,,the      ,,warfare ,,of ,,science4    
,,by    ,,andrew ,,dickson ,,white1     
,,ll4,d41    ,,president ,,of ,,cornell 
,,university4        ,,new ,,york3      
,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1         
#ahhh4            ,,entered1 according  
to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahgf1
    ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton  ,,co41    ,in  
the ,office of the ,librarian of        
,congress1 at ,washington4              
,,to      ,,henry ,,williams ,,sage1    
,,of ,,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y41      ,a       
,,christian ,,man1 ,,who ,,has ,,proved 
,,that ,,he ,,welcomes    ,,all ,,truth1
 ,,and ,,fears ,,none1      ,,this      
,,little ,,book ,,is ,,inscribed1       
,,with ,,feelings ,,of    ,,thorough    
,,respect ,,and ,,esteem4               
,,prefatory ,,note4      ,in its earlier
 abridged form this address was given as
 a ,phi ,beta ,kappa  oration at ,brown 
,university1 and1 as a lecture1 at ,new 
,york1 ,boston1  ,new ,haven1 ,ann      
,arbor1 and elsewhere4 ,in that form1   
substantially1 it  was published in     

,,the ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,i 
have now given it  careful revision1    
correcting some errors1 and extending it
 largely  by presenting new facts and   
developing various points of interest in
  the general discussion4 ,among the    
subjects added or rewrought are3 in     
,astronomy1 the struggle of ,galileo and
 the retreat of the ,church after  its  
victory2 in ,chemistry and ,physics1 the
 compromise between ,science  and       
,theology made by ,thomas ,aquinas1 and 
the unfortunate route taken  by ,science
 in consequence2 in ,anatomy and        
,medicine1 the earlier growth  of       
ecclesiastical distrust of these        
sciences2 in ,scientific ,education1    
the dealings of various ,european       
universities with scientific studies2   
in ,political and ,social ,science1 a   
more complete statement of the          
opposition of the ,church1 on           
,scriptural grounds1 to the taking of   
interest for money2 and1 in the         
conclusion1 a more careful summing up4  

,if ,i have seemed to encumber the text 
with notes1 it has been in the          
intention to leave no important         
assertion unsupported2 and in the hope  
that others--less engrossed with        
administrative care than myself--may    
find in them indications for more       
extended studies in various parts of    
the struggle which ,i have but sketched4
                                        
,a4 ,d4 ,w4    ,,cornell ,,university1  
,march1 #ahgf4          ,,the ,,warfare 
,,of ,,science4      ,i purpose to      
present an outline of the great1 sacred 
struggle for  the liberty of science--a 
struggle which has lasted for so many   
centuries1 and which yet continues4 ,a  
hard contest it has been2 a war  waged  
longer1 with battles fiercer1 with      
sieges more persistent1 with  strategy  
more shrewd than in any of the          
comparatively transient warfare  of     
,csar or ,napoleon or ,moltke4    ,i    
shall ask you to go with me through some
 of the most protracted  sieges1 and    

over some of the hardest-fought         
battle-fields of this  war4 ,we will    
look well at the combatants2 we will    
listen to the  battle-cries2 we will    
note the strategy of leaders1 the cut   
and thrust  of champions1 the weight of 
missiles1 the temper of weapons2 we will
  look also at the truces and treaties1 
and note the delusive impotency  of all 
compromises in which the warriors for   
scientific truth have  consented to     
receive direction or bias from the best 
of men uninspired  by the scientific    
spirit1 or unfamiliar with scientific   
methods4    ,my thesis1 which1 by an    
historical study of this warfare1 ,i    
expect  to develop1 is the following3   
,in all modern history1 interference    
with science in the supposed interest of
 religion1 no matter how  conscientious 
such interference may have been1 has    
resulted in the  direst evils both to   
religion and to science--and invariably4
 ,and1 on  the other hand1 all          
untrammeled scientific investigation1 no

 matter how  dangerous to religion some 
of its stages may have seemed1 for the  
time1  to be1 has invariably resulted in
 the highest good of religion and of    
science4 ,i say invariably4 ,i mean     
exactly that4 ,it is a rule to  which   
history shows not one exception4    ,it 
would seem1 logically1 that this        
statement cannot be gainsaid4  ,god's   
truths must agree1 whether discovered by
 looking within upon the  soul1 or      
without upon the world4 ,a truth written
 upon the human heart  to-day1 in its   
full play of emotions or passions1      
cannot be at any real  variance even    
with a truth written upon a fossil whose
 poor life ebbed  forth millions of     
years ago4    ,this being so1 it would  
also seem a truth irrefragable1 that the
 search  for each of these kinds of     
truth must be followed out on its own   
lines1  by its own methods1 to its own  
results1 without any interference from  
investigators on other lines1 or by     
other methods4 ,and it would also  seem 

logical to work on in absolute          
confidence that whatever1 at any        
moment1 may seem to be the relative     
positions of the two different  bands of
 workers1 they must at last come        
together1 for ,truth is one4    ,but    
logic is not history4 ,history is full  
of interferences which have  cost the   
earth dear4 ,strangest of all1 some of  
the direst of them have  been made by   
the best of men1 actuated by the purest 
motives1 and  seeking the noblest       
results4 ,these interferences1 and the  
struggle  against them1 make up the     
warfare of science4    ,one statement   
more1 to clear the ground4 ,you will not
 understand me at  all to say that      
religion has done nothing for science4  
,it has done much  for it4 ,the work of 
,christianity has been mighty indeed4   
,through these  two thousand years1     
despite the waste of its energies on all
 the things  its ,blessed ,founder most 
earnestly condemned--on fetich and      
subtlety  and war and pomp--it has      

undermined servitude1 mitigated tyranny1
 given  hope to the hopeless1 comfort to
 the afflicted1 light to the blind1     
bread to the starving1 joy to the dying1
 and this work continues4 ,and  its work
 for science1 too1 has been great4 ,it  
has fostered science  often4 ,nay1 it   
has nourished that feeling of           
self-sacrifice for human  good1 which   
has nerved some of the bravest men for  
these battles4    ,unfortunately1 a     
devoted army of good men started        
centuries ago with  the idea that       
independent scientific investigation is 
unsafe--that  theology must intervene to
 superintend its methods1 and the       
,biblical  record1 as an historical     
compendium and scientific treatise1 be  
taken  as a standard to determine its   
results4 ,so began this great modern    
war4      ,,geography4    ,the first    
typical battle-field to which ,i would  
refer is that of  ,geography--the       
simplest elementary doctrine of the     
earth's shape and  surface4    ,among   

the legacies of thought left by the     
ancient world to the modern1  were      
certain ideas of the rotundity of the   
earth4 ,these ideas were  vague2 they   
were mixed with absurdities2 but they   
were germ ideas1  and1 after the        
barbarian storm which ushered in the    
modern world had  begun to clear away1  
these germ ideas began to bud and bloom 
in the  minds of a few thinking men1 and
 these men hazarded the suggestion that 
the earth is round--is a globe4#a       
,the greatest and most earnest men of   
the time took fright at once4 ,to  them1
 the idea of the earth's rotundity      
seemed fraught with dangers to          
,scripture3 by which1 of course1 they   
meant their interpretation of           
,scripture4    ,among the first who took
 up arms against the new thinkers was   
,eusebius4  ,he endeavored to turn off  
these ideas by bringing science into    
contempt1 and by making the innovators  
understand that he and the  fathers of  
the ,church despised all such inquiries4

 ,speaking of the  innovations in       
physical science1 he said3 ,it is not   
through ignorance  of the things admired
 by them1 but through contempt of their 
useless  labor1 that we think little of 
these matters1 turning our souls to     
better things4#b    ,lactantius asserted
 the ideas of those studying astronomy  
to be mad  and senseless4#c    ,but the 
attempt to flank the little phalanx of  
thinkers did not  succeed1 of course4   
,even such men as ,lactantius and       
,eusebius cannot  pooh-pooh down a new  
scientific idea4 ,the little band of    
thinkers went  on1 and the doctrine of  
the rotundity of the earth naturally led
 to the  consideration of the tenants of
 the earth's surface1 and another germ  
idea was warmed into life--the idea of  
the existence of the antipodes1  the    
idea of the existence of countries and  
men on the hemisphere  opposite to      
ours4#d    ,at this the war-spirit waxed
 hot4 ,those great and good men         
determined  to fight4 ,to all of them   

such doctrines seemed dangerous2 to most
 of  them they seemed damnable4 ,st4    
,basil and ,st4 ,ambrose#e were tolerant
  enough to allow that a man might be   
saved who believed the earth to be      
round1 and inhabited on its opposite    
sides2 but the great majority of  the   
,fathers of the ,church utterly denied  
the possibility of salvation  to such   
misbelievers4    ,lactantius asks3 444  
,is there any one so senseless as to    
believe that  there are men whose       
footsteps are higher than their         
heads8--that the  crops and trees grow  
downward8--that the rains and snow and  
hail fall  upward toward the earth8444  
,but if you inquire from those who      
defend  these marvelous fictions1 why   
all things do not fall into that lower  
part of the heaven1 they reply that such
 is the nature of things1 that  heavy   
bodies are borne toward the middle1 like
 the spokes of a wheel2  while light    
bodies1 such as clouds1 smoke1 and fire1
 tend from the  centre toward the       

heavens on all sides4 ,now1 ,i am at    
loss what to say  of those who1 when    
they have once erred1 steadily persevere
 in their  folly1 and defend one vain   
thing by another4    ,st4 ,augustine    
seems inclined to yield a little in     
regard to the  rotundity of the earth1  
but he fights the idea that men exist on
 the  other side of the earth1 saying   
that ,scripture speaks of no such       
descendants of ,adam4    ,but this did  
not avail to check the idea4 ,what may  
be called the flank  movement1 as       
represented by ,eusebius1 had failed4   
,the direct battle  given by            
,lactantius1 ,augustine1 and others1 had
 failed2 in the sixth  century1         
therefore1 the opponents of the new     
ideas built a great  fortress and       
retired into that4 ,it was well built   
and well braced4 ,it  was nothing less  
than a complete theory of the world1    
based upon the  literal interpretation  
of texts of ,scripture1 and its author  
was ,cosmas  ,indicopleustes4#f         

,according to ,cosmas1 the earth is a   
parallelogram1 flat1 and surrounded  by 
four great seas4 ,at the outer edges of 
these seas rise immense walls  closing  
in the whole structure4 ,these walls    
support the vault of the  heavens1 whose
 edges are cemented to the walls2 walls 
and vault shut  in the earth and all the
 heavenly bodies4 ,the whole of this    
theologic1  scientific fortress was     
built most carefully1 and1 as was then  
thought1  most scripturally4            
,starting with the expression1   1      
applied in the  ninth chapter of        
,hebrews to the tabernacle in the       
desert1 he insists1  with other         
interpreters of his time1 that it gives 
a key to the whole  construction of the 
world4 ,the universe is1 therefore1 made
 on the  plan of the ,jewish            
,tabernacle--box-like and oblong4       
,coming to details1 he quotes those     
grand words of ,isaiah1 ,it is he  that 
sitteth upon the circle of the earth1   
444 that stretcheth out  the heavens    

like a curtain1 and spreadeth them out  
like a tent to  dwell in1#g and the     
passage in ,job1 which speaks of the    
pillars  of heaven4#h ,he turns all that
 splendid and precious poetry into a    
prosaic statement1 and gathers          
therefrom1 as he thinks1 treasures for  
science4    ,this vast box is then      
divided into two compartments1 one above
 the  other4 ,in the first of these1 men
 live and stars move2 and it extends  up
 to the first solid vault or firmament1 
where live the angels1 a  main part of  
whose business it is to push and pull   
the sun and planets  to and fro4 ,next  
he takes the text1 ,let there be a      
firmament in the  midst of the waters1  
and let it divide the waters from the   
waters1#i  and other texts from         
,genesis4 ,to these he adds the text    
from the  ,psalms1 ,praise him1 ye      
heaven of heavens1 and ye waters that be
 above  the heavens1#aj casts that      
outburst of poetry into his crucible    
with the other texts1 and1 after        

subjecting them to sundry peculiar      
processes1 brings out the theory that   
over this first vault is a vast  cistern
 containing the waters4 ,he then takes  
the expression in ,genesis  regarding   
the windows of heaven1#aa and           
establishes a doctrine  regarding the   
regulation of the rain1 which is        
afterward supplemented  by the doctrine 
that the angels not only push and pull  
the heavenly  bodies1 to light the      
earth1 but also open and close the      
windows of  heaven to water it4    ,to  
find the character of the surface of the
 earth1 ,cosmas studies the  table of   
shew-bread in the ,tabernacle4 ,the     
dimensions of that table  prove to him  
that the earth is flat and twice as long
 as broad2 the  four corners of the     
table symbolize the four seasons4 ,to   
account for  the movement of the sun1   
,cosmas suggests that at the north of   
the  earth is a great mountain1 and     
that1 at night1 the sun is carried      
behind this2 but some of the            

commentators ventured to express a doubt
  here2 they thought that the sun was   
pushed into a great pit at night1  and  
was pulled out in the morning4 ,nothing 
can be more touching in  its simplicity 
than ,cosmas's closing of his great     
argument4 ,he bursts  forth in raptures1
 declaring that ,moses1 the prophets1   
evangelists1 and  apostles1 agree to the
 truth of his doctrine4#ab    ,such was 
the fortress built against human science
 in the sixth  century1 by ,cosmas2 and 
it stood4 ,the innovators attacked it in
 vain4  ,the greatest minds in the      
,church devoted themselves to           
buttressing it  with new texts1 and     
throwing out new outworks of theologic  
reasoning4  ,it stood firm for two      
hundred years1 when a bishop--,virgilius
 of  ,salzburg--asserts his belief in   
the existence of the antipodes4    ,it  
happened that there then stood in       
,germany1 in the first years  of the    
eighth century1 one of the greatest and 
noblest of men--,st4  ,boniface4 ,his   

learning was of the best then known2 in 
labors he was a  worthy successor to the
 apostles2 his genius for ,christian    
work made  him1 unwillingly1 ,primate of
 ,germany2 his devotion afterward led   
him1  willingly1 to martyrdom4 ,there   
sat1 too1 at that time1 on the papal    
throne1 a great ,christian              
statesman--,pope ,zachary4 ,boniface    
immediately  declares against the       
revival of such a terrible heresy as the
 existence  of the antipodes4 ,he       
declares that it amounts to the         
declaration that  there are men on the  
earth beyond the reach of the means of  
salvation2  he attacks ,virgilius2 he   
calls on ,zachary for aid2 effective    
measures  are taken1 and we hear no more
 of ,virgilius or his doctrine4    ,six 
hundred years pass away1 and in the     
fourteenth century two men  publicly    
assert the doctrine4 ,the first of      
these1 ,peter of ,abano1  escapes       
punishment by natural death2 the second1
 known as ,cecco  d',ascoli1 a man of   

seventy years1 is burned alive4 ,nor was
 that all  the punishment3 that great   
painter1 ,orcagna1 whose terrible works 
you  may see on the walls of the ,campo 
,santa at ,pisa1 immortalized ,cecco by 
representing him in the flames of       
hell4#ac    ,still the idea lived and   
moved1 and a hundred years later we find
 the  theologian ,tostatus protesting   
against the doctrine of the antipodes   
as unsafe4 ,he has invented a new       
missile--the following syllogism3  ,the 
apostles were commanded to go into all  
the world1 and to preach  the gospel to 
every creature2 they did not go to any  
such part of the  world as the          
antipodes1 they did not preach to any   
creatures there3  ergo1 no antipodes    
exist4 ,this is just before the time of 
,columbus4    ,columbus is the next     
warrior4 ,the world has heard of his    
battles3  how the ,bishop of ,ceuta     
worsted him in ,portugal2 how at the    
,junta of  ,salamanca the theologians   
overwhelmed him with quotations from the

  ,psalms1 from ,st4 ,paul1 and from    
,st4 ,augustine4#ad ,and even after     
,columbus was triumphant1 and after his 
voyage had greatly strengthened  the    
theory of the earth's sphericity1 the   
,church1 by its highest  authority1 was 
again solemnly committed to the theory  
of the earth's  flatness4 ,in #adic     
,pope ,alexander ,,vi4 issues a bull    
laying down a line  of demarkation upon 
the earth as a flat disk2 this line was 
drawn from  north to south1 west of the 
,azores and ,canary ,islands2 and the   
,pope1 in  the plenitude of his         
knowledge and powers1 declared that all 
lands  discovered east of this line     
should belong to the ,portuguese1 and   
all  discovered west of it should belong
 to the ,spaniards4 ,this was hailed  as
 an exercise of divinely illuminated    
power in the ,church2 but in  a few     
years difficulties arose4 ,the          
,portuguese claimed ,brazil1 and1  of   
course1 had no difficulty in showing    
that it could be reached by  sailing to 

the east of the line1 provided the      
sailing were sufficiently               
long-continued4 ,the bull of ,pope      
,alexander quietly passed into the      
catalogue of ludicrous errors4#ae       
,but in #aeai ,science gains a crushing 
victory4 ,magalhaens makes his  famous  
voyages4 ,he proves the earth to be     
round1 for his great  expedition        
circumnavigates it2 he proves the       
doctrine of the antipodes1  for he sees 
the men of the antipodes2#af but even   
this does not end  the war4 ,many       
earnest and good men oppose the doctrine
 for two hundred  years longer4 ,then   
the ,french astronomers make their      
measurements of  degrees in equatorial  
and polar regions1 and add to other     
proofs that  of the lengthened pendulum3
 when this was done1 when the deductions
 of  science were seen to be established
 by the simple test of measurement1     
beautifully1 perfectly1 then and then   
only this war of twelve centuries       
ended4#ag    ,and now1 what was the     

result of this war8 ,the efforts of     
,eusebius and  ,lactantius to deaden    
scientific thought2 the efforts of      
,augustine to  combat it2 the efforts of
 ,cosmas to stop it by dogmatism2 the   
efforts  of ,boniface1 and ,zachary1 and
 others to stop it by force1            
conscientious  as they all were1 had    
resulted in what8 ,simply in forcing    
into many  noble minds this most        
unfortunate conviction1 that ,science   
and ,religion  are enemies2 simply in   
driving away from religion hosts of the 
best  men in all those centuries4 ,the  
result was wholly bad4 ,no optimism can 
change that verdict4    ,on the other   
hand1 what was gained by the warriors of
 science for  religion8 ,simply1 a far  
more ennobling conception of the world1 
and a  far truer conception of ,him who 
made and who sustains it4    ,which is  
the more consistent with a great1 true  
religion--the  cosmography of ,cosmas1  
or that of ,isaac ,newton8 ,which       
presents the  nobler food for religious 

thought--the diatribes of ,lactantius1  
or the  astronomical discourses of      
,thomas ,chalmers8      ,,astronomy4    
,the next great battle was fought on a  
question relating to the  position of   
the earth among the heavenly bodies4 ,on
 one side1 the  great body of           
conscientious religious men planted     
themselves firmly on  the geocentric    
doctrine--the doctrine that the earth is
 the centre1 and  that the sun and      
planets revolve about it4 ,the doctrine 
was old1 and  of the highest            
respectability4#ah ,the very name1      
,ptolemaic theory1  carried weight4 ,it 
had been elaborated until it accounted  
well for the  phenomena4 ,exact textual 
interpreters of ,scripture cherished it1
 for it  agreed with the letter of the  
sacred text4#ai    ,but1 most important 
of all1 it was stamped with the seal of 
,st4 ,thomas  ,aquinas4 ,the sainted    
theologian--the glory of the ,medival   
,church1 the  angelic doctor--he to whom
 it was believed an image of the        

,crucified  had spoken words praising   
his writings--had shown in his treatise 
on  the ,heaven and ,earth1 by          
philosophy1 theology1 and revelation1   
that the  position of the earth must be 
in the centre4#bj    ,still the germs of
 the heliocentric theory#ba had been    
planted long  before1 and well planted2 
it had seemed ready even to bloom forth 
in  the fifth century1 from the mind of 
,martianus ,capella1 and in the         
fifteenth from the mind of ,cardinal de 
,cusa2 but it could not be  forgotten   
that ,st4 ,thomas had elaborated the    
opposite view2 the chill  of dogmatism  
was still over the earth1 and up to the 
beginning of the  sixteenth century     
there had come to this great truth      
neither bloom nor  fruitage4#bb         
,quietly1 however1 the soil was         
receiving enrichment1 and the air       
warmth4 ,the processes of mathematics   
were constantly improved1 the  heavenly 
bodies were steadily though silently    
observed2 and at length  appeared1 afar 

off from the centres of thought1 on the 
borders of  ,poland1 a plain1           
simple-minded scholar1 who first fairly 
uttered to  the world the truth1 now so 
commonplace1 then so astounding1 that   
the  sun and planets do not revolve     
about the earth1 but that the earth and 
planets revolve about the sun1 and that 
man was ,nicholas ,kopernik4#bc         
,kopernik had been a professor at ,rome1
 but1 as this truth grew within  him1 he
 seemed to feel that at ,rome he was no 
longer safe4#bd    ,to publish this     
thought was dangerous indeed1 and for   
more than thirty  years it lay          
slumbering in the minds of ,kopernik and
 the friends to  whom he had privately  
intrusted it4    ,at last he prepares   
his great work on the ,revolution of the
 ,heavenly  ,bodies1 and dedicates it to
 the pope himself4 ,he next seeks a     
place of  publication4 ,he dares not    
send it to ,rome1 for there are the     
rulers of  the older ,church ready to   
seize it4 ,he dares not send it to      

,wittenberg1  for there are the leaders 
of ,protestantism no less hostile4 ,it  
is  therefore intrusted to ,osiander1 of
 ,nuremberg4#be    ,but1 at the last    
moment1 ,osiander's courage fails him4  
,he dares not  launch the new thought   
boldly4 ,he writes a groveling preface2 
endeavors  to excuse ,kopernik for his  
novel idea4 ,he inserts the apologetic  
lie  that ,kopernik propounds the       
doctrine of the movement of the earth1  
not  as a fact1 but as an hypothesis2 he
 declares that it is lawful  for an     
astronomer to indulge his imagination1  
and that this is what  ,kopernik has    
done4    ,thus was the greatest and most
 ennobling1 perhaps1 of scientific      
truths--a truth not less ennobling to   
religion than to  science--forced1 in   
coming into the world1 to sneak and     
crawl4#bf    ,on the #bdth of ,may1     
#aedc1 the newly-printed book first     
arrived at  the house of ,kopernik4 ,it 
was put into his hands2 but he was on   
his  death-bed4 ,a few hours later he   

was beyond the reach of those mistaken1 
conscientious men1 whose consciences    
would have blotted his reputation1  and 
perhaps have destroyed his life4    ,yet
 not wholly beyond their reach4 ,even   
death could not be trusted  to shield   
him4 ,there seems to have been fear of  
vengeance upon his  corpse1 for on his  
tombstone was placed no record of his   
life-long  labors1 no mention of his    
great discovery4 ,there were graven upon
  it affecting words1 which may be thus 
simply translated3 ,i ask not  the grace
 accorded to ,paul1 not that given to   
,peter2 give me only the  favor which   
thou didst show to the thief on the     
cross4 ,not till thirty  years after did
 a friend dare write on his tombstone a 
memorial of his  discovery4#bg    ,the  
book was taken in hand by the proper    
authorities4 ,in due time it  was       
solemnly condemned2 to read it was to   
risk damnation2 and the  world accepted 
the decree4#bh ,the earnest theologians 
of the period  immediately wheeled their

 batteries of sacred learning to support
 the  ,church in its effort to beat back
 the terrible doctrine that the earth   
revolves about the sun4 ,among the most 
vigorous of them in ,northern  ,europe  
was ,fromundus4 ,from the shadow of the 
,cathedral of ,antwerp he  sent forth   
his famous treatise1 the                
,anti-,aristarchus1 full of the         
strongest arguments against the new     
theory4 ,his very title-page was a      
contemptuous insult to the memory of    
,kopernik1 since it paraded the         
assumption that the new truth was only  
an old and exploded theory of           
,aristarchus4 ,he declares that sacred  
,scripture fights against the           
,copernicans4 ,to prove that the sun    
revolves about the earth1 he cites  the 
passage in the ,psalms which speaks of  
the sun which cometh forth  as a        
bridegroom out of his chamber4 ,to prove
 that the earth stands  still1 he quotes
 the passage from ,ecclesiastes1 the    
earth standeth  fast forever4 ,to show  

the utter futility of the ,copernican   
ideas1 he  indulges in scientific       
reasoning as he understands             
it--declaring that1  if the hated theory
 were true1 the wind would constantly   
blow from the  east2 we should with     
great difficulty hear sounds against    
such a wind2  that buildings1 and the   
earth itself1 would fly off with such a 
rapid motion2 and1 greatest weapon of   
all1 he works up1 by the use of         
,aristotle and ,thomas ,aquinas1 a      
demonstration from theology and science 
combined1 that the earth must stand in  
the centre1 and that the sun  must      
revolve about it4#bi    ,doubtless many 
will at once exclaim against the ,roman 
,catholic ,church  for this4 ,justice   
compels me to say that the founders of  
,protestantism  were no less zealous    
against the new scientific doctrine4    
,said ,martin  ,luther3 ,people gave ear
 to an upstart astrologer1 who strove to
 show  that the earth revolves1 not the 
heavens or the firmament1 the sun and   

the moon4 ,whoever wishes to appear     
clever must devise some new system1     
which of all systems is1 of course1 the 
very best4 ,this fool wishes to  reverse
 the entire science of astronomy4 ,but  
,sacred ,scripture tells us  that       
,joshua commanded the sun to stand      
still1 and not the earth4               
,melanchthon1 mild as he was1 was not   
behind ,luther in condemning  ,kopernik4
 ,in his treatise1 ,initia ,doctrin     
,physic1 he says3  ,the eyes are        
witnesses that the heavens revolve in   
the space of  twenty-four hours4 ,but   
certain men1 either from the love of    
novelty1  or to make a display of       
ingenuity1 have concluded that the earth
  moves2 and they maintain that neither 
the eighth sphere nor the sun           
revolves4444 ,now1 it is a want of      
honesty and decency to assert such      
notions publicly1 and the example is    
pernicious4 ,it is the part of a  good  
mind to accept the truth as revealed by 
,god1 and to acquiesce  in it4          

,melanchthon then cites passages from   
the ,psalms and from  ,ecclesiastes     
which he declares assert positively and 
clearly that the  earth stands fast1 and
 that the sun moves around it1 and adds 
eight  other proofs of his proposition  
that the earth can be nowhere1 if not   
in the centre of the universe4#cj       
,and ,protestant people were not a whit 
behind ,catholic in following  out these
 teachings4 ,the people of ,elbing made 
themselves merry over a  farce in which 
,kopernik was the main object of        
ridicule4 ,the people of  ,nuremberg1 a 
great ,protestant centre1 caused a medal
 to be struck1 with  inscriptions       
ridiculing the philosopher and his      
theory4#ca    ,then was tried1 also1 one
 piece of strategy very common formerly 
in  battles between theologians         
themselves4 ,it consists in loud        
shoutings  that the doctrine attacked is
 outworn1 and already refuted--that     
various distinguished gentlemen have    
proved it false--that it is not  a      

living truth1 but a detected lie--that1 
if the world listens to it1  that is    
simply because the world is ignorant4   
,this strategy was brought  to bear on  
,kopernik4 ,it was shown that his       
doctrine was simply a  revival of the   
,pythagorean notion1 which had been     
thoroughly exploded4  ,fromundus1 as we 
have seen in his title-page and         
throughout his book1  delights in       
referring to the doctrine of the        
revolution of the planets  around the   
sun1 as that ,pythagorean notion4 ,this 
mode of warfare  was imitated by the    
lesser opponents1 and produced1 for some
 time1  considerable effect4#cb    ,but 
the new truth could neither be laughed  
down nor forced down4 ,many  minds had  
received it2 only one tongue dared utter
 it4 ,this new warrior  was that strange
 mortal1 ,giordano ,bruno4 ,he was      
hunted from land to  land1 until1 at    
last1 he turns on his pursuers with     
fearful invectives4  ,for this he is    
imprisoned six years1 then burned alive 

and his ashes  scattered to the winds4  
,still the new truth lived on2 it could 
not  be killed4 ,within ten years after 
the martyrdom of ,bruno1#cc after  a    
world of troubles and persecutions1 the 
truth of the doctrine of  ,kopernik was 
established by the telescope of         
,galileo4#cd    ,herein was fulfilled   
one of the most touching of prophecies4 
,years  before1 the enemies of ,kopernik
 had said to him1 ,if your doctrines    
were true1 ,venus would show phases like
 the moon4 ,kopernik answered3  ,you are
 right2 ,i know not what to say2 but    
,god is good1 and will in  time find an 
answer to this objection4#ce ,the       
,god-given answer came  when the rude   
telescope of ,galileo showed the phases 
of ,venus4    ,on this new champion1    
,galileo1 the war was long and bitter4  
,the  supporters of what was called     
sound learning declared his discoveries 
deceptions1 and his announcements       
blasphemy4 ,semi-scientific  professors1
 endeavoring to curry favor with the    

,church1 attacked him  with sham        
science2 earnest preachers attacked him 
with perverted  ,scripture6#cf    ,i    
shall present this warfare at some      
length1 because1 so far as ,i can  find1
 no careful outline of it has been given
 in our language1 since  the whole      
history was placed in a new light by the
 revelation of the  trial documents in  
the ,vatican ,library1 published for the
 first time by  ,m4 de l',epinois in    
#ahfg4    ,the first important attack on
 ,galileo began when he announced that  
his  telescope had revealed the moons of
 the planet ,jupiter2 the enemy  saw    
that this strengthened the ,copernican  
theory1 and gave battle  immediately4   
,the whole theory was denounced as      
impossible and impious4 ,professors1    
bred in the mixed science favored by the
 ,church1#cg argued that the  ,bible    
clearly showed1 by all applicable types1
 that there could be only  seven        
planets2 that this was proved by the    
seven golden candlesticks of  the       

