,transcriber's ,note3 ,this version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects4 ,italics are delimited with the #8' character as italic4 ,bold font is delimited by the #8' character4 ,the rendering of certain characters in classical languages may not display correctly in your reader4 ,superscripted characters appear as m4 ,footnotes1 which appeared at the bottom of each page1 have been gathered at the end of each chapter4 ,they have also been renumbered consecutively in order establish the uniqueness required to facilitate searches4 ,any references to specific notes in the text have been corrected to follow the new numbering4 ,,mythology ,,among ,,the ,,hebrews ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,and ,,co41 ,,new-,,street ,,square ,,and ,,parliament ,,street ,,mythology ,,among ,,the ,,hebrews ,,and ,,its ,,historical ,,development ,,by ,,ignaz ,,goldziher1 ,,ph4,d4 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,hungarian ,,academy ,,of ,,sciences ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,german1 ,,with ,,additions ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,by ,,russell ,,martineau1 ,m4,a4 ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,museum ,,london ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 #ahgg ,all rights reserved ,,to ,,professors ,h4,l4 ,,fleischer ,,friedrich ,,max ,m,,ller ,h4 ,v,,mb,,ry ,,the ,,pioneers ,,of ,,semitic1 ,,aryan1 ,,and ,,turco-,,tataric ,,philology ,this ,work is ,dedicated ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,and ,,the ,,translator ,errata4 ,p4 #ac line #e from below1 for #8with all his advanced ideas' read #8notwithstanding the progress of modern ideas4' ,p4 #bji1 first line of note1 after #8ball1' insert #8that descended from heaven4' ,whether this feather-ball ,,translator',s ,,preface4 ------------------ ,conscious that ,comparative ,mythology is not very generally studied even in ,england1 where some of the earliest and ablest expositions of its principles have appeared1 ,i foresee that this work is likely to fall into the hands of many who have not the preliminary intellectual training necessary to an appreciation of its principles4 ,if anyone takes up the book with an idea that it will settle anything in the history of the ,jews1 he will be disappointed4 ,its aim is not theological nor historical1 but mythological2 and ,mythology precedes ,history and ,theology1 and has nothing to do with them1 except as a factor that may to a certain extent determine their form4 ,to understand this book fully1 some previous knowledge of what has already been done on the field of ,comparative ,mythology is essential4 ,this is easily obtained by reference to the various works of ,prof4 ,max ,mller and ,rev4 ,g4,w4 ,cox1 which are frequently quoted4#a ,such studies will enable the reader to see how far ,dr4 ,goldziher is merely treading in the footsteps of others1 and how far he has struck out a new track4 ,speaking generally1 it may be said that he acknowledges the principles of the science as laid down by ,kuhn and ,max ,mller1 but that the application to the ,semitic nations is his own4 ,this application was1 indeed1 first attempted1 fifteen years ago1 by ,professor ,h4 ,steinthal of ,berlin with reference to one special mythological cycle1 in ,essays which1 on p4 xxix of his ,introduction1 ,dr4 ,goldziher urgently recommends the reader to study as a suitable preparation for this book1 since they #8showed for the first time and on a large scale how the matter of the ,hebrew legends yields to mythological analysis1' and contain matter which is left out here precisely because it is to be had there4 ,through the obligingness of the publishers ,i am enabled to present the ,english reader with a translation of these ,essays1 whereby he is put in a position of no disadvantage as compared with the ,german4 ,they will also serve the purpose of showing that the principles of ,semitic ,mythology were asserted in weighty words by a philosopher of high repute many years ago4 ,but ,dr4 ,goldziher has in the present work for the first time extended the application of the principles of ,comparative ,mythology to the entire domain of ,hebrew ,mythology1 and laid down a broad foundation of theory1 on which the elaboration of special points may be subsequently built up4 ,both these authors1 it will be seen1 regard a systematic working out of the results of ,psychological science as the fundamental pillar of ,mythological studies2 and the reader will consequently find some psychological preparation not less necessary to the full understanding of the book than a knowledge of what has been written on ,comparative ,mythology4 ,the translation has received so many additions and corrections made expressly for it by the author1 that it is far superior to the original ,german edition2 moreover1 it has been thoroughly revised by the author in proof4 ,i have added a few notes1 where they seemed to be wanted2 they are always distinguished 7by #8,,tr4'7 from the author's own4 ,the ,index is also compiled by me4 ,references to the ,old ,testament are made to the original ,hebrew2 in the few cases where the chapter or verse bears a different number in the ,english and other modern versions1 the reference to the latter is added in brackets4 ,i have adopted a few peculiarities of orthography1 which ,i ought to confess to1 the more so as ,i hope others may be convinced of their reasonableness4 ,nazirite1 ,hivvite1 are corrections of positive blunders in spelling of the ,english ,bible4 ,hivite was probably written in obedience to an unwritten law of ,english spelling which forbids the doubling of v2 whether there is now any sense in this precept 7which must have originated when vv would be confounded with w7 or not1 at least it ought not to be extended to foreign names4 ,the tendency of the age to dispense with the ,latin diphthongs 1 7which were a few generations ago used in ra1 conomy1 gypt1 etc471 ,i have ventured to anticipate in similar words1 such as esthetic1 ,phenicia1 ,phenix4 ,the anomaly of the ,french spelling of the ,greek word programme1 alongside of anagram1 diagram1 parallelogram1 seems to me sufficient condemnation of the form4 ,in the ,hebrew and ,arabic quotations the ,latin alphabet has been used throughout4 ,the transliteration of the following letters should be noted1 as being the only ones about which there could be any doubt3-- commencing a syllable in the middle of a word 4 4 4 j4 ch4 k4 4 t4 4 4 s4 sh4 th4 4 4 4 as consonant generally v1 but w4 as consonant y4 ,the aspirated are written bh 7to be pronounced v71 kh1 ph1 th4 ,in ,hebrew denote either the ordinary short vowels or the chph vowels2 and also the vocal sheva4 ,in ,arabic texts the irb is omitted in prose1 but preserved in verse on account of the metre4 ,these principles of transliteration are the same which the author adopts in the ,german edition1 with a few modifications which seemed desirable for ,english readers1 especially the use of the letters j1 th and y with their usual ,english force4 ,,russell ,,martineau4 ,,london3 ,january #ahgg4 ,,contents4 ,,translator',s ,,preface vii ,,introduction xiii ,,chapter ,i4 ,,on ,,hebrew ,,mythology #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,sources ,,of ,,hebrew ,,mythology #ag ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,investigating ,,hebrew ,,myths #ce ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,nomadism ,,and ,,agriculture #di ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,most ,,prominent ,,figures ,,in ,,hebrew ,,mythology #ij ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,myth ,,of ,,civilisation ,,and ,,the ,,first ,,shaping ,,of ,,hebrew #aih ,,religion ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,awaking ,,national ,,idea ,,on ,,the ,,transformation #bca ,,of ,,the ,,hebrew ,,myth ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,commencement ,,of ,,monotheism ,,and ,,the ,,differentiation ,,of ,,the #bei ,,myths ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,prophetism ,,and ,,the ,,jahveh ,,religion #bij ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,hebrew ,,myth ,,in ,,the ,,babylonian ,,captivity #caf ,,excursus #ccg ,,appendix4 ,two ,essays by ,h4 ,steinthal4 #a4 ,,the ,,original ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,prometheus #cfc #b4 ,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,samson #cib ,,index #ddg ,,introduction4 ------------------ ,the following sheets make no claim to present a system of ,hebrew ,mythology4 ,i have left out much that would necessarily be included in a system1 and confined myself to a limited portion of what can be proved to be the matter of the ,hebrew myths4 ,even within the actual domain of my labours1 ,i was not anxious to subject the extant narratives in all their minutest features to mythological analysis4 ,the application of the certain results of the science of ,mythology in general to a domain hitherto almost ignored with reference to this subject1 could only be accomplished by some self-limitation on the part of the author2 and my immediate task was only to show that ,semitism in general1 and ,hebrew in particular1 could not be exceptions to the laws of mythological enquiry established on the basis of psychology and the science of language1 and that it is possible from ,semitism itself1 on psychological and philological principles1 to construct a scientific ,semitic ,mythology4 ,by blindly tracing out copious matters of detail1 the investigator of myths is very easily and unconsciously seduced to the slippery ground of improbabilities2 and therefore ,i preferred1 in the first instance1 to enlarge only on subjects on which ,i was confident of being able to present what was self-evident1 and in these only1 so to speak1 to reveal the first cellular formations1 from which later growths were produced1 and to leave the analysis of the entire substance1 and of the separate elements which complete the conception of the mythical figures1 to a future time1 when the science will have gained a firmer footing even on the ,semitic domain1 and will have less distrust and misunderstanding to contend against4 ,i am myself responsible for this limitation of the subject1 in the service of which1 encouraged by kind friends1 ,i resolved to publish the following pages4 ,in mythological affairs ,i acknowledge myself a pupil of the school established on the ,aryan domain by ,ad4 ,kuhn and ,max ,mller4 ,only in certain points1 which1 however1 occasionally touch upon first principles1 ,i have been compelled to differ from the masters of ,comparative ,mythology4 ,it may be boldly asserted that1 especially through ,max ,mller's literary labours1 ,comparative ,mythology and the ,science of ,religion have been added to those chapters of human knowledge with which certain borderlands of science cannot dispense1 and which can claim to have become an essential portion of general culture4#b ,this conviction must excuse frequent copiousness of exposition1 which ,i have adopted knowingly and intentionally4 ,i have had in my eye not only the small circle of professional mythologists on the ,aryan and other domains1 but also the larger circle of educated readers who will be interested in learning how the results of ,comparative ,mythology shape themselves when applied to ,semitic nations4 ,but1 on the other hand1 ,i must crave the indulgence of the latter readers1 if ,i have not always succeeded 7especially in the fifth chapter7 in making my meaning as intelligible as ,i could wish4 ,for it is a fact that the ,semitic still remains further removed from the mind of educated society than the ,aryan1 which1 through the study of classical antiquity1 has so ensnared us from our school-days with its irresistible charms1 that it can never cease to determine the direction of our thought and action4 ,therefore ,i have had resort to foreign examples1 sometimes non-,semitic instances from antiquity1 sometimes instances from modern poets1 for illustrations of particular assertions1 which otherwise would appear improbable1 but could thus be brought nearer to the understanding4 ,from the figures used by poets the wealth and variety of the mythical apperception of the primeval man is truly elucidated4 ,here and there ,i have also permitted myself to make reference to ,hungarian idioms1 which was very natural1 as ,i originally composed this book in my ,hungarian mother-tongue for the purpose of ,university lectures1 and then translated it myself into ,german4 ,some parts of these essays have been already published in ,hungarian1 in a different connexion and with special reference to linguistic results1 in the first and second parts of ,vol4 ,,xii4 of the ,nyelvtudomnyi ,kzlemnyek 7,philological ,essays71 edited by ,paul ,hunfalvy for the ,hungarian ,academy of ,sciences4 ,in adducing ,aryan parallels1 ,i am very far from thinking that where the ,hebrew exhibits a striking similarity to something ,aryan it has borrowed from the latter1 or that1 as a recent scholar tried to make out1 the ,hebrews themselves were originally ,aryans1 who afterwards took a ,semitic language and preserved their ,aryan habits of thought4 ,i start from the conviction that the ,myth is something universal1 that the faculty of forming it cannot a priori be denied to any race as such1 and that the coincidence of mythical ideas and modes of expression is the result of the uniformity of the psychological process which is the foundation of the creation of myths in all races2 and this very uniformity of mythical ideas may consequently serve to psychologists as an argument for the thesis of the psychological uniformity of all races4#c #8,where no historical transference of myths can be proved1' says ,bastian very justly1#d #8the uniformity must be referred to the organic law of the growth of the mind1 which will everywhere put forth similar products1 corresponding and alike1 but variously modified by surrounding influences4' ,the oldest history of paleography exhibits on the ideographic and figurative stage the most striking similarities in the modes of apperception belonging to nations of the most various races4 ,lenormant says3 #8,nous pourrions faire voir1 si nous voulions nous laisser aller la tentation d'entreprendre un petit trait de l'criture symbolique chez les diffrents peuples1 comment certaines mtaphores naturelles ont t conues spontanment par plusieurs races diverses sans communication les unes avec les autres1 et comment1 par suite1 le mme symbole se retrouve avec le mme sens dans plusieurs systmes d'origine tout--fait indpendante4 ,l'exemple le plus frappant peut-tre de ce genre est celui du symbole de l'abeille1 qui1 ainsi que nous venons de le dire1 signifie ,roi dans les hiroglyphes gyptiens1 et se reconnat encore clairement dans le type le plus ancien de l'idogramme dou du mme sens dans le cuniforme anarien4'#e ,the same lesson is taught by ,prehistoric ,archeology1 the comparative study of which among the various races would present very instructive examples4 ,in our museums we see identical implements used by men of the most various races at the same primitive stage of civilisation1#f yet in this case the idea of one having borrowed from another enters no one's head4 ,why should we be surprised at meeting with the very same phenomenon in ,comparative ,mythology8 ,the uniformity of the ,hebrew myths with those of nations belonging to other races only becomes an obvious fact when we apply the method of modern mythological enquiry to ,semitic stories4 ,but1 even without the help of this method1 the mere outside of the ,hebrew stories attracted the attention of many enquirers4 ,it occasionally gave rise to the absurdest aberrations1 which even now shoot out into a fresh crop of mischief4 ,one answer1 of course1 was always at hand--that ,greek and ,egyptian narratives and #8theogonies' were bad translations or #8diluted' versions of the ,hebrew2 or else1 as it has often been attempted in recent times to prove1 the ,egyptian was the original1 from which everything else had flowed4 ,the eighteenth century was especially rich in literary productions of the first species1 following the lead of ,gerhard ,johann ,voss1 ,huet1#g ,bochart1 and others whose labours had prepared the way4 ,g4 ,croesius published at ,dort1 in #agjd1 #8 1 sive ,historia ,hebraeorum ab ,homero ,hebraicis nominibus ac sententiis conscripta in ,odyssea et ,iliade1' and ,v4,g4 ,herklitz at ,leipzig two years later1 #agjf1 #8,quod ,hercules idem sit ac ,josua4' ,at ,amsterdam a book was published in #agba entitled #8,parallela et ,historiae ,sacrae1' having the same object2 and in #agcj a book in two volumes1 of similar tendency1 by ,guillaume de ,lavaur1 an avocat1 was published at ,paris in ,french1 and translated into ,german by ,johann ,daniel ,heyden 7,leipzig1 #agde74h ,but it was reserved for the end of the century to produce the most curious specimen1 in the work entitled #8,histoire vritable des ,temps ,fabuleux3 ouvrage qui1 en dvoilant le vrai que les histoires fabuleuses ont travesti et altr1 sert claircir les antiquits des peuples et surtout venger l'histoire sainte1' by the ,abb ,gurin du ,rocher4 ,i have not seen the original edition of this work1 but have consulted a later edition prepared by the ,abb ,chapelle1 an admirer of the author 7,paris and ,besanon1 #ahbd71 in five volumes1 of which the first three contain the original work1 and the fourth and fifth are taken up by the editor with a recapitulation of principles and a defence against the attacks of antagonists1 who count among their number such men as ,voltaire1 ,de la ,harpe1 ,de ,guignes1 ,du ,voisin1 ,dinouart1 and ,anquetil du ,perron4 ,the author undertook to prove that the entire ancient history of the ,egyptians and other nations is only a repetition of ,biblical narratives3 that thus what is related of ,bothyris1 ,orpheus1 ,menes1 ,sesostris1 and others1 is identical with the ,biblical history of ,abraham1 ,jacob1 ,lot1 ,noah1 and others2 even the ,egyptian ,thebes is not a city1 but ,noah's ark4 ,the influence which this sensational book exercised on the learning of the period is very characteristic of the times4 ,dr4 ,asselini1 vicar of the diocese of ,paris1 who had to pass judgment on it for the censorship 7#aggi71 regards it as a vindication of the ,bible4 ,the ,sorbonne appropriated ,gurin's theorems1 and made them the subject of theses for graduation4 ,the ,king of ,poland read the work through1 and sent his compliments to the author4 ,the ,french government accorded the ,abb an annual pension of #a1bjj livres4 ,one reviewer compares ,gurin's discoveries to those of ,columbus and ,newton2 and a poetical panegyrist sees in them a ,french counterpoise to the superiority in science then possessed by ,england in virtue of discoveries of the first rank in physical science4 ,he says-- ,fire et docte ,albion1 qui dans un coin des mers ,prtends aux premier rang de la littrature1 ,pour avoir vos yeux dvoil l'univers ,et le vrai plan de la nature1 ,de tes discours hautains rabaisse enfin le ton2 ,la ,france1 ta rivale1 va galer ta gloire4 ,ce que pour la physique a fait le grand ,newton1 ,du ,rocher l'a fait pour l'histoire4 ,but even on the very threshold of the second part of our century1 in #ahdi1 a systematic argument was conducted1 to show that ,livy had read the ,bible1 and based his description of ,t4 ,manlius ,torquatus' battle with the ,gauls on that of ,david and his battle with the ,philistine giant2 and twenty-two similarities between the respective stories had to do duty as demonstrations4#i ,the unscientific mode of regarding these subjects prevailing up to the most recent time has not yet ceased to generate absurdities4 ,we see old-fashioned absurdities still finding a way to the general reading public by means of encyclopedias1 as in a #8,dictionary of the ,mythology of all ,nations1' of which a third edition was recently published4#aj ,this work in its new form comes before the public with a touching delivery against modern physical science by way of introduction4 ,here we read under ,abraham1 #8,some scholars are inclined to make this celebrated ,patriarch of the ,jewish nation either the god ,brahma himself or a ,brahman who was obliged to leave ,india in the contest between the worshippers of ,siva and those of ,brahma4 ,in truth1 there is much that might lead to such a conjecture4 ,in ,sanskrit the word #8earth' is often expressed by ,brahm or ,abrahm4 ,abraham's wife was named ,sarah2 ,brahma's wife was ,sara 7,sarasvati7' etc4 ,but sins of a different kind also are committed up to the present day4 ,the ,hebrews are said to have borrowed their myths from foreign parts4 ,it is not only by ,voltaire and men of his age and spirit that this assumption is made4 ,it is expressed in a recent article by a learned ,german investigator intended for the widest circulation4 ,sepp writes1 ',no nation has been so clever as the ,hebrews in appropriating to themselves the property of others1 both intellectual and material4 ,what can we say to the fact that the sun's standing still at ,joshua's bidding1 with the purpose of enabling the ,hebrews to complete the slaughter of the ,amalekites1 is directly borrowed from ,homer 7,il4 ii4 #dab71 where the poetical hyperbole #8,let not the sun go down1 ,o ,zeus1' etc41 is put into the mouth of ,agamemnon8444 ,to be brief1 the popular hero ,samson has had the ,twelve ,labours of the ,lybian ,herakles transferred to him1 and bears the doors1 as ,sandon or ,melkart the pillars of the world1 on his shoulders4'#aa ,the reader will agree with me in regarding it as superfluous at the present day to attempt a serious refutation of the hypothesis of borrowing1 which assails the originality of the most primitive mythological ideas known to the nation under review4 ,but it is impossible to evade the obligation to find an explanation of the manifold coincidences exhibited in the independently produced myths of nations belonging to quite different races4 ,under the new method of mythological enquiry this obligation is doubly pressing2 for the coincidences appear yet more surprising1 and occupy a more extensive sphere when the myths are considered analytically by the light of the new method1 and from a linguistic point of view4 ,only then does the identity become psychologically important4 ,and then it can in my view be explained only by the rejection of the prejudice that there are unmythological races1 or at least one race incapable of forming any myths--the ,semitic4 ,if the ,myth is a form of life of the human mind psychologically necessary at a certain stage of growth1 then the intellectual life of every individual1 nation1 and race must pass through it4 #8,the tendency of modern enquiry is more and more toward the conclusion that if law is anywhere1 it is everywhere1' as ,tylor maintains4#ab ,this means1 applied to the present question1 that if the formation of myths is a natural law of the 7mind7 at a certain stage1 it must necessarily occur everywhere where there is a beginning of intellectual life1 unless we could speak of whole races or tribes as psychologically pathologic1#ac and make the whole ,semitic race thus pathologic on account of its alleged incapacity to form myths--which would1 after all1 be rather a curious proceeding4 ,no doubt we often read in ethnological works of nations without a trace of ,mythology4 ,but we ought not to forget either that such informants understand by ,mythology only complicated stories and fables1 which in my view represent the more advanced stage of mythic development1 or that they identify ,mythology with heathen religious ideas1 and confound absence of religion or atheism with want of myths4 ,so1 e4g41 ,sir ,john ,lubbock says1 quoting ,sibree1#ad #8,even in ,madagascar1 according to a good authority1 8there is nothing corresponding to a ,mythology1 or any fables of gods or goddesses1 amongst the ,malagasy20' but this want of stories of gods and goddesses is very far from demonstrating the absence of myths of all and every sort4 ,it would be worth while in this connexion to pursue a thought raised by ,schelling1 with the aid of the present more advanced ideas on the psychology of nations4 ,according to ,schelling1#ae a nation becomes a nation through community of consciousness between the individuals2 and this community has its foundation in a common view of the world1 and this again in ,mythology4 ,consequently in ,schelling's system absence of ,mythology can only occur in circles of men in which nationality is as yet unformed1 and the necessary community undeveloped4 ,but to ,schelling #8it appears impossible1 because inconceivable1 that a ,nation should be without ,mythology4' ,however the question may stand with reference to savage tribes1 modern science cannot possibly support the old thesis concerning the ,semitic ,hebrews of their incapacity for ,mythology4 ,guided by this conviction1 ,i lay down at starting the necessity of subjecting the material of the ,hebrew myths to the same psychological and linguistic analysis which has contributed so much light to the consideration of the beginnings of intellectual life in the ,aryan race4 ,i do not conceal from myself that the acknowledgment of the legitimacy of this method for ,semitic things may be exposed to many attacks4 ,for even on ,aryan ground the results which the school of ,kuhn and ,max ,mller have brought to light do not enjoy that general acceptation which ought to reward such sound investigations--investigations1 moreover1 the basis of which is being constantly extended by later writers such as ,g4,w4 ,cox and ,de ,gubernatis4 ,both in ,germany and in ,england this school has notable adversaries4 ,i do not speak of ,julius ,braun1 who1 in his ,naturgeschichte der ,sage 7,natural ,history of ,legend71 thought to undermine the solid substratum of ,comparative ,mythology by extending to the domain of mythology the consequences of his theory of the history of art and of ,rthe's assumptions1 and by fetching from ,egypt the foundation-stone on which to construct a ,science of ,mythology--an attempt which turned out most unfortunate1 especially in etymology4 ,but some worthy partisans of the study of classical literature refuse to receive the results of the science of ,comparative ,mythology4 ,one of these is ,k4 ,lehrs2#af another is the latest ,german editor of ,hesiod1 who objects to the modern science of ,mythology that it ignores historical and philological criticism and seizes upon every passage of an author that suits its theory1 without regard to its value and genuineness4#ag ,among the ,english scholars it is no less a writer than ,fergusson who declares1 #8,so far as ,i am capable of understanding it1 it appears to me that the ancient ,solar ,myth of ,messrs4 ,max ,mller and ,cox is very like mere modern moonshine4'#ah ,and ,mr4 ,george ,smith1 the renowned pioneer of the ancient ,assyrian literature1 seems not to have much confidence in the latest method of mythological investigation2 for he says in his latest book1#ai #8,the early poems and stories of almost every nation are by some writers resolved into elaborate descriptions of natural phenomena2 and in some cases1 if that were true1 the myth would have taken to create it a genius as great as that of the philosophers who explain it4' ,so that the so-called #8,solar theory' is far from being generally adopted even on the domain where it was first brought out and has been most firmly established4 ,but the adherents of the school of ,max ,mller may take comfort from the consideration that the accusations made against them hit only those who have ridden the theory too hard1 since1 as ,tylor says1 no allegory1 no nursery-rhyme1 is safe from the speculations of some fanatical mythological theoriser4 #8,much abused' is a correct epithet used of the ,solar theory by a learned ,english ,assyriologist1 himself a friend of it4#bj ,if1 then1 on ,aryan ground the legitimacy of the new method is not undisputed1 how will it be on ,semitic1 and especially on ,hebrew ground1 which a prejudice prevalent far and wide has decided to be occupied by a race and a nation with no mythology at all8 ,nevertheless1 ,i hope ,i have kept myself free from abuse and extravagance in these essays4 ,i have endeavoured sedulously to avoid whatever1 on the ,aryan domain1 aroused the distrust of the hesitating1 by showing no anxiety to gain immediate command of the whole extent of the mythological field4 ,the essential point at the commencement of these matters is not the elucidation of all the minute details1 but rather the solution of the general questions that arise1 and the accurate laying down of a sound method of investigation4 ,what ,i have brought forward ,i wish to be regarded as a collection of examples of the application of the method4 ,the reader will observe that ,i have given to the conception of the myth a narrower scope than is usually done4 ,i believe it necessary to separate it strictly from the conception of religion1 and especially to exclude from the sphere of primitive mythology the questions of ,cosmogony and ,ethics 7the origin of ,evil74 ,the latter point was of especial importance in reference to the ,hebrew ,myth1 since1 as ,i show in the last chapter1 the solution of these questions by the ,hebrews was produced in the later period of civilisation and from a foreign impulse4 ,there is an immense difference between the ancient mythical view of the origin of nature and that later cosmogonic system4 ,so long as mythical ideas are still living in the mind1 though under an altered form1 when the times are ripe for cosmogonic speculations1 a cosmogony appears as a stage of development of the ancient myth4 ,but when the myth has utterly vanished from consciousness1 then the mind is ready to receive foreign cosmogonic ideas1 which can be fitted into the frame of its religious thought and accommodated to its religious views4 ,this was the case with the ,hebrews2 and hence it will be understood why ,i have not treated as ,hebrew mythical matter the ,cosmogony of ,genesis1 which1 moreover1 according to all appearance1 is to be regarded rather as a mere literary creation than as a view of the origin of things emanating directly from the mind of the people4 ,it appeared desirable to give a few chapters to show what ,i imagined the course of development of the primitive myths to have been1 before they attained the form in which they are presented to us in literature4 ,the mythological question is indeed quite distinct from that concerning the history of literature1 and there is only a distant connexion between the two4 ,the purpose of the following pages is1 strictly speaking1 attained where that of the literary history of the ,canon commences2 and ,i would gladly have kept aloof from the literary question1 which cannot yet be regarded as even nearly settled4 ,but when ,i included in my task the description of the further course of development of the myth1 it was obviously impossible to stand so entirely aloof4 ,i have on many points deviated from the current views1 without being able either to enter into so complete a justification of the deviation as is generally reasonably expected1 and the importance and scope of the subject would demand1 or to refer to all the suggestive and original works contributed1 especially by ,germany and ,holland1 to the elucidation of the problems in question4 ,for this point1 which is only accessory to the real subject of my work1 would require to be treated in a separate monograph1 which it was not my intention to give4 ,on the other hand1 it was impossible to leave these questions quite on one side4 ,on the ,pentateuch question ,i start from the principles of ,graf1 which at first were adopted solely by the learned ,professor ,kuenen of ,leyden1 but have recently found zealous promoters also in ,england#ba and ,germany--in the latter country especially in the works of ,kayser 7,strasburg1 #ahgd71 and ,duhm 7,bonn1 #ahge74bb ,nevertheless1 the section on ,jahveism and ,prophetism has turned out more lengthy than considerations of symmetry would sanction4 ,i must confess that my personal sympathy with and affection for this portion of the history of religion places me too close to it to allow me1 when once brought face to face with it1 to impose on my pen a reserve which perhaps is desirable for the sake of equilibrium4 ,all this obliges me to count on the kind indulgence of my readers for the second portion1 which may be termed the historical4 ,it remains to say a few words about previous works of the same character4 ,some earlier writings there are on ,hebrew ,mythology4 ,but it needs not to be specially insisted on that ,nork's muddle-headed works1 such as his #8,biblical ,mythology of the ,old and ,new ,testament1' his #8,etymological-symbolical-mythological ,cyclopedia for ,biblical ,students1 ,archeologists1 and ,artists1'#bc and other books of his1 and similar attempts by others1#bd which have tended to discredit the school of ,creuzer rather than to gain lasting adherents to it1 do not deserve to be regarded as anything but passing aberrations4 ,braun's #8,natural ,history of ,legend3 ,reference of all ,religious ,ideas1 ,legends1 and ,systems to their ,common ,stock and ,ultimate ,root'#be maintains a more serious and dignified tone1 but is a kind of anachronism built on an antiquated theory1 and not happier in its etymological identifications and derivations than ,nork's writings4 ,i think that no branch of the science of ,history and ,civilisation can be advanced to satisfactory results when the following thesis is laid down as an axiom3 #8,it is a fundamental law of the nature of the human mind never to invent anything as long as it is possible to copy'--which is the starting-point of ,braun's studies4 ,it would be quite as difficult to rest satisfied at the present day with the method which ,buttmann follows in treating of ,hebrew ,mythology4 ,there are many smaller excursus by ,biblical expositors and historians1 who set out from the standpoint of the earlier views on the relation of the ,myth to the ,legend1 and more frequently from the exegetical point of view4 ,among these ought especially to be named ,ewald's section on the subject in the first volume of his #8,history of ,israel1' ,tuch's short treatise #8,legend and ,myth' in the general introduction to his ,commentary on ,genesis1 as well as several dissertations by the indefatigable ,nldeke in his #8,untersuchungen' 7,investigations7 and elsewhere4 ,it is obvious that these performances1 though in every sense noteworthy and of permanent value1 could not draw into their sphere of observation those preliminary questions which in the subsequent investigations of ,kuhn and ,max ,mller removed to a greater distance the goal of mythological enquiry4 ,steinthal1 who did so much for the psychological basis of the new tendency of mythological science1 was the first to merit the praise of making ,comparative ,mythology fruitful on ,hebrew ground4 ,his dissertations on the ,story of ,prometheus and the ,story of ,samson#bf showed for the first time1 and on a large scale1 how the matter of the ,hebrew legends yields to mythological analysis4 ,i would on this occasion beg the reader to have the kindness to read these pioneer-articles of ,steinthal's1 to complete the matter left undiscussed in my work1 as ,i considered it superfluous repetition to work up a second time what was sufficiently expounded there4 ,steinthal must consequently be regarded as the founder of mythological science on ,hebrew ground4 ,he has again recently given some suggestive hints on this subject in a short article1 in which he again defends the capacity of the ,semitic race to form myths4#bg ,it is only to be regretted that the commencement made by ,steinthal in this science has not been followed up for more than fifteen years4#bh ,steinthal's two dissertations gave me the first impulse to the composition of this work2 and my purpose was confirmed by the words of the ingenious ,italian ,angelo de ,gubernatis1 who1 in his #8,zoological ,mythology' 7which appeared at the very time when ,i was maturing my purpose of putting together into one work this series of essays originally written as lectures71 eloquently designates the subject of my researches the next problem of ,comparative ,mythology4#bi ,the words in which he recommends the study of ,hebrew ,mythology in the spirit of the new method seem to me very striking4 ,it is my earnest conviction that not only the interests of learning1 but also preeminently the religious life of the present age make it important to gain for this subject an acknowledged position in learned literature4 ,for he who feels the true meaning of religion must welcome these studies as a step in advance towards the highest ideal of religion1 towards ,monotheism pure and unsullied by anything coarse or pagan1 which is independent of legends and traditions of race1 and has its centre1 its exclusive element of life1 and its impulse towards never-resting enquiry and self-perfection1 in aspiration after the single living ,source of all truth and morality4 ,i am convinced that every step which we take towards a correct appreciation of the ,mythical brings us nearer to that centre4 ,the confusion of the ,mythical with the ,religious makes religious life centrifugal2 it is the duty of the progressive tendency on this domain to confirm a centripetal tendency4#cj ,the recognition of this relation between pure ,monotheism and the oldest historical portion of the ,biblical literature does not date from yesterday or to-day2 the most ideal representative of ,hebrew ,monotheism1 in whom ,jahveism as an harmonious conception of the universe attained its climax1 the ,prophet of the ,captivity himself1 described this relation in clear terms 7,is4 ,,lxiii4 #af2 see infra1 p4 #bbi74 ,but while1 on the one hand1 the investigation of ,hebrew myths gives a stimulus to religious thought to advance in the direction of a ,monotheism purified from all dross2 on the other1 the employment of the method offered to the ,hebrew stories by ,comparative ,mythology in its latest stage1 paves the way for a more serious treatment of the old ,biblical stories4 ,it cannot be denied that there is no little frivolity in the idea that those stories were invented at a certain time1 no matter whether bona or mala fide1 by persons guided by some interest1 or affected by some leaning1 of their own4 ,it is no more satisfactory to be told that the stories were not invented1 but sprang up naturally1 and then to find that no answer is forthcoming to the question1 ,how that could be8 ,the modern science of ,comparative ,mythology has washed the teachers of the human race clean of the suspicion of mystification and deceptive principles4 ,the origination of the stories is1 at the outset1 claimed for an antiquity higher than even the most orthodox apologists could ever exhibit4 ,now for the first time we can learn to appreciate them as spontaneous acts of the human mind2 we perceive that they arose through the same psychological process which gave us language also2 that1 like language itself1 they were the very oldest manifestation of activity of the mind1 and burst forth from it not 1 at the very threshold of its history2 and subsequently transformed and developed themselves again quite spontaneously1 on the attainment of a higher stage of civilisation1 by processes of national psychology1 and most certainly not by the cunning ingenuity and the worldly wisdom of certain leading classes4 ,last year ,dr4 ,martin ,schultze announced a #8,mythology of the ,hebrews in its connexion with those of the ,indogermans and of the ,egyptians'#ca as about to appear4 ,the method followed by the author in a preliminary specimen#cb was not such as to induce me to delay the publication of my work and wait for his1 even though he promised to give a complete system1 which was not my intention4#cc ,my manuscript was already in the publishers' hands1 when the papers announced the publication of a learned book by ,dr4 ,grill1 #8,the ,patriarchs of ,mankind3 a contribution towards the establishment of a ,science of ,hebrew ,archeology2'#cd and more than ten sheets were printed before ,i could gather1 from a review of it in the ,jenaer ,literaturzeitung1 in how close a connexion it stood to the subject of my book2 for from the title alone ,i was not likely to suspect anything on ,mythology4 ,i cannot pretend to explain in a few lines my opinion of so large a book as ,dr4 ,grill's4 ,but as he starts with the assumption of the impossibility of a ,semitic ,mythology1 and endeavours to establish the view that the ,hebrew ,myth is that of an ,indogermanic people1 that the ,hebrews were ,indogermans1 and that the ,hebrew mythological proper names can find an etymology only in ,sanskrit1 ,i have great pleasure in referring him to p4 #be and to ,chapter ,v4 of my book1 where he may convince himself that no very daring etymological leaps nor arbitrary assumptions of phonological laws of transformation are necessary to explain the ,hebrew mythological figures and their appellations from the ,semitic languages themselves4 ,it must1 no doubt1 be admitted that in some cases--but the minority--the formation of the proper names used in ,mythology is not quite in accordance with grammatical analogy4 ,i account for this by the peculiar feature of the ,semitic languages1 that an appellative on becoming a proper name often takes a peculiar form1 differing in some respect from that of the original appellative3 #8al-adl li-l-alamyy1' as the ,arabian grammarians say4#ce ,there will always be cruces4 ,is it possible to indicate a satisfactory etymon for every proper name of the ,greek mythology8 and if not1 ought we on that account to explain the ,greek out of ,semitic1 whenever a case occurs which tempts us to do so1 as our learned ancestors did8#cf ,for transformation is always easy to find2 since etymology is allowed to be a science in which the consonants go for but little1 and the vowels have nothing at all to say for themselves6 ,it certainly seems a pity to waste ingenuity in trying to banish out of the ,semitic stock names which sound ,semitic and can be recognised as such without the employment of any law of transformation at all1 like ,yiphtch 7,jephthah71 ,nach 7,noah71 and ,debhr 7,deborah71 and in dissolving by ,sanskrit solvents the ,hebrew impress of a word like ,yehsha 7,joshua71 produced by ,jahveism out of the original ,hsha1 and not even mythical at all1 in order to make it into a #8,dog of ,heaven1' instead of #8,he has holpen' or #8enlarged the people's possessions1' i4e4 #8,the ,helper4'#cg ,pinechas 7,phinehas71 no doubt1 is a word that might drive the etymologist to despair4 ,but there is far more intrinsic probability in ,lauth's ,egyptian interpretation#ch than in ,grill's ,sanskrit tour de force1 especially considering that ,egyptian proper names cannot be explained away out of the ,old ,testament1 and have in history a positive reason for existence4 ,then why hover in the dream-land of a prehistoric connexion with the ,aryans8 ,when the ,arabian traditionary stories are once subjected to etymological treatment1 it will appear how far ,semitism is from utter deficiency of ,mythology4 ,in certain instances ,i have taken occasion to demonstrate this with reference to ,arabian tradition in the course of this work 7e4g4 p4 #ahb et seq41 p4 #ccd et seq474 ,in other cases no reference to the etymological meaning of the proper names is required to recognise true ,arabian myths4 ,instances are found especially in the stories about the constellations4 ,al-,meydn informs us that #8the old ,arabs say that the star al-,dabarn wooed the ,pleiades1 but the latter constellation would have nothing to do with the suitor1 turned obstinately away from him1 and said to the ,moon1 #8,what must ,i do with that poor devil1 who has no estate at all8' ,then al-,dabarn gathered together his il 7a constellation in the neighbourhood of al-,dabarn71 and thus gained possession of an estate4 ,and now he is constantly following after the ,pleiades1 driving the il before him as a wedding-present4'#ci #8,the constellation ,capricorn killed the ,bear 7nash71 and therefore the daughters of the latter 7bint nash7 encircle him1 seeking vengeance for their slain father4' #8,suheyl gave the female star al-,jauz a blow2 the latter returned it and threw him down where he now lies2 but he then took his sword and cut his adversary in pieces4' #8,the southern ,sirius 7al-,shira al-yamnyy7 was walking with her sister the northern ,sirius 7al-,shira al-shmyy72 the latter parted company and crossed the ,milky ,way1 whence her name 7al-,shira al-abr74 ,her sister1 seeing this1 began to weep for the separation1 and her eyes dropped tears2 therefore she is called the ,wet-eyed 7al-umey74'#dj ,the existence of similar ,hebrew myths may be inferred from the names of constellations in the ,book of ,job 7,,xxxviii4 #ca1 #cb71 especially from the ,fool 7kesl1 ,orion7 bound to heaven4#da ,are not these genuine ,nomads' myths1 produced through contemplation of the constellations and their relations to one another8 ,in conclusion1 ,i must observe that in many passages1 especially of the later chapters1 a fuller citation of literary apparatus would have been desirable4 ,the want of this is to be ascribed in part to the peculiar design of the book1 and in part to the deficiency of aid from libraries for the exegetical department in my dwelling-place4 ,,mythology ,,among ,,the ,,hebrews4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,on ,,hebrew ,,mythology4 #a4 ,at the very foundation of the investigations to which this book is devoted1 we find ourselves in opposition to a wide-spread assumption3 that in regard to ,mythology nations may be divided into two classes1 ,mythological and ,unmythological1 or in other words1 those which have had a natural gift for creating ,myths1 and those whose intellectual capacity never sufficed for this end4 ,it is therefore desirable to lay down clearly our position in regard to this assumption1 before we advance to the proper subject of our studies4 ,the ,myth is the result of a purely psychological operation1 and is1 together with language1 the oldest act of the human mind4 ,this has been shown conclusively by the modern school of mythologists who are also psychologists4 ,assuming then1 what can scarcely be called in question1 that the same psychological laws rule the intellectual activity of mankind without distinction of race1 we cannot a priori assume that the capacity for forming myths can be given or withheld according to ethnological categories4 ,as there is only one physiology1 and every race of mankind under the influence of certain conditions produces the same physiological functions in accordance with physiological laws1 so it is also with the psychological functions1 given the stimulus necessary to their production4 ,and this stimulus acts upon mankind everywhere alike4 ,for it is clearly proved that the ,myth tells of the operations of nature1 and is the mode of expressing the perception which man at the earliest stage of his intellectual life has of these operations and phenomena4 ,these form the substance of the ,myth4 ,consequently1 wherever they act as attractions to the youthful human mind1 the external conditions of the rise of ,mythology are present4 ,not unjustly1 therefore1 it seems to me1 has a recent psychologist spoken of the #8,universal ,presence and the ,uniformity' of myths4#db ,undoubtedly the direction of the myth will vary with the relation of natural phenomena to mankind2 the myth will take one direction where man greets the sun as a friendly element1 and another where the sun meets him as a hostile power2 and in the rainless region the rain cannot act the same part in ,mythology which it plays in the rainy parts of the earth4 ,the manners and usages of men must also exercise a modifying influence on the subject and the direction of the ,myth4 ,as in the course of our further inquiries we shall recur to this point1 ,i will here only refer to one example of the latter4 ,it is well known that in the ,aryan mythology1 #8the milking of cows' is a frequently recurring expression for the shining of the sun1 or as some say for the rain4 ,in tribes which do not milk their cows1 like some ,negro peoples1#dc or the ,american natives1 this mythical expression can of course not arise4 #b4 ,there are two points of view1 from which the ,mythical faculty has been denied to certain sections of the human race--on the one side a linguistic1 on the other an ethnological4 ,as to the first1 we must especially name ,bleek1 the distinguished investigator of the ,south ,african languages1 who1 in the introduction to his work on the ,story of ,reynard the ,fox in ,south ,africa1 makes the remark that a mythological genius is peculiar to nations in whose languages a distinction of gender in nouns finds expression1 whereas those whose languages possess no formal distinction of gender in nouns1 have no proper mythology1 but their religion stands on that original stage which is the starting-point of all human religion1 namely that of the cultus of their ancestors4#dd ,it is obvious that this learned linguist's distinction involves a confusion of ,myth and ,religion1 which we shall find in the course of our subsequent investigations to be untenable4 ,at present we will disregard this point1 and only refer to the mythologies of the ,finnish-,ugrian nations--peoples whose languages do not indicate any distinction of gender in their nouns4 ,or can it be said that the substance of the epos of ,kalevala is not proper mythology8 ,to be sure1 in nations whose mind never evolved the category of grammatical gender in their languages1 the myth will take such a direction as will give to the sexual idea1 so charming a feature in the ,aryan mythology1 much less prominence4 ,for the mode of conception which is conveyed by the distinction of #8die ,sonne' and #8der ,mond1' or #8hic sol' and #8haec luna1' cannot arise where this distinction is not made4 ,but the figures of a mythology not only vary as to sex and genealogy1 but act also2 they are busy1 they fight and kill1 and the story of these actions and fights is quite independent of the gender-idea in language4 ,stories of them1 consequently1 which we call ,myths1 may exist even where the genius of language has opposed the distinction of gender4 #c4 ,the second point of view1 from which some have denied to a section of the human race the faculty and tendency to form myths1 is ethnological4 ,either the ,semites in general or the ,hebrews specially fell a sacrifice to this view4 ,the exclusion of the ,semites from the domain of ,mythology is announced most emphatically by the ingenious member of the ,french ,academy1 ,ernest ,renan1 in the words1 #8,les ,smites n'ont jamais eu de mythologie4'#de ,this arbitrary assertion is deduced from a scheme of race-psychology invented by ,renan himself1 which at the first glance seems so natural and sounds so plausible when described with all the elegance of style of which he is master1 that it has become an incontestable scientific dogma to a large proportion of the professional world--for even the territory of science is sometimes dominated by mere dogmas--and is treated by learned and cultivated people not specially engaged in this study as an actual axiom in the consideration of race-peculiarities4#df ,the foundation of this scheme is the idea that in their views of the world1 the ,aryans start from multiplicity1 the ,semites from unity2 and not only in their conception of the world1 but also in politics and art4 ,on intellectual ground1 therefore1 the former create mythology1 polytheism1 science1 which is only possible through discursive observation of natural phenomena2 the latter create monotheism1 7#8the desert is monotheistic1' says ,renan71 and have therefore neither mythology nor science4 #8,if it is difficult1' justly observes ,waitz1 #8to estimate the capability of single individuals well known to us1 it is a far more dubious task to gauge the intellectual gifts of whole nations and races4 ,it seems scarcely possible to find available standards for the purpose1 and consequently the judgment is almost always found to be very much founded on personal impressions4 ,the various nations stand at various times on very different stages of development1 and if only actual performances permit a safe induction as to the measure of existing capabilities1 then this measure itself seems not to remain the same in the same nation through the course of time1 but to vary within very wide limits1 especially if we are to assume in all cases that a state of original savageness preceded civilisation4'#dg ,in fact1 the words of this cautious psychologist apply admirably to ,renan's scheme of race-psychology2 for history is just what that scheme disregards4 ,he does not observe that ,polytheism and ,monotheism are two stages of development in the history of religious thought1 and that the latter does not spring up spontaneously1#dh without being preceded by the former stage1 and that ,polytheism itself is preceded by a preliminary stage1 that of the mythological view of the world1 which is in itself not yet a religion1 but prepares the way for the rise of religion4 ,to form some idea of the arbitrariness of schemes founded upon some universal characteristics1 we have only to glance over the literature which sprang up as soon as ,renan's dictum was uttered1 either to refute it1 or to work his hypothesis still further--a regular host of dissertations fighting on this side or on that4#di ,on reading these1 we see clearly how worthless such clever fancies are1 that enable one to embrace with a stroke of the pen a domain which geographically fills more than half of the inhabited world1 and chronologically stretches from the highest antiquity down to the most recent time4 ,for even ,renan's antagonists have fallen into his radical error3 they have taken one-sided schemes and characteristics1 only different ones from ,renan's4 ,how passive and elastic these schemes are1 shall be shown by an example of some importance1 which will convince us that the inferences drawn from ethnological characteristics are never anything higher than arbitrary sleight-of-hand1 which any investigator can manipulate to his own purpose4 ,to this end we will place side by side the inferences which ,renan has tacked on to his hypothesis1 and a talented ,german's conclusions1 which also essentially take ,renan's basis as the correct starting-point4 ,we speak of ,lange1 who also starts from the principle that the ,semites grasp natural phenomena in combination1 the ,aryans in multiplicity1 and that therefore the former naturally incline towards ,monotheism1 and the latter towards ,polytheism4 ,but let us see to what windings and deductions this dogma leads on both sides4 ,we hear ,renan say3 #8,or la conception de la multiplicit dans l'univers1 c'est le polythisme chez les peuples enfants2 c'est la science chez les peuples arrivs l'ge mr4'#ej ,quite the contrary is affirmed by the ,german historian of ,materialism1 who says3 #8,when the heathen sees gods everywhere1 and has accustomed himself to regard every separate operation of nature as the domain of a special demonic action1 he throws in the way of a materialistic explanation difficulties a thousandfold1 like the offices in the ,divine household4444 ,but ,monotheism here stands in a very different relation to science4' #8,if a uniform mode of work on a large scale is attributed to the one ,god1 the mutual connexion of things in their origin and action becomes not only a possible1 but even a necessary consequence of the assumption4 ,for if ,i saw a thousand and again a thousand wheels in motion1 and believed them to be all driven by one agent1 then ,i should have to conclude that it was a piece of machinery1 the minutest portion of which had its movement absolutely determined by the plan of the whole4' #ea #8,the fact that ,islm is the religion in which that advancement of the study of nature1 which we attribute to the monotheistic principle1 shows itself most clearly1 is connected with the peculiar talents of the ,arabs1 444 but also undoubtedly with the circumstance that ,mohammed's monotheism was the severest of all4'#eb ,auguste ,comte also draws the same inferences from the tendency of ,monotheism to develop a scientific conception of the world1 and makes ,monotheism and ,scientific treatment exert a reciprocal influence on each other4#ec ,to which of these opposite deductions from the same premisses shall we hold8 #8,which is right8' every educated man will ask1 and immediately infer the inadequacy of such general characterisations1 and the wide room thereby opened to arbitrariness and error1 in case it should be attempted to erect upon them a history of civilisation or an ethnology4 ,now this foundation is exactly that on which ,renan's assumption of the absence of mythology from the ,semites rests--an assumption which can by no means be admitted1 first1 because it is unhistorical2 and secondly1 because it would necessarily follow from it that race-distinctions differentiate the psychological bases of intellectual activity4 #8,the ,semites cannot form a myth1' is a proposition the possibility of which could be allowed only if such an assertion as #8,this or that race has no digestive power1 or no generative power1' could be treated otherwise than as an a priori absurdity4 ,but it is even more remarkable that ,renan1 notwithstanding his conviction of the #8uniform psychological constitution of the human race1' in which he finds the justification of a common story of the ,deluge springing up everywhere without borrowing1#ed and although he finds the gaps in the chronology of the antediluvian period of the ,biblical history filled up1 #8par des noms d'anciens hros1 et peut-tre de divinits qu'on retrouve chez les autres peuples smitiques1'#ee still speaks of the possibility1 indeed of the necessity1 that the ,semitic race should be destitute of myths4 ,renan's hypothesis had to encounter many a hard battle soon after its publication4 ,the theologians were highly pleased at what was said about the monotheistic tendency of ,semitism1 but thought it blasphemy for ,renan to find in ,monotheism le minimum de religion and in ,polytheism a higher and more civilised stage of religion4 ,and philologists1 historians and philosophers assailed the foundations of ,renan's pile4 ,steinthal subjects the notion introduced by ,renan1 of a monotheistic instinct1 to acute psychological criticism4 ,max ,mller does the same1 and points to the history of the ,hebrews and the other ,semites1 to resolve the dreams of ,semitic ,monotheism into their nullity4 ,abraham ,geiger and ,salomon ,munk 7,renan's successor in the chair of the ,collge de ,france7 wish to limit to the ,hebrew nation the assertion of ,semitic ,monotheism4 ,yet what is said about ,mythology is not much objected to by any of these critics 7with the exception of ,steinthal74 ,indeed1 one of the pioneers of modern ,comparative ,mythology1 while combating the monotheistic instinct1 takes up a position on the mythological question not very far from ,renan's own3 #8,what is peculiar to the ,aryan race is their mythological phraseology1 superadded to their polytheism2 what is peculiar to the ,semitic race is their belief in a national god--in a god chosen by his people1 as his people had been chosen by him4'#ef ,mythological science has at the present day ceased to hold fast to the divisions of race in relation to the formation of myths4 ,at least it has acted so in relation to that class of nations which1 though not exhibiting a single race or several closely connected races1 has 7faute de mieux7 been termed the ,turanian--a purely negative designation1 which only asserts its members to be neither ,semites nor ,aryans4 ,max ,mller himself wishes to see the ,turanian mythology investigated by the same method which is employed in the ,aryan2 and he is not shaken by the result1 which exhibits a striking identity between ,aryan and ,turanian myths4 ,he is not shaken even by consideration of the psychological force1 which must be taken into account in the first instance in the criticism and valuation of myths4 #8,if people cannot bring themselves to believe in solar and celestial myths among the ,hinds and ,greeks1' says this leading investigator1 #8let them study the folk-lore of the ,semitic and ,turanian races4 ,i know there is1 on the part of some of our most distinguished scholars1 the same objection against comparing ,aryan to non-,aryan myths1 as there is against any attempt to explain the features of ,sanskrit or ,greek by a reference to ,finnish or ,bask4 ,in one sense that objection is well founded1 for nothing would create greater confusion than to ignore the genealogical principle as the only safe one in a scientific classification of languages1 of myths1 and even of customs4 ,we must first classify our myths and legends1 as we classify our languages and dialects4444 ,but there is in a comparative study of languages and myths not only a philological1 but also a philosophical and more particularly a psychological interest1 and though even in this more general study of mankind the frontiers of language and race ought never to disappear1 yet they can no longer be allowed to narrow or intercept our view4'#eg ,thus ,mller also lays especial stress upon the psychological point of view1 and1 whatever he concedes to race-distinctions1 still takes for granted the universality of the formation of myths as a psychological postulate4 ,he exhibits1 however1 the application of his principle to the ,turanian only in concrete examples4 ,the ,semitic1 which1 as we saw above1 cannot be excluded in reference to the universality of the formation of myths1 is left out altogether4 ,yet ,mller appears in respect of the ,semitic to have passed beyond the position on which he stood in #ahfj1 when writing his essay #8,semitic ,monotheism4'#eh ,advancing in the footsteps of the master1 a recent ,american mythologist1 ,john ,fiske1 has drawn the ,turanian into the domain of comparative mythology1 and worked out a portion of the ,american stories collected by ,brinton1#ei according to the laws of the new method1#fj while the ,german ,schirren1 and also ,gerland less completely1 had already subjected the ,polynesian myths to a similar treatment4#fa ,this circumstance1 that the stories of the so-called ,turanian humanity lend themselves to the comparative method of investigation quite as easily as the legendary treasure of the ,aryan nations1 is a proof how common to all mankind is the mythological capacity1 how false it is to follow ethnological categories and assign it to one race and deny it to another2 and on the other hand1 how the subject-matter1 the perception of which forms the ground-work of the oldest mythology1 is everywhere the same--the phenomena of nature and the contests of alternating elements4 ,for very many and various races1 incapable as yet of linguistic classification1 endowed with the most diverse physical constitutions1 inhabiting the most differing climates from the highest northern to the furthest southern latitudes1 and speaking languages the most incongruous1 have taken refuge in the vast unlimited house of ,turanism1 until legitimate parents are found for them4 ,turanism is therefore the best test of the controverted universality of mythological capacity4 ,there is then no tenable reason why1 for the sake of fair-sounding but meaningless distinctions1 we should introduce the ,semites into history with the loss of a nose1 as it were1 and interpret the history of the intellectual development of that race by a principle which essentially proclaims that the ,semites were not born into life as infants1 and never saw the sunlight till they were men1 or even old men4 #d4 ,such reflections may have determined the ,french ,assyriologist ,franois ,lenormant quite recently1 to claim mythology for the ,semitic race also2 although in so doing he does not mention the ,hebrews at all4#fb ,for1 notwithstanding the alluring mythological subject-matter deposited in the literature of its traditions1 the ,hebrew nation has always been a stepchild of mythological inquiry1 and still awaits an investigator to do full justice to it4 ,it is easy to be understood that a mistaken religious interest1 which identified itself with the ,biblical literature and warned off mythological inquiry with an energetic ,noli me tangere1 sharpened1 it may be1 with a dose of canonical or uncanonical excommunication1 blockaded the passage of investigation on this path4 ,i call it a mistaken interest1 because the true interests of religion are advanced1 not imperilled1 by the results of science4 ,disregarding men of the calibre of ,nork and a few other inferior disciples of the school of ,creuzer1 we can affirm that1 with the exception of a few essays1 even the freest and most earnest interpreters of the ,bible have examined1 and do still examine1 the ,biblical books only as products of literature1 bringing to light valuable results as to the times and tendencies of the original composition and subsequent editing of the several parts of the ,canon4 ,but on the origin and significance of the persons themselves who figure in the ,biblical stories1 even the freest interpreters are silent1 as if the ,hebrews were a people quite apart1 and not to be measured by the measure of ,history and ,psychology4 ,even those who are willing to know something of ,semitic myths in general resist the assumption of ,hebrew myths4 ,no one has defined his position on this point so unambiguously as ,baron ,bunsen1 who has thought so much and so profoundly on religious matters4 ,it is really extraordinary that this immortal man1 who exerted so stimulating an influence on the studies of his young friend ,max ,mller1 and who welcomed the latter's pioneer-essay #8,comparative ,mythology' with #8especial pleasure' at the #8pure popular poetry of the feeling for nature1' exhibited so little comprehension of the aims of the new direction given to mythological studies by ,mller4 ,his view of the connexion of the ,aryan mass of mythology is consequently very confused4 ,this is especially to be regretted1 because the displacement of the true point of view in mythical speculation1 and the continual concessions to ,creuzer and ,schelling1 hindered him from making permanently useful the philosophical labour expended on the understanding of the ,egyptian theology4 ,bunsen did not separate ,religion from ,myths1 and consequently he sees what he calls ,consciousness of a ,god in a genealogised and systematised ,mythology4 ,it is therefore not surprising that he advanced no further than his predecessors in relation to the ,hebrew myths4 ,he speaks of the #8spirit of the ,jewish people1 historically penetrated through and through with aversion to mythology1'#fc and concentrates his thoughts on this theme in the sixth1 seventh1 and eighth of the theses in which he exhibits the relation of the ,egyptian mythology to the ,asiatic4 ,according to these1 #8the ,bible has no ,mythology2 it is the grand1 momentous1 and fortunate self-denial of ,judaism to possess none4' ,as if a myth--which ,bunsen himself had called #8pure popular poetry of the feeling for nature'--were an abomination1 a defilement of the human mind1 a sinful act voluntarily performed1 which the ,elect can deny themselves6 ,on the other hand1 #8the national sentiment mirrored in ,abraham1 ,moses1 and the primeval history generally from the ,creation to the ,deluge1 and the expression of it1 are rooted in the mythological life of the ,east in the earliest times1' and #8in the long period from ,joseph to ,moses1 there have been interwoven with the life and actions of this greatest and most influential of all the men of the first age ,abraham and the history of his son and grandson1 many ancient traditions from the mythology of those tribes from whose savage natural life the ,hebrews were extracted1 to their own good and that of mankind and for higher ends4'#fd ,according to this there are ,myths belonging to the ,hebrews1 but not ,hebrew ,myths--only borrowed ones1 obtained from #8,primeval ,asia4' ,i have exhibited ,bunsen's position at some length1 because1 with all his advanced ideas on the essence and significance of ,mythology1 he still to this day dominates the minds of those who1 while admitting the possibility of ,semitic ,mythology1 are up in arms against the existence of ,hebrew myths4 #e4 ,nevertheless1 ,i hope it is clear from the above that ,hebrew mythology is a priori possible4 ,the following chapters will give occasion to prove in what this existence consists4 ,it will then appear that the ,hebrew myths1 necessarily owing their existence to the same psychological operation as the ,aryan or the so-called ,turanian1 must consequently have the same original signification as these4 ,hence the figures of ,hebrew mythology denote the very natural phenomena whose appellations lie before us in those figures' names4 ,these names1 however1 are not symbolic1#fe but are antiquated appellatives of the natural phenomena denoted by them1 just as the words1 ,sun1 ,moon1 ,rain1 c4 ,this must be distinctly proclaimed1 as some who misunderstand the modern method of ,mythology pervert it in a false and antiquated way by the introduction of symbolism4 ,we must also beware of confounding the original ,myth with ,religion or1 still worse1 with the ,consciousness of ,god4 ,this confusion is the source of most of the erroneous estimates and notions of ,mythology1 which even the latest methods of investigating myths has not entirely removed4 ,the very earliest activity of the human intellect can only work upon what falls immediately under the cognisance of the senses1 and upon what through its frequency and the regularity of its return prompts men most readily to speech4 ,such things are the daily natural phenomena1 the change of light and darkness1 of rain and sunshine1 and all that accompanies these changes4 ,what primitive man spoke on these things1 is the ,myth4 ,it is psychologically impossible that the earliest activity of the human mind should have been anything else but this4 ,we cannot speak of a consciousness of ,god1 a sensus numinis1 as existing in the earliest ,mythological period4 ,not till later1 when some process in the history of language gives the ancient myths a new direction1 do they turn into either ,history or ,religion4 ,the latter always arises out of the materials of ,mythology1 and then finds its historical task to be to work itself upwards into independence4 ,then1 while the mythology out of which it sprang is growing less and less intelligible1 and therefore also less and less expressive1 ,religion must in the progress of its development sever its connexion with ,mythology1 and unite itself with the scientific consciousness1 which now occupies the place of the mythological4 ,how ,mythology becomes ,religion is shown most clearly by ,dualism4 ,nothing can be less correct than the belief that the dualistic system of religion had from its very origin an ethical meaning4 ,this1 as well as the limitation of ,dualism to ,irn and ,babylon1#ff is refuted by the frequent occurrence of the dualistic conception of the world among the most various savage peoples4#fg ,the ethical significance of ,dualism is decidedly secondary2 it is the form of development of the main theme of all mythology1 the relation of light to darkness1 proper to a higher stage of culture4 ,many mythological fancies1 and especially the ,sun's voyage by ship in the nether world1 became religious eschatological ideas when the mythical meaning itself was lost from the mind1 and gave rise to new ideas of life in the nether world1 resurrection1 ascent to heaven1 c42 this was first established in reference to the old ,egyptian mythology4#fh ,so also ,dualism as it appears in ,irn is a myth that has taken an ethical sense4 ,this is best seen in the facts that the northern ,algonquins1 with whom ,dualism is almost as fixed a principle as in ,irn1 call the good and evil principles respectively ,sun and ,moon1 and that among the ,hurons the ,evil principle is the grand-mother of the ,good3#fi the ,night is the mother or grand-mother1 or1 in general1 the ancestress of the ,day4 ,here religious dualism has not quite put off the character of its origin in ,mythology4 ,on the other hand1 the ,iranic system at a very early age 7that of the ,avesta7 elevated ,dualism into the region of pure morals1 and yet at a later 7the epic period7 formed out of the original myth the localised story of the war of ,zohak against ,ferdn4#gj ,that ,dualism as a religious conception is a further development of the myth1 and not first excited by the moral problem of the strife of the good against the evil1 becomes evident also from the consideration of a peculiar form of dualistic religion which we find in many ,semitic nations4 ,we here frequently find a deity regarded as male1 who has a corresponding female to represent1 as it were1 the reverse side of the same natural force1 and then the two forces unite to produce a natural phenomenon4 ,so1 for instance1 ,sun and ,earth1 ,baal and ,mylitta1 the factors of procreation4 ,this likewise is a dualistic tendency1 in which however the two deities are not represented as mutually hostile4 ,we are justified in placing this phenomenon in the chapter on ,dualism1 because two such deities in the course of history are often joined together into one4#ga ,now this side of dualistic religion can be traced back only to ,mythology as its source and point of departure4 ,the ,hebrew myth of ,judah and ,tamar1 which we shall consider further on 7,chap4 ,v41 #ad71 exhibits a mythical prototype of such dualistic views of religion4 ----- ,footnote #a3 ,especially ,max ,mller's essay on ,comparative ,mythology 7,chips etc41 ,,ii4 #a71 and the ninth in the second series of his ,lectures on the ,science of ,language2 and ,cox's introductions to his ,manual of ,mythology1 ,tales of the ,gods and ,heroes1 and ,tales of ,thebes and ,argos4 ,footnote #b3 ,both in ,england and in ,france the attempt has been made with much taste to introduce the results of comparative mythology in the instruction of youth2 in ,england by ,rev4 ,g4,w4 ,cox in his ,tales of the ,gods and ,heroes1 ,tales of ,thebes and ,argos1 ,tales from ,greek ,mythology1 ,manual of ,mythology in the form of question and answer1 #ahfg1 and ,tales of ,ancient ,greece1 #ahgj1 the last two of which have just been translated into ,hungarian1 and published by the ,franklin ,society2 in ,france by ,baudry and ,delerot 7,paris #ahgb74 ,still more recently the results of comparative mythology have also been summarised in two excellent books for children by ,edward ,clodd1 ,the ,childhood of the ,world3 a simple account of ,man in ,early ,times1 #ahgc1 and ,the ,childhood of ,religion2 embracing a simple account of the birth and growth of ,myths and ,legends1 #ahge4 ,footnote #c3 ,this psychological uniformity of all races of men is independent of the question of the monogenetic or polygenetic origin of races4 ,the psychological uniformity of different races is especially conspicuous when we observe and compare individuals of the separate races in infancy1 when the distinctions produced by history1 education1 instruction1 etc41 are not yet present 7see ,frohschammer1 ,das ,christenthum und die moderne ,naturwissenschaft1 ,vienna #ahfh1 p4 #bjh47 ,when we are considering the growth of mankind in general1 the stage when myths are created corresponds to the infancy of the individual4 ,footnote #d3 ,das ,bestndige in den ,menschenrassen und die ,spielweise ihrer ,vernderlichkeit1 ,berlin #ahfh1 p4 #gh4 ,footnote #e3 ,franois ,lenormant1 ,essai sur la ,propagation de l',alphabet phnicien dans l'ancien monde1 ,vol4 ,i4 7#bnd ed41 ,paris #ahge71 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #f3 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ,i4 #f4 ,footnote #g3 ,on these two see ,pfleiderer1 ,die ,religion1 ihr ,wesen und ihre ,geschichte1 ,,ii4 #h4 ,footnote #h3 ,the title is ',confrence de la ,fable avec l',histoire sainte1 o l'on voit que les grandes fables1 le culte et les mystres du paganisme ne sont que des copies altres des histoires1 des usages et des traditions des ,hbreux4' ,footnote #i3 ,edward ,wilton in the ,journal of ,sacred ,literature1 #ahdi1 ,,ii4 #cgd et seq4 ,footnote #aj3 ,dr4 ,vollmer's ,wrterbuch der ,mythologie aller ,vlker1 newly revised by ,dr4 ,w4 ,binder1 with an ,introduction to ,mythological ,science by ,dr4 ,johannes ,minckwitz1 #crd ed41 ,stuttgart #ahgd4 ,footnote #aa3 ,see the ,augsburg ,allgemeine ,zeitung1 #ahge1 no4 #afi1 p4 #bfeg4 ,footnote #ab3 ,primitive ,culture1 ,i4 #bb4 ,footnote #ac3 ,see ,virchow in the ,monatsbericht der knigl4 preuss4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,january #ahge1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #ad3 ,origin of ,civilisation1 #crd ed41 p4 #ccj1 quoting ,sibree's ,madagascar and its ,people1 p4 #cif4 ,footnote #ae3 ,einleitung in die ,philosophie der ,mythologie1 pp4 #fb1 #fc4 ,this is the idea to which ,max ,mller refers in noticing the lectures of the philosopher of ,berlin1 in his ,introduction to the ,science of ,religion1 p4 #ade4 ,footnote #af3 ,see his ,populre ,aufstze aus dem ,alterthum1 vorzugsweise zur ,ethik und ,religion der ,griechen1 second edition1 ,leipzig #ahge1 especially p4 #bgb et seq4 ,footnote #ag3 ,flach1 ,das ,system der ,hesiod4 ,kosmogonie1 ,leipzig #ahgd2 see ,literar4 ,centralblatt1 #ahge1 no4 #g4 ,footnote #ah3 ,rude ,stone ,monuments in all ,countries1 p4 #cb1 note #b4 ,footnote #ai3 ,the ,chaldean ,account of ,genesis1 p4 #cjb4 ,footnote #bj3 ,sayce in the ,academy1 #ahge1 p4 #ehf4 ,footnote #ba3 ,the ,academy1 #ahge1 no4 #ahd1 p4 #dif4 ,the promoters of the ,theological ,translation ,fund1 by whom ,kuenen's ,religion of ,israel was published1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,muir of ,edinburgh1 who wrote some letters to the ,scotsman on the ,dutch ,theology1 and to a certain extent ,bishop ,colenso1 besides many others who have not avowed their views so publicly1 indicate the progress of opinion in ,england4--,,tr4 ,footnote #bb3 ,see ,literar4 ,centralblatt1 #ahge1 no4 #di1 p4 #aeg4 ,footnote #bc3 ,biblische ,mythologie des ,alten und ,neuen ,testaments1 #b vols41 ,stuttgart #ahdb2 ,etymologisch-symbolisch-mythologisches ,realwrterbuch fr ,bibelforscher1 ,archologen und bildende ,knstler1 #d vols41 ,stuttgart #ahdc-e4 ,footnote #bd3 ,i have not succeeded in obtaining a sight of ,schwenk's ,mythologie der ,semiten1 published in #ahdi2 but ,bunsen's condemnation of it in ,egypt's ,place in ,universal ,history1 ,,iv4 p4 #cfc1 made me less anxious to get it4 ,footnote #be3 ,naturgeschichte der ,sage4 ,rckfhrung aller religisen ,ideen1 ,sagen1 ,systeme auf ihren gemeinsamen ,stammbaum und ihre letzte ,wurzel1 #b vols41 ,munich #ahfd-e4 ,footnote #bf3 ,in ,vol4 ,,ii4 of his ,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie und ,sprachwissenschaft1 translated and appended to this volume4 ,footnote #bg3 ,der ,semitismus1 in ,zeitsch4 fr ,vlkerpsychologie etc41 #ahge1 ,,viii4 #cci-cdj4 ,footnote #bh3 ,it would be unfair not to mention the ,dutch ,professor ,tiele as a worker on this field4 ,in his ,vergelijkende ,geschiedenis der oude godsdiensten1 ,vol4 ,i43 ,de egyptische en mesopotamische godsdiensten 7,amsterdam #ahgb7 he has occasionally inserted explanations of ,hebrew myths1 to which ,i have referred at the proper places4 ,footnote #bi3 ,,ii4 #dba et seq42 see his ,rivista ,europea1 year ,,vi4 ,,ii4 #ehg4 ,cf4 his review of the ,german edition of this work in the ,bollettino italiano degli studj orientali1 #ahgf1 ,i4 #afi-agb4 ,footnote #cj3 ,in reference to this ,i may refer to the eloquent expressions of ,steinthal in his lecture ,mythos und ,religion1 p4 #bh 7in ,virchow and ,holtzendorff's ,sammlung gemeinverstndlicher ,vortrge1 ,bd4 ,v4 ,heft #ig74 ,footnote #ca3 ,mythologie der ,ebrer in ihrem ,zusammenhange mit den ,mythologien der ,indogermanen und der gypter4 ,nordhausen #ahgf4 ,footnote #cb3 ,ausland1 #ahgd1 p4 #ifa et seq41 #ajja et seq4 ,footnote #cc3 ,the above-named work was published immediately after the conclusion of this ,introduction4 ,footnote #cd3 ,die ,erzvter der ,menschheit3 ein ,beitrag zur ,grundlegung einer hebrischen ,alterthumswissenschaft4 ,leipzig1 ,fues #ahge4 ,footnote #ce3 ,ibn ,yash's ,commentary on the ,mufaal1 p4 #gd 7of the edition now being published by ,dr4 ,jahn of ,berlin74 ,see ,fables de ,loqman le ,sage 7d4 ,drenbourg71 ,introduction1 p4 #g4 ,footnote #cf3 ,i may refer on this point to ,von ,grutschmid's excellent critique on ,bunsen's attempt to explain ,athene as ,semitic1 in the former's ,beitrge zur ,geschichte des alten ,orients1 ,leipzig #aheh1 p4 #df4 ,footnote #cg3 ,stade 7,morgenlndische ,forschungen1 p4 #bcb7 justly insists on the good ,hebrew character of the names occurring in the ,hebrew stories1 even against the false supposition of the original ,aramaic character of the ,hebrew people4 ,footnote #ch3 ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4,m4,g41 #ahga1 ,,xxv4 #aci2 see ,lepsius1 ,einleitung zur ,chronologie der alten gypten1 ,i4 #cbf4 ,footnote #ci3 ,see ,ibn ,yash's ,commentary on the ,mufaal of ,zamachshar1 p4 #dg1 in which the name of the constellation al-,ayy 7,auriga1 #8,the ,hinderer'7 is imported into this story1 as hindering al-,dabarn from coming up with his beloved4 ,footnote #dj3 al-,meydn1 ,majma al-amthl 7ed4 of ,bl71 ,,ii4 #bji4 ,footnote #da3 ,see ,nldeke in ,schenkel's ,bibellexikon1 #bnd ed4 ,,iv4 #cgj4 ,footnote #db3 ,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie und ,sprachwissenschaft1 #ahfi1 ,,vi4 ,footnote #dc3 ,theodor ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,,ii4 #he4 ,footnote #dd3 ,w4,h4,i4 ,bleek1 ,reynard the ,fox in ,south ,africa1 #ahfd1 pp4 xx-xxvi4 ,see ,max ,mller's ,introduction to the ,science of ,religion1 ,london #ahgc1 p4 #ed4 ,footnote #de3 ,histoire gnrale et ,systme compar des ,langues smitiques1 p4 #g4 ,footnote #df3 ,two instances will suffice to show how ,renan's hypothesis became the common property of educated people4 ,it is treated as fully made out1 both by ,roscher1 the ,german political economist1 and by ,draper1 the ,american naturalist and historian of civilisation4 ,the former says3 #8,life in the desert seems to be an especially favourable soil for ,monotheism4 ,it wants that luxuriant variety of the productive powers of nature by which ,polytheism was encouraged in remarkably fruitful countries1 such as ,india' 7,system der ,volkswirthschaft1 #gth ed41 ,stuttgart #ahgc1 ,,ii4 #ch74 ,the latter3 #8,polytheistic ideas have always been held in repute by the southern ,european races2 the ,semitic have maintained the unity of ,god4 ,perhaps this is due to the fact1 as a recent author has suggested1 that a diversified landscape of mountains and valleys1 islands1 rivers1 and gulfs1 predisposes man to a belief in a multitude of divinities4 ,a vast sandy desert1 the illimitable ocean1 impresses him with an idea of the oneness of ,god' 7,history of ,conflict between ,religion and ,science1 ,london #ahge1 p4 #gj74 ,this view has also passed into ,peschel's ,vlkerkunde1 and ,bluntschli also1 in his lecture on the ancient oriental ideas of ,god and world in #ahfa1 echoed ,renan's hypothesis of #ahee4 ,footnote #dg3 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,i4 #big4 ,footnote #dh3 ,on the other side1 ,renan says 7,hist4 gn4 #dth ed41 p4 #dig7 #8,cette grande conqute 7the recognition of ,monotheism7 ne fut pas pour elle 7i4 e4 for the ,semitic race7 l'effet du progrs2 ce fut une de ces premires aperceptions4' ,footnote #di3 ,much of this literature has been unnoticed1 as e4g4 a late pamphlet by ,lon ,hugonnet3 ,la civilisation arabe1 dfense des peuples smitiques en rponse ,m4 ,renan1 ,geneva #ahgc4 ,footnote #ej3 ,histoire gnrale1 p4 ,footnote #ea3 ,geschichte des ,materialismus1 #ast ed41 #ahff1 p4 #gg4 ,see #bnd ed41 #ahgc1 ,i4 #adi4 ,footnote #eb3 ,ib4 p4 #hc4 ,see #bnd ed41 p4 #aeb4 ,footnote #ec3 ,cours de ,philosophie ,positive1 d4 ,littr1 ,paris #ahfi1 ,v4 #ij1 #aig1 #cbd4 ,footnote #ed3 ,histoire gnrale1 p4 #dhf3 #8,l'unit de constitution psychologique de l'espce humaine1 au moins des grandes races civilises1 en vertu de laquelle les mmes mythes ont d apparatre paralllement sur plusieurs points la fois1 suffirait1 d'ailleurs1 pour expliquer les analogies qui reposent sur quelque trait gnral de la condition de l'humanit1 ou sur quelques-uns de ses instincts les plus profonds4' ,footnote #ee3 ,ib4 p4 #bg4 ,footnote #ef3 ,max ,mller1 ,chips from a ,german ,workshop1 ,i4 #cgj4 ,footnote #eg3 ,introduction to the ,science of ,religion1 p4 #cij et seq4 ,footnote #eh3 ,in ,chips1 c41 ,i4 p4 #cda4 ,footnote #ei3 ,in ,the ,myths of the ,new ,world1 ,new ,york #ahfh4 ,see ,steinthal's criticism of this collection in the ,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie and ,sprachwissenschaft1 #ahga1 ,bd4 ,,vii4 ,footnote #fj3 ,myths and ,myth-,makers1 ,boston #ahgc1 p4 #aea et seq4 ,footnote #fa3 ,in the sixth vol4 of ,waitz's ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 where ,i obtained information about ,schirren's works4 ,footnote #fb3 ,les premires civilisations1 ,paris #ahgd1 ,,ii4 #aac et seq4 ,footnote #fc3 ,gott in der ,geschichte1 ,i4 #cec2 a passage which1 with a large part of the volume1 is omitted in the greatly abridged ,english translation4 ,footnote #fd3 ,aegyptens ,stelle in der ,weltgeschichte1 ,v4 ii4 #ah-ai 7,english tr4 ,,iv4 #bh-bi74 ,footnote #fe3 ,even old ,plutarch observed in reference to the then favourite explanation of the myths ex ratione physica3 7i4e4 of the sun and moon7 7,zeus and ,hera71 ' 7,quaestiones ,romanae1 #gg74 ,see ,cicero1 ,de ,nat4 ,deorum1 ,,iii4 #bd3 ,longe aliter rem se habere1 atque hominum opinio sit3 eos enim1 qui dii appellantur1 rerum naturas esse1 non figuras deorum4 ,footnote #ff3 ,spiegel still does this up to a recent date in his ,eranische ,alterthumskunde1 ,,ii4 #ai4 ,footnote #fg3 ,see ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ,,ii4 #bhg et seq4 ,footnote #fh3 ,the story of ,osiris and ,typhon e4g4 originally personified the vegetative life of nature and the struggles incident to it1 but was afterwards transferred to the destinies of the human soul4 ,see ,ebers1 ,durch ,gosen zum ,sinai1 ,leipzig #ahgb1 p4 #dgg4 ,footnote #fi3 ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,,iii4 #ahc4 ,footnote #gj3 ,see ,roth in the ,zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft1 #ahdh1 ,,ii4 #bag2 ,albrecht ,weber1 ,akademische ,vorlesungen ber indische ,literaturgeschichte1 ,berlin #aheb1 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #ga3 ,see ,kuenen1 ,the ,religion of ,israel1 ,london #ahgd1 ,i4 #bbf4 ----- ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,sources ,,of ,,hebrew ,,mythology4 #a4 ,if it is now established that we are justified in speaking of a ,hebrew ,mythology1 in the same sense as of the mythologies of ,indians1 ,hellenes1 ,germans1 c41 then the question naturally arises1 ,can we come upon the track of those forms of expression and those figures which generally make up the elements of the ,hebrew ,myth2 and ,are these elements when found recognisable as elements of myths1 i4e4 ,are they expressions and stories in which the ancient ,hebrew1 standing on the myth-creating stage of his intellectual development1 spoke of the operations and changes of ,nature8 ,that in the abstract he was as capable as the ,aryan on the same stage of development of speaking myths1 we have admitted in assuming the universality of the formation of myths2 and of what those expressions exactly consist1 and what are the mythical figures which he formed1 it will be the business of a subsequent chapter to exhibit4 ,in this chapter our task will be limited to the discovery of the sources which we have to estimate by the method of ,comparative ,mythology1 in order to discern the various expressions and figures of the ,hebrew myth4 ,now both the incitement to the formation of myths and the course of development through which they pass before they are noted down in a literary age and then stiffen and undergo no further change1 are based on psychological operations1 the laws of which are not governed by categories of race and ethnology4 ,it is therefore obvious1 that for the understanding of the ,hebrew myths we must betake ourselves to the very same class of sources which the mythologist finds fruitful on ,aryan territory4 ,fortunately such sources are open to us on ,hebrew ground also4 ,they have1 indeed1 a less copious stream than those of ,aryan mythology1 but yet suffice to give us a picture of what the ancient ,hebrew on the mythic stage thought and felt1 and how he found expression in language for these thoughts and feelings4 ,it is true1 this investigation cannot be separated from another closely connected with it--what method we must employ to arrive at the germ of the myth hidden in these sources4 ,but for the present we must still put off this second question1 and content ourselves with the search for the sources of mythical matter4 ,it will1 however1 not be always possible to avoid an indication of the method2 and this is the case now with the first of the sources which we have to bring forward4 #b4 a47 ,we shall have to speak again further on of the question1 ,what factors in the minds of the ,hebrew people produced the conception of those ,patriarchs1 whose destinies form the most illustrious portion of their national historic writing8 ,it will then become clear that this ,patriarchal character represents only a later historical stratum of mythical development1 produced by those very factors4 ,originally the names of the ,patriarchs and the actions which are told of them signified nothing historical1 but only something on the domain of ,nature4 ,the names are appellations of physical phenomena1 and the actions are actions of ,nature4 ,for surely we must at the outset come to a clear understanding on the question1 ,what is the origin of persons like ,abram1 ,sarah1 ,jacob and the rest1 who fill the ,hebrew ,patriarchal history8 whence1 how1 and by what psychological law did they enter into the mind of the primitive ,hebrews8 ,the facile assumption that these persons and the actions with which they are concerned are mere ,fiction with no external foundation1 is so cheap and meaningless a way of getting over the difficulties which their existence in poetry presents to the investigator1 that it as impossible to adopt it as to admit the opposite equally arbitrary opinion1 which makes them historical in the same sense as ,goethe or ,frederick the ,great4 ,certainly they are fictions1 if by that we mean that no historical persons correspond to them as human individuals2 but by no means in the sense that their origin1 or rather the conception of them1 has no other foundation but the fancy of the poet or writer4 ,in this sense they have actual realities corresponding to them--the events and operations of ,nature1 which are the main-springs of mythical language4 ,and it is not conceivable that the oldest utterances of the human mind should have begun from anything else but from the sensations which the operations of ,nature aroused in their breasts4 ,as soon as they perceived these1 occasion for myths was present2 and the myths show how they became fully conscious of the operations of ,nature4 ,the ,patriarchal stories are therefore an important source for the knowledge of myths4 ,if we loosen stratum after stratum which has been formed through the agency of psychological and historical factors over the primitive form of the myth1 and have at length penetrated back to the stage at which many of the mythical appellations1 through the disuse of multifarious synonymous terms1 were individualised and personified1 then it is easy to pick the primitive germ1 the original mythic elements1 out of the shell in which they had been encased4 ,hence it appears that the most fruitful field for mythological investigation on ,hebrew territory is the ,book of ,,genesis1 the greater part of which brings together the stories which the ,hebrew people connected with the names of the ,patriarchs4 #c4 b47 ,the ,patriarchal legends1 in such fulness and artistic finish as the remains of old ,hebrew literature have preserved for us1 are a distinguishing characteristic of this literature4 ,other nations have failed to transform their myths into such a wealth of reports about their first progenitors4 ,what meagre accounts the ,hellenes give of their national ancestors1 in comparison with this rich and varied ,patriarchal history6 ,a special peculiarity of the historical development of the ,hebrew people was active here1 bringing the national idea into the foreground1 and exerting its influence in this direction on the transformation of the primitive mythological materials4#gb ,but instead of this1 other nations1 among whom our above-named example1 the richly endowed ,hellenes1 are to be reckoned1 have chosen rather to transform the figures of their myths into ,gods and godborn ,heroes4 ,the figures of ,gods1 which were developed out of ,hebrew myths1 very early retired into the background4 ,it was partly the ,canaanite influence to which the ,hebrew people very early succumbed1 and partly the progressing monotheistic tendency1 that allowed no theology consistently developed out of mythology to maintain itself for any length of time4 ,of ,heroes1 however1 there is no want in the memory of the ,hebrews4 ,in that region as well as elsewhere1 the ,heroes had originally borne a different meaning and belonged to mythology2 and their heroic character is1 on the ,hebrew as well as on the ,aryan domain1 secondary1 produced by the psychological and linguistic process which caused the natural meaning of mythological figures to vanish from the mind4 ,now although these ,heroes are originally gigantic persons bound to no definite place or time1 yet they are gradually condensed into individuals and regarded as more and more concrete and definite4 ,what is told of them puts off its generality and indefiniteness4 ,they are conceived as belonging to certain places where their heroic deeds were performed--in other words1 the legends of ,heroes are localised4 ,their activity is assigned to a definite time1 they are inserted in a chronological frame1 in which they take up a definite position as to time4 ,what more natural localisation of the activity of the ,heroes could there be than to imagine them living in the same geographical districts as those who tell of them8 ,the localisation of heroic legends is always enlisted in the service of patriotic feeling4 ,herakles and ,theseus are ,greek patriots1 heroic benefactors of the ,grecian people4 ,the determination of the time when they lived was influenced mainly by the endeavour1 natural to every civilised nation1 to gain a clear1 comprehensive1 and continuous picture of its own history4 ,but truly historical memory does not generally go far enough back to explain with proper fulness the entire past doings of a nation4 ,the historical beginnings of a people are lost in the mist of indefiniteness and uncertainty4 ,what is easier than to fill up this obscure period of history by telling of the doings of the ,heroes8 ,why1 the human temper in its pessimistic mood is always inclined to fancy the very oldest age peopled with men of gigantic proportions of both body and mind1 in comparison with whom the enervate present generation is a mere shadow4 ,so we find the stories of ,heroes always at the head of the national history4 ,the history of the ,greek people begins with their heroic age2 and the obscure period of ,hebrew history between the first entrance into ,canaan and the creation of the ,monarchy1 the so-called time of the ,judges1 is likewise the frame which must hold the ,hebrew heroic legends4 ,the stories of the ,hebrew ,heroes group themselves round the history of this period4 ,the second important source of knowledge of the materials of the ,hebrew mythology is accordingly the cycle of stories to be found in the canonical ,book of ,judges4 ,this is the mine of mythology1 whose treasures ,professor ,steinthal has brought to light with such critical acuteness in his dissertation on the story of ,samson1#gc which breaks up entirely new ground4 ,here for the first time the method and results of the modern science of mythology were independently applied to the domain of ,hebrew antiquity4 ,it must be called a happy accident that the mythical character of the ,hebrew heroes could be proved by so convincing an example as ,shimshn 7,samson72 for even the wildest scepticism cannot doubt that this name is equivalent to shemesh1 #8sun1' and that this fact gives us an undeniable right to maintain the solar significance of the hero1 and to see in his battles the contest of the ,sun against darkness and storms4 #d4 c47 ,but the ,old ,testament stories do not cease to be a source for mythological investigation exactly where the traditions of ,genesis and the ,book of ,judges are succeeded by really historical accounts4 ,for it is an admitted fact that1 as soon as ever the myths have lost their original meaning by the personification of their figures1 mythical characteristics are not limited to their proper domain1 but often actually attach themselves to historical persons and historical actions4 ,alexander the ,great1 for example1 is a phenomenon whose historical character could not be shaken by the very boldest criticism4 ,yet the story even of ,alexander's acts and fortunes has been forced to bear some characteristics of the ,solar myth1 traits which were originally peculiar to the ,sun-hero1 as especially the journey into the realm of darkness4#gd ,accordingly1 not every phenomenon in the traditional characteristics of which we discover solar features is mythical1 even though1 strictly speaking1 it can scarcely be classed with history 7as e4g4 ,william ,tell74 ,it is highly erroneous to speak1 as is often done1 of myth and history as two opposites which exclude any third possibility4 ,however1 there are two points to which we ought to attend when considering the attachment of mythic elements to historical phenomena4 ,first1 it is usual1 as we have just mentioned1 to find one or another mythical characteristic attached to historical phenomena1 as we may observe 7to keep on specifically ,hebrew ground7 in the portraiture of the character of ,david or of ,elijah 7see ,chap4 ,v4 #h74 ,the residence of the ,hebrews in ,egypt1 and their exodus thence under the guidance and training of an enthusiast for the freedom of his tribe1 form a series of strictly historical facts1 which find confirmation even in the documents of ancient ,egypt4 ,but the traditional narrative of these events1 elaborated by the ,hebrew people1 was involuntarily associated with characteristics of that ,solar myth which forms the oldest mental activity of mankind in general4 ,thus1 for example1 the passage through the sea by night is to be compared with the myth of the setting sun1 which travels all night through the sea1 and rises again in the morning on the opposite side4 ,similarly1 we find attached to the picture of the life of ,moses1 which the ,biblical narrative presents with a theocratic colouring1 solar characteristics1 indeed more specifically features of the myth of ,prometheus4 ,these have been clearly exhibited by ,steinthal in his fine ,treatise on the ,prometheus-story1 to which ,i will here only refer without reproducing its contents4#ge ,secondly1 we must consider the converse relation--that historical facts1 the names of the agents of which have not been preserved in the popular mind1 may be attached to mythical names4 ,we can go back to the time of the ,judges for an example of this4 ,it is evidently real history that we read of the embittered contests waged by the ,hebrews in that age against the ,philistines and other tribes of ,canaan4 ,remembrance of these contests1 in the absence of historical names1 helped itself out by the mythical appellations which1 after the individualising of mythical figures1 had obtained significance as personal names4 ,in the first case the bearers of the names are historical persons1 and the features of the story belong to mythology2 in the second1 history is wedded to mythical names4 ,in both directions1 accordingly1 the ,hebrew history treated critically is a source for mythological investigation4 #e4 d47 ,one of the most reliable1 but at the same time most hazardous1 sources of ,hebrew1 as of ,aryan1 mythological investigation is the language itself1 and above all1 the appellations to which the myth is attached4 ,these appellations1 which in the process of transformation of the original meaning of the myth became personal names1 are in their proper original sense appellatives2 and we have to find the appellative signification in order to establish the mythological character4 ,in this investigation it is best to follow the method1 the use of which in ,aryan mythology has brought such brilliant results to light4 ,in many appellations the appellative sense can be found without much difficulty1 being explicable from the language itself1 in our case from the known treasures of the ,hebrew tongue4 ,in others the known material of the ,hebrew language refuses its aid1 and we must then take refuge in a cautious employment of the group of allied languages1 i4e4 the ,semitic stock4 ,in this connexion we must never leave out of sight the fact that the treasury of ,hebrew words which is contained in the books of the ,old ,testament does not even approximately embrace the wealth of the ancient ,hebrew vocabulary which we are enabled to infer from this fraction4 ,in the proper names much ancient linguistic property is preserved which occurs nowhere else4 ,the discovery of the appellative signification of mythological proper names consequently does an important service to mythological investigation1 by finding a tangible starting-point for the determination of the mythical sense of the root-word in question4 ,but it does more3 it also fills up gaps in the ,hebrew lexicon1 and rescues many an old component part of that important language1 which otherwise would remain utterly unknown4 ,an example will make this clear1 and show that linguistic investigation and mythology have an equal share in the instruction to be derived from such inquiries4 ,we often meet in ,hebrew with the verb hishkm1 denoting #8to perform some occupation early in the morning' 7the occupation itself being determined by a dependent verb71 4 ,it represents the so-called ,hiphl-stem1 which has regularly the sense of a factitive1 but is not unfrequently used to express the entrance into a certain time or place1 the doing of an act in certain conditions of time or place4 ,in this case the ,hiphl verb is always derived from the noun which describes this place or time4 ,here the conditions of time concern us most4 ,we say1 for instance1 heerbh with the sense #8to enter on the evening1' #8to do something in the evening2' e4g4 #8the ,philistine came near morning and evening1' hashkm we-haarbh 7,i ,sam4 ,,xvii4 #af74 ,the last word is derived from the noun erebh1 #8evening4' ,from the word shachar1 which denotes #8the dawn1' is formed at a late stage of the language hishchr1 #8to do something at that time2' and this ,hiphl form of shachar can then appear beside that from erebh exactly like hishkm in an earlier age4#gf ,now of course this verb hishkm must have a noun for its basis1 which would denote #8morning4' ,but no such is found in the known ,hebrew thesaurus1 for the nominal form belonging to this root1 shekhem1 means #8neck1' and etymologists have given themselves much useless labour in trying to find any tolerable connexion between the meaning of this noun and hishkm4 ,the most bearable which they could give is that one who rises early to go after his business loads his neck with labour4#gg ,but any one may reply1 ,does one who does his work after dinner or in the evening load his neck with no labour8 ,considering the relation in which these ,hiphl-forms stand to the nouns from which they are derived1 we might almost a priori assert that in the ancient language shekhem must have denoted #8morning' also4 ,and in this instance mythological inquiry offers us the safest clue4 ,the name ,shekhem ,shechem figures in the ,hebrew myth as the ravisher of ,dinah1 ,jacob's daughter4 ,without anticipating the analysis of this myth1 which fits into the context of one of the next chapters1 we immediately recognise in the mythic name ,shekhem the noun from which the verb hishkm is derived4 ,thus the mythical appellation refers to the early morning1 the red glow1 as the ravisher of the sun2 and the same amorous connexion is expressed in various ways in the ,aryan mythology also4 ,no one can deny that the consideration of the myth has here enriched the knowledge of the old ,hebrew vocabulary2 and thus1 even on ,hebrew ground1 mythology and linguistic studies go hand in hand4 ,this makes the investigation of language one of the richest sources for the discovery of the mythical ideas of early humanity4 #f4 e47 ,while the circle of thoughts which guide the prose style moves on the level of the general principles current at the time of the writer1 poetical language and style1 on the other hand1 have a tendency to adopt modes of expression produced in a long past age in accordance with the ideas then prevalent4 ,these modes of expression1 when they arose1 corresponded accurately with the general ideas of the time1 and had the signification which the literal sense yields2 they were used whenever occasion offered for their employment1 and everyone understood what was meant by them1 for the thought would in that age never be expressed otherwise4 ,the poetical language of a later time preserves such modes of expression even when their significance in the general conception of things is lost1 and the occurrences thereby indicated are imagined in a different way altogether2 the language then becomes figurative1 as it is called4#gh ,thus the language of the ,hebrew poetry and of those writers who speak in a lofty style bordering on that of poetry1 and are called ,prophets1 preserves many of the modes of expression derived from the ancient mythological ideas of the world4 ,mythical material may consequently be found now and then here also4 ,when e4g4 ,isaiah says 7,,xiv4 #bh71 #8,i will sweep it with the besom of destruction1' this is what we call a poetic figure--destruction being pictured as a broom that sweeps away from the surface of the earth those who are to be destroyed4 ,but from another side it is seen to be something more and different from a mere poetical figure1 since its origin is due1 not to an artistic idea of the speaker1 but to an old-world mythical conception here employed figuratively1 a conception which occurs in many cycles of mythology4 ,for instance1 the ,maidens of the ,plague are represented with brooms in their hands1 with which they sweep before house-doors and bring death into the village4#gi ,but ,isaiah says again 7,,xxvii4 #a7 that #8,jahveh with his sore and great and strong sword shall punish ,leviathan the piercing serpent1 even ,leviathan that crooked serpent1 and he shall slay the dragon 7tannn7 that is in the sea2' and ,job 7,,xxvi4 #ac71 in his grand picture of the contest which ,jahveh wages against the tempest1 and the defeat of the latter by the omnipotence of ,jahveh1 says #8,by his breath the heavens are brightened2 his hand has pierced the flying serpent 7nchsh brach7'2 and the prophet living in the ,babylonian captivity addresses ,jahveh in the following words 7,is4 ,,li4 #i73 #8,awake1 awake1 put on strength1 ,o arm of ,jahveh6 awake1 as in the ancient days1 in the generations of old6 ,art thou not it that didst kill the monster 7rahabh71 and wound the dragon 7tannn87' c4#hj ,in these expressions we observe that prophets and poets employ the long outgrown and obsolete notions of the myth of the battle of the ,sun against the flying serpent 7,lightning7 and against the recumbent or curved serpent 7,rain7--the monsters which want to devour the ,sun1 but which the ,sun shoots down with his arrows 7,rays7 or wounds with a volley of stones2 or else of the myth of the battle of the ,sun already set against the monster that lies in wait at the bottom of the sea to devour him 7a myth which is also preserved in the story of ,jonah71 only that the monotheistic mind substituted ,jahveh for the ,sun4 ,many prophets frequently speak in a perfectly general way1 without reference to a definite historical event1 of a passage through the sea4 ,this is by no means a reminiscence of the ,passage of the ,red ,sea1 as an event in the primeval history of the ,hebrew people1 unless a pointed reference is made to that2 it is another application of an old mythical notion of the course taken by the ,sun-hero after sunset through the sea1 so as to shine again on the following morning on the opposite shore4 ,indeed1 that ,hebrew story of the ,exodus itself1 as we have indicated1 is only a myth transformed into history by a process which we can follow1 step by step1 in the history of the evolution of ,mythology4 ,this becomes very clear when we examine the sequel of the above-quoted words of the anonymous ,prophet of the ,captivity 7,is4 ,,li4 #aj73 #8,art not thou it which dryeth the sea1 the waters of the great deep2 that maketh the depths of the sea a way for the ransomed to pass over8' ,what is pictured in this verse is in the mind of the speaker an event of the same character as that referred to in the preceding verse--the killing of the ,rahabh and the wounding of the ,tannn4 ,the description of ,canaan1 too1 as a land #8flowing with milk and honey1' points back to the myth of a sun-land2 for the myths call the rays of the sun and moon #8milk and honey1' regarding the moon as a bee#ha and the sun as a cow4 ,in ,excursus ,e we shall speak of the mythological conception of rays of light as fluids4 ,palestine1 which the writer wished to pourtray as possessed of every blessing1 thus receives attributes which the myth gave to a place above the earth1 whence the blessings of light streamed down to it4 ,it is noteworthy that in the atapatha ,brhmaa the same mythic conception which is employed poetically in ,hebrew meets us tinged already with an eschatological colour4 ,this work 7,,xi4 #e4 #f4 #d7 makes milk and honey flow in the abodes of the ,blest4#hb ,we also see from this that the notion of a #8poetical figure' requires frequent limitation4 ,many apparently poetical figures have their origin in an ancient mythical conception4 ,not everything that has the look of a poetical or rhetorical figure is one4 ,who would doubt1 for instance1 on a superficial glance1 that such a phrase as nr al-arb1 #8the fire of war1' was a figure of poetry or rhetoric8 ,yet it is not2 it is not derived from what only exists in the fancy of the speaker1 but from something which has a concrete1 objective existence4 ,we learn this from the ,arabic commentary on the proverb ,nr al-arb asaru1 #8the fire of war is burning4' ,the scholiast#hc says #8,when the ancient ,arabs began a war1 they used to light a fire1 to serve as a beacon for those eager for the fight4' ,it is also said 7of the ,jews73 #8,as often as they light a fire for war1 ,allh extinguishes it4'#hd ,thus the fire of war of which the ancient ,arabs spoke was only a material or natural one4 #g4 f47 ,the ,hebrew mythic tradition is not contained exclusively in the ,old ,testament4 ,this canon1 indeed1 was very far from receiving all the remains of the old myths that were current among the people in an historical transformation4 ,much of it is contained in the tradition which was not incorporated with the canon1 especially in the so-called ,rabbinical ,agd1 which contains many a treasure of as high an antiquity as the mythological sources which we have named within the canon4 ,in the discovery of such elements in the ,agd circumspection and cautious criticism are necessary1 because the valuable portion is only an excessively small fraction of the whole1 and has to be picked out of a preponderating mass of very different character4 ,still we must acknowledge the ,agd as a source for the discovery of the old ,hebrew myths4 ,it has indeed already been employed for this purpose1 though not always wisely4 ,the learned ,professor ,f4,l4,w4 ,schwartz has referred to this source1#he and ,julius ,braun goes even too far in his mythological estimate of the ,agd1 when he says without limitation1#hf #8,the ,rabbinical stories are anything but arbitrary inventions2 they are echoes of primeval memories only refused entrance into the ,bible by the compilers of the canon4 ,if ,rabbinical erudition sometimes makes unfortunate attempts to confirm extrabiblical tradition by a ,biblical quotation1 and to prove its existence in ,biblical times by imagined allusions1 this is no proof that the whole tradition is only a speculation derived from misunderstood ,bible-words4' ,but ,braun makes a very bad use of the ,rabbinical tradition1 and vies with the foolish writer ,nork in taking from right and left without selection or judgment whatever he can find1 not caring whether it is ,veda or ,bible1 ,homer or the ,fathers1 cuneiform inscriptions or some obscure allegorical writer4 ,the ,agd in many places gives names to persons who are mentioned in the ,bible without name2 and these names have frequently so antique a stamp1 that we cannot suppose them to be due to the capricious invention of the ,agadists4#hg ,i believe that when these names appear justified by internal evidence 7i4e4 when they show themselves quite fitting to the nature of the myth71 they may be ancient and important for mythological inquiry4 ,of course we must not be ruled by excessive optimism1 nor ever forget the freedom with which the ,agadic fancy rules in its own sphere4#hh ,the same may be said also of the identifications1 of which the ,agadists are very fond1 and of the genealogical statements1 which1 though deserving little attention from the historical point of view1 may have their origin in an old myth4 ,so e4g4 the ,targm on ,i ,sam4 ,,xvii4 #d calls ,samson the father of ,goliath4#hi ,now ,goliath is the giant whom #8the reddish hero with fine face' overcomes by throwing stones2 in other words1 the ,sun-hero throws stones at the monster of the storm4 ,thus the myth may very well say that the ,sun 7,samson7 is the father of this hostile giant of the night1 just as the ,sun in various forms frequently appears in the character of father or mother of the ,night4 ,it is easily intelligible how difficult it must be to determine the mythological value of every such statement2 and we have consequently made very scanty use of this source4 ,it might be relatively safer to use them when they speak not merely of names and genealogies1 but of actual stories4 ,the ,abram-story especially has preserved in its ,agadic form much matter from ancient myths1 the valuation of which by ,b4 ,beer1 in a lucid compilation on this very portion of the ,agd1#ij is easily accessible4 ,so e4g4 the battle of ,abram against ,nimrod1 which the myth-investigator must take as the contest between the ,nightly heaven and the ,sun1 is known only from the ,agd2 the ,scripture says not a word of it4 ,for the solar character of ,nimrod1 which is however independently clear from the ,biblical statements1 the ,agd has again preserved a valuable datum1 viz4 that #cfe kings 7equal to the days of the solar year7 appear ministering to him4#ia ,this is the same conception of the myth as that ,enoch1 of whom again the solar event of the ,ascension is preserved only in tradition1 lived #cfe years2 or that ,helios had herds of #cej cattle 7#g herds of #ej each72 and that in the ,veda the ,sun-god is blessed with #gbj twin children1 i4e4 #cfj days and nights1#ib and that his chariot is drawn by seven horses1 i4e4 the seven days of the week4#ic ,the ,agd1 again1 has preserved the following mythical expression1 which ,professor ,schwartz interprets in this sense3#id #8,abraham was in possession of a precious stone which he wore round his neck all his life2 when he died1 ,god took the stone and hung it on the ,sun4'#ie ,as has been fully proved with regard to ,aryan mythology1 especially by ,schwartz and ,kuhn1 the myth calls the sunshine and other luminous bodies stones in general1 or more specifically precious stones4#if ,by night1 as long as ,abraham 7the nightly heaven7 lives1 he bears the precious stone himself2 when the night dies1 ,god takes this stone 7the moonlight7 and hangs it on the sun4 ,how cautiously we must proceed in the mythological application of the ,agd1 is obvious to all who know the nature and origin of the ,agd and the ,agadic collections4 ,i will adduce one other example to show how easily one might be led astray by yielding too trustingly and unconditionally to the temptation to employ this source in the interpretation of myths4 ,in the course of our investigations1 it will become certain that ,jacob belongs to the series of mythical figures which are connected with the nightly heaven4 ,how easily would this conception be disturbed1 if we were to accord to all the ,agd an absolute voice among the sources of ,hebrew mythical investigation6 ,for there it is said in reference to ,gen4 ,,xxviii4 #aa3 #8,he 7,jacob7 reached that place and passed the night there1 for the sun was come 7k bh hash-shemesh71 i4e4 had set4' ,on this the ,agadist ,chagg of ,sephoris remarks1 ',this sentence indicates that ,jacob1 when he was in ,bethel1 heard the welcoming voices of the angels3 ,the ,sun is come1 the ,sun is come1 i4e4 ,jacob himself4 ,many years later1 when ,jacob's son ,joseph told his father the dream in which an allusion is made to ,jacob as if he were the ,sun 7,,xxxvii4 #i1 #aj71 ,jacob thought to himself1 #8,who has informed my son that my name is ,sun8'#ig ,i must point out one other peculiarity in this part of the subject4 ,sometimes the ,agadists utilise mythological elements1 by supplementing the old mythic tradition with something added by themselves1 based on some one of their hermeneutic principles1 but which could not possibly be also a portion of the old myth4 ,an