frontispiece4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4        
,,reed1 ,,marcus4 #8,pride of ,england4'
 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4         #8,,rita1'   
,author of #8,peg the ,rake1'           
#8,petticoat ,loose1' etc4 ,the ,sin    
of ,jasper ,standish4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 
,,russell1 ,w4 ,,clark1 ,author of      
#8,john ,holdsworth1 ,chief ,mate1'     
#8,wreck       of the ,grosvenor1' etc4 
,the ,ship's ,adventure4 ,crown #hvo4   
#fs4         ,,scott1 ,,sir ,,walter4   
,the ,waverley ,novels4 ,the favourite  
,edition of       ,sir ,walter ,scott4  
,a ,facsimile of the ,edition of #ahbi  
published by       ,cadell  ,co4 ,with  
all the original ,plates after ,sir     
,,david ,,wilkie1       ,r4,a42 ,sir    
,,edwin ,,landseer1 ,r4,a42 ,c4 ,r4     
,,leslie1 ,r4,a42 ,,clarkson            
,,stanfield1 ,r4,a41 etc4 7re-engraved74
 ,in #dh vols4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,cloth1     
paper label title1 #as4 #f;d4 net per   
volume1 or #c #abs4 net the set4        
,also cloth gilt1 gilt top1 #bs4 net per

 volume1 or #d #afs4 net the       set2 
and half leather1 gilt1 #bs4 #f;d4 net  
per volume1 or #f net the       set4    
,,setoun1 ,,gabriel1 ,author of         
#8,robert ,urquhart1' #8,barncraig1'    
etc4 ,the       ,skipper of ,barncraig4 
,crown #hvo4 ,cloth1 #fs4               
,,sharp1 ,,william4 ,madge o' the ,pool4
 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4                
,,sinclair1 ,,may1 ,author of #8,audrey 
,craven' and #8,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,nevill   
,tyson4' ,two ,sides of a ,question4    
,crown #hvo4 #fs4 #bnd ,edition4        
,,smith1 ,f4 ,,hopkinson1 ,author of    
#8,tom ,grogan1' etc4 ,caleb ,west1     
,master ,diver4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4       
,second ,edition4         ,,soane1      
,,john4 ,the ,quest of ,mr4 ,east4      
,crown #hvo4 #fs4         ,,steel1      
,,flora ,,annie4 ,in the ,tideway4      
,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4                 
,,stoker1 ,,bram4 ,dracula4 ,crown #hvo4
 #fs4 ,sixth ,edition4         ,,stoker1
 ,,bram4 ,the ,shoulder of ,shasta4     
,crown #hvo4 ,cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4         

,,street1 ,g4 ,s41 ,author of #8,the    
,autobiography of a ,boy1' etc4 ,a ,book
       of ,stories4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4   
,,sturgis1 ,,julian4 ,the ,folly of ,pen
 ,harrington4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4   
----  ,stephen ,calinari4 ,crown #hvo4  
#fs4         ,,thorburn1 ,s4 ,s4 ,his   
,majesty's ,greatest ,subject4 ,crown   
#hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4         ,,tynan1       
,,katharine1 ,author of #8,the ,dear    
,irish ,girl1' etc41 etc4 ,that         
,sweet ,enemy4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 #bnd   
,edition4         ,,white1 ,,percy4 ,the
 ,west ,end4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4          
,,white1 ,,stewart ,e4 ,the ,westerners4
 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth1 #fs4         ---- 
,the ,blazed ,trail4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4  
#8,,zack1' ,author of #8,life is ,life' 
and #8,on ,trial4' ,the ,white ,cottage4
       ,crown #hvo4 #fs4           99   
99       99       99       99           
,poetry4           ,,allen1 ,,rev4 ,g4  
,c4 ,tales from ,tennyson4 #cs4 #f;d4   
net4         ,,armstrong1 ,,arthur      
,,coles4 ,a ,tale from ,boccaccio1 and  

other ,poems4       ,crown #hvo4 #es4   
net4         ,,barmby1 ,,beatrice       
,,helen4 ,gisli ,sursson4 ,a ,drama4    
,ballads and ,poems       of the ,old   
,norse ,days1 with some ,translations4  
,with an ,introduction       by ,f4     
,,york ,,powell4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4  
net4         ,,battersby1 ,,caryl4 ,the 
,song of the ,golden ,bough4 ,crown     
#hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4       net4             
,,baughan1 ,b4 ,e4 ,verses4 ,crown #hvo4
 #es4         ,,bidder1 ,,george4 ,by   
,southern ,shore4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4     
----  ,merlin's ,youth4 ,paper1 #as4    
,also cloth1 #es4         ,,browning1   
,,robert4 ,men and ,women4 ,a limited   
,edition1 printed on       hand-made    
paper1 and bound in half vellum4 ,in #b 
vols41 #afmo1 with       ,photogravure  
,frontispiece to each4 #fs4 net the #b  
vols4         ,,campbell1 ,,james       
,,dykes4 ,coleridge's ,poems4 ,a        
,facsimile ,reproduction       of the   
,proofs and ,,mss4 of some of the       
,poems4 ,edited by ,,james ,,dykes      

,,campbell4 ,with ,preface and ,notes by
 ,w4 ,,hale ,,white4 ,edition limited   
to #bej copies1 #fs4 net4 ,large ,paper 
edition of #ej copies1 #abs4 #f;d4      
net4         ,,doughty1 ,,charles4      
,under ,arms1 #aijj4 ,price #as4 net4   
,,dryden1 ,,john4 ,aureng-,zebe3 ,a     
,tragedy4                               
,,somerville1 ,,william4 ,the ,chace3 ,a
               ,poem4 ,edited by        
,,kenneth ,,deighton4 ,in one           
volume4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 net4          
,,gale1 ,,norman4 ,a ,country ,muse4    
,first and ,second ,series4 ,a new      
,edition containing additional ,poems4  
,crown #hvo4 #es4 each volume4          
----  ,cricket ,songs4 ,third ,edition4 
,fcap4 #hvo4 ,paper1 #as4               
,,gardner1 ,,edmund4 ,dante's ,ten      
,heavens4 ,a ,study in the #8,paradiso4'
       ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 ,second        
,edition4         ---- and ,,philip ,h4 
,,wicksteed1 ,m4,a4 ,dante and ,giovanni
 del ,vergilio4       ,including a      
,critical ,edition of the text of       

,dante's #8,eclog       ,latin1' and of 
the poetic remains of ,giovanni del     
,vergilio4 ,demy       #hvo4            
,,gemmer1 ,c4 ,m4 ,fidelis and other    
,poems4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 
net4         ,,graham1 ,,david4 ,rizzio4
 ,an ,historical ,tragedy4 ,crown #hvo4 
#es4 net4         ----  ,darnley4 ,crown
 #hvo4 #es4 net4         ,,meredith1    
,,george4 ,a ,reading of ,life and other
 ,poems4 ,buckram4 ,crown       #hvo1   
#fs4 net4         ----  ,poems4 #b vols4
 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 each4 ,uniform with  
the ,library       ,edition of the      
,works of ,,george ,,meredith4          
,,meredith1 ,,george4 ,selected ,poems4 
,crown #hvo4 ,buckram1 #fs4 net4        
----  ,selected ,poems4 ,pocket         
,edition4 ,bound in half vellum4 #afmo4 
#cs4 #f;d4 net4         ----  ,odes in  
,contribution to the ,song of ,french   
,history4 ,the       ,revolution1       
,napolon1 ,alsace-,lorraine4 ,crown     
#hvo4 ,buckram1 #fs4 net4         ----  
,the ,nature ,poems of4 ,with #bj       

full-page ,photogravure ,drawings       
by ,,william ,,hyde4 ,printed on        
handmade paper4 ,edition limited to #cej
       copies4 #b #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,also
 #aej copies on large paper1 #e #es4    
net4         ,,mills1 ,e4 ,j4 ,my ,only 
,child4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4               
,,nesbit1 ,e4 ,songs of ,love and       
,empire4 ,cloth gilt4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 
,,piatt1 ,,john ,,james4 ,the ,ghost's  
,entry1 and other ,poems4 ,cloth gilt4  
,crown #hvo4 #es4         ,,piatt1      
,,mrs4 ,child ,world ,ballads4 ,crown   
#hvo4 #es4         ,,prema-,,sagara2    
,,or1 ,,the ,,ocean ,,of ,,love4        
,translated from the ,hindi by       ,f4
 ,,pincott4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 net4      
,,rait1 ,,robert ,s4 ,a ,royal          
,rhetorician4 ,a ,treatise on ,scottis  
,poesie4       ,a ,counterblaste to     
,tobacco1 etc41 etc4 ,by ,,king ,,james 
,,vi4 and ,i4       ,edited with an     
,introduction by ,,robert ,s4 ,,rait1   
,fellow of ,new       ,college1 ,oxford4
 #cs4 #f;d4 net4         ,,rait1        

