,,the ,,history ,,of ,,coaches4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,plate #cg4 ,,probably ,,the ,,first ,,sociable4 ,,the ,,property ,,of ,,the ,,emperor ,,of ,,germany4 ,a ,,child',s ,,carriage ,,of ,,the ,,date ,,of #agjj4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,coaches ,,by ,g4 ,a4 ,,thrupp4 8,o1 then1 ,i see ,queen ,mab has been with you1 ,drawn with a team of little atomies1 ,her ,waggon spokes made of long spinners' legs2 ,her ,chariot is an empty hazel-nut1 ,made by the joiner squirrel1 or old grub1 ,time out o' mind the ,fairies' ,coachmakers40 ,romeo and ,juliet1 ,act ,i4 ,scene #d ,,with ,,numerous ,,illustrations4 ,,london3 ,,kerby ,,endean1 #aij ,,oxford ,,street4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,the 8,,hub0 ,,publishing ,,company4 #ahgg4 ,,london3 ,,kerby ,,endean1 #aij ,,oxford ,,street1 ,printers and ,publishers4 ,illustration ,,preface4 8,chi va piano1 va sano40#a ,italian ,proverb4 ,in the spring of #ahgf ,i was requested by the ,society for the ,encouragement of ,arts1 ,manufactures and ,commerce to prepare a series of ,lectures upon ,coachbuilding4 ,i chose as my subject the ,history of that ,art1 as likely to be more interesting than a merely technical description of the method of constructing vehicles4 ,i was desirous of enlisting the sympathies of the ,public in general in an ,art so important to the requirements of the age1 as well as of calling the attention of the artisans of our trade to the principles which govern the construction of ,carriages4 ,i need hardly add that ,i received from the ,society of ,arts all the assistance in its power towards composing the substance of the ,lectures1 and also in the preparation of the numerous diagrams by which they were illustrated2 they further aided in procuring a very large attendance of artisans1 employers1 and others interested in ,coachbuilding1 at the time of my delivering the lectures in ,november and ,december last1 in their great room at ,john ,street1 ,adelphi4 ,it is deemed desirable that these ,lectures should be re-issued in their present form4 ,i found it very difficult to arrive at the shape of the vehicles used by our forefathers on account of the absence of any connected history1 and also from the very vague descriptions contained in books on the subject1 but which were not always written for technical purposes4 ,it was not therefore without considerable search in books and examination of paintings and old engravings1 that ,i could at all ascertain the shapes of the earlier ,coaches1 and of course both my time and opportunities were limited to a few months4 ,i have little doubt that there remain rich mines of information unsearched by me1 because unknown4 ,i shall1 however1 be glad to receive any information that will enlarge our present knowledge4 ,there may be yet in ,england1 or abroad1 some ancient ,carriages which deserve to be described and photographed before they perish2 for ,carriages are too bulky to be preserved in any quantity in national museums4 ,scarce books and prints1 too1 may exist in many libraries1 and a list might be made of them2 and a record is desirable also of those students of the ,art of ,coachbuilding who made their mark in the world and have passed away4 ,any communication will be thankfully received and kept in an accessible place1 to assist any future writer who may have the time to prepare a more complete record than ,i of the ,history of ,coachbuilding4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,thrupp4 #bfi ,,oxford ,,street1 ,april1 #ahgg4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,early ,vehicles--,sledges--,solid ,wheels--,egyptian ,chariots--,early ,vehicles ,always had ,two ,horses--,king ,solomon's ,wedding ,chariot--,an ,egyptian ,mummy ,wheel--,grecian ,chariots--,vehicles of ,ancient ,rome--,scythian and ,persian ,cars--,funeral ,car of ,alexander the ,great--,war ,chariot of ,ancient ,britain--,roman ,military ,roads--,wheels ,found at ,pompeii--,later ,vehicles of the ,roman ,empire--,ancient ,roman ,dray--,carriages of ,hindostan--,a ,carriage of ,ancient ,hungary--,turkish ,carriages--,welsh and ,irish ,cars--,bristol ,coburg #a-be ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,whirlicote of the ,middle ,ages--,charettes--,cars of the ,middle ,ages--,revival of ,carriages--,the ,first ,coaches--,the ,german ,waggon--,ancient ,saxon ,waggon--,the ,horse ,litter--,the ,old ,coaches at ,coburg--,early ,italian ,coaches--,coach of ,queen ,elizabeth--,coach of ,charles ,i4--,coach of ,henri ,quatre--,time of ,louis ,,xiv4--,the ,brouette and ,steel ,springs--,the ,berlin--,old ,coaches at ,vienna--,horse ,litter at the ,imperial ,mews--,utility of ,steel ,springs--,mr ,samuel ,pepys' ,diary--,sedan ,chairs--,coachbuilding in #aggj--;,chariot l',anglaise--,encyclopdia on ,coachbuilding--,cabriolets--,light ,chariots--,the ,darnley ,chariot #bf-ee ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,state ,,coaches4 ,a ,coach of ,silver--,lord ,castlemaine's ,coach--,spanish ,ambassador's ,coach--,ancient ,spanish ,coach--,austrian ,state ,coach--,state ,funeral ,coach at ,vienna--,state ,coach of ,england--,city ,state ,coach #ef-fd ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,carriages ,,from #agij ,,to #ahgf4 ,mr ,felton's ,opinions--,proper ,strength of ,carriages--,method of ,construction--,usual ,width of ,coaches--,the ,perch--,great ,height of ,wheels in #agij--,the ,lord ,chancellor's ,coach--,the ,landau--,phaetons of #agij--,two-,wheeled ,vehicles--,taxation on ,carriages--,advance of the ,trade--,invention of ,elliptical ,springs--,carriages of ,napoleon ,buonaparte--,number of ,vehicles ,paying ,taxes--,the ,curricle--,introduction of ,undersprings--,mr ,s4 ,hobson's ,improvements--,the ,briska and the ,stanhope--,the ,tilbury and ,dog-,cart--,commercial ,travellers' ,gigs--,travelling ,carriages--,the ,pony ,phaeton and the ,droitska--,the ,cab ,phaeton and the ,victoria--,dress ,carriages--,coronation ,procession in #ahch--;,improvement of the ,landau--,introduction of the ,brougham--,waggonnettes--,exhibitions of ,carriages--,numbers of ,carriages in #ahgd #fe-if ,,chapter ,v4 ,,on ,,public ,,carriages4 ,travelling before ,a4,d4 #afjj--;,great ,width of ,waggon ,wheels--,turnpike ,roads--,post ,saddle ,horses--,hackneys--,stage ,coaches--,hackney ,coaches--,cheap ,rate of ,hire--,the ,york ,coach--,the ,manchester ,flying ,coach--,the ,post ,chaise--,the ,diligence--,post-,boys--,mr ,t4 ,pennant on ,travelling--,increase of ,mail ,coaches--,m#8,adam's ,roads--,four-in-,hand ,clubs--,russian ,travelling--,two-,wheeled ,street ,cabs--,street ,cabs need ,improvement--,hansom ,cabs--,omnibus of ,pascal--,omnibus of #ahbj--,shillibeer's ,omnibuses--,general ,omnibus ,company--,american ,coachmaking--,fast ,cabs of ,vienna #ig-abe ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,writers on ,carriages--,periodical ,publications on ,coaches--,tight ,harnessing--,height of the ,driver's ,seat--,cover to the ,driver's ,seat--,american ,buggy--,american ,trotting ,waggons--,labour-,saving ,machines--,machines ,save ,time--,american ,magazines on ,carriages--,principles of ,draught--,disadvantages of ,two-,wheeled ,vehicles--,track of ,wheels--,utility of ,high ,wheels--,side ,thrust and ,vibration of ,wheels--,pitch of ,axles and ,dish of ,wheels--,springs--,elliptic ,springs--,brake ,retarders--,india ,rubber ,brake ,blocks--,a ,load ,should ,rest on the ,highest ,wheel--,danger to a ,stage ,coach on ,low ,front ,wheels--,carriage ,drawings of ,full ,size--,value of being a ,good ,draughtsman--,mr ,gladstone on ,design--,coachmakers' ,company's ,library #abf-adj ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,frontispiece1 as ,plate #cg4 ,plate #a--;,figure #a4 ,egyptian ,car4 8 #b4 ,grecian ,car4 8 #c4 ,roman ,car4 ,plate #b--;,british ,war ,chariot4 ,plate #c--;,ancient ,roman ,chariot1 from a ,bas-,relief at ,orleans4 ,plate #d--,the ,ordinary ,german ,waggon4 ,plate #e--,two-wheeled ,carriage1 ,hindostan4 ,plate #f--;,four-wheeled ,carriage1 ,hindostan4 ,plate #g--;,hungarian ,coach1 from ,ginzrot's ,work4 ,plate #h--,the ,araba of ,turkey4 ,plate #i--;,ancient ,horse ,litter4 ,plate #aj--,wedding ,coach of ,duke of ,saxony1 #aehd4 ,plate #aa--;,ancient ,italian ,coach of #aedi4 ,plate #ab--,queen ,elizabeth's ,coach4 ,plate #ac--;,coach of time of ,charles ,i4 ,plate #ad--;,coach of ,paris in #afdf4 ,plate #ae--;,coach in which ,henry ,,iv4 was shot4 ,plate #af--;,coach in which ,louis ,,xiv4 entered ,paris in #afed4 ,plate #ag--;,coach of ,louis ,,xiv41 #agjj4 ,plate #ah--,the ,corbillard1 an early ,french ,coach4 ,plate #ai--;,brouette of ,paris1 #afgj4 ,plate #bj--,the ,berlin1 from one now at ,vienna4 ,plate #ba--,litter to be carried by horses1 now at ,vienna4 ,plate #bb--;,coach of ,charles ,,ii4's time4 ,plate #bc--,the first ,landau4 ,plate #bd--;,chariot l',anglaise1 after ,m4 ,roubo4 ,plate #be--;,a ,french ,chaise de ,poste of #agfj4 ,plate #bf--;,from a ,print published at ,rome1 #afib4 ,plate #bg--,landau of #agij4 ,plate #bh--,sociable after ,hatchett4 ,plate #bi--;,a high ,perch ,phaeton of #agij4 ,plate #cj--;,a ,one-horse ,phaeton of #agij4 ,plate #ca--;,a ,chair-back ,gig of #agij4 ,plate #cb--;,a ,caned ,whiskey of #agij4 ,plate #cc--;,a ,briska on ,c ,springs4 ,plate #cd--;,english ,stage ,coach1 #aghg1 after ,rowlandson4 ,plate #ce--;,diligence from ,paris to ,lyons4 ,plate #cf--,modern ,french ,diligence4 ,plate #cg--,probably the first ,sociable4 ,the property of the ,emperor of ,germany4 ,a ,child's ,carriage of the date of #agjj4--;,frontispiece4 ,plate #ch--;,an ,english ,post ,chaise of #agij4 ,illustration ,the ,history of the ,art of ,coachbuilding4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,early ,vehicles--,sledges--,solid ,wheels--,egyptian ,chariots--,early ,vehicles ,always had ,two ,horses--,king ,solomon's ,wedding ,chariot--,an ,egyptian ,mummy ,wheel--,grecian ,chariots--,vehicles of ,ancient ,rome--,scythian and ,persian ,cars--,funeral ,car of ,alexander the ,great--,war ,chariot of ,ancient ,britain--,roman ,military ,roads--,wheels ,found at ,pompeii--,later ,vehicles of the ,roman ,empire--,ancient ,roman ,dray--,carriages of ,hindostan--,a ,carriage of ,ancient ,hungary--,turkish ,carriages--,welsh and ,irish ,cars--,bristol ,coburg4 ,the progress of the art of ,coachbuilding1 like the progress of most inventions and discoveries1 has been slow4 ,in certain ages it has seemed to make a sudden start1 then again to remain almost stationary for a long time4 ,it is only during the last two centuries that coachmaking has been in a satisfactory condition as an art1 and it has arrived at comparative perfection only during the present century4 ,the same1 however1 may be said of other inventions3--,pendulum clocks were invented about #abfj2 paper was made from old rags about #abej2 gunpowder dates from the year #accj2 printing1 that valuable aid to the arts1 #adcj2 watches are said to have been first made in ,england about the year #aejj2 and the first coach was seen in ,england in the year #aeee1 three hundred and twenty years ago4 ,the history of coaches and carriages is not as extensive as the human race1 nor can it be traced among all those nations that have arrived at an advanced stage of civilisation4 ,ancient ,america1 especially the civilised ,mexico1 tells us nothing2 from ,china and ,japan we gain next to nothing2 and only a strip of ,north ,africa contributes to the history of wheels4 ,europe1 ,asia ,minor1 ,hindostan1 and ,tartary furnish nearly all the information we can glean4 ,the history of the art of ,coachmaking must be divided into several marked epochs4 ,the first terminates with the change of government at ,rome from the rule by ,consuls to the rule by ,emperors1 about #bjjj years ago4 ,up to this time there had been little variation in the vehicles chiefly used4 ,the second epoch terminates with the overturning of the ,roman empire1 about #aejj years ago2 during that epoch1 which was one marked by the display of great wealth1 and the indulgence of most luxurious living1 several new and larger vehicles were introduced1 and many were decorated in a costly manner4 ,the third epoch commences with the introduction of vehicles slung upon leather straps1 and may be considered to end about the year #agjj1 when the use of steel springs began to be understood4 ,the fourth epoch will end in #agij1 when coaches began to assume their present form1 size1 and style4 ,and the last epoch must commence with the introduction of carriages hung wholly on elliptic springs1 about #ahje1 by ,mr ,obadiah ,elliott4 ,this last and surprising change has been productive of very important results to all interested in the use of carriages or in ,coachbuilding4 ,by the introduction of elliptic springs the construction of wheeled vehicles has been rendered less costly1 their weight has been materially reduced1 and many complicated parts have been abandoned4 ,simultaneously the number of vehicles has been multiplied1 and their comfort and accommodation have been increased4 ,we may fairly suppose the first means of locomotion entitled to the name of a carriage to have been a sledge4 ,it would be so natural to place a burden1 too heavy for the shoulders1 on some slight framework1 and drag it over the ground4 ,a very little experience would enable a man to judge of the best form for a sledge2 and1 in point of fact1 the first sledge of which we find any record1 on a sculpture of the ,temple of ,luxor1 at ,thebes1 in ,egypt1 is precisely similar to that used by brewers' draymen in ,london4 ,it has two long runners slightly turned upwards in front1 and half-a-dozen cross pieces to unite the runners and bear the burden4 ,sledges of many shapes and fashions are in use during the winter in most countries where snow lies for any length of time upon the ground1 as sledges glide more easily over its surface than do wheels4 ,the ,esquimaux and the ,laplanders habitually use sledges1 all more raised from the ground than the sledge that carries the casks of the brewers4 ,the ,swiss and other inhabitants of mountain districts use sledges to bring down hewn timber and faggots to the valleys2 and a hundred years ago1 when carts were not so numerous1 it was common in ,england to load the new-made hay or sheaves of wheat on light high sledges for transport to the farm yard4 ,in ,north ,america and ,northern ,europe1 sledges of elegant shape are every year in use2 and in ,holland and ,belgium1 during some winters1 not only do the gentry ride in sledges two or three months1 but the meat1 bread1 and vegetables are run through the streets daily on hand sledges4 ,egypt is the chief of the countries of which we have any record of the arts and manufactures introduced by the progress of civilisation4 ,egypt had1 at an early period1 buildings composed of very large stones2 in moving these the sledge and the roller were used2 and it is natural that these should be combined to form a low truck or platform moving on rollers4 ,later on1 wheels and axles were substituted for rollers2 at first wheels were slices of the trunk of a tree1 all solid pieces of wood1 and firmly wedged to the axles4 ,thus the wheels and axle revolved together below the cart or truck1 and were retained in their position by strong wooden pins like the thole-pins or rowlocks of a boat4 ,the wheels and axle revolve together in tramway cars and in railway carriages4 ,carts are made in this way now in ,portugal1 ,spain1 and in ,south ,america4 ,all the earlier carts seem to have been fitted only with a pole1 and at least two animals seem always to have been yoked together to the vehicle4 ,the objection to the wheels and axle in one piece is1 that it is difficult to turn a vehicle thus fitted in a small space4 ,any one using a garden-roller round a corner may easily convince himself of this1 for whilst the outer edge of the roller is going over the necessary sweep1 the inner edge is sliding on and crushing the gravel walk2 it should be moving independently4 ,it was soon discovered in ,egypt that it was better to have a fixed axle-tree1 and allow the wheels to revolve independently of one another4 ,a wheeled carriage appears to have been in very general use in ,egypt at an early period1 called a car or chariot3 in the ,bible it is usually translated 8chariot40 ,there are paintings and sculptures upon the walls of the temples and tombs of ,egypt which have lasted four thousand years1 and from those we learn precisely the appearance of these chariots4 ,they are of great interest to us1 as they formed the chief means of conveying man for two thousand years before ,christ1 and were more or less the type of all other vehicles of the ancient world4 ,we find certain words used in describing them1 both by ,homer1 who lived a thousand years before ,christ1 and by ,moses1 who lived at least five hundred years earlier1 and that the words are technical terms1 such as axles1 wheels1 naves1 felloes1 tyres1 spokes1 c4 ,now technical terms imply that the art that had such terms must have existed prior to the writer who speaks of the art1 so that1 if we hesitated as to the date of the chariots sculptured and painted on the walls of the ,egyptian temples1 we are reassured by the terms used by the authors we name4 ,moses1 in the description of the wheels upon which moved the great cauldron used by the priest1 and ,homer1 in describing the car of the goddess ,juno1 used the same terms4 ,we read in the fifth book of the ,iliad1 8,the awful ,juno led out the golden-bitted horses1 whilst ,hebe fitted the whirling wheels on the iron axles of the swift chariot4 ,the wheels had each eight brazen spokes1 the felloes were of gold secured with brazen tyres all round1 admirable to the sight4 ,the seat was of gold1 hung by silver cords2 the beam 7or pole7 was of silver1 at the end of which was hung the golden yoke and the golden reins40 ,these cars ,plate #a1 ,figure #a were occasionally square1 but more generally semicircular or horse-shoe shaped2 the rounded front towards the horses was high1 the sides lower1 the back was open1 and the bottom was near the ground1 so that it was easy to step in and out4 ,the wheels1 especially in ,egypt1 were very low1 from #b ft4 #f in4 to #c ft4 #c in4 in height4 ,the framework of the body was often open1 but sometimes closed up with leather skins or basket-work1 and occasionally with carved wood or embossed metal4 ,the pole by which it was supported curved up from the bottom of the bar to the backs of the necks of the horses or oxen1 where it was joined to a wooden yoke1 this was again strapped round the bodies and necks of the horses1 or tied to the horns of the oxen4 ,the addition of bridles and reins would complete the simple harness4 ,some horses were attached to the pole by an iron bar with knobs at each end1 which passed through a ring at the end of the pole1 and through a similar ring upon each of the pads or saddles of the horses4 ,this would be very similar to the curricle bars used in modern times1 and would allow of more ,illustration3 ,,plate #a4 ,,fig3 #a4 ,,egyptian ,,car1 ,,fig3 #b4 ,,grecian ,,car1 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,roman ,,car freedom in motion than a fixed yoke would give4 ,the bodies of these chariots1 in ,egypt at least1 were small1 usually containing but two persons standing upright4 ,it may be remarked that1 as they were so small1 they could not have been of much use1 and from the small size of the wheels1 too1 they would be jolted by every little obstacle on the road2 and as they were so near the ground1 those using them would be exposed to mud and dirt3 yet1 in spite of these objections1 they were used in vast numbers4 ,they were very light1 and could be driven at a great speed--nearly as fast as the horses could gallop4 ,they were narrow1 and1 therefore1 suitable to cities in which the streets are still very narrow1 and to mountain roads which were often only #d ft4 wide4 ,they suited the period and the people1 or their usefulness would not have lasted #bjjj years4 ,according to ,homer1 a strong man could lift a chariot on his shoulders and carry it away4 ,possibly this would be without the wheels1 but even then it could not have been heavier than one of our wheel-barrows4 ,from ,egypt the use of chariots spread into other countries1 and they were used in war in large numbers upon the extensive plains of ,asia4 ,we read of the #ijj chariots of ,jabin1 king of ,canaan2 that ,david took #gjj chariots from the kings of ,syria1 and #ajjj from the king of ,zobah4 ,solomon had #adjj chariots1 and his merchants supplied northern ,syria and the surrounding countries with chariots fetched up out of ,egypt at #fjj shekels 7about #ej7 a-piece4 ,they were not the first nor the last merchants who have preferred their pockets to their patriotism1 and supplied nations who might become their country's enemies with the weapons of warfare4 ,solomon1 we find1 in the ,song of ,solomon1 built a state or wedding chariot of cedar with pillars of gold1 probably supporting a canopy4 ,we may also notice the poetic description by the prophet ,nahum of the future state of ,nineveh1 no longer to echo 8to the noise of the chariots raging up and down the paved streets1 jostling against one another in the broad ways1 with the crack of the whip1 the rattle of the wheels1 the prancing horses and the jumping chariots20 and the remark in another place of 8the stamping of strong horses1 the rushing of the chariots1 and the rumbling of the wheels10 all pointing to the great impression which was made upon the prophet of the wilderness by the carriages and noise of the crowded city4 ,in a museum of ,new ,york is a wheel of an ,egyptian chariot1 found in a mummy pit at ,dashour1 by ,dr ,henry ,abbott4 ,it is #c ft4 #c in4 high1 the nave is #ad in4 long1 and #e in4 in diameter1 and worked upon an axle of wood which tapered1 and was from #c in4 to #b in4 in diameter4 ,the unusual size and length of this axle-arm would be very apparent in so small a vehicle as the ,egyptian chariot2 the spokes1 six in number1 are #b in4 by #a in4 at the nave1 and taper towards the felloe to #a in4 round2 it has a double rim all round4 ,the six inner felloes do not meet as in modern wheels1 but are spliced one over the other1 with an overlap of #c in42 the felloes are #a in4 square4 ,the outer rim is formed also of six felloes1 but they are tenoned together1 and are pierced all round the lower edge with small holes1 through which1 we may well conjecture1 leather thongs passed1 binding the outer to the inner rim4 ,the total depth of the double rim is #c in4 by #a in4 to #a in4 in width4 ,from the ancient sculptures preserved from ,nineveh and ,babylon1 some of which are in the ,british ,museum1 we observe the use of chariots was continued in the great plains1 for the purposes of hunting as well as for war4 ,the chariots of ,assyria were larger than those of ,egypt1 and would carry three or more persons2 they seem1 too1 much heavier in the build4 ,the ,greeks used chariots1 and at the siege of ,troy1 which ,homer has immortalised in his poem1 all the chief warriors on both sides are described as going into battle and fighting from their chariots4 ,as years passed on1 however1 the ,greeks no longer used chariots for war1 but only for processions in public on state occasions1 or in their great races1 or for the amusement of their leisure hours4 ,erectheus1 king of ,athens1 is reported to have been the first to drive four horses in a car2 afterwards it became common to use1 in the races1 four horses attached to each car4 ,the ,grecian chariots were all curved in front1 and were rather larger and on higher wheels than those used in ,egypt4 ,plate #a1 ,figure #b4 ,the ,roman nation1 as it increased in power1 adopted the car1 which had also been for many years in use by the ,etrurians1 a neighbouring country to their own in the ,italian peninsula4 ,the ,etrurians were traditionally the first to place a hood or awning over the open two-wheeled car2 they decorated both the car and the awning with that beautiful tracery and ornamental bordering which is familiar to us from the copies of their pottery4 ,the ,roman car was chiefly used in the cities1 and for purposes of show and state rather than for daily use4 ,a beautiful marble model of one of these still exists at the ,vatican in ,rome2 a copy of it and the horses drawing it is in the ,museum at ,south ,kensington4 ,plate #a1 ,figure #c4 ,besides the chariots the ,romans had other two-wheeled cars1 and four-wheeled waggons of different shapes1 and giving different accommodation2 but first they were kept for conveying agricultural produce1 and for moving goods and baggage1 and the better sorts were reserved for the conveyance of the images of their gods and vestal virgins in religious processions4 ,then came the triumphal processions of successful military commanders1 and a variety of vehicles conveyed the conqueror1 the captives1 and the arms and valuables taken from the enemy4 ,plutarch tells us that ,emilius1 the ,roman ,consul1 had #gej waggons in his triumph in the year #agj ,b4,c41 bearing the spoils of ,perseus1 last king of ,macedonia4 ,on the column of ,trajan at ,rome is modelled one of these waggons4 ,it is a large square basket on four wheels1 the back a little higher1 and the hind wheels also are a very little higher than the front4 ,roman history1 of the time of ,camillus1 #cej ,b4,c41 mentions a carriage termed a ,pilentum1 as a splendid four-wheeled carriage with a covering to it1 and with seats suspended by straps4 ,the use of these ,pilenta was allowed as a special favour to a few great ,roman ladies4 ,the ,empress ,agrippina also had a ,carpentum1 an elegantly carved carriage on two wheels1 the arched covering of which was supported by four female statues2 it was drawn by two mules4 ,the ,romans also used ,bastern1 which were litters or couches with low coverings1 carried on poles by horses or mules2 and ,lectic1 or litters carried by men only4 ,the ,roman chariot was called a ,currus4 ,herodotus 7#dej ,b4,c471 and other writers tell us of the vehicles of the ancient ,scythians4 ,these were a race of people who inhabited the country near the ,caspian ,sea1 and wandered about with large herds of cattle and horses4 ,they used a rough two-wheeled cart which consisted of a platform1 on which they placed a covering shaped like a bee-hive1 and composed of basket-work of hazel-wood covered with skins of beasts or thatched with reeds4 ,when they were stationary in any part these bee-hive huts were taken off the carts and placed upon the ground to serve as their dwellings1 like gipsy tents4 ,the war-chariots used by the ,persians were larger and more unwieldy than those previously built4 ,the idea seems to have been to form a sort of turret upon the car1 from which several warriors might shoot or throw their spears4 ,these chariots were provided with curved blades or scythes projecting from the axle-trees4 ,the ,persians had also cars that were used for state processions1 in which the king or noble was raised above the crowd among which he passed on a sort of throne of many steps4 ,the ,dacians1 who inhabited ,wallachia on the ,danube and part of ,hungary1 were conquered by the ,romans about the year #cjj4 ,their cars are sculptured upon ,roman monuments1 and resemble the ,persian cars4 ,they are on two wheels and drawn by two horses2 the shape is that of a large square box or chest1 with a smaller box upon it1 which formed a seat for the passengers4 ,the spokes of the wheels are six in number1 and are widest at the ends supporting the rims of the wheels4 ,a ,dacian car of this sort is represented upon a fragment of terra cotta in the ,british ,museum4 ,alexander the ,great1 ,king of ,macedon1 invaded ,asia and advanced to ,india2 he was met upon the banks of the river ,indus by ,king ,porus1 in whose army were a number of elephants of large size1 and also several thousand chariots2 each chariot carried six persons2 but the historian notes that in a soft soil or in rainy weather it was difficult for these vehicles to move quickly4 ,on ,alexander's return from ,india towards ,persia1 he travelled in a chariot drawn by eight horses1 on which a square stage or platform was erected and covered in by a tent4 ,his car was followed by an innumerable number of others1 covered with rich carpets and purple coverlets2 some shaped like shells or cradles were shaded with the branches of trees4 ,i have seen a drawing of a ,persian car in which the body is raised above the wheels and seems to swing from pivots like a large cradle1 or such a cot as is used on board ship4 ,after ,alexander's death a funeral car was prepared ,illustration3 ,,plate #b4 ,,british ,,war ,,chariot ,illustration3 ,,plate #c4 ,,ancient ,,roman ,,chariot ,illustration3 ,,plate #d4 ,,the ,,ordinary ,,german ,,waggon4 to convey his body from ,babylon to ,alexandria1 in ,egypt1 a distance of several hundred miles1 which car perhaps has never been excelled in the annals of coachbuilding4 ,it was prepared during two years1 and was designed by the celebrated architect and engineer1 ,hieronymus4 ,it was #ah feet long and #ab feet wide1 on four massive wheels and drawn by sixty-four mules1 eight abreast4 ,the car was composed of a platform with a lofty roof supported by eighteen columns1 and was profusely adorned with drapery and gold and jewels2 round the edge of the roof was a row of golden bells2 in the centre was a throne1 and before it the coffin2 around were placed the weapons of war and the armour that ,alexander had used4 ,this car was thought so much of that several historians have described it1 and there are various plans of its appearance1 one of which may be seen in ,ginzrot's work on ancient carriages in the ,british ,museum library4 ,the second epoch of the history of carriages ,i take to commence at the invasion of ,belgium and ,britain by the ,romans4 ,the ancient ,britains had used a car for warlike purposes which was evidently new to the ,romans4 ,plate ,no4 #b4 ,it was on higher wheels than their cars1 it was open in front1 and was ascended in the front1 instead of1 as in their cars1 at the back2 the pole1 instead of sloping up to the horses' necks1 went straight out between the horses' bodies1 and was broad1 so that the driver of the car could stand on it1 and if necessary1 drive from the end of the pole1 or leap out and stand before his horses4 ,it was larger than a ,roman car1 and above all it possessed a seat1 and was called essedum from this peculiarity4 ,at times this car was furnished with scythes1 which projected from the axle-tree ends4 ,no doubt the same or a similar car was used by the ,gauls and ,belgians2 but the ,british essedum was the best2 and ,cicero1 writing to a friend in ,britain1 remarks 8that there appeared to be very little worth bringing away from ,britain except the chariots1 of which he wished his friend to bring him one as a pattern40 ,when ,cassibelaunus was taken prisoner by the ,romans1 they also captured six hundred cars and four thousand essedarii1 or car-drivers and warriors4 ,i think we may look upon this vehicle as the origin of the curricle of later years4 ,it is certain that it attracted great notice among the ,romans1 and under its own name1 essedum1 and with another of a smaller size and with still higher wheels called cisium1 became the chief and most rapid vehicles upon the public roads1 whether in ,italy itself1 or along the military roads already made into ,france1 ,spain1 or ,germany4 ,despatches and letters were conveyed with speed and punctuality to the more distant parts of the ,roman ,empire4 ,the historian ,suetonius mentions that the ,emperor ,augustus established on the military roads active young men at first1 and afterwards carriages1 to convey his despatches to the governors of the provinces4 ,besides these rapid conveyances along the public roads1 there was the rheda1 a slow sort of waggon drawn by six or eight mules4 ,buildings were erected along the main road where these different carriages could be hired4 ,cicero declares that a message was sent fifty-six miles in a cisium in ten hours4 ,on a monumental column at ,ingel1 near ,treves1 is the representation of two persons riding in a cisium with one horse4 ,the vehicle is very much like a gig4 ,under the ,emperors of ,rome1 the number of kinds and shapes of vehicles increased2 but from the vague manner in which the writers of the period speak of them1 it is difficult to enter into minute descriptions4 ,the height of the wheels increased4 ,at the capital of ,rome1 the ,emperor ,marcus ,aurelius is represented in a car of triumph1 the wheels of which are as high as the backs of the horses4 ,sir ,william ,gell1 in his work on the ancient city of ,pompeii1 which was destroyed in the year ,a4,d4 #gi1 mentions that three wheels had been dug out of the ruins in his day--very much like our modern wheels--a little dished1 and #d ft4 #c in4 high1 with ten spokes1 rather thicker at each end than in the middle4 ,sir ,w4 ,gell also gives a well-known picture of a cart used for conveyance of wine in a huge skin or leathern bag2 it is a four-wheeled cart1 with an arch in the centre for the front wheel to turn under4 ,the pole in this painting appears to end in a fork1 and to be attached to the axle-bed4 ,as the wealth of the ,romans increased so did their desire to use comfortable and highly-decorated carriages4 ,for many years what are called 8sumptuary laws0 existed1 which regulated each citizen's dress1 furniture1 and ornaments1 according to his rank and consequence1 and these laws restrained the decorations upon private carriages4 ,the ,emperor ,alexander ,severus1 however1 issued a decree1 8that anyone might decorate his car as he pleased20 and the number of vehicles in use rapidly increased4 ,we find upon monuments many different shaped cars of the time of the ,emperors1 chiefly processional cars1 lofty and highly ornamented1 evidently adorned with embossed and chased work in metal1 rich carvings1 drapery and cushions4 ,on the columns of ,theodosius1 at ,constantinople1 are some specially handsome cars on two and on four wheels1 with door-like openings in the sides of a square shape4 ,on the arch of ,constantine1 at ,rome1 are several cars4 ,sufficient evidence1 however1 exists1 that for nearly #ejj years1 during the reign of the different ,emperors of ,rome1 the art of ,coachbuilding must have been a good and important business4 ,besides the ordinary artizans1 the woodmen1 the wheelwrights1 and the smiths1 there must have been plenty of employment for the carvers1 painters1 chasers1 embossers1 embroiderers1 and trimmers4 ,homer1 as ,i have mentioned1 tells us that the seat of ,juno's car was slung upon cords1 to lessen the vibration and jolting attendant upon a car without springs or braces2 and it is certain that the ,roman ,emperors were not better off for comfort and ease than ,juno was1 unless we except one sort of carriage which is described as borne on long poles1 fixed to the axles4 ,now a certain amount of spring can be obtained from the centre of a long light pole4 ,the ,neapolitan ,calesso1 the ,norwegian ,carriole1 and the ,yarmouth ,cart1 were all made with a view to obtaining ease by suspension on poles between bearings placed far apart4 ,in these the seat is placed midway between the two wheels and the horse1 on very long shafts1 which are thus made into wooden springs4 ,in the old ,roman carriages the weight was carried between the front and hind axles1 on long poles or wooden springs4 ,the under-carriage of the later four-wheeled vehicles used by the ,romans was1 in all probability1 the same as is in use in the present day1 both in this country and on the ,continent1 and in ,america1 for the under-carriages of agricultural waggons4 ,there is a work on the subject of ancient carriages which was published at ,munich in #ahag2 it was prepared by ,john ,christian von ,ginzrot1 who was an inspector in the office of the ,master of the ,horse of the ,king of ,bavaria4 ,a few copies of this work exist still1 but only in the ,german language1 and not easily accessible to the public4 ,this author gives the ,greek and ,latin names for the pole1 perch1 wheel-plate1 and other technical terms of carriages so fully as to leave no doubt that coach-building was well understood by the ,romans4 ,he also gives a plan of a four-wheeled dray ,plate #d1 used by the ,romans for conveying casks of wine1 which is identical with the drays used now in ,vienna and ,munich4 ,if his authorities be sound1 we may be satisfied that the art of coachbuilding1 as far as the under-carriage works1 and the making of agricultural waggons1 was as forward in the days of the ,csars of ,rome as it is to this day in central ,germany4 ,we will1 however1 quit ancient carriages for those now used in ,asia4 ,in ,hindostan are a great number of vehicles of native build4 ,it has been frequently remarked that there is little change in the ,eastern fashions1 that tools and workmen are precisely as they were a thousand years ago1 and the work they produce is precisely the same4 ,in examining what is done now by ,indian coachbuilders1 we are probably noticing carriages of a similar1 if not identical1 sort with those in use three thousand years ago4 ,the commonest cart in ,hindostan is called 8hackery0 by ,europeans2 it is on two wheels with a high axletree-bed1 and a long platform1 frequently made of two bamboos1 which join in front and form the pole1 to which two oxen are yoked2 the whole length is united by smaller pieces of bamboo tied together1 not nailed4 ,in ,france1 two hundred years ago1 there was a similar cart1 but the main beams terminated in front in shafts2 in neither the cart of ,india nor of ,france were there any sides or ends2 the ,french cart is called 8,haquet20 it is probable that the ,french1 who were in ,india as well as ourselves1 may have given the term 8hackery0 to the native cart1 which was so like their own4 ,the native name1 however1 is 8,gharry40 ,other carts have sides made by stakes driven into the side beams2 the wheels are sometimes of solid wood1 or even of stone4 ,wheels are also made by a plank with rounded ends1 and two felloes fitted on to complete the circle4 ,again1 wheels are made like ours1 and also with six or eight spokes1 which are placed in pairs1 each pair close to and parallel with one another4 ,if a carriage for the rich is required the underworks are like those of a cart1 but the pole is carefully padded and ornamented with handsome cloths or velvet2 the ,illustration3 ,,plate #e4 ,,two ,,wheeled ,,carriage1 ,,hindostan4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #f4 ,,four ,,wheeled ,,carriage1 ,,hindostan4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #g4 ,,hungarian ,,coach ,,from ,,ginzrot',s ,,work4 sides of the body are railed or carved1 and the top is of a very ornamental character1 similar to the howdah of state that is placed on an elephant4 ,it has a domed roof1 supported upon four pillars1 with curtains to the back and sides ,plate #e4 ,the passengers ride cross-legged under the dome1 on pillows4 ,the driver sits on the pole1 which is broad at the butt-end1 and he is screened from the heat by a cloth which is fastened to the dome roof and supported upon two stakes which point outwards from the body4 ,a variety of different shaped native vehicles may be seen in elaborate models in the ,india ,museum at ,south ,kensington1 but they do not show much originality of design nor beauty of execution1 and are said to be really creaking and lumbering affairs4 ,when the ,hindoos wished for a four-wheeled vehicle1 the plan appears to have been to hook on one two-wheeled vehicle behind another ,plate #f1 connecting them with a perch-bolt1 and upon the hindermost they placed the body4 ,there is a singular addition to their vehicles outside the wheels2 a piece of wood curved to the shape of the wheel is placed above it1 frequently supported by two straight uprights from the end of the axle-tree outside the wheel2 this acts as a wing or guard to keep any one from falling out of the vehicle1 and also the dress of the passengers from becoming entangled in the wheel4 ,in addition1 a long bar of wood1 rather longer than the diameter of the wheel1 curved in the shape called 8cupid's bow10 is fastened to the axletree1 the linchpin being outside of it1 and the ends of the bar tied to the ends of the wing by cords4 ,i imagine it to be placed in order to be a safeguard for the people in crowded streets1 who might be pushed by the throng against the wheel4 ,it will be seen in many of the models1 and ,i have seen it also in ancient drawings of ,indian and ,persian vehicles4 ,many of the carts1 which are designed to carry heavy loads1 have a curved rest from #bj in4 to #cj in4 long attached to the lower side of the front end of the pole2 this serves not only as a prop whilst the vehicle is being loaded1 but1 should the oxen trip and fall1 it supports the cart1 and prevents the load1 yoke1 and harness from weighing down the poor animals as they struggle to recover themselves4 ,in ,england we have very few of these humane contrivances2 we have1 however1 short rests to prop up a hansom cab when not at work4 ,in ,india there are several huge unwieldy structures on wheels called 8idol cars20 the name of the car of ,juggernaut must be familiar to many4 ,the wheels of some of these are enormous blocks of stone shaped and drilled for the work4 ,in the ,indian ,museum there is a photograph of an idol car from ,south ,india1 in the district of ,chamoondee and the province of ,mysore1 which deserves examination4 ,the car appears well proportioned1 and the ornamental carvings are beautiful in design1 and would bear comparison with most ,european work4 ,the ,hecca or ,heka is a one-horse native car1 resembling an ,irish car2 it consists of a tray for the body1 fixed above the wheels on the shafts1 and has a canopy roof2 the driver sits on the front edge of the tray1 and the passenger cross-legged behind him4 ,the ,shampony is the usual vehicle for women1 which resembles the former1 but it is larger2 the wheels are outside the body1 and it is drawn by two bullocks2 the canopy roof is furnished with curtains that are drawn all round1 and the driver sits on the pole in front of the body4 ,all these native vehicles have wooden axles1 which1 until recently1 ,i am told1 were used without grease1 from the prejudices of the people forbidding them to use animal fat4 ,some used olive oil or soap1 but in most large towns there are now regulations obliging the natives to use some substance to avoid the noise and creaking of the dry axles4 ,the commonest carriages in ,central ,india are called 8,tongas10 but the universal native word for a vehicle is 8,gharry40 ,in ,calcutta are several coachbuilders of repute1 who employ large numbers of native workmen2 ,messrs ,dyke employ six hundred2 ,messrs ,stewart ,co4 four hundred2 and ,messrs ,eastman1 three hundred4 ,the men are chiefly ,hindoos1 and are clever and industrious1 but have a singular habit of sitting down at their work4 ,the labourers who have to use grease are all ,mahomedans4 ,the wages vary from sixpence to two shillings per day4 ,a representation of a primitive vehicle1 which was in use in ,hungary not very long ago1 is given by ,von ,ginzrot as representing the ,roman rhedum4 ,it is very curious1 and just such a primitive affair as might be made in any country4 ,plate #g4 ,the body is a disguised waggon2 the tilt-top has two leather flaps to fall over the doorway2 the panels are of wicker work1 such as was in common use for carriages both in ,greece and ,italy2 and of such a character we may suppose the waggons were1 which were used by the many wandering tribes that1 in the times of the ,roman empire1 poured out of ,asia and ,russia1 and invaded ,germany1 ,gaul1 and ,italy4 ,in the history of ,julius ,csar's wars in ,gaul1 we are told of the large number of waggons which the savage wandering tribes possessed4 ,another primitive vehicle is the ,turkish 8,araba10 ,plate #h used for the conveyance of women4 ,the lattice-work admits air without too much light4 ,the singular wing-guards over the wheels identify this 8,araba0 as being derived from the same source as the carriages of ,persia and ,hindostan4 ,these vehicles have been superseded in many parts of ,turkey1 ,asia1 and ,egypt by carriages sent from the west of ,europe4 ,in #ahfj a carriage was made for one of the ladies of the ,sultan's harem1 which consisted of silver as far as possible4 ,it cost1 it is said1 #b1jjj1jjj ,turkish piastres1 about #ae1jjj1 a very expensive present for the ruler of ,turkey to make to one out of many wives4 ,to speak of one more primitive carriage4 ,dr ,edgeworth describes some cars which were in use in his time 7that is in #ahjj7 in ,ireland1 as the common vehicles of the country4 ,they were composed of shafts with cross-bars2 two low wheels of solid wood were wedged on to the axle-tree1 so as to form one piece1 like a railway axle and wheels2 they were nearer together than the shafts1 and ran inside the shafts2 the axle projected beyond the wheels1 and moved in sockets beneath the shafts4 ,these cars1 ,dr ,edgeworth says1 8cost only four guineas1 including painting2 they would follow a horse anywhere1 they could scarcely be overturned even with bulky loads1 they were light and easily moved by hand1 their repair was easy1 and they lay so near the ground that they could be easily loaded and unloaded2 the whole would turn in a very small compass40 ,it is probable that these were the primitive cars of ,ireland4 ,the nearest approach to them in the present day are the costermonger's barrows4 ,we have noticed how light and simple are these vehicles1 and that a wretched pony or donkey will canter along with three or even four persons sitting upon them4 ,they also resemble the ,yarmouth cart1 in which the wheels are inside the shafts2 but then the difference is1 that the shafts of the ,yarmouth carts are of great length1 and the load is carried between the horse and the wheels instead of over the wheels1 as is usual in a cart4 ,in some parts of ,wales cars are used of this construction1 and are also supposed to be the primitive cars of that country2 their wheels are solid4 ,in ,yarmouth this shape was adopted to suit the very narrow streets or alleys1 which a cart made with the wheels outside the shafts could not traverse4 ,the great length of the shafts is occasioned by the necessity of carrying a quantity of goods1 such as barrels or sacks1 which would tend to make the vehicle top-heavy1 if piled up above the wheels4 ,the ,irish jaunting car1 as now built1 is superior to the vehicle of forty years ago4 ,it was then on lower wheels1 and being hung lower1 the shafts pitched up in front1 and the unfortunate passengers were huddled upon one another at every jolt in the road4 ,this car was very light1 a great benefit for the horse2 it is easily turned and moved in a crowded thoroughfare1 and is capable of conveying more luggage than might at first be supposed4 ,the car is no doubt very cheap1 and perhaps more ,irish drivers are able to own their own cars than are the drivers of ,london cabs4 ,irishmen1 perhaps1 like the vehicle to which they are accustomed1 but it will never become popular in this country4 ,the car1 however1 used in ,cork1 is still more uncomfortable4 ,it is an inside car1 that is1 instead of sitting back to back1 you sit face to face1 and to most there is a hood or tilt2 a very good vehicle1 no doubt1 for two persons at a slow pace1 but with four persons at a trot it is the worst vehicle ,i had ever the misfortune to enter4 ,if the ,cork car was hung on higher wheels1 and the shafts kept parallel to the ground1 it would be a better vehicle2 if1 however1 it cannot be balanced properly1 it should be placed upon four wheels1 like the inside cars of the ,north of ,england4 ,i will mention one more primitive vehicle1--the cart with a tilt1 with side windows1 and a door behind1 which is called a ,coburg1 and is used in the south-west of ,england2 when on good springs1 it is a very cheap and comfortable vehicle4 ,in ,belgium and ,holland it is much used1 and is usually built of a larger size than in ,england4 ,it is1 however1 after all1 rather like a bathing-machine on wheels4 ,it is to be found pictured in our earliest illustrations of vehicles in old ,english illuminated manuscripts1 differing from the modern ,coburg only in the want of a door and springs4 ,in reviewing what ,i have laid before you as to ancient carriages1 ,i would say1 that any one who desires to learn more about them can do so in the pages of the ,london ,carriage ,builders' ,art ,journal for #ahei and #ahfj1 which appears to contain much of the information given by the ,german work of ,von ,ginzrot4 ,it is interesting to observe the character of the different people illustrated in their carriages4 ,the ,egyptians1 with all their learning and skill1 appear to have made no change during centuries of experience2 as at the beginning1 so at the end1 the kings stand by the side of their charioteers1 or hold the reins themselves4 ,the ,persians and ,hindoos introduced luxurious improvements1 and in lofty vehicles elevated the nobles above the heads of the people1 and secluded their women in curtained carriages4 ,the ,greeks introduced no new vehicles1 but perfected so successfully the useful waggon1 that their model is still seen throughout ,europe1 without change of principle or structure4 ,the ,romans1 on the other hand1 in their career of conquest1 gathered from every nation what was good1 and1 wherever possible1 improved upon it3--,from ,greece1 the waggons2 from ,persia1 the harmamaxa and elevated triumphal cars2 and from ,hungary1 the rheda4 ,we may well add that the genius of the ,roman nation speaks through ,cicero1 when he wrote1 8,i hear that in ,britain are most excellent chariots2 bring me one of them for a pattern40 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,whirlicote of the ,middle ,ages--,charettes--,cars of the ,middle ,ages--,revival of ,carriages--,the first ,coaches--,the ,german ,waggon--,ancient ,saxon ,waggon--,the ,horse ,litter--,the ,old ,coaches at ,coburg--,early ,italian ,coaches--,coach of ,queen ,elizabeth--,coach of ,charles ,i4--,coach of ,henri ,quatre--,time of ,louis ,,xiv4--,the ,brouette and ,steel ,springs--,the ,berlin--,old ,coaches at ,vienna--,horse ,litter at the ,imperial ,mews--,utility of ,steel ,springs--,mr ,samuel ,pepys' ,diary--,sedan ,chairs--,coachbuilding in #aggj--;,chariot l',anglaise--,encyclopdia on ,coachbuilding--,cabriolets--,light ,chariots--,the ,darnley ,chariot4 ,with the decadence of the ,romans we may well suppose many of the arts of civilisation fell into disuse4 ,the skilled artisans died out and left no successors1 for their work was not required1 and for some centuries we find little or no mention of carriages4 ,ordinary carts were used1 it is true1 but the great and wealthy moved about the cities or travelled on horseback1 and if ill they had litters carried by men or horses4 ,but another cause tended to the disuse of wheeled carriages--the state of the roads4 ,the ,romans had been celebrated for the perfection of their roads2 some of these have lasted nearly two thousand years4 ,there is one1 called the ,appian way1 which leads from ,rome to near ,naples1 made ,b4,c4 #ejj by the ,consul1 ,appius ,claudius1 which is paved with blocks of stone1 and can still be travelled upon after such a lapse of time4 ,roads like these could easily be traversed by carriages1 but in the course of time they fell into disorder1 whilst barbarian tribes had overrun ,italy and driven the ,romans from ,germany1 ,france1 and ,britain4 ,the increase of population caused a gradual increase of traffic1 and the formation of new roads1 which1 from the absence of method in making them1 soon became mere horse-tracks1 and very unsuitable for travelling on wheels for pleasure4 ,we ascertain1 however1 from old manuscripts and books1 that1 by degrees1 the use of two and four-wheeled carts was revived by the wealthy1 in addition to riding on horseback as a means of travelling4 ,the only distinction1 however1 from common carriers' carts was in the use of carving on the woodwork1 and gaily coloured curtains and cushions4 ,in the reign of ,richard ,,ii41 we find mention of a vehicle termed a whirlicote1 viz41 a cot or bed upon wheels4 ,the king and his mother rode a whirlicote in #achj1 when she was sick1 and history tells us that they were much used for the conveyance of ladies1 but still more for their luggage4 ,we are told by ,stowe that 8in the following year ,king ,richard took to wife ,anne1 the daughter of the ,king of ,bohemia1 and she first brought hither the riding upon sidesaddles1 and so was the riding in those chariots and whirlicotes forsaken except at coronations and such like spectacles40 ,we have here evidence that the chariot and whirlicote of that time were identical4 ,in #abid1 ,philip1 ,king of ,france1 issued an ordinance prohibiting the citizens' wives the use of cars or chars4 ,in #abfg1 ,charles of ,anjou entered ,naples1 and his queen1 ,beatrice1 rode in a ,caretta1 the outside and inside covered with sky-blue velvet powdered with golden lilies1 and in #abgc ,pope ,gregory ,x4 entered ,milan in a caretta4 ,in an early ,english poem1 the father of a princess of ,hungary promises-- 8,to-morrow ye shall on hunting fare1 ,and ride my daughter in a char2 ,it shall be covered with velvet red1 ,and cloths of velvet about your head40 ,froissart speaks of the return of the ,english from ,scotland in the time of ,edward ,,iii4 in their charettes about #acfj4 ,we can therefore trace the word chariot from the original ,roman currus1 car1 char1 charette1 charet1 chariot1 as a vehicle used in the middle ages1 and gradually becoming that chiefly used in state processions4 ,when ,king ,henry ,,viii4's queen1 ,anne ,boleyn1 went to her coronation1 she passed through the streets of ,london2 gravel had been strewed all over the pavement that the horses should not slide1 and wooden railings were placed along the route2 this was on ,may #cast1 #aecc4 ,anne herself was in a litter of white cloth of gold1 not covered or bailled1 which was carried by two palfreys clad in white damask to the ground1 led by two footmen2 following her were two chariots covered with red cloth of gold1 a third chariot in white1 with six ladies in it in crimson velvet2 and a fourth chariot was red1 with eight ladies in it4 ,twenty years later1 on ,september #cjth1 #aeec1 ,queen ,mary ,tudor rode through the city from the ,tower to ,westminster to her coronation in a chariot of cloth of tissue1 drawn by six horses trapped with the like cloth1 and a canopy was borne over her chariot4 ,a second chariot had a covering of cloth of silver all white1 and six horses trapped with the like1 wherein sat ,lady ,elizabeth and the ,lady ,anne of ,cleves4 ,then two other chariots covered with red satin1 and the horses betrapped with the same4 ,also forty-six gentlewomen rode on horseback in the procession4 ,now what was the shape of these chariots8 ,we are able to judge from a painting of the triumph of the ,emperor ,maximillian ,i41 on the walls of the ,town-hall at ,nuremburg1 a copy of which is in the ,museum at ,south ,kensington1 also from a sculpture at ,orleans ,cathedral ,plate #c1 and from an old print of ,queen ,elizabeth in a chariot4 ,it was an open vehicle on four wheels1 rather higher at the back than at the sides1 open in front1 and containing two or three seats1 what the ,french once called a char-a-banc4 ,m4 ,roubo has preserved a design of a charette in his work written for the ,french ,academy of ,arts1 but we cannot have a safer and more reliable model than in a ,flemish car or char-a-banc now in the ,museum at ,south ,kensington2 this is a very small vehicle with but two seats1 only four people could just sit in it1 and it is suspended on leather braces1 which we do not know had been introduced into ,england in ,queen ,mary's time1 but that even is not impossible or improbable4 ,we may1 therefore1 fairly conclude that in this ,flemish car we see an improved representation of what our ancestors used during many hundred years under the name of whirlicote car1 and of different sizes1 to carry from four to twelve persons4 ,about the commencement of the sixteenth century we find that there was a remarkable revival of ,coachbuilding in ,italy1 ,france1 ,spain1 and ,germany2 and it has been warmly debated in which of these countries it commenced1 which originated the word coach1 and which first suspended a coach upon braces4 ,i may premise that we find also a vast increase in the size of the wheels used4 ,up to this period wheels of #d feet to #d feet #f inches seem to have been the limit2 but the first coaches1 and all their successors for nearly two hundred and fifty years1 had wheels #e feet and upwards in height4 ,i can only suppose that1 as soon as any large body had to be conveyed1 the model of the vehicle was taken from a timber-carriage1 such as must have been in use in all parts of ,europe4 ,secondly1 although at first all the wheels of a coach were similar in height1 it was soon found necessary1 for use in cities1 that the coach must turn in a shorter space than a lofty front wheel would allow4 ,consequently1 the front wheel was made lower1 and an imperfection was caused1 the effects of which have been felt by horse and vehicle to the present day4 ,in all the claims to the origin of the coach1 we must understand that by that word we mean a conveyance in which the roof forms part of the framing of the body--as distinguished from cars and biroches1 above which a canopy was often placed by means of iron rods or wooden pillars4 ,we have further to notice that the vehicles called coaches are distinguished from chariots1 by the name of ,hungarian coaches1 by the ,italian writers1 and that we must consider a coach to have been not merely a covered1 but a suspended vehicle1 after the fashion introduced first in ,hungary4 ,mr ,bridges ,adams1 in his work on carriages1 mentions that ,ladislaus1 ,king of ,hungary1 sent an ambassador to ,king ,charles ,,vii41 to ,paris1 and as a present a beautiful carriage1 the body of which 8trembled20 it is considered that this coach was suspended upon leather braces1 and was a specimen of the coaches already in use in ,hungary4 ,the word coach in all ,european languages has the same sound1 and is derived from the town of ,kotze in ,hungary1 where coaches were first built1 just as ,landaus and ,berlins were so named from the cities that first produced them4 ,the coach from ,hungary was given to ,charles ,,vii41 at ,paris1 in the year #adeg4 ,in #adgd1 the ,emperor ,frederick ,,iii4 rode to ,frankfort in a coach covered and suspended4 ,in #aeji1 the ,pope ,paul ,,iii4 visited ,ferrara1 and was met by the duke with a train of sixty coaches1 whilst to make it clear that these were not the cars1 the historian mentions that the ,duchess of ,ferrara rode in a litter1 and her ladies followed her in twenty-two cars4 ,at this period1 #aeej1 there were only three coaches in ,paris1 one belonging to the ,queen of ,francis ,i41 another to ,diana of ,poitiers1 and a third to a corpulent nobleman who could not mount a horse4 ,there must have been many other vehicles in ,france1 but1 it seems1 only three covered and suspended coaches4 ,in #aeid1 the ,margrave of ,brandenburg1 father of the first ,duke of ,prussia1 had thirty-six coaches1 each with six horses4 ,we will now consider what was the origin and the shape of these coaches4 ,it is in the ,german waggon that we find the origin of the coach4 ,throughout ,germany1 ,russia1 ,france1 and other parts of ,europe1 the chief agricultural vehicle is the waggon4 ,plate #d4 ,it is of the same form now that it was a hundred years ago4 ,the under part is similar in its construction to our timber-waggons1 and1 like them1 it is capable of being lengthened or shortened at pleasure4 ,the wheels vary in height1 according to the requirements of the owner and the country1 and the chief purpose for which it is used4 ,as in our timber-waggons1 the wheels are sometimes #d feet and #e feet high1 and sometimes they are as low as #b feet #h inches in front and #c feet #f inches behind1 but the usual size is #c feet #f inches in front and #d feet behind1 the track on the road between the tyres is but #d feet1 and the centres of the axle-trees are about #g feet apart4 ,the carriage is composed of a transom in front1 with a perch 7as we name the long piece of timber that unites the front and hind wheels7 fastened to it4 ,there is a hind axle-tree bed formed of two pieces of timber1 clipped together1 between which the wings are notched in2 these wings meet together above the perch to which they are united by a strong iron pin4 ,the under works consist of a front axletree bed1 also made of two pieces clipped together with two futchels notched in between1 and meeting in a point in front1 and spreading outwards behind the axletree bed2 a long sway bar1 generally quite straight1 rests on the futchels and bears against the under part of the perch4 ,our word futchels is derived through the ,french word fourchils1 from the ,latin furca or fork4 ,the pole of these waggons has at the hind end two wings fixed by iron hoops2 the wings are fitted outside the front end of the futchels and are secured by two moveable iron pins4 ,this method of attaching the pole is very ancient2 it was in use in the time of the ,romans1 and may be traced in old pictures4 ,the horses are harnessed to splinter or drawing bars2 the longest of these is attached to the pole by a bolt or pin4 ,when the load is light1 it is common to harness one horse only to the left or near side of the pole4 ,the under works being thus complete1 a body is formed by two long fir poles laid from the top of the transom to the top of the hind axletree bed1 about #ah inches apart1 with two planks between4 ,outside the poles are four standard posts1 about #cj inches long1 which rise upright from the transom and axle-beds1 but which1 viewed from behind1 spread outwards from four to six inches each towards the wheels4 ,the sides are formed by planks resting against these standard posts1 and the ends of the waggon are also moveable4 ,the body is thus much narrower at the bottom than at the top4 ,we shall find that this shape pervades all the early vehicles used by the wealthy classes1 showing very plainly the original type of the coach4 ,when the waggon is thus fitted up with plank sides1 it can carry earth1 manure1 or roots4 ,when the farmer wishes to transport a load of hay1 the planks are removed1 the carriage is lengthened two or more feet1 and the sides are formed by long and high hurdles4 ,if a large cask of wine has to be transported1 the sides are removed and the cask placed upon the centre of the poles1 and1 as the waggon moves along1 the poles may be seen to sway slightly up and down under the weight of the cask1 as the poles of a sedan-chair1 or palankeen sway1 suggesting1 as ,i hope to show hereafter1 a means of forming a species of spring for the ease of anyone riding in the waggon4 ,we find1 then1 at a very early date1 that waggons were chiefly employed for the conveyance of agricultural produce or the transport of merchandise and the goods of the upper classes4 ,it was also easy1 by placing planks across the sides1 or suspending seats by straps from the sides1 to use the waggons for the conveyance of men and women4 ,but we have evidence that they were made still more free from jolting4 ,in an ancient ,saxon manuscript treating on the book of ,genesis and the history of ,joseph in ,egypt1 there is an illustration of the meeting of ,joseph and ,jacob4 ,the father is seated in a two-wheeled cart drawn by a pair of oxen1 but ,joseph is seated in a hammock1 suspended by iron hooks from the standard posts of one of these waggons which ,i have been describing4 ,this manuscript is supposed to be of the eleventh century1 and the artist would be likely to represent only what ,illustration3 ,,plate #h4 ,,the ,,araba ,,of ,,turkey ,illustration3 ,,plate #i4 ,,ancient ,,horse ,,litter ,illustration3 ,,plate #ab4 ,a ,,coach ,,of ,,queen ,,elizabeth4 was in use in his own time for the easy conveyance of great people4 ,the next step1 however1 in the advance of ,coachbuilding1 would be the use of a better body than that of a mere cart4 ,such was the case with the ,horse ,litter ,plate #i4 ,these were long and narrow--long enough for a person to recline in--and no wider than could be carried between the poles which are placed on either side of the horses4 ,they were about #d ft4 to #e ft4 long1 and #b ft4 #f in4 wide1 with low sides and higher ends4 ,the entrance was in the middle1 on both sides1 the doors being formed sometimes by a sliding panel and sometimes simply by a cross-bar4 ,the steps were of leather or iron loops1 the latter being hinged to turn up when the litter was placed on the ground4 ,the upper part was formed by a few broad wooden hoops1 united along the top by four or five slats1 and over the whole a canopy was placed1 which opened in the middle1 at the sides and ends1 for air and light4 ,the first pleasure-waggon bodies were made in a similar fashion to the horse-litters1 but rather longer and wider1 with similar doors4 ,by degrees these bodies were ornamented with carving1 and the slats of the tilt-top were exchanged for poles1 whose ends were ornamented with metal rosettes1 or animals' heads1 and gilt4 ,i have not found any certain date at which these bodies were first suspended upon straps or braces4 ,the suspension of a hammock from the standard posts of a waggon1 and of the litter from the harness of the horses1 would1 however1 suggest the suspension of these improved waggon bodies from the same standard posts4 ,i have seen in a very early