example will elucidate this4 ,we will not lay down dogmatically1 nor on the other hand dispute the possibility1 that the name ,bilem ,balaam is mythical4 ,it signifies #8the ,devourer1' and has consequently been identified for centuries with the ,arabic ,lomn1 which has the same meaning4#ih ,accordingly ,balaam would originally have been a name of the monster which devours the sun4 ,it is not uncommon in mythology to find wisdom1 cunning and prudence attributed to the powers hostile to the sun4 ,hence the serpent appears in the myth endowed with wisdom4 ,this justifies ,balaam's character as sage and prophet2 the serpent delivers oracles1 or is 4#ii ,balaam is son of ,ber1 or #8the ,shining'--a mythical expression which often occurs when the darkness is described as springing from the daylight2 and the ,agd may be using mythic elements in identifying this ,ber with ,lbhn #8the ,white4'#ajj ,so this myth1 like many others1 would then have been nationalised by the influence of factors1 which will be fully described in the ,seventh ,chapter4 ,the ,devourer of the ,sun became a ,devourer of the ,hebrew people1 just as the ,sun-hero became the ,hebrew national hero4 ,personations of the storms are often exhibited in mythology as lame and limping4#aja ,this feature1 which is not ascribed to ,balaam in the ,bible1 is found in the ,agd1 which says1 ,bilem chiggr beragl achath hy1 #8,balaam was lame of one foot4' ,so far all is regular4 ,but then follows1 ,shimshn chiggr bisht raglw hy1 #8,samson was lame of both feet'#ajb--;a feature which does not suit the ,sun-hero4 ,we must consider that this latter is an inference drawn by the ,agd in virtue of one of its hermeneutic principles1 thus3 ,balaam's lameness is attached to the word sheph1 #8hill1 high place1' ,num4 ,,xxiii4 #c2 the word shephphn1 #8serpent1' ,gen4 ,,xlix4 #ag 7in the declaration concerning ,dan1 which the ,agadists take as referring to ,samson the ,danite71 must according to the ,agadists' hermeneutics express by its form a doubling of the notion conveyed by sheph4#ajc ,thus only what is said about ,balaam could possibly belong to the old myth2 what is said about ,samson is late ,agadic induction1 which has no importance whatever for mythology4 ----- ,footnote #gb3 ,we shall treat of this in the ,third ,section of ,chapter ,,viii4 ,footnote #gc3 ,translated and given as an ,appendix to this volume4--,,tr4 ,footnote #gd3 ,how readily ,alexander's history was combined with the ,solar myth is best proved by the fact that ,arabian tradition gives ,alexander a ,sun-name1 the variously interpreted -l-karnein the ,horned1 i4e4 the ,beaming4 ,footnote #ge3 ,translated and given as an ,appendix to this volume4--,,tr4 ,footnote #gf3 ,wayyir rabb1 sect4 ,,xix43 hishchr we-heerbh4 ,footnote #gg3 ,see ,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #adjf4 b4 ,footnote #gh3 ,see ,hermann ,cohen's dissertation1 ,die dichterische ,phantasie und der ,mechanismus des ,bewusstseins1 in the ,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie1 c4 #ahfi1 ,,vi4 #bci et seq4 ,footnote #gi3 ,on the ,german legends in which this idea occurs see ,henne-,am-,rhyn1 ,die deutsche ,volkssage1 ,leipzig #ahgd1 p4 #bfh et seq4 ,footnote #hj3 ,see ,ps4 ,,lxxiv4 #ac-ad2 ,,lxxxiv4 #aa4 ,there is nothing to justify those interpreters who1 caring nothing for the remains of ancient myths1 always wish to understand by ,rahabh and ,tannn the kingdom of ,egypt4 ,footnote #ha3 ,angelo de ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 ,,ii4 #bag4 ,on the meaning of milk and honey in the ,hebrew myth1 ,steinthal has written exhaustively in his ,treatise on the ,story of ,samson1 given in the ,appendix4 ,footnote #hb3 ,see ,weber in the ,zeitschrift der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahee1 ,,ix4 #bch4 ,footnote #hc3 ,al-,meydn1 ,majma al-amthl1 ,,ii4 #bjc4 ,footnote #hd3 ,korn1 ,sr4 ,v4 v4 #fi4 ,footnote #he3 ,sonne1 ,mond und ,sterne i4e4 ,bd4 ,i4 of ,die poetischen ,naturanschauungen1 c41 p4 #d4 ,footnote #hf3 ,die ,naturgeschichte der ,sage1 ,i4 #abg4 ,footnote #hg3 ,see ,excursus ,a4 ,footnote #hh3 ,such names have often planted themselves firmly in popular tradition1 and are accordingly mentioned in various quarters with perfect uniformity4 ,so e4g4 and 1 who appear both in ,rabbinical writings and in #b ,tim4 ,,iii4 #h 7see ,jablonski1 ,opuscula1 ed4 ,te ,water1 ,,ii4 #bc74 ,footnote #hi3 ,see ,wilhelm ,bacher's treatise1 ,kritische ,untersuchungen zum ,prophetentargm 7,zeitschrift der ,d4 ,m4 ,g4 #ahgd1 ,,xxviii4 #g74 ,footnote #ij3 ,leben ,abraham's nach ,auffassung der jdischen ,sage1 ,leipzig #ahei4 ,another good compilation is that of ,hamburger1 ,geist der ,hagada1 ,leipzig #aheg1 ,i4 #ci-ej4 ,footnote #ia3 ,bth ham-midrsh3 ,sammlung kleiner ,midrashim und vermischter ,abhandlungen aus der jdischen ,literatur1 ed4 ,ad4 ,jellinck1 ,vienna #ahgc1 ,v4 #dj4 ,footnote #ib3 ,max ,mller1 ,essays ,german translation of ,chips1 ,,ii4 #adg2 not in the ,english4 ,footnote #ic3 ,rigveda1 ,l4 #h2 ,,cccxcix4 #i4 ,footnote #id3 ,sonne1 ,mond und ,sterne1 p4 #d4 ,footnote #ie3 ,bab4 ,bbh bathr1 fol4 #af4 b4 ,footnote #if3 ,see ,kuhn1 ,ueber ,entwickelungsstufen der ,mythenbildeng 7,abhandl4 der kn4 ,akad4 d4 ,w4 #ahgc1 ,berlin #ahgd71 p4 #add4 ,footnote #ig3 ,bershth rabb1 sect4 #fh4 ,footnote #ih3 ,see on the other side ,ewald1 ,history of ,israel 7#bnd or #crd ed471 ,,ii4 #bad4 ,footnote #ii3 ,welcker1 ,griechische ,gtterlehre1 ,gottingen #aheg1 ,i4 #ff4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,i find this identification1 it is true1 only in later books1 ,tn de-bh ,ely1 c4 #bg2 ,sder lm1 c4 #ba2 see ,halkhth gedlth 7hilkhth haspd74 ,in the ,sder had-drth1 under the year #bahi1 ,beor is called son of ,laban4 ,on ,laban see ,chap4 ,v4 #aa4 ,besides the name ,lomn1 which in signification corresponds with ,bilem 7,balaam71 we find in the ,preislamite genealogy of the ,arabs1 which in my opinion is largely mixed up with mythical names1 the chief ,balu1 who is said to have been a leper 7,ibn ,dureyd1 ,kitb al-ishti1 p4 #ajf4 #h74 ,it should be observed that this is a man's name with the grammatical form of a feminine adjective4 ,footnote #aja3 ,see ,chap ,v4 #aj end4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,s1 fol4 #aj4 a4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,see ,excursus ,b4 ----- ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,investigating ,,hebrew ,,myths4 #a4 ,the method of investigation is intended to discover--how the original myth is to be reached through the sources described in the preceding chapter1 how the primitive germ of the myth is to be freed from the husk which in the course of its growth has been formed around it1 and further how the progress and lapse of this growth itself are to be recognised4 ,then we shall be enabled to determine how stratum upon stratum has fastened itself round the original myth until it reached that configuration which is the concrete material of our investigation4 ,the development of the myth in any nation is mainly determined by two factors1 which give to this development the direction actually taken4 ,one group of these factors is psychological1 the other belongs to the history of civilisation4#ajd ,the psychological factors in the development of all myths are the same1 not changing with the special character of the people whose myths form the subject of our consideration4 ,for the same general laws everywhere determine the life of the soul2 no difference in them is introduced by the ethnological life and the peculiarity of race of the people in question4 ,there is a psychology of mankind1 or as it was called when ,lazarus introduced the science1 a ,psychology of ,nations 7,vlkerpsychologie74 ,this is not a contemplation of the modes in which the intellectual life of various nations exhibits itself as acting in opposite directions1 but of the modes in which the same laws find their expression and validity in the intellectual life of the most various nations4 ,but there is no special psychology of races4 ,on the other hand1 the factors belonging to the history of civilisation are not everywhere alike1 but are as various as the historical fates of the nations among themselves are various4 ,we shall subsequently come back to the subject to show more fully that myths share in the historical vicissitudes of their nation1 that they are always transformed in accordance with the stages of civilisation which the nation itself passes through in its historical development1 and that accordingly the configuration of the myth is a faithful mirror of the stage of civilisation at which it has taken this particular configuration4 ,obviously therefore1 we can duly estimate the myth through all its stages of development only in connexion with a comprehensive view over the historical development of the civilisation of the nation itself4 ,and to gain this view we must especially attend to those phenomena which might produce an altered direction of the mind1 and thus impress a new form on the myth also4 ,but as in the methodical observation of the intellectual development of a nation in the course of its history psychological points of view must again occupy the foreground1 we may assert that psychological observation must take up a prominent position in the method of mythological investigation2 for the question will always be1 ,what transformation does this or that historical vicissitude produce in that which makes up the sum of the human mind8 ,the answer will however evidently turn out different according to the nature of these historical vicissitudes4 ,but there is one special step of transformation which stands earlier than and in no connexion with the separate history of the nation1 and is produced by a purely psychological operation4 ,this transformation is therefore common to all myths--so much so that most inquirers1 and especially ,max ,mller1 make the life of the myth to begin only at this stage4 ,it is the stage of mental development which is signalised by a remarkable fact in the history of language3 viz41 that an endless multitude of names1 bestowed upon the phenomena and processes of nature1 in virtue of various features of which there is a preponderating consciousness at the moment of perception1 gradually lose their meaning2 while some few features of the total phenomenon are retained1 to represent all those particular factors and supply comprehensive general terms for their sum total4 ,for example1 the ,sun has at first a countless number of designations4 ,it is not merely that1 in its various aspects1 the ,sun is treated as the subject of detached observation unrelated in thought to that of other aspects of the same ,sun2 but the very same aspect1 on repeated notice1 is regarded as something different every time1 and is accordingly denoted by other names4 ,in other words1 borrowed from the terminology of modern psychology1 no fusion 7,verflechtung7 has yet been effected4 ,long-continued observation of the same aspects gives consciousness of their identity under repetition1 and makes possible the fusion of their ideas4 ,next1 by a further advance in development1 the psychological change emerges1 through which the various features of the same phenomenon cease to be essential difference-marks in the idea1 and1 dropping into the background1 give place to a general conception gained by their fusion1 an aggregate of fusion 7,verflechtungsmasse71 the product of often-repeated fusion4#aje ,the effect on language of this psychological change is that1 through its gradual operation1 the meaning is lost from the great majority of those expressions which arose merely because the particular observations of the same aspect of a phenomenon1 or the various features of the same phenomenal aggregate had not yet been brought into unity by the process of fusion or blending4 ,by the abandonment of the difference-marks1 the sum total of all the aspects1 now regarded as forming one unity1 is given over to one single word1 and a vast number of old designations1 which stood in connexion with one particular aspect or one particular condition of observation1 lose in the mind of the speaker all connexion with the physical phenomenon in question4 ,the multiplicity of names becomes objectless1 loses all psychological basis1 and vanishes4#ajf ,what vanishes1 however1 is only the consciousness of the connexion of the multifarious names with the physical phenomenon2 in other words1 the names cease in great part to be designations of the phenomena1 yet remain in existence4 ,but they have a very different value to the mind from their original one4 ,they become ,proper ,names2 and what the sentences in which these names figured as subjects and objects originally predicated of physical phenomena1 they now say of persons and individuals4 ,the transition is facilitated by the fact that the physical phenomena themselves1 whose names they were in an earlier stage of intelligence1 are conceived under the figure of human actions1 as loving1 fighting1 persecuting1 c4 ,we must here observe emphatically that from this process in the history of language the ,semitic area was not excluded4 ,in the course of the following expositions we shall have occasion to convince ourselves that mythological appellatives forfeited their appellative character just like those of the ,aryan myths4 ,the ,hebrew said #8he laughs1' #8he hides1' #8he trips up1' #8he increases1' c4 in a strictly mythical sense2 in later times the meaning of these assertions was forgotten1 and a proper name took the place of each4 ,what ,max ,mller says of ,semitic speech1 that #8those who used the word were unable to forget its predicative meaning1 and retained in most cases a distinct consciousness of its appellative power1'#ajg is not true1 at least of this portion of ,semitism4 ,now this is the very earliest step in the transformation of the myth4 ,as we have seen1 this transformation is conditioned only by a psychological operation1 and is therefore common to every mythology4 ,some scholars are inclined to draw nothing that precedes this transformation into the domain of myths at all1 and to say that these begin only when1 as ,max ,mller says1 the language 7i4e4 the living consciousness of the original signification of the multifarious names7 dies4 ,but we hold that there is every reason to regard the stage at which those expressions lived in the human mind with their original appellative sense1 as one of the proper mythic stages4 ,that event which ,max ,mller treats as the commencement of the development of the myth1 indicates the first link in the long chain of transformations which make up the history of the myth4 ,it is not a characteristic of the myth1 that the speaker is no longer conscious of speaking of physical phenomena4 ,as soon as ever he perceives physical phenomena as events in human life1 he has at once made a myth2 and every name by which he designates a physical phenomenon forms a myth4 ,for if unintelligibility or obsoleteness of language were a condition of a myth's existence1 then there could be no myth when the ,greek calls ,hlios the brother of ,seln1 since both these names have been retained in their original sense1 and the ,greek knew that the former name meant ,sun and the latter ,moon1 though of ,hrakls and ,helen he had no similar consciousness left4 ,similarly1 it could not be a myth when the ,roman said that ,aurora opens the gates of the ,sun and strews roses on his way1 since every ,roman knew that the name ,aurora denoted the ,dawn4 #b4 ,it is easy to see that the first step in the formation of myths could not be a short and quickly passing stage4 ,if it were so1 the appellations of physical phenomena could not have become so firmly established as to prolong their existence even after a great majority of them had become linguistically meaningless1 and to become objects of mythical transformation4 ,the psychological process which brought about the identification of an object with itself must therefore have taken place late in the development of the human mind4 ,men had already expressed most various notions of the phenomena of nature and observed them in many phases1 long before they attained to the power of identifying one such repeatedly occurring phenomenon with itself1 notwithstanding the regularity of its appearance4 ,one other psychological consideration1 however1 demands our attention here--one among many2 for a systematic presentation of all the psychological forces with which we have to reckon in investigating myths and the history of their growth belongs to a ,philosophy of ,mythology1 which it is not our intention to give here4 ,among the various categories1 that of ,space is the earliest to become an object of consciousness to the human soul1 both in the genetic development of the individual mind and in that of the human race4 ,the attachment of a notion to space is the earliest developed2 indeed the notion of a thing without the notion of space is impossible4 ,even beasts distinguish things by their space4 ,hence ,l4 ,geiger correctly said that ,language1 the origin of which also marks the first phase of the power of thought1 #8springs from' the organ of the discrimination of space1 #8the ,eye and ,light4' ,with the category of ,time it is otherwise4 ,the discrimination of things in time is unfolded relatively later2 it postulates a more delicate degree of observation4 ,the notion of ,space emanates from that sense1 the use of which man acquires the earliest and the most easily of all except that of touch--the sense of ,sight2 the excitement of which also gives the first impulse to the formation of language4 ,but the notion of ,time demands more than a mere sensuous perception4 ,we need not therefore be surprised if the notion of ,space1 both in the individual and in history1 is older than that of ,time1 nor that1 as language teaches1 all the finer distinctions of opposite terms emanate from the notion of ,space1#ajh and the very distinctions of ,time itself were originally conceived from the point of view of ,space4 ,to verify this1 we only need to observe the expressions still in daily use1 which can be applied to time1 such as1 before1 after1 thereafter1 space of time1 short or long time4 ,the ,semitic is very instructive on this point4 ,the ,hebrew shm1 originally used of place 7there7 is found applied to time 7then72 in ,arabic these two significations are divided between thumma #8then' and thamma #8there4' ,hebrew words1 such as liphen #8before' and achar #8after1' edem1 admn1 #8old1 olden time1' bring before our eyes a very clear view of the transition from local to temporal distinctions1 when we take into consideration their original significations4 ,the ,arabic beyna yedeyy1 or beyna eyd1 is also especially instructive4 ,this phrase signifies #8between the hands1' and is used very commonly for #8before1' of space4 ,but even in early classical texts 7e4g4 in the orn7 it passes over into the #8before' of time4 #8,between the hands of the ,prophet1' thus means either standing before him as to place1 or preceding him in time4 ,now that which we meet thus at every step in the ,semitic and ,aryan1 is found also in the third great stock of languages4 ,the time-particles of the ,anaric languages often go back to relations of space2 and what the ,german ,zeitraum #8space of time1' and the ,arabic mudd 7properly #8extension1' but generally in the sense of a #8period of time'7 exemplify to us1 we see also e4g4 in the ,finnish kausi1 which is used to express a piece of time4 ,it properly signifies a direction or way1 in a local sense2 and the related ,esthonian word kaude is still used exclusively to denote local relations4#aji ,in myths also we find the conception of ,space and of motion in space predominant4 ,a large group of names of the ,dawn in the ,aryan mythology is formed by composition of adjectives with and its etymological relatives1 and yields variations on the notion #8shining afar1'#aaj always bearing witness to local extension and motion4 ,and in the ,hebrew myths a number of solar names designate the solar figures1 as going1 moving1 c4#aaa ,even in cases where rapid motion is spoken of1 a great result of such motion is not treated as attained in a short time2 but described rather by the space that has been passed through4 ,on the other hand1 when we consider the notion of ,time1 and the question how far it is acknowledged in myths1 we observe that at the earliest mythical stage the distinction of ,time is only very feebly presented4 ,we must demonstrate this at this place while treating of the method of mythology4 ,the myth makes a distinction between the bright radiant sunny heaven and the dark heaven4 ,now as to this darkness1 it is indifferent whether it is the darkness of night or that of the overclouded heaven by day4 ,the myth notices only the phenomenon of the dark sky1 darkness as a physical fact or state1 considers only ,what is there8 but does not distinguish the ,when8--the time in which this darkness occurs4 ,hence in the myth the nightly heaven and the stormy or cloudy heaven are synonymous1 since it does not distinguish day and night as alternate periods of time1 but only brightness and darkness as phenomena4 ,hence it comes that even in later poetry and language the notions of ,rain and ,night are so closely connected1 that rain is more naturally thought of in union with night than with day2 therefore it is said in ,arabic1 #8more liberal than the rainy night' 7anda min al-leyl al-mir74#aab ,not only the rain1 but the ,wind also1 in contrast to the merry laughing sunshine1 is conceived as closely connected with the night4#aac ,in the ,mohammedan cosmogonic legend it is said that the rough ,wind lives on the curtain of the ,darkness4#aad ,hence also we see that the myth does not distinguish between the ,morning ,glow and the ,evening ,glow1 but denotes the phenomenon by itself1 without caring whether it precedes or follows the night4 ,in connexion with this stands the fact that1 as ,steinthal has recently briefly noted1#aae mythic thought did not attain to the category of ,causality2 for this category presupposes a clear consciousness of succession1 or of one event following another in time4 ,only thus can we explain myths which speak of the ,dawn now as the daughter1 now as the mother of the ,day4 ,on the domain of language some phenomena in the semasiology of ,arabic words can be explained from this fact of the development of conceptions1 as e4g4 when the lexicographers translate the verb safar ,,ii4 ,,iv4 to #8pasture early or late'3 ,,iv4 ,v4 #8to come at the morning or evening glow'4#aaf ,except by the operation of the above-named psychological fact1 the express combination of these two definitions of time in one word would seem to be impossible4 ,but the very fact just mentioned1 that it is characteristic of mythical ideas to put one phenomenon into a family relation towards another1 and to speak of mother1 brother1 son1 daughter1 c41 furnishes the first elements of and impulses towards the discrimination of ,succession in time1 though the discrimination itself may at the mythic stage not yet break forth into life4 ,phenomena occurring one after another or simultaneously are conceived in the light of the most primitive relations of the family2 and when the myth-forming man speaks of father and child1 the very use of these terms rouses and encourages in his mind a new category1 that of ,succession in time1 or more definitely ,causality4 ,another point follows naturally from this1 enabling us to fix the chronological position occupied by certain myths in relation to others4 ,if in a myth we find the fact of the temporal succession of a phenomenon treated as important1 or see that a following event is in its very name described as such in relation to what preceded it1 then we can justly draw the conclusion that a myth of this form belongs to an advanced stage of development1 and that in determining the time of its origin we must choose a later period than we should for myths in which no conscious notion of time is visible4 ,we shall have occasion to insist on this inference when we come into the presence of such mythic expressions as ,yiphtch ,jephthah1 i4e4 the #8,opener1' and ,yaaobh ,jacob1 i4e4 the #8,follower4' #c4 ,what has to be said on the historical aspect of the method of mythical investigation follows from the mode in which the myth grows under the influence of historical factors4 ,if1 after the first transformation of the myth occasioned by a purely psychological process1 there are factors which immediately cause its further development1 it is of course the business of mythic investigation to find out those transformative forces which have fastened themselves on a previous stage of development4 ,beginning therefore from the latest aspect of the myth1 we have to follow it further and further up1 to arrive by help of the thread of historical research at a knowledge of the process of historical development which operated on the myth and caused the transformation4 ,thus we ascend step by step to the point at which the above-described psychological process caused the individualising of the mythic figures4 ,from this point it is only a step to the original formation of the myth1 at which the appellations proper to the mythic figures are not proper names but appellative nouns4 ,it is easy to see that1 while investigation takes a retrograde course1 beginning with the latest form of the myth and going back to arrive at its original form1 exposition will take the contrary direction and pourtray its historical transformation in the natural order of growth1 beginning with the primitive form discovered by analysis1 and demonstrating successive transformations by the aid of history4 ,it is advisable1 before we proceed to the materials of ,hebrew mythic investigation1 to elucidate the course of this historical method by a well-known example4 ,let us take the story which is presented in ,genesis1 chap4 ,,xxii4 ,abraham1 the forefather of the ,hebrew people1 at the behest of ,elhm1 is about to offer his only son ,isaac as a sacrifice1 but is prevented by an angel of ,jahveh1 who shows him a ram entangled in the thicket1 which he may offer as a sacrifice to ,jahveh instead of his son4 ,the various religious tendencies connected with the two ,divine names1 ,elhm and ,jahveh are scarcely so prominent in any part of the ,pentateuch as in the small passage under consideration4 ,we see here the divergence of the religious ideas on both sides in reference to the value of human sacrifice4 ,not yet fully released from the ,canaanitish system1 the early ,elohistic religious tendency as yet regards it as an unobjectionable performance4 ,jahveism abominates it1 and is satisfied with the temper which is ready to sacrifice--the intentio2 though this may very well be brought to express itself in the substituted sacrifice of a beast or something else4 ,hence our story makes ,elhm demand the human offering1 and ,jahveh recommend the substitution4#aag ,the present form of the legend is accordingly the product of the religious polemic waged by the ,prophets against the popular view of religion which still clung to the ,canaanitish system2 and the apologists of the ,jahveistic idea intend to show by it the advance which their own religious views had taken beyond those of earlier times4#aah ,the divergent ideas held by these two ,hebrew religious parties on human sacrifice are also to be seen in the legislative portions of the ,bible4 ,in these we can distinguish passages in which the sacrifice of the first-born of beasts is not clearly discriminated from the sanctification of the first-born child1 from others in which the latter has already gained a merely theocratic meaning and is put in connexion with the deliverance of the people out of ,egypt4 ,therefore1 what is deeply impressed on these passages of legislation1 viz4 the battle between the ,canaanitish religious tendency and the national ,hebrew idea of ,jahveh according to the ,prophets1 finds a memento in the conformation of the existing very late myth of the sacrifice of ,isaac4 ,it has the same purpose as the passage of ,deuteronomy 7,,xii4 #ca71 in which the polemic against human sacrifice as a religious institution of the ,canaanites comes most prominently forward3 #8,thou shalt not do so unto ,jahveh thy ,god2 for every abomination to ,jahveh which he hateth have they done unto their ,elhm2 for even their sons and their daughters they have burned in the fire to their ,elhm4' ,this polemic tendency in the service of the ,jahveh-idea1 and the religious views attached to it1 gave the myth in question the form in which it is known to us4 ,but that cannot be the original form4 ,stripped of its ,jahveistic coating1 the myth remains in the following form3 #8,elhm demanded from ,abraham the sacrifice of his only son1 and ,abraham was willing to sacrifice ,isaac for ,elhm4' ,but again1 the myth could take this form only in a time when the religious idea of ,elhm had already gained such full life in the ,hebrew people as to impel them to sacrifice what was dearest to them4 ,when the myth had this form1 accordingly1 there was in ,canaan already a monotheistic religion1 the centre of which was ,elhm the object of adoration1 while the ancestors of the ,hebrew people were his pious servants and favourites4 ,this coating also must be stripped off1 if we wish to trace the myth analytically to its primitive form4 ,when we have stripped off the religious coating1 we have still not yet penetrated to the central germ2 for1 independently of any religious tendency1 ,abraham remains as ,patriarch1 as a national figure2 and this brings us into the historical epoch when the ,hebrew people1 attaining to a consciousness of national peculiarity and opposition to the surrounding ,canaanitish peoples1 constructed their own early history4 ,accordingly1 the national coating has now to be thrown off2 and then ,abraham meets us as a 7so to say7 cosmopolitan figure--not yet transformed into the likeness of one nation1 but still as a person1 an individual4 ,this stage of mythic development brings us to the psychological process which caused the mythological persons to come forth at the beginning2 and behind this stage we find the original form of the myth3 #8,abram kills his son ,isaac' ,at that primitive stage these expressions naturally signified no more than the words imply4 #8 ,abh ,rm1 the ,lofty ,father1 kills his son ,yich1 the ,laugher4' ,the ,nightly ,heaven and the ,sun1 or the ,sunset1 child of the ,night1#aai fell into a strife in the evening1 the result of which is that the ,lofty ,father kills his child2 the day must give way to night4 ,in the above example we have endeavoured to give a short sketch1 less of the progress of development of the ,hebrew myth1 than of the method by which1 observing the most prominent forces in the historical development of the intellectual life of the ,hebrews1 we can rise by analysis from the latest form of the myths to the original4 ,having reached this1 we must confide ourselves to the guidance of the ,science of ,language2 for that particular source for mythic inquiry which was treated in #e of the preceding chapter has chiefly to do with the primitive form of the myth4 ,the myth is accompanied through all its stages of development by the same constant terms of language3 these are1 accordingly1 the oldest matter for investigation on the mythological field4 ,thus1 taking it all together1 the ,method of mythic investigation turns on three hinges3 #a4 ,psychology1 #b4 ,history1 #c4 ,science of ,language4 ----- ,footnote #ajd3 #8,die andere culturhistorisch4' ,i am obliged to render this convenient adjective by a circumlocution1 as #8civilisation-historical' would be too cumbrous and hardly intelligible4--,,tr4 ,footnote #aje3 ,i must refer those readers who are not sufficiently familiar with the terminology to ,steinthal's ,abriss der ,sprachwissenschaft1 ,berlin #ahga1 vol4 ,i41 where all this is fully discussed in the section ,elementare psychische ,processe4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,but it is to be observed that some of the expressions produced by ,polyonymy multitude of names survive the process of fusion and remain with the original signification2 thus e4g4 several names for ,moon in ,hebrew4 ,on such names ,synonymy1 a secondary function of conscious speech1 then performs its work4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,chips1 ,first ,series1 pp4 #cef1 #cfa4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,on the ,pronoun ,wilhelm von ,humboldt's essay1 ,ueber die ,verwandtschaft der ,ortsadverbien mit dem ,pronomen1 ,berlin #ahcj1 still deserves study4 ,see also what is said below 7,chap4 ,v4 #f7 on shr4 ,footnote #aji3 ,budenz1 in the ,hungarian review ,magyar ,nyelvr 7#8,guardian of the ,hungarian ,language'71 #ahge1 ,,iv4 #eg4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,max ,mller1 ,chips1 ,,ii4 pp4 #ic-ajf4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,see ,chap4 ,v #e1 #f4 ,footnote #aab3 ,kitb al-an1 ,i4 #acc4 #ai4 ,compare al-,meydn1 ed4 ,bl1 ,,ii4 #bfb4 #d4 ,footnote #aac3 ,both wind and rain are placed in connexion with the night in the ,dvn of the ,huailites1 ed4 ,kosegarten1 p4 #abe1 v4#e3 tatduhu ru-sh-shimli biurrih 99 f kulli leylatin djinin wa-hutni1 #8the ,northwind blows over it with his coldness every cloudy rainy night4' ,footnote #aad3 ,yt's ,geogr4 ,dictionary1 ,i4 #bd4 #b4 ,footnote #aae3 ,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie1 c4 #ahgd1 ,,viii4 #agi4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,see ,bttcher's article on this group of roots in ,hfer's ,zeitschrift fr die ,wissenschaft der ,sprache 7,greifswald #ahea71 ,,iii4 #af4 ,footnote #aag3 ,see especially the lucid exposition of ,dr4 ,abr4 ,geiger1 in his ,das ,judenthum und seine ,geschichte 7#bnd edit471 ,i4 #ea4 ,footnote #aah3 ,in other countries also human sacrifices have been abolished by a reform of religion1 and sacrifices limited to beasts and vegetables2 e4g4 in ,mexico1 where the reform is attributed to ,quetzalcoatl4 ,see ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,,iv4 #ada4 ,footnote #aai3 ,the ,sunset is child of ,night only if we keep before our eyes the mythical identity of the ,morning and ,evening ,glow1 according to #b of this chapter4 ----- ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,nomadism ,,and ,,agriculture4 ,the basis of all modern ,comparative ,mythology1 and the principle from which we start on the present studies1 is that the ,myth is only the expression in language of the impression made on the men of ancient time by the physical events and changes under the immediate influence of which they lived4 ,if this is true1 it cannot be questioned that the tendency and quality of the ,myth must change1 independently of the matter and contents which remain the same1 in obedience to the advancing civilisation of men4 ,for all progress in civilisation is marked1 speaking generally1 by continual development of the relation in which man stands to external nature4 ,when a nation emerges from the stage of ,nomadism and advances to an agricultural life1 its relation to external nature is changed4 ,the same thing happens when a people that lived exclusively by the chase and fishing advances to ,nomadism4 ,since a new epoch in the development of human civilisation has commenced in our own times through the progress made in physical science1 our relation to nature has again entered on a new phase4 ,the spirit of modern civilisation has been characterised by the common-place1 that reason has subdued nature4 ,the ,myth accompanied mankind from the first germ to the highest stage of mental culture1 always adapting itself to man's intellectual field of view and changing with the measure of this field of view4 ,it is therefore a faithful mirror of the ideas of the world held by the men of each age2 and these ideas are nowhere so clearly reflected as in myths4 ,the configuration and tendency of the myths is always dependent on the ideas of men at that particular stage of civilisation which gave the myth its form and guided it to its special tendency4 ,the traces of these historical transformations of the myths are scarcely distinguishable for small chronological divisions2 but when the larger epochs of civilisation are under consideration1 they cannot fail to be noted by the explorer's eye4 ,and the discovery and demonstration of these transformations of the tendency of the myths in their relation to the great epochs of civilisation is one of the special problems of ,comparative ,mythology4 ,the solution of this problem has an intimate connexion with the answer to the question1 #8,when does the life of the ,myth begin1 and when does it end8 what is its terminus a quo1 and what its terminus ad quem8' ,this question is obviously closely bound up with the results of the psychological inquiry into the essence and conditions of production of the myth4 ,the myth lives from the moment that man begins to interpret physical phenomena through processes brought before his eyes by his own every-day life and action2 and as soon as the human mind uses in the interpretation of the phenomena of nature utterly different means from those prevalent in all myths1 i4e4 as soon as the phenomena of nature are not interpreted from human conditions1 the myth has ended its life1 and yields up its elements for other combinations4 ,it is self-evident that the commencing point of the creation of myths cannot be later than the first beginnings of language2 for ,myth and ,language are two modes of utterance of the same intellectual activity1 and the oldest declarations of the human mind4 ,even in the ,miocene age we find man--the so-called fossil man--in possession of fire3 so that even then the conditions were already present for the first growth of the elements of a ,prometheus-myth4 ,in the ,postpliocene age we find him already endowed with the first breath of religious feeling1 if1 as is generally done1 we can allow the careful graveyards found at ,aurillac1 ,cro-,magnon and ,menton1 to pass as historical data4#abj ,the end of the life of the myth coincides with the moment at which is formed out of the elements of the myth a religious conception of the world peopled with gods4 ,the living and conscious existence of the myth is finished when the mythical figures become gods4 ,theology hurls the myth from its throne4 ,but this is the end only of the living existence of the primitive myth2 the myth transfigured and newly interpreted in a religious sense lives on1 and only now begins to pass through a rich and various series of stages of development1 each marked by a corresponding stage of the religion and civilisation of the men who possess it4 ,there then spring from mythic elements1 sagas1 fables1 tales1 legends4 ,and as religion in its primal origin appears in history not in opposition to myths1 but as a higher development of them1 the life of religion does not absolutely exclude that of myths4 ,there remain1 beside the myth which has been transformed into religion1 other portions of the mythic matter which religion has not yet touched1 and these live on as myths1 so long as the process of religious transformation has not drawn them into its domain4 ,pure and free ,monotheism in its highest development is the first force that comes forward as a denial of the mythic elements in religion4 ,the religious history of the ,hebrews reached this stage when ,jahveism was fully developed4 ,we will for the present not trouble ourselves with these scions of the transformed myth4 ,we will first study it only at the early stages when it still lives an unclouded1 young1 fresh life1 untroubled by misunderstanding--the life that precedes the origin of religion from mythic elements4 ,there are two successive stages in the historical development of mankind1 which have to be considered in the course of the expositions to which this chapter is devoted1 the ,nomadic and the ,agricultural4 ,in the former commences the chain of development1 which is closed by the formation of perfect1 true ,society4 ,first are formed communities which1 though still standing only on the base of the ,family1 yet represent a broadening of this base insofar as the notion of the family is first enlarged into the institution of a ,tribe1 and then this institution cannot always refuse to take in foreign elements 7prisoners of war1 or clients claiming protection74 ,the nomadic stage is in its element in constant wandering from pasture to pasture1 in unceasing change of residence2 and is accordingly completed1 whether with regard to its intrinsic character or to the experience of history1 by passing over to the stage of the stationary agriculturist4 ,the gathering of wild fruits1 by which huntsmen and primitive nomads find some vegetable nourishment1 forms the first impulse to pass over to an agricultural life1 as ,waitz observes4#aba ,it must be noticed that a pastoral life is frequently combined with tillage4 ,the ,nomad's relation to nature is a very different one from the ,agriculturist's4 ,but the consciousness of union among men--of their belonging to one another--was first excited at the nomadic stage2 and it is therefore not surprising if a large proportion of the names of nations point back to that age4 ,a nation calls itself by a common name when the consciousness of the union of its members first arises4 ,names in which the nation confesses itself to be a wandering1 restless society1 point back to the nomadic stage of civilisation4 ,that the contemplation of their own wandering mode of life1 is with the nomadic peoples one motive for the national appellation1 is shown in many instances which ,bergmann has correctly explained in this sense4#abb ,the ,kurdic nomadic tribes still call themselves ,ktsher1 i4e4 #8wandering1' and despise and persecute their settled brethren4#abc ,the national appellation of the ,zulus denotes the #8homeless1' #8roaming4'#abd ,according to the etymological explanation given by an old ,hebraist1 ,clericus1 the name of one of the peoples which are mentioned as aborigines of ,canaan1 the ,zzm1 is to be referred to this notion2 it is so if we can cite for its explanation the late ,hebrew zz1 #8to move from place to place4'#abe ,another ,canaanite national name1 ,perizz1 also according to many expositors points to nomadic life4#abf ,the name ,p1 by which the ,egyptians called many nomadic tribes that came into their country1 and which is also given in the list of nations in ,gen4 ,x4 as the name of a son of ,ham1 likewise belongs to the same class4 ,from their wandering life they were called by the ,egyptians the #8,runners1' and the graphical power of the name is shown in the hieroglyphs by the picture of the quickfooted hare4#abg ,the name of the ,hebrews also1 ,ibhrm1 belongs to the same series2 it denotes #8those who wander here and there1' the ,nomads4 ,for the word bhar1 from which the national name ,ibhrm or ,hebrews is derived1 denotes not merely transire1 #8to pass through a land1 or to cross a river1' but rather #8to wander about' in general2 for which sense many ,hebrew texts might be quoted4 ,the ,assyrian is instructive on the point2 there the phonetically corresponding verb is used of the sun1 which i-bar-ru-u kib-ra-a-ti #8marches1 wanders through the lands4'#abh ,a similar wandering through various lands is the foundation of the appellation ,ibhrm #8,hebrews1' so that it denotes #8the ,wanderers here and there1' the ,nomad-people4#abi ,in opposition to these national names others are formed1 which speak of the sedentary mode of life2 a name of this kind is that of the ,south ,arabian people ,jon1 which1 as ,freytag conjectured1#acj comes from aana #8to take up a fixed abode4'#aca ,we must not overlook the fact that such national names as these1 derived from and referring to a certain stage of life and civilisation1 are preserved by the same nation1 even when that stage has been long passed4 ,we see this most clearly in the case of the ,philistines1 who lived chiefly in towns1 and preserved not even a tradition to remind them of a former nomadic life4 ,yet their name ,pelishtim is itself a reminiscence of this kind4 ,whether the name is to be combined with the ,semitic 7,ethiopic7 palasha #8to wander1' as most of the ,semitic philologists say1#acb or is to be explained from the ,aryan1 as others say2 in either case it is a living witness and reminiscence of the nomadic stage of the ,philistine people1 at which they gave themselves this name4 ,similarly the ,accadians still called themselves by that name1 which means #8,highlanders1' long after they had chosen a new habitation in the plains4#acc ,the herdsman finds his happiness in the well-being of his herds2 his wealth depends on the quality of the pasture which he can get for them2 to seek this is the constant object of his endless wanderings4 ,good1 fresh1 sound pasture is the sum of his modest wishes3 #8green pastures beside still waters1' as a ,hebrew ,psalmist 7,ps4 ,,xxiii4 #b7 expresses it4 ,the cloudy heaven1 which sends rain to his fields1 is in his eyes a most friendly element1 to which he gladly gives the victory over the scorching glow of the sun1 which dries up his pastures4 ,the nomad calls himself #8,son of the water of heaven1' i4e4 the rain4 #8,by ban m al-sam 7,sons of ,rain71' says an ,arabic commentator on ,muslim's collection of traditions1 #8the ,arabs are to be understood4444 ,for as the greater part of them are owners of herds1 they supported themselves mainly by the goodness of the pastures4'#acd ,thus this appellation #8,sons of the water of heaven' could then come to have the general meaning #8rich people1' as e4g4 in a sensible verse of ,anbar b4 ,samk3#ace fal tathian min-an-nauka bishayin walau kn ban mi-s-sami3 #8,confide thou not in anything in fools1 ,e'en were they sons of water of the heaven1' i4e4 however rich they might be4 ,the ,bedaw of ,somali1 ,isa1 call their ,ogas1 i4e4 chief1 by the name ,roblai1 which1 according to ,burton1 denotes ,prince of the ,rain4#acf ,the nomad must be constantly wandering and seeking good pasture1 if he is to gain a comfortable position4 ,the glowing heat of the sun is in this respect his terrible enemy and continual adversary4 ,the starry heaven by night and the moon he recognises as his friends and protectors2 and he gladly welcomes the moment when these guardians overcome the enemy1 and drive off the beaming sun1 when noon is followed by afternoon1 and the evening comes on with its cool breeze1 on the track of the departed solar heat4 ,then he is delivered from the tiresome ail1 #8midday sleep1' which the noon-day heat had brought on4 ,he therefore likes best to begin his journey in the afternoon1 and continues it till night or during the night4#acg #8,in their journeys and expeditions with caravans or for plunder1' says ,sprenger of the ,arabs1 #8they generally travel during the night4 ,when one rides on a camel at a slow pace through the monotonous desert1 the nights seem very long4 ,but the heart is filled with quiet delight by the stillness of the night and the enjoyment of the fresh air1 and the eye involuntarily looks upwards4 ,hence we find even in the orn and in the poetry of the ,bedaw frequent allusion to the starry heaven and its motion4'#ach ,the caravan-songs 7idh7 accordingly refer mainly to night-travelling1 as e4g4 one quoted by ,wetzstein3 ,o how journey we1 while dew is scattered out ,and desert-dust bedecks the lips of sumpter beasts4 ,o how journey we1 while townsmen sleep ,with limbs involved in coverlets2#aci and when he travels by day he follows the course of the clouds1 seeking coolness and shade4 ,the ,arabic poet ,ab-l-,al al-,maarr1 who1 like all the later writers of ads1#adj makes the horizon of ,beduin life the background of his poetry1 says somewhere of his beloved1 ,as though the cloud were her lover1 she always turns her saddle ,to the quarter where the cloud is moving2 and the scholiast observes on the passage1 #8that is1 she is a ,beduin1 and the ,bedaw always follow the rain and the places where raindrops fall from heaven4'#ada ,the old ,arabian poet wishes for rain also on the grave of his friend2 he cannot bear to see it scorched by the sun's heat4 #8,drench1 ,o clouds1 the earth of that grave6' is a frequently recurring formula in the old ,arabic poetry2 and the later poetry1 with its imitation of old forms1 has received this phrase into its inventory4#adb ,it is connected with this preference of the nomads for the heavens by night1 that ,hind1 daughter of ,otb1 says on the day of the battle of ,ood to the ,koreyshites1 the opponents of ,islm3 #8,we are the daughters of the ,star1' 7nanu bint ri71#adc thereby claiming descent for herself also from the nightly heaven4 ,we put this exclamation of the brave ,arab woman in the same category with the above-mentioned reference of the origin of the ,arabs to the ,rain1 and consider ourselves justified in rejecting the explanation given by al-,jauhar1 who finds in it a simile1 with the sense1 #8,our father excels others in nobility of birth1 as that brilliant star excels the other stars4'#add ,it is then quite indifferent which star ri is1 whether the morning star1 according to most lexicographers1 or ,zoal1 7,saturn1 or another of the five ,chunnas-stars71#ade as al-,baiw explains it4#adf ,the point lies only in the fact that the ,arab woman calls herself #8,star's daughter2' and this designation falls into the same category with ,ban ,badr #8,sons of the ,full ,moon1' ,ban ,hill #8,sons of the ,new ,moon1' adopted by some ,arabian tribes1 and compared even by ,bochart#adg with the name of the people ,jerah4#adh ,thus also several clans of ,arabian tribes1 especially the ,ban ,temm1 ,ban abb1 and ,ban ,azd called themselves #8,sons of ,night1' 7,ban arm74#adi ,on the other hand1 the townsman of ,mecca called himself #8,child of the ,sun1'--a name which has survived to the present time1 as is to be seen from an interesting communication of ,kremer4#aej ,the relation of the ,agriculturist to the two warring elements of the sky is very different4 ,storm1 wind1 and excessive rain are the declared enemies of his life1 whereas the warm sun's rays1 which heat and bring to perfection the fruits of the field1 are gladly welcomed by him1 and their victory over the dark gloomy sky gives him joy4 ,an old ,hellenic name of the sun is ,zeus ,talaios1 or ,tallaios1 or simply ,talos1 which denotes #8encouraging growth1' as has been proved long ago4#aea ,it is ,zeus who watches the cornfields and sends bountiful harvests2#aeb and even clouds and rain are connected with him1 insofar as their powers are beneficial to the agriculturist4 ,for this reason ,zeus himself becomes the 1 the ,thunderer and ,rain-giver4#aec ,this variety of relation to nature will be found reflected in the myths formed at these two stages respectively4 ,the altered relation to external nature works a change even in the old and already fully formed myths1 and lays down for them a new tendency in accordance with the altered conception of nature4 ,thus the myth which was already formed at an earlier stage of civilisation frequently still possesses enough power of resistance to preserve1 in spite of adaptation to new views1 much of the character formerly impressed on it by a past stage of civilisation4 ,but the new myth must bear only the impress of the new stage at which its existence begins4 ,for as the capacity for creating language does not exhaust all its force at once1 but still continues to form new modes of speech whenever an alteration of circumstances demands them1 so it is with myths4 ,as the agriculturist creates new words for his new circumstances and ideas1 so also he creates new myths4 #b4 ,what therefore especially distinguishes the ,nomad's myth from the ,agriculturist's is mainly referable to the different position occupied at these two stages by the dark night-sky on the one hand and the brilliant1 warm1 sunny sky on the other4 ,the myth is not a merely objective#aed expression for the phenomena of nature4 ,for what is ordinarily and in common life called purely objective description1 is almost an impossibility1 seeing that no one with all possible exertion1 restraint and self-abnegation can put off all his individuality2 and this is true1 in a much higher degree1 of the myth4 ,it is incorrect to speak of objective reporters or historians4 ,for how would it be possible for me1 giving a report on an event1 whether as eye-witness or as critical sifter of the statements of others1 to speak of it without being myself the ,speaker8 ,and the single fact that ,i am the speaker1 impresses on my report a different stamp from that which the report of another would have borne4 ,compare so-called objective historical narratives from different decads--not to speak of hundreds or thousands of years4 ,how much more must the subjectivity of the myth-creators be impressed on the myths of different periods of civilisation6 ,now it is undoubtedly true that the special1 sharply characteristic intellectual individuality of persons is only developed in direct proportion with the advance of the culture of the mind4 ,the more education a man has1 the more can he give expression to his inner self and make its influence felt2 and with the advance of education1 the just claims of ,individuality will also receive more and more attention1 both in society and in law4 ,this process can be traced upwards from animals of low organisation to man1 and within the human race can be confirmed through its various stages of development1 geographical and historical4 ,at the myth-creating stage1 intellectual uniformity prevails almost universally1 in all individuals4 ,consequently here only the sum total of the men who are creating language and myth has any power2 the individual could not effect anything of his own1 different from the work of others4 ,there is no such thing as either language or myth of a single individual2#aee and what ,steinthal says in reference to national songs1 is equally true of both of them1 that the mind which produces them1 #8is the mind of a multitude of persons without individuality1 held together by physical and mental relationship2 and whatever is mentally produced by this multitude is a creation of the common mind1 i4e4 of the nation4'#aef ,and just for this reason the common mind in each of the various epochs of civilisation has its own characteristic impress1 a tendency and fundamental conception1 which distinguish it from those of the preceding epoch4 ,among the ,nomads1 then1 the dark1 cloudy heaven of night is the sympathetic mythical figure2 they imagine it conquering1 or if it is overcome1 give to its fall a tragic character1 so that it falls lamented and worthy rather of victory than of ruin2 and the ,nomad's grief for the defeated power is propagated from age to age far beyond the mythical period4 ,the sacrifice of ,jephthah's daughter is still lamented from time to time by the daughters of ,israel4 ,it is just the reverse with the myth of the ,agriculturist4 ,he makes the brilliant heaven of day-time conquer1 and the gloomy cloudy heaven or the dark night fall2 he accompanies the victory of the warm heaven of the day with cries of triumph and applause1 and his hymns immortalise what he felt and thought on this victory4 ,here it is the defeat of the sunny heaven that attunes him to lamentation4 ,the fallen ,samson is a tragical figure4 ,every reader will be able himself to supply the application of these general propositions to the myth of the ,hebrews1 if he pays attention to the chapter in which the chief figures of the ,hebrew mythology were brought forward1 with the chief traits by which they are accompanied in ,mythology4 ,i should deem it superfluous to prosecute this application further1 as it is to be found in every case in the nature of the myth itself4 ,but it is not only from a feeling of sympathy towards the heaven of night and clouds that the ,nomad puts it in the foreground4 ,this aspect of heaven is to him also the datum1 the prius1 the natural1 which the heaven of day afterwards opposes as foe and persecutor4 ,with the nature of ,nomadism1 and especially of the night-wanderings1 is also connected the ,reckoning of time by ,nights4 ,this has been best preserved by the ,arabs1 who count by nights1 instead of days1 as we do4 ,it is especially marked in the determination of the distance between two places and of the length of a journey3 e4g4 #8,his face perspires with desire for the payment held back for long nights 7i4e4 for a long time72'#aeg #8,between ,damascus and the place where ,wald b4 ,yazd lived in the desert are four nights2'#aeh #8,i will give him five hundred dnrs and a camel1 on which he can travel for twelve nights2'#aei in a poem of ,ab ,zeyd al-,absham1 #8,when the tribe travels for sixteen nights' 7ia-l-aumu srat sittat ashrata leylatan74#afj ,this ,arabic idiom is so firmly established that in the opposite case1 when a period is for once to be expressed in days1 the equivalent expressed in nights is added as a more exact definition2 e4g4 #8,so that there lay between them and their home a distance of two days or three nights4'#afa ,with the reckoning of time by nights two other practices are connected4 ,first1 the ,night has priority before the ,day2 therefore among the ,arabs and the ,hebrews 7as also among the later ,jews71 the two peoples which1 as we shall see1 preserved the feeling of nomadism longer than the ,aryans1 the day begins with the evening4 #8,there was evening1 there was morning--one day4' ,a residuum of the old nomadic conception is found in the ,egyptian myth that ,thum1 the form of the sun's nocturnal existence1 was born before ,ra1 the sun's form by day4 ,secondly1 chronology is thereby connected chiefly with the nocturnal heaven and the moon4 ,it is to be observed on this subject that in nations which begin to count the day from the evening1 the moon is the central figure and the starting point in the chronology of greater periods4#afb ,seyffarth1 in an essay entitled1 #8,did the ,hebrews before the ,destruction of ,jerusalem reckon by lunar months8' 7published in #ahdh in the ,zeitschrift der ,d4,m4,g41 ,,ii4 #cdg sqq471 endeavoured to defend the thesis that the ,hebrew chronology was originally founded on solar months1 which were not supplanted by lunar months till between the second and fourth century after ,christ2 but he supports this theory by arguments which cannot stand against profounder criticism4 ,it must rather be assumed that the original lunar year at the beginning of agricultural life was united with the observation of the solar periods 7see ,knobel1 ,commentary on ,exodus1 p4#ie71 so as to produce very early compensation of the difference between them2 but that in the various attempts at compensation1 which ended with the fixing of the calendar and the arrangement of the intercalary month1 the reckoning by moons remained in the foreground1 as is evident in the mode of compensation4 ,in reference to the ,arabs also1 ,sprenger has fully proved in the essay to which we have already referred in this chapter1 that the solar element of chronology was subordinate1 and that in the old times before ,moammed the lunar reckoning was in force4 ,as on another occasion we shall recur to the fact that among the ,aryans the ,indians retained a certain degree of nomadic sentiment more distinctly than any other ,aryans1 and that this is impressed on their literature and on many of their institutions1 so here we may observe the same in reference to their chronology4 ,in the ,vedas1 the oldest literature of the ,sanskrit people1 we find the lunar year of twelve months1 with the occasional addition of a thirteenth or intercalary month4#afc ,it is remarkable that on this subject we find still more reminiscences of the nomadic life among the ,persians4 ,in the whole book of ,avesta1 in passages where the shining heavenly bodies are enumerated1 they appear in this invariable order3 ,stars1 ,moon1 and ,sun1 the sun always occupying the last place4 ,and we even find also the reckoning of time by nights exactly as it is among the ,arabs2 which enables ,spiegel to draw the just inference that the ancient ,persians reckoned by lunar years4#afd ,according to ,bunsen#afe the ,delphic myth of the purification of ,apollo likewise points to the conclusion that the ,hellenes in later times substituted the solar for the old lunar chronology4 ,the ,solar chronology belongs to the ,agriculturist1 in opposition to the ,nomad4 ,as the night and the nocturnal sky forms the foreground to the nomad1 so the agricultural stage of civilisation leads the sun to victory1 and the sun becomes the measure and the starting point of its chronology4 ,with the advance to agriculture the lunar year is superseded by the ,magnus ,annus1 or 1 which was also called 4 ,yet very curiously1 as the remains of nomadism in general may be long visible and be unconsciously perpetuated in the ideas of the agriculturist1 it is the mode of calculating time that echoes the nomadic ideas the longest1 and even survives in ages of more advanced culture4 ,of the ,gauls1 e4g41 ,julius ,caesar reports that they counted by nights1 not by days4#aff ,tacitus says the same of the ancient ,germans4#afg ,in one case1 namely in the ,english word #8fortnight1'#afh which is a speaking proof that the ancestors of those who now use the word reckoned time by nights1 one of the most advanced nations of the present time has not yet left off counting by nights4 ,other languages also1 spoken by nations which have long accepted the solar reckoning1 preserve memorials of the old nomadic lunar reckoning4 ,in ,hungarian and other languages of the ,ugric stock the expression #8hopping year' 7szk v7 for leap-year1#afi in connexion with other similar phenomena1 points to a chronology of lunar years1 as the ,hungarian ,academician ,paul ,hunfalvy has very fully demonstrated1 with important documents4#agj ,the residuum of the lunar chronology which has stood the longest1 and which1 despite the generally preponderating solar character of our reckoning of time1 and despite the love of a decimal system inherent in the first ,french ,revolution1 is now fixed firmly for a long future period1 is the ,week--a notion specifically connected with the ,moon4 ,yet it has long been made evident that even this division of the month into four weeks was in antiquity sometimes exchanged for a solar division into three decads4 ,this was due to the influence of the agricultural stage of civilisation giving prominence to the ,sun4 ,we know this1 e4g41 of the ,egyptians1 and it was therefore long doubted whether they knew the division into weeks at all4 ,but ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson collected a series of proofs that among the ,egyptians the later system of decads was historically preceded by the division of the months into four weeks of seven days each4#aga ,it is also tolerably certain of the ,mexicans1 that of their two methods of reckoning time1 which in later times were in force side by side1 the ,tonulpohualli or #8solar reckoning' and the ,metzlapohualli or #8lunar reckoning1' the latter was historically the earlier1 but was retained in the time of the solar chronology1 as is so frequently the case in computations of time4#agb ,we ought1 moreover1 also to consider the computation of longer periods of time by ,masika1 i4e4 rainy seasons1 which prevails among the ,unyamwesi in ,africa4#agc ,how powerful is the posthumous influence even on later times of the nomadic lunar division into weeks1--an influence which again and again obtained validity1 even after it had been once supplanted by the solar reckoning by decads1 we see best among the ,romans4 ,they had originally a consistent lunar computation2 even their year consisted of ten months1 the sun's cycle of twelve months being ignored2 and they divided the month into four weeks4#agd ,later1 this fourfold division gave way to a threefold division into three decads1 nonae1 kalendae1 idus2 but yet they returned at last to the week again1 and called its seven days by the names of the sun1 the moon and the five planets4 ,however1 the division of the month into three decads is not always connected with solar chronology2 it is also found in combination with lunar reckoning1 when three phases of the moon are acknowledged 7as in the three-headed forms of the moon in the ,greek mythology74#age ,a five-days' period has been proved to exist in many nations as the equivalent of our week 7among the ,chinese1 ,mongol tribes1 ,azteks1 and ,mexicans47#agf ,but this division into pentads must be connected with an original quinary system of numeration1 to the linguistic importance of which ,pott has devoted a special treatise4#agg ,in ,old ,calabar on the west coast of ,africa a week of eight days occurs2 most curiously1 as the people cannot count beyond five4#agh ,a priori this would seem impossible2 but it is vouched for by an observer so accurate as ,bastian4 #c4 ,as the ,nomadic stage of civilisation of necessity historically precedes the ,agricultural1 so also that stage of the myths at which the nocturnal1 dark or cloudy heaven has precedence of the bright heaven of day comes before the stage at which the latter occupies the foreground and plays the part of a beloved figure or favourite4 ,moreover1 it cannot be assumed that this second stage of the formation of myths has grown up without being preceded by the first stage2 for it is simply impossible that any portion of mankind should have lived through the stage of ,nomadism1 which perhaps lasted for thousands of years1 without having thrown its conceptions of the world into mythic forms4 ,everyone knows1 and no one now doubts1 that the most prominent figure in the mythology of the ,aryans1 which later at the theological stage took the rank of a supreme god1 was the brilliant sunny heaven1 ,dyu 7,dyaus1 nom471 1 ,zeus1 on whom the powerful sympathy of the ,aryan was concentrated1 and to whom he turned with admiring devotion as soon as he began to pray and compose hymns4 ,on the other hand1 it could not escape the notice of the inquirer on the domain of ,aryan mythology and history of religion1 that the very oldest and most genuine representative of the ,aryan mind seems itself to form a sort of exception to this universal idea4 ,the ,indians1 namely1 among whom ,dyu certainly was elevated to theological importance1#agi do not make him their supreme god1 but ,indra1 who1 as his very name shows1 7indu #8a drop'7 is identical with the rainy sky 7,jupiter pluvius71#ahj and ,varua1 who1 in contrast to the shining ,mitra1 was the gloomy night-sky 7from var #8to cover'74#aha ,max ,mller1 whose merit it mainly is to have raised the ,aryan ,dyu to the high throne which he now occupies in the history of ,aryan religion1 explains this strange fact by supposing that ,indra drove ,dyu1 the oldest of the gods1 from the place which he had formerly held even among the ,indians4 #8,if in ,india1' he thinks1 #8,dyu did not grow to the same proportions as ,zeus in ,greece1 the reason is simply that dyu retained throughout too much of its appellative power1#ahb and that ,indra1 the new name and the new god1 absorbed all the channels that could have supported the life of ,dyu1'#ahc so that he died away4 ,from what has been explained above1 it is evident that the subject might present itself in a different light4 ,it is well known that the people of ,india represents1 both in its language and in its mythology1 the oldest stage of the ,aryan mind attainable by us1 and after it follows the people of ,iran4 ,the ancient literature of these two nations1 but that of the ,indians more than that of the ,persians1 stands much nearer in its ideas to the nomadic life than any other documents of the ,aryan mind which have been preserved to us4 ,it is then no wonder if 7it being a rule in all physical as well as intellectual development1 that at a later stage of progress residua of a previous one remain behind unnoticed7 these nations1 which at the time of their oldest known intellectual productions were not far removed from nomadism1 exhibit more traces of nomadism than others1 even if they be found to have then fully passed out of the nomadic stage4 ,we have already referred to this in treating of the nomadic elements in chronology1 and now return again to the same point4 ,in some things the ,iranians preserved the traditions of nomadism more firmly and persistently than the ,indians1 who generally stood nearer to the original forms4 ,this is to be explained from the fact that in ,persia nomadism itself lived longer as an actual stage of civilisation1 and was more fostered1 than in ,india2 for indeed it even now maintains its position there4 ,for just as in the time of ,herodotus 7,i4 #abe7 the ,persians were partly migratory nomads 771 partly settled agriculturists 771 so now a proportion1 varying from a quarter to a half1 of the population of modern ,persia still leads a nomadic life4#ahd ,one characteristic of the nomadic period is a social and political division into tribes1 which in many civilised nations is retained into the time of fixed dwellings as a residuum of nomadism4 ,without pausing over the ,thracians1 who according to the account of ,herodotus1#ahe found it impossible to throw off all reference to tribe-differences and bring their power to bear through national unity1 we will refer to the ,ionians as an example1 whose divisions into 1 1 and 1 have been accurately traced4#ahf ,now among the ,indians we find no trace of tribal divisions worth mentioning1 but very soon come across the ,caste--an hereditary division according to modes of occupation1 which cannot be formed at any earlier stage than that of fixed dwellings1 since this gave the first impulse to the practice of arts and trades1 which is not conceivable at the nomadic stage4 ,among the ,iranians1 on the other hand1 the tribal division maintained itself for a long time parallel with that according to occupation1 which was better suited to the time of transition to a fixed life4#ahg ,even on the ,caste system of the ,parsees the tribal division still exerts a definite influence4 ,the sacerdotal caste is a distinct tribe1 a family1 just like the ,levites among the ,hebrews2#ahh and in ancient times many sacerdotal functions1 #8the smaller and less important religious duties1 were assigned to the heads of the various subdivisions of the tribe4' ,the name of the priests1 mbed 7which ,spiegel explains as umna-pati #8chief head of the tribe or family1' perhaps equivalent to the ,hebrew rsh bth bh71 in itself indicates the original universality of the bestowal of the sacerdotal functions on the head of the tribe4#ahi ,as in ,iran a fundamental social institution1 so among the ,sanskrit people a prominent mythological fact is the notable residuum of nomadism3 viz4 the fact that by them the first seat and highest rank among the figures of the myth and subsequently among the gods is assigned not to ,dyu1 but to ,varua and ,indra4 ,it is not to the field-guarding1 harvest-sending1 shining sunny heaven1 but to ,varua the coverer and ,indra the rain-sender1 that the nomad directs his admiration and sympathy1 his veneration and devotion4 ,this relation towards ,indra was preserved by the ,indian from the nomadic period--from a time before that remarkable people had chosen a permanent abode on the banks of the ,ganges and ,indus4 ,with this agrees very well the idea which ,roth worked out in an essay on #8the highest gods of the ,aryan peoples1' that ,varua is as old as the ,aryan period1 and is the common property of all members of the race2 even the conception of ,indra being later than that of ,varua1 and specially ,indian4#aij ,but it is not only among the ,indians that we find this memory of nomadic life impressed on the mythology2 its traces may be found also in the ,hellenic mythology1 not however as a positive1 actual existence1 as in ,india1 but still as an historical reminiscence4 ,according to ,hesiod's ,theogony1 the dominion of ,zeus was preceded by that of ,uranus2 i4e4 before the ,hellenic people1 choosing a settled agricultural life1 brought ,zeus1 the bright sunny heaven1 into the foreground1 the centre of their world was ,uranus 7,varua71 the gloomy overclouded sky4 ,there is scarcely any serious reason for regarding1 as ,bunsen#aia and some writers on the history of religion do1 the kingdom of ,zeus alone as an original intellectual product of the ,hellenic people1 and putting aside ,uranus as merely a result of ,theogonic speculation1 or for even seeing in ,uranus a figure borrowed from a ,semitic source4 ,the succession--,uranus1 ,zeus--rather corresponds perfectly with the successive stages of civilisation1 nomadism and agriculture1 and all that ,hesiod did was to clothe an historical1 natural and true tradition of the ,hellenic people in the form of a theogonic story4 ,with this1 other points of the ,theogony seem to be clearly and unmistakably connected1 namely those in which we perceive the idea of the priority of the ,night4 ,among the powers preceding the rule of ,zeus in ,hesiod's ,theogony1 ,chaos is named--a word signifying according to its original sense #8darkness'--and ,tartarus4 ,we well know the theological meaning of the latter word--the subterranean place to which the souls of the dead go2 but there is no doubt that it originally denoted #8a gloomy pit1 never lighted by the sun1' or #8darkness' in general4 ,therefore ,tartarus figures in ,mythology as father of ,typhon and ,echidna1 and therefore ,nyx is his daughter4 ,then it agrees well with nomadic ideas that ,tartarus is called #8father of waters and springs1' and that he bears the epithet #8the first born' 774 ,on ,hebrew ground also we meet a similar transition4 ,in ,job ,,xxxvi4 #bj1 the word layl #8night' is used quite in the sense of #8nether world2' which is true also of almweth1 denoting #8darkness' in general1 and used only secondarily with special reference to ,orcus4 #d4 ,we have above just touched the confines of religious history1 though it was strictly speaking1 only a border territory of ,mythology1 which ought not to be confounded with religious history4 ,but we must here allow ourselves an excursion into the neighbouring territory4 ,for it ought not to pass unnoticed that1 as the myth which has the night-sky in its foreground always precedes that which has the bright sky of day in its centre1 the former corresponding to the nomadic1 the latter to the settled agricultural life1 the same sequence can also be observed in the history of religion4 ,there are nations1 which1 when already standing at the nomadic stage1 work out for themselves a theistic religion4 ,as theistic religion always grows up out of the elements of myths1 the religion of ,nomadism must be essentially a worship of the night-heaven4 ,then1 when the progress to the agricultural stage works the revolution in man's ideas of the world1 and in the relation of his mind to external nature1 of which ,i spoke above1 when he cleaves more to the ,sun and pays his reverence to him1 then the worship of the nocturnal starry or overclouded rainy heaven is naturally supplanted by one of the diurnal heaven and the sun1 and only residua of the ancient ideas and the ancient objects of worship are propagated into the new epoch1 sometimes continuing and remaining in force unmodified1 and sometimes interpreted anew in the sense of the new system4 ,the religion and the worship of the nomad stand to those of the agriculturist in the same relation of historical succession as the two similar stages of mythology to each other4 ,at the later stage1 the elements of solar religion can undoubtedly stand peacefully side by side with the residua of the earlier stage of religion4 ,similarly1 when nomads have relations with townsmen who have a solar religion already powerfully developed1 many elements of the solar worship may find their way into the nomadic religion2 of which the well-known accounts of the religion of some ,arabic ,beduin tribes furnish plenty of examples4 ,to this an outside observer may probably reduce the report brought by ,william ,gifford ,palgrave1 the daring explorer of ,central ,arabia1 of the adoration of the ,sun among the ,bedaw4#aib ,but in the order of genesis the worship of the night-sky1 inclusive of that of the moon1 precedes that of the day-sky and the sun4 ,it was observed long ago that wherever sun-worship exists1 moon-worship also is always to be found1 being a residuum of the earlier stage of religion2 but not in the reverse order4#aic ,we shall have to revert in a subsequent chapter to this fact1 in speaking of the religion of the nomadic ,hebrews1 and will therefore only refer to a few points in the ancient ,arabic religion4 ,if ,blau is right in interpreting the old ,arabic proper name ,abd ,duhmn as #8,servant of the ,darkness of ,night1'#aid the theological importance of the night-sky to the ancient ,arabs in general is proved2 for it is well known that in ,arabic proper names compounded with ,abd #8servant' the second member of the compound is a god's name1 or at least a name of theological meaning4#aie ,to the same class belongs the ,moon-worship of the ancient ,arabs1 which is sufficiently attested4#aif ,the clearest evidence of a worship of the rainy sky and the storm among the ,arabs is furnished by the name uza1 to which storms and rainbows were attributed 7see the following chapter #ab74 ,arabian etymologists1 among whom may be mentioned the author of the ms and the author of the ,supercommentary on that dictionary1 publishing at ,bl1 have tried many combinations in order to find a suitable explanation of this uza1 with especial reference to the meaning #8rainbow2' all the derivative significations of the root z1 embellishment1 variety of colour1 lifting oneself1 are brought forward to yield a sufficient ground for the appellation4 ,this proves how little the ,mohammedan now knows of his heathen antiquity2 the use of the name uza must have been interdicted4 ,al-,damr1 in his work ,almas il al-manthr1 finds a deep-seated error in the word itself1 instead of which he wishes to read kaza with ayn1 with the meaning #8cloud4'#aig ,but it is probable that this name uza is derived from the signification #8mingere1' which belongs to the corresponding verb 7used specially of beasts71 and that it is due to a mythological conception of the ,rain4 ,this circumstance tempts us to connect the ,hebrew word bl #8rain1 rainy month' with the ,arabic bla1 yablu #8mingere4' ,if so1 the combination of this word with the name of the ,god ,baal1 which certainly does occur in ,himyaric in the form ,bl1 must have been made later1 from a misunderstanding of the mythological relations4#aih ,the theological power of uza among the ancient ,arabs is evident as well from its being explained by ,moslem interpreters as the name of a devil or angel1 as also from the fact that geographical appellations which are in force in the ritual of the old religion are connected with it4#aii ,these elements of the worship of the night and the cloudy and stormy sky must have priority before those of the solar worship which are found subsisting beside them4 ,f4 ,spiegel states this succession to be a law in the history of religion4 #8,it is not the sun1' he says1#bjj #8that first attracted the attention of the savage by its light4444 ,on the other hand1 the night-sky1 whose lights form a contrast to the darkness of the earth1 is much more calculated to attract the gaze of the savage to itself4 ,and among the heavenly lights it is the moon that first absorbs the sight1 as well from its size as from its readily discernible changes2 and after it a group of particularly brilliant stars4444 ,we find moon-worship among almost utterly savage tribes in ,africa and ,america2 and it is noteworthy that there the moon is always treated as a man1 the sun as a woman2 not till later are these relations inverted4 ,from this we may infer that the lunar worship is older than the solar4' ,we cannot1 however1 agree with ,spiegel when he gives as the reason why darkness attracted the special attention of man1 that the sun was to him a matter of course4 ,we see the same story of the lunar religion repeat itself again in the history of the ,babylonian-,assyrian religion4 ,,hur-,,ki 7,assyrian ,,sin7 is historically the older and earliest prominent object of worship of the ancient ,accadian kingdom2 and the further we advance towards the beginnings of the history1 the more does the worship of the moon preponderate4 ,the monarchs of the first dynasties regard her as their protector1 and the name of the moon often enters into composition to form their proper names4#bja ,in the later empire1 that of ,assyria1 this prevailing pre-eminence of the moon gradually ceases4 ,she is supplanted by the sun1 under whom she descends to be a deity of the second rank1 the #8,lord of the thirty days of the month1' and #8,illuminator of the earth4'#bjb ,that ,,samas1 the sun1 is called in the ,assyrian epic of ,istar the son of ,sin1 the moon-god 7,,iv4 #b71 #8points1' as the learned ,german interpreter of the cuneiform inscriptions observes1 #8to a veneration of the moon-god in ,babylonia earlier than that of the sun-god1'#bjc or else to the conception of the night preceding the day4 ,among the ,egyptians1 too1 it is a later period at which the dominion of the sun is recognised4 ,the older historical epoch--whether permeated1 as ,bunsen expresses it somewhat obscurely1#bjd by a #8cosmogonic-astral' idea1 or1 as ,lenormant describes it in a few bold strokes1#bje possessing very little positive religion at all--knows as yet nothing of solar worship4 ,the solar worship of the ,egyptians is undoubtedly the product of a later development of high culture4 ,this phenomenon1 the priority of the lunar to the solar worship1 is asserted also by the adherents of a theory of the history of civilisation usually called the ,gynaecocratic1 which was founded and worked out by the ,swiss savant ,bachofen in a large book entitled #8,the ,gynaecocracy of ,antiquity4' ,to the adherents of this theory1 who suppose the lordship of man to have been preceded by a long period in which the female sex bore rule1 the lunar worship is closely allied to the importance of woman1 while the solar worship is connected with the rule of man4 ,i do not1 of course1 deem it a part of my present task to criticise the ,gynaecocratic theory1 which has certainly had but small success in the learned world1 or to take up a position either for or against it4 ,yet it is satisfactory that the phenomenon in the history of religion which we have brought into prominence may find confirmation in another quarter1 where the premisses are utterly different4 #e4 ,the first founder of ,comparative ,mythology1 ,professor ,a4 ,kuhn1 starting from the truth #8that every stage of social and political growth has a more or less peculiar mythological character of its own1 and that the fact of these1 so to speak1 mythological strata lying side by side or crossing one another often renders the solution of mythological enigmas more difficult1' insisted1 primarily with reference to ,aryan mythology1 that the mythological products of each of the great epochs of civilisation ought to be sifted with reference to the cycles of myths peculiar to each epoch4#bjf ,he himself ventured on the first beginnings or elements of such a sifting in a very interesting and instructive academical treatise #8,on stages of development in the formation of ,myths4'#bjg ,kuhn finds the criterion of a myth's belonging to one or another period of civilisation mainly in the notions and objects with which the myth has to do4 ,sun's hunts were spoken of in the hunting period1 the sun's cattle in the nomadic1 c42 and the formation of myths which employed these notions commenced #8as soon as the following period had lost the understanding of the language of the preceding' 7p4 #acg74 ,i do not think that a definition of the periods of myth-formation which starts with the ,material of the myth can always afford a strictly reliable rule for judging a mythic stratum and assigning it to this or that period of civilisation4 ,for it must not be left unnoticed that1 when once the notion of hunting or of herds has come into existence1 it does not vanish from the mental inventory of man as soon as ever the stage of civilisation is passed on which that portion of mankind occupies itself with hunting or keeping herds4 ,on the other hand1 the entrance of a more advanced stage of civilisation does not imply the utter banishment out of human society of everything connected with the preceding1 though1 speaking generally1 this was now passed and gone4 ,otherwise1 how could we at the present day1 when the hunting age is left so many thousand years behind us1 still have our hunting adventures and enjoy all the pleasures belonging to the sportsman's life8 ,and must there not be shepherds even in agricultural countries1 although the agriculturist has long passed the stage of nomadism8 ,consequently1 from the phraseological material employed in the myth it is only possible to infer the terminus a quo referring to its origin1 but not the terminus ad quem4 ,else we should be entangled in the same mistakes into which the earlier ,danish antiquaries fell1 when from the occurrence of stone1 bronze1 or iron instruments in a tumulus or avenue1 they inferred that the tumulus or avenue was so and so old2 not considering that the material of a completed period is propagated into the next epoch1 as is shown in all those prehistorical finds in which instruments of all possible materials appear promiscuously1 as ,james ,fergusson has convincingly proved4#bjh ,we are in the same case with the phraseology of the ,myth4 ,on the ascent out of each of the great periods1 the ideas connected with it1 which began with the entrance into it1 cannot disappear4 ,the idea1 having once been grasped by man1 remains always present to him1 and can be conveniently used to give names to natural phenomena connected with the same circle of ideas2 and he does not cease to take notice of natural phenomena while forming myths4 ,thus even the agriculturist may have spoken of the ,sun's hunts2 and even at the agricultural stage myths may still have arisen which spoke of the ,sun as a sportsman armed with arrows with which he slays the dragon4 ,it is accordingly not the mythic material that is of the highest moment in sketching the chief stages of development in the formation of myths1 but rather the ,tendency of the myth--the position occupied by man in relation to external nature1 so far as appears from the myths in question4 ,how1 according to this scale of development1 the stages of the myth among the ,aryans are reflected in their mythology1 ,i do not presume to judge1 being on ,aryan ground only a dilettante4 ,i will1 however1 quote some examples from the special ground of these studies1 to illustrate what has been expounded4 ,looking at the myth of ,jacob1 observing the centre of the cycle1 whose name--as is demonstrated at the proper place--is an appellation of the starry heaven1 how he strives against the ,red1 #8,edm1' and the ,white1 #8,lbhn1' and seeing that the myth-maker's sympathy always inclines to ,jacob1 that his over-reaching of his enemies always appears in a light favourable to him1 and that his defeats always wear a tragic colour1 ,i can conclude that this cycle of myths belongs to ,nomadism4 ,the same inference must be drawn from an examination of the myth of ,joseph4 ,but if ,i look at the hymn to ,judah1 or consider the myth of ,samson and what the ,hebrew told of the ,sun-giant with his long locks1 of his being blinded1 and of his fall1 then ,i know that ,i have to do with myths of agricultural people4 ,with regard to the antipathy felt towards the scorching sun1 ,i will finally call attention to the ideas held by the tribe of ,atarantes in ,herod4 ,,iv4 #ahd1 where it is said3 1 1 1 4#bji #f4 ,it is a remarkable fact in the history of the human mind that many nations which made the advance from the nomadic to the agricultural life under the condition that either ,nomadism still continues to vegetate in the nation as an isolated residuum of the previous stage1 or that the advance affects only a part1 though an influential one1 of the nation1 whilst another equally considerable portion remains at the old stage of civilisation1 not only have no consciousness that the transition is an advance1 but even hold to a conviction that they have taken a step towards what is worse1 and have sunk lower by exchanging pasture for crops4 ,the nomad cherishes the proud feeling of high nobility and looks haughtily down on the agriculturist bound to the clod4 ,even the half-savage ,dinka in ,central ,africa1 who leads a nomadic life1 calls the agriculturist ,dyoor #8a man of the woods1' or #8wild man1' and considers himself more privileged and nobler4#baj ,everyone who knows anything of the nature and history of ,arabic civilisation knows the pride of the ,bedaw and the ironical contempt with which they look down upon the aar4 ,for the ,semites are especially characterised by this tendency4#baa ,the ,hellenic mind is totally different4 ,to the ,hellene the agricultural life only is a morally perfect condition2 his poet has given expression to this feeling in the beautiful words3-- ' ' 2 444#bab ,and to the ,roman poet of a period troubled by wars peaceful agriculture is not only the most ideal condition of human life1 but also the happy state of innocence of primeval mankind3-- ,ut prisca gens mortalium ,paterna rura bobus exercet suis1 says ,horace in his celebrated epode #8,beatus ille'2 and of any more ancient period he had never heard4#bac ,george ,rawlinson very oddly says1 #8,it was a fashion among the ,greeks to praise the simplicity and honesty of the nomade races1 who were less civilised than themselves2#bad for the passages of literature quoted by him in confirmation of this assertion lay no stress on the nomadic element4 ,but the case is very different among the ,semites4 ,let us first consider from this point of view the territory1 richest among all those of the ,semites1 which yields the most copious evidence of the thoughts and feelings of its inhabitants--the ,arabic4 ',the ,divine ,glory' 7al-saknatshekhn7 it is said1 in a speech of ,moammed's1 #8is among the shepherds2 vanity and impudence among the agriculturists' 7al-fadddn74#bae ,another traditional sentence1 which the propagators of ,moammed's sayings--certainly not ,bedw themselves--put in the mouth of the ,prophet1 is that every prophet must have been a shepherd for a long time4#baf ,how greatly ,moammed approved the proud self-consciousness of the nomad1 as opposed to the agricultural character1 is evident from the following narrative belonging to the ,islamite ,tradition4 #8,the ,prophet once told this story to one of his companions in the presence of an ,arab of the desert4 ,an inhabitant of ,paradise asked ,allh for permission to sow1 and ,allh replied1 8,you have already all that you can want40 8,yes10 answered the other1 8but yet ,i should like also to scatter some seed40 ,so 7when ,allh had given him permission71 he scattered seeds2 and in the very moment that he was looking at them1 he saw them grow up1 stand high and become ripe for harvest2 and they were like regular hills4 ,then ,allh said to him 8,away from here1 son of men2 you are an insatiable creature60 ,when the ,prophet had finished this story1 the ,arab of the desert said1 8,by ,allh6 this man can only have been a ,kureyshite or an ,anr1 for they employ themselves with sowing seed1 but we ,desert-,arabs are not engaged in sowing40 ,then the ,prophet smiled'--with manifest approbation4#bag ,the accredited collections of traditions tell also the following of ,ab ,umm al-,bhil3--#8,once on seeing a ploughshare and another agricultural implement1 he said3 ,i heard the ,prophet say1 8,these implements do not enter into the house of a nation1 unless that ,allh causes low-mindedness to enter in there at the same time40'#bah ,so also1 in his political testament the ,chalf ,omar when dying recommended the ,bedw to his successor1 #8for they are the root of the ,arabs and the germ of ,islm2'#bai and how little this ,arabian politician could appreciate the importance of agriculture is evident from the edict in which he most strictly forbade the ,arabs to acquire landed possessions and practise agriculture in the conquered districts4 ,the only mode of life equally privileged with the roving nomad life was held to be the equally roving military profession1 or life of nomads without herds and with arms4 ,even in ,egypt1 a specially agricultural country1 this principle was acknowledged and strictly carried out4#bbj ,he was likewise hostile to permanent buildings and houses such as are erected in towns4 ,once1 passing by the brick house of one of his governors1 he obliged him to refund the money that had enabled him to enjoy such luxury2 and when ,sad b4 ,ab ,wa asked his permission to build a house1 the ,chalf thought it was enough to possess a place that gave protection from the sun's heat and the rain4#bba ,and this same ,chalf1 who may pass for a still better type of the true ,semite than ,moammed himself1 extends his preference for nomadism even to the mode of giving names4 ,the nomad calls himself by the name of the tribe to which he belongs2 the townsman1 in whom all memory of tribal life is already extinct1 receives a name from his birth-place1 or that of his ancestors1 or from his occupation4 #8,learn your genealogies1' said ,omar1 #8and be not as the ,nabateans of al-,sawd2 if you ask one of them where he comes from1 he says he is from this or that town4' ,this trait of glorification of the old-fashioned ,beduin-life1 to the disparagement of the free urbanity of the townsmen1 runs through a considerable section of ,arabic literature1 which gladly encircled the rough manners of the sons of the desert with a romantic nimbus of transfiguration4 ,in this connexion a passage in a work falsely ascribed to ,wid#bbb should be noticed1 which describes the ,bedw ,rifa b4 ,zuheir at the court of ,byzantium1 and after putting a satire against nomadism in the mouth of the emperor1 gives a brilliant victory over this attack to the #8mouse-eating'#bbc ,bedw4 ,this preference for nomadism1 and the view that1 although1 having fewer wants1 it be a simpler and more uniform stage of human development than city-life1 it nevertheless surpasses the latter in nobility and purity1 still live on in the system of the talented ,arabian historian ,ibn ,chaldn4 ,he devotes several sections of his historical #8,introduction' to the glorification of the ,bedw against the townsmen4#bbd ,what was thus established theoretically is presented in real life down to the present day4 ,still1 as twelve centuries ago1 the ,bedw alone are quite strictly entitled to the name al-,arab or al-,orbn 7,arabs71 and the ,arabic poetry of the townsmen is found to have its locality still in the desert4 ,the old ,arabic poet in forming his poetical figures always likes best to carry the camel in his thoughts4 ,with the camel the great majority of his best similes are connected4 ,in one verse the poet compares himself to a strong sumpter camel2 and in the very same line he1 the camel1 milks the breast of ,death1 which again is regarded as a camel4 ,time is a camel sinking to earth1 which crushes with its thick hide him on whom it falls2 a thirsty camel1 which in its eagerness for water 7here men7 swallows everything4#bbe ,war and calamity also are camels4 ,the poet aba b4 ,jbir cries to his adversaries in praise of the valour of his own tribe3 #8,we are not sons of young camels with breasts cut off1 but we are sons of fierce battle1' where1 according to the interpretation of the native commentator1 the #8young camels with breasts cut off' are meant to denote #8weak kings1 who provoke the ardour of battle in a very slight degree4'#bbf ,how frequently1 too1 has the comparison of men with camels both in a good and in a bad sense been employed6 ,even in the nomenclature of places and wells in the ,arabian peninsula the camel often comes in1 probably often as the result of comparisons of which the details have not been preserved4#bbg ,the host of stars is to the nomad a flock1 which feeds by night on the heavenly pastures1 and in the morning is led back to the fold by the shepherd4 ,a poet describing the length of a night1 exclaims3 #8,a night when the stars move slowly onwards1 and which extends to such a length that ,i say to myself 8,it has no end1 and the shepherd of the stars will not come back to-day40'#bbh ,hartwig ,derenbourg finds the same view expressed also in ,ps4 ,,cxlvii4 #d1 #8,counting to the stars a number1 calling them all by names2'#bbi it is1 however1 doubtful whether this poetical passage is based on the conception of the starry heaven as a flock4#bcj ,but also poems of non-nomadic poets have been written from a ,beduin point of view4 ,the asds of the ,andalusian ,arabic poets are written as from the camel's back1 and move in the scenery of the desert2 and when a modern ,arab writes a asd for an ,english lady1 as has been done1 the circle in which he moves is the circle of ,imrulais and ,antar4#bca ,this is not the effect of the traditional canon of the asd only1 but of the ,arab's belief that true nobility is only to be found in the desert4 ,therefore his national enthusiasm transports him into the desert1 for only there is life noble and free1 the life of towns being a degradation4 #8,even the town-life of the ,arabs1' says the celebrated ,african traveller ,george ,schweinfurth1#bcb #8is essentially half a camp life4 ,as a collateral illustration of this1 ,i may remark that to this day ,malta1 where an ,arab colony has reached as high a degree of civilisation as ever yet it has attained1 the small towns1 which are inhabited by this active little community1 are called by the very same designations as elsewhere belong to the nomad encampments in the desert4' ,we must add1 that even the so-called ,moorish architecture is said by many art critics to point to nomadic life1 and the onion-shaped domes1 the thin columns1 the horse shoe-arches and the double pointed arches to be transferred from the construction of the tent to stone4 ,the wandering habits of the ,arabs are also preserved to the present day4 #8,even now1' says ,gerhard ,rohlfs1#bcc #8this volatile people is engaged in constant wandering2 the slightest reason is sufficient to make them pack up their little tents and seek another abode4' ,yet this experienced traveller appears somewhat to overdo it when he adds3 #8,their pleasure in roving has its root in the essence of the ,mohammedan religion2 wherever the ,arab can carry his ,islm1 he finds a home c4' ,but ,islm has1 on the contrary1 rather contributed to give the ,arab a stable1 political1 state-building character4 ,certainly it has rather hindered than promoted the development of the feeling of nationality--it has this in common with every religion of catholic nature2 but it has not had the influence ascribed to it by ,rohlfs for the maintenance of the nomadic tendency4 ,why1 it is the ,bedw himself who is the worst ,mohammedan6 ,with this tendency of the ,arabian mind1 finally1 is connected the fact that the ,central ,arabian sect of the ,wahhabites1 the very branch of the ,mohammedans which stands nearest to the old ,patriarchal ways in faith and ideas of the world1 and protests energetically against all novelties introduced by foreign civilisation and historical advancement1 has a particular dislike to agriculture4#bcd ,the ,hebrew conception of the world1 like the ,arabic1 inclines to a glorification of the ,nomadic life4 ,in the last stage of their national development the ,hebrews refer the origin of agriculture to a curse imposed by ,god on fallen humanity4 ,what a charm tent-life had for them1 is proved by the fact that the fair shepherdess of the ,song of ,songs 7,i4 #e7 compares her beauty with ohol dr1 #8the tents of the ,arabs4' ,even the ,hellenised ,jew ,philo1 quite in opposition to ,greek ideas1 glorifies the shepherds as ideals of morality in contrast to the agriculturists4#bce ,such a view could not but exert an influence on the figures of the myth4 ,the persons of the myth who have our sympathy are generally presented as shepherds3 ,abel1 ,jacob1 ,moses1 and ,david1 are shepherds2 whereas ,cain is an agriculturist4 ,moreover1 the idea that the fall of the human race is connected with agriculture is found1 besides the analogous cases commonly adduced by commentators1 to be also often represented in the legends of the ,east ,african negroes1 especially in the ,calabar legend of the ,creation communicated by ,bastian1#bcf which presents many interesting points of comparison with the ,biblical story of the ,fall4 ,the first human pair is called by a bell at meal-times to ,abasi 7the ,calabar ,god7 in heaven2 and in place of the forbidden tree of ,genesis are put agriculture and propagation1 which ,abasi strictly denies to the first pair4 ,the fall is denoted by the transgression of both these commands1 especially through the use of implements of tillage1 to which the woman is tempted by a female friend who is given to her4 ,from that moment man fell and became mortal1 so that1 as the ,bible story has it1 he can #8eat bread only in the sweat of his face4' ,there agriculture is a curse1 a fall from a more perfect stage to a lower and imperfect one4 ,this view of the agricultural life is1 however1 not the conception of nomads only2 it is proper also to nations which have not even reached the stage of nomadism1 but stand a step lower--the hunters4 ,to them their own condition appears the happiest1 and that of the agriculturist condemned by a curse4 #8,the countries inhabited by savages1' as ,montesquieu makes his ,persian ,usbek write1#bcg #8are generally sparsely peopled1 through the distaste which almost all of them have for labour and the tillage of the soil4 ,this unfortunate aversion is so strong that when they make an imprecation against one of their enemies1 they wish him nothing worse than that he may be reduced to field-labour1#bch deeming no exercise noble and worthy of them except hunting and fishing4' ,this contempt of a sedentary life and its usage is by the ,bedw directed also especially against the practice of arts and manufactures4 ,hence it comes that such peoples as the ,arabs1 which even in a sedentary condition regard nomadic life as a nobler stage of manners than the agricultural life to which they have fallen1 neglect manufactures and seldom attain to any perfection in them4 ,this is especially true of the inhabitants of the holy cities of the ,arabian peninsula1 who give a practical proof of their preference for ,beduinism by the fact that the ,sherf-families let their sons pass their childhood in the tents of the desert for the sake of a nobler education4 #8,i am inclined to think1' says the credible traveller ,burckhardt in his description of the inhabitants of ,medina1#bci #8that the want of artisans here is to be attributed to the very low estimation in which they are held by the ,arabians1 whose pride often proves stronger than their cupidity1 and prevents a father from educating his sons in any craft4 ,this aversion they probably inherit from the ancient inhabitants1 the ,bedouins1 who1 as ,i have remarked1 exclude to this day all handicraftsmen from their tribes1 and consider those who settle in their encampment as of an inferior caste1 with whom they neither associate nor intermarry4'#bdj ,burton compares the ,arabs of the desert in this respect with the ,north ,american ,indians of a former generation3 #8,both recognising no other occupation but war and the chase1 despise artificers and the effeminate people of cities1 as the game-cock spurns the vulgar roosters of the poultry-yard4'#bda ,the same is true of the relation of the ,bedw towards the townsmen in the ,somali country4#bdb ,kant1 who casually notices this remarkable trait of human ideas in a small tract1 refers the peculiarity to the fact that not only the natural laziness1 but also the vanity 7a misunderstood freedom7 of man cause those who have merely to live--whether profusely or parsimoniously--to consider themselves ,magnates in comparison with those who have to labour in order to live4#bdc ,thus is explained the conception which forms the basis of the ,story of the ,fall1 and at the same time everything else in the older strata of ,hebrew mythology in which the sympathy of the myth-forming people is given to the shepherds1 to the prejudice of personages introduced as agriculturists4 ,and now we will consider the most prominent of the figures forming the elements of the ancient ,hebrew mythology4 ----- ,footnote #abj3 ,see ,sir ,ch4 ,lyell1 ,the ,geological ,evidence of the ,antiquity of ,man 7#dth ed4 #ahgc71 pp4 #abb et seq4 and #bbh4 ,see also ,f4 ,lenormant's essay1 #8,l',homme ,fossile1' in his ,les premires ,civilisations1 ,i4 #db4 ,footnote #aba3 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,i4 #djg4 ,compare ,hehn1 ,culturpflanzen und ,hausthiere1 #bnd edit41 p4 #ajc4 ,footnote #abb3 ,bergmann1 ,les peuples primitifs de la race de ,jafte1 ,colmar #ahec1 pp4 #db1 #de1 #eb1 #ec apud ,renan1 ,hist4 gn4 d4 langues sm41 p4 #ci4 ,it is interesting that the ancients explained the hard-bested name of the ,pelasgians from this point of view1 making equivalent to storks 7,strabo1 ,v4 #cac2 ,falconer1 ed4 ,kramer1 ,v4 #b1 #d74 ,compare ,pott1 ,etymologische ,forschungen1 #ahcf1 ,,ii4 #ebg4 ,footnote #abc3 ,blau in the ,zeitschrift d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #aheh1 ,,ii4 #ehi4 ,footnote #abd3 ,waitz1 ibid4 ,,ii4 #cdi4 ,footnote #abe3 ,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #daj4 a4 ,footnote #abf3 ,munk1 ,palstina1 ,germ4 transl4 by ,levy1 ,leipzig #ahga1 p4 #aij4 ,footnote #abg3 ,ebers1 ,aegypten und die ,bcher ,moses1 ,i4 #gj4 ,footnote #abh3 ,see the passage in ,schrader1 ,keilinschriften und das ,a4 ,t41 p4 #fd4 #bj4 ,footnote #abi3 ,see ,bttcher1 ,ausfhrl4 ,lehrb4 d4 hebrischen ,sprache1 edited by ,mhlau1 p4 #g1 note4 ,footnote #acj3 ,einleitung in das ,studium der arab4 ,sprache1 p4 #ai4 ,footnote #aca3 ,compare the ,hottentot national name ,saan1 from s #8to rest1' i4e4 #8the ,settlers' 7,f4 ,mller1 ,allgemeine ,ethnographie1 p4 #ge74 ,footnote #acb3 ,j4,s4 ,mller1 ,semiten1 ,chamiten und ,japheiten1 c1 p4 #beg4 ,footnote #acc3 ,lenormant1 tudes ,accadiennes1 pt4 #c1 ,i4 #gb4 ,footnote #acd3 ,al-,nawaw 7the ,cairo edition of ,muslim's collection1 with ,commentary71 ,v4 #afi4 ,footnote #ace3 ,kitb al-an1 ,,xvi4 #hb penult4 ,footnote #acf3 ,burton's ,first ,footsteps in ,east ,africa1 ,london #ahef1 p4 #agd4 ,footnote #acg3 ,see al-,nbi1 ,,xxxi4 v4 #d 7,derenbourg74 ,footnote #ach3 ,on the ,calendar of the ,arabs before ,moammed 7in ,zeitschrift der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahei1 ,,xiii4 #afa74 ,footnote #aci3 ,sprachliches aus den ,zeltlagern der syrischen ,wste1 p4 #cb1 note #ba 7a reprint from ,zeitschrift der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahfh1 ,,xxii474 ,footnote #adj3 ,a species of lyric poem or elegy4--,tr4 ,footnote #ada3 ,sat al-zand 7,bl edition of #abhf71 ,,ii4 #cd4 ,yet ,an1 ,i4 #adg4 #bj1 in a poem of ,nueyb3 wa lam ara matban aarra min-al-maari4 ,footnote #adb3 ,see an example in ,zeitschrift der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #aheg1 ,v4 p4 #ajj1 l4 #ad4 ,footnote #adc3 ,kitb al-an1 ,,xi4 #abf4 ,footnote #add3 a1 s4r4 r4 ,footnote #ade3 ,chunnas1 #8planet1' i4e4 ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 ,mars1 ,venus1 or ,mercury4--,,tr4 ,footnote #adf3 ,commentary on the orn 7,fleischer's edition71 ,,ii4 #cig4 #f4 ,footnote #adg3 ,phaleg 7ed4 ,frankfort71 ,,ii4 #abd4 ,footnote #adh3 ,yerach 7pausal yrach71 ,gen4 ,x4 #bf1 #a ,chr4 ,i4 #bj2 elsewhere yerach denotes #8month' and yrach #8moon4'--,,tr4 ,footnote #adi3 ,ibn ,dureyd1 ,kitb al-ishti1 p4 #ii4 #i4 ,footnote #aej3 ,culturgeschichtliche ,streifzge auf dem ,gebiete des ,islams1 ,leipzig #ahgc1 p4 viii4 ,footnote #aea3 ,see ,creuzer1 ,symbolik und ,mythologie der alten ,vlker1 #crd ed41 ,i4 #ch4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,welcker1 ,griechische ,gtterlehre1 ,i4 #afi4 ,footnote #aec3 ,as the myth grows more and more into a religion1 and the conception of a mighty god who excels all others becomes fixed1 the production of thunder and rain1 c41 is gradually transferred to this originally solar god 7see also ,max ,mller1 ,chips1 c41 ,i4 #ceg et seq474 ,the sharp division made above is therefore absolutely true only of the purely mythological stage4 ,conversely ,indra and ,varua1 originally figures belonging to the gloomy cloudy and rainy sky1 which take the highest places in the ,indian religion1 are in the ,vedic ,hymns endowed with solar traits4 ,footnote #aed3 ,those to whom the philosophical terms objective and subjective are not familiar must understand them respectively as impersonal or impartial1 and personal or partial2 the former being that which is outside the thinker's personality1 the latter that which is within him1 and therefore often the reflected image of external things on his own mind4--,,tr4 ,footnote #aee3 ,on the disappearance of individuality in direct proportion to antiquity1 see ,wilhelm von ,humboldt1 ,ueber die ,verschiedenheit des menschlichen ,sprachbaues1 ,berlin #ahcf1 p4 #d4 ,lazarus appears to concede to the individual too much influence on the origin of speech2 see ,leben der ,seele ,,ii4 #aae4 ,footnote #aef3 ,see the article #8,das ,epos' in ,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie1 c4 #ahfh1 ,v4 #h1 #aj4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,nldeke1 ,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der ,poesie der alten ,araber1 p4 #ahe4 #ab4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,kitb al-an1 ,,vi4 #acg4 #ag4 ,footnote #aei3 ,durrat al-auws 7ed4 ,thorbecke71 p4 #agh4 #d4 ,footnote #afj3 ,yt1 ,i4 #icd4 #b4 ,footnote #afa3 ,romance of ,antar1 ,,iv4 #ig4 #b4 ,footnote #afb3 ,this connexion is found among the ,polynesians3 #8,the time-reckoning in all ,polynesia conformed to the moon4 ,they reckoned by nights1' c41 ,gerland1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker4 #ga4 ,only the nights had names1 the days had none1 ibid41 pp4 #gb4 ,both the chronology according to moons and the counting of days by nights are linguistically demonstrated of the ,melanesian group4 ,see the comparison in ,gerland1 ibid41 pp4 #faf-fai4 ,footnote #afc3 ,laz4 ,geiger1 ,ursprung und ,entwicklung der menschlichen ,sprache und ,vernunft1 ,,ii4 #bgj4 ,footnote #afd3 ,die heiligen ,schriften der ,parsen1 in ,german1 ,,ii4 xcviii4 and ,,iii4 xx4 ,footnote #afe3 ,god in ,history1 ,,ii4 #dcc-e4 ,footnote #aff3 ,de ,bello ,gallico1 ,,vi4 #ah3 #8,spatia omnis temporis non numero dierum1 sed noctium finiunt2 dies natales et mensium et annorum initia sic observant1 ut noctem dies subsequatur4' ,footnote #afg3 ,germania1 ,,xi3 #8,nec dierum numerum1 ut nos1 sed noctium computant4 ,sic constituunt1 sic condicunt3 nox ducere diem videtur1' in connexion with the public assemblies at the changes of the moon4 ,the fact must not be overlooked that1 according to ,caesar1 ibid4 #bb1 the ,germans #8agriculturae non student1 majorque pars victus eorum in lacte1 caseo1 carne consistit4' ,see also1 on this subject1 ,pictet1 ,les origines ,indo-,europennes et les ,aryas primitifs1 ,,ii4 #ehh4 ,footnote #afh3 ,and in #8,se'nnight4'--,,tr4 ,footnote #afi3 ,the identical ,english term #8,leap year' is another apposite example4--,,tr4 ,footnote #agj3 ,see the ,hungarian review1 ,magyar ,nyelvr1 ,i4 #bf-bh4 ,footnote #aga3 ,in ,rawlinson's ,history of ,herodotus1 ,app4 to ,book ,,ii4 chap4 ,,vii4 #af-bj 7ed4 of #ahfb1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bhb et seq474 ,footnote #agb3 ,waitz1 l4 c4 ,,iv4 #agd4 ,footnote #agc3 ,see ,karl ,andree1 ,forschungsreisen1 c41 ,,ii4 #bje4 ,footnote #agd3 ,mommsen1 ,history of ,rome1 ,i4 #bag 7ed4 #ahfb71 #bcj 7ed4 #ahfh74 ,footnote #age3 ,welcker1 ,griechische ,gtterlehre1 ,i4 #eee4 ,footnote #agf3 ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson1 in ,rawlinson's ,herodotus1 ed4 #ahfb1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bhc1 #ag4 ,footnote #agg3 ,die quinre und vigesimale ,zhlmethode1 ,halle #ahfg4 ,footnote #agh3 ,waitz1 l4 c4 ,,ii4 p4 #bbd1 compared with ,bastian1 ,geographische und ethnologische ,bilder1 ,jena #ahgd1 pp4 #add1 #aee4 ,footnote #agi3 ,see on this ,j4 ,muir1 ,contributions to a ,knowledge of the ,vedic ,theogon and ,mythology 7,journal of ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,n4,s41 #ahfd1 ,i4 pp4 #ed-eh74 ,footnote #ahj3 ,max ,mller1 ,lectures on the ,science of ,language1 ,second ,series1 p4 #dcj4 ,footnote #aha3 ,max ,mller1 ,chips1 c41 ,,ii4 p4 #fe4 ,muir1 l4 c4 p4 #gg et seq4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,this is connected with ,mller's view that #8language must die before it can enter into a new stage of mythological life' 7,lectures on the ,science of ,language1 ,second ,series1 p4 #dbf74 ,footnote #ahc3 ,lectures1 c41 ,second ,series1 p4 #dcb4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,rawlinson1 ,history of ,herodotus1 ,i4 #baa4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,v4 #c3 4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,the literature is clearly and concisely enumerated in ,g4 ,rawlinson's essay ,on the ,early ,history of the ,athenians1 #h-aa 7,hist4 of ,herod41 ,bk4 ,,ii4 ,essay ,,ii474 ,but it must be added that the idea of the learned author--#8,the ,attic castes1 if they existed1 belong to the very infancy of the nation1 and had certainly passed into tribes long before the reign of ,codrus'--does not agree with the historical sequence demanded by the connexion of the tribes with nomadic life and that of the caste with fixed tenure4 ,in the very nature of the case the division into tribes is proper to nomadism1 which knows of no systematic occupation with arts and trades1 whereas the division into castes presupposes such an occupation with trades and arts as only a sedentary life renders possible4 ,therefore1 between tribes and castes the priority will always have to be assigned to the former4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,spiegel1 ,ueber die eranische ,stammesverfassung 7,abhandlungen der kn4 bair4 ,akad4 d4 ,w41 #ahee1 ,bd4 ,,vii472 ,kasten und ,stnde in der arischen ,vorzeit 7,ausland1 #ahgd1 ,no4 #cf74 ,footnote #ahh3 ,die heiligen ,schriften der ,parsen1 in ,german1 ,,iii4 vi4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xiv4-xv4 ,footnote #aij3 ,zeitschrift d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g4 #aheb1 ,,vi4 #fg et seq4 ,footnote #aia3 ,god in ,history1 ,,ii4 #h4 ,footnote #aib3 ,narrative of a ,year's ,journey through ,central and ,eastern ,arabia1 ,i4 #h4 ,footnote #aic3 ,see ,welcker4 ,griechische ,gtterlehre1 ,i4 #eea4 ,footnote #aid3 ,zur hauranischen ,alterthumskunde 7,zeitschrift der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahfa1 ,,xv4 #ddd74 ,footnote #aie3 ,it should be noted that from ,ibn ,dureyd1 ,kitb al-ishti1 p4 #if4 ,,ii1 it is evidently possible that in such compounds the word abd itself may belong to the idol2 he writes wa-abdu shamsin zaam anamun wa-la aumun bal aynu min marufatun wa-hua ismun admun3 #8,abd ,shams is in the opinion of some an idol1 others say it is the name of a well-known spring of water3 it is an old name4' ,footnote #aif3 ,tuch1 ,sinaitische ,inschriften 7,zeitschr4 der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahdi1 ,,iii4 #bjb74--,osiander1 ,vorislam4 ,religion der ,araber 7,zeitschr4 der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahec4 ,,vii4 #dhc74 ,footnote #aig3 ,tj-al-ars1 ,,ii4 #bji4 ,footnote #aih3 ,schlottmann1 ,die ,inschrift ,eshmunazar's1 ,halle #ahfh1 p4 #hd4 ,footnote #aii3 ,yt1 ,,iv4 #he4 ,see al-,jawl's ,livre des locutions vicieuses 7ed4 ,derenbourg in ,morgenlnd4 ,forschungen71 p4 #aec4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,zur vergleichenden ,religionsgeschichte1 #a ,art4 7,ausland #ahgb71 p4 #d4 ,see also #ahga1 p4 #aaei4 ,footnote #bja3 ,compare also the ,himyaric proper name ,ben ,sn 7,halvy1 tudes sabennes ,journal ,asiat4 #ahgd1 ,,ii4 #edc74 ,footnote #bjb3 ,lenormant1 ,les premires civilisations1 ,,ii4 #aeh4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,schrader1 ,die ,hllenfahrt der ,istar1 p4 #de4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,egypt's ,place in ,universal ,history1 ,,iv4 #cdb4 ,footnote #bje3 ,in his essay on the ,egyptian antiquities at the ,great ,exhibition of #ahfg at ,paris4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,i must explain that the preceding four sections were already written down1 before ,i could get a sight of ,kuhn's essay1 which appeared later4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,ueber ,entwickelungsstufen der ,mythenbildung1 ,berlin #ahgd2 from the ,abhandlungen der knigl4 ,akademie d4 ,wiss4 zu ,berlin 7phil4-hist4 ,klasse71 #ahgc1 pp4 #abc-acg4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,rude ,stone ,monuments in all ,countries1 their ,ages and ,uses1 ,london #ahgb1 pp4 #i et seq4 and #bh4 ,footnote #bji3 ,the same is stated of some ,american tribes by ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 ,the ,origin of ,civilisation1 ed4 #c1 #ahge1 pp4 #bgc1 #cjf1 et seq4 ,footnote #baj3 ,georg ,schweinfurth1 ,the ,heart of ,africa1 ,i4 p4 #bjj4 ,footnote #baa3 ,but we cannot on this account characterise the ,semites generally by the assertions1 #8,the ,semites are in general a pastoral people1' #8the ,semites live in tents1' as ,friedrich von ,hellwald does in his ,culturgeschichte in ihrer natrlichen ,entwickelung1 p4 #acd4 ,a glance at the sedentary ,phenicians and the settled ,semites of ,mesopotamia shows at once the important exceptions4 ,it must also not be overlooked that agriculture was in practice to no small extent among the ,phenicians2 even the ,romans call a kind of threshing machine1 the #8,punic3' ,varro1 ,de re rustica1 ,i4 #eb2 cf4 ,lowth1 ,de sacra poesi ,hebraeorum1 ,oxford #ahba1 ,prael4 ,,vii4 p4 #fb4 ,the commerce with ,egypt1 which von ,hellwald brings into prominence1 is no sufficient reason why the favourite characterisation of the ,semites