,,robert ,s4 ,poems of ,montrose and    
,marvell4 ,edited by ,,robert ,s4       
,,rait4 #afmo1 half parchment4 #bs4     
#f;d4 net4         ,,rogers1            
,,alexander4 ,the ,widowed ,queen2 or1  
,the ,rhani of ,jhansi4 ,a       ,play4 
,with an ,introduction by ,,sir ,,edwin 
,,arnold4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4             
,,shakespeare1 ,,william4 ,illustrated  
,edition of the ,works of4 ,in #bj      
,imperial #afmo ,volumes with coloured  
title-page and end-papers       designed
 by ,,lewis ,f4 ,,day1 and a specially  
designed coloured       illustration to 
each ,play1 the artists being3 ,l4      
,,leslie ,,brooke1       ,,byam ,,shaw1 
,,henry ,j4 ,,ford1 ,g4 ,p4 ,,jacomb    
,,hood1 ,w4 ,d4 ,,eden1 ,,estelle       
,,nathan1 ,,eleanor ,f4 ,,brickdale1    
,,patten ,,wilson1 ,,robert ,,sauber1   
,,john ,d4       ,,batten1 ,,gerald     
,,moira1 and ,,frank ,c4 ,,cowper4 ,the 
title-page and       illustrations      
printed on ,japanese vellum4 ,cloth     
gilt1 extra1 gilt       top1 gilt back1 

with headband and bookmarker1 #bs4 #f;d4
 net per       volume1 or #b #ajs4 the  
set4 ,each volume sold separately4      
,,skrine1 ,j4 ,,huntley4 ,songs of the  
,maid4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4                
,,spenser1 ,,edmund4 ,the ,faerie       
,queene4 ,complete in ,six ,volumes4    
,fcap4       #hvo4 ,cloth1 #is4 net4    
,edited by ,,kate ,m4 ,,warren4 #as4    
#f;d4 net each4       ,also ,art        
,canvas1 gilt extra1 with ,photogravure 
,frontispiece1 #bs4       #f;d4 net per 
vol42 complete in case1 #aes4 net4      
,,stanton1 ,,frank ,l4 ,songs of the    
,soil4 ,with a ,preface by ,,joel       
,,chandler ,,harris 7,,uncle ,,remus74  
,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 net4                  
,,stevenson1 ,,wallace4 ,some ,songs and
 ,verses4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 net4        
,,thompson1 ,,francis4 ,new ,poems4     
,crown #hvo4 #fs4 net4                  
,,thomson1 ,,james4 ,poems4 ,by ,,james 
,,thomson1 ,weaver of ,kenleith4 ,demy  
#hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4         ,,vialls1 ,m4  
,a4 ,music ,fancies4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4  

net4         ,,wicksteed1 ,,philip ,h41 
,m4,a41 and ,,edmund ,g4 ,,gardner1     
,m4,a4 ,dante and       ,giovanni del   
,vergilio4 ,including a ,critical       
,edition of the text of       ,dante's  
#8,eclog ,latin1' and of the poetic     
remains of ,giovanni del                
,vergilio4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4            
,,wilson1 ,,robert4 ,laurel ,leaves4    
,crown #hvo4 #es4           99       99 
99       99       99                    
,books for the ,young4                  
,,allen1 ,,rev4 ,g4 ,c41 ,m4,a4 7,head  
,master of ,cranleigh ,school74 ,tales  
from ,tennyson4 ,with two               
,photogravures4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 
net4         ,,argyll1 ,,duke ,,of4     
,adventures in ,legend4 ,tales of the   
,west ,highlands4       ,with numerous  
,illustrations by ,,harrison ,,miller   
and ,,fairfax ,,muckley4       ,crown   
#hvo4 #fs4         ,,bankes1 ,,roden4 ,a
 ,story ,book for ,lesson ,time4 ,cloth1
 crown #hvo4 #as4         ,,gale1       
,,norman4 ,cricket ,songs4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 

,paper1 #as4 ,third ,edition4           
,,gomme1 ,g4 ,,laurence4 ,books edited  
by4         ----  ,the ,king's ,story   
,book4 ,illustrated by ,,harrison       
,,miller4         ----  ,the ,queen's   
,story ,book4 ,illustrated by ,w4 ,h4   
,,robinson4         ----  ,the ,prince's
 ,story ,book4 ,illustrated by ,h4 ,s4  
,,banks4         ----  ,the ,princess's 
,story ,book4 ,illustrated by ,,helen   
,,stratton4         ,historical ,stories
 collected out of ,english ,romantic    
,literature1 in       illustration of   
the ,reigns of ,english ,monarchs from  
the ,conquest to       ,queen ,victoria4
         ,new ,editions of each of these
 ,story ,books are in preparation4      
,harold3 ,the ,last of the ,saxons4 ,by 
,,lord ,,lytton4 ,crown #hvo4           
,illustrated4 #cs4 #f;d4         ,the   
,camp of ,refuge4 ,by ,,charles         
,,macfarlane4 ,crown #hvo4 ,illustrated4
       #cs4 #f;d4         ,westward ,ho6
 ,by ,,charles ,,kingsley4 ,crown #hvo4 
,illustrated4 #cs4 #f;d4                

,reading ,abbey4 ,by ,,charles          
,,macfarlane4 ,crown #hvo4 ,illustrated4
 #cs4       #f;d4         ,,harris1     
,,joel ,,chandler 7,uncle ,remus74      
,sister ,jane1 ,her ,friends and        
,acquaintances4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4       
,,macleod1 ,,fiona4 ,the ,laughter of   
,peterkin4 ,a ,re-telling of ,old       
,stories of the ,celtic ,wonder-,world4 
,illustrated by ,,sunderland            
,,rollinson4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #fs4   
,,paine1 ,,albert ,,bigelow4 ,the       
,hollow ,tree4 ,illustrated by ,j4 ,m4  
,,cond4       ,bound in coloured boards4
 #dto4 #cs4 #f;d4         ,,singing     
,,time4 ,a ,child's ,song ,book4 ,music 
by ,,arthur ,,somervell4       ,drawings
 by ,l4 ,,leslie ,,brooke4 ,square #dto4
 #es4           99       99       99    
99       99    ,,index ,,to ,,authors   
,addison1 ,joseph1 #bb4    #8,alien1'   
#cc4    ,allen1 ,rev4 ,g4 ,c41 #db4     
,andom1 ,r41 #cc4    ,anitchkow1        
,michael1 #c4    ,anon41 #c1 #cc4       
,arber1 ,professor ,edward1 #bb-be4     

,argyll1 ,duke of1 #cc4    ,armstrong1  
,arthur ,coles1 #db4    ,arnold1 ,t4    
,w41 #c4    ,arnold1 ,sir ,edwin1 #de4  
,ascham1 ,roger1 #bb1 #bc4      ,bacon1 
,lord1 #bc4    ,bain1 ,r4 ,nisbet1 #c4  
,ballin1 ,mrs4 ,a41 #bf4    ,bankes1    
,roden1 #bf4    ,barmby1 ,beatrice      
,helen1 #db4    ,barnfield1 ,richard1   
#be4    ,bartholomew1 ,j4 ,g41          
,f4,r4,g4,s41 #ad4    ,bates1 ,arlo1    
#cc4    ,battersby1 ,caryl1 #db4        
,battye1 ,a4 ,trevor-1 ,f4,l4,s41 #ad4  
,baughan1 ,b4 ,e41 #db4    ,bayley1 ,sir
 ,steuart ,colvin1 #g4    ,beatty1      
,william1 ,m4,d41 #c4    ,beaumont1     
,worby1 #bf4    ,berthet1 ,e41 #cc4     
,bertram1 ,james1 #d4    ,bidder1       
,george1 #db4    ,bidder1 ,m41 #cc4     
,birdwood1 ,sir ,george1 ,m4,d41        
,k4,c4,i4,e41 ,c4,s4,i41 ,,ll4,d41 #ae4 
,birrell1 ,augustine1 ,q4,c41 ,m4,p41   
#d4    ,black1 ,c4 ,e4 ,d41 #aj4        
,blount1 ,bertram1 #bf4    ,bonavia1    
,emmanuel1 ,m4,d41 #bf4    ,boswell1    
,james1 #d4    ,bower1 ,marian1 #cc4    