picture in oil1 at ,nuremberg1 two waggons such as ,i have described1 with carved and gilt standard posts both in front of and behind the body1 the tilt-tops have the middle of the sides cut out square1 and made to turn over the top1 and the driver sits outside the waggon body between the standards4 ,we have1 however1 at ,coburg1 the capital of ,saxe-,coburg1 several ancient vehicles preserved1 which are among the oldest in ,europe4 ,one of these was built for the occasion of the marriage of the ,elector of ,saxony1 ,duke ,john ,cassimir1 in #aehd1 to ,anne of ,saxony ,plate #aj4 ,it has leather braces and high wheels1 which measure #d ft4 #h in4 and #e ft4 in height2 the distance from centre to centre of the axle-trees is #aj ft4 #f in4 ,the carved standard posts1 from which the body hangs by the leather braces1 are evidently developed from the standards of the common waggon4 ,the body is #f ft4 #d in4 long1 but only #c ft4 wide4 ,the steps have now disappeared4 ,the wheels have wooden rims1 but over the joints of the felloes are small plates of iron about #aj in4 long4 ,this coach is not the only one4 ,there is another1 rather longer and larger1 built for the ,duke's second marriage1 in #aeii1 with the ,lady ,margaret4 ,there is also a smaller coach-body built for the ,duke ,john ,frederick1 as early as #aebg1 for his marriage with ,sybilla of ,cleves4 ,this small coach was shown this year at the ,exhibition of arts at ,munich2 the iron loops by which it had been suspended are still on the body4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aj4 ,,wedding ,,coach ,,of ,,duke ,,of ,,saxony4 ,there are also two small ,coach bodies1 which are to be seen at ,verona1 and are shown at the ,palace ,sarego ,allighieri1 with the story that they were used by ,dante the poet4 ,this is a fable4 ,count ,gozzadini1 in his recent work on ancient coaches1 says that1 by the heraldic shield still on one coach1 he finds it was built in #aedi1 at the marriage of ,ginevra1 the last of the race of ,dante ,allighieri1 with ,count ,marc ,antonio di ,sarego4 ,this ,coach1 as may be seen in ,plate #aa1 is beautifully shaped and ornamented4 ,both are but skeleton bodies1 and had to be covered to keep off the sun or rain1 with leather1 cloth1 and silk curtains4 ,there are curious sumptuary laws cited by ,count ,gozzadini as enacted during the sixteenth century in various ,italian cities1 against the excessive use of silk1 velvet1 embroidery1 and gilding in the coverings of coaches and the trappings of horses4 ,in #aefd1 ,pope ,pius ,,iv4 exhorted the cardinals and bishops not to ride in coaches1 according to the fashion of the time1 but to leave such things to women1 and themselves ride on horseback4 ,duke ,julius of ,brunswick issued an edict in #aehh1 that his subjects should desist from indolent riding in coaches1 and should return to the useful discipline of riding on horses4 ,the use of coaches in ,germany1 in the sixteenth century1 was not less than in ,italy2 the current of trade1 especially from the ,east1 had for a long time poured into those two countries towards ,holland1 enriching all the cities in its progress1 and the rich traders built fine houses1 and churches1 and town halls1 and would have their coaches handsomely decorated as well as their houses4 ,macpherson1 in his history of commerce1 says that ,antwerp possessed five hundred coaches in #aefj1 in the time of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,france and ,england appear to have been behind the rest of ,europe at this period4 ,the first coach was made in ,england in #aeee for the ,earl of ,rutland1 by ,walter ,rippon1 who also made a coach in #aeef for ,queen ,mary1 and in #aefd1 a state coach for ,queen ,elizabeth2 in #aehj1 the ,earl of ,arundel brought over a coach from ,germany4 ,queen ,elizabeth1 however1 preferred the use of a coach ,plate #ab which ,william ,boonen brought her from ,holland in #aefj1 and made him her coachman4 ,this ,william ,boonen's wife brought out of ,holland the art of clear-starching1 and was appointed to prepare the ,queen's famous cambric ruffs1 which in pictures of her are displayed round her neck4 ,taylor1 called the water-poet1 says that old ,parr gave him this information in #afje1 and adds that since1 8coaches have increased with a mischief1 and have ruined the trade of the waterman by hackney coaches1 and now multiply more than ever40 ,another writer complains that 8now the use of these coaches brought of ,germany is taken up and made common1 that great ladies caused coaches to be made for them1 and rid in them up and down the counties to the great admiration of all the beholders1 and little by little they grew usual among the nobility and others of quality1 so within twenty years there grew up a great trade of ,coachbuilding in ,england40 ,a curious tract or pamphlet was published in ,illustration3 ,,plate #aa4 ,,back ,,view ,illustration3 ,,plate #aa4 ,,ancient ,,italian ,,coach1 #aedi4 ,,side ,,view ,illustration3 ,,plate #ac4 ,,coach ,,of ,,time ,,of ,,charles #a,,st 7,,from ,,an ,,old ,,print7 ,london in #afcf1 entitled 8,a ,dialogue between a ,coach and a ,sedan-chair40 ,in the figure of the coach1 as given in this tract ,plate #ac1 there are no leather braces marked1 but the artist may have omitted what he considered unnecessary details1 just as the artists of the present day1 making a cheap view of a procession1 will figure coaches and chariots of a shape that was obsolete fifty years ago1 and even in pictorial journals that should draw better1 the shape and details of carriages are unfaithfully rendered4 ,still1 on the whole1 we may consider this gives the coach of the period--a long body1 a domed roof1 the sides open1 with curtains to draw down when requisite1 no door1 but a leather screen hung across the doorway1 a very small coachman's seat1 and swingletrees for the horses' traces4 ,in #afda1 on ,november #beth1 ,charles ,i4 passed through the ,city of ,london on his return from ,scotland1 and banqueted with the citizens at ,guildhall4 ,he was met at ,kingsland by the city authorities and five hundred liverymen of the city companies on horseback1 each with his footman and torch-bearer1 and was accompanied to ,whitehall after the banquet by the liverymen with their torch-bearers4 ,it is worthy of notice that the king's coach is the only coach spoken of1 and that the ,king1 ,queen1 the ,elector ,palatine1 their brother-in-law1 the ,duchess of ,richmond1 and three of the royal children1 seven persons in all1 rode therein4 ,plate #ad shews a coach of this period4 ,in ,france1 ,king ,henry ,,iv4 was assassinated in his coach by ,ravaillac on ,may #afth1 #agaj4 ,the account states that the coach was surrounded by blinds or curtains1 but the king had drawn them back that the people might see him2 with him in the coach were seven noblemen1 that is1 two persons on each seat1 and two in each boot4 ,a drawing of this coach has been preserved ,plate #ae1 by which we see the roofs and supports 7somewhat resembling the outline of a ,roman or ,asiatic vehicle7 and the curtain hanging over the doorway in front of the boot4 ,a coach belonging to a ,duke of ,saxe-,coburg is still to be seen at the castle at ,coburg2 in this the body is #g ft4 #f in4 long in the middle1 the wheels are #d ft4 and #d ft4 #aj in4 high1 the roof and upper quarters are of black leather nailed on with brass nails1 the heads as large as a sixpence and rounded4 ,on either side of the doorway are iron bars to form the sides of the boot1 and the doorway is guarded by a wooden cross-bar padded which drops upon two pins1 and from which bar the curtain would fall over the doorway4 ,with such a length of body we can understand how eight persons could ride in it4 ,in prints of this period all coaches are drawn like this1 with the bodies suspended on leather braces--with domed roofs and with the front wheels generally rather low--with a coachman seated upon a cross-bar or cushion suspended between the two front standard posts1 and his feet upon a board projecting at the bottom of the posts over the pole4 ,some coaches are depicted so wide that they may have held three persons on each seat1 but the general appearance is that of ,louis ,,xiv4's first coach ,plate #af4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ad4 ,,coach ,,of ,,paris ,,in #afdf4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ae4 ,,coach ,,in ,,which ,,henri ,,iv ,,was ,,shot4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #af4 ,,coach ,,in ,,which ,,louis ,,xiv ,,entered ,,paris ,,in #afed4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ag4 ,,coach ,,of ,,louis ,,xiv ,,in #agjj4 ,,section ,illustration3 ,,plate #ah4 ,,the ,,corbillard1 ,,an ,,early ,,french ,,coach4 ,no trace of glass windows or complete doors seems to have existed up to #afej4 ,but plain and rude as was the first coach of ,louis ,,xiv4 it was in his reign1 which lasted till #agae1 that the most rapid progress was made in ,coachbuilding4 ,from the simple waggon-like skeleton body was developed by degrees a beautifully shaped1 carved1 and panelled piece of cabinet work ,plate #ag1 such as we can justly allow to be worthy the name of a coach1 and this delighted our ancestors in the reign of ,queen ,anne4 ,the credit of this transformation is equally due to ,germany1 ,italy1 ,france1 and ,england2 in each country improvements seem to have been made simultaneously4 ,the following is the description by a ,french author1 ,m4 ,roubo1 of the change that took place in ,louis ,,xiv4's reign4 ,the corbillards are the earliest ,french coaches of which we know the exact form4 ,plate #ah4 ,these were straight-bottomed1 open at the upper sides or quarters1 which were furnished with curtains of cloth and leather2 at first these were tied on1 and would roll up when air was required2 they had no doors1 but were entered on either side by a moveable rail1 over which a leather screen was hung4 ,behind these screens were seats1 a little above the floor1 where the pages of the owner of the carriage sat sideways4 ,sometimes there was a projection on either side called a boot1 in which the pages sat4 ,the next coaches had curved bottoms1 and were made with a wooden door half-way up the body1 and the whole of the lower part of the body was panelled instead of being covered with cloth2 this change is supposed to have taken place about #affj4 ,as the coach began thus to be built in1 carving1 gilding1 and painting were introduced1 and beauty in shape increased4 ,next came the introduction of glass to the sides4 ,a complete door reaching to the roof1 with sliding glasses1 followed4 ,there is very little mention made by historians of steel springs1 but they were first applied to wheel carriages about #afgj4 ,at this period a vehicle drawn by men1 and called a ,brouette 7or wheelbarrow7 was introduced at ,paris4 ,plate #ai4 ,it was a sedan chair1 to hold one person1 with the door in front like the sedan chairs are now made1 but on two wheels1 about #c ft4 #f in4 high1 and with two poles or shafts projecting forward1 between which one man ran1 whilst another pushed behind if the weight required it4 ,there is a vehicle now much in use in ,japan and ,china that seems a revival of the brouette2 ,i think it is called a ,jin-rik-sha4 ,the brouette was improved by ,dupin1 who applied two elbow-springs beneath the front1 and attached them to the axletree by long shackles1 the axletree working up and down in a groove beneath the inside seat4 ,this is the first record of the application of steel springs to carriages4 ,many bath-chairs have springs from the body to the axletree in this method1 and there is a tradition in the north of ,england that small broughams1 on two wheels drawn by men1 were used sixty years ago1 as well as sedan chairs1 for the conveyance of ladies to evening parties4 ,it has been said that a ,mr ,thomas brought springs ,illustration3 ,,plate #bj4 ,,the ,,berlin1 ,,from ,,one ,,now ,,at ,,vienna4 first before the notice of the scientific body of the ,academy at ,paris in #agjc1 but this is erroneous4 ,the spring ,mr ,thomas mentioned is a small spiral spring to be placed between the double leather brace of a carriage4 ,see this spring in ,plate #bh4 ,the first application of steel springs to a coach was beneath the bottom of the body2 the loop of the brace was hinged1 and between the body and the loop were placed two elbow-springs4 ,plate #ai4 ,the ,company of ,coach and ,coach-harness ,makers was founded in ,may #afgg by ,charles ,,ii41 and was confirmed by ,king ,james ,,ii4 in the third year of his reign4 ,in ,germany1 there was invented about #affj the vehicle called the ,berlin4 ,it will be remembered that in the ,german waggon the bottom of the body is formed by two long poles1 which afford a certain amount of spring when weighted only in the middle4 ,acting on this principle1 ,philip de ,chiesa1 a ,piedmontese in the service of ,frederick ,william1 the ,duke of ,prussia1 invented and built a carriage1 which received the name of ,berlin4 ,plate #bj4 ,it had two perches instead of one1 and between these two perches1 from the front transom to the hind axletree bed1 two strong leather braces were placed1 with jacks or small windlasses1 to wind them tighter if they stretched4 ,the bottom of the coach was altered from being straight to an easy curve1 and it was fixed upon these braces of leather1 which allowed it to play up and down with the motion of the carriage1 instead of swinging to and fro from four high posts4 ,philip1 the inventor1 died in #afgc4 ,in the ,imperial mews at ,vienna are four coach berlins1 which1 ,i think1 may belong to this period4 ,they are said to have been built for the ,emperor ,leopold1 who reigned at ,vienna from #afeh to #agjj1 and ,kink describes this emperor's wedding carriages as covered with red cloth and as having glass panels2 he also says they were called the ,imperial glass coaches4 ,it is possible that the coaches have been a little altered from the time of their construction1 but ,i consider that in these four we have the oldest coaches with solid doors and glasses all round that exist in ,europe4 ,whether they are identical with the ,emperor ,leopold's wedding carriages matters much less than the influence the ,berlin undoubtedly had upon the ,coachbuilding of that period4 ,it was the means of introducing the double perch1 which1 although it is not now in fashion1 was adopted for very many carriages both in ,england and abroad1 up to #ahaj4 ,crane-necks to perches were suggested by the form of the ,berlin perch2 and as bodies swinging from standard posts suggested the position of the ,c spring1 so bodies resting upon long leather braces suggested the horizontal and elbow springs to which we owe so much4 ,the first ,berlin was made as a small vis--vis coach--small because it was to be used as a light travelling carriage1 and narrow because it was to hang between the two perches1 and was only needed to carry two persons inside4 ,it was such an improvement in lightness and appearance upon the cumbersome coaches that carried eight persons1 that it at once found favour1 and was imitated in ,paris1 and still more in ,london4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bb4 ,,coach ,,of ,,time ,,of ,,charles #b,,nd ,at ,vienna there is also to be seen a horse litter of this period ,plate #ba1 which is interesting as another specimen of a small vis--vis coach with glass windows4 ,in shape it exactly resembles the coaches on the arms of the ,coach and ,coach-harness ,makers' ,company of the ,city of ,london4 ,plate #bb4 ,it is a singular instance of the length of time that some old patterns exist1 that this horse-litter exactly resembles the shape of the sedan chairs still in use at the public baths at ,ischl1 in ,austria--that is1 if this litter were cut in half1 you would have two sedan chairs4 ,it is said that the ,spanish wife of the ,emperor ,ferdinand ,,iii4 rode in a glass carriage1 so small as to contain two persons only1 as early as #afca4 ,it is possible that this horse-litter may be the carriage spoken of4 ,glass was in common use then for windows2 but plate-glass1 such as was used for ,state coaches in #agjj1 was not made at all in ,england until #afgj4 ,towards the end of the seventeenth century1 among the wealthier classes1 decoration was applied to coaches to an extent that would surprise us now-a-days4 ,wheels were again ornamented1 as in the times of the old ,roman empire2 the spokes were shaped and carved1 the rims moulded1 and the naves highly embossed4 ,the panels had beautiful paintings upon them2 sometimes the whole was the subject of a picture in which a landscape and figures appeared1 sometimes surrounded with a continuous ribbon border of flower work1 or the panels were divided into squares or diamonds of diaper work1 each little partition bearing a flower or device4 ,the inside linings were of brocaded silk or velvet4 ,but all this century the use and number of coaches in ,england was increasing1 and at length the value of springs in lessening the weight of coaches was fully understood2 and this demands a short explanation4 ,first it was found that when the body was suspended upon springs1 the vibration1 and consequently the wear and tear of not only the body1 but in a degree of the underworks or carriage1 was reduced1 and the entire amount of timber used could be safely diminished1 and with it the load behind the horses4 ,and secondly1 when the wheels had to be pulled over an obstacle or out of a ditch1 the weight of the entire coach had not to be lifted as formerly1 since the elasticity of the spring allowed the wheel to rise without lifting all the body and its passengers with it4 ,it is of importance to understand this clearly1 and anyone may convince himself by watching the motion of two loaded carts over a bad road1 one having springs and the other being without them4 ,in ,mr ,samuel ,pepys' diary during the year #affe1 we find on ,may #ast1 8,after dinner ,i went to the tryall of some experiments about making of coaches go easy4 ,and several we tried1 but one did prove mighty easy not for me to describe here1 further than that the whole of the body lies upon one long spring1 and we all one after another rid in it1 and it is very fine1 and likely to take40 7,this may have been a ,berlin car47 ,on ,september #eth he writes1 8,after dinner comes ,colonel ,blunt in his new chariot made with springs1 as that which was made of wicker1 and wherein a while ago we rode at his house4 ,and he hath rode he says now1 this journey1 many miles in it with one horse1 and outdrives any coach1 and so easy he says4 ,so for curiosity ,i went in it to try it1 and up the hill to the heath1 and over the cart ruts1 and found it pretty well1 but not so easy as he pretends40 ,in #afff1 ,january #bbnd1 8,i went with ,dr ,wilkins1 ,mr ,hook1 ,lord ,brouncker1 and others1 to ,colonel ,blunt's1 to consider again of the business of chariots1 and to try their new invention1 which ,i here saw ,lord ,brouncker ride in1 where the coachman sits astride upon a pole over the horse1 but do not touch the horse1 which is a pretty odd thing40 ,in #affh1 ,november #eth1 ,mr ,pepys went with ,mr ,perry all the afternoon among the ,coachmakers in ,cow-lane1 and 8did pitch upon a little chariot1 whose body was framed but not covered1 it being very light1 and will be very genteel and sober40 ,december #bnd1 8,abroad with my wife1 the first time that ,i ever rode in my own coach40 ,in #affi1 ,april #aith1 8,calling about my coach which hath been to the ,coachmakers to be painted and the window frames gilt again40 ,we see from this entry that in #affi coaches were made in ,england already with glass windows4 ,april #cjth1 8,to the ,coachmaker's1 and find many ladies sitting in the body of a coach1 which must be finished by to-morrow1 the ,lady ,marquess of ,winchester and ,lady ,bellasis eating of bread and butter and drinking of ale2 my coach is silvered over1 but no varnish yet laid4 ,i stood by it till at eight at night1 and saw the painters varnish it1 and it dries almost as fast as it can be laid on4 ,i sent the same night my coachman and horses to fetch the coach home20 and on ,may #ast1 8,at noon to dinner1 and after through the town with our new liveries of serge1 and the horses' manes and tails tied up with red ribbons1 and new green reins40 ,sedan chairs came into fashion in ,england in #afcd1 and were in general use by the middle of the century4 ,the alteration in the form of the coach1 from the long barge shape of ,charles ,i4's time to that of ,charles ,,ii4 was1 no doubt1 suggested by the shape of the sedan chair1 in ,london as well as in ,germany4#b ,the improvements mentioned by ,mr ,pepys show that coaches were being altered1 but the progress of springs was slow4 ,we appear1 in ,england1 to have taken the lead1 in at the same time introducing springs and lessening the weight of coaches4 ,in #aggj1 an elaborate treatise on ,coachmaking was published at ,paris by the ,academy of ,arts1 written by ,mons4 ,roubo4 ,in this work we find that even at ,paris then1 springs were not at all universal4 ,they were applied to the four corners of a perch carriage1 and placed upright1 and at first only clipped in the middle to the posts of the earlier carriages1 and the leather braces went from the tops of the springs to the bottoms of the bodies1 without any long iron loops such as we now ,illustration3 ,,plate #ai4 ,,brouette ,,of ,,paris1 #afgj4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ba4 ,,litter ,,to ,,be ,,carried ,,by ,,horses ,,now ,,at ,,vienna4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bc4 ,,the ,,first ,,landau1 7,,from ,,an ,,old ,,drawing74 use2 and1 as the braces were very long1 we find that complaints were made of the excessive swinging1 tilting1 and jerking of the body4 ,another method of the application of springs was beneath the body4 ,the ,queen's coach is thus suspended4 ,four elbow-springs1 as we should call them1 were fastened to the bottom of the body ,plate #ai1 ,figure #b1 but again the ends did not project beyond the bottom1 and the braces were still kept too long2 ,mons4 ,roubo doubts whether springs were of much use4 ,it seems clear from this work1 that one hundred years ago the art of ,coachbuilding was in some respects equal to that of the present day4 ,their timber was carefully selected and dried1 the bodies were framed and panelled1 the shape1 and curves1 and side sweep1 and turn-under was regulated by very careful drawings1 the grooves for the blinds and glasses were well made4 ,blinds were made both panelled1 perforated1 and to open1 just the same as those which we call venetian blinds1 and a fourth sort with fixed open slats1 as are now used in ,turkey and ,india4 ,panels were then1 as now in ,france1 chiefly of walnut-wood1 and ,m4 ,roubo describes the method of curving them by wetting one side and exposing the other to a hot fire4 ,he also gives designs for the various tools used by the woodmen and the smiths4 ,he enumerates the various classes of workmen1 including painters and trimmers1 and adds 8all these are independent workmen1 yet who should have a knowledge of one another's work1 that the work of one hinders not the work of another1 their mutual knowledge should concur in the acceleration and perfection of the whole40 ,coaches at this period were hung comparatively high1 being necessarily above the perch4 ,berlin ,coaches or ,vis--vis were hung between two perches1 and therefore nearer to the ground4 ,the body of some ,berlins also had a solid top or roof1 but the sides and ends were of leather1 which could be rolled up to admit of more air4 ,these may have given the idea of a singular carriage which preceded the ,landau4 ,plate #bc4 ,some coaches had windows in the side quarters4 ,a few were still made to hold eight persons inside4 ,the shapes admitted of considerable variety2 the elbow line was straight or in three or four curves2 the quarters either what we call the britchka quarters1 or a concave single sweep from the elbow to the end of the bottom side1 like the shape of ,her ,majesty's ,state ,coach4 ,chariots were made with the hind quarter similar in shape to the front pillar1 that is with a concave sweep4 ,m4 ,roubo goes on to tell us that chariots1 being smaller than coaches and lighter1 were at first called diligences4 ,but in consequence of the speedy passage of a stage coach from ,paris to ,lyons1 it obtained the name of diligence1 which has since remained to those large double coaches still in use on the ,continent4 ,we also find the drawing of an invalid or ,dormeuse coach1 very ingeniously contrived1 and descriptions of the different summer open carriages1 some with and some without springs2 there are a few of really elegant shapes4 ,he enumerates ,illustration3 ,,plate #bd4 ,,chariot ,l',,anglaise1 ,,after ,m ,,roubo chaises1 phaetons1 cabriolets1 caleches1 8,anglaises desobligeants0 7or what we should call sulkies1 that would only contain one person71 lastly and the wourst1 a vehicle introduced from ,germany for sporting1 and which is a ,russian drosky1 but very much longer than those we have seen in ,england1 there is a crane neck in the perch to allow the wheel to turn1 and the seat1 which is hung on braces1 is very narrow1 for the passengers to sit on it astride4 ,m4 ,roubo describes at length1 and gives a plan of the ,anglaise4 ,it is a chariot1 with the modern curved lower quarter panel suspended upon a double swan-necked perch1 rather high front wheels1 and four whip springs1 and with a small hammer-cloth in front4 ,plate #bd4 ,there is one very similar preserved in the ,museum of the ,hotel ,cluny at ,paris4 ,but on this vehicle ,m4 ,roubo remarks1 8,i see no beauty nor grace in the voiture l',anglaise1 but it is no doubt sufficient that the invention of this vehicle comes from ,england1 to make all the world desire to have them1 as if there existed some law which obliges us to be the servile imitators of a nation who is our rival1 and which1 although it is respectable1 and admirable even1 in some respects1 can never be equal to us for works of taste in general1 and above all in ,coachbuilding40 ,whilst we may smile at ,m4 ,roubo's jealousy1 we must allow the general truth of what he says1 viz41 that in works in which taste reigns paramount1 the ,french do usually surpass the ,english2 and as regards ,coachbuilding1 although we have the name for superior vehicles1 and deservedly so as regards quality1 durability1 and ease1 the ,french are beyond us in applying tasteful painting1 trimming1 and decoration of all sorts4 ,in the ,french ,encyclopdia of #aggb1 by ,diderot1 there are elaborate descriptions of the art of ,coachbuilding1 the workshops and tools used1 and plates of the different carriages in use4 ,i have mentioned these two works1 one by ,m4 ,diderot on his own account1 and the other by ,m4 ,roubo for the ,french ,academy1 partly to shew the great care taken by our neighbours to instruct the people in the technical principles on which their manufactories should be conducted4 ,it may be that having these superior models before their eyes1 and being assured by the wise men of the day that thus carriages should be constructed1 the ,french ,coachbuilders were content with their achievements1 and allowed other nations to advance more rapidly1 during the remainder of the century1 with daring innovations in lighter and easier vehicles4 ,but the teaching of the ,academy would nevertheless tend to create a careful and thoughtful body of workmen1 who1 if they developed but slowly1 would develop carefully1 and turn out good work in their generation4 ,there is one vehicle which appears almost solely in this epoch1 and had a marked effect in introducing our ,english post-chaise4 ,this was the chaise de poste4 ,plate #be4 ,from the engraving and description in the ,encyclopdia it appears to have been a small chariot body1 very little longer than a sedan chair1 and like a sedan chair1 it had the door in front2 this door was hinged at the bottom1 and fell forward on to a small dasher like a gentleman's cabriolet2 there was a window in each side4 ,it was hung upon two very lofty wheels and long shafts for one horse1 and the body was rather in front of the wheels1 so that the weight on the horse's back must have been considerable4 ,it was suspended at first upon leather braces only1 but later upon two upright or whip springs behind1 and two elbow springs in front from the body to the cross-bar1 which joined the shafts and carried the steps4 ,count ,gozzadini tells us that in #afgb ,cabriolets1 or gigs with hoods1 were introduced from ,paris into ,florence--8an affair with a curved seat fixed on two long bending shafts1 placed in front on the back of a horse and behind upon two wheels2 to this was given the name of gig1 and they so increased in number that in a few years there were nearly a thousand in the city of ,florence40 ,these vehicles1 in which the shafts were really very long1 appear to be the origin of the carriole of ,norway1 the calesso of ,naples1 and the volante of ,cuba4 ,in the ,museum at ,south ,kensington we have a specimen of one of these1 adorned with much elegant carving4 ,it has no hood4 ,the seat is very small4 ,beneath the shafts are two long straps of leather and a windlass to tighten them2 this apparatus was1 no doubt1 to regulate the spring of the vehicle to the road travelled over4 ,there was a small-sized vehicle in use called ,cabriolet1 the body only a shell1 with a hood which would put up and down1 composed of three iron hoopsticks1 jointed in the middle to fall upwards2 the setting joints are straight1 the covering appears to have been cloth or canvas4 ,although these ,french books appeared about #aggj1 they describe carriages that had been a long time in use4 ,in the meantime the ,english had been making a great many small chariots4 ,dean ,swift1 in #aggj1 speaks in his journal of driving down to ,hampton ,court and to several gentlemen's country houses near ,london in a chariot and pair of horses1 to dine with some great man1 and returning after dinner to town4 ,he mentions that he could not have done the same in the neighbourhood of ,dublin on account of the absence of turnpike roads4 ,he drove from ,windsor to ,london1 twenty-three miles1 in two hours and forty minutes1 and from ,wycombe to ,london1 twenty-seven miles1 in five hours1 and from ,windsor to ,bucklebury1 near ,newbury1 twenty-six miles1 in four hours4 ,in #agdd ,lady ,hervey wrote in her 8,letters10 that light-bodied chariots were then advertised as fit for town or country4 ,as a further illustration of this period1 there is a chariot in the ,south ,kensington ,museum belonging to the ,earl of ,darnley's family1 which is supposed to have been built in #agej4 ,i should think it is of rather earlier date1 probably #agjj4 ,the body is small1 and abounds in curves and sweeps like furniture of the date of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,the glasses of the doors and of the front rise and fall in frames4 ,there is a broad perch1 with two iron handsomely-forged cranes 7exactly like those in the diligence ,anglaise1 which1 unfortunately1 did not please ,m4 ,roubo74 ,the body is slung upon leather buckle braces1 with small elbow springs at the bottom of the body at the hinder part4 ,there is a small hammer-cloth on which the coachman could sit 7the origin of the name is supposed to be from its original use in covering the budget which held the hammer and other tools that were frequently carried with carriages1 especially travelling carriages1 as late as the year #ahdj72 the footboard is framed to the carriage part4 ,there is a splinter-bar1 by which the horses would be attached1 and the wheel-irons hook on to this bar1 and are attached at the hinder part to the ends of the front axletree4 ,the front wheels are #b ft4 #i in4 high1 and the number of spokes eight4 ,the hind wheels have twelve spokes1 and are #e ft4 high4 ,the whole is hung low4 ,we can well suppose that this was not a heavy carriage after the horses4 ,when the first coach quarters were covered with leather1 they were nailed on and the heads showed4 ,after #affj these nail heads were covered with a strip of metal made to imitate a row of beads2 from this practice arose the name of 8beading10 which has been retained1 although beading is now made in a continuous level piece1 either rounded or angular4 ,the use of coaches had by this time spread from ,europe to the colonies1 and in #agdj there were many coaches and chariots in use at ,spanish ,town1 ,jamaica1 and other large towns in ,america1 wherever colonised by ,europeans4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,state ,,coaches4 ,a ,coach of ,silver--,lord ,castlemaine's ,coach--,spanish ,ambassador's ,coach--,ancient ,spanish ,coach--,austrian ,state ,coach--,state ,funeral ,coach at ,vienna--,state ,coach of ,england--,city ,state ,coach4 ,in ,count ,gozzadini's work on ,ancient ,carriages there is an account