does not apply to these nations4 ,the ,hebrews continued their nomadic life for a long time after they had made intimate acquaintance with ,egypt2 and the nomadic ,arabs were not materially influenced by communication with sedentary nations4 ,footnote #bab3 ,given by ,josephus ,langius1 ,florilegii magni seu ,polyantheae 444 libri ,,xxiii41 ,lugduni #afha1 ,i4 #abj1 as by ,aristophanes2 but the author and the translator have searched the works and fragments of ,aristophanes in vain4 ,footnote #bac3 ,ovid also begins with the life of the fields2 his golden age is distinguished from the others only in this1 that3 ,ipsa quoque immunis1 rastroque intacta1 nec ullis ,saucia vomeribus1 per se dabat omnia tellus2 and ,mox etiam fruges tellus inarata ferebat3 ,nec renovatus ager gravidis canebat aristis4 7,metamorph4 ,i4 #aja-b1 #aji-aj47 ,footnote #bad3 ,history of ,herodotus1 tr4 ,g4 ,rawlinson1 ,,iv4 c4 #df1 note #e4 ,footnote #bae3 ,muslim's ,collection of ,traditions 7ed4 of ,cairo with commentary71 ,i4 #ach2 al-,jauhar1 s4r4 fdd4 ,cf4 ,dozy1 ,geschichte der ,mauren in ,spanien1 ,leipzig #ahgd1 ,i4 #ag4 ,footnote #baf3 ,al-,buchr1 ,recueil des ,traditions ,musulmans 7ed4 ,krehl71 ,,ii4 #che 7,,lx4 ,no4 #bi74 ,footnote #bag3 ,al-,buchr1 ,recueil c41 ,,ii4 #gd 7,,xl ,i4 ,no4 #bj74 ,footnote #bah3 ,al-,buchr1 ,recueil c4 p4 #fg1 ,no4 #b4 ,it is true these expressions might be balanced by a few somewhat opposite in character1 such as that which declares that in the judgment of the ,prophet the best business is ,trade2 according to other reporters ,manufacture2 according to others 7whose version is regarded as the correct one7 ,agriculture 7see al-,nawaw on ,muslim's ,collection of ,traditions1 ,,iv4 #cb74 ,still such sentences1 even when confirmed by others1 cannot weaken the force of those cited in the text4 ,i must also mention in conclusion that al ,sharn in his ,book of the ,balance 7,kitb al-mzn1 ,cairo ,castelli1 #abgi1 ,,ii4 #fh7 mentions this question as a point of difference among the canonical authorities of ,islamic theology3 the school of al-,shfe regards trade as the noblest occupation1 whilst the three other ,imms 7,ab anf1 ,mlik b4 ,anas1 and ,amed b4 anbal7 declare for field-labour and manufactures4 ,footnote #bai3 ,see ,alfred von ,kremer1 ,culturgeschichte des ,orients unter den ,khalifen1 ,i4 #af4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,von ,kremer1 ibid4 pp4 #ga1 #gg2 ,culturgeschichtlichte ,streifzge1 p4 xi4 ,footnote #bba3 ,ibn ,abdi ,rabbihi1 ,kitb al-id al-ferd1 ed4 ,bl #abic ,a4,h41 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #cdg4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,futuh as-,shm1 being an account of the ,moslem conquests in ,syria1 ed4 ,nassau ,lees1 ,calcutta #ahed1 ,i4 #i et seq4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,this satirical reproach of the ,bedw often occurs1 e4g4 sometimes in the ,romance of ,antar in passages which are not accessible to me at the present moment4 ,we meet with it also in the ,persian king ,yezdegird's satire on the ,arabs 7,chroniques de ,tabari1 transl4 by ,zotenberg1 ,,iii4 #chg74 ,later also1 in ,ibn ,ba1 ,voyages1 ,,iii4 #bhb1 where the ,indian ,prince describes his ,beduin brother-in-law ,seif al-,dn ada1 who had at first charmed him1 but afterwards been disgraced for his want of manners1 by the epithet msh chr1 i4e4 #8field-rat-eater2' #8for1' adds the traveller1 #8the ,arabs of the ,desert eat field-rats4' ,see also ,an1 ,,iii4 #cc1 l4 #d from below1 where ,bashshr b4 ,burd accuses a ,bedw of hunting mice 7eydu farin74 ,footnote #bbd3 ,prolgomnes1 trad4 par de ,slane1 pp4 #bee-bgc4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,a collection of similar poetical passages is to be found in ,freytag's ,commentary on the ams1 pp4 #fja and #fjf4 ,footnote #bbf3 ams1 ,text1 p4 #cdj1 #c infr4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,e4g4 ,y1 ,geograph4 ,dict41 ,,ii4 #aah4 s4v4 gamal4 ,footnote #bbh3 al-,nbi1 ,,iii4 #b4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,journal ,asiatique1 #ahfh1 ,,ii4 #cgh4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,just as can be said of another passage closely connected with the above1 ,is4 ,,xl4 #bf4 ,on the contrary1 especially in the latter passage1 the host of stars is compared to a war-host1 bh2 and the idea that each star is a valiant warrior is also not strange to ,arabic poetry 7e4g4 ams1 p4 #cf1 l4 #e1 comp4 ,num4 ,,xxiv4 #ag72 for the conception of eb hash-shamaym #8host or army of heaven1' has taken as firm root among the ,arabs as among the ,hebrews4 #8,for thou art the ,sun1' says al-,nbi 7,,viii4 #aj7 to king ,nomn1 #8and the other kings are stars2 when the former rises1 not a single star of these latter are any longer visible4' ,with this is connected the expression juysh al-alm #8the armies of darkness' 7,romance of ,antar1 ,,xviii4 #h4 #f1 ,,xxv4 #fj4 #fi74 ,in the last passage1 indeed1 it stands in parallelism with askir al-i w-al-ibtism #8armies of light and smiling1' just as with the synonymous juysh al-eyhab 7,antar1 ,,xv4 #eh4 #aa74 ,footnote #bca3 ,on this peculiarity of the poets of the towns an opinion of ,ajjj very much to the point occurs in the ,kitb al-an1 ,,ii4 #ah4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,the ,heart of ,africa1 ,i4 #bh4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,quer durch ,afrika1 ,i4 #aba4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,palgrave1 ,central and ,eastern ,arabia1 ,i4 #dfc4 ,footnote #bce3 ,de ,sacrificio ,kajin1 p4 #afi1 ed4 ,mangey1 ,oxford #agdb4 ,in another treatise ,philo distinguishes two kinds of shepherds and two kinds of agriculturists1 of which one kind is blameworthy1 and the other praiseworthy4 ,there is a distinction between and 1 and on the other hand between 7probably answering to the ,hebrew bd adm71 and 7probably intended to represent the ,hebrew sh adm74 ,see ,de ,agricultura1 p4 #cjc et seq4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,geographische und ethnologische ,bilder1 pp4 #aia-ig4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,lettres persanes1 ,lettre ,,cxxi4 ,footnote #bch3 ,see ,herberstein1 ,rerum ,moscoviticarum ,commentarii1 ,vienna #aedi1 p4 #fa1 where a ,tatar formula of execration is said to be #8ut eodem in loco perpetuo tamquam ,christianus haereas4' ,footnote #bci3 ,travels in ,arabia1 ed4 ,ouseley1 #ahbi1 p4 #cha4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,a notable illustration of this relation is presented by the ,arabic proverb1 #8,if you hear that the smith 7of the caravan7 is packing up in the evening1 be sure that he will not go till the following morning' 7al-,meydn1 ,bl edition1 ,i4 #cd74 ,notice the occasion of the origin of this proverb1 in the commentary on the passage4 ,footnote #bda3 ,personal ,narrative of ,pilgrimage to ,mecca and ,medina1 #bnd ed4 #aheg1 ,i4 #aag4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,burton's ,first ,footsteps in ,eastern ,africa1 p4 #bdj4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,kant's ,kleinere ,schriften zur ,logik und ,metaphysik1 herausgegeben von ,kirchmann1 ,,ii4 #d 7,philosoph4 ,bibliothek1 ,hermann1 ,bd4 ,,xxxiii474 ----- ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,most ,,prominent ,,figures ,,in ,,hebrew ,,mythology4 ,battle and bloodshed1 pursuit and suppression on the one side1 love and union1 glowing desire and coy evasion on the other1 are the points of view from which the ,myth regards the relations of day and night1 of the grey morning and the sunrise1 of the red sunset and the darkness of night1 and their recurring changes4 ,and this point of view is made yet more definite by the mythical idea that when forces are either engaged in mutual conflict1 or seeking and pursuing one another in mutual love1 as one follows the other1 so one must have sprung from the other1 as the child from the father or the mother2 or else1 being conceived as existing side by side in the moment of battle or of heavenly love1 must be brothers or sisters1 children of the same father or of the same mother1 i4e4 of the phenomenon that precedes both of them alike--as the bright day precedes the twilight and the night--or must be the parents of the child that follows them4 ,therefore1 still more definitely1 murders of parents or children or brothers1 battles between brothers1 sexual love and union between children and parents1 between brother and sister1 form the chief plots of all myths1 and by their manifold shades have produced that variety in our race's earliest observations of nature1 which we encounter in the thousand colours of the ,myth4 ,the talented founders of ,aryan ,comparative ,mythology1 especially ,max ,mller in the first rank1 have set these themes of the myth on so firm and unquestioned a foundation both in relation to psychology and to philology1 and have so completely introduced them to the mind of the educated class1 that ,i may safely omit a new exposition of this axiom of all ,mythology4 ,i content myself with pointing once more to what was shown in the preceding chapters1 that these fundamental mythical themes are not something specially ,aryan1 but lie at the bottom of the ,myth of all mankind without distinction of race1 and consequently must form a starting-point when we are about to investigate ,semitic or ,hebrew myths4 ,the task of the following chapter will therefore be to find a place in the category of what is common to the whole of human kind for the myth of the ,hebrews2 in other words1 to prove the existence of the myth-plots on ,hebrew ground4 ,as it is not my object to exhaust all the materials1 to present a system already perfectly worked out on every side1 or to erect a building with all its rooms and stories stuffed full1 ,i shall confine myself to that which1 after competent and sober philological criticism1 can be acknowledged as certain and indubitable4 ,i hope that other investigators1 who will gain from the method pursued here a rich treasury of material1 will then follow up these safe results by gleanings of their own4 #a4 ,in the designation of the ,heaven the ,semite starts from the sensuous impression of height1 and therefore forms the names denoting it from the roots sam 7shama7 and rm1 both of which express the idea of #8being high4' ,to the latter group belongs e4g4 the ,ethiopic rayam1#bdd which denotes heaven4 ,both roots are combined in the ,phenician ,shmn-rm4 ,one of the most prominent figures of ,hebrew mythology belongs to this category3 ,abh-rm the ,high ,father1 with his innumerable host of descendants4#bde ,we have seen above that in his view of nature the nomad begins with the sky at night4 ,the sky by itself is the dark1 nightly1 or clouded heaven2 the sunshine on the sky is an accessory4 ,hence it comes that in ,arabic the word ,sky 7sam7 is very often used even for #8,rain2' and the notions of rain and sky are so closely interwoven that even the traces of rain on the earth are called sky4#bdf ,in the language of the ,bongo people there is only one word for sky and rain1 hetrro4#bdg ,on ,semitic ground the ,assyrian divine name ,rammanu or ,raman must be mentioned here4 ,if this name has any etymological connexion with the root rm #8to be high1' as ,hesychius and some modern scholars say1 though others derive it from raam #8thunder1' ,raamn #8the ,thunderer1'#bdh then we find here again the primitive mythological idea that the intrinsically ,high is the dark stormy sky1 or1 personified1 the ,god of ,storms4 ,so also in the old ,hebrew myth the #8,high' is the nightly or rainy sky4 ,the best known myth that the ,hebrews told of their ,abh-rm is the story of the intended sacrifice of his only son ,yich1 commonly called ,isaac4 ,but what is ,yich8 ,literally translated1 the word denotes #8he laughs1' or #8the ,laughing4' ,in the ,semitic languages1 especially in proper names and epithets1 the use of the aorist#bdi 7even in the second person1 e4g4 in the ,arabic name ,tazd7 is very frequent where we should employ a participle4#bej ,so here4 ,now who is the #8,he laughs1' the #8,smiling one'8 ,no other but ',he who sits in heaven and laughs' 7,ps4 ,,ii4 #d71 whom the mythology of almost all nations and their later poetry too likes to call the ,laughing or ,smiling one4 ,when1 as ,plutarch tells in his ,life of ,lycurgus1 that legislator consecrated a statue to ,laughter 77 and ,laughter enjoyed divine honours at ,sparta1 we are certainly not to understand it of the laughter that plays round the lips of mortals1 but of the celestial smile with which ,mythology endows the ,sun1 as when the ,indian singer calls ,ushas 7the ,sun#bea7 the ,smiling 7,rigveda1 ,,vi4 #fd4 #aj74 ,with regard to the ,sun's laughing in the ,aryan mythology1 we can refer to the learned work of ,angelo de ,gubernatis1 #8,zoological ,mythology' 7vol4 ,i4 i4 #a74 ,but there is a primitive connexion between the ideas #8to laugh' and #8to shine1' which is not1 as might be thought1 brought about figuratively by a mere poetical view1 but rather1 at least on the ,semitic field1 established at the very beginning of the formation of speech4 ,an extraordinary number of the verbs which describe a loud expression of joyousness 7to shout1 bellow1 laugh c471 originally denoted to shine1 dazzle1 be visible1 and the like2 affording another confirmation of ,geiger's thesis1 that language owes its origin more to optic than to acoustic impressions 7see supra p4 #dj74 ,i give a series of linguistic facts as examples to prove this assertion4 ,the ,hebrew hal signifies both #8to shine bright' and #8to cry aloud1' and its phonetic connexion with har1 zhar c41 proves the priority of the optical meaning4 ,similarly hilll1 which means #8to cry out1 to triumph1' was originally #8to be brilliant1' as is proved by the derivative nouns hill 7,ar47 #8new moon' and hll 7,heb47 #8morning star1' and the employment of the verb itself in ,hebrew4 rach1 erach1 araa1 denotes #8to cry' in the chief representatives of ,semitism2 but the ,arabic has also preserved the original sense #8clarus1 manifestus fuit1' which appears in the ,hebrew noun erach #8a conspicuous eminence1' or #8a high tower4'#beb ,the roots ypha 7in ,hiphl7 #8to be bright' and p #8to cry1' are through their etymological connexion brought into this group4 ,the root of the ,hebrew hdd #8cry of joy' is the same from which ,hadad1 the name of the ,syrian god of the shining sun1 can be etymologically derived4 ,this root undoubtedly represents a reduplicated form of the radical of the solar name ,yehd #8,judah' 7see #ad of this chapter74 ,the verbal root from which nahr 7,ar47 nehr 7,heb47 #8daylight1' is derived has in one ,arabic derivative form the meaning #8to cry4' ,so also cha #8to laugh aloud' 7compare a #8to cry'7 must have originally expressed the idea of #8being bright1 clear1' which is proper to the primitive ,semitic root a1 ach4 ,if this be admitted1 it follows that the name ,yicha as a solar epithet was not formed by mere figurative or poetical metaphor1 but is based on the original signification of the group of roots to which it belongs4 ,poetical phraseology then brought into general use what was based on etymology4 ,there is nothing more universal and more generally pervading all nature-poetry than the idea #8,like one laughing gaily the world shone1' as the ,tatar poet says of the sunrise2#bec and in ,arabic poetry1 which has to be especially considered on these subjects1 it is met with at every step4 ,in the charming ,romance of ,antar1 the cessation of night and the break of day is dozens of times expressed by the words #8until the black night went off and the laughing morning 7al-ab al-aik7 arose2' or #8the morning arose and smiled 7ibtasama7 out of dazzling teeth4'#bed ,the old poet al-,asha says of a blooming meadow that it rivals the sun in laughter 7yuik al-shams72#bee and in the last mam of arr 7de ,sacy1 #bnd ed4 p4 #fgc4 #b17 it is even said that #8the tooth of the daybreak laughs' 7ibtasama thar al-fajr71 i4e4 becomes visible1 as the teeth of a person laughing become visible4 ,this mythic view has become so incorporated in the ,arabic language that the word bazaa1 denoting that the teeth are prominent1 is also used of the rising of the sun4 ,in a small ,arabic tract#bef by the ,sheikh ,ulwn b4 ,ayy of am1 which brings forward the contest between ,day and ,night1 a subject not infrequent#beg in ,oriental literature1 in which the two champions engage in a battle of respective excellence in prose and poetry1 there also occurs a passage suitable for quotation here4 ,the ,night says in the course of her dispute3 #8,to the string of these thy blameworthy qualities this must yet be added--that thou art changeable and many-coloured in thy various conditions1 and not stedfast2 thy beginning contradicts thy end1 and thy interior is different from thy exterior4 ,o what an utterly culpable quality is this1 which scratches out the face of every merit6 ,thou laughest at thy rising1 when thou rememberest weeping and mourning2 and at thy extinction thou clothest thyself in thy most gorgeous of raiments1 instead of putting on mourning garments4' ,and the ,day replies1 in his own defence to his black antagonist3 #8,what rank takest thou in comparison with me8 ,what is thy gloominess and thy sombre seriousness in comparison with my gay smiles 7aik wabtism78'#beh ,it is not only the clear shining sunny sky that is called by the ,arab poet #8the ,smiling2' this attribute is applied also to other luminous things1 e4g4 to the glittering ,stars 7not to the night-sky itself71#bei and to the ,lightning1 which is even called al-ik1 #8the ,laughing4' ,in the ,romance of ,antar there frequently occurs the expression #8the ,lightning laughed' 7al-bar yaak1 e4g4 ,,xxiv4 #fe4 #f74bfj ,ab-l-,al al-,maarr1 an excellent ,arabic poet1 says in an elegy on the death of his father3 ,i disapprove of merriment even in the laughing 7i4e4 lightning7 cloud1 ,and let no cloud bring me rain1 except a gloomy1 dark one4#bfa ,we have in passing treated the words #8,he who sits in heaven laughs' in the second ,psalm as a mythical reminiscence1 which originally referred to the ,sun1 but then1 like similar instances which we shall see1 was employed by the poet in another sense4 ,but there is nothing to exclude the possibility that the ,laughter of him who sits in heaven may refer in this passage not to the sweet smile of the bright sunny sky1 but to the wild raging of the ,thunderer1 pictured in the myths as scornful laughter1 as ,f4,l4,w4 ,schwartz#bfb shows by many examples from classical antiquity4 ,this conception would also be more suitable to the context of the passage in question in the second ,psalm1 where mention is made of derisive laughter4 ,however this be1 the #8,smiling one' whom the #8,high ,father' intends to slay1 is the smiling day1 or more closely defined the smiling sunset1 which gets the worst of the contest with the night-sky and disappears4 #b4 ,the same myth is also given as follows3 #8,jephthah sacrifices or kills his daughter4' ,in its later ethical or religious transformation given in ,judges ,,xi4 #bi-dj1 it is known to everyone4 ,this story is especially worthy of consideration in connexion with the science of ,mythology1 because a ,hebrew custom similar to the mourning for ,osiris or ,adonis and ,tammz was fastened on to it1 as appears in v4 #dj2 and it is well known that these latter rites stand in a very close connexion with physical phenomena1 and with the myth which speaks of these phenomena4 ,what means ,jephthah 7,yiphtch78 ,we have again an aorist form#bfc exactly similar to ,yich2 it denotes literally #8he opens1 he begins1' thence #8the opener or beginner4' ,for the understanding of this mythical person we must note by anticipation that this ,opener has a correlative in the ,after-follower ,jacob 7,yaabh71 #8he follows his heels4'#bfd ,both these expressions belong to one group of mythic conceptions2 and it is remarkable that in these designations we find mythology already advanced to the stage which we characterised in the previous chapter as belonging to the ideas of the ,agriculturist4 ,for these two names and the cycle of myths coupled with them presuppose the view that in the order of time the ,day is the earlier and is followed by the ,night2 and the very circumstance that the idea of time is impressed on these myths with something of precision 7see above1 p4 #dd71 also indicates a relatively late formation of these designations and of the views that led to them4 ,the ,opener is the ,sun1 which first opens the womb 7see ,gen4 ,,xxx4 #bb2 ,,ex4 ,,xiii4 #b1 #ab71 while the ,night is called the ,after-follower2 just as in the ,rigveda 7,,ii4 #ch4 #f7 the ,night follows on the heel of ,svitri4 ,to establish more certainly the meaning of the name ,yaabh it may also be mentioned that in ,arabic the participial form of the same verb1 #8ib1' is exceedingly frequent in the same signification4 ,according to ,mohammedan tradition one of the many names of the ,arabian ,prophet is ,al-ib1 with the sense that ,moammed1 the last of the prophets1 followed after and concluded their line4#bfe ,we will now first return to ,jephthah1 the ,opening ,sun4 ,this conception of the ,sun as ,opener receives a remarkable illustration in a passage of the ,persian national epic by ,firds1 in which occurs an expressive echo of this mythical view4 ,the sun is there actually a golden key1 which is lost during the night4#bff ,as the lighting up of the sun is conceived as an unlocking1 so the darkness is a locking up4 #8,who commandeth the sun and it riseth not1 and who locketh up the stars1' is said in ,job ,,ix4 #g1 of the ,god who brings on darkness4 ,the solar character of ,jephthah receives confirmation from another side1 but likewise on ,semitic ground4 ,in the version of the ,phenician ,cosmogony furnished by ,damascius#bfg it is related1 on the authority of ,mochus1 that the spiritual ,god ,ulmos begot ,chrysoros 1 #8the ,opener4' ,the ,sanchuniathon of ,philo ,herennius identifies this ,opener with ,hephaestus1 who was the first inventor of iron implements 7,tbhal-ayin of the ,hebrews74 ,now1 although in its latest development this cosmogony does not pretend to mean anything else than the opening of the ,egg of the world1#bfh there can be no doubt that this version belongs to a very late1 perhaps the last phase of development of the myth which lies hidden in the background--a stage at which all that makes the myth a myth is quite washed out and changed by the prevalence of theological ideas into an artfully systematised cosmogony4 ,but originally nothing else can have been understood by the ,opener than the firstborn brother of the pair1 ,sun and ,night4 ,another mythic trait which we know of this ,opener testifies to his solar signification in the myths on which the ,phenician cosmogony was based4 ,philo ,herennius' authority1 who calls the opener ,chrysr1 says of him3 #8,he was the first man who fared in ships4' ,this trait1 which is far from fitting into the frame of the portrait of ,hephaestus presents a very attractive and simple conception held by the men of the myth-forming age4 ,we generally find in myths of the rising and setting of the sun1 that the view which lives longest and conforms most naturally to the nature of the phenomenon is that the rising sun ascends out of the river or the sea1 and that the setting sun sinks into the water4 ,the gaudy1 blabbing1 and remorseful day ,is crept into the bosom of the sea1 as ,shakespeare says1#bfi or as a ,german poet1 feeling an echo of the meaning of the old myth1 speaks still more expressively3 #8--that the sun was only ,a lovely woman1 who the old sea-god ,out of convenience married2 ,all the day long she joyously wander'd ,in the high heavens1 deck'd out with purple ,and glitt'ring diamonds1 ,and all-beloved and all-admired ,by every mortal creature1 ,and every mortal creature rejoicing ,with her sweet glance's light and warmth2 ,but in the evening1 impell'd1 all-disconsolate1 ,once more returneth she home ,to the moist house and desert arms ,of her grey-headed spouse4'#bgj ,in a ,swedish popular song1 a ,king of ,england has two daughters1 the elder black as night 7,night itself72 the other1 younger1 beautiful and brilliant like the day 7,day itself74 ,the latter goes forward followed by the other1 who comes and throws her into the sea4#bga ,in this popular story1 also1 the sunset is viewed as a fall into the sea2 but one new feature is here added1 viz41 that the two sisters fight1 and the black one1 the dark ,night1 throws the brilliant ,sun into the sea4 ,in the morning the ,sun that had fallen into the sea rises up again out of her night's quarters4 ,the ,roman poet expresses the idea #8,never did a fairer lady see the sun arise1' by the words3 ,ne qua femina pulchrior ,clarum ab ,oceano diem ,viderit venientem2#bgb and because the sun rises out of the water1 a ,persian poet#bgc calls water in general #8the ,source of ,light 7tsheshmei nr74' ,connected with these ideas is that of the so-called ,pools of the ,sun1#bgd which are assigned to the rising and setting sun alike4#bge ,but the morning sun is also made to come forth out of mud and morass 7as in ,homer from the 71 as is described amongst others in the ,arabic tradition4#bgf ,it is obvious that this conception must have first arisen in countries whose horizon was not bounded by the sea4 ,the same assumption must be made with regard to another conception also1 found in the ,african nation of the ,yorubas4 ,these regard the town ,ife as a sort of abode of gods1 where the ,sun and ,moon always issue forth again from the earth in which they were buried4#bgg ,no doubt this notion was formed among the portion of the nation that lived at a distance from the sea4 ,a considerable part of the elements of the animal-worship which refers to water animals may be traced back to mythological conceptions which we have exhibited above4#bgh ,when in ancient times men dwelling by the sea-shore saw the heavenly fire-ball in the evening dip into the sea1 and the next morning issue shining at the opposite point of the sea-line1 what other idea could he conceive of this but that down in the sea the sun was swallowed by a monster which spat out its prey again on the shore 7see p4 #bh78--or else that the sun undertook a voyage1 starting over night8--or1 as is so beautifully expressed in the ,hellenic myth1 that he took a bath1 so as to shine on the sea-shore in the morning with new brightness and purified from all dinginess8 ,navigation is the explanation of this daily phenomenon which prevails in the myth4 ,it became so general that later among the ,egyptians it was divested of its original associations and brought into connexion with the sun of day4 ,in the ,egyptian view the ,sun's bark sails over the ocean of heaven3#bgi 1 says ,plutarch of the ,egyptian view1#bhj and adduces ,homeric parallels4#bha ,the ,jewish ,midrsh compares the course of the sun to that of a ship--and curiously enough to a ship coming from ,britain1#bhb which has #cfe ropes 7the number of the days of the solar year71 and to a ship coming from ,alexandria1 which has #ced ropes 7the number of the days of the lunar year74#bhc ,the solar figures1 then1 are everywhere brought into connexion with the invention and employment of navigation4 ,the sinking ,apollo is with the ,greeks the founder of navigation4 ,herakles receives from ,helios the present of a golden bowl1 which he used to employ as a bark when he sailed across the ,okeanos4 ,the voyage of the shining 7-7 ,phaeacians and ,argonauts originally signified only the same sea-passage1 which the sun makes every evening4 ,of ,charon himself1 the subterranean ferryman 7whose name1 ,schwartz thinks1 indicates his solar significance1 7 it has also been proved that his subterranean navigation is only an eschatological development of the solar myth4#bhd ,indeed1 eschatology and conceptions of the things after death and resurrection have their essential origin in the ,sun's voyage under the sea and reappearance on the other side4#bhe ,the ,roman ,sun-god ,janus is also brought into connexion with navigation2 this idea is unmistakably expressed on coins which bear the image of the two-headed god1#bhf and is especially important here because ,janus himself1 as the etymology of his name declares1 likewise belongs to the series of #8,openers4' #8,this name was given him1' says ,hartung1 #8because the door represents in space exactly what formed the basis of his essence with regard to the relations of time and force4 ,for every beginning resembles an entrance4'#bhg ,the most prominent figure of the lately discovered ,babylonian epos1 ,izdubar1 and r-,bl 7the ,light of ,bl1 i4e4 the ,sun71 both of them purely solar figures1 are provided with ships4#bhh ,we cannot justly doubt1 it is true1 the historical character of the ,biblical prophet ,jonah4 ,but1 from what was discussed in the ,second ,chapter1 this does not exclude the possibility that various mythical features may have been fastened on this undoubtedly historical personage1 as is the case with many other persons of ,hebrew history1 for example1 most strikingly with ,david4 ,the most prominent mythical characteristic of the story of ,jonah is his celebrated abode in the sea in the belly of the whale4 ,this trait is eminently solar and belongs to the group on which we are now engaged4 ,as on occasion of the storm the storm-dragon or the storm-serpent swallows the sun1 so when he sets he is swallowed by a mighty fish1 waiting for him at the bottom of the sea4 ,then when he appears again on the horizon1 he is spit out on the shore by the sea-monster4#bhi ,accordingly1 when ,chrysr is said to have been the first navigator1 this must have the same meaning that it has when applied to ,apollo1 viz4 that the ,sun1 sinking and going down into the ocean1 is taking a journey by sea2 or when applied to the ,tyrian ,herakles1 the builder of the city 7building of cities we shall see to be a specially solar characteristic71 called the inventor of navigation2#bij or when used of ,prometheus1 recounting before the descendants of ,okeanos his benefits conferred on mankind1 and saying3-- 1 4 ,learn1 in a word1 the sense of all ,i mean3 ,prometheus gave all arts to mortal men2-- without forgetting to allude to the ships3-- ' ' ' 4 ,the seaman's chariot roaming o'er the sea ,with flaxen wings none other found--'twas ,i4#bia ,now if this trait raises the solar character of ,chrysr to a certainty1 then it cannot be doubted that his epithet the #8,opener1' which is identical with the ,hebrew name ,yiphtch 7,jephthah7 is an appellation of the ,sun--the ,first-born4 ,the ,sun sacrifices his own daughter4 ,in the evening the sunset sky is born from the lap of the sun1 and in the morning1 when in place of the red sunrise 7which the myth does not distinguish from the red sunset7 the hot midday sun comes forth1 ,jephthah has killed his own daughter1 and she is gone4 ,thus we see in the myths of ,abram and of ,jephthah the two sides of the same idea1 each having its peculiar form and frame3 the former tells of the victory of the ,night1 the dark sky of night over the ,sun1 the latter of that of the ,dawn over the shades of ,night4 ,in ,hebrew mythology the name ,enoch 7,chankh7 belongs to this series4 ,it was very happily explained by ,ewald#bib as denoting the ,beginner1 inceptor1 and is therefore a strict synonym of ,jephthah4 ,we meet with one other #8,opener' on ,semitic ground1 the ,libyan and especially ,cyrenaic god of agriculture1 whose name is preserved in the ,grecized form ,aptchos 774 ,blau#bic has already connected the name with the verb pthach #8to open1' as opener of the ground by the plough4 ,we must here refer in anticipation to the following chapter1 which will elucidate the connexion in which the ancient religions put the rise of agriculture with the personages of mythology2 and such a personage this ,libyan #8,opener' undoubtedly is4 ,anyhow1 we must hold fast to the identity of ,aptchos 77 and ,jephthah4 #c4 ,the myth of the death of ,isaac1 and that of his later life1 which of course presupposes that he continued to live1 are not contradictory to the mythical mind4 ,at a more advanced stage of intellectual life1 which had lost all share in and understanding of the nature-myth1 and the mythical figures became epic persons1 this contradiction necessitated an arrangement or harmonising process2 and in this lies the reason for the origin of the turn which occurred in the historical form of the legend of ,isaac1 substituting for the accomplished homicide an intended homicide2 which latter1 when religious feeling began to rule over the still existing mythic materials1 became later simply an act of pious willingness to perform a sacrifice4 ,such contradictions do not present themselves distinctly to the mind of men at the stage of the actual formation of myths4 ,the slain ,isaac appears again on the arena a few hours after he was killed2 he shews himself afresh4 ,some fifteen years ago when a ,christian mission penetrated to the ,central-,african tribe of the ,liryas1 a great crowd collected round a priest1 who began to expound to them the main principles of his religion4 #8,but when he came to the attributes of ,god1 they absolutely refused to allow that he is very good4 ,on the contrary1 they said1 he is very angry1 and even bad1 for he sends death2 he is the cause of dying1 and sends the sun1 which always burns up our crops4 ,scarcely is one sun dead in the west in the evening1 than there grows up out of the earth in the east next morning another which is no better4'#bid ,in this story we see the beginning of the transition from the formation of myths to religious reflexion3 the sun that appears in the morning in the east is a different one from that which fell dead to the earth in the evening in the west4 ,yet1 though substantially it is a different one and not identical with that of the previous day1 it is still perfectly like it1 and qualitatively not distinct from it4 ,at the mythical stage1 when it was still productive1 ,isaac reappearing is the same as ,isaac already killed4 ,he appears again several times2 he marries ,ribh 7,rebekah72 and again we meet him old and blind #8with weakened eyes1' sending his son ,yaabh 7,jacob7 into a foreign land1 to return only after the death of the old blind #8,smiling' one1 with a large family1 and prepared to take up again his old quarrel with his hairy brother ,esau1 the hunter4 ,the living myth does not treat these events as following one after the other4 ,to work up together the various members of the group of myths which assemble round a common centre or a common name1 is not the business of the myth proper4 ,the epic impulse first begins to act in this direction1 and gives the first incitement to the harmonising of myths4 ,we will linger a few minutes longer with ,isaac4 ,he loves and marries ,rebekah1 or as she is called in the ,hebrew text1 ,ribh4 ,the ,dutch historian of religions ,c4,p4 ,tiele sees in this name an appellation of the fruitful1 rich earth1#bie a view which is partially supported by the etymology of the word4 #8,the laughing sky of day or the ,sun-god 7surely originally only the ,sun87 is united in marriage with the fatness and fruitfulness of the earth4' ,this conception of the myth1 notwithstanding its etymological correctness1 has little to recommend it to my feeling1 but ,i cannot propose any better in its stead4 ,i only add1 that if ,tiele's conception is correct1 we shall certainly understand better the feature of the myth which makes #8the ,laughing one' 7,isaac7 of his two sons prefer ,esau 7who will be proved to be a solar character71 while the mother's love attached itself more to ,jacob4 ,esau is a mythical figure homogeneous with ,isaac2 but the fruitful earth is more closely connected with the dark rainy sky1 as a kindred and homogeneous phenomenon4 ,another notable point in the myth of ,isaac is blindness4 #8,and when ,isaac was old1 his eyes became too dim to see' 7,gen4 ,,xxvii4 #a74 ,it is an idea peculiarly mythical 7which found an echo in poetry71 to regard the ,sun as an ,eye1 which looks down with its sharp sight upon the earth4 ,in the ,egyptian monuments and in the ,book of the ,dead the ,sun is often represented as an eye1 provided with wings and feet4 ,to the same conception are also due the so-called mystic eye which is often met with on ,etruscan vessels of clay1 and the part played by the eye in the representation of ,osiris4#bif ,the sun is called in the ,malacassa language masovanru1 and in ,dayak matasu1 both of which expressions denote oculus diei4#big ,in the ,polynesian mythology the sun is the left eye of ,tangaloa1 the highest god of heaven1 hence the ,eye of ,heaven4#bih ,the sun accordingly possesses also the attributes of the eye4 ,thus in the ,hebrew poetry we meet with the ,eyelashes#bii 7i4e4 rays7 of the ,dawn1 aphapp shachar 7,job ,,iii4 #i1 ,,xli4 #aj71 as in the ,greek with 7,soph4 ,ant4 #ajd71cjj and in the ,arabic with awjib al-shams4 ,this notion has so completely become an idiom of the ,arabic language1 where the mythical force of the #8sun's eyelashes' has retired into the background1 that we even find the singular3 #8the sun's eyelash is risen1' 7alaa jib al-shams7 or #8set' 7ba jib al-shams74#cja ,among more recent poets ,shakespeare is most familiar with the expression eye1 eye of heaven1 as descriptive of the sun3 ,though thy speech doth fail1 ,one eye thou hast to look to heaven for grace2 ,the sun with one eye vieweth all the world4 ,king ,henry ,,vi4 ,pt4 ,i4 ,i4 #d4 ,or with taper light ,to seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish4 ,king ,john1 ,,iv4 #b4 ,all places that the eye of heaven visits ,are to a wise man ports and happy havens4 ,king ,richard ,,ii4 ,i4 #c4 ,when the searching eye of heaven is hid ,behind the globe and lights the lower world1 ,then thieves and robbers range abroad unseen4 ,king ,richard ,,ii4 ,,iii4 #b4 ,hence also the ,dawn is spoken of as looking about3-- ,who is this that looketh forth as the morning8 ,song of ,songs1 ,,vi4 #aj4 ,at the theological stage the mythical view was subjected to several alterations4 ,the holy book of the ,parsees#cjb calls the sun the ,eye of ,ahuramazda4 ,many regard the name ,anamelekh1 who from #b ,kings ,,xvii4 #c was a deity of the inhabitants of ,sepharvaim 7the ,babylonian ,sipar of the cuneiform ,inscriptions71 expressly designated in the national documents a solar town1#cjc as contracted for n ham-melekh1 i4e4 ,eye of the ,sun-god ,melelkh1 and so probably the sun itself4#cjd ,even in the speech of a late ,hebrew prophet 7,zech4 ,,iv4 #aj7 we find the same view1 somewhat modified3 #8,these seven are the eyes of ,jahveh1 that run over the whole earth4' ,here ,jahveh's eyes are undoubtedly to be referred to the sun1 and the number seven allows us to think of the seven days of the week4#cje ,similarly1 it is said in the ,atharvaveda ,,iv4 #af4 #d of the messengers of ,varua2 #8descending from heaven they traverse the whole world1 and inspect the whole earth with a thousand eyes4'#cjf ,to the same tendency we must attribute names of places such as n ,shemesh1 #8,sun's ,eye1' 7e4g4 ,josh4 ,,xv4 #g71 and the ,egyptian ,heliopolis1 ,arabic ayn shams2#cjg which suggests the obvious conjecture that the ,hebrew ,ir ha-cheres #8city of the sun' was originally and more correctly n ha-cheres4 ,the emendation affects only the final consonant 4#cjh ,the ,indian singer 7,rigveda ,i4 #afd4 #ad71 says that the sun has a sharp sight1 and the same idea is preserved in a relic of ,hebrew mythology1 which has attached itself to an historical person4 ,of ,king ,david1 an historical hero1 it is written among other features borrowed from the myth of the ,solar hero 7to which also must belong the idea that he takes the life of his giant adversary by hurling stones71 that 'he was ruddy1 with beautiful eyes1 and a good sight1 admn im yeph nayim we-bh r' 7#a ,sam4 ,,xvi4 #ab74 ,the red colour itself which is praised1 since the narrator evidently wishes to characterise ,david's handsomeness1 shows us that these traits cannot have been invented directly for the hero of this story2 for it can scarcely be proved that the ,hebrews in ancient times considered reddishness an element of beauty4 ,but the red colour is admirably fitted to figures of the solar myth1 as we shall have further occasion to observe in the course of this chapter4 ,with this are connected the beautiful eyes and the good sight1 which are certainly taken from the mythical description of the blazing midday sun4 ,they are the relics of a mythic cycle only preserved in fragments1 and have been tacked on to the portraiture of an historical hero1 who had1 like the ,solar hero1 to fight with a hostile giant4 ,when the sun appeared at noon with a red glow at its highest point in the heaven1 the men of old said #8,the ,red one is looking down on the earth with his perfect eyes and sharp sight4' ,and he viewed the diminution of the solar rays and heat as a weakening of his sight1 which ended at sunset with total blindness4 ,samson 7,shimshn71 the hero whose solar character ,steinthal has raised above all doubt1 ends his heroic career by being made blind4 ,in the ,greek mythology the significance of one-eyed and blinded persons is exhibited with equal clearness4#cji ,this mythical idea is very clearly reflected in language4 ,in ,arabic1 for example1 ilachamma or irachamma signifies both oculos hebetiores habuit and obscura fuit nox4 ,the verb adana1 from which adan is derived1 which is used of suffering from certain eye-diseases1 expresses the idea of darkness1 and the word inchasafa unites the two meanings to be eclipsed 7of the moon7 and to lose one's sight4 ,hence the expression1 al-leyl awar1 #8the night is one-eyed4'#caj ,it becomes clear from all this what is the meaning of the mythical words1 #8,and when ,isaac was old1 his eyes became too dim to see4' ,it may also be mentioned here that ,shakespeare calls night the eyeless3-- ,thou and eyeless night ,have done me shame4 ,king ,john ,v4 #f4 #d4 ,the battle of the ,day with the ,night is still more frequently represented as a quarrel between brothers4 ,at the very threshold of the earliest ,biblical history we meet a brothers' quarrel of this kind1 the source of which is the nature-myth1 spread out among all nations of the world without exception4 ,it is not difficult to prove that ,cain 7ayin7 is a solar figure1 and that ,abel 7,hebhel7 is connected with the sky dark with night or clouds4 ,here1 as everywhere1 investigation must of course be guided by the nature of the personages in question1 by the matter of the story1 and by the appellative signification of the names4 ,cain is an agriculturist1 ,abel a shepherd4 ,we have demonstrated in the preceding chapter that agriculture always has a solar character1 whereas the shepherd's life is connected with the phenomena of the cloudy or nightly sky4 ,shepherds in mythology are figures belonging to the dark or overclouded sky2 whereas huntsmen and agriculturists are solar heroes4 ,the heaven at night is a great tent or a group of tents1 with a great piece of pasture close by1 where the herds 7the clouds7 are driven to feed4 ,in ,german1 to be sure1 the expression ,himmelszelt 7heaven's tent7 is also used of the heaven by day1 but this is a generalisation of the original limitation to the nocturnal and cloudy sky4 ,this limitation is still acknowledged in the ,hungarian language1 where storos j is said1 #8the tented 7provided with many tents7 night2' e4g4 by ,vrsmarty at the commencement of the second canto of his national epic #8,zaln ,futsa' 7the ,flight of ,zaln74 ,and in ,arabic1 #8,night spread out its tent1 and there arose thick darkness1' is quite a familiar expression4#caa ,the shepherd ,abel 7,hebhel7 is accordingly a figure of the dark sky4 ,this is proved also by the signification of the name4 ,for it denotes neither childlessness1 as some try to explain it by the help of ,arabic1 and on the supposition that the first parents anticipated their son's future fate on giving his name1 nor simply son1 being explained from the ,assyrian4 ,the ,hebrew language itself is adequate to establish the proper signification4 ,the word denotes in ,hebrew a #8breath of wind2'#cab and the wind stands in connexion with the dark sky4 ,another modification of the same appellation is known to ,hebrew mythology4 ,as in other classes of language h and y may interchange dialectically1 so here beside ,hebhel 7,abel7 we have ,ybhl 7,jabal74 ,this latter appellation is etymologically either identical with the former1 or if not1 at least its mythological identity can scarcely be questioned4 ,ybhl 7from whence comes mabbl1 #8body of water1' hence of the ,deluge7 signifies ,rain 7like ,indra74 ,rain and ,wind are both attributes of the dark sky and the night-sky4 ,in ,arabic the verb asaa denotes both the darkness of the sky1 and the rain1 and 7what exactly suits the mythical circle of ideas7 the flowing of milk from the udder4 ,the rain is to the men of the myth-creating age a milking of the cloud-cows1 which the shepherd leads out to pasture by night on the heavenly meadows4 ,the verb aana1 of which ,freytag1 following al-,jauhar1 gives only the meaning perpetuo pluit coelum1 is known to the classical lexicographer of ,arabic synonyms also in the sense it is dark night4 ,similarly1 aafa denotes both obscura1 atra fuit nox and ad pluviam effundendam paratum et dispositum fuit coelum4 ,in poetry also rain is often attached to night3 an old poet quoted by ,ibn al-,skkt says1#cac #8,a dark night1 during which a drenching rain pours down upon the streets4'#cad ,the identity of ,abel and ,jabal appears conspicuously in another circumstance4 ,abel is introduced as a ,herdsman4 ,in the system of the harmonising genealogy of ,genesis1 in which ,jabal appears some generations later1 he is described as the #8,father of those that dwell in tents and with cattle' 7,gen4 ,,iv4 #b1 #bj74 ,both features or rather this identical feature told of both these ,patriarchs1 have a foundation and are equally true4 ,but in the method of the critical school of ,biblical exegesis these two accounts involve a contradiction which it is attempted to solve1 either by the usual supposition of different narrators1 or by minutely pressing the literal meaning of words and setting up delicate distinctions4 ,the acute ,knobel1 for instance1 pretends to know that ',even ,abel had kept cattle1 but only small cattle1 and these only in his own district2 ,jabal invented the moving about with cattle from one district to another4#cae ,it concerns us not to know how far ,jabal extended the area of his pasture1 and within what narrow limits ,abel confined his3 our assumption of the mythological identity of the two designations solves the inconsistency without any resort to minute distinctions4 ,equally clear is also the ,solar character of the name ,cain 7ayin74 ,this word1 which1 with other synonymous names of trades1 occurs several times on the so-called ,nabatean ,sinaitic inscriptions1#caf signifies ,smith1#cag maker of agricultural implements1 and has preserved this meaning in the ,arabic ayn#cah and the ,aramaic iny1 whilst in the later ,hebrew it was lost altogether1 being probably suppressed through the ,biblical attempt to derive the proper name ,cain etymologically from n #8to gain4' ,in ,hebrew therefore it appears only as the name of the first fratricide and of his duplicate ,tubal-cain 7,tbhal-ayin71 the brother of ,jabal1 who is called the founder of the smith's trade 7,gen4 ,,iv4 #bb71 and stands to ,cain in very much the same relation as ,jabal does to ,abel4 ,cain is accordingly the same mythological figure as ,hephaestus and ,vulcan with the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,but there are some other points which determine his ,solar character4 ,first1 there is the characteristic that after the murder of his brother he built the first city1 and called it ,enoch 7,chankh1 ,gen4 ,,iv4 #ag74 ,we have seen above1 and ,i shall show still more clearly in the treatment of the ,myth of ,civilisation1 that in the myths of all peoples the ,solar heroes are regarded as the founders of city-life1 and that a fratricide often precedes the building of the city4 ,the agricultural stage1 which is connected with the ,solar worship1 overcomes the stage of nomadic life1 which holds to the dark sky of night or clouds2 and1 after conquering the herdsmen1 the surviving agriculturists build the first city4 ,it will not surprise us if the solution of the question raised by ,f4 ,lenormant1 #8pour en suivre toutes les formes depuis ,cain btissant le premire ville ,hanoch aprs avoir assassin ,abel1 jusqu' ,romulus fondant ,rome dans le sang de son frre ,remus1'#cai proves the consistency and universality of the ideas of mankind at the mythic stage in reference to this point4 ,whether the connexion of the zodiacal figure of the ,twins with this feature of the myth is so close as this acute ,french scholar imagines1 is an independent question4 ,the account of ,cain as the first builder of a city is accordingly a testimony to his ,solar character4 ,but far more important testimony is afforded by the characteristic feature in the story of ,cain1 that after the commission of the crime that fratricide1 laden with the curse of ,jahveh1 has to be #8a fugitive and a vagabond in the earth' 7,gen4 ,,iv4 #aa74 ,we will pause a little at this mythic feature1 and passing beyond ,cain1 consider it in connexion with a larger group of myths which exhibit the same4#cbj #e4 ,the word which preeminently denotes the ,sun in the ,semitic languages1 and which1 when the abundant synonyms produced by mythology to designate the ,sun had vanished1 drove all other names of the ,sun into the background1 viz4 the ,hebrew shemesh and the corresponding words in the cognate languages1 has been proved to descend from the etymological basis of the idea of rapid motion1 or busy running about4 ,this original sense gives the point of connexion with the ,aramaic terms shammsh #8to serve' and shmshemn #8an ant4'#cba ,the same function which language exhibits in the most prominent name of the ,sun is also repeatedly shown in mythology4 ,the myth views the ,sun from the point of view of his rapid course1 hastening and continuous motion1 or steady march forwards4 ,like a bridegroom coming out of the bridal chamber1 ,who exults like a hero to run a course4 ,ps4 ,,xix4 #f #e4 ,hence fiery1 rapid horses are attributed to the ,sun both in the classical mythology and in ,indian and ,persian1#cbb and no less so in the ,hebrew4 ,the latter may be inferred from the fact that in the ,hebrew worship in ,canaan there were horses dedicated to the ,sun4 ,king ,josiah1 the zealot for ,jahveh1 was the first to abolish this worship 7#b ,kings ,,xxiii4 #aa74 ,and ,heinrich ,heine gives the jesting couplet3-- ,phoebus lashed his steeds of fire ,in the ,sun's own cab with ire4#cbc ,to the same mythical conception must be referred the ,wings assigned to the ,sun or the ,dawn1 which are mentioned very frequently in the classical mythology4#cbd ,just as the ,egyptians and the ,assyrians#cbe in their monuments express this aspect of the sun by the picture of a winged solar disc1 so the ,hebrews1 although they did not give expression to their ideas in monuments and imitations which might have been preserved to the present time1 have in the extant fragments of their poetical literature left behind them confirmation of the fact that they conceived of the ,sun and the ,dawn in the same way4 ,as they called the wind #8winged1' so that the monotheistic singer imagines ,jahveh as #8flying on the wings of the wind' 7,ps4 ,,xviii4 #aa #aj71 so he binds wings also to the rapidly increasing light of the ,dawn3-- ,if ,i take the wings of the ,dawn1 ,and go down at the uttermost parts of the sea4#cbf ,ps4 ,,cxxxix4 #i4 ,jahveh #8makes the ,dawn flying' 7literally for flight71 as the prophet ,amos 7,,iv4 #ac7 says4 ,the prophet speaks in this verse of the regular phenomena of nature1 not of exceptional physical changes1 which would allow us to take ph as obscuration1 as in ,job ,x4 #bb2 it is therefore best to keep to the sense of flying4 ,joel 7,,ii4 #b7 says1 #8,as the ,dawn1 spreading out her wings over the mountains4'#cbg ,accordingly the ,dawn or the ,sun is a bird1 and the ,persian expression mur-i-saar #8,bird of the ,dawn' becomes intelligible4 ,when the sun sets1 the runner has stumbled and fallen to the ground2 or the bird gliding through the air has lost its power of flight and fallen into the sea4 ,hence comes the use of #8to fall' of the setting sun3 cadit sol1 and in ,homer3#cbh-- ' ' 1 4 ,and in ,arabic they say of the setting of the sun1 wajabat al-shams1 or habaat al-shams1#cbi verbs which are synonymous with waaa1 #8to fall4' ,we then understand 7passing again to ,hebrew7 ,isaiah's exclamation 7,,xiv4 #ab71 #8,how art thou fallen from heaven1 ,light-bringer1 son of the ,dawn6' ,as the rising ,dawn is said to spread out her wings1 so the setting evening sun drops her#ccj pinions1 bends her wings downwards4 ,this expression1 a relic of the mythic view1 is retained in the ,arabic language4 ,the ,arab says of the setting sun1 janaat2 but although this verb according to the lexicons denotes inclinavit in general1 yet there can be no doubt that this inclinatio was originally something special1 namely the bending of the wings1 from whose name jan1 indeed1 the above denominative verb is formed4 assn b4 ,thbit1#cca a poet contemporary with ,moammed1 says1 #8,the sun of the day bent herself 7i4e4 bent her wings7 that she might set' 7wa-ad janaat shams-al-nahri litarib74 ,but when wings are attributed to the ,night1 the basis of the conception is quite different from that which gives wings to the ,sun or the ,dawn4 ,in this case the thought is of covering and hiding4#ccb ,in this sense are to be understood such phrases as kna-l-leyl nshiran ajniat al-alm1 #8,night unfolded the wings of darkness1' or kna-l-leyl ad asbala ala-l-chfieyni ajniat al-alm1 #8,night had thrown down over the ends of the earth the wings of darkness4'#ccc ,the frequent expression f jun or jin al-leyl certainly belongs to this category4 ,lexicographers who translate the word jun pars noctis1 even on the authority of native lexicons1 e4g4 al-,jauhar1 who explains it as if minhu #8a portion of it1'#ccd are mistaken4 ,it must rather signify #8under the wings of ,night1' which is also supported by the fact that1 besides jun al-leyl1 f jun al-alm is also found1#cce where wings only can be understood4#ccf ,from all this it is easy to perceive that the solar figures of the myth are brought into connexion with the idea of swiftness1 flight1 and constant marching forwards2 for rapid motion is one of the chief attributes of the ,sun which naturally present themselves to the eye and the mind4 ,from this mythical view of the rapid running of the ,sun may also be explained a feature in the ,german mythology which ,holtzmann#ccg leaves unexplained4 #8,the ,osterhase ,easter-hare1' he says1 #8is inexplicable to me2 probably the hare is the animal of ,ostara the goddess2 on the picture of ,abnoba a hare is present4' ,if ,ostara1 as ,holtzmann proves1 is the sun or the sunrise1 then the hare is easily explained as indicating the quick-footed sun4 ,the connexion of ideas required to bring the hare into connexion with this view is one that needs no proof4 ,in the hieroglyphs also1 when there is free choice among various phonetic signs 7e4g4 with the vowel u71 the figure of the hare is generally chosen when the word expresses a rapid motion4#cch ,so the ,red ,indians1 in calling their ,kadmus a great white hare1 may have been influenced 7independently of the false popular etymology of the word michabo#cci7 by the conception of the ,sun as a swift-footed hare4#cdj ,abraham and his wife ,sarah 7the princess or queen of heaven--the ,moon as we shall see7 expel ,hagar 7,gen4 ,,xvi4 #f74 ,the ,moon is jealous of ,hagar4 ,what does ,hagar signify in this ,hebrew myth8 ,the cognate ,arabic language offers the most satisfactory basis of interpretation of this name4 ,hajara1 the root of the name ,hgr1 denotes #8to fly1' and yields the word hijr1 #8flight1' especially known from the flight of ,moammed from ,mecca to ,medina4 ,the mythic designation ,hgr is consequently only one of the names of the ,sun in a feminine form4 ,the battle of the two figures of the night-sky against ,hagar is again that inexhaustible theme of all mythology1 the battle of ,day with ,night4 ,with respect to this particular name the ,arabic language gives us still further light4 ,while aasha denotes both #8to be dark' and #8to move slowly1' the hot noonday sun is described by the ,arabs by the participle of the verb from which we have explained the name ,hagar1 al-hjir or al-hijr #8the flying one4' ,that this is not mere chance1 but is connected with the mythical order of ideas from which we deduced the designation ,hgr for the ,sun1 is further confirmed by the word bari or bir1 also denoting #8flight' 7from the ,hebrew and ,arabic root br #8to flee'71 and yet belonging to the nomenclature of the ,sun4 ,the case is the same with the #8fugitive and vagabond' life of ,cain2 after the conquest of ,abel the ,sun wanders from place to place1 and leads a life of unrest and motion till night comes4 ,a reminiscence of the solar significance of ,cain is even found in the ,agd1 which makes the sign granted for the safety of ,cain to consist in the brightening of the sun2 or1 according to another interpretation1 in a horn1 which grew up on him from the moment of the promise4#cda ,it is well known that the sun's rays were mythologically called horns1--a meaning which the language preserved4 #f4 ,with this group of ,solar figures of the ,hebrew mythology which are exhibited as wandering or rapidly marching forward1#cdb ,i also class some others whose names alone lead us to recognise this mythological character4 ,first and foremost we must consider a word which has been retained in the language beyond the mythical stage3 the ,hebrew shachar1 ,arabic saar1 #8morning1 dawn4' ,this word is doubtless connected with the verb schar1 which denotes constant moving1 wandering4#cdc ,the ,arabic sir #8magician' is the same word as the ,hebrew schr #8merchant1' both signifying originally those who are always travelling about from place to place4 ,the ,hebrew verb shachr #8to seek' relates originally to the movement of one who has lost something and goes about looking for it4 ,although in the course of this chapter ,i shall devote a special connected disquisition to ,jacob's sons1 yet ,i must here pick out a few beforehand to incorporate them in the class of solar figures whose characteristic feature is that here discussed4 ,to this class belongs e4g4 shr1 the name of a son of ,jacob by his concubine ,zilpah4 ,the name cannot be explained 7according to ,gen4 ,,xxx4 #ac7 as the #8,happy1' or #8,bringer of ,happiness1' since this signification of the root 7#8to be happy'7 is only secondary to the fundamental meaning--applied1 not original4 ,language does not form originally expressions for ethical notions of this kind1 any more than the notion itself rises without contact with something sensual1 which may subsequently be transferred to the ethical4 ,the ,arabic words for similar ideas spring up in a similar way1 e4g4 muli #8successful' denotes properly #8one who penetrates through something1' c4 ,the root of shr1 in ,hebrew shar1 in ,arabic athara 7whence athar #8a trace'71 originally denoted to march1 go forwards 7,prov4 ,,ix4 #f72 intensively ashshr1 to make some one go forward1 to lead1 and as a noun1 ashr #8way1 path4' ,from the same root comes also the relative pronoun asher1 which originally signified place1 7compare the ,aramaic athar #8place'72 but we know that expressions which serve as exponents of the category of relation1 both in time and space1 generally start from the conception of space1 as is clearly seen in the ,hebrew shm1 indicating originally the idea of place1 #8there' but also transferred to the expression of the idea of time1 #8then4'#cdd ,we see the same quite as clearly in the employment of the ,aramaic athar in the combination bthar 7from ba-athar7 to denote after1 afterwards1 properly on the spot4#cde ,to this fundamental meaning of the root shar #8to march1 go forward' is added the secondary application #8to be happy1' properly #8to advance prosperously4' ,but the old mythical designation shr is connected with the original sense3 since at the time when this mythical word was first spoken the verb had not yet obtained its secondary sense1 nor could yet obtain it1 as ethical ideas were still non-existent4 ,accordingly shr signifies #8he who marches on1' and is simply a solar name4 ,thus the ancient ,hebrew called the ,sun1 when he noticed the continual change of his place on the horizon1 and observed his constant movement4 #8,through ,asher1' it is said1 in a fragmentary hymn on ,asher in ,gen4 ,,xlix4 #bj1 #8his bread is fat2 he gives dainties for a king2' for the sun is to the agriculturist the beneficent element that hastens the ripening of his crops4 ,this simple and1 ,i hope1 obvious explanation throws light on another expression in ,hebrew mythology1 which stands in the closest connexion with ,asher4 ,i mean the feminine form derived from the masculine sun1 the appellation ,ashr1 on which ,biblical interpreters and antiquaries have had so much to say4 ,ashr1 as the feminine form of shr1 denotes what the ,hebrews regarded as the marriage-consort of the ,sun4 ,we know this of the ,moon1 as ,i hope to show more fully in speaking of ,sarah4 ,ashr is1 therefore1 an old ,hebrew name of the ,moon4 ,in those passages of the ,old ,testament which speak of the idolatry of the ,hebrews in ,canaan1 ,asherah is named with ,baal 7the ,sun-god73 #8,the vessels that were made for ,baal and for ,asherah and for all the host of heaven' 7as though for ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars71 #b ,kings ,,xxiii4 #d2 #8,and the children of ,israel did that which was evil in the sight of ,jahveh1 and forgat ,jahveh their ,god1 and served ,baal and ,asherah1' ,judges ,,iii4 #g4 ,they probably served ,asherah too at the altar of ,baal 7see ,judges ,,vi4 #be72 but this is quite in the spirit of the ,canaanitish and ,mesopotamian religious practice4 ,one mode of doing homage to the supreme ,god was to offer sacrifices and build temples to his subordinate deity1 just as any honour conferred on the ,satraps conduced to the greater excellence of the #8,king of kings4' ,this view is very general on the votive tables with cuneiform inscriptions2 so e4g4 in an inscription in the ,temple of ,mugheir3 #8,in honore ,,sin domini deorum coeli et terrae1 regis deorum 444 templum ,iz deae magnae condidi et feci4' ,asherah is accordingly the ,wandering one1 and the moon is here made feminine4 ,a masculine word for the ,moon1 which1 being common to all the ,semitic dialects 7unlike the later1 lebhn71 must be one of the oldest ,semitic names for moon1 viz4 yrach1 expresses the same idea2 for it is derived from the noun rach1 #8a path1 way1' and stands for rach with the initial hardened#cdf 7like ychd #8only1' with initial y1 yet echd #8one2' and yshr #8straight1' connected with the root under discussion1 shar #8to go forwards'74 ,in ,job ,,xxxi4 #bf1 the epithet hlkh1 #8marching1' is applied to the moon4 ,therefore the two plural forms ashrm and ashrth are not identical 7the former denoting objects of worship1 and the latter as #8femininum vilitatis' declaring them to be in the opinion of the writer objects of abomination72#cdg but the masculine form is derived from the singular shr1 and the feminine from the singular ,ashr4 #g4 ,to the same series belong also the names ,dn and ,dn1 which latter is only a feminine to the first1 and occurs again as a proper name in ,arabic4#cdh ,it would be erroneous to regard the verb dn #8to judge' as the etymon3 for this would give no solution of the question concerning the nature and signification of the designations under review4 ,then1 as the ,hebrew language itself offers no satisfactory points d'appui1 we are fully entitled to look for information to the cognate idioms4 ,i believe that the fundamental idea contained in the group of consonants ,dn is extant in the ,assyrian1 where it expresses the idea of going2#cdi whence the ,arabic dna #8to approach1' the secondary dana1 and the adjective dunya1 which denotes the near and visible world1 in opposition to al-chir1 the life beyond4#cej ,consequently1 ,dn and ,dn must denote #8he or she who marches on1 or comes nearer1' or #8goes' in general1 synonymous with shr1 i4e4 the ,sun4 ,in ,arabic also al-jriy #8who goes' is one of the many names of the ,sun which are enumerated by ,ibn al-,sikkt in his ,synonymical ,dictionary of the ,arabic ,language4#cea ,whilst of ,dan no actual myth has reached us1 and etymology alone gives us any help in discovering his mythical character1 of ,dinah on the other hand the chief source of our knowledge of ,hebrew antiquity has preserved a more material statement1 telling of the love of ,shechem for ,dinah and their ultimate union1 and of the immediately following murder of ,shechem by ,jacob's sons4 ,these are the features which come under our view when we draw out the mythical kernel from the mass of epical description surrounding it 7,gen4 ,,xxxiv74 ,from the arguments of the ,second ,chapter the connexion of the noun shekhem with the verb hishkm may surely be treated as removed beyond all doubt1 as well as the fact that this word is a designation of the ,morning-dawn4 ,i will add at this place1 to complete what was discussed at p4 #bf1 that the ,hebrew word shekhem seems to be etymologically connected with the ,arabic thakam1 which signifies #8way4' ,like most ,hebrew words denoting a way1 this word shekhem must stand in connexion with the verbal idea of #8marching forwards'--either by the verb being a denominative 7like the ,german bewegen from ,weg71 or inversely by the noun being a deverbal4 ,the changes of consonants which we find here are in accordance with the law of the ,semitic languages1 namely3 ,arabic th ,hebrew sh ,aramaic t1 th shelsh telth thalth thaur shr tr ,therefore also3 thakam shekhem ---- ,the longing love of the ,dawn for the ,sun and her union with him--the same theme which ,max ,mller in his essay on #8,comparative ,mythology' has so ingeniously traced in ,indian and ,hellenic myths--was told also by the ,hebrews2 only that the ,hebrew inverted the relation4 ,when the ,dawn vanished and the ,sun began to shine bright in the sky1 the ,hebrew said of the union between the ,dawn and the ,sun that the ,dawn snatched up the ,sun to himself and was united with her4 ,not long afterwards followed the vengeance taken by the sons of ,jacob 7the night-sky71 who1 enraged at the abduction of their sister1 murder the ravisher and deliver her4 ,this is only the disappearance of the ,sun1 while the evening glow comes forward1 again independent1 to inaugurate the dominion of the ,night4#ceb ,the myth makes no distinction between the morning and the evening glow1 but treats them as identical phenomena4 ,therefore ,shekhem is made a son of the ,ass 7,chamr72 and there is no doubt that chamr 7ass7 has here the mythic significance which accompanies that animal whenever it appears in the ,aryan mythology4#cec ,zilpah also1 the mother of ,asher1 is to be classed in the same group4 ,any one who has cast even a superficial glance on the real meaning of the myths of the ,aryan nations1 as now discovered and recognised1 must have noticed the peculiarity that the mythical relation of child to parent does not always indicate a succession of what should precede and what follow1 but that the child is not unfrequently only a repetition of the father or the mother1 and is therefore to be considered identical with them4#ced ,the present is a case of this kind4 shr is only a repetition of his mother4 ,the designation ,zilp1 the explanation of which has been sought in vain in ,hebrew--for the meaning #8a drop' can hardly be maintained--finds a smooth and ready interpretation in ,arabic1 where zalafa1 as well as zlp1 zlb in ,assyrian1#cee denotes #8to march on4' ,so that ,zilp also is #8she that marches forward4' ,another #8marcher forward' is preserved by ,arabian tradition1 viz4 ,zalch4 ,she is unmistakably a solar figure1 and her name 7zlch has the same signification #8to march forward'7 is perhaps even formally connected#cef with that of ,zilp1 with whom she is identical4 ,the battle of the ,sunshine with the ,rainy ,sky is the amorous contest of the beautiful ,zalch 7or1 as the name is commonly but erroneously pronounced1 ,zuleych7 with ,ysph #8the ,multiplier4' ,now1 having been led into the above digressions by the explanation of ,cain's flight1 we return to ,cain again4 #h4 ,we have just alluded to the fact that in the ,hebrew mythology the figures presented as children are frequently only repetitions of one of their parents4#ceg ,this observation is found to be confirmed in the case of the posterity which the ,biblical genealogy in ,gen4 ,,iv4 derives from ,cain4 ,some of the descendants of ,cain are quite as much solar figures as their ancestor himself2 and in an age which had advanced beyond the stage of the formation of myths1 and even beyond the after-sentiment of mythology1 this identity occasioned the idea that these figures must stand in a genealogical connexion with the ancestor4 ,the same psychological process which in the employment of language produces a specialisation or limitation in the sense of words originally synonymous1 is at work here also1 forming from the numerous synonyms of mythology genealogies1 in which identical designations1 after their substratum has been personified1 become his sons1 grandsons1 and great-grandsons4 ,thus among ,cain's descendants none but solar figures are to be found4 ,in the demonstration of this fact1 ,i limit myself to those names which can be interpreted without at all forcing their meaning4 ,the very first1 ,enoch 7,chankh71 the son of ,cain1 from whom he names the first city he built1 is of pure solar significance4 ,we have above already1 with ,ewald1 put his name in the class in which the ,sun is presented as the #8,opener4' ,the solar character of ,enoch admits of no doubt4 ,he is brought into connexion with the building of towns--a solar feature4 ,he lives exactly three hundred and sixty-five years1 the number of days of the solar year2 which cannot be accidental4#ceh ,and even then he did not die1 but #8,enoch1 walked with ,elhm1 and was no more to be seen1 for ,elhm took him away4' ,in the old times when the figure of ,enoch was imagined1 this was doubtless called ,enoch's ,ascension to heaven1 as in the late traditional legend4 ,ascensions to heaven are generally acknowledged to be solar features4 ,herakles among the ,greeks1 ,romulus the city-founder among the ,latins1 and several heroes of ,american mythology1#cei agree in this4 ,the same feature also often attaches itself even to historical persons--e4g4 to the legend of the ,prophet ,elijah1 the #8hairy man' who ascends to heaven on #8a chariot of fire and horses of fire1'#cfj indeed this as well as other mythical features has been better preserved in the case of this favourite hero of ,israelitish prophecy than in that of the former purely mythical personage4 ,wachsmuth#cfa expressed a conjecture that the old ,greek god ,helios1 who drives round the vault of heaven on a fiery chariot1 has a share in the phenomenon1 so frequent in modern ,greece1 that the prophet ,ilias 7,elias or ,elijah7 is especially venerated on mountain-tops4 ,the temples and altars of ,helios in ancient times were similarly situated on high hills2 and the casual similarity of sound between ,ilios and ,ilias1 together with the identity of the myths concerning each1 in this case caused the old heathen worship to be preserved and transferred to the name of the ,biblical prophet4 ,but this certainly cannot have taken place1 as ,otto ,keller lately flippantly declared in a lecture on the #8,discovery of ,troy by ,henry ,schliemann1' 'from a sort of childish attention to the wants of great ,prophet1 inasmuch as the people wished to make the fiery journey as easy as possible for him1 and therefore made him mount the chariot at the nearest point to heaven4#cfb ,enoch 7,chankh7 is introduced in another version of the genealogy 7,gen4 ,v4 #ah71 as son not of ,cain but of ,jered1 who is separated by five generations from ,seth1 ,adam's third son4 ,but this genealogy has but little importance for mythological investigation2 indeed its two chief original creations 7,seth and ,enos71 do not belong to mythology at all4 ,the feeling of a later time rebelled against deriving all mankind from the hated fratricide who bore the curse of ,god1 and thus gave rise to the two interpolated patriarchs and the ,seth-genealogy1 which runs parallel with that of ,cain3 moreover1 in proof of the honourable origin of mankind1 the son of ,seth was made the author of the worship of ,jahveh1 which is said to have begun in his time4 ,the ,seth-genealogy1 which answered better to the feeling and the ethical need of mankind1 then utterly expelled the ,cain-genealogy4 ,the author of the ,book of ,chronicles1 who knows only ,adam1 ,seth1 ,enos1 c4 as first-fathers1 seems either not to have known or intentionally to have ignored the other genealogy1 and keeps strictly to that in ,gen4 ,v4 ,it is remarkable that even in the ,seth-genealogy among the ancestors of ,enoch a ,cainan 7 nn7 is named--a word which will be recognised by everyone who knows the laws of the ,semitic formation of words as a so-called nunnated form of the word ayin1 so that the two are really perfectly identical4#cfc ,let us continue the consideration of ,cain's descendants4 ,one prominent figure is ,lemech4#cfd ,an obscure song1 which he declaims before his two wives1 has given the interpreters much trouble with regard both to its language and to its subject2 and legend has made free with this song1 as it has with anything problematical4 ,for us here this only is important1 that the song contains a self-accusation on the part of ,lemech before his wives1 of having killed his own child4 ,as ,jephthah killed his daughter1 so the myth spoke of ,lemech as a similar solar hero who killed his child4 ,the ,sun today kills her child1 the ,night1 whom she bore yesterday evening4 ,among the children of ,lemech we actually find ,jabal 7,ybhl71 of whom we have already spoken at length as denoting the ,rainy ,sky4 ,no doubt the ancient myth spoke of ,jabal as the son who was murdered by his solar father ,lemech4 ,accordingly1 the genealogy does not continue the line of ,jabal4 ,next to him his brother ,jubal 7,ybhl71 inventor of musical instruments1 the ,hebrew ,apollo1 is mentioned4 ,it is to solar gods such as ,apollo1 and heroes1 that the invention of music1 a product of the settled mode of civilised life1 was everywhere attributed4 ,but his name seems to have been chosen only on account of its assonance to ,jabal 7a favourite practice with the ,semites71 and not to belong to the ancient myth1 but to owe its origin to the later legend of civilisation4 ,that the brothers ,tubal-cain and ,jabal are only a repetition of ,cain and ,abel ,i think ,i have already made evident4 ,it must here be added that the mother of ,tubal-cain1 the solar man1 is named ,zillah 7ill71 #8she who covers1 overshadows'--the ,night1 mother of the ,sun or of the ,day4 ,the ,seth-genealogy concludes with one who is called son of ,lemech--,noah 7,nach71 the founder of improved agriculture1 who #8gave men rest from their work and the toil of their hands proceeding from the earth which ,jahveh cursed' 7,v4 #bi74 ,what else can this mean1 but that ,noah invented agricultural implements8 ,the ,seth-genealogy accordingly disputes the invention of these by ,cain or ,tubal-cain1 and gives to the etymology of the name ,nach1 which really does denote #8rest1' an application which makes it as impossible for it to belong to the ancient myth as for the names ,shth and ,ensh4 ,noah is a regular hero of the legend of civilisation2 and the larger part of what the myth tells of him is a product of the victory of ,solarism1 i4e4 of agricultural life4 ,he is the first vine-grower1 and a new ancestor of the human race1 since all mankind is derived from his three sons4 ,the regular operation of the laws of nature 7,gen4 ,,viii4 #bb71 and social order and legality1 are also brought into connexion with him4 ,the protection and forbearance1 secured to the beasts by the ,nomad1 ceases2 the ,agriculturist subdues the beasts4 ,but1 on the other hand1 with him begins the protection and security of human life 7,gen4 ,,ix4 #b-e74 ,yet side by side with this legend of civilisation we have in connexion with ,noah a true old solar myth1 which well deserves attention4 ,after the introduction of vine-cultivation ,noah once makes overfree use of his discovery and gets drunk2 and in that condition #8uncovers himself--takes off his clothes 7,gen4 ,,ix4 #ba74 ,only this last feature has any mythological interest2 for the previous one1 which was attached to this germ1 belongs to another and later stage of formation of legends1 since nothing could be told of intoxication till the free use of wine was known and practised4 ,the word ,nach denotes 'him who rests4' ,while the ,sun of ,day is called #8he who goes1 runs1 wanders1' the ,evening ,sun1 preparing to set1 is #8he who rests4' #8,noah uncovers himself3' after setting1 the ,sun is shrouded in a covering which darkens his light1 but in the morning he throws off the clothes and becomes visible1 spreading light and brightness abroad4 ,in a hymn to ,ushas1 the ,dawn1 the ancient ,indian poet says that she #8uncovers her bosom' 7,rigveda1 ,,vi4 #fd4 #b1 #aj74 ,if the intoxication is also to be accounted for1 then this prominent circumstance must describe the reeling motion with which the ,sun1 exhausted by his long course1 staggers towards his repose4 ,the ,agadic tradition has preserved another element of the ,noah-myth4 ,the wicked black son ,ham 7,chm71 emasculates his father 7,sanhedrn1 #gj a74 ,the emasculation of the ,sun1 when the ,sun is male1 is an expression of ,aryan mythology denoting the weakening of his rays before and at sunset4#cfe ,the black son1 the ,night1 overcomes and emasculates his father1 takes all power from his rays and drives him to ruin4 #i4 ,thus we find ,cain's posterity to be repetitions of their ancestor1 mere solar figures of the old myth1 brought by an unmythological age into a genealogical connexion with the wandering and fratricidal solar hero4 ,it is the genealogy of the solar figures to which the data of the legend of civilisation are attached2 for the agriculturist always puts civilisation into conjunction with the sun4#cff ,but besides this solar pedigree1 we possess also a nomadic one1 starting from the myth of the dark ,night-sky--the genealogy of ,abram 7,gen4 ,,xi #aj sq471 which begins with his ancestor ,shem4 ,but the name ,shm has the same signification as ,abhrm itself1 according to the lexicon4 ,as ,abhrm is the #8,high ,father1' so also the name ,shm denotes the #8,high2' and from this name the ,semitic appellation of heaven1 ,hebrew shmayim1 ,arabic sam1 is derived4 ,like ,abram1 ,abel1 ,jabal1 ,jacob1 ,lot c41 ,shem too possesses tents4 #8,elhm opens out 7room7 for ,jepheth2#cfg he 7,jepheth7 dwells in the tents of ,shem' 7,gen4 ,,xi4 #bg71 is said in the extant fragment of an ancient hymn4 ,jepheth 7,yepheth7 signifies the #8,beautiful1 ,brilliant1' if it is connected with ypheh2 or #8who spreads himself out1' if the root pthh is its origin2 or #8who opens1' if with ,gesenius and some later writers we lay stress on the connexion of the sounds of pthh with pthach2 but in any case it is a solar name4 ,as the sun of the daytime is observed wandering from place to place1 it is not an unnatural idea that the sun takes up his abode in the tents of high heaven4 #8,for the sun he made a tent in them 7the heavens74'#cfh ,it cannot be denied that in ,abraham's genealogy1 as given in the ,book of ,genesis1 there occur some ethnographical appellations which have no mythological meaning 7e4g4 ,arpachshad74 ,still1 the majority of names are of a mythical character4 ,unfortunately1 they must remain mere names to us1 as no material myth connected with these names is extant4 ,although they seem to invite etymological attempts1 as e4g4 the names ,shelach and bher1 yet ,i shall resist the temptation1 as it is not my business here to indulge in vague speculations4 ,but ,i may be allowed to remark that there is one sentence in this genealogy which reflects the nomad's life again4 #8,peleg begat ,re3' that is1 taking these words1 as they were originally understood1 appellatively and translating them literally1 #8,the stream produces the pasture-land2' the nomad owes his meadow-land to the stream that meanders through the pasture and keeps the grass fresh and green4 ,so instead of #8to lead the cattle to pasture1' he says also1 #8to lead them to the waters of rest4' ,the psalmist of ,ps4 ,,xxiii4 #a1 #b1 says #8,jahveh is my shepherd1 ,i want nothing4 ,he makes me lie down in green pastures1 he leads me to waters of rest4' #aj4 ,we will now continue our contemplation of the contests which the myth tells of the sky at night1 in which we have already seen the dark sky either conquering or conquered by his brilliant father or brother4 ,one of the most conspicuous names of the dark sky of night or clouds in the ,hebrew mythology1 and containing a rich fund of mythical matter1 is ,jacob4 ,etymologically we have already done justice to him4 ,now let us see what the myth has to say of him4 ,he endures hard struggles4 ,his father1 #8the laughing sunny sky1' loves him not4 ,the hatred of his brother ,esau drives him from house and home2 and at the place where he takes refuge1 he has to struggle against #8the white one' 7,lbhn71 who1 if not his brother1 is at least his near relative1 and in the original form of the myth was perhaps presented as his brother 7see ,gen4 ,,xxix4 #ae74 ,we must examine more closely the mythical character of these two hostile brothers of ,jacob4 ,to make short work of it--both ,esau and ,laban are solar figures4 ,what we learn of them in the epic treatment of the old myth found in the ,old ,testament1 presents a multitude of solar characteristics4 ,we especially note this in ,esau1 whose heel ,jacob grasps at their birth 7,gen4 ,,xxv4 #bf74 ,this mythical expression is in itself clear enough3 #8,night comes into the world with ,day's heel in his hand1' or1 as we should say1 ,night follows close upon ,day1 driving him from his place4 ,nevertheless1 we can further confirm this signification of the mythical expression for the benefit of hesitating doubters by showing that the same conception is found even in the later ,arabic poetry1 where it is doubtless a residuum of an old mythical idea4 ,for ,thalab b4 ueyr al-,mzin#cfi says of the breaking of the dawn3 #8,the shining one stretches his right hand towards him who covers up2' the ,sun puts out his hand towards the ,night1 grasps him1 and pulls him forward1 whilst he himself retires2 here therefore it is the same relation1 only inverted4 ,similarly1 the poet al-,ajjj says3 #8till ,i see the shoulder of the brilliant dawn1 when he springs upon the back of the black night4'#cgj ,this is spoken in quite a mythical tone1 and expresses the same idea as the ,hebrew when he said #8,jacob holds the heel of his red brother in his hand1' only that the ,arabic words quoted speak of day following after night4 #8,esau is a hunter1 ,jacob a herdsman1 dwelling in tents4' ,the ,sun is a hunter3 he discharges his arrows1 i4e4 his rays1 and does battle with them against darkness1 wind and clouds4 ,why should ,i adduce examples from ,aryan mythology1 where this view occurs in manifold variations and is one of the commonest8#cga ,the ,sun's arrows are golden1 wherefore ,apollo is called 7,pindar1 ,ol4 ,,xiv4 #ae74 ,this mythical idea is frequently reflected in the composition of language4 ,in ,egyptian1 the combination st denotes #8flame1 ray1 and arrow1' all at once2 and the ,slavonic strla1 with which the ,german ,strahl #8ray' is connected1 means #8arrow4'#cgb #8,the ,sun can no longer bend his bow' he has lost his power1 is therefore an expression for the setting of the sun4 ,when ,herakles finds himself too weak to bend his bow and shoot his arrows1 he feels that his end is approaching4 ,when the ,sun regains his powers at the outburst of spring1 after a long winter in which his arrows had been at rest1 ,odysseus 7,ulysses71 a solar wanderer like ,cain1 seizes his bow to shoot off his shafts again4#cgc ,we see the same in the myths of the ,semites4 ,an epithet of the ,sun-god ,bl is ,nipru1 which1 according to ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson1 signifies #8hunter2'#cgd and the city ,resen1 the building of which is attributed in the ,bible to ,nimrod1 is called in the historical cuneiform inscriptions the #8,city of the ,hunter4'#cge ,this ,nimrod himself1 against whom ,abraham the ,nomad contends in the same sense in which ,jacob the ,nomad against ,esau the ,hunter1 is a hunter 7,gen4 ,x4 #i74 ,the etymological explanation of the name ,nimrd cannot be established until the really primary signification of the root mrad has been satisfactorily traced2 for it may be considered certain1 that at the myth-creating stage mankind had no sense of the idea of #8insurrection1' which could only be formed after some advance in social life1 and could not therefore endow a word with that special meaning4 ,this signification can consequently only be secondary and metaphorical4#cgf ,as to the grammatical form of the name ,nimrd1 it is not impossible that1 like ,yichk #8,isaac1' ,yiphtch #8,jephthah1' c41 it is a verbal form4 ,if so1 it would be the third person of the imperfect1 formed by prefixing n1 as in ,aramaic4 ,schrader#cgg regards this prefixed n in ,nimrd as a sound used for the formation of nouns4 ,i will also call to mind incidentally that on ,babylonian ground we meet also with the name of a god ,merd4#cgh ,the wars of ,nimrod with ,abraham are not preserved in the ,old ,testament1 but are in ,agadic tradition1 which has also retained from the ,nimrod-myth an expression of a truly solar character2 that three hundred and fifty kings sit before ,nimrod1 to serve him4#cgi ,similarly against ,joseph1 the giver of increase1 the rainy sky1 fight #8the men with arrows'#chj 7baal chim1 ,gen4 ,,xlix4 #bc71 #8who exasperate him and shoot and persecute him4' ,so again ,jacob fights against ,esau the hunter4 ,it is always the battle of the sky of ,night and ,clouds against the ,sun1 who sends his arrows to repel the invader4 ,one somewhat more complicated mythological conception having reference to the arrows of the sun is found on ,hebrew ground4 ,the sun and the moon stand still1 and then go in the direction of the arrows which were sent off before them4 ,this view is known to poetry1 except that there it is ,jahveh who shoots the arrows1 so that the sun and moon ,walk to the light of thy 7,jahveh's7 arrows1 ,to the brightness of the glitter of thy spear4--,hab4 ,,iii4 #aa4 ,the rays of the moon also are here designated arrows4 ,esau is a hairy man1 ,jacob a smooth man 7,gen4 ,,xxvii4 #aa74 #8,the first came out red1 quite like a hairy mantle' 7,,xxv4 #be74 ,for the present we will put the redness aside1 and pay particular attention to the element of hairiness4 ,long locks of hair and a long beard are mythological attributes of the ,sun4 ,the ,sun's rays are compared with locks or hairs on the face or head of the ,sun4 ,helios is called by the ,greeks the yellow-haired2 and in ,greek poetry or is a frequent epithet of solar gods and heroes4 ,a ,latin poet also calls the sun's rays ,crines ,phoebi4#cha ,in an ,american legend the ,sun-god ,bocsika is introduced as an old man with a long beard2 the ,viracochaya of the ,peruvians1 the ,quetzalcoatl of the ,toltecs1 the ,coxcox of the ,chichimecs1 solar figures all of them1 possess this strongly emphasized characteristic of the long beard4#chb ,indeed1 this feature is sometimes ascribed in popular fancy to historical personages1 as e4g4 to ,julius ,caesar1 who was imagined to have been born with long hair2 and his name was popularly explained from this circumstance--caesaries4 ,we must here consider a point in the history of ,art1 which occupied archeologists about the years #ahbj-cj1 and especially the meritorious numismatist ,ekhel4 ,i refer to the representation of ,janus as biceps1 vultu uno barbato1 altero imberbi1 which some regarded as the old traditional conception of ,janus1 while others thought it comparatively modern2 the question of age is1 however1 not a question of principle at all4#chc ,in any case it may be assumed as probable that this picture of the two-headed #8,opener1'#chd is not an accidental idea1 devoid of all mythical import2 but that on the contrary1 the two bearded and beardless representations of the ,sun-god express two points in the ,sun's life2 he appears in the morning and evening 7as #8,opener' and #8,closer1' ,janus ,patulcius and ,janus ,clusius7 with smooth1 beardless face1 i4e4 without powerful rays1 but in the middle of the day with a large beard and hairy face4#che ,when the ,sun sets and leaves his place to the darkness1 or when the powerful summer sun is succeeded by the weak rays of the winter sun1 then ,samson's long locks1#chf in which alone his strength lies1 are cut off through the treachery of his deceitful concubine ,delilah1 the #8languishing1#chg languid1' according to the meaning of the name 7,dell74#chh ,the ,beaming ,apollo1 moreover1 is called the ,unshaven2 and ,minos cannot conquer the solar hero ,nisos1 till the latter loses his golden hair4#chi ,it is then clear what the description of ,esau as a man born hairy in contradistinction to the smooth ,jacob denotes--the same as the epithet sh baal sr #8hairy man' 7#b ,kings ,i4 #h7 in the description of ,elijah3 the rays of the sun1 whose mythical representative ,esau is4 ,it is a more difficult question whether the solar character of this hero is capable of proof from his name4 ,if1 not to have recourse to non-,hebraic languages1 we derive sv from the ,hebrew verb s #8to do1 accomplish1' and explain it as the #8,accomplisher1 ,worker1' or the like1 then this description of a solar hero is suitable enough for a legend of civilisation1 which sees in the sun the power that brings to perfection the corn and fruit1 and produces in human society a legally secured condition of social life1 in short1 the ,perfecting ,agent4 ,but such a description is less consonant with the sense possible to the ancient myth1 in which the ideas and conceptions just mentioned were not yet developed4 ,if then the name sv cannot be etymologically explained in the spirit of the oldest mythical circle of ideas1 we are necessarily driven to conjecture that the appellation does not belong to the oldest stratum of the materials of ,hebrew legends1 but was introduced by a legend of civilisation4 ,this conjecture appears all the more probable when we remember that ,jacob's hostile brother in the ,bible itself bears another name besides ,esau1 much more expressive and suited to the earliest period of the formation of legends2 namely1 ,edm #8the ,red4' ,in later times1 when the original signification of the myths was entirely forgotten1 these two names ,esau and ,edom were found in the story of the brothers' quarrel1 as appellations of the brother with whom ,jacob fights4 ,attempts were made to harmonise them2 and the name #8the ,red' was connected with the red pottage 7,gen4 ,,xxv4 #cj71 as well as with the more characteristic feature belonging to the old mythic stage1 that the hostile brother was admn1 #8of a reddish colour4' ,but the name ,esau also can be rescued for the old myth1 if we connect this name with the ,arabic atha #8hairy1' which is etymologically related to the name ,esau4#cij ,thus the name ,esau would come in contact with the above-discussed mythic characteristic of the ,solar hero1 that he is an sh sr1 a hairy man4#cia ,in the ,phenician mythology the antagonist of ,usov 7whom those who do not utterly reject the authenticity of the statements of ,sanchuniathon identify with ,esau7 lives in tents and is called ,shmnrm #8the high heaven1'#cib i4e4 the dark night-sky4 ,the identity of the conceptions ,abh-rm and ,yaakbh would find further confirmation here4 ,we are led to a different series of solar characteristics by the name ,edm1 an unquestionably ancient designation of the ,solar hero4 ,we will consider together the names ,edm and ,lbhn1 both appellations of hostile brothers of the ,night-,sky4 ,but before we begin this1 ,i will mention another contest of ,jacob's1 to which the original writer devotes only a few lines3 #8,then ,jacob remained behind alone2 and there wrestled a man with him until the morning rose4 ,and he saw that he could not do anything to him1 so he knocked his thigh-socket1 and ,jacob's thigh-socket was dislocated in wrestling with him4 ,and he said1 ,let me go1 for the morning has risen' 7,gen4 ,,xxxii4 #be-bg #bd-bf74 ,thus ,jacob fights with a man who cannot conquer him1 but whom he must let off at the rise of the morning4 ,this is the ,dawn1 who wrestles with the end of the night1 and in the end breaks loose1 so as to go up to the sky4 ,the ,night is a limping figure 7ver4 #cb #ca74 ,this again is a feature in the myth of the hero of darkness1 which we meet with also in classical mythology1 e4g4 in ,hermes1 4#cic ,it probably indicates the opposite to the swiftness and the rapid never-ceasing course of the day1 the sun and the dawn4 #aa4 ,jacob is pursued and made to fight by the ,red and by the ,white4 ,both words are designations of the same thing1 i4e4 the ,sun4 ,it strikes us as very strange that the myth should call the same object now red1 now white4 ,to appreciate this fact1 we must think of the various stages which the sense of colour has to pass through in old times1 until it is fully developed4 ,even in much later times we come across extraordinary fluctuations of language on ,semitic ground in the designation of colours for solar phenomena4 ,as the demonstration of this fact appears important to our present subject and things in connexion with it1 the reader will excuse me for pausing longer than usual at this point and taking some excursions from the centre of our investigations4 ,the names of colours were in ancient times very vague2 the primitive man could not elevate himself to make any sharply defined distinction and classification of colours4 ,red and white are therefore here not exactly red and white1 according to our modern distinction of these colours1 but rather light or bright-coloured4 ,it is a great merit of the late ,lazarus ,geiger1 too early called home1 to have most clearly exhibited this phase of the history of the development of ideas and their expression in language1 and illustrated it with the light of psychology and comparative philology4#cid ,his ingenious researches have raised to a certainty the theory that the capacity for distinguishing colours has arisen1 both in the individual and in the whole race1 in the course of history1 through gradual general development2 that its beginning follows very late after the beginnings of other intellectual capacities2 and that1 even after man had grasped the distinction of different classes of colour1 the fixing of his conceptions of colour made very slow progress1 so that he often attributes first one and then another colour to the same object4 ,the shading-off of colours1 when once understood1 has yet been fixed in the human mind with such difficulty1 that we find in many languages the most helpless wavering in the use of names of colours4 ,as this phenomenon1 important in man's mental development1 is no less so in relation to the origin and the understanding of the elements of myths1 we will pause over ,geiger's disquisitions1 to consider still further the fluctuating nature of the designations of colour in language1 and especially to notice how far from clear and unsullied a reflexion impressions of colour cast on language1 their natural medium of expression4 ,we will however stay in the neighbourhood of the proper subject of investigation1 and bring only ,semitic words under consideration4 ,let us pick out the designations of ,gold in this field4 ,we cannot say in general terms of the ,semitic languages that in the designation of gold and silver they do not express the optical difference between them1 as a scholiast remarks in reference to ,homer2 for the appellations both of gold as brilliant1 shimmering1 and of silver as pale1 prove that at least the different shine of the two metals was observed at the stage of the formation of language4#cie ,far less definite1 however1 than this distinction of the two according to the general impression made on the sight1 is the designation of the sensation made by each separately4 ,the appellations of gold in ,hebrew1 ,aramaic and ,arabic1 zhbh1 dahabh1 ahab1 denote brilliant in general2 whereas the ,assyrian and ,phenician#cif word for gold1 urau 7which is the same as the ,hebrew chr71 expresses no optical sensation4#cig ,the former appellations describe an optical sensation2 but no definite colour-sensation4 ,indeed1 even a late ,arabic poet says of gold3 al-ahab al-nr1#cih #8the fire-like gold1' which1 if a description of colour1 is a very vague one4 ,rub b4 al-,ajjj1 an ,arabic poet living in the second century of the ,hijr1 says3#cii ,hal yanfaun kaabun sichttu 99 au fiatun au dahabun kibrtu8 ,will a great lie save me8 99 or silver1 or sulphur-gold8 ,here gold and sulphur are compared together as similar1 at all events in colour1 for colour is the only possible tertium comparationis between them2 and in fact we also find in ,arabic the expression #8yellow sulphur1 as if it were gold' 7kibrt afar kaannahu ahab74#djj ,i lay particular stress upon this1 because a common phrase among the ,arabs is1 al-kibrt al-amar #8red sulphur1' to denote a peculiar person1 one without his equal1 inasmuch as there is no red sulphur4 ,now gold1 of all things1 is commonly used both in the later literature and in popular speech with the epithet red 7al-ahab al-amar74 ,this phrase1 as ,osiander has proved1#dja occurs also in ,himyaric1 and passed from ,arabic into ,persian and ,turkish 7in ,persian zeri surch2 in ,turkish izil altyn71 and is used especially when minted gold is opposed to silver coins4 ,the former is red money1 the latter white3 e4g4 wa-malatum aydkum min al-ahab al-amar wal-fi al-bey #8you have filled your hands with red gold and white silver2'#djb dihhezr dnr zeri surch1 #8ten thousand dnrs of red gold4'#djc ,in a very noteworthy essay1 ,belin has shown with reference to ,turkish that in the ,ottoman ,empire the metal money is divided into white1 #8a1' and red1 #8izil'2#djd and in ,egypt at the present day the silver piaster is called abya #8white1' to distinguish it from the copper money chorde4 ,muwiyy said to aa1 #8,thou ,red one2' and he answered1 #8,gold is red4'#dje ,thus we see that red has become the constant designation of the colour of gold4 ,now in what harmony does this stand with the above-quoted designation1 #8sulphur-coloured gold1' when we consider at the same time the proverbial kibrt amar #8red sulphur'8 ,ethiopic designates gold1 not by a derivative of the root #8hb1' like the other languages of the same stock1 but by the word wara4 ,we cannot decide a priori whether in its origin this word expresses a colour-sensation or not4 ,in ,arabic also we find wara or wari in a similar signification1 and ,i can scarcely believe that it must be thrown out of the original treasury of the ,arabic vocabulary4 ,von ,kremer classifies it with the ,arabic words borrowed from the ,persian stock1 and refers it to the ,huzwresh warg4#djf ,in old time it was equivalent to #8property1 goods4'#djg ,the poet ,sueym1 an elder contemporary of ,moammed1 says in a little poem1 #8,the poems of the slave of the ,ban-l-ass on the day of competition are worth as much as noble birth and wara 7property72#djh and in some of the traditional sayings of ,moammed a collateral form of the same word1 ri1 denotes 'money4'#dji ,the ,arabic lexicographers give the signification of both forms as al-darhim al-marb #8stamped coins1' drachmas4 ,in the more general signification we find wara used by ,ab ,nuws in a poem of youth or rather childhood4 ,the poet ,ibn ,mundir1 finding little ,ab ,nuws leaning against a pillar in the mosque1 took a great fancy to him1 and addressed an erotic poem to him2 upon which the boy extemporised the following verses1 and wrote them on the back of the letter3 ,you write me a letter of praise without any wara 7present72 ,that is like a house built on a foundation of reeds2 ,but ,i should think it much pleasanter than your eulogy on me1 ,if you would send me a pair of black shoes and a fine dress4 ,if you are willing1 do get me a wara 7present73 if you do so ,i shall not turn you away4#daj ,we see clearly from this example how general the meaning of wara is in ,arabic2 even a pair of shoes and a dress are included in it4 ,it is1 however1 probable that the word1 which certainly comes from the south of ,arabia1 originally denoted specially gold1 but being supplanted in this narrow sense by ahab in ordinary ,arabic1 was applied first to gold-money1 then to money generally 7even of silver71 and lastly by a further generalisation to goods and objects of value of all kinds4 ,its ,south-,arabic origin is also confirmed by the fact that it occurs in ,himyarite1#daa beside ahab and kethem2 and there is no reason for supposing1 with ,halvy1 that it denotes specially de l'or en feuilles1 contrasted with de l'or en poudre4#dab ,on the other hand1 it must be noticed that the root wara in the ,semitic languages designates a colour1 either green or yellow1 and that it is probably owing to this circumstance that gold is in ,ethiopic called wara4 ,but this word of colour itself is very fluctuating4 ,whilst in ,ethiopic it designates the colour of gold1 in ,hebrew it gives a name to grass 7yere71 and similarly in ,arabic the green leaves are called wara1 notwithstanding which its diminutive urayyi#dac 7from aura7 denotes a dark brown camel2 in irn it returns again to the notion yellow or reddish4 ,the ,hebrew of the ,talmd and the ,targm employs yr 7which in ,biblical ,hebrew is mostly used for green1 but sometimes of a pale face for yellow1 e4g4 yrn #8jaundice'7 chiefly for a green colour1 of vegetables and precious stones2#dad nevertheless1 we find in the ,talmd 7,bab4 ,nedrm1 #cb4 a7 hrn bezhbh #8he made it yr with gold1' i4e4 made it yellow1 gilded it4 ,we have in ,ps4 ,,lxviii4 #ad #ac yerara chr1 flavedo auri4 ,there is a noteworthy passage in ,bershth rabb 7sect4 #d near the end71 in which the various colours of the sky are mentioned3 red1 black1 white1 and also yr4 ,the above remarks show how little consistency and distinctness there is in the relation of the names derived from colour to the various types of colour4 ,the same result is reached when we inquire1 with what designations of colour other objects are combined4 ,for we find almost everywhere the greatest fluctuation1 whether we consider the etymological value of the names themselves1 or study the adjectives attached to them4 ,in the most favourable cases only the class of colour--light or dark--is observed2 but within the class nothing definite is found4 ,arabic especially is a field offering abundant matter for observation and demonstration1 on which the excellent labours of ,lazarus ,geiger might be corroborated1 completed and extended2 but ,i cannot undertake such a task at this place4 ,we will now limit our observations to the point which has to be established here3 the views of colour which were attached to day and night1 the sunny sky and the night-sky1 the grey of the morning and the red of the evening4 ,in the ,vedas1 when day and night1 sun and darkness1 are opposed to each other1 the one is designated red1 the other black4 #8,the gods have made the night and the dawn of different hue1 and given them black and red colours' 7,rigveda1 ,i4 #gc4 #g74 #8,the red mother of the red calf comes2 the black leaves his place to her' 7,rigveda1 ,i41 #aac4 #b74 #8,the dawn comes forward1 driving off black night' 7,rigveda1 ,i4 #ib4 #e3 compare ,,vi4 #fd4 #c74dae ,in ,hebrew poetry we find no similar case1 in which the opposite colours of the antagonistic forces are thus clearly set against one another4 ,indeed1 we do not even find that a separate colour-epithet is given to each4 ,still it seems certain that at least ,night was brought into connexion with the colour black2#daf otherwise a sentence such as #8,darker than ,blackness 7chshakh mish-shechr7 is their form' 7,lam4 ,,iv4 #h7 would be impossible4 ,we may infer from this that the notions of chshekh #8,darkness' and shechr #8,blackness' were closely connected together4 ,this is in ,arabic one of the commonest combinations4 ,the dark night is sometimes called al-leyl al-lik--a word denoting the deepest shade of blackness4 ,to the same class also belongs adaj 7in leyl adaj #8black night'71 another adjective denoting black4 ,chudryya is an ,arabic word which denotes both raven#dag and night 7one cannot help thinking of the ,hebrew erebh #8evening' and rbh #8raven'74 ,the verb iktaal is used of ,night3 #8,she has coloured herself with the black dye#dah al-kul1 e4g4 wa-l-alm ia-ktaal 7,rom4 of ,antar1 ,,vi4 #ec4 #ab74 ,poetry gives the same evidence as language itself4 ,as in other literatures1 so in ,arabic1 darkness is the term of comparison for everything black4 ,the black hero of the best loved ,arabic popular romance is pictured as 'black as the colour of darkness1 riding on a horse which resembles the darkness of night' 7aswad kalaun al-alm ala jawd min al-cheyl yak alm al-leyl3 ,rom4 of ,antar1 ,,iv4 #ahc4 #ad74 ,this is the source of a poetic figure much used by ,arabic poets in application to a mistress with light features and dark hair4 ,so ,bekr b4 al-,na says 7ams1 p4 #eff73 #8,she is as white as if she were herself the brilliant noonday-sky1 as if her black hair were the night which darkens it4' ,the black hero ,antar1 contrasting his own colour and that of his beloved ,abl1 compares himself regularly with the night1 and her with the dawn 7e4g4 ,antar1 ,,vii4 #acf penult474 ,she herself once addressed him thus1 #8,go1 in the name of ,god1 thou colour of night' 7sir f mni-llhi y laun al-duja1 ,,vi4 #afb4 #d71 and he often repeats the idea that his colour and that of night are the same4 ,thus 7,,xviii4 #ff4 #ab73 ,in akun y ,ablata abdan aswad 99 fasawdu-l-leyli min bai ift ,wafachr annan yauma-l-lii 99 yachau--ubu liseyf wa-anti4 ,though ,i am1 ,abl1 a black slave1 ,and the blackness of night is one of my qualities1 ,yet it is my boast that on the day of encounter ,the ,dawn bows before my bow and spear4 ,as a black man is compared to night1 so1 inversely1 the latter is likened to a black gipsy4 ,ab-l-,al al-,maarr1 who is remarkable for accurate pictures of nature1 says of the sky dazzling with stars1 #8,this night is a ,gipsy's bride1 decked out with pearls3'#dai ,leylat hihi arsun min az-zan- 99 ji aleyh alidu min jumni4#dbj ,on another occasion the same poet 7,,ii4 #ajf4 #d7 compares the night to black ink3 ,katabn wa-arabn bi-ibrin min ad-duja 99 sura-s-sura f ahri beya balai4 ,and one of the most ordinary descriptions of darkening is that #8,night put on her black adornments4'#dba ,from all this it is seen that it is perfectly usual and matter-of-course to associate ,night with the colour ,black4#dbb ,indeed1 by the ,black the poet understands par excellence ,night4 ,ab-l-,al al-,maarr1 the poet so frequently quoted in this section1 says at one place 7ibid4 ,i4 #aca4b73 #8,the ,black one1 whose father is unknown to men1 has shrouded me in clothes from himself 7i4e4 in black or dark ones74' ,nevertheless1 we can convince ourselves here too1 that even this point of the conception of colour is not devoid of fluctuation4 ,for the blackness of night is not nearly so distinct a conception as ours when we speak of a black night4 ,on the contrary1 it is not yet separated from the general category of dark colour1 to which green and blue also belong4 ,when the land of the ,ban ,madhij was visited with drought1 the tribe sent out three explorers 7ruwwd1 from the singular rid71 to look for suitable pasturage4 ,one of them says in his report in praise of the splendid green meadows of the land he recommends1 that the surface of the land is like night1 so green is it4#dbc ,al-,afwah1 a ,preislamite ,arabic poet and sage1#dbd in a verse quoted by the lexicographer al-,jauhar 7under the root sds71 associates ,night with the colour of suds4 ,so also ,ab ,nucheyl1#dbe a later poet who lived under the ,abbasid dynasty as their laureate1 says #8,put on as thy shirt ,night1 black and dark like the colour of sundus'3 ,waddari jilbba leylin damasi 99 aswada djin mithli launi-s-sundusi4#dbf ,another anonymous poet1 or rather verse-monger1 says in the same sense #8,among the nights a dark night1 when the sky is like the colour of sundus'3 ,waleylatin min-al-layl indisi 99 launu awshh kalaimi-s-sundusi4#dbg ,but suds and sundus denote a garment the colour of which is regularly mentioned as achar #8greenish4' ,so1 e4g41 twice in the orn 7,sr4 ,,xviii4 #cj1 ,,lxxvi4 #ba71 where the joys and delights of ,paradise are described1 green sundus garments are promised to the faithful2 and similarly in a tradition mentioned by al-azli#dbh we find it said of men who become brethren in ,god1 #8,their beauty shines like the sun1 and they are clothed in green sundus garments' 7wa-aleyhim thib sundus chur74 ,but this uncertainty of the colour which is associated with the ,night is far less prominent than the fluctuation which prevails when the colour of the ,day has to be described4 ,in the former case1 with a few exceptions based on the impression which a certain peculiar night may have made on the mind of the speaker or poet1 black is by far the prevailing colour4 ,not so with the colour-distinctions of the solar phenomena4 ,here usage wavers among three colours1 which are usually connected with the various stages of the ,sun himself3 golden-yellow1 red1 and white4 ,the greatest definiteness is found to exist with reference to the first4 ,it refers mostly to the dawn and sunset4 ,in ,aramaic the early morning is afr4 ,etymologically this word is capable of many explanations which justify the above-expounded mythical conceptions of the dawn4 ,it may be explained1 as the soundest lexicographers on ,semitic ground do explain it1#dbi to denote curled locks of hair1 or one who springs1 leaps4 ,both explanations take us back to mythic attributes of the morning-sun2 in the second we see the morning-sun springing up to heaven from behind the hills like a bird 7ippr74 ,but ,i believe that the word afr is related to afar1 a colour-name in ,arabic1 which1 though like all such it has an extremely vague signification1 and may even mean nigredo1 prevailingly indicates a golden-yellow colour4 ,now while the ,aramaic afr is exclusively the morning-sun 7compare 1 ,iliad1 ,,viii4 #a1 and of the night71 in ,arabic the colour-word in question is prevailingly applied to the evening-sun3 #8,until upon him came the end of the day1 and the ,sun put on the garment of yellowness' 7ila an at aleyhi chir al-nahr wa-labisat al-shams ullat al-ifirr1 ,rom4 of ,antar1 ,,vi4 #bdd4 #a74 ,another example1 in which the succession of time comes out with still greater clearness1 is3 #8,they had defeated al-,nomn at noon2 then they took rest till the ,sun put on the garment of yellowness1 and towards evening dust appeared before them' 7wa-kn ad saba al-,nomn bi-nif al-nahr wa-acha r atta labisat al-shams ullat al-ifirr wa-ind al-mas ala aleyhim obr1 ,rom4 of ,antar1 ,,vi4 #ce4 #b74 ,it is remarkable that in ,egyptian the setting sun is said to throw out rays of tahen--a metal distinguished for its saffron colour1 which is frequently contrasted with the colour red4#dcj ,chabas finds this contrast to constitute a difficulty in the comparison with the setting sun4 ,semitic analogies1 however1 show that the association of saffron colour with the sun1 especially the evening-sun1 is not confined to ,egyptian4 ,no case on ,arabic ground is as yet known to me in which this yellowish colour1 al-ifirr1 is attributed to any other stage of the sun's course except the evening4 ,but there is the word aba 7from ub #8the early morning'7 #8morning-coloured1' used of the lion1 which is said to denote a colour near to afar4#dca ,at all events1 the ,aramaic afr and the ,arabic usage teach us that a yellow colour is in ,semitic an attribute of both the morning- and the evening-sun4 ,it is very different with the two other colours1 white and red4 ,there we meet with greater fluctuations4 ,sometimes the morning-sun is described as white1 in comparison with the sun of the advanced day2 sometimes the former is bright red and the latter white3 ,kaanna sana-l-fajreyni lamm tawlay 99 damul-achaweyni zafarni wa-ayda4 ,afa ala tlhima--ubu mahu 99 faayyara min ishri amara mushbai4 ,as if the light of the two daybreaks when they follow one after the other ,were the blood of the two brothers saffron and red4 ,the dawn poured its waters over the latter1 ,and changed into white its deep red4#dcb ,at its very first appearance the morning-dawn is of saffron colour1 then a bright red comes1 and the further the day advances1 the whiter it becomes4 ,the two daybreaks 7al-fajrn71 as the scholiast observes on this passage1 are al-kib wa-l-di--the lying or supposed one1 which precedes the true dawn1 and the latter itself4 ,the very poet1 however1 from whom ,i quote this fragment1 at another place exactly inverts the order of colour3 representing the white or grey colour as appearing first1 and then passing into the reddish or saffron4 ,in a poem to a friend1 in which he gives a beautiful description of night1 he brings forward ,night as in love with the stars4 ,but she grows old-- ,thumma shba-d-duja wa-chfa min al-haj- 99 ri faaa-l-mashba bi-z-zafarni4 ,and ,night grew grey1 and feared the desertion of her lover1 the starry heaven3 ,so she dipped her grey hair into saffron4#dcc ,the idea that the poet intends to express here is1 that ,night at its latter end becomes grey1 when the grey morning begins to appear1 and that to preserve the appearance of youth and be still acceptable to her lover she must put on red paint4 ,but even the brightness of the sun by day 7i al-nahr7 is compared by the same poet to the grey hairs of an old man 7,,ii4 #bbf4 #b71 as is also the brightness of the stars3#dcd ,rah sallu -ni wa-sh-sheybu shmilun 99 lah bith-thureyy w-s-simkeyni wa-l-wazni4#dce ,he that was brought out of clay ,adam saw it the world1 when its hair was all grey1 ,with the ,pleiades1 the two ,fishes and the ,balance4 ,we find the same figure1 of which we have seen ,ab-l-,al to be so fond1 used by ,ab-l-asan ,al b4 ,is al-,waddn1 a ,mareb ,north ,african poet1 who says of the morning3 #8,it is like the greyness which spreads itself over the black hair of youth 7the black night73' ,dna--abu wa-l ata wa-kaannahu 99 sheybun aalla ala sawdi shibb4#dcf ,so1 inversely1 when the hair grows grey it is said #8,the dark night is lighted4'#dcg ,from all these cases it may be gathered that the progress of the sun from the dawn to the full day is treated sometimes as a transition from a whitish to a reddish colour1 sometimes as the reverse4 ,sometimes the redness of morning begins1 and turns into white2 sometimes the greyness1 which passes into red4#dch ,but both conceptions are also found combined in a single idea3 thus1 for instance1 al-,arj the poet says3 ,bt bi-anmi leylatin atta bad 99 subun talawwaa ka-l-aarri-l-ashkari4 ,they both passed a joyous night1 until began ,the morning to appear1 like a red horse with white forehead-spot 7urr74#dci ,some already-cited examples have enabled us to observe that when day is contrasted with night1 it is done by calling the night black and the day white4 ,to the former instances ,i will now add another for clearness' sake3 #8,till the whiteness of the day became black' 7atta da bay al-nahr sawdan1 ,rom4 of ,antar1 ,,xxv4 #e4 #d74 ,the attribute white1 applied to the sun of the advanced day1 is especially clear in a passage which ,i must not omit to mention4 ,the poet al-,mutanabb says3 ,azruhum wa-sawdu-l-leyli yashfaun 99 wa-anthan wa-bayu--ubi yur b4 ,i visit them when the blackness of the night aids me2 ,and ,i retire when the whiteness of the morning drives me away4 ,a critic#ddj remarks on this passage that the writer ought to have spoken of the day rather than of the whiteness of the morning1 as the rhetorical law of al-mubal #8antithesis' demands as the opposite to ,night not ,dawn1 but ,day4 ,thus #8the whiteness of day' would be better4 ,another passage with the antithesis is contained in arr3 #8,the white day becomes black' 7iswadda-l-yaum al-abya74#dda ,this use of language is characteristically exemplified in the expression sirn baya jaumin wa-sawda leylatin1 #8we travelled night and day' 7literally1 #8we travelled during the whiteness of our day and the blackness of our night1' ,an1 ,,ii4 #gd4 #bj74 ,but apart from any antithesis1 the white colour is attributed to the light of the morning and the day3 falamma-rtafaat al-shams fabyat1 #8after the sun had risen high and become white1' is said in a tradition4#ddb ,in the ,romance of ,antar 7,,xxiv4 #aaa4 #c71 a horse is thus described3 #8he was white in colour1 as if he were the day when it breaks1 or the moon#ddc when it shines with full beams' 7wa-hua abya al-laun kaannahu al-ab ia-nfajar wa-l-amar i badar74 ,on ,assyrian ground also we discover the idea of the whiteness of the sun1 expressed1 not indeed by a word directly signifying a colour1 but yet by an epithet which is undoubtedly founded upon this idea4 ,in the lyrical poem1 called by ,schrader #8,the ,assyrian ,royal ,psalm' 7line #bi71 a land with a silver sky1#ddd i4e4 with a bright shining sunny sky1 is desired for the king4 ,so here the bright sunny sky is represented as of silver colour4 ,on the other hand1 omarm1 the name of a ,himyarite god1#dde has perhaps a solar meaning1 equivalent to the ,arabic amar #8,red2' at all events1 the fancy