,brabant1 ,arthur ,baring1 #aj4         
,bradley1 ,a4 ,g41 #d4    ,brame1 ,j4   
,s4 ,s41 #bh4    ,bright1 ,charles1     
,f4,r4,s4,e41 #d4    ,bright1 ,edward   
,brailston1 ,c4,e41 #d4    ,brownell1   
,w4 ,c41 #bj4    ,browning1 ,robert1    
#db4    ,bryden1 ,h4 ,a41 #cc4          
,burroughs1 ,john1 #e4      ,cairnes1   
,capt4 ,w4 ,e41 #cc4    ,campbell1      
,james ,dykes1 #db4    ,campbell1 ,lord 
,archibald1 #e4    ,capes1 ,bernard1    
#cc4    ,carmichael1 ,m41 #cd4          
,caxton1 ,william1 #bd4                 
#8,centurion1' #e4    ,chailley-,bert1  
,j41 #e4    ,chamberlain1 ,rt4 ,hon4    
,joseph1 ,m4,p41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41   
#e4    ,chambers1 ,r4 ,w41 #cd4         
,charles1 ,joseph ,f41 #cd4             
,charrington1 ,charles1 #cd4            
,coldstream1 ,j4 ,p41 #bf4    ,cole1    
,alan ,s41 #bj4    ,collins1 ,j4        
,churton1 #e4    ,conway1 ,sir ,william 
,martin1 #ad4    ,cooper1 ,bishop       
,thomas1 #be4    ,cooper1 ,e4 ,h41 #cd4 
,cornish1 ,f4 ,warre1 #cd4    ,courtney1

 ,w4 ,l41 #e4    ,coxon1 ,ethel1 #cd4   
,cunynghame1 ,henry1 #bj4    ,currie1   
,maj4-,gen4 ,fendall1 #e4    ,curzon1   
,the ,right ,hon4 ,george ,n4 7,lord    
,curzon of ,kedleston71 #e4      ,dale1 
,t4 ,f4 7,stoneclink71 #ag1 #cd4        
,daniell1 ,a4 ,e41 #bj1 #ca4            
,danvers1 ,fred4 ,charles1 #g4          
,darnley1 ,countess of1 #cd4            
,davidson1 ,thomas1 #f4    ,decker1     
,thomas1 #bd4    ,deighton1 ,kenneth1   
#f4    ,de ,bury1 ,mlle4 ,blaze1 #f4    
,denny1 ,charles ,e41 #cd4    ,dinsmore1
 ,charles ,a41 #f4    ,doughty1         
,charles1 #dc4    ,doyle1 ,c4 ,w41 #cd4 
,dryden1 ,john1 #dc4    ,duff1 ,c4 ,m41 
#f4    ,durand1 ,lady1 #ae4    ,dutt1   
,r4 ,c41 ,c4,i4,e41 #f4      ,earle1    
,alice ,morse1 #ab4    ,earle1 ,john1   
#bb4    ,elliott1 ,robert ,h41 #ae4     
,englehardt1 ,a4 ,p41 #ae4              
,filippi1 ,filippo de1 #ae4    ,fish1   
,simon1 #bd4    ,flowerdew1 ,herbert1   
#ce4    ,forbes-,robertson1 ,frances1   
#ce4    ,ford1 ,paul ,leicester1 #ce4   

,fox1 ,arthur ,w41 #f4      ,gairdner1  
,james1 #f4    ,gale1 ,norman1 #dc4     
,gall1 ,john1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,b41 #bg4    
,gardner1 ,edmund1 #dc4    ,gascoigne1  
,george1 #bb4    ,gemmer1 ,c4 ,m41 #dc4 
,glasgow1 ,ellen1 #ce4    ,godkin1 ,e4  
,l41 #f1 #g4    ,goffic1 ,charles le1   
#cf4    ,gomme1 ,g4 ,laurence1 #g1 #cf1 
#cg1 #dg4    ,googe1 ,barnabe1 #bc4     
,gosson1 ,stephen1 #bb4    ,graham1     
,david1 #dc4    ,granby1 ,marchioness   
of1 #bj4    ,greene1 ,robert1 ,m4,a41   
#bd4    ,gribble1 ,francis1 #g4         
,guillemard1 ,dr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,h41 #af4     
,gwynn1 ,paul1 #ce4      ,habington1    
,william1 #bc4    ,hackel1 ,eduard1 #bg4
    ,hake1 ,a4 ,egmont1 #g4    ,hanna1  
,col4 ,h4 ,b41 #g1 #ah4    ,hannan1     
,charles1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 #ce4    ,harald1
 ,j4 ,h41 #ca4    ,harewood1 ,fred41    
#cc4    ,harris1 ,joel ,chandler 7,uncle
 ,remus71 #ce4    ,hayden1 ,e4 ,g41 #g4 
,hewitt1 ,j4 ,f41 #g4    ,hewlett1      
,maurice1 #ce4    ,hodgson1 ,r4 ,ll41   
#ae1 #cd4    ,holden1 ,ed4 ,s41         

,,ll4,d41 #h4    ,holland1 ,clive1 #bg4 
,hope1 ,w4 ,h4 ,st4 ,john1 #h1 #bj4     
,houfe1 ,c4 ,a41 #h4    ,howell1 ,james1
 #bc4    ,hunter1 ,sir ,w4 ,w41 #h4     
,hutten1 ,baroness von1 #ce4    ,hyde1  
,william1 #ba4      ,irwin1 ,sidney ,t41
 #h4      ,james1 ,henry1 #ce1 #cf4     
,james1 ,king1 the ,first1 #bc4         
,james1 ,william1 #h4    ,jardine1 ,hon4
 ,mr4 ,justice1 #af4    ,johnston1      
,mary1 #ce1 #cf4    ,joy1 ,george1 #be4 
,kennedy1 ,admiral1 #ag4    ,kingsley1  
,charles1 #cf4    ,knox1 ,john1 #bd4    
,krehbiel1 ,henry ,e41 #h4              
,lachambre1 ,henri1 #ae4    ,lafargue1  
,philip1 #cf4    ,lane-,poole1 ,stanley1
 #h4    ,latimer1 ,hugh1 #bb4    ,leach1
 ,a4 ,f41 ,m4,a41 #h1 #bg4    ,leaf1    
,cecil ,h41 ,m4,a41 #bg4    ,leaf1 ,h4  
,m41 ,m4,i4,e4,e41 #bg4    ,legg1 ,l4   
,g4 ,wickham1 #h1 #ba4    ,lever1 ,rev4 
,thomas1 #bc4    ,lewes1 ,vivian ,b41   
#bh4    ,loti1 ,pierre1 #cf4    ,lover1 
,samuel1 #cf4    ,lyly1 ,john1 #bb4     
,lytton1 ,lord1 #cf4      ,macfarlane1  