of a ,state ,coach which was built under the direction of an ,italian at ,brussels1 for the ceremony of the marriage of ,alexander1 the son of ,octavius ,farnese1 ,duke of ,parma1 with a ,portuguese princess4 ,the wedding took place in #aefe at ,brussels4 ,there were four carriages ,flanders fashion1 and four coaches after the ,italian fashion1 swinging on leather braces4 ,the chief1 or state coach1 is described as built in the most beautiful manner1 with four statues at the ends1 the spokes of the wheels like fluted columns4 ,there were seraphims' heads at the ends of the roof and over the doorway1 and festoons of fruit in relief on the framing of the body4 ,the coachman was supported by two carved figures of lions1 two similar lions were at the hind end1 and the leather braces that supported the body and the harness were embossed with heads of animals4 ,the ends of the steps were serpents' heads4 ,the whole of the wood and ironwork was covered with gold1 relieved with white4 ,the coach was drawn by four horses1 with red and white plumes of feathers1 and the covering of the body and of the horses was gold brocade with knotted red silk fringe4 ,the cushions of embroidered gold stuff were perfumed 8with amber and musk1 that infused the soul of all who entered the coach with life1 joy1 and supreme pleasure40 ,the horses were cream colour4 ,all this description would fit very much with the coach of the ,duke of ,saxe ,coburg built twenty years later ,plate ,no4 #aj1 except that the carving of the ,brussels coach was superior1 which is probably due to ,capt4 ,francisco ,marchi1 of ,bologna1 who designed the whole4 ,a ,state ,coach on a far more ambitious scale is described in the same work1 which was built in ,italy1 for the marriage of ,duke ,edward ,farnese with ,lady ,margaret of ,tuscany in #afbi4 ,the body was lined with crimson velvet and gold thread1 and the woodwork covered with silver plates1 chased and embossed and perforated1 in half relief4 ,it could carry eight persons3 four on the seats attached to the doors1 and four in the back and front4 ,the roof was supported by eight silver columns1 on the roof were eight silver vases1 and unicorns' heads and lilies in full relief projected from the roof and ends of the body here and there4 ,the roof was composed of twenty sticks1 converging from the edge to the centre1 which was crowned with a great rose with silver leaves on the outside1 and inside by the armorial bearings of the ,princes of ,tuscany and ,farnese held up by cupids4 ,the curtains of the sides and back of the coach were of crimson velvet1 embroidered with silver lilies with gold leaves4 ,at the back and the front of the coach-carriage were statues of unicorns1 surrounded by cupids and wreathed with lilies1 grouped round the standards from which the body was suspended2 on the tops of the standards were silver vases1 with festoons of fruit1 and wrought in silver4 ,in the front were also statues of ,justice and ,mercy1 supporting the coachman's seat4 ,the braces suspending the body were of leather1 covered with crimson velvet2 the wheels and pole were plated with polished silver4 ,the whole was drawn by six horses1 with harness and trappings covered with velvet1 embroidered with gold and silver thread1 and with silver buckles4 ,it is said that twenty-five excellent silversmiths worked at this coach for two years1 and used up #be1jjj ounces of silver2 and that the work was superintended by two master coachbuilders1 one from ,parma and the other from ,piacenza4 ,an embassy was sent in the latter years of his reign by ,king ,james ,,ii4 to ,pope ,innocent ,,xi4 at ,rome1 headed by ,lord ,castlemaine4 ,an account was written of all the state and pomp with which he was received in ,rome2 a copy of this work is at the hall of the ,coach and ,coach-harness ,makers4 ,on ,lord ,castlemaine's state entry into ,rome1 ,january #hth1 #afhg1 a procession was formed of three hundred and thirty coaches4 ,the ambassador had thirteen coaches of his own1 in all probability built for him at ,rome4 ,two of these were state coaches1 and certainly were ,roman4 ,the bodies of these coaches were similar to that of ,louis ,,xiv41 without glass in the doors or sides4 ,they were hung inside and out with beautifully embroidered cloths1 the one coach with crimson1 the other with azure blue velvet1 and gold and silver work4 ,the roofs were adorned with scroll work and vases gilt2 under the roof were curtains with silver fringes1 and the ambassador's armorial bearings4 ,the carriage of the principal coach was adorned in front with two large ,tritons1 of carved wood1 gilt all over1 that supported a cushion for the coachman between them1 and from their shoulders the braces depended4 ,the foot-board was formed by a conch shell1 between two dolphins4 ,in the rear of the coach were two more ,tritons1 supporting not only the leather braces of the coach1 but two other statues of ,neptune and ,cybele1 who in turn held a royal crown4 ,below ,neptune and ,cybele1 and projecting backwards1 were a lion and a unicorn1 and several cupids and wreaths of flowers4 ,the wheels had moulded rims1 and the spokes were hidden by curving foliage carving4 ,the second coach had plainer wheels and fewer statues about it4 ,in both1 the size of the wheels were1 as well as ,i can judge1 #b ft4 #f in4 and #d ft4 high1 and the length apart #ab ft4 ,the whole appearance of these coaches may have been magnificent1 but certainly not beautiful4#c ,there are a few records of a magnificent state coach that was built in #agac for the ,duke of ,ossuna1 ambassador from ,philip ,v4 of ,spain on the occasion of making the peace of ,utrecht4 ,the body was in shape somewhat similar to ,lord ,darnley's chariot at the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 with the doorway projecting downwards some ten inches below the bottom sides1 the quarters rake towards the roof considerably1 the roof over the doorway is arched upwards1 the upper quarters are fitted with large glasses of mirror plate-glass4 ,it is elaborately and beautifully carved with figures of ,tritons and ,nymphs1 cupids and lions4 ,the wheels have carved spokes and felloes4 ,it is hung upon leather braces from the usual standard posts1 which are carved into figures of men and women1 and the supports into figures of boys and baskets of fruit4 ,there is a hammer-cloth cushion in front1 and a footboard supported by ,tritons blowing horns4 ,the description of this coach was published at ,amsterdam4 ,there is at ,madrid a very old coach of a similar shape to this1 with many small points so similar as1 ,i think1 clearly to mark it out as belonging to the same period4 ,the standards both in front and behind of the ,spanish coach are1 however1 of beautifully wrought scroll ironwork4 ,the body and wheels are of carved wood stained black1 the whole of the panels and framing are worked over with very elegant carving1 the centre of each panel is a medallion containing figures of females of beautiful forms4 ,there is a photograph of this at ,coachmakers' ,hall4 ,it is1 however1 ascribed erroneously to the time of ,jeanne ,la ,folle1 as ,queen ,joanna1 the mother of ,charles ,v41 died in #aeee4 ,it is certain that the ,spanish tradition of its age is incorrect4 ,the wheels have the spokes turned in spiral form1 the rims of the wheels are moulded and carved4 ,the windows1 eight in number1 ,i am informed1 have been refitted with wooden frames4 ,this coach is deserving of careful study2 it is certainly in many points what a ,state ,coach should be4 ,there are no fittings for servants or driver4 ,it was the custom for many years in ,spain to drive postillion1 because a coachman of the ,duke of ,olivarez having overheard and betrayed a state secret1 the duke ordered that coachmen should no longer be allowed in ,spain4 ,our excellent ambassador at ,madrid1 who takes a great interest in antiquarian researches1 has kindly sent me the particulars respecting this ,spanish coach1 and obtained from the king's librarian the further information that it is not mentioned in any inventory of the royal goods until the early part of the eighteenth century2 the librarian's opinion is that the coach belonged to ,charles ,,ii4 of ,spain1 who died in #agjj1 and left his kingdom to ,philip ,v41 the grandson of ,louis ,,xiv41 ,king of ,france4 ,the coach in shape so closely resembles the coaches of #agjj ,plate #ag1 that there is no doubt it belonged either to ,charles ,,ii4 or ,philip ,v41 ,kings of ,spain4 ,one of the most beautiful of ,state ,coaches is that belonging to the ,imperial family at ,vienna4 ,there are photographs of it in ,coachmakers' ,hall1 but to be perfectly appreciated it should be seen4 ,the proportions are almost perfect1 and the finish of the mouldings and carvings is exquisite4 ,it was built in #afif1 and is shaped with all the curves that are familiar to us in cabinets and furniture of the style called ,louis ,quatorze1 and in which a straight line is so carefully avoided4 ,the body is very deep1 and longer on the roof than at the elbows2 the doorway is depressed to hide the steps4 ,the panels are beautifully painted with nymphs in the style of ,rubens2 indeed1 one is told at ,vienna that ,rubens painted them himself1 but that is another instance of the inaccuracy of many local traditions1 as ,rubens died in #afdj4 ,there is an unusual quantity of plate-glass in the panels of the coach1 that help to give it a light and airy appearance4 ,the centre of the roof has a large ,imperial crown1 and large tassels hang from the four corners of the roof1 where modern ,coachbuilders would place lamps4 ,the body hangs very low4 ,the carriage has a single perch with double cranes1 corresponding very closely with those on ,lord ,darnley's chariot at ,south ,kensington4 ,the standards in the front and hind parts are lofty1 elegantly shaped and carved1 and strengthened with boldly curved iron stays4 ,the body is hung upon eight leather braces1 four of which are arranged on the ,berlin plan1 and four are attached to short elbow springs beneath the bottom of the body4 ,there are six of these little steel springs at each corner4 ,the wheels are about #c ft4 and #d ft4 #i in4 high1 and are very elegantly formed with carved rims1 and the spokes each of a shape1 with three curves in it4 ,there are no fittings for coachman or footman4 ,the whole of the wood and ironwork is gilt1 the panels only are in the colour of a landscape with figures4 ,it is a singular thing that there is a second coach of the same shape and date1 but with the wheels and other fittings of a plainer description1 and all black inside and out1 with the ,imperial arms in bronze relief on the doors4 ,this black state coach is for funerals4 ,there were a number of state coaches built about this period for the different courts of ,europe2#d but without illustrations of each1 descriptions would not give much idea of their shapes4 ,the general character of each is that of a rather lumbering body1 profusely carved1 gilded1 and adorned1 placed on a very lumbering carriage1 on some of which are introduced figures of gods and goddesses or animals1 appearing to hold up the heavy body by leather braces4 ,the last1 and probably much the largest of these1 is the ,state ,coach of ,england1 built for ,king ,george ,,iii4 ,it is not known who built it2 it was designed by an amateur1 who could not be expected1 perhaps1 to consider so much its usefulness as a certain massive grandeur which he expected to gain from an exaggeration of some of the principal parts1 such as the body1 the total length1 and the hind wheels4 ,this coach1 built in #agfa1 was designed by ,sir ,william ,chambers2 the length is #bd feet1 the height #ab feet1 the width #h feet2 the weight is stated as #d tons4 ,the introduction of the figures of four ,tritons1 to support the braces1 is probably imitated from ,lord ,castlemaine's coach of #afhg1 but it would have been better to have introduced such figures as leaning against the standard-posts1 than to make the figures themselves the bearers4 ,why the coach was not hung upon ,c springs1 or rather whip springs1 it is very difficult to say1 as they were in common use in #agfj4 ,the ,city ,state ,coach was built in #ageg1 about the same time as the royal coach4 ,it is1 in some respects1 in better taste and proportions1 but is very unwieldy still4 ,it deserves some study1 recollecting in how many city shows it has borne a conspicuous place4 ,the body is the ,louis ,quatorze shape4 ,the panels would look better if they were repainted2 fresh colours would lighten the whole coach4 ,it is to be regretted that the name of the builder is not on record at ,guildhall4 ,but1 in the same year1 a state coach was supplied to ,sir ,charles ,asgill by ,messrs ,runciman and ,barker for #hfj2 it was refitted the following year for ,sir ,richard ,glyn1 and successively for ,sir ,thomas ,chitty1 ,sir ,matthew ,blakiston1 ,sir ,samuel ,fludyer1 and lastly for ,mr ,william ,beckford4 ,it was1 probably1 from the original cost1 only a second coach1 and appears to have been newly painted and otherwise adorned for each successive ,lord ,mayor4 ,if the present ,city ,state ,coach is to be kept for state use it should be supplied with springs4 ,the city coachmaker1 who has for some time had the charge of this coach1 could add springs without any difficulty1 and without much expense4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bf4 ,,from ,a ,,print ,,published ,,at ,,rome #afib4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,carriages ,,from #agij ,,to #ahgf4 ,mr ,felton's ,opinions--,proper ,strength of ,carriages--,method of ,construction--,usual ,width of ,coaches--,the ,perch--,great ,height of ,wheels in #agij--,the ,lord ,chancellor's ,coach--,the ,landau--,phaetons of #agij--,two ,wheeled ,vehicles--,taxation on ,carriages--,advance of the ,trade--,invention of ,elliptical ,springs--,carriages of ,napoleon ,buonaparte--,number of ,vehicles ,paying ,taxes--,the ,curricle4--,introduction of ,undersprings--,mr ,s4 ,hobson's ,improvements--,the ,briska and the ,stanhope--,the ,tilbury and ,dog-,cart--,commercial ,travellers' ,gigs--,travelling ,carriages--,the ,pony ,phaeton and the ,droitska--,the ,cab ,phaeton and the ,victoria--,dress ,carriages--,coronation ,procession in #ahch--;,improvement of the ,landau--,introduction of the ,brougham--,waggonnettes--,exhibitions of ,carriages--,numbers of ,carriages in #ahgd4 8,in the year #agij10 according to a very competent judge1 a coachbuilder then alive1 ,mr ,felton1 8the art of ,coachbuilding had been in a gradual state of improvement for half a century past1 and had now arrived to a very high degree of perfection1 with respect both to the beauty1 strength1 and elegance of our ,english carriages40 8,the superior excellence1 too1 of ,english workmanship has not only been the occasion of a very great increase in their number in this country1 but the exportation of them to foreign nations is become a profitable and considerable branch of ,british commerce40 ,these statements might have been made again and again for many years after this date4 ,our carriages1 as ,i will endeavour to show1 have continued to improve2 but no longer1 ,i regret to have to say1 are they exported in large numbers4 ,the cost has so much increased1 from the date of #agij1 that foreign nations prefer to deal with manufacturers who can give them a vehicle which1 to the eye1 appears as good as our own1 and in colours and finish is more to their taste1 whilst the price is from #aj to #cj per cent4 less than the ,british carriage4 ,although ,i shall have occasion to treat this part of our subject in the last lecture more fully1 ,i will here guard against misconception1 by pointing out the example set us by our energetic brothers in the ,united ,states1 who have secured a very large market for their carriages1 even in ,english colonies1 by building good and light vehicles at a moderate price4 ,in confirmation of the statement of ,mr ,felton in #agij1 we find that ,english carriages had been exported to the ,north ,american and ,west ,indian ,colonies as early as #agdj4 ,to return to ,mr ,felton's work4 ,he states that the ,coach trade was prosperous1 and was not confined to ,coachbuilders proper1 but that harnessmakers and others opened repositories for the sale of carriages4 ,this practice was not confined to ,england1--it was also a ,french custom1 and so much so1 that in the ,french ,encyclopdia1 ,coachmaking is described under the heading of 8,sellier0 or 8,saddler10 and even now in some towns on the ,continent1 one may see 8,sellier0 painted on the front of a coach-factory1 without any other description of the trade4 ,the principal improvements in carriages in ,london from #aggj to #agij were the invention of ,mr ,john ,hatchett1 of ,long-acre1 whose taste in building appears to have been prominent1 and other ,coachbuilders generally copied him4 ,mr ,felton adds that many gentlemen took great pleasure and pride in getting a handsome coach built1 and that his treatise was intended to aid them in forming a judgment thereon4 ,the following remarks are principally taken from ,mr ,felton's work1 as far as regards this period of #agij3-- 8,carriages should always be built adapted to the places for which they are destined1 whether for town1 country1 or the ,continent2 as a greater stress is laid upon the carriage in drawing over stones than on a smooth road4 ,this makes it absolutely necessary to build stronger for the town than if intended for the country only1 owing to the general goodness of our ,english roads2 it is also necessary to build stronger for the ,continent than even for the town1 as the badness of their roads obliges them to use six horses where we should use two4 8,the construction of every carriage should be as light as the nature of the place for which it is destined will allow4 ,it is folly to give unnecessary weight to the horses1 as the pleasure of conveyance arises from expedition and ease1 which cannot be effected in a cumbersome1 heavy carriage4 8,a false opinion pervades the minds of many persons1 which is1 to build strongly1 regarding the durability of the carriage in preference to the preservation of the horses4 ,superior strength is only effected by additions in weight of the materials used4 8,in the usual meaning of the word carriage among ,coachmakers1 it is the lower framework on which the body containing the passengers is fixed or suspended and to which the wheels are attached4 ,although1 speaking generally1 all vehicles are called carriages1 yet1 in speaking technically1 the distinction must be observed4 8,it is the body1 however1 which contains the passengers1 which varies most in shape and size1 and which is most conspicuous to the eye1 and from which1 therefore1 we derive the particular name of each sort of vehicle40 ,in ,coachbuilding1 accordingly1 the first process is to draw out a side view of the body1 and carefully to assimilate the lines and curves to the prevailing fashion of the day4 ,secondly1 to draw out the plan1 or view from above1 of the bottom and roof dimensions1 with the sweep or cant lines downwards1 and backwards1 and forwards4 ,the body-maker afterwards makes patterns in thin wood of all the different pieces of timber he requires2 these are laid upon planks of ash timber1 and marked with chalk1 and sawn as nearly to the size as possible4 ,the body-maker then proceeds to smooth one side of the pieces of wood and frame them together4 ,it is unnecessary here to give further details of framing the body1 it is sufficient to say that the chief timbers are called the bottom sides2 upon them all the superstructure is raised1 and upon their stability all depends2 they are1 therefore1 of stout timber1 and generally strengthened with iron plates several inches wide1 and from a quarter to three-quarters of an inch thick4 ,it is necessary to mention the bottom sides also1 because we can hardly describe the shape of a body without mentioning them4 ,the panels are of soft-grained mahogany1 which was used in #agij1 as well as at the present day in ,england2 although our neighbours in ,france preferred then1 and generally still use walnut and poplar wood for panels4 ,the roof1 bottom1 and lining boards are of deal4 ,the roof of a coach is covered with a hide of leather stretched on in a wet state4 ,the widths usual for the inside of bodies in those days was #c feet #e inches for two persons1 and #d feet to #d feet #b inches1 for three persons on each seat4 ,the height of the seat from the floor was #ad inches1 and from the roof #c feet #f inches to #c feet #i inches4 ,these dimensions will serve to show how little we have varied from them to the present day4 ,the body being planned out and in progress1 the carriage underworks were prepared1 and ,mr ,felton's description answers to the description in most particulars of the method of building from that time to this4 ,the axles were common axles1 with a single large nut and linch-pin1 such as we now use to agricultural carts and street cabs only4 ,there were improved axle-trees1 with double nuts at each end of the axle-trees and patent axles1 which were not then furnished with the loose collet now used1 and mail axles2 all these are carefully described1 and evidently very closely resembled the axles in use in #ahgf4 ,the axles were strengthened by wooden additions called beds1 in which the axles were recessed and clipped4 ,the front and hind axle-beds were joined by a long timber called a perch1 with wooden side-stays or wings behind4 ,in front the under fore-carriage was joined to the perch by a large iron perch 7or king7 bolt4 ,to secure a steady bearing for the upper and under carriages in locking round1 a circle of iron and wood was added1 termed wheel-plate in ,england1 and the fifth wheel in ,america4 ,beneath the wheel-plate were the futchels 7or fourchils7 to support the splinter-bar and pole1 or shafts4 ,all these timbers were heavier in #agij than those used in the following years2 the ironwork was lighter and broke very frequently4 ,the iron used by ,coachbuilders in those days was decidedly inferior to the iron of #ahcj4 ,this remark applies chiefly to the smaller pieces of iron4 ,when a large piece of work1 such as an axle-tree or a crane was required1 it was forged of a number of bars1 welded together1 and hammered into a tough1 secure mass4 ,the wheels were the distinguishing feature of the carriages of that day1 from their great height and light appearance1 and demand some consideration from us4 ,the extreme height of wheels extended to #e feet #h inches1 which were made with but fourteen spokes2 wheels #e feet #d inches high had twelve spokes2 wheels #d feet #f inches had ten spokes2 and the lowest wheels1 #c feet #b inches high1 eight spokes4 ,the naves were of elm1 the spokes of oak1 and the rims or felloes of ash or beech4 ,the rims of the higher wheels were often of bent timber1 in two or more pieces1 and were bolted to the tyres by one bolt ,illustration3 ,,plate #be4 ,a ,,french ,,chaise ,,de ,,poste ,,of #agfj ,illustration3 ,,plate #bg4 ,,landau ,,of #agij ,illustration3 ,,plate #bh4 ,a ,,perch ,,sociable ,,by ,,hatchett4 between each pair of spokes4 ,the tyre was generally put on in pieces1 the end joining in the middle of the felloe4 ,but the better sort of wheels had the tyre put on in one piece1 and called1 as in the present day1 8a hoop-tyre40 8,many persons10 ,mr ,felton says1 8prefer the common sort of wheel1 on account of their being more easily repaired than the hoop-tyre wheel2 but though the repairing the latter is more difficult1 they are much less subject to need it40 ,in consequence of the great height of the wheels it was necessary to make the carriages very long1 and the distance from the front to the hind axle-tree was #i feet #b inches in a chariot1 and #i feet #h inches in a coach1 or about #h inches in each longer than we should think necessary now4 ,in hackney coaches a shorter perch was customary4 ,crane-neck perches were still used4 ,the springs were chiefly what is termed the whip spring1 namely1 an upright spring1 slightly curved at the top towards the body4 ,the same spring1 if united at the point to another1 became a nutcracker or elbow spring4 ,the same united at the thick end with another became the grasshopper1 or horizontal spring1 and was used for gigs4 ,the ,c spring was also occasionally used4 ,there was also a small conical spring placed between the double of the braces1 after the manner recommended by ,mr ,thomas to the ,academy of ,sciences at ,paris1 in #agjc4 ,see ,plate #bh4 ,having thus described the making of the body and carriage1 we naturally proceed to the product4 ,what was the actual appearance of the coach of #agij8 ,we are again assisted here by the existence of a coach of that period4 ,in the museum of ,south ,kensington may be seen the ,lord ,chancellor of ,ireland's coach1 a large body with deep panels1 flat-sided1 longer on the roof than at the elbow1 with windows in the upper quarters2 the carriage with two crane perches1 7,berlin fashion71 whip springs1 and very high wheels4 ,there is no hind footboard1 whilst a hammer-cloth for the coachman is raised upon scroll ironwork1 very well made4 ,the shape and appearance correspond with the designs in ,mr ,felton's book1 and with drawings now in the possession of the well-known firm of ,barker and ,co41 of coaches built by their house for the ,duke of ,bedford and others during #aghj to #ahjj4 ,the chariot was something like the chariot of later days ,plate #ch1 but was made with smaller windows1 deeper panels1 a very shallow rocker1 and with a sword-case2 this was an ugly excrescence at the back of the body1 to which there was an opening from behind that squab against which the shoulders rest4 ,the sword-case was at first intended to contain weapons1 too frequently required by the many highway robbers that were encountered by travellers1 and for fifty years it was considered essential to almost every carriage that was built2 but it was a relief to every critical eye when ,coachmakers were allowed to omit it4 ,landaus were originally invented about the year #ageg1 at the fortified town of ,landau1 in ,western ,germany4 ,the ,landaus in #agij ,plate #bg1 were like coaches in shape but made so as to open in the centre of the roof1 the framework of which fell back at an angle of #de degrees only1 to allow the admission of air and the sight of the country more freely than in a coach2 but for nearly fifty years there was no improvement in the method of opening and closing the top1 technically termed the 8hood0 of the ,landau4 ,landaulets were chariots made to open4 ,the hoods of both ,landaus and ,landaulets1 and other carriages1 were then made of greasy harness leather1 disagreeable to touch or smell1 and continually needing oil and blacking rubbed into them to keep them supple and black4 ,this was certainly much against their popularity2 but1 considering that they were two carriages in one1 and would serve for day and night work1 and summer and winter1 it is not surprising that they found a large amount of patronage4 ,besides these vehicles there were phaetons1 barouches1 sociables1 curricles1 gigs1 and whiskies4 ,of these phaetons there were several sorts1 but all for self-driving by the owners4 ,young ,england1 in those days especially1 delighted in very lofty phaetons and fast driving4 ,the romantic tales of this age1 as well as the biographies1 are full of anecdotes of adventures by upsets out of these dangerous machines1 and yet of the fearful pleasure there was in driving them4 ,one was called the 8,perch-high ,phaeton40 ,plate #bi4 ,it was shaped like a curricle1 and had a leathern hood4 ,the centre of the body was hung exactly over the front axle-tree1 the bottom of the body was #e ft4 from the ground1 the front wheels were #d ft4 high1 and the hind wheels #e ft4 #h in4 ,the hind wheels were far behind1 as we see them in a horse-dealer's skeleton brake4 ,there was a large platform board over the hind axle-tree1 for servants or luggage4 ,on such a carriage ,george ,,iv41 when ,prince of ,wales1 used to drive to the race-course1 or round ,hyde ,park4 ,it was on such a carriage that the ,hon4 ,col4 ,onslow1 generally called 8,tommy ,onslow10 performed his feats of driving3 8,what can ,tommy ,onslow do8 ,he can drive a chaise and two2 ,what can ,tommy ,onslow more8 ,oh1 he drives a chaise and four40 ,another sort of phaeton1 with the wheels #f in4 on #h in4 lower1 and the body slung between the wheels1 was used both for driving and posting4 ,a third sort was used for small horses1 with the front wheels #c ft4 #b in1 and the hind wheels #d ft4 #i in4 ,then there was a one-horse phaeton ,plate #cj1 the body of which was over the hind axle1 and it was hung on grasshopper springs1 bolted to the axle1 and connected with the body by scroll-irons2 the body was joined to the fore carriage1 which was without springs1 by wooden stays1 and the wheels locked round in front of the body4 ,this distance of the horse from the driver1 though it gives but an indifferent command of his head1 yet secures the passengers from the danger of his heels4 ,the sociable in those days was ,plate #bh1 in the shape of a double-cab body1 made with or without doors1 and with or without a driving seat4 ,sometimes ,illustration3 ,,plate #ca4 ,,chair ,,back ,,gig ,,of #agij4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cb4 ,a ,,caned ,,whiskey ,,of #agij4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cc4 ,a ,,briska ,,on ,c ,,springs4 an open body like this sociable1 and a chariot had but one under carriage between them1 which was used according to the year1 either with the open or the closed body4 ,the large two-wheeled vehicles were hung upon framed carriages with whip springs behind and elbow springs in front1 like the gentlemen's cabriolets of the present day4 ,when drawn by two horses they were called curricles1 or if by one horse1 chaises ,plate #ca4 ,there was a little variation in the shape of the body1 namely1 the full curricle patterns1 and the half curricle with or without a boot--similar to a ,tilbury or a gig body4 ,the wheels were from #d ft4 #c in4 to #e ft4 in height4 ,lancewood was then used for shafts4 ,another two-wheeled carriage was the ,whisky ,plate #cb 7or gig7 the body fixed upon the shafts--which again were connected with the long horizontal springs by scroll-irons4 ,the gig was also made with a moveable hood4 ,the ,rib ,chair was a similar vehicle1 but without springs2 the body had a solid board for a seat1 rounded into a semi-circular form1 with an upper rail of the same shape1 supported by a number of small sticks hardly differing at all from the ,stanhope shape of later days4 ,this vehicle was made in the country towns for twelve pounds4 ,the tax in #agij upon two-wheel vehicles in general was #c1 #ags4 each1 but if the cost was only #ab1 and the words 8taxed cart0 were painted upon the gig or cart1 the yearly tax was reduced to twelve shillings1 hence a very large number of these 8rib chairs0 came into use among the gentry2 whilst farmers used a similarly cheap cart without springs1 and1 to obtain some slight ease1 had the seat slung upon straps fastened to the side of the cart4 ,the tax upon four-wheeled carriages was #h #afs4 for the first1 and #i #ahs4 for the second carriage1 but if three or more carriages were kept1 the owner had to pay a tax of #aa on each carriage4 ,it is difficult for a government who must raise money to so adjust the taxes as not to impede at the same time the industry of the country4 ,looking back now at the alterations which took place from time to time in the taxes upon carriages used and carriages hired1 we can have no hesitation in saying that sufficient attention has never been given to the remonstrances of ,coachbuilders and hackney carriage owners at the offices of the ,inland ,revenue1 and that consequently the owners and users of carriages have suffered an amount of annoyance that might and should have been avoided2 whilst the amount raised in taxes might have been higher if it had been more judiciously apportioned4 ,i have now given a description of the principal vehicles at this period of the history of ,english coachbuilding4 ,i wish to add that most1 if not all1 were used for travelling purposes as well as for driving in the cities4 ,by an ingenious arrangement the hammer-cloths could be removed1 and the cushions on which the footmen stood behind the coach or chariot gave place to a trunk or rumble4 ,boxes fitted to the shape1 and called imperials1 were put upon the roofs4 ,drag-shoes and chains1 tool-budgets and dragstaffs were added1 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bi4 ,a ,,high ,,perch ,,phaeton ,,of #agij4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cj4 ,a ,,one ,,horse ,,phaeton ,,of #agij4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ch4 ,,an ,,english ,,post ,,chaise ,,of #agij4 and the vehicles could