,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,variations in hyphenation have been standardised1 but other variations in spelling1 accents and punctuation are as in the original4 ,there are several very wide tables in the book 7e4g4 ,table ,a is #af columns_/#chj characters wide74 ,these have been divided into blocks of #c or #d columns4 ,the row alignment has been preserved and1 where appropriate4 the #ast column repeated for each block4 ,the ,errata and ,corrigenda have been implemented1 except for the final item3 ,for the words evolution and evolved1 read passim in the ,botanical and ,zoological parts1 perfection and perfected1 as the text may require4 ,italics are represented thus italic4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,ray ,,society4 ,,instituted ,,mdcccxliv4 ,illustration3 ,portrait of a man1 signed ,w ,bagg ,,london4 ,,mdcccxlvii4 ,,elements ,,of ,,physiophilosophy4 ,,by ,,lorenz ,,oken1 ,m4,d4 ,,professor ,,of ,,natural ,,history ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,of ,z,,rich2 c4 c4 ,,from ,,the ,,german ,,by ,,alfred ,,tulk1 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,college ,,of ,,surgeons ,,of ,,england4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,for ,,the ,,ray ,,society4 ,,mdcccxlvii4 ,c4 ,,and ,j4 ,,adlard1 ,,printers1 ,,bartholomew ,,close4 ,of all truths relating to phenomena1 the most valuable to us are those which relate to the order of their succession4 ,on a knowledge of these is founded every reasonable anticipation of future facts1 and whatever power we possess of influencing those facts to our advantage4 ,even the laws of geometry are chiefly of practical importance to us as being a portion of the premises from which the order of the succession of phenomena may be inferred4 ,,john ,,stuart ,,mill4 ,begun in the autumn of the year #ahde1 without the cognizance1 or at the suggestion of a single human being1 the present ,translation is due to the fact of its original having encountered a somewhat kindred spirit1 and aroused therein the desire to render others participant1 if possible1 in the large amount of instruction it is so well calculated to afford4 ,and now that the work is done1 what remains for the labourer at second-hand to say by way of preamble to his newly-dressed wares8 ,had the book been printed within the pale of a philosophical or physico-theological sect1 the ,translator's final duty would have been clearly enough prescribed4 ,already bound to the profession of particular tenets1 his main object would be to indulge in a laudatory but servile abstract of his author's doctrines1 or1 if having set out with the expressed intention of illustrating their bearings upon the state of science past1 present1 and to come1 he would become so drunk beforehand with the large and unbridled potation of his creed1 as to surprise the casual reader by informing him that such an intention is useless1 for the two stand in direct antithesis to each other4 ,examples of this mode of procedure are not wanting at the present day1 whether at home or abroad4 ,they are the produce of that spirit1 which1 rife enough in the ,middle ,ages1 has been so graphically described by ,professor ,whewell under the title of the ,commentatorial1 and whose professed object is to explain1 to enforce1 to illustrate doctrines assumed to be true1 but not to obtain additional truths or new generalizations4 ,while from dealings of this character1 as being utterly opposed to the sacred cause of ,truth1 ,i turn away with feelings of repugnance1 to which the lessons of some personal experience have lent their aid1 it is not my business1 upon the other hand1 to enter the lists of controversy against those who1 having neither the capacity1 nor the desire of its cultivation1 for the higher walks of science1 delight to dismiss a work of the present kind with some idle anathema of mysticism or evasive outcry for more facts4 ,i refrain from essaying to give any condensed formula or outline,a of ,professor ,oken's ,physio-philosophy3 first1 because its leading points have been already noted in his own prefaces to the ,german work and its translation2 secondly1 because the book will1 ,i trust1 best speak for itself to those who shall come with minds unprejudiced and duly prepared1 each one in his particular department1 to its study2 and1 lastly1 because any such attempt would necessarily involve an amount of historical and critical details1 which must be here superficially treated and so misplaced4 ,suffice it to observe1 that the present work stands alone in ,germany1 as being the most practical application upon a systematic scale of the principles advanced by ,schelling1 more especially in the ,mathesis and ,ontology2 for the concluding part or ,biology stands almost per se4 ,as such it will form1 apart from other and higher considerations1 a readily available introduction to the writings upon similar subjects of ,carus1 ,steffens1 ,hegel and others1 and may induce further attempts to render1 by translation or history1 the ,english student familiar with much of what at present is known only by scattered fragments in journals1 or through the medium of reviews4 ,from what has been said1 the reader will be at no loss to discern in what light the ,translator humbly desires to be viewed in reference to the present work4 ,he rests content with the confident hope that its pages will be1 at least1 found eminently suggestive1 that new thoughts will be awakened by facts and their relations being here cast in a fresh mould1 that shall stimulate others in the field of inquiry1 and open paths hitherto untrod4 ,in this he is but expressing the sentiments of the author himself1 and acknowledging what the present time with its accumulating mass of knowledge presses upon us more and more--the necessity of work1 wherein abstract science and experience1 theory and facts shall advance together1 the ,ideal in part receiving and reflecting back with increased lustre the light which it has derived from the ,real or outward semblance of things4 ,a ,for this the reader may be referred to the #c;d vol4 of ,prof4 ,blainville's ,hist4 des ,sciences de l',organisation2 ,par4 #ahde2 or better still1 to the sketch 7preceded by a view of ,schelling's philosophy71 which is given by ,m4 ,saint-,agy in the ,tome ,complmentaire of ,cuvier's ,hist4 des ,sciences ,naturelles1 #ahde4 ,he there rightly observes of ,oken's work1 that pendant les quarante dernires annes il n'a presque paru en ,allemagne d'ouvrages d'anatomie1 de physiologie1 de physique et de chimie auxquelles elle n'ait servi de base4 ,for what a master-mind like ,oken's is capable of creating1 ,i would especially refer to his theory of the ,cranial ,homologies1 which has been in our own country so beautifully carried out1 modified1 and proved by the extensive researches of ,professor ,owen4 ,meanwhile1 it is with no small amount of diffidence and hesitation that the present ,translation will quit my hands4 ,hemmed in by a rigid dialectic terminology upon all sides1 ,i have had difficulties of no ordinary kind to contend with in adapting a language1 composed of such varied elements as our own1 to meet the requisites of general clearness and conciseness that form so prominent a feature of the ,german work4 ,if errors and obscurities exist1 the blame1 it will be observed1 attaches to myself1 not to the distinguished author4 ,ill-health has conflicted much with the calmness and repose of mind so indispensable to an undertaking1 at once novel in kind and character to the ,english reader2 or otherwise1 these 7my last labours unto any extent as a ,translator7 might have been rendered more worthy of the ,ray ,society and the objects it has in view4 ,to those who have kindly afforded me assistance in the progress of the work1 and to the latter body for undertaking it1 ,i here return many grateful thanks4 ,the ,author himself in a letter to the ,translator1 dated ,jan4 #ab1 #ahdg1 acknowledges the acceptance of his work by the ,society in the following words3--,the intelligence of my ,physio-philosophy having been deemed worthy of translation by so goodly and enlightened a ,society1 cannot be otherwise unto me than a source of delight4,b ,,alfred ,,tulk4 ,b ,die ,nachricht dass meine ,naturphilosophie von einer sociferigen und erleuchteten ,gesellschaft der ,uebersetzung fr wrdig erachtet worden ist1 konnte nicht anders als mir ,freude gewhren4 ,,author',s ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,translation4 ,it is with no readiness or pleasure that ,i write introductions of any kind1 and usually abstain from doing so1 partly because they appear to me like a kind of apology or makeshift for the author1 and partly because the contents of the book itself should indicate his status or position4 ,with regard1 however1 to the history of the work1 some few words are certainly requisite for its ,translation4 ,i wrote the first ,edition of #ahaj in a kind of inspiration1 and on that account it was not so well arranged as a systematic work ought to be4 ,now1 although this may appear to have been amended in the second and third edition1 yet still it was not possible for me to completely attain the object held in view4 ,the book has therefore remained essentially the same as regards its fundamental principles1 such as those concerning the formation of matter1 the protoplasmic substance 7,schleim-,substanz7 and vesicular form of the organic mass1 the signification and function of the organs1 as also the principles of classification in ,minerals1 ,plants and ,animals1 so that all this is consequently as old as the first edition4 ,it is only the empirical arrangement into series of plants and animals1 that has been modified from time to time in accordance with the scientific elevation of their several departments1 or just as discoveries and anatomical investigations have increased and rendered some other position of the objects a matter of necessity4 ,this susceptibility to change will of course be persistent in the future1 although the principles themselves should continue wholly unchanged2 ay1 the very stability of the latter will tend the more to invite the naturalist to the pursuit of empirical inquiries1 by determining beforehand in what direction he is to extend his point of view1 and thus spare himself the trouble of blindly and laboriously groping about in the dense labyrinth of facts4 ,such a work therefore as the present can only approximate completion through the progress made in science1 and each new edition will supply some defect of its predecessor in the distribution or parcelling out of things4 ,in the first edition the principle was raised of individual bodies being alone the object of ,natural ,history1 and that in the next place they are to be arranged according to the combination of their organs or component parts1 and by no means after the division or mere form of a single organ2 that1 for example1 a special organ or anatomical system lies as the basis of each ,vegetable and ,animal class1 and that there must be therefore as many classes1 and no more1 as there are cardinal organs present upon which to found them4 ,on that account it was absolutely necessary first of all to find out these cardinal organs1 and determine their rank2 and1 in so doing1 it was shown that organs and classes are at bottom of one kind1 and that the development by stages or degrees of the embryo is the antetype of that of the classes2 furthermore1 that each class takes its starting-point from below1 and consequently that the classes do not stand simply one above the other1 but fall into a series of mutually parallel ranks4 ,now it is this which1 along with the doctrine of the infusorio-vesicular form of the organic mass1 and that touching the signification of parts1 as to how e4 g4 the blossom is the repetition of the vegetable axis or trunk1 the cephalic bones that of the vertebr1 the feet of the branchi1 and the maxill in turn of the feet1 appears to me the cardinal point attained in my ,philosophy of ,nature2 more especially1 because it was these very doctrines which were first of all1 i4 e4 before all the others1 comprehended and almost universally adopted4 ,the inorganic matters and activities pass1 however1 parallel also to the anatomical formations and functions2 and that this is the case too with the spiritual or psychical functions the philosophy of the future will probably be in the condition to point out4 ,the reader will not expect to find that the serial arrangement of ,plants and ,animals1 with their parallelism1 has been in every instance thoroughly attained4 ,the present is but a sample of how we are to proceed in our desire of obtaining a ,natural system4 ,with such an attempt one has something to change every year1 and ,i have in the present translation made some alterations in respect to the ,mollusca and ,fishes4 ,in this sense then it is my wish that the book may be regarded1 and accordingly received with its due amount of indulgence4 ,,lorenz ,,oken4 ,,preface4 ,the first principles of the present work ,i laid down in my small pamphlet entitled ,grundriss der ,naturphilosophie1 der ,theorie der ,sinne und der darauf gegrundeten ,classification der ,thiere2 ,frankfurt bey ,eichenberg1 #ahjb1 #hvo 7out of print74 ,i still abide by the position there taken1 namely1 that the ,animal ,classes are virtually nothing else than a representation of the sense-organs1 and that they must be arranged in accordance with them4 ,thus1 strictly speaking1 there are only #e ,animal ,classes3 ,dermatozoa1 or the ,invertebrata2 ,glossozoa1 or the ,fishes1 as being those animals in whom a true tongue makes for the first time its appearance2 ,rhinozoa1 or the ,reptiles1 wherein the nose opens for the first time into the mouth and inhales air2 ,otozoa1 or the ,birds1 in which the ear for the first time opens externally2 ,ophthalmozoa1 or the ,thricozoa1 in whom all the organs of sense are present and complete1 the eyes being moveable and covered with two palpebr or lids4 ,but since all vegetative systems are subordinated to the tegument or general sense of feeling1 the ,dermatozoa divide into just as many or corresponding divisions1 which1 on account of the quantity of their contents1 may be for the sake of convenience also termed classes4 ,thereby #i classes of the inferior animals originate1 but which1 when taken together1 have only the worth or value of a single class4 ,so much by way of explaining the apparent want of uniformity in the system4 ,i first advanced the doctrine1 that all organic beings originate from and consist of vesicles or cells1 in my book upon ,generation4 7,die ,zeugung4 ,frankfurt bey ,wesche1 #ahje1 #hvo47 ,these vesicles1 when singly detached and regarded in their original process of production1 are the infusorial mass1 or the protoplasma 7,ur-,schleim7 from whence all larger organisms fashion themselves or are evolved4 ,their production is therefore nothing else than a regular agglomeration of ,infusoria2 not of course of species already elaborated or perfect1 but of mucous vesicles or points in general1 which first form themselves by their union or combination into particular species4 ,this doctrine concerning the primo-constituent parts of the organic mass is now generally admitted or recognised1 and ,i need not1 therefore1 add anything by way of apology for it or defence4 ,in mine and ,kieser's ,beytrgen zur vergleichenden ,zoologie1 ,anatomie und ,physiologie2 ,frankfurt bey ,wesche1 #ahjf1 #dto1 ,i have shown that the intestines originate from the umbilical vesicle1 and that this corresponds to the vitellus4 ,it is true ,friedrich ,wolf had already discovered it in the chick1 but his was only a single instance1 and completely forgotten4 ,i have also discovered it and without knowing anything about my being anticipated1 since it was nowhere taught4 ,but ,i have elevated this structure to the light of a general law1 and it is that unto which ,i may fairly lay claim4 ,in the same essay ,i have introduced into the ,physiology the ,corpora ,wolfiana1 or ,primordial ,kidneys1 but1 having failed to recognise their signification1 any one who pleases may filch away the credit of their bare detection4 ,in my ,essay3 ,ueber die ,bedeutung der ,schdelknochen1 7,ein ,programm beym ,antritt der ,professur an der ,gesammt-,universitt zu ,jena2 ,jena gedruckt bey ,gpfert1 #ahjg1 verlegt zu ,frankfurt bey ,wesche1 #dto17 ,i have shown that the head is none other than a vertebral column1 and that it consists of four vertebr1 which ,i have respectively named ,auditory1 ,maxillary or ,lingual1 ,ocular and ,nasal vertebra2 ,i have also pointed out that the maxill are nothing else but repetitions of arms and feet1 the teeth being their nails2 all this is carried out more circumstantially and in detail in the ,isis1 #ahag1 ,s4 #abjd2 #ahah1 ,s4 #eaj41 #ahbc4 litt4 ,anzeigen ,s4 #cec und #dda4 ,this doctrine was at first scoffed at and repulsed2 finally1 when it began to force its way1 several barefaced persons came forward1 who would have made out if they could1 that the discovery was achieved long ago4 ,the reader will not omit to notice that the above essay appeared as my ,antritts-,programm1 or ,inaugural discourse1 upon being appointed ,professor at ,jena4 ,in my ,essay entitled ,ueber das ,universum als ,fortsetzung des ,sinnensystems2 ,jena bey ,frommann1 #ahjh1 #dto1 ,i showed that the ,organism is none other than a combination of all the ,universe's activities within a single individual body4 ,this doctrine has led me to the conviction that ,world and ,organism are one in kind1 and do not stand merely in harmony with each other4 ,from hence was developed my ,mineral1 ,vegetable and ,animal system1 as also my philosophical ,anatomy and ,physiology4 ,in my ,essay entitled ,erste ,ideen zur ,theorie des ,lichts1 der ,finsterniss1 der ,farben und der ,wrme2 ,jena bey ,frommann1 #ahjh1 #dto1 ,i pointed out1 that the ,light could be nothing but a polar tension of the ther1 evoked by a central body in antagonism with the planets2 and that the ,heat were none other than the motion of this ther4 ,this doctrine appears to be still in a state of fermentation4 ,in my ,essay entitled ,grundzeichnung des natrlichen ,systems der ,erze2 ,jena bey ,frommann1 #ahji1 #dto1 ,i arranged the ,ores for the first time1 not according to the ,metals1 but agreeably to their combinations with ,oxygen1 ,acids1 and ,sulphur1 and thus into ,oxyden1 ,halden1 ,glanzen1 and ,gediegenen4 ,this has imparted to the recent science of ,mineralogy its present aspect or form4 ,in the first edition of my ,lehrbuch der ,naturphilosophie1 #ahaj and #ahaa1 ,i sought to bring these different doctrines into mutual connexion1 and to show1 forsooth1 that the ,mineral1 ,vegetable1 and ,animal classes are not to be arbitrarily arranged in accordance with single or isolated characters1 but to be based upon the cardinal organs or anatomical systems1 from which a firmly established number of classes must of necessity result2 moreover1 that each of these classes commences or takes its starting-point from below1 and consequently that all of them pass parallel to each other4 ,this parallelism is now pretty generally adopted1 at least in ,england and ,france1 though with sundry modifications1 which1 from the principles being overlooked or neglected1 are based at random1 and are not therefore to be approved of4 ,as in chemistry1 where the combinations follow a definite numerical law1 so also in ,anatomy the organs1 in ,physiology the functions1 and in ,natural ,history the classes1 families and even genera of ,minerals1 ,plants and ,animals1 present a similar arithmetical ratio4 ,the genera are indeed1 on account of their great number and arbitrary erection to the rank whose title they bear1 not to be circumscribed or limited in every case with due propriety1 nor brought into their true scientific place in the system2 it is nevertheless possible to render their parallelism with each other clear1 and to prove that they by no means form a single ascending series4 ,if once the genera of ,minerals1 ,plants and ,animals come to stand correctly opposite each other1 a great advantage will accrue therefrom to the science of ,materia ,medica2 for corresponding genera will act specifically upon each other4 ,these principles1 which ,i have now carried out into detail1 were retained in the second1 and have been also in the third or present edition of the ,physio-philosophy1 the arrangement and serial disposition of the natural objects having1 with my increase of knowledge and concomitant views of things1 been amended1 enlarged or diminished1 as the case might require1 especially in the ,mineral1 ,vegetable and ,animal systems4 ,i am very well aware that there is many an object which does not stand in its right place2 but where again is there a single system in which this is not still more strikingly the case8 ,we have here dealt only with the restoration of the edifice1 wherein1 after years of long and oft-repeated attempts1 the furniture may for the first time be properly distributed1 without detriment to its general bearings or ground plan4 ,in my ,lehrbuch der ,naturgeschichte1 the ,mineralogical and ,zoological portions of which are out of print1 but the ,botanical still to be had 7,weimar1 ,industrie-,comptoir1 #ahbf71 ,i have arranged for the first time the genera and species in accordance with the above principles1 and stated everything of vital importance respecting these matters4 ,this was the first attempt to frame a scientific ,natural ,history1 and one unto which ,i have remained true in my last work1 the ,allgemeine ,naturgeschichte1 the principles whereof ,i have sought to develop more distinctly and in detail in the work now before the reader4 ,thus then have ,i prosecuted throughout a long series of years one kind of principle1 and worked hard to perfectionate it upon all sides4 ,yet1 notwithstanding my endeavour to amass the manifold stores of knowledge so requisite to an undertaking like this1 ,i could not acquire within the vast circuit that appertains thereunto1 many things which might be necessary unto a system extending into all matters of detail4 ,this it is to be hoped the reader will acknowledge1 and have forbearance for the errors1 against which every one will stumble who has busied himself throughout life with a single branch of the natural sciences4 ,natural ,history is not a closed department of human knowledge1 but presupposes numerous other sciences1 such as ,anatomy1 ,physiology1 ,chemistry and ,physics1 with even ,medicine1 ,geography and ,history2 so that one must be content with knowing only the main facts of the same1 and relinquishing the ,singular to its special science4 ,the gaps and errors in ,natural ,history can therefore be filled up or removed only by numerous writers and in the lapse of time4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,conception of the ,science #a ,division of the ,science4 ,truth4 ,,part ,i4 ,,mathesis #e ,nothing1 #ca4 ,something1 #ej4 ,a4 ,,pneumatogeny #ac ,primary ,act1 #ee4 ,primary ,consciousness1 #ei4 ,god1 #fa4 a4 ,primary ,rest1 #ga4 b4 ,time1 #gb4 ,polarity1 #gf4 ,motion1 #hj4 ,man1 #ic4 c4 ,space1 #ajh4 ,point1 ,line1 ,surface1 ,globe1 ,rotation4 ,b4 ,,hylogeny #ce a4 ,gravity1 #adh4 ,matter1 ther1 ,heavenly ,bodies4 b4 ,light1 #ahb4 c4 ,heat1 #aih4 ,fire4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,ontology #di ,a4 ,,cosmogeny ib4 a4 ,rest1 ,centre1 #bji4 ,motion1 ,line1 ,planets1 #bae4 c4 ,form1 #bca4 ,planetary ,system1 ,comets4 ,b4 ,,st,,chiogeny #ei ,condensation1 #bec4 ,simple matters1 ,elements4 a4 ,air #bhb4 b4 ,water1 #bid4 c4 ,earth1 #cjc4 ,c4 ,,st,,chiology #fh ,functions of the ,elements4 #a4 ,functions of the ther1 #cag4 a4 ,gravity1 #cbj4 b4 ,light1 #cba4 ,inflexion1 ,refraction1 ,reflexion1 ,colours1 #ced4 ,colours and ,planets1 #cgi4 c4 ,heat1 #che4 #b4 ,function of the ,air1 #daj4 ,electrism4 #c4 ,function of the ,water1 #dcb4 ,solution4 #d4 ,function of ,earth1 #dch4 ,crystallization4 ,d4 ,,kingdoms ,,of ,,nature #ie ,individuals1 #dfc4 ,,first ,,kingdom--,,minerals #if ,i4 ,,mineralogy1 #dgd4 ,division1 #dij4 a4 ,chemical ,division #ajc b4 ,genetic ,division4 ,classes #ajf ,class ,i4 ,earth-,earths ,earths4 ,,ii4 ,water-,earths ,salts4 ,,iii4 ,air-,earths ,inflammables4 ,,iv4 ,fire-,earths ,ores4 ,table ,a to face page #abj ,,ii4 ,,geology #aba ,i4 ,form of the ,planet1 #edf4 ,primary ,valleys4 ,,ii4 ,organs of the ,planet1 #egj4 ,a4 ,earths #abg a4 ,earth ,formation--,primary ,rocks1 #egc4 ,granite1 ,gneiss1 ,mica-schist1 ,lamination1 ,primary ,limestone4 b4 ,water-formation1 #fbb4 ,transition-rocks1 ,sedimentary or ,stratified ,rocks1 ,stratified ,limestone1 ,petrifactions or ,fossil ,remains4 c4 ,air-formation--,trap-rocks1 #fha4 d4 ,fire-formation--,volcanic ,rocks1 #fij4 ,b4 ,metallic ,ores #adh a4 ,metallic ,veins1 #fic4 b4 ,production of ,ore1 #fih4 c4 ,poison1 #gee4 d4 ,magnetism1 #gfj4 e4 ,earth-magnetism1 #gga4 ,c4 ,inflammables #aff a4 ,sulphur1 #hja4 b4 ,coal1 #hai4 ,d4 ,salts #agj a4 ,salt-periods1 #hbg4 b4 ,chemism1 #hdg4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,biology #agh ,a4 ,,organosophy ib4 ,i4 ,organogeny4 ,galvanism1 #hfg4 ,primary ,organism1 #hhb4 ,creation of the ,organic #ahd a4 ,elementary ,body--,protoplasma or ,primary ,mucus1 #hih4 ,change4 b4 ,form--,globe1 #ibf4 ,primary ,vesicle1 #icc4 ,infusoria1 #ice4 ,theory of ,generation1 #idc4 c4 ,processes of the ,organic4 #a4 ,earth-process--,nutrition1 #ifd4 #b4 ,water-process--,digestion1 #iga4 #c4 ,air-process--,respiration1 #igg4 #d4 ,motion1 #ihd4 ,,ii4 ,organognosy #aig ,division of the ,organism1 #icc1 into ,planetary and ,cosmic ,organism4 ,processes of the ,cosmic ,organism1 #ajad4 #a4 ,process of ,gravity1 #ajba4 #b4 ,process of ,heat1 #ajbd4 #c4 ,process of ,light1 #ajbg4 ,,second ,,kingdom--,,vegetable ,,kingdom #bjd ,i4 ,,phytogeny1 #ajch4 ,a4 ,planetary ,organs--,vegetable ,trunk #bjf ,i4 ,tissues1 #ajee4 #a4 ,water-organ--,cellular ,tissue1 #ajef4 #b4 ,earth-organ--,vascular ,tissue1 #ajfb4 #c4 ,air-organ--,tracheal ,tissue1 #ajfe4 ,,ii4 ,anatomical ,systems--,sheaths1 #ajge4 #a4 ,tracheal ,system--,wood1 #ajgg4 ,vascular ,system--,liber1 #ajhj4 #c4 ,cellular ,system--,bark1 #ajhd4 ,,iii4 ,organs--,members1 #ajhf4 #a4 ,water-organ--,root1 #ajij4 ,earth-organ--,stalk1 #ajif4 #c4 ,air-organ--,leaves1 #aabj4 ,b4 ther-,organs--,thyrsus or ,flower #bbh #a4 ,floral ,envelopes1 #aahg4 ,involucrum1 ,calyx1 ,corolla--,numerical ,law1 #abji4 ,coloration1 #abda4 ,stamen-filaments1 #abeb--;,anthers4 #b4 ,pistil1 #abgf4 ,style4 #c4 ,seed1 #acja4 #d4 ,fruit1 #acce4 ,fruit of the ,flowerless ,plants1 #acdf4 ,,ii4 ,,phyto-,,physiology #bee ,i4 ,functions of the ,trunk4 #a4 ,facts4 ,a4 ,constituent ,parts4 a4 ,inorganic ,bodies--,elements1 #acfd4 b4 ,organic ,bodies1 #acfh4 ,b4 ,preliminary ,events #bei #b4 ,processes #bfb ,a4 ,cellular ,processes1 #ache4 ,absorption1 ,evaporation1 ,digestion4 ,b4 ,vascular ,processes1 #acii4 ,conveyance of ,sap1 ,mixture of ,sap1 ,secretion4 ,c4 ,tracheal ,processes1 #adaa4 ,inspiration1 ,nutrition1 ,oxydation4 ,galvanic ,process--,sap-motion1 #addc4 ,,ii4 ,functions of the ,floral ,organs #bgb #a4 ,function of the ,corolla--,fecundation1 #aded4 ,irritability4 #b4 ,function of the ,ovarium1 #adgc4 #c4 ,function of the ,seed4 ,germination1 #adgf4 ,growth1 #adha4 ,fall of the ,leaf4 ,,iii4 ,,phytology #bgi ,vegetable ,system1 #aejh-aged4 ,table ,b opposite to page #caf ,,third ,,kingdom--,,animal ,,kingdom #cah ,i4 ,,zoogeny #cah ,anatomy #cbf ,i4 ,tissues #cbg #a4 ,point-tissue--,nervous mass1 #ahja4 #b4 ,globe-tissue--,osseous mass1 #ahbe4 #c4 ,line-tissue--,muscular mass1 #ahce4 #d4 ,vesicular tissue1 #ahdf4 ,integument4 ,,ii4 ,anatomical ,systems or ,sheaths #cch ,a4 ,vegetative #cci #a4 ,intestinal ,system1 #ahgh4 #b4 ,cutaneous ,system1 #aiji4 ,branchi1 ,trache4 #c4 ,vascular ,system1 #aibf4 #d4 ,sexual ,system1 #aiii4 ,b4 ,animal ,systems #cef #a4 ,nervous ,system1 #bjah4 ,brain1 ,senses4 #b4 ,osseous ,system1 #bjgi4 ,vertebral ,number1 #baji4 #c4 ,muscular ,system1 #baah4 ,,iii4 ,organs #cgh ,a4 ,vegetative #cgh #a4 ,intestinal ,organs1 #baeh4 #b4 ,vascular ,organs1 #baid4 ,branchi1 ,lungs1 ,liver1 ,spleen1 ,kidneys4 #c4 ,respiratory ,organs1 #bbdf4 ,coverings1 ,hairs4 #d4 ,sexual ,organs1 #bbhe4 ,impregnation1 #bcae4 ,urinary ,organs1 #bccg4 ,b4 ,animal ,organs #djd #a4 ,osseous ,organs--,limbs1 #bcgj4 #b4 ,muscular ,organs1 #bcih4 #c4 ,nervous ,organs1 #bdje--,senses4 #a4 ,vascular ,sense--,sense of ,feeling1 #bddj4 #b4 ,intestinal ,sense--,taste1 #bded4 #c4 ,pulmonic ,sense--,smell1 #bdfh4 #d4 ,osseo-,muscular ,sense--,hearing1 #bdgf4 #e4 ,nervous ,sense--,vision1 #bdhh4 ,,ii4 ,,physiology #dbc ,a4 ,general ,functions #dbc ,b4 ,special ,functions #dbe ,i4 ,functions of the ,tissues1 #beci--;,heat4 ,,ii4 ,functions of the ,systems #dbi ,a4 ,of the ,vegetal ,systems4 #a4 ,digestion1 #bega4 ,poisoning4 #b4 ,respiration1 #bfci4 #c4 ,circulation1 #bfee4 ,b4 ,functions of the ,animal ,systems #ddb #a4 ,of the ,osseous ,system1 #bfgb4 #b4 ,of the ,muscular ,system1 #bfhf4 #c4 ,of the ,nervous ,system1 #bgjj4 ,mesmerism1 #bgba4 ,sleep1 #bgcf4 ,periodicity1 #bgfa4 ,,iii4 ,functions of the ,organs #dee #a4 ,functions of the ,encephalic or ,brain-,animal #def ,a4 ,organs of ,motion4 ,b4 ,organs of ,sensation #deh #a4 ,sense of ,feeling1 #bghf4 ,sense of ,taste1 #bhba4 ,sense of ,smell1 #bhce4 ,auditory ,sense1 #bhdi4 ,speech4 ,sense of ,sight1 #bijb4 #b4 ,functions of the ,sexual ,animal #dgg ,a4 ,vegetal ,sexual ,organs--,formation of ,urine1 #bicd ,b4 ,animal ,sexual ,organs #dhj #a4 ,male ,organs1 #bidf4 #b4 ,female ,parts1 #bieb4 ,mamm4 ,development of the ,fruit or ,foetus1 #biha4 ,parallelism of the ,foetus with the ,animal ,classes1 #cjcd4 ,periods of ,life1 #cejb4 ,,iii4 ,,zoology #did ,a4 ,division into ,provinces #eja ,b4 ,division into ,circles #ejb ,c4 ,division into ,classes #eaa ,first ,province1 ,somatozoa 7,rumpfthiere7 ,splanchnozoa2 #eaa including the three ,circles of ,intestinal1 ,vascular1 and ,respiratory ,animals1 or ,protozoa1 ,conchozoa1 and ,ancyliozoa2 with their contained ,classes up to #efh ,metamorphosis of ,insects1 #cbia4 ,parallelism1 #cbii4 ,relationships1 #ccja4 ,second ,province1 ,cephalozoa1 7,kopfthiere72 #edd including the two circles of ,sarcose and ,sense-,animals2 with their contained ,classes up to #efh ,d4 ,division into ,orders and ,families #efi ,of those included within the ,classes of the ,first ,province or ,splanchnozoa2 with their ,tabular ,co-arrangement up to #fad ,of those comprised by the ,classes of the ,second ,province or ,sarcozoa2 with their ,tabular ,co-arrangement up to #fec ,,iv4 ,,psychology #fed ,a4 ,spiritual ,functions of the ,somato- or ,dermatozoa #fed ,b4 ,spiritual ,functions of the ,cephalozoa #feh ,,errata ,,and ,,corrigenda4 ,page #d1 #cj1 read upon the primary proposition of mathematics or the axiom4 #e1 #ce1 for magnitudes read quantities4 #h1 #ci1 for ,manifold read ,different4 #aa1 #di1 l4 #aj1 for elevating themselves in power1 read becoming suppressed4 #ej1 l4 #d1 dele the second --4 #ab1 l4 #a1 for magnitudes read quantities2 l4 #e1 for -- read #j4 #eb1 for emerged read been evolved out of nothing1 or been produced from it by addition2 but it is1 c4 #ed1 for removing read suppressing4 #ad1 #ei1 l4 #h1 for posits itself read itself posits4 #af1 for presentation read passim1 representation4 #cb1 #acd1 for ,disintegrated read ,dissevered4 #cb1 #acg1 for never read nowhere4 #cg1 #afa1 l4 #g1 for it read there4 #ch1 #afd1 for inventive read passim throughout ,part ,i4 postulate4 #ci1 l4 #a1 for and the axiom is read the axiom being4 #dd1 #aie1 l4 #ae1 for that it may shine read upon which it shines4 #ej1 #bad1 last line1 for darker read dark4 #ei1 #bec1 read heavy and material4 #fa1 #bfi1 #a and #b1 for caloric read hydrogen1 and for hydrogen read carbon4 #hj1 #chh1 for nitrogen read hydrogen4 #aab1 l4 #f1 for ,terpentin read ,serpentin2 l4 #g from bottom1 for ,calces read ,calcareous earths4 #abd1 #efb1 for the recent read new4 #aci1 #fcc-d1 for disintegrations read dispersions4 #aei1 #gfa1 for metallic read magnetic4 #ahf1 #iad1 for heat of blood read blood-heat4 #bji1 #ajfj1 read constantly circulate therein4 #bac1 #ajgg1 l4 #f1 for but before read and whereas2 l4 #g1 for have read previously1 and dele it has then1 and read the appearance is now4 #bbh1 #aafa1 read has been reproduced after trunk1 and dele being4 #bdi1 #acad1 for umbilicus read hilum1 and for cause read basis4 #cjg1 #afgi1 instead of stipaceous read hypogynous4 #cjh1 #afhg1 l4 #b1 read ,stielblumen or ,hypogynes4 #cbj1 #agfc1 after light-ther read from the dead mass1 c4 #cbg1 #ahjj1 for substance1 c41 read contents become1 c4 #cbh-i1 for ,myxozoa read ,protozoa1 and for ,medus read ,acaleph here and passim4 #ccj1 l4 #b1 after the word radiating read ther4 #ccb1 #ahbd1 for substance read contents1 and #ahbg1 for substance read mass4 #ccd1 #ahcg1 read upon the middle rate of oxydation4 #cbg1 l4 #e1 transpose the words matter and spirit4 #cde1 #aibh1 read elemental matter4 #cdf1 #aica1 read at certain points1 after each other4 #ced1 #aiib1 read through the medium of the gills1 the water through that of the intestine1 c4 #cee1 #bjjf1 for along with read which belong to the category of4 #cfa1 #bjci1 read plexus-forming ramules2 #bjdf1 for is imparted read furnishes us1 and for by read with4 #cfb1 #bjej1 for oesophageal read pharyngeal1 passim1 as also1 pharynx for oesophagus4 #cgb1 #baad1 for enter into the composition of read appertain to2 and for ,mammalia read ,thricozoa4 #cgf1 #bada1 read the bone1 the fluid which has been secreted from it and rigidified4 #cha1 #bagf1 for the last word cyst read cyst1 hic et passim4 #chf1 #bbaa1 read bivalve ,mollusca1 passim throughout ,zoogeny4 #cic1 l4 #a1 read exsecernent4 #cih1 #bcac1 read ,snail-type of organization4 #dje1 #bcga1 read1 or the integument after respiratory organ4 #djh1 #bchg1 for carnivorous read false molars2 for incisor read laniary molar2 for premolar read second1 and for tuberculous read third true molar4 #dic1 #cjed1 for testaceous ,mollusca read ,conchozoa or ,shell-animals4 #eae1 #cagj1 for stock read trunk4 #edd1 #ccja1 after analogy read which at best is but a word of random definition4 #ecb1 #cbef1 read pharyngeal or pneumogastric nerves1 to end of paragraph4 ,for the words evolution and evolved1 read passim in the ,botanical and ,zoological parts1 perfection and perfected1 as the text may require4 ,,physio-,,philosophy4 ,,introduction4 ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,science4 #a4 ,philosophy1 as the science which embraces the principles of the universe or world1 is only a logical1 which may perhaps conduct us to the real1 conception4 #b4 ,the universe or world is the reality of mathematical ideas1 or1 in simpler language1 of mathematics4 #c4 ,philosophy is the recognition of mathematical ideas as constituting the world1 or the repetition of the origin of the world in consciousness4 #d1 #e4 ,spirit is the motion of mathematical ideas4 ,nature1 their manifestation4 #f4 ,the philosophy of ,spirit is the representation of the movements of ideas in consciousness4 #g4 ,the philosophy of ,nature that of the phenomena or manifestations of ideas in consciousness4 #h4 ,the world consists of two parts3 of one apparent1 real1 or material2 and one non-apparent1 ideal1 spiritual1 in which the material is not present1 or which is naught in relation to the material4 #i4 ,there are1 accordingly1 two parts or divisions of ,philosophy1 viz4 ,pneumato-and ,physio-philosophy4 #aj4 ,physio-philosophy has to show how1 and in accordance indeed with what laws1 the ,material took its origin2 and1 therefore1 how something derived its existence from nothing4 ,it has to portray the first periods of the world's development from nothing2 how the elements and heavenly bodies originated2 in what method by self-evolution into higher and manifold forms1 they separated into minerals1 became finally organic1 and in ,man attained self-consciousness4 #aa4 ,physio-philosophy is1 therefore1 the generative history of the world1 or1 in general terms1 the ,history of ,creation1 a name under which it was taught by the most ancient philosophers1 viz4 as ,cosmogony4 ,from its embracing the universe1 it is plainly the ,genesis of ,moses4 #ab4 ,man is the summit1 the crown of nature's development1 and must comprehend everything that has preceded him1 even as the fruit includes within itself all the earlier developed parts of the plant4 ,in a word1 ,man must represent the whole world in miniature4 #ac4 ,now since in ,man are manifested self-consciousness or spirit1 ,physio-philosophy has to show that the laws of spirit are not different from the laws of nature2 but that both are transcripts or likenesses of each other4 #ad4 ,physio-and ,pneumato-philosophy range1 therefore1 parallel to each other4 #ae4 ,physio-philosophy1 however1 holds the first rank1 ,pneumato-philosophy the second3 the former1 therefore1 is the ground and foundation of the latter1 for nature is antecedent to the human spirit4 #af4 ,without ,physio-philosophy1 therefore1 there is no ,pneumato-philosophy1 any more than a flower is present without a stem1 or an edifice without foundation4 #ag4 ,the whole of philosophy depends1 consequently1 upon the demonstration of the parallelism that exists between the activities of ,nature and of ,spirit4 ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,science4 #ah4 ,it will be shown in the sequel that the ,spiritual is antecedent to nature4 ,physio-philosophy must1 therefore1 commence from the spirit4 #ai4 ,it will also be shown in the sequel that the whole ,animal ,kingdom1 e4 g4 is1 none other than the representation of the several activities or organs of ,man2 naught else than ,man disintegrated4 ,in like manner nature is none other than the representation of the individual activities of the spirit4 ,as1 therefore1 ,zoology can be termed the ,science of the ,conversion of ,man into the ,animal ,kingdom1 so may ,physio-philosophy be called the ,science of the ,conversion of ,spirit into ,nature4 #bj4 ,physio-philosophy is divisible1 therefore1 into three parts4 ,the first of these treats of spirit and its activities2 the second1 of the individual phenomena1 or things of the world2 the third1 of the continuous operation of spirit in the individual things4 ,the first division is the doctrine of the ,whole 7de ,toto7--,mathesis4 ,the second1 that of ,singulars 7de ,entibus7--,ontology4 ,the third1 that of the ,whole in the ,singulars 7de ,toto in ,entibus7--,biology4 #ba4 ,the ,science of the ,whole must divide into two doctrines2 into that of immaterial totalities--,pneumatogeny2 and into that of material totalities--,hylogeny4 ,ontology teaches us the phenomenon of matter4 ,the first phenomenon of this are the heavenly bodies comprehended by ,cosmogony2 these develop themselves further1 and divide into the elements--,stochiogeny4 ,from these elements the ,earth element develops itself still further1 and divides into minerals--,mineralogy2 these minerals unite into one collective body1 and this is ,geogeny4 ,the ,whole in ,singulars is the living or ,organic1 which again divides into plants and animals4 ,biology1 therefore1 divides into ,organogeny1 ,phytosophy and ,zoosophy4 ,after this division of the subject the question first of all arises1 what is science1 provided there is one4 ,,truth4 #bb4 ,science is a series of necessarily inter-dependent and consecutive propositions1 which rest upon a certain fundamental proposition4 #bc4 ,now1 if anything be certain it can only be one in number4 ,if1 then1 there be only one certainty1 there can also be only one science1 from which all the rest must be derived4 #bd4 ,the ,mathematical is certain1 and1 by virtue of this character1 it stands also alone4 ,mathematics is the only true science1 and thus the primary science1 the ,mathesis1 or ,knowledge simply1 as it was called by the ancients4 ,the fundamental propositions of mathematics must1 therefore1 be fundamental propositions for all other sciences also4 #be4 ,physio-philosophy is only a science when it is reducible to1 i4 e4 can be placed upon an equal footing with1 mathematics4 ,mathematics is the universal science2 so also is ,physio-philosophy1 although it is only a part1 or rather but a condition of the universe2 both are one1 or mutually congruent4 #bf4 ,mathematics is1 however1 a science of mere forms without substance4 ,physio-philosophy is1 therefore1 ,mathematics endowed with substance4 #bg4 ,the substance of ,physio-philosophy must be of one kind with the form of ,mathematics4 #bh4 ,the certainty of mathematical propositions depends upon no proposition being essentially different from another4 ,though there may be much that is diversified or heterogeneous1 there is nothing new in ,mathematics4 ,for to prove a mathematical proposition is to show 7or demonstrate7 that it is equivalent1 i4 e4 of the same kind with another proposition4 ,all mathematical propositions must1 consequently1 resemble a first proposition4 #bi4 ,physio-philosophy must also show that all its propositions1 or that all things1 resemble each other1 and1 finally1 some first proposition or thing4 #cj4 ,these natural propositions or natural things must1 however1 resemble also mathematical propositions1 and depend1 after all1 upon the primary proposition of mathematics or the axiom4 ,now then comes the question1 what is the first principle of ,mathematics8 ,,part ,i4 ,,mathesis--,,of ,,the ,,whole4 ,,nothing4 #ca4 ,the highest mathematical idea1 or the fundamental principle of all mathematics is the zero #j4 ,the whole science of mathematics depends upon zero4 ,zero alone determines the value in mathematics4 #cb4 ,zero is in itself nothing4 ,mathematics is based upon nothing1 and1 consequently1 arises out of nothing4 #cc4 ,out of nothing1 therefore1 it is possible for something to arise1 for mathematics1 consisting of propositions1 is a something in relation to #j4 ,mathematics itself were nothing if it had none other than its highest principle zero4 ,in order1 therefore1 that mathematics may become a real science1 it must1 in addition to its highest principle1 subdivide into a number of details1 namely1 first of all into numbers1 and1 finally1 into propositions4 ,what is tenable in regard to mathematics must be equally so of all the sciences2 they must all resemble mathematics4 #cd4 ,the first act towards realization or the becoming something1 is an origination of ,many4 ,all reality can1 accordingly1 manifest itself only in multiplicity4 ,that which belongs to the ,many is a ,definite2 this again is a ,limited2 the ,limited is a ,finite4 ,the ,finite only is real4 ,the question now arises1 how it happens that mathematics becomes a multiplicity1 or1 what is the same thing1 a reality1 a something4 #ce4 ,the reality of mathematics consists in the universality of its quantities2 viz4 numbers or figures4 ,every number1 and every thing which belongs to mathematics1 can be derived from no other source than zero4 ,mathematical multiplicity1 or its reality1 must have proceeded1 therefore1 out of zero4 #cf4 ,zero1 however1 contains no number and no figure really in itself2 it contains1 forsooth1 neither #a nor #b1 neither a point nor a line within itself4 ,the ,singulars or details cannot1 therefore1 reside in a real1 but only an ideal manner in zero2 or1 in other words1 not actually1 but only potentially4 ,the conditions here are the same as with all mathematical ideas4 ,we may conceive1 e4 g41 an idea or definition of a triangle in so general a sense that it shall comprehend all triangles1 without1 however1 a definite triangle being actually intended1 or without even a triangle actually existing4 ,in order that the idea of the triangle be realized1 it must become a definite1 in other words1 an obtuse or an acute triangle4 ,in short1 the idea of the triangle must multiply itself1 be self-evolved1 or else it is as naught in reference to mathematics1 or only a geometrical zero4 ,the individual objects or figures of mathematics thus attain existence1 so far only as the idea comprising them emerges out of itself and assumes an individual character4 ,it is clear that all individual triangles taken together closely resemble the ideal triangle1 or1 to express the same in more general terms1 that the ,real is equivalent to the ,ideal1 that the former is but the latter which has become dissevered and finite1 and that the aggregate of every ,finite is equivalent to the ,ideal4 ,this will probably be rendered still more distinct by the example of ice and water4 ,the crystals of ice are nothing else than water bounded by definite lines4 ,so1 also1 are the ,real and ,ideal no more different from each other than ice and water2 both of these1 as is well known1 are essentially one and the same1 and yet are different1 the diversity consisting only in the form4 ,it will be shown in the sequel that everything which appears to be essentially different from another1 is so only in the form4 ,the ,real and ,ideal are one and the same1 only under two kinds of form4 ,the latter is the same under an indefinite1 eternal1 single form2 but the ,real is also the same1 yet under the form of quantity1 and1 as will be shown1 of multiplicity4 ,an infinity resides in both2 in the ,real an endlessness of individual forms2 in the ,ideal but one endless form2 in the latter case an eternity1 in the former an infinity4 ,the quantity and multiplicity of the whole of mathematics is contained in the same manner in the #j1 that the quantity and multiplicity of the triangles are in the ideal or primary triangle4 ,mathematics is a system of nullities or nothings1 and this admits of being easily proved4 #cg4 ,zero is indeed the universality of mathematics1 this1 however1 is not real1 but only ideal4 ,every number issues out of zero1 like the multiplicity of the real triangles out of the primary triangle4 ,this progression of numbers out of zero takes place through a process of becoming determinate and limited2 just as the real triangles are only definitions of the absolute triangle4 ,the process of becoming determined is identical with becoming a ,finite2 becoming real is called becoming finite4 ,mathematical singulars or numbers can1 therefore1 be nothing else than zero disintegrated1 or rendered real by determination4 ,what zero is in infinite intensity1 that are numbers in endless extensity4 ,zero is of two forms3 under the ideal it is mere intensity2 under the real mere extensity1 or a series of numbers4 ,the latter is only expanded intensity2 the former1 extensity concentrated on the point2 both are1 consequently1 one and the same in toto4 ,numbers are identical with zero2 they are zero in a state of extension1 while zero is equivalent to numbers in a state of intensity4 ,the sense in which numbers are said to come out of zero is1 therefore1 very clear2 they have not issued forth from zero as if they had previously resided individually therein1 but the zero has emerged out of itself1 has itself become apparent1 and then was it a finite zero1 a number4 ,so1 also1 does the idea of a circle become a real circle1 not from the latter emerging from the former1 but from this itself becoming manifest4 ,the individual circle is a manifestation or phenomena of the spiritual circle4 #ch4 ,all realization1 therefore1 is not the origin of a something that has not previously been2 it is only a manifestation1 a process of extension taking place in the idea4 ,thus the ,real does not arise out of the ,ideal1 but is the ,ideal itself in a condition of definition and limitation1 as are1 e4 g4 the actual triangle or the actual circle4 ,if1 then1 the ,ideal and ,real be one1 everything is necessarily identical1 and this identity dominates not merely between the ,ideal and ,real in a general sense1 but between all individual members of the ,real4 #ci4 ,the identity of every ,different1 or of all things among themselves and with the highest unity1 is the essence of things4 ,the limitation or definition of the ,ideal is their form4 ,limitation is the ,impartient of form4 #dj4 ,limitation is originally only a quantitative relation1 e4 g4 the size of the angle in a triangle2 later on it becomes also a relation of direction or of position4 ,in both cases the limitation is only an ideal relation4 ,realization also takes place1 therefore1 only in an ideal manner2 and the ,real is therefore ideal1 not simply as it regards its form1 but also its essence4 ,every ,plural resembles itself and the highest principle in essence2 or1 in other words1 all ,singulars are united through essence with the highest ,one4 ,all diversity of the ,plural resides merely in the form1 limitation or manifestation4 ,the one unchanging essence possesses one ideal form1 which is that of pure unity1 and the same essence has a limitation1 a real form1 which is that of subdivision4 ,there is only one essence in all things1 the #j1 the highest identity2 but there are infinitely numerous forms4 ,numbers are naught else than different forms of the one unchangeable essence1 namely1 the #j4 ,if1 then1 all numbers are only zero in a state of extension1 and are consequently identical with it1 the question arises1 what are the first finitings of zero1 or as what does it appear when it is no longer merely ideal or indefinite2 in short1 what is the first form of the real zero1 or of the essence in general8 ,,essence ,,of ,,nothing4 #da4 ,the ideal zero is absolute unity1 or monas2 it is not a singularity1 such as one individual thing1 or as the number #a2 but an indivisibility1 a numberlessness1 in which neither #a nor #b1 neither a line nor a circle can be found2 in short1 an unity without distinction1 an homogeneity1 brightness1 or translucency1 a pure identity4 #db4 ,the mathematical monas is eternal4 ,it succumbs to no definitions of time and space1 is neither finite nor infinite1 neither great nor small1 neither quiescent nor moved2 but it is and it is not all this4 ,that is the conception of eternity4 ,mathematics is thus in possession of an eternal principle4 #dc4 ,since all the sciences are equivalent to mathematics1 nature must also possess an eternal principle4 ,the principle of nature1 or of the universe1 must be of one and the same kind with the principle of mathematics4 ,for there cannot be two kinds of monades1 nor of eternities1 nor of certainties4 ,the highest unity of the universe is thus the ,eternal4 ,the ,eternal is one and the same with the zero of mathematics4 ,the ,eternal and zero are only denominations differing in accordance with their respective sciences1 but which are essentially one4 #dd4 ,the ,eternal is the nothing of ,nature4 ,as the whole of mathematics emerges out of zero1 so must everything which is a ,singular have emerged from the ,eternal or nothing of ,nature4 ,the origin of the ,singular is nothing else than a manifestation of the ,eternal4 ,thereby unity1 brightness1 homogeneity are lost1 and converted into multiplicity1 obscurity1 diversity4 ,unity posited manifoldly is an expansion without termination1 but one that always remains the same4 ,realization or manifestation is an expansion of the ,eternal4 ,,forms ,,of ,,nothing4 #de4 ,the first form of the expansion or manifestation of the mathematical monas1 or of #j is -4 ,the -is nothing else than the definition of #j4 #j is the reduction of the positive and negative series of numbers1 upon which the whole of arithmetic depends4 ,a series of numbers is1 however1 nothing else than a repetition of a #a or a-#a2 consequently1 the whole of arithmetic reduces itself to #a-a4 ,what1 however1 is a #a1 or-#a8 ,obviously nothing else than a single or-4 ,the figure is quite superfluous1 and only indicates how often or-has been assumed2 instead1 therefore1 of #a we can posit 2 instead of-#a simply-4 ,the series #a #a #a is synonymous with 2 or instead of #c we may posit 1 and so on for every figure ad libitum4 ,the figures are nothing more than shorter signs for the two highest mathematical forms or ideas of numbers4 ,numbers are nothing different from the ideas of numbers2 they are the latter themselves1 only several times posited4 ,essentially numbers do not exist1 but only their two ideas4 ,these ideas1 however1 exist an infinite number of times4 ,multiplicity or real infinity is1 accordingly1 nothing special or particular1 but only an arbitrary repetition of the ,ideal1 an incessant positing of the idea4 ,the idea posited is reality1 non-posited it is #j4 #df4 ,the first multiplicity is duality1 -4 ,this duality alters nothing in the essence of the monas1 for -is #j4 ,it is the monas itself only under another form4 ,in multiplication it is thus the form alone that changes4 ,there are many forms1 but not many essences4 #dg4 ,the first or primary duality is not1 however1 a double unity1 both members of which are of equal rank1 but an antagonism1 disunion1 or diversity4 ,many diversities are multiplicity4 ,the ,many is thus complex4 ,the first form is not therefore a simple division of zero or the primary unity1 but an antagonistic positing of itself1 a becoming manifold4 #dh4 ,every ,finite is in the same manner only the self-definition of the ,eternal4 ,the ,eternal becomes1 accordingly1 real1 by binary self-division4 ,when the ,eternal is manifested1 it is either a positive or negative4 ,the whole of arithmetic is nothing else than a ceaseless act of positing and negating1 of affirming and denying4 ,all realization is nothing else than the act of positing and negating4 ,the act of positing and negating of the ,eternal is called realization4 #di4 ,positing and negating is1 however1 an act or function4 ,arithmetic is1 therefore1 a ceaseless process of acting or performing4 ,numbers are acts of the primary idea1 or1 properly speaking1 stationary points of its function1 and hence proceeds a division into the two ideas and -4 ,if these remain always alone nothing is added to them4 ,they alone produce the whole science of arithmetic1 and simply because they are never exhausted by the act of positing themselves repeatedly1 but capable after this of again becoming suppressed4 ,since is in essence nothing else than a simple positing1 a mere affirmation1 and-a mere suppression of this affirmation1 a negation2 so is the positive unity #a nothing but an affirmation once declared1 and the whole series of numbers is a reiterated affirmation4 ,the act of affirmation alone gives the number1 and the latter is thus the definite quantity devoid of intrinsic value4 ,bare affirmation alone without reference to any substance is unity1 duality1 c4 ,,something4 #ej4 ,still1 however1 there must be something1 which is posited and negatived4 ,the form must have a substance4 ,this something is the primary idea1 or the very ,eternal of mathematics1 the zero2 for - is #j4 ,the is naught else than zero affirmed2 the - naught else than this #j negatived - #j4 ,now since an affirmation once declared is #a1 so are unity and zero identical4 ,zero differs only from finite unity in that it is not affirmed4 #ea4 ,the - is not simply the want of affirmation1 but its explicit abstraction4 ,the presupposes the #j2 the - the and #j2 the #j1 however1 presupposes neither nor-4 ,purely negative quantities are1 as is known1 a nonentity1 because they can only bear reference to positive quantities4 ,the - is1 indeed1 the retroversion of into #j2 yet alone1 therefore1 it is not perfectly equal to #j4 ,it is a retrovertent1 and consequently the second act1 which presupposes the positive4 ,by the - we know what is not2 the #j is1 however1 a nothing in every respect4 ,the - is the copula between #j and 4 #eb4 ,if the is the #j posited1 so is it a nothing posited or determined4 ,this position is1 however1 a number1 and therefore a mathematical something4 ,the nothing thus becomes a something1 a ,finite1 a ,real1 through the simple positing of itself1 and the something becomes a nothing by the removal of this self-position4 ,the nothing itself is1 however1 the mere neglect of its self-position4 ,the something1 the -1 has consequently not arisen or been evolved out of nothing1 or been produced from it by addition2 but it is nothing itself2 the whole undivided nothing has become unity4 ,the nothing once posited as nothing is #a4 ,we cannot speak of production or evolution in this case2 but of the complete identity and uniformity of the nothing with the something2 it is a virgin product or birth4 #ec4 ,zero must be endlessly positing itself1 for in every respect it is indefinite or unlimited1 eternal4 ,the number of finite singularities must1 therefore1 pass into the ,infinite4 #ed4 ,the whole of ,arithmetic is nothing but the endless repetition of nothing1 an endless positing and suppressing of nothing4 ,we can become acquainted with nothing but the nothing1 for the ,original of our knowledge is the #j4 ,there is no other science than that which treats of nothing4 ,every ,real1 if it were such in itself1 could not be known1 because the possibilities of its properties would pass into the ,infinite4 ,the nothing alone is cognizable1 because it has only a single property1 namely1 that of having none2 concerning which knowledge no doubt can be entertained4 ,a4--,,pneumatogeny4 ,,primary ,,act4 #ee4 ,the - or1 in other words1 numbers are acts or functions4 ,zero is1 consequently1 the primary act4 ,zero is1 therefore1 no absolute nothing1 but an act without substratum4 ,generally speaking there is1 therefore1 no nothing2 the mathematical nothing is itself an act1 consequently a something4 ,the nothing is only postulate4 #ef4 ,an act devoid of substratum is a spiritual act4 ,numbers are1 accordingly1 not positions and negations of an absolute nothing1 but of a spiritual act4 #eg4 ,the zero is an eternal act2 numbers are repetitions of this eternal act1 or its halting points1 like the steps in progression4 ,with zero the ,eternal therefore originates directly1 or both are only different expressions for one and the same act1 according with the difference of the science wherein they are employed4 ,mathematics designates its primary act by the name of zero2 ,philosophy by that of ,eternal4 ,it is an error to believe that numbers were absolute nothings2 they are acts and consequently realities4 ,while numbers in a mathematical sense are positions and negations of ,nothing1 in the philosophical they are positions and negations of the ,eternal4 ,everything which is real1 posited1 finite1 has become this out of numbers2 or1 more strictly speaking1 every ,real is absolutely nothing else than a number4 ,this must be the sense entertained of numbers in the ,pythagorean doctrine1 namely1 that everything or the whole universe had arisen from numbers4 ,this is not to be taken in merely a quantitative sense1 as it has hitherto been erroneously1 but in an intrinsic sense1 as implying that all things are numbers themselves1 or the acts of the ,eternal4 ,the essence in numbers is naught else than the ,eternal4 ,the ,eternal only is or exists1 and nothing else is when a number exists4 ,there is1 therefore1 nothing real but the ,eternal itself2 for every ,real1 or everything that is1 is only a number and only exists by virtue of a number4 ,every ,singular is nothing for itself1 but the ,eternal is in it1 or rather it is itself only the ,eternal1 though not the ,eternal in itself1 but affirmed or negatived4 ,the existence of the ,singular is not its own existence1 but only that of the ,eternal subjected to an arbitrary repetition2 for the act of being and affirming are of one kind4 #eh4 ,the continuance of ,being is a continuous positing of the ,eternal1 or of nothing1 a ceaseless process of becoming real in that which is not4 ,there exists nothing but nothing1 nothing but the ,eternal1 and all individual existence is only a fallacious existence4 ,all individual things are monades1 nothings1 which have1 however1 become determined4 ,the ,eternal must posit without cessation1 for otherwise it would be an actual nothing1 while in fact it is an act2 but it must incessantly suppress also this position1 else it would be only a finite act1 or an act which had only one kind of direction1 that of affirmation 1 and so on1 which represents only the half of arithmetic4 ,the totality of the ,finite is1 therefore1 of eternal duration also3 the ,singular1 however1 issues forth and disappears like the numbers in arithmetic4 ,the eternal duration of the ,finite consists1 however1 only in ceaseless repetition4 ,such an ,eternal is to be distinguished therefore from the ,primary eternal1 and is called the ,infinite4 ,the totality of finite things is not therefore eternal1 but only infinite4 ,,primary ,,consciousness4 #ei4 ,two tendencies are present in the primary act1 both of which being inseparable are one in kind4 ,it has the tendency to posit1 and also to suppress1 itself4 ,the unity strives unto binary division or to antagonism1 even as the #j strives to produce or-4 ,while the primary act itself posits1 it does this indeed out of its own strength1 and that which it posits is also none other than itself2 it itself posits i4 e4 actively2 and is itself posited i4 e4 passively2 it itself posits itself1 is the self-position of itself2 for is nothing else than #j self-posited4 ,the positing and posited act are of one kind2 the latter1 however1 is the ,real1 the ,finite2 the former the ,ideal1 the ,eternal4 ,both are distinguished from each other through this only1 that the ,real is the posited1 numbered1 and consequently determined act2 the ideal1 however1 the positing1 consequently numbering and thus undetermined act4 ,while1 however1 the is nothing else than #j1 it must necessarily bear a relation to it1 and thus retrograde into the #j4 ,this retrogression is an act in the reverse direction1 or what is indicated in mathematics by negation4 ,the-has been therefore necessarily granted with the 1 else the would not be represented as to #j4 ,the act of positing is therefore at the same time also an act of negation4 ,so soon as the #j is or exists1 it is -4 ,the realization of the ,eternal is accordingly a complete antagonism of itself4 ,for #j is equal to -1 not simply or to-4 #fj4 ,the being of the ,eternal is therefore a self-manifestation4 ,every ,singular is nothing but a self-manifestation2 since all numbers are only positions of zero or of 1 which can never be without-4 ,in every essence there are two1 but the two are the one essence itself1 which posits itself by division4 ,the ,positing of the ,eternal in the sense in which it has been hitherto adopted1 namely1 as a realization of the same1 is not merely an act of positing1 not an indeterminate ,positing1 but an antagonism of itself4 ,the zero is simply the indeterminate ,positing1 or the negative ,positing2 but the number1 or the real is the antagonism of zero1 the -1 or the self-manifestation4 ,the #j cannot be thought of for itself alone without the 2 the latter1 however1 not without #j1 as well as the-also not without #j2 for it is the suppression of the posited #j1 namely1 the 4 ,every act of self-manifestation is therefore twofold1 a manifestation 7 71 but a manifestation of itself1 consequently a retrogression into #j 7-74 ,through negation the ,finite becomes united with the ,eternal4 ,every disappearance of the ,finite is a retrogression into the ,eternal2 for it must return to whence it came4 ,it has arisen out of nothing1 is itself the existing nothing2 it must therefore retrograde again into the nothing4 ,,god4 #fa4 ,the self-manifestation of the primary act is self-consciousness4 ,the eternal self-consciousness is ,god4 #fb4 ,the continued act of self-consciousness1 or becoming self-conscious repeated1 is called representation4 ,god is therefore comprehended in ceaseless representation4 ,representations are single acts of self-consciousness4 ,single acts1 however1 are real things4 ,all real things1 however1 are the world4 ,the world therefore originates with the representations of the ,eternal4 #fc4 ,the representations are1 however1 manifested or attain only reality through expression4 ,the world is therefore the language of ,god2 the creation of the world the speaking of ,god4 ,god spake1 and it was4 ,it is not merely said1 ,god thought and it was4 ,thought belongs merely to spirit2 in so far1 however1 as it becomes apparent1 it is a word1 and the sum of all apparent thoughts is speech4 ,this is the created1 realized system of thought4 ,the thought is only the idea of the world1 but speech is the idea actualized4 #fd4 ,as thought differs from speaking1 so does ,god from the world4 ,our world consists in our apparent thoughts1 namely1 the words4 ,the universe is the language of ,god4 ,so far as the thoughts lie at the foundation of the words1 it can be said1 that our world were the play of our thoughts1 and the actual world that of ,god's4 ,the word has become world4 ,worldly things have no more reality for ,god1 than our words or our language for us4 ,we carry a world within us while we think2 we posit or create a world without us while we speak4 ,thus ,god carries the world within himself while he thinks2 he posits the same without himself or creates it1 while he speaks4 ,in so far as thought necessarily precedes speech1 it may be said1 that there would have been no world1 if ,god had not thought4 ,in the same sense it may be also said1 that all things are nothing but representations1 thoughts1 ideas of ,god4 ,so soon as ,god thinks and speaks is there a real thing4 ,to speak and to create are one4 ,all1 that we perceive1 are words1 thoughts of ,god2 we are ourselves nothing else than such words or thoughts of ,god1 consequently his metatypes or images1 in as far as we unite in ourselves the whole system of speech4 ,there is therefore no being without self-consciousness4 ,that only which thinks is 7for itself72 that which does not think is not for itself1 but only for some other consciousness4 ,the world differs from ,god as doth our speech from us4 ,the self-consciousness of ,god is independent of the world1 even as our self-consciousness is independent of our speech4 #fe4 ,the divine laws are also the laws of the world2 this has therefore been created and governed in accordance with eternal and immutable laws4 #ff4 ,physio-philosophy is the history of creation2 the creation1 however1 is the language of ,god4 ,the system of thought1 however1 lies necessarily at the foundation of the system of speech4 ,now the science of the laws of thought is called logic2 physio-philosophy is therefore a divine doctrine of speech or a divine logic4 ,the laws of speech instruct us in the genesis of language4 ,physio-philosophy is1 therefore1 the science of the genesis of the world1 or ,cosmogony4 ,,form ,,of ,,god--,,triunity4 #fg4 ,as the complete principle of mathematics consists of three ideas1 so also does the primary principle of nature1 or the ,eternal4 ,the primary principle of mathematics is #j2 so soon1 however1 as it is actual1 is it and-2 or the primary idea resolves itself in being at once into two ideas1 each of which resembles the other in essence1 but differs from it in form4 ,thus it is here one and the same essence under three forms1 or three are one4 ,now that which holds good of mathematical principles1 must hold good also of the principles of nature4 ,the primary act is manifested1 or operates under three forms1 which correspond to the #j1 and-4 ,these three ideas of the ,eternal are all equivalent to each other1 are the same primary act1 each of them being whole and undivided1 but each otherwise posited4 ,the positing primary act is the whole ,eternal2 the posited is likewise the whole ,eternal1 and that which is subtractive1 retrogressive1 combining the two first1 is also the whole ,eternal4 ,although all three ideas are equivalent to each other1 still the positing idea ranks first1 the posited second1 and the combining third2 not as if they had first arisen successively 7this is impossible1 for they are coexistent1 namely1 before all time71 nor as if they occupied different positions 7for they are everywhere72 but only according to their order and value4 ,how one may be three and three one1 is thus rendered comprehensible only by mathematics4 #fh4 ,the first idea is the original1 that therefore which is thoroughly independent1 which having arisen from and being based upon itself1 has consequently emerged from nothing else2 in short1 it is the eternal idea1 like the mathematical #j ,monas aoristos4 ,everything is possible with it2 it can propose and solve all problems1 knows therefore everything and creates everything4 ,it is the generative1 creative and paternal idea4 #fi4 ,the two other ideas have emerged out of the first1 although apparently equivalent to it2 yea1 they have themselves issued out of themselves4 ,the second idea is1 therefore1 ,dyas aoristos1 and corresponds to the mathematical 2 the third idea is the ,trias aoristos1 and corresponds to the mathematical-1 so that by the three the primary trinity #j -is completed4 ,the first idea labours or1 what is more1 rejoices from all eternity to convert itself into the two others4 ,the action or the life of ,god consists in eternally manifesting itself1 eternally contemplating itself in unity and duality1 eternally dividing itself and still remaining one4 ,the second idea has issued next from the first1 and is therefore related to it as ,son is to ,father1 when the ideas are viewed as personified4 ,the third idea has emerged conjointly from the second and first1 and forms therefore the spiritual union1 the mutual love between both4 ,it may be therefore simply called ,ghost or ,spirit1 if it is thought of as personified4 #gj4 ,since every ,singular1 having been produced through the primary trinity1 is only the expressed word of the primary trinity1 so also must their qualities be recognizable in the same4 ,the ,singular is not simply therefore a position of one idea1 but of all three4 ,all things have issued out of the trinity4 ,the essence of the universe consists in the trinity which is unity1 and in the unity which is trinity2 for it is a likeness of the primary trinity4 ,being1 generally1 is an act1 and that1 indeed1 of a threefold nature4 ,apart from act or function there is no being4 ,that1 which is called nothing1 is in itself an act1 and there is1 therefore1 no absolute nothing4 ,the nothing is only something relative to a particular being4 ,even the mathematical zero is not nothing1 but an act4 ,it is nothing only in reference to particular numbers4 ,numbering is a repetition of one and the same act4 ,the forms or conditions of the primary act are ,rest1 ,motion1 and ,extension or expansion4 a4 ,,primary ,,rest4 7,first form of the ,primary ,act47 #ga4 ,the primary idea is the position simply without any relation1 or any antagonism2 it is the oscillating resting point in the universe1 around which everything collects itself1 and from which everything emerges2 the ,centrum ubique1 circumferentia nusquam4 ,the primary idea is the substratum of everything1 which will come before us in the sequel of this work4 ,everything depends upon this primary essence2 all action1 motion1 and form issues forth from it2 or rather1 in all phenomena naught else appears than the primary essence in different stages of position1 just as in all numbers naught else appears but the zero4 ,the primary idea is the absolute beginning4 ,this primary idea is the non-representable1 the never apparent and yet omnipresent1 idea2 but which is always withdrawing itself from our view when we imagine or believe that we gaze upon it2 in short1 the ,spiritual1 which declares itself in everything and yet always remains the same4 ,the origin of all action may be termed the primary force4 b4 ,,motion1 ,,time4 7,second form of the ,primary ,act47 #gb4 ,the primary idea operates only1 while it posits2 through positing1 however1 arises a succession of positing1 or numbers2 positing and successive positing are one4 ,the function of the primary idea consists in an eternal repetition of the essence2 the primary act is a continuous self-repeating act4 ,repetition of the primary act devoid of another substratum is ,time4 ,time is none other than the eternal repetition of the positing of the ,eternal1 corresponding to the series of numbers #a #a #a n4 ,time has not been created1 but has emerged directly out of the primary act and its position2 it is the function of ,god himself4 ,something has thus already originated1 which appears to conduct us into the universe4 ,time is the first portal through which the operation of ,god passes over into the world4 ,time is the infinite succession of numbers or the mathematical nothings4 ,the mathematising1 numbering act is ,time4 ,numbers1 however1 are ,singulars or finitudes1 which constitute the world4 #gc4 ,time is infinite1 for it is the totality of positing2 it is only the points or numbers in it that are the ,finite4 #gd4 ,all things are created in time2 for time is the totality of ,singulars4 ,time is no stationary quantity1 which is always changing itself into something new during its progressive flux4 ,it is not a continuous stream1 but a repetition of one and the same act1 namely1 the primary act1 like as it were to a rolling ball1 which constantly returns upon itself4 ,there is no endless1 still less an eternal thing2 for things are only positions of time4 ,time itself is1 however1 only repetition1 and thus also a suppression of these positions4 ,the vicissitude of things is in fact time2 if there be no change1 there is also no time4 ,time is an universal property of things4 ,exemption from time is only in the ,eternal4 #ge4 ,time1 not being itself the ,finite1 but creating it1 is not itself a ,real1 but still an ,ideal1 a form only of the primary act1 an idea1 with which finite things have been directly posited4 ,time is the act of numbering2 numbering is thinking2 thinking is time4 ,our thinking is our time4 ,in sleep there is no time for us4 ,god's thought is ,god's time2 ,god's time1 however1 is all time1 consequently time of the world4 ,time is not of earthly but heavenly descent or origin4 ,in so far a divine quality belongs to all finite things4 ,they are divine1 in so far as they are time2 terrestrial1 in so far as they are evanescent moments of time4 ,,polarity4 #gf4 ,time is an action of the primary power2 and all things are active only in so far as they are filled or inspired with the idea of time4 ,the whole activity of things1 all their forces arise out of the primary act or primary power1 are only moments of the same4 ,there are1 however1 no positive without negative numbers1 consequently also no moments of time without suppression of the same4 ,there is1 therefore1 no single force1 but each is the position of and-4 ,a force consisting of two principles is called ,polarity4 ,time is1 therefore1 the primary polarity1 and polarity is manifested at the very instant in which the creation of the world is stirring4 #gg4 ,polarity is the first force which appears in the world4 ,if time is eternal1 polarity must also be eternal4 ,there is no world1 and in general nothing at all without polar force4 #gh4 ,every single thing is a duplicity4 #gi4 ,the law of causality is a law of polarity4 ,causality is valid only in time1 is only a series of numbers4 ,time itself has no causality4 ,causality is an act of generation4 ,the sex is rooted in the first movement of the world4 ,,motion4 #hj4 ,polarity may be viewed as a single positing of -2 if1 however1 this positing repeats itself1 ,motion originates1 viz4 when many --are consecutively posited1 and thus the principal poles separate from each other1 as in an iron bar when magnetizing4 ,time is a polar positing of the primary act1 and an endless repetition of this positing2 through this originate individual things1 whose succession is motion4 #ha4 ,primary motion is the result of primary polarity4 ,all motion has originated from duplicity2 consequently from the idea in a dynamic not a mechanical manner4 ,a mechanical motion1 which might be produced ad infinitum by mechanical impulses1 is an absurdity4 ,there is nowhere a purely mechanical motion2 nothing1 as it is at present in the word1 has become so by impulse2 an internal act1 a polar tension lies at the bottom of all motion4 #hb4 ,motion itself1 however1 is not twofold in character2 it is unity1 but the result of duality4 ,in time we have to distinguish the polar act of position1 and the act of repeating this position1 which is motion4 ,motion is the simple repetition of the polar1 twofold act1 or the ceaseless separation of poles2 but1 as in every polar line the two poles are in all cases together1 so even is this mutual separation of poles only a repetition of polarity4 #hc4 ,motion also is not created1 but has emerged directly from the ,eternal1 is the primary function itself repeated4 ,motion is the ever self-manifesting1 consequently progressive ,god4 #hd4 ,motion is thought1 which is manifested as speech4 ,thought polarizes the fingers4 ,if the thought be powerful it moves them1 and through them other bodies4 ,speech is only a thought that has passed over into motion4 ,the world is the thought of ,god that has been translated into motion1 the moved thought of ,god--thought spoken4 ,it is here evident that the world is not simply the thought but the language of ,god2 for there is no action without motion2 consequently no thought without speech1 and vice vers4 #he4 ,there is no thing which were without motion1 just as there is none without time4 ,a ,finite without everlasting motion is a contradiction4 ,all rest in the world is only relative1 is but a combined motion4 ,there is only rest in the ,eternal1 in the nothing of nature4 #hf4 ,the primary motion is only possible in a circle1 because it fills every thing4 #hg4 ,the motion of finite things by polarity may1 in a wider sense1 be called life2 for life is motion in the circle4 ,polarity1 however1 is a constant retrogression into itself4 ,without life there is no being4 ,nothing is1 simply by virtue of being1 e4 g4 by its mere presence2 but everything of which a being can be declared1 is only1 or manifests itself1 by its polar motion or by life4 ,being and life are inseparable ideas4 ,while ,god acts1 he creates life4 #hh4 ,life is nothing new1 that came first into the world1 after it was created1 but an ,original1 an idea1 a moved thought of ,god1 the primary act itself with all its consequences4 #hi4 ,there is in the universe no vital force of its own2 the individual things lie not there some time and await the polarizing breath1 but they first become through the breath of ,god4 ,the ,causa existenti is life4 #ij4 ,there is nothing properly dead in the world2 that only is dead which is not1 only the nothing4 ,something can only cease to live1 when its motion ceases2 this1 however1 ceases only when deprived of its polarity2 the polarity dissolved1 however1 is zero4 ,thus individual things retreat into the ,absolute1 if they cease to live4 ,everything in the world is endowed with life2 the world itself is alive1 and continues only1 maintains itself1 by virtue of its life2 just as an organic body maintains itself1 only while it is constantly being generated anew by the vital process4 #ia4 ,every living thing is twofold in character4 ,it is one persistent in itself1 and one immersed in the universe4 ,in everything1 therefore1 are two processes1 one individualizing1 vitalizing1 and one universalizing1 destructive4 ,by the process of destruction1 the finite thing seeks to become the universe itself2 by the vitalizing process1 however1 the variety of the universe1 and yet with that to remain a ,singular4 ,that only is truly living which represents the ,eternal1 and the whole multiplicity of the universe in the ,singular4 #ib4 ,the whole in the singular is called ,individual4 ,the individual is an example of computation1 which admits only of being developed1 from its comprehending the whole of arithmetic in itself4 ,nothing individual can persist eternally2 it must eternally move itself1 consequently fill up everything1 displace everything1 must become itself the universe4 ,,man4 #ic4 ,time consists of single acts2 i4 e4 the life or the absolute act does not work with one stroke1 but an infinite number of times4 ,all acts1 therefore1 taken together1 all finite things in time1 are equal to the primary act or the ,eternal4 #id4 ,there are two totalities1 a primary totality #j -1 and a secondary1 or the summing up of all numbers #j n-n2 the former the eternal1 the latter the finite totality1 or the one the eternity1 the other the infinity4 #ie4 ,the more a thing has adopted into itself of the ,manifold of the universe1 by so much the more is it animated1 by so much the more does it resemble the ,eternal4 ,it is conceivable1 for a finite or living essence to unite all numbers or acts in itself1 without1 however1 its being the very ,eternal4 ,it would1 however1 be obviously the most perfect finite essence1 and1 as a secondary totality1 be the likeness of the primitive2 the former the compound universality1 the latter the identical4 #if4 ,such an essence would be necessarily the highest and last1 whereunto creation could attain2 for more than the universe cannot be represented in one thing4 ,with such an essence creation would be closed or would terminate4 #ig4 ,since the realization of the ,eternal is a becoming self-conscious1 so is the highest creature also a ,self-conscious1 but a ,singular4 ,such a creature is the finite ,god1 or ,god become corporeal4 ,god is ,monas indeterminata1 the highest creature is ,monas determinata1 ,totum determinatum4 ,a finite self-conscious being we call ,man4 ,man is an idea of ,god1 but that in which ,god wholly1 and in every single act becomes an object unto himself4 ,man is ,god represented by ,god in the infinity of time4 ,god is a ,man representing ,god in one act of self-consciousness1 without time4 #ih4 ,man is ,god wholly manifested4 ,god has become ,man1 zero has become -4 ,man is the whole of arithmetic1 compacted1 however1 out of all numbers2 he can therefore produce numbers out of himself4 ,man is a complex of all that surrounds him1 namely1 of element1 mineral1 plant and animal4 #ii4 ,the other things below man are also ideas of ,god1 but none of these ideas is the whole representation of arithmetic4 ,they are only parts of the divine conscience posited in time2 but man is ,god1 planted or posited uninjured in time4 ,man is the object in the self-consciousness of ,god2 the creatures below man are1 however1 the objects only of the consciousness of ,god4 ,thus1 if ,god places before and from himself only single qualities1 there are worldly things2 if1 however1 ,god in this crowd of representations attains to his own entire representation1 then arises ,man4 ,god is #j-1 ,man oo #j-oo1 the animal is n #j-n4 ,the animals are only represented in part4 ,the subject of self-consciousness is #j-2 the objects1 however1 are the numbers which are equivalent to this1 being oo #c #b #a #j-a-b-c-oo4 ,thus if all numbers1 all world-elements1 together with their perfections1 occur in consciousness #j-1 there is a ,man2 if only single1 and perhaps but few things1 such as food1 stones1 c4 7with the entire exception of the celestial bodies71 enter consciousness1 there is an animal4 ,they are represented only partly or in a portion of the universe1 but man is represented wholly or in all its parts4 ,animals are fragments of man4 #ajj4 ,no creatures below ,man can possess self-consciousness4 ,they have1 indeed1 consciousness of their several acts and of their sensations1 and possess memory2 but as these several acts are only parts of the world1 or of the great consciousness1 and are not the ,whole1 they can never become objective unto themselves1 never imagine4 ,animals are men1 who never imagine4 ,they are imaginative1 but never of themselves wholly2 they are therefore beings who never attain to consciousness concerning themselves4 ,they are single accounts2 ,man is the whole of mathematics4 ,,freedom4 #aja4 ,an action1 which is not determined by some other action1 is free4 ,god is free1 because apart from him there is none other action4 #ajb4 ,man1 as being an image of ,god1 is likewise free2 as being an image of the world he is devoid of freedom4 ,man is1 therefore1 in his primary commencement or principle free1 but not in his end or object to be attained4 ,in the resolution ,man is free1 in the execution he is not free4 ,the mathematician can select at pleasure any proposition2 but having selected it1 must solve it in accordance with necessary laws and with definite numbers and figures4 ,man is a twofold being1 compounded of freedom and necessity4 ,,retrospect4 #ajc4 ,hitherto we have considered simply the arithmetical relations of the primary act and of the universe4 ,we have shown1 to wit1 that all ideas fluctuate simply under the forms of numbers2 that everything was comprised in the #j -4 ,time was only the active series of numbers2 motion was the actual arithmetical calculation1 namely1 the process of reducing numbers to absolute identity1 to zero4 #ajd4 ,life is moreover only a mathematical problem1 which1 the higher it ascends1 approaches so much the nearer to absolute zero in its attainment of the infinity of numbers1 becomes so much the more endowed with life4 #aje4 ,arithmetic is the science of the second idea1 or that of time and motion1 or of life2 it is1 therefore1 the first science2 mathematics not only begins with it1 but creation also1 with the becoming of time and of life4 ,arithmetic is1 accordingly1 the truly absolute or divine science1 and therefore everything in it is also directly certain1 because everything in it resembles the ,divine4 ,theology is arithmetic personified4 #ajf4 ,hence it follows in the most perfect manner1 that every science1 if it would possess certainty1 must resemble arithmetic4 ,now a science always implies a science treating of certain objects2 all certain objects must1 therefore1 resemble the objects of arithmetic2 or all objects1 of whatever denomination1 whether natural or spiritual1 must correspond to arithmetical objects1 consequently in idea be numbers1 an actual arithmetical problem1 as it were the numbers of motion1 of life4 #ajg4 ,a natural thing is nothing but a self-moving number2 an organic or living thing is a number moving itself out of itself1 or spontaneously2 an inorganic thing1 however1 is a number moved by another thing2 now1 as this other thing is also a real number1 so then is every inorganic thing a number moved by another number1 and thus ad infinitum4 ,the movements in nature are only movements of numbers by numbers2 even as arithmetical computation is none other than a movement of numbers by numbers1 but with this difference1 that in the latter this operates in an ideal manner1 in the former after a real4 c4 ,,form1 ,,space4 7,third form1 of the ,primary ,act47 #ajh4 ,viewed arithmetically every position is a number1 geometrically1 however1 it is a point4 ,what the #j is in arithmetic1 the point is in geometry2 the one the arithmetical1 the other the geometrical nothing4 ,both sciences commence with nothing and are only different views of nothing4 ,the #j is a temporal nothing 7a number71 the point a spatial nothing 7a figure74 #aji4 ,the first motion of numbers or of points is the motion of the primary number1 the #j1 or the primary act2 and this motion depends upon the multiplicity of numbers or points1 upon the disintegration of the identical primary number1 upon the -4 ,the first motion of the primary act is an expansion of itself into multiplicity1 whereby not merely sequence but an addition also is posited4 ,the primary act is not simply positing1 but also posited2 as the former it is time1 as the latter it is time posited universally4 ,time remaining stationary is ,space4 ,space is not different in essence from time1 but only according to position2 it is only time resting1 while this is moved1 active space4 #aaj4 ,space has first arisen out of time1 as the third idea out of the second1 but only ideally4 ,it has arisen out of it1 while1 time being the act of positing1 it is the posited2 now as time posits from eternity1 so is space also from eternity and in eternity4 ,the eternity of space1 however1 depends not upon duration1 but upon extension2 it is unlimited4 #aaa-aab4 ,space is everywhere1 as time is ever4 ,two spaces can no more exist than two times4 ,there is only one ,eternal4 ,time and space are1 however1 nothing special that has attained unto the ,eternal1 but the ,eternal itself4 ,they are also not two kinds of qualities subsisting near each other1 but are one in kind4 ,the series of numbers is infinite1 thus universal2 space is consequently universal4 #aac4 ,space is an idea like time1 a form of ,god like time2 it is the passive form1 the extended #j #j-4 #aad4 ,all temporal things are also in space and limited4 ,an unlimited thing extended through the whole of space is an absurdity4 ,god's operation only is extended through the whole of space2 it is space itself2 when he willed to act1 he became time2 but when he was time1 he became space4 #aae4 ,space has not been created1 but has emerged out of the ,eternal2 it is nothing new in the universe1 nothing next to ,god and present with him1 but coexistent with ,god4 #aaf4 ,single things must be both in space and in time2 or a real thing first originates1 where time and space cross each other at one point2 they cross1 however1 everywhere1 and therefore things are everywhere4 #aag4 ,there is no void or empty space1 no time and no place1 were a ,finite could not be2 for time and space are virtually the manifesting primary act1 the zero that has become thing4 ,,point4 #aah4 ,time has begun with number1 space with the point1 with the spatial nothing1 with the zero of space4 ,this point necessarily posits itself ad infinitum2 it extends itself also in all directions1 and necessarily in equal distances4 ,such an extended point is the ,sphere4 #aai4 ,the sphere is nothing peculiar1 nothing new in the thoughts of ,god1 but only the point expanded1 while this again is but a contracted sphere1 just as the totality of numbers is an expanded #j1 and this their contracted sphere4 #abj4 ,space is spherical1 and1 indeed1 an infinite sphere4 ,the sphere has been posited with space1 and consequently from eternity2 it is also an idea1 and that1 indeed1 the total idea2 for time and space have in it been posited together4 #aba4 ,for ,god to become real1 he must appear under the form of the sphere4 ,there is no other form for ,god4 ,god manifesting is an infinite sphere4 #abb4 ,the sphere is1 therefore1 the most perfect form2 for it is the primary1 the divine form4 ,angular forms are imperfect4 ,the more spherical a thing is in form1 by so much the more perfect and divine is it4 ,the ,inorganic is angular1 the ,organic spherical4 #abc4 ,the universe is a globe1 and everything1 which is a ,total in the universe1 is a globe4 ,,line1 ,,light1 ,,magnetism4 #abd4 ,while the point expands1 it is active2 this active expansion is a simple repetition of the point1 and this is a ,line1 which in the sphere1 however1 is a ,radius4 ,with time originates not merely a series of numbers1 but together with it also the line4 ,the line and time are of one kind1 repeated positions of the nothing1 of the point4 ,it is consequently clear1 how that time were a repeated positing of the ,eternal itself3 for the line is only a repeated self-positing of the point1 of the nothing4 ,god fluctuating in his eternity1 and the point1 are one in kind2 but ,god acting is a line1 being or existing a sphere1 i4 e4 the point in the act of being4 #abe4 ,the line is nothing new in creation1 but time itself1 when regarded more closely4 ,god creates the line as little as he does time2 but this originates unto him1 while he moves1 while he thinks4 ,it is impossible to think without producing a line4 ,the line is therefore from eternity1 is a series of numbers4 #abf4 ,the essence of the line does not consist in its two extremities being continued with equal significance into the ,infinite2 but in its radiality1 i4 e4 that one extremity turned towards the centre has become central1 converging1 absolute2 but the other turned towards the periphery has become divergent1 finite1 multiplicity4 ,the primary line is a line produced with two antagonized characters4 ,the central extremity is #j1 the peripheral is the bisected zero 4 ,this radial line gives us the antetype of a new polarity4 ,the two extremities are not related as and-towards each other1 but as #j and -4 ,at the instant1 when a line originates in the universe1 it is not a line merely1 or an indefinite line that originates2 but one that is definite at both extremities1 polar1 indeed1 but after a determinate fashion4 ,nothing1 not even a finite thing1 exists in an indefinite manner4 #abg4 ,there is no mathematically straight line in the world3 all real lines are polar2 they are all rooted in ,god by one extremity1 by the other in finitude4 ,the primary act becomes in its first operation not merely a posited nothing1 a numerical series2 not merely time1 not merely an aoristic line1 but a ,linea determinata2 in short1 ,god can step forth into time only as radius4 ,the ,monas determinata is a ,monas radialis1 or a centroperipheric monas4 #abh4 ,the essence of the primary antagonism is a centroperipheric antagonism4 ,as centre is related to periphery1 so is here one pole related to the other4 ,polar existence and central or peripheral existence are one4 ,primary polarity is centroperiphery4 ,the primary line is constantly in a state of polar action1 which is called tension2 for it is always converging and diverging1 at once central and peripheric4 ,every line originates1 therefore1 only by tension1 and is only by it1 yea1 every line is nothing else than this tension4 #abi4 ,a line1 one extremity whereof strives towards the centre1 the other to the periphery1 the one to identity1 the other to duality1 will exhibit itself in the world as a line of ,light1 in the planet as a ,magnetic line4 ,magnetism is centroperipheric antagonism1 a radial line1 #j--1 the action of the line being cleft at one extremity4 ,magnetism has its root in the beginning of creation4 ,it is prophesied with time4 ,,surface1 ,,electricity1 ,,oxydation4 #acj4 ,the periphery is the boundary of the sphere1 and is1 consequently1 a superficies or ,surface4 ,this1 therefore1 originates also directly with the positing of the ,eternal4 #aca4 ,as the primary line is not a purely polar1 but a radial line1 so is the primary surface not a level1 but a curved or convex surface4 #acb4 ,there is no level surface in the universe1 no pure surfaces any more than pure lines4 ,all surfaces are curved4 ,for example1 those of drops1 of the heavenly bodies1 of animals4 ,the surface of a sphere is no ,continuum2 but consists properly of the divided peripheric and upright extremities of the radii2 it is a 4 #acc4 ,the surface of a globe has no centre1 no #j1 like the radius2 but is an absolute ,dualized1 a without #j4 #acd4 ,this mode of operating of the primary act is manifested as electricity4 ,electricity is a merely peripheric antagonism1 without centre1 thus without union2 an eternally ,dissevered without rest4 ,electricity is thus also a special form1 under which polarity makes its appearance1 and is likewise rooted in the primary creation4 ,there is1 consequently1 no thing which were not magnetic and electric4 #ace4 ,the idea of a surface is constantly that of surrounding4 ,it is not generated by a section of a globe1 but by the completion1 the circumferential limitation of the sphere4 ,the essence of the sphere is boundary4 ,every surface is finite1 is convex4 ,in the divine position a surface never occurs1 save on the boundary of the primary sphere4 #acf4 ,as no thing can exist without a line1 without a radius1 so also none can be without surface1 without circumscription4 ,the single surface is identical with the ,locus of the old philosophers4 ,every ,finite is a closed whole1 and that thing is of the most perfect kind which has the most perfect closure1 surface1 periphery 7or skin74 #acg4 ,the surface is also not different from the primary act1 but a form of the primary act itself2 or a boundary1 which1 however1 nowhere remains stationary1 but is always displaced by means of the eternal act4 ,therefore the world is at once unlimited and limited2 the latter in reference to the closure of the surface1 the former to the endless expansion of the same4 #ach4 ,the periphery is the object in divine consciousness1 the point which1 posited without the centre1 is thus one and the same1 centre 7subject7 and periphery 7object74 ,it is everywhere the same point1 the same #j1 wherever it be posited4 ,hence the profound saying1 ,mundus est ,sphra1 cujus centrum ubique1 circumferentia nusquam4 #aci4 ,the surface stands in antagonism to the line1 like periphery and centre2 it stands perpendicular upon the radius1 and can never pass parallel to linear action4 ,electricity ranks in eternal antagonism to magnetism4 ,,sphere1 ,,heat1 ,,chemistry4 #adj4 ,the line and surface are density1 the representation of time and space2 they have therefore like these originated out of nothing1 namely1 out of the point4 ,the sphere is the expanded nothing4 ,nothing thus extended1 or nothing posited1 becomes a something1 viz4 line1 surface1 density1 polarity4 ,the line is a long nothing1 the surface a hollow nothing1 the sphere a dense nothing2 in short1 the something is a nothing which has received only predicates4 ,all things are nothings with different forms4 ,the point is #j1 the line 1 the surface -1 the sphere #j-4 #ada4 ,the internal motion of the globe1 or the becoming of the globe1 is manifested in the universe as ,heat1 in the planet as ,chemistry4 ,,rotation4 #adb4 ,the primary sphere is rotating1 for it has originated through motion2 the motion of the sphere cannot1 however1 be progressive1 for it fills everything4 ,god is a rotating globe4 ,the world is ,god rotating4 ,all motion is circular1 and there is everywhere no straight motion any more than there is a single line or straight surface4 ,everything is comprehended in ceaseless rotation4 ,without rotation there is no being and no life2 for without it1 there is no sphere1 no space and no time4 #adc4 ,the more perfectly circular the motion of a thing is1 so much the more perfect is it4 ,straight motion is only the mechanical2 such1 however1 exists not through itself4 ,the more a body moves in a straight direction1 the more mechanical and ignoble is it4 ,straight motion too yields only straight form4 ,,geometry4 #add4 ,the sphere with its attributes is the totality of numbers1 is thus a rotating number4 ,the universe is the same4 ,in arithmetic the quantity of divine positions is regarded2 in the sphere1 however1 the direction of these positions1 or of series of numbers4 #ade4 ,the doctrine of the sphere is ,geometry2 for all forms are contained in the sphere4 ,all geometrical proofs admit of being conducted through the sphere4 ,geometry has originated directly from arithmetic1 or is arithmetic itself1 with this difference1 that the latter regards series of numbers as individualities1 the former1 however1 as a whole4 ,arithmetic is a geometry seriebus discretis2 geometry is an arithmetic seriebus continuis1 a solidified arithmetic4 #adf4 ,geometry is a science of equal value with arithmetic2 it is even as certain1 because it has no other propositions2 it is equally eternal1 is the same realization of the primary act1 the ,deus geometrizans of the ,pythagoreans4 ,everything to be certain must therefore resemble geometry1 must be itself a position of geometry1 only under other relations4 #adg4 ,geometry is more real1 more finite1 therefore also more apparent1 and1 as it were1 more material than arithmetic4 ,the ideas in it have become something determinate1 have assumed form1 while before they still fluctuated formless in arithmetic2 here were they mere ghosts without veils1 but in geometry they have received these veils4 ,time has received for its form1 its body1 the line2 space1 the surface2 life1 the globe1 consequently the rotation for its form or body4 ,it is to be here remarked1 that ideas always become more real and more finite1 always approximate nearer to actual manifestation1 the lower they descend or the more they are considered individually4 ,geometry has not originated later than arithmetic1 but is only a more individual view of ideas1 arithmetic being more universal4 ,geometry is arithmetic with stationary numbers1 points4 ,the ,divine thus approximates to manifestation1 to materiality1 the more individual it becomes2 and this is very natural1 for it verily limits itself more and obtains always more predicates4 ,the more a thing obtains predicates1 by so much the more perfect is its finiteness4 ,by geometry we are actually transferred into the universe1 but only into the formal1 in which it has1 like a skeleton1 been sketched for us solely upon a general plan2 namely1 as infinite extension1 in which line and periphery1 central and peripheric action1 magnetism1 electricity1 and rotation1 c41 have been prefigured4 ,b4--,,hylogeny4 a4 ,,gravity4 7,first form of the ,world4 ,rest47 #adh4 ,in arithmetic the divine acts are only undetermined numbers4 ,in geometry the numbers obtain determinate or finite directions1 become figures4 ,all figures have1 however1 an especial direction to the centre4 ,figures are nought but centres manifoldly posited4 #adi4 ,the direction to a centre is1 however1 an act1 which never ceases to operate4 ,the primary act strives therefore to posit ad infinitum nought else than a centre1 i4 e4 points4 #aej4 ,if there are points without the centre1 it so happens only because the succeeding points have been displaced by the points that were first posited4 ,the peripheric points are only with reluctance out of the centre4 ,the globe only exists in an uneasy state1 because it has no place in the centre4 #aea4 ,every finite thing strives towards the centre4 ,the finite is only something1 in so far as it is posited in the centre1 and it maintains its value according to its distance from the centre4 ,this exertion or endeavour1 by virtue of which things would be in the centre1 is ,gravity4 #aeb4 ,what the retrogression of numbers into #j is1 that is the gravity in the sphere4 ,the gravity is a geometrical reduction of position unto nothing4 ,the sphere is only produced by action1 and that indeed by the centroperipheric4 ,this action must therefore manifest itself in two ways1 as centrifugality and centripetality4 ,the first is the dispersion of the primary act or of points1 the second is the collection of the primary acts or points into the unity1 and this is gravity4 ,centrifugality originates only in a constrained manner or with reluctance1 for the primary act always seeks the centre1 and only moves towards the periphery1 because it has no longer any place there4 ,if centripetality be regarded as a force1 then is centrifugality no force1 but only centripetality itself retreating from the centre2 even as cold and darkness are probably no particular forces in themselves1 but only weaker degrees of heat or light4 #aec4 ,gravity is not motion simply1 but motion unto a centre1 unto rest4 #aed4 ,that which is itself in the very centre is therefore not heavy4 ,the primary act is not heavy4 #aee4 ,as all finite things are positions of the primary act in the sphere out of the centre1 so are all of them heavy4 ,gravity is the force that strives unto the centre1 and which is there impeded by other forces already present therein4 ,a finite thing1 that is not heavy1 is a contradiction4 ,the gravity of the single thing is weight4 ,the world itself has no weight1 or else it must be heavy in relation to something else without it4 ,the ideas of gravity and weight1 as we speak of them in reference to individual things1 are not applicable to the world1 still less to ,god4 #aef4 ,gravity is also nothing new in the world1 but it is only the positing of the centre in space4 ,as necessarily as the ,eternal1 when it manifests itself1 must appear under a definite form1 so also must it be necessary with the eternal effort1 to return into itself or appear as gravity4 ,gravity is nothing different from the primary act1 nothing specially created2 but the spherical position of the same tending unto the centre4 #aeg4 ,now1 as the sphere has originated out of nothing1 so also has gravity originated out of the same4 ,the form is a formed nothing3 the form is1 however1 no form without internal forming force1 and to this gravity belongs4 ,the being of form and the being of gravity are one4 ,gravity is a weighty nothing1 a heavy essence1 striving towards centre1 a realization of the first divine idea4 ,gravity cannot1 therefore1 be perceived in the universe as a whole1 but only in its parts4 #aeh4 ,if gravity is the primary act that has become real1 so must everything originate out of gravity1 or everything must acknowledge gravity to be the common mother of the finite4 ,it is in all cases1 or in every individual thing1 only the gravity1 the ,ponderose1 which exists1 otherwise nothing exists2 for verily nothing exists without the divine primary1 which is incessantly a central1 act4 ,,matter4 #aei4 ,points1 which strive towards the centre1 are compressed1 because they would all occupy one and the same spot4 ,these points1 however1 are forces1 which take up space and therefore exclude other points4 ,a space that excludes another is ,matter4 ,everything which has been said of gravity holds good in respect to matter2 for matter is only another word for gravity4 ,a heavy thing is a material thing4 #afj4 ,to the totality of a thing belongs not merely its figure nor its tension or motion simply1 but also its gravity4 ,this is1 however1 a whole sphere4 ,matter is1 consequently1 a total position of the primary act1 a trinity of ideas4 #afa4 ,matter has been imparted with space and time4 ,all space is material2 ay1 matter is itself the space and the time1 the form and the motion2 for space is nothing special1 but only extended or formed force4 ,it is here also shown that the nothing does not exist4 ,there is as little nothing in the universe as there is an #j in mathematics4 ,so soon as the nothing is1 there is something4 ,the whole universe is material1 is nothing but matter2 for there is the primary act eternally repeating itself in the centre4 ,the universe is a rotating globe of matter4 #afb4 ,but the universe is an acting gravity1 a matter1 in which the centroperipheric antagonism is active2 it is therefore everywhere matter only1 which acts4 ,there is no activity without matter1 but also no matter without activity1 both being one2 for gravity is itself the activity1 and itself the matter4 ,matter is only limited activity4 ,a matter which does not move is not2 it can only subsist through continuous origination1 through life4 ,there is no dead matter2 it is alive through its being1 through the eternal that is in it4 ,matter has no existence in itself1 but it is the ,eternal only that exists in it4 ,everything is ,god1 that is there1 and without ,god there is absolutely nothing4 #afc4 ,it is an illusion to believe that matter were an actual something subsisting in itself4 ,it is even so with numbers1 upon which a reality also is bestowed1 when they are still demonstrable nothings4 ,a number is nothing truly than an affirmation several times repeated1 a reiterated deposition of what is nothing1 what is no number4 ,this deposition happens likewise in the universe1 where it is the primary act1 that is deposited4 ,where1 however1 this is1 no other station can occur4 ,this exclusive property is usually called the ,impenetrable1 the ,material4 ,it cannot be said in what spot matter arises1 so secretly and suddenly does it start into existence4 ,it is matter properly at the first manifestation of being1 of time and of space2 for at the same instant also the line1 surface1 density and gravity have been given4 ,the line does not exist if it does not act2 the sphere does not exist if it be not inert1 i4 e4 if its forces do not strive towards the centre1 and consequently to connexion4 ,nothing exists if it is not material4 ,matter is accordingly coexistent with the presence of ,god4 #afd4 ,the ,immaterial does not exist2 for even the ,material which is not1 is the ,immaterial4 ,everything that is1 is material4 ,now1 however1 there is nothing that is not2 consequently1 there is everywhere nothing immaterial4 ,immateriality is only a postulate principle1 by which to get at matter1 like the #j in mathematics1 which is nothing in itself1 does not even exist1 but that still must be posited1 in order that numbers may bear a reference to it4 #afe4 ,god only is immaterial2 he is the only permanent immaterial invention1 and the axiom being the ,formless1 ,polarless1 ,timeless4 ,a spirit with form is a contradiction4 ,but the matter also does not exist1 because matter is nothing1 because it is only a sphere of central actions1 which is gravity4 #aff4 ,the material universe is called nature4 ,there can be only one nature1 as well according to time as to space and to divine animation4 ,there is only one ,god1 whose operations expressed1 or materially posited1 are nature4 ,nature has originated out of nothing like time and space2 or with these has nature also been4 ,god has made heaven and earth out of nothing4 #afg4 ,god has not found matter co-eternal with himself1 and1 like an architect1 arranged this to his fancy2 but he has1 out of his own eternal omnipotence1 by his will simply1 evoked the world out of nothing unto existence4 ,he has thought and spoken1 and it was4 #afh4 ,the doctrine of matter is the ,philosophy of ,nature4 ,it is therefore the science also of all ,singulars1 like geometry and arithmetic2 thus at bottom is only the third part of mathematics1 and is even as certain and demonstrable as this4 ,,ther4 #afi4 ,the matter1 which is the direct position of ,god1 which fills the whole universe1 which is the time in a state of tension and motion1 the formed space1 the heavy primary essence1 ,i call the ,primary matter1 the matter of the world1 cosmic matter1 ther4 ,the ther is the first realization of ,god1 the eternal position of the same4 ,it is the first matter of creation4 ,everything has consequently originated out of it4 ,it is the highest1 divine element1 the divine body1 the primary substance #j -4 #agj4 ,the ther fills out the whole universe1 and is1 consequently1 a sphere1 yea1 the world's sphere itself2 the world is a rotating globe of ther4 #aga4 ,the sphere of ther1 not as yet individualized1 ,i call chaos4 ,from the beginning was chaos1 and this was ther1 and unto the end will chaos become ther4 ,the ther is the apparent nothing1 and thus it is the chaos4 ,this was not the latter and not the former1 but an existing nothing4 #agb4 ,the ther is the imponderable matter1 because it is gravity and totality itself1 because it is the infinite matter4 #agc4 ,the ther has no life2 it is the only mortuum1 because it is the heavy #j4 ,in ther1 however1 reside all the principles of life1 all numbers2 it is the substratum1 the essence of life4 ,there is only one universal substratum in nature4 ,,heavenly ,,body1 ,,point1 ,,centre1 ,,gravity4 #agd4 ,everything which emerges out of ther and is posited as a finite matter1 can be nought else than a repetition of the sphere4 #age4 ,the ther subdivides into an endless number of subordinate rotating spheres1 and so it must1 because the world is not a whole devoid of parts1 but only a whole in the parts1 only a repetition of positions4 ,the chaotic sphere of ther consists essentially at one and the same time of an infinity of spheres4 #agf4 ,a chaos has never existed4 ,the ,general never exists1 but only the ,particular4 ,chaos was from eternity a multiplicity of therial globes4 ,chaos is only postulate4 #agg4 ,every sphere of ther is complete in itself and closed1 and therefore rotating around its axis and around the universal axis of the ther4 #agh4 ,the new rotation in the heavenly bodies condensed in the periphery of the ther1 follows as a necessary result1 on account of the unequal velocity of its outwardly and inwardly lying points4 #agi4 ,every individual sphere has two motions in itself2 the one depends upon the representation of the primary act in itself by the special rotation2 the other re-attempts to regain the primary centre1 through the general rotation around the universal axis4 #ahj4 ,such a sphere rotating for itself is called a ,heavenly body4 ,a heavenly body again is the image or metatype of the ,eternal2 it is a whole1 it is alive2 everything1 even the highest1 can originate out of it2 everything develop itself out of the coagulated1 individualized ther4 ,the heavenly body has a double life1 an individual and an universal1 since it is for itself and at the same time in the general centre4 ,every ,individual must have a double life4 #aha4 ,the heavenly bodies are as old as the ther1 consequently they are from the beginning1 and endure also without end4 ,as they are only coagulated ther1 so are they susceptible of being resolved into the same1 such as are probably the comets4 b4 ,,light1 ,,line4 7,second form of the ,world4 ,motion47 #ahb4 ,the ther is from eternity1 not merely monas1 but also dyas2 from eternity it stands in a state of tension with itself1 when1 as the image of the existing primary act1 it has emerged out of itself into two poles4 ,this self-egression or self-manifestation of ther1 or of substance simply1 is the self-egression of the point into the periphery4 ,as dyas1 ther exists under the form of polarity1 of central and peripheric effort2 the ther in a state of tension is a centroperipheric antagonism4 #ahc4 ,the ther is separated from eternity into a central and peripheric substance1 and that indeed through its simple position as a globe4 ,the universe is a duplicity in the form of ther2 it is both indifferent and different ther1 both central and peripheric4 ,the central mass of ther may be called sun1 the peripheric planet4 ,only one sun can originate in a globe of ther1 but many planets4 #ahd4 ,between the central and peripheral mass of the ther1 between the sun and planets1 there is tension4 ,through this solar-planetary tension the ther fluctuating between the two becomes polarized4 #ahe4 ,the tension of the ther proceeds from the centre and thus from the sun4 ,were the sun to be removed1 the polarity of the ther would be annulled2 it would be again the indifferent chaotic ther1 the null and void matter4 ,for the absolute substance to exist it needed not simply itself1 but an identical centre and a dissevered periphery4 ,is there no peripheric mass1 no planet1 so also is the tension annulled2 centre cannot be without periphery1 sun not without planet1 nor vice vers4 ,the tension of ther is thus excited by the sun and conditioned by the planet4 ,the planet is not the principle1 but the ,redintegrant of the tension of ther by the opposition4 #ahf4 ,at that part of the universe where no periphery stands opposed to centre1 no planet to the sun1 the ther is not tense1 but indifferent1 annulled4 ,there can thus only be columns of ther1 which are rendered tense1 namely1 those columns of ther which are found between the sun and the planets4 ,near to the planets the ther is void of action1 indifferent1 non-apparent4 ,there are consequently as many apparent ther-columns1 as there are heavenly bodies1 that stand in the process of polarity opposed to each other4 ,these columns move with the planets around the suns4 ,the indifferent ther of the world-space is1 therefore1 successively rendered tense1 as the planets move around suns1 and becomes again indifferent behind the planets4 #ahg4 ,but besides this1 that columns of tension only exist1 and therefore that the ther is nowhere active as a sphere1 there is still no spot in the world-space where there would be only indifferent ther1 nothing2 for the ther consists of many globes of ther4 ,there is thus nowhere an indifferent ther1 consequently nowhere an empty space4 ,the idea of the repletion of space is not that of the sphere1 but of the columns of tension1 which by their crossing in every direction form a sphere only externally4 #ahh4 ,that which is thought of as originally filling space is not the quiescent but only the moved1 tensed ther4 ,the former is the void space1 the nothing4 #ahi4 ,the tension of ther is an action1 which operates according to the line4 ,this linear activity1 which makes its exit from the central mass and is excited hence to the peripheral mass1 is ,light1 or in short1 light is tension of ther4 #aij4 ,light is a traction of lines or radial action2 consequently an antetype of magnetism4 ,a ray of light is a radius4 ,the ray of light has two extremities different from each other2 that turned towards the sun is #j1 that which comes in contact with the planets is 4 ,light is1 therefore1 a splitting1 rending action4 #aia4 ,light is the life of the ther4 ,hitherto the ther was an inactive nothing1 mere substratum for a future4 ,this nothing1 when it becomes centroperipheric1 seeks to tear the mathematical point into radii and circumferences1 appears2 and this centroperipheric manifestation we call light4 #aib4 ,the untensed1 indifferent ther is1 therefore1 darkness1 and this is the essence1 the rest of ther4 ,chaos was thus darkness2 the world arose out of darkness when light became4 ,light has originated out of darkness when the chaos was moved4 ,were it possible therefore for all light to vanish1 the world would again return into its old nothing2 for darkness and nothing are one4 ,god has separated the light from the darkness4 #aic4 ,if light be only a column of ther in a state of tension1 light is or exists only between the planet and the sun2 near to the planet and behind it is darkness4 ,the primary sphere is a dark sphere1 transpierced only by single rays of light4 ,each star1 however1 stands in a state of tension with another2 thus many thousand rays of light stream forth from each1 and fill out the world-space in all directions4 ,there is therefore no absolute darkness1 because there are infinitely numerous rays of light4 ,in the night also there is always as much light present as is necessary to maintain the heavenly bodies in their action4 ,for the world there is no night1 but only for the planets4 ,it will be shown that the air maintains its existence simply through the operation of light2 were it therefore always dark1 were night to endure for ever1 the air must soon assume another composition or mixture1 and everything that lives in it must fall to ruin4 ,this is shown also by the diseases and crises of the same4 #aid4 ,light is from eternity1 for the tense ther was from eternity4 ,the dark chaos exists only as postulate4 ,light is time that has become real1 the first manifestation of ,god2 is ,god himself positing1 is the dyadic ,god4 ,the dyas is not merely radiality but light2 or both are one1 time and light are one1 motion and light are one4 ,when ,god numbers1 when he draws lines1 he thus creates light4 ,god becoming self-conscious is light4 ,light is ,god illuminating4 ,darkness has accordingly never existed1 although the light is derived from the darkness1 like numbers and figures are out of nothing4 #aie4 ,light is no matter4 ,there is no substance called light1 but the ther is illuminant through its binary division4 ,the sun does not1 therefore1 stream forth when it illumines the planets1 and loses nothing of its magnitude2 it is not to be feared that we shall ever lose it4 ,that the sun is an undulating sea of flame1 that it is throughout a volcano1 that combustions or electrical processes of light1 appearing to us as light1 occur in its atmosphere2 that the velocity of rotation hurls about the light-particles1 and that these particles scattered in the world-space are1 by an unknown route1 or by means of comets1 again brought back to the sun1 are opinions unworthy the inquirer into nature4 ,the sun gives out nothing but the impulse1 not1 however1 the mechanical1 which makes the space of heaven tremble upon which it shines2 but the purely spiritual1 as the nerves rule the muscle4 ,the sun can never be extinguished1 never become dark2 for it gives out light1 not as a fire1 but simply by reason of its standing in the midst2 its simple position1 its enchainment to the planets is light4 ,a fire upon the sun would not be perceived by us2 it would not lighten nor warm us1 because of its having no relation to us4 ,the central relation of the sun toward us cannot1 however1 remain unobserved1 and this observation is even that of light4 #aif4 ,matter has become by means of light1 is a child of light1 is but illuminating ther4 ,every binary division of matter manifests itself as light4 #aig4 ,the whole universe is transparent1 because everything has issued out of the tension of ther4 ,everything which is matter is light1 and without light there is nothing4 ,without light the universe is not only dark but it is even not4 ,light is the universe1 and every ,finite is only a different position of light4 ,the world is a thoroughly illuminating globe1 a rotating globe of light4 ,the solar system must have been created according to the laws of light4 ,the phenomena of the world are only representations of optics1 consequently of living geometry4 ,what we see is nothing but optical construction or figuration4 7,vid4 ,oken's ',essay ber das ,licht2' ,jena4 ,fromann4 #ahjh47 c4 ,,heat1 ,,density4 7,third form of the ,world4 ,shape47 #aih4 ,light is not simply a motion in itself1 a mere continuous excitation of polarity in the ther1 but it is also the ther itself set in motion thereby4 ,all polar actions resolve themselves finally into motion of the polarized masses4 ,the end of electricity1 galvanism1 magnetism1 is motion4 ,it will be1 however1 shown that all these polar functions are only repetitions of the primary polarity2 this must therefore produce what the former did1 namely1 therial motion4 #aii4 ,every point of the ther becomes polar1 every one attracts and repels the other2 whereby motion arises in the innermost parts of the ther itself4 ,not a portion of the ther is moved on1 but motion originates in the mass of ther itself4 ,the ther-atoms quit each other4 #bjj4 ,the ther is1 however1 that which is filling space1 is space itself1 the ,expansissimum of the world1 the ,formless and therefore that which adopts all forms4 ,the formless ther1 when it moves itself1 must be connected with a phenomenon1 that depends upon its expansion and identification1 which is polarized by light4 ,this action of the ther does not therefore depend upon the tension of ther1 not upon production from differences in the same1 but upon dissolution of the tension1 therefore upon extension1 upon the indifferent representation of space4 ,this action1 which is at the same time universal1 can only be heat4 ,moved ther is ,heat4 #bja4 ,heat is the contest of the indifferent ther with light2 light alone produces heat4 ,without light the world were not only dark1 but also absolutely cold4 ,cold is untensed and quiescent ther1 death1 nothing2 dark and cold are one4 ,heat is therefore the result of light1 but equally eternal with it2 it is space represented really1 as that is real time4 #bjb4 ,heat is not moved indifferent ether1 which is nothing2 but moved and tensed or the moved light4 #bjc4 ,heat penetrates into thickness as an extending function1 but does not oscillate between two poles like light4 ,it is only the function of density1 and depends upon nothing else1 not upon lines or mere surfaces1 but upon the living sphere4 #bjd4 ,heat and light1 although characters of one substance1 yet stand in an antagonism like thickness and line1 or as indifference and difference4 ,heat is properly the first perfected position of the primary act1 while light is only the act of positing2 the latter therefore is 1 the former-4 ,or also1 gravity is the absolute position1 simply #j2 light is the commencing egression of this position out of itself -1 heat the completion #j-1 and therefore the position everywhere2 it will everywhere deposit1 therefore it is motion1 repletion of space1 expansion4 ,light is gravity become real1 or #j become real2 #j however1 rendered real1 is -4 ,heat is as-at the same time -and #j1 or light and gravity1 material light1 light that is filling4 ,both will also assert the antagonism of their genesis through all forms of the world4 ,the heat seeks to destroy the line1 which the light endeavours to establish2 heat seeks to produce homogeneity in the ,dissimilar1 light to effect the reverse4 ,heat is slow in its motion2 with it the mass of ther must continually move1 or move whither it will operate2 light1 however1 acts spiritually and rapidly1 without motion of the mass1 but only glides continually with the latter4 ,heat is not created1 it is no special matter different from ther4 ,there is no body of heat4 #bje4 ,heat is everywhere where the ther is1 and must consequently be regarded as a sphere4 ,heat is not present merely in the columns of ther between the heavenly bodies1 but everywhere4 ,therefore heat does not move itself in the direction of the line1 but it extends itself on all sides1 as real space4 ,,fire4 #bjf4 ,light and heat were the first phenomena of the world4 ,heat with light1 however1 are ,fire4 ,fire is the totality of ther1 is ,god manifested in his totality4 ,god1 previous to his determination to create a world1 was darkness2 in the first act of creation1 however1 he appeared as fire4 ,there is no higher1 more perfect symbol of divinity than fire4 ,god's whole consciousness1 apart from individual thoughts1 is fire4 ,the ,holy ,scriptures therefore usually admit of ,god appearing under the form of a fire1 as a fiery bush1 a flame4 ,the world is none other than a rotating globe of fire4 #bjg4 ,everything that is1 has originated out of fire2 everything is only cooled1 rigidified fire4 ,as everything has become out of fire1 so must everything to be annihilated have recourse to fire4 ,if finite things be only fire singly posited1 so must every change occurring in the same be an igneous change4 ,nothing changes in the world but fire4 ,the essential change of things take place only by fire4 ,,retrospect4 #bjh4 ,the ,triplicity of the primary act in the universe has now been completely demonstrated4 ,the first manifestation of ,god is monas2 to this corresponds ,gravity1 ther1 darkness1 the cold of chaos4 ,the second manifestation of ,god is the dyas2 to this corresponds the ther in a state of tension1 the ,light4 ,the third manifestation of ,god is the trias2 to this corresponds the want of form1 ,heat4 ,god being in himself is ,gravity2 acting1 self-emergent1 ,light2 both together1 or returning into himself1 ,heat4 ,these are the three ,primals in the world1 and equal to the three which were prior to the world4 ,they are the manifested triunity ,fire4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,ontology--,,of ,,singulars4 ,a4--,,cosmogeny4 a4 ,,rest1 ,,centre4 #bji4 ,through light duplicity originates in the ther1 by virtue of which the ther divides into central and peripheric ther4 ,the peripheric necessarily rotates around the central4 ,every part of the ther is a sphere2 the ther therefore is separated by the light into infinitely numerous central and peripheric spheres4 ,creation is an endless position of centres4 ,the primary centre is inventive4 #baj4 ,there cannot be therefore only a single central mass2 otherwise the universe would be a finite4 #baa4 ,the central spheres are characterized by absoluteness1 the peripheric1 however1 by finiteness1 division2 the former are something in themselves1 but the latter are so only by opposition2 yet the two could not be without each other4 #bab4 ,every central body must be surrounded by several peripheric bodies4 ,the peripheric spheres rotate around the central1 the images of the primary centre4 ,a ,whole1 consisting of a central body and several peripheric bodies1 is called solar system4 #bac4 ,chaos is not conceivable1 without being at the same time solar system4 ,the solar systems are nothing specially created1 but have been given with chaos or with light1 are indeed only the ther separated by light4 ,the primary matter appearing as light must appear at the same time as sun and planet4 ,primary act1 sun and planet are of one kind1 and differ only in this1 that the former is posited individually in the latter1 while in itself it is non-posited4 #bad4 ,there is no general central body1 no central sun1 about which all suns and planets gravitate4 ,the essence of the ther consists in its complete dissipation4 ,there exists only an infinity of solar systems1 which taken together form the central body4 ,all solar systems pursue a course to and fro through each other1 like the blood-globules in the vessels4 ,the general central body is only inventive4 ,that the general central body may be dark 7that it must be1 if present1 from its being invisible7 is an assertion which betrays an ignorance of the essence of light4 ,a dark central body is an absurdity4 b4 ,,motion1 ,,line4 #bae4 ,sun and planet1 as individual spheres1 have also their own individual gravity4 ,the ther therefore must exist otherwise than in the universal sphere4 ,the next change of the ther is condensation1 more intense gravity1 because it becomes more individual1 centre and periphery approximate more closely to each other4 ,the heavenly bodies must contain more matter1 more ther in an equal space than the terrestrial globe4 #baf4 ,the heavenly bodies have obtained their matter nowhere else than out of the primary matter1 the ther2 they are condensed ther4 ,the heavenly bodies of a solar system have derived their mass out of the ther1 which is found within the confines of this solar system4 ,the matter of the heavenly bodies was thus previous to its coagulation strewn in the space of the solar system1 and has been by so much the rarer1 as the space of the solar system is larger than the volume of all the planets together with the sun4 ,it admits therefore of being calculated how much rarer the ther is than e4 g4 water4 #bag4 ,the ther is therefore not absolutely imponderable1 but only so in relation to the heavenly bodies4 ,light and heat are therefore ponderose substances1 though they are not ponderable4 #bah4 ,the separation of the ther into central and peripheric mass has happened according to the laws of light1 and thus according to the centroperipheric primary antagonism4 ,as a consequence of this1 only one central body can originate in a solar system2 the mass of the periphery can1 however1 divide into several1 and must divide into as many as the light has moments of operation2 of this we shall speak for the first time in treating of colours4 #bai4 ,the matter of the periphery can be condensed by light into no other form than that of a hollow globe around the sun4 ,the planets are originally concentric hollow globes1 in the midst of which the sun is formed4 ,there are several hollow globes1 because the light has several points of contraction at certain distances from the sun4 #bbj4 ,the number of hollow planetary globes is a definite one1 and it is not an arbitrary matter how many of them originate4 #bba4 ,the matter of such a hollow globe of ther is still1 however1 rarer by so much than the present planetary mass1 as that of our earth would be rarer if it were to form a hollow globe around the sun1 about as thick only as from the earth to the moon4 #bbb4 ,this hollow globe rotates with the sun1 because the whole globe of ther1 which fills out the space of the subsequent solar system1 rotates2 therefore everything necessarily tends in one direction4 #bbc4 ,these hollow planetary globes1 on account of the rarity of their mass1 their rotation1 and the greater tension of light1 could not subsist in the equatorial plane of the solar system1 but coagulate together in equatorial rings about the centre of the whole system4 ,the planetary foetuses are only solar rings1 which rotate with the sun4 #bbd4 ,if the whole coagulated ther of the solar system be so small in quantity1 that when extended around the sun in a planetary track or course1 it still does not become solid2 so also can the orbitar ring not persist1 but it contracts itself through light1 rotation and the peculiar excited gravity into a globe4 ,this globe continues to rotate1 as it did when under the conditions of orbitar ring1 of hollow globe and as ther2 i4 e4 it pursues a course around the sun4 ,the peripheric globe travels necessarily in the same plane in which the sun rotates4 ,this is therefore called the zodiac4 ,this globe rotates also around its own axis and virtually in the same direction1 according to which it performs its course or the sun rotates4 ,a globe coursing and rotating around the sun in its equatorial plane and in its direction is called planet4 #bbe4 ,at the first aggregation of the mass of the planetary ring into a planetary globe1 the latter was still very much extended1 the earth extending beyond the moon4 ,the mass was thus gaseous4 ,what happened in the great globe of ther1 of which the sun has become the centre1 happens also here4 ,an opposition of centre to periphery again originates2 and a subordinate sun and new orbitar rings are formed4 ,if the mass of the planetary equatorial ring be only small and consequently rare1 it rolls into a globe and together with this into moons4 #bbf4 ,if it be much1 consequently so dense1 that it coheres1 it remains stationary1 and is ,saturn's ring4 #bbg4 ,this is the genesis of the planetary system1 but everything has become1 and remained as it became1 at one stroke4 ,the moon can never have existed as an orbitar ring around the earth in time1 or else it had been solid4 ,being once solid1 it can no more coagulate into a globe4 ,still less1 however1 have the planets originated from conjoined moons4 ,from whence then have the moons come8 ,the solar system has not arisen mechanically1 but dynamically2 it has not become what it is by being projected or hurled from the hand of ,god1 nor by impulses and aberrations2 but by polarization according to eternal laws1 according to the laws of light4 #bbh4 ,as a necessary number of planetary productions exists1 so also is their magnitude1 distance and velocity a determinate one4 ,no planet1 whatever its situation1 has attained that by chance4 ,were the earth larger1 it must also have occupied some other place1 and have had another velocity1 another density of mass1 c4 #bbi4 ,the coagulating matter of ther must collect into a larger mass in the centre than in the periphery4 ,the centre will exist everywhere1 and the periphery comes only to its behalf as if it were a scaffold or prop only to existence4 ,the sun can only be the principle of the determination of the planets by the preponderance of its mass4 ,our sun comprises above #gjj planetary systems in itself4 #bcj4 ,sun and planet are mutually conditionated2 both have originated at the same time1 the former as the positive pole1 the latter as the negative1 as the necessary counterpoint1 or the one as #j1 the other as 4 ,the hypothesis1 which surmises that the planets have come from another solar system1 is not maturely considered4 ,for how have they there originated8 ,such explanations are mere child's play4 ,sun and planet are in idea but one piece1 only one line with two different extremities4 ,the same act which polarizes the sun polarizes also the planets out of chaos4 ,one and the same ther that has become positive1 is called sun1 when negative1 it is called planet4 ,both are only a single globe of ther1 the centre of which is called sun1 the periphery1 planet4 ,the latter belongs to the sun1 like a stone though detached from1 belongs to1 the earth2 its rotation is therefore similar1 but retarded4 c4 ,,form #bca4 ,the sun cannot be in the absolute middle of the solar system1 on account of its antagonism with the planets1 which would likewise become the centre4 ,the collective mass of the planets is the secession of the sun from the centre4 ,the situation of the sun or the degree of its excentricity bears relation to the polar force of the planets4 ,the form1 under which the solar system really exists1 cannot therefore be the sphere1 but the ellipse1 i4 e4 the duplicity of the centre4 #bcb4 ,the sphere is only the type of the universe1 of the ther1 but not of the solar system nor the ,finite4 ,no ,finite is absolutely spherical4 ,as the real universe can only exist in a bicentral condition1 so is there in this respect also no universal central body4 ,it is there1 but under the form of bicentrality1 as sun and planet4 ,god only is monocentral4 ,the world is the bicentral ,god1 ,god the monocentral world1 which is the same with monas and dyas4 ,the primary polarity1 the dyas1 the radiality1 the light establishes itself in nature as bicentrality1 which is the cosmogenic expression for self-manifestation or self-consciousness4 ,self-consciousness is a living ellipse4 #bcc4 ,the bicentrality determines the distance of the planets from the sun4 ,if the sun as the active pole be strong or energetic1 the planets will occupy a remote situation2 if it be feeble or weak1 one that is near4 ,the strength of the polar energy depends1 however1 upon the quantity of the mass4 ,were the mass of the sun less1 all the planets would range nearer to it2 were it greater1 they would be all driven further off1 as electricity repels the pith-balls of elder-wood2 more than this the planets are not towards the sun1 but even less4 ,the energy of the solar polarization depends not merely upon its magnitude1 but also upon the velocity of rotation1 which harmonizes with the former2 the latter1 however1 depends upon the original velocity of rotation of the ther4 ,the velocity of the rotation of ther being assumed as definite1 that of the sun must be definite also1 and with this everything accords4 #bcd4 ,the circumvolution of the planets around the sun is a polar process of attraction and repulsion1 by virtue of the primary law in the solar system1 by virtue of the light4 ,the planet then can only be repelled in the neighbourhood of the sun from the sun1 when it has the same solar pole in itself1 when it has become positive2 and can only attract it at a distance from the sun1 when it has received the opposite pole to the sun1 or has become negative4 #bce4 ,this is only conceivable in that the planet1 while it draws nearer to the sun1 extinguishes in itself by its own power the negative pole1 and produces on the contrary the positive pole1 or becomes a sun2 and that1 as it removes itself from the sun1 it again extinguishes the positive solar pole1 and generates the negative planetary pole within itself4 ,this substantial production of alternating poles upon the planet takes place through the diversity of its surface as water and land1 through the oblique position of its axis1 whereby summer and winter are produced1 through the processes1 or through the life that is upon it1 through the processes of decomposition and combination effected by water1 through the revival and death of vegetation1 and even the white colour of snow4 ,the planet discharges its pole in the neighbourhood of the sun1 like a cork pellet1 and reloads of itself at a distance from the sun2 and thus oscillates to and fro1 like the hammer in an electrical bell4 ,the course of the planets takes place with the greatest ease4 ,it is everywhere no force of weight1 of impulse1 but of the easiest self-motion4 ,the planet revolves by its own force to and from the sun1 like the blood circulates to and from the heart4 #bcf4 ,the planet cannot1 however1 be diverted from its course1 because the other heavenly bodies1 probably the comets1 do not act mechanically but only polarly upon it4 ,by means of this polarity they maintain themselves always at a distance1 even as the sun keeps itself at a distance from the planets4 ,in addition to this1 the polar tension between the comet and the sun is stronger than between the comet and the planets4 ,the perturbations of the planets depend upon their polar relations to each other4 ,although the planets have a centrifugal tendency1 they are not thrown by a prodigious mechanical force in the direction of the tangent1 and then drawn back by an attractive force of the sun1 that has no import or meaning2 but they course in a playful manner round the sun4 ,a theory of attraction of this kind has no physical sense4 ,such an attraction is a ,qualitas occulta1 an angel which flies before the planets4 ,it does not create the world by impulses and strokes1 but only by vivification4 #bcg4 ,were the planet dead1 it could not be attracted or repelled by the sun2 it would have from the very beginning always maintained a similar pole in itself1 and it could therefore only move in a circular manner around the sun4 ,the circular motion or course around the sun is not generally conditioned by the polarity of the planets1 but depends upon the primary rotation4 ,proportionably to the mutual interchange of polar operation between the sun and planet1 the latter would only approach the sun in the line of the apsides1 and thus remove from it2 but by the primary rotation it is conducted around it4 ,the elliptical path is consequently the result of rotation and of the polar or linear interchange of operation between the two heavenly bodies4 #bch4 ,the moon would keep a wholly circular path around the sun1 if it were not disturbed by the earth1 were it not through the difference of the earth's poles to passively retain also different polarities2 for the moon is in itself dead4 #bci4 ,the moon is not attracted more forcibly by the earth than the sun2 and therefore it remains not by the earth4 ,the sun exercises more polar action1 more photal action upon it than the earth1 and yet it falls not into the sun1 for the very same reason that the earth itself does not fall in4 ,the moon is forsooth to be regarded as itself a planet with a definite charge of electricity1 which is always equably maintained by light2 as such it rotates circularly about the sun4 ,but it rotates in the same path wherein the earth rotates2 therefore the latter operates upon it and draws it in its strange serpentine line around the sun4 #bdj4 ,the more living a planet is1 by so much the more excentric is its path1 because it enters into great opposition with the light4 #bda4 ,if polarization by light be the cause of the attraction and repulsion of the planets from the sun1 so is it also the cause of the distance of the planetary masses generally4 ,the individual distance of the several planets is determined by the energy of their own polar excitation4 ,planets1 which possess a strong polar energy1 must range further than the others from the sun4 ,this polar energy is1 however1 dependent upon the magnitude and density of the mass1 upon the level state or unevenness of the surface1 upon the capacity for heat1 upon the quantity of water1 upon the position of the axis in regard to the path1 upon the possible processes of vegetation2 it is thus not to be determined4 ,before vegetation was upon the earth1 there were other processes1 e4 g4 the aqueous precipitations1 that changed the polarity2 so that the path might formerly have been different to what it subsequently was or is now4 #bdb4 ,planets are consequently those bodies which possess in themselves a peculiar degree of polarity and a substantial change of the same1 whereby their individual distance and the nature of their paths are determined4 ,,comets4 #bdc4 ,the comets are heavenly bodies1 devoid of a persistent grade of polarity1 and without any substantial change in the same4 ,they obtain their polarity solely from the sun1 like the cork-pellet from the electrical machine4 ,the comet is therefore repelled as far from the sun as there is still an action between it and the polarity that has been imparted to the comet4 #bdd4 ,at the point where all antagonism between comet and sun ceases1 the former must remain stationary1 and resolve itself again into ther4 ,this is the case with those comets that never return4 ,these comets are temporal coagulations of ther by light1 and thus continued creation4 #bde4 ,the ther coagulates where the light1 already polarized in part by the operations of other heavenly bodies1 encounters it4 ,this depends upon fortuitous constellations4 #bdf4 ,these comets originate like the planets2 they are ther condensed in the form of an orbitar ring4 ,this dissevered orbitar ring is the tail1 which is only a more gaseous ther1 through which1 or even through the nucleus itself1 the stars are seen4 ,the tail follows the comet not really but only ideally4 ,around the nucleus1 so far as it is prolonged1 the light concentrates the ther4 ,new ther is constantly emitting light1 while that which was before illuminating as tail again becomes dark and again sinks into a state of indifference4 ,the tail is only an optical spectrum4 ,for how can the tail be really a part of the comet1 since it is always turned backwards from the sun1 since it therefore follows and precedes the nucleus8 ,the nucleus is only the lamp which kindles the ther surrounding it for some time4 ,the light suffers a modification through the nucleus2 it therefore polarizes only the ther behind it4 ,the tail is the evident example of what is antecedent in the origin of the heavenly bodies4 ,it is the heavenly body conceived in the act of becoming1 but unto which polarization is wanting2 it cannot therefore concentrate itself1 but again dissolves when the nucleus is gone4 ,every heavenly body is a mass of ther in the world-space1 which is materialized by light1 and separated out of its indifference into difference1 into more solid masses4 ,finally1 the tail becomes dense ther1 a nucleus4 #bdg4 ,these comets are thus true meteors2 as they originate1 so originate the globes of fire1 by polarization occurring in the atmosphere1 or even too above the limits of the atmosphere4 #bdh4 ,meteoric stones are terrestrial comets4 ,the opinion that they come from the moon has no foundation4 ,there is probably as little metal as water upon the moon4 #bdi4 ,returning comets are probably polarized by two suns4 #bej4 ,a comet can never come into collision with a planet2 the fear of such an event is equally absurd with the hypothesis1 that a comet had produced the deluge or displaced the earth's axis4 #bea4 ,two planets also can never come into mutual collision1 not even those that have been recently discovered1 although their paths intersect each other4 #beb4 ,the planets are returning comets1 which1 however1 before they have come to the second sun1 have produced within themselves the opposite pole to the sun4 ,what happens to the comets through the influence of the second sun1 the planets effect of themselves4 ,b4--,,st,,chiogeny4 ,,condensation4 #bec4 ,through its separation into polar masses the ther becomes condensed1 heavy and material4 #bed4 ,this condensation is the result of the fixation of a definite pole on a definite mass of ther4 ,the essence of the ther consists in its having no fixed pole1 but that all the poles oscillate to and fro with the greatest facility from one particle of ther to the other4 ,this is what is meant by indifference1 by equivalency of poles2 no part of the ther differs from another1 because none retains permanently a definite pole1 but each of them all the poles4 ,the formation of the heavenly bodies is none other than an union of poles to a definite mass of ther4 #bee4 ,a mass of ther with a fixed pole is a dense matter2 such a mass of ther ,i call terrestrial matter1 but the ther itself the cosmic4 ,sun and planet must be terrestrial matters1 for the essence of both consists in the difference of their poles4 #bef4 ,the cause of the fixation of poles resides in light4 #beg4 ,the heavenly bodies go to ruin by removal of the fixation of the pole abiding on the mass1 substratum or substance1 not by mechanical demolition4 ,the destruction of the heavenly bodies is a retrogression of their mass into ther by means of fire4 ,heat does not drive the bodies1 after the manner of a wedge1 from each other1 but only suppresses their polarity1 and then the atoms must withdraw from each other4 ,heat depends only on the destruction of poles1 not upon extension4 ,the heavenly bodies are ruined in the same way that they have originated1 namely1 through the primary act in its retrogression4 #beh4 ,it is only the pole1 no other concealed property1 which maintains the being of the mass4 ,the mass is not a terrestrial mass subsisting simply by its own rest4 ,nothing material is the cause of the form of matter1 but the ,spiritual4 ,matter has therefore no quality1 no consistence of itself1 but is nothing1 is ther4 ,mass cannot supplant mass1 nor mechanism destroy anything material4 ,the destruction must proceed from within4 #bei4 ,the fixation of poles in the substance is the impenetrability of matter4 ,it is only the spirit in matter which renders this impenetrable1 not the mass itself4 #bfj4 ,the ther is penetrable1 and therefore also penetrating4 ,heat is penetrating2 light1 as ther in a state of tension1 is only partially penetrating4 #bfa4 ,all the diversity of matter depends upon the fixation of poles in the substance4 ,for there is no diversity in the universe without poles1 without binary division4 ,the substance always remains the same1 it is only the poles that change4 ,the substance is the ,indestructible1 the ,persistent1 the ther1 the nothing4 #bfb4 ,the fixation is the perquisite1 but the necessary one1 of the substance4 ,the diversity of things resides only in the perquisite4 ,in the substance all are alike4 ,there is only one substance1 only one essence4 ,,elemental ,,bodies4 7,how many kinds of ther-condensations may exist87 #bfc4 ,the ther has three forms1 and can therefore condense itself after a ternary manner1 or in other words1 there can be only three kinds of fixations of poles4 #bfd4 ,the condensations of the several forms of ther must be simple matters or ,elemental bodies1 as they are called4 #bfe4 ,there can therefore be only three simple bodies1 a body of gravity #j1 one of light 1 and one of heat -4 #bff4 ,if the heat of the ther becomes fixed1 the rarest1 most mobile and lightest body must originate4 ,the body of heat is ,hydrogen4 #bfg4 ,if the light of the ther becomes fixed1 a less dense1 and thus a less heavy matter1 must originate1 and one whose atoms are moveable against each other4 ,the body of light must be the most active in nature2 it must determine the changes of all other elemental bodies4 ,the body of light is ,oxygen4 #bfh4 ,if the gravity of the ther become fixed1 the greatest condensation must originate4 ,the densest matter is necessarily the heaviest4 ,the dense matter must be immoveable in its atoms1 i4 e4 endowed with form4 ,the body of gravity is ,carbon 7as basis of the metals74 #bfi4 ,besides these #c elemental bodies1 hydrogen1 oxygen and carbon1 there can be no other simple bodies4 ,all other bodies must be only different degrees of fixation of the above-mentioned bodies1 or combinations of the same4 ,different degrees of carbon are without doubt the metals4 ,different degrees of oxygen are probably chlorine1 iodine1 bromine4 ,different degrees of hydrogen are probably sulphur4 ,nitrogen is probably peroxydised hydrogen1 or an oxyd of hydrogen2 this is indicated by its medium weight1 and its perfectly azotic character4 ,,elements4 #bgj4 ,simple bodies cannot exist for themselves1 for there can nowhere be an ther1 which merely belongs to gravity1 or merely to light or to heat4 #bga4 ,an elemental body is never a ,total1 but invariably a ,polar1 a something not whole1 properly a half or rather but a third essence1 a fraction4 ,one-sidedness is therefore the character of the elemental body4 #bgb4 ,one pole is nowhere produced1 but all are invariably present together4 ,the terrestrial matter completed must therefore consist of the three primary bodies1 but occurring in diverse proportions4 ,as light and heat can never subsist without the substance of the ther1 so also can no body of light and no body of heat subsist per se without the body of gravity or carbon1 and vice vers4 ,the general materials of nature are therefore combinations of the three primary bodies4 #bgc4 ,the ther is the totality of the primary bodies in equal proportion1 where thus no pole is fixed1 but all are comprehended in fixation1 i4 e4 in constant change4 #bgd4 ,all other general matters must be also combinations of the three primary bodies1 but with different fixation1 or in unequal proportion4 ,there can consequently be only four general matters4 #bge4 ,the first general matters are called ,elements4 ,there are only four elements1 one general and three particular4 #a4 ,element1 ,fire4 #b4 - - - - ,heat4 #c4 - - - - ,light4 #d4 - - - - ,gravity4 #bgf4 ,each element is a total representation of the ther4 #bgg4 ,an element is not that which is chemically inseparable1 but it is only the ,whole1 which has first originated4 ,but the elemental bodies are chemically non-decomposible1 because they are already separate1 being moieties or fractions4 #bgh4 ,the heat element is the hydrogen element--,air4 #bgi4 ,the light element is the oxygen element--,water4 #bhj4 ,the gravity element is the carbon element--,earth4 #bha4 ,in each element1 beside the basic or combustible elemental body1 there is also oxygen2 for they are verily naught else than the ther fixed by light1 ther that has become heavy by means of light4 ,,air4 #bhb4 ,the first condensation of the ther must be that which corresponds to its condition as heat4 ,this element1 as being that in which the atoms have no connexion1 must be therefore the lightest and rarest4 ,in this element the poles must be fixed in the least degree1 and therefore change with the slightest operation4 ,this element is therefore moveable in all directions1 is the most unstable1 and in form most similar to the ther4 #bhc4 ,active freedom from form predominates in it1 i4 e4 its atoms are constantly striving to withdraw from each other1 or the mass to extend4 ,this endeavour is called elasticity4 ,elasticity is none other than the endeavour to become a greatest or interminable globe4 ,the terrestrial matter1 with this striving towards an universal globe1 is called gas4 #bhd4 ,the formless internally moveable element1 constantly extending itself and changing its pole1 is the ,air4 #bhe4 ,the air is the first terrestrial element1 the first degree of therial condensation associated with the feeblest fixation of poles1 the constant change of which is manifested in its electric relations4 ,it corresponds in every respect1 in mobility1 extension1 general penetration1 c41 to heat4 ,the air consists of a preponderance of the body of heat or hydrogen 7oxydulated as nitrogen in the proportion of #gi by volume71 and of a fair quantity of the body of light or oxygen 7#ba72 also of a very small amount of the body of gravity or carbon1 as evidenced in the carbonic acid4 #bhf4 ,the air is a maximum of air1 a medium of water1 and a minimum of earth4 #bhg4 ,as heat is not merely indifferent ther1 nor merely its motion or extension1 but is the ther moved by the polarity of light1 so is the hydrogen gas in the air not in a pure state1 but converted by oxygen into nitrogen4 ,the air is in every respect therefore an element that has undergone combustion1 an oxyd of hydrogen and carbon4 #bhh4 ,the oxygen is that which is everywhere active1 exciting1 moving1 and vivifying everything2 it is the light in the ,terrestrial4 ,the nitrogen is inert1 as it were mortified1 and therefore mortifying or causing death2 the former the 1 the latter the-4 ,the greatest activity among all terrestrial elements resides in the air1 since all polarizations issue from it4 #bhi4 ,the changes in the air are accompanied by constant changes of temperature1 for they are verily in themselves nothing else than changes of caloric-ther4 #bij4 ,all subsequent elements must originate from or be condensations of air1 even as this has arisen out of1 and been a condensation of1 the ther4 #bia4 ,condensations1 however1 are fixations of poles2 the other elements differ therefore only from air by having other poles fixed in them4 #bib4 ,since the poles are at the same time fixed more internally on these elements1 they can no longer have the gaseous form4 #bic4 ,they must on this account contain more bulk and be therefore heavier4 ,,water4 #bid4 ,if the polarity of light becomes fixed in a certain quantity of the mass of ther1 or the oxygen of the air obtains the preponderance1 a less changing element originates possessing a more definite character1 and the atoms of which adhere more strongly to each other than those of air4 #bie4 ,this element has1 in addition to the gaseous effort towards a general globe or periphery1 the effort at the same time also to a centre1 or to an individual globe4 ,it is therefore neither elastic or gaseous4 ,the effort of a mass to a special and general globe is a conflict betwixt form and want of form4 ,this effort is called fluidity4 #bif4 ,the fluid element must contain a preponderance of oxygen 7#he71 and less hydrogen 7#ae74 ,there is also some carbon present in it4 ,the carbon of water is to be sought in the slime of the sea1 for the sea1 and not fresh water1 is the primary water4 #big4 ,the fluid element oxygen is the ,water4 ,water in large as well as in small quantities1 seeks to represent the globe1 namely1 to form drops4 ,it possesses therefore the effort unto form1 while it is always relapsing into formlessness4 ,this oscillation between form and formlessness is the conception of fluidity1 which is therefore essentially different from that of gasidity2 it might be said that the latter were the arithmetic or constant change of numbers2 but that fluidity were the combination of arithmetic with geometry4 #bih4 ,if the essence of water consists in the contest between form and formlessness1 it must thus seek to produce fluidity everywhere4 ,liquefaction is1 however1 called solution1 namely1 globules are formed1 both on a large and small scale4 ,the function of water is therefore solution4 ,it dissolves the air1 7imbibes it7 like the earth4 #bii4 ,water is more difficult to analyze than air1 because its poles are more fixed4 #cjj4 ,in the analysis of water1 the body of heat emerges in a pure state as hydrogen1 because the antagonism here subsists in an abrupt manner2 in the air it is constantly changing4 ,hydrogen is therefore nitrogen wholly deoxydised4 #cja4 ,if water is the oxygen-element1 so is it the light-element or condensed light-ther2 thus it is as little something absolutely new as the air4 #cjb4 ,terrestrial life originates out of water1 as does the cosmic life out of light4 ,all form originates from water2 for it is the general fluid1 or that which strives towards form4 ,without water1 there would be no life1 no ,solid and no ,organic4 ,,earth4 #cjc4 ,if the gravity of ther condenses itself1 or the action of gravity be fixed in a quantity of ther1 there originates immobility of the atoms1 i4 e4 an effort upon their part towards a single direction1 namely1 simply towards the centre4 ,the effort towards a single direction or towards the centre1 is cohesion or rigidity4 #cjd4 ,the mass with fixed gravity is carbon4 ,if therefore the carbonic acid of air1 or the carbon of water1 obtain the preponderance over the other elemental bodies1 there thus originates the rigid centripetal element4 #cje4 ,the heavy1 rigid1 carbon-element is the ,earth4 ,the earth is neither gaseous nor fluid4 ,the earth contains a preponderance of carbon1 with a tolerable quantity of oxygen1 and a slight amount of hydrogen and nitrogen4 ,the earth is an oxyd of carbon4 #cjf4 ,if fire is indicated by #j-1 the air then corresponds to the-1 the water to 1 the earth to the #j4 ,the earth is therefore the ,identical1 water the ,indifferent1 air the ,different2 or the first the centre1 the second the radius1 the last the periphery of the general globe or of fire4 ,the earth is naught but an accumulation of points4 ,if radii occur in it1 it happens only because all points have not place in the middle point4 #cjg4 ,the capacity for analysis of the elements comports with the serial order of their origin4 ,the air is most easily analysed1 the water with difficulty1 the earth scarcely or not at all4 ,the ther is occupied in eternal analysis1 and therefore appears only when it is momentarily polarized unto light or heat1 i4 e4 obtains the disposition to fixation4 #cjh4 ,if air represent arithmetic1 so does earth the geometry or universality of forms4 ,water is the synthesis of both1 the algebra2 ther the analysis4 #cji4 ,the geometrical figures of the earthy are called crystals2 the geometry of the earth is ,crystallography4 #caj4 ,in the creation the three primary ideas attained only by degrees to reality4 ,first of all the trias becomes real in the air1 then the dyas in water1 and lastly the monas in the earth4 ,the creation of the elements is none other than a representation of the three divine ideas in a finite sphere4 ,creation is a process of formation of the nothing4 #caa4 ,creation ceases with the production of the fixed or stable form2 for all ideas have parted from each other1 and settled down into the most ,individual1 with which separation all further formation of new matters necessarily ceases4 ,creation is a constant analysis of the ther1 of air1 and finally1 of water4 #cab4 ,the element that is correspondent to gravity necessarily occupies the centre upon the planet4 ,it is surrounded by the element corresponding to light1 the water1 like the centre is by the radii2 both are enveloped by the heat-element or air1 which forms the periphery of the globe1 the integument of the planet4 #cac4 ,the forms of the elements are the following2 water is spherical in its greatest as well as least parts2 for it is the point merging out of itself1 and can therefore nowhere acquire form4 ,the earth is everywhere nothing but point2 it is therefore concrete1 and every part self-subsistent or individual1 while in water no part subsists for itself1 but at every opportunity is confluent with the other1 and therefore arrives nowhere at individuality4 ,finally1 air is the eternal flight of the smallest parts to the periphery4 ,in the earth the ,finite or ,singular is for itself2 in the water it is so only through the ,whole2 in the air it is not indeed for itself1 but is there only the ,whole without individualized parts4 #cad4 ,the world is twofold1 an therial and a terrestrial2 both are transcripts or copies of each other1 and both ultimately of ,god4 ,the terrestrial world has originated out of the ther2 it is therefore further removed from ,god than the ther2 this is the discharged1 purified ,terrestrial4 #cae4 ,god is a threefold ,trinity2 at first the ,eternal1 then the therial1 and finally the ,terrestrial1 where it is completely divided4 #caf4 ,the holy primary number is #c2 the second is #i4 ,the ther is #a in #c2 the other elements are simply the #c of the ther1 together #d4 #b #c1 however1 or #f1 lies at the bottom of this #d4 ,the symbolic numbers are consequently #a1 #c1 #d1 #f1 #i1 which fundamentally are one and the same1 but in different combinations4 ,with this1 however1 all formation does not yet terminate2 to the #d elements is added the vegetable and animal kingdom4 ,the number of the days of creation is #f4 ,c4--,,st,,chiology4 ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,elements4 #a4 ,functions of the ther4 #cag4 ,the spiritual activity of ther manifests itself as a process of combustion1 which appears as fire4 ,the combination of the substance with light and heat is fire2 the elements have therefore originated