,apocalypse1 by the seven-branched      
candlestick of the ,tabernacle1  and by 
the seven churches of ,asia3#ch         
theologians showed the  destructive     
consequences which must logically result
 to fundamental  ,christian truths3     
bishops and priests uttered impressive  
warnings to  their flocks2 and          
multitudes of the faithful besought the 
,inquisition  to protect the fold by    
dealing speedily and sharply with the   
heretic4    ,in vain did ,galileo try to
 save the great truths he had           
discovered1  by his letters to the      
,benedictine ,castelli and the          
,grand-duchess  ,christine1 in which he 
argued that literal ,biblical           
interpretation  should not be applied to
 science2 it was declared that by making
 such  an argument his heresy was only  
rendered more detestable2 that he was   
worse than ,luther or ,calvin4    ,in   
vain did he try to prove the existence  
of satellites by showing them  to the   
doubters through his telescope4 ,they   

either declared it impious  to look1 or1
 if they did see them1 denounced them as
 illusions from the  devil4 ,good       
,father ,clavius declared that to see   
satellites of ,jupiter1  men had to make
 an instrument which would create       
them4#ci    ,the war on the ,copernican 
theory1 which up to that time had been  
carried on quietly1 now flamed forth4   
,it was declared that the doctrine  was 
proved false by the standing still of   
the sun for ,joshua2 by the             
declarations that the foundations of the
 earth are fixed so firm that  they     
cannot be moved1 and that the sun       
runneth about from one end of  heaven to
 the other4#dj    ,the ,dominican       
father1 ,caccini1 preached a sermon from
 the text1  ,ye men of ,galilee1 why    
stand ye gazing up into heaven8 and this
  wretched pun was the first of a series
 of sharper weapons2 for before         
,caccini finishes1 he insists that      
geometry is of the devil1 and that      
mathematicians should be banished as the

 authors of all heresies2  and1 for     
this1 the ,church authorities gave      
,caccini promotion4#da    ,father       
,lorini proved that the doctrine was not
 only heretical1 but  atheistic1 and    
besought the ,inquisition to intervene4 
,the ,bishop of  ,fiesole screamed in   
rage against the ,copernican system1 and
 proposed  to denounce ,galileo to the  
grand-duke4 ,the ,archbishop of ,pisa   
secretly  sought to entrap ,galileo and 
deliver him to the ,inquisition at      
,rome4  ,the ,archbishop of ,florence   
solemnly condemned the doctrines of     
,kopernik  and ,galileo as unscriptural4
    ,but by far the most terrible       
champion who appeared against him  was  
,bellarmin1 one of the greatest of      
theologians1 and one of the  poorest of 
scientists4 ,he was earnest1 sincere1   
learned1 but made the  fearful mistake  
for the world of applying to science1   
direct1 literal  interpretation of      
,scripture4#db    ,the weapons which men
 of ,bellarmin's stamp used were        

theological4 ,they  held up before the  
world the dreadful consequences which   
must result  to ,christian theology were
 the doctrine to prevail that the       
heavenly  bodies revolve about the sun1 
and not about the earth4 ,their most    
tremendous theologic engine against     
,galileo was the idea that his          
pretended discovery vitiated the whole  
,christian plan of salvation4  ,father  
,lecazre declared that it cast suspicion
 on the doctrine of  the ,incarnation4  
,others declared that it upset the whole
 basis  of theology2 that1 if the earth 
is a planet1 and one among several      
planets1 it cannot be that any such     
great things have been done  especially 
for it1 as the ,christian doctrine      
teaches4 ,if there are  other planets1  
since ,god makes nothing in vain1 they  
must be inhabited2  but how can these   
inhabitants be descended from ,adam8    
,how can they  trace back their origin  
to ,noah's ark8 ,how can they have been 
redeemed  by the ,saviour8#dc    ,nor   

was this argument confined to the       
theologians of the ,roman ,church2      
,melanchthon1 ,protestant as he was1 had
 already used it in his attacks  upon   
the ideas of ,kopernik and his          
school4#dd    ,in addition to this      
prodigious engine of war1 there was kept
 up a  terrific fire of smaller         
artillery in the shape of texts and     
scriptural  extracts4    ,but the little
 telescope of ,galileo still swept the  
heavens1 and the  next revelation       
announced was the system of mountains   
and valleys  in the moon4 ,this was a   
signal for another attack4 ,it was      
declared  that this1 coupled with the   
statement that the moon shines by light 
reflected from the sun1 was a           
contradiction of the statement in       
,genesis that the moon is a great light 
like the sun4 ,to make the  matter      
worse1 a painter1 placing the moon in a 
religious picture in  its usual position
 beneath the feet of the ,blessed       
,virgin1 outlined on  its surface       

mountains and valleys2 this was         
denounced as a sacrilege  logically     
resulting from the astronomer's heresy4 
,the next struggle was aroused when the 
hated telescope revealed spots  upon the
 sun1 and their motion1 which indicated 
the sun's rotation4  ,monsignor ,elci1  
head of the ,university of ,pisa1       
forbade the ,professor  of ,astronomy1  
,castelli1 to mention these spots4      
,father ,busaeus1 at  the ,university of
 ,innspruck1 forbade the astronomer     
,scheiner to allow  the new discovery to
 be known there4 ,at the ,college of    
,douay and the  ,university of ,louvain 
it was expressly placed under the ban1  
and this  became the general rule among 
the ,catholic universities and colleges 
of ,europe4 ,the ,spanish universities  
were specially intolerant of this  and  
similar ideas1#de and up to a recent    
period they were strictly  forbidden in 
the most important university of        
all--that of ,salamanca4  ,in #ahbj the 
,abb ,settele1 professor at the ,college

 of ,rome1 having  announced a work on  
,optics and ,astronomy1 the master of   
the sacred  palace1 under the authority 
of the old decrees against the teachings
  of ,kopernik and ,galileo1 forbade the
 publication1 and it was not until      
#ahbb that ,pope ,pius ,,vii4 sanctioned
 a decision of the ,inquisition         
permitting such teachings4#df    ,such  
are the consequences of placing the     
instruction of men's minds  in the hands
 of those mainly absorbed in the work of
 saving men's  souls4#dg ,nothing could 
be more in accordance with the idea     
recently  put forth by the ,bishop of   
,montpellier1 that the ,church is alone 
fully empowered to promulgate scientific
 truth or direct university             
instruction2 but science gained the     
victory here also4 ,news came of        
observations of the solar spots1 not    
only from ,galileo in ,italy1 but  from 
,fabricius in ,holland4 ,father         
,scheiner then endeavors to make the    
usual treaty2 he promulgates a          

pseudo-scientific theory--a statement   
based on a religious science--which only
 provokes derision4    ,but the war grew
 more and more bitter1 and the principal
 weapons in it  are worth examining4    
,they are very easily examined2 you may 
pick them  up on any of the             
battle-fields of science2 but on that   
field they were  used with more effect  
than on almost any other4 ,these weapons
 are two  epithets3 ,infidel and        
,atheist4    ,the battle-fields of      
science are thickly strewn with these4  
,they have  been used against almost    
every man who has ever done anything new
 for  his fellow-men4 ,the list of those
 who have been denounced as infidel  and
 atheist includes almost all great men  
of science--general scholars1           
inventors1 philanthropists4 ,the deepest
 ,christian life1 the most noble        
,christian character1 have not availed  
to shield combatants4 ,christians  like 
,isaac ,newton and ,pascal and ,john    
,locke and ,john ,milton1 and even      

,howard and ,fnelon1 have had these     
weapons hurled against them4 ,of all    
proofs of the existence of a ,god1 those
 of ,descartes have been wrought  most  
thoroughly into the minds of modern men2
 and yet the ,protestant  theologians of
 ,holland sought to bring him to torture
 and to death by  the charge of atheism1
 and the ,roman ,catholic theologians of
 ,france  prevented the rendering of any
 due honors to him at his burial4#dh    
,these epithets can hardly be classed   
with civilized weapons4 ,they are       
burning arrows4 ,they set fire to great 
masses of popular prejudices2  smoke    
rises to obscure the real questions2    
fire bursts forth at times  to destroy  
the attacked party4 ,they are poisoned4 
,they go to the hearts  of loving women1
 they alienate dear children2 they      
injure the man after  life is ended1 for
 they leave poisoned wounds in the      
hearts of those  who loved him          
best--fears for his eternal             
happiness--dread of the  ,divine        

displeasure4 ,of course1 in these days1 
these weapons1 though  often effective  
in disturbing good men and in scaring   
good women1 are  somewhat blunted4      
,indeed1 they not unfrequently injure   
assailants more  than assailed4 ,so it  
was not in the days of ,galileo2 they   
were then in  all their sharpness and   
venom4    ,yet far more vile than the   
use even of these weapons--vile indeed  
beyond belief--was the attack by the    
,archbishop of ,pisa4    ,it is a remark
 made by one of the most moderate and   
judicially fair  of modern philosophic  
historians1 that1 of all organizations  
this  world has known1 the ,roman       
,church has caused most undeserved woe  
and  shed most innocent blood2 but1 in  
the whole terrible succession of        
,torquemadas and ,arbues and            
,granvilles1 the vilest enemy of the    
human  race is probably this same       
,archbishop of ,pisa4    ,this man1     
whose cathedral is more truly           
consecrated by the remembrance  of      

,galileo's observation of the lamp      
swinging before its altar1 than by  all 
the church services of a thousand years1
 began a siege against the  great       
philosopher4    ,galileo1 after his     
discoveries had been denounced as       
contrary to  ,scripture1 had been       
induced to write to the ,duchess        
,christine and to  his friend ,castelli 
two letters1 to show that his           
discoveries might  be reconciled to     
,scripture4 ,the archbishop saw his     
opportunity3 he  determined to get hold 
of these letters and exhibit them as    
proofs that  ,galileo had uttered       
heretical views of theology and the     
,scriptures1  and thus to bring the     
astronomer hopelessly into the clutch of
 the  ,inquisition4 ,the archbishop begs
 ,castelli1 therefore1 to let him see   
the original letter in the handwriting  
of ,galileo4 ,castelli declines2  the   
archbishop then1 while1 as is now       
revealed1 writing constantly and        
bitterly to the inquisitors against     

,galileo1 professes to ,castelli  the   
greatest admiration of ,galileo's       
genius1 and a sincere desire to  know   
more of his discoveries4 ,castelli is   
seduced by this2 but ,galileo  sturdily 
forbids sending the letter1 and the     
archbishop is obliged to  resort to open
 attack4    ,the whole struggle to crush
 ,galileo and to save him would be      
amusing were it not so fraught with     
evil4 ,there were intrigues and         
counter-intrigues1 plots and            
counter-plots1 lying and spying1 and in 
the thickest of this seething1          
squabbling1 screaming mass1 priests1    
bishops1 archbishops1 cardinals1 and    
even the future ,pope ,urban ,,viii4    
himself4 ,it is most suggestive to see  
in this crisis of the ,church1 on  the  
eve of the greatest errors in church    
policy the world has known1 in  all the 
efforts and deliberations of these      
consecrated leaders of the  ,church1 at 
the tomb of the ,prince of the          
,apostles1 no more sign of the  guidance

 or presence of the ,holy ,spirit than  
in a caucus of ,new ,york  politicians4 
,but the opposing powers were too       
strong4 ,in #afae ,galileo is summoned  
by the ,inquisition to ,rome1 and the   
mine1 which had been so long  preparing1
 was sprung4 ,pope ,paul ,v4 and the    
cardinal inquisitors order  eleven      
theologians of the ,inquisition to      
examine these two propositions  which   
had been extracted from ,galileo's      
letters on the solar spots3  ,first1    
that the sun does not move about the    
earth2 secondly1 that  the earth does   
move about the sun4 ,the eleven         
theologians solemnly  considered these  
points1 and in about a month rendered a 
solemn  decision that the first         
proposition1 that the sun is the centre1
  and does not revolve about the earth1 
is foolish1 absurd1 false in  theology1 
and heretical1 because expressly        
contrary to ,holy ,scripture2  and that 
the second proposition1 that the earth  
is not the centre1 but  revolves about  

the sun1 is absurd1 false in philosophy1
 and1 from a  theological point of view1
 at least opposed to the true faith4#di 
,the pope himself1 ,paul ,v41 now       
intervenes2 he orders that ,galileo be  
brought before the ,inquisition4 ,then  
the great man of science in that  age is
 brought face to face with the greatest 
theologian3 ,galileo is  confronted by  
,cardinal ,bellarmin4 ,bellarmin shows  
,galileo the error  of his opinion1 and 
orders him to renounce it4 ,de ,lauda1  
fortified by  a letter from the pope1   
ordering the astronomer to be placed in 
the  dungeon of the ,inquisition should 
he refuse to yield1 commands him  to    
abandon entirely the opinion that the   
sun is the centre of the  universe1 and 
that the earth moves1 and to abstain    
from sustaining1  teaching1 or defending
 that opinion in any manner whatever1   
orally or  by writing4#ej    ,galileo   
bowed to this order1 was allowed to     
retire1 and the whole  proceeding was   
kept secret4    ,about ten days later1  

on ,march #e1 #afaf1 the ,congregation  
of the ,index1  moved thereto1 as we    
have seen1 and as the letters and       
documents now  brought to light show1 by
 ,pope ,paul ,v41 solemnly rendered     
their decree3  that the doctrine of the 
double movement of the earth about its  
axis  and about the sun is false and    
entirely contrary to ,holy ,scripture2  
that this opinion must neither be taught
 nor defended4 ,the same decree         
condemned the writings of ,kopernik1 and
 all writings which affirm  the motion  
of the earth4 ,the great work of        
,kopernik was interdicted  until        
corrected in accordance with the views  
of the ,inquisition2 and  the works of  
,galileo and ,kepler1 though not        
mentioned by name1 were  included among 
those implicitly condemned as affirming 
the motion of  the earth4    ,the       
condemnations were inscribed upon the   
,index1 and to the ,index was  prefixed 
the usual papal bull giving its         
monitions the papal sanction4  ,to teach

 or even read the works denounced or    
passages condemned1 was to  risk        
persecution in this world and damnation 
in the next4 ,human science  had        
apparently lost the great decisive      
battle4    ,for some time ,galileo      
remained at ,rome perfectly             
submissive4#ea ,pope  ,paul ,v4 petted  
him1 and all seemed happy in the ending 
of the long war4    ,but1 returning to  
,florence1 something of his old         
scientific ardor  stirred within him2   
and at last ,cardinal ,barberini1 who   
had seemed  liberal and friendly1 having
 been made pope under the name of ,urban
  ,,viii41 ,galileo conceived new hopes1
 and again in a published work  alluded 
favorably to the ,copernican system4    
,new troubles ensued4  ,galileo was     
induced to visit ,rome again1 and ,pope 
,urban tried to  cajole him into        
silence1 and personally took the trouble
 to try to  show the astronomer his     
errors by argument4 ,other opponents    
were less  considerate4 ,works appeared 

attacking his ideas--works all the more 
unmanly1 since their authors knew how   
,galileo was restrained by force  from  
defending himself2 and1 as if to        
accumulate proofs of the fitness  of the
 ,church to take charge of advanced     
instruction1 his salary as  professor at
 the ,university of ,pisa was taken from
 him4 ,sapping and  mining began4 ,just 
as the ,archbishop of ,pisa some years  
before had  tried to betray ,galileo    
with honeyed words to the ,inquisition1 
so now  ,father ,grassi tried it2 and   
after various attempts to draw him out  
by  flattery1 suddenly denounced his    
scientific ideas as leading to a  denial
 of the real presence in the ,eucharist4
    ,and here science again loses       
ground4 ,galileo had announced his      
intention of writing upon the theory of 
the tides1 but he retreated1  and thus  
was lost a great treatise to the world4 
,for the final assault1 the park of     
heavy artillery was at last wheeled     
into place4 ,you see it on all the      

scientific battle-fields4 ,it consists  
of general denunciation2 and ,father    
,melchior ,inchofer1 of the ,jesuits1   
brought his artillery to bear well on   
,galileo with this declaration3  that   
the opinion of the earth's motion is1 of
 all heresies1 the  most abominable1 the
 most pernicious1 the most scandalous2  
that the  immobility of the earth is    
thrice sacred2 that argument against the
  immortality of the soul1 the ,creator1
 the incarnation1 etc41 should be       
tolerated sooner than an argument to    
prove that the earth moves4#eb    ,but  
this state of things could not be       
endured forever4 ,urged beyond          
forbearance1 ,galileo prepares a careful
 treatise in the form of a  dialogue1   
exhibiting the arguments for and against
 the ,copernican and  ,ptolemaic        
systems4 ,he then offers to submit to   
any conditions the  ,church tribunals   
may impose1 if they will but allow it to
 be printed4  ,at last they consent1    
imposing the most humiliating condition 

of all1  which was a preface written by 
,father ,ricciardi and signed by        
,galileo1  in which the whole work was  
virtually exhibited as a play of the    
imagination1 and not at all as opposed  
to the truth laid down in #afaf  by the 
,inquisition4    ,the new work met with 
prodigious success2 it put new weapons  
into the  hands of the supporters of the
 ,copernican theory4 ,the preface only  
embittered the contest2 it was laughed  
at from one end of ,europe to  the other
 as ironical4 ,this aroused the enemy4  
,the ,jesuits1 ,dominicans1  and the    
great majority of the clergy1 returned  
to the attack more  violent than ever2  
and ,pope ,urban ,,viii41 his personal  
pride being  touched1 after some halting
 joined the clerical forces4    ,the    
first important piece of strategy was to
 forbid the sale of the  work2 but the  
first edition had already been exhausted
 and spread  throughout ,europe4 ,urban 
now became angry1 and both ,galileo and 
his  works were placed in the hands of  

the ,inquisition4 ,in vain did the good 
,benedictine ,castelli urge that        
,galileo was entirely respectful to the 
,church2 in vain did he say that nothing
 that could be done could now  hinder   
the earth from revolving4 ,he was       
dismissed1 and ,galileo was  forced to  
appear in the presence of the dread     
tribunal without defender  or adviser4  
,there1 as was so long concealed but as 
is now fully  revealed1 he was menaced  
with torture by express order of ,pope  
,urban1  and1 as is now thoroughly      
established by documentary evidence1    
forced  to abjure under threats1 and    
subjected to imprisonment by command of 
,urban1 the ,inquisition deferring in   
the most servile manner to the  papal   
authority4    ,the rest of the story the
 world knows by heart2 none of the      
recent  attempts have succeeded in      
mystifying it4 ,the whole world will    
remember forever how ,galileo was       
subjected certainly to indignity and    
imprisonment equivalent to physical     

torture2#ec how he was at last  forced  
to pronounce publicly1 and on his knees1
 his recantation as  follows3 ,i1       
,galileo1 being in my seventieth year1  
being a prisoner  and on my knees1 and  
before your eminences1 having before my 
eyes the  ,holy ,gospel1 which ,i touch 
with my hands1 abjure1 curse1 and detest
 the  error and the heresy of the       
movement of the earth4    ,he was       
vanquished indeed1 for he had been      
forced1 in the face of all  coming ages1
 to perjure himself2 and1 to complete   
his dishonor1 he  was obliged to swear  
to denounce to the ,inquisition any     
other man of  science whom he should    
discover to be supporting heresy--the   
heresy of  the movement of the earth4   
,nor was this all4 ,to the end of his   
life1 nay1 after his life was  ended1   
this bitter persecution was continued1  
on the supposition that  the great      
truths he revealed were hurtful to      
religion4 ,after a brief  stay in the   
dungeons of the ,inquisition1 he was    

kept in exile from  family1 friends1 all
 his noble employments1 and held rigidly
 to his  promise not even to speak of   
his theory4 ,when1 in the midst of      
intense  bodily sufferings from disease 
and mental sufferings from calamities in
  his family1 he besought some little   
liberty1 he was met with threats  of a  
recommittal to his dungeon4 ,when1 at   
last1 a special commissioner  had       
reported to the ecclesiastical          
authorities that ,galileo had  become   
blind and wasted away with disease and  
sorrow1 he was allowed  but little more 
liberty1 and that little tempered by the
 close  surveillance of the             
ecclesiastical authorities4 ,he was     
forced to bear  contemptible attacks on 
himself and on his works in silence2 he 
lived  to see his ideas carefully weeded
 out from all the church colleges and   
universities in ,europe2 and when1 in a 
scientific work1 he happened to  be     
spoken of as renowned1 the ,inquisition 
ordered the substitution of  the word   

notorious4#ed    ,nor did the           
persecution cease with his death4       
,galileo had begged to be  buried in his
 family tomb in ,santa ,croce2 the      
request was denied3 his  friends wished 
to erect a monument over him2 this1 too1
 was refused4  ,pope ,urban said to the 
embassador ,niccolini that it would be  
an evil  example for the world if such  
honors were rendered to a man who had   
been brought before the ,roman          
,inquisition for an opinion so false and
  erroneous1 who had communicated it to 
many others1 and who had given  so great
 a scandal to ,christendom4#ee    ,in   
accordance1 therefore1 with the wish of 
the pope and the orders of  the         
,inquisition1 ,galileo was buried       
ignobly1 apart from his family1  without
 fitting ceremony1 without monument1    
without epitaph4 ,not  until forty years
 after did ,pierozzi dare to write his  
epitaph4 ,not  until a hundred years    
after did ,nelli dare transfer his      
remains to  ,santa ,croce and erect     

above them a suitable monument4 ,even   
then the  old conscientious hostility   
burst out3 the ,inquisition was besought
  to prevent such honors to a man       
condemned for notorious errors2 and     
that tribunal refused to allow any      
epitaph to be placed above him  which   
had not first been submitted to its     
censorship4 ,nor has that  old          
conscientious consistency in hatred yet 
fully relented2 hardly a  generation    
since has not seen some ,marini1 or ,de 
,bonald1 or ,rallaye1  or ,de ,gabriac1 
suppressing evidence1 or torturing      
expressions1 or  inventing theories1 to 
blacken the memory of ,galileo and save 
the  reputation of the ,church4#ef      
,the action of the ,church authorities  
corresponded well to the spirit  thus   
exhibited2 not until #ageg1 over one    
hundred years after his  condemnation1  
was it removed1 and then secretly2 not  
until #ahce1 over  two hundred years    
after his condemnation1 was the record  
of it expunged  from the ,index4    ,but

 this is by no means the only important 
part of this history4 ,hardly  less     
important1 for one who wishes to        
understand the character of the  warfare
 of science1 is it to go back over those
 two hundred years  between that fearful
 crime and its acknowledgment1 and study
 the great  retreat of the army of the  
,church after its disastrous victory    
over  ,galileo4    ,having gained this  
victory1 the conscientious believers in 
the ,bible as  a compendium of history  
and text-book of science exulted        
greatly4 ,loud  was the rejoicing that  
the heresy1 the infidelity1 the atheism1
  involved in believing that the earth  
revolves about its axis and moves       
around the sun1 had been crushed by the 
great tribunal of the ,church1  acting  
in strict obedience to the expressed    
will of one pope and the  written order 
of another4    ,but soon clear-sighted  
men saw that this victory was a         
disaster4  ,from all sides came proofs  
that ,kopernik and ,galileo were right2 

and although ,pope ,urban and the       
,inquisition held ,galileo in strict    
seclusion1 not allowing him even to     
speak regarding the double  motion of   
the earth2 and although the condemnation
 of all books which  affirm the motion  
of the earth was kept on the ,index2 and
 although  the colleges and universities
 under ,church control were compelled to
  teach the opposite doctrine1 it was   
seen that the position gained by  the   
victory over ,galileo could not be      
maintained for ever4 ,so began the      
great retreat--the retreat of the army  
of ,church apologists through two       
centuries of sophistry1 trickery1 and   
falsehood4    ,the first important move 
in the retreat was a falling back upon  
the  statement that ,galileo was        
condemned1 not because he affirmed the  
motion of the earth1 but because he     
supported it from ,scripture4 ,for  a   
considerable time this falsehood served 
its purpose2 even a hundred  and fifty  
years after ,galileo's condemnation it  

was renewed by the  ,protestant ,mallet 
du ,pan1#eg in his wish to gain favor   
from the  older ,church2 but the        
slightest critical examination of the   
original  documents1 recently revealed1 
show this position utterly untenable4   
,the letters of ,galileo to ,castelli   
and the ,grand-duchess ,christine1 in   
which he spoke of the ,copernican theory
 as reconcilable with ,scripture1  were 
not published until after the           
condemnation2 and although the          
,archbishop of ,pisa had endeavored to  
use them against him1 they  were but    
casually mentioned in #afaf1 and        
entirely left out of view  in #afcc4    
,what was condemned in #afaf as absurd1 
false in theology1  and heretical1      
because absolutely contrary to ,holy    
,scripture1 was  the proposition that   
the sun is the centre about which the   
earth  revolves2 and what was condemned 
as absurd1 false in philosophy1  and1   
from a theologic point of view at least1
 opposed to the true  faith1 was the    

proposition that the earth is not the   
centre of the  universe and immovable1  
but has a diurnal motion4#eh    ,what   
,galileo was made1 by express order of  
,pope ,urban and by the action  of the  
,inquisition under threat of torture1 to
 abjure1 was the error  and heresy of   
the movement of the earth4#ei    ,what  
the ,index1 prefaced by papal bulls     
binding its contents upon the           
consciences of the faithful1 for two    
hundred years steadily condemned1  were 
all books which affirm the motion of the
 earth4    ,not one of these            
condemnations was directed against      
,galileo's private  letters to ,castelli
 and ,christine affirming the           
possibility of  reconciling his ideas to
 ,scripture4    ,having been dislodged  
from this point1 the ,church apologists 
sought  cover under the statement that  
,galileo was condemned not for heresy1  
but for contumacy1 and for wanting in   
respect for the pope4#fj    ,as to the  
first point1 the very language of the   

various sentences shows  the falsehood  
of the assertion2 they speak of heresy1 
and never  of contumacy4 ,as to the last
 point1 the display of the original     
documents settled that forever4 ,it was 
proved by them that from first  to last 
he had been toward the pope most patient
 and submissive4 ,he  had indeed        
expressed his anger at times against his
 traducers2 but to  hold this the cause 
of the judgment against him1 is to      
degrade the  whole proceeding1 and to   
convict the pope1 ,bellarmin1 the       
theologians1  and the ,inquisition1 of  
direct falsehood1 since they assigned   
entirely  different reasons for their   
conduct4 ,from this1 therefore1 the     
apologists hastily retreated4    ,the   
next rally was made about the statement 
that the persecution of  ,galileo was   
the result of a quarrel between         
,aristotelian professors on  one side   
and professors favoring the experimental
 method on the other1  and that at first
 ,pope ,urban favored ,galileo4 ,but    

this position was  attacked and carried 
by a very simple statement4 ,if the     
,divine guidance  of the ,church is such
 a sham that it can be dragged into a   
professional  squabble1 and the pope    
made the tool of a faction in bringing  
about a  most disastrous condemnation of
 a proven truth1 how does the ,church   
differ from any human organization sunk 
into decrepitude1 managed by  simpletons
 and controlled by schemers8 ,if the    
argument be true1 the  condition of the 
,church is worse than its enemies have  
declared it4  ,amid the jeers of an     
unfeeling world the apologists sought   
new shelter4    ,the next point at which
 a stand was made was the assertion that
 the  condemnation of ,galileo was      
provisory2 but this proved a more       
treacherous shelter than the other4     
,when doctrines have been solemnly      
declared1 as those of ,galileo were     
solemnly declared1 contrary to  the     
sacred ,scriptures1 opposed to the true 
faith1 and false and  absurd in theology

 and philosophy1 to say that such       
declarations are  provisory1#fa is to   
say that the truth held by the ,church  
is not  immutable2 from this1 then1 the 
apologists retreated4    ,while this    
retreat was going on1 there was a       
constant discharge of  small-arms in the
 shape of innuendoes1 hints1 and small  
sophistries1  by small writers2 every   
effort was made to blacken ,galileo's   
private  character2 the irregularities  
of his early life were dragged forth1   
and  stress was laid on breaches of     
etiquette2 but this succeeded so poorly1
  that in #ahej it was thought necessary
 by the ,roman court to cover their     
retreat by some more careful strategy4  
,the original documents of the trial of 
,galileo had1 during the  storms of the 
early part of the century1 been         
transferred to ,paris2  but after       
several years1 in #ahdf1 they were      
returned to ,rome by the  ,french       
government1 on the express promise by   
the papal authorities  that the         

decisions should be published4 ,after   
various delays1 on  various pretexts1 in
 #ahej the long-expected publication    
appeared4 ,the  ecclesiastic charged    
with presenting them to the world was   
,monsignor  ,marini4 ,this ecclesiastic 
was of a kind which has too often       
afflicted  the weary earth--fox-like in 
cunning1 cat-like in treachery4 ,despite
  the solemn promise of the papal court1
 the wily ,marini became  the instrument
 of the ,roman authority in evading the 
promise2 by  suppressing a document     
here1 and interpolating a statement     
there1 he  managed to give plausible    
standing-ground for nearly every        
important  sophistry ever broached to   
save the reputation of the ,church and  
destroy the reputation of ,galileo4 ,he 
it was who supported the idea  that     
,galileo was condemned not for heresy1  
but for contumacy1 and  various other   
assertions as groundless4    ,the first 
effect of ,monsignor ,marini's book     
seemed favorable in  covering the       

retreat of the ,church2 aided by him1   
such vigorous writers  as ,ward were    
able to throw up temporary intrenchments
 between the  ,church and the           
indignation of the world4    ,but some  
time later came an investigator very    
different from wily  ,monsignor ,marini4
 ,this man was a ,frenchman1 ,m4 de     
l',epinois4 ,like  ,marini1 de          
l',epinois was devoted to the ,church1  
but1 unlike ,marini1  he could not lie4 
,having obtained access1 in #ahfg1 to   
the ,galileo  documents at the ,vatican1
 he published fully all those of        
importance1  without suppression or     
piously-fraudulent manipulation4 ,this  
made all  the intrenchments based upon  
,marini's statements untenable4 ,another
  retreat had to be made4    ,and now   
was made the most desperate effort of   
all4 ,the apologistic  army1 reviving an
 idea which popes and ,church had       
spurned1 declared  that the pope1 as    
pope1 had never condemned the doctrines 
of ,kopernik  and ,galileo2 that he had 

condemned them as a man simply2 that    
therefore  the ,church had never been   
committed to them2 that they were       
condemned  by the cardinals of the      
,inquisition and ,index1 and that the   
pope  had evidently been restrained from
 signing their condemnation by          
,providence4#fb ,nothing could show the 
desperation of the retreating  party    
better than jugglery like this4 ,the    
facts are1 that from ,pope  ,urban      
downward1 among the ,church authorities 
of the seventeenth  century1 the        
decision was spoken of as made by the   
pope and the ,church4  ,urban ,,viii4   
spoke of that of #afaf as made by ,pope 
,paul ,v4 and the  ,church1 and of that 
of #afcc as made by himself and the     
,church4#fc    ,when ,gassendi attempted
 to raise the point that the decision   
was not  sanctioned by the ,church as   
such1 a great theological authority1    
,father ,lecazre1 rector of the ,college
 of ,dijon1 publicly contradicted  him1 
and declared that it was not certain    

cardinals1 but the supreme  authority of
 the ,church1 that had condemned        
,galileo2 and to this  statement the    
pope and the ,church gave consent1      
either openly or by  silence4#fd ,the   
suspected thinkers1 like ,descartes and 
others1 who  attempted to raise the same
 point1 were treated with contempt4     
,father  ,castelli1 who had devoted     
himself to ,galileo1 and knew to his    
cost just  what the condemnation meant  
and who made it1 takes it for granted1  
in  his letter to the papal authorities1
 that it was made by the ,church4       
,cardinal ,querenghi in his letters1 the
 embassador ,guicciardini in his        
dispatches1 the historian ,viviani in   
his biography of ,galileo--all  writing 
under ,church inspection at the         
time--take the view that the  ,church   
condemned ,galileo4 ,the ,inquisition   
itself1 backed by the  greatest         
theologian of the time1 ,bellarmin1 took
 the same view2#fe  and if this were not
 enough1 we have the ,roman ,index1     