that he may be a sort of ,bacchus 7chamr #8wine'7 sounds improbable4 ,in ,hebrew literature we find no direct indications of the colours which were associated with the sun3 an indirect indication is afforded by the passage in ,is4 ,,xxiv4 #bc1 where it is said that #8the sun grows pale and the moon red4'#ddf ,in the ,talmd literature1 however1 we find an incidental discussion of the colour of the sun2 to which one of the ,excursus is devoted4#ddg ,i have paused long on the ideas held of the ,sun with reference to colour1 longer than is consistent with the symmetry of my book1 and have especially brought up many examples from the ,arabic language1 celebrated for its wealth of synonyms and epithets--all with the object of giving probability to my ideas on the mythical character of ,esau or ,edom and ,laban1 ,jacob's two hostile kinsmen4 ,we have seen that the sun is called white quite as frequently as red2#ddh now is it not certain beyond a doubt that the two foes of ,jacob the ,night-sky1 namely ,edom the red and ,laban the white1 are only names for the ,sun1 formed by the ,hebrew myth on the ground of the sun's colour8 ,the war of darkness and the stormy sky against the red or white sunny sky is described in the rich language of ,mythology1 which has devoted such multifarious appellations to this struggle1 as a strife of one who follows on the heel of his brother1 against the white and the red4 ,here we will return to a point which was anticipated in the ,third ,section of this chapter2 ,i mean the fact that the mythic feature which1 with other solar characteristics1 has fastened itself on the description of ,david1 a perfectly historical person1 that he was admn #8reddish1' belongs to the same group of mythic ideas4 ,it is a bit of solar myth3 #8,he is red1 and of excellent sight and good eyes' 7#a ,sam4 ,,xvi4 #ab74 ,thus the mythical appellations ,jacob1 ,edom1 and ,laban appear to be cleared up1 and the features belonging to them have discovered to us the nocturnal character of the first-named and the solar of the two latter personages4 ,i have confined myself to the most essential point1 the statement of the fact and the identification of the mythic figures in the centre of the story4 ,if we were to use the collateral points also as mythic matter1 more abundant results might be attained4 ,but we must limit ourselves to an investigation of the main features1 since in the present position of mythological inquiry it would be difficult and dangerous to try to pick out with any confidence from the epic descriptions in the ,bible all that belongs to the original myth4 ,it might1 for instance1 be urged that ,jacob is endowed with a deceitful character1 since he cheats the one of his blessing and his birthright1 and the other of his sheep 7,hermes71 and this might be treated as characteristic of the night1 as the figures of the night-sky are credited elsewhere with a thievish nature4 #8,like thieves1' said the ancient ,indian singer1 #8so the nights stole away with their stars1 that ,srya might become visible' 7,rigveda1 ,i4 #ej4 #b74 ,in a legend of the ,palatinate the ,king of the ,night residing at the ,ice-sea stole the ,sun2#ddi ,rachel steals the household-gods of her father ,laban 7,gen4 ,,xxxi4 #ai72 and ,jacob himself1 as the ,scripture expresses it1 steals the heart of ,laban the ,aramean1 not telling him of his intention to fly 7v4 #bj74 ,now wrapt in mantle1 like a thief1 the ,night is seen1 ,she covers o'er her silver-studded raiment's sheen4 says ,arany1 in his #8,gipsies of ,nagy-,ida'#dej 7,canto ,i4 v4 #ba74 ,but what ,i have hitherto explained is only one side of ,jacob's mythical characteristics3 we have seen against whom he fought4 ,but ,jacob did not only fight3 he loved also1 loved with tenderness and self-abnegation4 ,he wooed1 he married2 and the history of his children takes up a considerable portion of the ,book of ,genesis4 ,the loves of the ,night-sky1 the names of his wives whom he gained by conquest1 and of the children that came out of his loins1 must be an important part of the ,myth of the ,night-sky2 and we should be accomplishing our task very imperfectly if we refused to enter on the consideration of these figures of ,hebrew mythology4 #ab4 ,let us turn first to his women4 ,he has both wives and so-called concubines4 ,in my opinion this distinction belongs to the original form of the myth2 and some explanation of its significancy must be given at the outset4 ,there is another already-discussed name of the night-sky1 ,abhrm1 with which are associated both a legitimate wife ,sr1 and a concubine ,hgr2 and in the latter we discovered the mythical bearer of a solar name1 #8the ,flying one4' ,this circumstance leads to the discovery that1 whilst the concubines in mythical phraseology are figures of opposite nature to their master1 like ,hagar a solar figure to ,abram the dark sky1 the names of the legitimate wives represent figures homogeneous to the nature of the husband4 ,this is the case preeminently with ,sarah1 ,abram's wife4 ,the name signifies ,princess1 ,lady1 the ,princess of the ,heaven1 the ,moon1 the ,queen who rules over the great army of the night-sky 7ebh hash-shmaym74 ,another name of the moon in ,hebrew mythology is probably ,milk 7the wife of ,abraham's brother ,nahor1 ,gen4 ,,xi4 #bi71 i4e4 #8the ,queen'--not expressly wife1 but grammatically the feminine form of ,melekh 7,abh-melekh7 #8,king' 7the ,sun71 like ,ashr 7,moon7 from shr 7,sun71 or ,lebhn 7,moon7 from ,lbhn 7,sun74 #8,queen or ,princess of ,heaven' is a very frequent name for the ,moon4#dea ,we learn most remarkable facts from the ,chaldee-,babylonian series of deities1 which1 though not old enough to be a myth1 must1 like every theogony1 have sprung from mythology misunderstood4 ,in this system1 in which the deities are arranged in male and female triads1 so that there is always a male deity parallel to the goddess of the female triad who stands at the same spot1 ,sn 7the ,moon7 and ,gula of the male triad are balanced respectively by #8the highest ,princess' and by ,malkt #8the ,queen' in the female2 and these are only ,sarah and ,milcah again4 ,istar also is described as ,princess 7sarrat7 of heaven2#deb which is probably connected with the fact that this goddess of the ,assyrian ,pantheon1 who is commonly compared to ,venus1 in later times became a moon-goddess4#dec ,sir ,h4 ,rawlinson says that in ,damascius may be cognate with the ,assyrian ,sheruha or ,sheruya1 the wife of ,asshr1 and signify #8the ,queen4'#ded ,and as it is the stars over which the ,queen of the night-sky bears sway1 she is siderum regina in ,horace 7,carmen saeculare1 v4 #ce74dee ,even in the latest times the ,hebrews called the moon the #8,queen of ,heaven' 7mele-kheth hash-shmaym1 ,jer4 ,,vii4 #ah71 and paid her divine honours in this character at the time of the ,captivity4 ,the ,hebrew women who had migrated to ,egypt answered the ,prophet who warned them3 #8,as to the word that thou has spoken unto us in the name of ,jahveh1 we do not listen to thee2 for we shall certainly do all the things that have gone forth from our own mouth2 burning incense to the ,queen of ,heaven1 and pouring libations to her as we have done1 we and our fathers1 our kings and princes1 in the cities of ,judah and the streets of ,jerusalem1 and were filled with food and were happy and saw no evil2 whereas ever since we have ceased to burn incense to the ,queen of ,heaven and pour libations to her1 we have wanted everything1 and been consumed by sword and famine4 ,and when we were burning incense to the ,queen of ,heaven and pouring libations to her1 was it without our men that we made cakes for her1 to receive her image1 and poured libations to her8' 7,jer4 ,,xliv4 #af-ai74 ,this reply leads us to infer that the moon-worship in ,judah was specially attractive to the women and allowed by the men1 and was not a mere secondary religious act1 but a prominent worship of the first rank2 yet a worship which1 considering the prevailingly solar character of the religion of an agricultural people1 was then kept up chiefly by the women as the relic of an ancient nomadic age4 ,what was the antiquity of this lunar worship among the ,hebrews1 is testified 7as has long been known7 by the part played by ,mount ,sinai in the history of ,hebrew religion4 ,for this geographical name is doubtless related to ,sin1 one of the ,semitic names of the moon4 ,the mountain must in ancient times have been consecrated to the ,moon4#def ,the beginning of the ,hebrew religion1 which1 as we shall see1 was connected with the phenomena of the night-sky1 germinated first during the residence in ,egypt on the foundation of an ancient myth4 ,the recollection of this occasioned them to call the part of ,egypt which they had long inhabited ere ,snm #8,moonland' 7,is4 ,,xlix4 #ab74 ,obviously the lunar worship of ,nomads stands in connexion with the prominent position occupied by the figures of the night-sky in their mythology4 ,when1 through that psychological process which results in the decay of the life of the myth and the rise of a religious view of the world1 the mythic elements become religion1 then the ,moon is not believed to possess those deleterious qualities of which the later legends of the ,american nations are full1 but is rather regarded as the source of blessing and success4 ,the ,hebrews called the most fruitful place in their new country1 the #8,city of the ,palms1' formerly delightful1 though now a very cheerless hole1 by a name denoting ,moon-city--,yerch 7,jericho74 ,an analogous system of nomenclature is mentioned by amz of ,ipahn1 a ,persian who wrote in ,arabic1 who says in his ,kitb al-muwzan that1 because the moon is the cause of an abundant supply of water and of rain1 the names of the most fruitful places in ,persia are compounded with the word mh #8moon3' e4g4 ,mhidnr1 ,mhishereryrn1 ,mhikrn1 ,mhiharm c4#deg ,for1 in the opinion of the ,iranians the growth of plants depends on the influence of the moon4#deh ,the ,arabic language still shows clearly the mythical connexion between the moon and good pasture1#dei in the fact that the same word1 which as a noun1 al-amar1 signifies moon1 as a verb1 amara1 expresses the notion multus fuit 7de aqua et pabulo71 and amir means multa aqua4 ,the nomadic ,hebrews called ,sarah1 the ,princess of ,heaven1#dfj i4e4 of the night-sky1 ,abram's legitimate wife4 ,the same relation between wife and concubine comes out with still greater distinctness in the case of ,jacob1 ,abram's synonym4 ,his legitimate wives are ,leah and ,rachel2 to the latter he is bound by the tenderest love--a love which in the view of the ,biblical writer became the ideal of self-sacrificing conjugal affection4 ,both their names are homogeneous to ,jacob's mythical character1 and the bearers of these mythical appellations are figures of the dark sky of night and clouds4 ,it will be regarded by serious investigators as no mere chance that the word ,l in its origin signifies the same as ,dell1 namely1 languida1 defatigata1 the ,languishing1 ,weary1 ,weak--the setting ,sun that has finished its day's work1 or rather the time when there is no longer any sun1 but the ,night1 who cuts off from her long-haired lover or bridegroom the locks 7crines ,phoebi7 in which his whole force resides2 the ,night1 which robs the ,sun of his splendid rays1 and causes him to fall powerless to the ground and lie blind on the battle-field4 ,even in a product of the ,jewish literature of a later age the expression chlsh #8weak1 debilitated' is used of the setting sun4 #8,he is like a hero who goes forth strong and returns home powerless2 thus the sun at his rising is a mighty hero1 and at his setting a weakling4'#dfa ,nothing similar is connected with the name ,l2 yet it is clear that this name is an appellation of the setting sun or the advancing night1 when we read3 wen ,l rakkth #8the eyes of ,leah were weak' 7,gen4 ,,xxix4 #ag74dfb ,how closely the ideas #8,end' 7here that of the day7 and #8,weariness' hang together in ,semitic1 we see clearly in the ,aramaic word shilh1 shilh #8end1' which is developed out of the ,shaphl form of the root leh 7the ,hebrew l1 whence the name ,l71 which denotes #8to be wearied4'#dfc ,the name ,rchl is still clearer and less ambiguous4 ,it signifies #8,sheep4' ,when the ancients raised their eyes to heaven and saw grey clouds slowly driving over the celestial fields1 they discovered there the same as our children see when in their innocent imaginations they find figures of hills and animals in the sky4 ,men who form myths stand in this respect on the same intellectual stage as our children4 ,how finely has ,angelo de ,gubernatis1 in the introduction to his most original work #8,zoological ,mythology1' attached his profound explanations of the old animal-mythology1 which are based upon a sympathetic poetical feeling after the sentiments of a mythic age1 to vivid memories of that early age in which the enquirer after myths himself looked up to heaven and made myths6 ,moreover1 what the primitive humanity that created myths and the children of our advanced modern age read in the picture-book of nature1#dfd is still found there by people who1 although they no longer make myths1 yet excel us in immediate observation of nature4 ,the sandhills and downs of the ,sahara are variously called by the natives kelb #8,dog1' kebsh #8,ram1' or chashm el-kelb or chashm el-kebsh #8,dog's nose' or #8,ram's nose4'#dfe ,but it is chiefly the clouds that gave so much food to fancy4 ,on ,arabic ground we can refer to a treatise by ,ab ,bekr ibn ,dureyd1 a linguist of an early age known to every ,arabist1 on the #8,description of the ,rain and the ,cloud1' which the learned ,professor ,william ,wright has published in a useful collection4 ,in this treatise many a vivid picture is to be found which exhibits the continual working of the old mythic views4#dff ,even a modern literature nearer to us may be quoted2 for who knows not the classical passage in ,shakespeare1 where ,polonius makes observations on the forms of the clouds--a series of mythical observations1 which the same poet allows another of his heroes to condense into a mythological rsum3 ,sometime we see a cloud that's dragonish2 ,a vapour sometime like a bear or lion1 ,a tower'd citadel1 a pendent rock1 ,a forked mountain1 or blue promontory ,with trees upon 't1 that nod unto the world1 ,and mock our eyes with air4 ,antony and ,cleopatra1 ,,iv4 #ad4 ,if the sky is a pasture1 it is most natural to see in the clouds beasts feeding there4 ,so the nomad ,arab sees in the clouds herds of camels1#dfg and calls a small herd of twenty or thirty camels by the same name by which he describes a broken-off fragment of cloud--al-irm4 ,the poet ,ab ibl calls a rain-cloud dal1 i4e4 #8a heavily laden camel2'#dfh and according to the ,arabian philologist al-,tebrz a cloud accompanied by thunder and lightning is called al-annn #8the bellowing1' because the ancient ,arabs compared a thundering cloud#dfi to a camel that breaks out into loud bellowing from painful desire to reach home4#dgj ,how full of meaning is the myth that lies hidden behind this expression annn6 ,the camel on a journey has gone far away from home1 longs to be back again1 and bellows with terrible pain3 it is the ,thunder4#dga ,and this myth was not confined to the ,arabs2 we find a slight trace of it among the later ,jews1 in the ,talmd4 ,when it thundered1 they said1 #8,the clouds groan4' ,ach b4 ,jaabh describes meteorological phenomena in the following words3 #8,the lightning sparkles1 the clouds groan 7menahamn ann71 and the rain comes' 7,berkhth1 fol4 #ei4 a74 ,this mythical conception is only a variation of the more general view that thunder is a lion's roaring 7,job ,,xxxvii4 #d2 shag is used specially of the lion71 out of which grew the roaring of ,jahveh1 mentioned in many passages of prophecy and poetry--a result of the monotheistic transformation of mythical ideas4 ,in ,arabic hamhama is used both of the lion's roaring and of thunder2 and so also zamjara4 ,in the work of ,ibn ,dureyd already quoted an ,arab says of a thunder-cloud1 #8,its thunders groan like camels longing to get home 7irb71 and roar like raging lions4'#dgb ,the ,arab saw in the clouds a herd of camels1 in a single cloud a single camel4#dgc ,the ostrich1 which is a favourite term of comparison in ,arabic poetry1 is also seen by them in the clouds4 ,zuheyr b4 ,urw says of a little cloud visible behind a larger one1 that it was an ostrich hung up by the feet 7kaanna-r-rabba duweyna-s-sabi 99 namun tuallau bi-l-arjuli74#dgd ,from the ,hebrew mythology we have the similar conception of the cloud as a sheep1 as ,rchl4 ,she is the legitimate wife of the dark1 nocturnal or overclouded sky4 ,when the cloud let fall its wet burden in drizzling rain upon the earth1 the primitive ,hebrews said #8,rachel is weeping for her children'--a phrase preserved from an age of mythic ideas1 which was retained to a late age in a very different sense4#dge ,for as the ,arab regarded the thunder as the cloud's cry of pain1 so the ,hebrew could see in the rain ,rachel's tears4 ,even up to the present day the ,arabs say of the rain3 #8,the sky weeps1 the clouds weep2'#dgf and the idea was not strange to the ,greek1 who spoke of the #8,tears of ,zeus4'#dgg ,in the ,romance of ,antar1 ,,xxv4 #eh4 #d1 it is said of the rain3 ,the gloomy heaven weeps with tears1 that stream in constant flow ,out from the eye of a rainful cloud4 ,the poet ,ibn ,mueyr says most beautifully of the weeping sky3 #8,the cloud smiles at the lighting up 7of the lightning71 and weeps from the corners of her eyes1 the moisture of which is not excited by splinters 7sticking in the eye72 and without either joy or grief she combines laughing and weeping4'#dgh ,rachel has a favourite son called ,ysph 7,joseph74 ,this name signifies3 #8,he multiplies1' or1 from the explanation already given1 #8,the ,multiplier4' ,he is called in a hymn addressed to him1 #8,the blessing of the heaven above1 the blessing of the flood that lies below1 the blessing of the 7female7 breasts and of the womb' 7,gen4 ,,xlix4 #be74 ,can we doubt that this is the ,rain1 which multiplies--the blessing from above1 which lies below in floods of water1 the rain which mythologically was so often regarded as the nutritive milk of the milked cows of the clouds8#dgi ,and probably the old ,arabic idol called ,zidatu1#dhj i4e4 #8the ,multiplieress1' has the same mythological signification as the synonymous term ,joseph in ,hebrew1 and may therefore be regarded as a goddess of ,rain4 ,can the least doubt be felt1 that #8the ,multiplier1' the son of the cloud1 must be the rain1 as wine is called the daughter of the grape1#dha and the fruit the son of the tree1#dhb and as bread is called in ,arabic jbiru-bnu abbata1 like #8,strengthener1 son of ,mrs4 ,grain8'#dhc ,moreover1 while these latter views are natural1 but not spread abroad everywhere1 the idea that the rain is the child of the cloud is universal4 ,we meet it among the ,greeks1 for ,pindar sings3 444 ' 1 7,olymp4 ,,xi4 #b1 #c71-- just like the ,arabs4 ,the poet ,moammed b4 ,abd al-,malik said1 when a violent shower of rain delayed the arrival of his friend al-asan b4 ,wahab1 #8,i know not how to express my complaint against one heaven which keeps back from me another heaven 7the friend71 unless indeed ,i utter curse and blessing together3 ,let the former become childless1 and the latter live long4'#dhd ,the cloudy heaven was to lose his children--i4e4 the rain was to cease4 ,lastu adr m alu wa-ashk 99 min samin taun an sam ayra ann ad ala tilka bi-th-thuk- 99 l wa-ad lihihi bi-l-bai4 ,it is this #8,multiplier1 ,son of the ,cloud1' alone who can bring aid when the earth is visited by long drought and famine4 ,the multiplying ,rain gives back to the parched earth her fertility and procures nourishment for starving mankind4 ,this simple idea is formed from the mythic base into the story of the famine in ,egypt and ,joseph's aid in allaying it4 ,the myth itself1 while it lived1 was general1 not bound by time or place1 limited neither geographically or chronologically4 ,when no longer understood and when lost to human consciousness1 it became a locally defined legend1 belonging to a certain historical period4 ,this is the same experience which meets us in most of the myths of ,hellenic ,heroes4 ,the ,sun1 which daily assails with an iron club and slays the monsters of darkness and the storms1 when personified as ,herakles does his deeds in a small place in ,hellas1 ,nemea or ,lerna4 ,while ,joseph imparts fertility to the parched earth1 and in his character of #8,multiplier' delivers it from the curse which rested on it1 the prophetic hero1 in whom we have already detected some solar features1 does the opposite4 ,elijah1 who ascends to heaven on a fiery chariot with a fiery horse1 the #8hairy man1' curses the soil of the ,hebrew land in the time of ,ahab 7again a localising and chronological limitation of what the myth had told in general terms without such limitation7 with drought1 want of rain1 and unfruitfulness2 he is the cause of a fearful famine 7#a ,kings ,,xvii4 #a74 ,the #8,multiplier' has also severe contests to sustain4 ,the most celebrated of them is that which he maintains against her who loves him dearly1 whose name is preserved to us only in legendary tradition--,zalch1 the #8,swift-marching4'#dhe ,we know her already4 ,he flies from the temptress1 but leaves his cloak in her hand 7,gen4 ,,xxxix4 #ab74 ,this feature1 which seems to us only accessory1 may have been an important element of the original myth4 ,we shall see further on1 that the figures of the night-sky or the dark sky generally are provided with a covering or cloak1 with which they cover over the earth or the sun1 and thus produce darkness4 ,it is a different battle that he fights against his brothers1 the #8,possessors of arrows1' i4e4 the sun-rays1 which shoot at the rain-cloud and try to drive it off4 ,joseph's persecution by his own brothers and expulsion to ,egypt is only the other side of the ,egyptian myth of ,osiris and ,typhon and the ,phenician myth of ,adonis2 the solar hero being in the latter cases1 and the rain-hero in the former case1 the object of persecution4 ,while the sarcophagus of ,osiris starts from ,egypt on its travels1 and lands at ,byblos on the ,phenician coast1 ,joseph when sold goes in the opposite direction from ,canaan to ,egypt4 ,both these myths became local legends1 one in ,egypt1 the other in ,canaan2 consequently the direction of the wandering is modified in conformity with the locality4 ,from the battle of the rainy sky against the solar heroes with their arrows our myth makes the ,rainbow to arise3 just as the lightning was called #8the ,arrow of ,god1' so the rainbow was in later times described as the #8,bow of ,god' 7asht1 ,gen4 ,,ix4 #ac74 ,the later legend of civilisation gives to the rainbow a foundation which is quite foreign to mythology4 ,in mythology the rainbow appears to be attributed to ,joseph1 who1 when overcome and driven off the field by the #8,possessors of arrows1' is after all not totally defeated1 for #8his bow abode in strength' 7,gen4 ,,xlix4 #bd74 ,this expression indicates the following conception4 ,when the rain-cloud was driven from its place by the solar heroes1 he fixed his bow in the sky1 to be ready for a future fight4 ,thus in the ,hebrew myth the rainbow is a bow belonging to the hero of storms4 ,we find the same idea in the ,arabic mythology4 ,besides other names1 the rainbow bears that of ausu uzaa1 #8the bow of uza' 7who has been proved to be a storm-hero72 and it may be gathered from some passages which ,tuch has incidentally brought together in his ,treatise on ,sinaitic ,inscriptions1#dhf that uza shoots his arrows of lightning during the storms from this same bow1 which after the conclusion of the battle appears in the sky4 ,in the same ,hebrew hymn which contains the above mention of the ,bow1 ebhen ,yisrl #8the ,stone of ,israel' is named4 ,perhaps ,i am not at fault in conjecturing that the ,stone here has a solar signification1 and is used of the ,sun which after the victory over ,joseph appears on the firmament4 ,we know from ,schwartz's#dhg demonstrations1 which ,kuhn has recently confirmed in his academical treatise on the stages of development in the formation of ,myths1 that in mythical language the sun and other luminous bodies are called #8stones4' ,to the same mythic cycle belongs the circumstance that ,david slays his giant-foe by casting stones4 ,and tradition#dhh says that ,cain killed ,abel by throwing stones4 ,but on the whole we find in the above-quoted hymn 7called ,jacob's7 only slight hints that can be claimed for the mythic period2 for the remains of primeval hymns like that fragment were in later times so overgrown with matter derived from historical circumstances1 that we must be content if we can discover what were the points of view and conceptions chiefly represented by these fragments4 ,the reason why it is so difficult to reconstruct the old mythic view of the ,hebrews concerning the ,rainbow1 obviously lies in the fact that it was supplanted by a later theological explanation 7,gen4 ,,ix4 #ab-ag74 ,it is curious that the reason assigned in this later passage for the origin of the ,rainbow was not able to obtain general credence1 and that even ,christian popular legends frequently appear to flow from ancient mythic conceptions4 ,i will only mention an instance given by ,bernhard ,schmidt--the ,christians in ,zante call the rainbow 'the girdle1 or the bow of the ,virgin1 1 4#dhi #ac4 ,now while ,jacob's lawful wives are mythical figures homogeneous to himself1 as we have seen1 his collateral wives1 the two concubines ,zilpah and ,bilhah represent figures of the ancient myth standing in a position of opposition to ,jacob4 ,the mythical character of ,zilpah has been already determined1 in the ,seventh ,section of this chapter4 ,for this determination we had no other resource but the etymology of the name1 no mythical matter having been preserved concerning this mythical figure4 ,the case is reversed when we enquire into the meaning of ,bilhah4 ,the resource of etymology abandons us here2 for1 even if we assume that the abstract idea represented by the name must here be understood in a participial sense 7,bilh#8the ,trembling1 ,terrified'71 yet1 in the want of analogous cases1 the signification of the name brings us to no track worth pursuing4 ,but1 on the other hand1 we fortunately have a material myth 7as opposed to a mere name71 relating to ,bilhah3 #8,reuben went and lay with ,bilhah his father's concubine' 7,gen4 ,,xxxv4 #bb74 ,the transition from one aspect of nature to another is not always regarded by the myth from the point of view of a battle1 in which the vanishing aspect is represented by the conquered and the approaching one by the conqueror4 ,the myth speaks equally frequently of love and union1 i4e4 of sexual connexion4 ,the vanishing aspect disappears in that which immediately follows3 they become one1 as man and wife4 ,in the myths of sexual union1 the mythical feature that the two figures one of which follows the other are brother and sister1 father and daughter1 or mother and son1 is sometimes disregarded4 ,we had an example of this in the ,hebrew myth of the union of ,shechem with ,dinah4 ,this is very frequent in ,aryan mythology2 and it is sufficient to refer to the part of ,max ,mller's essay which deals with this subject4#dij ,there is a very fine myth of this kind1 preserved in a work ascribed to ,plutarch1 ,de fluviorum et montium nominibus 7,,iv4 #c74 ,it is there said with reference to the ,ganges1 #8,near it is situated the mountain ,anatole1 or the ,rising1' so called for the following reason3 #8,helios saw the maiden ,anaxibia dancing there1 and was seized with violent love for her4 ,no longer able to control his passion1 he pursued her with desire to force her to yield to his desire4 ,the maiden1 surrounded on every side1 escaped into the temple of ,artemis ,orthia on the mountain ,koryphe1 and was lost to the eyes of her pursuer4 ,he1 following after1 and unable to overtake his beloved1 went up to the same mountain grieving4 ,therefore the natives call the mountain ,anatole or #8,sun-uprising1' as ,kaemarus narrates in the tenth book of his #8,indian ,affairs4'#dia ,here1 where the sunrise is not even the result of a union1 but very characteristically that of disappointed love1 ,helios is no relative whatever of the ,dawn1 any more than ,shechem of ,dinah1 or ,abimelech1 the later ,sun-god 7,melekh1 compare ,abhbaal and ,baal71 of ,rebekah1 whom he loves 7,gen4 ,,xxvi71 or of ,sarah1 #8,moon1' whom he takes to himself 7,gen4 ,,xx74 ,however1 the view which we shall encounter in the myth of ,lot1 that the lovers or united couples are blood-relations1 brother and sister1 or parent and child1 is more prevalent4 ,the idea of a son in love with his mother is quite general in ,asiatic mythology1 as ,lenormant proves3 in the old ,babylonian mythology ,dz1 the ,hebrew ,tammz1 is lover of his mother ,istar1 c42#dib among the ,egyptians ,amn is called the husband of his mother ,neith2 and among the ,hindus ,pshan is described as both his sister's lover and his mother's husband4 ,when after long darkness a mysterious ,twilight slowly advanced1 followed by the ,dawn with ever-increasing rapidity1 the ,aryan said1 #8,prajpati loves his own daughter ,ushas and forces her1' or #8,indra seduces ,ahaly the ,night1' or forms a union with his mother ,dahan4#dic ,to the same class ,sarah also seems to belong1 as she is not only wife but also sister of ,abram4 ,reuben marries ,bilhah1 his mother1 or more correctly his father's wife4 ,reuben is a figure homogeneous to ,jacob1 and therefore belongs to the night1 as we discover most certainly from the circumstance that in the battle of the #8,possessors of arrows' against ,joseph he is on the side of the latter and tries to save him1 while ,judah1 a solar man1 proposes to sell ,joseph 7,gen4 ,,xxxvii4 #ba1 #bf74 ,in a myth such sympathy indicates that the subject and object of it are at all events not hostile figures3 we have already seen this in the relations between ,isaac and ,esau and between ,rebekah and ,jacob4 ,however1 ,reuben here seems not to be the night in general1 but the twilight which forms the beginning and the end of the night1 if we attach weight to the fact that ,reuben is ,jacob's son4 ,though unimportant and not even necessary for the appreciation of the myth1 this is very probable4 ,the ,sun is the mother of the ,twilight1 for the twilight proceeds from the sun4 ,so when at the end of the night the morning-darkness gives way to the sun or dawn and disappears in them1 ,reuben and ,bilhah are united4 ,whatever part the twilight may play here1 it is at least clear that this myth speaks of the union of ,night with its mother ,day3 when ,night gives place to ,day1 from whose womb it was born but yesterday1 then the myth says #8,reuben is marrying his mother4' #ad4 ,but before we continue the chapter on love and sexual union1 the materials of which are mainly drawn from the history of ,jacob's family1 it is desirable to insert some remarks on the mythological significance of that family4 ,our mythological observation leads to the following result4 ,from its first commencement the myth speaks of twelve children of ,jacob1 i4e4 of the dark night-sky4 ,these children1 on whose names the myth lays no stress1 can hardly be anything else than the shining troop which has its home in the night-sky--the ,moon and the ,eleven ,stars 7comp4 ,gen4 ,,xxxvii4 #i1 achad sr kkhbhm74 ,these are ,jacob's children1 though in a different sense from that in which ,isaac is the son of ,abraham1 or ,joseph the son of ,rachel4 ,in these latter instances the conception of a parental and filial relation was the result of the impression produced upon the creators of myths by constant succession2 in the case of ,jacob's sons it is only meant that the eleven stars and the moon together form the ,family of the ,night-sky4 ,this conception having once been grasped1 there was nothing to hinder creators of myths from speaking of a son of ,jacob who did not belong to that ,family4 ,and if there were a myth which said that ,jacob fought with his son1 as is said of ,abraham1 then we could not seek such a son in the family of stars which fills ,jacob's house4 ,it is a general rule which must never be lost out of sight in the investigation of myths1 that mythology does not present a system1 whose separate elements are comprehensive results1 or abstractions from continuous observation of nature4 ,what is told in the myth expresses how each single observation affects the mind of man4 ,hence the various modes in which the myth speaks of a phenomenon2 viewing it from various positions1 it constantly changes the names1 and recognises different relations4 ,whoever finds contradictions in all this must not turn against the interpreter and reconstructor of the myth1 but against the mind of man itself which created myths3 his dispute lies with the latter1 not with the method of mythological science4 ,jacob's twelve sons1 who are mentioned by name in the document in ,genesis1 can hardly have had their separate existence acknowledged at so early an age as that of the myth which comprised them under the general name of the twelve sons of the starry sky4 ,fathers of tribes with twelve or thirteen children 7even in the numeration of ,jacob's children this uncertainty of number occurs7 are frequently met with in ,biblical genealogies1 e4g4 ,joktan1 ,nahor1 and ,ishmael4 ,the same tendency towards the number twelve is encountered in genealogies in other parts of the world4 ,in the ,ojibwa legend ,getube has twelve children1 of whom the eldest is called ,mujekewis1 and the youngest1 who obtains great power and successfully repels the evil spirits1 ,wa-jeeg-e-wa-kon-ay4#did ,at a later time1 when a harmonising of the legendary matter1 not from a set purpose1 but from the acknowledged tendency of the human mind to bridge over contradictions1 was going on1 then a desire was felt to know the names of the twelve sons4 ,when mythic consciousness and the stage when the mind was self-impelled to mythic conception were long passed1 and the real meaning of names connected by mythology with certain deeds was no longer known1 twelve such names1 most of which had no longer any meaning1 were taken at random and called ,jacob's twelve sons4 ,thus were obtained twelve names to answer the general proposition1 #8,the ,twelve form the ,family of ,jacob4' ,among these names there are true sons of ,jacob1 i4e4 some who are declared by the myth itself to be so3 here the genealogical narrator employed data derived from the myth4 ,next1 there are some among them whom the myth treats not as sons of ,jacob but as sons of his wives4 ,for we must not forget that when ,joseph is said to be son of ,rachel1 the myth does not trouble itself to ask who the father was4 ,the conception that #8the ,rain is the son of the ,cloud1' which is expounded in the mythic description of ,joseph's birth1 is not the result of any consideration of the names of the two parents who gave life to him2 but the myth-former1 seeing the cloud heavy with rain and observing the rain dripping from its lap1 combined these two impressions and said1 #8,the ,cloud has borne the ,rain4' ,the later genealogical story could then easily find a father for the children of ,zilpah1 ,rachel and others1 in him whom the myth introduces as husband of those female figures4 ,other ,hebrew tribes have names totally free from any mythical character1 and ethnographical 7,judah7 or geographical in nature4 ,the last especially must of course have originated after the conquest of ,canaan1 since they are connected with geographical peculiarities of that land4 ,one of these is ,ephraim1 whose name we shall see in the ,fourth ,section of the ,eighth ,chapter to be derived from the name of the town ,ephrathah2 another is ,benjamin4 ,the name ,bin-ymn is associated with the division of the land1 and signifies ,son of the right side4 ,the tribe was probably so called by the leading tribe of ,judah1 on whose right side ,benjamin was his next neighbour4#die ,yet myths have attached themselves even to these geographical and ethnographical names1 as they have to many historical ones4 ,concerning some no mythical features have been preserved1 which is most to be regretted in the case of ,gad4 ,this name occurs in a later age with a religious signification 7,is4 ,,lxv4 #aa71 and would doubtless yield much instruction if a fuller myth gave us insight into its original meaning and connexion4 ,gad is commonly held to be the so-called ,star of ,fortune 7,jupiter72 but it is difficult to determine whether ,gad's sons1 when they were called his sons1 were put into connexion with the ,star4 ,if they were1 we should have a case analogous to the ,arabic appellation #8,daughters of the star al-ri' 7see above1 p4 #eg74 ,as some ,arabian tribes call themselves #8,sons of the ,rain' 7ben m al-sam71 c4 so the ,hebrew tribes1 at the time when the myth still lived in the understanding of all1 took names from the mythical figures1 one calling itself #8,sons of the ,longhaired1' another #8,sons of the ,multiplier' c4 ,i think ,i cannot be wrong in assuming this nomenclature of the tribes to be older than the assignation of names to each of ,jacob's twelve sons4 ,when the names of tribes had long been in existence1 they were brought forward to serve as names for ,jacob's sons2 and thus they laid the foundation of the genealogical tradition which traces the people of ,israel to its first father ,jacob1 and thence goes back to his father and to ,abraham4#dif ,but the mythical matter transmitted to us concerning the twelve who are introduced as the sons of ,jacob1 independently of what we have already discussed1 is very little4 ,some names resist any reasonable etymology1 or at least any etymology consonant with the character of mythical appellations4 ,still1 even from these scanty materials we can pick out some single points that seem worthy of preservation as relics of the old ,hebrew mythology4 ,if the investigation of this subject is to be successfully pushed further than ,i can pretend to do in this treatise1 the accurate enquirer will have especially to adduce the forty-ninth chapter of ,genesis1 known as #8,jacob's ,blessing1' from which ,i have already borrowed materials4 ,in this ancient piece ,i am convinced that many fragments of hymns are contained which originally had for their subject those mythical figures to which in their present form as blessings they refer4 ,we have in this fragment a sort of ,hebrew ,veda before our eyes4 ,those figures among ,jacob's sons1 of whom ,i venture to treat1#dig so far as there are means available have a solar character1 with the exception of those which we have already recognised to be figures of the sky of night and clouds1 and of one other figure 7,levi7 in which we shall discover something antagonistic to solarism4 ,zebhln was seen even by ,gesenius to mean the ,round1 ,globular4 ,though we cannot find any analogous expression as a name for the sun1 it must be acknowledged to be a very natural one4 ,i believe that ,zebhln designates the sun at the end of its course when its red ball appears on the horizon of the sea4 ,anyone who has had the opportunity of admiring a sunset at the sea-side1 will understand why people living there should call the setting sun globular2 for its true globular form is especially perceptible and striking in such localities4 ,that the name ,zebhln owes its origin to such considerations is evident from the language of the ,hymn to ,zebulun3 #8he rests at the edge of the sea' 7lechph yammm yishkn1 ,gen4 ,,xlix4 #ac72 and this verse 7especially in yishkn7 further confirms what was said on p4 #aaf4 ,naphtl 7from the root ptl1 #8to twine1 twist1' whence pthl #8thread'71 is #8he of the plaited locks of hair4' ,the ,hymn calls him #8a hind let loose' 7ayyl shelch1 ver4 #ba71 which is decisive for the solar meaning of ,naphtl with the locks of hair4 ,for the ,semites call the ,dawn a hind--the ,hebrews ayyeleth hash-shachar #8the ,hind of the ,dawn' 7,ps4 ,,xxii4 #a71 the ,arabs al-azl4#dih ,even the ,talmd seeks and finds the reason for the identification of the ,dawn with a ,hind2#dii and another ancient ,jewish-,arabic philologist1 ,moses ben ,ezra1 in his book on ,poetry1 also recognised the connexion of this appellation in ,hebrew and in ,arabic4#ejj ,accordingly1 we must think of a solar interpretation when we read that among the furniture of the ancient ,kab at ,mekka1 besides various idols1 there were golden ,gazelles1 which were carried off and buried by the ,jurhumites1 but found again by ,abd-al-,mualib in the well ,zemzem4#eja ,the mythical description of the rising sun as a hind or gazelle is explained by the animal's horns2 for the myth which regards the ,sun's rays sometimes as arrows1 sometimes as locks of hair1 also treats them sometimes as horns4 ,for this reason the ,hebrew language has only one word to denote #8horn' and #8ray of light1' viz41 eren2 and for the same reason ,moses1 who received many features of the solar myth1 as ,steinthal has pertinently proved in his treatise on the ,story of ,prometheus1#ejb was imagined provided with horns1 i4e41 with beaming countenance 7,ex4 ,,xxxiv4 #bi1 #cj1 #ce71 a symbol which sacred art has preserved only too faithfully4 ,in the ,edda the point of the horn of ,heimdall 7the sun7 is fixed in ,niflheim 7abode of cloud71 i4e4 the rays of the sun come forth out of darkness4 ,the glyptic representation of the ,assyrian god ,bl in the ,louvre is adorned with a tiara surrounded by a row of ox-horns4 ,in the ,accadian mythology the name of the goddess ,ninka-si1 #8the ,lady of the horned face1' as ,lenormant translates it1 has undoubtedly a solar character4#ejc ,the same is the case with the ,egyptian ,isis3 1 says ,herodotus 7,,ii4 #da74 ,lucian1 the frivolous scoffer at everything religious1 expresses his surprise to ,zeus why he is represented with ram's horns2#ejd to which he makes ,zeus reply by referring to a mystery into which the uninitiated cannot penetrate4#eje ,in a word1 ,naphtali of the long locks1 ,naphtali the swift hind1 is certainly identical with the #8,hind of the ,dawn4' ,whether the name ,yehd 7,judah7 belongs to mythology1 or was an early ethnical name before tradition introduced it as that of a ,patriarch1 is difficult to determine4 ,if the name ,yehd could be referred to an etymon which exhibited a solar signification1 we should decide for the former alternative1 on account of the solar characteristics which are attached to the name4 ,the most plausible etymological explanation would be #8the ,splendid1' or 7on account of the feminine termination 1 added to the passive participle with an abstract force7 #8,splendour4' ,but if the second alternative be correct1 and the name ,yehd had from the first only an ethnographical force1 then1 as in the case of other names not belonging to primeval myths1 we must suppose that the solar myths1 in company with which we find these historical names1 were attached to them in later times4 ,it is a true solar legend#ejf that ,judah forms a sexual connexion with ,tamar4 ,the latter name denotes #8,fruit2' and the myth of her union with ,judah expresses the fact that the autumn-sun pours its rays over the fruits of the trees and fields4 ,thus the ,hebrew agriculturist may have said at harvest-time1 when the hot rays of the sun rapidly ripened the fruits3 and he may at such a time1 especially with reference to the vintage1 have addressed to the autumn sun #8,yehd' the hymn which is contained in the so-called ,jacob's ,blessing for ,judah 7,gen4 ,,xlix4 #aa-ac73 ,he binds to the vine his foal1 ,to the wine-tree his ass's young one4 ,he washes in wine his clothes1 ,and in blood of the vine his covering4 ,reddish is his eye from wine1 ,and white his teeth from milk4 ,this is a truly mythic picture of the ,sun1 pairing at vintage-time with the ,vine4 ,the red eyes and white teeth need no further discussion after what has been said in #aa of this chapter4 ,but a few words are needed in explanation of what is said of the ass and foal4 ,it is sufficient to point to the fact that the reddish-brown ass is one of the animals used in the old mythology to designate the sun4#ejg ,the point of resemblance must be sought in the reddish colour2 and hence in the ,semitic languages the ass is called the ,red 7,hebrew chamr1 #8ass'2 ,arabic amar1 #8red'74#ejh ,it is probably in consequence of the solar significance of the ass1 that ,shechem's father is named #8the ,ass' 7,hamor2 and in ,arabic #8,ass' is a very frequent personal name71#eji and ,issachar is described as a bony ass4 ,therefore to say1 as is said in our hymn1 that the foal and the colt are bound to the vine is equivalent to saying that #8the ,sun forms a connexion with the ,vine2' it is only a different view of the myth of the connexion of ,judah with ,tamar4 ,this connexion of the ,sun and the ,fruit1 which is the fundamental thought of the myth of ,judah and ,tamar1 was developed with the aid of other elements into the later form found in the story in ,gen4 ,,xxxviii4 ,the same myth was also attached to figures of the historical age in the legend of ,amnon and ,tamar 7#b ,sam4 ,,xiii4 #a-bj74 ,david's son ,amnon loves his sister ,tamar2 and keeping her near him to wait upon him under the pretence of being ill1 takes the opportunity to ravish her4 ,here the myth of the love of the ,sun for the ,fruit has been transferred to ,amnon1 a perfect unmythical personage4 ,but ,tamar is here quite the same as the personage whose connexion with ,judah is described in ,genesis2 although in the legend of ,amnon and ,tamar it is ,amnon who pursues ,tamar1 whereas in that of ,judah and ,tamar the intriguer and seducer is ,tamar4 ,when people in ancient times perceived the fruit of the tree gradually change its colour till the autumn-sun shone on it1 after which it fell down ripe1 they saw in this a love-affair between the ,sun and ,fruit1 which ended with their union4 ,we have here1 therefore1 to do with that phrase of mythology in which men1 as agriculturists1 but still standing on the myth-creating stage of intellectual life1 speak of vegetation and its causes in terms which later1 at the religious stage1 will give rise to dualistic religious ideas4 ,different from the ,iranian religious dualism1 which sets up two mutually hostile powers1 this dualism will put side by side two factors of the course of vegetation 7see above1 p4 #ae74 ,this kind of dualism is met with very frequently in the ,semitic--especially ,north and ,middle ,semitic--religions4 ,indeed1 were we to investigate closely the legends and love-stories which fill the history of the ,arabic nation and tribes before ,islm1 we should probably discover mythological matter turned into history1 which would possess great similarity with the legend of ,judah and ,tamar4 ,we will select here one only of these stories1 which has preserved transparently enough its mythical character4 ,on the mountains af and ,marw1 which still play a part in the pilgrimage to ,mekka1 there formerly stood two idols named ,isf and ,nil1 who were said to have been two persons of ,jurhum who having committed improprieties in the ,kab were turned into stone in punishment for desecration of the holy place#eaj--which1 be it incidentally observed1 is no rare offence in modern times4 ,it need scarcely be observed that this conformation of the story is due to a distinct ,mohammedan tendency imparted to it1 and that the interpreter of the myth has to regard only the germ of the story--the sexual union of ,nil with ,isf4 ,now the mere translation of these words give us to understand the meaning of the myth4 ,isf means solum sterile1 unfruitful ground1 and ,nil1 she who presents 7a nomen agentis from nla #8to present'74 ,no deep acquaintance with ,arabic literature is necessary to convince one that the latter name may be simply an epithet of the ,rain1 which the ,arabs can as readily call the ,giver as they compare a liberal giver with the rain 7compare geshem nedbhth1 ,ps4 ,,lxviii4 #aj #i74 ,thus the liberal ,rain unites with the unfruitful ,ground and encourages vegetation4 ,out of this1 as out of most unions of this sort1 sexual licence was evolved at a later time4 ,the names of ,judah's sons1 ,perez and ,zerah1#eaa are solar3 the latter denoting #8the ,shining one1' who comes into the world with a red thread on his hand1 and the former #8he who breaks forth4' ,this name is founded on the same idea as is present in the ,german ,tagesanbruch1#eab the ,hungarian ,hajnalhasads1 i4e4 #8the breaking through of the dawn'#eac 7exactly the same as ,perez71 the ,arabic1 fajar 7especially infajar al-ub or infajar al-fata #8erupit aurora'74#ead ,the dawn breaks through1 or rather tears asunder1 the veil of darkness and breaks forth out of it4 ,after this survey of the solar figures found among ,jacob's sons1 we will conclude this section with the consideration of another mythical name belonging to the class of designations of ,jacob's sons which is connected with the dark sky of clouds and night4 ,this is ,levi4 ,if we contemplate this name unbiassed by the etymological explanation of it given in the ,bible 7from lv #8to cleave to'71 ,i think we shall not be inclined to doubt that ,lv bears the same relation to the serpent's name livythn1 as another serpent's name nchsh bears to the enlarged form nechushtn1 which is given as the name of the brazen serpent broken in pieces by ,king ,hezekiah 7#b ,kings ,,xviii4 #d74 ,the name certainly does not denote #8brazen2' for an image is more naturally named from the object it represents than from the matter of which it is made4 ,and the form livythn necessarily presupposes a simpler form1 from which it could be derived by the addition of the termination thn 7or only n1 if we suppose the original word to have passed through the feminine form livyat71 as nechushtn necessitates the preexistence of the simpler nchsh4 ,if we have in ,english a word earthly1 then1 even if no word earth actually existed at the time in the language1 we could with perfect justice assert a priori that the word earth must have once existed1 in order to make the formation of earthly possible4 ,similarly the existence of the form livythn justifies the assumption of a simple noun-form1 as the basis of that derivative enlarged by suffixes4 ,now fortunately this simple form is preserved to us in the name ,lv1 and we may therefore unhesitatingly affirm that ,levi means #8,serpent4' ,mythology speaks of a serpent that devours the sun1 of a ,storm-,serpent1 which the ,sun assails with his rays2 they are the serpents1 dragons and monsters with whom the ,solar heroes of the ,aryan mythology wage their contests1 which ,herakles even in his cradle crushes and afterwards overpowers at ,lerna and ,nemea2 the same1 which sometimes1 on the other hand1 keep their ground and come forth victorious from the battle with the ,sun1 when the ,sun1 repulsed by a boisterous ,storm1 is forced to abandon the celestial battle-field4 ,a serpent on the way1 ,an adder on the path1 ,that bites the horse's heels1 ,so that the rider falls backwards1 7,gen4 ,,xlix4 #ag71 they are called in the ,hebrew hymn of the battle of the ,rain-serpent with the ,sun-horse4#eae ,it is this same serpent that bears a #8fiery flying serpent' 7srph mephph1 ,is4 ,,xiv4 #bi71 i4e4 the ,lightning2 that in common with the lightning is called the #8,flying ,serpent' 7nchsh brach1 ,is4 ,,xxvii4 #a71 for whose conqueror the ,sun1 the monotheistic ideas of later times substituted ,jahveh #8who with his might lashes the sea1 and who with his intelligence pierces the monster 7,rahab72 by whose breath the heaven becomes bright1 whose hand has stabbed the flying serpent' 7,job ,,xxvi4 #ab1 #ac74 ,the hissing of this flying ,serpent is said in an ,american myth to be the ,thunder2 and the ,lightning is called by the ,algonquins an immense serpent1 which ,god spat out4#eaf ,the ,rain itself is regarded in mythology as a serpent2 the columns of water which fall in a serpentine course to the earth are called the #8,crooked ,serpent' 7nchsh aallthn74 ,the flying ,lightning1 the crooked ,serpent 7both livythn71 and the great ,monster in the sea1 which tries to devour the ,sun when he sinks into the sea in the evening1 are assailed by the ,sun1 and the monotheistic prophet transfers the attack upon them to ,jahveh 7,is4 ,,xxvii4 #a2 compare ,ps4 ,,lxxvi4 #d #c74 ,it is to be noted that1 in speaking of night and storms1 even the later poetry uses the expression that they #8bite1 wound1' because the ,serpent of darkness and tempest bites and hurts the ,sun4 #8,i said1 ,surely the darkness will bite me 7yeshphn71 and the night will bite the light near me' 7,ps4 ,,cxxxix4 #aa72 and so of the storm 7,job ,,ix4 #ag74 ,everywhere here the verb is used which is employed in ,gen4 ,,iii4 #ae to denote that the serpent wounds the heel of the man4 ,in these passages of poetry1 therefore1 we find an echo of the myth which declares that the ,serpent of the storm1 when victorious1 bites1 wounds1 or even swallows down the hero of the ,sun4 ,we encounter the ,rain described still more clearly as a serpent in the sacred literature of the ,parsees1 in the first chapter of the ,vendidd1 verse #b1 where it is said that ,ahuramazdao created ,airyana-vaj to be the best of all lands1 whilst in opposition to his act the ,deadly ,aegr mainyus created the #8flowing serpent' 7azhim raoidhitem7 and the snow4 ,professor ,haug was the discoverer of this explanation of the azhim raoidhitem2#eag nevertheless he translates it #8a powerful serpent1' as he thinks that the word #8flowing' can be only understood of the ejection of the venom1 or of the writer's remembrance of a warm spring which may have existed in the land ,airyana-vaj4 ,it is a very obvious conjecture that the flowing serpent means the ,rain2 the more so because it is mentioned in conjunction with ,snow4#eah ,the last shoots of this mythological conception are discovered in the system of the ,ophites1 in which the serpent represents a moist substance4#eai ,levi 7with ,simeon1 whose etymological value is no longer determinable71 is introduced in the ,hebrew myth 7,gen4 ,,xxxiv47 as the slayer of ,chamr #8the ,ass' and ,shekem 7see above1 p4 #abe74 ,of the same two brothers it is said in the fragments of hymns already quoted1 sometimes that #8for their amusement they destroyed the bull' 7,,xlix4 #f7--the horned solar animal whose horns 7rays7 the storm-serpents eradicate 7ier74 ,it is at the same time perfectly clear in this interpretation that no difficulty at all resides in what is always troubling the expounders of these passages--in the fact1 namely1 that these brothers are said in the hymn 7or ,blessing7 to have killed a bull 7shr71 whilst no mention is made in the narrative of any such act4 #ae4 ,in the ,biblical story of the family of ,jacob we have met with a few of those myths of ,love which the ,aryan mythology developed in such variety and richness4 ,one of the best known myths of this kind is the story of ,oedipus and ,jokaste4 ,the king of ,thebes received a sad oracle1 declaring that he would be exposed to serious danger from a son who would be born to him by his wife ,jokaste4 ,he therefore exposed ,oedipus1 his new-born son2 and the latter1 having been marvellously saved from death and educated at ,corinth1 travelled to ,thebes when grown to manhood1 but killed his father on the way4 ,arrived at ,thebes1 he delivered the city from the terror of the ,sphinx1 and was proclaimed king1 after which he married his mother ,jokaste4 ,when he received information of the two horrible crimes that he had unconsciously committed1 the murder of his father and the incest with his mother1 in despair he put out his own eyes and came to a tragic end4 ,everyone knows this celebrated ,hellenic story1 which in the ,oedipus-,tragedy was worked out powerfully in its ethical bearings so as to excite the emotions and touch the heart4 ,oedipus kills his father1 marries his mother1 and dies1 a blind and worn-out old man4 ,the hero of the ,sun murders the father who begot him--the ,darkness2 he shares his bed with his mother--the ,evening-glow1 from whose womb 7in the character of the ,morning-glow7 he had been born2 he dies blind--the ,sun sets4 ,we have seen above that the setting sun loses the bright light of its eyes4#ebj ,what a universal act of the human mind1 and how little affected by ethnological distinctions1 the production of myths is1 and what agreement is consequently discovered in the direction taken by this myth-formation among the most dissimilar peoples and races of the earth1 will be most strikingly brought home to us by the discovery that this very myth of marriage with a mother occurs among the ,hebrews just as much as among the ,aryans4 ,we have already seen that ,reuben marries his father's wife ,bilhah4 ,we observe that in the ,hebrew myth the hero of ,darkness occupies the central position1 whereas in the ,hellenic it is the ,solar hero who shares his mother's bed4 ,but while the myth of ,reuben and ,bilhah is only mentioned quite shortly in the ,old ,testament1 there is another myth which has grown into a long story in the ,biblical narrative--that of ,lot's daughters4 ,but before we pass to this1 ,i wish to call attention to a concurrence which ,i believe has never yet been noticed1 but which may excite to further meditations4 ,the whole story of ,oedipus1 quite in the form in which we find it among the ,hellenes1 occurs also as an ,arabic tradition1 without change except in the persons4 ,one of the many ,nimrods which the ,arabic legend seized upon 7six ,namrid #8,nimrods' are commonly reckoned71#eba son of ,kenaan and ,salch1 is the ,oedipus of the ,arabic story4 ,in consequence of an intimidating prophecy1 he is exposed by his parents1 that he may die and not be a source of danger to his father4 ,but he is miraculously suckled by a tigress 7whence his name ,nimrd is said to be derived1 for nimr is #8tiger' in ,arabic71 and subsequently brought up by the inhabitants of a neighbouring village4 ,when grown to manhood he contrives to bring together a great army1 and becomes involved in a war against his father ,kenaan1 whom he slays in the decisive battle4 ,he marches in triumph into his capital1 and marries his mother ,salch4 ,thus the outlines of the ,oedipus-story have been attached to the solar hero of the ,semites1 ,nimrod the hunter4 ,the story is told at full length in the long introduction to the ,romance of ,antar 7,i4 #ac seq471 and ,i leave it to readers competent to judge1 to decide between two possibilities4 ,either the ,arabs borrowed from the ,greeks and simply took to themselves this version of the ,oedipus-story2 in this case the remarkable fact of such a transference would provoke a searching enquiry into the middle points between ,greece and ,arabia1 which made it possible to borrow mythology1 and also into the extent and nature of such borrowings4 ,or we may assume that the story was independently and gradually formed by the ,arabs without external influence1 so that the elements of the ,arabian as of the ,greek story reach back to the primeval age of the creation of myths1 and that with the ,arabs also it was originally a myth of the war of the ,sun with the ,night1 and his union with the ,evening-glow4 ,the latter view is favoured by the circumstance that in the ,arabian version the story of ,oedipus putting out his eyes is wanting--a feature which would certainly have been taken if the ,arabian story were only a borrowed one4 ,but the above-mentioned questions ought to be investigated before any decision in favour of one of these possibilities can be arrived at1 however inclined ,i may be from personal feeling towards the assumption of borrowing4#ebb ,the story of ,lot and his daughters as told in ,genesis in one of the ,biblical passages most notorious for its obscenity2 let us see1 however1 what appears to have been its original meaning4 ,when the aged ,l and his family were saved from the ,divine judgment on ,sodom and ,gomorrha1 which converted those cities into a sea of bitumen1 he left his wife behind him1 converted into a pillar of salt1 at a point of the coast of the ,dead ,sea1 which is still shown to credulous travellers1 and lived in a cave with his two unmarried daughters4 ,these made their old father drunk in two successive nights1 and perpetrated with him an act of unchastity which is to us almost unmentionable 7,gen4 ,,xix4 #cj-ch74 ,but the science of ,mythology has often saved the honour and moral worth of primitive humanity by restoring the original mythological meaning of many a story2 and so here we shall be able to prove that the ,l-story1 in the form in which we have received it1 is only the tradition of the myth of the ,sun and the ,night1 the understanding of which was lost in a later unmythological generation4 ,through the clever succession of ideas suggested by the solar theory1 the science of ,mythology on ,aryan ground at one blow caused the ideal heights of ,olympus to tower in their original purity above the endless chain of scandalous acts which mythology misunderstood attributed to the immoral inhabitants of the mountain of the ,gods2 and the method which guides us in these studies will aim at the same result on the domain of ,hebrew mythology4 ,we return to ,l4 ,this name 7formed from the root l #8to cover'7 denotes #8he who covers4' #8,darkness covers the earth1 and clouds the nations' 7,is4 ,,lx4 #b74 #8,for ,i did not shrink before the ,darkness1 when thick darkness covered 7everything7 before my face' 7,job ,,xxiii4 #ag74 #8,thou hast pressed us down to the dwelling-place of the sea-monsters1 and covered us over with deep shadow' 7,ps4 ,,xliv4 #bj #ai74 ,the ,semitic designations of darkness are mostly formed from roots denoting #8to cover'3 so e4g4 al in ,hebrew1 ish in ,arabic2#ebc and the most prominent ,semitic word for ,night1 layil1 layl1 etymologically means only something that covers4#ebd ,in ,aryan languages also1 the ,sanskrit ,varua and the ,greek 1 which denote the overclouded sky1 are formed from the root var #8to cover1' in opposition to the bright day-sky1 ,mitra4#ebe ,keeping on ,semitic ground1 we find in ,arabic copious illustrations of this conception4 ,the words ashiya1 damasa1 atha1 saja1 etc4 7compare ardaat al-leyl1 taaam al-leyl71 combine the notions of ,darkness and ,covering-up4 ,accordingly the coming on of night is expressed by janna al-alm1 literally #8the darkness has covered up' 7e4g4 ,romance of ,antar1 ,v4 #hj4 #c72 and for the simple words #8of an evening1' or #8at night1' the ,arabic expression is tat al-leyl #8under the night1'#ebf or fuller tat astr al-alm #8under the veils of the night' 7,antar1 ,x4 #gj1 #a72 and the ,night is above the day1 #8aleyh4'#ebg ,the ,night is a garment or carpet spread out over the ,day4 #8,it is he1' it is said in the orn 7,sr4 ,,xxv4 v4 #di71 #8who made the ,night as a garment or veil for you4' #8,we have made the ,night as a clothing' 7,sr4 ,,lxxviii4 v4 #aj74ebh ,the ,arabic poet ,ab-l-,al al-,maarr uses the most palpable expression for this conception of the darkness of night4 ,describing his swift camels1 on which he traversed great distances at ,night1 he says 7,i4 #aca4 v4 #d7 #8in their swift course they tore the mantle of night1' i4e4 they ran so quickly that they unrolled the garment which covers the surface of the earth at night4 ,on this conception of the nature of ,night ,i believe a peculiar expression in the ,arabic language to be based4 ,in the old classical ,arabic1 nights which either have no moonshine at all1 or have none at the beginning and only a little quite at the end1 are called laylin durun2 and when a verb is required1 adraa al-shahr is said4 ,this adraa is unquestionably a denominative verb from dir1 which signifies a #8breast-plate1' or a breast-covering of any sort4 ,the ,arabic expressions just quoted are founded on the idea that the breast 7al-adr71 i4e4 the upper side1 the first part1 of such nights is dark1 covered by a garment1 so that only the uncovered lower side or end is visible4 ,in the cosmogony of ,mohammedan legends1 ,night is represented as a curtain1 ijb4#ebi ,the clothing of the ,night is of black colour1 leyl likat al-jilbb1 as is said in ,arabic1#ecj 7compare #eca71 a #8pitchy mantle1' as ,shakespeare says1 ,the day begins to break1 and night is fled ,whose pitchy mantle overveil'd the earth4 ,king ,henry ,,vi4 ,first ,part1 ,,ii4 #b4ecb ,and in ,arabic poetry also we meet with night described as a #8pitchy mantle4' ,for the poet ,ab-l-,shibl says in a remarkable elegy#ecc3 ,shamsun kaanna--alma albasah 99 thauban min-az-zifti au min-al-r ,a sun1 as if darkness had clothed him ,with a garment of resin or pitch4 ,the darker the ,night1 the thicker is the black cloak with which it is provided4 ,even modern languages have expressions like thick darkness 7,hungarian vastag settsg72 in ,arabic a very dark night is called a night with a heavy covering1 leyl murjahinn4#ecd ,the name ,l1 accordingly1 signifies1 like the ,hellenic female forms ,kalyke1 ,kalypso 7from 71 the ,covering ,night4 ,it is very significant of the ,night that the ,greek figures are represented as weaving clothes for the ,thunderer3#ece they weave the cloak with which they cover over the world when they spread darkness over it4 ,surely no one will after all this doubt that the name ,lot is a designation of the ,covering ,night4 ,should this be still doubtful1 perhaps the following fact from the domain of the ,arabic language may bring conviction4 ,everyone knows the ,arabic word kfir1 at least in its usual meaning of ,infidel4 ,even the earlier ,arabian philologians1 who1 notwithstanding frequent amusing whims and hobbies1 often exhibit a fine feeling and very sober judgment as to etymology1 said that this word received the meaning ,infidel only through the dogmatism of ,islm1 that it originally denoted the ,coverer1 and that the transition of meaning was founded on the idea that the ,infidel covers up ,god's omnipotence4 ,similarly in ,hebrew the verb kphar is said of ,god when he forgives 7i4e4 covers7 the sins of men2 in ,arabic afar4#ecf ,in ,arabic the ,unthankful is also a kfir1 a #8,coverer1' since he covers the blessings he has received3 and in late ,hebrew he is similarly termed kephy bh #8one who covers up the good4'#ecg ,in short1 the kfir is properly the ,coverer4 ,now the darkness of night is called kfir by old ,arabian poets4 ,we have already 7in the ,tenth ,section of this chapter1 p4 #acd71 quoted for another purpose the verse of the poet of the tribe ,mzin3 #8,the ,shining one stretches his right hand towards him who covers up1' where the latter is kfir1 the ,night4 ,the celebrated poet ,lebd1 too1 says in his prize-poem 7,mualla1 v4 #fe73 #8,until the stars stretch out their hands towards the kfir1 and the weaknesses of the boundaries are covered over by their darkness1' atta i alat yadan f kfirin 99 waajanna aurti-th-thuri almuh4 ,and the poet al-umeyd says1 #8,they 7the camels7 go to water before the breaking of the morning1 whilst the son of splendour 7the dawn7 is still hiding in the cloak1' i4e4 before it is yet day1 ,fawaradat abla-nbilji-l-fajri 99 wabnu uka kminun f kafri4#ech ,a very witty use of the application of the epithet kfir to the ,night is make by the poet ,beh al-,dn ,zuheyr4 ,he would fain prolong the duration of the night1 which passes away far too soon for all the pleasures that it brings him in the midst of a merry circle1 and so he says3 #8,to me is due from thee the reward of a ,champion of the ,faith in battle against the infidels1 if it is true that ,night is a kfir 7an infidel1 properly a #8coverer'71 ,l fka ajru mujhidin 99 in aa anna-l-leyla kfir4#eci ,as the ,darkness of night is what covers over and hides1 so on the other hand the ,dawn1 or the ,sun in general1 is that which uncovers and discloses4 ,we have met with this conception before in the case of ,noah 7p4 #aca74 ,in ,arabic safara or asfara is said of the uncovering of any concealed object1 and the same words are used of the breaking-forth of the morning sun4 ,there is no doubt that this latter usage is deduced from the signification #8to reveal1 uncover2' the instance quoted in the lexicons1 #8,the night which removes the cover from the morning of the ,friday' 7yusfir an71 i4e4 which precedes ,friday1 shews by the preposition an that #8to uncover' is the fundamental signification4 ,thus the ,arabic etymologists whom ,i mentioned in a former work#edj may be right in a certain sense in tracing back most of the derivations of the root safar to this sense4 ,but in ,egyptian and in the ,arabic of the desert the word al-sufr denotes the ,sunset1 the reason of which is by no means clear4#eda ,no doubt can now be entertained that our ,lot is identical with his namesake the ,arabic ,kfir the ,concealer1 the ,covering ,night4 ,now we can consider the myth4 #8,the daughters of ,night form a sexual connexion with their father4' ,when the evening glow1 which is a daughter of the ,night 7for1 as we have seen1 the myth identifies the morning and the evening glow71 unites with the shades of night and becomes darker and dimmer1 so as at length to lose itself in the night1 the myth-creators said1 #8,the daughters of ,lot1 the ,coverer1 are going to bed with their father4' ,from the bright1 lively character1 which the myth must have attributed to the ,glow in comparison with the dark1 heavy ,night1 they would naturally regard the aged ,lot as the victim of an intrigue of his lustful daughters2 whereas in the ,aryan myth it is ,prajpati who uses force against his daughter ,ushas4 ,the names of ,lot's daughters are not given in the ,old ,testament2 but we know them from another source4 ,the ,arabic legend in which the story of ,lot1 communicated by ,jews1 likewise finds a place1 tells us their names4 ,it is scarcely credible that these are pure inventions of the ,arabs2 it is much more probable that they received them1 as they did much else1 from the traditions of the ,jews4 ,but the ,jewish tradition itself has lost the names1 as it has lost much else that was not written down4 ,in the ,arabic statements1 however1 there occur such various versions of the names as to show clearly that they are instances of the corruption by which foreign names are constantly ruined beyond recognition in ,arabic manuscripts4 ,one version gives ,rayya as the name of the elder1 ,zoar as that of the younger 7see ,yt1 ,,ii4 #icc4 #bb1 #icd4 #af72 and from the latter a town is said to be named1 which is mentioned in some ancient ,arabic poems4 ,ibn ,badrn 7ed4 ,dozy1 p4 #h7 calls them something like ,rasha and ,rasha 7or ,ravasha872 ,masd 7,prairies d'or1 ,,ii4 #aic7 ,zaha and ,rava4 ,among these differing forms1 every one of which is probably based on a corrupt text1 ,zaha is the only one that may confirm the solar character of ,lot's daughters in the myth4 ,but ,i think the myth of ,lot is clear enough in itself to dispense with any such problematic confirmation4 ,if the conception of ,kerbhm 7,cherubim7 is native to the ,hebrews1 and not borrowed at a later period from foreign parts--a question which must be regarded as still an open one--then we may find here also the ,coverer 7compare kerbh has-skhkh #8the cherub that covereth1' ,ezek4 ,,xxviii4 #ad71 the covering cloud2 and hence may be derived the function of concealing and covering which was given to the cherubim in the later ceremonial1 as also their connexion with the curtains4#edb #8,jahveh rides on the ,cherub1' says one of the later religious poets 7#b ,sam4 ,,xxii4 #aa71 #8and appears on the wings of the wind2 he makes darkness round about him1 tents1 collections of water1 gloomy clouds4' ,here the dark overclouded rainy sky is described2 and when ,jahveh sends rain over the earth1 he rides on the ,cherub1 and #8mists are beneath his feet1' and the dust which he turns up while riding1 forms the shechm 7properly the dust71 the overcast sky4 ,jahveh is described in other passages also as riding on clouds 7,is4 ,,xix4 #a74 ,accordingly kerbh would originally denote the covering cloud1 and whatever is connected with the ,cherubim in later theological conceptions would be a transformation of ancient mythological ideas4#edc ,now the root krb is used in ,himyarite inscriptions in titles of kings1 as ,mukrib ,saba1 or ,tobba kerb1 i4e4 as ,von ,kremer explains them1#edd #8,protector of ,saba1' #8,protecting ,tobba4' ,this is easily explained by the fact that in the ,semitic languages words signifying #8to protect' are often derived from the fundamental idea of #8covering4' #8,the ,cherubim spread forth their wings' 7#a ,kings ,,viii4 #g71 i4e4 they cover4 ,to spread out the wings 7kenphaym7 over some one is in ,biblical language the usual expression for the protection which is allotted to him4 ,in ,arabic the same word 7kanaf7 signifies not only a bird's wing1 but also concealment1 shade 7compare ,ps4 ,,xci4 #a-d71 and protection4#ede ,the opinion that the ,cherubim were borrowed from foreign parts is accordingly much less probable than that which maintains that they originated with the ,hebrews2#edf and the latter view receives further support from the fact that the ,cherubim can be easily fitted without any violence into the system of ,hebrew mythology4 ,it is again supported by the connexion between ,cherubim and ,seraphim1 the latter of which are originally ,hebrew4 ,this connexion agrees moreover with the results of our mythological researches4 ,as ,kerbh as #8,coverer' belongs to the dark cloudy sky1 so the ,serphm must be a mythological conception pertaining to the same series1 if we adopt the correct interpretation of them as ,dragons1#edg and remember the mythological meaning of serpents and dragons 7supra1 p4 #bg1 #ahd1 sq474 ,it then becomes probable that the theological significance of ,cherubim and ,seraphim belongs to the remains of the very earliest form of ,hebrew religion1 and approximates to the facts of which ,i shall speak at ,chapter ,,vi4 #e1 pp4 #bbd1 #e4 ----- ,footnote #bdd3 ,osiander 7,zeitschrift der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahec1 ,,vii4 #dcg7 is inclined to combine with this the old ,arabic ,raym or ,riym4 ,footnote #bde3 ,the added ,abh in ,abhrm1 compared with the other expressions in which the quality of father is not emphasized1 finds an exact parallel in 7 7- and 4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,opuscula ,arabica 7ed4 ,w4 ,wright1 ,leyden #ahei71 p4 #cj4 #b2 #cd4 #e4 ,this usage is made possible by the signification ,cloud1 which is peculiar to the word sam in ,arabic 7,sprenger1 ,das ,leben und die ,lehre des ,mohammed1 ,i4 #edd74 ,footnote #bdg3 ,schweinfurth1 ,the ,heart of ,africa1 ,i4 #caa4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,see the ,count von ,baudissin1 ,studien zur semitischen ,religionsgeschichte1 ,leipzig #ahgf1 ,i4 p4 #cjf et seqq4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,or ,future1 or ,imperfect1 as it is more generally termed4--,,tr4 ,footnote #bej3 ,it is worthy of note that in ,arabic pluralia fracta can be formed from this class of proper names4 ,an interesting example of this is ,tanumu b4 amiata1 the name of the ancestor of the tribe ,tanum4 ,see ,ibn ,dureyd1 ,kitb al-ishti1 p4 #he and gloss h4 ,footnote #bea3 ,strictly the ,dawn4--,,tr4 ,footnote #beb3 ,this theory explains the connexion of rach with zrach #8to be bright4' ,accordingly1 ,i should like to place the ,hebrew raath lepra in this same etymological group1 as the relationship between and does not require demonstration2 the signification would then be that of #8whiteness' 7see ,lev4 ,,xiii4 #c1 #d74 ,footnote #bec3 ,hermann ,vmbry1 ,uigurische ,sprachmonumente und das ,kudatku ,bilik1 ,innsbruck #ahgj1 p4 #bch a4 ,footnote #bed3 ,e4g4 vol4 ,,iv4 #bf ult42 ,,xviii4 #c1 #aa4 #ai1 #ic4 #aa2 ,,xxv4 #e4 #ab1 #f4 #f c4 ,i always quote the octavo edition of the ,romance of ,antar1 printed by ,sheikh ,shhn in thirty-two small vols41 ,cairo #abhf4 ,footnote #bee3 ,in ,de ,sacy1 ,chrestomathie ,arabe1 ,,ii4 #aea4 #ac4 ,footnote #bef3 ,it is entitled ,nuzhat al-asrr f muwarat al-leyl w-al-nahr1 and is in ,,ms4 in the ,university ,library at ,leipzig3 cod4 ,ref4 no4 #ceg1 fol4 #aa-ah4 ,footnote #beg3 ,of this literature ,i will now draw attention only to a asd of the old ,persian poet ,asad1 which is now made accessible in the edition of ,rckert's ,grammatik1 ,poetik und ,rhetorik der ,perser1 published by the care of ,w4 ,pertsch1 ,gotha #ahgd1 pp4 #ei-fc4 ,but it contains little that harmonises with the argumentation of the above-employed ,arabic tract4 ,footnote #beh3 ,nuzhat al-asrr c41 fol4 #ad verso1 #ag verso4 ,footnote #bei3 ,e4g4 ,ab-l-,al's ,poems in the edition with commentary1 ,bl #abhf1 ,,ii4 #ajg1 line #a3 wa-tabtasimu-l-ashru fajran4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,see ,ab-l-,al1 ibid41 p4 #baa1 line #e3 f maaki-l-bari4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,vol4 ,i4 #aic4 ,compare a beautiful passage in a poem of ,ibn ,mueyr1 given by ,nldeke1 ,beitrge zur ,poesie der alten ,araber1 p4 #cd1 to which we shall recur farther on4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,ursprung der ,mythologie1 p4 #aji et seq4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,most persons know this tense as ,future1 or as ,imperfect4--,,tr4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,similar correlative names in ,hellenic mythology are ,pro-metheus and ,epi-metheus4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,muslim's ,collection of ,traditions1 edition with ,commentary1 ,cairo #abhd1 ,v4 #aah4 ,the commentator1 ,al-,nawaw1 puts the name al-ib in combination with another name of the ,prophet of identical meaning1 viz4 al-,muf4 ,the name al-ib occurs elsewhere also as a proper name1 e4g4 as the name of a friend of the poet al-,asha 7,kitb al-an1 ,,vi4 #gc74 ,footnote #bff3 ,shhnmeh1 ed4 ,mohl1 ,,vii4 v4 #fcc1 according to ,rckert's ingenious interpretation in the ,zeitschrift der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahef1 ,x4 #ade4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,de ,principiis1 ed4 ,kopp1 p4 #che4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,the sun itself is called a golden egg 7,ad4 ,kuhn1 ,zeitschr4 fr vergl4 ,sprachforschung1 ,i4 #def74 ,footnote #bfi3 ,king ,henry ,,vi41 ,part ,,ii4 ,act ,,iv4 beginning4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,heinrich ,heine1 ,the ,baltic sic6 i4e4 #8die ,nordsee' the ,german ,ocean1 ,part #b1 ,no4 #d in ,e4,a4 ,bowring's translation4 ,footnote #bga3 ,in ,henne-am-,rhyn1 ,die deutsche ,volkssage1 ,leipzig #ahgd1 p4 #bib1 ,no4 #edd4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,catullus1 ,,lix4 ,,lxi4 vv4 #hd-hf4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,emr ,chosrev of ,delhi1 in ,rckert1 ,grammatik1 ,rhetorik und ,poetik der ,perser1 p4 #fi4 #f4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,see ,excursus ,c4 ,footnote #bge3 ,pauly1 ,realencyklopdie1 ,,vii4 #abgg2 ,wilhelm ,bacher1 ,nim's ,leben und ,werke1 ,leipzig #ahga1 p4 #ig1 note #ac4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,al-,beiw1 ,commentarius in ,coranum1 ed4 ,fleischer1 ,i4 #egb4 #ag4 ,bacher1 l4c4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,,ii4 #agj4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,see ,excursus ,d4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,see e4g4 ,brugsch1 ,histoire d'gypte1 #ast ed41 ,i4 #cg4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,de ,osir4 et ,isid41 c4 ,,xxxiv4 ,footnote #bha3 ,de ,pythiae oraculis1 c4 ,,xii41 and compare the pseudo-,plutarch1 ,de vita et posi ,homeri1 c4 ,,civ4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,so says ,yal4 ,shchr bh has the reading ,akramnia1 which is difficult of identification 7,germania874 ,footnote #bhc3 ,yal and ,shchr bh on ,ps4 ,,xix4 #g4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,ursprung der ,mythologie1 p4 #bgc4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,see p4 #ae4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,compare ,eckhel1 ,doctrina ,nummorum veterum1 ,v4 #ae4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,die ,religion der ,rmer1 ,erlangen #ahcf1 ,,ii4 #bah4 ,compare ,mommsen1 ,history of ,rome 7translation71 ,i4 #ahe1 ed4 of #ahfh4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,fr4 ,lenormant1 ,les premires civilisations1 ,paris #ahgd1 ,,ii4 #bi-ca4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,it is well known that the story of ,jonah was long ago connected with the myth of ,herakles and ,hesione1 or that of ,perseus and ,andromeda 7,bleek1 ,einleitung ins ,a4 ,t41 ,berlin #ahgj1 p4 #egg74 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ,i4 #cjf1 should also be consulted4 ,what ,emil ,burnouf says in his ,la ,science des ,religions1 ,paris #ahgb1 p4 #bfc1 is quite untenable2 he finds in the myth #8un image de la naissance du feu divin et de la vie dont il est le principe4' ,footnote #bij3 ,nonnus1 ,dionysiaca ,,xl4 #ddc2 ,movers1 ,religion der ,phnizier1 p4 #cid4 ,footnote #bia3 ,aesch41 ,prom41 vv4 #eje1 #dfg1 ,dind4 ,i must also refer to ,tangaloa1 the chief figure in the ,polynesian mythology1 who is described as the first navigator4 ,this characteristic1 and the fact that ,tangaloa is regarded as the originator of every handicraft 7see the chapter on the ,myth of ,civilisation71 with other features on which ,schirren lays stress in determining his nature1 seem to claim for him a solar character4 ,gerland 7,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,,vi4 #bdb7 disputes this interpretation4 ,footnote #bib3 ,jahrbcher fr die bibl4 ,wissenschaft1 ,x4 #ba2 ,history of ,israel1 ,i4 #bfe et seq4 ,footnote #bic3 ,in his essay ,phnikische ,analekten1 in the ,zeitschr4 der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahfe1 ,,xix4 #ecf4 ,footnote #bid3 ,sepp1 ,jerusalem und das ,heilige ,land1 ,schaffhausen #ahfc1 ,,ii4 #fhg4 ,footnote #bie3 ,vergelijkende geschiedenis van de egyptische en mesopotamische ,godsdiensten1 ,amsterdam #ahgb1 p4 #dcd4 ,footnote #bif3 ,julius ,braun1 ,naturgeschichte der ,sage1 ,i4 #da4 ,see ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ,i4 #caf4 ,footnote #big3 ,e4 ,jacques1 ,vocabulaire ,arabe-malacassa1 in ,journ4 ,asiat41 #ahcc1 ,,xi4 #abi1 #acj4 ,footnote #bih3 ,gerland1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,,vi4 #bdb4 ,footnote #bii3 #8,wimpern der ,morgenrthe1' and so ,ewald translates aphappayim in ,job1 i4e4 eyelashes1 eyelids being #8,augenlieder4' ,yet ,gesenius understands the word as palpebrae1 i4e4 eyelids 7though both this word and cilium are occasionally used indiscriminately in either sense74 is only #8eyelid2' the ,arabic awjib is only #8eyelash4'--,,tr4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #ajjc4 a2 compare ,orph4 ,,viii4 ,i4 #ac4 ,in the ,thesmophoriazusae v4 #ag1 ,aristophanes makes ,euripides call the eye #8the imitation of the disc of the sun2' compare ,acharn4 v4 #aahd3 1 #8,o glorious eye6' as an address to the ,sun4 ,footnote #cja3 ,al ,buchr1 ,,ix4 #cj1 #ce4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,yana1 ,i4 #ce1 ,,iii4 #di4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,eberh4 ,schrader1 ,die ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament1 p4 #afe4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,haneberg1 ,religise ,alterthmer der ,bibel1 ,mnich #ahfi1 p4 #di2 ,movers1 ,die ,phnizier1 ,i4 #daa1 where other combinations are given4 ,footnote #cje3 ,the seven days of the week are imagined to have a connexion with the sun4 ,according to ,diodorus1 ,i4 #bgb1 the inhabitants of ,rhodes at the time of ,cadmus worshipped the ,sun-god1 who had begotten seven sons on that island4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,muir1 ,sanskrit ,texts1 ,v4 #fd4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,y1 ,geogr4 ,wrterb41 ,,iii4 #gfb4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,see ,excursus ,e4 ,footnote #cji3 ,hartung1 ,religion und ,mythologie der ,griechen1 ,leipzig #ahfe1 ,,ii4 #hg-id4 ,footnote #caj3 al-,meydn ,majma al-amthl1 ,,ii4 #aaa4 #ba4 ,footnote #caa3 ,wa-kn auwal m asbal al-leyl riwah wa-ad iswadd al-alm bia-sah1 ,romance of ,antar1 ,v4 #agj4 #ag4 ,accordingly1 insadal is said of night as well as of a tent1 e4g4 ,antar1 ,,vi4 #fj4 #ad1 #ie4 #e4 ,footnote #cab3 ,i wish to mention here a suggestion received in a letter from ,prof4 de ,goeje of ,leyden1 to take the name ,hebhel in the appellative sense #8herdsman1' and compare it with the ,arabic abil1 the initial breathing being aspirated4 ,the ,hebrew bhl1 #8pasture1' would then belong to the same group4 ,but see also on the latter word an ingenious conjecture of ,derenbourg in the ,journal ,asiatique1 #ahfg1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #ic4 ,footnote #cac3 ,wa-leylatun achyu yarmaillu 99 fh ala-l-shr nadan muchallu1 ,,ms4 of ,univ4 ,leyden1 ,cod4 ,warner1 ,no4 #eig1 p4 #cde4 ,footnote #cad3 ,see above1 pp4 #db1 #dc4 ,footnote #cae3 ,die ,genesis1 ,leipzig #ahfj1 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #caf3 ,levy1 in the ,zeitschr4 der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahfj1 ,,xiv4 #djd4 ,footnote #cag3 ,compare ,gelpke's article ,neutestamentliche ,studien1 in the ,theo4 ,studien u4 ,kritiken1 #ahdi1 pp4 #fci et seq4 ,footnote #cah3 ,see ,excursus ,f4 ,footnote #cai3 ,premires ,civilisations1 ,,ii4 #ha4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,we do not wish to overlook the fact that the word ayn in ,himyaritic is a name of dignity1 like ,prince1 ,ruler1 ,lord1 and may therefore1 if this signification is adopted1 be a synonym for ,baal4 ,see ,prtorius in the ,zeitschr4 der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahgb1 ,,xxvi4 #dcb4 ,footnote #cba3 ,see ,fleischer's ,nachtrgliches to ,levy's ,chald4 ,wrterb4 ber d4 ,targ41 ,,ii4 #egg4 b4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,yana1 ,i4 #ce1 ,,xvii4 #bb2 ,khordavesta1 ,,iii4 #di1 ,,vii4 #d2 ,spiegel1 ,die heiligen ,schriften der ,parsen1 ,,iii4 #bg3 #8,the beautiful ,dawn we praise2 the brilliant1 endowed with brilliant horses1 who remembers men1 remembers heroes1 and is provided with splendour1 with dwellings4 ,the morning ,dawn we praise2 the cheering1 endowed with fast horses4' ,vendidad1 ,,xxi4 #bj3 #8,rise up1 ,o splendid ,sun6 with thy fast horses1 and shine on the creatures4' ,in the ,sun's ,yast 7it is the sixth71 in almost every verse from the invocation to the end of the prayer1 this epithet is applied to the ,sun2 and in the tenth ,yast chariots and flaming horses are assigned to ,mithra 7see the references in ,spiegel1 l4 c4 ,,iii4 xxv474 ,footnote #cbc3 ,a rough imitation of3 ,phbus in der ,sonnendroschke ,peitschte seine ,flammenrosse4 ,atta ,troll1 ,,xxii4 #a4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,schwartz1 ,sonne1 ,mond und ,sterne1 pp4 #ajf-aji4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,according to ,rawlinson this conception came from the ,assyrians to the ,persians4 ,put the learned explorer of ,assyrian antiquity seems to ignore the solar significance of the winged disc when he says3 #8,the conjecture is probable that 444 the wings signify ,omnipresence and the circle ,eternity' 7,history of ,herodotus1 note to ,i4 c4 #ace1 ,i4 #bae of the edition of #ahfb74 ,footnote #cbf3 ,hebrew scholars will observe that ,i here abandon the usual interpretation1 and understand eshken in the second member of the setting of the sun4 ,in this way the first member speaks of the rising1 the second of the setting of the sun 7 b hash-shemesh71 which dips into the water at the further edge 7horizon7 of the sea 7acharth ym74 ,footnote #cbg3 ,see ,excursus ,g4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,iliad1 ,,viii4 #dhe4 ,see ,plutarch1 ,de vita et poes4 ,hom41 c4 ,,ciii4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,e4g4 al-,suyti in the usn al-muar1 c3 #8fa i achaat f-l-hubt' 7ap4 ,weyer's ,diss4 de loco ,ibn ,khacanis de ,ibn ,zeidun1 p4 #hg1 n4 #hb74 ,footnote #ccj3 ,the ,sun is in all the ,semitic as well as in many ,aryan languages grammatically feminine1 and the myths frequently assign to the ,sun a female form4 ,it is therefore necessary sometimes to use the feminine pronoun4--,,tr4 ,footnote #cca3 ,in ,ahlwardt1 ,chalaf al-amar1 p4 #di4 ,i4 ,see ,vita ,timuri1 ,,ii4 #dh3 #8ad janaat al shams lil-urb4' ,footnote #ccb3 ,compare ,ps4 ,,xvii4 #h1 ,,lxi4 #e #d2 and accordingly in tastrm besther pnekh1 ,ps4 ,,xxxi4 #ba #bj1 #8thou hidest them in the hiding-place of thy face1' we must emend pnekh #8face1' into kenphekh #8wings4' ,footnote #ccc3 ,romance of ,antar1 ,v4 #acf ult41 #bcf penult4 ,in the ,babylonian epos of ,istar's ,descent to ,hell1 v4 #aj 7,lenormant1 ,premires ,civilisations1 ,,ii4 #he71 ,night is compared to a bird4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,this interpretation1 here erroneously employed1 is occasioned by the fact that in the ,semitic languages the notion of #8part' is conveyed by words which properly denote #8side3' the two sides of a thing are two parts of it4 ,thus1 even in literary ,arabic the word araf1 and in vulgar ,arabic the word jnib 7which is etymologically connected with the ,hebrew knph #8wing'7 are used quite in the sense of ba #8a part4' ,an interesting modern example of this lies before me in the ,arabic text of the terms of the latest #e1jjj1jjjl4 loan by the ,egyptian ,minister of ,finance1 in which the third article says3 ',the shares fall under the ordinary laws regulating buying and selling and bequest--sawan kna f jnib minhu au fhi bil-kmil--equally whether it concerns a portion of them or the whole' 7al-,jawb1 a weekly paper1 ,,xiv4 ,no4 #fie1 p4 #b1 c4 #b1 of the year #abia74 ,footnote #cce3 ,e4g4 ,romance of ,antar1 ,v4 #hj ult41 #afh v4 #f3 ,saaralu ankum l urdu sawakum 99 waaidukum f juni kulli almin #8,i go away from you1 ,i want not the like of you2 but ,i shall seek you under the wings of all darkness4' ,footnote #ccf3 al-,an1 ,,ii4 #ab4 #c1 is also noticeable3 #8amrun tawassau juna leylin mubridi4' ,footnote #ccg3 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 p4 #ada4 ,footnote #cch3 ,ebers1 ,aegypten und die ,bcher ,mosis1 p4 #gj4 ,footnote #cci3 ,fiske1 ,myths and ,myth-,makers1 pp4 #ga1 #aed4 ,footnote #cdj3 ,the sun is called celer deus by ,ovid1 ,fasti1 ,i4 #chf2 and ,herodotus1 ,i4 #bae1 says3 4 ,see ,hehn1 ,culturpflanzen1 etc41 p4 #ch4 ,footnote #cda3 ,bershth rabb1 sect4 #bb4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,even ,philo lays the chief momentum of the story of ,hagar on her flight3 7sc4 7 1 7,de profugis1 p4 #edf1 ed4 ,mangey74 ,footnote #cdc3 ,i leave it for the present undecided whether the name ,terach1 given to ,abraham's father1 belongs to this class4 ,ewald 7,history of ,israel1 ,i4 #bgd7 puts it in connexion with rach #8to wander1' though in an ethnological sense4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,see above1 p4 #da4 ,footnote #cde3 ,the first to discover this origin of the relative asher was the ,hungarian ,csepregi1 pupil of the great ,schultens1 ,dissert41 ,lugd41 p4 #aga 7quoted by ,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #afe73 he did not1 however1 follow out the idea very clearly4 ,compare also ,stade's view1 essentially the same1 in the ,morgenlndische ,forschungen1 ,leipzig #ahge1 p4 #ahh2 ,i could not get a sight of this till after the above was ready for the press4 ,on the other side ,schrader1 ,jen4 ,literaturzeit #ahge1 p4 #bii4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,in ,assyrian the ,moon is called aru1 with a mere hamz 7,schrader1 ,assyr4-babyl4 ,keilinschr41 p4 #bhb74 ,in ,arabic the reverse has happened2 from warch 7yrach7 has been formed the verb arracha #8to fix the time 7by the lunar calendar71 to date1' the w 7,heb4 y7 being weakened into hamz 7aleph74 ,whether the ,coptic ,ioh and ,arabic y are connected with yrach 7the abrasion of r is not uncommon71 is another question4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,so ,bttcher1 ,ausfhrl4 ,lehrbuch der hebr4 ,sprache1 ,i4 #eaf-ag4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,the poet ,dk al-,jinn had a mistress named ,dn 7,ibn ,challin4 ed4 ,wstenfeld1 ,,iv4 #if4 #g74 ,see also ,ab ,uyeyn al-,muhallab 7,agn1 ,,iii4 #abh4 #b1 #f74 ,footnote #cdi3 ,edwin ,norris1 ,assyrian ,dictionary1 ,i4 #bdh4 ,footnote #cej3 ,we find also al-ulya opposed to al-dunya in ,ibn ,chn ald al-iyn1 ed4 ,bl #abhd1 p4 #fj ult43 #8wa-dmat laka-d-dunya 99 wa-dmat laka-l-ulya4' ,footnote #cea3 ,cod4 ,leyden1 ,warner's ,fund1 ,no4 #eig1 p4 #cbe4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,it also deserves consideration whether ,dn as the feminine of ,dn denotes the ,moon3 compare ,lbhn1 ,lebhn2 shr1 ,ashr4 ,in that case the above myth would speak of the abduction of the ,moon by the ,morning-dawn1 i4e4 the disappearance of the moon at sunrise4 ,it would then be the same myth as the ,hellenic one of the abduction of ,helen 7,seln7 by ,paris4 ,footnote #cec3 ,angelo de ,gubernatis1 ibid4 p4 #bgh et seq4 ,footnote #ced3 ,see ,zeitschr4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahee1 ,,ix4 #geh4 ,footnote #cee3 ,edwin ,norris1 ,assyrian ,dictionary1 ,i4 #cdg4 ,the signification #8having locks' might also be mentioned as a possibility for zalch4 ,in that case we should have to notice the ,syrian zelch of the ,peshit in ,song of ,songs1 ,i4 #aa1 where the parallelism to gedl demands something like #8locks of hair2' and this meaning agrees with that of zelach in ,syriac3 fudit4 ,footnote #cef3 ,it is well-known that the gutturals and ch often change into f4 ,the ,arabic ada #8cup' becomes in ,turkish adef2 the name ,yehd is pronounced in jest ,jufut4 ,compare the ,arabic naacha with naafa1 and the ,mehri eh1 denoting #8mouth1' with ,arabic f1 ,hebrew peh1 etc4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,see ,zeitschr4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahee1 ,,ix4 #geh4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,see ,pfleiderer1 ,religion und ihre ,geschichte1 ,,ii4 #bga4 ,footnote #cei3 ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 pp4 #aei et seq4 ,footnote #cfj3 #b ,kings1 ,i4 #h1 ,,ii4 #aa4 ,compare the fiery1 flame-red chariot of ,ushas 7,rigveda1 ,,vi4 #fd4 #g74 ,footnote #cfa3 ,das alte ,griechenland im neuen1 p4 #bc4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,supplement to the ,augsburg ,allgem4 ,zeitung1 #ahgd1 ,no4 #cdd4 p4 #ecgg4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,compare ,renan1 ,hist4 gnr4 des ,langues smitiques1 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,called in the ,english ,bible ,lamech1 which is derived from the pausal form ,lmkh through the ,,lxx4 1 as is the case with many names1 e4g4 ,abel1 ,japheth1 ,jared1 though not all2 cf4 on the other side ,jether1 ,zerah1 ,peleg4 ,the ordinary form1 such as ,lmch1 ought to be preferred4--,,tr4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,schwartz1 ,ursprung der ,mythologie1 pp4 #ach-aej4 ,footnote #cff3 ,see the whole of ,chapter ,,vi4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,see note #cfd1 p4 #abi34 ,footnote #cfh3 ,ps4 ,,xix4 #e #d4 ,we have already remarked 7p4 #aaa7 that the tents which originally belonged to the sky at night are frequently transferred to the sky of daytime2 see also ,is4 ,,xl4 #bb4 ,and ,noah uncovers himself1 bethkh ohol #8in the middle of his tent' 7,gen4 ,,ix4 #ba74 ,footnote #cfi3 ,in al-,jauhar1 s4r4 kfr4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,in ,ibn al-,sikkt1 p4 #aic2 atta ara ana ubin ablaj 99 tasru f ajzi leylin adaj4 ,the expression ajz al-leyl also occurs in a verse of ,farazda1 ,kitb al-,an1 ,,xiv4 #agc4 #ai1 and of ,ashga1 ibid4 ,,xvii4 #ce4 #ac4 ,footnote #cga3 ,see also ,shhnmh1 ,,vii4 #cie1 with ,rckert's conjecture suggested in ,zeitsch4 der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahef1 ,x4 #acf4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,lazarus ,geiger1 ,ursprung und ,entwickelung der menschl4 ,sprache und ,vernunft1 ,i4 #ddg4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,schwartz1 ,sonne1 ,mond und ,sterne1 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,in ,g4 ,rawlinson's ,history of ,herodotus1 ,i4 #dij et seq4 ,one might also think of the ,arabic nafara #8to fly4' ,the ,sun is a fugitive1 as has been already shown4 ,footnote #cge3 ,lenormant1 ,premires ,civilisations1 ,,ii4 #ba4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,on the primary signification of the root mrd in ,semitic1 see ,fried4 ,delitzsch1 ,studien ber indogerm4-semit4 ,wurzelverwandtschaft1 ,leipzig #ahgc1 p4 #gd4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,die ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament1 p4 #ag1 and ,die assyr4-babyl4 ,keilinschriften1 p4 #bab4 ,compare ,merx1 ,grammatica ,syriaca1 p4 #bja4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,levy1 ,phnizische ,studien1 pt4 ,,ii4 p4 #bd4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,adolf ,jellinek1 ,bth ham-midrsh1 ,v4 #dj2 see supra1 p4 #cb4 ,footnote #chj3 ,i am fully aware that in ,hebrew poetry arrows are frequently1 indeed most frequently1 to be understood of lightning4 #8,he sends out his arrows and scatters them2 lightnings in great number and discomfits them' 7,ps4 ,,xviii4 #ae #ad74 ,but the arrows of ,joseph's adversaries must from the very nature of the myth be rays of the sun4 ,if the hunter is the ,sun1 then the rays can only be something which the hunter in that ancient time used for shooting4 ,mythology is not the product of a well-thought-out consistent system1 and so nothing is more likely than that two different things should be treated in the same way by virtue of some feature common to both4 ,thus the solar ray and the lightning are the same in mythology--an ,arrow4 ,footnote #cha3 ,see a fuller description in ,schwartz1 ,sonne1 ,mond und ,sterne1 pp4 #bah-bbj4 ,footnote #chb3 ,j4,g4 ,mller1 ,geschichte der amerikanischen ,urreligionen1 p4 #dbi4 ,footnote #chc3 ,see this question treated and its literature cited in ,creuzer1 ,symbolik und ,mythologie1 #crd ed41 ,i4 #eg4 ,footnote #chd3 ,for the description of the ,sun as an ,opener1 ,i am enabled to insert a supplementary datum1 borrowed from a book which was published when p4 #ig of the present work 7to which ,i refer back7 was already printed4 ,in a cuneiform ,hymn to ,samas1 the ,sun-god1 he is addressed thus3 ,o ,samas6 from the back of the heavens thou hast come forth3 ,the barrier of the shining heavens thou hast opened2 ,yea the gate of the heavens thou hast opened4 7,german translation of ,george ,smith's ,chaldean ,account of ,genesis1 with additions by ,dr4 ,fr4 ,delitzsch1 ,leipzig1 #ahgf47 ,the passage quoted is one of ,delitzsch's additions1 p4 #bhd4 ,i think this ,hymn is a remarkable illustration of our hypothesis that ,yiphtch1 #8the ,opener1' is a linguistic description of the ,sun4 ,footnote #che3 ,i owe to the kindness of my honoured friend ,dr4 ,hampel1 ,custos of the archeological section of the ,hungarian ,national ,museum1 the verification of a reference in the ,bulletino dell' ,instituto di ,correspondenza ,archeologica1 #ahec1 p4 #aej1 to a stone which exhibits the same representation of the head of ,janus as the coin in question1 viz43 #8una testa doppia1 di cui una facie barbata1 l'altra giovanile4' ,footnote #chf3 ,see ,naphtali1 discussed in #ad of this ,chapter2 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #chg3 ,compare ,sol languidus 7,lucretius1 ,de rerum nat41 ,v4 #gbf74 ,footnote #chh3 ,the ,arabian historians transfer the entire ,biblical story of ,samson 7,arabic ,shamsn71 to the time of the ,mulk al-awif2 and in their narrative the hero fights against ,rm i4e4 the ,greek ,empire at ,constantinople2 for the jawbone of an ass is substituted that of a camel4 ,see ,ibn al-,athr al-,tarch al-kmil1 ,bl edition1 ,i4 #adf4 ,footnote #chi3 ,schwartz1 ,ursprung der ,mythologie1 p4 #add1 where ,sif and ,loki of the ,scandinavian mythology are also mentioned4 ,the hairiness of the solar heroes has been translated into an ethnographical peculiarity in modern ,greek popular legends4 ,bernhard ,schmidt 7,das ,volksleben der ,neugriechen1 ,i4 #bjf7 says1 #8,in ,zante ,i encountered the idea that the entire power of the ancient ,greeks lay in three hairs on the breast1 and vanished if these were cut off1 but returned when the hairs grew again4' ,footnote #cij3 ,see ,ewald1 ,history of ,israel1 ,i4 #cde1 note #a4 ,footnote #cia3 ,in ,gen4 ,,xxvii4 #aa1 the received punctuation is sh sr4--,tr4 ,footnote #cib3 ,compare ,tiele1 ,vergel4 ,geschied4 p4 #ddg4 ,footnote #cic3 ,schwartz1 ,ursprung der ,mythologie1 p4 #adf2 see above1 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #cid3 ,zur ,entwickelungsgeschichte der ,menschheit1 pp4 #de-fj4--,ursprung und ,entwickelung der menschlichen ,sprache und ,vernunft1 ,bd4 ,,ii4 book #c4--;,compare ,lazarus1 ,leben der ,seele1 ,,ii4 #hj2 ibid4 p4 #ahe note4 ,footnote #cie3 ,for ,silver the three ,north-,semitic languages1 ,assyrian1 ,aramaic1 and ,hebrew1 have the same word1 and in so far #8form a strict union1' as ,schrader says1 in opposition to the ,south-,semitic languages1 which employ other words for the designation of this metal4' ,keilinschriften und das ,a4 ,t41 p4 #df4 ,footnote #cif3 ,chr gold has in recent times been frequently met with on ,phenician territory1 e4g4 in the ,inscription of ,idalion published by ,euting1 ,,ii4 #a1 in the ,inscription of ,gebal 7,de ,vog in the ,journal asiat4 #ahge1 ,i4 #cbg71 and in an unpublished ,carthaginian ,inscription 7,derenbourg in ,journal asiat4 #ahge1 ,i4 #ccf74 ,footnote #cig3 ,the consideration of the ,hebrew cheres #8,sun' might suggest that both it and the old word for gold 7chr71 composed of possibly related sounds1 both originated in the notion of shining4 ,footnote #cih3 ,al-,maar1 ,analectes1 etc41 ,leyden edition1 ,i4 #cfi4 #c4 ,footnote #cii3 ,al-,jauhar1 s4r4 kbr4 ,footnote #djj3 ,yt1 ,geogr4 ,dictionary1 ,,ii4 #fji4 #h4 ,footnote #dja3 ,zur himjarischen ,alterthumskunde1 in ,zeitsch4 der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahfe1 ,,xix4 #bdg4 ,compare ,halvy1 ,etudes sabennes1 in ,journal asiat41 #ahgd1 ,,ii4 #ebc4 ,footnote #djb3 ,pseudowid1 ed4 ,nassau ,lees1 p4 #aha4 #f4 ,footnote #djc3 ,hist4 de l'conomie politique en ,turquie1 in ,journal asiat41 #ahfd1 ,i4 #dba4 ,compare also ,sprenger1 ,alte ,geographie ,arabiens1 p4 #ef4 ,footnote #djd3 ,the use of black should also be noticed2 dirhem saud and kara urush4 ,footnote #dje3 ,in al-,thalib in the ,zeitsch4 der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahed1 ,,vii4 #eje4 ,footnote #djf3 ,culturgeschichtliche ,streifzge1 p4 xi4 ,footnote #djg3 ,compare ,an1 ,,iii4 #ij4 #aj4 ,fadaa bichzinihi wa-la kam f beyt ml fala lahu min al-wara w-al-ayn bayyatun4 ,footnote #djh3 ,thorbecke1 ,antarah1 ein vorislamischer ,dichter1 ,leipzig #ahfg1 p4 #da4 ,footnote #dji3 al-arr1 ,paris edition1 #bnd ed41 p4 #dfg4 ,footnote #daj3 ,kitb al-an1 ,,xvii4 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #daa3 ,m4,a4 ,levy in ,zeitschr4 der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahgj1 ,,xxiv4 p4 #aia4 ,footnote #dab3 ,halvy1 ibid4 p4 #eci4 ,footnote #dac3 ,freytag points this word uray4--,,tr4 ,footnote #dad3 ,j4 ,levy1 ,chaldisches ,wrterbuch1 ,i4 #cde4 ,footnote #dae3 #8,the ,sun had long since in the lap ,of ,thetis taken out his nap2 ,and1 like a lobster boil'd1 the ,morn ,from black to red began to turn'-- --says ,hudibras1 canto ,,ii4 ,footnote #daf3 ,in the ,babyl4 ,talmd1 ,ym #bh4 b1 the falling of the shades of night is described as the time when meshachar kthl #8the walls are black4' ,footnote #dag3 ,called by ,freytag an eagle4--,,tr4 ,footnote #dah3 ,in ,harr 7,paris edition1 #bnd ed471 p4 #fdd4 #d1 we read of the ,dawn3 na naal chib al-alm #8when the dye of darkness was washed off4' ,the ,arabic word here used for #8dye' is generally employed of gay colours1 e4g4 al-inn2 but it is self-evident that here only al-kul can be meant4 ,footnote #dai3 ,in ,persian black hair is called m i-,zeng #8,gipsies' hair1' and zulf-i-,hindu1 #8,indian hair1' i4e4 black like an ,indian's 7e4g4 ,rckert1 ,grammatik1 ,poetik und ,rhetorik der ,perser1 p4 #bhg74 ,so in the well-known verse of afi1 in which the poet gives away all ,bochara and ,samarkand for the black mole 7bechl-i-,hinduwesh1 #8,indian mole'7 of his ,turkish boy 7,dwn ,r1 no4 #h4 v4 #a2 ed4 ,rosenzweig1 ,i4 #bd74 ,footnote #dbj3 ,sat-al-zand1 ,i4 #ia4 #g4 ,footnote #dba3 ,e4g4 ,romance of ,antar1 ,,vii4 #aae4 line #d from below3 wa-kasa-l-leylu ullat al-sawd4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,varro treats it as self-evident that #8black' is the most suitable epithet for ,night1 and is thereby tempted to a very curious etymology in his work ,de ratione vocabulorum4 ,he explains the word fur #8thief' by saying that in the old ,latin fur-vum was equivalent to #8black1' and thieves practise their dark deeds at night4 #8,sed in posteriore ejusdem libri parte docuit 7scil4 ,varro7 furem ex eo dictum quod veteres ,romani furvum atrum appellaverint3 at fures per noctem quae atra sit facilius furentur' 7,aulus ,gellius1 ,noctes ,atticae1 ,i4 #ah4 #c-f74 ,footnote #dbc3 ,opuscula arabica1 ed4 ,w4 ,wright1 ,leyden #ahei1 p4 #cj4 #aa2 compare p4 #ca4 #ab4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,an1 ,,xi4 #dd4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,ibid41 ,,xviii4 #aci4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,ibn al-,sikkt1 p4 #cdd4 ,footnote #dbg3 ,ibn al-,sikkt1 p4 #cde4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,iy ulm al-dn1 ,,ii4 #adh4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #aahc4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,chabas1 ,etudes sur l'antiquit historique d'aprs les sources gyptiennes1 etc4 #bnd edition1 ,paris #ahgc1 p4 #cd1 where the article by ,le ,page ,renouf is referred to4 ,footnote #dca3 ,ibn al-,sikkt1 p4 #aic1 whom ,i follow as a reliable ancient authority2 al-,jauhar and ,freytag after him understand aba somewhat differently4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,ab-l-,al1 ,,ii4 #ajg4 #c-d4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,sat al-zand1 ,i4 #ic4 #a4 ,these ideas of the relations of colours are found expressed with characteristic energy by the eccentric ,persian poet ,ab ,is allj2 he says1 #8,when the ,sun in the blue vault turns his cheek into yellow1 it makes me think of saffron-coloured viands on an azure dish' 7,rckert1 ,grammatik1 ,poetik und ,rhetorik der ,perser1 p4 #abf74 ,the conception of turning grey combines that of both colours--the white appearing beside the black4 ,according to ,an1 ,,ii4 #da4 #g2 those clouds which combine the two colours are called shb #8grey' 7al-saib allat fh sawd wa-bayd74 ,footnote #dcd3 ,i will mention here that according to al-azl 7,ij1 ,,iv4 #dcc7 the stars have various colours1 some tending towards red1 others towards white1 others towards leaden3 wa-tadabbar adad kawkibih1 wachtilf alwnih fabauh taml ila-l-umr wa-bauh ila-l-bay wa-bauh ila launi-r-ru4 ,footnote #dce3 ,ab-l-,al1 ,i4 #aie4 #a4 ,footnote #dcf3 ,in ,yt1 ,,iv4 #iaa4 #g4 ,footnote #dcg3 arr's ,mams1 p4 #fge4 #g3 ,istanra-l-leyl al-bahm4 ,footnote #dch3 ,see ,excursus ,h4 ,footnote #dci3 ,an1 ,i4 #aeh4 #bc4 ,footnote #ddj3 al-,ani1 ,tazyn al-asw1 etc41 p4 #dje4 ,footnote #dda3 ,mams1 p4 #abh2 cf4 ,mehren1 ,rhetorik der ,araber1 p4 #ii4 ,footnote #ddb3 al-,buchr1 ,,ix4 #ce4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,the notion of the white colour of the moon is also the foundation of one of the ,hebrew names of the moon4 ,in the verse abyatun admu mithla-l-hill #8a gazelle red like the new moon' 7,an1 ,,vi4 #abb4 #ba7 the moon is treated as red4 ,but in the appellation al-layli al-b #8white nights1' by which are meant nights illumined throughout by the moon1 the moonshine is associated with a white colour4 ,footnote #ddd3 ,die ,hllenfahrt der ,istar1 p4 #ge4 ,footnote #dde3 ,halvy1 ibid41 p4 #eef4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,see ,excursus ,i4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,see ,excursus ,k4 ,footnote #ddh3 ,among the ,arabic names of the sun1 we find the curious appellation al-jaun 7,ibn al-,sikkt1 p4 #cbd71 a word of colour1 which belongs to the add of the ,arabic philologians1 i4e4 words with contradictory signification1 and may denote either white or black 7see ,redslob1 ,die arab4 ,wrter mit entgegengesetzter ,bedeutung1 ,gttingen #ahgc1 p4 #bg74 ,al-jaun is especially the setting sun1 e4g4 l thi atta tab al-jaun1 #8,i cannot come to him till the jaun sets2' and the setting sun is well described by a colour-word which1 by its faculty of standing for either white or black1 answers to the transition from sunshine to darkness4 ,footnote #ddi3 ,communicated by ,henne ,am ,rhyn1 ,deutsche ,volkssagen c41 p4 #bai4 no4 #dbg4 ,footnote #dej3 ,nagyidai ,czignyok4 ,in the original ,hungarian3 ,most az j flvette tolvajkpnyegt1 ,eltakar azzal pityks ltzett4 ,footnote #dea3 ,on ,regina coeli1 see ,jablonski1 ,opuscula1 ,,ii4 #ed et seq4 7ed4 ,te ,water74 ,footnote #deb3 ,in ,fox ,talbot1 quoted by ,schrader1 ,die ,hllenfahrt der ,istar1 p4 #ih4 ,footnote #dec3 ,zeitschr4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahgc1 ,,xxvii4 p4 #djd4 ,footnote #ded3 ,g4 ,rawlinson1 ,history of ,herodotus1 ,app4 ,b4 ,i41 ,essay ,x4 7,i4 #dhd74 ,footnote #dee3 ,schwartz1 ,sonne1 ,mond und ,sterne1 #bfi1 #bgd4 ,footnote #def3 ,see especially ,osiander in the ,zeitsch1 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahfe1 ,,xix4 #bdb et seq4 ,footnote #deg3 ,in ,yt1 ,,iv4 #djf4 ,footnote #deh3 ,the constant epithet #8holding the seed of bulls' brings to view the idea that the influence of the moon produces fertility in cattle 7,spiegel1 ,die heiligen ,schriften der ,parsen in ,german1 ,,iii4 xxi474 ,according to ,yasht1 ,,vii4 #e1 it is the moon #8that produces verdure1 that produces good things4' ,compare ,catullus1 ,,xxxii 7,,xxxiv7 v4 #ag-bj1 where the poet apostrophises the ,moon-- ,tu cursu1 ,dea1 menstruo ,metiens iter annuum1 ,rustica agricolae bonis ,tecta frugibus exples4 ,footnote #dei3 ,this connexion is also clear in the ,hottentot mythology4 ,heizi ,eibib1 which means moon1 is there the name of the man to whom grave-tumuli are consecrated1 and who is addressed in prayer for good sport and numerous herds 7,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,,ii4 #cbd74 ,footnote #dfj3 ,max ,mller's view 7,introduction to the ,science of ,religion1 p4 #ahd71 #8,when ,jeremiah speaks of the ,queen of ,heaven1 this can only be meant for ,astarte or ,baaltis1' is correct only if ,baaltis be identified with the ,moon4 ,the correctness of this identification1 which was first asserted by ,philo ,byblius1 and has been conceded by the older interpreters ,grotius and ,lyra1 and by many modern ones1 is very probable2 for the name ,baaltis stands in the same relation to ,baal 7,sun7 as ,milk to ,melekh1 ,lebhn to ,lbhn1 and ,ashr to shr4 ,tiele also 7,vergelijkende ,geschiedenis1 p4 #eab7 says the same as ,mller4 ,footnote #dfa3 ,midrsh ,shchr bh on ,ps4 ,,xix4 #g4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,the contrast of ,leah's weak eyes to ,rachel's beauty belongs not to the mythic stage1 but to the epic description4 ,footnote #dfc3 ,there is no reason to separate the word shilh from the ,shaphl shalh1 as ,levy does in his ,chald4 ,wrterbuch1 ,,ii4 #dha2 compare ,reggio in the ,hebrew journal ,ozar ,nechmad1 ,i4 #abb4 ,footnote #dfd3 ,see ,zeitschr4 fr ,vlkerpsychologie und ,sprachwissenschaft1 #ahfi1 ,,vi4 #bcg1 #beb4 ,footnote #dfe3 ,rohlfs1 ,quer durch ,afrika1 ,i4 #bjd4 ,footnote #dff3 ,opuscula ,arabica1 pp4 #af-ci4 ,footnote #dfg3 ,e4g4 ams1 p4 #fji1 v4 #f3 ,nbi1 ,,vi4 v4 #i4 ,footnote #dfh3 ams1 p4 #cia1 v4 #b4 ,footnote #dfi3 ,commentary on ams1 ibid4 ,footnote #dgj3 ,the ,arabian poet ,ibn ,mayyd1 in a description of the lightning 7,an1 ,,ii4 #abj4 #i71 says 'it lights up the piled-up cloud1 which is like a herd of camels1 at the head of which those that long for their home cry out with pain3 yuu abran min sabin kaannahu 99 hijnun arannat lil-anni nawziuh4 ,footnote #dga3 ,the ancient ,arabs understood that the thunder and lightning were caused by the clouds whence they issued4 ,many passages might be quoted in support of this1 but ,lebd ,mualla v4 #d1 #e1 is sufficient4 anna 7to sigh1 to groan with desire7 is therefore equivalent to #8to thunder1' e4g4 ,an1 ,,xiii4 #cb4 #h4 ad raadat samuhu wa-baraat wa-annat warjaannat4 ,footnote #dgb3 ,see ,w4 ,wright1 ,opuscula ,arabica1 p4 #bj4 #aj2 #ba4 #g4 ,footnote #dgc3 ,ibid41 p4 #bi4 #b4 ,footnote #dgd3 ,kitb al-,an1 ,,xix4 #aeg4 #a4 ,footnote #dge3 ,jeremiah ,,xxxi4 #ae1 ,matth4 ,,ii4 #ah4 ,footnote #dgf3 ,compare al-,sherbn ,hezz al-uf1 etc41 lithographed ,alexandria1 p4 #bec4 ,the ,arabs also said of the red evening-sky that #8it wept bloody tears' 7al-,marz1 al-,chia1 ,blk edition1 ,i4 #dcj74 ,footnote #dgg3 ,clemens ,alex4 ,strom4 ,v4 #ega4 ,footnote #dgh3 ,see ,nldeke's ,beitrge zur altarab4 ,poesie1 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #dgi3 ,in mythology the clouds are also called udders4 ,see ,mannhardt1 ,german ,mythenf41 pp4 #agf-ahh2 so in ,arabic1 ,ibn ,mueyr apud ,nldeke l4 c4 ,footnote #dhj3 ,ibn ,dureyd1 ,kitb al-ishtia1 ed4 ,wstenfeld1 pp4 #ac1 #ad4 ,footnote #dha3 ,ibnat al-inab1 in the celebrated wine-song of ,wlid b4 ,yazd 7,an1 ,,vi4 #aaj4 #e74 ,wine is well known to be called in ,hebrew #8,blood of the grape1' dam nbh 7,deut4 ,,xxxii4 #ad72 compare the ,persian chni rz in ,waf ed4 ,hammer1 p4 #ach4 #f3 shahzdegn b yekdiger chni rz chordend4 ,footnote #dhb3 ,in ,siamese luk mei is #8son of the tree1 fruit' 7,steinthal1 ,charakteristik1 p4 #aej72 compare ,midrsh rabb ,leviticus1 sect #g1 where #8children of the tree' are spoken of1 chlat khbhd lam bishebhl benhem4 ,the pearl is called by ,waf1 p4 #ahj4 #ae1 zdei yem #8son of the sea4' ,a curious mythological relationship is found in the ,polynesian system2 the year1 a daughter of the first pair1 combined with her own father to produce the months1 and the children of the latter are the days 7,gerland1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,,vi4 #bcc74 ,footnote #dhc3 ,fleischer in the ,zeitschr4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahec1 ,,vii4 #ejb note4 ,footnote #dhd3 ,an1 ,,xx4 #ed4 #af4 ,footnote #dhe3 ,arabic tradition knows another name besides ,zalch for this person4 ,in al-abar her name is given as ,rl2 see ,ouseley1 ,travels in various ,countries of the ,east1 ,london #ahai1 ,i4 #gd2 also in al-,beyw's ,anwr al-tanzl1 ed4 ,fleischer1 ,i4 #def-h4 ,footnote #dhf3 ,zeitschr4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g4 #ahdi1 ,,iii4 #bjj4 ,see above p4 #gc4 et seq4 ,footnote #dhg3 ,sonne1 ,mond und ,sterne1 pp4 #a4 et seq4 ,footnote #dhh3 ,weil1 ,biblische ,legenden der ,muselmnner1 p4 #ci4 ,zeitschrift d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahfa1 ,,xv4 #hf4 ,footnote #dhi3 ,das ,volksleben der ,neugriechen1 ,leipzig #ahga1 ,i4 #cf4 ,footnote #dij3 ,chips1 c4 vol4 ,,ii41 the latter part of #8,comparative ,mythology1' and ,lectures on the ,science of ,language1 ,second ,series1 ,lecture ,,ix4 #8,the ,mythology of the ,greeks4'--,,tr4 ,footnote #dia3 ,plutarchi ,fragmenta et ,spuria1 ed4 ,fr4 ,dbner1 in ,f4 ,didot's ,collection1 ,paris #ahee1 p4 #hc4 ,footnote #dib3 ,lettres assyriologiques et pigraphiques1 ,paris #ahgb1 ,,ii4 fifth letter4 ,footnote #dic3 ,mller1 ,history of ,sanskrit ,literature1 p4 #ecj2 ,chips1 c41 ,,ii4 #afc et seq42 ,fiske1 ,myths1 p4 #aac4 ,footnote #did3 ,schoolcraft1 ,historical and ,statistical ,information respecting the ,history1 ,condition and ,prospects of the ,indian ,tribes1 #ahea1 ,,ii4 #acf4 ,footnote #die3 ,see ,geiger1 ,jd4 ,zeitschrift fr ,wissenschaft und ,leben1 vol4 ,,viii4 p4 #bhe4 ,breslau #ahfi4 ,footnote #dif3 ,kuenen 7in his ,religion of ,israel1 ,i4 #aaa in the translation7 expresses the opinion that only the degree of mutual relationship between the fathers of tribes was a later idea3 that1 e4g4 the less noble tribes were called sons of ,jacob's slave-girls1 and those that were bound together by closer fraternal feelings were regarded as sons of the same mother4 ,compare now also ,zunz1 ,gesammelte ,schriften1 ,berlin #ahge1 ,i4 #bfh4 ,footnote #dig3 ,there still remain some names whose etymological explanation is difficult1 as ,rebhn and ,shimn4 ,yisssekhr 7,issachar7 translated literally might be #8the ,day-labourer1' certainly a fitting designation for the ,sun1 expressing how he does his day's work1 like a day-labourer4 ,yet ,i cannot look upon that as a mythical description1 because it would be an unpardonable anachronism to suppose that that primeval age when myths were created would speak of day-labourers1 especially after the fashion in which the idea is expressed by the word ,yiss-sekhr1 #8he takes up his wages4' ,footnote #dih3 ,which according to al-,damr1 ayt al-aywn1 ,bl #abgd1 ,,ii4 #bai1 is used only of the rising sun2 we can say alaat al-azl #8the gazelle rises1' but not arabat #8he sets4' ,ab ,sad al-,rustam the poet 7in ,beh al-,dn al-mil1 ,keshkl1 p4 #afd4 #ac7 carries out the mythological figure still further1 using the verb naaa #8to butt1' said of horned beasts4 ,describing a fine building1 he says tanaa arna-sh-shamsi min sharaftihi1 that #8as to splendour it butts in rivalry with the sun'--as if the palace and the sun were knocking their horns together4 ,footnote #dii3 ,babyl4 ,tract4 ,ym1 fol4 #bi4 a3 #8,as the hind's horns branch out to every side1 so also the light of dawn spreads out to all sides4' ,footnote #ejj3 ,journal asiatique1 #ahfa1 ,,ii4 #dcg4 ,footnote #eja3 ,caussin de ,perceval1 ,essai sur l'histoire des ,arabes avant l',islamisme1 ,i4 #bfj4 ,footnote #ejb3 ,given in the ,appendix to this work4 ,footnote #ejc3 ,lenormant1 ,la ,magie chez les ,chaldens1 ,paris #ahgd1 p4 #adj4 ,in the decadence of magic1 however1 the horns1 which are connected with magic1 are used even outside the cycle of solar gods2 e4g4 #8,on voit ,bin la tte surmonte de la tiare royale arme de cornes de taureau1 les paules munies de quatre