by a process of combustion4 ,all matter has undergone combustion1 and indeed ther has been submitted to the same process4 ,the process of fixation of the ther or the process of condensation1 is consequently a process of combustion4 #cah4 ,each heavenly body has originally burnt1 was nothing but fire2 the ,vulcanic has preceded the ,neptunian agency4 ,it was1 however1 the primary process of combustion1 through which the at present combustible matters first originated4 ,the present volcanoes must not be regarded as synonymous with the primary combustion4 ,there it was not ,vesuvii that burnt1 but ther4 #cai4 ,what has not been burnt upon the planet1 is again reduced4 ,a something that has not originally suffered combustion is a contradiction4 ,the metal is therefore not the ,original1 as for obvious reasons also1 the solid cannot proceed directly out of the ther1 without having been first gaseous and fluid4 ,the processes of combustion upon the planet are all secondary1 are imitations of the primary combustion in matter1 in the elements4 ,fire consists of the combinations of the three activities1 gravity1 light1 and heat1 which are now to be separately considered4 a4 ,,gravity4 #cbj4 ,the functions of gravity are exhibited principally in the motion of the heavenly bodies1 and are so completely unfolded in works upon ,physics and ,astronomy1 that they may here be passed over in silence4 b4 ,,light4 #cba4 ,the ther and the terrestrial matter are correlative1 like ,higher and ,lower1 unity and multiplicity1 and therefore stand in the same antagonism with each other1 as the air with the two inferior elements4 ,the ther is constantly seeking to convert the matter into itself1 to render it indifferent by depolarization1 this1 however1 to condense it4 ,matter is only condensed ther4 ,this condensation proceeds1 however1 from the polarization of light1 and it is consequently the activity of light by which the ther hardens into matter4 #cbb4 ,the activity of the ther or the light dies or becomes obscured in matter4 ,the next obscuration of light1 or its immediate transition into matter is the polar primary body1 oxygen4 ,oxygen is the corporeal light4 ,it is the spirit of light to posit every thing with an internal polarity1 to convert everything into oxygen1 to render everywhere free the oxygen pole2 for the process of fixation can only happen through activity light1 and fixation is a production of primary bodies4 #cbc4 ,light is the manifestation of positive tension1 of the tension of oxygen4 ,when this reaches its maximum1 light issues forth4 ,this is evident upon the planet4 ,every generation of the ,similar takes place through the similar principles2 the cosmic generation of light must be therefore imparted also by positive tension1 by that of oxygen4 ,no reference has been here made to the negative relation of oxygen in electrical tension2 it does not come under the denomination4 #cbd4 ,the sun is the body of oxygen1 the water in the world-space2 the planet1 however1 is the basic body1 the earth in world-space4 ,the ther is diffused between the two as the air of heaven4 ,the sun appears to have only the density of water2 for it is four times less dense than the earth1 and is thus pretty nearly in the condition of water4 #cbe4 ,the sun must be water1 even because it is a body of oxygen4 ,it must be denser than water1 because it is in the centre1 is central water4 #cbf4 ,it gives out light only1 because it is water2 for as such it is in eternal motion4 #cbg4 ,the solar water is moved by the planets1 like ebb and flow4 ,at every point of the sun opposite to which a planet stands1 there is flow2 there the illumination is stronger1 in other situations weaker4 ,there must be several seas of light upon the sun1 as many as there are planets placed opposite to it4 ,there is nowhere a perfectly quiescent point in the sun2 therefore it is nowhere wholly solid4 #cbh4 ,the shining is an ebb and flow of the sun4 ,query ,do not the spots and flashes of the sun depend upon this8 ,the ebb and flow also of the sea gives out light2 every motion in water shines4 ,the sun does not simply shine by external motion1 but because it is by this motion polarized unto the ,innermost4 ,it is a true gelatinous animal1 a body trembling through its whole mass1 and thereupon phosphorescent4 #cbi4 ,the sun is not inhabited4 ,it has no firm ground4 #ccj4 ,the contest of the primary principles of the elemental bodies upon the planet appears as light4 #cca4 ,light is now more closely characterized4 ,it is no longer merely the tension of ther generally1 but tension of material elemental bodies4 ,thereby the light has been torn from heaven and given to the earth4 ,light has a chemical relation1 and admits therefore of comparison with terrestrial matters4 #ccb4 ,through light the negative1 its opposite or the basic1 pole has been evoked in matter4 ,the sun is self-posited as oxygen against the planet as ,azotic or phlogiston2 hydrogen and carbon4 ,light therefore deoxydises the bodies2 it converts them into itself1 into a polar principle4 ,acids placed in the light become deoxydised2 nitric acid1 muriate of silver4 ,oxygen is developed in light out of water4 ,in like manner the constituent parts of the air continue separated only through light4 ,,inflexion4 #ccc4 ,the light tends from the sun to the earth1 not merely because the polarization in accordance with its nature streams forth from the centre to the periphery1 because the light is radiality2 but because the earth is the basic pole of the sun4 ,it is thus polarity1 and not simply the straight line1 which light obeys4 ,light tends to the centre of the earth1 because between this and the sun the tension oscillates4 ,the line of tension is only between the two centres4 #ccd4 ,in whatever direction light may fall upon the earth1 it must strive towards the middle point4 ,those bodies that have in themselves the earthy nature1 attract the light1 not by virtue of an hidden quality1 but out of the antagonism with the sun2 now it may proceed either from greater density or from true basic import4 #cce4 ,rays of light1 which pass close to the earth1 as rays of tension between the sun and another star1 become1 from the polarity of the earth being stronger than that of the star1 diverted from their straight direction and drawn towards the middle point4 ,this diversion of light from its direct course is called ,inflexion4 #ccf4 ,it is chiefly basic bodies that inflect the light towards themselves4 ,no such body has an infinite shadow4 ,in other respects1 all bodies inflect because they are much denser than light4 ,,translucency ,,and ,,refraction4 #ccg4 ,light1 as an therial1 permeates matter1 and must on that very account pass toward the middle point of the earth1 because it is virtually none other than the tension of both middle points1 the earth and the sun4 ,originally therefore the light must have gone through the earth4 #cch4 ,this permeation is not1 however1 mechanical but dynamic1 and is indeed necessarily a propagation of the tension of ther through the matter4 #cci4 ,matter is susceptible of the same polarization of which the ther is susceptible1 because it is on no account different from the ther2 the polarization only takes place more slowly4 #cdj4 ,the transmission of light is called ,translucency4 #cda4 ,the ther is transparent1 because it is everywhere the propagation of the tension of light1 because it is itself1 or becomes1 light everywhere4 ,bodies can also be transparent1 only in so far as they are the light itself1 i4 e4 in so far as the same polarization can be excited in them which is constantly excited in ther by the sun4 ,but this is not only possible1 but necessary2 for matter is surely the ther itself1 only condensed4 ,the polarity ther must therefore be capable also of being excited in the condensed ther1 although in a much less degree4 ,the transparency of matter is a tension of ther continually ringing through matter4 ,the whole universe originally was transparent2 it has only originated through tension of light4 #cdb4 ,matter is a tension of light that has become central4 ,this continuous tension of light in matter in relation to the centre1 and thus with curvation1 is called ,refraction4 #cdc4 ,all transparent bodies must refract light4 ,the bodies are1 however1 denser than the ther2 therefore the light1 which passes from a rarer into a denser medium1 must be refracted towards the centre 7plummet of incidence71 and in the reverse case turned from it4 #cdd4 ,materiality is not the only determinant of refraction1 but also the density of the element1 the earth refracting light more than water1 and this more than air4 #cde4 ,the density also is not the only determinant1 but the quality also of the matter2 the ,basic or ,planetary must refract more than the ,oxygenic or ,solar4 #cdf4 ,as translucency is not a dead transmission of light1 but a continued propagation of tension2 so must it be viewed as a process of light in matter1 but one excited from without4 ,translucency is a co-illumination1 like the concord of equally attuned instruments4 #cdg4 ,co-illuminating bodies are thus analogous still to the ther4 ,if there are non-transparent bodies1 they can only be found in the earth-element1 which1 being furthest removed from the ther1 has perfected itself independently1 and they must indeed be wholly deoxydised4 #cdh4 ,the co-illumination of bodies or their transparency is an effort of deoxydation4 ,bodies that cannot at all be deoxydised are non-transparent4 ,,reflexion4 #cdi4 ,transparency belongs only to those bodies which have in themselves a twofold character4 ,it will be shown that the metals are absolutely identical matters1 and therefore non-transparent4 ,the metals are the only non-transparent bodies4 ,metaleity non-transparency4 #cej4 ,the light falls upon a non-transparent only through a transparent body1 and thus one in which the tension of light propagates itself4 ,this co-illumination of the matter placed in front of the non-transparent body cannot cease to co-illuminate2 the tension must thus abide in it1 and turn back from the non-transparent body1 in a straight direction if the tension fell direct upon it1 at a certain angle1 if obliquely4 ,this phenomenon is called ,reflexion4 #cea4 ,reflexion is no repulsion of light1 but only its tension continued into the medium1 in which the tension has been4 #ceb4 ,a non-transparent body indicates nothing for the tension of light but the limit of the co-illuminating matter2 it does not at all operate itself upon the light1 it is as it were a void space4 #cec4 ,transparent bodies also reflect partly1 because they are only relative ther1 because they only co-illuminate1 are not themselves tensed2 or because the basis in all is the metal4 ,every other medium is1 however1 an ther differently fixed2 in every one therefore the tension has been changed2 every medium is thus a limit for the tension1 and therefore the transparent bodies also reflect4 ,since the tension becomes altered1 when it passes into another medium1 it always remains by preference in the neutral medium2 therefore reflexion originates also by the air1 when the light passes out of glass very obliquely into it4 ,operation of the terrestrial ,elements upon ,light4 ,,decomposition ,,of ,,light--,,colours4 #ced4 ,it results from all this1 that light cannot enter unchanged into mutual operation with matter4 ,the tension of ther changes itself in matter4 ,this change of light through the influence of matter is a debilitation of the tension of ther and lastly its complete cessation4 ,there can be therefore no absolutely transparent matter2 the ther only is this absolutely transparent matter4 ,the denser a material is1 by so much the more will it be capable of suppressing in itself the tension of light4 ,the most transparent bodies must also become with a greater density adiaphanous or opaque1 because the ,metallic increases in them4 #cee4 ,this suppression or expiration of the tension of light in bodies has received1 as likewise proceeding from the mechanical theory of light1 the name of absorption4 ,the absorption is not a mechanical adherence of the particles of light in the pores of bodies4 ,there are no pores for light1 and this requires none4 #cef4 ,the absorption or decrescence of light is a retrogression of light into the indifference of ther1 into darkness4 ,light in conflict with matter does not continue light1 but becomes a mean condition between light and darkness4 #ceg4 ,the substratum of light1 the ther1 has two extreme conditions1 and only two1 the tensed and the non-tensed2 the one is the light1 the other the dark4 ,between the two1 however1 are the mediate conditions of twilight or clare-obscure4 ,the light ther emits rays1 the dark does not2 the mediate conditions are half the two4 ,the light condition is the clear unsullied light1 the absolute translucency2 the darkness is the absolute want of translucency2 the mediate members are offuscated light1 mediate tensions of ther4 #ceh4 ,the mean tension of ther1 or light mingled with darkness1 is called ,colour4 ,colour is a finite1 fixed light1 the actual transmission of light into matter4 #cei4 ,no matter can be uncoloured4 ,an uncoloured matter is a nonentity4 #cfj4 ,since matter is rigidified light1 even so must it be posited in reference to colour1 like light4 ,pure light materially substantiated or posited is ,white4 ,the untensed ther materially posited is ,black4 #cfa4 ,the mediate tensions of ther1 or the mixture of ,light and ,dark1 are mean conditions of ,white and ,black1 mixtures of the two extremes or androgynisms of ,white and ,black4 ,if we do not call ,white and ,black colours1 colours are then partial positions of light in matter1 or in the dark4 #cfb4 ,colour originates only in the confinity of ,light and ,dark1 or in the limit between ,white and ,black4 ,they are therefore microscopic4 #cfc4 ,darkness is the cause of colours4 #cfd4 ,there is nothing visible but colour1 but the coloured matter4 ,the ,non-corporeal itself is invisible4 ,darkness is the cause of all visibility4 ,were there no darkness1 there would be no world for the eye4 ,colours are only illuminated darkness4 #cfe4 ,in the limit between ,light and ,dark there is neither ,white nor ,black1 but their possible mediate conditions1 or the proper colours1 the material tensions of ther4 ,if the shadow-line of light be viewed under a magnifying glass1 colours will be seen to reside in it4 ,they are invisible only before on account of their minuteness4 ,the prism and the lens do nothing else than magnify the shadow-line of light4 ,they only show the colours that already exist therein1 but do not create them4 #cff4 ,there is properly only one colour between ,white and ,black2 it is the transmission of light into matter generally4 ,if we look through a prism with the refracting angle presented downwards1 at an horizontal fissure in the shutter of a dark chamber1 the red colour is then exhibited upon the upper and lower borders of the spectrum so formed within the eye2 thus1 in both instances1 where the ,dark is above and the ,white beneath1 as also where the latter is above and the former beneath1 as on the inferior border of the opening4 ,upon the lower border of the upper ,red1 and thus in the ,clare1 ,yellow appears1 which is consequently a mixture of ,red and ,white1 as seen through the thinner part of the prism4 ,yellow is thus brighter ,red4 ,upon the upper border of the lower ,red1 thus also in the ,clare1 ,blue appears1 which is consequently a mixture also of ,red and ,white1 but the latter seen through the thicker part of the prism4 ,blue is thus offuscated ,red4 ,if ,yellow and ,blue be mixed1 ,green then originates4 ,there can be therefore only four colours1 whereof the ,red is a mixture of ,black and ,white1 ,yellow of ,red and ,white1 ,blue of ,red and ,black1 ,green of ,blue and ,yellow4 ,the first three are simple or mixed colours1 the last a compound colour or a medley4 ,these colours are parallel to the gradations in nature1 or the latter are none other than the materializations of colours or the gradations of light4 ,all other colours must be contained in the ,red2 it must serve as the basis or groundwork of all2 it must be the noblest1 most total1 fullest and purest colour4 ,this colour is the first position of the ther as matter1 and thus of fire4 ,fire-colour is the first-born1 the noblest1 highest1 fullest1 purest2 it is the therial1 cosmic colour4 ,in fire the light is offuscated by gravity1 and thereby coloured4 #cfg4 ,the light is not1 however1 perfected by its position as fire1 but is posited also terrestrially4 ,there are therefore terrestrial colours also4 #cfh4 ,there can be only three terrestrial colours1 neither more nor less2 for there are only three different material or offuscated positions of light4 #cfi4 ,the first terrestrial offuscation of light is the air4 ,the colour of the air is thus second in the rank of colours4 ,as the fire-colour plays the chief part in the cosmic and in all colours1 so does the air-colour among the terrestrial4 ,it is the highest colour of the planet4 #cgj4 ,the second offuscation of light is water4 ,the colour of water is the third colour4 #cga4 ,the third offuscation of light is the earth2 and this colour is the last1 the most ignoble4 ,the colours part into two series1 the cosmic or solar1 and the terrestrial or planetary4 ,the cosmic is the ,red4 ,the first terrestrial is ,blue4 ,the second is ,green4 ,the third is ,yellow4 ,red alone is worth as much as all the three others taken together4 ,it is the identification of all numbers4 ,green is merely their synthesis1 the terrestrial1 finite totality4 #cgb4 ,the genesis of colours is thus the genesis of the elements1 or that of matter4 ,it cannot be otherwise2 for the becoming of matter is verily an offuscation of light1 a coloration4 ,colour agrees essentially with the elements1 and is itself nothing different from element4 ,fire is in its essence red1 as being the impartient of light and heat2 air is in its essence nothing else than the blue ther by virtue of its being gaseous2 water is the green ther1 earth the yellow4 ,if the ther is tensed1 it then becomes red or fire2 if it attains its blue stage1 it becomes air2 at the green stage1 water1 upon the yellow1 earth4 #cgc4 ,the elements are only gradations of light1 colours4 ,they have therefore been formed according to the laws of light2 for colours are without doubt the legitimate developments of light4 #cgd4 ,red1 as being the solar or fire-colour1 ranks parallel with oxygen2 the more powerful indeed the combustion1 the more powerful is the oxydation1 and by so much redder the flame4 ,matters also become red through oxydation4 ,the ,red vanishes lastly into ,white1 and thus the highest oxydation is white4 #cge4 ,the next interchange of ,red is with ,blue2 it becomes red by oxydation1 this again blue by desoxydation1 but by excessive alkalization and terrification1 yellow4 ,it is ,red that imparts oxydation1 ,blue that resolves it and reduces the poles to indifference4 #cgf4 ,from the same cause ,red warms1 but ,blue on the contrary does not4 ,the calefaction given out in prismatic spectra of colours is an impure work1 in which refractions1 diversions and convergences of light1 as well as demi-foci1 cooperate4 #cgg4 ,the sun in the firmament may be viewed as the bright opening in the darkened chamber4 ,colours are therefore nothing but images of the sun in darkness1 self-manifestations of the sun in dark matter4 ,a point of light thrown into darkness is colour4 ,this is the case around the sun1 which is therefore surrounded by a hollow globe of colours1 by its own refulgence4 ,the rainbow is a ring around the sun consisting of infinite positions of the solar spectra in darkness4 #cgh4 ,the symbolical doctrine of the colours is correct according to the philosophy of nature4 ,red is fire1 love--,father4 ,blue is air1 truth and belief--,son4 ,green is water1 formation1 hope--,ghost4 ,these are the three cardinal virtues4 ,yellow is earth1 the ,immoveable1 ,inexorable1 falsity the only vice--,satan4 ,there are three virtues1 but only one vice4 ,a result obtained by ,physio-philosophy1 whereof ,pneumato-philosophy as yet augurs nothing4 ,,colours ,,and ,,planets4 #cgi4 ,every condensation of ther by light is consequently a production of colour1 and inversely1 every production of colour is a condensation of the ther4 ,the laws of coloration run parallel with those of materialization1 or1 what is more1 are the same4 ,the planets are thus produced according to the laws which light exercises in the production of colours4 #chj4 ,there are as many productions of heavenly bodies as there are of colours1 and thus there are four4 #cha4 ,the sun is the incorporation of ,red or fire1 the planets are that of the three terrestrial colours4 ,the comets belong to the kingdom of darkness4 #chb4 ,the planets are only suns reflected in darkness as in a mirror2 they have originally been hollow globes of colour1 then orbitar rings of colour 7solar rainbows71 then points of colour4 ,the planets are coagulated colours1 for they are coagulated light4 ,at that very distance from the sun1 where light begins to grow dim1 where1 to speak in the ,newtonian sense1 it begins to refract1 there planetary mass originates4 ,the mass of the planet thus coagulates together around the sun1 but not in an uniform manner like a mass of pulp1 but in pauses of colours1 exactly like a rainbow4 #chc4 ,these planetary chromatic arcs or bows of colour are related to the sun like the three terrestrial colours to the cosmic1 or as the three terrestrial elements to fire4 ,three planetary productions must have thus formed around the sun1 because the light condenses1 materializes itself in three moments4 ,therefore the planets range themselves in groups at three great distances4 ,to the first production belong ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth1 ,mars1 ,vesta1 ,juno1 ,ceres and ,pallas4 ,they are the first digression from ,red1 the ,yellow2 the ,earthy preponderates in them4 ,they are all placed close together4 ,to the second production belong ,jupiter and ,saturn2 water rules them1 and fluctuates visibly upon them2 they are the ,green4 ,they range at a great distance from the former group4 ,to the third and most remote productions belongs ,uranus2 it is the ,blue1 in which the air preponderates4 ,it again ranges at a great distance from the former group4 ,the comets are naught but ther1 which is about to become air4 #chd4 ,the production of the earth-planets or of the first group is dispersed into so many as it is on account of the proximity of the sun1 on account of the energy of the rays of light1 as well as the import of the ,earthy1 which exists essentially under many forms4 ,the planetary rings have been arranged like scales behind each other1 like clouds through electrical pauses2 but these repeat themselves more rapidly1 in the neighbourhood of the sun4 c4 ,,heat4 #che4 ,while the ther falls into a state of tension or shines1 it is thrown into motion4 ,this motion of ther manifests itself as the conatus or effort to extension4 ,the extension1 however1 considered as a world-phenomenon1 is ,heat4 #chf4 ,light1 when it operates upon terrestrial matter1 excites this to special polarization1 whereby the therial that is in it is set in motion1 i4 e4 heat is generated4 #chg4 ,light never moves directly the mass itself1 but only the therial that is in it4 ,through this motion of the ther it becomes separated from matter2 and this separation is manifested as free heat4 #chh4 ,heat is not matter itself any more than light is1 but it is only the act of motion in the primary matter4 ,in heat1 as well as in light1 there certainly resides a material substratum2 yet this substratum does not give out heat and light2 but the motion only of the substratum gives out heat1 and the tension only of the substratum light4 ,there is no body of heat2 hydrogen is the body of heat1 just as oxygen may be called the body of fire4 #chi4 ,heat is real space2 into it all forms have been resolved1 as all materiality has been resolved into gravity1 and all activity1 all polarity into light4 ,heat is the universal form1 consequently the want of form4 #cij4 ,light properly develops heat out of matter through separation of the fixed poles from the substance1 whereby the latter again passes over into ther4 #cia4 ,the development of heat in a body is not an extrusion of a matter adherent1 and as it were foreign1 to it2 but an ascent of the matter itself into heat4 ,the matter does not develop1 or give out heat1 but becomes heat1 namely ther4 #cib4 ,the loss which a body sustains by the radiation of heat is as slight as the ther is subtile or rare2 thus it is infinitely small1 where the ther is infinitely light4 ,we cannot speak of the loss of matter1 while it is hot2 although a true loss is present1 if the point in question be philosophically regarded1 it can come1 however1 as little under consideration as the weight of the ther4 #cic4 ,the fusion of bodies is a diminution of the fixity of their poles1 their further evaporation1 and thus an approximation to indifference or the apolarity of ther4 ,heat is the actual retrogression of matter into ther2 light is only the efficient of this transition4 #cid4 ,as heat becomes originally excited1 so must it be always excited2 two causes for one effect are impossible4 ,the excitation of heat by oxydation takes place in the same way as by light1 namely by polarization and separation therefore of the ,indifferent4 ,the generation of heat by chemical processes is based upon the same principle4 ,lastly1 the generation also of heat by compression and simple friction is wholly similar to that which is caused by light4 ,in every case they are only polar1 and by no means mechanical operations upon matter1 whereby the fixity of the poles becomes changed4 #cie4 ,it is not a change of cohesion1 which the friction mechanically effects1 but the act is purely dynamical4 ,the essence of friction consists in the constant renewal of polar change1 because thereby an infinite number of projecting points or apices are alternately brought into contact4 ,there is verily no smooth body4 #cif4 ,heat is the transition of light unto darkness2 for it is indifferent ther1 only moved4 ,colours are thus also a conflict of light with heat1 and out of this conflict issues the most beautiful1 the highest colour1 the ,red of fire4 ,in fire1 the contest between light and darkness has risen to the highest pitch2 the ther therefore is also moved to the greatest degree1 becomes hot4 ,if the indifference becomes the maximum1 the vital tension then relaxes1 the fire is extinguished2 finally motion ceases1 it is cold and dark4 #cig4 ,in matter also light and heat operate against each other4 ,light deoxydizes1 heat oxydizes4 ,if light appears to oxydize1 it is only by evoking heat4 #cih4 ,heat is the function of expansion for matter4 ,every body has a definite degree or amount of expansion1 therefore a definite fixity of ther2 this ther is latent heat4 #cii4 ,heat operates spherically in matter or in all directions1 not in the linear direction like light4 ,the propagation of heat can only take place slowly1 because it is not a polar action1 but only the result of such an one1 only motion4 ,heat does not penetrate bodies mechanically1 but dynamically like light1 yet without decomposing them1 as light does4 #djj4 ,heat is related as indifferent ther to the matter as to a ,polar4 ,this relation imparts the process of conduction4 ,light1 however1 is itself polar and disturbs matter1 while it passes through it4 #dja4 ,with the exception of their cohesion matters are not directly changed by heat4 #djb4 ,during every process of decomposition1 during every process of light heat must be produced1 but not light also during every process of heat4 #djc4 ,dense materials must conduct heat because they are most opposed to it4 ,it is only the formed element therefore that can possess capacity for conducting heat4 #djd4 ,absence of form is the character of isolators of heat1 form that of the conductors1 apart from every remaining quality4 ,solid bodies1 which easily pass into the formless condition are isolators4 #dje4 ,the densest bodies among the solids must be the best conductors4 ,regard may be first paid to the nature of their constituent parts in the sequel of the present section of this work4 #djf4 ,the conduction of heat is a continuous excitation from one part striving against or resisting the other2 the earths 7as metals7 are the best conductors4 #djg4 ,matters1 which are images of heat1 do not conduct1 because they enter only as minimum into conflict with it1 and while they expand at once convert themselves into the same4 ,such is the air4 ,the ,heterogeneous only conducts4 ,the heat expands in the air only by continuous motion of the aerial particles4 ,the air is an isolator4 ,water ranks in the middle between air and earth4 #djh4 ,with respect also to conduction1 light is opposed to heat4 ,light is conducted by those very bodies1 which isolate heat1 and isolated1 not admitted to permeate or absorbed1 by those which conduct heat4 ,the air conducts light1 isolates heat2 the metal1 the earth conducts heat1 isolates light2 water holds a mediate relation towards the two1 yet towards light that of a conductor1 because it is deoxydizable4 #dji4 ,the conduction of light is likewise a process of deoxydation1 or a disintegration of matter4 ,by the conduction of light the bodies are chemically analysed1 and finally resolve themselves into their principles2 such after all is the case with every glass and crystal4 ,as the process of conduction of light may be called a process of deoxydation1 so also may it be called a process of the generation of colour4 ,the conduction is an offuscation of light1 a colouring2 the deoxydation is a solution of the material bonds1 an elevation unto colour4 #b4 ,functions of the ,air4 ,,electricity4 #daj4 ,the air is the slightest combination of the primary bodies1 and stands in opposition with the two other elements1 as more solid combustions4 ,in this antagonism the air lays claim upon the other elements to analyse them2 these1 however1 upon the air1 to combine1 and undergo more vivid combustion4 #daa4 ,this antagonism is on a large scale an antagonism of periphery and centre1 like the primary antagonism1 by which planets and suns have withdrawn from each other4 ,the tension of air with the other elements is called ,electricity4 ,the centroperipheric antagonism between the sun and the planet1 between light and colour1 represented in an elementary manner is electricity4 #dab4 ,sun and planet are electrically related to each other1 and the circumrotation of the latter may be viewed as conditioned by the change of electrical poles4 ,colours also are only electrical productions4 ,light itself is similar to an electrical tension of the ther4 #dac4 ,electricity is an action of the periphery or limit and thus of the surface of the globe4 ,the surface of the globe is1 however1 everywhere -without centre4 ,the principles of electricity are therefore eternally separated without having a middle point1 as occurs in magnetism4 ,the electrical poles live in eternal animosity1 because they have no point of union4 ,such is then the essence of electricity4 ,electricity is therefore only a function of surfaces without any line4 ,it clings only to the upper surface of the bodies1 and does not penetrate into their thickness4 ,it is only the tension of the surfaces of bodies against each other1 of the apices of divided radii4 #dad4 ,the air is the periphery1 the limit or boundary of the earth4 ,electricity is therefore the spirit of air4 ,it is in its most active state in that stratum of air which is in contact with the earth1 because there the limits are situated4 ,upon this lightning depends4 #dae4 ,electricity1 as an aerial function1 is terrestrial heat4 ,both are therefore conducted by the same rigid linear bodies and isolated by the same4 ,the isolation of electricity coalesces with absence of form1 or with the transition of denser bodies into air4 #daf4 ,electricity is an antagonism between air on the one side and water and earth upon the other4 ,by these therefore two kinds of operation are posited in the air4 #dag4 ,while electricity is the tension of air with the other elements1 it is also the tension of the principles themselves of air4 ,electricity is a twofold character appertaining to the two principles of air4 ,the tension of ther and of substance1 thus the tension of fire repeated upon the two elementary bodies of air1 is electricity4 ,electricity exists under two forms1 as the electricity of the substance or body of fire1 and as that of the planet4 ,these two conditions are perhaps incorrectly named ,e and-,e1 or positive and negative electricity4 #dah4 ,the ,e is the more energetic1 active in itself1 polar2 it is the electricity of fire represented in oxygen4 ,the-,e is the weaker1 that which has only been evoked1 the basic2 it is the electricity of the planet represented in nitrogen1 hydrogen1 carbon1 sulphur4 ,it may be said that-,e is related to ,e as planet is to sun1 as periphery to centre4 ,the sun is ,e1 the planet-,e1 the one the electricity of oxygen1 the other of hydrogen4 #dai4 ,these electrical conditions must always be changing in the air1 according as the slightest influence is brought to bear upon them from without4 ,the air consists in this change of electrical poles4 ,were the poles not to change1 the air would be a solid element4 ,the earth is an air with fixed electricity1 the water with extinguished or neutralized electricity4 #dbj4 ,the twofold character of the aerial principles is increased by every polarizing action from without1 and therefore principally by the surface of the earth1 which consists of two elements4 ,were there no surface to the earth1 were simply air present1 then there would be no electrical change of poles4 ,the surface of the earth itself1 however1 produces no change of poles in the air1 for it remains always neutral2 but it becomes unequal or polar from the change wrought upon it by water and earth1 by light1 by heating and by chemical processes4 #dba4 ,the air also changes the electricities while it roams over the earth4 ,this wandering motion is a contact of differently polarized tracts of the earth4 ,every mountain1 valley1 and river1 every meadow is differently polarized2 from each the air derives another electricity4 ,through this ceaseless alternation of polar exchange1 its activity becomes so elevated that at last the electricity makes its appearance in a manner cognizable by the senses4 ,the production of electricity by friction admits of a similar explanation4 ,friction is in miniature1 what the sweeping of air is over the earth4 ,were the earth quite level1 and composed of homogeneous matter1 the air would not become electric by motion4 #dbb4 ,all terrestrial electricity has been evoked by a change of poles analogous to friction4 ,through light nothing foreign is posited in the air1 any more than by friction1 and by both the electricity is attained in a similar dynamical manner4 #dbc4 ,the elements of the air1 polarized to the highest degree by electricity1 must combine1 and this combination is the process of combustion4 ,the final result of electrical tension is combustion of air4 ,it is only1 however1 the two primary bodies that undergo combustion2 the two constituent parts of the air must1 therefore1 be driven by electricity to their last extreme1 even to the most perfect element of fire and the basic or terrestrial substance4 ,the internal combination of both these primary or elemental bodies1 or the product of this aerial combustion is next of all water4 ,the termination of electrical tension in the air is rain4 ,all rain is the extinguished function1 the dying spirit of air4 ,the two hostile principles are reconciled in water4 ,water accompanies every process of combustion4 #dbd4 ,by electricity the air was separated into the two inferior elements1 into water and earth4 ,at present1 where the whole water and the whole earth has been precipitated from air1 rain is certainly as a rule only water condensed and held in solution in the air4 #dbe4 ,the nitrogen gas is the residue of the primary rain4 ,after the air has become sea by the combination of oxygen and hydrogen1 it no longer creates water out of its own bulk1 but now rederives it from the sea1 and still but imitates its primary process in rain4 #dbf4 ,were there merely solid land upon the planet1 the oxygen pole would be evoked in the air1 and the latter would be precipitated wholly as water4 ,were there merely water or sea upon the planet1 the nitrogen pole would be evoked1 and the air be wholly precipitated as earth4 ,but since the two elements are constantly and alternately operating upon the air1 so must at one time water1 at another earth1 be generated and precipitated from it4 ,the earths in the act of falling down1 or in precipitation1 are the meteoric stones4 ,they are only the after-births of the primary decomposition of air4 #dbg4 ,it can indeed be none other than carbonic acid1 which is converted by decomposition into meteoric stones1 or at least into the metals and earths which they contain4 ,sulphur must be regarded as the melting down of carbon and hydrogen4 ,in the upper lighter regions of the air carburetted hydrogen gas may very well be present1 and condense itself into meteoric stones4 #dbh4 ,the condensation must take place by means of electricity4 ,the greater condensation or solidification1 as well as the calefaction1 results indeed first through the fall4 #dbi4 ,their bursting is only conceivable when some hydrogen gas is in the meteoric stone1 which gas1 when submitted to the highest degree of heat1 becomes finally fulminating gas and bursts the stone4 #dcj4 ,meteoric stones are children of our planet1 and not of the world-space4 ,they are the antagonism of the water-formation or of rain4 #dca4 ,the falling stars are simply indeed condensed carbon or hydrogen gas1 but which by reason of its small mass does not become solid4 ,it is probably converted only into sulphur4 ,thus falling stars would be the other halves of meteoric stones2 the latter consisting of a preponderance of carbon1 being therefore earths and metals2 the former of a preponderance of hydrogen1 being therefore carburetted hydrogen or sulphur4 ,a greater number of meteoric stones must fall over the sea than over the solid land4 #c4 ,function of the ,water4 ,,solution4 #dcb4 ,the function of water is necessarily homologous with the process of combustion1 because the main bulk or proportion of water is oxygen4 ,in conformity with its spiritual activity does water seek to convert the two other elements into water1 to impart to them its form1 to fluidize them4 ,this happens with the air when it has been absorbed2 but upon the earth also the water exercises the same action4 #dcc4 ,the function of water is the formation of globes or the ,process of ,solution2 it directs itself chiefly against the solid2 for the solid element is the redintegrant factor of water4 ,solution is a positing of the solid under the internal polar form1 but the poles of which have not yet separated4 ,every solid formation has come out of water1 as water has out of air2 every new formation must also return out of water1 by fluidization1 by relaxation of the poles4 ,by solution1 solid matters are again reduced to their primary condition1 and are then capable of reassuming new fixities4 ,the process of solution is a process of becoming water1 not by agglutination1 but by liberations of fixity2 a ,solution in the strongest sense of the term4 #dcd4 ,no process of solution is conceivable without oxydation4 ,the dissolved body1 while it obtains the aqueous nature1 is taken up in the sense of oxygen4 ,no solution occurs without oxygen1 as well as no combustion is possible without water4 ,the solvent character of water is based upon the preponderance of the oxygen over the hydrogen4 #dce4 ,during every solution the two principles of water enter into a state of tension with each other1 as the two aerial principles do in electricity4 ,this tension is established by that which is to undergo solution2 for everything so circumstanced is polar towards water4 ,during every solution the oxygen is elevated in its pole1 and the hydrogen likewise4 ,if the solution be very heterogeneous1 they separate1 the water is decomposed4 ,in the pure process of solution the water simply abides in a state of tension2 if each aqueous principle is actually and independently self-evolved1 chemistry then originates2 but of this we shall discourse in the sequel4 ,the process of solution may be characterized as the equilibrium of the process of tension between the object that is to undergo solution and the solvent1 and between the two principles of the latter1 whereby separation is not thus attained4 ,as electricity finally strikes out into the process of combustion1 so does that of solution into the chemical4 #dcf4 ,solution is in essence like electricity4 ,solution is an electrical tension between oxygen and carbon2 electricity is a process of solution between oxygen and nitrogen1 a process of tension without separation of principles4 ,air and water are in a state of constant tension towards each other2 and hence therefore result the constant evaporation and the clouds4 #dcg4 ,what lightning is in the air1 namely formation of water1 that is chemistry in water4 ,the salt in the sea is what the clouds are in the air4 ,two electrical clouds are what two salts are in the water4 ,rain is the imitation of the creation of water4 ,precipitation of salt is the imitation of the creation of earth4 #d4 ,functions of the ,earth4 ,,crystallization4 #dch4 ,the earth-element is the highest result of combustion in creation1 the highest fixation of ther4 ,the earth is the ther represented as centre in the ,material1 or it is the identification of all polar binary division in the ,terrestrial1 independently of oxydation2 therefore its parts are motionless1 be they dust or compact masses4 ,the earth is the corporeal gravity1 the substance as a perfectly simple position without emergence out of itself1 the #j1 the terrestrial monas4 ,the earth is consequently the heaviest and densest element1 and is that which must include the middle point of our own and every planet4 #dci4 ,in the middle of the planet there is only earth1 and nothing else2 the middle is not hollow1 does not contain any central fire as has been imagined1 nor air1 and the science of ,geogeny will show that no metal also could be contained in the interior of the earth4 #ddj4 ,in the air both material principles are only associated with each other1 in water they are mixed1 but in the earth identified1 blended together4 #dda4 ,the earth is to the other elements what the sun is to the planets1 namely1 the basis1 the centre and that the mathematical as well as the dynamic centre4 ,that this is the part played by the earth-element is proved not only by its character1 but also by its volume4 ,the earth-element exceeds the other elements in mass as much as the sun does the planets2 the water is only the vascular system in the flesh of the earth-element2 while the air is only the expression of the limit or in other words its integument4 #ddb4 ,everything therefore that now occurs upon the planet develops itself out of the earth1 the water and the air being only the auxiliaries of generation4 ,the ,earthy is developed in the water by the air4 ,as creation has been closed with the earth1 so may the solid materials1 which are now and then found upon the planet apart from the earth1 not be products of the first creation1 but only developments of the planet when created and cosmically completed4 #ddc4 ,the earth as material gravity is solid4 ,it has1 however1 originated out of the fluid1 therefore by a process of cohesion2 this is called the ,process of ,crystallization4 #ddd4 ,the process of crystallization is perfectly equivalent to the process of fixation of the ther1 and is only the termination of the same4 ,as light at any spot in the world-space creates a central point1 the nucleus of a comet1 around which more of the mass of ther is constantly accumulating till it finally coagulates into the solid condition2 so does the process of crystallization evoke some particular spot1 point or nucleus in the water1 wherein the crystallizing forces are excited1 which attract the mass that is susceptible of fixation and fashion it into a crystal4 ,the process of crystallization is a process of fixation1 and with it also is furnished the theory of crystallization4 ,the process of crystallization is a process of polarization1 and one indeed that proceeds from a centre2 or1 properly speaking1 the point1 from which the polarizing process emerges in a fluidity that is fixable or in other words susceptible of crystallization1 becomes a central point1 a middle point and virtually the middle point of the crystal4 #dde4 ,the process of polarization does not originate absolutely in the fluid1 any more than light has the power of concentrating or crystallizing itself in any given part of the ther2 but by an external determination4 ,this is a granule1 a projecting point in the vessel or in the hollow of the earth1 in which the crystals originate4 ,the crystal never begins in the middle of the fluid1 but only on its walls or on the surface4 ,the point of polarization or of crystallization has been granted2 now this is polar towards the fluid1 and works therefore by polarizing upon it1 and through this water also passes over into the crystal1 forming what is called water of crystallization4 #ddf4 ,this polarization of the fluid passes in every direction2 for every polar point is polar all around4 ,thus a spherical portion of the fluid is polarized round about the point4 ,the fixable parts are spheroidally attracted and gather together from all sides around the point4 ,for were the polarization not to traverse the whole mass1 but only according to individual lines1 the crystal must then indeed be jagged or indented4 #ddg4 ,in this manner the crystal would have been a globe1 from the fixable particles lying together in distinct points1 after the manner of pulp4 ,but this is impossible1 because the point of starting or departure is differently polarized to the fluidity1 being negative according to observation4 ,every polar process does not operate in continuity1 so that one end of the line should be purely positive1 the other1 however1 purely negative2 but every polar line is an infinity of poles1 where1 however1 at one end the positive character only1 at the other the negative preponderates4 ,such a line is e4 g4 as follows1 ---1 which begins with and ends with-2 it therefore has a preponderance of at one end1 of-at the other1 and yet is both everywhere4 ,by this infinity of polar change the fixable particles range themselves behind each other1 while they separate from each other to an infinitely minute degree2 these parts polarized behind each other are lines or fibres4 ,every crystal must accordingly consist of fibres2 none possesses an homogeneous or pultaceous structure4 #ddh4 ,in the crystal one principal direction of polarization originates1 which is effected by the antagonism of the point of crystallization with the fluid mass4 ,it gives the direction of the crystal and its energy gives the length4 ,this principal line consists of two poles that recede from each other1 and these determine the two ends of the crystal1 which are always similar1 provided no mechanical obstacle be interposed4 #ddi4 ,from each of the mutually seceding poles lines of polarization issue at definite angles1 which 7like elliptical radii on the periphery7 meet at the sides of the newly produced crystal4 ,then again between these radii tension arises1 so that the fibres become lamell4 ,the main line between the two mutually seceding poles is the central line or polar axis of the crystal2 the angular lines which determine the position of the lamell1 are the polar radii4 ,the polar radii determine the nucleus of the crystal and are therefore nuclear lines2 the polar axis determines the whole of the crystal1 is the crystal1 the central-line1 and determines the form in general1 or what has been called the secondary form4 #dej4 ,since all polar activities operate only in a straight line1 there can thus be no globular crystal4 ,water is only susceptible of assuming the globular form upon a large as well as a small scale1 because there are no fixed poles in it4 ,the nucleus does not originate previous to the secondary form2 since it is verily impossible for the polar rays to originate without a polar axis4 #dea4 ,there are no actual degradations in the genesis of the crystal2 they are only a mathematical expression for the finished form of the crystal4 #deb4 ,the number of possible or actual nuclei is definite4 ,they are based upon the combination of the laws of the globe with those of the polarity4 #dec4 ,the simplest angular body must be circumscribed by at least four surfaces1 and thus be a tetrahedron4 #ded4 ,the fundamental nucleus of crystals is1 however1 the double tetrahedron or the hexahedron1 namely the trilateral double-pyramid2 for radii do not proceed simply from the point of commencement1 but also from the extremities of the axis4 ,when the superior and inferior radii meet1 they must form a double-tetrahedron4 ,the disposition to this form has been implanted in all crystals4 ,if the nucleus becomes no such hexahedron1 the aberration from1 still admits of being referred to1 the hexahedron4 #dee4 ,there is no prismatic nucleus4 ,the columns and parallelopiped nuclei are only mutilations4 #def4 ,the tetrahedron is also only a mutilated nucleus4 ,to the essence of a nucleus belong two tetrahedra1 with their bases joined to each other4 #deg4 ,the six-sided double-pyramid is a duplication of the hexahedron4 ,the octahedric nuclei1 are things intermediate between the three-and six-sided interruptions of the natural type1 like quadrinumeral or tetrapetalous coroll in flowers4 #deh4 ,columns originate only between the two tetrahedra1 without doubt owing to deficiency in bulk4 #dei4 ,if the three-sided double-pyramid be the primary form of crystals1 so must the six-sided column with trilateral terminal pyramids be the ultimate form4 ,the rhomboidal-dodecahedron is therefore the most perfect crystal4 ,it is the most perfect representation of the globe in the angular form4 #dfj4 ,the crystal can not commence with the nucleus and then for the first time continue to grow or even change into the perfected crystal1 because it becomes only crystal in the conflict of the linear and spherical action4 ,as little as the sun can be produced without the planet1 or vice vers1 so little can a nucleus subsist without what is called the external shell or crust4 ,the nucleus is in fact determined by the shell of the crystal1 namely by the polar axis4 ,but inversely also the shell is determined by the nucleus1 by the polar radii4 ,a nucleus alone would be called a centre of a circle without circumference4 ,microscopic crystals therefore have at once the same perfected form as the largest in size4 ,a crystal is an entire heavenly body2 it is determined by central forces1 which have1 however1 been roused and conducted by dualizing forces1 forces of light4 ,everywhere do we meet with the same laws of the fixation of ther1 upon a small as well as large scale4 #dfa4 ,every solid matter and thus the ,terrestrial generally1 is crystallized upon a small as well as large scale4 ,there cannot be an atom that were not crystallized1 not arranged according to central and polar forces4 ,every crystal is therefore1 and especially by reason of the infinity of the subordinate poles1 crystallized again upon an infinitely small scale1 or in other words it consists of infinitely numerous crystals4 ,every lamella or every particle of the lamella of a crystal consists again of crystals4 ,these are what are called the integral parts1 properly integral forms of the crystal4 ,they are all probably hexahedra4 ,the metals usually form but very small crystals1 probably because the atoms are too heavy and cannot therefore be attracted from any distance4 #dfb4 ,crystallography has been incorrectly made the principle of division in ,mineralogy4 ,a single character can never become a principle of division4 ,if also it were actually true1 that the form is always disposed according to the ,interior1 yet the form could never be the principle of division1 but the ,interior itself4 ,the form is only the sign1 but not the spirit1 the essence of the mass4 ,d4--,,kingdoms ,,of ,,nature4 ,,individuals4 #dfc4 ,all the matters that have hitherto originated have done so only in a general not a particular manner4 ,they are constituent parts of the universe1 in which as yet no distinctions reside4 ,so soon as distinctions occur in the elements1 they cease to be general matters1 and become particular or individual things4 ,the sum of the individuals is the ,kingdoms of ,nature4 #dfd4 ,the kingdoms of nature are the repetition of the world upon the planet4 ,this repetition in consciousness is ,natural ,history4 #dfe4 ,acts of the world repeated upon the planet are combinations of the elements4 ,creation1 which has hitherto advanced1 now retrogrades1 and thus by the combinations of general elements that have been already created4 #dff4 ,combinations of the elements1 in accordance with the laws of the world1 are upon the finite planet particular or individual bodies4 ,the kingdoms of nature are the totality of particular bodies4 #dfg4 ,that which is not a ,particular belongs not to the kingdoms of nature1 and thus also does not come within the province of ,natural ,history1 but of ,physics4 #dfh4 ,the earth-element lies at the basis of all the combinations of the elements4 ,these combinations are therefore ascensions or retrogressions in creation4 ,only three such combinations are therefore possible1 viz4 #a4 ,of the earth with water1 or air1 or fire--binary combination4 #b4 ,of the earth with water and air1 without fire--ternary combination4 #c4 ,of the earth with water1 air1 and fire--quaternary combination4 #dfi4 ,out of the binary combination the quiescent bodies originate1 for they are only a part of the planet--,minerals1 ,earths4 #dgj4 ,out of the ternary combination originate bodies that are internally moved1 for they are a whole planet in ,particulars--,plants4 #dga4 ,out of the quaternary combination particular bodies1 moved throughout and rotating around themselves1 originate2 for they are representations of the whole universe--,animals4 ,individual bodies that are moved internally are called organic4 #dgb4 ,there can be therefore only three ,kingdoms of ,nature4 ,the first consists simply of individualities1 because it is not the equal proportion of all the elements4 ,the two other kingdoms1 however1 are combinations of the individualities of the earth-element with two or three elements1 and are thus equivalent to the planet or to the whole universe4 ,the organic bodies are thus combinations of the ,singular with the ,whole1 and supply the third part of the ,philosophy of ,nature1 the ,organology4 ,,first ,,kingdom4 ,,mineral ,,or ,,earth ,,kingdom4 #dgc4 ,uni-or bin-elementary terrestrial bodies are minerals or earths2 their development is ,mineralogy in the general sense of that term4 ,the earths regarded individually gives us the science of ,mineralogy proper2 combined to form a whole1 that of ,geology4 ,i4--,,mineralogy4 #dgd4 ,mineralogy teaches us the development of the earth-element4 #dge4 ,the earth-element does not exist universally1 but only in particular bodies or individuals4 ,there is no general earth1 but it is either silicious earth or common salt1 sulphur or iron1 and so on4 #dgf4 ,the earth-element or the earth can only sustain changes1 which are permanent or abiding2 for in it alone fixation has become formation1 in which the atoms do not move1 or whereby at least a constant individual character of body1 or one that is chemical1 becomes apparent4 ,the changes undergone by the other three elements are not constant1 because of the atoms ceaselessly moving and balancing themselves4 ,they do not exist individually1 but only universally4 ,there is only one water1 one air1 and only one fire2 there are therefore no igneous1 aerial1 and aqueous individuals4 #dgg4 ,the changes of the earth-element can only take place upon its fundamental or characteristic body1 thus on carbon4 #dgh4 ,nothing can1 however1 change of itself4 ,all change must proceed from external influence4 ,all things can be changed therefore by such influences only as are already antecedent to or before them4 ,the two other bodies1 however1 are prior to carbon2 before the earth-element only the three other elements4 #dgi4 ,the earth can therefore be changed in only two ways2 either the carbon by the other elemental bodies1 or the total earth-element by the other elements4 #dhj4 ,the changes wrought by the influence of these bodies are1 however1 only partial or fractional changes4 ,therefore partial or chemical diversities only originate1 and with them other different bodies or degrees of such4 ,the changes effected by the elements are1 however1 total changes1 which bear not only reference to the carbon1 but to all the constituent parts of the earth-element4 #dha4 ,total changes or different conditions of the earth-element are called ,minerals1 or earths4 #dhb4 ,the genesis of minerals1 thus their collective character1 as differently posited fixations of earth1 determines the classes1 orders1 and genera4 #dhc4 ,the genus is the product of a genetic moment1 and is therefore always a definite1 chemical mixture1 which alone consequently expresses the essential character4 ,hitherto there has been no definition of mineral genera4 #dhd4 ,species of minerals are successive developments of the genetic moment1 thus stchiometric subdivisions of the genetic mixture1 e4 g4 the different degrees of oxydation of nitrogen1 in the oxyde1 binoxyde gases and nitric acid4 ,hitherto it was not known what a mineral species might be2 ,physio-philosophy has been the first to introduce clearness to these conceptions4 #dhe4 ,a stchiometric mixture in the earth-element is an individual4 #dhf4 ,individuals only are the object of natural history1 and thus neither water1 air1 nor fire4 ,this also was not known previous to ,physio-philosophy2 it is1 however1 gradually acknowledged also by empirics4 #dhg4 ,the crystalline form is merely an external character for the species1 and therefore the same nuclei may occur in the different orders4 #dhh4 ,kinds or varieties are different conditions of cohesion4 ,they are therefore not determined by the form of the secondary crystal1 since the aberration of forms results only from a stoppage upon their part half way or from the quantitative energy of the polar radii or polar axes4 #dhi4 ,while ther1 air1 and water1 as being general matters1 do not belong to the mineral system1 what have been called artificial salts must on the contrary be admitted therein1 because they are no works of art4 ,the chemist only brings bodies together which do not come together accidentally in nature4 ,it is a true misapprehension of nature's products if those substances only1 that adhere to the earth1 are recognized as such2 surely this definition is perfectly ridiculous4 #dij4 ,two kinds or modes of division are possible1 a chemical1 and a genetic or philosophical4 #dia4 ,the chemical principle of division of the earth are the elemental bodies4 ,the philosophical or naturo-historical principles of division are the elements4 #dib4 ,in reference to the chemical bodies four combinations only are possible4 #a4 ,carbon1 represented as perfectly pure1 may be regarded as ,metal4 #b4 ,carbon united with hydrogen1 is manifested in the ,inflammables4 #c4 ,carbon with oxygen makes its appearance in the ,earths4 #d4 ,carbon with oxygen and hydrogen in the ,salts4 ,according to this view1 the classes would succeed each other thus3-- #a4 ,ores4 #b4 ,inflammables4 #c4 ,earths4 #d4 ,salts4 ,now1 as the earths here intervene between the ,inflammables and salts1 it is at once seen that the series is incorrect2 for the earths form by far the largest mass1 and must therefore constitute the groundwork or basis of ,mineralogy1 and thus stand at the commencement4 ,if all metals1 ,inflammables and salts were to be deducted1 the globe of the earth would still lose but little of its magnitude4 #dic4 ,this chemical division admits thus of no strict arrangement1 since what are called minerals follow each other unnaturally4 ,meantime the chemical view admits also of a philosophical treatment and amelioration of the serial order4 ,it may be said that the earth consists of much carbon1 little oxygen and very little hydrogen1 without any other element4 ,salt1 of little carbon1 much oxygen and little hydrogen1 together with water4 ,the ,inflammables of little carbon and oxygen1 much hydrogen1 besides air4 ,ore1 of much carbon1 little hydrogen1 and still less oxygen with fire4 ,as the fire or the ther is imponderable1 so do the three elemental bodies appear blended together into one apparently simple body1 with which gravity1 light as lustre1 heat as spirit and the conduction of heat1 are only spiritually combined4 #did4 ,but this view leads directly to the genetic division1 as the only true one1 to that1 namely1 which has been based upon the mutual influence of all the elements4 ,it is itself the ultimate cause or foundation of chemical division4 #die4 ,there can accordingly1 as there are only four elements1 be only four kinds of minerals4 ,the ,earthy either continues unchanged1 or it is changed by water1 air and fire4 #dif4 ,when the earth-element originates or separates itself from the water1 in order to free itself from all the properties of the latter as well as from those of the air and fire1 and to become stiff and solid1 the remaining elements exert an incessant influence upon it1 and draw a portion of it into their circle1 i4 e4 they confer upon it their properties4 a4 ,the ,earth-element can be changed by fire ,fire-minerals4 b4 ,or changed by air ,air-minerals4 c4 ,or changed by water ,water-minerals4 d4 ,or lastly1 it is severed wholly and substantially ,earth-minerals4 free #dig4 ,through the influx of fire upon the formation of the ,earthy it becomes an identical1 homogeneous mass1 in which the possibility resides1 as in the ther itself1 of undergoing all changes4 ,this developmental stage of the earth-element is represented by the metal4 ,the homogeneous mass of the metal can become earthy by oxydation1 aqueous or saline by acidification1 aerial or combustible by being hydrogenized4 #dih4 ,the metal is unanalysable1 as is the ther1 although it consists of three forms4 ,the metal is easily restored or brought back from its combinations4 #dii4 ,besides1 however1 the identical1 homogeneous or simple character1 the metal has still also the three characters of fire or of the ther4 ,it is therefore a triplicity in identity4 a4 ,in so far as gravity is represented in it1 it has the identical or homogeneous mass already indicated1 and is heavier than all other bodies4 ,it is central mass4 ,it must be regarded as pure carbon4 ,metal and the body of gravity are one4 b4 ,in so far as light is represented in it1 it has the peculiar lustre1 which stands again also in intimate connexion with the homogeneous mass4 ,the usual colour of metals is white1 the colour of unsullied light4 ,the lustre is properly a self-illumination1 and thereupon depends their repulsion of light1 or opacity4 ,metals are therefore adiaphanous or opaque1 because they are noncombustible by light4 ,as soon as they become decomposible1 namely oxydes1 they become also transparent4 ,the metals are the only opaque bodies1 because they alone are non-decomposible4 ,all matters become only opaque by admixture with metal1 or in so far as the metallic body resides at the bottom of all4 ,the visibility of the world is based upon its metallic character4 ,without metal we would see nothing4 c4 ,in so far as heat is represented in metal is it extensible1 fusible and fluidifiable4 ,metal is water that has become dense4 #ejj4 ,in so far as the air has acted upon the ,earthy during its origin1 it has imparted to it electrical and combustible properties2 the metal has combined with hydrogen1 has become an ,inflammable1 as in sulphur or pit-coal4 ,sulphur may be regarded as the intimate fusion of hydrogen with metal2 coal as a combination of the same probably elicited by means of oxygen4 ,inflammables are idioelectric and combustible1 because they are rigidified air4 ,that matter belongs only to the ,inflammables1 which1 being once kindled in exposure to the air1 continues to burn of itself4 ,the ,inflammables are volatile1 since they undergo combustion1 i4 e4 they take on the condition of their antetype1 the air4 ,they have from metal the opacity and the colours1 but they do not preserve the lustre or self-illumination4 ,they become transparent simply by crystallization or oxydation4 #eja4 ,with the generation of the ,earthy water imparts also to a portion of the same its properties1 dissolubility and transparency4 ,to the metal and hydrogen oxygen is next added4 ,an hydrated ,earthy originates4 ,the ,aqueo-earthy is fluid in water2 it is salt4 ,salt changes its form in the readiest manner1 because it is the metatype or likeness of water2 and hence its susceptibility to crystallization4 ,it is not combustible by itself1 because it is essentially an oxyde and hydroid4 ,salt is a metal or ,inflammable that has undergone combustion1 and can therefore never be simple4 #ejb4 ,now that part of the earth-element1 which remains after the salt1 the ,inflammable and the metal have been separated1 is plainly the ,earthy or the earth4 ,it has therefore no aqueous properties1 is not soluble2 it has no aerial properties1 is not electric and combustible2 has no metallic properties1 is not heavy1 nor opaque and glittering1 not fusible and malleable or extensible4 ,the pure ,earthy is always fixed or firm1 and therefore figurate4 ,the ,earthy is a metal1 with which the oxygen has been intimately melted down2 for it is the identification of all elements4 #ejc4 ,the ,earthy is the principal mass1 because it represents the earth-element itself4 ,salt1 ,inflammable and metal are only subordinate masses1 because they are only displacements of the earth-element by the other elements4 ,therefore a small part only of the ,earthy has become salt1 a yet smaller ,inflammable1 and the smallest1 metal4 #ejd4 ,although the metal is simple1 it can by no means correspond1 as might otherwise appear1 to the earth-element2 for every element is a totality of elemental bodies1 and therefore those minerals1 which represent the pure earth-element1 must be compound1 without1 however1 exhibiting the characters of the other elements4 ,this is found only in the earths4 #eje4 ,there are1 accordingly1 in a genetic point of view1 four1 and only four1 mineral classes4 ,they originate in an ascending direction1 from the earth-element by water and air up to fire4 ,the ,classes are-- ,i4 ,earth-minerals ,earths4 ,,ii4 ,water- ,salts4 ,,iii4 ,air- ,inflammables4 ,,iv4 ,fire- ,ores4 a4 ,earths are those minerals1 which admit of being changed neither by water1 nor air1 nor by fire2 i4 e4 which are neither soluble1 combustible1 fusible1 neither yield colour1 nor are particularly heavy4 ,such minerals have been properly called earths1 as silicious1 sacrilegious earth1 c4 b4 ,salts are those which have aqueous properties1 i4 e4 are soluble4 c4 ,inflammables are those which have aerial properties1 i4 e4 are inflammable and volatile4 d4 ,metallic ores are those which have the three properties of fire1 are superlatively heavy1 yielding light or colour1 and fusible4 #ejf4 ,the ,earths are to be regarded as the proper total earth-element1 namely as carbon neutralized by oxygen4 ,the ,salts are to be regarded as combinations of the earth-and water-elements2 therefore as combinations of carbon with oxygen and hydrogen4 ,the ,inflammables are to be regarded as combinations of the earth-element with the air-element1 thus of carbon with hydrogen1 which supplies the place of nitrogen4 ,the ,metals are to be regarded as combinations of the earth-element with the fire-element2 therefore as carbon without any other body1 only combined with spiritual actions1 namely gravity1 light and heat4 ,hence the apparent simplicity of metals1 and the great number of special properties1 which are absent in the other classes4 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,classes4 #ejg4 ,as there is not simply a single earth1 salt1 ,inflammable and metal1 but in each class many of them2 we have to inquire what is the groundwork of their further distinctions or of their systematic division4 ,here also may we go to work again chemically and philosophically4 a4 ,chemical ,division4 ,the ,metals1 chemically regarded1 do not admit of being separated into constituent parts4 ,they exhibit only physical differences in gravity1 colour1 hardness1 malleability1 conducting power1 tension or their mutual polarity4 ,if it be endeavoured to arrange them according to these respects1 nothing but disorder results4 ,the same is the case in reference to their affinity for oxygen1 sulphur1 the acids and other metals4 ,rather more order is at once displayed if their philosophical composition1 namely as carbon and fire1 be submitted to our consideration4 #ejh4 ,in consequence of this view1 the ,metals must divide into ,earth-metals and ,fire-metals2 and the latter again into three subdivisions1 nearly as follows3-- ,a4 ,earth-metals--difficultly fusible and invariably oxydized--,sidereometalla1 e4 g4 ,iron--,manganese1 ,wolfram1 ,uranium1 ,titanium1 ,chromium1 c4 ,b4 ,fire-metals4 a4 ,heavy metals2 difficultly fusible1 unoxydized or noble metals1 e4 g4 ,platinum1 ,nickel1 ,cobalt4 b4 ,light metals2 the easily fused noble metals--e4 g4 ,gold1 ,silver1 c4 c4 ,heat-metals2 the easily fused1 ignoble and frequently volatile metals1 e4 g4 ,lead1 ,tin1 ,antimony1 ,zinc1 ,arsenic1 c4 #eji4 ,the ,inflammables divide under a chemical point of view into two groups--into the varieties of ,coal and ,sulphur1 whereof the ,earthy lies at the basis of the former which is non-fusible2 the ,aerial at that of the latter4 ,they do not admit of being divided1 unless a mean betwixt the two be taken1 the combinations of carbon and hydrogen in the resins4 #eaj4 ,the ,salts admit of a better dismemberment4 ,their constituent parts are alkalies and acids1 the former the ,earthy1 the latter the ,aqueous4 ,the mean condition is exhibited by the neutral salts1 so that three orders are the result4 #eaa4 ,now by the philosophical view we have first attained to the very remarkable import of the acids4 ,they are forsooth nothing else than oxydized elements and mineral classes4 ,in the nitric acid it is evident that1 as the acid of nitrogen1 it is the aerial acid2 as sulphuric acid is the inflammable acid2 arsenic acid the metallic acid4 ,upon this ground we may expect that the other acids also have a similar origin4 ,without much hesitation hydrochloric acid may be viewed as the aqueous acid1 which is associated with the sea2 the carbonic acid as ther- or igneous-acid1 as well on account of its constituent parts and gaseous character1 as chiefly on account of its general diffusion4 ,there remain then only two that have been called mineral acids1 the fluoric and boracic acids1 the first of which1 as conqueress of the earths is the earth acid1 the last being thus the acid of the salts4 ,we have accordingly-- a4 ,elemental acids4 #a4 ,the oxydized ther is ,carbonic acid4 #b4 ,the oxydized air ,nitric acid4 #c4 ,the oxydized water ,hydrochloric acid4 b4 ,mineral acids4 #d4 ,the oxydized earth is ,fluoric acid4 #e4 ,the oxydized salt ,boracic acid4 #f4 ,the oxydized inflammable ,sulphuric acid4 #g4 ,the oxydized metal ,arsenic acid4 #eab4 ,the vegetable and animal acids are none other than repetitions of the elemental and mineral acids4 ,they may perhaps be parallelized in the following manner4 ,fire-acid 7,carbonic acid7 ,acetic acid ,hmatosine4 ,air-acid 7,nitric acid7 ,malic acid ,lactic acid4 ,water-acid 7,hydrochloric acid7 ,saccharine acid ,mucic acid4 ,earth-acid 7,fluoric acid7 ,tartaric acid ,phosphoric ac4 ,salt-acid 7,boracic acid7 ,tannic acid ,uric acid4 ,inflammable-acid 7,sulphuric acid7 ,succinic acid ,sebacic acid4 ,ore-acid 7,arsenic acid7 ,indic acid ,formic acid4 ,all the remaining acids must be viewed as subordinate to1 or as kinds of these4 #eac4 ,the alkalies appear to follow the same course1 though it does not admit of being so completely demonstrated4 ,fire-alkali ,ammonia ,vegetable1 and ,animal alkalies4 ,air-alkali ,potash ,alcaloids ,alcaloids4 ,water ,soda ,urea4 ,earth ,lithium ,bile1 c4 ,salt ,inflammable ,ore-alkali #ead4 ,the earths proper do not consist of two principles1 and do not1 therefore admit of being chemically divided4 #eae4 ,this division is only incorrect in a naturo-historical sense1 because it has no reference to the totality4 ,inasmuch as every mineral class is viewed as having originated out of only one or two elements1 it divides by the chemical method only into constituent parts or fractions1 as the acids and alkalies1 which are obviously only moieties1 and taken in a strict sense are not true minerals4 b4 ,genetic ,division of the ,classes4 #eaf4 ,the total division only is genetic and consequently correct4 #eag4 ,as the classes have originated through that which directly preceded them1 namely1 the elements2 so must the divisions of the classes be determined by the other classes4 ,such divisions are called orders4 ,every class necessarily divides into four orders4 ,order #a4 ,earths4 #b4 ,salts4 #c4 ,inflammables4 #d4 ,ores4 ,,class ,i4 ,,earths4 #eah4 ,there must be therefore pure earths1 haloid or salt-earths1 inflammable earths and metallic earths or ores4 #a4 ,the ,earth-earths must have neither saline1 nor inflammable nor metallic properties1 and thus also be insoluble in acids4 ,such is the case with the ,silicious earths4 #b4 ,the ,haloid-earths must have saline properties1 dissolve in acids1 but not fall to pieces when exposed to air and fire4 ,such is the behaviour of ,argillaceous earth2 it admits besides of combining with water1 that antetype of the salts4 #c4 ,the ,inflammable earths must be soluble in acids and exhibit electric or aerial properties4 ,such is the behaviour of the ,talcose earths2 its minerals are unctuous1 fall when exposed to the air into electric lamell1 and burn brittle4 #d4 ,the ,metallic earths must undergo change in acids1 air and fire4 ,the calcareous earth dissolves in all acids1 burns corrosive and becomes almost a metallic calx4 ,the ,orders of earth are consequently3 #a4 ,earth-earths ,silica2 ,quartz1 c4 #b4 ,haloid-earths ,clays2 ,felspar1 c4 #c4 ,inflammable-earths ,talcs2 ,mica1 c4 #d4 ,metallic-earths or ,ores ,calx4 #eai4 ,nature does not produce any so-called pure calcareous earth1 but only this earth in an oxydated condition4 ,carbonic acid is the oxygen of the earth that has become free1 and the corroding calx is the ,metallic1 the other constituent part of the ,earthy1 which has obtained some oxygen1 but lost the ,aqueous by the carbonic acid and thereby has become corrosive4 #ebj4 ,the carbonate calcareous earth is the whole earth1 not the corrosive4 ,this is only the half of the earth-element1 only its basic or phlogistic principle4 ,what has been called pure calcareous earth is a half earth2 the perfect or naturo-historical earth is just that which is chemically impure4 #eba4 ,the calcareous earth is not1 however1 perfected with one position4 ,it still exhibits several stages of development which appear to be approximations to the salt1 e4 g4 ,strontian and ,baryta4 #ebb4 ,the silicious earth1 which principally represents the ,earthy1 holds its principles more firmly together4 ,no separation occurs there in the carbonic acid and the basic or corroding body of earth2 no association with water1 no great activity1 no direct participation in the highest evolutions of the planet2 but it continues to lie in an extreme state of contraction1 and in a state of indifference in the non-differencing darkness4 #ebc4 ,this pure earth is the basis1 the pedestal of all the other earths1 and the foundation of the planet2 for it alone is the earth proper1 the earth-abiding earth-element1 while the other masses of earth1 divided in their principles1 have pitched themselves in outward opposition to the sun and other elements4 ,the silicious earth is in every respect the centre of all earthy productions1 these being only digressions from it4 ,the ,zircon earth is only a removal or displacement of the silicious toward the argillaceous earth4 #ebd4 ,the argillaceous earth also is not dissevered into its principles2 it is not found as a carbonate4 ,on the contrary1 it is at once shown to be far more pliable by its capacity for being kneaded and moulded in water1 and by its hardening when exposed to air and fire4 ,it is also seized upon and dissolved1 i4 e4 reduced to the aqueous condition1 by all acids4 ,its kindred earths are the ,glucine and ,yttria1 verging towards the talcose earths4 #ebe4 ,the first dismemberment of principles is shown by the talcose earth4 ,where it appears uncombined with the former earths it is carbonate1 yet still feebly corrosive4 #ebf4 ,these three principal earths together make up the body of the earth1 while the calcareous earth is only spread over them like a mantle or crust4 #ebg4 ,as no earth is in its totality corrosive1 and none such occurs in nature or has at least not been originally produced from it1 so may the insolubility of the earths in water be set up as an essential and thoroughly valid characteristic of the earths4 ,their distinctive characters have been sedulously rendered fluctuating1 by having been drawn not from nature1 but the products of art4 ,that the corrosive chalk is soluble in water1 and may therefore be a salt is true2 but it has not issued thus out of the womb of nature4 ,mineralogy knows nothing of a corrosive calcareous earth4 ,the earths are sufficiently separated from the salts by their insolubility in water4 ,they are separated from the ores by their incombustibleness1 or1 if they have been already burnt1 by their incapacity for reduction4 ,as both of these qualities are imparted by fire1 so the earths are distinguished by their immutability in fire1 whereby is naturally understood not the scoriation1 but change of the earthy character4 ,they differ also in the same manner from the ,inflammables4 ,nature does not undertake the artificial reductions of earths to ,metalloids1 at least not so1 that they may become again of themselves earths4 ,the metals are permanent reductions4 #ebh4 ,earth is thus the body1 which is mutable neither in water1 air1 nor fire4 ,earth is a water-1 air-1 and fire-proof body4 ,this is the brief1 rigid1 wholly exclusive1 and significantly expressive definition1 which a so-called empirical science could never1 but philosophy alone1 bestow4 #ebi4 ,the ,ore is not soluble in water1 nor mutable in air2 on the contrary1 it is fusible1 oxydizable1 or reducible in fire4 ,ore is a water-and air-1 but not fire-proof body4 #ecj4 ,the ,inflammable is immutable in water1 but mutable in air and fire4 ,the ,inflammable is a water-proof1 but not air-and fire-proof body4 #eca4 ,the ,salt is soluble in water1 and decomposible in fire1 but immutable in air4 ,salt is an air-1 but not water-and fire-proof body4 ,the legitimate series of gradations comprised in the above four definitions cannot escape the attentive reader1 nor moreover that the properties of the earths are all affirmative4 ,nature has not employed such insignificant means of distinction as our mineralogy has done2 has nowhere used an acid in order to distinguish the metals from the earths1 nor savour to separate the salts from the earths2 but she selects universal reagents which are the elements themselves4 ,so simple is ,nature1 if we do not violate her by art4 ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,earths4 #ecb4 ,there is not merely a single silicious mineral1 but many such1 just as in clay1 talc1 and calx4 ,how1 then1 do differences occur in these earths8 ,when we survey the science of ,mineralogy we remark that most minerals are composed of several earths2 with them also metals1 coal1 sulphur1 alkalies and acids are frequently associated4 ,it follows thereupon that the further distinctions are no longer of an internal kind1 namely1 alterations of substance2 but proceed from combinations and thus indicate stchiometric bodies4 ,the next division of the orders ,i call ,families4 ,order #a4 ,silicious minerals4 99 #ecc4 ,with how many bodies now can the silicious earth combine8 ,it will first of all appear in a pure condition1 as in quartz2 then1 in the next place1 combine with the other earths1 thus with clay1 talc and calx4 ,we have thus four families of ,earth-silices4 ,fam4 #a4 ,pure-,silex ,quartz4 #b4 ,argillaceo-,silex ,zircon4 #c4 ,talco-,silex ,emerald4 #d4 ,calcareo-,silex ,leucite4 #ecd4 ,thus the hardest minerals or the silicious precious stones are here placed4 ,but these are obviously not exhausted with the above four combinations1 but more of the latter must still be sought for4 ,those bodies which rank next to the earths1 and can therefore enter into the following combinations are the other mineral classes1 such as the salts1 ,inflammables1 and metals2 and we accordingly obtain the following silicious minerals1 as constituting classes4 ,fam4 #e4 ,salt-,silex ,topaz4 #f4 ,inflammable-,silex ,diamond4 #g4 ,ore-,silex ,garnet4 #ece4 ,still all the silicious minerals are not exhausted with these combinations4 ,but now the silicious earth can combine with nothing more than the elements1 whence three families originate4 ,fam4 #h4 ,water-,silex ,hornstone1 ,silicious schist1 ,jasper1 ,flint1 ,opal4 #i4 ,air-,silex ,silicious sinter1 as ,tripoli and ,polierschiefer4 #aj4 ,fire-,silex ,obsidian with ,pitchstone1 ,pearlstone and ,pumice4 #ecf4 ,upon casting a glance at this series1 it is shown1 that the first seven families occur in a crystalline1 but the last three only in a compact or structureless condition4 ,the latter occur at the same time in large masses1 the former1 on the contrary1 but scantily dispersed4 ,the first family or the quartz1 occurs as well in a compact and massive state as crystallized2 the others1 on the contrary1 taken collectively1 are only crystallized1 and scarcely form small rocks here and there1 but never mountain-chains4 ,they are the precious stones proper1 both on account of their hardness1 as also their rarity4 ,precious stones are thus only combinations of silex with other earths1 and with the classes2 on the contrary1 the elemental silices only1 viz4 the earth-1 water-1 air-and fire-silices1 are massive4 #ecg4 ,it is here shown1 that freedom finds a place also in dead nature4 ,quartz only is necessary as the earth in general4 ,its marriages with the other earths1 c41 to form precious stones are not necessary1 but free or accidental1 and may therefore happen for the first time in the laboratory4 #ech4 ,if we now proceed to the arrangement of the ,clay1 we find exactly the same law to prevail in the genesis of its minerals i4 e4 stchiometric combinations with other orders1 classes1 and elements4 ,we have likewise-- ,a4--,earth-,clays4 ,fam4 #a4 ,silicious clays ,felspar4 #b4 ,argillaceous clays ,sapphire4 #c4 ,talcose clays ,ruby4 #d4 ,calcareous clays ,epidote4 ,b4--,class-,clays4 #e4 ,salt-clays ,schorl4 #f4 ,inflammable clays ,azurite4 #g4 ,ore-clays ,harmotome4 ,c4--,elemental-,clays4 #h4 ,water-clays ,clay-slate4 #i4 ,air-clays ,potter's-clay1 ,clay-stone4 #aj4 ,fire-clays ,lavas1 ,phonolite1 ,toad-stone4 ,the water-clays are hydrates2 the air-clays volatilized hydrates2 the fire-clays are clay fused or transmuted by heat4 ,here also the first #g families only are crystallized2 the #c last1 on the contrary1 as well as the first in part1 occur only in a compact state and in large masses4 #eci4 ,the ,talcs follow the same laws1 and we have-- ,a4--,earth-,talcs4 ,fam4 #a4 ,silicious talcs ,mica4 #b4 ,argillaceous talcs ,sapphirine4 #c4 ,talcose talcs ,talc1 ,chlorite4 #d4 ,calcareous talcs ,augite4 ,b4--,class-,talcs4 #e4 ,salt-talcs ,hornblende4 #f4 ,inflammable-talcs ,asbestus4 #g4 ,ore-talcs ,olivine4 ,c4--,elemental-,talcs4 ,fam4 #h4 ,water-talcs ,serpentin1 ,steatite4 #i4 ,air-talcs ,lithomarge1 ,fuller's-earth1 ,bole4 #aj4 ,fire-talcs ,basalt4 ,here also the first #g families only are crystallized and occur for the most part in a scattered manner2 but the aqueous1 aerial1 and igneous families1 as well as the first family in part1 are merely compact and mountainous masses4 #edj4 ,the fourth order or that of the ,calcareous earths is developed likewise according to the same laws4 ,as1 however1 it approximates the salts1 and therefore combines with acids1 it presents many anomalous varieties1 of which account cannot be taken in every instance4 ,these minerals are soft throughout1 change by fire and admit of being wholly or partially dissolved in acids4 ,here belong the zeolites1 or combinations of the calcareous earths with the other earths4 ,a4--,calcareous earths1 ,zeolites4 #a4 ,silicio-calcareous earths ,lapis lasuli1 ,scapolite4 #b4 ,argillaceo- ,mesotype1 ,analcime1 ,stilbite4 #c4 ,talco- ,stellite4 #d4 ,calcareo- ,tabular spar4 ,b4--,classes of ,calcareous earths4 #e4 ,halo-calcareous earths ,boracite4 #f4 ,inflammable- ,phosphate of lime1 ,fluorspar8 #g4 ,ore- ,titanite1 ,tungsten4 ,c4--,elemental-,calcareous earths4 #h4 ,water calcareous earth ,hydrophyllite8 ,wavellite4 #i4 ,air- ,gypsum1 ,heavy-spar1 ,celestine4 #aj4 ,fire- ,limestone4 ,here also the first #g tribes only occur crystallized1 the #c last1 in a great measure1 compact1 and as mountainous masses4 ,,class ,,ii4 ,,water-,,earths4 ,,salts4 #eda4 ,the chief distinctions of the salts consist also in their combination with the other classes1 and we have therefore #d orders-- #a4 ,earth-,salts ,double-salts4 #b4 ,saline-,salts ,neutral-salts4 #c4 ,inflammable-,salts ,saponaceous-compounds4 #d4 ,metallic-,salts ,vitriols4 ,the same will hold good without doubt of the orders1 as in the case of the earths4 ,they form as many families as there are principal masses of them present1 with which they may combine4 ,as the acids1 from being the children or offspring of water1 play the chief part in the water minerals1 and are themselves nothing else than oxydized and outwardly lying masses1 they carry consequently within themselves the number and import of the families2 thus it is they which determine indeed the division4 ,if the bases were to be taken as the groundwork of arrangement1 there would be only earths and alkalies1 and on the other hand numerous metals1 by which step the mineralogist would fall into the unprincipled method of classification adopted by empirics4 ,here also the philosophy of nature shows1 and that indeed upon sound reasoning1 that the acids and not the bases afford the principle of a natural classification4 ,a somewhat different opinion is held by the chemist1 who must characterize the salts according to both series2 but this is by no means the course taken by the historian of nature4 ,,order ,i4 ,earth-,salts--,double ,salts4 7,combinations of acids with earths47 ,fam4 #a-d4 ,earthy-acids or ,fluoric-acid earths2 here also belong ,bromic1 ,iodic1 and ,cyanic acids4 #e4 ,salt or ,boracic-acid4 #f4 ,inflammable or ,sulphuric-acid--,alum1 ,sulphate of magnesia4 #g4 ,metallic or ,arsenic-acid4 #h4 ,water or ,hydrochloric-acid--the earths ,barytes1 ,strontian1 and ,lime2 ,murias ammoni1 ,chloride of ,calcium4 #i4 ,air or ,nitric-acid--,strontium1 ,nitrate of lime4 #aj4 ,fire or ,carbonic-acid--,vegetable-acid earths4 ,order ,,ii4 ,salt-,salts--,neutral ,salts4 7,combinations of acids with alkalies47 #a-d4 ,fluoric-acid #e4 ,boracic-acid ,borax4 #f4 ,sulphuric-acid ,sulphate of soda1 ,sulphate of potash4 #g4 ,arsenic-acid4 #h4 ,hydrochloric-acid ,rock-salt1 ,muriate of soda1 ,sal-ammoniacum or salmiac4 #i4 ,nitric-acid ,nitrate of potash or saltpetre1 ,cream of tartar4 #aj4 ,carbonic-acid ,soda1 ,subcarbonate of potash1 ,binoxalate of potash1 ,acetate of potash4 ,,order ,,iii4 ,inflammable-,salts--,saponaceous-compou nds4 7,soluble1 and at the same time combustible bodies47 #a-d4 ,earth-,soaps ,calcareo-sulphuret of potash4 #e4 ,salt-,soaps ,common sulphuret of potash4 #f4 ,inflammable-,soaps ,fatty or soft soaps4 #g4 ,metallic-,soaps ,metallic ,soaps4 #h4 ,water-,soaps ,animal mucilages4 #i4 ,air-,soaps ,saccharum or sugar4 #aj4 ,fire-,soaps ,vegetable extracts4 ,,order ,,iv4 ,ore-,salts--,vitriols4 7,combinations of acids with metals47 #a-d4 ,fluoric-acid #e4 ,boracic-acid #f4 ,sulphuric-acid ,iron1 ,copper1 ,zinc1 ,vitriol4 #g4 ,arsenic-acid ,white arsenic4 #h4 ,hydrochloric-acid ,calomel1 ,corrosive sublimate4 #i4 ,nitric-acid ,nitrate of silver4 #aj4 ,carbonic-acid ,sugar of lead4 ,,class ,,iii4 ,,air-,,earths--,,inflammables4 #edb4 ,it is very difficult to arrange this class1 because it has been wholly neglected by mineralogists1 and is1 properly speaking1 quite unknown to them1 because they have had recourse only to those combustible bodies which occur accidentally in the earth1 while according to philosophical principles everything belongs to the province of natural history1 that has originated or may originate in nature1 so that its situation is a matter of complete indifference4 ,if we follow the same laws according to which the earths and salts have been so excellently arranged1 we must here also adopt four orders1 namely1 combustible things which bear a resemblance to earths1 others to salts1 others to metals2 finally1 others which represent combustibility in a pure state1 and thus we obtain-- #a4 ,earth-,inflammables ,coals4 #b4 ,salt-,inflammables ,fats4 #c4 ,inflammable-,inflammables ,resins4 #d4 ,ore-,inflammables ,colouring matters4 ,the ,earth-inflammables will be such as are solid and burn1 without becoming fluid1 e4 g4 ,common ,coal4 ,the ,salt-inflammables will either be or become fluid before they undergo combustion1 and are readily converted of themselves into acids1 e4 g4 ,animal and ,vegetable ,fats4 ,the ,inflammable-inflammables will be of a sulphurous character1 solid or fluid1 fragile1 electric1 fetid and fluid before they burn4 ,these properties are found in the ,resins4 ,the ,ore-inflammables are those which1 independently of their combustibility1 possess pre-eminently one property of metals1 namely their non-transparency1 or coloration1 e4 g4 the ,pigments or colouring matters from the organic kingdoms4 ,,order ,i4 ,earth-,inflammables--,coals4 #a-d4 ,earth-,coals ,common-coal1 a mixture of coal and earths4 #e4 ,salt-,coals ,gunpowder1 viz4 a combination of charcoal with a salt4 #f4 ,inflammable-,coals ,glance-coal1 viz4 carbon without earths4 #g4 ,ore-,coals ,black-lead1 or carburet of iron4 #h4 ,water-,coals ,peat-bog and brown or ,common coal8 #i4 ,air-,coals ,lignite or wood-coal8 #aj4 ,fire-,coals ,animal carbon1 fibrine4 ,,order ,,ii4 ,salt-,inflammables--,adipaceous or ,unctuous bodies4 #a-d4 ,earth-fats ,spermaceti8 ,tallow4 #e4 ,salt-fats ,lard and ,train-oil8 #f4 ,inflammable-fats ,butter8 #g4 ,ore-fats ,wax8 #h4 ,water-fats ,vegetable oils8 #i4 ,air-fats ,desiccative or drying oils4 #aj4 ,fire-fats ,greasy oils4 ,,order ,,iii4 ,inflammable-,inflammables--,resins4 #a-d4 ,earth-resins ,sulphur1 ,phosphorus4 #e4 ,saline-resins ,chloride of sulphur1 ,chlorate of ,sulphur4 #f4 ,inflammable-resins ,mineral-pitch1 ,amber1 ,turpentine4 #g4 ,ore-resins ,balsams4 #h4 ,water-resins ,gum-resins4 #i4 ,air-resins therial oils4 #aj4 ,fire-resins ,alcohol1 ther4 ,,order ,,iv4 ,ore-,inflammables--,pigments4 #a-d4 ,earth-pigments ,ochre-pigments4 #e4 ,salt-pigments ,soluble-pigments from roots and wood1 such as ,krapp and ,dier's-weed4 #f4 ,inflammable-pigments ,retinoid-pigments from roots and wood1 such as ,dragon's-blood1 ,turmeric4 #g4 ,ore-pigments ,indigo or devil's-dye4 #h4 ,water-pigments ,sap-colours1 such as ,sap-green1 ,oak-gall4 #i4 ,air-pigments ,flower colours1 such as ,saffranon and ,saffron4 #aj4 ,fire-pigments ,animal colours1 as ,scarlet and ,blood-red4 ,,class ,,iv4 ,,fire-,,earths--,,ores4 #edc4 ,the metals are again easier of arrangement1 because they have a resemblance to earths and have been better worked out both in chemistry and mineralogy4 ,they divide very naturally into-- #a4 ,earth-,ores ,ochres1 combinations of metals with oxygen4 #b4 ,salt-,ores ,haloids1 insoluble combinations of metals with acids4 #c4 ,inflammable-,ores ,blendes1 combinations of metals with ,sulphur1 ,phosphorus1 and ,selenium4 #d4 ,metallic-,ores ,pure metals4 ,the principles of this arrangement which has been at present pretty generally followed1 were first published in my essay ',das naturliche ,system der ,erze1' #ahji4 ,in order to gain a proper insight into the serial gradation of all the families we must first regard the #dth order4 ,,order ,i4 ,earth-,ores--,ochres4 #a4 ,silicious-,ochres ,metallic calces with silicious earth1 as ,lierite1 ,dioptase1 ,electric calamine4 #b4 ,argillaceous-,ochres ,clay-iron-stone4 #c4 ,talcose-,ochres ,blue-iron-stone4 #d4 ,calcareous-,ochres ,black oxyde of manganese4 #e4 ,salt-,ochres ,calces not peroxydized4 ,bog-iron4 #f4 ,inflammable-,ochres ,pure calces without metallic lustre1 as ,wolfram1 ,protoxide of ,uranium1 ,rutile1 ,tin-stone4 #g4 ,ore-,ochres ,oxydulated1 as ,iron-glance1 ,red oxyd of ,copper4 #h4 ,water-,ochres ,hydrates1 as ,brown-iron-stone-ore1 ,gray ore of manganese4 #i4 ,air-,ochres ,malm-rocks2 volatilized ,ochres of the difficultly fusible metals1 as ,umbra1 ,yellow earth1 ,earthy manganese1 ,black cobalt4 #aj4 ,fire-,ochres ,slags1 volatilized calces of the difficultly fusible metals1 as oxyde of or ,white antimony1 ,protoxide of ,arsenic4 ,,order ,,ii4 ,salt-,ores--,haloids4 ,fam4 #d4 ,earth-,haloids ,fluoric-acid4 #e4 ,salt-,haloids ,boracic-acid4 #f4 ,inflammable-,haloids ,sulphuric-acid1 as ,sulphate of lead1 ,phosphoric-acid as ,green and ,blue phosphates of iron1 ,diarsenate of iron1 ,uran-glance1 ,green phosphate of ,lead4 #g4 ,ore-,haloids ,chromic-acid1 as ,chromate of lead1 ,arsenic-acid1 as ,cube-ore1 ,arseniate of iron1 ,olivenite1 ,cobalt-bloom4 #h4 ,water-,haloids ,hydrochloric-acid1 as ,muriate of copper1 ,horn-silver4 #i4 ,air-,haloids ,nitric-acid4 #aj4 ,fire-,haloids ,carbonic-acid1 as ,iron-spar1 ,red manganese-ore1 ,earthy blue-copper1 ,malachite1 ,carbonate of lead4 ,,order ,,iii4 ,inflammable-,ores--,blendes4 #a4 ,silicious-,blendes ,zinc-blendes1 ,cinnabar1 ,red antimony and ,ruby-silver-ore4 #b4 ,argillaceous-,blendes ,iron and ,copper pyrites4 #c4 ,talcose-,blendes ,sulphuret of ,titanium1 ,chrome1 ,uranium4 #d4 ,calcareous-,blendes ,sulphuret of ,molybdena4 #e4 ,salt-,blendes ,copper-glance1 ,gray copper4 #f4 ,inflammable-,blendes ,nickel-glance1 ,cobalt-glance4 #g4 ,ore-,blendes ,sulphuret of ,platinum4 #h4 ,water-,blendes ,gray antimony1 ,galena4 #i4 ,air-,blendes ,bismuth-glance1 ,arsenical pyrites4 #aj4 ,fire-,blendes ,silver-glance-ore4 ,,order ,,iv4 ,metallic-,ores4--,metals4 7,pure or reduced metals47 #edd4 ,the classification of metals is one of the most difficult1 because no natural arrangement of them has been as yet attempted1 and their signification is also so mysterious that we can only get at it1 by clinging fast to the laws of development4 ,thus assuming1 that they likewise arrange themselves according to the elements1 classes and orders of the earths1 we have at once the ,elemental metals4 ,the earth-metals are without doubt the difficultly fusible1 ignoble or oxydized1 such as iron with its congeners4 ,then the air-metals present themselves with their peculiar character of volatility1 as ,arsenic with its congeners4 ,these being once rendered solid1 the easily fusible but non-volatile will correspond to water1 such as ,lead with its congeners4 ,the noble metals consequently as ,gold1 ,silver1 c41 must doubtless be regarded as fire-metals4 ,having once separated these #d groups1 the ,class-metals admit of being more readily brought into their place4 ,there is one metal1 which subjected to moisture is readily converted into a salt1 namely copper4 ,this is consequently the representative of the salts among the metals4 ,ore-metals are1 without doubt1 those resembling iron1 which do not1 however1 occur in an oxydized condition and are therefore noble ,irons4 ,of this kind are ,platinum with its retinue4 ,between ,copper and ,platinum nothing else can be introduced but ,nickel and ,cobalt1 as they are likewise difficultly fusible and tolerably noble4 ,they are thus the ,inflammable metals4 ,after all these separations a great group is still left of the earth-metals or the difficultly fusible and ignoble4 ,they divide therefore without doubt according to the #d earths4 ,if now iron approximates the argillaceous-earths1 so will those metals whose oxydes are distinguished by a striking colour be regarded as talc-metals4 ,of this kind are ,titanium1 ,chromium1 ,uranium1 which crystallize moreover into spicul like hornblende1 or into lamell like mica4 ,these again being separated the silicious and calcareous-metals remain for investigation4 ,the former are those which scarcely admit of being reduced2 the latter1 on the contrary1 those which approximate to the noble1 difficultly fusible metals1 namely to platinum4 ,it can hardly be doubted that ,tantalum is the silicious-metal4 ,for the calcareous-metals ,sulphuret of ,molybdenum is left1 to which ,osmium seems to approximate4 ,we have accordingly the following genetic arrangement3 ,a4--,earth-,metals4 7,difficultly fusible and ignoble47 #a4 ,silicious-,metals ,tantalium4 #b4 ,argillaceous-,metals ,wolfram1 ,cerium1 ,manganese1 ,iron4 #c4 ,talcose-,metals ,titanium1 ,chromium1 ,uranium1 ,vanadium4 #d4 ,calcareous-,metals ,molybdenum1 ,osmium4 ,b4--,class-,metals4 7,difficultly fusible and noble47 #e4 ,salt-,metals ,copper4 #f4 ,inflammable-,metals ,nickel1 ,cobalt4 #g4 ,ore-,metals ,platinum1 ,palladium1 ,iridium1 ,rhodium4 ,c4--,element-,metals4 7,easily fusible or noble47 #h4 ,water-,metals ,antimony1 ,lead1 ,tin #i4 ,air-,metals ,zinc1 ,cadmium1 ,bismuth1 ,arsenic4 #aj4 ,fire-,metals ,tellurium1 ,mercury1 ,silver1 ,gold4 ,every one will easily see that these groups of metals agree with their antetypes in properties1 as also that this arrangement is more natural than any that has hitherto been advanced4 ,glancing at it1 it must strike the reader that in several of the families #d metals are present1 and that none exceed this number4 ,there are #d sideroid1 #d titanoid1 #d platinoid1 #d arsenicoid and #d argyroid metals4 ,now1 as they are to be viewed as deoxydized earths1 it must be assumed that in each family they are mindful of their origin1 and everywhere represent the #d earths along with the character of their family4 ,they are earths divided unto the last members1 or reduced in a primo-chemical manner4 ,in order to recognize the parallelism of the classes1 orders and families1 we have only to compare the adjoining table4 ,we cannot expect to find all the minerals ranging there in their proper place4 ,for we are treating the subject at present only as regards its principles4 ,table ,a ,,first ,,class4 ,,earth-,,earths--,,earths4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,order ,i4 ,,order ,,ii4 ,earth-,earths4 ,salt-,earths4 ,silex4 ,clays4 ,fam4 #a4 ,pure ,silex4 ,fam4 #a4 ,silicious ,clays4 #a4 ,quartz4 #a4 ,feldspar4 #b4 ,iron ,flint4 #b4 ,anorthite4 #c4 ,petalite4 #d4 ,oligoclase4 #e4 ,triphane4 #f4 ,andalusite4 #g4 ,crucite4 ,f4 #b4 ,argillaceo-,silex4 ,f4 #b4 ,argillaceous ,clays4 #a4 ,zircon4 #a4 ,sapphire4 #b4 ,o,erstedite4 #b4 ,chrysoberyl4 #c4 ,cyanite4 #d4 ,sillimanite4 ,f4 #c4 ,talco-,silex4 ,f4 #c4 ,talcose ,clays4 #a4 ,emerald4 #a4 ,spinel4 #b4 ,davidsonite4 #b4 ,automolite4 #c4 ,euclase4 #c4 ,dichroite4 #d4 ,phenacite4 ,f4 #d4 ,calcareo-silex4 ,f4 #d4 ,calcareous-,clays4 #a4 ,leucite4 #a4 ,epidote4 #b4 ,glaucolite4 #b4 ,mangan-epidote4 ,f4 #e4 ,salt-,silex4 ,f4 #e4 ,salt-,clays4 #a4 ,topaz4 #a4 ,yttro-cerite4 #b4 ,physalite4 #b4 ,schorl4 #c4 ,pycnite4 #c4 ,axinite4 ,f4 #f4 ,inflammable ,silex4,f4 #f4 ,inflammable-,clays4 #a4 ,diamond4 #a4 ,lazulite4 #b4 ,turquois4 #c4 ,amblygonite4 ,f4 #g4 ,ore-,silex4 ,f4 #g4 ,ore-,clays4 #a4 ,garnet4 #a4 ,harmotome4 #b4 ,vesuvian4 #b4 ,gadolinite4 #c4 ,acmite4 #c4 ,orthite4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,silex4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,clays4 #a4 ,flint-stone4 #a4 ,wrthite4 #b4 ,jasper4 #b4 ,allophane4 #c4 ,hornstone4 #c4 ,pyrophyllite4 #d4 ,opal4 #d4 ,clay-slate4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,silex4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,clays4 #a4 ,tripoli4 #a4 ,potter's-clay4 #b4 ,polierschiefer4 #b4 ,clay-stone4 #c4 ,silicious-sinter4 #c4 ,porcelain-clay4 #d4 ,cimolite4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,silex4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,clays4 #a4 ,pitchstone4 #a4 ,clay ,iron-stone4 #b4 ,pearlstone4 #b4 ,toad-stone4 #c4 ,obsidian4 #c4 ,phonolite4 #d4 ,pumice4 #d4 ,lavas4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,order ,,iii4 ,,order ,,iv4 ,inflammable ,earths4 ,ore-earths4 ,talcs4 ,calcareous-earths4 ,fam4 #a4 ,silicious ,talcs4 ,fam4 #a4 ,silicious ,kalke4 #a4 ,mica4 #a4 ,lapis-lazuli4 #b4 ,pinite4 #b4 ,hauyne4 #c4 ,holmesite4 #c4 ,sodalite4 #d4 ,margarite4 #d4 ,scapolite4 #e4 ,nepheline4 ,f4 #b4 ,argillaceous ,talcs4 ,f4 #b4 ,argillaceo-,kalke4 #a4 ,sapphirine4 #a4 ,fugenstein4 #b4 ,seybertite4 #b4 ,frehnite4 #c4 ,chabazite4 #d4 ,laumontite4 #e4 ,stilbite4 #f4 ,desmin4 #g4 ,analcime4 #h4 ,mesotype4 ,f4 #c4 ,talcose ,talcs4 ,f4 #c4 ,talco-,kalke4 #a4 ,talc4 #a4 ,adelforsite4 #b4 ,pyrophillite4 #b4 ,stellite4 #c4 ,chlorite4 #c4 ,mellilite4 #d4 ,humboldtite4 ,f4 #d4 ,calcareous ,talcs4 ,f4 #d4 ,calcareo-,kalke4 #a4 ,augite4 #a4 ,tubular spar4 #b4 ,diopside4 #b4 ,apophyllite4 #c4 ,sahlite4 #d4 ,pyroxene4 #e4 ,coccolite4 #f4 ,hedenbergite4 #g4 ,diallage4 #h4 ,bronzite4 #i4 ,hypersthene4 ,f4 #e4 ,salt-,talcs4 ,fam4 #e4 ,salt-,kalke4 #a4 ,grammatite4 #a4 ,boracite4 #b4 ,strahlstein4 #b4 ,datholite4 #c4 ,hornblende4 #d4 ,anthophyllite4 ,f4 #f4 ,inflammable-,talcs4,f4 #f4 ,inflammable-,kalke4 #a4 ,asbestus4 #a4 ,cryolite4 #b4 ,fluorspar4 #c4 ,wagnerite4 #d4 ,apatite4 ,f4 #g4 ,ore-,talcs4 ,f4 #g4 ,ore-,kalke4 #a4 ,chrysolite4 #a4 ,titanite4 #b4 ,hyalosiderite4 #b4 ,tungsten4 #c4 ,pharmacolite4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,talcs4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,kalke4 #a4 ,schiller-spar4 #a4 ,diaspore4 #b4 ,serpentine4 #b4 ,wavellite4 #c4 ,steatite4 #c4 ,hydrophyllite4 #d4 ,meerschaum4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,talcs4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,kalke4 #a4 ,agalmatolite4 #a4 ,aluminite4 #b4 ,lithomarge4 #b4 ,heavy-spar4 #c4 ,fuller's-earth4 #c4 ,celestine4 #d4 ,bole4 #d4 ,gypsum4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,talcs4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,kalke4 #a4 ,basalt4 #a4 ,mellilite4 #b4 ,magnesite4 #c4 ,strontianite4 #d4 ,limestone4 ,,second ,,class4 ,,water-,,earths--,,salts4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,order ,i4 ,,order ,,ii4 ,earth-,salts4 ,salt-,salts4 ,double ,salts4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,fam4 #a4 ,silicic ,acid4 ,fam4 #a4 ,fluoric ,acid4 ,fluoric-acid earths4 ,alkalis4 ,f4 #b4 ,albuminic ,acid4 ,f4 #b4 ,bromic ,acid4 ,bromic acid4 ,f4 #c4 ,oxide of ,magnesia4 ,f4 #c4 ,iodic ,acid4 ,f4 #d4 ,oxide of ,calcium4 ,f4 #d4 ,cyanic ,acid4 ,cyanic acid4 ,f4 #e4 ,hydrochloric ,acid4 ,f4 #e4 ,hydrochloric ,acid4 ,boracic acid4 #a4 ,sassoline4 #b4 ,borax4 ,f4 #f4 ,pyric ,acid4 ,f4 #f4 ,inflammable-,acid4 #a4 ,alum4 #a4 ,sulphate of ,soda4 #b4 ,magnesia4 #b4 ,sulphate of ,potash4 #c4 ,mascagnine4 #d4 ,sub-nitrate of ,bismuth4 ,f4 #g4 ,metallic ,oxide4 ,f4 #g4 ,ore-,acid4 ,arsenic acid4 #a4 ,antimonium diaphoreticum4 ,fowleri4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,acid4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,acid4 #a4 ,sulphate of ,magnesia4 #a4 ,rock-salt4 #b4 ,sulphate of ,baryta4 #b4 ,muriate of ,soda4 #c4 ,murias ,ammoni4 #c4 ,salmiac4 #d4 ,chloride of ,calcium4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,acid4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,acid4 ,nitric acid4 ,nitrate of ,potash4 #a4 ,nitrate of ,strontian4 #b4 ,nitrate of ,lime4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,acid4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,acid4 ,carbonic acid4 #a4 ,soda4 ,super-carbonate of #b4 ,subcarbonate of ,potash4 ,lime4 #c4 ,binoxalate of ,potash ,acetate of ,potash4 #d4 ,acetate of ,potash4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,order ,,iii4 ,,order ,,iv4 ,inflammable ,salts4 ,ore-,salts4 ,soaps4 ,vitriols4 ,fam4 #a4 ,silicio-sulphuret ,fam4 #a4 ,fluoric ,acid4 of ,potash4 ,metals4 ,f4 #b4 ,argillaceo-sulphuret ,f4 #b4 ,bromic ,acid4 of ,potash4 ,f4 #c4 ,magnesio-sulphuret ,f4 #c4 ,iodic ,acid4 of ,potash4 ,f4 #d4 ,calcareo-sulphuret ,f4 #d4 ,cyanic ,acid4 of ,potash4 ,f4 #e4 ,salt-,soaps4 ,f4 #e4 ,hydrochloric ,acid4 #a4 ,potassio-sulphuret of ,potash4 #b4 ,ammoniaco-sulphuret of ,potash4 ,f4 #f4 ,inflammable-,soaps4 ,f4 #f4 ,inflammable-,acid4 #a4 ,hard or ,soda-soap #a4 ,green or ,iron-vitriol4 #b4 ,soft or ,potash-soap #b4 ,blue or ,copper-vitriol4 #c4 ,linimentum volatile #c4 ,white or ,zinc-vitriol4 ,f4 #g4 ,metallic ,soaps4 ,f4 #g4 ,metallic ,acid4 #a4 ,carbonate of ,lead4 #a4 ,white ,arsenic4 #b4 ,liquor arsenicalis ,fowleri4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,soaps4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,acid4 #a4 ,mucus4 #a4 ,butter of ,antimony4 #b4 ,gelatine4 #b4 ,calomel4 #c4 ,albumen4 #d4 ,coagulable lymph4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,soaps4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,acid4 #a4 ,sugar4 #a4 ,nitrate of ,silver4 #b4 ,manna4 #c4 ,honey4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,soaps4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,acid4 #a4 ,extracts4 #a4 ,tartar emetic4 #b4 ,sugar of ,lead4 #c4 ,fulminating ,silver4 ,,third ,,class4 ,,air-,,earths--,,inflammables4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,order ,i4 ,,order ,,ii4 ,earth-,inflammables ,salt-,inflammables4 ,coals4 ,fats4 ,fam4 #a4 ,silicious ,coals4 ,fam4 #a4 ,spermaceti4 #a4 ,common ,coal4 ,f4 #b4 ,argillaceous ,coals4 ,f4 #b4 ,adipocire4 #a4 ,common ,coal4 ,f4 #c4 ,talcose ,coals4 ,f4 #c4 ,oleine4 #a4 ,common ,coal4 ,f4 #d4 ,calcareous ,coals4 ,f4 #d4 ,tallow4 #a4 ,common ,coal4 #a4 ,stearine4 ,f4 #e4 ,salt-,coals4 ,f4 #e4 ,salt-,fats4 #a4 ,gunpowder4 #a4 ,lard4 #b4 ,train-oil4 ,f4 #f4 ,inflammable-,coals4,f4 #f4 ,inflammable-,fats4 #a4 ,anthracite4 #a4 ,butter4 #b4 ,cream4 ,f4 #g4 ,ore-,coals4 ,f4 #g4 ,ore-,fats4 #a4 ,black ,lead4 #a4 ,wax4 #b4 ,pyrorthite4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,coals4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,fats4 #a4 ,brown ,coals4 #a4 ,cocoa-butter4 #b4 ,peat4 #b4 ,palm-oil4 #c4 ,nutmeg4 #d4 ,laurel-oil4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,coals4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,fats4 #a4 ,lignite4 #a4 ,linseed-oil4 #b4 ,nut-oil4 #c4 ,hemp-oil4 #d4 ,poppy-oil4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,coals4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,fats4 #a4 ,fibrine4 #a4 ,rape-oil4 #b4 ,olive-oil4 #c4 ,oil of ,almonds4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,order ,,iii4 ,,order ,,iv4 ,inflammable-,inflammables4 ,ore-,inflammables4 ,resins4 ,pigments4 ,fam4 #a4 ,sulphur4 ,fm4 #a4 ,silicious- ,pigments4 #a4 ,alcohol of ,sulphur4 #a4 ,litmus4 #b4 ,orpiment4 ,f4 #b4 ,boron4 ,f4 #b4 ,argillaceous ,pigments4 ,f4 #c4 ,selenium4 ,f4 #c4 ,talc ,pigments4 ,f4 #d4 ,phosphorus4 ,f4 #d4 ,calcareous ,pigments4 ,f4 #e4 ,salt-,resins4 ,f4 #e4 ,salt-,pigments4 #a4 ,chloride of ,sulphur4 #a4 ,krapp4 #b4 ,chloride of ,phosphorus4 #b4 ,dier's-weed4 ,f4 #f4 ,inflammable-,resins4,f4 #f4 ,inflammable- ,pigments4 #a4 ,mineral-pitch4 #a4 ,sandal-wood4 #b4 ,amber4 #b4 ,log-wood4 #c4 ,turpentine4 #c4 ,curcuma4 #d4 ,caoutchouc4 #d4 ,chlorophyle4 ,f4 #g4 ,ore-,resins4 ,f4 #g4 ,ore-,pigments4 #a4 ,turpentine4 #a4 ,succory4 #b4 ,balsam of ,peru4 #b4 ,quercitron4 #c4 ,mecca-balsam #c4 ,woad4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,resins4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,pigments4 #a4 ,assafoetida4 #a4 ,sap-green4 #b4 ,gumboge4 #b4 ,oak-gall4 #c4 ,myrrh4 #d4 ,opium4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,resins4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,pigments4 #a4 ,petroleum4 #a4 ,saffranon4 #b4 ,dippel's ,oil4 #b4 ,saffron4 #c4 ,camphor4 #c4 ,anotto4 #d4 ,oil of ,turpentine4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,resins4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,pigments4 #a4 ,spirits of ,wine4 #a4 ,scarlet4 #b4 ,sulphuric ,ether4 #b4 ,blood-red4 #c4 ,acetic ,ether4 #d4 ,formic ,spirit4 ,,fourth ,,class4 ,,fire-,,earths--,,ores4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,order ,i4 ,,order ,,ii4 ,earth-,ores4 ,salt-,ores4 ,ochres4 ,halde4 ,fam4 #a4 ,silicious ,ochres4 ,fam4 #a4 ,silicious ,halde4 #a4 ,lierite4 #a4 ,fluor-,cererium4 #b4 ,dioptase4 #c4 ,antimonial ,silver4 #d4 ,electric ,calamine4 ,f4 #b4 ,argillaceous ,ochres4,f4 #b4 ,argillaceous ,halde4 #a4 ,clay ,iron-stone4 ,bromic acid4 #b4 ,polymignite4 #c4 ,yttro-tantalite4 ,f4 #c4 ,talc ,ochres4 ,f4 #c4 ,talc-,halde4 #a4 ,blue ,iron-stone4 ,iodic acid4 ,f4 #d4 ,calcareous ,ochres4 ,f4 #d4 ,calcareous ,halde4 #a4 ,black oxide of ,cyanic acid4 ,manganese4 #b4 ,pyrochlore4 ,f4 #e4 ,salt-,ochres4 ,f4 #e4 ,salt-,halde4 #a4 ,bog-iron4 ,boracic acid4 ,f4 #f4 ,inflammable-,ochres4 ,f4 #f4 ,inflammable-,halde4 #a4 ,wolfram4 #a4 ,sulphate of ,lead4 #b4 ,protoxide of #b4 ,blue phosphate ,uranium4 of ,iron4 #c4 ,rutile4 #c4 ,uran-glance4 #d4 ,tin-stone4 #d4 ,green phosphate of ,lead4 ,f4 #g4 ,ore-,ochres4 ,f4 #g4 ,ore-,halde4 #a4 ,iron-glance4 #a4 ,chromate of #b4 ,titanate of ,iron4 ,lead4 #c4 ,chromate of ,iron4 #b4 ,cube-ore4 #d4 ,red ,copper ore4 #c4 ,olivenite4 #d4 ,cobalt-bloom4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,ochres4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,halde4 #a4 ,thraulite4 #a4 ,muriate of ,copper4 #b4 ,brown ,iron-stone #b4 ,horn-lead4 ore4 #c4 ,gray ore of #c4 ,horn-silver4 ,manganese4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,ochres4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,halde4 #a4 ,umbra4 ,nitric acid4 #b4 ,yellow-earth4 #c4 ,black ,copper4 #d4 ,black ,cobalt4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,ochres4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,halde4 #a4 ,white ,antimony #a4 ,iron-spar4 #b4 ,mennige4 #b4 ,earthy blue copper4 #c4 ,bismuth ,ochre4 #c4 ,carbon of ,lead4 #d4 ,protoxide of #d4 ,calamine4 ,arsenic4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,order ,,iii4 ,,order ,,iv4 ,inflammable-,ores4 ,ore-,ores4 ,inflammables4 ,metals4 ,f4 #a4 ,silic4 ,inflammables4 ,f4 #a4 ,silicious ,metals4 #a4 ,zinc-blende4 #a4 ,tantalium4 #b4 ,cinnabar4 #c4 ,red ,antimony4 #d4 ,ruby ,silver-ore4 ,f4 #b4 ,argillaceous ,f4 #b4 ,argillaceous ,inflammables4 ,metals4 #a4 ,iron ,pyrites4 #a4 ,wolfram4 #b4 ,copper ,pyrites4 #b4 ,iron4 #c4 ,tin ,pyrites4 #c4 ,cerium4 ,f4 #c4 ,talc ,inflammables4 ,f4 #c4 ,talc-,metals4 #a4 ,vanadium4 #b4 ,uranium4 #c4 ,titanium4 #d4 ,chromium4 ,f4 #d4 ,calcareous ,f4 #d4 ,calcareous ,metals4 ,inflammables4 #a4 ,sulphuret of #a4 ,molybdenum4 ,molybdena4 #b4 ,osmium4 #b4 ,pyrochlore4 ,f4 #e4 ,salt-,inflammables4 ,f4 #e4 ,salt-,metals4 #a4 ,copper-glance4 #a4 ,copper4 #b4 ,gray-copper4 ,f4 #f4 ,inflammable ,f4 #f4 ,inflammable-,metals4 -,inflammables4 #a4 ,nickel-glance4 #a4 ,nickel4 #b4 ,cobalt-glance4 #b4 ,cobalt4 ,f4 #g4 ,ore-,inflammables4 ,f4 #g4 ,ore-,metals4 #a4 ,sulphur-,platinum4 #a4 ,rhodium4 #b4 ,iridium #c4 ,palladium4 #d4 ,platinum4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,inflammables4 ,f4 #h4 ,water-,metals4 #a4 ,antimonial #a4 ,antimony4 ,nickel #b4 ,tin4 #b4 ,gray ,antimony #c4 ,lead4 #c4 ,galena4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,inflammables4 ,f4 #i4 ,air-,metals4 #a4 ,acicular ,bismuth4 #a4 ,zinc4 #b4 ,bismuth-glance4 #b4 ,cadmium4 #c4 ,arsenical ,pyrites4 #c4 ,bismuth4 #d4 ,arsenic4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,inflammables4 ,f4 #aj4 ,fire-,metals4 #a4 ,foliated ,tellurium4 #a4 ,tellurium4 #b4 ,silver-glance4 #b4 ,mercury4 #c4 ,silver4 #d4 ,gold4 ,,ii4--,,geology4 #ede4 ,geology is the history of the formation of the planet4 ,it is the doctrine which comprises the structure and thus the form1 with the organs or members of the planet1 if we would compare the latter with an organic body4 #a4 ,form of the ,planet4 #edf4 ,crystallization belongs to the essence of the earth as the globular form does to that of water4 ,the life of the earth consists in the formation of crystals4 ,the being of the earth and of the crystal are identical4 ,the solid planet earth1 has originated also according to the laws of crystallization4 #edg4 ,it is not1 however1 a single large crystal1 the structure of which appears to be homogeneous2 but it is crystallized in its smallest parts2 it is an accumulation of crystals1 which its atoms1 integral parts1 or constituent forms present for our examination4 ,if a schorl or feldspar were extended to the size of the whole earth1 its integral parts1 though undiscoverable before by the microscope1 would then become visible4 ,crystals would be exhibited therein of silicious1 argillaceous1 talcose1 and calcareous earths1 of iron1 boracic acid1 c4 ,in short it would prove a complex kind of rock or mountain4 ,the fundamental or principal mass of the planet is thus a granular kind of rock or mountain1 probably like granite4 ,each of these constituent forms is crystallized for itself out of the fluid-mass according to the laws developed in the theory of crystallization1 in every point of the fluid a globe of crystallizing forces being constituted1 that generated the constituent forms4 #edh4 ,the earth 7regarded as planet1 not as element7 has during its coagulation into a solid nucleus1 generated an infinity of polar spheres1 as every polar line consists of an infinite vicissitude of poles4 #edi4 ,these integral crystals have originated only in drops of water2 for then only was an infinite multitude of polar axes and polar radii separated from each other4 ,water in infinitely numerous drops is rain4 ,in the primary rain each drop crystallized1 and each fell towards the centre1 because the primary water ranged over a vast extent4 ,the granular rock has originated in and out of rain4 ,it is crystallized rain4 #eej4 ,it does not follow from this1 that the earth should be an accidental accumulation of small crystals1 which1 by the rotation of the planet1 formed themselves mechanically into a spheroid4 ,as in small crystals the infinity of poles reunites to constitute some principal polarities1 so also is this the case with the globe of the earth2 this results from its genesis whereby it is present in a definite space1 and hence coheres or hangs together as one piece4 ,the earth is only one small punctule of contraction wrought in ther-space by the agency of light4 ,again1 it was without doubt a single central tension1 which1 occurring upon a large scale1 attracted together all the particles of ther1 and from that circumstance arranged them also4 ,it was probably magnetism1 which is so intimately connected with the rotation of the earth's axis1 or the conflict of magnetism in its interior with the electricity upon its surface1 which was active in the condensation and arrangement of the masses4 #eea4 ,this arrangement of the parts of the earth1 upon a large scale1 is a regulation of its constituent forms4 ,the adjusting forces are1 however1 those that operate through the whole sphere1 and are thus linear and spherical at one and the same time4 ,by these the lamin of the nucleus were determined4 ,the constituent forms of the earth are consequently arranged in lamin4 ,what in the crystal is called the cleavage of the lamin1 is in the earth stratification4 ,the strike of the strata combined with their dip determines the crystal nucleus of the earth4 #eeb4 ,the strike and dip of the strata happened without doubt according to definite laws of crystallization1 and has by no means been resigned to elevating force1 mechanical dislocation1 or even to chance4 #eec4 ,on this very account the two directions of the earth's lamin cannot have a similar bearing over the whole earth4 ,they can only have a long tract extending in the same direction in individual mountain-chains4 ,this does not1 however1 exclude a parallel strike and dip occurring in some wholly different quarter of the world2 it must indeed occur1 and in such instances we meet with the opposing sides or edges of the earth's nucleus4 #eed4 ,the earth has without doubt originated according to the laws of the polyhedron1 which represents in the nearest manner the globe4 ,the polyhedron of the globe is the rhomboidal dodecahedron4 #eee4 ,the land cannot therefore have an equal elevation everywhere above the water1 because the crystal consists of edges1 angles1 and surfaces or sides4 ,the mountain tops are probably the angles1 the mountain ridges or chains the edges1 the plains the lateral surfaces of the crystal4 #eef4 ,several mountain-chains run parallel1 but interrupted1 with the equator4 ,this parallelism extends to the most temperate zones4 ,then follow oblique mountain-chains1 as the ,carpathian1 ,alps1 ,pyrenees4 ,lastly1 mountain-chains pass from the poles to the equator1 as the ,sewo1 ,ural and ,altai mountains4 ,subordinate mountain-chains unite the latter transversely and the former in the direction of the meridian4 ,the earth is probably a regular net of crystal edges and angles1 and thus of crystal surfaces also4 ,,primary ,,valleys4 #eeg4 ,although the earth may be regarded as originally a crystal1 that consists of level surfaces1 edges and angles1 wide fissures may still have originated between its lamin1 such as we see in large crystals of felspar4 ,these fissures or gaps are the primary valleys4 #eeh4 ,there must be therefore valleys or parallel valleys1 which probably extend for hundreds of miles1 and are many miles deep--,longitudinal valleys4 #eei4 ,the lamin of the earth had without doubt transverse fissures1 which have been called hidden passages4 ,these transverse fissures are the transverse valleys1 which are consequently less long and deep4 #efj4 ,the mountains originate of themselves4 ,they do not properly originate1 but valleys only originate1 and the ridges of the crystal lamin afford the mountains4 ,the mountains have not been originally upheaved above the surface of the earth1 nor the valleys depressed4 ,a valley1 which is several miles broad1 must originally have been several miles deep1 and the mountain wall consequently several miles high4 ,the earth at its origin was a cloven and jagged polyhedron1 a polyhedric star1 such as the moon is still4 #efa4 ,the mountains are not therefore large crystals1 which crystallized above the surface of the earth4 ,they are only crystal lamin1 and may be as irregular as possible in form2 for they are ruptured crystals4 #efb4 ,the water1 which from the beginning had covered the polyhedron1 now sunk into the primary valleys4 ,from the water resulted new and final crystallizations1 and these deposited themselves in the valleys1 upon the level ground and the flanks of the mountains2 and thus the fathomless primary valleys have been in part filled up4 ,there are no longer any primary valleys upon the earth4 #efc4 ,after the water was once confined in narrow canals1 it must begin to flow1 and by the force of its current many a steep primary wall must have fallen in1 been crumbled into ruins1 and either been left upon the spot or washed away--,diluvial drift rocks 7,trmmersteine71 ,nagelfluhe1 ,stratified rocks4 #efd4 ,the principal direction of the water was formerly1 as it is even now1 determined by the rotation of the earth2 it flowed therefore from east to west under the equator1 from north-east to south-west in our temperate zones1 and pretty well from the north or from the poles toward the equator in the frigid zones4 #efe4 ,the primary valleys1 which had originated in these directions1 were more excavated by aqueous agency than those which ran in other directions1 new valleys being also produced2 the mountain chains therefore upon the earth agree in the main with the water courses1 and1 though not generated from1 have been certainly changed in character by1 the latter4 ,such must be our conclusion1 if in the formation of the earth nothing but crystallization be taken into consideration4 ,condensation alone brings yet other phenomena along with it4 #eff4 ,the first and most important of these is the elevation of temperature4 ,we cannot think otherwise than at the first precipitation of the earthy a number of huge cavities remained in the interior of the earth1 which were filled with water4 ,this being heated1 was converted into steam1 which thrust up the superincumbent rock1 and converted it into new mountains or mountain-chains4 ,these agencies of heat may be called primary volcanoes1 although they are not to be confounded with volcanoes proper4 #efg4 ,the igneous cavities were probably placed in a certain order1 according with the original edges and angles of the earth's body4 ,they may have therefore thrown up mountain tops and chains4 #efh4 ,but the cavities1 besides raising mountain chains1 could just as well depress or allow them to sink in1 and thus produce valleys4 ,by these means the seas have probably been formed4 ,like the seas so also have the inland seas or lakes originated4 #efi4 ,lastly1 a similar origin must be ascribed to the world-sea or ocean4 ,many earthquakes arose1 with all their concomitant phenomena1 by partial and sudden falling in of the deep descending cavities of the earth4 ,frequently that which fell in was again driven out by the expansive force of the suddenly compressed air4 #b4 ,organs of the ,planet4 #egj4 ,the principal mass or body of the planet is formed by the earths proper1 as being the typical or genuine representatives of the earth-element4 ,the other classes1 as the metallic minerals or ores1 the ,inflammables1 and salts1 are to be regarded only as viscera of this body4 ,if we take a circumspective glance at the planet1 we cannot fail to recognize this remarkable relation1 that it is properly the elemental families only of the earths that form the mountain masses1 while the other families are only scattered within them1 like the glands in an animal body4 ,let us again place the ,families in tabular contrast with each other4 ,,silicious1 ,,argillaceous1 ,,talcose and ,,calcareous-,,earths4 ,a4 ,earth-silices4 ,earth-clays4 ,earth-talcs4 ,earth-calces4 ,fam4 #a4 ,quartz4 #a4 ,felspar4 #a4 ,mica4 #a4 ,lapis-lazuli4 #b4 ,zircon4 #b4 ,sapphire4 #b4 ,sappharine4 #b4 ,mesotype4 #c4 ,emerald4 #c4 ,ruby4 #c4 ,talc4 #c4 ,stellite4 #d4 ,leucite4 #d4 ,epidote4 #d4 ,angite4 #d4 ,tabular-spar4 #e4 ,topaz4 #e4 ,schorl4 #e4 ,hornblende4 #e4 ,boracite4 #f4 ,diamond4 #f4 ,azurite4 #f4 ,asbestus4 #f4 ,phosphorite4 #g4 ,garnet4 #g4 ,harmotone4 #g4 ,olivine4 #g4 ,titanite4 ,b4 ,water-silices4 ,water-clays4 ,water-talcs4 ,water-calces4 #h4 ,hornstone4 #h4 ,clay-slate4 #h4 ,serpentine4 #h4 ,hydrophyllite4 ,c4 ,air-silices4 ,air-clays4 ,air-talcs4 ,air-calces4 #i4 ,tripoli4 #i4 ,clay-stone4 #i4 ,lithomarge4 #i4 ,gypsum4 ,d4 ,fire-silices4 ,fire-clays4 ,fire-talcs4 ,fire-calces4 #aj4 ,obsidian4 #aj4 ,lava4 #aj4 ,basalt4 #aj4 ,limestone4 #ega4 ,now we here observe that only ,quartz1 ,hornstone1 ,tripoli and ,obsidian1 occur as mineral aggregates in large masses1 while all the others are only rare precious stones4 ,among the ,clays1 only ,felspar1 ,clay-,slate1 ,hornstone and ,lava4 ,among the ,talcs1 only ,mica1 ,serpentine1 ,lithomarge1 and ,basalt4 ,among the ,calcareous-earths1 which incline towards the nature of salts1 all the first families are of rare occurrence1 and the latter only appear as mineral masses4 ,this regularity speaks moreover retrospectively in favour of the correctness of the classification4 ,the families have thus the same import or value in ,geology as in ,oryctognosy4 ,a4--,,earths4 #egb4 ,the proper organs of the planet are the mineral aggregates or rocks4 ,these are either presented to us as they have originally been precipitated from water by chemical process1 or as they have been changed by the co-operation of the other elements4 ,there are thus genetic and metamorphosed kinds of rock4 ,the former were crystallized previous to the current of the water--,primary rocks4 ,these rocks are changed either-- #a4 ,by water--,transition-rocks1 or #b4 ,by air--,trappean-rocks4 #c4 ,by fire--,volcanic-rocks4 ,there are properly four kinds of rock formations-- #a4 ,earth-formation1 masses that have originated through the crystallizing force of the earth-element itself--,primary-rocks4 #b4 ,aqueous-formation--,transition-rocks4 #c4 ,aerial-formation--,trappean-rocks4 #d4 ,igneous-formation--,volcanic-rocks4 ,the stratified rocks1 having originated for the most part mechanically1 are only the object of ,physio-philosophy1 in so far as chemical precipitations partly occur amongst them4 #egc4 ,the earth-formation is represented by the crystallized primary rocks4 a4 ,earth-,formation4 #egd4 ,the earths can only be precipitations from the element that immediately precedes them1 and thus from water4 ,they have been enveloped in the water1 as this has been in the air1 and the latter again in the ther1 but not mechanically1 as we at present dissolve clay in water1 nor chemically either1 as lime dissolves by corrosion in water1 but dynamically4 ,the water did not exist from the beginning as water in the air1 but only its principles1 which became for the first time water1 when they had combined by electricity4 #ege4 ,even so was it the case with the earths4 ,the primary water1 which was present prior to the solid nucleus of the earth1 is not the water1 with which we are at present acquainted2 it had still the earthy principles1 the basic in itself1 which being separated by a differencing act from the oxygenous of the water1 was deposited as carbon specially produced4 ,no calcareous1 argillaceous1 and silicious earth was imbedded in the primary water4 ,how then could they have been dissolved in it8 ,some say1 by a great quantity of acids which prevailed at that time2 but from whence then did these acids come8 ,the largest quantity of them resides in lime1 gypsum1 and common salt2 but how could this quantity1 which has not so much as acidified all the calcareous earth1 have held the rest of the earths in solution8 ,and then again are all the earths soluble by the process of acidification8 ,we cannot reason in geogeny1 as we would of a common chemical precipitation1 where we precipitate earths that have been dissolved by elective affinities4 #egf4 ,the earths originated for the first time1 when they were separated from the primary water4 ,the instant of their precipitation was also the instant of their generation1 even as rain is1 or rather was1 a production of the water4 ,it is easy to say that the earths had been dissolved in the water1 and were then precipitated by elective affinities4 ,but it is absurd to rest content with such an assertion4 ,the chief question still remains2 how did the earthy originate1 before the earth was8 ,every one can say how that which had already originated1 and was only suspended in water1 was precipitated4 ,but we are in the habit of distinguishing the several earths1 before having taken a survey of matters and inquired if earths then existed4 #egg4 ,it must not1 however1 be thought1 that all had happened in a gradual manner2 that air was first converted into water1 and lastly1 after a lapse of some thousand years1 the latter again into earth1 without with the one element the principles conducting to the others being already and necessarily imparted4 ,no1 everything has been granted and determined at one stroke1 even as with the impregnation of the ovum all the organs of the future embryo are determined1 although they first develop themselves gradually4 ,the same agent1 which creates the air solicits also its two principles unto combustion in the water2 and the same act1 which separates the oxygen gas out of the air as water1 separates also the carbon from it to constitute earth4 ,not one can be posited1 without the other being codetermined4 #egh4 ,the analysing principle cannot be a something internal residing in the planet itself4 ,but all that it is1 it is through antagonism with the sun4 ,this antagonism is light4 ,this it is that divorces or separates the elements from their matrix2 it is light1 which has sundered the ther into the twofold air1 and the air again into the denser elements1 water and earth1 separating the oxygen from the nitrogen and later on from the carbon1 which must be taken up in water as an oxide4 #egi4 ,at the commencement of the separation the fluid must be the first to emerge1 because the cohesion or fixation of the poles is possible only in a successive manner1 yet not as if water were according to its determination to be the first and the ,earthy the second in the order of production4 ,as the oxygen separated from the air to create water1 so also must the carbon that was left have been precipitated from the water and metamorphosed into earth4 ,thence and thence only may we venture to say1 that the earths originated out of water2 for1 properly speaking1 they arose as absolutely for themselves as air and water2 but as air succeeded ther1 and water air1 so did the earth the water4 #ehj4 ,whatever be the bulk of the mass of water1 to the same extent is the ,earthy1 or the germ of the ,earthy1 diffused throughout it4 ,the whole is a fluid mass of earth4 ,light1 however1 penetrates the mass of water as a transparent body4 ,as translucency is not a mechanical but a dynamic act1 or process of differentialization in matter2 so does this earth-water become separated into a mass of oxygen and carbon1 or into ordinary water and into the earth-element4 #eha4 ,the genesis of the earths is a process of conduction of light4 ,all transparency is a formation of earth2 for it is a separation of the ,aqueous from the body of gravity4 ,where non-transparency exists1 there has earth been already formed4 #ehb4 ,as the conducting process of light is an act of deoxydation1 so are the earths at the same time also deoxydized by precipitation1 and this in four stages which indicate the elements whereby light operates upon the ,basic in water2 or it might be said1 by the four colours of1 or by coloured1 light4 ,we already know that the earth1 which presents in itself the most dismembered character is the calcareous earth2 but that those which have preserved a more identical character in themselves are the silicious1 argillaceous1 and talcose earths4 ,these earths may be viewed as those in which the lime has absorbed a proportion of oxygen1 which has in it become carbonic acid4 ,there is indeed only one earth-substance in water4 ,in this substance1 which is neither silex nor calx1 the polar principle has distributed itself1 and that very portion1 which has obtained the most thereof1 has become calcareous earth4 #ehc4 ,the calcareous earth has originated in the upper parts of the aqueous globe1 the other earths1 however1 in the depths1 in the middle of that globe2 for in the upper regions of the water1 the light can exert a greater polarizing influence1 and therefore that very earth is generated which stands nearest to the ther or to the light1 viz4 the different calcareous earth4 ,but in the depths of the water1 the light loses its energy1 and is no longer in a condition to elicit the ,oxygenous in the ,basic2 thereby identical and more fixed earths originate4 ,,granular ,,rock ,,or ,,granite4 #ehd4 ,the differenced calcareous earth has been associated with the differential water1 remained for a longer period identical with and dissolved in it1 and was therefore the last to be precipitated from it4 ,the silicious earth with its neighbours must necessarily have been the first to separate from the water1 as it is in a proper sense1 that earth from which all water has been withdrawn4 ,two periods of precipitation exist therefore in geogeny1 one that of the identical or fundamental earths1 and one of the internally subdivided calcareous earths4 #ehe4 ,the silicious1 argillaceous1 and talcose earths must occupy1 from their having been first precipitated1 the middle of the planet4 ,the water being earthy everywhere1 had everywhere the capacity to become earth2 but different earths originated1 where the light was different in the fluid mass of earth4 ,in pure light1 or that upon the surface1 the ,earthy dualized itself into calcareous earth2 in situations1 where the light exercised less influence1 the ,earthy became talcose1 still deeper argillaceous earth2 lastly1 at such a depth where the light could scarcely reach1 the ,earthy became a pure ,earthy or silicious earth4 #ehf4 ,precipitation1 both upon a large and small scale1 is a process of crystallization2 the integral parts of the planet originate1 like the nucleus and the perfected crystal1 through central action and polar action4 ,the integral forms of the planet impart the crystalline granule or its joints4 #ehg4 ,the integral forms of the three fundamental earths crystallized with and through each other into one mass1 or1 in other words1 the nucleus of the earth consists of a crystalline mass of the three fundamental earths4 ,the solid nucleus of the earth consists of crystals upon a small scale of silex1 clay1 and talc4 #ehh4 ,as1 however1 no pole is produced of perfect purity in nature1 so are the integral forms not perfectly pure fundamental earths1 but other and later factors enter also into their composition1 e4 g4 calcareous earth1 with even ores and salts4 ,the silicious earth is crystallized as quartz1 the argillaceous as feldspar1 the talc as mica4 #ehi4 ,the mixture of the three crystallized fundamental earths1 which composes the nucleus of the earth1 and upon which the polarized masses of soil have been supported1 is therefore a definite species of rock1 which has all the properties of ,granite1 although that which has been extruded from the earth may have been altered by heat4 #eij4 ,as the mass of the earth is about five times denser than water2 so must the planet1 before the ,earthy was separated1 have been much denser than at present4 ,with its separation the fluid must have suddenly diminished1 and moved towards the middle point of the planet4 ,during the descent of water for many miles in extent1 it must separate in drops4 ,the separation of the earths was combined with rain4 #eia4 ,in every falling drop the three fundamental earths1 which are insoluble in water1 crystallized4 ,the first crystals therefore are only of the size of drops4 ,it is only by this mode of origin that the crystallization into one another of the three constituent parts of granite without any cementing substance can be comprehended4 ,granite is an earthy hail-storm4 ,the hail-stones crystallized during their fall in a similar manner with each other4 #eib4 ,upon the whole the silicious character predominates in granite1 as the primary formation of the planet1 and must do so1 for silicious earth is the primary earth1 the principal earth of this precipitation1 and one from which clay and talc subsequently proceed1 being higher heterogynisms produced by light4 ,properly speaking only two perfectly different characters of earth exist1 the silicious earth as the pure separation of the ,earthy1 and the calcareous earth1 as the last separation of the water from the ,earthy4 ,it may also be said that in the calcareous earth fire1 in the talcose earths the air1 in the argillaceous earth water has exercised its influence and displaced the ,earthy4 ,not only quartz is silicious earth1 but feldspar and mica consist in a great measure of the same4 ,still1 however1 these last two constituent forms are wholly different from quartz1 and very far removed from the nature of silex2 the feldspar obviously forming the transition to clay by its resolution into porcellanic earths1 but the mica passing over into talc4 #eic4 ,there does not exist in nature an order of silex1 clay1 or talc1 so soon as we take up these earths in a simply chemical manner4 ,nature instead of silex produces quartz1 instead of clay feldspar1 instead of talc mica2 and these must be the earths1 that determine this part of the mineral system2 they are the characters of orders2 there is thus properly no order of silex but of quartz1 none of clay but of feldspar1 none of talc but of mica1 at least according to their signification4 #eid4 ,the points of origin for this division of the mineral system or that formed by the fundamental earths are the three fundamental crystallizations1 and upon these everything that does not belong to the calcareous earth must and does naturally arrange itself4 ,the mineral system is only the developed and separated granite4 ,the fact cannot rest unobserved1 that mica has only one laminar cleavage1 feldspar two1 quartz three1 this being for the first time a perfect crystal1 a double tetrahedron with one column4 #eie4 ,with granite and with it alone the solidity1 the body and form of the earth has been given2 it is the homogeneous fundamental mass of the planet1 and is therefore crystallized throughout to the finest degree in its three constituent forms4 ,,gneiss ,,and ,,mica-,,schist4 #eif4 ,if1 in addition to granite1 several formations are displayed which bear traces of the same mode of origin1 of the same component parts and the same aggregation1 it may be inferred that they are only metamorphoses of the same precipitate4 ,granite is the basis of geogeny4 #eig4 ,granite is a totality for the earth1 it is a representation of the three terrestrial elements under the form of identical earth2 it is the earth represented in silex1 water in clay1 and air in talc2 it is an universe represented individually in the earth-elements4 #eih4 ,the granite can undergo metamorphosis in only three ways2 for its essence is indeed only trinity4 ,nothing can individualize itself from granite but quartz1 feldspar1 and mica4 ,all the formations of this period are thus quartz1 feldspar1 or mica formations4 ,the granite appears under a threefold form as quartz1 feldspar1 and mica-granite4 #eii4 ,the first quartz formation is properly the granite itself1 and its character will be also the determinant for all the metamorphoses of quartz--quartz-granite4 #fjj4 ,the first structure1 in which the character of feldspar as regards its laminated form and its more argillaceous nature obtains the preponderance1 is ,gneiss--,feldspar-granite4 #fja4 ,the first structure in which mica is the predominant character1 is the ,mica-schist--,mica-granite4 #fjb4 ,all rocks that do not belong to the calcareous formation come under these three forms4 ,the progressive formation of the earth takes a threefold course1 since it begins in a threefold and yet single manner in granite4 #fjc4 ,the gneiss and mica-schist precipitations followed subsequently to the completion of granite4 ,for all precipitation is a true process1 in which water has a certain tension peculiar to this process1 by virtue of which this form of earth and no other has been produced4 #fjd4 ,by granite the silicious principally came out of water1 but what was argillaceous and talcose remained behind4 #fje4 ,gneiss and mica-schist are indeed subdivided granite1 but not in the sense of the already perfected granite having been again stirred up and dissolved1 but as already separated in principles1 in the primary water4 #fjf4 ,gneiss and mica-schists are products of a more mighty operation of light than granite4 ,they are nearer to the upper layers of water4 #fjg4 ,after the granitic rain1 or after the formation of granite1 the sphere of water was no longer perfectly transparent2 but water was now found also in the primary valleys1 in which the light had more power1 and thus greater capacity for splitting4 ,during the formation of granite the water has only become polar by light2 but1 as it was there wholly transparent without opposition1 it could never attain to a perfect dualization4 ,in the second earth-rain and in the valleys1 the light on the contrary produces dualization of the fundamental earths1 since the sides of the mountains afford opposition to the light1 become themselves polar against the water1 and at the same time heat is produced4 #fjh4 ,gneiss and mica-schist enter into a polar relation with gravity1 and that indeed as a ,different to an ,identical1 as periphery to centre or as light to gravity4 #fji4 ,now the falling granite had in part lost its quartz and obtained a predominance of feldspar4 ,furthermore as the water-globe was already greatly collapsed1 the crystals thus originated in larger drops1 and occurred besides in water already stagnant or flowing4 ,the schistose gefge must have emerged as well through the preponderance of the laminar felspar1 as by the flowing of water and the attraction of the granite-walls4 ,this schistose granite is gneiss4 #faj4 ,when the gneiss was thrown down the talc predominated in the water2 it now fell in the same manner with less quartz and feldspar1 and was deposited in a still more schistose form than mica-schist4 #faa4 ,granite1 gneiss and mica-schist are the first that together form a ,whole1 each factor whereof has been evolved in an equally perfect manner4 ,,lamination4 #fab4 ,by this active antagonism of granite to gneiss and mica-schist the ,lamination of the latter is determined4 ,every particle of gneiss is attracted from the granite-wall and placed in a definite direction1 corresponding to the polar operation of granite2 the particles of gneiss already deposited attract the coming ones1 and so on4 ,the parts of the gneiss and mica-schist are not deposited upon the granite by virtue of their dead or inert gravity1 but by virtue of living polar attraction4 ,they are not therefore deposited in the depth of the primary valleys1 nor do they fill up the latter2 but they are attracted by the granite-walls and deposited to a greater or less extent like lamin of crystallization1 in large perpendicular layers4 #fac4 ,by these two precipitations the primary valleys were in part filled up1 and partly narrowed by the polar attraction of the walls4 ,the primary valleys therefore are no longer present upon the earth1 unless everything be called a primary valley that has not arisen or been excavated by the current of water4 #fad4 ,gneiss and mica-schist have indeed taken part in the primary crystallization1 yet are1 however1 only its last movements1 as the water had already met with resistance1 and was partly stagnant2 their mass therefore is not so purely crystallized as granite4 ,they are not parts of the earth's nucleus1 but lie only like a crust upon it like hollow crystals4 #fae4 ,it may be said that gneiss and mica-schist originated only because there were fathomless valleys in the granite1 in which the dissevering actions were inclosed1 and extended themselves from one mountain-wall to another1 while the light could be reflected in them and heat the earth4 #faf4 ,so long as the granite was devoid of valleys1 so long also did no other formation originate4 ,this is proved by the fact that upon the highest mountains the granite is bare and uncovered1 while this is not the case upon its lateral walls4 ,it is therefore the second and third earth-rain that first originated1 after the earth was heated4 ,gneiss and mica-schist are1 so to speak1 precipitated by reflected light4 #fag4 ,the principal valleys of gneiss and mica-schist have not originated by themselves1 but have been modelled according to the form of the granitic valleys4 ,the valleys of those earth-precipitates are properly only subsequent valleys4 #fah4 ,the lamination is not everywhere a mechanical phenomenon1 but without doubt also a polar4 ,it is exactly the same law1 which determines the lamination of crystals1 that does that of the strata of the earth1 and operates also in producing their lamination4 ,,primary ,,limestone4 #fai4 ,the earths must be viewed as one mass1 the component parts of which observe a mutual relation4 ,now1 after the silex1 clay and talc had been precipitated1 a proportionate abundance of lime became free1 which was then thrown down at the end of this period of precipitation1 as ,primary limestone4 #fbj4 ,the calcareous mass may be viewed as corrosive earth1 from which a certain quantity of carbon has been set free4 ,as such1 and combined with the oxygen developed out of the water by the influence of light to form carbonic acid1 the lime was insoluble and was precipitated4 #fba4 ,the primary limestone has also not been mechanically deposited4 ,it has a crystalline texture1 is a calcareous granite1 and generally succeeds the mica-schist formation4 b4 ,water-,formation--,transition-,rocks4 ,,metamorphosis ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,precipitations4 #fbb4 ,the metamorphosis of the granite did not terminate with these precipitations4 ,they are only the starting points for the metamorphosis1 in which the effort was first manifested to free themselves from the primary combination4 ,in the metamorphosis of earths1 the fundamental earths1 or the constituent parts of granite1 strove to become each for itself a particular rock4 ,they were all identified in quartz2 in granite they for the first time parted company with each other1 yet still formed a common sphere2 lastly1 in gneiss and mica-schist they all separated into three spheres1 but which still did not differ in mass from granite4 #fbc4 ,individualization had not yet been attained4 ,the gneiss had still all the constituent parts of the granite1 as well as the mica-schist2 both are only a more peripheric1 slaty granite1 the one having a preponderance of the ,argillaceous1 the other of the ,talcose4 ,with these formations1 however1 ,geogeny cannot remain stationary2 for verily the law of the development of the world is individualization4 ,instead of granite1 simply quartz1 instead of gneiss simply clay1 instead of mica-schist simply talc must be separated2 and then the termination of this period is attained1 the trinity of the simple earths has been completely represented4 #fbd4 ,all the ,earthy could not have been separated from the water by the first storm of precipitation4 ,for the water now rested very much collapsed upon the earth's nucleus1 and could no longer therefore assume the form of rain4 ,that therefore which was now precipitated could no longer be thoroughly crystallized1 but must follow the current and disquietude of the water1 and thus emerge from it in a slaty or massive condition4 #fbe4 ,the quartz of the granite endeavours to set itself free from the clay and talc1 or it becomes freed by the latter removing from it in virtue of its polar behaviour4 ,there is therefore one series of rocks1 in which the granite is constantly rejecting the feldspar and mica more and more1 and at last subsists as quartz simply1 which quartzose rocks as forming entire mountains are for intelligible reasons not of frequent occurrence4 #fbf4 ,the completion of the gneiss in its entire separation from the granite1 and the evolution of feldspar upon a large scale constitutes the clay-slate1 and finally clay-stone and clay-porphyry4 ,this yields us a new series of formations1 in which the gneiss gradually attains to being divested of quartz and mica and to a pure position as feldspar4 ,the clay-slate is a true gneiss1 that has lost the definite particles of quartz and mica4 #fbg4 ,the position of mica-schist constitutes in its purity the talc-formation1 talc-slate1 chlorite-slate1 hornblende-slate4 #fbh4 ,after these several precipitations1 the calcareous mass remains behind in the water1 and now1 as in the first periods of crystallization1 is charged with carbonic acid1 and is precipitated as transitionary calx under the form of mountain limestone4 #fbi4 ,these formations are found upon the whole to be arranged on the earth1 in the order of time at which they were precipitated from the water4 ,in the middle of the loftiest mountains is granite1 then gneiss and mica-schist2 then follow quartzose rocks1 clay-slate or porphyry1 talcose rocks1 and lastly on the edge of all these runs the chain of alpine or mountain limestone4 ,in the last of these formations are found fossil remains of corals and molluscous animals4 ,for these formations fell first of all after the water had a solid bottom1 and the granitic mountains projected above it4 ,,sedimentary ,,or ,,stratified ,,rocks4 #fcj4 ,the period had now arrived in which the fundamental earths1 being upon the whole completed1 predominate4 ,that which was separated in a chemical way from the ,earthy out of water1 has been in great part precipitated4 ,this period1 however1 although the first and most extensive1 indicates but the half of ,geogeny1 or as yet only one pole in the genesis1 which requires the other4 ,in the beginning both poles were in the water1 that of the fundamental earths as well as that of the calcareous earth2 the light shone upon1 dissevered them1 and earths1 the most heterogeneous in respect to water1 were first of all precipitated4 #fca4 ,while the fundamental earths were precipitated1 the calcareous earth was repelled and retained1 on account of its homogeneity1 in water1 because the acid half continued longer fluid than the basic4 ,the water was thus after its separation from these substances a true limewater4 #fcb4 ,through this separation1 however1 the great antagonism in the water ceased2 and subordinate antagonisms now made their appearance1 which were kept united by the former4 ,the calcareous earth is now occupied no more as one pole1 but is the whole water itself1 upon which1 as it is less deep1 the light acts anew and with greater force4 #fcc4 ,the dispersions of earths began just at this period to multiply themselves1 from the only fettering agent1 namely gravity1 having betaken itself to rest2 every earthy now emerges from its connexions1 the factors falling wholly asunder into alkalies and acids1 which combine in a multifarious manner4 #fcd4 ,these dispersions associated with the torrents of water that were now everywhere present prevented crystallization from taking place upon a large scale2 they moreover mingled with the mechanically water-borne and crumbling dbris of the earlier species of rocks2 their laminations therefore resemble rather a mechanical deposit from water4 ,they are the ,stratified rocks4 #fce4 ,as the first period must include the calcareous earth1 so also in the period of strata or in the dualized period this earth is not without a slight antagonism of the fundamental earths2 and this it is which for the first time becomes distinct1 but always with a preponderance of the calcareous over the fundamental earths1 while in the primary periods this relative proportion of the two was the reverse4 #fcf4 ,the primary period repeats itself again in the second1 and thus strata consisting of the fundamental earths originate1 as we have seen exemplified in the primary and transition formations of limestone4 ,the precipitation of strata is divided also into four formations1 into silicious1 argillaceous1 talcose and calcareous strata1 close to which range also the strata of ores1 ,inflammables and salts4 #fcg4 ,in other respects the chemical deposits of this period are so blended with the mechanical1 that their mode of origin seems for the most part to have happened in both ways4 #fch4 ,the silicious formation returning in the stratified periods is chiefly under the condition of sandstone4 ,apart from that1 which has originated through the detritus of the older kinds of rocks1 it may be assumed1 that the prevailing lime still held some silicious earth in a state of moisture within itself1 and that this during its separation was precipitated as a fine alcohol1 namely1 as sand4 ,if1 however1 sand fell1 so also must a proportionate quantity of lime fall1 by combining itself with an acid4 ,sand and lime therefore usually accompany each other4 ,if the two be regarded also as only floated freely and suspended in water1 still the chemical antagonism manifests itself between them as if they were in a mortar1 and they have been precipitated in layers alternating with each other4 ,the sandstone is as a rule therefore imbedded in the lime2 it is a mortar containing but little lime4 ,the mechanical silicious deposits are exemplified in the ,nagelfluh1 old red sandstone1 ,grauwacke1 sandstone and drift-sand4 #fci4 ,the stratified clay appears to have been deposited as clay-stone2 it passes over into slate and potters' clay4 ,the talcose strata pass by serpentine and potters' stone into steatite and meerschaum4 ,,stratified ,,limestone4 #fdj4 ,the pole which had operated continuously from the fundamental earths contained in the ,earthy has now separated from it1 and the tension is again extinguished4 ,the ,earthy is now contained in a pure state in water without continuance of the silicious pole2 the influx of water has now obtained the preponderance4 ,so soon1 however1 as the antagonism of this water to the stratified silex1 clay and talc ceases1 the more internal1 hitherto restrained by the feebler antagonism1 becomes awakened1 as it did after the precipitation of the fundamental earths4 #fda4 ,the principles are necessarily combined more firmly in the fundamental than in the calcareous earths4 ,in this both the oxygenic and basic earth-principle must each attain for itself completion1 and represent the two primary bodies in the earth with the same capacity for separation and activity4 #fdb4 ,the production of earths results from a constant antagonism subsisting between them and water4 ,the more the ,basic is thrown down1 by so much does the ,oxygenous preponderate to a greater degree in water4 ,the water becomes oxydized and seeks to divide into its two principles1 into oxygen and hydrogen4 #fdc4 ,by this contest tension is also excited in the earth-principles1 namely1 oxygen and carbon1 and they begin in themselves to separate4 ,the metallic basis of the earths strives to become free4 ,during the separation1 however1 the oxygen snatches as it were some carbon along with it and appears as carbonic acid2 but the carbon of the earthy lays claim to some of the hydrogen and oxygen to combine with it and appears as corrosive or calcareous earth4 #fdd4 ,the acid is therefore a half of the earth1 which passes over into water1 and the corrosive earth is also a half of the earth that has lost its ,aqueous4 ,the former is the ,aqueous in the earths1 the latter the ,earthy itself separated from the former4 #fde4 ,the corrosive force is therefore no peculiar action in nature1 but only the effort made by the earths to complete themselves and imbibe water or acid4 ,the corrosive force is no synthesis1 but a moiety4 #fdf4 ,a total earth may be therefore regarded as a combination of acid and corrosive body4 ,these two component parts are separable in the calcareous and talcose earths2 but in the argillaceous and silicious earths they are so intimately dissolved1 that they can not be separated from each other4 #fdg4 ,carbon1 hydrogen and nitrogen1 but not oxygen1 fall or range upon the corrosive side of the earth in question4 #fdh4 ,regarded in this general manner the corrosive principle stands opposite to the principle of combustion1 and what is combustible1 is in idea corrosive4 ,the corrosive power is1 however1 but feeble in the gaseous nitrogen1 stronger in hydrogen and finally strongest in the body of earth4 ,the earthy carbon is the proper corrosive principle4 ,the direct antagonism is not therefore between the corrosive body and oxygen1 but between it and the carbonic acid1 and therefore between it and all the acids1 or acidity generally4 ,the last earthy antagonism is that between the corrosive body and acid4 #fdi4 ,the corrosive body regarded specially as simply a pure earthy body1 must stand opposite to the two moveable elements4 ,the corrodent is therefore constantly striving to draw water and air into itself1 and upon this depend also the effects produced by the corroding matters4 ,the corrosive calcareous earth acts in a destructive manner1 it abstracts water and air from bodies4 ,the action of the corrosive body is a deprivation of water and air1 and hence the elevated temperature of burnt lime in water4 ,if again the corrosive lime be full of water and air1 it is neutralized4 ,it is now forsooth again a total earth1 in a mechanical sense being again provided with water and acid4 ,all earths are an equal or identical mixture4 ,acids and alkalies are thus to be regarded in this respect as moieties1 and thereupon their chemical relation appears to depend4 ,the elemental bodies are desirous to complete themselves4 ,if therefore a base stands in corresponding import with a certain acid1 it will thus have a greater affinity for the latter1 tending to separate it from some other combination4 ,upon this principle1 which has indeed been hitherto unknown to exist1 the grades of affinity appear to depend4 #fej4 ,as regards the mode of occurrence of the calcareous earth1 it also is not of so mechanical a nature as is generally supposed4 ,its legitimate relation to sandstone and other precipitations1 speak against that4 ,but crystallization has for the most part disappeared in it2 and it is only in cavities that crystals shoot out1 like the ores in metallic veins4 ,in granite the commencement is crystal1 but in lime it is the termination2 crystallization determines the character in granite1 in calx or lime1 however1 the crystals are only blossoms4 #fea4 ,the calcareous earth multiplies itself as a reduction of the earth of gravity and that indeed three times4 ,there exists1 so to speak1 a corrosive silicious as also argillaceous and talcose earth4 ,the three corrosive earths are calcareous earth1 strontian and baryta1 or it may be said that the first would be salt1 the second ,inflammable1 and the third1 metal4 #feb4 ,still a polar separation emerges in the stratified calx1 while the two earth-principles become more individualized4 ,the carbonate of lime ranks on the lowest stage4 ,in this1 however1 the differencing process of light had not remained stationary1 but elevated the carbon to a higher grade2 carburetted hydrogen and sulphur originate in the calcareous earth combined as gypsum1 with oxygen4 #fec4 ,it may be said1 that calx were decomposed into alkali and carbon2 water into oxygen and acid4 ,carbon and oxygen become carbonic acid in limestone4 ,carbons and hydrogen become sulphur1 combined with oxygen sulphuric acid in gypsum4 ,hydrogen and oxygen become hydrochloric acid in common salt4 #fed4 ,gypsum is to be regarded as a calcareous earth1 which is inflammable in character1 as the fundamental earths were metallic4 ,the philosophical essence of gypsum consists not in its oxydation by sulphuric acid1 but in the combination of calcareous earth with sulphur1 as occurs in that of iron-spar with iron2 in this combination1 however1 the carbonic acid has still remained1 whereby the sulphur became acid4 ,the gypsum was therefore a carbonaceo-sulphate of lime1 an oxydized metal with a very large proportion of calcareous earth4 #fee4 ,gypsum and chalk are related polarwise to each other1 separate during the general precipitation1 and are deposited opposite to1 or alternately upon1 each other4 #fef4 ,in fluor-spar1 apatite and boracite the last differentialization of lime and carbonic acid is lost4 ,the principal masses are the carbonate and sulphate of lime4 #feg4 ,the strata of the ,inflammables1 such as of pit-coal1 and of the ores1 as of iron1 calamine1 appear to have originated in simply a mechanical manner4 ,,repeated ,,sedimentary ,,precipitations4 #feh4 ,the precipitating process is a process of polarization1 which comprises several stages4 ,in it there are moments of time4 #fei4 ,if the fluid mass be large1 this polarization will then require considerable time to penetrate throughout it4 #ffj4 ,the polarizing process will issue from a definite point1 which is different from water1 and thus form the point upon which the light operates with greatest force4 #ffa4 ,this is solid ground4 ,during the calcareous precipitation1 there was no other ground present save that of the mountain tops4 ,it was thus from these that the calcareous precipitation set out4 #ffb4 ,with each precipitation a greater number of mountain tops made their appearance1 because the water sank2 for the calcareous earth is about three times denser than water4 #ffc4 ,such being the conditions belonging to the sedimentary periods1 several consecutive centuries characterized by precipitations with repeated recessions and elevations of the water1 elapsed and have left evidence of the time thus consumed4 #ffd4 ,the recession of the water was not always an ebbing or sinking in1 but a diminution or disappearance of the same1 like the water in a glass lessens in quantity1 or becomes thoroughly solid1 if salt crystallizes therein4 #ffe4 ,by such precipitations whole basins of land became dry or freed from sea-water4 ,streams therefore of fresh water originated1 and with them corresponding organizations4 #fff4 ,these streams gradually filled the basins and formed seas4 ,as the seas coalesced by the constantly descending water1 an inland sea arose4 #ffg4 ,this inland sea became again salidified1 and that indeed of itself by the influence of light and the dissolution of the salt-banks1 which were not overflown4 ,such is still the ,caspian sea and others of that kind4 ,in these marine plants and animals could again originate4 #ffh4 ,thereupon new precipitations of salt succeeded1 the gypsum and calx being again dissolved1 and consequently diminutions also of water1 whereby rivers again originated4 ,one and the same basin of land was alternately covered with fresh and saline water4 #ffi4 ,marine and fresh-water animals could therefore originate and perish alternately4 ,and this is the explanation of the fact why banks inclosing both kinds of animals are found above and below each other4 #fgj4 ,an alternating ingress of the sea is not therefore necessary in all cases to explain the occurrence of marine fossil remains4 ,such an assumption is also wholly inconceivable4 ,nor is alternating elevation and depression of the soil necessary to the explanation of this phenomenon4 #fga4 ,during the time of precipitation the temperature of the water and consequently of the earth and air also was necessarily raised4 ,all creatures1 which then originated1 must correspond therefore to those of warmer climates4 #fgb4 ,the fossil remains do not require the assumption of a change having taken place in the inclination or bearing of the earth's axis2 nor of a heating of the surface by a fiery interior4 #fgc4 ,with every later precipitation other animals and plants must originate1 because the temperature and also the mixture of water was changed4 ,the fossils therefore indicate the age of the sedimentary strata4 #fgd4 ,during the last precipitations the