containing the  condemnation for nearly 
two hundred years1 prefaced by a solemn 
bull of  the reigning pope1 binding the 
condemnation on the consciences of the  
whole ,church1 and reiterating year     
after year the condemnation of all      
books which affirm the motion of the    
earth as damnable4#ff ,to attempt  to   
face all this1 added to the fact that   
the ,inquisition condemned  ,galileo1   
and required his abjuration of the      
heresy of the movement of  the earth by 
written order of the pope1 was soon seen
 to be impossible4    ,in spite1 then1  
of all the casuistry of de l',epinois   
and all the  special pleadings of ,m4   
,martin1 the sturdy common-sense of the 
world  proved too strong2 and now comes 
to view the most astounding defense of  
all--that hinted at by ,viscount de     
,bonald and developed in the ,dublin    
,review4 ,this was nothing less than an 
attempt to retreat under a  charge of   
deception against the ,almighty himself4
 ,the argument is as  follows3 ,but it  

may well be doubted whether the ,church 
did retard the  progress of scientific  
truth4 ,what retarded it1 was the       
circumstance  that ,god has thought fit 
to express many texts of ,scripture in  
words  which have every appearance of   
denying the earth's motion4 ,but it is  
,god who did this1 not the ,church2 and1
 moreover1 since ,he thought fit  so to 
act as to retard the progress of        
scientific truth1 it would be  little to
 her discredit even if it were true that
 she had followed ,his  example4        
,with this1 the retreat of the army of  
apologists is complete2 further  than   
this1 through mazes of sophistry and    
into depths of contempt1 they  could not
 go4#fg    ,do not understand me here as
 casting blame on the ,roman ,church at 
large4 ,it must in fairness be said1    
that some of its best men tried  to stop
 this great mistake4 ,even ,pope ,urban 
himself would have been  glad at one    
time to stop it2 but the current was too
 strong1 and he  weakly yielded1        

becoming a bitter persecutor4#fh ,the   
whole of the  civilized world was at    
fault1 ,protestant as well as ,catholic1
 and not  any particular part of it4 ,it
 was not the fault of religion2 it was  
the  fault of the short-sighted views   
which narrow-minded1 loud-voiced men    
are ever prone to mix in with religion1 
and to insist are religion4#fi    ,but  
the losses to the earth in the long war 
against ,galileo were  followed by      
losses not less unfortunate in other    
quarters4 ,there was  then in ,europe   
one of the greatest thinkers ever given 
to mankind--,rn  ,descartes4 ,mistaken  
though many of his theories were1 they  
were  fruitful in truths4 ,the          
scientific warriors had stirred new life
 in  him1 and he was working over and   
summing up in his mighty mind all the   
researches of his time2 the result must 
make an epoch in history4 ,his  aim was 
to combine all knowledge and thought    
into a ,treatise on the  ,world4 ,his   
earnestness he proved by the eleven     

years which he gave to  the study of    
anatomy alone4 ,petty persecution he had
 met often1 but  the fate of ,galileo   
robbed him of all hope1 of all energy2  
the battle  seemed lost2 he gave up his 
great plan forever4#gj    ,but champions
 pressed on4 ,campanella1 full of       
vagaries as he was1  wrote his ,apologia
 pro ,galileo1 though for that and other
 heresies1  religious and political1 he 
seven times underwent torture4#ga       
,and ,kepler comes4 ,he leads science on
 to greater victories4 ,kopernik1  great
 as he was1 could not disentangle his   
scientific reasoning  entirely from the 
theological bias4 ,the doctrines of     
,aristotle and  ,thomas ,aquinas as to  
the necessary superiority of the circle1
 had  vitiated the minor features of his
 system1 and left breaches in it        
through which the enemy was not slow to 
enter4 ,kepler sees these  errors1 and1 
by wonderful genius in insight and vigor
 in thought1  he brings to the world the
 three laws which bear his name1 and    

this  fortress of science is complete4  
,he thinks and speaks as one inspired4  
,his battle is severe2 he is sometimes  
abused1 sometimes ridiculed1  sometimes 
imprisoned4 ,protestants in ,styria and 
at ,tbingen1 ,catholics  at ,rome1 press
 upon him2#gb but ,newton1 ,halley1     
,bradley1 and the other  great leaders  
follow1 and to science remains the      
victory4    ,and yet the war did not    
wholly end4 ,during the seventeenth     
century1  in all ,france1 after all the 
splendid proofs added by ,kepler1 no one
  dared openly teach the ,copernican    
theory1 and ,cassini1 the great         
astronomer1 never declared it4#gc ,in   
#afgb ,father ,riccioli1 a ,jesuit1     
declared that there were precisely      
forty-nine arguments for the            
,copernican theory and seventy-seven    
against it2 so that there remained      
twenty-eight reasons for preferring the 
orthodox theory4#gd ,toward  the end of 
the seventeenth century1 after the      
demonstration of ,sir  ,isaac ,newton1  

even ,bossuet1 the eagle of ,meaux1     
among the loftiest  of religious        
thinkers1 declared for the ,ptolemaic   
theory as the  ,scriptural theory2#ge   
and in #agbd ,john ,hutchinson published
 in ,england  his ,moses's ,principia1  
maintaining that the ,hebrew ,scriptures
 are a  perfect system of natural       
philosophy1 and are opposed to the      
,newtonian  theory of gravitation4#gf   
,in #agdf ,boscovich1 the great         
mathematician  of the ,jesuits1 used    
these words3 ,as for me1 full of respect
 for the  ,holy ,scriptures and the     
decree of the ,holy ,inquisition1 ,i    
regard the  earth as immovable2         
nevertheless1 for simplicity in         
explanation1 ,i  will argue as if the   
earth moves1 for it is proved that of   
the two  hypotheses the appearances     
favor that idea4#gg ,and even at a date 
far within our own nineteenth century1  
the authorities of the ,spanish         
universities vigorously excluded the    
,newtonian system1 and the greatest  of 

them all1 the ,university of ,salamanca1
 held it under the ban until a  very    
recent period4#gh    ,nor has the       
opposition failed even in our own time4 
,on the #eth of ,may1  #ahbi1 a great   
multitude assembled at ,warsaw1 to do   
honor to the memory  of ,kopernik1 and  
to unveil ,thorwaldsen's statue of him4 
,kopernik had lived a pious1 ,christian 
life4 ,he was well known for            
unostentatious ,christian charity4 ,with
 his religious belief no fault  had ever
 been found2 he was a canon of the      
church of ,frauenberg1 and  over his    
grave had been written the most touching
 of ,christian epitaphs4    ,naturally1 
then1 the people expected a religious   
service4 ,all was  understood to be     
arranged for it4 ,the procession marched
 to the church  and waited4 ,the hour   
passed1 and no priest appeared2 none    
could be  induced to appear4 ,kopernik1 
simple1 charitable1 pious1 one of the   
noblest gifts of ,god to the service of 
religion as well as science1  was still 

held to be a reprobate4 ,five years     
after that1 his book was  still standing
 on the ,index of books prohibited to   
,christians2 and  although1 in #ageg1   
under ,benedict ,,xiv41 the             
,congregation of the ,index  had        
secretly allowed the ideas of ,kopernik 
and ,galileo to be simply  tolerated1 it
 was not until #ahbb1 as we have seen1  
that ,pius ,,vii4  allowed the          
publishing of them at ,rome2 and not    
until #ahce did the  prohibition of them
 fully disappear from the ,index4#gi    
,the ,protestantism of ,england was     
little better4 ,in #aggb sailed the     
famous ,english expedition for          
scientific discovery under ,cook4 ,the  
greatest by far of all the scientific   
authorities chosen to accompany  it was 
,dr4 ,priestley4 ,sir ,joseph ,banks had
 especially invited him2 but  the clergy
 of ,oxford and ,cambridge intervened4  
,priestley was considered  unsound in   
his views of the ,trinity2 it was       
suspected that this would  vitiate his  

astronomical observations2 he was       
rejected1 and the  expedition           
crippled4#hj    ,nor has the warfare    
against dead champions of science been  
carried on  only by the older ,church4  
,on the #ajth of ,may1 #ahei1 was buried
 ,alexander von ,humboldt4 ,his  labors 
were among the greatest glories of the  
century1 and his funeral  one of the    
most imposing that ,berlin had ever     
seen2 among those who  honored          
themselves by their presence was the    
prince regent--the present  emperor4    
,but of the clergy it was observed that 
none were present save  the officiating 
clergyman and a few regarded as         
unorthodox4#ha    ,nor have attempts to 
renew the battle been wanting in these  
latter  days4 ,the attempt in the       
,church of ,england1 in #ahfd1 to fetter
 science1  which was brought to ridicule
 by ,herschel1 ,bowring1 and ,de        
,morgan2 the  ,lutheran assemblage at   
,berlin1 in #ahfh1 to protest against   
science  falsely so called1 in the midst

 of which stood ,pastor ,knak denouncing
  the ,copernican theory2 the ,syllabus1
 the greatest mistake of the  ,roman    
,church1 are all examples of this4#hb   
,and now1 what has been won by either   
party in this long and terrible  war8   
,the party which would subordinate the  
methods and aims of science  to those of
 theology1 though in general obedient to
 deep convictions1  had given to        
,christianity a series of the worst     
blows it had ever  received4 ,they had  
made large numbers of the best men in   
,europe hate  it4 ,why did ,ricetto and 
,bruno and ,vanini1 when the crucifix   
was  presented to them in their hours of
 martyrdom1 turn from that blessed      
image with loathing8#hc ,simply because 
,christianity had been made to  them    
identical with the most horrible        
oppression of the mind4    ,worse than  
that1 the well-meaning defenders of the 
faith had wrought  into the very fibre  
of the ,european heart that most        
unfortunate of all  ideas1 the idea that

 there is a necessary antagonism between
 science  and religion4 ,like the       
landsman who lashes himself to the      
anchor of  the sinking ship1 they had   
attached the fundamental doctrines of   
,christianity1 by the strongest cords of
 logic which they could spin1  to these 
mistaken ideas in science1 and the      
advance of knowledge had  wellnigh      
engulfed them4    ,on the other hand1   
what had science done for religion8     
,simply this3  ,kopernik1 escaping      
persecution only by death2 ,giordano    
,bruno1 burned  alive as a monster of   
impiety2 ,galileo1 imprisoned and       
humiliated as  the worst of             
misbelievers2 ,kepler1 hunted alike by  
,protestant and  ,catholic1 had given to
 religion great new foundations1 great  
new1  ennobling conceptions1 a great new
 revelation of the might of ,god4       
,under the old system we have that      
princely astronomer1 ,alfonso of        
,castile1 seeing the poverty of the     
,ptolemaic system1 yet knowing no       

other1 startling ,europe with the       
blasphemy that if he had been present   
at creation he could have suggested a   
better ordering of the heavenly  bodies4
 ,under the new system you have ,kepler1
 filled with a religious  spirit1       
exclaiming1 ,i do think the thoughts of 
,god4#hd ,the  difference in religious  
spirit between these two men marks the  
conquest  made in this1 even by science1
 for religion4    ,but we cannot leave  
the subject of astronomy without        
noticing the most  recent warfare4      
,especially interesting is it because at
 one period the  battle seemed utterly  
lost1 and then was won beautifully1     
thoroughly1  by a legitimate advance in 
scientific knowledge4 ,i speak of the   
,nebular  ,hypothesis4    ,the sacred   
writings of the ,jews which we have     
inherited speak literally  of the       
creation of the heavenly bodies by      
direct intervention1 and for  the       
convenience of the earth4 ,this was the 
view of the ,fathers of the  ,church1   

and was transmitted through the great   
doctors in theology4    ,more than that1
 it was crystallized in art4 ,so have ,i
 seen1 over the  portal of the          
,cathedral of ,freiburg1 a              
representation of the ,almighty  making 
and placing numbers of wafer-like suns1 
moons1 and stars2 and at  the centre of 
all1 platter-like and largest of all1   
the earth4#he ,the  lines on the        
,creator's face show that ,he is obliged
 to contrive2 the  lines of his muscles 
show that ,he is obliged to toil4       
,naturally1 then1  did sculptors and    
painters of the medival and early modern
 period  represent the ,almighty as     
weary after labor1 and enjoying         
dignified  repose4    ,these ideas1 more
 or less gross in their accompaniments1 
passed into  the popular creed of the   
modern period4    ,but about the close  
of the last century1 ,bruno having      
guessed the  fundamental fact of the    
nebular hypothesis1 and ,kant having    
reasoned  out its foundation idea1      

,laplace developed it1 showing the      
reason for  supposing that our own solar
 system1 in its sun1 planets1           
satellites1  with their various motions1
 distances1 and magnitudes1 is a natural
  result of the diminishing heat of a   
nebulous mass--a result obeying  natural
 laws4    ,there was an outcry at once  
against the atheism of the scheme4 ,the 
war raged fiercely4 ,laplace claimed    
that there were in the heavens  many    
nebulous patches yet in the gaseous     
form1 and pointed them out4  ,he showed 
by laws of physics and mathematical     
demonstration that his  hypothesis      
accounted in a most striking manner for 
the great body of  facts1 and1 despite  
clamor1 was gaining ground1 when the    
improved  telescopes resolved some of   
the patches of nebulous matter into     
multitudes of stars4    ,the opponents  
of the nebular hypothesis were          
overjoyed2 they sang  pans to astronomy1
 because1 as they said1 it had proved   
the truth of  ,scripture4 ,they had     

jumped to the conclusion that all nebul 
must be  alike--that if some are made up
 of systems of stars1 all must be so    
made up2 that none can be masses of     
attenuated gaseous matter1 because  some
 are not4    ,science1 for a time1      
halted4 ,the accepted doctrine became   
this3 that  the only reason why all the 
nebul are not resolved into distinct    
stars is because our telescopes are not 
sufficiently powerful4 ,but in  time    
came that wonderful discovery of the    
spectroscope and spectrum  analysis1 and
 this was supplemented by ,fraunhofer's 
discovery that the  spectrum of an      
ignited gaseous body is discontinuous1  
with interrupting  lines2 and this1 in  
#ahdf1 by ,draper's discovery that the  
spectrum of an  ignited solid is        
continuous1 with no interrupting lines4 
,and now the  spectroscope was turned   
upon the nebul1 and about one-third of  
them  were found to be gaseous4         
,again the nebular hypothesis comes     
forth stronger than ever4 ,the          

beautiful experiment of ,plateau on the 
rotation of a fluid globe comes  in to  
strengthen if not to confirm it4 ,but   
what was likely to be lost  in this8    
,simply a poor conception of the        
universe4 ,what to be gained8 ,a  far   
more worthy idea of that vast power     
which works in the universe1 in  all    
things by law1 and in none by           
caprice4#hf      ,,chemistry ,,and      
,,physics4    ,the great series of      
battles to which ,i next turn with you  
were fought  on those fields occupied by
 such sciences as ,chemistry and        
,natural  ,philosophy4    ,even before  
these sciences were out of their        
childhood1 while yet they  were         
tottering mainly toward childish objects
 and by childish steps1  the champions  
of that same old mistaken conception of 
rigid ,scriptural  interpretation began 
the war4 ,the catalogue of chemists and 
physicists  persecuted or thwarted would
 fill volumes4    ,the first entrance of
 these sciences1 as a well-defined      

force1 into  the modern world1 began in 
the thirteenth century4 ,but the        
thirteenth  century was marked by a     
revival of religious fervor2 to this day
 the  greatest and best works of the    
cathedral-builders are memorials of its 
depth and strength4    ,out of this     
religious fervor naturally came a great 
growth of  theological thought and      
ecclesiastical power1 and the spirit of 
inquiry  was soon obliged to take       
account of this influence4    ,first    
among the distinguished men who1 in that
 century1 laid  foundations for modern  
science1 was ,albert of ,bollstadt1     
better known  as ,albert the ,great1 the
 most renowned scholar of ,germany4     
,fettered though he was by the absurd   
methods of his time1 led astray  as he  
was by the scholastic spirit1 he had    
conceived ideas of better  methods and  
aims4 ,his eye pierces the mists of     
scholasticism2 he sees  the light1 and  
draws the world toward it4 ,he stands   
among the great  pioneers of modern     

physical and natural science4 ,he aids  
in giving  foundations to botany and    
chemistry1 and ,humboldt finds in his   
works  the germ of the comprehensive    
science of physical geography4#hg       
,the conscience of the time1 acting1 as 
it supposed1 in defense of  religion1   
brought out a missile which it hurled   
with deadly effect4 ,you  see those     
medival scientific battle-fields strewed
 with such3 it was  the charge of       
sorcery1 of unlawful compact with the   
devil4    ,this missile was effective4  
,you find it used against every great   
investigator of ,nature in those times  
and for centuries after4 ,the list  of  
great men charged with magic1 as given  
by ,naud1 is astounding4 ,it  includes  
every man of real mark1 and the most    
thoughtful of the popes1  ,sylvester    
,,ii4 7,gerbert71 stands in the midst of
 them4 ,it seemed to be  the received   
idea that1 as soon as a man conceived a 
wish to study the  works of ,god1 his   
first step must be a league with the    

devil4#hh    ,this missile was hurled   
against ,albert4 ,he was condemned by   
the authorities of the ,dominican order1
 subjected to suspicion  and indignity1 
and only escaped persecution by yielding
 to the  ecclesiastical spirit of the   
time1 and working mainly in theological 
channels by scholastic methods4 ,it was 
a sad loss to the earth2 and  certainly1
 of all organizations that have reason  
to lament the pressure  of those        
ecclesiastical forces which turned      
,albert the ,great from the  path of    
experimental philosophy1 foremost of all
 in regret should be  the ,christian    
,church1 and especially the ,roman      
branch of it4 ,had the  ,church of the  
thirteenth century been so full of faith
 as to accept the  truths in natural    
science brought by ,albert and his      
compeers1 and to  have encouraged their 
growth1 this faith and this             
encouragement would  to this day have   
formed the greatest argument for proving
 the ,church  directly under ,divine    

guidance2 they would have been the      
brightest  jewels in her crown4 ,the    
loss to the ,church1 by this want of    
faith and  courage1 has proved1 in the  
long-run1 even greater than the loss to 
science4    ,the next great man of that 
age whom the theological and            
ecclesiastical  forces of the time turn 
from the right path is ,vincent of      
,beauvais4    ,vincent devoted himself  
to the study of ,nature in several of   
her most  interesting fields4 ,to       
astronomy1 mineralogy1 botany1 and      
chemistry1  he gave much thought2 but   
especially did he devote himself to the 
preparation of a full account of the    
universe4 ,had he taken the path  of    
experimental research1 the world would  
have been enriched with most  precious  
discoveries2 but the impulse followed by
 ,albert of ,bollstadt1  backed as it   
was by the whole ecclesiastical power of
 his time1 was  too strong1 and1 in all 
the life-labor of ,vincent1 nothing     
appears of  any permanent value4 ,he    

built a structure which careless        
observation  of facts1 literal          
interpretation of ,scripture1 and       
theological  subtilizing1 combined to   
make one of the most striking monuments 
of  human error4#hi    ,but the         
theological ecclesiastical spirit of the
 thirteenth century  gained its greatest
 victory in the work of the most        
renowned of all  thinkers of his time1  
,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas4 ,in him was the  
theological  spirit of his age          
incarnate4 ,although he yielded         
somewhat1 at one  period1 to love of    
studies in natural science1 it was he   
who finally  made that great treaty or  
compromise which for ages subjected     
science  entirely to theology4 ,he it   
was whose thought reared the most       
enduring  barrier against those who1 in 
that age and in succeeding ages1 labored
  to open for science the path by its   
own legitimate method toward its  own   
noble ends4    ,through the earlier     
systems of philosophy as they were then 

known1  and through the earlier         
theologic thought1 he had gone with     
great  labor and vigor2 he had been a   
pupil of ,albert of ,bollstadt1 and from
  him had gained inspiration in science4
 ,all his mighty powers1 thus           
disciplined and cultured1 he brought to 
bear in making a treaty or  truce1      
giving to theology the supremacy over   
science4 ,the experimental  method had  
already been practically initiated2     
,albert of ,bollstadt and  ,roger ,bacon
 had begun their work in accordance with
 its methods2 but  ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas
 gave all his thoughts to bringing      
science again  under the sway of the    
theological bias1 metaphysical methods1 
and  ecclesiastical control4 ,he gave to
 the world a striking example of what   
his method could be made to produce4 ,in
 his commentary upon ,aristotle's       
treatise upon ,heaven and ,earth he     
illustrates all the evils of such  a    
combination of theological reasoning and
 literal interpretation of  the         

,scriptural with scientific facts as    
then understood1 and it remains  to this
 day a prodigious monument to human     
genius and human folly4  ,the           
ecclesiastical power of the time hailed 
him as a deliverer2 it  was claimed that
 striking miracles were vouchsafed1     
showing that the  blessing of ,heaven   
rested upon his labors4 ,among the      
legends embodying  the ,church spirit of
 that period is that given by the       
,bollandists and  immortalized by a     
renowned painter4 ,the great philosopher
 and saint  is represented in the habit 
of his order1 with book and pen in hand1
  kneeling before the image of ,christ  
crucified2 and as he kneels the  image  
thus addresses him3 ,thomas1 thou hast  
written well concerning  me2 what price 
wilt thou receive for thy labor8 ,to    
this day the  greater ecclesiastical    
historians of the ,roman ,church1 like  
the ,abb  ,rohrbacher1 and the minor    
historians of science1 who find it      
convenient  to propitiate the ,church1  

like ,pouchet1 dilate upon the glories  
of ,st4  ,thomas ,aquinas in thus making
 a treaty of alliance between religious 
and scientific thought1 and laying the  
foundations for a sanctified  science4  
,but the unprejudiced historian cannot  
indulge in this  enthusiastic view4 ,the
 results both for the ,church and for   
the progress  of science have been most 
unfortunate4 ,it was a wretched step    
backward4  ,the first result of this    
great man's great compromise was to     
close that  new path in science which   
alone leads to discoveries of value--the
  experimental method--and to reopen the
 old path of mixed theology and         
science1 which1 as ,hallam declares1    
after three or four hundred years  had  
not untied a single knot1 or added one  
unequivocal truth to the  domain of     
philosophy2 the path which1 as all      
modern history proves1  has ever since  
led only to delusion and evil4#ij       
,the path thus unfortunately opened by  
these strong men became the main  path  

in science for ages1 and it led the     
world farther and farther  from any     
fruitful fact or hopeful method4 ,roger 
,bacon's investigations  were virtually 
forgotten2 worthless mixtures of literal
 interpretation  of ,scripture with     
imperfectly authenticated physical facts
 took their  place4    ,every age since 
has been full of examples of this1 but  
out of them ,i  will take just one2 and 
it shall be no other than that ,francis 
,bacon1  who1 more than any other man1  
led the modern world out of the path    
opened by ,aquinas1 and back into the   
path trod by ,roger ,bacon4 ,strange  as
 it may at first seem1 ,francis ,bacon1 
whose keenness of sight  revealed the   
delusions of the old path and the       
promises of the new1  that man whose    
boldness in thought did so much to turn 
the world from  the old path into the   
new1 presents1 in his own writings1 one 
of the  most striking examples of the   
strength of the evil he did so much to  
destroy4    ,the ,novum ,organum1       

considering the time when it came from  
his pen1  is doubtless one of the       
greatest exhibitions of genius in the   
history  of human thought4 ,this        
treatise it was which showed the modern 
world  the way out of the scholastic    
method and reverence for dogma into the 
experimental method and reverence for   
demonstrated fact4 ,in the course  of it
 occur many passages which show that the
 great philosopher was  fully alive to  
the danger1 both to religion and to     
science1 arising  from their mixture4   
,early in his argument he says3 ,but the
 corruption  of philosophy from         
superstition and admixture of theology  
separates  altogether more widely1 and  
introduces the greatest amount of evil1 
both into whole systems of philosophy   
and into their parts4 ,and a  little    
later he says3 ,some moderns have       
indulged this vanity with  the greatest 
carelessness1 and have endeavored to    
found a ,natural  ,philosophy on the    
first of ,genesis and the ,book of ,job1

 and other  sacred ,scriptures1 so      
'seeking the dead among the living4'    
,and by so  much the more is this vanity
 to be restrained and coerced because   
their  expressions form an unwholesome  
mixture of things human and divine2 not 
merely fantastic philosophy1 but        
heretical religion4 ,and so it is very  
salutary that1 with due sobriety of     
mind1 those things only be rendered  to 
faith which are faith's4#ia ,still      
later1 in his treatise1 ,bacon  returns 
to the charge yet more strongly4 ,he    
says3 ,nor is it to be  overlooked1 that
 natural philosophy has in all ages had 
a troublesome  and stubborn adversary in
 superstition and the blind and         
immoderate  zeal for religion4 ,thus it 
has been among the ,greeks1 that they   
who  first proposed to the yet          
unprepared ears of men the natural      
causes of  lightning and tempests were  
condemned1 on that head1 for impiety    
toward  the gods2 nor by some of the old
 fathers of the ,christian religion     

were those much better received1 who    
laid it down from the most sure         
demonstrations1 such as no one in his   
senses could nowadays contradict1  that 
the earth is round1 and asserted in     
consequence that there must be          
antipodes4 ,furthermore1 as things are  
now1 the condition of discourses  on    
,nature is made severe and more rigorous
 in consequence of the  summaries and   
methods of scholastic theologians1 who1 
while they have1  as far as they could1 
reduced theology to order1 and have     
fashioned it  into the form of an art1  
have besides succeeded in mingling far  
more  than was right of the quarrelsome 
and thorny philosophy of ,aristotle     
with the body of religion4    ,the      
fictions1 too1 of those who have not    
feared to deduce and confirm  from the  
principles and authority of philosophies
 the true ,christian  religion1 have the
 same tendency1 though in a different   
way4 ,these  celebrated the wedding of  
faith and sense1 as though it were      

lawful1  with much pomp and solemnity1  
and soothed the minds of men with a     
grateful variety of things1 but1        
meanwhile1 mingled the divine with  the 
human in ill-matched state4 ,and in     
mixtures like this of theology  with    
natural philosophy1 those things only   
which are now received in  philosophy   
are included2 while novelties1 though   
they be changes for  the better1 are all
 banished and driven out4    ,and1      
again1 ,bacon says3 ,lastly you may     
find1 thanks to the  unskillfulness of  
some divines1 the approach to any kind  
of philosophy1  however improved1       
entirely closed up4 ,some1 indeed1 in   
their simplicity  are rather afraid1    
lest perhaps a deeper inquiry into      
,nature should  penetrate beyond the    
allowed limits of sobriety4 ,still      
further on  ,bacon penetrates into the  
very heart of the question in a vigorous
 way1  and says3 ,others1 more craftily1
 conjecture and consider that1 if the   
means be unknown1 each single thing can 

be referred more easily to the  hand and
 rod of ,god--a matter1 as they think1  
of very great importance  to religion3  
and this is nothing more nor less than  
wishing to please  ,god by a lie4 ,and1 
finally1 he says3 ,whereas1 if one      
considers the  matter rightly1 natural  
philosophy is1 after ,god's word1 the   
surest  medicine for superstition1 and  
also the most approved nourishment of   
faith4#ib    ,no man who has thought    
much upon the annals of his race can1   
without  a feeling of awe1 come into the
 presence of such inspired clearness  of
 insight and boldness of utterance4 ,the
 first thought of the reader  is1 that1 
of all men1 this ,francis ,bacon is the 
most free from the  unfortunate bias he 
condemns4 ,he certainly cannot be       
deluded into the  old path4 ,but1 as we 
go on through the treatise1 we are      
surprised  to find that the strong arm  
of ,aquinas had been stretched over the 
intervening ages1 and had laid hold upon
 this master-thinker of the  sixteenth  

century4 ,only a few chapters further   
along we find ,bacon1  after alluding to
 the then recent voyage of ,columbus1   
speaking of the  prophecy of ,daniel    
regarding the latter days1 that many    
shall run to  and fro and knowledge be  
increased1 as clearly signifying that it
 is  in the fates1 i4 e41 in providence1
 that the circumnavigation of the       
world1 which through so many lengthy    
voyages seems to be entirely  complete  
or in course of completion1 and the     
increase of science1  should happen in  
the same age4#ic    ,here1 then1 we have
 this great man indulging in that very  
mixture of  literal ,scriptural         
interpretation and scientific thought   
which he had  condemned1 and therefrom  
evidently deducing the conclusion that  
these  great voyages and discoveries1   
which were the beginning of a new world 
in thought and action1 were the end of  
all things4    ,but in his great work on
 ,the ,advancement of ,learning the firm
 grip  which the methods he condemned   

held upon him is shown yet more clearly4
  ,in his first book he shows how that  
excellent ,book of ,job1 if it be       
revolved with diligence1 it will be     
found pregnant and swelling with        
natural philosophy1 and endeavors to    
show that the roundness of the  world1  
the fixing of the stars1 ever standing  
at equal distance1  the depression of   
the southern pole1 matter of generation1
 and  matter of minerals1 are with great
 elegancy noted4 ,but1 curiously        
enough1 he uses to support some of these
 truths the very texts which  the       
,fathers of the ,church used to destroy 
them1 and those for which he  finds     
,scriptural warrant most clearly are    
such as science has since  disproved4   
,so1 too1 he says that ,solomon was     
enabled by donation of  ,god in his     
proverbs to compile a natural history of
 all verdure4#id    ,certainly no more  
striking examples of the strength of the
 evil which  he had all along been      
denouncing could be exhibited than these

 in his  own writings2 after this we    
cease to wonder at his blindness to the 
discoveries of ,kopernik and the        
experiments of ,gilbert4    ,i pass from
 the legions of those who from that day 
to this have  stumbled into similar     
errors by degrading our sacred volume   
into a  compendium of history or a      
text-book of science1 and turn next to a
  far more serious class of effects     
arising from the great medival          
compromise between science and theology4
 ,we have considered the wrong  road    
into which so many master-spirits were  
led or driven2 we will now  look at the 
war brought against those men of science
 who persevered in  the right road4     
,the first great thinker who1 in spite  
of some stumbling into theologic        
pitfalls1 persevered in this true path  
was ,roger ,bacon4 ,his life and  works 
seem until recently to have been        
generally misunderstood4 ,he  has been  
ranked as a superstitious alchemist who 
stumbled upon some  inventions2 but more

 recent investigation has revealed him  
to be one  of the great masters in human
 progress4    ,the advance of sound     
historical judgment seems likely to     
bring nearer  to equality the fame of   
the two who bear the name of ,bacon4    
,bacon of  the chancellorship and the   
,novum ,organon may not wane2 but ,bacon
  of the prison-cell and the ,opus      
,majus steadily approaches him in       
brightness4#ie    ,more than three      
centuries before ,francis ,bacon        
advocated the  experimental method1     
,roger ,bacon practised it1 and the     
results as  now revealed are wonderful4 
,he wrought with power in philosophy and
  in all sciences1 and his knowledge was
 sound and exact4 ,by him1  more than by
 any other man of the middle ages1 was  
the world put on  the most fruitful     
paths of science--the paths which have  
led to the  most precious inventions4   
,among them are clocks1 lenses1 burning 
specula1 telescopes1 which were given by
 him to the world1 directly  or         

