,,univ]sity ,,( ,,cape ,,t[n4 ,zoological ,dep>tm5t4 ,,dissection ,,( ,! ,platana & ! ,frog ,,by ,j4 ,d4 ,f4 ,,gil*ri/1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,sc41 ,,ph4,d41 ,pr(essor ( ,zoology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cape ,t[n1 ,,& ,c4 ,,von ,,bonde1 ,m4,a41 ,lectur] 9 ,zoology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cape ,t[n4 ,illu/ration #aiai4 ,,cape ,,times ,,limit$1 ,,cape ,,t[n4 ,,preface ,,& ,,in/ructions4 ,ow+ to ! fact t "s ( ! types ( animals available = ! /udy ( ,zoology 9 ,s\? ,africa diff] f ^? describ$ 9 text books = /ud5ts 9 o!r c\ntries1 x has be5 f\nd necess>y to draw up special directions & diagrams = laboratory use 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,^! are n[ put 9 ! m conv5i5t =m ( a text book1 :i*1 ?\gh int5d$ prim>ily = ! use ( ! /ud5ts ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cape ,t[n1 may1 x is hop$1 prove useful to o!rs engag$ 9 ! tea*+ & /udy ( ,zoology 9 ,s\? ,africa4 ,! g5]al plan ( ! c\rse int5d$ to be foll[$ is fir/ an introductory /udy ( a type ( v]tebrate4 ,! ,platana or ,claw$ ,toad1 ,x5opus lvis1 is ! mo/ conv5i5t type = ?is 9 ,s\? ,africa & 9 "s respects is m in/ructive ?an ! ,frog4 ,x5opus is !re=e *iefly dealt )1 b ,rana c also be us$1 ! diff]5ces 9 ?is type be+ indicat$ 9 italics4 ,x is recomm5d$ t bo? types be /udi$ :]e possible4 ,only ^! two types are dealt ) "h1 b may be foll[$ by descriptions ( o!r ,s\? ,african types1 su* z ! ,s\? ,african ,crawfi%1 ,dogfi%1 ,e>?worm1 etc4 ,x is int5d$ t ! /ud5t %\ld make draw+s ( 8 dissections on ! blank page4 ,he %\ld n copy ! diagrams1 b draw :at he actually sees1 & be prep>$ to demon/rate ! p>ts to ! tea*]4 ,! in/rum5ts requir$ are a l>ge & a small pair ( scissors1 a l>ge & a small scalpel1 mod]ately f9e =ceps1 a seek]1 & p9s4 ,we are indebt$ to ,mr4 ,w4 von ,bonde1 ,m4,a41 = ! draw+ ( ,figs4 #c-e1 #g-aj4 ,j4 ,d4 ,f4 ,g4 ,c4 v4 ,b4 ,zoological ,laboratory1 ,univ]sity ( ,cape ,t[n1 ,june1 #aiai4 ,,! ,,platana 7,x5opus lvis74 ,,! ,,frog 7,rana fuscigula74 ,fir/ ,day4 ,ext]nal ,*>act]s4 #a4 ,make a draw+ ( ! animal view$ f above1 %[+3-- 7a7 ,! no/rils4 7b7 ,! eyes4 7c7 ,! nictitat+ membrane & a %ort t5tacle b5ea? ! eye4 ,! t5tacle is abs5t 9 ! ,frog4 7d7 ,! tympanic membrane1 :i* is n %[n 9 ! ,platana1 b is well m>k$ 9 ! ,frog4 7e7 ,! op5+ ( ! cloaca4 7f7 ,! limbs & _! divisions4 7g7 ,! sk9 ) tube-l l9es r\nd ! body4 ,9 ! ,frog ^! l9es are n pres5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,x5opus lvis & ,rana fuscigula4 #b4 ,make an enl>g$ draw+1 ab\t twice ! natural size1 %[+3-- 7a7 ,! =e-limb ) ! digits4 7b7 ,! h9d-limb ) ! digits4 ,! inn] ?ree digits h claws4 ,! claws are abs5t 9 ! ,frog4 ,"n ! p>ts ( ^! limbs1 & numb] ! digits f )9 outw>ds1 not+ t ! fir/ is abs5t 9 ! =e-limb4 ,m\? ,cavity4 ,op5 ! m\? cavity widely1 & make a sket* %[+3-- 7a7 ,! tee? on ! upp] jaw4 7b7 ,!re are no tee? on ! vom]4 ,9 ! ,frog ea* vom] is suppli$ ) tee?4 7c7 ,! int]nal op5+s ( ! no/rils4 7d7 ,! s+le op5+ ( ! ,eu/a*ian tubes4 ,9 ! ,frog !re is an op5+ on ea* side4 7e7 ,!re is no tongue4 ,a tongue is pres5t 9 ! ,frog4 7f7 ,! glottis4 7g7 ,! gullet4 ,ow+ to ! complexity ( ! ,eu/a*ian