creatures of colder climates must have originated4 #fge4 ,land animals cannot1 or but rarely1 be found in the sedimentary strata1 if even they had already been in existence prior to their formation4 ,for the inundations did not break in suddenly1 but the water rose by degrees4 ,they had time therefore to retire to the high grounds4 #fgf4 ,land plants may1 on the contrary1 lie in the sedimentary strata1 because of their inability to escape4 #fgg4 ,the bones of birds and men must be found least of all fossilized1 because a retreat by them was most easily effected4 ,it does not follow1 from our not finding them1 that they have not existed4 #fgh4 ,the different fossil remains have therefore not simply lived1 where they are found1 but originated there also4 ,some of course may have been floated also to these localities4 #fgi4 ,the inundations of water were in general necessary1 because basins of land and precipitations were everywhere present2 but not all on that account at the same time4 #fhj4 ,in this sense there was a general flood1 a deluge1 namely1 for every land4 c4 ,air-formation4 ,,trap-,,rocks4 #fha4 ,vapours and gases of different kinds may be contained in the interior of the earth in two ways1 either chemically combined as carbonic acid1 or mechanically inclosed in cavities of the earth4 ,both may be developed1 or expanded by calefaction1 and the latter by diminution of pressure4 #fhb4 ,if those that are chemically combined be developed by calefaction1 they then form vesicular spaces in the masses of earth whereby the latter are extended and raised above the surface2 such as amygdaloid1 basalt and others of this kind4 #fhc4 ,warm springs may originate by subterraneous processes1 chemical or volcanic2 probably1 too1 by the compression of air that has forced its way into these situations4 #fhd4 ,earthquakes may indeed originate in different ways2 as in addition to the falling in of cavities1 by the chemical development also of gases1 by their subjection to heat1 by aqueous vapours1 and also by the sudden diminution of pressure upon these incarcerated gases4 #fhe4 ,this diminution of pressure proceeds from sudden rarefaction of the atmosphere--due probably to the disappearance of air in a particular place1 or resulting from a change of the wind1 or the formation of heavy rain4 ,earthquakes can therefore extend through many countries1 without requiring to depend upon each other or on a common focus of action4 #fhf4 ,the silicious trap is silicious sinter1 tripoli and polierschiefer4 #fhg4 ,the argillaceous trap1 amygdaloid1 clinkstone1 several porphyries4 #fhh4 ,the talcose trap1 basalt4 #fhi4 ,the calcareous trap1 probably chalk4 d4 ,fire-formation4 ,,volcanic-,,rocks4 #fij4 ,volcanoes are secondary combustions of masses that have originated through the primary combustion1 and are therefore only of local occurrence4 ,such combustible masses are without doubt bodies belonging to the class of ,inflammables1 and thus carbons1 sulphur1 sulphuretted metals4 ,simply burning gases would throw up on high the masses of earth1 but not heat them to the degree of fusion4 #fia4 ,by the heat of these combustions the masses of earth have been fused1 forming lavas4 ,the silicious lavas are obsidian1 pitch-stone4 ,the argillaceous lavas are the kinds usually met with4 ,next come the talcose lavas4 ,the calcareous lavas are probably dolomite4 ,b4--,,metallic ,,ores ,,and ,,inflammables4 #fib4 ,metallic-ores and ,inflammables are products of the planet1 when completed1 and have not originated along with the origin of the latter1 like the earths4 ,the question accordingly arises1 what have been the forces by which the metals and ,inflammables were produced4 a4 ,,metallic ,,veins4 #fic4 ,fissures in rocks1 so narrow that they cannot be illuminated by the sun1 are called passages or veins4 ,they are rarely found in granite1 appear generally for the first time in gneiss1 more rarely in the later kinds of rocks1 and almost cease to be met with in the stratified chain of mountains4 ,they are found principally in mountains1 and thus in masses of earth which project above the level land4 ,we must thus arrive at the conclusion that they have there originated by actual fissure1 and that indeed for this reason1 that masses which project or stand freely out would admit of yielding asunder more easily than the masses of the plains4 ,this fissure may take place by mechanical disruption1 by land-slips1 or even also by desiccation4 #fid4 ,the veins are not prolonged into the kind of rock that underlies them1 as e4 g4 gneiss veins into granite1 and so on2 they have hence originated from above4 #fie4 ,they are open and wider above and strike out below2 they have not therefore originated by a force acting from beneath4 #fif4 ,in the schistose rock they form generally transverse fissures4 #fig4 ,there was a time in which the veins stood empty1 as well as a time in which the primary valleys were empty1 namely unreplenished with gneiss1 mica-schist1 and such like minerals4 b4 ,,production ,,of ,,ore4 #fih4 ,geogeny takes two directions2 the one passes upon the periphery into the splitting action of light1 the other into the abyss1 where darkness reigns4 #fii4 ,the valleys were the condition that conduced to the differentialization of the earths1 because in them light had power to produce the highest polarity4 ,by the valleys the ,earthy has been separated into its principles2 silex has separated into clay and talc1 to which finally carbonate calcareous earths and salts succeeded4 #gjj4 ,the ,earthy cannot subsist in its identity in the broad valleys2 the earth cannot be represented as the pure symbol of gravity4 ,all bodies that have originated upon the surface of the planet are oxydes or salts4 #gja4 ,if the earth-difference be generated in the illumined valleys1 so must the earth-identity be produced in the dark valleys2 for it is the absence of light alone that allows the purely ,basic to subsist4 ,this earth generated out of gravity is the ore4 #gjb4 ,the ore is a child and a treasure of darkness2 where light is1 it must vanish2 it cannot endure its gaze4 ,metal when exposed to day is given up to annihilation1 to oxydation4 #gjc4 ,darkness is1 however1 no power1 and can consequently be only the opportunity1 not the cause of anything's happening4 ,other forces1 instead of that of light1 must have therefore operated in the production of ores4 ,in order to discover these forces the relations of the ores must be carefully weighed or considered4 #gjd4 ,the ore is in a philosophic sense a reduced earth1 and so reduced indeed that the basic principle has obtained the preponderance over the oxygenic or supporter of combustion1 and attained unto substantiality4 #gje4 ,in light1 in the water forsooth when illuminated1 the two earth-principles were already divided internally1 but not completely separated2 salt only originated1 namely an acid and alkali4 #gjf4 ,the ore is1 however1 a salt wholly reduced1 and indeed the reduced alkali has become metal1 the reduced acid with the basis of hydrogen1 ,inflammable1 namely1 coal or sulphur4 #gjg4 ,now as light was not able to produce such a separation in the free or full sense of the term1 forces must thus have been present in the dark passages1 which completed this separation4 #gjh4 ,ore and ,inflammable are the total salt dissevered1 and this is the dissolution of the two2 the former are blue and yellow1 the latter is the compound green4 #gji4 ,the processes of the formation of salt and of ore are both indeed processes of separation1 but yet they stand opposite to1 or rather transcend each other4 ,both mutually conditionate each other4 #gaj4 ,while the earths submitted to the action of light upon the surface of the planet are converted into salt1 the process of the formation of ore takes place in the dark or under the earth2 or while above the oxygen is predominant1 the basic body is that below4 ,the ore imparts upon a large scale its oxygen to the salt1 and the salt bestows its basic body on the ores4 #gaa4 ,no ores could originate in the middle of the earth were light even to have no access thereunto4 ,for not merely do earth and darkness belong to the genesis of the ore1 but earthy water like as unto salt4 #gab4 ,the ore is not a conversion of earths that have already existed1 or been actually separated2 but it originates first of all during the process of separation4 ,where ore is1 fluid has thus been1 and polarity1 which is not directly derived from light4 ,the ore is a mere child of the planet1 a pure terrestrial essence generated without the joint assistance of the heaven1 and therefore the highest substantiality of the planet1 the spirit of the earth4 #gac4 ,what gneiss and mica-schist1 calx and salt1 are in the bright valleys1 such is the ore in the dark valleys2 the former are the differenced ore1 and this is their identification4 #gad4 ,there is no peculiar metallic body or seed1 which had already existed in the primary creation as something special or peculiar1 and which by one process only1 as perhaps even by its gravity1 was precipitated or posited from the fluid mass4 ,one and the same substance1 if found exposed in a valley to the light1 becomes earth2 but ore when it is in a dark passage4 #gae4 ,of a certainty neither clay1 sand1 talc1 or calx become metal4 ,for these are at once definitions of the spirit1 words that have been already completed and expressed1 and cannot be recalled2 so also the ore will not again become clay1 even if it be submitted to light4 ,the indeterminate substance only1 which under other conditions might have become clay1 becomes in the darkness ore4 #gaf4 ,what is not in idea1 prior to the adjustment or fixation of a pole1 reduced to ore1 can on no account become that out of an already finished mass of earth4 ,conversions of earth into ore by chemical arts are labours bestowed in vain4 #gag4 ,yet if ores do originate1 they originate only out of the indefinite ,basic1 which is still in the water1 just as trap stones originate not from a stony dust that pre-existed1 but out of the pure indifferent substance of the air4 #gah4 ,the veins and the formation of ore are one1 as are the valleys with the calcareous and salt formations2 and he who asks how has the ore originated1 must forthwith inquire as to what is the essence of the veins4 #gai4 ,the ore has not originated externally to the veins and been at some time or other conducted into them by means of water4 ,for how should it thus originate8 ,the reply is1 a specific action must have been at work in the fluid1 which determined it to separate ore and nothing else4 ,but where is this ore-forming action in the free space of water8 ,nowhere4 ,and if also the ore had been separated or diffused throughout the whole mass of water1 what a world-wonder is it that it merely flowed into the veins and some stockworks8 ,what prevented it from filling in large masses the broader valleys8 ,the mechanical theorist upon metallic veins must assume an attraction on the part of the veins for the ore-particles in water2 but how could this attraction have drawn these particles for miles in extent out of the water8 and were this action strong enough1 it must still be gifted with greater power to produce or at least separate the ore out of the water1 that is found in the empty spaces formed by the veins4 #gbj4 ,since ore has on a large scale separated from the calcareous and salt formations like the ,identical from the ,different1 it has done so also upon a small scale in the veins4 ,there the same process of separation has preceded it4 #gba4 ,now1 however1 nothing can be separated1 i4 e4 nothing be reduced1 without the oxygen accumulating upon something else4 ,the ,earthy must therefore separate during the formation of metal into the ,reduced and ,peroxydized4 #gbb4 ,the reduced earthy is the metal or inflammable2 the peroxydized1 however1 an earth proper4 ,this earth is called vein-stone4 #gbc4 ,the ore has only originated in opposition to the vein-stone1 and when this has taken the ,different of the ,earthy into itself4 ,therefore the vein-stones are also different from the kind of rock in which they occur1 and that through greater differentialization2 they have even receded for the most part into acid and alkaline poles1 as calc-spar1 fluor-spar1 heavy-spar1 which are the usual vein-stones4 ,all vein-stones are oxyds and as a rule1 those in which the oxygen is freely manifested1 namely as acid4 ,the vein-stones were the sheath of the ore1 which could first appear when this sheath had withdrawn itself4 #gbd4 ,the metal stands in relation to the vein-stone4 ,thus in argillaceous vein-stones we commonly meet with iron1 manganese2 in the quartzoze with gold2 in the calcareous with lead1 c4 ,there are here also extremes4 ,there are vein-stones1 called sterile veins1 in whose antagonism no metal has been formed2 and there are veins1 that are merely filled with metal1 such as the ,stockwerke1 ,lager4 #gbe4 ,since the ore and the vein-stones thus originate together1 and in such a manner that they conditionate each other2 their fundamental mass must have been one1 and a separating force1 which is not light1 must have operated upon them4 #gbf4 ,moreover1 as the ores occur only in narrow spaces with their vein-stones and both form alternating tables upon the walls of the veins1 they must have been attracted by the latter4 #gbg4 ,the walls of the vein consequently exert a polar influence upon the ore and vein-stone4 ,now1 if this be their mode of action1 they must be in a condition to separate the fundamental mass4 #gbh4 ,it is thus the vein themselves1 which1 by a vital force1 produce the metals2 they are thus a living womb1 or matrix as it has been emphatically termed4 #gbi4 ,two walls in close juxtaposition are requisite for the production of metal4 ,upon a freely exposed wall or face of rock no metals are found4 #gcj4 ,by this separation1 however1 two kinds of minerals originate1 ,inflammables1 and ores proper or metals4 ,the action of the walls must be therefore of a twofold nature4 #gca4 ,but two cases also are conceivable1 in accordance wherewith this polarity of the vein admits of being divided4 ,it subsists either quite alone between the two walls1 as surface-polarity or electricity2 or it subsists between the mediate point of the earth and the walls1 constituting centroperipheric polarity or magnetism4 #gcb4 ,the product of the surface polarity are the ,inflammables1 of the radial polarity the metals4 #gcc4 ,since no more metals and ,inflammables originate at the present day1 although magnetism and electricity are in continual operation2 a third influence moreover must have been in constant activity4 ,now this cannot be thought of as any other than heat4 ,the metals must thus have originated while the earth was still in a glowing state1 and when thus also magnetism and electricity could operate more powerfully towards effecting a reduction of the mass4 ,by heat the mass in the veins was probably converted into gas1 through which its separation by means of magnetism and electricity into ore and transition earth could more easily take place4 ,the metals are thus sublimations1 which were first deposited1 when the earths or rather the mountain-stock began to cool4 ,thus also zeolithic crystals were deposited in the upper stores of mines4 ,metals are thus the children of heat1 of magnetism and electricity2 the heat renders the mass in a fit state for being separated in the next place by the polar forces4 #gcd4 ,metal is carbon completely reduced1 which contains nothing more of the other elements in itself1 namely1 neither hydrogen nor oxygen4 ,it is consequently the ,basic of the earth-element without material admixture1 and thus is earth with the properties of its prototype1 of fire or of gravity1 of light and of heat4 #gce4 ,in accordance with this interpretation metal can be produced by no other process than the centro-peripheric4 ,its occurrence in fissures of the earth that are mostly perpendicular likewise proves this4 #gcf4 ,in the deeply situated veins1 therefore1 the more identical or purer formations of ore must occur2 while1 on the contrary1 in those situated higher up or exposed to the day1 i4 e4 in closer proximity to the water1 air and light1 the more different or compound formations of ore must be produced4 #gcg4 ,the four classes of ores occupy a position in the veins tolerably accordant with these relations2 an additional proof that they have originated in the vein and not been floated into it by the action of water4 #gch4 ,the production of ore which occurs in the upper parts of the veins1 furnishes us with the saline ores2 for here the water1 air and earth are principally active4 ,in the upper depths are found most frequently the oxygenized metals1 or as they are called mineral spars1 as spathic-iron1 malachite1 calamine1 lead-spar1 pyromorphite1 c4 ,finally1 the metallic or ore-spars actually pass over into salts1 and by the horn-silver ores into the vitriols4 ,they are for the most part crystallized4 #gci4 ,the salt-formation of the ores has always decreased in proportion to the light having less access to it1 and hence in greater depths1 or in wholly mountainous masses4 ,there the ore has not been deposited as a light-difference1 but only as a ,terrestrial1 just as the earths1 especially the calcareous earth1 have obtained the same4 ,it has not attained to a complete evolution of the polar body so as to constitute an acid1 but the two principles have only emerged opposite to each other4 ,they are oxydized ores1 consequently those among the ores1 that represent the character of earths1 namely1 the ochres4 ,they are frequently uncrystallized4 #gdj4 ,so far the appearance of these ores is thoroughly earthy and devoid for the most part of metallic lustre2 finally1 the genesis of the ore turns upon the side of the identity1 the principle of gravity having secured itself wholly in the depths1 previous to the adverse accession of water and light4 ,in such situations nothing more than heat and the centro-peripheric polarity of the vein-wall operates4 ,the ,metallic recedes wholly from the salt and from the earth4 ,the oxygen disappears1 but in its place comes sulphur1 and the sulphuretted ores originate1 e4 g4 the bi-sulphurets of iron1 blendes1 glance-ores4 #gda4 ,lastly1 every combination or influence of the other elements and mineral-classes vanishes2 acids1 oxygen and sulphur are no longer generated in the perfectly dark depths1 and the ore stands there in its entire identity1 homogeneous1 resplendent and heavy as the sterling metal4 ,the same results from sublimation4 ,the heavier metals remain below1 the lighter ones and the sulphur ascend4 #gdb4 ,as the orders of earth are placed in the veins1 so also are the different metals themselves2 for the cause of genesis is alike in both4 #gdc4 ,the earth-like metals1 as iron1 manganese1 c4 which occur constantly oxydized1 are usually found upon the surface of the planet2 the hydroid or water-like1 as lead1 tin1 lie usually deeper2 the aeroid or air-like1 as arsenic1 zinc1 exhibit pretty nearly the same relations as the sulphur metals2 lastly1 the pyroid or fire-like1 e4 g4 the noble metals such as gold and silver occur frequently in great depths and not unfrequently in granite2 the two preceding metals generally occur in gneiss1 but the first even in younger or more recently formed rocks4 #gdd4 ,as a certain regularity prevails in the arrangements of ores and of metals in the veins1 so also does this hold good in respect to their distribution over the planet4 #gde4 ,the more the polar earths are separated and deposited in the broad valleys exposed to light1 by so much the more in quantity and of greater purity is the ore produced in its own valleys of darkness4 ,the first effect1 however1 happens through the power of the sun2 the more powerful therefore its influence1 although indirect1 so much the greater in quantity and purity is ore produced in the depths4 ,the greatest quantity of ore and that of the noblest kind was inevitably generated beneath the equator4 ,there also more lime as well as more salt are probably found upon the surface of the water2 towards the north the oxydized metals1 or the whole series of iron-metals1 were produced4 ,in the ,temperate ,zones we find more lead1 zinc1 bismuth and arsenic4 #gdf4 ,thus the theory itself of ores furnishes us with a proof1 such as the theory of the earth that has been hitherto entertained could not afford1 that the equator forsooth has since the formation of the metals not been displaced4 ,the metals formed themselves cotemporaneously with the gneiss1 and have thus begun to form prior to the existence of the organic world4 ,it is therefore a vague opinion1 devoid also of foundation1 that since the earth has been inhabited by animals1 even by the higher or hair-clothed vertebrata1 its axis has been changed4 #gdg4 ,no earthly phenomenon speaks so clearly and loudly against the mechanical theories in the natural sciences as ore4 ,not only has the whole planet been included in the ore1 but also the whole of science1 the whole of philosophy4 #gdh4 ,the first transition of the ,earthy into the metallic character is indicated by iron4 ,iron ranks next to earth1 especially to the argillaceous earth1 is everywhere associated with it and is most generally distributed1 being mixed with almost every earth and even all organic bodies1 to their very elements4 #gdi4 ,the whole series of metals has but one root4 ,what the primary earth is for the metamorphosis of earths1 that is iron for the metals3 it is their silicious earth4 #gej4 ,the iron as being the first transition from the ,earthy into the ,metallic has the highest grade of fusion1 and all metals which approximate to this1 belong to the retinue of iron4 ,this grade may be set down as #bj1jjj;,f4 #gea4 ,as iron is the root of all metals1 so every division or group of ore has a principal metal1 which occurs in more considerable quantity than the rest and characterizes the division4 ,among the saline ores1 copper under the form of malachite is the principal metal4 ,its fusing point is #fjjj;,f4 ,among the sulphurous ores1 lead is the chief metal2 it has with its neighbours the lowest grade of fusion1 which may be set down in round numbers as #fjj;,f4 ,among the volatile1 arsenic is the principal metal4 #geb4 ,among the standard metals1 silver is the principal metal2 it has with its affinities a fusing point1 which ranges midway between that of iron and lead1 being probably about #ejjj;,f4 #gec4 ,there are four grades of fusion of the metals1 which are removed from each other by very wide intervals1 between which no metal is situated4 ,quicksilver is fluid at the temperature of the air and becomes volatile like arsenic4 ,moreover the artificial metals are associated with the alkalies and acids4 ,lead1 with its congeners1 melts at #ejj;,f42 silver with gold and copper at #ejjj2 iron1 platinum and such like at #bj1jjj4 #ged4 ,there are four metallic characters1 which are shown to be peculiar in all their relations1 in their affinities for oxygen1 acid1 and sulphur1 in respect to specific gravity1 fusibility1 extensibility1 in their electric relation1 in mode of fracture1 in occurrence1 age1 and geographical distribution1 c4 c4 ,,poison4 #gee4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the principal metal of the elemental metals1 obtains mostly by oxydation or acidification poisonous properties1 while the proper earth-metal1 iron1 acts beneficially upon the animal organization4 ,among the water-metals lead becomes poisonous by acidification2 among the fire-metals mercury4 ,among the air-metals arsenic ranks highest1 becoming poisonous by mere oxydation4 ,among the earth-metals1 only one among the salt-metals is poisonous1 and that is copper4 #gef4 ,the metals thus appear to become poisonous1 when they enter into or put on the character of salt1 or of water4 #geg4 ,the above are also those very metals1 which unite most readily with the others1 to form alloys1 amalgams or metallic compounds4 ,copper is very readily alloyed2 lead almost always contains silver2 mercury is susceptible of amalgamation2 arsenic metallizes the others almost like sulphur4 #geh4 ,the air-metals appear to have lost for the most part the metallic character2 arsenic therefore destroys also magnetism4 #gei4 ,the essence of metallic poison thus appears to reside in the endeavour on the part of the metals to suppress the metallic character and convert themselves into the formless elements4 ,the metallic poison is the direct opponent of the metals themselves1 and through this1 of everything that has form1 and thus of the ,organic also4 d4 ,,magnetism4 #gfj4 ,two actions are necessarily manifested in iron1 one clearing or dividing in so far as it is earth1 and one to be identifying1 in so far as it is metal4 ,iron is the fluctuation between oxydation and reduction1 between light and gravity1 and this conflict of the two latter is ,magnetism4 ,magnetism is the spiritual function of the metals4 #gfa4 ,magnetism belongs essentially to the metals only4 ,what is not metal1 is magnetic only according to idea or signification2 it may be therefore aptly said1 that such a body hath no magnetism1 and that what has it1 were metallic4 #gfb4 ,magnetism is the direct property only of iron2 this alone is the hybrid or heterogynous metal4 #gfc4 ,magnetism appertains only to the other metals in as far as they are positions of iron2 and is the more powerful1 the nearer they stand in relation to iron4 ,all metals are magnetic in idea1 whether magnetism be manifested in them or not4 #gfd4 ,all metals have originated through magnetism1 through the radial polarity1 or the conflict of light and gravity4 ,magnetism is the action betwixt light and darkness1 periphery and centre4 ,magnetism as being a metalgenerating action tends towards the centre of darkness of gravity4 ,what in the earths and salts is the duplex tendency of crystallization1 is in the metals the identifying magnetism1 as an everlasting operation of attraction4 #gfe4 ,magnetism is still1 however1 not identical with gravity4 ,gravity is the centre abstractedly from the periphery2 but magnetism is the centre only in relation to the periphery or light4 #gff4 ,polarity belongs to the essence as well as the genesis of magnetism2 the metal subsists only through a constant resistance against the universal process of oxydation1 against the developmental process of the earth-principles1 which the metal is always striving to conceal4 ,the metal is altogether the most mysterious essence of the planet4 ,this resistance to the disclosure of the ,innermost of the earth is magnetism4 ,where magnetism has wholly attained this concealment1 it renders the metal perfectly free and disappears1 because it has become completely embodied4 ,in the noble metals it has attained what it is still seeking in iron4 #gfg4 ,magnetism is a linear action with two different extremities1 like the primary radius4 ,by one extremity magnetism runs towards the identical centre1 by the other towards the partite1 electrical periphery1 towards the oxydized earths4 ,one extremity will reduce1 the other oxydize2 one will become metal1 the other earth4 ,this is the difference between north and south pole1 the former centre1 the latter periphery4 #gfh4 ,there is no peculiar magnetic fluid1 any more than there is a matter of light1 heat and electricity4 ,in magnetism the spirit only of the earth appears1 as in light the spirit of heaven4 #gfi4 ,magnetism is a constant process of excitation4 ,this process of excitement is the process of imparting and of propagation4 ,magnetism has not been given1 but excited4 ,it breathes life into the iron bar1 whereby the latter awakes1 and that is magnetism4 #ggj4 ,every action1 which induces differences in a line of iron1 renders it therefore magnetic2 thus electricity1 unequal calefaction and a blow1 whereby it is thrown into a state of vibration4 ,an iron bar planted perpendicularly becomes magnetic1 because it is then a radius to the earth4 ,from the same reason it becomes magnetic1 if placed in the magnetic meridian4 e4 ,,terrestrial ,,magnetism4 #gga4 ,if all metals are in idea magnetic2 so must the metallic veins1 as products of magnetism1 be magnetic lines4 ,every vein has a north and a south pole4 #ggb4 ,as every vein is a magnetic line or magnetic needle upon a large scale2 so must two veins abutting against each other represent likewise a magnetic tension4 ,a mountain of ores is a net of numerous magnets interlacing each other4 ,as one vein is related to the other1 so must one metalliferous mountain be related to the other2 and thus two mountains of this character stand in magnetic polarity with each other4 ,the whole earth is surrounded by a magnetic net4 #ggc4 ,as every metal1 every vein1 every rock is in miniature a magnet1 so must the earth be a magnet upon a large scale4 ,there is a ,terrestrial magnetism4 #ggd4 ,this magnetism belongs only to the earth only in so far as it possesses a metallic quality1 for magnetism is only the spirit of the metals1 not of the other terrestrial bodies1 as the earths1 ,inflammables1 and salts4 #gge4 ,magnetism is no general character of the earth1 still less of the whole solar system1 except in so far as the metallic principle lies at the basis of every thing earthy4 ,magnetism does not operate outwardly over the earth4 #ggf4 ,the determinants of terrestrial magnetism are the metallic veins1 or the metallic beds in the crust of the earth4 #ggg4 ,terrestrial magnetism has not been produced or determined by a magnetic nucleus2 since a metal in the middle of the earth is a contradiction4 ,all determinations of terrestrial magnetism depend upon the nature1 character1 distribution1 number and direction of the metallic veins or beds4 #ggh4 ,thus the direction of the magnetic axis of the earth1 its mutability1 the declination of the magnetic meridian1 the inclination or dip of the needle1 in short every phenomenon without distinction that concerns magnetism1 must be derived from the nature of the metallic veins4 ,another momentum does not indeed exist for magnetism4 #ggi4 ,terrestrial magnetism can only be based upon the polarity of metallic veins1 and this upon the ores they contain4 ,it must therefore accommodate itself to the distribution of the chief masses of metals1 especially of the idiomagnetic metal4 ,now it has been ascertained1 that the noble metals are accumulated about the equator1 such as gold1 silver1 copper1 which may be regarded as non-magnetic4 ,in the northern temperate zones1 the mountains contain for the most part metals that are non-magnetic and semi-noble1 as lead1 zinc1 antimony1 which are usually combined as ores with sulphur4 ,iron1 on the contrary1 being the only magnetic metal1 7a fact which is also determined chiefly by the magnetic needle in terrestrial magnetism7 is accumulated in greater quantity towards the north-pole and becomes always rarer in occurrence towards the equator4 ,the southern hemisphere of the earth1 is indeed less known in this respect2 but1 that towards the south-pole iron reincreases in quantity1 is rendered evident by the magnetic needle when conveyed beyond the equator1 inclining to the south-pole4 ,if the cause of the inclination upon the northern hemisphere be sought for in the presence of iron1 the same must be done in regard to the southern4 ,the arrangement of the metallic groups from north-to south-pole is thus2 iron1 lead1 silver1 lead1 iron4 #ghj4 ,iron has been deposited at both poles and this in accordance with the genesis of metals1 for iron is a half reduced metal1 and must consequently be subjected to the demi-action only of light4 ,at or beneath the equator the ,ferrogeneous is wholly reduced1 and becomes noble4 #gha4 ,there is obviously1 however1 less iron at the south-than the north-pole1 because the greatest part of the planet is there covered with water1 and thus in general with less earth less metal also is to be found4 ,from this alone it may be explained why the magnetic needle conveyed beyond the equator still remains horizontal and first inclines about the tenth degree of southern latitude towards the south-pole4 #ghb4 ,the north-pole is thus more energetic than the south-pole1 so that the two poles must be also inversely related to each other4 ,it is only from this antagonism of the two poles of the earth that we comprehend1 why upon the southern hemisphere the south-pole of the needle dips towards the earth1 and why the needle does not turn completely round4 ,for if there was an equal quantity of iron in both hemispheres of the earth1 the southern must have the same magnetic pole1 and thus attract the north-pole of the needle2 and under the equator the needle must have actually no direction4 ,the cause of the direction and dip of the needle rests thus in the antagonism of the two poles of the earth1 and this again in the unequal masses of iron4 #ghc4 ,the action of terrestrial magnetism does not reside in the iron formation alone1 but in its antagonism to the reduced ores4 ,the terrestrial magnetism is a tension between iron and silver4 ,the lead imparts the poles4 #ghd4 ,as the earth is a globe1 so are the two masses of iron situated nearer to its axis than the masses of silver and lead4 ,if therefore the latter exert also any influence upon the direction of the magnetic needle1 yet nevertheless the poles of magnetism must coincide nearly with the poles of the earth's axis1 because the exciters of magnetism operate in this direction4 #ghe4 ,the magnetic meridian runs indeed in general from pole to pole1 but as it is not the earth's axis1 which determines the magnetism1 but the metallic masses1 so the direction of the meridian deviates from the earth's axis in accordance with these masses4 #ghf4 ,the magnetic needle can therefore assume a different direction on every part of the earth1 according as its relative position is varied between two principal masses of metals1 and even as is indicated by the movement of the compass with the change of geographical longitudes1 it is removed from one metallic mass1 approaches another1 and by this becomes more powerfully attracted4 ,upon the whole1 however1 the direction must tend toward the poles4 ,such are the phenomena of declination of the magnetic needle2 and we can now comprehend why this is present4 #ghg4 ,but there must be also spots upon the earth1 where the needle points straight to the north1 probably1 when it is between two metallic masses1 or stands at a certain angle to them4 ,these are the lines without declination1 of which there are many as is well known1 but which have not as yet been reduced to any law4 ,nor can they ever be so1 because we shall never become acquainted with the metallic beds4 #ghh4 ,as the solid land1 so far as it projects out of the water1 forms a horse-shoe figure1 of which the two ,americas represent one leg1 ,europe with ,asia and ,africa the other leg1 the sea being interposed between them2 so must the lines without declination fall principally in the ocean1 between the earth's crura4 ,moreover as both these crura of the earth are unequal in size1 so must the one influence the needle more than the other1 and in this respect also there can be therefore no regularity in the lines without declination4 ,thus everything co-operates1 to the effect of rendering the direction of the magnetic needle unequal2 such as the distribution of metalliferous mountains1 of masses of iron1 of the earth's hemispheres1 of the earth's crura1 and inversely the earth has probably obtained this horse-shoe form through magnetism4 ,the cavities of the earth probably do not fall in there1 because the ground1 namely the mountains1 is supported by metallic plates4 ,on this account the earth probably maintains an oblique position in her course4 ,in accordance with this the earth's axis had first changed1 when the metals were generated4 ,according to this also1 the sea had rushed in first1 when the metallic veins were present4 ,lastly1 in accordance with this1 the metals would be generated1 when the whole earth was still covered1 and the veins filled with water4 ,unto such conclusions the philosophy of nature can alone conduct us4 ,the cause of a horse-shoe magnet acting more powerfully than any other shaped instrument1 resides probably in the form of the earth's crura4 #ghi4 ,the magnetic meridian varies1 however1 not only according to places1 but times also4 ,this is explicable from the mutation of metals under the poles1 as well as under the equator and in the temperate zones4 ,processes of oxydation and reduction are always occurring1 the more too if the water recedes and tracts of land become dry4 ,to this1 culture1 the clearing of woods1 the draining of swamps and probably mining operations themselves conduce4 #gij4 ,it must besides be clear to every one1 who has learnt to look upon nature as a whole1 that the numerous metallic masses of metal upon the earth are not indifferent to the genesis of metal1 that they are not foreign to iron2 but that they stand invariably in one relation to it1 which can only be magnetic2 for therein only are they metals4 #gia4 ,magnetism is an infinity of tensions spread over the whole earth1 of which the tension towards the axis is but the principal1 not the sole1 tension4 ,the expression hereof is the net of metallic veins4 #gib4 ,every magnetic line consists of an endless number of shifting poles2 for every magnetic line can be but the metatype of terrestrial magnetism4 ,c4--,,inflammables4 ,electrism4 #gic4 ,coal and sulphur may be regarded as the representatives of the ,inflammables1 making their appearance in the carbonic acid of lime1 and the sulphuric acid of gypsum1 just as the metals did among the alkalies4 #gid4 ,the ,inflammables are accordingly associated with the acids or the salts1 the ores with the earths4 ,it may be said that the former are reduced acids1 the latter reduced earths4 #gie4 ,the ,inflammables are consequently those that succeed next to the salts or water-minerals4 ,their determining element is in this respect also the air2 that of the ores is therefore the fire4 #gif4 ,the ,inflammable1 as being the reduced acid1 must have the strongest affinity for oxygen4 ,a body1 which by its own force1 attracts the oxygen from the air1 so that it appears luminous1 is called combustible4 #gig4 ,the generating spirit of the ,inflammables coincides with the spirit of air1 and thus with electricity4 ,the generating spirit of metals coincides with the light2 it is the radial action in the ,massive1 or magnetism4 #gih4 ,electricity has become embodied in the ,inflammable1 i4 e4 idioelectric2 in metal1 light has become embodied1 i4 e4 idiomagnetic4 #gii4 ,now1 as the ,inflammable exists under two forms1 with the preponderance of the earth-nature as coal1 and with that of the air-nature as sulphur1 so must the electricity appear fixed chiefly in the latter4 ,this fixation is the idioelectricity4 #hjj4 ,as electricity is in its essence a constantly dualized agent1 so can only one pole belonging to it become fixed4 ,in sulphur this is what has been called the negative pole4 a4 ,,sulphur4 #hja4 ,as the air stands opposed to the earth1 so must sulphur to coal4 ,the latter is thus endowed with positive electricity4 #hjb4 ,coal is1 however1 the fundamental body of the metals4 ,the metals are consequently related as positive electrics to sulphur4 ,sulphur is air-metal or idio-negative2 metal is earth-or idiopositive sulphur4 ,sulphur therefore occurs almost solely with metals1 as iron1 pyrites1 glance2 yet frequently with arsenic1 the metal that resembles it1 e4 g4 in realgar4 #hjc4 ,sulphur is the basis of all idioelectrism1 and this property occurs only in bodies1 in so far as they are positions of sulphur4 #hjd4 ,magnetism and electrism are correlated1 as iron and sulphur1 as gravity and light1 as centre and periphery4 ,the same spirit1 which when ruling in the dark1 exhibits itself as magnetic1 is manifested when it has attained to light in sulphur as electrical4 ,magnetism is only the electricity identified4 #hje4 ,we may therefore speak of idiomagnetic metals as well as idioelectric bodies4 #hjf4 ,magnetism therefore stands in accordance with these relations in opposition to electrism2 they mutually change or annihilate each other4 #hjg4 ,electrism has1 in accordance with its signification1 the power of manifesting itself with one pole accumulated or set free from the other1 as e4 g4 the negative in a cake of resin2 in magnetism1 on the contrary1 both poles are always together and inseparable4 ,the radius is divided into two in every part of its length4 #hjh4 ,as the functions of metal and of sulphur are correlated1 so also are their substances2 they are opposed1 and hence the metallization by means of sulphur with all its results4 ,this antagonism is1 however1 dormant or concealed2 that of the functions manifests itself much more clearly4 #hji4 ,the metals1 as being dense1 central1 and linear masses1 must fall into a state of tension with electricity as with heat2 this is called conduction4 ,the metals are therefore conductors of electrism4 ,in antagonism to the conducting power of the metals sulphur is naturally an isolator2 for what is idioactive is virtually also isolating4 ,iron may be likewise called an isolator of magnetism4 ,there is only one series of bodies in nature1 belonging to the peripheric and expansive functions1 that conducts2 the metals only are conductors4 ,isolation belongs to the essence of electricity4 ,isolating action and ,electricity are one2 for electricity is the surface-function1 wherein the line1 which is the only conductor1 disappears4 #haj4 ,electrism does not tend towards the metals1 and can therefore have no definite direction in the earth2 there is neither an electric meridian1 nor an electric equator4 ,there is only an electrical surface to the earth1 and this is alike in all regions of the world4 #haa4 ,the metals must accordingly stand opposed to sulphur as positive bodies1 if not as idiopositive1 yet as such when brought into collision with sulphur4 ,the metals1 when rubbed with sulphur1 constantly become positive1 and the sulphur remains negative4 #hab4 ,the earths also become positive when rubbed with sulphur2 in short1 everything which1 in the genesis of the earth1 ranks below sulphur1 is positive4 ,heated bodies rubbed with cold1 and rough bodies with smooth1 must become negative4 #hac4 ,bodies become positive with sulphur1 simply because the essence of sulphur is of a negative character1 or because1 in other words1 it is nothing else but negativity2 the persistency of one pole and the counter-resistance to every other1 is called isolation4 ,the metals are conductors1 because they stand opposed to sulphur4 #had4 ,positive isolation only is evolved opposite to sulphur1 in zinc1 probably because this belongs to the air-metals4 #hae4 ,what sulphur is in its series1 that is zinc in the metallic series2 the isolating electric rod1 with which the other bodies are associated2 the one the positive1 the other the negative isolator2 in so far forsooth as one can isolate bodies that have arisen through linear action4 ,with zinc the other metals become negative1 because it can be nothing else than positive1 as sulphur can be none other than negative4 7,that this does not hold good absolutely1 we need scarcely be reminded74 #haf4 ,two fixations of electricity thus exist1 and from these the electric phenomena must be derived4 ,so long as we imagine that electrical proportions run in a continuous line1 so long shall we never be able to avoid contradictions4 ,two rods stand firmly1 and from out and around these two heaps of bodies form1 which in reference to their electrical relation 7according to the experiments hitherto performed7 are naturally exhibited as only one series4 #hag4 ,sulphur does not stand alone1 but is associated with a series1 especially of the higher ,inflammables1 bitumens or mineral-resins1 therial oils and hydrogen gas4 ,the higher the inflammability ascends1 by so much the more energetic is the negative character1 so that1 finally1 the sulphur itself becomes positive towards such matters4 #hah4 ,if in every polar action it can be proved1 that each polar line consists of infinitely numerous poles1 and that each point in it can be alternately changing both polarities1 in accordance with the mutation of the principal poles that exert their influence2 so is it in electricity4 ,there is scarcely a single body which cannot be positive as well as negative1 if it only becomes displaced in its own series1 or is transported into the other4 b4 ,,coal4 #hai4 ,during the electrical separation of the ,basic of the earth1 or during the communication of the aerial character to the ,earthy1 a body remains behind with positive character1 or the ,coal4 #hbj4 ,coal may be regarded as volatilized metal1 as a metal which can change by the action of water or acid upon it into air4 ,black-lead is a coal1 which is directly associated with the metals4 #hba4 ,coal appears therefore less in particular places1 than as expanded into entire rocky masses1 as e4 g4 in the clay-slate and as carbonic-acid in lime4 #hbb4 ,the coal was1 during the earth-formation1 separated from the sea1 yet not1 or only rarely1 by itself1 but along with other masses of earth1 while the sulphur rather accompanies the metals4 ,coal passes over into the earths1 the sulphur into the metals4 #hbc4 ,the volatilized earth or coal1 i4 e4 the earth that has ascended through water or salt unto air1 is associated with a higher kingdom1 and that indeed the general mass of the vegetable kingdom1 as is the case in the pit-coals1 which are reversions of plants4 #hbd4 ,as the earths and metals extend into pit-coals1 so does sulphur lose itself in idioelectric1 inflammable substances1 which are likewise reversions of a sulphur that has escaped into a higher kingdom4 ,here belong the amber1 mineral resins and naphthas4 #hbe4 ,there are thus two ways1 by which the reduced earthy seeks to mount aloft2 by the carbon1 as belonging to the more inert earth2 and the ,resinous1 as belonging to the more active air4 ,the vegetable kingdom has its root in the simple earths1 especially the hydroid argillaceous earths2 the animal kingdom in the divided calcareous earths4 #hbf4 ,sulphur is yellow1 because it is the earthy that has come to light1 the carbon is black1 because it is sulphur volatilized1 moistened in the gloom or darkness of the earth4 ,d4--,,salts4 ,salt-periods4 #hbg4 ,so long as the basis of the acid is an earthy1 such as carbon or sulphur in the carbonic and sulphuric acids1 does the earthy also obtain the preponderance1 and the lime as well as the gypsum or sulphate of lime are precipitated as insoluble bodies4 #hbh4 ,it is only through the influence of light constantly becoming more powerful by reason of the solid land under the water that the oxydation of water rises to the highest degree1 so that this element finally converts itself into an acid1 or hydro-oxide4 ,this process must be regarded as a decomposition of water1 whereby a portion of the hydrogen forms sulphur with the carbon1 the rest with the oxygen an hydro-oxide4 #hbi4 ,the hydro-oxide is hydrochloric acid4 ,this acid must be regarded as peroxydized hydrogen4 ,its signification is thus that of being water itself1 or a whole element with a preponderance of oxygen4 ,it attains this rank by its constituent parts1 namely1 the two general gaseous primary bodies1 by its distribution as a whole element around the earth2 by its occurrence as an earth-formation in rock-salt2 finally1 by its presence in all vegetable and animal juices4 ,hydrochloric acid is the type of all acids1 as the iron is of all metals4 ,all acids are but imitations of the hydrochloric4 ,all abide by the signification of water1 or are conversions of elements or earths by oxydation into an hydroid condition4 #hcj4 ,between the acidified water and the ,earthy a higher antagonism now emerges4 ,the ,earthy separates a part of its carbon from the carbonic acid and sulphur1 so that the rest remains behind peroxydized1 and makes its appearance as an alkali4 #hca4 ,the alkali is to be regarded as the last conversion of calcareous earth in respect to water4 ,it is an earth1 whose oxygen has converted itself with a portion of its carbon into acid and been set free2 a salt halved upon the basic side4 ,this general alkali1 that has originated in water1 is soda or natrom4 #hcb4 ,alkali and acid are the last antagonism in the earthy1 moieties1 which can never subsist without each other4 #hcc4 ,the alkali is corrosive1 because it seeks water and acid1 in order to perfect itself2 acid is pungent to the taste1 because it seeks earth or alkali4 #hcd4 ,their antagonism is the highest antagonism between water and earth2 it is also the representation of the antagonism between fire and the terrestrial elements1 or also between light and gravity4 ,therefore this antagonism has a cosmic or universal signification4 #hce4 ,the combination of this antagonism is the sea-or common salt4 #hcf4 ,sea-salt is the universal salt4 ,all other salts are to be regarded only as metamorphoses of it1 as well as the acids only conversions of the acid of common salt1 and the alkalies of soda4 #hcg4 ,the sea-salt is essential to water4 ,it is the product of geogeny1 has not entered the water from without1 but been generated in it1 and is constantly being regenerated1 so long as light shines upon the sea4 ,properly speaking1 sea-salt has been in the water from the beginning2 but it was previously shrouded in the other earths1 and could act substantially for the first time1 when they had been separated from it4 ,it has become salt1 or water and earth-element by the agency of light4 #hch4 ,the sea-salt has also been generated in opposition to the calcareous earths1 and during its separation been rendered polar towards the latter4 ,the salt mines are therefore associated with the last calcareous formation1 the gypsum1 and this it is also that determines their lamination4 #hci4 ,as it may be said1 that the metals separate into coal and sulphur1 namely1 pass over at their iron-extremity into coal1 at their arsenical1 into sulphur2 so may it be said1 that the earths separate into acids and alkalies2 the one by the conversion of silica into fluoric acid1 the other by that of calcareous earth into soda4 ,carbonic and sulphuric acid take possession of the calcareous earth2 the hydro-oxide of the alkali4 #hdj4 ,the sea-salt has been the last to be separated from1 because it was last generated in1 the water4 ,the salt beds belong to the last precipitation1 by not having been mechanically thrown down1 but as already observed and as their occurrence proves1 by an alternating process of separation from the acidified lime4 ,it is absurd to wish to explain the presence of common salt in the sea by a solution of saline beds4 ,for where have the latter come from8 #hda4 ,with the separation of the ore and the ,inflammable out of the primary water and the confluence of the ,earthy into marine salt1 its metamorphosis upon the surface or when exposed to light is at an end4 ,all forms of the planet have been successively developed out of the earth-element4 ,it can attain no further to anything new1 and if nature had not yet been concluded1 that which in the sequel is still dynamically developed upon our earth1 must be thus a product1 which extends beyond the mineral kingdom4 #hdb4 ,as the fundamental earths lose themselves in pure carbon1 in resin1 and so in the vegetable world1 so the series of corrosive earths resolves itself likewise in remnants of an organic1 and that indeed the animal1 kingdom4 ,as the pit-coals and resins are associated with the metals and ,inflammables1 so are the fossil animal remains with the calcareous earth2 and thus the voice of the organic world speaks already with force and clearness to those that hearken1 from out the stones4 #hdc4 ,for the metamorphosis of the earths1 nature has twice prepared herself1 has planted at the same time two great points of origin1 according to which all her action is directed1 and which remain in constant correspondence with each other4 #hdd4 ,the main pole is granite4 ,it is at once the primary pole1 to which the second main pole1 the lime1 is directed4 ,the granite brings the series through gneiss and mica-schist down to clay-and talc-slate1 then makes a sudden transition to the ores1 and terminates at a boundary1 where pit-coals and resins conduct us into a new kingdom4 #hde4 ,the lime rejects from itself the sand and sedimentary clay1 progresses through barytes and strontian up to gypsum1 makes a sudden bound or transition from thence to the salts1 and terminates at a limit1 where corals and molluscous animals conduct us into a new kingdom4 #hdf4 ,salt concludes the growth of the earths2 it is the eruption or breaking out of the soul1 as the metal was the body of earths completed4 ,both finally pass into a higher world1 the metal into the corporeal1 the salt into the psychical4 ,,chemism4 #hdg4 ,the spiritual activity1 the soul of the earth has declared itself in crystallization1 the spirit of the metals in magnetism1 that of the ,inflammables in electrism4 ,the calcareous epoch is also the manifestation of a peculiar activity1 whose ultimate product is salt4 ,it has been already shown what the functions of the latter are1 but the signification of its acts has not yet been mentioned4 #hdh4 ,by the influence of light the water becomes elevated in its oxygen-action1 enters thus into tension with itself1 and this constitutes the tendency to solution which is the function of water4 ,the oxygenous water solicits the basic principle in the earth2 this issues forth1 but still combined with its oxygen that has become free2 the formerly identical earth is a calcareous earth in a state of tension with itself4 ,what does not admit of being brought into a state of tension1 is thrown down as fundamental earth4 ,hitherto this process was a mere process of solution1 i4 e4 it had attained in the solid and fluid only to tension1 not to disseverment of the poles4 #hdi4 ,but the light always renders the water more oxygenous1 and therefore the earth always more basic2 finally1 the one portion of the basic in the water1 namely the hydrogen1 separates itself1 and becomes peroxydized or the hydrochloric acid4 ,a portion of the ,basic in the ,earthy1 namely the metallic body or carbon1 separates itself also1 and the remainder becomes peroxydized or soda4 ,as the calcareous earth was at first dissolved in1 and therefore one mass with1 water1 so at present is the alkali also combined with the acid water2 while both dissolved in each other constitute salt4 #hej4 ,in this process therefore whole elements have been taken only as one primary body1 and they have combined with each other like the two primary bodies4 ,the water has no longer become an element or ,equiponderant1 but an ,oxygenous1 a true light-body2 the earth has no longer continued a total earth of equal specific gravity1 but by relative peroxydation has become an ,aqueous1 a ,soluble4 ,the salt has thus from the union of the two lower elements1 seeing that each was of no more value than one primary body1 become a new element4 #hea4 ,this process converts the elements again into their primary condition1 creates new elements and thus actually new matters4 ,it is therefore a struggle of the elements with their primary bodies1 a separation and interchange of the same4 ,such a process is called ,chemism4 ,this is the essence or interpretation of chemism1 viz4 the creation of new elements out of the old1 by the reduction of these to the nature of the primary bodies4 #heb4 ,chemism1 which separates or combines1 ranks a step higher than the process of solution1 which has the power only of heterogynizing1 but not of separating4 ,thus the electrical spark separates and combines in combustion1 while the tension of air enforces only evaporation4 ,chemistry drives the elements to their utmost4 ,in water the oxygen is the predominating2 it becomes1 however1 perfect first in the acid of salt4 ,in the earth the body of gravity prevails2 but it becomes first of all predominant in soda4 #hec4 ,the opposition of the two primary bodies has been represented in the two inferior elements as chemical tension1 and the combination of these primary elements is a chemical product4 #hed4 ,chemism is moreover a process of combustion1 in which1 however1 a whole element supplies the place of oxygen1 and a whole element the place of the base4 ,it is an elementary process of combustion4 #hee4 ,chemism is the metatype of primary creation1 both from its being a material process of combustion1 as from its creating new elements4 ,it is the union of the antagonism between ther and terrestrial matter occurring within the circle of the terrestrial elements4 ,chemism is a true conversion of substances according to their fixation4 #hef4 ,all chemism takes place only in water2 not only because the particles can move therein1 but because chemism is a process of combustion of the elements themselves4 ,the inferior elements1 however1 such as water and earth1 can only undergo combustion with each other1 because the two are moreover related to each other as ther and mass2 or as oxygen and base1 for the two1 so to speak1 have become unipolar4 ,without ,fluid and ,solid we cannot think of chemism4 #heg4 ,the chemism of air is in the beginning electricity and then the true process of combustion2 both are similar1 but different in position4 ,in the process of combustion both elements are unipolar in the air1 thus moieties2 but in chemism two elements unite so as to constitute a ,whole4 ,the product of air-chemism is water1 as the product of earth-chemism is salt4 ,water and salt fall into one position1 but transcend each other1 even as the process of combustion invades the province of chemism4 ,the relation of electrism to chemism has now been expressed in the clearest manner4 ,the one is chemical tension of air1 but chemism is the electrical tension of earth and water4 #heh4 ,chemism is related to magnetism1 as salt is to metal1 as the sedimentary to the primary periods4 ,the whole sedimentary period is a product of chemism1 as the whole primary period is a product of magnetism2 salt and metal are only the last evolution of these periods1 and the products for whose sake all the preceding actions and formations have taken place2 granite and lime with their ramifications1 are but the stems1 upon which metal and salt are borne as blossoms4 #hei4 ,magnetism and chemism are thus the creating agents for the solid nucleus of the earth1 and through both is it completed4 ,the process of earth-formation is a magneto-chemism4 #hfj4 ,regarding the earth as an entire crystal1 magnetism is the ,determinant of its polar axes and polar radii1 while chemism is the same in respect to its integral parts4 #hfa4 ,all terrestrial action is an interchange of these two functions or souls1 which are none other than the living gravity and the living light upon the planet4 ,the electricity1 like the heat1 only maintains them in eternal tension or extension4 #hfb4 ,chemism is the process of space1 density1 quiescent heat2 therefore the latent heat or the temperature must change in every chemical process4 ,chemism is related to magnetism1 as heat is to gravity1 to electricity like as to light4 ,crystallization is point1 magnetism line1 electrism surface1 chemism cube1 or expressed according to their powers3 ,o1 ,o1 ,o1 ,o4 #hfc4 ,nothing can become solid without taking water into admixture with it4 ,this water is the water of admixture4 ,nothing also can assume form1 without taking water into itself--water of crystallization4 #hfd4 ,in so far as magnetism is active in crystallization1 it renders the water identical1 basic1 and this therefore becomes solid2 the water is not as water in a crystal1 but it first becomes so by separation4 #hfe4 ,all chemical processes are based on the union of bodies1 which are elements1 but which1 like acids and alkalies1 have assumed the nature of the primary bodies4 #hff4 ,the elective affinities are based upon the polarizibility or transmutability of the ,fluid and the ,solid into the primary bodies4 ,that is decomposed and combined1 which during admixture maintains the animation in the strongest degree unto the origin4 ,what cannot be so reduced1 is precipitated1 as is silex4 ,the chemism is a bin-elementary process1 and therefore constitutes the termination of this period of creation1 or of the mineral kingdom4 ,so soon as a tri-elementary process originates1 the products pass over into a new kingdom4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,biology--,,of ,,the ,,whole ,,in ,,singulars4 ,a4--,,organosophy4 ,i4--,,organogeny4 ,a4 ,galvanism4 #hfg4 ,if we take a retrospective glance at the development of the planet1 we find that it commenced with the simplest actions1 and then assumed a more elevated character by gradually drawing together several actions and letting them work in common4 ,in magnetism the earth-element alone was active1 and this having freed itself from the other elements by crystallization1 asserted itself as a particular form upon the planet4 ,by this single act of the planet1 an extensive series of positions or numbers originated1 which may be called mineral individuals4 #hfh4 ,up to the formation of the solar system or of the planet1 the character of creation is analytic4 ,the three primary ideas emerged from each other as gravity1 light and heat1 and appeared as fire4 ,these three united actions emerged again from each other and became air1 water and earth1 which together make up the planet4 ,this was therefore the descending creation4 ,but from and after this period1 the character of the development of the planet becomes synthetic1 for the divided elements again united with each other4 ,by synthesis only or by combination of the elements does the planet progressively advance1 and by it only does it divide into lesser planetary masses or bodies1 called individuals4 ,this is the ascending creation4 #hfi4 ,to the earth-element1 in which the active magnetism is isolated1 comes the element-water2 and by the identification of both into one body1 a new process is evolved1 which we have recognized by the term chemism--salt4 ,then the earth-element combines with air and becomes an ,inflammable1 in which the process is likewise extinguished and only a dead product is left--the ,inflammable4 ,then it combines with fire and is converted into ore4 ,there never originates therefore from the twofold combination of the earth-element with any other element1 but one product1 that namely in which the ,earthy obtains the preponderance1 or a mineral4 #hgj4 ,two elements only belong to the essence of chemism1 and they indeed are the two lowest1 the elements carbon and oxygen1 both being reduced to their primary condition1 i4 e4 to that of an alkali in natron1 and an acid in the hydrochloric or that of common salt4 #hga4 ,as the principle or rationale of chemical action consists only in the potentiality of two elements to revert to their polar1 or the oxygenous1 condition1 this action must thus become extinct1 so soon as the creation of the new or secondary element has resulted4 ,for if the tension equalizes itself in the two1 and the two only be coexistent1 so in accordance with the compensation no new tension can originate1 and yet such is the groundwork of all chemical action4 ,the result of the chemical process is consequently death2 and furthermore1 because it is also a simple bin-elementary process1 it cannot be the ultimate goal or limit attained by the development of the planet4 #hgb4 ,the next stage to which the genesis of the planet ascends consists in the bin-elementary processes being associated with the third terrestrial element4 ,in this manner a process originates in which the powers of earth and of water marry or conjoin with the power of air1 and thus originates a chemical power or chemism1 influenced by the air4 #hgc4 ,the chemism1 when influenced by air1 is one of a perpetual character2 for this power dies only because the tension of its two elements is balanced or equalized2 the influence of the air is1 however1 none other than the constant renewal of the tension4 #hgd4 ,now1 the process of tension in the air is electrism or that action in which the two poles being devoid of indifference range opposite to each other1 can therefore never unite1 and the end attained by which is oxydation4 ,the new process is consequently a chemical power constantly excited by electrism--it is an electro-chemism4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaj47 ,this composite process is known under the name of ,galvanism4 #hge4 ,hereby the galvanism has been most rigorously and characteristically separated from the chemism1 and the succession of stages been exactly indicated4 ,by the accession of a single but higher nature-factor1 namely1 the air1 chemism advances one and only one stage higher4 ,we have consequently made no leap or abrupt transition in tracing out our genesis of nature4 ,magnetism is the uni-elementary1 chemism the bin-elementary1 galvanism the tri-elementary process of the planet1 in so far as it is occupied with its own evolution1 or that of the ,solid4 #hgf4 ,considered in relation to the result and also the internal nature of the process1 galvanism is in no wise different from chemism1 but only in reference to the continuance of the tension4 ,the fluid and solid are in both the co-equal media or means2 the decompositions1 separations and combinations also1 are alike in both4 ,the air has no other office than to sustain the opposition1 which in chemism proceeds through the difference of the two unipolar elements1 acid and alkali4 #hgg4 ,the air maintains this animosity of the elements only by oxydation1 and so far takes part in the contest like a fellow-combatant2 yet this invariably happens only while the water is preserved by these means in its primary condition1 that of the acid4 ,the air breathes life only into the chemical body1 without being body itself4 ,no galvanism therefore continues1 if it be denied the access of air4 ,the chain or column enters it is true into tension also without air1 but remains only for a short time in that state1 or so long only as there is a trace of oxygen in the water4 #hgh4 ,galvanism1 as a tri-elementary process1 represents the planet in its totality4 ,the galvanic column is an entire planet1 a planet upon the planet1 the planet individualized4 #hgi4 ,the individual1 taken in a strong sense1 is an entire planet taken up into ,singulars1 a triplicity of the elements in the particular or special unity4 ,in galvanism there consequently issues forth for the first time an individual1 which is equivalent to a cosmic totality4 ,galvanism is the metatype of the planet4 ,all other and profounder processes are not total in character1 nor metatypes of a whole system1 but only moieties thereof4 #hhj4 ,the planet1 regarded in itself1 in its three elements1 apart from its relation to the sun1 is a galvanic body1 a column1 just as inversely this is a planet4 #hha4 ,the attributes1 which consequently belong to the planet1 abstractedly from the sun1 must belong to every galvanic process1 or to such a body4 ,the planet is a ,whole included in itself1 and thus is galvanism4 ,the latter acts only in a closed chain1 or only by its own body or its materiality forming one circle that returns into itself4 ,the three elements are mutually self-excited and moved1 and that indeed from internal causes1 though not apart from external conditions4 ,thus galvanism is like an individual planet4 ,b4 ,primary ,organism4 #hhb4 ,an individual 7total1 self-included7 body1 excited and moved by itself1 is called ,organism4 ,organism is what individual planet is4 ,the metatype of the planet is organism2 or a planet upon the planet is organism4 ,the planet is not itself an organism1 because it is not individual or galvanic in every point4 #hhc4 ,the self-excitation of the individualized elements1 is called life4 #hhd4 ,galvanism is the principle of life4 ,there is no other vital force than the galvanic polarity4 ,the heterogeneity of the three terrestrial elements in a circumscribed individual body is the vital force4 ,the galvanic process is one with the vital process4 #hhe4 ,organism is galvanism residing in a thoroughly homogeneous mass4 ,the galvanic column is no organism1 because it only admits the galvanic process just as the planet does1 in individual places4 ,a body only1 which is zinc-pole1 silver-pole and moist pulp at every conceivable point1 is an organism4 ,a galvanic pile1 pounded into atoms must become alive4 ,in this manner nature brings forth organic bodies4 #hhf4 ,electrism has a basis2 it is the air4 ,magnetism has a basis2 it is the metal4 ,chemism has a basis2 it is the salt4 ,so has galvanism a basis2 it is the organic mass4 #hhg4 ,accordingly1 what would be organic1 must be galvanic2 what would be alive1 must be galvanic4 ,life is not different from organism1 nor also from galvanism4 ,for life is verily the vital process4 ,but the vital process is an organic1 galvanic process4 ,galvanism lies at the basis of all the processes of the organic world4 ,they are either modifications of it1 or only its combinations with other and still higher actions4 ,a living thing1 which is not galvanic1 is a nonentity4 #hhh4 ,with galvanism consequently the first step has been made out of the inorganic into the organic kingdom4 ,every aught of nature1 which has hitherto originated1 is inorganic4 ,these1 however1 were mere individualities4 ,the character of the ,inorganic consists consequently in something being a ,singular1 a moiety1 or a metatype of a ,singular2 the character of the ,organic in its being the metatype of a whole or round number4 ,organic things are internal self-exciting numbers2 the inorganic things are fractions4 #hhi4 ,every fraction is dead4 ,no moiety can attain to life1 for it does not receive its complement4 ,what is simply fluid1 cannot be organic1 because it is not the totality of the planet4 ,what is simply solid1 cannot be organic4 ,it is only a third of the organism4 ,every organism is produced according to the laws of galvanism1 according to the law of the triplicity4 #hij4 ,as the terrestrial magnetism is indeed only one1 but includes an infinity of magnets1 which are rendered manifest in the progress of the earth's life2 so also in the great galvanism of the earth an infinite number of subordinate galvanic triplicities reside inclosed1 which become gradually detached1 and1 instead of the universal galvanism1 represent an infinity of individual galvanisms4 ,the universal galvanism cannot exist1 without establishing itself as an infinity of individual galvanisms4 ,as magnetism is only associated with the net of metallic veins1 so is the absolute only1 with the universality of its finite positions4 ,the number of organisms is infinite1 both in coexistence as also in consecutive existence4 #hia4 ,an organism is an individual in the rigid sense of the word1 because it is ruined1 so soon as one of its three members parts from the rest4 ,in this sense only are there properly speaking organic individuals4 #hib4 ,if we do not confine indivisibility to what is mechanical1 but extend it also to the chemical2 individuals may be likewise granted to the mineral kingdom4 ,the minerals are chemical individuals2 for by separation they are likewise annihilated as such1 and moreover the relation of mixture of chemical bodies is not one of an arbitrary kind4 ,the gray ores are a definite mixture of sulphur and antimony1 and are thereby individuals4 ,the silver1 lead1 and copper1 that are accidentally mixed in this compound1 do not at all alter the individuality1 and by no means prove a capacity residing in the matters for mixture in all conceivable numbers4 ,such a mixture would be a medley only4 ,in plants and animals casual component parts occur also frequently4 ,thus the individuality of the ruby-silver appears to consist in the definite mixture of sulphur and arsenic1 with the addition perhaps of antimony4 ,the silver is only mingled with it1 and therefore present in all numbers4 ,the same holds good of the bi-sulphurets of iron1 and the glance-ores4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaj47 ,creation of the ,organic4 #hic4 ,it has been demonstrated from the genesis of the ,organic1 that its essence consists in the universality of the planetary processes4 ,every organic individual has essentially three processes in itself1 which must be regarded as its fundamental processes1 whereof no one can ever be wanting4 ,seeing1 that if this be the case1 the body is only a chemical or magnetic1 a crystallized carcase4 #hid4 ,the first three planetary processes1 namely1 the earth-process1 water-process1 and air-process1 or the forming1 chemicalizing1 and electrifying or oxydizing processes1 are also the first three vital processes4 #hie4 ,it has been shown1 that with every new process and with every new combination of processes1 the materials also of the same were altered1 ennobled1 rendered more composite1 and thereupon also more decomposible4 ,herein also nature advances consecutively and creates new materials for the organic world4 #hif4 ,in the metamorphosis of the earths1 when the chemism was added to the process of formation1 not only the alkalinity and acidity issued forth in the calcareous earth and the salts1 but the pure ,earthy also became free from fixity1 and manifested itself as carbon in the carbonic acid4 #hig4 ,the last product of an antecedent stage is always the basis of that which is subsequent4 ,the fundamental matter of the organic world is consequently the carbon4 a4 ,,elementary ,,body--,,primary ,,mucus4 #hih4 ,if in this carbon the three processes of the planet1 namely1 the formative or its special1 the chemicalizing or fluidizing1 and the electrifying or oxydizing1 process1 concentrate themselves1 and are present with all their energy in every atom of the organic body2 so must the mass of carbon be at the same time solid1 fluid1 and aerial1 oxydizable in every spot1 and thus also soft4 ,now a carbon mixed identically with water and air is ,mucus4 #hii4 ,mucus is oxydized1 hydrated carbon2 or expressed in purely philosophical language1 mucus is the universality of the minerals and elements1 or the synthesis of earth1 salt1 ,inflammable1 and ore in water and air4 #ijj4 ,every ,organic has issued out of mucus1 is naught but mucus under different forms4 ,every ,organic is again soluble into mucus2 by which naught else is meant1 than that the formed mucus becomes one devoid of form4 #ija4 ,the primary mucus1 out of which every thing organic has been created1 is the sea-mucus4 #ijb4 ,mucus belongs originally and essentially to the sea1 and has not been mixed with the latter through the dissolution in it of putrefying substances4 #ijc4 ,the sea-mucus has originated in the progress of planetary development1 like the calcareous earth has with the carbon and like the sea-salt4 ,as little as this could have entered the sea originally through solution of rock-salt2 so little could the mucus through the perishing of animals and plants1 for none of these were yet present1 but could be first developed1 only with the production of this mucus4 #ijd4 ,the sea-mucus was originally generated through the influence of light and by the denudation of the crude masses1 especially of the earths and salts1 which was thereby effected2 while with the metals and ,inflammables ranging opposite to these1 the carbon thus became free1 and betook itself as carbonic acid to the water and air4 ,thus also has salt been produced4 #ije4 ,the sea-mucus1 as well as the salt1 is still produced by the light4 ,everything takes place through the differentialization1 or by the absolution of fixed poles on the earth-element4 ,light shines upon the water1 and it is salted4 ,light shines upon the salted sea1 and it lives4 #ijf4 ,all life is from the sea1 none from the continent4 #ijg4 ,all mucus is endowed with life4 #ijh4 ,the whole sea is alive4 ,it is a fluctuating1 ever self-elevating and ever self-depressing organism4 #iji4 ,where the sea-organism by self-elevation succeeds in attaining unto form1 there issues forth from it a higher organism4 ,love arose out of the sea-foam4 #iaj4 ,the primary mucus was and is still generated in those very parts of the sea where the water is in contact with earth and air1 and thus upon the shores4 #iaa4 ,the first creation of the ,organic took place1 where the first mountain summits projected out of the water2 and thus indeed without doubt in ,india1 if the ,himalaya be the highest mountain4 #iab4 ,the first organic forms1 whether plants or animals1 emerged from the shallow parts of the sea4 #iac4 ,man also is a child of the warm and shallow parts of the sea in the neighbourhood of the land4 #iad4 ,it is possible1 that ,man has only originated on one spot1 and that indeed the highest mountain in ,india4 ,it is even possible1 that only one favorable moment was granted1 in which ,men could arise4 ,a definite mixture of water1 definite blood-heat1 and definite influence of light must concur to his production2 and this has probably been the case only in a certain spot and at a certain time4 #iae4 ,the first men were the littoral and mountainous inhabitants of warmer countries1 and found therefore at once reptiles1 fishes1 fruit1 and game for food4 ,,change4 #iaf4 ,the number of individual organisms is not persistent4 ,for they are verily only products of a ceaseless polarization or a constant evocation of poles in the great galvanism1 positions of the general galvanism in time4 ,thus1 as the poles change1 so also do the organic individuals4 ,the kingdom of organisms is an iron bar1 in which the magnetic poles originate and vanish or change1 according as the polarizing magnet is removed4 ,organisms change1 because they are numbers1 thoughts of ,god4 #iag4 ,the process of change in organic individuals is that of their destruction4 #iah4 ,but this destruction is as nothing for nature4 ,there originate again in the same moment other organisms in other situations4 ,the process that destroys the poles is only one that effects their change4 #iai4 ,the world-organism only is eternal1 and devoid of change1 with the exception of that which is within its poles4 ,it can itself change with no other1 because it is only one4 #ibj4 ,no individual organism is eternal1 because it is only a changing pole of the world-organism4 #iba4 ,there is no constancy in the individualities4 ,change only is persistent4 #ibb4 ,the world only is persistent4 ,nothing in it is constant4 ,were individuals not to perish1 but live for ever1 the world must then die2 for the life of the world1 like every life1 consists only in the change of poles4 ,individuals could in no way therefore continue alive1 if the world were to remain alive1 because this is only possible through change of the individuals1 which are its organs2 nor could they1 were the world to die1 because the totality of individuals is the world itself4 #ibc4 ,death is no annihilation1 but only a change4 ,one individual emerges out of another4 ,death is only a transition to another life1 not unto death4 #ibd4 ,this transition from one life to another takes place through the primary condition of the ,organic1 or the mucus4 #ibe4 ,if new individuals originate1 they could not therefore originate directly from others2 but they must be redissolved into mucus4 ,every generation is a new creation4 b4 ,,form--,,globe4 #ibf4 ,the organism is a metatype of the planet and must also have the corresponding form4 ,it is the ,sphere4 ,this results also from the combination of the three actions1 which being in equiponderance could only produce the globe4 #ibg4 ,the sphere must commence with the idea of the point4 ,for the idea of the sphere is the idea of the centre1 which is a point4 ,the point1 however1 is not different from the sphere4 ,it is only the infinitely small or minute sphere4 #ibh4 ,the primary mucus is globular in form4 ,the primary mucus does not swell into a single sphere1 but it divides into infinitely numerous spheres4 ,for were it only one sphere1 it would be the planet itself4 ,but it is an individual1 or only one sphere in the great sphere4 ,the idea of the great sphere consists however of an infinity of small spheres4 #ibi4 ,the primary mucus consists of an infinity of points4 ,this admits of being proved by its mode of origin4 ,it is formed on the limit between water and earth1 consequently in a line4 ,this line1 however1 becomes constantly dissevered by disquietude1 and divides therefore necessarily into infinitely numerous points4 #icj4 ,the primary ,organic is a mucous point4 #ica4 ,the organic world commences not merely with one point1 but with infinitely numerous points4 ,where earth1 water1 and air are found in one spot1 there also is an organic point4 #icb4 ,the organic points originate upon the surface of the earth1 not in it1 and not in the air4 ,for only between earth and air do all three elements enter into collision4 ,,primary ,,vesicle4 #icc4 ,through the oxydation of the air an opposition of the component parts1 or of the ,fluid and ,solid1 issues forth in the organic point1 and these mutually conditionate each other4 ,the ,fluid and ,solid cannot1 however1 be otherwise conditioned1 seeing that the former is the ,contained1 the latter the ,containing4 ,the ,solid is only a precipitate from the ,fluid wrought by the influence of the air4 ,the air1 however1 is externally related to the mucus-point4 ,the ,solid can therefore originate nowhere else than between the ,fluid and the air4 ,it consequently surrounds in accordance with its genesis the ,fluid4 ,the physical cause thereof is naturally the oxydation of mucus upon its periphery4 ,a globe1 the middle of which is fluid1 but the periphery solid1 is called a bladder or cyst4 #icd4 ,the first organic points are vesicles4 ,the organic world has for its basis an infinity of vesicles4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahac4 4 #ibb47 ,,infusoria4 #ice4 ,the mucous primary vesicle may in a philosophical sense be aptly called infusorium1 like as we designate the primary condition of the embryo1 by the word vitellus4 ,now are we making use of definite expressions4 #icf4 ,everywhere1 where the three elements cooperate1 are infusoria present--thus upon the sea-shore1 the tide-mark or strand1 and shallow watery places4 #icg4 ,the infusorium is a galvanic point1 a galvanic vesicle1 a galvanic column or chain4 #ich4 ,in every infusorium there is triplicity of the poles1 or properly speaking1 of the processes4 ,each one maintains itself by the nutritive1 digestive1 and respiratory process1 or what amounts to the same1 the infusorial globule of mucus assumes a figure1 its peculiar fluidity is formed in its interior1 and it becomes oxydized4 ,as is well known1 no infusorium can live without moisture1 and none if the access of air having been prevented1 or the water boiled1 it is freed from the air and the ,earthy4 #ici4 ,if the organic fundamental substance consist of infusoria1 so must the whole organic world originate from infusoria4 ,plants and animals can only be metamorphoses of infusoria4 #idj4 ,this being granted1 so also must all organizations consist of infusoria1 and during their destruction dissolve into the same4 ,every plant1 every animal is converted by maceration into a mucous mass2 this putrefies1 and the moisture is stocked with infusoria4 #ida4 ,putrefaction is nothing else than a division of organisms into infusoria1 a reduction of the higher to the primary1 life4 #idb4 ,organisms are a synthesis of infusoria4 ,their generation is none other than an accumulation of infinitely numerous mucous points1 infusoria4 ,in these the organisms have not forsooth been at once wholly and perfectly depicted as on the smallest scale1 nor contained in a state of preformation2 but they are only infusorial vesicles1 that by different combinations assume different forms1 and grow up into higher organisms4 ,,theory ,,of ,,generation4 #idc4 ,the theory of generation is in this sense a synthetical and epigenetic1 not an analytic4 #idd4 ,the theory of preformation contradicts the laws of nature's development4 #ide4 ,generation is a successive formation1 both in relation to the quantity as well as the quality1 and the specific organs4 ,it having been preposited1 that an organism has several organic systems1 so must these range according to their importance1 and like the systems of nature1 behind each other1 and be also developed in this order4 ,as the whole of nature has been a successive fixation of ther1 so is the organic world a successive fixation of infusorial mucus-vesicles4 ,the mucus is the ther1 the chaos for the organic world4 ,the semen of all animals consists also of infusoria2 the same may be said of the vitellus4 ,the pollen of flowers consists in like manner of microscopic vesicles with globules1 which have a life of their own and move themselves in water4 ,many conferv indeed divide evidently into a multitude of living1 self-moving globules1 which1 after they have swam about for some time1 again unite to form a stem of conferva4 #idf4 ,every generation consequently commences priori or from the beginning4 ,the organic substance must again be dissolved into the original chaos1 if any thing new should reoriginate4 #idg4 ,out of an organic menstruum only can a new organism proceed1 but not one organism out of the other4 ,a finished or perfect organism cannot gradually transform itself into another4 #idh4 ,the generative juices1 or semen and vitellus1 are none other than the total organism reduced to the primary menstruum4 #idi4 ,physically regarded also every individual originates only from the ,absolute1 but no one out of the other4 ,the history of generation is a retrogression into the ,absolute of the ,organic1 or the organic chaos--mucus1 and a new evocation from the same4 #iej4 ,this development from mucus is only applicable however to the generation of the perfect organisms1 but not to the origin of the organic body1 or the infusorial mass4 ,the former originate only from an organic mass that has been already formed2 but the infusorial mass1 as constituting the organic primary bodies1 cannot have originated in the same way4 ,it does and must originate directly from the ,inorganic4 ,for whence can the organic matter have otherwise proceeded8 #iea4 ,the infusorial mucus-mass originated1 as has been already remarked1 at the moment when the earth's metamorphosis was at an end2 at the moment1 when the planet succeeded in so bringing together and identifying all the elementary processes1 that they were all together or at one and the same time in every point4 #ieb4 ,hence the organic primary body originated also by synthesis1 not by analysis1 if regard be paid to its factors4 ,but do we consider this substance as first emerging into view1 when the coarse1 abundant1 isolated materials1 such as earth1 metals1 ,inflammables1 and salts had separated themselves from it2 that this organic primary body then remained behind as it were for the first time3 it has then originated through analysis1 or was preformed2 but so preformed as are also the metals1 and as is everything4 ,it need scarcely be observed1 that this last separation from out the ,earthy is the carbon1 the dissolution of the earths into atoms1 and thus again into points or globules susceptible of form4 #iec4 ,everything is preformed in ther1 like as every ,mathematic is preformed in zero1 every ,active in ,god2 yet for that very reason nothing individual is preformed therein2 but it originates first through fixation of poles on the substance4 ,this is the true meaning of the original generation of the ,organic4 #ied4 ,this origin of the organic primary bodies ,i designate ,generatio originaria1 ,creation4 #iee4 ,but infusorial vesicles can also originate by mere division of larger organic carcases1 and these can again originate as well through the combination of these secondary as of the primitive vesicles1 or as it were by coagulation only1 such being the case indeed in the intestinal worms also4 ,i nominate this generation1 ,generatio quivoca4 #ief4 ,all generation is ,generatio quivoca2 whether imparted by sexes or not4 ,for the generative juices of the sexual organs themselves are naught else than organic primary mass1 and have originated by division4 #ieg4 ,there are only two kinds of generation in the world4 ,the creation proper and the propagation that is sequent thereupon1 or the ,generatio originaria and secundaria4 #ieh4 ,no organism has been consequently created of larger size than an infusorial point4 ,no organism is1 nor has one ever been1 created1 which is not microscopic4 #iei4 ,whatever is larger1 has not been created1 but developed4 #ifj4 ,man has not been created1 but developed4 ,so the ,bible itself teaches us4 ,god did not make man out of nothing2 but took an elemental body then existing1 an earth-clod or carbon2 moulded it into form1 thus making use of water2 and breathed into it life1 namely air1 whereby galvanism1 or the vital process arose4 #ifa4 ,the original origin of organization has been imparted by the co-operating influence of heat and light4 ,by the heat1 because without this no galvanic and no chemical process is possible2 further1 because heat is the totality of ther1 the moved ther1 the therial air1 and thus the menstruum of all action4 ,but the heat is not sufficient to animate the three terrestrial elements1 because it imparts only the possibility of procedure and of action2 while it does not differentialize1 nor posit tension1 but maintains everything in identity1 fluidity4 ,in the heat alone every thing must become fluid and finally decompose4 ,unto heat therefore the accession is yet necessary of the ,cosmic-differencing1 or the light4 ,the light inspires the body prepared by heat with life1 antagonism1 polarity4 #ifb4 ,the ther imparts the substance1 the heat the form1 the light the life4 7,oken first started this opinion in his work1 ',die ,zeugung1' ,frankfurt1 ,wesche1 #ahje47 c4 ,processes of the ,organic4 #ifc4 ,the life of the organic body is not a single but a threefold action1 consisting of the actions of the three terrestrial elements1 which become the three fundamental processes of the body1 or of life1 and in which three processes galvanism consists4 #a4 ,,earth-,,process1 ,,nutritive ,,process4 #ifd4 ,the magnetic earth-process is virtually the formative2 and in organic bodies is called the nutrient process4 #ife4 ,the process of nutrition is the principal process in the organic world4 ,its product or its basis is the fundamental mass of the body itself4 ,as crystal and the process of crystallization are related to each other1 so are the body and the process of nutrition4 #iff4 ,the process of nutrition is the sustaining1 and proper fundamental process of the organism4 #ifg4 ,it is present entire and indivisible in every part of the body4 ,whencesoever it is ablated or withdrawn1 there is death4 #ifh4 ,it operates according to the laws of crystallization4 #ifi4 ,its very forms are crystals modified by the organic mass or1 what amounts to the same1 by the other processes combined therewith4 ,the organic body is an accumulation of an infinity of 7organic7 crystals 7cells74 #igj4 ,in the planetary process of formation1 which is a process of crystallization1 the organism is continually comprehended4 ,it is the planetary body ever becoming2 the latter is an organic body1 which has ceased to become4 #b4 ,,water-,,process1 ,,digestive ,,process4 #iga4 ,another action1 that helps to constitute the organic body1 is the chemism1 which is not only the process of liquefaction1 but the process also of the formation or creation of new organic matter4 ,it is known to us under the name of ,digestive process4 #igb4 ,the digestive process elevates the ,inorganic up to the organic mass1 like the chemism has converted the ,earthy into carbonate of lime and finally into muriatic natron4 ,the digestive process is the process of the formation of mucus4 ,regarded philosophically the nutritive juice 7or chyle7 is naught else than mucus4 ,this is also correct in a physiological point of view4 #igc4 ,the digestive process is the second organic process1 in so far as it has been fashioned after the type of the water2 but the first1 in so far as every ,organic has originated out of water4 #igd4 ,as forming only the mucus it is not directly distributed in every part of the body like the nutritive process1 which is the body or planet itself4 ,but it interposes1 or is mediate1 everywhere4 #ige4 ,as the water of the planet is related to the continent or earth's nucleus1 so are the digestive matters or the mucus of nutrition to the body4 ,the ,earthy1 however1 is the principal mass of the planet1 upon which the others have been supported4 ,so is the nutritive body the principal mass1 upon which the digestive body has been supported4 #igf4 ,no organism is conceivable without a digestive process4 #c4 ,,air ,,process1 ,,respiratory ,,process4 #igg4 ,the action of the air finally settles down also in mucus4 ,it is that which sustains the constant heterogeneity of the organic factors1 the electrical tension4 ,the electrical tension has1 however1 oxydation for its result4 ,the organic process of electricity is thus at the same time a process of oxydation4 ,it is called ,respiratory process4 #igh4 ,without respiratory process1 no organism is conceivable4 ,by its influence difference has been induced in the chyle1 and by this difference only does the latter become decomposible or serviceable for the process of nutrition4 #igi4 ,the respiratory process is also present not immediately in every part of the body1 but only mediately4 ,it is the atmosphere of the body4 #ihj4 ,the mutation1 which the juices undergo through the process of respiration1 is none other than an emergence from their state of indifference4 ,thereby each point of the juice becomes polar towards every other2 all are mutually attracted1 all repelled1 whereby a decisive vortication originates4 #iha4 ,as every globule of sap or mucus is indifferent1 it has thus naturally an affinity for air4 ,the air itself is comprehended1 like the water and the earth1 in the organism4 ,and thus it may with full force be said2 that the organism is elevated by respiration to the element air1 by digestion to the element water1 by nutrition to the element earth4 ,so that respiratory process air-process1 digestive process water-process1 and nutritive process earth-process4 #ihb4 ,the first three organic processes are consequently true synotypes of the planetary processes--are planet-forming processes in miniature in individuals4 ,the fundamental organism has thus been shown to be in its apparent processes a synotype or likeness of the planet2 in other words1 a microscopic planet4 #ihc4 ,these three processes constitute the galvanic process4 ,making use of the expressions applied to the inorganic kingdom1 we found the organism to be a combination of magnetism1 chemism1 and electrism2 while in organic parlance it is a nutritive process1 maintained by respiration and digestion4 ,the processus nutritorius1 digestivus1 respiratorius1 together constituting galvanism4 #d4 ,,motion4 #ihd4 ,motion is no peculiar or self-persistent process1 but the necessary manifestation of galvanism4 ,motion has been established with the three organic fundamental processes4 #ihe4 ,every motion depends upon the galvanic process4 ,taken in a strict sense1 there is no process of motion1 but motion only4 ,for motion is verily but the phenomenon of galvanism4 ,the process of motion is synonymous with the galvanic process4 #ihf4 ,the galvanic process is a process of motion effected in circles1 in its own factors1 in its planet1 but not from without2 it is consequently an actual vital process4 #ihg4 ,as the process of motion is the phenomenon common to all three organic fundamental processes1 so is the whole organism characterized by it4 ,the essence of the ,organic depends consequently upon its automatic or self-motion4 #ihh4 ,self-motion is the only1 but essential and ultimate1 distinction between the ,organic and ,inorganic4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaj4 #ijd47 ,all other distinctions that have been advanced do not suffice2 because they do not comprehend the totality of the organism1 nor the three fundamental processes in one phenomenon1 but only individual attributes4 #ihi4 ,a circumscribed1 closed mass1 which moves itself1 is an organism4 ,the perpetuum mobile is only the organism4 #iij4 ,every ,inorganic moves not itself1 but is only moved by external influences2 because every ,inorganic is only a part of a whole4 #iia4 ,the organic motion is present and possible in every point of a body4 ,a mass that is automatic1 or thoroughly moved by itself1 is an organism4 #iib4 ,the ,inorganic consists in motion having vanished from it1 and in being simply mass4 ,but the ,organic consists exactly in this alone1 namely1 that the ,massive has disappeared1 or that the mass is in constant motion4 ,the ,organic becomes destroyed1 so soon as motion disappears in it2 the ,inorganic is destroyed1 so soon as motion enters it4 ,motion is therefore the soul1 whereby the ,organic is elevated above the ,inorganic4 #b4 ,,organognosy4 ,division of the ,organism4 ,,planetary ,,and ,,cosmic ,,organism4 #iic4 ,hitherto we have regarded the organism merely in a general point of view2 namely1 as regards the substance1 form1 and processes1 which must indiscriminately occur in every organism4 ,we have seen that it is composed of at least three elements1 the earth1 water and air4 ,there is still1 however1 one combination that is possible and therefore also actual1 namely1 with the ther or the fire4 #iid4 ,the organic world has two stages in its development4 ,upon each stage1 however1 it is the totality or synotype of nature1 yet is different in each4 #iie4 ,the organism represents the whole solar system2 but this divides into two stages4 ,the lowest of these is the ,planetary1 or totality of the ,earthy1 ,aqueous and ,aerial2 the higher is the ,solar or ,cosmic1 namely1 the totality of earth1 water1 air and fire4 ,thus there is a tri-elementary and a quadri-elementary totality4 ,as the first is already an organism1 so much the more too must be the second4 ,thus there must be one organism1 which comprehends indeed all systems in itself1 but with the preponderance of the ,planetary2 and one with the preponderance of the ,solar4 #iif4 ,in the planetary organism the ther-systems will be either wanting1 or only indicated as mere projections2 they are there only1 in so far as the planet itself is not without light4 ,in the solar organism1 however1 the planetary systems are subordinate to the ther processes2 the former are only there1 because the sun cannot be without planets4 ,in the planetary organism the ther-system has only been taken up into the ,terrestrial2 but in the ,solar the ,terrestrial has been taken up into the ther4 #iig4 ,in the planetary organism all the processes launch out into production or alterations of the matters2 it is a chemical organism2 in the solar organism there are processes1 which neither change1 nor produce matters1 it may be therefore styled light organism4 #iih4 ,the chemical organism is associated with the earth1 the spiritual with the water and air2 the former must therefore consist principally of carbon1 the latter of the combination of oxygen with hydrogen1 and thus of nitrogen4 #iii4 ,the carbon-organism must moreover in accordance with its import be associated with the ,inflammables and metals1 and through these with the silicious earth4 #ajjj4 ,the nitrogen-organism on the contrary with the salts and calcareous earths2 thus we have silicious organisms and calcareous organisms2 ,inflammable organisms and salt organisms4 ,from this it is already clear1 that the planetary or primary organism is not general1 nor indefinite1 but the plant2 for no ,general or ,indefinite has existence4 ,the solar or quadri-elementary organism admits in like manner of being recognized as animal4 ,this is the philosophical deduction4 ,but there is also a physiological1 which conducts to the same result4 #ajja4 ,the mucus-vesicle can feasibly pass into two kinds of condition only4 ,it either remains in the water1 or is cast upon the shore1 or in the mud4 ,in the last case it continues to lie1 and is only supplied with light1 and oxydized by the air upon the upper side2 in the first case1 on the contrary1 it rolls about constantly in the water1 and is alternately illumed and oxydized upon all sides4 ,the first vesicle thus obtains a single axis from above downwards1 between light and darkness2 the second on the contrary gains a multitude of axes from without inwards1 where it is alone dark and deoxydized4 ,the first is thus devoid of any middle point1 and finds its centre of gravity only in the middle of the earth1 while the latter acquires its centre of gravity in its ,interior1 and this renders the ,interior polar towards all points of the circumference4 ,the plant is only one axis1 or from having no middle point1 is properly only one radius1 which has its centre in the centre of the earth2 the animal is an infinity of axes or radii1 which concur or converge in the creature itself2 the plant is an inverted cone1 the animal an infinity of cones or a globe4 #ajjb4 ,thus the planetary organism originates1 if the primary vesicle having been taken out of the water is given up to the earth1 to immobility and to darkness4 ,but the light-organism arises1 if the primary vesicle continue in water1 or in the ,moveable and ,diaphanous4 ,here then in their genesis an essential difference is declared between the two organic worlds4 ,planetary organism originates1 if the vesicle develops itself apart from the water1 in which case it is withdrawn on one side from the light2 but the light-organism originates if it remains in water itself1 where it can be supplied on all sides with light4 ,the essence of both is expressed by the names darkness-organism and light-organism4 #ajjc4 ,the basis of both kingdoms is therefore exactly similar2 the vesicle and the mucus lie at the foundation of both4 ,it depends solely upon the surrounding element1 whether out of one and the same mass this or that organism should arise1 or rather upon the active influence of the light1 this being conditioned only by the elements4 ,not a word can accordingly be spoken about preformation4 ,in darkness-organism the water-vesicle has been placed between earth and air1 and thus fettered to the earth2 in light-organism1 however1 the vesicle has been placed in the water and so freed from the earth4 #ajjd4 ,the planetary organism has1 in accordance with its situation and import1 been bound to the earth4 ,it must originate like the metal in the earth1 in the darkness and1 as it were1 in a vein4 ,but it is at the same time a light-product2 it must rise from out of the earth into the air and towards the light4 ,it is a mucus1 living metallic vein1 which elevates itself from out the earth into the air4 #ajje4 ,this organism1 which originates in the darkness of the earth1 and grows therefrom into the air so as to meet the light1 is plant4 #ajjf4 ,the solar-organism is1 in accordance with its import1 void of connexion with the earth2 like a planet it revolves freely about the earth1 and everywhere receives its image or likeness in the influence of all four elements4 #ajjg4 ,the organism1 which1 free from the earth1 has originated in water1 or properly speaking1 in the transparency1 is animal4 #ajjh4 ,the vegetable and animal are the only organic1 kingdoms4 ,in both1 nature has exhausted herself1 and has in the last kingdom1 as in a mirror1 been wholly reflected4 ,they are together planet and sun1 or thus solar system4 ,but since the animal comprehends all elements in itself1 so it contains also the plant1 and is therefore for itself vegetable and animal kingdom1 or the whole solar-system4 #ajji4 ,the plant hath no free system of motion1 because motion is wanting to it2 bound to the elements1 by these it is determined4 ,the element of motion1 the ther1 lies apart from it4 ,it has only motion1 if and while the elements act upon1 or solicit it1 thereunto4 #ajaj4 ,it moves itself only by an external or foreign stimulus4 ,if no foreign stimulus be present1 it does not move itself4 ,a root grows1 moves itself towards one spot1 not because it there seeks for moisture1 but because it is affected by the moisture which is there found4 ,were the moisture not to act upon it1 it would wither4 #ajaa4 ,the animal has independent motion4 ,for it has indeed taken up the centre1 the earth-and the light-system which is the principle of motion1 into itself4 #ajab4 ,thus the animal moves itself independently of external stimuli4 ,the animal can move itself from want of stimulus4 ,it moves itself to seek for1 and thus from want of1 nourishment1 which consequently does not act upon it2 the plant cannot1 however1 move itself owing to want of food1 but only die4 #ajac4 ,this is the essential and only conclusive distinction between animal and plant4 ,all others that have been advanced are not sufficient4 ,processes of the ,cosmic ,organism4 ,,ther ,,processes4 #ajad4 ,the primary or planetary organism cannot be the last product of nature's development3 for it is only indeed the metatype of the three terrestrial elements1 and consequently not of the totality of nature4 ,the mucus-organism ascends to a higher stage1 since it superadds to its three elements the primary element1 or ascends itself to primary elements4 ,it becomes an therial globe of mucus4 #ajae4 ,hitherto there were merely three processes in the organism2 to these consequently the fourth is added1 which is the ther-process4 ,it may be called the fire-process4 #ajaf4 ,with the fire-process the development of the organic world has been carried to the highest pitch and therewith closed4 #ajag4 ,the highest organism is a quadri-elementary individual1 or a quadri-elementary mucus4 #ajah4 ,the four elements are1 however1 the universe4 ,the higher organism is consequently not merely a synotype of the planet1 but of it and the sun1 or of the whole universe4 ,the higher organism is an universe in miniature2 in the profoundest1 truest sense of the word is it small world1 microcosm4 #ajai4 ,the planetary1 terrestrial organisms are related to the solar or cosmic1 as the planet is to solar-system4 #ajbj4 ,the cosmic organism has besides the systems of nutrition1 digestion1 and respiration1 those of the ther in itself1 and thus of the gravity1 light and heat4 ,these are immaterial1 spiritual processes1 which produce no more matters4 #a4 ,process of ,gravity4 #ajba4 ,the organ of gravity is that of quiescence or rest1 the organ constituting the basis of the organic body1 or rather of the other ther-organs1 the centralization4 #ajbb4 ,it imparts form to the higher organism4 #ajbc4 ,the quiescent1 sustaining1 form-imparting system is the rigid earth-system1 and appears as the osseous system4 #b4 ,process of ,heat4 #ajbd4 ,as the heat is the motion of the ther1 so is there a system of motion in the organism4 #ajbe4 ,the system1 which has no other function to perform than to move1 is the muscular system4 #ajbf4 ,the osseous system is related to the muscular system as mass to motion1 as ,passive to ,active4 ,the former maintains the form1 the latter changes the same exactly like gravitation and heat4 #c4 ,process of ,light4 #ajbg4 ,the light-system must be related to all other spiritual systems and the three fundamental systems of the organism1 or to the simply organic systems as light is to matter1 being thus polarizing or dominant4 #ajbh4 ,now the domination of light consists in the sustenance of polarity in all matter4 ,the air itself is preserved in its duplicity only by light4 ,all the points of the organism are polarized by the light-system4 ,the light-system acts consequently through the whole body4 #ajbi4 ,the light-system is not capable of producing matter1 like the terrestrial systems4 ,this is self-evident4 #ajcj4 ,it does not polarize by effecting chemical changes4 ,if nevertheless these are present1 they are thus only results1 occurring while the terrestrial processes are set in action by the process of light4 #ajca4 ,light polarizes the ,material by mere fixation or discharging of poles1 and thus in a spiritual manner4 ,so also does the light-system of the organism4 ,it governs the organism not by mechanical power1 not by mass1 but by a spiritual breath or aura4 #ajcb4 ,the organic light-system is the ,animative of the organism4 ,in it the spirit exercises its power over the mucous mass4 ,it is the nervous system4 ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,nervous ,,system4 #ajcc4 ,the light-polarity can bring about no other tension in the mass than that which is peculiar to it1 and thus the galvanic tension1 whose highest and purest phenomenon is motion4 ,the light-system principally causes motion in the mass1 like as in ther4 #ajcd4 ,the nervous system has1 however1 a life also in itself1 or the internal light-polarity that is without any relation to the organic mass4 ,this action of the nerves is called sensibility1 and its phenomenon1 feeling or sensation4 ,the system of sensation is the nervous system as sun in itself2 in the motor-system it is as sun in a centre of planets4 #ajce4 ,the organism1 like the elementary nature1 is completed by four systems4 #a4 ,by the ,nutrient1 #b4 ,digestive1 #c4 ,respiring1 and #d4 ,motive1 unto which the nerves1 muscles1 and bones belong4 #ajcf4 ,it is impossible for more than these to be developed in an organism2 impossible1 for any thing else but what is in nature to originate therein2 impossible1 that any thing new be born by it4 ,everything in nature is only repetition of an ,antecedent or something that has gone before4 ,how could the organism be aught else1 how aught else than the focus of the four elements6 ,,second ,,kingdom4 ,,vegetable ,,kingdom4 #ajcg4 ,the ,vegetable ,kingdom is the individual development of the three planetary elements4 ,i4--,,phytogeny4 #ajch4 ,phytogeny represents the developmental history of individual plants1 or1 properly speaking1 the idea of the plant4 #ajci4 ,to the plant belong all the definitions that have been hitherto deduced4 ,it is an organism fettered to the earth1 is developed only apart from water1 only in the dark1 in the earth2 is associated with the metal1 with the carbon2 is a magnetic needle that has been attracted out of the earth into the air towards the light4 ,seeds germinate better if they have been protected beforehand from the access of light2 the radicle sinks1 indeed1 into the earth1 because it obeys the gravity1 the quiescence or rest2 but it is therein maintained1 because it is there humid and dark4 ,this is a reason that has not yet been connoted1 for the plant having been fettered to the earth4 ,there are indeed plants which also take root in water1 but the water is still darker than the air4 ,the root has1 in this respect1 completely the character of the metal1 that is a child of darkness4 #ajdj4 ,consisting for the greatest part of carbon1 plants are associated with the pit-coals1 through these pass over into the carbon of the clay-slate rocks2 finally1 through the black-lead unto the iron4 ,in like manner1 through their hydrogenous import1 they pass over into the inflammable asphalts1 and through these unto sulphur4 ,metal and sulphur have1 in the ,geogeny1 announced themselves as the precursors1 or harbingers1 of the vegetable world4 ,in this respect1 also1 can the vegetable kingdom be regarded as the mineral kingdom1 that1 having continued to grow1 has become alive4 ,the ore1 which becomes organic1 becomes carbon or plant4 ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,plant4 #ajda4 ,the character of each development consists in the separation of the ,indifferent or ,chaotic into its ideas or actions1 i4 e4 the development of every system is first completed1 when it is divided into as many substantial systems as it numbers factors1 or has processes in itself4 #ajdb4 ,although the plant is only essentially a planetary-organism1 it must yet be developed unto an ther- or light-organism2 and it therefore divides into planetary- and solar-or light-organs4 #ajdc4 ,the planetary organs are those that have the earth-1 water-1 and air-process above them1 and which are made known in the root1 the stalk and foliage1 which together constitute the vegetable stem4 #ajdd4 ,the light-organs begin to be stirring in the blossom1 and are divulged as sexual organs4 ,they are a repetition of the trunk4 #ajde4 ,the vegetable body divides therefore into two great principal parts1 which are synotypes of each other1 into trunk and blossom or inflorescence4 ,if we regard the vegetable trunk empirically2 it is then divisible into three stages1 whereof each consists of the organs of the three fundamental processes1 which seek to separate from each other4 a4 ,the first stage is that of the three tissues namely of the parenchyma1 medulla or pith2 of the cells1 ducts1 and trache or spiral vessels4 b4 ,the second stage is that of the shaft or main axis1 where these three have separated concentrically into cortex or bark1 liber1 and wood1 constituting the anatomical systems or sheaths4 c4 ,the third stage is that of the caudex proper or the trunk1 in which the three tissues have separated in the direction of the longitudinal axis into root1 stalk or stem1 and leaves1 these making up the organs proper or members4 ,the inflorescence divides into two stages1 into flower and fruit4 d4 ,the fourth stage or that of the flower repeats root1 stalk and leaves1 in seeds1 pistil and in the corolla4 e4 ,the fifth stage or that of the fruit is a further repetition of these three parts of the flower in the nut1 plum and berry1 unto which1 as synthesis1 comes the apple4 ,a4 ,vegetable-trunk4 #ajdf4 ,the vegetable-trunk is the development of the three fundamental processes up to their complete separation or substantial representation4 ,it divides itself into the tissues or the pith 7parenchyma71 into the shaft and into the trunk4 #ajdg4 ,the plant is a galvanic water-vesicle1 and as such earth1 water and air4 ,upon this vesicle it is1 however1 the earth-element that chiefly acts4 ,while the earth seeks to encroach upon the vesicle1 the magnetic process becomes active therein1 and it enters into opposition with the air4 ,the vesicle becomes now determined by two elements1 by the earth and by the air2 it stands itself in the category of the water4 #ajdh4 ,the plant may be characterized as organic water which is polarized upon two sides1 towards the earth and the air4 ,the vegetable vesicle must therefore maintain two poles4 ,while it would represent in itself the magnetic pole1 it endeavours to identify itself1 to obey gravity and merge into the darkness towards the mediate point of the earth2 but that it may remain a galvanic pole1 it becomes excited by the air1 strives to become a ,different and to attain the light4 #ajdi4 ,the vegetable vesicle receives two opposed extremities1 an identical earth-and a dyadic air-extremity2 and thus the plant must be regarded as the organism1 which manifests a constant endeavour1 upon the one side to become earth1 on the other air1 upon the one side identical metal1 on the other duplex air4 #ajej4 ,the plant is a radius1 that towards the centre becomes identical1 towards the periphery divides or starts asunder4 ,the plant is not therefore an entire circle or globe1 but only a section of such1 a cone1 whose apex has been turned towards the centre of the earth1 or would become earth-centre4 ,it can therefore have no middle-point4 ,it will on the contrary demonstrate that the animal is the totality of radii1 is consequently diameter1 and has therefore a centre of its own1 or is entire globe4 ,as the whole earth is surrounded by plants1 and all their roots turn towards the centre2 the whole vegetable kingdom only forms a sphere1 composed of infinitely numerous cones4 ,on the contrary every individual animal forms a sphere for itself alone1 and is therefore worth as much as all plants taken together4 ,animals are entire heavenly bodies1 satellites or moons1 which circulate independently about the earth2 all plants1 on the contrary1 taken together are only equivalent to one heavenly body4 ,an animal is an infinity of plants4 #ajea4 ,in so far as an organism strives unto identity or to gravity1 it seeks to produce the ,metallic1 the carbon1 the ,alkaline4 ,the indifferent and alkaline character appears in the earth-extremity of the plant4 ,mucus and acid bodies are evidenced for the most part in the root4 ,in so far as the organism strives unto duplicity1 it will produce the salt1 the acid and the ,inflammable4 ,acids and electric bodies are manifested in the air-extremity of the plant4 #ajeb4 ,the two vegetable extremities are accordingly related to each other as alkali and acid1 and as carbon and hydrogen4 ,in the air the water is divided into oxygen and hydrogen1 acids and oils2 in the earth it hardens into earths and carbon4 #ajec4 ,the earth-end or the alkaline extremity of the plant is the root2 the air-end1 or the acid and oily1 is the entire stem-fabric1 or body4 ,the plant has first of all two cardinal organs1 viz4 root and stem-fabric4 ,both together represent the water divided into earth- and air-mucus4 ,the root is the central extremity of the plant1 and is therefore prolonged or runs out into magnetic points2 the stem-fabric is the peripheric and therefore expands into branches and electric surfaces4 #ajed4 ,but besides the air1 the light also operates upon the plant and stimulates it to grow aloft and produce a light-organ4 ,this light-organ can thus originate only upon the apex or summit4 ,it is the flower4 ,the flower can therefore stand nowhere else than on the summit or end of the plant4 ,the light however acts upon many points of the upper surface of the vegetable trunk and elongates the same4 ,one plant can therefore support numerous flowers1 but all of these must stand upon an extremity4 ,wherever therefore a flower may happen to stand1 that spot must be regarded as a summit or end4 ,there is thus also1 according to the physiological view of the matter1 a light-organ in the plant1 which is its animal pre-affection4 ,the chief antagonism in the plant is in this respect therefore between trunk and inflorescence the former is related to the latter as plant to animal4 ,were the plant to attain unto animal functions2 they could thus only take place in the flower4 ,i4 ,tissues4 #ajee4 ,the tissues are the unseparated organs of the three fundamental processes1 the earth-1 water-1 and air-process4 #a4 ,,water-,,organ1 ,,cellular ,,tissue4 #ajef4 ,if a mucus-vesicle lie upon the ground1 it thus continues indifferent upon the lower or dark side1 and is only affected by the gravity and the water2 the upper side1 on the contrary1 by the differencing air and light4 ,it is consequently prolonged into the earth and into the air4 ,it must pass over from the round into a linear form4 ,the elongation is not a mere protraction of the vesicle1 but an apposition of new vesicles4 ,for it happens through polarization1 and thus by infinite repetition of the primary vesicle4 ,the plant is thus a body of infinitely numerous vesicles4 #ajeg4 ,in so far as the plant is a multiplication of the primary vesicle1 it consists of ,cellular tissue4 ,the anatomy of plants informs us1 that there is nothing originally in the plant but cellular tissue1 and that other forms first emerge or make their appearance in the sequel4 #ajeh4 ,the cellular tissue indicates the ,indifferent in the plant1 for it is only an accumulation of the indifferent primary vesicles4 ,in so far as the plant consists thereof1 is it indifference--water-plant4 #ajei4 ,the cellular tissue is only oxydized1 desiccated mucus4 ,chemistry has proved1 that the wood is only oxydized mucus4 #ajfj4 ,the cellular tissue being the water organized and saturated with earth1 or the organized mucus1 has consequently the chemical function in itself of solution1 homogeneous production1 or formation of mucus4 ,as therefore the plant originates1 so does it enlarge4 ,it originates as vesicle1 and its growth is a constant origination of vesicles2 from the ,indifferent1 which is the water4 ,the sap contained in the cells consists of water and starch-granules1 which constantly circulate therein in a circle4 #ajfa4 ,the fundamental form of the cells is the rhomboidal-dodecahedron 7,kieser's ,phytotomie72 for around a globe only #f others of equal size can be placed1 whereby its #f lateral surfaces are pressed in1 which during the induration impart to it the form of a six-sided column4 ,above and below these #g globes only #c others admit of being placed1 whereby #c point-converging surfaces originate1 which thus complete the middle globe as rhomboidal-dodecahedron4 #b4 ,,earth-,,organ1 ,,vascular ,,tissue4 #ajfb4 ,so long as the vesicles or cells lie as globes upon each other1 triangular interspaces are found between them1 which stand in conjunction with each other on all sides4 ,as water is found in these interspaces1 it is plain that they do not entirely disappear with the transformation of the cells into rhomboidal-dodecahedra4 ,these spaces are called intercellular passages or sap-tubes1 ,vessels4 ,in many plants1 such as those which contain a milky juice1 particular sap-tubes run through a part of these intercellular passages1 and are probably formed by condensation of the sap4 ,both are therefore in a physiological respect of one kind4 ,at bottom also the blood-vessels of animals are naught else but passages in felted cellular tissue4 #ajfc4 ,as the principal polarity of plants has been directed upwards1 and the cells therefore been protracted lengthwise2 so also the chief direction of the vessels is parallel with the axis of the plant4 #ajfd4 ,the vegetable sap ascends in these tubes1 which must be therefore viewed indeed as constituting the earth-or nutritive organ4 #c4 ,,air-,,organ1 ,,tracheal ,,tissue4 #ajfe4 ,the plant is not merely earth-and water-organism1 but also air-organism2 and there must therefore be developed in it an anatomical system1 which coincides with the process of air4 #ajff4 ,besides the cells and tubes naught else is found in vegetable tissue but spiral vessels2 what are called scalariform tubes1 annular vessels1 dotted ducts1 vermiform or strangulated vessels1 are no peculiar formations in themselves1 but only different conditions of the spiral vessels4 #ajfg4 ,the spiral vessels are the air-system of the plant1 and therefore rightly deserve the name of ,trache4 ,they exhibit the structure of the air-tubes in insects1 and contain1 according to the most authentic observations1 air1 and not sap1 except in the period of adolescence1 as occurs in the animal kingdom4 #ajfh4 ,the spiral vessels consist of one or several filaments spirally contorted1 and held together by a delicate tubular-shaped membrane4 #ajfi4 ,they must be regarded as elongated cells1 upon whose parietes the starch-granules have been placed in serial juxtaposition with each other1 so as to form spirally-twisted filaments1 as is to be plainly seen in many cells and also in ,conferv4 ,this spiral condition originates without doubt from the spiral-shaped motion of the granules in cell-sap4 #ajgj4 ,the ultimate cause of this spiral motion1 as well as the position of the parts1 appears to reside in the rotation of the sun4 #ajga4 ,upon this also depends probably the winding of the stem of plants1 with the spiral-shaped position of the leaves and branches1 as probably even the contortions of the snail's shell and of the hairs upon the crown of the head4 #ajgb4 ,the production of the spiral form originates from the antagonism of the light with the matter4 ,the number of spiral vessels is therefore less in those parts that are beneath1 than in those above1 the earth1 or less in the root than the stem4 ,the more indeed an organ has been exposed to the air1 by so much the more do the spiral vessels preponderate1 as e4 g4 in the leaves4 #ajgc4 ,an organ must necessarily be nobler in character1 the more spiral vessels it contains4 ,the plant also that1 with more spiral vessels1 exhibits them particularly arranged1 must take a higher rank4 ,the lowest plants1 as the mushrooms1 lichens and mosses1 consist therefore entirely of cellular tissue2 in the ferns therefore only a single bundle of spiral vessels makes its appearance4 ,when plants become nobler1 several fasciculi of spiral vessels originate2 and in tracing this feature we ascend from the ferns to the grasses and lilies1 up to the lower ,dicotyledons4 ,in the higher ,dicotyledons the packets of the trache increase for the first time to such a degree1 that they form a closed circle1 the fibrous ring or zone of wood4 #ajgd4 ,the trache extend from one end of the plant to the other2 many are wont to terminate only in nodes1 while these are to be regarded as arrested branches4 ,the air can therefore penetrate through the spiral vessels from the leaves even to the apices of the roots4 ,,ii4 ,anatomical ,systems--,sheaths4 #ajge4 ,these originate by vagination and separation of the tissues in the transverse direction1 and prevail throughout the whole plant4 ,the idea of the whole vegetable structure is extremely simple4 ,originally the plant is a vesicle in water1 or cellular tissue in the seed2 root and stalk also consist in their main bulk or proportion of cellular tissue1 which is called parenchyma4 ,therein the three planetary processes reside inclosed4 ,such a plant is still in the recognizable state of the primary organism4 ,in the sequel1 however1 through the influence of light1 the polarity between light and darkness issues forth in the parenchyma1 the cellular tissue obtains a linear direction1 and becomes elongated into spiral vessels4 ,the spiral vessels form one or several fasciculi1 which emerge out of the parenchyma1 by which they1 and each packet individually1 are circularly surrounded4 ,the cellular tissue is as it were the soil1 in which the fasciculi of spiral vessels are rooted as proprietary plants and out of which they grow4 #ajgf4 ,the effort of the three vegetable processes1 to separate their organs from1 and perfect them independently of1 each other1 is in incessant operation1 both from without inwards1 as well as from above downwards1 because in both cases is light there1 darkness here1 dryness there1 humidity here4 ,the cellular tissue1 that has finally become independent in the transverse direction or from without inwards1 is called bark1 the self-substantial tubular tissue is called liber1 the non-dependent tracheal tissue1 wood4 #a4 ,,tracheal-,,system1 ,,wood4 #ajgg4 ,with increased influence of light the tracheal fasciculi also increase1 and form a circle of columns in the parenchyma around the centre of the plant4 ,between the column1 externally and internally to the same1 is the parenchyma4 ,the more1 however1 the columns accumulate1 by so much the more does it diminish1 and whereas the columns previously stood singly in the parenchyma1 the appearance is now as if narrow plates only of parenchyma traversed between the columns from without inwards4 ,finally the columns predominate to such an extent and approximate so closely1 that the plates almost disappear4 ,they are now called insertions of cellular tissue1 or medullary rays4 ,as the trache convey air1 and have thus been more exposed to the process of oxydation1 they generally harden sooner than in other parts4 #ajgh4 ,around the fasciculi of spiral vessels the cellular tissue also strives to elongate1 and begins at the same time to harden4 ,such extended cells1 in which the light has almost disappeared1 are called fibres4 ,indurated trache and fibres are called ,wood4 ,the wood is always in the vicinity of the spiral vessels4 ,it is a production synchronous with the latter4 #ajgi4 ,only1 where spiral vessels are1 can genuine wood originate2 but it is not everywhere1 where they are found1 that woody fibres must be also present1 although the cells extend around all bundles of spiral vessels4 ,if the degree of oxydation of the cells be slight1 they do not harden1 but continue herbaceous in texture4 ,the parenchyma has now been separated by a circle of fibrous columns into an external and internal1 or peripheric and central4 ,the central parenchyma becomes void of sap and spongy1 because the plant imbibing its nutriment on the surface1 and the air and the light operating thereupon1 the processes conduct it thither4 ,this withered parenchyma is called pith1 which in accordance with its origin merits no physiological consideration1 nor is worthy and susceptible of any philosophical construction4 #b4 ,,tubular ,,system1 ,,liber4 #ajhj4 ,as the plant draws in its nourishment from without1 so is the main proportion of the sap necessarily present in the periphery of the spiral vessels4 ,the elongated cells in the neighbourhood of the spiral vessels1 and which principally contain sap1 are called ,liber4 #ajha4 ,liber is necessarily present around every packet of spiral vessels1 and thus with fasciculi everywhere dispersed throughout the stem4 ,the liber is only situated beneath the bark1 when the number of the spiro-vascular fasciculi is so great1 that they form a closed circle in the parenchyma2 it is only beneath the bark1 in so far as it accompanies the spiral vessels1 but can only surround the latter from without4 ,as it is only the woody plants that have been usually examined1 the false idea has thus originated of the liber having1 as it were from its very essence1 to be beneath the bark4 #ajhb4 ,in the liber is the main seat of vegetable activity4 ,for it is soft cellular tissue with open intercellular passages1 wherein the sap can move4 #ajhc4 ,now as every fascicle of spiral fibres is surrounded by liber1 such a fascicle must be regarded as a whole plant4 ,a plant consists accordingly of as many plants1 as it has or can have tracheal fasciculi4 ,every plant is a trunk of infinitely numerous plants2 for every one can contain infinitely numerous tracheal fascicles4 ,one plant is a whole vegetable world4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaj4 #ajfe47 #c4 ,,cellular-,,system1 ,,bark4 #ajhd4 ,no spiral vessels lie upon the surface of the plant1 for where they originate1 there the liber forms around them1 and this is consequently the ,external4 ,the surface of plants is therefore necessarily environed by liber1 notwithstanding the greater influence of the light4 ,the cellular tissue upon the surface of plants is1 however1 less rich in sap than the liber around the tracheal fasciculi1 because it is too rapidly evaporated and dried up by the immediate contact of the air1 light and heat4 ,the surface of the plant is too strongly oxydized by the air1 and therefore the cells harden4 ,the sap also decomposes too rapidly and becomes rigid1 so that an irregular formation only can proceed from it4 ,the external1 more inactive1 or irregularly wood-converted layer of cells1 is the ,bark4 #ajhe4 ,the plant has thus likewise three anatomical systems1 which are nothing new1 but only the repetition or rather vagination of the three tissues2 alburnum and cambium are only transitional1 not special formations4 ,,iii4 ,organs of the ,vegetable ,trunk4--,members4 #ajhf4 ,organs are separated parts of the body1 and combinations of single tissues and systems1 and are consequently a ,whole in ,singulars4 ,there are1 however1 no uniform combinations2 but one or the other system asserts its preponderance and imparts the character4 #ajhg4 ,in conformity with the developmental progress of the whole of nature1 namely1 that of always separating further its chaotically mingled parts1 individualizing and yet forming them with the others into a whole1 vegetation cannot continue stationary with the partition into bark1 liber and wood1 seeing that they are always circumscribed and form a body in common2 but they must also sever this body itself into as many members as it has constituent parts4 ,this severance makes its appearance in the longitudinal axis1 because in this direction the antagonisms of air and light with water and earth are more powerful4 #ajhh4 ,through the separation of the vegetable trunk three members only can originate2 one with the preponderance of cells or of bark1 one with that of vessels or of liber1 and one with that of the trache or of wood4 ,the cellular tissue has been posited as vegetable trunk in the root1 the vascular tissue as a special member is stalk1 the tracheal tissue leaf4 ,in this manner the trunk of the plant divides into three great divisions2 more are not possible4 #ajhi4 ,now the root is the perfected water-organ1 because it is always fixed in water2 the leaf is the perfected air-organ1 because it moves in the air2 the stalk is the perfected earth-organ1 because it removes the mass out of water and air4 ,root is a heap of cells2 leaf a plane of trache2 stalk a bundle of vessels4 #a4 ,,water-,,organ--,,root4 #ajij4 ,by the two polar systems1 the earth-and air-system1 the cellular and tracheal system1 is the development of the plant confirmed4 ,thereby is it in the next place a twofold organism4 ,by the first system it has been turned towards the planet and immersed in earth and water1 by the second it has been turned towards the sun and immersed in the air4 ,the root and the fabric of the stem1 or root and stem simply1 have now obtained their truest significance4 ,each is the whole plant1 each the whole organism2 in the root this is only in its original purity1 but in the stem it is upon a higher stage4 ,root is stem in water and earth2 stem is root in air and light4 #ajia4 ,the root has accordingly more cellular tissue1 fewer trache2 in the stem this condition is reversed4 ,the root resembles young plants1 or such as still rank upon a lower stage1 and have but few columns of trache4 ,the root has therefore no marrow or pith4 ,it may be said that it should have no pith1 because it is usually thinner than the stem and richer in sap2 but it has only the latter character1 from consisting for the most part merely of cellular tissue4 ,root is the vegetable trunk with preponderating cellular tissue4 ,in consequence of the antagonism between root and stem1 wherein even their difference consists1 the one strives to produce the ,chemical1 the watery earth or the mucus1 but the other the ,electrical1 the combustible air-bodies4 #ajib4 ,the root1 as producing mucus or infusoria1 has therefore in itself the organic process of putrefaction1 in so far as the origin of mucus and infusoria is a result of the putridity4 ,it corresponds to imbibition and digestion4 ,to this is referrible the mouldy1 and as it were fetid1 condition of the root4 ,through the process of decomposition1 which it evokes in its neighbourhood1 it kills its nutriment1 takes possession of it1 and thus originates completely1 as does every first organism1 out of putrefaction1 out of infusoria4 ,to the essence of the root belong therefore not merely food1 but the favouring relations of decomposition1 as earth and water1 whereby the access of the air1 as necessary to every galvanism1 has not been suppressed4 #ajic4 ,the earth is not merely a mechanical station for the plant1 in order to give it the perpendicular direction1 but it is necessary for polar excitation1 whereby the decomposition is imparted4 ,a plant placed upright in pure water1 although with the roots1 necessarily perishes4 ,darkness is at the same time the lurking-place of putrefaction1 as being that which only plays its part in localities where the polarizing and dissevering influence of light is wanting4 #ajid4 ,the root always passes perpendicular into the earth1 on account of its greater weight due to repletion with water4 ,in all zones therefore the root stands perpendicular to the horizon1 and thus the whole plant1 although this is somewhat inclined towards the sun4 #ajie4 ,the developmental stages of the root pass probably parallel to the parts of the vegetable stem4 a4 ,in respect to the tissue1 there are thus cellular roots1 as is probably the case in the fungi1 and with the fibrils of all roots2 tubular or vascular roots as in the mosses1 tracheal roots in the rest4 b4 ,in respect to the systems the bulbs are the cortical or bark-roots2 the tubers the liber-roots2 the fibres the woody-roots4 c4 ,in respect to the members of the trunk1 the turnip is perhaps the genuine root1 the tap-root the stalk-root1 the so-called aerial roots1 the leaf-roots4 #b4 ,,earth-,,organ4--,,stalk4 #ajif4 ,the stalk is the idea of the whole plant1 posited under the import of the organ of nutrition1 of the vessels4 ,the structure of the stalk is therefore accordant with that of the root4 ,the anatomical systems are alike in both1 bark1 liber and trache being in the same envelope4 #ajig4 ,in the stalk1 however1 the opposition of tissues and systems emerges more strongly1 and therefore they all become individualized also to a higher degree4 ,the spiral vessels become more freed from the cellular tissue2 the bark is more distinctly divided from the liber2 this again from the wood1 and in its centre the cellular tissue dries up into pith4 ,as1 however1 the stalk is the first product of the light-influence1 the tracheal system cannot attain as yet entire freedom4 ,the cells have nevertheless been extended1 and the intercellular passages are formed into regular tubes4 ,the ,stalk is the trunk of the plant with a preponderating system of tubes4 #ajih4 ,this separation of the tissues and systems1 with the endeavour upon the part of each to become individually perfect and isolated from the other1 is effected by the air and the light4 ,as root imbibes the mucous or slimy water1 and sustains the chemical process in the plant1 so does the stalk set the water in motion1 since it exposes it to the air and light1 whereby the chemical earth-process becomes separated into different saps and elemental bodies4 #ajii4 ,through the influence of the air1 light and heat upon the stalk1 as well as by its antagonism with the root1 its elongation is determined4 ,the greater amount of energy of the aerial polarity is in the higher regions2 it is thus more excited by these than by the lower1 and the bud being lighter grows more rapidly in the upper parts1 and obtains an elongated form4 ,the excitation is stronger also upon the side exposed to the light4 ,it grows also more strongly in that direction1 and thus the stalk stands indeed upwards1 but somewhat inclined from the perpendicular line towards the sun4 #aajj4 ,the perpendicular direction of the stalk is1 however1 as mechanically determined by gravity as the root4 ,paradoxical as this assertion may appear1 it is still correct2 for if we think of a moist globe1 which is superiorly affected by air1 light and heat1 the upper aqueous or mucous parts are thus lighter1 and necessarily ascend upwards through the pressure of the heavy or unheated parts1 just as the air-bubbles in beer ascend to the surface4 ,the light it is true can draw them somewhat sideways1 chiefly because this side is more heated1 more decomposed1 and also undergoes a greater amount of evaporation2 but the proper cause invariably resides in the ascent of the light parts between the heavy or immoveable4 ,the stalk therefore grows upwards also in the darkness1 and then indeed quite perpendicularly1 because it has not been diverted by light4 ,were the light merely the ,dirigent1 it could not be comprehended1 why towards the poles trees still stand tolerably perpendicular1 and do not lie completely upon the earth4 ,were1 however1 the air that which determines the direction1 plants could not thus have been inclined towards the sun1 nor could we comprehend why the flowers and also the leaves obey the sun's course4 ,finally1 were neither air nor light the imparters of direction1 then the plant could shoot in no other direction than quite perpendicularly upwards1 as is done too for the most part by the fungi4 #aaja4 ,the winding of the stalk appears to originate from the rotation of the sun4 ,the next cause is probably the greater heating and decomposition that occurs upon one side4 ,in accordance with this assumption the plants upon the northern hemisphere of the earth must wind spirally upwards from left to right1 or from morning towards evening1 if our gaze be directed towards the meridian1 but inversely upon the southern hemisphere4 ,but this is not the case4 ,may we therefore conjecture that plants1 twisted contrary to rule1 have been transported from their native soil8 #aajb4 ,the kinds of stalk follow also1 without doubt1 the direction of developmental stages of the vegetable trunk4 ,there are therefore cellular stalks in the fungi1 vascular stalks in the mosses1 tracheal stalks in the ferns4 ,a bark-stalk is the culm1 a liber-stalk the scape1 a wood-stalk probably the trunk of a palm4 ,a root-stalk is the rhizoma1 a perfect-stalk the stem1 a leaf-stalk being probably the shrub4 ,ramification4 #aajc4 ,the differencing1 severing character of air and light must never be lost from our thoughts1 nor also that at a height this character manifests itself more powerfully than on the surface of the earth1 where the stem abandons its androgynous position in relation to the root4 ,through the constant process of differencing the tracheal fascicles of the plant may finally become so independent that they no longer stand in need of the others1 and do not merely represent a particular plant1 but are perfected also as such4 #aajd4 ,this dispersion of the tracheal fasciculi will not easily take place upon the earth's surface1 on account of its lesser degree of aerial polarity1 but at a certain height4 ,if several stalks emerge from the root1 the bush or shrub originates1 but if only one1 the tree4 ,if the subdivision first commence at a certain distance from the earth1 then do ,branches originate4 #aaje4 ,the formation of branches demonstrates in part a great store of tracheal fasciculi1 and part by an easy differential capacity in the plant4 ,both come to the same thing4 #aajf4 ,plants devoid of branches are similar or analogous to roots4 #aajg4 ,the branches again ramify from the same cause by which the stem ramifies4 ,a branch or twig must be regarded as an entire fascicle of trache1 which forms superiorly a closed vesicle or bud1 that raises the bark1 bursts it open into scales and then opens itself4 ,the opening of the external tracheal tubes or vesicle becomes a leaf2 a twig can therefore occupy no other position than in the sheath or angle of a leaf4 ,every succeeding leaf upon the twig is in the same manner a ruptured vesicle of trache4 ,as many leaves therefore originate as there are tracheal zones present4 #aajh4 ,every branch is an entire plant4 ,all the tissues and systems are found in it4 ,trache free themselves from the stalk1 pass towards the circumference1 break through the bark and carry with them the liber1 whose external layer again becomes bark4 ,the branch is only an elongated bud4 ,the stalk is the soil or the root of the branches4 ,branches1 that have been cut off and stuck in the earth1 grow4 ,there is nothing contradictory1 in the tracheal fascicles of the branch growing downwards into the stalk4 ,a branched tree is a complete wood4 #aaji4 ,from the same cause1 or by the influence of water on different situations in the earth1 the root has branches4 ,but as this influence is weaker than that of air and light1 so the number1 density1 and length of the roots is less4 #aaaj4 ,the polarization of the tracheal fascicles into branches takes place all around the stalk in one situation4 ,the influence is equal upon all sides4 ,the idea of the formation of branches is the star4 ,all branches have a radiate position around the stalk--all form a verticillum or whorl4 #aaaa4 ,every other position of branches is only an alteration of the verticillate arrangement4 #aaab4 ,in most plants the arrangement of the branches admits of being reduced to the spiral line4 ,this position is only the verticil drawn out4 #aaac4 ,this drawing out takes place through the continued growth of the stalk1 in which the bundles of trache1 doubtless by the varied operation of light1 develop themselves in order1 become individualized1 and issue from the stalk as branches4 #aaad4 ,the crucial position of the branches depends upon the same growth of the stalk1 but one in which transverse polarities are present4 ,the irregular or dispersed position is most probably the last completion of the spiriform4 #aaae4 ,the spiriform arrangement stands in relation with the formation of the trache4 #aaaf4 ,the branches of the root observe no such regularity1 partly on account of weaker polarity1 partly on account of the obstacles placed in their way1 at one time by the impenetrable earth1 at another by want of water4 #aaag4 ,the more the stem is differenced1 so much the higher is it developed4 ,thus the richer in number the branches1 by so much the more perfect is the stem4 ,the stelliform branches belong to the first development4 ,the plants1 that have this arrangement1 stand lower in the scale4 ,to this the crucial appears to succeed1 as a mediate position between the former and that which follows4 ,the spiriform ranks higher4 ,in it the stem is manifestly differenced more multilaterally4 ,the dispersed arrangement appears to be the highest1 because in it the greatest freedom prevails1 because the poles have acted on every part of the plant1 because they are everywhere in the air and in light4 ,plants with dispersed branches are organized air2 without branches they are organized water as well as earth4 ,those plants only which have circles of trache or rings of wood1 as e4 g4 the ,dicotyledons1 ramify2 these alone are1 properly speaking1 a conjunction by growth of many plants1 and one that is truly persistent1 or that bears fruit several times4 ,the ,monocotyledons being devoid of woody rings1 do not1 or but very rarely1 ramify4 ,most of them therefore die off after they have once produced fruit4 ,the ramification is a multiplication of the plant1 in which the buds continue to stand upon the old stem4 ,formation of ,nodes4 #aaah4 ,the formation of nodes1 as in the grasses1 is an attempt at differentialization1 that has not1 however1 attained to perfection4 ,a node is a branch-whorl which has continued to adhere to the stalk4 ,therefore the trache also terminate in the circumference of the node4 #aaai4 ,the formation of nodes consequently ranks directly under the stelliform formation of branches4 ,taken in a strict sense the formation of nodes occurs only in plants with sheathing leaves or in ,monocotyledons4 #c4 ,,air-,,organ1 ,,foliage4 #aabj4 ,if in the progressive separation of the tissues the trache finally obtain the preponderance1 so that they issue forth free from the envelope of cellular tissue1 the leaves1 or ,foliage1 then originate4 #aaba4 ,the ribs of the leaf are the fascicles of trache that have become free1 and are still only connected together laterally by a thin layer of cellular tissue4 #aabb4 ,the leaves can be regarded as gigantic and unrolled spiral vessels1 and these again as microscopic and involuted leaves4 #aabc4 ,as through the root the water-process enters the plant1 and through the stalk the earth-process1 so does the air-process through the leaves4 #aabd4 ,it is probably the stomata through which the air is conducted into the trache2 the connexion1 however1 has not yet been proved4 ,gemm or ,buds4 #aabe4 ,with the formation of branches there is at the same time a diminution of the cellular tissue1 and an increase of the trache4 ,entirely new spiral vessels commence in the branches1 and are not continued or prolonged into the stalk4 ,the further indeed the extent of the ramification1 by so much less is the quantity of cellular tissue1 and by so much greater the number of the trache4 ,it comes at last to this1 that the tracheal fascicles1 which were from all sides surrounded by dense cellular tissue1 are only then loosely connected by a thin layer of such substance4 ,this ramuscule is still therefore only a hollow stalk1 consisting of fascicles of trache disposed in circles1 and so united by a thin cellular integument or membrane1 that the whole forms a vesicle4 #aabf4 ,this vesicle is a ,bud4 ,a bud is at bottom none other than the end of a twig that has become hollow4 #aabg4 ,several buds are usually involved in each other1 i4 e4 many vesicles of tracheal rings have been encased in each other4 ,they issue gradually forth and become shoots or buds4 ,buds are bulbs at the end of the branches4 ,leaves4 #aabh4 ,if the bud or the external vesicle ruptures1 while the cellular substance becomes consumed at the apex or between two or more tracheal fascicles1 it is then manifested as a leaf or ,leaves4 #aabi4 ,then the second vesicle grows forth1 becomes petiolated1 ruptures and becomes leaf or leaves4 ,in this manner a twig is formed1 surrounded in a spiral manner by leaves4 #aacj4 ,the younger leaves have been originally inclosed in the older1 as in their sheaths4 #aaca4 ,every perfect leaf1 i4 e4 every leaf-vesicle1 must be regarded as the terminal extremity of an entire twig1 from or out of the angle of which a new twig grows forth1 that again as a bud ruptures1 and from which again a twig grows forth4 #aacb4 ,all leaves therefore range directly opposite to each other4 ,a branch with many leaves is a system of branches1 which grow out of each other1 like the articular pieces of the grass-culm or straw4 #aacc4 ,a leaf is a whole plant with all its tissues and systems2 with cells1 ducts1 trache2 bark1 liber1 wood1 stalk and branches4 ,the leaf is a tree of special form1 a tree1 whose branches or tracheal fascicles all lie in one plane and are held together by parenchyma4 ,it is the bodily expression of the position of the tracheal circle in the stem1 only ruptured and to the greatest degree attenuated4 #aacd4 ,in the division of the ribs of the leaf the internal arrangement of the woody fasciculi in the stem has been placed before our eyes1 as by the scalpel of an anatomist4 #aace4 ,from the arrangement of the ribs of the leaf the structure of the whole plant can be recognized and its character determined4 ,the leaf is the table of contents or index of the stem4 #aacf4 ,plants1 which have no trache1 have also no leaf-ribs--,mosses4 #aacg4 ,plants1 which have only isolated or non-ramifying fascicles of trache1 have parallel leaf-ribs that do not ramify--,monocotyledons4 #aach4 ,plants1 which have a circle of trache1 or rings of wood1 have leaves with ramified ribs--reticular leaves or true foliage--,dicotyledons4 #aaci4 ,the stronger indeed the ramification of the leaf-ribs1 by so much the higher is the perfection of the leaf4 ,the lowest leaf is that devoid of ribs1 the higher that with parallel ribs1 the highest being the reticular-veined leaf4 #aadj4 ,the number and forms of the leaves that proceed from a bud1 depend partly upon the number of tracheal fascicles1 which pass out of the ramule into the leaf1 partly upon the form of the leaf-bud4 #aada4 ,if the bud be simply ruptured at its apex or only between two fascicles of trache1 there then originates the spathiform leaf4 #aadb4 ,if the cellular substance between several tracheal fascicles be consumed by the severing action of light and by the air1 then the bud divides into several leaves4 #aadc4 ,the fundamental form of the leaf is the oviform1 because the bud is to be thought of as being round4 ,through the elongation or compression of the bud1 lanciform1 cordiform leaves1 c4 originate4 ,besides it appears1 that the leaf-buds1 at least those of the reticular-veined leaves1 burst in a circinate manner1 like the ferns1 and unroll themselves4 ,therefore the leaves are unilateral and clasp the stem inferiorly2 or the petiole displays its spathiform origin4 ,in this case the leaf is not a part of a hollow globe1 but the entire globe1 that has ruptured in the transverse direction at the extremity of the petiole4 ,such is the case at least in the demispathiform leaves of the ,umbelliferous plants4 #aadd4 ,the primary position of the leaves like that of the branches is thus verticillate1 yet always1 however1 under the idea of one being encased within the other4 ,the leaves are here only the ultimate branches4 #aade4 ,if the leaves upon the ramules issue from each other1 then this happens in the same manner as with the branches4 #aadf4 ,the verticillate position of the leaves is therefore the lowest1 next succeeds the crucial1 then the spiriform1 and lastly the scattered4 #aadg4 ,the spathose leaves are only to be regarded as a single bud1 and therefore differ from the whorl1 in so far as we regard this as the development of several leaves1 that have not1 however1 been extruded from each other4 #aadh4 ,divided leaves originate through a higher operation of light4 ,in them the formation of ribs preponderates1 and therefore they rank higher than the undivided4 #aadi4 ,from this cause the pinnate leaves are the highest4 #aaej4 ,from the same cause the radical must be worse developed than the ramular leaves4 ,they are usually non-pinnated1 undivided1 because they have more cellular substance in their composition than the upper leaves4 ,in the leaf-system1 consequently1 the whole idea of the plant has been recontained2 on the earth resides the chemical character1 as is evidenced by cellular1 dense and misshapen leaves2 above in the air1 on the contrary1 the leaves are more delicate and are divided--indicating an electric character4 #aaea4 ,the division and pinnation of leaves can only progress according to the odd numbers1 #c1 #e1 #g1 because the midrib determines the odd leaflet4 #aaeb4 ,leaflets occurring in pairs1 or equally pinnated1 are arrests of development4 #aaec4 ,the even number or the symmetrical form is unnatural in the vegetable kingdom4 #aaed4 ,the leaves are1 like the young bark1 and thus the whole trunk of the plant1 green1 because the vegetable kingdom represents the lower totality of the earth1 the planet1 whose synthesis is the water4 #aaee4 ,from the same cause1 the chief colour of the animal kingdom is red1 the colour of fire4 ,thus1 plant is to animal1 as green is to red4 #aaef4 ,the division of leaves passes also parallel to the stages of rank in plants4 ,cellular leaves are the scales of mosses and ferns2 vascular leaves1 the long riband-like leaves of ,monocotyledons2 tracheal leaves the reticular leaf of ,dicotyledons4 ,the cortical leaf is the sheath2 the liber leaf is probably the fat leaf2 the wood leaf the acicular leaf4 ,the radical leaf is the undivided reticular leaf2 the stalk-leaf the free or ragged reticular leaf2 the perfect leaf the pinnate4 ,the bracteal leaves repeat all forms in the thyrsus1 since they are floral leaves4 #aaeg4 ,the accessory leaves or stipules are none other than the remnant of the sheath-formation1 out of which all the leaves1 and therefore the wings of the leaf-petioles or phyllodia1 have issued forth4 #aaeh4 ,the thyrsus has also its series of leaves2 the scale-like or radical leaf is involucre and bractea2 the vascular or spathe-leaf is calyx2 the tracheal or reticular leaf is corolla4 #aaei4 ,the vegetable trunk1 namely1 root1 stalk1 and leaf1 is a perfect organism1 which can exercise all the functions which belong to its individual life4 ,if it therefore produces anything1 that can be nothing new1 but only itself repeated4 ,this repetition of itself is called propagation4 ,the organs of propagation are thus none other than a repetition of the organs of the vegetable trunk4 ,the plant thereby steps forth out of its individuality into the province of the genus4 ,b4 ther ,organs4 ,,thyrsus ,,or ,,flower4 #aafj4 ,hitherto we have regarded the plant as simply a planetary organism1 namely1 as a trunk with water-1 earth-1 and air-organ4 ,but the primary vesicle does not lie wholly in the dark1 but is illuminated upon its apex by the sun4 ,every operation1 however1 produces its like2 thus in the plant a light-organ must also be developed4 ,as the light evokes heat in the ther1 so also does it evoke a heat-organ in the plant4 ,as the heavenly bodies corevolve in ther by means of light and motion1 or the gravitation condenses the ther into matter1 so also must an organ of gravity originate also in the plant4 ,these organs are not1 however1 predominant in the plant1 because it is essentially planet or vegetable trunk4 ,they can be therefore nothing else than the parts of the trunk itself with the properties of the ther or fire4 ,they are thus a repetition of the trunk1 wherein1 in place of the material processes of growth1 those of the light1 heat1 and gravity occur4 ,the light-organ excites the heat-organ by polarization unto motion and thereby originates the organ of gravity4 #aafa4 ,the process in which through polar tension the trunk has been reproduced1 as the ,whole in miniature1 is called sexual process4 ,the ther-organs are thus sexual organs4 ,these sexual organs can only be a leaf-formation1 because the last development of the stem is the leaf4 ,the leaf-formations which1 by means of polar tension1 reproduce the trunk1 are the ,flower4 ,the light-organ is the corolla4 ,the heat-organ is the pistil4 ,the organ of gravity the seed4 ,the pollen upon the stigma sets the pistil in a state of tension with the trunk1 whereby the sap1 out of which the seed attains to perfection1 ascends4 ,without this tension the pistil would not have had strength sufficient to perfect the seed4 ,it would wither ere the latter had obtained sufficient nourishment4 #aafb4 ,the development of the flower takes place through differentialization1 individualization1 or complete separation of the trunk-organs4 ,the trunk indeed summons up all power in the leaves1 to separate the three vegetable tissues and represent each as a particular organ2 only in this formation it does not wholly succeed2 for in a leaf the ribs or tracheal fascicles are still held together by cellular tissue4 ,in the first place with the perfect separation of the tissues or1 properly speaking1 with the ex-organization of each of them unto an independent ,whole1 the limit of the vegetation is attained and the growth completed4 ,this was the course of the whole of nature2 in every system she has proceeded to individual consummation of the factors1 to their liberation from chaos2 and the developments of the systems were concluded1 so soon as all factors became independent1 or so soon as every factor had itself become an entire nature4 ,such was the case in the genesis of elements1 and such in the metamorphosis of the earth-element into earths1 salts1 ,inflammables1 metals4 #aafc4 ,this complete severance and individualization can no longer be effected by the air1 but must be achieved by the light4 ,the air is itself not the wholly differencing element1 but derives its potency only from the light4 ,all ultimate separation and individualization is reserved for the light4 #aafd4 ,root and stem are the water-and earth-plant1 the leaf is the air-plant1 the flower is the light-or rather fire-plant4 #aafe4 ,in the flower the problem has been solved1 of producing an entire plant simply by the light without earth1 water1 and air1 or as it were in a merely spiritual manner4 #aaff4 ,the plant is a flower that has been posited under three ideas1 under the idea of earth1 water1 and air4 ,as in ther or fire all the elements are dissolved2 so are all the elements of the plant in the flower4 #aafg4 ,the flower is truly1 not merely in idea1 the whole plant with all systems and formations1 posited under a single idea1 under that of the ther1 namely1 of the gravity1 light and heat1 or the fire4 #aafh4 ,the flower as the ther-organ of the plant is not so independent as an animal1 but subordinated to the planetary systems1 being only a separation of the parts of the trunk1 not a new formation1 as in the animal kingdom4 #aafi4 ,the flower as the highest formative consummation of the plant1 or as the highest vegetable organ1 is the extremity of the ramules4 7,ed4 #ast4 #ahaj4 #aagf47 #aagj4 ,although the flower is a repetition of the whole plant1 namely1 of the root1 stalk1 and leaf2 it can still only be a direct transmutation of the leaf4 ,for every ,superior proceeds from that which is immediately subjacent4 ,the light-organ can only be developed out of the air-organ1 not out of the water-organ4 ,the transition from the water-organ into the light-organ is necessarily indicated through the aerial form4 ,preparations are necessary1 gradual dismemberments must precede1 before the isolated consummation can result4 ,the air purifies the organs1 in order that they may become participant of light4 #aaga4 ,the flower is the totality of the leaves of a ramule placed upon the extremity of the latter4 ,for a flower is the whole plant1 and is the ,ultimate of the plant4 #aagb4 ,the flower is a terminal leaf-bud4 ,a leaf-bud1 after whose rupture the ramule cannot grow any more4 #aagc4 ,the flower necessarily stands in a whorl-shaped manner1 because it is the end of the branch2 it is the terminal whorl of the plant4 #aagd4 ,with the flower the ramule or the plant dies off1 partly because it is the extremity1 partly because wholly separated tissues cannot live4 ,in the flower therefore the plant reverts to its origin4 ,it is a ramule1 whose buds have continued stationary4 #aage4 ,the idea of the vesicle lies at the basis of the flower4 ,it is an entire vegetable vesicle1 a leaf-bud that has not been drawn asunder4 ,the flower is the last vesicle into which the stalk swells out4 #aagf4 ,the flower-vesicle agrees with the leaf-vesicle4 ,the form of the flower must pass parallel to the form of the leaves4 ,this has reference principally to the position and number of parts4 ,division4 #aagg4 ,the flower is the synthesis of the entire plant with complete analysis of the organs4 ,flower1 pistil1 and seed are the leaves1 stalk1 and root separated1 and yet all combined to form a common organ4 ,this flower regarded in its analysis is the flower proper2 in its dissolution it is called fruit4 #aagh4 ,the flower-vesicle is according to its essence a threefold vesicle4 ,in it the leaf-system or the air-plant has been represented1 but in like manner and of necessity also the earth-and water-plant1 or the vesicles in which stalk and root have been taken up into the kingdom of light4 ,thus there is the leaf-1 stalk-1 and root-flower4 #aagi4 ,the leaf-flower is in the periphery1 the stalk- and root-flower in the centre of the vesicle4 ,for the former is the metatype or copy of the leaves1 the latter of the stalk and the root4 #aahj4 ,the leaf-flower is the highest and the very first to be developed4 ,it is that1 which chiefly corresponds to light2 the trunk-flower is1 however1 the lowest1 the last developed1 because it is only the trunk that has been prolonged with difficulty to form a flower4 ,it is the child of the heat and gravity4 #aaha4 ,it may be also said that the leaf-flower is the electrical1 the stem-flower1 however1 the chemical4 ,in the latter the chemical process must still act visibly1 it must still be produced mucus2 in the former1 however1 this must disappear and resolve itself into purely electrical bodies4 #aahb4 ,the flower consists of three leaf-buds4 ,the leaf-bud is the corolla or blossom4 ,the stalk-bud the pistil4 ,the root-bud the seed4 #aahc4 ,the corolla is the external whorl of leaves1 is first developed1 has the form of a leaf1 is a vesicle1 secretes in itself electrical1 inflammable bodies1 and is directed towards the sun4 #aahd4 ,the difference