,,the ,,art ,,of ,,horse-,,shoeing ,a ,manual for ,farriers1 ,illustration ,,by ,,william ,,hunting1 ,f4,r4,c4,v4,s4 ,editor of ,the ,veterinary ,record4 ,veterinary ,inspector for ,westminster and ,chelsea4 ,consulting ,veterinary ,surgeon to the ,london ,road-,car ,company4 ,member of the ,committee for ,national ,registration of ,farriers4 ,with nearly one hundred ,illustrations4 ,london3 ,h4 ,w4 ,,brown1 #bj ,,fulham ,,road1 ,s4,w4 #ahie4 ,,contents4 ,,chap4 ,,page4 ,i4--,,introduction ,,ii4--,,form ,,and ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,foot #i ,the hoof4 ,the sensitive foot1 growth and wear of hoof4 ,the bones1 cartilages1 pads and vessels4 ,action of the foot1 expansion and contraction1 function of the frog4 ,the natural bearing-surface4 ,,iii4--,,preparation ,,of ,,hoof ,,for ,,shoeing #cb ,bearing-surface for shoe4 ,proportions of foot1 height of heel1 length of toe1 treatment of sole and frog4 ,faults to be avoided4 ,,iv4--,,the ,,form ,,and ,,manufacture ,,of ,,shoes #dh ,material1 weight1 thickness1 width4 ,the foot-surface of shoes4 ,the ground-surfaces4 ,calkins1 nails and nail-holes4 ,machine-made shoes4 ,prepared bar-iron4 ,v4--,,selection ,,of ,a ,,shoe #fe ,for varieties of horse and work4 ,,vi4--,,fitting ,,and ,,application ,,of ,,shoes #fg ,level or adjusted form4 ,outline fitting1 surface fitting4 ,clips1 hot and cold fitting4 ,tips4 ,the ,charlier system4 ,,vii4--,,on ,,roughing #hc ,necessity for1 evils of4 ,frost-nails1 ordinary roughing4 ,movable steel sharps1 steel screw sharps4 ,,viii4--,,injuries ,,resulting ,,from ,,shoeing #ij ,from nails1 from the clip1 from the shoe4 ,corns1 burnt sole4 ,treads4 ,cutting or ,brushing4 ,over-reaching4 ,speedy-cut4 ,forging or ,clacking4 ,,ix4--,,shoeing ,,bad ,,feet #ajj ,flat feet1 convex soles1 broken feet4 ,x4--,,leather ,,and ,,rubber ,,pads #ajg ,plain leather1 ring-leathers1 frog-pads4 ,the ,pneumatic ,pad1 ,the ,wedge-pad1 ,the ,bar-pad4 ,,xi4--,,shoeing ,,competitions #aab ,,preface4 ,this little book is written for three classes of readers--for horse-owners who may interest themselves in the subject1 for farriers who are open to conviction1 and for veterinary students who have to be examined4 ,the method pursued has been1 to first describe the form and action of the foot1 next the preparation of the foot for shoeing4 ,then the form of a shoe is treated of and the details to be observed in making it4 ,the selection of shoes for varieties of feet or for special kinds of work follows1 and afterwards the fitting and nailing-on are considered4 ,other chapters are devoted to roughing1 shoeing defective feet1 accidents1 the use of leathers and pads4 ,throughout an endeavour has been made to be as simple and clear as possible in expression1 to lay down correct general principles and to point out the technical details which are essential to good shoeing4 ,on all these points authorities are not agreed1 and ,i trust those who differ from me will pardon any too dogmatic expressions of opinion in these pages4 ,the illustrations will be of assistance in making clear the text4 ,some of these are copied from books1 some are drawn from models or preparations1 and some are diagramatic4 ,the books ,i am indebted to are1 ,anatomy of the ,domestic ,animals1 by ,gamgee and ,laws2 ,on the ,horse's ,foot1 by ,bracy ,clark2 ,bouley's ,atlas of the ,foot1 and ,goyau's ,marchalerie4 ,,william ,,hunting4 #af ,trafalgar ,square1 ,london1 ,s4,w4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,horse-,,shoeing ,a ,,manual ,,for ,,farriers4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,farriery is the art of shoeing horses1 and can only be properly learned by a long practical experience in the shoeing-forge4 ,if the foot of the horse were not a living object perhaps the training obtained in the forge would be all that was necessary for efficient workmanship4 ,as1 however1 the hoof is constantly growing it is constantly changing its form4 ,the duty of a farrier therefore is not merely to fix a shoe upon the hoof but to reduce the hoof to proper proportions before doing so4 ,now as hoof is only the outer covering of a complex and sensitive foot1 damage to the exterior surface may injure the structures within4 ,injury does frequently result1 and not always from carelessness4 ,perhaps as much injury follows careful work1 based upon wrong principles1 as slovenly work carried out in perfect ignorance of any principle4 ,the injury to feet resulting from shoeing may not be apparent at once4 ,it may be1 and often is1 of a slow and gradual nature1 and not credited to its true cause until the horse is rendered an incurable cripple4 ,it seems evident then that to do justice to a horse a farrier should not only possess manipulative skill1 but should have a correct idea of the structures and functions of the foot1 as well as a thorough knowledge of the form and variations of the hoof4 ,few persons appreciate the importance of horse-shoeing1 whilst a small number tell us it is unnecessary4 ,here and there an enthusiast has the courage of his convictions and is able1 for a time1 to exhibit animals doing work without shoes4 ,in some countries horses are regularly ridden with no addition to their natural hoof1 but in such places the surface over which the animals travel is grass land4 ,in all civilised countries where good roads exist shoeing is practised4 ,the gentleman with a fad who occasionally appears in ,england with unshod horses at work is an unconscious impostor4 ,he sets his little experience against the common sense and universal practice of others4 ,no man of business would pay for shoeing if he could do without it4 ,the shoeless experiment has been tried over and over again1 but always with the same result--a return to shoeing4 ,in dry weather the hoof becomes hard1 and it is wonderful how much wear it will then stand on the hardest of roads4 ,in wet weather the hoof becomes soft1 and then the friction on hard roads soon prohibits work without shoes4 ,if work be persisted in1 under such circumstances1 the hoof rapidly wears away and lameness results4 ,persons trying to prove a pre-conceived theory meet this difficulty by resting the horse until the horn grows1 but business men who keep horses for work in all weathers can afford no such luxury4 ,shoeing has been called a necessary evil4 ,the phrase is a misuse of words1 for there is no necessary evil about it4 ,of course it is no more free from accident than other operations1 but its evils are fairly described as accidents1 whilst its benefits are fully apparent4 ,without shoes horses at work would be more often lame than with them2 without shoes horses could not do half the work they do with them1 and so we need not further discuss the necessity of shoeing4 ,the value of horse-shoeing depends upon the manner in which it is done4 ,very seldom does the owner of horses appreciate the quality of the work4 ,as a rule the price charged1 or the distance from the forge to the stable1 regulates the choice of a farrier4 ,not having any pecuniary interest in the trade1 ,i may say that such matters should not be allowed to decide between one farrier and another4 ,a bad workman may do an injury at one shoeing which will cost the owner of the horse more than would pay ten times over the difference between his charges and the higher prices of a better man4 ,many years ago ,i knew a firm who changed their farrier and system of shoeing for a cheaper plan4 ,the cost for shoeing alone fell very considerably1 but the cost of horse-flesh rose in one year more than #ajj4 ,the old saw--that for want of a nail the shoe was lost1 for want of a shoe the horse was lost1 and for want of a horse the man was lost1 has been illustrated times without number4 ,few persons1 however1 are aware of the terrible consequences which have more than once attended neglect in the shoeing of horses4 ,napoleon's retreat from ,moscow depended for most of its hardships and horrors upon the simple fact that his horses were not shod properly for travelling on snow and ice4 ,the horses could not keep their feet1 and were unable to drag the guns and waggons1 which had to be abandoned4 ,during the ,franco-,prussian war1 ,bourbaki's retreat became a confused rout from a similar cause4 ,in civil life no winter passes without injury and death to hundreds of horses from the same neglect4 ,these are instances that anyone can see2 but heavy losses due to bad shoeing are constant from other or less evident evils--from the adoption of wrong methods and the practice of erroneous theories4 ,the farrier has not been fairly treated by the public4 ,his practical knowledge has been ignored1 he has been instructed by amateurs in all sorts of theories1 and coerced into carrying out practices for the untoward results of which he has been blamed4 ,the natural consequence of all this has been that the art of farriery degenerated1 and the farrier was forced into a position destructive to the self-respect of any craftsman4 ,in no other trade do persons entirely ignorant of the business presume to direct and dictate as to how the work should be done4 ,no one presumes to instruct the watch-maker or bell-hanger as to the details of his craft1 but the farrier has been compelled to take his instructions from all sorts and conditions of men4 ,only in recent years has the man who shoes horses been allowed to know something of his calling4 ,various causes have acted in putting an end to the state of discord1 and the trade is now entering upon a brighter time4 ,the ,worshipful ,company of ,farriers--one of those ancient ,city ,guilds which had survived their original vocation and usefulness--has wakened up1 and is striving to resume its proper function as the head and director of the trade over which it ought to preside4 ,agricultural ,societies have also taken the matter up1 and fostered a healthy emulation amongst farriers by instituting practical competitions at their shows4 ,veterinary ,surgeons have devoted considerable research to the elucidation of the anatomy and physiology of the foot1 and many old errors have been corrected4 ,school ,boards have made the present generation of farriers able and willing to supplement their practice by a study of principles4 ,we have1 in fact1 arrived at a time when everyone interested seems inclined to recognise the importance of the art and its technical difficulties1 and when no one has a brand new infallible discovery which alone can save the horse and guide the farrier4 ,my object in writing is not to suggest anything new but to point out the general principles upon which the art is based1 and to indicate those details which are essential to success1 and those which are to be avoided if soundness and duration of service are recognised as true economy in a stud of horses4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,form ,,and ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,foot4 ,the foot of a horse consists of a variety of living structures1 differing in form and texture1 and enclosed in a horny covering called the hoof4 ,although the farrier's work is applied only to the hoof it is necessary that he should know something of the whole foot1 because it is but too easy to injure the structures within by alterations of the horny covering without4 ,the simplest way to understand the foot is to study separately the different parts1 and to apply that knowledge in obtaining a general idea of the relations of all the parts to each other4 ,there is not then much difficulty in appreciating the functions of each part1 and the uses and action of the whole organ4 ,,the ,,hoof4 ,everyone is familiar with the general appearance of the hoof4 ,it is not a regular geometrical figure4 ,each of the four feet of the horse shows some peculiarity in form1 by which a farrier can at once identify a fore from a hind or a left from a right4 ,the fore feet should be similar in size and shape4 ,disease may be suspected when any marked difference exists4 ,but a healthy hoof which has been broken1 or much rasped1 does not retain its proper form and may thus confuse a novice4 ,the hind feet should be proportionate in size to the fore1 and then it is not of much practical consequence whether the whole are large or small4 ,the front feet are rounder and less pointed at the toe than the hind2 they are also more sloping in front4 ,the two fore feet and the two hind should be in pairs4 ,the right and left feet are distinguished from each other by the inner side being more upright or1 if examined on the under surface1 by the outer border being more prominent4 ,although to a casual observer the hoof appears as one continuous horny structure1 it may easily be separated into three distinct parts by prolonged soaking in water4 ,the division takes place so as to leave the sole1 frog1 and wall separate portions4 ,these may now be considered4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,a ,fore ,foot4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,a ,hind ,foot4 ,the ,wall is that portion of the hoof seen whilst the foot rests upon the ground4 ,it covers the front and sides of the foot4 ,it extends from the coronet downwards and slightly outwards so that its lower circumference is greater than its upper4 ,the front portion shows its greatest height and obliquity1 diminishing in these respects as it passes backwards4 ,at the heels the wall is turned in upon itself1 and passes forward towards the centre of the foot until it becomes lost in the structure of the sole4 ,these turned-in portions of the wall are called the bars1 and serve two purposes2 they increase the bearing surface of the wall1 and by embracing a part of the sole on each side1 they afford an increased solidity to the union of the wall with the rest of the hoof4 ,if we detach the wall its inner surface is seen to consist of a number of thin horny projections running parallel to each other from above downwards and forwards4 ,these are called the horny lamin4 ,they number from five to six hundred and correspond to similar processes on the sensitive foot4 7,fig4 #c74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,half of a ,hoof1 showing the inside4 ,round the upper circumference on the inside of the wall is a depression or groove presenting innumerable small pits or openings4 ,this corresponds to a part of the sensitive foot called the coronary band1 which will be noticed again4 ,a section of wall enables us to see variations in its thickness4 7,fig4 #d74 ,it is thickest at the toe1 becoming gradually thinner towards the heels2 thus affording strength and solidity to resist wear at one part1 as well as pliancy at another to ward off concussion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,transverse ,section of ,wall showing variation in thickness4 ,the structure of the wall is fibrous--the fibres running parallel to each other1 and with the same obliquity as that presented by the front of the wall4 ,although the wall varies in thickness from before backwards1 it does not from above downwards4 ,it maintains the same thickness from the coronet to its lower circumference4 ,the layers of the wall are hardest externally1 becoming softer as they approach the inner surface--a condition due to the outer layers being exposed to friction and evaporation4 ,this is a simple and valuable provision of nature which should not be interfered with4 ,the hard outer layer is best adapted to withstand wear1 and its density protects the deeper layers from evaporation4 ,this maintains the whole wall at the degree of softness and toughness which best preserves elasticity and strength of horn4 ,the ,sole is that division of the hoof which forms the floor of the foot4 ,it is situated within the lower border of the wall1 and is slightly arched so that on a hard level surface its central part takes no bearing4 7,fig4 #e74 ,posteriorly the sole is divided by a triangular space into which the frog fits1 and thus its continuation to the heels consists of two angular portions embraced between the bars and the wall4 ,the unmutilated sole is throughout of nearly equal thickness1 but a slight excess round the circumference gives firmer attachment to the wall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,the ,sole with ,frog removed4 ,the inner surface presents a finely pitted appearance which is most marked at the toe and round its border4 ,the part immediately related to the frog shows few pits1 and we shall find that the whole surface corresponds to the sensitive parts to which it is attached4 ,the structure of the sole is1 like the wall1 fibrous2 but the fibres are smaller4 ,they run downwards and forwards in the same direction as those of the wall4 ,the outer layers are the hardest and protect the deeper from injury4 ,the ,frog is the smallest division of the hoof1 and is a triangular shaped body filling up the space left between the bars4 7,fig4 #f74 ,its broad base is rounded and prominent1 and is continued laterally by a thin layer which binds together the heels and envelopes the back of the foot4 ,this thin layer is continuous with a horny band extending round the upper part of the wall at its junction with the hair1 and sometimes prolonged downwards on the surface of the wall4 7,fig4 #g74 ,it appears to be a continuation of the outer layer of the skin1 analogous to the free border of skin at the root of the human nail4 7,fig #h74 ,it serves the useful purpose of covering and protecting the young horn of the wall at its source of growth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,the ,frog1 detached from the ,sole4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,the ,frog and frog-band4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--,the frog band detached from wall by a small wedge4 ,the point of the frog1 much the harder part1 extends forward to the centre of the sole4 ,though situated between the bars the frog is only attached to their upper border--the sides remaining free and separate4 ,thus on each side is formed a deep fissure which permits the frog to expand laterally when compressed1 without such force being continued to the sides of the foot4 ,the frog is elastic1 and when pressed upon must expand slightly4 ,if these spaces between frog and bars did not exist1 the foot would be injured when the frog was compressed by the weight of the horse--either the sensitive parts within would be bruised or the heels would be forced apart4 ,the centre of the frog presents a depression or cleft caused by the doubling in of the horn4 ,few shod feet exhibit it of natural appearance1 and the term cleft1 by implying a narrow deep fissure1 keeps up the false notion4 ,the cleft should be shallow and rounded4 ,it serves two purposes--it increases the mobility of the frog1 and by breaking the regularity of surface affords a secure foot-hold on level ground4 ,the prominence of the frog might lead a superficial observer to consider it a thick solid mass2 and ,i believe this mistake is the cause of its too frequent mutilation4 ,it is merely a layer of horn following the outline of the structures within1 which are similarly prominent and irregular in surface4 7,figs4 #i and #aj74 ,the diagrams show a section through the point and through the cleft of the frog4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,section of ,foot at cleft4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,section at point4 ,the frog is fibrous1 though not to such a marked degree as the other portions of the hoof4 ,its chief qualities are elasticity and toughness4 ,,the ,,secreting ,,structures4 ,if we macerate a dead foot in water for a week or two1 the hoof may be removed entire without injuring the tissues within4 ,in this way the sensitive foot or quick is exposed to view1 and presents an exact counterpart of the inside of the hoof4 ,the sensitive foot consists of a layer of fibrous tissue stretched over the bones and other structures which form the centre of the foot4 ,it is plentifully supplied with blood-vessels and nerves necessary to its double function as the source of horn growth and as the tactile organ of the foot4 ,horn is1 of course1 not sensitive1 although the slightest touch on a horse's hoof is recognised by the animal1 and this feeling is due to the impression made upon the sensitive foot4 ,in the living horse any injury to the quick causes the greatest pain1 and although this sensitiveness is a serious disadvantage in disease it is a most valuable provision in health1 enabling the horse1 even through a thick layer of horn1 to recognise the quality of the surface upon which he may be standing or moving4 ,it is this sense of touch--this tactile function--which demands that the sensitive foot should be so bountifully supplied with nerves4 ,every farrier knows how profusely blood flows from any wound of the quick--evidence that the part is well supplied with blood-vessels4 ,this full supply of blood is not merely for the ordinary waste and repair which takes place in every tissue2 it is to meet a special demand--to supply the material for the production of horn4 ,the sensitive foot is the secreting structure of the hoof1 and the source of the constant growth and reproduction of horn4 ,it corresponds with great exactness to the inside of the hoof1 and as we have described the hoof in sections it may be convenient to follow that course with this structure1 and to describe the sensitive frog1 the sensitive sole1 and the sensitive lamin4 ,we shall begin with the last4 ,the ,sensitive ,lamin4 ,corresponding to the horny leaves on the inside of the wall1 the sensitive foot presents an arrangement of minute parallel folds which are called the sensitive lamin4 7,fig4 #aa74 ,between these the horny lamin rest1 so that there is a kind of interleaved attachment which affords the very firmest connection between the wall and the sensitive foot4 ,if the lamin be laid bare in a living horse by removal of the wall1 it is found that they have the power to secrete a kind of horn1 not a hard fibrous horn like that of the wall1 but a softer variety4 ,this function is not very active in health or we should find that the lower edge of the wall was thicker than the upper2 but it exists1 and is very evident in some cases of disease4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,foot with hoof removed showing at the upper part the ,coronary band1 and below the ,sensitive ,lamin4 ,in laminitis the wall at the toe is often pushed forward out of position by a horny mass formed by the lamin1 and so we have the deformity of an excessive length of toe4 ,in some cases of long continued sandcrack the irritation of the lamin causes excessive secretion1 and a horn tumour results4 ,the sensitive lamin1 then1 fulfil two functions2 they offer a firm connecting medium for the wall1 and they secrete horn4 ,by the cruel experiment of removing the horny sole and frog of a living horse and then forcing him to stand on the maimed foot on a level surface1 it has been shown that the lamin are capable of alone supporting the weight of the animal4 ,it has been argued from this that the lamin always support the weight1 and that the horse's foot may be described as being slung by the connecting lamin4 ,this is not true4 ,the frog and sole help to support weight1 and the hoof acts as one continuous whole1 each part taking its direct and proportionate share of the weight placed upon the foot4 ,the sensitive lamin are not elastic1 they are unyielding1 and1 therefore1 allow no downward yielding which would impose excessive pressure on the sole4 ,the ,coronary ,band4 7,see ,fig4 #aa74 ,the sensitive lamin do not cover the whole of the upright portions of the sensitive foot4 ,there is between their upper extremity and the line which separates the skin from the sensitive foot1 a convex band which runs round the upper border of the foot1 and is turned downwards and inwards at the heels4 ,this is called the coronary band1 and corresponds to the groove which we noticed on the inner side of the upper border of the wall4 ,on its surface are innumerable small projections or papill which1 in the living animal1 fit into the openings on the groove of the wall4 ,from each of these papill grows a horn fibre1 and from the surface between them is formed a softer horny matter--the two products forming together the substance of the wall4 ,the coronary band is1 then1 an important structure1 being the source from whence the wall is produced4 ,upon the healthy condition of this band depends the soundness of the wall1 and any interference with its integrity must lead to defects or deformities in the wall4 ,the ,sensitive ,sole 7,fig4 #ab7 is that portion of the quick to which the sole is attached4 ,its surface is covered with papill1 like those on the coronary band but much smaller1 giving an appearance somewhat like the pile of velvet4 ,from these the horn fibres of the sole are formed1 and a firm means of connection is afforded for the floor of the hoof4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,under ,surface of ,foot showing ,sensitive ,frog and ,sole4 ,the ,sensitive ,frog in structure resembles the sensitive sole1 but its papill are very much smaller1 and the surface therefore is smoother4 ,the irregular prominent surface of the frog1 with its cleft and the space at each side of it1 is exactly reproduced on the sensitive frog1 as might be expected1 for the one is moulded on the other4 ,there is one difference between the sensitive frog and the other portions of the sensitive foot which ,i may here mention4 ,it is not attached to the bones of the foot except by its point1 but is situated behind the bone1 and has as a basis a mass of soft tissue which forms an important cushion or pad1 to be referred to later4 ,,growth ,,of ,,hoof4 ,like every other part of an animal body1 the hoof is constantly changing4 ,wear and tear cause waste of the horn1 which is replenished by growth4 ,when wear exceeds growth the foot becomes denuded of horn1 and lameness results4 ,when growth exceeds wear the hoof becomes disproportionately long1 and some parts suffer by the overgrowth of others--for instance1 whenever the heels are unduly high the frog becomes small and weak4 ,in a state of nature the horse's foot keeps itself of proportionate form4 ,on hard ground the hoof is worn away as quickly as it grows4 ,on soft ground it may1 for a time1 become overgrown1 but this is rectified by the soft horn becoming fractured and broken off4 ,in enclosed cultivated grounds the movements of the horse1 even on grass land1 are too limited to ensure a proportionate form of hoof4 ,when horses are turned out without shoes the feet should not be left to take care of themselves1 unless the pasture is of large area and the time at grass extends for several months4 ,in a hoof which is overgrown--and all shod feet become overgrown in four or five weeks--there is apparently a greater excess of horn at the toe than elsewhere4 ,this is due to the oblique direction of the wall at the toe1 and to the fact that the horn fibres of the hoof do not grow down vertically1 but obliquely forward4 ,when the natural wear of the hoof is prevented1 the effect of growth is to lengthen the toe and carry forward the bearing surface of the foot4 ,now this bearing surface has a proper relative position to the limb above it4 ,therefore a disproportionate foot must injuriously affect both the action and position of the whole limb4 ,the rate at which the wall grows varies greatly in different horses1 and is affected by external conditions4 ,the good average wall grows nearly one inch in three months1 and the whole hoof is replaced in from ten to fifteen months4 ,the hoof grows more rapidly when a horse is actively exercised than when he is confined in a box4 ,febrile diseases check growth1 and irregularities of the system cause the formation of ridges in the horn1 each one commencing at the coronet and being carried down with the growing horn until the hoof is marked by a series of rings running transversely and parallel to each other4 ,these rings are of themselves no detriment to a horse1 but they mark irregularities of growth which may have been due to illness or lameness4 ,the growth of horn on a shod foot is affected by the bearing it takes4 ,when a part of the wall takes no bearing on the shoe it grows quicker than that which does4 ,we see this when a shoe is so fitted that the heels take no direct pressure on the shoe1 also when a portion of wall is broken at the quarters1 and again when1 for any reason1 a portion of the edge of the wall has been rasped away to prevent bearing upon some special spot4 ,in all these cases1 after the shoe has been worn a month1 it will be found that the horn has grown more rapidly at the part where bearing did not take place1 and1 when the shoe is removed1 the horn which was relieved of pressure is found to have been in apposition with the shoe4 ,the growth of horn cannot be accelerated by any application to its surface4 ,if we desire to hasten growth of the wall we can do so by stimulating the part from which it is produced1 i4e41 the coronary band4 ,a mild blister to the coronet causes considerable increase in the rapidity of growth1 but no ointments applied to the surface of the wall affect its production in the least1 though they may modify its condition and prevent dryness and brittleness4 ,the sole grows in much the same way as the wall1 but it wears quite differently4 ,it never becomes overgrown to the extent seen in some instances of the wall4 ,the hard firm structure of the wall1 if not worn down by friction on roads or dry hard surfaces1 may grow to a great length4 ,as a rule1 when much overgrown1 it splits in the direction of its fibres and becomes detached in broken fragments4 ,the sole1 when overgrown1 has a tendency to become detached in flakes1 and never very much exceeds its normal thickness without becoming dry and brittle1 when the movements of the horse cause it to break up and fall off4 ,the frog when it takes a bearing on the ground wears off in shreds4 ,a frog which takes no bearing dries up1 and sometimes a large superficial layer is cast off4 ,though the softest of the horny divisions of the hoof1 the frog is able to withstand wear and tear as well as any of the others4 ,being elastic and resting upon soft tissues1 it is able to yield to any undue pressure and leave the firmer horn of the wall and bars to sustain the greater strain4 ,the growth of the frog depends a great deal upon the form of the back parts of the wall4 ,if the heels become overgrown1 the frog is removed from bearing and consequently wastes4 ,high heels have always between them a small frog4 ,on the other hand low weak heels have always a large frog1 and the explanation is that the increased bearing thrown on the frog causes greater development4 ,properties of ,horn4 ,horn is light1 hard1 tough1 and elastic1 properties most essential to its usefulness as a protector of the foot4 ,horn is porous1 and absorbs moisture4 ,too much moisture in horn weakens it1 and therefore it must be remembered that the natural protection against this is the hard outer layer of the hoof4 ,when this layer is rasped off moisture is more easily absorbed until the dry1 hard surface is restored by exposure and friction4 ,horn is a bad conductor of heat1 and thus an equally good protective against the effects of snow in some countries1 and of hot dry sands in others4 ,with a sound thick hoof the application of a red-hot shoe produces very little effect on the internal structures1 provided1 of course1 it remain in contact only a reasonable time4 ,with a foot protected by a thin layer of horn1 fitting a red-hot shoe must be done quickly or it may damage the soft tissues4 ,,dissection ,,of ,,the ,,foot4 ,so far we have only described the outer covering of the foot and the structure from which it grows and by which it is connected to the parts within4 ,a little deeper examination is necessary to understand the mechanism of the whole organ4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,section of ,foot4 ,if we divide into two lateral halves a foot cut off at the fetlock joint1 we have a section which should show the whole of the deeper structures4 ,in the centre we see the three lower bones of the limb--the pastern1 coronet1 and pedal4 7,fig4 #aa74 ,on the front surface of these bones we notice a tendon or sinew which comes from above the knee and is fixed to the upper part of the pedal bone4 ,at the back of the bones two very large tendons run down and are fixed on the last two bones4 ,these tendons are the structures through which the movements of the foot are made4 ,they have in themselves no power of contraction but they are connected above the knee1 and in the hind leg above the hock1 to powerful muscles which possess the power of contraction4 ,when these muscles contract the tendons are drawn up towards knee or hock1 and so move the foot backwards or forwards4 ,to permit movement of one bone upon another the ends of the bones are suitably shaped1 and covered with a layer of gristle or cartilage4 ,to limit the movement and to hold the bones together the ends of each bone are surrounded by ligaments1 and thus we have joints formed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,side view of ,pedal ,bone4 ,the pastern bone is altogether above the level of the foot1 the coronet bone is partially within the hoof1 and the joint between it and the pedal bone is quite within4 ,the pedal1 often called the coffin bone1 7,fig4 #ab7 is entirely within the hoof and fills the front part of the horny envelope completely4 ,it is a peculiarly shaped bone1 being continued backwards by two projections which follow the course of the wall to a little beyond the quarters of the foot4 7,fig4 #ac74 ,from this point to the extremity of the heels the wall is not supported by bone but by strong plates of gristle1 which are called the lateral cartilages4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,under surface of ,pedal ,bone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,the ,lateral ,cartilage4 ,the ,lateral ,cartilages are situated one on either side of the foot partly within and partly without the hoof4 ,they form the basis upon which the back part of the wall is moulded1 and being elastic permit a certain amount of movement in the posterior parts of the foot4 7,fig4 #ad74 ,if the coffin bone filled the whole hoof1 the foot would be too rigid4 ,with bone at the front portion we have a firm surface for attachment1 and with cartilage at the back we have an equally firm attachment1 but one that will yield to blows or pressure and thus better protect the internal parts4 ,these cartilages extend above the level of the hoof1 and may be easily felt in the living horse at the back part of the coronet4 7,fig4 #ae74 ,between them1 and behind the body of the coffin bone is a large space which is filled up by a mass of soft tissue to which various names have been given1 such as plantar-cushion1 frog-pad1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,coffin ,bone and ,lateral ,cartilages seen from above4 ,the ,frog-,pad is the name under which we shall notice it4 ,it forms the bulbs of the heels and is the soft basis upon which is spread the sensitive frog4 ,it extends from side to side of the foot between the two lateral cartilages1 and fills up all the space within the hoof behind the body of the coffin bone4 ,the structure of this pad may be described roughly as consisting of a network of fibrous bands1 having the interstices filled up with elastic tissue4 7,fig4 #af74 ,down the centre of the pad runs a vertical partition of inelastic fibres2 from this strong fibrous bands pass to each cartilage1 and so the whole of the back part of the foot is tied together4 ,the heels and quarters may be pressed together to some extent1 but they are prevented from being forced asunder by the fibrous connections of the frog-pad4 ,during progression the downward movement of the coronet bone is provided for by this soft pad1 and so is an upward movement of the frog when excessive bearing is placed upon it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,section of foot showing the frog-pad and at each side the cut edge of the lateral cartilage4 ,the frog-pad serves other purposes besides those we have just referred to4 ,it is essentially a cushion or pad to prevent jar or concussion1 but it also plays an important part in the action of the foot1 as we shall see later on4 ,the ,coronary ,cushion or ,pad is another mass of tissue of a similar nature to the frog-pad4 ,it is situated just above the upper border of the hoof1 and gives to the coronet its prominence and elasticity4 ,at this part of the foot there is an enormous number of small blood-vessels and nerves1 and the coronary pad forms not only a base for these to rest on but a necessary protection for them4 ,if instead of this elastic bed they were placed merely between the skin and the hard bones and tendons of the part1 they would be injured by every slight bruise4 ,even with this cushion1 we have in practice very many serious conditions following bruise of the coronet4 ,blood-vessels of the ,foot4 ,it is not necessary to describe the course of these vessels4 ,all we need remember is that every part of the tissues within the hoof is very plentifully supplied with blood1 and that the flow of blood is most rapid when the foot is in action4 ,in a dead foot from which the blood has escaped a certain amount of movement of the bones within the hoof is easily effected4 ,in the living foot when every vessel is filled with blood no such movement takes place4 ,the blood in the vessels forms a sort of waterbed which assists in preventing concussion and which distributes evenly over the whole organ the pressure applied when weight is thrown on the foot4 ,in studying the dead foot with a view to understand its mechanism we must not lose sight of the difference which results from having in one case the blood-vessels empty1 and in the other--the living animal--the blood-vessels full4 ,,the ,,foot ,,as ,a ,,whole4 ,the details ,i have given of the structure and uses of each separate part of the foot will1 ,i hope1 be sufficient to enable us to understand the form and action of the organ as a whole4 ,no one part of the foot is of greater importance than another1 each is dependent for its highest development and soundest condition upon the integrity of neighbouring parts4 ,a weak wall allows of the flattening and spreading of the sole1 whilst a weak sole permits contraction of the wall4 ,overgrown heels cause wasting of the frog1 but low weak heels are usually accompanied by excessive development of frog4 ,the special function of the foot is to sustain the weight of the animal whilst standing or moving4 ,the horse standing squarely on all four feet rests his weight chiefly on the lower circumference of the wall4 ,on level ground the sole1 on account of its arched form1 takes no direct bearing1 but if sole and wall be sound a proportion of all pressure applied to the wall is transmitted to the sole4 ,so also must all weight imposed on the arch of the sole be transmitted1 through its abutments or union with the wall1 to the wall4 ,if the sole be so thin that it yields to pressure then its proper action is destroyed1 and instead of acting like an arch and supporting weight imposed on it1 it yields and injury results4 ,the arched form of the sole indicates that it was not intended to take a direct bearing on hard ground4 ,on a soft surface the edge of the wall sinks and the whole under surface of the foot takes a direct bearing4 ,pressure of the sole on the soft surface does no harm because it is diffused evenly over the whole of the sole4 ,we take advantage of this when the wall is diseased or injured1 and we desire to throw on the sole a larger share of weight4 ,we turn such animals out into a soft field or stable them on sand or saw-dust4 ,any system of shoeing founded upon the true form and action of the foot must recognise the arch1 and not endeavour to force the sole to take a bearing for which it is not adapted4 ,there is only one part of the sole which should act as a bearing surface1 viz41 that outer border which is firmly joined to the wall4 ,this part--the abutment of the arch--is destined by nature to take a bearing and through it the whole of the sole supports its share of weight4 ,the frog takes a bearing on the ground but it has a weight sustaining function quite secondary to the harder and firmer parts of the hoof4 ,it is formed of a softer horn1 and it has above it only soft tissues which permit yielding4 ,the frog then1 when weight is placed upon it by the standing horse1 recedes from pressure1 and leaves the heels 7wall and bars7 to sustain the primary weight4 ,wall1 sole1 and frog1 each take their share in supporting weight1 but this function is distributed over them in different degrees1 and it is fulfilled by each in a varying manner4 ,during progression the foot is repeatedly raised from and replaced on the ground4 ,it has not only to support weight but to sustain the effects of contact with the ground at each step1 and the effects of being the point of resistance when the body is carried forward and the foot is again raised from the ground4 ,what part of the foot comes first to the ground8 ,many different answers have been given to this question4 ,it has been said by some that the toe first touches the ground1 by others that the foot is laid flat down1 and by a few that the heel is the first part to come in contact with the ground4 ,fortunately it is not now necessary to argue this question on a purely theoretical basis4 ,instantaneous photography has shown that on level ground1 at all paces1 the horse touches the ground first with the heel4 ,this fact gives significance to the structural differences we find between the front and back portions of the foot4 ,at the back part of the foot we have the wall thinner than elsewhere1 we have the moveable and elastic frog1 the lateral cartilages1 and the frog-pad4 ,we have in fact a whole series of soft and elastic structures so arranged as to provide a mechanism best adapted to meet shock and to avoid concussion4 ,whilst drawing heavy loads1 or ascending or descending hills1 the horse may vary his action to suit the circumstances1 and then we have the exception which proves the rule--then we have sometimes the heel1 sometimes the toe brought first to the ground4 ,at the time when the foot first touches the ground1 the leg is extended forward and the pastern is in the same oblique position to the shank as when a horse is standing4 ,this obliquity of the pastern is another safeguard against concussion1 and it renders impossible the first contact with the ground at any point other than at the heel4 ,as the leg becomes straightened1 the weight of the body is imposed upon the foot1 but the greatest strain arrives just before the toe leaves the ground1 for then there is not only weight to sustain1 but the friction to be borne which results from the toe being the fulcrum upon which falls the whole effect of the muscular effort necessary to raise and carry forward the body of the animal4 ,the front part of the foot is structurally well adapted for its use4 ,it presents the thickest and strongest part of the horny covering1 and1 as an inside basis1 it has the unyielding coffin bone4 ,thus we have at the toe strength and rigidity--at the heels strength and elasticity4 ,another important point in the action of the foot is implied by the question--does it expand when weight is thrown on it8 ,the principles of horse-shoeing require that this question should be answered4 ,there are those who say that the foot does not alternately expand and retract as weight is placed upon or removed from it4 ,there are others who assert that the expansion of the foot is an important natural function that must be provided for in any system of shoeing4 ,it is agreed by most observers that at the upper border of the hoof1 more particularly at the heels1 expansion does occur4 ,it is when we come to the lower border of the foot that the statements are most conflicting4 ,ordinary measurements taken at this part with calipers or by tracings on paper of the foot when raised from the ground and when resting upon it1 show no variations in the width of the foot4 ,these methods of measurement are not sufficiently delicate to be trustworthy4 ,experimentalists in ,germany and in this country have recently used an apparatus by which the slightest variations are detected by electrical contact1 and the results are very interesting4 ,these experiments show that in a well-formed1 healthy foot the hoof throughout its posterior two-thirds does expand to pressure1 and perhaps that the arch of the sole is slightly flattened4 ,this expansion is1 however1 comparatively slight--about equal to the thickness of a sheet of writing paper--and may practically be disregarded in considering the best methods of shoeing sound feet4 ,one result of these experiments is to show what an important part the frog plays in the foot1 and also how the action of one part depends upon the conditions of others4 ,when the frog rests firmly on the ground and weight is placed upon the foot expansion occurs1 especially at the upper or coronary border of the hoof4 ,when the frog does not touch the ground and weight is imposed upon the foot1 contraction occurs4 ,the explanation of this difference seems to be as follows4 ,when weight is placed upon a foot1 the coronet bone is depressed upon the soft mass of the frog-pad4 ,with a sound frog taking a bearing upon the ground1 the frog-pad cannot descend1 and the compression to which it is therefore submitted causes it to bulge laterally and so expand the back of the foot4 ,when the frog does not reach the ground and weight is placed upon the frog-pad1 there is nothing to prevent it yielding downwards1 and in so doing the fibrous bands connecting together the two lateral cartilages of the foot are depressed and the cartilages drawn together--hence the contraction of the foot4 ,no better illustration could be given of the unity of all parts of the foot1 and how one or many parts may suffer if the structure or function of one be defective4 ,there is one more movement of the hoof which is possible and which must be referred to1 as it has been made the basis of a grave error in shoeing4 ,i have said the back part of the foot is elastic and yielding4 ,if you examine a shoe1 so applied to a foot that an inch or more of its extremity has no contact with the hoof1 you will find that when weight is rested on that foot the horn yields downwards and comes in contact with the shoe4 ,this simply demonstrates that when there is nothing to support it the horn at the heels may be forced downwards4 ,it is not a normal action1 and in an unshod foot cannot occur on a level surface4 ,the effect of this downward movement of the heels is to put a strain on the horn of the quarters4 ,a shoe so fitted as to permit this evil is in common use1 and no fault is more serious than thus forcing an unnatural action upon the hoof at every step4 ,with unintentional irony this piece of bad work has been called easing the heels4 ,in concluding this chapter1 ,i would just repeat that the natural bearing surface of the horse's foot is the lower edge of the wall and that portion of the sole immediately in union with it2 that the arch of the sole should not be in contact with the ground2 that the frog ought to have a bearing on the ground1 but ought not to be so prominent as to unduly share in sustaining weight4 ,this natural bearing surface is what we want to utilize in shoeing4 ,we put on a shoe merely to prevent excessive wear of the hoof4 ,if we can protect the wall the frog can take care of itself1 and we have only so to apply our shoe that we do not damage any useful structure or interfere with any natural function4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note4--,no person is expected to learn the structure of a foot entirely from this description4 ,he must obtain two feet cut off at the fetlock joint4 ,one he should soak in water till the hoof can be pulled off4 ,the sensitive foot is then visible and the inside of the hoof2 with these before him1 the drawings and descriptions in this chapter will be of great assistance4 ,the second foot he should have sawn vertically down the middle through the point of the toe1 and again across the quarters1 so as to show the inside of the foot from two different points of view2 this will afford a view of the relation of parts4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,foot4 ,the cheap wisdom of the amateur is often expressed in the remark the shoe should be fitted to the foot1 not the foot to the shoe4 ,like many other dogmatic statements this is only the unqualified assertion of half a truth4 ,foot and shoe have to be fitted to each other4 ,there are very few horses whose feet do not require considerable alteration before a shoe can be properly fitted to them4 ,as a rule1 when a horse arrives at the forge1 the feet are overgrown and quite out of proportion4 ,in a few cases--as when a shoe has been lost on a journey--the foot is worn or broken and irregularly deficient in horn4 ,in either instance the farrier has to make alterations in the hoof to obtain the best bearing surface before he fits a new shoe4 ,the claim often made for some novel inventions in horse shoes1 that they may be fitted and applied in the stable by a groom or stableman is evidence of a sad misunderstanding of the art of horse-shoeing4 ,if shod feet always remained of the same shape replacement of shoes would be a very easy matter--but they never do4 ,the living foot is constantly changing1 and therefore the man entrusted with fitting shoes to it1 must know what its proper form should be4 ,when he finds it disproportionately overgrown he must know how much horn to remove--where to take away and where to leave alone4 ,he must not carry in his head a theoretical standard of a perfect foot and attempt to reduce all feet to that shape4 ,he must make allowance for varieties of