tubes & ! bony =m ( ! e> cavity1 x is n possible to pass a seek] f ! ,eu/a*ian ap]ture ?r\gh ! tympanic membrane4 ,9 ! ,frog ! ,eu/a*ian tubes are %ort & /raight & p]mit ( ?is be+ done4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,m\? cavity ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 ,muscul> ,sy/em & ,vascul> ,sy/em 7,"p74 #a4 ,p9 ! ,platana on its back 9 wat]1 & cut ?r\gh ! sk9 ) scissors along ! middle l9e1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole l5g? ( ! body4 ,p9 back ! sk9 on ea* side1 & make a draw+ %[+3-- 7a7 ,! muscles3 7i7 ,two pectoralis muscles pass+ f ! base ( ! arm1 ! "o to ! middle l9e ( ! body1 & ! o!r ov] ! abdom9al region to ! po/]ior "p ( ! body4 ,cut ?r\gh ?is latt] muscle at its ant]ior end1 & fold x backw>ds to expose ! und]ly+ bra*ial ve94 7ii7 ,! rectus-abdom9is muscles pass+ along ! mid-v5tral l9e ( ! body1 ) ! :ite l9e 7l9ea alba7 9 ! c5tre4 7iii7 ,! deltoid muscle to ! arm4 7iv7 ,! mylo-hyoid muscle1 on ! und]side ( ! m\? region4 7v7 ,! obliquus-ext]nus muscle1 ly+ "u ! second pectoralis muscle not$ above4 7b7 ,! cutane\s & ! muscul> ve9s1 ly+ "u ! pectoralis muscle1 & aris+ indep5d5tly f ! subclavian ve94 ,!y supply ! sk9 & muscles 9 ! region ( ! arm4 ,!re is a second cutane\s ve9 aris+ f ! abdom9al ve9 & ext5d+ on to ! sk9 ( ! abdom54 ,two o!r small cutane\s ve9s are se5 on ! sk9 ( ! leg1 & ano!r on ! sk9 "u ! m\?4 ,9 ! ,frog a s+le musculo-cutane\s ve9 is se5 ly+ "u ! pectoralis muscle & ext5ds on to ! sk94 7c7 ,! abdom9al ve91 p>tly visible ?r\gh ! wall ( ! body1 9 ! c5tre ( ! rectus-abdom9is muscle4 7d7 ,! bra*ial ve9 go+ to ! arm1 ne> :i* may (t5 be se5 ! :ite bra*ial n]ve4 ,endeav\r to trace ! po9t ( orig9 ( ! bra*ial1 muscul>1 & cutane\s ve9s 7or ! bra*ial & musculo-cutane\s ve9s 9 ! ,frog7 z %[n 9 ! figures4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,muscul> ,sy/em & ,vascul> ,sy/em 7"p7 ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 #b4 ,make an incision 9 ! body wall1 slightly to ! "r side ( ! abdom9al ve91 :i* may n[ be se5 cle>ly on ! inn] side ( ! body wall4 ,c>efully deta* ?is ve9 f ! abdom9al wall4 ,second ,day4 ,skeletal ,sy/em 7,"p74 #a4 ,remove ! pectoralis muscles cov]+ ! body betwe5 ! arms to %[ ! bones ( ! c5tral "p ( ! %\ld] girdle & /]num1 viz43-- 7a7 ,! ?ick coracoids4 7b7 ,! m sl5d] clavicles ant]ior to !m1 bo? ext5d+ f ! base ( ! arm on ea* side t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! body4 7c7 ,! /]num1 consi/+ ( a m$ian r[ ( c>tilages :i* are believ$ to be d]iv$ f ! %\ld] girdle4 ,x does n1 !re=e1 correspond to1 or is n homolog\s )1 ! /]num ( ! ,pigeon or ! ,rabbit1 :i* is d]iv$ f ! ribs4 ,! /]num consi/s ( ! foll[+ p>ts3 7i7 ,! two epicoracoids consi/+ ( c>tilage4 7ii7 ,! meta/]num :i* is broad & consi/s ( c>tilage only4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,pectoral ,girdle ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 ,9 ! ,frog ! /]num is compos$ ( ! foll[+ p>ts3-- 7i7 ,! omo/]num consi/+ ( two p>ts1 an ant]ior c>tilag9\s "p 7sometimes call$ ! omo/]num7 & a po/]ior bony "p 7sometimes call$ ! epi/]num74 7ii7 ,! two epicoracoids consi/+ ( c>tilage4 7iii7 ,! meta/]num consi/+ ( two p>ts1 an ant]ior bony "p 7sometimes call$ ! /]num7 & a po/]ior c>tilag9\s "p 7sometimes call$ ! xiphi/]num74 ,make a sket* ( ! pectoral girdle4 #b4 ,cut ?r\gh ! coracoids & clavicles on ea* side1 close to ! base ( ! arm1 & c>efully remove ?is "p ( ! pectoral girdle & /]num s z to %[ ! he>t ly+ und]nea?