between corolla and pistil is that of the two principal tissues1 the tracheal and cellular tissue4 ,by the light the tracheal fasciculi become finally separated from the cellular substance1 evolved to a higher degree as the child or product of light1 and planted outwardly4 ,the corolla is the tracheal circle1 which has forcibly gained its freedom4 #aahe4 ,the pistil is the vascular substance that has become freely evolved1 yet to the highest stage2 in a similar relation likewise does the seed stand to the cellular substance4 ,in the fruit therefore the flower again reverts to the primary condition of the plant4 #aahf4 ,the flower and pistil are therefore those very organs which have been most antagonized in the plant4 ,they are in the highest state of polar tension1 and stand opposite each other like electrism and chemism1 or as light and matter4 ,this antagonism in the ,organic is called sex4 #a4 ,,floral ,,envelopes4 #aahg4 ,the blossom is the leaf-formation1 in which the separation of the principal tissues is completely attained1 where the tracheal fascicles entirely separate from the cellular substance1 and become a leaf with free ribs4 ,the cellular substance becomes the corolla-petal1 the rib the stamen4 #aahh4 ,the blossom passes through the three stages of leaf-varieties before it attains its completion1 and divides therefore into three whorls1 which correspond to the root-leaves1 stalk-1 and ramular or perfect leaves4 ,the radical or squamose leaf appears in its repetition as involucrum or spatha4 ,the stalk or vascular leaf as calyx4 ,the perfect or tracheal leaf as corolla4 a4 ,involucrum4 #aahi4 ,as the root puts forth numerous branches1 so the involucrum or spatha frequently incloses many blossoms that constitute the thyrsus or synthetic form of inflorescence4 #aaij4 ,the thyrsus or dense panicle is the whole ramage or branch-fabric repeated in the involucrum2 it is therefore just as manifold as the former4 #aaia4 ,the inflorescence is still as complex as the arrangement of the branches1 because with every flower the ramule dies off or ceases to grow1 whereby very numerous and strange relations are brought to light4 #aaib4 ,the involucrum corresponds to the scale-leaves or bracts1 and is therefore as a rule polypetalous4 ,the involucral leaves stand upon a lower stage of development1 are for the most part only squamose or spathiform1 rarely divided or pinnate4 #aaic4 ,the involucral leaves necessarily stand1 as being the radical leaves of the flower1 at the bottom of the peduncles or flower-stalks2 each flower-stalk therefore has usually an involucral or bracteal leaf also4 b4 ,calyx4 #aaid4 ,the repetition of the cauline or spathe-leaf in the flower is the ,calyx4 ,it does not stand therefore at the base of the peduncle1 but towards its summit1 and is the external bud of the blossom2 it is mostly spathiform1 rarely or but slightly cloven1 and very rarely polysepalous2 it is generally green like the leaves4 ,although the calyx is no essential organ in itself1 still it is rarely wanting and is often itself the supporter of the corolla and stamina4 #aaie4 ,as the calyx is more incomplete than the corolla1 so it has usually but three lobes1 and if it has five1 then they are frequently placed irregularly4 #aaif4 ,the developmental stages of the calyx are also three4 ,corresponding to the scale-like leaf or bract1 it is only squamiform1 as in the catkins of the hazel and fir-cones2 corresponding to the spathe-leaf1 it is tubular or unisepalous2 corresponding to the reticular leaf1 it is multisepalous1 and mostly deciduous4 #aaig4 ,the tubular calyx exhibits likewise three stages of development4 ,at first it is scale-like1 confluent with the ovary or epigynous--ovarial coroll4 ,it is next spathe-like1 simply connected with the corolla or perigynous--calycine coroll4 ,lastly1 it resembles the reticular-veined leaf1 being free from both the above organs1 or hypogynous--pedunculate coroll4 c4 ,corolla4 #aaih4 ,from the character of the corolla or crown as being a ramular leaf all its properties admit of being deduced4 ,it is the upper leaf-bud1 inasmuch as the ramular leaves stand above those of the stalk4 ,it is1 on this account too1 the internal1 inasmuch as the lower leaves admit within them the upper4 #aaii4 ,the corolla is homologous with the whole mass of the petiolated or ramular leaves4 ,thus their arrangement1 form1 and number taken together are not worth more than the characters of the corolla1 nor are they worth less1 because they are relations of deeper organs4 #abjj4 ,the corolla stands also in a whorl1 because it is the totality of leaves4 #abja4 ,the laws of the leaf-formation are also the laws of the corolla-formation4 ,the corolla will therefore represent at one time a greater1 at another a less1 ramified leaf-system4 #abjb4 ,the corolla is the last verticil in the series of leaf-whorls2 for it represents the last leaf-form1 and must fade1 because the tissues have completely separated from each other1 namely1 the trache as stamina1 from the cells that constitute corolla leaflets or petals4 ,no part can carry on life by or for itself4 #abjc4 ,the parts of the corolla range in an alternating manner with those of the calyx1 because they are the next supra-consecutive bud4 #abjd4 ,in accordance with the three stages of the leaf-formation the corolla is also resolvable into three forms4 ,the scale-or root-leaf returns in the several squamiform micropetals of what have been called the ,apetalous plants2 it corresponds to the involucrum--squamoid corolla4 ,the spathe-or stalk-leaf appears in the tubular-shaped or ,monopetalous corolla4 ,it is a leaf-bud1 which has only ruptured at the apex1 like most calyces1 unto which it corresponds--spathoid corolla4 ,lastly1 in the polypetalous corolla the reticular or petiolated leaf appears upon its highest stage--reticular or phylloid corolla4 ,the rank of the leaves consequently determines also that of coroll4 #abje4 ,although we regard the corolla as a whorl of leaves1 namely1 as several leaf-buds approximated1 a yet clearer insight into its numbers and positional relations is attained1 by viewing it only as the lobes of a single leaf4 #abjf4 ,if we regard the petals of a polypetalous corolla in the import or light of pinnate leaflets1 the legitimate regularity of their numerical relations1 and the so-called irregularity of their arrangement is easily explained4 ,the papilionaceous coroll have been manifestly constructed according to the plan of the pinnate leaf2 the vexillum or vane corresponds to the odd leaflet1 the al or wings to the two anterior1 the carina or keel to the two posterior pinnate leaflets2 and hence their consecutive ratio of decrease in respect to size4 #abjg4 ,all irregular coroll admit of being referred to the papilionaceous form4 ,one petal is always found1 which separates from the others1 is either larger or smaller1 or entirely ablated1 and consequently corresponds to the odd pinnate leaflet or vane4 #abjh4 ,the irregular monopetalous or tubular coroll admit also of being referred to the papilionaceous form4 ,they need only be regarded as a confluence of petals4 ,the labiate coroll are one of the same character2 but1 on the contrary1 the lower lip is trifid1 the upper1 and thus the keel1 bifid4 ,here the papilionaceous corolla stands1 properly speaking1 reversed4 ,,numerical ,,law4 #abji4 ,the number of petals in the corolla ranges parallel with the mode of development of the pinnate leaves4 ,but at first the odd terminal leaf necessarily originates1 because a leaf must have several pairs of ribs1 before it splits in a ptiloidal or pinnate manner4 ,the primary number of petals is therefore one4 ,this number is found in those plants called apetalous1 where the small lateral petals are abortive1 and frequently the terminal petal itself1 as in the catkin1 where only the calyx has been left remaining4 #abaj4 ,the normal ratio1 in which the numbers of the petals progress1 is the odd or uneven4 ,for a leaf is to be regarded as a single fascicle of fibres with cellular substance4 ,this packet of fibres grows straight out4 ,it is solicited by the light to give off bundles of fibres2 there is thus no existing cause1 why it should only give off such upon one1 and not upon the other1 side of the bundle4 ,at the first division therefore it must be an odd leaflet1 which is the principal bundle of fibres1 while two even pinnate leaflets take their origin upon its sides4 #abaa4 ,the second number of petals is therefore three2 for this is the first number in which a pinnate leaf can appear4 ,this number is much more frequently met with than the former1 because all division of a terminal bud necessarily strives after the representation of the whorl4 ,under this head come most ,monocotyledons1 as grasses1 rushes1 lilies4 #abab4 ,of the three petals of a corolla all three are not of equal import1 two only are alike as being lateral pinnate leaflets2 the third1 however1 is present as the odd or uneven leaflet4 #abac4 ,upon this inequality of import depends the irregularity of many ternary coroll1 e4 g4 of the ,orchide1 ,apiace1 and even many ,irides and lilies4 #abad4 ,if the trinity or ternary division depend upon the pinnated leaf1 so must also the next number depend thereupon4 #abae4 ,the third prevalent number in the vegetable world is the quinary4 ,the quinary division originates1 when to the two pinnate leaflets two others are superadded4 ,the pentapetalous corolla is also an odd pinnate leaf in a whorl-shaped position with four pinnate leaflets4 #abaf4 ,the pentapetalous is naturally higher in rank than the tripetalous1 and this than the monopetalous1 corolla4 #abag4 ,in the former four petals are of equal rank1 but the fifth or odd petal differs from them4 ,this difference is shown in its position1 size1 form1 design1 and colouring4 ,the odd leaf is usually larger1 of a rounded form1 having more ribs and other spots or markings4 #abah4 ,it appears as if1 with this second liberation of fibrous fascicles from the main bundle1 the differentialization were closed4 ,for most coroll are only quinarily divided1 or admit at least of being referred back to that number4 #abai4 ,it is readily comprehended why there are only three breaks present in the number of petals1 that these are denoted by one1 three1 and five1 and that they rarely ascend to seven1 nine1 and so on4 ,for the posterior pinnate leaflets are wont also to abort or be arrested in the leaves4 #abbj4 ,there can be no plant with originally two corolla-lobes or petals2 for the fibrous bundle does not thus divide itself2 one main fasciculus is always left4 ,the cause why the principal bundle does not divide into two equal fasciculi resides in the very nature or essence of the stalk4 ,the idea of the stalk operates throughout the whole plant4 ,the odd or uneven leaflet is only the last expansion of the stalk4 ,the even leaflets are its branches4 #abba4 ,for the same reason there can be no originally quaternary corolla4 #abbb4 ,there can be none that is originally sexanary4 #abbc4 ,but an originally septenary corolla is conceivable1 if forsooth the energy of light is still in a condition to separate two bundles of fibres4 ,how rarely this occurs is well known1 and thus it still continues doubtful whether this form is not to be explained by an arrest of development4 #abbd4 ,nature can produce no originally octo-1 deka-1 or dodeka-petalous1 c4 corolla4 #abbe4 ,coroll with originally nine1 eleven1 and more numbers are not impossible4 ,the last seem only to exist4 #abbf4 ,all corollas having even numbered petals1 originate through arrest of the odd leaflet4 #abbg4 ,the number two originates most usually and in the simplest manner from the arrest of the number three4 ,if it originates from the quinary quantity1 two pinnate leaflets are then coarrested4 #abbh4 ,the aberration is recognized either from the position of the lobes or petals that have been left remaining1 or from comparison of the number in other parts1 in the calyx and capsule4 #abbi4 ,the quaternary corolla is a quinary without the uneven leaflet4 #abcj4 ,the hexapetalous is a doubling of the tripetalous1 corolla4 ,there are two whorls of petals1 provided the calyx has not become corolla-like in character4 ,both cases are demonstrable through the alternating arrangement of the parts4 #abca4 ,the number eight is a doubled four4 #abcb4 ,nine is indeed in most instances a product of three multiplied by three4 #abcc4 ,the number ten is a doubled five4 #abcd4 ,in every number of petals the law of unequal development consequently prevails4 #abce4 ,the original arrangement of the parts of the corolla is bilateral1 and therefore symmetrical4 ,in the papilionaceous coroll this originally symmetrical arrangement is most perfectly maintained4 ,they repeat the position of their pinnate leaves4 #abcf4 ,this symmetrical arrangement is shown even in many tubular1 as in the labiate and personate1 coroll4 ,the trifid lower lip is the standard and wings2 the bifid upper lip1 on the contrary1 the keel4 #abcg4 ,the small liguliform petal of the lettuce's corolla is a tubular corolla entirely slit up2 it is therefore mostly quinque-dentate4 #abch4 ,coroll which have only a single petal 7the tubular-shaped coroll should not be styled monopetalous1 but those which actually have a single petal to the corolla7 are indeed to be regarded for the most part as an odd leaflet2 yet still much variety appears to take place in these developmental arrests4 ,thus here no division of the fibrous bundle was attained1 or the lateral leaflets have wholly disappeared4 #abci4 ,in many this one leaflet also is arrested1 and the corolla is wholly wanting4 ,such a corolla is to be viewed as a stem with radical1 but without ramular leaves4 #abdj4 ,it is not a matter of indifference whether the single involucre that is left remaining be called calyx or corolla2 the distinction between both is philosophically correct1 though at the same time also it may be frequently difficult to determine4 ,colour and relation to the stamina and fruit determine much2 but respect must be also paid to the whole idea of the plant1 whether it has radical leaves or not1 whether the leaf-ribs do or do not ramify4 ,alternating stamina afford evidence of its being the corolla4 ,,coloration4 #abda4 ,as the colour ranges parallel with the import or quality of the matter1 or since the matter and colour are of one and the same kind1 so also must this hold good of the colour of the light-flower4 #abdb4 ,as the corolla only1 and not the calyx1 is the proper light-organ1 so also will it only obey the light in the coloration4 #abdc4 ,the corolla can no longer be coloured green1 for it is no longer a leaf4 ,now that which obtains another signification1 which passes over into another element1 must1 with the function1 lay aside also the old colour4 ,the corolla is besides the perishing1 fading leaf2 as this begins to turn yellow or red in the autumn1 so does the corolla immediately at its origin4 ,it is a born autumnal leaf4 #abdd4 ,the whole plant must be regarded as a green synthetic colour2 the corolla as the analysis of the ,green4 #abde4 ,the first division of the ,green is ,yellow and ,blue4 ,these two colours are the first which make their appearance in the corolla4 #abdf4 ,yellow is the earth-colour1 corresponds to the root1 and consequently indicates the lowest colour4 ,yellow coroll are less developed than those which are otherwise coloured4 ,the coroll of spring flowers are therefore yellow2 so likewise is the middle of the corolla1 as is specially exemplified in the disk of the ,syngenesious plants4 #abdg4 ,blue is the second colour of coroll in the scale of dignity1 or rank4 ,blue is displayed on the better developed corolla1 and is frequently the colour in the rays of the ,syngenesi4 ,blue belongs to the temperate zones4 #abdh4 ,if ,yellow and ,blue be the divided ,green of the leaves1 the complementary colour to that of the coroll must thus remain in the trunk4 ,the trunks of plants having blue coroll should therefore be yellow2 those with yellow coroll should furnish blue colouring matters1 like the ,woad4 #abdi4 ,red is the third corolla-colour1 the true light-colour1 in the which properly all coroll have been immersed2 and if they exhibit any other colours1 these should be viewed only as instances of aberration from ,red4 ,the ,reds are the splendid colours1 which develop themselves in the middle of summer2 in flaming red mantles are the flowers of the torrid zone veiled4 #abej4 ,finally1 the form triumphs over the colour4 ,the light has in ,red done everything which it could do for colour1 having allured as it were all the colours out of the plant2 it now1 on the contrary1 bestows its attention upon the form and delicacy of the substance4 ,the white colour makes its appearance in antithesis to the red1 and is mostly associated with very delicate structure4 #abea4 ,the cells of the red coroll are replete with starch-granules1 but those of the white are quite empty4 ,the yellow and blue coroll range in the middle4 ,red is a superabundance1 ,white a deficiency1 of nutriment4 ,the most noble and beautiful coroll1 as well as the lowest also1 may therefore be white4 ,white and red are the general colours for all families of plants1 but yellow and blue are special colours4 ,in general the trunk is green1 the corolla white1 the seed black4 ,the mediate stages are red1 yellow1 and blue4 ,,stamen-,,filaments4 #abeb4 ,at length we come to the last work achieved by the light in the corolla1 or to complete separation of the systems or tissues4 ,if ever bundles of fibres may entirely separate from the cellular substance1 this is possible only in the corolla1 as being the final light-organ4 ,separation must1 however1 be attained3 for thus far do the claims of light extend4 ,but no development remains stationary before it has corresponded with the operations of the developing agent4 #abec4 ,in the corolla1 as being the highest kind of leaf1 the ribs1 as the fibrous fascicles1 must finally separate themselves from the leaf-substance as cellular tissue4 ,the corolla is a double organ4 #abed4 ,in conformity with the whole structure of the plant1 the ribs are placed internally1 the membranes externally4 #abee4 ,the leaf-ribs1 isolated and perfected as a particular organ1 are the ,stamen-filaments4 #abef4 ,the leaf-membranes1 or probably the phyllodia1 isolated and evolved into a particular organ1 are the corolla-petals4 ,these compose in the strongest sense the corolla4 ,the filaments consist for the greatest part of spiral fibres1 and the corolla-petals of the finest cellular tissue1 which may be almost designated as granular4 ,this then would be the rational import of the corolla and its stamen-filaments4 ,both are of similar production2 they exhibit like substance1 colour1 and delicacy1 with cotemporaneous development and cotemporaneous death4 #abeg4 ,not only are the ribs of the corolla1 but those also of the calyx1 liberated to become filaments4 ,there are calyx-and corolla-filaments4 #abeh4 ,as ribs1 the filaments must stand in the middle of their petals1 i4 e4 opposite to them4 #abei4 ,filaments1 which alternate with the parts of the corolla1 are consequently calyx-filaments2 such as alternate with the lobes of the calyx1 or stand opposite to the petals of the corolla1 are corolla-filaments4 #abfj4 ,most filaments1 and consequently the calycine1 are alternating in their arrangement4 ,most coroll therefore have no longer strength sufficient to produce filaments4 #abfa4 ,flowers provided with opposite and alternating filaments have consequently two circles of them1 as is the case in many ,pinks4 ,with the determination of the number of filaments the race has been therefore specified4 #abfb4 ,the number of filaments stands in relation to the parts of the corolla2 therefore three and five are the prevailing numbers4 #abfc4 ,there is no absolute number in the filaments1 but only one of relation4 ,coroll with three petals have invariably also three filaments1 and those with five of the former1 the same number too of the latter4 #abfd4 ,the number of filaments is always the simple or multiple of the parts of the corolla4 ,three calyx-or corolla-parts have #c #a or #c n1 filaments4 #f is not #f1 but #c #b2 #i is #c #c2 #aj is #e #b2 #bj is #e #d2 or #e #c #e #a1 and so on4 #abfe4 ,the filaments do not simply follow the number1 but also the conjunction1 position and arrest1 of the corolla4 ,they are epigynous1 peri-or hypogynous4 #abff4 ,in irregular coroll the filaments are usually abortive2 as in those of the orchideous1 labiate and papilionaceous plants4 #abfg4 ,the arrest of the filaments usually stands in inverse relation with the corolla4 ,in the case of a larger-sized petal the filament is small1 and1 on the contrary1 larger in opposite parts of the corolla4 ,,anthers4 #abfh4 ,the corolla obtains its last function in the production of the highest electrical bodies1 which it exhales as sweet odours4 therial oils ascend out of the corolla into the air4 #abfi4 ,the filament1 as a leaf-rib that has become free1 is a moribund ramuscular extremity1 which still strives1 according to the law of pinnation1 to produce three buds1 whereof1 however1 the terminal one is in general arrested1 and the two lateral scarce attain unto apertion4 #abgj4 ,the two lateral buds of the filaments are the ,anthers4 ,they mostly open in a spathose manner1 because they have not strength enough to develop themselves as perfect gemm or buds4 #abga4 ,the anthers are to be regarded as follicles1 which mostly rupture upon the dorsal or external aspect4 #abgb4 ,the starch-flour1 which forms the precipitate termed albumen in the seed1 here obtains in the light-organ electrical properties1 and is called pollen4 #abgc4 ,the pollen has a light-function in the plant4 #abgd4 ,the function of the pollen must be differencing1 thus vivifying and secernent4 #abge4 ,the principal antagonism of the pollen is with the pistil1 upon which it must therefore act in a properly differencing manner4 ,the pollen does not hang1 like the seed1 by a stalk or pedicle to the wall of the anther1 but is exudated from it like chemical bodies4 ,it is nevertheless a vesicle1 like all organic parts4 ,this vesicle consists of two membranes1 and contains yet smaller vesicles1 which are called fovilla or pollen-viscus4 ,when the pollen comes into contact with the moist surface of the stigma1 its external membrane ruptures1 and the internal with its contained fovilla protruding in the form of a tube1 penetrates the style in many instances down to the seed1 whereby the germ first becomes developed or self-subsistent4 #b4 ,,pistil ,,or ,,ovary4 #abgf4 ,if the corolla be the light-flower1 the stalk-flower is heat-flower4 #abgg4 ,the stalk-flower1 as being a repetition of the stem1 must be developed later than the leaf-flower4 ,it consequently stands superiorly upon1 and so far within1 this4 ,the corolla is related to the stalk-flower like circumference to centre4 #abgh4 ,the stalk repeated in the flower is the ,ovarium1 germen or pistillum4 ,it is frequently converted into wood in the nut and becomes hardened into stone4 #abgi4 ,nevertheless1 the pistil like the corolla is a leaf-formation1 because everything that originates subsequently to1 can be none other than1 the leaf4 ,it is a leaf-bud under the idea of the stalk4 ,the pistil is thus a leaf-whorl like the corolla1 and one which is subject to the same fatalities1 only with this difference1 that its leaves are wont to open first after it has withered1 and consequently through physical forces4 #abhj4 ,every leaf that has been closed in a vesicular or tubular form is a follicle or carpel4 ,there are therefore uni-1 bi-1 and tri-locular ovaria1 c4 ,the loculi or cells of the ovarium are none other than closed carpels4 ,as many therefore as there are of the former1 so many are there of the latter1 and vice vers4 ,the septa or partition-walls are none other than the involuted edges of the closed and confluent carpels4 #abha4 ,uni-locular ovaria consist therefore only of one leaf4 ,the legume is only a compressed carpel4 #abhb4 ,every carpel or every cell has its raph or suture directed inwards or along the axis of the flower4 ,for the leaves are always so conjoined that the two halves of the upper or inner side stand counter to each other4 #abhc4 ,all other sutures are adventitious and1 by their mode of dehiscence1 determine those parts of the ovarium which are called valves4 ,these sutures are either dorsal or on the back of the carpel1 e4 g4 capsula loculicida2 conjunctive1 where two carpels abut against each other1 e4 g4 capsula septicida2 or finally1 between both by the side of the dorsal suture1 so that the valve springing up resembles a shutter1 as in many siliqu or pods4 #abhd4 ,the columella of the ovary is none other than the internal edge of the carpels from which the leaf-wall has been freed4 #abhe4 ,each carpel-leaf is to be regarded as the common petiole of a pinnate leaf1 upon whose lateral petioles the seeds depend4 ,the seeds always hang therefore upon the inner angle of the cells4 #abhf4 ,as the parts of the corolla alternate with the calyx1 so do the carpels or cells of the ovary with the corolla2 they stand therefore opposite the parts of the calyx or are situated in front of them4 #abhg4 ,the parts of the ovary follow also the uneven series of numbers1 one1 three1 five4 ,the number two is usually found in irregular1 e4 g4 the labiate1 coroll4 #abhh4 ,if few cells be present as parts of the flower1 the carpels are then to be regarded as arrested4 ,in the personate coroll three are arrested1 but in the papilionaceous1 four4 ,the legumen is only a fifth part of the ovarium4 #abhi4 ,the development of the carpels stands usually in an inverse relation to the size of the parts of the corolla4 ,thus the legume is situated between the two insignificant petals of the keel1 opposite to the large vexillum2 in the ,personat a carpel is situated in the fissure of the upper lip2 upon the lower lip1 consisting of three lobes1 only one carpel is situated1 which consequently supplies the place of four1 and is therefore also larger4 #abij4 ,the stages of leaf-formation are also displayed in the matured state of the ovarium4 ,the radical or scale-leaf is repeated in the cariopsis2 as in the grasses1 orachs1 nettles1 and such like plants4 #abia4 ,the spathe-leaf becomes a siliqua1 or hollow capsule1 in which forsooth the septa are arrested1 and the seeds stand upon the conjoined edges of the carpels1 upon their walls1 or also upon a mediate replum and placenta1 as in the proper ,siliquose plants with the poppies1 ,resed1 ,primul and pinks4 #abib4 ,the reticular-leaf is perfected into a capsule1 where the carpels are so confluent with each other1 that they form septa and bear the seeds upon the internal angle or upon the axis1 as in the ,rues4 ,if these carpels separate1 then polycarpal plants1 as the ,ranunculace1 ,malvace1 ,magnoliace1 originate4 ,in these the median columella is the elongated floral peduncle4 ,if they separate1 without leaving a median columella between them2 they are then simply called follicles1 as in the larkspur and celandine4 ,if this capsule be compressed flat2 it is called legumen1 as in the beans4 #abic4 ,the cariopsis generally contains one and that a large seed2 the siliqua or hollow capsule is many-or small-seeded2 the follicle few-or moderately-seeded2 the capsule many-and also few-seeded4 #abid4 ,in the cariopsis the seed is attached to the base or apex2 in the follicle in a row upon the inner suture2 in the siliqua upon the carpellar edges1 or their walls1 and on a meso-replum or frame2 in the capsule upon the inner angle or on a middle axis or column4 ,seed-bearing al to the columella are only the carpellar edges prolonged into the loculi or cells4 ,,style4 #abie4 ,what the stamen-filament is for the petal of the corolla1 that is the style for the ovarial petal or the carpel1 viz4 the rib that has become free4 ,as1 however1 the leaf-formation in the ovary is generally imperfect1 so also is the separation of the tissues or systems4 ,the style is not therefore freed at once from its root1 but projects only above the leaf-substance4 #abif4 ,but as the singular circumstance occurs in the ovary that the midrib is arrested while only the marginal ribs shoot out1 so is the style the elongation and coalescence of the two marginal ribs4 ,every stigma is therefore biacuminate4 #abig4 ,there must always be as many styles as the ovary has carpels or cells4 ,if only one style appear1 in this case it is then made up of several mid-ribs4 ,in most instances the number of styles is recognized in the number of the stigmata4 #abih4 ,as being the rib of the ovary the style is the last ramuscular extremity of the stalk1 which is resolved into mucus upon the stigma4 #abii4 ,stamen-filament is related to style1 as leaf to stalk1 thus as air to earth1 as ,differencing to ,differencizable1 as electrism to chemism or rather nutrition4 ,this is the lower comparison2 in a true sense they are related as light to heat4 #acjj4 ,the light is the ,active1 the heat the ,passive2 light the ,moving1 heat the ,moveable2 light the ,vitalizing1 heat the ,inactive1 or that which becomes vitalized2 light the spirit1 heat the matter--male and female principle4 ,thus are corolla and pistil related to each other4 #c4 ,,seed4 #acja4 ,the root repeats itself in the interior of the ovary under the ther-form4 ,the root ascends out of the earth to become an organ of gravity4 #acjb4 ,after the leaves have been made independent in the corolla1 and the stalk in the pistil1 the root also separates and appears as a free organ1 as ,seed4 #acjc4 ,the seeds are necessarily in the interior of the ovary2 for the cellular organ can first appear1 after the leaf-and stalk-buds have opened as corolla and ovarium4 ,the blossom is a bulb1 the external testa or covering of which is the leaf-1 the mediate the stalk-1 and lastly1 the internal the root-vesicle4 ,the stalk is adherent to the leaves1 the root to the stalk2 so also the seeds to the ovary1 and this to the corolla4 #acjd4 ,the seeds are developed in the ovary under the same relations in which the root is developed in the earth1 namely1 in the dark4 #acje4 ,the darkness does not allow the chemical body to attain unto difference2 therefore the sap within the capsule must1 instead of separating itself into spiral vessels and leaf-substance1 continue to remain there undivided and without form1 i4 e4 in the condition of simple granules1 or germs of future cells4 #acjf4 ,the seeds1 like the root1 are a mass of cells2 like it they contain an accumulation of mucus1 but of course more highly-formed1 being separated into flour1 starch1 acid matter1 oil1 and such like substances4 #acjg4 ,these seminal substances are deposited upon the alkaline1 in opposition to the acid1 side of the ovary2 just as the root also represents the alkaline factor in reference to the stalk1 in which appears the formation of acids4 #acjh4 ,the seeds are the pinnate leaflets of the ovarian leaves1 which continue in the condition of buds4 ,they stand therefore as unclosed vesicles upon both edges of the carpel1 as is particularly distinct in the legumens4 #acji4 ,as both edges are similar to each other1 so there can be no ovary that has fewer than two seeds4 ,in all one-seeded ovaries therefore one seed has been arrested1 a fact that admits too of being demonstrated in the majority of cases4 #acaj4 ,every seed is placed at the extremity of a lateral rib of the carpel4 ,these lateral ribs are called seed-bearers or placent4 ,if such lateral ribs terminate before reaching the edge of the carpel1 then the seeds stand upon the juncture or wall of the carpel4 ,this does not1 however1 occur frequently1 but only in the ,siliquos1 poppies1 and some others4 ,the elongated lateral rib1 whereupon the seed hangs1 is called umbilical cord4 ,it is no peculiar organ1 but only the seed-petiole4 #acaa4 ,the direction of the seeds is possible in five ways1 either upright and horizontal1 transverse1 or rising obliquely upwards and downwards in relation to the axis of the ovary4 #acab4 ,every perfect seed 7of ,dicotyledons7 is none other than a pentifoliar1 involuted1 pinnate leaf4 ,the shell of the seed is the leaf-spathe or phyllodium1 the two seed-lobes are the two posterior pinnate leaflets1 while the germinal leaflets1 or plumula1 are the two anterior pinnate leaflets1 together with the odd leaflet4 ,the seed-rib or vascular cord 7raphe7 is continued into the seed-rootlet or radicle1 and this into the petiole of the cotyledons4 #acac4 ,every seed-coat must consist of three integuments2 for every leaf consists of the lower and upper membrane1 and of the interjacent parenchyma1 in which the vessels are dispersed4 ,the external leaf-membrane forms the most hard and coloured covering of the seed 7testa71 the internal the brown seed-tunic or pellicula2 between the two lies the brown fibrous tissue1 or desiccated parenchyma with the vessels4 #acad4 ,the hilum is the basis of the bud or of the seed-leaf2 the seed-hole or micropyle is on the apex of the involuted bud1 or rather of the phyllodium1 in which the germ lies rolled up4 #acae4 ,umbilicus and micropyle are united with each other by means of seed or leaf-rib 7raphe74 ,both rarely stand opposite to each other1 so as that the one should be below1 the other above2 but the apex of the leaf is usually so involuted that it again reaches the bottom of the leaf1 whereby umbilicus and micropyle come into close and mutual approximation1 as in the beans4 ,the seed-petiole elongates itself into the seed-rib2 this is continued upon the back of the phyllodium or testa1 bends round1 and returns again to the umbilicus1 so as to describe a complete circle4 ,the shell of the seed has consequently the form of the young fern or fern-capsule4 #acaf4 ,the radicle is the continuation of the seed-rib1 which is1 however1 dismembered itself1 moves off1 and thereby causes the micropyle to be1 or1 properly speaking1 only renders it1 free4 ,the testa or seed-shell is consequently a phyllodium thrown over the germ1 but the micropyle is the upper opening of the bud4 #acag4 ,the germ of the seed or embryo1 namely1 radicle1 cotyledons and plumule1 is therefore only the quinary pinnate leaf without the spathe or testa4 #acah4 ,thus the whole seed1 shell and embryo1 completely resembles a pinnate leaf with a phyllodium1 as we see it in the umbellate plants1 only it must be thought of as one so involuted1 that the fine leaves adhere reversed in the phyllodium4 ,seeds may consequently change into leaves4 ,a seed has therefore been formed also in all its parts like a papilionaceous corolla4 ,this resemblance speaks moreover retrogressively1 for the petals of the papilionaceous corolla being viewed only as a single leaf-bud4 ,seeds may therefore change also into coroll4 ,all parts of the seed are thus an unity1 a single pinnate leaf1 and it is consequently impossible for them to have been patched up out of what has been called the seed-ovum1 namely1 the testa and embryo1 which would come from some other source or out of the pollen4 #acai4 ,the seed is the whole plant in miniature3 the root being portrayed in the umbilical cord1 and radical leaf in the phyllodium2 stalk in the radicle2 caudal leaves in the seed-lobes2 ramuscule in the cotyledonal petiole2 ramular leaves in the cotyledons4 ,seeds may thus change into an entire plant4 ,the seed is consequently nothing new in the plant1 but the repetition of the same under the relations and forms of the root4 #acbj4 ,it is plain that the seeds must always change into the same plant2 for they are indeed nothing else but this4 ,the identity ensuing upon propagation is accordingly nothing singular and incomprehensible2 it would be so were it otherwise4 ,with the seed the plant has but reverted again to its primary condition1 to the galvanic1 mucous vesicle1 out of which in a secondary manner the young plant is developed like as is the first plant out of the primary vesicle4 #acba4 ,the radicle is not therefore root itself1 but only emits rootlets4 #acbb4 ,the germ or the radicle must observe different positions towards the umbilicus1 according as the seed-leaf or the testa has been more or less involuted1 and according as the germ is removed from the micropyle4 #acbc4 ,the albumen or perisperm is no particular organ1 but only the deposit from the sap1 which the inner wall of the testa secretes4 ,the albumen stands in no organic connexion with the parts of the seed4 ,that therefore which has become connate with the kernel or nucleus cannot be albumen4 #acbd4 ,the arillus can be none other than bud-seeds of the testa1 because it is placed under the phyllodium4 ,it corresponds to the floral involucrum or bracteal scales4 #acbe4 ,as the seeds are none other than leaves that have remained stationary in the condition of root1 so must they pass through the three leaf-stages4 ,there can be therefore only three principal differences in the seed-formation4 #acbf4 ,the seeds of plants with reticular leaves consist of several leaves arranged symmetrically or in pairs4 ,they have necessarily two seed-lobes--,dicotyledones4 #acbg4 ,the seeds of plants with spathose leaves consist too only of the latter1 i4 e4 the seed-leaves remain encased in each other4 ,they have consequently only one seed-lobe1 which also incloses only one plumule--,monocotyledones4 #acbh4 ,this seed-lobe is a phylloidal leaf1 whose parenchyma has been superabundantly filled with farinaceous matter or flour4 #acbi4 ,that which is named vitellus can be none other than the succeeding counter-leaf4 #accj4 ,what in the ,monocotyledons1 at least in most of them1 and in the grasses1 is called albumen1 is not so1 but only the flour of the seed-lobe4 #acca4 ,the germination of these seeds is nothing else than an elongating of the spathiform seed-lobe into a culm1 from the bottom of which radicles spring forth1 as out of a bulb4 ,a monocotyledonous seed is in its structure none other than a small bulb with undivided coverings4 #accb4 ,lastly1 the third form of seeds makes its appearance in those plants which have only scale-like leaves4 ,the seed-lobe is wanting in them1 and they elongate themselves directly into the plumule or little stalk--,acotyledones4 #accc4 ,they are devoid of the distinction of testa and embryo1 because1 on account of the deficiency of genuine leaf-formation1 they are none other than the first4 ,for the embryo is only a small leaf4 ,they therefore include only albumen or germinal powder1 as it is correctly named4 #accd4 ,here belong not merely fungi1 fuci1 lichens and mosses1 but also the ferns1 as being those which have only cells or squamoid leaves4 ,for the frond with the spiral vessels does not rank in the category of leaf1 but of stalk4 ,,fruit4 #acce4 ,the fruit is the coalescence or blending of the three parts of the flower1 or the seed1 ovarium and corolla4 ,in the flower the individual perfection of every part of the trunk was completely attained2 the leaves being separated quite freely from the stalk became corolla2 the stalk separated from the leaves and root became pistil2 lastly1 the root separated from all1 became the seed4 ,in this manner indeed each organ attained its ratio of perfection2 the perfection1 however1 of the ,whole does not alone consist in the perfection of the several parts for themselves1 but in the union or combination of these individual perfections4 ,the vegetable trunk1 as being a ,partial1 has been represented in the parts of the flower1 but as a ,whole1 in the fruit4 #accf4 ,the fruit is therefore the last and most perfect consummation of the plant1 or the whole vegetable trunk repeated as unity4 #accg4 ,in the fruit not merely the sum of all vegetable forms is united1 but also that of all vegetable matters4 ,it is the whole vegetable body repeated mathematically1 physically and chemically4 #acch4 ,the fruit therefore is also that part of the plant in which all vegetable bodies have been concentrated into flesh4 ,now1 as the highest vegetable bodies pass over into the next1 and consequently into the animal kingdom1 and are therefore palatable as food1 so is the fruit also in essence the sarcocarp4 ,for this is the directly edible part of the plant1 that e4 g4 which does not need being cooked4 #acci4 ,the nutritious substance of the fruit can be none other than a highly elevated and analysed kind of mucus1 such as starch and gum1 sugar and acids4 ,flour is that which resembles the root1 sugar the stalk1 acids the foliage2 therefore flour is in the seed1 sugar in the pistil1 and acid in the calyx4 #acdj4 ,there can be only three kinds of fruit1 that constantly accord with the preponderance of the three parts of the flower1 as seed-fruit1 pistil-and corolla-fruit4 #acda4 ,the fruit that has the preponderance of the seed1 or where the edible substance resides in the seed1 and the ovary itself has become seed-shaped1 is the ,nut4 ,the nut is the cariopsis that has become sarcocarp2 it is therefore one-seeded--farinaceous sarcocarp4 #acdb4 ,in the ovarian fruit the ovarium has become demi nut-like1 half corolla-like or fleshy1 as in the ,plum4 ,it is the carpel that has become sarcocarp--acid sarcocarp4 #acdc4 ,the fruit1 in which the whole ovarium together with the calyx is edible1 is the corolla-fruit1 the ,berry4 ,only those perfectly soft fruits are true berries which are inclosed by the calyx1 as being forsooth a part of the blossom4 ,the berry is the siliqua or hollow capsule that has become sarcocarp4 ,therefore it has numerous and small seeds--saccharine sarcocarp4 #acdd4 ,finally1 these fruits combine to form a common fruit1 which represents the proper synthesis of all parts of the blossom1 or in which seed1 ovarium and flower1 along with the calyx1 have become sarcocarp4 ,this is the ,apple1 a syncarpus4 ,the apple is the calyx become sarcocarp1 and as it usually incloses several carpels1 it is therefore polycarpal and contains few seeds4 ,it consists of seed1 ovarium and calyx1 which have become flesh4 ,the apple1 as being an unopen calyx-fruit1 may probably be regarded as the fruit of the trunk4 ,it furnishes properly drink and food1 is the fruit against thirst and hunger--the universal1 alimentary sarcocarp4 ,the apple contains all the bodies that have been named1 viz4 flour1 acids and sugar4 ,it is thus chemically also the synthetic fruit1 which may be converted into the whole animal flesh1 and thus become a true medium of nutrition4 ,the nut is only garbage1 the plum and berry1 cherry and grape1 only drinks or delicacies4 #acde4 ,other vegetable substances1 which range lower in chemical development1 as mucus1 bitter and colouring matters1 with resins1 are associated for the greatest part in root1 stalk and leaves4 ,,fruit ,,of ,,the ,,flowerless ,,plants4 #acdf4 ,the flowerless or asexual plants can have no genuine seed or no embryo4 ,for the genuine seed is the repetition of the blossom under the idea of root4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaj4 #aefd47 #acdg4 ,that which has been called germinal powder is no seed or germ1 but only albumen or perisperm4 ,it has no seed-petiole1 has only been exuded out of what has been called the wall of the capsule1 and exhibits in its composition no seed-lobes4 7,ed4 #ast4 #aehf47 #acdh4 ,what is termed capsule in the ,acotyledones is none other than the seed-shell1 whereupon it follows of itself1 that the so-called seeds can have no umbilical cords or seed-petioles4 7,ed4 #ast2 #ahaj4 #aegc47 #acdi4 ,the capsules of ferns are involuted like most dicotyledonous seeds4 ,the ring corresponds to the seed-rib or raphe1 the fissure to the seed-aperture or micropyle4 ,the involuted fern-capsule is a repetition of the involuted fern-frond4 ,the little heaps of capsules or sori are consequently not pollen1 but a nest of seeds surrounded by an indusium or veil1 which1 probably1 corresponds to the ovary4 #acej4 ,the capsule of mosses is an antetype of monocotyledonous seeds2 it is a spathe-leaf with the lateral suture2 it springs up in a tubular manner similar to grass-leaves1 that free themselves from the nodes of the culm4 #acea4 ,the hollow columella1 which likewise contains germinal powder1 is an internal spathe1 which corresponds to the germinal leaf of grasses4 #aceb4 ,the oral teeth are the dissevered parallel strips of vessels in the culm and leaf of the ,monocotyledons4 #acec4 ,the urn-supporting pedicel is the seed-petiole or umbilical cord4 #aced4 ,the calyptra probably corresponds to the arillus and thus to the bud-scales2 or possibly to the indusium of the ferns1 and thus to the ovary4 #acee4 ,the leaf-roses would consequently be the involucral leaves of the moss-stalk2 the moss-stalk itself a peduncle or flower-stalk2 so that in the upper involucral leaves rudiments might indeed appear of stamina4 #acef4 ,in the lichens and fuci the whole trunk is none other than seed-shell4 #aceg4 ,in the fungi1 the antetype of the ,acotyledons1 it may be almost said that the whole stem is nothing else but albumen1 the external layers of which only cling together in a membranaceous manner1 and represent a kind of seed-shell4 ,the fungus is an albumen-body1 which has coagulated out of vegetable juices4 ,in the fungus1 seed1 seed-vessel1 ovary1 blossom1 foliage and trunk have become blended into one4 #aceh4 ,in a perfect blossom the albumen is therefore the repetition of a fungus2 the acotyledonous seed that of lichen2 the monocotyledonous seed-vessel that of a moss2 the dicotyledonous1 however1 is the repeated fern4 ,it may be also said that the albumen were fungus2 the germ1 lichen2 the seed-vessel1 moss2 the ovary perhaps1 a fern1 namely1 its indusium4 ,,ii4--,,phyto-,,physiology4 #acei4 ,the life of the plant consists in the co-operation of its functions4 ,the representation of these functions is the vegetable physiology or the theory of vegetation4 #acfj4 ,vegetation depends first of all upon the two principal antagonisms of the plant1 or those between the tracheal and cellular systems1 or between the stem-and rootsystems1 sun and planet1 air and water with earth1 light and matter1 electrism and chemism4 #acfa4 ,the functions divide into those of the ther-organs--blossom1 and the planetary organs--stem4 ,i4--,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,trunk4 #acfb4 ,the functions of the trunk are those of the tissues1 systems and members2 thus first of the cells1 vessels or ducts and trache2 secondly1 of the bark1 liber and wood2 lastly1 of the root1 stalk and foliage4 #a4 ,facts4 #acfc4 ,the phenomena to be regarded in plants bear relation to their constituent parts1 and the changes or preliminary incidents which they undergo4 ,a4 ,constituent ,parts4 ,the chemical constituent parts of vegetables are inorganic and organic4 a4 ,,inorganic ,,bodies4 ,elements4 #acfd4 ,the plant contains all the primitive bodies2 carbon1 oxygen1 hydrogen and nitrogen4 ,the carbon forms the principal mass1 and almost alone constitutes its solid parts4 ,the nitrogen is only present in small quantity1 being1 as it were1 a trace only of the future animal kingdom4 #acfe4 ,in the plant all the elements are also active1 as the ther1 which1 through the gravitation of the root1 strives towards the middle point or centre of the earth4 ,the light1 which imparts the general polarity and decomposition1 as well as produces colours4 ,the latter appear to reside in the starch-flour4 ,the heat1 that sustains the indifference1 promotes the evaporation and the course of the sap1 as also protects the plant from being killed by frost or cold4 ,the air that penetrates through the spiral vessels to all parts1 and is also met with occasionally in the hollow stalks1 the interstices and cells of the pith and cuticle4 ,it imparts the process of oxydation4 ,the water is the proper mother of the plant1 being the medium by which the nutrition is imparted4 ,it contains in a state of absorption some hydrogen and nitrogen1 a larger amount of oxygen1 and abundance of carbonic acid2 besides different salts1 mucus1 sugar1 and acids4 ,the earth1 as element1 bestows upon the plant a firm station1 so that the water-and air-organs continue separate from each other4 ,minerals or ,earths4 #acfg4 ,the plant is also a totality in reference to the earths4 ,it contains all the mineral classes1 and from each of these indeed the principal or fundamental minerals4 ,it can therefore only thrive in a soil which represents the whole mineral kingdom4 ,among the earths the siliceous earth is very frequently found in plants1 and especially in the graminaceous kinds4 ,this1 having been dissolved in the earth by potash and the rich supply even of carbonic acid1 appears to be absorbed or imbibed by the plant4 ,the argillaceous earth is scarcely met with in the plant itself2 but from imbibing and storing up water for the consumption of the plant1 it is without doubt its best and most necessary soil4 ,the talcose earth is rarely found contained in plants2 it1 however1 keeps the soil slacker1 by dividing into lamin1 and being present for the most part as mica in sand4 ,the calcareous earth is a more essential constituent part of plants1 and is found therein in tolerable quantity1 usually combined with phosphoric or carbonic acid4 ,of the salts1 all plants contain a fair proportion of common salt and potash1 combined too with carbonic acid2 soda with saccharic or oxalic acid2 probably also ammonia4 ,of the acids1 carbonic acid appears to be alone contained in a free state in vegetable sap2 the other elemental and mineral acids are united to alkalies1 talcose and calcareous earths4 ,as regards the ,inflammables1 almost the whole plant consists of carbon1 but contains also some sulphur4 ,the metals are represented by iron1 which occurs in all plants4 b4 ,,organic ,,vegetable ,,bodies4 #acfh4 ,these must be regarded as the repetition of the inorganic bodies4 ,the alcohol1 which does not indeed occur ready formed in the plant1 but is developed out of the sugar1 certainly corresponds to the ther4 ,the therial or volatile oils1 and the balsams and resins that are thence formed1 correspond with the air4 ,the mucus1 gelatine1 albumen1 and sugar correspond to water2 the wood1 gum1 starch and vegetable mould1 to the earth4 ,of the organic salts1 plants contain tannin1 with azetic1 benzoic1 mucic1 gelatic1 saccharic1 tartaric1 citric1 malic1 oxalic1 tannic1 oleic1 isatic1 and hydrocyanic acids4 ,the alkaline bodies are pungent1 bitter1 stupefying1 and saponaceous2 the fixed or greasy oils1 the wax and the vegetable butters1 are to be regarded as organic ,inflammables2 the colouring matters1 as the organic ores4 #acfi4 ,these bodies intermixed form the compound vegetable matters4 ,what has been called vegetable sap is for plants1 what the blood is for animals4 ,it consists for the greatest part of water and mucus1 starch1 sugar1 acids1 and salts4 ,it passes over into vinous and then into acetous fermentation4 ,the starch-granules appear to form in the cells4 #acgj4 ,to the secreted saps belong the coloured milky juices present in particular vessels1 and consisting for the most part of water with resins1 as in the celandine and spurge4 ,the particular saps1 especially those of the fruits1 are very composite1 consisting for the most part either of mucus1 sugar and acids1 or occasionally of gelatine and albumen4 ,solid compound matters are almost universally made up of flour1 which consists principally of starch and gum2 or they are furthermore mucus in the roots and seeds4 ,the excreted or separated matters1 which no longer interpose in the vegetable process1 are the etherial oils1 resins1 fixed oils1 colouring matters1 poisonous substances1 gum1 tannin1 nectar-juices1 and even water4 ,b4 ,preliminary ,events4 a4 ,,wrought ,,by ,,external ,,influence4 #acga4 ,the influence of the elements produces different phenomena in the plant4 ,i have felt constantly more inclined to consider1 that not merely the descent of the root1 but even the ascent of the stalk was simply to be viewed as a mechanical event1 or one forsooth effected by gravity4 ,the roots obey under all circumstances the gravity and would grow as far as the centre of the earth1 were they to meet with no impediment2 and there they would follow the revolution of the earth1 and consequently become spirally convoluted upon themselves4 ,it is almost beyond doubt that the water1 which sinks downwards and1 as it were like that in stalactites1 invariably rigidifies or hardens at the radical capillaries1 is heavier in the root4 ,the cause of this greater weight depends upon the mucus not being decomposed4 #acgb4 ,the straight ascent of the stalk also depends upon nothing else than gravity4 ,the upper drops of mucus become lighter by means of greater heat and by decomposition in light and air1 and they are therefore compressed by the heavier in the upward direction4 ,it is always such a small drop upon the summit1 which hardens into its uppermost cell4 ,the stalk1 therefore1 grows upwards through the same forces and in the same manner1 as the air-bubbles ascend in a glass of beer4 ,the cause of their becoming lighter resides certainly in the vital process1 which nevertheless effects in this respect nothing else than the extension or increase2 but yet the cause of the ascent is naught else than the gravity4 #acgc4 ,the light likewise acts upon the direction of plants and especially that of their leaves2 not simply from its promoting growth by elevation of temperature and by decomposition1 but obviously in a mechanical manner also2 for not only do the branches of plants in a green-house grow towards the window1 but most leaves turn themselves the whole day in obedience to the course of the sun4 ,this turning must1 nevertheless1 have one and the same kind of cause with the growing towards light2 it also is only a conatus or effort unto growth4 ,the upper leaf-cells1 being illuminated by the sun1 become lighter1 and are therefore directed at once1 like the apices of the branches1 toward the influence of light4 ,the cells that stand perpendicularly upon the surface of the leaf are to be regarded as branches conjoined by growth4 #acgd4 ,the sleep of plants depends also upon the same influence of the light4 ,the upper leaf-cells sleep during the night1 while the lower cells1 especially those of the petiole1 fill and consequently bend the latter upwards4 ,the sleep of the flower must have the same cause4 ,as likewise the alternating motion of many leaves1 as in the ,mimos4 #acge4 ,the motion also performed by the staminal filaments towards the pistil must finally depend upon this unequal replenishment of the external and internal cells4 #acgf4 ,the coloration of the parts of plants is a result of the decomposition of the starch-granules in the cells by the agency of light4 #acgg4 ,the operation of the heat is more intelligible than any other4 ,that which is to move and separate itself1 must have a certain degree of extension1 or must be fluid1 namely1 aquiform4 ,in a cold temperature the upper saps1 not becoming warmer than the lower1 are consequently not lighter1 and on that account also do not ascend upwards4 ,the mortal freezing of trees descends from above downwards4 ,in other respects plants have1 like animals1 a self-inherent1 though very feeble1 process of heat4 ,germination proves this1 in cases where many seeds lie upon each other4 #acgh4 ,the air acts also mechanically and physically upon plants1 by causing motion of the solid parts and by promoting evaporation4 ,electricity is without doubt active in the spring of the year1 and evokes the antagonism between the fabric of the stem and root4 #acgi4 ,the physical operation of water consists indeed1 for the greatest part1 in its preserving the solid parts in a supple or pliant state4 ,its principal office is1 however1 to convey nourishment to the plant4 #achj4 ,the earths act beneficially only upon plants1 if they have been all mixed with each other4 ,mineral salts occurring in moderate quantity in the soil promote growth2 alkalies and acids are injurious thereunto4 ,the same holds good of ,inflammables and metallic limes4 b4 ,,by ,,internal ,,activity4 #acha4 ,that the plant imbibes water1 and this indeed in great quantity1 by its whole surface is a well-ascertained fact2 but it has been by no means equally determined whether it obtains its nourishment simply through the water1 or directly also from the air1 e4 g4 the carbon1 as well as the nitrogen1 from the carbonic acid4 ,the principal imbibition1 however1 takes place through the root2 but experiments that have been made upon this subject leave it doubtful1 whether in this case it is simply mucus1 extract from the humus or vegetable mould1 or simply carbonic acid that has been absorbed4 #achb4 ,it is moreover a fact that the green parts of plants exposed to direct sun-light consume or take in carbonic acid1 and develop or give out oxygen2 on the contrary1 during the night1 and even in cloudy or gloomy days1 they absorb oxygen and exhale or develop carbonic acid4 ,now1 as there are far more gloomy or at least cloudy than clear days1 it thus becomes evident that far more oxygen has been taken up1 than separated1 from the air4 ,during germination oxygen gas is consumed and1 on the other hand1 carbonic acid developed4 #achc4 ,the saps ascend upwards1 and chiefly indeed1 in the liber2 on its passage different substances forming from it1 which appear especially in the fruit in greatest proportion and variety4 #b4 ,processes4 #achd4 ,the tissues of plants form three formations1 which must be similar in their functions1 and can only exhibit subordinate differences4 ,the cell-formation is displayed in the cellular tissue1 in the bark and root4 ,the vascular formation in the vascular tissue1 in the liber and stalk4 ,the tracheal formation in the tracheal tissue1 the wood and the leaves4 ,there can accordingly be only three principal functions in the vegetable stem1 and of these each will display minor differences4 ,a4 ,cellular ,processes4 a4 ,,root-,,process--,,absorption4 #ache4 ,as the root is the cellular organ proper1 so in it principally resides the water-process or the commencement of chemical elaboration and analysis4 ,now the chemism in an organic body is called digestion4 #achf4 ,the root is the mouth or pharynx of the plant1 and is therefore principally concerned with absorption4 ,its process is therefore the formation of mucus1 or as it were of salivation4 ,the root cannot1 however1 create mucus1 as it was created at the conclusion of the earth-metamorphosis in the sea2 it can absorb it or in the highest degree compound it out of the constituent parts4 #achg4 ,the process of the formation of mucus is a process of putrefaction2 the function of the root consists accordingly in supporting a constant process of putrefaction4 ,the soil in which the root stands must contain substances susceptible of1 and the conditions necessary to1 putrefaction4 ,these substances are organic matters and water2 the conditions heat and access of air4 ,such a soil is called humus or mould4 ,in a pure1 dry earth1 no root can thrive4 #achh4 ,carbon1 from its being the earthy body1 is the principal one in the formation of mucus1 and the basis also of the vegetable bodies4 ,a root can develop itself1 if it stand only in a soil such as the calcareous1 which contains carbon and water4 ,the calcareous soil is as it were an original mould4 ,it is probable that the calcareous earth is constantly decomposed by the root and its carbon absorbed4 ,the calcareous earth is again neutralized by the carbonic acid of the water and air4 #achi4 ,there can be no doubt that the root also abstracts carbon from these elements1 and converts it into mucus1 or probably separates it from carbonic acid4 ,the mucus approximates the animal nature1 so that the root in its constituent parts1 in its smell1 and even in its structure1 exhibits animal properties2 animal substances therefore are also the best nutritive media of plants4 #acij4 ,that which putrefies most easily is the best manure4 #acia4 ,through the process of putrefaction many kinds of antagonisms and attractions1 by which the absorption takes place through the root-filaments1 are aroused4 #acib4 ,the root has not merely one orifice for absorbing1 but it imbibes upon the whole surface1 from its being still immersed in the chemical menstruum4 ,the integument of animals does the same4 b4 ,,bark-,,process--,,evaporation4 #acic4 ,the bark1 as an organ of cellular tissue1 which is placed wholly in the outward direction1 must principally exercise the process of absorption and evaporation4 ,now1 as there are two kinds of bark1 a root-and a stalk-bark1 or a water-and air-bark1 so upon the former will the business of absorption chiefly devolve1 on the latter that of evaporation4 #acid4 ,as the bark of the stalk possesses stomata1 which are wanting in that of the root1 so is this a probable reason for these apertures being organs of evaporation4 ,this opinion is corroborated also by aquatic leaves being without stomata1 while they occur in the leaves exposed to air4 #acie4 ,meanwhile the stalk is of a twofold character2 it is only the root that has ascended into the air4 ,as an aerial root it absorbs4 ,without doubt the stalk absorbs the same as the root1 namely1 moisture from the air and carbonic acid4 ,experiments prove it4 c4 ,,cell-,,process--,,digestion4 #acif4 ,the cells are the crystallized drops of mucus1 the fundamental mass of the vegetable and consequently the water1 which converts itself into the ,earthy1 or wherein the ,solid has been elaborated and precipitated4 ,they construct the ,solid that has been absorbed into new cells4 ,but the ,solid can only assume other forms by means of water4 ,the solution1 however1 with mixture of bodies and formation into globules is digestion4 ,the cells are thus the stomachs of which the plant has millions like mouths4 #acig4 ,the bodies absorbed must move in the cells2 for chemical solution and mixture1 being itself nothing else than separation and union of atoms1 is consequently motion4 ,in a single cell the motion must be upon all sides1 because the atoms are attracted and repelled from all points of the cell-wall4 ,in cells1 however1 which are united with others and therefore subjected to longitudinal polarity1 this motion must be performed in accordance with the axis of the cells4 #acih4 ,this motion proceeds to and fro1 because the extremities of the cells have different polarities1 and therefore repel the same atoms1 which they have before attracted4 ,in the cells the mucus appears to be converted into starch-granules4 ,b4 ,vascular ,processes4 a4 ,vessel-process--,conveyance of ,sap4 #acii4 ,the vessels or intercellular passages conduct the sap1 or the water of the plant4 ,their function is therefore the continued conveyance of the sap that has been absorbed from the root1 and rendered solid or consistent by the evaporation going on in the bark and elaborated by the cells4 #adjj4 ,the vessels of plants are notwithstanding to be compared with the lymphatic vessels of animals1 in so far also as these are distributed throughout the whole body1 and convey the sap simply in one direction not in a circle4 #adja4 ,as the passages between all the cells are in all directions1 so the vegetable saps or fluids flow in all directions1 and not to one centre as in the animal4 ,plants have no heart4 ,the sap pursues a tolerably rapid course in the vessels4 ,a fading or drooping cabbage1 two feet in length1 can gradually become erect in a few minutes after being put to soak in water4 ,in other respects the course of the sap in the vessels may be seen in many plants under the microscope4 b4 ,liber-process--,mixture of ,sap4 #adjb4 ,in the liber1 as being the mass of intercellular passages1 the sap contained in the vessels principally accumulates1 as in the thoracic duct of animals2 in it the matters have not been simply conveyed and dissolved1 but also mixed and converted into true vegetable sap1 into blood4 #adjc4 ,the tubes of the liber are those by which the chemical life is sustained4 c4 ,stalk-process--,secretion4 #adjd4 ,the stalk is the root planted in air1 and consequently its process is the differenced process of putrefaction1 in which the mucus becomes further evolved4 #adje4 ,the analysis chiefly occurs in the stalk2 the mucus1 or rather the starch1 becoming converted into sugar and acids4 #adjf4 ,sugar is the mucus of the stalk1 and is found in every vegetable sap1 especially that of such plants as are characterized by the systems of the stalk1 and have not yet attained the formation of the reticular leaf1 as the ,monocotyledones1 e4 g4 the grasses4 #adjg4 ,the sugar originates from a process of fermentation2 the process of the stalk must consequently be regarded as a vital process of fermentation4 #adjh4 ,the process of fermentation is that of putrefaction carried on in the air1 or the polar process of fermentation4 ,both processes consequently observe a polar relation towards each other4 #adji4 ,the sugar-process passes over finally into acidification4 #adaj4 ,the ,inflammables1 as the therial oils1 balsams1 and resins1 are formed in the antagonism of the sugar or of the acids4 ,here also belong most of the peculiar vegetable matters1 as the milky saps1 colouring matters1 medicinally active bodies1 poisons1 and the alkaloids4 ,c4 ,tracheal-processes4 a4 ,leaf-process--,inspiration4 #adaa4 ,in the foliage the woody rings have issued freely into the air1 in order that they may offer their whole surface to its influence1 and thus become electrified and oxydized4 #adab4 ,the leaf is the free1 external organ of respiration to the plant2 it is its lung4 ,through the leaf the air1 and chiefly its oxygen1 is transferred into the plant1 just as it is through the lungs into the animal4 #adac4 ,the leaves take in oxygen gas2 this is their essential function1 and not that of exhaling it4 #adad4 ,the leaves only exhale oxygen gas when exposed to light4 ,the development of oxygen in the plant is accordingly a light-and not an air-process4 ,in consequence of this the leaves give out oxygen gas only during the day1 but during the night and even upon gloomy days1 where not the light but only the air is active1 they take in oxygen and give out carbonic acid4 #adae4 ,the light develops the oxygen gas out of the plant in a perfectly inorganic manner1 like as from every water1 that can be set in a process of tension4 ,rumford has developed by simple glass tubes oxygen gas out of water4 ,the oxygen gas of plants is therefore a result only of the decomposition of water in an inorganic manner by the agency of light1 or virtually the separation only of the oxygen that is clinging to the water4 #adaf4 ,through the process of respiration in the plant carbonic acid has been formed and excreted4 ,for the mucus becomes oxydized1 and thereby the process also of fermentation1 the product of which is carbonic acid1 is promoted4 #adag4 ,the respiratory process of the leaves is the perfected process of fermentation in the stalk1 in which finally1 namely1 in the fruit-saps1 the separation of both the products of fermentation1 the vinous and acetic1 is prepared4 #adah4 ,just as acids and sugar originate in the stalk1 so in the foliage does their electrical antagonism1 or the therial oils and perfumes4 ,sweet scents or perfumes are properties of the air1 and therefore originate also with the aerial process4 ,this is retrospectively a proof that the leaf-process is the respiratory process4 #adai4 ,through the leaves1 with which the whole surface of the earth is covered1 the planet respires1 and thereby the surface of the earth principally obtains its electricity4 #adbj4 ,vegetation must therefore effect an important change in the earth's electricity4 ,the earth must be differently polarized after1 to what it was before1 the fall of the leaf4 #adba4 ,thereby the northern hemisphere is differently polarized to the southern1 because the latter has less soil than the former4 b4 ,wood-process--,nutrition4 #adbb4 ,as most of the spiral vessels are collected together in the body of wood1 and finally in the leaves issue forth quite free and naked into the air1 so must the wood conduct for the most part air into the plant4 ,the polarization of the other systems1 of the liber and the bark1 must therefore proceed from the body of wood4 #adbc4 ,the greatest amount of induration must originate in the body of the spiral vessel1 because in it the process of oxydation takes place in the most active manner4 ,from the same cause the process of nutrition must also be supported by it in the most powerful manner4 ,the wood is the chief seat of nutrition4 c4 ,tracheal-process--,oxydation4 #adbd4 ,the structure of the spiral vessels1 their resemblance to the trache or air-tubes of insects1 their distribution throughout the whole trunk1 the air they contain which is found decidedly free in the plant1 leave no doubt that the trache are air-conveying organs1 and consequently have1 like the arteries in animals1 the process of respiration directly intrusted to them4 #adbe4 ,now through the process of respiration the general polarity1 and consequently the cause or fundamental principle of all life1 enters the plant4 #adbf4 ,the trache penetrate or traverse the whole plant from the apex of the root to that of the flower4 ,their operation must therefore also extend through the whole plant4 #adbg4 ,the tracheal system must also govern the plant by polarity1 and thus in an immaterial manner4 #adbh4 ,this polarity acts simply in the direction of the plant's longitude1 not transversely1 like the material fundamental processes4 #adbi4 ,the trache impart in a spiritual manner the antagonism between the root and fabric of the stem4 #adcj4 ,as the trache are1 or constitute1 the highest system of the plant1 so must it be them upon which the light principally acts4 ,the material processes of plants are kept in activity by the antagonism of light4 #adca4 ,by this only are the instantaneous changes1 which follow upon the influence of light or section of the spiral vessels1 to be explained4 ,upon this1 therefore1 depends the instantaneous elevation of the processes under the influence of a ray of light1 and their depression1 if only a cloud pass in front of and obscure the sun2 hence too does the plant die1 so to speak1 upon the very spot1 if the spiral fibres within the liber be cut through1 but the latter left uninjured4 #adcb4 ,the liber no longer conveys any sap to the divided trache1 solely because it has lost the condition to be affected by the light-polarity4 ,on the contrary1 a plant does not die so soon1 if the liber be cut through1 but the spiral vessels preserved4 ,the spiral fibres conditionate consequently the motion and the excitation of the organic processes4 #adcc4 ,the spiral fibres are therefore1 apart even from their function of respiration1 or rather because this is the highest vegetable function1 that for the plant1 which the nerves are for the animal4 #adcd4 ,the trache of plants do not ramify like the nerves of animals2 but if they divide1 they separate only as fascicles1 which have been liberated from their origin4 ,the trache commence too directly in the mass of cells1 wherever that may happen to be1 and thus become what governs an organ1 exactly like the animal nerves4 ,their analogy is greatest with the sympathetic nerves4 ,the trache1 just as in the animal kingdom1 are the mediators1 not the founders1 of vegetable life4 #adce4 ,the principle of motion must reside in the trache1 provided that higher1 and not merely chemical movements1 occur in the plant4 #adcf4 ,these movements must and can only exist in those organs which consist almost entirely of spiral vessels1 and thus only in the highest organs4 #adcg4 ,such are the leaves and the coroll4 ,is it wished to compare the corolla1 apart from its sexual relation1 with an organ in animals1 it can only be contrasted with the highest nervous organ4 ,the corolla is the brain of plants1 that which corresponds to light1 but which here remains stationary upon the sexual stage4 ,it may be said that what is sex in the plant1 becomes brain in the animal1 or the brain is only the animal sex4 #adch4 ,the most general function of the brain is1 however1 feeling or touch combined with motion4 ,if the corolla could attain to a sensorial function1 it would be to that of touch4 #adci4 ,it is conducted thereto2 but at the instant1 when it is indulged in feeling the mental capacity of the animal1 it sinks down exhausted and dies4 ,it is punished for the risk that has been run in wishing to attain unto self-cognition4 #addj4 ,motion and touch are revealed only in the highest organs of the plant1 or in the stamina4 ,the filament moves upon the pistil and touches it with the pollen1 which at that instant1 however1 is scattered in small particles1 and leaves behind the filament in a withered state4 #adda4 ,the motion performed by the filaments appears to be a simple operation of the irritability in the trache that have become soft1 without undergoing chemical decomposition1 but probably by sudden influx of sap1 induced by the tension of air in the spiral vessels4 #addb4 ,in the highest1 or the pinnate1 leaves1 movements1 which are probably a result of the tracheal irritability1 also occur1 but are devoid the object of coming into contact with1 or of touching1 anything4 ,the sensitive plants1 as ,hedysarum gyrans1 move their leaves1 not from any intrinsic determination upon their part1 but in accordance with an antecedent stimulus1 and thus not voluntarily1 but probably through the influence merely of polar tension4 ,the movements of leaves are convulsions of plants1 although too an afflux of sap be caused or induced by the stimulus4 ,,sap-,,motion4 ,galvanic ,process4 #addc4 ,the motion of the sap is imparted through the antagonism of the respiratory and digestive processes4 ,for these two processes are the combination of the ,chemical with the ,electric1 which is the galvanism4 #addd4 ,the galvanic poles attract and repel the fluidity2 thus the vegetable sap is attracted by the root and by the stalk4 ,but the differencing or the oxygen pole is the stronger of the two4 ,the determining principle of the movement of the sap resides consequently in the stalk1 and the chief direction of the sap-motion tends upwards4 #adde4 ,at times1 when the air-polarity is elevated1 the sap also ascends more rapidly4 ,as in summer1 upon clear warm days4 ,it ascends slowly upon gloomy and chill days4 ,that in this also light and heat are playing their parts1 is self-intelligible4 ,thereby the upper particles of sap become lighter and ascend1 being pressed upwards by the lower and colder particles4 ,as they are nevertheless by no means changed1 this is a proof that1 during the time so employed1 polar forces also act upon them4 #addf4 ,but the root has also the endeavour to attract the sap2 but as its pole is feebler in character1 the stalk draws the sap from the ultimate extremities of the root into itself4 ,if accordingly the polarity of the air becomes weaker1 while the plant is losing its leaves or the organs of polarization2 so is it easy to imagine why the motion of the sap becomes slower4 ,as1 however1 the aerial polarity is always stronger than that of the earth1 the sap must thus in winter also take the same1 or upward1 direction4 #addg4 ,a fall or descent of the sap can therefore never take place abstractedly forsooth from the root1 in which it sinks by its own gravity4 ,how a part of a plant1 e4 g4 a twig1 could continue alive1 were the sap to have fallen or receded from it1 is not to be conceived4 ,it does not follow from what has been just stated1 that movements of sap should not take place in all directions1 and consequently too downwards2 they must indeed occur rather than otherwise1 and that indeed upon all sides2 only the principal track or course of the sap must always pass in the direction upwards4 #addh4 ,the movement of the sap consists simply in an ascent and impulsion of its particles upon all sides1 but without any circulation4 ,a circulation would only be possible if the plant were an organism disengaged from the elements2 but as the earth and air belong to its organization2 it thus necessarily oscillates between both1 and its movements also can only be oscillations of a similar intervening character4 #addi4 ,there are consequently no arteries and veins1 and still less a heart in plants1 as some have striven to make out4 #adej4 ,the vessels of plants are most properly to be compared with the lymphatic vessels of animals1 the fluid or sap of which also tends from all parts towards one summit1 namely1 the lungs1 while still at times retrogressive movements also seem to occur4 #adea4 ,the vegetable sap does not move in a straight line upwards1 but in all directions1 to the right and left1 in a zigzag manner1 and so on4 ,this is proved by two incisions being made in a branch opposite to each other4 ,the motion of the sap in the plant is more an impulsion of the sap toward all sides1 with a predominance in the direction upwards1 than a rapid current as in the blood4 ,if we reflect that the motion of the sap when seen under the microscope and then magnified several hundred times1 still only resembles a gentle rippling of small drops1 it thus becomes clear that the true current or flow occurs only in a very tardy manner4 ,wherever therefore in the plant the process of differencialization may be brought into play1 there the sap is impelled4 #adeb4 ,through the polarization of the sap the cells also become polar towards each other1 and then even the cell-walls1 whereby the cellular sap with its mucous granules is kept in constant motion4 ,the theory of the motion of sap has not consequently been based upon the theory of capillary tubules2 nor is heat alone the cause of its ascent2 nor the empty space1 which originates superiorly by evaporation2 nor electricity in an inorganic sense4 ,,ii4 ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,floral-,,organs4 #adec4 ,these functions correspond to those of the light1 heat1 and gravity in the corolla1 pistil and seed4 ,the corolla irradiates1 the pistil gives out heat1 the seed sinks like the earth towards the centre4 #a4 ,function of the ,corolla4 ,,fertilization4 #aded4 ,as in the vegetable trunk the principle function has been the antagonism between the aerial and the terrestriaqueous plant1 so must the same function be repeated in the corresponding organs of the blossom4 ,it oscillates in the principal antagonism between the corolla and pistil1 which is the antagonism of leaf and stem1 that of electrism and chemism1 of light and body1 of spirit and matter4 #adee4 ,the pollen electrifies1 animates1 or inspirits the ovarium1 by which means it becomes stimulated to the development of seeds4 ,without this animating influence the seed had not been developed4 #adef4 ,this relation1 whereby through the balance of an antagonism1 a whole organism has been evoked into life1 is called the sexual relation4 #adeg4 ,the sex is consequently the antagonism between spirit and matter1 light and mass1 ther and the terrestrial elements1 sun and planet1 between electrism and chemism1 that has been represented in an organism as totality4 ,in sex consequently the primary antagonism of the world1 or that of spirit and matter1 centre and periphery1 has been organically represented4 #adeh4 ,the sex has hence from the beginning been established and prophesied2 manifests itself also under diverse forms in the ,organic1 but becomes first individualized in an organic body4 ,this is the lofty sense or signification of the sexual relation1 that in it the ,spiritual and ,material pair together1 and thereby sprout forth or germinate into a whole world4 ,in sex the mystery of creation lies concealed4 #adei4 ,what is producing the fruit is called the female1 that which awakes production1 the male4 #adfj4 ,mascularity is the spirit of the world1 feminality the matter which becomes animated by the former2 mascularity is the light of the word1 which illuminates the feminality1 and it is pregnant2 mascularity is the electricity of the world1 which arouses the female chemism unto galvanic circulation4 ,by the male the female becomes animated2 before this it is dead and devoid the differentialization1 which is necessary to every action4 #adfa4 ,impregnation is a simple act of light upon the matter1 an irradiation1 as it was termed1 with such an exalted appreciation of its significance1 by the ancients4 ,the male imparts nothing in impregnation but the solar ray1 or fluid nervous mass1 in its semen1 which awakes1 animates1 and inspirits the quiescent female4 ,the female supplies or furnishes all the ,material or1 as in the plant1 the fruit4 ,in other respects it is not to be understood1 as if no material whatever had been imparted by the male1 but only that it is not the matter as such1 which the male gives the female1 that becomes fruit2 but that the tension which resides in male semen1 evokes at the same time1 as by a process of contagion or fermentation1 a similar tension in the female4 #adfb4 ,the process of tension resides originally in the male1 because he is related or akin to the light2 but the female first obtains the light through the male4 #adfc4 ,impregnation is an excitation by the electrical1 of the slumbering chemical1 process4 ,the pregnancy is consequently an uninterrupted chemical process4 #adfd4 ,the female is the first and lies deeper in the developmental history of the planet 7but not in the creation71 just as the digestive process is prior or antecedent to the respiratory4 #adfe4 ,in the truest sense is feminality co-ordinated with the digestive1 the mascularity with the respiratory1 system4 ,the female is 7organically considered7 abdomen1 the male1 thorax4 ,pregnancy is a sexual process of digestion1 impregnation a sexual process of respiration4 ,in impregnation the female respires the male1 whereby it receives into itself a thoracic function1 becomes itself male1 i4 e4 is then capable of producing something out of itself4 ,now1 the female produces a fruit1 which is synonymous with both principles4 #adff4 ,the semen is the fruit of the male4 ,the male is always pregnant1 and that indeed by virtue of his own power4 ,this power is deficient in the female1 which does not possess the light in itself1 but only the elemental bodies that are ready and susceptible of form4 #adfg4 ,the anthers are the male organs1 the pollen is the semen4 ,the pistils are the female organs1 the seed-granules are properly speaking1 the germ4 #adfh4 ,the pollen is a most highly differenced1 electrical product2 the seed-granule a wholly indifferent1 and tranquil mucous mass4 ,the pollen falls upon the stigma of the pistil1 and irradiation has taken place2 the material fruit-capsule gains thereby so much polarity1 that saps enough ascend1 in order to develop the germless seed-vesicles4 #adfi4 ,it is quite unnecessary for the pollen1 with its sap or gas1 to be materially conveyed through the style to the seed4 ,it is only requisite for the style to be excited1 dualized1 electrified1 and then it has life enough of its own4 ,but it does not follow1 because it is unnecessary for the sap of the floral dust or pollen to reach the seed-granules1 that it cannot or ought not to reach thereunto4 ,in many plants the pollen-tube does actually reach there and penetrate through the micropyle4 ,in many styles it is still held as impossible1 for the pollen-tube to penetrate through them to the seeds4 ,the pollen-sap indeed simply evokes on the apex of the seed 7upon the summit of the lorical rib1 through whose liberation the micropyle originates7 the vital process1 which1 without this stimulus1 would perish4 ,thereby a new cell is secreted1 from whence the germ is developed4 ,,irritability--,,motion4 #adgj4 ,in impregnation the heaven is married to the earth2 for then the spirit descends1 and does not esteem itself too highly to become flesh4 ,impregnation is the highest immaterial action of the plant4 #adga4 ,if1 therefore1 the irritability of the plant at any time1 or but once only1 makes its appearance independently1 it must be in the sexual organs1 and in the moments of impregnation4 ,impregnation ensues1 when the two mundane principles of the plant1 light and matter1 have attained1 as corolla and fruit1 to the highest pitch of perfection2 then the tension of the spiral vessels ranks so high1 that they exercise their function independently of what is terrestrial in the plant1 move themselves in the male filaments1 touch the female organ1 and die in this their highest effort4 #adgb4 ,thus has it only been conceded to the plant to be1 in the instant of impregnation1 an animal and enjoy animal passion4 #b4 ,function of the ,ovarium4 #adgc4 ,the ovary1 by its own power1 is in a condition to draw towards it the chemical saps from out the stem1 and as it were by its own heat to thrust new buds from its leaf-ribs1 namely1 the seed-pellicles or test4 ,it has not1 however1 strength sufficient to put forth also the leaf-work1 namely1 the embryo1 upon the apex of the seed-shell4 ,it requires for this purpose the stimulus of the floral pollen4 ,if the plant is very rich in sap1 the ovary is so likewise1 and converts itself into fruit or sarcocarp4 ,as a rule1 therefore1 trees only bear a crop of fruit4 ,if also the impregnation is less perfect1 the force of the sap continues to remain inherent in the ovarian leaves2 they become rich in sap1 fleshy1 and likewise fruity in character2 trees1 therefore1 with imperfect or separated blossoms1 as the ,amentace1 ,urticace1 ,euphorbiace1 ,papilionace1 ,terebinthace1 and ,rosace1 usually bring forth a crop of fruit4 #adgd4 ,a stronger degree of refinement appears in these fruit-saps than in the saps of the stem1 because corolla and seeds range closer to each other4 ,they are therefore more varied and richer in substance4 ,the fruit-substances range usually upon the side of the water or the salts1 while those of the seed range upon the side of the earth or the ,inflammables4 ,the substances of the seed are flour and oil1 those of the fruit sugar and acids2 the former supplies food1 the latter drink4 #adge4 ,seed and ovary stand therefore in antagonism1 like earth and water4 #c4 ,function of the ,seed4 ,,germination4 #adgf4 ,the seed is the plant contracted upon its centre1 it is the heavy mineral mass1 which can only undergo changes by the operation of the other elements1 like as it arrived only at completion by the operation of the floral pollen4 ,this acts upon it when within the dry ovary1 like the water and oxygen in the dry earth4 ,these changes are its development or germination4 #adgg4 ,all the planetary elements belong to germination1 and to growth the ,cosmical also with all its actions4 ,to germination belongs earth1 water1 and air2 to growth1 light1 heat1 and gravity2 with all the four mineral classes also1 such as earth1 salt1 ,inflammable1 and metal4 ,the plant contains silicious and calcareous earth1 salts1 coal with sulphur1 and lastly1 iron4 #adgh4 ,germination is the disjunctive emergence wrought by means of moisture1 heat and oxydation in the processes of decomposition and fermentation4 ,no seed germinates in irrespirable kinds of air4 #adgi4 ,the cotyledons or seed-lobes are the synthesis of the two processes2 they are at once root and leaf1 therefore resolvable into mucus1 and may yet become green4 #adhj4 ,in germination the elemental bodies of the root-and stalk-polarity directly emerge2 the mucus or the flour separates into alcaline gum1 that seeks the darkness1 and into acid sugar1 which elevates itself into the illuminated air4 ,,growth4 #adha4 ,growth is none other than continued germination4 ,the sap being polarized by the air becomes of necessity decomposed4 ,one part evaporates as carbonic acid and water1 the other coagulates into oxydized mucus or into cell-walls4 #adhb4 ,growth proceeds directly from the process of digestion and respiration1 while its polar organs constantly remove further from each other4 #adhc4 ,properly speaking the digestive and respiratory processes are none other than growth1 since both separate from each other4 ,that1 which originates between them1 is the process of nutrition1 the vascular system4 #adhd4 ,growth oscillates between the process of decomposition and that of fermentation2 it is an uninterrupted fermentation4 ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,leaf4 #adhe4 ,if every pole of the plant has been perfected in an isolated manner1 it has thus become identical with the air1 and the aerial process ceases4 #adhf4 ,with the cessation of the aerial process1 the respiratory organ must also die off or perish4 #adhg4 ,the decadence1 or falling off1 of the leaves is the result of the tension having been abrogated between them and the stem2 it is a death by suffocation4 #adhh4 ,the fall of the leaf therefore occurs in the autumn1 or after the fruit is matured4 ,,duration ,,of ,,life4 #adhi4 ,the age of a plant is included between the the limits of the sap's impulse1 and that which has been called its fall or descent4 #adij4 ,the actual fall of the sap is the death of the plant4 #adia4 ,if with the cessation of the influence of light1 the polarity ceases entirely in the plant2 it is then one year old or an annual4 ,every part of it dies off4 #adib4 ,in biennial plants the aerial polarity indeed disappears1 but the polarity of the root remains4 ,flower1 leaf1 and stalk die4 #adic4 ,perennial plants1 also1 do not entirely lose the stem-polarity1 but only while they develop a new plant about the old4 ,flower and leaf only perish1 while the water-and earth-organs remain alive4 #adid4 ,the old liber dies with every maturation of the fruit1 because there the difference attains solution4 ,but a new life develops itself in the parenchyma of the plant1 and forms new liber or1 properly speaking1 a new plant about the old4 #adie4 ,persistent plants consist of numerous plants1 which gradually grow round about each other4 #adif4 ,in accordance with the idea of the plant1 each one perishes with the maturation of the fruit4 #adig4 ,on account of the addition of the new plant about the old1 the plant has also been confined to no definite magnitude and to no definite number in its mode of ramification4 #adih4 ,indefiniteness in form1 size and number1 is the character of the plant1 although a law lies at the basis of all this4 ,the animal has a definite size1 because several animals do not grow around each other4 ,,iii4--,,phytology4 #adii4 ,hitherto the organs of the plant have been considered in a general point of view or as to their idea in time2 to this now follows the development of the plant in a special sense1 or its representation in space4 #aejj4 ,the vegetable tissues1 systems1 and organs have only by degrees been disengaged from each other and independently perfected4 ,the independent or self-substantial development of the organs constitutes definite or individual plants4 #aeja4 ,a plant1 in which all the organs are present1 separately or self-substantially developed and yet combined1 is without doubt the highest in point of rank4 #aejb4 ,before it attains to this separation1 nature can only produce lower forms1 in which fewer organs have attained to independence4 ,these forms constitute the diversity of plants and their plurality1 for nature establishes every principal form as a finished organization4 #aejc4 ,there are as many plants different from each other as there are organs1 namely1 tissues1 anatomical systems and members4 #aejd4 ,the sum of all plants is called the vegetable kingdom2 this is the self-substantial representation of all vegetable organs4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaj1 p4 #abc47 #aeje4 ,the vegetable kingdom is consequently the expression of the vegetable idea1 or of the perfect plant represented in the multiplicity of individuals2 it is the plant disintegrated1 or anatomised1 by nature herself4 #aejf4 ,were we therefore acquainted with all vegetable organs1 we should know their rank and developmental series2 and thus also recognize the character1 rank1 and developmental series of the plants themselves1 or their divisions4 ,there can be no doubt that the lowest organs1 e4 g4 the tissues1 have been first developed and independently perfected as plants2 later on they separate into anatomical systems and finally into members1 whereby perfect plants must originate4 ,the division or classification of the vegetable kingdom is consequently that of the vegetable organs4 ,the ,systematic of plants is a copy of that of their organs1 or a plastic representation of the philosophical vegetable anatomy4 ,with this every thing has been granted1 which is requisite for the building or erection of the vegetable system4 ,all principles1 together with the methods1 rest in the proposition that has been expressed4 #aejg4 ,the artificial systems of plants are related to the vegetable kingdom1 as the lexicon or dictionary is to language4 ,those systems which have hitherto been termed natural1 but which should properly be called methodical1 are related to the vegetable kingdom1 as the ordinary grammar is to a language4 ,the vegetable system must1 however1 be related to the vegetable kingdom1 as the philosophical or genetic grammar is to language4 ,this only agrees with the essence of the language1 or is natural4 ,the vegetable system is necessarily a philosophical or genetic one1 that alone being truly or legitimately natural4 7,this system was first propounded by ,oken1 in the ,ed4 #ast of the ,naturphilosophie1 #ahaj2 further developed in ,dietrich's ,garten ,journal1 #ahac2 carried out in his ,naturgeschichte fur ,schlen1 #ahba1 and in his ,lehrbuch der ,nat4 ,gesch4 ,botanik4 ,weimar1 #ahbe47 ,the artificial system collects the materials for the edifice1 but leaves them to lie without order and in confusion2 the methodical or what has been called the natural system separates these materials and arranges them in homogeneous groups2 the genetic1 philosophical or truly natural1 system1 again mixes them amongst each other1 but thereby actually erects the edifice4 ,all three systems are therefore necessary and good1 and no one of them merits being despised by the other2 it is only when one of them imagines that it is the other1 or can render the others unnecessary1 that it trespasses from out its circle1 and deserves reproach4 ,thus for ,floras1 whose ultimate object is to find out rapidly the names of plants upon botanical excursions1 as also for the labelling of specimens in botanic gardens1 the artificial system is the best2 for the description1 however1 of foreign plants the methodical2 but for insight into the whole vegetable world the philosophical or natural system4 ,would we compare ,floras with each other1 the latter system must certainly come into play2 but then the matter to be dealt with is not about an excursion-book4 ,,vegetable ,,system4 #aejh4 ,taken in a strict sense all the diversity of vegetable structure of vegetables has reference first of all to the difference in the tissues2 these being either unseparated1 or separated1 into special systems and members4 ,at first the tissues lie confusedly1 or without order1 amongst themselves4 ,they then separate in a concentric and tubular form into systems1 that are encased within each other1 like the bark1 liber1 and wood1 which form the shaft4 ,furthermore they separate into members1 and appear one above the other1 as root1 stalk1 and foliage1 which collectively may be called the stem2 these are repeated as seed1 pistil1 and corolla1 which together are called flower1 and combined1 fruit1 namely1 nut1 plum1 berry and apple4 ,i designate by the term stock or trunk all the parts as far as the blossom2 and this together with the fruit ,i name thyrsus4 ,the vegetable stock1 whose tissues have not yet separated into members1 ,i style1 from want of a better word1 thallus4 ,as we divide political kingdoms into provinces and circles1 so also may these titles be suitably applied here4 ,it is evident1 that the plants which simply consist of tissues and have as yet no sheaths and members1 are the ,acotyledones2 those1 however1 provided with sheaths1 but devoid of true roots1 stalk1 and foliage1 ,monocotyledones2 those with true foliage or reticular-veined leaves are1 on the contrary1 ,dicotyledones4 ,the natural system of vegetables stands accordingly in the following manner4 ,a4--,,stock-,,plants4 ,province ,i4 ,,histophyta1 ,,or ,,tissue-,,plants--,acotyledones4 ,class #a4 ,cell-plants4 #b4 ,duct- #c4 ,trachea- ,,ii4 ,,thecophyta1 ,,or ,,sheath-,,plants--,monocotyledones4 #d4 ,bark-plants4 #e4 ,liber- #f4 ,wood- ,,iii4 ,,arthrophyta1 ,,or ,,member-,,plants--,dicotyledones4 ,circle #a4 ,axis-plants--,tubuliflor4 #g4 ,root-plants4 #h4 ,stalk- #i4 ,leaf- ,b4--,,blossom-,,plants4 ,circle #b4 ,flower-plants--,thalamopetal4 #aj4 ,seed-plants4 #aa4 ,ovarium- #ab4 ,corolla- ,circle #c4 ,fruit-plants--,calycopetal4 #ac4 ,nut-plants4 #ad4 ,plum- #ae4 ,berry- #af4 ,apple- #aeji4 ,a slight glance at the above table shows us the procedure of ,nature4 ,the higher she ascends1 the more and more she separates1 and thereby increases1 the organs4 ,there may therefore be plants which have only a single organ or tissue1 as well as others1 which possess all4 #aeaj4 ,there cannot1 however1 be any plant which could simply possess the higher without the lower organs4 ,higher organized plants are not such therefore1 by virtue of their having some one organ more perfectly developed1 or separated into several parts2 but through this1 that they actually possess several different organs4 ,the higher grade of organization depends accordingly not upon the perfection of the ,singular1 but the number of the ,different4 ,the ,perfected consists in the multiplicity combined to constitute unity1 but by no means in the simply homogeneous multitude of the parts4 ,numerous stamina may render a corolla higher1 but not on that account the whole plant2 many digits may make a hand nobler1 but not on that account1 the animal4 ,but with many digits also that hand is nobler1 in which the digits are dissimilar4 ,first ,province4 ,,histophyta--,,acotyledones4 ,devoid of1 or without true spiral-vessels1 leaves1 coroll1 and pistil4 ,the vegetable kingdom ascends1 in accordance with the five main positions of the organs1 by five stages2 these are again separable into larger groups1 which may be called asexual and sexual plants4 #aeaa4 ,the tissues are a something internal1 being1 as it were1 the viscera of plants or their parenchyma1 which does not meet the light1 and can therefore have no light-organs1 which are developed only out of the foliage or leaves4 ,the anatomical systems and organs are tissues that have become external1 have attained to air and light1 and are hence developed into air-and light-organs4 ,now1 the light-organs are sexual organs4 ,the ,tissue-plants can therefore have no sexual organs2 and plants divide accordingly into asexual and sexual plants4 ,the asexual are female plants1 and are consequently the first or lowest4 ,thus there can be thus no sexual or male plants1 without the female being found that belong to them4 #aeab4 ,male or androgynous plants are only possible1 if spiral vessels or trache be present4 ,they first1 however1 originate when the trache become external1 or form a circle in the stalk1 i4 e4 are accessible by light2 as in the ,mono-and ,dicotyledones4 #aeac4 ,the asexual plants are not cryptogamic1 but agamic4 ,they do not perform self-impregnation clandestinely1 but not at all2 for they do not attain light-difference1 and consequently not male organs4 ,analogues of stamina may make their appearance in the mosses1 but they invariably fail to attain the development of pollen4 ,what have been called male parts in other cryptogamia1 do not merit consideration4 ,such projections or prefigurations are besides to be found everywhere4 #aead4 ,the asexual plants are simply formations of the tissues1 of the galvanic vesicle1 and are thus of a female nature4 ,they are nothing more than a great utricle full of small vesicles1 which by desiccation subdivide into germinal dust or sporules1 each granule whereof attracts other mucous vesicles out of the moisture1 in order to form again a large utricle4 #aeae4 ,the asexuals cease in the process of vegetation1 where the other plants begin4 ,with the rupture of the gemmal-or bud-vesicle in the higher plants a new world for the first time emerges into view1 such as stem1 leaves1 blossom1 and then the ultimate bud ruptures for the first time as the pericarp1 and scatters its higher organized germinal powder as true seeds4 #aeaf4 ,an asexual plant is one1 which1 without all the intermediate organs of the stem1 at once represents the capsule or ovary4 ,it consists only of the beginning and end of the plant4 #aeag4 ,the higher plants differ from the lower by the interposition of new organs between the two terminal organs1 namely1 the primary vesicle and the true seed4 ,it may be said1 that the asexual plant is naught but seed1 and that the seed of the higher plants is a fungus upon a leafy peduncle1 a fungus more highly organized by light4 #aeah4 ,the asexual plants have no true root1 stalk1 and leaf2 they have not even a true bark1 liber1 and wood1 in so far as these first make their appearance through separation4 ,trache are first exhibited in the higher ferns1 and then only as constituting a single string1 which occupies the middle of the plant1 and consequently forms no circle or zone4 #aeai4 ,as again the true seed is a leaf-formation1 and possesses therefore cotyledons or seed-lobes1 such seeds must be wanting in the asexual plants2 they are therefore ,acotyledones4 ,from the same cause1 however1 the germinal leaves or plumula must be also wanting2 they are therefore germless1 or anembryonic4 #aebj4 ,the farinaceous or granular matter1 lying next to the germ when within the shell of the true seeds1 is called the albumen or perisperm2 the seeds of the asexual plants are therefore nothing else but albumen4 ,they are therefore devoid of the funiculus or1 what has been called1 umbilical cord4 #aeba4 ,the involucre1 wherein1 in true seeds1 the germ and albumen are found1 is the seed-coat or testa2 consequently what has been called the capsule of the asexual plants 7of mosses and ferns7 corresponds simply to this spermoderm or seed-covering1 and is no true ovarium4 ,the capsules of mosses and ferns are therefore seeds full of albuminous dust4 #aebb4 ,if any of these be regarded as a capsule1 it can be the calyptra of the mosses4 ,this1 too1 is probably nothing else than the external testa2 the proper capsule being its internal coat4 #aebc4 ,the indusium of ferns incloses several capsules as they have been called1 or properly seeds1 and might therefore1 if considered alone1 be compared with an ovarium1 but it is probably none other than the covering corresponding to the perichoetium that surrounds the base of the set in mosses4 ,the sorus is an accumulation of seeds with pulverulent albumen contained in a membranaceous covering1 the indusium4 #aebd4 ,the life of the asexual plants consists simply in the galvanic process4 ,they are the primary organisms1 planted in air4 #aebe4 ,as being simply galvanic process1 they would require but little light and air2 they therefore seek the darkness1 like the roots1 and thrive also in a corrupt atmosphere1 in caves1 mines1 cellars1 and such like situations4 ,they can from the same cause thrive only in moisture1 in water1 upon marshy meadow lands1 after rain1 copious dew1 and so on4 #aebf4 ,they are devoid the process of fermentation1 as being that which is imparted by the oxydation of air1 and they therefore yield neither sugar nor acids4 ,they are simply the organized process of putrefaction2 their ultimate product is therefore germinal powder1 infusorial matter4 ,their remaining secretions are alkaline bodies2 to which belong the pungent1 fetid1 and nauseous excretions1 as the hydrogen gas and ammonia of the fungi1 the mucus of the fuci1 the carbonate of lime in the lichens1 the cell-threads of the mosses1 the fetid principle of ferns4 #aebg4 ,very few of these plants require the course of a summer in order to perfect or complete the vital course2 a single ray of light of one day's1 aye1 of one hour's duration1 is sufficient with most of them to evoke the feeble difference1 to rouse the swell of the sap1 and precipitate the infusorial powder4 #aebh4 ,automatic movements1 as in the leaves and stamina of the higher plants1 scarcely occur in them1 or at most in the ferns1 from their possessing spiral vessels4 ,they divide1 according to the tissues1 into three classes1 into ,cell-1 ,vessel-1 and ,trachea-plants4 ,,class ,i4 ,cell-plants--,fungi4 ,here belong those plants which consist simply of cellular tissue1 having no sap-tubes and trache4 ,such plants1 too1 possess no regular or hexagonal cellular tissue4 #aebi4 ,the cellular tissue1 in which there is only a single active process1 cannot essentially alter its primary form4 ,it is therefore an accumulation of round or cylindrical mucus-vesicles4 #aecj4 ,mucus-vesicles1 in which the air-process is not as yet active1 cannot be coloured green2 but must have the colour of the earth4 #aeca4 ,plants1 composed of amorphous and earth-coloured cellular tissue1 are ,fungi4 ,the fungi are simply clusters of mucus-vesicles joined together in a more or less regular manner1 their union being effected in dark1 hollow and wet situations4 #aecb4 ,they may therefore originate wherever mucous juices are evolved by the potential agency of a higher organization1 and thus by putrefaction4 ,the fungi originate by quivocal generation4 ,they are the anal-organizations of the higher plants and animals2 the corrupted and luxuriating juices4 #aecc4 ,nevertheless the fungus is propagated by division of its vesicles1 which again1 in accordance with their peculiar laws of polarity1 attract mucus-vesicles1 and thus obtain the form of the earlier or parent fungus4 ,this is only a more regulated kind of quivocal generation4 #aecd4 ,the origin of the fungi may therefore happen in a twofold manner1 namely1 by formation from other juices1 and by that of their own1 which is called propagation4 ,still at bottom both are one in kind4 #aece4 ,their granules or vesicles are seeds1 properly sporules1 which are self-developed without male polarization4 ,,division4 #aecf4 ,the fungi pass moreover through stages of development1 which range parallel to the vegetable classes2 since it is impossible for any other organs to originate in them but such as belong to the idea of the plant4 ,the lowest fungus can therefore change only1 by endeavouring to develop in itself ducts1 trache1 roots1 and such like parts4 #aecg4 ,there are accordingly as many developmental stages of the fungi as there are vegetable classes4 ,these divisions are called families4 #aech4 ,the vegetable families range parallel to the classes4 ,this law must hold good of all the classes4 ,there are therefore in each class #af families4 ,an association of families upon each stage may be called an order4 #aeci4 ,at first the fungus is none other than a mucus-vesicle or a small cluster of vesicles1 e4 g4 an uredo or mildew4 ,such a vesicle next becomes longitudinally extended1 and includes within itself other vesicles or granules1 e4 g4 mould4 ,these mould-filaments or threads unite again so as to form a common mass1 which is surrounded by an external membrane1 and is then called puff-ball4 ,the pulverulent granules1 which were irregularly accumulated in the puff-balls1 unite at length in a regular manner to constitute a trunk of varied form1 as in the ascomycetes1 e4 g4 sphri4 ,finally1 the mould-filaments with their sporules are regularly collected together in an investing membrane1 which1 like a puff-ball1 is supported upon a stipes or stem1 e4 g4 the sarcomycetes or agarics4 ,there are therefore #e developmental stages of the fungi1 which correspond to those of the classes2 viz4 the parenchyma1 shaft1 stem1 flower1 and fruit2 and constitute orders4 #aedj4 ,each order is resolvable again into three divisions or families1 which correspond to the organs4 ,thus there are in each class #af tribes or families1 which obviously range parallel to the vegetable organs or classes4 7,vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 #aeda4 ,a tribe or family is consequently the representation of a vegetable organ within a class4 #aedb4 ,the genera obey the same law2 for essential differences are only conceivable through the presence of different organs4 #aedc4 ,species is in the animal kingdom that which copulates without necessity and compulsion4 ,the same definition is applicable to plants4 ,the species range1 without doubt1 according to the diversities in the individual organs themselves1 which admit of a great multitude of combinations1 the number of which is not as yet to be determined4 #aedd4 ,the component parts of the fungi are either perfectly indifferent1 mucous or gelatinoid matter2 or they are of an alcaline nature1 being acrid1 poisonous1 and such like4 ,their odour is usually dead1 disagreeable1 and loathsome1 or analogous to their essential process of decomposition4 ,,class ,,ii4 ,vessel-or ,duct-plants--,mosses4 #aede4 ,the intercellular passages or succigerent vessels of plants make their first appearance in a state of perfection1 when1 the cells being extended lengthways1 have become hexagonal and are placed in regular juxtaposition4 ,in these plants therefore we meet with regular cellular tissue1 but still without spiral vessels or trache4 #aedf4 ,as the vessels or ducts constitute the fundamental tissue of the liber1 while this is the principal system of the stalk2 so now does the stem begin to be manifested and separated from the fruit4 ,the seeds are no longer therefore distributed in the present class throughout the whole trunk1 but developed in a special involucrum or theca1 which corresponds to the puff-ball1 or to the pileus of the higher organized fungi4 #aedg4 ,plants with vessels1 and consequently a cauliform formation1 have at once also the commencement of a bark1 and next the green colour4 ,the vascular are the first green plants1 and differ chiefly through that character from the fungi4 ,they are the ,fucac or ,sea-wracks4 #aedh4 ,they have the colour of the water1 because the course of the sap corresponds to the aqueous process2 they are aquatic1 just as the brown fungi are terrestrial1 plants4 ,their component parts are aqueous1 indifferent1 mucous1 and filose4 ,their habitation is the water itself or bogs4 ,if they occupy dry situations1 they live only when it rains4 #aedi4 ,they likewise pass through the five stages of vegetation1 and form therefore five orders4 #aeej4 ,order #a4 ,the lowest or ,tissue-mosses1 corresponding to the ,uredines2 are again naught but cells or mucous pellicles1 but1 from growing in water1 and being consequently exposed to light and a stronger oxydation1 they are green--,tremellini4 #aeea4 ,they multiply by subdivision1 since new vesicles or granules are developed in their interior1 which become separated1 and subsist or continue to grow for themselves4 ,they therefore originate also by quivocal generation1 but by such an one as constantly occurs in water and light4 #aeeb4 ,the second order1 or the ,vascular mosses corresponds to the sheaths1 or to the ,hyphomycetes4 ,they are long filaments replete with granules1 growing in water1 and therefore green--,confervace4 ,these plants begin to ramify1 and either increase by this means or by effusion of granular matter4 #aeec4 ,the third order1 that of the ,tracheal mosses1 corresponds to the stem1 or to the ,gasteromycetes4 ,a membranous trunk originates in water1 which in certain places secretes the seeds in special vesicles or cysts--,fucales or connate ,conferv4 ,the fuci have at once the form of a stalk with root and leaves1 because they correspond to these three organs of the axis4 #aeed4 ,the fourth order1 the ,floral mosses1 endeavours to obtain the blossom1 and therefore elevates itself out of the water1 but loses on that account the trunk-like character1 and exhibits for the most part only membranous expansions1 upon which seeds are secreted1 which being usually of a beautiful colour1 thus assume the appearance of coroll--,lichenales4 ,the lichens are fuci in dry situations4 ,they correspond to the ,pyrenomycetes or ,sphriace4 #aeee4 ,as the variegated colours appear in the blossom1 so do they also in the lichens2 but here they are for the first time chemically developed1 distributed throughout the whole substance1 and concealed4 ,most lichens yield colouring matters4 #aeef4 ,as the stem is1 in accordance with their signification1 wanting to the lichens1 they thus require a foreign trunk for their nutrition4 ,they are therefore developed for the most part upon other plants1 and principally upon the bark4 #aeeg4 ,lastly1 the fifth order1 ,fruit-mosses1 originates through the development of a self-substantial fruit upon a cauliform stem--the ,mosses proper4 #aeeh4 ,as these are the highest plants of this class1 and those that directly precede the tracheal formation1 so the bark already resolves itself into individual leaves1 which are1 however1 still destitute of spiral vessels4 #aeei4 ,what have been called the seeds or sporules are accumulated in a capsule-like fruit upon the summit of the stalk4 ,this fruit corresponds to the pileated fungus1 and therefore springs up in an opercular manner like the latter4 #aefj4 ,but this capsule is only a spermoderm1 which incloses albuminous granules that have no proper germ or seed-lobes2 they are plants with seed-vessels or pyxidia1 upon an open-leaved stalk4 #aefa4 ,they divide likewise into sixteen families4 7,vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 ,,class ,,iii4 ,trachea-plants--,ferns4 #aefb4 ,at first a fascicle only of spiral vessels can originate1 which is necessarily surrounded by cellular tissue1 and therefore lies in the middle of the plant4 ,such plants are the ,filices or ferns4 #aefc4 ,as the spiral vessels are the antetype of the leaves1 so does the trunk here obtain the form of the leaf1 without itself producing true leaves4 ,for1 in the ferns1 the fruits lie upon the back of the apparent leaf1 which can only be the trunk4 #aefd4 ,the fruits1 being further removed from the fungi1 no longer spring up in an opercular1 but in a valvular1 manner like the higher capsules4 #aefe4 ,green plants with imperfect spiral vessels and blossoms1 and also with naked seeds devoid of true capsules1 belong to the class of ,ferns4 #aeff4 ,i therefore place in this class the ,conifer or trees with acicular foliage1 because they have no ovarium1 but naked seeds2 and besides these1 some other plants1 though doubtfully1 on account of their very abortive blossoms1 as the ,naiadace4 ,there are therefore ,tracheal plants without and with stamina4 ,the first portray the stock or trunk1 the second1 the thyrsus or blossom2 they live mostly in dry situations1 and produce resins or fetid matters4 #aefg4 ,first order4 ,parenchymatous ferns--,aquatic ferns4 ,i here place the aquatic ferns1 because1 as water-plants1 they occupy a lower situation1 because they support the fruits upon a radical trunk1 and finally1 because these fruit-vesicles have two kinds of contents1 all of which seems to remind us of the fuci and lichens2 they correspond to the ,tremellini4 #aefh4 ,second order4 ,sheath-ferns--,club-ferns4 ,here commence the land ferns1 and those kinds indeed whose so-called capsules open in a valvular manner1 just as in the liverworts2 or almost after the fashion of a pyxidium by an orifice1 somewhat as in the mosses2 the trunk is provided with squamose leaves or lobes1 e4 g4 ,lycopodiace and ,osmundace2 they correspond to the ,confervace4 #aefi4 ,third order4 ,stem-ferns--,annular or ,ring-ferns4 ,here we meet with phylloidal involuted capsules or seeds upon the back of a stem that is likewise leaf-like2 e4 g4 the typical or true ferns4 #aegj4 ,they have rudiments of roots and a stem1 together with foliage1 because they are the prototypes of these three organs4 #aega4 ,the ring of their capsules corresponds to the midrib of the leaf4 ,in the preceding order the capsule was only an upsprung stalk2 but it is here an upsprung and unfolded leaf1 the prototype of the bud-development4 #aegb4 ,the fern-capsules1 namely1 the true seeds1 are an accumulation of leaf-buds at the extremity of the fascicle of spiral vessels4 ,the indusium is the upraised epidermis1 which opens in a spathose manner2 it consequently stands in the signification perhaps of the floral spathe or involucrum4 ,they correspond to the ,fuci4 #aegc4 ,fourth order4 ,floral ferns--,fluviales4 ,if the tracheal plants be exalted unto the flower1 male organs cannot fail in at once beginning to develop4 ,i place therefore in this order the ,naiadace with very arrested blossoms1 and simply stamina without calyx and corolla4 ,the spiral vessels are rather doubtful4 #aegd4 ,fifth order4 ,fruit ferns--,conifer4 ,tree with imperfectly-formed spiral vessels1 stamina without coroll1 seeds without ovarium2 thus agreeing with the ,cryptogamia even to the stamina2 they form likewise sixteen families4 7,vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 ,,sexual ,,plants4 #aege4 ,so soon as the three tissues separate completely from each other into bark1 liber1 and wood1 while the trache are arranged circularly into several clusters or groups1 does the antagonism of these organs also make its appearance1 and exhibit itself as sex in the floral organs4 #aegf4 ,this separation can only be attained through the influence of the air and light1 whereby the sexual organs are conditionated4 ,these plants have therefore the several organs of the trunk and blossom4 #aegg4 ,anthers can be wanting to none of the following plants4 ,now1 the anthers are leaf-buds2 the leaf-formation must be therefore developed also in their antagonism1 or in the seed4 ,the leaves of the seed1 however1 are called seed-lobes2 consequently all seeds of sexual plants have seed-lobes or cotyledons4 #aegh4 ,now the perfect seed is the whole plant in miniature with root1 stalk1 and leaf4 ,this formation is1 however1 only possible where there is a sex1 or where the vegetable tissues have emerged self-substantially from each other4 #aegi4 ,but the anthers are buds upon a floral rib2 consequently all sexual plants must have a part of the blossom1 which ranks in the signification of leaf1 and thus either the calyx or1 with this also1 the corolla4 #aehj4 ,all sexual plants must have a shaft or scape1 in which its three parts1 bark1 liber1 and wood1 are to be distinguished2 even so must the three parts of the stem1 the root1 stalk1 and leaf1 have the parts of the blossom which correspond to them1 viz4 seed1 ovarium1 and calyx or corolla4 #aeha4 ,the sexual plants next divide into ,stock-and ,blossom-plants1 the former of these parting into ,shaft-and ,stem-plants4 ,second ,province4 ,,shaft-,,plants--,,monocotyledones4 #aehb4 ,in the ,shaft-plants the invaginate character is predominant1 the wood being surrounded by liber1 and this by bark2 they are therefore tubular in form--tubular plants4 #aehc4 ,the cellular tissue preponderates in them1 and the tracheal fascicles form therefore no closed circle1 but are dispersed2 scattered fasciculi cannot1 however1 ramify but only pursue a straight course and form streaks--striated plants4 #aehd4 ,ramification is wanting unto these plants1 partly on account of their tubular form1 partly on account of the smaller quantity of tracheal fascicles--aramose plants4 ,a vegetable stem without branches is called shaft or scape2 thus they are shaft-plants4 #aehe4 ,the blossoms do not stand upon ramules1 but upon the stem itself2 thus1 if ever ramification originates1 it can first occur in the floral peduncles4 #aehf4 ,as they are deficient in branches1 so also are they in buds--agemmal or budless plants4 #aehg4 ,the tendency to produce branches forms nodes1 which are only imperfect ramal zones--nodose plants4 #aehh4 ,where the formation of branches is wanting1 the minor ramification of ribs must be also wanting in the leaves2 they are parallel-ribbed4 #aehi4 ,the leaf is only a ruptured and expanded tube or spathe1 which surrounds the shaft--spathose plants4 #aeij4 ,where branches are wanting1 there can be also no petiolated leaves2 they have therefore only radical leaves1 from the midst of which the shaft or scape sprouts forth1 only as a floral-peduncle--radical-leaved plants4 #aeia4 ,if all these leaves be still sheathed or encased within each other1 they are called bulbs--bulbose plants4 #aeib4 ,since the corolla is the repetition of the leaves1 so also must its structure resemble theirs--spathose coroll4 #aeic4 ,but as there are here only radical leaves1 so also is the corolla only a radical leaf-corolla4 ,in the blossom1 however1 the radical leaf has become spathe1 the cauline leaf1 calyx1 the ramuscular leaf1 corolla4 ,such blossoms consist therefore either of a spathe only1 as in the ,aroide1 or of a calyx--calycine plants4 #aeid4 ,the stamina originate from the calyx4 ,in calycine flowers therefore all the stamina must range opposite to the corolla-petals4 ,these plants have only opposite1 no alternate stamina4 ,it has been generally assumed that the ,monocotyledones have no true coroll1 but only coloured calyces4 ,philosophy agrees with this opinion2 but adds thereunto that the coroll of the ,monocotyledones may be also merely spathes or involucra4 #aeie4 ,the separation of the bud-formation here takes place for the first time in the blossom1 namely1 in the stamina4 ,the number of the floral parts must be limited to three2 for this is the first number1 in which the leaf-ribs may divide4 ,coroll1 stamina1 and capsules are ternary--trinity-plants4 #aeif4 ,as the seed is only an undeveloped leaf-bud1 so in it only can the number of the leaf be found4 ,since1 however1 the leaf does not ramify in the present group of plants1 but is only a single spathose leaf2 so also does the seed consist only of one such leaf or of one seed-lobe--,monocotyledones4 ,the wheat-seed or grain is none other than a grass-leaf with a short spathe and very dense1 highly farinaceous1 lamell4 ,in germinating a new leaf emerges from the short spathe2 it is the germinal leaf4 #aeig4 ,thus plants having a tubular stem1 and such kind of foliage1 coroll and seeds1 are ,monocotyledones4 #aeih4 ,the chemical bodies are more diversified in these than in the remaining members of the vegetable kingdom4 ,in the roots1 as in the tubers of the ,orchide we meet with distinct mucilage2 in the bulbs with alkalies or acrid matter2 and with sugar1 as being a feeble conversion of the starch in the stalk4 ,the mucilage of the root becomes1 when repeated in the seed1 flour4 ,oily matters or acids seldom occur1 and fleshy fruits scarcely ever4 #aeii4 ,the ovary is almost throughout this region of plants either a single spathose leaf or caryopsis2 or three spathe-leaves are united together1 which thus1 as follicles or carpels1 usually burst open upon the internal edge4 ,,division4 #afjj4 ,if we now proceed to survey the ,monocotyledons1 in the order just set before us1 we shall recognize among them three typical groups1 to which the others are allied2 they are the ,gramine1 ,liliace1 and ,palmace4 #afja4 ,the ,grasses obviously rank the lowest as well in respect of their root1 stalk1 and foliage1 as also of their stunted blossoms1 ovarium1 and seeds4 #afjb4 ,to them succeed the ,lilies1 which have a well-marked root1 a more perfect1 though still always herbaceous1 stalk1 and a few spathoid1 more numerously ribbed leaves2 lastly1 their coroll1 ovaria1 and seeds are perfect2 but still they invariably have no genuine fruits4 #afjc4 ,finally1 the ,palms are elevated above all by their stem being rich in trache and wooded1 as also by the perfection of their fruit4 ,scientifically1 the scapose or shaft-plants must also resolve themselves into three classes2 into ,bark-1 ,liber-1 and ,wood-plants4 ,,class ,,iv4 ,bark-plants--,gramine4 #afjd4 ,in these plants the whole stalk must have assumed the form of the cortex or bark1 and consequently be hollow--tubular1 or culmaceous plants4 #afje4 ,a mere bark cannot ramify4 ,but the tendency unto ramification is manifested as nodes--nodose plants4 #afjf4 ,the leaf which still represents the bark1 is only imperfectly slit up1 and therefore still forms a tube4 ,such leaves are called tubular or spathe-leaves proper4 #afjg4 ,such tubular leaves being only half slit up can only shoot forth gradually from each other1 and that indeed in such a manner that they stand actually by twos1 encased in1 or opposite to1 each other4 #afjh4 ,since the blossom is1 as it were1 an impression1 or copy of the leaves1 so will it here also consist only of spathiform1 involucral1 or calycine leaves1 and only of two1 one of which1 though opposite to1 is surrounded by the other4 ,such floral parts are called glumes--glumaceous plants4 ,if four glumes are present1 then the external pair of them corresponds to the involucrum or spatha1 the internal to the calyx4 #afji4 ,the corolla-petals are of necessity arrested in plants such as these1 where no true leaf is as yet developed2 frequently two only are left persistent as pellicles or lodicul4 #afaj4 ,this is still more the case with the ovary and seed2 in each only one leaf attains development1 and the seed has entirely coalesced with the ovarium4 ,this kind of fruit is called caryopsis4 #afaa4 ,nodose plants with hollow scape or shaft1 tubular leaves1 glumose blossoms1 and cariopsidal fruits are ,grasses4 ,,division4 #afab4 ,the ,bark-plants pass moreover1 together with their subdivisions1 through the five stages of vegetable organs1 and they will therefore produce also a more perfect stalk1 leaves1 and flowers4 ,the whole calyx will1 however1 never be coloured or corolla-like in its character4 ,cortical plants are thus herbaceous plants with hollow stalk1 and with an arrested or green calyx1 without sarcose or fleshy fruit4 #afac4 ,those1 which have simply glumose flowers1 are without doubt the lowest in rank1 as corresponding to the tissues and stock1 but not yet to the flower4 #afad4 ,these again divide into two great groups1 whereof the one includes plants with simply uni-seminal cariopsides1 the other1 on the contrary1 capsules containing a free seed--,grasses and ,reed-grasses4 ,the grasses which have a cariopsis or grain-fruit reascend by two stages2 the most inferior in rank do not attain to a ramification1 but the flowers stand crowded together in spikes2 the others1 on the contrary1 are pedunculated and ramify in panicles4 #afae4 ,among the higher kinds instead of glumes there are regular flowers1 of which1 however1 the calyx is still glumose or at least green4 ,the cariopsis is converted into a multilocular capsule1 as in the ,restiace1 ,commeline1 c4 #afaf4 ,the first order1 or the ,parenchymatous grasses1 have glumose flowers with a cariopsis for fruit1 borne upon culms or nodose straws1 and do not attain to any ramification--spicate grasses4 ,in their seeds we meet with the greatest amount of starch developed1 though doubtless at the cost of the trunk4 #afag4 ,the second order of ,spathose grasses are similar1 and support ramified flowers--paniculate grasses4 ,in this division occur grasses of a dendroidal character1 and having occasionally fruit-like ovaria1 as in the bamboos4 #afah4 ,the third order consists of the ,cauline grasses4 ,here the leaves at once separate completely from the shaft1 which is therefore free from nodes4 ,nut-like capsules1 though still inclosed in glumes1 also make their appearance--reed-grasses4 #afai4 ,the fourth order1 ,floral grasses4 ,the leaves are still only radical2 the shaft is anodal2 the flowers are separated into green calyx and coloured corolla1 with three or six stamina1 and mostly with a trilocular capsule--,junce1 to which the ,commelinace are allied4 #afbj4 ,the fifth order1 ,carpal grasses4 ,hollow anodal shafts1 with scarcely spathiform1 mostly broad leaves1 the ribs of which begin to ramify2 with similar calyces and coroll1 and numerous capsules--,seerose1 to which the ,alismace and ,hydrocharide are related4 #afba4 ,the highest kind of fruit attained by this class is nut-like1 never fleshy in character4 ,the stalk is nowhere woody as in some grasses4 ,the grasses divide1 as do all other orders of plants1 into sixteen families4 7,vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 ,,class ,v4 ,liber-plants--,liliace4 #afbb4 ,the substance of the stalk is soft and succulent2 its structure devoid of nodes2 the leaves are tolerably free and ribbed2 calyx and corolla coloured1 both being perfectly formed and invariably tripartite1 as is likewise the capsule1 which has many seeds upon its inner angle4 ,these plants are the ,lilies4 ,in the present class all parts have been developed in conformity to the liber1 are rich in sap1 and have become dense and fleshy4 #afbc4 ,the roots are mostly tubers or bulbs1 containing a superior kind of mucilage1 or aromatic principles4 ,the shaft is not hollow but1 though herbaceous1 filled up2 the leaves are elevated upon the stalk4 ,one division of these plants has irregular coroll with stunted stamina and capsules1 the latter containing mostly dust-like seeds1 as in the ,orchide and aromatic plants4 #afbd4 ,the other division has regular #b #c;ary coroll1 with1 perfect glume-capsules and middling-sized seeds1 as the ,iride and ,liliace proper4 #afbe4 ,the first order1 ,parenchymatose lilies4 ,the coroll are irregular1 bilabiate1 and stand upon the calyx and a membranous sexlocular capsule with very small seeds2 are divided according to the pollen--e4 g4 pulverulent ,orchide4 #afbf4 ,the second order1 ,sheath-lilies4 ,characters similar to those of the preceding order1 but the pollen is agglomerated into waxy granules--granular orchide4 #afbg4 ,the third order1 ,stem-lilies4 ,the coroll are likewise bilabiate and situated above the calyx1 but the ovarium contains few seeds1 and the capsule is mostly nut-like--aromatic plants1 such as the ,scitamine and ,musace4 #afbh4 ,the fourth order ,floral-lilies1 have regular blossoms1 separated into calyx and corolla1 placed above the capsule1 and mostly furnished with three stamina4 ,here belong the ,hypoxide1 ,hmodorace and ,iride4 #afbi4 ,the fifth order1 ,fruit-lilies4 ,the leaves have not yet completely separated from each other1 but still form bulbs2 the coroll are regular1 have six stamina1 and are placed beneath the capsule1 as in the true lilies4 ,to this order belong the ,colchicace1 ,aloin and ,liliace4 ,their bulbs contain mostly acrid matters4 ,they divide into sixteen families4 7,vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 ,,class ,,vi4 ,wood-plants--,palmace4 ,plants with woody shaft and with fruits1 mostly enclosed in spadices4 #afcj4 ,the desiccation of the cells and fibres is promoted by the increased process of oxydation4 ,where therefore the trache attain the preponderance1 there the conversion into wood originates4 #afca4 ,the stalks of these plants are not hollow1 but have a dense interior1 because the fasciculi of trache lie within the liber1 and there increase4 #afcb4 ,the main bulk of the stalk will consist of trache4 #afcc4 ,as the trache are longitudinal organs1 and the other tissues also extend lengthways1 so does the stalk or stem in these plants predominate over the other parts4 #afcd4 ,in this class the most perfect leaves as regards their present stage are developed2 for they are only expansions of the trache1 which are here present in superabundance4 ,as regards the form also1 these leaves must rank higher than those of the preceding class2 the spathe is shorter1 the leaf itself usually broad1 many-ribbed1 and frequently pinnate4 ,the leaves are also perfect as to position1 being no longer mere radical leaves1 but situated upon the stalk1 even on its apical extremity4 #afce4 ,the ramification gradually emerges into view1 where forsooth its occurrence is possible in the shaft-plants1 or in the inflorescence4 ,it is always multiple in character1 mostly spadici-1 muscari-1 and paniculiform4 #afcf4 ,as regards the blossom the ovarium is most perfectly evolved1 because it is developed out of the stalk2 it is ternary and becomes elevated into a fruit with few seeds4 #afcg4 ,the coroll are frequently stunted1 yet regular and #b #c;ary1 though insignificant on account of the preponderance in size of the fruit4 #afch4 ,in this class we meet with the first true or genuine fruits2 because in it for the first time the three anatomical systems are completely separated4 #afci4 ,plants having a ligneous stalk1 free and many-ribbed leaves1 ramified inflorescence and ternary fleshy fruits1 are the ,palmace4 ,the ,palmace have a woody1 very hollow stem1 with many-ribbed1 divided1 and often pinnate leaves2 a muscariform inflorescence lodged in spathes1 sexanary coroll with nuts1 berries1 or drupes4 ,with the palms are associated the ,typhace1 ,aroide1 ,piperales1 ,pandanales1 ,dioscore1 ,smilace1 ,asparagi1 ,convallari1 and ,bromeli2 for their stalks are mostly woody1 the leaves broad1 and placed upon the stalk1 the coroll stunted1 while1 on the contrary1 the ovarium is carpoidal or fruit-like4 ,the five orders may be disposed as follows3 #afdj4 ,order ,i4 ,palmace parenchymatos4 ,cynomorid1 ,typhace1 ,aroide4 #afda4 ,order ,,ii4 ,p4 thecales4 ,saurure1 ,piperace1 ,pandanace4 #afdb4 ,order ,,iii4 ,p4 axonales4 ,dioscore1 ,smilace1 ,paride4 #afdc4 ,order ,,iv4 ,p4 florales4 ,asparagoide1 ,convallari1 ,bromeli4 #afdd4 ,order ,v4 ,p4 carpales4 ,palms4 #afde4 ,the plants of the first order are very imperfect herbs with spadices4 ,those of the second have mostly a ligneous1 nodose stalk1 with one-seeded fruits in spadices1 without coroll4 ,the third have separated coroll disposed in an open form of inflorescence4 ,the fourth have perfect sexanary coroll1 with a frequently woody stalk and ternary1 many-seeded berries4 ,the fifth order consists of trees having large leaves1 muscariform spadices1 and perfect fruits1 nuts1 plums1 and berries1 ternary and one-seeded4 ,they divide into sixteen families4 7,vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 ,third ,province4 ,,reticular-,,leaved ,,plants--,,dicotyledones4 #afdf4 ,with the separation of the stock or trunk into root1 stalk and leaf1 the latter organ attains its perfection2 it becomes a reticular leaf--the plants possessing it being called reticular4 #afdg4 ,the retinerved or reticular leaf is1 however1 only the result of a modified organization in the stalk1 and indicates a ramification or foliiform arrangement of the trache in the stem4 ,the foliiform arrangement of the trache in the stalk is their circular disposition4 ,these plants have woody zones4 ,through this zone or ring of wood first originates the perfect separation into wood1 liber and bark1 whereof each formerly occupied the whole stalk or stem4 #afdh4 ,the stalk is no longer a shaft or scape1 but it divides into branches and twigs--ramular plants4 #afdi4 ,the reticular-veined are ramular leaves1 and are no longer therefore spathiform but petiolated--petiolated leaves4 ,it is only at the root that spathose leaves may occur1 and this only in the plants of the inferior classes4 #afej4 ,with the disappearance of the spathose leaves1 and the appearance of the ramules1 the nodes and bulbs also disappear4 #afea4 ,the blossoms stand no longer upon a radical peduncle or stipes1 but upon ramules2 in other words1 upon a plant1 which again stands upon another plant1 namely1 the stalk4 #afeb4 ,as all the higher separations of leaves here occur1 so also does the flower obtain its higher amount of separation2 it becomes quinary--pentaschematose plants4 ,the ovarium passes through all numerical conditions1 being #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 and polycarpellar4 ,in like manner all the forms of ovaria and fruits occur in the present class1 such as caryopsis1 follicle1 legumen1 siliqua1 capsule1 nut1 plum1 berry and apple4 #afec4 ,as the seed is a leaf-formation1 so must it resemble the reticular leaf4 ,but reticular leaves are not spathes or simple tubes1 but ramified or separated ribs4 ,the seed has therefore several leaves1 and two indeed for the first time1 which are called seed-lobes4 ,these plants are therefore styled ,dicotyledones4 ,,division4 #afed4 ,the ,dicotyledones are1 in the first place1 empirically divisible into apetalous1 monopetalous and polypetalous1 or into plants with calycine1 tubular and petalous coroll4 #afee4 ,it might be believed that the ,apetal were1 without further trouble1 the lowest in point of rank2 but1 when closely considered1 they appear as ,polypetal with stunted corolla-petals1 and are obviously allied to the ,rosace4 ,moreover1 they all bear nuts1 a fact which occurs in no other class1 and they must be therefore placed among the fruit-bearing plants4 ,since1 however1 they are epigynous and perigynous1 so must the other polypetalous ,perigyn enter into proximity with them1 and in like manner forsooth come among the ,fruit-plants4 #afef4 ,thus the ,dicotyledones separate into the ,monopetal1 hypogynous ,polypetal1 and perigynous ,polypetal1 along with the ,apetal4 ,viewed in a scientific light1 they separate according to the principal members of the plant into three districts1 ,axis-1 ,flower-1 and ,fruit-plants4 ,,first ,,circle4 ,stem-plants--,monopetal4 #afeg4 ,the ,monopetal or ,tubuliflor are the lowest in rank1 and must therefore take the place here assigned them4 ,they are still spathose coroll4 ,among them are found for the most part only cariopsides and membranous capsules1 rarely fruits4 ,they are usually1 too1 merely herbs1 rarely bushes1 and still more rarely trees4 #afeh4 ,they divide into ,epigynes1 ,peri-and ,hypogynes1 of which the former are the lowest1 the latter the highest2 for in that which is left similar the coalition is an inferior sign4 #afei4 ,their essential or typical character does not1 however1 reside in the blossom1 but in the trunk1 and that indeed in the root1 stalk1 and foliage4 ,the question therefore may now be asked1 whether in the ,epigynes the root1 in the ,perigynes the stalk1 and in the ,hypogynes the foliage1 be the principal organ4 ,,class ,,vii4 ,root-plants4 #affj4 ,that the ,tubuliflor with superior blossoms and fleshy root are radical plants1 admits of being easily demonstrated4 ,the preponderance of the root is evident from its size1 its quantity of contained sap1 or special chemical ingredients4 ,a root that is rich in sap1 and much denser than the stalk1 is called a turnip4 ,these plants are thus turnip-plants4 #affa4 ,among the ,monopetal1 however1 there are napiform roots only in the ,epigynes1 namely1 the ,syngenesia or salad-plants1 and among some ,perigynes1 namely1 the ,campanule1 as well as the ,cucurbitace4 ,the ,syngenesia are consequently the radical plants4 ,the roots of the ,scorzoner1 ,pastinace1 ,cichorace1 and ,tussilago or coltsfoot1 c41 belong to this class4 #affb4 ,that the ,scabios and ,valeriane are directly related to the ,syngenesia is likewise indicated by their roots4 ,unto these succeed in point of structure the ,campanulace and the ,cucurbitace1 which have frequently1 too1 napiform or turnip-shaped roots4 #affc4 ,the number of the ,syngenesia is so great that they fill up all the orders of the trunk4 ,in accordance with their whole structure they are obviously the lowest1 the stalk being for the most part herbaceous and placed within a circle of radical leaves1 but being itself provided with few1 imperfect1 and scarcely ever pinnate leaves2 they have moreover numerous stunted blossoms that are connate with the single or solitary seed1 and crowded together1 like spadices1 grass-spikes1 or the fungal pilei1 upon a carpoclinium or receptacle4 #affd4 ,they are a repetition of the fungi and grasses2 of the former in their fleshy root and inflorescence1 of the latter likewise in the inflorescence and in the spathoidal root-leaves2 above all1 in the single large seed1 confluent with the ovarium and calyx4 ,the principle of their division must1 where it is possible1 and for obvious reasons1 be drawn from the organs of the trunk4 #affe4 ,first order4 ,radicari parenchymatos4--,syngenesia1 having radical leaves and uniform florets1 tubular or wholly stunted ligular florets--,cichorace and ,thistles4 #afff4 ,second order4 ,p4 vaginat4--,syngenesia1 with opposite leaves and different kinds of florets1 such as radiated1 partly lingual and partly tubular coroll--,sunflowers1 ,silphie4 #affg4 ,third order4 ,r4 axonales4--,syngenesia1 with alternate leaves and diversified florets--,anthemide1 ,senecionid1 ,astere4 #affh4 ,fourth order4 ,r4 florales4--,here the ovarium is no longer dense and confluent with the calyx1 and it begins to become trilocular--,scabios1 ,valeriane1 and ,campanul4 #affi4 ,fifth order4 ,r4 fructuari4--,here a perfect fruit is developed1 which is connate with the calyx--,asaride1 ,passiflore1 and ,cucurbitace4 ,they have apple-like #c-e ry fruits1 and many of them have napiform roots1 e4 g4 the ,gichtrben4 ,they divide into sixteen families4 7,vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 ,,class ,,viii4 ,stalk-plants4 #afgj4 ,plants with a predominating development of stalk1 leaves narrow1 mostly opposite1 quaternary coroll upon the calyx1 ovarium multilocular1 and containing few seeds4 #afga4 ,here everything1 both root and leaf1 must be stalk-like in character2 the stalk is therefore woody1 the root fibrous1 the foliage twig-like or narrow1 like needles4 #afgb4 ,this structure is chiefly found in the ,heaths and ,stellat4 ,the stalk is mostly woody2 the foliage either aciculiform or leathery in texture1 and never pinnated4 ,the leaves are either arranged in whorls or opposite1 a position which indicates a lower grade of development4 ,moreover1 they are related to the plants of the preceding class2 they are either ,epigynous or ,perigynous4 ,the corolla and ovarium follow the opposite position of the leaves2 the former being quadripartite1 the latter bi-and quaternary4 ,most of them grow in hot countries upon dry ground1 and their virtues reside in the stalk1 e4 g4 the ,peruvian bark4 #afgc4 ,the ,stellat or ,rubiace are without doubt the lowest1 because they are epigynous and have a quadri-petalous corolla1 with a binary and frequently only follicular ovarium4 #afgd4 ,first order4 ,cauliari parenchymatos4 ,the ,stellat proper along with the ,coffeace1 all of them being two-seeded4 #afge4 ,second order4 ,c4 vaginat4 ,the ,rubiace with bilocular many-seeded capsules--,rondeleti and ,cinchone4 #afgf4 ,third order4 ,c4 axonales4 ,rubiace with fruits--,guettardid1 ,hameli1 ,gardeni4 #afgg4 ,fourth order4 ,c4 florales4 ,quadripetalar ,perigyn1 with similar capsules or berries--,epacride1 ,vacciniace1 ,ericace4 #afgh4 ,fifth order1 ,c4 fructuari4 ,quaternary ,perigynes with fruits--,myrobalane1 ,olacine1 ,diospyroide and ,sapote4 7,for the arrangement of their families vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 ,,class ,,ix4 ,leaf-plants4 #afgi4 ,herbs having broad leaves1 quinary hypogynous coroll1 and bilocular capsule4 ,here the whole stem has become leaf2 all the parts are soft2 they are herbs in the propermost sense of the word4 #afhj4 ,here belong the hypogynous ,monopetal3 ,primulace1 ,personat1 ,solane1 ,gentiane1 ,asclepiad1 ,carice1 ,asperifoli1 ,sambuce4 ,the roots are fibrous2 the stalk herbaceous1 being wholly covered1 and that indeed with large leaves2 calyx and corolla quinquepartite1 frequently bilabiate2 the germen a bilocular membranous capsule1 which seldom becomes fleshy1 and contains few seeds4 ,it is these plants which serve chiefly as food for cattle1 and whose whole trunk is officinally known under the name of herbage2 relations which express the leafy character4 #afha4 ,first order1 ,foliari parenchymatos4 ,herbs with bilocular capsules1 in which there are many seeds placed upon a median cone4 ,the capsule dehisces1 while both carpels separate from each other--,primulace1 ,scrophulari1 ,solane4 #afhb4 ,second order1 ,f4 vaginat4 ,for the most part herbaceous1 their many-seeded carpels springing open at the dorsal suture--,orobanchace1 ,rhinanthace1 and ,bignoniace4 #afhc4 ,third order1 ,f4 axonales4 ,regular quinary coroll with seeds borne upon the margins of the two carpellar valves--,gentianace1 ,asclepiadace1 ,jasmine4 #afhd4 ,fourth order1 ,f4 florales4 ,few seeds in one capsule2 the pistil becomes nut-like or trilocular--,labiat1 ,polemoniace1 ,convolvulace4 #afhe4 ,fifth order1 ,f4 fructuari4 ,herbs and shrubs with fruits2 as nuts1 plums and berries4 ,for their sixteen families 7vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 ,b4 ,,blossom-,,plants4 #afhf4 ,flowers polypetalous4 ,,second ,,circle4 ,flower-plants4 #afhg4 ,calyx1 corolla1 stamina and ovarium perfectly separated from each other--,pedunculate coroll1 ,stielblumen or ,hypogynes4 ,the blossom must be here developed in the most perfect manner2 i4 e4 all its parts must be complete and separated from each other4 ,this is the case only in the hypogynous ,polypetal4 #afhh4 ,the lowest organized kinds must1 from being a repetition of them1 remind us of the grasses and ,syngenesia4 ,they are therefore polycarpellar or multi-ovarial4--,ranunculace1 ,malvace1 ,magnoliace4 #afhi4 ,unto these are allied those plants whose ovaria consist of several carpels1 but that are connate with each other1 and mutually separate for the first time with their maturation or decay1 as in the ,rutace1 ,polygale1 ,malvace1 ,aurantiac1 ,platanace1 ,malpighie1 ,sapinde4 #afij4 ,the highest are characterized by coalition of the carpels into a single ovarium with stunted dissepiments1 and by coroll that are well developed and distinguished for colour1 delicacy1 and magnitude--,carnations1 ,violets1 ,cistace1 ,siliquos1 ,poppies1 ,gamboge-trees4 ,,class ,x4 ,seed-plants4 #afia4 ,plants having a preponderance of seed1 that draws after it all the floral parts4 #afib4 ,the ovaria have become seed-like1 have separated from each other1 and inclose for the most part only a single seed4 #afic4 ,as in the grasses and ,syngenesia many flowers are collected into a spike or upon a receptacle1 so here are many carpels in a single corolla--,ranunculace1 ,geraniace1 ,tiliace1 ,malvace1 ,magnoliace4 #afid4 ,the stamina are usually of indefinite number1 and mostly connate4 #afie4 ,all forms of stalks are here met with2 such as herbs1 bushes1 shrubs1 and trees4 ,all forms also of leaves2 spathose leaves1 petiolated leaves1 simple and divided1 yet rarely pinnated4 #afif4 ,the component parts are usually mucilage1 as in the roots of the ,syngenesia4 #afig4 ,they divide into two great groups1 into the quinary and sexanary4 ,since among the quinary1 herbaceous stalks with nodes and spathe-leaves1 but capsules only1 occur2 they must be arranged in the lowest rank4 ,the sexanary bear fruits4 #afih4 ,first order1 ,seminari parenchymatos4 ,herbs with nodes and spathose leaves1 together with numerous1 mostly one-seeded1 carpels1 attached in an irregular manner to a median columella--,ranunculace and ,geraniace4 #afii4 ,second order1 ,s4 vaginat4 ,trees having many-seeded carpels1 coalesced like the style1 ,theace1 ,tiliace1 ,elocarpace4 #agjj4 ,third order1 ,s4 axonales4 ,bushes and shrubs with free1 mostly simple1 leaves1 ovaria1 mostly one-seeded1 and arranged in a circle around the mediate axis or columella2 anthers bilocular--,hermanniace1 ,dombeyace1 ,sterculiace1 and ,bttneriace4 #agja4 ,fourth order1 ,s4 florales4 ,for the most part trees1 having frequently divided leaves and similar ovaria1 yet mostly many-seeded and connate--,malvace and ,bombace4 #agjb4 ,fifth order1 ,s4 fructuari4 ,coroll mostly sexanary1 ovaria in a circle without a columella--,magnoliace1 ,menispermace1 ,dilleniace1 ,anonace4 ,they divide into sixteen families4 7,vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 ,,class ,,xi4 ,ovarium-plants4 #agjc4 ,hypogynous ,polypetal with perfect multilocular ovarium--,polygale1 ,melie1 ,aurantiace1 ,platanace1 ,malpighie1 ,sapinde4 #agjd4 ,while in the preceding class the number of the carpels was usually indeterminate2 it is here limited to three and five4 ,in the one1 they usually stood around a middle columella or axis1 in the other1 they form a true capsule with perfect partition-walls or septa1 and a single style4 ,the number of the seeds is moderate1 i4 e4 there are more than one1 but they are easily counted4 ,they are therefore of mediate size1 having no kernels1 as is the case in the nuts1 but also no granules1 as in the berries or poppy capsules4 ,in the preceding class the fruits were rare2 here they occur frequently in the upper orders4 ,the number of the floral parts is1 throughout the present class1 five1 that of the stamina five or ten1 and they are seldom coalesced2 the stalk also passes through all the stages of development from that of the herb through the shrub into the tree4 ,the leaves are seldom spathe-like1 but frequently coriaceous and aciculate1 as in their predecessors the ,heaths2 many are pinnated4 #agje4 ,first order1 ,capsulari parenchymatos--,rutace4 ,herbs and shrubs frequently provided with aciculate and coriaceous leaves2 coroll regular with ten stamina2 ovarium consisting of five carpels1 which separate when ripe1 and contain few seeds--,rutace1 ,diosmace4 #agjf4 ,second order1 ,c4 vaginat4 ,shrubs and trees with similar coroll and ovaria1 which are nevertheless frequently separated and fleshy--,quassiace1 ,ochnace4 #agjg4 ,third order1 ,c4 axonales4 ,mostly shrubs and trees with irregular coroll and bilocular ovarium--,polygalace1 ,vochysie1 ,pittospore4 #agjh4 ,fourth order1 ,c4 florales4 ,trees with a woody or berry-like ovarium1 having several cells--,cedrele1 ,melie1 ,aurantiace4 #agji4 ,fifth order1 ,c4 fructuari4 ,trees2 flowers quinary1 ovarium mostly ternary1 becoming a winged or fleshy fruit4 7,their sixteen families probably pursue the order indicated at ,tab4 ,b47 ,,class ,,xii4 ,corolla-plants4 #agaj4 ,coroll stipaceous1 having free stamina2 ovaria with stunted septa1 and numerous marginal seeds--,carnations1 ,violets1 ,cistace1 ,siliquos1 ,papaverace1 ,guttifer4 #agaa4 ,the stalk passes through all the stages of formation1 from the nodose herb unto the shrub and tree4 ,the leaves occur likewise under all forms1 modes1 division1 and arrangement4 ,the plants of this class are found in all climates1 and yield etherial or volatile and fatty oil with resins4 ,they divide first of all into quinary and quaternary2 the former being mostly herbs with a hollow capsule2 the latter herbs1 shrubs1 and trees1 with siliqu or berries4 #agab4 ,their strength or virtue resides in the flower1 which1 is therefore of large size1 beautifully coloured1 sweet-scented1 is frequently appreciated and adopted as an ornament4 ,on the contrary1 the ovarium and seed are stunted4 ,the former is a siliqua or hollow capsule1 which therefore supports the numerous smaller seeds on the septum4 #agac4 ,first order1 ,corollari parenchymatos4 ,nodose herbs with spathose leaves1 quinary coroll1 and ten stamina2 many seeds upon a columellar or median placenta situated within a hollow capsule--,portulace1 ,carnations4 #agad4 ,second order1 ,c4 vaginat4 ,herbs1 shrubs1 and trees1 with similar but mostly multi-staminal coroll1 and seeds on the capsular septa--,droserace1 ,hypericine1 ,violace1 ,cistace1 and ,bixe4 #agae4 ,third order1 ,c4 axonales4 ,herbs with quaternary coroll and a siliqua--,siliquos4 #agaf4 ,fourth order1 ,c4 florales4 ,bushes and shrubs with quaternary coroll and numerous stamina2 ovarium a siliqua or multi-valvular hollow capsule--,capparid1 ,berberide1 ,papaverace4 #agag4 ,fifth order1 ,c4 fructuari4 ,trees with quaternary and quinary coroll1 numerous stamina1 and a fruit--,guttifer4 ,they divide into the usual sixteen families4 7,vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 ,,third ,,circle4 ,fruit-plants--,apetal1 ,perigynes4 #agah4 ,stunted calycine coroll1 with nuts1 plums1 berries1 or apples4 #agai4 ,they are perigynous ,polypetal1 and include the ,apetal and ,diclines4 #agbj4 ,the nut consists of a large seed1 connate with the woody ovarium1 and frequently with the calyx4 #agba4 ,the plum is a legumen1 between the coats of which fleshy matter has accumulated1 and whose internal tunic or endocarp has become woody4 ,the berry is a many-seeded hollow capsule1 which1 as well as the calyx1 has become soft and succulent4 #agbb4 ,the apple is an ovarium surrounded by a fleshy calyx4 ,,class ,,xiii4 ,nut-plants--,apetal1 ,diclines4 #agbc4 ,ovarium woody1 and inclosing only one seed4 ,here belong the ,apetalous and ,diclinous ,exogens4 #agbd4 ,these plants repeat the fungi1 grasses and ,syngenesia1 and have therefore imperfect coroll1 the calyx of which has alone remained1 and usually closely surrounds the nut4 #agbe4 ,the stalk is indeed usually woody2 yet is still found to be also herbaceous and nodose with spathiform leaves4 ,the leaves are simple1 frequently needle-shaped or else arrested4 ,the principal ingredients are starch1 as in the ,gramine and ,syngenesia4 #agbf4 ,the inflorescence is mostly amentaceous1 as in the ,agarics1 ,grasses and ,syngenesia4 #agbg4 ,they divide into androgynous and dioecious plants4 #agbh4 ,first order1 ,nucari parenchymatos4 ,hermaphrodite herbs with nodes and spathose leaves1 calyx green1 superior1 and quinquepartite with five opposite stamina2 nut mostly triangular and utricular4 #agbi4 ,second order1 ,n4 vaginat4 ,form of vegetation pretty nearly as in preceding order1 but the calyx is corolla-like1 and the stamina mostly alternate--,phytolacce1 ,illecebre4 #agcj4 ,third order1 ,n4 axonales4 ,hermaphrodite1 calyx corolla-like1 superior and wholly quaternary2 herbs and shrubs bearing nuts and plums--,nyctagine1 ,daphne1 and ,santalace4 #agca4 ,fourth order1 ,n4 florales4 ,trees1 calyx corolla-like but inferior2 capsules1 plums and berries--,proteace4 #agcb4 ,fifth order1 ,n4 fructuari4 ,diclines2 herbs1 shrubs and trees without coroll1 but with nuts or plums4 7,their sixteen families stand in the order exhibited at ,tab4 ,b47 ,,class ,,xiv4 ,plum-plants--,papilionace4 #agcc4 ,polypetalous calycine coroll1 with a drupe or its fundamental form1 the legumen4 ,here belong the papilionaceous plants1 ,rhamnace and ,terebinthace4 #agcd4 ,the stalk is frequently herbaceous with nodes2 but mostly fruticose and arborescent4 #agce4 ,the leaves here attain their highest development1 and are mostly pinnated1 sometimes endowed with the power of independent motion4 #agcf4 ,the coroll are mostly irregular1 quinary1 arranged like pinnate leaves1 with ten1 rarely more1 connate and free stamina4 #agcg4 ,the ovarium is a single carpel1 owing to the four others being arrested2 it is usually compressed and bivalved1 with few seeds2 it is a legumen1 frequently converted into a fleshy fruit4 #agch4 ,the ,papilionace are so rich in number that they include all the orders of the trunk1 and even transcend or exceed its limits2 their allied families are the ,rhamnace and ,terebinthace with fleshy fruits4 #agci4 ,first order1 ,drupari parenchymatos4 ,papilionace with herbaceous1 nodose stalk and pinnated leaves2 corolla-petals and single stamen free2 seed-lobes thin--,hedysare1 ,astragale1 ,glycine4 #agdj4 ,second order1 ,d4 vaginat4 ,herbs and shrubs with ternary or tendrilless leaves2 the corolla-petals or stamina frequently confluent--,trifoliace1 ,geniste1 ,galege4 #agda4 ,third order1 ,d4 axonales4 ,bushes1 shrubs1 or trees1 frequently training with pinnate leaves and tendrils2 calyx large1 seed-lobes thick--,vicie1 ,beans1 ,dalbergi4 #agdb4 ,fourth order1 ,d4 florales4 ,shrubs and trees1 with tolerably regular flowers and separated stamina2 legumens with frequently transverse septa1 embryo straight--,geoffroy1 ,swartzie1 ,detarium1 ,mimos1 and ,cassi4 #agdc4 ,fifth order1 ,d4 fructuari4 ,regular flowers with separate stamina and multilocular plums--,stackhouse1 ,empetre1 ,celastrine1 ,rhamne1 and ,terebinthe4 7,for their sixteen families vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 ,,class ,,xv4 ,berry-plants--,umbellifer1 c4 #agdd4 ,ovarial and calycine corolla with a single perfectly soft fruit or berry1 on which are five corolla-petals1 with a moderate number of stamina4 ,this fruit is wholly edible1 and has only one or two styles2 stalk and leaves pass through all the stages of formation4 #agde4 ,they divide first of all into two groups1 having few or many stamina2 of these the fruit of one is dry1 of the other fleshy4 ,the dry fruits are also perfectly edible1 as the ,caraway-seeds4 #agdf4 ,first order1 ,baccari parenchymatos4 ,epigynous2 nodose herbs with two seeds in the calyx2 only five stamina--,umbellat4 #agdg4 ,second order1 ,b4 vaginat4 ,mostly shrubs with quinary coroll and bi-or quinquelocular berries--,mistletoes1 ,elders1 ,araliace1 ,vines4 #agdh4 ,third order1 ,b4 axonales4 ,bushes and shrubs with quaternary coroll1 only one style and one multilocular many-seeded capsule--,epilobe1 ,salicari4 #agdi4 ,fourth order1 ,b4 florales4 ,mostly shrubs with quinary coroll and manifold stamina2 capsule or berry multilocular--,melastomace4 #agej4 ,fifth order1 ,b4 fructuari4 ,trees with many1 frequently fasciculated1 stamina2 fruit multilocular and many-seeded--,myrtace4 ,these plants likewise divide into sixteen families4 7,vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 ,,class ,,xvi4 ,apple-plants--,rosace4 #agea4 ,the fruit is an apple1 i4 e4 several carpels1 containing but few seeds1 adhere in one calyx1 upon which there are five corolla-petals1 with four to six times as many stamina4 ,herbs1 shrubs1 and trees with different kinds of leaves are here met with2 the coroll are mostly small and perigynous1 the style separated1 and thus polycarpal4 ,perigynous ,polycarp4 ,they grow1 dispersed over the whole earth1 in dry situations2 several of them yield edible fruits1 and are pretty generally cultivated4 #ageb4 ,the apples are without doubt the most perfect fruit1 as well in reference to their structure as their chemical ingredients4 ,the apple consists of all the parts of the blossom3 seed1 capsule1 and fleshy calyx1 and is besides polycarpellar1 i4 e4 composed of separate carpels4 ,its edible substance or flesh is not simply a sweet-meat1 but a true aliment1 which admits of being eaten after it has been kept fresh for a year1 of being dried1 exported1 or cooked as a kitchen vegetable2 in cases of exigency too it occurs in such abundance that the whole human race might live upon it1 which cannot be said of any other fruit4 ,the apple quenches at the same time the thirst1 and thus supplies also the place of drink4 ,all the other fruits are either a dainty relish only against thirst1 or a simple amylaceous medium of nutrition4 ,however1 most of the plants belonging to this class produce only dry capsules and calyces4 #agec4 ,they divide into two groups1 having few or many stamina4 ,first order1 ,pomari parenchymatos4 ,herbs with few stamina and five or more carpels1 as the ,crassulace and ,mesembryanthemace4 ,second order1 ,p4 vaginat4 ,shrubs with few stamina1 only two to three carpels and few seeds4--,tamaricace1 ,bruniace4 ,,vegetable ,,system ,table ,b ,,first ,,province4 ,,histophyta--,,acotyledones4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,class ,i4 ,,class ,,ii4 ,,class ,,iii4 ,,organs4 ,cellulares4 ,vasculares4 ,tracheales4 ,fungi4 ,mosses4 ,ferns4 ,,ord4 ,i4 ,parenchyma4 ,roste4 ,schleim-,moose4 ,wasser-,farren4 ,f4 #a4 ,cells4 ,entophyta4 ,diatomace4 ,marsileace4 #b4 ,ducts4 ,epiphyta4 ,nostochine4 ,pilulari4 #c4 ,trache4 ,tuberculari4 ,batrachosperme4 ,equisetace4 ,o4 ,,ii4 ,sheaths4 ,schimmel4 ,wasserfden4 ,kugelfarren4 ,f4 #d4 ,bark4 ,mucorini4 ,confervace4 ,lycopodiace4 #e4 ,liber4 ,mucedines4 ,ulvace4 ,ophioglosse4 #f4 ,wood4 ,byssace4 ,leptomite4 ,danace4 ,o4 ,,iii4 ,axis4 ,balgpilze4 ,fuci4 ,ringfarren4 ,f4 #g4 ,root4 ,trichodermace4 ,cerame4 ,parkere4 #h4 ,stalk4 ,trichiace4 ,florid4 ,cyathe4 #i4 ,leaves4 ,lycopodine4 ,fucoide4 ,polypodiace4 ,o4 ,,iv4 ,blossom4 ,kernpilze4 ,lichens4 ,fluvialen4 ,f4 #aj4 ,seed4 ,cytispore4 ,coniothalame4 ,naiade4 #aa4 ,ovarium4 ,phacidiace4 ,gasterothalame4 ,podosteme4 #ab4 ,corolla4 ,sphriace4 ,hymenothalame4 ,ceratophylle4 ,o4 ,v4 ,fruit4 ,fleischpilze4 ,mosses4 ,nadelholz4 ,f4 #ac4 ,nut4 ,tremellini4 ,marchantiace4 ,abiete4 #ad4 ,plum4 ,cupulati4 ,ricciace4 ,taxace4 #ae4 ,berry4 ,clavati4 ,jungermanniace4 ,cupresse4 #af4 ,apple4 ,pileati4 ,bryace4 ,cycade4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,,second ,,province4 ,,thecophyta--,,monocotyledones4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,class ,,iv4 ,,class ,v4 ,,class ,,vi4 ,,organs4 ,corticales4 ,liber-plants4 ,wood-plants4 ,gramine4 ,liliace4 ,palmace4 ,,ord4 ,i4 ,parenchyma4 ,spiked ,grasses4 ,staub-,orchiden4 ,rohrkolben4 ,f4 #a4 ,cells4 ,secale4 ,neotti4 ,cynomoria4 #b4 ,ducts4 ,phleum4 ,arethuse4 ,typhace4 #c4 ,trache4 ,festuca4 ,ophryde4 ,aroide4 ,o4 ,,ii4 ,sheaths4 ,panicled ,grasses4 ,granular ,orchide4 ,piperace4 ,f4 #d4 ,bark4 ,bulrushes4 ,malaxides4 ,saurure4 #e4 ,liber4 ,milium4 ,epidendra4 ,piperace4 #f4 ,wood4 ,arundinace4 ,vanill4 ,pandanac ,o4 ,,iii4 ,axis4 ,reed-,grasses4 ,aromatic plants4 ,sassaparill4 ,f4 #g4 ,root4 ,sedges4 ,amome4 ,dioscore4 #h4 ,stalk4 ,junce4 ,canne4 ,smilace4 #i4 ,leaves4 ,ruscus4 ,musace4 ,paride4 ,o4 ,,iv4 ,blossom4 ,juncine4 ,schwerdel4 ,asparagoid4 ,f4 #aj4 ,seed4 ,restiace4 ,hmodorace4 ,asparagoid4 #aa4 ,ovarium4 ,serpe4 ,iride4 ,convallari4 #ab4 ,corolla4 ,commelyne4 ,narcissi4 ,bromeli4 ,o4 ,v4 ,fruit4 ,seerose4 ,liliace4 ,palms4 ,f4 #ac4 ,nut4 ,alismace4 ,colchicace4 ,calamari4 #ad4 ,plum4 ,hydrocharide4 ,asphodele4 ,cocoe4 #ae4 ,berry4 ,hydropeltide4 ,alliace4 ,phoenice4 #af4 ,apple4 ,nymphac4 ,tulipace4 ,borasse4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,,vegetable ,,system4 ,,table ,b1 p4 #caf4 ,,third ,,province4 ,,arthrophyta--,,dicotyledones4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,circle ,i4 ,stem-plants--,monopetal4 ,,class ,,vii4 ,,class ,,viii4 ,,class ,,ix4 ,root-plants4 ,stalk-plants4 ,leaf-plants4 ,epigyn4 ,perigyn4 ,hypogyn4 ,root-leaved4 ,stellat4 ,personat4 ,cichorace4 ,galiace4 ,primulace4 ,cardurace4 ,spermacocid4 ,scrophulari4 ,mutisi4 ,coffeace4 ,solanace4 ,opposite-leaved4 ,cinchonace4 ,bignoniace4 ,eupatorium8 ,hedyotid4 ,orobanche4 ,helianthus4 ,rondeleti4 ,rhinanthe4 ,silphie4 ,cinchone4 ,bignoni4 ,alternifoliar4 ,hameliace4 ,contort4 ,senecionid4 ,guettardid4 ,gentiane4 ,astere4 ,hameli4 ,asclepiade4 ,vernoni4 ,gardeni4 ,jasmine4 ,aggregat4 ,ericace4 ,tetrasperme4 ,scabios4 ,epacride4 ,labiat4 ,lobeli4 ,myrtilli4 ,polemoniace4 ,campanul4 ,heaths4 ,convolvulace4 ,sicuonoid4 ,diospyrace4 ,pyrenace4 ,asarid4 ,myrobalane4 ,asperifoli4 ,loase4 ,olacine4 ,verbenace4 ,passiflore4 ,diospyros4 ,sambuce4 ,cucurbitace4 ,sapot4 ,myrsine4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,third ,,province4 ,,arthrophyta--,,dicotyledones4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,circle ,,ii4 ,flower-plants--,hypogynous ,polypetal4 ,,class ,x4 ,,class ,,xi4 ,,class ,,xii4 ,seed-plants4 ,ovarium-plants4 ,corolla-plants4 ,polycarp4 ,capsulifer4 ,siliquos4 ,ranunculace4 ,rutace4 ,caryophyllace4 ,ranunculi4 ,rute4 ,portulace4 ,hellebore4 ,diosme4 ,spergula4 ,geraniace4 ,zygophylle4 ,carnations4 ,tiliace4 ,ochnace4 ,violace4 ,theace4 ,xanthoxyle4 ,droserace4 ,lime-trees4 ,ochne4 ,violets4 ,elocarpe4 ,quassie4 ,cistace4 ,sterculiace4 ,polygalace4 ,crucifer4 ,hermanne4 ,polygale4 ,radishes4 ,dombeyace4 ,vochysie4 ,cresses4 ,stercule4 ,pittospore4 ,cabbages4 ,malvace4 ,meliace4 ,papaverace4 ,malve4 ,cedrele4 ,capers4 ,hibisce4 ,melie4 ,berberide4 ,bombace4 ,aurantiace4 ,poppies4 ,magnoliace4 ,malpighiace4 ,guttifer4 ,magnolie4 ,platanace4 ,dipterocarpe4 ,menisperme4 ,malpighie4 ,calophylle4 ,dillene4 ,hippocrate4 ,marcgraviace4 ,anone4 ,sapinde4 ,garcinie4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,third ,,province4 ,,arthrophyta--,,dicotyledones4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,circle ,,iii4 ,fruit-plants--,apetal and perigynous ,polypetal4 ,,class ,,xiii4 ,,class ,,xiv4 ,,class ,,xv4 ,,class ,,xvi4 ,nut-plants4 ,plum-plants4 ,berry-plants4 ,apple-plants4 ,nucari4 ,drupace4 ,baccari4 ,pomace4 ,olerace4 ,astragalace4 ,umbellat4 ,semperviv4 ,scleranthe4 ,hedysare4 ,saniculid4 ,galacine4 ,atriplices4 ,astragale4 ,carrots4 ,crassulace4 ,amaranths4 ,glycine4 ,caraways4 ,mesembryantheme4 ,polygonace4 ,trifoliace4 ,caprifoliace4 ,tamariscine4 ,plantains4 ,trifolie4 ,mistletoes4 ,tamarisks4 ,phytolacce4 ,geniste4 ,sambuce4 ,buniace4 ,illecebre4 ,galege4 ,vines4 ,hamamelide4 ,thymelace4 ,phaseolace4 ,lythrace4 ,saxifrage4 ,nyctagine4 ,vetches4 ,trape4 ,saxifrages4 ,daphnoide4 ,dalbergie4 ,epilobe4 ,cunoniace4 ,santalace4 ,sophore4 ,salicari4 ,lilacs4 ,laurace4 ,mimosace4 ,melastomace4 ,rosace4 ,proteace4 ,detarie4 ,rhexie4 ,potentill4 ,aquilarine4 ,mimose4 ,melastome4 ,neurade4 ,laurels4 ,cassie4 ,grossularie4 ,sanguisorbe4 ,diclinisten4 ,terebinthace4 ,myrtace4 ,fruit-trees4 ,amentace4 ,empetre4 ,lecythide4 ,pomegranates4 ,nettles4 ,celastrine4 ,barringtonie4 ,plums4 ,artocarpe4 ,rhamne4 ,leptosperme4 ,medlars4 ,euphorbic4 ,terebinthe4 ,myrte4 ,apples4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,third order1 ,p4 axonales4 ,herbs1 shrubs1 and trees1 with similar blossoms1 but many seeds4--,saxifrage1 ,cunoniace1 ,hortensi and ,lilacs4 ,fourth order1 ,p4 florales4 ,herbs and shrubs1 with many stamina and follicles4--,rosace4 ,fifth order1 ,p4 fructuari4 ,trees with multistaminal-coroll and fleshy fruits4--,monimie1 ,pomegranates1 ,plums1 ,medlars1 ,apples4 7,for their sixteen families vid4 ,tab4 ,b47 #aged4 ,in order to prove that each class of vegetables commences from below1 and that all ascend in a parallel series beside each other1 it is requisite only to place them in a tabular form4 ,further details upon this subject are to be found in my earlier works upon ,natural ,history4 ,the adjoining ,table may here suffice4 ,i place the families according to my ,lehrbuch der ,naturgeschichte1 although ,i am very well aware that all do not stand in the right place4 ,that indeed no one will expect4 ,,third ,,kingdom4 ,,animal ,,kingdom4 #agee4 ,the animal kingdom is the individual development of all four elements4 ,,zoosophy1 #agef4 ,is the development of the animal kingdom in consciousness4 ,the repetition of the animal creation is spiritually divisible into ,anatomy 7,zoogeny71 ,physiology 7,zoonomy71 and ,zoology4 ,i4--,,zoogeny4 #ageg4 ,zoogeny represents the idea of the animal or the developmental history of the individual animal4 ,,irritability ,,of ,,the ,,blossom4 #ageh4 ,the ,highest to which the vegetable kingdom could attain was the blossom2 and of this the sexual parts are the completion4 ,at the instant when the sex originated1 the vegetable functions became of a nobler character2 for the sexual organs are only the inferior organs refined or purified by light4 ,the electrical and chemical process of the vegetable body are again represented1 but in a spiritual manner1 in the blossom4 ,the functions of the fruit were none other than those of the elevated chemism2 they were only the nobler processes of digestion and nutrition4 ,as their purest expression of life1 and that which has been produced simply by their co-operation1 is the motion which resides in cellular tissue1 so also was it this only1 which obtained a preponderance in the fruit1 and that indeed at the cost of the material processes4 ,the germen obtained a kind of motion2 yet this appears to be still imparted by material processes4 ,in the corolla1 however1 this expression of life attained to completion4 ,it is no longer simple nutrition or accumulation of sap that moves the stamina upon the female stigma1 but a purely polar act2 the ,immaterial1 the ,spiritual produces the phenomena of life4 ,these movements of copulation are by no means a coalescence1 are not a nutritive act1 nor the result of mechanical decissation1 as is the case in many capsules2 but true elevated vital actions4 ,the parts reassume after the motion their first or original position1 a feat which is performed by no capsule upon its dehiscence4 ,of these movements1 those of the leaves in the sensitive plants1 e4 g4 ,hedysarum gyrans1 are the antetypes or prefigurations4 ,there consequently originates with the highest development of the light-organs in the plant1 a motion independent of the material processes1 and of the terrestrial elements4 #agei4 ,a motion1 that is liberated from the terrestrial elements1 is free from their mechanism2 it simply obeys the nature of the ther1 which is of a spiritual1 or voluntary1 kind4 #agfj4 ,the essence of volition or free-will does not reside1 in a physical sense1 in the consciousness of the action1 but in the autocrasy2 or in the ability to perform an action1 without external or terrestrial influence4 ,the ther-actions have originated from special polarity4 ,independent movements must therefore be such as have been produced simply by polarity1 apart from material intrusion4 #agfa4 ,the ability or power upon the part of organic bodies to apprehend polar excitation1 to move themselves simply by its means1 and again to restore themselves to their former state1 without regard being paid to a material process1 ,i call ,irritability4 ,that organ is irritable which can move itself without any other object than that of automacy or self-motion4 #agfb4 ,irritability belongs to the plant1 but is only of that kind where the perception cannot express itself otherwise than by direct motion4 ,in the sexual parts and probably in the highest leaf-formation1 the plant is elevated to irritability2 unto motion through simple perception1 unto motion without design1 to motion from mere lust or desire4 ,the highest spiritual operation1 of which the plant is capable1 is irritability4 ,but as everything which has attained its ,highest1 stands at the end of its development1 so also has the plant terminated1 when it has once exercised its power of irritability through copulation4 ,,sexual ,,motion4 #agfc4 ,all the irritable motion of the vegetable may be confined or reduced to the movements of the stamen-filaments1 the other movements being merely precursors of these4 ,what1 therefore1 the stamina would achieve by their motion1 that the irritability does in a general point of view4 ,the motion of the stamina is directed merely upon the stigma1 in order to impart the male pollen to the female body2 and thus1 simply to evoke the spiritual tension1 which resides originally in the male semen1 as in light-ther from the dead mass1 but that originally dwells in the female seed as in the dark mass of earth4 #agfd4 ,now1 since the stigma bears simply relation to the contents of the ovary1 and conveys everything to this1 and thus1 to a female utricle1 which is the middle of the plant1 or its body proper2 so in the motion of the male organs1 the conatus or effort upon their part to introduce an elemental matter1 or rather its spirit into this utricle1 or this body1 is rendered manifest or revealed4 ,the highest ,spiritual of the plant is accordingly not a mere motion in the general sense2 but one that is definite and wholly special--a motion of ,ingestion4 ,the direction or design of the first independent motion is therefore ,ingestion2 this again not being of a general1 but a wholly definite import1 namely1 an ingestion of the male organ into the female4 #agfe4 ,the ,male is1 however1 characterized by its self-substantial polarity1 and by its self-intrinsic life2 the ,female by the want of polarity1 by a heterodependent life4 ,the act of ingestion thus depends upon polarization1 upon evocation and maintenance of an independent life4 ,the fruit is vivified by impregnation1 ay1 for the first time then obtains life2 the female becomes self-active through the vital spirit received from the male2 the body is kept alive by1 and only by1 ingestion4 ,the act of ingestion is the act that tends unto the self-substantial1 independent life4 #agff4 ,the blossom dies1 so soon as1 by ingestion1 it has attained this independent life4 ,if we assume that it could not die1 but retain the life that was momentarily won for several instants2 then this would happen only by repetition of the first act1 whereby it had obtained in an instant a self-substantial life2 and thus by repetition of the ingestion4 ,by ceaseless ingestion only can the blossom gain a lasting1 self-substantial life of motion4 #agfg4 ,but such a blossom1 when self-dependently subsisting1 could not continue in further union with the vegetable stock or trunk1 for this is no longer requisite for its life's support2 through the first act of vivification1 through the once sprinkled pollen1 it virtually becomes detached and falls as fruit to the ground2 as a fruit certainly1 or as a female body1 unto which is wanting the continued excitation produced by the male coition4 ,a fruit thus detached or fallen off1 and retaining the male filaments1 which ceaselessly exercise the function of ingestion1 will be of necessity engaged in constant motion2 will be a blossom1 that incessantly practises copulation4 #agfh4 ,as in this blossom the motion of ingestion is that alone which sustains it1 and nothing more can flow to it from a stem2 so also will this blossom be occupied in constant motion2 and it consequently comes to pass that the action1 which broke forth at the last and instantaneously in the plant1 being thus the highest or most individualized1 is here the first1 inferior1 and most general action1 or one that lies at the foundation of all other processes4 ,the free blossom is naught but movement of ingestion4 #agfi4 ,the blossom1 however1 concentrates in itself all the lower vegetable processes1 is itself naught but the aggregate of such processes repeated in the body of the light2 thus the blossom1 having been set free1 is a vesicle of ingestion endowed with all terrestrial functions4 ,,animal ,,formation4 #aggj4 ,the vegetable blossom loses its definition as plant1 so soon as it has acquired self-substantial life2 it loses its definition1 because as blossom1 it simply lives in light1 while the plant must half dwell in darkness2 it loses it1 because the copulating motion can be frequently self-repeated4 #agga4 ,the self-moveable or automatic blossom has consequently passed over into a new kingdom1 or into one whose very definition is the self-substantial motion4 #aggb4 ,a blossom1 which1 when separated from the stem1 maintains by its own motion the galvanic process or the life within itself1 and gets its process of polarization1 not from a body lying external to or coherent with it 7as is the vegetable stem72 but only from itself--such blossom is an ,animal4 ,an animal is blossom without stem or a flower1 which of itself produces its stem1 this being the reverse of what takes place in the plant4 ,the essence of the animal consists in the maintenance through its own motion of the galvanic vital process4 ,it has been already shown above1 in speaking quoad the distinction of the organic essences1 that the exclusive or only valid difference between plant and animal1 was motion arising in the latter apart from any external stimulus4 ,we have now been brought by quite another route to the same result4 #aggc4 ,if the animal is the floral vesicle living from or by itself1 it can no longer lie fettered like the plant between two elements2 it must be nominally free from the chains of darkness1 and thus from the earth4 ,no animal is so joined by growth with the earth1 that like as in a plant this should be a co-operating pole in its processes4 ,no animal must co-exist in two elements like the plant1 but it has all elements in itself1 like the blossom includes all vegetable parts4 ,it may be said that the plant has been immersed in the earth1 water1 and air2 these three elements having1 on the contrary1 been immersed in the animal4 ,the animal is in respect to them the continent1 the planet2 they1 however1 are the continent in respect to the plant4 ,thus the relations to the world are completely reversed in both4 #aggd4 ,an animal is a floral vesicle freely separated from the earth1 and living alone through its own motion in the water and air4 ,and here it is not locomotion that is treated of1 since this by no means belongs to the animal's essence4 ,yet on this account the poor oyster was formerly adduced as an argument against this animal character1 but unjustly2 for would a man frozen up in an ice-block lose his character as an animal8 ,the oyster opens its shell and shuts it too1 as well as the crocodile opens and shuts its jaws4 ,,animal ,,signification4 ,we will now proceed to knit or associate with this genetic or physiological1 the physio-philosophical mode of development4 #agge4 ,every ,organic originates from a mucus-point4 ,if this mucus-point occur in the darkness1 it thus becomes a terrestrial organism1 a plant2 if it enter into the light1 which is only possible in the water and in air1 it thus becomes a solar organism1 independent of the planet1 self-moving around itself like the sun1 an animal4 #aggf4 ,an animal is a light-mucus-vesicle1 a plant1 so far as the root is concerned1 a darkness-mucus-vesicle2 but it works its way unto air and light1 and becomes a light-mucus-vesicle in the blossom4 #aggg4 ,a free blossom is consequently to be philosophically regarded as equivalent to the primary mucus-vesicle1 which has at once developed itself in the water4 ,now1 such an aqueo-mucus-vesicle is directly that which the blossom can first become through a series of developments1 and by divestures of the ,dark4 #aggh4 ,the plant is an animal retarded by the darkness2 the animal is a plant blooming directly through the light1 and devoid of root4 #aggi4 ,the animal has been posited as a light-or ther-,total upon the planet2 the vegetable as a planetary ,total in light4 #aghj4 ,the animal is a whole solar system1 the plant only a planet4 ,the animal is therefore a whole universe1 the plant only its half2 the former is microcosm1 the latter microplanet4 ,,animal ,,place4 #agha4 ,no animal can become developed beneath the earth1 or where it is absolutely dark and dry4 ,none simply or solely in air4 ,water is the origin or source of all animals4 #aghb4 ,they have originated upon the sea-shore1 but not in the midst of the sea1 nor in that of the land4 ,the deluge cast up the first men4 ,they were littoral inhabitants1 and without doubt carnivorous1 as savages still are4 ,for whence could they have obtained also fruits1 cabbage1 and turnips8 ,,sensation4 #aghc4 ,in so far as the animal vesicle is a whole solar system1 to it1 the characters that transcend the plant1 such as motion1 belong4 #aghd4 ,but motion is not that alone which is displayed in the floral cyst when it has become solar2 but with it there is yet something higher bestowed4 #aghe4 ,like light or sun the vesicle has the principle of its polarization or determination in itself2 and it is certainly itself which moves its organs in conformity with this self-determination2 but it is withal in antagonism towards the elements1 like the sun is towards the planets4 ,through this antagonism the sun is destined unto the development of light4 ,although the light is its own product1 still it perceives the object toward which the ther-polarity is directed4 ,this perception of the direction1 whither motion should act by means of the central polarity1 is in the animal called ,sensation4 #aghf4 ,sensation is the relation of the ,central to the ,peripheric1 of the sun to the planet2 motion is the relation of the periphery to the centre1 of the planet to the sun4 ,the ,animal emerges into being from the alternating play of the supremest antagonism in the heavenly bodies1 the ,vegetable from that of the terrestrial antagonisms4 #aghg4 ,emission of light is discharging or unloading of the sun achieved by the influence of the planets2 sensation is unloading of the animal by objects1 by the world1 and by its own organs4 #aghh4 ,sensation is therefore a positing of want in the animal4 ,through sensation nothing comes into1 but rather something passes out of us4 #aghi4 ,the animal vesicle is a sentient or feeling blossom4 ,,sexual ,,animal4 #agij4 ,as the essence of the blossom consists in the sex1 so indeed is the blossom none other than the sexual system2 thus it may be said that the animal vesicle is none other than a sentient ,sexual cyst4 ,this discovery is of the highest importance for the whole of zoosophy4 #agia4 ,two fundamental properties are originally combined in the animal1 at the very instant when an animal can exist4 ,there is never one without the other1 never simply sensation1 but also motion2 but the latter is not simply this1 but is at once also a movement of copulation4 ,the animal is a sentient genital4 #agib4 ,both fundamental properties are however subordinated to each other4 ,the basis of the animal organism is the sexual system2 with this the animal commences2 what is further developed in addition thereunto1 is only higher completion4 ,but what it1 as sexual system1 does1 it does only through sensation4 #agic4 ,it is natural that the animal has not been concluded with the sentient sexual system2 but that the terrestrial processes also are developed like as in the plant1 and perfected indeed more individually than in the latter4 ,the main distinction is1 however1 this2 that these processes have preceded in the plant1 and the sexual system grown out of them2 in the animal1 on the other hand1 the sexual system is the foundation1 the root1 out of which these processes grow forth4 ,the first and simplest animal vesicle is a sexual cyst1 a matrix or womb4 ,,sensitive ,,animal4 #agid4 ,the animal is a twofold representation of the organization1 being at one time the planetary1 and at one time the solar4 ,there is a planetary animal and a solar animal in the higher organism4 ,the planetary animal is the plant in the animal1 the galvanic animal2 the solar animal is the sentient1 the light-or ther-animal4 #agie4 ,the highest completion of the vegetable animal is in the blossom4 ,there is thus a sexual or ,sex's animal and a sensitive or ,sensation's animal4 #agif4 ,the completed animal consists of two animals1 because it is at once planet and sun1 plant and animal4 #agig4 ,the vegetable and the sensitive animal have been formed parallel to each other1 yet in such a manner that the former being the lowest1 contains only the dispositions unto the highest4 ,there are consequently vegetative and animal organs1 which take a parallel range4 ,the animal grows upon a vegetable body4 ,it may be aptly said1 that the root of the plant becomes the mouth or head of the animal1 the stem the trunk or visceral body1 the blossom the sexual parts4 ,the three parts therefore of the animal body1 and the antagonism therefore of the head with the sexual parts1 unite through the medium of the vegetable stem1 or the visceral body4 ,,animal ,,anatomy4 #agih4 ,the parts of the animal body divide1 as in the plant1 into tissues1 anatomical systems1 and into organs proper or members4 ,the tissues are the constituent parts of the systems1 these of the organs1 and all collectively1 or associated1 of the body4 ,i4 ,animal ,tissues4 #agii4 ,these are the mathematical primary forms1 whereof the animal body consists1 and divide into the animal and vegetative fundamental forms4 ,a4 ,,animal ,,fundamental ,,forms4 #ahjj4 ,as animality is the representation of the three conditions of ther1 and thus of the gravity1 with light and heat or motion1 so are three tissues to be met with1 which correspond to these three forms4 ,the light emerges from the centre2 the gravity occupies the whole mass2 the motion oscillates between the two4 ,the organic light-mass will therefore1 as sun1 occupy the centre1 the gravity-mass1 like the planets1 the periphery1 the motion-mass1 like the heat1 the radii between the two4 ,the primary form is1 however1 the primary vesicle4 ,if1 therefore1 new tissues appear in the animal1 they can thus be only metamorphoses of the vesicle4 ,the vesicle1 can only resolve itself into three forms2 either its contents become self-substantial--,point2 or in like manner the envelope--,line2 or1 finally1 both become an uniform mass--,globe4 #a4 ,point-tissue4 #ahja4 ,we take up or commence the study of the animal substance1 with the condition under which it has originated1 that of a vesicle or sensitive blossom4 ,the vegetable texture attained a form which was prescribed by the light4 ,now1 as the animal vesicle is1 in the first place1 nothing else but a ,sentient1 so must the texture of the original animal vesicle be commensurate with this property4 #ahjb4 ,the highest perfection of the blossom was1 however1 resolution of the texture into the original form of vesicles or granules1 a retroconduction of the organic mass to the primary condition1 yet under the signification of light4 ,the ,highest of the blossom was an organized and designedly-prepared granular texture--pollen4 #ahjc4 ,now a substance which absolves itself from the terrestrial forms1 and would assume the form of the ther1 and thus of that which is most discrete1 can represent no other form than that of the point4 ,the whole ther is an infinity of non-coherent atoms4 ,this atomic formation1 when metatyped or copied in a terrestrial mass1 can be none other than a granular substance4 #ahjd4 ,the fundamental substance of the animal is point-substance2 but1 since the essence of the animal consists in its being a sensitive substance1 so must it belong to the latter's essence1 that it be atomic or punctiform4 ,the point-texture is equivalent to the sensitive mass4 #ahje4 ,it might be believed1 that as the animal is a floral vesicle1 the cystic or cell-form must also lie at its foundation2 only1 there is another relation beyond that which occurs in the plant4 ,this animal cyst is an already organized cyst1 an organ1 no longer a component part of an anatomical system2 this cystic form cannot1 therefore1 enter into the texture of the animal mass2 yet meanwhile1 as is natural1 the sensitive mass admits of being reduced1 but only as organic in a general sense1 to the vesicular form4 ,the lowest animals1 such as the ,infusoria1 ,polyps1 ,acaleph1 or sea-nettles1 in short1 all ,protozoa or mucous animals consist of this point-substance1 and are wholly sensitive mass4 ,nervous ,mass4 #ahjf4 ,the sensitive mass is called in higher animals1 ,nervous mass4 ,the nervous texture is a conjoined series of mucus-granules1 which have become albuminous in character4 ,the nervous mass is the least organized2 it has selected the primary forms1 which have been preconstructed in ther1 or the densely fluid solar matter4 ,the ,dominant of the terrestrial organs can have also no other form1 than such as agrees with the ,dominant or governing primary mass of the planetary system2 or it can have none other1 because at the instant when it exists1 it is sentient4 ,at the first instant of the origin of organic matter1 it can1 however1 originate only as infinitely numerous points2 at the termination of the plant1 this mass would be displayed as a light-organ2 being thus engendered as such1 it must forsake the vegetable forms1 and assume the universal form-susceptive primary form1 which is the form of the point4 ,the floral mass1 the delicate petals of the corolla1 the stamina and the pollen are to be deemed the first onset or advance that is made to nervous mass4 ,the cellular tissue becomes delicate and gradually resolves itself into granules4 #ahjg4 ,granular or point-mass is1 however1 an accumulation of centres4 ,the nervous mass is therefore1 in accordance with the conception of the ,organic1 a repeated1 multiplied centre4 ,the nervous mass has therefore a light-function1 i4 e4 the gentlest polarization in the organism4 ,nervous mass is light-mass4 #ahjh4 ,the animal substance has commenced with the nervous mass2 thus with that which is the highest1 and which physiologists have deemed to be the ultimate mass4 ,the origin of the animal is from the nerves1 and all anatomical systems are only free evolutions or separations from the nervous mass4 ,the animal is naught but nerve4 ,what it is further or in addition1 is obtained elsewhere1 or is a metamorphosis of nerves4 ,the mucus of the ,infusoria1 ,polyps1 and ,acaleph is nervous substance upon the lowest stage or degree1 where the other substances that are therein involved and merged1 have not as yet been perfected in an isolated manner4 #ahji4 ,the nervous mass indicates the absolute ,indifferent in an animal1 and consequently that which is polarizable by the gentlest aura or breath4 ,division of the ,nervous ,mass4 #ahaj4 ,the nervous mass behaves itself also in its production like the solar mass4 ,as from this the planets have through antagonism on the periphery1 emancipated themselves1 so from the nervous mass have the anatomical systems1 which are subservient unto lower purposes4 #ahaa4 ,the development of the animal organs is a constant division of the nervous mass1 whereby it becomes more and more divested of their coarse coverings1 and traverses the same like radiating ther1 illuminant1 heating1 and moving ther4 ,it is a positing of the centre in the periphery4 #ahab4 ,when also the other systems have been formed out of the identical nervous mass1 still the whole animal body is naught but nervous mass1 only1 in a crude or inert condition4 ,there is1 consequently1 no point upon the body1 on which the nervous phenomena are absolutely wanting1 or where they may not appear under certain relations4 #ahac4 ,what remains behind of the nervous mass1 has now the form of filaments or rays1 which are projected from one centre1 the brain1 to all parts of the periphery4 #ahad4 ,the nerves being individualized1 and withdrawn from the coarser mass1 stand in need of no actio in distans1 or no nervous atmosphere 7although for other reasons such a one may exist71 in order that every part of the body should have sensibility or feel2 for every substance is verily but an aberrant nervous substance1 in which the original spirit is still inherent or abides4 #ahae4 ,each part of the body has consequently irritability1 and each one has the capacity for sensation2 and that1 indeed1 through and in itself1 or not borrowed from1 what have been called1 nerves2 as it is indeed only the coarse nervous envelope of the more delicate nerves4 #ahaf4 ,yet1 meanwhile it is certain1 that nothing feels but the nervous mass1 because every thing1 which feels1 does1 and hath the power to do so1 only in so far as it has been nervous mass4 ,precisely as all metals are only magnetic in so far as they are metamorphosed iron1 which is the primary metal4 #ahag4 ,certain formations or textures must1 on that account1 have different sensations1 because they have deviated more or less remotely from the primary texture2 without in this any regard being paid to the number of nerves running to such systems4 #ahah4 ,the transformation of the nervous mass upon the periphery is chiefly imparted by oxydation1 because here the oxygen of the water exerts a direct influence4 ,the transformation does not1 however1 simply occur upon the periphery1 but also internally1 and that indeed in a beamy or radial direction4 ,the external parts will be harder1 the internal or radial continue soft1 but be more solid than the nervous mass itself4 #b4 ,globe-tissue4 #ahai4 ,the nervous tissue alone cannot constitute the animal substance concerned in all functions1 but it must with further development pass over into another4 ,as the ther-mass cannot concentrate itself into the sun without1 from the antagonism with the refraction of light1 condensing into planets1 so also a central mass cannot subsist in an animal1 without converting itself on the periphery into one that is planetary or terrestrial4 #ahbj4 ,the antagonistic mass1 originating in a peripheral relation in the nervous mass1 will surround the residue of the latter like a cyst or cyst1 just like the planetary masses1 or the colours1 have primordially surrounded the sun as great hollow globes4 ,the aggregate and purer nervous mass becomes thus directly the central mass of the animal--the brain4 #ahba4 ,the limitary mass originates through oxygenation4 ,thus the colours originate2 they are an oxygenated light4 ,thus has every terrestrial mass originated through combustion4 ,the planets are suns that have undergone combustion2 the limitary mass is nervous mass similarly treated and deoxydized4 #ahbb4 ,as having been already subjected to combustion1 it therefore becomes polarizable1 and consequently susceptible of sensation in the least degree4 ,the limitary mass must be rigid or fixed2 for it has indeed originated through fixation of the poles1 or through the strongest oxydation4 ,the limitary mass is the most rigid in the whole animal2 for it is the primary antagonism with the nervous mass1 the ultimate planetary matter1 which is characterized by immoveability of the atoms4 #ahbc4 ,the limitary mass must be typical of the earth-element1 this being the most rigid1 and the end of the oxydation4 ,the limitary mass is the animal earth-mass1 just as the median mass is the animal ther- or fire-mass4 #ahbd4 ,the texture of the animal earth-mass must be that of a crystal1 but of a round globular crystal2 for it is organic mass1 and can consequently have been only deposited as vesicle2 it is1 however1 earthy mass1 so that the whole vesicle must be1 with all its contents1 rigidified4 ,now1 the rigidified substance of a vesicle is a globe--the texture of the mass which is opposed to that of the nerves is consequently the globular form4 ,osseous ,mass4 #ahbe4 ,the rigidified limitary mass1 which exhibits histologically dense globes1 consists of earthy substance1 and surrounds the nervous mass1 is osseous mass4 ,the osseous or bony texture is a solid globe or rigidified vesicle1 being thus ambitus or boundary1 as well as complexus or contents4 #ahbf4 ,bone can only originate through oxydation of the animal mucous or nervous mass1 whereby it is converted into a vesicular form4 ,these vesicles are1 however1 by virtue of the highest oxydation1 which must necessarily enter into antagonism with the highest central organ1 converted wholly and thoroughly into rigid substance or earth1 which is the maximum of the oxydation or fixation of ther4 #ahbg4 ,the osseous mass1 as the organic earth-mass1 corresponds to the gravity4 ,it is the materiality in a general point of view in the ,organic1 and consequently the ,inert4 #ahbh4 ,osseous or limitary organs will become more rigid in the air than in water4 ,the air-breathing animals must have more perfect bones or harder limitary organs4 #ahbi4 ,bones are therefore either wanting completely in the aquatic animals1 or they are mucus scarcely oxydized1 in other words1 cartilage2 or finally1 almost entirely rough carbonated earth1 in the corals and shells4 #ahcj4 ,this theory is most beautifully proved in the corals4 ,internally they consist of granular substance1 like the polyps1 or of sentient nervous mass2 externally they are simply earth or globular form1 which is the rudest antagonism presented to the likewise rude central mass4 #ahca4 ,bone essentially surrounds the nervous mass4 ,the skull environs and incloses the brain1 the vertebr the spinal cord1 the ribs1 the visceral nerves the snail's shell all the soft parts of that animal1 the coral stem its polyp-tube1 the horny coat the insect4 #ahcb4 ,the purest and highest antagonisms in an animal are nerve and bone1 and as such they are demonstrated on every occasion4 ,the nerve is that which is soft1 powerless1 changeable1 sentient1 governing1 and motion-imparting2 the bone1 what is hard1 strong1 unchangeable1 non-sentient1 governed1 and becoming moved2 the one properly speaking the spiritually vitalizing1 the other the spiritually dead1 or self-subsistent simply in a mineral point of view4 ,the bone is the obedient planet of the nerve4 #ahcc4 ,point-and globe-form are consequently1 as regards the tissue of the substance1 the first two forms of the animal body4 #ahcd4 ,what develops itself apart from nerve and bone in the animal1 must either range between or below both2 it must participate of both forms1 or be only their incompletion4 #c4 ,fibrous ,tissue4 #ahce4 ,the nervous and osseous substance could not range opposite to each other1 without a transition or a something interposing2 as little as could ther and ,terrestrial1 or sun and planet1 between which the moved ther or the heat oscillates1 and conditionates the planetary motion4 #ahcf4 ,between the soft point-form of the nerve and the hard globe-form of the bone1 a semi-oxydation stands midway1 just as the air stands between the ther and the earth4 ,as this is the medium element1 wherein the light is refracted into colours1 and thereby warms and moves the planet1 so must this median animal formation be the element1 through which the nerve imparts its motion to the bones4 #ahcg4 ,this organ stands1 like the air1 upon the middle rate of oxydation2 the oxygen becomes alternately united with it and set free2 which is neither possible in the point-form1 as being that which incessantly liberates oxygen1 nor in the globe-form1 as being that which always holds or retains the oxygen in union with it4 #ahch4 ,this tissue must consist of firm or solid nervous granules1 which have been serially co-arranged in lines or radii4 ,such organic lines are called ,fibres4 #ahci4 ,the fibrous is the third original tissue1 which appears in the animal organization4 #ahdj4 ,the nerve acts upon the fibres as upon the bone1 or as a ,central upon a ,peripheric1 as the light upon the air4 #ahda4 ,thereby the soft fibre is polarized2 the poles are mutually attracted and repelled1 and motion of the fibres originates1 their extremities approximating or withdrawing by virtue of the polarity4 ,contractile fibres are called sarcose or fleshy fibres4 ,flesh4 #ahdb4 ,the flesh is the median formation between nerve and bone4 ,it is half nervous mass1 therefore sentient1 half bone1 therefore moving4 #ahdc4 ,the essence of the motion resides in the muscle1 not in the nerve4 ,such is the cause of motion1 the muscle being the self-moving1 the bone that which is moved4 #ahdd4 ,the flesh must surround the bone1 as the air or water surrounds the earth4 #ahde4 ,the flesh is a terrestrial substance1 just as the bone is2 the nerve is a cosmical substance1 and on that account the mediator of everything4 ,b4 ,,vegetable ,,tissues4 #d4 ,cellular ,tissue4 #ahdf4 ,there are three1 and only three constituent forms essential to the animal substance1 the point1 the globe1 and the line2 equivalent to centre1 periphery1 and radius4 #ahdg4 ,out of these three all other forms1 of whatever kind1 are developed1 through degradation unto vegetable structure4 ,this form can be none other than the ,cell-form4 ,in the animal there are therefore four fundamental forms1 while in the vegetable only one occurs4 #ahdh4 ,the cellular form may be also called the water in the animal1 the globe-form the earth1 the fibrous the air1 the point-form the fire4 ,thus is the animal even in its tissues a whole universe1 for it cannot otherwise be thought of4 #ahdi4 ,the cellular substance is the last division of the point-substance1 because the nervous granule becomes hollow4 ,a true cellular tissue first makes its appearance therefore in the higher animals4 #ahej4 ,bone1 flesh and nerve are the highest organs of the animal2 the viscera1 which mostly consist of cellular tissue1 will indicate the ,vegetative in the animal4 ,proper animal organs can only present the above-mentioned triplicity4 ,what is not bone1 flesh or nerve1 is not animal1 but vegetable4 #ahea4 ,nerve1 flesh and bone are mutually excited1 and are independent of the cellular tissue4 ,they are moreover the animal in the animal1 the thoroughly ,free and ,voluntary4 #aheb4 ,these three substances have therefore nothing to do with the three terrestrial processes2 they do not digest1 respire1 nourish nor transport about the galvanic sap1 but live for themselves or to their own satisfaction4 #ahec4 ,the origination of the three inferior substances out of the nervous mass1 is perfectly similar to the original creative process of the three terrestrial elements from the ther4 ,the animal organism is a second world-creation1 for in the organic ther an organic air1 earth and water1 have been produced1 or it has itself become these through fixation of the poles4 ,this capacity for resemblance between the organic and inorganic elements is marvellous2 but yet there would be more to wonder at1 ay1 it would be thoroughly incomprehensible1 if the organic elements had been created according to some other type4 #ahed4 ,when once the nervous mass has become separated from the three other masses1 each then commences to be self-substantially perfected1 and become a particular organ1 though it is still under the supremacy of the primary mass4 #ahee4 ,the principal mass which constitutes the animal body1 after complete separation of the chaotic nervous mass1 is without doubt the fundamental mass of everything organic2 being the mucus or cellular mass1 in which the other elements have only been included like veins of ore4 ,it is the cellular mass therefore which we will first consider in its process of formative evolution4 #ahef4 ,as cellular mass it must be the seat of the galvanic process1 and thus of the life proper4 ,in the cellular mass consequently the three vegetative processes1 or the three terrestrial elementary processes1 must be firmly established2 as there digestion1 respiration and nutrition are4 #aheg4 ,with these three processes1 the three superior elementary forms1 which are peculiar to the animal1 as nerves1 bones1 and muscles1 will have nothing to do1 excepting in so far as they govern them4 ,as in the plant1 so also in an animal1 the terrestrial processes are only the appurtenance of the cellular tissue4 #aheh4 ,in cellular tissue is therefore the seat of life4 ,but the vegetative mass simply lives that it may live1 while the animal lives1 in order to combine the universe with the life4 ,the animal elements live only in order to feel and move1 in order to act freely like the world2 the vegetative only1 that they may subsist as planet4 ,the latter are an image of the planet1 the former of the world2 the one deal with matter1 the other with spirit4 ,integument4 #ahei4 ,the cellular tissue does not continue a mere parenchyma in the animal as in the plant1 but it obtains a definite anatomical form4 #ahfj4 ,the animal cellular tissue has issued forth from its highest formation in the plant1 or out of the blossom1 which is a great bladder or cyst composed of primary vesicles4 ,it is the secondary cystic form1 wherein the animal cellular tissue appears1 when it becomes an anatomical system4 #ahfa4 ,the animal cellular tissue forms therefore everywhere large bladders or cysts1 whose walls consist of primary vesicles1 or of the vegetable cellular tissue4 ,cyst-walls are teguments4 #ahfb4 ,the cellular system in the animal is ,tegumentary system4 #ahfc4 ,the idea of the integument is the wall of a cyst4 ,there is no tegument apart from the meaning of circumscription1 inclusion1 and limitation4 ,there is no flat integument1 or one that could be designed after the idea of the plane4 ,every tegument is periphery1 just as there is nowhere a surface in the universe1 which could have been produced according to the level or plane4 #ahfd4 ,all terrestrial processes1 as digestion1 respiration1 and nutrition1 are consequently tegumentary processes4 ,all these organs must be tegumentary organs4 ,intestine1 vessel1 lung1 in a word all viscera are naught but tegument4 #ahfe4 ,the vegetable tissue becomes in the animal1 tegumentary tissue4 ,the tegumentary formation is the vegetable in an animal--the parenchyma1 the ,visceral4 #ahff4 ,the lowest distinction between animal and plant resides accordingly in this1 that the vegetable tissue consists of actual vesicles1 which form everywhere closely compressed masses2 the animal cellular tissue on the contrary of granules1 which inclose a hollow space4 ,the animal body is a hollow globe of vesicles1 the vegetable body one full of vesicles4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaj1 #ahgj47 #ahfg4 ,every animal cyst is necessarily composed of the element of the vesicles1 and is then for the first time an organ4 ,the vegetable bladders are1 however1 single vesicles1 and as such are already an organ4 ,in the plant therefore the cellular tissue is upon the lowest stage1 being only an aggregate devoid of secondary form2 in the animal along with its aggregation a secondary form has been imparted4 ,in this the higher character of the animal is at once demonstrated4 #ahfh4 ,the above is certainly a distinction between the two organisms1 but it is not the essential one2 for with it1 what is animal has been by no means expressed2 this being first imparted in the three cosmic elemental forms1 which manifest themselves through sensation and motion1 and then admit of being recognized as an animal4 ,the corolla is also a cyst1 but without being an animal2 because1 to this animal-like tegumentary formation1 the proper animal elements are still wanting4 #ahfi4 ,now as the tegument is none other than the form1 under which the cellular tissue exists in the animal1 we must regard it as an elemental form1 which has stepped into the place of the cellular4 ,the tegumentary form constitutes the fourth form1 and is none other than the primo-vesicular form elevated to a higher rank1 by being composed of cell-granules1 which have been formerly nerve-granules4 #ahgj4 ,the animal body must consist of nerve1 muscle1 bone1 and tegument1 and of no other fundamental form2 in other words1 of point1 line1 globe1 and cyst4 ,,ii4 ,anatomical ,systems4 #ahga4 ,all anatomical systems are developments and separations of the four tissues1 which are prolonged as sheaths through the whole body1 like as in the plant are the bark1 liber and wood4 #ahgb4 ,they are divisible next of all into two great parties1 into the terrestrial and cosmical1 or vegetative and animal4 ,a4 ,,vegetative ,,systems4 #ahgc4 ,the vegetable systems can only be different developments of the tegument4 ,they accord with the galvanic factors4 ,any further derivation of them is unnecessary4 ,the tegumental development must be represented as the systems of digestion1 respiration1 and nutrition1 since from it these have been sufficiently borrowed or derived4 #ahgd4 ,except these three systems there can be no other tegumental system2 and1 if such appear to be present1 they must be subordinate to these4 ,for there cannot be subsequently any more than there was fundamentally or at bottom4 #ahge4 ,in the animal1 however1 the galvanic processes do not remain entangled in one mass1 as in the plant4 ,but they are even characterized as animal by their individual liberation from the whole mass4 ,in the plant digestion or absorption1 and nutrition or the course of the sap1 were in one kind of mass or one kind of cellular tissue1 all three processes 7together with respiration7 being in a tolerably confused condition4 #ahgf4 ,the animal appears in its dignity by separation of these processes1 and by the perfection of each individually1 or per se4 #ahgg4 ,as all life consists only in the constant conversion of what is inorganic into the ,organic1 so is the process of digestion or absorption necessarily the first in animals4 #a4 ,,intestinal ,,system4 #ahgh4 ,the chemical process of the galvanism is conversion of the ,inorganic into mucus1 and thus an assumption of this matter into the organic body4 ,now as every limit of the body is tegument or cellular tissue1 so can this assumption take place everywhere4 ,adoption of what is external into an organic body is absorption4 #ahgi4 ,absorption originates from the antagonism of the body with the earth1 which is organizable1 and thus with the mucus4 #ahhj4 ,we call this slime or mucus1 nutritive matter4 ,wherever such matter can operate upon the body1 a corresponding organ of absorption1 and thus a cell or integument1 will be formed4 #ahha4 ,the whole body is surrounded by integument2 it was originally nothing but integument4 #ahhb4 ,the essence of the integument consists in absorption1 or in the intervention of the chemical process4 #ahhc4 ,the integument is the root of the animal4 #ahhd4 ,the animal cellular mass is1 however1 in conformity with its origin1 a bladder or cyst that has been opened by light and air4 ,the integument is a large cyst not closed all round1 but open at one end4 ,it is the open floral cyst1 which has just become an animal4 ,the original integument is thus ,intestine4 ,the intestine is the water-organ4 #ahhe4 ,the integument presents therefore to the external world1 or to the nutritive matter1 two parietes or walls1 an external and an internal4 #ahhf4 ,both walls are opposed to each other like light and darkness1 like air and water4 ,the external is the light-and air-wall1 the internal the darkness-and water-wall4 #ahhg4 ,it is consequently only the internal wall that stands in the same relation as the root4 ,the internal is par excellence root1 and is thus a main organ of absorption4 #ahhh4 ,the external wall comes under the idea of the stem-bark1 and in so far only as this has a root-nature in itself1 is it likewise absorbent4 #ahhi4 ,as upon the external animal wall the light and air constantly operate--for without light indeed no animal originates--so is this wall more and more removed from the idea of the root1 and becomes1 by virtue of the influence of light and air1 instead of an absorbent organ1 an organ rather of decomposition--an evaporation's organ4 #ahij4 ,as a cyst the internal wall incloses the nutritive matter1 which originates from the mucus1 and thus from the organic water4 ,the internal wall is therefore constantly immersed in the water1 and is consequently in every respect a root4 #ahia4 ,as the animal is only developed in light1 so must the function of the root languish in the external wall1 and decay1 because it is devoid of the earth1 which protects it from or against the light4 ,this deficiency is compensated for in another way1 or by the formation of a cavity1 into which the media of nutrition enter1 and which is dark like the earth4 #ahib4 ,internal and external wall stand also opposite to each other1 like water and air4 ,the one is the water-1 the other the air-wall4 #ahic4 ,the nutritive matters are not decomposed upon the internal wall by extraneous influences1 but they remain identical2 ay1 they become indifferent1 because they enter into darker and warmer water4 #ahid4 ,on the other hand such nutritive matters are decomposed upon the external wall2 and there here therefore gradually originates1 instead of the chemicalizing root-process1 the polarizing process of air4 #ahie4 ,in a perfect light-animal it is only the internal wall that is chemicalizing2 the external has become oxydizing4 ,the internal is a mucus-wall1 but the external1 on account of the decomposition of mucus1 an oxygen-wall4 ,division4 #ahif4 ,the more an animal has been exposed to the air and light1 by so much the greater is the antagonism between its internal and external wall4 ,in aquatic animals the antagonism is at its minimum1 because externally and internally there is water2 both parietes are therefore mucus-walls4 ,the external wall of the fishes secretes an abundance of mucus1 as does that also of the worms1 snails1 and molluscs4 #ahig4 ,but an internal wall is still the more mucous of the two1 because it is darker and warmer4 #ahih4 ,at first the animal is content with the antagonism of the walls2 especially so long as it remains occluded in dark and deep water1 or within other animals4 ,many intestinal worms1 polyps1 and even ,acalephous animals1 are but simple sacs4 #ahii4 ,when the animal organization1 however1 ranks upon a higher stage1 light1 or even air1 operates more upon its external wall1 but upon its internal1 water2 thus the antagonism of the two walls is carried out to the utmost degree4 #aijj4 ,through the different1 ay1 opposed processes1 the two walls finally adopt another structure4 ,the external becomes denser and harder1 on account of the decomposition by light and dessication by air2 the internal1 however1 retains its original structure and consistence4 ,soft1 aqueous1 indifferent1 and constantly absorbent1 it is only a viscous mucus4 #aija4 ,in place of an integument of similar tissue throughout1 one will originate1 whose external tissue is dense and oxydized1 but whose internal is loose or spongy1 and indifferent4 ,the previously uniform integument will now separate or fall into two distinct layers2 into a soft muco-cellular layer1 and into a tough coriaceo-cellular layer4 #aijb4 ,with the last attainable antagonism the layers finally separate2 two bladders or cysts1 disunited from each other1 originate2 of these the internal is the mucous1 the external the coriaceous cyst4 #aijc4 ,now the internal cyst alone is the intestine1 the external the cutis or skin4 #aijd4 ,intestine and cutis belong to one formation1 or to the integument4 ,they pass directly into each other at the mouth and anus4 ,their structure also is wholly similar4 #aije4 ,they are merely distinguished by darkness and light1 but more closely by water and air4 ,the intestine is the water-tegument1 the skin the air-tegument4 #aijf4 ,the functions of both are therefore co-related like dissolution is to combustion1 along with which the evaporation has been bestowed4 #aijg4 ,intestine and skin stand in antagonism with each other4 #aijh4 ,the first animal1 as being sentient integument1 is a sac2 the first skin is also a sac2 an animal around the animal4 #b4 ,,dermal ,,system4 a4 ,branchi or ,gills4 #aiji4 ,the external wall1 being constantly exposed to the air that is in the water1 can adopt no other than the aerial character1 and is thus like the leaf of the plant4 ,the skin is the organ of evaporation1 and with this of oxydation also4 #aiaj4 ,a self-oxydizing integument is called a ,branchia or gill4 #aiaa4 ,the skin is essentially nothing else than a gill2 and1 if it subsequently appears as anything else1 this happens only through a higher state of perfection being attained by its branchial function4 #aiab4 ,the lowest animals1 such as most of the worms1 molluscs1 and snails1 breathe through the external integument2 even the gills of fishes are none other than a piece of skin4 #aiac4 ,thus gills and intestine would be the first two organs1 which are developed out of the tegumentary system by the antagonism of air and water4 ,through the gills1 air1 and through the intestine1 water enters the body4 ,the gill is the atmosphere of the animal1 the intestine is its sea4 b4 ,trache1 or ,air-tubes4 #aiad4 ,as the intestine1 and in general every water-tegument is prolonged into mucous tubes or absorbent vessels2 so also1 with a more vigorous formation1 the branchial membrane is drawn out into tubes1 in order to conduct the air or oxygen towards the intestinal vessels1 just as the intestine conveys through its absorbent ducts the water to the vessels of the skin4 #aiae4 ,this saccular inversion of the skin constitutes the tegumentary lymphatic vessels1 whose original function has been to transport the oxygen1 combined with the water1 to the intestine4 ,they are the original respiratory vessels1 which in the higher animals become1 through the pure influence of air1 true ,air-tubes1 like the spiral vessels4 #aiaf4 ,the air-vessels traverse the thickness of the body toward the intestinal membrane1 like the mucous vessels do toward the branchial membrane4 #aiag4 ,thus an infinite number of air-vessels will and must originate4 #aiah4 ,the air-tubes are consequently the formation which is properly opposed to the lymphatic vessels4 ,they are for the air or for the skin1 what these are for the water or the intestine4 ,air-vessels are first displayed in insects1 then in fishes1 reptiles1 birds1 and ,thricozoa or ,mammalia4 #aiai4 ,if the infinitely numerous air-vessels concur to form one stem1 they are then called lungs1 as in the higher animals4 #aibj4 ,the pulmonary vesicles are nothing but ramified air-tubes1 such as the insect has4 #aiba4 ,the formation of air-tubes is one of a higher character than that of the gills4 ,for in it1 indeed1 the function has been separated from all other functions4 ,it is simply destined to convey the air without water4 #aibb4 ,as they pass into the dark1 light does not operate upon them2 and they will therefore less promote evaporation than mediate unto combustion4 #aibc4 ,the anatomical idea of the air-vessels1 or of the lung1 is a saccular inversion of the skin4 ,the skin is prolonged into1 and ramifies towards1 the body4 ,the intestine is prolonged through the absorbent vessels1 as being also small inversions1 toward the lung1 and becomes a stem--thoracic duct4 ,then the thoracic duct finally unites with the lungs through the medium of the heart1 which is a new formation4 #aibd4 ,everything becomes stem which attains a higher grade1 and which approximates the air and light4 ,the stem strives to be a centre1 but the ramification devolves upon the periphery2 the former upon the ,solar or ,animal2 the latter upon the ,planetary or ,vegetative4 #aibe4 ,the nobler therefore a formation1 by so much the more single and stemmy is it3 such is the case with the trachea of the lungs1 such with the lymphatic duct4 #c4 ,,vascular ,,system4 #aibf4 ,the earth or the nutritive mass acts also upon its formation1 and destines the tegument to a peculiar structure4 ,the result of the electric and chemical process1 or of the oxydation of the mucus1 is precipitation1 mass-and earth-formation2 it is thus a process of nutrition1 since through it the ,solid of the body1 with even the branchial and intestinal membranes1 originates4 #aibg4 ,the earth-system can only be developed where the two last systems coincide1 or where the intestinal and branchial processes enter into mutual contact2 in short1 where the mucus is oxydized1 and thereby separated into what is aerial and rigid4 #aibh4 ,this spot is only in the middle between the two4 ,the process of precipitation and the formation of elemental matter occurs1 consequently1 between the two layers of integument1 or at present between the two teguments that have become self-substantial1 or between intestine and skin4 #aibi4 ,a new formation must be evolved1 whereby the two shall be held together2 a formation1 whereby the antagonism shall be conducted from one to the other2 and thus whereby the mucus shall be conveyed to the skin1 but the air to the intestine4 #aicj4 ,were intestine and skin entirely separated from each other1 each would perish2 the former would no longer be oxydized1 the latter no longer nourished4 #aica4 ,with their separation they must continue to be attached to each other at certain points1 and thus undergo eversion at certain points4 ,thereby tubes originate in the intestine1 which pursue their course toward the skin2 in this again tubes1 which pass to the intestine4 #aicb4 ,a tube1 which receives mucus from the intestine1 air from the skin1 and includes both within itself1 is a long cyst4 ,a cyst1 which conducts mucus to the skin and air to the intestine1 is a ,vessel1 a vein4 a4 ,unclosed ,vascular ,system4 #aicc4 ,the vessel has1 in virtue of its essence1 two extremities1 an air-extremity1 which is polar1 and a water-extremity1 which is indifferent4 ,every vessel has been rooted in two systems1 in the intestine and skin1 and is subservient to both4 #aicd4 ,the vessel is no longer a something single1 like the last-mentioned or preceding cysts1 but double4 ,every vessel hath two poles4 #aice4 ,the organization necessarily produces two kinds of vessels4 ,a vessel1 which conducts the mucus to the skin1 cannot also convey the air to the intestine4 ,there is consequently a mucus-vessel and an air-vessel1 or a water-and an air-vessel1 an indifferent and a different4 #aicf4 ,the mucus-vessel is called absorbent1 the air-vessel respiratory duct or trachea4 #aicg4 ,air-and absorbent vessel stand in antagonism like skin and intestine1 like water and air4 ,the air-vessel is the skin or the branchia1 which passes to the intestine1 the absorbent vessel is the intestine1 which passes to the air2 the one the intestinal branchia1 the other the branchial intestine4 #aich4 ,so long as intestine and skin were one in kind1 this vascular process was in every situation4 ,with their separation therefore the vascular structure has of necessity originated between two opposed situations4 ,there is no point in the skin and none in the intestine1 where there might not be an air-and a water-vessel1 a respiratory and absorbent duct4 #aici4 ,there are therefore numerous vessels1 and consequently a ,vascular system4 #aidj4 ,air-and water-vessel must abut against each other2 because they are polar1 because the one leads to this place and the other to that4 #aida4 ,the system of water-and air-ducts can form no closed vascular system2 for they only grow towards each other1 as did formerly intestine and skin4 #aidb4 ,they would not have originated if both cysts had not separated from each other4 ,these vessels are not therefore to be met with in animals that have no intestine4 ,the transition of the water-into the air-ducts takes place in the higher animals through the union of the thoracic duct with the subclavian vein1 which conveys the blood directly to the lungs4 #aidc4 ,the vascular system is properly the primo-cellular tissue1 which occupies the middle1 and at whose extremities the two cysts remain approximated1 in order that they may continue to live4 #aidd4 ,the vascular is the original system1 since its two extremities already carry in themselves the air-and mucus-process1 so that branchia and intestine are only to be viewed as peculiarly perfected conditions of these extremities4 ,i would even have developed the vascular system first of all1 had not another course been required to render the subject intelligible4 #aide4 ,the first animal cyst is a vessel with two kinds of extremities1 whereof1 like the plant1 one draws its supply from the water1 the other from the air2 but in the animal this is effected by its own motion4 #aidf4 ,the branchia is nothing but a vascular tissue in the air1 the intestine none other than a vascular tissue in the water4 ,thus1 do ,i wish that these organs should be understood1 and not as mere cystic walls4 #aidg4 ,every point therefore in the intestine and skin absorbs1 and thus every part is perforated with infinitely numerous holes or pores4 ,here they absorb air1 there water4 #aidh4 ,every absorbent point of integument is drawn out as a tube towards the respiratory system1 in order to let what it has absorbed become oxydized4 ,these tegumentary prolongations into tubes are the lymphatic vessels4 #aidi4 ,in all teguments there are necessarily lymphatic vessels1 but more of them in the water-than the air-teguments4 ,on that account the lymphatic vessels are much more numerous in the intestine than the skin4 ,they are there called chyliferous1 or lacteal vessels4 #aiej4 ,the lymphatic vessels are the first of all vessels4 ,many animals1 as perhaps the ,acaleph and ,distomata1 appear to have only this kind of vessel4 #aiea4 ,lymphatic vessels are present in the skin1 only in so far as it has resigned the respiratory function to special organs4 ,meaning of the ,unclosed ,vascular ,system4 #aieb4 ,the action of this unclosed vascular system is wholly similar to the motion of sap and air in the plant1 there being only an ascent of the first1 and a fall or descent of the last4 ,in the absorbents the sap ascends out of the root 7intestine7 into the leaves 7branchi72 in the respiratory vessels the air descends from the foliage 7skin7 to the intestine and the whole body of cells4 #aiec4 ,this vascular system is therefore the pure remnant of the plant1 and has as yet assumed no properly animal character1 except that both its sets of vessels or tubes are self-substantial1 and ramify1 while in the plant they are only intercellular passages or non-ramified spiral vessels4 #aied4 ,in insects this system has been most perfectly evolved2 there the air-tubes1 being well parcelled out1 are in great number1 and run directly to the intestine and dorsal vessel1 which is1 as it were1 only the trunk of the lymphatic vessels1 or the chyliferous duct4 #aiee4 ,now1 such a vascular system1 merely oscillating1 as it were1 between intestine and skin1 can be but persistent in animals1 which express only the vegetable type of organization4 ,if other significations be introduced1 so also will this vascular system be otherwise evolved4 #aief4 ,the unclosed vascular system will be present along with an energetic antagonism between skin and intestine2 with an antagonism that is almost suppressed1 there will be none4 ,there are then only cells1 or there is only point-substance1 as in the ,infusoria1 polyps1 and ,acaleph or sea-nettles4 #aieg4 ,the dermal vessels exist only in the air-insects1 because in them nothing but air and water are engaged in conflict4 ,externally there is desiccated horn1 internally mucous water4 #aieh4 ,a perfectly unclosed vascular system appears to be developed only in animals which respire air4 ,at least there are only genuine air-tubes and lymphatic vessels in such as breathe air2 e4 g41 in the ,mammalia1 birds1 reptiles and fishes1 the latter set of vessels being probably not present in insects4 #aiei4 ,through the predominance of the air-process1 as in insects1 the mucus that is conveyed to it becomes so rapidly decomposed1 that no more remains behind1 for which a new vessel would be necessary4 #aifj4 ,the galvanic process is at every instant annulled1 and only renovated by a new afflux or supply4 ,here the galvanism does not subsist in itself as a peculiar and independent system4 b4 ,closed ,vascular ,system4 #aifa4 ,the unclosed vascular system is not yet self-substantial1 because it is a ccal eversion of the intestine or inversion of the skin1 being itself only a ramified intestine and skin4 ,every system1 however1 attains its perfection1 by being rendered independent of its origin4 ,thus the leaf is the spiral vessel that has become free1 the root the cellular tissue in a like condition1 the blossom the liberated vegetable trunk4 ,the vascular system will therefore aspire also to the achievement of its blossom4 #aifb4 ,if the decomposition that is effected by an inferior amount of polarization1 does not happen rapidly enough1 for what has flowed thither1 to disappear1 during its afflux1 by evaporation or precipitation2 the rest of the mucus which has obtained the air-polarity1 is now repelled by the respiratory vessels1 because both have become synonymous4 #aifc4 ,the oxydized superfluous mucus is at once1 however1 attracted by the intestine1 because they are not synonymous4 ,there consequently originates a vessel in the mass of mucus or parenchyma1 that has been secreted between the intestine and skin1 which begins in the respiratory membrane and terminates in the intestine4 #aifd4 ,this vessel will commence at the end of the absorbents1 or at a point1 where it devolves upon the respiratory vessels1 to take up their contents1 namely the oxygen1 together with the nutritive substance1 and convey them to the intestine4 ,the mucus1 which previously stagnated and moved but slowly from one spot to another1 is now again carried back by another vessel without interruption to the intestine4 #aife4 ,the vessel which conveys oxydized mucus from the respiratory to the intestinal system1 is called artery4 #aiff4 ,on the intestine1 however1 this polar mucus is again reduced to ordinary mucus4 ,it has now become synonymous with the intestine1 is repelled from it and attracted by the branchial membrane4 #aifg4 ,one and the same fluid or sap is consequently brought back from the branchia to the intestine1 and from thence again to the branchia4 ,this last vessel is called vein4 a4 ,arteries4 #aifh4 ,the artery is1 according to its signification1 an air-vessel1 which is prolonged or elongated as far as the intestine4 ,essentially1 the artery conveys nothing but air1 though this is effected by means of a medium or vehicle1 which is the undecomposed mucus 7blood74 ,it is an air-tube1 that has been self-substantially dismembered from the skin1 in order to become a special independent air-tube1 or such as is commensurate with animal nature4 #aifi4 ,in the artery the external integument has been repeated in the nutritive system1 and hence the galvanism has become of a continuous character4 #aigj4 ,the artery must therefore be the highest vessel1 the most total of all terrestrial processes4 ,for it is the air-duct united with the intestinal vessel4 ,it contains mucus1 which carries the properties of both poles of the body in itself2 there is oxydized mucus4 #aiga4 ,the artery contains the whole body1 lung and intestine1 in short1 the whole animal1 7whereas it was previously dispersed in two vessels17 in a fluid state within itself4 ,from the artery therefore nutrition will directly take place2 from it the animal will be formed4 #aigb4 ,the air or respiratory vessels may be viewed as arteries carried to the very extreme4 ,in the lung the arterial system has attained its highest purity1 the oxygen only1 without the indifferent substance1 being contained therein4 ,the trachea is the roughest artery--,arteria aspera4 #aigc4 ,the arterial system1 in accordance with its signification1 makes its first appearance in water1 because the aquatic mode of respiration is less energetic1 and thus the mucus is more feebly decomposed4 ,the ,mollusca1 snails1 and many worms have a perfect arterial system4 ,the branchi do not1 like respiratory tubes1 pass into the body1 as in insects2 but there are vessels which take up the oxygen and convey it into the body4 #aigd4 ,as lung and absorbent belong to the pure air or the pure water1 so do artery and vein to the water combined with the air4 ,the two former are therefore present only where aerial respiration occurs1 and the two latter where water merely is respired4 #aige4 ,the last system is only present in animals1 in so far as they are aquatic in their habits4 #aigf4 ,insects1 as being purely aerial animals1 have therefore arteries and veins only so long as they are in the larva or worm-like condition1 and as flies or perfect insects may continue to live without them4 ,on the contrary1 the purely aquatic animals appear enabled to live without true respiratory and absorbent vessels4 ,it in fact appears1 that lymphatic as well as respiratory vessels are wanting in the molluscs1 snails1 and worms1 since the water directly bathes or washes the arteries4 #aigg4 ,animals with both systems of vessels1 the unclosed and closed1 must be more perfect in structure1 and must at once combine worm and insect in themselves4 ,they are insects from having absorbent and respiratory vessels1 but worms as having arteries and veins4 b4 ,veins4 #aigh4 ,the veins are developed as mucus-vessels at the intestinal extremities of the arteries1 which absorb the arterial mucus 7blood71 after it has deposited its air on the tegumentary substance1 just as the lymphatic vessels absorb their fluid from the intestine or any other part of the body4 #aigi4 ,as the artery is a respiratory vessel that has become self-substantial1 so is the vein a similarly conditioned1 and dismembered lymphatic vessel4 ,in the one it is the lung1 in the other the intestine1 that has become the free vascular system4 ,but in the proper vascular system both lung and intestine are repeated1 the former as artery1 the latter as vein4 #aihj4 ,these arterio-lymphatic vessels 7veins7 necessarily convey their arterial mucus or blood into the stem of the original lymphatic system1 or the thoracic duct4 ,for every ,indifferent must be brought toward the respiratory organ4 #aiha4 ,the tegumentary lymphatic vessels 7absorbents7 consequently unite with the arterio-lymphatic vessels 7veins71 before arriving at the respiratory organ1 and pursue their course thither in common1 where they pass over into the air-vessels4 ,the usual notion or idea is1 that the lymphatic vessels1 from conveying their fluid into the veins1 should be subordinated to the latter4 ,but the true philosophical view1 is of reverse import1 although the veins are larger than the thoracic duct4 ,in the investigation of such relations1 recourse can by no means be had to quantity or size1 but to the importance of the quality or contents4 #aihb4 ,the veins are1 properly speaking1 subordinated to the lymphatic vessels1 just as the arteries are to the trache1 or air-tubes1 and the former therefore pass over into the lymphatic vessels4 c4 ,circulation4 #aihc4 ,through the veins1 as arterio-lymphatic ducts1 the vascular system has become a closed system in itself1 because1 on account of the polarity1 the vein unites at both extremities directly with the artery4 ,it is a continuation of the artery1 like the air-duct is of the skin1 and the lymphatic vessel of the intestine4 ,thereby a ,circulation of the arteriose mucus or blood originates4 #aihd4 ,in its essence the circulation is a combination of the intestinal with the branchial system into one anatomical system4 #aihe4 ,the circulation is therefore a higher formation1 since through it the vascular system repeats in itself the totality of the vegetable organism4 #aihf4 ,on that account the circulation is the vital process proper4 #aihg4 ,but for that reason also1 the circulation is impossible in the plant1 since it is devoid of arteries and veins4 #aihh4 ,it makes its appearance in the aquatic animals1 for they have1 generally speaking1 vessels4 ,molluscs1 snails1 worms1 and crabs already possess a circulation2 it is wanting1 on the contrary1 in those animals that are without intestine1 and ceases in insects1 when1 or in whom1 the air-vessels obtain the preponderance4 #aihi4 ,in circulation the galvanism is restricted4 ,in the skin1 intestine1 air-and lymphatic vessel there is also galvanism1 but distributed upon organs that are remote and subservient to different purposes4 d4 ,blood4 #aiij4 ,the blood signifies the earth in the animal1 combined with water and air4 #aiia4 ,the blood is the proper nutritive matter for the animal4 #aiib4 ,the blood is earth1 which carries all terrestrial elements in itself1 such as the air through the medium of the gills1 the water through that of the intestine1 and is consequently a complete planet4 #aiic4 ,the blood is a fluid planet4 #aiid4 ,the blood is the fluid body4 #aiie4 ,the body is the fixed or rigid blood4 ,blood and body are wholly equivalent1 have the same elements in themselves2 only here the latter are stationary1 there they course along4 ,both consist of mucus or gelatine1 albumen and fibrine4 #aiif4 ,the blood is half combusted mucus1 the body mucus1 that has been wholly subjected to combustion4 #aiig4 ,after the vascular system has attained its own circulation1 or to the closed galvanism1 no higher development of the tegumentary formation is any longer conceivable2 as little as after the blossom anything more could originate4 #aiih4 ,after all three elements are united into one point1 into one system1 as is the case in the circulation1 where the venous blood represents the water1 the arterial blood the earth and air1 no new system can further originate in the vegetative body4 #d4 ,,sexual ,,system4 #aiii4 ,in so far as the animal adopts into itself1 or is rather based upon1 the whole plant1 the blossom or ,sex is also developed in it4 ,the vegetable sex consists of seed1 capsule1 and corolla4 #bjjj4 ,the seed is the first part of the blossom which is put forth in the plant4 ,the most inferior or asexual plants have only seeds devoid of capsule and corolla1 and produced without the concurrence of female and male parts4 ,the blossom in the animal is therefore in the beginning also nothing but seeds or ova4 ,thus these animals are asexual4 ,such as the ,infusoria1 whose body directly divides into new animals1 like the fungi4 #bjja4 ,the second floral organ is the capsule1 which contains on its borders or dissepiments the seeds1 and on its apex the stigma1 or the opening of the cyst4 #bjjb4 ,so also in the succeeding forms of animal life the animal capsule or uterus originates4 ,the orifice corresponding to the stigma is the mouth of the womb2 the seeds upon the septum become ovary4 #bjjc4 ,the lowest animals1 as the ,polyps1 are fundamentally none other than such an uterine system4 ,the polyp's mouth is the os uteri2 the sac formed by the polyp's body is the uterus1 in which ova-cysts or ovaries develop1 that open into the margins of the month4 #bjjd4 ,in such animals the uterus and intestine1 as likewise the mouth and uterine orifice are fundamentally one organ2 nutritive matter and ova are also one in kind4 ,external tegument as branchial organ is at the same time also a tegument of the uterus4 #bjje4 ,the higher animals are distinguished from the lower by separation of all these intricate and1 as it were1 coalesced organs4 #bjjf4 ,digestion1 respiration and nutrition1 growth and propagation1 are originally of one kind4 ,but with further development come the male parts also1 which belong to the category of the organs4 ,parallelism of the ,animal and ,vegetable ,body4 ,all vegetative systems of the animal body being now developed1 the attempt to co-ordinate them with those of the plant admits of being made4 #bjjg4 ,what the sexual parts correspond to in plants1 needs no exposition4 #bjjh4 ,and just as little that the lung is the parallel organ to the leaves or foliage4 ,the relation of the other organs is1 on the contrary1 difficult2 the striking resemblance1 however1 of the sexual parts and the lungs to the same systems in plants1 is ground sufficient for assuming also the parallelism of the other organs4 #bjji4 ,if the root be compared with the intestine1 then the stalk1 as being the medium of the vascular system1 must be regarded as heart4 #bjaj4 ,the bark will correspond to the skin1 the liber to the veins1 the wood as a tracheal body to the arteries4 #bjaa4 ,the vegetable tissue will be transformed into the lowest organs of the animal2 the cells into the mucous tissue1 the intercellular passages into the lacteal vessels1 the trache1 or spiral vessels1 into the lowest kind of respiratory tubes or the cutaneo-lymphatic vessels4 ,we have accordingly the following parallel series3 ,a4 ,tissues4 #a4 ,cells ,mucous tissue4 #b4 ,ducts ,absorbents4 #c4 ,trache ,cutaneo-absorbents4 ,b4 ,systems4 #d4 ,bark ,skin4 #e4 ,liber ,veins4 #f4 ,wood ,arteries4 ,c4 ,members4 #g4 ,root ,intestine4 #h4 ,stalk ,heart4 #i4 ,foliage ,lung4 ,d4 ,sexual parts4 #aj4 ,seed ,ovum4 #aa4 ,ovary ,uterus4 #ab4 ,corolla ,testes4 ,b4 ,,animal ,,systems4 #bjab4 ,as in the blossom the light allows the whole vegetable trunk to be once more developed1 though with coloured signs or marks of distinction1 so also is the animal body taken up into the sense of light1 and the vegetative systems are elevated unto light-or rather ther-systems4 #bjac4 ,a new animal originates upon the old animal and is equivalent to it4 ,every perfect animal is twofold in its nature1 being a planetary and solar animal1 a vegetative and animal being4 #bjad4 ,three animal systems must be developed out of the three vegetative1 an earth-1 water-1 and air-system1 each being refined or purified through the agency of light1 and forming the bones1 muscles1 and nerves1 which correspond to the gravity or materiality1 the heat or motion1 and the light or tension4 #bjae4 ,everything that is higher in its nature can only be developed out of that which is its direct antecedent1 like the blossom from the leaf4 ,now the artery is the ultimate ,vegetative4 ,in this therefore1 must the elements of the osseous1 muscular and nervous systems reside4 ,now1 the artery consists1 of four parts1 of the cellular1 fibrous1 dense serous coat1 and of the blood4 ,the cellular coat or tunic is the remnant of the whole tegumentary formation4 ,the fibrous tunic is the embryo of the muscular system4 ,the serous tunic is the embryo of the osseous system2 for in old age it attains to ossification1 bony lamell being deposited around it4 ,the blood is the embryo of the nervous system4 ,it is only requisite for it to coagulate1 and it is then nervous mass4 ,nervous globules are blood-globules quiescent1 or in a state of rest4 ,accordingly1 in the artery1 the whole body has been actually prefigurated or typified4 #bjaf4 ,every animal system necessarily exists under a duplex character1 being once in the service of the vegetative systems and once for itself2 or it exists as trunk and as blossom4 ,there is1 therefore1 a vegetative and animal nervous system1 and1 under such binary conditions1 osseous and muscular systems likewise4 #bjag4 ,all three systems are offsets from the arteries1 and therefore their constant companions4 ,the animal systems are called flesh4 #a4 ,,nervous ,,system4 #bjah4 ,the nervous mass is coagulated blood4 ,the nervous system is thus a higher arterial system4 ,the highest arteries1 however1 are the air-tubes4 ,the nerves therefore run parallel with the tracheal systems4 #bjai4 ,what the trache are for the vegetative body1 namely1 the vitalizing and motor principle1 such are the nerves for both the animal and vegetative body4 #bjbj4 ,the nerves are distributed like the trache of plants1 in individual threads or filaments1 which run near to each other arranged in a fascicular manner1 and then mutually separate4 #bjba4 ,the nervous filaments everywhere accompany the arteries1 and1 as far as their ultimate ramifications1 like the trache of insects pass to all parts of the body4 #bjbb4 ,the nervous mass has been separated into an arteriose and venous mass1 the former being the cineritious or gray substance1 the latter the medullary or white4 ,the nervous system is therefore an entire blood-system1 with two poles2 it is therefore alive and active for itself1 or independent of other systems4 #bjbc4 ,both nervous masses are in a state of constant tension against each other1 and consequently in constant tension with the whole body4 #bjbd4 ,the nerves are filaments that1 upon the separation of the parts of the body1 have remained behind1 just like the arteries are tubes individualized in the general parenchyma1 throughout which the sap was previously dispersed as in the vegetable trunk4 ,the first individualization necessarily takes place at the oral extremity4 ,the first nerve is a ring surrounding the pharynx or gullet4 ,thus1 if the body consists of several consecutive rings or cysts1 as in the ,worms1 each ring will or can have its nervous ring1 which inferiorly gives off nerves to the vegetative organs1 and superiorly to the animal1 if these be present4 ,such a point for giving off nerves is called a ganglion2 since also every ganglion sends off nerves to join other ganglia2 so both below and above a nervous cord or string will originate in the longitudinal direction4 ,the nerves1 which have been left behind in the vegetative parts1 form the vegetative nervous system2 those that remain in the animal parts1 the animal system4 a4 ,vegetative ,nervous ,system4 #bjbe4 ,the vegetative nervous system is the nervous mass that has remained behind1 after the greatest part of it has become converted into tegumentary formations4 ,now1 as these tegumentary formations1 being surrounded in the higher animals by flesh1 were thus viscera1 so may the vegetative nerves be called also ,visceral or ,splanchnic nerves4 #bjbf4 ,these visceral nerves govern the vessels1 the intestine1 and lung2 with the sexual parts also1 yet in their case in combination with the animal nerves1 because the sexual parts are at one and the same time organs of vegetative and animal life4 #bjbg4 ,these visceral nerves everywhere accompany the vessels1 and are therefore like these distributed in a cystic manner between intestine and skin4 ,they form a large cyst which concentrically surrounds the intestine4 #bjbh4 ,they do not1 however1 like the intestine1 form any closed cyst1 but only a cystimorphous net1 like the vessels4 #bjbi4 ,the two nervous masses are in them separated from each other1 like as the branchi have been distributed along the whole body and separated from the intestine4 ,the gray or branchoid substance has separated itself from the white medullary substance into individual ganglia1 or as it were into individual nervous branchi4 ,the medullary substance has also retained its connexion though only in a ramular manner1 and not uninterruptedly like an integument4 ,it is called plexus4 #bjcj4 ,the ganglia and the plexuses stand in mutual opposition1 like the branchi and intestine1 like artery and vein1 like blood and lymphatic vessels4 ,the ganglia oxydize1 polarize2 they are the active4 ,the plexuses suffer1 digest1 and are the recipient4 #bjca4 ,the visceral nerves1 like the viscera1 act for themselves1 being unconcerned for the animal systems4 #bjcb4 ,the visceral nerves have a vegetable sensation for themselves1 a sense of touch1 such as the blossom might have in the instant of the pollenization4 #bjcc4 ,as all formations have become symmetrical through and in accordance with the vascular system1 so does the vegetative nervous system separate into two parallel stems which accompany the arterial trunk4 ,they are called intercostal nerves4 ,these ramify and form plexuses that accord with the visceral organs1 which they govern4 b4 ,animal ,nervous ,system4 #bjcd4 ,the animal nervous system is the repetition of the vegetative1 and is combined therewith to constitute an unity4 ,the nervous cyst that was previously dissevered in a reticular manner1 becomes a closed tube1 which is placed upon the light-exposed side of the other animal systems1 and thus upon the vertebral column4 ,this closed nervous tube is called the myelon1 or spinal cord4 #bjce4 ,the spinal cord is worth as much as all the visceral nerves taken together2 it is the felted system of intercostal nerves2 and is1 properly speaking1 none other than the posterior double cord of ganglia4 ,it consists therefore also of ganglia and plexuses1 but both have coalesced1 on account of the increase of the mass and its endeavour towards the attainment of union4 #bjcf4 ,the ganglia form a tube1 which is inclosed by the tubes of the plexuses4 ,the ganglion-tube is the gray1 the plexus-tube the medullary substance4 #bjcg4 ,if the gray substance appear to reside within the medulla1 this is the result only of involution or a folding in4 ,the parietes of the spinal marrow stand therefore in everlasting tension with each other1 like ganglia and plexuses1 and like arteries and veins4 #bjch4 ,the spinal marrow is the content of the bones and muscles1 like the intercostal nerves or the visceral cord are the contents of the abdominal cavity1 and as the blood is that of the internal and fibrous coat of the arteries4 ,bones and muscles are the animal parietes of the nerves1 as the two vascular membranes are the vegetative walls of the blood4 ,the skin1 as branchia1 incloses all1 like the cellular membrane does the vessels4 #bjci4 ,as the intercostal ganglia give off plexus-forming ramules2 so does the spinal marrow2 there are the spinal nerves4 ,the spinal marrow is1 first of all therefore1 the coalescence of the two intercostal nerves4 #bjdj4 ,these spinal nerves are1 however1 animal plexuses1 which partly encroach upon the visceral nerves1 and partly pass to the animal systems4 #bjda4 ,there are therefore two kinds of spinal nerves1 vegetative and animal1 and as many of them as there are divisions in the viscera and in the animal systems4 #bjdb4 ,the nerves pass off symmetrically from the spinal cord1 because the nervous mass belongs to the symmetrical osseous system4 ,they form therefore rings both anteriorly and posteriorly4 #bjdc4 ,the nervous system does not consist of individual cysts1 like its two animal teguments1 or bone and flesh4 ,it is at one time the type or image of the vascular trunk and its ramifications2 at another the indifferent ther-mass1 which does not crystallize2 it is lastly the organic primary mass that has remained persistent1 and must thus be coherent in texture4 ,it is the blood continually streaming from the animal divisions of the heart4 #bjdd4 ,the whole animal nervous system is a tegumentary cyst with tubes passing off from it symmetrically in the form of rings4 #bjde4 ,the spinal cord cannot be the highest4 ,it has only the lowest signification1 in so far as it stands in the service of the viscera and the sense of touch1 and thus follows the position and arrangement of the bones4 ,thus the spinal cord is first of all an osseo-nervous mass4 #bjdf4 ,the nerves1 as running for the most part forwards1 are musculo-nervous mass2 those running backwards or outwards are tegumentary or sensitive nerves4 ,this signification furnishes us1 also with the physiological function of these two divisions of nerves4 ,the nerves are homologous with the flexors1 the spinal cord with the extensors2 the nerves with the air1 the medulla with the earth2 the former with the arteries1 the latter with the veins2 the nerves are thus what is more active1 the medulla that which is more inert4 #bjdg4 ,on that account the nerves only are in intercourse with the world1 while the medulla broods within itself4 ,consequently1 both these nerve-formations are not as yet the pure self-substantial nervous blossom1 which no longer imitates flesh and bone1 but only itself4 ,brain4 #bjdh4 ,the highest point attained by the lower systems are the orifices of the viscera1 the mouth and the nose4 ,the mouth is the first animal sign1 which the plant gives off in the blossom from itself4 ,the ,noblest lies therefore at the anterior extremity of the animal1 or in man in the direction upwards4 #bjdi4 ,it consequently occupies the middle point1 or one that is between the anterior flesh and the posterior bones1 and at the same time the spot1 from which all vital processes emerge1 or the mouth4 #bjej4 ,the oral nervous mass is the ,brain4 ,it forms originally the posterior ganglia of the pharyngeal ring4 #bjea4 ,the situation of the brain is essentially in front of or above the body1 in opposition to the sexual parts1 which are the lower totality4 #bjeb4 ,it is1 however1 above and behind2 for it is originally situated posteriorly4 ,the brain can therefore originate only1 when the posterior medulla inclines from above forwards1 making a curve in the latter direction2 the brain is a spinal cord that has been bent from above forwards4 #bjec4 ,the more the spinal cord is curved forwards1 so much the nobler is it4 ,this is self-evident4 #bjed4 ,the brain is a spinal cord which makes the transit from the signification of bone to that of flesh4 #bjee4 ,in the brain therefore the tendency must principally reside1 to give off nerves1 and perfect them into self-substantial nervous organs4 #bjef4 ,in man the brain with its nerves curves round like a crosier1 and that more perfectly than in any other animal4 ,the spinal cord therefore in the highest formation of the brain returns again parallel to the direction1 in which it has ascended4 #bjeg4 ,in the brain there is of necessity the greatest quantity of nervous mass4 ,the brain is the nervous trunk1 as the liver is probably the vascular trunk4 #bjeh4 ,in the brain the cystic formation has been most purely represented2 as e4 g4 in the cerebral cavities or ventricles4 ,the brain is the stomach of the nervous system or its lungs4 #bjei4 ,the brain consists essentially of two substances1 of one accommodated to the flesh1 and one to the bones1 or of one arteriose1 and the other venous4 ,the former is the gray or cortical1 the latter the white or medullary substance4 ,the cortex is the lung of the brain1 the medulla the liver or the intestine4 #bjfj4 ,the bark or cortex is the polarizing1 active1 oxydizing2 the medulla the patient or suffering4 #bjfa4 ,this nervous pulmonary substance is continued along the spinal cord and even along the nerves1 there as veritable gray substance1 here as the vascular membrane of the nervous mass4 ,head4 #bjfb4 ,the brain1 as being a system that has been separated superiorly from the other systems1 determines the ,head4 ,the head is only there in so far as a brain is there4 #bjfc4 ,head and trunk are antagonistically disposed1 as ,animal and ,vegetable1 or still more exactly1 like nerve and bony flesh are to the viscera4 #bjfd4 ,the head is naught but a nervous organ4 #bjfe4 ,the concomitants of the nervous mass follow the brain1 but1 instead of the medulla having been previously subordinated to1 or at least co-ordinated with1 these1 it is they that are thus related to the brain4 ,the bones of the brain are the brain-case or cranium1 the flesh of the brain1 the face or countenance4 ,on the head1 bones and flesh have been disposed in the strictest manner according to their dignity or worth4 ,posteriorly there is almost pure bone1 in front almost pure muscle4 #bjff4 ,the cranium can be none other than the vertebral column continued around the brain4 ,it consists of three vertebr1 the face of one4 ,this will become clear in what follows4 #bjfg4 ,if the bones of the head are the repetition of those of the trunk1 so also must the flesh of the head be a repetition of that of the trunk4 ,pectoral and abdominal muscles are ennobled in the muscles of the face4 #bjfh4 ,the face must have been principally formed by the orifice of the intestine--the mouth1 and by the opening of the lungs--the nose1 and by the apex of the vascular system--the members which are repeated as jaws4 ,the month is the stomach in the head1 the nose the lung1 the jaws the arms and feet4 #bjfi4 ,the salivary glands are the liver in the head1 as the mouth is its stomach4 ,the liver that was originally also symmetric in form has become wholly symmetric in the higher organized head and forms two glands4 ,the salivary ducts are the hepatic or biliary ducts4 #bjgj4 ,the tongue is the pharynx elongated upon the anterior side1 because in front there is more flesh4 ,the tongue is the extremity of the intestine converted into muscle4 #bjga4 ,the nose includes pectoral muscles1 the mouth arthric muscles or those of the limbs4 #bjgb4 ,if pectoral and abdominal muscles are repeated in the face1 so also must the anterior bones1 ribs1 and limbs be repeated4 ,it will be shown1 in treating of the organs1 that the nose is a vertebra1 the jaws members1 and their muscles those of the limbs4 ,the head is the whole trunk with all its systems4 ,the brain is the spinal marrow1 the skull the vertebral column1 the mouth intestine and abdomen1 the nose lung and thorax1 the jaws are members4 ,senses4 #bjgc4 ,the perfect animal again consists of two animals1 the spiritual or solar1 and the terrestrial or planetary4 ,the animal nervous system does not continue to remain simply in the service of the other systems1 but seeks also to gradually render itself self-substantial or independent4 ,now1 the operation of the nervous system for itself is sensation4 ,the parts of the nervous system having become self-substantial1 will be therefore pure organs of sensation4 ,yet as the nervous system cannot emancipate itself from the other systems1 so will its highest development be attained only in combination with the highest development of the other systems4 ,there are therefore as many stages of the self-substantial nervous development1 as there are special anatomical systems4 #bjgd4 ,sensation must be modified according to the processes performed by those systems1 with which the nervous system combines4 ,these systems are1 however specifically distinct from each other4 ,sensations that are specifically distinct are sensorial sensations4 ,organs of sense are accordingly the combination of the highest part of an anatomical system with the nervous system4 ,sensorial sensations are different processes of the anatomical systems perceived in the nervous system4 #bjge4 ,the first combination of the nerves with the vascular system that has become free1 or with the integument1 is the sense of feeling--vascular sense4 ,the intestinal system emancipated and combined with the nerves1 is the tongue--gustatory sense--intestinal sense4 ,the lung upon its highest evolution with the nervous system is the nose--olfactory sense--pulmonic sense4 ,these are thus the sensorial organs of the vegetative systems--senses of vegetative life4 #bjgf4 ,there are indeed three animal senses2 but as the osseous and muscular system form in their conjoined operation but one system or the motor system--there can be therefore only #b animal senses4 ,the osseo-muscular or motor sense is the ear4 ,if the nervous system becomes wholly self-substantial1 the nervous sense thus originates1 or the eye1 in which the brain itself has been planted outwardly1 and acts independently of all other systems4 #bjgg4 ,the vessels form the general system1 and therefore the tegumentary sense surrounds the whole body4 ,its brain is the spinal cord4 #bjgh4 ,the four remaining senses are perfections of individual systems at their perfect extremity1 and thus in the proximity of the mouth and the brain4 ,they together form the head4 ,the jaws and the tongue obtain their nerves from the medulla oblongata1 and this is therefore the brain of the gustatory sense4 ,the brain for the nose is the gray cerebral substance1 because the olfactory nerves are its elongations4 ,the ears obtain their nerves from the cerebellum1 which is consequently the auditory brain4 ,the eyes are developments of the great brain or cerebrum--optic brain4 ,such is the rationale and signification of the divisions of the brain4 #b4 ,,osseous ,,system4 #bjgi4 ,the nervous mass consists of indifferent1 deoxydized blood-globules4 ,if these be peroxydized1 then the highest oxyd of the planet is deposited in them1 namely1 the earth1 and that indeed which was the last remnant in the order of their production1 or the calcareous earth4 #bjhj4 ,vesicles or cells replete with calcareous earth are globes4 ,the osseous texture consists therefore of globes2 is only a dense cellular tissue1 and thus ranks nearest to the vegetable structure4 ,the basis of the bones is at first a cellular gelatine1 which1 with increased oxydation1 is converted into cartilage4 ,finally1 calcareous earth is deposited in this cartilage4 #bjha4 ,in the lower organized animals1 who breathe for the most part by means of branchi1 the acid combined with the calcareous earth is an inorganic1 or the carbonic acid1 i4 e4 oxygen combined with carbon1 or the earthy ,inflammable2 in higher animals it is an organic acid or phosphoric acid1 i4 e4 oxygen combined with phosphorus1 or the aerial ,inflammable4 ,phosphoric acid may be regarded as peroxydized gelatine1 as acid of gelatine4 ,the bone is therefore earth1 salt and ,inflammable4 #bjhb4 ,the first appearance of the osseous mass is in the oxydizing organs4 ,it is formed from the dense or internal coat of the arteries1 since in old age bony lamell are deposited upon this4 ,in the hearts also of many animals bones are formed4 #bjhc4 ,the first regular formation of bones is exhibited in the trachea or air-tube1 which has been directly exposed to the oxydizing process of the air4 ,these first forms of the bones are rings4 #bjhd4 ,the antetype of the bone is1 however1 the intestine1 as the air-vessels are the antetype of the nerves4 ,the bone is a tube1 an ossified intestine4 #bjhe4 ,there are two osseous systems1 a vegetative and an animal2 the one surrounds the tegumentary systems1 as1 e4 g4 the scales of ,fishes and ,reptiles1 horny rings of ,insects2 the other the nervous systems4 a4 ,vegetative ,osseous ,system4 #bjhf4 ,the vegetative osseous system is divisible into dermal1 tracheal1 intestinal1 and vascular bones4 #bjhg4 ,the dermal bones are tegumentary rings1 which surround the whole body1 and are tracheal rings in so far as the skin is originally a respiratory organ4 ,such are the rings of the body in ,insects1 the shells of the ,gasteropods and ,molluscs1 with scales and scutes in general4 #bjhh4 ,the tracheal bones are the branchial arches and tracheal rings4 #bjhi4 ,the intestinal or splanchnic bones are tubes environing the intestine1 as in the corals1 or imperfect annular segments1 which at one time are found in the stomach1 as in the ,mollusca1 at another in the pharynx1 as in the ,worms1 ,snails1 ,sea-urchins1 and ,holothuri2 constituting what are called pharyngeal maxill4 ,the branchial organs are fundamentally also none other than pharyngeal rings4 ,the lingual and palatal bones1 with the intermaxillary bones1 belong also to the same category4 #bjij4 ,the vascular bones are displayed in the hearts of many animals4 ,the three last divisions may be called visceral or splanchnic bones2 and then we have tegumentary1 splanchnic1 and nerve-bones4 b4 ,animal ,osseous ,system4 #bjia4 ,the animal or nervo-osseous system must separate from the vegetative system of bones1 and be placed upon the side exposed to the light4 ,the side of the inferior animal that is exposed to the light1 or averted from the earth1 is the upper surface1 dorsal region or back4 #bjib4 ,the back holds the same relation to the ventral side as light does to the darkness1 as sun to the earth2 therefore the dorsal side is of a dark1 the ventral of a faint or pale colour4 #bjic4 ,back and belly are related polarwise to each other4 #bjid4 ,through the medium of the bones the distinction between back and belly has been definitely established in the animal1 and1 as a consequence thereof1 the distinction also of right from left4 ,before a formation of bone exists1 the animal is for the most part a round cylinder4 #bjie4 ,the osseous system can in itself be only symmetrically constructed4 #bjif4 ,the osseous is the only symmetrical system in an animal4 ,the other organs are so only in so far as they follow the arrangement of the osseous system4 #bjig4 ,the animal osseous system is1 from its being a repetition of the intestinal canal1 a tube4 ,this tube is surrounded1 like the trachea1 by rings1 between which the tegumentary tube suffers constrictions4 #bjih4 ,the back is a series of numerous bony rings4 #bjii4 ,these bony rings are the bodies of the vertebr4 #bajj4 ,the vertebr have originated through polar repetition1 through the muscular cysts4 #baja4 ,in addition to the series of vertebr on the back1 a vertebral column is formed moreover along the ventral surface1 and without doubt there only where the air-organ1 the branchia or lung1 is situated4 ,this inferior vertebral column is the breast-bone or sternum4 #bajb4 ,all the systems1 even those that are of a subordinate character in the animal1 follow the direction of the main vertebral column4 ,the intestine1 as well as the vessels1 are placed in accordance with it4 ,thus the principal trunks of the vessels take their rise along the vertebral column1 the other vessels being given off from them in this situation1 like the lymphatics from the intestine4 #bajc4 ,the vascular ramules which surround the intestine and the skin1 run out from a main stem1 and are directed in a symmetric manner downwards and upwards 7in the horizontal body of animals71 or towards the belly and back4 #bajd4 ,if new bony rings originate1 they must also take these directions4 ,they accompany the vessels that run in a circle1 as the vertebral column accompanies the vascular trunks4 ,these annularly-disposed bony twigs or apophyses constitute in the direction downwards the ribs1 in that upwards the vertebral arches4 ,anterior and posterior to the vertebral column there consequently originates a long canal formed by the bony rings4 ,in the anterior canal lie the galvanic or vegetative organs1 in the posterior or upper1 the organs of light must be situated par excellence4 ,the former of these canals is called the thoracic and abdominal cavity1 the latter the vertebral canal4 ,the vertebral canal is not the bony or medullary cavity itself1 but it has been formed by several bony cysts in the same manner as the thoracic cavity4 ,it consists of the body and the two arches4 ,these are thus posterior 7superior7 ribs4 ,the vertebral canal has the same signification as the thoracic cavity has2 it is only a posterior thoracic cavity4 ,it therefore contains1 like the anterior canal1 viscera dissimilar in kind to bone2 the one including the spinal cord1 the other vessels1 intestine1 and lung4 #baje4 ,the bony cysts that have originated through constriction do not all harden into calcareous matter1 but they remain as alternating membranous cysts4 ,between the rings there are permanent cysts4 ,the membranous cysts form the joint1 or articular capsule4 ,an articular capsule is a bone which has remained soft4 #bajf4 ,this change in the ossific process takes place through the attachment of muscles1 concerning which we shall treat in the sequel4 #bajg4 ,the whole osseous system is consequently a symmetrical arrangement of several polar cysts and rings4 #bajh4 ,the vertebra is not a single ring1 but is at once a tolerably compound osseous system4 ,the whole osseous system is nothing but a vertebra repeated4 #baji4 ,the number of the vertebr necessarily conforms to that of the pairs of nerves or ganglia of the spinal cord2 for they are indeed only the periphery or envelope of the latter4 ,the number of nerves is1 however1 adapted to that of the organs1 which they have to take care of4 #baaj4 ,now1 the nervous organs are the senses4 ,there are consequently as many divisions of vertebr as there are senses4 ,thus there are vertebr appertaining respectively to the senses of touch1 taste1 smell1 hearing1 and sight4 ,now as the four latter senses make up the head1 but that of touch or feeling is distributed over the whole body1 and superintended by the spinal nerves1 the vertebr thus divide into two principal sections1 into vertebr of the head and trunk4 ,the number of cephalic vertebr is #d2 namely1 nasal1 ocular1 lingual1 and auditory vertebr4 #baaa4 ,to a perfect vertebra belong at least five pieces1 namely1 the body1 in front the two ribs1 behind the two arches or spinous processes2 every vertebra of the head consists therefore of five pieces also4 ,in those vertebr which are removed from the respiratory organ1 the ribs are smaller1 as in the ventral ribs1 and anchylosed with the body1 as in the cervical vertebr1 where they are represented by the perforated transverse processes1 and in the lumbar vertebr they disappear entirely4 #baab4 ,the formation of the cervical vertebr1 where the ribs have been impacted or interposed between the body and spinous processes1 is continued into the cranial vertebr4 ,these are only expanded cervical vertebr4 ,at the base of the skull four vertebral bodies lie in a series one behind the other2 the body of the occipital bone1 the two bodies of the sphenoid1 and the vomer4 ,upon the sides of each of these bodies are situated alar processes1 which correspond to the transverse processes of the cervical vertebr1 or to the ribs2 e4 g4 the articular heads or condyles of the occipital bone1 the al majores and minores of the sphenoids1 and the two sides or lateral surfaces of the vomer4 ,behind these are placed the two broad cranial bones1 which correspond to the spinous processes2 as the occipital ridge or crest1 the parietal1 frontal and nasal bones4 ,the occipital vertebra consists of the body1 the two condyles and the occipital crest4 ,the parietal vertebra consists of the body of the posterior sphenoid1 the al majores1 and the parietal bones4 ,the frontal vertebra consists of the body of the anterior sphenoid1 the orbitar wings or al1 and the two frontal bones4 ,the nasal vertebra consists of the vomer1 the ethmoid and the two nasal bones4 ,the occipital vertebra is the auditory vertebra2 it incloses the auditory bones and the cerebellum1 which gives off the nerves of hearing4 ,the parietal vertebra is the lingual vertebra2 the maxillary and lingual nerves passing through its al majores4 ,the frontal vertebra is that belonging to the eye2 through the orbitar plates or wings the optic nerves pursue their course1 and it environs the cerebrum1 from which these nerves originate4 ,the nasal vertebra contains the olfactory nerves4 #baac4 ,each cranial sense has thus only one vertebra1 and the skull will consequently be formed of four vertebr1 whereof three appertain to the cranium1 one unto the face4 7,see ,oken's ,ueber die ,bedeutung der ,schdelknochen1 #ahjg4--;,isis1 #ahag1 ,s4 #abjd47 #baad4 ,several vertebr are1 however1 found for the sense of feeling or touch1 because it includes all the organs of the trunk4 ,there must be therefore as many vertebr in the trunk as there are particular organs placed therein4 ,of these there are three1 the respiratory1 digestive1 and sexual system1 or thorax1 abdomen1 and pelvis4 ,to the thorax belong the neck1 the arms1 and the entire set of ribs4 #e vertebr must appertain to the arms1 because they have #e digits and #e nerves4 ,but the ribs1 and consequently also the digits1 are determined by branchial vessels1 are only repeated branchial arches1 whose number in almost the entire class of fishes is #e4 ,there are therefore also #e thoracic or pulmonic vertebr4 ,since the larynx consists of the #e original branchial arches1 and lies in front of the neck2 so must the #e superior cervical vertebr stand in the signification of branchial vertebr4 ,the odontoid process of the second vertebra must be regarded1 from its being separated from it in the foetus1 as a particular cervical vertebra4 ,accordingly1 in the ,thricozoa there are eight cervical vertebr4 ,the #c inferior cervical1 and the #b upper costal or rib-vertebr1 give off through their interspaces the nerves of the arms1 and are consequently the brachial vertebr4 ,the #c-gth rib are thus appended to the #e proper thoracic vertebr1 which stand in the signification of the pulmonary vertebr4 ,to these succeed the #e short ribs which belong to the abdomen2 their vertebr are thus intestinal vertebr4 ,the succeeding vertebr belong to the sexual system1 and are indeed the #e lumbar or pedal vertebr1 because they furnish the pedal or foot-nerves1 the #e sacral vertebr being the proper sexual vertebr4 ,the coccygeal or caudal vertebr correspond to the cervical vertebr1 and are present for the sake of the sexual branchi2 usually one and the other is arrested4 ,thus there are1-- #ce ,respiratory vertebr4 #ce ,sexual vertebr4 #ae ,digestive vertebr4 ,the number of the sensitive vertebr is consequently #gece1 which are distributed into three groups1 in accordance with the principal cavities of the body1 whereof the #b terminal groups consist of #ae1 but the abdominal group1 which combines or unites them1 only of #e4 ,the body is accordingly not merely laterally1 but also in length1 a perfectly symmetrical structure1 which has been parcelled out in the following manner into its five stockworks1 stories or floors3 ,i4 ,dermal vertebra4 ,a4 ,sexual vertebr4 a4 ,coccygeal vertebr #e1 b4 ,sexual vertebr #e1 c4 ,pedal vertebr #e4 ,b4 ,abdominal vertebr #e4 ,c4 ,thoracic vertebr4 a4 ,pulmonary vertebr #e1 b4 ,brachial vertebr #e1 c4 ,cervical vertebr #e4 ,,ii4 ,auditory vertebra #a4 ,,iii4 ,lingual vertebra #a4 ,,iv4 ,optic vertebra #a4 ,v4 ,nasal vertebra #a4 ,this regularity is found too only in the human skeleton4 ,the animals are irregular men4 7,vide ,oken's ,zahlengesetz in den ,wirbeln4 ,isis1 #ahbi1 ,s4 #cjf47 ,cavities of the ,trunk4 #baae4 ,the osseous system forms the trunk or body1 because it follows the vascular system2 the two other galvanic systems1 the dermal and intestinal systems1 form the large portions of the trunk or its cavities2 to them is added the sexual cavity or pelvis4 #baaf4 ,there are thus three truncal cavities1 a pulmonary1 an intestinal1 and a sexual cavity1 or thoracic1 abdominal1 and pelvic cavity4 #baag4 ,the osseous system will develop itself most feebly around the abdominal1 because it is the indifferent cavity4 ,therefore there are either no ribs at all1 or they are so short that they do not reach to the anterior vertebral column or the sternum4 ,the short or false ribs are1 according to their physiological sense1 abdominal or splanchnic ribs4 ,the thoracic ribs must be perfectly developed1 i4 e4 abut against both vertebral columns1 be entire ribs2 the entire or perfect ribs are thoracic or pulmonary ribs4 ,the sexual ribs are arrested on the pedal and coccygeal vertebr1 but on the proper sexual vertebr1 namely1 the sacral bone1 they are still present as rudiments4 #c4 ,,muscular ,,system4 #baah4 ,as the intestinal system reappears in what is animal under the condition of a vertebral column1 so also does the aggregate of the vascular system ascend1 and the vessels become animal4 #baai4 ,the animal vessels are the muscles1 or filled-up vessels4 ,the polar process enters the body through the vessels2 thereby the tubes obtain two strong poles1 and are drawn out lengthways4 ,they are fibres1 and consist of a series of strongly oxydized blood-globules4 #babj4 ,the fibre is chiefly apparent in those vessels1 such as the arteries1 in which the influence of air operates more forcibly4 ,now an artery has1 in addition to the external cellular coat1 two coats1 like the first animal body1 or one wall turned towards the mucus1 and one towards the air4 ,the internal arterial wall is enteroid1 the external dermoid in character2 the one being simply granular1 the other fibrous membrane4 ,the two membranes separate into two cysts or tubes1 which likewise adhere within each other like intestine and skin4 ,the external will become fibre1 the internal bone4 #baba4 ,there is a vegetative and an animal fibre-or muscle-system4 ,the one is associated with the tegumentary formations1 the other with the bones and nerves4 a4 ,vegetative ,muscles4 #babb4 ,the muscles of vegetative life are simply fibrous tunics1 as in the arteries1 and are found in the skin1 in the intestine1 and in the vessels4 #babc4 ,the tegumentary muscles lie under the skin1 and are inserted into it1 or into the dermo-osteous system1 when such an one is present4 ,if the fibrous membrane be strongly developed under the skin1 then it receives the name of a ,panniculus carnosus4 #babd4 ,the intestine has also its fibrous coat1 which1 upon the stomach1 anus1 and pharynx1 is frequently developed as a panniculus carnosus4 #babe4 ,the same holds good of the vessels1 especially of the arteries and trachea4 #babf4 ,the fibres are either elongated or else annular fibres4 ,the latter obtain the preponderance at the extremities of the tubular formations1 as on the pharynx1 anus1 lips1 and eyelids4 #babg4 ,we have consequently a dermal1 splanchnic1 and osseo-muscular system4 b4 ,animal ,muscles4 #babh4 ,in the oxydizing part of the vascular system the formation of fibres must be preponderant over that of cells1 and thus at the root of the lungs4 #babi4 ,the vessel becomes in the lungs a fleshy cavity4 ,the fleshy vessel is the heart4 #bacj4 ,the heart is a vascular fragment1 with a preponderating development of fibrous membrane4 #baca4 ,this fibrous membrane is developed at a spot where all vascular systems enter into mutual proximity1 such as the respiratory ducts and the intestinal lymphatic vessel1 the artery and the vein4 #bacb4 ,in the union of all the highest galvanism is attained1 and then the formation may launch out into what is animal4 #bacc4 ,the heart is the animal in the plant4 #bacd4 ,the first heart is an arterial heart4 ,there is originally no venous heart4 ,in the embryo1 particularly in that of the bird1 this is extremely distinct2 the arterial heart also emerges for the first time1 and per se1 in the lowest animals1 in the ,molluscs1 ,snails1 and even in the ,fishes1 although in the latter it is regarded as a venous heart4 #bace4 ,the arterial heart is the central1 the venous heart the peripheric4 #bacf4 ,the heart is the prototype of the muscular system4 ,all muscles must be a metatype of the heart4 #bacg4 ,the muscle is hollow4 ,it is a cyst4 #bach4 ,the muscular system is a manifold and serial juxtaposition of fibrous cysts or of hearts4 ,in this respect the muscle has been formed in a corresponding manner to bone4 ,both are rows of cysts4 #baci4 ,but the muscle1 as being the external fibrous tunic1 is the enveloping or external cyst4 #badj4 ,in idea1 the muscle can only directly envelop the bones1 and not the other parts1 for it ranks upon the same grade of development with the bone2 it is the arterio-fibrous wall1 while the bone is the internal arterial wall4 #bada4 ,bone and flesh stand in antagonism like air and earth4 ,the muscle is that which is polarizing--moving1 the bone what is polarized1 moved4 ,the muscle is heart1 the bone the moved blood4 ,bone and muscle are related as that which is contained and what is containing4 ,the muscle is the wall of the cyst1 the bone1 the fluid which has been secreted from it and rigidified4 #badb4 ,as therefore the muscle is an individual cyst1 a heart1 which cannot invest the whole body like a single large cyst1 so also must the muscular contents be only a discrete cyst4 ,the uninterrupted character of the bones depends therefore upon that of the muscles1 and the latter upon the meaning of the heart4 #badc4 ,a physiological rationale of the joints is accordingly afforded in the heart4 #badd4 ,a bone is a rigidified1 ossified heart2 the osseous system is a series of mutually dependent1 alternately ossified and non-ossified 7arteriose and venous7 hearts4 #bade4 ,the muscular cyst includes the soft bone1 or the joint4 #badf4 ,at its two extremities there is preponderance of oxydation1 whereby the soft osseous cysts are combusted into hard calcareous earth4 #badg4 ,the muscle is a cause of the alternating ossification4 ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,osseous ,,system4 #badh4 ,as the formation of bone predominates upon the side exposed to the light or the nervous1 so does that of muscle upon the shady or vascular side4 ,the abdominal side of the animal is the muscular1 just as the dorsal side is the osseous4 ,upon the thorax1 abdomen1 on the members which belong to the anterior region of the body1 and on the face1 the muscular layer is by far the most predominant4 ,posteriorly1 however1 or upon the back1 it is slightly wanting1 and the bones there project4 #badi4 ,the back is related to the anterior surface 7when regarded in man7 as bone is to muscle4 ,what is in front is muscle1 what is behind is bone4 ,the anterior side is therefore more active1 nobler1 more powerful and more spiritual than the posterior4 ,posteriorly stands the earth inert and rigidified1 while in front is the air in ceaseless capacity for1 and actually in1 motion4 ,the anterior muscular layer is more active and powerful than the posterior4 #baej4 ,in every muscular cyst there are two kinds of layers1 an anterior and a posterior1 or stronger and weaker layer4 #baea4 ,the stronger layer is the flexing1 the weaker the extending4 ,for the limbs have been necessarily bent forwards4 ,the direction alone of the joints at once resides in the structure1 which is even determined by these relations4 ,such a muscular layer1 which mostly consists of several bundles1 is termed a muscle4 #baeb4 ,a muscular cyst consists of flexor and extensor muscles4 ,the individual muscle is therefore only a piece of a cyst1 and therefore not in itself hollow4 ,it is only an entire muscular layer of flexors and extensors which is the pattern of the heart4 ,the flexors are the strongest and are placed in front1 the extensors lie behind4 #baec4 ,in the heart the flexor layers have not yet separated from the extensor layers1 because the vegetable flesh has as yet no symmetry in itself4 #baed4 ,flexors and extensors occur in pairs2 because the osseous system is in pairs4 #baee4 ,there resides in the osseous and in the muscular system no cause for a diversity in the two halves of the body4 ,thus1 if there be a difference1 it must only reside in the asymmetrical galvanic systems4 #c4 ,organs4 #baef4 ,organs are parts of an anatomical system1 which separating1 combine with a part of another system1 and thereby obtain a peculiar or special function4 #baeg4 ,for each system therefore there are as many organs1 as there are possible combinations of systems4 ,there are vascular1 intestinal1 pulmonary1 sexual and tegumentary organs1 with furthermore1 osseous1 muscular and nervous organs4 ,a4 ,,vegetative ,,organs4 #a4 ,,intestinal ,,organs4 #baeh4 ,the intestinal or splanchnic system falls first of all into three great divisions1 into that of the viscera1 the sex and the head2 the visceral intestine separates moreover into pulmonic1 venous and tegumentary intestine1 and this in constant accordance with its combinations and functions4 a4 ,visceral ,intestine4 #baei4 ,in the digestive system it is the chemical process that takes precedence4 ,this1 however1 divides into three moments1 into that of solution1 separation and formation1 or crystallization1 which is here absorption4 ,thus the intestine separates also into a solvent1 secernent and absorbent intestine1 and that indeed through its combination with the pulmonic1 vascular and tegumentary system4 ,the solvent viscus is the stomach1 the second or secernent1 the duodenum1 the third or absorbent1 the small intestine 7jejunum and ileum74 ,pulmonic ,intestine4 #bafj4 ,all solution is accompanied by oxydation4 ,the gastric juice is in its action an acid4 #bafa4 ,the gastric juice obtains its oxygen from the spleen4 ,the spleen is the stomachic lung4 ,this is attested by its position and close approximation to the stomach2 by its black1 venous1 and deoxydized blood1 which in certain diseases has been secreted even in the stomach2 by its want of any excretory duct2 by its tissue1 which resembles that of the oxydized placenta2 furthermore by the natural character of this function when contrasted with the unnatural quality of other useless functions that have been assigned to it2 and lastly too1 by the fact that1 without this opinion be admitted1 it must remain a superfluous organ1 and as regards use1 unknown4 ,after a series of years1 during which this doctrine has been combated upon all sides1 without1 however1 a single reason1 save and except that it was not believed1 being advanced by its opponents1 ,i must still persist in the correctness of the above view4 ,vascular ,intestine4 #bafb4 ,in the duodenum the analysis of the food takes place through the medium of the bile4 ,it is consequently the biliary intestine or stomach4 #bafc4 ,the biliary intestine does not stand upon a par with the other intestines1 but has an equal rank with the stomach4 ,it is therefore not confined within the mesentery1 but can expand itself like the stomach2 it has its vessels and nerves4 ,in it the separation of the chyme into chyle and excrementitious matter takes place4 #bafd4 ,what the spleen is for the stomach1 that is the liver for the duodenum2 it is the hepatic stomach1 and consequently the vascular stomach4 #bafe4 ,the liver is the ramification of the intestinal canal along with the whole vascular system4 #baff4 ,now1 as the analysis is the principal function in the whole process of digestion2 so is the liver the chief organ of all digestive organs4 #bafg4 ,the liver is the centre1 the brain of the digestive system1 because it is the blossom1 the synthesis of the vascular system4 ,from it everything emanates1 and upon it everything which concerns digestion1 ay1 the whole body1 retrogressively operates4 ,if the liver suffers or undergoes functional derangement1 the whole vascular and tegumentary formation then becomes a liver1 as is exemplified in the disease called jaundice4 #bafh4 ,the bile effects the analysis or separation through its basic or alkaline character1 since it combines with the acids of the chyme1 and thereby forms the excrementitious matter4 #bafi4 ,that which mediates between the acid and what is alkaline is the fluid secreted by the pancreatic gland4 ,the pancreatic gland is the ramification of the intestine along with the arterial system4 ,tegumental ,intestine4 #bagj4 ,that in the jejunum and ileum or the small intestine proper1 and in that alone1 absorption and thus the tegumentary function1 but nothing else1 occurs1 is well known4 ,by this absorption the chyle becomes removed from the intestine1 so that the excrement alone is left4 b4 ,sexual ,intestine4 #baga4 ,the sexual is pre-eminently that which is exsecernent or excretive1 since one sex strives to redintegrate itself upon the other1 becomes ingestive for the other1 but egestive for or in relation to itself4 ,it is therefore an essential property of the sexual parts1 that they secrete and excrete4 #bagb4 ,every galvanic system1 which has been adjoined or appended to the sexual parts1 is excretive4 ,they are1 taken in a rigid sense1 the only system of excretion4 ,the co-operative processes of the sex are those of the vegetative systems1 but they take place in the reverse direction4 ,the latter convey inwards1 the former outwards4 ,the kidneys are a reversed or evacuating lung1 an excrement-forming liver2 the urinary cyst is an exspirant1 a trachea containing refuse matter2 the urethra is a glottis reversed2 their diseases are therefore similar4 ,they thus expel products of the individual respiratory system4 #bagc4 ,and in this is the sexual apparatus distinguished from them1 namely1 that it expels the products of all systems1 the products of the whole organism1 or the organism itself4 ,in the semen the whole male body with all its parts transudes1 or passes over in a fluid state1 into the female parts2 in a child1 the female together with the male body1 passes over--formed or fashioned into the world4 #bagd4 ,the sexual intestine must therefore be expulsive also4 ,it is that which conducts the intestinal juice and the refuse of the aliment out of the body4 #bage4 ,the evacuating or efferent intestine is the large intestine4 ,it is consequently the ,sexual intestine4 #bagf4 ,the large intestine is related to the abdominal or small intestine1 exactly like the urinary cyst is to the kidney1 and this to the vascular system4 ,the small intestine passes therefore by perforation into the large1 not the latter into the former4 ,the small enters by perforating the large intestine1 and therein evacuates its alimentary residue1 as into a special-cyst1 that has nothing to do with the intestinal system4 ,the large intestine is the excrement-cyst1 just as that which has been called bladder is the urinary cyst4 #bagg4 ,the large intestine no longer digests1 but only receives what is left from the process of digestion and expels or casts it out4 #bagh4 ,the large intestine begins with a ccal extremity1 or with an obtuse cyst1 and opens into the anus1 exactly like the original animal cyst1 the polyp4 ,the blind extremity is called ccum4 ,with this the small intestine communicates by perforating it at an acute angle1 and that indeed in a direction which runs towards the obtuse cystiform extremity2 so that both intestines lie in mutual juxtaposition like a fork1 whereof the pharynx and the rectum are the two prongs1 while the ccum is the handle4 #bagi4 ,the two intestines are consequently by no means correlated4 ,in the perfect animal there are two intestinal systems thoroughly distinct from each other2 two intestines1 which belong to two different animals1 the sexual and encephalic animal1 or the plant and the animal4 ,the genesis of the large intestine and all its relations1 which are principally seen in the ccum and rectum1 plead for this philosophical derivation of the two intestines4 #bahj4 ,the rectum appertains wholly and entirely to the sexual system1 and especially to the uterus4 ,it is devoid of mesentery1 and supplied by special vessels2 it stands in most obvious sympathy with the uterus1 with its diseases1 and with menstruation4 ,even hemorrhoids are a sexual disease1 a disease of the sexual intestine4 #baha4 ,the anus is thus the intestinal mouth of the sexual animal4 ,in the lowest organized animals1 the oviducts seminal and urinary ducts together run into it1 as into a proper mouth4 ,the anus is a true oral cavity in the fishes1 reptiles1 and even in the whale4 #bahb4 ,the pharynx opens into the mouth1 and so does the rectum into the anus2 the trachea opens into the month1 and so does the urethra into the anus2 the salivary ducts open into the mouth1 and so into the anus do the oviducts1 with the spermatic canals in the lower animals4 ,the rectum moreover lies behind the urinary cyst1 like the gullet behind the trachea4 #bahc4 ,the sphincter or occlusor muscles of the anus have been formed like the sphincter muscles of the pharynx4 ,the anus is a mouth without a head1 and therefore a mouth without lips1 or an pharynx4 ,cephalic ,intestine4 #bahd4 ,the union or combination of the intestine with the animal systems1 such as the nervous1 muscular1 and osseous1 occurs in the head4 #bahe4 ,in so far as it combines with bones and muscles1 it becomes an organ of motion1 and1 when with the nerves1 an organ of sensation4 ,the animal or sarcal intestine is pharynx and mouth4 #bahf4 ,the motor organ is an organ of prehension4 ,the organs of prehension are endowed with independent motion1 and therefore move towards the food4 ,the first general organs of motion are the members of the body4 ,in the higher animals the thoracic members are at once the prehensible organs4 ,instead of the aliment being obliged to flow1 as unto the plant1 in a state of suspension in water1 the animal moves itself toward its food4 #bahg4 ,the members are the first organs of prehension4 ,but these are repeated in the head as jaws and teeth4 ,the teeth are the second organs of prehension1 but the first which belong to the cephalic intestine2 they are called organs of seizure or prehension4 #bahh4 ,the organ of digestion is1 however1 one of a chemical character4 ,it must be therefore repeated as such in the head4 ,this is shown in the salivary glands4 ,the saliva is the animal gastric juice1 and is therefore directly solvent in its properties4 ,it is poison4 #bahi4 ,after and during the operation of the saliva1 the aliments in the mouth are subjected to the action of the molar teeth and ground or chewed4 ,these comminuting or crushing organs are only a repetition of the act of prehension1 and consequently belong to the prehensile or biting organs4 #baij4 ,the mouth is the stomach repeated in the head4 #baia4 ,the union of the intestine with the nervous system is the tongue4 #baib4 ,the intestine1 when repeated in the head's muscular system1 is the organ of deglutition1 as is seen in the pharynx and oesophagus4 #baic4 ,the prehensile and manducatory1 venomous1 gustatory1 and deglutitory organs1 are the forms into which the intestinal system divides1 when it is repeated in the after-animal1 or in the sphere of animal life4 ,the gustatory organ is the nerve-intestine2 the prehensile organ the bone-intestine2 the organ of deglutition the muscular intestine2 while the poison-organ is the proper cephalic intestine1 or the stomach4 #b4 ,,vascular ,,organs4 #baid4 ,the vascular system regarded en masse1 or in a general sense1 has to participate in the nutrition of the body2 so far it takes the place of the cellular tissue1 and cannot therefore be developed for itself into any special organs4 ,if1 however1 certain vessels separate from the general system1 and combine with other systems unto the performance of special offices or functions1 organs then originate1 which1 nevertheless1 do not1 in a rigid point of view1 belong to these systems4 #baie4 ,there are therefore as many vascular organs as there are possible combinations2 thus with the tegument1 the lung1 the intestine1 the sexual parts1 and with the systems of animal life4 a4 ,,cutaneo-,,vascular ,,organs--,,branchi4 #baif4 ,the development of the vessels unto a special organ in the integument are ,respiratory organs2 or1 more properly speaking1 the development of the integument to constitute a special organ in combination with the vessels1 is a respiratory organ4 #baig4 ,in the commencement the branchi are only a vascular network upon1 and therefore subordinate to1 the integument4 ,they pass1 however1 through all possible stages of development1 until they have subjected and converted also the integument into a vascular system2 a point which is attained in the formation of the lungs4 #baih4 ,the branchial membrane already commences in the earthworm to concentrate itself and dilate1 so as to form what have been called the sacculi or pouches2 in the leech it is folded inwards1 so as to form lateral vesicles or cysts1 that prognosticate the air-passages or stigmata of insects2 in the ,nereids the vessels project upon the back from above the integument as free branchial ramules1 a formation1 which is again found in the nudibranchiate ,gasteropods4 #baii4 ,these branchial ramules form at first two rows extending along the whole dorsal region2 by degrees1 however1 the posterior set disappear1 and the cervical branchi only are left1 as antetypes of the gills of fishes4 #bbjj4 ,in the ,mollusca the branchial vessels unite to form lamin upon the ventral sides1 and are already surrounded by a kind of thoracic cavity1 the mantle1 as is exemplified in the tectibranchiate ,gasteropods4 ,here again the branchi are either a simple vascular net enveloped in a fold of the mantle1 or elongated into filaments disposed like the teeth of a comb1 or into lamin1 c4 #bbja4 ,the lateral branchi of the ,nereids usually emit filaments resembling feet1 upon the root of which the true branchi are then placed4 ,in the ,crustacea these filaments harden into actual feet provided with joints4 ,the feet are therefore nothing else than branchial filaments1 which have lost their vegetative function4 #bbjb4 ,in many worms the same branchial filaments are converted into hairs or bristles1 which are therefore none other than desiccated branchial filaments4 #bbjc4 ,even the hairs of ,mammalia and the feathers of ,birds have been left as remnants of the original branchial formation4 #bbjd4 ,where the branchi have assumed the laminated form1 they are surrounded by a similarly formed covering or operculum4 ,the shells of the ,mollusca are1 as regards their signification1 none other than branchial opercula1 or gill-covers2 the same holds good also of the gasteropodal and crustacean shells1 and at bottom of every calcareous and horny covering of the body4 #bbje4 ,to the same category belong also the opercula of ,fishes1 and even their scales4 ,fundamentally1 the whole epidermis is only a product of respiration or oxydation4 #bbjf4 ,the first saccular or ccal inversion of the integument1 as in the ,leeches1 ,molluscs1 and ,snails1 is at once a predominance of the tegumentary1 obtained through the medium of the branchial formation1 whereby the skin commences to become a self-substantial organ of respiration4 #bbjg4 ,in the ,scorpions the branchi are introverted sacs or cysts1 into which1 however1 instead of water1 air already enters4 #bbjh4 ,this insaccation is converted in the ,spiders into more distinct air-cysts1 which finally ramify in the higher insects and become true trache4 #bbji4 ,lastly1 the respiratory system obtains the upper hand to such an extent1 that1 together with internal air-tubes1 external branchial lamin are also developed1 as in the ,molluscs2 but in them the trache obtain the preponderance over the blood-vessels1 so that these lamin dry up and become wings or fins4 #bbaj4 ,the wings of ,insects are branchial lamin1 converted into air-organs4 #bbaa4 ,the wing-coverings or elytra are branchial opercula1 and correspond to the shells of bivalve ,mollusca4 #bbab4 ,every insect therefore must properly possess four wings and two wing-coverings1 of which last1 however1 rudiments only appear to be left in the nocturnal ,lepidoptera4 #bbac4 ,in the higher organized animals those gills only which are nearer the head are persistent1 the posterior or lateral branchi being gradually arrested4 #bbad4 ,these lateral branchi remain in ,fishes as lateral mucous openings1 which constitute the lateral line4 #bbae4 ,the cervical branchi are limited to the number five1 which has already begun to be established in the ,crustacea2 namely1 at the origins or roots of the five anterior pairs of feet4 #bbaf4 ,the number five probably derives its origin from the vegetable kingdom1 and that indeed from the genesis of the pinnate leaves1 so that one kind of numerical law appears to prevail with respect to this organ in both organic kingdoms4 ,it is probably also an imitation of the five organs of sense4 #bbag4 ,the vessels of the branchi of ,fishes are accompanied by bony rings1 which correspond to the feet of ,crustacea4 #bbah4 ,all ,fishes have1 with few exceptions1 five branchial arches4 #bbai4 ,when in ,fishes the sarcous system begins to produce viscera1 then the five branchial foramina pass inwards1 and only a single respiratory aperture is left for them in the fleshy body2 namely1 the external branchial foramen4 #bbbj4 ,in the lower animals water or air passes in and out through the same respiratory aperture1 but in ,fishes these two courses are preserved distinct2 for1 except in the ,lampreys1 the water enters through the mouth1 and passes out through the branchial aperture4 #bbba4 ,here the attempt is manifested in a still greater degree1 to bring the process of respiration wholly under the control of what is animal1 this being in the next place1 and for the first time attained1 when respiratory apertures only are left upon the head4 #bbbb4 ,the respiratory apertures of the head are the nostrils1 which are suddenly manifested in ,fishes1 but are in them simply subservient to the sense of smell1 and not as yet to the respiratory act4 #bbbc4 ,all the higher animals have1 like fishes1 branchial apertures in the neck1 only they coalesce and become obliterated at an early period1 or so soon as that respiratory process appears1 when air passes through the nostrils4 ,in the ,salamanders and ,frogs these branchial foramina are persistent for a longer time1 frequently through the whole period of life2 but in ,birds and ,mammalia they disappear1 while they are in the embryo state4 #bbbd4 ,when the branchial apertures close1 the vessels separate from the arches1 and betake themselves to a glandular body lying in front of them4 ,the thyroid gland is the remnant of the former branchial formation1 and is therefore found only in ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,mammalia4 ,lungs4 #bbbe4 ,in ,fishes the internal organ of respiration is already indicated by a ccal eversion of the pharynx1 which is surrounded by the branchial arches4 ,this membranous ccal eversion is called the swimming-cyst1 which in the higher animals becomes double on account of their symmetry1 and is then called lung4 #bbbf4 ,in the ,fish the aquatic and aerial process of respiration are present together1 the former being external1 the latter internal4 #bbbg4 ,the branchial arches having coalesced1 are converted in the higher animals into tracheal rings1 into the larynx and the posterior cornua of the hyoid bone1 if these are present1 as in the ,reptiles4 ,the larynx is therefore no special organ1 but only a remnant of the branchial respiratory apparatus4 #bbbh4 ,the laryngeal vessels are1 like the thyroid glands1 branchial vessels1 and in ,fishes1 therefore1 the branchial vessels do not correspond to the pulmonary vessels1 but to those of the trachea4 ,the pulmonic vessels of ,fishes are the blood-vessels of the swimming-cyst1 which convey blood directly into the heart1 whereby this organ obtains the signification of the left or arterial heart4 #bbbi4 ,when the branchial apertures have coalesced1 the nose then opens into the mouth or into the trachea1 and in this way the nostrils assume the complete character of aerial foramina4 #bbcj4 ,the nose is therefore originally an organ of smell1 and then a part of the respiratory system4 ,it is the animal lung4 #bbca4 ,as the secretion of bone is a product of the more powerful process of oxydation1 so do the bony rings multiply beneath the branchial arches or the larynx1 and are called tracheal rings4 ,in the feebly respiring ,reptiles the trachea is therefore still in a membranous condition1 but in ,birds and ,mammalia1 it is surrounded by many rings1 or is a repetition of the larynx4 #bbcb4 ,in ,birds even a kind of inferior larynx originates1 which is provided with muscles and can produce tones4 #bbcc4 ,the ramification of the trachea into two bronchi or branches is constantly progressing1 and at length these tubes divide into a great number of vesicles1 which together form the lungs4 ,the lung1 which was in the commencement a simple saccular inversion of the integument1 has now become a self-substantial organ1 to which the respiratory vessels have been subordinated4 ,the lung also divides upon each side into five lobes4 b4 ,,vascular ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,intestine4 ,liver4 #bbcd4 ,the self-substantial development of the vascular1 and its separation from the general1 system1 is most perfectly attained in the ,liver4 #bbce4 ,in the liver1 as being the vascular system1 which combines with the intestinal canal1 the venous system has become independent4 ,the portal vein arises from the intestinal canal1 collects into one trunk1 and again ramifies in order to unite with the biliary ducts1 which are only a ramified saccular eversion of the intestine4 ,this conjunction is represented by the liver4 #bbcf4 ,the liver as being a venous organ stands therefore in opposition to the lung1 and produces1 instead of oxydes1 a basic body1 or the bile4 ,the liver1 as being the venous system which has become free1 is to be regarded as the highest development or blossom of the vascular system4 #bbcg4 ,it is for the vegetative body1 what the brain is for the animal2 and hence1 therefore1 the similarity of structure and the sympathy between both organs4 ,spleen4 #bbch4 ,as opposed to the liver1 the arterial system also develops itself upon the intestine as a respiratory or branchial organ4 ,these intestinal branchi are found in several of the lower organized animals1 especially in the ,holothuri and ,aphrodit4 #bbci4 ,in the higher animals they are aggregated into a special organ1 through which the gastric juice obtains oxygen2 this is the spleen4 ,the spleen is the branchia of the stomach2 it has therefore no excretory duct and requires none4 #bbdj4 ,lastly1 the salivary glands also in the mouth as well as in the duodenum1 the abdomino-salivary glands1 and even the odoriferous glands on the rectum1 such as the castor-and civet-pouches1 are complications of vessels with intestinal ramifications4 ,c4 ,,vascular ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,sex4 ,kidneys4 #bbda4 ,the vascular organ of the sexual system is the kidneys4 #bbdb4 ,as the urine is chiefly characterized by the urea and thus by a basic principle2 it thus corresponds to the bile1 and consequently the kidneys directly to the liver or the lung reversed4 #bbdc4 ,but there is also a sexual branchia in those inferior animals which breathe through the anus1 such as many aquatic larv4 #bbdd4 ,the remnant of this in the higher animals appears to be the allantois1 and in the body itself probably what have been called the primordial kidneys4 #bbde4 ,the combination of the vascular system with the animal systems is the sense of touch4 #c4 ,,respiratory ,,organs4 #bbdf4 ,the respiratory organ is a development of the integument4 #bbdg4 ,the perfect organ of respiration is an air-organ or lung2 combined with the tegumentary system1 it is a water-organ or branchia4 #bbdh4 ,there are dermo-branchi or the branchi proper1 as in the ,worms1 ,molluscs1 ,snails1 and ,crabs4 #bbdi4 ,intestinal branchi in the ,holothuri1 constituting in the higher animals a spleen4 #bbej4 ,the sexual branchi are probably the primordial kidneys4 #bbea4 ,the branchi when united with the osseous system are the branchial arches of ,fishes1 which subsequently separate into larynx and thyroid gland4 #bbeb4 ,the self-substantial development of the integument into the respiratory organ is a lung4 #bbec4 ,when united with the vascular system or the vegetative systems generally1 the integument forms the tracheal system of ,insects4 #bbed4 ,the trache are spiral vessels as in plants4 #bbee4 ,the respiratory organ1 united with the motor system1 is the lung proper1 which is situated within the thorax1 and covered by ribs4 #bbef4 ,the proper lung divides also1 like the intestine1 into two parts1 into the cystiform1 pharyngeal expansion of the larynx1 and into the pulmonic substance1 which is equivalent to the stomach1 and wherein the analysis of the air takes place4 #bbeg4 ,the trachea1 and especially the larynx1 is moreover an entire thorax1 a ribbed skeleton upon a small and membranous scale4 ,in the larynx1 the animal thoracic structure1 consisting of ribs and muscles1 resides prognosticated4 ,the larynx has originated from the coalescence of branchial arches4 ,the ribs are a repetition of the branchial arches4 #bbeh4 ,the diaphragm is a formation1 which admits1 by no reasoning from its anatomy1 but only genetically1 of being explained4 ,originally1 the whole body was only an abdomen1 upon the external surface of which the branchi were appended4 ,a remarkable instance of this is at once afforded by the ,snails1 and also the ,fishes4 ,as the gills were converted into lungs1 a special body or the thorax originated for them1 which encroached upon the abdomen4 ,now1 the abdominal wall left between these two cavities1 was just the diaphragm4 #bbei4 ,the diaphragm is not a transverse wall or septum4 ,the idea of such a cross-rail gainsays all sound physiology4 ,it has been the abdominal wall4 #bbfj4 ,the union of the lungs with the nervous system is the nose4 #bbfa4 ,the nose is the cephalic thorax2 but it has also the thoracic contents1 or the very lung repeated in itself4 #bbfb4 ,the multicavernous ethmoid bone is the lung in the nose1 the two nostrils being the stigmata or foremost openings of the trachea4 ,the nasal muscles are homologous to the cartilages of the trachea1 and especially to those of the larynx4 #bbfc4 ,the velum palati is the diaphragm between nose and mouth1 or between the cephalic thorax and the cephalic abdomen4 ,coverings4 #bbfd4 ,the animal coverings are desiccated respiratory organs appertaining to the integument4 ,capillary ,vessels4 #bbfe4 ,the principal function of the vessel is that of secretion1 whereby nutrition is imparted4 ,this secretion must take place in the whole body1 in so far as it is opposed to the lung4 ,the vessels then pass over into the finest canals1 and are called capillary vessels4 #bbff4 ,the capillary system of vessels is an organ in antagonism to the lung2 what enters the latter organ1 passes out through the former4 #bbfg4 ,the capillary system of vessels is the property of the tegumentary system4 ,it may almost be said that wherever there is integument1 there capillary vessels are present4 ,the most perfect evolution of capillaries is the integument4 ,it is the proper exsecernent1 in opposition to the intestine1 which is the absorbent organ4 #bbfh4 ,evaporation is the essential tegumentary process4 #bbfi4 ,the product of the evaporation is mucus4 #bbgj4 ,in the evaporation1 however1 the mucus becomes analyzed by the influence of the air and light4 ,epidermis4 #bbga4 ,the external mucus exuding from the skin becomes oxydized1 the inferior on the contrary reduced2 the oxydized becomes vitreous and transparent4 ,it is the ,epidermis4 #bbgb4 ,with the maximum of oxydation the epidermis passes over into a vitreous transparent horn1 e4 g4 scales4 #bbgc4 ,the scales1 which invest the toes and digits are called claws1 and finally become nails4 ,the finger-nail is nothing but a scale1 which in this situation has become particularly large and strong4 #bbgd4 ,that which is reduced beneath the vitrified epidermis determines the colour of the skin4 ,with a demi-oxydation it is uncoloured1 appears white4 ,where the integument is thin1 the red colour of the blood appears through it2 such integument is therefore white upon the whole1 but red in individual places4 #bbge4 ,with the most complete reduction effected by the highest operation of light1 its substratum or under-layer becomes black4 ,the mucus passes over into reduced carbon4 ,beneath the vitreous epidermis there is thus a metallic pigmentary membrane4 ,hairs4 #bbgf4 ,capillary vessels1 which simply convey mucus1 but are elongated singly above and from out the cutis1 are ,hairs4 ,the idea of the hair is a capillary vessel1 the contents of which are no longer blood1 but reduced mucus4 ,it is an indifferent capillary vessel4 ,the hair is hollow and contains an oil1 which determines the colour4 #bbgg4 ,in the hairs the nutritive system is prolonged above the body4 #bbgh4 ,the hairs and scales are the general terrestrial system of the body determined by the air4 #bbgi4 ,thus the earth has sprung up into a plant4 ,scales and hairs are like true vegetable leaves1 which still continue their process in the animal2 they can no longer it is true make their respiratory process hold good for the animal process itself1 but are at present content with only oxydizing the material of evaporation4 ,it is properly the integument only1 not the entire body1 which respires through hairs and scales4 #bbhj4 ,the hairs are dried branchial filaments1 and therefore continue to occupy in ,man1 those situations only where in the lower animals branchi or tentacula are placed4 ,around e4 g4 the mouth1 upon the head1 under the arms or in the axill1 and around the sexual apertures4 #bbha4 ,the feathers are dried ramified branchi1 pinnate leaves4 #bbhb4 ,the hairs participate in the electric process of the whole body4 #bbhc4 ,what determines the colour in the plant1 determines it also in the animal2 only in the plant the colour is more coarsely precipitated1 and nothing therefore glimmers from the interior of the body1 but all is green4 ,in an animal1 however1 the colouring matter is transparent1 and the interior is thus rendered visible4 #bbhd4 ,with the external coverings1 such as scales1 and lastly with the hairs1 all organs of the trunk1 in so far as they are derived from what is vegetable1 are exhausted4 ,the vegetable animal1 as trunk1 is completed1 and we must now therefore turn to the sexual organs4 #d4 ,,sexual ,,organs4 #bbhe4 ,the sexual organs are developments of the integument upon a higher grade1 and combinations of the same with the animal systems1 like as the blossom is a repetition of all vegetative systems4 #bbhf4 ,they range in the middle between the vegetative and the encephalic animal1 and are therefore a totality for themselves1 or a sexual animal4 #bbhg4 ,there are vegetative and animal sexual parts4 ,i4 ,vegetative ,sexual ,organs4 #bbhh4 ,are special developments of the intestine1 vessels and branchi4 a4 ,,sexual ,,organs ,,proper4 #bbhi4 ,the proper sexual parts are a repetition of the digestive system on its transition to what is animal1 or to the organs of sense4 #a4 ,female ,organs4 #bbij4 ,the female parts are a floral capsule1 consisting of an ovary or sac1 stigma and ova4 ,all higher development takes place1 however1 through separation of the complicated organs and processes4 #bbia4 ,the three parts therefore of the gestative sac or matrix separate1 each part becoming self-substantially perfected4 ,the orifice elongates into a cervix or neck1 which is gradually rendered more distinct from the matrix1 and in its highest and self-substantial completion is called oviduct4 #bbib4 ,the matrix elongates also at its ccal extremity or fundus1 as well as at its open end4 ,the germinal bodies also become self-substantial1 separate gradually from the fundus of the matrix1 and are then independent ovaria4 #bbic4 ,as in the highest animal formation they also assume the animal symmetry1 while at first they were only single1 or manifold1 as in the plicated capsules of ,star-fishes1 and therefore remained stationary at the number two2 so is the ovisac prolonged into two long cornua1 or trumpet-like tubes1 which at the commencement1 indeed1 still include the ova1 as in ,insects and ,fishes1 but are subsequently left entirely free4 #b4 ,male ,parts4 #bbid4 ,the leaf-formation is elevated to the corolla or the male parts in the plant4 ,they are1 however1 only the repetition of the plant upon a higher stage4 ,hence in the animal also the male parts will be upon a higher grade of position to the female4 #bbie4 ,as the stamina surround the ovarian capsule in the plant1 so do animal stamina stand around the orifice of the oviduct2 as penes4 #bbif4 ,in the lowest ovisacs the penes are circularly disposed around the orifice2 as is exemplified by the tentacles of a ,polyp2 by degrees1 however1 they are resolved1 for the sake of symmetry1 into two1 and then project upon the sides of the orifice1 as in the ,serpents and ,lizards4 ,in the higher animals the two penes coalesce into one4 #bbig4 ,this penis situated at the orifice of the oviduct is the clitoris4 ,the vagina is separated from the clitoris2 but in the male organs they both combine or blend with each other1 and the vagina becomes the seminal canal or that of the penis4 #bbih4 ,as the orifice begins to assume a male character1 and the external parts to be more forcibly developed in the direction outwards1 so1 on the other hand1 do the internal parts recede the more1 and remain simply as ovaria or ovisacs1 in which the ova1 instead of being formed as such1 dissolve into pollen1 mucus1 or male semen4 ,these ovaria1 which now secrete semen instead of vitelline vesicles1 are called testes4 #bbii4 ,the testes originate1 while the mucous ova are being reduced to primary mucus1 or to infusoria4 #bcjj4 ,what is male originates through an organic process of decomposition or putrefaction of the ova4 ,the semen is an organic product of decomposition4 #bcja4 ,the semen must contain infusoria4 ,a semen which does not contain infusoria1 is ovum-like1 or feminine4 ,except at the time of heat or rut1 and thus when the animals have a female character1 the semen possesses no infusoria1 and is in that case simply albumen4 #bcjb4 ,semen1 which is devoid of infusoria1 is incapable of impregnation4 ,how can one wretched female ovum impregnate or fructify another8 #bcjc4 ,as the trumpet-like tubes or oviducts belong to the ovaria1 so are they developed with the testes1 and now convey semen instead of ova4 ,the female tubes become the vasa deferentia or spermatic ducts1 the uterine cornua1 the vesicul seminales4 #bcjd4 ,between the vesicul seminales and the vagina or the penis the uterus shrivels up into the prostate gland1 into which the vasa deferentia open1 like the oviducts do into the uterus4 #bcje4 ,as the matrix is the proper female organ1 so will the spermatic ducts seek to combine with the penis1 or at least open self-substantially upon the os uteri4 ,the testes open either through the spermatic ducts into the vagina1 as in ,fishes1 ,reptiles1 and ,birds1 or into the penis1 as in the ,gasteropods1 ,insects1 and ,mammalia4 #bcjf4 ,male and female parts are therefore perfectly homologous1 the former having a greater development of the external division1 the latter of the internal4 #bcjg4 ,the female parts have undertaken the business of vegetation1 or that of the viscera1 the male that of the animal excitation4 #bcjh4 ,since the male parts are no new formation1 but the female parts themselves1 only characterized by internal arrest1 and external increase of development1 so do male and female parts appear incapable of occurring together in any animal4 ,perfect hermaphrodites would1 accordingly1 be impossible2 for where testes are1 no ovaria could be1 because the testes are themselves the ovaria1 or the latter only changed4 #bcji4 ,hence androgynism would be possible only by one ovarium remaining as such1 and the other being converted into a testis4 #bcaj4 ,this development appears only possible when the two halves of the body are unequal4 ,asymmetrical animals only can be androgynous4 ,in the snails one of the two molluscan shell-valves has been more largely developed than the other1 and therefore one half also of the body is greater than the other4 ,on this account many hermaphrodites are found among these animals4 #bcaa4 ,thus1 there ought to be no androgynous animals with at the same time two ovaria and two testes4 ,nevertheless1 this very peculiarity occurs in many of the lower organized animals1 e4 g4 the worms4 #bcab4 ,accordingly1 the principle of androgynism is in general to be found in the want of symmetry4 ,symmetrical animals are as a rule dioecious4 ,no hermaphrodite is found among the ,insects1 ,fishes1 ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,mammalia4 #bcac4 ,if such occur1 they are formations that have remained persistent at the lower stage of development1 or upon the transition of the embryo through the ,snail-type of organization2 they are thus monstrosities1 or malformations4 #bcad4 ,these malformations also1 when occurring in the higher animals1 can never possess more than one testicle and one ovarium4 ,the uterus then ranks midway between its condition as such1 and that of a prostate gland2 the spermatic tube or urethra opens after a female fashion below the root of the penis4 ,impregnation4 #bcae4 ,since the male sex is related to the female1 as corolla to capsule1 as leaf to stalk1 as air to water1 and as light to matter2 so is it related also as integument to intestine1 as lung to lymphatic vessel1 as artery to vein1 as nerve to flesh or muscle1 as ,animal to ,vegetative4 #bcaf4 ,copulation is therefore an irradiation4 #bcag4 ,already1 in the course of the heavenly bodies1 has the highest act of the animal1 that of copulation1 been preindicated or portrayed4 ,the creation of the universe or world is itself nothing but an act of impregnation4 ,the sex is prognosticated from the beginning1 and pursues its course like a holy and conservative bond throughout the whole of nature4 ,he therefore who so much as questions the sex in the organic world1 comprehends not the riddle or problem of the universe4 #bcah4 ,if the female parts have effected a complete transition into the male1 so are the sexes necessarily separate and distinct4 #bcai4 ,since the male parts are the female that have been more highly developed1 so there resides in the latter the constant conatus or effort to convert themselves into the male4 #bcbj4 ,this metamorphosis1 or conversion1 is1 however1 no longer possible in the female parts1 when already finished or fully formed1 but is only attainable in a new attempt being made upon their part1 to transform the fluid mass into ova4 #bcba4 ,gestation or pregnancy is none other than the propensity of the ,female to convert itself into the ,male4 #bcbb4 ,the foetus is the male in a female1 or the foetus is the male sexual parts in the female4 #bcbc4 ,in idea1 every foetus should be male4 ,but1 if mascularity be attained with the first production1 then the second necessarily subsides into the female4 ,in this manner there of necessity originates an equiponderance in the number of both sexes4 #bcbd4 ,moreover1 if the sexual parts be regarded according to their proper signification in the animal1 they are the upper intestinal system1 as it has been developed in the mouth1 and that indeed in such a manner1 that the female parts are the vegetative form or the oral cavity1 the male1 the animal form1 or the tongue with the salivary glands2 the former represent the process of deglutition1 the latter that of taste4 #bcbe4 ,into the uterus or into the prostate gland the excretory ducts of the sexual glands1 or the spermatic canals and oviducts1 pursue a convergent course1 like the salivary ducts do into the oral cavity4 #bcbf4 ,the testes1 as also the ovaria1 are forebodent of the salivary glands4 ,the semen and oviducts are salivary ducts2 they open by twos and symmetrically4 ,semen and ova are secreted like saliva4 ,semen and ova have also a salivary function1 though of this the former is endowed with more than the latter4 #bcbg4 ,the ova correspond1 as being an object of the semen1 to the object of the saliva1 which is the food or aliment4 ,the saliva imparts to the bole or mouthful of food its first animal signification2 it renders it for the first time capable of passing over into animal organs2 it impregnates the morsel4 ,the semen renders the ovum capable of effecting the transition into an animal2 it spits upon the ovum4 #bcbh4 ,impregnation is a process of smearing with saliva1 conception a process of deglutition4 #bcbi4 ,pregnancy is a process of digestion and formation of blood4 #bccj4 ,if the internal sexual parts denote the internal visceral parts of the mouth1 so must the external parts of the one correspond to the external of the other4 ,the labia pudendi correspond to the lips1 and the clitoris to the tongue1 which is more perfectly represented in the penis4 ,both tongue and penis consist of two halves2 in cases where the former is fissured or divided1 the latter is so also1 as in the ,serpents and ,lizards4 ,in many animals1 as the dogs and other ,mammalia1 there is likewise a bone in the penis1 which corresponds to the os hyoides or linguale4 ,the salivary ducts have combined with the penis2 or1 taken in a more strict sense1 it may be said1 that in the penis the tongue has coalesced with the oral cavity1 so that both form a canal1--that of the penis1 into which the salivary ducts 7vesicul seminales7 open4 #bcca4 ,the sexual passion or venereal desire is a gustatory process of the sexual animal1 the copulation being at one and the same time a matter both of taste and deglutition4 #c4 ,germ or ,embryo4 #bccb4 ,in the embryo the whole animal already resides in miniature1 as does the plant in its seed4 #bccc4 ,the embryonic intestine is the vitellus or yelk4 #bccd4 ,the embryonic integument is the amnion4 #bcce4 ,the embryonic vascular system is the chorion4 #bccf4 ,the embryonic sexual system is the allantois4 ,the above propositions can only be perfectly developed in the physiology4 b4 ,,vascular ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,sex4 #bccg4 ,the hmatopoietic or blood-preparing vascular system is the lung2 the blood-destroying1 exsecernent vascular system is the kidneys4 ,the kidneys are the lung reversed4 ,the liver decomposes the venous1 the kidneys the arteriose blood4 #bcch4 ,the kidneys are the individualized vascular system of the sex1 as the liver is that for digestion4 ,they accord with the liver in their glandular structure1 in the renal pelvis1 which is like the gall-cyst1 in the ureters that resemble the biliary ducts1 and lastly1 in the general signification of the urine as a product1 wherein the whole organism1 the whole blood-system has been excreted1 like the bile1 in which the venous blood undergoes the same process4 #bcci4 ,every disturbance of the digestive function acts in a striking and very direct manner upon the urine4 ,the jaundice is apparent in urine2 and what else is diabetes than a malady analogous to diseases of the liver8 ,in urine we recognize what the bile has done with the food2 the urine is the fluid nutritive system1 and consequently the fluid organism in toto2 the sexual blood1 or sexual bile4 #bcdj4 ,the urine is the purest mirror or reflex of the bodily condition1 and hence ourology or the doctrine of urine is of the most universal importance in semeiotics or symptomatic pathology3 the ureters correspond to the tracheal branches or bronchi2 thus1 the urinary cyst to the trachea2 the urethra to the larynx4 #bcda4 ,in many animals the ureters open directly into the cloaca1 as in many ,fishes1 ,reptiles4 #bcdb4 ,by degrees the cloaca is retracted towards the ureters1 and then originates a cloaca1 which is both urethra and urinary cyst1 as in ,birds4 #bcdc4 ,in the higher animals1 where a perfect ourocyst or urinary cyst has been evolved1 the urethra opens into the anterior wall of the vagina1 in front of which the urinary cyst then lies1 in a similar manner to the trachea in front of the pharynx4 #bcdd4 ,in many ,fishes the urinary cyst is absent1 their pulmonic sac being also but feebly developed and only remaining as an asymmetrical swimming-cyst--the ureters too open directly into the cloaca1 just as the swimming-cyst opens into the oesophagus4 ,the pharynx of ,fishes1 as being surrounded by the branchial arches1 is at once pharynx and larynx1 like as in many animals cloaca and urinary cyst are of one and the same kind4 #bcde4 ,in many ,reptiles 7such as the ,tortoises and ,frogs7 the urinary cyst gives off two cca or blind sacs1 as is the case in the larynx of many apes4 #bcdf4 ,in the ,bird the two cul-de-sacs of the urinary cyst are much more developed and have assumed the form of two ccal intestines1 so that they have been actually viewed as such1 and their number two been assigned as characteristic of the bird1 the other animals meanwhile having only one4 ,the cca intestinalia of ,birds are the lateral and upper extremities of the urinary cyst4 ,the true ccum of the bird is the vitelline canal or duct1 just as in the fishes and all higher organized animals2 this being distinctly retained in the aquatic birds4 #bcdg4 ,in the ,bird the rectum properly opens into the urinary cyst between the two blind sacs or cca1 and that indeed with a regular vulva1 which is a sphincter muscle4 #bcdh4 ,the cloaca of the ,bird is an urinary cyst1 into which the anus opens4 #bcdi4 ,the orifice of the cloaca is properly that of the urethra2 ova and fces are moistened with urine4 ,in a bird both these egesta are combined4 #bcej4 ,like the urethra1 so is the trachea membranous in ,fishes1 and in most ,reptiles also4 #bcea4 ,urinary cyst and urethra stand in sympathetic relation with the trachea and larynx1 and have also similar diseases1 such as catarrh1 inflammation1 c4 #bceb4 ,the proper proof1 however1 of the urinary cyst belonging to the respiratory system resides in its genesis4 ,it proceeds from the allantois1 which in ,birds is a decided organ of respiration1 a branchia4 #bcec4 ,out of this urinary cyst issue in the embryo what have been called primordial kidneys1 which shrink or dwindle down at a later period1 but have entirely the structure of branchi4 #bced4 ,here then is a sexuo-respiratory process1 which corresponds to the anal respiration1 upon a higher stage1 of many worms and aquatic larv1 e4 g4 ,holothuri and ,libellul4 ,this anal respiration is in its signification a sexual respiration4 #bcee4 ,even in the acephalous bivalve ,mollusca and ,snails the respiratory openings are almost always situated in the proximity of the anus2 their respiration is still a sexual respiration4 #bcef4 ,for the first time in ,insects it becomes a respiration of the trunk2 and for the first time in the higher animals a truly animal1 namely1 a cephalic respiration4 #bceg4 ,the urinary system is a double system2 it conjoins in itself the two highest galvanic processes1 that of secretion and excretion4 #bceh4 ,secretion is an hepatic character1 excretion a pulmonic character4 ,secretion belongs to nutrition1 excretion to respiration4 ,excretion is an exspiration1 secretion an influx or infusion4 ,secretion is related to excretion as water is to air1 as liver to lung1 as basis to oxygen4 #bcei4 ,secretion takes place1 e4 