feet1 and for many little differences of form that present themselves in practice4 ,he has1 in fact1 to prepare the foot for a shoe1 and it is just as important to do this properly as it is to prepare a shoe for the foot4 ,to fit a shoe to a foot which has not been properly prepared may be even more injurious to the horse than to fit the foot to the shoe4 ,the general principle to be followed is--to remove superfluous horn1 to obtain a good bearing surface for a shoe1 to bring all parts of the hoof equally into proportion4 ,a good foot so prepared1 when the horse is standing on level ground should show1 when looked at from the front1 both sides of the wall of equal height2 the transverse line of the coronet should be parallel with the line of the lower border of the hoof1 and the perpendicular line of the leg should cut those lines at right angles4 7,fig4 #ag74 ,when looked at from the side the height of the heels and the toe should be proportionate4 ,when looked at from behind the frog should be seen touching the ground4 ,on lifting the foot a level bearing surface wider than the wall should be presented1 extending from heel to toe all round the circumference of the hoof2 within this level border1 the sole should be concave1 strong1 and rough4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,in ,fig4 #ag is shown the foot on its ground surface and from the side4 ,the parallel lines are quite arbitrary1 but assist in explaining how the proportion of the foot is to be attained4 ,both sides of the foot are of the same height4 ,the bearing surface just meets the middle line4 ,all the lines at coronet1 heel1 and toe1 are at right angles to the perpendicular line4 ,the side view shows the proportionate height of heel and toe1 and the slope of the wall in front4 ,compared with ,figs4 #bb and #bc deviations from proportion are seen4 ,these conditions are not attainable with all feet1 but the prudent farrier does the best he can under the circumstances4 ,it is easy to make the frog touch the ground by over-lowering the heels1 but this is only introducing one evil in attempting to avoid another4 ,some feet have naturally a long toe with an excessive slope of the front part of the wall4 ,to hide this defect a farrier may stump up the toe and leave the heels too high1 but he does so at the expense of the horse's foot4 ,each foot requires treating with full knowledge of the form best adapted to its natural formation1 and most capable of carrying a shoe4 ,the ,instruments used to prepare a foot for shoeing are a rasp1 a drawing knife1 and a toeing knife4 ,the rasp is the most indispensable4 ,it should be sixteen inches long1 proportionately broad1 and one part of it should be a file-surface4 ,the shorter1 narrow rasps do not afford all the advantages a farrier should possess to enable him to do the best work4 ,to strike an even all-round level bearing surface on a hoof a farrier requires a large rasp1 just as a joiner must have a large plane to produce a level surface on wood4 ,harm may be done by the careless use of a rasp1 and a bearing-surface spoiled by the over-reduction of horn at one place4 ,this fault may be aggravated by attempts to mend it1 if such attempt take the form of further reduction of the whole hoof on a foot where horn is deficient4 ,the drawing knife is a comparatively modern instrument which replaced a tool called the buttress4 ,a drawing knife is formed with great skill for the purpose of paring out the concave sole of the hoof1 and has done infinite harm4 ,in the days which have now almost passed away1 when it was thought the proper thing to make the hoof look clean1 smooth1 and pretty1 the drawing knife was the chief instrument in the preparation of the foot4 ,now1 when nearly all men know that the stronger the sole and frog of the foot can be preserved the better for the horse1 this knife is less used--and the less the better4 ,the doorman1 preparing a foot for the fireman to fit a shoe to1 should not use a knife at all4 ,the man who fits the shoe requires a knife to remove occasional little prominences of horn which are liable to cause uneven pressures or which are in the way of a properly fitted shoe--as1 for instance1 the edge of the wall to make way for a clip1 or the angle of sole at the heel to prevent uneven pressure by the shoe4 ,the toeing knife usually consists of about a foot of an old sword-blade4 ,this knife is held and guided by one hand of the farrier1 whilst with the other it is driven through overgrown horn by the hammer4 ,skilfully used it is unobjectionable1 and for the large strong hoof of heavy draught horses it saves a great deal of time and labour4 ,for the lighter class of horses it is unnecessary1 and for weak feet with a thin horn covering it is dangerous4 ,the toeing knife cannot leave a finished level bearing surface1 and its work has to be completed by a few strokes of the rasp4 ,a farrier should1 therefore1 never attempt to remove all the superfluous horn with the knife1 he should leave some for the rasp so that in producing the final level surface no encroachment upon the necessary thickness of covering horn need be made4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,the overgrown foot such as we find on a healthy horse that has retained a set of shoes for some weeks1 or that has been without shoes on a surface not hard enough to cause sufficient wear1 is quite unfitted to receive a shoe4 ,it must be reduced to proportions4 ,in ,fig4 #ah1 ,i have attempted to show diagrammatically a side view of an overgrown hoof4 ,the dotted lines at the base show two effects of lowering one part more than another1 although both attain a level surface4 ,in ,fig4 #ba we see the result of over-lowering the heels1 and in ,fig4 #bj of leaving them too high4 ,it may also be noticed that these conditions affect other parts of the foot2 in fact not only other parts but the whole foot1 and even the relative position of the foot to the leg4 ,if we compare the proportionate foot1 ,fig4 #ai1 with the diagram ,fig4 #ba1 it will be seen that by over-lowering the heels the slope of the front of the foot is increased1 that the bearing surface from heel to toe is slightly increased in length1 and that if the dotted perpendicular line be accepted as showing the direction through which the weight of the body passes1 lowering the heels tends to put an increased proportion of weight on the back parts of the foot4 ,if we compare ,fig4 #ai with ,fig4 #bj we see the effect of leaving the heels too high4 ,the bearing surface from heel to toe is shortened1 the slope of the wall at the toe is made less1 and more weight is thrown upon the front parts of the foot4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;,a proportionate hoof4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,a disproportionate hoof--heels too high4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--;,a disproportionate hoof--heels too low4 ,now these alterations in both cases affect not only the form of the foot but its relative position to the leg1 and as the bones of the limb above are a series of levers connected by muscles and ligaments so placed as to be most efficient for movement1 it is evident that alterations of the foot must affect the action of the limb4 7,compare ,figs4 #ai1 #bj and #ba7 ,in the unshod horse roaming about there is a natural automatic return to proper relative position whenever it has been temporarily upset4 ,a long toe is worn down and high heels are reduced to their proper level by friction4 ,not so a foot protected by an iron shoe4 ,wear is stopped1 and a disproportionate hoof becomes more and more disproportionate4 ,temporary alterations of the position of the foot do little harm because they are permitted1 within a margin1 by the movement of joints and by the elasticity of muscles4 ,when1 however1 an alteration of position is continued for many weeks it tends to become permanently fixed and may thus do a great deal of harm1 which is not traced to its real cause because the effect is slow and gradual4 ,it is important1 therefore1 to remember that the proportion of the hoof is to be maintained not only because it is necessary to the well-being of the foot2 but because it affects the action of the whole limb4 ,too long a toe may cause a horse to stumble1 and it must always increase the strain on the back tendons during progression4 ,heels too high prevent the frog from taking its proper bearing on the ground1 and thus cause a loss of function in the back parts of the foot4 ,an excessively high heel has a tendency to throw the knee forward and to straighten the pastern4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--;,heels high--under surface and side view4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,heels low--toe long4 ,it is impossible to lay down any hard and fast rule to guide a farrier in maintaining the proportions of heel and toe when reducing an overgrown hoof to proper form4 ,feet differ much in their natural formation1 some are high-heeled and some low1 some are straight in front some very much sloped1 some are narrow and upright1 others round and spreading4 ,in ,fig4 #bb the heels are too high1 and the bearing surface does not reach the transverse line at the heels4 ,the side view shows the excessive height of heels and the slope of the wall in front too upright4 ,great assistance is afforded the farrier in judging whether he should remove more horn from heel or toe by the appearance of the under surface of the foot4 ,when the heels are much above the level of the frog there is an indication for their lowering4 ,when the wall and bars are about flush with the angle of sole between them1 there is1 as a rule1 no more horn to spare at that part4 ,the length of the toe may be usefully gauged by the condition of the junction between wall and sole4 ,when the sole is sound and strong all the wall above its level--wall unsupported by sole and showing on its inner aspect marks of the horny lamin--may be rasped down so that a firm bearing surface is obtained consisting of wall and sole4 ,in ,fig4 #bc the bearing surface at the heels is below the line marking a proportionate foot4 ,the toe is too long and projects beyond the transverse toe line4 ,the side view shows the low heel and the corresponding excess in the slope of the wall in front4 ,the lower transverse line in each figure does not represent the ground1 but is added to make clear the height of heels and length of toe4 ,important as it is to maintain the relative proportions between the front and back parts of the foot1 it is perhaps even more important to preserve the balance between the two sides of a foot4 ,both sides must be left of equal height4 ,if one side be higher than the other a disproportionate amount of weight is thrown on the lower side1 and more or less strain is put upon the ligaments of the joint above4 ,in the ,figs4 #bd one limb is shown with both sides of the hoof even1 and the straight line of the limb cuts squarely across the transverse line of the bearing surface of the foot4 ,in the the other limb one side of the hoof is too high1 and in the preparation for shoeing only that side will require attention4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,through constant neglect of this point some feet become more or less permanently twisted--and the twist occurs at the coronet4 ,the ground surface of a foot or a shoe always tends to remain at right angles to the direction of the limb1 and when the sides of a hoof are allowed to remain of unequal height1 the higher side presses the soft tissues of the coronet upwards4 ,as the hoof grows from the coronet the side thus increased in height is not so noticeably uneven at the lower border of the wall as at its upper1 and it cannot be restored to its proper form1 except by months of careful attention and slight over-lowering at each shoeing4 ,the diagrams 7,figs4 #be and #bf7 represent vertical sections through a foot from side to side4 ,one shows the wall uneven at the base1 the other shows it uneven at the coronet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--,uneven at ground surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--,uneven at coronet4 ,peculiarities in the formation of a limb sometimes cause an apparent error in the relative position of the foot4 ,thus we have horses that turn their toes in1 and those that turn their toes out4 ,the cause of this twist takes place at the upper part of the limb1 and it will be found that when the toes turn out the elbow turns in and vice vers4 ,the farrier can do no good to this formation1 and attempts to alter it or disguise it by devices in shoeing are only injurious to the foot1--little deceptions worthy of a horse-coper4 ,a good bearing surface is the primary object aimed at in preparing the foot for a shoe4 ,the relative position of the limb to the foot and the proper proportions of every part of the foot are matters to be borne in mind whilst the farrier is directly forming the bearing surface for a shoe4 ,a good bearing surface must be even1 level1 on sound horn1 and as wide as can be obtained to give stability to the shoe4 ,it should not be limited to the wall4 ,if1 without over-reduction1 the use of the rasp leaves a firm portion of the sole as a level surface continuous with the lower edge of the wall1 the best of bearing surfaces is obtained4 7,fig4 #bg74 ,the bearing surface should be level from heel to toe1 and no part of it can be singled out either as unfit to bear weight or as specially capable of enduring undue pressure4 ,no broken or diseased horn should be used as bearing surface for a shoe4 ,the broken horn should be removed and the diseased horn must1 if not entirely removed1 have so much of its border cut or rasped off as will prevent contact with a shoe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,after forming a level bearing surface with the rasp the sharp outer border of the wall is lightly removed with the file1 so as to prevent splitting of the horn4 ,the outer surface of the wall should not be rasped for it affords protection to the deeper layer of horn4 ,the harder the outer layer of horn is kept the tougher and firmer is the whole thickness4 ,the ,sole and ,frog require very little attention4 ,no sensible farrier now puts himself to the unnecessary trouble of cutting away horn that is wanted for protection4 ,it was not the practical farrier that introduced the stupid paring and cutting that ruined horses' feet for nearly a century4 ,it was the theorists1 who taught expansion of the wall and descent of the sole as primary necessities in the function of a foot1 who must be credited with all the evils resulting from robbing the sole and frog of horn4 ,when a horse is shod with an iron shoe the wall cannot wear1 and therefore it has to be artificially reduced at each shoeing4 ,but the shoe does not interfere with the wear of a frog1 and the farrier may safely leave that organ entirely to take care of itself4 ,to some extent the shoe does interfere with the natural wear of the sole1 and1 therefore1 any flakes of horn which have been prevented by the shoe from detaching themselves from the sole may be removed4 ,the best way to remove these is with the buffer4 ,the sole should not be pared out4 ,i mean not only that the horn should be left strong1 it should not be pared with a drawing knife1 even if only a harmless surface layer be removed4 ,the effect of leaving the sole of a shod foot with a smooth1 level1 pared surface is to stop its natural method of throwing off more or less broken flakes1 and to cause it to retain that which is half loose until it is removed in one great cake4 ,a portion of the sole that requires a little special care in preparing for shoeing is the angle between the wall and the bars--the well-known seat of corn4 ,this must not be left so as to come in contact with the shoe4 ,it is not to be scooped out1 but it should be reduced distinctly below the level of the wall so that when the shoe has been in position for a week or two there is still no contact between the horn of the soles and the iron at that point4 ,level or adjusted surface8 ,the bearing surface of a hoof must1 of course1 be exactly adapted to the surface of shoe intended to be applied4 ,presuming that the best surface for a shoe is one level from toe to heel1 ,i have insisted upon the necessity of a level bearing surface on the foot4 ,there are1 however1 exceptional cases in which a level shoe is not used1 and then we must alter the foot accordingly4 ,horses that wear the toe of a shoe out of all proportion to the rest of the iron may be beneficially shod with a shoe turned up at the toe4 ,to fit such a shoe the hoof surface must not be made level1 it must be rasped away at the toe and rounded off to follow the line of the shoe4 ,in the three diagrams 7,fig4 #bh7 is shown--7a7 side view of a foot prepared to suit the turned-up shoe at the toe1 7b7 a level line to fit a level shoe and1 7c7 a form often adopted on the ,continent to suit a shoe fitted with a slight curve throughout4 ,this adjusted shoe is designed to imitate the shape of the worn surface of an old shoe or to some extent the worn surface of an unshod foot4 ,every farrier knows how many horses go better after a level shoe has been worn a few days than when first applied1 and it is argued1 with reason1 that the greater ease is due to the shoe being worn to the form offering least resistance to the movement of the foot in locomotion4 ,i have nothing to say against this form of shoe and the necessary form of foot surface for it1 except that it is more difficult to make than the ordinary level one4 ,when adopted the curve of the foot should not be obtained by over-lowering the toe and heels but by leaving the quarters higher4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--,three forms of bearing-surface4 ,,faults ,,to ,,be ,,avoided4 ,fig4 #bi shows a hoof in which shortening of the toe has been effected not by reducing the ground surface of the wall1 but by rasping away the wall in front of the toe4 ,this should not be done with any good foot1 but it may be adopted with feet having an unnaturally long toe and no superfluous horn on the under surface4 ,a stumped-up toe is very ugly and it weakens the hoof in front4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--;,a stumped-up toe4 ,uneven bearing surfaces are easily produced by a careless use of the rasp4 ,one side of the wall may be made lower than the other1 one heel may be reduced more than the rest of the foot1 or one side of the toe may be unevenly reduced4 ,in ,fig4 #cj the foot presents an uneven surface which not uncommonly results from careless work4 ,the parts over-reduced are those most easily reached with a rasp4 ,the near foot suffers at the outside heel and inside toe4 ,the off foot at the inside heel and outside toe4 ,a left handed farrier would injure the feet in just the opposite positions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--,uneven surface4 ,another fault results from holding the rasp untruly4 ,if we suppose the inside heel of the near foot to be under preparation and the farrier inclines his rasp too much inwards1 he leaves the wall at the heel lower than the sole within it4 ,on such a foot a level shoe rests upon the sole instead of upon the wall1 and a bruised heel soon follows4 ,paring away the sole to produce a deep concave appearance has another evil effect in addition to that before pointed out4 ,it removes the horn just within the border of the wall1 taking away the natural support1 and leaving as bearing surface for a shoe a narrow ridge instead of a strong flat surface4 ,fig4 #ca shows this fault1 and it must be remembered that this ridge may be left as thin as a knife edge4 ,such a ridge cannot sustain the weight of the horse1 and when it yields the shoe also yields1 the clenches are raised and the shoe becomes loose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--;,a ,pared-out ,sole4 ,excessive rasping of ,wall4 ,the best farriers--those most proud of their work--have a great temptation to use a rasp too freely to the outer surface of the wall4 ,the hoof gets rough1 or it may be ridged1 its appearance is improved by being made smooth1 and it is only human to turn out work which is clean and neat4 ,owners and grooms are rather inclined to forget the claims of the horse when judging shoeing1 and the result is that some harm is done by excessive rasping4 ,a strong foot does not suffer much1 but its strength is preserved by leaving the hard outer surface intact4 ,rasping off an outer layer of horn favours evaporation and hardening of the underneath layer1 and the toughness so desirable is to some degree replaced by hardness and brittleness4 ,excessive rasping below the clenches is even more injurious than rasping above them4 ,the wall1 between its bearing surface and the clenches1 has to withstand the contact of the shoe1 and the perforation by nails4 ,it should be the toughest and strongest part1 and1 therefore1 should not be rasped more than is necessary to lay down the clenches and finish the fitting4 ,unfortunately the neatest work is done by fitting a shoe close and then rasping off any protruding horn4 ,this is bad for the foot1 as it weakens the wall and spoils the bearing surface at each shoeing4 ,the worst offenders in this direction are dealers1 who sacrifice everything to appearances and insist upon shoeing being neat at all hazards4 ,opening the ,heels is one of the gravest faults a farrier can be guilty of4 ,it consists in cutting away the extremity of the wall at the heel and generally a slice off the side of the frog at the same time4 ,the effect is to produce an appearance of width at the back of the foot--to make what is called a fine open foot4 ,fig4 #ca shows a foot which has been injured in this way4 ,the wedge shaped opening which results has many objections4 ,it breaks the continuity of structures at the heels1 it removes horn unnecessarily1 it weakens the foot and1 when the wall is interfered with1 it shortens the bearing surface for a shoe4 ,the bearing surface at the back of the foot is perhaps the most important of any afforded by the wall4 ,the longer the bearing surface is at the heels the more the base for sustaining weight is brought under the leg1 and the better the position for supporting the body4 ,all removal of horn that shortens this surface is injurious4 ,over-reduction of hoof is always a fault4 ,it is true a carefully fitted shoe on a foot so treated may do no harm for a time4 ,too much horn should be left rather than too little4 ,a strong covering of horn is a protection against many mistakes in the fitting or form of a shoe applied to a foot4 ,so long as a hoof is everywhere strong enough to sustain pressure and afford bearing1 weight is evenly distributed throughout the whole foot4 ,when the horn is thin it yields to any uneven pressure and damage is done to the foot1 even if immediate lameness is not induced4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,form ,,and ,,manufacture ,,of ,,shoes4 ,horse-shoes are made either by hand or machinery4 ,in this country most are hand-made--the front shoes from new bar-iron1 and the hind from old shoes welded together and drawn out under heavy hammers4 ,probably no method of working iron gives such good results as this in producing a hard1 tough shoe that will withstand wear4 ,the custom of the trade is to keep a stock of shoes suitable for all the regular customers4 ,from this stock are selected sizes and forms1 which are then specially fitted for each foot4 ,various materials have been tried in the production of horse-shoes4 ,leather1 compressed and hardened1 has been tried1 and failed4 ,vulcanite was experimented with unsuccessfully4 ,paper1 or more correctly1 a compressed papier mach1 has also been tested but proved unsatisfactory4 ,steel has been pretty largely tried in many different forms1 but it is difficult to temper4 ,as nearly all shoes are applied immediately after being fitted they have to be rapidly cooled in water1 and steel treated in this way is made so hard that1 if the shoes do not break1 they are dangerously slippery on most paved streets4 ,as a material for shoes good malleable iron has no equal4 ,it can be obtained in bars of various sizes to suit any form and weight of shoe1 and the old shoes made from it may be worked up over and over again4 ,the chief objects to be attained in any particular pattern or form of shoe are--that it be light1 easily and safely retained by few nails1 capable of wearing three weeks or a month1 and that it afford good foot-hold to the horse4 ,all shoes should be soundly worked and free from flaws4 ,the first shoes were doubtless applied solely to protect the foot from wear4 ,the simplest arrangement would then be either a thin plate of iron covering the ground surface of the foot1 or a narrow rim fixed merely round the lower border of the wall4 ,experience teaches that these primitive forms can be modified with advantage1 and that certain patterns are specially