grandes ailes1 etc41' ibid4 p4 #ej4 ,here the horns are for butting1 not to symbolise rays4 ,however1 in this particular case of ,bin the mythical meaning is not very clear4 ,as he is sometimes called #8the southern sun over ,elm1' ibid4 p4 #aba1 the horns in the passage quoted may have something to do with his solar character4 ,footnote #ejd3 ,deorum ,concilium1 #aj4 ,footnote #eje3 ,see ,herodotus1 ,,ii4 #db1 ,,iv4 #aha4 ,footnote #ejf3 ,we will not claim any importance for the fact that in ,sanchuniathon's account of the sacrifice of ,isaac the name ,jed is given instead of ,isaac2 consequently if ,jed be identical with the ,hebrew ,jehd1 the fact that ,jed is here equivalent to ,isaac would prove the solar character of ,jehd4 ,footnote #ejg3 ,angelo de ,gubernatis1 in his ,zoological ,mythology1 is peculiarly indefinite on the mythological significance of this animal2 compare ,pleyte1 ,la ,religion des ,pr-,israelites1 ,leyden #ahfe1 p4 #aea1 where much useful information will be found on the worship of the ,ass4 ,footnote #ejh3 ,see ,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 pp4 #did and #aafc4 ,footnote #eji3 ,on the ,arabic proper name imr1 ,yt1 ,,ii4 #cfb1 may be consulted2 cf4 ,ibn ,dureyd1 ,kitb al-ishti1 p4 #d4 ,the ,arabic proper name ,misal is also connected with the ,ass2 it alludes to the screeching of the wild-ass2 see ,tebrz's ,scholia to the ams1 p4 #bjj penult4 ,compare al-,meydn1 ,,ii4 #ih3 akfar min imr4 ,footnote #eaj3 azwn1 ed4 ,wstenfeld1 ,i4 #gg1 ,,ii4 #aff4 ,i must also just refer to the story of ,muim1 as told in ,yt1 ,,iv4 #efe1 and mention that ,muim #8he who gives food' is likewise the name of an ancient ,arabian idol4 ,even ,krehl1 in his work on the ,preislamite ,religion of the ,arabs1 p4 #fa1 attempted to explain mythologically the story of ,isf and ,nil1 interpreting the latter name as #8she who kisses4' ,footnote #eaa3 ,pharez and ,zarah in the ,english ,bible1 derived through the ,,lxx4 from the pausal forms ,pre and ,zrach4--,,tr4 ,footnote #eab3 ,and ,english ,daybreak4--,,tr4 ,footnote #eac3 ,from ,hajnal #8dawn1' and hasads1 abstract substantive from root hasad #8to split1 tear open4'--,,tr4 ,footnote #ead3 ,ab ,nuws says of the dawn1 maft-ul-admi1 ,yut1 ,,iii4 #fig4 #bb4 ,footnote #eae3 ,this hymn is applied to ,dan1 to whom it is quite unsuitable1 as ,dan has a solar character4 ,we are tempted to conjecture that it originally referred to a non-solar figure1 perhaps actually to ,levi1 whose name is synonymous with nchsh #8serpent4' ,this is the more probable1 because no separate section of ,jacob's ,blessing is devoted to this son1 and in the only words relating to him he is coupled with ,simeon4 ,footnote #eaf3 ,see ,zeitsch4 fr ,vlkerpsychologie c41 #ahga1 ,,vii4 #cjg4 ,footnote #eag3 ,the first chapter of the ,vendidd translated and explained1 in ,bunsen's ,egypt's ,place c4 ,,iii4 #did et seq4 ,footnote #eah3 ,as raoidhitem may also signify #8running' 7root rudh to flow and to run71 a #8running snake1' literally the same as nchsh brach1 might be meant4 ,footnote #eai3 ,mller1 ,kosmogonie1 p4 #aic4 ,footnote #ebj3 ,max ,mller1 ,chips c41 ,,ii4 #afd2 ,fiske1 ,myths c41 p4 #aac4 ,on the blinding1 see p4 #aji et seq4 ,footnote #eba3 ,see al-,damr1 ayt al-heyvn1 ,i4 #gj4 ,footnote #ebb3 ,see ,excursus ,l4 ,footnote #ebc3 ,connected with ashiya #8to veil4' ,footnote #ebd3 ,see ,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #gdi4 ,footnote #ebe3 ,max ,mller1 ,chips c41 ,,ii4 #fh4 ,footnote #ebf3 ,arsala achhu ,sheybb tat al-leyl1 ,antar1 ,,vi4 #ajb4 #i4 ,footnote #ebg3 ams1 p4 #eff4 v4 #b4 ,footnote #ebh3 ,libsan1 compare ,sr4 ,,vii4 v4 #eb2 ,,xiii4 v4 #c2 yush-l-leyla-n-nahra4 ,footnote #ebi3 ,in ,yt1 ,i4 #bd4 #b4 ,footnote #ecj3 arr1 p4 #afb1 #bnd ed42 compare the ,commentary1 in which particular stress is laid on the act of covering up3 liannahu yua m fh4 ,compare al-,meydn1 ,,ii4 #aab4 #bc3 al-leyl yuwr aanan4 ,footnote #eca3 ,eur4 ,ion1 v4 #aaej2 it is also called 1 and in ,aeschylus1 ,prom4 v4 #bd 1 from the gay robe of stars4 ,footnote #ecb3 ,compare ,king ,richard ,,ii41 ,,iii4 #b4 #8,the cloak of night being pluck'd from off their backs4' ,footnote #ecc3 ,kitb al-an1 ,,iii4 #bh4 #bd4 ,footnote #ecd3 ,i quote also a passage from the ,uigur language3 #8,the creation tore its black shirt1' i4e4 the day has dawned3 ,vmbry1 ,kudatku ,bilik1 p4 #bah2 compare p4 #gj1 #8,i have put off the cloak of darkness2' p4 #bai1 #8,the daughter of the west spreads out her carpet4' ,footnote #ece3 ,max ,mller1 ,chips1 c41 ,,ii4 #hc4 ,schwartz1 ,ursprung d4 ,mythologie1 p4 #bde4 ,footnote #ecf3 al-,beyw's ,commentary on the orn1 ,i4 #ai4 #ba et seq4 ,ab-l-,ba1 ,kullit1 p4 #cje4 ,footnote #ecg3 ,see ,excursus ,g4 ,footnote #ech3 ,ibn al-,sikkt1 p4 #cbb4 ,footnote #eci3 ,the ,poetical ,works of ,beh-ed-,dn ,zoheir of ,egypt4 ,by ,e4,h4 ,palmer1 ,cambridge #ahgf1 ,i4 #ajh4 #g4 ,it is impossible to quote this edition without an expression of admiration for the perfection to which ,arabic typography has been brought in ,england in this magnificent ,oriental work1 the production of which redounds to the imperishable credit of the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,it may be pronounced one of the most beautiful ,oriental books that have ever been printed in ,europe2 and the learning of the editor worthily rivals the technical get-up of the creations of the soul of one of the most tasteful poets of ,islm1 the study of which will contribute not a little to save the honour of the poetry of the ,arabs4 ,here first we make the acquaintance of a poet who gives us something better than monotonous descriptions of camels and deserts1 and may even be regarded as superior in charm to al-,mutanabb4 ,footnote #edj3 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte der ,sprachgelehrsamkeit bei den ,arabern1 no4 #a1 in the ,sitzungsberichte der kais4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,vienna #ahga1 ,jan4 p4 #bbb et seq42 or in the reprint p4 #ah et seq4 ,footnote #eda3 ,wallin's articles in the ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahea1 ,v4 #ag2 but see above p4 #dc4 ,footnote #edb3 ,see ,vatke1 ,biblische ,theologie1 p4 #cbg1 and ,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #gaa1 where importance is attached to this4 ,footnote #edc3 ,the conception of ,cherubim penetrated even into ,mohammedan regions1 e4g4 fi1 ed4 ,rosenzweig1 ,,iii4 #ebf penult41 chalweti kerrbin lem-i-uds4 ,footnote #edd3 ,ueber die sdarabische ,sage1 ,leipzig #ahff p4 #bg4 ,footnote #ede3 ,see ,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #fig4 ,footnote #edf3 ,see ,dillmann1 in ,schenkel's ,bibellexikon1 ,i4 #eaa4 ,footnote #edg3 ,ibid41 ,v4 #bhd4 ----- ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,myth ,,of ,,civilisation ,,and ,,the ,,first ,,shaping ,,of ,,hebrew ,,religion4 #a4 ,in close connexion with that stage of development of the myth-producing faculty which is inaugurated by the beginnings of agricultural life1 is found a natural consequence of the solar myth among agriculturists--the ,myth of ,civilisation4 ,we have seen that the advance in civilisation from the nomad life to the agricultural stage is accompanied by that inversion of the direction of the myth which puts the ,sun in the foreground and allows a tone favourable to him to prevail in it1 whereas at the nomad stage it was the night-sky and the phenomena of nature connected with it that engrossed the sympathy of the formers of myths4 ,now here we again encounter a remarkable phenomenon4 ,no intricate psychological foundation or historical demonstration is required to prove that our own stage of civilisation--and not ours alone--is intellectually qualified to compare itself either with a lower stage through which it has long since passed1 or with a higher which is now only beginning to be aimed at by our best spirits1--so as to estimate its value from the point of view given us by our social system4 ,for let two different stages of civilisation1 social systems or conditions be brought before any man's observation so that he notes their essential difference1 and the perception of this difference will awaken an impulse to measure them off against one another and form a judgment on the perfection of the one and the insufficiency of the other4 ,and not only does the man who has reached the higher stage feel himself impelled to compare his new condition with that of those who remain behind on the less perfect stage already passed by him2 but also those who stand on the lower stage1 but are acquainted with the altered mode of life of others1 contemplate the advanced stage and set off its value against that of the stage on which they still stand4 ,thus we have seen above that huntsmen and fishermen have their ideas about agricultural life4 ,still he who has reached the higher stage will be more generally impelled to such meditations than those who still stand on the lower4 ,when the question has arisen in his mind1 it must finally culminate in the enquiry1 ,what was the origin or who was the author of the great advance which procures for him such advantages over one who stands lower8 ,it is true1 the agriculturist is not always conscious that his stage of civilisation is the result of an advance at all2 for in many nations there exists no consciousness that any less perfect stage preceded that of the agriculturist4 ,but this consciousness is not a necessary condition of the raising of the question2 the mere observation of the difference between the two stages of civilisation suffices to prompt it4 ,and it will come more and more into the foreground when the gradual progress within the limits of the agricultural stage has advanced so far as to develop the social consequences of the new state in all their fulness4 ,social order and laws are non-existent for the nomad1 who has not yet formed for himself any permanent social system4 ,at his stage they are not merely superfluous1 but even in a certain sense inconceivable4 ,the wranglings1 the objects of which are chiefly wells and pastures1 are settled and composed1 not by laws and rights established once for all1 but by strength of arm1 or between disputants of peaceful disposition by separation3 #8,and there arose strife between the herdsmen of ,abram's cattle and the herdsmen of ,lot's cattle4 ,and ,abram said to ,lot1 ,let there be no strife1 ,i pray thee1 between me and thee1 between my herdsmen and thy herdsmen2 for we are brethren4 ,is not the whole land before thee8 ,separate thyself1 ,i pray thee1 from me3 if thou goest to the left hand1 then ,i will go to the right2 or if thou goest to the right hand1 then ,i will go to the left' 7,gen4 ,,xiii4 #g-i74edh ,and on occasion of a dispute about a well1 ,abimelech said to ,isaac3 #8,go from us2 for thou art much mightier than we4 ,and ,isaac departed thence1 and pitched his tent in the valley of ,gerar1 and dwelt there' 7,gen4 ,,xxvi4 #af1 #ag74 ,arts1 manufactures and other occupations are inconceivable at this stage2 for the wants of the nomad are so limited that the conditions of his existence are satisfied by his tents1 herds1 and pasture-ground4 ,the answer which the agriculturist gives to the question about the origin of the arts and manufactures1 of social order and law1 all of them products of agricultural life1 is what we call the ,myth of ,civilisation4 ,this ,myth of ,civilisation1 which we encounter among the most various nations1 refers the authorship of the advanced and refined state of civilisation to the ,solar figures of the myth1 which1 to the prejudice of the figures of the dark sky1 are brought into the foreground by the human mind on its advance to agriculture4 ,it is therefore a spontaneous act of the human mind that is made the cause of a series of phenomena1 of which it is itself really the result4 ,the ,greek and ,roman mythology abounds with data verifying the ,solar character of the stories of the origin of civilisation and morals4 ,arts and manufactures are constantly brought into connexion with mythical names which are recognised by comparative philologists as designations of the ,sun4 ,not only the musician but the smith of ,olympus are ,solar figures2 so also the first navigator and founder of cities4 ,the right understanding of ,mythology was long hindered by the so-called ,euhemeristic system1 which assumed that the gods of mythology1 and especially of the ,greek and ,roman mythology 7for scarcely any others were sufficiently known to be considered71 were only great benefactors of humanity1 who after their death were rewarded by divine honours2 and this system has been maintained till the present day4 ,the ,myth of ,civilisation consequently had to be fitted into the frame of this convenient system4 ,it was said that posterity had from mere ,gratitude raised the inventor of the arts to the throne of deity4 ,petrarch says1 #8,we know that the founders of some arts after their death were rewarded by divine honours1 rather from grateful than from pious feelings 444 ,thus ,apollo was made a god through his lyre1 ,apollo and ,aesculapius through medicine1 ,saturn1 ,liber and ,ceres through agriculture1 ,vulcan through his smithy4'#edi ,this mode of regarding the subject was not only upheld from ,euhemerus down to ,petrarch1 but exerted its influence on the interpretation of the ancient stories even to our own times4 ,however1 the consideration of the store of legends of humanity in general1 as far as they are brought under our ken1 collected and analysed according to their historical and psychological truths1 teaches us that the founder of all the order and morality which result from the more civilised agricultural life is1 in the language of the old stories1 the ,sun4 ,the so-called ,myths of ,civilisation are always put into connexion with the ,sun1 or with some of the copious synonyms which mythology gives to the ,sun4 ,these myths must exist in every nation which has won its upward way from nomadism to agriculture1 or from tribal life to society4 ,as soon as the agriculturist began to use the ploughshare1 he could not but observe the difference between his life and that of the nomad1 who fixed his tent-plugs in the earth at a different place from day to day1 moving from pasture to pasture1 whilst he himself had the control of permanent dwellings1 protected by definite unalterable laws1 and lived a life of regularity1 yet full of enjoyment and variety1 strongly contrasting with the ,bedaw's monotonous independence4 ,then1 when the source of this difference was sought1 all the advance was attributed to the ,sun1 as the author and encourager of agriculture and inventor of the more refined arts and enjoyments of life4 ,moreover1 the connexion which the ,myth of ,civilisation establishes between the ,founder of cities and the ,wolf1 as e4g4 between ,romulus and a she-wolf who suckled him1 has lately been explained by ,prof4 ,sepp through the signification given to the wolf in the solar myth--with perfect justice1 though perhaps going rather too far in the elaboration of details4#eej ,like ,apollo1 ,osiris also is 1 1 #8,inventor of agriculture and teacher of the arts2'#eea and in this point the myths of nations quite distinct in race agree4 ,a few examples taken from sources wide apart will make this clear4 ,one of the ,solar heroes of the ,persian myth of civilisation is ,jemshd1 whose character can scarcely be doubtful to the mythologist1 after the consentaneous characteristics with which the epic poet ,firds and the historian ,mirchond fill up the description of his life4#eeb ,his very name indicates clearly enough a solar signification2 and to this must be added the fact that he combines many characteristics of the solar supporters of the ,myth of ,civilisation4 ,he first gives to ,irn1 till then savage1 the benefits of civilisation4 ,he is the first builder of cities1 the inventor of the fine arts1 especially of music1 navigation 7which belongs especially to the solar myth1 as we have seen71 and1 as ,mirchond explains at length1 of the cultivation of the vine--an ,iranian ,noah4 ,he divides the whole nation into four classes3 ,scribes1 ,warriors1 ,agriculturists1 and ,artists4 ,thus it is he who puts an end to the nomadic tribal life4 ,in this breaking up into castes not the slightest trace is discoverable of any notice of pastoral life2 on the contrary1 in the story of ,jemshd as worked out by the later narrator1 probably in close agreement with the still living mythical tradition1 especial weight is laid on ,agriculture4 ,the solar chronology is also due to ,jemshd4 ,mirchond says3 #8,as often as the ,chosrev of the stars1 the ,sun1 took away the royal robe of rays from the fish's tail and threw it on the neck of the ram1 ,jemshd appointed an assemblage of the great and noble at the foot of the throne4 ,he instituted all the appliances of pleasure1 and spread out the carpet of joy1 and called the day ,neurz4' ,the ,prometheus-side of the ,jemshd-story is surprising4 ,the ,persian hero of civilisation1 like the ,greek1 is chastised and hurled down by ,god for his presumption2 his fall is occasioned by ,zohak1 who conquers him1 from whose shoulders dragons grow up 7the dragons of the ,storm and the ,night74 ,after a fall of a hundred years he appears on the coast of the ,chinese sea4 ,the ,sun is devoured by the monster waiting for him at the bottom of the sea1 but afterwards rises again out of the sea1 like ,jonah in the ,hebrew myth4 ,if now we turn from ancient ,irn to the ,american tribes1 we find the ,myth of ,civilisation take the same direction4 ,there also the origin of morals1 law and order is attributed to the ,sun4 ,i quote one of the numerous myths of civilisation from ,j4,g4 ,mller1 who deserves great credit for his work on ,american religions1 which makes ,american mythology known in ,germany4 ,it is the myth of civilisation belonging to the ,muyscas1 inhabitants of the ,terra ,firma in the plain of ,bogot1 who tell as follows of the commencement of civilisation among themselves3 #8,in the earliest times1 before the moon was1 the high plain of ,cundinamarca was closed in and the pass of ,tequendama not yet opened4 ,then the ,muyscas people were savage1 without agriculture1 without religion1 without morals1 without civil rule4 ,then there appeared a bearded old man who came from the ,east1 who had three names1 ,bochica1 ,nenequetheba1 and ,zuh1 and was represented as having three heads4 ,he taught the savages to wear clothes1 to till the land1 to worship the gods1 to form states4 ,his wife had also three names1 ,huythaca1 ,chia1 ,yubecayguaya4 ,she was dazzlingly beautiful1 but so malicious that she plotted to destroy all her husband's salutary undertakings4 ,and she actually succeeded by secret magic arts1 in causing the ,funzha 7now ,rio ,bogot71 the river of the country1 to rise to such a height as to overwhelm the whole high plain with flood4 ,only a minority of the inhabitants were able to escape to the summits of the mountains4 ,but then the just wrath of ,bochica was kindled2 he drove the wicked woman off the earth for ever1 and changed her into the ,moon4 ,since then there has been a moon4 ,and to get rid of the troubles of the earth1 ,bochica made an opening in the wall of rock1 and allowed the water to run off by the majestic waterfall of ,tequendama1 #egj feet high4 ,when the land was thus dried1 the people that were left were called to civilisation1 and the ,solar worship was introduced1 with a sacerdotal order1 periodical feasts1 sacrifices and pilgrimages4 ,at the head of the state ,bochica set a secular and a sacerdotal chief1 settled the chronology1 and after a life of two thousand years at length withdrew1 bearing the name ,idacanzas4'#eec ,so much for the ,myth of ,civilisation4 ,it is certainly wrong to try to find matter of history in these stories of civilisation1 and1 with ,markham1 ,rivero1 and ,tschudi1 to see in ,bochica and the other bearded heroes of civilisation belonging to ,american mythology #8missionaries of the worship of ,brahma1 of ,buddha1 and probably of other sects4'#eed ,my readers will surely perceive the perverseness of such a proceeding4 ,j4,g4 ,mller himself recognised the ,sun in ,bochica1 the civiliser of the ,muyscas2 but he did not find out all the mythological relations which determine his solar character4 ,the most important of these is the circumstance that ,bochica is #8a bearded old man1 who came from the ,east4' ,here then1 as in other ,american myths1 the ,sun's rays are regarded as the long white beard of the old man of the sun1 in the same sense in which they appear elsewhere under the form of locks of hair 7see supra1 p4 #acg74 ,and as in ,egyptian the rising sun has a different name from the setting1 and the same distinction of name is stamped upon the ,hebrew myth also 7,leah and ,delilah on the one side1 and ,dinah1 ,zilpah1 ,asher1 etc4 on the other71 so in the myth of the ,muyscas the three names of the ,sun refer to his various positions at rising1 noon1 and setting1 which probably played a part in the ancient myth of the ,muyscas4 ,the corresponding three faces of the ,sun express the same idea that produced the myth of the two of ,janus 7see p4 #acg72 with the difference that the ,american myth notices three phases of the ,sun1 and the ,roman only two4 ,the ,sun is opposed by the ,moon1 the sky of day is engaged in an everlasting war with the sky of night4 ,the circumstance that the moon causes the flood exactly agrees with the ,american conception1 which connects water with the moon4#eee ,the moon also is provided with three names in our ,american myth1 and these three names have the same signification as the three of the ,sun1 i4e4 the conception that each of the varying phases of the moon is itself an independent object4 ,dr4 ,anton ,henne1 a ,swiss mythologist1 first considered the meaning of the three visible forms of the moon 7as contrasted with the four astronomical phases7 in mythology1 especially ,german1 and cited some parallels from classical mythology4#eef ,now although this feature of the triple form of the moon is undoubtedly expressed in many myths1 among others in the ,american one under review1 yet ,henne-,am-,rhyn seems to go rather too far1 in referring the many variations of the ,german story of the three spinning girls and so forth to this mythical idea4 ,many of these variants bear the undeniable impress of a mythical description of the setting ,sun's or the ,night's battle with the bright ,sun of day2 especially that in which one of the ,sisters is quite white1 the second half-white and half-black1 and the third blind4 ,unquestionably the ,sun of day is the quite white sister2 the ,sun shortly before setting the half-white and half-black2 and the ,night the blind one 7see supra1 pp4 #aji-aj74eeg ,the solar character of the princess ,mrthll 7no4 #ehf1 ,henne-,am-,rhyn71 who is as beautiful as the sun1 and can only weep golden tears 7see ,excursus ,e71 can escape no one4 ,the moon-lit sky of night appears in the ,myth of ,civilisation averse to all the blessings which the ,sun grants to the agriculturist4 ,in this character it appears frequently1 especially in the ,american mythology2#eeh whereas in the ,oriental the connexion between the moon and water suggests the idea that the moon produces fertility and freshness in the soil 7see supra1 p4 #afj74 ,in the ,voguls' story of civilisation1 a small fragment of which1 from the collections made by ,antony ,reguly1 is contained in the important work of the ,hungarian ,academician ,paul ,hunfalvy on the #8,country and ,people of the ,voguls1'#eei ,kulyater is the builder of the first city4 ,the solar character of ,kulyater cannot be doubted1 if the following portion of the ,vogul story be taken into consideration3 #8,he dwelt in a house locked with seven iron locks4 ,tarom was angry with him1 and seized him by one foot1 and he fell into the heart of the foaming sea4' ,this is the sunset4 ,the reason why the ,founder of ,cities 7whom the ,vogul reckons among the evil spirits and regards as the originator of death#efj7 appears here in an unfavourable light is the same as that which we shall discover for the tone of dislike which the ,hebrew story adopts towards the agriculturist ,cain4 ,till they became ,russified the ,voguls remained prevailingly a hunting people1 and their myths did not rise to the elevation of the view of the world possessed by agriculturists4 ,the ,vogul story of the ,creation#efa reflects exactly the ideas of a hunting and fishing people2 it speaks only of the chase and of catching fish4 ,now we have seen that the ,myth of ,civilisation expresses the same idea in nations of the most different races4 ,even in the ,japanese myths of civilisation1 published by the learned ,japanese ,dira ,kittao1#efb a thoroughly solar character is evident4 ,manufactures and arts1 social order and law are always attributed to the ,sun as author1 not only by ,aryans1 but even by the still unclassified ,american tribes4 ,if the knowledge of the ,american languages were more advanced than it is in our time1 and if the mutual relations of those languages were not #8exceedingly perplexing1 for the same reason as those presented by the ,polynesian and ,african dialects1 and in a yet higher degree1'#efc we might gain some understanding of the origin of the many proper names which we encounter in the above myth and in the other members of the copious ,american mythology2 and this would lead us to a far more accurate idea of their origin and life than is possible with petrified myths of civilisation4 ,nevertheless1 before we part from them1 we will still just notice that the introduction of social laws1 political constitutions and religious institutions such as are ascribed in the ,muyscas' myth to the ,sun himself as an old man1 is frequently attributed to the sons of the ,sun4 ,there is no need to prove that in such stories the sons of the ,sun are identical with their father the ,sun4 ,so e4g4 ,orpheus1 son of the ,sun1 calls into cities men living a savage life in the forests1 and urges them to a more civilised life4 ,again1 the ,indian legislator ,vaivasuta is son of the ,sun4 ,and1 not to neglect again here ,american mythology1 the two sons of the ,sun1 ,manco ,copac and ,mama ,oello1 are brought forward in the ,peruvian myth of civilisation as teachers of civilisation4 ,there is no reason whatever to identify ,mama ,oello with the ,moon1 as ,j4,g4 ,mller does2#efd and it would even run counter to the very nature of the ,myth of ,civilisation4 ,for1 as we saw in the previously cited ,american myth1 the ,moon is the very power that paralyses the work of the ,sun in introducing civilisation and law4 ,to this place belongs also the idea1 which is found in many nations1 that the founders of their legislation and religion were born from virgins1 made to conceive by the ,sun's rays4#efe ,this element of the solar myth still operates in a story told by the ,persian poet ,ferd al-,dn ,ar1 who introduces a maiden's dream as follows3 #8,then the ,christian maiden saw in a dream that a ,sun fell into her lap1 opened his mouth and said1 etc4#eff' #b4 ,the sources of the ancient ,hebrew mythology have preserved no less considerable remains of the ,hebrew people's myth of civilisation2 and it moves in the same direction as has been indicated above4 ,the invention of arts and manufactures1 morals1 law1 and social order1 is attributed to ,solar figures4 ,especially note-worthy in this connexion is the fourth chapter of ,genesis1 where mention is made of the beginning of the building of cities1 and of the invention of agricultural and of musical instruments2 and the ninth chapter of the same book1 in which the first commencement of social order secured by law is related4 ,all this is attached to names of which other mythical features besides those concerning civilisation are recorded1 features which point to their solar significance1 and serve to fill up the story of the civilising activity of their bearers4 ,but the ,solar figures are authors not of manufactures and civil order only3 the human race itself has the ,sun as its author1 through whose children mankind is propagated4 ,the name dm1 ,ab-l-bashar #8father of all flesh1' as the ,arabs call him1 is1 as is obvious at a glance1 a solar appellation #8the ,red'2 etymologically the same word as ,edm4 ,when the ,hebrew story of civilisation derives the human race from the ,red one1 it does the same as the ,greeks when they call the mother of mankind ,pyrrha #8the ,red4'#efg ,the ,hebrews call the mother of mankind ,chaww 7,eve7 #8the mother of all that lives' 7,gen4 ,,iii4 #bi71efh i4e41 #8the ,circulating' 7in ,arabic awa ,v71 a name of the ,sun1 the feminine synonym of ,zebhln #8the ,round2' a very ancient appellation of the ,sun1 the traces of which we meet also in the ,vedas1 where 7,rigveda1 ,i4 #agd4 #e7 the ,sun is called a ,wheel1 or1 as he frequently is in other passages1 a ,chariot4 ,this is based not only on the conception of the ,horses of the ,sun drawing his chariot1 but on the original conception of this chariot1 as consisting of a single wheel or of a cylinder on a sloping plain1 as ,lazarus ,geiger has admirably demonstrated4#efi ,it is also to be considered that the mythological genealogy of the ,hebrews makes the world to be peopled by the descendants of ,cain1 children of the ,sun1 and that a second progenitor of the human race1 ,noah1 is likewise a solar figure4 ,we must here of course disregard the late ,seth-genealogy1 at the time of the drawing up of which even the minimum of mythical conception necessary to the working-out of the ,myth of ,civilisation had already vanished4 ,it is not impossible that originally two or even more now forgotten versions of the myth of population existed--one which called the first father of the human race ,adam1 and another which attached the propagation of mankind to the name ,noah1 and that then1 by the interposition of the story of the ,flood which made the whole human race perish1 the two versions grew into harmony with one another in the popular mind4 ,but in any case it is certain that the ,hebrews made ,solar figures the ancestors of mankind4 ,thus among the ,hebrews also it was the ,solar myth that answered the question concerning the primeval origin of agricultural civilisation2 and thus was completed the picture of what modern interpreters love to call the #8,origins4' ,it is this side of the formation of legends which maintains its life and productiveness longest among men4 ,for there is always a latent instinct and powerful impulse in the mind of man to cancel all notes of interrogation1 and to gain and to give intelligence on the origin of all that surrounds him4 ,we well know how many stories are current in the mouth of the people1 stories of comparatively modern origin1 which have for their subject the rise of rivers1 mountains and institutions4 ,how charming are the ,hungarian stories invented to explain the origin of the two great rivers which traverse that beautiful country6 and who knows not into what petty details this impulse of the human mind pushes its way8 ,it treats nothing as a matter of course and as sufficiently explained by the mere fact of its existence2 it finds everywhere a ,why and a ,how1 that must be answered4 ,it not only seeks reasons of existence1 and dives into cosmogonies1 for the overpowering universe of the world and the grander features of it1 mountains and seas2 but even what distinguishes one being from another--the ox's horns and the camel's short ears1 the lion's mane and the black stripes on the ass's back--it cannot leave unexplained4 ,it is the same noble instinct that created the fables on the origin of things1 and that encourages the grand discoveries of the truths of natural history3 the instinct that impels us to understand aright all that lies around us4 ,it may be affirmed that among the ,semites this impulse to explain the origins of things maintained its longest existence as a living power1 productive of stories4 ,even on the subjects on which the ,biblical accounts gave information1 men did not rest satisfied with these accounts1 but allowed free and unlimited scope to stories4#egj ,a large part1 indeed almost the whole1 of the ,arabian answers to questions concerning the ,origins1 is a ,postislamic product of popular story4 ,all that the ,arabs learned on the subject from tradition or from stories still in process of formation was collected in works entitled ,kutub al-awil1 or #8,libri ,principiorum4' ,the best known and widest circulated of these1 is the ,kitb al-awil1 written by ,jell al-,dn al-,suy1 a voluminous writer of the tenth ,mohammedan century1 a part of which was published by ,professor ,richard ,gosche1 with an instructive introduction on literary history4#ega ,in former times it was so extensively circulated in the ,east that a revised version was also prepared1 which was everywhere copied even before the clean copy 7taby7 was made4#egb ,but several hundred years before al-,suy1 an ,andalusian scholar1 ,tj al-,dn b4 ammy al-,sarachsh 7born ,a4,h4 #egf7 had written a work in eight volumes on the ,origins of ,things2 and ,i believe that this work1 of which the classic historian of the ,moors in ,spain#egc gives an account1 is the most extensive of its kind4 ,in the above-quoted work1 ,gosche maintains the view that the whole ,spher tledth1 which is familiar to us as one of the original elements of which the composite ,book of ,genesis consists1 was mainly concerned with these #8,origins1' and is the ,hebrew representative of the copious ,awil literature of the ,arabs4 ,but we cannot admit this1 when we consider that this book of sources1 to judge from its known fragments1 has rather a genealogical character1 and1 though containing the myths of civilisation1 does not embrace the cosmogony1 which is of a decidedly later origin4 ,therefore1 if we must at any price find an analogy in ,arabic literature to the ,spher tledth1 we ought rather to look to the many works composing the copious genealogical literature of the ,arabs1 called ,kutub al-ansb4#egd #c4 ,in regard to the ,hebrew myths of civilisation we must pay attention to another circumstance2 to do which we must again go back to what has been said above on the phases of development of the myths4 ,in determining the amount of mythical matter which was worked out in any period of development of human civilisation1 we must not1 as was fully explained above1 start from the materials and the elements employed in the myths in question1 so much as from the direction or tendency of the myth and the general ideas which prevail in it4 ,but yet this view requires some qualification1 insofar as the designation of some human occupation is employed in the phraseology of the myth4 ,i mention this with especial reference to the name ayin 7,cain71 which denotes ,smith4#ege ,it is obvious that this manufacture must have already existed in society before such a name could come to be employed in a myth4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the myth of the war of the ,sun with the ,cloud or the ,wind cannot have so recent an origin4 ,we must accordingly concede to the ,myth of ,civilisation an influence upon the form of the mythic matter--an influence which not only produced an alteration in the tendency of the myth1 but also introduced new names and figures1 which1 as is evident from the linguistic meaning of the names themselves1 arose at the stage of conscious civilisation4 ,the story of the murder of ,abel belongs1 no doubt1 to the primitive myths which were already formed at the nomadic stage2 a solar name must have been given to his murderer1 just as in the dialectic variant of ,hebhel 7,abel71 namely1 ,ybhl 7,jabal71 his father ,lemekh 7,lemech7 is named as the murderer4 ,later1 at the stage of the ,myth of ,civilisation1 the murderer of ,abel is called ayin 7,cain71 the smith and inventor of agricultural implements1 whose name is indeed also a solar appellation1 but one that already belonged to the ,myth of ,civilisation4 ,the same case occurs in the story of ,jacob4 ,originally1 in the nomadic myth1 ,jacob's hostile brother was called ,edm1 the ,red1 the ,sun4 ,for this name the ,myth of ,civilisation substituted sv 7if we explain this as the ,worker1 the ,accomplisher2 see p4 #aci72--;again a name which is essentially solar1 but could arise only with the ,myth of ,civilisation4 ,in this wise the ,myth of ,civilisation1 starting from the general ideas of the agriculturist1 opened a wider circle of vision in the notions held of the ,sun1 and with the new enlarged circle created new names for the ,sun1 which then drove into obscurity some older appellations belonging to the primitive form of the myth4 #d4 ,before we conclude our diagnosis of the ,myth of ,civilisation1 we will cast a momentary glance at the forms in which this group of myths shows itself in other ,semitic nations4 ,the founder of civilisation in the ,assyrian and ,babylonian myth is the ,oannes of ,berosus4 #8,during the daytime ,oannes held intercourse with men1 taught them sciences and arts1 the building of cities and temples1 laws and the introduction of the measurement of planes2 further1 he showed them how to sow and reap3 in a word1 he instructed them in everything necessary to social life1 so that after his time they had nothing new to learn4' ,in a word1 ,oannes is the teacher of civilisation and inventor of all art and sciences1 all law and order4 ,that this founder of civilisation has a solar character1 like similar heroes in all other nations1 is shown in the very next words of ,berosus3 #8,but when the ,sun set1 ,oannes fell into the sea1 where he used to pass the night4' ,here evidently only the ,sun can be meant1 who in the evening dips into the sea1 and comes forth again in the morning and passes the day on the dry land in the company of men4 ,he is half fish half man1 and in this respect identical with the ,canaanitish ,dgn1 whose name denotes #8,fish4' ,dgn also is1 with the ,assyrians as well as with the ,canaanites1 the god of fertility of the soil and founder of civilisation4 ,he is #8,inventor of the plough1 distributor of grain1 protector of the cornfield2' and in ,assyria we find him represented with his head covered by a horned cap4#egf ,the combination of the two characters is to be explained1 not by supposing that the idea of the god of fertility was connected with that of the rapid propagation of the fish1 but by the solar meaning given in mythology to the fish4 ,it must not be overlooked that in this connexion the fish is always spoken of as rising out of the water--like the ,sun1 who1 having passed the night in the water1 issues forth again in the morning4 ,we see the same also in the extant ,phenician myth of civilisation1 which is narrated by the ,sanchuniathon of ,philo ,herennius4 ,perverted and spoiled as the stories of the ,phenicians may have been by the pen of the ,greek author1 who contemplated ,phenician mythology through the medium of the ,greek cosmogony1 corrupted and ,hellenised as the proper names especially are1 yet these pieces of information are undoubtedly based on real stories which were current among the ,phenicians4 ,it is a pity to lavish on them so much profound thought and symbolising combination as has been done by ,bunsen1 ,movers and many other scholars2 but1 on the other hand1 it is an equal mistake to condemn the entire mass as a useless forgery and declare it unworthy of attention in investigating ,phenician antiquity4 ,the real task is rather to penetrate the bewildering labyrinth of misunderstandings to the simple and original4 ,the confirmation given in the last few years by the cuneiform inscriptions to the ,babylonica1 which are referred to the reports of ,berosus1 ought to moderate any extreme scepticism on the subject of the ,phenician affairs which are quoted from ,sanchuniathon1 ,mochus and others4 ,the ,phenician ,cosmogony of ,philo ,herennius says that ,chrysoros1 who as the ,opener1 ,navigator1 and ,smith has already appeared to us 7pp4 #ih-i7 to have a ,solar character1 was the progenitor of or and 1 and says of these1 #8,from them are derived the agriculturists and those who hunt with dogs4 ,these latter are also called 1 or ,wanderers to and fro4 ,from them are derived and 1 who taught men how to found villages and feed herds4' ,this is only the ,myth of ,civilisation of the agriculturist again1 which everywhere brings the commencement of agriculture1 the foundation of cities and civilisation1 into connexion with the ,sun4 ,as from ,cain is descended ,enoch1 whose name is attached to the first city in the world1 so from ,chrysoros1 the ,phenician ,cain1 are derived those who first adapted their places of sojourn to the requirements of settled dwellings4 ,in a word1 the genealogy only asserts that the ,sun occasions the choice of fixed dwellings and consequently of agricultural life4 ,but the fact that the hunting and nomadic life#egg is introduced together with the origin of agriculture1 and that the first commencement of the one is put into combination with the founders of the other1 occasions some difficulty1 which cannot be simply denied and put aside4 ,now it is certainly possible that the ,myth of ,civilisation among the ,phenicians1 in whose neighbourhood alongside of agricultural life nomadic life also was in full force--for their view extended over all ,palestine and the valley of the ,jordan--referred the origin even of the latter mode of life to the ,sun1 as the founder of all social life4 ,but it is also possible that what ,philo asserts on a ,phenician authority concerning nomads and hunters is founded on a misunderstanding of the original information4 ,for the sons of ,chrysoros1 the ,sun1 were evidently described as hunters and wanderers4 ,now ,hunter and ,wanderer are1 as we have seen1 attributes of the ,sun1 who shoots his rays at the monster of the storm1 and is #8a fugitive and a vagabond1' engaged in a migration from east to west4 ,cain is an exile and wanderer1 but not a nomad4 ,but through misunderstanding the ,solar hunter and wanderer may have been converted into the founder of the hunting and nomadic life4 ,even ,bunsen1 though starting from a different point of view and influenced by other considerations1 designated this very passage as a perversion of the ,phenician account1 perpetrated by ,philo and perfectly in accord with the system followed by him4#egh ,the original ,phenician account must1 no doubt1 have been different4 #e4 ,although ,cain and ,esau cannot possibly have been incorporated with the old ,hebrew mythology till the myth of the origin of civilisation was unfolded1 yet they retain the mischievous and hostile character which the nomadic myth always assigns to solar figures4 ,this fact illustrates the general observation which ,i made above 7see p4 #ha7 with especial reference to the ,hebrews and ,arabs--that in many nations the consciousness of an advance in passing on to the agricultural life is never aroused1 or only very late1 and that they rather regard this advance as retrogression and look back on the nomadic state as a more perfect one4 ,among the ,hebrews1 accordingly1 the heroes of civilising agriculture1 with the exception of ,noah1 take a position in the myth far less influential than similar heroes in other nations4 ,the sympathetic light in which ,noah was regarded is closely connected with his position in the story of the ,deluge1 which was added at a very late period to the ,hebrew series of stories4 ,to understand this fact1 however1 we must cast another glance at the oldest stage of ,hebrew ,religion1 at which religion had not yet fully shaken itself free from mythology1 but was closely united with it1 and only beginning to have a separate form4 ,whatever be the psychological factors that produce the religious tendency in man--an attitude of the soul which can no longer be treated as congenital1--it must be regarded as established and certain that the psychological process of the origin of religion1 a process influenced only in its most advanced stages by ethical and esthetic forces1 is in the first instance developed out of the older mental activity which resulted in the creation of myths4 ,after the exhaustion of the mental activity that forms myths1 which is equivalent to the disappearance both of mythical productiveness and of vivid understanding of myths1 men have no longer any consciousness of what may be called the etymology of the myth4 ,then the mythical figures begin to be individualised2 and parallel with this process runs the linguistic phenomenon that polyonymy disappears and all the phases of meaning previously expressed by separate names are combined in one or a few4 ,the various synonyms for ,sun1 ,darkness1 etc41 which existed in the myth1 lose their significance2 the different names for these natural phenomena1 in each of which one feature or element of them was expressed in language1 succumb to one single name1 which then comprises in itself all their features and elements4 ,the names ,helios and ,shemesh take the place of all other designations created in myths for the phenomenon of the ,sun4 ,these other designations1 e4g4 on ,hebrew ground ,jephthah1 ,asher1 ,edom and others1 forfeit the signification which they originally had when myths were formed1 and instead thereof are individualised4 ,these names become personal names1 and the stories of which they are the subjects become events of society4 ,thus from physical stories arise stories of gods and heroes2 thus the nomenclature of the ,sun and the ,darkness produces a host of names of gods and heroes4 ,for the personages who are thus imagined are powerful celestials1 and the forgotten processes of which the myth spoke preserve for some time their heavenly scene of action4 ,this process of transformation of myths is inevitable1 because bound up with the laws of development of the human mind and human speech2 at a certain stage of the development of mind and language1 the myth must become theology4 ,but the process is gradual1 so that the commencing stages of theological development do not break loose at once from the mythical consciousness1 and the latter loses its colour gradually before it disappears altogether4 ,a stage of this kind1 at which ,myth is turning into ,religion1 is most clearly exhibited by the ,myth of ,civilisation4 ,some bit of divine nature or peculiar personality always cleaves to the hero of civilisation2 and some such myths actually live long unimpaired after the greater number have been metamorphosed into theology or religion4 ,thus1 for instance1 among the ,hebrews the origin of religion is to be traced in its germ as far back as the nomadic age4 ,even at that stage1 though of course towards the end of it1 we observe the ,hebrew myth of the beneficent sky of night and rain turning into religion4 ,for a searching investigation of the religion of the nomadic ,hebrews proves the object of their veneration to have been the dark overcast sky1 connected 7where it is not distinctly declared7 with mythical figures of undoubtedly nocturnal character4 ,i must briefly refer to what was indicated above 7pp4 #gb1 #gc7 of the worship of the night-sky and the rain among the ,arabs4 ,the religious stage of the nomadic ,hebrews is still to be recognised in the reminiscences1 transmitted by theocratic historians1 of that age1 which was to them a forty years' wandering in the desert preceding the conquest of ,palestine4 ,to the same stock1 as sources for the reconstruction of this religious stage1 belong also some accounts contained in the ,prophetical books2 and they cannot but be considered historically credible--of course in the sense in which such reminiscences must be critically estimated as sources of history4 ,for it is certain that such recollections lived on a very long time in the nations of antiquity1 and that1 if the special tendency of the reporter be stripped off1 they may yield objective matter of history4 ,the most important datum of this kind is the question of the ,prophet of ,tekoa1 which refers to a great expanse of history--a passage which has spurred many learned men to attempt ingenious interpretations4#egi ,did ye offer unto me sacrifices and offerings in the desert forty years1 ,o house of ,israel8 ,did ye bear the huts read ,sukkth of your king1 and ,kiyyn 7,chiun7 your idol1 the star read kkhbh1 your god whom ye had made to yourselves8 7,amos ,v4 #be1 #bf47 ,it is evident from this important passage that the nomadic ,hebrews worshipped their god or gods by huts1 and that one among the objects of their worship was a ,star1 let alone what star ,kiyyn may be1 whether identical with the ,arabic keyvn1 or some other4 ,thus1 so far as we can infer from the ,prophet's word1 their divine worship was paid to the night-sky4 ,the nomad looks on the night-sky as a pasture where the herdsman 7for the mythical figures of the night-sky are mostly regarded by him as herdsmen7 lets his cattle feed2 and it is easy to conceive that at the theological stage he venerates in huts the mythical figure now converted into a god1 ascribing to him the same dwelling which he occupies on high in the sky4 ,the most important feast of the nomadic ,hebrews was the ,feast of ,sukkth1 or ,tabernacles1 which probably stands in close connexion with these ,sukkth of a god1 and at the agricultural stage became a ,harvest-feast4 ,but even at that stage the connexion of the feast with nomadic life and the past nomadism of the nation itself1 lived long in its memory 7see ,lev4 ,,xxiii4 #dc74 ,that which they worshipped in the huts was not the ,sun1#ehj the bright sky of day1 but kkhbh1 a ,star1 doubtless no particular star1 but only the starry heaven in general4 ,for the rain1 the most beneficent element to the nomad1 was identified with the stars1 i4e4 with the sky at night4 ,in the view of the ancient ,arabs there were also ,hyades in the starry heaven2 we meet in poetry with the expression marb al-nujm #8spring rain of the stars' 7,mualla of ,lebd1 v4 #d74 ,a familiar phrase in the speech of the nomadic ,arabs is #8the stars have brought rain4'#eha ,moammed forbids the ,moslims to express their common idea of the origin of the rain by their usual phrase muirn binau ka #8we have received rain from such and such a star1' though he allows the connexion of the rain with the stars1 and only insists on the recognition of ,allh as first cause1 while the nau is the immediate origin4#ehb ,similarly the ,mohammedan ,arabs were forbidden to call the rainbow the bow of the ,thunder-god oza4#ehc ,the dew1 also1 has a connexion with the anw #8stars' 7plural of nau74 ,it is not without interest to find this view in a ,jewish-,arabic writer of the middle ages4#ehd ,the worship of the kkhbh #8star' by the ,hebrew nomads must therefore have a special connexion with the rain4 ,ancient mankind did not distinguish between the cloudless sky which grows dark at night1 and the sky gloomy with clouds and rain by day 7see supra1 p4 #db74 ,he notices the darkness only1 not the various times of day or night at which it occurs4 ,hence a sunless sky in general is treated as bringing rain4 ,to show what connexion he imagined to subsist between the huts 7sukkth7 and the rainy sky1 ,i will quote a verse of a hymn to ,jahveh1 attributed to ,david1 and said to have been sung on his deliverance from the power of ,saul3 ,he made darkness round about him into huts 7,sukkth71 collections of water1 clouds of the sky4 7#b ,sam4 ,,xxii4 #ab47 ,the various reading for the expression chashrath mayim #8collections of water1' which is preserved in ,ps4 ,,xviii4 #ab1 where this hymn is given in a somewhat corrupt and less original form1 deserves attention nevertheless4 ,the words are cheshekhath mayim #8darkness of water' or #8rain-bringing darkness4' ,the more we study the information preserved to us on the religion of the nomadic ,hebrews1 the stronger is our conviction that it consisted in a veneration of the sky of clouds and rain1 and was developed immediately from the elements of the nomadic myth4 ,we read that in the desert ,god went before the ,hebrews as a pillar of cloud by day and as a pillar of fire by night1 and showed them the way 7,ex4 ,,xiii4 #ba72ehe that he as a pillar of cloud came between the pursued ,hebrews and the pursuing ,egyptians 7,ex4 ,,xiv4 #ai1 #bj7 by night 7for the day breaks soon after1 ,ex4 ,,xiv4 #bd72 that he appeared to ,aaron and ,miriam in the pillar of cloud 7,num4 ,,xii4 #e72 that1 as the later psalmists1 preserving the theological phraseology of ancient times1 say 7,ps4 ,,xcix4 #g71 he speaks with his ,prophet as a pillar of cloud4 ,but what need is there to enumerate all the passages which speak of the ,god of the wandering ,hebrews in connexion with the pillar of cloud1 and describe his turning away as the retreat of the cloud1 or to show that the cloud was retained in the popular tradition of a later monotheistical age as kebhd ,yahwe #8the glory of ,jahveh8'#ehf ,it at least appears from them that the nomadic ,hebrews attached their religious veneration to the ,cloud2 of which one of the latest relics is preserved in the name ,anany 7,ananias71 i4e4 #8,cloud-,god1' and another in the phrase that ,god #8rides upon a cloud4' ,another feature of the nomadic religion is expressed in al-,damr's words that #8the ancient ,arabs paid divine honours to a white lamb1 and when the wolf came and devoured the lamb1 they chose another lamb to receive the same honours4'#ehg ,from what was said above 7p4 #afe7 with reference to ,rachel1 it is not difficult to perceive that this white lamb is only a bright cloud like a lamb4 ,this deification of clouds is also found elsewhere4 ,the people of ,bonny on the west coast of ,africa comprise their idea of the ,deity in the name ,shr or the cloudy sky2#ehh and if the learned ,italian ,assyriologist ,felix ,finzi#ehi is right1 we find among the chief gods of the ,assyrians the ,cloud1 which looks like a relic of the ancient time1 when instead of the solar powers the ,assyrians deemed those of the dark sky worthy of their worship4 ,this scholar wishes to explain the ,assyrian divine name ,anu as etymologically identical with the ,hebrew nn #8cloud' which certainly well suits the two epithets of the deity1 #8,lord of ,darkness' and #8,gatherer of ,shades4'#eij ,in this case1 however1 the identity of ,anu with the ,oannes of ,berosus could not be maintained1 as the solar character of ,oannes is undoubted2 but this identification rests on a very slender base1 and leads to no better understanding either of ,anu or of ,oannes4 ,with the worship of the ,clouds is naturally united that of the ,rain1 which we find deified by many primitive nations4 ,we find this1 for instance1 in the ,akra people of the ,gold ,coast of ,west ,africa4 ,they express the question #8,will it rain8' by the words #8,will ,god come8'#eia ,among the heathen of the tribe of ,baghirmi in ,central ,africa1 with whom ,dr4 ,nachtigall1 lately returned from that region1 has made us acquainted1 the name ,deity is identical with the designation of ,storm4#eib ,in the language of the ,wamasai in ,eastern ,africa the feminine noun ,a 7with the article ,enga7 has the two significations ,god and ,rain4#eic ,this deification of rain and storm is moreover identical with ,serpent-worship1 wherever the latter occurs4 ,for the adoration of the ,serpent and ,dragon is derived from the mythical conception which regarded rain as a #8fluid serpent' 7see supra1 p4 #ahf72 and wherever it is met with at a more advanced stage of civilisation it is a residuum from that stage at which men knew no more beneficent power than the dark overcast sky1 the rain1 the dragon that opposes the sun ,bl4 ,the ,egyptian and ,indian theological ideas of the serpent are examples of such residua of the ancient nomadic views4 ,where a solar worship has grown up1 either the old conception of the beneficent serpent continues to exist alongside of the new views1 without being understood or harmonised with these1 or else the defeat of the ,serpent by the victory of the ,sun becomes a feature of the new religion1 and the ,serpent appears as a hostile figure4 ,so1 for instance1 in ,persia and elsewhere4 ,max ,mller actually opposes the very method of ,comparative ,mythology which he himself introduced and maintained so brilliantly1 when he declares #8,there is an ,aryan1 there is a ,semitic1 there is a ,turanian1 there is an ,african serpent1 and who but an evolutionist would dare to say that all these conceptions came from one and the same original source1 that they are all held together by one traditional chain8'#eid ,no doubt this single chain of tradition is a perfectly unscientific assumption1 but none the less does the same original source serve as origin of serpent-worship everywhere1 namely1 the old mythical conception2 and the varieties of view that we meet are to be classified not according to ethnological races1 but by historical stages of civilisation4 ,certainly we shall at length have to cease seeking a motive for the worship of the ,serpent where the symbolical school have persistently sought it even to the most recent times--in the #8,conception of the deep wisdom of the serpent and of the mystic powers which are said to belong to its nature4' ,the ,serpent-worship as a form of religion is a further development of the mythical expressions which describe the rain as a serpent1 made when these expressions had become unintelligible2 in the same way as the worship of crocodiles1 cats1 etc41 are traced back to a solar myth1 the meaning of which had been forgotten4#eie ,the apparently mutually contradictory significations which are attached to the serpent in the myth and the worship must be traced back1 not to opposite views held by different races1 but to varying modes of understanding the myth1 which might all emanate from the idea of the serpent4 ,how often in the mythology of one and the same people we find the same object employed for the apperception of most different1 or even opposite1 things6 ,the adoration of the ,serpent is also demonstrable of the ,hebrews when nomadising in the desert2 for only in this sense can the ,brazen ,serpent be understood1 the adoration of which was commenced by the ,hebrews of the desert and continued to the latest times 7,num4 ,,xxi4 #i1 #b ,kings ,,xviii4 #d74 ,it also deserves notice that that ,hebrew tribe which had from the earliest times the care of religious affairs and provided the worship called itself #8,sons of the ,serpent1' ,ben ,lv#eif 7see supra1 p4 #ahc71 and that it was these who fell upon their compatriots when on the exodus from ,egypt they were about to introduce a solar element into their religion by the adoration of the ,golden ,calf4#eig ,it was the ,sons of ,levi1 the priests of the ancient religion of the nomads1 who defended conservatism1 and would not allow the solar bull-worship to raise its head4#eih ,accordingly1 the tribal designation #8,sons of the ,serpent' belongs to the long list of such names which are derived from animals4#eii ,lubbock and ,tylor1 especially1 have put this species of tribal nomenclature into connexion with the so-called ,totemism2 but in any case it is natural to assume that the original relation of the animal to the origin of the tribe or nation which claims it as its ancestor is purely mythological4 #f4 ,thus1 then1 the most ancient religion of the ,hebrews in the desert was derived immediately from the myths of the nomads4 ,to complete the above exposition1 it is now only needful to refer to the traces of ,lunar worship1 which were treated in a previous chapter 7pp4 #aeh-afj74 ,not till after the entrance into ,palestine1 i4e4 after the transition from nomadic wanderings in the desert to a settled agricultural life1 does ,solar worship appear among the ,hebrews1 chiefly in the northern part of the land2 but even there it is only introduced in imitation of the rites of the neighbouring ,canaanitish tribes1 which1 having been long settled in ,palestine as agriculturists1 had formed a complete solar ritual4 ,the ,hebrews brought no such system into the conquered land2 on the contrary1 their religion was1 as we have seen1 of a purely nomadic character1 having its centre in the adoration of the dark sky of night4 ,that it was so is evident also from the fact that the solar worship employed by the ,egyptians had no attraction for the people of ,israel during their residence in that country4 ,accordingly in this point the ,hebrews were radically different from other tribes that had immigrated into ,egypt1 which are generally comprised under the common name ,hykss4 ,for in some of these tribes a fully developed solar form of religion1 including even the wildest excesses of the service of ,moloch1 is found to have been adopted even as early as their residence in ,egypt4#fjj ,the objects of the adoration of the nomadic ,hebrews were the cloudy sky and the rainy sky4#fja ,but not only was direct worship addressed to the ,cloud and the ,rain2 their will was also regarded as a revelation of destiny1 and consulted4 ,at first any nomad would look to the ,cloud and the ,serpent1 to learn what the gods wished2 but at a later time such knowledge generally becomes the property of certain persons--perhaps originally a sort of ,rain-makers1 like the ,mganga in ,eastern ,africa4 ,the persons among the ,hebrews who understood this revelation and could exert influence by magic on the higher powers were the menenm and menacashm1 the #8,observers of ,clouds and ,serpents1' as mentioned regularly together 7,deut4 ,,xviii4 #aj74 ,in the same book of law in which the adoration of the serm is strictly prohibited1 it is also forbidden to observe clouds and serpents 7,lev4 ,,xix4 #bf74 ,i am well aware that the connexion of these two verbs with the words for cloud and serpent is denied by some authorities of note2#fjb but the objections raised in reference to the first at least lead to the establishment of nothing more tenable4 ,still there is another question which ought to come under our notice here1 the answer to which shall form the conclusion of this chapter4 ,when the nomad ,hebrew's ,myth of the victory of the night-sky over the day-sky1 or of the unjust violence to which the dark sky falls a victim1 was converted into a nomadic ,religion1 in which the mythical figures were individualised and adored as great powers2 was not adoration then addressed to the names which had been assigned to the night-sky in the myth of the nomads8 ,in other words1 were not the deities themselves called ,abram1 ,jacob1 etc41 just as among the ,aryans the mythical figures when converted into gods were called by the same names as they had in the myth8 ,for it was mainly the appellations becoming unintelligible that occasioned the process of transformation1 and so it would be expected that in the resulting religion these names would occupy the centre4 ,it is1 indeed1 the consequence which we should necessarily infer a priori from all that has been said4 ,we should infer that those names of the sky of night and rain1 of which the myth of the nomad was chiefly composed1 at the theological stage became names of theological meaning4 ,yet this does not appear at all clearly in the ,old ,testament books4 ,the reason is1 that most of the historical books belonging to the ,bible are coloured by a theocratic conception1 and as literary works are advanced even beyond that stage of the national mind at which the mythical figures were converted into ,ancestors4 ,for not only religion1 but history also1 is formed out of myths at a certain stage of their development4 ,but the mythical names really belonged first to theological nomenclature before they became historical1 as names of ,ancestors4 ,this is proved by the fact1 which has been mentioned already for another purpose1 on which ,dozy1 in his book on ,jewish-,arabic ,religious ,history1 has with excellent tact laid emphasis1#fjc that none of these mythical names occurs as a human name in the whole course of ancient history1 and even in modern history not till late1#fjd any more than an ,indian would be named ,srya1 ,ushas or ,dahan1 or a ,roman ,jupiter or ,saturn1 or a ,greek ,herakles or ,aphrodite4 ,this proves that the mythical names of the ,hebrew nomads possessed a super-human significance before they became historical names4 ,yet there is still a fact belonging to the latest age which shows that the memory of a former connexion of theological ideas with the names ,abram and ,jacob had not even then altogether vanished4 ,the great ,prophet of the ,hebrew people in the ,babylonian ,captivity1 whose name is unknown to us only that we may admire the more his noble soaring spirit1 cries in a prayer to ,jahveh3 ,for thou ,jahveh art our ,father2 ,abraham knew us not1 ,and ,israel ,jacob acknowledged us not2 ,thou1 ,jahveh1 art our ,father1 ,our ,redeemer1 whose name was from eternity4--,is4 ,,lxiii4 #af4 ,it is obvious that here the names of ,abraham and ,jacob are opposed to that of ,jahveh4 ,therefore it is ,jahveh1 not ,abraham2 ,jahveh1 not ,jacob6 ,jahveh is the omniscient redeemer and protector of the people ,israel2 the others take no care of it4 ,can we read in this opposition of names anything else but that the writer wishes to contrast the idea of a ,god recognised as the only true with the memory of something different1 which ages ago passed for divine1 but is unworthy of adoration now1 when the ,prophet brings forward the omniscience of ,jahveh as an irrefragable argument for the exclusiveness of his divinity8 ,i think not4 ,and it is not stated without a purpose that ,jahveh is the redeemer of the ,hebrew nation #8from eternity' 7mlm71 i4e4 even from that age in which to the popular mind ,abraham and ,jacob towered over the range of humanity into the sphere of the gods4 ,we ought further to notice the change of the names ,abhrm and ,yaabh into ,abhrhm and ,yisrl 7,gen4 ,,xvii4 #e2 ,,xxxii4 #bi #bh74 ,the motive alleged for the change of ,abhrm #8,high ,father' is1 that the historical character of the patriarch as ,ancestor may be brought into the foreground3 #8for ,i have made thee father of multitudes of nations4' ,to ,jacob the later ethnographical name of the people is given4 ,thus the memory of that to which the ancient ,hebrews had paid divine honours was to be suppressed as a thought of something divine but hostile to ,jahveh2 and its place was to be occupied by the memory of the ,ancestors of the nation1 in which character the ,patriarchs are warmly commended to the people by this very prophet 7,,li4 #a1 #b74 ,we must next explain what was the impulse that drove the ,hebrews to form out of the nomenclature of their ancient myth the names of their ancestors1 or in other words to translate a considerable portion of their mythological phraseology into ethnological4 ----- ,footnote #edh3 ,an interesting ,arabic parallel to this occurs in ,yt1 ,,iii4 #dif4 ,thaf and al-,nacha1 who with their herds were migrating together1 determine to separate3 #8,so one said to the other3 ,assuredly this land can never support both me and thee4 ,if thou goest to the west1 then ,i will go to the east2 and if ,i go to the west1 then do thou go to the east4 ,then said ,thaf1 ,well1 ,i will choose the west4 ,then said al-,nacha1 ,then ,i go to the east4' ,ibid41 p4 #dih1 occurs an equally curious arrangement between two nomad tribes4 ,footnote #edi3 ,de vita solit4 ,i4 #aj4 ,inventores artium quarundam post mortem divinitatis honore cultos audivimus1 grate quidem potius quam pie4 ,nulla enim est pietas hominis qua ,deus offenditur1 sed erga memoriam de humano genere bene meritorum inconsulta gratitudo mortalium1 humanis honoribus non contenta1 usque ad sacrilegas processit ineptias4 ,hinc ,apollinem cithara1 hinc eundem ipsum atque ,aesculapium medicina1 ,saturnum1 ,liberumque et ,cererem agricultura1 ,vulcanum fabrica deos fecit4 ,footnote #eej3 ,ausland1 #ahge1 p4 #bai et seq4 ,footnote #eea3 ,sir ,g4 ,wilkinson on ,herodotus1 ,,ii4 #gi1 note #e4 ,footnote #eeb3 ,even ,herder compared together these two sources of information on the story of ,jemshd1 in the ,appendix to vol4 ,i4 of his writings on ,philosophy and ,history4 ,footnote #eec3 ,geschichte der ,amerikanischen ,urreligionen1 ,basle #ahfg1 p4 #dbc4 ,this myth of civilisation is given also by ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ,i4 #cah et seq4 ,footnote #eed3 ,see ,dr4 ,robert ,hartmann1 ,die ,nigritier3 eine anthropologisch-ethnologische ,monographie1 ,berlin #ahgf1 ,thl4 ,i4 p4 #agf4 ,footnote #eee3 ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 ,new ,york #ahfh1 p4 #acj4 ,footnote #eef3 ,otto ,henne-,am-,rhyn1 ,die deutsche ,volkssage1 etc41 p4 #bha et seq4 ,footnote #eeg3 ,ibid41 p4 #bhe1 the author says on the other hand3 #8,the blind sister is of course always the invisible new moon1 the half-black and half-white the half moon1 the quite white the full moon4' ,footnote #eeh3 ,see ,hellwald1 ,ueber ,gynkokratie im alten ,amerika1 third art4 in ,ausland for #ahga1 no4 #dd1 p4 #aaeh4 ,in the language of the ,algonkins the ideas ,night1 ,death1 ,cold1 ,sleep1 ,water1 and ,moon are expressed by one and the same word4 ,footnote #eei3 ,a vogul fld s np1 ,reguly ,antal hagyomnyaibl1 ,pest #ahfd1 p4 #aci4 ,footnote #efj3 ,in the ,hottentot story it is the ,hare 7on his solar significance see supra p4 #aah7 that is represented as the origin of death1 in opposition to the ,moon 7,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,,ii4 #cdb74 ,footnote #efa3 ,see the article #8,une gense vogule1' in ,ujfalvy's ,revue de ,philologie1 ,paris #ahgd1 livr4 #a4 ,the original text and a ,hungarian translation are given by ,p4 ,hunfalvy in his lately quoted work1 p4 #aai-acd4 ,footnote #efb3 ,ausland1 #ahge1 p4 #iea et seqq4 ,footnote #efc3 ,whitney1 ,language and the ,study of ,language1 ,london #ahfg1 p4 #cdf4 ,footnote #efd3 ,amerikanische ,urreligionen1 p4 #cje4 ,footnote #efe3 ,waitz1 l4c4 ,i4 #dfd note4 ,among other examples ,waitz quotes this3 #8,in ,mexico ,huitzlipochtli1 was born of a woman who took to her bosom a feather-ball is a solar designation1 is not easily determined4' ,in connexion with it ,i will only mention that ,shakspeare in one passage calls the sun a #8burning crest4' ,but even this night1--whose black contagious breath ,already smokes about the burning crest ,of the old1 feeble1 and day-wearied sun1-- ,even this ill night1 your breathing shall expire4--,king ,john1 ,v4 #d4 ,footnote #eff3 ,mani al-eyr1 ed4 ,garcin de ,tassy1 p4 #eh 7from a communication of my friend ,dr4 ,w4 ,bacher74 ,footnote #efg3 ,by the ,red the ,sun is surely unquestionably to be understood1 and not1 as ,max ,mller says 7,introduction to the ,science of ,religion1 p4 #fd71 the ,earth4 ,footnote #efh3 ,it should at the same time be noticed that in ,arabic1 in which1 as in ,hebrew1 men are usually called ban ,adam1 the expression ban awwa 7sons of ,eve7 also occurs2 e4g4 in a verse of the ,kumeyt 7,an1 ,,xv4 #abd2 wa-cheynu ban awwa71 in a poem of ,ab-l-,al al-,maarr1 ,i4 #if4 #a1 of al-,murta in the ,keshkl of al-mil1 p4 #afi4 ,footnote #efi3 ,ursprung der menschlichen ,sprache und ,vernunft1 ,,ii4 #db4 ,footnote #egj3 ,see ,excursus ,m4 ,footnote #ega3 ,die ,kitb al awil der ,araber1 ,halle #ahfg2 congratulatory article on occasion of the meeting of the ,german ,oriental ,society at ,halle4 ,footnote #egb3 ,i know this work 7entitled ,muarat al-awil wa-musmarat al-awchir7 from a manuscript of it in the public ,viceregal ,library at ,cairo4 ,in the catalogue of the year #abhi1 p4 #ib antepenult1 it is erroneously entered with the title ,muchtaar al-awil wal-awchir4 ,footnote #egc3 al-,maar1 ,analectes de l'historie et de la littrature des ,arabes d',espagne1 ,,ii4 #fi4 ,the awil are there called ul al-ashy4 ,footnote #egd3 ,a general view of this literature can now be obtained from ,ibn al-,nedm's ,fihrist4 ,footnote #ege3 ,the name ,yiss-sekhr 7,issachar7 must also fall under our consideration here1 if we treat it as a ,solar name 7,day-labourer74 ,see supra1 p4 #agg4 ,footnote #egf3 ,see ,duncker1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 #ahgd1 ,i4 #bjf1 #bff4 ,footnote #egg3 ,can the ,semitic hel #8,tent of the ,nomads' be concealed in the word 8 ,footnote #egh3 ,egypt's ,place in ,universal ,history1 ,,iv4 #bbc4 ,footnote #egi3 ,besides ,german scholars1 ,dutch orientalists and historians of religion especially have written very ably on the passage in ,amos2 the latest of whom1 ,tiele1 in his ,vergelijkende ,geschiedenis1 pp4 #eci et seq41 mentions in a note the most prominent ,dutch labours on the subject4 ,footnote #ehj3 ,no weight must be attached to the word malkekhem #8your king1' in which many have tried to find a datum for the high antiquity of the worship of ,moloch by the ,hebrews2 for the suffix shows that the word cannot be taken as ,mlekh1 the name of a god4 ,and the worship of that ,god appears everywhere as one borrowed from the ,canaanites4 ,footnote #eha3 ,e4g4 in the following fragment of a poem3 #8,we lived in ,chaffn in company with a people1 may ,god give them rain by the constellation of the ,fishes 7sahum ,allh min al-nau nau al-simkeyn71 then may a constellation give them abundant water 7farawwhum nau71 a constellation whose shining spreads light abroad' 7in ,freytag1 ,darstellung der arabischen ,verskunst1 p4 #bec74 ,footnote #ehb3 ,see ,lane in the ,zeitschr4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahdi1 ,,iii4 #ig4 ,krehl1 ,vorislamische ,religion der ,araber1 p4 #i4 ,footnote #ehc3 ,yt1 ,,iv4 #he4 #ai4 ,tj al-rs1 ,,ii4 #bji4 ,footnote #ehd3 ,saadia1 who translates ,job ,,xxxviii4 #bh1 egl l #8store-houses of dew1' by the ,arabic anw #8stars1' ,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #ba4 ,footnote #ehe3 ,see ,num4 ,,xiv4 #ad1 where before the two pillars are mentioned it is only said that the cloud stood over them4 ,footnote #ehf3 ,for ,hebraists ,i note that ,i take the be in beammd nn as ,beth essentiae4 ,footnote #ehg3 ayt al-aywn1 ,,ii4 #eb4 ,footnote #ehh3 ,bastian1 ,geographische und ethnographische ,bilder1 p4 #afi1 and some passages in books of ,african travel quoted by ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,,ii4 #afi4 ,footnote #ehi3 ,ricerche per lo studio dell' antichit assira1 ,turin #ahgb1 p4 #dfg4 ,footnote #eij3 ,tiele1 ,vergelijkende ,geschiedenis1 p4 #cja1 however1 calls this last epithet #8much too general to draw any conclusion from4' ,footnote #eia3 ,lazarus ,geiger1 ,ursprung und ,entwickelung der menschlichen ,sprach und ,vernunft1 ,i4 #cdf4 ,footnote #eib3 ,in ,petermann's ,geogr4 ,mittheilungen1 #ahgd1 ,,xx4 #ccj1 pt4 #i4 ,footnote #eic3 ,k4 ,andree1 ,forschungsreisen etc41 ,,ii4 #cfb4 ,footnote #eid3 ,the ,academy1 #ahgd1 p4 #edh1 col4 #b4 ,footnote #eie3 ,see ,excursus ,d4 ,footnote #eif3 ,accordingly this appellation belongs to the same category as those which are noticed above1 p4 #age4 ,in genealogical notes elsewhere also the ,serpent occurs as ancestor2 ,i need only mention the case which stands nearest to our subject in prehistoric ,arabia--that of al-,afa b4 al-,afa1 #8the ,viper1' head of a branch of the people of ,jurhum1 ,ibn ,abdn1 p4 #ga et seq4 ,footnote #eig3 ,on the solar significance of the ,bull-worship see ,kuenen1 ,religion of ,israel1 ,i4 #bcf et seq4 ,footnote #eih3 ,i believe the historical narrative in ,ex4 ,,xxxii4 #bf-bi is to be taken in this sense4 ,it is solar worship that is forcing its way into the strictly nomadic religion of the ,hebrews1 and the ,levites are guardians of the nomadic religion4 ,footnote #eii3 ,see ,bastian in the ,zeitschr4 fr ,vlkerpsychologie1 #ahfh1 ,v4 #aec4 ,footnote #fjj3 ,ebers1 ,aegypten und die ,bcher ,moses1 ,i4 #bde et seq4 ,footnote #fja3 ,on the adoration of the night-sky a passage of the ,midrsh should be consulted 7,mechilt1 ed4 ,friedmann1 fol4 #fh a71 in which the possibility of a demth chshekh #8an idol of ,darkness1' is assumed4 ,footnote #fjb3 ,most recently by ,ewald1 ,die ,lehre der ,bibel von ,gott1 ,i4 #bcd et seq4 ,on the purpose and importance of the interpretation of winds and clouds among the ,babylonians1 see ,lenormant1 ,la divination et la science des prsages chez les ,chaldens1 ,paris #ahge1 pp4 #fd-fh4 ,footnote #fjc3 ,de ,izraelieten te ,mekka1 ,haarlem #ahfd1 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #fjd3 ,see my remark in the ,zeitschr4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahgd1 ,,xxviii4 #cji4 ----- ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,awaking ,,national ,,idea ,,on ,,the ,,transformation ,,of ,,the ,,hebrew ,,myth4 #a4 ,the nomadic stage of the ,hebrew tribes reached its end at the moment when a large part of them gained a land for themselves on the right bank of the river ,yardn 7,jordan72 and that is the true beginning of the ,history of the ,hebrews4 ,nomadism holds in itself nothing essential to the world's history4 ,hence the nomadic age of most great nations fades away into the vague1 and there are at most separate and unimportant reminiscences by each tribe of its #8days of battle1' which give the historian any fixed points for the construction of his picture4 ,there is scarcely any other nomad people that has had greater vicissitudes in its changeful life than the ,arabic tribes3 yet they scarcely afford any fixed points when we try to survey their history4 ,for it is not tied to any definite limited soil2 no geographical unity runs throughout it4 ,a true national history is inseparable from one country1 which in peace presents the conditions necessary for the development of civilisation1 and in war offers an object for the enthusiasm of assailants and defenders4 ,there can be no history without a definite land to which the events of history cling4 ,the nomad cares less for a particular territory than for his goods and chattels1 when he goes to war4#fje ,the ,desert1 and the roamer who roves over its broad surface1 have no history proper4 ,only isolated vague memories1 such as can attach themselves to a great geographical territory1 are at our command as points of support for the history of the ,hebrew nomads4 ,their proper history begins with the conquest of ,canaan4 ,this conquest was by no means1 as is still often assumed1 a program of political reorganisation1 long nourished in the mind of the people4 ,on the contrary1 the fact that we find the tribes on coming from ,egypt 7whence it cannot be seriously doubted that they came7 engaged in roaming about on the left side of the ,jordan before they entered ,palestine1 proves that the ,hebrews did not dream of the prospect of exchanging their nomadic life for one in towns4 ,in case they had any such intention1 a way from ,egypt to ,palestine was always open to the people1 independently of the route by sea1 which could scarcely be thought of from the want of means and adequate preparation4 ,they would have traversed the northern part of the desert al-,th1 aiming directly at ,hebron1 on nearly the same track as that taken by the ,patriarch's family according to the ,biblical narrative in going from ,canaan to ,egypt4 ,the theocratic historian himself finds a difficulty here1 and ascribes to ,moses strategic reasons for adopting another course3 #8,and ,elhm led them not by the regular road to the land of the ,philistines1 because it is near2 for1 thought ,elhm1 there is danger lest the people should repent when they see war1 and return to ,egypt' 7,ex4 ,,xiii4 #ag74 ,but the fact is really that on leaving ,egypt the people wished to continue in their old mode of life1 roving from desert to desert1 seeking out one pasture after another2 they were indifferent to the cultivated side of the ,jordan1 and chose by preference the wild eastern side1 that is to this day the scene of that restless ,beduin life which runs continuously from the bank of the ,euphrates to the ,sherra mountains4 ,nomadism is the most conservative life imaginable4 ,for hundreds and thousands of years this plain has been occupied by the same tribes1 alternately binding themselves for mutual support against a common foe--often even in modern times the townsmen1 and quarrelling among themselves on the slightest provocation4 ,a perfectly new tribe entering from other parts would have great difficulty in holding its ground there2 and there is no wonder that the nomadic ,hebrews in the desert east of the ,jordan were driven by constant struggles further and further to the north1 and1 having at last discovered their self-protection to be impossible there1 resolved to cross the ,jordan and try their fortune in the towns4 ,another circumstance pressed this decision upon them4 ,the further they pushed northwards1 the nearer they came to the great northern power which stopped further advance4 ,great kingdoms whose territories are bounded by deserts have never left these deserts and their inhabitants alone1 but have always been diligently engaged in the subjection of the desert tribes3 it was so ages ago1 and is so still4 ,the wars of the ,grand ,turk against the ,beduin-tribes in ,syria1 ,palestine and ,arabia1 those of the ,north-,african powers against the nomadic tribes which form their boundaries1 are historical continuations of political events of the very oldest times4 ,the remark of ,manetho1 the ,egyptian priest and historian1 is therefore very good3 #8,according to the agreement they travelled from ,egypt through the desert to ,syria with their whole households and possessions1 not less than #bdj1jjj souls4 ,but in fear of the ,empire of the ,assyrians--for these were then masters of ,asia--they built a city in the land now called ,judea1' etc4#fjf ,here comes that remarkable turning-point in the life of the ,hebrew people--the abandonment of nomadic life and transition to the civilised life of towns4 ,the passage of the ,jordan marks this turning-point4 ,that river is still the boundary-line of two stages of civilisation1 nomad-life and town-life4 ,not the entire mass of the nation submitted to these changes2 we know that a large portion of it1 remaining at a half-nomadic stage1 declared itself averse to the removal1 and preferred to stay on the left bank of the ,jordan1 which is the ,nomad's paradise--a plain blessed with splendid pasture and fine woods1 of which the ,bedaw even now says #8,thou wilt find no land like ,bel4' ,the ,biblical document gives the exact name of the portion of the people which resisted the transition to town-life2 they are described as the sons of ,reuben1 the sons of ,gad1 and a part of the tribe of ,manasseh4 ,we have no right to decide how much historical truth there is in the contract between the two sections of the nation1 by which the larger only gave its consent to the practice of cattle-breeding east of the ,jordan by the smaller on condition that the latter would render all possible service to their martial brethren at the conquest 7,num4 ,,xxxii74 ,enough that after many long-protracted struggles with the people of the land the advancing ,hebrews got a large part of ,canaan into their power4 ,the details and the chronology of these wars lie outside my present scheme4 ,the history of the civilisation of the ,hebrews in ,canaan has here to be considered only on one side--with reference to the history of ,religion4 ,in the previous chapter we left the nomadic people wandering in the desert1 and worshipping those beneficent powers which provide the nomad with his conditions of life and protect him from the scorching heat so hostile to wanderers--the ,rain1 his mother the ,cloud1 and the luminous smile of the cloud1 the ,lightning4 ,the commencement of religion does not kill off the whole myth at one blow4 ,for the mental activity required for the creation and propagation of myths does not cease when polyonomy vanishes1 but only has its full vivaciousness abridged by that process of language4 ,but the process goes on very gradually2 on domains not yet fully attacked by it1 accordingly1 the telling of myths continues for long4 ,one part may remain when another has been converted into religion4 ,now the law described in ,chapter ,,iv4 would require1 that1 after settlement in towns and adoption of agricultural life1 the part of the ,hebrew myth which was not yet turned into religion should be subject to a development corresponding to the transition from nomadic to agricultural life1 by which the solar figures1 the victors over ,darkness and ,storm1 take up the position of honour and sympathy always accorded to them by the agriculturist4 #b4 ,here1 however1 we have to notice a peculiarity of ,hebrew development resulting from the occupation of ,canaan4 ,politically1 the ,hebrew nation on settling in ,canaan had power to annihilate a few small tribes which before the occupation had held the middle of the land4 ,but they brought with them a minimum of civilisation and mental endowments1 and intellectually had nothing to oppose to the long-established civilisation of the old inhabitants1#fjg and especially of the neighbouring ,phenicians1 who even then were the ancient occupiers of a great historical position4 ,in mercantile and industrial respects1 especially1 they were very dependent on that nation1 which was the chief bearer of the commerce and industry of antiquity4#fjh ,how should the ,hebrews have risen above such dependence8 for the ,phenicians exerted a powerful intellectual influence not only upon the mentally inferior tribes of ,canaan1 but also upon the western nations with which they held intercourse2 as in recent times ,ewald has again strongly asserted4#fji ,notwithstanding the contradiction of some scholars who depreciate ,phenician civilisation1#faj this seems to be tolerably well established4 ,there is a phenomenon which has been repeated countless times in the history of the world4 ,a conquered people intellectually superior to its conquerors may1 any political dependence notwithstanding1 enforce its intellectual preeminence by assimilating to itself the nation which has succeeded to its dominion4 ,the political victor has no power to incorporate the mind of the subjugated1 if the latter possesses a higher civilisation than his own4 ,for example1 the ,hykss1 who were strong enough to annihilate the rule of the ,egyptians in the ,delta1 could found no independent civilisation in the conquered land1 but made the ,egyptian culture entirely their own4 ,and when the ,aztecs1 or more strictly the second horde of the ,chichimecs 7,northmen71 coming from ,aztlan and ,california1 overwhelmed ,anahuac in the twelfth century1 and subjugated the ,toltecs1 a people which had already attained a certain degree of civilisation1 it was again the conquered that imparted their culture to the conquerors4 ,all the elements of civilisation--arts1 manners1 rights1 usages1 writing1 etc4--which the ,spanish conquerors found existing among the ,aztecs1 had been received by them from the conquered ,toltecs1 to whose intellectual influence they were forced to accommodate themselves1 not having anything more potent of their own to impart4#faa ,the same is seen in ,china1 first in the tenth and again in the seventeenth century4 ,the victorious ,khitem dynasty1 as later the ,manchu dynasty1 which still holds the sceptre of the ,middle ,kingdom1 could only accept and advance the native civilisation and the peculiarities of the old ,chinese nation4 ,and who can help thinking of the often-quoted instance of the ,franks as conquerors of ,gaul8 ,and the relation of the ,normans to the population of ,france conquered by them is most curious4 ,the conquerors lost their mother-tongue in favour of the ,french1 took to themselves ,french institutions1 laws and customs1 and actually transplanted subsequently the ,french language to ,england4#fab ,the same phenomenon is also encountered on the domain of ,religion4#fac ,for the ,phenicians1 to whom we recur1 it was the easier to establish their system1 as they came as conquerors to places where they found a population intellectually inferior to themselves4 ,when by the foundation of ,carthage they gained an establishment in ,northern ,africa1 they exerted an influence on the ,libyans which almost suppressed everything native4 #8,phenician civilisation prevailed in ,libya just as ,greek in ,asia ,minor and ,syria after ,alexander's campaigns1 if not with equal force4 ,at the courts of the nomad ,sheikhs ,phenician was spoken and written1 and the civilised native tribes took the ,phenician alphabet for their languages2 but it was neither the spirit of the ,phenicians nor the policy of ,carthage to ,phenicise them entirely4'#fad ,but this very ,phenician language1 which as bearer of a higher civilisation suppressed the language of surrounding tribes and the civilisation connected with them1 had in its turn to step into the background4 ,a civilisation of superior force and intensity1 the ,arabian1 assailed it1 and put the ,arabic language of the conquerors of ,north ,africa in the place of that of the ,carthaginian colonies4 ,renan is wrong in asserting1 #8,l'arabe n'absorba que les dialectes qui lui taient congnres1 tels que le syriaque1 le chalden1 le samaritain4 ,partout ailleurs1 il ne put effacer les idiomes tablis4'#fae ,we will not here enter on an enquiry1 to what extent ,arabic in the middle ages and in modern times has supplanted other idioms4 ,but two considerations must be suggested in answer to ,renan's thesis4 ,the first is1 that it is difficult to see what power a relationship of language like that between ,arabic and ,phenician can possess to cause the weaker civilisation connected with one of the languages in question to be supplanted by the stronger civilisation belonging to the other2 when the relationship is so remote as to be clearly understood only by linguists1 and neither known to ordinary people speaking either tongue1 nor even instinctively felt by the popular mind 7if any such instinct can be allowed in psychology74 ,indeed ,semitic philologists themselves1 even with the knowledge of one or more of the ,semitic dialects besides their mother-tongue1 arrived comparatively late at acknowledgment of this relationship4#faf ,it is easy to understand how within the bounds of the ,arabic tongue the ,northern dialect supplanted the ,southern1 when the ,northern tribes1 especially that of ,kureysh1 gained the political and social hegemony over ,arabia1 and their dialect was written down and introduced into literature4 ,here1 to say nothing of political and religious causes1 the extraordinary similarity of the two shades of the ,arabic language1 of which the commonest ,arab could not but be conscious1 made the suppression of the one in favour of the other easy2 we have frequent opportunities of observing the same in the dialects of ,european languages4 ,but it is not so easy to conceive that a relationship in language which is only to be discovered by learned research can promote the process of suppression of dialects4 ,to the ,arab1 ,syriac is as foreign as ,french or any perfectly strange tongue4 ,botrus al-,bustni1 an eminent savant at ,beyrt1 the compiler of a dictionary of his native language and active editor of several ,arabic journals1 had no fewer difficulties to overcome when he devoted himself to the study of the ,syriac language in the ,maronite convents of ,lebanon1 than when he learned ,english by intercourse with ,dr4 ,van ,dijk at the ,american ,protestant ,mission2 perhaps even greater1 as in the latter case mouth-to-mouth intercourse removed many difficulties4 ,a ,maronite priest at ,damascus assured me that the acquisition of the ,italian language gave him but few hard nuts to crack1 whilst in the language of his ,syriac ,church he could not get further than the elements which were indispensable to his office4 ,the ,fin found no special difficulty in becoming ,swedish1 because ,swedish is a ,teutonic and ,finnish a ,ugrian language4 ,in ,hungary1 during a long subjection to the ,turks1 ,turkish had no appreciable effect on the language1 except in lending a few words1 although ,hungarian and ,turkish belong to one and the same group of languages4 ,hence when one language ousts another1 it is not their relationship1 but solely the superiority of the one people in intellect and matters of culture that determines the result4 ,the second answer to ,renan is that it is historically untrue that ,arabic could conquer only cognate idioms1 but elsewhere had no power to oust the native tongues4 ,where is the ,coptic now8 a once powerful language having no connexion with ,arabic1 the vernacular use of which in ,egypt was totally annihilated by the ,arabic4 ,the dialects of the ,negro countries are beginning to give place more and more to the ,arabic1 and their ultimate defeat in the contest with that language will be hastened by the advances of the power of the ,viceroy over the equatorial regions4 ,this is the great struggle for existence on the domain of ,mind--a struggle which the ,hebrews1 with the small amount of culture that they brought to ,canaan1 could not sustain1 nor even attempt1 against the settled population and the neighbouring powerful ,canaanites of the coast4 ,on this a basis could be found for a hypothesis which has never had any other foundation of the least firmness4 ,it is now revived by ,professor ,j4,g4 ,mller of ,basle4#fag ,the ,hebrews1 we are told1 originally spoke a different language not connected with that of ,canaan2 but1 not being able to bring it into general use in their new country1 gave it up1 and took over from the ,canaanites the language that we call ,hebrew1 which really possesses a far more palpable similarity to all known relics of the old idioms of ,canaan than is the case with languages which though connected1 are intrinsically distinct4 ,and assuredly the consideration of the lately found ,moabitish monument1 the column of victory of ,king ,mesha1 which shows us a form of language perfectly intelligible by the aid of the ,hebrew grammar and the ,hebrew lexicon1 and an historical style indistinguishable from that of the ,hebrews1 involuntarily suggests the thought that we ought to speak rather of identity than of connexion of languages4 ,even the ,phenician language1 though not1 as many erroneously suppose1 absolutely identical with ,hebrew1 nor even so near to it as the more ,southern language of ,moab1 exhibits a far closer relationship with the latter than is generally found between different languages of the same family4#fah ,phenician was certainly not an idiom unintelligible to the ,hebrews2 and indeed a ,hebrew prophet even calls his mother-tongue the #8language of ,canaan' 7sephath ,kenaan1 ,is4 ,,xix4 #ah74 ,the idea that the ,hebrews changed their language in ,canaan possesses1 indeed1 no high degree of probability1 especially in so extreme and violent a form as is given to it by ,j4,g4 ,mller--least of all for us1 inasmuch as the nomadic myth of the ,hebrews1 which was created quite independently of ,canaan1 never contains any but ,hebrew names4 ,but in matters of culture and manners1 in which the ,hebrews1 only just working their way up out of the nomadic stage1 still held a very primitive position at their entrance into ,canaan1 they were most certainly influenced by the conquered original inhabitants and by their powerful neighbours4 ,these influences were immediately perceptible in the form given to ,religion and to social and political institutions4 ,the ,hebrews did not possess sufficient resistant force of mind to work the solar elements of their own myth into a religion suitable to an agricultural people1 and had no strength to repel the ,canaanitish ,solar religion1 which must have been already long growing into completeness from an old ,canaanitish ,solar myth2 they could not accept the challenge1 but yielded4 ,with general notions of religion they also adopted its forms and institutes--the ,temples1 which bear the same relation to the ,sukkth used for ,divine worship as the fixed house of the townsman to the hut of the nomad2 the ,high places2#fai the sacred ,trees and ,woods2 the ,human ,sacrifices2 the ,priesthood1 whose relation to the ,sons of ,levi among the nomads again resembles that of a powerful dynasty to the family of a ,bedaw ,sheikh2 the ,ritual of ,sacrifice1 and much besides4 ,with the religion and religious institutions of the ,canaanites1 their religious terminology was also naturalised among the ,hebrews4 ,the ,phenician title of the ,priest1 ,khn-- 7,hellenised from 7 7,hesychius7--became among the ,hebrews also the official name of the public sacrificers2 and the fact that a derivative verb was formed from it proves it to have become completely naturalised in ordinary speech4#fbj ,the extant monuments of the sacrificial ritual of the ,phenicians1 viz41 the so-called ,sacrificial ,tablet of ,marseilles1 discovered in #ahde1 and the ,carthaginian ,sacrificial documents published more recently by ,davis1#fba place before our eyes much the same as we have in part of the ,book of ,leviticus2 and it is to be assumed that1 although1 after the profound investigations of ,graf#fbb and ,zunz1#fbc the ,post-,captivity origin of that book is impressed with increasing urgency on our conviction1 still the ,sacrificial laws contained in it are only a codification of older regulations which arose and were in force in sacerdotal circles at the time of the ,hebrew dominion in ,canaan1 but were not1 and ought not to be1 known to the people1 as they referred only to priestly functions4 ,it would be inconceivable that a regular sacrificial worship could exist without such arrangements and fixed ritual4 ,among the ,carthaginians the contents of these sacrificial tables1 with the ordinances and apportionments to be found on them1 had canonical validity1 and were not occasional or arbitrary orders4 ,that this is so1 is to be inferred from the fact that the sacrificial tariff discovered by ,davis in the ruins of ,carthage exhibits only an abridged edition of the ,marseilles ,tablet1 which also was derived from ,carthage4#fbd ,not only religious1 but also social and political institutions were introduced from the ,phenicians into the public life of the ,hebrews4 ,how else could a nation passing suddenly without political experience from nomadic to civil life produce those institutions without which a nation can neither constitute itself as a state nor continue to exist8 ,thus we find among the ,hebrews from the beginning the ,shphem 7,judges71 who are known as ,suffetes of the ,carthaginians from ,livy and the ,inscriptions4 ,it must be assumed that1 although this institution is not distinctly proved to have existed in the mother-country1 its root is to be sought there2 which harmonises well with the highly developed civic constitution of the ,phenicians4 ,to draw an inference from the institutions of the colonies to those of the mother-country must here1 as in other cases also1 be treated as perfectly justifiable4 ,let it be remembered that we should have no knowledge even of the elaborate system of priests and sacrifices among the ,phenicians1 but for two remarkable monuments of antiquity3 the ,tablets of ,marseilles and of ,carthage4 ,on one of the most important elements of ,phenician religious life1 therefore1 information is only to be found in the colonies2 and the same must certainly be true of social and political questions4 ,in the present case it is sure to be allowable1 as the official name ,shph is found in a ,greek translation used of ,tyre and ,sidon4 ,it must not indeed be supposed that the ,shphem of the ,hebrews can be placed exactly beside the ,phenician ,suffetes4 ,whilst the latter is a permanent dignity and a fixed institution1 the ,shphem of the ,hebrews are not so much officials as a sort of duces ex virtute1 #8who might come and go without any alteration in the legal bases of the state1' as ,ewald says4#fbe ,but if we have to allow that the ,hebrew ,shphem are not holders of so fixed an office as their namesakes in ,phenicia1 but were only guerilla-chiefs in times of pressure of war1 yet ,phenician influence cannot be denied1 when we see that1 just when the nomadic tribal divisions were beginning to grow very loose and to make way for town-life1 these chiefs were called by a name identical with the official name of certain ,phenician dignitaries of rather different character4 ,it is evident from this that the ,hebrews regarded their provisional chiefs as equivalents of these ,phenician officers of state2 they apperceived them1 so to speak1 by an idea derived from ,phenicia4 ,but1 on the other hand1 this view of the influence of the ,shphem rests on the picture of their actions given in the #8,book of ,judges4' ,now it must not be forgotten that many of these ,judges' names are mythical 7as ,samson1 ,jephthah1 ,gideon71 used to fill up a period which to posterity was a mere blank with no historical contents1 except the bare fact of a continuous contest with the ,philistines4 ,this historical frame1 as we shall soon see1 is filled with myths1 which1 when reinterpreted in a national sense1 yield a supply of national heroes1 who then can be introduced as ,shphem4 ,but the harmonising of national stories was not pushed to a sufficient degree of continuity to form a foundation for a fixed historical picture4 ,it is therefore better1 in forming our judgment on the dignity of the so-called ,judges1 to allow ourselves to be determined more by the name ,shphem itself than by the nature of the nationalised myths attached to it4 ,grtz#fbf has quite recently renewed the attempt to render doubtful the existence of the ,shphem-institution among the ,hebrews1 and especially combated any connexion of the ,shphem with the ,punic ,suffetes2 and in this the judgment of the most competent professional authorities is on his side4 ,but1 not to speak of his view of the ,shphem as representatives of an institution1 he sets up a linguistic conjecture which arouses many a doubt4 ,for it requires strong etymological imagination to deny to the ,hebrew word shpha the signification judicare4 ,sober ,biblical students and philologists will not be imposed on by the passages quoted by ,grtz in justification and support of his conjecture4 ,not to mention other passages1 compare only the words of ,is4 ,i4 #ag1 #bc with the passages of ,scripture which1 ,grtz says1 speak of rushing up to the aid of #8oppressed or injured persons1 widows and orphans4' ,the word rbh is not calculated to support this conjecture4 ,but1 that the ,shphem1 though not hereditary nor even paid officers of state 7as no one would pretend they were71 were yet certainly heads of the state1 appointed by the voice of the people1 is proved by the mere fact that the ,shph was regarded in the same light as the ,melekh1 as a species of the same genus4 ,so e4g4 in ,judges ,,ix4 #f1 #af1 where the instalment of a ,shph is denoted by hamlkh1 and ,judges ,,xvii4 #f1 ,,xviii4 #a1 ,,xxi4 #be1 where the interregnum between one ,shph and the next is described as a time #8in which no melekh 7king7 reigned over ,israel1 and every one could do what was right in his own eyes4' ,and the consideration of the word ,shph itself leads to the conviction that the office was an institution suggested by ,phenician custom4 ,for it is found in no other ,semitic language in the same signification as in these two dialects of ,canaan4#fbg ,the ,samaritan1 in which ,shph is also found1#fbh scarcely requires separate mention4 ,so the ,hebrews1 as was so often the case1 must have borrowed the term shph1 together with the corresponding institution1 from their cultivated neighbours2 for it cannot be assumed that the expression for an idea implying so advanced a stage of civilisation as ,judge had its origin in the primeval age of ethnological community between ,hebrews and ,canaanites4 ,and later1 when the ,hebrews began to appreciate the institution of ,kingship1 as existing in many neighbouring nations1#fbi and wished to be ruled by kings1 the theocratic historian himself describes this innovation as borrowed1 making the people say to the prophet ,samuel1 #8,give us a ,king to judge us1 as all the nations have a king1 that we also may be like all the nations1 and that our king may judge us and go out before us and fight our battles' 7#a ,sam4 ,,viii4 #e1 #bj74 ,even concerning the political subjection of the tribes of ,canaan1 it has long been perceived that this was by no means so complete as is commonly supposed1 but that the ,canaanitish element in the centre of the ,hebrew dominion was powerful enough#fcj to nourish exterior religious or civilising influences4 ,a somewhat later didactic poet exclaims1 #8,they did not destroy the nations which ,jahveh told them to destroy2 but mixed with the nations and learned their works' 7,ps4 ,,cvi4 #cd seq474 ,to this time belongs the naturalisation of theological terms and consequently of theological conceptions1 for the independent working out of which the ,hebrews had not passed through the necessary historical experience and continuous religious stages1 but in which the history of the religion of the ,canaanites found its natural result4 ,at the time when the nomadic nation of the ,hebrews entered ,canaan1 it first1 so to speak1 produced out of the ancient myth the first elements of a religion2 we cannot speak of a system of religion existing in that age4 ,in the ,canaanitish peoples1 on the other hand1 a systematical religion had already been formed4 ,even independently of the preponderating spiritual influence of the native population1 it was particularly natural to the ,hebrews to attach themselves to their system1 as community of language familiarised them with much of the religious terminology of the ,canaanites4 ,ever since the ,hebrews had by their own efforts begun to have any religious ideas1 they called every power which they regarded as divine l and ,shadday #8the ,powerful2' and as these ,powers 7which they also called ,elhm1 i4e4 #8the ,worshipped' or #8the ,feared'7 were seen by them on the dark sky1 l was also called ,elyn #8the ,highest' 7a synonym of ,abh-rm74 ,to the ,hebrews these names were not yet exclusively theological1 termini technici of religion4 ,religion itself had not yet grown so stiff and fixed as to have taken from such names their appellative character3 and that of ,elhm and ,elyn continued to the latest times4 ,but with the ,canaanites even at that early age these ancient ,semitic expressions had been already employed long enough in a theological sense to take the step which converted them into a religious terminology4 ,many synonyms of the terms in question are found among the ,phenicians as religious terms1 and among the ,hebrews 7when the words are equally native there7 in a completely appellative sense1 e4g4 ,baal #8,lord1' ,kabbr #8,great1 ,powerful4' ,this community of language greatly promoted the introduction of ,canaanitish religion among the ,hebrews4 ,although the above-mentioned names impressed the ,hebrews differently1 being not yet limited to a specially religious signification1 yet the knowledge of their meaning as words1 which was native to the ,hebrews1 promoted the acquisition of the ritual attached to them by the ,canaanites4 ,thus it came to pass that besides l1 ,elhm1 ,elyn1 ,shadday1 even ,baal received worship from the ,hebrews in ,canaan1 of which the ,biblical documents often speak 7and he is not likely to have been the only divine person borrowed from the ,phenicians71 and that those names which had previously begun to assume a religious sense were1 by intellectual as well as practical intercourse with the ,canaanites1 filled with the force they had to the ,canaanites4 ,it is therefore the exact opposite of the real state of things to call the ,elhm-idea specially ,hebrew1 and make ,jahveism ,canaanitish1 as some ,dutch theologians do4 ,it is equally impossible to suppose the names themselves to have been unknown till then to the ,hebrews1 as ,j4,g4 ,mller infers in connexion with his ethnological hypothesis4#fca ,the names1 as component parts of the language1 are the property of ,canaanites and ,hebrews alike2 only their theological employment and the worship founded upon them are to be regarded as ,canaanitish4 ,but it is especially this employment of the names which has to be considered in relation to the ,history of ,civilisation4 ,thus we see how the ,hebrews in ,canaan learned much as to religion as well as to politics from the conquered neighbouring aborigines4 ,the religious ideas produced on the nomadic stage from the nomadic mythology were wiped away1 and only a few relics of the old nomadic religion remained to a late age1 either actual residues or mere memories4 ,spiritually poor1 the nation was handed over to the powerful influence of the already formed culture of ,canaan1 and thus condemned to mere receptivity4 ,accordingly1 they never had an opportunity of further developing their myths on the agricultural stage and converting them into elements of a religion4 ,hence comes the remarkable fact that from this point the myths of the ,hebrews cease to grow1 in the way in which those of the ,aryan nations grew4 ,only a small cycle of myths of the ,sun and of ,civilisation were formed at this time2 and the regular advance of the ,mythical to the ,religious was arrested by that religious influence which pressed in with full force from outside4 ,the most complete and rounded-off solar myth extant in ,hebrew is that of ,shimshn 7,samson71 a cycle of mythical conceptions fully comparable with the ,greek myth of ,herakles4 ,but ,samson never got so far as to be admitted1 like ,herakles1 into the society of the gods4 ,those who say that mythologies have converted ,samson to a deus solaris make a malicious perversion of the truth1 merely because they set themselves against any mythological investigation on ,semitic ground4#fcb ,whilst the ,hebrews were thus taking in from the ,canaanites things quite new to them1 by which the regular further growth of their own was arrested1 a considerable portion of their own store of legends must naturally have been starved out4 ,for whatever ceases to grow1 falls into slow decay1 and at last disappears and leaves no sign behind4 ,here is discovered the origin of the defectiveness and fragmentary nature which strikes us in reconstructing the old ,hebrew myths1 when compared with the richness and variety of the ,aryan myths among those nations which have passed through all stages of civilisation regularly and without obstruction or perverting influence from foreign forces4 ,the ,myth is converted either into ,religion or into ,history2 the figures of the myth become either ,gods and god-born ,heroes1 or ,ancestors of the nation to which the myth belonged4 ,what part of the myth cannot be converted1 or has not been converted1 into religion1 and what has ceased to be religious without ceasing to exist in the popular mind1 is converted into history2 for all that remains in the human consciousness as a living portion of it must have a distinct impress2 no meaningless vegetating is possible4 ,nothing is without an impressed form2 when an old impress has lost its meaning1 a new one is made4 ,it is these new impressions that keep the elements of the ancient myth alive in the mind of the people far beyond the mythical age4 ,among the ,hebrews this new force worked more powerfully than elsewhere in changing the form and impress of the still living elements of the myth1 converting almost all myth into history4#fcc ,this result was attained with the cooperation of an important factor in the ,history of ,civilisation1 which also determined the direction which the myth should take in being transformed into history4 ,we must now consider this factor4 #c4 ,though the ,hebrews were intellectually dependent on the older inhabitants of ,canaan1 and had to take up a receptive position towards them in matters of civilisation and religion1 it was nevertheless inevitable that a strong antagonism should grow up between the two sides4 ,the ,hebrews edged themselves in like an unbidden guest into the midst of the ,canaanitish system of tribes4 ,as they could gain their political position in that system only by conquest and repression1 so also they could maintain1 protect1 and confirm it only by continuous defensive wars4 ,we find ,philistines1 ,moabites1 and ,edomites the constant deadly foes of the existence of the ,hebrew state1 and the history of ,israel in ,canaan is filled up with incessant struggles of greater or less magnitude1 in which the ,hebrews1 themselves scarcely settled in a home1 were forced to engage against the repressed old inhabitants on the one hand1 and the menaced neighbouring peoples on the other4 ,moreover1 the nomadic characteristic1 still preserved by the ,hebrews1 of faithfully maintaining the memory of their national individuality1 could not be entirely obscured by their new spiritual life1 which was only borrowed from strangers1 especially as the constant wars in which they were necessarily involved against those strangers were calculated to heighten and confirm it4 ,indeed1 the spirit of tribe and race1 the repelling and exclusive tendency which characterised the ,canaanitish peoples1#fcd nourished in the ,hebrews the desire to insist on the enforcement and development of individuality on their side too4 ,this exclusiveness1 this consciousness of individual peculiarity which lived in the mind of the people1 could not now find expression in religion4 ,when even modern ,biblical criticism1 coming into the inheritance of a conception which obtained acceptance from religious animosity1 still continues to insist on the #8,national ,god of the ,hebrews1' it commits a decided error1 at least in reference to the age of which we are now speaking1 and especially with regard to the ,elhm4 ,the consciousness of national peculiarity could not1 at this stage of religion among the ,hebrews1 find any expression on the domain of religion4 ,yet it must perforce gain expression somewhere1 and could not do so anywhere except on a domain on which the most original impress of their own mind was still visible--in the myths1 insofar as they were not yet swept away by foreign influence4 ,the awaking of ,national ,consciousness plays a very prominent part in the history of the development of the ,myth4 ,from the moment when in ancient times this idea began to fill the soul of a great national community1 it seized on and transformed the whole material of which its mythology was made4 ,the fact that this noble consciousness gives a distinct direction of its own to everything that fills the human soul1 is another proof of its power to transform the spiritual life4 ,in modern times the kindling of national self-consciousness1 advanced by the arousing of spiritual opposition to foreign influences which had previously repressed national individuality1 causes the production of documents to prove the awakening of this national opposition1 documents which belong to the best part of literature and intellectual labour4 ,similarly1 in ancient times before literature1 this consciousness of opposition impressed its image especially on the myth1 and made that subservient to its purpose4 ,and on considering the relation of the myth to the idea of nationality1 we see on many sides1 how closely and inseparably the two are connected together1 how the idea operates to transform the myth1 and how it needs the myth as a support2 for the myth1 going back to the earliest times1 confers on the new idea something like an historical title1 and gives a broad basis to the intenseness of its force by furnishing a justification of it4 ,hence it comes to pass that nations which have preserved no great stock of original myths on which the awakened national consciousness could fall back1 instinctively create similar stories1 and this even in relatively modern times1 in which a system of religion hardened into crystal on every side1 combined with the corresponding stage of intellectual development1 would leave no room for the revival of mythical activity4 ,of this there are two noteworthy instances1 one in the middle ages 7the twelfth or thirteenth century71 the other in this century4 ,the ,cymry of ,wales1 becoming alive to the opposition in nationality between themselves and the ,english1 felt the need of finding a justification of this opposition in the oldest prehistoric times4 ,it was then first suggested to them that they were descendants of the ancient renowned ,celtic nation2 and to keep alive this ,celtic national pride they introduced an institution of ,new ,druids1 a sort of secret society like the ,freemasons4 ,the ,new ,druids1 like the old ones1 taught a sort of national religion1 which however1 the people having long become ,christian and preserved no independent national traditions1 they had mostly to invent themselves4 ,thus arose the so-called ,celtic mythology of the god ,hu and the goddess ,ceridolu1 etc41 mere poetical fictions1 which never lived in popular belief4#fce ,the other instance is furnished by the ,hungarian national literature of the time when1 to revive the #8ancient glory1' ,andrew ,horvth and ,michael ,vrsmarty created new myths1 mythic figures and a national epic1 in place of the mere fragments remaining of the old ,hungarian cycle of myths1 with the view of reviving national feeling and consciousness in their fellow countrymen4 ,and a few of these new creations have in a course of a few decads of years penetrated so deep into the national mind as to be treated as something primitive and aboriginal2 so e4g4 ,hadr1 the god of war1 etc4#fcf ,far more organic and natural is the effect produced by the national sentiment and national opposition on the form of the myth wherever copious mythic materials exist1 which it can influence and transform4 ,the entire contents of the myths--the mythological figures and all that is told of them--are apperceived by the national movement and receive from it a new interpretation4 ,this may be seen clearly in the case of the old ,persian myth1 mentioned briefly above 7pp4 #ae1 #af71 where ,i showed that all that it told of the contests and mutual relations of the ,sun and ,night was1 at the stage of the rising national consciousness1 converted into contests between rn and ,trn--the heroes of mythology became national heroes1 the victorious ,sun became a victorious helper and saviour of the nation1 and the malicious intriguing ,darkness the cunning hero of the hostile people4 ,this national interpretation of the myth is only another side of the process which resulted in individualising the mythical figures and created personalities of theological significance4 ,i