g4 of bile and saliva1 in so far as the processes of the body1 especially those of the digestion1 are promoted4 ,excretion is only effected in so far as that the organs1 into which what is secreted enters1 may obtain a tracheal signification1 i4 e4 evaporation4 ,all excretory orifices are in a certain sense larynges or tracheal orifices4 ,thus1 this relation between secretion and excretion would have been discovered without recourse to conjecture being had upon our part4 #bcfj4 ,the urine is par excellence a double product of this kind4 ,it is secreted in the kidneys for simply one object1 like the bile4 ,it is excreted1 because it belongs to the sexual system1 which is essentially exsecernent4 #bcfa4 ,the object or purpose of the urine has not been subverted in all animals4 ,in ,birds1 where the urinary cyst and intestine are confluent1 the urine enters like the bile into the intestine1 at least at a spot where there is intestinal matter1 which it renders fluid4 #bcfb4 ,in ,insects and ,snails it appears to invest as a mucus the ova1 and serve for their attachment4 ,the same appears to hold good of the spider's web4 ,what has been called purple juice and ink 7in the ,cephalopods7 ranks probably in the signification of urine4 c4 ,,sexual ,,intestine4 #bcfc4 ,the sexual intestine is the colon or large intestine1 which1 in this respect1 belongs to the sexual system1 as has been indicated at #baga4 ,,ii4 ,animal ,sexual ,organs4 #bcfd4 ,the bones of the sex are the feet with their appurtenances1 such as the pelvis with the lumbar1 sacral and coccygeal vertebr4 ,the muscles1 as well as the nerves1 are self-understood4 ,but of these we will speak in the sequel4 ,b4 ,,animal ,,organs4 #bcfe4 ,all organs1 which are purely animal1 are penetrated or traversed by the nervous system1 just as the lower systems are by the tegumentary formation4 ,no higher organ is the wholly pure evolution of one system1 but the systems ever combine with each other2 and this combination1 when individually represented1 constitutes the organ4 #bcff4 ,organ is distinguished from system in not pursuing its course through the whole body1 nor consisting simply of one and the same mass1 but by its occupying a definite part of the body and being composed of several systems4 #bcfg4 ,every organ has therefore a special and specific function also4 #bcfh4 ,the systems of animal life divide only into two kinds of organs1 into those of sensation and those of motion1 into the solar and planetary1 or central and peripheric4 a4 ,,motor ,,organs4 #bcfi4 ,bone and muscle are not societies1 but only poles of one system4 ,there is therefore no mere bony organ1 and no mere muscular organ4 ,meanwhile we will here regard them in particular or per se4 #a4 ,osseous ,organs4 #bcgj4 ,the first bones were branchial arches or tracheal rings4 ,when the lungs were developed from the branchi1 the branchial arches were repeated as ribs or pulmonary arches4 ,lastly1 should bones be formed1 which are to be wholly in the service of the animal or the nervous system1 so also must they be wholly liberated from the vegetative organs1 and become self-substantial1 i4 e4 have nothing else to do1 but move4 ,free motor organs can be none other than ribs that have become free4 #bcga4 ,these free ribs must inclose the respiratory organ or the integument1 which has become an organ of animal life2 they are the members or limbs4 ,if we think of ribs1 whose office is no longer to inclose lungs1 which must no longer be subservient to the uninterrupted vital motion of respiration1 and which are no longer united by pleura into a closed cyst or sac--will not such simply retain the self-substantial voluntary motion in themselves8 will they not abandon the inferior cystic form1 and represent the same1 though but ideally and voluntarily8 will not such a thorax open in front1 like the intestine has opened at its nobler extremity8--will not such ribs be members1 arms1 digits8 ,the members or limbs are the members of the trunk1 or ribs that have opened in front2 they are the thorax that has opened in front2 and hence are nothing new1 but only something emancipated or set free4 ,such ribs can be none other than motor organs2 for they were previously nothing else4 ,then1 however1 they performed motion in the service of the viscera2 at present1 where they are absolved from this service1 they execute it only in accordance to the will of the head1 simply according to its will1 for they are verily nothing more than motor ribs4 ,where1 however1 or in what region of the body will the ribs attain unto such freedom8 ,without doubt1 in the neighbourhood of the head1 and thus at the very spot where the lungs derive one of their extremities4 ,the limbs are therefore cervical ribs4 #bcgb4 ,the arms are a thorax1 consisting quite purely of bone and muscle1 and represented as isolated or detached from the viscus1 or the lung2 on this depends their nobility1 or1 in other words1 upon what is vegetative having been wholly left behind4 #bcgc4 ,the arms1 when clasped together by the fingers1 are a thorax without viscera1 without heart and lungs2 they are destined to inclose a whole body in the embrace4 #bcgd4 ,by an embrace that which is embraced has been made our viscus2 it has been adopted as our animal heart1 and as our animal vital organ--or lung4 ,the embrace has an exalted physiological signification1 and precisely that which it unconsciously possesses in the state of pure love4 ,nature always thinks more nobly than we do4 ,we follow blindfold her beautiful regulations1 and she rejoices in the sport4 #bcge4 ,as the fundamental number of the branchi is five1 so also must the limbs represent five ribs2 they split into five digits or fingers4 ,the feet of the ,crustacea and ,insects generally do not correspond to our feet2 but to our fingers4 ,the lower organized animals have only toes1 no feet4 ,the five thoracic feet of the crab correspond to our fingers2 its five abdominal feet to our toes4 #bcgf4 ,there are three limbs in accordance with the three totalities of the body1 truncal1 sexual1 and cephalic members1 or arms1 feet1 and jaws4 #bcgg4 ,the members of the body or trunk belong to the thorax1 because it is the respiratory system4 ,the abdomen has no members2 what have been so-called1 are in their signification sexual limbs4 #bcgh4 ,had the animal no sex1 it would have no posterior limbs4 #bcgi4 ,as the three lower cervical and the two upper dorsal vertebr belong to the arms1 so also they appear to commence with five ribs1 but then to become arrested1 and again emerge to perfection in the digits4 #bchj4 ,the shoulder appears to consist of five ribs1 but this does not as yet admit of being clearly pointed out4 ,meanwhile1 it is certain that the scapula1 acromion1 and coracoid are particular bones1 to which may be added the clavicle4 #bcha4 ,the middle finger is the elongated radius1 and is therefore the longest or radial digit4 ,it is that which is persistent1 if only one finger has been left1 as in the horse4 ,the ring-finger is the ulnar finger4 ,it is that which1 along with the former1 appears in the bi-ungulate animals2 the spurious or dew-claws are the auricular and index-finger2 the thumb is the last ramification1 is therefore always arrested1 and frequently present only as a wart-like excrescence or papilla4 #bchb4 ,all animals1 which have true digits1 are furnished with five of them1 more or less completely developed4 ,if what has been called the metacarpal bone of the thumb be numbered1 which it must1 as a digital articulation or phalanx1 every finger has thus one carpal bone1 and each bone of the fore arm also one4 #bchc4 ,the sexual members or feet correspond in all their pieces to the arms3 the pelvis is the shoulder repeated2 and certainly1 the iliac bone is equivalent to the scapula1 the ischium to the coracoid process1 the os pubis to the acromion1 the marsupial bone to the clavicle4 ,cephalic ,members4 #bchd4 ,both pairs of limbs are repeated in the head1 because in it the whole trunk is repeated2 the upper jaw corresponds to the arms1 the lower jaw to the feet4 ,each jaw consists of two members1 which are ankylosed in the higher animals at their point of meeting or in front1 but in ,fishes are partly1 and in ,insects completely1 separated4 #bche4 ,each jaw consists of the same bony divisions as the limbs of the trunk1 of scapula1 humerus1 and fore-arm2 or of pelvis1 femur1 and tibia4 ,this is easily to be demonstrated in ,birds1 ,reptiles1 and ,fishes4 #bchf4 ,the digits are repeated in the teeth4 ,the teeth are claws4 #bchg4 ,there are therefore five kinds of teeth1 which correspond to the five digits4 ,the thumb becomes the canine tooth2 the index-finger the false molars2 the middle finger the laniary molar1 the ring-finger the second1 and the little finger the third true molar tooth4 #bchh4 ,the intermaxillary with its incisor teeth belongs1 as well as the palatal bones1 to the pharynx2 and is a visceral or intestinal maxilla4 #bchi4 ,the lower animals therefore1 as the ,fishes1 have almost nothing but intermaxillary and palatal teeth4 ,they act principally upon the lingual teeth4 ,the reptiles have still palatal teeth1 which higher up in the vertebrate series disappear4 ,symmetry4 #bcij4 ,as the cervical ribs have nothing more to inclose1 have no longer to respire1 but only to move2 their symmetrical development is thus undelayed4 ,the symmetry is at first wholly attained by the act of opening or apertion4 #bcia4 ,the limbs are the most symmetrical organs4 ,they are symmetrical in each smallest part1 and these parts again assume a symmetrical arrangement in regard to each other4 ,they are the ideal of symmetry4 #bcib4 ,they are1 however1 the free living symmetry4 ,they can create by their motions symmetrical forms4 ,the symmetry consists chiefly in1 and has been produced only by1 the motion4 #bcic4 ,the symmetry of the motion is the most exalted1 for it is that which is endowed with life4 ,the symmetry of the form is that which is dead4 #bcid4 ,the symmetry of the form appertains to inorganic nature1 the symmetry of the motion is the property of animals4 #bcie4 ,dancing and acting are the highest organic symmetrical movements1 and also the highest symmetries4 ,they are the symmetry of the motor members1 wrought by motion4 #bcif4 ,music is a much higher symmetry of motion4 #bcig4 ,speech is the highest spiritual symmetry2 it is the dance and histrionism of the spirit or mind4 #b4 ,muscular ,organs4 #bcih4 ,the muscles are everywhere attached to the bones1 and help to form with them the same set of organs4 #bcii4 ,the muscles of the larynx are therefore the antetypes of the costal muscles1 these of the member-muscles1 and the dorsal muscles of the scapular and pelvic muscles4 #bdjj4 ,the muscles of the limbs are found in a state of treble repetition4 ,that the muscles of the arm and leg are of one kind1 admits of being demonstrated with tolerable facility4 ,but it is necessary1 that in doing this regard be paid to the ligaments4 #bdja4 ,the ligaments are only stunted muscles4 ,without bringing them into account1 the muscular system does not admit of being explained and understood4 #bdjb4 ,the crural muscles are again found in the lower jaw4 #bdjc4 ,the brachial muscles1 on the upper jaw or face4 #bdjd4 ,the movements of the facial muscles correspond to those of the limb-muscles4 ,upon this depends the interpretation of dumb-show1 or the art of physiognomy4 #c4 ,nervous ,organs4 #bdje4 ,nervous organs are liberations of individual parts of the nervous system1 and their endowment with a peculiar function or sensation4 #bdjf4 ,the liberations of the nerves are combinations with the other anatomical systems at the spot where they have attained their highest evolution4 #bdjg4 ,each system1 however1 has its peculiar process4 ,through the reception or adoption of the systems into the nervous system1 a peculiar sensation must therefore originate4 #bdjh4 ,peculiar sensations are sensations of sense4 #bdji4 ,the combinations of the anatomical systems with the nervous system1 whereby the former have been subordinated to the latter1 are consequently sensorial organs1 or organs of sense4 #bdaj4 ,in the sensorial organs the processes of the several systems attain unto sensation4 ,they are brains of the anatomical systems4 #bdaa4 ,there are as many senses as there are different anatomical systems1 and consequently senses belonging to vegetative and animal life4 #bdab4 ,the number of vegetative systems is #c2 the vascular1 intestinal1 and pulmonary system4 #bdac4 ,the most complete combination of the vascular with the nervous system is the integument--constituting the tegumentary sense1 or sense of feeling4 #bdad4 ,the most complete combination of the intestinal system with the nerves is the tongue--intestinal or gustatory sense4 #bdae4 ,the most complete combination of the lungs with the nerves is the nose--pulmonary or olfactory sense4 #bdaf4 ,among the three animal systems1 bones and muscles produce1 from their association1 only one action--the motion4 ,the most complete and perfect combination of the motor system with the nerves1 is in the ear--osseo-muscular or auditory sense4 #bdag4 ,the nervous system has become a self-substantial organ in the eye--the nervous1 or visual sense4 #bdah4 ,there are therefore only #e senses2 they are none other than repetitions of the anatomical systems in the sensation2 they are the highest developments which are possible in the lower systems1 being the blossoms or heads of such systems4 #bdai4 ,these systems are1 however1 processes of the universe taken up into the organization4 ,in its organs of sense1 the processes of the universe are thus felt or perceived4 ,the senses are world-organs1 and are therefore placed in contact with the world1 or occupy an outward position4 #bdbj4 ,the vascular system is the nutritive system4 ,in it the blood coagulates into the solid parts of the body4 ,the feeling-sense is therefore sensible of the nutrition or rigidifying process of the body4 ,now1 the ,solid of the planet is the earth4 ,the sense of feeling perceives therefore opposition--it is an earth-sense4 #bdba4 ,the function of the intestinal canal is digestion4 ,in taste1 the process of digestion is felt4 ,but digestion is a solvent1 a hydrapoietic process2 in taste the water is therefore felt--it is the water-sense4 #bdbb4 ,respiration is a process of oxydation4 ,in smell the respiratory process is felt4 ,oxydation is1 however1 an air-process--it is air-sense4 ,thus do the three vegetative senses feel the elements of the planet--are planetary senses4 #bdbc4 ,the animal systems are symbols of the ther1 of the gravity with the heat or motion1 and of the light4 #bdbd4 ,the motion is only moved matter1 and thus a combination of the muscular and osseous system4 ,the ear therefore perceives the motion of the primary matter1 or the atomic motion--it is gravity-sense1 ther-sense4 #bdbe4 ,the light is the tension-process of the ther2 to see1 is therefore in an organism to emit light or shine--light-sense4 #bdbf4 ,the signification of the senses is twofold2 they are anatomical systems which have become nerves1 and on that account also elements that have attained unto sensation4 #a4 ,sense of feeling--vascular1 tegumentary1 nutritive sense1 earth-sense4 #b4 ,gustatory sense--intestinal1 digestive sense1 water-sense4 #c4 ,olfactory sense--pulmonic1 respiratory sense1 air-sense4 #d4 ,auditory sense--osseo-muscular1 motor sense1 ther-sense4 ,matter-,sense4 #e4 ,visual sense--nervous1 tension-sense1 light-sense4 #bdbg4 ,the sensorial organs are not simply combinations of the anatomical systems with the nerves1 but also with the bones and muscles4 ,these have been entirely taken up into the signification of the animal body4 #bdbh4 ,each sense has its own nervous1 osseous1 and muscular system4 #bdbi4 ,the sense of feeling has its bones and muscles in the limbs4 #bdcj4 ,the sense of taste1 its bones in the lingual bone1 its muscles in and upon the tongue4 #bdca4 ,the sense of smell1 its bones in the nasal bones1 its muscles being frequently very much developed in the snout or proboscis4 #bdcb4 ,the sense of hearing1 its bones in the auditory ossicles1 its muscles in the auditory conch4 #bdcc4 ,the sense of sight1 its bones in a ring surrounding the sclerotic coat and in the eyelids1 its muscles in the ocular muscles4 #bdcd4 ,besides the proper sensorial nerves1 each organ of sense is provided with nerves for the motor system and for the vegetative systems1 especially those of secretion4 #bdce4 ,the integument has1 besides the nerves of the tactile papill1 vascular and motor nerves4 #bdcf4 ,the tongue is supplied with nerves of motion and digestion1 and has therefore three pairs of nerves4 #bdcg4 ,the nose receives motor and respiratory nerves from the fifth pair4 #bdch4 ,the ear has likewise three kinds of nerves2 the auditory nerves1 facial nerves1 and a branch from the fifth pair1 not to mention those that are distributed to the auditory conch4 #bdci4 ,the eye has1 in addition to its wholly special motor nerves1 a number of others1 which superintend its vegetative systems1 such as the iris and the secretions of the humours4 a4 ,,vegetative ,,senses4 #a4 ,vascular ,senses4 #bddj4 ,all senses are only conditionated by the peripheric nervous mass because they are combinations of the nervous mass with the blossoms of the inferior systems4 #bdda4 ,the most general system of the animal is the vascular system1 which is represented externally as integument4 ,the animal was in the commencement nothing but integument1 and this again naught but vascular and nervous mass1 so that the whole integument was thus an organ of sensation4 #bddb4 ,through the integument the animal becomes an individual1 or a something distinct from the aggregate of nature4 ,now as the integument is principally the organ of sensation1 so is the primary sensation that act1 by which the animal is distinguished from nature4 ,the tegumentary sense is the sense of distinction1 of limitation4 #bddc4 ,through the act of discriminating1 a something foreign or extraneous is granted us4 ,the immediate perception of what is extraneous1 is called feeling4 ,tegumentary sense is sense of feeling4 #bddd4 ,the feeling-sense is the first in the animal4 #bdde4 ,it is that which is general in the animal4 #bddf4 ,the whole animal is naught but a sense of feeling4 #bddg4 ,out of the feeling-sense all other senses must be developed1 just as all other systems are developed out of the tegumentary formation4 ,organs of ,touch4 #bddh4 ,where1 however1 the skin has attained to a higher grade of formation1 or where it has combined with higher systems1 there also will the sense of feeling be supplied by the former4 #bddi4 ,the combination of the integument with the osseous and muscular system1 and with a nervous system of its own1 takes place in the limbs4 ,since the motor members are only a liberated thorax1 so no other sense can belong to them but that of feeling1 which the thorax previously possessed4 #bdej4 ,but these sensitive organs are moved1 and therefore voluntary organs1 digits1 or former branchi4 ,moveable or voluntary organs of feeling are called tactile organs4 ,the feeling of the motor members is touch4 #bdea4 ,the highest feeling necessarily consists in touching1 because it has in that become active1 while before it was only passive4 #bdeb4 ,in the situation of the sensitive papill1 the origin of the digits from respiratory organs admits of being still recognized4 ,they are arranged in spiral lines upon the points of the fingers4 #bdec4 ,the sexual organs belong as tegumentary developments to the sense of feeling4 ,there is no special sexual sense4 #b4 ,intestinal ,sense4 #bded4 ,opposite to the general feeling or the integument1 the function of the intestine is evolved4 ,in the trunk it is simply busied with its own processes2 when it first mounts or ascends into the head1 it becomes subordinated to the nervous action4 #bdee4 ,the combination of the intestine with bones1 muscles and peculiar nerves1 is presented in the tongue4 ,this is the sensitive organ of the intestine4 #bdef4 ,the tongue is a feeling-sense in water1 just as the skin was that in the air4 ,for it is the blossom of the digestive process4 ,to the tongue therefore belongs the digestive or water-organ of the mouth1 which is constituted by the salivary glands4 #bdeg4 ,the sensation of what is fluid in its chemical relations is called taste4 ,gustation is not a peculiar process1 but obviously only the nervous commencement of the digestive process4 ,on that account also the gustatory sense still lies concealed in a cavity4 ,the whole buccal or oral cavity still belongs to the sense of taste4 #bdeh4 ,as in the sense of feeling the motor system still predominates1 so does it also in the tongue1 as being the second sense1 which has been liberated from the plant4 ,the nervous mass is in this sense not preponderant over the muscular and bony mass4 #bdei4 ,the tongue is still to be regarded as an organ of touch1 though one in which the flesh or muscle has gained a mastery over the bones1 while in the true tactile organ the bones determine the principal forms and functions4 ,the tongue is a nervous organ in the muscle1 the hand is such in the bone4 #bdfj4 ,the hyoid or lingual bone is none other than the first branchial arch1 and consists pretty nearly of the same pieces as the arm4 #bdfa4 ,compound lingual bones1 such as occur in many ,reptiles1 have originated from coalescence of several branchial arches4 #bdfb4 ,like the limbs1 so is the tongue originally a double organ4 ,in most ,reptiles it is longitudinally fissured4 ,such animals have usually also a double penis4 ,in all animals the tongue is divided into two moieties1 which are only connate by means of suture4 ,the penis also consists of two connate penes4 #bdfc4 ,as in the tegumentary sense1 the nerves could not be peculiar or special in kind1 but took their origin from all parts1 and particularly from the spinal cord1 so also is this the case with the intestinal sense1 which is still only an internal tegumentary sense4 ,the lingual nerves proceed from several situations1 and that too from the upper part of the spinal cord4 #bdfd4 ,the oral cavity also consists1 properly speaking1 of mere tactile organs1 which have been repeated in the head4 ,thus1 there are tactile organs which are subservient to the gustatory sense1 in biting1 chewing1 and swallowing4 #bdfe4 ,the lips are tactile organs upon the threshold or brink1 as it were1 of the gustatory sense4 #bdff4 ,in the oral cavity1 however1 the glands of the intestinal canal are repeated4 ,the salivary glands secrete fluid1 like the pancreatic glands4 #bdfg4 ,the sense of feeling is present in all animals4 ,they are only animals by virtue of it2 but the sense of taste appears to be first formed at a later period1 after the intestine has separated from the integument2 in the animals that have no intestine1 its existence is problematical1 and even in ,fishes and ,birds it is but poorly developed4 #c4 ,pulmonic or ,lung-sense4 #bdfh4 ,when the respiratory organ is hoisted up into the head1 and there becomes an organ of sensation1 it passes over into a sense4 #bdfi4 ,that the nose is the thorax1 together with its viscera1 repeated in the head1 has been already remarked4 ,the many convolutions of the turbinated or olfactory bones correspond to the ramifications of the trachea2 the nasal cartilages to the tracheal or laryngeal rings2 the olfactory membrane to the pulmonic vesicles4 #bdgj4 ,the process of the lungs repeated in the head becomes smell1 like that of the intestine became taste4 ,the olfactory sense is the highest blossom of the arteriose vascular system or the branchial net4 ,on this account the olfactory membrane is the most delicate1 and the densest tissue of arteries and veins4 #bdga4 ,the nose is related to the mouth1 as the thoracic is to the abdominal cavity2 the olfactory membrane to the tongue1 as the lung is to the stomach4 ,it is a cephalo-thorax4 ,the nose is not therefore so completely closed as the mouth1 but is opened through the two most anterior air-holes or spiracula4 ,the nasal apertures or nostrils are the last persistent remnants of the spiracula1 after all those upon the sides of the body have been closed up4 #bdgb4 ,it is the last organ of sense1 which has been evolved from the trunk4 ,it is therefore nobler than the two others1 and has also a nobler object1 the air4 #bdgc4 ,the nerves of the olfactory organ are peculiar to it1 and are encephalic nerves4 ,as the sense of smell is the pulmonic or arteriose sense2 so also does the arteriose substance of the brain combine with this organ4 ,the olfactory nerves consist of cineritious or gray substance1 and are only prolongations thereof4 #bdgd4 ,this is the only phenomenon of the kind met with among all nerves1 but it is commensurate with the character or signification of this organ4 ,a sensible pulmonary organ can only have arteriose nerves4 ,as the liver is throughout venous1 so is the nose throughout arteriose in quality4 b4 ,,animal ,,senses4 #bdge4 ,it now only remains for us to consider the motor and the sensitive system proper upon their highest stage of development4 ,the motor system1 when represented in the nervous system1 is a peculiar organ of sensation1 as is likewise the nervous system itself upon attaining its highest state of development4 #d4 ,osseo-,muscular ,sense4 #bdgf4 ,the lowest condition of the motor system is the limbs1 which represent no peculiar sense1 but only the sense of feeling refined or set in motion4 ,this motor system ascends into the head1 and there no longer exercises its motive powers in prehension1 progression1 c41 but solely unto sensation4 ,now1 a system1 which converts its function into that of sensation1 is a sense4 #bdgg4 ,the sensorial organ1 which simply through motion1 or a resistance presented to that of the atoms1 produces sensation1 or wherein the motion as such is felt1 is the ,ear4 #bdgh4 ,the ear is none other than the ultimate development of the bone and muscle1 when they are brought under the direct dominion of the nerves4 #bdgi4 ,the auditory ossicles are the limbs subtilized or refined in character4 ,they have joints1 are provided with muscles1 and move exactly like the limbs4 ,it may be said2 that the stapes is the scapula1 the incus the humerus1 the malleus the fore arm1 and the concha with its cartilages1 the hand with its digits4 #bdhj4 ,the ear1 like the bulk of the limbs1 has originated from branchi4 ,in ,fishes1 the auditory ossicles have degenerated into the branchial opercula4 #bdha4 ,the ear-trumpet 7or ,eustachian tube71 which opens into the mouth1 is the internal branchial aperture4 #bdhb4 ,the motor system1 however1 belongs to the trunk1 whose viscera are repeated also in the ear1 or in a cavity which has been called its labyrinth4 ,the three semicircular canals appear to correspond to the intestine1 the cochlea to the trachea4 #bdhc4 ,the ear has not only a nerve1 but likewise a brain1 of its own4 #bdhd4 ,the cerebellum is the auditory brain1 and from it the acoustic nerves take their rise4 ,for1 since the ear is the sense of the whole motor system1 and consequently of half the animal1 it inevitably follows1 that an appropriate or special nervous mass must be developed for it1 just as the myelon or spinal chord has been for the trunk4 ,an organ1 which is so constantly active1 must necessarily have a large nervous mass4 ,the cerebellum is consequently not a brain in the general sense1 but one which is wholly individualized4 ,it participates in the motion1 which1 as sound1 is transmitted to the animal4 #bdhe4 ,by its signification as well as by its own brain1 the ear gives us to recognize its elevated rank above the other senses4 #bdhf4 ,the ear must stand in relation with the body's limbs4 #bdhg4 ,the ears first make their appearance in animals1 associated with a tolerable development of the limbs4 ,with the exception of a few instances1 the ears first become apparent in ,fishes1 being in them at least furnished for the first time with true ossicles and semicircular canals4 ,the ear1 like the limbs1 with which it constantly maintains a parallel course1 is very slowly perfected4 ,in the ,fishes which have only fins 7as instruments of locomotion7 it is wholly concealed within the cranial bones2 in the ,reptiles it emerges or is more exposed to view2 but for the first time in ,birds and ,mammalia where1 generally speaking1 the limbs also are first perfected1 it attains its completion2 in them only is the cochlea fully developed1 and an auditory meatus which opens externally4 #e4 ,nervous ,sense4 #bdhh4 ,in all lower organs1 and even in the senses which have hitherto been commented upon1 the nervous system was not the chief1 but only the co-ordinate agent4 ,it has only by its conjunction with1 assisted in elevating the character of1 other systems1 so that their material might be converted into spiritual processes4 ,but the nervous is also a self-substantial system1 and must therefore attain likewise a free development4 #bdhi4 ,with the highest organs of the nervous system1 the relation which has been hitherto maintained1 must be reversed4 ,the inferior systems will now be the co-ordinate agents4 #bdij4 ,the highest nervous organ can only possess that function1 which is originally peculiar to the nervous system1 i4 e4 the most delicate polarization1 the light-function4 ,there is the ,light-sense4 #bdia4 ,the eye is nothing but a nervous system represented in a state of purest organization1 just as the ear was the purest system of motion4 #bdib4 ,in the eye it is the brain itself1 which expands1 in order to turn unto or face the light4 #bdic4 ,as the ear has its own brain1 so also has the eye2 the cerebrum is the optic brain4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaa4 4 #bcag47 ,this is the rationale of our having two brains4 #bdid4 ,now the cortical or gray substance has been already diverted from the cerebrum to supply the olfactory sense4 ,its medullary or white substance remains for the eye4 ,the medullary brain is the optic brain4 ,the medullary is consequently the nobler part of the nervous system4 #bdie4 ,the brain's medulla is homologous to the light2 its exterior or cortical portion is related to the material light1 the air4 #bdif4 ,the eye is only a medullary brain1 posited peripherically and in a nervous manner4 ,the brain itself has elongated and become integument4 #bdig4 ,the visual membrane 7or retina7 is the cerebral substance cystically expanded4 ,it must be regarded as being originally a closed bladder or cyst4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaa4 4 #bcba47 #bdih4 ,the optic nerve is itself hollow1 and unites the cerebral with the orbitar cavity4 #bdii4 ,the vitreous body1 which fills out the cyst of the retina1 is the cerebral medulla which has become transparent1 or a semi-fluid albuminous mass4 #bejj4 ,the sclerotic coat of the eye is the continuation of the brain's dura mater4 #beja4 ,the vascular or choroid coat of the eye is the continuation of the encephalic pia mater4 ,all parts of the brain have been consequently continued into the eye4 #bejb4 ,now1 what the brain is for the earthly body1 that also must it be for the eye4 ,the eye is not simply brain1 but a representation also of the whole body4 ,the brain can1 forsooth1 be nowhere without its body2 if therefore it is elevated into the eye1 so also must it take up and elevate the body along with itself4 #bejc4 ,the eye is an entire body1 a whole animal4 ,again1 in the next place1 the animal systems1 such as limbs1 thorax and abdomen1 have been most distinctly represented in it4 ,the light is seized1 respired1 digested1 and hence felt by the eye4 #bejd4 ,as the light represents chaotically the whole of nature1 but this material nature enters completely into the animal through the processes of the trunk1 so does the light enter it through the eye4 ,the eye is the chaotic representation of all material processes of a body4 #beje4 ,the limbs or members of the eye are repeated in the ocular muscles and the sclerotic or bony ring2 in many ,fishes the eye stands upon a flexible pedicle1 as in the ,crabs4 ,the ocular muscles move the eye in different directions like a hand4 #bejf4 ,the sclerotic corresponds to the corium1 the cornea to the digital unguis1 or finger-nail4 #bejg4 ,the choroid or vascular coat1 is the respiratory system or lung in the eye4 ,the iris corresponds to the larynx1 the pupil to the glottis2 its expansion and contraction is a respiratory movement4 #bejh4 ,the choroid coat incloses also an osseous mass1 the lens--a vertebral body4 ,the morbid states of the lens are osseous diseases1 such as gout4 #beji4 ,in the chambers of the eye1 water1 as being a product of digestion1 is constantly secreted4 #beaj4 ,the orbitar cavity is a mouth with salivary glands--giving vent to tears4 #beaa4 ,the lachrymal canal is a branchial duct1 which opens into the nose1 like the ,eustachian tubes did from the ear into the mouth4 #beab4 ,the eyelids consequently correspond to the lips1 and are in like manner fringed with hairs4 #beac4 ,as the body has everywhere two halves1 and laterally also presents two entire organisms1 so also is the formation of the nervous system a double one4 ,each eye is an entire body4 #bead4 ,in the two eyes the halves of the body have completely separated as entire bodies1 and each has attained self-substantiality4 ,each eye is a free animal in the animal body4 ,each eye is therefore circumscribed by its own integument--is a free animal4 ,it is endowed1 like the hand1 with omnilateral motion2 it has cavities1 i4 e4 its bodily cavities and humours1 or inclosed masses--viscera4 #beae4 ,an organ1 which again repeats in its miniature the whole animal itself1 of which it is only a part1 must necessarily be the highest point unto which an organism can attain4 ,with the eye the organization1 and consequently nature1 has been concluded4 #beaf4 ,the eye is a parasitic animal1 of the same kind with the animal upon which it exists4 #beag4 ,in a certain sense all sensorial organs are parasitic animals in the animal2 only they are not all of the same kind with it4 ,no one of the other senses has e4 g4 repeated all lower systems in itself1 and it is therefore to be regarded only as a subordinate or half-animal1 which lives upon that which is more perfect4 ,senses of the ,sexual ,animal4 #beah4 ,in essaying to speak concerning the sensorial organs of the sexual animal1 we shall only encounter in the latter the emotions of the vegetative senses1 and these indeed disposed according to their rank4 #beai4 ,the sense of feeling is most perfectly developed in the legs1 whereof the pelvis represents the scapula4 #bebj4 ,the external sexual parts are the analogues of the gustatory sense2 the female parts being indeed those of the mouth2 the male1 which are frequently furnished with bone1 of the tongue4 ,the jaws are not repeated in a sexual animal1 except in ,insects1 namely1 as the pharyngeal maxill4 #beba4 ,the analogue of the nose is wholly stunted1 and is only left persistent as a trachea or air-tube in the urethra4 #bebb4 ,in other respects the cavity of the sexual parts is a trunk-cavity per se1 like the thoracic and abdominal2 the pelvic cavity contains the viscera of a whole animal4 ,,ii4-,,physiology4 #bebc4 ,physiology is the doctrine or science which treats of the functions of the animal4 ,like the organology was1 so also must the science of the functions be developed4 ,there will be functions of the whole animal1 and of the tissues1 systems and organs4 ,a4 ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,in ,,general4 #bebd4 ,the first act of the animal is an assimilation to the universe1 whereby it also receives or takes up into itself the primary function of the universe4 ,this is the perception of the circumscription and totality in itself1 its self-manifestation1 the feeling of self4 ,the first action of the animal mass is that of self-sensation4 ,now1 through the self-sensation1 self-substantiality has been granted4 #bebe4 ,the animal is consequently a ,whole in ,singulars only through the feeling of self4 #bebf4 ,as the universe is only an analysis of the self-consciousness of ,god2 so also can the development of the animal and the formation of its organs1 be none other than an analysis of the self-sensation4 ,all other functions 7just as all masses are only a metamorphosed nervous mass7 are but differently polarized self-sensations1 or these as it were dispersed4 #bebg4 ,the self-sensation of an individual body is not1 however1 inclosed within itself1 like the primary relation of the universe2 because it is not the universe1 but only a fraction of it1 which has sprouted forth like a bud from the great planetary body4 ,the self-sensation is not therefore a simple feeling of self1 but a feeling also of something foreign or extraneous1 and thus the animal self-sensation becomes1 in reference to ,nature1 an act of discrimination or discernment4 #bebh4 ,now1 the animal is distinguished only from ,nature by the act of being liberated from it4 ,it is therefore comprehended in a constant liberation or severance4 ,the life of the animal continues only by a constantly renewed and indefatigable severance1 by a desertion or falling off from ,nature4 #bebi4 ,in so doing1 however1 it detaches itself from ,nature1 as being a part thereof2 the severance is therefore a conversion of the nature into an animal4 ,in this consists the reciprocal action of both1 viz4 that the animal is constantly seeking to assimilate the nature unto itself4 #becj4 ,the ability or power to assimilate the nature1 is called excitability4 #beca4 ,excitability is the most general phenomenon of the organic mass1 and appertains both to plants and animals4 #becb4 ,but in the animal excitability1 the free self-sensation1 within which a free motion is necessarily inherent1 is superadded or originates4 ,this excitability unto motion ,i call irritability4 #becc4 ,thus this irritability belongs only to animals4 #becd4 ,irritability does not depend directly upon motion1 but throughout upon sensation4 ,without sensation no irritability is possible4 ,if the sensation ceases1 so also does mobility1 or the capacity for motion1 cease4 #bece4 ,since irritability originates from the antagonism of the animal with the world2 so is it parallel to an antagonism of the heavenly bodies1 or to that of sun and planets4 ,the mutual operation of these two heavenly bodies is1 however1 an interchange of polarity1 a polar excitation4 ,the irritability is a polar process2 but one which is pure and devoid of material excretions1 just as the sun excites the earth without eliciting therein any material change or transition4 ,the animal becomes polarized by the incentive agent or stimulus4 #becf4 ,through the irritability there originates a double polarity in the animal4 ,in the first place one between the world and the animal2 in the second1 one between the exterior of the animal and its interior4 ,the world-polarity gives the feeling or sensation1 the body's polarity the motion4 #becg4 ,in the sensation the animal always transcends itself2 there is thus only excitability4 ,in the motion the animal abides or remains within itself2 but the self-sensation proceeds from both conditions4 ,accordingly1 in self-sensation the world1 and the animal within the animal1 convene or come together4 ,the animal is itself universe1 and it at the same time comprehends the great universe4 ,now1 in both conditions or in both functions has the animal been turned towards the world and also towards itself4 ,in feeling it turns itself towards the world1 in order to adopt this spiritually into1 or repel this from1 itself2 in motion it turns itself towards the world1 in order to materially adopt or to repel it4 ,in both cases of assumption it turns itself towards itself4 #bech4 ,both these properties belong to the animal body2 if individual organs are deficient in them1 it happens therefore1 from their having superadded or adduced other properties1 which are predominant1 to the original ones4 ,this is the essence of what is animal in a living body4 ,thus1 if from an animal all the vegetable systems could be subtracted1 it would do nothing but feel and move4 ,b4 ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,in ,,singulars4 ,i4 ,functions of the ,tissues4 a4 ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,tissues4 #a4 ,functions of the ,point-,tissue4 #beci4 ,the point-tissue is also spiritually represented1 and this spiritual manifestation or expression is the stamp or impress of the arrangement of the matter into points4 #bedj4 ,the point-matter is the matter of sensation2 the sensation is1 however1 imparted by polarization4 ,the act of feeling is a conduction of the polarity from point to point2 this is the light-polarity4 ,this light-like polarity transmitted from point to point is sensibility4 #beda4 ,the sensibility is not the result of a peculiar nervous fluid1 or even of mechanical vibration1 c41 of the nerves2 but of an antagonism between animal and world1 brain and tegument1 sun and planet4 #bedb4 ,the point-tissue is in every respect the ther which has become the mucus1 and has in every respect also to act in accordance thereunto4 #bedc4 ,the sensibility or the nervous power1 viewed in relation to the smallness of the body1 operates instantaneously upon every spot4 ,it is not first conducted or tardily conveyed hither and thither2 but everywhere1 where an antagonism1 a stimulus1 a planet is1 there also is the vis nervosa4 ,where a planet is1 there also is the solar tension4 #bedd4 ,but abstractedly or ideally considered1 the nervous force certainly requires a time to elapse for the propagation of the stimulus1 just as the light-tension darts through the ther only in a given time4 ,as light traverses at the rate of #dj1jjj miles per second1 so must the nervous power1 if it obey similar laws to those of its prototype1 and the length of a man be estimated at #a-ejjjth of a mile1 glide through the human body in #a-bjj1jjj1jjjth of a second1 which1 quoad the phenomenon1 cannot1 of course1 be observed4 #bede4 ,accordingly1 it is theoretically certain that the nervous power does not operate with absolute or unconditional velocity4 ,to the validity of this statement1 observations of many kinds1 especially those made in diseases1 and by astronomical computations of the strokes of the chronometer1 afford additional evidence4 #bedf4 ,thus1 for a stimulus impinging upon the brain1 to act or be transmitted from thence into the toes1 there elapses #a-bjj1jjj1jjjth of a second4 ,in the event of disease1 a retardation in the process is conceivable1 and may admit even of being observed4 #b4 ,function of the ,globe-tissue4 #bedg4 ,the dense or solid form is the matter1 when it has died away2 the function also1 or the crystallization1 died therein1 so soon as the crystal was represented4 ,the office of the bones is only to preserve the counterpoise to the nerve1 to supply a limit1 and therefore a support to its action1 by which means the achievement of the latter first becomes possible4 #bedh4 ,the business of the bone1 is to play an antithetic part to the nerve1 and nothing else1 or to serve the latter as a terra firma1 upon which it may execute its plans4 ,the bone suffers1 and in this consists its office4 ,the other offices of the bone1 such as its being the firm and solid framework of the body1 its protecting the nervous mass1 c41 are subordinate matters1 which are at once clearly understood4 #c4 ,function of the ,fibrous-tissue4 #bedi4 ,there is the active motion4 ,the primary motion is1 however1 a result of the polar tension induced in the ther by the light4 ,just as the heat has been produced in the ther by the light-polarity1 so has been the animal motion in the fibres by the polarity of the nerves4 #beej4 ,every fibre1 when it is in motion1 has necessarily two polar extremities4 ,for the fibre stands between the artery which is oxygenous1 and the nerve which is basic1 or between a zinc and silver pole4 #beea4 ,in the conditions of rest the two poles must be neutralized1 or1 generally speaking1 not in existence4 ,this is only possible by disjunction of the galvanic circuit or chain4 #beeb4 ,since the artery is constantly operating upon the fibre1 but the nerve only1 when it has been stimulated2 so must this change in the condition of the fibre reside in the change of the nervous influence4 #beec4 ,in unirritated conditions the nerve does not act upon the fibre2 the latter is not illuminated1 nor does it stand in a state of tension with the nerve1 which is not in itself polar1 but is only1 when stimulated1 a sun towards the fibre1 or polar within itself4 ,if the chain be then dissevered1 the fibre is in a state of indifference4 #beed4 ,thus1 in the event of tension1 the nervous extremity of the fibre becomes negative1 the arterial extremity positive2 both ends necessarily attract each other in order to discharge or unload themselves4 ,this attraction is an abbreviation or contraction4 #beee4 ,after the discharge the fibrous extremities are homonymous2 they repel each other1 and relaxation or extension ensues4 #beef4 ,the motion of the fibres is consequently a perfectly galvanic process1 devoid of material interference1 between nerve1 fibre1 and blood4 ,the nerve is silver1 the artery zinc1 and the fibre moist card4 ,all theories of motion based upon swelling of blood1 elementary change1 and such like causes1 are not animal1 though organic in character2 the former are injections1 the latter chemical processes4 #beeg4 ,through the fibrous tissue being shortened and elongated1 the entire animal is self-displaced4 #beeh4 ,through the fibrous tissue the animal appears as animal1 through the point-tissue it is 7and that in essence7 an animal4 ,god is in himself1 but he first appears in the world4 ,this elucidates or explains the relation of noumenon and phenomenon4 #d4 ,function of the ,cellular ,tissue4 #beei4 ,this tissue has no other function than that in the plant4 ,many saps or juices are effused into the cells4 ,the latter are engaged in constant expansion and contraction1 whereby they decompose and propel these juices4 ,they are the proper seat of the nutritive process1 since they coincide with the capillary vessels4 #befj4 ,but as every rigidification is combined with volatilization1 so does a process of evaporation occur in them at the same time4 #befa4 ,this process is the property of the teguments or membranes1 both of those lining the internal cavities1 as also of such as are placed externally4 #befb4 ,but the process of evaporation is principally the function of the true skin or corium4 ,as an organ of evaporation the corium is similar to the lung4 ,it is consequently aeriform water1 which of necessity constitutes the principal mass of evaporation4 #befc4 ,the water is1 however1 mucous in character1 the mucus becomes oxydized in the air1 and through this also carbonic acid is formed4 ,heat4 #befd4 ,the chief function of the cell-formation is the process of heat4 ,the cell-process and heat-process are one in kind4 ,heat is the product of the process of condensation and rarefaction1 and thus of the nutrition and evaporation1 both of which happen in the cells1 or1 if we please1 in the capillary vessels4 #befe4 ,in the skin the process of temperature is individualized4 #beff4 ,all temperature depends upon the process of condensation and rarefaction4 ,at one time it is the nerves1 at another the vessels1 anon1 external influences1 which alter or modify it4 ,animal heat1 like the cosmic heat1 has been produced by change of the fixation4 ,this change1 however1 takes place principally in the nutrition and evaporation4 #befg4 ,the fat is the residuum or the antagonism of the process of evaporation or water-formation4 ,it is therefore deposited everywhere on the water-organs1 beneath the integument1 along the intestine and the vessels1 around the kidneys1 and so on4 #befh4 ,it is1 like the adipocire1 a product of the aqueous decomposition4 ,on this account it is subservient to the process of temperature4 ,it is the only isolator of heat1 while all other animal bodies are conductors4 ,,ii4 ,functions of the ,systems4 #befi4 ,the functions do not concern the whole body1 but only its principal parts4 a4 ,,vegetable ,,functions4 #begj4 ,the vegetative functions are matter-changing processes1 which1 consequently1 correspond directly to the chemical processes1 or are rather of one kind with these1 but altered by organic elemental bodies4 #a4 ,functions of the ,intestinal ,system4 #bega4 ,the general function of the integument consists in the secretion of juices1 of which there are principally two kinds1 the general and special4 #begb4 ,the general intestinal juice is mucus2 it acts by rarefying4 #begc4 ,the gastric juice is of an aqueous1 mucous1 and acid nature4 ,it acts as an acid and is endowed with chemically solvent properties4 #begd4 ,the bile is of a basic1 inflammable1 alkaline nature4 ,it acts also chemically by analysing and precipitating4 #bege4 ,the saliva is the gastric juice of the head4 ,it is a juice secreted under the influence of the sensibility1 and is on that account indifferencing1 and nullifying in its effects2 it is the highest poison4 #begf4 ,as the indifferent saliva precedes the gastric juice1 so does the indifferent pancreatic fluid the bile4 #begg4 ,the proper function of the intestinal system is the digestion with all its divisions4 ,there is an animal and a vegetative1 or oral and abdominal digestion4 a4 ,oral ,digestion4 #begh4 ,oral digestion is a mortifying or putting to death of the food4 #begi4 ,since what is organic only serves as aliment for the animal1 but nothing can be assimilated to the latter1 without its having been previously reduced to the original condition of ,infusoria1 so also must the first act of the digestive process depend upon this1 or converting the organic into primary organic bodies4 #behj4 ,this reduction to the primary condition is a putting to death of the organic individual4 ,organisms only which have been killed1 can be converted into infusorial matter1 and are then nutriment for the animal4 ,the first act of digestion is consequently an act of putting to death4 #beha4 ,the act of killing consists of two moments1 the mechanical and dynamical1 or in lacerating and poisoning4 ,laceration4 #behb4 ,the mechanical act of putting to death commences with the search after nutriment1 and thus with the movement of the feet2 to this succeeds the prehension1 or seizure with the claws or hands4 #behc4 ,this motion of the limbs is then repeated in the cephalic members1 or the jaws4 #behd4 ,the seizure of the food with the cephalic arms or jaws1 is the infliction of a wound commensurate with the position and form of the teeth4 ,the teeth are digits of the cephalic limbs1 or being devoid of any fleshy layer1 claws4 ,a gripe with such digits is in itself the infliction of a wound4 ,for1 in order that the food be grasped with only sufficient firmness to admit of its being drawn into the mouth1 the sharp digital points of the mouth1 i4 e4 the teeth1 must make an incision therein4 #behe4 ,to seize1 bite1 wound1 and kill1 is in an animal one and the same act4 ,for1 so soon as the food or prey is seized1 and consequently wounded1 it is drawn deeper into the mouth1 and therefore a new grasp and bite is essayed4 #behf4 ,upon this the food is twirled about in the mouth by the muscles1 or is chewed1 whereby the parts are separated into mechanical atoms4 ,poisoning4 #behg4 ,mechanical atoms are1 however1 not yet dead1 because the vital polarity is not extinguished4 ,it is requisite for a dynamic act1 which suppresses all galvanism1 to operate upon them4 #behh4 ,as this act of killing has directly for its object the death of the ,organic and that alone1 so is it a venenation or process of poisoning4 ,to poison is not merely a chemical act1 but one having for its immediate purpose1 to separate the connexion of the organic atoms4 #behi4 ,the first act performed by the animal is that of poisoning4 #beij4 ,poisoning1 as being a direct aggression upon and destruction of life1 is a destruction of the galvanic process4 ,now1 the galvanic process is destroyed by suppression1 destruction1 and separation of its poles4 ,the demolition of poles is a polar equilibration4 ,poisoning is equilibration of poles on the galvanic organism1 or their neutralization4 #beia4 ,the primary change of poles is1 however1 in the blood4 ,poisoning is a balancing of the blood-poles4 #beib4 ,indifferent blood is no longer blood1 but chyle or infusorial primary mass4 #beic4 ,the nutritive fluid or chyle is poisoned organic substance4 ,there is no aliment except what is wrought by poison4 #beid4 ,the poisoning of the aliments must take place through the medium of their blood1 or their sap4 ,if poison therefore does not get into the blood1 the death does not ensue4 ,the digestive juice is poison only for the blood1 but not for the other systems4 #beie4 ,chemical bodies which induce death1 act by destruction of the bodies themselves1 not merely by their neutralization or excessive polarization4 ,they do not operate very differently from iron when in a state of red heat4 ,such is the case with sulphuric acid1 nitric acid1 alkalies and arsenic4 #beif4 ,now1 if these bodies be called poisons1 there are thus three kinds of poisons1 mineral or chemical1 vegetable and animal poisons4 #beig4 ,the chemical poisons destroy the mass2 they convert the ,organic into minerals4 #beih4 ,vegetable poisons reduce the animal to the plant2 they do not effect the destruction of the mass in a general sense1 but only that which is purely animal1 or the nervous system--they are nervous poisons4 #beii4 ,the animal poisons destroy what is vegetable in the animal1 or the galvanic process--are blood-poisons4 #bfjj4 ,the saliva is the digestive poison4 #bfja4 ,the saliva is not present1 in order to macerate1 and so prepare the dry aliments for digestion1 but to poison them4 ,everything else is only a subordinate operation4 ,now1 the process of poisoning takes place only in the blood4 ,the saliva does not act without inflicting a wound4 #bfjb4 ,strictly regarded1 all saliva is poison4 ,there are examples of the saliva of birds1 and even of men when inflamed with passion1 having acted as poison4 #bfjc4 ,all other animal poisons1 contagious principles or miasmata1 are analogous to the saliva1 being partial saliv1 partial poisons4 ,diseases of the skin produce tegumentary poisons or saliv2 glandular diseases1 glandular poisons2 nervous diseases1 nervous poisons2 diseases of the lungs1 pulmonary poisons4 ,the saliva is the blood-poison2 the hydrocyanic acid1 the nervous poison4 #bfjd4 ,during mastication saliva imbues every atom of the food1 whereby the mass is throughout neutralized1 or annulled4 ,docimasy or ,testing4 #bfje4 ,the oral digestion or that of the mouth cannot1 however1 occur by itself1 without its being a nervous process also4 ,the intestinal function taken up into the nervous system is the taste4 #bfjf4 ,taste is the chemism resident in the head1 the digestion in the nerves4 ,taste therefore happens according to the theory of the digestion or the chemism4 #bfjg4 ,the lowest element of the chemism is the water1 the highest repetition whereof in the earth is--the salt4 ,the former is therefore the object of abdominal digestion1 the latter of nervous digestion4 ,to taste is to digest salt4 ,in order to taste the salt1 every part of the food must be brought in contact with the tongue2 this is only possible through comminution of the aliment by means of the teeth4 ,the mastication dissolves the aliments mechanically into atoms1 just as digestion will resolve them chemically into infusoria4 #bfjh4 ,that which should be digestible1 must have a saline character1 must be soluble4 ,the tongue is accordingly the test-organ of the digestive process4 ,deglutition4 #bfji4 ,at first the tongue tastes only with its apex or tip2 but after the salts which operate upon the tip are neutralized and examined1 the tongue will also taste with its root1 the two extremities of the tongue and their gustatory sensations being thus mutually opposed4 ,it therefore takes the morsel upon the root and presses it against the palate1 whereby the pharyngeal muscles clasp and swallow it4 #bfaj4 ,in deglutition the object of the tongue is not to give over or surrender the morsel to the pharynx1 but to enjoy it per se4 ,during this fruition1 however1 it is robbed of it4 ,deglutition is therefore a result of an undesigned mechanical contrivance4 ,each organ works for the other1 while fancying that it works for itself1 which again it actually does1 while it reaps the enjoyment so derived4 ,has the tongue finished tasting the food1 then the pharynx obtains it involuntarily4 #bfaa4 ,to the saliva1 and thus to a morsel1 the acidulous gastric juice is polarwise related2 both therefore seek to unite1 and with this their organs also1 namely1 pharynx and stomach4 ,the stomach obtains the preponderance1 because it is acidulous2 the pharynx moves towards it and with it also the morsel4 ,rumination4 #bfab4 ,if the food1 when received into the stomach1 continue acid by virtue of its nature1 or from not having been properly chewed and imbued with saliva and so neutralized1 it is then homonymous with the gastric juice4 ,the stomach therefore seeks to neutralize it1 by restoring it again to the action of the saliva4 #bfac4 ,acid aliments cause vomiting4 ,grass which has not been masticated1 and therefore enters acid or non-killed1 and susceptible of fermentation1 into the stomach1 is regularly brought back into the mouth1 and to the saliva1 i4 e4 is ruminated or rechewed4 #bfad4 ,rumination is a regular act of vomiting1 which has originated from the antagonism of the saliva and gastric juice and from the acid nature of the morsel4 b4 ,intestinal ,digestion4 #bfae4 ,the intestinal digestion is the perfect chemical process taken up along with all its moments into the animal4 ,gastric ,digestion4 #bfaf4 ,the stomach exercises by means of the spleen the oxydizing process of the intestine1 the solvent function1 and thus the action of the water4 ,the gastric juice is related to the food1 like water is to earth4 ,the gastric digestion is liquefaction1 unto which oxydation makes the preliminary step4 #bfag4 ,through the process of liquefaction1 the poles are only potentially augmented1 but are not dissevered1 nor new substances formed4 ,the gastric digestion creates no new bodies1 but only mixes the old in the most homogeneous and intimate manner with each other4 #bfah4 ,the gastric digestion is an animal process of fermentation4 ,in deranged states of the stomach there is therefore a propensity to acid eructation1 development of carbonic acid1 and even formation of sugar4 #bfai4 ,this digestion consequently reduces the 7animal7 food to the signification of the plant4 ,gastric digestion is a process of vegetable germination4 ,the salivary process is a reduction to the animal death1 digestion a reduction of this dead something itself to a lower kingdom4 #bfbj4 ,the gastric juice alone1 like an acid1 effects the solution of the aliment2 with this1 the movement of the gastric walls1 which only tends to produce an easier mixture of the alimentary particles1 having nothing to do4 ,hunger4 #bfba4 ,through the digestive process the gastric juice is consumed by the food1 and the stomach deoxydized4 ,if there is a deficiency of dephlegmatizing and deoxydizing aliments1 then the peroxydation of the stomach must produce a feeling--called appetite4 ,if this be not appeased1 the oxygenic tension in the stomach is elevated or increased1 and then begins to become unpleasant2 this is ,hunger4 #bfbb4 ,here the feeling of the stomach's peroxydation is an obstructed process of fermentation1 dependent upon want of food and alkaline principles4 ,thirst4 #bfbc4 ,the feeling of the reverse condition to the above is ,thirst4 ,it originates through a too rapid deoxydation of the stomach1 through deglutition of the gastric juice on account of an excess of food4 ,but it may also originate from a deficiency of gastric juice1 or from an alkaline tendency in the latter2 just as hunger resulted from a superabundance of gastric juice1 or a disposition to form acids4 #bfbd4 ,thirst is the feeling of too powerful a digestion1 or of too rapid fermentation1 whereby the product or leaven of the latter becomes1 as it were1 bankrupt2 upon this the blood flows in greater quantity1 in order to secrete the gastric juice2 the arterial nature becomes elevated1 and finally1 an inflammatory condition1 associated with a sense of dryness1 originates1 and is propagated as far as the mouth4 #bfbe4 ,thirst and heat rank1 like hunger and cold1 parallel to each other4 ,the feeling of dryness appears as heat1 that of moisture1 as cold4 ,cold therefore at once extinguishes or quenches the thirst2 but produces hunger1 which again is mitigated by heat4 ,biliary ,digestion4 #bfbf4 ,the stomach is the pulmonic intestine2 the duodenum1 through its combination with the liver1 is the vascular intestine1 having a predominant venous character2 or the one is the arteriose1 the other the venous stomach4 #bfbg4 ,the gastric digestion has reduced the food to the state of a vegetable2 but this does not yet suffice for it to become a nutritive matter1 namely1 a new organism4 ,as the primary organism originates1 so also must the body originate in the process of nutrition1 and thus from the element of the ,organic4 ,now1 this primitive matter or element is the mucus1 the infusorium4 ,there is still therefore a process necessary to redissolve the vegetable and convert it into protoplasma or primary mucus4 #bfbh4 ,this1 however1 occurs only through the process of putrefaction being wrought in the food4 ,this process is not simple solution1 but decomposition1 or separation of the constituent parts4 ,the acid vegetable parts1 which had been active through the process of fermentation1 must be therefore decomposed1 and in such wise1 indeed1 that what is mucous shall be separated from them4 #bfbi4 ,this separation or analysis takes place by means of the ,bile1 which combines with the acid of the chyme4 #bfcj4 ,the biliary digestion is an alkalizing or saponaceous process4 ,through it the chyme becomes separated into nutritive juice or chyle1 and into excrement4 #bfca4 ,the excrement is what is vegetable1 or the product of fermentation combined with the bile4 ,the chyle is what is infusorial1 or the product of decomposition4 ,nutrition therefore begins anew4 ,its process is a generatio originaria4 #bfcb4 ,in digestion the processes of both organic kingdoms1 namely1 the fermentative and putrefactive1 are repeated4 ,absorption4 ,in the intestine1 not merely lung and vascular system1 have been represented1 but also the integument or organ of absorption4 #bfcc4 ,after the animal food has been reduced to the vegetable1 and this again to the infusorial state1 it can be taken up by the body4 ,it now becomes absorbed in the small intestine4 ,the small intestine is the tegumentary system1 or the root-bark4 #bfcd4 ,the chyliferous or lacteal vessels stand in antagonism with the lung1 or the skin as being the original respiratory organ4 ,it is only1 therefore1 the infusorial chyle that has been absorbed1 not the excrement1 because between the latter1 as the product of oxydation1 and the lacteal vessels1 repulsion takes place4 ,the chyle1 having been absorbed1 enters into the thoracic duct1 and from thence into the lungs4 ,evacuation4 #bfce4 ,through the absorption of what is fluid1 that which is excrementitious becomes more solid1 and is thus given over or transferred into the vegetable1 sexual1 or large intestine4 #bfcf4 ,the excrement is now found in another1 i4 e4 in a lower1 or vegetable animal4 ,it therefore obtains the direction of all sexual secretions2 it is thrown out or ejected1 and in a reverse direction1 because the anus is the sexual mouth4 #bfcg4 ,digestion is thus through all predicaments1 from its incipient dealings with the highest life unto the plant1 and from this to the mucous globule1 a thorough process of putting to death4 #bfch4 ,the nutritive will be through all predicaments1 from the infusorium to the plant and to the animal1 a thoroughly vivifying or life-inspiring process4 ,digestion is descension1 nutrition is ascension4 #b4 ,functions of the ,respiratory ,system4 #bfci4 ,the branchi and lungs are the air-organ of the animal1 the foliage4 ,the animal1 like the vegetable foliage1 is oxydized from water or air1 by which means the animal sap1 which hitherto is only a root-sap1 becomes differenced into an aerial sap4 #bfdj4 ,no animal can live without oxygen gas1 because the air is the condition of the galvanic process4 #bfda4 ,the oxygen passes over materially into the blood or the chyle4 ,beyond this it is an indifferent matter for physiology1 whether the blood simply derives the positive tension from the air1 or combines the positive oxygen materially with itself4 ,in both cases the same heterogeneity originates4 ,were oxygen1 however1 not to enter the body through the lung1 it could not then be seen1 whence its ingress might be effected4 ,in other respects1 every change of matters is established with material combinations and separations4 #bfdb4 ,the carbonic acid of the respiratory process may originate accidentally1 as when it is formed on the integument4 ,in so far is the expiration one and the same with the evaporation4 #bfdc4 ,the chyle ascends directly from the small intestine into the leaf-fabric1 or into the lung4 ,both organs are to be compared with an entire plant1 whereof the intestine is the root1 the lymphatic vessels the stem1 the lung the leaf-fabric or foliage4 #bfdd4 ,the chyle moves in the lymphatic vessels like the vegetable sap1 and thus by polar tension between lung and intestine4 ,lung and intestine have been diametrically opposed4 ,the conductors of the antagonism are the lymphatic vessels4 #bfde4 ,the lymphatic vessels do not absorb by virtue of their own contractility1 nor by open ends2 but by physical pores like the cells of plants4 #bfdf4 ,it is the chyle1 which is oxydized in the lung2 the venous blood is a subordinate object4 #bfdg4 ,through the oxydation it becomes coloured like the vegetable sap does in a leaf4 ,but the latter sap obtains only the colour of the terrestrial oxydation1 of the terrestrial oxyde or the water1 and becomes green2 while the chyle gains the colour of the cosmic oxyde1 or the fire1 and becomes red4 ,the red1 fire-coloured sap is the blood4 ,the function of the lungs is consequently a formation of blood4 #bfdh4 ,the blood is an infusorial1 a green mucous sap1 which has been elevated to what is aerial4 ,the blood consists of aerated ,infusoria--blood-globules4 ,these are the red substance of the blood4 ,in the lower animals only1 where the blood1 like the body1 contains but few blood-globules1 is it colourless4 #bfdi4 ,through the respiration an electrical difference enters the blood1 whereby it becomes separated into several substances4 #bfej4 ,the water in the chyle is the inorganic menstruum1 wherein the mucus1 as being a fundamental matter of the vegetable sap1 has been dissolved4 ,through the digestion the mucus becomes animal--gelatine4 #bfea4 ,the gelatine is the basi-constituent part of the chyle1 being a product of the digestion or the root-process4 ,gelatine is the vegetable mucus repeated and ennobled in an animal4 ,this ennobling took place through the digestion4 #bfeb4 ,en route too1 the chyle mixes with the nervous blood1 and already undergoes a degree of oxydation1 whereby the gelatine becomes converted into albuminous matter4 #bfec4 ,through the respiration gelatine and albumen are elevated to aerial importance1 and still more oxydized2 by this means the albuminous matter becomes elevated1 and passes over into fibrine4 ,the fibrine is the last product of respiration4 ,fibrine is the starch-meal in an animal4 #bfed4 ,the electric duplicity1 induced in the blood by the process of respiration1 exists accordingly between fibrine and gelatine1 while the albumen constitutes or forms the indifference4 ,the fibrine is repelled from the lung1 because they are both homonymous2 it is the oxydized gelatine4 ,from its communicating its polarity to the whole mass of blood1 this also is repelled from the lungs4 #c4 ,functions of the ,vascular ,system4 #bfee4 ,the capillary vessels of the body range opposite to those of the lungs1 just as the biliary does to the splenic stomach1 as alkali to acid1 as precipitant and secernent to what is non-separated4 #bfef4 ,the capillary vessels therefore attract the pulmonary blood1 separate it1 secrete and form new constituent parts2 and then1 after it has become homonymous1 they repel it back again towards the lungs4 #bfeg4 ,the circulation only subsists through the polarity which exists between lung and capillary vessels1 between lung and body1 between oxydation and reduction1 combination and separation4 #bfeh4 ,if the intestine and body be the root1 the lung the foliage1 so is the lymphatic and vascular system the stem1 in which the most perfect substances have been formed4 ,in the circulation the matters for the animal systems must have been fully formed1 such as for the bones1 the lime2 for the muscles1 the iron2 for the nerve1 the albumen4 #bfei4 ,the liver is the principal organ of the circulation4 ,there also must one principal preparation of the blood take place4 ,on account of its parallelism with the brain1 the condition probably resides in it that conduces to formation of the albumen1 namely1 of the ,indifferent1 which is the nutritive matter of the nervous mass4 #bffj4 ,in the vegetable sphere of life there are1 in addition to the liver1 but two mutually distinct excretory organs1 namely1 the intestine and the skin4 #bffa4 ,in the mucous secretion of the intestine the condition1 requisite to the formation of phosphate of lime for the bones1 probably resides4 #bffb4 ,in like manner in the formation of the carbonic acid and the water in the integument1 the basis for the formation of phosphate of iron for the muscles may reside4 ,in the circulation the intestine would thus be the lime-1 the skin the iron-1 and the liver the medulla-forming organ4 #bffc4 ,the two extremes of the circulation1 or intestine and lung1 form gelatine and fibrine2 the circulation itself forms the purely animal matter4 ,out of the integument and lung grows the muscle1 from the intestine the bone and gelatine1 out of the liver the nerve4 ,muscle is integument and air1 bone is intestine and chyle1 brain is liver and blood4 ,thus each has a function that is peculiar to it2 each organ has its business to perform in the diffuse fabric of the animal body4 #bffd4 ,through this variety or change of the offices1 the circulation first becomes possible4 #bffe4 ,if the secernent process be therefore suppressed1 the animal then dies as rapidly as if it had been suffocated4 ,it is a suffocation of the opposed pole4 ,query8 does not many a fit of apoplexy depend upon this8 #bfff4 ,the circulation has consequently two factors1 the lung as oxygen-pole1 the capillary vessels of the body as hydrogen-pole1 the blood as the indifferent water4 ,the circulation is a galvanic process4 #bffg4 ,in all extremities of the body the arteriose blood becomes deoxydized1 decomposed2 it is therefore basic and homonymous with the capillary vessels1 so that it is consequently repelled1 and driven back into the veins4 #bffh4 ,it can1 however1 flow nowhere else than to the lung1 because there resides its opposite pole4 ,being again oxydized in1 it becomes homonymous to1 the lung1 is repelled by it1 and again attracted by the capillary vessels of the body4 #bffi4 ,the circulation is therefore a result of dynamic forces1 not of mechanical functions4 ,it would occur1 were the vessels to be glass tubes4 #bfgj4 ,the pulsation of the heart is not a cause of the circulation1 but inversely rather1 its consequence or effect4 #bfga4 ,in the circulation the whole organism1 or intestine1 lung and integument1 is combined4 ,it is therefore the fundamental system1 which includes the whole mass of the body4 b4 ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,systems4 #a4 ,of the ,osseous ,system4 #bfgb4 ,the functions of the osseous system are simply mechanical relations1 such as solidity1 form and motion4 #bfgc4 ,the motion of the joints presents to our notice interesting relations1 especially in reference to the motion of the vertebr1 ribs1 limbs and jaws upon each other1 but these could not be here treated of in detail4 #bfgd4 ,the acts of swimming1 creeping1 standing1 walking1 running1 leaping1 climbing1 and flying1 do not exhibit simply mechanical1 but truly philosophical moments4 a4 ,bodily ,motion4 #bfge4 ,swimming can take place through simple contraction of the body1 without locomotive members4 ,it is the continuation of the vesicle's first process of origination2 as in the ,infusoria and ,polyps4 ,in the ,worms and ,serpents it is effected by an undulating motion of the body1 whereby the water is struck with oblique surfaces2 there it is fibrous motion4 ,in the ,holothuri and many aquatic larv1 it is a propulsion1 effected by expelling water from the anus1 and thus by squirts1 there being consequently contraction of the body or arteriose straitening of the sphincter muscles4 ,in ,fishes1 swimming is a rowing or remigial stroke1 produced by lever-motion1 together with the oblique slap made by their tail4 #bfgf4 ,creeping is either a shortening of the body by fibrous motion1 as in the ,snails1 or an undulatory motion1 as in the ,serpents4 b4 ,pedal ,motion4 #bfgg4 ,standing is the position of a lever in equilibrio1 the creation of the proper centre of gravity4 #bfgh4 ,walking or running is an exchange or alternation of the equilibrium1 a combination of standing and creeping4 #bfgi4 ,leaping or hopping is a flight with the feet4 #bfhj4 ,climbing is an use of the feet as hands4 c4 ,alary ,motion4 #bfha4 ,flying is lever-swimming in the air4 ,it takes place by means of aerial branchi1 namely1 the wings in ,insects1 and by the thoracic extremities in ,birds1 which are also none other than animal branchi4 #bfhb4 ,soaring is creeping in the air4 #bfhc4 ,hovering is standing in the air4 #bfhd4 ,pouncing is hopping in the air4 #bfhe4 ,diving is hopping in the water4 #b4 ,functions of the ,muscular ,system4 #bfhf4 ,the muscular system performs1 in an active sense1 what the osseous system does in a passive4 ,the strength or power of the muscles1 and their leverage attachment1 is here especially to be regarded4 ,the contraction of the fibres is a charging1 by nerves and blood1 of the two fibre-poles4 #bfhg4 ,the fibres are charged by the air4 ,it is1 in the most general sense1 the respiratory vessels by which the muscle is charged4 ,this is strictly the case in ,insects1 where the trache traverse all the limbs1 and directly conduct to the flesh the polarity of the air4 ,in animals1 however1 with a closed circulation1 the arteries undertake the conveyance of air upon the blood1 and it is then the latter fluid which streams into the muscles in order to charge them4 #bfhh4 ,thus if an artery be ligatured1 the limb is crippled or lamed4 ,the artery1 however1 imparts only the positive pole1 and consequently of itself produces no shortening or contraction of the fibres4 ,the oxydation takes place at the lower end of the muscle2 here1 therefore1 the latter passes over into tendon4 #bfhi4 ,the nerve is the second condition of the muscular contraction1 since it evokes in the fibre the negative pole4 ,thus if a nerve be ligatured1 the limb is likewise motionless4 #bfij4 ,if the poles be brought by contraction into close approximation1 the fibres must re-extend1 so soon as the influence of the blood or the nerve ceases4 #bfia4 ,now since the blood is constantly streaming in1 the reason for the muscular rest must reside in the nerves4 ,the rationale of voluntary motion is consequently the nerve4 ,the relaxation or extension is an unloading of the fibres4 #bfib4 ,the muscular motion is an electrical process1 a motion of blood in the ,solid4 #bfic4 ,through the polarization of the fibres the muscle is formed from the arteries4 ,the muscle is therefore an individual biconical piece of fibre1 having unequal cones4 ,oxydation takes place at the muscular extremity2 here1 therefore1 originates the sinew or tendon4 #bfid4 ,a fleshy cyst--or heart--which includes an osseous cyst1 must subdivide into several fibrous cones or muscles4 ,one reason of this is the fore and aft1 another is the quantity of the essential vascular branches4 #bfie4 ,the muscle contracts upon application only of a stimulus4 #bfif4 ,every stimulus induces motion only as a result of polar excitation4 ,every stimulus polarizes2 for even the gentlest contact is like the friction1 and produces electrical antagonism4 ,it therefore amounts to the same1 whatever stimuli1 whether mechanical1 chemical1 or spiritual1 have been applied to the muscle4 ,one acts like the other4 #bfig4 ,if no motion supervene upon1 or is even suppressed by1 the contact of a body1 the nature of the body must then be indifferencing4 #bfih4 ,relaxing1 laming1 life-destroying matters1 are indifferencing1 or cause a suppression of the poles4 #bfii4 ,overcharging principles1 e4 g4 lightning or strong electric sparks may also produce relaxation4 ,these destroy the function of the fibres1 and act therefore worse than the in differencing matters4 #c4 ,functions of the ,nervous ,system4 #bgjj4 ,the function of the point-substance is also that of the nervous system1 for this is only the point-substance1 fashioned and arranged into stalk and branches4 #bgja4 ,but even on this account the nervous tension proceeds only according to a determinate line1 while before it penetrated through the whole mass4 #bgjb4 ,the nervous tension takes place in a nervous system only between a special organ and the nervous centre4 #bgjc4 ,in itself the nervous system is an ,indifference1 and such then are all the organs upon which it acts1 when regarded in reference to this operation2 they might1 through other functions1 be polar4 #bgjd4 ,the nervous system becomes differential either through its two kinds of substances1 or through extraneous influence2 in the first case it thinks or moves1 in the second it feels4 #bgje4 ,sensation is in the nervous what motion is in the fibrous system1 namely1 a polar condition1 in which the two ends have a tendency to come together1 in order to discharge or unload4 #bgjf4 ,in the sensation the extremity of the nerves strives to approach that of the brain2 it is therefore a contractile effort in the nerves1 like motion is in the muscular fibre4 ,juxta-posited granules could not1 however1 shorten2 therefore1 the already calculated polarity courses over them4 #bgjg4 ,all external stimuli act upon the nerves and polarize them1 but not the muscular fibres4 #bgjh4 ,the fibre becomes directly polarized only through the internal stimuli1 or by the blood1 galvanic tension1 c4 #bgji4 ,the most general function of the nervous system consists in its assuming polarity from the world1 and imparting this to other systems1 apart namely1 from the alternate operation of its two substances4 ,nervous and ,motor ,system4 #bgaj4 ,the first system is that of motion4 ,the tranquil presence of the nerve in the fibre produces indifference in the latter2 so that it has no susceptibility for the polarization that is effected by the artery4 ,doubtless the arterial blood passes1 for the most part1 close by the fibre through other capillary vessels4 #bgaa4 ,but if the nerve be polarized it is then basic1 negative1 and enters into opposition with the arterial blood1 which now streams into the capillary vessels of the fibre1 and renders the two ends of the latter heterogeneous4 #bgab4 ,thus1 if the nerve be cut across1 it remains always indifferent1 and no motion can any longer ensue4 ,but this does ensue so soon as the nerve is galvanized4 ,a proof that the nervous influence is homologous to the galvanic tension4 #bgac4 ,if the nerve becomes involuntarily negative1 then originates spasm4 #bgad4 ,if the nerve continue morbidly indifferent1 then paralysis originates4 ,nervous and ,vegetative ,systems4 #bgae4 ,the second great system is the tegumentary formation4 ,in this too its ordinary functions occur1 such as secretion1 evaporation1 nutrition1 elevation or depression of heat without nervous influence2 or they occur while the nerve only acts indifferently4 #bgaf4 ,but if it acts by polarizing1 as in the muscular motion1 then the tegumentary processes are at once changed4 ,what is material becomes extinguished1 and the simply ,irritable is manifested in the cells1 capillary vessels1 and so on4 #bgag4 ,the process of temperature becomes thereby instantly changed1 because the decomposition is changed4 ,the heat is increased by the rapid suppression of the evaporation2 it is diminished by the rapid increase of the latter4 #bgah4 ,the art and manner in which the nerves act upon what is vegetable1 is consequently an elevation of this ,vegetable to what is animal4 ,it must resign its processes1 and simply undertake those of motion4 ,exactly the same takes place in the secernent organs4 ,they perform their offices themselves through the galvanic tension of the vessels4 ,but if the nerve act upon them they secrete more powerfully1 and exactly from the same cause whereby the muscle is self-moved4 ,thus1 if the nerve operate feebly1 whereby it is in an irritable state1 or if its action be wholly withdrawn1 then the secretion will become less4 #bgai4 ,the more irritable the nerves are1 by so much the more animal does the vegetable organism1 or the splanchnic system1 therefore become2 so much the less is it produced on the mass4 #bgbj4 ,irritable animals and men are therefore meagre or lean4 ,the two cases are uniformly related to each other4 ,lean men are irritable1 not perhaps because the nervous ends are not covered with fat1 such as there might be over the integument1 the ear1 the tongue1 nose1 c41 but1 because where the nutritive process is inactive1 what is animal necessarily preponderates4 ,there are consequently three kinds of nervous actions1 or phenomena1 though all nervous activity in entire systems is similar1 or but one4 ,the difference is only derived from the organ upon which the nerves act4 ,there are1 consequently1 no special nerves of sensation1 motion and secretion2 or such1 forsooth1 as have only one of these offices to take care of4 ,thus1 were a nerve of sensation to be prolonged or drawn over a muscle1 it would excite motion1 and in the case of the liver1 secrete bile1 c4 ,mesmerism4 #bgba4 ,when the sensibility mounts to the highest degree1 each mass-function will then almost cease1 and the organs of sense feel the weakest operation of the stimulus4 #bgbb4 ,since every stimulation is a polarizing act1 and each body is in polar activity towards the other at every conceivable distance1 so may an extremely irritable nervous system also perceive the feeblest polarizations4 #bgbc4 ,the eye perceives the polarization at a remote distance from the body whence it proceeds4 #bgbd4 ,in hearing the vibrating body still indeed acts directly upon the ear through the vibrations of air4 ,but a finer1 i4 e4 more irritable ear1 hears farther than one that is more dull4 #bgbe4 ,with an elevated sensibility the other systems also may therefore perceive the polarization of the bodies1 without coming into contact with them4 #bgbf4 ,to perceive objects in the distance1 i4 e4 merely their polar influence1 is called ,mesmerism1 or animal magnetism4 #bgbg4 ,now1 if it is once possible for other senses besides that of sight to extend their perception into remote space1 it no longer matters as to the magnitude of the latter4 ,a feebly charged electrical machine only attracts bodies that are near1 one strongly loaded1 those which are more remote2 such is the case too with weak and strong magnets4 #bgbh4 ,the integument at once perceives electrified surfaces at certain distances2 now1 as every surface appears electric to the integument1 so must the latter1 if its sensibility is very much elevated1 perceive something of that sort in every proportionate distance4 #bgbi4 ,but homologous polarities only act upon each other1 and therefore traverse thoroughly through heterologous bodies4 ,thus the magnet attracts the iron filings through the table-board1 unhindered by the interposed wood1 and without any regard being paid to this1 or its being even perceived4 #bgcj4 ,the senses may therefore perceive their homologous polarities through other bodies1 walls1 and such like4 ,by virtue of their perception1 they stand in relation to them4 #bgca4 ,to the very sensible nervous system the vegetable system and its impulse is a foreign object1 which detaches itself from the above system1 just as the objects of sense have done from the sensorial organs4 ,the vegetable1 or in general the material body1 appears therefore to the mesmerized like a strange world--they see their own organs--are clair-voyants4 ,mesmerism therefore comprises nothing which could contradict physiology4 ,vegetative ,nerves4 #bgcb4 ,the splanchnic or visceral nerves are also distinguished from the animal by their being in a constant state of tension1 and hence keeping the processes of their system in constant repair4 #bgcc4 ,the rationale of this resides in the two nervous substances having separated into ganglia and plexuses4 #bgcd4 ,this also serves to explain another phenomenon1 viz4 that the nerves indeed1 but never the brain1 attain to perfect rest2 because the former is without ganglionic or cortical substance1 the latter is throughout surrounded1 and obviously interwoven1 by it4 #bgce4 ,therein lies the reason why the viscera do not sleep4 ,sleep4 #bgcf4 ,the condition of the nervous system1 as hitherto represented1 is called that of being awake4 ,it is the interlude played by the nerves with the world1 and with the animal body4 #bgcg4 ,when in a state of health the first interlude ceases1 then the other also is over or past4 ,the world-nerves1 however1 operate only upon the animal systems1 upon the senses and the motion of the muscles2 it could therefore be these only wherein the nervous function1 in compliance with this cessation1 is suppressed4 ,now1 muscular rest originates through suppression of the tension between nerve and muscle4 ,in sleep this rest is also derived from the same means4 #bgch4 ,the tension between nerve and muscle can only cease1 if the tension also between the termination of the brain and nerves be suppressed4 ,we are now reduced simply to the consideration of the nervous system1 and may1 in treating of sleep1 pay no attention to the muscular system4 #bgci4 ,but whence comes the tension in the motor nerves8 ,obviously only from the cerebral tension4 ,this can originate only in two ways2 either through the special organization of the brain1 one or the other substance being preponderant1 or through the influence of external stimuli4 #bgdj4 ,the encephalic substance becomes more potent than usual1 if by rest the cortical substance becomes more arteriose in character4 ,this tension is communicated to all the nerves1 sensitive as well as motor1 and continues in their interlude with the world and the motor system4 #bgda4 ,if this encephalic tension is not too potent1 it remains only in the brain1 without the ability to polarize the nerves also4 ,it then only produces cerebral phenomena1 thoughts or dreams4 #bgdb4 ,dreaming is an encephalic tension excited by the organization1 not by the world4 #bgdc4 ,dreaming is the first step in the liberation of the animal from the vegetable system--it is the first step towards mesmerism4 #bgdd4 ,in a perfect or middling state of health1 where the nervous is not very much separated from the tegumentary system1 we do not dream4 #bgde4 ,in a healthy condition an external stimulus would be1 consequently1 the only cause of waking1 did not the long repose bestow a preponderating influence upon the cortical substance4 ,dreams therefore happen in the morning4 #bgdf4 ,waking is the intercourse with the world1 not with self4 ,if one wakes also from intercourse with self1 still the former is synchronous and coexciting4 #bgdg4 ,thus1 if intercourse with the world ceases1 sleep originates4 ,if the vegetable intercourse with it also ceases1 then death originates4 ,waking is consensus with the world4 #bgdh4 ,sleep is a death of the animal systems4 #bgdi4 ,every awaking is a resurrection from death1 a new sympathizing with the vegetal body1 from which the animal body again originates4 #bgej4 ,as the animal originally took its rise from1 and only through the plant1 so also is this repeated in an individual4 ,the plant is the ever-living1 ever-verdant1 or green1 out of which the animal daily sprouts forth as a blossom4 #bgea4 ,the animal intercourse with the world is also interrupted in two ways1 and there are therefore two modes of falling asleep4 #bgeb4 ,the first cause resides in the want of stimulus4 ,the nerves of the senses are not polar1 do not therefore excite the brain1 nor does this again affect the motor system4 ,the muscle therefore arrives at a state of non-tension2 it becomes relaxed1 and along with it necessarily the organs of sense1 which are thrown into activity by muscular motion4 ,the arms and fingers1 whose business is to touch1 sink down2 the feet which move1 and thereby warm and animate the body1 are slackened and bent together2 the body is in the recumbent posture2 the eyelids drop1 the light no longer plays upon the visual organs1 the external and internal auditory muscles flag also1 and the sound is no longer borne upon the ear4 ,now also does the tension of the senses with the brain cease1 and with it the sensation--there is sleep4 #bgec4 ,this sleep arising from want of stimulus is a faint sleep1 and rendered useless by dreams4 ,for there is actually no cause present why the encephalic tension should entirely cease4 ,men1 who do not fall asleep through fatigue1 but from want of work1 sleep restlessly1 awake easily1 and again readily fall asleep4 ,their life is dreaming4 #bged4 ,the other cause of the polar suppression in the nerves is like that of the extension of the muscles1 or their falling to sleep2 it is thus the discharge of the too strongly excited poles4 ,with too high a degree of fibrous tension1 which also originates through too long a continuance of the tension1 the fibre is placed in a state of activity1 which consists in the antagonism being balanced by approximation of the ends4 ,were nerves1 when greatly tensed1 capable of being shortened1 they would also discharge themselves1 and come at least for one instant to rest--they would sleep4 #bgee4 ,the falling asleep of the fibre is its sleep1 though it also does not last long4 ,so is the expansion of the heart its sleep1 so is expiration the sleep of the thorax4 #bgef4 ,in all polarizable organs there is a change or alternation of waking and sleeping1 which endures a longer and shorter time4 ,this periodicity depends upon the energy of the polar influence1 and upon the size and susceptibility of the substance4 #bgeg4 ,every substance has its own periods of waking and sleeping1 of action and repose4 ,the pulse sleeps shorter than the breathing2 this again shorter than being hungry2 this again for a briefer time than the sexual function4 #bgeh4 ,there are organs1 or systems1 which are nearly always in a state of slumber1 e4 g4 the osseous system1 because in it the polarity is extinguished4 ,it is only in states of inflammation that it wakes up4 ,others scarcely ever slumber1 e4 g4 the cellular system1 because in it indeed no pole is yet fixed1 and in the alternation of poles its life consists4 #bgei4 ,there is a similar change of poles in a nervous system1 and it indeed halts or stops for a middling time4 ,through the persistent influence of the external world1 the nerves of the senses are thrown into such a state of tension with the brain1 that blood cannot flow thither in sufficient quantity1 in order to maintain the two cerebral substances in mutual antagonism4 ,brain and nerves become therefore indifferent2 muscles and sensorial organs lose their polarizability1 and their intercourse ceases with the nerves as well as the world4 ,the brain1 and everything else1 has now been discharged1 and a deep sleep without dreams1 an animal death1 ensues4 #bgfj4 ,it has been arbitrarily asserted1 that no sleep is possible without dreams1 but for this statement there are no existing grounds4 ,whence should the dream come if there is no tension in the brain1 or if it has previously undergone sufficient self-exhaustion8 ,periodicity4 #bgfa4 ,the sleep of the nerves ranges parallel with that of the planet4 ,it might be said that such was the case from habit or custom1 but it is1 properly speaking1 dependent upon a parallel process of organizing that occurs at the origination of the animal4 ,the matter stands thus3 the germ originates in the morning2 until evening stimuli act upon and polarize it3 in the evening they cease1 and with them the tension4 ,the muscles relax upon every movement1 and rest necessarily follows in the manner above delineated4 ,with to-morrow's morn the world again acts until evening upon the germ2 it wakes up1 and the same course of events happens as on the first day4 ,finally the substance becomes organized according to this periodicity2 it becomes1 forsooth1 not more energetic than is necessary in order to admit or receive a charge of one day2 towards evening it is exhausted1 is neutral1 and rejoices with the relaxation of the muscles1 that the world no longer acts upon its frame4 #bgfb4 ,thus1 we may attribute this phenomenon both to custom and synchronous formation2 nevertheless one ought not to forget that the organic formation is a metatype1 or has been imitated from something that has gone before1 and that consequently the law of periodicity has not been bestowed upon both at the same time1 but first of all unto nature1 and through this to the body1 which is its image or likeness4 #bgfc4 ,the nervous periodicity ranges in accordance with the periodicity of the light1 or is thus parallel with its archetype1 and consequently with the day and night4 ,day is the waking1 night the sleeping of nature4 ,but the animal has originated in and by this alternating change of nature4 ,it is spiritually1 as well as corporeally1 nature's likeness4 #bgfd4 ,the sexual function in a perfect animal1 as in ,man1 has been adapted to the periods of the year2 in other animals other natural periods exert their sway4 ,animals are commonly pregnant by the month1 e4 g4 for one1 two1 four1 five months1 c4 ,the human species requires three quarters of a year for pregnancy1 one quarter for giving suck to the babe1 and then it can again conceive4 ,pregnancy thus lasts a year1 and has been based in the sun4 #bgfe4 ,if the female does not become pregnant1 the sexual passion1 or instinct1 is repeated at the expiration of a month4 ,it sleeps about one month1 and then awakes for some days4 ,the periodicity may be divided into vegetative and animal1 thus1-- a4 ,animal ,world-periodicity4 #a4 ,sleep ,rotation of the ,earth4 #b4 ,menstruation ,lunar revolution4 #c4 ,pregnancy ,solar revolution4 b4 ,vegetal ,earth-periodicity4 #a4 ,digestion ,water1 ,ebb and ,flow4 #b4 ,respiration ,air1 ,electricity4 #c4 ,pulse ,earth1 ,magnetism4 ,awaking4 #bgff4 ,the awaking takes place of itself through the origination of a new polarity in the brain during the afflux of arterial blood1 whereupon the dreams follow which precede the act of waking4 ,during sleep the plant continues to act1 the unloaded cortical substance becomes again oxydized and charged2 tension arises between it and the medulla1 and with this come the dreams4 ,this encephalic polarity is imparted to the sensitive and motor nerves1 and the organs open4 ,if external stimuli are superadded1 all this happens somewhat earlier4 ,the act of awaking is invariably1 however1 a restoration effected1 or brought about1 by the plant1 and especially by the circulation4 #bgfg4 ,man would therefore wake up had there also been no world of the senses2 but then he would not continue awake1 but at once relapse into slumber1 and sleep the eternal death4 ,,iii4 ,functions of the ,organs4 #bgfh4 ,the functions of the organs are the functions of the system associated or combined1 just as the organs are but ultimate evolutions of the systems existing under similar relations4 ,the organic functions are always therefore in a state of concatenation with other systems1 and there can be no organ which acts in an isolated manner4 #bgfi4 ,by this character a new field for sympathy has been opened4 ,all the organs operate through sympathy4 ,sympathy is therefore the result of parallel systems1 or also of antagonisms between the factors of a single system4 ,taken in a strict sense1 there are no vegetative organs4 ,the organs are therefore limited to the encephalic animal1 such as are those of motion and the senses1 and to the sexual animal4 #a4 ,functions of the ,encephalic ,animal4 ,a4 ,,organs ,,of ,,motion4 #bggj4 ,just as the nerves have a function in themselves1 and one directed towards the subordinate organs1 so also has the motor system4 #bgga4 ,the motor system is in the first place doomed to serve the whole body1 since it flexes it1 moves it forwards and backwards and upon all sides4 ,it is related principally to the movements of the vertebral column1 and serves in numberless animals to effect the act of crawling or creeping4 #bggb4 ,then again it will serve individual parts of the body1 such as the belly in its evacuations1 or the sexual animal in emitting urine1 c4 ,it ministers unto the thorax in the act of respiration1 which is a very complicated process4 ,the thoracic muscles are to a certain degree co-ordinated with the constantly polar nervous system1 and become thereby and in part involuntary4 ,but one main reason of this appears to be the air that is constantly renewed in their cavity4 #bggc4 ,in the act of respiration two orders of muscles are active1 the proper-pectoral muscles1 and the abdominal muscle1 which has been displaced from the thorax1 or the diaphragm4 #bggd4 ,as originally the thorax took its rise at the expense of the abdomen1 so also is every inspiration an elevation of the thorax and a displacement of the abdomen4 ,every breath or in-draught of air expands and produces the thorax1 but narrows and arrests the abdomen4 ,the diaphragm expresses this contest4 ,its contraction being a result of the respiratory tension1 expresses consequently a preponderance of the thorax1 and in obedience to this1 narrows and diminishes the abdomen4 ,it is supplied1 in conformity with its origin1 by nerves from the upper cervical vertebr1 since prior to this the abdomen extended as far as the head1 and the branchi were appended to it as lateral strips of integument--as in ,fishes4 #bgge4 ,as the thoracic cavity is drawn by the diaphragm's descent towards the abdomen1 so by the pectoral muscles is it raised upwards to the head4 ,the latter movements are what is animal in the respiratory process1 for they lift the thorax towards the head4 ,pectoral muscles and diaphragm stand opposite to each other1 like limbs and trunk2 the ribs are the limbs1 the diaphragm the upper abdominal tunic or covering4 ,through this antagonism what is limbed1 as belonging to the thoracic cavity1 is drawn upwards1 what is abdominal in its character1 downwards2 the result is expansion1 and through this pumping in of the air4 #bggf4 ,the air is in part voluntarily swallowed like the food1 as e4 g4 by the movement of the ribs1 in part involuntarily by the diaphragm4 ,the diaphragm may be termed the heart of the abdominal cavity4 #bggg4 ,in the lower organized animals1 where merely branchi are present1 the animal motion encroaches but little upon the act of respiration4 ,in ,molluscs and ,snails1 the oxygen is almost always on the branchi1 as is the case also in ,insects4 ,in ,fishes the water is still taken in like the food through the mouth1 and driven out or expelled by the pharyngeal muscles from between the branchi4 ,in them the air is in both respects swallowed4 ,in many ,reptiles the air is indeed drawn in through the nostrils1 but conveyed into the lungs by a true act of deglutition4 ,these kinds of functions are necessary1 because as yet the whole trunk is abdomen1 and the thoracic cavity has not as yet separated from it2 hence the diaphragm is wanting4 #bggh4 ,the respiratory originates therefore from the digestive organ2 it is freely developed only from the abdomen1 and is at length entirely liberated from the latter as a self-substantial cavity1 e4 g4 first of all in the ,mammalia4 ,respiration is originally but an act of deglutition1 which has gradually become perfected1 by the animal trunk being associated with it to a greater extent4 #bggi4 ,the pumping in of air has therefore become in the highest degree a process of suction1 and in this resembles the digestive function when it has become animal4 #bghj4 ,then also the air passes no longer through the mouth1 but through the nose1 as being the peculiar opening of the thoracic cavity in the head4 ,even the ,fishes have as yet no nostrils opening into the mouth4 #bgha4 ,the thoracic motion is a limb-motion1 and would become locomotion1 were the ribs not conjoined4 ,in many of the lower animals the branchi are at once organs of motion1 such as fins or rudders4 #bghb4 ,every inspiration is a self-manning towards the animal2 every expiration a retro-depression unto the plant2 the abdomen in this case regains the upper hand from the diaphragm reverting to its usual position1 and the thoracic cavity narrowing4 ,respiration is a becoming animal4 #bghc4 ,the motions in themselves1 without reference to the trunk1 are the motions of the limbs1 as standing1 walking1 c4 ,the movements of the arms and feet are sympathetic1 because their muscles are of equal signification4 ,b4 ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,nerve-,,organs4 #bghd4 ,these functions have relation only to the nervous system itself1 because all nerve-organs are elevated above the trunk1 and live in themselves4 ,they are simply the functions of the sensorial organs4 a4 ,functions of the ,vegetable ,sensorial ,organs4 #bghe4 ,these must be regarded as those that still encroach upon the inferior organs4 ,they are not1 however1 the inferior processes themselves1 but their ascensive formations into the nervous system4 ,this therefore works henceforward only in and by itself1 but yet in relation to the inferior processes4 #a4 ,function of the ,sense of ,feeling4 #bghf4 ,to constitute the sense of feeling the integument1 in other words the nutritive or vascular system1 has assumed a nervose character1 and consequently that which is in communication with the materiality of the external world4 ,the function of this sense will therefore have materiality only for its object4 #bghg4 ,the integument is the organ by whose means the animal is absolved or liberated from the world4 ,the sensation belonging to it1 is none other than the perception of this diversity subsisting between the two4 #bghh4 ,through the tegumentary sense1 the world becomes a something external in relation to the nervous function2 while previously it was such through the medium of the skin for the lower organs only1 viz4 as an object of absorption4 ,the discrimination of materiality is called ,feeling4 ,the sense of feeling is the earth-sense4 #bghi4 ,the sense of feeling perceives materiality1 like the nerves perceive all objects or all stimuli1 through polar excitation4 ,every pressure1 every contact is polar excitation4 #bgij4 ,the sense of feeling is characterized by poles only being excited in it by absolute proximity or immediate contact4 ,just because it is the first sense1 through which the animal is set free1 so must that which is liberated be at once perceived in the moment of liberation1 and thus in immediate contact4 ,the sense of feeling is a polarity of contact1 a polarity without distance4 ,the stronger the contact1 by so much the stronger is the polar excitation--there is increased pressure4 ,the gravity acts simply by pressure4 ,the perception is therefore resolvable into one of pressure or contact4 #bgia4 ,different degrees of pressure necessarily impart different amounts of feeling4 ,perception of the different degrees of pressure made by an object betrays its inequalities of surface4 ,the sense of feeling is also the sense for determining inequalities1 for the ,soft and ,hard1 for the ,solid1 ,fluid1 and ,gaseous2 all these feelings1 however1 are referable to the contact4 #bgib4 ,through diseased conditions1 the polarizability of the sensitive nerves may become exceedingly elevated1 and they then perceive the polarity of contact prior to the contact having taken place4 ,for the two bodies invariably excite poles that are antagonized to each other4 ,were other bodies not to approach them more closely1 or else act upon them more energetically and so extinguish the polarity2 they would remain at an infinite distance in a state of polar relation towards each other4 ,feeling can therefore be extended to an indefinite distance4 ,hysterical1 mesmerized1 and even healthy human beings1 feel further than they grasp or touch with the hand4 #bgic4 ,homogeneous polarities1 or those of the same kind1 are throughout nature to be found also by means of others2 e4 g4 electrical polarities are not disturbed by the intervention of magnetic ones4 ,such is the case also in feeling4 ,that which is related to oneself is felt1 although it is more remote from us than other objects1 upon which we do not bestow any attention1 or towards which we do not turn our poles4 #bgid4 ,the sense of feeling differs according to the diversity of certain points in the integument1 and is thus nobler in character1 the higher the rank which these may hold4 ,thus it is most feebly developed in vegetable situations1 where hairs1 nails1 claws1 and scales are placed4 ,it must attain the highest grade of perfection in the animal organs1 and thus in the limbs or their parallels1 the lips4 #bgie4 ,in the limbs1 by reason of their mobility1 the feeling becomes voluntary4 ,it is then wholly in our power to strengthen or weaken the contact1 to press gently or firmly1 and allow these periods of feeling to succeed each other rapidly or slowly4 #bgif4 ,feeling associated with motion is called touch2 this condition of the organ the tactile sense4 ,the tactile sense is by no means different from that of feeling2 it is only the combination of feeling with motion4 #bgig4 ,the fingers are the most perfect organs of feeling1 because they are the most moveable parts of the body1 and therefore they are organs of touch4 #bgih4 ,as simple feeling perceives the asperities of bodies1 so does touch the forms4 ,the perception of forms is based upon the form that resides in the tactile organ itself4 #bgii4 ,all possible forms reside in the motion of the fingers4 #bhjj4 ,each hand is a semi-ellipse1 in which the four fingers are the periphery1 the thumb the radius4 ,both hands together form a perfect ellipse with two radii4 #bhja4 ,now1 in the ellipse are involved all geometrical figures4 ,the hands include in their movements the whole of geometry4 #bhjb4 ,we can only perceive the forms of nature1 because they all reside in ourselves1 because we can create them4 ,this1 and none other1 is the meaning or sense of the doctrine of pre-established harmony4 #bhjc4 ,the sense of touch is also the sense of form4 ,the fingers constitute so perfect an organ1 that it is scarcely requisite for us to estimate all its value4 ,in it the whole body is repeated simply in forms1 in spiritual motions4 #bhjd4 ,through the hand the whole planet becomes an object unto us4 ,it is the hand which instructs us how to know this terrestrial world4 #bhje4 ,the greatest perfection is attained by the greatest variety or multiplied diversity of the organs4 ,the limbs are simply destined for motion1 yet feeling also resides in them1 because they are invested with integument4 ,could the limbs therefore divide into motor and tactile members1 the conceivable sum total of perfection must be attained4 ,this division is present alone in ,man4 ,the feet have become simply locomotive members1 because they are those of the sex2 but the hands have become tactile members1 because they are those of the encephalic animal4 #bhjf4 ,it is not1 as has been imagined1 the hands1 as hands1 which confer nobility upon our species1 for by their means an essential half of the animality1 or the power of locomotion1 is lost2 but it is the preservation of all possible functions in an animal1 and in such a manner that each stands upon its highest grade of perfection4 ,the highest perfection cannot1 however1 be attained where two functions are attached to one organ4 ,should both hands and feet exercise the sense of touch1 the motion is impaired2 should both move the body1 then the sense suffers4 #bhjg4 ,the four hands of the ,apes are therefore an imperfection1 which we have no need to envy them4 ,they can1 properly speaking1 only climb and grasp with them1 but not run4 ,each gait of theirs becomes therefore ungainly1 the horizontal as well as the upright or perpendicular1 and they make use of both alternately2 because too the act of handling1 i4 e4 of climbing1 is their only proper movement4 ,now1 in the act of climbing all the limbs are brought into requisition1 and consequently a free voluntary touch and a free progression disappear4 #bhjh4 ,the feet support the body and stand in its service4 #bhji4 ,the hands are1 on the contrary1 supported by the body1 are free4 #bhaj4 ,the wings also support the body4 #bhaa4 ,feet and hands define man4 ,through the two only does he become free4 ,tegumental ,covering4 #bhab4 ,the skin1 as being originally a branchia1 is provided also with its branchial operculum4 ,this is the epidermis4 #bhac4 ,scales are plications or folds of the epidermis1 which accord with the situation of the branchial vessels2 they are therefore arranged generally in a circular form around the body1 and are more definitely varied upon the dorsal than ventral aspect of the body4 ,large scales1 or those which may be regarded as formed by the confluence of several scales1 are called scutes4 #bhad4 ,it is merely the epidermis which is concerned in the production of the squamous covering2 but if the former branchial vessels emerge themselves so as to project above the integument and become dried1 then hairs originate4 #bhae4 ,if these hairs ramify1 then there are feathers4 #bhaf4 ,it is only therefore the ,mammalia and ,birds who possess a proper external covering or garment4 #bhag4 ,the claws or nails are scales upon the extremity of the branchial arches1 which have become animal in character1 or in other words1 are digital scales2 they are animal branchial opercula4 #bhah4 ,the nails are demi-claws1 and therefore leave the points of the digits free4 ,free digital apices or points constitute the most perfect organ of touch1 because this is then divided into two parts and because the nail increases the amount of resistance4 #bhai4 ,the organs of defence are therefore an appendage of the sense of feeling1 as are the bones of the motor system4 ,splanchnic or ,visceral ,senses4 #bhbj4 ,these senses will not be found to disown their predecessors2 and just as the latter extracted the qualities from terrestrial matter1 so also do they4 ,but while the former had to deal with the material1 the present set will have to transact business with the spiritual qualities4 #b4 ,function of the ,gustatory ,sense4 #bhba4 ,digestion is a chemical process1 and one indeed wherein actual mixture and decomposition take place2 it is therefore also1 and par excellence1 an aqueous process4 ,for matters that are actually decomposible are alone submitted to digestion1 since it is of too coarse a character to perceive the proneness of such bodies to decomposition4 #bhbb4 ,it belongs only to a higher grade of perfection1 or to a nervose condition of the digestive process1 to perceive the rationale of the decomposition1 or the spiritual conflict1 which prevails between the matters1 when they are about to separate4 #bhbc4 ,now1 the organ which only perceives the qualities of matters1 without reference to their actual separation1 is a sense4 ,upon the highest grade of perfection the digestive passes over into a sensorial function4 #bhbd4 ,tasting is the first commencement of the digestion in the nervous system1 where the aliments are felt just before the analysis into their polar quantities has taken place4 ,the gustatory is a water-sense4 #bhbe4 ,for the exercise of the sense of taste the same conditions are requisite as for digestion1 viz4 solution and capacity for decomposition4 ,without the capacity for being dissolved1 and without the occurrence of actual solution1 nothing can be tasted1 any more than digested4 ,the saliva is the gastric juice for the tongue4 #bhbf4 ,if water be the basic element in the process of digestion1 so in gustation must the higher water1 or the salt1 be the basis of taste4 ,salt alone is sapid1 and every thing in order to be tasted1 must possess saline properties4 #bhbg4 ,the tongue1 by means of the saliva1 passes over gradually into salt4 ,salt is the last extremity of the tongue4 ,the salt-formation is a member of the gustatory formation4 ,hence tasting is only an ascension of the inorganic to the animal tongue4 ,the salt is the gustatory sense of the earth4 #bhbh4 ,the general object of taste is the salt of the sea4 ,it alone can and must be converted into a pleasing taste or relish4 ,what is general in nature1 is the antetype of that which is equivalent in an organism4 ,sea-salt and the tongue or saliva are one in kind4 #bhbi4 ,every thing admits only of being tasted1 in so far as it is salt2 every thing is but savoury1 in so far as it is marine salt4 #bhcj4 ,as the component parts of sea-salt are acid and alkali1 so also are both these the extremes of tastes4 ,tastes are divisible accordingly into acid and alkaline savours4 #bhca4 ,as salt is a product of what is inorganic1 so will the sapid bodies of this kind be pleasant objects for gustation1 provided they do not act chemically nor in excess4 ,therefore1 what is saline1 or acid and alkali combined1 is agreeable to the taste1 even if its action should last a long time4 #bhcb4 ,on the contrary1 the proper organic savours1 which admit with difficulty of being reduced to the former or inorganic kinds1 if they do not prove at once nauseous or unpleasant1 yet become so by lengthened operation1 e4 g4 the ,sweet1 the ,bitter4 #bhcc4 ,according to these savours has the organ of taste been regulated4 ,it hath in itself also polar relations4 ,the point or tip of the tongue tastes what is acid1 its root more readily what is bitter1 its dorsum or back what is poignant or moist4 #bhcd4 ,the matters are not mechanically analyzed upon the tongue2 it does not therefore taste the several component parts1 but only their chemical behaviour or relation in the water1 in other words1 their reaction4 #c4 ,function of the ,olfactory ,sense4 #bhce4 ,in the lungs the air is materially analyzed and deprived of its oxygen2 but1 when these organs have assumed a nervose character1 the tension only of the air unto the analysis will be perceived4 ,now1 the action of the air is the electrism4 ,the nose perceives only the electrical condition of the air4 #bhcf4 ,the sensation of the electrical relations is called ,smelling4 ,the olfactory sense is an air-sense4 ,we smell nothing but the electricity1 and neither the contact1 nor the impressions1 c4 of the particles that find their way into the nose4 ,these particles would have no effect upon the nasal organ1 if they did not stand in an electrical relation unto it4 #bhcg4 ,now1 the electrical bodies in nature are the resins or ,inflammables4 ,what salt is for the gustatory1 that is resin for the olfactory sense4 ,the nose is an electrical1 a resinous organ4 #bhch4 ,in like manner the solubility of bodies in the air is as requisite for smell1 as that in water is for taste4 ,the water is the menstruum of the sapid1 as the air is of odorous1 bodies2 and this indeed of necessity1 because water and air are the antetypes of these mineral classes4 #bhci4 ,in order to be an odorous body or object of smell1 the resin must resolve itself into air1 or become aeriform4 ,aeriform resin is thereal oil4 ,bodies such as those which part rapidly with their electricity1 substances containing hydrogen1 thereal oils and burnt spirits1 are the usual objects appreciated by the olfactory sense4 #bhdj4 ,the hydrogenous body is therefore provided with a sweet scent4 ,most bodies which are evolved by fermentation1 in so far as they are electrical1 are odoriferous4 ,most blossoms smell agreeably1 because they secrete aerial matters4 #bhda4 ,the products of putrefaction emit a fetid odour1 because they indicate the presence not of aerial1 but aqueous and terrestrial matters4 ,nearly all animal bodies stink1 besides many secretions of the sexual parts1 because they belong to the vegetable nature4 #bhdb4 ,the objects of taste have their residence in what is inorganic1 but those of smell1 as being objects of a higher sense1 have it in the vegetable kingdom4 ,the succeeding or auditory sense has the animal kingdom for its object1 while the eye scans the universe4 #bhdc4 ,the nose is in every respect an electrical organ2 it is an electrophore1 or rather a battery consisting of numerous plates4 ,of the truth of this1 its numerous tortuous passages and laminated bones are striking proofs4 #bhdd4 ,that the nose consists of a great number of blood-vessels1 as well as of arteriose olfactory nerves1 is quite commensurate with its character or signification1 as being a higher pulmonary organ4 #bhde4 ,the objects of the three vegetative senses are the three elements of the planet1 earth1 water and air2 in the first of these reside the relation of the gravity1 rest1 and crystallization2 in the last the relation of the electricity2 in the water that of the chemism4 ,the sense of feeling is an earth-sense1 that of taste a salt-sense1 that of smell a resin-sense4 b4 ,functions of the ,animal ,senses4 #bhdf4 ,the objects of the animal senses are no longer matter1 nor its chemical qualities1 but the higher relations of the solar system1 and the highest organizations1 the animals themselves4 ,throughout the supra-planetary solar system there is naught to be conceived but motion and light in action4 ,wherever there is ther1 it is in motion2 the corresponding organs of sense must therefore perceive these two relations4 ,now1 since the animal is also motion and light1 and this alone1 so by means of these senses will the innermost of animality be at once perceived4 ,animals become acquainted with themselves only through these senses1 and by them only enter1 in so far as they are animals1 into communication with each other4 ,in so far as they are mere masses of matter1 they are capable of self-perception through other senses4 ,these senses may therefore also be called cosmical1 while the three former are terrestrial4 #bhdg4 ,they correspond thus with each other4 ,the tactile sense is a precursor of the sense of motion1 and represents the motion1 gravity1 and pressure1 after a terrestrial manner2 the two splanchnic senses are the precursors of the light-sense1 since they dwell upon the qualities of the matter1 while the light also is only a quality of the ther4 ,the sense of smell1 being as it were an air-sense1 will in particular border most closely upon the light-sense4 #bhdh4 ,through the two cosmic senses the universe is translated into the animal1 like the planet is through the terrestrial senses2 through the former also the animal spirit1 which is a transcript of the universal spirit1 passes over into other animals4 ,they are the senses of the highest instruction1 of freedom4 #d4 ,function of the ,auditory ,sense4 ,in the ther resides the movement of the world4 #bhdi4 ,to the motor system that only which is its equal1 and thus the movement of nature1 can of necessity become an object4 ,the motor system represented as a sense1 cannot1 however1 perceive the borrowed or derived motion1 not the planetary or massive motion1 but the primary motion of the ther4 ,the planetary motion is related to the primary motion as the oxydation is to the electrism1 as chemical analysis to chemical affinity1 and consequently also as respiration to smelling1 as digestion to tasting1 in short1 as the material metatype to the spiritual antetype4 #bhej4 ,the limbs are the planetary motion organized1 and therefore perceive only this material motion--pressure4 ,touch is related to the animal sense of motion1 as digestion is to the tasting4 #bhea4 ,smell and taste no longer perceive the bodies in the very act of decomposition1 but their laws or their spiritual operations2 so will the motor sense not perceive1 like the sense of touch1 the mass when in motion1 but only the motor laws of the mass4 #bheb4 ,these laws of motion are those of the primary motion4 ,this is1 however1 a product of the light in the ther1 an effect of polarity1 and that indeed the first polarity which was manifested in the universe4 ,the motor sense therefore perceives only a motion which has originated through primary polarity4 #bhec4 ,such motion is not relative in kind1 i4 e4 it does not affect several portions of the matter in reference to some other matter2 but it affects the whole matter internally1 or its atoms1 so that all matter may remain in its place and yet every atom of it be moved4 #bhed4 ,this motion is like the motion of heat in the matter4 ,by it heat is excited4 ,for internal motion of the atoms1 when aroused by polarity1 so that every atom enters into a state of motion against the other1 is a discharging of the poles1 and consequently development of heat4 #bhee4 ,this internal motion has1 however1 been produced by an external2 for the external motion acts by contact1 and this is a process of polarization4 ,now1 the interior of a mass is only moved by repeated contact1 or through the restlessness of polarization and by a proper amount of force1 or one which is proportional to the mechanical resistance of the mass to be excited4 ,the last of these is the stroke or blow1 the first the vibration of the body4 ,by vibration or oscillation only can a body be internally polarized2 for1 if it does not oscillate upon the shock being applied1 it is still indeed set in motion1 but en masse1 so that the internal parts remain in a state of rest4 #bhef4 ,oscillation is distinguished from continuous or progressive motion by its affecting the atoms of the body1 while the latter acts upon the body itself4 ,through the vibration heat is engendered1 because the poles are free and the matter passes over into ther4 #bheg4 ,vibration must endure the longest in solid bodies1 and thus in that which belongs to the earth4 ,among these the hard bodies must take precedence1 because the soft are of an aqueous nature4 ,among the hard bodies again the heaviest must vibrate most effectually1 because they offer a longer resistance1 and do not yield so soon as light bodies to the effort made at separation4 ,the purest representative of the earth-element or the metal is thus the best instrument or means of vibration1 and consequently the object of the motor sense4 #bheh4 ,thus as the salt of the earth-element is the object of taste1 and as the resin of the earth-element is the object of smell1 so would the metal be the object of this motor sense4 #bhei4 ,but no sense-object is without its medium for transmission1 except in the case of the sense of feeling or touch4 ,the salt is only tasted by means of the water1 the ,inflammable only smelt by means of the air2 the metal's primary motion could not therefore be perceived directly by the auditory sense4 ,it must be propagated through the medium which ranks next to the heat1 and whose atoms insinuate themselves most easily into those of the vibrating body--thus through the air4 ,man perceives the primary motion1 in which things tend to resolve themselves into ther1 through the air4 ,by the metal1 or by every vibrating body1 the vibration of the air is communicated4 #bhfj4 ,this vibration is not1 however1 a general movement to and fro1 but a dissolution of the material bands4 ,this dissolution can only take place according to the laws of the primary motion4 ,they are rigidified in the solid masses as crystalline forms4 ,every law of motion is a crystalline form which has become free or spiritually manifested4 ,through the vibration forms are engendered in bodies1 which are commensurate with the substance and form of the mass and the degree of vibration4 ,these forms1 being as it were the ghosts or phantoms of crystals1 are called sonorous figures4 #bhfa4 ,if the air be displaced when in a state of covibration1 it is not thrown into undulatory circles or waves1 like water into which a stone has been cast1 but in each of its parts the sonorous figure of the rigid body is repeatedly represented4 ,the vibration of air is a progressive motion of sonorous figures4 #bhfb4 ,if the sonorous figures are not incommensurable1 several may be at one and the same time in a single portion of air1 without interfering with each other4 ,they harmonize1 because they have originated according to concordant laws4 ,but if they are products of different laws1 they are then confused1 and an indeterminate offensive vibration originates1 just as savours become loathsome if they depart from their laws4 #bhfc4 ,these figures of the air are only perceived by the ,ear4 ,the ear is the only sense in which the motor system is represented in a pure state1 devoid of any vegetal signification1 and simply endowed with nervose nobility4 ,the ear is therefore the only organ which can perceive the primary motion of the matter2 for like acts only in or upon its like4 #bhfd4 ,the metals are the ear of nature1 the salt her tongue1 the resin her nose1 the earth her hand4 #bhfe4 ,the power or capacity excited by sonorous figures of covibrating according to the same laws1 constitutes ,hearing2 the phenomenon is called ,sound4 ,hearing is a primary motion in the musculo-osseous system of the ear1 which is communicated to the auditory nerve4 ,the auditory sense is ther-sense1 metal-sense4 ,hearing is magnetizing4 #bhff4 ,the sonorous figures are formed in the auditory organ1 and even in the auditory nerves1 just as they have been represented upon an infinitely small scale in the air4 ,the nerve becomes in hearing a sonorous figure4 #bhfg4 ,it is not the mere motion in the auditory organs which produces the sensation of sound2 the nerve certainly perceives each movement in the ears1 because none is possible apart from or without primary motion2 only such a motion is no sound1 but only a noise4 ,what has been written in the tingling metal according to eternal laws1 is transcribed or copied in the auditory nerve2 it is only this writing1 but no massive motion of the air1 which is legible by the nerve4 #bhfh4 ,melody is a retrogression of the matter into ther1 of the formed world into the primary world2 through melody is the spirit of the world revealed4 ,the ear is the first liberation of the animal from all terrestrial matter2 through the ear the animal becomes for the first time spiritual4 #bhfi4 ,melody is the voice of the universe1 whereby it proclaims its scheme1 or its innermost essence4 ,hence the wondrous1 mysterious action of harmony1 the secret sovereignty of music4 ,music is the expression of the ardent desire to revert to the primary idea4 ,it makes man unconsciously yearn after a condition which he knoweth not2 it transports him unconsciously into this condition of divine repose and godly bliss4 ,speech4 #bhgj4 ,that which melodizes proclaims its spirit3 the melody of animals displays their internal law4 #bhga4 ,the musical system of all animal laws is ,speech4 #bhgb4 ,speech is the representation of all nature's sonorous figures in the human organ of sound4 #bhgc4 ,through speech ,man delineates himself in spiritual outlines or sketches1 which1 devoid of matter 7or body71 he sets down before himself4 ,such sketches are easily seen through1 since to them every material covering is wanting1 and they lie purely before the sensation1 as the law1 the will of nature4 #bhgd4 ,through speech ,man appears as a double essence4 ,he is a corporeal essence2 and the spoken word appears before him in the same outlines1 but without body4 ,when conversing1 ,man is a self-manifestation unto self4 #bhge4 ,previous to speech no self-consciousness originates4 #bhgf4 ,without an auditory organ there is no self-consciousness4 #bhgg4 ,to the organ of hearing1 however1 belongs also the auditory nerve and the cerebellum4 ,without a cerebellum there is no self-consciousness4 #bhgh4 ,while ,man appears unto himself1 he appears also to change4 ,nature is gloomy1 incomprehensible2 the spirit is clear1 and enlightens her4 #bhgi4 ,manifestation is only possible through self-manifestation2 through a doubling of itself1 through its expression4 #bhhj4 ,animals appear only1 in so far as they are individual self-manifestations of ,man4 #bhha4 ,with speech ,man creates unto himself his world4 ,without speech there is no world4 ,for the ,apes there is no world1 but only tree-fruits1 female and male4 #bhhb4 ,through speech ,man becomes acquainted with or learns to know himself2 through it he becomes a self-substantial essence1 which resembles ,god1 because it creates for itself its world1 and recognizes itself1 i4 e4 speaks4 #bhhc4 ,words are forms of our body mathematically laid down4 #bhhd4 ,a single world is dead1 so also are many4 #bhhe4 ,words1 which are connected together according to organic laws1 form an organic system1 are at once alive1 and have a meaning4 #bhhf4 ,speech originates gradually like the organs1 like ,man4 ,speech grows like a plant2 at first it is only root1 next it puts forth a stem1 then leaves1 and finally blossoms1 when it is the perfect expression of the animal body4 #bhhg4 ,the organ of speech is composed of the three terrestrial organs of sense1 the air-1 water-1 and earth-sense4 #bhhh4 ,the air-organs are the principal medium1 because they must produce the sonorous figures2 the tongue imparts to them the specific modification2 but the lips and jaws1 as being motor members1 afford the articulation or the movement proper4 ,the lungs and nose breathe out the tones2 the tongue digests them2 the lips move them1 and fashion them into perfect bodies--words4 #bhhi4 ,a word is at once for itself a regularly inter-articulated body4 ,the sounds are its members1 its organs or fundamental formations4 #bhij4 ,speaking is a gentle respiration1 carried on by the mouth1 nose1 and limbs or jaws4 #bhia4 ,as respiration has a special thorax1 so also has speaking4 ,the speech-7or voice-7 thorax is the larynx4 #bhib4 ,the larynx represents the ribs and arms1 which all move in order to form a sound4 ,the tongue is1 so to speak1 the head upon this thorax4 #bhic4 ,the nose imparts euphony to the sounds4 ,it tests their fragrancy4 ,the tongue gives them a special quality1 their chemical character or taste2 the teeth and lips furnish the cadence as a kind of joint to the sounds1 or in other terms the words4 #bhid4 ,four organs of sense belong to speech1 viz3 ,touch in the ,jaws4 ,taste in the ,tongue4 ,smell in the ,nose4 ,hearing in the ,ear4 #bhie4 ,the ear receives the products of the three vegetative organs of sense4 ,it is a synthetic sense4 #bhif4 ,the tongue gives the vowels2 the jaws the consonants4 #bhig4 ,in accordance with this the vowels are the body of speech1 and the consonants the limbs or members1 whereby it effects its movements4 #bhih4 ,vowels express time1 consonants space2 the one the chemical import1 the other the form4 #bhii4 ,the vowel ,e expresses the present1 ,a that which has just past1 ,o that which has quite passed1 ,u that which has passed long ago1 ,i the future4 #bijj4 ,the more consonants there are in the words1 so much the richer is the language2 the more vowels1 the poorer it is4 ,such is the speech of savages or wild men4 #bija4 ,the speech of animals is a vocal or vowel-speech4 #e4 ,function of the ,optic ,sense4 #bijb4 ,as the primary motion of the world is manifested to the animal through the ear2 so does the primitive cause of the motion1 that of every activity and every phenomenon1 i4 e4 light1 appear unto the nerve-sense4 #bijc4 ,the light-sense is similarly formed or modelled according to the light of nature1 and kindles also the light within itself1 just as the light originated in the ther2 viz4 through primary antagonism taking place in its own substance4 #bijd4 ,light is the binary division of the ther-mass1 not an antagonism between it and some other matter2 in like manner sight is a binary division of the nerve-mass in itself1 without antagonism to other organs4 #bije4 ,sight is the tension of the ther directly continued into the animal ther1 just as taste was a chemical action continued into the animal chemism1 and smell an electrical process continued into the animal electrism4 #bijf4 ,in sight the nervous mass is completely self-antagonized1 is a phenomenon unto itself2 the eye is the brain placed opposite to the brain4 #bijg4 ,sight is thus a tension between optic and central brain2 as illumination is tension between planetary and solar ther4 #bijh4 ,illumination and vision are of one kind1 only occurring in two different sorts of worlds4 ,the planet sees by means of the illumination1 the animal illuminates or gives out light by means of seeing4 ,sight is a light-sense4 #biji4 ,now1 the illumination is a fixation of ther1 a coloration1 and thus a descent of the ther into what is terrestrial4 ,in seeing we perceive the ther1 as to how it becomes world2 in hearing we perceived the world1 as to how it became ther4 #biaj4 ,seeing and hearing are opposite functions2 the first indicates the creation1 the latter the return of the creation into chaos4 #biaa4 ,through sight we become acquainted with the universe1 through hearing with the miniature universe1 or man4 ,sight passes out of us1 hearing into us2 or through sight ,man is posited in the world1 through hearing among his fellow-men4 ,sight is the speech of the world1 hearing that of the planet4 #biab4 ,sight is the speech or language of the universe1 hearing the language of ,man4 ,through sight the world reveals unto us its spirit or its thoughts2 but through hearing man only discloses what are his own4 ,as words are but the representations of the disintegrated body of ,man1 so are the world-forms the representatives of the disintegrated body of the primary spirit4 ,the word is a rigidified1 crystallized thought of ,man2 a natural body is a rigidified1 crystalline thought of the primary act--a word of ,god4 #biac4 ,through hearing self-consciousness originates2 through sight consciousness of the world1 universal consciousness4 ,by means of the former we only become acquainted with human relations--which is understanding2 by the latter with those that are universal--this being reason4 #biad4 ,without the ear there would be no understanding1 without the eye no reason4 #biae4 ,understanding is microcosm1 reason macrocosm4 ,from what is intelligent we expect human wisdom1 from what is rational world-wisdom4 #biaf4 ,that the light also has a medium1 whereby it acts upon us1 is at once evident from our existing in such a medium2 but it could also act directly upon us1 were it not inevitably broken up beforehand into colours in traversing the media4 ,all terrestrial elements may be a medium for the transmission of light1 such as the gaseous1 fluid1 and solid1 i4 e4 if they are transparent4 #biag4 ,we perceive only coloured light1 because our organ of light is only a rigidified colour1 a material light4 ,there is no pure light for us2 there is none also in general4 #biah4 ,sight is thus a terrestrial light-tension1 a colour-becoming4 #biai4 ,this happens only through refraction4 ,the eye is a refracting medium4 ,it is distinguished from the brain by being a translucent1 refractive1 encephalic substance4 #bibj4 ,light does not stream into the eye like water into the sponge1 but it progresses gradually into and operates upon it4 #biba4 ,the eye1 in order to experience the sensation of light1 is placed in a similar tension to the air1 water1 or crystal4 ,this tension between it and the brain is perceived by the latter as illumination4 ,the eye is a prism1 in which the brain sees the world1 in which the brain observes its own tension1 or the production of colour4 ,sight is a deoxydation of the eye4 #bibb4 ,the optic nerve is an organized ray of light1 the brain an organized sun1 the eye an organized chromatic sun or rainbow4 #bibc4 ,just as the sonorous figures are delineated in the ears1 and as the nerve perceives these1 but not any concussion of the air2 so also does the optic nerve perceive not the light in general1 but its terrestrial formation or the chromatic image1 which has been propagated into the eye4 #bibd4 ,in an eye1 while seeing1 the world is depicted2 as in the ear1 when hearing1 the crystalline forms of the air are delineated4 #bibe4 ,the eye does not on that account see two worlds4 ,for the chromatic image is nothing else than that which is external to or without the eye4 ,it is verily one and the same influence of light1 which acts continuously in a straight line between the chromatic image and the object apparent or beheld4 #bibf4 ,as a stick thrusts us from the side whither it comes2 so does the chromatic image from the side whence the light comes4 ,the exit and entrance of the light are not distinct from each other4 ,the objects could not therefore appear reversed1 because we do not see the image in the eye1 but feel its process of deoxydation along with its direction4 #bibg4 ,the objects of the eye are colours4 ,like as they are related in nature1 so also must they be in sight2 for they are only the eye extended1 or this again is only the formed colour4 #bibh4 ,we see nothing else but colours1 no bodies4 ,for the eye there is no material world4 ,it directly perceives the spirit1 and indeed its own spirit1 or the world of light4 #bibi4 ,there is no pre-established harmony1 but complete conformity between the world and organ of sense4 7,vid4 ,oken's ,essays1 ,ueber das ,universum als fort-gesetztes ,system der ,sinne1 and ,erste ,ideen zur ,theorie des ,lichts4 ,jena bei ,fromann1 #ahjh47 ,,ii4 ,functions of the ,sexual ,animal4 ,a4 ,,vegetal ,,sexual ,,organs4 #a4 ,of the ,sexual ,intestine4 #bicj4 ,as the sexual animal is in every respect the encephalic animal reversed1 so also is this the case in respect to its functions4 ,the sexual intestine gives out through its mouth or anus1 while the other or animal gut takes in4 ,as being the intestine of the vegetal animal it receives the fermented product of digestion1 or the excrement1 and conveys it backwards towards the sexual orifice or mouth4 #bica4 ,the intestinal function of the sexual animal is an act of vomition4 ,the evacuation is an act of vomition1 seeing that the intestinal contents are moved backwards4 #bicb4 ,the sexual stomach is the rectum4 ,in it the excrementitious matter is accumulated1 so that it may be ready for being broken away in the process of evacuation4 #bicc4 ,the commencement of the sexual intestine is the ccum1 its extremity the anus4 #b4 ,functions of the ,sexual ,lung4 #bicd4 ,we may distinguish two circulations1 the splanchnic or visceral1 which takes place between the lung1 intestine1 and liver1 and the great circulation1 which instead of going to the viscera passes to the other organs1 and is called the bodily or systemic circulation4 ,the liver excretes the product which results from the splanchnic circulation2 the systemic circulation has its organ also1 but one which does not secrete a special1 but general product4 #bice4 ,the general secernent organ of the whole body together with all its systems is the sexual system1 which having been elevated by virtue of this general character to the rank even of an animal1 is a true sexual animal4 ,that which is a general and not a partial excretion1 is imparted by the sexual animal4 ,it is the animal reversed4 #bicf4 ,thus the secernent organ of the general circulation must belong to the sexual system1 and perform in it that which the liver1 or in other words the reverse of the lungs1 has done in the splanchnic circulation4 ,the kidneys are the lungs reversed4 #bicg4 ,if the bile be an extract from the visceral blood1 so is the urine an extract from the body's blood1 and is consequently the purest reflex or pattern of the former4 #bich4 ,the urine is sexual blood1 just as the excrement is a product of the sexual digestion4 ,the urine is reversed blood4 #bici4 ,the formation of urine is a retro-formation of the blood into digestive fluid or sap4 ,the urine is blood of the sexual animal which has become chyle4 ,it has both properties in itself4 ,it is discoloured blood1 and consists for the greatest part of water and salts1 all of which are characters belonging unto chyle4 ,it1 however1 contains urea1 which corresponds to the noblest parts of the blood4 ,this substance1 like fibrine1 consists for the greatest part of nitrogen2 it may be called dissolved or decomposed fibrine4 ,it imparts colour to the urine2 it is converted by oxydation into lithic or uric acid1 and is precipitated of a red colour analogous to that of the blood-globules4 ,in addition to this1 albumen1 gelatine1 carbonate of lime1 and phosphorus1 consequently the whole blood1 are present in the urine4 #bidj4 ,in urea the muscle flows or runs out of the animal1 in albumen the nerve1 in lime and phosphorus the bone1 in gelatine the tegumentary together with the visceral system1 lastly1 in water the menstruum of the digestion and respiration4 #bida4 ,thus the urine1 just like the blood1 is the whole body rendered fluid1 but only in a sexual manner1 namely1 as being half decomposed4 #bidb4 ,so the bile1 from its not representing the whole body1 does not contain the latter in itself4 ,it properly contains only the excretion of the intestinal process4 #bidc4 ,the kidneys stand accordingly opposed without distinction to all the organs1 in so far as all of them are affected by the circulation4 ,their remote sympathy1 or if we please1 their antagonism1 is with the animal systems1 or with bone1 muscle1 and nerve4 ,with the osseous1 as being the profoundest system1 there is of necessity also a close sympathy4 ,in diseases of bone the bones1 as well as the morbid matter1 flow away principally through the urine4 ,their most intimate sympathy must be with the organs of circulation1 with the lung1 liver1 intestine1 and skin4 ,as the skin is also an organ of evaporation1 so is the antagonism between it and the kidneys of a direct or immediate kind4 ,the skin is the kidneys expanded into a large cyst4 ,these are in turn1 just as the lung is1 the inverted skin4 #bidd4 ,a lung in the reversed animal can do nothing else but expire4 ,it only expels the evaporated matter of the sanguinary system1 but takes in none1 so as to alter or support the blood4 ,the sexual animal aims at the destruction of the animal4 ,the urinary cyst1 as being the remnant of the allantois1 and of the primordial kidneys or sexual branchi1 is simply destined to purposes of expulsion4 ,it is the larynx reversed4 ,micturition takes place through contraction of the cyst1 as does expiration by that of the lungs in ,reptilia4 ,it is a cough4 ,b4 ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,sexual ,,organs4 #bide4 ,the sexual functions proper correspond to the sensorial functions1 though to these upon an inferior stage4 ,they are sensorial functions1 which are simply occupied with the materials of the senses1 so that they are vegetative senses4 ,they are a prefiguration of the sense of feeling1 taste1 and smell4 #a4 ,functions of the ,male ,organs4 #bidf4 ,the testes secrete semen in the same manner that the salivary glands do their fluid or juice4 #bidg4 ,the semen is sexual saliva1 and is thus sexual virus or poison4 ,like the saliva destroys that which is living1 so does the semen4 ,the saliva1 however1 destroys it in order to form a new animal out of the food2 with the same motive the semen destroys it4 ,but both differ in this1 that the saliva takes care of the body to which it belongs1 while the semen attends to another body1 the foetus or fruit4 #bidh4 ,the saliva is only the highest condition of the digestive fluid1 and is thus a totality merely of the intestinal system2 the urine is the total product of the vascular system in its antagonism with the lung2 but the semen is the product of the whole body4 ,through the semen the whole body1 rendered fluid or reduced to the primary form1 runs away4 ,the semen is the chyle already prepared for all parts2 but because it is in a sexual animal1 it thus takes the reverse direction and passes out4 #bidi4 ,a fluid1 in which the whole animal has been dissolved1 is parallel to the nerve-or point-mass4 ,the semen is a fluid point-or nerve-mass1 the fluid brain4 #biej4 ,even what is spiritual directly resides in the semen2 it need only assume a form and the cerebral functions commence4 #biea4 ,the penis1 as being the sexual tongue1 has only retained the sensibility of the sense of touch and the function of ingestion4 #b4 ,functions of the ,female ,parts4 #bieb4 ,the female aperture is the pharynx for the ingestion4 #biec4 ,it is by means of the female parts that the whole sexual system becomes for the first time equal to the perfected animal2 through them for the first time the male tongue obtains an oral cavity4 #bied4 ,in the total representation of the sexual animal the female parts environ and include the male4 ,this moment is called copulation4 #biee4 ,copulation is the representation of the entire animal out of two incomplete ones4 ,the sexual animal is only an entire beast in copulation1 and is only then to be considered as equal to the encephalic animal4 ,copulation is a representation of the hermaphrodite4 #bief4 ,this propensity for bringing about the sexual animal's completion is sexual passion or lust4 #bieg4 ,in copulation the male parts are par excellence the sensorial organ1 the female only the recipient mouth4 ,both are properly organs of sense1 but the one is operative or active1 the other patient or passive4 #bieh4 ,previous to copulation the female parts are consequently inactive1 just as digestion is before taste4 ,as digestion first commences after taste has given up the food and excited the stomach to activity1 so also the sexual function first commences in female animals1 after the act of tasting is past4 #biei4 ,through copulation what is female becomes masculine4 ,it now secretes for the first time self-substantial semen4 ,through impregnation the female ovaria are first excited to secrete the saliva1 which the whole animal contains in a state of solution4 #bifj4 ,as the chyle becomes what it is1 or is derived from the saliva and food2 so from the semen and vitellus proceeds the foetus1 but in such a manner that the female substance gives it the mass1 while upon this the male only bestows the polarity4 #bifa4 ,thus1 were the male semen to actually solidify into the foetus2 it is still not its mass which comes into consideration in the latter1 but only its polarizing strength4 ,it supplies the place of the nervous system4 ,this power appears to reside principally in the 7seminal7 ,infusoria or animalcules1 just as that of the blood does in the blood-globules4 ,meanwhile both are only signs of the maturity of their respective juices1 as the ,infusoria in sea-water are a proof also that the sea can produce other animals from its mucus or slime4 ,the ,infusoria are the primary mass of the ,organic4 ,its life is only a manifestation of the seminal polarity4 ,the ,infusoria are semen which has been poured out over the earth4 ,propagation is only possible through reduction taking place to the infusorial primary mass4 #bifb4 ,the semen and the ovum first meet or come together in the uterus4 #bifc4 ,the ovum is the mean between vegetable and animal semen4 ,as the former is distinctly formed and at once represents1 upon a small scale within itself1 the principal parts of the future plant1 so does the ovum2 but only in parts1 from which the animal organs first of all grow forth1 upon which having commenced1 the former or vegetal parts are cast aside4 #bifd4 ,the ovum is the entire animal in idea1 or in design1 but not yet in structure2 it is the thought unto the animal2 it is related to the animal as the thought is to the word4 #bife4 ,the ovum has therefore no organ of the animal preformed within itself1 but only the materials requisite thereunto4 ,but the materials are not so general in character1 that like as from the infusorial mass1 everything could become or derive its existence from everything else4 ,but they are at once destined for definite organs1 as the vitellus for the intestine1 the albumen probably for the integument4 #biff4 ,in an ovum therefore the animal resides preformed only in a spectral or phantom-like manner4 ,there are principal masses present in it1 from which the principal organs originate4 ,mamm4 #bifg4 ,in the oviparous animals the secretion of the vitellus is distinct from that of the albumen2 the one takes place in the ovarium1 the other in the oviduct or uterus4 #bifh4 ,by degrees the albumen-secreting vessels advance further outwards upon the orifice of the sexual parts1 and are then called milk-organs--,mamm4 #bifi4 ,mamm are only the vascular bundles of the oviduct placed in the direction outwards1 or albumen-glands of the integument4 #bigj4 ,mammalia are those animals where the ovarium has completely separated into albumen-and vitellus-organ4 #biga4 ,those mamm which have scarcely been detached from the oviduct1 and become free1 are necessarily more incomplete1 and are situated in the neighbourhood of the sexual parts--as udders4 #bigb4 ,as the separation of the substances composing the ovum is an advancing-step towards their improvement1 so also is the removal of the albumen-glands from the vitelline sac a nobler condition4 ,they cannot1 however1 remove further off than to the thorax1 because this is the highest post or station of the vegetative parts4 #bigc4 ,milk is a vegetable product of the animal4 #bigd4 ,numerous mamm are a lower development4 #bige4 ,the milk is albumen1 which has been secreted by tegumentary glands2 it is animal albumen4 ,the lacteal or milk-organs therefore belong to the sexual system4 #bigf4 ,as the male parts are only the female otherwise developed1 it is to be comprehended why the male animals also have mamm4 ,they are probably the embryo's principal organ of absorption4 ,functions of the ,uterus4 #bigg4 ,now1 the uterus obtains the sexual food in a living state1 and from its being such is affected by it4 #bigh4 ,the uterus must be thus a world for the living germ4 ,two processes are1 however1 indispensable for the germ1 namely nutrition and respiration2 both of which are furnished by the uterus4 #bigi4 ,the uterus is to be regarded as the water1 the sea in which the germ or embryo is developed4 ,the water decomposes into basic nutritive matter and oxygenous matter of respiration4 ,the water of the uterus is the blood2 this is separated through the antagonism of the foetus into mucus and oxygen4 ,the mucus penetrates into the amnion1 the oxygen into the chorion1 or the placenta4 #bihj4 ,the fundus of the uterus is more arteriose than the os uteri1 and stands therefore in opposition with it4 #c4 ,development of the ,foetus4 a4 ,anatomy4 #biha4 ,the germ may be regarded as a vesicle1 full of nutritive matter or albumen1 situated within the cavity of the uterus1 the walls of which act upon it4 #bihb4 ,as the fundus of the uterus is the arterial pole1 so it oxydizes the vesicle and repels that part which lies close upon it4 ,through this originates a saccular inversion1 as in the mesentery of the peritoneum1 and the vesicle separates into three divisions4 ,in itself it is amnion1 the inverted part is the integument of the embryo1 the tube which unites these the umbilical cord4 #bihc4 ,the amnion is thus the root or primary cyst of the integument4 #bihd4 ,through continuous oxydation blood-vessels are developed upon the surface of the amnion1 which finally withdraw to constitute a special integument1 which is called chorion4 ,its vessels are in like manner repelled from the fundus uteri1 and prolonged into the inversion of the umbilical cord and the embryo4 ,the chorion is thus the root or primary cyst of the vascular system4 #bihe4 ,these two bladders1 sacs1 or cysts are the only general ones which circumscribe or invest the entire embryo1 because there are only two general vegetative systems1 namely1 the tegumentary and vascular4 #bihf4 ,the embryo has not originated freely in these shut sacs1 but only through their introversion2 it is itself a portion of these sacs4 #bihg4 ,the embryo properly lies external to its envelopes1 as the intestine does in respect to the mesentery4 #bihh4 ,just as the two general vegetative systems have been developed from primary cysts1 so also are there sacs for the two special vegetative systems1 or the intestinal and sexual2 but1 on that very account1 these cannot be general sacs1 nor any longer envelop the embryo4 #bihi4 ,at the entrance of the inversion of the umbilical cord is situated a small vesicle1 which divides and is prolonged into the two intestines4 ,it is therefore the root or primary sac of the intestinal system1 and is called in ,man the 'vesicula umbilicalis1' in the ,mammalia the 'tunica erythroides1' and in oviparous animals the 'vitellus4' #biij4 ,in the same situation is placed another cyst1 which is prolonged into what has been called the 'urachus' and the urinary cyst1 and from which the primordial kidneys1 the true kidneys1 and the sexual parts are developed by sacciform eversion4 ,this sac is called the 'allantois1' 'tunica allantoides1' and is consequently the root or primary sac of the sexual system4 #biia4 ,these cysts or sacs are consequently not envelopes that serve for the protection of the foetus1 but its developmental organs1 which disappear1 so soon as their prolongations into the foetus itself enable them to exercise their functions4 #biib4 ,there are thus as many developmental sacs or cysts1 as there are vegetative systems present1 viz43 a4 ,two ,general ,cysts4 #a4 ,the ,vascular cyst--,chorion4 #b4 ,tegumental cyst--,amnion4 b4 ,two ,special ,cysts4 #c4 ,the ,intestinal cyst--,vitellus4 #d4 ,sexual cyst--,allantois4 #biic4 ,it is only the vegetative systems which take root in the foetal envelopes1 but not the animal systems4 ,there is no developmental cyst for the nervous1 muscular1 and osseous systems4 #biid4 ,the persistent vegetative systems are the developmental organs for the animal systems2 as the intestine for the bones1 the veins for the muscles1 the tegument or branchial sac for the nerves4 #biie4 ,the foetus consists of three floors or stories like a house1 whereof one has been based upon1 or rather developed out of the other1 viz43 a4 ,of the ,developmental cysts4 b4 ,vegetative systems4 c4 ,animal systems4 #biif4 ,according to time the sacs are developed in the following series4 ,the first sac is that of the vitellus or the intestine1 which is also the first that is present in the development of the animal kingdom4 ,upon this vitelline membrane the blood-vessels 7'vasa omphalomesenterica'7 are developed1 are prolonged into the body with the intestine1 turn again outwards and form the chorion4 ,from this the amnion next separates into the envelopes1 and the integument upon the embryo4 ,lastly1 the allantois appears1 and in its prolongation the sexual parts4 #biig4 ,originally the whole chorion is replete all around with vessels2 but as the process of oxydation occurs most powerfully upon the fundus uteri1 so are the vessels developed most abundantly in that very situation1 and form the placenta4 #biih4 ,the placenta is no peculiar organ1 but only the more energetic part of the chorion4 #biii4 ,it must necessarily be placed around the insertion of the umbilical cord1 because at this spot the inversion takes place1 on account of the strong oxydation4 #cjjj4 ,the placenta is always situated upon the fundus uteri1 because it originates only through its influence4 ,it cannot therefore begin to suck1 like the mouth of a leech1 in a fortuitous or voluntary manner anywhere4 ,if it is found occupying some other situation1 it is a proof that the oxydizing process of the uterus has been displaced4 ,this is consequently an abnormal situation4 #cjja4 ,opposite to the foetal vascular system is first of all developed the general system of animal life1 namely1 the nervous system1 and indeed the spinal chord1 or what has been called the 'carina' or primary streak4 #cjjb4 ,the development of all other systems oscillates in this antagonism of blood and nerves4 #cjjc4 ,in the antagonism of the placenta is formed the liver1 which in the embryo is one of the largest organs1 and in its antagonism the brain is developed4 #cjjd4 ,in the antagonism of the amnion the integument is evolved1 and in its antagonism the branchi and lungs4 #cjje4 ,in obedience to the antagonism of the arteries and veins1 the vitelline sac divides into small and large intestine4 ,the one pursues a course towards the arterial extremity of the body1 the brain1 the other towards the venous or sexual parts2 mouth and anus4 #cjjf4 ,finally1 from the antagonism of the allantois the sexual parts emerge at the very extremity of the body1 which is placed opposite to the mouth4 #cjjg4 ,the osseous and muscular system first makes its appearance1 when the vegetative parts are present4 #cjjh4 ,the intestines1 the vessels1 and the commencement of the sexual parts are originally situated in the umbilical cord1 which is itself surrounded by the integument4 ,the umbilical cord is therefore nothing else than the posterior extremity of the body or abdomen1 through which the embryo respires and is nourished4 #cjji4 ,the first respiration and deglutition is therefore a respiration and deglutition effected by the sexual parts1 as in the lowest animals4 b4 ,functions of the ,foetus4 #a4 ,nutrition4 #cjaj4 ,the juices which are contained in the developmental sacs are nutritive juices or chyle2 they contain principally albumen4 ,the chyle of the intestinal vesicle depends upon the vitellus4 #cjaa4 ,the foetal water in the amnion is derived from albumen in the ovum2 it is here secreted by the oviduct1 but in the ,mammalia by the internal wall of the uterus1 and absorbed by the general envelopes4 #cjab4 ,the cause of this secretion resides in the decomposition of the blood through the influence of the chorion4 ,thus if the maternal blood become deoxydized1 it must necessarily revert to the condition of chyle4 ,this chyle is the foetal water4 #cjac4 ,the foetal water is absorbed by the embryo through the integument4 #cjad4 ,no blood is transferred from the mother directly to the foetus4 #cjae4 ,the blood-vessels of the uterus and placenta do not open into or communicate with each other4 #cjaf4 ,the foetal water corresponds to the albumen or the white of eggs1 not to the vitellus4 ,this becomes also during incubation consumed in the formation of the body of the chick1 and not the vitelline mass1 which is first of all destined for the intestine4 #cjag4 ,towards the termination of pregnancy1 when the foetus is endowed with muscular motion1 the foetal water is also absorbed4 ,nutrition is therefore in the commencement an absorption carried on by the integument1 and lastly by the intestine4 #b4 ,respiration4 #cjah4 ,the respiratory organ of the foetus is the chorion1 and in particular the placenta4 ,its tissue is like that of the branchi or spleen4 #cjai4 ,the arterial blood transmitted through the umbilical vein is conducted through the foramen ovale into the left ventricle of the heart1 and from thence directly to the principal organ of the foetus1 the brain and spinal cord4 ,from hence it returns1 venous in quality1 to the right side of the heart1 and from thence through the ductus arteriosus into the inferior or descending aorta1 from which1 pursuing its course through the umbilical arteries1 it again reaches the placenta1 in which it undergoes a renewed oxydation4 #cjbj4 ,if therefore the umbilical cord be compressed1 the foetus dies suddenly1 as happens indeed accidentally in certain cases1 which completely resemble those of death produced by suffocation4 ,the chick when in the egg dies1 if the egg-shell be coated over with varnish1 or if the egg be submitted to the noxious influence of gases which are devoid of oxygen4 #cjba4 ,the respiration effected through means of the placenta1 admits also of being proved by the sudden change which occurs in the circulation after birth4 ,no arterial blood being then any longer brought to the heart through the umbilical vein1 the left heart is no longer stimulated1 and the foramen ovale collapses and is closed4 ,thus1 all the blood enters the right side of the heart1 and finding no thoroughfare into the ductus arteriosus1 it is driven forcibly into the lungs1 which now expand1 and thereby leave an empty space between the pulmonary vessels1 into which the air rushes in4 #cjbb4 ,the first act of respiration is therefore the result of the lungs being injected with venous blood1 and thus of necessity ensues4 ,when1 on the contrary1 cases arise causing pulmonary suffocation1 the blood then regurgitates to the umbilical vessels1 in order to reach the original branchia or placenta4 #cjbc4 ,another process of respiration is found to take place in the vessels of the allantois4 ,its fluid becomes oxydized and penetrates through the urinary cyst into what have been called primordial kidneys4 ,this kind of respiration through the anus is persistent in many ,worms and larv of ,insects4 #cjbd4 ,finally1 there is a respiratory process on the body of the embryo itself through the branchial apertures on its neck2 these in the ,frogs and ,salamanders still continue visible after their exclusion from the egg4 ,this oxygen must be derived from the foetal water4 #cjbe4 ,without doubt also the vitelline vessels respire1 and thus each vegetative system has its own process of respiration4 ,the intestine respires through the vitelline vessels1 the vascular system through the vessels of the chorion1 the sexual system through those of the allantois1 the integument through the branchial apertures4 ,the lungs belong to1 and perform respiration for the whole body4 ,decay of the ,developmental ,organs4 #cjbf4 ,when all the organs are developed1 the intestines are drawn together with the vitellus into the abdomen4 ,the chick is still nourished several days after exclusion from the egg by the vitelline mass1 which passes through the vitelline canal into the intestine4 ,the vitelline membrane subsequently becomes flaccid1 and finally disappears through maceration4 ,in the ,mammalia the umbilical vesicle separates at an earlier period from the intestine1 and continues to lie in the umbilical cord4 #cjbg4 ,the secernent point of the vitelline membrane or of the umbilical vesicle is the coecum4 #cjbh4 ,there are therefore two intestinal systems1 which branch off in a bifurcated manner from the coecum1 namely1 the sexual intestine and the small or truncal intestine4 #cjbi4 ,all embryos have originally umbilical herni1 which do not originate through protrusion of the intestines