indirectly4 ,in his writings are found  
formul for extracting  phosphorus1      
manganese1 and bismuth4 ,it is even     
claimed1 with much  appearance of       
justice1 that he investigated the power 
of steam4 ,he  seems to have very nearly
 reached also some of the principal     
doctrines  of modern chemistry4 ,but it 
should be borne in mind that his method 
of investigation was even greater than  
these vast results4 ,in the age  when   
metaphysical subtilizing was alone      
thought to give the title of  scholar1  
he insisted on real reasoning and the   
aid of natural science  by mathematics4 
,in an age when experimenting was sure  
to cost a man  his reputation1 and was  
likely to cost him his life1 he insisted
 on  experiment and braved all its      
risks4 ,few greater men have lived4 ,as 
we read the sketch given by ,whewell of 
,bacon's process of reasoning  regarding
 the refraction of light1 he seems      
fairly inspired4#if    ,on this man came
 the brunt of the battle4 ,the most     

conscientious men  of his time thought  
it their duty to fight him1 and they did
 it too  well4 ,it was not that he      
disbelieved in ,christianity2 that was  
never  charged against him4 ,his        
orthodoxy was perfect4 ,he was attacked 
and  condemned1 in the words of his     
opponents1 propter quasdam novitates    
suspectas4    ,he was attacked1 first of
 all1 with that goodly old missile1     
which1  with the epithets infidel and   
atheist1 has decided the fate of so     
many battles--the charge of magic and   
compact with ,satan4    ,he defended    
himself with a most unfortunate         
weapon--a weapon which  exploded in his 
hands and injured him more than the     
enemy1 for he  argued against the idea  
of compacts with ,satan1 and showed that
 much  which is ascribed to demons      
results from natural means4 ,this added 
fuel to the flame4 ,to limit the power  
of ,satan was deemed hardly less        
impious than to limit the power of      
,god4#ig    ,the most powerful          

protectors availed him little4 ,his     
friend ,guy ,foulkes  having been made  
pope1 ,bacon was for a time shielded1   
but the fury  of the enemy was too      
strong4 ,in an unpublished letter1      
,blackstone  declares that when1 on one 
occasion1 ,bacon was about to perform a 
few  experiments for some friends1 all  
,oxford was in an uproar4 ,it was       
believed that ,satan was let loose4     
,everywhere were priests1 fellows1  and 
students rushing about1 their garments  
streaming in the wind1 and  everywhere  
resounded the cry1 ,down with the       
conjurer6 and this cry1  ,down with the 
conjurer6 resounded from cell to cell   
and hall to  hall4#ih    ,but the attack
 took a shape far more terrible4 ,the   
two great religions  orders1 ,franciscan
 and ,dominican1 vied with each other in
 fighting the  new thought in chemistry 
and philosophy4 ,st4 ,dominic1 sincere  
as he  was1 solemnly condemned research 
by experiment and observation4 ,the     
general of the ,franciscan order took   

similar grounds4    ,in #abdc the       
,dominicans solemnly interdicted every  
member of their order  from the study of
 medicine and natural philosophy1 and in
 #abhg this  interdiction was extended  
to the study of chemistry4#ii ,in #abgh 
the  authorities of the ,franciscan     
order1 assembled at ,paris1 solemnly    
condemned ,bacon's teachings4           
,another weapon began to be used upon   
the battle-fields of that time  with    
much effect4 ,the ,arabs had made noble 
discoveries in science4  ,averros had1  
among many1 divided the honors with ,st4
 ,thomas ,aquinas4  ,these facts gave   
the new missile3 it was the epithet     
,mahometan4 ,this1  too1 was flung with 
effect at ,bacon4#ajj    ,bacon was at  
last conquered4 ,he was imprisoned for  
fourteen years4 ,at  the age of eighty  
years he was released from prison1 but  
death alone  took him beyond the reach  
of his enemies4 ,how deeply the struggle
 had  racked his mind may be gathered   
from that last affecting declaration of 

his3 ,would that ,i had not given myself
 so much trouble for the love of        
science6    ,sad is it to think of what 
this great man might have given to the  
world had the world not refused the     
gift4 ,he held the key of treasures     
which would have freed mankind from ages
 of error and misery4 ,with his         
discoveries as a basis1 with his method 
as a guide1 what might not the  world   
have gained6 ,nor was the wrong done to 
that age alone2 it was  done to this age
 also4 ,the nineteenth century was      
robbed at the same  time with the       
thirteenth4 ,but for that interference  
with science1  the nineteenth century   
would1 without doubt1 be enjoying       
discoveries  which will not be reached  
before the twentieth century4 ,thousands
 of  precious lives shall be lost in    
this century1 tens of thousands shall   
suffer discomfort1 privation1 sickness1 
poverty1 ignorance1 for lack of         
discoveries and methods which1 but for  
this mistaken religious fight  against  

,bacon and his compeers1 would now be   
blessing the earth4    ,in #ahfh and    
#ahfi1 sixty thousand children died in  
,england and in ,wales  of scarlet      
fever2 probably nearly as many died in  
this country4 ,had not  ,bacon been     
hindered1 we should have had in our     
hands1 by this time1  the means to save 
two-thirds of these victims2 and the    
same is true of  typhoid1 typhus1 and   
that great class of diseases of whose   
physical  causes science is just        
beginning to get an inkling4 ,put       
together all  the efforts of all the    
atheists who have ever lived1 and they  
have not  done so much harm to          
,christianity and the world as has been 
done by the  narrow-minded1             
conscientious men who persecuted ,roger 
,bacon1 and closed  the path which he   
gave his life to open4#aja    ,but1     
despite the persecution of ,bacon and   
the defection of those who  ought to    
have followed him1 champions of natural 
science and the  experimental method    

arose from time to time during the      
succeeding  centuries4 ,we know little  
of them personally4 ,our main knowledge 
of  their efforts is derived from the   
efforts of their opponents and          
persecutors4    ,in #acag ,pope ,john   
,,xxii4 issued his bull ,spondent       
,pariter1 nominally  leveled at the     
alchemists1 but really dealing a        
terrible blow at the  beginnings of the 
science of chemistry4    ,in #achj      
,charles ,v4 of ,france carried out the 
same policy1 and even  forbade the      
possession of furnaces and apparatus    
necessary for chemical  processes4      
,under this law the chemist ,john       
,barillon1 for possessing  chemical     
furnaces and apparatus1 was thrown into 
prison1 and it was  only by the greatest
 effort that his life was saved4    ,in 
#adjd ,henry ,,iv4 of ,england issued a 
decree of the same sort2 and in  #adah  
the republic of ,venice followed the    
example of pope and kings4 ,but         
champions of science still pressed on4  

,antonio de ,dominis relinquishes  his  
archbishopric of ,spalatro1 investigates
 the phenomena of light1 and  dies in   
the clutches of the ,inquisition4#ajb   
,pierre de la ,rame stands up against   
,aristotelianism at ,paris4 ,a royal    
edict1 sought by the ,church1 stopped   
his teaching1 and the massacre of  ,st4 
,bartholomew ended his life4            
,somewhat later1 ,john ,baptist ,porta  
began his investigations4 ,despite  many
 absurdities1 his work was most         
fruitful4 ,his book on meteorology  was 
the first in which sound ideas were     
broached4 ,his researches in  optics    
gave the world the camera obscura1 and1 
possibly1 the telescope4  ,in chemistry 
he seems to have been the first to show 
how to reduce the  metallic oxides1 and 
thus to have laid the foundation of all 
those  industries based upon the        
staining and coloring of glass and      
enamels2  and1 last of all1 he did much 
to change natural philosophy from a     
black art to a vigorous open science4   

,he encountered the same old  policy of 
conscientious men4 ,the society founded 
by him for physical  research1 ,i       
,secreti1 was broken up1 and he was     
summoned to ,rome and  censured4#ajc    
,in #afbd some young chemists of ,paris1
 having taught the experimental  method 
and cut loose from ,aristotle1 the      
,faculty of ,theology besets the        
,parliament of ,paris1 and the          
,parliament prohibits this new chemical 
teaching under penalty of death4#ajd    
,the war went on in ,italy4 ,in #afeg   
occurred the first sitting of the       
,accademia del ,cimento1 at ,florence1  
under the presidency of ,prince         
,leopold dei ,medici4 ,this ,academy    
promised great things for science4 ,it  
was open to all talent4 ,its only       
fundamental law was the repudiation  of 
any favorite system or sect of          
philosophy1 and the obligation to       
investigate ,nature by the pure light of
 experiment4    ,the new ,academy       
entered into scientific investigations  

with energy2  ,borelli in mathematics1  
,redi in natural history1 and many      
others1  pushed on the boundaries of    
knowledge4 ,heat1 light1 magnetism1     
electricity1 projectiles1 digestion1 the
 incompressibility of water1  were      
studied by the right method and with    
results that enriched the  world4       
,the ,academy was a fortress of science1
 and siege was soon laid to  it4 ,the   
votaries of scholastic learning         
denounced it as irreligious4  ,quarrels 
were fomented4 ,leopold was bribed with 
a cardinal's hat and  drawn away to     
,rome2 and1 after ten years of          
beleaguering1 the fortress  fell3       
,borelli was left a beggar2 ,oliva      
killed himself in despair4#aje    ,still
 later1 just before the great           
discoveries by ,stahl1 we find his      
predecessor ,becher opposed with the    
following syllogism3 ,king ,solomon1    
according to the ,scriptures1 possessed 
the united wisdom of heaven and  earth4 
,but ,king ,solomon sent his vessels to 

,ophir to seek gold1 and  he levied     
taxes upon his subjects4 ,now1 if       
,solomon had known anything  about      
alchemy1 he would not have done this2   
therefore ,solomon did  not know        
anything about alchemy 7or chemistry in 
the form which then  existed72 therefore
 alchemy 7or chemistry7 has no reality  
or truth4  ,and we find that ,becher is 
absolutely turned away from his labors1 
and obliged to devote himself to proving
 that ,solomon used more money  than he 
possibly could have obtained from ,ophir
 or his subjects1 and  therefore that he
 must have possessed a knowledge of     
chemical methods  and the philosopher's 
stone as the result of them4#ajf        
,and1 in our time1 ,joseph de ,maistre1 
uttering his hatred of physical         
sciences1 declaring that man has paid   
too dearly for them1 asserting  that    
they must be subjected to theology1     
likening them to fire--good  when       
confined1 but fearful when scattered    
about--this brilliant thinker  has been 

the centre of a great opposing camp1 an 
army of good men who  cannot relinquish 
the idea that the ,bible is a text-book 
of science4      ,,anatomy ,,and        
,,medicine4    ,i pass1 now1 to fields  
of more immediate importance to us--to  
anatomy  and medicine4    ,it might be  
supposed that the votaries of sciences  
like these would be  suffered to escape 
attack2 unfortunately1 they have had to 
stand in the  thickest of the battle4   
,the ,church1 even in its earliest      
centuries1 seems to have developed  a   
distrust of them4 ,tertullian1 in his   
,treatise upon the ,soul1  stigmatizes  
the surgeon ,herophilus as a butcher1   
and evidently on  account of his skill  
in his profession rather than on account
 of his  want of it4 ,st4 ,augustine1 in
 his great treatise on the ,city of     
,god1  which remains to this day one of 
the treasures of the ,church1 speaks    
with some bitterness of medical men who 
are called anatomists1 and  says that   
with a cruel zeal for science they have 

dissected the bodies  of the dead1 and  
sometimes of sick persons1 who have died
 under their  knives1 and have inhumanly
 pried into the secrets of the human    
body  to learn the nature of disease and
 its exact seat1 and how it might be    
cured6#ajg    ,but it was not until the 
mixture of theology and science had     
begun  to ferment1 in the thirteenth    
century1 and the ecclesiastical power   
had been aroused in behalf of this      
sacred mixture1 that the feeling        
against medical science broke into open 
war4 ,about the beginning of  that      
century ,pope ,innocent ,,iii4 forbade  
surgical operations by priests1         
deacons1 or subdeacons4 ,pope ,honorius 
went still further1 and forbade         
medicine to be practised by archdeacons1
 priests1 or deacons2 in  #abdc the     
,dominican authorities banished books on
 medicine from their  monasteries2      
somewhat later1 ,pope ,boniface ,,viii4 
interdicted dissection  as              
sacrilege4#ajh    ,toward the close of  

that great religious century came a     
battle which  serves to show the spirit 
of the time4    ,the great physician and
 chemist of the day was ,arnold de      
,villa ,nova4  ,although he has been    
overrated by some modern historians as a
 votary  of the experimental method1 and
 under-rated by others as a votary of   
alchemy1 the sober judgment of the most 
thoughtful has acknowledged him  as one 
of the most useful forerunners of modern
 masters in medical and  chemical       
science4    ,the missile usual in such  
cases was hurled at him4 ,he was charged
 with  sorcery and dealings with the    
devil4 ,the ,archbishop of ,tarragona   
first  excommunicated him and drove him 
from ,spain2 next he was driven from    
,paris1 and took refuge at ,montpellier2
 thence1 too1 he was driven1  finally1  
every place in ,france was closed       
against him1 and he became an           
outcast4#aji    ,such seemed the fate of
 men in that field who gained even a    
glimmer of  new scientific truth4 ,even 

men like ,cardan1 and ,paracelsus1 and  
,porta1  who yielded much to popular    
superstitions1 were at once set upon if 
they ventured upon any other than the   
path which the ,church thought          
sound--the insufficient path of         
,aristotelian investigation4    ,we have
 seen that the weapons used against the 
astronomers were  mainly the epithets   
infidel and atheist4 ,we have also seen 
that  the missiles used against the     
chemists and physicians were the        
epithets sorcerer and leaguer with the  
devil1 and we have picked  up on various
 battle-fields another effective weapon1
 the epithet  ,mohammedan4    ,on the   
heads of the anatomists and physicians  
were concentrated all  these missiles4  
,the charge of atheism ripened into a   
proverb3 ,ubi  sunt tres medici1 ibi    
sunt duo athei4 ,magic seemed so common 
a  charge that many of the physicians   
seemed to believe it themselves4        
,mohammedanism and ,averroism became    
almost synonymous with medicine1 and    

,petrarch stigmatized ,averroists as men
 who deny ,genesis and bark at          
,christ4#aaj    ,not to weary you with  
the details of earlier struggles1 ,i    
will select  a great benefactor of      
mankind and champion of scientific truth
 at  the period of the revival of       
learning and the ,reformation--,andreas 
,vesalius1 the founder of the modern    
science of anatomy4 ,the battle  waged  
by this man is one of the glories of our
 race4    ,the old methods were soon    
exhausted by his early fervor1 and he   
sought  to advance science by truly     
scientific means--by patient            
investigation  and by careful recording 
of results4    ,from the outset         
,vesalius proved himself a master4 ,in  
the search for  real knowledge he braved
 the most terrible dangers4 ,before his 
time  the dissection of the human       
subject was thought akin to sacrilege4  
,occasionally an anatomist1 like        
,mundinus1 had given some little display
  with such a subject2 but1 for the     

purposes of investigation1 such         
dissection was forbidden4#aaa ,as we    
have already seen1 even such men  in the
 early ,church as ,tertullian and ,st4  
,augustine held anatomy in  abhorrence1 
and ,boniface ,,viii4 interdicted       
dissection as sacrilege4    ,through    
this sacred conventionalism ,vesalius   
broke without fear4  ,braving           
ecclesiastical censure and popular fury1
 he studied his science  by the only    
method that could give useful results4  
,no peril daunted  him4 ,to secure the  
material for his investigations1 he     
haunted gibbets  and charnel-houses2 in 
this search he risked alike the fires of
 the  ,inquisition and the virus of the 
plague4 ,first of all men he began to   
place the science of human anatomy on   
its solid1 modern foundations--on       
careful examination and observation of  
the human body4 ,this was his  first    
great sin1 and it was soon aggravated by
 one considered even  greater4          
,perhaps the most unfortunate thing that

 has ever been done for  ,christianity  
is the tying it to forms of science     
which are doomed and  gradually sinking4
 ,just as1 in the time of ,roger ,bacon1
 excellent but  mistaken men devoted all
 their energies to binding ,christianity
 to  ,aristotle2 just as1 in the time of
 ,reuchlin and ,erasmus1 they insisted  
on binding ,christianity to ,thomas     
,aquinas3 so1 in the time of ,vesalius1 
such men made every effort to link      
,christianity to ,galen4    ,the cry has
 been the same in all ages2 it is the   
same which we hear in  this age for     
curbing scientific studies--the cry for 
what is called  sound learning4 ,whether
 standing for ,aristotle against ,bacon1
  or ,aquinas against ,erasmus1 or      
,galen against ,vesalius1 or making     
mechanical ,greek verses at ,eton       
instead of studying the handiwork of    
the ,almighty1 or reading ,euripides    
with translations instead of ,lessing   
and ,goethe in the original1 the cry    
always is for sound learning4 ,the  idea

 always is that these studies are safe4 
,at twenty-eight years of age ,vesalius 
gave to the world his great  work on    
human anatomy4 ,with it ended the old   
and began the new4 ,its  researches1 by 
their thoroughness1 were a triumph of   
science2 its  illustrations1 by their   
fidelity1 were a triumph of art4    ,to 
shield himself1 as far as possible1 in  
the battle which he foresaw  must come1 
,vesalius prefaced the work by a        
dedication to the ,emperor  ,charles ,v4
 ,in this dedicatory preface he argues  
for his method1 and  against the parrot 
repetitions of the medival text-books2  
he also  condemns the wretched          
anatomical preparations and specimens   
made by  physicians who utterly refused 
to advance beyond the ancient master4   
,the parrot-like repeaters of ,galen    
gave battle at once4 ,after the  manner 
of their time1 their first missiles were
 epithets2 and1 the  almost infinite    
magazine of these having been exhausted1
 they began to  use sharper             

weapons--weapons theologic4    ,at first
 the theologic weapons failed4 ,a       
conference of divines having  been asked
 to decide whether dissection of the    
human body is sacrilege1  gave a        
decision in the negative4 ,the reason is
 simple3 ,charles ,v4 had  made         
,vesalius his physician1 and could not  
spare him4 ,but1 on the  accession of   
,philip ,,ii4 of ,spain1 the whole scene
 changed4 ,that most  bitter of bigots  
must of course detest the great         
innovator4    ,a new weapon was now     
forged4 ,vesalius was charged with      
dissecting  living men1#aab and1 either 
from direct persecution1 as the great   
majority of authors assert1 or from     
indirect influences1 as the recent      
apologists for ,philip ,,ii4 allow1     
,vesalius became a wanderer4 ,on a      
pilgrimage to the ,holy ,land to atone  
for his sin1 he was shipwrecked1  and in
 the prime of his life and strength he  
was lost to this world4    ,and yet not 
lost4 ,in this century he again stands  

on earth2 the painter  ,hamann has again
 given him to us4 ,by the magic of      
,hamann's pencil1 we  look once more    
into ,vesalius's cell4 ,its windows and 
doors1 bolted  and barred within1       
betoken the storm of bigotry which rages
 without2  the crucifix1 toward which he
 turns his eyes1 symbolizes the spirit  
in which he labors2 the corpse of the   
plague-stricken1 over which he  bends1  
ceases to be repulsive2 his very soul   
seems to send forth rays  from the      
canvas which strengthen us for the good 
fight in this age4#aac    ,he was hunted
 to death by men who conscientiously    
supposed he was  injuring religion4 ,his
 poor1 blind foes destroyed one of      
religion's  greatest apostles4 ,what was
 his influence on religion8 ,he         
substituted  for repetition1 by rote1 of
 worn-out theories of dead men1         
conscientious and reverent searching    
into the works of the living ,god2  he  
substituted for representations of the  
human structure--pitiful and            

unreal--truthful representations1       
revealing the ,creator's power and      
goodness in every line4#aad    ,i hasten
 now to the most singular struggle and  
victory of medical  science between the 
sixteenth and nineteenth centuries4     
,early in the last century1 ,boyer      
presented ,inoculation as a preventive  
of small-pox1 in ,france2 thoughtful    
physicians in ,england1 led by ,lady    
,montagu and ,maitland1 followed his    
example4    ,theology took fright at    
once on both sides of the ,channel4 ,the
 ,french  theologians of the ,sorbonne  
solemnly condemned the practice4        
,english  theologians were most loudly  
represented by the ,rev4 ,edward ,massy1
 who1  in #agbb1 preached a sermon in   
which he declared that ,job's distemper 
was probably confluent small-pox1 and   
that he had been doubtless  inoculated  
by the devil2 that diseases are sent by 
,providence for the  punishment of sin1 
and that the proposed attempt to prevent
 them is  a diabolical operation4 ,this 

sermon was entitled ,the ,dangerous and 
,sinful ,practice of ,inoculation4 ,not 
less absurd was the sermon of the  ,rev4
 ,mr4 ,delafaye1 entitled ,inoculation  
an ,indefensible ,practice4  ,thirty    
years later the struggle was still going
 on4 ,it is a pleasure to  note one     
great churchman1 ,maddox1 ,bishop of    
,worcester1 giving battle  on the side  
of right reason2 but as late as #agec we
 have the ,rector  of ,canterbury       
denouncing inoculation from his pulpit  
in the primatial  city1 and many of his 
brethren following his example4 ,among  
the most  common weapons hurled by      
churchmen at the supporters of          
inoculation1  during all this long war1 
were charges of sorcery and atheism4#aae
    ,nor did ,jenner's blessed discovery
 of vaccination escape opposition  on   
similar grounds4 ,in #agih an           
anti-vaccine society was formed by      
clergymen and physicians1 calling on the
 people of ,england to suppress         
vaccination as bidding defiance to      

,heaven itself--even to the will of     
,god1 and declaring that the law of ,god
 prohibits the practice4 ,in  #ahjc the 
,rev4 ,dr4 ,ramsden thundered against it
 in a sermon before the  ,university of 
,cambridge1 mingling texts of ,scripture
 with calumnies  against ,jenner2 but   
,plumptre in ,england1 ,waterhouse in   
,america1 and a  host of other good men 
and true1 press forward to ,jenner's    
side1 and at  last science1 humanity1   
and right reason1 gain the victory4#aaf 
,but ,i pass to one typical conflict in 
our days4 ,in #ahdg ,james ,young       
,simpson1 a ,scotch physician of        
eminence1 advocated the use of          
ansthetics in obstetrical cases4        
,immediately a storm arose4 ,from pulpit
 after pulpit such a use of  chloroform 
was denounced as impious4 ,it was       
declared contrary to ,holy  ,writ1 and  
texts were cited abundantly4 ,the       
ordinary declaration was1  that to use  
chloroform was to avoid one part of the 
primeval curse on  woman4#aag           

,simpson wrote pamphlet after pamphlet  
to defend the blessing which  he brought
 into use2 but the battle seemed about  
to be lost1 when he  seized a new       
weapon4 ,my opponents forget1 said he1  
the twenty-first  verse of the second   
chapter of ,genesis4 ,that is the record
 of the  first surgical operation ever  
performed1 and that text proves that the
  ,maker of the universe1 before he took
 the rib from ,adam's side for the      
creation of ,eve1 caused a deep sleep to
 fall on ,adam4    ,this was a stunning 
blow2 but it did not entirely kill the  
opposition4  ,they had strength left to 
maintain that the deep sleep of ,adam   
took  place before the introduction of  
pain into the world--in the state of    
innocence4#aah ,but now a new champion  
intervened--,thomas ,chalmers4  ,with a 
few pungent arguments he scattered the  
enemy forever1 and the  greatest battle 
of science against suffering was        
won4#aai    ,but was not the victory won
 also for religion8 ,go to yonder       

monument1  in ,boston1 to one of the    
discoverers of ansthesia4 ,read this    
inscription from our sacred volume3     
,this also cometh from the ,lord of     
hosts1 which is wonderful in counsel and
 excellent in working4      ,,geology4  
,i now ask you to look at another part  
of the great warfare1 and ,i  select it 
because it shows more clearly than any  
other how ,protestant  nations1 and in  
our own time1 have suffered themselves  
to be led into  the same errors that    
have wrought injury to religion and     
science in  other times4 ,we will look  
very briefly at the battle-fields of    
,geology4    ,from the first lispings of
 this science there was war4 ,the       
prevailing  doctrine of the ,church was1
 that in the beginning ,god made the    
heavens  and the earth2 that all things 
were made at the beginning of the       
world2 and that to say that stones and  
fossils have been made since  the       
beginning1 is contrary to ,scripture4   
,the theological substitutes  for       

scientific explanations ripened into    
such as these3 that the  fossils are    
sports of ,nature1 or creations of      
plastic force1 or  results of a seminal 
air acting upon rocks1 or models made by
 the  ,creator before he had fully      
decided upon the best manner of creating
  various beings4 ,but1 while some      
latitude was allowed among these        
theologico-scientific explanations1 it  
was held essential to believe  that they
 were placed in all the strata1 on one  
of the creation-days1  by the hand of   
the ,almighty2 and that this was done   
for some mysterious  purpose of his own1
 probably for the trial of human faith4 
,in the sixteenth century ,fracastoro   
and ,palissy broached the true idea1    
but produced little effect4 ,near the   
beginning of the seventeenth  century   
,de ,clave1 ,bitaud1 and ,de ,villon    
revived it2 straight-way  the theologic 
faculty of ,paris protested against the 
doctrine as  unscriptural1 destroyed the
 offending treatises1 banished the      

authors  from ,paris1 and forbade them  
to live in towns or enter places of     
public  resort4#abj ,at the middle of   
the eighteenth century1 ,buffon made    
another attempt to state simple and     
fundamental geological truths4 ,the     
theological faculty of the ,sorbonne    
immediately dragged him from his  high  
position1 forced him to recant          
ignominiously1 and to print his         
recantation4 ,it required a hundred and 
fifty years for science to carry  the   
day fairly against this single          
preposterous theory4 ,the champion  who 
dealt it the deadly blow was ,scilla1   
and his weapons were facts  revealed by 
the fossils of ,calabria4    ,but the   
advocates of tampering with scientific  
reasoning now retired  to a new         
position4 ,it was strong1 for it was    
apparently based on  ,scripture1 though1
 as the whole world now knows1 an       
utterly false  interpretation of        
,scripture4 ,the new position was1 that 
the fossils  were produced by the       