then be used as a comfortable travelling carriage ,plate #ch4 ,the curricles and phaetons were all used to carry trunks1 and these are described by ,mr ,felton very minutely1 so as to make it clear we have not much improved upon the fittings of a travelling carriage since #agij4 ,looking once more at the history ,i have given of the state of the coach-trade in #agij1 it is impossible not to be surprised at the considerable advance from the clumsy vehicles of ,queen ,anne and ,george ,i4's time4 ,but during the reigns of ,george ,,ii4 and ,george ,,iii41 all our manufactures had received an immense impulse from the energy of the men of the time4 ,discoveries were continually being made in arts and manufactures4 ,books were written1 experiments tried1 and debates held in every workshop as to the best mode of construction and arrangements of all the parts1 and improvements by the artisans employed became a matter of course4 ,it is true that1 with the increased wealth of ,england there was an increased demand for carriages1--demand will always produce supply1--but all must admit that the supply in those days was very good1 and all the varied demands were met with considerable pains and ingenuity4 ,in the year #agfi1 the ,society of ,arts had given sixty guineas to ,mr ,t4 ,hunt for improvements in tyring wheels1 and twenty guineas to ,mr ,joseph ,jacob1 of ,st4 ,mary-axe1 for improved coach springs4 ,this same ,mr ,jacob wrote a clever treatise on carriages in #aggc2 and in #aggg he repaired the city state coach4 ,in #aggb1 the ,society of ,arts gave twenty guineas to ,mr ,w4 ,bailey1 for improvements in the locking of waggons2 and in #aggc1 the ,society of ,arts had experiments made in the draught of carriages1 and rewarded a ,mr ,cuthbert ,clarke with fifteen guineas1 for an essay on the height of wheels4 ,later1 ,dr ,edgeworth1 in #ahaf1 conducted a series of interesting experiments at ,dublin1 with a view to ascertain the difference that high and low wheels1 long and short carriages1 and springs placed between the axles and the vehicles1 would have upon the draught of the vehicles4 ,in the year #ahjd1 ,mr ,obadiah ,elliot1 a coachmaker of ,lambeth1 patented his plan for hanging vehicles upon elliptical springs1 thus dispensing with the heavy combined wood and iron perch and cross beds that had been invariably used in four-wheeled carriages up to that time1 with the exception of a few one-horse phaetons4 ,elliot was rewarded by the grant of a gold medal from the ,society of ,arts1 and extensive orders for his carriages from the public1 who appreciated his important enterprise and invention4 ,i have a print1 published by ,ackermann in #ahaf1 which shows a landaulet upon elliptical springs4 ,there is a square boot1 framed to the body1 with the driving-seat on ironwork high above the boot2 what are usually called the pump-handles behind are straight1 and support a foot-board4 ,the whole is upon four elliptical springs1 #c ft4 #f in4 long1 and with a span of #aj in4 ,the wheels are #c ft4 #h in4 and #d ft4 #h in4 high4 ,the body is very small1 and the bottom is #c ft #f in4 above the ground4 ,but the centres of the axle-trees are only #f ft4 #f in4 apart4 ,in the same book of drawings there is a full-bodied barouche1 only #e ft4 long1 hung likewise high1 with high wheels1 and a very short carriage1 with whip springs2 a coach and a landau1 all painted yellow1 are likewise with very small bodies1 and are hung high1 with short carriages1 and the perches nearly straight2 also a mail phaeton1 with a curricle-shaped body1 and a rumble boot framed to it1 hung upon a carriage with #c ft4 #d in4 centres1 the wheels #c ft4 and #d ft4 #d in4 high1 with full-shaped ,c springs behind1 and elbow-springs and braces from a high scroll iron on the transom bed4 ,it is interesting to observe how the demand for light vehicles had begun to work1 in decreasing the size and length in every way1 and also in lowering the height of the wheels from ,felton's time4 ,exactly the same revolution was taking place in mail coaches4 ,the improvements carried out in ,england were repeated on the continent4 ,in #ahaj three beautiful carriages were built at ,milan on the occasion of the wedding of the ,emperor of ,napoleon ,buonaparte with the ,princess ,maria ,louisa of ,austria4 ,these carriages are still preserved at ,vienna1 and consist of a state coach1 a chariot1 and a barouche1 all upon ,c springs4 ,the perches are double1 ,berlin fashion1 with elegant cranes at each end2 each perch is octagon1 very well shaped1 and forged out of solid iron from end to end4 ,all three carriages are small1 light1 and well finished4 ,the coach has a large crown on the roof and windows in the sides1 the hammer-cloth is supported on scroll ironwork1 all the decorations are in a good state and well-proportioned4 ,at the ,court of ,spain are preserved two handsome coaches built for ,charles ,,iv4 before #ahjj1 with side windows1 an elegant metal fretwork standing above the edge of the roof1 hammer-cloths on scroll ironwork and ,c springs4 ,they have iron crane ,berlin perches1 and are suspended upon long thick leather braces passing from the hind ,c springs to the front under the body without any iron loops4 ,photographs of these vehicles are preserved at the hall of the ,coachbuilders' ,company4 ,i have mentioned the designs in the ,carriage ,fashion ,book of #ahaf4 ,in further illustration ,i can say that1 in #ahab1 a large coachbuilder's stock-book1 which ,i have seen1 contained over two hundred carriages1 mostly let for terms of years4 ,of these one-half were chariots1 fifty were landaus1 and the remaining fifty coaches and landaulets4 ,in #ahad1 there were #bc1djj four-wheel vehicles paying duty to ,government2 #bg1cjj two-wheel1 and #ah1ejj tax-carts2 a total of #fi1bjj carriages in ,great ,britain4 ,we shall see by later returns how much these numbers have increased1 by the reduction of government duties1 and the introduction of elliptical springs4 ,a carriage was much in fashion at this period called the ,curricle2 it had been in use for many years in ,italy2 it was derived1 ,i believe1 from the ,british essedum1 which had been adopted by the ,romans4 ,the ,italians of the middle ages brought the body forward in front of the wheels1 and at length suspended the body from braces2 the ,french added springs1 and the ,english altered the shape giving the back panel an ogee curve1 and improved the hood1 and now added a spring bar across the horses' backs1 rendering it a graceful and easy vehicle1 which could be driven at great speed4 ,the want of perfect safety checked its early popularity1 and it was gradually superseded by the gentleman's cabriolet with one horse1 and the mail-phaeton with two horses4 ,it was in use from #agjj to #ahcj4 ,the celebrated ,romeo ,coates drove a curricle in the shape of a shell4 ,charles ,dickens drove one as soon as his writings procured him the means1 and ,count ,d',orsay and ,lord ,chesterfield had new curricles from ,messrs ,barker's as lately as #ahcf4 ,the ,coachbuilders of ,london of the greatest celebrity in #ahae were the large firm of ,collinridge1 ,rowley1 ,mansell1 and ,cook1 of ,liquorpond ,street2 ,windus1 in ,bishopgate ,street1 in the city of ,london2 ,barker1 of ,chandos ,street2 ,hatchett1 of ,long ,acre1 ,houlditch and ,hankins2 and ,luke ,hopkinson of ,holborn4 ,in #ahah ,mr ,windus introduced ,undersprings to perch carriages4 ,it was found that in bad roads the elliptical springs did not give sufficient ease1 but the addition of horizontal springs below the ,c springs had the advantage of rendering the carriages not only easier but more durable1 by relieving the perch and beds from the direct concussions caused by ruts and holes4 ,about the same time concealed hinges were invented4 ,collinge's patent axles1 which had first been made in #agib1 became more generally used2 their high price had been much against them1 but the advantage of carrying a supply of oil for two or three months1 avoiding also the noise and rattle of the common axles 7which require fresh greasing daily71 gradually secured their use1 and when the patent expired they were universally adopted4 ,now this patent axle and the mail axle are in general use throughout the civilised world4 ,in #ahbj the greatest improvements in the shape and style in the manufacture and finish of ,english carriages were commenced by the celebrated ,samuel ,hobson1 who may be truly said to have improved and remodelled every sort of carriage which came under his notice1 especially as regards the artistic form and construction1 both of body and carriage4 ,he lowered the wheels of coaches and chariots to #c ft4 #c in4 in front and #d ft4 #e in4 behind1 and lengthened the carriage part once more to such a true proportion to the whole vehicle as has approved itself as correct to each succeeding generation of ,coachbuilders and users of carriages4 ,he lowered the body so that it could be entered by a moderate double step instead of the three-fold ladder previously in use4 ,he perfected the curves of the bodies and the springs1 besides making the numberless small details of the body and underworks of the requisite strength1 and the most agreeable shape and proportion4 ,mr ,samuel ,hobson learnt the art in the firm of ,barker and ,co41 of ,chandos ,street1 and rose to be a partner in the firm1 but after a few years in that position he left about the year #ahae and set up for himself in ,long ,acre1 and ultimately moved about #ahbd to the large premises previously ,messrs ,hatchett's4 ,in his improvements he was assisted by his experience gathered at ,messrs ,barkers1 and aided by the enlightened minds and good sense of most of the trade1 who copied him as they had copied his predecessor1 ,mr ,hatchett1 in #aghj4 ,the ,briska1 or britchka1 had been1 about #ahah1 introduced into ,england by ,mr ,t4 ,g4 ,adams1 from ,austria4 ,plate #cc4 ,it was built both upon elliptical springs and ,c springs1 and was made in various sizes1 large for family use1 smaller for posting1 with a rumble behind1 and still smaller to be drawn by one horse4 ,this briska was nearly straight along the bottom1 according to the fashion of the wicker waggons still so much used in ,germany4 ,the hind panel was ogee-shaped1 the front terminated in a square boot1 and the door was lower than the hind quarter1 and was fitted with a solid folding apron or knee-flap4 ,the carriage was short1 and the front wheel rather lower than usual4 ,the ,briska came1 in #ahbd1 to be very much used1 and lasted in favour until about #ahdj4 ,two-wheeled carriages had much increased4 ,the ,dennett1 invented by ,mr ,bennett1 of ,finsbury1 was a great improvement on the whisky1 or gig1 of #agij4 ,it was like those1 hung upon two long horizontal springs4 ,the ,stanhope was built under the superintendence of the ,hon4 ,fitzroy ,stanhope1 brother of ,lord ,petersham1 by ,tilbury1 the builder also of the easy vehicle of that name4 ,the ,stanhope was shaped like the old rib gig1 but hung upon four springs1 two of which were bolted between the shafts and axle1 and the other two crossways1 parallel to the axle at either end of the body1 and shackled to the side springs4 ,these ,stanhopes are very easy1 and do not rock so much as other gigs behind a rough-trotting horse1 but they are heavier than the dennett1 as it is necessary to add iron plates all round the shafts4 ,the ,tilbury was made without any boot1 but otherwise the body was shaped like a stanhope2 the shafts were equally strong and plated with iron4 ,it was hung in front by two elbow-springs and leather braces to the shafts or front cross bar1 and behind by two elbow-springs passing from beneath the seat to a cross-spring raised to the level of the back rail of the body by three straight irons from the hind part of the cross bar4 ,later two more springs were added between the axletree and the shafts by scroll irons4 ,the ,tilbury was an elegant carriage1 and when well made1 a particularly good vehicle1 but the weight of so many springs and so much ironwork gradually took away the public favour2 they lasted until nearly #ahej4 ,they were perhaps more in favour for export to ,italy1 ,portugal1 and other foreign countries1 than our other two-wheel carriages1 because they would hold together over the roughest roads1 and lasted a long time without repair4 ,the ,dog-cart and ,tandem-cart belong also to the beginning of the present century in their origin4 ,dr ,edgeworth speaks with horror of the reckless height to which they attained in #ahag4 8,carriages10 he says1 8have arisen to a preposterous elevation4 ,that private phaetons and barouches should be mounted out of the town dust1 and above the country hedges1 is a dangerous luxury1 but it does not materially affect the public4 ,the invention of that daring vehicle1 #8the ,suicide1' will not probably be much imitated among ,christian people2 and fortunately the laws have limited the elevation to which1 by the absurdity of coachmen1 mail coaches might have been raised40 ,the 8,suicide0 was the name of a very high tandem gig1 wherein the groom was mounted upon a seat three feet above the driver4 ,it received its name in ,ireland4 ,the first ,dog-carts had a large and deep boot with ,venetian slats in the sides1 to contain greyhounds or pointers1 and the four passengers sat back to back4 ,tandem-carts were made in a similar manner with a large boot1 the driver's seat raised1 something like the ,salisbury boot fashion1 whilst the groom's seat was1 like the hind seat of a drag1 raised from the boot on ironwork4 ,the gradual development of the ,dog-cart in all its varied shapes of high cart and low cart1 ,newport1 ,pagnell1 ,malvern cart1 ,whitechapel1 sliding body cart1 ,norwich cart1 c41 are too well known to need enlarging upon4 ,they have afforded facilities of agreeable locomotion to millions at a very moderate cost1 and1 if carefully driven1 are as reasonably safe as any vehicle4 ,who drives faster than a butcher boy1 and over roads of all sorts--dry1 rough1 slippery1 or newly made--the horse's head held with a snaffle-bit only--and yet it is very seldom that the horse falls4 ,with the growth of our trade and manufactures the system arose of sending commercial travellers throughout ,england1 to call the attention of shopkeepers to novelties in manufactured goods4 ,it was found advantageous to send these travellers in light vehicles which could convey samples of the manufactures1 and this custom led to the multiplication of gigs in far greater quantities than would have been otherwise required4 ,about #ahcj one coach factory in ,london supplied several hundreds of these vehicles to commercial travellers at annual rentals4 ,now1 this sort of travelling to show samples and solicit orders is performed by railway1 and the greatest number of two-wheeled vehicles belong to farmers4 ,in #ahaj a duty was levied by ,government upon carriages for sale4 ,it was repealed in #ahbe1 but the returns give the number of vehicles built for private use in #ahad as #cfcf1 and in #ahbd as #eadc1 whilst the number of carriages in use in #ahbd had grown to nearly #bi1jjj four-wheeled1 and #cf1jjj two-wheeled1 besides #ae1jjj tax-carts1 a total increase1 since #ahad1 of #bj1jjj vehicles4 ,travelling carriages had now become very much in demand1 and were taken on the ,continent4 ,some noblemen and gentlemen began to travel abroad every year4 ,the fittings had become more elaborate4 ,it was usual to cord the ,c springs from the top to the bottom to strengthen them1 and provide against the jolts of very bad roads2 so that1 if one or two of the steel plates broke1 the cording would still hold all together4 ,also long ropes were provided1 extending beneath the body from the front to the hind springs1 to support it should the body-loops give way under the quantity of luggage stowed in boxes1 and imperials1 and cap-cases4 ,a dragstaff was provided to prevent the coach sliding back when the horses rested in going up hill1 and two drag-chains and shoes against going down hill4 ,notwithstanding these precautions it became usual1 at the top of the ,alpine passes1 from the courier who attended the traveller to procure from the post-houses two sabots or logs of wood hollowed out to fit a wheel1 and these were substituted for the iron shoes during the long and steep descent of the ,alpine mountains4 ,in #ahbd a carriage was introduced which has become of almost universal use--the ,pony phaeton4 ,in that year ,king ,george ,,iv4 desired a low phaeton1 and one was built for him of a shape and size in which there has been little alteration during the fifty years that have since passed away4 ,it was a cab shape1 half caned1 with a skeleton bottom side1 hung upon four elliptical springs1 with crane ironwork back and front1 two elbow-wings1 bow-steps1 and large dasher1 and it was drawn by two ponies2 the wheels were only #ba and #cc in4 high4 ,another carriage had been introduced from ,germany1 called a ,droitska1 an open carriage with a hood1 on a perch1 and with ,c springs4 ,the peculiarity was that the body hung very near the perch2 the place for the legs was on either side of the perch1 so that the seat was only #ab in4 above the hind axle-tree2 the chief merit of the ,droitska consisted in its lightness compared with ,briskas and ,barouches1 and the shortness of the whole vehicle4 ,in appearance it resembled a pilentum1 and it is probable that ,mr ,david ,davies took his idea of a pilentum from the shape of the ,droitska4 ,mr ,david ,davies1 a ,coachmaker of ,albany ,street1 and afterwards of ,wigmore ,street1 had considerable inventive faculties4 ,he originated a number of vehicles1 the ,pilentum phaeton1 about #ahcd1 which was an open carriage with the doorway very near the ground1 the driving seat was also low1 the whole hung upon elliptical springs1 and built of different sizes1 to carry four or six persons1 and adapted for one or two horses4 ,the invention of the ,cab ,phaeton is also attributed to him2 this was a cab-shaped body suspended on four elliptic springs1 with a low driving seat and dasher1 and shafts for one horse4 ,it was soon generally adopted1 and became the pleasure carriage of thousands4 ,the cab phaeton was dispersed throughout ,england1 and also on the ,continent1 where it became known under the name of 8,milord40 ,about #ahej it had become the hack carriage of several of the ,continental cities1 and so went out of fashion with the gentry4 ,during the last few years1 however1 it has been revived under the name of ,victoria4 ,in #ahfi1 ,i think it was1 that the ,prince of ,wales bought one at ,paris of the curved shape1 and ,baron ,rothschild brought another from ,vienna of the square shape1 and the ,victoria became again the popular carriage4 ,light1 low1 easy1 fit for one horse1 and looking very well behind a pair of cobs1 it is not surprising that the ,victoria meets with so much patronage1 and it is pleasant to observe how little difference there is made by different ,coachmakers in the size and shape of this useful and elegant vehicle4 ,i have had occasion to notice the influence that certain ,coachbuilders have had upon the progress of this art1 and it will not be right to omit to mention the great influence that ,messrs ,peters have exercised upon the whole trade by the sound and good workmanship which has for so many years characterised their establishment4 ,as early as #ahcf their ,mail phaetons were noted for the steadiness with which they followed the horses1 and the firmness with which they encountered rough roads4 ,the year #ahch claims special notice in the annals of ,coachbuilding2 it was probably the climax of the efforts of modern ,coachbuilders in what is called 8,dress0 or 8,state carriages40#e ,these vehicles had long passed the period in which beautiful carving and elegant painting had been used to disguise1 as far as possible1 the clumsy ,state carriages of the #ahth century4 ,ever since the building of the ,irish ,lord ,chancellor's ,state coach by ,hatchett or ,baxter in #agij1 ,coachbuilders had endeavoured to produce a graceful outline of body1 of a fair size no larger than was necessary1 the ,c springs had been made of a perfect curve1 the perch followed the sweeps of the body1 the carving was reduced to a moderate amount1 the ornamental painting was confined to the stripes upon the wheels1 and the heraldic bearings of the owners of the carriages were beautifully emblazoned on the panels4 ,for further ornament they relied upon plated work in brass or silver round the body and on the loops and wheel hoops4 ,in every capital of ,europe such carriages had superseded the old style1 and ,london and ,paris had supplied other countries with most of these ,state carriages4 ,in this year1 #ahch1 was the coronation of our gracious ,queen1 and the different ambassadors of foreign countries and our own nobility had prepared for the occasion a larger number of court ,dress carriages than had ever been hitherto seen in ,london4 ,of these vehicles it was generally considered that ,marshal ,soult1 the ,french ,ambassador's coach bore away the palm4 ,engravings of some of the best were soon published4 ,marshal ,soult's coach was built by ,mr ,dalringen1 at ,paris4 ,the body had four upper quarter glasses1 with a very elegant deep and pierced cornice of silver round the roof1 there were four lamps with large coronets on the tops1 and the coach bore a coronet on the roof also4 ,the colour of the painting was a lovely blue1 such as was then called ,adelaide blue2 this had been varnished with white spirit varnish1 and seemed almost transparent in lustre4 ,the whole coach was ornamented with silver and was finished in great taste4 ,about this period a noted ,coachmaker named ,luke ,hopkinson1 of ,holborn1 introduced the briska landau4 ,the peculiar shape is now of little consequence1 but with this carriage commenced those improvements upon landaus which have since rendered them so popular4 ,up to this time the ,landau head had opened just as it did in #agij1 and no more2 the pillars which now lie nearly flat fell usually only at an angle of forty-five degrees4 ,mr ,hopkinson cut away the corners of the back rails1 which hindered the hoopsticks from lying on the elbows1 took away the heavy squabbing that bulged into the body when the head was lowered1 and lined the upper quarters with plain cloth only1 as in a briska head4 ,he also made the seats and bottom to rise six inches when the landau was open1 to give the persons inside more air and freedom4 ,to ,mr ,laurie we must give the high credit of improving upon ,mr ,hopkinson's improvements1 and persisting in seeing that his workpeople kept on improving1 instead of1 as workpeople used to do in #ahch1 hinder their employers by vexatious objections to all alterations4 ,this period was noted also by the patronage by the ,duke of ,wellington of a vehicle called the equirotal1 invented by ,mr ,w4 ,bridges ,adams4 ,this was a gig without a head1 and a curricle with a head1 made so that each could be used with one or a pair of horses1 or combined into a mail phaeton by adding two couplings between the two bodies2 the four-wheels being of equal height1 give it the name of equirotal4 ,the invention has some very good points1 and may be revived some day1 with a more perfect connecting joint than ,mr ,adams attained in #ahch4 ,but the greatest improvement of this period was the introduction of the brougham4 ,lord ,brougham and others had for some time used a one-horse chariot4 ,the ,pilentum chariot for one horse had already been built at ,paris1 and several other small close carriages called ,clarences had been constructed2 but none of these1 although some were really light enough for one horse1 took thoroughly the taste of the public4 ,mr ,david ,davies introduced some shapes1 and ,messrs ,laurie and ,marner perfected them4 ,i think it was in #ahci that the first vehicle which was nearly the shape of the present ,brougham1 was built by ,mr ,robinson1 of ,mount ,street1 for ,lord ,brougham4 ,messrs ,thrupp built one in the following year1 #ahdj1 of the same shape4 ,in a few years they were built by nearly all ,coachmakers1 and proved so convenient that they superseded even the cabriolet for gentlemen's use4 ,the size of the first ,brougham was much as is now in vogue1 about #d feet long in the body1 and the same breadth outside measure1 the wheels #b feet #aa inches and #c feet #g inches1 the driving-boot was made without any arch1 in a single sweep from the body to the foot-board2 it was hung on elliptic springs in front1 and five springs behind1 without any body steps4 ,this was preceded by the pill-box ,brougham1 as it was called1 with straight front pillars1 and the body very much contracted in front1 to look light4 ,a street cab was the forerunner of both4 ,in a year or two1 ,mr ,edward ,lytton ,bulwer 7afterwards ,lord ,lytton7 had a small ,clarence of the shape called ,imperial ,clarence which was painted brown with white wheels1 and had a small hammer-cloth of brown and white2 the whole was tastily fitted up and finished1 but the attempt to introduce a miniature chariot did not succeed1 although it was built with considerable care by ,messrs ,laurie and ,marner4 ,in #ahde1 ,waggonettes were built of some size2 the first1 it is said1 was made under the superintendence of the late ,prince ,consort1 and was successful as being the forerunner of a very large number of light1 roomy1 and useful vehicles4 ,break waggonettes are also an improvement upon the uncomfortable conveyances called ,breaks in early days4 ,the principle of riding sideways was not new4 ,the ,irish car1 the four-wheeled ,inside-car of the ,westmoreland ,lake district1 the old ,break1 and the ,omnibus all contributed to the design of the modern vehicle4 ,in the modern ,waggonette we have not only a good looking1 comfortable carriage1 but one which possesses the advantage of carrying a greater number of persons than any other four-wheeled vehicle of the same weight and size4 ,in #ahdf was introduced and perfected by ,messrs ,hooper the system of suspending carriages on a single wrought iron perch1 supported by horizontal undersprings4 ,the perch being light1 and to a certain extent elastic1 enabled all the beds and iron stays to be proportionately reduced in weight2 the wheels and axles1 having less to carry1 were also made lighter4 ,this system at first was only applied to broughams and sociables1 but it has gradually been applied to the largest carriages1 especially barouches and landaus1 not only in ,england1 but in all countries where carriages are made1 so that it is quite the exception for a new carriage to be built with a perch that is not of solid wrought iron4 ,these connecting perches are not now made quite so light as at first2 it is found that unless the hind wheels follow steadily1 not only is the carriage heavier behind the horse1 but the perch itself is frequently bent against very small obstructions2 a stronger and stiffer perch is therefore now used1 and it is found both easier to the horse and to the occupants of the vehicle4 ,we have now reviewed the principal varieties of carriages introduced into ,england during the present century2 to enumerate the whole would be tedious4 ,at our great ,exhibitions in ,london1 ,paris1 ,vienna1 and other cities1 new shapes have continually appeared1 and some have found favour1 and some have appeared no more4 ,they are evidence that the ingenuity of ,coachbuilders is not less than the ingenuity of the workmen in other trades4 ,the history of the last twenty-five years is1 however1 sufficiently fresh upon the memory not to require repetition4 ,we have already in the reports of the juries of those several ,exhibitions1 drawn up by ,mr ,george ,hooper1 a record of the most noteworthy objects4 ,it would be for the benefit of all persons engaged in ,carriage-building if those reports could be reissued with the addition of a report of the interesting ,philadelphia ,exhibition now in progress4 ,m4 ,guiet1 of ,paris1 will probably write a report for use in that city4 ,in ,saint ,petersburg the ,russian ,emperor had an ,imperial carriage factory1 originally established in #ahba4 ,at these works1 which now belong to ,messrs ,brautigam1 two hundred and fifty men are employed4 ,fifty new carriages a year are built for the ,royal family1 besides the repairing and altering of others4 ,there is a steam-engine on the premises4 ,there is also at ,st ,petersburg a museum1 in which repose travelling carriages on the ground floor1 and ,state carriages on the first floor4 ,there are post-chaises of #agdf and #agfb1 and seven carriages which were in use by the ,empress ,catherine1 many decorated by well-known painters1 such as ,watteau1 ,boucher1 ,gravelot1 c41 and superbly fitted up in the interior with velvet and silk4 ,there are twelve sledges of the elaborate build of former days4 ,i will here mention that1 by the kind permission of ,mr ,w4 ,h4 ,smith1 of the ,treasury1 ,i am able to give some further returns of carriages paying duty4 ,four-wheeled carriages amounted in #ahcd to #di1jjj2 in #ahdd1 #fb1jjj2 in #ahed1 #fh1jjj2 in #ahfd1 #ajb1jjj2 and in #ahgd there were actually #aej1jjj four-wheeled carriages paying duty1 but these last numbers now include vehicles which were formerly taxed under the ,postmaster's and ,stage duties1 and these vehicles in #ahfd had amounted to #be1jjj1 still without them the increase in ten years is #bc1jjj1 quite as many as were kept in the year #ahad4 ,in #ahad1 that is #bc1jjj four-wheeled carriages paid duty1 and in #ahgd they had increased to #abe1jjj4 ,the return states there were of two-wheeled carriages in-- #ahcd #ej1jjj including the tax carts4 #ahdd #cc1jjj 8 #ahed #acg1jjj 8 #ahfd #agj1jjj 8 ,and in-- #ahgd #bhe1jjj two-wheeled carriages1 including basket and other four-wheeled traps under #d cwt4 ,carriages of both sorts then have increased from about #fj1jjj in #ahad to #dcb1fjj in #ahgd1 a benefit to the general population it is clear1 as well as to the workmen4 ,it is a satisfaction that our trade contributes to the comfort1 happiness1 and respectability of the community in general1 and is also a very healthy trade for the workmen4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,chapter ,v4 ,,on ,,public ,,carriages4 ,travelling before ,a4,d4 #afjj--;,great ,width of ,waggon ,wheels--,turnpike ,roads--,post ,saddle ,horses--,hackneys--,stage ,coaches--,hackney ,coaches--,cheap ,rate of ,hire--,the ,york ,coach--,the ,manchester ,flying ,coach--,the ,post ,chaise--,the ,diligence--,post-,boys--,mr ,t4 ,pennant on ,travelling--,increase of ,mail ,coaches--,m#8,adam's ,roads--,four-in-,hand ,clubs--,russian ,travelling--,two-,wheeled ,street ,cabs--,street ,cabs need ,improvement--,hansom ,cabs--,omnibus of ,pascal--,omnibus of #ahbj--,shillibeer's ,omnibuses--,general ,omnibus ,company--,american ,coachmaking--,fast ,cabs of ,vienna4 ,i mentioned in an earlier lecture that the ,romans1 during the time of the ,emperors ,augustus and ,tiberius1 established a system of public vehicles for hire4 ,these were stationed at inns or post-houses1 at intervals of five or six miles1 and there were twenty or more horses kept at each inn along the great main roads of ,italy1 and many of the dependent countries of ,europe and ,asia4 ,the chief use of the post-houses was to supply the public messengers1 but they were found of such accommodation that more horses and vehicles were required for the use of travellers4 ,the essedum1 or two-wheeled curricle2 the cisium1 or gig2 and the rhedum1 a four-wheeled waggon1 drawn by four or six mules1 were the chief carriages kept at these stations4 ,cesarius1 a magistrate in the time of the ,emperor ,theodosius1 went post from ,antioch to ,constantinople1 six hundred and sixty-five miles1 in six days1 with a speed1 allowing for stoppages1 of about six miles an hour4 ,coaches1 we have already seen1 were introduced into ,england in the sixteenth century1 stage coaches in the seventeenth1 mail coaches in the eighteenth1 and railways in the nineteenth centuries4 ,each of the four last centuries had added to and improved upon the systems of passenger and commercial transit4 ,the facilities for travelling1 prior to the introduction of coaches1 were afforded by saddle horses1 and by cars or charettes1 7vehicles without springs1 as ,i have already described71 by waggons1 and by strings of pack-horses following each other laden with goods1 upon which a passenger occasionally sat4 ,for the sick1 and ladies who did not ride1 the litter1 carried by men on two poles1 or strapped to mules or horses1 was generally adopted4 ,persons were in the habit of collecting together and travelling in company with these conveyances1 or in gangs by themselves1 or on horses when they had them1 for their mutual protection4 ,old men can still recollect strings of pack horses traversing ,lancashire and ,yorkshire1 and advertisements for companions desired by gentlemen about to ride to ,london4 ,laws