,charles1 #cg4    ,mac,george1 ,g4 ,w41 
#h4    ,machuron1 ,alexis1 #ae4         
,mac,ilwaine1 ,herbert ,c41 #cg4        
,macleod1 ,fiona1 #cg1 #dh4             
,mac,nair1 ,major ,j4 ,f4 ,a41 #i4      
,machray1 ,robert1 #cg4    ,madge1 ,h4  
,d41 ,rev41 #ca4    ,marprelate1        
,martin1 #bd4    ,mason1 ,a4 ,e4 ,w41   
#cg4    ,masterman1 ,n41 #i4    ,mayo1  
,john ,horsley1 #ah4    ,m',candlish1   
,j4 ,m41 #aj4    ,mc,ilwraith1 ,jean1   
#cg4    ,mc,laws1 ,lafayette1 #cg4      
,meakin1 ,a4 ,m4 ,b41 #af4    ,meredith1
 ,george1 #i1 #ba1 #cg1 #ch1 #dc4       
,merejkowski1 ,dmitri1 #ch4             
,metcalfe1 ,charles ,theophilus1        
,c4,s4,i41 #i4    ,meynell1 ,alice1 #ba4
    ,mills1 ,e4 ,j41 #dd4    ,milton1   
,john1 #bb4    ,mitchell1 ,h4 ,g41 #cb4 
,monier-,williams1 ,sir ,m41            
,k4,c4,i4,e41 #g4    ,monk of ,evesham1 
,a1 #bc4    ,montague1 ,charles1 #ci4   
,more1 ,sir ,thomas1 #bb4    ,morison1  
,m41 #i1 #bh4    ,morison1 ,theodore1   
#i4    ,mowbray1 ,j4 ,p41 #ci4          

,mnsterberg1 ,hugo1 #i4      ,nansen1   
,fridtjof1 #af4    ,naunton1 ,sir       
,robert1 #bc4    ,nesbit1 ,e41 #dd4     
,newberry1 ,percy ,e41 #aj1 #ba4        
,newman1 ,mrs41 #ci4    ,nisbet1 ,john1 
#aj4      ,o',donoghue1 ,j4 ,t41 #ef4   
,ookhtomsky1 ,prince ,e41 #af4          
,oppert1 ,gustav1 #aj4      ,paine1     
,albert ,bigelow1 #dh4    ,palmer1      
,walter1 ,m4,p41 #aj4    ,parker1       
,nella1 #ci4    ,payne1 ,will1 #ci4     
,peel1 ,mrs41 #bh4    ,penrose1 ,mrs4   
,h4 ,h41 #ci4    ,perks1 ,mrs4 ,hartley1
 #ci4    ,piatt1 ,john ,james1 #dd4     
,piatt1 ,mrs41 #dd4    ,pickering1      
,sidney1 #ci4    ,pincott1 ,f41 #dd4    
,popowski1 ,joseph1 #aj4    ,powell1 ,f4
 ,york1 #db4    ,prichard1 ,hesketh1    
#af4    ,prichard1 ,k4  ,hesketh1 #ci4  
,puttenham1 ,george1 #bc4      ,rait1   
,r4 ,s41 #aj1 #dd1 #de4    ,raleigh1    
,sir ,walter1 #bc4    ,reed1 ,marcus1   
#ci1 #eh4    ,rice1 ,louis1 #aj4        
,rinder1 ,e4 ,wingate1 #cf4    #8,rita1'
 #ci4    ,roberts1 ,morley1 #af4        

,robertson1 ,david1 #bg4    ,robinson1  
,clement1 #bd4    ,rogers1 ,alexander1  
#de4    ,rogers1 ,c4 ,j41 #bh4          
,roosevelt1 ,theodore1 #aa4    ,round1  
,j4 ,horace1 ,m4,a41 #aa4    ,roy1 ,w41 
#bc4    ,russell1 ,w4 ,clark1 #dj4      
,ryley1 ,rev4 ,j4 ,buchanan1 #aa1 #cb4  
,sangermano1 ,father1 #af4    ,sapte1   
,brand1 #g4    ,schweitzer1 ,georg1 #aa4
    ,scott1 ,eva1 #aa4    ,scott1 ,sir  
,walter1 #dj4    ,scrutton1 ,percy ,e41 
#bh4    ,selden1 ,john1 #bb4    ,selfe1 
,rose ,e41 #ab4    ,setoun1 ,gabriel1   
#dj4    ,shakespeare1 ,william1 #de4    
,sharp1 ,william1 #dj4    ,siborne1     
,captain ,william1 #aa1 #ah4    ,sichel1
 ,edith1 #ab4    ,sidney1 ,sir ,philip1 
#bb4    ,sinclair1 ,may1 #dj4           
,sinclair1 ,ven4 ,archdeacon1 ,d4,d41   
#eb4    ,skrine1 ,j4 ,huntley1 #cb1 #de4
    ,slaughter1 ,frances1 #cd4          
,smith1 ,edward1 #ab4    ,smith1 ,f4    
,hopkinson1 #dj4    ,smith1 ,captain    
,john1 #be4    ,smythe1 ,a4 ,j41 #ab4   
,sneath1 ,e4 ,hershey1 #ab1 #cb4        

,soane1 ,john1 #dj4    ,somervell1      
,arthur1 #dh4    ,somerville1 ,william1 
#dc4    ,spalding1 ,thomas ,alfred1 #ab1
 #ah4    ,spenser1 ,edmund1 #de4        
,stadling1 ,j41 #af4    ,stanihurst1    
,richard1 #bd4    ,stanton1 ,frank ,l41 
#de4    ,steel1 ,flora ,annie1 #dj4     
,stein1 ,m4 ,a41 #ab4    ,stevenson1    
,wallace1 #de4    ,stoker1 ,bram1 #dj1  
#da4    ,stoneclink 7,t4 ,f4 ,dale71 #f1
 #ag1 #cd4    ,street1 ,g4 ,s41 #ab1    
#da4    ,stuart1 ,john1 #ab4            
,sturgis1 ,julian1 #da4      ,tarver1   
,j4 ,c41 #bi4    ,thompson1 ,francis1   
#df4    ,thomson1 ,j4 ,j41 ,f4,r4,s41   
#bi4    ,thomson1 ,james1 #df4          
,thorburn1 ,s4 ,s41 #da4    ,thornton1  
,surg4-,general1 ,c4,b41 #ac4           
,torrey1 ,joseph1 #bi4    ,tottel1 ,r41 
#bc4    ,townsend1 ,meredith1 #ab4      
,traill1 ,h4 ,d41 #ac4    ,trench1      
,herbert1 #ch4    ,turner1 ,h4 ,h41     
,f4,r4,s41 #bi4    ,tynan1 ,katharine1  
#da4      ,udall1 ,rev4 ,john1 #bd4     
,udall1 ,nicholas1 #bc4                 

,vallery-,radot1 ,r41 #ac4    ,vibart1  
,colonel ,henry ,m41 #ac1 #ai4          
,villiers1 ,george1 #bb4      ,waddell1 
,surg4-,maj4 ,j4 ,a41 #af4    ,walker1  
,charles1 #ag4    ,warren1 ,kate ,m41   
#bh1 #cj4    ,watson1 ,thomas4 #bc4     
,webb1 ,surgeon-,captain1 ,w4 ,w41 #cj4 
,webbe1 ,e41 #bb4    ,webbe1 ,william1  
#bc4    ,wesslau1 ,o4 ,e41 #g4          
,white1 ,w4 ,hale1 #db4    ,white1      
,percy1 #da4    ,white1 ,stewart ,e41   
#da4    ,whiteway1 ,r4 ,s41 #ac4        
,wicksteed1 ,rev4 ,p4 ,h41 #ac1 #dc4    
,wigram1 ,percy1 #g4    ,wilkinson1     
,spenser1 #ac1 #ah1 #ai4    ,wilson1 ,a4
 ,j41 #ag4    ,wilson1 ,j4 ,m41 ,m4,a41 
#cb4    ,wilson1 ,robert1 #df4          
,wilson1 ,sarah1 #cb4    ,winslow1 ,anna
 ,green1 #ac4    ,wood1 ,walter1 #ac4   
,young1 ,ernest1 #af4      #8,zack1'    
#da4    ,zimmermann1 ,dr4 ,a41 #ej4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,a ,,catalogue ,,of ,,books             
,,published ,,by                        
,archibald ,constable  ,co4 ,ltd        