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,dissection ( ,x5opus & ,rana to %[ ! ,alim5t>y ,sy/em1 etc4 ,alim5t>y ,sy/em4 ,make a sket* %[+3--,! he>t1 lungs1 liv]1 gall bladd] & bile duct go+ to ! duod5um1 expos$ p>ts ( ! /oma*1 duod5um1 small inte/9e 7or ileum71 l>ge inte/9e1 ur9>y bladd]1 pancreas1 & sple54 ,?ird ,day4 ,vascul> ,sy/em 7cont9u$74 ,a4 ,v5\s ,sy/em4 #a4 ,note3-- 7a7 ,! he>t ly+ 9 ! ?9 p]ic>dium1 ! two auricles1 ! s+le v5tricle1 ! truncus art]iosus :i* divides into two bran*es4 ,remove ! p]ic>dium f ! he>t1 & tilt ! apex ( ! he>t =w>ds1 not+ ! s9us v5osus into :i* ! "r & ! left sup]ior v5 cav 7or precavals7 & ! s+le inf]ior v5a cava 7or po/caval7 op54 7b7 ,! ve9s pass+ f ea* side ( ! s9us v5osus4 ,ea* sup]ior v5a cava is jo9$ by ! foll[+ bran*es3-- 7i7 ,! ext]nal jugul> ve9 f ! region ( ! tongue & ! m&ible4 7ii7 ,! int]nal jugul> ve9 f ! head & a ?ick subscapul> ve9 f ! %\ld]4 ,^! ve9s jo9 ! sup]ior v5a cava indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r s t !re is no innom9ate ve9 z 9 ! ,frog4 7iii7 ,! subclavian ve91 made up ( a bra*ial ve9 f ! arm1 a cutane\s ve9 f ! sk91 & a muscul> ve9 f ! abdom9al muscles4 ,! cutane\s & ! muscul> ve9s are sep>ate ve9s s t !re is no s+le musculo-cutane\s ve94 ,9 ! ,frog ! sup]ior v5a cava is jo9$ by ! foll[+ bran*es3-- 7i7 ,! ext]nal jugul> ve91 =m$ by ! union ( a l+ual ve9 f ! tongue & a m&ibul> ve9 f ! m>g9 ( ! l[] jaw4 7ii7 ,! int]nal jugul> ve9 f ! head & ! subscapul> ve9 f ! back ( ! arm & %\ld]1 bo? jo9+ ! sup]ior v5a cava by a common ve91 ! innom9ate4 7iii7 ,! subclavian ve91 =m$ by ! bra*ial ve9 f ! =e-limb & a musculo-cutane\s ve9 f ! muscles ( ! body & f ! sk94 7c7 ,! hypoglossal & ! glossoph>yngeal n]ves1 bo? runn+ alongside ( ! l+ual art]y4 ,make an enl>g$ draw+ %[+ ! above p>ts 7a7 & 7b74 #b4 ,note ! inf]ior v5a cava1 receiv+ ! r5al ve9s f ! kidneys1 ! hepatic ve9s f ! liv]1 & op5+ into ! s9us v5osus4 #c4 ,trace back ! abdom9al ve91 & note t x is =m$ by ! union ( ! two pelvic ve9s1 :i* pass along ! bases ( ! legs4 ,! pelvic ve9s occur deep d[n 9 ! body "u ! po/]ior "p ( ! pelvic girdle1 :i* %\ld be cut ?r\gh 9 ord] to see !m4 ,at ! union ( ! pelvic ve9s to =m ! abdom9al ve9 a small rectal ve91 pass+ along ! v5tral surface ( ! rectum1 jo9s ! abdom9al ve94 ,9 ord] to make out ! femoral & ! sciatic ve9s1 turn ! ,platana ov] & remove ! sk9 f ! back ( ! leg4 ,! femoral ve9 may !n be se5 ly+ on ! surface ( ! leg1 betwe5 two ( ! muscles4 ,by c>efully sep>at+ ^! muscles ! :ole ( ! femoral ve9 may be expos$4 ,deep] d[n 9 ! muscles ( ! leg lies ! sciatic ve91 &1 betwe5 ! sciatic & ! femoral ve9s1 ! int]nal iliac art]y may be se5 runn+ alongside ( ! sciatic n]ve4 ,trace ! femoral & ! sciatic ve9s =w>d1 & note t !y jo9 toge!r at ! po9t :]e !y meet ! pelvic ve9s & !n run =w>d to ! kidney z ! r5al portal ve9 on ea* side4 ,turn ! ,platana ov] aga9 on to its back & note ! r5al