out of the abdominal cavity1 but through their entrance into the latter being retarded4 #cjcj4 ,the umbilical herni therefore indicate an earlier condition of the animal1 which has originated through arrest of the development4 #cjca4 ,at birth all the enveloping membranes die1 and their point of liberation is called the navel or umbilicus4 #cjcb4 ,the animal has originated through the umbilicus1 and through this has it respired4 #cjcc4 ,all animals which breathe by the anus1 do so properly through the navel2 animals of this kind are fundamentally umbilical animals4 ,parallelism of the ,foetus with the ,animal ,classes4 #cjcd4 ,during its development the animal passes through all stages of the animal kingdom4 ,the foetus is a representation of all animal classes in time4 #cjce4 ,at first it is a simple vesicle1 stomach1 or vitellus1 as in the ,infusoria4 #cjcf4 ,then the vesicle is doubled through the albumen and shell1 and obtains an intestine1 as in the ,corals4 #cjcg4 ,it obtains a vascular system in the vitelline vessels1 or absorbents1 like as in the ,acaleph4 #cjch4 ,with the blood-system1 liver1 and ovarium1 the embryo enters the class of bivalved ,mollusca4 #cjci4 ,with the muscular heart1 the testicle1 and the penis1 into the class of ,snails4 #cjdj4 ,with the venous and arteriose hearts1 and the urinary apparatus1 into the class of ,cephalopods or ,cuttle-fish4 #cjda4 ,with the absorption of the integument1 into the class of ,worms4 #cjdb4 ,with the formation of branchial fissures1 into the class ,crustacea4 #cjdc4 ,with the germination or budding forth of limbs1 into the class of ,insects4 #cjdd4 ,with the appearance of the osseous system1 into the class of ,fishes4 #cjde4 ,with the evolution of muscles1 into the class of ,reptiles4 #cjdf4 ,with the ingress of respiration through the lungs1 into the class of ,birds4 ,the foetus1 when born1 is actually like them1 edentulous4 #cjdg4 ,after birth it is suckled or fed4 ,the milk is the nutrition continued by means of albumen2 for the mamm are verily only the albuminous vessels of the ,bird1 which are placed free and external in the ,mammiferous animal4 ,after the time for sucking is past the young one obtains teeth2 and thereby becomes for the first time independent of the mother1 and passes over into the class ,mammalia4 ,now1 should the sketch here afforded of these parallels be not in all respects correct or justifiable1 still sufficient proof remains1 that a perfect parallelism is found to take place between the development of the foetus and that of the animal kingdom4 #cjdh4 ,animals are only the persistent foetal stages or conditions of man4 #cjdi4 ,malformations are only persistent foetal conditions1 or animal formations in individual animal bodies4 #cjej4 ,diseases are vital processes in animals4 ,pathology is the physiology of the animal kingdom4 ,a human foetus is a whole animal kingdom4 7,vid4 ,oken's ',die ,zeugung1' ',beytrge zur vergl4 ,anatomie1' and ',ueber die ,nabelbrche4'7 ,periods of ,life4 #cjea4 ,if the young in the ovum or in the mother's body resembles the aquatic animals1 and has passed through their organization2 so after birth does it belong to the air-breathing animals and traverse their organization4 #cjeb4 ,one period is that of sucking2 the edentulous condition of the ,bird4 ,this is called the suckling age1 baby-hood or infancy4 #cjec4 ,one is that of the eruption and persistence of the milk-teeth2 the condition of the ,rodentia1 a repetition of the gelatinous animals4 ,this is the age of childhood4 #cjed4 ,one is the eruption of the permanent set of teeth until the attainment of puberty1 or the development of the sexual functions2 the condition of the ,marsupialia2 repetition of the ,conchozoa or ,shell-animals4 ,this is boyhood4 #cjee4 ,from the state of puberty until the development of the faculty of understanding2 the condition of the ,shrews and ,bats1 the repetition of ,insects4 ,the age of youth4 #cjef4 ,the period of the understanding passes through the ,ungulata1 and is a repetition of ,fishes1 ,reptiles1 and ,birds4 ,this is the first stage of manhood4 #cjeg4 ,after the understanding the reason matures2 this is the condition of the higher ,mammalia up to ,man2 it is a repetition of the ,mammalia4 ,this is adult age or mature manhood4 #cjeh4 ,then follows the decadence or dying off of the sexual functions2 a retrogression through the animal classes4 ,gray old age4 #cjei4 ,finally1 the reason and understanding die2 childhood returns and terminates with the death of the vegetable in the animal4 #cjfj4 ,death results through the sexual animal4 #cjfa4 ,death is only a continuous growth through retrogression into the organic primary matter or ,infusoria4 #cjfb4 ,death is an organized decomposition4 #cjfc4 ,decomposition is a forming of seeds1 ova1 and foetuses4 #cjfd4 ,dying is a multiplication of self4 ,,iii4 ,,zoology4 #cjfe4 ,zoology is ,zoogeny divided and self-substantially represented4 ,what in ,zoogeny was the organ of a single indivisible animal here becomes the organ of a separated animal1 or becomes a self-substantial animal4 #cjff4 ,the self-substantial animals are only parts of the ,great animal1 which is the ,animal ,kingdom4 #cjfg4 ,the animal kingdom is only one animal1 i4 e4 the representation of animality with all its organs1 each of which is a whole for itself4 #cjfh4 ,a single animal originates1 if a single organ frees itself from the general animal body1 and yet exercises the essential animal functions4 #cjfi4 ,the animal kingdom is only a dismemberment of the highest animal1 i4 e4 of ,man4 #cjgj4 ,animals become nobler in rank1 the greater the number of organs which are collectively liberated or severed from the ,grand animal1 and which enter into combination4 ,an animal1 which e4 g4 lived only as intestine1 would be1 doubtless1 inferior to one which with the intestine were to combine a skin2 and that animal again must be regarded as higher than the latter1 which should present1 in addition to these organs1 vessels1 liver1 branchi1 trache1 and lastly bones1 c4 #cjga4 ,animals are gradually perfected1 entirely like the single animal body1 by adding organ unto organ4 ,the animal kingdom is developed through the multiplication of the organs4 #cjgb4 ,each animal ranks therefore above the other2 two of them never stand upon an equal plane or level4 ,animals are distinguished by their position of stages or degrees from each other1 by the number of their different organs1 but not by the division of a single organ4 #cjgc4 ,the animal system cannot be arbitrarily disposed according to this or that organ1 just as it may chance to meet the eye2 but only in accordance with the rigid prescripts of the animal body's genesis4 #cjgd4 ,the animal body separates into two series of organs1 which1 corresponding with1 pursue a proximal course in relation to1 each other2 into the ,anatomical systems and the ,sensorial organs1 unto which the sexual parts appertain4 #cjge4 ,the number of the sensorial organs is #e1 and they thus stand according to their genetic development one above the other3 ,tactile sense or ,skin4 ,gustatory sense or ,tongue4 ,olfactory sense or ,nose4 ,auditory sense or ,ear4 ,optical sense or ,eye4 #cjgf4 ,in animals1 which are characterized by the sense of feeling or touch1 the other sensorial organs must be either still wanting1 or if present but imperfectly conditioned1 i4 e4 not constituted like those of man1 who is the type1 pattern1 or paragon for every formation4 #cjgg4 ,their sensations are limited to those of general touch or feeling1 and of those derived through the medium of the other senses we meet with but feeble manifestations4 #cjgh4 ,their body itself will only be a tegumentary body1 with the organs subordinated to the integument1 namely1 the viscera4 ,they are therefore devoid of a true tongue1 of a nose1 and of ears and eyes consummated after the fashion of these organs in man2 they are devoid of an osseous1 muscular1 and myelonal 7spinal chord7 system1 and therefore of the nose in toto1 as being the anterior extremity of the myelon4 #cjgi4 ,such are what have been called the ,invertebrate animals1 which are consequently1 in accordance with their physiological signification1 ,splanchnic or ,tegumentary animals4 #cjhj4 ,the tongue exhibits for the first time in ,fishes a resemblance to the human structure1 while their nose1 ears1 and eyes have not yet attained the latter grade of perfection4 ,to the nose are wanting the posterior nasal foramina1 to the ears the external auditory meatus1 to the eyes the palpebr and power of motion4 #cjha4 ,in the ,reptiles the nose opens for the first time into the mouth1 and serves for the thorough passage of air4 ,it is thus developed as in ,man1 while to the ears the external auditory meatus and cochlea are wanting1 the eyes being barely endowed with lids and motion4 #cjhb4 ,in ,birds1 for the first time1 the external auditory meatus1 as well as the cochlea1 is exhibited in its perfection1 while the eyes are scarcely gifted with motion1 and have only the inferior lid perfect2 the tongue and nose1 with the limbs also1 have again become retrograde in character4 #cjhc4 ,for the first time1 in the ,mammalia1 the eyes are moveable and covered with two perfect lids1 without the other organs of sense having suffered degradation through this completion of the eyes4 #cjhd4 ,thus in respect to the ,senses there are only #e animal divisions of equal value or worth4 ,they should properly be called classes2 but1 as the lowest division1 from comprising within itself the viscera or the vegetative systems1 is very rich in contents2 were we to call these divisions classes1 many inequalities in rank1 and hence also in the number of the orders and families1 would originate-- #a4 ,dermatozoa ,invertebrata4 #b4 ,glossozoa ,pisces4 #c4 ,rhinozoa ,reptilia4 #d4 ,otozoa ,aves4 #e4 ,ophthalmozoa ,mammalia4 #cjhe4 ,now1 with the sense of feeling1 or the integument1 the sexual system is associated or conjoined1 and that indeed as the first or lowest development of the tegumentary system4 ,nevertheless1 the sexual system divides into two groups1 into the sexual organs1 which are impressed with a true sensorial signification1 and into their product1 or the sexual juices1 and the ovum or foetus4 ,with these two divisions the development of the integument proceeds pari passu4 ,in the ovum the tegument and its contents are not as yet separated4 ,both consist of a transparent mucous or gelatinous mass1 as is exemplified by the vitellus and albumen2 such is the case also in the ,infusoria1 ,polyps1 and ,acaleph or ,sea-nettles4 ,in the sexual organs1 however1 both parts separate into membranous capsules or cysts1 and glandular contents1 as in the roe or ovary2 milt or testes2 kidneys1 with furthermore the oviduct1 penis1 and urinary cyst4 ,the latter are sentient membranes4 ,such is the case in the ,bivalve ,mollusca1 and ,snails4 ,in the next place the tegument becomes1 for the first time1 a self-substantial organ of sensation by appearing as an envelope of the body2 the vesical form is then repeated1 and by this means the annular character originates as a series of cysts arranged one behind the other2 it is thus a veritable skin1 from which1 finally1 the members sprout forth1 as in ,worms and ,insects4 ,the ,dermatozoa will accordingly range in three stages4 #a4 ,blasto- or ,oozoa4 #b4 ,sexual animals4 #c4 ,cutaneous ,an annulated tegument1 cutis or true skin1 appears for the first time in the ,worms1 with here and there lateral filaments and tentacula4 ,true feet and antenn appear in the ,crustacea or ,crabs4 ,lastly1 feet and wings in the ,insecta or ,flies4 #cjhf4 ,the external sexual parts1 especially the male1 first make their appearance1 and that indeed with a very striking amount of development1 in the ,snails1 and in like manner the body of the ,bivalve ,mollusca or ,mussels has become almost a complete mass of ova or roe4 ,in the ,cuttle-fishes the first traces or rudiments of urinary organs appear4 ,the animals which belong to this group are accordingly the ,conchozoa or ,shell-animals4 #cjhg4 ,animals1 which are directly resolvable into sexual fluids1 or that represent parts of the ovum1 are the gelatinous ,infusoria1 ,polyps1 and ,acaleph4 ,unto this category belong the ,protozoa or ,mucus-animals4 #cjhh4 ,the complete subdivision of animals1 according to the organs of sense1 would consequently stand thus3 ,i4 ,dermatozoa ,invertebrata4 #a4 ,oozoa ,protozoa4 #b4 ,glandular animals ,conchozoa4 #c4 ,cutaneous ,ancyliozoa4 ,,ii4 ,glossozoa ,pisces4 ,,iii4 ,rhinozoa ,reptilia4 ,,iv4 ,otozoa ,aves4 ,v4 ,ophthalmozoa ,thricozoa4 #cjhi4 ,unto these organs of sense the anatomical1 or internal parts1 are subordinated1 and range parallel to them in a striking manner4 ,the following is their order of succession in accordance with that of their origin3 #a4 ,intestinal system4 #b4 ,vascular #c4 ,respiratory #d4 ,osseous #e4 ,muscular #f4 ,nervous #cjij4 ,that the vegetative systems are correctly arranged after this manner1 is proved chiefly by their order of development in the animal series4 #cjia4 ,the animals1 occupying the lowest grade1 are nothing but an intestine1 which is in many instances scarcely separated or distinct from the tegument2 they are devoid of vessels and branchi1 and are barely provided with self-substantial ovisacs4 ,their body consists of one or two concentric cysts of an homogeneous and transparent substance--,intestinal animals1 ,protozoa4 #cjib4 ,when the intestine is freed from the mass of the body1 both then obtain the form and substance of tegumental cysts1 whereof the external being only an intestinal tunic1 thus represents the peritoneum4 ,they are now1 however1 united by means of a vascular system1 which is again surrounded by a cyst1 and thus by a pleura4 ,their body consists of three concentric cysts2 intestine1 peritoneum1 and pleura4 ,it contains too a liver and self-substantial sexual parts--,vascular animals1 ,conchozoa4 ,if these cysts be repeated in the direction of the axis1 the tegument becomes an annulated skin4 ,an annulose animal is a multiplied cystic animal4 ,associated with this character1 the respiratory organs are gradually evolved to form vascular plexuses1 branchi1 feet1 trache1 and wings1 while the sexual parts are for the most part separated--,ancyliozoa1 ,respiratory animals4 #cjic4 ,the osseous system first appears in the ,fishes1 along with imperfect1 mostly tendonless1 and only white muscles1 as also a myelon that is only developed into a stunted encephalon1 in which the brain-organs of the ,thricozoon are in great part wanting4 #cjid4 ,typical1 or true muscles1 provided with tendons1 and of a red colour1 are first exhibited in the ,reptilia4 #cjie4 ,a complete nervous system1 pretty similar to that of the ,thricozoa or ,pilose animals1 having a cerebrum and cerebellum1 with similarly distributed and delicate nerves1 is first displayed in ,birds4 #cjif4 ,according to the anatomical systems there are1 therefore1 six divisions of animals3 ,a4 ,splanchnozoa4 #a4 ,intestinal animals ,protozoa4 #b4 ,vascular ,conchozoa4 #c4 ,respiratory ,ancyliozoa4 ,b4 ,sarcozoa4 #d4 ,osseous animals ,pisces4 #e4 ,muscular ,reptilia4 #f4 ,nervose ,aves4 #cjig4 ,the ,pilose animals first originate through completion and combination of all the organs of sense4 ,they are sthetic or ,sensorial animals4 #cjih4 ,the arrangement of animals1 according to the organs of sense1 coincides consequently with that derived from the anatomical systems1 and each animal division is therefore determined by two principal organs1 by a vegetative and an animal4 ,every animal is at once a vegetable and animal body1 the inferior kinds being partly so1 but the highest or the ,pilose animals entirely so1 or in every respect1 i4 e4 in them are found all the anatomical systems1 and all the sexual and sensorial organs4 #cjii4 ,the signification of animals is accordingly as follows3 ,i4 ,anatomical ,systems4 ,a4 ,vegetative ,systems4 #a4 ,intestinal animals4 #b4 ,vascular #c4 ,respiratory ,b4 ,animal ,systems4 #d4 ,osseous animals4 #e4 ,muscular #f4 ,nervose #g4 ,sensorial ,,ii4 ,organs of ,sense4 ,a4 ,tegumental ,sense4 #a4 ,oozoa ,protozoa4 #b4 ,glandular animals ,conchozoa4 #c4 ,cutaneous ,ancyliozoa4 ,b4 ,cephalic ,senses4 #d4 ,glossozoa ,pisces4 #e4 ,rhinozoa ,reptilia4 #f4 ,otozoa ,aves4 #g4 ,ophthalmozoa ,thricozoa4 ,the ovum divides into vitellus1 and albumen1 along with the calcareous shell1 and into germ or envelopes2 the intestine into pharynx or stomach1 bowels and absorbent vessels1 thus3 #a4 ,gastric animals ,vitelline animals ,infusoria4 #b4 ,intestinal ,albuminous ,polyps4 #c4 ,absorbent ,involucral ,acaleph4 ,the sexual parts divide into female1 male1 and urinary organs2 the vessels into veins1 arteries1 and hearts1 thus3 #a4 ,ovarial animals ,venous animals ,mussels4 #b4 ,orchitic ,arterial ,snails4 #c4 ,renal ,cardiac ,kracken4 ,the annulated tegument divides into papill1 feet1 and wings2 the respiratory organs into tegumental network or rete1 into branchi and trache1 thus3 #a4 ,papillary animals ,reticular animals ,worms4 #b4 ,pedal ,branchial ,crabs4 #c4 ,alary ,tracheal ,flies4 ,when parallelized with the organs of plants1 the following remarkable relationships between them are rendered apparent3 #a4 ,cells ,stomach ,vitellus ,infusoria4 #b4 ,bark ,intestine ,albumen ,polyps4 #c4 ,root ,absorbents ,envelopes ,acaleph4 #d4 ,ducts ,veins ,ovary ,mussels4 #e4 ,liber ,arteries ,testes ,snails4 #f4 ,stalk ,hearts ,kidneys ,kracken4 #g4 ,trache ,retia ,papill ,worms4 #h4 ,wood ,branchi ,feet ,crabs4 #i4 ,foliage ,lungs ,wings ,flies4 #aj4 ,seeds ,bones ,tongue ,fishes4 #aa4 ,pistil ,muscles ,nose ,reptiles4 #ab4 ,corolla ,nerves ,ears ,birds4 #ac4 ,fruit ,senses ,eyes ,thricozoa4 ,a4 ,,division ,,into ,,provinces4 #cajj4 ,the animal body divides first of all into the vegetative and animal4 ,there will therefore be animals in which the former1 and others in which the latter1 systems predominate4 ,the kingdom consequently separates into a vegetative and into an animal province4 ,the vegetative parts are all tegumental developments1 and thus the creatures in whom they prevail are ,splanchnic or ,visceral animals1 but the animal parts are developments of the flesh1 and constitute the ,sarcose animals4 ,first ,province4 ,splanchnozoa4 #caja4 ,unto the ,splanchnic or ,tegumental animals are wanting bones1 muscles with the nerves belonging to them1 and thus the neural axis or encephalon2 they are consequently devoid of bone1 muscle1 and brain1 being in a word asarcose or fleshless animals4 ,the tegument is1 however1 the general organ of sensation or feeling2 they are thus ,sensitive animals4 #cajb4 ,in them1 developments only of the sense of feeling can occur1 such as sensitive papill1 tentacula1 feet1 and wings4 ,all the remaining organs of sense can only be exhibited as rudiments of a very feeble or stunted character4 ,they do not possess a true tongue1 nose1 ears1 and eyes1 i4 e4 constructed after the type of these organs in ,man4 ,the eyes only1 from their being the sense of the animal system proper1 can assume a definite kind of development4 #cajc4 ,but1 these organs of sense are the sensorial organs of the head1 or rather are the head itself2 the ,tegumental animals are therefore devoid of a true head4 ,they only possess such an one1 in so far as it is determined by the tegument and nervous sense1 by the mouth and the eyes4 ,these animals are what have been called ,invertebrata1 a name which is1 however1 defective1 from its indicating the absence of one part only or of a single animal system1 while the word flesh comprehends bones1 muscles1 and nervous mass2 they are asarcose animals4 ,but even this last appellation is not correct1 because it is negative4 ,their positive system1 or that under which they actually exist1 is the tegument2 so that the name of ,dermatozoa or ,sensitive animals1 is the only proper one4 ,as the tegument includes the viscera and forms therefore the trunk alone1 they may thus also be designated ,trunk-animals4 ,second ,province4 ,sarcozoa4 #cajd4 ,as in the animal body1 bones1 muscles1 and encephalic system are suddenly associated with the tegumental system2 so also does a second series of animals1 having these systems1 suddenly originate4 ,now1 as the first formation of the osseous system is the vertebra1 so all these animals have1 as is generally understood1 a vertebral column1 and are on that account indeed ,vertebrata2 but1 they are much more than this1 and hence the title is of too limited a character4 ,besides there are among them animals1 in which only the chorda dorsalis is present1 without the ring of the vertebral body being formed around it4 ,along with the animal systems the head is for the first time developed with its organs of sense--,cephalic animals4 ,these animals have consequently1 in addition to the general sense of feeling1 a true tongue1 nose1 ears1 and eyes--,cephalsthetic animals4 ,b4 ,,animal ,,circles4 #caje4 ,animal ,circles are representations of entire anatomical systems as self-substantial bodies4 #cajf4 ,now1 the vegetative body divides into three principal systems1 into the ,intestinal1 ,vascular1 and ,respiratory system1 with their functions1 or the digestive1 nutritive1 and respiratory processes4 ,there are therefore ,intestinal1 ,vascular1 and ,respiratory animals4 ,circle ,i4 ,intestinal ,animals4 #cajg4 ,the intestinal system is the first form of body1 or that from which the other systems have not yet separated4 ,the body of these animals consists therefore of the homogeneous primary mass--the animal protoplasma1 mucus or slime--,mucus-animals4 ,now1 the protoplasma is a hollow globule4 ,the intestinal system is therefore nothing else than the original cystic form4 ,thus1 there are ,cystic animals like the ,infusoria4 ,again1 cysts can increase in no other way1 than by dividing into their like1 or engendering cysts within themselves4 ,the first kind of increase or multiplication of species is thus fissiparous1 or produced by division4 ,the newly-engendered cysts are to be compared with the vitellus1 and when they have attained perfection1 to the ovum4 ,they are therefore ,oozoa or ,ovum-animals4 ,in these animals consequently there are no separated sexual parts1 namely1 in addition to the vitelli1 neither testes nor renal organs1 or at least only obscure indications of them4 ,in these ,cystic animals the lowest feeling only1 that of the sex or general sensation1 can occur4 ,the ,oozoa or ,cystic animals1 when compared with the plants1 are the first flower that has been set free1 or in other words1 a flower which no longer stands polarwise upon a stem1 because it is not developed in the differencing air1 but in the indifferent water4 ,it may be said that nature1 having brought matters as far as the development of the sexual parts1 then quits or passes out of the vegetable world2 while these parts1 or even the entire plant1 requiring now no longer the stem and root1 become a root themselves1 and in behalf of this enter the water4 ,animals1 which have the form of flowers1 are round or radiiform4 ,there are ,radiata or ,radiated animals4 #cajh4 ,these ,anthoidal or ,flower-like animals are ,infusoria1 ,polyps1 ,acaleph2 being single or double concentric cysts4 #caji4 ,we may regard the ,flower-animals as the fundamental mass of the sexual parts1 which has attained unto free motion4 ,they are sex throughout1 or nothing but sex2 it cannot therefore be said that they possess sexual parts like the plants1 but that they are sexual parts4 ,they are sexual parts that swim4 #caaj4 ,formerly1 most of these ,anthoidal animals were actually taken for real plants1 on account of their floral and ramular form1 and even their very substance2 so slightly withdrawn are they from the vegetable kingdom4 ,the whole difference between the two is effected by the water4 ,could we transpose them into the air1 they would then become real plants4 #caaa4 ,now1 as the vegetable flower is not a mere sexual system1 but is also stock or trunk2 so also is the animal flower at once an organ of digestion1 respiration1 and nutrition4 ,the lowest condition of these organs is1 however1 only one of absorption1 evaporation1 and rigidification2 these processes will therefore be present also1 though only upon the lower stage--they are ,intestinal animals2 for in a simple intestine the same processes could occur1 only within each other1 whereas they are mutually dissevered or set apart in intestine1 lung1 and capillary system or parenchyma4 #caab4 ,the sexual parts are themselves viscera1 or the viscera themselves are sexual parts1 just as the fungus is at one and the same time root and seed-capsule4 ,the sexual parts themselves absorb1 respire1 and nourish4 ,the floral sac is not therefore a mere sexual sac1 but also an absorbent sac2 upon a somewhat higher grade it is even a digestive sac1 the sac-wall itself being a respiratory and nutritive paries or wall4 ,the sexual function has at once become an ingestive function1 tending unto nutrition1 or the deglutition of the food is itself an act of copulation4 ,the sexual capsule in these animal flowers can as well be termed stomach as uterus1 and its wall ovary as well as branchia4 #caac4 ,as being of a sentient1 mucous nature1 they are point-substance or nervous mass4 ,the tentacula are higher organized stamina1 and thus occur as cilia1 surrounding the oral aperture or mouth1 as in the ,infusoria4 ,these palpi or feelers are1 from being organs of ingestion1 both male penes as well as digits or tongues1 as in the ,polyps4 ,their structure is still wholly tubular1 while their elongation appears to be for the most part effected by injection with water--they are absorbents1 as in the ,acaleph4 ,the ,oozoon brings forth young in the same cavity1 in which it digests and by which it respires1 and impregnates itself with the same filaments1 whereby it seizes1 swallows1 and tastes its food4 ,in the bottom of the cavity of the ,germ-animals1 granules develop1 which are born or escape through the floral opening--pharynx1 and again become similar beings4 ,in others the granules also sprout forth attached to the walls of the cavity1 remain there some time united with the parent animal1 and thus completely represent the mode of propagation in plants by means of gemmules or buds4 ,among the ,polyps and ,acaleph it is well known that the ova issue from apertures near the mouth2 while in the ,actini this is stated to take place from the stomach4 ,the ovaria are1 as is well known1 situated between the stomach and parietes of the body4 #caad4 ,the intestinal animals are an entire animal organism1 but only in the chaotic condition4 ,they are the fundamental tissue1 the cellular system of the animal1 and the higher animals are only separated cells4 #caae4 ,the propagation is in every respect similar to that of plants4 ,now1 as the seeds are the whole plant upon a small scale1 so is the granule or ovum the entire animal2 it is liberated through the pharynx and continues to grow merely by increasing in size4 ,but if the young animal protrude through the tegument1 that is a true gemmiparous propagation4 #caaf4 ,those ,oozoa1 which like plants can develop buds1 consist of several animals1 and may be cut in pieces like plants2 when each piece becomes again an entire animal4 #caag4 ,the ,oozoa represent those products of nature which are prior or antecedent to the animal world2 namely1 first of all plants1 and further still the inorganic kingdom also1 or the earth1 since they have originated in the water and can be as well developed from the stones as the ,lichens4 ,there are therefore ,lithozoa or ,stone-animals1 and ,phytozoa or ,plant-animals1 among the ,oozoa4 #caah4 ,would we compare these animals with the parts in plants1 they then represent their cell-development1 or cells1 bark and root4 ,they are themselves either vesicles1 as the ,infusoria1 or barks1 as the ,corallines1 or a root-like fascicle of tubes1 as the ,acaleph4 #caai4 ,in the animals1 however1 the cells have become stomach1 the bark intestine1 the root absorbents4 ,the ,oozoa represent therefore the aggregate of the intestinal system1 the primary mass of the animal body4 ,their whole body is a digestive body1 or parenchyma1 traversed in many species in all directions by tubes or absorbents1 as in the ,acaleph4 ,as yet no nervous filament1 nor any muscular fibre1 c4 has been separated from their mass1 as in like manner a tegument has barely been freed or separated from the intestine4 ,these animals are nerveless and sine-tegumental1 precisely because they are wholly made up of nervous mass and tegument4 ,circle ,,ii4 ,vascular ,animals4 #cabj4 ,in the next place the digestive separates completely from the tegumental function1 and each constitutes a function for itself1 but which now being separated from its fellow could no longer subsist4 ,between the two therefore is formed the nutritive function in the vascular system4 ,now1 the vascular system of the self-substantial intestine is the liver4 ,this organ will therefore for the first time make its appearance in this animal circle--,hepatic animals4 ,upon a higher stage1 salivary glands are also developed on the intestine1 and will here likewise begin for the first time to appear--,salivary animals1 ,snails4 #caba4 ,through the separation of the viscera from the remaining substance1 this must necessarily remain behind as a hollow cyst or tegument investing the former4 ,the true free tegumental formation is therefore by no means accidental1 but is necessarily bestowed with the viscera in the course of animal development4 ,this tegument is peritoneum4 ,there are animals which are invariably bicystic1 but consisting of concentric cysts--abdomens4 ,around the ventral integument1 however1 the vascular system also forms its tunic2 this is the branchial membrane or operculum--pleura1 mantle4 ,there are tri-cystic animals--intestine1 abdomen1 and thorax disposed concentrically around each other--,mussels4 ,their body is therefore not articulated1 but its parts are still inserted within each other4 ,the ,vascular animals are consequently multiplied ,protozoa2 or ,mucus-animals of the second power--,ovum4 ,the sense of feeling ascends upon its second stage1 when its organ1 having been freed from the mass of the body1 surrounds the viscera as a self-substantial tegument4 ,the feeling is then no longer one of a merely general character1 but is a definite perception of external objects1 a passive power of feeling4 #cabb4 ,true muscles could not as yet originate in this skin1 and that for obvious reasons1 although fibres are present2 for the former are to be brought under the signification of arterial fibres4 #cabc4 ,cilia1 when furnished with fibres by whose agency they are rendered moveable and susceptible of inversion1 are called tentacula1 which here occur under every variety of form4 #cabd4 ,would we compare the ,vascular animals with the plants1 they must then represent their ducts1 liber1 and stalk4 ,the heart is the stalk1 the arteries liber1 the veins tubes or ducts4 ,these animals have assumed also upon the whole the cauline or cylindrical form--,cauline animals4 #cabe4 ,from their having obtained in addition to the intestine only the vascular system1 they are still governed by the water1 and live therefore for the greatest part in this element4 ,they have the first mode of respiration and thus an aqueo-respiratory process--possess branchi but not tracheal tubes4 #cabf4 ,the sexual parts1 which in the ,germ-animals were still coalesced for the most part with the body1 here become self-substantial through the separation of the teguments1 make their appearance as a repetition of the digestive system under the condition of a free or separate system1 and are evolved into true ovaria and even male parts--,sexual1 ,glandular animals4 #cabg4 ,the first step towards the evolution of male parts is1 however1 only half achieved4 ,only one testis originates1 while the other remains behind as ovarium--,androgynous or ,bisexual animals4 #cabh4 ,these animals1 which are characterized by the vascular system1 and by the first self-substantial or external sexual parts1 which indicate organs of sense1 are the ,conchozoa1 such as the ,mussels1 ,snails1 and ,kracken4 ,circle ,,iii4 ,respiratory ,animals4 #cabi4 ,when once the intestinal and vascular system1 through perfection of their individual parts1 such as the liver and branchia1 and through separation of the sexual parts1 are completed2 then the individualization of the tegument steps into view1 and it becomes an independent respiratory system4 #cacj4 ,through the increased process of oxydation the tegument hardens and is converted into horn4 ,all induration1 however1 only takes place in opposition to soft places4 ,the tegument therefore separates into hard and soft rings--,annulate animals4 #caca4 ,the annulate tegument is a tracheal tube wholly converted into a body4 ,to distinguish it from the general tegument it may be called the cutis or skin--,cutaneous animals4 ,the annular tegument may be regarded as a series of cysts placed one behind the other4 ,the ,annulate animals are therefore multiplied ,malacozoa2 ,mucus-animals of the third power--,ovum4 ,the respiratory organs1 being in their lowest condition1 will not as yet be freed from the tegument2 the vessels simply form a network or projecting filaments and lamell--reticular branchi2 as in the ,worms4 ,the tentacular organs1 from being yet soft and thus scarcely moveable1 are still very imperfect4 ,upon the lowest stage the tegument or skin simply feels2 in the next place papill1 and finally filaments1 originate1 especially about the mouth--,cutaneous1 ,papillary and ,filamentary animals4 #cacb4 ,if the tegument1 as being the original branchial membrane1 is converted into horn2 then the branchi cannot continue as retia1 but must elongate above the tegument into filaments1 ramules or lamell4 ,with this1 these elongated branchi separate into two organs1 one part of them becoming indurated in like manner with the general tegument1 and supporting the other as gill4 ,horny branchial filaments1 which contain vessels1 nerves1 and fibres1 are called feet--,pedal animals4 #cacc4 ,the limbs or members of these animals are simply hollow tegument1 hollow hair1 and are therefore thoroughly different from the bones or the animal system4 ,the tegument thus hardens around the soft parts and the viscera4 ,a horny coat of mail originates1 and thus we have horny or mailed animals1 in opposition to the ,malaco-or ,conchozoa4 #cacd4 ,beneath the horn1 however1 there must still be soft skin1 and this becomes fibrous by the strong oxydation which it undergoes4 ,fibrous fascicles are attached to the coat of mail and to the hollow limbs1 and are consequently within the tubes4 #cace4 ,these fibrous bundles are not flesh1 but a fibre-drawn tegument1 so that there are also no true muscles4 ,they must on that account too be numberless4 #cacf4 ,the articulations or joints are external not internal2 they thus consist of tegumental tubes1 not of bones1 abutting against each other1 and are not surrounded by flesh4 ,hence1 like all the preceding groups they also are devoid of flesh--asarcose animals like all the preceding ones4 #cacg4 ,in the branchi1 however1 it is only the cauline portions which become horny1 while their ramules continue to perform the respiratory function4 ,the branchi therefore are appended to the extremity or roots of the feet2 or rather these latter form the branchial arches4 ,annulate animals1 having true or hornified and likewise annulated feet1 are called ,crustacea or ,crabs4 ,thus1 in these animals the sense of feeling obtains special and moveable organs2 they are ,tactile animals4 ,tactile organs are prolongations of tegument moved by muscular fibres1 which in some degree adapt themselves by pressure unto the forms of objects1 or have the power of seizing and retaining them--such as feet1 antenn1 maxill1 palpi4 #cach4 ,but if the tegument be entirely converted into horn1 and the respiratory vessels have in this way disappeared within it1 then the internal respiratory organs are formed by inversion of that part of the tegument which is between the rings1 and through these openings the air penetrates to the internal parts--stigmata1 trache4 #caci4 ,the trache can first of all originate when the respiratory process has attained its highest development1 or1 in other words1 when the creature breathes air4 #cadj4 ,lastly1 in the air-breathing ,ancyliozoa even the external branchial lamell harden and are converted into wings--,pterozoa1 ,insects or ,flies4 ,the wings of ,insects do not correspond to the wings of birds2 they are not feet1 but pedal appendages or branchi1 and thus are no new or unknown organ4 ,circle ,,iv4 ,sarcose ,animals4 #cada4 ,the second animal province may be regarded as the fourth stage in the self-substantial development of the anatomical systems1 although1 properly speaking1 it ranks as regards its value or worth upon a level with the three former circles1 and resolves itself directly into three stages1 which accord with its three systems4 ,but since these stages are at the same time also classes2 they should1 for uniformity's sake1 retain the latter name4 #cadb4 ,the animal kingdom accordingly divides into four great districts or circles4 ,,circle ,i4 ,intestinal ,animals1 ,oozoa--,protozoa4 ,,ii4 ,vascular ,sexual animals--,conchozoa4 ,,iii4 ,respiratory ,cutaneous --,ancyliozoa4 ,,iv4 ,sarcose ,cephalic --,vertebrata4 ,c4 ,,animal ,,classes4 #cadc4 ,the animal ,classes may be designated as the self-substantial representation of a stage in the development of an anatomical system or of the inferior organ of sense1 and in the ,sarcose animals of these systems themselves or of the cephalic senses4 #cadd4 ,there are then as many classes as there are stages of development or systems4 ,thus the intestinal system separates into pharynx or stomach1 intestine and absorbents4 #cade4 ,the vascular system into veins1 arteries1 and hearts4 #cadf4 ,the respiratory system into branchial membrane or skin1 into branchi1 and into lungs or trache1 i4 e4 air-tubes4 ,taken in a strict sense1 such divisions do not constitute classes1 as has been already remarked4 #cadg4 ,it is only the animal systems1 which do not divide into several functions1 but remaining upon a level with each other1 are simply repeated in the higher organs of sense4 ,first ,province4 ,splanchnozoa1 ,dermatozoa4 ,,first ,,circle4 ,,intestinal ,,animals1 ,,oozoa4 #cadh4 ,the intestinal animals are nothing but depressed cysts4 ,they rank therefore upon the lowest stage of development1 and consist of mucus or granular nervous mass--,protozoa1 ,gelatinose animals4 #cadi4 ,it is an established fact that1 with animals as well as plants1 the first function consists in imbibition or absorption1 and the body must consequently be an absorbent cyst or a pharynx1 which nevertheless takes up the food in the same way that the tegumental lymphatic vessels absorb4 ,we can therefore style these animals pharyngeal or gastric1 although the name is not perfectly correct--,infusoria4 ,then the intestine associates with the pharynx or stomach1 so that they are ,intestinal animals--,polyps or ,corals4 ,lastly the intestine sends out absorbents1 and then the animal consists of pharynx or stomach1 intestine and absorbents2 such may be termed an ,absorbent animal--,acaleph4 ,the ,intestinal animals therefore divide according to the developmental stages into three ,classes4 ,class #a4 ,gastric1 ,vitelline ,animals4 #caej4 ,the lowest animals commence with the water1 which has scarcely become mucus2 they are nothing but drops1 vesicles1 which swim about independently--,protozoa or ,primitive animals4 #caea4 ,the ,protozoa correspond to the vitellus or the male semen1 which is nothing but vitellus in a state of solution4 ,they are the animal semen of the planet1 the animal dissolved4 ,animal generation cannot take a deeper commencement or origin4 ,the stone1 which is decomposed into carbon mixed with water1 can become nothing less than a point4 ,they are the animal germinal powder4 ,the fungus is a tissue of vesicles1 which dissolves directly into seeds--fungus-powder or dust4 ,thus1 they are ovaria or testes which have dissolved into seed1 fluid testes--,vitelline1 ,seminal animals4 #caeb4 ,the vitellus or semen is point-or nerve-mass dissolved4 ,the ,vitelline animals are sentient or nerve-points1 which have combined all other processes in this identical mass4 ,the divided point-mass ranks1 however1 in the signification of vesicular or cellular tissue4 ,these animals are nervose cells4 #caec4 ,nerve-cells must originate in every water1 because every water is in a state of tension with the earth and the air2 thus1 dissolves the former and absorbs the latter4 ,the water itself is a digesting and respiring mucus4 #caed4 ,the nerve-cells have an internal cavity1 from the surface becoming oxydized and consequently converting itself into a denser layer1 or into tegument4 ,this1 however1 can only take place at the expense of the internal mass1 as being that alone which abuts against the external parietes and becomes rigid4 #caee4 ,as the animal life is not simply a single act of rigidification1 but a repetition of the same1 alternating with solution1 so must the ,protozoon again replace the mucus-granules which have been disposed of from its interior2 it must eat4 #caef4 ,it is a matter of indifference for the philosophy1 whether the reception of food is effected by one or several mouths4 ,there are ,acaleph and even ,intestinal worms 7,entozoa71 which absorb by several mouths1 almost like plants4 #caeg4 ,but in the animal the mouth or mouths is or are definite organic openings1 not merely interspaces or pores as in the plants2 for they rank in the signification of the blossoms1 or of composite parts4 #caeh4 ,it can be therefore said that every animal hath a mouth or mouths1 and consequently a stomach or stomachs4 #caei4 ,their motions consist in abbreviations or straitenings of the cyst4 ,indications can scarcely be present of the secretions of higher organs1 such as the intestine1 vessel1 branchi1 liver1 and such like parts4 #cafj4 ,on the contrary1 developments of the tegument and nerves may occur1 the former as cilia which serve also as organs of motion and as branchi1 the latter as ocular points or rudimental eyes2 for both are none other than nervose tegument4 ,the mouth of these animals is still passive1 and subordinated to the water4 ,it is surrounded only by cilia1 which by the vortices produced by their movements in the water1 impel or draw the latter into the mouth and with it the food4 ,such animals are called ,infusoria4 #cafa4 ,as the ,infusoria are the seed or vitellus itself1 so also are they the very ovum1 and require no special sexual parts for propagation4 ,they absorb1 and are so nourished1 and if there is a sufficient quantity of the mass to admit again of its division into several points1 they thus divide4 ,a magnified ,infusorial animalcule has become1 as it were1 an ovarium or a testis1 which then produces seed by dissolving itself into the latter4 ,they are a constant conflict of the organ and its product1 of the ,solid and ,fluid1 a vitelline and orchitic process4 ,class #b4 ,intestinal1 ,albuminous ,animals4 #cafb4 ,with the separation of the cyst into an internal and external layer1 or into intestine and tegument1 the animal must necessarily ascend a stage higher1 since it now contains two systems different from each other1 and is consequently a double ,infusorium4 #cafc4 ,the form of the ,intestinal animals passes gradually from that of the globe into the tube--,tubular animals4 #cafd4 ,they are tubular nerves surrounded by a tegument4 ,the cilia also are perfected and lengthen into filaments1 which no longer perform simply vortical movements1 but now actually seize and convey the food self-substantially into the mouth4 ,such animals are called ,polyps4 ,their multiplication takes place no longer by division or fissure1 but by ova and shoots1 or ramification4 ,the oviducts or egg-tubes lie between the intestine and tegument1 and open upon the margin of the mouth between the tentacula4 ,in many instances the ovisacs1 or cysts1 hang also freely from other parts of the body1 as in the ,sertulari4 ,the sprouts or offshoots detach themselves from the parent and become independent animals2 but they frequently continue to stand as ramules upon the maternal animal1 though they nourish themselves independently of the latter4 #cafe4 ,if the process of oxydation be augmented1 then1 the tube's external wall indurates1 becomes coriaceous1 and1 lastly1 ceratoid or horn-like in texture4 ,the nerve-tubes or the animal proper can now swim no longer1 since one kind only of motion is left it1 namely1 to protrude itself out of1 and then retract itself within1 the tube4 ,it consequently falls to the ground1 and while the external mucus hardens1 it clings to the former2 such are the ,sessile or fixed ,polyps4 #caff4 ,sessile ,polyps having coriaceous or horny tubes are called ,plant-animals1 ,zoophyta1 ,phytozoa4 #cafg4 ,the adherent1 dried and dead external tegument of the ,polyp is called stem4 ,such a ramified stem completely resembles a plant4 #cafh4 ,these woody or herbaceous stems are not rooted in the earth1 but have the power of adhering firmly to every substance1 to stone1 glass1 shells1 and such like bodies4 ,they do not therefore draw in nourishment through any root4 #cafi4 ,the ramification is often wholly plant-like in character1 resembling that of a shrub with separate ramules1 which even assume too the form of leaves1 and the animal tubes that of flowers4 ,but frequently the ramules grow together also by their extremities1 giving rise to a trellis-work1 the production of which in plants is impossible4 ,the soft animalcules1 which come in contact1 cleave unto each other1 and grow together like wounded parts in the ,sarcose animals4 #cagj4 ,upon the surface of the ramules or the leaves are apertures1 out of which the mucous substance protrudes the radiated mouth4 ,but these mouths are frequently1 especially in the ,cystic corallines1 of two different modes of formation4 ,the one kind are cysts without filaments1 and contain ova1 which are developed and fall out4 ,the others have filaments1 which move and do not produce ova4 ,the former look like seed-capsules1 the latter like flowers with stamina1 while the entire trunk resembles a monoecious plant4 #caga4 ,with increased oxydation calcareous earth is deposited in the external tegument or rind1 and the stem is converted into stone--,lithozoa1 ,lithophyta1 ,corals4 ,this calcareous earth contains the most general acid1 or the carbonic1 and thus oxygen combined with the inorganic carbon1 while the bones contain phosphoric acid1 oxydized gelatine4 #cagb4 ,as the calcareous earth is1 properly speaking1 only a granular deposit in the tegument1 like it is in the cartilages of the higher animals2 so is it not to be regarded as a free worm-tube1 but as the body itself4 ,meanwhile it forms a tube open above1 from which the mouth of the animal projects4 #cagc4 ,as the animal ramifies1 so also do the stony tubes increase1 and there originates a phytoidal or plant-like stem1 but one consisting of a stony mass4 #cagd4 ,thus the ,coral is the earth-animal1 and indicates the globular or osseous mass under its first grade of formation in the animal kingdom4 ,but there are also ,polyps1 whose stem only originates through saccular inversion of the upper portion of the animal's body2 yet this is only distinct in the soft stems4 ,in most of the species1 where a separate intestine is to be found1 it is probably only the upper part of the body which is so inverted4 ,meanwhile there are some1 whose intestine forms a circle by returning upon itself1 and opens into an anus4 #cage4 ,if then the ,infusoria are the vitellus or seed of the animal kingdom2 in like manner the ,corals are its ova4 ,the carbonate of lime is the shell surrounding the albumen1 while the animal or intestine is the vitellus--,albumen-animals4 #cagf4 ,nature forms these living ova1 when she takes vitellus and albumen out of the sea-slime1 invests them with a shell derived from the earth1 and hatches them1 after they have been vivified by sun and air4 ,class #c4 ,absorbent1 ,involucral ,animals4 #cagg4 ,did the former animals remain in the condition of ova1 from want of a perfect vascular system2 they are next developed1 so soon as vessels appear and form a vascular plexus1 into foetal involucra or envelopes4 ,these animals are vitellus with the vascular membrane4 #cagh4 ,the ,absorbent animals are no longer simple vesicles1 but large cysts or capsules like the developmental envelopes of the foetus1 along with a choroid plexus--,involucral1 ,foetal-animals4 ,this choroid plexus does not1 however1 consist of arteries and veins2 but is only a ramification of the intestine1 so that the vessels are of a lacteal character--,absorbent animals4 #cagi4 ,in these animals there is no longer any egg-shell1 but everything has been taken up into the galvanic circle2 the shell has itself become organic and life-imbued4 ,their substance is still mucous or albuminous2 they are still vitellus1 though converted into a vascular tissue4 #cahj4 ,they therefore cling firmly nowhere2 but swim about freely1 like brain-masses converted into radiated cysts4 #caha4 ,free ,mucus-animals1 traversed by vascular plexuses1 are ,acaleph4 #cahb4 ,there are ,acaleph which are simply air-sacs1 like the air-sacs of ova1 to which hang ramified vessels as absorbent tubes--,cystic1 ,tubular ,acaleph4 ,others represent hemispheres with numerous absorbent tubes1 which concur in the middle of the animal to form a kind of stomach1 from which again other tubes pass towards the border1 in order to elongate into tentacula4 ,thus the absorbent vessels have become motor and sensitive organs4 ,besides this1 many have around the mouth four large lobes1 which must be viewed as the antetypes of the sentient lobes of the ,bivalve ,mollusca4 ,lastly1 others have a true mouth1 which leads to a similar gastric cavity1 out of which the same vessels emerge and ramify4 ,both kinds are called ,hutquallen or ,acaleph4 ,there are yet others having the same structure1 but oviform1 with respiratory lamell upon the absorbent tubes1 ,rippenquallen or ,beroes4 #cahc4 ,an ,acalephan is a brood-egg1 which swims freely about without a shell4 #cahd4 ,the vessels are quaternary in their distribution1 and form a cross1 like the involucral vessels of the chick4 #cahe4 ,in these animals the ova first begin to be detached and agglomerated together in definite situations so as to constitute ovaria4 ,the number here is also four4 ,they lie usually within four cavities surrounding the stomach1 and into these wide apertures situated near to the mouth lead2 they are at the same time regarded as respiratory cavities4 ,in other species vesicles1 wherein seminal animalcules are developed1 occupy the same situation4 ,here therefore is recognised for the first time a separated sex4 ,in the ,rhrenquallen or ,physali the ovisacs mostly depend externally in the form of bells4 ,besides this we find in the ,acaleph all sorts of lamin1 which are probably organs of respiration4 ,it is not known what is the meaning of the air-sacs and of what the air consists4 ,most of the species emit light like globes of fire1 just as many ,infusoria do also4 ,it is probably a phosphorescence given out by the mucus when passing over into a state of decomposition4 ,very many have also the stinging property of the nettle2 but1 whether the cause of this is chemical or mechanical1 is not yet exactly known4 ,,second ,,circle4 ,,vascular1 ,,sexual ,,animals4 #cahf4 ,so far1 or in the ascending scale up to the ,acaleph1 the animal is only viscus with an absorbent canal1 which is at the same time a canal of evacuation1 without a distinct intestine being set apart for that purpose2 such is the general rule4 #cahg4 ,after the ,acaleph the formation undergoes a change2 the distinction between the exterior and interior is prominently displayed1 and the internal wall becomes freed as a separate and perfect intestine along with a mouth and anus2 the external wall appears as a free tegument4 ,but1 seeing that two concentric and separated cysts could not subsist without combination by means of the nutritive system or the vessels2 a perfect vascular system is formed1 divided into veins1 arteries1 and hearts4 ,the tegument1 wherein the vessels become self-substantial1 is the branchial membrane4 ,there is therefore placed around the intestinal body a vascular body also1 or branchial membrane1 which is consequently pleura or mantle 7pallium71 as in the ,mussels4 ,the body of the intestine consists of intestine and peritoneum2 that of the vessels of branchi and pleura or mantle4 ,these animals are hence bisystemic1 being both ,intestinal and ,vascular animals2 but1 since the vascular system is a new addition1 it is thus characteristic of the circle1 and its members must be therefore called ,vascular animals4 ,with the vascular system1 however1 all its further developments have been bestowed2 thus especially the complication of the vessels with the intestinal ramifications or1 in other words1 the liver--,hepatic animals4 ,the salivary glands also are a similar complication1 and in this series therefore they make their appearance4 ,lastly1 the renal glands are such a kind of vascular organ1 or branchi of the sexual parts2 they also begin to be astir in this series4 ,with the separation of the systems into separate teguments or membranes1 the sexual parts also separate4 ,the ovarium becomes an independent organ furnished with its own excretory ducts2 the male parts are individualized to form veritable testes furnished with excretory ducts1 or even with a penis4 ,still this is all effected only by degrees1 or as yet within the confines of this circle4 ,these animals divide according to the viscera into ,venous1 ,arterial1 and ,cardiac animals2 according to the sexual parts1 into ,ovarial1 ,orchitic1 and ,renal animals4 ,class #d4 ,venous1 ,ovarial ,animals4 #cahh4 ,with the protrusion into view of the vascular system1 the veins are chiefly developed along with their principal organ1 the liver1 as being the bond of union between the circulation and the intestine4 #cahi4 ,the animals1 which first bring to bear in addition to the intestine a liver1 are the ,bivalve ,mollusca4 #caij4 ,with the veins arteries also originate1 but with a preponderance of venosity or the venous character4 ,the blood is lymphatic1 colourless4 #caia4 ,the cardinal venous organ or the liver evokes also into existence a corresponding organ of respiration1 namely1 free branchi with the tegumental form--branchial lamin or leaves4 #caib4 ,in the middle between the branchial lamin and the liver1 the heart is evolved2 this organ comprising always a ventricle with an auricle1 but consisting of a venous1 membranous tissue almost devoid of fibres4 #caic4 ,the first heart is in other respects arteriose2 it receives the blood from the branchi and transmits it to the liver as well as to the remaining parts of the body1 from which it proceeds directly to the branchi without entering any venous or right heart4 #caid4 ,in these animals1 as is well known1 four branchial leaves lie externally on the belly1 which includes the intestine with a large liver1 and hangs together with the branchi as a separate purse within the mantle4 #caie4 ,in the ,mussel a structure originates for the first time1 which can be compared with a thoracic or pectoral cavity4 ,what covers the branchi1 must stand in the signification of the thorax or chest4 ,the pallium or mantle of the ,mussels is pleura4 #caif4 ,their shells are branchial opercula 7as in the ,fishes74 ,they are secretions from the mantle1 and everywhere accompany the branchi4 #caig4 ,the locket or hinge of the shell-valves corresponds to the rachis or spina dorsi1 as is especially distinct in the ,teredines or ship-worms4 ,the shells of ,bivalve ,mollusca are a calcareo-thoracic box1 open in front1 inverted behind1 and moveable like ribs4 #caih4 ,the two sphincter or occlusor muscles signify shoulder and haunch4 #caii4 ,these animals begin for the first time to exhibit bilaterality or symmetry1 because in them there is stirring the idea of the osseous formation4 ,from the branchi being situated symmetrically upon both sides1 the cardiac chambers are also symmetrical4 #cbjj4 ,the pectoral tunic 7mantle7 usually elongates at the anal extremity into two tubes1 respiratory tubes1 through which the water is drawn in and thrust out or expelled4 ,such is the case in the highest ,worms or ,holothuri1 only there the respiratory tube leads into the body itself4 ,a similar arrangement is found in the ,echini4 ,many aquatic larv from all kinds of ,insects or out of different classes breathe through anal tubes4 ,all these animals consequently repeat the ,mussels1 and this formation admits of being followed out up to ,man1 where it is left as allantois and primordial kidneys4 ,the thorax of the ,mussel thus opens by the anus4 ,but1 since the thorax is that which is here preponderating and is nearly the whole animal1 so does the anus open into the posterior respiratory tube4 #cbja4 ,the ,mussel can be regarded as an animal consisting of three cysts or sacs inclosed within each other1 namely1 of intestine1 around this the ventral pouch1 and around this again the thoracic sac or mantle4 ,if1 moreover1 the shells be regarded as a cyst1 the animal then consists of four sacs4 ,the heart and branchi lie within the thoracic cavity2 intestine1 liver1 and ovarium within the abdominal or ventral cavity4 ,the ,mussel is thus a doubled ,acalephan4 ,what is termed foot in the ,bivalve ,mollusca is nothing else than the abdominal tegument dilated in front to form a muscular ridge4 #cbjb4 ,the ,mussels are embryos1 in whom the liver originates1 and whose chorion acquires a placenta4 ,then again1 as the embryo is nearly all liver1 and hangs surrounded by a watery fluid within the widely-expanded chorion and amnion1 so does the abdominal pouch hang within the pallial cavity1 or in the wide1 water-full chest4 #cbjc4 ,in the abdomen there is still only the ovarium1 and that indeed very large4 ,there are properly two ovaria1 each of which1 according to my observations 7vid4 ,gttinger ,gelehrte ,anzeigen1 #ahjf4 ,stck #adh71 opens laterally under the shoulder-muscle and gives exit to the ova1 which then enter within or between the branchial fringes1 in order to be there developed4 #cbjd4 ,here the respiratory organs are still at the same time a kind of uterus4 ,the ova may be oxydized therein1 like the embryo is in the uterus4 ,these branchi are probably still to be compared with1 or designated as1 sexual branchi4 #cbje4 ,in the back of the shoulder these animals have a highly vascular organ with two excretory passages1 which open near to the orifices of the oviducts4 ,i formerly regarded it as a kidney1 but1 according to more recent observations1 it should be a testis4 ,in the anterior part of the foot there is frequently situated a gland which ejects a gelatinoid moisture1 which hardens into glutinous filaments--the byssus or beard4 ,it is probably a memento of the tentacula of the ,acaleph4 ,there is besides also an organ in the feet of many ,bivalve ,mollusca1 which occasionally squirts a watery juice out to a great distance4 ,i have occasionally found this organ in our ,teichmuschel4 ,its signification is probably the same as that of the preceding organ4 #cbjf4 ,the organization of the ,bivalve ,mollusc can be thus most distinctly described2 it is an abdomen1 wherein is an intestine with mouth and anus1 a liver and a double ovarium2 upon the sides of this abdomen are situated the branchi in the form of four lamin2 around the branchi and the abdomen is the pleura or mantle1 which is always open posteriorly4 #cbjg4 ,the mouth is placed directly at the anterior extremity of the abdomen1 is devoid of neck and head1 as also salivary glands2 it is consequently not a true mouth1 but only a pharyngeal aperture4 ,thereupon1 however1 are situated four sensitive lobes1 which are in structure exactly like the branchi--cephalic or pharyngeal branchi4 ,they are the further formations of the four arms of the ,acaleph4 #cbjh4 ,the ,mussel has a perfect splanchno-neural system with ganglia and a pharyngeal ring1 which probably corresponds to the nerves that sweep around it4 #cbji4 ,the ,mussel has no other organ of sense than that of the passive sense of feeling1 the tegument4 ,it cannot once move its sensitive lobes voluntarily2 it has no lips4 #cbaj4 ,the abdomen only elongates in most of them to form a moveable1 variously constructed foot or keel1 which cannot1 however1 creep but only push4 ,the progression of the ,bivalve ,mollusca is backwards1 as in the ,acaleph4 ,in the ,snails the ventral surface first becomes a creeping sole4 #cbaa4 ,the ,mussels repeat the ,infusoria2 are ,infusoria with a bivalve calcareous testa or shell4 ,class #e4 ,arterial1 ,orchitic ,animals4 #cbab4 ,in the preceding class of ,bivalve ,mollusca1 it is in truth the abdominal viscera only1 such as the intestine1 liver and ovarium1 which have been perfected2 and then the veins and arteries with a membranous heart4 ,the cephalic organs1 eyes1 maxill1 salivary glands1 and even moveable lips with tentacula1 are wanting1 as well as the muscular heart4 ,lastly1 the arterial sexual system or a self-substantial testis and the penis were absent4 ,now1 bivalve ,mollusca1 which have eyes1 maxill1 a muscular heart and a ventral sole or foot1 with salivary glands and a penis1 are ,gasteropoda or ,snails4 #cbac4 ,the ,snails possess salivary glands1 a trace of the tongue and of maxill1 moveable lips and tentacula1 with thus an approximation to the head1 unto which the eyes are rarely wanting--,salivary animals4 #cbad4 ,with the development of the head or rather of its inferior organs of sense1 the antagonism makes its appearance also in the ovarium4 ,a half of the ovarium is converted into the testis4 ,the ,snail is therefore a ,mollusc1 which is female upon one side1 male upon the other4 #cbae4 ,the androgynous or bisexual animal is1 as a general rule1 asymmetrical4 #cbaf4 ,the mantle also or the branchial cavity obeys this want of symmetry4 ,the branchi of one side dwindle down2 those of the other turn with the mantle towards the head1 and the respiratory aperture occurs upon the back4 #cbag4 ,with the one-sided evolution of the mantle1 one shell also is only developed1 while the other is stunted or placed under arrest4 ,the ,snail's shell is one of the ,bivalve ,mollusc's shells1 its operculum is the other4 ,this last is stony1 horny1 and finally is entirely wanting4 ,it is remarkable that the right shell has been pretty generally perfected1 while the left dwindles down into the operculum2 all the ,snail's openings are therefore upon the right side1 such as the anus1 with the orifices for the escape of the ova and semen4 ,male animals are situated on the right side1 female on the left2 or where the right side was predominating1 there originated the male sex1 where the left1 the female4 #cbah4 ,as the orifice of the mantle and the shell is properly the aperture of the branchial foramina2 so can it be said1 that the ,snail were a ,mussel1 which does not simply extend the foot1 but also the mouth or head to the branchial opening2 it is a ,mussel reversed4 #cbai4 ,every thing else in the ,snails is arranged in accordance with these fundamental organs and forms4 ,the cephalic portion of the intestinal canal is indicated also by muscular fibres4 ,the pharynx and the mouth can contract and expand1 seize and bite off2 the former frequently admits of being protruded and retracted as a fleshy proboscis with perforating maxill4 #cbbj4 ,since the muscular fibres are only tegumental fibres1 and therefore lie within cavities2 they thus act like as in the feet of ,insects4 ,the tentacula of many ,snails are moved like the feet of ,insects2 but as they are not horny1 but soft1 they are turned either inside out or vice vers4 ,the oviduct and seminal duct or penis follow the same mode of formation4 ,they are likewise everted and inverted4 #cbba4 ,these members of the ,snail are true ,insect-limbs that have remained soft1 and are thereupon susceptible of inversion and eversion4 ,were an ,insect's foot soft1 every one will admit that it would then yield so as to become inverted1 if the fibres pulled upon it4 ,the limbs of ,insects have thus only become stiff1 and are thereby ,snail's horns that resist inversion4 ,all these members are teguments1 and give the lie only unto limbs2 for it belongs to the essence of a limb1 that it be dense4 #cbbb4 ,that which suffers eversion or its converse is no limb1 but only a sheath1 a prepuce4 ,nearly the whole ,snail is but a prepuce1 a membrum virile or verge4 #cbbc4 ,there is no class of animals1 in which the testes and penis are found so disproportionately developed as in the ,snails--,orchitic1 ,penes-animals4 #cbbd4 ,the vascular and nervous systems are related pretty nearly as in the ,mussels4 ,but the heart is fleshy and has1 by reason of its unilateral or single branchia1 only one auricle also4 #cbbe4 ,the ,snails repeat the ,corals in the cylindrical form of the body1 the tubular-shaped shell1 and the return of the intestine upon itself towards the mouth1 as in many ,corallines4 #cbbf4 ,in them also the organ1 which virtually corresponds to the kidney1 appears to be astir1 namely1 what has been called the calcareous gland1 situated within the branchial cavity1 and which opens not far from the anus4 ,class #f4 ,cardiac1 ,nephritic ,animals4 #cbbg4 ,hitherto there has been found only a single cardia1 namely1 the left or arterial heart1 which1 receiving the oxygenated blood from the branchi1 propels it to all parts of the body--for the purposes of nutrition4 ,but now also the right heart suddenly makes its appearance1 which drives the blood into the branchi--for oxygenation4 ,this must doubtless be regarded as a higher development1 especially since1 as ,i have shown1 in the higher animals as well as in the embryo1 the right heart is first perfected subsequently to the left4 ,the ,conchozoa with a double heart are the ,sepi or ,cuttle-fishes4 ,these are in consequence correctly called ,cardiac animals1 and must be regarded as the fundamental form of this stage4 ,with this completion of the heart other structural changes1 which probably stand in intimate connexion with it1 appear4 ,in the ,snails indeed a kind of renal organ1 or what has been called the calcareous gland in the branchial cavity1 has been already shown to exist4 ,whether the shoulder-gland in the other ,mollusca belongs also to the members of the present class1 may be left undetermined4 ,this kidney1 like other vegetative organs1 pours out its secretion quite involuntarily4 ,in the ,cuttle-fishes it is1 however1 combined with an organ1 by means of which it can discharge its fluid1 or the ink1 voluntarily as in the higher animals4 ,the kidney or ink-gland with the ink-sac is therefore characteristic likewise of the ,sepi1 and admits of our calling these creatures ,nephritic or ,renal animals4 ,at the same time the whole form of the body is altered2 it becomes cylindrical1 and is provided upon the ventral aspect with neither a muscular keel nor sole1 whereby it might glide or shove itself along2 thus herein also a resemblance is manifested to the higher animals4 ,this motionless body is on the contrary endowed with independent organs of locomotion1 namely1 with fins or arms1 which are wanting in the ,snails and ,bivalve ,mollusca4 ,the labour of motion is consequently removed by the organs which minister unto it from the body1 and thus we trace another similitude to the higher animals1 which transport their body from place to place by wings or feet4 ,these animals can be therefore called ,cylindrical ,snails1 out of contrast to the ,sole and ,carinate ,snails or the ,bivalve ,mollusca4 ,closely allied now to these cylindrimorphous ,conchozoa are all those ,mollusca in whom the keel 7carina7 or sole is wanting2 i4 e4 such snail or mussel-like animals1 which either cannot transport themselves at all1 or effect this by means of fins or podoidal appendages1 in short all that have been called ,snails1 having no sole1 and all supposed to be ,mussels1 but without a keel4 ,now1 the ,heteropoda or ,pterotrache and the ,pteropoda or ,clion have projecting processes which act like fins4 ,the ,brachiopoda or ,terebratul1 though unendowed with the power of locomotion1 have1 as their first name implies1 arm-like organs4 ,the ,cirripedia or ,lepades1 being likewise without the power of continuous motion1 possess podoidal or foot-like appendages4 ,in both these families1 however1 these appendages are nevertheless true motor organs2 for by means of them they seize their food1 an act which hitherto has been seen to take place neither in the ,snails nor ,bivalve ,mollusca4 ,lastly1 the prehensile organs dwindle down into mere filaments or small lobes1 but the body always retains its cylindrical form without keel and sole1 as in the ,ascidi or ,meerscheiden4 ,in the ,salp only the cylindrical body is left1 unto which appendages are still1 and not rarely either1 attached1 serving them wherewith to lay hold of each other4 ,in accordance consequently with their external form all these animals appertain to one class along with the ,cuttle-fishes4 ,i call them ,kracken4 ,the renal organs are still not to be found in all of them2 the structure alone of the heart agrees essentially1 despite of its simplicity1 with that of the ,cuttle-fishes4 ,in the ,ascidi1 simple as well as compound species1 it is indeed but a single1 though muscular pouch4 ,now1 this pouch drives the blood alternately1 at one time into the branchi1 at another backwards into the body1 and is thus in the first act a venous or right heart1 in the latter an arteriose or left2 consequently1 according to function this single pouch is compounded or made up of the two hearts4 ,the branchi deviate entirely from those of the ,mussels and ,snails1 and exhibit a very complicated structure2 in the mussel-like families they present the form of a trellis-shaped sac1 as in the ,ascidi1 or that of filiform appendages to the feet1 as in the ,cirripedia1 or they are funiform as in the ,brachiopoda4 ,in the ,pteropoda they are very varied2 in the snail-like ,heteropoda they are mostly pectiniform or tuft-shaped2 in the ,sepi or ,cephalopoda phylliform or fin-shaped4 ,the external character ccommon to the whole class is the cylindrical body1 unto which may be aptly conjoined the possession of special organs of motion2 whether such organs be prehensile in function1 media of support1 or veritable instruments of progression4 ,the snail-like ,pteropoda1 ,heteropoda1 and ,cephalopoda1 have a head1 but this is wanting in the mussel-like ,salp1 ,ascidi1 ,cirripedia1 and ,brachiopoda4 ,,third ,,circle4 ,,respiratory1 ,,cutaneous ,,animals4 #cbbh4 ,respiratory animals are ,dermatozoa with a predominating system of respiration4 ,now1 the respiratory system is the tegument1 which here then must attain the highest pitch of perfection4 ,this again takes place through the increased process of oxydation1 which produces induration of the parts4 ,the vessels1 which surround the tegument1 must nourish this portion of it to a greater degree and render it harder or more compact than any other1 whereby alternating expansions and contractions thereof originate1 in other words1 the structure of the trachea4 #cbbi4 ,the whole body of the ,respiratory animals becomes a trachea1 a series of rings4 ,the ,respiratory are therefore the ,annulate animals4 ,the rings are to be regarded as cysts1 which are mutually juxtaposited or repeated1 not being inserted within each other as in the preceding animals1 but behind each other1 so that the present circle consists of multiplied ,cystic animals4 #cbcj4 ,the ,annulate animals must represent the developmental stages of the tegument1 while the viscera make a retrograde step--,tactile animals4 #cbca4 ,the tegument has two functions3 it is an organ of respiration and of general feeling or sensation4 ,in both cases it passes through three stages of development4 ,it is either entirely a branchia1 i4 e4 reticular in character2 or the branchi become individualized in certain situations and partly horny1 constituting branchi proper2 or finally1 the tegument is converted into an air-breathing organ1 trache or air-tubes4 #cbcb4 ,it either feels with its whole surface1 or by papill2 or the branchi change into horny feet2 or lastly1 into alary appendages or wings4 ,the ,ancyliozoa consequently divide into ,reticular or ,papillary animals2 into ,branchial or ,pedal1 and into ,tracheal or ,winged animals4 #cbcc4 ,as the arterial character preponderates in these animals1 so do the venous organs1 especially the liver and renal structures1 retrograde4 #cbcd4 ,the body is now an intestinal and tegumental body with predominating respiratory and sentient organs2 here therefore sensitive papill1 antenn1 feet and wings1 appear in abundance4 #cbce4 ,with the retrogression of the viscera1 the glandular structure also and large proportional bulk of the sexual parts disappears4 ,they assume the form of the intestine and tegument1 i4 e4 become tubes4 ,the spawn like the milt consists1 as a general rule1 of only two long membranous tubes1 running near the intestine4 #cbcf4 ,the external sexual parts belong to the sense of feeling and follow the developments of the tegument2 they make their appearance as antenn1 and are usually accompanied by foot-like accessory organs4 #cbcg4 ,the nervous system in like manner accompanies the tegument4 ,it consists of two gangliated cords passing along the ventral surface4 #cbch4 ,as the maxill are only repeated feet1 so they are rarely wanting1 and are1 like the latter1 disposed after the fashion of scissor-blades4 ,the same holds good of the antenn2 they are mostly in pairs1 and consist of a series of rings projecting from the head4 #cbci4 ,the eyes are usually present1 but only as tegumental organs1 or placed upon the points of the antenn4 ,class #g4 ,reticular or ,papillary ,animals4 #cbdj4 ,the repetition of the ,intestinal or ,vascular animal1 taking place under the dominion of the respiratory system1 must be accompanied by the vascular system4 ,the tegument is a vascular1 a branchial membrane1 a branchial network or skin4 #cbda4 ,a body with predominating tegumental and intestinal system1 is cylindrical4 ,it can only become gross or lump-shaped1 if the glandular viscera1 such as liver1 ovarium and testes1 get the upper hand or prevail4 #cbdb4 ,a tegument which appears as a branchial membrane1 is annulate or ringed4 #cbdc4 ,an animal1 having an annulate respiratory membrane without annulated feet1 is a ,worm4 ,upon the lowest stage the vascular system is still similar to that of the ,vascular animals2 its blood is a colourless fluid--,white ,worms1 ,entozoa4 ,in order to be a ,worm1 it is sufficient to have an annulate tegument4 ,even if the intestine be wanting and the tegument supplies its place2 the character is nevertheless complete4 ,here it is the skin1 which digests1 while in the ,intestinal animals it is the intestine1 which digests and breathes4 ,since it is here the tegument1 which undertakes the offices of the whole body2 the vessels1 liver1 and salivary glands are wanting unto the intestine4 ,the sexual parts are also frequently arrested and the ova appear to originate in the tegument4 ,many undergo division without injury to themselves2 yet the detached portions do not become again entire animals4 ,in most of them1 however1 the sexual parts of both sexes are present1 being associated with1 though separate and distinct from1 each other2 those of the female mostly opening upon the sides of the body4 ,as being ,dermatozoa1 they have for the most part special organs of sensation around the mouth1 under the form of papill1 filaments1 spines and cups4 ,the nervous system1 wherever it is to be met with1 consists of a ring surrounding the pharynx1 and of a double ganglionic cord lying along the ventral surface of the body4 #cbdd4 ,upon a higher stage of development the arterial system gains the preponderance1 and the blood becomes mostly of a red colour--,red-blooded ,worms4 #cbde4 ,with the arterial the fibrous system also makes a more decisive appearance4 ,the tegument is a fibrous tunic--it is itself an artery4 ,all ,annulate animals with a fibrous tunic1 which can consequently contract1 belong to this class1 whether too they have red blood or not1 like the ,holothuri and ,star-fishes4 #cbdf4 ,the ,lumbricales or ,earth-worms and the ,hirudines or ,leeches respire obviously through the whole tegument1 though a special organ of respiration does begin to be evolved1 in the first family in the saddle1 in the second in the lateral vesicles or cysts4 #cbdg4 ,in others the branchial vessels make their appearance above the level of the tegument as filaments or ramules1 and are arranged in two rows1 as in the common ,sea-worm and in the ,nereides4 #cbdh4 ,lastly1 they accumulate about the neck or head1 as in the ,amphitrites and ,serpulari4 #cbdi4 ,there are also ,worms which respire only through the intestine1 its vascular system being bathed on all sides by water1 as in the ,aphrodit4 ,this water becomes1 as it would appear1 simply imbibed by the tegument in ,thalassema1 but through an opening at the anal extremity of the body in the ,holothuri4 #cbej4 ,these ,worms have also no liver1 or at the very best only traces of that organ1 by reason of the preponderance of the arteries4 #cbea4 ,papill or sensitive filaments gradually sprout from the external branchial filaments1 lie along the sides of the body1 and are the prelude of the feet2 as in the ,nereides--,papillary1 ,filamentary animals4 #cbeb4 ,others of these filaments become horny and appear as set or bristles1 placed somewhat similarly to the above1 as in the ,earth-worm4 #cbec4 ,mouth and head are more perfectly developed than in the ,entozoa4 ,the first can readily expand and contract1 frequently protrude the pharynx like a proboscis or tube1 and not unfrequently has manducatory pincers1 like as in ,insects4 #cbed4 ,on the head there are mostly annulate tentacula with muscular fibres1 and frequently simple eyes4 #cbee4 ,in those species which draw the water itself into the body and use it for the purposes of respiration1 the formation of the mouth has risen higher1 and the pharynx been provided with maxill1 in number five or ten--,echini1 ,holothuri4 ,these maxill form in themselves a peculiar skeleton around the pharynx1 which is ranged circularly instead of by pairs4 #cbef4 ,the nervous system is directed according to the relations of the tegument and intestine4 ,it forms two ganglionic cords running along the ventral side of the body1 and1 where it makes with the nerves going to the maxill a ring around the pharynx1 corresponds to the pharyngeal or pneumogastric nerves4 #cbeg4 ,in reference to the sense of feeling it may be said1 that the ,worms were those among the ,sensitive animals1 which feel by the whole tegument or body4 ,their body itself is a tentaculum4 #cbeh4 ,the sexual parts are likewise intestini-and dermiform1 not glandular in figure like the ovarium and testis of ,mussels and ,snails1 but tubular1 as in the ,entozoa4 ,there are usually two oviducts and two seminal tubes to be found4 #cbei4 ,so far as we are acquainted with the ,red-blooded worms1 they are androgynous1 at least as regards the ,earth-worms and ,leeches1 and their sexual parts are indeed tolerably symmetrical2 yet they do not open posteriorly1 but far forwards on the ventral side of the body1 this being the case with even the male sex-organs4 ,class #h4 ,branchial1 ,pedal ,animals4 #cbfj4 ,the representation of the ,cutaneous animals is not yet the entire completion of the tegument4 ,it attains a higher grade by separating in accordance with the visceral systems1 and in the conversion of the branchi into sensorial organs or feet4 ,the branchi endeavour to separate self-substantially1 and form a body of their own4 ,the branchial body is the thorax4 ,by this attempt1 the abdomen originates per se as the body of the intestinal and sexual system4 ,the branchi upon it are arrested or stunted4 ,in like manner the body of the nerves separates itself from the thorax and becomes head4 ,but meanwhile this separation is only imperfect2 the head and thorax1 if otherwise distinguished by their size and the feet1 are for the most part connate2 abdomen and tail are usually fused together1 and only to be recognized as distinct by the limbs or members4 ,with this greater division of the body each division of it obtains its articulation into rings2 but they will be hardened by virtue of the separation of the branchial network1 or will become horny--,horny animals4 #cbfa4 ,with the conversion into horny texture of the body1 its branchial filaments or tentacula must undergo a similar change1 and divide likewise into rings like the general or bodily tegument4 ,annulate1 horny branchial filaments1 are feet--,pedal animals4 ,a part of the branchi remains hanging to the feet1 mostly to their basal joints1 and is supported by animal motor members or limbs2 the respiration becomes voluntary--,branchial animals4 ,the ,annulate animals1 having branchi and feet1 are the ,crustacea or ,crabs4 ,the branchi and feet are1 of course1 most largely developed upon the thorax4 ,those upon the abdomen continue small1 and those upon the tail or sexual body dwindle in size and change into other organs1 such as fins1 sacs1 filaments1 pincers4 #cbfb4 ,the number five of the branchi is also exhibited in the feet4 ,there are mostly five large pairs of feet on the thorax1 and as many small ones on the abdomen1 as in the ,crabs4 ,on the tail they appear more dwindled in size1 and are frequently reduced to a smaller number4 ,each part of the body has properly five rings2 and these parts being the thorax1 abdomen and tail1 there are thus fifteen rings in all4 ,in the ,crabs it is distinctly demonstrated that the maxill are nothing else but feet2 there are therefore for the most part1 after taking into account sundry arrests and coalescences1 five pairs of maxill also4 ,the ,crabs have usually two pairs of antenn1 whose signification is unknown2 one pair is probably the elongation of the ear4 ,all ,branchial animals have eyes1 frequently too supported upon articulated pedicles4 ,they have a double nervous cord upon the ventral surface of the body4 ,they have1 like the ,mussels1 a heart upon the dorsal aspect1 and arteries with veins4 ,the intestine opens into the apex of the tail1 and is surrounded by a liver4 ,the sexual parts still open for the most part on the thorax1 and indeed by two orifices1 as in the ,worms4 ,there are no more androgynous or bisexual beings in the present class4 ,in some few the branchi already enter the body and become air-tubes1 as in the ,scolopendr1 ,spiders and ,scorpions4 ,the ,branchial animals repeat1 as being the second class of their circle1 the ,corals and ,snails2 their quasi coat of mail is therefore harder1 often richer in calcareous ingredients1 and1 in addition to this1 lies frequently upon the thorax or branchia as a special testa1 called the scute or shield4 ,class #i4 ,tracheal1 ,alary ,animals4 ,annulate animals1 whose branchi have undergone a partial conversion into trache and into wings1 are the ,insecta proper or ,flies4 #cbfc4 ,a ,worm with feet1 trache and wings1 is an ,entomon or ,insect4 #cbfd4 ,the first separation takes place in respect to the three tegumental segments of the body1 the abdomen1 thorax1 and head4 ,all three are1 in the ,insects1 more separated from each other than in the ,branchial animals1 and united together usually by a narrow tube2 even in cases also1 where they are connate with each other1 they are still easily recognized by respect being had to size1 form1 or appendages4 ,every ,insect is divided into three segments4 ,in the abdomen are the organs belonging to the ,worm1 such as the intestine1 and a fatty body which appears to be an analogue of the liver1 a dorsal vessel1 tubular sexual parts and air-tubes 7trache71 but nothing else4 ,the abdominal feet now disappear entirely1 and even the number of thoracic feet diminishes1 owing1 doubtless1 to the production of wings4 #cbfe4 ,the thorax alone is reserved for the limbs or locomotive members4 ,it never carries more than three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings4 ,of the viscera1 it contains nothing but the oesophagus1 while in the ,crabs1 important intestinal organs and even the liver1 are situated within its cavity4 ,it is in ,insects therefore nothing else than a medium of support to the respiratory organs which have become limbs4 ,hence the thorax never has more than three rings1 namely1 one for each pair of legs4 ,the wings invariably stand upon its two posterior rings4 #cbff4 ,since the limbs of the ,insect are only the lateral filaments of the ,worms1 which have become hard and consequently hollow2 they are as such not to be termed true feet1 but are only to be compared with branchial arches or ribs2 a step by which their greater number also admits of being understood4 ,they are not to be compared with our feet1 but unto the toes1 which have been separated from each other as far as the rings of the body4 ,the ,crab has properly five thoracic and five abdominal toes4 ,all its thoracic feet taken together are only equivalent to our hand4 ,the feet of the higher animals are only ,insect-feet connate or coalesced4 #cbfg4 ,in other respects they already typify or prefigure true limbs1 as well from their position as by the division of their joints4 ,a perfect beetle's foot divides exactly like the limb of ,man1 into femur1 patella1 tibia1 tarsus1 and phalanges4 ,these parts of the leg must not1 however1 be so absurdly divided and named1 as has hitherto been unfortunately the case in our systems1 where the femur has been called coxa1 the patella trochanter1 the tibia femur1 while the toes have been lumped under the name of tarsus4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaa4 #cjhg47 ,the regular number of the toes or tarsal joints is five1 so that they correspond to our digital phalanges1 to the metacarpal1 and the anterior carpal bone4 #cbfh4 ,the wings are the branchi of the ,mollusc that have been set free2 they are placed therefore upon the back and are four in number4 ,in many ,insects there is still a pair of wing-like scales in front of the four wings1 as in some ,lepidoptera4 ,they perhaps correspond to the shells of ,molluscs1 are branchial opercula4 ,it is only from this point of view that the structure of ,insects admits of being fully understood2 and apart from this it is absolutely devoid of all analogy4 ,thus it is possible for only six legs to take their origin from the thorax in the direction downwards1 and nevertheless for there still to be wings upon the dorsum or back4 ,the wings of ,birds are by no means homologous to the alar appendages of ,insects2 they are1 as is well known1 the anterior members themselves1 and there is no longer therefore in the ,bird any feet attached to the thorax below1 as in ,insects4 ,besides1 if the wings did not signify arms in the ,bird1 then it must have four legs4 ,thus in the ,insect the wings could not also mean feet4 ,their structure also speaks in favour of our view of the ,insect's wings4 ,they are known to be completely traversed by respiratory tubes1 are true1 or only desiccated1 branchi--aerial gills4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaa4 #cjhh47 ,wings and feet are dependent from the same ring of the body1 and are thus like the branchi and feet of the ,crabs4 ,let the ,crab's branchi elongate and dry1 and they will thus be wings4 #cbfi4 ,since the wings are newly eliminated organs of the sense of feeling1 so are they here characteristic of the animal1 and are consequently of greater importance for the purposes of division and arrangement than the organs of the head1 which in all the lower animals is only an apparent head1 and cannot therefore serve to characterize groups1 c4 #cbgj4 ,that the trache in ,insects have been developed out of the branchi by saccular inversion1 is a fact displayed in a particularly distinct manner by the ,scorpions and ,spiders1 who still possess at bottom internal branchial lamin1 unto which1 however1 air instead of water finds its way4 ,it may be said1 that with the general conversion into horny texture1 the arteries of the ,mussels were transmuted into internal trache1 and the branchial flabell into external organs4 ,would we interpret the body of the ,insect in a strictly philosophic sense1 the parts must then receive very different names to what they now bear4 ,properly speaking1 in our own species the thorax has no limbs1 but only the neck4 ,the upper limbs are not lungs1 but branchial organs1 and it is the cervical vertebr1 from between which nerves are sent off to the arms1 for it is just upon the neck also that the branchi have been left4 ,what is termed therefore the thorax in ,insects1 would be properly their neck4 ,their abdomen would consist accordingly of thorax and abdomen1 and it is this also1 which carries on the principal share of the respiratory process4 ,it therefore consists generally of ten rings1 and has ten pairs of spiracula1 namely1 twice five1 for both thorax and abdomen4 ,or again1 the abdomen may be regarded as an intestinal and sexual cavity1 and the thorax may be left with its own name4 ,in that case there would be five spiracles for the sex1 five for the intestine1 and perhaps only two for the thorax4 ,would we proceed yet further2 the head can then only be viewed as pharynx1 and consequently as neck4 #cbga4 ,in most ,branchial animals that live in the water1 a perfect circulation is present1 because1 by reason of their feeble amount of respiration1 all the blood is not consumed4 ,this is also the case in the young of air-breathing ,insects1 so long as they may have to grow4 ,but when they have ceased to do this1 so strong an amount of tension emerges in the circulation1 owing to the increased respiration of air1 that blood remains but in scanty quantity to be carried back by the veins1 and the arteries now for the most part convey the air in a pure state1 namely1 uncombined with blood1 as in the higher animals4 #cbgb4 ,as the air-tubes pass to all parts of the body1 like the arteries whose place they now supply1 so does the nutritive juice become everywhere oxydized and converted into parenchyma or tissue4 ,the nutritive juice doubtless transudes at once through the intestine and penetrates to all parts1 as in the ,plants4 #cbgc4 ,of the vascular system nothing at last remains but the dorsal vessel1 whose ramifications appear to disappear entirely4 ,according to its analogy with the ,crabs1 ,scorpions1 and ,spiders1 it is the aorta4 ,it appears1 as if in ,insects the circulation dies off from the living body4 ,the whole ,insect is an air-organ1 an aero-vascular stem4 ,all the organs respire directly1 such as the intestine1 the motor fibres1 nerves1 sexual parts1 and wings4 ,there is no part unto which trache do not pass1 and in this respect completely resemble the arteries of other animals4 #cbgd4 ,the intestine is invariably furnished with an anus1 and that too situated quite posteriorly4 ,it is usually expanded into several stomachs and has appendages1 almost as in ,fishes1 which virtually correspond to the abdomino-salivary or pancreatic gland4 #cbge4 ,the salivary ducts open into the mouth1 and thus as in the ,snails and ,kracken1 whose similar structures they repeat4 #cbgf4 ,whether what have been called the biliary vessels are what the name implies1 and really convey bile from the fatty body to the intestine1 or whether they are lacteal vessels and discharge their fluid near the rectum into the dorsal vessel1 does not yet admit of being determined4 ,they have been thought to constitute an urinary apparatus2 only certain cysts which occur in connexion with the sexual parts1 appear rather to correspond to the latter4 #cbgg4 ,the nervous system consists1 as in the ,worms1 of two ganglionic ventral chords4 #cbgh4 ,in the head1 the feet again1 and probably also wings1 undergo repetition4 ,this repetition is nowhere so distinct as in ,insects4 ,he who can still entertain any doubt of the maxill being arms1 let him resolve to descend into the ,insect-world1 and he will become in place of a sceptic1 a believer4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaa4 #cjie47 ,what have been called manducatory pincers move outwards as well as the legs1 and seize like arms1 are only arms4 ,their gripe takes place in the lateral or horizontal direction1 and resembles that of scissors or shears4 #cbgi4 ,where1 moreover1 there are three pairs of legs on the thorax1 we find also three pairs of maxill1 namely1 an upper and lower maxilla1 and a labium or inferior lip1 which consists of the same parts as the maxill1 only they are united by tegument4 #cbhj4 ,where there are five or more pairs of legs on the thorax1 as in the ,crabs1 there also are found as many pairs of maxill4 #cbha4 ,upon these maxill1 palpi are likewise situated1 which are probably nothing else than what has been termed tarsus1 thus repeated in the head also4 ,they are only arrested upon the upper maxill or mandibles4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaa4 #cjif47 #cbhb4 ,the wings appear to be repeated upon the head as antenn4 ,thus the head also is in the ,insects a perfect trunk4 #cbhc4 ,upon the head there is nothing more than the eyes4 ,they have also become horny in texture1 whereas before they were completely membranous1 as in the ,snails4 ,the eyes have been subordinated to the sense of feeling2 they are nervous papill placed beneath a transparent tegument upon the apex of a tentaculum4 ,insects therefore have a number of eyes2 they stand either separate1 as in the ,worms1 and are then called simple eyes1 or they are crowded together1 constituting compound eyes4 #cbhd4 ,of the other sensorial organs a papilliform elevation in the pharynx is frequently exhibited as a tongue4 #cbhe4 ,ears are found in the ,crabs at the root or base of the antenn1 or in them there is only a tympanic cavity with an ossicle inclosed within2 in the ,insect there is nothing of the same kind4 ,but meanwhile1 since many species attract each other by means of sounds1 they must thus possess the faculty of hearing4 ,the antenn therefore probably correspond to the auditory conch4 ,the auditory conch of the ,mammalia ranks also in the signification of the hand1 and thus of the organ of feeling4 ,nevertheless the antenn may be transformations of the wings4 ,the auditory ossicles are indeed members which have originated from branchi4 ,probably the antenn are the auditory ossicles themselves which have emerged outwards1 as in the ,fishes and ,reptiles4 ,there is no trace of a nose2 nor can there be any1 for it is the anterior orifice of the vertebral canal1 and this is wanting in all lower animals4 ,a noseless animal is an inferior or ,tegumental animal4 #cbhf4 ,the sexes are separate1 because they are ,air-breathing animals and perfectly symmetrical in form4 ,the ovi-and seminal ducts are likewise symmetric and in pairs4 ,the ovipositors and penes are perfect1 as in the ,snails1 because they can be shoved forwards1 but not everted as in the latter4 #cbhg4 ,the position of the sexual parts at the posterior extremity of the body has been permanently established1 with exceedingly few exceptions1 as in some aquatic ,insects4 ,that they correspond to the head1 or are imperfect cephalic organs1 is most distinctly shown in the ,insect4 ,they are usually environed by valves1 pincers1 and filaments1 which resemble maxill and palpi4 #cbhh4 ,the ,ovum-animals multiply by division1 by granules or gemm1 i4 e4 shoots1 the ,sexual animals by membranous ova1 the ,arthritic animals by horny ova4 ,these last1 or egg-shells1 are hard1 and frequently also so strung together or laid by the parent upon each other as to represent the annulate body of some ,insect4 #cbhi4 ,in the ova of the ,dermatozoa or ,tegumental animals the vitellus only appears to exist1 being without albumen1 which first seems to make its appearance along with the animal systems4 ,as the animal separates into higher and lower substances1 so also does the ovum or microzoon4 ,the simplicity of the ,tegumental animals has been prophesied or foretold in that of their ova4 ,the ,insecta1 as being the third class of their circle1 repeat the ,acaleph and ,kracken4 ,with the last they bear much resemblance in form and in their motor organs4 #cbij4 ,would we arrange the ,worms along with the spiral vessels or ducts1 the ,crabs with the woody rings in the stem1 we must term the ,tracheal animals foliage or leaves4 ,their wings are pinnate leaves1 and among the ,orthoptera many occur which1 as well in the form of the body as of the wings1 appear as if they had been just liberated from the ,papilionaceous tree4 ,the tales or stories1 about leaves changing in the torrid zones into ,insects1 are not without meaning2 for poetry is none other than the ,ideal of natural history4 ,metamorphosis4 #cbia4 ,we now proceed to retrace our steps4 ,the ,insect is a ,tegumental animal represented in limbs4 ,there can be therefore present in the ,insect no other development than in the ,cutaneous animal1 which works itself up into the ,branchial and ,tracheal animal4 ,the ,insect passes through three stages prior to its attaining the adult or perfect condition4 ,it is at first ,worm1 next ,crab1 then a perfect1 volant animal with limbs1 a ,fly4 #cbib4 ,the representative passage of the ,insect through the preceding classes in the course of development1 constitutes its metamorphosis4 ,thus the ,insect's metamorphosis obtains a meaning and an explanation4 ,upon the whole1 the history of every kind of pregnancy is none other than the passage which takes place through all the animal classes1 as ,i have first represented in my book upon ,generation 7,von der ,zeugung1 #ahje72 but in no class of animals are the periods so dissevered or drawn apart as in ,insects4 ,it therefore comes to pass that these animals are the equivalent transcripts or copies of a system common to them and the preceding animals4 #cbic4 ,the ,worm is the first condition of the ,insect4 ,it is represented1 by the larva1 which1 according to its diversity of size1 is called maggot1 caterpillar1 grub1 c4 #cbid4 ,the larva is only a ,cutaneous and ,intestinal animal4 ,it knows of nothing else but eating like the ,worm2 it has no sexual function1 no lust1 nor pain2 it can scarcely move2 in many the feet are wanting1 as in the larv of ,flies1 which thus resemble the ,entozoa2 many have a crop of lateral papill1 like the caterpillars1 which resemble the ,nereids4 #cbie4 ,the change into a nympha1 chrysalis1 or pupa1 commences with the horny induration met with in the ,crab1 and in the higher organized kinds of ,snail4 ,the pupa is the embryonic ,crab or its antetype1 it is the ,snail in its shell4 #cbif4 ,in the third condition the ,insect makes an advance above the branchial condition1 and casts aside the ,snail's or ,crab's shell2 and is then the perfect ,insect1 the ,fly4 #cbig4 ,the metamorphosis is accordingly the embryonic transition of the ,insect1 after extrusion from the egg1 through the three classes of its circle4 ,in the ovum state it only passes through that of the ,intestinal and ,sexual animals4 #cbih4 ,this is a retrospective proof that the higher animals also pass in the ovum through the condition of the lower animals1 but after birth through the classes which directly precede them4 ,what holds good of the ,insects1 does so also of the preceding groups of animals1 although in a less degree2 the higher class of each circle still passes after birth through one or other of the inferior classes4 ,thus1 the ,acaleph first appear under the form of ,infusoria2 next change into ,polyps1 and then obtain for the first time the form of the perfect ,acaleph4 ,the same phenomenon occurs in the naked snails or ,slugs4 ,they have1 when freshly hatched from the egg1 a small mussel-like shell1 which they lose at a later period4 ,the ,echini or ,sea-urchins1 which ,i believe ought to be ranged with the ,kracken1 also pass through a metamorphosis4 ,finally1 it is well known that the ,crabs also are subjected to a metamorphosis4 ,their first condition must be regarded as that of the ,worm4 ,the law is thus universal4 ,the second and third class of every circle traverse after birth the classes1 to whose series they belong4 ,it would even appear that the classes1 also of a lower circle1 are subject to similar changes2 at least many ,entozoa1 and thus the first class of the third circle1 appear to undergo such a metamorphosis1 since they first of all resemble an ,infusory animal1 next change as pup into ,molluscs1 and are then manifested for the first time as ,worms4 #cbii4 ,the ,dermatozoa or ,sensitive animals range in the following manner1 according to the anatomical systems3 ,a4 ,,intestinal ,,animals4 ,b4 ,,vascular ,,animals4 ,c4 ,,respiratory ,,animals4 #a4 ,gastric animals4 #d4 ,venous animals4 #g4 ,reticular animals4 ,infusoria4 ,mussels4 ,worms4 #b4 ,intestinal animals4 #e4 ,arterial animals4 #h4 ,branchial animals4 ,polyps4 ,snails4 ,crustacea4 #c4 ,absorbent animals4 #f4 ,cardiac animals4 #i4 ,tracheal animals4 ,acaleph4 ,kracken4 ,insects4 #ccjj4 ,according to the developments of the feeling-sense they stand thus3 ,a4 ,,ovum-,,animals4 ,b4 ,,sexual ,,animals4 ,c4 ,,cutaneous ,,animals4 #a4 ,vitelline animals4 #d4 ,ovarial animals4 #g4 ,papillary animals4 ,infusoria4 ,mussels4 ,worms4 #b4 ,albuminose animals4 #e4 ,orchitic animals4 #h4 ,pedal animals4 ,polyps4 ,snails4 ,crustacea4 #c4 ,involucral animals4 #f4 ,renal animals4 #i4 ,alary animals4 ,acaleph4 ,kracken4 ,flies4 #ccja4 ,from these tables the number and kind of relationships or affinities is readily deduced4 ,there is a ,relationship of ,proximity1 as that between ,infusoria1 ,polyps1 and ,acaleph4 ,a ,relationship of ,repetition1 as of ,infusoria1 ,mussels1 ,worms4 ,there is also a ,relationship of ,series1 which takes its rise from the parallelism of the classes4 ,the two last relationships have been confounded together under the term analogy1 which at best is but a word of random definition4 ,second ,province--,sarcozoa1 ,cephalozoa4 ,,fourth ,,circle--,,sarcose ,,animals4 #ccjb4 ,the system of motion and sensation1 which broke forth so forcibly in the tegument1 now passes over into other forms1 into the globular form of bone1 the fibrous form of flesh or muscle1 and the point-form of the nerves4 #ccjc4 ,the nervous system when liberated from the vegetative organs is1 or consists of1 the myelon 7spinal chord7 and the encephalon1 i4 e4 brain4 #ccjd4 ,these animals are therefore ,osseous1 ,muscular1 and ,encephalic animals1 whereupon the senses are proportionately developed1 and constitute the basis of the highest animal forms--,sarcozoa4 ,the ,dermatozoa are asarcose or fleshless animals4 #ccje4 ,with the sudden appearance of the animal systems all organs of the head1 such as tongue1 nose1 ears1 and eyes1 are also developed2 no asarcous animal has nostrils4 ,now these parts1 especially the nostrils1 as marking the terminal extremity of the vertebral column1 make up the head--,cephalozoa1 or ,cephalic animals4 ,class #aj4 ,osteozoa1 ,glossozoa4 #ccjf4 ,the animals1 in which the osseous system for the first time makes its appearance are1 the ,fishes4 ,the ,fish alone has more bones than any other animal4 ,it has dorsal rays1 which are wanting in all others4 #ccjg4 ,the animal systems are for the first time slightly separated from each other4 ,bone1 muscle1 and nerve are rather a gelatinous mass1 which only bids fair for becoming something higher2 on this account the bones are frequently but soft cartilages or tendons1 the muscle composed of white fibres like those upon the intestine or vessels1 the nerve thick1 oleaginous1 and soft in texture1 while the brain is in its constituent parts hardly comparable with that of the ,thricozoa4 #ccjh4 ,the muscles of ,fishes are not yet perfect in character1 since they are devoid of individualization and red colour1 and their fibres run mostly parallel with each other without uniting into tendons4 ,their muscular body is a muscular wall4 #ccji4 ,the ,fishes1 ranking upon the first stage of the ,sarcozoa1 repeat the same stage of the preceding circle1 and thus the ,infusoria1 ,mussels1 and ,worms2 or the stomach1 veins1 and branchial rete or network2 furthermore1 the vitellus1 ovary1 and skin1 which systems must in them accordingly predominate4 ,pelvis4 #ccaj4 ,in ,fishes the pelvic organs1 sexual parts1 and tail predominate4 ,the tail1 as being an appurtenance of the pelvis1 is larger and stronger than in other animals4 ,it mostly makes up the largest part of the body1 and is1 properly speaking1 its only motor organ4 #ccaa4 ,the sexual parts have still the form of the intestine1 and occupy the greatest part of the abdomen4 ,the ovaria are two sacs1 like two ,infusoria1 in whose parietes granules are developed2 even the testes are only two such sacs or seminal vesicles wherein the milt is contained4 ,fishes may be termed anorchitic1 or animals devoid of testes4 ,the ova are small1 consisting of spawn or roe without shell1 but they separate into albumen and vitellus4 #ccab4 ,external sexual parts are not present4 ,everything usually opens into a cloaca1 which is thus here a true pharyngeal cavity4 #ccac4 ,with the perfected formation of the head1 the animal1 so to speak1 undergoes a sudden and entire change1 and the sexual parts are developed with all their accessory organs1 such as the sexual lung4 ,kidneys are present and mostly an urinary cyst4 ,the kidneys are indeed still so amorphous and soft1 that they more resemble coagulated blood than an organ1 yet meanwhile agree in this respect with the 'milt' and branchial substance4 ,abdomen4 ,the abdomen is not simply confluent with the sexual body1 but thrust by it completely forwards4 ,the anus mostly lies in front of the middle of the body4 #ccad4 ,the intestine separates for the first time distinctly into cephalic and sexual1 or small and large1 intestine4 #ccae4 ,the vitelline canal is the coecum4 ,this is very distinct in the ,sharks and ,rays4 #ccaf4 ,in ,birds therefore the vitelline canal is the coecum also1 and the two coeca1 falsely so called1 which are placed upon the side of the rectum cannot represent the coecum coli1 or else the ,bird must have three of these blind appendages or sacs4 #ccag4 ,the spleen here appears for the first time2 while the pancreas divides into a number of coecal appendages4 ,thorax4 #ccah4 ,the thorax of the ,fish is reduced within very narrow limits2 it is like the first thoracic formation1 and is thus a ,mussel's thorax4 ,the branchi with their opercula are similarly formed to the branchial plates and shells of the ,bivalve ,mollusca4 ,the thorax is therefore attached only externally to the body1 and the ,fish is to be viewed as a ,mussel1 from between whose shells a monstrous abdomen has grown out4 #ccai4 ,but this ,molluscan thorax is conjoined with animal systems1 and has assumed their noble or elevated type of structure4 ,here therefore the osseous and sarcose system blend together1 and the higher formation of the thorax emerges into view4 #ccbj4 ,for the first time an advance is made towards the formation of a trachea1 namely1 by the branchial framework or skeleton1 which opens into the mouth1 and corresponds therefore properly to the larynx4 ,fishes are therefore the first animals which breathe through the mouth4 ,in all the preceding classes the air entered the body1 or the water found access to the branchi1 by other routes4 #ccba4 ,they may be termed ,mouth-breathing animals1 for the first formation of the trachea extends no further than to its junction or communication with the mouth2 since1 for it to be continued into the head and open self-substantially as a nasal organ1 constitutes a second step in advance1 which cannot be ventured upon in an ,abdominal animal4 ,in ,fishes everything relates to the abdomen1 and this is expressed by the first union of the trachea having taken place with the oesophagus or the mouth4 #ccbb4 ,but1 at the same time that the trachea is inserted within the mouth1 it opens externally and in the lateral direction upon the body1 thus letting the water escape from it posteriorly after a mussel-like or sexual fashion4 ,thus1 the trachea is not yet closed inferiorly1 nor hence also the thoracic cavity4 ,between the head and abdomen there are still openings--branchial foramina4 #ccbc4 ,the trachea is itself1 however1 a thorax upon a small scale1 consisting as it does of rings1 or as it were ribs4 ,these arches are not yet united by muscles with each other1 and the water flows out between them into the apparent thoracic cavity1 from which it next escapes beneath the branchial operculum4 #ccbd4 ,these tracheal rings are the branchial arches4 ,the branchial vessels are tracheal and by no means pulmonary vessels4 #ccbe4 ,thus1 upon taking a retrospective glance at the matter1 we may fairly conclude that the branchi of the ,dermatozoa are not equivalent to the lungs of the higher animals1 but are only the antetypes of the bronchi1 being thus cervical organs4 #ccbf4 ,the trachea is thus formed prior or antecedently to the lungs1 but is still membranous and devoid of any continuous connexion between its rings4 #ccbg4 ,the lung is an organ extraneous or foreign to the trachea1 and becomes only as if accidentally associated with it4 #ccbh4 ,but a ,sarcozoon is not devoid of lungs nor of aerial respiration2 for1 being the totality of all lower animals1 it consequently unites in itself the respiratory apparatus of the ,branchial and ,tracheal animals2 thus gills and lungs4 #ccbi4 ,in the ,fish the first lung appears1 that is to say1 if we designate or interpret the respiratory organ in ,insects only as trache1 which do not open into the mouth4 #cccj4 ,the ,fish's lung is the air-or swim-cyst4 #ccca4 ,the lung is still subordinate to the abdomen and intestine4 ,it is therefore still separated from the trachea or the branchial arches4 #cccb4 ,fishes swallow the air and drive it into the pulmonic cyst1 where it is analysed or decomposed4 #cccc4 ,this lung1 so soon as it stands opposite to and enters into conflict with a branchia1 is what serves to direct or control the action of the heart4 ,it is only when the swim-cyst is allowed to hold good as lung1 that the circulation in ,fishes admits of being understood4 ,for otherwise venous blood must flow into the heart1 from this into the branchi1 from these directly into the aorta1 and so to the different organs without again entering a cardiac cavity1 a structure which occurs in no other class of animals1 but rather in every instance its reverse4 ,the first heart is arteriose1 not venous in all animals1 even in the ,mussels and ,snails and in the embryos4 ,now1 the ,fish is still such an embryo1 and has only an arteriose heart4 #cccd4 ,thus1 the following is the modus operandi of the parts in question2 the swim-cyst is the lung1 in which1 seeing that it contains air1 the blood is oxydized2 this oxydized blood flows into the heart and renders it arteriose in character1 despite the concomitant influx of venous blood into that organ4 ,upon this1 the blood passes out of the heart through a true aorta1 which is called the branchial artery4 ,instead then of this aorta giving off only some twigs as bronchial vessels to the gills1 and next proceeding to pursue its course as a main trunk through the body and along the back1 it passes wholly to the branchi1 i4 e4 it entirely becomes a bronchial vessel1 is slightly oxydized1 and then returns upon itself to form the aorta1 which should have taken its course directly from the heart4 ,senses4 #ccce4 ,in accordance with the thorax1 the corium or true skin is developed4 ,it is mucous in character and muco-secernent like the intestine1 from its being constantly in the water4 ,the whole skin is undermined by mucous canals and perforated by their excretory apertures4 ,these foramina of the lateral line are arrested1 and metamorphosed branchial foramina1 which have only retained the evaporative function of respiration4 #cccf4 ,the remnants of the tegument's annulation are the scales4 ,they are desiccated air-branchi1 alary opercula or elytra1 and consequently indicate that feature of the ,insect1 which has continued to work its way into the class of ,fishes4 #cccg4 ,like the skin1 so are the limbs--tegumental members4 ,what is flesh and bone upon them1 has kept quite close to the body1 and that only which is designed for splitting into digits projects1 constituting tegumental digits with cartilages--fins4 ,these fins are something better than the lateral papill of the ,worms1 are furnished at their base with joints1 and are in number only four1 but crippled or stunted in every possible way4 #ccch4 ,the fin-rays do not correspond to the digits1 but to the nails4 ,they are fibrillated nails1 like the wing-feathers of ,birds4 #ccci4 ,lastly1 the head possesses all the organs of sense which belong to a head1 but they are still far removed from their perfect condition4 #ccdj4 ,as the nervous system is the first mass1 from which the remaining ones have been set free1 so also is the nervous sense the first after that of the tegument1 which appears as a whole1 and serves as a pattern for the subsequent senses4 ,the eye is the sense which is first developed most perfectly1 not directly as regards its own completeness1 but when considered in reference to the others4 ,as the sense of feeling has been at once manifested in the vegetative animals as a peripheric nervous sense2 so antithetically or vice vers it is in the higher animals the light-sense1 as being the central nervose sense1 which appears4 #ccda4 ,hitherto both these senses stood altogether alone with each other upon the stage of animal existence1 in order1 as it were1 to play their parts in mutual consent2 but so soon as the sense of feeling became individualized into tactile organs1 then also the eye made its appearance in a detached or isolated manner4 #ccdb4 ,the ,fish's eye is upon the whole composed of the same structures as in the ,mammalia2 but it is devoid of motion and external coverings4 #ccdc4 ,the ear1 as being the sense of motion1 has scarcely withdrawn itself from the brain1 has not yet become a true external organ1 and that portion of it which appears externally1 is subservient to inferior systems1 such as the branchi or gills4 #ccdd4 ,the external auditory organ has become confluent with the branchial aperture1 and the auditory ossicles have become parts of the branchial operculum4 #ccde4 ,in the internal ear only the three semicircular canals have been left4 ,the cochlea is not yet developed4 ,as true palpebr or eyelids are wanting to the visual organ1 so also are the conchs of the external ear4 #ccdf4 ,the nostrils exist1 because a vertebral canal1 which terminates in them1 is present2 stoutly-developed olfactory nerves are also present1 so that the sense of smell cannot be wanting4 ,only this sense has not yet taken the respiratory organ into communication with itself1 and both therefore live for themselves in an arrested or stunted condition4 ,this nasal organ does not open into the mouth1 admits of neither water nor air passing through it1 and therefore serves not as a test-organ to the respiratory process4 ,this is my main point for distinction of ,fishes from ,reptiles4 #ccdg4 ,every ,sarcozoon1 whose nostrils do not open into the mouth1 is a ,fish4 ,the ,siren therefore does not belong to the present class1 while the ,lepidosiren1 having an imperforate nasal organ1 does4 #ccdh4 ,the tongue has remained rather an organ of touch and deglutition1 than an instrument of taste4 ,the salivary glands are scarcely developed4 #ccdi4 ,but the tongue here appears for the first time in the animal kingdom as a perfect organ provided with muscles1 and a lingual bone1 as in ,man2 ,fishes are1 as regards the development of this sense the ,glossozoa1 ,lingual or ,tongue-animals4 #ccej4 ,as ,fishes are the repetition of the intestine and vitellus1 so they may be termed abdominal or rather ,pelvic animals4 ,they are an abdomen1 unto which are appended branchi1 fins and head4 ,they are the repetition of the ,infusoria1 ,mussels1 and ,worms2 in them we meet with mucus1 branchial opercula1 articulated filaments1 and labial cirrhi or palpal organs4 ,class #aa4 ,myozoa1 ,rhinozoa4 #ccea4 ,those ,sarcozoa which for the first time obtain true muscles and a perforated nasal organ are the ,reptilia4 #cceb4 ,true muscles are red1 have a definitely circumscribed outline1 and are divisible into head1 fleshy portion or belly1 and tail or tendon4 ,as such they are found for the first time in ,reptiles4 ,thorax4 #ccec4 ,with the osseous system in ,fishes the sexual abdomen was chiefly developed2 with the muscular system therefore1 as in the present class1 the abdomen proper or intestinal abdomen becomes perfectly developed1 and the thorax more spacious in calibre4 #cced4 ,the thorax is still blended with the abdomen4 ,in ,fishes the disposition was already stirring to create for themselves an air-organ2 only this was imperfectly attained1 since the swim-cyst communicated with the gullet1 but not with the branchial arches or larynx1 nor with the nasal organ1 as in the present class4 #ccee4 ,now1 if the swim-cyst be symmetrically developed1 if it communicates with the branchial larynx and opens through the nose1 the aerial respiration is completely attained1 and shares its dominion over the body along with the digestive function4 #ccef4 ,a ,fish1 respiring through the nose into two swim-bladders1 is an ,amphibious animal1 a ,reptile4 #cceg4 ,in the ,reptile1 however1 the thorax is still subordinated to the abdomen4 ,its lungs traverse the whole abdominal cavity1 and its manner of breathing is still similar in character to the abdominal function4 ,the lungs are simply two membranous bladders1 like two intestines1 and admit also of being voluntarily filled with air like the intestine is with water4 ,this filling or inflation of the ,reptile's lungs takes place also by the abdomen being expanded at the same time that the mouth is closed by the muscles of the fauces1 and is therefore a true process of deglutition4 #cceh4 ,their inspiration is still therefore fish-like in character1 excepting that the air is drawn in by the nostrils2 the respiratory process1 however1 and the respiratory organ is constituted as in the perfect air-breathing animals4 #ccei4 ,reptiles may therefore be called ,abdominal animals1 while the ,fishes are ,pelvic animals4 #ccfj4 ,the metamorphosis of the branchial arches into larynx is placed beyond doubt in the ,reptiles4 ,the anterior branchial arches frequently unite with the lingual bone1 whereby the latter obtains several cornua4 #ccfa4 ,the thyroid gland also makes its appearance here for the first time1 while the branchial vessels separate from the arches4 ,fishes have therefore no thyroid gland4 #ccfb4 ,the circulation is complete4 ,the venous and also the arterial blood enters the heart4 ,but both kinds of blood are still mingled with each other as in ,fishes4 ,yet already1 through the direction and arrangement of the cardiac orifices1 provision seems to be made for their separation4 #ccfc4 ,the rationale of this mixture of the blood appears to reside in the fact1 that many of these animals1 and probably all of them in the ovum state1 breathe by branchi4 7,this proposition1 which was announced in the #ast ,edition1 #ahaj4 #cje1 and there based upon the transitional stages traversed by the animal classes during embryonic development1 has since then been raised to a state of certainty47 #ccfd4 ,the mixture of the blood takes place through an opening in the septum separating the two cardiac ventricles1 and which corresponds to the foramen ovale of the foetus4 ,the heart of ,reptiles is therefore a persistent foetal heart4 #ccfe4 ,without doubt1 however1 the arterial blood only enters the left heart1 while the venous remains in the right1 to be thence driven into the lungs4 #ccff4 ,in other respects the foramen ovale is not a true opening1 but a bifurcation of the vena cava1 one branch of which passes into the right1 the other into the left ventricle1 as ,i have demonstrated in the ',beytrgen zur ,anatomie' 7,frankfurt bei ,wesche71 in treating of the calf's heart4 #ccfg4 ,there are generally no foramina in the body1 but only fissures without orifices4 ,abdomen4 #ccfh4 ,the digestive organs are pretty similar to those in ,fishes1 as is exemplified by the intestine1 liver1 and spleen2 the digestive process is1 however1 more energetic1 and frequently aided by venom or poison4 #ccfi4 ,the sexual parts are perfect4 ,the first true testes and ovaria have originated4 ,the tegumental formation has consequently passed over at the extremities into a glandular1 because the vascular system preponderates4 ,even in the highest ,fishes1 such as the ,rays and ,sharks1 the testes and ovaria are still not developed to the extent which they are in ,reptiles4 #ccgj4 ,in the female the oviducts pass together as complete cornua into an uterus4 ,in the male the seminal ducts are still indeed separate1 yet the two bodies or crura of the penis are frequently developed1 and continue separate in the ,serpents and ,lizards1 but are connate in the ,tortoises4 #ccga4 ,the kidneys are distinct and symmetrical2 their ureters usually unite into a large urinary cyst4 ,thus1 the sexual lung is also significantly developed4 #ccgb4 ,many of these urinary bladders split1 as in the ,tortoises1 into two cornua4 ,this is the form under which the cyst again occurs in ,birds1 where its two cornua have been incorrectly termed coeca1 but the urinary cyst rectum1 because the intestine opens into it4 #ccgc4 ,in ,reptiles also there is a cloaca or sexual orifice1 into which all the sexual apertures meet together4 ,the ova of ,reptiles possess a vitellus and albumen1 and are surrounded by a membranous or sometimes by a calcareous shell4 #ccgd4 ,hence ,reptiles have originally also a coecum1 but it has for the most part disappeared2 like its antetype the vitelline canal1 which is so small in most ,fishes and ,birds1 as to be scarcely distinguishable4 ,the tail projects from the body1 and is rather trailed after the animal1 than enabled to assist the body in its motions1 as in ,fishes4 ,senses4 #ccge4 ,many ,fishes have only a vertebral column without lateral bones2 in the ,thoracic animals this deficiency can hardly occur any longer1 although we are not1 on the other hand1 to expect any great amount of perfection to be attained by these parts4 ,reptiles have osseous ramules1 whether such be ribs or true feet2 the ,serpents have indeed only ribs1 but these exist in great numbers2 in the ,frogs1 on the contrary1 ribs are wanting1 but they have limbs4 ,in no ,reptile do fin-rays occur2 consequently1 there are no peculiar bones as in ,fishes4 #ccgf4 ,in ,reptiles the limbs themselves are in a varied or undetermined state1 although they constitute a class in which the formation of true muscular limbs is decided4 ,in ,reptiles the toes appear for the first time4 #ccgg4 ,as regards the tegument1 it quite corresponds with that of the ,corals1 ,snails1 and ,crabs1 of which the ,reptiles are a repetition4 ,in some cases it is slimy and naked2 in others ,mussel-shells originate1 as in the carapace of the ,tortoises2 the scales1 scutes1 and claws of ,serpents and ,lizards repeat the rings and scutes of ,crabs4 #ccgh4 ,the head has separated itself more from the thorax1 the eyes and ears being much more perfect2 as regards the latter organs the cranium is always perforated1 in the former there are eyelids4 #ccgi4 ,the eyes have still no power of free motion1 and the eyelids are as yet very imperfect4 ,it is principally the lower eyelid which closes1 while in ,mammalia the upper one is the most developed4 #cchj4 ,the external auditory meatus is notwithstanding usually covered by integument1 the auditory ossicles are mostly blended into one1 which projects above the skull2 the cochlea is wanting4 #ccha4 ,reptiles produce sounds for the first time through the lungs2 they have voice1 but as yet no song4 #cchb4 ,the nose1 however1 gives the finishing touch to the head4 ,it has not only opened as a vertebral canal in front1 but also as a thoracic cavity posteriorly into the mouth1 which was not the case in ,fishes4 ,the open nose is the sthetic character of ,reptiles1 just as the red muscles are the characteristics of the anatomical systems4 ,the ,reptiles are ,rhinozoa4 #cchc4 ,the tongue takes a higher rank than in ,fishes4 ,it is throughout soft1 fleshy1 and smooth2 but in most species is still slit into two1 which reminds us of a similar condition of the penis4 #cchd4 ,the teeth are in these animals more like digits than in ,fishes4 ,while here they consist for the greatest part of front teeth1 and are therefore associated with the intestine1 in ,reptiles they are mostly lateral1 and thus true maxillary teeth1 which are annexed to the salivary system4 ,with this special dental formation the saliva is also more active2 it is a rapidly fatal poison4 #cche4 ,the poison-teeth or fangs have likewise a groove1 which can be regarded as the continuation of the salivary duct4 ,class #ab4 ,neurozoa1 ,otozoa4 #cchf4 ,those ,sarcozoa1 whose nervous system is for the first time perfectly developed1 and whose ear is open externally1 are the ,birds4 #cchg4 ,the completion of the nervous system is the brain2 now the brain defines or determines the head2 the ,bird is1 properly speaking1 the first ,encephalic animal4 #cchh4 ,in the ,bird the head has for the first time1 and that indeed suddenly1 freed itself from the trunk1 and been placed upon a long neck1 far removed from the thorax4 ,in no class are there such long necks and so many cervical vertebr to be found as in ,birds4 ,they can be therefore called also ,cervical animals1 as the neck is not simply present1 in order to render the head independent or self-substantial4 ,the caudal vertebr1 on the contrary1 are lessened throughout the ,birds1 to a degree met with in no other class of animals4 #cchi4 ,the brain separates for the first time completely into cerebrum and cerebellum1 begins to exhibit convolutions1 and has in general most of the individual parts analogous to those in the ,thricozoa4 ,they are therefore ,encephalic animals1 which the name of ,neurozoa will properly enough imply4 ,the nerves are in comparison with the spinal cord much thinner than in ,reptiles and ,fishes4 ,in the ,bird also1 all the spiritual or mental faculties make their appearance for the first time and suddenly1 whereas in the preceding classes but slight traces of them were observed4 ,such for example are their mechanical instincts1 varied modes of nidification1 powers of imitation1 susceptibility to instruction1 knowledge of their benefactors1 sentiment of joy1 wheedling or coaxing manners1 and so on4 ,we have no example of ,fishes and ,reptiles having learnt any artificial tricks4 #ccij4 ,birds are the closest repetition of the ,insects1 but stand remote from the ,crabs and ,acaleph1 indications of which are reflected by their structure1 disposition1 mechanical instincts1 and in their nests4 ,thorax4 ,as the sexual body with the tail predominates in ,fishes1 and the abdomen in ,reptiles1 so does the thorax in ,birds4 ,the whole abdomen and sexual body has been subordinated to the thorax4 ,the ribs are here directed in such a manner for the first time1 that the thorax can act as a voluntary pump-organ4 ,sternum and respiratory muscles are usually large and peculiarly built4 #ccia4 ,the lung is only a cluster of ,insect trache4 ,they are full of foramina1 out of which the air can penetrate into the whole body1 exactly as in ,insects4 ,in ,fishes the lung was still an actual intestine1 as seen in the single air-cyst2 in ,reptiles it was nothing more than a double intestine2 in ,birds this lung is divided after the fashion of an ,insect into aerial vessels or ducts4 ,in the ,bird the intestine lies in the air1 and breathes from it1 as in the ,insect4 ,birds are also animals which breathe by the intestine4 #ccib4 ,the whole ,bird is lung4 ,its body is a thoracic cavity1 while in the ,fish it was simply a sexual cavity1 and in the ,reptile had obtained the abdominal form4 ,in ,birds therefore there is a number of ribs and a strong ossification1 from the air itself penetrating into the bones4 ,even the intestine has passed over into a motor organ4 ,in ,birds and ,insects only do we find a true muscular stomach1 wherein the food is crushed4 ,members or ,limbs4 #ccic4 ,in these animals the formation of limbs or members must be wholly attained4 ,everything1 that works1 must work to the production of limbs4 ,the whole body becomes limb4 #ccid4 ,with the perfected nervous and respiratory system the bones and muscles make also a perfect appearance4 ,the skeleton is hard1 complete1 and full of air instead of marrow2 the muscles are red and separated1 the movements free and complex4 #ccie4 ,the elevated condition of the motor system is demonstrated in the limbs1 which here appear in the greatest diversity4 ,there are only two pairs of limbs1 thoracic1 and abdominal or sexual members4 ,these two are equivalent1 so long only as the sexual and abdominal cavity belonging to the trunk proper predominate1 and therefore preserve the equilibrium4 ,but the limbs1 which have been given to serve the office of the trunk1 are destined for progression or swimming1 and are simply terrestrial or aquatic members4 #ccif4 ,the higher limbs are thoracic respiratory members1 which are filled with air and clothed with trache1 thus exercising a function conformable to the thorax4 ,the thorax has an aerial character4 ,the highest thoracic limbs must be aerial members4 #ccig4 ,as the abdominal members move upon the earth or in the water1 so do the thoracic in the air4 ,the terrestrial limbs are feet1 the aerial limbs1 wings4 #ccih4 ,the wings are in the member-formation the extremes of the thoracic limbs4 ,it does not follow from this that they are the noblest in rank1 but only that they are the uttermost unto which bodily motion can attain4 #ccii4 ,the winged animal is the ,bird4 #cdjj4 ,the ,bird is an ,insect with fleshy limbs4 #cdja4 ,the wings of ,birds repeat the alary appendages of ,insects in the flesh4 #cdjb4 ,a ,bird's wing is a strange but very instructive composition4 ,it consists1 namely1 of a ,reptile's foot and an ,insect's wings4 #cdjc4 ,we saw how the branchi of the ,insect dried up1 separated from the feet1 and being liberated as wings1 were permeated by trache4 ,in the ,bird these wings have remained standing upon the feet and been converted into feathers4 #cdjd4 ,a feather is an ,insect's wing4 #cdje4 ,as the ,bird grows out at the thoracic limbs into the ,insect's wings1 so does it upon the whole body into dried branchial lamin4 ,the whole body of the ,bird is clothed with branchial lamin or plates4 #cdjf4 ,the wings of the ,insects might be called free trache4 ,the ,bird's feathers are ,insect-trache4 ,as in the ,insect the wings are a leash or net of trache held together by membranes1 so feathers are trache dividing into fibre-like ramules4 #cdjg4 ,the ,bird is a ,reptilian or ,frog's body1 beset all over with ,insects1 like as with parasitic animals4 #cdjh4 ,the highest ,insect only attains to the possession of four wings1 which in some ,moths split again into several feathers4 ,in the ,bird a vast number of such wings originates4 #cdji4 ,an ,insect's wing is not more than one feather1 and is therefore placed also directly upon the body4 ,these wings must multiply so soon as they occur upon a membered trunk1 upon arms4 ,thus1 we need not ask why the ,butterfly has four1 but the ,bird only two wings1 seeing that the latter is the nobler animal4 ,the discourse cannot be concerning the wings of the former1 for the ,butterfly has indeed none1 but only four feathers4 #cdaj4 ,what the ,bird is1 it is by virtue of its feathers4 ,it is throughout a trachea1 a pair of bellows4 ,its bones are hollow1 full of air1 and stand likewise in communication with the lungs2 the feather-quills are also hollow4 ,senses4 #cdaa4 ,the wings have all the muscles to themselves2 the bone has in them gone to ruin4 ,on the legs1 on the contrary1 the muscles have declined1 and the bone has got the upper hand4 ,hence it results1 properly speaking1 that only the thoracic members are perfected1 because the ,bird is nothing but thorax4 ,the abdomen has1 so to speak1 vanished1 and through this the abdominal limbs are left only1 as thin and dry poles or staffs4 #cdab4 ,from the same cause the muscular flesh upon the head has disappeared4 ,neck and head are lean1 or like ,insect horn1 which serves only the nervous system4 #cdac4 ,beyond the excess of motion the sense of feeling has been nearly lost4 ,the toes are simply destined for motion1 and to be used as scrapers1 and the digits have become the supports of feathers4 #cdad4 ,the bill is an ,insect's proboscis4 ,in the ,bird no teeth whatever project from the flesh1 but the jaws themselves4 ,to such an extent has the flesh been withdrawn4 ,what has been called the cere is the only remnant of the facial flesh4 ,even nostrils and tongue have suffered ossification4 #cdae4 ,the tongue is a feather4 ,saliva is scarcely present4 #cdaf4 ,the ears1 as being the sense of motion1 are far more perfectly evolved than in all the preceding classes4 ,they have opened outwards1 and possess an additional auditory part1 the cochlea4 ,with the limbs the sense of hearing must of necessity grow perfect4 #cdag4 ,the ,bird is thoroughly1 or out-and-out organized as an animal of song4 ,in it ,nature attains unto a definite hearing and speech4 ,the ,bird speaketh the language of ,nature4 ,with the ,bird1 the voice1 properly speaking1 breaks forth for the first time1 and that too in a high grade of perfection1 as melody4 #cdah4 ,the ear is the highest representation of the trachea in muscles and bones4 ,the ,bird is the ,otozoon4 ,sexual ,parts4 #cdai4 ,the kidneys are symmetrically constructed1 although not yet a perfectly coherent mass4 ,they are of very large size4 ,but a strange feature has come to pass in the urinary cyst1 which is the sexual lung4 ,into this1 as has been already said1 the intestine opens1 and thus it here again passes over into the lung1 just as it has passed over into a fleshy cardioid stomach1 and completely upwards into the feather-like tongue4 ,into this sexual lung the seminal ducts also enter1 or the penis1 when one is present1 along with the oviduct4 #cdbj4 ,the ovum consists of two completely separated substances1 and these indeed are so distinct1 that the vitellus is secreted at an entirely different place to the albumen1 the former in the ovarium1 the latter in the oviduct--whereas in ,fishes both originated together4 ,the separation cannot extend further1 or else the substances would no longer unite with each other1 and the vitellus must be first mixed with the albumen1 after it has been completely formed1 after or when it is an embryo4 ,in the ,bird albumen and vitellus come together during their passage out of the parent's body1 or in the act of being laid1 and thus before the albumen has been converted into the chick4 ,but in the ,mammalia they are first completely united1 subsequently to their being laid--i4 e4 during the period of lactation4 #cdba4 ,the vitellus is directly secreted from the arteries1 but the albumen from an enteroidal sac or the oviduct1 which is finally converted into mammary glands4 #cdbb4 ,the vitellus is more a product of the thorax1 and is therefore formed directly into the intestine and entire embryo4 #cdbc4 ,the albumen is an intestinal or digestive product1 a solution of the organic mass into protoplasma or primary mucus4 ,it is not fashioned itself into the embryo1 but is only absorbed as fluid nutriment by the latter4 #cdbd4 ,the shell of the ovum is the last bone1 which the animal deposits from the sexual blood1 as being analogous to the urine4 ,it is an aerial product1 or an analogue of the feather's quill4 #cdbe4 ,even the nest of the ,bird is a spiritual repetition of its plumage1 for in it the stalks of plants1 trache1 or feathers are united into one body1 which reminds us in the ,swallows of the ,acaleph4 ,,fifth ,,circle4 ,,aistheseozoa4 ,class #ac4 ,aistheseozoa4 #cdbf4 ,an animal with all its organs of sense perfectly developed1 is a ,thricozoon4 #cdbg4 ,the nervous system emerges at length freely above the other systems1 and it is no longer its mass1 but its organs which impart character to the animal4 ,the nervous organs are1 however1 simply the organs of sense4 ,through these therefore must the present differ from the preceding class of animals4 #cdbh4 ,now too the senses first make their appearance in a self-substantial manner above the other organs1 serving merely their own functions1 and only by chance those of others4 #cdbi4 ,as in ,birds the whole body was subordinated to the thorax1 in ,reptiles to the abdomen1 in ,fishes to the sex1 in ,insects to the trache1 and so on2 in like manner is it here subordinated to the system of the senses or the head4 #cdcj4 ,as the higher senses determine or define the anterior part of the head1 and are in their state of perfection provided with muscles2 so here the face or visage is invested by flesh1 whereby1 properly speaking1 a true1 namely1 a moveable countenance1 first originates4 ,the ,aistheseozoa have a fleshy face4 #cdca4 ,all possess moveable eyes2 fleshy noses1 which stand open both externally and internally2 ears opening outwards1 and mostly provided with a moveable flap2 a fleshy tongue1 free in front1 and moveable lips2 with at least thoracic limbs and a skin covered with hairs4 #cdcb4 ,in the ,bird1 ,reptile1 and ,fish the face is merely invested by tegument1 nearly devoid of any muscles1 and therefore immoveable4 ,they have a tegumental face1 which is incapable of producing any expressions4 #cdcc4 ,in the tegumental face the eyes are motionless1 and very rarely both directed so forwards that they can view an object together2 the nostrils are frequently devoid of a fleshy rim2 the tongue often feather-like1 cartilaginous1 or covered with teeth2 true fleshy lips are wanting1 as are frequently the teeth1 with even the limbs and digits1 or these are divided into a number of rays1 forming either feathers1 or fins2 in the ,aistheseozoa there are never more than five toes present1 and if there be fewer1 then the number admits of being referred to some crippling of the normal quantity1 five4 #cdcd4 ,it is remarkable1 and serves to the discovery of many laws1 that the highest sense here appears for the first time in its state of perfection4 ,the eye in the ,aistheseozoa is present in a perfect condition throughout the class1 with the exception of the eyelids2 the other organs of sense are1 on the contrary1 exhibited in all their gradations of structure4 #cdce4 ,it appears1 as if the whole animal was first perfected1 when the eye is present with all its investment or clothing4 ,the eye of the ,aistheseozoa has not simply all its internal chambers and all its humours1 but also all its muscles2 it is moveable and has perfect eyelids1 with very few exceptions--,ophthalmozoa4 #cdcf4 ,the ear now begins to suffer arrest4 ,its completion is indeed the formation of an external concha or flap for receiving the rays of sound1 the hand being repeated in the ear1 and its skeleton constituted by the auditory ossicles4 ,this auditory hand occurs only in the ,aistheseozoa1 and might serve as characteristic if it were not wanting in many1 while the eyelids are present4 ,as in the ,whales1 where the auditory passage can be1 however1 closed1 an act which is not possible in any ,bird4 ,the ,bird must hear whether it will or no4 ,in all ,thricozoa the interior of the ear is perfect1 having cochlea1 semicircular canals1 tympanum1 and1 as brachial parts1 the three conjoined auditory ossicles4 ,the concha of the ear passes besides through all stages of development1 from having a simple margin to one with most varied convolutions1 lobes and opercula4 #cdcg4 ,still more than the ear does the nose undergo modifications4 ,in the ,whales it seems to be less adapted for the purposes of smell than of respiration4 ,the olfactory nerves are in them very delicate1 and the apex of the nose is destitute of motion4 ,in other beasts1 on the contrary1 it is elongated into a very muscular proboscis or snout1 and is endowed with the power of voluntary motion4 ,the form also of the nostrils is very varied1 they being round1 narrow1 patulous1 and frequently capable of being closed4 #cdch4 ,the tongue is indeed mostly fleshy and soft2 yet in many species it is provided with horny points1 in others invested by a dense coriaceous tegument1 so that it appears to represent an instrument for deglutition rather than gustation4 #cdci4 ,the lips also are mostly fleshy and moveable2 yet in many they retrograde exceedingly and lose their mobility1 as is partly the case in the ,ornithorynchus4 #cddj4 ,in most1 however1 the limbs1 especially the toes1 are still subject to variation4 ,their perfection consists in the number five1 and in the difference between the two pairs of limbs1 as in ,man4 ,in the ,apes the posterior feet are also hands1 which is an imperfection2 in the ,marsupials there are hands posteriorly but toes in front2 in other respects there are generally toes1 sometimes five1 then four1 finally two perfect and two dew-claws in the ,ox1 and at length only one in the ,horse1 while the posterior extremities are virtually lost in the ,whales4 #cdda4 ,the dental system1 as being the set of maxillary claws1 is alone present in its state of perfection in the ,thricozoa4 ,they alone have1 in addition to the incisor teeth1 all the five kinds of teeth that differ from each other in form1 namely1 canine1 false molars1 laniary1 with second and third true molars1 corresponding to the five fingers reckoned from the thumb4 #cddb4 ,in the dentition of those animals which tear their food the greatest amount of completeness and variety is met with1 since each tooth has a different form and function4 ,in the ,bears the molars are uniform in character1 and so on through the ,apes up to ,man4 ,in the ,marsupials they are tolerably similar1 as also in the ,bats and ,shrew-mice4 ,they are still more alike in the ,pig and ,horse1 and the incisor teeth begin to be wanting in the ,ruminantia1 e4 g4 the ,ox4 ,in ,mice the canines are wanting1 in the ,sloths the front teeth1 and in the ,ant-eaters actually all4 #cddc4 ,in opposition to the perfect eye the general sense of feeling is developed in the tegument4 ,the tegument which is best developed will be that1 which represents a self-substantial organ with all its appurtenances1 and thus an organ of touch1 whose nobility of rank consists in motion4 ,a skin1 which is moveable by means of muscles1 must take the noblest rank4 ,a skin with tegumental muscles is an organ of feeling1 which is already in some degree subjected to the influence of the will4 ,if tegumental muscles do not occur in all these animals1 they still do in most of them4 ,the production of the most perfect coat or covering is the second step1 whereby the tegument ascends4 #cddd4 ,hitherto the outer covering of animals was pretty inorganic1 consisting either of hollow trache1 feathers1 or semicavernous scales1 coat of mail1 or lastly1 only mucus4 ,all these organs were only constructed after the type of individual vegetable systems1 in greatest part only after the respiratory organ1 and were therefore partial in aspect or deficient4 ,the highest covering must also bear the highest meaning4 ,this is that1 which grows out of the sanguinary system collectively1 out of the capillary vessels4 ,the capillary vessels of the covering are1 however1 the hairs4 ,the hair is the most perfect covering of the animal4 #cdde4 ,these animals are the ,thricozoa4 ,already the highest birds1 e4 g4 the ,ostrich and ,cassowary1 exhibit feathers which merge over into hairs4 #cddf4 ,an integument clothed with hair1 and self-substantially moveable is the perfection of this organ1 it is a fur--,furred animals4 #cddg4 ,the fur is the peripheric combination of the ,vegetable and ,animal4 ,the hairs are the highest ,vegetable1 as being the vascular system grown out of or above the animal1 and constituting the fundamental or basi-system of the whole body4 ,the tegumental muscles are the lowest ,animal4 ,in the fur consequently the whole animal has been represented1 but as a limit set between animal and world4 #cddh4 ,the tegumental covering also varies4 ,the hairs become scanty in respect of number2 instead of them spines1 horny rings or scales occur1 yet there are always hairs on the belly4 ,in many ,whales they seem to dwindle into bristles4 ,in some they have coalesced to form a kind of bark1 as in the ,stellerian ,walrus or ,sea-cow4 ,thorax4 #cddi4 ,in all the respiration is aerial2 in all there is a true costal structure1 and a respiration effected through the motion of the ribs or a pumping action2 in all the lungs are filled with cells2 in all there is a diaphragm1 a larynx1 a trachea with cartilaginous rings1 and a thyroid gland4 ,but the air no longer penetrates from out the lungs into all the cavities of the body1 as in ,birds4 ,abdomen4 #cdej4 ,the two intestines1 namely1 the large and small1 are more distinct from each other than in other animals2 the ccum coli is in most distinct2 the stomach expanded and membranous in texture1 so that it operates simply through chemical influence4 ,liver1 pancreas1 and spleen occur in all4 #cdea4 ,the sexual parts are in every respect very perfect4 ,the penis is present in all1 and all have an uterus1 fallopian tubes1 and separate oviducts4 ,the penis is in many still retracted into a cloaca1 and the testes frequently lie within the abdominal cavity4 #cdeb4 ,as in the tegument the parts separate and each becomes self-substantial1 the fibre animal1 the tegument vegetal1 and so on even in the sexual animal4 ,the ovarium1 consisting of two parts1 now also separates1 since one becomes animal1 but the other remains vegetal4 ,the albumen-organ becomes animal1 detaches itself from the sexual parts1 is developed in the self-substantial tegument and called mamma4 ,the ,aistheseozoa are thus also ,mastozoa or ,mammalia4 #cdec4 ,this separation of the sexual animal is one of the first characters4 ,the mamm could never be wanting1 because they indicate an essential stage in the development4 ,the albumen-organ becomes an organ of sensation4 ,if the existence of mammary organs be doubtful1 as in the ,ornithorynchus1 the hairs are in that case perfectly distinct4 ,no ,reptile nor ,bird can have hairs1 because their covering is derived only from a partial system1 the respiratory2 while hairs are from the general vascular system1 which is the foundation of the tegument1 of the sense of feeling4 ,the ,ornithorynchus is a furred animal1 and this would suffice to bring it among the ,aistheseozoa1 were we even to deny it mammary organs4 #cded4 ,both sexes1 male and female1 have breasts4 ,in youth they are most readily detected in the male1 because their sexual parts then rank nearer to the female4 ,in other respects the mamm are probably the chiefest organs of absorption for the embryo4 #cdee4 ,the mamm are nobler in rank1 when1 as udders they become self-substantial2 and the more they remove from the belly or abdomen1 and come1 as breasts1 to be placed upon the chest4 ,d4 ,,orders ,,and ,,families4 #cdef4 ,had the names been given in strict accordance with rank2 then the class-divisions1 which correspond to the circles1 would have been called ,orders4 #cdeg4 ,families would be class-divisions1 which correspond to the classes themselves4 #cdeh4 ,in no class therefore could there be more than four orders admitted1 or five1 if the sensorial organs be reckoned to constitute a special circle4 ,from the same reason there are no more than thirteen or seventeen families4--,these names cannot meanwhile be so strictly adopted1 because the classes are not of equal rank1 as has been observed2 on this account it is necessary to shove in here and there other divisions1 which should be termed at one time ,cohorts1 at another1 ,alliances4 #cdei4 ,if the animals of a class differ from each other1 it is only possible by their bringing to bear in addition to their characteristic organ some other organ1 and consequently becoming similar to an earlier or later class4 #cdfj4 ,yet nevertheless in this ascent the animals could never outstep the confines of their own circle4 ,there can be no ,dermatozoon which could have bones2 for in that case it would be an ,osteozoon1 and belong to another province4 ,every class therefore comprises as many orders only as there are circles with which it comes into contact4 ,thus in the first circle there is only one order1 in the second two1 and so on4 ,each class therefore includes also as many families only as the circles which are touched by it contain classes4 ,thus the first to the third class has three1 the fourth to the sixth1 six2 the seventh to the ninth1 nine2 the tenth and so on1 thirteen4 #cdfa4 ,the serial arrangement of animals into families is naturally difficult2 but in ,physio-philosophy we have to treat not about the execution of the ,systematic in detail1 but concerning its principles4 ,,first ,,circle4 ,,intestinal1 ,,oozoa--,,mucus-,,animals4 ,first ,class4 ,gastric1 ,vitelline ,animals--,infusoria4 #cdfb4 ,the ,infusoria admit of being reduced to three divisions3 the lowest of which1 such as the ,infusoria proper or ,monades1 are provided for the most part with cilia2 the next in succession1 as the ,rhizopoda1 possess extensible processes1 and are mostly covered by a multi-chambered shell2 lastly1 the most perfect ,infusoria have all kinds of internal organs1 and especially what has been called rotatory apparatus1 as being the dawn of future tentacula4 #cdfc4 ,these three ,families obviously correspond to the three classes of the present circle1 and that indeed as follows3 ,to the first class1 or ,infusoria proper1 correspond the ,monades4 ,to the second class1 or ,polyps1 the ,rhizopoda4 ,to the third class1 or ,acaleph1 the ,rotifera4 #cdfd4 ,the ,monades are obviously the simplest organized creatures1 being mucous vesicles1 which move1 obtain their food by stirring up vortical currents in the water1 and emit what is undigested again by the mouth4 #cdfe4 ,they occur very abundantly in all infusions1 and can very well originate1 like ,fungi1 by division of the organic mass1 although they are in a condition to propagate themselves1 i4 e4 by spontaneous division4 #cdff4 ,the ,monades are the semen of the animal kingdom1 which is dissolved in1 or rather produced from1 the sea4 #cdfg4 ,the animal body is nothing else than a compound fabric of ,monads4 #cdfh4 ,decomposition is a separation into ,monads1 a retrogression into the primary mass of the animal kingdom4 #cdfi4 ,all propagation1 even that of the sex1 commences like the animal kingdom1 or with its first family4 ,on that account the embryonic development must be a passage through the animal kingdom4 #cdgj4 ,the ,rhizopoda usually adhere together within a multi-chambered calcareous shell1 out of which they protrude mucous filaments1 and are therefore the antetypes of the ,corals or ,polyps4 #cdga4 ,the ,rotifera exhibit all kinds of viscera1 such as intestine and ovaries2 besides what have been called rotatory organs1 which remind us of the arms or tentacles of the ,acaleph4 #cdgb4 ,the families of these animals may be therefore aptly named as follows3 ,fam4 #a4 ,typical ,infusoria--,monades2 cilia or vibratile organs4 #b4 ,polypary ,infusoria--,rhizopoda2 extensible processes4 #c4 ,acalephan ,infusoria--,rotifera2 intestine and oral organs4 ,second ,class4 ,intestinal1 ,albuminous ,animals--,polypi4 #cdgc4 ,the ,polyps also do not admit of being divided into more than three families4 ,the first are only tubes or vesicles with capillary tentacula around the mouth1 as the naked ,polyps1 ,tubulari1 ,sertulari1 and ,cellulari4 ,the others have true ciliated tentacular rays surrounding the mouth1 and are always condensed inferiorly into a horny1 and occasionally stony axis or stem1 as is seen in the ,gorgoni1 ,alcyoni1 and ,isidi4 ,the third have ordinary tentacula1 occurring in great numbers like tassels or tufts around the mouth2 their integument is either hardened into stone1 or becomes fleshy1 as in the ,star-corals and ,actini4 #cdgd4 ,there is no doubt that the naked ,polyps are closely allied to the ,infusoria1 and among them indeed to the ,rotifera1 so that they represent but a higher stage of these creatures1 characterized by superior size and by tentacular in place of ciliary or vibratile hairs4 #cdge4 ,the ,cellulari cannot be more distinctly characterized than by saying that they are cortices or ramules inhabited by ,vorticell4 ,thus they are ,vorticell surrounded by a shell1 and may be compared to ova1 in whose coriaceous or leathery shell calcareous granules are blended1 as in the eggs of the ,crocodiles and ,tortoises4 #cdgf4 ,they increase by means of ova and by ramification1 if the former mode of division is not carried too far4 #cdgg4 ,the tubes of the ,tubulari appear to be nothing else than the posterior extremity of the ,polyp1 desiccated or dried4 ,these tubes are not therefore the product of an excretion1 but the body itself4 #cdgh4 ,on the contrary1 the tubes of the ,sertulari must be held as being a tegumental excretion1 within which the ,polyp ramifies and produces ova-cysts4 ,if the naked ,polyps resemble ova which are devoid of shells1 such as the roe or spawn of ,fishes1 then the ,sertulari resemble ova surrounded by a tough skin1 like those of ,rays and ,serpents4 ,the ,radiated ,polyps or ,horn-corals are invariably ramified and converted towards their interior into a common horny or stony mass2 so that the animals themselves appear to have coalesced upon this into a common tegument or bark4 ,they possess a stomach and ovaries surrounding it1 which open into the border of the mouth between the rays4 ,they thus increase by ova and ramifications4 ,they therefore represent the class proper of the ,polyps4 ,the tufted ,polyps comprise the proper ,corals or ,lithozoa1 are in form and substance like the ,acaleph but with this difference1 that the covering is mostly lithoidal1 while in many ,acalephans1 as the ,porpit1 it only appears as a cartilaginous disc or plate4 #cdgi4 ,these ,corals are true ova1 having a perfect calcareous shell1 like that of the ,bird4 ,the gelatinous animal which adheres within a wide-mouthed ,madrepore1 e4 g4 ,fungia1 resembles a vitellus just hatched1 and from which the foetal envelopes have been developed4 #cdhj4 ,the numerous tentacular filaments surrounding the wide mouth resemble the shags of the chorion1 which accumulate around the orifice of the umbilical cord to constitute a placenta in the higher animals4 ,the ,corals are brood-eggs inclosed within the uterus of ,nature or in the sea4 ,the ,coral-animals are an umbilical cord1 treasured up for the embryo1 while the ,tubulari are only membranous vitelli1 and the ,gorgoni1 ova with desiccated albumen4 #cdha4 ,the families of ,polyps stand therefore in the following order of significance3 ,fam4 #a4 ,infusorial ,polyps--,tubulari4 #b4 ,typical ,polyps--,alcyoni4 #c4 ,acalephan ,polyps--,actini4 ,third ,class4 ,absorbent1 ,involucral ,animals--,acaleph4 #cdhb4 ,the ,acaleph also can only be brought under three divisions1 viz4 ,rhrenquallen1 or ,physali1 ,rippenquallen or ,beroes1 ,hutquallen or ,acaleph4 #cdhc4 ,the ,physali are without doubt the lowest1 being only giant ,infusoria2 the ,beroes are allied through their simple bodily cavity1 to the ,gorgoni2 the ,acaleph1 through their form1 to the ,madrepores1 especially the ,actini4 #cdhd4 ,they range therefore in the following order of significance3 ,fam4 #a4 ,infusorial ,acaleph--,physali4 #b4 ,polypary ,acaleph--,beroes4 #c4 ,typical ,acaleph--,medus4 #cdhe4 ,the first have not yet attained to the unity or single character of the mouth1 but imbibe their food through numerous tubes4 ,they are bundles of ramified ,vorticell1 a thoracic duct full of glands and roots1 which absorbs nutriment out of the sea1 instead of an intestine4 ,as the first family they are the antetypes of the ,mussels and ,entozoa1 and especially of the ,hydatids and ,tape-worms1 and we shall not be far from hitting the mark1 if we compare their air-bladder with the hindermost cystiform member of the body in the ,hydatids4 #cdhf4 ,the second family have a single mouth and ribs mostly full of lamell1 which are probably the antetypes of gills2 they are also frequently traversed by nutritive vessels4 ,they are antetypical of ,snails1 being in form an abdominal pouch1 in substance a liver1 and frequently possessing paired tentacula4 ,higher up1 and they indicate the ,crabs4 #cdhg4 ,the third have1 as a general rule1 one central mouth surrounded by four arms and very numerous vessels1 which run from the gastric cavity to its margins1 and there mostly elongate into filaments or hairs1 being thus true lymphatic vessels1 which convey the nourishment directly from the stomach through the whole body1 and become on its margin tentacula4 #cdhh4 ,as antetypes of the ,kracken they particularly manifest the form of the ,sepi1 or ,cephalopods1 in the strong and frequently papillated arms that surround the mouth4 ,gland-like nodes are also developed in the margin of the pileus1 but their meaning is as yet doubtful4 ,upon a higher stage1 and they are antetypical of ,insects4 ,their vascular system forms an exceedingly regular1 quaternary net1 with branches and ramules ranging opposite to each other1 which have been believed to be the vitelline network of the ovum when hatched4 ,these vessels terminate likewise in a common marginal vessel1 as in the vitellus4 #cdhi4 ,viewed as a whole they resemble in form1 appendages1 and substance the foetal involucra or envelopes4 ,the upper surface may be compared with the convex back of the envelopes1 the lower to the concave funnel of the umbilical cord1 and the succigerent filaments or hairs to the shags of the chorion4 ,they are probably elongated by injection1 like the so-called legs of the ,star-fishes4 ,the secretion of the ova in four ovaries speaks also in favour of their higher grade of development4 ,they lie in four cavities around the stomach1 which also open near to the mouth4 ,their size also is significantly expressive of their higher position4 ,finally1 they are of separate sexes4 ,in them is the milt for the first time distinctly displayed1 and in the same situation indeed where in other animals the ovaries are4 #cdij4 ,hence1 in these three classes there are found no more than three families1 which together make up only one order4 ,the want of a fourth family and so on1 proves that the development of these animals does not pass over into the succeeding circle4 ,their body therefore is only an homogeneous1 transparent mass1 variously excavated and perforated1 but not separated into two cysts1 namely1 tegument and intestine1 and without the other viscera1 which are formed by the vascular system1 such as the liver1 kidneys1 and salivary glands4 ,,second ,,circle4 ,,vascular1 ,,sexual ,,animals4 #cdia4 ,these animals will both traverse the three classes of their circle1 as also repeat the preceding three classes1 and they consequently divide into two orders and six families4 ,fourth ,class4 ,venous1 ,ovarial ,animals--,mussels4 #cdib4 ,the ,mussels or bivalve ,mollusca resolve themselves into two orders1 according to the structure of their mantle or respiratory sac4 ,it is either closed in a tubuliform manner1 and opens posteriorly into two mostly tubular-shaped respiratory apertures1 and in front has an orifice for the passage of the foot--,camacea 7,lochmuscheln72 or it is slit along its whole length anteriorly2 and the pedal aperture is confluent with the anterior and also indeed with the posterior respiratory opening--,ostracea 7,spaltmuscheln47 ,the first order still represent the cystic form of the ,oozoa1 and partly by tubuliform calcareous shells placed around the two ordinary shell-valves2 but the second1 by the freer development of the organs1 represent the animals of their own circle4 ,order #a4 ,protozooid ,mussels--,lochmuscheln4 #cdic4 ,these animals repeat the ,mucus-animals2 are tubular in form1 and mostly provided with two long respiratory tubes4 ,fam4 #a4 ,infusorial ,mussels--,sackmuscheln or ,pholades4 ,cylindrical1 with a tubuliform mantle almost entirely closed and frequently surrounded by a calcareous tube1 in addition to the two ordinary shell-valves2 the pedal aperture is situated at the oral extremity2 the respiratory tubes retractile by means of muscles2 the foot is cylindriform4 ,of the same kind are the ,pfahlmuscheln1 ,teredines1 and ,sandmuscheln1 as also the ,solenid4 ,they typify the ,nudibranchiate ,snails and the ,salp4 ,fam4 #b4 ,polypary ,mussels--,klaffmuscheln or ,tellinid4 ,body flat1 mostly discoidal2 there is a large fissure on the abdominal side of the mantle for the passage of the foot1 while posteriorly there are two long respiratory tubes with retractor muscles4 ,here belong the ,tellinid and ,venusid4 ,i have shown1 that they are already to be recognized by the uncinate or hook-shaped groove for the mantle in the shell1 and which proceeds from the insertion of the retractor muscles4 ,the foot is usually lancet-shaped4 ,they typify the ,patell and ,ascidi4 ,fam4 #c4 ,acalephan ,mussels--,cardiacea4 ,body globular in form1 mantle having a pedal slit on the abdominal side2 two respiratory apertures without retractor muscles2 foot mostly uncinate or strap-shaped4 ,t have shown that these creatures are to be recognized by a discoid groove in the shell1 which simply depends upon the mantle1 the retractor muscles being wanting4 ,here belong the ,cardiacea and gigantic ,chamid1 in which last a byssus occurs1 and the union also of the two occlusor or sphincter muscles1 as in the following order4 ,they antetypify the air-breathing ,snails and ,cirripedia4 ,order #b4 ,conchozooid ,mussels--,spaltmuscheln4 #cdid4 ,these animals represent their own circle4 ,the pedal slit in the mantle occupies the whole length of the latter1 and is confluent with the anterior or also with the posterior respiratory aperture2 so that only one or even no aperture is left1 and this when present is besides never elongated in a tubular form2 the retractor muscles are therefore wanting also1 and the shell simply exhibits a discoid groove for the mantle4 ,the occlusor muscles approximate and unite at their terminations4 ,both usually coalesce into one4 ,fam4 #d4 ,typical ,mussels--,mytilace4 ,occlusor muscles separate1 and mantle slit to such an extent1 that only the posterior respiratory aperture remains2 foot mostly tongue-shaped or coniform1 with occasionally a byssus4 ,here belong the fresh-water ,mussels and the ,mytili proper1 of which last many bore into rocks4 ,they typify the ,capulid and ,brachiopoda4 ,fam4 #e4 ,snail-,mussels--,arcace4 ,have two separate occlusor muscles and a perfectly separate mantle without respiratory aperture2 the foot small1 mostly cartilaginous4 ,here belong