,arranged in ,order of ,prices          
999999,waverley ,novels4 ,see page #fd4 
,sidenote3 #as4         ,anon4          
,muggleton ,college4         ,bankes    
7,roden7 ,a ,story ,book for ,lesson    
,time4         ,bidder 7,george7        
,merlin's ,youth4 ,paper4               
,bright 7,charles7 ,science and         
,engineering1 #ahcg-ig4         ,gale   
7,norman7 ,cricket ,songs4              
,palmer 7,walter1 ,m4,p47 ,poultry      
,management on a ,farm4      ,sidenote3 
#as4 ,net4         ,philips 7,f4 ,c47 ,a
 ,full ,confession4         ,the ,books 
of the ,bible--,psalms1 ,st4 ,matthew1  
,st4 ,mark1 ,st4 ,luke1       ,st4      
,john4 ,cloth4 ,paper label4            
,the ,st4 ,george's ,kalendar1 #aijb4   
,sidenote3 #as4 #f;d4 ,net4    ,doughty 
7,charles7 ,under ,arms1 #aijj4         
,scott 7,sir ,walter7 ,the ,waverley    
,novels4 #dh ,volumes4 ,label4 ,per vol4
    ,the ,books of the ,bible--,psalms1 
,st4 ,matthew1 ,st4 ,mark1 ,st4 ,luke1  
,st4  ,john4 ,cloth gilt4    ,warren    

7,kate ,m47 ,spenser's ,faerie ,queene4 
#f vols4 ,each4      ,sidenote3 #bs4    
,chamberlain 7,rt4 ,hon4 ,joseph1       
,m4,p47 ,patriotism4 ,buckram4          
,coldstream 7,john ,p47 ,institutions of
 ,austria4    ----                      
8      8  ,italy4            ,sidenote3 
#bs4 ,net4         ,scott 7,sir ,walter7
 ,the ,waverley ,novels4 #dh vols4      
,cloth gilt4 ,per       ,vol4           
,sidenote3 #bs4#f;d4         ,anon4 ,the
 ,love of an ,obsolete ,woman4          
,hanna 7,col4 ,h4 ,b47 ,backwards or    
,forwards4         ---- ,can ,russia    
,invade ,india8          ---- ,india's  
,scientific ,frontier4         ,holland 
7,clive7 ,the ,use of the ,hand ,camera4
         ,houfe 7,c4 ,a47 ,the ,question
 of the ,houses4         ,james         
7,william7 ,human ,immortality4         
,lafargue 7,philip7 ,the ,salt of the   
,earth4         ,pickering 7,sidney7    
,the ,romance of his ,picture4          
,scrutton 7,percy ,e47 ,electricity in  
,town and ,country ,houses4             

,sharp 7,william7 ,madge o' the ,pool4  
,skrine 7,j4 ,huntley7 ,a ,goodly       
,heritage4         ,stoker 7,bram7 ,the 
,shoulder of ,shasta4         ,wilkinson
 7,spenser7 ,the ,brain of an ,army4    
---- ,lessons of the ,war4----          
---- ,the ,volunteers and the ,national 
,defence4         ---- ,the ,command of 
the ,sea and the ,brain of the ,navy4   
,sidenote3 #bs4 #f;d4 ,net4             
,anon4 ,all ,expenses ,paid4            
,beatty 7,william1 ,m4,d47 ,an          
,authentic ,narrative of the ,death of  
,nelson4         ,four ,gospels4 ,cloth4
 ,paper label4         ,meredith        
7,george7 ,the ,novels of4 ,pocket      
,edition4 #ae vols4 ,each4         ,rait
 7,r4 ,s47 ,poems of ,montrose and      
,marvell4         ,scott 7,sir ,walter7 
,the ,waverley ,novels4 #dh vols4       
,leather4 ,per vol4                     
,shakespeare4 ,the ,works of4           
,illustrated4 #bj vols4 ,each4          
,the ,books of the ,bible--,psalms1 ,st4
 ,matthew1 ,st4 ,mark1 ,st4 ,luke1      

,st4 ,john4 ,leather gilt4              
,walker 7,c47 ,amateur ,fish ,culture4  
,warren 7,kate ,m47 ,spenser's ,faerie  
,queene4 ,cloth gilt4 #f vols4 ,each4   
,sidenote3 #cs4 ,net4         ,four     
,gospels4 ,cloth gilt4      ,sidenote3  
#cs4 #f;d4         ,andom 7,r47 and     
,harewood 7,f47 ,the ,fortune of a      
,spendthrift4         ,anon4 ,muggleton 
,college4 ,cloth4         ,ballin 7,mrs4
 ,ada7 ,from ,cradle to ,school4        
,bryden 7,h4 ,a47 ,tales of ,south      
,africa4         ,carmichael            
7,montgomery7 ,sketches and ,stories1   
,grave and ,gay4         ,charrington   
7,charles7 ,a ,sturdy ,beggar1 and ,lady
 ,bramber's ,ghost4       ,two ,stories4
         ,doyle 7,c4 ,w47 ,the ,shadow  
of ,quong ,lung4         ---- ,the      
,taming of the ,jungle4         ,goffic 
7,c4 ,le7 ,the ,dark ,way of ,love4     
,hannan 7,charles1 ,f4,r4,g4,s47        
,chin-,chin-,wa4         ,kingsley      
7,charles7 ,westward ,ho6               
,lytton 7,lord7 ,harold4                

,macfarlane 7,charles7 ,the ,camp of    
,refuge4         ---- ,reading ,abbey4  
,macleod 7,fiona7 ,green ,fire4         
,morison 7,theodore7 ,imperial ,rule in 
,india4         ,parker 7,nella7 ,dramas
 of ,to-,day4         ,peel 7,mrs4 ,c4  
,s47 ,the ,new ,home4         ---- ,ten 
,shillings a ,head per ,week for        
,house-books4         ,perks 7,mrs4     
,hartley7 ,among the ,bracken4          
,sinclair 7,ven4 ,archdeacon1 ,d4,d47   
,simplicity in ,christ4         ,steele 
7,f4 ,a47 ,in the ,tideway4             
,stoker 7,bram7 ,the ,shoulder of       
,shasta4         ,sturgis 7,julian7 ,the
 ,folly of ,pen ,harrington4            
,thorburn 7,s4 ,s47 ,his ,majesty's     
,greatest ,subject4         ,ward       
7,prof4 ,a4 ,w47 ,sir ,henry ,wotton4   
,sidenote3 #cs4 #f;d4 ,net              
,allen 7,g4 ,c47 ,tales from ,tennyson4 
,barmby 7,b4 ,h47 ,gisli ,sursson4 ,a   
,drama4         ,battersby 7,caryl7 ,the
 ,song of the ,golden ,bough4           
,courtney 7,w4 ,l47 ,the ,idea of       

,tragedy4         ,deighton 7,kenneth7  
,conjectural ,readings in the ,old      
,dramatists4         ,gemmer 7,c4 ,m47  
,fidelis and other ,poems4              
,madge 7,h4 ,d47 ,leaves from the       
,golden ,legend4         ,meredith      
7,george7 ,selected ,poems4 ,pocket     
,edition4         ---- ,tale of ,chloe4 
,pocket ,edition4         ---- ,the     
,story of ,bhanavar4 ,pocket ,edn4      
,rait 7,r4 ,s47 ,a ,royal ,rhetorician4 
,the ,manchester ,stage1 #ahhj-aijj4    
,sidenote3 #ds4         ,gall 7,john1   
,m4,a41 ,,ll4,b47 and ,robertson        
7,david1 ,b4,sc47 ,popular              
,readings in ,science4         ,lewes   
7,vivian ,b47 and ,brame 7,j4 ,s4 ,s47  
,laboratory ,note ,book for             
,chemical ,students4      ,sidenote3    
#ds4 ,net4         ,boswell's ,account  
of ,dr4 ,johnson's ,tour in the         
,hebrides4 #b volumes4       ,cloth4    
,sidenote3 #ds4 #f;d4         ,meredith 
,birthday ,book4      ,sidenote3 #ds4   
#f;d4 ,net4         ,thomson 7,j4 ,j47  