portal ve9 f ! v5tral side4 ,jo9+ ! r5al portal ve9 is a l>ge ve9 =m$ ( two bran*es4 ,! "o bran* arises 9 ! abdom9al wall1 :ile ! o!r passes along ! base ( ! leg & jo9s ! abdom9al ve94 ,on ea* side ?ree dorso-lumb> ve9s jo9 ! r5al portal ve94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,v5\s ,sy/em ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 ,9 ! ,frog ! abdom9al ve9 is also =m$ by ! union ( ! two pelvic ve9s4 ,! pelvic ve9s1 h[ev]1 lie m sup]ficially ?an 9 ! ,platana4 ,! femoral ve9 :i* passes along ! front ( ! ?igh divides into two bran*es1 ! "o bran* =m+ ! pelvic ve91 ! o!r1 jo9$ by ! sciatic ve9 f ! muscles & sk9 ( ! back ( ! ?igh1 =m+ ! r5al portal ve9 ext5d+ along ! out] side ( ! kidney4 ,! dorso-lumb> ve9 f ! dorsal wall ( ! body jo9s ! r5al portal ve94 ,make a draw+ %[+ ! above p>ts4 ,b4 ,art]ial ,sy/em4 ,di/5d ! sophagus ) a piece ( cotton wool or pap] to %[ ! blood vessels m cle>ly4 ,trace out ! ant]ior "p ( ! art]ial sy/em1 made up ( two bran*es ( ! truncus art]iosus ea* ( :i* divides into3-- 7a7 ,! c>otid ar* pass+ to ! head region4 7b7 ,! sy/emic ar* curv+ r\nd ! sophagus4 7c7 ,! pulmo-cutane\s ar* to ! lungs & ! sk94 ,f\r? day4 ,art]ial ,sy/em 7cont9u$74 #a4 ,trace ! c>otid ar*1 :i* gives (f3 7a7 ,two l+ual art]ies hav+ a common po9t ( orig9 ne> ! c>otid gl&4 7b7 ,a c>otid art]y pass+ to ! head4 ,at its orig9 x is slightly swoll5 into ! c>otid gl&4 #b4 ,trace ! sy/emic ar*es :i* run backw>ds on ea* side ( ! body1 meet+ po/]iorly to =m ! dorsal aorta4 ,ea* sy/emic ar* gives rise to an art]y :i* bran*es into3-- 7i7 ,a scapul> art]y to ! pectoral girdle4 7ii7 ,a cutane\s art]y to ! sk94 7iii7 ,a bra*ial art]y to ! arm4 ,trace ! dorsal aorta backw>ds1 & note t x gives rise to ! cliaco-mes5t]ic art]y ab\t midway betwe5 its orig9 & ! orig9 ( ! fir/ pair ( r5al art]ies4 ,! dorsal aorta !n passes betwe5 ! kidneys giv+ f\r r5al art]ies to ea*1 & proce$s backw>ds & divides into an int]nal iliac art]y to ea* leg4 ,?is art]y lies betwe5 ! femoral & ! sciatic ve9s4 ,f ea* ( ^! art]ies a bran* is giv5 (f :i* divides into3 7i7 ,an iliac art]y to ! muscles ar\nd ! ilium4 7ii7 ,a cutane\s art]y to ! sk9 ( ! body1 j ant]ior to ! leg4 7iii7 ,a small art]y to ! ant]ior dorsal surface ( ! h9d limb4 #c4 ,trace ! pulmo-cutane\s ar*1 :i* gives (f3-- 7a7 ,a pulmon>y art]y1 runn+ along ! out] side ( ! :ole l5g? ( ! lung4 7b7 ,a cutane\s art]y1 :i* at fir/ runs =w>ds to ! base ( ! arm1 & becomes spread out on ! sk9 ( ! back ( ! head4 ,9 ! ,frog #a4 ,! c>otid ar* gives (f3-- 7a7 ,a l+ual art]y supply+ ! tongue4 7b7 ,a c>otid art]y1 runn+ r\nd ! side ( ! sophagus1 & supply+ ! head4 ,at its orig9 x is slightly swoll5 into ! c>otid gl&4 #b4 ,! sy/emic ar*es run backw>ds on ea* side ( ! body1 & meet po/]iorly to =m ! dorsal aorta4 ,ea* sy/emic ar* gives (f3-- 7a7 ,a subclavian art]y to ! %\ld] & =e-limb4 7b7 ,an occipito-v]tebral art]y to ! head & ! v]tebral column4 7c7 ,an sophageal art]y to ! dorsal wall ( ! sophagus4 7d7 ,a l>yngeal art]y to ! l>ynx4 ,at ! po9t :]e ! dorsal aorta is =m$1 note ! orig9 ( ! cliaco-mes5t]ic art]y :i* s5ds bran*es to ! /oma*1 liv]1 inte/9e1 & sple54 ,trace ! dorsal aorta backw>ds & note t x passes