,deluge of ,noah4    ,in vain had it    
been shown1 by such devoted ,christians 
as ,bernard  ,palissy1 that this theory 
was utterly untenable2 in vain did good 
men  protest against the injury sure to 
result to religion by tying it to a     
scientific theory sure to be exploded3  
the doctrine that fossils were  the     
remains of animals drowned at the flood 
continued to be upheld  by the great    
majority as sound doctrine1 and as a    
blessed means of  reconciling science   
with ,scripture4#aba    ,to sustain this
 ,scriptural view1 so called1 efforts   
were put forth  absolutely herculean1   
both by ,catholics and ,protestants4    
,mazurier  declared certain fossil      
remains of a mammoth1 discovered in     
,france1 to  be bones of giants         
mentioned in ,scripture4 ,father        
,torrubia did the same  thing in ,spain4
 ,increase ,mather sent similar remains1
 discovered in  ,america1 to ,england1  
with a similar statement4 ,scheuchzer   
made parade  of the bones of a great    

lizard discovered in ,germany1 as the   
homo  diluvii testis1 the fossil man1   
proving the reality of the ,deluge4#abb 
,in the midst of this appears an episode
 very comical but very  instructive2 for
 it shows that the attempt to shape the 
deductions of  science to meet the      
exigencies of theology may mislead      
heterodoxy as  absurdly as orthodoxy4   
,about the year #agfj news of the       
discovery of marine fossils in various  
elevated districts of ,europe reached   
,voltaire4 ,he1 too1 had a theologic    
system to support1 though his system was
 opposed to that of the sacred  books of
 the ,hebrews4 ,he feared that these new
 discoveries might be  used to support  
the ,mosaic accounts of the ,deluge4    
,all his wisdom and  wit1 therefore1    
were compacted into arguments to prove  
that the fossil  fishes were remains of 
fishes intended for food1 but spoiled   
and thrown  away by travelers2 that the 
fossil shells were accidentally dropped 
by ,crusaders and pilgrims returning    

from the ,holy ,land2 and that  sundry  
fossil bones found between ,paris and   
tampes were parts of a  skeleton        
belonging to the cabinet of some ancient
 philosopher4 ,through  chapter after   
chapter1 ,voltaire1 obeying the supposed
 necessities of  his theology1 fights   
desperately the growing results of the  
geologic  investigations of his         
time4#abc    ,but far more widespread   
and disastrous was the effort on the    
other side  to show that the fossils    
were caused by the ,deluge of ,noah4    
,no supposition was too violent to      
support a theory which was considered   
vital to the ,bible4 ,sometimes it was  
claimed that the tail of a comet  had   
produced the ,deluge4 ,sometimes1 by a  
prosaic rendering of the  expression    
regarding the breaking up of the        
fountains of the great  deep1 a theory  
was started that the earth contained a  
great cistern1  from which the waters   
came and to which they retired4 ,by     
taking sacred  poetry as prose1 and by  

giving a literal interpretation of it1  
,thomas  ,burnet1 in his ,sacred ,theory
 of the ,earth1 ,whiston1 in his ,theory
  of the ,deluge1 and others like them1 
built up systems which bear to  real    
geology much the same relation that the 
,christian ,topography of  ,cosmas bears
 to real geography4 ,in vain were       
exhibited the absolute  geological1     
zological1 astronomical proofs that no  
universal deluge1  or deluge covering   
any great extent of the earth1 had taken
 place  within the last six thousand or 
sixty thousand years2 in vain did       
,bishop ,clayton declare1 that the      
,deluge could not have taken place  save
 in that district where ,noah lived     
before the flood2 in vain was  it shown 
that1 even if there had been a universal
 deluge1 the fossils  were not produced 
by it3 the only answers were the        
citation of the  text1 ,and all the high
 mountains which were under the whole   
heaven  were covered1 and denunciations 
of infidelity4 ,in ,england1 ,france1   

and  ,germany1 belief that the fossils  
were produced by the ,deluge of ,noah   
was insisted upon as part of that faith 
essential to salvation4#abd  ,it took a 
hundred and twenty years for the        
searchers of ,god's truth  as revealed  
in ,nature--such men as ,buffon1        
,linnus1 ,whitehurst1 and               
,daubenton--to push their works under   
these mighty fabrics of error1  and1 by 
statements which could not be resisted1 
to explode them4    ,strange as it may  
at first seem1 the war on geology was   
waged more  fiercely in ,protestant     
countries than in ,catholic2 the older  
,church had  learned1 by her earlier    
wretched mistakes1 what dangers to her  
claim of  infallibility lay in meddling 
with a growing science2 in ,italy1 then 
entirely under papal control1 little    
open opposition was made2 and1 of  all  
countries1 ,england furnished the most  
bitter opponents to geology  at first1  
and the most active negotiators in      
patching up a truce on a  basis of sham 

science afterward4#abe    ,you have     
noted already that there are1 generally1
 two sorts of attack  on a new science4 
,first1 there is the attack by pitting  
against science  some great doctrine in 
theology4 ,you saw this in astronomy1   
when  ,bellarmin and others insisted    
that the doctrine of the earth revolving
  about the sun is contrary to the      
doctrine of the incarnation4 ,so now1   
against geology1 it was urged that the  
scientific doctrine that the  fossils   
represented animals which died before   
,adam1 was contrary to the  doctrine of 
,adam's fall1 and that death entered the
 world by sin4    ,then1 there is the   
attack by literal interpretation of     
texts1 based  upon the idea that the    
,bible is a compendium of history or a  
text-book  of natural science1 which    
serves a better purpose1 generally1 in  
rousing prejudices4    ,toward the close
 of the last century1 in ,england1 the  
opponents of  geology on ,biblical      
grounds seemed likely to sweep all      

before them4  ,cramping our sacred      
volume within the rules of an historical
 compend1  they showed the terrible     
dangers arising from the revelations of 
geology1 which make the earth older than
 the six thousand years  required by    
,archbishop ,usher's interpretation of  
the ,old ,testament4  ,nor was this     
panic confined to ecclesiastics4        
,williams1 a thoughtful  layman1        
declared that such researches led to    
infidelity and atheism1  and are nothing
 less than to depose the ,almighty      
,creator of the  universe from his      
office4 ,the poet ,cowper1 one of the   
mildest of men1  was also roused by     
these dangers1 and in his most elaborate
 poem wrote3                            
,some drill and bore      ,the solid    
earth1 and from the strata there        
,extract a register1 by which we learn  
,that he who made it1 and revealed its  
date      ,to ,moses1 was mistaken in   
its age6    ,and difficult as it is to  
realize it now1 within the memory of    

many of  us the battle was still raging 
most fiercely in ,england1 and both     
kinds  of artillery usually brought     
against a new science were in full play1
  and filling the civilized world with  
their roar4    ,about thirty years ago1 
the ,rev4 ,j4 ,mellor ,brown1 the ,rev4 
,henry ,cole1  and others1 were hurling 
at all geologists alike1 and especially 
at  such ,christian divines as ,dr4     
,buckland and ,dean ,conybeare1 and ,pye
  ,smith1 and such religious scholars as
 ,prof4 ,sedgwick1 the epithets  of     
infidel1 impugner of the sacred record1 
and assailant of the  volume of         
,god4#abf    ,their favorite weapon was 
the charge that these men were attacking
  the truth of ,god1 forgetting that    
they were simply opposing the  mistaken 
interpretations of ,messrs4 ,brown1     
,cole1 and others1 like them1           
inadequately informed4    ,they declared
 geology not a subject of lawful        
inquiry1 denouncing  it as a dark art1  
as dangerous and disreputable1 as a     

forbidden  province1 as infernal        
artillery1 and as an awful evasion of   
the  testimony of revelation4#abg       
,this attempt to scare men from the     
science having failed1 various other    
means were taken4 ,to say nothing about 
,england1 it is humiliating to  human   
nature to remember the annoyances1 and  
even trials1 to which the  pettiest and 
narrowest of men subjected such         
,christian scholars in our  own country 
as ,benjamin ,silliman and ,edward      
,hitchcock and ,louis ,agassiz4    ,but 
it is a duty and a pleasure to state    
here that one great ,christian  scholar 
did honor to religion and to himself by 
standing up for the  claims of science1 
despite all these clamors4 ,that man was
 ,nicholas  ,wiseman1 better known      
afterward as ,cardinal ,wiseman4 ,the   
conduct of  this pillar of the ,roman   
,catholic ,church contrasts nobly with  
that  of timid ,protestants1 who were   
filling ,england with shrieks and       
denunciations4#abh    ,and here let me  

note1 that one of the prettiest         
skirmishes in this war  was made in ,new
 ,england4 ,prof4 ,stuart1 of ,andover1 
justly honored as a  ,hebrew scholar1   
virtually declared that geology was     
becoming dangerous2  that to speak of   
six periods of time for the creation was
 flying in the  face of ,scripture2 that
 ,genesis expressly speaks of six days1 
each made  up of an evening and a       
morning1 and not six periods of time4   
,to him replied a professor in ,yale    
,college1 ,james ,kingsley4 ,in an      
article admirable for keen wit and      
kindly temper1 he showed that  ,genesis 
speaks just as clearly of a solid       
firmament as of six ordinary  days1 and 
that if ,prof4 ,stuart had got over one 
difficulty and  accepted the ,copernican
 theory1 he might as well get over      
another  and accept the revelations of  
geology4 ,the encounter was quick and   
decisive1 and the victory was with      
science and our own honored  ,yale4#abi 
,but perhaps the most singular attempt  

against geology was made by a  fine     
specimen of the ,english ,don--,dean    
,cockburn1 of ,york--to scold  its      
champions out of the field4 ,without1   
apparently1 the simplest  elementary    
knowledge of geology1 he opened a       
battery of abuse4 ,he gave  it to the   
world at large1 by pulpit and press2 he 
even inflicted it  upon leading         
statesmen by private letters4#acj ,from 
his pulpit in ,york  minster1 ,mary     
,somerville was denounced coarsely1 by  
name1 for those  studies in physical    
geography which have made her honored   
throughout  the world4#aca    ,but these
 weapons did not succeed4 ,they were    
like ,chinese gongs and  dragon-lanterns
 against rifled cannon4 ,buckland1 ,pye 
,smith1 ,lyell1  ,silliman1 ,hitchcock1 
,murchison1 ,agassiz1 ,dana1 and a host 
of noble  champions besides1 press on1  
and the battle for truth is won4    ,and
 was it won merely for men of science8  
,the whole civilized world  declares    
that it was won for religion--that      

thereby was infinitely  increased the   
knowledge of the power and goodness of  
,god4      ,,political ,,economy4       
,from the many questions on which the   
supporters of right reason  in          
,political and ,social ,science have    
only conquered conscientious  opposition
 after centuries of war1 ,i select the  
taking of interest on  loans2 in hardly 
any struggle has rigid adherence to the 
,bible as a  scientific text-book been  
more prolonged or injurious4#acb        
,certainly1 if the criterion of truth1  
as regards any doctrine1 be  that it has
 been believed in the ,church always1   
everywhere1 and by  all1 then on no     
point may a ,christian of these days be 
more sure than  that every              
savings-institution1 every loan and     
trust company1 every  bank1 every loan  
of capital by an individual1 every means
 by which  accumulated capital has been 
lawfully lent1 even at the most moderate
  interest1 to make the masses of men   
workers rather than paupers1 is  based  

on deadly sin4    ,the fathers of the   
,christian ,church received from the    
ancient world a  strong prejudice       
against any taking of interest whatever2
 in ,greece1  ,aristotle had condemned  
it2 in ,rome it was regarded during many
  generations as a crime4#acc    ,but   
far greater1 in the early ,church1 was  
the influence of certain  texts in the  
,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,citations   
from ,leviticus1  ,deuteronomy1 the     
,psalms1 ,ezekiel1 and ,st4 ,luke1 were 
universally held  to condemn all loans  
at interest4#acd    ,on these texts the 
doctrine and legislation of the         
universal ,church1  as regards interest 
for money1 were based and developed4    
,the fathers  of the ,eastern ,church1  
and among them ,st4 ,basil1 ,st4        
,chrysostom1 and  ,st4 ,gregory         
,nazianzen2 the fathers of the ,western 
,church1 and among  them ,tertullian1   
,st4 ,ambrose1 ,st4 ,augustine1 and ,st4
 ,jerome1 joined  most earnestly in this
 condemnation4 ,st4 ,chrysostom says3   

,what can  be more unreasonable than to 
sow without land1 without rain1 without 
ploughs8 ,all those who give themselves 
up to this damnable agriculture  shall  
reap only tares4 ,let us cut off these  
monstrous births of gold  and silver2   
let us stop this execrable fecundity4   
,st4 ,jerome threw the  argument into   
the form of a dilemma1 which was used as
 a weapon against  money-lenders for    
centuries4#ace    ,this entire agreement
 of the fathers of the ,church led to   
the  crystallization of the hostility to
 interest-bearing loans into  numberless
 decrees of popes and councils1 and     
kings and legislatures1  throughout     
,christendom1 during more than fifteen  
hundred years2 and the  canon law was   
shaped in accordance with these4 ,in the
 ninth century1  ,alfred1 in ,england1  
confiscated the estates of              
money-lenders1 and  denied them burial  
in consecrated ground2 and similar      
decrees were made  in other parts of    
,europe4 ,in the twelfth century the    

,greek ,church seems  to have relaxed   
its strictness somewhat1 but the ,roman 
,church only grew  more and more severe4
 ,st4 ,bernard1 reviving religious      
earnestness in  the ,church1 was        
especially strenuous in denouncing loans
 at interest2  and1 in #aagi1 the ,third
 ,council of the ,lateran decreed that  
every  impenitent money-lender should be
 excluded from the altar1 from          
absolution in the hour of death1 and    
from ,christian burial6    ,in the      
thirteenth century this mistaken idea   
was still more firmly  knit into the    
thought of the ,church by ,st4 ,thomas  
,aquinas2 hostility  to loans at        
interest had been poured into his mind1 
not only from the  ,scriptures1 but from
 ,aristotle4    ,at the beginning of the
 fourteenth century the ,council of     
,vienne1  presided over by ,pope        
,clement ,v41 declared that1 if any one 
shall  pertinaciously presume to affirm 
that the taking of interest for money   
is not a sin1 we decree him to be a     

heretic fit for punishment4#acf    ,the 
economical and social results of this   
conscientious policy were  exceedingly  
unfortunate4 ,money could only be       
loaned1 in most countries1  at the risk 
of incurring odium in this world and    
damnation in the next2  hence there was 
but little capital and few lenders2     
hence came enormous  rates of interest2 
thereby were commerce1 manufactures1 and
 general  enterprise dwarfed1 while     
pauperism flourished4    ,but even worse
 than this were the moral results4 ,for 
nations to do  what they believe is     
evil1 is only second in bad consequences
 to their  doing what is really evil3   
all lending and borrowing1 even for the 
most legitimate purposes and at the most
 reasonable rates1 tended  to debase the
 character of both borrower and         
lender4#acg ,and these  moral evils took
 more definite shapes than might at     
first be thought  possible4 ,sismondi1  
one of the most thoughtful of modern    
political  philosophers and historians1 

declares that the prohibition of        
interest  for the use of money in       
,continental ,europe did very much to   
promote a  passion for luxury and to    
discourage economy2 the rich who were   
not  engaged in business finding no easy
 way of employing their savings         
productively4#ach    ,these evils became
 so manifest1 when trade began to revive
 throughout  ,europe in the fifteenth   
century1 that most earnest efforts were 
made to  induce the ,church to change   
its position4    ,the first important   
effort of this kind was made by ,john   
,gerson4 ,his  general learning had made
 him ,chancellor of the ,university of  
,paris2  his sacred learning made him   
the leading theologian and orator at    
the ,council of ,constance2 his piety   
led men to attribute to him ,the        
,imitation of ,christ4 ,shaking off     
theological shackles1 he declared3      
,better is it to lend money at          
reasonable interest1 and thus to  give  
aid to the poor1 than to see them       

reduced by poverty to steal1  waste     
their goods1 and sell1 at a low price1  
their personal and real  property4#aci  
,but this idea was at once suppressed by
 the ,church--buried beneath  citations 
from ,scripture1 the fathers1 councils1 
popes1 and the  canon law4 ,even in the 
most active countries there seemed no   
hope4  ,in ,england1 under ,henry       
,,vii41 ,cardinal ,morton1 the          
lord-chancellor1  addressed ,parliament1
 asking them to take into consideration 
loans of  money at interest1 and the    
result was a law which imposed on       
lenders  at interest a fine of a hundred
 pounds1 besides the annulment of the   
loan2 and1 to show that there was an    
offence against religion involved1      
there was added a clause reserving to   
the ,church1 notwithstanding this       
punishment1 the correction of their     
souls according to the laws of the      
same4#adj ,similar enactments were made 
by civil authority in various  parts of 
,europe1 and1 as a climax1 just as the  

trade and commerce and  manufactures of 
the modern epoch had received an immense
 impulse from  the great series of      
voyages of discovery1 by such as        
,columbus1 ,vasco de  ,gama1 ,magellan1 
and the ,cabots1 this barrier against   
enterprise was  strengthened by a decree
 from ,pope ,leo ,x4#ada    ,but this   
mistaken policy was not confined to the 
older ,church4 ,the  ,reformed ,church  
was led by ,luther and several of his   
associates into  the same line of       
thought and practice4 ,said ,luther3 ,to
 exchange  anything with any one and    
gain by the exchange1 is not to do a    
charity1  but to steal4 ,every usurer is
 a thief worthy of the gibbet4 ,i call  
those usurers who lend money at five or 
six per cent4#adb    ,the ,english      
,reformers showed the same tendency4    
,under ,henry ,,viii41 the  law of      
,henry ,,vii4 against taking interest   
had been modified2 but the  revival of  
religious feeling under ,edward ,,vi4   
caused1 in #aeeb1 the  passage of the   

,bill of ,usury4 ,in this it is said3   
,forasmuch as usury  is by the ,word of 
,god utterly prohibited1 as a vice most 
odious and  detestable1 as in divers    
places of the ,holy ,scriptures it is   
evident  to be seen1 which thing by no  
godly teachings and persuasions can sink
  into the hearts of divers greedy1     
uncharitable1 and covetous persons  of  
this realm1 nor yet by any terrible     
threatenings of ,god's wrath and        
vengeance1 etc41 etc41 it is enacted    
that whosoever shall  thereafter lend   
money for any manner of usury1 increase1
 lucre1  gain1 or interest1 to be had1  
received1 or hoped for1 shall forfeit   
principal and interest1 and suffer      
imprisonment and fine at the king's     
pleasure4#adc    ,but1 most fortunately1
 it happened that ,calvin turned in the 
right  direction1 and there was         
developed among ,protestants the        
serviceable  fiction that usury means   
illegal or oppressive interest4 ,under  
cover of this fiction commerce and trade

 revived rapidly in ,protestant         
countries1 though with occasional checks
 from exact interpreters of  ,scripture4
    ,but1 in the older ,church1 the more
 correct though less fortunate          
interpretation of the sacred texts      
relating to interest continued4  ,when  
it was attempted in ,france1 in the     
seventeenth century1 to argue  that     
usury means oppressive interest1 the    
,theological ,faculty of the  ,sorbonne 
declared that usury is the taking of any
 interest at all1 no  matter how little1
 and the eighteenth chapter of ,ezekiel 
was cited to  clinch this judgment4     
,another attempt to ease the burden on  
industry and commerce was made by       
declaring that usury means interest     
demanded not as matter of favor  but as 
matter of right4 ,this1 too1 was        
solemnly condemned by ,pope  ,innocent  
,,xi4    ,again the army of right reason
 pressed forward1 declaring that usury  
is interest greater than the law allows4
 ,this1 too1 was condemned1 and  the    

declaration that usury is interest on   
loans not for a fixed time  was         
condemned by ,pope ,alexander ,,vii4    
,still the attacking forces pressed on1 
and among them1 in the  seventeenth     
century1 in ,france1 was ,richard       
,simon3 he attempts to  gloss over the  
strict interpretation of ,scripture in  
this matter by an  elaborate treatise3  
he is immediately confronted by         
,bossuet4    ,it seems hardly possible  
that one of the greatest intellects of a
  period so near us could have been so  
doubly deceived4 ,yet ,bossuet1  the    
glory of the ,french ,church1 one of the
 keenest and strongest of  thinkers1 not
 only mingled ,scripture with astronomy1
 and opposed the  ,copernican theory1   
but also mingled ,scripture with        
political economy1  and denounced the   
lending of money at interest4 ,he       
declared that  the ,scriptures1 the     
councils of the ,church from the        
beginning1 the  popes1 the fathers1 all 
interpreted the prohibition of usury to 

be a  prohibition of any lending at     
interest1 and ,bossuet demonstrated this
  interpretation as the true one4 ,simon
 was put to confusion1 and his  book    
condemned4#add    ,there was but too    
much reason for ,bossuet's              
interpretation4 ,the  prohibition of    
this1 one of the most simple and        
beneficial principles  in political and 
economical science1 was affirmed not    
only by  the fathers1 but by            
twenty-eight councils of the ,church    
7six of  them general councils71 and by 
seventeen popes1 to say nothing of      
innumerable doctors in theology and     
canon law4#ade    ,but about the middle 
of the eighteenth century the evil could
 be  endured no longer--a way of escape 
must be found4 ,the army opposed  to the
 ,church had become so formidable1 that 
the ,roman authorities  saw that a      
concession must be made4 ,in #agdh      
appeared ,montesquieu's  ,spirit of the 
,laws2 in it were concentrated twenty   
years' study and  thought of a great    

thinker on the necessities of the world 
about him4  ,in eighteen months it went 
through twenty-two editions1 and it was 
translated into every civilized         
language2 this work attacked1 among     
other abuses1 the position of the       
,church regarding interest for money4   
,the ,church authorities had already    
taken the alarm4 ,benedict ,,xiv4 saw   
that the best thing for him--nay1 the   
only thing--was a surrender under  form 
of a compromise4 ,in a brief he declared
 substantially that the law  of the     
,church was opposed to the taking of    
interest on loans2 and  then1 after     
sundry non-committal and ambiguous      
statements1 he hinted  that there were  
possible exceptions to the rule4        
,like the casuistry of ,boscovich in    
using the ,copernican theory for        
convenience in argument1 while          
acquiescing in its condemnation by the  
,church1 this casuistry of ,benedict    
broke the spell4 ,turgot1 ,adam ,smith1 
,bentham1 and their disciples1 pressed  

on1 and science won for mankind  another
 great victory4    ,yet in this case1 as
 in others1 insurrections against the   
sway of  scientific truth appeared among
 some over-zealous religionists4 ,when  
the ,sorbonne1 having retreated from its
 old position1 armed itself  with sundry
 new casuistries against those who held 
to its earlier  decisions1 provincial   
doctors in theology protested           
indignantly1 making  the old citations  
from the ,scriptures1 fathers1 saints1  
doctors1 popes1  councils1 and          
canonists4 ,and even as late as #ahcj1  
when the ,roman  court1 though declining
 to commit itself on the doctrine       
involved1  decreed that confessors      
should no longer disquiet lenders of    
money at  legal interest1 the old       
weapons were again furbished and hurled 
by the  ,abb ,laborde1 ,vicar of the    
,metropolitan ,archdiocese of ,auch1 and
 by  the ,abb ,dennavit1 ,professor of  
,theology at ,lyons4 ,good ,abb         
,dennavit  declared that he refused     

absolution to those who took interest1  
and to priests who pretend that the     
sanction of the civil law is            
sufficient4#adf    ,but the peace on    
this question is too profound to be     
disturbed by  such outcries4 ,the       
,torlonia family at ,rome1 to-day1 with 
its palaces1  chapels1 intermarriages1  
affiliations1 and papal favor1 all won  
by  lending money at interest1 and by   
devotion to the ,roman ,see1 is a       
growth on ramparts long since           
surrendered and deserted4               
,,industrial ,,sciences4    ,did time   
permit1 we might go over other          
battle-fields no less  instructive than 
those we have seen4 ,we might go over   
the battle-fields  of ,agricultural     
,progress1 and note how1 by a most      
curious perversion  of a text of        
,scripture1 many of the peasantry of    
,russia were prevented  from raising and
 eating potatoes1 and how in ,scotland  
at the beginning  of this century the   
use of fanning-mills for winnowing grain

 was  denounced as contrary to the text 
the wind bloweth where it listeth1      
etc41 as leaguing with ,satan1 who is   
prince of the powers of the air1  and as
 sufficient cause for excommunication   
from the ,scotch ,church4#adg    ,we    
might go over the battle-fields of      
,civil ,engineering1 and note  how the  
introduction of railways into ,france   
was declared1 by an  ,archbishop1 to be 
an evidence of the divine displeasure   
against country  innkeepers who set meat
 before their guests on fast-days1 and  
now  were punished by seeing travelers  
carried by their doors2 and how         
railroad and telegraph were denounced   
from noted pulpits as heralds  of       
,anti-christ4 ,and then we might pass to
 ,protestant ,england and  recall the   
sermon of the ,curate of ,rotherhithe at
 the breaking in of  the ,thames        
,tunnel1 so destructive to life and     
property1 declaring that  it was but a  
just judgment upon the presumptuous     
aspirations of mortal  man4#adh         

,,various ,,sciences4    ,we might go   
over the battle-fields of ,ethnology and
 note how1 a few  years since1 an       
honored ,american investigator1         
proposing in a learned  society the     
discussion of the question between the  
origin of the human  race from a single 
pair and from many pairs1 was called to 
order and  silenced as atheistic1 by a  
,protestant divine whose memory is      
justly  dear to thousands of us4#adi    
,interesting would it be to look over   
the field of  ,meteorology--beginning   
with the conception1 supposed to be     
scriptural1  of angels opening and      
shutting the windows of heaven and      
letting out  the waters that be above   
the firmament upon the earth--continuing
  through the battle of ,fromundus and  
,bodin1 down to the onslaught upon      
,lecky1 in our own time1 for drawing a  
logical and scientific conclusion  from 
the doctrine that meteorology is        
obedient to laws4#aej    ,we might go   
over the battle-fields of ,cartography  

and see how at  one period1 on account  
of expressions in ,ezekiel1 any map of  
the  world which did not place          
,jerusalem in the centre1 was looked on 
as  impious4#aea    ,we might go over   
the battle-fields of ,social ,science in
 ,protestant  countries1 and note the   
opposition of conscientious men to the  
taking  of the census1 in ,sweden and in
 the ,united ,states1 on account of  the
 terms in which the numbering of ,israel
 is spoken of in the ,old               
,testament4#aeb    ,and we might also   
see how1 on similar grounds1 religious  
scruples have  been avowed against so   
beneficial a thing as ,life             
,insurance4#aec      ,,scientific       
,,instruction4    ,but an outline of    
this kind would be too meagre without   
some sketch of  the warfare on          
instruction in science4 ,not without    
profit would it be  to note more at     
length how instruction in the           
,copernican theory was  kept out of the 
,church universities in every great     

,catholic country  of ,europe2 how they 
concealed the discovery of the spots on 
the sun2  how many of them excluded the 
,newtonian demonstrations2 how1 down to 
the present time1 the two great         
universities of ,protestant ,england    
and nearly all her intermediate         
colleges1 under clerical supervision1   
have excluded the natural and physical  
sciences as far as possible2  and how1  
from probably nine-tenths of the        
universities and colleges of  the       
,united ,states1 the students are       
graduated with either no knowledge  or  
with clerically emasculated knowledge of
 the most careful modern  thought on the
 most important problems in the various 
sciences1 in  history1 and in criticism4
    ,from the dismissal of the          
scientific professors from the          
,university of  ,salamanca by ,ferdinand
 ,,vii4 of ,spain1 in the beginning of  
this century1  down to sundry dealings  
with scientific men in our own land and 
time1  we might study another           

interesting phase of the same warfare2  
but1  passing all this1 ,i shall simply 
present a few typical conflicts that    
have occurred within the last ten years4
    ,during the years #ahfg and #ahfh   
the war which had been long smouldering 
in ,france1 between the ,church and the 
whole system of ,french advanced        
education1 came to an outbreak4 ,toward 
the end of the last century1  after the 
,church had held possession of advanced 
instruction in ,france  for more than a 
thousand years1 and had1 so far as it   
was able1 made  experimental science    
contemptible2 and after the ,church     
authorities  had deliberately resisted  
and wrecked ,turgot's noble plans for   
the  establishment of a system of public
 schools1 the ,french nation decreed    
the establishment of the most thorough  
and complete system of the  higher      
public instruction then known4 ,it was  
kept under lay control1  and became one 
of the great glories of ,france4        
,but1 emboldened by the restoration of  

the ,bourbons1 the ,church began to     
undermine the hated system1 and in #ahfh
 had made such progress that all  was   
ready for an assault4    ,foremost among
 the leaders of the besieging party was 
the ,bishop of  ,orleans--,dupanloup--a 
man of much buzzing vigor4 ,in various  
ways1 and  especially in an open letter1
 he had fought the ,materialism of the  
,school of ,medicine at ,paris1 and     
especially were his attacks leveled  at 
,professors ,vulpian and ,see1 and the  
,minister of ,public ,instruction1      
,duruy1 a man of great merit1 whose only
 crime was a quiet resistance  to       
clerical control4#aed    ,in these      
writings1 ,bishop ,dupanloup stigmatized
 ,darwin1 ,huxley1 ,lyell1  and others1 
as authors of shameful theories1 and    
made especial use of  the recent phrase 
of a naturalist1 that it is more        
glorious to be a  monkey perfected than 
an ,adam degenerated4    ,the direct    
attack was made in the ,french ,senate1 
and the storming party  in that body was

 led by a venerable and conscientious   
prelate1 ,cardinal  de ,bonnechose4     
,it was charged by ,archbishop de       
,bonnechose and his party1 that the     
tendencies of the teachings of these    
professors were fatal to religion  and  
morality4 ,a heavy artillery of phrases 
was hurled1 such as sapping  the        
foundations1 etc41 breaking down the    
bulwarks1 etc41 etc41  and1 withal1 a   
new missile was used with much effect1  
the epithet of  materialist4 ,the result
 can be easily guessed2 crowds came to  
the  lecture-rooms of these professors1 
and the lecture-room of ,prof4 ,see1    
the chief offender1 was crowded to      
suffocation4    ,a siege was begun in   
due form4 ,a young physician was sent by
 the  cardinal's party into the         
heterodox camp as a spy4 ,having heard  
one  lecture of ,prof4 ,see1 he returned
 with information that seemed to        
promise easy victory to the besieging   
party4 ,he brought a terrible           
statement1 one that seemed enough to    

overwhelm ,see1 ,vulpian1 ,duruy1 and   
the whole hated system of public        
instruction in ,france4    ,good        
,cardinal ,bonnechose seized the        
tremendous weapon4 ,rising in his  place
 in the ,senate1 he launched a most     
eloquent invective against the          
,minister of ,state who could protect   
such a fortress of impiety as the       
,college of ,medicine2 and1 as a climax1
 he asserted1 on the evidence of  his   
spy fresh from ,prof4 ,see's            
lecture-room1 that the professor had    
declared1 in his lecture of the day     
before1 that so long as he had the      
honor to hold his professorship he would
 combat the false idea of the  existence
 of the soul4 ,the weapon seemed        
resistless1 and the wound  fatal2 but   
,m4 ,duruy rose and asked to be heard4  
,his statement was simply that he held  
in his hand documentary proofs  that    
,prof4 ,see never made such a           
declaration4 ,he held the notes used by 
,prof4 ,see in his lecture4 ,prof4 ,see1

 it appeared1 belonged to a school  in  
medical science which combated the idea 
of an art in medicine4 ,the  inflamed   
imagination of the cardinal's too eager 
emissary had1 as  the lecture notes     
proved1 led him into a sad mistake as to
 words and  thoughts1 and had exhibited 
,prof4 ,see as treating a theological   
when he  was discussing a purely        
scientific questions4 ,of the existence 
of the  soul the professor had said     
nothing4    ,the forces of the enemy    
were immediately turned2 they retreated 
in  confusion1 amid the laughter of all 
,france2 and a quiet1 dignified         
statement as to the rights of scientific
 instructors by ,wurtz1 the dean  of the
 ,faculty1 completed their discomfiture4
 ,thus a well-meant attempt  to check   
what was feared might be dangerous in   
science simply ended  in bringing       
ridicule on religion1 and thrusting     
still deeper into the  minds of         
thousands of men that most mistaken of  
all mistaken ideas--the  conviction that

 religion and science are enemies4#aee  
,but justice forbids our raising an     
outcry against ,roman ,catholicism      
alone for this4 ,in #ahfd a number of   
excellent men in ,england drew  up a    
declaration to be signed by students in 
the natural sciences1  expressing       
sincere regret that researches into     
scientific truth are  perverted by some 
in our time into occasion for casting   
doubt upon the  truth and authenticity  
of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,nine-tenths  
of the  leading scientific men of       
,england refused to sign it4 ,nor was   
this the  worst4 ,sir ,john ,herschel1  
,sir ,john ,bowring1 and ,sir ,w4 ,r4   
,hamilton1  administered1 through the   
press1 castigations which roused general
  indignation against the proposers of  
the circular1 and ,prof4 ,de ,morgan1   
by a parody1 covered memorial and       
memorialists with ridicule4 ,it was  the
 old mistake1 and the old result        
followed in the minds of multitudes  of 
thoughtful young men4#aef    ,and in yet

 another ,protestant country this same  
wretched mistake  was made4 ,in #ahfh1  
several excellent churchmen in ,prussia 
thought  it their duty to meet for the  
denunciation of science falsely so      
called4 ,two results followed3 ,upon the
 great majority of these really         
self-sacrificing men--whose first       
utterances showed crass ignorance of    
the theories they attacked--there came  
quiet and widespread contempt2  upon    
,pastor ,knak1 who stood forth and      
proclaimed views of the universe  which 
he thought ,scriptural1 but which most  
schoolboys knew to be  childish1 came a 
burst of good-natured derision from     
every quarter of  the ,german           
nation4#aeg    ,warfare of this sort    
against ,science seems petty indeed2 but
 it is to  be guarded against in        
,protestant countries not less than in  
,catholic2  it breaks out in ,america   
not less than in ,europe4 ,i might      
exhibit many  proofs of this4 ,do       
conscientious ,roman bishops in ,france 

labor to keep  all advanced scientific  
instruction under their own control--in 
their  own universities and colleges2 so
 do very many not less conscientious    
,protestant clergymen in our own country
 insist that advanced education  in     
science and literature shall be kept    
under control of their own  sectarian   
universities and colleges1 wretchedly   
one-sided in their  development1 and    
miserably inadequate in their equipment3
 did a leading  ,spanish university1    
until a recent period1 exclude          
professors holding  the ,newtonian      
theory2 so does a leading ,american     
college exclude  professors holding the 
,darwinian theory3 have ,catholic       
colleges in  ,italy rejected excellent  
candidates for professorships on account
 of  unsafe views regarding the         
,immaculate ,conception2 so are         
,protestant  colleges in ,america every 
day rejecting excellent candidates on   
account of unsafe views regarding the   
,apostolic ,succession1 or the          