,the ,discharge of ,electricity through 
,gases4      ,sidenote3 #es4            
,baughan 7,b4 ,e47 ,verses4             
,bidder 7,george7 ,by ,southern ,shore4 
---- ,merlin's ,youth4 ,cloth4          
,four ,gospels4 ,leather4         ,gale 
7,norman7 ,a ,country ,muse4 #ast       
,series4         ----  #bnd ,series4    
,mills 7,e4 ,j47 ,my ,only ,child4      
,nesbit 7,e47 ,songs of ,love and       
,empire4         ,piatt 7,j4 ,j47 ,the  
,ghost's ,entry4         ,piatt 7,mrs47 
,child ,world ,ballads4         ,rogers 
7,alexander7 ,the ,widowed ,queen4      
,skrine 7,j4 ,h47 ,songs of the ,maid4  
,somervell 7,a47 and ,brooke 7,leslie7  
,singing ,time4 ,a ,child's ,song       
,book4         ,walker 7,charles7       
,shooting on a ,small ,income4          
,wilkinson 7,spenser7 ,the ,nation's    
,awakening4         ,wilson 7,robert7   
,laurel ,leaves4      ,sidenote3 #es4   
,net4         ,armstrong 7,arthur       
,coles7 ,a ,tale from ,boccaccio4       
,davidson 7,thomas7 ,a ,history of      

,education4         ,dinsmore 7,charles 
,a47 ,the ,teachings of ,dante4         
,dryden 7,john7 ,aureng-,zebe1          
,somerville 7,william7 ,the ,chace4     
,edited       by ,kenneth ,deighton4    
,graham 7,david7 ,rizzio4         ----  
,darnley4         ,mitchell 7,h4 ,g47   
,the ,world ,before ,abraham4           
,seton-,watson 7,r4 ,w47 ,maximilian4   
,sneath 7,e4 ,hershey7 ,the ,mind of    
,tennyson4         ,stanton 7,frank ,l47
 ,songs of the ,soil4      ,sidenote3   
#fs4         #8,alien' ,another ,woman's
 ,territory4         ,argyll 7,duke of7 
,adventures in ,legend4         ,bates  
7,arlo7 ,the ,puritans4         ,berthet
 7,e47 ,the ,catacombs of ,paris4       
,bidder 7,m47 ,in the ,shadow of the    
,crown4         ,bower 7,marian7 ,the   
,puppet ,show4         ,bradley 7,a4    
,g47 ,the ,fight with ,france for ,north
 ,america4         ,cairnes 7,captain   
,w4 ,e47 ,the ,coming ,waterloo4        
,capes 7,bernard7 ,love ,like a ,gipsy4 
,chambers 7,r4 ,w47 ,cardigan4          

,charles 7,joseph ,f47 ,a ,statesman's  
,chance4         ,conway 7,sir ,william 
,martin7 ,the ,alps from ,end to ,end4  
,cooper 7,e4 ,h47 ,the ,enemies4        
,cornish 7,f4 ,warre7 ,sunningwell4     
,coxon 7,ethel7 ,within ,bounds4        
,currie 7,major-,gen4 ,fendall7 ,below  
the ,surface4         ,dale 7,t4 ,f47   
and ,slaughter 7,f4 ,e47 ,two ,fortunes 
and ,old ,patch4         ,daniell 7,a4  
,e47 ,london ,city ,churches4           
---- ,london ,riverside ,churches4      
,darnley 7,countess of7 and ,hodgson    
7,r4 ,ll47 ,elma ,trevor4         ,de   
,bury 7,yetta ,blaze7 ,french           
,literature of ,to-day4         ,denny  
7,charles ,e47 ,the ,failure of the     
,wanderer4         ,dutt 7,r4 ,c47 ,the 
,literature of ,bengal4                 
,flowerdew 7,h47 ,retaliation4          
,forbes-,robertson 7,francis7 ,odd      
,stories4         ---- ,the ,potentate4 
,ford 7,paul ,leicester7 ,the ,story of 
an ,untold ,love4         ---- ,tattle  
,tales of ,cupid4         ---- ,janice  

,meredith4         ,gallon 7,tom7 ,the  
,man who ,knew ,better4         ,glasgow
 7,ellen7 ,the ,battle ,ground4         
,gwynn 7,paul7 ,marta4         ,harald  
7,h4 ,j47 ,the ,knowledge of ,life4     
,harris 7,joel ,chandler7 ,sister ,jane4
         ,hewlett 7,maurice7 ,new       
,canterbury ,tales4         ,hutten     
7,baroness von7 ,marr'd in ,making4     
,james 7,henry7 ,the ,wings of the      
,dove4         ,johnston 7,mary7 ,the   
,old ,dominion4         ---- ,by ,order 
of the ,company4         ---- ,audrey4  
,krehbiel 7,henry ,e47 ,music and       
,manners in the ,classical ,period4     
,lachambre and ,machuron4 ,andre and his
 ,balloon4         ,lover 7,samuel7     
,handy ,andy4         ---- ,treasure    
,trove4         ---- ,rory ,o',more4    
---- ,legends and ,stories of ,ireland4 
,vol4 ,i4         --------  ,vol4 ,,ii4 
----,further ,stories4         ,machray 
7,robert7 ,sir ,hector4                 
,mac,ilwaine 7,herbert ,c47 ,dinkinbar4 
----,fate the ,fiddler4                 

,mc,ilwraith 7,jean ,n47 ,curious       
,career of ,robert ,campbell4           
,mc,laws 7,lafayette7 ,when the ,land   
was ,young4         ,macleod 7,fiona7   
,the ,laughter of ,peterkin4            
---- ,the ,dominion of ,dreams4         
,mason 7,a4 ,e4 ,w47 ,ensign ,knightley1
 and other ,stories4         ,meakin    
7,a4 ,m4 ,b47 ,a ,ribbon of ,iron4      
,meredith 7,george7 ,the ,ordeal of     
,richard ,feverel4         ---- ,rhoda  
,fleming4         ---- ,sandra ,belloni4
         ---- ,vittoria4         ----   
,diana of the ,crossways4         ----  
,beauchamp's ,career4          ---- ,the
 ,adventures of ,harry ,richmond4       
,meredith 7,george7 ,the ,egoist4       
---- ,the ,tragic ,comedians4           
---- ,evan ,harrington4         ----    
,the ,tale of ,chloe and other ,stories4
         ---- ,the ,shaving of ,shagpat4
         ---- ,the ,amazing ,marriage4  
---- ,one of ,our ,conquerors4          
---- ,poems4 #b vols4 ,each4            
---- ,lord ,ormont and his ,aminta4     

---- ,an ,essay on ,comedy4             
,merejkowski 7,dmitri7 ,the ,death of   
the ,gods4         ---- ,the            
,resurrection of the ,gods4             
,montague 7,charles7 ,the ,vigil4       
,nansen 7,fridtjof7 ,farthest ,north4   
,newman 7,mrs47 ,his ,vindication4      
,payne 7,will7 ,the ,story of ,eva4     
,penrose 7,mrs4 ,h4 ,h47 ,the ,modern   
,gospel4         ,prichard 7,k4  ,h47   
,karadac4         ,reed 7,marcus7       
#8,pride of ,england4'         #8,rita' 
,the ,sin of ,jasper ,standish4         
,russell 7,w4 ,clark7 ,the ,ship's      
,adventure4         ,scott 7,eva7       
,rupert1 ,prince ,palatine4             
,setoun 7,gabriel7 ,the ,skipper of     
,barncraig4         ,siborne 7,captain  
,william7 ,the ,waterloo ,campaign1     
#ahae4         ,sichel 7,edith7 ,the    
,household of the ,lafayettes4          
,sinclair 7,may7 ,two ,sides of a       
,question4         ,smith 7,f4          
,hopkinson7 ,caleb ,west3 ,master       
,diver4         ,soane 7,john7 ,the     