adapted to our artificial conditions4 ,a good workman requires no directions as to how he should work1 and it is doubtful if a bad one would be benefitted by any written rules1 but it should be noted that a well-made shoe may be bad for a horse's foot1 whilst a very rough1 badly-made one may1 when properly fitted1 be a useful article4 ,to make and apply horse-shoes a man must be more than a clever worker in iron--he must be a farrier1 and that necessitates a knowledge of the horse's foot and the form of shoe best adapted to its wants4 ,weight of ,shoes4 ,the lighter a shoe can be made the better4 ,weight is a disadvantage we are obliged to put up with to obtain wear1 for the frequent removal of shoes is only a little less injurious to the hoof than working with none at all4 ,it is not to be understood that the heaviest shoe gives the most wear2 on the contrary1 a heavy shoe may have the iron so distributed as to increase the rapidity of wear1 and a shoe of half the weight properly formed may last longer4 ,it is no uncommon thing to find worn-out shoes still weighing more than a new shoe which will1 on the same horse1 give a longer period of wear4 ,when a horse wears his shoes out very rapidly1 the indication to the farrier is not simply to increase the weight1 but to see if he can obtain more wear by altering the form and distributing the iron in a different way4 ,a tired horse wears his shoes much more rapidly than a fresh and active one4 ,continued slipping wears away a shoe out of all proportion to the work done by a horse having a firm foot-hold4 ,these two different conditions may be partially due to the shoes1 for a heavy shoe tires the leg1 and broad flat shoes favour slipping4 ,some horses wear one special part of the shoe excessively--as a rule1 either at the toe or the heel--and this is better met by turning up the worn part out of the line of wear than by thickening it and so increasing weight4 ,besides1 a heavy shoe requires a greater number or a larger size of nails to retain it securely in position1 and this is a disadvantage4 ,it has often been asserted that a horse goes better in a heavy shoe than a light one1 and that this is due to the heavier shoe acting as a protection to the foot and warding off concussion4 ,if the term goes better merely means that he lifts his foot higher and consequently bends his knee more1 ,i do not deny the assertion4 ,the reason of this is not that the horse feels less concussion and therefore goes freer4 ,it is an exaggeration of the natural movements1 due simply to the horse with weight imposed on his feet having to use the muscles of his arms more to lift that weight4 ,the same thing can be brought about by tying bags of shot on to the hoof1 which is done to cultivate action4 ,the healthy foot requires no artificial aids against concussion1 but when a foot becomes tender from bad shoeing it may sometimes be relieved by adding to the substance and weight of a shoe4 ,the following are about the average weights1 per shoe1 of horses standing #af hands high3 ,race ,horses #b to #d ounces4 ,hacks and ,hunters #ae to #ah ,carriage ,horses #bj to #cj ,omnibus #c to #c-a_/b lbs4 ,dray #d to #e ,thickness and ,width of ,shoes4 ,to obtain the necessary amount of wear from shoes they must be increased either in thickness or width1 and it will assist us in estimating the relative value of these conditions if we shortly consider their advantages and disadvantages4 ,i may say at once that no sound foot requires a wide shoe merely as cover or protection for the sole4 ,defective soles may sometimes require protection1 but sound ones never1 and we may therefore put aside entirely all claims made for width of shoe under pretence that it gives a valuable protection to the foot4 ,a shoe should be as wide as the natural bearing surface of the foot1 so that it may occupy the whole of the space offered by nature as useful for bearing4 ,even when it is wider no harm is done until the width is such as to afford a lodgement for stones1 etc41 between the concave sole and the web of the shoe4 ,a thick shoe raises the foot from the ground and thus removes the frog from bearing--a very decided disadvantage4 ,it also requires the larger sizes of nails to fill up the deep nail holes1 and very often renders the direction of the nail holes a matter of some difficulty4 ,the width of a shoe may beneficially vary4 ,it should be widest at the toe to afford increased surface of iron where wear is greatest4 ,it should be narrowest at the heels so as not to infringe upon the frog1 nor yet to protrude greatly beyond the level of the wall4 ,the thickness of a shoe should not vary unless1 perhaps1 it be reduced in the quarters4 ,heel and toe should be of the same thickness so as to preserve a level bearing4 ,excess of thickness at the toe puts a strain on the back tendons1 whilst excess at the heels tends to straighten the pastern4 ,the surfaces of ,shoes4 ,there are two surfaces of the shoe which claim attention1 one which is applied to the foot1 and another which rests on the ground4 ,the form of these surfaces may be varied greatly1 but of course the foot-surface presents much less necessity and less opportunity for alterations than the ground-surface4 ,the foot-surface of a shoe must be formed in accordance with the requirements of the horse's foot1 and no other consideration should be allowed to materially modify it4 ,the ground-surface may be altered to suit the tastes and prejudices of the owner as well as the requirements of the horse and the peculiarity of roadways4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--;,a level1 flat bearing-surface4 ,the ,foot-,surface4 ,it is quite obvious that the surface of the shoe upon which the hoof has to rest should be regular and even2 that it should not consist of hills and holes or grooves and ridges4 ,i should not have mentioned such a very evident matter but that in large towns1 the cheaper and poorer classes of shoeing commonly possess this very fault4 ,when shoes are made from thin1 wide1 old iron tyres they are buckled on one surface1 and to hide this the farrier puts that side to the foot so that it is not noticed until it causes damage4 ,there are three or four forms of foot-surface adopted by farriers1 all of which have distinctive features1 and some of which have very grave evils4 ,there is the plain flat surface which is given to all narrow shoes1 to hunting shoes1 and to some heavier and wider shoes4 ,so long as the sole is healthy and arched this is a very good form4 ,all hind shoes have a flat foot-surface1 and most fore shoes might have it with advantage4 ,it utilises the whole of the natural bearing surface1 and must of necessity afford a firmer basis for the foot to rest upon than a more limited surface4 ,the fore feet are not so constantly arched in the sole as the hind4 ,sometimes they are flat and occasionally convex4 ,if a shoe be intended for use on all feet--on feet with convex and flat soles as well as those properly formed--a wide flat foot surface would often cause injury by pressing unevenly upon the sole4 ,to avoid this injury in less than five per cent of feet1 and to save the trouble of keeping in stock shoes of different forms1 the flat foot-surface of front shoes has been replaced by a bevelled or seated surface4 7,fig4 #cc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--;,a seated bearing surface4 ,this form is very widely used4 ,it consists of a narrow flat surface next the outer circumference of the shoe1 about equal in width to the border of the wall1 and within that1 of a bevelled surface1 sloped off so as to avoid any pressure on a flat sole4 ,this seated surface is not positively injurious but it limits the bearing to the wall1 and neglects to utilise the additional bearing surface offered by the border of the sole4 ,if shoes were to be made all alike no shoe is so generally useful and safe as one with a foot-surface of this form1 but it is evident that when the sole of the foot is concave there is nothing gained by making half the foot-surface of the shoe also concave4 ,there are two other forms of foot-surface on shoes4 ,in one the surface slopes gradually from the outer to the inner edge of the shoe1 like the side of a saucer4 ,in the other the incline is reversed and runs from the inner edge downwards to the outer4 ,this last form is not often used1 and was invented with the object of spreading or widening the foot to which it was attached4 ,the inventor seemed to think that contraction of a foot was an active condition to be overcome by force1 and that expansion might be properly effected by a plan of constantly forcing apart the two sides of the foot4 ,the usual result of wearing such a shoe is lameness1 and it achieves no good which cannot be as well reached by simply letting the foot alone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--;,foot-surface sloped outwards4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--;,foot-surface sloped inwards4 ,the foot-surface which inclines downwards and inwards like a saucer acts in an exactly opposite way to the other4 ,the wall cannot rest on the outer edge of the shoe1 and consequently falls within it1 the effect being that at every step the horse's foot is compressed by the saucer-shaped bearing4 ,this form of surface 7,fig4 #ce7 is frequently seen1 and is at all times bad and unnecessary4 ,even when making a shoe for the most convex sole it is possible to leave an outer bearing surface1 narrow but level1 which will sustain weight without squeezing the foot4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--;,foot-surface level at ,heels4 ,at the heels the foot-surface of all shoes should be flat--not seated--so that a firm bearing may be obtained on the wall and the extremity of the bar4 ,no foot is convex at the heels1 therefore there is no excuse for losing any bearing surface by seating the heels of a shoe to avoid uneven pressure4 ,fig4 #cf rather exaggerates the unseated portion of shoe4 ,the ,ground-,surface4 ,as ,i have said1 this may vary indefinitely4 ,sometimes it is a plain flat surface1 broken only by the holes made for nails or by the fullering which affords not only space for the nails but some grip on the ground4 ,when a shoe is fullered the groove made should be deep1 so as to let the nail-head well down1 and wide so as to afford room for giving the nail a proper direction4 ,if the fullering be continued round the toe of a shoe by a good workman neatness is given1 but when a clip is drawn the iron is so reduced that some wear is sacrificed4 ,if only an inch at the toe be unfullered1 the solid iron affords more wear just where it is wanted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--;,concave ground-surface4 ,the concave shoe1 often described as a hunting-shoe1 presents a very different ground-surface from that just referred to4 ,it rests upon two ridges with the fullering between1 and on the inner side of these the iron is suddenly sloped off4 ,this shoe is narrow and flat on the foot-surface1 and is specially formed to give a good foot-hold and to be secure on the hoof4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--;,double-grooved ground-surface4 ,a ,rodway shoe has two longitudinal grooves and three ridges on its ground-surface4 ,the outer groove carries the nails1 and the inner groove lightens the shoe and increases the foot-hold4 ,it is not the number of grooves or ridges that prevents slipping2 it is the absence of a continuous flat surface of iron1 and the existence of irregularities which become filled up with sand and grit4 ,a four-grooved shoe has no more anti-slipping properties than a three-grooved1 and a one-grooved shoe is as good as either1 although it cannot stand the same amount of wear4 ,transverse ridges and notches have also been tried as ground-surfaces for shoes1 but offer very little1 if any1 better grip than the longitudinal grooves4 ,their great disadvantage is that they cannot be made deep enough without weakening the shoe1 whilst if shallow they are worn out before the shoe has been long in wear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--;,ground-surfaces1 notches1 projections1 ridges4 ,a ,calkin is the name given to the extremity of a shoe when turned down at the heels4 ,calkins are used on most hind shoes and1 in some parts of the country1 on fore shoes4 ,they are supposed to be the most convenient and effective means of giving good foot-hold4 ,this supposition is correct when a horse travels on soft ground or on streets so paved that a space is left between each course of stones4 ,they are of very little use on asphalte or wood pavement1 and not much more use on roller-made macadam4 ,with light modern carriages and level modern roads calkins are quite unnecessary1 and better means of giving foot-hold may be substituted4 ,it is a fact that horses when shoes are new and calkins prominent do their work without slipping1 and that when the calkins are worn down the horse moves with less confidence and security4 ,this does not prove that calkins are necessary4 ,it must be remembered that horses possess a power of adapting themselves to circumstances1 but having learned to rely upon any artificial assistance they are the more helpless1 for a time1 on its withdrawal4 ,calkins assist the horse for a time1 but after the calkin is worn down the horse is in a worse position than if he had never become accustomed to its assistance4 ,of course on soft ground1 especially grass1 calkins afford a firmer grip than any other contrivance4 ,on the other hand1 their constant use lifts the frog out of bearing and causes it to waste1 thus spoiling the action of the natural provision against slipping4 ,level shoes on the hind feet promote sound1 prominent frogs1 and give firm foot-hold for all light horses4 ,even omnibus horses1 now that the vehicles are supplied with effective foot-brakes1 may advantageously be worked without calkins4 ,on country roads1 especially when the district is hilly or the load is heavy1 calkins may be requisite1 and must then be made to do as little harm as possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,the wear of a shoe is affected by the height of a calkin4 ,the more the heel is raised the greater the amount of wear at the toe4 ,many shoes when worn out at the toe show very little effects of wear at other parts1 and the question arises how best to increase the wear of the shoe without increasing its weight4 ,in ,fig4 #ci three diagrams are presented in which dotted lines show the effect of wear4 ,at 7a7 the shoe is of even thickness throughout--from heel to toe--and the line of wear shows that when the shoe is worn out a great amount of iron remains4 ,at 7b7 the quarters of the shoe are made thinner and the toe is made thicker1 so that with no increase of weight but by a better distribution of the iron1 increased wear is provided for at the part where it is most required4 ,at 7c7 is shown a shoe similar in form to that at 7b7 but differently fitted4 ,the toe is turned slightly upwards1 and the result is that a larger portion of iron is brought into wear4 ,in the case of very hard-wearing horses that scrape out the toe of the ordinary shoe in ten or fourteen days this form of fitting adds considerably to the durability of the shoe1 and so preserves the foot from the evil of too frequent removal of shoes1 whilst avoiding any increase of weight4 ,without calkins wear is more evenly distributed1 and the toe is not worn away disproportionately to the rest of the shoe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,two calkins--the low square one preferable4 ,a calkin throws the leg and foot1 to some extent1 out of their proper position4 ,a very high calkin is not only objectionable1 it is unnecessary4 ,not much prominence is required to afford a catch or stop4 ,excessive height is usually given to meet wear1 and this can be obtained equally well by increasing the width and breadth4 ,i1 therefore1 recommend that when calkins are used they should be low1 square and broad4 ,the further under a foot the calkin is placed1 the greater is the raising of the heel1 therefore calkins should always be accompanied by a long shoe4 ,the further back a calkin be placed the less it interferes with the natural position of the foot4 ,calkins render a horse liable to tread the opposite foot1 and the higher and sharper the calkin the greater the injury inflicted4 ,to avoid this injury the inner heel of a shoe frequently has no calkin1 but is made at the same level as the outer by narrowing and raising the iron at the heel1 forming what is called a wedge heel4 ,this is not an advisable form of shoe as it has on the inner heel a skate-shaped formation1 most favourable to slipping1 and on the outer a catch--an arrangement tending to twist the foot each time the catch takes hold of the ground4 ,if calkins are used at all they should be of equal height and on both heels of the shoe4 ,in ,scotland1 and in the ,north of ,england1 heavy horses are shod1 fore and hind1 not only with calkins but also with toe-pieces1 and the owners assert that the horses could not do the work without them4 ,that horses do similar work in the ,south without calkins and toe-pieces rather shakes one's faith in the assertion1 but it must be remembered that nearly all paved streets in the ,north have a division left between the rows of stones in which the toe-piece finds a firm resisting surface4 ,i believe also that the average load drawn is greater in the ,north than in the ,south4 ,one thing in favour of toe-pieces must be acknowledged--they1 with the calkins1 restore the natural position of the foot and preserve the level of the shoe4 ,on the larger draught horses the toe-pieces permit a lighter shoe to be used1 as the portion of iron between heels and toe need not be thick to resist wear4 ,it only requires to be strong enough to support weight and much less iron is therefore used4 ,the heavy dray horse of the ,north1 shod with toe-pieces and calkins1 is never worked at a trot4 ,in ,london all horses are trotted--a proceeding which reflects discredit upon the intelligence of the managers4 ,i must mention another objection to calkins4 ,they increase the tendency to cut1 and many horses will cease cutting after calkins are removed and a level shoe has been adopted4 ,nails and nail holes4 ,it is necessary to consider these together as they are dependent on each other4 ,shoes were first nailed to the feet by flat-headed nails1 and probably it was a long time before the wedge-headed nail was thought of4 ,when the nail head fits into the nail hole it may retain the shoe till it is worn as thin as a penny1 but if only the shank of the nail enters the shoe1 the head is soon worn off and the shoe becomes loose4 ,within the last #bj years the horse-shoe nail trade has been revolutionised by the introduction of machinery4 ,machine-made nails are now almost entirely used1 and the three or four leading brands are as near perfection as were the very best hand-made4 ,practically there is no fault to find with them1 and as they are ready-pointed for driving they save time and labour in the forge4 ,they are made in various sizes1 and numbered from #b up to #af4 ,only the very best iron can be used to produce good nails4 ,nothing is dearer than bad nails which cause injury to the foot and loss of shoes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,a good nail should present certain forms of head1 neck and shank4 ,the head should not be too broad at the top or it may become fixed in the nail-hole only by its upper edge1 as shown in the middle diagram ,fig4 #da1 and when the shoe has had a few days wear the nail loses its hold1 and the shoe is loose4 ,the neck should not be too thick1 as it is then liable to press on the sensitive foot and to break the wall4 ,the shank should not be too wide or too thick4 ,the point should not be too long or too tapered as this leaves insufficient metal to form a good clinch4 ,there are two methods of putting nail-holes into shoes--by fullering and by stamping4 ,a stamped shoe is one in which the nail holes are merely punched at certain distances1 so as to leave four-sided tapered holes of the exact shape of a nail-head4 ,a fullered shoe is one having a groove round the circumference through which the nail-holes are punched4 ,both processes1 when well-done1 admit of nails being driven into the hoof with equal safety and ease4 ,whether stamped or fullered1 there are a few more important points to remember about the nail-holes4 ,the wall is not of the same thickness throughout1 but becomes thinner towards the heels4 ,the inner side of the foot is also somewhat thinner and more upright than the outer4 ,the safest position1 then1 for the nails is in the front half of the foot1 but should this position not present sound horn they may be placed further back4 ,the danger of placing nails near the heels is due entirely to the greater risk in driving them through the thin horn4 ,there need be no fear of interfering with expansion4 ,the distance of the nail-holes from the outer edge of the shoe should depend upon the thickness of the horn of the wall1 and therefore be greater in large shoes than in smaller1 and greater at the toe than at the heels of the same shoe4 ,when the nail-holes are all near to the circumference of the shoe 7,fig4 #db ,b47 they are described as fine2 when they are all placed far from the edge 7,fig4 #db ,a47 they are called coarse4 ,when the nail-holes are too fine a nail has to be driven high up in the wall to obtain a firm hold1 and this is liable to split the horn4 ,when nail-holes are too coarse the nail in driving goes dangerously near the sensitive foot4 ,the evils of coarse and fine nailing depend a great deal upon the method of fitting the shoes4 ,when shoes are fitted full to the foot 7when the outer circumference of the shoe is greater than the circumference of the wall7 coarse nail-holes are brought to about their best position4 ,when shoes are fitted close 7i4e41 when their outer edge is brought within the border of the wall7 fine nail-holes are brought to their best position in relation to the foot4 ,it need hardly be added that the fit of a shoe ought not to be subject to the position of the nail-holes1 but that these should be properly placed so that fitting be guided only by the requirements of the foot4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--,wrongly placed ,nail-holes4 ,each nail-hole when properly placed--neither too coarse nor too fine--should be punched straight through the shoe and not inclined either inwards or outwards1 except at the toe where the slope of the wall is followed by slightly pitching in4 ,when a fuller is used the groove made should be wide2 then the farrier has more command over the direction of his nail4 ,if the nail-hole be pitched in1 the nail must take that direction and is liable to wound the foot4 ,if the nail-hole be pitched out1 the nail is prevented from taking sufficient hold of the horn4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,nail-holes pitched in and out4 ,the position and direction of the nail-hole control the passage of a nail through a shoe and into the hoof4 ,the man who drives a nail is usually blamed for laming a horse1 but in most cases it would be more just to blame the man who made the nail-holes or fitted the shoe and so rendered safe driving difficult or impossible4 ,each nail-hole should be as far as possible from the other--say1 from an inch to an inch and a half apart4 ,when the two front or toe nail-holes are put too far back the whole are crowded1 or the last are pushed back too near the heels4 ,for small shoes four or five nail-holes are sufficient4 ,medium-sized shoes should have from five to seven1 and the heavy shoes of big draught horses must have eight4 ,the number of nail-holes need not always be increased in proportion to the size of the shoe1 because as the weight of shoe is increased so is the size of the nail1 and an extra strong nail may take the place of additional ones4 ,the fewer nails in a foot the better1 but as a properly-placed nail does no harm1 and as the loss of a shoe may be very serious1 it is better to have one too many than one too few4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,machine-made ,shoe--,fore-foot4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--,machine-made ,shoe--,hind-foot4 ,machine-made ,shoes4 ,horse-shoeing is distinctly an art requiring special skill for its proper performance4 ,it is also one of the most laborious of all skilled trades4 ,anything which lightens mechanical toil tends to improve the mental and artistic qualities of the workman1 and all applications of machinery which lessen the heavy manual labour of the farrier may therefore be looked upon as improvements4 ,machinery has lightened the labour of shoe-making in two ways--by supplying various patterns of grooved and bevelled iron in bars1 which only require cutting into lengths and turning round to form a shoe1 and also by making shoes all ready to be fitted to