the ,arc1 ,avicul1 and ,pearl-mussels4 ,they typify the ,trochid and ,pteropoda4 ,fam4 #f4 ,kracken-,mussels--,ostracea4 ,only one occlusor muscle1 mantle entirely open or slit1 so that both respiratory apertures are only oblique incisions therein2 foot very small1 frequently furnished with a byssus4 ,they typify the ,buccinid and ,cuttle-fish4 ,fifth ,class4 ,arteriose1 ,orchitic ,animals--,snails4 #cdie4 ,the ,snails likewise divide into two orders1 according to the two circles1 preindicated by the ,ovum-and ,sexual system4 ,their branchi are either ramulate or pectiniform1 the sexual parts combined or separated4 ,the first kind are still frequently gelatinous in texture1 transparent and naked2 their branchi usually stand out freely as filaments1 lamell1 or ramules upon the back1 or lie simply as a vascular network within the mantle4 ,all are androgynous4 ,they therefore obviously repeat the ,protozoa or ,mucus-animals4 ,the second are invariably covered by the shell and by a mantle1 within the cavity of which the branchi lie concealed as one or two comb-like bodies4 ,tentacula and eyes1 which are occasionally wanting in the preceding order1 are here universally present2 the sexes separate4 ,as in the ,snails1 the male parts make their appearance for the first time distinct and individualized1 and are also a characteristic organ of the class2 so also do they serve as bases of division1 and the ,snails may be divided into those which are ,androgynous or bisexual1 and those with separate sexes1 i4 e4 ,dioecious4 ,order #a4 ,protozooid ,snails--,androgyni4 #cdif4 ,the male and female sexual parts united together in a single individual1 branchi ramuliform1 occurring either as filaments1 leaflets or ramules1 freely situate upon the naked body1 or as a network lodged within the pallial cavity and surrounded by a shell4 ,the ,nudibranchiate species live in the sea1 those with hollow branchi or the ,pulmonea in the air2 the former feeding mostly upon animals1 the latter upon plants4 ,fam4 #a4 ,infusorial ,snails--,notobranchiata1 or ,tritoni4 ,body gelatinous and membranous1 cylindrical and naked1 devoid of shell1 with branchial filaments or ramules disposed in two rows upon the back4 ,here belong the ,tritoni and ,dorides4 ,their body is muscular2 the tentacula not retractile2 the male sexual parts open in company with the female upon the right side of the neck1 as in the higher organized ,snails4 ,all inhabit the sea4 ,they prefigure or typify the ,salp4 ,fam4 #b4 ,polypary ,snails--,pleurobranchiata1 or ,patell4 ,body and sexual parts as in the preceding family1 the branchi1 however1 occurring as ramules or leaflets upon the sides of the body1 are more or less covered4 ,here belong the ,phyllidi1 ,schssel-and ,schildschnecken4 ,they are the antetypes of the ,ascidi4 ,fam4 #c4 ,acalephan ,snails--,dictyobranchiata or ,limacid4 ,the branchi form a rete or network within the pallial cavity1 and respire the moisture of air2 mantle and viscera are mostly surrounded by a shell2 the body is therefore bipartite1 being separated into a splanchnic or visceral body and a foot with head4 ,here belong the ,air-breathing ,snails1 both land as well as fresh-water species4 ,they typify the ,cirripedia4 ,the shells are mostly thin and horny1 yet nevertheless contain a considerable quantity of calcareous earth1 and are mostly devoid of opercula4 ,those species1 which dwell in fresh water1 do not possess introvertible tentacula like the marine ,snails1 and the eyes are placed at their basis2 the sexual orifices are separate4 ,in the ,land-snails1 the tentacula are introvertible1 and support the eyes upon their apex2 the sexual apertures are blended into one4 ,the former1 like the marine ,snails1 lay numerous small ova inclosed within a gelatinous mass in the water2 the latter deposit their ova free1 covered with a membranous1 and occasionally calcareous shell1 in the earth4 ,copulation is effected in all by a reciprocal interchange of the androgynous species4 ,i have observed that individuals of ,limna auricularia can continue to propagate for several generations without being impregnated2 they must impregnate themselves4 ,order #b4 ,conchozooid ,snails--,dioecii4 #cdig4 ,branchi situated within the cavity of the mantle1 and hanging down in the form of a comb2 shell for the most part spirally contorted2 sexes separate--,pectinibranchiata4 ,here belong the ,capulid1 ,turbinid1 ,nerit1 ,conid1 ,volutid1 ,buccinid1 ,muricid and ,strombusid4 ,the tentacula are not retractile1 and have the eyes mostly seated at their basis2 the penis is external1 very large1 and cannot be drawn within the body1 but is only reflected into the pallial cavity2 most of them have a protrusile perforating proboscis1 and an operculum4 ,they lay numerous small ova1 contained within large membranous cases1 which frequently hang in rows to each other like a necklace of pearls4 ,the shells are in some instances horny1 in others of a stony texture4 ,fam4 #d4 ,mussel-,snails1 ,capulid4 ,only one branchial comb within the mantle1 and covered merely by a flat hood-shaped shell2 no operculum4 ,here belong the ,capulid2 all the species are marine4 ,they prefigurate the ,brachiopoda4 ,fam4 #e4 ,typical ,snails1 ,turbinid4 ,two branchial combs1 mantle devoid of a respiratory groove1 shell turbinated2 mostly furnished with an operculum1 and that indeed of a stony texture4 ,here belong the ,turbinid1 and ,trochid1 such as the ,cyclostomata1 ,paludin1 ,ampullari1 ,janthin1 ,nerit4 ,live in the sea and in fresh-water4 ,fam4 #f4 ,kracken-,snails1 ,buccinid4 ,like the preceding family1 but their mantle has a groove1 and there is a horny operculum4 ,here belong the ,conid and ,volutid1 ,buccinid1 ,muricid1 ,strombusid4 ,almost all live in the sea and are of sanguisugal habits4 ,they antetypify the ,cuttle-fish4 ,sixth ,class4 ,cardiac1 ,nephritic ,animals--,kracken4 #cdih4 ,body cylindrical1 without sole or foot2 frequently venous hearts together with the arteriose hearts1 and a kidney-like organ4 ,such are the proper ,cylindrical ,snails1 which are either sessile or fixed1 or move themselves by fins and what have been called arms--,sessile and ,natant ,kracken4 ,here belong the ,salp1 ,cirripedia1 ,brachiopoda1 ,pteropoda1 ,heteropoda1 and ,cephalopoda4 ,they all live in the sea4 ,branchi and sexual relations very varied4 ,they divide likewise into two orders1 in accordance with the two circles of ,mucus-animals and ,conchozoa2 the former are spathiform1 mostly gelatinous1 and firmly sessile or fixed2 androgynous1 without head and rudders or fins4 ,the branchi trellis-like and filiform--,ascidi1 ,cirripedia and ,brachiopoda4 ,the others have a kind of head with arms and eyes1 or fin-shaped steerage-organs upon the body2 branchi pectiniform1 reticular1 and leaf-shaped--,pteropoda1 ,heteropoda1 and ,cephalopoda4 ,order #a4 ,protozooid ,kracken--,rumpfkracken4 #cdii4 ,body sacciform1 mostly gelatinous1 without head and eyes2 species androgynous4 ,they are destitute of independent locomotion1 most of them being quite stationary or fixed1 and surrounded frequently by a shell2 some few float about passively in the sea4 ,fam4 #a4 ,infusorial ,kracken--,salp4 ,the ,salp are gelatinous1 freely natant cylinders1 perforated by an open tube1 within which are situated the branchi1 heart1 mouth1 intestine1 and liver1 without any tentacula4 ,they continue to hang for a long time to each other1 as though they were in the ovary4 ,they undergo a remarkable metamorphosis1 which traverses two generations1 the young meanwhile not resembling the mother but the grandmother4 ,body within a sacciform mantle1 with two opposite respiratory apertures4 ,fam4 #b4 ,polypary ,kracken--,ascidi4 ,the ,ascidi have a sacciform body with two co-approximate respiratory apertures2 branchi internal and trellis-shaped4 ,these gelatinous or cartilaginous animals adhere firmly to rocks1 with the respiratory apertures directed upwards as in the ,mussels1 but the branchi are not foliiform2 the internal cavity is lined with a membranous sac1 upon which the branchial vessels are dispersed in a trellis-like manner4 ,at the bottom of and within the sac is the mouth1 which is destitute of tentacula4 ,intestine1 liver1 and a heart that is simple or undivided4 ,mode of propagation unknown4 ,they are frequently connato-sessile1 like the ,polyps4 ,fam4 #c4 ,acalephan ,kracken--,cirripedia4 ,body sacciform1 without branchial openings1 oral apertures situated at the inferior extremity of the longitudinal fissure in the mantle1 and provided with a kind of maxillary apparatus2 above or behind the mouth are annulate or horny filaments representing caudal fins or feet1 upon the basal joints of which is a branchial filament4 ,here belong the ,balani and ,lepades--,fuss-kracken4 ,these animals are likewise sessile1 at least when full grown1 and are surrounded by shell-plates1 which remind us of the ,echini or ,sea-,urchins1 whose antetypes they are2 this resemblance is particularly distinct in the ,balani1 which have similar odontoid valves upon the aperture or mouth of the shell4 ,these animals also undergo a metamorphosis1 since in the early periods of their existence they swim about like small ,crustacea1 and later on become fixed or sedentary1 and surrounded by the plates of shell4 ,the ,lepades have the ordinary shells of ,mollusca1 but each of the two valves consists of two pieces1 between which an odd one is interposed down the back4 ,these five shell-pieces become in the ,balani a regular set of teeth1 which are adherent within the cylindrical shell1 by which the posterior part of the body1 or the peduncular and elongated mantle1 is surrounded4 7,vid4 ,oken's ',allgemeine ,naturgeschichte1' ,v1 #ahce1 #eji47 ,they bear a resemblance to the ,crustacea1 not simply in the annulate horny feet1 but also in the double and ganglionic nervous chord lying along the abdomen2 only they are androgynous1 which occurs in no ,crustacean4 ,order #b4 ,conchozooid ,kracken--,kopfkracken4 ,tentacula upon the head or fins upon the body4 ,they repeat the ,conchozoa or ,shell-animals4 ,fam4 #d4 ,mussel-,kracken--,brachiopoda4 ,the body is surrounded by a mantle open above1 and by two shells2 on the sides of the mouth there are two arms4 ,these animals look exactly like ,bivalve ,mollusca2 they are firmly adherent to rocks1 being frequently supported upon a hollow pedicle1 which is a prolongation of the mantle4 ,branchi and sexual parts but little known2 species probably androgynous--,armkracken4 #cejj4 ,in the following families the body is free and sacciform1 provided with arms or fins1 and mostly with eyes upon a kind of head4 ,these animals have the mouth situated above or in front of the body1 and are distinctly separated into mantle and abdomen1 while they are frequently surrounded by a shell4 ,they have a kind of head with tentacles or arms1 and frequently furnished with eyes like the ,snails1 or pretty nearly like the ,fishes2 the sexual parts united and separated4 ,they all row1 paddle1 or steer themselves about in the sea4 ,fam4 #e4 ,snail-,kracken--,pteropoda4 ,body mostly gelatinous1 sacciform1 closed all round and free2 fins upon the sides of the neck1 with two tentacula frequently projecting from near the mouth2 androgynous1 naked1 and inclosed within a shell4 ,these transparent animalcules swim about upright in the sea1 and wave the fins in this position as rapidly as a butterfly does its wings4 ,most of them are covered with a spathiform and likewise transparent shell4 ,the branchi are placed externally on the body1 but are not very distinct4 ,several species have an appendage in front of the neck1 which is obviously a rudiment of the ,snail's pad or sole--,flugelkracken4 ,the ,heteropoda appear to resemble the ,plantar or ,sole-,snails1 but the body is mostly gelatinous1 and the foot or sole is only compressed to form a fin1 so that they can only swim but not creep with it4 ,many of them have a shell almost like that of the ,argonauta4 ,pterotrache--,ruderkracken4 ,fam4 #f4 ,typical ,kracken1 ,cephalopoda or ,sepi4 ,muscular animals inclosed within a sacciform mantle1 open in front2 head furnished with eyes1 and surrounded by more than four strong prehensile arms2 laminated or leaf-like branchi within the mantle1 sexes separate2 in the body is a nephroidal or kidney-like gland1 which secretes a dark-coloured or inky fluid1 on which account they are called by us ',dintenschnecken'--,sternkracken4 ,they are obviously the highest organized ,malacozoa1 and already remind us strongly of ,fishes1 partly from their size1 partly by their fleshy body1 and in part by their perfect organs of vision4 ,the body is often as large as the trunk of a man2 the head being separated from it by means of a neck1 has in its interior a kind of cartilaginous brain-case or skull1 with externally a pair of jaws resembling a ,bird's beak1 and with eyes tolerably similar to those of ,fishes4 ,auditory organs are also present1 which consist of a tympanic cavity inclosing an otolithe or ear-ossicle2 nostrils are wanting4 ,the so-called arms are perfect organs of locomotion1 as also useful for seizing the prey1 being provided for this purpose with sucking cups1 which adhere by producing a vacuum1 when applied4 ,in other respects these arms are nothing else but the ,snail's sole divided in front into lobes4 ,the ova resemble berries1 and hang attached to one another in branched clusters like a bunch of grapes4 ,the ,sepi possess a remarkable gland1 which is complicated with the liver1 and secretes a dark brown juice1 which has been called ink or sepia2 it probably ranks in the significance of the kidneys4 ,many are covered with a shell externally1 as the ,nautili and ,argonaut2 but in the common ,sepi this shell adheres within the mantle upon the back1 and forms a straight lamina or plate1 which is sometimes horny1 sometimes calcareous in its texture4 ,it has been called the white fish-bone4 ,what is regarded as the dorsal side of the animal is its ventral side1 because upon the former lies the pallial aperture and the anus1 while the vitelline sac is also inserted there4 ,in the form of the body1 as well as in the circular position of the cephalic arms1 the ,sepi strikingly resemble their antetypes1 the ,acaleph and ,cirripedia1 and their metatypes1 the ,asteriad and ,crustacea4 ,with these animals the second stage or circle through which the ,dermatozoa pass1 or that of the ,sexual animals1 is closed4 ,they require only a slight additional grade of perfection1 and they would pass over into another class of animals4 ,thus were the arms to become horny and articulate1 they would be ,crustacea2 had the head a nose1 and the body consequently a myelon or spinal chord1 they would then be ,fishes4 ,,second ,,circle4 ,,respiratory1 ,,cutaneous ,,animals--,,ancyliozoa4 #ceja4 ,body annulate4 ,here range the ,worms1 ,crustacea1 and the proper or volant ,insects4 #cejb4 ,in this circle a remarkable relation is revealed4 ,if1 namely1 its classes1 orders1 and families be compared with those of the two preceding circles1 it is then distinctly shown that the present one again commences quite from below1 ascends parallel with both these1 and transcends them in its highest inmates or members4 ,as an example of the first case1 the imperfect condition of some ,entozoa1 and their great resemblance to ,infusoria1 is sufficiently expressive4 ,the ,worms evidently pass parallel to the ,mucus-animals1 and the ,entozoa indeed to the ,infusoria1 the ,red-blooded ,worms to the ,polyps1 but the ,holothuri chiefly to the ,acaleph1 near which they are still arranged up to the present day1 although they are articulated1 and have an intestine and vessels4 ,thus this class traverses the three inferior classes1 and consequently imparts to them only the value of orders1 or must itself be raised only to the rank of an order1 a step1 however1 which1 considering the great number of ,worms1 would not be suitable or just4 ,the names may therefore remain for the sake of uniformity2 only it must be borne in mind that they are of unequal value4 ,the same relation is exhibited in the ,crustacea or ,crabs4 ,they obviously admit of being parallelized with no other animals than the ,malaco-or ,conchozoa4 ,the ,entomostraca and ,crabs evidently repeat the ,mussels1 the ,aselli the ,snails2 but the ,spiders and ,scorpions the ,kracken or ,cephalopoda4 ,consequently here also the orders correspond to the preceding classes4 ,the true or proper ,insects transcend the ,sexual animals1 and therefore conform to the classification of their own circle1 namely1 they repeat the ,worms and ,crabs1 and finally mount forth upon their own stage4 ,the inferior or lower organized animals form consequently two series1 viz4 the ,smooth and ,annulate1 which in their lower members range parallel1 and that indeed after the following manner3 ,a4 ,smooth4 ,b4 ,annulated or ,ringed4 ,i4 ,protozoa4 ,i4 ,worms4 a4 ,stomach1 #a4 ,infusoria4 #a4 ,white-blooded ,worms4 b4 ,intestine1 #b4 ,polypi4 #b4 ,red-blooded ,worms4 c4 ,absorbents1 #c4 ,acaleph4 #c4 ,holothuri4 ,,ii4 ,conchozoa4 ,,ii4 ,crustacea4 d4 ,veins1 #d4 ,mussels4 #d4 ,crabs4 e4 ,arteries1 #e4 ,snails4 #e4 ,aselli4 f4 ,hearts1 #f4 ,kracken4 #f4 ,spiders4 ,,iii4 ,ancyliozoa4 ,,iii4 ,flies4 g4 ,retia1 #g4 ,worms4 #g4 ,tracheoptera4 h4 ,branchi1 #h4 ,crabs4 #h4 ,dictyoptera4 i4 ,trache1 #i4 ,flies4 #i4 ,ceratoptera4 ,the ,worms have simply an annulate body with reticular or filamentary branchi1 but no feet2 the branchi are supported by the body4 ,the ,crabs have an annulate body with feet2 the branchi are supported by limbs4 ,the ,insects have an annulate body with feet and wings2 the body is supported by the branchi4 ,seventh ,class4 ,reticular1 ,papillose ,animals--,worms4 ,protozooid ,ancyliozoa4 #cejc4 ,there are ,worms with a soft body and white blood1 without proper tentacula2 others with red blood1 with and without tentacula1 having also bristles along the sides of the body2 lastly1 the rings of the body become hard or muscular1 and a circle or ring of osseous maxill forms around the mouth1 which is usually surrounded by numerous tentacula1 as in the ,star-fishes and ,holothuri1 in whom the blood is nevertheless colourless4 ,they divide accordingly into three orders1 and each of these again into three families1 in accordance with the classes1 namely1 those of the ,protozoa or ,mucus-animals1 through which they pass4 ,order #a4 ,infusorial ,worms--,parasites4 #cejd4 ,the ,white-blooded ,worms or ,entozoa are very imperfect animals1 a fact which proves that this circle recommences quite inferiorly or from below4 ,they live for the most part in the interior of other animals1 being thus located in darkness and in places where they obtain but little oxygen4 ,their blood therefore is not simply colourless1 but even its vessels are only imperfectly developed4 ,they respire without doubt through the tegument4 ,in many1 a distinct or separate intestine being wanting1 it is the tegument also which digests2 in others the intestine is simply a sac without an anus4 ,the sexual parts too are in many species of a doubtful character1 while meantime there are both androgynous and dioecious individuals4 ,in the latter the male parts open invariably at the posterior extremity of the body1 as in ,insects2 the female parts in front of its caudal end1 as in the ,crustacea4 ,both are in other respects constructed as in ,insects1 namely1 there are two oviducts or seminal ducts1 which unite before reaching their external orifice4 ,they divide into three groups4 ,in one of these the body is tolerably smooth1 and the pharynx commencing from a simple suctorial mouth elongates into a ramified intestine without an anus2 they are androgynous--,saugwrmer4 ,in others the body itself supplies the place of the stomach2 it is corrugated1 and receives the food through one or several orifices1 without separating into a special intestine4 ,they have nearly all a claviform proboscis or rostrum1 with which they perforate substantial cavities for themselves2 it would seem that they are both androgynous and of separate sexes--,hydatids and ,tni4 ,others are separated into tegument and intestine like the ,mussels and ,snails1 but without having a distinct vascular system1 heart1 and liver1 though provided with a nervous chord and separate sexual parts--,ascarides4 ,fam4 #a4 ,monad-like ,worms1 ,saugwrmer4 ,body tolerably smooth1 suctorial mouth and sucker1 the intestine losing itself in the tissue of the body1 and without an anus2 androgynous4 ,they remind us through their small size and structure of the ,monades1 especially the ,cercari1 and among the ,worms typify or prefigurate in particular the ,hirudines or ,leeches1 both by their form and power of suction1 as also in the ramification of the intestine4 ,many ,cercari might be metamorphosed into ,distomata1 and so be or constitute their young4 ,the ,planari are slightly different from the ,liver-flukes or ,fasciol hepatic1 since they are white1 bloodless1 have a ramified intestine without anus1 and increase also by fissiparous generation4 ,they belong to the present order1 although they live not as parasites1 but in a state of freedom4 ,fam4 #b4 ,rhizopodoid ,worms1 ,hydatids4 ,body annulate or articulate1 with a claviform proboscis without an intestine2 they appear to have several mouths4 ,the ,cystica develop ova simply upon the internal wall of the tegument2 the body's last ring is expanded into a cystic form1 and is mostly much larger than the whole body4 ,the ,coenurus cerebralis1 or ,brain-hydatid1 ramifies like the ,polyps4 ,the ,cestoidea have in each joint or member of the body an ovarium1 and1 as it would appear1 male parts also1 so that they are androgynous4 ,the sexual orifices are at the border or upon the surface of the posterior members4 ,the member can be viewed as an ovarium liberating itself2 as in the ,lerne and ,arguli4 ,the ,filari or ,thread-worms1 which also belong here1 are in the form of a cylindrical tube1 with separate sexual parts1 which open posteriorly4 ,fam4 #c4 ,rotiferal ,worms1 ,ascarides4 ,body cylindrical1 intestine free1 with mouth and anus2 sexual parts separate4 ,upon the mouth these ,entozoa have some papill or points1 which may be regarded as tentacula4 ,the larger species have a distinct nervous cord4 ,the ,gordius cannot well take any other position than the present1 although it does live in a state of freedom4 ,order #b4 ,polypary ,worms--,hirudines4 #ceje4 ,body cylindrical with branchi in or upon the tegument1 blood red2 two ganglionic nervous threads run along the ventral surface of the body1 as in ,insects2 all are indeed androgynous4 ,here belong the ,red-blooded ,worms1 as ,hirudines1 ,lumbrici1 ,nereides1 and ,serpul4 ,fam4 #d4 ,tubularial ,worms--,dermatobranchiata4 ,body cylindrical4 ,the branchi are only a vascular network in the tegument4 ,here belong the ,hirudines and ,lumbrici4 ,the ,hirudines have a perfectly naked body1 without filaments and bristles1 a perfect network of vessels containing red blood within the tegument1 an intestine with an anus1 both sexual parts androgynoid2 posteriorly they have a pad or sucker2 in the mouth there are mostly maxill1 and upon the head simple eyes4 ,the ,naiades and ,lumbrici have bristles in longitudinal rows upon the sides of the body4 ,the latter are androgynous4 ,the ,naiades increase by division4 ,the ,thalassem have a protuberant white body2 red blood-vessels only upon the intestine2 mouth rostriform4 ,these ,worms stick in the mud1 and are nourished by it4 ,they have here and there bristles1 but which do not form any longitudinal rows4 ,they appear to absorb water through the skin1 and respire by the intestine4 ,they cannot1 by reason of their red blood1 range with the ,holothuri4 ,fam4 #e4 ,alcyonioid ,worms--,notobranchiata4 ,body depressed1 with pedal filaments1 tentacula and branchi in two longitudinal rows upon the back4 ,these ,worms all live in the sea1 adhering mostly upright in the earth1 and have frequently annulate1 rigid tentacula1 ocelli1 and pairs of maxill1 like ,insects4 ,the gills are not unfrequently covered with pergamentaceous scales1 as in many ,nereides1 and especially in ,aphrodite4 ,fam4 #f4 ,actinioid ,worms--,auchenobranchiata4 ,body inclosed within a pergamentaceous or calcareous tube with lateral bristles1 branchi and tentacula upon the neck or head4 ,the neck is surrounded by a kind of mantle1 almost as in the ,snails1 so that several animals have been arranged here1 which are now known to be veritable ,snails4 ,upon the head many have a horny operculum1 whereby they can close the shell4 ,here belong the ,amphitrit1 ,terebell1 ,serpul1 and ,sabell4 ,order #c4 ,acalephan ,worms--,sternwrmer4 #cejf4 ,these creatures attain the most perfect structure of the ,worms4 ,the blood is white1 the form cylindrical1 globular and stellate2 the mouth surrounded by a ring or wreath of maxill4 ,the nerves form a ring around the pharynx1 and upon the latter are placed membranous cysts1 which spirt water into the tentacula or feet as they have been called1 and thereby expand them4 ,it is impossible for these animals to continue to range with the ,acaleph1 although they resemble them in outward form2 for they consist of two cysts1 the intestine having become freed from the outer one as a special sac2 moreover1 they have a perfect vascular system1 distinct muscles1 a mouth with a dental apparatus1 which prefigurates a complete skeleton1 a peculiar vascular system for the injection of the tentacula or feet1 a nervous ring surrounding the pharynx1 an ovarium entirely separated1 and lastly1 a perfectly annulate body4 ,fam #g4 ,physalial ,worms1 ,holothuri4 ,body cylindrical1 very plentifully supplied with muscles4 ,mouth and anus present1 the former of these being surrounded by a dental wreath and ramified branchimorphous tentacula2 branchi upon the intestine1 and branchial aperture at the anal extremity4 ,they correspond to the ,physali4 ,their tegument is a perfect muscular tunic1 consisting of several longitudinal bands1 which pursue a downward course upon its internal surface2 in other respects being transversely corrugated and full of papill1 partly replete with hollow podoidal filaments1 which by the injection of water into them are elongated2 thus1 they present a resemblance to the ,acaleph4 ,fam4 #h4 ,beroeal ,worms1 ,echini4 ,are at bottom ,holothuri with ossified tegument1 or ,asteriad with shortened rays4 ,the ,echini have an anus1 pretty like that of the ,holothuri1 and also similar feet1 which are protruded in a similar manner through apertures in the shell4 ,the dental wreath surrounding the mouth is a complete bony framework1 which has been called1 on account of its form1 ,laterna ,aristotelis1 and bears a considerable resemblance to the valves of the ,balani1 the antetypes in general of the ,echini1 just as these are of the ,opossum ,shrimps4 ,fam4 #i4 ,medusal ,worms1 ,asteriad4 ,body stelliform1 consisting of bony rings2 contains a free multilobular intestine with blood-vessels and branchi2 several ovaria2 it would appear that they are without male parts4 ,here belong the ,encrinites1 ,pentacrinites1 and ,asteriad proper4 ,around the mouth of the ,encrinites and ,pentacrinites stand long1 ramified1 and likewise articulated tentacula1 which remind us of the arms of the ,acaleph and ,cephalopoda4 ,fundamentally too1 in the ,star-fishes1 the disk only is the body proper1 and the rays are the tentacula1 which1 being monstrously developed1 surround the mouth2 what have been called pedicles upon these1 represent the suckers of the ,sepi4 ,eighth ,class4 ,branchial1 ,pedal ,animals--,crustacea4 ,conchozooid ,ancyliozoa4 #cejg4 ,the ,crustacea are ,worms with horny rings to the body1 jointed feet and tentacula1 which mostly breathe by branchi4 ,they correspond to the ,conchozoa1 or ,shell-animals1 and divide therefore into three orders1 each of these including six families4 ,here belong the ,crabs1 ,wood-lice1 and ,spiders4 ,in the lowest forms the head1 thorax1 and abdomen are blended together1 and the back mostly covered with a great horny scute--,mussel-like ,insecta4 ,in the next place the thorax and abdomen admit of being clearly distinguished1 both by their form as well as by their appendages1 which are much larger on the thorax1 as in the ,cray-fish4 ,then follow cylindrical forms with numerous feet1 appended to uniform rings1 but having a head free and distinguished by tentacula1 maxill1 and eyes--,wood-lice4 ,the ,wood-lice bear a resemblance to the air-breathing ,insects1 although all parts of the body still pass over or blend gradually into each other4 ,in the ,arachnida or ,spiders aerial respiration takes place1 and their body enters into relations with the more highly organized ,insects1 since the head becomes small1 the abdomen large1 thick1 and short4 ,as the ,crustacea pass parallel to the ,conchozoa or ,shell-animals1 so do they divide into three cohorts or groups3 the ,mussel-1 ,snail-1 and ,kracken-like ,crustacea1 or ,crabs1 ,wood-lice1 and ,spiders4 ,,cohort ,i4 ,,mussel-,,like ,,crustacea--,,crabs4 #cejh4 ,head and thorax connate1 being mostly covered with a shell or shield1 abdomen stunted or caudiform2 maxill and branchi present4 ,order #a4 ,lochmuschelartige1 ,pfriemenkrebse4 #ceji4 ,the feet mostly simple and pointed1 without large claws or forcipes1 and furnished with set or lamelliform branchi2 eyes sessile4 ,fam4 #a4 ,pholadoid1 ,mussel-,insects4 ,small1 almost microscopical1 and slightly annulated animals with an uni-or bi-valvular dorsal shield or testa1 stunted maxill1 and few legs1 having attached to them setiform branchi4 ,these animals are found in all stagnant waters1 in which they are incessantly paddling or rowing themselves about4 ,they remind us of those ,infusoria which1 like ,brachionus1 are covered by a scute or shield4 ,they are what have been called ,monoculi 7,entomostraca or ,lophyropoda71 e4 g4 ,daphni4 ,number of feet small1 and beyond their appended set there are no branchi2 two eyes frequently blended together2 antenn mostly furcate like the feet2 sexes separate2 a perfect circulation within a true ,mussel-like ventral cavity4 ,they are microscopic ,mussels with eyes and feet4 ,fam4 #b4 ,tellinoid1 ,branchiopoda4 ,similar animalcules to the above1 but with a body strongly annulated1 naked or covered with a double shell1 and provided with numerous feet1 unto which are attached leaflets that serve as branchi4 ,here belong the ,branchiopoda properly so called4 ,fam4 #c4 ,cardiaceoid1 ,shield-,crabs4 ,large animals1 with strongly annulated body and numerous feet2 head and back covered by a shield1 whereupon are the eyes--,phyllopoda4 ,here range the ,trilobites1 ,apus1 and the ,molucca or ,king-,crabs4 ,order #b4 ,spaltmuschelartige1 ,scheerenkrebse4 #ceaj4 ,five pairs of thoracic feet1 of which the first pair is mostly large and forcipiform2 the eyes upon moveable pedicles or foot-stalks4 ,these animals usually attain a striking size1 and are generally the largest among the horny ,ancyliozoa4 ,the sexual parts open mostly upon the posterior legs4 ,the abdomen or tail usually supports five pairs of stunted feet1 to which the ova hang4 ,the number of maxill agrees tolerably well with that of the thoracic feet4 ,fam4 #d4 ,mytiloid1 ,locust-,crabs4 ,all the feet of pretty equal length1 and the forceps stunted in size2 the branchial plates free upon the abdominal feet--,squilla4 ,fam4 #e4 ,arcaceous1 ,macroura4 ,abdominal feet arrested1 branchial comb upon the femora of the thoracic feet and beneath the dorsal shield1 tail extended1 as in the common ,cray-fish4 ,fam4 #f4 ,oyster-like ,crustacea1 ,brachyura4 ,characters similar1 but tail bent under the body--,taschenkrebse4 ,,cohort ,,ii4 ,,snail-,,like ,,crustacea--,,asseln4 #ceaa4 ,body mostly cylindrical1 annulate1 without a true carapax or scute2 head free2 feet short and simple2 branchi vesici-or folii-form2 mostly placed under the tail2 eyes non-pediculated1 or even wanting4 ,order #c4 ,androgynoid--,saugasseln4 #ceab4 ,body soft and slightly annulate1 maxill1 feet and branchi arrested2 live by suction as parasites upon other animals1 mostly fishes4 ,fam4 #a4 ,tritonia-like1 ,lernace4 ,body soft1 without shield1 eyes and branchi2 feet and maxill stunted2 ova carried in two tubes at the hinder part of the body--,kiemenwrmer or ,lerne4 ,fam4 #b4 ,patella-like1 ,argulace4 ,body distinguished into head1 thorax1 and abdomen1 with few natatory feet1 maxill moulded to form suctorial organs1 mostly eyes2 lay also strings of ova2 head elongated in many in a scutiform manner4 ,the so-called ,fish-lice or ,argulace4 ,fam4 #c4 ,luftschneckenartige--,pycnogonid4 ,body short1 with four pairs of long feet2 eyes1 but no branchi and maxill2 abdomen puny in size4 ,the ,whale-lice4 ,order #d4 ,kammschneckenartige--,nagasseln4 #ceac4 ,body cylindrical1 horny1 and distinctly annulate1 maxill1 eyes1 and mostly seven simple pairs of feet1 branchi as cysts or leaves4 ,fam4 #d4 ,capulidenartige1 ,walzenasseln4 ,body cylindrical1 with five or seven pairs of feet1 and some branchial vesicles2 body and abdomen very puny4 ,the ,lmodipoda2 ,caprella1 ,cyamus4 ,fam4 #e4 ,turbinidenartige1 ,seitenasseln4 ,body horny and distinctly ringed1 mostly compressed1 with perfect maxill2 seven pairs of thoracic feet and branchial vesicles2 abdominal feet rudder-shaped4 ,they swim usually lying upon the side2 many leap--,amphipoda2 ,flohkrebse or ,gammarin4 ,fam4 #f4 ,buccinidenartige1 ,sohlenasseln4 ,similar to the preceding family1 but the body is depressed1 and the abdominal feet furnished with branchial plates4 ,the ,isopoda2 ,oniscid1 to which belongs the genus ,armadillo4 ,,cohort ,,iii4 ,,kracken-,,crustacea--,,kobe4 #cead4 ,body not tripartite2 spiracula or air-openings2 more than three pairs of feet1 no wings4 ,here belong the air-breathing ,crustacea2 ,scolopendr1 ,acari1 ,scorpions1 and ,spiders4 ,these animals are abruptly distinguished from the preceding by a conversion of the branchi into spiral-shaped trache1 which ramify and traverse the whole body4 ,they all therefore live in the air1 and if they do also dwell in the water1 they still come to the surface to inhale that element4 ,the eyes are only simple points or ocelli1 which are accumulated frequently upon the sides of the head4 ,the most inferior of them are distinguished from the preceding cohort1 or the ,asseln1 by almost nothing save the essential character of their own cohort1 the trache4 ,they have mostly a number of feet1 and only simple eyes1 as the ,scolopendr4 ,the following have a short body1 in which the abdomen predominates2 thorax and head connate2 never more than four pairs of feet--,acari1 ,scorpions1 and ,spiders4 ,they likewise divide into two orders1 like the ,kracken4 ,order #a4 ,rumpfkrackenartige--,langkobe4 #ceae4 ,body horny1 tolerably cylindrical and uniform2 feet mostly very numerous4 ,fam4 #a4 ,salpoid1 ,spindelkobe4 ,only three pairs of thoracic feet1 but still podoidal appendages to the abdomen--,podura1 ,lepisma4 ,fam4 #b4 ,ascidioid1 ,schnurkobe4 ,body cylindrical1 with very many feet2 sexual parts on the thorax--,juli4 ,fam4 #c4 ,cirrhopodoid1 ,bandkobe4 ,body band-shaped and depressed1 maxill perforate1 sexual parts placed posteriorly--,scolopendr4 ,order #b4 ,kopfkrackenartige--,kurzkobe4 #ceaf4 ,body thick1 mostly globiform2 head and thorax blended together2 only four pairs of feet4 ,fam4 #d4 ,brachiopodoid1 ,acarides4 ,body rounded2 all three parts confluent2 usually only two simple eyes4 ,the ,acari are mostly so small1 that their parts can only be distinctly seen through the microscope4 ,their mouth is always very much arrested1 and has maxill1 which are in some cases adapted for manducation1 in others for suction4 ,fam4 #e4 ,pteropodoid1 ,scorpions4 ,body tolerably cylindrical1 and all three parts connate2 palpi very large and forcipiform4 ,fam4 #f4 ,sepioid1 ,spiders4 ,body rounded1 head and thorax connate1 abdomen separate1 mostly eight simple eyes4 ,their most remarkable organs are the four spinnerets in front of the anus1 which probably stand in the signification of the renal organs1 just as the material of the ,spider-threads does in that of the urine4 ,the trache are but few in number1 and expand into lung-like vesicles4 ,the sexual parts do not lie posteriorly by the anus1 but at the root or base of the abdomen4 ,it is moreover remarkable1 that their mandibles are perforated and pour a poisonous juice into the wounds they inflict4 ,they must be therefore regarded1 like the venom-teeth of ,serpents1 as elongated salivary ducts4 ,the ,crustacean families can also be named according to the orders of their circle1 namely1 the ,worms and ,crustacea1 e4 g4 thus3 ,,order ,i4 ,worm-,crabs--,pfriemenkrebse4 ,fam4 #a4 ,entozooid--,mussel-,insects4 #b4 ,hirudinous--,branchiopoda4 #c4 ,holothurioid--,shield-,crabs4 ,,order ,,ii4 ,crustacean ,crabs--,scheerenkrebse4 ,fam4 #d4 ,typical ,crustacea--,sea-,mantes4 #e4 ,asselkrebse --,macrura4 #f4 ,arachnoid --,brachyura4 ,ninth ,class4 ,tracheal1 ,alary ,animals--,flies4 ,typical ,ancyliozoa4 #ceag4 ,body tripartite1 only three pairs of thoracic legs1 spiracula and wings4 ,they divide1 according to the classes of their circle1 into three cohorts1 of ,worm-1 ,crab-like1 and perfect ,flies4 ,as the wings are their characteristic organ1 so also must they be divided according to them1 and not after the cibarial instruments4 ,those wings which are developed to the least degree are the homogeneous1 transparent wings traversed by few trache or ducts--,tracheoptera1 as ,flies1 ,bees1 and ,butterflies4 ,their chrysalis or pupa condition is perfect4 ,then follow wings having very numerous veins united by transverse veins so as to form a network--,dictyoptera1 as ,neuropterous1 ,orthopterous1 and ,hemipterous ,insects4 ,the pupa is moveable4 ,finally1 the anterior and posterior pair of wings become wholly dissimilar to each other1 the former being horny1 and the latter membranous in texture with reticulated veins1 provided likewise with joints like the legs1 so that they can be folded up under the anterior pair or elytra--,ceratoptera1 as the ,beetles4 ,pupa state perfect4 ,strictly speaking1 it is a matter of indifference whether the names of orders and families be adopted from the first or second parallel series2 whether e4 g4 we speak in the first cohort of ,protozooid or ,worm-flies4 ,the nearest series will1 however1 bear the greater amount of resemblance to them4 ,meanwhile ,i will in the sequel vary in the choice of names1 in order to exhibit different samples of this double parallelism4 ,,cohort ,i4 ,,worm-,,flies--,,tracheoptera4 #ceah4 ,wings membranous with few longitudinal ducts1 and almost devoid of transverse ducts1 eyes larger than head4 ,here belong the ,flies1 ,bees1 and ,butterflies4 ,the abdomen is indeed annulate1 but soft2 its first ring is frequently set free and unites with the thorax1 but supports neither feet nor wings4 ,the sexual parts always lie at the anal extremity4 ,the head is almost nothing but eye1 and the ,insects of this order may very well be termed ,megalopid1 or large-eyed1 out of contrast to the succeeding ones4 ,between the two large compound eyes there are usually found three simple ocular puncta or ocelli1 which they have adopted from the preceding class4 ,the larv are either entirely apodal1 white and soft like ,entozoa1 or they have1 in addition to the thoracic feet1 numerous abdominal feet like the higher ,worms4 ,the ,flies with their soft and imperfect body1 and the apodal larv1 repeat the ,infusoria and ,entozoa2 the ,bees therefore the ,polyps and ,red-blooded ,worms2 the ,butterflies with their large farinose or dusty wings and polypodal caterpillars1 the ,acaleph and ,holothuri4 ,order #a4 ,entozooid ,flies--,diptera4 #ceai4 ,all the thoracic rings coalesced1 and along with them the first or basi-abdominal ring1 unto which are attached the halteres or balancers2 only the two posterior wings present2 the labium prolonged into a proboscis1 which incloses the setiform maxill4 ,larv apodal and white4 ,the ,diptera resemble the ,entozoa in a striking manner through their apodal1 soft and white larv1 and even through their habitation1 which is mostly in fetid and moist animal matters4 ,added to this1 they respire usually through two tubes which open upon the anus4 ,many during their metamorphosis do not shed their skin2 but it becomes1 during the pupa condition1 only horny1 representing a small case1 whose bottom springs up in front like an operculum1 and gives exit to the perfect ,fly which has been therein developed4 ,upon the first abdominal ring of the imago two nodose pedicles stand out1 which are called halteres2 they are probably the old respiratory tubes4 ,the maxill have changed into bristles1 which act like pestels within the groove-shaped labium1 puncture and pump in the fluid4 ,they divide into three families like the ,white-blooded ,worms1 or according to the orders of their cohort4 ,fam4 #a4 ,typical ,diptera1 ,schmeissen4 ,antenn triarticulate1 the last joint being mostly spatulate and furnished with a lateral awn or bristle2 only two suctorial set inclosed between the terminal valves of a fleshy proboscis1 which admits of being retracted within a large cephalic or oral cavity4 ,the ,muscid1 unto whom the ,common ,house-flies belong1 and also the ,hippoboscid or ,louse-flies4 ,it is my opinion too1 that the ,fleas also are to be ranged among the ,diptera4 ,alliance #a4 ,klappenmucken4 ,the two punctuating set placed between two valves without a proboscis--,flea 7,pulex7 and ,louse-fly 7,hippobosca47 ,alliance #b4 ,acalyptera4 ,proboscis having thick lips1 and retractile into a large cephalic cavity2 alul or halteral opercula arrested--,hypocera to ,dolichocera4 ,alliance #c4 ,dung-flies4 ,characters similar to the above1 but the alulets are of considerable size--,muscid4 ,fam4 #b4 ,hymenopteroid ,diptera1 ,dasseln4 ,antenn as in preceding family1 but the bisetaceous proboscis is thin and horny1 with small labia1 or else large labia with four set--,o,estrid1 ,conopid1 and ,syrphid4 ,alliance #d4 ,parasitic ,diptera4 ,two set with or without a lipless proboscis--,o,estrid1 ,myopari1 and ,conopid4 ,alliance #e4 ,syrphid4 ,four set within a similar kind of proboscis2 the third joint of the antenn spatulate2 the palpi thickened4 ,alliance #f4 ,leptid4 ,four set within a short thick-lipped proboscis1 the third antennal joint mostly coniform--,therexid1 ,leptid1 and ,dolichopid4 ,fam4 #c4 ,lepidopteroid ,diptera1 ,glsen4 ,antenn multiarticulate and stipiform2 proboscis with and without labia1 mostly four and six set for punctuation--,tipulid1 ,tanystomid1 ,stratiomyd1 ,tabanid4 ,alliance #g4 ,gnats4 ,antenn filamentary and multi-articular4 ,proboscis varied4 ,alliance #h4 ,spiessmucken4 ,four set within a hastate horny proboscis with or without arrested labia2 third antennal joint not annulated1 with the bristle or awn at the extremity--,tanystomid1 as ,asilid1 ,empid1 ,bombylid4 ,alliance #i4 ,stielmucken4 ,four or six set within a thick-lipped proboscis2 third antennal joint stipiform and annulated--,stratiomyd and ,tabanid4 ,order #b4 ,leech-flies--,hymenoptera4 #cebj4 ,four naked veined wings1 labium mostly elongated1 the two pairs of maxill acting above it like spears4 ,larv mostly apodal1 or with more abdominal feet or prolegs than in the true ,caterpillars4 ,most of the larv still bear a great resemblance to the ,entozoa1 though they do not respire like them through the anus1 but by lateral apertures or spiracula2 the larv with abdominal feet repeat the ,nereid and ,aselli4 ,in other respects they live no longer in putrid moisture1 fungi1 roots1 and such like bodies1 but in living animals or in cavities specially prepared for their reception by the parents1 and even in a state of freedom upon leaves4 ,and here is particularly worthy of our notice the structure of the cells1 which are by many species fabricated quite substantially of wax or wood-shavings1 and are to be compared with the webs of ,spiders1 since both serve as nests for the young4 ,they repeat the ,polypidoms4 ,others make cases of leaves1 and carry into them honey upon which to deposit their ova4 ,others again simply bore holes in wood or in the earth1 in order that they may in a similar manner provide their young with honey or larv4 ,finally1 others simply stick1 by means of their ovipositor1 the ova into animals or leaves4 ,the dwellings are fabricated by the maxill1 which but seldom serve as cibarial instruments1 seeing that the labium undertakes this office as a lick-organ4 ,another remarkable feature of this order is the arrested development of the sexual parts of the females in certain generations1 an occurrence which depends upon the time of the year or the size of the cells1 and whereby they are constrained to lead a social life as workers4 ,they divide1 according to the ,red-blooded ,worms or the orders of their cohort1 into three families4 ,fam4 #a4 ,dipteroid ,hymenoptera1 ,bees4 ,abdomen aculeate2 labium elongated in a rostriform manner4 ,they dig or build cells1 and carry thither honey to the larv1 which are apodal4 ,alliance #a4 ,fossorial ,bees--,andrenid4 #b4 ,carpenter-,bees--,anthophorid4 #c4 ,cell-,bees--,apid4 ,fam4 #b4 ,typical ,hymenoptera1 ,wasps4 ,aculeate2 labium not elongated--rapacious ,hymenoptera1 such as ,ants1 ,fossorial1 and ,cell-wasps1 larv apodal4 ,alliance #a4 ,hohlenwespen--,formicid4 #b4 ,fossorial ,wasps--,sphegid4 #c4 ,cell-,wasps--,vespid4 ,fam4 #c4 ,lepidopteroid ,hymenoptera1 ,terebrantia4 ,instead of the sting there is an ovipositor1 with which the females stick their eggs into other insects1 mostly into caterpillars1 or else into leaves and wood--,ichneumonid1 ,tenthredinid1 and ,urocerid4 ,the larv of the first are apodal1 those of the second provided with thoracic and abdominal feet like caterpillars1 those of the third with thoracic feet only like the larv of ,coleoptera4 ,alliance #a4 ,stutzwespen4 ,ovipositor short2 wings nearly veinless4 ,deposit their eggs in small insects2 larv apodal--,chalcidid1 ,oxyuri1 ,chrysidid4 ,alliance #b4 ,schlupfwespen4 ,ovipositor very long1 divided into three hairs2 wings veined4 ,deposit their eggs in caterpillars2 larv apodal--,ichneumonid1 ,evaniid4 ,alliance #c4 ,pflanzenwespen4 ,ovipositor spiral or saw-shaped4 ,deposit their ova in plants2 larv mostly furnished with feet1 and frequently resembling caterpillars in form--,cynipid1 ,tenthredinid1 and ,urocerid4 ,order #c4 ,holothurioid ,flies--,lepidoptera4 #ceba4 ,four veined wings1 covered with small dust-like scales2 maxill have coalesced into a proboscis2 larv with thoracic and abdominal legs4 ,the larv or ,caterpillars remind us of the ,nereides1 especially the setaceous ,aphrodites1 such as the ,holothuri1 and further still1 the ,aselli and ,scolopendr4 ,there are ,caterpillars1 which are scarcely to be distinguished from a ,wood-louse4 ,they subsist almost throughout upon leaves1 and being exposed to the light are therefore variously coloured4 ,they have maxill1 and in the labium is the orifice of the salivary glands1 from which they spin the threads used in weaving their cocoons1 or social tents4 ,where they crawl they leave1 like the ,spiders1 their threads beneath them4 ,the pupa state is perfect2 the perfect insect generally creeps out of the chrysalis by a slit taking place down the back4 ,the abdomen is almost throughout covered with hair1 which is indicative likewise of a strong mucous secretion4 ,they take in their fluid nourishment by suction1 but the mechanism by which this is effected is not yet known1 as from the jaws themselves forming the proboscis1 there can be no suckers lodged within the latter that might act4 ,it is probably effected by expansion of the abdomen taking place during respiration4 ,their deglutition would be therefore a respiratory act4 ,besides their very non-artistic webs1 no artistic instincts are to be observed in this order4 ,the ova are just layed without more ado upon plants1 and rarely upon other objects4 ,the ,butterflies are generally related to the plants1 and especially to their coroll1 whose colours and forms they carry in themselves4 ,they divide according to their proximal orders into three families4 ,fam4 #a4 ,dipteroid ,lepidoptera1 ,moths4 ,antenn filiform1 wings mostly thrown like a mantle round the body2 proboscis short4 ,small and nocturnal in their habits1 proceeding from tolerably apodal ,caterpillars1 which reside mostly concealed in plants1 or make themselves cases of hairs and leaves4 ,alliance #a4 ,typical ,moths1 ,tineid4 a4 ,typical ,tineid3 ,alucitid4 b4 ,pyraloid3 ,tine4 c4 ,tortrix-like3 ,crambid4 ,alliance #b4 ,bombycoid ,moths1 ,pyralid4 a4 ,tinea-like3 ,agloss4 b4 ,typical3 ,hydrocamp4 c4 ,tortrix-like3 ,deltoides or ,hermini4 ,alliance #c4 ,homalopteroid ,moths1 ,tortricid4 a4 ,tinea-like3 ,fruit-,tortrices4 b4 ,pyraloid3 ,heterogene4 c4 ,typical3 ,leaf-rolling ,tortrices4 ,fam4 #b4 ,hymenopteroid ,lepidoptera1 ,silk-,spinners4 ,antenn filiform1 wings tile-shaped4 ,lepidoptera of considerable size1 proceeding out of ,caterpillars1 with many feet1 and frequently covered with hair1 which live mostly in a state of freedom upon plants1 and in some cases make large cocoons freely exposed1 in others under the earth--,noctuid and ,bombycid4 ,alliance #a4 ,moth-like ,spinners1 ,noctuid4 a4 ,typical3 ,haden4 b4 ,pseudobombycoid3 ,catocal4 c4 ,bombycoid3 ,erebid4 ,alliance #b4 ,typical ,spinners1 ,pseudo-,bombyces4 a4 ,noctua-like3 ,psyches1 ,limacodes4 b4 ,typical3 ,notodont4 c4 ,bombycoid3 ,callimorph4 ,alliance #c4 ,homalopteroid ,spinners1 ,bombycid4 a4 ,noctua-like3 ,bombyces4 b4 ,pseudo-,bombycoid3 ,saturni4 c4 ,typical3 ,hepialid4 ,fam4 #c4 ,typical ,lepidoptera1 ,homaloptera4 ,antenn varied2 wings flat and expanded2 proboscis long--,geometrid1 ,vespertina1 ,diurna4 ,large ,lepidoptera proceeding from free-living1 strongly-coloured1 and mostly naked ,caterpillars4 ,the ,geometrid have level1 tolerably triangular wings and filiform antenn2 they proceed from naked ,caterpillars with few abdominal feet4 ,the ,vespertina have level1 long1 and narrow wings1 and spindle-shaped antenn2 they emerge from perfect ,caterpillars4 ,the ,diurna have the wings folded upwards in a reverse position1 claviform antenn1 and proceed from perfect ,caterpillars4 ,alliance #a4 ,moth-like ,homaloptera1 ,geometrid4 a4 ,typical3 ,geometr4 b4 ,sphingoid3 ,aposur4 c4 ,papilionaceous3 ,uraniid4 ,alliance #b4 ,bombycoid ,homaloptera1 ,sphingid4 a4 ,geometroid3 ,zygnid and ,sesiad4 b4 ,typical3 ,sphingid4 c4 ,papilionaceous3 ,castni4 ,alliance #c4 ,typical ,homaloptera1 ,papilionid4 a4 ,geometroid3 ,hesperiid1 ,lycnid and ,erycinid4 b4 ,sphingoid3 ,nymphalid and ,heliconiid4 c4 ,typical3 ,pierid and ,papilionid4 ,,cohort ,,ii4 ,,crustaceous ,,flies--,,dictyoptera4 #cebb4 ,four wings1 with longitudinal and numerous transverse veins1 the anterior pair being mostly leathery in texture2 eyes mostly smaller than head4 ,here belong the ,neuroptera1 ,orthoptera1 and ,hemiptera4 ,the metamorphosis is tolerably imperfect1 and the larv have never more than three pairs of thoracic feet1 and therefore correspond no longer to the ,worms1 but to the ,crabs1 where the number of the feet has been already more determined4 ,many also strikingly simulate the ,crustacea4 ,in all three families also the pupa runs about1 eats1 and has rudiments of wings4 ,the abdominal rings are mostly horny and hairless4 ,the spiracula lie upon the upper margin4 ,the eyes are generally much smaller than the head1 and may therefore1 in comparison with those of the preceding and subsequent groups1 be said to be of middling size2 the simple eyes have for the greatest part disappeared4 ,meanwhile the first family displays large eyes1 the second eyes of a middling size1 the third small eyes4 ,they divide like their antetypes1 the ,crabs1 into three orders4 ,order #d4 ,crab-,flies--,neuroptera4 #cebc4 ,all the wings alike and membranous2 maxill with mostly large eyes2 abdomen soft4 ,these ,insects which1 on account of their delicate wings1 are known with us by the name of ,flohrfliegen1 live mostly upon flesh1 and many of them by capturing living prey4 ,many undergo a short pupa stage4 ,many live in the water and have1 too1 branchi1 whereby they strikingly remind us of the ,crustacea1 especially the ,branchiopoda4 ,like the ,crustacea1 or in accordance with the two first cohorts of their class1 they divide into two families4 ,fam4 #a4 ,tracheopteroid ,neuroptera1 ,nagbolden4 ,do not subsist by rapine1 but gnaw slowly animal and vegetable matters2 many also as flies eat no longer4 ,alliance #a4 ,dipteroid ,neuroptera1 ,kieferluse4 ,no wings2 gnaw skin1 feathers and hair1 mostly ,bird-lice--,philopterus1 ,liotheum4 ,alliance #b4 ,hymenopteroid ,neuroptera1 ,blumen-and ,mulmlase1 ,thrips1 ,psocus1 ,termes4 ,alliance #c4 ,lepidopteroid ,neuroptera1 ,phryganeid 7,wassermotten47 ,fam4 #b4 ,dictyopteroid ,neuroptera1 ,raubbolden4 ,alliance #d4 ,typical ,neuroptera1 ,flohrfliegen1 ,panorpid1 ,hemerobiid1 ,myrmeleonid4 ,alliance #e4 ,orthopteroid ,neuroptera1 ,raphidiid1 ,mantispid4 ,alliance #f4 ,hemipteroid ,neuroptera1 ,ephemerid1 ,libellulid4 ,order #e4 ,oniscal ,flies--,orthoptera4 #cebd4 ,maxill and dissimilar reticular wings2 the anterior1 pergamentaceous2 abdominal rings1 horny2 eyes of moderate size2 pupa moveable4 ,live for the greatest part on plants4 ,fam4 #a4 ,tracheopteroid ,orthoptera1 ,saltatoria4 ,alliance #a4 ,dipteroid ,orthoptera1 ,grylli4 ,alliance #b4 ,hymenopteroid ,locust4 ,have a hard ovipositor1 which reminds us of the sting in the ,hymenoptera4 ,alliance #c4 ,lepidopteroid ,orthoptera1 ,acrydia4 ,fam4 #b4 ,dictyopteroid ,orthoptera1 ,cursoria4 ,alliance #d4 ,neuropteroid ,orthoptera1 ,mantid4 ,alliance #e4 ,typical ,blattid4 ,alliance #f4 ,hemipteroid ,forficulid4 ,order #f4 ,arachnoid ,flies--,hemiptera or ,bugs4 #cebe4 ,horny suctorial proboscis with puncturating set2 dissimilar reticular wings1 the anterior mostly pergamentaceous1 the posterior membranous1 and mostly capable of being folded up1 as in the ,chafers2 eyes small1 pup moveable4 ,the ,bugs have much resemblance to the ,mites1 and ,spiders are as it were winged ,mites4 ,one party of them suck blood1 another vegetable sap4 ,they manifest no artistic instincts4 ,the ,aphides or ,leaf-lice require only a single pairing1 to enable them to propagate through several generations4 ,during the summer they produce only females1 and in autumn the males first appear4 ,fam4 #a4 ,tracheopteroid ,hemiptera1 ,leptoptera4 ,alliance #a4 ,dipteroid ,hemiptera1 ,coccid1 ,aphid4 ,alliance #b4 ,hymenopteroid ,cicad4 ,alliance #c4 ,lepidopteroid ,fulgorid4 ,fam4 #b4 ,dictyopteroid ,hemiptera1 ,pachyptera4 ,alliance #d4 ,neuropteroid ,hemiptera1 ,water-bugs4 ,alliance #e4 ,orthopteroid ,narrow bugs1 ,hydrometr1 ,reduvii1 ,cimicid4 ,alliance #f4 ,typical ,hemiptera1 ,broad bugs1 ,capsid1 ,lygid1 ,coreid1 ,scutellerid4 ,,cohort ,,iii4 ,,perfect ,,flies--,,ceratoptera1 ,,beetles4 #cebf4 ,maxill and dissimilar reticular wings1 the anterior being horny1 the posterior membranous and susceptible of being folded upon themselves2 eyes small2 pup motionless4 ,the ,chafers or ,beetles are the highest ,insects1 because they possess the greatest variety of organs1 namely1 two kinds of wings2 not to mention the perfect condition of their manducatory apparatus1 antenn1 and the first thoracic ring which is free4 ,the ,beetle represents the ,flies in their entire perfection2 everything is rendered horny in the former even to the lower wings1 which are furnished with several joints1 almost like the feet4 ,the upper wings are horny and meet together so closely by their inner margins upon the back1 that they form a closed suture1 like the shells of the bivalve ,mollusc4 ,the antenn are also more perfect than in other families1 and mostly jointed like the feet1 while at their extremity they are frequently thickened into laminated moveable clubs1 which open when the animal would fly1 as if to listen4 ,their habitation1 mode of living and subsistence is exceedingly complex1 and therein also they combine again all the families of this class1 and it might be said1 all the preceding classes4 ,the ,beetles are also much more numerous than any other order1 and could in this point of view even hold good for an entire class1 especially1 if they represented a special organic system1 but which is not the case4 ,they live upon vegetable saps1 and matters1 blossoms1 leaves1 and wood1 living animals1 putrid flesh1 dung1 and such like4 ,they dwell mostly indeed in concealed situations1 but also in those that are freely exposed1 while many live in water1 and are so subjected to its influence that their larv actually respire this element through branchi4 ,the larv are white and have three pairs of horny thoracic feet4 ,they live concealed4 ,the pup are invested by a transparent tegument1 which tears in an irregular manner4 ,the ,beetles divide distinctly into three divisions1 which correspond to the three cohorts of this class1 or repeat the three cohorts of their circle4 ,the ,beetles have been pretty generally divided according to the number of tarsal joints into those having three1 four1 five1 or an unequal set of these articuli1 whereby1 however1 the greatest disorder has originated4 ,i have therefore divided them in my ',naturgeschichte' according to their mode of living into ,phytophaga1 ,sarcophaga1 and ,rypo- or ,coprophaga1 which gradually seems to meet with approval4 ,at least a much more natural arrangement comes to light by using these means4 ,i have also declared the ,rhyncophora to be the lowest and the ,lamellicornes the uppermost in rank1 a view1 which at present appears to be generally adopted4 ,by these means ,i obtained two firm points1 whereby the division or classification of the intermediate members is uncommonly facilitated1 although many may still stand in the wrong place4 ,but who can point out a single system in which ,insects range correctly1 or1 what is more1 wherein it would not be easy to prove that no single order and family occupies the right place4 ,in such trumpery systems of classification1 one would think1 that some respect might be had for principles1 or at least a feeling of shame for the blockhead's weakness of intellect4 ,but in vain6 ,where the sense for philosophy or for principles is wanting1 it is not to be inculcated or driven in4 ,we still see ,natural ,histories shoot forth1 with whose shrub-like ramification we must have compassion4 ,every thicket of briars is rooted deep1 and admits only of being extirpated by wearisome and patient culture4 ,the ,rhyncophora indicate that the ,phytophagous beetles are the lowest2 the ,lamellicornes that the ,coprophagous are the highest4 ,the ,sarcophagous chafers accordingly take their place between the two4 ,now1 however1 the ,rhyncophora are tetrameral4 ,in like manner are the ,phytophagous beetles1 such as the ,borkenkfer and ,holzschrter4 ,they consequently form the main stem1 unto which all the true ,phytophaga must be annexed4 ,but among them also belong the ,pentameral1 namely1 the ,holzbhrer1 ,schnell-and ,prachtkfer2 ,i have therefore disposed them in this order1 and ,i believe quite correctly4 ,the ,lamellicorn or ,dung-beetles are pentameral1 and on that account to be co-arranged with the ,necrophaga or ,carrion-feeders and ,sexton-beetles1 as well as with the parasitic ,lampyrid1 and the predaceous ,raub-and ,laufkfer1 despite their exceedingly great difference of living and even anomalous structure4 ,on the contrary1 most of the heteromeral kinds agree in their mode of living1 and tolerably too in structure1 with the ,dung-beetles1 at least the ,mulmfressenden1 such as the ,meal-beetles or ,tenebrionid1 and indeed the ,stenelytra also1 while the ,cantharides are parasitic at least as larv4 ,it seems also to me1 that the fungi must be viewed as flour or dung1 and that therefore those very ,fungivora1 whose structure does not point the way otherwise1 can be placed with the ,mulm-and ,mistkfern1 although they are only tri-and tetrameral1 like the ,lycoperdin and ,erotyli4 ,besides this the antenn of the ,fungivora are usually thickened1 and even club shaped1 whereby they thus stand nearer to the ,necrophaga1 such as the ,speckkfern and ,sexton-beetles1 as being those which likewise live upon putrid substances4 ,it is difficult to separate the ,coccinellid from them2 their external resemblance to the ,erotyli is also striking4 ,the pentameral ,raub-,lauf-and ,sandkfern form1 as it were1 the trunk or main stem of the ,zoophagous beetles1 to which are annexed likewise the pentameral ,malacopterous chafers1 namely1 the ,lampyrid1 as parasites4 ,but the heteromeral ,cantharides have also the same soft wings and mode of life1 so that they are not in a natural system1 even if devoid of principles1 to be separated from the ,malacopterous beetles4 ,the nourishment of the ,lamellicorn beetles appears to me to be most perfect in kind4 ,mould or dung can be regarded as a fully prepared aliment1 or1 as it were1 a minced and cooked meat with greens prepared by ,nature1 like as ,man restores it by art4 ,thus the lower ,thricozoa1 e4 g4 the ,mice1 eat the crudest vegetable substances1 such as roots and seeds2 those that stand higher1 grass and leaves2 then snails1 worms1 and insects2 finally flesh1 and last of all fruits1 as the ,bears and ,apes4 ,but ,man lets the crude matters ferment or reduces them to rapid decomposition by cooking1 whereby a mixed kind of food results1 which bears obviously the greatest resemblance to dung which1 as just observed1 is a food cooked by nature4 ,according to these considerations ,i now arrange what have been called ,beetles in the following manner into divisions drawn from philosophical principles4 ,the ,beetles again commence1 like the whole class of ,flies1 from below1 and the inferior kinds pass therefore parallel to the ,tracheo-and ,dictyoptera1 while the superior project above them1 as was the case also in the preceding classes4 ,in a more remote manner also they repeat the lower classes1 namely1 the ,protozoa1 ,conchozoa1 ,worms and ,crustacea1 a fact which is1 properly speaking1 self-evident1 and which is rendered clear by the following table4 ,we have thus3 ,order ,i4 ,tracheopteroid ,coleoptera--,phytophaga4 ,order ,,ii4 ,dictyopteroid --,zoophaga4 ,order ,,iii4 ,ceratopteroid --,rypophaga4 ,it can also be said2 the first correspond to the ,worms1 the second to the ,crustacea1 the third to the ,flies4 ,lastly1 it may still be said2 the first correspond to the ,protozoa1 the second to the ,conchozoa1 the third to the ,ancyliozoa4 ,order #g4 ,tracheopteroid ,beetles--,phytophaga4 #cebg4 ,body cylindrical1 head mostly long1 antenn setiform1 maxillary teeth obtuse1 tarsi mostly tetrameral4 ,they gnaw hard seeds1 leaves1 and wood1 and mostly live concealed4 ,the larv almost or entirely apodal4 ,fam4 #a4 ,dipteroid ,beetles--,rhyncophora4 ,head rhynchiform or snout-shaped1 tarsi tetrameral4 ,fam4 #b4 ,hymenopteroid ,beetles1 ,blattkfer4 ,head tolerably short as well as the antenn1 tarsi tetrameral4 ,fam4 #c4 ,lepidopteroid ,beetles1 ,holzkfer4 ,head pretty short1 antenn very long1 tarsi tetra-and pentameral--,borkenkfer1 ,holzbohrer and ,schrter4 ,order #h4 ,dictyopteroid ,beetles--,zoophaga4 #cebh4 ,body long and depressed1 antenn short1 maxill large with pointed teeth1 feet mostly pentameral and without ungues4 ,they subsist upon living or dead animals1 dwell usually in water or upon dry land1 and run very swiftly4 ,the one kind seize upon living beasts1 and on that account constantly swarm about them1 as the ,raub-and ,laufkfer2 the others only subsist as larv by suction upon other beetles or snails externally1 but live1 as ,flies1 upon leaves and flowers1 as the ,lampyrid and ,cantharid4 ,fam4 #d4 ,neuropteroid ,beetles--,water-beetles4 ,like the following1 but all three parts of the body closely annexed1 and rudder-like fringes of hairs upon the feet--,parnid1 ,hydrophilid1 ,dyticid4 ,fam4 #e4 ,orthopteroid ,beetles--,prdatoria4 ,maxill very large and pointed1 antenn setiform1 wings hard and tolerably flat like the body1 tarsi mostly pentameral4--,raub-,lauf-and ,sandkfer4 ,fam4 #f4 ,hemipteroid ,beetles--,parasitica4 ,body pretty cylindrical1 head rounded with moderate sized maxill1 elytra narrow and soft1 tarsi penta-and heteromeral4 ,they hang as larv like ,mites to other beetles1 and suck them2 but after the metamorphosis they live upon leaves and flowers--,lampyrid and ,cantharid4 ,order #i4 ,ceratopteroid ,beetles--,rypophaga4 #cebi4 ,body quadripeltate and mostly short1 with hard elytra1 thorax large1 head small1 with short claviform antenn and blunt maxillary teeth2 feet mostly furnished with ungues1 tarsal joints varied4 ,their habitation is very varied1 being both free and concealed1 and they live for the greatest part on decaying excrementitious matters1 such as fungi1 dry rot1 and even animal ordure4 ,fam4 #g4 ,phytophagoid--,necrophaga4 ,body mostly rounded1 with hard and large elytra2 antenn claviform2 tarsi tri-tetra-and pentameral--,lycoperdin1 ,erotyli1 ,coccinellid1 ,byrrhid1 ,dermestid1 ,sylphid4 ,they correspond to the ,worms and ,tracheopterous insects4 ,fam4 #h4 ,zoophagoid--,mulmkfer4 ,body elongated and also nearly spherical1 mostly of a dark spotted colour1 with hard elytra1 thorax rounded1 head retractile1 palpi filiform1 tarsal joints heteromeral or unequal in number--,helopid1 ,diaperid1 ,tenebrionid1 and ,pimeliari4 ,they live usually in dark situations1 eating meal and dry-rot2 have an unpleasant smell4 ,they correspond to the ,crabs1 ,wood-lice1 and ,spiders1 as likewise to the ,dictyoptera4 ,fam4 #i4 ,perfect ,beetles--,erdkfer or ,lamellicornes4 ,mostly large1 convex and short bodied ,beetles with large thorax1 broad head1 lamellated antennal clubs1 spinose tibi and pentameral tarsi4 ,their habitation is in dung or under the earth1 where they live in the larval state frequently for years before they change2 some ,chafers eat also leaves of trees and flowers4 ,they are distinguished by their striking size and singular forms1 being mostly furnished with horns on the thorax or head4 ,i do veritably believe that they may be generally interpreted as being the highest organized beetles and members of their class1 although they are generally placed or arranged midway between the lower forms1 while the ,sand-and ,laufkfer are esteemed the most perfect4 ,tabular ,co-arrangement4 ,the ,dermatozoa now admit of being co-arranged in the following manner1 from which their three ,cardinal relations of ,proximity1 ,repetition1 and ,serial analogy or ,parallelism1 admit of being distinctly recognized4 ,,parallelism ,,of ,,the ,,lower ,,animals4 ,,ix ,,cl4 ,,ptilota4 ,a4 ,,protozoa4 ,,vii ,,cl4 ,,worms4 ,co4 ,i4 ,,tracheoptera4 ,i ,,cl4 ,,infusoria4 ,o4 #a4 ,weisswrmer4 ,o4 #a4 ,diptera4 ,f4 #a4 ,monades ,f4 #a4 ,saugwrmer ,f4 #a4 ,schmeissen #b4 ,rhizopoda #b4 ,tni #b4 ,dasseln #c4 ,rotifera4 #c4 ,ascarides4 #c4 ,glsen4 ,,ii ,,cl4 ,,polypi4 ,o4 #b4 ,rothwrmer4 ,o4 #b4 ,hymenoptera4 ,f4 #a4 ,hydr #d4 ,earth-worms ,f4 #a4 ,bees #b4 ,alcyonia #e4 ,nereides #b4 ,wasps #c4 ,actini4 #f4 ,serpul4 #c4 ,terebrantia4 ,,iii ,,cl4 ,,acaleph4 ,o4 #c4 ,sternwrmer4 ,o4 #c4 ,lepidoptera4 ,f4 #a4 ,physali #g4 ,holothuri ,f4 #a4 ,moths #b4 ,beroe #h4 ,echinid #b4 ,spinner #c4 ,acaleph4 #i4 ,asterid4 #c4 ,wanner4 ,b4 ,,conchozoa4 ,,viii ,,cl4 ,,crustacea4 ,co4 ,,ii4 ,,dictyoptera4 ,,iv ,,cl4 ,,mussels4 ,co4 #a4 ,,krebse4 ,o4 #d4 ,neuroptera4 ,o4 #a4 ,rhrenmuscheln4 ,o4 #a4 ,pfriemenkrebse4 ,f4 #a4 ,nagbolden4 ,f4 #a4 ,pholades ,f4 #a4 ,entomostraca ,a4 #a4 ,kieferluse #b4 ,tellinid #b4 ,branchiopoda #b4 ,termitid #c4 ,cardiacea4 #c4 ,phyllopoda4 #c4 ,phryganeid4 ,o4 #b4 ,spaltmuscheln4 ,o4 #b4 ,scheerenkrebse4 ,f4 #b4 ,raubbolden4 #d4 ,mytilace #d4 ,squill #d4 ,hemerobiid #e4 ,arcace #e4 ,macroura #e4 ,raphidiid #f4 ,ostrace4 #f4 ,brachyura #f4 ,libellulid4 ,v ,,cl4 ,,snails4 ,co4 ,,ii4 ,,asseln4 ,o4 #e4 ,orthoptera4 ,o4 #a4 ,androgyni4 ,o4 #c4 ,saugasseln4 ,f4 #a4 ,saltatoria4 ,f4 #a4 ,tritoni ,f4 #a4 ,lernoe ,a4 #a4 ,achetid #b4 ,patell #b4 ,arguli #b4 ,gryllid #c4 ,pulmonea4 #c4 ,pyncnogonides4 #c ,locustid4 ,o4 #b4 ,dioecii4 ,o4 #d4 ,nagasseln ,f4 #b4 ,cursoria4 #d4 ,capulid #d4 ,lmodipoda #d4 ,mantides #e4 ,turbinid #e4 ,amphipoda #e4 ,blattid #f4 ,buccinid4 #f4 ,isopoda4 #f4 ,forficulid4 ,,vi ,,cl4 ,,kracken4 ,co4 ,,iii4 ,,kobe4 ,o4 #f4 ,hemiptera4 ,o4 #a4 ,rumpfkracken4 ,o4 #a4 ,langkobe4 ,f4 #a4 ,leptoptera4 ,f4 #a4 ,salp ,f4 #a4 ,podur ,a4 #a4 ,aphidii #b4 ,ascidi #b4 ,juli #b4 ,cicad #c4 ,cirripedia4 #c4 ,scolopendr4 #c4 ,fulgorid4 ,o4 #b4 ,kopfkracken4 ,o4 #b4 ,kurzkobe4 ,f4 #b4 ,pachyptera4 #d4 ,brachiopoda #d4 ,acarid #d4 ,water-bugs #e4 ,pteropoda #e4 ,scorpions #e4 ,narrow bugs #f4 ,cephalopoda4 #f4 ,spiders4 #f4 ,broad bugs4 ,c4 ,,ancyliozoa4 ,,ix4 ,,cl4 ,,ptilota4 ,co4 ,,iii4 ,,ceratoptera4 ,,vii ,,cl4 ,,worms ,co4 ,i4 ,,tracheoptera ,o4 #a4 ,phytophaga ,,viii ,,cl4 ,,crustacea ,,ii4 ,,dictyoptera #b4 ,zoophaga ,,ix ,,cl4 ,,ptilota or ,,flies4 ,,iii4 ,,ceratoptera4 #c4 ,moderkfer4 ,co4 ,,iii4 ,,ceratoptera4 ,o4 #c4 ,rypophaga4 ,o4 #a4 ,phytophaga4 ,f4 #g4 ,necrophaga4 ,f4 #g4 ,erdkfer4 ,f4 #a4 ,rhyncophora ,a4 #a4 ,fungivora4 ,a4 #a4 ,phyllophaga4 ,a4 #a4 ,langrssler ,scaphidiid a4 ,melolonthid #b4 ,kurzrssler ,erotyli b4 ,anoplognathid #c4 ,breitrssler4 ,encid4 c4 ,rutelid4 ,f4 #b4 ,blattkfer4 ,a4 #b4 ,speckfresser4 #b4 ,anthobii4 ,a4 #a4 ,galerucid #a4 ,dermestid a4 ,lepitrichid #b4 ,chrysomelid #b4 ,nitidulid b4 ,dichelid #c4 ,criocerid4 #c4 ,silphid4 c4 ,glaphyrid4 ,f4 #c4 ,holzkfer4 ,a4 #a4 ,dung-feeders4 #c4 ,melitophaga4 #g4 ,bostrychid #a4 ,byrrhid a4 ,cetoni #h4 ,elaterid #b4 ,sphridiid b4 ,trichii #i4 ,cerambycid4 #c4 ,histerid4 c4 ,goliathi4 ,o4 #b4 ,zoophaga4 ,f4 #d4 ,water-beetles4 ,f4 #h4 ,mulmkfer4 ,a4 #b4 ,coprophaga4 ,a4 #a4 ,sumpkfer4 ,a4 #a4 ,trachelid4 a4 ,aphodii a4 ,heterocerid a4 ,lagri b4 ,parnid b4 ,pyrochro c4 ,hydrophilid4 c4 ,mordell4 ,a4 #b4 ,flusskfer4 ,serropalpid4 b4 ,coprid4 d4 ,girinid d4 ,mycterid e4 ,haliplid e4 ,o,edemer f4 ,dytiscid4 f4 ,melandry4 ,f4 #e4 ,mordkfer4 ,a4 #b4 ,stenelytra4 ,arenicol4 ,a4 #a4 ,raubkfer a4 ,pselaphid a4 ,cistelid a4 glali4 b4 ,scydmnid b4 ,helopid c4 ,staphylinid4 c4 ,cnodalid4 ,a4 #b4 ,laufkfer4 ,taxicornes4 b4 ,trogid4 d4 ,carabid d4 ,niliond e4 ,brachinid e4 ,cossyhid f4 ,cicindelid4 f4 ,diaperid4 ,f4 #f4 ,schmarotzkfer4 ,a4 #c4 ,tenebrionid4 ,geotrupid4 ,a4 #a4 ,leuchtkfer4 a4 ,lampyrid a4 ,tenebriones a4 ,geotrupes4 b ,melyrid b4 ,toxicid c4 ,clerid4 c4 ,opatrid4 ,a4 #b4 ,ziehkfer4 ,melanosomata4 b4 ,lethri4 d4 ,notoxid d4 ,blapsid e4 ,horiid e4 ,pimeladiid f4 ,cantharides4 f4 ,sepidi4 ,o4 #c4 ,moderkfer4 ,f4 #i4 ,erdkfer4 ,a4 #c4 ,lohfresser4 ,f4 #g4 ,aaskfer ,a4 #a4 ,phyllophaga a4 ,lucanid #h4 ,mulmkfer #b4 ,coprophaga b4 ,passalid #i4 ,erdkfer4 #c4 ,lohfresser4 c4 ,oryctid4 ,second ,province4 --,,fourth ,,circle--,,sarcozoa4 ,pisces1 ,reptilia1 ,aves and ,thricozoa4 #cecj4 ,these animals necessarily pass through all #d circles1 and each class therefore divides into #d orders1 or into #e1 if the senses be allowed to hold good as constituting a distinct order in themselves4 ,two points of departure for classification here admit of being thought of1 either wholly from below1 or first of all from the commencement of the present circle4 ,in order to be convinced of this1 we need only make a slight attempt4 ,the animal series is as follows3 ,a4 ,,splanchnozoa4 ,circle ,i4 ,intestinal animals ,protozoa4 ,class #a4 ,gastric animals ,infusoria4 #b4 ,intestinal ,polypi4 #c4 ,absorbent ,acaleph4 ,circle ,,ii4 ,vascular animals ,conchozoa4 #d4 ,venous animals ,mussels4 #e4 ,arteriose ,snails4 #f4 ,cardiac ,kracken4 ,circle ,,iii4 ,respiratory animals ,ancyliozoa4 #g4 ,reticular animals ,worms4 #h4 ,branchial ,crabs4 #i4 ,tracheal ,flies4 ,b4 ,,somatozoa4 ,circle ,,iv4 ,sarcozoa4 #aj4 ,osseous animals ,fishes4 #aa4 ,muscular ,reptiles4 #ab4 ,nervose ,birds4 ,circle ,v4 ,aistheseozoa4 #ac4 ,sense-animals ,thricozoa4 #ceca4 ,now it is here conceivable1 either that the families of ,fishes1 ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,thricozoa1 pass parallel to all the preceding classes from the ,infusoria upwards1 or that they first commence with the class of ,fishes4 ,in regard to this question the ,birds and ,thricozoa give the most clear and decisive answer4 ,if we adopt the last proposition1 then the ,birds must follow each other thus3 #a4 ,fish-like ,birds ,palmipedes4 #b4 ,reptilian ,grall4 #c4 ,typical ,gallin4 #d4 ,thricozooid ,birds ,struthionid4 ,according to this1 the ,aquatic ,birds would occupy the lowest rank1 just as they have actually done hitherto in all other systems4 ,the three other families too do not admit of any other position4 ,but what is to be done meanwhile with the large majority of other ,birds8 ,they would extend or pass beyond the ,thricozoa1 and have thus no anatomical system whatever for their basis4 ,besides1 ,humming-birds1 ,sparrows and ,linnets would in this way rank higher than the ,gallinaceous and ,struthious ,birds1 which some indeed believe to be the case1 but without any proof1 so that it is scarcely necessary to abide by such an opinion4 ,the ,thricozoa must stand thus3 #a4 ,icthyoid ,cetacea4 #b4 ,herpetoid ,pachydermata4 #c4 ,ornithoid ,ruminantia4 #d4 ,typical ,all the remaining ,thricozoa4 ,in the systems now in vogue the ,thricozoa certainly follow in this manner1 and no scruple whatever is made of placing the ,mice1 ,ant-eaters1 ,shrews1 and ,bats above ,elephants1 ,horses1 and ,deer4 ,yet apart from all this1 the former must pass beyond the ,thricozoa1 and would thus likewise have no other organ as a foundation than perhaps the organs of sense1 of which there are but five1 while the families of ,thricozoa not yet provided for are much more numerous1 namely1 besides those named1 the ,seals1 ,dogs1 ,bears1 and ,apes4 ,the above methods of arrangement must be consequently cast aside without limitation or reserve1 although they may have held good for hundreds of years4 ,but what does or will not hold good in an age that is devoid of principles8 ,it is thus evident that the smaller ,birds stand below the ,aquatics1 just as the smaller ,thricozoa do beneath the ,whales1 quite apart from organic structure1 which in every respect is imperfect4 ,they must correspond1 consequently1 to the ,asarcous animals1 wherewith also their great number agrees4 ,if this holds good of the two highest classes1 so also must it hold good of the two lower1 namely1 ,fishes and ,reptiles1 and we shall thus have3 ,i4 ,protozooid ,fishes1 ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,thricozoa4 ,,ii4 ,conchozooid ,fishes1 c4 ,,iii4 ,ancyliozooid c4 ,,iv4 ,icthyoid c4 ,v4 ,herpetoid c4 ,,vi4 ,thricozooid c4 ,,vii4 ,ornithoid c4 #cecb4 ,but this parallelism depends essentially upon the organs1 and they are called1 in the language of ,physio-philosophy1 more correctly3 ,i4 ,intestinal ,fishes1 ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,thricozoa4 ,,ii4 ,vascular ,fishes1 c4 ,,iii4 ,pulmonary c4 ,,iv4 ,osseous c4 ,v4 ,muscular c4 ,,vi4 ,nervose c4 ,,vii4 ,sensorial c4 ,but as these names are unused1 and give or convey only the anatomical idea1 but no external image1 the first appellations are to be preferred4 ,tenth ,class4 ,osteozoa1 ,glossozoa--,pisces4 #cecc4 ,no one of the upper classes is in such an extensive state of confusion as that of ,fishes4 ,nor does this result simply from the great deviations in their structure from the normal type1 these being rather useful than otherwise for the purposes of classification2 but mainly from the utter want of any principle which might serve systematists as a guide4 ,thus at one time we find them having recourse to the nature of the osseous tissue1 at another to the fins1 now to the teeth or to the scales1 ay1 even to the fin-rays1 and all this because the characteristic or typical organ has never been sought after1 nor the presence of such an organ as indispensable been so much as known4 #cecd4 ,the characteristic organ of ,fishes is the ,osseous system1 which is consequently the principle also of their division4 ,the physical nature1 form1 position1 and number of the osseous parts must therefore be principally considered1 and hence1 above all1 the substance or texture of the bones2 the limbs also1 and the maxill with their teeth1 as well as the teeth upon the palate1 upon the tongue and the branchial arches4 ,with regard to the component substance or texture of the bones we encounter a great difficulty4 ,the ,cartilaginous ,fishes appear to belong to each other1 and are also usually arranged together4 ,yet amongst them we find those species1 such as the ,lampreys1 which obviously occupy the lowest grade of all ,fishes1 while the ,sharks and ,rays remind us of the ,reptilia and ,thricozoa1 as well by their external structure as the development of their sexual parts1 since they possess perfect testes1 and ovaria separate or distinct from the oviducts1 while they no longer deposit roe1 but large ova inclosed in leathery shells1 like the higher ,reptilia4 ,now1 if we separate these ,fishes from the ,lampreys1 with whom in the scaleless tegument1 the branchial foramina1 and even the external form they have many points of resemblance1 nothing else remains to be done than assign them the uppermost place1 and so parallelize them with the ,thricozoa4 ,but one is next constrained to unite into one family the ,pikes and ,herrings1 which perhaps admits of being done4 ,there belong namely to the upper ,fishes without doubt the ,abdominales1 which are divisible into five families3 the ,carps1 ,pikes1 ,shads1 ,salmons1 and ,herrings4 ,now1 if the ,sheat-fishes be placed inferiorly on account of their scaleless body and amorphous maxill1 four families will still be left1 which should correspond to the ,fishes1 ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,thricozoa1 so that no place is left remaining for the ,sharks4 ,now1 however1 the ,salmons correspond decidedly to the ,reptilia2 and the ,flying ,fishes1 which are ranged below the ,pikes1 probably to the ,birds4 ,if we unite them with the ,herrings1 then the ,sharks may occupy the place of the ,thricozoa4 ,this being preassumed1 we can now attempt the classification4 ,the substance or texture of the bones is of such importance1 that notwithstanding the separation of the ,sharks and their congeners1 the other ,cartilaginous ,fishes must be left along with them1 and range upon the lowest stage1 so that they thus correspond to the ,intestinal animals4 ,the next great distinction in the osseous system is the regular and irregular form which it imparts to the body1 so that the ,regular-shaped can be separated in a tolerably tranchant manner from the ,irregular ,fishes4 ,the regular form of a ,fish is obviously the ellipse1 as we find to be the case in our fresh-water ,fishes1 namely1 the ,perches1 ,salmons and ,carps4 ,they are collectively covered with large scales1 which is therefore also a sign of their regularity4 ,the ,irregular ,fishes are cylindrical1 fusi-clavi-spheri-and tubuliform1 usually destitute of scales or covered with plates1 scutes1 and spines4 ,thus1 since the ,cartilaginous ,fishes are collectively irregular in form1 the ,irregular ,osseous ,fishes must be allowed to follow them4 ,the greatest variety of the osseous system is shown in the limbs1 especially the posterior pair1 which in the other classes also are generally imperfect and make their appearance the last4 ,in ,fishes they are not divided into digits1 but only into rays1 which probably correspond only to the digital ungues or to feathers4 ,an animal which has fin-rays is assuredly a ,fish1 for fin-rays do not occur in any ,reptile4 ,the posterior fins change even their situation4 ,those ,fishes in whom they are placed near to the anus1 are obviously the more perfect1 as the ,abdominales4 ,in others they advance to the rear of the thoracic fins1 and are even attached to what has been called the girdle or humerus--,thoracici4 ,in others they even get in front of the thoracic fins on the throat--,jugulares4 ,lastly1 they are actually wanting--,apodales4 ,in the ,lampreys there are neither thoracic nor ventral fins4 ,the skeleton of ,fishes is not simply divided to a greater extent than in other animals1 but has actually a greater number of bones1 such as the rays in the perpendicular fins1 which are wanting in all animals1 even in the ,reptilia4 ,an animal with dorsal rays must surely be placed among the ,fishes1 and consequently the ,lepidosiren also4 ,the misshapen ,fishes will therefore occupy the lower stages1 the regular the upper1 not directly by reason of their form alone2 but because the other organs are also more imperfectly developed1 the bones being cartilaginous1 the tegument asquamous1 mucous1 or covered with spines1 scutes1 and plates2 the fins wanting or abortive1 or displaced from their proper situation2 the head disproportionate in size to the body1 the mouth wide or narrow1 the eyes placed superiorly or upon the forehead4 ,a lower character is afforded also by very long dorsal fins1 such namely as extend from the head to the tail4 ,in the ,abdominales1 ,sturgeons1 ,sharks1 and ,rays1 the perpendicular fins are small2 in the ,thoracici1 ,jugulares1 and ,apodes they are1 on the contrary1 mostly very long4 ,moreover1 a lower character is a very long coccygeal or caudal fin1 which denotes that the anus lies far forwards1 and therefore that the tail has a great preponderance over the trunk4 ,in the ,abdominales and the ,sharks the tail is short2 in the ,rays thin and terminated abruptly1 as in ,reptiles and ,thricozoa4 ,thus the higher the animals ascend the more does the tail diminish in length4 ,regard being had to all these relations1 the ,irregular ,fishes must be viewed as those which correspond to the lower classes of animals1 and the ,cartilaginous ,fishes will indeed make the commencement2 to these are annexed the ,irregular ,osseous ,fishes1 and nearest to them indeed those with arrested ventral fins1 whether wanting or placed on the throat2 then come the ,regular ,fishes1 and of these first of all the ,thoracici1 and next the ,abdominales4 ,in this manner we obtain four divisions4 ,a4 ,body irregular4 ,i4 ,pisces ,cartilaginei4 ,,ii4 ,stummelflosser--,apodales and ,jugulares4 ,b4 ,body regular4 ,,iii4 ,thoracici--,tunnies1 ,breams1 and ,perch4 ,,iv4 ,abdominales--,carps1 ,pikes1 ,salmons and ,herrings1 ,sharks4 ,now1 these divisions1 having been discovered by a simple analysis or testing of facts1 are to be arranged according to philosophical principles1 and further subdivided1 whereby the ground and legality of their existence will be recognized4 ,a4 ,,irregular ,,fishes4 #cece4 ,body deviating from the elliptical form1 devoid of scales1 or covered with spines1 scutes1 and plates2 head and tail disproportionate2 fins mostly arrested4 ,they correspond to the unarticulate ,proto-and ,conchozoa2 their irregular-shaped mucous or mailed body agreeing perfectly with these animals4 ,order #a4 ,intestinal1 ,protozooid ,fishes4 #cecf4 ,mouth round and without maxill1 or disproportionately narrow and wide4 ,there can be no doubt that the ,lampreys are the lowest ,fishes1 since they remind us in every respect of the ,worms by their naked1 mucous1 and lineiform body1 with indistinct head1 almost devoid of bones and true teeth1 having a circular mouth1 obliterated nostrils1 puny eyes1 and finally branchial cysts1 which occupy a higher rank only from their opening into the oesophagus4 ,they pass therefore parallel to the ,infusoria1 or rather to the commencements of the second animal series1 namely1 the ,etozoa ,ancyliozoa4 ,now1 although much dispute prevails concerning the division of ,fishes which should be associated with the ,lampreys1 yet it appears to me that no others but the narrow-mouthed ,fistularid and ,pipe-fishes can follow1 since they resemble them not only in their cartilaginous bones1 but in the structure also of their branchi4 ,they will thus truly occupy the place of the second family4 ,whether the narrow-mouthed ,globe-fishes are likewise to be united with them or to be set up as a third family1 may seem to be matter of doubt4 ,i adopt the first course1 and arrange at present the wide-mouthed or ,frog-fishes and ,shads in the third family4 ,fam4 #a4 ,infusorial ,fishes1 ,lampreys4 ,body vermiform1 naked1 and slimy1 without membral fins4 ,ex4 ,branchiostoma or ,amphioxys1 ,myxine1 ,petromyzon4 ,in these ,fishes the mouth is quite in front and round1 being without maxill and adapted for the purposes of suction2 only one nostril1 but mostly several branchial foramina1 which lead to cysts provided with reticular branchi1 but without opercula4 ,the ,branchiostomata are the smallest ,fishes1 not much above #a in length1 almost devoid of head1 yet with traces of eyes and a nostril4 ,the ,myxin crawl even into the rectum of other ,fishes1 and live therein like ,entozoa4 ,the river or lesser ,lampreys stick in the mud2 the ,lampreys cling fast by suction to stones1 and do not draw the water in through the mouth1 but through the branchial foramina themselves1 like the lower animals4 ,fam4 #b4 ,polypary ,fishes1 ,narrow-mouthed4 ,body cartilaginous1 mouth having maxill1 but unusually narrow1 only one branchial foramen with immoveable operculum--,fistularid1 ,pipe-fishes and ,globe-fishes4 ,in this family we still meet with species entirely naked1 but covered also with plates1 scutes1 nails1 and spines4 ,the corymbiform or tufted branchi of the ,syngnathi or the ,lophobranchii still remind us strongly of the cystiform reticular branchi of the first family4 ,fam4 #c4 ,acalephoid ,fishes1 ,wide-mouthed4 ,body naked or covered with plates2 mouth in front and mostly unusually wide4 ,i here arrange in doubt the ,frog-fishes and the ,shads1 although the last are ,abdominales4 ,but they deviate from the ,carps and ,pikes by their asymmetrical1 naked or mailed body1 the large transverse mouth1 the eyes staring upwards1 and the arrested branchial opercula4 ,order #b4 ,vascular1 ,conchozooid ,fishes--,stummelflosser4 #cecg4 ,asymmetrical ,osseous ,fishes1 ,apodales1 and ,jugulares4 ,among the true ,osseous ,fishes the ,eels must undoubtedly range the lowest on account of their vermiform and asquamous body1 and the want of ventral fins4 ,to them are allied the ,jugulares1 namely1 the ,blennii and ,gadid1 as well as the ,plaice2 lastly1 the asymmetrical ,thoracici without scales1 being quite naked or covered with scutes1 as the ,gobii and ,trigl4 ,fam4 #d4 ,mussel-,fishes1 ,eels4 ,body naked and serpentiform1 without ventral fins4 ,the ,eels1 from their naked1 cylindrical or riband-shaped body1 the long dorsal and coccygeal fin1 the small branchial foramina occasionally confluent beneath the neck1 and by their dwelling in the mud1 rank among the imperfect ,fishes4 ,the one set have soft1 the other hard1 fin-rays1 and on that account they have not simply been separated1 but even far removed from each other4 ,this difference alone is not so great as to justify their being arranged1 when the structure of the body agrees in other respects1 into distinct orders4 ,the influence of the dorsal spines upon the life and natatory or waving movement of ,fishes is so slight1 and its value generally1 in comparison with other parts1 to be taken so little into account1 that a natural arrangement can never result from these appendages1 which do not deserve to be called organs1 and viewed as principal characters4 ,fam4 #e4 ,snail-,fishes1 ,haddocks4 ,jugulares without distinct scales and spines on the branchial operculum1 and hard fin-rays4 ,these ,fishes are allied to the ,eels by the aborted ventral fins1 the tolerably cylindrical1 naked1 or small-scaled body and soft dorsal fins4 ,the viviparous ,blennius bears with us its name of ,aalmutter not in vain1 for it resembles a shortened1 slimy ,eel4 ,the ,gadid are indeed less slimy and have in part scales1 but1 by reason of their lengthened form and their fins1 cannot be removed far from the ,eels2 the same holds good of the ,plaice4 ,fam4 #f4 ,kracken-,fishes1 ,grundeln4 ,asymmetrical ,jugulares and ,thoracici1 with naked and mailed body1 in addition to hard fin-rays4 ,here belong the ,gobiid and ,triglid1 the first whereof are usually naked1 the second mailed1 with roughnesses upon the head and spines on the opercula2 in all the eyes placed high up4 ,b4 ,,regular ,,fishes4 #cech4 ,body elliptical1 mostly covered with scales1 ,thoracici and ,abdominales2 eyes placed sideways4 ,order #c4 ,pulmonary1 ,ancyliozooid ,fishes4 #ceci4 ,regular ,thoracici4 ,the position of the abdominal fins immediately behind the thoracic is obviously a step further in the perfection of structure1 and these ,fishes must be therefore placed above the preceding kinds1 in whom1 apart from the asymmetrical form of body1 the position of the fins is mostly upon the neck or advanced very close to it4 ,the anus is still situated far forwards1 and the tail is therefore mostly larger than the trunk4 ,the dorsal fins are still very predominant4 ,among them we still meet with naked or microlepidal species1 which in their abnormal form also remind us of the irregular ,fishes1 as the ,tunnies and ,haberdines or ,stock-fish4 ,they are therefore to be regarded as the lowest4 ,as is the case here in ,fishes1 so also in the ,ancyliozoa the truly regular or bilateral body originates in them for the first time1 or at least constitutes a persistent character4 ,fam4 #g4 ,worm-,fishes1 ,tunnies4 ,tolerably naked or microlepidal1 cylindriform or very much compressed1 with small head and mouth2 the teeth very feeble1 only like a brush2 the branchial opercula without spines4 ,here belong the proper ,tunnies and ,haberdines3 all of them marine ,fishes4 ,fam4 #h4 ,crustacean ,fishes1 ,brassen4 ,body perfectly regular1 covered with great scales2 mouth small with strong teeth2 branchial opercula unarmed4 ,here belong the ,labrid or ,lipped ,fishes1 ,seabream and ,osphromanus4 ,fam4 #i4 ,ptilotoid ,fishes1 ,perch4 ,body quite regular with large scales1 mouth of moderate size with scythe-shaped teeth1 branchial opercula armed4 ,here belong the ,scianoid and ,percoid4 ,dwell in the sea and rivers4 ,order #d4 ,sarcose ,fishes4 #cedj4 ,abdominales1 dorsal fins small1 with soft ramified rays1 mostly placed far behind4 ,plainly regular ,fishes with large scales4 ,the head is regular1 with the eyes upon its sides2 the set of teeth varied2 the trunk large1 tail small1 as are also the dorsal fins1 which proceed more and more backwards to the sacrum or even the tail1 a fact indicating their gradual disappearance1 and therefore a sign also of greater perfection4 ,added to this1 they are generally distributed over the whole earth in rivers and seas4 ,finally1 it is they that yield the most nutriment to ,man1 which is also a constant sign of greater perfection2 as is evidenced in the vegetable kingdom by the ,fruit-trees or plants2 in the animal kingdom by the ,oysters1 ,snails1 ,sepi1 ,holothuri1 ,geese1 ,fowls1 ,cattle1 c4 ,fam4 #aj4 ,typical ,fishes1 ,carps4 ,body of the ,carps covered with large scales1 mostly but one dorsal fin placed pretty far back1 mouth nearly edentate1 supra-maxillary bones arrested1 large teeth on the posterior branchial arches1 or what have been called pharyngeal bones4 ,they are for the greatest part fresh-water ,fishes1 and those which are most used as articles of food4 ,fam4 #aa4 ,reptilian ,fishes1 ,salmons4 ,mouth with strong teeth in the superior and intermaxillary bone2 behind the radial dorsal fin there is still a fatty fin and no large scales4 ,here belongs the ,lizard-like fish 7,saurus71 so called on account of its resemblance to the ,lizards4 ,live in sea and fresh-water4 ,fam4 #ab4 ,ornithic ,fishes1 ,herrings and ,pikes4 ,the ,herrings have teeth in the superior and intermaxillary bone2 only one dorsal fin2 mostly large scales4 ,body of the ,pike slightly scaled1 furnished mostly with a small dorsal fin situated very far back1 mouth full of teeth1 but none of these in the rudimental intermaxillary bone4 ,dwellers in the sea and in fresh water4 ,among the ,pikes is placed the ,exocoetus or ,flying fish4 ,order #e4 ,sensorial ,fishes4 #ceda4 ,bones cartilaginous1 mouth opening transversely under the snout4 ,fam4 #ac4 ,thricozooid ,fishes1 ,sharks4 ,abdominales2 bones cartilaginous1 mouth opening transversely under the projecting snout2 mostly several pairs of separate branchial apertures4 ,here belong the ,chimr1 ,sturgeons1 ,sharks1 and ,rays4 ,the last ought to be held as higher in rank1 partly on account of their slender tail1 partly because the huge ,rays1 which are called ,cephalopterus1 have the anterior thoracic rays free and so moveable that they can seize their prey with them as with hands4 ,all lay1 with the exception of the ,sturgeons1 large and leathery ova1 and in this approximate pretty closely to the ,reptilia4 ,it has been already remarked1 that the large ,cartilaginei would not pass correctly into the others1 and obviously seem to claim the highest post4 ,at some later period the principle may probably be discovered whereupon their union with the higher ,osseous fishes depends4 ,both are at all events ,abdominales4 ,eleventh ,class4 ,myozoa1 ,rhinozoa--,reptilia4 #cedb4 ,body entirely naked or covered with scales1 with distinctly separate and red-coloured muscles2 two nostrils permeable throughout4 ,as the ,muscular system is here the characteristic organ1 it must be regarded principally in the division of the present class2 the limbs also exhibit nowhere so great a variety as in this class1 since they are in some cases wanting1 while in others two only1 in some four1 are present4 ,in place of fin-rays true toes have1 however1 made their appearance1 these again indicating the greatest variety in the number of the joints2 but meanwhile there are in no instance more than five toes4 ,the osseous system is constructed after the pattern of that of the ,thricozoa1 and is never furnished with dorsal rays as in ,fishes4 ,the dental formula begins also to be regular4 ,the teeth stand usually in the superior intermaxillary bone1 and are sometimes pointed1 at others obtuse2 in the ,ichthyosauri and ,crocodiles they are even inserted by gomphosis1 as in the ,thricozoa4 ,in many ,serpents additional kinds of teeth occur1 namely1 the curved poison-teeth or fangs1 which have an involuted groove traversing their concavity4 ,in most ,reptiles teeth also occur upon the palatal1 but there are no longer any upon the lingual bone4 ,in the ,chelonia or ,tortoises the teeth are entirely wanting1 and they are also scarcely indicated in the ,asquamous ,salamanders and ,frogs4 ,the os quadratum is found as in ,birds2 in ,serpents1 however1 the mastoid bone has been freed1 and hence the capability possessed by these creatures of expanding the mouth4 ,viewed in accordance with the perfection of the limbs1 the ,salamanders and ,frogs ought to be regarded as the highest in rank2 but their scaleless tegument1 their development out of spawn in the water1 as well as branchi brings them near to the ,fishes4 ,in other respects their position is determined by the dental formula1 which1 as ,i have already shown1 belongs to the limbs and thus to the motor system4 ,the position of the nostrils is now1 throughout the class1 in front of and upon the snout1 being no longer situated almost on the forehead or vertex1 as in ,fishes4 ,their relation to the scales is likewise of importance for the purposes of division4 ,the naked ,salamanders and ,frogs will occupy the lowest place4 ,by their form1 absence of teeth1 and mode of life1 the ,chelonia are allied to them4 ,then follow the ,serpents and ,lizards with a perfect set of teeth4 ,the ,serpents are distinguished from the ,lizards by their want of feet and the long bifid tongue inclosed within a sheath4 ,among the ,lizards apodal species occur1 as the ,blind-worms2 but they have under the skin some pedal bones1 and are1 in addition to this1 sufficiently distinguished from the ,serpents by the short and sheathless tongue4 ,among the ,lizards with perfect feet there are some with small visual organs1 like as in the ,serpents2 others with unusually large eyes1 e4 g4 the ,chameleon1 ,gecko1 ,ichthyosauri1 and ,crocodiles4 ,all other ,lizards1 the ,serpents1 ,chelonia1 ,salamanders and ,frogs1 have small eyes and consequently follow each other4 ,the ,crocodile has teeth articulated by gomphosis1 and consequently resembles the ,thricozoa4 ,i divide the present class therefore into the following groups4 ,a4 ,,dermal ,,reptiles--,,small-,,eyed4 ,order #a4 ,protozooid ,reptilia-,krten4 #cedc4 ,body slimy and scaleless1 or maxill devoid of teeth4 ,fam4 #a4 ,infusorial ,reptiles1 ,petromyzoid--,caudate ,batrachia1 ,salamanders4 ,body naked and furnished with a tail4 ,these cylindrical animals bear the greatest resemblance to the ,lampreys1 or are ,petromyzoid1 being provided with setaceous and scarcely discernible teeth1 frequently only one pair of feet2 they are developed also out of spawn in the water1 and many retain the branchi during the whole of life4 ,fam4 #b4 ,polypary ,reptilia1 ,kugelfischartige--,stutzkrten1 ,frogs4 ,body thick and naked and without a tail1 but with four feet4 ,the ,frogs and ,toads proper are likewise developed out of spawn1 but soon lose their branchi4 ,in their form and even the structure of their mouth they are ,kugelfischartige1 i4 e4 remind us strikingly of the ,globe-fishes1 among the ,engmulern or ,plectognathi4 ,fam4 #c4 ,acalephan ,reptilia1 ,welsartige--,chelonia4 ,body thick and coated with scales1 maxill quite edentulous4 ,the ,chelonia appear certainly to occupy a pretty high rank2 they lay large ova covered with a calcareous shell1 but frequently live or dwell in the water1 and have1 in their mode of living as well as form1 a striking resemblance to the naked ,batrachia4 ,through their want of teeth they range among all the succeeding families4 ,order #b4 ,conchozooid ,reptilia--,ophidia4 #cedd4 ,body cylindriform and scaly1 teeth acuminate1 tongue longitudinally bifid and inclosed within a sheath2 no feet and eyelids4 ,the ,serpents stand without doubt below the ,lizards2 yet it is difficult to arrange them properly into families4 ,the poison-teeth appear to indicate a lower character1 because the cranium is thereby removed or recedes from the usual type of structure1 while the superior maxilla becomes very much arrested4 ,but as there are moveable and immoveable poison-teeth1 and the latter gradually pass over into the ordinary kinds of teeth1 while externally also1 no character has been found to distinguish the venomous from the non-venomous ,serpents1 it is best at present to discontinue this separation4 ,then the ,serpents can be brought according to the structure of their scales into #c families4 ,they are either of equal and small size1 around the whole body2 or there are plates upon the belly and tail2 or finally1 the plates under the latter are divided into two tablets4 ,fam4 #d4 ,mussel-,reptiles1 ,eel-like--,schuppenschlangen4 ,all the scales around the body small and of equal size2 upon the belly only being somewhat larger4 ,here belong the venomous ,hydrid or ,sea-snakes1 and huge ,boas or ,pythons4 ,if once the venomous ,serpents could be distinguished as a distinct family1 they will indeed be placed higher1 and the non-venomous be separated from them4 ,then probably the ,boas may be raised1 together with their allies1 as the highest family4 ,fam4 #e4 ,snail-,reptiles1 ,haddock-like--,tafelschlangen4 ,plates under the belly1 those beneath the tail being halved or divided into two4 ,here belong our ,colubri1 but also the venomous ,adders4 ,fam4 #f4 ,kracken-,reptilia1 ,grundelartige--,schienenschlangen4 ,entire plates upon belly and tail1 as in the ,rattle-snakes4 ,order #c4 ,ancyliozooid ,reptilia--,lizards4 #cede4 ,scales1 the usual kind of teeth and tongue2 inferior maxill anchylosed in front1 mastoid bone not freed1 mostly feet and eyelids4 ,they divide likewise into three families4 ,fam4 #g4 ,worm-,reptiles1 ,tunny-like--,schleichen4 ,body round and serpentiform1 with small scales1 feet rudimental1 or even wanting4 ,here belong the ,ccili1 ,blind-worms1 and ,scinci4 ,i have united these animals1 which elsewhere have stood dispersed among the ,serpents and ,lizards as well as the ,salamanders1 and placed them as a distinct family between the two former4 ,by reason of their rudimental feet they keep simply upon the earth and bore themselves passages therein4 ,their motion is serpent-like1 because they lie upon the belly and cannot assist themselves with the feet4 ,fam4 #h4 ,crustacean ,reptiles1 ,bream-like--,schuppenechsen4 ,four perfect feet1 body covered all round with small granular scales1 tongue short and hardly slit4 ,here belong the ,flying ,lizards1 the ,iguan and ,basilisks4 ,they usually climb about on trees and seek for beetles and berries4 ,fam4 #i4 ,ptilotoid ,reptilia1 ,perch-like--,schienenechsen4 ,four perfect feet1 but plates upon the belly and tail1 tongue thin and bifid4 ,here belong the common ,lizards and the ,sauvegards or ,monitors4 ,their body is usually depressed4 ,they cannot climb1 but run about briskly upon the ground and eat beetles1 and even the higher animals4 ,many are a fathom in length4 ,b4 ,,sarcose ,,reptilia--,,large-,,eyed4 #cedf4 ,these animals have tubercles1 spines and plates1 with four perfect feet1 as in the higher ,lizards1 but the toes are of pretty equal length2 there are no palatal teeth1 and the tongue is not fissured4 ,they are of varied size1 lead a sluggish and mostly nocturnal mode of life1 and have a slow pace1 occurring too only in warm climates4 ,order #d4 ,sarcose ,reptiles4 #cedg4 ,feet abnormal1 being fin-and wing-shaped1 adapted for climbing or clinging4 ,they correspond quite closely to the three next animal classes4 ,fam4 #aj4 ,ichthyoid ,reptilia1 ,herring-like--,ichthyosauri4 ,all four feet converted into fins4 ,here belong clearly the monstrous extinct animals1 which formerly lived in the sea4 ,they had gomphotic teeth almost like the ,crocodile4--,ichthyosaurus1 ,plesiosaurus4 ,fam4 #aa4 ,typical ,reptiles1 ,salmon-like--,geckos4 ,climbing feet1 or retractile claws as in the ,cats1 and perpendicular lamin or plates under the soles1 by means of which they cling to walls4 ,they usually dwell in houses and catch beetles--,chamleo1 ,gecko4 ,fam4 #ab4 ,ornithoid ,reptilia1 ,pike-like--,dragons4 ,body short and bird-like1 with very long neck and a long digit1 unto which an alary membrane has probably been attached4 ,here belong plainly the fossilized species of a single genus known by the name of ,pterodactylus4 ,they have been hitherto discovered in different parts of ,europe1 and probably flew about1 like the ,bats1 by night4 ,order #e4 ,sensorial ,reptiles4 #cedh4 ,teeth wedged into the jaws1 toes regular4 ,fam4 #ac4 ,thricozooid ,reptilia1 ,shark-like--,crocodiles4 ,feet and toes of equal length1 with swimming webs between them4 ,the ,crocodiles must be without doubt regarded as the most perfect ,reptilia1 on account of their notched teeth and regular feet4 ,in many respects they remind us1 like the ,sharks do among ,fishes1 of the ,thricozoa4 ,twelfth ,class4 ,neurozoa1 ,otozoa--,aves4 #cedi4 ,in these animals it is again shown in a striking manner1 that the characteristic organ is the principle of classification4 ,without recourse being had to the varied structure of the head1 especially of the beak1 the division of ,birds would not be possible1 although the feet frequently yield good characters4 #ceej4 ,the development of the young makes an essential distinction upon a large scale1 since one great body of ,birds must be fed as nestlings1 whilst the other1 when scarcely emerged from the egg1 runs about and seeks its own nourishment4 ,although in the lower animals the young do not require the assistance of the parents1 and1 on the other hand1 those of the ,thricozoa are suckled for a longer time by the mother2 yet still those ,birds which can1 upon issuing from the egg1 at once nourish themselves1 such as the ,fowls1 ,geese1 c41 are probably the most perfect1 for they pass parallel to the upper classes of animals1 and for the ,ostrich to be a ,thricozoon1 there is indeed as little wanting as to the ,crocodile4 #ceea4 ,there is no doubt whatever that the ,natatores in every respect1 both in the structure of the feet and head as also in their mode of living and feeding1 repeat the ,fishes4 ,this opinion the empirical zoologists have already adopted from the ,physio-philosophy4 ,the same may be said of the ,grall or ,wading ,birds in reference to the ,reptiles4 ,their feet1 neck1 and beak are serpentiform1 and associated with a frog-like body4 ,their mode of living and feeding is likewise amphibious4 ,but these birds pass over so directly into the ,fowls1 that the latter could not be arranged elsewhere1 apart even from their displaying by their domestication to ,man the higher grade of understanding1 which is manifested for the first time in the class of ,birds4 ,the ,bustards and ,ostriches are1 finally1 the highest stage of ,birds1 and form the closest alliance with the ,thricozoa4 #ceeb4 ,this point being once settled1 it is self-evident that the ,birds1 which do not stand in need of being fed1 occupy the uppermost place1 and consequently the nestling or parent-fed ,birds the lowest1 i4 e4 the former correspond to the ,sarcozoa1 the latter to the ,dermatozoa4 ,a4 ,,splanchnic ,,birds4--,,nesth,,cker4 #ceec4 ,remain1 after exclusion from the egg1 in the nest and are fed2 neck and feet short1 toes four in number and ununited1 beak pointed4 ,by their short neck1 which rarely appears longer than the head1 these ,birds approximate the ,reptiles and ,fishes1 in whom also the head has scarcely separated itself from the thorax4 ,the uniformity of the feet and toes is likewise an inferior character1 as it is found in the ,dermal ,reptiles and ,fishes2 while in the ,sarcose ,reptilia and ,fishes the feet and fins make their appearance in the greatest variety1 both as regards the form and length of the feet themselves1 as the structure of the toes2 and such is the case too in the higher organized ,birds4 ,the same holds good also of the form of the head1 and especially of the maxill and teeth1 which are very uniform in the lower ,fishes and ,reptiles1 but occur under very varied conditions in the upper kinds1 exactly as in the ,natatores and ,grall1 in the ,gallin and ,struthionid4 ,order #a4 ,protozooid ,birds--,tenuirostres4 #ceed4 ,bill awl-shaped4 ,these ,birds present a resemblance to each other1 not simply in their mode of feeding1 since they are collectively insectivorous1 but also in the slenderness of their form1 and in the dazzling1 varied1 sharply defined1 and very striking colours of their plumage1 as well as in their habits1 for they employ their feet and tail usually for the purposes of support1 and so climb about the upright stems and branches of trees4 ,among them also occur the smallest sized ,birds1 a fact which1 compared with a similar one in the ,thricozoa1 indicates likewise their lower grade or rank4 ,fam4 #a4 ,infusorial ,birds1 ,tree-runners or ,creepers4 ,bill awl-shaped1 three toes in front--,humming-birds1 ,tree-creepers4 ,the small size of the ,humming-birds seems to render them the lowest in rank of the class1 and by this means the system obtains a point of departure1 unto which similar forms may be annexed4 ,their manner of feeding is rather a process of lapping1 than an actual snapping with the bill2 their food also1 which consists of small ,beetles and their larv1 requires scarcely any operation of the bill1 so that here the cibarial instruments obviously rank upon the lowest stage1 and remind us of the proboscis in ,flies1 ,butterflies1 and ,bugs4 ,fam4 #b4 ,polypary ,birds1 ,woodpeckers4 ,bill straight and chisel-shaped1 two of the toes directed forwards and two backwards4 ,the ,woodpeckers stand obviously a step higher1 because their bill is specially active in seeking out larv1 and their body is held securely by the toes and stiff tail4 ,fam4 #c4 ,acalephan ,birds1 ,cuckoos4 ,bill rounded1 slightly arched and obtuse2 feet scansorial4 ,these ,birds are less animated or lively than the preceding ones1 keep themselves more concealed1 and live mostly upon caterpillars in warmer countries4 ,some of them lay their eggs in the nests of other ,birds4 ,order #b4 ,conchozooid ,birds--,conirostres4 #ceee4 ,bill short1 thick1 and straight1 without a notch1 three toes directed forwards4 ,these ,birds usually perch upon branches1 without1 however1 being able to walk upon them1 since they usually hop1 and must therefore make an auxiliary use of their wings4 ,they are all of them granivorous1 and in a condition both to crush the seeds with their strong bill1 as well as pound them with their fleshy stomach or gizzard4 ,their instruments of manducation and digestion are therefore perfect1 added to which they are so allied to the subsequent order of ,rapaces1 that they could not be arranged lower2 probably they ought even to rank higher4 ,fam4 #d4 ,mussel-,birds1 ,sparrows4 ,bill short and coniform1 without bristles2 eat simply grains4 ,fam4 #e4 ,snail-,birds1 ,crows4 ,bill long and coniform2 eat grains1 beetles and flesh1 and pass gradually over into the ,rapaces4 ,fam4 #f4 ,kracken-,vgel1 ,parrots4 ,bill very thick and curved4 ,the food consists of grains and fruits4 ,their spiritual energies or capacities are also more strongly developed4 ,order #c4 ,ancyliozooid ,birds--,dentirostres4 #ceef4 ,bill with a notch2 food consists of worms and flesh4 ,fam4 #g4 ,worm-,birds1 ,cantores or ,songsters4 ,bill tolerably long and straight2 eat worms and berries4 ,fam4 #h4 ,crustacean ,birds1 ,fly-catchers4 ,bill straight1 with sharp edges superiorly1 point de-curved or bent downwards4 ,their aliment consists of insects1 which they mostly snap at during flight--,fly-catchers1 ,shrikes1 ,swallows4 ,fam4 #i4 ,ptilotoid ,birds--,rapaces4 ,bill unciform2 seize upon the ,sarcozoa with their claws4 ,b4 ,,sarcose ,,birds--,,nestfl,,chter4 #ceeg4 ,run about soon after being hatched1 and nourish themselves4 ,bill and feet very varied1 the former being mostly obtuse4 ,these ,birds do not fly much nor hop1 but walk1 run1 or swim4 ,in them are found all the diversities of bill and feet2 the latter are mostly placed far back1 so that the body is usually directed upwards4 ,their food also is very varied1 consisting of seeds1 grass1 fruits1 worms1 and flesh4 ,order #d4 ,sarcose ,birds4 #ceeh4 ,neck long1 i4 e4 much longer than the head and bill1 frequently longer than the body4 ,fam4 #aj4 ,fish-,birds1 ,natatores4 ,natatory feet short4 ,mostly large ,birds1 which live upon fishes1 worms1 and many of them even upon herbs4 ,their bills are so varied1 that they could represent several families1 a fact which likewise speaks in favour of their higher position4 ,it may be regarded as an instructive hint1 that animals occupy a higher rank1 if in them a richness or variety of forms is to be perceived4 ,this is the case throughout the ,thricozoa4 ,the ,natatores1 through the structure and posterad insertion of their feet1 through their closely-set plumage1 which frequently presents short and scale-like feathers1 by their swimming and diving1 and lastly1 through their fish-catching1 approximate as closely to the structure and mode of living of ,fishes as it is possible for a ,bird to do1 while still retaining the characters of its class4 ,many row even with the wings1 and consequently use them as veritable fins4 ,fam4 #aa4 ,reptilian ,birds1 ,grall or ,waders4 ,legs1 neck1 and bill very long4 ,these ,birds are a lively image of1 or a composition from1 the ,reptilia1 having a ,frog's body with its long feet1 and a ,serpent's neck with a ,tortoise's head4 ,they wade about in marshes to catch worms and fish2 have also bills of very varied structure1 yet generally very long and slender1 being in some cases naked1 in others covered with a skin4 ,fam4 #ab4 ,typical ,birds1 ,gallin4 ,bill and legs shorter1 the former being arched1 the latter armed with strong toes for scraping4 ,feed usually upon grains and worms1 and live in dry situations4 ,the ,marsh-hens pass at once into the true ,fowls1 and these are attached1 like as is no other family1 through their capacity for domestication1 to ,man4 ,order #e4 ,sensorial ,birds4 #ceei4 ,run only1 cannot fly4 ,fam4 #ac4 ,thricozooid ,birds1 ,bustards4 ,fowls with long legs and mostly diminished toes--,bustard1 ,cassowary1 and ,ostrich4 ,these ,birds have mostly such shortened wings1 that they cannot elevate themselves from the earth4 ,in the ,cassowary we find1 in place of the primary feathers upon the wings1 five barbless quills like so many claws4 ,the ,ostrich has a pelvis closed in front like the ,mammalia4 ,it has not incorrectly been compared with the ,camel1 since the ,ruminant animals in general have many resemblances in common with ,birds1 especially in the development of the horny substance1 which obviously agrees with the feathers4 ,thirteenth ,class4 ,aistheseozoa1 ,opthalmozoa--,thricozoa4 #cefj4 ,all the senses perfect1 five digits2 the face covered with skin and flesh1 the body with hairs2 mamm present4 #cefa4 ,the ,thricozoa combine in themselves all the animal classes1 and indeed1 so far as the development by grades makes no distinction1 in equal proportion4 ,the differences are in no class therefore so numerous and so strongly pronounced as in this2 and yet one is in more doubt almost concerning the rank of the families than in the former classes4 ,it turns out1 therefore1 that they are not treated according to sound or solid principles1 but that these1 after the manner in which ,natural ,history is still prosecuted1 are despised4 ,upon viewing superficially the groups of ,thricozoa1 it is certainly difficult to determine1 which are the lowest families1 although the uppermost ones are very well known2 so that here matters are the reverse of what they were in ,plants4 ,in the case of ,birds the empirical inquirer into nature knows neither which are the upper1 nor which the lower groups2 while in the ,reptiles and ,fishes he fares still worse4 ,it is pretty generally conceded that the ,whales are the lowest in point of rank1 because their posterior feet are wanting1 and in this they certainly do depart the most from the usual or normal form of the ,thricozoa2 yet still it is just these animals which form the proper starting-point for the present class4 ,even the empirical naturalists here begin to employ physio-philosophical language1 and designate these animals by the title of ,fish-like ,thricozoa4 ,but1 if they repeat the ,fishes1 then there must be ,thricozoa1 which stand or rank below them1 and pass parallel to the ,dermatozoa4 ,which these latter are1 is not indeed to be declared until the other groups have been separated and brought into their proper station or place4 ,if once there are ,ichthyoidal there must also be ,herpetoidal or ,reptile-like ,thricozoa4 ,now1 if the ,whales correspond to the former1 then the serial arrangement of the latter kinds is readily enough decided4 ,to the ,whales no other animals admit of being annexed but the ,swine-like genera1 such as the ,hippopotamus1 ,pig1 and ,elephant1 which1 through their muscular mass1 almost naked skin1 and residence in marshy situations1 agree very closely with the ,reptilia4 ,in the next place come the ,ruminantia1 to take their site opposite the class of ,birds1 with whom they correspond in their susceptibility to domestication1 large ears1 fine sense of hearing1 and timid disposition4 ,the horns must be regarded as the obscure metatype 7nachregung7 of the feathers4 ,these three families may be aptly termed ,ungulata or ,hoofed-animals4 ,were matters to fare simply thus1 then the center-building of this class would stand firm1 and it would consequently not be difficult to say which animals stood below and which above it4 ,for to the ,apes are allied the ,bears1 to these the ,dogs1 ,cats1 and ,martens1 and to the latter again the ,seals2 all would rank above the ,ungulata or ,hoofed animals1 and represent the proper or typical class of ,thricozoa4 ,but the ,thricozoa are sthetic or ,sense-animals1 and consequently the upper families must pass parallel to the organs of sense1 if the lower correspond to the anatomical systems4 ,now1 if the eye has attained its maximum development in ,man1 the same must be said of the ear in the ,apes1 of the nose in the ,bears1 of the tongue in the ,carnivora1 and of the skin in the ,seals4 ,having so disposed of these1 the only remaining ,thricozoa are the ,bats1 ,shrews1 ,moles1 ,marsupials1 ,sloths1 and ,rodentia4 ,in common parlance we compare the ,bats with the ,birds on account of their wings1 unto which may be further added the large size of their ears4 ,their close relation1 however1 with the ,shrews and ,rodents assigns them a lower rank4 ,they must be placed parallel with the ,ptilota or ,flies4 ,the dental formula of the ,bats resembles too so strikingly that of the ,shrews that a rusty-grown prejudice can alone place the former in the neighbourhood of the ,apes4 ,they have obtained this post1 without doubt1 simply because they have but two mamm1 and these placed upon the chest4 ,the ,moles cannot be removed from the ,shrews4 ,the choice of position now remains between the ,marsupials and ,rodents4 ,and to determine this point cannot prove difficult1 for every one will place the former above the latter on account of their size1 more perfect dental formula1 and the hands1 upon whose model the hind-feet have been in many species formed4 ,to the ,marsupials are annexed the ,sloths1 because several of them still possess marsupial or pouch-bones4 ,viewed in this and in every other respect1 the ,rodentia stand or rank the lowest2 and since the members of this family are much more numerous than those of any other1 we may conclude that they fill up several families of the asarcose animals4 #cefb4 ,the series would accordingly be as follows2 first of all ,rodents1 then ,sloths and ,marsupials2 with ,moles1 ,shrews1 and ,bats1 all as the repetition of the ,dermatozoa4 ,they are all ,myoidal or ,mouse-like in character4 ,next come the ,whales1 ,pigs1 and ,ruminants as the repetitions of the ,fishes1 ,reptiles1 and ,birds4 ,the ,carnivora with the ,bears1 ,apes1 and ,man1 as being the proper representatives of the senses1 conclude or wind up the list4 ,they alone have a regular dental formula4 ,we have thus-- ,i4 ,splanchno-,thricozoa2 ,mice1 ,edentata1 ,marsupialia1 ,shrews and ,bats4 ,,ii4 ,sarco-,thricozoa2 ,whales1 ,pachyderms1 ,ruminants4 ,,iii4 sthesio-,thricozoa2 ,carnivora1 ,seals1 ,bears1 ,apes and ,man4 #cefc4 ,it is here shown1 just as distinctly as in the series of the classes1 that no simple scale exists in the history of development1 and consequently in the arrangement of animals4 ,the ,mouse-like species stand off from the rest1 and then follow the entirely different ,ungulata with the ,pigs and ,ruminants1 which once again diverge in like manner1 and make room for the development of the ,seals1 which then proceed through the ,dogs1 c41 in a less interrupted series up to ,man4 ,he who marvels at this1 let him take and set the table of the class-series before his eyes1 and he must give utterance with us to the following words2 namely1 that the lower animals diverge or turn aside1 and the entirely different ,fishes1 ,reptiles1 and ,birds follow1 which1 once again diverging1 make room for the development of the ,thricozoa1 or1 in other words1 the ,compendium ,animalium4 ,a perfect parallelism is thus found to exist between the classes of animals generally and the families of ,thricozoa2 but no linear or continuously progressive connexion is discoverable between one set and the other1 but an appearance by fits or starts of new forms1 just as the systems and organs also are not gradually evolved metamorphoses of one system1 but sudden productions en avant with new tissues1 forms1 and functions4 ,the animal system is a multifariously-constructed temple1 with its nave1 choir1 chapels1 and towers1 while these again are present with the whole diversity of forms1 which belongs to them in their several characters or bearings4 ,a4 ,,splanchno-,,thricozoa--,,pfotenthiere1 ,,mausartige4 #cefd4 ,small animals with irregular set of teeth2 four feet with claws4 ,the regular set of teeth has included all kinds of teeth1 and with them four or six incisors4 ,a set of teeth is irregular1 which has more or less than the ordinary number of incisors1 in which moreover one or the other kind of tooth is wanting1 or if it is separated by a breach or interspace4 ,the small ,thricozoa divide into three orders4 ,the one have blunt uniform molars1 two rodent or gnawing-teeth1 and no canines--,rodentia4 ,the others have1 one might say1 a wholly aberrant and confused dental formula1 there being at one time too few1 at another too many teeth2 molars uniform1 with perfectly irregular incisors and canines--,sloths1 ,marsupials4 ,others1 lastly1 have a tolerably regular set of teeth1 presenting quadriacuminate molars1 mostly small canines1 and rodent-like incisors--,shrews and ,bats4 ,order #a4 ,gedrm-1 ,eyer1 ,schleimthier-,haarthiere--,rodentia4 #cefe4 ,rodent teeth1 without canines4 ,the dental formula of the gnawing ,rats and ,mice is so varied1 and so devoid of influence upon their bodily structure and mode of life1 that all attempts to arrange these animals in accordance with it have failed4 #ceff4 ,the lower position of the ,rodentia admits of being easily proved by taking to our aid the meaning of the dental system4 ,the splanchnic or visceral teeth obviously rank lower than the membral teeth4 ,now1 it so happens that the anterior teeth are in the ,rodentia the principal organ1 not only of the dental formula1 but of the entire animal4 ,without gnawing-teeth the ,mice could not maintain their existence1 much less their character4 ,they thus depend wholly and solely upon the visceral teeth1 and are consequently the lowest ,thricozoa4 ,in addition to this comes their small size1 which is by no means a character to be despised1 and one to which all naturalists pay regard1 even while they keep it1 upon the other hand1 in the background2 or else they must place the ,elephant below the ,field-mice4 #cefg4 ,i divide them1 as well according to structure as habit1 into three groups4 ,the one has the front and hind feet of equal length1 with blunt claws for digging4 ,the other has similar feet1 with sharp claws for climbing4 ,lastly1 the third has the hind feet longer than the fore for leaping4 ,fam4 #a4 ,infusorial ,thricozoa--,whlmuse4 ,eyes and auditory conch feebly developed1 feet for scraping1 tail lax2 live always under the ground1 and eat roots and grains--,spalax1 ,rat1 ,common and ,field-mouse1 ,beaver2 mostly only three molars4 ,fam4 #b4 ,polypary ,thricozoa--,klettermuse4 ,eyes1 ears1 and tail large1 the latter being stiff and hairy1 claws pointed2 live mostly upon trees1 eating nut-kernels and fruit2 usually four molars--,squirrels4 ,fam4 #c4 ,acalephan ,thricozoa--,laufmuse4 ,eyes and ears large1 tail hairy1 hind feet longest1 claws obtuse1 lamellar or plicated teeth2 live upon the surface of the earth and eat grass--,hares and ,guinea-pigs2 mostly more than four molar teeth4 ,order #b4 ,ader-1 ,geschlechts1 ,schalthier-,haarthiere--,kaumuse4 #cefh4 ,teeth and toes deviating completely from those of every other order2 nor in a less degree the method of propagation4 ,in some instances all the teeth are wanting1 in some they exceed the ordinary number1 and are quite uniform2 sometimes the lateral teeth only are similar1 but in this case there are no canines and incisors2 or else there are canines with more than six incisors1 or also with rodent teeth4 ,in like manner the toes are irregular2 the one kind being disproportionately large and the other absurdly small2 some are for the most part wholly connate2 in many cases there are hands posteriorly4 ,the claws also are in some instances obtuse1 in others sharp for climbing1 or else asymmetrically large and unciform4 ,hands adapted for swimming or flight also occur4 ,finally1 the sexual parts are quite aberrant1 being mostly very large and singularly formed2 the mamm frequently lodged in a pouch1 or at least furnished with marsupial bones4 ,the young are born as naked and immoveable embryos1 and suckled for a very long time4 ,all this reminds us of the ,conchozoa or ,shell-animals as doth also their unusual covering of belts1 scales1 spines and long hairs4 ,fam4 #d4 ,mussel-like ,thricozoa1 ,sloths4 ,lateral and canine teeth equal in size and obtuse1 incisors mostly wanting1 and occasionally all the teeth2 claws very large and curved--,ornithorynchi1 ,ant-eaters1 ,armadillos and ,sloths4 ,fam4 #e4 ,snail-like ,thricozoa1 ,herbivorous ,marsupials4 ,rodent teeth1 usually with stunted proximal and canine teeth1 lateral teeth level2 toes mostly connate and very unequal2 they live in the ,old ,world upon roots1 grass1 and fruit--,wombat1 ,dasyure1 ,kangaroo1 ,opossum4 ,fam4 #f4 ,kracken-,haarthiere1 ,carnivorous ,marsupials4 ,mostly more than six incisors1 triangular molars and large canines2 live in the ,new ,world and in ,australia1 eating worms1 insects1 eggs and flesh--,vulpine ,phalanger1 ,phascogale1 ,beutelratze4 ,the abnormal structure of the sexual parts reminds us of the same relation in the ,snails and ,kracken4 ,order #c4 ,lungen-1 ,fell-1 ,ringelthier-,haarthiere--,raubmuse4 #cefi4 ,molar teeth mostly quadriacuminate1 with a break in the series1 canines and pointed incisors1 or rodent teeth with lateral incisors1 five toes2 live upon worms and insects4 ,fam4 #g4 ,worm-,thricozoa1 ,moles4 ,claws1 sharp incisors or rodent teeth1 with lateral incisors or false molars2 live exclusively under the earth1 and cast up the mould4 ,fam4 #h4 ,crustaceous ,thricozoa1 ,shrews4 ,paws1 rodent teeth1 with small lateral incisors and canine teeth4 ,many burrow passages without throwing up the soil4 ,fam4 #i4 ,ptilotal ,thricozoa1 ,bats4 ,alary membrane between the feet and anterior digits2 pointed canine and incisor teeth4 ,order #d4 ,sarco-,thricozoa--,ungulata4 #cegj4 ,body large and heavy2 teeth stunted1 molars uniform1 tolerably obtuse2 feet fin-or hoof-like2 mostly udders1 rarely mamm4 ,fam4 #aj4 ,ichthyoid ,thricozoa1 ,whales4 ,skin naked2 no hind feet2 two horizontal caudal fins2 toes of the anterior feet surrounded by a common skin2 no auditory conchs2 posteriorly two udders4 ,all live in the sea4 ,it is hardly necessary1 in speaking of the ,whales1 to direct attention to their monstrously-developed osseous system and large fleshy tongue1 as also to their correspondence with ,fishes in the entire form1 manner of living1 and imperfect nose4 ,their head is still confluent with the neck1 the teeth are horny plates of coalesced hairs1 or uniform simple points1 as in ,fishes4 ,most of them have even dorsal fins2 the two udders are hardly separated from the sexual parts4 ,fam4 #aa4 ,reptilian ,thricozoa1 ,pigs4 ,four feet with hoofs2 canines and mostly also incisors2 stomach simple1 do not ruminate--,nylghau1 ,pig1 ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 ,horse4 ,these animals love the marshes1 and are through their mode of living1 as also their form1 similar to the larger ,reptiles2 or1 in other words1 through their colossal skeleton1 with preponderating muscular mass1 they are ,myozoa1 through the proboscis or snout1 ,rhinozoa4 ,fam4 #ab4 ,ornithic ,thricozoa1 ,ruminants4 ,toes bifid1 surrounded by a hoof2 above there are rarely incisor and canine teeth2 udders behind2 stomach fourfold2 they ruminate4 ,the horn-formation indicates a relationship with feathers2 the want of incisor teeth1 large ears1 and timidity of disposition that of the family with the class of ,birds4 ,both families enter into connexion with the ,whales through the size of their body1 the structure of their feet1 form of the head and disposition towards water and mud4 ,they are quadrupedal ,whales1 which have come out of the water1 and adopted a manner of living like the ,amphibious ,reptiles and ,grallatorial ,birds4 ,order #e4 sthesio-,thricozoa--,unguiculata4 #cega4 ,here for the first time an equiponderance of the sensorial organs makes its appearance and along with it therefore a resemblance between the animals1 which is no more interrupted by such strange or odd forms1 as in the preceding orders4 ,all of them have divided toes with claws or nails1 and all kinds of teeth with multiacuminate enamelled molars4 #cegb4 ,no doubt can exist about the animals belonging to the present order2 they are the ,apes1 ,bears1 and ,carnivora generally1 as ,seals1 ,cats1 ,dogs1 ,martens1 and such like beasts4 ,i also cherish no doubt concerning the rank of the two first families1 namely1 the ,apes and ,bears1 although they have been separated in a strange manner by the interposition of the ,bats and likewise the ,shrews4 ,at some future time one will not believe that the ,bats and ,shrews were once placed next to the ,apes4 #cegc4 ,doubt1 however1 may exist concerning the rank of the ,carnivorous or ,rapacious animals2 so that here the principles of our philosophy must be brought to bear in our behalf4 ,i regard then these animals as the highest representatives of the sensorial organs4 ,by this step three families at once take their proper positions1 viz43 ,man upon the station or rank of the ,eye4 ,the ,apes on that of the ,ear4 ,the ,bears upon the post of the ,nose4 ,difficulties are consequently presented in regard only to the ,rapacious animals1 but which are removed1 so soon as the three families just named are parallelized with the others thus3 ,bone1 ,tongue1 ,whales4 ,muscles1 ,nose1 ,pigs--,bears4 ,nerves1 ,ear1 ,cattle--,apes4 ,senses1 ,eye--,man4 ,now the ,seals range of themselves next the ,whales4 ,there are thus left the ,rapacious animals proper1 which as ,dermatozoa or ,sentient animals must consequently correspond to the ,splanchnozoa4 ,in favour of this1 evidence is afforded not only by the particular use made of their feet1 but their great number also1 which can admit of comparison with no individual family or order4 ,now1 however1 there are three orders of ,murine animals4 #a4 ,rodent ,mice--the ,rodentia proper4 #b4 ,chewing ,mice--the ,sloths and ,marsupialia4 #c4 ,rapacious ,mice--the ,moles1 ,shrews1 and ,flitter-mice1 or ,bats4 ,in like manner do the rapacious ,carnivora divide into three groups4 #a4 ,the mostly sneaking and scansorial ,martens and ,viverr4 #b4 ,the sneaking and fossorial ,skunks1 ,gluttons1 and ,badgers1 with soles and blunt claws4 #c4 ,the high-legged ,digitigrades1 as ,dogs1 ,hyn1 and ,cats4 ,as ,i have given up the dental formula in the ,rodentia as a means of division1 so now it seems to me that it must be abandoned also in the ,beasts of ,prey4 ,the whole appearance of them and their mode of living1 which is still the main point in view1 obviously directs us more towards consideration of the feet1 than of the dental formula4 ,the ,marten or ,weasel kind were formerly compared with the ,mice1 and called on that account ,mustela4 ,they cannot be regarded otherwise than as the lowest in rank4 ,unto them are obviously annexed the short-legged ,civets1 despite their cunoidal set of teeth4 ,many have half soles or pads under the feet4 ,with these again the ,fox-like animals1 notwithstanding their viverrine dental formula1 enter into alliance4 ,i believe that ,i have rightly parted the ,badger from the ,bears1 and rightly done it too in this place4 ,the highest are without doubt the ,dogs1 ,hynas1 and ,cats1 with their long and upright legs1 not to speak of their mental faculties4 ,we accordingly obtain the following arrangement4 ,fam4 #ac4 ,dermal ,thricozoa--,carnaria4 ,all kinds of teeth included2 six broad incisors1 a longer canine1 two to three small false molars1 a large carnivorous tooth and large ,querzahn1 and frequently also the ,kornzahn4 ,mostly five separated toes1 with nails resting upwards1 and either sharp or obtuse feet1 occasionally soled4 ,they eat flesh1 mostly that of warm-blooded animals1 and kill their prey themselves4 ,alliance #a4 ,rodent-like ,unguiculate ,animals--,schleicher4 ,feet short and oblique1 mostly sharp claws without entire soles4 #a4 ,mole-like ,animals--,martens4 ,sharp claws without soles1 and no ,kornzahn--,martens and ,otters4 #b4 ,squirrel-like--,civets4 ,sharp1 curved1 and mostly retractile claws1 superiorly the ,kornzahn--,civet1 ,paradoxurus4 #c4 ,leporine or ,hare-like--,ichneumons4 ,straight claws with half soles--,ichneumon1 ,ryzna4 ,alliance #b4 ,kaumausartige--,fossores4 ,large and straight claws with soles1 no ,kornzahn4 #a4 ,sloth-like ,animals--,mephitic ,animals4 ,dental formula1 like that of the ,marten--,skunk1 ,mydaus4 #b4 ,wombat-like--,gluttons4 ,dental formula1 like that of ,marten1 but behind the carnivorous is a small tubercular tooth which is wider1 being broader than long4 #c4 ,opossum-like--,badgers4 ,the tuberculous tooth larger than the carnivorous tooth1 and nearly quadrangular4 ,alliance #c4 ,raubmausartige--,digitigrada4 ,legs high and upright2 no soles4 #a4 ,mole-like--,dogs4 ,claws blunt1 the ,kornzahn both in upper and lower jaw4 #b4 ,shrew-like--,hynas4 ,claws blunt2 no ,kornzahn but a small ,querzahn4 #c4 ,bat-like--,cats4 ,claws sharp1 curved1 and retractile2 no lower tubercular tooth1 but a small upper one4 ,fam4 #ad4 ,lingual ,thricozoa1 ,seals4 ,feet fin-shaped1 the hinder pair stretched out1 dental formula complete1 but the lateral teeth tolerably even1 and six or four incisors2 tongue mostly somewhat slit4 ,they correspond to the ,whales4 ,fam4 #ae4 ,nasal ,thricozoa1 ,bears4 ,nose elongated into a snout1 walk upon soles2 all kinds of teeth1 of which1 however1 the carnivorous or tearing tooth is similar to the grinders1 six incisors4 ,the slower gait1 originating from their walking on the soles of the feet1 with the less pointed molars1 assign to these animals a less rapacious habit of living4 ,they therefore kill no large animals1 and are satisfied with worms and even roots1 fruit1 and honey4 ,they repeat the ,pigs4 ,fam4 #af4 ,nasal ,thricozoa1 ,apes4 ,the ears begin to acquire the human form1 as do even the teeth2 never more than four incisors1 but a longer canine2 hands both fore and aft4 ,these animals live upon fruits and beetles1 and are by their scansorial feet destined to live upon trees4 ,their varied1 piping1 and sonorous cry is a property of the sense of hearing1 and along with it the larynx also usually obtains a stronger amount of development4 #cegd4 ,it seems that every family of ,thricozoa contains five genera1 and that these accord with the organs of sense4 ,in many families this relation is at least striking1 e4 g4 ,among the ,pigs the ,elephant is obviously characterized by the nose1 the ,hippopotamus by the skin1 the ,pig by the dental system2 and thus by the sense of taste1 the ,rhinoceros by large ears1 the ,horse by the eyes1 thus #a4 ,skin ,hippopotamus4 #b4 ,tongue ,pig4 #c4 ,nose ,elephant4 #d4 ,ear ,rhinoceros4 #e4 ,eye ,horse4 ,in like manner do the ,ruminantia or ,cattle become distinctly marshalled according to the five senses4 ,the ,camel recedes from the others by its simply uplying hoofs1 the ,musk-deer by its monstrous canine2 the ,goat is distinguished by its fine sense of smell1 and the ,giraffe by its large ears1 the ,ox by the large and beautiful eye1 thus #a4 ,hautrind ,camel4 #b4 ,zungen- ,musk-deer4 #c4 ,nasen- ,goat4 #d4 ,ohren- ,giraffe4 #e4 ,augen- ,ox4 ,in the ,bears also we are confronted by this principle of classification4 ,the ,skin-bear is the ,common ,bear4 ,the ,tongue- is the ,raccoon4 ,the ,nose- is the ,nasua4 ,the ,ear- is the ,arctitis4 ,the ,eye- is the ,cercoleptes4 ,after this principle had been so strikingly verified in several families1 ,i proceeded with confidence also to those which were more difficult1 and it resulted that each consists only of five genera severally distinguished by the predominance of some one organ of sense4 ,this method has been carried out throughout my ,allgemeine ,naturgeschichte4 ,fam4 #ag4 ,ophthalmozoa1 ,man4 ,superiorly or in front hands1 inferiorly or behind soles4 #cege4 ,here all the senses enter for the first time into a state of perfect equiponderance or proportion4 ,skin naked1 and therefore a perfect organ of feeling2 feet and hands differently constructed for progression and manipulation2 tongue and lips fleshy1 while the latter have hitherto been only tegumental2 all the kinds of teeth different1 but still very similar1 being of equal height and nearly equal size2 nose elevated by its whole length from the face1 and fleshy2 ears oval1 laid close against the head and having regular windings or convolutions2 eyes directed forwards1 with perfect eyelids1 and moveable in all directions4 #cegf4 ,man by the upright walk obtains his character1 namely1 that of bodily freedom1 for his hind feet take the place of all the four feet of other animals1 by which means the hands become free and can achieve all other offices1 the feet alone serving to support the body4 ,he is the only animal that surveys with the axes of the eyes borne parallel the most extensive horizon4 ,all animals whose eyes look higher up or above the ground1 as the ,horse1 ,elephant1 ,ostrich1 and such like creatures1 have eyes directed sideways4 #cegg4 ,with the freedom of the body has been granted also the freedom of the mind4 ,man sees everything1 the whole universe1 while the animals can only view individual parts thereof1 two of these even invariably appearing different1 so that the images seen by them are never reduced to unity4 #cegh4 ,there is only one human family1 only one human genus1 and only one species2 and this just because ,man is the whole ,animal ,kingdom4 #cegi4 ,but yet there are five kinds or varieties of ,men1 according with the development of the sensorial organs4 #a4 ,the ,skin-,man is the ,black1 ,african4 #b4 ,the ,tongue- is the ,brown1 ,australian--,malayan4 #c4 ,the ,nose- is the ,red1 ,american4 #d4 ,the ,ear- is the ,yellow1 ,asiatic--,mongolian4 #e4 ,the ,eye- is the ,white1 ,european4 ,co-arrangement4 #cehj4 ,the classes of ,sarcozoa pass or rank parallel to each other in the following manner3 ,,class ,x4 ,,class ,,xi4 ,,class ,,xii4 ,anatomical ,osteozoa1 ,myozoa1 ,neurozoa1 ,systems4 ,fishes4 ,reptiles4 ,birds4 ,i4 ,intestinal4 ,ord4 ,i4 ,ord4 ,i4 ,ord4 ,i4 ,f4 ,f4 ,f4 ,stomach--,infusoria #a4 ,lampreys #a4 ,salamanders #a4 ,tree ,creepers ,intestine--,polypi #b4 ,plectognathi#b4 ,frogs #b4 ,woodpeckers ,absorbents--,acaleph4#c4 ,shads4 #c4 ,tortoises4 #c4 ,cuckoos4 ,,ii4 ,vascular4 ,ord4 ,,ii4 ,ord4 ,,ii4 ,ord4 ,,ii4 ,veins--,mussels #d4 ,eels #d4 ,schuppen- #d4 ,sparrows ,arteries--,snails #e4 ,haddocks #e4 ,tafel- #e4 ,crows ,heart--,kracken4 #f4 ,grundeln4 #f4 ,schienens- #f4 ,parrots4 chlangen4 ,,iii4 ,pulmonary4 ,ord4 ,,iii4 ,ord4 ,,iii4 ,ord4 ,,iii4 ,skin--,worms4 #g4 ,tunnies #g4 ,schleichen- #g4 ,singing-birds ,branchi--,crabs #h4 ,breams #h4 ,schuppen- #h4 ,fly-catchers ,trache--,flies4 #i4 ,perch4 #i4 ,schienen- #i4 ,hawks4 ,echsen4 ,,iv4 ,flesh4 ,ord4 ,,iv4 ,ord4 ,,iv4 ,ord4 ,,iv4 ,bones--,fishes #aj4 ,herrings #aj4 ,icthyosauri #aj4 ,geese ,muscles--,reptiles #aa4 ,salmons #aa4 ,geckos #aa4 ,herons ,nerves--,birds4 #ab4 ,pike4 #ab4 ,pterodactyli4#ab4 ,fowls4 ,v4 ,senses4 ,ord4 ,v4 ,ord4 ,v4 ,ord4 ,v4 ,thricozoa4 #ac4 ,sharks4 #ac4 ,crocodiles4 #ac4 ,bustards4 ,,class ,,xiii4 ,anatomical ,sense-animals1 ,aisthesio- ,sense-,organs4 ,systems4 ,thricozoa4 ,thricozoa4 #a4 ,tegument4 #ac4 ,mausartige ,i4 ,intestinal4 ,ord4 ,i4 #a4 ,whlmuse ,i4 ,ovum4 ,f4 ,f4 ,stomach--,infusoria #a4 ,whlmuse #a4 ,martens ,vitellus--,infusoria ,intestine--,polypi #b4 ,kletter- #b4 ,civets ,albumen--,polypi ,absorbents--,acaleph4#c4 ,lauf- #c4 ,ichneumons4 ,envelopes--,acaleph4 ,,ii4 ,vascular4 ,ord4 ,,ii4 #b4 ,kaumuse ,,ii4 ,sex4 ,veins--,mussels #d4 ,sloths #d4 ,skunks ,spawn--,mussels ,arteries--,snails #e4 ,beutelhasen #e4 ,gluttons ,milt--,snails ,heart--,kracken4 #f4 ,beutelmarder4#f4 ,badgers4 ,kidneys--,kracken4 ,,iii4 ,pulmonary4 ,ord4 ,,iii4 #c4 ,raubmuse ,,iii4 ,limbs4 ,skin--,worms4 #g4 ,scheermuse #g4 ,dogs ,papill--,worms ,branchi--,crabs #h4 ,shrews #h4 ,hynas ,feet--,crabs ,trache--,flies4 #i4 ,bats4 #i4 ,cats4 ,wings--,flies4 ,,iv4 ,cephalic ,,iv4 ,flesh4 ,ord4 ,,iv4 ,senses4 ,bones--,fishes #aj4 ,whales #ad4 ,seals #b4 ,tongue--,fishes ,muscles--,reptiles #aa4 ,pigs #ae4 ,bears #c4 ,nose--,reptiles ,nerves--,birds4 #ab4 ,ruminants4 #af4 ,apes4 #d4 ,ears--,birds ,v4 ,senses4 ,ord4 ,v4 ,thricozoa4 #ac4 ,aisthesio- #ag4 ,man4 #e4 ,eyes --,thricozoa4 ,thricozoa4 #ceha4 ,by the accompanying table the parallelism of the different families is recognized1 as well as their remaining relationships1 both among themselves as also with the ,asarcous animals1 if their table at p4 #fad be compared with it1 and which could not for want of room be inserted here4 #cehb4 ,it is1 moreover1 proved from this table that the classes stand one above the other1 but yet that each recommences from below1 so that the lower animals of a higher class are more stunted or rudimental than the upper ones of a lower class4 ,thus the ,salamanders are more rudimental1 that is1 they have organs more imperfect than the ,sharks2 the ,tree-creepers are more rudimental than the ,crocodiles1 the ,mice than the ,fowls and ,bustards4 ,nevertheless these stunted animals stand higher than those of the lower classes1 because they are characterized by a higher organ4 ,what holds good of the classes holds good again of the orders and families also4 ,the lower animal of a consecutive family is again more rudimental than the upper one of the antecedent family4 ,thus the ,ornithorynchus is more rudimental than the ,beaver1 the ,shrew-mouse more rudimental than the ,opossum and such like creatures4 ,in the highest families the equiponderance is first restored1 and the lowest ,man is still higher than the uppermost ,ape4 ,,iv4 ,,psychology4 ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,animals4 #cehc4 ,the present section treats concerning the functions of the ,whole animal1 just as the preceding one did of those belonging to individual organs4 ,it is at bottom the psychological part of ,physio-philosophy4 ,the functions are so numerous and difficult also to arrange1 that ,i place this section here1 to point out rather its situation than to follow out or trace its development4 #cehd4 ,all the functions of an entire animal are spiritual or sensorial functions2 at least they are conditionated by the senses1 and ,i will also speak of them only in this respect4 ,the mechanical and chemical functions have been already comprehended in the physiological part4 ,the senses only make their appearance gradually in animals1 and with them also the spiritual functions4 ,a4 ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,dermatozoa4 #a4 ,enterozoa or ,oozoa4 #cehe4 ,these animals are governed chiefly by a passive sense of feeling1 from their consisting for the most part of a naked1 homogeneous1 and gelatinous integument1 and living in water1 an element wherein the other senses can be but slightly active4 #cehf4 ,their sense of feeling stands upon the lowest grade1 since it is only the sensibility of the tegument1 there being no articulated organs of touch1 so that it consists only in the discrimination of an opposing object4 ,the ability or power to discriminate is not yet consciousness2 for unto this a reflexion upon the object discriminated is necessary4 ,the ,infusoria1 ,polypi1 and ,acaleph1 simply feel that something else is there1 but they are so completely imprisoned in this feeling that they are unable to submit the same to an internal process of comparison4 #cehg4 ,by reason of this inability to compare their own feelings1 not a trace is left unto them of internal change2 so that these creatures are truly devoid of memory or recollection4 ,the ,infusoria have only sensation1 nothing else2 they are therefore in ceaseless motion4 ,they are actually capable of nothing but moving and eating4 ,of all other spiritual functions they are utterly devoid4 #cehh4 ,their spiritual life is in some degree a mesmeric condition4 ,destitute of the senses of seeing1 hearing1 smelling and tasting1 they feel every thing1 or1 properly speaking1 perform all these functions at one and the same time1 and by one organ1 the visceral mass4 ,by mesmerism they find their food1 perceive the light1 and become transparent unto themselves1 just as they are really in a physical point of view4 ,for they are only viscera or visceral nerves4 ,development of the ,mind4 #cehi4 ,the mind1 just as the body1 must be developed out of these animals4 ,the human body has been formed by an extreme separation of the neuro-protoplasmic or mucous mass4 ,so must the human mind be a separation1 a memberment of infusorial sensation4 #ceij4 ,the highest mind is an anatomized or dismembered mesmerism1 each member whereof has been constituted independent in itself4 ,the skeleton of this dissected mind1 when scientifically represented1 would be the science of the mind1 i4 e4 ,philosophy1 properly so called4 ,pneumato-philosophy is the likeness of ,physio-philosophy4 ,for spirit is only the tension of nature1 and nature only the spirit set in motion4 ,the philosophy of spirit must develop itself out of the philosophy of nature1 as doth the flower out of the stem4 ,for nature is the spirit analyzed and at rest1 which we can handle at our pleasure4 ,it does not appear only for an instant2 but as stone1 air and such like entities1 abideth always1 as if to solicit and preserve us for its investigation4 ,a ,philosophy or ,ethicks apart from ,physio-philosophy is a nonentity1 a bare contradiction1 just as a flower without a stem is a non-existent thing4 #ceia4 ,as many essential members as ,physio-philosophy hath1 into so many must ,pneumato-philosophy also divide1 and this too so exactly that the two shall cover each other4 ,the reason why one has hitherto rambled about in ,pneumato-philosophy without ballast and without compass1 depends solely upon the disregard which has been paid to the science or knowledge of ,nature4 ,it is in fact not difficult to understand how impossible it must be1 from observations made upon the rapidly evanescent phenomena of the spirit1 to thence abstract a system of the laws in conformity wherewith this spirit manifests itself or acts4 ,spirit is nothing different from ,nature1 but simply her purest outbirth or offspring1 and therefore her symbol1 her language4 ,with such a basis as this1 we shall no longer pursue the ignes fatui of the mind1 but first of all endeavour to banish them into the provinces or realms of ,nature1 and there co-ordinate them in conformity with her laws2 then for the first time shall we recognize the flaming lights of the mind and the divine voices1 which all matter proclaimeth through the speech of ,man4 ,he1 who were once in a condition to reveal or disclose this conformity of ,nature's phenomena with those of ,spirit1 will have learnt the philosophy of the latter4 #b4 ,functions of the ,vascular or ,sexual ,animals4 #ceib4 ,these animals are no longer merely sentient1 'clairvoyant' ,acaleph1 because1 in addition to the nervous mass1 they are provided with other systems1 such as the sexual and vascular1 with the special organs of digestion and taste4 ,these three or four organs must also resolve themselves into three spiritual functions2 the vascular system furnishes special organs of feeling and therewith a voluntary sense of feeling2 the intestine and chiefly the liver is now the cardinal organ1 and will therefore execute the mesmerically percipient functions4 #ceic4 ,in the liver the faculty of anticipation and foresight1 with melancholy1 choleric passion1 and anger1 appear to reside4 ,encephalic thought is reflected in it4 ,the liver is the soul in a state of sleep1 the brain is the soul active and awakening4 ,in it the spirit broods unconsciously for years1 and then breaks forth fearfully1 as capriciousness1 tyranny and sorrow1 but also as earnestness and strength4 ,circumspection and foresight appear to be the thoughts of the ,bivalve ,mollusca and ,snails4 ,gazing upon a ,snail1 one believes that he finds the prophesying goddess sitting upon the tripod4 ,what majesty is in a creeping ,snail1 what reflection1 what earnestness1 what timidity and yet at the same time what firm confidence6 ,surely a ,snail is an exalted symbol of mind slumbering deeply within itself4 ,the old artists must have felt this signification1 as in many of their representations they have introduced a ,snail4 ,one can hardly think1 that in so doing they wished to express such common and lascivious ideas1 as are at present manifested openly or secretly by our daily enjoyments4 #ceid4 ,the intestine must moreover be concerned with the sense of taste4 ,taste1 however1 leads to voracity1 gluttony1 daintiness1 sluggishness and drowsiness4 #ceie4 ,taste in union with the sexual function is the expression of venery or lust4 ,this is indicated by the secretion of slime1 by the monstrous size too of the sexual organs1 and by their androgynism1 which enables either individual during copulation to enjoy the delicious feeling1 belonging to the male and female1 either at once or alternately4 ,their food also appears to be selected from a feeling of desire4 ,circumspection in feeling1 dainty voracity1 and immoderate lust appear to constitute the spiritual character of the ,malacozoa1 especially of the ,snails4 #c4 ,functions of the ,respiratory or ,arthric ,animals4 #ceif4 ,the ,insect is mainly an aerial and motor organ1 and therefore its spirit is also of an aerial and motor kind4 ,the respiratory process produces strength1 and this again courage1 both which are the distinguishing properties of ,insects4 ,the ,insect is the strongest and boldest animal upon the earth4 ,health1 plenitude of life1 generosity1 nobleness1 and heroism dwell in the thorax4 #ceig4 ,but besides these virtues the spirit of the thorax is also that of smell4 ,insects have an excellent sense of smell1 the spirit of which is cunningness and treachery1 wherein no animal will easily surpass them4 #ceih4 ,the ,insect has moreover a spirit of motion or versatility of the tactile sense1 which is displayed in the representation of symmetrical figures4 ,this faculty proceeds especially from the creative sexual functions--as mechanical or artistic instinct4 ,all spirit of motion launches out into mechanical instinct4 ,it disappears in all classes of animals1 which chiefly correspond to the sex and belly1 as1 e4 g4 in ,fishes and ,reptiles4 ,on the other hand1 in the moveable thoracic animals or ,birds1 the mechanical instincts at once re-appear4 ,mechanical instinct and dexterity of limbs run parallel together4 ,the dexterity of the limbs taken up into the spirit is an art-sense4 ,b4 ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,cephalozoa4 #ceii4 ,here the head is for the first time placed in a perfect condition1 and hence an antagonism arises for the first time between head and trunk4 ,the ,cephalozoon no longer distinguishes nature and self only like the acephalous and amnemonic animals2 but it distinguishes even its body from its head1 because the ,fish has begun to be a double animal4 #cfjj4 ,the ,cephalozoon hath consciousness2 consciousness of its condition1 of its body1 but not of its head and the operations therein4 ,it has no self-consciousness4 #cfja4 ,as soon as an animal contemplates a part of its body1 of its world1 and hath consciousness in a general sense1 it has also memory4 ,for memory is a repetition of its own condition1 not the reiterated feeling of a foreign object4 ,the ,acephalous or anencephalic animals have therefore no memory1 because they live only in opposition to the world1 but never in antagonism to themselves4 ,every perception is therefore a new one for them1 because it is always an actual object which excites them4 ,whether ,insects have memory1 has not yet been made out4 #cfjb4 ,the brainless animals have no ideas1 and naturally so1 because they have no consciousness4 ,it would appear likewise that they do not feel pain4 ,the ,cephalozoa have ideas1 and quite certainly pains1 because they become partly an object unto themselves4 #d4 ,functions of the ,osteo-or ,glossozoa4 #cfjc4 ,the ,fish's head is the lowest1 and therefore its mind also will manifest only the first function1 that ranks above the mind of the ,acephalozoa1 the memory4 ,with this memory1 however1 all the spiritual functions1 exhibited by the preceding classes1 but chiefly mesmerism1 have been bestowed4 #cfjd4 ,fishes are again provident1 zealous animals1 that1 drawn together by mysterious bands1 make the longest voyages1 wherein they ascend and descend rivers1 knowing how to find their prey over miles in extent4 ,all the mechanical instincts are1 on the contrary1 obliterated in them1 as being fingerless1 finned animals4 ,their principal business is propagation--,pelvic animals4 #cfje4 ,gluttony is the principal character of the ,glossozoa1 in so far as taste stands upon the lowest stage4 ,touch and taste are only motion and deglutition4 ,smell becomes evidently stronger4 ,the ear still ranks upon the lowest stage1 but yet they hear closely4 ,in other respects they are mute1 and exhibit all the consequences of aphony4 #cfjf4 ,fishes are of the ,phlegmatic temperament4 #e4 ,functions of the ,myo-or ,rhinozoa4 #cfjg4 ,reptiles are ,cephalozoa with well-developed lungs and nose1 and are therefore gifted with voice4 #cfjh4 ,to memory comes the art of ambuscade or lying in wait1 a property of the olfactory sense1 the application of memory4 ,the circumspection of the ,snails passes over into ambuscade and surprise4 ,with this character the higher perfection of the belly or of the digestive system1 along with the poisoning saliva1 is in parallel accordance4 ,to take by surprise and to poison are acts of one series4 #cfji4 ,reptiles appear enabled to reflect1 i4 e4 several reminiscences are at their bidding4 ,now1 the comparison of these constitutes reflection4 ,they are therefore more sagacious than ,fishes1 docile and in some measure susceptible of instruction4 #cfaj4 ,the courage1 which they have probably obtained through their aerial respiration1 passes over more into impudence and sauciness4 #cfaa4 ,reptiles are of the ,melancholic crasis4 #f4 ,functions of the ,neuro-or ,otozoa4 #cfab4 ,the spirit of the thorax and limbs is here predominant1 whence comes the restlessness and mechanical instinct of the ,bird4 ,the motor sense1 the ear1 is the prominent one4 ,the ear1 however1 is partly the sense for the ,indefinite1 partly for the demolition of matter4 ,the auditory spirit is fear4 ,but it passes over into joy1 passion1 levity1 if it perfectly perceives tones4 #cfac4 ,with the ear and the moveable organs of voice originates a kind of language1 which is in a condition to express a multitude of sentiments4 ,the language of ,birds hath not a few tones1 and expresses not a few passions4 #cfad4 ,the ,bird knits or associates for the first time with some completeness a sense1 or definite sensation1 to a simple tone4 ,the ,bird hath for the first time signs1 or symbols1 which are not the things themselves1 but only signify or mean them4 ,the ,bird understands the relation of the spiritual expression to the organ or matter4 ,it comprehends a connexion where none is materially1 but which is only imparted by the idea4 ,the capacity to understand the thing in the image or idea1 ,i call imagination1 and of this ,birds furnish us with very definite proofs4 ,birds can therefore dream4 #cfae4 ,reptiles and ,fishes appear to have no ideas because they have no signs1 or tones1 indicating the resolution of the organ into mind4 ,for the tone is none other than the ghost of the organ or animal4 ,fishes and ,reptiles do not indeed dream4 #cfaf4 ,the ,bird1 however1 appears to get no further than to mere images or ideas4 ,the conception is wanting unto them4 ,it has therefore no sense of shame4 ,but possesses in a full degree circumspection1 desire of imitation1 comparison4 #cfag4 ,to the ,bird it is not simply the sensation of its body that becomes1 like a foreign product1 objective2 but its own product1 its voice1 as something already distinct from its own mind4 #cfah4 ,it is clear1 that if all the sensorial functions were to become objective to the ,bird1 it would be self-apparent and resolve itself into self-consciousness4 ,thus does self-consciousness sprout forth gradually with the sensorial functions4 #cfai4 ,birds are of the ,sanguineous temperament4 #g4 ,functions of the sthesio-or ,ophthalmozoa4 #cfbj4 ,all the faculties hitherto mentioned occur here4 ,the soul of the eye is still associated with them1 and therewith the faculties of perception1 understanding and conception appear to be bestowed4 ,one cannot refuse understanding to the ,thricozoa4 ,the actions of the ,dog1 ,horse and ,elephant1 do not admit otherwise of being conceived2 nor also the shame and pride1 fidelity1 animosity1 desire of revenge1 and yet many other properties exhibited by these animals4 ,but it is an understanding without self-consciousness1 if we may so venture to express ourselves2 an understanding of many signs1 but devoid of any combination and separation of these signs2 in a word1 there is no faculty of judgment4 ,the ,thricozoa are ,choleric animals4 #h4 ,functions of the ,pansthetic ,animal4 #cfba4 ,if finally all its organs become objective to the animal1 through contemplation of the universe1 through hearkening of the animal restored into symbols2 it thus contemplates itself1 is apparent unto itself1 and is quite conscious of itself4 ,then is the animal equivalent to the whole animal kingdom and to the universe4 #cfbb4 ,the universal spirit is ,man4 ,in the human race the world has become individual4 ,man is the entire image or likeness of the world4 ,his language is the spirit of the world4 ,all the functions of animals have attained unto unity1 unto self-consciousness1 in ,man4 #cfbc4 ,the thorough penetration of all the animal's symbols1 the comparison of all the world's symbols1 and thus free comparison is ,reason4 ,the understanding compares only the symbols of sounds1 of men2 but the reason compares also the symbols of light1 of the world4 ,reason is world-understanding2 the understanding is animal reason4 ,all the mental functions of animals have become ratiocinative in ,man4 ,feeling is in him consciousness1 consciousness is self-consciousness1 the understanding is reason1 the passion1 freedom1 the mechanical instinct artistic sense1 the comparison science4 #cfbd4 ,the spirits of the senses are ,art-spirits1 the spirit of reason is the spirit of ,science4 ,art4 #cfbe4 ,art is the representation of the senses in ,nature4 #cfbf4 ,the sense is1 however1 the last or ultimate design of ,nature4 ,art is consequently the representation of ,nature's design4 7,ed4 #ast1 #ahaa4 #ceag47 #cfbg4 ,that is beautiful which represents the will of ,nature4 ,but non-beautiful is that which represents real ,nature by means of art4 #cfbh4 ,art is one universal business4 ,beautiful is that1 which represents the world within a fragment or portion of the world4 #cfbi4 ,there is also one natural beauty--unconscious formation of the world's laws4 #cfcj4 ,the highest natural beauty is the universal portion of nature1 i4 e4 ,man4 ,man expresses the ultimate goal or purpose of ,nature's design4 #cfca4 ,the terminus or goal of ,nature is1 in ,man to revert again into herself4 ,the human countenance most perfectly repeats the trunk1 and again reverts wholly and actually into the trunk4 ,that human countenance is beautiful1 in which the vertebral column runs back again parallel with the vertebral column of the trunk4 ,the facial vertebral column is the nose4 #cfcb4 ,the face is beautiful1 whose nose runs parallel to the spine4 ,no human face has grown unto this estate1 but every nose makes an acute angle with the spine4 ,the facial angle is1 as is well known1 #hj4 ,what as yet no ,man has remarked1 and what is not to be remarked either without our view of the cranial signification1 the old artists have felt through inspiration4 ,they have not only made the facial angle a right angle1 but have even stepped beyond this1 the ,romans going up to #if1 the ,greeks even to #ajj4 ,whence comes it1 that this unnatural face of the ,grecian works of art1 is still more beautiful than that of the ,roman1 when the latter comes nearer unto ,nature8 ,the reason thereof resides in the fact of the ,grecian's artistic face representing ,nature's design more than that of the ,roman2 for in the former the nose is placed quite perpendicular1 or parallel to the spinal cord1 and thus returns whither it has been derived4 #cfcc4 ,he who paints or otherwise copies ,nature in a purely mechanical manner1 is consequently a bungler2 he is devoid of ideas1 and imitates her no better than a bird does song1 or an ape the postures of the human body4 ,the province of ,art is alas6 not yet understood4 #cfcd4 ,in ,man all the beauties of nature are associated or combined4 #cfce4 ,thus1 ,nature can be beautiful1 in so far as she represents the individual ideas of ,man4 #cfcf4 ,there are only two art-senses1 the eye and the ear2 and thus but two departments of art1 the ,plastic and ,sonant1 or that of form and of motion4 #cfcg4 ,the province of form represents the material universe in its ideas1 its design1 and thus in its freedom4 #cfch4 ,the representation of the bodily universe in the ideas is the ,architectural art4 7,ed4 #ast #ahaa1 #cecc47 #cfci4 ,the representation of heaven in the ,plastic1 is the church architecture4 ,the temple or church is the art of heaven4 #cfdj4 ,the representation of the planet in the ,plastic is the house4 ,the house is the art of the planet4 ,the architectural art is the cosmical art4 #cfda4 ,the representation of the ,individual is the ,sculptor's art4 ,the sculptural art represents the ,terrestrial1 and in its highest estate ,man4 ,it is the ,heroic art4 #cfdb4 ,this art rendered manifest in matter1 or repeated in light1 is ,painting4 ,painting represents the symbol1 the naught of the world1 the heavenly1 and also in its lowest estate a ,spiritual4 ,painting is the art of religion1 the ,sacred art4 ,painting is the art of heathens1 whose deities are men2 ,painting is the art of ,christians1 whose ,men1 being sacred or holy1 are gods4 ,god can be painted1 but not formed or sculptured4 #cfdc4 ,the art of motion represents the material and the spiritual motion4 #cfdd4 ,the representation of the world's material laws of motion is the ,dance4 #cfde4 ,the representation of the motion of individuals is the ,histrionic art4 #cfdf4 ,the representation of the world's spiritual laws of motion1 of the laws of the dance1 is ,music4 #cfdg4 ,the spiritual representation of the ,histrionic is the ,poetic art4 ,science4 #cfdh4 ,the representation of the rational world is ,science4 #cfdi4 ,the first science is the ,science of ,language1 the architecture of science1 the earth4 #cfej4 ,the second science is the ,art of ,rhetoric1 the sculpture of science1 the river4 #cfea4 ,the third science is ,philosophy1 the painting of science1 the respiration or breath4 ,this1 like painting1 divides into a number of branches1 whereof the art of government is the highest4 #cfeb4 ,the fourth science is the ,art of ,war1 the art of motion1 histrionism1 music1 poetic art of science1 the light4 ,as in the art of poetry all arts have been blended1 so in the art of war have all sciences and all arts4 ,the art of ,war is the highest1 most exalted art2 the art of freedom and of right1 of the blessed condition of ,man and of humanity--the ,principle of ,peace4 ,,the ,,end4