for the improvement of old roads and the making of new1 were passed in the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 and special mention is made of those between ,st4 ,clements ,danes in the ,strand1 and ,charing ,cross1 ,holborn1 and ,southwark as being then noxious and very jeopardous4 ,in the time of ,queen ,mary1 in #aeee1 an ,act of ,parliament ordered the appointment of two surveyors for each parish1 and that the roads should be repaired under their supervision4 ,towards the end of the sixteenth century the long broad wheeled waggons were introduced into ,england1 and began to pass regularly between the great towns with goods and passengers4 ,these long waggons first received the name of 8,stages40 ,there are continual allusions in old books to their great convenience1 although the rate of speed was small4 ,about one hundred and thirty years ago there seems to have arisen an extraordinary contest between the owners of waggons and those who repaired the highways4 ,it was asserted that the waggon wheels destroyed the road by reason of the great weight of the vehicles and the narrowness of the tyres4 ,the question was carried before ,parliament1 and endeavours were made to widen the tyres to nine and even ten inches1 so as to reduce the crushing effect of the wheels on soft roads to a minimum4 ,on such roads it was said there were ruts more than a foot deep1 cut by the narrow wheels4 ,the ,legislature endeavoured to promote the use of broad wheels by exemptions from turnpike tolls1 by restrictions and fines upon narrow wheels1 and actually recommended tyres #af inches wide1 under the idea that they would roll roads flat1 just as gravel walks in a garden are rolled4 ,in the ,british ,museum is a work by ,daniel ,bourne1 dated #agfc1 having a design of a waggon with four wheels in which the front axle-tree is very short1 so that the track outside the front wheels is made to correspond with the inside of the hind wheels1 and they are made like four garden rollers1 each #ae inches wide1 so that as the waggon moved #e feet of the road should be simultaneously rolled flat4 ,after a contest of many years it was generally acknowledged that1 to oblige waggoners to carry burdensome wheels to roll the road for pleasure carriages1 was an obvious hardship4 ,every inch added to the really necessary width for strength to the tyre of the wheels was felt by the carrier as a grievance1 and the evasion of the government regulations was sympathised with by the common sense of mankind4 ,it was left to the waggoner to keep the wheel sufficiently narrow to run lightly1 and sufficiently wide to prevent its sinking with a heavy load into the road4 ,it was admitted that the chief person interested in the matter was the waggoner1 as1 if his wheels turned heavily over the road by reason of sinking into the surface1 then he would fine himself by being obliged to use more horses1 or by travelling very slowly4 ,during the whole of the sixteenth century the improvement of ,english main and cross-roads continued steadily advancing by the system of turnpike tolls1 on the security of which money was borrowed by the parishes in order to make them4 ,although for a long time there was great opposition1 yet the system suited the time1 and was probably1 in our free country1 the only way to obtain them4 ,in ,france1 on the other hand1 the nobility made their roads by the forced labour of the peasants within their territory--one of the instances of cruel oppression that led to the outbreak of the ,french ,revolution of #aghf1 as the poor peasants were obliged1 from time to time1 to leave the cultivation of the fields and turn out with carts and horses to labour for two or three weeks together at the repair of the roads1 and this1 too1 without any payment4 ,in #afag1 an author named ,fynes ,morryson relates1 that 8there were post horses in ,england1 at stations about ten miles apart1 that could be hired by travellers on horseback at the charge of #b;d4 per mile to #c;d410 but1 he adds1 8most travellers ride their own horses4 ,in some counties a horse can be hired at #c;d4 per day1 finding the food4 ,likewise carriers let horses from city to city bargaining that the passengers put up at their inns4 ,they will lend a horse for five or six days thus1 and provide its food at these inns for about #bjs4 ,lastly1 these carriers have long covered waggons in which they carry passengers to and fro2 but this kind of journeying is very tedious2 so that none but women and people of inferior condition travel in this sort4 ,coaches are not to be hired anywhere 7this was in #afag7 but in ,london4 ,for a day's journey a coach with two horses is let for about #ajs4 a day1 or #aes4 with three horses1 the coachman finding the horses' feed40 ,yet in #afaj a native of ,stralsund1 in ,pomerania1 obtained in ,scotland a ,royal patent giving him the exclusive privilege of running coaches and waggons between ,edinburgh and ,leith4 ,the horses that were hired for travellers were called in ,france 8hacquene10 and in ,wales 8hacknai10 which term extended into ,england1 and after was applied to hired coaches1 thence named ,hackney ,coaches4 ,samuel ,pepys1 in his ,diary of #affb1 speaks of riding his hacquene to ,woolwich1 at a period when he did not keep any horse of his own4 ,i have already mentioned that long waggons were the first stages2 their use commenced before the year #afjj1 but for the poorer classes there was no other conveyance for many years1 and it was late in the eighteenth century before stage coaches were able to give any accommodation to persons with a small purse4 ,the ,stage ,coach began to be used in #afdj1 the same description of vehicle as that in use for private or hackney work1 but of a larger size4 ,the body would hold eight persons at times1 but generally only six2 the passengers were screened from the weather by leather curtains4 ,it was not until the year #afhj that plate glass was sufficiently cheap to be used for windows4 ,the coachman sat on a bar between the two standard posts from which the body was slung1 with his feet upon the footboard fixed to the top of the perch4 ,behind1 between the great wheels1 was the basket for luggage1 in which the outside passengers also sat up to their knees in straw4 ,the body swung about upon heavy leather straps through the rough country roads4 ,in #afdi ,chamberlayne1 in a work entitled 8,the ,present ,state of ,great ,britain10 speaks up for coaches4 8,besides the excellent arrangement of conveying men and letters on horseback1 there is of late such an admirable commodiousness both for men and women1 to travel from ,london to the principal towns in the country1 that the like hath not been known in the world2 and that is by stage coaches1 wherein any one may be transported to any place sheltered from foul weather and foul ways1 free from endamaging of one's health and one's body by hard jogging or over-violent motion on horseback2 and this not only at the low price of about a shilling for every five miles1 but with such velocity and speed in one hour as the foreign post can make but in one day40 ,in #affb1 when there were but six stage coaches1 another writer of the day condemned them4 8,for10 he says1 8these coaches make country gentlemen come to ,london on small occasion1 which otherwise they would not do but upon urgent necessity2 nay1 the conveniency of the passage makes their wives often come up1 who1 rather than make such long journeys on horseback1 would stay at home4 ,here1 when they come to town1 they must be in the fashion1 get fine clothes1 go to plays and treats1 and by this means get such a habit of idleness and love of pleasure that they are uneasy ever after40 ,another writer in #afgc opposes stages4 8,is it10 he asks1 8for a man's health to be laid fast in foul ways1 and forced to wade up to the knees in mire2 and afterwards sit in the cold till fresh teams of horses can be procured to drag the coach out of the foul ways8 ,is it for his health to travel in rotten coaches1 and have their tackle1 or perch1 or axle-tree broken1 and then to wait half the day before making good their stage80 ,this gives us some idea of the badness of the roads1 and the imperfection of the vehicles4 ,these last1 however1 were not improved in the time of ,hogarth1 who1 in #agcj1 painted a stage coach waiting in an inn-yard4 ,in the ,diary of ,sir ,william ,dugdale we find records of his journeys by stage coaches between #afei and #afhj1 to the towns of ,norwich1 ,coventry1 ,chester1 ,st ,albans1 ,bedford1 and ,birmingham during the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 ,hackney coaches were first used in ,england in #afje ,plates #ac1 #ad1 and #bb4 ,these were similar to the coaches used by the gentry2 at first they did not ply for hire in the streets1 but remained at the hiring-yards until they were wanted4 ,as1 however1 many more persons wished to hire than could afford to keep a coach of their own1 the demand increased rapidly4 ,in #afce the number was restricted to fifty4 ,still they increased in spite of the opposition of the court and king1 who thought they would break up the roads1 till1 in #afej1 there were as many as three hundred4 ,in ,paris they were introduced by ,nicholas ,sauvage1 who lived in a street at the sign of ,st ,fiacre1 and from this circumstance hackney coaches were called in ,france 8,fiacres10 and they became very common and popular4 ,in #aggb the hire of fiacres in ,paris was a shilling the first hour1 and tenpence the second4 ,in ,london1 in #affb there were four hundred hackney coaches1 and the government began then to levy a yearly duty upon them of #e each4 ,in #afid the number had increased to seven hundred1 a substantial proof of their usefulness4 ,mr ,pepys1 in his amusing ,diary1 continually speaks of hiring coaches for use in ,london1 and to go to ,deptford and ,woolwich1 in his journeys to the dockyards in his business for the ,admiralty4 ,many of these were the old coaches of the nobility and gentry1 and it is not until #agij that we hear from ,mr ,felton that the hackney coaches were generally built of a smaller size1 and much shorter in the under carriage than those of the gentry4 ,their hire appears to have been very moderate1 to judge by the records of ,dean ,swift1 who resided in ,london for three years in the days of ,queen ,anne 7#agaj to #agac71 and who made frequent use of hackney coaches1 and on wet days did not venture out without a coach or a sedan chair4 ,it would seem he could ride from the city to the neighbourhood of ,st ,giles for one or two shillings4 ,to return to stage coaches1 we are told that in #afgc there were coaches from ,london to ,york1 to ,chester1 and to ,exeter1 having each forty horses on the road1 and carrying each six inside passengers4 ,the coach occupied eight days in travelling to ,exeter1 but the fare was only forty shillings in the summer and fine weather2 in winter the same coach was nearly ten days on the road1 and the fare was increased to forty-five shillings4 ,there were four-horse stage coaches going daily to places within twenty or thirty miles of ,london1 and others that went to places within ten miles and returned the same day4 ,in #agjc1 a stage coach went from ,london to ,portsmouth1 when the roads were good1 in fourteen hours4 ,in #agjf1 a coach went from ,london to ,york every ,monday1 ,wednesday1 and ,friday1 which performed the journey in four days1 allowing each passenger fourteen pounds of luggage free1 and above that weight the charge was threepence per pound4 ,in #agdb the ,oxford stage used to leave ,london at seven in the morning1 reaching ,high ,wycombe at five in the evening1 and1 resting the night1 proceeded to ,oxford the next day4 ,in the same year there was a coach from ,london to ,birmingham1 starting on ,monday and arriving on ,wednesday1 forty miles a day1 but the coach usually stopped half one day at ,oxford4 ,in #agea1 a stage coach went to ,dover1 arriving at ,canterbury the same night1 reaching ,dover early the next day1 and starting on its return to ,london the same afternoon4 ,the advertisement states that there is a conveniency behind the coach for baggage and outside passengers4 ,this implies that it was not1 even at this late date1 usual to carry passengers on the roof1 and that the general structure of the vehicle was similar to the stage coach of #afdj2 one change had been made3 the driving box on the fast coaches was placed high above the horses on a narrow boot1 something like what is called a ,salisbury boot2 this was placed upon the beds or timbers of the carriage1 with a tolerably comfortable seat for two persons upon it4 ,but the jolting and shaking over rough bits in the road must have been very trying4 ,in the hall of the ,coachmakers' ,company1 in ,noble ,street1 ,cheapside1 is a picture of ,hyde ,park ,corner in #agif1 painted by ,dagaty1 in which is an old stage coach2 the hinder part has a boot and guard's seat attached to the body as in modern stage coaches1 but the box is detached from the body and on the beds1 as described above2 the panels of the body are very deep1 and on the upper quarters are painted two large stars1 from which we may conjecture that it is a mail coach4#f ,from the ,ipswich ,journal1 ,august #aged4 ,,this ,,is ,,to ,,give ,,notice 8,that a handsome ,machine1 with steel springs for the ease of passengers and the conveniency of the ,country1 began on ,monday1 the #hth of ,july #aged1 to set off from ,chelmsford every morning at #g o'clock1 ,sunday excepted1 to the ,bull ,inn1 ,leadenhall ,street1 to be there by #ab o'clock1 and to return the same day at #b o'clock to be at ,chelmsford by #g o'clock in the evening4 ,fresh horses will be taken at the ,white ,hart at ,brentwood and the ,green ,man at ,ilford4 ,to be performed1 if ,god permits1 by ,,tyrrell ,,hughes40 ,in #aged a coach was started from ,manchester called 8the ,flying coach40 ,the advertisement states1 8however incredible it may appear1 this coach will actually arrive in ,london in four days and a half after leaving ,manchester40 ,the sort of vehicles stage coaches usually were in those days will appear from the following3-- 8,in #agee stage coaches are described#g as covered with dull black leather1 studded1 by way of ornament1 with broad-headed nails1 with oval windows in the quarters1 the frames painted red4 ,on the panels were displayed1 in large characters1 the names of the places whence the coach started and whither it went4 ,the roof rose in a high curve1 with an iron rail around it4 ,the coachman and guard sat in front upon a high narrow boot1 often garnished with a spreading hammer-cloth with a deep fringe4 ,behind was an immense basket1 supported by iron bars1 in which passengers were carried at lower fares4 ,the wheels were painted red4 ,the whole coach was usually drawn by three horses1 on the first of which a postillion rode with a cocked hat and a long green and gold coat4 ,the machine groaned and creaked as it went along with every tug the horses gave1 and the speed was frequently but four miles an hour40 ,the first ,post-chaise built in ,england was only on two wheels1 and was open in front4 ,this corresponds with the description of the chaise de poste of ,france4 ,in #agfe the stage coaches from ,dover to ,london were drawn by six horses2 the fare was a guinea4 ,servants paid half a guinea1 riding either in the basket behind or on the box1 which held three persons4 ,in #agge stage coaches are stated in the ,annual ,register to carry eight passengers inside and ten outside1 and that there were 7including vehicles called flys1 machines1 diligences1 and stage coaches7 four hundred altogether4 ,in #aggi a licence duty was first levied by government on stage coaches4 ,increased accommodation was provided by seats on the top4 ,it must have been at this time that the front and hind boots began to be framed to the coach body1 or there would have been no rest for the feet of the roof passengers4 ,in #agih a stage coach ran from ,gosport to ,london1 #hf miles1 in #ai hours3 #d miles per hour4 ,it is not until #aged that we have a reliable account of any stage coach being upon springs1 but in that year1 in the newspaper called the ,edinburgh ,courant1 appears the following advertisement3--8,the ,edinburgh ,stage ,coach1 for the better accommodation of passengers1 will be altered to a new genteel two-end glass coach machine1 being upon steel springs1 exceeding light and easy1 to go in ten days to ,london in summer and twelve in winter1 every other ,tuesday40 ,this coach rested all ,sunday at ,burrowbridge4 ,in #ageg a coach was started to run in three days from ,liverpool to ,london2 ,sheffield and ,leeds followed the examples of ,manchester and ,liverpool1 and set up 8speedy coaches10 so that in #aghd coaches became universal at the speed of eight miles an hour4 ,in ,france1 we learn from ,m4 ,roubo's work1 that in #agfj the ,diligences 7their stage coaches7 were constructed much as ours1 with large bodies having three small windows on each side and hung by leather braces on long perch carriages1 with high hind wheels and low front wheels1 without any driving box1 and fitted with large baskets1 back and front1 for passengers or luggage2 they were drawn by five horses1 and driven by a postillion on the off wheeler instead of the near wheeler1 as in ,england4 ,one of their ,diligences running to ,lyons had springs ,plate #ce1 and it is noted by ,m4 ,roubo as the only ,diligence in ,france with springs1 and also the most speedy4 ,it performed the journey to ,lyons1 about three hundred and twenty miles1 in five days during the summer and six in winter4 ,deducting the time allowed for refreshments1 changing horses1 and resting at night1 the speed of the ,diligence appears to have been between five and six miles an hour4 ,m4 ,roubo also describes a large stage coach called a ,gondola1 holding twelve persons inside1 ten sitting sideways and one at each end2 this vehicle may be considered as the grandfather of the omnibus1 which was first made at ,paris4 ,another coach was called a coup ,berlin1 having four doors and three seats1 the middle seat corresponding to the third inside seat of the so-called stage coaches used in ,america at the present time4 ,there was1 however1 a backboard to lean against1 but ,i believe that in the ,american stage coach the back of the middle seat is only a wide strap4 ,the other travelling public carriage in ,france was the 8chaise de poste0 upon two wheels ,plate #be1 which ,i have already described in a former chapter4 ,i remember to have seen one of these at ,amiens thirty years ago painted yellow like so many of the ,english post-chaises4 ,there are probably many of these vehicles still in ,france4 ,they are much like our gentlemen's cabriolets1 but larger and heavier1 and are drawn by one stout horse in the shafts1 with a second horse ridden by the postillion1 attached to an out-rigger-bar on one side of the shafts4 ,the chaise de poste was first made in ,france in #affd4 ,to return to our own country4 ,stage coaches had increased so much in speed that in #aghj they were quicker than the post which carried the letters4 ,for a long time letters had been entrusted to the bags of the post-boys1 who travelled on horseback at the rate of about three and a half miles an hour4 ,mr ,john ,palmer1 the originator of mail coaches1 in the year #aghd gave the following statement to the ,government3--8,the ,post at present1 instead of being the swiftest1 is almost the slowest conveyance in the country2 and though1 from the great improvement in our roads1 other carriers have proportionably mended their speed1 the post is as slow as ever4 ,rewards have been frequently offered by the ,postmaster-,general for the best constructed mail-cart1 or some plan to prevent the frequent robbery of the mail1 but without effect40 ,palmer1 who resided at ,bath1 went on to state1 8that the coach diligence1 which left ,bath at four o'clock on ,monday afternoon1 would deliver a letter in ,london about ten on ,tuesday morning1 whilst the post would not deliver a letter until ,wednesday morning4 ,the only advantage of the post was its greater cheapness4 ,the post charged only fourpence from ,bath to ,london for each letter1 whilst one by the coach diligence cost two shillings4 ,nevertheless1 many persons1 both at ,bath and ,bristol1 sent by the dearer and quicker mode1 and all over the kingdom1 wherever diligences#h were established1 they obtained the patronage of the public40 ,at first any improvement on the ,post was warmly opposed by the officials and committees of the ,houses of ,parliament1 and it was declared impossible that letters could be brought from ,bath to ,london1 only one hundred and eight miles1 in eighteen hours1 i4e41 six miles an hour4 ,after some careful experiments1 and a struggle of two years1 ,mr ,palmer's system was adopted1 and his new-fashioned mail coaches were accepted to convey the mails4 ,for some years the mail coaches did not run at more than six miles an hour3 they were built in a cumbrous form to carry six persons inside4 ,in this same year 7#aghf7 the ,prince of ,wales1 afterwards ,george ,,iv41 began to erect the pavilion at ,brighton1 bringing fashionable company into the mere fishing hamlet which it then was4 ,the effect upon the traffic was very great1 and led to the reform of the whole of the south and south-western roads1 and in #ahbj1 thirty-five years later1 no less than seventy coaches daily visited and left ,brighton4 ,mr ,thomas ,pennant1 the celebrated antiquarian1 writing in #aghb1 says1 8that in ,march #agci1 he travelled to ,london in a ,chester stage1 then no despicable vehicle for country gentlemen4 ,the first day1 with much labour1 we got from ,chester to ,whitechurch1 twenty miles2 the second day1 to the ,welsh ,harp2 the third1 to ,coventry2 the fourth1 to ,northampton2 the fifth1 to ,dunstable2 and1 as a wondrous effort1 on the last1 to ,london before the commencement of night4 ,the strain and labour of six good horses1 sometimes eight1 drew us through the sloughs of ,mireden1 and many other places4 ,we were constantly out two hours before day1 and late at night2 and in the depth of winter proportionably later40 8,families who travelled in their own carriages contracted with ,benson ,co41 and were dragged up in the same number of days1 by three sets of able horses40 8,the single gentlemen1 then a hardy race1 equipped in jack-boots and trowsers up to their middle1 rode post through thick and thin1 and1 guarded against the mire1 defied the frequent stumble and fall2 arose and pursued their journey with alacrity2 while in these days their enervated posterity sleep away their rapid journies in easy chaises1 fitted for the conveyance of the soft inhabitants of ,sybaris40 ,in #agii ,his ,majesty's mails were paraded in procession past ,st ,james's ,palace to the ,general ,post-,office1 and it is said that the custom was kept up for thirty-six years on the king's birthday4 ,each coach was new1 or turned out to look like new1 and was painted red with the ,royal arms on the door panel1 and on the smaller panel above the name of the town to which the coach went1 on the boot the number of the mail1 and on each upper quarter one of the stars of the four orders of the knighthood of the ,united ,kingdom1 the ,garter1 the ,bath1 the ,thistle1 and ,st4 ,patrick4 ,the coaches were built just big enough to contain four inside and three or four outside1 and coachman and guard4 ,the body was hung upon a perch carriage and eight telegraph springs1 the underworks being both solid and simple in construction4 ,at first the number was about eighty1 but more were added as time went on1 until there were at length seven hundred mail coaches in the year #ahce4 ,only a small quantity1 however1 left ,london1 the rest were dispersed all over ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,these mail coaches were at first built and kept in repair by contract in ,london4 ,the experience gained by watching these vehicles was very advantageous to the coach trade2 anything faulty in timber or iron1 steel or paint1 was soon discovered by the vigilant contractors and remedied1 and their plans and devices spread through the trade to the benefit of masters and workmen4 ,the improvement of stage coaches and their multiplication kept pace with the mails4 ,turnpike roads also had been much improved by ,mr ,m#8,adam's system4 ,he substituted on roads hitherto laid with gravel of all sizes1 and round or carelessly broken stones of other qualities and materials1 the improved surfaces of granite and other hard stones and flints1 carefully broken into small angular pieces1 which during the passage of heavy traffic dovetailed into one another1 and made the surface firmer1 whereas the round pebbles1 under the old system1 would slip from under the wheels and leave the surface of the road still uneven4 ,the factories for building stage coaches grew to be of large size and importance4 ,coach proprietors were often very successful1 and their business increased until ,mr ,chaplin had two hotels1 five yards1 and #acjj horses at work4 ,messrs ,horne and ,sherman had #gjj horses each2 and ,mr ,nelson1 of the 8,bull ,inn10 ,aldgate1 rivalled these4 ,stage coaches1 as they carried more luggage and more outside passengers1 were necessarily built stronger and rather heavier than the mail coaches4 ,the cross roads1 however1 became gradually filled up with old mails re-painted1 and stage coaches were also built upon elliptical springs in front1 and generally three springs behind4 ,gentlemen took to driving coaches for amusement1 and vehicles were built with high coach boxes and high hind servants' seat2 of different forms1 it is true1 and upon different sorts of springs4 ,two coaching clubs were formed of noblemen and gentlemen1 who took an interest in four-in-hand driving and in vehicles in general4 ,several clubs of this kind are now flourishing1 to encourage a manly sport1 and with the capacity to promote improvements in the build and form of the 8drag10 as it is now called4 ,in ,ireland1 ,mr ,bianconi established a good system of travelling upon long four-wheeled cars of a light construction4 ,the passengers sat back to back1 and the luggage was piled between1 and frequently so high that the traveller had only the opportunity of seeing one side of the road along which he passed4 ,these vehicles would give more satisfaction now-a-days if better horses were used1 and for shorter stages1 on those routes where passengers are plentiful1 but prefer to travel at more than five miles per hour4 ,in ,switzerland and some parts of the continent1 the use of large diligences still continues4 ,some of the old shape ,plate #cf recently performed the journey from ,geneva towards ,chamounix4 ,the shape of modern diligences varies very much1 many are like omnibuses2 but almost all are without a perch and upon elliptical springs4 ,in ,continental travel may also be seen large family travelling carriages1 as well as very light one-horse vehicles for mountain roads1 and the further eastwards the traveller proceeds1 the rougher and more simple the vehicle4 ,in ,russia may be found very rough1 cheap1 fast waggons1 as well as the 8,tarantas10 which is a very comfortable travelling carriage for the wealthy1 and with its numerous boxes and appliances1 its bed and store cupboards for food1 is almost a small house upon wheels4 ,thus1 whilst in our history we have enumerated the various methods of travelling used by our forefathers1 we may1 in passing from ,england to ,persia overland1 still have personal experience of almost all of these methods4 ,all travelling dependent upon the speed of a horse has been1 on good roads1 almost the same in all ages4 ,it is only since the introduction of locomotion by steam on railroads that we have attained any great advance upon ancient times4 ,the years during which rapid stage coach and post chaise travelling seemed such a remarkable advance to ,englishmen1 only lasted from about #ahaj to #ahdj4 ,since then the triumph of steam has in many places paralysed the improvement of stage coaches and posting ,illustration3 ,,plate #cd4 ,,an ,,english ,,stage ,,coach1 #aghg1 ,,after ,,rowlandson ,illustration3 ,,plate #ce4 ,,diligence ,,from ,,paris ,,to ,,lyons4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cf4 ,,modern ,,french ,,diligence4 upon ordinary roads1 even where steam does not compete4 ,in ,france two-wheeled vehicles for public hire had been in use for some years previous to the commencement of the present century2 but it was not until #ahbc that ,london possessed a two-wheeled cab4 ,in that year ,mr ,david ,davies built twelve two-wheeled cabs4 ,the body was a little like a hansom cab1 but smaller2 it had a head of which the hinder half was stiff and solid1 the fore part would fold4 ,this arrangement was probably an imitation of the gentleman's cabriolet1 the hood of which was rarely put down altogether1 as the groom had to hold on by it4#i ,outside the head on one side was a seat for the driver of the cab1 and the whole was hung upon stiff shafts4 ,they were1 ,i think1 painted yellow1 and stood for hire in a yard in ,portland ,street1 close to ,oxford ,street4 ,at this time the stands in the streets were occupied by hackney coaches1 which certainly were all old coaches of the gentry2 many still bore the arms of the former owners1 and the drivers wore great coats with a large number of capes1 one over the other1 to keep in warmth and keep off the rain4 ,it was not long before the two-wheeled cab became popular1 and came on the ranks with the coaches4 ,mr ,davies' cab was copied1 but with little variation from his pattern1 and the total number of cabs in #ahcj was one hundred and sixty-five4 ,after this came ,mr ,boulnois' patent one-horse cab with a door behind1 like a slice of an omnibus1 the two passengers sitting face to face1 the driver sitting on the roof--this cab it was hoped would succeed1 but the shafts were too short1 and the passengers always felt uneasy in case the horse should kick1 and the vehicle1 otherwise light and useful1 fell out of fashion4 ,mr ,boulnois' cab was followed by a larger sort invented by ,mr ,harvey1 and at last1 about #ahcf1 came the brougham cab to hold two persons2 this was rather smaller than that afterwards built for ,lord ,brougham1 and of plainer outline1 with straight fore pillar4 ,from this we derive our present clarence cab on four wheels1 which we may pronounce as the lightest of all four-wheeled close cabs1 but it is certainly anything but satisfactory4 ,it carries1 it is true1 a large quantity of luggage on the roof1 besides six persons1 and runs along faster than the cabs of most other cities1 but it is abominably noisy1 and very rough in motion1 uneasy and uncomfortable4 ,whoever will produce an improved four-wheel cab will deserve the thanks of his countrymen4 ,the first step to this1 ,i consider1 would be the authorisation by law of two classes of fares4 ,let the present cab remain at the present fare1 but allow a first-class cab to charge a higher fare1 and appoint a proper person or persons to inspect the cabs1 and to license the first-class cabs to charge a higher fare4 ,the second step would be to insist on the first-class cabs having patent or mail axles1 and covered glass frames to lessen the rattle1 and to adopt a regulating spring1 which would assist in carrying a heavy load4 ,regulating springs can easily be made2 they are unsightly on a private carriage2 but this would be no objection in a public conveyance4 ,it might be in the form of a buffer in the centre of the elliptical spring1 or a second elliptic within the first1 but the ingenuity of our spring makers would soon surmount the difficulty if the proper authority insisted upon the attempt4 ,the ,hansom patent safety cab is an immense improvement upon the old high two-wheeled cab4 ,we owe the invention to a ,mr ,hansom1 the architect of the ,birmingham ,town ,hall4 ,the safety consisted in the arrangement of the framework at the nearest part to the ground1 so as to prevent an upset if the cab tilted up or down4 ,it has since been improved by ,mr ,evans1 of ,liverpool2 ,mr ,marston1 of ,birmingham2 and others1 until the recently built hansoms are really convenient1 easy1 and comfortable conveyances1 and receive the patronage of many ladies in preference to the four-wheelers4 ,cabs of other towns of ,england and foreign countries have all their peculiar features4 ,many ,english towns allow a higher charge per mile than in ,london4 ,in ,plymouth1 ,southampton1 ,birmingham1 ,edinburgh1 and some other towns the cabs are light1 easy1 and quiet4 ,in ,bristol they were recently heavy and slow1 large and clumsy4 ,in ,paris1 the cabs are chiefly old broughams of the gentry1 with poor1 slow horses2 but during a great part of the year the stands have abundance of light1 open victorias1 some of which are satisfactory1 being easy and clean4 ,in ,rome1 nearly all the cabs are open victorias1 with