,quest of ,mr4 ,east4         ,stoker   
7,bram7 ,dracula4         ,street 7,g4  
,s47 ,a ,book of ,stories4              
,sturgis 7,julian7 ,stephen ,calinari4  
,tarver 7,j4 ,c47 ,some ,observations of
 a ,foster ,parent4         ----        
,debateable ,claims4                    
,trevor-,battye 7,aubyn7 ,a ,northern   
,highway of the ,czar4         ,tynan   
7,katharine7 ,that ,sweet ,enemy4       
,waddell 7,major ,l4 ,a47 ,among the    
,himalayas4         ,white 7,stewart    
,e47 ,the ,westerners4         ---- ,the
 ,blazed ,trail4         ,wicksteed     
7,rev4 ,p4 ,h47 ,the ,chronicle of      
,villani4         ,wilson 7,archdeacon  
,j4 ,m47 ,truths ,new and ,old4         
,wilson 7,sarah7 ,the ,romance of our   
,ancient ,churches4         ,winslow    
7,mrs4 ,anna ,green7 ,diary of a ,boston
 ,school ,girl4         ,young 7,ernest7
 ,the ,kingdom of the ,yellow ,robe4    
#8,zack' ,the ,white ,cottage4          
,sidenote3 #fs4 ,net4         ,boswell's
 ,account of ,dr4 ,johnson's ,tour in   

the ,hebrides4 ,half       leather4 #b  
vols4 ,the set4         ,browning       
7,robert7 ,men and ,women4 #b vols4 ,the
 set4         ,burroughs 7,john7        
,whitman4         ,campbell 7,james     
,dykes7 ,coleridge's ,poems4            
,cunynghame 7,h4 ,h47 ,art ,enamelling  
on ,metals4 ,illustrated4 ,second       
,edition4         ,godkin 7,e4 ,l47     
,unforeseen ,tendencies of ,democracy4  
,meredith 7,george7 ,odes in            
,contribution to the ,song of ,french   
,history4         ---- ,selected ,poems4
         ---- ,a ,reading of ,life4     
,mowbray 7,j4 ,p47 ,the ,making of a    
,country ,home4         ,mnsterberg     
7,hugo7 ,psychology and ,life4          
,thompson 7,francis7 ,new ,poems4       
,torrey 7,joseph7 ,elementary ,studies  
in ,chemistry4         ,turner 7,h4 ,h41
 ,f4,r4,s47 ,modern ,astronomy4         
,sidenote3 #gs4 #f;d4         ,bertram  
7,james7 ,some ,memories of ,books1     
,authors and ,events4                   
,chailley-,bert 7,j47 ,colonisation of  

,indo-,china4         ,collins          
7,churton7 ,ephemera ,critica4          
,curzon 7,lord1 of ,kedleston7 ,problems
 of the ,far ,east4         ,elliott    
7,robert7 ,gold1 ,sport1 and            
,coffee-,planting in ,mysore4           
,godkin 7,e4 ,l47 ,reflections and      
,comments4         ---- ,problems of    
,modern ,democracy4         ,hodgson    
7,r4 ,ll47 ,on ,plain and ,peak4        
,stuart 7,john7 ,pictures of ,war4      
,thomson 7,james7 ,poems4               
,sidenote3 #gs4 #f;d4 ,net4             
,hayden 7,e4 ,g47 ,travels ,round our   
,village4         ,masterman 7,n47      
,chalmers on ,charity4                  
,mc,crindle 7,j4 ,w47 ,ancient ,india as
 described in ,classical                
,literature4         ,mowbray 7,j4 ,p47 
,a ,journey to ,nature4         ,roberts
 7,morley7 ,the ,western ,avernus4      
,sidenote3 #is4 ,net4         ,spenser  
7,edmund7 ,the ,faerie ,queene4 #f vols4
 ,cloth4      ,sidenote3 #ajs4 ,net4    
,bonavia 7,emmanuel7 ,flora of the      

,assyrian ,monuments4         ,hanna    
7,col4 ,h4 ,b47 ,the ,second ,afghan    
,war4 ,vol4 ,i4      ,sidenote3 #ajs4   
#f;d4         ,constable's ,hand        
,gazetteer of ,india4         ,holden   
7,ed4 ,s47 ,mogul ,emperors of          
,hindustan4         ,jardine 7,hon4     
,justice7 ,burma a ,hundred ,years ,ago4
         ,loti 7,pierre7 ,impressions4  
,mc,nair 7,major ,j4 ,f4 ,a47 ,prisoners
 their ,own ,warders4         ,ryley and
 ,m',candlish1 ,scotland's ,free        
,church4      ,sidenote3 #ajs4 #f;d4    
,net4         ,bain 7,r4 ,nisbet7 ,peter
 ,,iii4         ,gairdner 7,james7 ,the 
,paston ,letters4 ,supplementary        
,volume4         ,hackel 7,eduard7 ,the 
,true ,grasses4         ,leaf 7,cecil   
,h47 ,the ,surgical ,anatomy of the     
,lymphatic ,glands4         ,list of    
#hcg ,london ,publishers4               
,rogers 7,c4 ,j47 ,coin ,collecting in  
,northern ,india4         ,roosevelt    
7,theodore7 ,oliver ,cromwell4          
,townsend 7,meredith7 ,asia and ,europe4

      ,sidenote3 #abs4         ,arnold  
7,t4 ,w47 ,the ,preaching of ,islam4    
,gardner 7,e4 ,g47 ,dante's ,ten        
,heavens4         ,gardner 7,e4 ,g47 and
 ,wicksteed 7,p4 ,h47 ,dante and        
,giovanni del       ,virgilio4          
,gomme 7,g4 ,laurence7 ,the ,principles 
of ,local ,government4         ,hewitt  
7,j4 ,f47 ,ruling ,races of ,prehistoric
 ,times4 ,second ,series4         ,irwin
 7,s4 ,t47 ,letters of ,t4 ,e4 ,brown4  
#b vols4         ,lafargue 7,philip7    
,stephen ,brent4 #b vols4               
,metcalfe 7,c4 ,t47 ,two ,native        
,narratives of the ,mutiny in ,delhi4   
,prichard 7,hesketh7 ,where ,black      
,rules ,white4         ,traill 7,h4 ,d47
 ,england1 ,egypt and the ,sudan4       
,sidenote3 #abs4 ,net4                  
,boswell's ,life of ,johnson4 ,edited by
 ,augustine ,birrell4 #f vols41         
fcap4 #hvo4         ,lane ,poole        
7,stanley7 ,mohammedan ,dynasties4      
,leach 7,a4 ,f41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a47     
,english ,schools at the ,reformation1  

#aedf-dh4         ,zimmermann 7,dr4 ,a47
 ,botanical ,microtechnique4            
,sidenote3 #abs4 #f;d4         ,popowski
 7,joseph7 ,the ,rival ,powers in       
,central ,asia4         ,smythe 7,a4    
,j47 ,william ,terriss1 ,actor4         
,sidenote3 #abs4 #f;d4 ,net4            
,campbell 7,james ,dykes7 ,coleridge's  
,poems4 ,large paper4         ,morison  
7,m47 ,time ,table of ,modern ,history4 
,rait 7,robert ,s47 ,five ,stuart       
,princesses4         ,round 7,j4        
,horace7 ,the ,commune of ,london4      
,sidenote3 #ads4         ,anon4         
,regeneration4         ,constable's     
,hand ,atlas of ,india4         ,hake   
7,a4 ,e47 and ,wesslau 7,o4 ,e47 ,the   
,coming ,individualism4         ,smith  
7,edward7 ,england and ,america after   
,independence4      ,sidenote3 #aes4    
,bain 7,r4 ,nisbet7 ,the ,daughter of   
,peter the ,great4         ,spalding    
7,t4 ,a47 ,the ,life and ,times of      
,richard ,badiley1       ,vice-,admiral 
of the ,fleet4         ,wilkinson       

7,spenser7 ,war and ,policy4            
,sidenote3 #aes4 ,net4         ,blount  
7,bertram7 ,practical                   
,electro-,chemistry4         ,duff 7,c4 
,m47 ,the ,chronology of ,india4        
,pincott 7,f47 ,the ,prema ,sagara4     
,spenser 7,edmund7 ,the ,faerie ,queene4
 #f volumes4 ,canvas gilt4              
,whiteway 7,r4 ,s47 ,the ,rise of       
,portuguese ,power in ,india4           
,sidenote3 #afs4         ,fox 7,arthur  
,w47 ,a ,book of ,bachelors4            
,mac,george 7,g4 ,w47 ,ways and ,works  
in ,india4      ,sidenote3 #afs4 ,net4  
,sichel 7,edith7 ,women and ,men of the 
,french ,renaissance4         ,webb 7,w4
 ,w47 ,coins of the ,hindu ,states of   
,rajputana4      ,sidenote3 #ags4 #f;d4 
,net4         ,thornton                 
7,surgeon-,general7 ,memories of ,seven 
,campaigns4      ,sidenote3 #ahs4       
,anitchkow 7,michael7 ,war and ,labour4 
,engelhardt 7,h47 ,a ,russian ,province 
of the ,north4         ,gribble         
7,francis7 ,lake ,geneva1 and its       