the foot4 ,machinery has not yet turned out a shoe as good and durable and well finished as the best workman can produce by hand1 but it can produce many forms of shoes as good for all practical purposes1 and it has this advantage--all are alike4 ,bad workmen make bad shoes1 but a machine1 once able to produce a good model1 can repeat it exactly1 therefore machine-made shoes of a proper pattern are superior to all but the very best hand-made shoes4 ,economy1 of course1 is on the side of the article produced by machinery1 and all large firms keeping their own farriers find a great saving by buying the ready-made shoes4 ,under conditions when shoes must be fitted without a fire1 as in coal mines1 or in the case of armies during a campaign1 the machine-made article has the advantages of regularity of form and a true level bearing surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--,sections of rolled bar iron4 ,in little shops where often only one man is at work1 either machine-made shoes or prepared bar iron offer great conveniences4 ,the prepared bars can be bought seated on the foot-surface and with a single or double groove on the ground-surface4 ,very narrow bars suitable for tips1 ,charlier1 or light hack shoes are now widely used1 and a special bar--flat on the foot-surface1 concave to the ground--can be obtained which only requires cutting into lengths and turning round to form a first-class hunting-shoe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,sections of light pattern bar iron4 ,both prepared bars and machine-made shoes must be judged by their form and by the material used in their manufacture4 ,some are better than others1 but all have to contend with a large amount of trade prejudice which has little basis except in the matter of the hind shoes--here machinery has not yet reached perfection4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,selection ,,of ,,shoes4 ,in practice1 a farrier does not trouble much about the selection of suitable shoes4 ,the rule is to apply whatever form of shoe the horse has been wearing1 and only to venture an opinion as to alterations when asked by the owner4 ,when the selection of a suitable shoe is left to the workman he takes into consideration the work required of the horse1 the form of the feet1 and the wear of the old shoes4 ,the form of the old shoes indicates not only whether a horse is a light or hard wearer but what parts of the shoe are most worn1 and thus enables provision to be made against excessive or irregular wear4 ,the form of the feet indicates not only what size of shoe is requisite but also what special weakness or strength is to be encountered4 ,it is also necessary to note the condition of the fetlocks and knees1 which may show signs of brushing or speedy cutting4 ,according to all these appearances a shoe should be selected4 ,for the different classes of horse there are well-known forms of shoe which present special advantages1 thus3-- ,the race horse when in training1 may be shod with a very light shoe1 but on the turf he requires the lightest contrivance capable of protecting the hoof and affording good foot-hold4 ,the ordinary racing plate answers these requirements4 ,it is made in a crease1 or tool1 or may be made from specially prepared bars which only need cutting into lengths and turning round4 ,the plate is about one-third of an inch wide by one-eighth thick4 ,the foot-surface is flat1 and the ground-surface is fullered and concave4 ,steeplechase plates are made on the same pattern1 but should be a little stronger so as to avoid even the possibility of becoming twisted on the foot4 ,hunting shoes should be light1 very secure1 and of a form to give good foot hold4 ,the best are flat on the foot-surface1 and fullered and concave on the ground-surface4 ,the hind shoe should also be concave on the ground-surface1 but to avoid the injury of over-reaching the inner circumference at the toe should be rounded and smooth4 ,a small square calkin at each heel affords grip on grass1 and especially in going down hill at a fast pace4 ,hacks1 being used on hard roads1 must have heavier shoes than hunters1 but the form may be the same4 ,carriage horses require more substance in their shoes than hacks1 and the narrow concave shoes suitable for hunters and hacks cannot give sufficient durability4 ,the double-grooved shoe known as ,rodway's is the best for this class4 ,on ordinary roads the hind feet may be shod with a common two heeled shoe1 but on wood and asphalte the heavier sizes of ,rodway iron make a shoe that affords very good foot hold and dispenses with the necessity for calkins4 ,omnibus and ,van horses require stronger shoes to meet the hard wear entailed by their work4 ,the heavy ,rodway iron makes very suitable front shoes1 but the hind shoes must be solid with only a fullering for the nails or1 as many prefer1 each nail-hole separately stamped4 ,as a rule the hind shoes of this class of horse have calkins on the outside heel4 ,if the vehicle in which they run is provided with a foot-brake calkins are unnecessary1 and the advantages of a level shoe should be made use of4 ,the advantages are--better foot hold1 longer wear and less danger from treads and cutting4 ,heavy draught horses4 ,in ,scotland and in the ,north of ,england this class of horse is shod with a toe-piece and calkins on both fore and hind shoes4 ,in ,london calkins are only put on the hind shoes1 and toe-pieces are not used at all4 ,on paved streets where a space exists between the rows of stones and especially if the road be hilly1 ,i think toe-pieces are advisable1 and of course when they are used calkins must be also made4 ,horses having become accustomed to toe-pieces1 when shod with a level shoe1 slip much more for a week or two than do horses which have never learned to rely upon the bar across the toe4 ,every thing considered1 ,i incline to prefer a level shoe in front1 and a shoe with two low square calkins behind for heavy draught horses4 ,the enormous width of shoe often used in ,london is quite unnecessary1 it is very heavy and it favours slipping4 ,a narrower shoe must of course be a little thicker to meet the wear1 but it is lighter and affords better foot hold1 and as slipping and fatigue are both causes of excessive wear1 a narrow shoe1 weight for weight1 will last longer than a broad flat one4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,fitting ,,and ,,application ,,of ,,shoes4 ,having selected shoes suitable for the feet and adapted to the special work of the horse1 having also prepared the foot for shoeing1 we arrive at another important part of the farriers' art--fitting the shoe4 ,no matter what form of shoe be used or how the foot be prepared for it1 unless the two are properly fitted the horse does not obtain all the advantages of good shoeing1 and may be positively injured4 ,the owner of horses seldom knows anything about the fitting of shoes1 and therefore fails to appreciate how some of his directions concerning feet and shoes are quite impracticable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,i have in a previous chapter attempted to show how a foot should be prepared for shoeing1 and what bearing surface should be left for the shoe4 ,i have also described what ,i consider the best forms of shoe4 ,the object at all times should be to follow nature as closely as possible1 but it often happens that we may1 with benefit1 depart from the exact indications given and still fulfil all essential requirements4 ,if we examine the unshod foot which has been worn down to proper proportions we find the bearing surface is not level--it is worn more at the toe and heels than elsewhere4 ,if we examine the ground surface of an old shoe the same thing is noticed--the surface is not level1 the toe and heel show most wear4 ,the question then arises1 should we make the artificial bearing surface of the foot on the same plan and adjust the shoe to it1 as in ,fig4 #dh1 or should we make the surface level and apply a level shoe as in ,fig4 #di8 ,i believe that the ideal arrangement would be to follow the line suggested by a worn foot or a worn shoe1 but it is difficult to carry out1 and greater exactness of fit is more readily obtained by two level surfaces4 ,the ground surface of a shoe may1 if necessary1 be altered to suit the outline of wear1 whilst the level foot-surface is preserved1 as in ,fig4 #ej4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,whatever form the farrier adopts1 a shoe should rest equally throughout1 and the contact of foot and shoe should be exact over the whole bearing surface4 ,assuming then that a properly prepared foot presents a level surface1 the fitting of shoes becomes simple so long as the smith possesses manual dexterity and follows the indications of common sense4 ,there are two conditions to be fulfilled1 7#a7 to fit the shoe to the plain surface of the foot1 7#b7 to fit the shoe to the circumference of the wall4 ,most amateurs judge shoeing by the way a shoe follows the outline of the hoof1 but the practical man knows that it is equally difficult and important to fit the surface4 ,outline fitting4 ,a shoe is first compared with the foot1 it is then heated1 and the heels cut off or turned down to the proper length4 ,each limb of the shoe is fitted to follow the outline of the wall1 and it is necessary to warn the novice that the inside and outside borders of a foot are not alike4 ,the outside is rounder and fuller1 and the shoe should be shaped to follow exactly the direction of the wall4 ,the outer border of a shoe should always be as prominent as the outer border of the hoof2 it should never be within it4 ,the inner border must not protrude beyond the wall lest the opposite leg be struck4 ,a well fitted shoe must be fitted full to the foot4 ,what is called close fitting1 i4e41 bringing the shoe rather within the circumference of the wall1 is injurious1 as it loses the best and strongest bearing of the wall1 and permits the farrier to give an appearance of neatness by rasping away any horn which protrudes beyond the shoe4 ,on a well-shaped foot the shoe should follow the outer line of the hoof from toe to heel1 but where the heels of a foot are turned inwards there is an advantage in fitting the shoe wider at the heels1 as by so doing the base of the foot is not constricted and a wider resting surface is afforded to the limb4 ,when a shoe is fitted wide at the heels it is essential that the foot-surface of the shoe should be level at the heels4 ,if it be inclined1 as it often is in seated shoes1 a very grave defect in the fitting results1 for the heels have no level bearing-surface4 ,a shoe fitted too wide is liable to be trodden off by the opposite foot1 or it may cause the horse to hit the opposite fetlock joint4 ,provided the nail holes are properly placed1 when the outside border of the shoe is fitted nicely to the circumference of the hoof1 they are brought to their right position4 ,when nail holes are placed too near1 or too far1 from the outer border of the shoe--i4e41 when they are too fine or too coarse--it may be necessary to correct their position by fitting the shoe closer or fuller1 as the case may be4 ,when a farrier fits shoes made by another man he may overlook this1 as we are all slaves to habit4 ,the man who in his daily practice combines close fitting with fine nailing has to alter his routine when fitting a shoe with coarse nail holes4 ,the length of a shoe at the heels is a matter of more importance than is generally recognised4 ,as a rule hunters are all shod too short1 while most cart horses are shod too long4 ,the objections to a long front shoe are that it is liable to be trodden off by the hind shoe1 and that it may injure the elbow when the horse lies down4 ,a long hind shoe is free from both these disadvantages1 and as it usually has a calkin is the best form to adopt4 ,in fitting the heels of front shoes1 in all but galloping horses1 the iron should generally extend slightly behind the extremity of the horn4 7,fig4 #dh74 ,horses used for galloping should have the end of the shoe just within the termination of the horn1 and should finish with an oblique extremity4 7,fig4 #di74 ,there is nothing gained by greater shortening1 if the iron be fitted exactly to the horn4 ,why shoes are often pulled off1 when only just the length of the hoof1 is because they are not fitted close enough1 and very often because they are wilfully and ignorantly designed to leave a space between hoof and iron4 ,this so-called eased heel is an unmitigated evil4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,shoe fitted short at the heels4 ,surface-fitting4 ,it is simple to direct that the bearing-surface of a shoe should be exactly adapted to the bearing-surface of a foot4 ,it is not so simple to carry out4 ,when the horn on the lower surface of a foot is thin any uneven pressure--i4e41 pressure applied directly to one spot--soon causes injury1 pain1 and lameness4 ,when a good thick layer of horn exists1 uneven pressures are less injurious1 because the horn distributes them over a wide surface4 ,good workmanship is displayed by leaving no uneven pressure1 and by so fitting a shoe that it shall do no harm4 ,with a narrow shoe--one only the width of the wall--no uneven pressure can be applied to the sensitive foot1 but such a shoe is seldom used as it is too light to afford sufficient wear4 ,a wide shoe with a flat foot surface is easily fitted on all concave feet--i4e41 on all hind and most fore feet4 ,to make use of the whole bearing-surface a shoe must rest evenly from toe to heel--the flat surface of the shoe must take a level bearing on the whole flat bearing-surface of the foot4 ,there are two places where injury from uneven pressure is most likely to happen--at the toe and at the heels4 ,in preparing a foot the wall at the toe may1 from want of care1 be reduced a little below the level of the sole1 or in making a shoe the inside border at the toe may be left higher than the outside4 ,in each case uneven pressure is placed on the sole just where the back border of the shoe rests4 ,in fitting a hot shoe1 wherever the hoof is unduly marked warning is given that pressure at that point must be prevented by altering the surface either of the shoe or the foot4 ,on a strong foot1 the knife may be used to remove a little horn2 on a weak foot the alteration must be on the shoe4 ,at the the heel uneven pressure is most frequent on the angle of sole between the wall and bar1 where it causes the so-called corn--a condition in the horse having no analogy to the affliction similarly named in the human subject4 ,it is simply a bruise of the sensitive parts under the horn4 ,a bruised heel--a corn--is most likely to arise from the use of a shoe too short1 especially if fitted too close4 ,it may arise from a properly-fitted shoe retained too long on the foot and shifted from its proper bearing on the wall to an improper bearing on the sole4 ,a bruised heel may also result from the use of a well-made shoe if the preparation of the hoof has been faulty4 ,rule-of-thumb directions to reduce the heels to a level by the use of the rasp1 but on no account cut away any sole may result in injury4 ,in a strong foot with an overgrown sole it is easy to get a level surface and to fit on to it a level shoe1 but the horn of the sole does not remain level4 ,as it grows and flakes off the portion between the bar and wall is raised4 ,if the weather be wet it swells1 and then1 bound down by the shoe1 it acts simply as a stone might and bruises the sensitive parts within by its uneven pressure4 ,it is always safe and it is never injurious to remove so much of the surface of this portion of sole with the drawing-knife as will ensure no uneven pressure on it by the shoe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--;,an eased heel4 ,the more exactly the shoe fits the foot-surface the more easily it is retained in position by the nails1 and the less likelihood there is of any part of it pressing distinctly on a limited portion of horn4 ,exact fitting allows all bearings and pressures to be distributed equally over the surface of the hoof1 and thus permits the shoe most nearly to resemble a mere continuation of the hoof in iron--an arrangement to prevent wear1 but not to interfere with natural functions4 ,there is one departure from level fitting which requires special notice since it is made1 not by accident or negligence1 but by design4 ,it consists in taking the bearing of an inch or an inch and a half of the extremity of a shoe off the foot4 7,fig4 #ej74 ,it has been called easing the heels1 and the space permits a knife-blade1 sometimes even a pencil1 to be placed between the shoe and the foot4 ,it is one of the very worst practices that theory has forced into horse-shoeing4 ,men who do it say the heels won't stand pressure4 ,i reply they will stand all proper pressure1 and a good deal more than the quarters4 ,but the practice does not relieve the heels of pressure4 ,if you examine a shoe fitted in this way1 after it has done a month's service1 you will find it sometimes polished bright1 sometimes with a deep groove worn into it4 ,you may also test its bearing by raising the foot from the ground and inserting between shoe and hoof a flat bit of wood1 then on releasing the foot and raising the opposite one1 you will find that the bearing is such that the bit of wood cannot be removed4 ,the eased heel does not relieve the heels of pressure but1 instead of constant normal bearing1 it permits a downward movement of the back of the foot at each step--which is unnatural1 and which cannot occur in an unshod foot on a level surface4 ,the eased heel does more than this4 ,it wastes a large extent of good bearing-surface1 and it concentrates pressure at one point--where the shoe and foot meet--at the quarters4 ,it loses good bearing-surface where it is important to have it1 and unevenly throws extra weight on the quarters which are the weakest parts of the wall4 ,an eased heel has not one single advantage1 but it has every disadvantage which misplaced ingenuity could contrive4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,section of a seated shoe4 ,for flat feet a wide shoe with a flat foot-surface is unsafe as there is liability to uneven pressure on the sole4 ,for such feet the safer form of foot-surface is one presenting a level narrow bearing-surface round its outer border1 from which an inclined or bevelled surface continues the shoe inwards4 7,fig4 #ea7 ,this form of shoe can be fitted to nearly any kind of foot4 ,to escape injury to a flat sole seating out shoes is necessary1 but the operation should always leave a level bearing-surface for the wall4 ,when a shoe is seated from one side to the other so as to produce a saucer shaped surface harm is done to the foot4 ,such a shoe presents no level bearing-surface1 and the weight of the horse pressing the wall on an inclined plane causes the foot to be pinched or compressed in a manner which soon causes lameness4 7,fig4 #eb74 ,a few years ago these shoes were too common1 and to make them still more injurious1 the foot was pared out from the centre to the circumference like a saucer1 and the two spoiled articles were fitted together4 ,their surfaces of contact were two narrow ridges which even the most expert workman could not fit without injury to the horse4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,section of a saucer shoe4 ,in ,fig4 #eb a shoe with an inclined surface is applied to a foot with a bearing-surface as wide as the wall but the only contact is at the edges4 ,the horn at the edge will yield1 and the hoof be pressed inwards as the weight of the animal forces the foot into the saucer-shaped shoe4 ,when the bearing-surface of the foot1 instead of being as wide as the wall1 is only a ridge1 the horn yields more rapidly1 the clinches rise and the shoe becomes loose4 ,in ,fig4 #ec is shown a section of another shoe with an inclined instead of a level surface1 but the slope is from within outwards4 ,the effect of this is exactly the opposite of the previous shoe4 ,the wall is forced outwards1 and if it does not as a whole yield to the pressure the portion in contact is broken4 ,when this form of bearing-surface is adopted at the heels of a shoe the two sides of the hoof are violently forced apart1 and it has even been recommended as a means of expanding the foot2 but forcible expansion is both unnecessary and dangerous4 ,always regarding the shoe as an extension of the natural hoof in a harder and more durable material1 it is evident that the most stability will be attained by the use of as wide a bearing-surface of foot and shoe as is compatible with ease and safety to the horse4 ,in ,fig4 #ed is shown a section of a narrow shoe which takes a bearing over the whole extent of its foot-surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--;,bearing-surface inclined outwards4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,narrow shoe with level bearing-surface4 ,in ,fig4 #ee is shown a shoe with as wide a bearing-surface as in ,fig4 #ed1 but which loses half its bearing because the foot-surface is too narrow to utilise it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--;,bearing-surface of foot too narrow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--;,a good bearing-surface4 ,in ,fig4 #ef we have a model bearing-surface on the foot1 nearly twice the width of the wall1 and we have a shoe with a flat foot-surface capable of using the whole bearing4 ,such is the fitting of all hind shoes1 and it might well be adopted with advantage in all fore shoes on good feet4 ,clips are thin projections drawn up from the outer border of shoes for the purpose of giving greater security to their position on a foot4 ,on heavy cart horses the clips are sometimes of great size and encourage the idea that the smith looks upon them as designed to assist the nails to retain the shoe on the foot4 ,they should have no such purpose1 their use being merely to prevent the shoe shifting to one side4 ,a clip should not be narrow and high1 it should be low and wide so that its bearing is taken against the lower edge of the wall4 ,a high clip is a most serious danger when shoes get loose and are trodden on by the horse4 ,the usual position for a clip is at the toe1 but there are occasions when two clips--one at each side of the toe--are used4 ,on some shoes a clip is placed at the outer quarter to prevent the shoe being displaced inwards2 this is more often required on hind shoes4 ,a clip at the toe affords some assistance in fitting a shoe exactly1 and it also affords steadiness to the shoe during the driving of the first nails4 ,in ,america clips are not used1 and when ,american machine-made shoes were first introduced into ,london they were fitted without clips4 ,i am bound to confess that these shoes did not shift on the feet to any noticeable extent1 but they are now all fitted with clips so ,i suppose the workmen found they were an advantage4 ,the greatest evil resulting from clips is seen in slovenly fitting1 when the farrier with his knife carves out a great hole in the wall in which to imbed the clip4 ,as a clip is flat it cannot be fitted to the rounded face of the wall1 but all that is necessary is to reduce the round to a flat surface with the rasp1 so that the clip may rest on it1 care being taken that at the extreme edge the horn is not left so prominent as to be unduly pressed upon when the clip is driven close to the wall4 ,it is easy to lame a horse by violently hammering up the clip1 especially when the horn behind it has been so much cut away as to leave only a thin protecting layer4 ,a clip should only be hammered up sufficiently to leave it firmly applied to the wall4 ,a bad workman in making his clip may spoil the foot-surface of a shoe by causing a bridge on the bearing surface of the iron at the toe1 and this1 on thin or flat feet1 may cause lameness4 ,a very unsightly appearance and very defective work results from the fireman leaving his clip at right angles to the line of the shoe4 ,it should be inclined backwards at about the same slope as the portion of wall against which it is to rest4 ,the two diagrams 7,fig4 #eg7 illustrate what is meant4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--,toe ,clips4 ,hot and ,cold ,fitting4 ,when an engineer or a carpenter has two surfaces to fit together with great exactness he employs some colouring material to show where they do come in contact and where they do not4 ,when a farrier fits a shoe to a horse's foot he tests its adaptation by applying it at a dull red heat to the horn4 ,this proceeding shows with precision the bearing surfaces1 as the horn is charred in proportion to the contact4 ,if the shoe be found not to fit exactly1 it is taken back to the anvil and altered4 ,it is then again for a few seconds applied to the horn and the surface of contact examined4 ,this proceeding is repeated until sufficient exactness is arrived at and then the shoe is cooled ready for nailing on4 ,as horn