,incarnation1 or ,baptism1 or the       
,perseverance of the ,saints4    ,and   
how has all this system resulted8 ,in   
the older nations1 by natural  reaction1
 these colleges1 under strict           
ecclesiastical control1 have  sent forth
 the most bitter enemies the ,christian 
,church has ever  known--of whom        
,voltaire and ,renan and ,saint-,beuve  
are types2 and there  are many signs    
that the same causes are producing the  
same result in  our own country4    ,i  
might allude to another battle-field in 
our own land and time4 ,i  might show   
how an attempt to meet the great want1  
in the ,state of ,new  ,york1 of an     
institution providing scientific        
instruction1 has been met  with loud    
outcries from many excellent men1 who   
fear injury thereby  to religion4 ,i    
might picture to you the strategy which 
has been used  to keep earnest young men
 from an institution which1 it is       
declared1  cannot be ,christian because 
it is not sectarian4 ,i might lay before

 you  wonderful lines of argument which 
have been made to show the dangerous    
tendencies of a plan which gives to     
scientific studies the same weight  as  
to classical studies1 and which lays no 
less stress on modern  history and      
literature than on ancient history and  
literature4    ,i might show how it has 
been denounced by the friends and agents
 of  denominational colleges and in many
 sectarian journals2 how the most       
preposterous charges have been made and 
believed by good men2 how  the epithets 
of godless1 infidel1 irreligious1       
unreligious1  atheistic1 have been      
hurled against a body of ,christian     
trustees1  professors1 and students1 and
 with little practical result save      
arousing a suspicion in the minds of    
large bodies of thoughtful young  men1  
that the churches dread scientific      
studies untrammeled by  sectarianism4   
,,summary4    ,you have now gone over   
the greater struggles in the long war   
between  ,ecclesiasticism and ,science1 

and have glanced at the lesser fields4  
,you  have seen the conflicts in        
,physical ,geography1 as to the form of 
the  earth2 in ,astronomy1 as to the    
place of the earth in the universe1 and 
the evolution of stellar systems in     
accordance with law2 in ,chemistry  and 
,physics2 in ,anatomy and ,medicine2 in 
,geology2 in ,meteorology2 in           
,cartography2 in the ,industrial and    
,agricultural ,sciences2 in ,political  
,economy and ,social ,science2 and in   
,scientific ,instruction2 and each of   
these1 when fully presented1 has shown  
the following results3    ,first4 ,in   
every case1 whether the war has been    
long or short1  forcible or feeble1     
,science has at last gained the victory4
    ,secondly4 ,in every case1          
interference with ,science1 in the      
supposed  interest of religion1 has     
brought dire evils on both4    ,thirdly4
 ,in every case1 while this             
interference1 during its  continuance1  
has tended to divorce religion from the 

most vigorous  thinking of the world1   
and to make it odious to multitudes of  
the  most earnest thinkers2 the triumph 
of ,science has led its former          
conscientious enemies to make new       
interpretations and lasting             
adjustments1 which have proved a        
blessing to religion1 ennobling its     
conceptions and bettering its methods4  
,and in addition to these points there  
should be brought out distinctly  a     
corollary1 which is1 that science must  
be studied by its own means  and to its 
own ends1 unmixed with the means and    
unbiased by the motives  of             
investigators in other fields1 and      
uncontrolled by consciences             
unenlightened by itself4    ,the very   
finger of the ,almighty seems to have   
written the proofs of  this truth on    
human history4 ,no one can gainsay it4  
,it is decisive1  for it is this3 ,there
 has never been a scientific theory     
framed from  the use of ,scriptural     
texts1 wholly or partially1 which has   

been  made to stand4 ,such attempts have
 only subjected their authors to        
derision1 and ,christianity to          
suspicion4 ,from ,cosmas finding his    
plan  of the universe in the ,jewish    
tabernacle1 to ,increase ,mather sending
  mastodon's bones to ,england as the   
remains of giants mentioned in          
,scripture2 from ,bellarmin declaring   
that the sun cannot be the centre  of   
the universe1 because such an idea      
vitiates the whole ,scriptural  plan of 
salvation1 to a recent writer declaring 
that an evolution  theory cannot be     
true1 because ,st4 ,paul says that all  
flesh is not the  same flesh1 the result
 has always been the same4#aeh    ,such 
facts show that scientific hypothesis   
will be established or  refuted by      
scientific men and scientific methods   
alone1 and that no  conscientious       
citation of texts1 or outcries as to    
consequences of  scientific truths1 from
 any other quarter1 can do any thing    
save retard  truth and cause needless   

anxiety4#aei    ,such facts show1 too1  
that the sacred books of the world were 
not given  for any such purpose as that 
to which so many men have endeavored to 
wrest them--the purpose served by       
compends of history and text-books of   
science4    ,is skepticism feared8 ,all 
history shows that the only skepticism  
which  does permanent harm is skepticism
 as to the value and safety of truth  as
 truth4 ,no skepticism has proved so    
corrosive to religion1 none so          
cancerous in the human brain and heart4 
,is faith cherished8 ,all history shows 
that the first article of a  saving     
faith1 for any land or time1 is faith   
that there is a ,power in  this universe
 strong enough to make truth-seeking    
safe1 and good enough  to make          
truth-telling useful4    ,may we not1   
then1 hope that the greatest and best   
men in the  ,church--the men standing at
 centres of thought--will insist with   
power1 more and more1 that religion be  
no longer tied to so injurious  a policy

 as that which this warfare reveals2    
that searchers for truth1  whether in   
theology or natural science1 work on as 
friends1 sure that1  no matter how much 
at variance they may at times seem to   
be1 the  truths they reach shall finally
 be fused into each other8 ,the dominant
  religious conceptions of the world    
will doubtless be greatly modified  by  
science in the future1 as they have been
 in the past2 and the part  of any      
wisely religious person1 at any centre  
of influence1 is to see  that1 in his   
generation1 this readjustment of        
religion to science be  made as quietly 
and speedily as possible4    ,no one    
needs fear the result4 ,no matter       
whether ,science shall  complete her    
demonstration that man has been on the  
earth not merely  six thousand years1 or
 six millions of years2 no matter       
whether she  reveals new ideas of the   
,creator or startling relations between 
his  creatures2 no matter how many more 
gyves and clamps upon the spirit of     

,christianity she destroys3 the result1 
when fully thought out1 will  serve and 
strengthen religion not less than       
science4#afj    ,what science can do for
 the world is shown1 not by those who   
have  labored to concoct palatable      
mixtures of theology and science--men   
like  ,cosmas1 and ,torrubia1 and       
,burnet1 and ,whiston--but by men who   
have  fought the good fight of faith in 
truth for truth's sake--men like  ,roger
 ,bacon1 and ,vesalius1 and ,palissy1   
and ,galileo4    ,what ,christianity can
 do for the world is shown1 not by men  
who have  stood on the high places      
screaming in wrath at the advance of    
science2  not by men who have retreated 
in terror into the sacred caves and     
refused to look out upon the universe as
 it is2 but by men who have  preached   
and practised the righteousness of the  
prophets1 and the  aspirations of the   
,psalmist1 and the blessed ,sermon on   
the ,mount1 and  the first great        
commandment1 and the second which is    

like unto it1  and ,st4 ,james's        
definition of pure religion and         
undefiled4    ,it is shown in the ,roman
 ,church1 not by ,tostatus and          
,bellarmin1 but  by ,st4 ,carlo         
,borromeo1 and ,st4 ,vincent de ,paul1  
and ,fnelon1 and  ,eugnie de ,gurin2 in 
the ,anglican ,church1 not by ,dean     
,cockburn1 but  by ,howard1 and ,jenner1
 and ,wilberforce1 and ,florence        
,nightingale2 in  the ,german ,church1  
not by ,pastor ,knak1 but by ,pastor    
,fliedner2 in the  ,american ,church1   
not by the ,mathers1 but by such as     
,bishop ,whatcoat1  and ,channing1 and  
,muhlenberg1 and ,father ,de ,smet1 and 
,samuel ,may1 and  ,harriet ,stowe4     
,let the warfare of ,science1 then1 be  
changed4 ,let it be a warfare in  which 
,religion and ,science shall stand      
together as allies1 not against  each   
other as enemies4 ,let the fight be for 
truth of every kind against  falsehood  
of every kind2 for justice against      
injustice2 for right  against wrong2 for

 the living kernel of religion rather   
than the dead  and dried husks of sect  
and dogma2 and the great powers1 whose  
warfare  has brought so many sufferings1
 shall at last join in ministering      
through earth ,god's richest blessings4 
,,the ,,end4          ,,footnotes3    #a
 ,most fruitful among these were those  
given by ,plato in the  ,timus4 ,see1   
also1 ,grote on ,plato's doctrine of the
 rotundity of the  earth4 ,also ,sir ,g4
 ,c4 ,lewis's ,astronomy of the         
,ancients1 ,london1  #ahfb1 chap4 iii41 
sec4 i4 and note4 ,cicero's mention of  
the antipodes  and reference to the     
passage in the ,timus are even more     
remarkable  than the original1 in that  
they much more clearly foreshadow the   
modern  doctrine4 ,see ,academic        
,questions1 ii41 xxxix4 ,also1 ,tusc4   
,quest41  i41 xxviii41 and v41 xxiv4    
#b ,see ,eusebius1 ,prp4 ,ev41 xv41 #fa4
    #c ,see ,lactantius1 ,inst41 #a41   
iii41 chap4 #c4 ,also1 citations in     
,whewell1 ,hist4 ,induct4 ,sciences1    

,lond41 #aheg1 vol4 i41 p4 #aid4  ,to   
understand the embarrassment thus caused
 to scientific men at a  later period1  
see ,letter of ,agricola to ,joachimus  
,vadianus in #aead4  ,agricola asks     
,vadianus to give his views regarding   
the antipodes1  saying that he himself  
does not know what to do1 between the   
,fathers  on one side and learned men of
 modern times on the other4 ,on the     
other  hand1 for the embarrassment      
caused to the ,church by this mistaken  
zeal  of the ,fathers1 see ,kepler's    
references and ,fromund's replies2 also 
,de  ,morgan1 ,paradoxes1 p4 #eh4       
,kepler appears to have taken great     
delight  in throwing the views of       
,lactantius into the teeth of his       
adversaries4    #d ,another germ idea1  
etc4 ,see ,plato1 ,timus1 #fb ,c41      
,jowett's  translation1 ,n4 ,y4 ed4     
,also ,phdo1 pp4 #ddi1 et seq4 ,also    
,cicero1  ,academic ,quest41 and ,tusc4 
,disput41 ubi supra4 ,for citations  and
 summaries1 see ,whewell1 ,hist4        

,induct4 ,sciences1 vol4 i41 p4  #ahi1  
and ,st4 ,martin1 ,hist4 de la ,gog41   
,paris1 #ahgc1 p4 #if4 ,also  ,leopardi1
 ,saggio sopra gli errori popolari degli
 antichi1 ,firenze1  #ahea1 chap4 xii41 
p4 #ahd1 et seq4    #e ,for opinion of  
,basil1 ,ambrose1 and others1 see       
,lecky1 ,hist4 of  ,rationalism in      
,europe1 ,new ,york1 #ahgb1 vol4 i41 p4 
#bgi1 note4 ,also1  ,letronne1 in ,revue
 des ,deux ,mondes1 ,march1 #ahcd4    #f
 ,for ,lactantius1 see ,instit41 iii41  
#bd1 translation in the  ,ante-,nicene  
,library2 also1 citations in ,whewell1  
i41 #aif1 and in ,st4  ,martin1         
,histoire de la ,gographie1 pp4 #baf1   
#bag4 ,for ,st4 ,augustine's  opinion1  
see the ,civ4 ,d41 xvi41 #i1 where this 
great ,father of the  ,church shows that
 the existence of the antipodes nulla   
ratione  credendum est4 ,also1 citations
 in ,buckle's ,posthumous ,works1 vol4  
ii41 p4 #fde4 ,for a notice of the views
 of ,cosmas in connection with  those of
 ,lactantius1 ,augustine1 ,st4 ,john    

,chrysostom1 and others1 see  ,schoell1 
,histoire de la ,littrature ,grecque1   
vol4 vii41 pp4 #cg1 et  seq4    #g      
,isaiah xl4 #bb4    #h ,job xxvi4 #aa4  
#i ,genesis i4 #f4    #aj ,psalm        
cxlviii4 #d4    #aa ,genesis vii4 #aa4  
#ab ,see ,montfaucon1 ,collectio ,nova  
,patrum1 ,paris1 #agjf1 vol ii41  p4    
#ahh2 also pp4 #bih1 #bii4 ,the text is 
illustrated with engravings  showing    
walls and solid vault 7firmament71 with 
the whole apparatus of  fountains of the
 great deep1 windows of heaven1 angels1 
and the  mountain behind which the sun  
is drawn4 ,for an imperfect reduction of
  one of them1 see article ,maps in     
,knight's ,dictionary of ,mechanics1    
,new ,york1 #ahge4 ,for still another   
theory1 very droll1 and thought  out on 
similar principles1 see ,mungo ,park1   
cited in ,de ,morgan1  ,paradoxes1 #cji4
 ,for ,cosmas's joyful summing up1 see  
,montfaucon1  ,collectio ,nova ,patrum1 
vol4 ii41 p4 #bee4    #ac ,virgil of    
,salzburg4 ,see ,neander's ,history of  

the ,christian  ,church1 ,torrey's      
translation1 vol4 iii41 p4 #fc4 ,since  
,bayle1 there  has been much loose      
writing about ,virgil's case4 ,see      
,whewell1 p4  #aig2 but for best choice 
of authorities and most careful         
winnowing out  of conclusions1 see ,de  
,morgan1 pp4 #bd-bf4 ,for very full     
notes as to  pagan and ,christian       
advocates of doctrine of rotundity of   
the earth  and of antipodes1 and for    
extract from ,zachary's letter1 see     
,migne1  ,patrologia1 vol4 vi41 p4 #dbf1
 and vol4 xli41 p4 #dhg4 ,for ,peter  of
 ,abano1 or ,apono1 as he is often      
called1 see ,tiraboschi2 also1          
,ginguen1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bic2 also ,naud1
 ,histoire des ,grands hommes  accuss de
 ,magie4 ,for ,cecco d',ascoli1 see     
,montucla1 ,histoire des  ,mathmatiques1
 i41 #ebh2 also1 ,daunou1 tudes         
,historiques1 vol4  vi41 p4 #cbj4       
,concerning ,orcagna's representation of
 ,cecco in flames of  hell1 see ,renan1 
,averros et l',averroisme1 ,paris1      

#ahfg1 p4 #cbh4    #ad ,for ,columbus   
before the ,junta of ,salamanca1 see    
,irving's  ,columbus1 ,murray's edition1
 vol4 ii41 pp4 #dje-daj4 ,figuier1      
,savants  du ,moyen ,age1 etc41 vol4    
ii41 p4 #cid1 et seq4 ,also1 ,humboldt1 
,histoire de la ,gographie du ,nouveau  
,continent4    #ae ,see ,daunou1 tudes  
,historiques1 vol4 ii41 p4 #dag4    #af 
,for effect of ,magalhaens's voyages1   
and the reluctance to yield  to proof1  
see ,henri ,martin1 ,histoire de        
,france1 vol4 xiv41 p4 #cie2  ,st4      
,martin's ,histoire de la ,gog41 p4     
#cfi2 ,peschel1 ,geschichte des         
,zeitalters der ,entdeckungen1          
concluding chapters2 and for an         
admirable  summary1 ,draper1 ,hist4     
,int4 ,dev4 of ,europe1 pp4 #dea-dec4   
#ag ,for general statement as to        
supplementary proof by measurement of   
degrees1 and by pendulum1 see           
,somerville1 ,phys4 ,geog41 chapter i1  
#f1 note4 ,also ,humboldt1 ,cosmos1 vol4
 ii41 p4 #gcf1 and v41 pp4 #af1  #cb4   

,also ,montucla1 iv41 #ach4    #ah      
,respectability of ,geocentric ,theory1 
,plato's ,authority for it  etc41 see   
,grote's ,plato1 vol4 iii41 p4 #beg4    
,also1 ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis1  ,astronomy 
of the ,ancients1 chap1 iii41 sec4 i41  
for a very thoughtful  statement of     
,plato's view1 and differing from       
ancient statements4 ,for  plausible     
elaboration of it1 see ,fromundus1      
,anti-,aristarchus1  ,antwerp1 #afca4   
,also ,melanchthon1 ,initia ,doctrin    
,physic4    #ai ,for supposed agreement 
of ,scripture with ,ptolemaic theory1   
see  ,fromundus1 passim1 ,melanchthon1  
and a host of other writers4    #bj ,see
 ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 ,liber de ,clo  
et ,mundo1 sec4 xx4    #ba ,for ,germs  
of ,heliocentric ,theory planted long   
before1 etc41  see ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis2 
also1 ,draper1 ,intellectual            
,development  of ,europe1 p4 #eab2 and  
for a succinct statement of the claims  
of  ,pythagoras1 ,philolaus1            
,aristarchus1 and ,martianus ,capella1  

see ,hfer1  ,hist4 de l',astronomie1    
#ahgc1 p4 #ajg1 et seq4 ,for germs among
  thinkers of ,india1 see ,whewell1 vol4
 i41 p4 #bgg4 ,also1 ,whitney1          
,oriental and ,linguistic ,studies1 ,new
 ,york1 #ahgd2 ,essay on the ,lunar     
,zodiac1 p4 #cde4    #bb ,for general   
statement of ,de ,cusa's work1 see      
,draper1  ,intellectual ,development of 
,europe1 p4 #eab4 ,for skillful use of  
,de ,cusa's view in order to mitigate   
censure upon the ,church for its        
treatment of ,copernicus's discovery1   
see an article in the ,catholic  ,world 
for ,january1 #ahfi4 ,for a very exact  
statement1 in a spirit of  judicial     
fairness1 see ,whewell1 ,history of the 
,inductive ,sciences1  p4 #bge and pp4  
#cgi1 #chj4 ,in the latter1 ,whewell    
cites the exact words  of ,de ,cusa in  
the ,de ,docta ,ignorantia1 and sums up 
in these words3  ,this train of thought 
might be a preparation for the reception
 of the  ,copernican system2 but it is  
very different from the doctrine that   

the  sun is the centre of the planetary 
system4 ,in the previous passage1       
,whewell says that ,de ,cusa propounded 
the doctrine of the motion of  the      
earth1 more1 however1 as a paradox than 
as a reality4 ,we cannot  consider this 
as any distinct anticipation of a       
profound and consistent  view of the    
truth4 ,for ,aristotle's views and their
 elaboration by ,st4  ,thomas ,aquinas1 
see the treatise ,de ,clo et ,mundo4 ,it
 is curious to  see how even such a     
biographer of ,st4 ,thomas as           
,archbishop ,vaughan  slurs over the    
angelic doctor's errors4 ,see ,vaughan's
 ,life and ,labors  of ,st4 ,thomas of  
,aquin1 pp4 #dei1 #dfj4    #bc ,for     
improvement of mathematical processes1  
see ,draper1  ,intellectual ,development
 of ,europe1 #eac4 ,in looking at this  
and other  admirable summaries1 one     
feels that ,prof4 ,tyndall was not      
altogether  right in lamenting1 in his  
farewell address at ,new ,york1 that    
,dr4  ,draper has devoted so much of his

 time to historical studies4    #bd     
,kopernik's danger at ,rome4 ,the       
,catholic ,world for ,january1  #ahfi1  
cites a recent speech of the ,archbishop
 of ,mechlin before the  ,university of 
,louvain1 to the effect that ,copernicus
 defended his  theory1 at ,rome1 in     
#aejj1 before two thousand scholars2    
also1 that  another professor taught the
 system in #aebh1 and was made          
,apostolic  ,notary by ,clement ,,viii4 
,all this1 even if the doctrines taught 
were identical with those of            
,copernicus1 as finally developed1      
which idea ,whewell seems utterly to    
disprove1 avails nothing  against the   
overwhelming testimony that ,copernicus 
felt himself in  danger--testimony which
 the after-history of the ,copernican   
theory  renders invincible4 ,the very   
title of ,fromundus's book1 already     
cited1  published within a few miles of 
the archbishop's own cathedral1 and     
sanctioned expressly by the theological 
,faculty of that same ,university  of   

,louvain in #afcj1 utterly refutes the  
archbishop's idea that the  ,church was 
inclined to treat ,copernicus kindly4   
,the title is as follows3               
,anti-,aristarchus  ,sive  ,orbis-,terr 
,immobilis  ,in quo decretum  ,s4       
,congregationis ,s4 ,r4 ,e4             
,cardinalium  ,i,c4 ,,xvi adversus      
,pytha   gorico-,copernicanos editum    
defenditur  ,antwerpi ,,mdcxxxi4        
,l',epinois1 ,galile1 ,paris1 #ahfg1    
lays stress1 p4 #ad1 on the  broaching  
of the doctrine by ,de ,cusa1 in #adce1 
and by ,widmanstadt1 in  #aecc1 and     
their kind treatment by ,eugenius ,,iv4 
and ,clement ,,vii41 but  this is       
absolutely worthless in denying the     
papal policy afterward4  ,lange1        
,geschichte des ,materialismus1 vol4 i41
 pp4 #bag1 #bah1 while  admitting that  
,de ,cusa and ,widmanstadt sustained    
this idea and received  honors from     
their respective popes1 shows that1 when
 the ,church gave it  serious           
consideration1 it was condemned4 ,there 

is nothing in this view  unreasonable4  
,it would be a parallel case to that of 
,leo ,x41 at first  inclined toward     
,luther and the others1 in their        
squabbles with the  begging friars1 and 
afterward forced to oppose them4 ,that  
,copernicus  felt the danger1 is        
evident1 among other things1 by the     
expression in  the preface1 ,statim me  
explodendum cum tali opinione clamitant4
    #be ,for dangers at ,wittenberg1 see
 ,lange1 ,geschichte des                
,materialismus1 vol4 i41 p4 #bag4    #bf
 ,osiander1 in a letter to ,copernicus1 
dated ,april #bj1 #aeda1 had  endeavored
 to reconcile him to such a procedure1  
and ends by saying1  ,sic enim          
placidiores reddideris peripatheticos et
 theologos quos  contradicturos metuis4 
,see ,apologia ,tychonis in ,kepleri    
,opera  ,omnia1 ,frisch's edition1 vol4 
i41 p4 #bdf4 ,kepler holds ,osiander    
entirely responsible for this preface4  
,bertrand1 in his ,fondateurs  de       
l',astronomie ,moderne1 gives its text1 

and thinks it possible  that ,copernicus
 may have yielded in pure condescension 
toward his  disciple4 ,but this idea is 
utterly at variance with expressions in 
,copernicus's own dedicatory letter to  
the pope1 which follows the  preface4   
,for a good summary of the argument1 see
 ,figuier1 ,savants  de la ,renaissance1
 pp4 #cgh1 #cgi4 ,see1 also1 citation   
from ,gassendi's  life of ,copernicus1  
in ,flammarion1 ,vie de ,copernic1 p4   
#abd4 ,mr4  ,john ,fiske1 accurate as he
 usually is1 in his recent ,outlines of 
,cosmic ,philosophy1 appears to have    
followed ,laplace1 ,delambre1 and       
,petit into the error of supposing that 
,copernicus1 and not ,osiander1 is      
responsible for the preface4    #bg     
,figuier1 ,savants de la ,renaissance1  
p4 #chj4 ,also1  ,flammarion1 ,vie de   
,copernic1 p4 #aij4    #bh ,the proper  
authorities in this case were the       
,congregation  of the ,index1 or        
cardinals having charge of the ,index   
,librorum  ,prohibitorum4 ,recent       

desperate attempts to fasten the        
responsibility  on them as individuals  
seem ridiculous in view of the simple   
fact that  their work is sanctioned by  
the highest ,church authority1 and      
required  to be universally accepted by 
the ,church4 ,three of four editions of 
the  ,index in my own possession declare
 on their title-pages that they are     
issued by order of the pontiff of the   
period1 and each is prefaced by  a      
special papal bull or letter4 ,see1     
especially1 ,index of #affd1 issued     
under order of ,alexander ,,vii41 and   
that of #agfa1 under ,benedict ,,xiv4   
,copernicus's work was prohibited in the
 ,index donec corrigatur4  ,kepler said 
that it ought to be worded donec        
explicetur4 ,see  ,bertrand1 ,fondateurs
 de l',astronomie ,moderne1 p4 #eg4 ,de 
,morgan1  pp4 #eg-fj1 gives the         
corrections required by the ,index of   
#afbj4 ,their  main aim seems to be to  
reduce ,copernicus to the groveling     
level of  ,osiander1 making of his      

discovery a mere hypothesis2 but        
occasionally  they require a virtual    
giving up of the whole ,copernican      
doctrine1 e4  g41 correction insisted   
upon for cap4 #h1 p4 #f4 ,for scholarly 
account  of the relation of the         
,prohibitory and ,expurgatory ,indexes  
to each  other1 see ,mendham1 ,literary 
,policy of the ,church of ,rome4    #bi 
,see ,fromundus's book1 cited above1    
passim1 but especially the  heading of  
chapter vi41 and the argument in chaps1 
x4 and xi4 ,for  interesting reference  
to one of ,fromundus's arguments1       
showing by a  mixture of mathematics and
 theology1 that the earth is the centre 
of  the universe1 see ,quetelet1        
,histoire des ,sciences ,mathmatiques et
  ,physiques1 ,bruxelles1 #ahfd1 p4     
#agj4    #cj ,see ,luther's ,tischreden1
 ,irmischer's ,ausgabe4 ,also1          
,melanchthon's ,initia ,doctrin ,physic4
 ,this treatise is cited under  a       
mistaken title by the ,catholic ,world1 
,september1 #ahgj4 ,the correct  title  

is as given above4 ,it will be found in 
the ,corpus ,reformatorum1  ed4         
,bretschneider1 ,halle1 #ahdf4 7,for the
 above passage1 see vol4  xiii41 pp4    
#baf1 #bag47 ,also1 ,lange1 ,geschichte 
des ,materialismus1  vol4 i41 p4 #bag4  
,also1 ,prowe1 ,ueber die ,abhngigkeit  
des  ,copernicus1 ,thorn1 #ahfe1 p4 #d4 
,also1 note1 pp4 #e and #f1 where text  
is  given in full4    #ca ,for treatment
 of ,copernican ideas by the people1 see
 ,catholic  ,world1 as above4    #cb    
,see title-page of ,fromundus's work    
cited in note at bottom of p4  #cib2    
also1 ,melanchthon1 ubi supra4    #cc   
,see ,bartholmess1 ,vie de ,jordano     
,bruno1 ,paris1 #ahdf1 vol4 i41  pp4    
#aba and #bab1 et seq4 ,also ,berti1    
,vita di ,giordano ,bruno1  ,firenze1   
#ahfh1 chapter xvi4 ,also ,whewell1 i41 
#bid1 #bie4 ,that  ,whewell is somewhat 
hasty in attributing ,bruno's punishment
 entirely  to the ,spaccio della ,bestia
 ,trionfante will be evident1 in spite  
of ,montucla1 to any one who reads the  

account of the persecution in           
,bartholmess or ,berti2 and1 even if    
,whewell be right1 the ,spaccio  would  
never have been written1 but for        
,bruno's indignation at  ecclesiastical 
oppression4 ,see ,tiraboschi1 vol4 xi41 
p4 #dce4    #cd ,delambre1 ,histoire de 
l',astronomie moderne1 discours         
prliminaire1 p4 xiv4 ,also ,laplace1    
,systme du ,monde1 vol4 i41  p4 #cbf1   
and for more careful statement1 ,kepleri
 ,opera ,omnia1 edit4  ,frisch1 tom4    
ii41 p4 #dfd4    #ce ,cantu1 ,histoire  
,universelle1 vol4 xv41 p4 #dgc4    #cf 
,a very curious example of this sham    
science is seen in the  argument1       
frequently used at the time1 that1 if   
the earth really moved1  a stone falling
 from a height would fall back of the   
point immediately  below its point of   
starting4 ,this is used by ,fromundus   
with great  effect4 ,it appears never to
 have occurred to him to test the matter
 by  dropping a stone from the topmast  
of a ship4 ,but the most beautiful      

thing of all is that ,benzenburg has    
experimentally demonstrated just  such  
an aberration in falling bodies as is   
mathematically required by  the diurnal 
motion of the earth4 ,see ,jevons1      
,principles of ,science1  vol4 i41 p4   
#dec1 and ii41 pp4 #caj1 #caa4    #cg   
,see ,delambre as to the discovery of   
the satellites of ,jupiter  being the   
turning-point with the heliocentric     
doctrine4 ,as to its  effects on ,bacon1
 see ,jevons1 ,principles of ,science1  
vol4 ii41 p4  #bih4    #ch ,for argument
 drawn from the candlestick and seven   
churches1 see  ,delambre4    #ci ,libri1
 vol4 iv41 p4 #baa4 ,de ,morgan1        
,paradoxes1 p4 #bf1 for  account of     
,father ,clavius4 ,it is interesting to 
know that ,clavius1 in  his last years1 
acknowledged that the whole system of   
the heavens is  broken down1 and must be
 mended4    #dj ,cantu1 ,histoire       
,universelle1 vol4 xv41 p4 #dgh4    #da 
,for ,caccini's attack1 see ,delambre1  
,hist4 de l',astron41 disc4  prlim41 p4 

xxii42 also1 ,libri1 ,hist4 des         
,sciences ,math41 vol4 iv41  p4 #bcb2   
also1 ,martin1 ,galile1 pp4 #dc1 #dd4   
#db ,for ,bellarmin's view1 see ,quinet1
 ,jesuits1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ahi4  ,for     
other objectors and objections1 see     
,libri1 ,histoire des ,sciences         
,mathmatiques en ,italie1 vol4 iv41 pp4 
#bcc1 #bcd2 also1 ,martin1 ,vie  de     
,galile4    #dc ,see ,trouessart1 cited 
in ,flammarion1 ,mondes ,imaginaires et 
,rels1 sixime dition1 pp4 #cae1 #caf4   
#dd ,initia ,doctrin ,physic1 pp4 #bbj1 
#bba4    #de ,see ,ticknor1 ,hist4 of   
,span4 ,literature1 vol4 iii4    #df    
,see ,th4 ,martin1 ,galile1 pp4 #cd1    
#bjh1 and #bff4    #dg ,see ,martin1    
,galile1 pp4 #cd and #bjh2 also a       
curious note  in the earlier ,english   
editions1 ,lyell1 ,principles of        
,geology1  ,introduction4    #dh ,for   
curious exemplification of the way in   
which these weapons  have been hurled1  
see lists of persons charged with       
infidelity and  atheism1 in ,le         

,dictionnaire des ,athes1 ,paris1 ,an4  
viii4 ,also1  ,lecky1 ,history of       
,rationalism1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ej4 ,for    
case of  ,descartes1 see ,saisset1      
,descartes et ses prcurseurs1 pp4 #ajc1 
#aaj4    #di ,see the original documents
 in ,epinois1 pp4 #cd-cf4 ,martin's     
translation does not seem exactly       
correct4    #ej ,see full official text 
in ,epinois4    #ea ,see proofs of this 
in ,martin4 ,the reader should be       
reminded that  the archives exposed     
within the past few years have made the 
statements  of early writers            
untrustworthy on very many of the nicer 
points4    #eb ,see ,inchofer's         
,tractatus ,syllepticus1 cited in       
,galileo's letter  to ,deodati1 ,july   
#bh1 #afcd4    #ec ,it is not probable  
that torture in the ordinary sense was  
administered to ,galileo1 though it was 
threatened4 ,see ,th4 ,martin1  ,vie de 
,galile1 for a fair summing up of the   
case4 ,for text of the  abjuration1 see 
,epinois2 also1 ,private ,life of       