betwe5 ! kidneys1 to ea* ( :i* x gives (f f\r r5al art]ies & !n x divides po/]iorly into an iliac art]y to ea* leg4 ,! iliac art]y is cont9u$ backw>ds z ! femoral art]y 9 ! leg4 #c4 ,! pulmo-cutane\s ar* gives (f3-- 7a7 ,a pulmon>y art]y1 runn+ along ! out] side ( ! :ole l5g? ( ! lung4 7b7 ,a cutane\s art]y1 :i* at fir/ runs =w>ds & upw>ds1 & !n turns backw>ds1 supply+ ! sk9 ( ! back & ! sides ( ! head4 ,make a complete sket* ( ! art]ial sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,art]ial ,sy/em ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 ,cut out ! he>t1 leav+ atta*$ to x z mu* z possible ( ! l>ge vessels4 ,note ! s9us v5osus1 truncus art]iosus1 auricles1 & v5tricle4 ,op5 ! auricles & obs]ve ! division betwe5 !m & ! op5+s ( ! ve9s pass+ into !m4 ,make a section ?r\gh ! auricles & v5tricle not+ ! ?ick muscul> walls ( ! v5tricle & ! valves betwe5 x & ! auricles4 ,respiratory ,sy/em & ,alim5t>y ,sy/em 7cont9u$74 #a4 ,remove ! mylo-hyoid muscles to expose ! hyoid app>atus4 ,pass a seek] ?r\gh ! glottis to "o ( ! lungs & slit x op5 ) a pair ( scissors4 ,exam9e ! /ructure ( ! lung4 #b4 ,remove ! :ole ( ! alim5t>y canal ) ! lungs1 liv]1 pancreas1 & sple51 by cutt+ ?r\gh ! sophagus & ! l>ge inte/9e be=e x jo9s ! cloaca1 & deta*+ x f ! ro( ( ! body cavity )\t injur+ ! kidneys & ! reproductive organs4 ,draw ! complete alim5t>y canal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,alim5t>y ,canal ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 ,ur9og5ital ,sy/em4 ,note ! kidneys1 two elongat$1 flatt5$1 d>k-r$ bodies ly+ "o on ea* side ( ! v]tebral column t[>ds ! po/]ior end ( ! abdom9al cavity4 ,f ! out] edge ( ea* kidney a uret] arises & runs backw>d1 op5+ into ! cloaca on ! dorsal side1 opposite ! op5+ ( ! ur9>y bladd]4 ,9 ! ,frog ! adr5al bodies may be se5 on ! v5tral sides ( ! kidneys z small yell[ pat*es4 ,9 ! male ,platana note3-- 7a7 ,! te/es1 a pair ( ovoid pale-yell[ bodies atta*$ to ! dorsal wall ( ! body cavity by a fold ( ! p]itoneum4 ,!y lie on ! v5tral sides ( ! kidneys & are connect$ to !m by eff]5t vessels :i* pass into ! kidneys4 7b7 ,! corpora adiposa or fatty bodies ly+ 9 front ( ! kidneys4 7c7 ,! uret]s :i* run along ! outside ( ! kidneys & unite po/]iorly to =m a s+le duct op5+ into ! cloaca4 ,9 ! ,frog ! uret]s d n jo9 toge!r b op5 sep>ately into ! cloaca4 ,ea* uret] has a slight swell+1 ! vesicula sem9alis1 on its out] side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i--,male ,ur9og5ital ,sy/em ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 ,9 ! female ,platana note3-- 7a7 ,! ov>ies1 a pair ( irregul>ly-lob$ organs usually consi/+ ( a mass ( r\nd$ black & :ite bodies1 ! ova4 ,! ov>ies are atta*$ to ! dorsal wall ( ! body cavity by a fold ( ! p]itoneum4 7b7 ,! corpora adiposa ly+ 9 front ( ! kidneys4 7c7 ,! long convolut$ oviducts op5+ into ! body cavity 9 front & into ! cloaca beh9d4 ,! uret]s op5 sep>ately into ! cloaca 9 ! female4 ,make a draw+ ( ! ur9og5ital sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,female ,ur9og5ital ,sy/em ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 ,fif? ,day4 ,skeletal ,sy/em 7cont9u$74 ,a4 ,! ,pectoral & ,pelvic ,girdles & ,limbs4 #a4 ,deta* a =e-limb ) ! rema9+ p>ts ( ! pectoral girdle4 ,make a prep>ation %[+ ^! v>i\s p>ts3-- ,supra-scapula1 scapula1 rema9d]s ( ! clavicle & ! coracoid1 hum]us1 radio-ulna1 c>pal bones1 & digits4 ,draw ^! p>ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,pectoral ,girdle ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 #b4 ,deta* ! pelvic girdle f ! transv]se processes ( ! #i? v]tebra4 ,remove x ) ! h9d-limbs f ! body4 ,deta* ! femur f "o side ( ! pelvic girdle1 & make a sket* %[+ ! foll[+ p>ts ( ! pelvic girdle3--,acetabulum1 ilium1 is*ium1 & pubis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,pelvic ,girdle ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 ,make a prep>ation & a sket* %[+ ! femur1 tibia-fibula1 a/ragalus1 calcaneum & ! o!r bones ( ! t>sal region1 five metat>sals1 & digits4 ,numb] ! digits f ! inn] side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,h9d & ,=e ,limbs ( ,x5opus4 ,b4 ,! ,v]tebral ,column4 #a4 ,remove ! sk9 & muscles f ! dorsal surface ( ! back to %[ ! n9e v]tebr & ! uro/yle4 ,make a draw+ %[+ ! v]tebr ) _! transv]se processes1 & ! uro/yle atta*$ to ! po/]ior end ( ! #i? v]tebra4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,v]tebral ,column ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 ,! #bnd1 #crd & #d? v]tebr be> long transv]se processes curv$ backw>ds1 ^? ( ! #crd & #d? be+ tipp$ ) small c>tilag9\s ribs4 ,! transv]se processes ( ! #e?1 #f?1 #g? & #h? v]tebr are sl5d] & project =w>ds & outw>ds4 ,! #i? v]tebra has long flat w+-l processes atta*$ to :i* are ! ilia ( ! pelvic girdle4 ,! uro/yle is fus$ to ! #i? v]tebra4 ,9 ! ,frog ! transv]se processes are produc$ outw>ds & !y d n be> c>tilag9\s ribs4 ,! uro/yle is atta*$ to ! #i? v]tebra by two facets4 ,note ! int]v]tebral =am9a = ! exit ( ! n]ves f ! sp9al cord1 & ! int]v]tebral discs4 #b4 ,remove1 exam9e1 & draw ! #a/ or atlas v]tebra1 note its r+-l =m1 abs5ce ( transv]se processes1 ! concave facets by :i* x articulates ) ! two occipital condyles ( ! skull4 #c4 ,remove1 exam9e1 & draw ! #crd v]tebra & note ! opi/hocl\s c5trum1 neural ar* & neural sp9e1 ant]ior & po/]ior zygapophyses1 ! transv]se processes1 & ! c>tilag9\s ribs4 ,! c5trum is procl\s 9 ! ,frog & !re are no ribs4 #d4 ,remove & exam9e ! #h? v]tebra & note t ! c5trum is opi/hocl\s4 ,make a draw+ ( a section %[+ ! c5trum4 ,9 ! ,frog ! c5trum is amphicl\s4 #e4 ,remove & exam9e ! #i? v]tebra or sacrum1 & note t ! c5trum is slightly convex on ! ant]ior surface4 ,! uro/yle is fus$ to ! po/]ior surface ( ! #i? v]tebra4 ,note also ! long flat w+-l transv]se processes4 ,9 ! ,frog ! c5trum is also convex ant]iorly & on ! po/]ior surface !re are two convex facets = ! articulation ( ! uro/yle4 ,six? ,day4 ,skeletal ,sy/em 7cont9u$74 ,c4 ,! ,skull4 #a4 ,remove ! sk9 & o!r tissues f ! top ( ! skull & obs]ve ! l>ge fronto-p>ietals1 nasals1 supra-e?moid1 premaxill1 maxill1 squamosals1 exoccipitals1 & pro-otics4 ,! quadrato-jugals are v inconspicu\s4 ,! extra/ap$ial plate ( c>tilage is well m>k$ & ! bony columella may be se5 ly+ und]nea? x4 ,! sides ( ! skull are ossifi$ & may repres5t ! orbitosph5oids & alisph5oids ( high] types4 ,! supra-occipital consi/s ( a