is a bad conductor of heat this process of hot-fitting does no harm to the sensitive structures within the hoof unless it be carried to an extreme4 ,when the horn is very thin the heat of a shoe retained too long in contact with it does serious mischief1 and the injury known as a burnt sole has often resulted from careless work4 ,if a shoe1 whilst being altered to fit a foot1 were cooled each time it was laid on the hoof1 it would have to be re-heated before the necessary alterations could be made and this would cause great waste of time4 ,the abuse of hot-fitting may do harm without any direct burning of the sole4 ,an ill-fitting hot shoe may be held on the hoof until it beds itself into the horn and thus a complete correspondence between the surface of the foot and the surface of the shoe be effected4 ,such a proceeding is well described as fitting the foot to the shoe and is not only destructive to the horn but damaging to the foot by permitting an uneven shoe to look as though it were properly fitting4 ,when hot-fitting is used and not abused--when it is adopted merely to indicate how and where the shoe fits1 and not to make it appear to fit--,i consider it has many advantages over cold-fitting4 ,with some feet and some shoes it is quite possible to produce a good fit without heating the shoe4 ,when a shoe requires much alteration to bring it into exact correspondence with the foot1 even the most expert farrier cannot do justice to his work with cold iron--he gets as near to a fit as he can and when the hoof is strong little harm is done4 ,the best work is that which includes the greatest exactness of fit1 and uneven pressure or loose shoes result from inferior work4 ,a badly fitted shoe requires more nails to retain it in place1 and experience has shown that hot-fitted shoes give a smaller average of loose or lost shoes than those cold-fitted4 ,the slight charring of the end of the horn fibres which results from proper hot-fitting has never been found to do injury1 and it apparently has some advantages4 ,one is that the surface of the hoof less readily absorbs moisture than when not charred4 ,another is that the horn is softened for a time and expanded1 allowing nails to be easily driven1 and then contracting and retaining them more firmly4 ,the objection to hot-fitting applies only to its abuse4 ,the advantages are greater exactness of fit1 greater security that the shoe will be firmly retained on the foot1 and greater facility in the operation of shoeing4 ,perhaps ,i ought to add that when cold-fitting is inevitable machine-made shoes are the best1 because they are more regular in form1 and more often level on the foot-surface than hand-made shoes4 ,army studs on active service1 and studs used in coal mines comprise1 perhaps1 the only animals upon which cold-fitting is unavoidable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,tips are short shoes protecting only the foremost half of the foot4 ,upon grass or soft roads tips are quite sufficient to prevent undue wear of the hoof4 ,even upon hard roads tips will protect the hoof in dry weather1 but in wet seasons the horn becomes softened1 and then that part coming in contact with hard road-surfaces wears rapidly and lameness may follow4 ,tips require more care in use than shoes because they protect from wear only the toe1 and when retained on the foot too long a time cause the hoof to become very disproportionately long at the toe4 ,in fitting a tip care must be taken to afford the horse a level surface to bear on4 ,the unprotected horn at the back of the foot must take a bearing on the ground level with the ground-surface of the tip4 ,if there is sufficient horn on the foot this can be easily effected by only removing the overgrown wall to just the length the tip extends and leaving the horn behind untouched4 ,where there is not sufficient superfluous horn this method cannot be used1 and we apply a tip gradually thinned off towards its hinder extremities4 ,if a little horn can be removed obliquely from the front half of the foot by a few strokes of the rasp this thinned tip is more easily fitted so as to get a level surface on the ground4 ,when a horse has worn this form for a month it is generally possible to bring a tip1 of even thickness throughout1 into the same line of bearing as the horn at the heels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--;,foot prepared for a tip4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--;,an ordinary and a thinned tip4 ,tips do not give a good foot-hold on grass1 but they afford greater security of tread on hard smooth roads and on ice than long shoes4 ,the great advantages of tips are two-fold--they are light1 and they permit the greatest freedom of movement and action in the posterior part of the foot4 ,in some cases of chronic foot lameness the use of tips and regular work will effect soundness when every other method of treatment has failed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--;,groove for ,charlier shoe formed by cutting away strip of wall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,section of ,charlier shoe on foot4 ,the ,charlier ,system is a method of shoeing which a few years ago took a very prominent hold on the fancy of horse-owners4 ,like every other system it has advantages and disadvantages--it has prejudiced enemies and indiscreet friends4 ,the principle or theory upon which it is based may be thus stated4 ,the lower border of the wall is1 it is said1 the chief sustaining structure of the hoof1 and as all that is required of a shoe is to prevent undue wear1 therefore1 remove a small strip of the lower border of the wall and substitute for it a similar sized strip of iron1 and we shall protect from wear at the same time that we leave entirely to nature every other part of the hoof--sole1 frog1 and bars4 ,this seems eminently simple and logical1 but it is easy to show that it is more plausible than true4 ,first1 ,i would point out that the wall only is not the natural sustaining structure of the hoof4 ,the wall and the sole at its connection with the wall is4 ,next ,i deny that the ,charlier system does leave entirely to nature every other part of the hoof4 ,in cutting away the wall from the sole to affix the shoe1 the natural function of the sole is seriously interfered with1 and the bearing on the wall which ought to be partially distributed over the arch of the sole is limited to the wall4 ,it is claimed that when the foot has had time to grow the sole will be found on a level with the shoe1 and thus directly sharing in the weight-sustaining function4 ,i have examined many feet shod by ,charlier specialists1 and have never yet seen the sole of a hind foot level with the shoe three days after the shoeing4 ,only once have ,i seen the sole of the fore foot level with the shoe after a week's wear4 ,i am often apologetically told1 ,well1 it is not quite in wear1 but it is not an eight of an inch below the surface of the shoe4 ,quite so1 it is nearly in wear1 but if not actually in wear what becomes of the principle8 ,the sole is not directly in wear and bearing is confined to the wall4 ,as to the frog1 the ,charlier affords no greater use to it than any other shoe of a similar thickness1 unless instead of being placed on sound firm horn it be dangerously let down into the hoof so that its edge approaches very closely to the sensitive foot4 ,it is sometimes difficult to arrive at the truth as to the significance of the phrase embedding or letting down the shoe of the ,charlier system4 ,at one time we are assured that the shoe is not sunk1 the sole is permitted to grow up4 ,when this is so1 very little positive objection to the system can be taken1 because the shoe then rests at the same level on firm horn as does any other narrow shoe2 but then the frog takes no better bearing than in other systems and the superfluous growth of horn on the sole is of no value4 ,when the shoe is really let down of course the frog does receive increased pressure--it is forced to share with the wall the primary function of sustaining weight instead of1 as in nature1 taking only a secondary share of such action4 ,it does this at the expense of a shoe placed so close to the quick that if the upper and inner border of iron be not bevelled off1 immediate lameness results4 ,when the ,charlier shoe was first introduced it was applied the full length of the foot1 but it was found that when thinned by wear the heels spread and led to injury of the opposite leg or to its being trodden off4 ,now the ,charlier is only applied like a tip round the front portion of the surface of the foot1 and it therefore partakes of some of the advantages ,i have credited to tips4 ,it is a very light shoe and only requires small nails to fix it securely1 but as the shoe is only the width of the wall the nails have to be driven solely in the wall1 and their position is open to the objection applying to all too fine nailing4 ,the disadvantages of the ,charlier are its being let down too near the quick1 its limited bearing1 and its fine nail holes2 the advantages are the lightness and the freedom given to the back of the foot1 both of which are attainable with a narrow tip not let down4 ,one very apparent effect resulting from the use of the ,charlier system is the alteration in the action of the horse4 ,all knee action is lost1 and some horses go decidedly tender whilst others acquire a low shooting stride1 which is certainly not in accordance with our notions of good free locomotion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--;,groove for modified or short ,charlier4 ,illustration3 ,fig #fd4--;,a ,tip laid on1 not let down4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,roughing4 ,in winter1 ice1 snow1 and frost1 render roads slippery1 and it is necessary to provide some arrangement whereby horses may have the greatest security of foot-hold4 ,in countries such as ,canada or ,russia1 where a regular winter sets in at a tolerably uniform date and continues without intermission for some months1 it is easier to adopt a good system of roughing than in ,great ,britain4 ,there1 on a thick layer of ice or snow1 sharp projections on the shoes cut into the surface and afford foot-hold4 ,the edge of the projections is not soon blunted1 and when once properly placed their duration is as long as the time desirable for retaining the shoe4 ,here1 very different conditions obtain4 ,sometimes a week or two of frost and snow may prevail1 but more frequently the spells of wintry weather are counted by days4 ,two or three days of frost and then two or three days of mud and slush1 to be followed by either dry hard roads or a return of ice and snow1 is our usual winter4 ,we require during this time to provide for occasional days1 or more rarely for weeks1 of frost-bound roads4 ,our horses' shoes wear about a month and then require replacing by new ones4 ,when roads are hard and dry we want no sharp ridges or points about our horses shoes1 and yet we must always be able at twenty-four hours notice to supply some temporary arrangement which will ensure foot-hold4 ,the necessity for roughing and the evil effects of continuing to work unroughed horses on slippery frost-bound roads is demonstrated in ,london every winter by a very significant fact4 ,if after three days of ice and snow1 anyone will visit a horse-slaughterers' yard1 he will find the place full of dead horses which have fallen in the streets and suffered incurable or fatal injury4 ,a sudden and severe attack of ice and snow half paralyses the horse traffic of a large town for a day or two1 and many owners will sooner keep their horses in the stable than go to the expense of having them roughed4 ,the loss in civil life from unpreparedness for ice and snow is very serious1 but the loss which has fallen upon military movements from similar neglect is appalling4 ,napoleon's rout from ,moscow in #ahad1 ,bourbaki's flight into ,switzerland in #ahga1 and the ,danish retreat upon ,koenigsgratz in #ahfe are terrible instances of the frightful loss sustained when horses are unable to keep on their feet at a walk1 let alone drag guns and wagons over an ice-covered surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--;,frost-nails1 various4 ,a well-managed stud of horses which is required to face all weather and to work every day through an ,english winter should1 from ,december #ast to ,march #ast1 be shod in such a manner as to be easily and speedily provided with mechanism which will afford secure foot-hold4 ,this may be effected by the use of moveable steel roughs or sharps4 ,of course the cost is the argument against them1 but this should be considered in view of the probability or certainty of loss which will follow from neglect4 ,if we allow common humanity to animals to enter into the consideration1 economy will be served by adopting a well arranged system of roughing4 ,every good horseman appreciates the enormity of over-loading1 but neglect of roughing causes just as much cruelty4 ,a horse that on a good road can properly draw a ton would be considered over-loaded with two tons1 and his struggles to progress would at once attract attention4 ,the same animal with half a ton on an ice-covered surface would suffer more exhaustion1 fatigue1 and fright1 and run more risk of fatal injury than in the case of the over-loading1 but his owner who would indignantly repudiate the one condition will designedly incur the other4 ,probably this is only thoughtlessness1 but it is a reflection on the prudence of a manager1 and certainly not flattering to the feelings or intelligence of a man4 ,there are many ways of providing foot-hold for a horse on ice and snow4 ,the most simple and temporary proceeding is to use frost-nails4 ,fig4 #fe shows various sizes and shapes of these articles4 ,they are not driven through the hoof like ordinary nails1 but through the shoe only1 which is prepared for their reception at the time of fitting4 ,a shoe to carry frost-nails is fitted a little wider than usual at the heels and has at its extremities1 or more often at its outer extremities1 countersunk holes stamped and directed outwards so that the frost-nail can be safely driven through by anyone and its shank turned down over the shoe4 ,there is a difficulty in firmly securing them1 they are apt to work loose and then become bent and useless4 ,if used on the inside heel of a shoe they constitute a danger to the opposite leg should they bend and protrude from under the shoe4 ,as a temporary provision against a sudden frost or fall of snow they are useful--but they are only a make-shift4 ,the more permanent and effective system of roughing consists in removing the shoes and turning down a sharp chisel projection at the heels4 ,in very bad weather a projecting edge is also laid across the toe of the shoe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--;,heels of ,fore and ,hind ,shoes1 sharped4 ,the diagrams show the method of sharping a front and hind shoe at the heels only4 ,the hind shoe1 having calkins1 is not much altered4 ,the smith simply converts the square calkin into a sharp-edged one4 ,the fore shoe having no calkins is turned down at the heels to afford enough iron to form the 'sharp4' ,but this shortens the shoe1 and if it be repeated two or three times1 as it often is1 the bearing surface is spoiled1 and the slightest carelessness in fitting the shoe causes a bruised heel4 ',roughing' is generally done in a hurry4 ,a dozen horses reach the farrier's shop at one time and all desire to return to work with as little delay as possible4 ,the work is perforce hurried through1 careful fitting cannot be done1 and bad-footed horses suffer accordingly4 ,the dotted lines in ,fig4 #ff show the original length of shoe1 and the shortening which results from a second roughing4 ,all horse-owners know how many lame horses result from the repeated roughings necessitated by a week or two of wintry weather4 ,some of this is inevitable from the rush and hurry which cannot be prevented4 ,valuable horses with weak feet should not be submitted to any such risk4 ,they should be shod with removable sharps4 ,the mere fact of removing a horse's shoes perhaps five or six times in a month must injure the hoof4 ,add to this the shortening of the shoe1 the raising of the heel by the roughing1 and the irregular bearing due to hurried fitting and we have conditions which only the very strongest feet can endure without serious injury4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--,toe ,sharp4 ,for heavy draught horses1 and for all where the roads are hilly1 the toes as well as the heels must be 'sharped' when ice and snow are firm on the surface4 ,fig4 #fg shows this arrangement at the toe4 ,the removable steel sharps1 of which ,i have spoken1 are certainly the least objectionable method of providing foot-hold in winter4 ,they are made in various sizes to suit all kinds of shoes4 ,they vary in shape somewhat1 but their form is more a matter of fancy than utility4 ,one in each heel of a shoe is the usual number used but if snow and ice are plentiful and the roads hilly two additional sharps may be placed at the toe of the shoe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--,removable ,steel ,sharp4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4--,steel ,sharps1 screw4 ,at the time of fitting the shoes1 holes are made by first punching a round hole through the heels--and through the toe if desired--then the hole is 'tapped' and a thread formed to fit it in the shank of the sharp which is to fill it4 ,if the sharps are not immediately wanted the holes may be filled with corks to keep out the grit and dirt4 ,when corks are used the wear of the shoe causes a burr to form round the edge of the hole1 and before the sharp can be screwed in a tap must be worked into each hole to clear the thread4 ,one great objection to this method is that as the shoe wears it becomes thinner1 and if much worn the shank of the sharp may be too long1 and when screwed home cause pressure upon the hoof and consequent lameness4 ,to guard against this steel blanks are used to preserve the holes1 and when a frost comes they are removed and the sharps put in4 ,the blanks vary in height and of course those least in height are best for the horse's action1 but they must not be allowed to get so worn that it is impossible to remove them4 ,these blanks are shown below4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4--;,blanks1 screwed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--,steel ,sharps and ,blank1 ,plug shanks4 ,the tapping and screwing of shoes is expensive1 and in small shops must be done by hand4 ,in large shops a gas engine and a machine would reduce the cost very greatly1 and if the system came into general use this method of providing against frost-bound roads could be carried out at much less cost than now4 ,with a view to economy and simplicity a sharp has been invented which requires no screw4 ,the shank may be either round or square4 ,a hole is punched in the heel of the shoe and carefully gauged to the size of the shank of the sharp4 ,the sharp is then put in and a tap of the hammer secures it4 ,the difficulty is to get the hole in the shoe and the shank of the sharp of corresponding form and size4 ,when this is done the sharp keeps its place and is not difficult to remove4 ,too often1 however1 they are not uniform1 and then the sharp falls out or sometimes cannot be removed4 ,when the holes are drilled instead of punched the fit is more exact1 but this only applies to those with a round shank4 ,a slight taper is given both to the hole and the shank of the sharp4 ,as with the screw sharps so with these1 blanks are used to keep the holes open until the road-surface requires the sharp4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4--,steel ,taps for screwing shoes4 ,no sharps should be left in shoes when the horses are stabled at night1 as serious injuries to the coronet may result from a tread by the opposite foot4 ,the coachman or horse-keeper must be supplied with a spanner to remove the screws1 and with a tap to clear the holes if blanks are not used4 ,for roads not badly covered with snow and ice1 sufficient security is afforded by some forms of india-rubber pads1 which will be described in a future chapter4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,injuries ,,from ,,shoeing4 ,even with the most careful farrier injury may occur during shoeing1 or may arise as the result of the operation4 ,sometimes the foot1 from its condition or form1 renders an accident possible1 and it may be so diseased1 or defective1 as to render shoeing with safety very improbable4 ,sometimes the shoe is to blame1 and sometimes the nail or clip4 ,a few words about each of the common injuries may be useful as helps to their avoidance or as guides to their remedying4 ,from nails two kinds of injury may result4 ,the most common arises from the nail being driven too near the sensitive parts1 and is known as a bind4 ,the nail does not really penetrate the sensitive foot1 but is so near as to press unduly upon it4 ,this condition causes lameness1 which is generally not noticed till a day or two after the shoeing4 ,it is readily detected by the farrier on removing the shoe and trying all the tracks of the nails in the hoof by pressure with pincers4 ,when the lameness is slight removal of the nail and one or two days rest are all that is required4 ,when the lameness is great it may be suspected that the injury has caused the formation of matter within the hoof4 ,this must1 of course1 be allowed to escape1 and the services of a veterinary surgeon are advisable4 ,any neglect in these cases1 such as working the horse after lameness has appeared1 or delay in removing the offending nail1 may lead to very serious changes in the foot1 or even to death of the horse4 ,another injury caused by nails is from a direct puncture of the sensitive foot4 ,this may be slight1 as in cases where the farrier in driving the nail misdirects it and so stabs the sensitive parts1 but immediately withdraws the nail knowing what has happened4 ,the lameness resulting from this is usually slight4 ,very much more serious is the lameness resulting from a nail which pierces the sensitive foot and is not recognised at once by the farrier4 ,as a rule1 lameness is immediate1 and should the horse perform a journey before the nail is removed1 serious damage is certain to follow4 ,want of skill in driving a nail is not always the chief cause of binding or pricking a horse4 ,more often than not the form and position of the nail-holes is the primary cause1 for if the nail-holes in the shoe are too coarse or badly pitched it is quite impossible to safely drive nails through them4 ,sometimes the nails are defective1 and this was much more common when nails were all hand-made4 ,bad iron or bad workmanship led to nails splitting within the hoof1 and whilst one half came out through the wall the other portion turned in and penetrated the sensitive foot causing a most dangerous injury4 ,the best brands of machine-made nails1 now generally used1 are remarkably free from this defect4 ,no lameness resulting from injury by a nail should be neglected4 ,if detected and attended to at once few cases are serious4 ,if neglected1 the very simplest may end in permanent damage to the horse4 ,by treating these accidents as unpardonable1 horse-owners rather encourage farriers to disguise them or to not acknowledge them4 ,if the workman would always be careful to search for injury and when he found it acknowledge the accident1 many simple cases would cease to develop into serious ones4 ,frank acknowledgement is always best1 but is less likely to take place when it is followed by unqualified blame than when treated as an accident which may have been accompanied by unavoidable difficulties4 ,from clips lameness may arise4 ,a badly drawn clip is not easily laid level and flat on the wall4 ,when hammered down excessively it causes pressure on the sensitive foot1 and lameness4 ,when side clips are used--one each side of the foot--it is not difficult to cause lameness by driving them too tightly against the wall4 ,they then hold the hoof as if in a vice4 ,when shoes get loose or are partially torn off the horse may tread on the clip1 and if it be high and sharp very dangerous wounds result4 ,from the shoe1 injury results from any uneven pressure1 especially when the horny covering of the foot is weak and thin4 ,the horn becomes broken and split1 and the bearing for a shoe is more or less spoiled4 ,flat feet are liable to be bruised by the pressure of the inner circumference of the shoe at the toe4 ,lameness from this cause is easily detected by removing the shoe and testing the hoof with the pincers4 ,if attended to at once1 and the bearing of the shoe removed from the part little injury results4 ,if neglected1 inflammatory changes in the sensitive parts are sure to arise4 ,corns in horses are due to bruising of the angle of the sole by the heel of the shoe4 ,a wide open