,galileo1 ,appendix4    #ed ,martin1 p4 
#bbg4    #ee ,martin1 p4 #bdc4    #ef   
,for the persecution of ,galileo's      
memory1 see ,th4 ,martin1 chaps4  ix and
 x4 ,for documentary proofs1 see de     
l',epinois4 ,for a collection  of the   
slanderous theories invented against    
,galileo1 see ,martin1  final chapters  
and appendix4 ,both these authors are   
devoted to the  ,church1 but1 unlike    
,monsignor ,marini1 are too upright to  
resort to the  pious fraud of           
suppressing documents or interpolating  
pretended facts4    #eg ,see ,martin1   
pp4 #dja1 #djb4    #eh ,see de          
l',epinois1 p4 #ce1 where the document  
is given in its  original ,latin4    #ei
 ,see translation of the abjuration in  
appendix to ,private ,life of  ,galileo1
 ,london1 #ahgj4    #fj ,see ,marini1   
who manipulated the original documents  
to prove  this4 ,even ,whewell appears  
to have been somewhat misled by him2 but
  ,whewell wrote before de l',epinois   
had shown all the documents1 and  under 

the supposition that ,marini was an     
honest man4    #fa ,see ,marini4    #fb 
,see ,epinois and ,th4 ,martin1 passim4 
#fc ,see pages #acf1 #add1 and elsewhere
 in ,martin1 who1 much against  his     
will1 is forced to allow this4    #fd   
,martin1 pp4 #adf1 #adg4    #fe ,see    
,martin1 p4 #ade4    #ff ,see note on   
condemnation of ,kopernik4    #fg ,for  
the attempt to make the crime of        
,galileo a breach of  etiquette1 see    
,dublin ,review1 as above4 ,whewell1    
vol4 i41 #cic4  ,citation from ,marini3 
,galileo was punished for trifling with 
the authorities to which he refused to  
submit1 and was punished  for obstinate 
contumacy1 not heresy4 ,the sufficient  
answer to all  this is1 that the words  
of the inflexible sentence designating  
the  condemned books are3 ,libri omnes  
qui affirmant telluris motum4 ,see      
,bertrand1 p4 #ei4 ,as to the idea that 
,galileo was punished not  for his      
opinion1 but for basing it on           
,scripture1 the answer may be  found in 

the ,roman ,index of #agjd1 in which are
 noted for condemnation  ,libri omnes   
docentes mobilitatem terr et            
inmobilitatem solis4 ,for  the way in   
which1 when it was found convenient in  
argument1 ,church  apologists insisted  
that it was the ,supreme ,chief of the  
,church1  by a pontifical decree1 and   
not certain cardinals1 who condemned    
,galileo and his doctrine1 see ,father  
,lecazre's letter to ,gassendi in       
,flammarion1 ,pluralit des ,mondes1 p4  
#dbg1 and ,urban ,,viii4's own          
declarations as given by ,martin4 ,for  
the way in which1 when necessary1       
,church apologists asserted the very    
contrary of this1 declaring that  it was
 issued in a doctrinal decree of the    
,congregation of the  ,index1 and not as
 the ,holy ,father's teaching1 see      
,dublin ,review1  ,september1 #ahfe4    
,and for the most astounding attempt of 
all1 to take  the blame off the         
shoulders of both pope and cardinals1   
and place it  upon the ,almighty1 see   

the article above cited1 in the ,dublin 
,review1  ,september1 #ahfe1 p4 #dai4   
,for a good summary of the various      
attempts1  and for replies to them in a 
spirit of judicial fairness1 see ,th4   
,martin1 ,vie de ,galile1 though there  
is some special pleading to  save the   
infallibility of pope and ,church4 ,the 
bibliography at the  close is very      
valuable4    #fh ,for ,baronius's       
remark1 see ,de ,morgan1 p4 #bf4 ,also1 
,whewell1  vol4 i41 p4 #cid4    #fi ,for
 an exceedingly striking statement1 by a
 ,roman ,catholic  historian of genius1 
as to popular demand for persecution1   
and the  pressure of the lower strata1  
in ecclesiastical organizations1  for   
cruel measures1 see ,balms1 ,le         
,protestantisme compar au               
,catholicisme1 etc41 #dth ed41 ,paris1  
#ahee1 vol4 ii4 ,archbishop  ,spaulding 
has something of the same sort in his   
,miscellanies4  ,l',epinois1 ,galile1   
pp4 #bb1 et seq41 stretches this as far 
as  possible1 to save the reputation of 

the ,church in the ,galileo matter4     
#gj ,humboldt1 ,cosmos1 ,london1 #ahea1 
vol4 iii41 p4 #ba4 ,also1  ,lange1      
,geschichte des ,materialismus1 vol4 i41
 p4 #bbb1 where the  letters of         
,descartes are given1 showing his       
despair1 and the giving up  of his best 
thoughts and works to preserve peace    
with the ,church4 ,also1  ,saisset1     
,descartes et ses prcurseurs1 pp4 #ajj1 
et seq4 ,also1  ,jolly1 ,hist1 du       
,mouvement ,intellectuel au ,,xvie      
,sicle1 vol4 i41 p4  #cij    #ga ,libri1
 pp4 #adi1 et seq4    #gb ,fromundus1   
speaking of ,kepler's explanation1 says3
 ,vix teneo  ebullientem risum4 ,it is  
almost equal to the ,new ,york ,church  
,journal1 speaking of ,john ,stuart     
,mill as that small sciolist1 and of    
the preface to ,dr4 ,draper's recent    
work as chippering4 ,how a journal      
generally so fair in its treatment of   
such subjects can condescend  to use    
such weapons1 is one of the wonders of  
modern journalism4 ,for  ,protestant    

persecution of ,kepler1 see vol4 i41 p4 
#cib4 ,among other  things1 ,kepler's   
mother was declared a witch1 and this   
was followed by  a reminder of the      
,scriptural injunction1 ,ye shall not   
suffer a witch  to live4    #gc ,for    
,cassini's position1 see ,henri ,martin1
 ,hist4 de ,france1  vol4 xiii41 p4     
#age4    #gd ,daunou1 tudes             
,historiques1 vol4 ii41 p4 #dci4    #ge 
,bossuet1 see ,bertrand1 p4 #da4    #gf 
,for ,hutchinson1 see ,lyell1           
,principles of ,geology1 ,introduction4 
#gg ,boscovich4 ,this was in #agdf1 but 
in #aghe ,boscovich seemed to feel  his 
position in view of history1 and        
apologized abjectly4 ,bertrand1  pp4    
#fj1 #fa4 ,see also ,whewell's notice of
 ,le ,sueur and ,jacquier's             
introduction to their edition of        
,newton's ,principia4 ,for a clear      
statement of ,bradley's exquisite       
demonstration of the ,copernican  theory
 by reasonings upon the rapidity of     
light1 etc41 and ,foucault's  exhibition

 of the rotation of the earth by the    
pendulum experiment1  see ,hoefer1      
,hist4 de l',astronomie1 pp4 #dib1 et   
seq4 ,for the most  recent proofs of the
 ,copernican theory1 by discoveries of  
,bunsen1  ,bischoff1 ,benzenburg1 and   
others1 see ,jevons1 ,principles of     
,science4    #gh ,see note in           
introduction to ,lyell's ,principles of 
,geology2 also1  ,buckle1 ,hist4 of     
,civ4 in ,england1 vol4 i41 chap4 i4    
#gi ,bertrand1 ,fondateurs de l',astron4
 ,mod41 p4 #fa4 ,flammarion1  ,vie de   
,copernic1 chap4 ix4 ,as to the time    
when the decree of  condemnation was    
repealed1 various authorities differ4   
,artaud1 p4  #cjg1 cited in an          
apologetic article in ,dublin ,review1  
,september1  #ahfe1 says that ,galileo's
 famous dialogue was published in #agdd1
 at  ,padua1 entire1 and with the usual 
approbations4 ,the same article also    
declares that in #ahah the              
ecclesiastical decrees were repealed by 
,pius ,,vii41 in full ,consistory4      

,whewell says that ,galileo's writings1 
after some opposition1 were expunged    
from the ,index ,expurgatorius in       
#ahah4 ,cantu1 an authority rather      
favorable to the ,church1 says that     
,copernicus's work remained on the      
,index as late as #ahce4 ,cantu1        
,histoire ,universelle1 vol4 xv41 p4    
#dhc2 and with this ,th4 ,martin1 not   
less favorable to the ,church1 but      
exceedingly careful as to the facts1    
agrees4    #hj ,see ,weld1 ,history of  
the ,royal ,society1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ef1  
for  the facts and the admirable letter 
of ,priestley upon this rejection4      
#ha ,bruhns and ,lassell1 ,life of      
,humboldt1 ,london1 #ahgc1 vol4  ii41 p4
 #daa4    #hb ,for the very amusing     
details of the ,english attempt1 and of 
the  way in which it was met1 see ,de   
,morgan1 ,paradoxes1 p4 #db4 ,for       
,pastor ,knak and his associates1 see   
,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #ahfh4    #hc 
,for a striking account1 gathered from  
eye-witnesses of this  frightful scene  

at the execution of ,bruno1 see letter  
of ,scioppius in  appendix to vol4 iv4  
of ,libri1 ,hist4 des ,mathmatiques4    
#hd ,as a pendant to this ejaculation of
 ,kepler may be cited those  wondrous   
words of ,linnus3 ,deum omnipotentem a  
tergo transeuntem vidi  et obstupui4    
#he ,for papal bull representing the    
earth as a flat disk1 see  ,daunou1     
tudes ,historiques1 vol4 ii41 p4 #dba4  
#hf ,for ,bruno's conjecture 7in #aeia71
 see ,jevons1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bii4  ,for  
,kant's part in the nebular hypothesis1 
see ,lange1 ,geschichte  des            
,materialismus1 vol4 i41 p4 #bff4 ,for  
value of ,plateau's beautiful           
experiment very cautiously estimated1   
see ,w4 ,stanley ,jevons1  ,principles  
of ,science1 ,london1 #ahgd1 vol4 ii41  
p4 #cf4 ,also1 ,elise  ,rclus1 ,the     
,earth1 translated by ,woodward1 vol4   
i41 pp4 #ad-ah1 for  an estimate still  
more careful4 ,for a general account of 
discoveries  of nature of nebul by      
spectroscope1 see ,draper1 ,conflict    

between  ,religion and ,science4 ,for a 
careful discussion regarding the spectra
  of solid1 liquid1 and gaseous bodies1 
see ,schellen1 ,spectrum  ,analysis1 pp4
 #ajj1 et seq4 ,for a very thorough     
discussion of the  bearings of          
discoveries made by spectrum analysis   
upon the nebular  hypothesis1 ibid41 pp4
 #ecb-ecg4 ,for a presentation of the   
difficulties  yet unsolved1 see article 
by ,plummer1 in ,london ,popular        
,science  ,review for ,january1 #ahge4  
,for excellent short summary of recent  
observations and thought on this        
subject1 see ,t4 ,sterry ,hunt1         
,address at the ,priestley ,centennial1 
pp4 #g1 #h4 ,for an interesting         
modification of this hypothesis1 see    
,proctor's recent writings4    #hg ,for 
a very careful discussion of ,albert's  
strength in  investigation and weakness 
in yielding to scholastic authority1 see
  ,kopp1 ,ansichten ber die ,aufgabe der
 ,chemie von ,geber bis ,stahl1         
,braunschweig1 #ahge1 pp4 #fd1 et seq4  

,for a very extended and  enthusiastic  
biographical sketch1 see ,pouchet4 ,for 
comparison of  his work with that of    
,thomas ,aquinas1 see ,milman1 ,history 
of ,latin  ,christians1 vol4 vi41 #dfa4 
,il tait aussi trs-habile dans les arts 
mcaniques1 ce que le fit souponner d'tre
 sorcier4 ,sprengel1  ,histoire de la   
,mdecine1 vol4 ii41 p4 #chi4    #hh ,for
 the charge of magic against scholars   
and others1 see ,naud1  ,apologie pour  
les grands hommes accuss de ,magie1     
passim4 ,also1  ,maury1 ,hist4 de la    
,magie1 troisime dit41 pp4 #bad1 #bae4  
,also1  ,cuvier1 ,hist4 des ,sciences   
,naturelles1 vol4 i41 p4 #cif4    #hi   
,see tudes sur ,vincent de ,beauvais par
 l',abb ,bourgeat1 chaps4  xii41 xiii41 
xiv4 ,also1 ,pouchet1 ,histoire des     
,sciences ,naturelles au  ,moyen ,age1  
,paris1 #ahec1 pp4 #dgj1 et seq4    #ij 
,for work of ,aquinas1 see ,st4 ,thomas 
,aquinas1 ,liber de ,clo et  ,mundo1    
section xx4 ,also1 ,life and ,labors of 
,st4 ,thomas of ,aquin1  by ,archbishop 

,vaughan1 pp4 #dei1 et seq4 ,for his    
labors in natural  science1 see ,hoefer1
 ,histoire de la ,chimie1 ,paris1 #ahdc1
 vol4  i41 p4 #cha4 ,for theological    
views of science in middle ages1 and    
rejoicing thereat1 see ,pouchet1 ,hist4 
des ,sci4 ,nat4 au ,moyen ,age1  ubi    
supra4 ,pouchet says3 ,en gnral au      
milieu du moyen ge les  sciences sont   
essentiellement chrtiennes1 leur but est
 tout--fait  religieux1 et elles        
semblent beaucoup moins s'inquiter de   
l'avancement  intellectuel de l'homme   
que de son salut eternel4 ,pouchet calls
 this  conciliation into a harmonieux   
ensemble la plus glorieuse des  conqutes
 intellectuelles du moyen ge4 ,pouchet  
belongs to ,rouen1 and  the shadow of   
the ,rouen ,cathedral seems thrown over 
all his history4  ,see1 also1 ,l',abb   
,rohrbacher1 ,hist4 de l'glise          
,catholique1  ,paris1 #aheh1 vol4       
xviii41 pp4 #dba1 et seq4 ,the abb      
dilates upon  the fact that the ,church 
organizes the agreement of all the      

sciences  by the labors of ,st4 ,thomas 
of ,aquin and his contemporaries4 ,for  
the theological character of science in 
middle ages1 recognized  by a           
,protestant philosophic historian1 see  
the well-known passage  in ,guizot1     
,history of ,civilization in ,europe2   
and by a noted  ,protestant             
ecclesiastic1 see ,bishop ,hampden's    
,life of ,thomas ,aquinas1  chaps4      
xxxvi41 xxxvii4 ,see1 also1 ,hallam1    
,middle ,ages1 chap4 ix4  ,for dealings 
of ,pope ,john ,,xxii41 and kings of    
,france and ,england1 and  republic of  
,venice1 see ,figuier1 ,l',alchimie et  
les ,alchimistes1 pp4  #adj1 #ada1      
where1 in a note1 the text of the bull  
,spondent ,pariter is  given4    #ia    
,the ,novum ,organon1 translated by the 
,rev4 ,g4 ,w4 ,kitchin1 ,oxford1  #ahee1
 chap4 lxv4    #ib ,novum ,organon1     
chap4 lxxxix4    #ic ,novum ,organon1   
chap4 xciii4    #id ,bacon1 ,the        
,advancement of ,learning1 edited by ,w4
 ,aldis ,wright1  ,london1 #ahgc1 pp4   

#dg1 #dh4    #ie ,for a very            
contemptuous statement of ,lord ,bacon's
 claim to his  position as a            
philosopher1 see ,lange1 ,geschichte des
 ,materialismus1  ,leipsic1 #ahgd1 vol4 
i41 p4 #bai4 ,for a more just statement1
 see  ,brewster1 ,life of ,sir ,isaac   
,newton4 ,see1 also1 ,jevons1           
,principles of ,science1 ,london1 #ahgd1
 vol4 ii41 p4 #bih4    #if ,kopp1 in his
 ,ansichten1 pushes criticism even to   
some skepticism  as to ,roger ,bacon    
being the discoverer of many of the     
things  generally attributed to him2    
but1 after all deductions are carefully 
made1 enough remains to make ,bacon the 
greatest benefactor to humanity  during 
the middle ages4    #ig ,for an account 
of ,bacon's treatise1 ,de ,nullitate    
,magi1 see  ,hoefer4    #ih ,kopp1      
,geschichte der ,chemie1 ,braunschweig1 
#ahdc1 vol4 i41  p4 #fc2 and for a      
somewhat reactionary discussion of      
,bacon's relation  to the progress of   
chemistry1 see a recent work by the same

 author1  ,ansichten ber die ,aufgabe   
der ,chemie1 ,braunschweig1 #ahgd1 pp4  
#he1  et seq4 ,also1 for an excellent   
summary1 see ,hoefer1 ,hist4 de la      
,chimie1 vol4 i41 pp4 #cfh1 et seq4 ,for
 summaries of his work in  other fields1
 see ,whewell1 vol4 i41 pp4 #cfg1 #cfh4 
,draper1 p4 #dch4  ,saisset1 ,descartes 
et ses ,prcurseurs1 deuxime dition1 pp4 
#cig1  et seq4 ,nourrisson1 ,progrs de  
la pense humaine1 pp4 #bga1 #bgb4       
,sprengel1 ,histoire de la ,mdecine1    
,paris1 #ahfe1 vol4 ii41 p4 #cig4       
,cuvier1 ,histoire des ,sciences        
,naturelles1 vol4 i41 p4 #dag4 ,as to   
,bacon's orthodoxy1 see ,saisset1 pp4   
#ec1 #ee4 ,for special examination  of  
causes of ,bacon's condemnation1 see    
,waddington1 cited by ,saisset1  p4 #ad4
 ,on ,bacon as a sorcerer1 see          
,featherstonaugh's article in ,north    
,american ,review4 ,for a good example  
of the danger of denying full  power of 
,satan1 even in much more recent times1 
and in a ,protestant  country1 see      

account of treatment of ,bekker's ,monde
 ,enchant by the  theologians of        
,holland1 in ,nisard1 ,histoire des     
,livres ,populaires1  vol4 i41 pp4 #agb1
 #agc4    #ii ,henri ,martin1 ,hist4 de 
,france1 vol4 iv41 p4 #bhc4    #ajj ,on 
,bacon as a ,mahometan1 see ,saisset1 p4
 #ag4    #aja ,for proofs that the world
 is steadily working toward great       
discoveries as to the cause and         
prevention of zymotic diseases and  of  
their propagation1 see ,beale's ,disease
 ,germs1 ,baldwin ,latham's  ,sanitary  
,engineering1 ,michel ,lvy1 ,trait      
d',hygine ,publique et  ,prive1 ,paris1 
#ahfi4 ,and for very thorough summaries1
 see ,president  ,barnard's paper read  
before ,sanitary ,congress in ,new      
,york1 #ahgd1 and  ,dr4 ,j4 ,c4         
,dalton's ,anniversary ,discourse on the
 ,origin and ,propagation  of ,disease1 
,new ,york1 #ahgd4    #ajb ,antonio de  
,dominis1 see ,montucla1 ,hist4 des     
,mathmatiques1  vol4 i41 p4 #gje4       
,humboldt1 ,cosmos4 ,libri1 vol4 iv41   

pp4 #ade1 et  seq4    #ajc ,for ,porta1 
see ,hoefer1 ,hist4 de la ,chemie1 vol4 
ii41 pp4  #ajb-ajf4 ,also1 ,kopp4 ,also1
 ,sprengel1 ,hist4 de la ,mdecine1 iii41
  p4 #bci4 ,also1 ,musset-,parthay4     
#ajd ,henri ,martin1 ,histoire de       
,france1 vol4 xii41 pp4 #ad1 #ae4       
#aje ,napier1 ,florentine ,history1 vol4
 v41 p4 #dhe4 ,tiraboschi1  ,storia     
della ,literatura4 ,henri ,martin1      
,histoire de ,france4  ,jevons          
,principles of ,science1 vol4 ii41 pp4  
#cf-dj4 ,for value attached  to         
,borelli's investigations by ,newton and
 ,huyghens1 see ,brewster's  ,life of   
,sir ,isaac ,newton1 ,london1 #ahge1 pp4
 #abh1 #abi4 ,libri1 in his  ,essai sur 
,galile1 p4 #cg1 says that ,oliva was   
summoned to ,rome1 and  so tortured by  
the ,inquisition that1 to escape further
 cruelty1 he  ended his life by throwing
 himself from a window4    #ajf ,for    
this syllogism1 see ,figuier1           
,l',alchimie et les  ,alchimistes1 pp4  
#ajf1 #ajg4 ,for careful appreciation of

 ,becher's  position in the history of  
chemistry1 see ,kopp1 ,ansichten ber die
  ,aufgabe der ,chemie1 etc41 von ,geber
 bis ,stahl1 ,braunschweig1 #ahge1  pp4 
#bja1 et seq4    #ajg ,for ,tertullian's
 views1 see the ,de ,anima1 chap4 x4    
,for views of  ,st4 ,augustine1 see the 
,de ,civ4 ,dei1 book xxii41 chap4 #bd4  
#ajh ,for ,boniface ,,viii4 and his     
interdiction of dissections1 see        
,buckle's ,posthumous ,works1 vol4 ii41 
p4 #efg4 ,for injurious effects of  this
 ecclesiastical hostility to anatomy    
upon the development of art1  see       
,woltman1 ,holbein and ,his ,time1 pp4  
#bff1 #bfg4 ,for an excellent  statement
 of the true relation of the medical    
profession to religious  questions1 see 
,prof4 ,acland1 ,general ,relations of  
,medicine in ,modern  ,times1 ,oxford1  
#ahfh4 ,for thoughtful and witty remarks
 on the struggle  at a recent period1   
see ,maury1 ,l',ancienne ,acadmie des   
,sciences1  ,paris1 #ahfd1 p4 #adh4     
,maury says3 ,la facult n'aimait pas    

avoir  affaire aux thologiens qui       
procdent par anathmes beaucoup plus que 
par analyses4    #aji ,for uncritical   
praise of ,arnold de ,villa ,nova1 see  
,figuier1  ,l',alchimie et les          
,alchimistes1 #cme edit4 ,for undue     
blame1 see  ,hoefer1 ,histoire de la    
,chimie1 ,paris1 #ahdb1 vol4 i41 p4     
#chf4 ,for  a more broad and fair       
judgment1 see ,kopp1 ,geschichte der    
,chemie1  ,braunschweig1 #ahdc1 vol4 i41
 p4 #ff1 and vol4 ii41 p4 #ahe4 ,also1  
,pouchet1 ,histoire des ,sciences       
,naturelles au ,moyen ,age1 ,paris1     
#ahec1 pp4 #eb1 et seq4 ,also1 ,draper1 
,int4 ,dev4 of ,europe1 p4 #dba4        
,whewell1 ,hist4 of the ,induct4        
,sciences1 vol4 i41 p4 #bce2 vol4       
viii41 p4 #cf4 ,frdault1 ,hist4 de la   
,mdecine1 vol4 i41 p4 #bjd4    #aaj     
,renan1 ,averros et l',averroisme1      
,paris1 #ahfg1 pp4 #cbg1 #ccc1  #cce4   
,for a perfectly just statement of the  
only circumstances which can  justify   
the charge of atheism1 see ,dr4 ,deems's

 article in ,,popular  ,,science        
,,monthly1 ,february1 #ahgf4    #aaa    
,whewell1 vol4 iii41 p4 #cbh1 says1     
rather loosely1 that ,mundinus          
dissected at ,bologna in #acae4 ,how    
different his idea of dissection  was   
from that introduced by ,vesalius1 may  
be seen by ,cuvier's careful  statement 
that the entire number of dissections by
 ,mundinus was three4  ,the usual       
statement is that it was two4 ,see      
,cuvier1 ,hist4 des ,sci4  ,nat41 tome  
iii41 p4 #g2 also1 ,sprengel1 ,frdault1 
and ,hallam2  also1 ,littr1 ,mdecine et 
,mdecins1 chap4 on anatomy4 ,for a very 
full statement of the agency of         
,mundinus in the progress of anatomy1   
see ,portal1 ,hist4 de l',anatomie et de
 la ,chirurgrie1 vol4 i41 pp4  #bji-baf4
    #aab ,for a similar charge against  
anatomical investigations at a  much    
earlier period1 see ,littr1 ,mdecine et 
,mdecins1 chapter on  anatomy4    #aac  
,the original painting of ,vesalius at  
work in his cell1 by ,hamann1  is now at

 ,cornell ,university4    #aad ,for a   
curious example of weapons drawn from   
,galen and used  against ,vesalius1 see 
,lewes1 ,life of ,goethe1 p4 #cdc1 note4
 ,for  proofs that ,i have not          
over-estimated ,vesalius1 see ,portal1  
ubi  supra4 ,portal speaks of him as le 
gnie le plus droit qu'eut  l',europe2   
and again1 ,vesale me parat un des plus 
grands hommes qui  ait exist4    #aae   
,see ,sprengel1 ,histoire de la         
,mdecine1 vol4 vi41 pp4 #ci-hj4  ,for   
the opposition of the ,paris ,faculty of
 ,theology to inoculation1 see  the     
,journal de ,barbier1 vol4 vi41 p4 #bid4
 ,for bitter denunciations of           
inoculation by the ,english clergy1 and 
for the noble stand against them  by    
,maddox1 see ,baron1 ,life of ,jenner1  
vol4 i41 pp4 #bca1 #bcb1 and  vol4 ii41 
pp4 #ci1 #dj4 ,for the strenuous        
opposition of the same clergy1  see     
,weld1 ,history of the ,royal ,society1 
vol4 i41 p4 #dfd1 note4  ,also1 for the 
comical side of this matter1 see        

,nichols's ,literary  ,illustrations1   
vol4 v41 p4 #hjj4    #aaf ,for the      
opposition of conscientious men in      
,england to  vaccination1 see ,duns1    
,life of ,sir ,james ,y4 ,simpson1      
,bart41 ,london1  #ahgc1 pp4 #bdh1 #bdi2
 also1 ,baron1 ,life of ,jenner1 ubi    
supra1 and  vol4 ii41 p4 #dc2 also1     
,works of ,sir ,j4 ,y4 ,simpson1 vol4   
ii4    #aag ,see ,duns1 ,life of ,sir   
,j4 ,y4 ,simpson1 pp4 #bae-bbb4    #aah 
,ibid41 pp4 #bef-bei4    #aai ,ibid41 p4
 #bfj2 also1 ,works of ,sir ,j4 ,y4     
,simpson1 ubi supra4    #abj ,morley1   
,life of ,palissy the ,potter1 vol4 ii41
 pp4 #cae1 et  seq4    #aba ,audiat1    
,vie de ,palissy1 p4 #dab4 ,cantu1      
,hist4 ,universelle1  vol4 xv41 p4 #dib4
    #abb ,for ancient beliefs regarding 
giants1 see ,leopardi1 ,saggio  sopra   
gli errori popolari1 etc41 chapter xv4  
,for accounts of the  views of ,mazurier
 and ,scheuchzer1 see ,bchner1 ,man in  
,past1  ,present1 and ,future1 ,english 
translation1 pp4 #bce1 #bcf4 ,for       

,increase  ,mather's views1 see         
,philosophical ,transactions1 xxiv41    
#he4 ,for  similar fossils sent from    
,new ,york to the ,royal ,society as    
remains of  giants1 see ,weld1 ,history 
of the ,royal ,society1 vol4 i41 p4     
#dba4  ,for ,father ,torrubia and his   
,gigantologia ,espaola1 see ,d',archiac1
  ,introduction  l'tude de la           
,palontologie stratiographique1 ,paris1 
#ahfd1 p4 #bjb4 ,for admirable          
summaries1 see ,lyell1 ,principles of   
,geology1 ,london1 #ahfg2 ,d',archiac1  
,gologie et ,palontologie1  ,paris1     
#ahff2 ,pictet1 ,trait de ,palontologie1
 ,paris1 #ahec2  ,vezian1 ,prodrome de  
la ,gologie1 ,paris1 #ahfc2 ,haeckel1   
,history  of ,creation1 ,new ,york1     
#ahgf1 chapter iii4    #abc ,see        
,voltaire1 ,dissertation sur les        
,changements arrivs dans  notre ,globe2 
also1 ,voltaire1 ,les ,singularits de la
 ,nature1  chapter xii41 near close of  
vol4 v4 of the ,didot edition of #ahdc2 
also1  ,jevons1 ,principles of ,science1

 vol4 ii41 p4 #cbh4    #abd ,for a      
candid summary of the proofs from       
geology1 astronomy1  and zology1 that   
the ,noachian ,deluge was not           
universally or widely  extended1 see    
,mc,clintock and ,strong1 ,cyclopdia of 
,biblical ,theology  and ,ecclesiastical
 ,literature1 article ,deluge4 ,for     
general history1  see ,lyell1           
,d',archiac1 and ,vezian4 ,for special  
cases showing  bitterness of the        
conflict1 see the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,davis's   
,life of ,rev4 ,dr4  ,pye ,smith1       
passim4    #abe ,for comparison between 
conduct of ,italian and ,english        
ecclesiastics1 as regards geology1 see  
,lyell1 ,principles of  ,geology1 tenth 
,english ed41 vol i41 p4 #cc4 ,for a    
philosophical  statement of reasons why 
the struggle was more bitter1 and the   
attempt  at deceptive compromises more  
absurd in ,england than elsewhere1 see  
,maury1 ,l',ancienne ,acadmie des       
,sciences1 second edition1 p4 #aeb4     
#abf ,for these citations1 see ,lyell1  