piece ( c>tilage4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,dorsal view ( ,skull ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 ,9 ! ,frog !re is no supra-e?moid pres5t1 b a sph5e?moid closes ! front ( ! cranial cavity4 ,! sides ( ! skull are c>tilag9\s4 ,a quadrato-jugal is well m>k$1 b ! quadrate consi/s ( a piece ( c>tilage at ! po/]ior end ( ! quadrato-jugal betwe5 ! pt]ygoid & ! squamosal4 ,! l[] jaw articulates ) x4 ,! columella is usually n well %[n4 ,make a draw+ ( ! dorsal side ( ! skull4 #b4 ,remove ! sk9 f ! ro( ( ! m\? & note ! p>asph5oid & s+le vom]1 pt]ygoids1 :i* are l>ge & s5d leaf-l processes t[>ds ! middle l9e cov]+ ! ,eu/a*ian passages1 squamosals1 quadrates1 basi-occipital1 ex-occipitals1 premaxill1 & maxill4 ,! orbitosph5oid & alisph5oid are well m>k$4 ,!re are no palat9es pres5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,v5tral view ( ,skull ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 ,9 ! ,frog !re are a pair ( vom]s be>+ ! vom]9e tee?1 palat9es1 & quadrato-jugals4 ,! pro-otics1 :i* are n se5 9 a v5tral view ( ! skull 9 ! ,platana1 be+ cov]$ ov] by ! pt]ygoids1 are %[n 9 ! ,frog4 ,make a draw+ ( ! v5tral side ( ! skull4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,side view ( ,skull ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 #c4 ,make a draw+ ( ! bones ( ! skull view$ f ! po/]ior end1 %[+ ! occipital condyle at ea* side ( ! =am5 magnum1 ex-occipitals1 basi-occipital1 supra-occipital1 pro-otics1 columella1 & quadrate4 ,9 ! ,frog ! basi-occipital & supra-occipital are n develop$4 #d4 ,remove ! sk9 f ! l[] jaw & make out ! bones surr\nd+ ! orig9al ,meckel's c>tilage1 viz41 ! m5to-meckelian1 d5t>y1 & articul>4 ,9 ! ,frog ! l[] jaw is compos$ ( ! m5to-meckelian1 d5t>y & angulo-spl5ial4 ,make a draw+ ( ! l[] jaw4 ,n]v\s ,sy/em4 ,a4 ,! ,c5tral ,n]v\s ,sy/em4 ,! ,bra94 ,c>efully remove ! fronto-p>ietals s z to expose ! bra91 & note ! foll[+ p>ts3-- 7a7 ,! olfactory lobes1 =m+ ! mo/ ant]ior portion ( ! bra91 unit$ toge!r 9 ! middle l9e4 ,ant]iorly ! olfactory n]ves are giv5 (f4 7b7 ,! c]ebral hemisph]es1 a pair ( smoo? elongat$ bodies4 7c7 ,! ?alam5cephalon1 ly+ imm$iately beh9d ! c]ebral hemisph]es4 ,x is cov]$ by ! *oroid plexus1 a ?ick vascul> membrane1 & gives rise dorsally to ! /alk ( ! p9eal body4 7d7 ,! optic lobes1 a pair ( oval bodies4 7e7 ,! c]ebellum1 a n>r[ transv]se b& imm$iately beh9d ! optic lobes4 7f7 ,! m$ulla oblongata beh9d ! c]ebellum4 ,x gradually tap]s t[>ds its po/]ior end1 :]e x is cont9u\s ) ! sp9al cord4 ,on its ro( ! pia mat] =ms a v vascul> *oroid plexus4 ,make a sket* ( ! bra94 ,sev5? ,day4 7,revision47 ,) a second specim5 revise ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? days' "w1 pay+ p>ticul> att5tion to ! vascul> sy/em4 ,eigh? ,day4 ,n]v\s ,sy/em 7cont9u$74 ,b4 ,! ,p]iph]al ,n]v\s ,sy/em4 #a4 ,! ,sp9al ,n]ves4 ,remove ! abdom9al visc]a c>efully s z to expose ! sp9al n]ves :i* are se5 z :ite cords on ea* side ( ! v]tebral column z foll[s3-- 7a7 ,! fir/ or hypoglossal n]ve aris+ betwe5 ! #a/ & #bnd v]tebr4 ,x runs =w>ds on ! "u surface ( ! head b5ea? ! mylo-hyoid muscle & supplies ! tongue4 ,x 0 not$ 9 ! ?ird day's "w4 7b7 ,! second & ?ird n]ves unite imm$iately aft] escap+ f ! sp9al cord to =m ! bra*ial plexus1 :i* supplies ! muscles ( ! %\ld]1 & !n ext5ds along ! arm4 7c7 ,! f\r?1 fif?1 & six? n]ves are small & supply ! muscles & ! sk9 ( ! body wall4 7d7 ,! sev5?1 eigh?1 & n9? n]ves run obliquely backw>ds1 ! eigh? & n9? unit+ to =m ! sciatic plexus1 :i* gives rise to ! l>ge sciatic n]ve :i* ext5ds along ! ?igh1 & d[n ! leg4 ,! sciatic plexus also receives a bran* f ! sev5? n]ve4 7e7 ,! t5? or coccygeal n]ve1 :i* escapes ?r\gh a small ap]ture 9 ! side ( ! uro/yle1 & is di/ribut$ to ! walls ( ! cloaca & ur9>y bladd]4 ,x is connect$ by a bran* ) ! sciatic n]ve4 ,?is n]ve is frequ5tly small or abs5t 9 ! ,platana4 ,9 ! ,frog1 ! sev5?1 eigh?1 & n9? n]ves unite to =m ! sciatic plexus :i* gives rise to ! l>ge sciatic n]ve ext5d+ along ! ?igh1 & divid+ above ! knee into ! tibial & p]oneal n]ves to ! leg & ! foot4 ,! t5? n]ve is pres5t4 #b4 ,! ,sympa!tic ,n]v\s ,sy/em4 ,?is sy/em consi/s ( a cord on ea* side closely foll[+ ! c\rse ( ! sy/emic ar*es & ! dorsal aorta4 ,x has on x six ganglionic swell+s1 & !re are connections betwe5 ! ganglia & all ! sp9al n]ves4 ,ant]iorly ea* ( ! cords is jo9$ to ! vagus n]ve2 x ends po/]iorly z a broad swell+ on ! n9? sp9al n]ve4 ,9 ! ,frog ! sy/em consi/s ( a *a9 ( ganglia on ea* side ( ! body closely foll[+ ! c\rse ( ! sy/emic ar*es & ! dorsal aorta4 ,! cords h connections ) ! sp9al n]ves4 ,ant]iorly ea* cord ends 9 ! ,gass]ian ganglion ( ! trigem9al n]ve & po/]iorly x is unit$ ) ! coccygeal n]ve by a v>y+ numb] ( bran*es4 ,make a complete sket* %[+ ! sp9al n]ves & ! sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em4 #c4 ,! ,cranial ,n]ves4 ,expose ! bra9 & note ! foll[+ cranial n]ves3-- 7a7 ,! olfactory n]ve1 aris+ f ! ant]ior end ( ! olfactory lobes1 supply+ ! olfactory capsule4 7b7 ,! optic n]ve1 aris+ f ! v5tral surface ( ! bra9 bel[ ! optic lobes1 supply+ ! ret9a ( ! eye4 7c7 ,! trigem9al n]ve1 aris+ j beh9d ! optic n]ve1 giv+ rise to ! foll[+ bran*es3-- 7i7 ,! oph?almic n]ve1 :i* passes ov] ! muscles ( ! eye & supplies ! sk9 9 ! region ( ! olfactory capsule4 7ii7 ,! maxill>y n]ve1 :i* runs =w>d "u ! eyeball1 & supplies ! sk9 cov]+ ! upp] jaw4 7iii7 ,! m&ibul> n]ve1 :i* is at fir/ cont9u\s ) ! maxill>y1 & !n b5ds r\nd ! inn] surface ( ! upp] jaw to ext5d along ! out] surface ( ! m&ible4 7d7 ,! glossoph>yngeal & ! vagus 7or pneumoga/ric7 n]ves1 leav+ ! skull toge!r1 imm$iately beh9d ! auditory capsule4 ,! glossoph>yngeal passes along 9 front ( ! hypoglossal n]ve & proce$s along ! base ( ! tongue4 ,! vagus1 aft] giv+ (f bran*es to ! dorsal muscles1 rea*es ! walls ( ! ph>ynx & run obliquely backw>ds to supply ! ph>ynx1 he>t1 lungs & /oma*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,bra94 ,cranial ,n]ves1 ,sp9al ,n]ves1 & ,sympa!tic ,n]v\s ,sy/em ( ,x5opus & ,rana4 ,make a complete sket* %[+ ! bra9 & ! above-m5tion$ cranial n]ves4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,e ef=t has be5 made to replicate ?is text z fai?fully z possible1 includ+ inconsi/5cies 9 =matt+4 ,italic text is d5ot$ by und]scores & bold text by equal signs4 ,bo? exoccipitals & ex-occipitals occur 9 orig9al text1 left z pr9t$4