foot with low heels is most likely to suffer1 but any foot may be injured4 ,the most common seat of injury is the inner heel of a fore-foot4 ,even a properly fitted shoe may cause a corn if retained too long upon a foot1 as then1 owing to the growth of the hoof1 its extremity is carried forward from beneath the wall so as to press upon the sole4 ,a short shoe1 fitted too close on the inside1 is the most common cause of corn4 ,to guard against the shoe being trodden on by the opposite foot the inside is generally fitted close1 and to guard against being trodden on by the hind foot it is often fitted short4 ,thus to prevent accidents of one kind methods are adopted which1 being a little overdone1 lead to injury of another4 ,a not uncommon error in the preparation of the foot for shoeing may also lead to the production of the so-called corn4 ,if the wall on the inside heel be lowered more than it should be the horn of the sole is left higher than the wall1 and then a level shoe presses unevenly upon the higher part4 ,a corn1 be it remembered1 is not a tumour or a growth1 it is merely a bruise of the sensitive foot under the horn of the sole4 ,it shows itself by staining the horn red1 just as a bruise on the human body shows a staining of the skin above it4 ,to cut out a corn with the idea of removing it is simply an ignorant proceeding4 ,if a corn be slight all that is necessary is to take off the pressure of the shoe1 and this is assisted by removing a thin slice or two of horn at the part4 ,when the injury is very great matter may be formed under the horn1 and of course must be let out by removal of the horn over it4 ,provided there is no reason to believe that matter has formed1 a corn1 i4e41 the bruised and discoloured horn1 should not be dug out in the ruthless manner so commonly adopted4 ,cutting away all the horn of the sole at the heels leaves the wall without any support4 ,when the shoe rests upon the wall it is unable to sustain the weight without yielding1 and thus an additional cause of irritation and soreness is manufactured4 ,the excessive paring of corns is the chief reason of the difficulty of getting permanently rid of them4 ,the simplest device for taking all pressure off a corn is to cut off an inch and a half of the inner heel of the shoe4 ,with the three-quarter shoe 7,fig4 #gc7 a horse will soon go sound1 and his foot will then resume its healthy state4 ,the saying once a corn1 always a corn is not true1 but it is true that a bruised heel is tender and liable to bruise again1 from very slight unevenness of pressure1 for at least three months4 ,all that is necessary is care in fitting and abstention from removal of too much horn at the part4 ,of course when the degree of lameness is such as to suggest that matter is formed the horn must be cut away so as to afford an exit for it1 but the majority of corns are detected long before the stage of suppuration has resulted from a bruise4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4--,three-quarter ,shoe4 ,a burnt ,sole4 ,in fitting a hot shoe to a foot it sometimes happens that the sensitive parts under the sole at the toe are injured by heat4 ,this is most likely to occur with a foot on which the horn is thin1 especially if it also be flat or convex4 ,burning the sole is an injury which must be put down to negligence4 ,it does not occur from the shoe being too hot but from its being too long retained1 and may be expected when the fireman is seen holding a dull-red hot shoe on to a foot1 with a doormen assisting to bed it in by pressing it to the foot with a rasp4 ,when the heat of a shoe penetrates through the horn with sufficient intensity to blister the sensitive parts of the foot great pain and lameness result4 ,in many cases separation of the sole from the quick takes place1 and some weeks pass before the horse can resume work4 ,treads are injuries to the coronet caused by the shoe of the opposite foot1 and are usually found on the front or inside of the hind feet4 ,the injury may take the form of a bruise and the skin remain unbroken1 it may appear as a superficial jagged wound1 or it may take the form of a tolerably clean cut1 in which case1 although at first bleeding is very free1 ultimate recovery is rapid4 ,bruises on the coronet--just where hair and hoof meet--are always to be looked upon as serious4 ,the slighter cases1 after a few days pain and lameness1 pass away leaving only a little line showing where the hoof has separated from the skin4 ,this separation is not serious unless a good deal of swelling has accompanied it1 and even then only time is required to effect a cure4 ,in more serious cases an extensive slough takes place1 and the coronary band which secretes the wall may be damaged4 ,the worst cases are those in which deep seated abscesses occur1 as they often terminate in a quittor4 ,the farrier should always recognise a tread as possibly dangerous and obtain professional advice4 ,it is a common custom to rasp away the horn of the wall immediately beneath any injury of the coronet1 but it is a useless proceeding which weakens the hoof and does no good to the inflamed tissues above or beneath4 ,treads are most common in horses shod with heavy shoes and high calkins--a fact which suggests that a low square calkin and a shoe fitted not too wide at the heels is a possible preventive4 ,cutting or ,brushing4 ,by these terms is meant the injury to the inside of the fetlock joint which results from bruising by the opposite foot4 ,possibly some small proportion of such injuries are traceable to the system of shoeing1 to the form of shoe1 or to the action of the horse4 ,they are1 with few exceptions1 the direct result of want of condition in the horse and are almost confined to young horses1 old weak horses1 or animals that have been submitted to some excessively long and tiring journey4 ,the first thing a horse-owner does when his horse brushes is to send him to the farrier to have his shoes altered4 ,in half the cases there is nothing wrong with the shoes1 and all that is required is a little patience till the horse gains hard condition4 ,at the commencement of a coaching season half the horses cut their fetlocks1 no matter how they are shod4 ,at the end of the season none of them touch the opposite joint1 with perhaps a few exceptions afflicted with defective formation of limb1 or constitutions that baffle all attempts at getting hard condition4 ,the same thing is seen in cab and omnibus stock4 ,all the new horses cut their legs for a few weeks4 ,the old ones1 with a few exceptions1 work in any form of shoe1 but never touch their joints4 ,they cut when they are out of condition--when their limbs soon tire2 but they never cut when they are in condition--when they have firm control of the action of their limbs4 ,there are1 however1 a few horses that are always a source of trouble1 and there are conditions of shoeing which assist or prevent the injury4 ,the hind legs are the most frequently affected and this because of the calkins4 ,many horses will cease cutting at once if the calkins of the shoes be removed and a level shoe adopted4 ,there are certain forms of shoe which are supposed to be specially suitable as preventives4 ,a great favourite is the knocked-up-shoe--i4e41 a shoe with no nails on the inside except at the toe1 and a skate-shaped inner branch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4--,knocked-up ,shoes--with and without an inner ,calkin4 ,these shoes are fitted not only close to the inner border of the wall but within it1 and the horn at the toe is then rasped off level with the shoe4 ,whether they are of any use is a question1 but there is no question of the harm they do to the foot4 ,some farriers are partial to a three-quarter-shoe--one from which a couple of inches of the inside heel has been removed4 ,some thicken the outside toe1 some the inside toe4 ,some raise one heel1 some the other1 and some profess to have a principle of fitting the shoe based upon the formation of the horse's limb and the peculiarity of his action4 ,if in practice success attended these methods ,i should advise their adoption1 but my experience is that numerous farriers obtain a special name for shoeing horses that cut1 when their methods1 applied to quite similar cases1 are as antagonistic as the poles4 ,a light shoe without calkins has at any rate negative properties--it will not assist the horse to injure himself4 ,for all the other forms and shapes ,i have a profound contempt1 but as people will have changes1 and as the most marked departure from the ordinary seems to give the greatest satisfaction1 it is perhaps good business to supply what is appreciated4 ,the two great cures for cutting are--regular work and good old beans4 ,when a man drives a horse forty miles in a day at a fast pace he1 of course1 blames the farrier for all damage to the fetlocks4 ,he is merely illogical4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,toe of ,hind ,shoe showing the edge which cuts the ,front ,foot4 ,over-reaching4 ,this is an injury to the heel--generally the inner--of a front foot4 ,the heel is struck by the inner border of the toe of the hind shoe4 ,over-reach occurs at a gallop in this country1 but is seen in ,america as the result of a mis-step in the fast trotters4 ,an over-reach can only occur when the fore foot is raised from the ground and the hind foot reaches right into the hollow of the fore foot4 ,when the fore and hind feet in this position separate the inner border of the toe of the hind shoe catches the heel of the fore foot and cuts off a slice4 ,this cut portion often hangs as a flap1 and when it does the attachment is always at the back1 showing that the injury was not from behind forwards as it would be if caused by a direct blow1 but from before backwards--in other words by a dragging action of the hind foot as it leaves the front one4 ,an over-reach then may result either from the fore limb being insufficiently extended1 or from the hind limb being over extended4 ,the prevention of this injury is effected by rounding off the inside edge of the hind shoe as shown below4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4--,toe of ,hind ,shoe showing rounded inside border4 ,speedy-cut4 ,this is an injury inflicted on the inner surface of the lower part of the knee joint by a blow from the toe of the shoe of the opposite foot4 ,it occurs at a trot1 and very seldom except when a horse is tired or over-paced4 ,a horse that has once speedy-cut is apt to do so again and it may cause him to fall4 ,such horses should be shod close on the inside1 and care should be taken that the heels of the foot which strikes should be kept low4 ,in some cases a three-quarter shoe 7see ,fig4 #gc7 on the offending foot prevents injury4 ,forging or ,clacking4 ,this is not an injury but an annoyance4 ,it is the noise made by the striking of the hind shoe against the front as the horse is trotting4 ,horses forge when young and green1 when out of condition or tired4 ,as a rule1 a horse that makes this noise is a slovenly goer1 and will cease to annoy when he gets strength and goes up to his bit4 ,shoeing makes a difference1 and in some cases at once stops it4 ,the part of the front shoe struck is the inner border round the toe4 7,fig4 #gg74 ,the part of the hind shoe that strikes is the outer border at the inside and outside toe4 7,fig4 #gh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4--,toe of ,fore ,shoe4 ,the arrows mark the place struck in forging4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4--,toe of ,hind ,shoe showing the edge which strikes the ,fore ,shoe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4--,toe of ,fore ,shoe with inner border bevelled off4 ,to alter the fore shoe1 round off the inner border2 or use a shoe with no inner border such as the concave hunting shoe ,to alter the toe of the hind shoe is useless1 but by using a level shoe without calkins some advantage is gained4 ,a so-called diamond-toed shoe has been recommended4 ,it is not advisable as it does no good except by causing its point to strike the sole of the front foot4 ,if by such a dodge the sound is got rid of it is only by running the risk of injuring the foot4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,shoeing ,,bad ,,feet4 ,any average farrier can shoe without immediate harm a good well-formed foot that has a thick covering of horn1 but when the horn is deficient in quantity or quality injury soon takes place if a badly fitted shoe be applied4 ,there are feet which from disease or accident or bad shoeing have become1 more or less1 permanently damaged4 ,some are seriously altered in shape4 ,some are protected only by an unhealthy horn1 and some show definite changes which cause weakness at a special part4 ,these are the feet which really test the art of the farrier1 for he must know just what to do and what not to do1 and must possess the skill to practice what he knows4 ,flat ,feet4 ,some horses are born with flat feet1 others acquire them as the result of disease4 ,too often the flat sole has another defect accompanying it--low weak heels4 ,such feet are best shod with a seated shoe so as to avoid any uneven pressure on the sole1 and the shoes should always be fitted a little longer than the bearing-surface of the foot1 so as to avoid any risk of producing a bruise at the heel--in other words1 of causing a corn4 ,the seated shoe is not advisable on a hunter4 ,the concave shoe used for hunters has many distinct advantages and only one disadvantage for a flat foot1 viz1 that it has a wide flat foot-surface4 ,it may cause an uneven pressure at the toe on a flat sole1 but this is easily avoided by not making it too wide2 perhaps the very worst thing to do with a flat foot is to try and make it look less flat by paring it down4 ,the thinner the horn the greater the chance of injury to the sensitive parts under it1 and every injury tends to make the sole weaker4 ,leaving the sole strong and thick1 whilst fitting the shoe to avoid uneven pressure1 is the principle of shoeing to be adopted with flat feet4 ,convex ,soles4 ,the sole of the foot should be concave1 but as the result of disease many feet become convex4 ,this bulging or dropping of the sole varies in degree from a little more than flat to an inch or so below the level of the wall4 ,when the under-surface of a horse's foot resembles in form the outside of a saucer1 fitting a shoe becomes a work of art4 ,very often the wall is brittle and broken away and it is most difficult to find sufficient bearing-surface on the foot for a shoe4 ,many of these feet may be safely shod with a narrow shoe that rests only on the wall and the intermediate horn between the wall and sole4 ,such a shoe may1 according to the size of the foot1 be five-eighths or even three-quarters of an inch wide4 ,its thickness is to be such as will prevent the sole taking any direct bearing on the ground1 and sometimes a shoe of this form is much thicker than it is wide4 ,the advantage of this shoe is that it is so narrow that any bearing on the sole is avoided4 ,the disadvantage is that on rough roads the sole may be bruised by the flint or granite stones4 ,when the horn of a dropped sole is very thin1 or when the horse has to work on roads covered with sharp loose stones1 some cover for the sole is necessary and the narrow shoe is not practicable4 ,to provide cover for the sole1 the web of the shoe has to be wide1 and1 therefore1 the foot-surface of the shoe must be seated out so as to avoid contact with the sole4 ,too often the seating is continued from the inner to the outer border of a shoe1 so that no level bearing-surface is provided for the wall to rest on4 ,this kind of shoe is like the hollow of a saucer1 and when applied to a foot is certain to cause lameness soon or later4 ,each time the horse rests his weight on it the hoof is compressed by the inclined surface of the shoe1 which instead of providing a firm bearing-surface affords only an ingenious instrument of torture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,improper bearing surface4 ,a level bearing surface4 ,in even the worst of these deformed feet some good sound horn is to be found at the heels1 where an inch or sometimes two can be utilised for level bearing4 ,no matter how much seating is required at the toe and quarters1 the heel of the shoe may always be made level4 ,it cannot be too strongly urged that in the preparation of feet with bulging soles no horn is to be removed from the sole4 ,the toe is to be shortened1 the heels lowered proportionately1 and the bearing-surface of the wall made level with a rasp4 ,at no place must the shoe rest on the sole4 ,in nearly every case the toe is left too long and the bearing taken upon it by the shoe only increases the deformity4 ,in many feet a large slice might be sawn off the toe with advantage1 as the sensitive foot is separated from the wall by a mass of diseased horn which presses the wall at the toe forward4 7,fig4 #ha74 ,illustration3 ,fig #ha4 ,deformity resulting from ,laminitis4 ,section showing how front of wall is separated from sensitive lamin4 ,sandcracks4 ,this is the name given to cracks in the wall which commence at the coronet and extend downwards4 ,from their position at the toe1 or at the side of the hoof1 they are sometimes called respectively toe-cracks and quarter-cracks4 ,the crack may be very slight and may exist without causing lameness4 ,it may appear suddenly1 accompanied by great lameness and by the issue of blood from between the edges of the divided wall4 ,these are grave cases which require surgical attendance4 ,sandcracks are most commonly seen in dry brittle feet1 and the horses most subject to them are those employed in heavy draught work4 ,railway shunt-horses and omnibus horses are very liable to be troubled with sandcracks in the toe of the hind feet4 ,in shoeing for this defect there are two things to avoid1 7a7 not to place any direct pressure on the part2 7b7 not to fit a shoe which will tend to force the crack open4 ,following these lines it is well not to put a clip exactly over a crack4 ,if at the toe place a clip each side of the crack1 and never use calkins or high heels which throw the weight forward4 ,if at the quarter avoid a spring-heeled shoe which permits the downward movement of the foot behind the crack and so forces it open4 ,in all cases1 after fitting the shoe level to the foot1 remove a little more horn just below the crack so as to relieve the direct bearing on the part4 7,fig4 #hb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,a--,horn removed to prevent pressure4 ,bearing relieved at wrong place by springing the heel4 ,in the case of crack extending the whole space of the wall some provision should always be made to keep it from opening1 because every step of the horse1 especially when drawing a load1 causes an outward pressure at the coronet4 ,this pressure forces the hoof apart and the injury caused does not cease with the pain and lameness which follow1 and which may be temporary4 ,doubtless the original cause of a sandcrack is some morbid condition of the coronary band--the band from which the wall grows4 ,the sensitive lamin are at first not affected further than by the inflammation consequent upon the direct tearing which occurs when the crack takes place4 ,the continued irritation1 kept up by a persistent fissure in the horn covering the lamin1 soon causes other serious changes which tend to make the sandcrack a permanent disease4 ,thus even the smallest crack should be attended to and measures adopted to prevent its enlargement or1 when extensive1 to limit all opening and shutting movement of the hoof4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4--;,french ,clips in ,position4 ,this is sometimes attempted by a simple leather strap tightly applied1 or by binding the foot with string or tape4 ,tape is less liable to slip than string4 ,when the hoof is sufficiently thick two nails may be driven in opposite directions transversely through the crack and clinched2 or ,french sandcrack-clips 7,fig4 #hc7 may be used which are easily applied4 ,the instruments necessary are shown below 7,fig4 #hd74 ,the iron 7b7 is made red-hot and pressed on the hoof over the crack so as to burn a groove each side of it4 ,into these grooves the clip 7a7 is put and the pincers 7c7 are then used to compress the clip firmly into its place4 ,there is a strain upon the clips1 and sometimes one breaks4 ,it is therefore necessary always to use two1 and for an extensive crack three may be employed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,all these appliances tend to keep the lips of the crack from separating1 but they do not prevent the edges of a deep wide crack from being forced together and thus pinching the sensitive parts4 ,to provide against this injury a slip of hard wood may be fitted into the crack1 and then the nails or clips may be more safely drawn tight without fear of injury1 and with a better chance of preventing any movement in the edges of the crack4 ,to insert the wood1 the crack is converted into a groove nearly as deep as the wall1 about three-eights of an inch wide1 with straight sides1 or better still1 with a little greater width at the bottom than at the surface4 ,into such a groove a piece of wood formed to fit it is gently driven from below and rasped off to fit exactly4 ,or1 softened gutta-percha may be pressed firmly into the space and levelled off when cold4 ,to cut out a sandcrack except for the purpose of refilling it is bad practice as it favours movement and helps to make the defect permanent4 ,to rasp away the horn so that only a thin layer is left is also injurious4 ,no horn should be removed except for the fitting of a plug as above described or1 under veterinary direction1 for the purpose of giving vent to matter which has formed within the hoof4 ,in many ,european countries a shoe is used for toe-cracks which has two clips drawn on the inside border of the shoe at the heels4 ,these clips catch the bars of the hoof and prevent the heels of the foot closing in4 ,the idea is that when the wall at the heels contracts1 there is a tendency for the wall at the toe1 if separated by a crack1 to open4 ,fig4 #he shows the position of the clips which must be carefully fitted so as to rest on the inside of the bars4 ,mr4 ,willis1 ,v4,s41 has tried these shoes and speaks well of their utility4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4--,shoe with ,heel ,clips for ,sandcrack4 ,when the crack is in the quarters of the foot1 it is not the tendency to expansion of the hoof that has to be guarded against4 ,it is the downward motion of the heels that forces open a crack in this position4 ,the farrier provides against this by taking care to have a firm bearing of the shoe on the hoof behind the crack as shown in ,a figure #hb4 ,contracted ,feet4 ,some diseases of the foot lead to contraction of the hoof1 which is most noticeable round the coronet and at the heels4 ,any long continued lameness which prevents the horse placing the usual weight on the foot may be accompanied by contraction4 ,constant cutting away of the bars and paring the frog so that it takes no contact with the ground also leads to shrinking in of the heels4 ,by lowering the heels and letting the frog alone many feet will in time widen out to their proper size1 but no system of shoeing is so good for contracted feet as the use of tips1 which leave the whole back part of the hoof to take direct bearing on the ground4 ,many shoes have been invented for forcing open the heels of contracted feet4 ,some have had a hinge at the toe and a movable screw at the heel4 ,some have had the bearing-surface at the heels made with a slope outwards1 7,see ,fig4 #ec1 page #gd7 so that the weight of the horse should constantly tend to force the heels apart4 ,there is no necessity for any of these contrivances4 ,a properly fitted tip 7,see page #gh7 will permit the hoof gradually to expand to its healthy size and form4 ,seedy-toe4 ,this is a condition of the wall usually found at the toe but not uncommon at the quarters4 ,it is not common in hind feet but occurs sometimes4 ,when the shoe is removed a separation is noticed between the sole and the wall1 and this separation may extend up the wall nearly to the coronet4 ,as a rule the space so formed is a narrow one1 but it may be wide enough to admit three fingers of a man's hand4 ,probably all seedy toes result from some injury or disease of the coronary band from which the wall grows1 and the first appearance is not a cavity but a changed and softened horn1 which may be dry and crumbly1 or moist and cheesy4 ,the diseased horn may be scraped out and the cavity filled with tar and tow4 ,the wall bounding the cavity should be relieved of all pressure on the shoe1 and if a radical cure be desired all the unattached wall should be cut away4 ,this1 however1 should be done under veterinary guidance4 ,turning in of the ,wall4 ,by this expression1 ,i mean those cases of weak low-heels in which the border