hoods and a leather apron1 which is1 however1 but a poor protection in heavy rain2 the drivers are generally civil and intelligent4 ,in ,naples the cabs are also victorias of a smaller size1 and hung higher from the ground1 with little horses generally of a very sorry description4 ,milan has very good cabs1 and the best omnibuses ,i have ever ridden in1 quite like our private omnibuses1 and they are kept up in very good condition4 ,the streets are paved at ,milan very evenly1 and have tracks or tramways for the wheels1 of long blocks of granite1 on a perfect level with the rest of the pavement4 ,these were first laid down at the beginning of this century1 and have probably contributed to the general excellence of the carriages built at ,milan4 ,this city was one of the first to make improved carriages1 even before ,france and ,england4 ,in the year #affb a remarkable attempt was made to furnish a method of transport which should be within the reach of all1 a sort of ,omnibus carriage4 ,it was originated and managed by ,blaise ,pascal1 the well-known author of the ,lettres ,provinciales4 ,he was assisted by several noblemen1 who obtained a patent from the king for the privilege4 ,the design was to run public coaches1 carrying six persons each1 along certain streets in ,paris1 each coach keeping to its own route1 for the sum of five sous each passenger for the whole journey4 ,this was commenced in ,march #affb with seven coaches1 the drivers in a blue uniform1 with the king's and city's arms embroidered upon it4 ,the coaches bore golden fleur de lys on the panels4 ,at first they were a great success1 and the sister of ,pascal wrote to a friend1 8,i heard the blessings that were called down on the authors of an institution so advantageous and useful to the public40 ,this was a general opinion4 ,two more lines of route were chosen1 and the number of coaches increased4 ,they were called 8the carriages of the five soldi40 ,it was1 however1 found necessary to raise the fare to six soldi1 and this1 with the increasing number of hackney coaches1 the prohibition of the use of the omnibus by soldiers1 servants1 or any one in livery1 and probably the death of ,pascal himself1 at the early age of thirty-nine1 brought the enterprise to a premature end after the coaches had run nearly two years4 ,stage coaches at the beginning of this century were used in ,london to bring men of business into the city1 and the fare was ordinarily two shillings from ,paddington or ,clapham2 they were slow and unpunctual1 being usually an hour over the five miles4 ,the first ,omnibuses were built at ,paris in #ahbj1 were drawn by three horses1 and soon became much in vogue2 they were never very fast1 and still are slower than our omnibuses1 not because they cannot be driven fast1 for occasionally they keep up a good speed1 but because our neighbours attach so much importance to the waybill1 and stop at certain stations to take up passengers1 or exchange some for the branch lines1 and tickets are given at these stations beforehand bearing numbers which entitle the bearers to be first served4 ,these regulations detain the omnibuses very much2 the same remarks apply also to the tramways1 on which the progress is still slower than by the omnibuses4 ,there is at ,paris an excellent service of omnibuses for the conveyance of passengers and luggage from the hotels to the railway stations4 ,they hold eight inside1 and are quick and easy4 ,all over the ,continent the hotels have the best omnibuses2 some of them are of large size1 well stuffed1 and lighted at night with good lamps4 ,sometimes each hotel has its own 'bus2 sometimes one will serve several hotels4 ,the first ,omnibus was started in ,london in ,july #ahbi1 by the enterprising ,mr ,shillibeer1 who had been for a short time a coachmaker at ,paris4 ,his first omnibuses were drawn by three horses1 and carried twenty-two passengers1 all inside4 ,they ran in a shorter time to the city than the old stages2 the fare was a shilling from the 8,yorkshire ,stingo10 near the bottom of ,lisson ,grove1 to the ,bank4 ,we can imagine how unwieldy these carriages appeared even compared with the stage coaches and hackney coaches of the day1 yet they soon proved a success2 they followed the horses so easily that the drivers were astonished4 ,the passengers were pleased by the speed1 and the scheme should have been very profitable to ,mr ,shillibeer4 ,the first omnibuses were thought too large for the streets of ,london1 and they were superseded by a smaller pair-horse omnibus1 carrying twelve passengers inside1 and an extra one or two at the end of the omnibus1 by the driver1 but it was a very unpopular position4 ,in #ahdi1 an outside seat was added along the centre of the roof1 and by #aheg the omnibus had been improved nearly to what we now have1 and this was chiefly done by ,mr ,miller1 of ,hammersmith4 ,our present omnibus is probably the lightest and strongest vehicle in the world for carrying twenty-eight persons1 at a speed of nearly eight miles an hour4 ,if tried with four horses on a country road they easily beat the old-fashioned stage coach1 either in weight1 capacity for carrying1 durability1 or safety4 ,large omnibuses are in use in ,glasgow and ,manchester1 and other towns where speed is not so much an object as it is in ,london1 and they have been re-introduced in ,london between ,charing ,cross and ,portland ,road1 and there are a few small one-horse omnibuses for short distances4 ,it is not necessary to describe these vehicles at any length2 it is sufficient to notice that they must be light and strong for the work they have to perform1 and the peculiar shape enables the builder to secure this4 ,the ,london ,general ,omnibus ,company has contributed greatly to the improvement of the system of public conveyance4 ,it was founded in #ahef1 when it took over five hundred and eighty omnibuses previously in use1 and belonging to a large number of different owners4 ,the company had #f1djj horses the first year4 ,although many of their omnibuses have been superseded by the metropolitan and district railways1 and the establishment of tramway cars1 they have still #efj omnibuses and #fjjj horses to work them4 ,each omnibus runs about sixty miles a day4 ,the company builds for its own use about thirty 'busses each year2 the average weight of an omnibus is #bd cwt4 ,most of the vehicles are now provided with brake retarders1 which are set in action by the foot of the driver1 and check the speed down hill1 or help to stop the omnibus to take up a passenger without so much strain upon the horses as formerly4 ,in ,vienna the public omnibuses are longer1 and are divided into two compartments1 entered by separate doors2 they carry twelve inside and six outside4 ,the speed is rather slow and the appearance of most very shabby4 ,in summer other omnibuses are also used1 which are constructed without sides or windows1 and in hot weather are agreeable from the free admission of air without draught4 ,american stage coaches began in #aghf4 ,as early as #afig an innkeeper1 named ,john ,clapp1 at the ,bowery1 ,new ,york1 kept a hackney coach for the accommodation of the public2 and in #afii a law was made forbidding fast driving of 8slees0 through the streets of ,new ,york4 ,the first private coach owned there appears to have been in #agde by a ,lady ,murray4 ,in #aghf there were but three ,coachmakers' factories in ,new ,york3 ,mr ,steel1 in ,pine ,street1 ,mr ,jones1 and ,james and ,charles ,warner1 in ,broadway4 ,in #aghi six more factories had been opened in the coach trade1 and five livery yards had begun to keep hackney coaches4 ,in #agij a coach was built in ,philadelphia for eight hundred dollars1 and there were eight ,coachbuilders in that city4 ,but the usual vehicle was a sort of wheel chair upon wooden springs1 and from recent accounts it seems that gigs1 hung upon long wooden springs1 are still in use in the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,the ,historical ,magazine states that in #ahje the ,english chariot was copied in ,america1 but that it was found cheaper to order these carriages from ,europe1 on account of the high price of material1 and the excessive cost of wages4 ,in #ahaj there were twenty-eight factories occupied by ,coachmakers in ,new ,york4 ,in #ahbb a ,new ,york ,coachmaker1 named ,miln ,parker1 had begun to make a name by building 8volantes0 for the ,cuban and ,mexican markets4 ,these volantes are gigs1 with hoods1 perched upon two very high wheels1 much used by the ladies of ,spanish ,america4 ,i should have mentioned that the cabs of ,vienna are of a superior description1 consisting of victorias1 broughams1 and landaus1 as well built and finished as those used by private persons4 ,many of these cabs are drawn by two horses1 and are driven at a rapid rate4 ,it would be a great benefit to ,london if we could procure such conveyances at a shilling1 or even more1 per mile4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,writers on ,carriages--,periodical ,publications on ,coaches--,tight ,harnessing--,height of the ,driver's ,seat--,cover to the ,driver's ,seat--,american ,buggy--,american ,trotting ,waggons--,labour-,saving ,machines--,machines ,save ,time--,american ,magazines on ,carriages--,principles of ,draught--,disadvantages of ,two-,wheeled ,vehicles--,track of ,wheels--,utility of ,high ,wheels--,side ,thrust and ,vibration of ,wheels--,pitch of ,axles and ,dish of ,wheels--,springs--,elliptic ,springs--,brake ,retarders--,india ,rubber ,brake ,blocks--,a ,load ,should ,rest on the ,highest ,wheel--,danger to a ,stage ,coach in ,low ,front ,wheels--,carriage ,drawings of ,full ,size--,value of being a ,good ,draughtsman--,mr ,gladstone on ,design--,coachmakers ,company's ,library4 ,there are not many books upon the art of ,coachbuilding4 ,there is a small one in the ,french language by ,f4 ,a4 ,garsault1 in the year #agfa1 which contains designs of the first improvements of the century in carts and carriages4 ,there is also ,monsieur ,roubo's work entitled 8,the ,carpenter's1 ,cabinetmaker's1 and ,coachmaker's ,art10 published by the ,french ,academy of ,arts and ,sciences1 very carefully written1 with numerous illustrations2 it is certainly a perfect history of the art of ,coachbuilding as it existed in the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,nearly equal to that work is the article on carriages in the ,french ,encyclopdia of #aggj1 by ,diderot2 both deserve study and examination by modern ,coachbuilders4 ,mr ,felton's work of the year #agij ,i have already mentioned2 also that on ancient ,greek and ,roman carriages by ,herr von ,johann ,christian ,ginzrot1 of ,munich4 ,this is charming for an antiquarian1 but contains no information useful to a ,coachbuilder of to-day4 ,dr ,richard ,lovell ,edgeworth published in #ahag a work upon 8,public ,road and ,wheel ,carriages10 which contains much that is valuable and useful to ,coachbuilders1 and it should be studied carefully by every student in our art4 ,there is in it an account of the experiments he made for the ,government of ,great ,britain at ,dublin1 to ascertain the necessary height of wheels1 length of a carriage1 and other important rules of ,coachbuilding4 ,mr ,t4 ,h4 ,markland read an interesting paper on the origin of carriages to a learned society1 which is published in the twentieth volume of the 8,archologia10 accompanied with several interesting copies of old pictures of carriages4 ,in the 8,history of ,inventions10 by ,beckmann1 is an interesting article on coaches1 which has been taken as the best authority by all succeeding writers4 ,the dates he gives are not all accurate4 ,the next published was1 ,i believe1 that by ,mr ,w4 ,bridges ,adams1 in #ahcg1 by ,messrs ,c4 ,knight ,co41 of ,ludgate ,street1 entitled1 8,english ,pleasure ,carriages40 ,this book should certainly be possessed by all ,coachbuilders who desire information as to the best method of forming and completing a good carriage4 ,it is full and accurate in the rules given1 and the theories and mechanical principles expounded1 giving very ample details as to materials to be used1 and the manner of making the best use of them4 ,mr ,adams1 who was for a time in the firm of ,hobson ,co41 has given a description of the different carriages used in his time1 which will form a reference for future ages1 as ,m4 ,roubo's descriptions serve for the previous century4 ,since ,mr ,adams' work we have a valuable contribution to the history of the art of ,coachbuilding in the treatise by the ,count ,giovanni ,gozzadini on 8,the ,origin of ,coaches10 published in #ahfd at ,bologna4 ,this is in the ,italian language2 a copy is in the ,british ,museum4 ,we find in it a spirited defence of ,italy from the charge of deriving their knowledge of ,carriage-building from ,france2 and the author proves1 from the archives of different towns and noble families1 that ,italy was second only to ,germany in its wealth and number of carriages during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,besides these1 we have had the ,carriage ,builders' ,art ,journal1 which commenced in #ahei and lasted for four years1 a journal which reflected great credit upon its editor1 and is full of information still worthy of our study2 the ,art du ,carrossier1 published at ,paris2 two ,american periodicals2 and the ,saddlers and ,coachbuilders' ,gazette in ,london4 ,the carriages of ,america are so different from our own1 and from those of ,europe1 that they require special attention4 ,it is possible that their style may influence in an important degree the carriages of future ages4 ,we see in them primarily 8lightness40 ,that lightness in their larger carriages is carried to excess most ,coachbuilders will agree4 ,we are supported in this view by the fact that for some years these1 such as landaus1 broughams1 and coaches1 have been materially modified by ,european types4 ,the ,americans have adopted some of the shapes of ,europe1 and the mode of constructing the under carriages1 retaining their own methods of making the pole and splinters1 or whipple trees1 as giving greater freedom to the horses4 ,i think this principle of allowing the horse greater scope for exertion is particularly worth the attention of ,coachbuilders4 ,the manner in which our horses are confined by tight heavy strapping and traces1 by tight pole chains1 by bearing reins1 and the indiscriminate use of blinkers to the bridles has been much overdone in ,england4 ,if a horse with a heavy load1 driven fast over slippery roads should stumble1 it is most difficult for him to recover himself--he falls1 is sometimes pushed along by the impetus of the carriage1 and is more or less injured in his limbs or nerves by the accident1 whilst it is difficult for him to rise again until the harness is unstrapped1 and the carriage is removed from above him4 ,we also harness our horses too closely to their work in the two-wheeled carriages4 ,we have thought only of the ease of turning and moving the whole vehicle in crowded or narrow ways1 without observing the advantage of the long shafts over short shafts4 ,if the shafts are considered as levers by which the horse supports and moves the weight behind him in a two-wheeled cart1 it will be at once obvious that 7although whilst those levers are parallel with the road7 it does not so much signify whether they are long or short2 yet the moment they point upwards1 and especially when they point downwards1 the difference between long and short levers is felt severely by the horse4 ,we can all of us lift a weight or support a weight more easily with a long lever than with a short one1 and it is the same with a horse4 ,those who have travelled abroad must have noticed the great weights placed upon two-wheeled carts in ,france and ,belgium1 and the greater comparative distance at which the horse is placed from the wheels1 and yet how little the horse is distressed4 ,he manages his load more easily because he does not feel the weight so heavily upon his back4 ,many drivers in ,england seem to have observed this1 and try to ease the horse and lessen his chance of stumbling by tipping the shafts up in front1 but in this way the horse is made to feel a pressure on the under part of the body which is neither natural nor healthy4 ,i think therefore that1 in future years1 the growth of public opinion will be in favour of longer shafts and poles4 ,this will also tend to preserve good carriages from the damage they at present suffer from the heat of the horses1 and the quantity of mud which is thrown by their heels upon the front of the vehicle4 ,the reins will of course have to be longer1 but this cannot be of much consequence2 the driver of a brougham is further from the horse than the driver of a mail phaeton1 but we do not consider that the brougham is more difficult to drive than the mail phaeton on that account4 ,another fashion prevalent in this and in some other countries1 may prove1 in the opinion of the drivers of the future1 to be a fallacy2 ,i mean the supposed necessity for the driver to sit nearly upright1 which necessitates a deep boot and a clumsy thick coachman's cushion4 ,in ,america1 ,russia1 and in parts of ,germany the driver sits low1 but places his feet against a bar in front of the footboard1 which in their carriages is longer than in ours4 ,i have seen four horses driven very well and easily in a low landau1 and very powerful fast-trotting pulling horses held in with apparent ease4 ,it has seemed to me that our coachmen are often in danger of being pulled over by their horses2 and certainly1 when an accident happens in a collision they are easily thrown from their boxes4 ,they do not have the purchase and security that the ,russian drivers especially seem to possess4 ,perhaps we shall learn from the ,american carriages a few useful hints in this respect4 ,the ,american carriage1 called1 ,i believe1 a 8,rock-away10 has a projection over the driver's seat1 to shield him from sun and rain4 ,some of the ,asiatic carriages have an awning for the same purpose4 ,in ,italy travelling carriages often had a hood over the driver4 ,in instances where the master of the household likes to drive his own family carriage1 it would certainly add to his comfort1 and that of any one sitting by him1 to have some useful addition of this nature4 ,the greatest novelty introduced by the ,americans of the ,united ,states is the light waggon1 called also 8buggy10 a name first given in ,england a hundred years ago to a light two-wheeled cart carrying one person only1 and which we call a 8sulky40 ,these ,american waggons were modelled from the old ,german waggon1 but they have been so much improved as to be scarcely recognised4 ,the distinctive feature of the ,german waggon was a light shallow tray1 suspended above a slight perch carriage on two grasshopper springs1 placed horizontally and parallel with and above the front and hind axle-tree2 on the tray one or two seats were placed1 the whole was light and inexpensive1 and well adapted to a new rough country without good roads4 ,these waggons may still be found in ,germany and ,switzerland4 ,they were doubtless formed as a development of the ,v-shaped agricultural waggon already described in the second chapter4 ,american ingenuity was lavished upon these waggons1 and they have arrived at a marvel of perfection in lightness4 ,the two grasshopper springs have been replaced with two elliptical springs4 ,the perch1 axle-trees1 and carriage timber have been reduced to thin sticks4 ,the four wheels are made so slender as to resemble a spider's web2 in their construction of the wheels the principle of the patent rim used in ,england in #agij has been adopted4 ,instead of five1 six1 or seven felloes to each wheel1 there are only two1 of oak or of hickory wood1 bent to the shape by steam4 ,the iron work of the ,american buggy is very slender1 yet composed of many pieces1 and1 in order to reduce the cost1 these pieces of iron are mostly cast1 not forged1 of a sort of iron less brittle than our cast iron4 ,the bodies are of light work1 like what we call cabinet work4 ,the weight of the whole waggon is so small that one man can lift it upon its wheels again if accidentally upset1 and two persons of ordinary strength can raise it easily from the ground4 ,the four wheels are of nearly the same height1 and the body is suspended centrally between them4 ,there are no futchels2 the pole or shafts are attached to the front axletree bed1 and the front of the pole is carried by the horses just as they carry the shafts2 the splinter-bar and whipple-trees are attached to the pole on swivels4 ,some are made without hoods and some with hoods4 ,these are made so that the leather of the sides can be taken off and rolled up1 and the back leather removed1 rolled1 or fixed at the bottom1 a few inches away from the back1 the roof remaining as a sunshade4 ,the leather work is very thin and of beautifully supple enamelled leather4 ,the perfection to which the ,american buggy or waggon has been carried1 and every part likely to give way carefully strengthened1 is marvellous4 ,those made by the best builders will last a long time without repair4 ,the whole is so slender and elastic that it 8gives--to use a trade term--and recovers itself at any obstacle4 ,the defect in ,english eyes of these carriages consists in the difficulty of getting in or out by reason of the height of the front wheel1 and its proximity to the hind wheel--it is often necessary to partly lock round the wheel to allow of easy entrance4 ,there is also a tremulous motion on a hard road which is not always agreeable4 ,it is not surprising that1 with the great advantages of extreme lightness1 ease1 and durability1 and with lofty wheels1 the ,american waggons travel with facility over very rough roads1 and there is a great demand for them in our colonies4 ,it must be remembered that the price is small1 less than the price of our gigs and four-wheeled dog-carts4 ,this cheapness is attained by making large numbers to the same pattern1 by using cast-iron clips and couplings1 and stays1 by the use of machinery in sawing and shaping1 grooving and mortising the timbers1 and by the educated dexterity of the ,american workman always ready to adopt any improvement4 ,an educated man will make a nimble workman1 just as an educated man learns his drill from the military instructor more quickly than a clown4 ,an educated man finds out the value of machinery and desires to use and improve it4 ,instead of fearing its rivalry he welcomes it2 he remembers that all tools1 even the saw and the hammer1 are machines1 and that the hand1 the human hand that guides those tools is but a perfect machine obeying the guidance of the brain more quickly and in a more varied manner than any man-made machine4 ,the ,american workman therefore uses machines more and more4 ,in ,england machinery for wood-shaping is used at ,derby1 ,newcastle1 ,nottingham1 ,worcester1 and other towns2 and in ,paris some beautiful machinery is at work in coach factories4 ,in ,london1 ,i believe1 it is chiefly confined to patent-wheel factories4 ,we use also a few steam-driven saws1 some paint-grinding mills worked by hand1 and drilling and punching machines4 ,but until the use of machinery is adopted more generally in ,london it is probable that the trade of building carriages for export will drift more and more to the provinces and to the ,continent4 ,the saving of machinery in omnibus and cab-building would be great1 because the patterns vary so little1 and all other parts of one carriage could correspond with another1 and counterchange when repairs were needed4 ,the ,coachbuilders of the future will look to steam and hand machinery as their great assistant in cheapening the cost of first-rate carriages1 in multiplying them for the probably increased demand1 and in building carriages more speedily4 ,it now takes from two to three months in building a brougham1 of which at least five weeks are consumed simply in preparing the wood and iron work1 a period which might easily be shortened by machinery4 ,with regard to the ,american waggons1 they are so completely a carriage of themselves1 there is so little to work upon1 that we do not look for great beauty2 that each of its parts should be gracefully shaped must be sufficient4 ,the shape is conventional1 affording no great opportunity for style4 ,the larger carriages of ,north ,america in which there is plenty of room for style and grace are1 to an ,european eye1 deficient in both4 ,the extremely ugly straight and abrupt lines of the upper parts of the bodies1 the wriggling1 uncomfortable sweeps of the lower parts1 the want of proportion1 the scanty room for the legs of the passengers1 must astonish all who have seen the carriages of other countries4 ,american wheeled carriages seem to say1 8,we are made for lightness1 and nothing else40 ,on the sledges grace1 comfort1 and elegance seem to have been lavished1 and1 to use an ,american term1 8pleasing lines0 and sweeps abound in the sleigh4 ,in all carriages the proportions of the different parts1 to please permanently1 must harmonise4 ,if at one time the fashion of the day is for deep quarters1 deep rockers1 and very shallow panels1 it is certain that the eye of the man of taste will sooner or later correct this1 and return to the proper depths of each4 ,if at one time the wheels are too high1 a ,hobson will arise and cut them lower4 ,if the curves grow too rampant1 and the scrolls and foliage too abundant1 a more cultivated taste will modify all this sooner or later4 ,it is certain that our ,american cousins will alter the shapes of their larger carriages1 and continue to improve them4 ,in ,australia--where the admiration for ,american and ,english carriages is nearly equal--there are native carriages built which1 we are told1 combine the lightness and durability of ,american vehicles with the grace and comfort of ,english carriages4 ,it may not be so yet1 but it is cheering1 at any rate1 to hear of the attempt1 and all true lovers of the craft must rejoice if it succeeds4 ,in ,america the principles of draught have been carefully considered and discussed in a magazine specially published for ,coachmakers1 and which magazine does the greatest credit to its able editor1 ,mr ,ezra ,n4 ,stratton1 of ,new ,york2 it is beautifully illustrated1 and is full of information for all branches of the craft4 ,there is another magazine in the same city called the 8,hub10 edited by ,mr ,george ,houghton1 who visited ,europe to see the recent display of carriages at the ,exhibitions at ,vienna and ,london in #ahgc4 ,the principles of draught are in these works first set out with reference to the sledge4 ,we are told that1 from long experience1 it is found if the traces are attached to the sledge so high that the trace is horizontal or parallel with the ground1 and the sledge meets with any obstacle in a rough track1 the runners will bite into the obstruction so as almost to stop the team1 but if the traces are fastened lower1 so as to form a straight line from the horse's collar to the hind end of the runners of the sledge1 then they will lift1 as it were1 at the obstacle1 and glide easily over it4 ,this theory appears quite correct4 ,it is more readily discovered in a sledge than in a carriage upon wheels1 but the principle is the same in each4 ,again1 if the runners project in advance of the sledge it follows easier than if they begin to turn upwards beneath the weight of the sledge4 ,this in wheel carriages is the same as if the weight of the carriage were mostly on the low front wheel1 instead of upon the higher hind wheels4 ,in the ,new ,york magazine we are asked1 8,why will a team haul a load on a vehicle of four wheels easier than the same load upon two wheels80 and 8,why will a team haul a load in a circle1 which they cannot move straightforward80 ,the obvious answer is1 that the same load presses on the ground in two places heavier than it does upon four places1 and1 secondly1 that when moving in a circle the obstacles are less felt by the inner wheels than by the outer4 ,but the magazine gives further ingenious reasons4 ,when a load is resting upon a two-wheeled vehicle it is very seldom placed so as to balance just right4 ,if correct for level ground1 as soon as it ascends a hill1 or descends1 the balance is unsettled4 ,when the wheels come to a hole1 or a big stone1 all the load must be raised with two wheels and only half when on four wheels4 ,again1 an uneven road twists the horse that is between the shafts from side to side1 when the load is on two wheels1 more than when1 on four wheels1 the fore-carriage rotates on the perch-box4 ,again1 on an incline the four-wheeler moves by its own gravity1 whilst the two-wheel gives additional weight at once on the horse's back4 ,to the second question the magazine writer remarks that an experienced driver takes his load up hill zigzag1 and not straight1 and what is lost in time is gained in power4 ,on the question of the height of the splinter-bar and whipple-trees1 he gives his experience of twenty years that they should be1 as a rule1 a foot below the point of traction at the horse's collar4 ,he explains the advantage of splinters 7like our leading-bars7 for all the horses of a team1 and not only the leaders1 to be this--that if one horse is lazy1 then the others draw their bars forward1 and1 consequently1 his bar going back brings his traces tight again4 ,with reference to the method of attaching the horses close to their work in ,england1 and some distance from their work on the ,continent1 ,i wish to have it understood that ,i do not consider the ,continental custom absolutely superior to the ,english custom1 but ,i consider we might adopt a middle course with great advantage to the horses and passengers4 ,it is certain that on the ,continent the horses have1 in many instances1 their traces too long1 as it is that we have them often too short4 ,there has been much controversy about the difference in the length of the front and hind axle-trees4 ,it has been usual to make no greater difference than will allow the higher wheel to follow in the same track as the lower4 ,in ,france it has been the practice1 from the year #ahdf1 to make the front axle-tree of broughams six inches shorter4 ,the object has been to allow the front wheel to be placed nearer to the body4 ,as the front wheel of a brougham must turn entirely in front of the body1 the additional gain of three inches was very desirable4 ,some ,english ,coachbuilders have followed the example of the ,french4 ,there is a decided gain4 ,the eye is pleased with the proportions4 ,the horse is eased1 and upon hard roads the difference of track is of no consequence4 ,on the other hand1 in country roads1 the well-worn ruts make the running of the carriage uneasy1 whilst in town the driver often forgets that the curbstones will strike his hind wheels sooner than the front wheels1 and lastly more mud is thrown upon the panels4 ,it is probable that the ,french style will not find favour4 ,in coaches built in #agej it was customary to lower the hind part of the inside seats about two inches1 by degrees this was changed to a level seat2 recently the seat has been again lowered behind1 and the back squabs made more upright than formerly4 ,the height of the top of the cushion to the bottom of the body has varied during the same period from fourteen to eighteen inches4 ,these slight changes belong more to the taste of the individual who uses the carriage4 ,it is useless to lay down any general rule on these subjects4 ,if carriages had always to move along perfectly smooth roads1 such as a tramway of wood1 iron1 or stone1 the use of wheels in overcoming friction would be their sole utility1 and the height of the wheels would be of small consequence4 ,but as carriages are drawn along roads with loose stones and uneven surfaces1 wheels are further useful in mounting over these obstacles1 and it is plain that a high wheel does this more easily than a low one4 ,to demonstrate this1 let us suppose a shallow ditch or gulley of a foot wide and two inches deep1 a wheel two feet high would sink into this and touch the bottom1 but a wheel three feet high would only sink an inch1 and a wheel four feet six inches high would sink only half an inch1 on account of their greater diameters4 ,consequently1 whilst the large wheel would have to be lifted by force of pulling only half an inch1 the smallest wheel must be lifted two inches1 and with the wheel must also be lifted a portion of the load of the entire carriage4 ,again1 the long spoke acts as a longer lever1 the point of draught being the axle1 which is higher from the ground in the higher wheel1 and again assists in overcoming the obstacle1 as the angle of incidence is so much less4 ,to learn that the leverage power of a high wheel is very great we need only consider the advantages gained by a large wheel in locomotives and in bicycles4 ,in practice we find that