have already insisted on the fact that another set of the mythical figures when converted into individuals assume an historical character4 ,this comes to pass in various ways3 either the myth which is turned into history first passes through the stage of religion1 and then becomes history2 or secondly1 the historical transformation is effected in immediate sequence upon the old mythological stage2 or lastly1 the mythological figures assume a meaning which is at the same time both religious and historical1 like the ,greek ,heroes4 ,on the development of the ,hebrew myth also the awakening of the national spirit exercised a great influence4 ,the consciousness of national individuality gave a new direction to all the ideas of the ,hebrews1 and so also to their mythology4 ,among the ,greeks and ,indians the chief figures of mythology--not to speak of occasional localisation--preserved a cosmopolitan character2 for ,zeus1 ,indra1 and others have no special national character4 ,but the figures of the ,hebrew myths at this period became the national progenitors of the ,hebrew people1 and the mythology itself the national primeval history of the ,hebrews before their settlement in the land of ,canaan4 ,abhrm1 the #8,high ,father1' is converted into ,abhrhm1 the abh hamn gym1 #8,father of a mass of ,nations1' and at the same time into h-,ibhr1 #8the ,hebrew' 7,gen4 ,,xvii4 #d1 #e1 ,,xiv4 #ac72 and all other figures of the myth are made to subserve the national idea4 ,on the one hand1 they are eager to have documentary proof of their nation's noble origin and glorious past2 on the other1 they nourish a feeling of opposition towards other nationalities1 on which they cast shame4 ,the nation of ,edom receives ,esau as ancestor3 and the reminiscence of nomadic conceptions which draws their sympathy towards ,jacob1 the persecuted brother1 and turns with antipathy away from the red solar hunter1 is again revived in the service of the formation of a national myth which paints ,esau in the most repulsive colours4 ,the old mythological incest of ,lot's daughters is made the cause of the origin of two ,canaanitish tribes1 the ,ammonites and the ,moabites4#fcg ,the ,philistines also are dragged through this story-making process of national antagonism4 ,the primeval heavenly #8,father-,king' ,abimelek1 who conceives a warm love for the wife of the ,morning-sky and thinks to carry her off1 is made a king of the ,philistines1 and ,shechem1 the ,early ,morning1 the seducer of ,dinah1 is converted into a prince of the ,hivvites4 ,in the story of ,dinah1 as given in ,genesis1 we have an especially eloquent testimony to the national animosity to which this conversion of the myth owes its origin4 ,this aspect of the story has been very fully proved by a ,dutch scholar1 ,dr4 ,oort4 ,it exhibits in the people newly awakened to national self-consciousness a tendency to abominate all connexion with the ,canaanites1 and introduces as representatives or types of this tendency the brothers ,simeon and ,levi1 the zealots for the purity of the ,hebrew family4#fch ,thus we see that the national treatment of the myth is not merely of the nature of narrative1 but at the same time also instructive or didactic4 ,ham1 the unworthy son who reveals the nakedness of the solar hero1 is regarded as the denier of his father and made the ancestor of all the ,canaanites1 and visited by his father's curse4 #8,and ,noah awoke from his wine and learned what his youngest son had done to him4 ,and he said1 ,cursed be ,canaan1 let him be a slave of slaves to his brethren4 ,and he said1 ,blessed be ,jahveh1 the ,god of ,shem1 and let ,canaan be a slave to them' 7,gen4 ,,ix4 #bd-bf74 ,we see that the national passion turns especially on ,canaan3 for the story makes the offended father curse1 not the offender ,ham1 but ,canaan1 who is in the ethnographical genealogy only his grandson4 ,it is impossible to be blind to the factors which are concealed behind such a conception4 ,in the case of ,esau too1 the national story makes him choose his wives from the daughters of ,canaan1 to whom ,isaac1 the patriarch of the ,hebrews1 and ,rebekah the mother of the tribe1 strongly object 7,gen4 ,,xxvii4 #df1 ,,xxviii4 #a1 #f1 #h72 so much so that the mother would rather die than that her favourite son ,jacob should also take one of them to wife1 and the father repeatedly urges on him to have nothing to do with that people4 ,on this very occasion it is mentioned with emphasis that ,esau is identical with ,edom1 or according to another version is the father of ,edom 7,gen4 ,,xxxvi4 #a1 #dc74 ,the national pride of a people roused to a consciousness of its worth must be strengthened by the memories of national heroes1 and find nourishment and life in such memories2 and this impulse works with a revived force even in later times1 in which historical reminiscences of the olden time are beginning to fade4 ,the ,hebrew people found heroes even in some mythical figures2 they were turned into ,hebrew national heroes1 and their celestial contest became a national war against the ,philistines1 and was removed to the age of the ,shphem or ,judges1 which was in memory connected with the hardest struggles and fiercest wars against the ,philistines4 ,the blinded ,shimshn1 ,samson1 the setting sun robbed of his locks and his eyesight1 is brought forward as a victim of the perfidious cunning of the ,canaanites4 ,the ,goat ,yl 7,jael71 and the ,lightning ,br1 the ,smasher ,giden1 mere mythical expressions 7clearly exhibited as such by ,steinthal71 are sent to battle against the ,philistines2 and the attractive part of the handsome ruddy sharp-eyed youth who slays the monster of darkness by throwing stones1 is assigned as a piece of biography to the historical hero-king ,david1 who slays the ,philistine giant ,goliath in single combat1 and delivers the ,hebrew people from their dangerous enemy4#fci ,from the last example we see that1 besides mythical figures becoming historic personages in the service of the national idea1 historical figures also may receive biographical features proper to mythic heroes4 ,not only are the figures of the myth converted into historical ones by assigning to them a part in historical events1 but events of mythology are shifted into historical times by fastening them on to historical persons4 ,the entire materials of legend are clothed in a national garb4 ,the ,hebrews in ,canaan retained the nomadic tribe-divisions4 ,every tribe was provided with an ancestor1 and every one of these ancestors was made a son of ,jacob1 who was at the same time identified with ,israel4 ,the twelve stars of the nightly sky descended upon the new people of ,canaan1 and took on themselves the duties of ,eponymi4 ,the history of each of these fathers of tribes became the tribe's historical reminiscence4 ,the national passion1 the revived consciousness of individuality1 blew the glimmering sparks of story-building into a clear flame1 and determined the direction or tendency of the stories4 ,the history of this epoch suggests a motive for the prevailingly national development of the ,hebrew materials of legend4 ,hence it comes to pass that the individualised figures of the ,hebrew myth appear as national ancestors and fathers of tribes1 some as fathers of the ,hebrew people with a negative spirit of exclusiveness towards everything foreign1 some as fathers of the hostile tribes1 combating the ancestors of the ,hebrews4 ,thus the ancestors reflect in a dim primitive age their own fortunes and relation to the tribes of ,canaan4 ,the same psychological process which in later time caused the ,agadic interpreters to declare the principle3 maas bhth smn lebhnm #8the deeds of the ,patriarchs are types for their descendants1'#fdj was1 inverted1 the creative cause of the legends of the fathers and their doings4 ,in such wise did the ,hebrew people find expression for the consciousness of their individuality1 which they might easily have utterly lost in their spiritual dependence upon their neighbours2 namely1 in a new interpretation of their ancient myths4 ,when they were becoming quite ,canaanitish through what they borrowed from others in religion and culture1 their whole soul was again electrified1 and a new spirit aroused by the feeling of self-dependence confirmed by severe contests4 ,what it could not put into the religion1 which it was powerless to create of itself1 it put into a glorious series of poetical legends4 ,these expressed both the national consciousness on the one hand1 and the national passionateness on the other2 and it may be assumed that with the progress of animosities the tone of the legends increased in bitterness4 ,i adduced above the development of the ,persian national legend as an instance showing how a national legend grows out of a myth4 ,at the close of this chapter ,i will again revert to the same region of legend1 to show how national animosity can operate in transforming old materials down to the latest times1 in which new legends can scarcely be still created4 ,firds gives the national legends of the contests with ,trn1 formed from the myths4 ,but the lately roused antagonism of the ,persians to the ,arabs1 who had become the dominant power and were extinguishing ,iranism1 also finds expression in the form which he imparts to the legends4 ,on reading his description of the behaviour of the ,arabian ambassadors at the court of ,ferdn1 we observe that the legend here takes a tone of hostility to the ,arabs1 and criticises the dark side of the ,arabian national character2 and the sufferings of ,irej1 the ancestor of the ,iranians1 are intended to be a type of the subjugation and vicissitudes of the ,iranian race4 ,selm himself 7the ,shem of the ,shhnmeh in relation to rn and ,trn7 is represented as malicious1 passionate1 and intriguing4#fda ----- ,footnote #fje3 ,palgrave gives an excellent picture of this state1 in his ,central and ,eastern ,arabia1 ,i4 #cd3 #8,the ,bedouin does not fight for his home1 he has none2 nor for his country1 that is anywhere2 nor for his honour1 he never heard of it2 nor for his religion1 he owns and cares for none4 ,his only object in war is 444 the desire to get such a one's horse or camel into his own possession1 etc4' ,footnote #fjf3 ,josephus1 ,contra ,apionem1 ,i4 #ad4 ,footnote #fjg3 ,see ,duncker1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 #ahgd1 ,i4 #bec4 ,footnote #fjh3 ,in ,ezek4 ,,xxvii4 #ag1 the wares1 the export of which made the ,hebrews dependent on the ,phenicians1 are enumerated in detail4 ,footnote #fji3 ,die ,vorurtheile ber das alte und neue ,morgenland1 in ,abhandl4 der knigl4 ,gesellsch4 der ,wissensch41 ,gottingen #ahgb1 ,,xvii4 #ih4 ,footnote #faj3 ,so e4g4 ,jas4 ,fergusson1 ,rude ,stone ,monuments1 p4 #ch2 ,mommsen1 ,history of ,rome1 #ahfh1 ,,ii4 #ah et seq4 ,footnote #faa3 ,lenormant1 ,essai sur la propagation de l',alphabet phnicien dans l'ancien monde1 ed4 #b1 ,paris #ahge1 ,i4 p4 #be4 ,footnote #fab3 ,w4,d4 ,whitney1 ,language and the ,study of ,language1 ,london #ahfg1 p4 #afi2 cf4 ,f4 von ,hellwald1 ,culturgeschichte1 p4 #aed4 ,footnote #fac3 ,hellwald1 ibid41 p4 #dhb4 ,footnote #fad3 ,movers1 ,die ,phnizier1 ,,ii4 #b4 #dci et seq4 ,footnote #fae3 ,histoire gnrale des langues smitiques1 p4 #bjj4 ,footnote #faf3 ,see my ,studien ber ,tanchm ,jeruschalmi1 ,leipzig #ahgj1 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #fag3 ,die ,semiten in ihrem ,verhltniss zu ,chamiten und ,japheiten1 ,basel #ahgb1 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #fah3 ,this question will be found very satisfactorily discussed in ,stade's article #8,erneute ,prfung des zwischen dem ,phnicischen und ,hebrischen bestehenden ,verwandtschaftsverhltnisses1' in the ,morgenlndische ,forschungen1 ,leipzig #ahge1 pp4 #afi-bcb4 ,footnote #fai3 ,see ,merx1 ,archiv4 f4 wissensch4 ,erforsch4 d4 ,a4 ,t4 pt4 #a4 #ahfg1 p4 #ajh4 ,footnote #fbj3 ,in late ,aramaised ,hebrew we find the feminine kehant 7 kheneth7 for a ,priest's ,wife1 equivalent to sheth khn2 see ,levy1 ,chald4 ,wrterb4 ,i4 #cef a4 ,it comes thence to be used in a general signification1 of an honest1 irreproachable woman1 in opposition to pundth1 properly an innkeeper1 in ,mishn ,yebhmth1 ,,xvi4 #g4 ,footnote #fba3 ,see ,ernst ,meier's essay on the former in ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahfe1 ,,xix41 and ,nathan ,davis1 ,carthage and her remains1 ,london #ahfa4 ,footnote #fbb3 ,die geschichtlichen ,bcher des ,a4 ,t41 ,leipzig #ahff4 ,footnote #fbc3 ,bibelkritisches1 in the ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahgc1 ,,xxvii4 #fhb-hi1 especially the theses #bb-bf4 ,zunz appears to have laboured independently of ,graf1 but arrives at almost the same results4 ,footnote #fbd3 ,bargs1 who has earned great credit for his elucidation of the ,marseilles table in several writings1 disputes the authenticity of the inscription discovered by ,davis 7,examen d'une nouvelle inscription phnicienne dcouverte rcemment dans les ruines de ,carthage et analogue celle de ,marseille4 ,paris #ahfh74 ,footnote #fbe3 ,history of ,israel1 ,,ii4 #cfj4 ,footnote #fbf3 ,geschichte der ,juden1 ,leipzig #ahgd1 ,i4 #djg et seq4 ,footnote #fbg3 ,see ,stade's exhaustive exposition in the ,morgenlndische ,forschungen1 p4 #aig4 ,but ,i cannot share the opinion of my respected friend1 that the ,hebrews could borrow nothing from the ,phenicians because the two nations passed through a completely distinct religious and political development4 ,footnote #fbh3 ,shefa-,adad in ,nabatean1 quoted by ,ernst ,meier in ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g4 #ahgc1 ,,xvii4 #fji1 is also problematical4 ,footnote #fbi3 ,duncker1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 ,i4 #cga4 ,footnote #fcj3 ,the data belonging to this subject are lucidly brought together in ,kuenen's ,religion of ,israel1 ,i4 #ahb4 ,footnote #fca3 ,semiten1 ,chamiten und ,japhetiten1 p4 #afj et seq4 ,footnote #fcb3 ,equally exaggerated on the other side1 however1 is ,tiele's view 7,vergelijk4 ,geschied41 p4 #ahb71 treating the story of ,samson as borrowed from the ,canaanites4 ,see also ,duncker1 l4c4 ,,ii4 #fe4 ,footnote #fcc3 ,this fact1 moreover1 refutes ,buckle's thesis 7assuming the very opposite course of development71 which makes history to be the earlier1 and to be subsequently degraded to #8a mythology full of marvels4' ,this thesis has been estimated at its true value by ,hermann ,cohen in an article entitled ,die dichterische ,phantasie und der ,mechanismus des ,bewusstseins1 in the ,zeitsch4 fr ,vlkerpsychologie etc41 #ahfi1 ,,vi4 #ahf-aic4 ,footnote #fcd3 ,mommsen1 l4c4 book ,,iii4 chap #a4 ,footnote #fce3 ,holtzmann1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #fcf3 ,paul ,gyulai1 ,vrsmarty lete ,life of ,vrsmarty1 ,pest #ahff1 p4 #di et seq4 ,footnote #fcg3 ,see ,excursus ,n4 ,footnote #fch3 ,godgeleerde ,bijdragen1 #ahff1 p4 #ihc et seq4 ,with him ,kuenen agrees1 ,the ,religion of ,israel1 ,i4 #caa et seq4 ,footnote #fci3 ,like the ,hungarian national hero ,nicolas ,toldi1 who overcomes the ,czech 7,bohemian7 hero in single combat4 ,footnote #fdj3 ,compare ,genesis rabb1 #dh4 ,footnote #fda3 ,see ,shhnmeh 7ed4 ,mohl71 p4 #abd4 vv4 #aba-bi and pp4 #aci-dj1 etc4 ----- ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,commencement ,,of ,,monotheism ,,and ,,the ,,differentiation ,,of ,,the ,,myths4 #a4 ,we have seen a new feeling aroused in the breast of the ,hebrews1 and gaining such force and intensity as to fill their souls with a new thought and impart spiritual significance and direction to their political life4 ,in the history of the world there sometimes appear nations endowed with very small power of influencing the outside world1 and whose intellectual mission is quite subjective1 or1 if we prefer so to call it1 negative1 insofar as their entire historical life is taken up by the realisation of the endeavour not to fall victims to some foreign intellect bearing down upon them from the outside1 but to preserve their individual being1 their peculiarity1 their nationality1 not merely in an ethnological but in an historical sense also4 ,the ,hebrew nation was preserved from the state of intellectual passivity by the aroused consciousness of national individuality4 ,the consciousness of individuality awoke1 and as soon as it was fully roused1 there began that section of the life of the nation which was distinguished by a peculiar productiveness on the domain of ideas4 ,the influences received from outside could be neither extinguished nor cancelled1 seeing that to them was mainly due the formation of the mind of the nation2 but the national consciousness had now introduced a new condition of further civilisation1 which caused these foreign elements to be dealt with in a peculiar and independent way4 ,no doubt a long time was needed to allow the results of this national reaction to strike root in the soul of the nation2 but we shall see that a true ,hebraism was formed by slow progress out of ,canaanism1 until at last the choicest and noblest minds of the nation seized upon the idea which gave full expression to the principle of nationality and freed it from the last traces of ,canaanitish influence4 #b4 ,the consequences of the national reaction are exhibited in the first representatives of the house of ,david1 in the history of the ,hebrew nation and in the desire of political unity to put an end to the old disunion and give strength against the ,canaanites4 ,the religious and political centralisation1 which forms the program of ,david and ,solomon1 was the first and most forcible expression of the roused national spirit4 ,i will leave the political arrangements on one side2 for although they certainly come within the range of the general description which ,i have to give of the character of the period1 yet the nature of these studies urges me more to consider the forces which act on the history of religion4 ,with reference to this ,i must prefix some almost self-evident remarks on the relation of ,polytheism to ,monotheism3 self-evident ,i say1 yet even now still doubted and disputed1 because on this subject even the least prejudiced inquirers on questions of antiquity and the history of ancient civilisation still use words in accordance with the old traditional system4#fdb ,the idea that a ,monotheistic instinct is inherent in a certain race or certain nations is refuted by historical facts so far as relates to the ,semites1 the consideration of whose psychological condition had suggested the opinion1 and has also been exhibited as generally untenable by ,steinthal's and ,max ,mller's psychological criticism of the meaning of instinct4 ,but equally untrue is the idea of an original ,monotheism1 which later in history dissolved into ,polytheism4 ,this idea1 which moreover identified the original monotheism with that of the ,bible1 prevailed almost universally in former times4 ,recently ,rougemont1 a ,french ethnologist1 has endeavoured1 in his work #8,le ,peuple ,primitif' 7#ahee71 to find a basis for it by supposing ,polytheism to have sprung out of the original ,monotheism through the medium of ,pantheism by reason of a superfluity of religious life and over-richness in poetical inspiration4#fdc ,of course many theological systems endeavour to maintain this position2 but also scholars who are but little influenced by theological prepossessions sometimes support it in their special provinces of study1 having recourse to methods of deduction inspired mainly by an obsolete mysticism4 ,so1 for example1 the sound scholar ,franois ,lenormant assumes that in ,egypt ,polytheism grew out of an original ,monotheism by the process expressed in the following words3 #8,l'ide de ,dieu se confondit avec les manifestations de sa puissance2 ses attributs et ses qualits furent personnifis en une foule d'agents secondaires distribus dans une ordre hirarchique1 concourant l'organisation gnrale du monde et la conservation des tres4'#fdd ,this is the old story of the separation of the notion of a single god1 given by an alleged primeval revelation1 into its parts and factors6 ,another renowned investigator of ,assyrian and ,babylonian antiquity1 ,jules ,oppert1 also1 speaks of a common monotheistic groundwork of all human religion4#fde ,but from the nature of the case1 and in accordance with the laws of development of the human mind which can be deduced from experience1 the fact is the very reverse4 ,the history of the development of religion1 modified of course in accordance with our more educated conception of its origin1 appears in the main to be what old ,hume asserted of it in his #8,natural ,history of ,religion3' #8,it seems certain1 that1 according to the natural progress of human thought1 the ignorant multitude must first entertain some groveling and familiar notion of superior powers1 before they stretch their conception to that perfect ,being1 who bestowed order on the whole frame of nature4 ,we may as reasonably imagine1 that men inhabited palaces before huts and cottages1 or studied geometry before agriculture1 as assert that the ,deity appeared to them a pure spirit1 omniscient1 omnipotent1 and omnipresent1 before he was apprehended to be a powerful though limited being1 with human passions and appetites1 limbs and organs4 ,the mind rises gradually from inferior to superior4'#fdf ,this becomes still surer when we remember that religion begins where mythology1 from the elements of which theistic religion takes its rise1 ceases to live4 ,for as these elements are always very numerous1 it is not possible but that every religion must begin with a multitude of divine figures1 i4e4 with ,polytheism4 ,for it is impossible to point to any mythology which has to do with only one single name2 yet from such a one alone could a monotheistic religion spring directly4 ,accordingly ,polytheism is the historical prius of ,monotheism1 which can never exhibit itself except as historically evolved out of ,polytheism4 ,the brilliant company of ,olympian gods is therefore older than the first stirring of monotheistic feeling among the ,greeks4 ,those who invert the historical order transfer to the religious condition of primitive humanity that which is only postulated by their own mind1 and ascribe to the primeval man a religious tendency which in themselves was the result of laborious abstract speculations4 ,but all the contents of the human mind1 like those of the material world1 are subject to a constant evolution1 or progressive change of form into something more perfect2 and so ,polytheism has an inherent tendency to further development1 being indeed itself the result of a similar development of mythology4 ,this tendency paves the way for the approach of ,monotheism2 for this it is to which the polytheistic stages of religion tend in their further development4 ,we may see in the human mind1 equally on a large and on a small scale1 the inclination to the unification of whatever is similar in kind though hitherto divided into many individuals2 abstraction and formation of general ideas are the climax of his power of thought4 ,so is it in politics1 and so also in the conception of nature4 ,the same unifying mental action1 operating on the development of religion1 creates in ,polytheism an active tendency towards ,monotheism4 ,even in those ethnological races for whom1 in contradistinction to the ,semitic race1 ,renan vindicates a polytheistic instinct1 this tendency is active2 and in any sphere which exhibits a complete and finished chain of religious evolution1 we always find at the beginning ,polytheism and at the end the ,unitarian idea of ,god1 whether in the form of ,pantheistic ,monism or of abstract personal ,monotheism2 whether coupled with the ideas of the ,transcendency1 or that of the ,immanency1 of ,god2 whether excited by religious contemplation and absorption as with the ,hebrew prophets1 or by philosophical speculation as with the ,greek sages4 ,a mode of transition from ,polytheism to ,monotheism is found in the religious system which1 while assuming a multitude of gods1 distinguishes one of them as the most powerful1 as the ruler not only of the world1 but of the company of gods also4 ,this system1 to which ,homer's conception of ,zeus as belongs1 possesses quite as much of ,monotheism as of ,polytheism1 and expresses powerfully the monotheistic inclination concealed in ,polytheism4 ,max ,mller justly makes a distinction between ,monotheism and ,henotheism4 ,a penetrating investigation of the ,greek and the ,indian literatures1 the chief representatives of what ,renan calls the polytheistic instinct1 would prove the gradual formation of strata of monotheistic transformation1 which attached themselves to ,aryan polytheism and drew it in the monotheistic direction4 ,classical philologians have not neglected the study of the religious spirit on this subject1 which prevails in the ,greek tragedians and historians1 not to mention the philosophical writers4 ,we have noted two kinds of impulse which usually promote a monotheistic revolution from ,polytheism3 religious absorption and contemplation on the one hand1 and philosophical speculation on the other4 ,another powerful force must be mentioned in this connexion--the form of political institutions4 ,this also exercises no small influence on the formation of the idea of ,god4 ,if man has ascribed to the ,deity the attribute of might and sovereignty1 which is very natural to him1 he will then apply to the gods the idea of power which he has gained by experience of human rulers1 and will estimate their power according to the quality which he perceives every day in his earthly sovereigns2 for the picture of these forms his sole conception of beings endowed with might and dominion4 ,only in the ,immortals1 he extends into infinity whatever he observes in his earthly rulers as something finite2 since that which excites religious feeling in man is the impulse #8to advance beyond what is given him1 beyond what he finds existing1 and to push forward from the limited to the illimitable and absolutely perfect4' ,but this advance beyond what we have here is more than #8in itself a valuation of what we have1 a measuring of it against the infinite1' as ,steinthal admirably describes it in his fine lecture on #8,myth and ,religion4'#fdg ,it also connects the valuation of the infinite1 and the quality attributed to it1 with what we have here and know from daily experience4 ,hence the tendency of religious ideas is directly dependent on the ideas which are embodied in political and social life4 ,thus it was said by so early a writer as ,aristotle1 #8that all men say that the gods are under regal rule1 because they themselves1 some even now1 and others in ancient times1 have been so ruled2 for men conceive not only the forms but the lives also of the gods as similar to their own4'#fdh ,and similarly ,schelling says1 briefly1 #8,it seems hardly necessary to point out how closely magisterial power1 legislature1 morals1 and even occupations are bound up with conceptions of the gods in all nations4'#fdi ,what1 for instance1 are the inhabitants of the ,hellenic ,olympus8 ,a powerful and conscious ,aristocracy1 at the head of which stands the most powerful among them--not all-powerful1 for he is dependent on a mightier ,fate1 which prevents his accomplishing all that his will has determined1 and even on the surrounding aristocracy of the other gods1 who once bound their powerful ruler6 ,he owes his dominion to this very aristocracy3 when ,zeus had gained the victory over the ,titans1 says ,hesiod1#fej the gods offered him the supreme rule 7 71 and when he had entered upon it1 he distributed offices and dignities among his electors 7 74 ,are these different circumstances from those of the aristocratic republics of ,greece8--is the relation of ,zeus to the subordinate gods unlike that of the to the members of the aristocracy who are subject to his command1 but yet possess a considerable influence over him8 ,turning from the classical ,hellenes to the boisterous ,bedw1 of ,arabia1 we discover a conception of ,god under the very same point of view4 ,a great investigator of ,arabia observes3 #8,nor did ,i ever meet1 among the genuine nomade tribes1 with any individual who took a more spiritual view1 whether of the ,deity1 of the soul of man1 or of any other disembodied being soever4 ,god is for them a chief a ,nomad ,sheikh6 4441 somewhat more powerful of course than their own headman1 or even than ell himself1 but in other respects of much the same style and character4'#fea ,if we turn our thoughts to a religious system of most recent origin1 our experience is still the same4 ,to the inhabitants of the ,salt-,lake ,city in ,america1 ,god is the ,president of immortal beings4 #8,the employment of familiar political ideas1 or application of political figures to theocratic ends1 as in speaking of the ,presidency of ,god1 colonies1 eligibility1 race1 is a natural and obvious device4'#feb ,this1 however1 must rather be referred to apperception than to symbolism4 ,in a despotic state the conception of ,god must take a different direction1 because the apperception of the notion of dominion and power is essentially different4 ,this may be observed not only in nations of high culture1 but even in tribes living in a state of nature1 on a comparison of their religious and political conditions2 though in the latter case we have not the means of pursuing the analogy with the same certainty4 ,but1 by way of illustration1 ,i will refer to a comparison of the political condition of the ,negro tribes which incline to a monotheistic view of religion with those of the polytheistic ,polynesians4#fec ,molina1 too1 found in ,chili that the god ,pillan's government of the world agrees exactly with the ,araucanian political system1 and concludes with the observation1 #8,these ideas are certainly very rude2 but it must be acknowledged that the ,araucanians are not the only people who have regulated the things of heaven by those of the earth4'#fed ,but we will now stay on the firmer ground of civilised nations4 ,let us take1 for instance1 the great ,assyrian empire4 ,one powerful ruler1 endowed with unlimited authority1 at whose commands great and small1 high-born and slave1 bend the knee1 to whose arbitrary will almost the whole of ,western ,asia is subject1 guides the destinies of his colossal empire1 independent of men4 ,after him follow the ,viceroys of the separate provinces1 ,satraps1 and a host of officials of court and state with accurately defined powers and in distinct order of rank4 ,whoever honours them and is obedient to them1 only honours in them the ,king of kings1 and exhibits his obedience to the all-powerful lord4 ,thus it was at the flourishing period of this immense empire2 and to this political system corresponds exactly the religious idea1 which grew up parallel with the growth of the empire from small beginnings4 ,at the head of many subordinate gods stands the #8,god of gods1' to whom all the sacrifices and expressions of homage offered to the subordinate1 so to speak1 satrap-gods1 are indirectly presented4 ,he is adored in the temples built in honour of his subordinates 7see supra1 p4 #abb74 ,he is the #8,god of ,armies1' just as the ,king of kings is #8,lord of ,armies4' ,in a word1 we have to do with a form of religion that combines absolute monarchy with ,polytheism4 ,and is it surprising1 considering the influence exercised by the mighty ,assyrian empire on ,western ,asia1 the nations of which it surpassed in manners and culture1 that this form of religion became the prevailing tone of theology throughout the region8 ,thus1 while political division promotes in religion ,polytheism1 political unity and centralisation help the monotheistic development to break forth4 ,as1 when the political system is centralised1 individuals only contribute to form a united political organism1 and lose their personality in special functions which make each different from the other1 so the idea of one common god arises and prevails over the many local deities1 who are then subordinated to the former as their supreme ,lord4 ,in the ,hebrew nation likewise it was the political centralisation which established itself in the epoch distinguished by the names of ,david and ,solomon1 which at the same time conduced to the confirmation of ,monotheism4 ,it cannot be known for certain what sort of worship it was that was practised at various places in the land beside the so-called #8,ark of the ,covenant' 7arn hab-berth71 before ,david removed the ,ark to the political centre1 and ,solomon erected the magnificent ,temple1 of which the ,books of ,kings and the ,chronicles give so elaborate an architectural description4 ,but it must be assumed that the monotheistic working-out of the ,elhm-idea in the ,hebrew nation coincided with the centralising movement1 that is with the period when the king directed the religious sentiment of the whole people to ,jerusalem4 ,this religious development again became powerful and was greatly encouraged by the newly strengthened ,national spirit1 the influence of which on the spiritual life of the people was traced in the preceding chapter4 ,for since the ,hebrew nation was conscious of occupying a position of strict alienation from the tribes among and near which it dwelt1 the exclusive tendency and negative character of this consciousness clung also to its conception of ,god1 and thus it formed the idea of ,one ,god1 who was the divine opposite to the gods of the nations1 corresponding to the idea of the ,hebrew nation as a nation opposed to the other nations4 ,so long as the nation had no living consciousness of its national separation1 and had not advanced to the point of saying #8,i am something quite different from you1' no reason was forthcoming why the ,hebrews should hold a negative position towards the objects of worship of other peoples2 and they were1 in fact1 quite dependent on the latter1 and receptive in temper4 ,but having once risen to a consciousness of their own individuality1 they regarded their own ,god exclusively as the ,existing one1 and denied the existence of the gods of nations towards which it acknowledged a national opposition4 ,the germs of this religious development1 so favourable to ,monotheism1 are bound up with the rise of a strong national consciousness2 but the latter would not alone avail to create ,monotheism at one blow2 it only stimulates and encourages1 but has need of other psychical and historical coefficients4 ,eduard ,hartmann1 who1 in his recent work on the ,philosophy of ,religion1 justly insists on the influence of the idea of nationality upon the growth of ,monotheism1 calls attention to another stage in the relation of the nation to the gods of strange peoples--that at which the strange gods are looked on as usurpers4 ,speaking of the three phases of development of ,hebrew monotheism1 he says3#fee #8,with the increase of national feeling1 their pride in their ,god was heightened4 ,from the moment when they raised him to the position of sole creator of heaven and earth1 they could not but regard the dominion of other gods on the earth created by ,jehovah as usurped1 and could only hope for the honour of their own ,god that ultimately the peoples would turn to him and adore him as the highest ,god1 the only creator of the world4 ,but then the progressive development of ,monotheism went further1 to the point of not merely regarding the strange gods as usurpers beside ,jehovah1 but of declaring them to be false gods4' ,what is the exact meaning of this view of usurping gods in the growth of ,monotheism8 ,in the growth of religions there is no stage at which certain divine persons are acknowledged as powerful and influential on the fate of the world or of a nation1 and yet treated as possessing illegitimate power and influence4 ,their power might be unjustly exercised1 but never illegitimate4 ,the existence of gods is identified with their legitimacy4 ,the conquest of some gods by others1 which is told in theogonies and mythologies1 is not explained by supposing one of the contending powers to have usurped his power1 but by regarding the conquered as weaker than the conquering one4 ,this monotheistic development was very gradual1 and passed through many stages in unfolding itself out of ,polytheism4 ,people spoke of the #8,god of the ,elhms of ,israel' 7l elh ,yisrl71 without giving any account as to who these ,elhms were and what were their names4 ,whatever may be said1 the plural form ,elhm itself1 the interpretation of which as pluralis majestatis belongs to the stage of pure ,monotheism1 decidedly indicates that a plural conception was inherent in this word4 ,such expressions1 created by polytheistic imagination1 were retained at the monotheistic stages4 ,like the myth1 they lost their original signification1 and were used by zealous monotheists without any idea of the ,polytheism which had created them and been expressed by them4 ,this ,monotheism comes to light in the monotheistic turn which was given to the name ,elhm2 and the stronger the national life1 and the intenser the national sentiment grew1 so much more eagerly did the people grasp this ,elhm-idea as a national one1 entirely ignoring the fact that the name was not its exclusive property4 ,at the conclusion of the national development the ,elohistic monotheism attained perfection2 but from the very beginning the mind of the nation lived in the conviction that #8,elhm was not like the ,elhms of the nations4' ,the monotheistic turn given to the word is distinctly impressed on the form h-,elhm 1 which is related to ,elhm exactly as among ,mohammedans ,allh to ,ilh4 ,an important part in the encouragement of this monotheistic development was played by the ,levitical priesthood1 which conducted the centralised worship2 as also by those inspired men of action who appeared as teachers and monitors in the early days of the monarchy1 precursors of the later great ,prophets1 harbingers of the epoch of the ,prophtes crivains1 as ,renan correctly calls them4#fef ,the later ,prophets1 although when writing history they depict these precursors as completely imbued with their own intentions1 did not ignore their position as precursors4 ,elijah and ,samuel were prototypes of prophecy1 in whose lives and actions the prophetic historian of a later time unfolded his own program2 but even they are endowed with infirmities foreign to later ,jahveism2 and these faults are characterised as such4 ,a prophet of the ,postexilian period1 in which a history of the growth of ,jahveism as reconciled with the law 7tr71 with ,moses as law-giving prophet at the head1 was already brought into notice1 regarded ,elijah as the precursor of the #8great and dreadful day of ,jahveh4' ,malachi1 namely 7,,iii4 #bb1 #bc ,,iv4 #d1 #e71 one of the chief representatives of the reconciliation effected between the two opposites1 ,sacerdotalism and ,jahveism1 exhorts the people to remember the ,tr of ,moses1 and in the same breath speaks of ,elijah1 the chief member of the old school of prophecy1 as precursor of the great day of ,jahveh4 ,these are two reminiscences1 valuable in a religious sense to the prophet of the ,postexilian period4#feg ,however gradual may have been the full development of ,monotheism among the ,hebrews1 on a consideration of the chronology it is impossible to deny that it had a far more rapid course there than elsewhere4 ,this rapidity of revolution is expressed very significantly in the monotheistic turn given to the word ,elhm1 which looks as if 7to use mathematical language7 the separate ,elahs had been added up and put in a bracket to represent a ,divine ,unity1 adequate to the sudden national unity produced out of political divisions only just composed4 ,thus the awakened idea of ,nationality left its impress also on the domain of religion4 ,but it is now quite intelligible that the religious expression thereby introduced1 possessed an obvious defect1 inasmuch as it bore on its front a contradiction which no mere ,national sentiment could get rid of1 the word ,elhm being common to the ,hebrews and the ,canaanites4 ,this contradiction gave the first stimulus to the creation of the word #8,jahveh1' the specially ,hebrew term4 ,the origin of this ,divine name may therefore be most probably assigned to this period1 as a necessary result of the religious element of the idea of ,nationality4 ,an agricultural people could very easily grasp the idea of ,god as an idea of #8him who makes to be1 who produces2' and it is not impossible that this appellation had its first origin at the time of the formation of a myth of civilisation1 and passed from a primitive solar to a later religious significance4 ,but during this whole period ,jahveh remained a mere word1 a flatus oris1 an ,elhm connected with the nation4 ,no deeper meaning1 distinguishing ,jahveh from the ,canaanitish ,elhm1 was as yet attached to the word2 that belongs to a later age1 that of the ,prophets4 ,moreover1 the name itself did not at first force its way deep into the soul of the whole people1 but remained as something external1--a ,divine name1 identical with h-,elhm1 and implying no more4 ,fights1 such as the ,prophets fought1 first created the ,jahveh-religion in opposition to ,elohism4 ,accordingly1 it will be best to lay no stress on the existence of the ,name before the point at which it obtains a religious significance and begins to be filled with its lofty conception4 #c4 ,at the same time with the monotheistic idea there arose a multitude of religious views1 which necessarily had an influence on the development of the myths into history4 ,and insofar as the ,hebraisation of the ,elhm-idea confirmed1 and even became the centre of the consciousness of nationality1 the conversion of the myths into national history1 of which the previous chapter treated1 naturally received a peculiarly religious tone4 ,here we see the germ of that theocratic character which people take a pleasure in introducing into the earliest history of the ,hebrews1 but which unquestionably presupposes a high development of the ,elhm-idea4 ,the theocratic system is a league between the religious and the national ideas4 ,as the myths were transformed in the preceding period into national history1 so now in this ,elohistic time1 their interpretation in a national sense is supplemented by a theocratic aim1 which again imprints a new stamp on the old mythology1 and exhibits the thoughts and feelings of the ,hebrews in richer measure than before4 ,those legendary figures which at the time of ,national aspiration became ,patriarchs or forefathers of the ,hebrew nation1 now enter the service of the theocratic or religious idea1 and become pious servants and favourites of ,god4 ,mythical events and contests which in the national period were converted into national history of primeval times1 now take a liturgical or religious turn4 ,not till now could the question1 why ,abraham was willing to kill ,isaac1 arise distinctly in the mind4 ,and the answer was at hand3 he did it at the command of ,elhm--he sacrificed1 for he was ,elhm's faithful servant1 capable of sacrifice4 ,the other ,patriarchs also become pious1 ,god-fearing individuals2 their adventures and lives become types of ,elohistic piety1 as they had previously been made types of the history of the nation4 ,the political idea also1 i4e4 the conviction that it was necessary for the ,hebrew nation to possess the territory which they called their own1 is carried back to the patriarchal age in the repeated promises of ,elhm to the ,patriarchs that their descendants should possess themselves of the land of ,canaan4 ,this was the highest1 the religious sanction of the ,national idea2 and this conception the most prominent factor in the production of the direction imparted at this time to the stories of the ,patriarchs4 ,the national legends had only aimed at proving by documents the noble ancestry of the ,hebrew nation and the high antiquity of their antagonism to the nations who subsequently were their enemies2 and endeavoured to demonstrate that the national character and the national preeminence of the ,hebrews were founded in the earliest times1 and could be fully justified from the history of their ancestors4 ,in this later religious and theocratic epoch1 on the other hand1 there is infused into the legends a tendency to transform the ancestors into religious prototypes and individuals in whom the ancient preference of ,elhm for the ,hebrew nation could be exhibited1 and the truth established that this preference of ,elhm was a primeval distinction which advantageously marked off the ,hebrews from the other nations of ,canaan4 ,this accordingly determines the form impressed on the myths1 which had already suffered several modifications1 by the rise of a religious and theocratic course of ideas2 and ,i deem it unnecessary to exhibit in detail every portion of the matter constituting the ,hebrew legendary lore in which this stratum of development is observable4 ,scarcely any part of the stories of the ,patriarchs is free from this new force of development1 and we should have to reproduce them all in their fullest extent to give a collection of examples of what has been said4 ,it must1 however1 be added1 that this impulse to the further development of the legends is not confined to those relating to ,canaan4 ,the same impulse draws the history of the ,hebrews in ,egypt also into the sphere of its operation4 ,for1 independently of the fact1 that the conception of the residence of the ,hebrews in the land of the ,pharaohs receives a theocratic modification1 the later mutual relation of the ,hebrew and the ,egyptian nations is prefigured in the patriarchal story1 and gains a prototype in the relation of ,abraham to ,pharaoh4 ,a famine in ,canaan obliges ,abraham to move into ,egypt2 and this journey is made the reason why #8,jahveh plagued ,pharaoh and his house with great plagues' 7,gen4 ,,xii4 #ag71 until #8,pharaoh gave an order to some men concerning him1 and they escorted away ,abraham and his wife1 and all who belonged to him' 7v4 #bj74 ,this foreshadowing of later historical events and the insertion of them into the body of old stories is1 as we see1 an important factor in the development of ,hebrew stories4 ,each epoch works into the old legendary matter whatever preeminently occupies the mind of the age1 in such a manner as to indicate the intellectual attitude and tendency of the later time4 #d4 ,there is still another feature of the development of legends to be mentioned--one which is closely bound up with an important alteration of the political institutions of the ,hebrew nation4 ,this feature1 though nearly connected with the ,national transformation of the legends1 historically belongs to the age with which we have to do in this chapter4 ,this stage of development of the legends may best be termed the ,differentiation of the ,national ,legends4 ,the political and religious centralisation1 which formed the program of the first two representatives of the ,davidical dynasty1 and which bound the highest power in the state to one city1 ,jerusalem1 as a geographical centre1 and to one family1 as the visible representative of that power1 did not meet with unmixed applause everywhere4 ,jerusalem lies close to the southern limit of the ,hebrew territory4 ,if the ,south came to the front1 the northern parts of the kingdom might be deprived of all influence on affairs of state and religion4 ,the inhabitants of the northern district were practically condemned to be only bearers of the burdens1 imposed on the subjects of the kingdom through the luxury growing up in the centre of monarchy and of religion2 for very little enjoyment of1 or pride in1 this splendour could fall to their share4 ,and then the religious centralisation took all importance and influence from the sanctuaries and places of assembly in the ,north1 which before the centralisation were spread over the whole kingdom in due proportion4 ,nothing1 therefore1 could be more natural than the reaction in the ,north1 which spread after the death of ,solomon under his weak successor1 and ended with the division of the kingdom4 ,the history of this division and the circumstances connected with it are sufficiently well known from the ,old ,testament narrative 7#a ,kings ,,xii471 in which no essential element is devoid of historical credibility4 ,all of it is a natural consequence of the then condition of the ,hebrew kingdom4 ,now it is very intelligible that in the northern district1 the centralising and theocratic spirit1 which was at bottom the reason of the political secession1 could not find an entrance1 and that therefore the northern district remained at the ,elohistic stage as it was before an advance had been made to pure ,monotheism--in relation to religion scarcely yet separated from ,canaanism1 but with respect to nationality sharing the common ,hebrew sentiment4 ,accordingly1 in the spiritual development of the ,northern kingdom1 the theocratic interpretation of the past ages of the nation1 excited by the centralising movement1 is not merely treated as unimportant1 but positively does not appear at all4 ,this1 of course1 is true not only of the spiritual condition of the northern ,hebrews after the secession1 but of their spiritual life during the whole period of the formation of the theocratic spirit in the ,south4 ,for the very fact that the ,northerns possessed little knowledge of and no inclination for this tendency1 then all-powerful in the commonwealth1 gave an impetus to the secessionistic aspirations1 which under the strong rule of ,solomon had no opportunity of declaring themselves1 but burst out all the more forcibly and persistently at the commencement of a feebler reign4 ,but while the theocratic spirit1 so peculiar to the ,southern kingdom1 forms a distinction between the characters of the ,north and of the ,south1 intense national consciousness and national opposition to the ,canaanites is common to both4 ,this feeling grew up equally in both of them4 ,but even in respect to this1 the political separation naturally produced its consequences4 ,nationality is very closely tied to political unity4 ,the abstract idea of nationality becomes illusory if there is no united state in which it appears in a concrete form4 ,the consciousness of national oneness is enfeebled1 if the political state does not coincide with the nation in a single idea4 ,hence we see how eager nations divided into separate political states are for a struggle for union1 when once their national consciousness wakes out of sleep4 ,on the other hand1 in states formed by a union of peoples of various nationalities1 we observe a certainly justifiable endeavour1 on the part of the strongest and therefore ruling nationality1 to inoculate the weaker ones with its own national sentiment1 and thereby produce a common feeling of unity4 ,the political separation of the ,northern region from the centralised ,hebrew state1 produced a remarkable and very important alteration in the sense of nationality hitherto worked out in common4 ,the political opposition between ,north and ,south encouraged also the recognition of a difference in their common genealogy4 ,as the general ,hebrew idea of nationality found nourishment in the store of legends1 so also the consciousness of this secondary difference sought justification in the mythology4 ,this sense of difference came to light more clearly in the northern ,hebrews than in the southern4 ,the former wrote the name ,joseph on their banner1 and derived themselves directly from that son of the common ancestor1 and in opposition to the southerns laid more and more stress on this special feature of their origin2 moreover1 it was not so much ,joseph that concerned them as ,ephraim1 who is named a son of ,joseph4 ,we must not forget that this name ,ephraim has only a secondary origin4 ,for when the national purpose of the story was once drafted in the mind of the people1 it was developed in details in a most independent fashion4 ,the biography of the ancestors was worked out exhaustively2 that to which the existing legendary matter offered no suggestion or occasion was supplied by the restless activity of the popular sentiment4 ,in various places in ,canaan sepulchral caves had been pointed out from the earliest times--or rather caves which were employed for sepulture2 for it is pretty certain that they were originally intended rather for the living than for the dead4 ,now could anything be simpler than to imagine the bones of ancestors to have been placed there1 and to bind to these places the sacred piety which was felt by an enthusiastic nation for venerated progenitors8 ,it is generally known that such an origin of traditions relating to graves is not uncommon in the history of civilisation and religion4 ,saints' graves have as many interpretations fastened on them as feast-days and popular festivals4 ,hebron was a place suitable for this treatment1 and so popular tradition placed there the bones of the ,patriarchs and their wives1 and attached the general national piety to the place4 ,accordingly ,king ,david acted in sympathy with the lately aroused national enthusiasm1 when he chose ,hebron for his residence 7#b ,sam4 ,,ii4 #a1 #aa74 ,and the popular belief concerning the graves of the ,patriarchs was so firmly fixed in the soul of the nation as to become in later generations a meeting-point of the piety of three religions towards their sacred antiquity4 ,mohammedans1 ,jews1 and ,christians vie with each other in the adorations which they lavish on the #8,double ,cave' at ,hebron4 ,mohammedans1 who place the prophet ,ibrhm al-,chall higher than either ,jews or ,christians1 have done more for the authenticity of the graves of the ,patriarchs at ,hebron than either of the older religions1 from which they received the tradition concerning them4 ,i know of no literary work emanating from ,christians or ,jews1 written in defence of the authenticity of this cave4 ,conviction was left to faith and piety rather than to historical certainty4 ,but it was a ,mohammedan--not even an ,arab1 but a ,persian--that undertook this task4 ,al b4 ,jafar al-,rz wrote a book entitled al-musfir lil-ulb an iat abr ,ibrhm ,is wa-,yab #8,enlightener of hearts concerning the correctness of the grave of ,abraham1 ,isaac and ,jacob4' ,ibn ,ba of ,mareb 7,north-,western ,africa71 a great ,mohammedan traveller1 who made a pilgrimage to al-,chall 7,hebron71 quotes largely from this book on occasion of his description of the ,graves of the ,patriarchs4#feh ,but popular tradition has preserved far more recollections of graves of ,patriarchs and ,prophets than ,scripture1 and ,mohammedan tradition considerably more than ,jewish4 ,this testifies eloquently how incomplete stories are felt to be as long as they can tell only of events and persons without connecting everything with a definite locality4 ,popular tradition always feels the want of topographical completion1 as long as it can give no distinct account of the places where the events of which it speaks took place1 where its favourite heroes lived and worked1 where they were cradled and where they slept their last sleep4 ,this impulse was felt in ancient times1 and produced the localisation of myths4 ,accordingly1 the ,mohammedan popular tradition knows of the grave of ,adam on the mountain ,ab ubeys1#fei of that of ,eve at ,jedd1 of that of ,cain and ,abel at liyy1 a suburb of ,damascus1 of that of ,seth in the valley of ,yahff in ,antilibanus1#ffj and of those of some of ,jacob's sons1 as of ,reuben at ,jahrn1 a place in the south of ,arabia1#ffa of ,asher and ,naphtali at ,kafarmand1 between ,akk 7,acre7 and ,tiberias4 ,even ,zipporah1 the wife of ,moses1 was a person sufficiently interesting to popular tradition to have a grave assigned to her2#ffb just as ,mohammedan tradition asserts the grave of ,ham to be in the district of ,damascus1#ffc and that of the forefather of the ,canaanites to be at ,chrbet rs ,kenan near ,hebron1#ffd and also shows that of ,uriah at the edge of the desert beyond the ,jordan4#ffe ,the ,mohammedans took interest also in the grave of ,aaron1 and it was from them that the ,jews received the local tradition relating to it4#fff ,but it also happens not unfrequently1 that popular tradition allows one and the same patriarch or prophet to be buried at several places1 often far distant from each other4 ,various countries take a pride in possessing the last remains of venerated persons1 and vie with each other for this privilege4 ,even so established a tradition as that which placed the graves of the ,patriarchs at ,hebron1 and was especially firm with regard to ,abraham 7al-,chall71 is not so irremovable but that it could be localised somewhere else also4 ,the district of ,damascus has its tradition of ,abraham1 and the village of ,berze its cave with ,abraham's grave4#ffg ,the most noteworthy instance of the kind is the grave of ,moses himself4 ,it is well known that the ,bible has nothing definite to say of the place of interment of this prophet2 and hence in the ,jewish popular tradition the prevailing idea is that it is impossible to discover the place where rest the bones of the ,prophet with whom the origin of religion is so closely connected--the very same thing as the ,sunnite ,mohammedans assert of the grave of ,al4#ffh #8,and he 7,jahveh7 buried him#ffi in the valley in the land of ,moab1 opposite ,beth-,peor1 and no man has known his grave up to the present day' 7,deut4 ,,xxxiv4 #f74 ,the little ,pesit thinks the purpose of this was #8that the ,israelites might not pay divine honours to his grave1 and raise a sanctuary at it1 and also that the heathen should not desecrate the place by idolatry and abominations4' ,it is at least certain that1 as appears from the ,biblical words just cited1 the grave of ,moses was imagined to be in the valley and beyond the ,jordan2 for the ,prophet had never crossed the river4 ,it may also probably have been in the region thus indicated in the ,bible1 that1 according to an assertion in the older ,midrsh on ,deuteronomy1 a ,roman ,emperor--a royal precursor of the ,palestine ,exploration ,society--sent explorers to find the grave1 in vain3 #8,the government of the ,imperial house sent people out with the order1 ,go and see where ,moses' grave is4 ,so they went and searched above1 and they saw something below2 so they went down again1 and saw it above4 ,so they divided themselves1 and again those above saw it below and those below saw it above4'#fgj ,islm1 however1 possesses the grave of ,moses at several places4 ,the best known place is the hill ,neb ,msa1 a very beautiful eminence in a romantic situation1 well worth visiting by a slight but fatiguing dtour from the road from ,jerusalem to the ,dead ,sea2 not much visited by pilgrims now on account of its inconvenient position4 ,here1 in the centre of a ruined compound1 is to be seen the grave of the ,prophet1 a great sarcophagus1 the carpet covering which bears an inscription informing us of its venerable contents4 ,thus this grave is not in the valley1 but on a hill2 not beyond the ,jordan1 but on the ,jerusalem side4 ,but also an old mosque at ,damascus was said1 at all events six hundred years ago1 to contain the sepulchral monument of ,moses2#fga and his grave is also said to be on a hill called ,hreb1 three days' journey from ,moa4#fgb ,for ,aaron's burial-place ,mohammedan tradition has assigned two places1 one about where it would be looked for according to the ,biblical account1#fgc and the other1 which is chiefly visited as ,aaron's ,grave1 on the hill ,ohod4#fgd ,this last position has been brought into connexion with a legend of ,moses and ,aaron staying in the ,hedjaz4#fge ,an ,arabic savant1 ,abd-al-an al-,nbuls1 finds an occasion1 in his book of ,travels1 to notice the circumstance that the grave of the same ,patriarch is shown at numerous places4#fgf ,sometimes an inscription is found at every one of these burial-places4 ,but such inscriptions are not made with mala fides by mere deceivers of the people4 ,they are only the written expression of what lives in popular belief2 and when inscriptions occur at various places referring to the grave of the same prophet1 the reason is that the local popular tradition of each of those places happened to be reduced to writing4#fgg ,an interesting example of this is the grave of the ,prophet of the nation of ,ad1 the disappearance of which--an unsolved ethnological riddle--occasioned the rise of the ,mohammedan legend of the prophet ,hd4 ,the grave of this prophet is shown both at ,damascus#fgh and in the region of afr in the south of ,arabia1 the scene of his activity4 ,ibn ,ba1 who visited both tombs1 reports that both were marked with an inscription in the following words3 #8,this is the grave of ,hd1 son of bir3 the most excellent prayers and greetings for him6'#fgi ,the grave of ,rachel is also marked out by tradition1 which puts it in the neighbourhood of ,ephrth1 subsequently and still called ,bth-lechem 7,beth-lehem74 ,this sepulchre is to the present day the object of pilgrimage to the adherents of three religions4 ,the myth calls ,joseph the son of ,rachel1 and we know of ,ephraym 7,ephraim7 as son of ,joseph4 ,now the name ,ephraym seems to belong to the period of the differentiation of the national legends1 and to be a secondary form to ,ephrth1 which passes for the burial-place of his ancestress4 ,for we find also the derivative noun ,ephrth1 i4e4 #8belonging to ,ephrth1' in the two senses #8a man from the place ,ephrth' and #8a descendant of ,ephraim2' and ,ephraim himself is called ,ephrth in a passage in the ,psalms4#fhj ,the prophet ,samuel and his ancestors are also said to have been ,ephrth-men 7#a ,sam4 ,i4 #a74fha ,this identity between the name of the burial-place of ,joseph's mother and the name of his son is probably not accidental1 but produced under the influence of the national tendencies of the ,north2 and the reaction of the spirit of the ,south may have suppressed the old name of the place and substituted the modern ,bth-lechem4 ,now in my view the name ,ephraym was originally not a personal but a national name4 ,after the separation the ,northern ,hebrews called themselves #8those belonging to ,ephrth4' ,for the word ,ephraym has the form of a plural of a so-called relative adjective 7,arabic nisb71 derived from ,ephrth by throwing off the feminine formative syllable ath and attaching the new formative syllable directly to the base of the word4 ,of this ,semitic mode of formation the ,arabic gives a good instance2 there the feminine ending of the proper name 7t7 is regularly cast off in forming the nisb1 and the relative termination is attached to the body of the word3 e4g4 from ,baratun not ,barat but ,bar1 #8a man of ,basr4' ,in ,hebrew1 the feminine termination is cast off when it appears in the shortened form 2 e4g4 ,yehd 7,judah71 whence ,yehd2 ,timn1 whence ,timn4 ,but an instance occurs in which even the termination th is cast off before the formation of the relative4 ,instead of ,kerth1 the form generally used in the phrase hak-,kerth wehap-,pelth #8the ,kerethites and the ,pelethites1' the form ,kr is found 7#b ,sam4 ,,xx4 #bc ,kethbh72 the th#fhb being discarded1 and the vowel of the first syllable lengthened by way of compensation 7productio suppletoria74 ,i assume the same formation in the present case 7though the regular ,ephrth is also used71 the termination of the relative adjective being attached directly to the base ,ephr1 after the rejection of the th4 ,we know further that the idiom of the ,northern part of the region covered by the ,hebrew language contained much that is generally called ,aramaism4 ,the ,aramaic relative adjectives are formed in ay1 and they are occasionally met with in ,hebrew also2#fhc ,ephray1 forming the plural ,ephraym1 is an instance4 ,this latter form accordingly signifies #8those belonging to ,ephrth1' and is the national name of the ,hebrews of the ,north1 used afterwards as a designation of their ancestor4 ,many instances of a similar proceeding occur in the ,biblical genealogies4 ,thus the ,northern ,hebrews possess national memories connecting them with ,joseph-,ephraim4 ,it is therefore quite natural that1 as the national difference which parted the ,northern from the ,southern people became more evident1 vivid and acknowledged1 the mind of the former was more occupied with the cycle of stories about the person and adventures of ,joseph4 ,the existing mass of stories offered abundant opportunity for this1 and more productive matter could scarcely be imagined than the story of the hatred of the brethren towards ,joseph1 the ,patriarch of the ,north4 ,the ,northerns consequently seized this portion of the ,patriarchal history1 and worked it out in the interest of their national separatism1 always contriving to let the supremacy of ,joseph above ,judah clearly appear4 ,they take pleasure in representing ,judah crouching in the dust before ,joseph the ruler1 and owing his life entirely to the will of the generous brother1 towards whom he had formerly borne such bitter ill-will4 ,joseph is brought forward with satisfaction and pride as the brother whom the aged father treated with the greatest favour and distinction1 and whose life alone was able to revive his fainting spirits2 while ,joseph's mother was the only woman whom the ,patriarch really loved1 whereas the ,southerns were descended partly from the ugly ,leah1 ,judah's mother1 who became ,jacob's wife only by deceit and craft1 and partly from slaves4 ,national stories are created by the awaking consciousness of opposition2 and1 as we have seen1 they transfer to primeval times the national spirit of opposition1 which is an affair of the present1 and ascribe a reflex of it to the respective ancestors4 ,this is the spirit of the stories of ,joseph1 worked out by the ,northern in opposition to the ,southern ,hebrews4 ,the enmity of the two ,hebrew kingdoms is transferred to the earliest times1 and prefigured in the picture of the relation between ,joseph and his brethren4 ,the chief portions of this mass of ,northern stories which were reduced to writing at a later time1 and thus fixed in a definite form1 were contained in the ancient document distinguished by most critics as the #8,book of ,uprightness' 7,spher hay-,yshr74#fhd ,i must here refer to a very ingenious theory concerning the matter in hand1 which was propounded not long ago by ,a4 ,bernstein4#fhe ,he imagines the differentiation of the mass of ,hebrew stories to have been such that the story of ,abraham1 the ,patriarch of ,hebron1 belongs to the ,southern kingdom1 whilst that of ,jacob1 the ,patriarch of ,beth-el1 was produced by the political tendencies of the ,northern realm4 ,before these more recent stories he supposes the oldest of the ,patriarchal stories1 which was connected with the worship at ,beer-sheba1 to have existed1 but to have been afterwards obscured by the later legend about ,abraham4 ,bernstein leaves these stories of political tendency to fight it out together1 and entangles them in the antagonism between ,north and ,south1 until at last after the disappearance of the opposition they become common property and are blended together4 ,although from what has been said there appears to be no question but that in the treatment of the legendary matter1 the political situation was no insignificant factor1 yet it is impossible to set up the three ,patriarchs as products of mere political tendencies4 ,for we have proved that the origin of their names goes back to the very earliest age when myths were first created4 ,no doubt this or that feature in the tout ensemble of the story took a different character according as it was handed down by the inhabitants of the ,northern or of the ,southern kingdom2 and sensible interpreters have long paid particular attention to these differences4 ,but the names are not later inventions or fictions2 they are primeval1 and among the oldest elements of the ,hebrew language2 and1 similarly1 the most prominent features of the stories1 derived from the ancient myth1 are free from all that national or political tendency which attached itself in much later times to the ancient material4 #e4 ,in general the ,northern kingdom1 in which no theocratic tendency seized on and transformed the existing mass of stories1 held the legends1 which were guided in a national direction1 firmer1 and felt more affection for them4 ,besides the ,patriarchal stories1 those which fill up the age of the ,judges 7,shphem7 gave the most scope to national pride4 ,there the stories of the true ,hebrew national heroes and their heroic battles with the ,philistines are found4 ,in respect to theocracy this whole age has little importance1 and the stories were utterly incapable of a theocratic transformation4 ,for the very aim of ,hebrew theocracy was1 first to prefigure the theocratic destiny of the ,hebrews in the history of the primeval age1 and then to show in as favourable a light as possible the beneficent revolution brought on by the house of ,david4 ,but for this purpose it was essential that this period of theocratic movement should contrast advantageously with an untheocratic time1 unfavourable to any such movement1 and that the spirit of ,david's rule should be the very opposite of the preceding administrations4 ,consequently1 the stories of the ,judges suffered no theocratic transformation4 ,but transformation and development constitute the very life of ,legend1 which1 if not accommodated to the new current of feeling1 is abandoned1 and ceases to live2 having in its old form no meaning to a new age4 ,there are unequivocal testimonies which prove that to the theocratic mind the stories of the ,judges were utterly dead1 and were consequently neglected by it4 ,two of these testimonies deserve especial mention4 ,the ,book of ,chronicles 7dibhr hay-ymm71 which we have been long accustomed to regard as a history written in a strictly sacerdotal spirit1 enumerating by name all the priests1 ,levites1 singers and door-keepers of the central sanctuary of ,jerusalem1 utters not a syllable respecting the entire period of the ,judges1 but commences the history proper at the death of ,saul and accession of ,david4 ,and another part of the ,canon1 the ,book of ,ruth1 the object of which is to connect ,david's genealogy with an idyl1 and which expresses the moderate theocratic ideas of the restoration1 while the matter of its narrative occupies no determinate chronological position1 indicates this very chronological vagueness by the words wa-yeh bm shepht hash-shphem1 #8it was in the days when the ,judges ruled1' i4e4 it was once in the olden time 7,ruth ,i4 #a74 ,the #8,judges' time' here denotes an indeterminate period1 whose chronology is effaced4 ,that period1 in fact1 does labour under an indefiniteness which almost baffles the chronologist1 and the ,biblical ,canon itself could only be drawn up by leaving an excessively lax connexion between the three periods--the occupation of ,canaan by the ,hebrews1 the monarchy after ,david1 and the untheocratic period lying between the two4 ,but the ,northern spirit was strongly attracted to the period of the ,judges and the stories belonging to it1 since it felt itself to be the continuator of the homogeneous spirit of the history of the times before ,david2 and thus literature is indebted to an author belonging to the ,northern kingdom for the ground-work of the ,book of ,judges4#fhf ,thus then was accomplished the division of the mass of legends of the ,hebrews4 ----- ,footnote #fdb3 ,hartung1 in the first part of his ,religion und ,mythologie der ,griechen1 contradicts himself again and again on this subject4 ,at first he makes monotheism precede all development of religion 7p4 #c71 then he sees nothing religious at all in monotheism 7p4 #bh71 and next the growth of religion proceeds from polytheism to monotheism1 not the reverse way 7p4 #cb74 ,footnote #fdc3 ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,i4 #cfc note4 ,footnote #fdd3 ,la ,magie chez les ,chaldens1 p4 #gb4 ,footnote #fde3 ,annales de la ,philosophie chrtienne1 an #aheh1 p4 #bfj4 ,footnote #fdf3 ,essays1 ,moral1 ,political and ,literary1 ed4 ,green and ,grose1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #caa2 compare ,buckle's ,history of ,civilisation in ,england1 in #c vols4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #bea2 ,pfleiderer1 ,die ,religion und ihre ,geschichte1 ,,ii4 #ag4 ,before ,hume the view that ,polytheism was a degradation of a previous ,monotheism was generally admitted4 ,but ,hume's exposition did not put an end to this radically false idea4 ,creuzer's great work1 ,symbolik und ,mythologie der alten ,vlker1 besonders der ,griechen1 is based on this false assumption1 and ,schelling's ,philosophy of ,religion starts from the same premiss4 ,and many able ,english scholars still speak again and again of the degradation of the primeval ,monotheism into ,polytheism4 ,not only one-sided theologians start from this axiom2 ,gladstone's mythological system1 in his ,studies on ,homer and the ,homeric ,age1 and ,juventus ,mundi is founded upon it1 all progress in history1 philology and mythology notwithstanding4 ,footnote #fdg3 ,in ,virchow and ,holtzendorff's ,sammlung gemeinverstndlicher wissenschaftlicher ,vortrge1 #ahgj1 ,heft #ig1 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #fdh3 ,polit4 ,i4 #a4 #g3 1 1 1 1 4 ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 ,i4 #dff1 says3 #8,considering the multitude of superhuman beings1 it is certainly very natural to follow the analogy of human relations1 which is often carried out with great consistency1 and to assume gradations of power among them1 one being regarded as the first and highest of all4 ,but this idea may easily be rendered unfruitful through the very analogy which suggested it1 because in human society the power and repute of individuals are frequently changing4' ,but even this fact is not unfruitful with regard to religion2 for on this analogy a world of gods with a head liable to change may be imagined4 ,footnote #fdi3 ,schelling's ,smmtliche ,werke 7,cotta's edition1 #ahef71 ,,ii4 ,abth4 ,i1 #eb 7,einleitung in die ,philosophie der ,mythologie74 ,footnote #fej3 ,theogon4 vv4 #hhb-he4 ,footnote #fea3 ,palgrave1 ,central and ,eastern ,arabia1 ,i4 #cc4 ,footnote #feb3 ,von ,holtzendorff in the ,zeitsch4 fr ,vlkerpsychologie etc41 #ahfh1 ,v4 #cgh4 ,footnote #fec3 ,waitz1 l4c4 ,,ii4 #abf et seq4 and especially pp4 #afg1 #dci1 on the religion and politics of the ,negroes1 and ,gerland in the sixth volume of the same work 7passim7 on similar institutions among the ,polynesians4 ,footnote #fed3 ,in ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ,,ii4 #cjf4 ,footnote #fee3 ,die ,religion der ,zukunft1 ,berlin #ahgd1 p4 #ajb4 ,footnote #fef3 ,histoire gnrale etc41 p4 #aca4 ,footnote #feg3 ,thus this much-discussed verse contains no prophecy1 but a recollection of the phases of the growth of religion in past times4 ,footnote #feh3 ,voyages d',ibn ,batoutah1 ,i4 #aae et seq4 ,the jealousy with which the ,mohammedans for a long time forbad ,christians and ,jews to visit the graves of the ,patriarchs only began at the year #ffd ,a4,h4 #8,l'an #ffd ,bibars dfendit aux chrtiens et aux juifs d'entrer dans le temple de ,hbron2 avant cette poque ils y allaient librement1 moyennant une rtribution' 7,quatremre1 ,mmoire gogr4 et hist4 sur l'gypte1 ,paris #ahda1 ,,ii4 #bbd74 ,footnote #fei3 ,ibn uteyb1 ,handbuch der ,geschichte1 ed4 ,wstenfeld1 p4 #aj4 ,footnote #ffj3 ,burton and ,drake1 ,unexplored ,syria1 ,london #ahgb1 ,i4 #cc4 ,footnote #ffa3 ,yt1 ,mujam1 ,,iv4 #bia4 #aa et seq4 ,footnote #ffb3 ,ibid41 p4 #dch4 #af4 ,footnote #ffc3 ,burton and ,drake1 l4c4 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #ffd3 ,rosen in ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 ,,xi4 #ei4 ,footnote #ffe3 ,yt1 ,,iii4 #gbj4 #c4 ,footnote #fff3 ,zunz1 ,geogr4 ,literatur der ,juden1 no4 #aji1 ,gesammelte ,schriften1 ,i4 #aia4 ,footnote #ffg3 ,alfred von ,kremer1 ,mittelsyrien und ,damaskus1 ,vienna #ahec1 p4 #aah4 ,footnote #ffh3 al-,damr1 ayt al-aywn1 ,i4 #ei3 #8,al is the earliest ,imm whose burial-place is not known4 ,it is said that before his death he ordered it to be kept secret1 knowing that the sons of ,umayya would attain to power1 and that his grave would not then be safe from desecration4 ,nevertheless1 his grave is shown at various places4' ,footnote #ffi3 ,or #8,and they buried him' 7,,lxx4 71 as it is understood by many excellent scholars4--,,tr4 ,footnote #fgj3 ,siphr debh ,rabh1 ed4 ,m4 ,friedmann1 ,vienna #ahfd1 #ceg and note #db of the editor4 ,footnote #fga3 ,yt1 ,,ii4 #ehi4 #ba4 ,footnote #fgb3 ,sepp1 ,jerusalem und das ,heilige ,land1 ,,ii4 #bde4 ,footnote #fgc3 r ,hrn1 ,yt1 ,,iii4 #eei2 azwn1 ,i4 #afh2 see ,burckhardt in ,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #cib4 ,footnote #fgd3 ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahfb1 ,,xvi4 #fhh4 ,footnote #fge3 ,burton1 ,personal ,narrative etc41 #ast ed4 ,,ii4 #aag1 or #bnd ed4 ,i4 #cca4 ,footnote #fgf3 ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 l4c4 p4 #fef4 ,on duplicates in ,mohammedan and ,christian traditions about graves1 see ,sepp's article on ,samaria and ,sichem1 7,ausland1 #ahge1 pp4 #dgj-gb74 ,footnote #fgg3 ,a mala fides should not be assumed even in the case of inscriptions like those mentioned by ,procopius1 ,de ,bello ,vandalico1 ,v4 #b4 #ac2 see ,munk's ,palestina1 ,german translation by ,levy1 p4 #aic1 note #e4 ,they are everywhere old legendary popular traditions1 which in later time become fixed by an inscription4 ,from such inscriptions we must distinguish fictitious sepulchral monuments1 in which the intention to delude is manifest1 e4g4 the inscription on the graves of ,eldad and ,medad1 on which see ,zunz1 l4c4 no4 #dc1 p4 #afg4 ,on ,jewish accounts of the burial-places of the ancients ,zunz1 l4c4 pp4 #ahb and #baj1 should be consulted4 ,footnote #fgh3 ,sepp1 l4c41 ,,ii4 #bfi4 ,footnote #fgi3 ,voyages1 ,i4 #bje1 ,,ii4 #bjc4 ,a brief list of graves of prophets which are shown at ,tiberias and some other places is given in ,yt1 ,,iii4 #eab4 ,footnote #fhj3 ,see ,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #ada4 ,footnote #fha3 ,if this means that he belonged to the tribe of ,ephraim1 it is easy to understand why the author of the ,chronicle 7#a ,chr4 ,,iv4 #ah et seq47 claims him for the tribe of ,levi1 when we consider the generally acknowledged ,levitical tendency of that late book of history4 ,it would appear to one holding ,levitical sentiments impossible that a man who is said to have often offered sacrifices 7#a ,sam4 ,,ix4 #ac71 and to have served in the sanctuary of ,shiloh under the ,high-priest ,eli1 should have been anything but a ,levite4 ,footnote #fhb3 ,consequently the discarded th must be regarded as an inflexion1 and shows us that the word has no connexion with ,crete4 ,footnote #fhc3 ,ewald1 ,ausfhrl4 ,lehrb4 d4 hebr4 ,sprache1 #afd4 c2 ,grammar transl4 ,nicholson1 #cdc end4 ,footnote #fhd3 ,aug4 ,knobel1 ,die ,bcher ,numeri1 ,deuteronomium und ,josua1 p4 #edd4 ,on the ,northern origin of this book most candid ,biblical critics are agreed4 ,footnote #fhe3 ,ursprung der ,sagen von ,abraham1 ,isak und ,jakob4 ,kritische ,untersuchung von ,a4 ,bernstein4 ,berlin #ahga4 ,footnote #fhf3 ,as the drawing up of the ,canon belongs to an age in which the antagonism between ,north and ,south had ceased to exist1 the literary products of the ,north which were still preserved from old times obtained a place in it1 though always brought into harmony with the all-pervading theocratic character by occasional interpolated modifications of sentiment4 ----- ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,prophetism ,,and ,,the ,,jahveh-,,religion4 #a4 ,the most brilliant point in the history of ,hebrew ,religion is distinguished by an ingenious original idea1 imported by the ,hebrews into the development of religion--a single thought1 yet in itself sufficient to secure for that short history a permanent place on the pages of universal history4 ,the idea of ,,jahveh is what ,i allude to4#fhg ,to the question1 when this idea was born1 the sublimity of which exerted so powerful and irresistible an influence over the noblest minds1 it can only be answered that we labour in vain if we try to find the exact point of time of its origin4 ,as the ,nile1 to which those who have been cradled on its banks ascribe a great magic force1 cannot be easily traced to its source1 so with the idea of ,jahveh3 we do not see it spring into life1 we only see it after its creation1 and observe how it works and kindles new spiritual life in the souls of those who acknowledge it4 ,the ,mohammedan idea of ,allh is the only one which may perhaps vie with the sublimity of that of ,jahveh2 yet even that is far from occupying so lofty an eminence of religious thought as the idea of ,jahveh4 ,if1 translating the word ,jahveh into a modern ,european language1 we say that he is the one who #8,brings to be1' produces and works out ,being1 we do not in the most distant manner indicate the fulness of meaning which is embodied in that religious technical term4 ,to appreciate it1 a sympathising soul must be absorbed in all that the ,prophets bring into connexion with the expression ,jahveh4 ,shall ,i translate all that these inspired men declare of ,jahveh8 ,i should have to interpret the entire prophetic literature of the ,hebrews1 and yet should produce only a pale reflex of all the splendour which envelops ,jahveh with glory in the speeches of the ,prophets4 ,i have mentioned the ,mohammedan idea of ,allh4 ,although etymologically identical with ,elhm1 that name may afford a parallel to the ,hebrew idea of ,jahveh1 not only in its essence and meaning1 but also in its history4 ,it was not unknown as a technical religious expression to the ,arabs before the time of ,moammed4 ,to the ,preislamite or heathen system of ,arabic theology1 which had its centre in the sanctuary at ,mekka1 the ,divine name ,allh was familiar4 ,but with what a new meaning did the preaching of the epileptic huckster of ,mekka inform it6 ,through the gospel of the ,arabian ,prophet ,allh became something quite new4 ,yet even in this respect ,jahveh appears still grander4 ,for1 while the ,mohammedan idea of ,god clings close to the etymological signification of the word ,allh1 insisting primarily on might and unlimited omnipotence1 in the ,hebrew ,prophets' idea of ,jahveh the name becomes a mere accident and accessory1 and the true meaning presses with its full weight in a direction quite distinct from the signification and etymology of the word1 which was formed in an earlier age4 ,i have already declared my opinion as to the period in which the ,divine name ,jahveh may have emerged into notice among the people 7p4 #bgb71 and the impulse which produced it4 ,we can also demonstrate the existence of the name after that period from many proper names which are compounded with the name ,jahveh1 either full or abbreviated 7into ,jh or ,j71 that name forming either the first or the second member of the compound4 ,from the fact that such names occur in the ,northern as well as in the ,southern kingdom1 it is also evident that the name ,jahveh itself had been formed before the separation4#fhh ,on the other hand1 we ought not to infer too much from the early occurrence of such names in the canonical books4 ,for1 in the first place1 not every ,j- at the beginning of proper names is an abbreviation of the ,divine name2 if our knowledge of the ancient forms of ,hebrew speech could be extended1 this ,j- would probably in many cases be degraded into the first syllable of a verb1 as has been shown by ,m4 ,levy to be probably the case in the name ,yl 7,joel72#fhi secondly1 it must be remembered that there is a possibility that many of these names received a ,jahveistic colouring only from the theocratic writers4 ,the possibility of this is seen in the fact that even the name ,ysph1 in which the first syllable has nothing to do with ,yahveh1 once occurs in the form ,yehsph 7,ps4 ,,lxxxi4 #f #f71fij and still more clearly in the conversion of the name ,hsha into ,yehsha 7,joshua71 which the ,biblical narrator certainly refers to a very high antiquity 7,num4 ,,xiii4 #af74fia ,but at all events1 we must not seek the origin of the name ,jahveh outside the ,hebrew circle1 and endeavour to explain it from foreign elements1 as those did who used to see in ,jov-is a namesake of ,jahveh1#fib and even went to ,china to find the origin2#fic and as is still done by some in the interest of ,egyptian antiquity1 who find in the ,egyptian nuk pu nuk1 #8ego qui ego1' the prototype of the ,hebrew ,ehye asher ehye #8,i am who ,i am4' ,but the identification of the ,egyptian with the ,hebrew formula was recently justly attacked by ,tiele1#fid who1 however1 at the same time1 has a private hypothesis of his own on the origin of this idea of ,god4 ,after proving it to be neither ,egyptian1 nor ,canaanitish1 nor ,aryan1 he refers its origin to the ,kenites2 supposing the ,hebrews to have borrowed the idea of ,jahveh from that desert tribe1 then to have forgotten it in ,canaan1 and subsequently to have made it their own again1 when the ,prophets had revived its use4 ,but whatever be the origin of the word ,jahveh as a technical term of theology1 the living and working idea of ,jahveh was first introduced into the circle of ,hebrew thought by the ,prophets4 ,for this reason ,i have not discussed ,jahveism till now2 which will be approved by all who see that we cannot speak of ideas as existing and living until they appear as factors in the history of human thought4 ,what means the existence of an idea 7as ,i would say to those who fancy the ,jahveh-idea to have been originally the property of a separate caste71 if it lives in the brain or the heart of a few individuals1 without exercising any force or influence on the world beyond8 ,could we say of electricity that it exists in nature1 if we did not see it interfere as a factor in the life of nature8 ,so the ,jahveistic idea must be held to commence its life only when it begins to act upon the spiritual life of the nation4 ,to have caused this is one of the most perennial leaves in the crown of glory won by the ,prophets4 ,i cannot imagine that any of my readers are ignorant of the nature of the labours of the ,hebrew ,prophets1 and therefore we need not here specially characterise their work4 ,by ,prophets we do not of course mean those soothsayers1 or as they were called ,seers 7chze1 re71 whom we meet with in the period preceding that of the ,prophets1 and also later#fie--to whom the young man could apply in confident expectation of finding lost property1 when his father had sent him to look for his lost asses2 nor do we mean those wonder-workers whose occupation was to suspend and interrupt the regular order of nature for special purposes and for a certain time2 nor those who1 before the priesthood had become a closed institution1 occasionally attended to the sacrifices offered to ,elhm4 ,we mean those men who1 when the people had exhausted all the inspiration which they could derive from the idea of ,elhm1 came forward as new representatives of the idealism1 the inspiration and the waning conception of nationality1 which they now announced in a still higher degree1 and as preachers of the ideal in a nation in which #8from the sole of the foot up to the head there was no soundness1 but wounds1 and stripes1 and raw sores1 which were not pressed out nor bound up nor softened with ointment1' whose #8princes'--themselves #8rulers of ,sodom' over a #8people of ,gomorrah'--#8were dissolute1 partners of thieves1 all loving bribes and running after rewards1 who judged not the orphan nor let the cause of widows come unto them2' #8who built up ,zion with blood and ,jerusalem with iniquity1' in which #8the heads judged for bribes1 and the priests taught for hire1 and the prophets practised magic for silver1' and which #8drew down guilt with cords of lies and sin as with the rope of a cart2' and who #8called evil good and good evil1 made darkness light and light darkness1 made the bitter sweet and the sweet bitter' 7,is4 ,i4 #f1 #aj1 #bc1 ,mic4 ,,iii4 #aj1 #aa1 ,is4 ,v4 #ah1 #bj74 ,into such a depth of immorality and carelessness was the ,hebrew nation plunged by an institution which had grown up out of the ,hierarchy4 ,centralisation of worship1 formality1 lip-service and a so-called piety quite mechanical1 which are incapable of promoting either high idealism or morality of thought1 and indeed discourage both1 but which are well able to kill the most elevated soul1 to cover the warmest temperament with a thick crust of ice1 and to blunt the noblest heart1--these grew up at the bidding and after the pattern of the priests4 ,a rude service of sacrifices1 which brought down the idea of ,god more and more to the level of the senses1 converted ,mount ,zion into a shambles1 while the shameless practices of sacerdotal speculators turned the central sanctuary of ,jerusalem1 in the words of ,isaiah1 the noblest hater of that corrupt caste1 into a #8den of robbers4' ,the ,prophets knew their enemies1 and perceived the roots of all the prevailing evil which gave life to the flourishing tree of immorality4 ,they determined to dig up the tree and to clear away its roots4 ,in the very front row stood the priesthood and the bloody service1 upon which they turned with all the inextinguishable fanaticism of their noble passion4 ,but the matter could not end here4 ,the national enthusiasm which had been aroused in an earlier period1 proved to be but a transient straw-fire2 no noble element of that enthusiasm remained to help a new elevation of sentiment4 ,for1 independently of the corruptions of the priesthood1 the political tendencies of the nation were such as to aid in slowly but surely undermining the idea of nationality4 ,a tiny people1 jammed in between great powers on the north and south1 and itself nourishing vain desires of political power far above its capabilities and sufficient to wear it out1 torn asunder as it was by internal dissensions1--such a people was constantly driven to seek alliance with those great powers4 ,but these alliances soon put out the national fire which had blazed up for a short time in the temper of the people4 ,the consciousness of being thrown on the protection of strangers kills the feeling of independent individuality4 ,moreover foreign1 and especially ,canaanitish1 manners1 were more and more naturalised at the courts of ,hebrew kings2 the kings connected themselves by marriage with adjacent courts1 and the ladies obtained increased liberty for foreign habits in the midst of the ,hebrews4 ,the ,canaanitish worships were again received in the capital1 and soon obliterated whatever power and stimulus the ,hebraised idea of ,elhm still possessed in the direction of national elevation4 ,it is an historical fact that the decline of nations begins when1 instead of developing the elements and powers inherent in themselves1 they carelessly throw up their own characteristics and yield themselves up without resistance to possibly more refined but foreign influences4 ,what ,cicero's father said of the ,hellenised ,romans is very instructive on this point1 that the better a ,roman knew ,greek the less he was worth4#fif ,the ,prophets were not philosophers of culture2 they did not start from great principles abstracted from the study of experience1 in pondering the course of the world2 but conviction and enthusiasm lived in them4 ,they were bad politicians1 but unsurpassable representatives of the idea of ,nationality4 ,an experienced statesman of that age would have refrained from censuring the alliance with foreign powers2 that was the only chance left to the ,hebrew nation of adding a few hours of existence to those already counted4 ,but the ,prophets lash this political experiment at every step1 and say that only the moral awakening of the nation can bring about a possibility of saving its political existence4 #8,ephraim delights in wind and pursues east-wind1 while he daily perpetrates more lies and oppression1 and they make covenant with ,assyria1 and oil is carried to ,egypt1' says ,hosea 7,,xii4 #b #b71 to the ,northern kingdom4 ,at the very last hour ,jeremiah 7,,ii4 #ah7 treats fraternisation with the foreigners as equivalent to abandoning ,jahveh3 #8,what hast thou to do with the road to ,egypt to drink of the water of the ,shchr ,nile8 and what hast thou to do with the road to ,assyria to drink of the water of the ,river ,euphrates8' ,they were the purest and most ideal representatives of national individuality and independence4 ,we are here especially interested in one point relating to the history of ,religion--the ,prophets' mode of dealing with the two ,divine names ,elhm and ,jahveh4 #b4 ,it is well known that the ,hebrew idea of ,god finds expression in the canonical ,biblical literature in two distinct ways3 in the direction of ,elhm and in that of ,jahveh4 ,each grasps the idea of ,god1 and tries to use it for the instruction of the people1 in its peculiar fashion4 ,the ,jahveistic school1 which is identical with ,prophetism1 is opposed to the ,elohistic1 and avoids the employment of ,elhm as a proper name of ,god2 it treats ,elhm as merely a universal generic name for ,deity1 but not as the proper name of the ,one ,god4 ,we can easily convince ourselves of this by contemplating the collections of speeches of the ,prophets1 and the fundamental part of ,deuteronomy1 which stands nearer to the prophetic spirit than any other part of the ,pentateuch4 ,here we have prevailingly only #8,jehovah my 7thy1 our1 ,israel's7 ,elhm1' but these expressions are often abandoned for the simple h-,elhm1 which is regarded as a proper name completely covering the name ,jahveh4#fig ,but in prophetical books in which the ,elohistic appellations occur here and there as proper names of the ,deity1 these cannot from their rare occurrence serve as a counterpoise to the extensive use of the name ,jahveh4 ,their use can only be regarded as a reference to the past1 in presence of the then modern view of the ,deity4 ,the immediate question1 which still remains open after the results gained by the critical school1 in establishing the mutual relation of the two ,divine names1 may be formulated thus3 ,whence comes it and what is the reason that the ,prophets occupy a position of repulsion towards the theological validity of the idea of ,elhm8 ,this antipathy is easily explicable and quite natural from the religious and national position of the ,prophets4 ,we have already seen that the idea of ,elhm1 if not actually borrowed1 was at least confirmed by outside influences1 and that the ,hebrews held it in common with the ,canaanites4 ,and the consequences of its not having grown up in ,hebrew soil were exhibited in its further development1 when1 after the idea of nationality had spent its short-lived flames1 the ,hebraised idea of ,god1 allied with the equally borrowed sacerdotal institution1 generated those immoral religious practices which are characteristic of the ,canaanitish decadence4 ,moreover1 the fact that this theological conception was originally borrowed and not native1 was the very thing calculated to make it offensive to the ,prophets2 and their antipathy to it caused them to tie their religious view of the world1 their moral convictions1 nay their whole ,god-loving soul1 to a name which had hitherto remained in the background1 but which was now brought forward by their genius to the front rank1 and became the bearer of all that they thought and felt concerning ,god4 ,in this sense1 the ,prophets were creators of ,jahveism4 ,the word ,jahveh had previously been a meaningless breath1 a flatus oris1 as ,i said before4 ,now first it became an active power1 as the expression of opposition to the existing evil1 the centre of the new aspiration preached by the ,prophets4 ,consequently1 it is not the word and its meaning that have the chief import here1 but the civilising power associated with the word1 its force working on minds4 ,this is not the only instance in which a watchword has had an influence far beyond that which was natural to it as a mere word2 so that its original signification has become a matter of indifference4 ,in the word ,jahveh the ,national feature is the essential one4 #c4 ,in connexion with this we must not forget that the ,prophets have a very living conception of a ,creator when they speak of ,jahveh1 and that most of the words existing in ,hebrew for the idea of ,creating1 are employed most frequently by the ,prophets and especially by the ,babylonian ,isaiah4 ,great stress is laid on the #8,creation of ,israel4' ,jahveh is the ,creator of the ,hebrew people4 ,it is also undeniable that the ,prophets occupied themselves with finding a metaphysical definition of the idea of ,jahveh1 and discovered a precisely expressed definition in the well-known ,ehye asher ehye1 #8,i am he who ,i am4' ,they lay stress on the unchangeableness of ,jahveh3 he is eternally unchangeable4 ,but it must1 on the other hand1 be borne in mind that the recognition of ,jahveh cannot have started from this sort of metaphysical speculation1 which does not1 on this or on any other subject1 naturally spring up till a later stage of development of the original idea4 ,the metaphysical foundation of the idea of ,jahveh must be subject to this rule1 and therefore the sentence ,ehye asher ehye #8,i am who ,i am1' must be assigned to a later time1 when ,jahveism was already fully formed4 ,thus then it is the ,prophet ,malachi1 living late after the ,captivity1 who expresses the sense of this formula in more ordinary language by the words #8,for ,i ,jahveh change not' 7,,iii4 #f74 ,another expression of the same idea is used frequently by the ,babylonian ,prophet--the words an h #8,i am ,he1' where the pronoun h does not refer back to anything mentioned before 7,is4 ,,xliii4 #aj1 ,,xlvi4 #d1 ,,xlviii4 #ab74 ,the second of these passages especially shows that the formula an h expresses most emphatically the eternal unchangeableness of ,jahveh3 ,hearken unto me1 ,o house of ,jacob1 ,and all the remnant of the house of ,israel1 ,ye that are carried from the belly1 ,or lifted up from the womb1 ,even to old age ,i am ,he4 ,and so the last passage has #8,i am ,he1 ,i am the first1 ,i am the last4' ,we have this an h in a fuller form in the ,song of ,moses 7,deut4 ,,xxxii4 #ci71 as an an h1 and the former is probably an abbreviation of the latter4 ,but the latter is itself grammatically only a mode of expressing by pronouns what ,ehye asher ehye expresses by verbs4#fih ,now the ,song of ,moses and the ,blessing of ,moses1 which is connected with it1 are easily proved by an examination of their contents to move in much the same prophetical circle of ideas1 except indeed that these ideas are already mingled with views which prevailed later1 at the time of the compromise4 ,to mention a few examples3 the assertion that ,jahveh made and established ,israel 7vv4 #f1 #ae71 but that ,israel forgot him that made him 7v4 #ah71 the exhortation to the people to remember the days of old 7v4 #g71 and the reference to the ,tr appointed by ,moses 7,,xxxiii4 #d71 vividly recall the speeches of the second ,isaiah 7,,xliv4 #b1 ,,li4 #ac1 ,,xlvi4 #i etc47 and ,malachi 7,,iii4 #bb ,,iv4 #d74 ,besides these passages1 ,deut4 ,,xxxii4 #b may be compared with ,is4 ,,lv4 #aj and ,job ,,xxix4 #bb et seq42 v4 #af 7where the idols are called zrm #8strangers'7 with ,jer4 ,,ii4 #be1 ,,iii4 #ac1 ,is4 ,,xliii4 #ab2 v4 #ag with ,jer4 ,,xxiii4 #bc 7in both which the strange gods are called #8gods from near'74 ,if the reading sh dth in the ,blessing of ,moses v4 #b is correct1 the word dth points to a society accessible to ,persian words2 and the passage in ,deut4 ,,xxxii4 #ci1 where the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead is mentioned as a recognised article of faith1#fii confirms this impression4 ,thus also the an an h#gjj which occurs in this passage1 compared with an h which is used by the second ,isaiah1 is a proof that metaphysical speculation on the idea of ,jahveh arose only in the latest period of the development of ,prophetism4 #d4 ,in the time of the earlier ,prophets1 however1 the chief weight of the ,jahveistic confession was given to national and moral ideas4 ,the assertion which it is usual to insist upon1 that ,jahveh was the ,national ,god of the ,hebrews1 is therefore true in a certain degree4 ,it is not true that the ,prophets could conceive as the ,familiar spirit of a handful of ,hebrews that infinite ,idea towards which their deepest desire and love was directed1 which was to them the impersonation of that pure holiness which is the end of the ,prophets' ethics1 and which in their eyes represents the infinite sublimity after which the prophetic spirit nobly strove4 ,but it is true that in the view of the ,prophets1 the ,hebrews were the first to understand ,jahveh1 and that the extension of this understanding over all mankind is the ideal of ,prophetism as it affects the world's history4 ,if any one questions this cosmopolitan side of the ,jahveistic theology1 he will probably be cured of his error by impartially reading the speeches of the ,prophets of all the various phases of prophecy2 e4g4 for the earlier time ,is4 ,,ii4 #b-d1 words which are almost literally repeated by ,micah ,,iv--a proof how deeply rooted in the mind of the ,prophets was the conviction there expressed1--and for a later age1 ,is4 ,,lxvi4 #ah1 #ai4 ,this great ,prophet of the ,captivity addresses mankind in general3 #8,hearken to me1 ye islands1 and attend1 ye nations from afar' 7,is4 ,,xlix4 #a72 and another ,prophet of ,israel in ,babylonia1 who speaks of a common festival of all mankind1 knows of no ,canaanites in the house of ,jahveh 7,zech4 ,,xiv4 #af1 #ag74 ,this cosmopolitan character of ,jahveism is most precisely defined by a somewhat earlier ,prophet1 ,zephaniah 7,,iii4 #i1 #aj74 ,no doubt it is true that in recognition of ,jahveh the ,prophets regard the ,hebrew nation as the centre1 and ,mount ,zion as the source of the streams of water which is henceforth to fill the whole earth #8as water covers the bed of the sea' 7,is4 ,,xi4 #i72 and also that they treat ,jahveh's love of mankind as if the lion's share of it would accrue to his own people4 ,but on the other side it is equally true that1 after the extension of the idea of ,jahveh over the world1 which the ,prophets lay down as the ultimate and highest aim of spiritual effort1 the prophetical view regards all nations of the earth1 even ,egypt and ,assyria1 as equal before ,jahveh1 the common ,god of them all4 #8,in that day shall ,israel be third in alliance with ,egypt and ,assyria1 a blessing in the middle of the earth1 whom ,jahveh of hosts has blessed1 saying ,blessed be my people ,egypt1 and the work of my hands ,assyria1 and mine inheritance ,israel' 7,is4 ,,xix4 #bd1 #be74 ,it is1 therefore1 especially in reference to the then present time1 at which ideals were only beginning to be framed by this free outlook to the future1 that the distinctively ,national character of the idea of ,jahveh is emphasised4 ,this is very natural1 since it was by national impulses that the ,prophets were roused into enthusiasm for ,jahveh2 for that enthusiasm1 as ,i have previously urged1 was produced by an intense antipathy to the foreign elements which confronted them chiefly in the idea of ,elhm1 common to ,israel and ,canaan1 and including all the abominations of the ,canaanitish worship1 and all the laxity of manners introduced from foreign parts into the higher ranks of society4 ,with the ,canaanites dissolute forms of worship were results naturally developed out of the previous history of their religion1 and could be traced backwards to their origin in ,mythology4 ,being such1 they could not have so ruinous an influence on morals and character as among the ,hebrews1 who seized on the immorality as such1 without having had any share in the previous historical stages which led to it4 ,if for unbelief we substitute absence of historical preparation1 the correct observation made by ,constant on ,roman ,polytheism is applicable to this case also3 that indecent rites may be practised by a religious nation without detriment to purity of heart2 but if unbelief takes hold of the nation1 such rites are the cause and the pretext for the most revolting corruption4#gja ,the idea of ,jahveh1 therefore1 according to the intention of the ,prophets1 was to stimulate a return to ,national enthusiasm2 and the zeal against the spreading vice and immorality is directed more against the foreign character of the vice than against the immorality itself4 #8,o house of ,jacob1' says ,isaiah 7,,ii4 #e-g71 in close contact with the speech in which he anticipates the moral redemption of mankind through beating their swords into scythes and their spears into ploughshares1 #8come ye6 we will walk in the light of ,jahveh4 ,for thou hast forsaken thine own people1 ,o house of ,jacob1 because they 7i4e4 the members of that house7 are full of divination#gjb and soothsayers1 like the ,philistines1 and join hands 7i4e4 contract friendship7 with the children of strangers1 and their land was filled with silver and gold1 and there was no end of their treasures1 and their land was filled with horses and there was no end of their chariots4' ,in these words we see unequivocally how the #8light of ,jahveh' is contrasted with foreign customs4 ,it ought to be observed that in ,deuteronomy1 the book which stands nearer than any other part of the ,pentateuch to the ,prophets' views on the world and religion1 the collecting of much silver and gold and horses#gjc is censured 7,,xvii4 #af sq471 in fear lest the people should be denationalised thereby and inclined towards the #8foreign1' which in ,deuteronomy always means ,egypt4 ,many scholars hold the utterly incorrect view that the idea of ,jahveh was1 even from the ,egyptian age before the ,exodus1 the property of a few lites1 either ,levitical priests or ,prophets2 a sort of esoteric religion1 into which no uninitiated could pry1 and from which ,prophetism grew up4 ,if this view were as correct as it is impossible1 considering the circumstances of the development of ,hebrew religion1 we should still have to consider the first appearance of the idea of ,jahveh quite independently of any such secret society4 ,and it must also be borne in mind that ,egypt was to the ,hebrews a #8,house of slaves' 7bth abhdm71 as the ,bible says 7,ex4 ,,xiii4 #c etc471 not a ,theological ,college4 ,in ,egypt they appropriated very few religious ideas4 ,were it otherwise1 we should assuredly not have to wait till after the ,babylonian ,captivity to find the belief in immortality among them4 ,it is also a special characteristic of the ,prophetic ,jahveism1 that it insists that this idea was destined to be universally recognised in the ,hebrew nation itself2 and this contributes to the sublimity of the prophetic conception4 ,in contrast to the secret society cautiously locking up its mystic knowledge1 how grand looks a free corporation1 whose hopes are concentrated on the idea that at that time #8,i ,jahveh will pour out my spirit upon all flesh1 and your sons and daughters will prophesy1 and upon your slaves and handmaids ,i will pour out my spirit in those days2' #8and all thy sons will be disciples of ,jahveh2' #8and they shall all know me1 from the least to the greatest of them1' etc4 7,joel ,,iii4 #a sq4 #bh sq41 ,is4 ,,liv4 #ac1 ,jer4 ,,xxxi4 #cd74 ,it is almost self-evident that to the national enthusiasm of the ,prophets the political difference between the ,northern and the ,southern ,hebrews scarcely exists4 ,the ,prophets extended their influence over the ,north as well as over the ,south2 and ,hosea especially addresses his exhortation to both kingdoms1 mentioning ,judah in the first division of his verses constructed in parallelism1 and ,ephraim in the second4 ,the ,prophets even announce the reunion of the two sections of the ,hebrew state4#gjd ,the ,northern kingdom was naturally much farther removed from the religious ideas of the ,prophets than the ,southern4 ,the hierarchy of ,jerusalem1 which grew out of a sort of theocratic system1 might at least exhibit some appreciation of the preaching of ,jahveism2 some trace of monotheistic ,elohism still existed there1 but was quite foreign to the ,north4 ,the persecution of the ,prophets was accordingly much more violent and indiscriminate in the ,ephraimite country than in the ,south1 where however it was not absent4 ,the story of the ,prophet ,elijah 7lyh #8,my ,god is ,jahveh'71 as given in the ,book of ,kings1 is intended to depict the furious persecution of the preachers of ,jahveh4 ,elijah is a typical ,jahveist1 placed by the prophetical writer who conceived him at a time before true ,prophetism was in existence among the ,hebrews4 ,as the ,prophet painted the character of the #8,servant of ,jahveh' 7ebhed ,yahve7 for the future1 as a type of human perfection1 so ,elijah serves for a similar type in the past4 ,the representatives of ,jahveism succeeded in making the person of ,elijah so popular as to attract to himself various remnants of ancient myths1 as we saw in a previous chapter4 ,but at bottom ,elijah is nothing but a type of the persecutions to which ,jahveism was exposed in the ,northern kingdom on the part of the rulers and priests4 ,the prophetical historians1 fond as they are of painting historical personages of the ,hebrew nation in colours borrowed from the ideal of ,jahveism1 are also no less addicted to drawing up descriptions of lives which are typical of ,prophetism4 ,such a life is that of the prophet ,samuel1 who is regarded as founder of the ,schools of the ,prophets1 and consequently of ,prophetism itself4 ,the portraiture of his character1 as opponent of an untheocratic monarchy1 of the king who showed himself deficient in national feeling by sparing the ,amalekite chief1 and of a corrupt priesthood1 is only a program of ,hebrew ,prophetism1 clothed in a biographical dress and expressing the ,prophets' sentiments in speeches4 ,when the inevitable catastrophe came1 and the ,northern kingdom fell first1 and the subsequent overthrow of the ,southern kingdom put an end to all ,hebrew independence1 the ,jahveists1 the most earnest representatives of the idea of ,hebrew nationality1 accompanied the people into captivity4 ,then first began the time when the ,jahveistic ideas bloomed most freely and were taken up with greatest enthusiasm4 ,in the ,captivity prophetic thoughts soared to their highest point in the speeches of that immortal prophet whose name is unknown1 the so-called ,second ,isaiah4 ,but we find there also representatives of the sacerdotal formal religion--not1 indeed1 of the coarse sacerdotalism of ,jerusalem1 for that was impossible without the central temple1 bloody offerings1 and political independence--but of a certain direction of religious thought4 ,for1 at the very time when idealistic ,jahveism had worked itself up to the doctrine of the #8historical vocation of the people1' these were exciting the people's hopes by visions1 speaking of the architectural proportions of the new temple that was to be built1 and drawing up arrangements for priests and sacrifices4 ,yet even this school was considerably penetrated by ,jahveism2 it tacitly appropriated the positive teaching of the ,prophets1 without1 however1 entirely giving up the positive part of the sacerdotal system4 ,thus1 far from the ,temple of ,jerusalem1 on the banks of the ,chaboras1 a compromise was effected between the ,prophetic and the ,sacerdotal schools4 ,this held sway over the hearts of the ,hebrews in the ,captivity1 and formed the mental and religious basis of the ,hebrew commonwealth at its restoration4 ,it finds its first expression in the ,book of ,ezekiel1 which announces itself1 and probably correctly1 as produced in the ,captivity4#gje ,the first beginnings of this compromise appeared before the destruction of the ,kingdom of ,judah1 under a king who had equal respect for ,priests and ,prophets1 and allowed himself to be influenced in religious matters by both equally4 ,the mark of this tendency to sink all differences between ,sacerdotalism and ,prophetism is impressed on the ,book of ,deuteronomy1 which appeared at that time4 ,this cannot be called a defeat of the prophetical tendencies4 ,it is not the destiny of ideals to be realised in their native form and natural regardlessness of social and physical obstacles2 they are victorious if they succeed in forcing an entrance into their former opponents' sphere of view1 and modifying that in their own way4 ,now from the nature of the case1 where a compromise is made1 especially a compromise like the one before us1 not settled and concluded by regular negotiation1 but consisting of an unconsciously performed balancing of opposing energies1 such a settlement is very fluctuating1 and leaves open the possibility of a gradual leaning towards one or the other of the two opposite principles4 ,we discover this fluctuation in the self-effected compromise when we contemplate two books of the ,pentateuch1 between the composition of which lies the whole catastrophe of the ,captivity1 the first throes and afterpains of which urged the completion of the compromise by bringing home the necessity of the cooperation of all the spiritual factors of human life3 ,leviticus and ,deuteronomy4 ,both these books combine together sacerdotal worship and ,jahveism2 neither of them gives a direct negative to either of these originally contrary factors4 ,in both books we find both elements represented1 only with the difference that ,leviticus sounds an eminently sacerdotal1 and ,deuteronomy a prevailing prophetic and ,jahveistic tone4 ,both stand on the level of ,jahveism1 without however disdaining sacerdotal worship and sacrifice4 ,in the prophetical ,books of ,haggai1 ,zechariah1 and ,malachi1 and in the postexilian interpolations occurring in that of the ,babylonian ,isaiah1 the various stages of the compromise may also be studied4 ,observe1 for instance1 the endeavour of ,haggai 7,,ii4 #aa-ae7 to employ the sacerdotal ,law 7tr7 in a ,jahveistic sense by a moral application2 ,zechariah's address to the ,high ,priest 7,,iii4 #c-g71 in which he speaks of a purification of the restored priesthood2 and especially the exhortation to the priests contained in the ,book of ,malachi1 which enable us to form a picture of a priesthood formed on ,jahveistic principles as conceived by the ,prophet of the ,restoration1 in contrast to the priesthood of the age before the ,captivity1 which was the object of the passionate hatred of the ,prophets4 #e4 ,we have lingered over the general description of the ,jahveism of the ,prophets longer than the symmetry of these investigations would justify4 ,there is now something to be said on the relation of ,jahveism to the ,mythology of the ,hebrews4 ,it is to be observed on this subject that pure ,jahveism1 as preached by those ,prophets who first formulated that ideal1 had a long struggle with the conservative leanings of the people and their rulers1 and that in the period before the ,captivity it could not become a religious element fitted to penetrate all strata of society4 ,jahveism could therefore exercise but little influence on the narration of myths1 i4e4 on the mode in which myths were propagated in the mouth of the people2 for only a new conception which penetrates the whole people can possibly determine and give a direction to the transformation of a myth4 ,moreover1 ,mythology was not a subject with which the ,prophets felt much sympathy4 ,within the frame of the ,puritanical ,monotheism which they taught there was no suitable place for myths4 ,hence1 also1 the ,prophets take so little notice of the myths of their nation 7a very little is brought in by ,hosea1 chap4 ,,xii472 their frequent allusions to the story of the destruction of ,sodom and ,amr 7,gomorrah71 are accounted for by the obvious parallel which they drew between those ancient cities1 proverbial for their vice1 and ,jerusalem and ,shmern 7,samaria71 together with the respective fate of each4 ,the silence of the ,prophets is no proof1 although many wish to use it as such1 that in their times the stories of the ,patriarchs were not yet in existence2 sufficient answer is afforded by the few cases in which reference is made to those stories4 ,their silence is much rather a proof of the power which the idea of ,jahveh exerted over their souls1 so filling them1 that by its side the forms of ,patriarchs and ,heroes shrivel into insignificant persons1 and the narrated events are so dwarfed that no religious elevation can be derived from them4 ,this also explains the tone of irony assumed by the ,prophet when he has occasion to allude to ,patriarchs and their stories4 ,thus1 for example1 ,hosea in reference to ,jacob1 whom he describes as deceiving his brother1 as fighting against ,god1 as subservient to women 7,,xii4 #d1 #e1 #ac #c1 #d1 #ab71 and the ,babylonian ,isaiah in reference to ,abraham1 whose smallness in comparison with ,jahveh he expresses 7,,lxiii4 #af74 ,i pointed out above 7pp4 #bbi1 #bcj71 that this apparent degradation of ,abraham is only directed against the remembrance of the ,patriarch's divinity1 and that in another passage 7,,li4 #a sq47 ,abraham and ,sarah are referred to as the ancestors of the ,hebrew nation4 ,to keep alive the consciousness of derivation from special ancestors was obviously not out of keeping with the ,national tendency of ,jahveism1 but rather an essential means of promoting it4 ,in this sense the ,babylonian ,prophet's address should be understood3 #8,hearken to me1 ye that follow after righteousness and seek ,jahveh6 ,look to the ,rock1 whence ye were hewn1 and to the ,well-hole1 from which ye were dug3 look to ,abraham your father1 and to ,sarah that bore you6' 7,is4 ,,li4 #a sq47 ,in the same sense ,malachi also refers to the ,patriarchal age1 saying1 #8,is not ,esau ,jacob's brother8 and ,i love ,jacob1 and ,i have hated ,esau' 7,i4 #b sq474 ,therefore1 also1 there are special forms by which the ,prophets address the nation1 such as #8,house of ,jacob1' which is excessively frequent1 and #8,house of ,isaac' 7,amos ,,vii4 #af74 ,these forms were intended to remind them of their proper ancestry1 