,principles of ,geology1  introduction4 
#abg ,see ,pye ,smith1 ,d4 ,d41 ,geology
 and ,scripture1 pp4 #aef1 #aeg1  #afh1 
#afi4    #abh ,wiseman1 ,twelve         
,lectures on the ,connection between    
,science and  ,revealed ,religion1 first
 ,american edition1 ,new ,york1 #ahcg4  
#abi ,see ,silliman's ,journal1 vol4    
xxx41 p4 #aad4    #acj ,prof4 ,goldwin  
,smith informs me that the papers of    
,sir ,robert  ,peel1 yet unpublished1   
contain very curious specimens of these 
epistles4    #aca ,see ,personal        
,recollections of ,mary ,somerville1    
,boston1 #ahgd1  pp4 #aci and #cge4     
,compare with any statement of his      
religious views that  ,dean ,cockburn   
was able to make1 the following from    
,mrs4 ,somerville3  ,nothing has        
afforded me so convincing a proof of the
 ,deity as these  purely mental         
conceptions of numerical and            
mathematical science which  have been1  
by slow degrees1 vouchsafed to man--and 
are still granted  in these latter      

times1 by the differential calculus1 now
 superseded by  the higher algebra--all 
of which must have existed in that      
sublimely  omniscient mind from         
eternity4--,see ,personal               
,recollections1 pp4 #adj1  #ada4    #acb
 ,for another great error of the ,church
 in political economy1  leading to      
injury to commerce1 see ,lindsay1       
,history of  ,merchant-,shipping1       
,london1 #ahgd1 vol4 ii4    #acc ,see   
,murray1 ,history of ,usury1            
,philadelphia1 #ahff1 p4  #be2 also1    
,coquelin and ,guillaumin1 ,dictionnaire
 de l'conomie  ,politique1 articles     
,intrt and ,usure2 also1 ,lecky1        
,history of  ,rationalism in ,europe1   
vol4 ii41 chapter vi42 also1 ,jeremy    
,bentham's  ,defence of ,usury1 ,letter 
,x42 also1 ,mr4 ,d4 ,s4 ,dickinson's    
,speech in  the ,senate of ,new ,york1  
vol4 i4 of his collected writings4 ,of  
all the  summaries1 ,lecky's is by far  
the best4    #acd ,the texts cited most 
frequently were ,leviticus xxv4 #cf1    

#cg2  ,deuteronomy xxiii4 #ai2 ,psalms  
xv4 #e2 ,ezekiel xviii4 #h and #ag2 ,st4
 ,luke  vi4 #ce4 ,see ,lecky2 also1     
,dickinson's ,speech1 as above4    #ace 
,see ,dictionnaire de l'conomie         
,politique1 articles ,intrt  and ,usure 
for these citations4 ,for some doubtful 
reservations made by  ,st4 ,augustine1  
see ,murray4    #acf ,see citation of   
the ,latin text in ,lecky4    #acg ,for 
this moral effect1 see ,montesquieu1    
,esprit des ,lois1 lib4  xxi41 chap4 xx4
    #ach ,see citation in ,lecky4       
#aci ,see ,coquelin and ,guillaumin1    
article ,intrt4    #adj ,see ,craik's   
,history of ,british ,commerce1 chapter 
vi4 ,the  statute cited is #c ,henry    
,,vii41 chapter vi4    #ada ,see ,lecky4
    #adb ,see citation from the         
,tischreden1 in ,guillaumin and         
,coquelin1  article ,intrt4    #adc ,see
 ,craik's ,history of ,british          
,commerce1 chapter vi4    #add ,for     
citation1 as above1 see ,lecky4 ,for    
further account1 see  uvres de ,bossuet1

 edition of #ahde1 vol4 xi41 p4 #ccj4   
#ade ,see citation from ,concina in     
,lecky2 also1 acquiescence in  this     
interpretation by ,mr4 ,dickinson1 in   
,speech in ,senate of ,new  ,york1 above
 quoted4    #adf ,see ,rplique des douze
 ,docteurs1 etc41 cited by ,guillaumin  
and  ,coquelin4    #adg ,burton1        
,history of ,scotland1 vol4 viii41 p4   
#eaa4 ,see1 also1  ,mause ,headrigg's   
views in ,scott's ,old ,mortality1      
chapter vii4 ,for the  case of a person 
debarred from the communion for raising 
the devil's  wind with a                
winnowing-machine1 see ,works of ,sir   
,j4 ,y4 ,simpson1 vol4  ii4 ,those      
doubting the authority or motives of    
,simpson may be reminded  that he was1  
to the day of his death1 one of the     
strictest adherents of  ,scotch         
orthodoxy4    #adh ,see ,journal of ,sir
 ,i4 ,brunel1 for ,may #bj1 #ahbg1 in   
,life of ,i4  ,k4 ,brunel1 p4 #cj4      
#adi ,this scene will be recalled1      
easily1 by many leading ethnologists  in

 ,america1 and especially by ,mr4 ,e4   
,g4 ,squier1 formerly minister of  the  
,united ,states to ,central ,america4   
#aej ,the meteorological battle is      
hardly fought out yet4 ,many  excellent 
men seem still to entertain views almost
 identical with  those of over two      
thousand years ago1 depicted in ,the    
,clouds of  ,aristophanes4    #aea      
,these texts are ,ezekiel v4 #e and     
xxxviii4 #ab4 ,the progress of          
geographical knowledge1 evidently1      
caused them to be softened down         
somewhat in our ,king ,james's version2 
but the first of them reads1  in the    
,vulgate1 ,ista est ,hierusalem1 in     
medio gentium posui eam et  in circuitu 
ejus terras2 and the second reads in the
 ,vulgate in  medio terr1 and in the    
,septuagint     4 ,that  the literal    
centre of the earth was meant1 see proof
 in ,st4 ,jerome1  ,commentar4 in       
,ezekiel1 lib4 ii41 and for general     
proof1 see ,leopardi1  ,saggio sopra gli
 errori popolari degli antichi1 pp4     

#bjg1 #bjh4 ,for an  idea of orthodox   
geography in the middle ages1 see       
,wright's ,essay on  ,archology1 vol4   
ii41 chapter ,on the ,map of the ,world 
in ,hereford  ,cathedral4 ,for an       
example of the depth to which this idea 
of ,jerusalem  as the centre had entered
 into the thinking of the great poet of 
the  middle ages1 see ,dante1 ,inferno1 
,canto xxxiv43        ,e se' or sotto   
l'emisperio giunto1         ,ch'        
opposito a quel1 che la gran secca      
,coverchia1 e sotto 'l cui colmo        
consunto       ,fu l'uom che nacque e   
visse senza pecca4      #aeb ,see       
,michaelis1 ,commentaries on the ,laws  
of ,moses1 #ahgd1  vol4 ii41 p4 #c4 ,the
 writer of the present article himself  
witnessed  the reluctance of a very     
conscientious man to answer the         
questions  of a census marshal1 ,mr4    
,lewis ,hawley1 of ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y41  
and this  reluctance was based upon the 
reasons assigned in ,,ii4 ,samuel       
chapter  xxiv4 #a1 and ,i4 ,chronicles1 

chapter xxi4 #a1 for the numbering of   
the  children of ,israel4    #aec ,see  
,de ,morgan1 ,paradoxes1 pp4 #bad-bbj4  
#aed ,for ,dupanloup1 ,lettre  un       
,cardinal1 see the ,revue de            
,thrapeutique1 #ahfh1 p4 #bba4    #aee  
,for general account of the ,vulpian and
 ,see matter1 see ,revue des  ,deux     
,mondes1 #ca ,mai1 #ahfh4 ,chronique de 
la ,quinzaine1 pp4 #gfc-gfe4  ,as to the
 result on popular thought1 may be noted
 the following comment  on the affair by
 the ,revue1 which is as free as        
possible from  anything like rabid      
anti-ecclesiastical ideas3 ,elle a t    
vraiment  curieuse1 instructive1 assez  
triste et mme un peu amusante4 ,for     
,wurtz's statement1 see ,revue de       
,thrapeutique for #ahfh1 p4 #cjc4       
#aef ,de ,morgan1 ,paradoxes1 pp4       
#dba-dbh2 also1 ,daubeny's ,essays4     
#aeg ,see the ,berlin newspapers for the
 summer of #ahfh1 especially            
,kladderadatsch4    #aeh ,in the ,church
 ,journal1 ,new ,york1 ,may #bh1 #ahgd1 

a  reviewer1 praising ,rev4 ,dr4        
,hodge's book against ,darwinism1 says3 
,darwinism--whether ,darwin knows it or 
not2 whether the clergy1 who  are half  
prepared to accept it in blind fright as
 'science1' know it  or not--is a denial
 of every article of the ,christian     
faith4 ,it is  supreme folly to talk as 
some do about accommodating             
,christianity to  ,darwinism4 ,either   
those who so talk do not understand     
,christianity1  or they do not          
understand ,darwinism4 ,if we have all1 
men and monkeys1  women and baboons1    
oysters and eagles1 all 'developed' from
 an original  monad and germ1 then ,st4 
,paul's grand deliverance--',all flesh  
is not  the same flesh4 ,there is one   
kind of flesh of men1 another of beasts1
  another of fishes1 and another of     
birds4 ,there are bodies celestial and  
bodies terrestrial'--may be still very  
grand in our funeral-service1  but very 
untrue to fact4 ,this is the same       
dangerous line of argument  which       

,caccini indulged in in ,galileo's time4
 ,dangerous1 for suppose  ,darwinism be 
proved true6 ,for a soothing potion by a
 skillful  hand1 see ,whewell on the    
consistency of evolution doctrines with 
teleological ideas2 also1 ,rev4 ,samuel 
,houghton1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 ,principles  of 
,animal ,mechanics1 ,london1 #ahgc1     
preface1 and page #aef1 for some        
interesting ideas on teleological       
evolution4    #aei ,for some excellent  
remarks on the futility of such attempts
 and  outcries1 see the ,rev4 ,dr4      
,deems1 in ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly
 for  ,february1 #ahgf4 ,to all who are 
inclined to draw scientific conclusions 
from ,biblical texts1 may be commended  
the advice of a good old ,german  divine
 of the ,reformation period3 ,seeking   
the milk of the ,word1 do not  press the
 teats of ,holy ,writ too hard4    #afj 
,in an eloquent sermon1 preached in     
,march1 #ahgd1 ,bishop ,cummins  said1  
in substance3 ,the ,church has no fear  
of ,science2 the persecution  of        

,galileo was entirely unwarrantable2 but
 ,christians should resist to  the last 
,darwinism2 for that is evidently       
contrary to ,scripture4 ,the  bishop    
forgets that ,galileo's doctrine seemed 
to such colossal minds as  ,bellarmin1  
and ,luther1 and ,bossuet1 evidently    
contrary to ,scripture4  ,far more      
logical1 modest1 sagacious1 and full of 
faith1 is the attitude  taken by his    
former associate1 ,dr4 ,john ,cotton    
,smith3 ,for geology1  physiology1 and  
historical criticism have threatened or 
destroyed only  particular forms of     
religious opinion1 while they have set  
the spirit  of religion free to keep    
pace with the larger generalizations of 
modern  knowledge4--,picton1 ,the       
,mystery of ,matter1 ,london1 #ahgc1 p4 
#gb4          ,,scientific              
,,publications4      ,sight3         ,an
 ,exposition of the ,principles of      
,monocular and ,binocular       ,vision4
 ,by ,,joseph ,,le ,,conte1 ,,ll4 ,d41  
author of ,elements of       ,geology1  

,religion and ,science1 and ,professor  
of ,geology and       ,natural ,history 
in the ,university of ,california4 ,with
 numerous       ,illustrations4 #abmo4  
,cloth1 #a4ej4    ,it is pleasant to    
find an ,american book which can rank   
with the very  best of foreign works on 
this subject4 ,professor ,le ,conte has 
long been  known as an original         
investigator in this department2 all    
that he gives  us is treated with a     
master-hand4--,the ,nation4      ,animal
 ,life1         ,as affected by the     
,natural ,conditions of ,existence4 ,by 
,,karl       ,,semper1 ,professor of the
 ,university of ,wrzburg4 ,with ,two    
,maps and       ,one ,hundred and ,six  
,woodcuts1 and ,index4 #abmo4 ,cloth1   
#b4jj4    ,it appears to me that1 of all
 the properties of the animal organism1 
,variability is that which may first and
 most easily be traced by exact         
investigation to its efficient causes2  
and as it is beyond a doubt the  subject
 around which1 at the present moment1   

the strife of opinions is  most violent1
 it is that which will be most likely to
 repay the trouble  of closer research4 
,i have endeavored to facilitate this   
task so far as  in me lies4--,from the  
,preface4      ,the ,atomic ,theory4    
,by ,,ad4 ,,wurtz1 ,membre de           
l',institut2 ,doyen ,honoraire de la    
,facult       de ,mdecine2 ,professeur  
la ,facult des ,sciences de ,paris4     
,translated by ,e4 ,,cleminshaw1 ,m4    
,a41 ,f4 ,c4 ,s41 ,f4 ,i4 ,c41          
,assistant       ,master at ,sherborne  
,school4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4    ,there
 was need for a book like this1 which   
discusses the atomic theory  both in its
 historic evolution and in its present  
form4 ,and perhaps no  man of this age  
could have been selected so able to     
perform the task  in a masterly way as  
the illustrious ,french chemist1 ,adolph
 ,wurtz4  ,it is impossible to convey to
 the reader1 in a notice like this1 any 
adequate idea of the scope1 lucid       
instructiveness1 and scientific         

interest of ,professor ,wurtz's book4   
,the modern problems of chemistry1      
which are commonly so obscure from      
imperfect exposition1 are here made     
wonderfully clear and attractive4--,the 
,popular ,science ,monthly4             
,education as a ,science4         ,by   
,,alexander ,,bain1 ,,ll4 ,d4 #abmo4    
,cloth1 #a4ge4    ,this work must be    
pronounced the most remarkable          
discussion of  educational problems     
which has been published in our day4 ,it
 should be  in the hands of every       
school-teacher and friend of education  
throughout  the land4--,new ,york ,sun4 
,suicide3         ,an ,essay in         
,comparative ,moral ,statistics4 ,by    
,,henry ,,morselli1       ,professor of 
,psychological ,medicine in the ,royal  
,university1       ,turin4 #abmo4       
,cloth1 #a4ge4    ,a most valuable      
contribution to ,english literature     
touching a theme  most distressing in   
the act and terrible in its             
consequences1 yet to  this hour but very

 imperfectly studied or                 
understood4--,philadelphia  ,times4     
,volcanoes3         ,what they ,are and 
what they ,teach4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,judd1   
,professor of       ,geology in the     
,royal ,school of ,mines 7,london74     
,with ,ninety-six       ,illustrations4 
#abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4    ,in no field   
has modern research been more fruitful  
than in that of  which ,professor ,judd 
gives a popular account in the present  
volume4  ,the great lines of dynamical1 
geological1 and meteorological inquiry  
converge upon the grand problem of the  
interior constitution of the  earth1 and
 the vast influence of subterranean     
agencies4444 ,his book  is very far from
 being a mere dry description of        
volcanoes and their  eruptions2 it is   
rather a presentation of the terrestrial
 facts and  laws with which volcanic    
phenomena are associated4--,popular     
,science  ,monthly4      ,the ,sun3     
,by ,c4 ,a4 ,,young1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,,ll4    
,d41 ,professor of ,astronomy in the    

,college of ,new ,jersey4 ,with numerous
 ,illustrations4 ,third edition1        
revised1 with ,supplementary ,note4     
#abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4    ,the           
,supplementary ,note gives important    
developments in solar  astronomy since  
the publication of the second edition in
 #ahhb4    ,there is no rhetoric in his 
book2 he trusts the grandeur of his     
theme  to kindle interest and impress   
the feelings4 ,his statements are plain1
  direct1 clear1 and condensed1 though  
ample enough for his purpose1 and  the  
substance of what is generally wanted   
will be found accurately  given in his  
pages4--,popular ,science ,monthly4     
,illusions3         ,a ,psychological   
,study4 ,by ,,james ,,sully1 author of  
,sensation and       ,intuition1 etc4   
#abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4    ,an interesting
 contribution by ,mr4 ,james ,sully to  
the study of mental  pathology4 ,the    
author's field of inquiry covers all the
 phenomena of  illusion observed in     
sense-perception1 in the introspection  

of the  mind's own feelings1 in the     
reading of others' feelings1 in memory1 
and  in belief4 ,the author's           
conclusions are often illustrated by    
concrete  example or anecdote1 and his  
general treatment of the subject1 while 
essentially scientific1 is sufficiently 
clear and animated to attract  the      
general reader4--,new ,york ,sun4       
,the ,brain and its ,functions4         
,by ,j4 ,,luys1 ,physician to the       
,hospice de la ,salptrire4 ,with        
,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4   
,no living physiologist is better       
entitled to speak with authority upon   
the structure and functions of the brain
 than ,dr4 ,luys4 ,his studies on  the  
anatomy of the nervous system are       
acknowledged to be the fullest  and most
 systematic ever undertaken4 ,dr4 ,luys 
supports his conclusions  not only by   
his own anatomical researches1 but also 
by many functional  observations of     
various other physiologists1 including  
of course  ,professor ,ferrier's now    

classical experiments4--,st4 ,james's   
,gazette4      ,the ,concepts and       
,theories of ,modern ,physics4          
,by ,j4 ,b4 ,,stallo4 #abmo4 ,cloth1    
#a4ge4    ,judge ,stallo's work is an   
inquiry into the validity of those      
mechanical conceptions of the universe  
which are now held as  fundamental in   
physical science4 ,he takes up the      
leading modern  doctrines which are     
based upon this mechanical conception1  
such as  the atomic constitution of     
matter1 the kinetic theory of gases1 the
  conservation of energy1 the nebular   
hypothesis1 and other views1 to  find   
how much stands upon solid empirical    
around1 and how much rests  upon        
metaphysical speculation4 ,since the    
appearance of ,dr4 ,draper's  ',religion
 and ,science1' no book has been        
published in the country  calculated to 
make so deep an impression on thoughtful
 and educated  readers as this          
volume4444 ,the range and minuteness of 
the author's  learning1 the acuteness of

 his reasoning1 and the singular        
precision  and clearness of his style1  
are qualities which very seldom have    
been  jointly exhibited in a scientific 
treatise4--,new ,york ,sun4      ,the   
,formation of ,vegetable ,mould1        
,through the ,action of ,worms1 with    
,observations on their ,habits4         
,by ,,charles ,,darwin1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,f4  
,r4 ,s41 author of ,on the ,origin of   
,species1 etc41 etc4 ,with              
,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4   
,mr4 ,darwin's little volume on the     
habits and instincts of earth-worms  is 
no less marked than the earlier or more 
elaborate efforts of his  genius by     
freshness of observation1 unfailing     
power of interpreting and  correlating  
facts1 and logical vigor in generalizing
 upon them4 ,the  main purpose of the   
work is to point out the share which    
worms have  taken in the formation of   
the layer of vegetable mould which      
covers the  whole surface of the land in
 every moderately humid country4 ,all   

lovers  of nature will unite in thanking
 ,mr4 ,darwin for the new and           
interesting  light he has thrown upon a 
subject so long overlooked1 yet so full 
of interest and instruction1 as the     
structure and the labors of the         
earth-worm4--,saturday ,review4         
,ants1 ,bees1 and ,wasps4         ,a    
,record of ,observations on the ,habits 
of the ,social ,hymenoptera4       ,by  
,sir ,,john ,,lubbock1 ,bart41 ,m4 ,p41 
,f4 ,r4 ,s41 etc41 author of            
,origin of ,civilization1 and the       
,primitive ,condition of ,man1          
etc41 etc4 ,with ,colored ,plates4      
#abmo1 cloth1 #b4jj4    ,this volume    
contains the record of various          
experiments made with  ants1 bees1 and  
wasps during the last ten years1 with a 
view to test  their mental condition and
 powers of sense4 ,the principal point  
in  which ,sir ,john's mode of          
experiment differs from those of ,huber1
  ,forel1 ,mc,cook1 and others1 is that 
he has carefully watched and marked     

particular insects1 and has had their   
nests under observation for long        
periods--one of his ants' nests having  
been under constant inspection  ever    
since #ahgd4 ,his observations are made 
principally upon ants  because they show
 more power and flexibility of mind2 and
 the value of  his studies is that they 
belong to the department of original    
research4      ,diseases of ,memory4    
,an ,essay in the ,positive ,psychology4
 ,by ,,th4 ,,ribot1 author of           
,heredity1 etc4 ,translated from the    
,french by ,,william ,,huntington       
,,smith4 #abmo1 cloth1 #a4ej4    ,m4    
,ribot reduces diseases of memory to    
law1 and his treatise is of             
extraordinary interest4--,philadelphia  
,press4    ,not merely to scientific1   
but to all thinking men1 this volume    
will  prove intensely interesting4--,new
 ,york ,observer4    ,m4 ,ribot has     
bestowed the most painstaking attention 
upon his theme1  and numerous examples  
of the conditions considered greatly    

increase the  value and interest of the 
volume4--,philadelphia ,north ,american4
      ,myth and ,science4         ,by   
,,tito ,,vignoli4 #abmo1 cloth1 price1  
#a4ej4    ,his book is ingenious2 444   
his theory of how science gradually     
differentiated from and conquered myth  
is extremely well wrought out1  and is  
probably in essentials                  
correct4--,saturday ,review4    ,the    
book is a strong one1 and far more      
interesting to the general  reader than 
its title would indicate4 ,the learning1
 the acuteness1  the strong reasoning   
power1 and the scientific spirit of the 
author1  command admiration4--,new ,york
 ,christian ,advocate4    ,an attempt   
made1 with much ability and no small    
measure of success1 to  trace the origin
 and development of the myth4 ,the      
author has pursued  his inquiry with    
much patience and ingenuity1 and has    
produced a very  readable and luminous  
treatise4--,philadelphia ,north         
,american4      ,man before ,metals4    

,by ,n4 ,,joly1 ,professor at the       
,science ,faculty of ,toulouse2         
,correspondent of the ,institute4 ,with 
#adh ,illustrations4 #abmo1       cloth1
 #a4ge4    ,the discussion of man's     
origin and early history1 by ,professor 
,de ,quatrefages1 formed one of the most
 useful volumes in the  ',international 
,scientific ,series1' and the same      
collection is now  further enriched by a
 popular treatise on paleontology1 by   
,m4 ,n4 ,joly1  ,professor in the       
,university of ,toulouse4 ,the title of 
the book1 ',man  before ,metals1'       
indicates the limitations of the        
writer's theme4 ,his  object is to bring
 together the numerous proofs1 collected
 by modern  research1 of the great age  
of the human race1 and to show us what  
man  was1 in respect of customs1        
industries1 and moral or religious      
ideas1  before the use of metals was    
known to him4--,new ,york ,sun4    ,an  
interesting1 not to say fascinating     
volume4--,new ,york ,churchman4         

,animal ,intelligence4         ,by      
,,george ,j4 ,,romanes1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41    
,zological ,secretary of the            
,linnan ,society1 etc4 #abmo1 cloth1    
#a4ge4    ,unless we are greatly        
mistaken1 ,mr4 ,romanes's work will take
 its  place as one of the most          
attractive volumes of the               
',international  ,scientific ,series4'  
,some persons may1 indeed1 be disposed  
to say  that it is too attractive1 that 
it feeds the popular taste for the      
curious and marvelous without supplying 
any commensurate discipline  in exact   
scientific reflection2 but the author   
has1 we think1 fully  justified himself 
in his modest preface4 ,the result is   
the appearance  of a collection of facts
 which will be a real boon to the       
student  of ,comparative ,psychology1   
for this is the first attempt to present
  systematically well-assured           
observations on the mental life of      
animals4--,saturday ,review4      ,the  
,science of ,politics4         ,by      

,,sheldon ,,amos1 ,m4 ,a41 author of    
,the ,science of ,law1 etc4 #abmo1      
cloth1 #a4ge4    ,the author traces the 
subject from ,plato and ,aristotle in   
,greece1  and ,cicero in ,rome1 to the  
modern schools in the ,english field1   
not  slighting the teachings of the     
,american ,revolution or the lessons  of
 the ,french ,revolution of #agic4      
,forms of government1 political  terms1 
the relation of law1 written and        
unwritten1 to the subject1 a            
codification from ,justinian to         
,napoleon in ,france and ,field in      
,america1  are treated as parts of the  
subject in hand4 ,necessarily the       
subjects  of executive and legislative  
authority1 police1 liquor1 and land laws
  are considered1 and the question ever 
growing in importance in all  countries1
 the relations of corporations to the   
state4--,new ,york  ,observer4      ,new
 ,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton  ,,co41 #a1 #c1  
#e ,bond ,street4          ,d4          
,,appleton  ,,co4',s ,,publications4    

,,darwinism ,,stated ,,by ,,darwin      
,,himself3 ,characteristic ,passages    
from       the ,writings of ,charles    
,darwin4 ,selected and arranged by      
,professor       ,,nathan ,,sheppard4   
#abmo1 cloth1 #cfj pages1 #a4ej4    ,mr4
 ,sheppard must be credited with        
exemplifying the spirit of  impartial   
truth-seeking which inspired ,darwin    
himself4 ,from these  condensed results 
of the hard labor of selection1         
excision1 and  arrangement applied to   
more than a dozen volumes1 it is        
impossible  to draw any inference       
respecting the philosophical opinions of
 the  compiler4 ,with the exception of a
 brief preface there is not a word  of  
comment1 nor is there the faintest      
indication of an attempt to  infuse into
 ,darwin's text a meaning not patent    
there1 by unwarranted  sub-titles or    
head-lines1 by shrewd omission1 unfair  
emphasis1 or  artful collocation4 ,mr4  
,sheppard has nowhere swerved from his  
purpose  of showing in a clear1         

connected1 and very compendious form1   
not what  ,darwin may have meant or has 
been charged with meaning1 but what he  
actually said4--,the ,sun4              
,,mental ,,evolution ,,in ,,animals4 ,by
 ,,george ,j4 ,,romanes1 author of      
,animal ,intelligence4 ,with a          
,posthumous ,essay on ,instinct1 by     
,,charles ,,darwin4 #abmo1 cloth1 #b4jj4
    ,the author confines himself to the 
psychology of the subject4 ,not  only   
are his own views ,darwinian1 but he has
 incorporated in his work  considerable 
citations from ,darwin's unpublished    
manuscripts1 and he  has appended a     
,posthumous ,essay on ,instinct by ,mr4 
,darwin4--,boston  ,journal4    ,a      
curious but richly suggestive           
volume4--,new ,york ,herald4            
,,practical ,,essays4 ,by ,,alexander   
,,bain1 ,,ll4 ,d41 author of ,mind and  
,body1 ,education as a ,science1 etc4   
#abmo1 cloth1 #a4ej4    ,the present    
volume is in part a reprint of articles 
contributed to  reviews4 ,the principal 

bond of union among them is their       
practical  character4444 ,that there is 
a certain amount of novelty in the      
various  suggestions here embodied will 
be admitted on the most cursory         
perusal4--,from the ,preface4           
,,the ,,essentials ,,of ,,anatomy1      
,,physiology1 ,,and ,,hygiene4 ,by      
,,roger ,s4       ,,tracy1 ,m4 ,d41     
,health ,inspector of the ,new ,york    
,board of ,health2       author of      
,hand-,book of ,sanitary ,information   
for ,householders1       etc4 7,forming 
a volume of ,appletons' ,science        
,text-,books47 #abmo1       cloth1      
#a4be4    ,dr4 ,tracy states in his     
preface that his aim has been 'to       
compress  within the narrowest space    
such a clear and intelligible account of
 the  structures1 activities1 and care  
of the human system as is essential  for
 the purposes of general education4'    
,and he has so far succeeded as  to make
 his manual one of the most popularly   
interesting and useful  text-books of   

its kind4444 ,the book is excellently   
arranged1 the  illustrations are        
admirable4--,boston ,daily ,advertiser4 
,,history ,,of ,,the ,,world1 from the  
,earliest ,records to the ,fall of      
the ,western ,empire4 ,by ,,philip      
,,smith1 ,b4 ,a4 ,new edition4 #c vols4 
#hvo4 ,vellum cloth1 gilt top1 #f4jj2   
half calf1 #ac4ej4    ,these volumes    
embody the results of many years of     
arduous and  conscientious study4 ,the  
work is fully entitled to be called the 
ablest  and most satisfactory book on   
the subject written in our language4    
,the author's methods are dignified and 
judicious1 and he has availed  himself  
of all the recent light thrown by       
philological research on  the annals of 
the ,east4--,dr4 ,c4 ,k4 ,adams's       
,manual of ,historical  ,literature4    
,,history ,,of ,,herodotus4 ,an ,english
 ,version1 edited1 with ,copious        
,notes and ,appendices1 by ,,george     
,,rawlinson1 ,m4 ,a4 ,with ,maps and    
,illustrations4 ,in four volumes1 #hvo4 

,vellum cloth1 #h4jj2 half       calf1  
#ah4jj4    ,this must be considered as  
by far the most valuable version of the 
works of ',the ,father of ,history4'    
,the history of ,herodotus was probably 
not written until near the end of his   
life2 it is certain that he had  been   
collecting materials for it during many 
years4 ,there was scarcely  a city of   
importance in ,greece1 ,asia ,minor1    
,syria1 ,persia1 ,arabia1 or  ,egypt1   
that he had not visited and studied2 and
 almost every page of  his work contains
 results of his personal inquiries and  
observations4  ,many things laughed at  
for centuries as impossible are now     
found to  have been described in strict 
accordance with truth4--,dr4 ,c4 ,k4    
,adams's ,manual of ,historical         
,literature4           ,a ,,general     
,,history ,,of ,,greece1 from the       
,earliest ,period to the       ,death of
 ,alexander the ,great4 ,with a ,sketch 
of the ,subsequent       ,history to the
 ,present ,time4 ,by ,g4 ,w4 ,,cox4     

#abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4    ,one of the    
best of the smaller histories of        
,greece4--,dr4 ,c4 ,k4  ,adams's ,manual
 of ,historical ,literature4            
,a ,,history ,,of ,,greece4 ,from the   
,earliest ,times to the ,present4 ,by   
,t4 ,t4 ,,timayenis4 ,with ,maps and    
,illustrations4 #b vols4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 
#b4ej4    ,the peculiar feature of the  
present work is that it is founded on   
,hellenic sources4 ,i have not hesitated
 to follow the ,father of ,history  in  
portraying the heroism and the          
sacrifices of the ,hellenes in their    
first war for independence1 nor1 in     
delineating the character of  that      
epoch1 to form my judgment largely from 
the records he has left  us4--,extract  
from ,preface4           ,,greece ,,in  
,,the ,,times ,,of ,,homer4 ,an ,account
 of the ,life1 ,customs1       and      
,habits of the ,greeks during the       
,homeric ,period4 ,by ,t4 ,t4           
,,timayenis4 #afmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4      
,in the preparation of the present      

volume ,i have conscientiously  examined
 nearly every book--,greek1 ,german1    
,french1 or ,english--written  on       
,homer4 ,but my great teacher and guide 
has been ,homer  himself4--,from the    
,preface4      ,new ,york3 ,d4          
,,appleton  ,,co41 #a1 #c1  #e ,bond    
,street4                                
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,transcriber's ,note3                   
,minor typographical errors have been   
corrected without note4                 
,corrections in the spelling of names   
were made when those could       be     
verified4 ,otherwise the variations were
 left as they were4                     
,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines 
were retained4                          
,italicized words are surrounded by     
underline characters1              like 
this4 ,words in bold characters are     
surrounded by equal         signs1 like 
this4                                   
,in this etext the caret  represents a  

superscript character4                  
,footnotes were moved to the end of the 
book before the ads and        numbered 
in one continuous sequence4             
,page #fj had two footnotes #b followed 
by a footnote #c4 ,while a              
search in other editions did not resolve
 the problem1 it              suggested 
that the number #b following ,father    
,lecazre was            incorrect and   
was removed from this e-text4           
----------------------------------------
--------------------------