wheels from #d feet to #e feet are sufficient for large carriages1 and from #c feet upwards for ordinary vehicles4 ,the present method of constructing all wheels which have to carry considerable weight will doubtless continue to prevail4 ,the timbers of which they are composed1 viz41 elm for the stocks1 ash and hickory for the rims1 and oak or acacia for the spokes in ,europe and ,america1 have been found the best for many years4 ,wheels of the present make must also be dished4 ,the tendency of a wheel is always to become upright1 and when it becomes so by the gradual hammering out of the tyre to a greater length1 and the gradual sinking of the spokes further into the nave and rim by wear and tear1 then the wheel goes to pieces4 ,if any one will watch the manner in which the materials of a mop become straight as it is twirled round1 he will understand that the same centrifugal force compels wheels to become upright4 ,secondly1 as a wheel runs along a road it is forced from side to side by the uneven surface1 the uneven draught of the horses1 and the rapid motion1 which latter frequently causes the wheel to jump over the road instead of pressing equally over all its circumference4 ,then we dish our wheels1 not only to keep the tyre tight as long as possible1 but also to resist the lateral thrust1 which in a perfectly upright wheel would soon force the spokes out of the naves4 ,there is one exception to this rule in the ,american spider wheel2 in this the spokes are not larger than a man's finger1 and being of elastic wood1 bend like a reed under the lateral thrust1 and recovering themselves again will endure1 whilst the unbending oaken spoke would be unrooted4 ,the late ,lord ,palmerston1 whose vigorous common sense grappled many a problem which would be supposed quite out of his line1 was fond of talking about carriages4 ,he considered that wheels should have the spokes dished1 but that the arm of an axle-tree should be nearly straight1 so that the outside rim of the wheel should be upright2 and would illustrate the soundness of his views by quoting the wheels of artillery waggons and pony phaetons4 ,it became necessary to remind his ,lordship that we pitch the arms of the axles for two reasons2 first1 in order to keep the box of the axle pressing against the strong shoulder instead of against the weak linch-pin2 and secondly1 because the wheels1 when they are wider at the top of the tyres than at the bottom on the road1 will throw the mud away from1 instead of into the carriage1 or on the panels4 ,there is no absolute rule for the dish of the wheel or the pitch of the arm of an axle4 ,experience and custom point out to a builder what is best for different carriages and different countries4 ,it is sufficient to say that a spoke two feet in length will last longest when not dished more than its own width in its length1 and that the pitch of the axle arms1 to ensure chiefly the duration of the wheels1 should not be more than will leave the spokes pointing towards the ground1 not upright1 but narrower at the naves than at the rims by three-quarters of an inch when the spokes are two feet long4 ,this rule is simply for the duration of the wheel as long as possible1 without reference to any other consideration1 which the ,coachbuilder1 however1 may find overrule what ,i have said4 ,if the axles of a carriage are rather stronger than is necessary--having regard to their length between the shoulders1 and the weight they have to carry--it will be found to have a considerable influence upon the carriage1 which will follow more steadily and quietly for the additional strength4 ,i do not propose to enter in this series of lectures at any length upon the subject of ,springs4 ,i think we are far from having attained perfection either in the manufacture or shape of springs for carriages4 ,it may have been remarked that the first springs were all elbow springs1 placed in different positions1 for different carriages4 ,a double elbow or horizontal spring of a length of four feet seems to give the most easy play of any shape1 and if made nearly straight at first wears little in the course of time compared with the elliptical shape4 ,in perch carriages we have abandoned the nearly upright spring for the ,c spring1 chiefly because the ,c spring is of a more elegant shape1 and also resists wear better than the elbow or whip spring1 which was found to break away from its supports4 ,in elliptical springs the action of the steel plates is precisely contrary to the action in the ,c spring2 in both the back plates are similar in shape1 but the shorter plates in the ,c spring are on the inner side of the curve1 and in the elliptical they are on the outer side of the curve4 ,a careful consideration of the effects of this variation may lead to a new combination which will be more satisfactory in its results4 ,the elliptical springs made by ,hobson were doubly compassed1 and the same shape may be seen on some of the public omnibuses4 ,a carriage may be hung to be very easy by using double horizontal springs1 one under the other4 ,at the ,exhibition at ,brussels this year 7#ahgf7 the most easy hand ambulances on wheels were constructed in this manner4 ,in one elliptical spring you do not have the advantage of two horizontal springs1 because the ends are in the elliptical spring united1 and if a coupling is substituted at the hind end it is found in practice difficult to keep it upright4 ,mr ,adams1 in his work on 8,pleasure ,carriages10 considers it a mistake to hollow out each steel plate of a spring4 ,i am quite of his opinion that this process of hammering leaves the inner surface of a steel plate very uneven1 thereby harbouring moisture and dirt1 and rendering the plate liable to fracture4 ,i should recommend1 on the contrary1 that each plate should be ground or filed quite smooth on both sides4 ,if careful tempering were generally the rule among ,coachbuilders1 ,i am convinced that there would be fewer broken springs1 and less complaint of rust accumulating between the plates4 ,the use of brake ,retarders to the hind wheels has now for some years superseded the use of drag-shoes4 ,it is evident that the action upon two wheels is better than on one only2 the brake can be applied or removed without stopping the carriage1 which had to be done with the drag-shoe2 it can be relaxed in its hold in an undulating country1 and the horses can proceed at speed up the next hill without the check formerly necessary whilst the drag-shoe was removed4 ,the brake was invented very early1 and was in use in the coal trucks upon the first tramways in ,northumberland1 long before steam was used to draw them4 ,they are now of two sorts3 screw brakes1 which are used on railways in ,england and all sorts of carriages on the ,continent1 and the old lever brake1 which was the original form1 and which is still the favourite among ,english coachmen4 ,in ,scotland the lever handle is often superseded by the treadle1 or foot-brake1 which has been selected by the ,general ,omnibus ,company4 ,in deciding upon the exact size and shape of the details of the brake a ,coachbuilder is necessarily guided by the shape of the vehicle to which it is to be applied4 ,it is necessary to attend to the following points3 the lever arm that presses upon the rim of the wheel should be short1 both for quick action and also for strength4 ,the handle should be long1 that the coachman may have greater power in applying the brake4 ,the whole of the handle and the connecting-rod irons should be made somewhat weak to allow a little spring in them4 ,if they are made too strong they will be rigid1 and not fit with and favour the motion of the carriage and play of the springs4 ,if a quick action is desired1 the inner half of the levers on the wheels should be short1 or long if a slow action is preferred4 ,the blocks which press upon the wheels have been variously made of cast-iron1 wrought iron1 brass1 wood1 india-rubber1 and leather4 ,the wood is the best for hold on the iron tyre and freedom from noise and smell1 but it wears out fast4 ,india-rubber1 especially for light carriages1 seems most satisfactory4 ,the use of the brake is very much overdone on the ,continent1 especially in ,germany1--it is put on for such slight declines that the unfortunate horses are always kept up to their collars1 and never get the ease that we give them going down hill4 ,there is an error which is deeply rooted among ,coachbuilders and the public who use carriages1 which consists in the idea that the draught is diminished by placing the front part of the under-carriage as far back as possible4 ,intelligent men who have thought on the subject1 and watched the actual working of this idea1 have long been convinced of the error1 but much remains to be done to convince everyone of its fallacy4 ,we have already seen that with large wheels the draught is less4 ,if a load has to be placed on a four-wheeled vehicle it should be placed in relation to the front and hind wheels1 so as to place the heavier part of the weight upon the higher wheels4 ,to obtain this result it is sufficient to bring the hind carriage part as far under the body as it will work with comfort and safety1 in order that as little weight as possible shall rest on the fore carriage part4 ,english ,coachmakers have been working at this for thirty years1 but for the most part blindly4 ,they have copied well-known builders in construction as well as shape2 they hear that these well-known firms' carriages run and follow very lightly1 and if they would copy accurately they would obtain the same reputation4 ,one firm should be specially mentioned as having for years been careful to build carriages to run lightly4 ,as long ago as #ahdf ,messrs ,laurie and ,marner brought the hind wheel of their carriages well forward1 and advanced the position and raised the height of the fore wheel1 thus balancing the weight properly1 or rather as properly as the shape of the landau and barouche will allow4 ,there are many carriages1 however1 such as stanhope and mail phaetons1 omnibuses1 waggonettes1 and pony phaetons1 in which it is easy to advance the hind wheel1 so as to carry the principal part of the whole weight of the body4 ,this has been done1 but then many persons have erroneously imagined that the carriage followed the horse easily1 not because the weight was on the higher wheel1 but because the wheels were so near together1 and they have pressed the ,coachbuilder to keep the front wheels backwarder1 instead of rather placing them forwarder1 as they should have done4 ,in the stage coach we see a conspicuous example of this great error1 and some of the drags more recently built are the worst4 ,if the roads round ,london were not so good as they are1 or if the roofs of drags were loaded with luggage1 we should hear of more accidents to the summer amateur coaches than we do at present4 ,most of the weight of the stage coach or drag is upon the front wheel1 which is much the lowest1 and it is so far back under the body that if the horses gallop the coach begins to swing1 and a very small obstruction is sufficient to upset the whole4 ,compare this with a similar load upon an omnibus1 with four horses at a rapid pace on a bad road4 ,the comparative security and safety of the latter vehicle is at once apparent4 ,if a coach and omnibus could be fairly tried together1 it would be found that the omnibus with three horses could beat the coach with four horses1 besides doing its work with much greater safety1 and turning in a much narrower road4 ,it is right to mention that the idea1 or a great part of the above1 has been contributed by a foreign ,coachbuilder1 in whose views ,i entirely concur4 ,it is as easy to make a stage coach as safe and nearly as light in running as an omnibus1 by making it with much higher front wheels1 and carrying them more forward4 ,if it is considered essential to be able to turn in a narrow road1 it would be easy to cut a small arch in the boot1 which would allow the wheel to turn as far as the perch1 instead of only half way to the perch as at present4 ,the reason given why drag-coaches are made with the front wheel so far back is1 that it was necessary in order to bring the horses close to their work1 to use a phrase that has been much misapplied1 and also to bring them under the driver's hands1 who prefers the reins short1 but it would be quite possible to build a coach in which the driver might be over the horses1 and yet have the advantage of higher front wheels1 and properly placed for carrying the load4 ,the ,coachmaker may often gather a useful hint by studying the construction of carts1 which have to carry heavier loads than carriages1 often at an equal speed1 and certainly not with better horses4 ,if the wheels of a vehicle are of equal height1 the load should rest in the middle of the wheels4 ,when the front wheels meet with an obstacle in the road the horse will only have to lift half the weight of the load1 the other half being on the hind wheels4 ,when the hind wheels come to the same obstruction again only half the load will have to be lifted1 the other half being on the front wheels4 ,but1 as in ,english carriages1 the wheels are very rarely of equal height1 we should proportion the load more upon the higher wheels than upon the lower4 ,as long ago as #aggj a ,coachmaker1 named ,joseph ,jacob1 of ,st4 ,mary ,axe1 wrote thus3--8,a load should always be placed in a waggon over the highest wheels1 and as low as possible40 ,this was the ,mr ,jacob who assisted at some experiments made at that time in the ,strand1 by direction of the ,society of ,arts1 for the purpose of ascertaining the proper height of wheels4 ,mr ,cuthbert ,clarke was rewarded with a fifteen guinea gold medal4 ,mr ,jacob had also received a twenty guinea medal for improved carriage springs4 ,during my lectures ,i exhibited some full-sized drawings of carriages made by ,m4 ,dupont1 of ,paris1 to show how completely a ,coachbuilder at a distance might be guided in building carriages by his designs4 ,these drawings are quite works of art1 and by means of them ,m4 ,dupont is educating the artistic taste of every manufactory which procures his aid4 ,how much better our carriages would be if we worked from drawings as carefully planned out and executed as these4 ,many of our artisans could1 with a little instruction1 draw quite as well1 and by degrees would learn to draw with as much artistic taste and sense of the beautiful4 ,some artisans are now being instructed in the art of design1 and ,i trust the day is not far distant when every workman will see that his son learns drawing as part of his education1 and as the essential preliminary to any technical education which is to follow4 ,the power of producing on paper the images figured on the brain is an important part and factor in all the arrangements of our social life1 whether those images and imaginations1 and reasons and problems1 are traced with the pen in writing or with the pencil in a drawing1 by both we record1 we discipline1 and we clear up more or less the busy thoughts that nature or surrounding circumstances have gifted and endowed us with4 ,on the ,continent1 and especially in ,paris1 this has long been understood1 and workmen have been carefully educated for this work4 ,and1 thanks to the department of ,science and ,art of ,south ,kensington1 thousands of students have past through the schools of design scattered all over ,england4 ,if the artisans of the ,coach ,trade would follow the example of those engaged in the china and pottery trades1 they would meet with the same success1 and restore their fame for ,coachbuilding to its former greatness4 ,last year1 in ,november1 ,mr ,gladstone gave an address at ,greenwich upon the study of science and art4 ,i may be permitted to record here how in that address he eloquently pressed upon his hearers that3-- 8,beauty could and should be combined with economy and utility in all our industrial products2 beauty was indeed a great element of utility2 the trade of ,france was founded upon the beauty of that which it produces1 and the economical application of means to ends2 and that is due to the long culture and traditional application of the national mind to beauty in their products4 ,the human nature in which we are cast was not endowed with all its marvellous faculties for nothing1 and it is the due development of those faculties that constitutes the true and full idea of the duty of man in this world4 ,it has been too much the habit in this country to regard beauty of production as something quite apart from usefulness of production1 and at the same time to look upon the beauty which may result from human labour as a luxury reserved for the rich alone4 ,but beauty has a commercial value1 and its multiplication should form part of human education4 ,we are all still at school1 both young and old4 ,we should then endeavour to work all things into beautiful forms1 as did the ancient ,greeks1 so that artistic skill and love of the beautiful became an inheritance with them1 formed part of their nature1 accompanied their daily life1 and entered into every kind of production4 ,this is a time when all who are concerned in the welfare of the country feel it to be desirable that efforts should be made to give instruction1 so as to improve the knowledge of the ,british artistic workman1 and enable him to hold his position in the markets of the world4 ,i confess10 said ,mr ,gladstone1 8,i should like to see a great deal of this work done by the ,london ,companies4 ,that they should strive to make themselves illustrious in the country by fulfilling the purpose for which they were founded1 namely1 developing the crafts1 trades1 and mysteries of this great country 7as the ,society of ,arts has laboured to do for so many long years7 to promote beauty and economy in the production of works of industry4 ,but ,i believe10 ,mr ,gladstone continued1 8that it is really in the individual that the secret of the whole matter lies4 ,it is not as a body that you fill the benches of this room2 you are here as individuals1 and it is your thoughts and convictions1 your own resolute efforts to improve1 and energetically to direct your labours to the attainment of the highest end that constitutes the real resource to which we have to look4 ,no auxiliaries can supplant1 they can only aid individual exertion4 ,each individual worker may have a notion of doing his work in the way which is most useful1 but he ought also to have a sense of the difference between what is more useful and less useful1 and what is more beautiful and the less beautiful4 ,now the sense of beauty is not1 under natural circumstances1 the favoured inheritance of a few only1 it is meant to be1 should be1 and may be the universal inheritance of civilised mankind4 ,it ought1 therefore1 to be the aim of the humblest artisan to acquire by study and thought such a sense of beauty as may elevate the character of the work he performs4 ,and it will at the same time be found that as he developes beauty in his work he will raise his self-respect1 he will raise himself1 his family1 and his class infinitely more than by any effort to get out of his position1 either for himself or his children40 ,i trust ,i shall be excused for making this long extract from ,mr ,gladstone's speech1 but it expresses so much and in such true and kindly language1 that ,i felt ,i ought to add his well-considered words to my ,history of the ,art of ,coachbuilding4 ,the fine series of photographs of ,state and other ,carriages1 and the valuable library of the ,coach and ,coach-harness ,makers ,company are open every ,saturday afternoon4 ,tickets of admission may be obtained at the principal ,coachbuilders of ,london4 ,,london3 ,,kerby ,,endean1 #aij ,,oxford ,,street1 ,printers and ,publishers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,books ,,recently ,,published ,,by ,,kerby ,,endean4 ,,lending ,,unto ,,the ,,lord2 ,or1 ,three ,days in the ,life of ,christian ,frchtegott ,gellert1 ,poet and ,professor in ,leipsic ,university4 ,by ,,baron ,,conway and ,j4 ,,russell ,,endean4 ,illustrated from ,original ,designs by the ,,hon4 ,,charlotte ,,ellis4 ,royal #afmo1 #cs4 ,,selections ,,from ,,numberless ,,criticisms4 8,i hope #8,lending unto the ,lord' will have the good effect of recommending the duty of ,christian benevolence which it inculcates4--,his ,grace the ,archbishop of ,canterbury4 8,an important work1 which the ,archbishop hopes to read with the attention which it deserves4--,his ,grace the ,archbishop of ,york4 8,dear ,sir1--,i thank you much for sending me a copy of your beautiful little work1 #8,lending ,unto the ,lord4' ,it is fitted to encourage such lending as1 ,i fear1 is too rare1 and1 independently of this1 to interest and please thoughtful ,christian minds and hearts4 ,very truly yours1 ,john ,cumming4 ,to ,j4 ,russell ,endean1 ,esq4--,rev4 ,john ,cumming1 ,d4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 8,it is a delightful little book4--,rev4 ,donald ,fraser1 ,d4,d4 8#8,lending unto the ,lord' is an interesting book4 ,it is nicely written1 and ought to prove popular in the circle of readers to whom it is addressed4--,athenum4 8,this is a very pretty gift-book4 ,it relates an event in the life of ,gellert1 the hymn-writer of ,leipsic1 in which his lending to the ,lord met with a rich reward4--,the ,english ,churchman4 8#8,lending ,unto the ,lord' came safely1 and ,i read it through with much interest4 ,i have written a notice for #8,sword and ,trowel4'--,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,spurgeon4 8#8,lending ,unto the ,lord' is a good book4 ,the story brought the water into our eyes as we read it4 ,it ought to sell by thousands4 ,the narrative is calculated to foster that spirit of benevolence which is the glory of ,christianity4--,sword and ,trowel4 8,is well printed1 attractively bound1 and the illustrations are good4--,examiner4 8,the story is told in a manner which will delight young and old4--,bookseller4 8,is a religious narration of an admirable and earnest ,christian4 ,prefixed is a remarkable and pretty hymn1 by ,julia ,b4 ,endean1 at the age of #ab4 ,the volume would make a pretty ,sunday present4--,publisher's ,circular4 8,this is an excellent little book4 ,the incidents are deeply interesting1 and convey an excellent moral4--,court ,journal4 8,a charming picture of a portion of a happy1 benevolent ,christian life4--,evening ,standard4 8,this is a very delightful story1 both as to its subject and the manner of telling4 ,it is true1 and will find interested readers among old as well as young4 ,we can heartily commend the book on every account4--,church ,bells4 8,is a pretty volume2 to ,gellert the literature of ,germany is greatly indebted4 ,a simple-minded godly man1 he sacrificed his own personal comfort for the welfare of his poorer neighbours4 ,the book will be warmly welcomed4--,western ,daily ,mercury4 8,this is a most interesting tale1 excellently-well and naturally rendered4 ,it includes a poem1 written by ,miss ,j4 ,bentall ,endean1 at the age of #ab years1 remarkable for the psychological culture it reveals1 and for command of the forms of verse4--,bayswater ,chronicle4 ,,joan ,,of ,,arc3 ,a ,poem4 ,by ,,robert ,,blake4 ,crown #hvo1 toned1 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 8,the verse is harmonious1 flowing and easy4 ,the poem does honour to its author4--,sicle4 8,the subject is treated with a master's hand4--,revue ,brittanique4 8,very beautiful and highly poetical4--,,poets' ,,magazine4 8,joan of ,arc0 contains many passages of great beauty and much poetic power4--,freemason4 ,,las ,,memorias1 ,,and ,,other ,,poems4 ,by ,a4 ,f4 ,a4 ,w4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 8,this is a work which we would most cordially press upon the attention of our readers4 ,the poems are written with exquisite taste1 abounding with the purest sentiment and richest pathos4--,west ,riding ,herald4 ,,sacred ,,lyrics4 ,by ,,henry ,,lockwood1 ,author of 8,axel1 and other ,poems40 ,super royal #afmo1 toned1 cloth1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,maria ,,stieg1 ,,and ,,other ,,poems4 ,by ,,frances ,,jane ,,forsayth1 ,authoress of 8,amos ,waters and other ,poems40 #abmo1 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,daily ,,devotion3 ,or1 ,prayers ,framed on the ,successive ,portions of the ,new ,testament as ,appointed in the ,new ,lectionary1 to which are added ,forms of ,prayer for a ,fortnight1 for ,family or ,private ,use4 ,by ,,daniel ,,moore1 ,m4,a41 ,chaplain in ,ordinary to the ,queen1 and ,vicar of ,holy ,trinity1 ,paddington4 ,large crown #hvo1 cloth1 #fs4 8,this book provides a prayer suitable for family worship for every morning and evening of the year1 and there is added a ,form for ,family ,devotion for a ,fortnight4--,english ,churchman4 8,an excellent compilation4 ,this useful ,manual of ,daily ,devotion is admirably adapted for family or private use4--,court ,journal4 8,the book will be very useful for reading aloud1 or for family prayers4--,the ,bookseller4 8#8,daily ,devotion' consists of excellent ,scripture prayers for day-by-day service1 and some occasional prayers4 ,they are well written1 and we can strongly commend them as suitable to all families4--,publishers' ,circular4 8,a valuable aid to devotion1 and the publishers have displayed much taste and care in its appearance4--,western ,daily ,mercury4 8,there is no external aid so helpful for family worship as selected ,scripture readings1 followed by prayers specially adapted to them4 ,mr ,moore's ,manual has this advantage4 ,his great pastoral experience and knowledge of the conditions to which a manual of worship for lay use must be adapted is conspicuously visible in this collection of prayers1 each of which is sufficiently long and studiously adapted for oral delivery4 ,this manual will1 no doubt1 come widely into use4--,bayswater ,chronicle4 ,,christian ,,consolation3 ,or1 ,discourses on the ,reliefs afforded by the ,gospel under different ,states and ,trials of the ,christian ,life4 ,by ,,daniel ,,moore1 ,m4,a41 ,chaplain in ,ordinary to the ,queen1 and ,vicar of ,holy ,trinity1 ,paddington4 #abmo1 cloth1 #es4 ,,discourses ,,on ,,the ,,lord',s ,,prayer4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,daniel ,,moore1 ,m4,a41 ,chaplain in ,ordinary to the ,queen1 and ,vicar of ,holy ,trinity1 ,paddington4 #abmo1 cloth1 #es4 ,,private ,,devotions ,,for ,,girls1 ,with ,maxims and ,rules of ,conduct at ,home and at ,school2 with ,suggestions for a ,young ,lady's ,english ,education4 ,royal #cbmo1 cloth1 #f;d4 8,an admirable book for the purpose designed40 ,,christian ,,toleration3 ,an ,essay4 ,by the ,honourable ,a4 ,s4 ,g4 ,,canning4 ,large crown #hvo1 toned1 #cs4 #f;d4 8,everybody should read the ,honourable ,a4 ,s4 ,g4 ,canning's ,original ,essay on ,christian ,toleration40 ,,anonymous ,,criticism3 ,an ,essay4 ,by ,,robert ,,blake4 ,demy #hvo1 #as4 8,there are few ideas in this ,essay with which we do not thoroughly agree4--,cambridge ,express4 8,the style is terse and perspicuous1 graceful1 yet trenchant4 ,the phraseology is at times very beautiful4--,tyrone ,constitution4 ,,being ,,in ,,the ,,choir3 ,an ,address to ,church ,singers on their ,duties and ,responsibilities4 ,by a ,clergyman4 ,new edition1 revised1 #abmo1 tinted wrapper1 #c;d42 or per dozen1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,life ,,mariners3 ,or1 ,homeward ,bound4 ,by ,,bouchier ,,phillimore4 ,royal #afmo1 cloth1 #as4 ,,endean',s ,,game ,,book4 ,imperial #hvo1 oblong1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,tabulated and appropriately illustrated by the ,honourable ,,charlotte ,,ellis4 ,this is a book that should be in use by every ,sportsman1 as it is provided for the purpose of recording the results of sport from one end of the year to the other1 with the ,hounds1 ,rod1 or ,gun4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,three ,,little ,,pigs4 ,beautifully illustrated from original designs by the ,hon4 ,,charlotte ,,ellis4 ,imperial #hvo1 printed in photo-lithography1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,a charming book for a child4 ,,the ,,blue ,,ribbons3 ,a ,story of the ,last ,century4 ,by ,,anna ,,harriet ,,drury1 ,authoress of 8,deep ,waters10 8,misrepresentation10 c4 ,illustrated by ,birket ,foster4 ,square #abmo1 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,land ,,and ,,landlordism4 ,by ,,humphry ,,sandwith1 ,c4,b4 ,second ,edition1 crown #hvo1 #as4 #f;d4 8,dr ,sandwith's ,pamphlet is written in an attractive style4 ,he is a well-travelled man1 and his opinion of the conditions of the ,english labourer cannot be easily gainsaid4--,examiner4 8,these pages are addressed to the agricultural classes1 who are so much in need of improved legislation4--,lloyd's ,news4 ,,happy ,,hours3 ,or1 the ,home ,story ,book4 ,by ,,mary ,,cherwell4 ,with illustrations from designs by ,sir ,john ,gilbert4 ,square cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,dietetics ,,of ,,the ,,soul2 ,or1 ,true ,mental ,discipline4 ,by ,,ernest ,,feuchtersleben1 ,m4,d41 ,translated from the #cbnd ,german edition by ,colonel ,,ouvry1 ,c4,b4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 8,this is a consideration of the conditions under which the mind and spirit can be kept in health4 ,it is written with a pure tone1 and opposed to material tendencies4--,nonconformist4 8,it contains many excellent suggestions4--,christian ,world4 8,the leading thought is the intimate connection between bodily and spiritual health4--,saturday ,review4 ,,stein1 ,,and ,,his ,,reforms ,,in ,,prussia4 ,with reference to the ,land ,question in ,england4 ,by ,col4 ,h4 ,a4 ,,ouvry1 ,c4,b4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 8,every one should read and digest every word in this book4 ,in one short paragraph of ,col4 ,ouvry's we have stated the absolute necessity of restoring the peasantry to the land1 the violence that of old drove them from the soil1 the necessity of many peasant proprietors to give strength and stability to the institutions of the country2 that peasant proprietorship improves the character as well as the condition of the people2 and1 lastly1 when the masses depend wholly on precarious wages they are dangerous to the ,state1 and have too little respect for the rights of property4--,labourers' ,union ,chronicle4 8,a really valuable work2 it ought to be in the hands of all who are interested in the ,land ,question4--,nonconformist4 ,,odd ,,showers2 ,or1 an ,explanation of the ,rain of ,insects1 ,fishes1 and ,lizards2 ,soot1 ,sand and ,ashes2 ,red ,rain and ,snow2 ,meteoric ,stones and other ,bodies4 ,by ,,carriber4 ,square #afmo1 #as4 ,,to ,,authors4 ,,how ,,to ,,publish1 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,easiest ,,terms4 ,,messrs ,,kerby ,,endean',s large experience in the trade and personal practical knowledge of everything connected with the production of books1 from the setting of the first types to the placing of the complete book in the hands of the public1 are a sufficient guarantee that all that can be done to render books successful will be done by them1 and they place their services at the command of authors about to publish4 ,they undertake commissions for every class of publication1 religious1 scientific1 political1 educational1 c4 ,sermons and pamphlets produced at the shortest notice1 and in the best style4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,who goes softly1 goes safely4 #b ,see cover of this book for the shape of a coach of this period1 and also ,plate #bb4 #c ,plate #bf shows a ,roman ,coach4 #d ,there are several wonderful specimens at ,lisbon1 ,photographs of which are in the writer's possession4 #e ,an analysis of the sale of ,messrs ,cook and ,rowley's stock in #ahcj1 and ,messrs ,hobson's stock in #ahch1 shows the proportions of #gj chariots1 #fj coaches and landaus1 #cb barouches and briskas1 #ab cabs1 #f mail phaetons4 ,total1 #ahj4 #f ,see ,plate #cd for a similar stage coach4 #g ,by ,sir ,walter ,scott--preface to a novel4 #h ,here we have the ,french name of diligence instead of stage coach4 #i ,from a ,newspaper1 ,april #bc1 #ahbc3--8;,cabriolets were1 in honour of his ,majesty's birthday1 introduced to the public this morning4 ,they are built to hold two persons inside besides the driver 7who is partitioned off from his company71 and are furnished with a book of fares for the use of the public1 to prevent the possibility of imposition4 ,these books will be found in a pocket hung inside the head of the cabriolet4 ,the fares are one-third less than hackney coaches40 ,typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber3 this was on ,may #cast1 #aeec this was on ,may #cast1 #aecc ,pg #bh left his kingdom to ,philip ,v41 the grandson of ,louis ,,iv41 ,king of ,france left his kingdom to ,philip ,v41 the grandson of ,louis ,,xiv41 ,king of ,france pg #fa driven by a postilion driven by a postillion pg #aaj