of the wall turns inward4 ,such a form of horn offers no suitable bearing for a shoe1 and if submitted to pressure by a shoe gets worse4 ,too often this condition is treated by paring away the sole within1 which increases the deformity4 ,the sole should not be cut but be left as strong as possible4 ,the curled-in border of the wall should be cut down and all bearing taken off the shoe4 ,in one or two shoeings the wall will resume its proper form4 ,when both heels are so affected1 and the horse has to remain at work1 only one heel must be treated at a time4 ,the extreme point of the heel is never affected1 and affords a point for bearing when the border of wall in front of it is cut away so as not to touch the shoe4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,leather ,,and ,,rubber ,,pads4 ,in the days when farriers were driven by theoretical teachers to pare out the soles and otherwise rob the foot of its natural covering of horn1 artificial protection had frequently to be given to the foot4 ,a horse with a thin sole could not travel over rough roads1 on which sharp loose stones were plentiful1 without great risk of injury2 consequently in those times plates of leather were often used to protect the foot4 ,when a horse went a little short his owner not unnaturally concluded that he had bruised his foot and that the protection of a leather sole would be beneficial4 ,in many cases the defective action was due to other cause than bruising1 but still the leather was adopted1 and it soon became an accepted theory that leather soles modified concussion and protected the foot from jar4 ,this is more than doubtful1 and ,i hold a very firm opinion that a plate of leather between the shoe and the foot has no such effect1 whilst it interferes with the exactness of fit of the shoe4 ,leathers are useful on weak feet to protect a thin or defective sole from injury4 ,when the under surface of a foot has been bruised1 cut through1 or when it is diseased1 leather offers a useful protection1 but when the sole is firm and sound it is quite unnecessary4 ,to apply leather properly1 a square piece fully the size of the shoe is taken4 ,a portion is then cut out where the clip has to fit and all protruding parts cut away level with the border of the shoe4 ,if applied without more precautions1 an open space would be left between leather and sole into which mud and grit would find their way and the leather would soon be cut through by resting on the irregular surface of the frog4 ,to prevent this mischief the under surface of the foot is made level before the shoe is applied4 ,the leveling is managed by spreading a paste of tar and oatmeal over the sole1 and filling up the space at the sides of the frog with tow4 ,then the shoe with the leather is nailed on in the usual manner4 ,the belief in leather as an anti-concussive appliance has led to the use of what are called ring-leathers4 ,these are not plates covering the whole under surface of the foot but narrow bands fixed between shoe and hoof4 ,they are absolutely useless1 in fact their only possible effect is to spoil the fit of the shoe4 ,plates of india-rubber have been tried between the shoe and the foot as preventives of concussion4 ,they invariably fail by reason of their effect upon the shoe4 ,at each step when the weight of the horse comes on the foot the elastic rubber yields1 the shoe is pressed closer to the foot1 the nails are loosened1 and when the foot is raised the rubber rebounds4 ,the shoe soon becomes so loose that it is cast or torn off4 ,nothing elastic should be placed between shoe and foot4 ,when an elastic or spring is applied it must be between the shoe and the ground4 ,various arrangements have been adopted to supply the horse's foot with some provision against concussion4 ,injured and diseased feet may no doubt be benefitted by some elastic appliance which secures them from the jar of contact on a hard road4 ,they may be protected against direct bruise4 ,the healthy foot requires no such protection4 ,nature has covered it with a thick layer of horn and has provided against concussion by quite other means--by the co-ordinate action of muscles1 by the oblique position of the pastern and by the construction of the back part of the foot4 ,quite apart from any attempt to prevent concussion a valuable use has been found for india-rubber pads in connection with horse-shoeing4 ,the improvement in modern road-surfaces has been accompanied by an increased facility for slipping1 and it has been found that no material gives such security of foot-hold on smooth surfaces as india-rubber4 ,the earliest of these contrivances with which ,i am acquainted was formed so as to leave the frog uncovered whilst a bearing of rubber was given all round the inner circumference of the shoe4 ,this pad had a wide flat border which fitted under the shoe1 with which it was nailed on to the foot4 ,its great objection was that it could not be nicely fitted on many feet without first cutting away the bars4 ,then we had rubber pads which were not nailed on with the shoe1 but which fitted into the shoe and were removed at will4 ,the objection to these was that they could only be used with a seated shoe and could not be applied with a narrow shoe or one possessing a flat foot-surface4 ,the next form to appear was a leather sole on which an artificial frog was fixed4 ,great difficulty was at first experienced in fixing this frog so that it remained firm4 ,the difficulty has not yet been surmounted by all makers1 but ,mr4 ,g4 ,urquhart1 of ,london1 makes a most reliable article4 ,these frog-pads certainly give a very good foot-hold on all kinds of paved streets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4--;,frog-pad4 ,a pad of very elegant appearance is ,sheather's ,pneumatic4 ,it is not solid like the ordinary frog-pad but hollow and is compressed at each step but immediately resumes its prominent form on being relieved of pressure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4--,sheather's ,pad4 ,one of the simplest anti-slipping pads is ,balls ,keep's ,wedge-pad4 ,it possesses one advantage in not covering up the whole under-surface of the foot4 ,when properly fitted it is firmly retained and does its work1 but a careless farrier may so apply it that it shifts on the foot4 ,to fit it exactly the wall of the back part of the foot must be lowered more than that in front1 so that shoe1 foot and pad may all be closely adjusted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4--,wedge-,pad4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4--,pad with ,shoe attached4 ,what is called the ,bar-pad is a leather plate on which an india-rubber pad occupies the whole of the back portion and it is fixed to the foot with a short shoe4 ,this pad is not only an anti-slipping agent1 it is anti-concussive1 and for some diseases and some injuries of the heels is a most valuable appliance4 ,for long-standing corns1 for cases of chronic laminitis1 and for horses that markedly go on their heels the bar-pad is without doubt the most efficient arrangement yet invented4 ,the best are made by ,mr4 ,urquhart4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4--;,bar-pad with ,shoe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4--,without ,shoe4 ,all these pads increase the cost of shoeing but what they save1 by preventing falls and injuries to the horse and fear and anxiety to the driver1 far more than balances the account in their favour4 ,the cost however is an item1 and inventors have turned their attention to the production of some other methods of applying rubber in connection with the shoe for the prevention of slipping4 ,shoes have been manufactured into which cavities of different forms and sizes have been made4 ,these are filled by correspondingly shaped pieces of rubber4 ,the cavity must be so formed as to retain the rubber and this renders the manufacture very difficult except by the employment of malleable cast iron shoes4 ,this is a great disadvantage4 ,another plan is to make from rolled bar iron1 a hollow shoe1 section of which would be ,u-shaped but level to the foot4 ,into the groove so formed a thick cord of rubber is placed after the shoe is nailed on the foot4 ,this wears well and affords good foot-hold but it entails the serious objection that the nails are difficult to drive and far from being so safe as in the ordinary shoe4 ,if rubber is ever to be available in a grooved shoe it should be designed so that the nails and nail holes are not interfered with4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,shoeing ,,competitions4 ,the ,agricultural ,societies that have made ,horse-shoeing ,competitions a feature of their ,annual ,shows have distinctly done good to the art4 ,in those districts which have had the benefit of these competitions for many years past1 horse-shoeing is best done4 ,in those districts where no competitions have been held shoeing is generally badly done4 ,when the farrier takes a pride in his work he is more careful with details4 ,provided proper principles are adopted1 no calling is more dependent upon care in details for the best results than that of the farrier4 ,competitions stimulate emulation amongst men4 ,public appreciation1 as displayed by the prominence given to the art by the ,show authorities and by the admiring crowd that generally assembles to see the men at work1 encourages a feeling of responsibility and gratifies the natural and honest pride of the workman4 ,very few trades have suffered more from public neglect and indifference than that of the farrier4 ,the success of a shoeing competition depends almost entirely upon the secretary of a show1 unless that officer has amongst his stewards an energetic horseman who has grasped the importance of good shoeing and who possesses some organising powers4 ,in this connection ,i may perhaps offer a word of acknowledgement for the work done by ,mr4 ,clay1 to whose energy and skill the ,royal ,agricultural ,society has for many years been indebted for the success of its valuable annual shoeing competition4 ,all the arrangements for the competition must be completed before the work is commenced1 and upon their perfection depends the success of the whole thing4 ,there should1 if possible1 be two classes--one for heavy horses and one for light horses4 ,at large competitions there should also be a champion class4 ,there are farriers who travel from show to show and generally appear in the prize list4 ,this handicaps the local men1 and is not encouraging to those who have not quite risen to front rank4 ,the object of the competition is to improve the work of the district1 and it is quite a question whether the rules should not exclude men who have taken1 say1 two first prizes at any large competition4 ,the only argument in favour of letting the well known smith who has taken many prizes enter a competition is that his work may be seen1 examined and imitated4 ,by confining prize winners to the champion class this good would be attained2 at the same time more encouragement would be given to local men4 ,the necessities for a competition include anvils1 fires1 tools1 iron and horses4 ,for every five men there should be one anvil with its accompanying vice and forge4 ,the anvil should be so placed that the sun is not full on the face of the workman4 ,the exact relative position of anvil1 vice and forge should be entrusted to a practical farrier1 and the whole placed the night before they are wanted4 ,coal1 nails and iron should also be provided4 ,if competitors are allowed to bring their own iron or nails some poor man may be placed at a disadvantage1 and the habitual competitor1 versed in every detail1 is given an advantage4 ,each man should bring all smaller tools he may want4 ,in broken weather a canvas roof should be supplied both for horses and workmen4 ,at all times a temporary wooden floor should be put down for the horses to stand upon4 ,this should be a little longer than the line of anvils so that each man has his horse opposite his anvil4 ,it should be at least twelve feet deep so that there is room enough behind and in front of the horses for men to pass4 ,on the side farthest from the anvils a firm rail must be fixed to which the horses' halters may be tied1 and outside of this--at least six feet distant--should be another line of post and rails to keep back spectators4 ,horses have to be borrowed or hired1 and one horse is sufficient for two competitors4 ,care should be taken not to have any horse with unusually bad feet4 ,the most suitable horses are those with overgrown hoofs4 ,under no circumstances should a vicious or very fidgety horse be selected4 ,when time is not an object1 the best test of a workman is to require him to make a fore and hind shoe and put them on the horse4 ,at a one-day show1 or at a competition when the entries are large1 it is sufficient to require the making of a fore and hind shoe and the fitting and nailing on of the front one4 ,a reasonable time should be fixed1 and undue haste should be deprecated4 ,there should always be two judges1 who should be supplied with books in which each division of the operation of shoeing should be separately marked4 ,there are only three important divisions of the subject3 7#a7 ,preparation of the ,foot1 7#b7 ,making the ,shoes1 and 7#c7 ,fitting and nailing on4 ,sometimes these operations are marked separately for fore and hind feet4 ,i consider this quite unnecessary4 ,there is not sufficient difference either in principle or detail to require each foot to be specially marked4 ,the judge of course notes every thing in his mind1 and it is sufficient for him to estimate and mark the value of the work under the three different operations4 ,the great fault ,i find with most competitions is that the preparation of the foot for the shoe is not more strictly defined4 ,the competitors are permitted to mix up the preparation and the fitting4 ,some of them do nothing to the foot until they commence to fit the shoe4 ,this is wrong1 and every foot should be properly prepared--the bearing-surface formed and the proportions of the hoof attended to--before the fitting is attempted4 ,a rule to this effect should be added to the conditions in the schedule of the competition4 ,each judge may perhaps be permitted to fix his own standard of marking but a uniform system would be useful for comparison4 ,if the maximum be indicated by too small a figure difficulty often arises in exactly determining the merits of men who have come out equal in the totals1 and there is too often1 in a large class1 a number whose marks are about equal4 ,the three operations--preparing the foot1 making the shoe1 fitting and nailing on--are about equal in value4 ,a maximum of five points in each is too small a number to make distinctive marking easy1 but there is nothing gained by adopting a higher maximum than ten4 ,a marking sheet for the judges of a shoeing-competition may be something in this form3 ,,class---- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,no4 of ,preparation ,making ,fitting and ,total4 ,remarks4 ,competitor4 of ,foot4 ,shoe4 ,nailing on4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,the stewards should see that each competitor has a number1 and that the same number is attached to the side of the horse on which he works4 ,the steward also should take the time at which each batch of competitors commence and see that none exceed it4 ,excessive rasping of shoes should be prohibited1 and the men should see the sizes and kinds of nails provided so that they may make their fuller and nail holes accordingly4 ,shoeing competitions are almost entirely confined to country districts4 ,it is a great pity that they are not attempted in large towns4 ,the only difficulty is the expense4 ,it would well repay large horse-owners to subscribe and support this method of improving the art4 ,in conclusion ,i must say that the best of all ways to improve the art is by giving practical instruction at the anvil4 ,a few lessons from a competent practical teacher are worth more than all books or lectures1 as the work has then to be done1 errors are pointed out and corrected1 and reasons given for each step as it is attempted4 ,the ,berkshire ,county ,council has adopted a travelling forge--the suggestion of ,mr4 ,albert ,wheatley1 ,v4,s41 of ,reading--which is accompanied by an instructor and passes from town to town and village to village4 ,in this way is supplied the tuition which used to be obtained by apprenticeship to a good workman4 ,other ,county ,councils should adopt this method4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,index4 ,action of the ,foot1 #bh ,agricultural ,societies and ,shoeing1 #aab ,arrangements of ,shoeing ,competitions1 #aac ,balls ,keep's ,wedge-,pad1 #aaj ,bar ,iron1 #fd ,bar-,pad1 #aaj ,bars of the ,foot1 #aa ,bearing ,surface of ,hoof1 #ca 1 #db at ,heels1 #ed of ,shoe1 #ea 1 #ec ,berkshire ,shoeing-,van1 #aae ,bevelled ,iron ,bars1 #fd ,binds1 #ij ,blood-,vessels1 #bf ,bones of ,foot1 #bc ,bruises by ,shoe1 #ia ,brushing1 #ie ,burnt-,sole1 #ic ,calkins1 #ef ,effect of1 #eg ,position of1 #eh ,cartilages of ,foot1 #bd ,charlier ,shoe1 #gi ,theory1 #hj ,clacking1 #ig ,clips1 #ge ,close ,fitting1 #fi ,coarse ,nail-holes1 #fa ,cold ,fitting1 #gg ,concave ,shoe1 ,the1 #ee ,continental ,sandcrack-,shoe1 ,a1 #aje ,contracted ,feet1 #aje ,coronary ,band1 #ah ,coronary ,cushion1 #bf ,corns1 #ib ,cover1 #ej ,cutting1 #id ,defective ,bearing-,surface1 #df ,disproportionate ,hoof1 #ce ,distance between ,nails1 #fa ,double-grooved ,shoe1 #ee ,drawing ,knife1 #cd ,dropped ,sole1 #ajj ,easing the ,heels1 #ga ,effect of ,charlier ,shoeing1 #hb ,calkins1 #eg ,frog ,pressure1 #cj ,evils of ,roughing1 #hf ,excessive ,rasping1 #df ,expansion of ,foot1 #bi ,fine ,nail-holes1 #fa ,fitting of ,shoes1 #fg ,tips1 #gh the ,foot to the ,shoe1 #cb ,flat ,bearing-surface of ,shoe1 #ea ,foot-surface of ,shoes1 #ea ,forging1 #ig ,french ,sandcrack ,instruments1 #ajd ,frog1 ,the1 #ac ,pads1 #aji ,pad1 ,the1 #be ,band1 ,the1 #ad ,frost ,nails1 #hd ,fullering1 #ed ,functions of ,foot1 #bg ,good ,bearing-surface1 ,a1 #cc ,grooved ,bars1 #fd ,ground-surface of ,shoes1 #ed ,growth of ,hoof1 #bj ,height of ,calkins1 #eh foot at heels1 #cf ,hoof1 ,the1 #i ,growth of1 #bj ,wear of1 #ba ,horny ,lamin1 #aa ,horse-shoeing ,competitions1 #aab ,hot ,fitting1 #gf ,hunting ,shoe1 #ee ,importance of ,horse-shoeing1 #e of ,roughing1 #hc ,injury by ,clips1 #ia ,nails1 #ij ,shoe1 #ib ,interfering1 #id ,iron and ,rubber ,combinations1 #aaa ,judging ,horse-shoeing1 #aad ,knocked-up ,shoes1 #ie ,lamin1 ,the ,horny1 #aa ,the ,sensitive1 #ag ,lateral ,cartilages1 ,the1 #bd ,lateral ,proportions of ,foot1 #dj ,leather ,soles1 ,use of1 #ajg ,length of ,toe1 #cf ,level ,bearing-,surface1 #dc ,long and ,short ,heels of ,shoe1 #fi ,machine-made shoes1 #fc ,material for ,horse-shoes1 #dh ,modified ,charlier ,shoe1 #ha ,nails1 #ei ,nail-holes1 #fj ,portions of1 #fa ,pitch of1 #fb ,number and ,position1 #fb ,natural bearing-surface of ,foot1 #ca ,notches on ,shoes1 #ef ,omnibus-horse ,shoes1 #ff ,one-sided ,hoof1 #dj ,opening the ,heels1 #dg ,outline ,fitting1 #fh ,overgrown foot1 #ce ,over-lowered ,heels1 #ci ,over-reaching1 #if ,over-reduction of ,hoof1 #dg ,paring the ,sole1 #dc 1 #df ,frog1 #dc ,pitch of ,nail-holes1 #fb ,plantar ,cushion1 #be ,pneumatic ,pad1 ,the1 #aji ,position of ,calkins1 #eh ,nails1 #fa ,preparation of ,foot for ,shoeing1 #cb ,pricks1 #ia ,properly ,prepared ,foot1 #cc ,properties of ,hoof1 #ba ,proportions of ,heel and ,toe1 #ch ,rasps1 #cd ,rasping the ,wall1 #df ,relation of ,foot to ,leg1 #cf ,removable ,sharps1 #hg ,results of ,neglect1 #g ,ridged ,shoes1 #ef ,ring leathers1 #ajh ,rodway's ,shoe1 #ee ,roughing1 #hc ,rough ,nails1 #hd ,rubber ,pads1 #ajh ,sandcrack1 #ajb ,saucer ,shoe1 ,the1 #gc ,screw ,frost ,sharps1 #hg ,screwing ,taps1 #hi ,seated ,shoes1 #eb 1 #gb ,section of ,foot1 #bb ,seedy-toe1 #ajf ,selection of ,shoes1 #fe ,sensitive ,frog1 #ai ,lamin1 #ag ,sole1 #ah ,sharping1 #hc ,sharps without ,screw1 #hh ,sheather's ,pad1 #aji ,shoe for ,sandcrack1 #ajb ,forging1 #ih ,cutting1 #ie ,shoeless ,horses1 #f ,shoeing ,flat ,feet1 #ajj ,convex ,soles1 #aja ,sole1 ,the1 #ab ,speedy ,cut1 #ig ,steel ,sharps1 #hg ,stumped-up ,toe1 #de ,surface ,fitting1 #gj ,the ,hoof1 #i ,the ,quick1 #af ,thickness of ,shoes1 #ej ,three-quarter ,shoe1 #ic ,tips1 #gg ,toeing ,knife1 #ce ,toe-pieces1 #ei ,toe ,sharps1 #hf ,treads1 #ic ,turned-in ,wall1 #ajf ,twisted ,feet1 #da ,uneven ,bearing-surface1 #de ,ground-surface1 #da ,urquhart's ,bar-pad1 #aaj ,various bearings of ,shoes1 #gd ,wall1 ,the1 #aa ,wear of ,hoof1 #ba ,wedge-pad1 ,the1 #aaj ,weight of ,shoes1 #di ,width of 1 #ej 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,grip 7,regd47 ,illustration3 ,,frog ,illustration3 ,,patent ,,bar ,illustration3 ,,ring4 ,,urquhart',s ,patent ,horse-,shoe ,pads ,prevent ,slipping1 ,cure ,corns1 ,contracted and ,diseased ,feet4 ,economise the wear and tear of legs through absence of concussion4 ,developes the healthy functions of the feet4 ,cure ,bent ,legs1 ,sprained ,tendons--a great saving in horse flesh4 ,,sizes--,,frog ,,and ,,bar #j to #f2 ,,grip ,,and ,,ring #a to #e4 ,hind ,shoe ,pads kept in stock to order4 ,pads made to any size required at shortest notice4 ,india-rubber pads on leather enable many horses1 whose feet are not sound1 to work free from lameness2 they also tend to prevent slipping4 ,this is especially the case with ,urquhart's 'bar pads1' respecting which my veterinary friends at ,manchester1 where they are largely used1 inform me that they prevent slipping quite as much if not more1 than the ,charlier plan of shoeing horses4--,mr4 ,t4 ,d4 ,,broad1 ,f4,r4,c4,v4,s41 of ,bath4 ,g4 ,,urquhart1 #f ,derby ,street1 ,mayfair4 ,,the ,,british ,,colonial ,horse-,shoe ,machine ,,company ,ltd4 ,works ,address-- ,,globe ,,iron ,,works1 ,,walsall1 ,,staffordshire4 ,,richardson',s ,illustration ,b ,c ,office ,address-- #c ,,billiter ,,buildings1 ,,billiter ,,street1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 ,all kinds and sizes of ,fullered and ,stamped ,shoes kept in ,stock4 ,nails1 ,rasps1 ,pads1 and all other ,farriery requisites at lowest prices4 ,,our ,,goods ,,are ,,unequalled ,,for ,,durability ,,and ,,neatness4 ,,prompt ,,despatch ,,given ,,to ,,all ,,orders4 ,n4,b4--,to prevent mistakes when ordering note the following3-- ,a ,width of ,shoe across the widest part4 ,b ,width of ,iron required at ,toe4 ,c ,thickness of ,iron required at ,toe4 ,,example #e-a_/b-;in4 #g_/h-;in4 #a_/b-;in4 ,a ,b ,c ,each size should vary #a_/d-;in4 ,,example #e-;in4 #e-a_/d-;in4 #e-a_/b-;in4 #e-c_/d-;in4 #f-;in4 and so on4 ,capewell ,horse ,nails ,,the ,,best ,,in ,,the ,,world ,highest ,award ,chicago ,exhibition1 #ahic4 ,illustration3 ,,trade ,,mark ,gold ,medal ,mid-,winter ,exhibition1 ,san ,francisco1 #ahid4 ,the ,capewell ,nails are3-- ,the ,best ,driving ,nails1 ,the ,best ,nails to ,hold1 and ,the ,safest ,nails to ,use4 ,they never split in driving1 ,they never buckle in the hardest hoof4 ,they are flexible to clinch1 and the clinch holds against any strain in service4 ,their perfect points make a clean cut hole in the most brittle hoof4 ,they are absolutely uniform in length1 breadth1 and thickness4 ,they are manufactured in ,london from the best ,swedish ,iron1 the quality of which is improved in compactness1 tenacity1 and uniformity of temper by the ,capewell ,process4 ,as demonstrated by actual mechanical tests at ,chicago1 the tensile strength of the ,capewell is greater than that of any other nail made4 ,thus it is that the ,capewell nails never break under the heads but hold the shoe until it is worn out4 ,on ,sale by all ,iron ,merchants1 ,ironmongers1 and ,dealers4 ,,samples ,,on ,,application ,,to ,the ,,capewell ,,horse ,,nail ,co4 ,limited4 ,offices ,factory--,,glengall ,,road1 ,,millwall1 ,,london1 ,e4 ,,the ,,united ,,horse ,,shoe ,,nail ,,com,,py4 ,,limited4 ,general ,offices and ,works3 ,,cubitt ,,town1 ,,london1 ,e4 ,illustration3 ,,shoe ,coat of ,arms ,,nail ,,trade ,,mark ,,trade ,,mark ,manufacturers of ,horse ,shoes and ,nails to the ,,british ,,army4 ,manufacturers of ,,patent ,,steam-,,hammered ,,horse1 ,,mule and ,,pony ,,shoes1 which may be advantageously ,,applied ,,cold4 ,also of the ,,rowley ,,patent ,,horse ,,shoes and ,,iron4 ,,the ,,patent ,,bright ,,ready-,,pointed ,,globe ,,horse-,,shoe ,,nail4 ,contractors to all the ,chief ,tramway and ,omnibus ,companies in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,,several ,,gold ,,medals4 ,,awards ,,wherever ,,exhibited4 ,,price ,,lists ,,and ,,terms ,,on ,,application4 ,r4 ,f4 ,,bloss1 ,secretary4 ,h4 ,w4 ,,brown1 ,,printers1 #bj ,,fulham ,,road1 ,,london1 ,s4,w4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,italics are indicated by underscores4 ,bolds and underlined are indicated by equal signs4 ,small capitals have been rendered in full capitals4 ,a number of minor spelling errors have been corrected without note4 ,there are some doubled ,fig4 number4