,literary ,landmarks4         ,hewitt   
7,j4 ,f47 ,ruling ,races of ,prehistoric
 ,times4 ,first ,series4                
,stadling 7,j47 ,through ,siberia4      
,edited by ,dr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard4
      ,sidenote3 #ahs4 ,net4            
,boswell's ,life of ,johnson4 ,edited by
 ,a4 ,birrell1 ,k4,c4 #f vols41         
fcap4 #hvo1 half leather4               
,sidenote3 #bjs4         ,oppert        
7,gustav7 ,the ,original ,inhabitants of
 ,india4      ,sidenote3 #bas4          
,dale 7,t4 ,f47 ,the ,eighth ,duke of   
,beaufort and the ,badminton ,hunt4     
,sidenote3 #bas4 ,net4         ,bonavia 
7,e47 ,the ,evolution of ,animals4      
,dale 7,t4 ,f47 ,the ,history of the    
,belvoir ,hunt4         ,gairdner       
7,james7 ,the ,paston ,letters4 #d vols4
         ,legg 7,l4 ,g4 ,wickham71 and  
,hope 7,w4 ,h4 ,st4 ,john7 ,inventories 
of       ,christchurch1 ,canterbury4    
,newberry 7,percy ,e47 ,the ,life of    
,rekhmara4         ,sapte 7,brand7      
,memorials of ,haileybury ,college4     

,vibart 7,col4 ,h4 ,m47 ,addiscombe4    
,sidenote3 #bes4 ,net4         ,campbell
 7,lord ,archibald7 ,highland ,dress1   
,arms1 and ,ornament4      ,sidenote3   
#cjs4 ,net4         ,rice 7,louis7 ,the 
,mysore ,gazetteer4      ,sidenote3     
#cas4 #f;d4 ,net4         ,filippi      
7,dr47 ,the ,ascent of ,mount ,st4      
,elias4         ,legg 7,wickham7        
,english ,coronation ,records4          
,lewes 7,vivian ,b47 ,acetylene4        
,sidenote3 #cbs4         ,schweitzer    
7,georg7 ,emin ,pasha3 ,his ,life and   
,work4         ,vallery-,radot 7,rene7  
,the ,life of ,pasteur4 #b vols4        
,sidenote3 #cbs4 ,net4         ,cole    
7,alan7 ,ornament in ,european ,silks4  
,nisbet 7,john7 ,burma under ,british   
,rule4 #b vols4      ,sidenote3 #cfs4   
,net4         ,boswell's ,life of       
,johnson4 #f vols4 ,limited ,edition4   
,illustrated4      ,sidenote3 #b4       
,oppert 7,gustav7 ,the ,original        
,inhabitants of ,india4 ,large paper4   
,sidenote3 #b ,net4         ,garner1 ,an

 ,english4 #h vols4 ,cloth or ,buckram4 
,sidenote3 #b #bs4 ,net4                
,beaumont 7,worby7 ,motor ,vehicles and 
,motors4         ,granby 7,marchioness  
of7 ,portraits of ,men and ,women4      
,national ,worthies4         ,rait 7,r4 
,s47 ,lusus ,regius4      ,sidenote3 #b 
#abs4 #f;d4 ,net4         ,meredith     
7,george7 ,nature ,poems4               
,sidenote3 #c #cs4 ,net4         ,bright
 7,e4 ,b4 and ,c47 ,life of ,sir        
,charles ,tilston ,bright4              
,filippi 7,dr47 ,the ,ascent of ,mount  
,st4 ,elias4 ,edition de ,luxe4         
,mayo 7,j4 ,h47 ,medals and ,decorations
 of the ,british ,army and ,navy4       
,stein 7,m4 ,a47 ,kalhana's             
,rajatarangini4      ,sidenote3 #c #abs4
 ,net4         ,the ,waverley ,novels4  
,the ,author's ,favourite ,edition4     
,reprint1 #dh       vols41 fcap4 #hvo4  
,cloth1 paper label4      ,sidenote3 #d 
#afs4 ,net4         ,the ,waverley      
,novels4 ,the ,author's ,favourite      
,edition4 ,reprint1 #dh       vols41    

fcap4 #hvo4 ,cloth1 gilt extra1 gilt    
top4      ,sidenote3 #e #es4 ,net4      
,meredith 7,george7 ,nature ,poems4     
,large paper4         ,travels of       
,h4,i4,m4 ,czar ,nicholas ,,ii4 7when   
,cesarewitch7 in the ,east4       #b    
vols4      ,sidenote3 #f ,net4          
,the ,waverley ,novels4 ,the ,author's  
,favourite ,edition4 ,reprint1 #dh      
vols41 fcap4 #hvo4 ,half leather1 gilt  
top4         ,w4 ,h4 ,st4 ,john ,hope4  
,the ,stall ,plates of the ,knights of  
the ,order       of the ,garter1        
#acdh-adhe4      ,sidenote3 #h #hs4     
,net4         ,hyde 7,william7 and      
,meynell 7,alice7 ,london ,impressions4 
,sidenote3 #bf #es4         ,travels of 
,h4,i4,m4 ,czar ,nicholas ,,ii4 7when   
,cesarewitch7 in the ,east4       ,large
 paper4           99       99       99  
99       99                             
,,the ,,waverley ,,novels4              
,facsimile ,reprint of the ,favourite   
,edition of ,,sir                       
,,walter ,,scott4 ,with all the         

,original ,plates                       
and ,vignettes4           ,red cloth1   
paper back title4 ,price #as4 #f;d4 per 
vol4 net4         ,cloth gilt1 gilt top4
 ,price #bs4 per vol4 net4              
,quarter leather1 gilt top4 ,price #bs4 
#f;d4 per vol4 net4        ,vols4 #a1   
#b4        ,waverley4    ,vols4 #c1 #d4 
,guy ,mannering4    ,vols4 #e1 #f4      
,the ,antiquary4    ,vols4 #g1 #h4      
,rob ,roy4    ,vol4 #i4            ,the 
,black ,dwarf4    ,vols4 #aj1 #aa4      
,old ,mortality4    ,vols4 #ab1 #ac4    
,heart of ,midlothian4    ,vol4 #ad4    
,bride of ,lammermoor4    ,vol4 #ae4    
,legend of ,montrose4    ,vols4 #af1    
#ag4      ,ivanhoe4    ,vols4 #ah1 #ai4 
,the ,monastery4    ,vols4 #bj1 #ba4    
,the ,abbot4    ,vols4 #bb1 #bc4        
,kenilworth4    ,vols4 #bd1 #be4        
,the ,pirate4    ,vols4 #bf1 #bg4       
,fortunes of ,nigel4    ,vols4 #bh1 #bi1
 #cj4  ,peveril of the ,peak4    ,vols4 
#ca1 #cb4      ,quentin ,durward4       
,vols4 #cc1 #cd4      ,st4 ,ronan's     

,well4    ,vols4 #ce1 #cf4              
,redgauntlet4    ,vol4 #cg4             
,the ,betrothed4    ,vol4 #ch4          
,the ,talisman4    ,vols4 #ci1 #dj4     
,woodstock4    ,vol4 #da4               
,highland ,widow1 etc4    ,vols4 #db1   
#dc4      ,fair ,maid of ,perth4        
,vols4 #dd1 #de4      ,anne of          
,geierstein4    ,vols4 #df1 #dg4        
,count ,robert of ,paris4 ,castle       
,dangerous4    ,vol4 #dh4           ,the
 ,surgeon's ,daughter4 ,glossary4       
,typographical errors corrected by the  
etext transcriber3 natually desire      
knowledge naturally desire knowledge pg 
#ai    8ber die ,entstehung des         
,rechtsgefhls40 8ber die ,entstehung des
  ,rechtsgefhls40 pg #dc    is is       
obvious that ,zeus it is obvious that   
,zeus pg #ajf