and to keep alive the consciousness of their national peculiarity1 and thus it came about that the names of ancestors were identified with the nation itself4 ,the words ,jacob and ,abraham are names of the ,hebrew people1 in ,micah ,,vii4 #bj and ,is4 ,,xxix4 #bb1 among the earlier representatives of ,prophetism3 #8,thus saith ,jahveh1 who redeemed ,abraham1 concerning the house of ,jacob2' #8,thou givest truth to ,jacob and favour to ,abraham1' i4e4 to the ,hebrew nation4 ,the prevailing idea1 therefore1 emphasised by the ,prophet1 is that of derivation from ancestors other than those of heathen nations4 ,the details of the ,patriarchal history are devoid of interest for him1 and personages without the character of ancestors still more so4 ,consequently even ,moses remains in the background4 ,not even ,hosea gives his name1 though he says1 #8,by a prophet ,jahveh brought ,israel up from ,egypt1 and by a prophet he was preserved' 7,,xii4 #ad #ac74 ,only in very few passages1 in one early prophet1 ,micah 7,,vi4 #d71gjf and one of the later period1 the ,babylonian ,isaiah 7,,lxiii4 #aa sq471 is the deliverance from ,egypt mentioned coupled with the name of ,moses4 ,to the ,exodus itself frequent reference is made1 and the story of it does admirable service to the view of the theocratical vocation of the nation4 ,but it is not till after the ,captivity that the ,legislator himself is brought into the foreground1 in consequence of the compromise between ,jahveism and the formal legality of the priesthood 7,mal4 ,,iii4 #bb ,,iv4 #d74gjf ,whatever of the truly mythical still lived in the memory of the people received from ,jahveism a complete monotheistic transformation4 ,jahveh is made the conqueror of the ,dragon of the ,storm and of the ,monsters of ,darkness 7see p4 #bg74 ,notice the numerous questions in the theodicy in the ,book of ,job1 which ,jahveh puts in opposition to the explanation of physical phenomena given by mythology3 #8,hath the rain a father1 or who begot the drops of dew8 ,out of whose womb came the ice1 and the hoar-frost of the sky1 who bore it8' 7,job ,,xxxviii4 #bh sq474 ,such are the questions asked by the ,jahveistic monotheist4 ,removed to this new sphere1 all the myths are at once beset with denials2 the monotheist's whole interpretation of nature and idea of causality lead to ,one only--to ,jahveh2 at this stage the myth is utterly overthrown4 ,but the fact that a nation which in its primeval age formed myths1 at a late period of its existence witnessed the growth of the direct negation of mythical ideas in its midst1 is no reason for treating the former existence of myths as questionable4#gjg ,but ,jahveism acknowledged the duty of reforming the subject-matter of legends1 whenever a religious practice condemned by the ,jahveists was supported by legendary authority4 ,such a practice was ,human ,sacrifice1 which found support and justification in the story of the sacrifice of ,isaac4 ,here1 therefore1 ,jahveism interfered1 in the manner which we had occasion to describe in the chapter on the method of investigating myths 7p4 #de74 ,in this passage1 even in the form in which we have it after the last revision1 the will of ,jahveh was manifestly introduced into the second half with a polemical purpose to oppose that of ,elhm who in the first half demanded the sacrifice4 ,but the case is quite different in what modern ,biblical critics call the ,jahveistic portions of the ,pentateuch4 ,as it is not the object of this book to write the history of the composition of the ,biblical ,literature1 ,i cannot enter into an exposition of my views on the redaction to writing and piecing together of those literary fragments which compose the ,pentateuch1 including a full justification of those views4 ,i will only briefly remark1 that all the legendary literature which we now have in the ,pentateuch is already more or less penetrated by ,jahveism1 and that only in the legal portion are a few remnants of strictly ,elohistic legislation preserved4 ,the literary form given to the mass of stories is itself the result of the compromise between the older and the ,jahveistic religious tendency4 ,just as there are two books of law1 ,deuteronomy and ,leviticus 7to the latter of which a few passages of law in ,exodus and ,numbers must be added71 both of which represent the compromise between the ,sacerdotal and the ,prophetical tendencies1 the sacerdotal view giving the fundamental tone to the one1 and the prophetical to the other1 so is it also with the mass of stories4 ,even what are called ,elohistic documents are strictly speaking ,jahveistic in character1 only that the name ,elhm is admitted to be appropriate to the ancient ,patriarchal age1 and ,jahveism is introduced as an historical event1 dating from ,moses4 ,in opposition to this1 another work represents the more thorough-going ,jahveism4 ,now when the ,jahveistic school came to terms with the popular religious views1 and these were penetrated by the fundamental truths taught by the ,prophets1 the ,jahveists did not disdain to get hold of the legendary matter and work it up according to their own principles4 ,if the ,patriarchs were really models of religious life1 they must also have been strict ,jahveists2 and1 therefore1 these so-called ,jahveistic documents describe the ,patriarchs as living on completely ,jahveistic ground1 ,eve1 ,lemech1 and ,noah as calling the ,deity ,jahveh1 and ,cain and ,abel as offering sacrifices to ,jahveh4 ,as early as the time of ,seth commences the general adoration of ,jahveh4 ,the historic ,israel is of course to the ,jahveistic writers more than to any others a ehal ,yahve1 adath ,yahve1 #8congregation1 community of ,jahveh4' ,with this principle accords all else that the exegetical school has brought together to characterise the ,jahveistic narrator4#gjh ,moreover1 in the ,jahveistic writings more than in any others particular attention is paid to what is popular and national2#gji and1 as would be expected from the strictly national character of ,jahveism1 they are distinguished by a greater and more eager zeal4 ,i will pick out and draw attention to some terms belonging to the peculiar circle of ideas of the ,prophets1 in order to indicate the closer mutual relationship of the so-called ,jahveistic documents3 viz4 debhar ,yahve #8,word of ,jahveh1' and nem ,yahve #8speech of ,jahveh4'#gaj ,to anyone acquainted with the ,prophetic literature it is needless to dwell on the specifically prophetic character of these two technical expressions4 ,i call them technical expressions with special reference to debhar ,yahve4 ,for dbhr was used by the ,prophets1 especially those of the later times1 of the speech which they proclaimed in the name of ,jahveh 7and in direct polemical opposition to another technical expression1 mass1 ,jer4 ,,xxiii4 #cc sq41 which nevertheless occurs again in later ,prophets71 just as the sacerdotal school which had entered on good terms with ,jahveism1 when they laid stress on accordance with the ,law1 called instruction in the ,law tr4 ,tr and ,dbhr bear the same relation to one another as ,khn and ,nbh 7,priest and ,prophet74 ,jeremiah 7,,xviii4 #ah7 says1 #8,they said1 ,come1 we will devise devices against ,jeremiah2 for the ,tr will not be lost from the ,priest1 counsel from the wise1 the ,dbhr 7word7 from the ,prophet3 come1 we will wound him on the tongue1 and not attend to any of his words 7debhrv74' ,the same opposition of ,tr and ,dbhr is found also in the words of a prophet of the ,restoration1 ,zechariah ,,vii4 #ab3 #8,they made their heart adamant1 lest they should hear the ,tr and the ,debhrm which ,jahveh of ,hosts sent with his spirit by the agency of the former prophets4'#gaa ,how deeply the prophetic spirit after this compromise penetrated all other schools is observable in the profounder piety which thenceforth characterises ,elohistic writings4 ,we see this1 for example1 in the ,elohistic ,psalms1 composed by religious singers not yet accustomed to the ,prophets' name ,jahveh1 but who now wrote to the glory and honour of ,elhm those sublime ,songs which to this day kindle the devotion of those who wish to raise their souls in prayer to ,god4 ,in them a spirit taught by the ,prophets has penetrated the representatives of ,elohism4 ,for as regards its outward manifestation in the choice of ,divine names1 ,elohism continues to exist even in the age of the ,captivity3 we meet with strictly ,elohistic narratives in the accounts of the ,creation and the ,deluge composed at ,babylon4 ,but we must refer to a comparatively late period the working-out of this tendency to a compromise1 in which the sacerdotal view had as much share as the prophetical--a tendency which joined together in a higher unity1 as ,teaching 7tr71 the ,statute 7chu7 and the ,prophetic word of ,jahveh 7dbhr74 ,consequently1 the writing down of the traditions conceived in this spirit must also be assigned to a much later age than is usually done4 ,however1 we cannot speak here of any exact number of years1 but only indicate in general terms periods of various classes of culture4 ,accurate dates can only be reached by more advanced historical knowledge on the domain of ,biblical ,antiquity4 ,perhaps this will be promoted by the constantly increasing certainty of the information to be gathered from the historical texts of the ,cuneiform ,inscriptions with reference to the ,history of ,civilisation4 ,but from the facts recognised in recent times it may with confidence be inferred that the literary activity of the ,hebrews belongs in large part to the epoch of the ,captivity4 ,it should also be mentioned in this connexion that ,knobel insists that the affairs of the interior of ,asia were well known to his ,jehovist4#gab ,such knowledge cannot be the result of the contact established by the invasion4 ,it demands closer and more friendly relations1 which would make it possible to learn such facts4 ,all this takes us into the epoch of the ,captivity4 ,that remarkable age enriched the ,hebrews' sphere of thought with many things1 to which we will give our attention in the following chapter4 ----- ,footnote #fhg3 ,with respect to the originality and the specifically ,hebrew character of the notion of ,jahveh1 ,i consider the most correct assertion yet made to be what ,ewald declared in reference to the alleged ,phenician ,divine name ,jah2 for when we examine the passages and the data on which ,movers' and ,bunsen's opposite view is based1 their apocryphal nature strikes us at the first glance4 ,this is especially true 7to mention one case only7 of the passage of ,lydus1 ,de mens4 ,,iv4 #ch4 #ad3 444 7,see ,bunsen1 ,egypt's ,place in ,universal ,history1 vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #aic74 ,as to the occurrence of the name ,jahveh in the ,assyrian theology there is not yet sufficient certainty4 ,eberhard ,schrader1 who refers to it1 imagines the name to be borrowed from the ,hebrew 7,die ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament1 p4 #d74 ,footnote #fhh3 ,to this may be added that the ,moabite ,stone speaks of the vessels of ,jahveh which king ,mesha carried off as plunder from the ,northern kingdom 7line #ah74 ,kuenen goes too far in finding a connexion between the worship of ,jahveh in the ,northern kingdom and the figures of bulls 7,religion of ,israel1 ,i4 #gd et seq47 ,footnote #fhi3 ,in the article ,ueber die nabathischen ,inschriften von ,petra1 ,hauran u4s4w41 in the ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahfj1 ,,xiv4 #daj4 ,footnote #fij3 ,this must not be placed in the same category with cases in which the insertion of can be explained phonologically 7,ewald1 ,ausfhrliches ,lehrb4 der hebr4 ,spr4 #aib4 c2 ,bttcher1 ,i4 #bhf74 ,see the ,agadic explanation of this1 which ,i have quoted in the ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahgb1 ,,xxvi4 #gfi4 ,footnote #fia3 ,the changes of name mentioned in #b ,kings ,,xxiii4 #cd1 ,,xxiv4 #ag1 should also be considered here4 ,it is not probable that these changes were ordered by the ,kings of ,egypt and of ,babylon2 for in that case the names received in exchange would have been quite different1 ,egyptian and ,babylonian respectively in form 7compare ,dan4 ,i4 #g74 ,the change of ,elym into ,yehym is especially noticeable1 for it is a direct alteration of an ,elohistic into a ,jahveistic name4 ,such a change is usually the simple consequence of a religious revolution1 as is seen in other cases4 ,thus1 e4g4 ,king ,amenophis ,,iv41 when he directs his fanaticism against the worship of ,ammon1 and places that of ,aten in the foreground1 changes his ,ammonic name into ,shu en ,aten1 #8the light of the solar orb4' ,see ,brugsch1 ,l'histoire d'gypte 7#ast ed471 ,i4 #aai1 and ,lenormant1 ,premires civilisations1 ,i4 #baa4 ,of ,moammed also we are told that he altered those portions of his followers' names which savoured of idolatry1 substituting monotheistic terms2 thus one ,abd ,amr had his name changed to ,abd al-,ramn 7,wstenfeld1 ,register zu den genealogischen ,tabellen1 p4 #bg74 ,the pious philologian al-,ama always calls the heathen ,arabic poet ,imru-l-eys1 ,imru ,allh1 changing the name of the heathen god eys into the monotheistic ,allh 7,guidi on ,ibn ,hishmi's ,commentary etc41 ,leipzig #ahgd1 p4 ,,xxi474 ,footnote #fib3 ,as ,pope in the ,universal ,prayer3 #8,father of all3 444 ,jehovah1 ,jove1 or ,lord6'--,,tr4 ,footnote #fic3 ,for instance ,strauss1 in the ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahfi1 ,,xxiii4 #dgc4 ,but not only ,jahveh1 but even ,elhm was brought from ,china4 ,the glory of publishing this eccentric idea to the world belongs to ,m4 ,adolphe ,sasset1 who wrote a whole book1 entitled ,dieu et son homonyme1 ,paris #ahfg1 to prove very thoroughly that the ,elhm of ,genesis was really--the ,emperor of ,china6 ,the book is #cag octavo pages long4 ,footnote #fid3 ,vergelijkende ,geschiedenis1 pp4 #eee1 #efa4 ,footnote #fie3 ,to this group belongs1 on ,arabian ground 7besides the well-known arrf and khin71 the muaddath #8the well-informed2' on whom see ,de ,sacy's ,commentary on arr1 #bnd ed41 p4 #fhf4 ,footnote #fif3 ,mommsen1 ,history of ,rome1 edition of #ahfh1 ,,iii4 #ddf et seq4 ,footnote #fig3 ,this is meant only as a general assertion1 and is the general impression left by the ,prophetical books4 ,there are1 in this as in other respects1 various grades perceptible between the different ,prophets4 ,the prophetical ,jahveistic idea is not so powerful and exclusive in all as in the ,babylonian ,isaiah4 ,footnote #fih3 #8,i am ,i' 7h being equivalent to the verb to be7',i am who ,i am4'--,,tr4 ,footnote #fii3 ,see ,kuenen1 ,religion of ,israel1 ,,iii4 #da4 ,footnote #gjj3 ,bunsen must be named as the writer who lays the most stress on the importance of this an an h1 bringing this formula into connexion with the metaphysical definition of the idea of ,jahveh 7,god in ,history1 ,i4 p4 #gd et seq474 ,lessing's #8,nur euer ,er heisst ,er' 7only your ,he is called ,he1 ,nathan der ,weise1 ,i4 #d7 is with justice adduced by ,bunsen4 ,footnote #gja3 ,b4 ,constant de ,rebecque1 ,du ,polythisme ,romain1 ,,ii4 #ajb1 quoted by ,buckle1 ,civilisation1 ,,ii4 #cjc4 ,footnote #gjb3 ,it is best to read with ,gesenius miesem for miedem4 ,footnote #gjc3 ,hosea ,,xiv4 #d #c must also be noted1 where the alliance with ,assyria is condemned in the words #8,asshur will not save us2 we shall not ride on horses4' ,see also ,zech4 ,,ix4 #aj1 ,x4 #e1 ,micah ,v4 #i #aj4 ,footnote #gjd3 ,see ,ezek4 ,,xxxvii4 #ae-bh4 ,footnote #gje3 ,see on the other side ,zunz in the ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahgc1 p4 #fhh1 thesis #ad et seq4 ,footnote #gjf3 ,these two passages 7,mic4 ,,vi4 #d and ,mal4 ,,iii4 #bb ,,iv4 #d7 appears not to have been noticed by ,michel ,nicolas in his ',etudes critiques sur la ,bible1' ,paris #ahfb1 ,i4 #cea1 where he says of ,moses1 #8,son nom ne se trouve que deux fois dans les crits des prophtes qui sont parvenus jusqu' nous--7,esaie1 ,,lxiii4 #ab2 ,jr4 ,,xv4 #a74' ,footnote #gjg3 ,i have given particular prominence to this on account of the opposite view taken by ,max ,mller in his ,chips1 ,i4 #cfa et seq4 ,footnote #gjh3 ,his fondness for humanising ,god by anthropomorphic expressions is the only feature1 the reasons for which are not patent4 ,footnote #gji3 ,see ,knobel1 ,die ,bcher ,numeri1 ,deuteronomium und ,josua1 pp4 #eci1 #eed4 ,footnote #gaj3 ,see ,knobel1 ,die ,bcher etc41 p4 #ebi4 ,footnote #gaa3 ,the relative clause is dependent upon ,debharm only4 ,footnote #gab3 ,see ,knobel1 ,die ,bcher etc41 p4 #egi4 ----- ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,hebrew ,,myth ,,in ,,the ,,babylonian ,,captivity4 ,if we limit the term ,myth to those old sentences which the ancients used in speaking of physical changes and phenomena1 then the period with which we have to do in this chapter lies outside the history of the ,hebrew ,myth2 for the latter ceased to have any further growth to chronicle as the influence of ,prophetism extended4 ,now1 in place of the free life1 organic development and gradual transformation of the myth1 we have it in a final and canonical literary form1 which we had to use as the only accessible source for discovering the original1 and as a handle to guide us in the analytical treatment of its development4 ,but it is not to be supposed that the parts of the ,old ,testament which we use as sources of knowledge on the ,hebrew ,myth contain the entire stock of the mythical treasures of the ,hebrews1 which these very fragments prove to have been very various4 ,it must rather be assumed that in the period separating the final elaboration of these myths from their ultimate reduction to writing1 a large portion of the stock was lost2 which seems particularly likely1 when it is considered how little importance the new religious school attached to this aspect of the ,hebrew mind4 ,some remnants of unwritten stories have been preserved in ,tradition2 but the ,tradition1 again1 has come down to us in a form which makes it difficult to discriminate the truly traditional from what belongs only to individuals 7see supra1 pp4 #cb1 #cc74 ,thus the history of the ,hebrew ,myth after the rise of the ,prophets can only be treated as a portion of the history of literature2 i4e4 it endeavours to discover the influences to which the stories were subjected during their reduction to writing4 ,and at the outset we excluded all such investigations from the circle of our present studies4 ,but after the cessation of ,hebrew independence the cycle of ,hebrew stories received from another quarter an addition1 which1 though neither touching the domain of ,mythology proper1 nor working with elements already furnished by the ,hebrew ,myth1 nevertheless is attached so closely to those stories which were formed by transformation of the old myths1 that it ought not to be passed over in silence when we are considering the cycle of ,hebrew stories4 ,we have already had occasion to observe the receptive tendency of the ,hebrew mind1 which was manifested in its contact with ,canaanitish civilisation4 ,at the first assault made by a mind superior to itself1 it willingly opened its gates1 and even when struggling for its national character and individuality it did not spurn the intellectual property of its antagonists4 ,in the formation of the thought of ,jahveh1 and especially of the central idea of that thought1 we discovered a productive genius for the first time aroused in the ,hebrew people4 ,but ,jahveism came upon a nation too far gone in political impotence and dissension to be kindled even by such a spark to spiritual action4 ,it found the nation at the very threshold of that political division which not long afterwards it had to lament beside the streams of ,babylon4 ,there the prophetic idea lived on1 and indeed reached its zenith in the ,babylonian ,isaiah4 ,but hieratic influences also continued to operate2 and the best that the people could effect was the compromise between ,jahveism and the sacerdotal tendencies represented by ,ezekiel4 ,this compromise found expression at the restoration of the ,state1 and gave its tone and colour to the larger portion of the ,biblical literature4 ,the receptive tendency of the ,hebrews manifested itself again prominently during the ,babylonian ,captivity4 ,here first they gained an opportunity of forming for themselves a complete and harmonious conception of the world4 ,the influence of ,canaanitish civilisation could not then be particularly powerful on the ,hebrews2 for that civilisation1 the highest point of which was attained by the ,phenicians1 was quite dwarfed by the mental activity exhibited in the monuments of the ,babylonian and ,assyrian ,empire1 which we are now able to admire in all their grandeur4 ,there the ,hebrews found more to receive than some few civil1 political1 and religious institutions4 ,the extensive and manifold literature which they found there could not but act on a receptive mind as a powerful stimulus2 for it is not to be imagined that the nation when dragged into captivity lived so long in the ,babylonian-,assyrian ,empire without gaining any knowledge of its intellectual treasures4 ,schrader's latest publications on ,assyrian poetry have enabled us to establish a striking similarity between both the course of ideas and the poetical form of a considerable portion of the ,old ,testament1 especially of the ,psalms1 and those of this newly-discovered ,assyrian poetry4#gac ,it would be a great mistake to account for this similarity by reference to a common ,semitic origin in primeval times2 for we can only resort to that in cases which do not go beyond the most primitive elements of intellectual life and ideas of the world1 or designations of things of the external world4 ,conceptions of a higher and more complicated kind1 as well as esthetic points1 can certainly not be carried off into the mists of a prehistoric age4 ,it is much better to keep to more real and tangible ground1 and to suppose those points of contact between ,hebrew and ,assyrian poetry which are revealed by ,schrader's1 ,lenormant's1 and ,george ,smith's publications1 to form part of the contributions made by the highly civilised ,babylonians and ,assyrians to the ,hebrews in the course of the important period of the ,captivity4 ,we see from this that the intellect of ,babylon and ,assyria exerted a more than passing influence on that of the ,hebrews1 not merely touching it1 but entering deep into it and leaving its own impress upon it4 ,the ,assyrian poetry of the kind just mentioned stands in the same relation to that of the ,hebrews as does the plain narrative of ,king ,mesha's ,inscription and of some ,phenician votive tablets to the narrative texts of the ,hebrews1 and as does the sacrificial ,tablet of ,marseilles to the ,hebrews' beginnings of a sacerdotal constitution4 ,the ,babylonian and ,assyrian influence is of course much more extensive1 pregnant and noteworthy4 ,the most prominent monument of this important influence is presented to us in the ,biblical story of the ,deluge4 ,it was attempted long ago to discover points of contact between the respective narratives of the universal flood by the guidance of ,berosus2 but the only possible result of these endeavours was to encourage the old theory of an idea common to all mankind1 which expressed itself in the story of a great general flood4 ,to be sure1 no obvious reason appears why this idea should force itself unbidden upon the reflexion of ancient humanity4 ,for1 with all that we know of the oldest subjects of the thought of mankind from the unquestioned results of ,comparative ,mythology1 we must ask why the idea of an all-destroying flood1 or even of a partial one confined to a limited territory1 should necessarily occupy the foreground in the oldest picture of the world8 ,in point of fact1 a great number of nations are found destitute of any story of a flood4 ,for instance1 the oldest ,greek mythology has no such idea2 it cannot be proved to have been known to the ,greeks earlier than the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,whether it is indigenous and of high antiquity in ,india has also been doubted by distinguished scholars4#gad ,on the other hand1 the ,cuneiform original of the ,assyrian story of the ,deluge1 discovered by ,george ,smith1 has so much similarity1 or we may rather say congruity1 with the form of the story preserved in the ,bible1 even with respect to the raven and the dove1#gae that we are entitled to express an opinion a priori on these two narratives1 to the effect that they point to a greater community of formation than would be the case if the community dated from the primeval ,semitic age4 ,for in that case1 supposing the elements of the ,deluge-story to have been so fully developed in the earliest ,semitic age as we find them in the ,bible and the ,cuneiform ,inscriptions1 we must find something similar in all other ,semitic nations also4 ,it would be almost unaccountable why nothing can be traced among the ,phenicians that could be placed side by side with this ,deluge-story1 and would be the more extraordinary if the conception of such a story took place in the age when the ,north-,semitic tribes were still living together4 ,the conclusion is accordingly almost irresistible1 that the ,hebrews borrowed this whole story of the ,deluge from the ,babylonians1 and propagated it in a form resembling the ,babylonian original1 even in its details and mode of expression4 ,moreover1 ,babylon is the district most of all suited to the working-out of a story of ,deluge2 for it is certain from ,von ,bohlen's and ,tuch's demonstrations1 that such fully developed stories of floods can only occur in nations which have in their territory rivers liable to great overflows4 ,consequently the region of the great twin streams of ,mesopotamia is the most likely cradle for an elaborate ,deluge story4#gaf ,a4,h4 ,sayce1 one of the most eminent ,english ,assyriologists1 in the ,theological ,review of ,july #ahgc1 propounds the view that the ,biblical account of the ,deluge consists of two narratives3 the older being ,elohistic and based on a ,hebrew ,deluge-story1 the other being placed by its side by a ,jahveistic narrator in the ,babylonian ,captivity1 and being identical with the ,babylonian story preserved in the document consulted by ,george ,smith4#gag ,now1 independently of the doubt as to the existence of an exclusively ,hebrew ,deluge-story1 and of the fact that identity with the ,babylonian stories has been proved of the ,elohistic account also1#gah even ,sayce's conception of the matter quite suffices to establish the view that the ,hebrews in ,babylonia at least amplified1 if they did not actually construct1 the ,biblical story of the ,deluge4 ,it cannot be true1 as ,max ,duncker#gai lately wrote1 #8that these stories present to us an ancient and common possession of the ,semitic tribes of the ,euphrates and ,tigris country4' ,we cannot assume that in those primeval1 prehistoric times when the ,semitic tribes1 or at least the ,northern group of that race1 lived all together before the separation1 it matters not where1 they formed in common stories which presuppose a high and advanced view of the world1 like the ,cosmogonies and the story of the ,deluge connected therewith4 ,at that earliest stage of human life1 man labours with far simpler apperceptions than those which are requisite to form such stories4 ,the myth in its very earliest mould1 in which it is connected with the formation of language1 occupies him first4 ,but at all events1 the ,babylonian story received in its ,hebrew transformation a purification in a monotheistic sense2 or as ,duncker himself appropriately adds1 #8the account of the ,deluge lies before us in a purer and more dignified shape in the writings of the ,hebrews4' ,i showed in a previous section that ,noah is one of those ,solar figures of which the ,biblical source has still preserved some mythical features4 ,there is no intrinsic reason why the story of the ,deluge should be particularly tacked on to the person of ,noah2 the ,assyrian tablets give ,hasisadra as the name of the man saved from the flood4 ,if the connexion of ,noah with the ,deluge were to be maintained at all hazards1 it would be best to argue that ancient mythical traditions called him 7as well as ,adam7 the progenitor of the human race2 the other ,solar figures generally assume a position hostile to the nation4 ,the harmonising tendency1 which ,i have already had occasion to notice1 might then easily make use of ,noah as hero for the story of the ,deluge learned at ,babylon1 since here was an excellent opportunity to establish his title as ancestor of the human race4 ,but it may be taken for granted that this use was made of ,noah's name1 not only at the later period when the ,deluge-story was inserted in the great mass of traditional stories1 but as soon as ever the ,babylonian story was borrowed by the ,hebrews4 ,this is guaranteed by the ,prophet of the ,captivity1 who calls the ,deluge m ,nach #8the water of ,noah4' #8,for like the water of ,noah is this 7thy distress7 unto me1 of which 7water7 ,i swore against the water of ,noah coming again over the earth ,gen4 ,,viii4 #ba et seq43 so do ,i swear against being wroth with thee and rebuking thee' 7,is4 ,,liv4 #i74 ,in ,babylon1 also1 the ,hebrews appear to have received an impulse to work out such a history of ,creation1 intricate and plastically jointed1 as is contained in the opening passages of ,genesis4 ,i do not mean that the cosmogony of the ,babylonians was the original from which that of the ,bible was copied1 for in this particular matter of cosmogonies the construction of the ,biblical account exhibits great individuality4 ,but the tendency of the mind to inquire after the first beginning of both the physical and the moral order of the world was first fully roused during the residence at ,babylon1 so far advanced in speculations of this nature4 ,i am confirmed in this assumption by the ,babylonian story of ,creation1 lately discovered and edited by ,george ,smith1 which1 as presented by that learned pioneer1 shows great accordance with the corresponding account in ,genesis4#gbj ,it is at all events an element of the subject in hand which cannot be left unnoticed1 that the notion of the br and yr #8,creator' 7the terms used in the cosmogony in ,genesis71 as an integral part of the idea of ,god1 are first brought into common usage by the ,prophets of the ,captivity1 especially the ,babylonian ,isaiah1 who is particularly fond of the expression br4#gba ,the older ,prophets also know ,jahveh as ,creator of the world2 but it is self-evident that they do not so strongly emphasise the idea1 or refer to it so frequently1 as for instance the ,isaiah of the ,captivity4 ,amos ,,iv4 #ac1 for example1 says1 #8,for lo1 he that formeth mountains and createth wind1 and declareth to man what is his meditation1 that maketh the dawn winged and walketh on the high places of the earth--his name is ,jahveh the ,god of ,hosts4' ,this passage stands in no relation whatever to the cosmogony of ,genesis2 indeed1 in speaking of the dawn as gifted with wings 7see supra1 p4 #aaf71 it refers rather to the mythical conceptions of antiquity1 as also the older ,isaiah frequently does4 ,the ,prophet of the ,captivity1 on the other hand1 refers to the ideas of the cosmogony in ,genesis1 as is clear in ,is4 ,,xl4 #bf1 ,,xlv4 #g 7where he speaks of the ,creator of light and darkness71 ,,xlii4 #e1 ,,xlv4 #ah1 especially this last passage1 which refers to the banishment of the th through the act of creation4 ,by the story of creation the celebration of the ,sabbath was established on entirely new grounds4 ,whilst in the older conception 7which finds expression in the ,decalogue in ,deuteronomy ,v4 #ae7 the ,sabbath has a purely theocratic significance1 and is intended to remind the ,hebrews of their miraculous deliverance from ,egyptian slavery after long servitude1 the later version of the ,decalogue 7,ex4 ,,xx4 #aa7 justifies it by referring to the history of the ,creation1 in which after six days of work the ,creator took rest4 ,we cannot here enter into the question of the geographical position of the den of the ,bible1 nor even inquire whether the original of the idea of ,eden is found in the corresponding feature of ,iranian tradition2 but it may be assumed that the ,biblical account of ,eden also arose at ,babylon4 ,it may indeed be generally presumed that the ,biblical accounts of the ,cosmogony and the origin of all things had not1 like the matter of the old mythology1 lived a long life of perhaps many thousand years in the mouths of successive generations1 before the first beginnings of literary record were reached4 ,on the contrary1 we find in these parts of the ,bible so artistic a perfection of description1 such a harmonious roundness of narrative1 that we are justified in presuming that they were not preceded by the oral concatenations of a long life of tradition1 but are rather sublime imaginations which were written down soon after they were conceived in the educated circles of the nation1 so as to become the common property of the whole people4 ,there was in this a double stimulus received from the ,babylonians3 first1 to meditate on the earliest things--the origin of the world1 man1 and other things of a general nature--and secondly1 to produce writings on these things4 ,the ,prophets of the ,hebrews at ,babylon unquestionably exercised a great influence on the production of these narratives1 and gladly admitted whatever tended to promote the deepening of the idea of ,jahveh1 as elements in their religions conception of the world4 ,for the ,prophet did not occupy a position towards the masses like the member of a corporation which opposes the people2 he grew up out of the people1 and raised himself above them by his individual power of thought4 ,yet it is easily intelligible that the ,prophet1 while gladly appropriating the idea of ,jahveh as br #8,creator1' would not set much store by the petty details of the cosmogonic imagination4 ,the second ,isaiah1 the ,prophet of ,babylon par excellence1 goes so far as to exhort his people1 #8,record ye not beginnings1 and antiquities contemplate ye not' 7,is4 ,,xliii4 #ah72 still he does not go into open opposition to this mental tendency1 and sees nothing dangerous in it--the less so1 as he has himself unconsciously adopted its conclusions and often employed them in his masterly addresses4 ,thus also the story of the ,garden of ,eden1 as a supplement to the history of the ,creation1 was written down at ,babylon1 and therefore not long after the previous stories4 ,a reference to the passage in ,gen4 ,,ii4 #ad1 where the first three of the four rivers of the garden of ,eden have their geographical position accurately defined1 but the fourth is only mentioned by the words1 #8,and the fourth river is ,perth 7,euphrates71' is of itself sufficient to show that those for whom the story was written must have known the ,euphrates as their own river1 requiring no further designation1 and consequently that this must have been written on its banks4 ,now1 although the expression #8,garden of ,eden' occurs also before the ,captivity 7,joel ,,ii4 #c71 yet the ,prophets of the ,captivity make the first reference to that character and quality of ,eden which is conspicuous in ,genesis4 ,in ,joel's words only the general idea of a #8pleasure-garden' appears to be connected with the name ,eden4 ,but in ,ezekiel 7especially frequently in ,chap4 ,,xxxi47 we find the appellation #8,garden of ,god' used to designate ,eden more fully2 and in the parallelism of the members of the verse the ,babylonian ,isaiah 7,,li4 #c7 puts the #8,garden of ,jahveh' in the succeeding member to correspond to #8,eden' in the preceding3 ,he makes her desert like ,eden1 ,and her dry land like the ,garden of ,jahveh4 ,it is also evident from the same ,prophet's words 7,is4 ,,xliii4 #bg71 #8,thy first father sinned1' that he connected the story of the ,fall with ,eden1 or at least that he knew the story4 ,the mention of the doctrine of the ,fall takes us to a domain which has a close connexion with the subject of this chapter4 ,i refer to the ideas of dogmatic religion pervading the stories formed during the ,captivity1 which subsequently1 while the canon of ,scripture was being drawn up1 were admitted even into those parts of ,scripture whose matter dated from an earlier period1 came into full life in the second ,hebrew commonwealth1 and continued to live in the later ,jewish ,synagogue4 ,through the growth of ,persian power and ,persian influence in ,western ,asia1 where there existed many states in a condition of vassalage to ,babylon1 the ,iranian views of religion could not but exert a great influence on the parent-state also1 even before ,babylon was quite overwhelmed by them through its conquest by ,cyrus at the end of the ,captivity of the ,hebrews4 ,opportunity was therefore not wanting to the ,hebrews to become well acquainted with the main ideas of ,iranian theology2 and desire was also present1 as their minds were then intent upon obtaining clear views on the origin of the physical and moral order of the world1 and on the chief questions concerning the #8,origins4' ,this influence of the ,iranians on the ,hebrews was exhibited not only in relation to matter1 but also to forms4 ,for there is great probability in favour of the idea1 that the first suggestion to codify the sacerdotal laws of sacrifice1 purification and others1 came to the ,hebrews from the example of the ,persians4#gbb ,one portion of these ideas has found a place in the ,babylonian sections of ,genesis--that which belonged to the cosmogony2 others were not expressed in the ,canon at all1 but lived in tradition1 until tradition itself was fixed in writing4 ,this question1 which would at last shed light on the details of ,iranian influence on the narratives of the ,pentateuch1 is perversely enough not grappled with at its starting-point by many persons who labour with nervous eagerness to discover in the ,iranian writings every letter of the ,jewish ,agd1 even in cases in which such a proceeding is utterly unjustifiable1 and borrowing can only be suggested through the wildest guesswork4 ,equally perverse is the unhistorical assumption1 which point-blank denies the very possibility of the ,hebrews having borrowed anything from the ,persians1 #8among whom they never lived4'#gbc ,professor ,spiegel1 by referring to an acquaintance of ,abraham with ,zarathustra1 has spirited the question off into the atmosphere of so distant a time that it is impossible with any regard for critical history to build upon his foundation1#gbd and preferable even to adopt ,volney's forgotten theory1#gbe which makes the influence of ,magism on the ,hebrews begin with the destruction of the ,northern kingdom4 ,others1 by assuming an influence exerted by the ,semites on the ,iranians1 and by a mistaken reverence for ,hebrew antiquity1 have cut away the ground from any scientific investigation of the question4#gbf ,it is a mistaken1 and anything but the right sort of reverence1 when we would rather leave unknown or misunderstood a region of literature which we all love and venerate1 and to which we owe most of our moral and religious ideals1 than trace its elements and analyse their psychological and literary history1 so as to understand the object of our love4 ,has ,homer lost his attractiveness since we have subjected him to critical analysis1 or the divine ,plato forfeited any of his divinity since we have discovered some of the sources of his ideas8 ,for the fact of ,originality is not the only criterion of the admirable4 ,not only that which is cast in one piece from top to toe1 is one whole3 an alien substance which becomes a civilising agent to that in which it rests1 and a patchwork which has turned out a harmonious whole1 are not less admirable or perfect4 ,julius ,braun says very justly1#gbg #8,there is another and indeed the highest kind of originality1 which is not the beginning but the result of historical growth--the originality of mature age4 ,we have this1 when an individual or a nation has gathered up all existing means of culture1 and then still possesses power to pass on beyond them and deal freely with all elements received from the past4' ,thus1 then1 it was quite possible for many ,iranian elements to be received into the system of the literature and cosmic conceptions of the ,hebrews2 and we do nothing towards saving the honour of the ,hebrew nationality by using force to make the ,iranians pupils of the ,hebrews4 ,karl ,twesten saw the truth as to their mutual relation2 and ,i quote his words1 to show the impression made by the coincidences of ,iranian and ,hebrew antiquity on a sober-minded historian who considers the question free from any previous pledges to either side4 #8,it cannot be pleaded that the ,iranians may have borrowed from the ,hebrews or drawn from the same source4 ,for1 on the one hand1 these things are there an essential part of a system1 whereas the ,pentateuch makes no further use of them2 and1 on the other1 they existed in times and places where1 even if the possibility of a very early formation of these stories be conceded1 the ,hebrew theology could not possibly have any influence4 ,the ,israelites were so little known1 and so rarely in contact with other nations1 and the priesthoods of antiquity so exclusive1 and oriental rn so distant1 that no early influence of ,mosaic doctrines on the theories of the ,zend books is even conceivable4 ,but ,iranian influences on the nations of ,western ,asia are probable and inevitable1 from the time when the ,medes and ,persians became the dominant powers4'#gbh ,such1 in general terms1 were the causes which yielded an increase of matter to the ,hebrew store of legends during the ,captivity4 ,through the revision and literary elaboration of the old legends in the period of the ,captivity also1 many ,babylonian features naturally entered into the picture4 ,i may mention ,nldeke's plausible idea 7in his ,untersuchungen71 that the years and cycles of years in the ,patriarchal history point to ,babylon and are connected with astronomical systems4 ,the last systematic revision of the ,table of ,nations 7,gen4 ,x47 may also be referred to the same time and influence4 ,the preparation of such a survey of all known nations of the earth seems to have been possible in that ancient time only in an empire which through its wide-spread dominion had an extensive circle of view open to it in relation to geography and ethnology1 and would be almost impossible within the limits of the kingdom of ,judah4 ,although we have at the present day good reasons for treating as a mere fable the more extravagant ideas that were long current1 and gave rise to many lamentable prejudices1 of the utter seclusion of the ,hebrews in ,canaan1 yet their view can hardly have reached to such a distance1 and1 if it did1 cannot have taken in such special points1 as are met with in the ,table of ,nations4 ,but we should exaggerate the possible influence of the connexion with the ,phenicians1 if with ,tuch#gbi we were to derive from it the ethnographical information requisite to produce that ,table4 ,and we should be applying the measure of modern expeditions to ,david's and ,solomon's navigation--to which ,mauch attributes a colonisation of ,africa by ,jews in connexion with the discovery of ,ophir--if we were to suppose that navigation to have yielded this same geographical and ethnographical knowledge as its scientific result4 ,the attention of the ,hebrews could not be directed to ethnographical problems on so large a scale before their residence among the confusion of nationalities in the empire of ,babylon and ,assyria4 ,that period is also the first at which interest could be felt in another problem--,biblical answer to which is avowedly given at ,babylon4 ,i mean the story of the ,confusion of ,tongues at ,babel 7,babylon7 in ,genesis ,,xi4 #d-i4 ,it is not difficult to understand that the ,hebrews1 who in ,canaan1 a country of such linguistic uniformity1 had no occasion to pay attention to the fact of the variety of tongues1 on entering the ,babylonian empire with its varying languages were naturally led to ask the question to which the eleventh chapter of ,genesis offers a reply4 ,why1 even earlier than this the ,northern empire was a nation whose tongue they did not understand 7,deut4 ,,xxviii4 #di71gcj #8a nation from afar1 an ancient nation1 a nation from of old1 a nation whose language thou knowest not1 neither understandest what they say' 7,jer4 ,v4 #ae74 ,whilst even in ,hesiod's time men were already called by the ,greeks #8speaking variously' 7,works and ,days1 #aji1 #adb71 to the ancient ,hebrew #8the whole earth was of one language and of one speech4' ,now1 as the impulse to ask this question arose in ,babylon1 the place where such a problem must force itself most irresistibly on the attention1 so ,babylon was found to be also the scene of the solution of the problem4 ,it is so natural to place the origin of an event or a phenomenon at the place where it has first occurred to us or we have first perceived it4 ,but1 in fact1 we find the story of the building of the ,tower taking its place among the latest ,cuneiform discoveries4#gca ,that the origin of the ,table of ,nations hangs together with the story of the origin of the diversity of languages is evident1 not only from the inner connexion between the respective problems1 but also from the fact that the ,table of ,nations always distinguishes the various races #8after their families1 after their tongues1 in their countries1 in their nations' 7,gen4 ,x4 #e1 #bj1 #ca74 ,the attempted etymology of ,bbhel from blal #8to mix1' which is tacked on to the story1 is quite secondary2 it is impossible to approve the notion that this etymology was itself the cause of the invention of the story that languages had their origin at ,babylon4 ,on the contrary1 the essential part of the story is the origin at ,babylon2 the etymology is a secondary point1 by which it was attempted to leave no part unexplained4 ,people in antiquity1 and even in modern times those who are more affected by a word than a thought1 were fond of finding in the word a sort of reflexion of the corresponding thing4 ,indeed1 many component parts of ancient stories owe their existence only to such false etymologies4 ,dido's ox-hides and their connexion with the founding of ,carthage are only based on the ,greek byrsa1 a misunderstood modified pronunciation of the ,semitic breth #8fortress1 citadel4' ,the shining ,apollo1 born of light1 is said to be born in ,delos or ,lycia1 because the terms ,apollon ,dlios and ,lykgens were not understood4 ,the ,phenician origin of the ,irish1 asserted in clerical chronicles of the middle ages1 only rests on a false derivation of the ,irish word fena1 pl4 fion1 #8beautiful1 agreeable4' ,even the savage tribes of ,america are misled by a false etymology to call the ,michabo1 the ,kadmos of the ,red ,indians 7from michi #8great' and wabos #8white'71 a ,white ,hare4#gcb ,falsely interpreted names of towns most frequently cause the invention of fables4 ,how fanciful the operation of popular etymology is in the case of local names is observable in many such names when translated into another language4 ,by the lake of ,gennesereth lies ,hippos1 the district surrounding which was called ,hippene4 ,this word in ,phenician denoted a harbour1 and is found not only in ,carthaginian territory as the name of the ,see of ,st4 ,jerome1 but also as the name of places in ,spain4 ,the ,hebrew chph #8shore1' and the local names ,yph 7,jaffa7 and aif1 are unquestionably related to it4 ,but the ,greeks regarded it from a ,grecian point of view1 and thought it meant ,horse-town4 ,did not they call ships sea-horses1 and attribute horses to the ,sea-god8 ,then1 the ,arabs directly translated this ,hippos into alat al-un3 un being horse in modern ,arabic4#gcc ,the ,persian town ,rey was made the subject of a fable1 which ,i mention here partly because it exhibits some similarity with the subject of the #8,tower of ,babel4' ,the ,persian chroniclers relate1#gcd that the old king ,keykvs had a chariot constructed1 by which1 after various preparations1 he intended to ascend to heaven4 ,but ,god commanded the wind to carry the king into the clouds4 ,arrived there1 he was dashed down again1 and fell into the sea of ,gurgn4 ,keychosrau1 son of ,shwush1 coming to that coast1 employed the same chariot to convey him to ,babylon4 ,when he came to the locality of the modern ,rey1 people said1 bireyy med ,keychosrau1 #8on a chariot came ,keychosrau4' ,he caused a city to be built at this place1 which was called ,rey1 because a chariot is so called in ,persian4#gce ,granting all this1 it is generally only accessory features added to the main stem of the story that owe their origin to a mistaken attempt at etymologising4 ,the existence and first origin of an entire story can scarcely be produced by an unsatisfactory etymology4 ,with regard to the ,hebrew stories1 in which etymologising plays a considerable part1 the same rule is1 generally speaking1 to be observed4 ,there also the story is enriched in details by etymological attempts suggested later4 ,but it is not brought into life in the first instance by this factor4 ,on the contrary1 as a connexion must be discovered between the name and the circumstances of its bearer1 and the original mythical relation between them has been long lost to memory1 features quite foreign to the name itself1 but characteristic of the story1 are sometimes brought into etymological connexion with the name and fitted on to the story4 ,from this source emanates the striking insufficiency of many of these etymological explanations1 e4g4 of the interpretation of ,abhrhm by ,abh hmn #8,father of a multitude1' and ,nach 7,noah7 by nicham #8to comfort4' ,in the ,hebrew ,myth of ,civilisation1 ,noah is the most prominent founder of agriculture and inventor of agricultural implements2 consequently it is he that procures comfort for men against the curse imposed on the soil4 ,this feature is not etymologically expressed in the name ,noah2 but the later formation of the story about him invented a false etymology1 in order to connect it with the name4 ,the case is the same with the story of the ,languages1 in which ,bbhel is derived from blal #8to mix4' ,the etymology relates quite as frequently to a very subordinate feature in the story1 as for instance in the interpretation of most of the names of ,jacob's sons in ,gen4 ,,xxix1 ,,xxx1 or in the derivation of the name ayin 7,cain7 from n #8to gain4' ,sometimes1 lastly1 the etymon is given correctly1 while its original relation to the person bearing the name is lost with the loss of the mythical consciousness4 ,in such cases there frequently arises a new feature of the story4 ,thus1 for instance1 it is quite correctly affirmed that ,yich 7,isaac7 comes from cha #8to laugh3' but it is no longer understood that the word designates the #8,laughing one' 7the ,sun71 and so the laughter of the aged mother to whom the birth of a son is announced beforehand1 or the laughter of other people on hearing the announcement1 is introduced4 ,in the etymology of the name ,yaabh 7,jacob7 both the etymon and that to which it refers 7bh #8heel'7 are correctly preserved1 not however without the introduction of a foreign etymological element 7ibh #8to cheat'71 which became prominent in the subsequent development of the story4 ,the same phenomenon also appears on the domain of the ,arabian stories1 a region of ,semitism which has still to be explored for mythological questions4 ,i have no doubt that the genealogical tables of the ,arabs contain names which will be discovered by sound etymology to be ,solar designations4 ,this seems to me1 for example1 to be the case with ,hshim4 ,the story that he and his twin-brother ,abd ,shams were born with their foreheads joined together1 or with the forehead of one joined to the hand of the other1#gcf resembles the myths of the birth of ,jacob and ,esau1 and of that of ,perez and ,zerah4#gcg ,it was worked out with an object during the later dynastic rivalry between the ,hshimites and ,ummayads 7descendants of ,abd ,shams74 ,but ,hshim is #8the ,breaker1' thus answering perfectly to ,pere 7,perez7 or ,giden4 ,when the mythical consciousness was lost1 a story bearing an obviously apocryphal character was fabricated to give it an etymology4 ,it is this4 ,on occasion of a famine resulting from a bad harvest1 ,hshim went to ,syria1 where he had a quantity of bread baked4 ,this he put into large sacks1 loaded his camels with it1 and took it to ,mekka4 ,there hashama1 i4e4 he broke up the bread into bits1 sent for butchers1 and distributed it among the people of ,mekka4 ,therefore1 it is said1 he was called ,hshim1 #8the ,breaker4'#gch ,we have here the very same process in the history of etymology which we had occasion to observe in the etymological explanation of ,biblical names4 ,thus1 as is obvious in the above-quoted ,hebrew examples1 it must be admitted that the later etymological conception frequently forced itself into the foreground so much as to obtain recognition as a portion of the narrative4#gci ,but no entire story1 such as that of the ,confusion of ,tongues at ,babel1 can be proved to have been formed upon no other basis than an indifferent etymology4 ,so we may with confidence hold to the above-suggested occasion for the origin of this story of the variety of languages4 ,there is good ground for hoping that before very long the recently discovered mythical texts of the ,assyrian and ,babylonian literature will pour an increasing flood of light on the question discussed in this chapter4 ,the richness of the stores contained in the two latest works of the meritorious scholar ,george ,smith--#8,assyrian ,discoveries3 an account of exploration and discoveries' 7#ahgf71 and #8,the ,chaldean ,account of ,genesis' 7#ahgf7--;allow us to entertain the best hopes of this result4 ,it is greatly to be desired that an unprejudiced conception of the matter of ,hebrew mythic stories may be promoted by these discoveries4 ,but to attain to the result of true freedom from old errors1 it is essential to put away all fears1 and to be guided solely and simply by the interests of the ,holiest of ,holies1 namely1 scientific truth1 in forming a judgment on the priority or simultaneous origin of such stories in different nations4 ----- ,footnote #gac3 ,see ,supplement to the ,augsburg ,allgemeine ,zeitung of ,june #ai1 #ahgd4 ,footnote #gad3 ,i will here cite a passage of ,ibn ,chaldn1 although not decisive on questions like the present3 #8,know that the ,persians and ,indians know nothing of the fn 7deluge72 some ,persians say that it took place only at ,babylon4' 7,history1 vol4 ,,ii47 ,edward ,thomas1 in the ,academy1 #ahge1 p4 #dja1 quotes a passage of al-,brn1 in which it is said that the ,indians1 ,chinese and ,persians have no story of a ,deluge1 but that some say that the ,persians know of a partial deluge4 ,burnouf believed the idea of a ,deluge to be originally foreign to ,indian mythology1 and to have been borrowed1 probably from ,chaldaic sources 7,bhgavata ,pura1 ,,iii4 ,,xxxi41 ,,li474 ,a4 ,weber 7in the ,indische ,studien1 ,heft #b1 and on occasion of a critique of ,nve's writings on the ,indian story of the ,deluge1 in the ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahea1 ,v4 #ebf7 declares himself in favour of the indigenousness of the ,indian story1 in opposition to ,lassen and ,roth1 who agree with ,burnouf4 ,footnote #gae3 ,the similarities and differences of the respective stories of the ,deluge are lucidly placed side by side by ,george ,smith in ,the ,chaldean ,account of ,genesis1 p4 #bhf et seq4 ,footnote #gaf3 ,tuch1 ,commentar ber die ,genesis1 #ast ed4 #ahch1 p4 #adi2 #bnd ed4 #ahga1 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #gag3 ,academy1 #ahgc1 no4 #gg4 col4 #bib4 ,footnote #gah3 ,see ,westminster ,review1 ,april #ahge1 p4 #dhf4 ,footnote #gai3 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 #dth ed4 #ahgd1 ,i4 #ahf4 ,footnote #gbj3 ,the ,chaldean ,account of ,genesis1 pp4 #fj-aab4 ,footnote #gba3 ,consult also ,dr4 ,jacob ,auerbach's article ,ueber den ersten ,vers der ,genesis in ,geiger's ,zeitsch4 fr ,wissenschaft und ,leben1 #ahfc1 ,bd4 ,,ii4 p4 #bec1 who1 ,i now see1 comes very near to these ideas1 but does not express them fully or clearly4 ,footnote #gbb3 ,this view is expounded by ,kuenen in his ,religion of ,israel1 ,,ii4 #aef4 ,footnote #gbc3 ,this appears to be ,bunsen's opinion3 ,god in ,history1 ,i4 #aja4 ,footnote #gbd3 ,see ,max ,mller's essay ,genesis and the ,zend-,avesta 7,chips1 ,i4 #adc et seqq474 ,the ,dutch scholar ,tiele occupies nearly the same position as ,spiegel on this question1 which he discusses fully in his book ,de ,godsdienst van ,zarathustra1 ,haarlem #ahfd1 p4 #cjb et seq4 ,footnote #gbe3 ,les ,ruines1 ,,xx4 #ac4 ,system4 ,footnote #gbf3 ,i must mention a third view on the concurrence of the ,hebrew with the ,aryan story of the primeval age2 it is that which was first declared by ,ewald in his ,history of ,israel1 ,i4 #bbd et seqq41 and is adopted by ,lassen and ,weber among the ,germans1 and by ,burnouf and 7with some hesitation7 ,renan among the ,french4 ,in this view the coincidences in the respective primitive stories are to be accounted for by common prehistoric traditions which the ,aryans and the ,semites formed in their original common dwelling-place concerning primeval history4 ,renan speaks shortly on the subject in his ,histoire gn4 des ,langues smitiques1 pp4 #dhj et seq4 ,footnote #gbg3 ,naturgeschichte der ,sage1 ,i4 #h4 ,footnote #gbh3 ,die religisen1 politischen und socialen ,ideen der ,asiatischen ,culturvlker1 etc41 edited by ,m4 ,lazarus1 ,berlin #ahgb1 p4 #eij4 ,footnote #gbi3 ,commentar zur ,genesis1 #ast ed4 #ahch1 p4 #bjj2 #bnd ed4 #ahga1 p4 #aeg4 ,footnote #gcj3 ,it should be observed that in the postexilian imitation of this sermon of castigations 7now called in the ,synagogue tkhch7 in ,lev4 ,,xxvi4 #ad-dc1 the circumstance that the people would be carried off by an enemy #8whose language they understood not' is omitted4 ,other points in the tkhch of ,leviticus indicate that it was imagined by one who had a knowledge of the ,captivity2 so e4g4 the especial accentuation of residence in the land of an enemy1 as in vv4 #cb1 #cf1 #ch1 #ci4 ,footnote #gca3 ,george ,smith1 ,the ,chaldean ,account of ,genesis1 pp4 #aeh et seqq4 ,footnote #gcb3 ,fiske1 ,myths and ,myth makers1 pp4 #ga1 #aed4 ,see ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ,i4 #ceg et seq4 ,footnote #gcc3 ,from ,sepp's ,jerusalem und das heilige ,land1 ,,ii4 #aeg4 ,footnote #gcd3 ,in ,yt1 ,geogr4 ,dictionary1 ,,ii4 #hic4 ,the explanation of the name ,thakf in ,yt1 ,,iii4 #dih1 quite reminds one of the ,old ,testament way of giving etymologies of names4 ,footnote #gce3 ,see some useful quotations in ,l4 ,lw's ,beitrge zur jd4 ,alterthumskunde1 ,szegedin #ahge1 ,,ii4 #chh2 and very interesting references in ,pott's ,wilhelm von ,humboldt und die ,sprachwissenschaft1 ,berlin #ahgf1 p4 ,,cix4 et seq4 ,footnote #gcf3 ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahec1 ,,vii4 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #gcg3 ,see supra1 pp4 #acc1 #ahc4 ,footnote #gch3 ,ibn ,dureyd1 ,kitb al-,isht1 ed4 ,wstenfeld1 ,gttingen #ahec1 p4 #i4 ,footnote #gci3 ,see ,ewald1 ,history of ,israel1 ,i4 #ai et seq4 ----- ,,excursus ,a4 7,page #cj47 ,agadic ,etymologies4 ,in another direction also the ,agd is wont to supply the omissions of the ,scripture4 ,in passages where the ,bible itself gives no reason for the choice or origin of a name1 the ,agd quite independently gives its own etymological reason3 this peculiarity occurs excessively often 7e4g4 in the etymology of the name ,miriam in the ,midrsh to the ,song of ,songs1 ,,ii4 #ab1 that of the names of the two mid wives ,shiphrah and ,puah1 who in addition are identified with ,jochebed and ,miriam1 in the ,talmd ,bab4 tr4 ,s1 fol4 #aa4 b1 etc474#gdj ,here ,i will bring forward out of a great number of instances one which affords an opportunity of exhibiting an interesting coincidence between the ,jewish and the ,mohammedan ,agd1 and affords a proof how extensive and how far-reaching into the smallest detail are the loans taken by the ,mohammedan from the ,rabbinical theologians1 and on the other hand how independently and how completely in an ,arabian spirit these borrowed treasures were worked up4 ,in ,gen4 ,,xlvi4 #ba1 ,benjamin's sons are enumerated without any etymological observations4 ,the ,agd supplies the deficiency1 and puts every one of the names of ,joseph's nephews into connexion with ,benjamin's melancholy remembrance of his lost brother4 ,the interpretations in question are contained in the ,talmd and ,midrsh2 and they are found in a different1 but probably the most original form in the ,targm ,jerus4 on the passage2 and it is sufficient to refer to this4 ,according to this1 ,benjamin named his ten sons al perishth de-,ysph achh #8for the separation from his brother ,joseph3' thus ,bela1 #8because ,joseph was devoured-away 7i4e4 torn away7 from him1' de-ithbela minnh3 ,bekher1 #8because ,joseph was his mother's first-born1' bukhr de-immh3 ,ashbl1 #8from the captivity into which ,joseph fell1' de-halakh be-shibhyth3 ,gr1 #8because ,joseph had to live as a stranger in a foreign land1' de-ithgar be-ar nukhr3 ,naamn1 #8because ,joseph was charming and dear to him1' da-haw nm we-yar3 ch1 #8because he was his brother 7achh73' ,rsh1 because he was the most excellent in his father's house3 ,muppm1 because he was sold to the land ,mph 7,egypt73 ,chuppm1 because ,benjamin had exactly reached the age of eighteen years1 that of maturity for marriage 7chupph7 in men3#gda ,ard1 from yrad #8to go down1' because ,joseph had to go down to ,egypt4 ,the ,arabic pendant to this ,agd ,i found in a book ,zahr al-kimm f iat ,ysuf aleyhi al-salm1 by the learned ,mlikite ,omar b4 ,ibrhm al-,aus al-,anr4 ,it is the same book as j ,chalf quotes 7,v4 #cha1 no4 #aachf7 by the name ,majlis iat ,ysuf1#gdb although the commencement given by him does not agree with the initial words of our ,codex 7,no4 #g of the ,supplement1 in the ,leipzig ,university ,library74 ,the book is divided into seventeen majlis1 or sessions--an arrangement not uncommon in ,arabic works of a hortatory character or touching on religious knowledge4 ,each mejlis contains a portion of the life of ,joseph1 always introduced by a verse of the orn1 and abundantly mixed with poems and other episodes and intermezzos4 ,it is an instructive source for the legend of ,joseph among the ,mohammedans4 ,it would take us too far from the subject if ,i were to give a full characterisation of the book4 ,i will therefore only mention that it betrays a close relation to the ,jewish legend1 and that the author generally gives frequent occasion for the conjecture that the ,bible and the ,jewish tradition were not strange to him or to the sources from which he drew4 ,but everything appears here curiously altered4 ,for example1 the cry of ,isaac when deceived1 #8,the voice is the voice of ,jacob1 but the hands are the hands of ,esau' 7,gen4 ,,xxvii4 #bb71 is there given 7fol4 #e recto7 thus3 al-lams lams ,aysau w-al-r r ,yab #8the touch is the touch of ,esau1 but the smell is the smell of ,jacob' 7see ,gen4 ,,xxvii4 #bg74 ,the passage with which we have to do here occurs fol4 #adi recto4 ,the scene is the brothers' dinner in ,joseph's house4 ,each sits beside his full brother2 ,benjamin alone has none1 and begins to weep bitterly4 ,then ,joseph approaches him1 and after a long dialogue makes himself known to ,benjamin as his full brother1 and talks with him4 ,afterwards ,joseph asks him1 #8,youth1 hast thou a wife8' #8,yes1' replies ,benjamin4 #8,and children8' #8,i have three sons4' #8,what name gavest thou to the eldest8' #8b 7,wolf74' #8,and why didst thou choose this name8' #8,because my brothers were of opinion that a wolf had devoured my brother1 and ,i wished to have a memento of the catastrophe4' #8,and what didst thou call the second8' #8,i named him ,dam 7,blood74' #8,and wherefore8' #8,because my brothers brought a coat dipped in blood1 and ,i wished to preserve the memory of it4' #8,and what is thy third son's name8' #8,ysuf1 that my brother's name may not be forgotten4' ,but even names whose etymology occurs in the ,bible itself are provided by the ,agd with new etymological explanations3 so e4g4 ,yich1 is explained by y or y ch #8,a statute has gone or will go forth4'#gdc ,b4 7,page #cd47 ,a ,hermeneutical ,law of the ,agd4 ,the hermeneutic principle to which we have referred in the text1 although not so well known to the ,agadists as it was in other circles 7for they have nowhere expressly declared it71 is to be traced throughout their whole conception of ,scripture4 ,it is the principle that the intensity of the sense of a word increases with the enlargement of its from4 ,this law was also set up by the ,greek etymologists1 and applied even to the point of pedantry by one of the oldest grammarians1 ,tryphon4#gdd ,with the ,arabic grammarians it controls the entire grammatical field3 ziydet al-laf 7al-bin7 tadullu ala ziydet al-mana #8the increase of the word 7the form7 points to increase of the meaning4' ,in ,agadic exegesis also it is often accepted as a valid rule of ,scriptural interpretation4 ,in the case of reduplicated forms especially1 the reduplicated indicates a fuller concept than the unreduplicated3 e4g4 lbhbh compared with lbh 7both denoting #8heart'7 is treated as signifying a #8double heart1' comprising the good and the evil impulse 7yer bh and yer hra3 ,sifr on ,deuter4 ,,vi4 #e4 #cb74 ,so also in shephphn compared with sheph1 the doubled ph is supposed to point to an enlargement of the signification4 ,but this word shephphn contains besides the reduplication of a radical letter an affix n4 ,this affix is also generally brought into connexion with an enlargement of the signification1 exactly as is done by the interpreters of the orn with the corresponding ,arabic affix n4#gde ,an example from the ,agd is as follows3 in ,bershth rabb1 sect4 #ig1 ,ys b4 ,chalapht says1 ',the labours of bread-winning are double as laborious as the labours of child-birth1 for of these it is said ,with pain 7beeebh7 thou shalt bear children 7,gen4 ,,iii4 #af71 while of those it is said1 ,with painfulness 7beibhn7 thou shalt enjoy it its fruits all the days of thy life' 7ib4 v4 #ag74 ,hence the n affixed to eeb is taken to indicate a doubling of the pain2 just as the n added to sheph in shephphn denoted lameness in both feet4 ,c4 7,page #ajj47 ,pools and ,whips of the ,sun4 ,there is no doubt that the ancient idea which associates ,pools with the rising and the setting sun was based on the conception that the rising sun emerged from water and the setting sun sank into water4 ,in later times1 when the original mythical circumstances had lost their clearness1 the conception of the ,sun's ,pools underwent a considerable modification4 ,on this subject we must notice two different conceptions1 both of which sound quite mythical1 which are preserved in the ,jewish and ,arabic tradition4 ,one of these supposed that the ,sun exhibited such an eagerness for the performance of his work1 that the whole world would be set on fire if its consequences were not moderated by various means for cooling down the heat2 and these means are the ,pools of the ,sun4 ,in the ,midrsh on ,ecclesiastes1 ,i4 #f1 it is said3 #8,it is reported in the name of ,rabbi ,nthn that the ball of the ,sun is fixed in a reservoir with a pool of water before him2 when he is about to go forth he is full of fire1 and ,god weakens his force by that water1 that he may not burn up the whole world4' ,a similar account is found in the ,shchr bh on ,ps4 ,,xix4 #h1 and in the same ,midrsh on v4 #h the ,talmudic theory of the upper waters 7maym h-elynm1 which are said to be above the heaven7 is brought into connexion with this idea4 ,another conception is diametrically opposite to this4 ,according to this view1 the ,sun at first resists the performance of his business1 and is only moved to do it by force and violent measures4 ,in the ,midrsh kh rabb1 ,introduction1 #be1 the ,sun himself complains that he will not go out till he has been struck with sixty whips1 and received the command #8,go out1 and let thy light shine4' ,among the ,arabs the poet ,umayy b4 ,ab--alt discourses at length on the compulsion which must be exerted on the ,sun before he is willing to bestow the benefit of his light and warmth on mortals3 ,w-ash-shamsu talau kulla chiri leylatin 99 amra malau launih mutawarridu4 ,taba fal tabd lan f raslih 99 ill muaabatan wa-ill tujladu4 #8,the ,sun rises at the close of every night 99 commencing red in colour1 slowly advancing4 ,he refuses1 and appears not to us during his delay 99 until he is chastised1 until he is whipped4'#gdf ,according to the tradition of ,ikrim seven thousand angels are daily occupied with keeping the ,sun in order4#gdg ,the first conception also is represented in ,mohammedan tradition4 ,a sentence of tradition quoted by al-,suy 7,tashnf al-sam bi-tadd al-sab7#gdh says that the ,sun is pelted every day with snow and ice by seven angels1 that his heat may not destroy the earth4 ,this mode of cooling is the ,mohammedan equivalent for the ,pool of the ,sun4 ,mohammedan tradition speaks1 moreover1 also of a ,pool of the ,moon4#gdi ,d4 7,page #ajj47 ,solar ,myth and ,animal-,worship4 ,the ,egyptian animal-worship1 indeed animal-worship in general1 can only be traced back to mythical conceptions1 which1 when the myth passed into theology and the true understanding of it became rare and then ceased altogether1 gained a new meaning quite different from the original4 ,animal-worship is accordingly one of the sources for the discovery of mythological facts4 ,this is especially the case with the ,egyptian animal-worship1 which1 as ,plutarch 7,de ,iside et ,osiride1 c4 ,,viii47 says of the religion of the ,egyptians1 is founded par excellence on 1 since the same impulse which is reflected in the figurative portion of the ,hieroglyphic system of writing led the ,egyptians to employ animals in mythology with equal profuseness4 ,thus1 e4g4 the often discussed ,cat-worship of the ,egyptians is traced back to one point of their ,solar myth4 ,the old ,egyptian myth unquestionably called the ,sun the ,cat2 of which a clear trace is left in the ,x,v,i,ith chapter of the ,book of the ,dead4#gej ,like the ,sun1 says ,horapollo1 the pupil of the cat's eye grows larger with the advance of day1 till at noon it is quite round2 after which it gradually decreases again4 ,the ,egyptian myth imagined a great cat behind the ,sun1 which is the pupil of the cat's eye4 ,in the later ,edda 7,i4 #if1 ,gylf4 #bd7 also ,freya is said to drive out with two cats to draw her car4 ,in the above-quoted chapter of the ,book of the ,dead1 which ,brugsch1 who cites the passage of ,horapollo1 analyses in an interesting essay1#gea it is frequently said that the cat is frightened by a scorpion which approaches on the vault of heaven1 intending to block the way of the cat and cover its body with dirt4 ,brugsch identifies the scorpion with ,sin2 but to me it seems more probable that we have here an echo of the old myth of the ,cat1 i4e4 a ,solar myth1 in which the ,sun does battle against the ,dragon or serpentine monster that obscures or devours him4 ,instead of the mythical expression1 that ,darkness covers up the ,sun1 it is said here that #8,the ,dragon of storms or night covers the ,cat's body with dirt4' ,i mention here this important argument affecting the origin of animal-worship1 not on account of the ,cat1 but in order to point to an element of the ,egyptian animal-worship which hangs together with the mythical mode of regarding the ,sun which has been more fully worked out in the text--that he sinks into the water in the evening1 so as to come to land again in the morning4 ,it is well known that in many parts of ,egypt the ,crocodile enjoyed divine honours4 ,now this worship appears to be connected with the fact that in the above respect the ,crocodile is1 so to speak1 a mythological hieroglyph of the ,sun1 and doubtless figured in the ,solar myth as a designation of the ,sun4 ,the ,crocodile passes the greater part of the day on the dry land1 and the night in the water4 ,herodotus 7,,ii4 #fh7 says1 1 4 ,plutarch shows admirable tact1 especially in his sober intelligence in relation to the mythical use made of living creatures that abide in the water or grow up out of it1 and consequently understands the relation of the ,lotus-flower to the ,sun in this sense3 7,de ,iside et ,osiride1 c4 ,,xi474 ,yet in treating of the ,crocodile he strangely heaps hypothesis upon hypothesis 7ibid4 c4 ,,lxxv471 and exhibits superior insight only in so far as he endeavours to find in the nature of the ,crocodile the origin of the worship paid to it1 whereas ,diodorus is satisfied with the utilitarian explanation that the ,crocodile keeps robbers at a distance from the ,nile 7,i4 #hi74 ,but on this point he does not1 as on many others1 hit the nail on the head4 ,the reverse of the ,crocodile-worship is that of the ,ichneumon in the country now called ,faym4 ,according to the classical reporters1 this animal was sacred to ,buto1 who was identified with the ,leto of the ,greeks4 ,now ,max ,mller 7,chips etc4 ,,ii4 p4 #hj7 has convincingly proved ,leto or ,latona to be one of the names of the ,night4 ,the ,ichneumon1 accordingly1 is likewise a mythical designation of the ,night in its relation to the ,sun 7,cat1 ,crocodile72 for the special characteristic of the ,ichneumon1 with which the worship paid to it is connected1 is its peculiar hostility to cats and crocodiles4 ,the part played by the ,cow also in animal-worship must be traced back to the ,solar myth as its primary origin4 ,it is well known that one of the very commonest appellations of the ,sun in mythology is this--the ,cow4 ,the ,sun's rays are described as the ,cow's milk2 especially in the ,vedas this is one of the most familiar conceptions4 ,the worship of the ,scarabeus among the ,egyptians must also be based on a close connexion with the ,solar myth1 although the point of attachment to that mythological group is not obvious in this case to us1 who are so far removed from the mythical mind4 ,however1 even ,plutarch#geb endeavours to discover some point of similarity which might serve as tertium comparationis1 and finds it in the ,scarabeus' mode of generation4 ,the animal-worship was not based upon any experience of the usefulness or hurtfulness of the animals1 but always stands in close connexion with the ,solar myth1 of which it is only a theological and liturgical development4 ,this is most conspicuously evident from the fact that1 besides real existing animals1 there were also imaginary ones that received divine honours1 and played a very prominent part1 as1 for example1 the ,phenix4 ,but this word also is only an ancient mythical designation of the ,sun4 ,the ,phenix is #8a winged animal with red and golden feathers2'#gec a description of the ,sun from the mythical point of view1 as must be sufficiently obvious from what was expounded on p4 #aaf4 ,the ,phenix comes every five hundred years--at the end of each great ,solar period4 ,when the myth-creating stage had been overpassed1 and the name ,phenix disappeared from the inventory of names of the ,sun1 the word1 surviving the myth itself1 and the remains of a misunderstood mythical conception attached to the word1 might produce the superstition of the real existence of the bird ,phenix4 ,and it is these very remains that permit and render possible the reconstruction of the mythical significance4#ged ,even religious usages may have their source in the ancient mythical circle of ideas4 ,from ,herodotus we learn that the ,egyptians were forbidden to sacrifice or eat the ,cow1 but that the ,ox was not so protected4#gee ,this is closely connected with mythical ideas4 ,to the ,cow1 whose milk and horns are the mythical representatives of the rays1 whether of the ,sun or of the ,moon1 extensive divine veneration could more naturally be paid than to the ,ox1 who less perfectly exhibits what the myth tells of the ,sun1 inasmuch as he has not the milk2 and the veneration would naturally carry with it the idea1 that it was forbidden either to kill or to eat of the sacred animal4 ,e4 7,page #aji47 ,the ,sun as a ,well4 ,to the mythical conception discussed in the text1 which regards the ,sun as an ,eye1 must be added another parallel view1 that of the ,sun as a ,well4 ,language and myth here show remarkable uniformity1 which helps the identification4 ,many languages have the same name for ,well and ,eye1 as if they followed the mathematical law that when two things are each equal to a third1 they are equal to each other4 ,so it is in ,semitic 7ayin1 ayn1 etc472 in ,persian tsheshm and tsheshmeh2 in ,chinese ian1 which word denotes both well and eye4 ,the thirty-four wells near ,bunarbashi1 which was formerly believed to be the site of the ,homeric ,ilion1 are called by the people1 using a round number1 #8the forty eyes4' ,for the ,sun is not only a seeing eye1 but also a flowing well4 ,it is possible that the weeping eye1 which is actually a flowing well 7see ,jer4 ,,viii4 #bc ,,ix4 #a we-nay mer dim #8would that my eyes were a fountain of tears'71 may serve to mediate between the two senses4 ,heinrich ,heine1 in his #8,nordsee-cyclus' 7#8,nachts in der ,kajte'7 says3 ,from those heavenly eyes above me1 ,light and trembling sparks are falling444 ,o ye heavenly eyes above me6 ,weep yourselves into my spirit1 ,that my spirit may run over ,with those tears so sweet and starry4#gef ,freya1 an acknowledged solar figure1 whose car is drawn by cats1 weeps golden tears for her lost husband4#geg ,here the tears of the ,sun's eye are his golden rays4 ,the ,sun being a ,well1 the light of his rays is the moisture that flows from the well4 ,in the ,egyptian ,book of the ,dead the ,sun is called r pu num tef nuteru #8the ,sun1 the primitive water1 the father of the gods4'#geh ,lucretius 7,de ,rerum ,natura1 ,v4 #bhb7 calls the ,sun ,largus item liquidi fons luminis1 aetherius1 ,sol1 ,inrigat assidue coelum candore recenti1 #8who fructifies the heaven with ever-new brilliancy4' ,the same view prevails also on ,semitic ground4 ,in ,hebrew and ,arabic the root nhar denotes equally #8to flow' and #8to shine4' ,nhr 7,heb471 nahar 7,ar471 is #8a river1' nahr 7,ar47 #8the brightness of the sun by day4' ,in ,abd-al-,ramn al-,asad's poem in defence of the tribe of ,asad against a satire of ,ibn ,mayyd of the tribe of ,murr1 the setting of the ,sun is called inibbuh#gei #8his pouring himself out1' his condition when he has poured forth all his rays3 ,if the ,sun's rays belonged to one tribe1 99 then his shining-forth and his concealment would belong to us2 ,but he belongs to ,god1 who holds command over him2 99 to ,his power belong both his rising and his effusion of himself4 ,walau anna arna-sh-shamsi kna li-masharin 99 lakna lan ishruh watijbuh2 ,walkinnah lillhi yamliku amrah 99 li-udratihi iaduh wanibbuh4 ,the poet araf1 to express the idea that the ,sun lends or spends his rays1 uses the verb to #8give to drink' 7saat-hu iyt ush-shamsi1 ,mualla1 v4 #i471 and the same idiom is used of the light of the stars4 ,the word kaukab1 which in ,semitic generally denotes star1 also signifies a well-spring1 e4g4 #8and may no well-spring 7kaukab7 irrigate the pasture' 7,an1 ,,xi4 #abf4 #ae74 ,compare a passage in the introduction to the ,commentary on the orn called al-,kashshf by ,zamachshar 7de ,sacy1 ,anthologie gramm4 ar4 p4 #abj4 #h1 text71 where the two significations of the word occur close together4 ,to this place belongs also a sentence delivered by ,rabbi ,ami in the ,babylonian ,talmd1 ,taanth1 fol4 #g b4 ,he explains the words al-kappaym kissr in ,job ,,xxxvi4 #cb1 thus3 #8,on account of the sin of their hands he 7,god7 holds back the rain1' as by #8light' rain must be meant 7n r ell mr71 and gives the same interpretation of the word r #8light' in another passage1 ,job ,,xxxvii4 #aa1 #8he also loads the cloud with moisture1 spreads abroad the cloud of his rain' 7yph anan r74 ,but of what fluid the rays of the heavenly bodies are composed is not fixed and determined by the myth4 ,in the ,vendidad1 ,,xxi4 #bf1 #cb1 #cd1 #8the ,sun1 moon1 and stars are rich in ,milk4' ,no less frequent is the idea that the heavenly bodies make water4#gfj ,this latter view of the ,sun's rays as a liquid is remarkably reflected in the ,hungarian language2 and ,i will therefore note some facts relating to the subject1 which will be interesting to the investigators of ,comparative ,mythology4 ,it is especially noteworthy that in old ,hungarian the word hugy1 which in the modern language means only #8urine1' was employed for #8star4' ,in the ,legend of ,st4 ,francis1 an ancient document of the ,hungarian language1 the ,latin stellarum cursus is translated hugoknak folysa 'the flowing of the hugyok4' ,to the same root belong probably some proper names also1 collected by ,rev4 ,aron ,szildy 7,magyar ,nyelvr1 ,i4 #bbc71 e4g4 ,hugdi1 ,hugod1 ,hugus 7which should be read ,hugydi1 ,hugyad1 ,hugyos71 which must surely signify #8shining1' fnyes4 ,the same view of light as a fluid is also preserved in the later language1 in which with sugr #8ray' the verb mlik #8to pour itself out' is employed1 as in many other languages4 ,f4 7,page #aac47 ,cain in ,arabic4 ,the names of the first brothers in the ,biblical legend of the ,mohammedans are ,hbil and bil4 ,even ,d',herbelot 7,bibliothque ,orientale1 ,s4,v4 ,cabil7 explains3 bil1 #8,receiver1' as an ,arabic diversion of the etymon with which the ,hebrew text supplies the name1 viz4 knth1 #8,i have gained or received a man for ,jahveh4' ,still we must doubt whether the name bil has any etymological foot-hold in this group4 ,nor can it1 as ,chwolson supposes1 be traced to a transcriber's error which had been propagated so as to become fixed4#gfa ,it is founded on a peculiar fancy of the ,arabs for putting together pairs of names4 ,this process may be observed to take place in one of two modes4 ,first1 the ,arabs are fond of employing in groups of names various derivatives of the same root3 e4g4 they call the two angels of the grave ,munkar and ,nekir2 the two armies in the story of ,alexander ,munsik and ,nsik1 a sort of ,yjj and ,mjj2#gfb and in the story of ,joseph the two ,midianites who lifted ,joseph out of the pit are ,bashshr and ,bushr4#gfc ,to the same category belong ,shiddd and ,shaddd1 the two sons of d2 ,mlik and ,milkn1 the sons of ,kinn4#gfd ,this fancy passed from legend into actual life1 where it often decided the names to be given to children1 e4g4 asan and useyn the two sons of ,al1 and larger groups1 as the three brothers ,nabh1 ,munabbih1 and ,nabahn 7,an1 ,,vi4 #aja71 ,amn1 ,mamn1 and ,mustamin the three sons of the ,khalif ,hrn ar-,rashd4 ,the practice is observable not only in the names of contemporaries1 but also in genealogical series of names both of prehistoric and of historic times3 e4g4 ,huzl b4 ,huzeyl b4 ,huzeyl1 a man belonging to the ,adites 7,commentaire historique sur le pome d',ibn ,abdoun par ,ibn ,badroun1 ed4 ,dozy1 ,leyden #ahdh1 p4 #fg4 #a text72 the ,thamdite udr b4 udeyr 7arr1 ,mak4 p4 #bja72 ,sirn b4 ,asrn al-,jarma1 builder of the fortress ar1 the conquest of which is bound up with a story full of terrific tragedy 7,yt1 ,,ii4 #bhd4 #ab71 etc4 ,an interesting example of such grouping of nouns in modern popular rhetoric occurs in ,burton's ,personal ,narrative of a ,pilgrimage to ,mecca and ,medina 7,,ii4 #adf of the ed4 in two vols474 ,secondly1 in pairing names1 the ,arabs are fond of allowing assonance to prevail4 ,so we have ,rahm and ,raym1 ,hrt and ,mrt1 ,hwil and wil1 7see ,bacher1 ibid471 ,yjj and ,mjj for the ,biblical ,gg and ,mgg4 ,from the last instance it is evident that the inclination to form assonant pairs of names is not foreign to the ,hebrews2 another ,hebrew instance is ,eldd and ,mdd1 and from ,talmudical literature ,chill and ,bill4 ,the assonance occurs not only at the end of the words1 the initial syllable being indifferent1 but also inversely in the first syllable1 the end of the word being indifferent4 ,an instance of the latter is found in the names of the orthodox survivors of the ,ad and ,thamd peoples in the ,mohammedan legend1 ,jbal and ,jbars 7or ,jbar1 see ,yt1 ,,ii4 #b2 but certainly not ,jabulka and ,jabulsa1 as ,justi writes in the ,ausland for #ahge1 p4 #cjf74 ,moreover1 this love of assonance natural to ,arabic writers extends beyond the proper sphere of ,arabic legends to foreign parts4 ,an instance is found in the ,romance of ,antar1 ,,xxix4 #gb4 #aj1 where two ,franks1 brothers1 slain by ,antar1 are called ,saubert and ,taubert4 ,no doubt the writer had heard of ,frankish names ending in bert2 he had already mentioned a king ,jaubert4 ,the tendency to form such assonant names is so prevalent that the correct sounds of one of the two are unhesitatingly corrupted for the sake of assonance4 ,this was the case with ,yjj and ,mjj2 another well-known instance is the pair of names ,soliman and ,doliman for ,suleyman and ,dnishmand4 ,the ,biblical ,saul is called in the ,mohammedan legend lt1 for the sake of assonance with ,jlt 7,goliath74#gfe ,it is also noteworthy that the first species of assonance is to be observed not only in personal names1 but also in geographical proper names1 e4g4 ,kad and ,kudeyy1 two hills near ,mekka 7,yt1 ,,iv4 #bde4 #ae71 ,achshan and ,chusheyn1 also hills 7ibid4 ,i4 #afd4 #ab1 and see the proverbs referring to them in al-,meydn1 ,i4 #ad4 #b72 ,sharaf and ,shureyf1 localities in ,nejd 7,ibn ,dureyd1 #abg4 #ae47 ,this phonological tendency produced also the name bil as an assonant with ,hbil4 ,the name ayn #8,cain' was originally pronounced by the ,arabs in its ,hebrew form1 which was particularly easy1 because ayn is an old ,arabic proper name4#gff ,through the force of assonance ayn was changed in the mouth of the people into bil1 and this form made its way at a later time into literature and became general4 ,masd still knows the name ayin1 and expressly condemns the form bil as incorrect 7,les ,prairies d'or1 ,i4 #fb72 and he quotes a verse from which it appears that the ,biblical etymology from n1 which is equally applicable to the ,arabic language1 is known to him3 ,watanay-l-ibna fa-summiya yina 99 wa-yan nashahu m yan ,fa-shabba ,hbilu fa-shabba yin 99 wa-lam yakun beynahum tabyun4 ,they 7,adam and ,eve7 gained the son2 so he was called yin1 99 and they saw his growth as they saw it4 ,so ,hbil grew up1 and yin grew up1 99 and there was no dispute between them4 ,the same is also evident from the fact that ,mohammedan tradition makes bil live at a place aneyn near ,damascus 7,yt1 ,,ii4 #ehh4 #aa71 which can only be explained from its phonetic resemblance to yin4 ,moreover1 the connexion in which ,abulfaraj 7,historia ,dynastiarum1 p4 #h7 puts the invention of musical instruments with the daughters of ,cain1#gfg affords evidence for the former employment of the ,biblical form of the name by the ,arabs1 since this tradition depends upon the ,arabic word ayn #8female singer4' ,in the ,oriental ,christian ,book of ,adam1 which ,dillmann has translated1 the word ayin is interpreted #8,hater2' #8for he hated his sister in his mother's womb1 and therefore ,adam named him ayin4' ,dillmann justly conjectures that this idea is suggested by a derivation of the name from inn #8to be jealous of some one4'#gfh ,g4 7,page #aaf47 ,grammatical ,note on ,joel ,,ii4 #b4 ,i reserved the justification of the use which ,i made of the verse ,joel ,,ii4 #b for a short excursus here4 ,it is well known that in the ,semitic languages the passive participle is frequently used instead of the active1 similarly to the ,english possessed of instead of possessing1 and the ,german ,bedienter for ,bedienender4 ,in ,arabic 7in which the native grammarians call this usage mafl bimana-l-fil7 ijb mastr #8the concealed curtain1' is said for #8the concealing1' stir 7orn1 ,,xvii4 #dg2 compare al-arr1 #bnd ed41 p4 #ebh4 #ag7 etc41 in ,aramaic achd mart #8the conqueror of the world1' for chd2 rph #8digger1' for rph 7,talm4 ,babyl4 ,st1 #i b472 in ,samaritan kethbh #8the writer1' 7,le ,long1 ,bibl4 sacra1 p4 #aag2 de ,sacy1 ,mmoire sur la version arabe des livres de ,mose1 in the ,mm4 de l',acad4 des ,inscriptions1 #ahjh1 p4 #af72 in later ,hebrew lach #8buyer' instead of lach kephy bh #8one who conceals the good he has received1' hence #8unthankful' 7see supra1 p4 #aic71 instead of kphe2 dbh chaph #8a tearing bear1' for chph 7,targ4 ,,ii4 ,gen4 ,,xlix4 #bg74 ,so also frequently in ,biblical ,hebrew1 e4g4 aha cherebh #8holding swords' for chaz1 ,song of ,songs1 ,,iii4 #h72 erkh milchm #8arranging battle' for rkh 7,joel ,,ii4 #e1 compare ,jer4 ,,vi4 #bc1 ,l4 #db1 where the verb -r-kh1 when used of drawing up the lines for battle1 is followed by the preposition le2 this1 however1 can be omitted1 as in khn meshach milchm #8a priest anointed for war1' in the ,mishna74 ,i put in the same category the shachar prs in the verse now being considered1 where in my opinion the passive prs stands for the active prs4 ,but to understand my explanation of the verse it must also be noticed that verbs which are regularly employed with a certain noun as subject or object in ,hebrew can dispense with the noun1 which then is implicitly included in the verb3 a very natural proceeding4 ,if ,i say1 for instance1 #8he clapped1' the verb contains in itself the notion #8his hands4' ,it is an elliptic1 or rather pregnant construction where a noun is omitted1 similar to that which is used to express motion by a verb not in itself implying motion2#gfi e4g4 ,num4 ,,xx4 #bf1 we-,aharn ysph mth shm #8,aaron was gathered to his fathers or his people and died there4' ,the words #8and died there1' render superfluous the complement el ammw #8to his peoples1' which is added in v4 #bd4 ,similarly with s-ph- #8to clap' the object kappaym #8the hands' can be omitted 7,job ,,xxxiv4 #cg2 perhaps also ,is4 ,,ii4 #f71 etc4 ,in the same list ,i put the prs or prs of our passage3 kenphaym #8the wings' or kenphw #8its wings' being omitted4 ,the expression #8the spreading dawn' is intelligible by itself1 as #8the dawn that spreads out its wings4' ,but the fact that the complementary object after prs could be omitted proves how general was the conception of the ,bird of the ,dawn with outstretched wings1 which found this mode of expression4 ,h4 7,page #aec47 ,hajnal4 ,the ,hungarian language shows how speech wavers in determining the colour of the rising ,sun4 ,the ,hungarian word for ,dawn1 hajnal1 is etymologically related to h1 which means snow4 ,therefore1 the former must have originally denoted #8the white2'#ggj and hajnalpir1 #8the morning ,redness1' is literally #8the ,redness of the ,white4' ,and the conception of the redness of the dawn has overcome that which must have prevailed when the expression hajnal came into use1 but which is now only recognisable by the help of grammatical analysis4 ,this is evident also from the fact that in the district of rmellk people of red complexion are derisively called hajnal 7i4e4 like the red dawn1 but strictly the white dawn74#gga ,i4 7,page #aee47 ,the ,sun growing ,pale and the ,moon ,red4 ,although1 as we have seen1 mythology ascribes a reddish as well as a white colour to the ,sun1 yet it must be observed that this is so only at the earliest stage of the myth4 ,a later period prefers to connect the ,sun with the conception of a reddish or yellow colour1 leaving the white to the ,moon1 as more appropriate4 ,lbhn1 #8the white1' has not fixed itself in the language as a name of the ,sun1 whereas its feminine ,lebhn has1 as a name of the ,moon4 ,the conception of colour which the myth attaches to ,sun and ,moon is well illustrated by a passage in which it is said that both ,sun and ,moon lose their natural colour through shame1 viz41 ,is4 ,,xxiv4 #bc wechpher hal-lebhn -bhsh ha-chamm1 #8,the moon turns red and the sun pale1 for ,jahveh of hosts rules on ,mount ,zion and in ,jerusalem4' ,the distribution of the expressions for shame1 bsh and chphar1 which elsewhere also stand in parallelism1 is here not arranged haphazard1 since the ,sun and the ,moon are spoken of--objects which are imagined to be provided with distinct colours of their own--but must correspond to the natural colours of each4 ,of men both verbs are employed without distinction2 but #8making white' is the prevalent expression for putting to shame1 so that in a later age1 #8to make white the face of a neighbour' became a fixed formula in that sense 7ham-malbn pen chabhr or achwr app1 ,bbh ,me fol4 #eh b2 compare ,levy1 ,chald4 ,wrterb4 ,i4 #bde a2 ,,ii4 #agc a71 and drove the #8causing to blush red' out of the field4 ,the word bsh for #8to be ashamed' is moreover even in the earlier times commoner than ch-ph-r4 ,the former denotes #8to grow white1' and belongs etymologically to the same group as the ,arabic b1 whence abyad #8white2' the latter belongs to the group of the ,arabic -m-r 7with a change of the labials p and m71 whence amar #8red4' ,accordingly1 the expression that the ,sun bsh #8turns white1' and the ,moon chpher #8turns red' presupposes the idea of a reddish sun 7,edm7 and a white moon 7lebhn74 ,the same relation between the colours of the ,sun and the ,moon is also assumed by the old ,persian poet ,asad in his #8,rivalry between ,day and ,night1' a poem to which we had occasion to refer on p4 #ie4 ,in it ,day says to ,night3#ggb #8,although the ,sun walks yellow1 yet he is better than the ,moon2 although a gold-piece is yellow1 yet it is better than a silver groat4' ,k4 7,page #aee47 ,colour of the ,sun4 ,the following is a literal translation of a passage in the ,talmd1 which shows what speculations there were in a late age on the colour of the ,sun1 and how1 even when the technical terms of language were far advanced towards settlement1 people were by no means clear what idea of colour was to be attached to the ,sun4 ,the passage occurs in the tract ,bbh ,bathr1 fol4 #hd a4 of the ,babylonian ,talmd4 ,to enable the reader to understand it1 ,i need only premise that it is a discussion on a word expressing colour1 namely1 shechamtth4 ,in the ,mishn to which this extract of the ,talmd refers1 the following words occur3 ,shechamtth we-nimath lebhn1 lebhn we-nimath shechamtth shenhem yekhln lachazr bhen1 #8,when the buyer and the seller have come to terms about wheat1 which is to have the colour shechamtth1 and the seller delivers white1 or vice versa1 then they can both annul the sale4' ,now in the ,talmd it is taken for granted that this colour-word is derived from chamm #8sun1' and means #8sun-coloured4' ,rbh ,pp says1 #8,as it is said that the seller delivers white as the opposite to what was required1 it is manifest that the sun is red 7smat72 and in fact it is red at rising and setting2 and it is only the fault of our vision1 which is not powerful enough1 that we do not see it the whole day long of this colour4 ,question3 ,it is said of one species of leprosy1 ,a colour deeper than that of the skin 7,lev4 ,,xiii4 several times71 that is the colour of the sun1 which appears deeper than that of the shade1 whereas the passage manifestly speaks of the white colour of leprosy8 so that the colour of the sun would be white4 ,answer3 ,both is true of the colour of leprosy3 it resembles the sun-colour insofar as this is deeper than the shade and this passage speaks of a species of leprosy in which the colour is deeper than that of the skin2 but it fails to resemble the sun-colour insofar as the latter is red while it is itself white4 ,but the putting of the question which took for granted the white colour of the sun assumed the idea that the originally white sun takes a red tint at rising and setting only because at rising it passes by the roses of the ,garden of ,eden1 and at setting passes the gates of ,ghinnm ,hell1 and in each case the red tint of the object passed is reflected on the sun itself4 ,some assume the inverse condition and suppose that the colours which lie at the opposite side of the heaven--at rising that of ,hell1 and at setting that of the roses of ,paradise--are reflected on the sun4' ,l4 7,page #ahi47 ,transformation of ,foreign ,stories in ,mohammedan ,legends4 ,the ,mohammedan legends and popular traditions present instances of borrowing stories which in some foreign cycle of legends are connected with favourite heroes of that cycle1 by substituting for the foreign heroes those who are well known in ,mohammedan tradition4 ,in this manner many ,iranian local traditions and stories were changed and interpreted in a ,mohammedan sense after the subjection of the mind of rn to the dominion of ,islm4 ,this phenomenon meets us at every step in the history of the religions and stories of the ,east and ,west4 ,i will here limit myself to the quotation of a single instance4 ,the mountain ,demwend in the region of ,reyy plays an important part in the old ,iranian story of the war of the great king ,ferdn with ,zohak ,buyurasp2 to this mountain the conqueror of the demons chained the inhuman monster and made it powerless for evil4 ,now the ,mohammedan cycle of legends borrowed ,suleymn 7,solomon7 from the ,jews1 and invested him with the characteristics which the ,agd narrates of the great king of the ,hebrews2 which characteristics1 by the way1 themselves point strongly to the influence of the ,iranian story of ,ferdn4 ,among these is especially to be reckoned the subjection of the demons by the mysterious ring1 which passed from the ,agd into the orn 7,sr4 ,,xxi4 v4 #hb7 and into ,islamite tradition4 ,when ,demwend had become ,mohammedan ground1 it had to divest itself of memories of the old fabled ,iranian king4 #8,the common people believe1' it is said in ,yt1 ,,ii4 #fjg1 #8that ,suleymn son of ,dd chained to this mountain one of the rebellious ,satans named achr1 the ,traitor2 others believe that ,ferdn chained ,buyurasp to it1 and that the smoke which is seen to issue from a cavern in it is his breath4' ,we learn1 moreover1 from this note that the original story still possessed vitality alongside of the transformation4 ,the preservation of old national memories was promoted partly by the intellectual movement excited in rn by the #8,king's ,book' 7,shh-nmeh71 partly by national historians of a remarkable type1 who were at the same time proficient in ,arabic philology and interested in the preservation of old memories of their own nation4#ggc ,appropriation and transformation of ,greek myths are probably rarer4 ,the case quoted in the text is an instance of such appropriation1 in which the place of the less-known personages of the ,greek myth is occupied by the more familiar ones of ,nimrod and his family4 ,there are1 however1 also cases in which the name is changed1 although the abandoned one is quite as familiar as that newly imported into the legend4 ,an instance of this1 from ,yt's ,geographical ,dictionary1 ,,iv4 #cea4 #af sq41 is as follows4 ,the writer is speaking of a place called al-,lajn west of the ,jordan1 and says3 #8,in the middle of the village of al-,lajn is a round rock with a dome 7ubb7 over it1 which is believed to have been a place of prayer of ,abraham4 ,beneath the rock is a well with abundant water4 ,it is narrated that on his journey to ,egypt ,abraham came with his flocks to this place1 where there was insufficient water1 and the villagers begged him to go on farther1 as there was too little water even for themselves2 but ,abraham struck his staff against the rock1 and water flowed copiously from it4 ,the rock exists to this day4' ,no further examination is needed to show that this ,mohammedan legend is only a transformation of the ,biblical one of ,moses striking the rock and providing water for his thirsty people4 ,yet ,ibrhim has been substituted for ,msa1 a name equally familiar to ,mohammedan legends4 ,this miracle of making water gush out by striking a hard substance with a staff is1 moreover1 a very favourite one in legends1 and is repeated on other occasions1 notably in the legend of ,king ,solomon4 ,it is said that the well at ,ln1 a watering station in the land of ,negd in ,arabia1 was dug by demons in the service of ,suleymn4 ,for he once1 having left ,jerusalem on a journey to ,yemen1 passed by ,ln1 when his company were seized with terrible thirst1 and could find no water4 ,then one of the demons laughed4 #8,what makes you laugh so8' asked ,suleymn4 ,the demon replied1 #8,i am laughing at your people being so thirsty1 when they are standing over a whole sea of water4' ,so ,suleymn ordered them to strike with their sticks1 and water immediately gushed out4 7,yt1 ibid4 p4 #cge4 #bb sq47 ,m4 7,page #bab47 ,the ,origins4 ,as an example of this1 ,i may mention that1 in opposition to the ,biblical ,myth of ,civilisation1 which brings the planting of the vine into connexion with ,noah1 the ,rabbinical ,agd makes even ,adam enjoy the fruit of the vine1 which was the forbidden fruit of ,paradise4#ggd ,the ,mohammedan legend names the ,canaanitish king ,daramshil1 contemporary with ,noah1 as the first wine-drinker1 saying that he was the first who pressed and drank wine3 auwal man-itaar-al-chamr washaribah4#gge ,i also observe in passing that a feature of the ,noah-legend of the ,arabs which is mentioned in my article quoted below1 viz4 longevity1 seems to have a connexion with the old ,solar myth4 ,long life distinguishes the posterity of ,adam in ,genesis1 and reaches its maximum in ,methuselah4 ,the longevity which in the popular belief1 especially in ,italy1 is ascribed to the ,cuckoo 7,a4 de ,gubernatis1 p4 #eai7 is accounted for by its solar character in the myth4 ,noah's longevity passed into a by-word in ,arabic3 umr ,n #8the length of life of ,noah4' ,in the writings of the poet ,rub we find-- ,faultu lau ummirtu umra-l-isli 99 au umra ,nin zaman-al-fiali1 #8,i said1 ,if ,i were made to live the lifetime of the lizard or the lifetime of ,noah at the time of the flood4'#ggf ,marz al-,mekk says1 in a poem to ,moammed al-,amn3 ,faish umra ,nin f surrin wa-ibatin1 #8,live the lifetime of ,noah in joy and comfort' 7,an1 ,,xv4 #fg4 #d72 and similarly ,ab-l-,al 7,sa al-zand1 ,i4 #fe4 v4 #d473 ,fakun f-l-mulki y cheyra-l-bary 99 ,suleymnan fakun f-l-umri ,n4 #8,then be in the government1 ,o best of created beings1 a ,solomon1 and be in length of life a ,noah4' ,and we also find in fi3#ggg ,come1 hand me here the gold-dust1 victorious for ever2 be it poured1 ,that gives us rn's treasures rich and ,noah's age for our reward4 ,but a collateral reason for ,noah being made a special example of longevity may be found in the ,south-,semitic signification of the verb nch4 ,in ,ethiopic ,noah is called ,nch1 and the verb denotes longus fuit4 ,and in an ,ethiopic poem 7in ,dillmann's ,chrestomath4 ,aethiop41 #aaa4 no4 #ac4 v4 #a7 it is said of ,methuselah's longevity1 zawahabk nch mawel la-,matsl4 ,n4 7,page #bed47 ,influence of ,national ,passion on ,genealogical ,statements4 ,the same tendency which among the ,hebrews caused the origin of the ,ammonites and ,moabites to be referred to the incestuous intercourse of ,lot's daughters with their father1 produced exactly the same result many centuries later in a different yet related sphere4 ,it is known to students of the history of the civilisation of ,islm that the best ,persians1 despite their subjection to the sceptre of ,islm1 strove long and actively against ,arabisation1 which they regarded as quite unworthy of the ,persian nation1 to them the more talented of the two4 ,this reaction caused the publication of many literary documents2 and produced especially one very curious and not yet fully appreciated movement1 which originated in the circle of the ,shubyy4#ggh ,in order to appear as a member of the great family of ,islm of equal birth with the ,arabs1 the ,persians took care to weave their own early history into the legends of that religion4 ,this was managed in two ways4 ,first1 they were anxious to trace their genealogy to a son of ,abraham1 so as to possess a counterpoise to the ,arabs and their father ,ishmael4 ,thus it was managed to refer the non-,arabs to ,isaac1 with a collateral intention of representing this descent as nobler than that from ,ishmael4#ggi ,and we also meet with an allegation1 in the ,kitb al-ayn1 that ,abraham had another son besides ,isaac and ,ishmael1 named ,farrch1 from whom the non-,arabs 7al-ajam7 descend4#ghj ,secondly1 the genealogical sacred history is perverted in a sense hostile to the ,arabs4 ,thus1 for instance1 ,ishmael is not allowed to be the son whom ,abraham is about to sacrifice to ,allh1 but ,isaac the ancestor of the non-,arabs1 as the ,hebrew tradition has it#gha2 and the story of the well ,zemzem is put into connexion with ,sbr the ,persian king and with other reminiscences4#ghb ,in the ,commentaire historique sur le pome d',ibn ,abdoun par ,ibn ,badroun1 published by ,prof4 ,dozy1 page #g of the ,arabic text1 we find various assertions relative to the derivation of the ,persians4 ,the majority of these genealogies trace the ,persians back by various ways to ,sm b4 ,n 7,shem1 son of ,noah72 one derives them from ,joseph1 son of ,jacob4 ,the ethnological derivation of a nation from ,sm in the view of the ,arabs certainly involves no idea of special excellence in the nation concerned2 for even the enigmatical ,nasns of the ,arabic fables1 a sort of monstrous half-men1 half-birds 7apes are also called so in vulgar ,arabic71 are allowed to have a ,semitic genealogy4#ghc ,but1 at all events1 no hostile intention lurks in the pedigree from ,sm4 ,thus the above genealogies1 while possessing no tendency directly hostile to the ,persians1 are far from placing that nation in the foreground1 and allow an unexpressed idea of the eminence of the ,arabian nation to shine through4 ,the case is very different with another derivation propounded in the same passage4 ,this makes the ,persians to belong to the descendants of ,lot1 their ancestors being the fruit of his incest with his two daughters4 ,the ,samaritans say the same of the ,druses4#ghd ,i believe this genealogy is based on intention only--like the identical story told by the ancient ,hebrews of ,ammon and ,moab4 ,a local tradition1 existing at ,jeyrd1 a village to the north of ,damascus1 on the road to ,palmyra1 speaks of a tribe of the people of ,lot as having dwelt on the ground now covered by a salt lake 7,memlaa or ,mella71 whose city was destroyed by the wrath of ,god4#ghe ,this story perhaps originated in some war of the later ,mohammedan population against the older inhabitants or against ,beduins who had taken up an abode there4 ,it must also be observed that ,mohammedan writers exhibit a prevailing tendency to remove far to the north1 to am and aleb 7,aleppo7 in ,syria1 the mutafik or malb1 i4e4 the ,sodom of the ,bible4 ,this follows from ,yt1 ,,iii4 #ei1 #abd4 ,in the particular case just mentioned1 no doubt the existence of the salt lake cooperated in the creation of the local tradition 7in the language of the ,talmd the notion of the ,yam am-melach #8,sea of salt' is greatly generalised and becomes almost a figure of rhetoric2 see the passages in the ,tsphth on ,peschm1 fol4 #bh a4 init4 ,abhdath72 on the lake ,yammune on the north of ,lebanon1 see ,seetzen's ,reisen1 ,i4 #bbi1 #cjb1 ,,ii4 #cch1 referred to by ,ewald1 ,history of ,israel1 ,i4 #cad4 ,similarly a later ,arabic local tradition localised an episode of the ,sodom-story on the transjordanic shore of the ,dead ,sea4 ,for it is evident that the story of the conversion of ,lot's wife into a pillar of salt is the source of the following popular tradition noted by ,palmer 7,desert of the ,exodus1 p4 #dhc74 ,not far from the ,dead ,sea1 in the former country of ,moab1 at a place called ,el-,yehdyy #8the ,jewess1' there is a great black mass of basalt1 said to have been originally a woman1 who was thus changed into stone as a punishment for having denied the #8certainty of death'--a somewhat obscure expression4 ----- ,footnote #gdj3 ,i have referred to this in ,zeitschr4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g4 #ahgj1 ,,xxiv4 #bjg4 ,footnote #gda3 ,according to ,rabbinical views1 bhth ,v1 ,mishn #ba4 ,footnote #gdb3 ,the author refers on p4 #abg recto to his earlier work1 ,biyat al-mutaallim wa-fidat al-mutakallim4 j ,chalf does not know this book of the author's4 ,footnote #gdc3 ,bersh4 r4 sect4 #ec2 see ,beer1 ,leben ,abraham's1 p4 #afh1 note #ejf4 ,footnote #gdd3 ,see ,steinthal1 ,geschichte der ,sprachwissenschaft bei ,griechen und ,rmern1 p4 #cdb4 ,footnote #gde3 ,see on ramn and ram al-,beyw's ,comm4 in ,coranum1 ed4 ,fleischer1 #e4 #aa4 ,footnote #gdf3 ,kitb al-an1 ,,iv4 #aia4 ,my translation differs from ,sprenger's4 ,footnote #gdg3 ,sprenger1 ,leben ,mohammed's1 ,i4 #aab4 ,footnote #gdh3 ,,ms4 of the ,leipzig ,university ,library1 ,cod4 ,ref4 no4 #ceg4 ,footnote #gdi3 ,see ,sprenger1 ibid4 p4 #aaa4 ,footnote #gej3 ,see ,lenormant1 ,premires ,civilisations1 ,i4 #cei4 ,footnote #gea3 ,aegyptische ,studien1 in the ,zeitsch4 der ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 ,x4 #fhc4 ,footnote #geb3 ,de ,iside et ,osiride1 c4 ,,lxxiv4 ,footnote #gec3 ,herod4 ,,ii4 #gc3 1 1 4 ,footnote #ged3 ,on other animals1 rather fantastic than mythological1 belonging to ,egyptian antiquity1 see ,chabas1 tudes sur l'antiquit historique1 ,paris #ahgc1 pp4 #cii-djc4 ,footnote #gee3 ,herod4 ,,ii4 #da3 1 4 ,footnote #gef3 ,e4,a4 ,bowring's translation of the ,book of ,songs1 where the #8,nordsee' is rendered #8,baltic'6 ,footnote #geg3 ,later ,edda1 ,i4 #ij1 ,gylf4 #ce4 ,footnote #geh3 ,lepsius1 ,aelteste ,texte des ,todtenbuchs1 ,berlin #ahfg1 p4 #db4 ,footnote #gei3 ,an ,,ii4 #aah4 #g4 ,footnote #gfj3 ,see especially ,schwartz1 ,sonne1 ,mond und ,sterne1 p4 #cj sq4 ,footnote #gfa3 ,see ,gutschmid in ,zeitschr4 d4 ,d4,m4,g4 #ahfa1 ,,xv4 #hf4 ,footnote #gfb3 ,see ,w4 ,bacher's ,nizm's ,leben und ,werke1 p4 #ba4 ,footnote #gfc3 ,,ms4 of the ,leipzig ,university ,library1 ,suppl4 #g4 fol4 #cj recto4 ,footnote #gfd3 ,yt4 ,,iii4 #ib2 ,krehl1 ,vorislam4 ,religion des ,araber1 p4 #ab etc4 ,see also ,ewald1 ,history of ,israel1 ,i4 #bgb4 note #d4 ,footnote #gfe3 ,see ,frankel's ,monatsschrift fr jd4 ,geschichte1 ,,ii4 #bgc4 ,see on assonance of names1 ,zeitschr4 d4 ,d4,m4,g4 ,,xxi4 #eic4 ,footnote #gff3 ,e4g4 ams1 p4 #bba2 compare ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4,m4,g41 #ahdi1 ,,iii4 #agg4 ,footnote #gfg3 ,see ,gutschmid1 l4c4 p4 #hg4 ,footnote #gfh3 ,in ,ewald's ,jahrb4 fr bibl4 ,wissenschaft1 #ahec1 ,v4 #aci4 note #ec4 ,footnote #gfi3 ,gesenius1 ,hebrew ,grammar1 edited by ,rdiger1 #ada2 ,ewald1 ,ausfhrl4 ,lehrb4 der4 ,heb4 ,spr4 #bhb4 c4 ,footnote #ggj3 ,paul ,hunfalvy in the monthly magazine ,magyar ,nyelvr1 #ahgd1 ,,iii4 #bjb4 ,footnote #gga3 ,ibid41 #ahgc1 ,,ii4 #agi4 ,footnote #ggb3 ,rckert1 l4c41 p4 #fb4 v4 #ah4 ,footnote #ggc3 ,such as amz al-,ifahn2 compare ,yt1 ,i4 #bib-c1 #gia4 #bj2 ,,iii4 #ibe1 #fbi4 #ah sq41 ,,iv4 #fhc4 #aj4 and my ,beitrge zur ,geschichte der ,sprachgelehrsamkeit bei den ,arabern1 ,vienna #ahga-c1 no4 ,i4 p4 #de and no4 ,,iii4 p4 #bf4 ,footnote #ggd3 ,leviticus rabb1 sect4 #ab3 th h- shekhal mimmenn dm h-rshn anbhm hyh4 ,footnote #gge3 ,ibn ,iyys1 in the book ,badi al-zuhr f wai al-duhr1 ,cairo #ahfe1 p4 #hc3 see my article ,zur ,geschichte der ,etymologie des ,namens ,n in ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahgj1 ,,xxiv4 #bji4 ,footnote #ggf3 ,ibn al-,sikkt1 p4 #ai1 al-,jauhar1 s4 v4 fl4 ,on the proverbial longevity of the lizard see ,kmil1 ed4 ,w4 ,wright1 p4 #aig4 #ah2 al-,damr1 ,,ii4 #cd2 al-,jauhar1 s4 v4 sl2 ,burckhardt's ,reisen in ,syrien1 note by ,gesenius in the ,german translation1 p4 #ajgg4 ,footnote #ggg3 ,rosenzweig1 ,,iii4 #dfe4 ,footnote #ggh3 ,see ,a4 von ,kremer1 ,culturgeschichtliche ,streifzge auf dem ,gebiete des ,islams1 ,leipzig #ahgc4 ,footnote #ggi3 ,see ,kitb alikd1 ,,mss4 of the ,imperial ,hofbibliothek1 ,vienna1 ,a4,f41 no4 #hd1 vol4 ,i4 pp4 #ahh sq4 ,the data bearing on this subject ,i have collected and published in a essay on the ,nationality-question in ,islm1 written in ,hungarian1 ,buda-,pest #ahgc4 ,footnote #ghj3 ,see al-,nawaw's ,commentary on ,muslim's ,collection of ,traditions1 ed4 ,cairo1 ,i4 #abd4 ,footnote #gha3 ,compare al-,damr ayt al-aywn1 ,,ii4 #caf sq4 ,footnote #ghb3 ,al-,masd1 ,les ,prairies d'or1 ,,ii4 #adh sq42 al-,kazwn1 ed4 ,wstenfeld1 ,i4 #aii2 ,yt1 ,mujam1 ,,ii4 #ida4 ,footnote #ghc3 ,al-,marz1 ,history of the ,copts1 ed4 ,wstenfeld1 ,gttingen #ahdg1 p4 #ij4 ,footnote #ghd3 ,petermann1 ,reisen im ,orient1 ,i4 #adg4 ,footnote #ghe3 ,kremer1 ,mittelsyrien und ,damaskus1 p4 #aid4 ----- ,,appendix4 ,,two ,,essays ,,by ,h4 ,,steinthal1 ,,professor ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,berlin3 ,i ,,the ,,original ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,prometheus4 ,,ii ,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,samson4 ,,the ,,original ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,prometheus3 ,a ,,review ,,of ,,ad4 ,,kuhn',s #8,,herabkunft ,,des ,,feuers ,,und ,,des ,g,,ttertranks4' ,by ,h4 ,,steinthal4 ------------------ ,the soundness of a new discovery is attested in various ways1 but especially by the circumstance that the new thought is no sooner uttered in speech than it is seized upon and worked out by others besides its author2 for the thought in question is thus proved to be really the subject which the intellect of the time is best prepared to take up1 and which will lead on the ,past to the ,future4 ,this is found to be the case with ,comparative ,mythology1 ,kuhn's new creation4 ,when a large number of ,vedic ,hymns--text1 translation1 and commentary--first appeared in ,europe through the instrumentality of a ,german1 ,rosen 7too early lost to science71 ,kuhn saw at once not only that they were written in a more ancient language than the classical ,sanskrit1 but1 what was more important1 that they opened up a source of mythological views which flowed from a more distant and primeval antiquity than is known to us anywhere else1 and that this was the common source of the more important myths and figures of gods of the ,aryan nations4 ,he then demonstrated this1 in successive essays on ,erinnys1 ,despoina and ,athen1 the ,kentaurs1 ,minos1 ,orpheus1 ,hermes1 and on ,wuotan 7,odin7 in the ,german mythology1 by proving the identity of their names and myths with corresponding ones in the ,vedas4 ,kuhn's acuteness and skilful combinations thus established the fact1 of the highest importance to primeval history1 that the heathen ,aryan nations possessed a belief in gods1 the outlines of which dated from the age of their original unity4 ,but ,kuhn saw also that two further facts followed from the first1 one more important1 the other more interesting4 ,by the former ,i mean the fact1 that the ,vedic myths still exist in so primitive a form as to point to the ground of their own origin1 and thus themselves to furnish their own certain interpretation4 ,the latter is the fact that all ,saga-poetry1 whether epic or dramatic1 artistic or popular1 stands in connexion with the oldest myths2 and further1 that the mythological faith and worship1 so far from being extinct even among the civilised ,christian nations of ,europe1 still lives on in the rural classes of the population in spirit and practice1 as superstition or sometimes as jest1 though of course not without frequent transformations and disfigurements4 ,this last point1 however1 had already been discovered by the genius of ,jacob ,grimm1 who only wanted the support of the ,vedas to become the founder of ,comparative ,mythology1 as he was of ,historical ,grammar4 ,but this support was necessary to elevate ,comparative ,mythology into a science based on method1 and to give sufficient certainty to the interpretation of myths and gods4 ,the greatest genius--fully entering into the spirit of the ancient ,greeks and ,germans1 and endowed with a lively sympathy with nature--could1 without the guarantee of the ,vedas1 never have produced anything higher than unproved conjectures4 ,it would have remained impossible to demonstrate the original identity of different gods1 had not the ,vedas given us the connecting terms4 ,and the sense of the myths and gods could only have been vaguely and uncertainly guessed at1 had not the language of the ,vedas1 with a happy transparency both of grammar and of psychology1 furnished the means of tracing the development of ideas from the most primitive impressions received by the soul4 ,starting from the same fundamental idea as ,kuhn1 ,roth proved1 about the same time1 that the heroes of the ,new-,persian epos are only old mythic figures of the religion of ,zoroaster1 which are equivalent in names and functions to certain ,vedic gods4 ,in the ,oxford ,essays of #ahee1 ,max ,mller gave a sketch of ,comparative ,mythology1 drawn in a certain poetical spirit which is quite in harmony with the subject4 ,he endeavoured1 very justly1 to exhibit the essential connexion between the poetical and the mythic aspect1 and to show that all formation of myths was simply poetic invention4 ,kuhn's idea was immediately and generally accepted and worked out by all those who were engaged on the ,vedas--,benfey1 ,weber1 and others4 ,mannhardt has frequently elucidated ,german myths with penetrating thoroughness from ,vedic-,indian ones4 ,thus ,kuhn's idea has with rare rapidity become a secure common property of science4 ,in the book1 the title of which is given at the head of this article1 he now gives an unsurpassable model of careful method in this field of investigation4 ,when the weight of every argument is tested with such accuracy and the conscientiousness of a judge1 and exhibited so unvarnished and so entirely free from special pleading1 and the conclusion is drawn with such cautiousness1 as here1 not only scientific but also moral recognition is the writer's due4 ,we will first attempt to realise the result attained1 and then proceed to a psychological analysis of it4 ,i shall1 however1 here strictly confine myself to the one mythical feature which forms the foundation of ,prometheus4 ,kuhn's book contains1 besides1 an extraordinary multitude of mythological facts1 grouped together as belonging to the subject mentioned in his title4 ,in the earliest times ,fire must have been given to man by nature3 there was a burning here or there1 and man came to know fire and its effects by experience4 ,at the same time he learned also how to keep it in1 and very soon he may also have learned how to produce it4 ,he took certain kinds of wood1 bored a stick of the one into a stick or disk of the other1 and turned the former round and round in the latter till it produced flame4 ,kuhn has shown elaborately that the ,aryan nations' oldest fire-instrument was formed in this way1 and that the rotation of the boring-stick was effected by a thread or cord wound round it and pulled to and fro4#ghf ,but man knew also of another sort of fire1 that in the sky4 ,up there burned the fire of the ,sun's disk2 from thence the fire of the ,lightning darted down4 ,the primitive man1 in his simplicity1 believed the heavenly fire to be like the earthly2 its effects were the same1 and it went out from time to time like the earthly fire4 ,therefore1 ,must not its origin also have been similar8 must it not after every extinction have been kindled again in like manner8 ,there was no want of the necessary wood in the sky4 ,in the sky was seen the great ,ash-tree of the world1--in a configuration of clouds which is still in ,north ,germany called the ,wetterbaum1 the storm-tree4#ghg ,it was supposed1 before men believed in gods of human form1 that the lightning fell down from this ,ash-tree1 against which a branch twined round it had rubbed till the fire was produced1 as had been observed in forests on earth4 ,the men thought that the earthly fire had its origin in the sky1 and was only heavenly fire that had fallen down4 ,they saw how it fell down in the lightning2 they recognised in the lightning a divine eagle1 hawk1 or woodpecker2#ghh and many a bird which now flies about in the atmosphere of earth is a fallen flash of lightning1 proved to be such either by its colour or by some other circumstance4 ,the wood1 too1 which when rubbed turns to fire1 is similarly a transformed lightning-bird4 ,this is seen sometimes in the fiery-red colour of the fruit1 e4g4 of the mountain-ash 7rowan71#ghi sometimes in the thorns or in the pinnate leaves of the plant1 in which the claws and feathers of the lightning-bird are still recognisable4 ,the rubbing merely revokes this transformation3 the igneous creature is enabled to take up again its original form4 ,originally the bird was probably regarded as being itself the lightning1 because inversely the lightning was treated as a bird4 ,afterwards it was thought that the bird which was at first perched upon the heavenly ,ash that produced the fire brought the fire down from the tree to the earth4 ,but further1 ,is not ,life1 too1 a fire1 burning in the body8--and ,death the extinction of the flame8 ,and as fire is kindled by boring with a stick in the hole of a plate of wood1 so human life is produced in the womb4 ,and what happens now and always here on earth1 happened up there in the ,ash-tree of the world at the original creation of man4 ,that ,ash produced1 first ,fire1 and then ,man1 who is also fire4 ,indeed1 strictly speaking1 this is still going on3 the ,soul is a lightning-bird that has come down to earth1 and the birds that bear down the fire--such as the ,stork#gij--still bring us children too1 just as they brought the first man down to earth3 in short1 the ,fire-god is also the ,man-god4 ,then1 at a later stage of the development of ideas1 when the divine powers were imagined as personages in human form1 the wonderful element of ,fire1 which drew to itself the attention of men no less by its mysteriousness than by its usefulness1 was undoubtedly one of the first divine figures to be personified4 ,now one of the oldest words for fire was agni-s1 ,lat4 igni-s4 ,according to ,benfey it comes from the root ag #8to shine1' by means of the suffix ni2 s is the sign of the nominative4 ,therefore ,agni is the ,shining one1 the ,fire2 but in the earliest times the word designated not the element ,fire1 but the god ,fire4 ,he1 the god ,agni1 had his abode in the wood1 and was allured forth by the turning4 ,agni was fire and light in general1 both the absolute element in general and also every special and separate manifestation of it3 such as the brilliant sky1 the shining sun1 the lightning1 fire burning here for us1 the first man and progenitor of mankind4 ,but alongside of this1 the peculiar conception of the ,lightning-,bird still continued4 ,that also was converted into a personal divine or heroic figure1 which brought fire and man to the earth in the lightning4 ,sometimes ,agni himself was called a #8golden-winged bird1' even in the ,vedic ,hymns2 and sometimes the bird was made into a special god or hero distinct from ,agni1 bearing a name taken from one of ,agni's various epithets4 ,thus ,picus1 originally only the woodpecker1 was in the belief of the ,latins the ,fire-,bird4 ,he was ,lightning and ,man2 and it was said later that the first king of ,latium was ,picus1 for the first man and father of mankind frequently appears in localised stories as the first king of the locality4 ,picus is shown to be a ,lightning-,bird and ,lightning-,man1 not only by his name and story1 but also by the manner of his worship3 since he was regarded as the protecting deity of women in childbed and of infants4#gia ,less obviously1 but not less certainly1 a ,lightning-,bird was preserved at ,argos in ,phoroneus4 ,he1 and not ,prometheus1 was said in the ,peloponnesian story to have given fire to men2 and in his honour a holy flame was kept burning on an altar at ,argos4 ,he was at the same time regarded as father of the human race4 ,having been originally a bird sitting on the celestial ,ash-tree1 he was made a hero1 son of the nymph ,melia1 #8the ,ash4' ,now his name is ,grecised from the ,sanskrit bhurayu-s1 an epithet of the ,fire-god ,agni1 denoting #8rapid1 darting1 flying1' thus picturing ,agni as a bird4 ,the name ,phoroneus1 bhurayu-s1 is in root 7bhar 7 and signification1 though not in grammatical form1 equivalent to the word 4#gib ,it was not possible to stop with the mere conversion of the bird into a person4 ,when the divine beings were once thought of as persons1 they were also allowed to appear and act as such4 ,so men no longer imagined the fire in the sky to be self-originated on the ,world's ,tree1 but regarded it as produced by gods1 who acted similarly to men on earth1 and revived the extinct flame of the sun hidden behind a mountain of clouds in the morning or during a storm1 by driving a bolt into the sun's disk or into the cloud4 ,these are mythic conceptions of the very earliest age1 but they contain in themselves a motive to further development1 to give completeness to the relations subsisting among them1 or binding them to the natural phenomenon that they represent4 ,thus true myths arise4 ,now1 the most striking peculiarity of fire was obviously the necessity of constantly kindling it again afresh1 because when lighted it must go out again sooner or later4 ,this aspect was exhibited in the following very simple myth4 ,agni vanished from the earth2 he had hidden himself in a cave4 ,mtarivan brings him back to men4 ,this myth is easily understood4 ,the existence of the god ,agni is assumed to be absolute and uninterrupted3 but ,fire is often not present2 consequently the god must have hidden himself4 ,where1 then1 can he be8 ,afar off1 it is sometimes said1 quite generally2 another time it is said1 ,in the sky--which seems to be regarded as his proper home--or with the gods4 ,but sometimes he is not there either1 as at night or in a storm4 ,where is he1 then8 ,why1 where he is found2 in the hollow of the cloud1 from which he soon shines forth3 in the hole of the disk in which the stick is turned round and round4 ,then1 who finds him there1 and brings him back to men8 ,he who makes the fire appear1 or flame up1 and thereby restores to men the god who had withdrawn from them3 that is1 the ,borer1 or the ,lightning which bores into the cloud as the stick into the wooden disk2 it is ,mtarivan1 says the myth4 ,this is a divine or semi-divine being1 of whom but little is known4 ,he seems to be a figure which has never been fully crystallised2#gic regarded as a divine person1 he fetches back the ,fire-,god to men4 ,then the following terminology was introduced4 ,the boring1 by which man kindled fire and the sun when extinguished was lighted up again1 was called manthana1 from the root math 7math-n-mi or manth--mi1 #8,i shake1 rub1 or produce by rubbing'74 ,in ,german1 the corresponding word is mangeln1 #8to roll1'#gid ,mangelholz1 used in ,north ,germany2 manth here becomes mang1 as hinter is pronounced hinger1 and unter unger4 ,the boring-stick was probably originally called matha1 from which mathin1 #8a twirling-stick1' differs only in its suffix4 ,very soon1 however1 matha appears to have been restricted to another signification1#gie and then the fire-generating wooden stick was designated by a term formed from the same root with the preposition pra prefixed1 which only gave a shade of difference to the meaning1 pramantha4 ,but the fetching of the god ,agni by ,mtarivan 7the personified pramantha7 is also designated by the same verb mathnmi1 manthmi1 as the proper earthly boring4 ,now this verb1 especially when compounded with the preposition pra1 gained the signification #8to tear off1 snatch to oneself1 rob4' ,thus the fetching of ,agni became a robbery of the fire1 and the pramantha a fire-robber4 ,the gods had intended1 for some reason or other1 to withhold fire from men2 a benefactor of mankind stole it from the gods4 ,this robbery was called pramtha2 pramthyu-s is #8he who loves boring or robbery1' a ,borer or a ,robber4 ,from the latter word1 according to the peculiarities of ,greek phonology1 is formed -1 ,prometheus4 ,he is therefore a ,fire-,god1 very like ,hephaestos1 whose functions he often assumes4 ,mtarivan1 who is quite synonymous with him in meaning1 derives his name still more directly from the ,fire-,god2 for mtarivan is originally a mere epithet of ,agni2 for the boring-stick itself bursts into flame1 and in so doing reveals itself as ,agni4 ,originally a mere epithet1 mtarivan was subsequently separated from ,agni and made into a distinct person2 but1 as already observed1 without clearly-defined characteristics4 ,prometheus is the fire-generator1 and as such the creator of the human race4#gif ,this relation to men explains the affection for them which prompts him to give them fire against the will of ,zeus4 ,he hid the spark of fire in a stem of ,narthex1--one of the kinds of wood which were used for the production of fire1 and were regarded as transformed fire4 ,fire on earth was the ,fire-,god descended from heaven2 the first man was only the same god in another form2 consequently the first men--the representatives and benefactors of the human race--the first kings--the founders of the great sacerdotal families among the priest-ridden ,indians--all were designated by attributes of the ,fire-,god4 ,the family of the ,agiras-es acknowledges its descent from ,agiras4 ,but ,agni himself is often called by this name2 and indeed these two names1 ,agni and ,agiras1 come from the same root ag or ag1 and have the same meaning--#8shining4' ,thus1 in the mythical view ,fire existed in three forms3 first1 as actual fire1 i4e4 as the ,fire-,god2 secondly1 as generator1 rubber1 fetcher1 and robber1 of fire1 i4e4 as ,pramantha1 ,mtarivan1 ,prometheus2 and thirdly1 as those for whom it exists1 and to whom it is given1 i4e4 as men4 ,after the ,fire-,god has come down from heaven as man1 he as man or as god fetches himself as god or divine element to earth1 and presents himself as element to himself as man4 ,in the view of primitive man the mediating term between heaven and earth lay in the ,lightning4 ,in the lightning he saw the ,fire--the god1 the man--fall from heaven4 ,bhgu1#gig originally bhargu1 from the root bharg1 from which the ,latin fulgeo1 fulgur1 and the ,greek also come1 signifies #8the ,shining1' #8the ,lightning2' ,german blitz1 which latter word comes from the identical ,german root 7,old ,high ,german plih1 ,middle ,high ,german blic74#gih ,bhgu was said to be the ancestor of the ,bhgu-s1 a sacerdotal family4 ,to them1 as representatives of the human race born from the lightning1 ,mtarivan is said to have given the fire4 ,but as the ,bhgu-s are the lightning1 and consequently the ,fire-,god himself1 the myth could be so turned round as to make ,mtarivan fetch the god from the ,bhgu-s as divine beings1 or to make the ,bhgu-s go after the traces of ,agni1 find him in the hole1 take him among men1 and cause him to display his fire4 ,it is also told of the above-mentioned ,agiras that they found ,agni hidden in the cave4 ,they are1 indeed1 only the same god broken into fragments3 the fire separated into individual cases of burning1 flame flashing at various places4 ,thus there is a mythical identity1 on the one hand1 between ,prometheus and ,mtarivan as fire-god and fire-fetcher1 and on the other1 between ,prometheus and the ,bhgu-s in the same capacities1 except that the latter are also representatives of mankind4 ,and their relation to ,prometheus can be authenticated in ,greek myths as well4 ,bhgu is ,lightning in his very name4 ,his son yavana #8the ,fallen' 7from yu #8to fall'#gii7 is the ,lightning again4 ,hephaestos1 also1 is well known to have fallen down4 ,the name ,iapetos appears most likely to express the notion of #8the ,fallen'2 only he is not the son1 but the father1 of ,prometheus4 ,prometheus created men of clay1 and the earth which he used for the purpose was shown near ,panopeus in ,phokis1 the seat of the ,phlegyans2 the ,phlegyans1 therefore1 considered themselves the first men3 they are the ,bhgu-s1 ,grecised regularly4 ,the ,indians had1 moreover1 other ideas connected with the ,bhgu-s which closely coincide with those held by the ,greeks concerning the ,phlegyans2 especially the conception that ,bhgu1 the ancestor of the ,bhgu-s1 like ,phlegyas that of the ,phlegyans1 was hurled into ,tartaros for pride and insurrection against the gods4 ,the same characteristics1 pride and opposition to ,zeus1 as well as the punishment1 are also found in ,prometheus1 who is identical with the other two4 ,the identity of the ,indian ,mtarivan with the ,greek ,prometheus1 and the explanation of the latter thereby gained1 are accordingly based on such a coincidence of several mythical features and so similar a combination of these features1 as cannot possibly be the work of chance2 as well as on several interpretations of names1 which are intrinsically more or less certain4 ,if we knew more of the ,indian ,mtarivan1 or if the word pramthyu-s1 corresponding to the ,greek ,prometheus1 could be authenticated in the ,vedas1 then the certainty of all that has been said above of the ,greek ,titan would force itself upon us4 ,in compensation for what has not yet been found1 and is perhaps lost for ever1 it may be serviceable to learn about a host of divine beings described in the epic poems of the ,indians1 who have some connexion with the ,fire-,god and are called ,pramatha-s or ,pramtha-s2 they appear to be only the one original ,pramtha or ,pramthyu-s broken up into fragments4 ,this is1 in ,kuhn's profound exposition1 the simplest and the pure form of the ,story of ,prometheus4 ,later1 in ,greece1 it was brought into relation to other stories in ,hesiod's poetry2 and again1 with peculiar profundity1 into new combinations by ,aeschylos4 ,prometheus received his higher mental signification mainly through the fact that the ,greek verb -1 with which the name of the ,titan was correctly assumed to be connected1 had taken a more mental meaning than the ,sanskrit mathn-mi or manth-mi4 ,the two verbs are obviously originally absolutely identical2 only the nasalisation of the root math is effected differently in each language4 ,we might suppose that the meaning #8to learn1' which the root has in ,greek1 had grown out of the fundamental sense #8to shake'2 for learning is a shaking up1 a movement1 of the mind to and fro4 ,yet such a mode of conception might be scarcely possible to the mind of the primeval age in which that signification must have grown up2 the primitive act of learning was not such violent exertion as ours in modern times1 but rather a simple hearing1 a mental reception4 ,now as the ,sanskrit word mathnmi grew into the meaning #8to take' 7as has been observed71 it is more probable that the notion of learning was formed by the ,greeks from this 7#8snatching to oneself1 taking'#hjj71 as ,kuhn supposes4 ,then the physical sense of was lost altogether to the ,greeks2 it was1 indeed1 still known that ,prometheus was a fire-taker1 but not that the name indicated this4 ,so they attempted to understand his name in a strictly mental sense1 and remodelled the nature of the ,titan accordingly4 ,accordingly1 the answer to the question of the nature of the etymology of the name ,prometheus must be this3 ,prometheus comes from a root pra math1 which had the same meaning as the simple verb 4 ,but the formation of the name from the verb is older than the appearance of any specific ,hellenism2 for ,prometheus was not formed by the ,greeks4 ,with the verb mathn-mi the name pramthyu-s1 without any verb pramathn-mi1 was also delivered to them2 and so there were in ,greek and 1 but not 4 ,the knowledge of the mutual connexion of the two former words continued vivid in the language2 and when the sense of was spiritualised1 the same change came over that of ,prometheus also4 ,besides this1 the preposition was understood1 according to the usual ,greek analogy1 as #8beforehand'2 and the verb was then formed on ,greek ground4 ,thus ,prometheus came finally to denote to the ,greeks #8the ,fore-learner1 the ,provident4' ,i shall have more to say presently on this development4 ,let us pause for a while here1 and attempt the psychological analysis of the simpler form of the myth exhibited above4 ,the following definitions must be given in advance3 ,every simple act of the soul and every simple occurrence in the soul shall be termed a ,motion1 that we may have a general word to embrace all psychological data and designate1 so to speak1 a psychical atom4 ,simple ,motions combine together for very various reasons and in various ways1 which ,i need not enumerate here2 e4g4 a colour1 a form1 and a matter4 ,thus they form a ,combination of motions1 e4g4 #8a black round disk4' ,simple ,motions1 or single ,combinations of them1 in case they are not distinct or distinguished from other simple motions or single combinations on account of the similarity or equality of their contents1 coalesce with the latter into one motion or combination of motions1 as the case may be4 ,for instance1 to one who has not a clear sight1 or has no sense of colour1 or is looking at too great a distance1 two colours that are but little different will appear one and the same4 ,if one sees a ribbon today1 and tomorrow sees at the same place another scarcely differing from it in colour1 length1 and breadth1 one will suppose it to be the same4 ,thus1 ,coalescence produces a loss of contents 7for in the place of two or more motions only one remains1 whereas distinction brings an enrichment of contents71 but the loss is compensated by the force of the motion4 ,not simple motions1 but certainly combinations1 can be interlaced 7sich verflechten7 with one another4 ,interlacing of combinations occurs when certain motions belonging to two or more combinations coalesce1 whilst the other motions belonging to them remain apart4 ,the interlacing of the combinations approximates more or less to a coalescence of them in proportion to the number and value of the motions that coalesce4 ,on this more accurate definitions may be given presently4 ,here ,i will only allude to a frequently occurring instance3 two words of similar sound in a foreign language are easily interlaced1 even to the point of perfect coalescence1 i4e4 they are confounded with each other4 ,so also two persons closely resembling each other4 ,the coalescing members of the combinations here so greatly exceed in number and force those that remain separated1 that there is no consciousness of the latter4 ,when something presents itself to the mind to be perceived1 estimated1 or in the most general sense received1 a certain procedure or negotiation takes place between this something on the one side1 and certain older ideas1 through the instrumentality of which the reception is to be effected1 on the other4 ,this procedure is ,apperception3 it is obviously far from a primary occurrence in the consciousness2 it depends upon ,coalescences1 ,interlacings1 and ,combinations of all sorts4#hja 99 99 99 99 99 ,the primitive man saw fire on the earth and in the sky2 or1 to express it more precisely1 he saw something burning1 shining4 ,from the conception of burning things the idea of ,burning or ,shining was extracted4 ,the difference between ,conception 7,anschauung7 and ,idea 7,vorstellung7 must now be carefully noted4#hjb ,the former is an undivided sum-total of many elements1 corresponding to the object or occurrence presented to the senses4 ,the thought of it is expressed in language by a plurality of ideas1 every one of which corresponds to one single element of the conception2 so that the ideas are equal in number to the separate elements which are recognised and distinguished in the conception4 ,thus1 to a single conception corresponds a combination of many separate ideas4 ,the two combinations of ideas concerning the heavenly fire and concerning the earthly1 contained elements 7ideas7 which coalesced together2 and thus they became interlaced with one another4 ,the conceptions of the two fires 7as aggregate unities1 in opposition to the ideas1 into which they are broken up by the analysis of their elements7 would not1 indeed1 easily coalesce2 for as such aggregates they appear to the observer too different from each other4 ,but when the conceptions are converted into combinations of ideas1 which conversion is effected by language1 then the related elements in the two combinations come into prominence and coalesce1 and thus produce an interlacing of the combinations4 ,but it must not be imagined that in this interlacing only those elements are affected which coalesce1 and those which do not remain entirely unaffected by them2 on the contrary1 while the one set of elements press on towards coalescence1 they are held back by their connexion with the others4 ,the coalescence is therefore not quite perfect4 ,now1 when on the one side even the not-distinguished elements are protected against the coalescence to which they incline1 on the other the distinct elements which keep the two combinations asunder are themselves drawn in to the inclination towards coalescence4 ,thus the mutual relations of the combinations as aggregates are disturbed by their interlacing2 they do not become identical1 and yet are not severed3 they become analogous4 ,the one is analogous to the other1 the one gives the measure by which the other is measured3 the one is the more powerful1 the ruling1 that which gives the means of apperception2 the other the weaker1 the ruled1 the apperceived4 ,how is this relation divided between the combinations of ideas of the earthly and the heavenly fire8 ,no doubt the heavenly fire is by far the greater and more effective1 and therefore also the more penetrating into the soul of man4 ,man soon recognises the ,sun as the source of the daylight and the origin of growth1 and consequently as the giver of all wealth and all joy2 and learning1 on the one hand1 what the sun procures him1 he also experiences1 on the other1 by night and in winter1 what it is to be deprived of it4 ,at its rising and setting1 but most impressively in the thunderstorm1 the sun surprises him by the grandest sights4 ,thus it might be thought that the heavenly fire must give the measure for the apprehension of the earthly1 and therefore for that of fire in general4 ,but the matter demands more careful consideration4 ,only the more powerful combination of ideas can give the measure and be the organ of apperception4 ,now a physical occurrence which works more powerfully1 i4e4 with greater force1 upon our senses1 will indeed arouse stronger feelings2 but we cannot speak of stronger sensations4 ,for instance1 the vibrations of the air produce in the organ of hearing both the sensation of a tone and a feeling of pleasure or pain4 ,stronger commotions of air produce stronger and more painful feelings in the ear1 but not stronger sensations1 only sensations of louder1 stronger tones4 ,in memory we distinguish louder and softer tones merely in defining their contents1 without meaning that the memory of the one is stronger than that of the other4 ,the sensation of a louder tone is not a louder sensation4 ,therefore1 from the mere fact that the sun is brighter and speaks louder to men in the thunder than the earthly fire1 no greater power in human consciousness accrues to men's ideas of the heavenly fire4 ,the more important and impressive idea1 too1 is not necessarily also the more powerful2 for this quality also1 importance and force of impression1 works in the first instance only on the feeling1 not on the course of ideas also at the same time4 ,a number or a name may be very important to us1 and yet we forget it very soon4 ,therefore the power which an idea can exert on the consciousness1 e4g4 in an apperception1 essentially depends on conditions which flow simply from the nature of our consciousness4 ,i hope that the following exposition will meet with assent4 ,power1 or influence on the consciousness1 is obtained by a combination of ideas through the number of its elements1 through familiarity with it as an aggregate1 and yet more through accurate acquaintance with its separate elements by themselves and in their relations both to one another and to elements belonging to other combinations1 and through the number and variety of such relations4 ,greater clearness in our consciousness of something is only another mode of expression for more manifold distinction of the elements contained in it2 and this implies increase of knowledge1 but also sharp definiteness and thoroughness4 ,there is a curious contrast between feeling and theory4 ,in the latter clearness1 careful assortment1 delicate distinction1 and reference1 give preponderance2 whereas it is the masses of unclearness that work most powerfully on the former4 ,we will measure by this principle the force of the ideas concerning the heavenly and of those concerning the earthly fire4 ,the latter must be much more numerous1 clear1 definite1 and certain1 as man has the earthly fire nearer1 and works in company with it1 and work is a copious source of knowledge4 ,the earthly fire is the only one that he knows2 a heavenly fire he only infers4 ,the earthly fire enlightens the darkness of his night1 which surrounds him as soon as ever it goes out2 by it he learns the operation of warmth3 this first leads him to seek the cause of the brightness and warmth of the day in the place where he sees something similar to his fire--in the sun2 especially as1 when he sees no sun1 darkness and cold prevail just as when there is no fire4 ,it is then the knowledge of the earthly fire that helps him to apprehend the kosmic fire2 from the former he transfers his ideas to the latter4 ,he experiences the former only2 he constructs or images to himself the latter4 ,therefore1 in the theoretical consciousness the ideas of the earthly fire are the more powerful and creative1 and they give the measure2 those of the heavenly are formed in conformity to them4 ,the feeling1 on the contrary1 is more powerfully affected by the heavenly than by the earthly fire1 because that is grander in its activity1 mysterious in its appearance and disappearance1 and independent of man4 ,it surprises1 stirs1 and troubles the mind in a higher degree1 and excites a more lively attention4 ,now the power exerted by ideas upon the feeling is certainly not without influence even on their theoretical connexion and distinction1 on their prominence and their formation4 ,further1 much as man may have to do with fire1 often as he may kindle it and put it out1 variously as he may employ it1 still he never fully understands it as to its appearance1 mode of working1 and essence4 ,now it always seems that the great must be the generator of the small1 the strong the point of departure for the weak1 the worthy and impressive more original than the mean and ineffective4 ,if therefore1 on the one hand1 the ideas of the celestial fire are formed by analogy with those of the terrestrial1 on the other hand1 the latter are complemented by being put into connexion with the former4 ,first of all the question is asked1 ,what is there above8--and the answer is1 ,the same as here below4 ,but then comes the question1 ,whence comes this that is here below1 and what is it8--and the answer is1 ,it comes from above1 and is the same as what is above4 ,there above is the great1 the self-subsisting1 the adorable2 it has descended to earth to do us good4 ,thus the idea of the heavenly is attained through the earthly2 but the origin of the latter removed to the upper regions4 ,thus it comes to pass that1 although the ideas of the earthly fire are prior in psychological perception and give rise to those of the heavenly1 still man holds the heavenly fire to be the original and creative one1 from which the other is derived4 ,he is so overpowered by the grandeur1 wonder1 and unapproachableness of the celestial element1 that he regards the fire which he kindles for himself as fallen down from on high and given to him4 ,man receives certain visual sensations of the ,sun2 and he converts these into a conception1 or an object1 by apperceiving them with the ideas that he has of fire4 ,thus he makes of them a fiery wheel4 ,the ideas of this wheel are partly the same as those of the earthly fire1 partly different2 for they are distinct in the elements of place1 size1 effect1 and dependence or independence4 ,thus arises an interlacing of the two combinations of ideas1 as has been already observed4 ,the disturbance produced among the ideas by this relation impels to a double apperception of the two combinations1 first on the part of what is alike in them1 and next on the part of what is different4 ,the first apperception results in the comprehension of the two combinations as fire2 the other in the separate conceptions of a divine and an earthly fire4 ,this latter separation contradicts the first comprehension2 and this contradiction is composed by a new process of apperception1 in which both the likeness and the difference are regarded as the consequence of the relation of originality or derivation1 in which the earthly fire stands to the divine4 ,they are both really the same1 namely1 the god ,agni1 who lives above and descends to men4 ,for the separation of the combination of ideas of the celestial fire from that of the terrestrial1 is not sufficiently supported to offer an effectual opposition to the coalescence to which the most essential elements tend4 ,all the difference that declares itself here resolves itself ultimately into one point only2 for the differences of nearness and distance1 of greatness and smallness1 and whatever else may be added to these1 all unite in the one point of the independence of the celestial fire and the dependence of the terrestrial4 ,but this point is very weak4 ,for even the terrestrial fire is observed by man to be not dependent on him1 and seems to him to be even less so than it is in fact4 ,the primitive man does not think he actually generates the fire by boring3 he regards his action as scarcely more than a petition to the fire to appear4 ,and if the fire then does appear1 it does so as a free and kindly being that has an independent existence4 ,where1 then1 could it live in its own character1 if not on high8 ,it lives there for itself and for ever2 here it comes down out of kindness4 ,having thus discovered the psychological foundation for the fact that the primitive man regarded the fire as a god1 we will endeavour to make clear to ourselves also the first forms of mythical conceptions4 ,we must imagine the primitive man placed as he was freely in the midst of nature4 ,he saw the sky1 the sun1 clouds1 and in the storm the lightning1 and likewise heard thunder4 ,he saw1 he heard3--this means only #8he received sense-impressions4' ,these may no doubt have formed themselves into an image2 still the image was not yet an object placed before his mind1--not yet a conception4 ,when we see something strange to us1 we ask1 ,what is it8 ,yet we see clear1 and have a definite image of the thing2 then what more can we have to ask about it8 ,we want to know also the purpose1 origin1 and regulation of what we have seen1 so as to be able to find a place for it in the series of things previously known1 or1 if there is no suitable place1 at least to find out its relation to that series4 ,nothing less will satisfy us2 then it is no longer an isolated image1 but a conception1 an object2 then we have apperceived it4 ,it remains therefore for the mind to convert the image into an object through apperception4 ,but certain means are demanded by the mind for all its creations1 i4e4 for everything that it makes its own by thought4 ,the sensations--all that is presented by the senses3 tones1 colours1 touch--are merely matter which the mind appropriates to itself4 ,the means whereby this appropriation is rendered possible are not delivered to it by the organs1 nor yet innate in it and ready for use4 ,on the contrary1 as in trade and commerce possession is multiplied by possession1 so also the mind enriches itself every time by means of that which has been already gained2 every acquisition is made a means towards its own enlargement4 ,thus then the primitive man apperceived the descent of the lightning and the sun's rays by means of that which his mind already possessed4 ,but ,i must insist on the necessity of caution4 ,in speaking here of the #8descent of the lightning and the sun's rays1' ,i have presented and apperceived a certain physical occurrence in the way in which we are now wont to do in conversation4 ,but that is not the way in which the primitive man spoke2 and we have still to enquire how he did speak4 ,for him there was as yet no sun1 no lightning1 no ray2 of all these he knew nothing4 ,he saw at first only something shining1 in various forms and movements4 ,but he had not set himself the task of working further with his mind at this presentment of the senses3 his consciousness passively received motions1 out of which mythical ideas grew up4 ,he apperceived unconsciously1 and of course with the ideas that he already had2 his mind built with the materials that it possessed4 ,what1 then1 was likely to be the result of his building8 ,which1 of all the creatures known to man1 passed through the sky like the sun1 darted down and cut through the air like the lightning and the ray of light8 ,only the ,bird4 ,this comparison of the bird with the manifestations of light1 was made immediately and unconsciously4 ,among the ideas about the bird1 motion through the air was the most prominent2 so when this motion was perceived1 the aggregate of ideas about the bird was instantly ready to operate as a means towards the apperception that #8,what moves in the air is a bird4' ,it comes down from the heavenly tree4 ,thus then the ,fire-god ,agni1 as god of the lightning1 is invoked as a fiery1 golden-winged bird4 ,the bird in general is next individualised into an eagle or falcon--a strong1 swift bird1 that darts down with might and majesty4 ,this apperception was one of the simplest1 and was made unconsciously1 as has been said4 ,the idea of motion through the air presented by the lightning1 and the same idea derived from the combination of ideas of the bird1 coalesced and became one4 ,the mere smallness of man's knowledge of the lightning caused the entire combination of ideas of the lightning to be drawn into that of the bird1 whereby the latter combination was enriched so far as to admit the existence of a most wonderful divine bird beside the earthly ones4 ,thus no conscious comparison between lightning and bird took place2 but immediate coalescence of the two was effected by the single conception of the lightning-bird1 in which men were not conscious of any dualism4 ,what we call lightning1 was to the primitive man a bird1 not lightning at all4 ,but also conversely1 what we call a bird of this or that kind--eagle1 vulture1 or woodpecker--was to him lightning4 ,the original meaning of the name 1 given by the ,greeks to a kind of eagle or vulture--which1 as has been noticed1 has a connexion with ,blitz1 the ,phlegyans and the ,bhgu-s--was not #8a bird as swift as lightning1' but #8lightning' itself4 ,thus1 then1 a multitude of mythical conceptions exhibit the lightning as some kind of bird1 or a bird in general4 ,so ,phoroneus1 #8the quickly descending' 7p4 #cfh71 is in origin only an epithet of the powerful bird1 and the ,sabine goddess ,feronia presents the corresponding feminine form2 and numerous superstitions are founded on the recognition of lightning in a bird4 ,still there is a difference between lightning and a bird flying2 and this did not escape the notice of the primitive man4 ,nevertheless1 so far from this difference having power to cancel1 when once accomplished1 the coalescence of the ideas of lightning and bird1 and the unconscious apperception of the former through the latter2 the difference itself was rather apperceived only in conformity with this coalescence4 ,the difference was without any reflexion explained thus3 when the bird has once descended flashing with lightning1 it flashes no more2 it is now only a lightning that has become weakened and earthly4 ,or it may also be said3 the bird is not itself the lightning1 it has brought the lightning down4 ,but where1 then1 has the lightning gone8 ,it has shone for a moment1 and vanished4 ,it shone as if it were fire 7fulgeo 74 ,or perhaps it hit and fired something--then1 whether it be bird or no1 it is clearly fire4 ,we must figure it to ourselves thus4 ,in the sky1 at the farthest limits of the space which the eye can reach1 the primitive man saw light1 radiance1 brightness1 in an overpowering degree2 there he saw the sun and stars4 ,he knew only the things on earth2 only ideas of earthly things formed the possessions of his mind2 and on the dark earth he knew nothing similar to those things of the upper world1 except fire2 only by his idea of this could he apperceive those4 ,now fire darts down from above before his very eyes4 ,now all is explained3 the earthly fire comes from above1 and the upper fire1 having descended1 conceals itself at once1 by a transformation1 in the body from which he extracts fire--in wood4 ,but now the relations are becoming more complicated2 and already they are so far complicated that the original idea of the ,lightning-,bird cannot be retained in its simplicity4 ,alongside of it the idea of the deity1 or of the divine essence1 has been everywhere developed2 and the fire1 the lightning1 the golden-winged bird1 has become the god ,agni4 ,now the ideas of fire also take a new and less simple form4 ,the flame breaks forth from the wood3 consequently1 it must have been in it for a long time4 ,the boring and rubbing in a certain way move ,agni to appear3 such action is therefore loved by the god1 he allows himself to be drawn forth by it4 ,if he loves it1 it cannot be indifferent to the man who yields himself to the god in fear and thankfulness4 ,it is a holy action4 ,the pieces of wood which he stirs hold the god concealed4 ,all appears divine to him1 and his consciousness tarries in a world of gods4 ,for the slight separation which he can make between the fire on high and that below1 consists merely in the distinction between essence and manifestation4 ,but wherever the god manifests himself1 why there he is for certain4 ,consequently1 during the holy act of kindling fire the two combinations of ideas of the ,god-,fire and of the earthly fire coalesce completely2 there only remain ideas of one fire4 ,but it was the ideas of the divine fire that completely absorbed those of the earthly4 ,unresisted1 they exert an exclusive power over the consciousness and entirely fill it4 ,man is removed in spirit from the earth into the world of gods4 ,he has forgotten everything sensuous and earthly1 and sees and touches only gods and divine things4 ,and every perception received from his senses is directly laid hold of by the ideas respecting the world of gods of which his consciousness is full1 and has a place and significance assigned to it among them4 ,the pieces of wood are no longer wood2 the borer1 the really active piece that draws the god forth1 is a divine being that fetches the god4 ,the god is concealed in the hole of the disk1 but this is transformed in conception into a locality in the country of the gods--a hollow1 in which the god is found4 ,it is an occurrence that took place among the gods3 the divine ,pramantha fetches ,agni out of the hollow4 ,the flaring of the flame1 however1 brings the consciousness back to the earth3 ,pramantha has brought the god to earth4 ,we must realise the revolution effected in the consciousness by the fire breaking out4 ,the combination of ideas concerning the earthly fire1 which had coalesced with the other combination concerning the divine fire1 is1 by the present perception1 again introduced into the consciousness as a special power1 and its coalescence with the other conception is thereby cancelled4 ,against the sensuous impression of the present actual fire the circle of ideas of the divine one cannot maintain its supremacy4 ,it retires and leaves the foreground of the consciousness to the circle of ideas of the earthly fire4 ,but all this appeared to the primitive man not a psychological1 but a real procedure2 not a shifting of ideas1 but an actual shifting of the imagined reality4 ,when attention was shifted from the one circle of ideas to the other1 guided by the idea of fire1 which bound the two together1 then it appeared to the primitive man as if the actual fire had removed from the one into the other1 and had come from heaven to earth2 and the already-begun fancy that the god ,pramantha had fetched ,agni1 is accordingly carried on to the further point of saying that he put him among men4 ,man soon observed in the sky on an enlarged1 divine scale1 the identical process which he had learned when producing fire by rotation4 ,agni dwells in the bright1 clear1 light sky4 ,but the sky is overcast and darkened by a thunder-cloud3 ,agni has concealed himself2 he has hidden himself in the hollow of the cloud4 ,he breaks forth from it1 being fetched by a divine ,pramantha1 ,mtarivan1 the ,lightning4 ,the lightning bores into the cloud as the earthly borer into the wooden disk3 ,prometheus1 or ,bhgu and his descendants the ,bhgu-s1 fetch the god from his hiding-place4 ,they go down to the earth with him and take him to men4 ,the primitive man does not ask1 ,where does the fire come from8 what becomes of the fire that has fallen from heaven8 ,before he asks this1 and without his asking1 he sees1 and the lightning tells him1 that the fire comes from heaven1 and the wood tells him that the lightning 7,agni7 is concealed in the wood4 ,neither does the primitive man ask1 ,where does man come from8 ,he sees it1 and practises it4#hjc ,the birth of man is a generating of fire4 ,when the primitive man sees a tree1 he does not ask1 ,what is it8 but by the sight of the tree present before him the combination of ideas respecting trees which is already formed in his mind is without his observation recalled into his consciousness2 and this combination appropriates to itself the present sight1 the perception coalescing with the combination of ideas through the similarity of their contents3 and thereby what is seen is apperceived as a tree4 ,similarly1 when the primitive man figures to himself the act of copulation1 it is the combination of ideas of producing fire by rubbing that enters into his consciousness on account of the similarity of the movement1 and gives him an apperception of that act4 ,the similarity of the two acts seems to the primitive man greater than to us4 ,on the one hand1 the production of fire is to him a religion and a divine energy2 on the other1 man is already regarded by him as a fire-creature1 lightning-born quite as much as a bird4 ,the two combinations of ideas do not1 indeed1 coalesce2 but yet are greatly interlaced with each other in some of their essential elements4 ,the opposition between the partial difference which separates the combinations and the partial similarity which unites them1 leads to a solution in a double and reciprocal apperception3 first1 that the divine rubber1 ,pramantha or ,prometheus1 created man1 or that lightning1 ,bhgu1 ,yama1 or the lightning-bird ,picus1 was the first man2 secondly and conversely1 that the production of the flame by rubbing is the production of the ,fire-,god ,agni1 and that the wood is the cradle of the new-born god4 ,thus ,agni remains always the #8new-born' and the #8youngest1' as he is called in the ,vedas2 and ,dionysos1 also a fire-god1 appears as 1 a god in a cradle4 ,the primitive man was convinced that man was fire4 ,indeed1 his wonder at his own lightning-nature was aroused every time that he produced the god2 and when sacerdotal families had gained the exclusive privilege of kindling fire1 these families traced their origin to ,bhgu or ,agni1 and called themselves ,bhgu-s1 ,agiras-es1 etc4 ,for they continued to do just what their ancestor1 the ,lightning1 had done before them4 ,this is1 as far as ,i can give it1 the psychological explanation of the original forms of the stories of the ,descent of the ,fire4 ,the superstition attached to these stories1 in ancient as well as in modern times1 would be more fittingly considered separately4 ,the peculiar formation of the character of ,prometheus among the ,greeks however1 may still engage our attention a little longer4 ,prometheus is a god and yet a ,titan also4 ,he is the greatest benefactor of the human race4 ,yet in all other cases the mythical idea is that whoever does good to man is also friendly to ,god1 and that only those who do harm to man rebel also against ,god4 ,for the elucidation of this most peculiar and contradictory position1 the following points seem to me worth pondering4 ,all the forces and occurrences of nature show two sides2 one beneficial to man1 and one hostile to him4 ,so also the myth almost always discovers in the one and the same natural event1 a good and a bad god4 ,the bad god is hostile at once to men and gods4 ,the development of a myth frequently takes the course of converting one of the epithets of the god who represents some process of nature1 into a good god1 and another into a bad god4 ,the course to be followed in such a case is frequently determined by the nature or significance of the epithets themselves4 ,now it is certain that ,hephaestos and ,prometheus are identical in their origin1 as indeed is shown in the story of the birth of ,athene1 in which the head of ,zeus is cleft by either one or the other of them4 ,but both ,hephaestos and ,prometheus are ,agni in different forms4 ,we have seen what ,prometheus signifies4 ,somewhat of the physical signification must have still clung to this name even when it came upon ,greek ground4 ,hephaestos1 on the other hand1 possessed from its very origin the finest signification of ,agni2 for it probably represents ,agni as a home-god1 guardian of the family1 as a god of the hearth4 ,and ,hephaestos was still worshiped by the ,greeks as a hearth-god4 ,it surely seems natural1 then1 that the ideas of the beneficent action of fire should fasten themselves to him4 ,but1 on the other side1 to make ,prometheus1 the ,fire-stealer1 an actual enemy of the gods1 was impossible1 for the very reason that he had been a benefactor of men by giving them fire1 and was also the creator of men4 ,thus1 he1 as a god1 became the champion of mankind against the injustice of the gods4 ,it must be added that1 perhaps even in the age of the unity of the ,aryan race1 the ,fire-god1 in his capacity as god 7creator7 of mankind1 was also a god of ,thought1 who among primeval circumstances could scarcely be anything else but a god of ,prudence1 or foreseeing caution--an idea which gave the ,romans their ,minerva1 but which might very naturally be attached to a god of fire1 since prudence is exhibited nowhere more plainly than in the use of fire4 ,at all events1 even in the ,vedas1 ,agni has the epithet pramati1 which would yield something like - in ,greek4 ,epic story made ,pramati an independent personage1 a son of yavana 7supra1 p4 #cgc71 the #8,fallen1' who is a son of ,bhgu1 the ,lightning4 ,thus in sense1 if not in name1 the ,indian ,pramati is equivalent to ,prometheus4 ,prometheus is ,fire-god1 ,man-god1 ,god of human energy in thought4 ,in this capacity he comes into collision with the supreme god4 ,so he appears in ,hesiod1 and also in ,aeschylus1 except that the latter was able to give a far deeper meaning to the guilt of ,prometheus1 to his entire relation to ,zeus1 and therefore also to his ultimate reconciliation4 ,thus then in ,prometheus is comprised the whole essence of heathenism3 deification of ,man and ,nature4 ,he was the most characteristic figure of that mode of conception which created gods in the image of man4 ,but the opposite mode of conception1 according to which man was created like one single god1 and was expected to make himself like ,god in life1 produced a figure opposed to that of ,prometheus--,moses4 ,i speak here not of the historical1 but of the mythical ,moses2 and ,i hope that the reader will be inclined to distinguish the two as clearly as we distinguish the historical and the legendary ,charlemagne4 ,now the mythical ,moses may be compared in meaning with ,prometheus4 ,prometheus ascended to heaven and fetched down fire from the altar of ,zeus for men4 ,moses also went up and brought back the ,tables of his ,god with the fundamental laws of all common human moral life2 for this act ,moses could not come into conflict with ,god4 ,but the original heathen myth respecting ,moses was different4 ,moses struck water out of the rock with his staff3 the staff is the lightning1 the rock the cloud1 the water the rain4 ,kuhn has shown at length what a close connexion subsists between the procuring of water1 wine1 honey1 mead1 and soma1 and the bringing down of fire1#hjd 7like the connexion between rain and lightning71 and that they are so to speak1 mythical synonyms4 ,and this water did cause a difference between ,moses and ,god4 ,now the reconciliation is brought about by ,aeschylus by making both ,prometheus and ,zeus purify themselves and bind themselves by moral elements4 ,but the monotheistic spirit of the ,prophet transfigured the entire myth1 and put in the place of the water and the fire the ,word of ,god2 and then no reconciliation was needed1 for ,god spoke with ,moses as his servant and messenger4 ,yet alongside of this monotheistic myth of ,moses who brings down the ,word of ,god1 there remained also the old heathen one1 which said that he brought water4 ,it was a correct feeling1 or a lingering consciousness which had been retained1 that declared that ,moses had sinned in the matter of the water1 although it was no longer known in what the sin consisted4#hje ,therefore ,i interpret and clear up the obscured remembrance or suspicion of the author of the ,book of ,numbers1 by saying that1 forasmuch as ,moses strikes water out of the rock with his staff1 he is a heathen god1 a ,mtarivan1 a ,pramantha1 and therefore in opposition to the one true ,god1 and must die2 but forasmuch as he gives the ,word of ,god to men1 he is the ,prophet without his equal4 ------------------ ,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,samson4 ,by ,h4 ,,steinthal4 ,when an author can presume that his readers share his views on things in general1 and also accept like principles respecting the special sphere to which his subject belongs1 it may be fitting to descend from the general to the particular4 ,but when1 as is now more frequently the case1 no such assumption can be made1 the opposite course1 from the particular to the general1 is preferable for the sake of both the matter and the manner of the investigation itself4 ,i shall therefore adopt it4 ,i shall1 therefore1 at the outset leave out of the question what view it is possible to hold respecting the growth of the people of ,israel1 and especially of their monotheism4 ,i shall not proceed on the assumption that any particular view is proved true1 but try whether1 after the consideration of our subject in its details1 any result affecting general questions is reached4 ,i also for the present leave undetermined the value of the ,biblical ,books as sources of history1 the period of the composition of the separate books1 and even their relative age--i4e4 the earlier or later compilation of one with reference to others4 ,for all these are still disputed points2 and ,i desire not to build upon any unproved assumption1 but to see how much can be contributed to the solution of the questions that arise4 ,even the question1 whether1 and how far1 we are justified in treating the history of ,samson in the ,bible as legend1#hjf may be left to be answered only from the result of the following enquiry4 ,if1 on comparing these stories with other nations' stories1 similarities are discovered alongside of much that is dissimilar1 nothing shall1 in the first instance1 be decided about the cause and significance of such similarities1 but new investigation shall be made on the subject4 ,i4 ,,the ,,adventure ,,with ,,the ,,lion1 ,,and ,,the ,,riddle4-- ,,the ,,foxes4 ,i pass over the narrative of the birth of ,samson for the present1 intending to come to it only after the contemplation of his actions4 ,the reason for this arrangement will then become apparent4 ,i therefore commence with ,samson's first action4 ,it is narrated 7,judges ,,xiv47 that ,samson was attacked by a lion when on the way to see his bride1 and killed him4 ,when he went by the same road to his wedding1 he looked at the carcase of the lion1 and found a swarm of bees and honey in it4 ,this occurrence suggested the following riddle1 which he put forth at the wedding-feast3 #8,out of the ,eater came forth ,meat1 and out of the ,strong ,wild came forth ,sweetness4' ,by his bride's treachery the riddle was solved3 #8,what is sweeter than honey8 and what stronger than a lion8' ,samson's riddle is still a riddle even to us now4 ,it has never yet been solved1 as far as ,i know2 certainly not in the ,bible itself1 for the answer there given is a still greater riddle than the riddle itself1 which seems not to have been observed4 ,only look closely at the pretended solution4 ,it looks as if the question had been3 #8,what is the sweetest1 and what the strongest8' ,but the actual problem was3 #8,out of the wild eater comes sweet food2' how that came to pass1 was the question--and still is a question4 ,for even the story of the slain lion and the honey found in his carcase cannot contain the solution1 because it involves a physical impossibility4 ,bees do not build in dead flesh2 their wax and honey would be spoiled by putrefaction4 ,in no such wise can honey come out of the lion4 ,besides1 ,samson would be very foolish to base a riddle on a mere personal experience known to no one2 it would then be absolutely insoluble4 ,we cannot credit the original narrative with so gross an ineptitude4 ,then what is the position of the affair8 ,it is certain that a riddle like the one in question was in circulation among the ancient ,hebrews1 and that ,samson was believed to have proposed it4 ,it is equally certain that its solution lay in the words transmitted from antiquity3 #8,what is sweeter than honey1 what stronger than a lion8' ,but it is not only to us at the present day that this solution is as obscure as the riddle itself2 it was quite as unintelligible to the latest elaborator of the ,book of ,judges4 ,so he attempted a solution on his own responsibility4 ,he had two data in his possession3 the riddle1 and the story of the lion-killing4 ,well1 he concluded1 ,samson must have found honey in the carcase of this lion4 ,what he had wrongly inferred1 he narrated as a fact which ought to yield the solution of the riddle4 ,but we must guess better4 ,if it is certain that ,samson cannot have found honey in the lion's carcase1 yet1 on the other hand1 the pretended solution at least proves that by the strong eater the lion is to be understood1 and by the sweet food the honey4 ,and if this was solution sufficient for the legend1 it follows that at the time when the riddle arose some connexion between lion and honey was so definitely and clearly present to the consciousness of every individual1 because held by the mind of the entire people1 that it came into prominence as soon as ever lion and honey were named together3 somewhat as among us when we speak of bear and honey together1 though with reference to something else4#hjg ,but there must have been some known connexion which made it evident how honey came out of the lion4 ,it is our task now to discover this connexion if we are to attempt the solution of the riddle--one which is more than thirty centuries old1 and the unriddling of which has been forgotten for some twenty-five4 ,can there be any other riddle of equal interest8 ,in the following remarks ,i endeavour to solve it4 ,when once we know that the ,eater in the riddle is the ,lion1 of course it is natural to think of the lion killed by ,samson2 and the compiler of the ,book of ,judges would not have fancied that the honey was in its carcase1 but for an obscure memory that this particular lion had something to do with it4 ,now to us this lion is not a real but a mythological one1 i4e4 a symbol4 ,and we know the meaning of the symbol4 ,herakles also1 it is well known1 begins his labours by killing a lion4 ,the ,assyrians and ,lydians1 both of them ,semitic nations1 worshipped a ,sun-god named ,sandan or ,sandon2 he also is imagined to be a lion-killer1 and frequently figured struggling with the lion or standing upon the slain lion4 ,the lion is found as the animal of ,apollon on the ,lycian monuments as well as at ,patara4#hjh ,hence1 it becomes clear that the lion was accepted by the ,semitic nations as a symbol of the summer heat4 ,the reason of the symbol was undoubtedly the light colour1 the colour of fire1 the mane1 which recalled ,apollon's golden locks1 and also the power and rage of the wild beast4 ,the hair represents the burning rays4 ,so we have here to do with the sign of the ,lion in the zodiac1 in which the sun is during the dog-days4 ,at this season the sky is occupied by ,orion1 the powerful huntsman--of whom ,i shall presently have a few words to say--and ,sirius1 who in ,arabic is designated #8the ,hairy' in reference to his rays4 #8,samson1 ,herakles1 or ,sandon kills the lion1' means therefore1 #8,he is the beneficent saving power that protects the earth against the burning heat of summer4' ,samson is the kind ,aristaeos who delivers the island of ,keos from the lion1#hji the protector of bees and hives of honey1 which is the most abundant when the sun is in the ,lion4 ,thus sweet food comes out of the strong eater4 ,very possibly and probably1 however1 there was a superstition to the effect that bees are generated out of the lion's carcase1 in the same way as they are believed by some nations to spring from an ox's carcase4#haj ,but such a superstition must have some basis1 and no other basis is easily conceivable but the mythological one which ,i have mentioned4 ,what was true in symbol1 that the ,lion produced honey1 was taken as true in fact4 ,for ,i must insist on the fact that1 according to the literal meaning of the ,hebrew1 no mere taking of the honey from outside a lion's skeleton is meant1 but its being actually produced by the lion4 ,however1 when we try to clear up to our own minds what has been said1 we stumble upon a difficulty4 ,it is after all the ,sun that produces the summer-heat2 ,apollon sends the destructive shafts4 ,therefore1 if the ,sun-god does battle against the summer-heat1 he is fighting against himself2 if he kills it1 he kills himself4 ,no doubt he does4 ,the ,phenicians1 ,assyrians1 and ,lydians attributed suicide to their ,sun-god2 for they could only understand the sun's mitigation of its own heat as suicide4 ,if the ,sun stands highest in the summer1 and its rays burn with their devouring glow1 then1 they thought1 the god must burn himself2 yet does not die1 but only gains a new youth in the character of the ,phenix1 and appears as a gentler autumn-sun4 ,herakles also burns himself1 but rises out of the flames to ,olympos4 ,this is the contradiction usual in the heathen gods4 ,as physical forces they are both salutary and injurious to man4 ,to do good and to save1 therefore1 they must work against themselves4 ,the contradiction is blunted when each side of the physical force is personified in a separate god2 or when1 though only one divine person is imagined1 the two modes of operation--the beneficent and the pernicious--are distinguished by separate symbols4 ,the symbols then become more and more independent1 and are ultimately themselves regarded as gods2 and whereas originally the god worked against himself1 now the one symbol fights against the other symbol1 one god against the other god1 or the god with the symbol4 ,so the ,lion represents as a symbol the hostile aspect of the ,sun-god1 and the latter must kill him lest he should be burned himself4 ,samson also unites both aspects in himself4 ,the ,hebrew story makes him operate even on the pernicious side1 but against the foe4 ,to the foe he is the scathing ,sun-god4 ,this is the sense of the story of the ,foxes1 which ,samson caught and sent into the ,philistines' fields with firebrands fastened to their tails1 to burn the crops4 ,like the lion1 the fox is an animal that indicated the solar heat2 being well suited for this both by its colour and by its long-haired tail4 ,at the festival of ,ceres at ,rome1 a fox-hunt through the ,circus was held1 in which burning torches were bound to the foxes' tails3 #8a symbolical reminder of the damage done to the fields by mildew1 called the 8red fox0 7robigo71 which was exorcised in various ways at this momentous season 7the last third of ,april74 ,it is the time of the ,dog-star1 at which the mildew was most to be feared2 if at that time great solar heat follows too close upon the hoar-frost or dew of the cold nights1 this mischief rages like a burning fox through the corn-fields4 ,on the twenty-fifth of ,april were celebrated the ,robigalia1 at which prayers were addressed to ,mars and ,robigo together1 and to ,robigus and ,flora together1 for protection against devastation4 ,in the grove of ,robigus young dogs of red colour were offered in expiation on the same day4'#haa ,ovid's story of the fox which was rolled in straw and hay for punishment1 and ran into the corn with the straw burning and set it on fire1#hab is a mere invention to account for the above-mentioned ceremonial fox-hunt2 still it has for its basis1 though in the disguise of a story1 the original mythical conception of the divine ,fire-fox that burns up the corn4 ,the stories of ,samson hitherto discussed seem to me so similar to the ,eastern and ,western ones that ,i have compared1 their interpretation so certain1 and their sense so essential to the character of the ,sun-god1 that ,i am of opinion that even the coincidence of collateral points cannot be treated as accidental4 ,the ,bible says that ,samson killed the lion with his bare hands3 #8there was nothing in his hand4' ,but ,herakles also kills the ,nemean lion without his arrows1 by strangling him with his arms4 ,this feature1 too1 is probably significant4 ,the ,greek myth says that the reason why ,herakles could not use any weapons was because the lion's hide was invulnerable2 but this is pure invention4 ,the truth seems to me to be1 that the weapons possessed by the ,sun-god are actually his only in so far as his symbol is the lion2 for they consist of the force and efficacy of the ,sun4 ,now when the ,sun itself is to be killed1 that cannot be done with the very weapons which are its strength4 ,the god is forced to catch the burning rays in his own arms2 he must extinguish the ,sun's heat by embracing the ,sun1 i4e4 by strangling or rending the lion4 ,the following point is less clear1 but surely not without significance4 ,the ,philistines avenge the destruction of their cornfields1 vineyards1 and olives by ,samson1 by burning his bride and her father4 ,this causes ,samson to inflict a great defeat on his enemies2 but after the victory he flies and hides in a cavern4#hac ,what means this behaviour1 for which no motive is assigned8 ,what had ,samson to fear in any case1 but especially after such a victory8 ,but let it be remembered that ,apollon flies after killing the dragon2 so also ,indra after killing ,vtra1 according to the ,indian legend in the ,vedas2 and that even l1 the ,semitic supreme god1 has to fly4 ,thus ,samson's retreat1 mentioned1 but not very clearly expressed because not understood1 by the ,biblical narrator1 appears to indicate this often-recurring flight of the ,sun-god after victory4 ,in the tempestuous phenomena1 in which two powers of nature seemed to be contending together1 men felt the presence of the good god2 but after his victory1 when all was quiet again1 he seemed to have ,i withdrawn and gone to a distance4 ,but if on the last-mentioned point the story is seen to be shrouded in much obscurity1 this is the case in even a higher degree with the two next-following deeds of amson4 #b4 ,,the ,,ass',s ,,jawbone4 ,we come to ,samson's heroism displayed with the ass's jawbone4 ,there is much difficulty here1 and it will be impossible to be certain as to the interpretation4 ,but it must be noticed at the outset that the story belongs strictly to a certain locality4 ,its field of action is a district between the ,philistine and the ,israelite territories1 which was called #8,jawbone1' or perhaps in full1 #8,ass's ,jawbone1' and doubtless received this name from the peculiar conformation of the mountains4 ,pointed rocks probably formed a curved line1 and thus presented the figure of a jawbone with teeth4 ,between these teeth of rock there may have been a cauldron-shaped depression1 which had the appearance of an empty place for a tooth2 and just there a spring1 no doubt a well-known and perhaps a particularly healing one1 must have risen4#had ,so1 although the story wishes to derive the name from ,samson's feats1 the truth is rather that the name and the territorial conditions produced the transformation of the story4 ,now ,i must first remind the reader of the tongue of land in ,lakonia close to the promontory of ,maleae1 which stretches out into the ,lakonian gulf opposite the island ,kythera3 it bears the very same name as the place where ,samson performed his feat1 ,onugnathos 7#8,ass's ,jawbone'74 ,the name is certainly only the ,greek translation of an original ,phenician name4 ,from ,strabo#hae we learn little or nothing of this peninsula4 ,pausanias#haf reports that there had been on it a temple of ,athene without image and without roof4 ,now this ,athene was probably identical with a modification of the ,astarte of ,sidon1 ,athene ,onka1 who was worshipped at ,thebes also4 ,and it may be significant1 that there was in that temple a monument to ,menelaos' steersman1 who was called ,kinados 7#8,fox'74 ,at all events ,onugnathos proves a myth1 known also to the ,phenicians1 of which an ass's jawbone was an essential part4 ,but the ass1 like the fox1 was in many nations sacred to the evil ,sun-god1 ,moloch or ,typhon1 on account of his red colour1 from which his name in ,hebrew is taken4 ,the ,greeks say that in the country of the ,hyperboreans1 hecatombs of asses were offered to ,apollon4 ,but he was also ascribed to ,silenos1 the demon of springs1 on account of his wantonness2 and this may perhaps furnish the explanation of the celebrated spring at this place1 which has its rise in the ,jawbone4 ,perhaps formerly there was at this spring1 which was called #8,spring of the ,crier1'#hag a sanctuary where the priests of the ,sun-god gave out oracles1 as those of ,sandon1 the ,lydian ,sun-god1 did at a spring in the neighbourhood of ,kolophon4 ,and the ass is a prophetic animal3 ,i need only refer to ,balaam's ass4 ,to ancient tradition must undoubtedly be ascribed the exclamation which ,samson is said to have uttered on this occasion3 #8,with an ass's jawbone a heap1 two heaps--with an ass's jawbone ,i slew a thousand men4'#hah ,now ,bertheau conjectures#hai that this short verse had originally #8at the place called ,ass's ,jawbone ,i slew1' and that the story of ,samson gaining a victory with an ass's jawbone arose solely from false interpretation of it2 and no doubt the ,hebrew preposition be can denote #8in1 at' quite as well as #8with4' ,the same scholar observes further1 that according to the story the rocks called #8,jawbone ,hill'#hbj are1 themselves1 the very ass's jawbone that was thrown away by ,samson after his victory2 for only so is it intelligible that a spring should gush out of the cast-away jawbone1 as the story goes on to relate4#hba ,to this ,i must add1 that the throwing of the jawbone seems to me the most essential and original feature in the whole story1 from which the name and origin of the locality1 and the victory with the jawbone also1 were developed4 ,for surely the jawbone cannot be anything but the ,lightning1 just as in ,aryan mythology the head of an ass1 or still more that of a horse1 denotes a storm-cloud1 and a tooth1 especially the tusk of a boar1 signifies the lightning4#hbb ,here then we have a thunder-bolt thrown down in the lightning--the instrument with which the ,sun-god conquered1 and at the same time formed the locality4 ,i have two more observations to make here4 ,we nowhere find ,samson armed with the weapons which we see almost everywhere else in the hands both of the ,greek and of the ,oriental ,herakles--the mortar-club 7pestle7 or the bow and arrows4 ,the club had the appearance of a mortar with the pestle in it1 or of a tooth in its cavity2 and in ,hebrew one word#hbc denoted both a mortar and the cavity of a tooth4#hbd ,the second remark relates to the ,spring4 ,the ,bible tells that ,samson1 wearied out by the murderous contest1 at length sank down1 faint with thirst1 and prayed to ,god1 saying #8,thou hast given this great deliverance into the hand of thy servant1 and now ,i shall die for thirst and fall into the hand of the uncircumcised6' upon which ,god made the spring burst forth4 ,this might be a fiction1 in which ,samson was depicted under human conditions2 and the story of the spring given to relieve ,hagar and ,ishmael might in that case serve as a model for it4 ,but perhaps the following combination will not be found too far-fetched4 ,the ,solar hero wages war with the mischief done to nature by an excess of heat4 ,thus the battle of ,herakles with ,antaeos is only the form localised in the deserts of ,libya1 of the story of the contest against the stifling heat1 against the simoom which gains its strength from the sandy soil1 as ,movers1 who also sees in the ,erymanthean boar only a variant of ,antaeos1 has ingeniously explained4 ,in ,tingis1 i4e4 ,tangier1 the grave of ,antaeos was shown1 with a spring beside it4 ,a similar legend among the ,hebrews might perhaps assume in time the above strictly ,jahveistic form4 ,in that case the national instinct of ,israel would have retained only the spirit and sense of the old story1 while putting off all the heathen form and substituting a ,jahveistic one for it4 ,this would require no reflexion indeed1 but undoubtedly much creative power of popular imagination4 ,the fact1 that in the ,hebrew story the spring is put into combination with the jawbone1 would seem to me1 connecting it with my conception of the latter as ,lightning1 to indicate that the spring is the ,rain1 which breaks forth from the cloud with the lightning4 #c4 ,,samson ,,at ,,gaza4 ,it is related#hbe that to escape out of the ,philistine town of ,gaza by night1 ,samson pulled up the city-gates with their posts and bars1 and carried them to the top of the hill opposite the city of ,hebron2 which seems an utterly senseless practical joke1 though quite in keeping with ,samson's overweening jovial character4 ,it will probably be difficult to make out with any certainty what is the foundation of this legend4 ,it seems probable to me1 however1 that we have to do here with a disfigured myth1 of the same import as that of the descent of ,herakles into the nether-world1#hbf which originally declared that ,samson broke open the gates of the well-bolted 77 ,hades4 ,as in the ,greek story of ,herakles the fight at the gate of the nether-world1 1 was transformed into a fight at ,pylos1#hbg by a mere play on words2 so in the ,hebrew story1 instead of the gates of the nether-world or of death 7shaar mweth71 those of the city called the ,strong 7,gaza1 or properly ,azz7 might be named4 ,the cause for which ,samson went down into the nether-world was forgotten1 and a new motive was invented by the legend for his visit to ,gaza1 in keeping with the licentiousness of his character4 ,the fact that he starts at midnight1 and does not sleep till morning1 is certainly not without significance1 but contains a remembrance of the circumstance that the deed took place in the darkness1 i4e4 in the nether-world4 ,and the feature of the story which tells that ,samson carries the gates to the top of a hill1 must have been suggested by some local peculiarity in the form of the rock4 ,but very probably the recollection of a myth which made the ,solar hero bring something up from the nether-world had also some influence on the story4 #d4 ,,samson',s ,,amours4 ,the circumstance that ,samson is so addicted to sexual pleasure1 has its origin in the remembrance that the ,solar god is the god of fruitfulness and procreation4 ,thus in ,lydia ,herakles 7,sandon7 is associated with ,omphale the ,birth-goddess1 and in ,assyria the effeminate ,ninyas with ,semiramis2 whilst among the ,phenicians1 ,melkart pursues ,dido-,anna4 ,the beloved of the god is the goddess of parturition and of love4 ,she is1 in general terms1 ,nature1 which is fructified by the solar heat1 conceives and bears2 or is specially identified with the ,moon1 or even with the ,earth1 but more frequently with ,water--originally rain1 and subsequently the sea and rivers also1 and finally 7the rain being regarded as mead or wine7 the vine1 caressed by the sun4 ,thus ,venus rises out of the sea2 and ,semitic goddesses have fish-ponds dedicated to them4 ,iole1 whom ,herakles woos1 is the daughter of ,eurytos1 the #8,copiously ,flowing4' ,of the three ,philistine women whom ,samson approaches1 only one--the one who brings about his ruin--is named4 ,her name1 ,dell1 denotes1 according to ,gesenius1 infirma1 desiderio confecta1 i4e4 the #8,longing1 ,languishing1' and according to ,bertheau the #8,tender2' at all events1 it refers to love4 ,she lives in the #8,vine-,valley1'#hbh and consequently appears to represent the vine itself1 which the ,sun-god is so zealous in wooing2 indeed1 even the name ,dell might denote a ,branch1 a ,vine-shoot4 ,deianeira1 also1 is the daughter of ,oeneus the #8,wine-man1' or1 as others say1 of ,dionysos4 ,orion1 who stands so near to the ,sun-god1 woos the daughter of ,oenipion the #8,vine4' ,but even supposing--what is very possible--that ,dell originally denoted a ,palm-branch1 we know that the palm was sacred to ,asherah4 ,but yet another combination appears admissible4 ,dell may also signify the #8,relaxed1 ,vanishing1' as a ,moon-goddess4 ,this goddess is indeed originally a chaste virgin2 but in ,tyre and ,assyria she also assumes the character of ,birth-goddess1 and is variously served by strict chastity1 by sacrifice of children1 and by prostitution of virginity4 ,the coalescence of the chaste and cruel goddess with the luxurious one is exhibited in ,semiramis1 who is said to have killed her husband and all her numerous lovers4 ,this might have given to the story of ,samson its present form1 which represents his ruin as brought about by a woman4 ,but this leads to the following point4 #e4 ,,samson',s ,,end4 ,looking back1 we find that we may probably regard as certain the proposed interpretation of the killing of the lion1 of the foxes carrying firebrands1 and of ,samson's sexual passion3 while the deeds with the jawbone and the gates must be termed uncertain4 ,now ,samson's end brings us back into perfect clearness2 it refers again to the ,solar god4 ,if the hair is the symbol of the growth of nature in summer1 then the cutting off of the hair must be the disappearance of the productive power of ,nature in winter4 ,samson is blinded at the same time1 like ,orion3 this again has the same meaning1 the cessation of the power of the ,sun4 ,again1 ,samson and the other ,sun-gods are forced to endure being bound3 and this too indicates the tied-up power of the ,sun in winter4 ,the final act1 ,samson's death1 reminds us clearly and decisively of the ,phenician ,herakles1 as ,sun-god1 who died at the winter solstice in the furthest ,west1 where his two ,pillars are set up to mark the end of his wanderings4 ,samson also dies at the two ,pillars1 but in his case they are not the ,pillars of the ,world1 but are only set up in the middle of a great banqueting-hall4 ,a feast was being held in honour of ,dagon1 the ,fish-god2 the sun was in the sign of the ,waterman2 ,samson1 the ,sun-god1 died4#hbi #f4 ,,samson ,,the ,,hebrew ,,solar ,,hero ,,herakles1 ,,melkart4 ,the above comparison and interpretation of all ,samson's deeds and the manner of his end has yielded so clear and decided a result1 that the answer to the question1 #8,who or what was ,samson originally8' has necessarily been already anticipated4 ,i therefore now only combine together what has been discovered1 and say3 ,samson was originally a ,sun-god1 or his vicegerent a ,solar hero--the ,sun being conceived as the representative of the force of ,heat in nature1 whether vivifying and salutary1 or scorching and destructive4 ,to this result we are brought1 finally1 by the name of our hero4 ,for ,samson1 or more accurately ,shimshn1 is an obvious derivative from the ,hebrew word for #8,sun4'#hcj ,as from dg #8fish' ,dg-n1#hca the name of the ,fish-god of the ,philistines1 is formed1 so from shemesh #8sun' we have ,shimsh-n1 the ,sun-god4 ,now1 to recur to ,samson's hair1 our thoughts turn most naturally to ,apollon's locks4 ,but this comparison appears to me not quite accurate4 ,for ,apollon's locks are connected with his arrows1 and are1 like them1 a figure of his rays4 ,but ,samson is not the shining god1 but the warming and productive god4 ,his hair1 like the hair and beard of ,zeus1 ,kronos1 ,aristaeos1 and ,asklepios1 is a figure of increase and luxuriant fulness4 ,in winter1 when nature appears to have lost all strength1 the god of growing young life has lost his hair4 ,in the spring the hair grows again1 and nature returns to life again4 ,of this original conception the ,biblical story still preserves a trace4 ,samson's hair1 after being cut off1 grows again1 and his strength comes back with it4#hcb ,this ,sun-god was1 moreover1 regarded as the beneficent power that destroyed all powers and influences injurious to man and to life in general1--the chivalrous hero1 who wandered over the earth from the east to the furthest west1 everywhere ready to strike a blow to deliver the earth from the creatures of ,typhon1 the ,hydra1 etc41 the defender and king of cities1 leader of emigrants and protector of colonies--in short1 as ,herakles4 ,this character of the ,herakles-,melkart of the ,phenicians appears in ,samson in greatly shrunken proportions4 ,the ,hebrews sent no colonies to ,mount ,atlas2 the supernatural monsters become a natural lion2 and ,samson's strength was required only against the ,philistines4 ,it is also seen1 moreover1 from the above comparison1 not only that it is correct1 but also how far it is correct1 to call ,samson the ,hebrew ,herakles4 ,the one as well as the other is a martial ,sun-god4 ,and this makes it clear also that we are equally justified in classing ,samson with ,perseus and ,bellerophon1 with ,indra and ,siegfried1--in short1 with all the mythological beings and legendary heroes whose nature is related to sun1 light1 and especially warmth1 like ,orion1 ,seirios1 ,aristaeos1 and ,kronos4 ,in mythology1 as in language1 there are synonyms2 e4g4 ,apollon and ,helios1 ,herakles and ,perseus2 indeed1 the two latter are both synonymous with ,apollon4 ,now two words belonging to different languages1 though similar in meaning1 still scarcely ever call up absolutely the same conception1 but are a little different from one another as synonyms4 ,so also mythological beings and names in two nations1 especially where the difference is so great as it is between the ,hebrews and the ,greeks1 and between the ,semites and the ,aryans in general1 are probably never perfectly identical1 but never more than synonyms4 ,therefore we must not indulge the caprice of trying to make ,samson as similar as possible to ,herakles3 for instance1 there is not the slightest reason to assign to ,samson twelve labours1 and the less so as that number even in the case of ,herakles is only derived from a late age and forms too contracted a sphere4 ,and1 on the other hand1 in finding analogies to ,samson1 we are nowise compelled to rest satisfied with ,herakles4 ,but now we must look closer into ,samson's birth and the position ascribed to him in the ,biblical narrative4 #g4 ,,samson',s ,,birth ,,and ,,naziritism4 ,the birth of the hero of a legend is always the last circumstance to be invented concerning him1 when his life and character are already settled2 just as an author writes his preface only after the completion of his book4 ,this comparison is here particularly apposite1 since the narrative of the appearance of the angel who announces to the parents of ,samson after a long period of childlessness1 the birth of a son who is to be dedicated to ,god1#hcc is not invented by popular imagination1 but produced by the writer4 ,this introduction to the history of ,samson is capable of two comparisons4 ,it may be put side by side with the birth of ,samuel1#hcd or with the law of ,naziritism4#hce ,in either case several differences appear4 ,samuel is not described by the ,biblical narrator as a ,nazirite 7nzr74 ,but from this it does not follow that at the time of the composition of the ,book of ,samuel this word had not yet come into use1 but only that in the signification which it then had1 it did not seem appropriate to ,samuel as he was then fancied4 ,samuel was called one ,lent to ,god4#hcf ,in consequence of this1 he lived in the ,tabernacle1 waiting on the ,high ,priest and ,judge ,eli2 he wore a priest's dress1 and1 as is stated with great emphasis1 no razor came upon his head4#hcg ,the latter is said of ,samson also4 ,the expression #8,lent to ,god1' seems not to have been a technical word or fixed designation1 but only an etymological interpretation of the name ,samuel4 ,the life in the ,tabernacle and the priest's dress were certainly not essential to the position of a ,nazirite any more than to that of a ,prophet1 and are also out of accord with the narrative of ,samuel's later life2 they must be only a later invention4 ,the narrative of ,samuel's dedication is perfectly simple1 concerned only with universal human conditions and feelings1 deeply and fervently religious4 ,deeply troubled and vexed at her childlessness1 the wife prays ,god for a son1 vowing1 if only her prayer be answered1 to dedicate the child to ,god for all the days of his life4 ,with the impulse of true piety1 after the fulfilment of her prayer1 she performs a voluntary vow1 to which she is compelled by no law4 ,this story is older than that of ,samson1 who becomes a ,nazirite1 not in fulfilment of a vow1 but by reason of a ,divine command4 ,the term ,nazirite is first found used by the prophet ,amos1#hch who couples together the ,nazirite and the ,prophet2 but he makes no mention of the hair1 only of the prohibition of wine4 ,but it does not follow from this fact that in the time of ,amos the ,nazirite did employ the razor on his head4 ,samson's parents received a command to dedicate their son3 he was to be a ,nazirite from his mother's womb to the day of his death4 ,but to the prohibition to shave off the hair and to drink wine was added a prohibition to eat anything unclean2 this was a later addition4 ,the written law on the subject was the latest and also the severest and most fully developed2 for it adds to the previous prohibitions another against defilement by dead bodies4 ,on the other side1 however1 the ,law knows nothing of any life-long ,nazirites1 who were to live like ,samuel all their days in the ,temple before ,god2 for1 in the later view represented by the ,law1 only the ,priest1 the son of ,aaron1 lived in the ,temple2 he was then the truly dedicated person1 and wine was denied him not absolutely1 but at the time of his service in the ,temple4#hci ,and the ,law had no need expressly to forbid the ,nazirite to touch unclean food1 since it was already forbidden to every ,israelite4 ,but to defile himself by the touch of a corpse1 even of that of his father or mother1 brother or sister1 was forbidden to the ,nazirite4#hdj ,thus we discover three or four stages in the development of ,naziritism among the ,israelites1 exhibited1 7#a7 by the passage in the prophet ,amos1 7#b7 by the narrative of the birth of ,samuel1 7#c7 by that of the birth of ,samson1 and lastly1 7#d7 by the ,law4 ,before the time of ,amos there were ,nazirites--that is1 as appears from their being classed next to ,prophets1 people who by a voluntary resolve consecrated their lives to ,god and the establishment of religion in the nation1 and as a symbol of their resolve denied themselves the use of wine and did not cut their hair4 ,there might be many prophets living as ,nazirites because such a mode of life seemed to them appropriate to their intercourse with ,god4 ,at the time of the construction of the narrative of ,samuel's birth the ,nazirite's abstinence was regarded as something intrinsically meritorious1 rewarded by the special favour of ,god4 ,hence arose the idea that ,samuel1 a man whom tradition allowed to have possessed extraordinary greatness1 had been a ,nazirite1 not only at a mature age1 but from his very birth1 although tradition did not call him such1 but represented him only as a ,prophet and ,judge4 ,it was supposed that ,naziritism from birth had qualified him for his subsequent greatness4 ,at the time when the narrator of the birth of ,samson lived1 this idea was probably so firmly established1 that ,god could be imagined to bestow his special favour on an individual only by means of ,naziritism1 which was demanded at his very birth as a condition of that favour4 ,naziritism1 which to ,amos had been only a peculiar mode of working for the cause of the religion and morality of the nation1 was degraded by the above process into a personal mode of life which was thought to be especially well-pleasing to ,god4 ,and then any one could adopt it at any moment1 and keep it up for a certain time only1 longer or shorter2 and the ,law then prescribed the conduct of such as took a vow to live as ,nazirites for a certain period4 ,but how does the author of this narrative of ,samson's birth stand in relation to the subsequent popular legends8 and what do these legends know of ,samson's ,naziritism8 ,little1 not to say ,nothing4 ,the contradiction cannot be obliterated1 and seems to have been observed by the narrator of the birth himself4 ,he was the first who called ,samson a ,nazirite4 ,if even his mother was to observe abstinence during her pregnancy1 it seemed to follow as a matter of course that ,samson himself as a ,nazirite ought to pass his life in no less abstinence4 ,but the legends reported the fact to be the reverse4 ,the narrator observed this4 ,so when ,samson's father prayed earnestly that the angel who had appeared to his wife and given her a rule of conduct1 might appear to him also and say how they should do unto the child1 the angel gave no answer1 but only repeated the rule for the mother4 ,thus the narrator did not venture to allow a degree of abstinence to be prescribed for ,samson1 which in the legends he never practised4 ,there is1 however1 one feature of the ,nazirite which is known even to the legends3 the uncut hair4 ,the legend knows for certain that ,samson's hair is the seat of his strength4 ,but in the legend the hair is not represented as a mere ideal sign of divine consecration1 but as the real source of strength4 ,and therefore ,samson1 having trifled away his hair and thereby lost his strength1 gets his strength back as soon as his hair has begun to grow again4 ,thus the loss of the hair is not in the legend a symbol of a falling away from ,god1 nor the weakness that attends it produced through being deserted by ,god2 but the hair itself is the strength1 and to cut it off is the same thing as to curtail the strength1 as we have already seen4 ,there must1 at all events1 have been a time in ,israel when hair and fulness of physical energy formed one identical idea3 it was the heathen time4 ,when the people had gained a knowledge of the true ,god1 the old legend had to be modified4 ,then the uncut hair was treated as a consecration of its possessor to the service of ,jahveh4 ,but the modification was not fully carried out3 one heathen feature remained unaltered--the idea that with the growth of ,samson's hair his strength also grew up again4 #h4 ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,samson1 ,,the ,,hebrew ,,hero4 ,the very distinctness and clearness with which it has been found possible to invest the conception and interpretation of ,samson as a hero of heathen mythology1 proves the justice and certainty of such an interpretation4 ,and the justice of the mythical conception of ,samson's deeds may be demonstrated also by another consideration4 ,the difference between ,samson's position and that of the other ,judges makes it obvious enough that his history is mere legend through and through4 ,all the other ,judges1 ,barak1 ,gideon1 ,jephthah1 fight at the head either of a large force or of a small and picked company3 ,samson always appears alone1 and beats hundreds and thousands alone1 and this too without arms4 ,if the other ,judges receive ,divine apparitions by which they are impelled to action for the deliverance of their people1 yet they act with perfectly human forces and means1 in human fashion3 ,samson acts with supernatural force1 and is a miracle from beginning to end4 ,in spite of this1 ,samson's action is not only destitute of any proper result1 but also--what is more significant and far worse--devoid of even the consciousness of any aim1 devoid of plan or idea4 ,he--,samson the ,nazirite consecrated to ,god6--looks for wives and mistresses among his own and his people's enemies4#hda ,he teases1 irritates1 injures his enemies1 and kills many of them4 ,but there appears nowhere the consciousness of any mission which he had to fulfil for the good of his native land against his enemies4 ,he is inspired by no idea of ,jahveh1 driven forward by no impatience of a shameful yoke4 ,he is roused only by pleasures of the senses and the caprice of insolence4 ,samson is utterly immoral4 ,he is exactly an old heathen god1 and therefore immoral1 like all idols4 ,idols must be so1 for they are only personifications of the forces and occurrences of nature2 now nature as such is indifferent towards morality1 and consequently1 though not moral1 still not immoral either2 but when the mechanical force of nature is pictured as a person1 and removed into the conditions of ethical life1 it cannot but appear absolutely immoral4 ,this is what all heathendom does1 that of ,greece not excepted4#hdb ,if1 on the one hand1 ,samson wants all the qualities necessary to an historical hero1 he is on the other1 viewed from the esthetic point1 a most admirable phenomenon1 quite unique in ,hebrew literature4 ,it is really wonderful with what tact1 and what firm and delicate esthetic feeling1 the gigantic1 ,herculean1 ,samson is delineated in the ,hebrew legend4 ,his behaviour evinces nothing uncouth or vulgar1 a fault from which even the ,greek ,herakles is not free4 ,herakles1 though adored as a god1 has to put up with being scorned and derided for his greediness2 he is a standing character in the ,greek comedy1 and a butt against which all jests are levelled4 ,samson1 on the contrary1 is himself the jester and scoffer1 who adds the jest of insult to the injury he does his enemies4 ,a native merriness encircles him2 and in the very hour of death1 at his self-prepared destruction1 he maintains his humour1 which here assumes a sarcastic tone4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have now to take in hand two more considerations of a general character1 which will determine the true import of the preceding detached ones and set them on a firm basis4 ,we must first enquire3 ,what means the above demonstrated accordance of the ,hebrew legend with the legends of other nations8--what is to be inferred from it8 ,the answer to this will assign the cause of the accordance4 ,and then the field for the development of the legend of ,samson in the popular mind1 and the connexion of the legend with the progress of religions life in the course of centuries1 must be more fully discussed4 #i4 ,,the ,,mutual ,,relationship ,,of ,,the ,,compared ,,legends4 ,in the preceding comparisons1 ,i have in the first instance proved ,samson's relationship to the ,semitic ,sun-gods4 ,the ,hebrews being ,semites themselves1 and living in the midst of ,semitic nations1 there can be no doubt that the similarity of the ,story of ,samson to those of the ,semitic ,sun-god is founded on original identity4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the ,hebrew form of the story exhibits sufficient peculiarity to negative the idea of its being simply borrowed from other ,semitic nations4 ,samson is not exactly the ,tyrian ,melkart1 nor the ,assyrian and ,lydian ,sandon1 but a peculiar modification of the conception which lies at the base of both of them4 ,it is1 moreover1 quite inconceivable that myths and stories heard from strangers could yield materials for tales about a national hero such as ,samson4 ,if we knew the ,semitic myths and stories more completely1 there would probably be not a single feature in the story of ,samson left without some mythical conception of the ,semites corresponding to it2 yet every feature would have undergone a peculiar ,hebrew modification4 ,in the absence of such knowledge1 we were obliged to proceed to a comparison with ,greek and ,roman legends4 ,now how are we to understand the similarities discovered there8 ,in the abstract1 three cases may be assumed as possible4 ,first1 there may have been borrowing2 and if so1 we should probably be inclined without hesitation to assume that the ,greeks borrowed from the ,phenicians and the ,semitic nations of ,asia ,minor4 ,secondly1 there may have existed an original similarity in certain mythical conceptions between ,semites and ,aryans1 whether by reason of original historical unity1 or because both races had1 independently of one another1 hit upon the same conception4 ,then thirdly1 a combination of borrowing and unity is conceivable1 by which the ,greeks regained by borrowing some element which had been lost out of their memory1 or obtained by borrowing from strangers an idea synonymous with a preexisting native one4 ,which of these possibilities is the reality1 cannot be decided all at once with reference to ,herakles in general2 but even after some result has been reached respecting that hero's personality1 the above enquiry must be instituted afresh concerning every one of his acts4 ,now as to the general aspect of ,herakles1 ,i think we have at the present day advanced far enough to be able summarily to reject as absurd the idea that the ,greeks had borrowed him from the ,phenicians4 ,the hero exhibits so decidedly the character of the ,aryan ,sun-god and ,solar hero1 and moreover appears in so specifically ,greek a form1 that there can be no doubt but that in him we see the peculiar ,greek modification of a possession held in common by all the ,aryans4 ,the fact1 however1 of ,herakles being originally ,greek1 does not exclude the possibility that the ,greeks1 if they heard of a ,semitic god whom they believed to be their ,herakles1 might claim the deeds of the foreign god as belonging to their own hero4 ,this was a perfectly natural and simple process in the mind1 such as may occur now to any one of us4 ,suppose that some one tells us news of a certain person whom we think we know1 because we know a person of the same name and position living at the same place2 then we shall immediately attribute what is told us of the stranger to the one known to us4 ,thus the ,greeks could1 and could not but1 ascribe unconsciously to their ,herakles what were really ,semitic stories of ,solar heroes4 ,accordingly1 it seems to me beyond doubt1 that the ,greeks borrowed the killing of the lion from the ,semitic god4 ,for the ,lion is a mythical symbol that recurs among all ,semitic nations1 whereas he is scarcely ever1 if ever1 found in the original ,aryan mythology4 ,in the original seats of the ,aryan races there can scarcely have been any lions4 ,moreover1 it is only after the seventh century ,b4,c4 that ,herakles was figured with the lion's hide4 ,his original arms were those of ,apollon1 the bow and arrows4 ,we touch here on a characteristic distinction between the ,semitic and the ,aryan ,sun-god4 ,the former kills a lion1 the latter a dragon4 ,the ,lion is a symbol of solar heat2 the ,dragon was originally a symbol of winter1 rain1 mist1 marshy vapours4 ,the ,semitic god has to combat chiefly with the burning sun1 the ,aryan with clouds4 ,in ,india1 no doubt1 ,indra does battle with the #8,scorcher1' #8the ,drought' 7usha72 but this is surely a later1 peculiarly ,indian1 accretion4 ,on the other side1 however1 as we shall see further on1 the ,semites were not ignorant of the ,cloud-,dragon4 ,the distinction just indicated1 therefore1 must be understood as meaning only that here the one1 there the other1 of the two characteristics is the more widely spread and important2 or that the one or the other is the more fully developed4 ,with this may be combined another interesting feature4 ,the ,semitic ,sun-god represents chiefly the procreative warmth and the scorching heat2 the ,aryan rather the illuminating light and the fire1 which latter however1 in connexion with the rain1 is no doubt regarded as productive of fertility4 ,the two races also appear in general to be similarly distinguished3 the ,semite has greater heat1 the ,aryan more light2 the former is more passionate1 the latter more sanguine4 ,but this is not a suitable place to follow out this train of thought4 ,as to the foxes with fire-brands1 that feature is probably also borrowed4 ,among all the ,aryan nations1 it is only the ,latins1 as far as ,i know1 with whom this feature assumes any prominence2 and with them it appears only in the form of sport1 derived from a legend already enfeebled1 and scarcely at all in religious rites2 for in the latter we find the red dog with the same signification2 and the dog also is ,semitic4 ,it is possible that the fox is also preserved in the ,fox of ,teumessos2#hdc but the latter belongs to ,boeotia1 where much ,phenician influence is visible4 ,if the adventure with the gates of ,gaza is correctly interpreted above1 the corresponding descent of ,herakles into the nether-world can still scarcely be regarded as borrowed4 ,the interpretation of the adventure at ,gaza1 however1 is not certain enough to build any further theories upon1 any more than the story of the ass's jawbone1 which moreover is very different from the boar's tusks4 #aj4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,myths ,,among ,,the ,,israelites ,,in ,,connexion ,,with ,,that ,,of ,,monotheism4 ,we have convinced ourselves that the mythical mode of looking at things indicates a distinct stage in the development of the intellectual life of nations4 ,the substance1 which is looked at in the myth1 is very various1 and by no means bound to a polytheistic system4 ,without offending the dignity of ,monotheism1 it must be affirmed that not only ,genesis1 but also the narrative portion of the other ,books of ,moses1 of ,joshua and ,judges1 and isolated passages in all other books of the ,old and the ,new ,testament1 are mythical4 ,the primeval history comprised in the first ten chapters of ,genesis1 sublime above the cosmogonies and theogonies of all other nations1 contains also sublimer myths4 ,but these ,israelite myths1 in the form in which we have them now1 are framed throughout on a monotheistic principle4 ,this form is for the most part not the original one1 but a conversion out of a polytheistic form4 ,my exposition of the legend of ,samson might be considered to have sufficed to prove the existence of a primeval heathenism among the ,hebrews1 which of course rested on a ,semitic foundation4 ,but this conclusion may be further confirmed by the following considerations4 ,i believe myself justified a priori1 i4e4 by reflections of a general nature1 in relying on the concession1 that the notion of ,revelation1 in the sense that at a definite point of time and by a special ,divine contrivance1 ,monotheism was taught to a whole nation1 and immediately handed down by them in the sharpest1 fullest1 and most elaborated antagonism to all heathen ideas1 is philosophically untenable1 since it is in accordance neither with psychology nor with history4 ,this leads directly and necessarily to the assumption1 that the ,israelites freed themselves gradually from their inherited ,semitic heathenism1 and passed over to a ,monotheism which increased in purity with time4 ,in opposition to these ideas1 some have very recently renewed the attempt to establish ,monotheism as the belief of primeval mankind1 from which the nations passed into ,polytheism1 either1 as some assume1 through a growing dulness of spirit 7a ,fall71 or1 as others think1 through the very opposite process1 a higher development of mind2 whilst the ,israelites preserved the old original ,monotheism1 which is reckoned to their credit by the first1 and to their blame by the latter1 theorists4 ,it suffices here to remark that this primitive ,monotheism is absolutely incapable of proof from history1 that at the outset it turns history upside down1 and especially that it is conjoined to a very loose and mean notion of the nature of ,monotheism4 ,moreover1 the ,semitic race did not possess ,monotheism as an inheritance from its birth4#hdd ,now if history is unable to prove ,monotheism to have existed from the beginning in the ,semitic race1 even the monotheistic literature of the ,israelites contains evidence on the other side1 exhibiting a mythical ,polytheism that extended from high antiquity down into those writings4 ,for this ,polytheism1 as was natural1 impressed on the language a stamp so distinct as to be still recognisable in various views and phrases belonging to the ,prophets and sacred poets4 ,i will begin with the ,book of ,job4 ,we need not here discuss the age of the composition of this wonderful poem4 ,no one will now think of placing it before ,solomon's time2 and ,schlottmann's view1 that it was produced at the end of ,solomon's reign or under his successor1 has probably but few adherents4 ,now in this poem occur many personifications1 which1 although mainly based on lively poetical views and forming simply the poet's language1 often also betray the existence of decidedly mythical persons4 ,although the author was undoubtedly a monotheist and a ,jahveist1 yet in his ideas of the world heathenism was still not far removed from him4 ,this appears precisely in the passages in which he tries to portray the omnipotence of ,jahveh2 for there he sometimes slips into expressions which look as if intended to picture the power of ,indra and ,zeus or ,apollon4 ,so e4g4 7,,xxvi4 #aa-ac73 #8,the pillars of heaven tremble1 and are frightened at his rebuke2 by his strength he shakes the sea1 and by his wisdom he crushes ,rahabh2 by his breath he brightens the heaven1 his hand pierces the flying ,dragon4' ,to understand these words in the poet's own sense1 ,i think we must make very delicate distinctions4 ,he appears to me to occupy a position in the middle between the pure ,heathenism of a ,vedic bard1 and ,prophetism1 and no doubt nearer to the latter than to the former2 yet a position from which the myth still almost looked like a myth1 and was not a mere poetic figure4 ,i must explain my meaning more fully4 ,ewald's view1 that ,rahabh was originally a name of ,egypt1 and then became the mythological designation of a sea-monster1 is an exact inversion of the fact1 and requires no refutation--especially as it has been already answered4#hde ,rahabh1 etymologically denoting the ,noisy1 ,defiant1 was originally the name and description of the ,storm-,dragon4 ,in the storm it was believed that ,jahveh was fighting with a monster that threatened to devour the sun and the light of the sky4 ,i should claim this well-known myth of ,indra for the ,semitic race1 were it supported only by the above verses1 and should consequently regard it as a primeval feature of the mythical aspect of nature1 common to ,semites and ,aryans1 even if we were not so fortunate as we are1 through ,tuch's and ,osiander's investigations1 in finding the same myth repeated among the ,arabs and ,edomites1 who have the divine person uza1 a ,cloud-god1 who shoots arrows from his bow4#hdf ,here it is clear at the same time that the ,bow is the ,rainbow1 and the ,arrow the ,lightning4#hdg ,i see no reason for the supposition that the ,storm-monster was fettered to the sky4 ,but ,i think we may gather from ,is4 ,,xxvii4 #a1 that the ,semitic ,storm-,dragon#hdh was imagined in three forms3 coiled up 7aallthn71 i4e4 the ,cloud2 flying 7brach71 i4e4 the ,lightning1 or the dragon flying from the lightning1 and lastly stretching himself1 extended 7,tannn71 i4e4 streaming ,rain4 ,by the downpour of the rain the sea in heaven produced a sea on earth1 and the tannn was removed from the sky into the ocean4 ,as a sea-serpent he is called ,rahabh1 the ,noisy4 ,of this nothing was known even to ,isaiah1 and no later ,prophet or ,psalmist understood this mythical view2 these names of mythical beings had been imperceptibly converted into names of hostile nations1 having been probably first used to designate great and notorious beasts living in the territories of the nations4 ,thus in ,ps4 ,,lxxxvii4 #d1 ,rahabh indisputably stands for ,egypt2 and two passages in ,ezekiel 7,,xxix4 #c1 and ,,xxxii4 #b71 exhibit clearly the supposed transition1 since ,pharaoh1 that is ,egypt1 is in the latter compared to the ,tannn1 that is the ,crocodile1 and in the former actually addressed as such4 ,thus the ,tannn or ,rahabh became first any kind of sea-monster1 then specially the crocodile1 and finally ,egypt4 ,similarly it is said in ,ps4 ,,lxviii4 #ca #cj1 #8,rebuke the beast of the sedge1'#hdi i4e41 the crocodile1 meaning ,egypt4 ,but there is a general connexion between this dragging down of mythical beings into the life on earth and the conversion of mythical actions in heaven into terrestrial history4 ,passages are not wanting in which a wavering between the mythic signification and that of legendary history1 or the absorption of the former in the latter1 is evident4 ,thus it is said in ,ps4 ,,lxxxix4 #aj-ab #i-aa1 #8,thou rulest the pride 7elevation7 of the sea2 when it raises its waves1 thou stillest them2 thou treadest under foot ,rahabh as one that is slain2 with the arm of thy might thou scatterest thy enemies4 ,thine is the heaven1 thine also the earth1 etc4' ,here the parallel to ,rahabh in the preceding member is gth #8elevation1 pride1 defiance1' and in the succeeding one #8thy enemies4' ,the writer's general attention is directed to physical phenomena1 which yielded to him the old heathen conception of ,rahabh2 but ,rahabh had already gained a historical signification1 and consequently suggested in the following member an historical reference4 ,this appears still more beautifully1 and in a way which lays open to us the origin of the legendary history1 in the following passage1 ,ps4 ,,lxxiv4 #ab-ag3 #8,but ,god my king1 from the olden time working deliverances in the middle of the earth4 ,thou cleavest with thy might the sea1 breakest the heads of the ,tannns over the water4 ,thou crushest the heads of ,livythn1 givest him for food to beasts of the desert4 ,thou splittest open 7i4e4 makest to burst forth7 spring and stream2 thou driest mighty rivers4 ,thine is the day1 thine also the night1 thou hast appointed light and sun4 ,thou settest all the borders of the earth2 summer and winter1 thou formest them4' ,here1 again1 we have a picture of the natural world1 and one taken from the mythical point of view4 ,god cleaves the cloud with the lightning1 and by that act kills the upper ,dragon above the water1 so that the rivers of rain stream down out of cloud-rocks4 ,but this mythical act1 which is repeated for ever in every thunderstorm1 had been converted first into a single act1 performed once in ancient time 7miedem71 and subsequently into a cleaving of the sea at the ,exodus out of ,egypt4 ,it is this which the poet intends to depict in these six verses1 which he probably took from an ancient song4 ,thus he sings of ,israel's passage through the sea and the desert in words which were intended to picture the ,semitic ,storm-myth2 and thus we see how the latter was transformed into the former4 ,this transformation was facilitated on the part of the language by the circumstances that in the verses just quoted the verbs may be understood as well as in a preterite as in a present sense 7#8thou cleavest' or #8thou cleavedst'71 and that edem denotes either #8past time1 antiquity1' or #8the beginning of all time4' ,the case is exactly the same with the ,prophet1 ,is4 ,,lix4 #i1 #aj3 #8,awake1 awake1 put on strength1 ,o arm of ,jahveh2 awake1 as in the days of the beginning 7edem71 in the generations of olden times 7lmm76 ,is it not thou that dost 7or #8didst'7 cut ,rahabh1 that piercest 7or #8piercedst'7 ,tannn8 is it not thou that didst dry the sea1 the water of the great abyss1 that didst make the depths of the sea a way for the ransomed to pass over8' ,here also it is clear how the ,prophet's consciousness passed imperceptibly from the myth into the legend1 or1 if you prefer to call it so1 history4 ,from these passages it appears that the conversion of the legend into history was already so firmly fixed in the minds of men1 that1 when they began with depicting nature1 and in so doing had recourse to the stereotyped expressions that originally had a mythical meaning1 they were involuntarily drawn into historical contemplation4 ,this is not the case with the writer of ,job3 he remains within the mythical contemplation of nature4 ,so full of life are the mythical pictures in his writings that we must suppose them to have been to him more than a mere matter of constructive fancy4 ,the ,pillars of ,heaven are not to him mere mountains poetically described1 but also convey a full-toned echo of the ,pillars of ,hercules that supported the heaven4#hej ,the stars and constellations are to him still actually living beings4 ,in his work ,rahabh cannot signify ,egypt1 but is still really the ,sea-serpent4 ,it is true that in other passages of the ,prophets and ,psalms ,jahveh walks over the water of the clouds1 which is by ,habakkuk 7,,iii4 #ae71 in a chapter containing many references to mythology1 actually called #8,sea' 7ym73 but only the writer of ,job still speaks of the #8heights of the sea1'#hea which in mythology are the clouds2 even ,amos1 one of the earliest ,prophets1 substitutes for it #8the heights of the earth' 7,,iv4 #ac74 ,isaiah mentions the #8heights of the clouds1'#heb a decidedly mythical phrase2 but the ,prophet appears in that passage to have intentionally adopted heathen conceptions1 as the words are put into a heathen mouth4 ,amos 7,v4 #h7 names the constellations ,orion and the ,pleiades1 but he knows only that ,jahveh #8made' them2 whereas the writer of ,job 7,,xxxviii4 #ca7 speaks of their fetters4 ,from the speech which he puts into the mouth of ,jahveh it may probably be inferred that he regarded the mythical acts as acts that took place at the ,creation4 ,thus1 as ,i have already remarked1 he takes a middle position between pure myth as such and myth transformed into legendary history4 ,altogether1 he never directs his attention to ,history and the revelation of ,god in history3 to his mind ,god is only a wise creator and upholder of ,nature1 and within this nature lies ,man1 i4e4 the individual whom ,god created thus1 and whose destiny he determines in wisdom and grace4 ,the poet of ,job does not possess the world-embracing glance of the ,prophet4 ,still1 though in his mythology he stands nearer to heathenism than the ,prophets1 and his mind falls short of the breadth and greatness of the prophetic soul1 he may yet be a contemporary of theirs1 only one who lived in a retired circle1 and had1 so to speak1 a one-sided education4 ,and his whole phraseology possesses a somewhat sensuous and materialistical character1 which becomes strikingly obvious on the comparison of certain expressions and certain passages expressing the same thought4 ,orion is in ,job still really the fettered ,giant 7,kesl #8the ,strong1' not #8the ,fool'72 but ,isaiah 7,,xiii4 #aj7 forms from this word the plural keslm1 #8the bright-shining stars4' ,then the word had ceased to be a proper name1 which it was still in ,job4 ,similarly ,tannn is here a proper name2 but later it denotes a great sea-animal in general 7e4g4 in ,ps4 ,,lxxiv4 #ac1 quoted above71 and therefore can have a plural4 ,see also ,is4 ,,xix4 #ac1 #ad3 #8,the princes of ,zoan are become fools1 the princes of ,noph are deceived2 the heads of her tribes have led ,egypt astray4 ,jahveh pours into their midst a spirit of perverseness1 and they lead ,egypt astray in all her action1 like a drunken man tumbling into his vomit2' and compare with this ,job ,,xii4 #bd3 #8,god taketh away the heart of the chief of the people of the earth1 and leads them astray in a pathless waste2 they grope in darkness without light1 and he leads them astray like a drunken man4' ,here we have not1 as in ,isaiah1 the abstract #8,spirit 7rach7 of perverseness1' but the concrete #8,heart' 7lbh72 and the #8,going astray' also is depicted more sensuously4#hec ,now that we have thus learnt that the ,storm-myth existed among the ,hebrews and the ,semites in a form similar to that which it had among the ,aryans1 to such an extent that it indelibly permeated their views of nature and their language1 we have not only gained a greatly increased justification for regarding the story of ,samson as a myth1 but we can now venture also on other mythological combinations and interpretations1 which taken singly possess but little security and may pass for mere conjectures1 but which almost certainly have a general mythic character4 ,thus we may find in the ,bible a copious source of knowledge of ,semitic ,mythology4 ,while only calling to memory in general terms the numerous accordances with ,semitic mythology contained in the ,bible1 which ,movers has in many cases made quite certain1 ,i will here select a few narratives which seem to have a connexion with the above discussed ,storm-myth4 ,i have before#hed pointed to the fact that myths of a ,sun-god are embodied in the life of ,moses4 ,now all of these correspond to wide-spread ,aryan myths of the ,sun-god or ,solar hero4 ,immediately after his birth ,moses is put into a chest and placed on the water4 ,a similar fate befalls nearly all the ,solar heroes3 e4g4 ,perseus1 and heroes of the ,german legends4 ,as ,moses sees a burning bush which does not burn away1 so the grove of ,feronia#hee is in flames without burning away4 ,i have already shown#hef that the staff by which ,moses performs his miracles is the ,pramantha4 ,like ,moses1 ,dionysos strikes fountains of wine and water out of the rock4#heg ,moses1 by throwing a piece of wood into bitter water makes it sweet 7,ex4 ,,xv4 #be74 ,this must be the same as the churning of the ,amta1 ,soma1 ,nectar1 the divine mead4 ,moses has no dragon to kill1 but he kills an ,egyptian1 and immediately flies1 like all ,solar heroes2#heh and like ,apollon1 ,herakles and ,siegfried1 he becomes a servant4 ,and the sea1 over which ,moses stretches out his hand with the staff1 and which he divides1 so that the waters stand up on either side like walls while he passes through1 must surely have been originally the ,sea of ,clouds2#hei and ,i have consequently little inclination to look for the spot of the earth where1 and the conditions under which1 the passage might have taken place4 ,a ,german story presents a perfectly similar feature4#hfj ,the conception of the ,cloud as sea1 rock and wall1 recurs very frequently in mythology4 ,moses feeds the ,israelites with quails4 ,by means of a quail ,iolaos wakes the dead ,melkart from death4 ,and the quail appears to have had a close connexion with ,apollon and ,diana2 for is an old name of ,delos1 the island of ,apollon2 and the nurse of ,apollon and ,diana1 and even ,diana herself1 are called by the same name4 ,moses causes manna1 sweet as honey1 to be rained down with the dew2 this again reminds us of the nectar and the mead of the gods4 ,thus we see that almost all the acts of ,moses correspond to those of the ,sun-gods4 ,we have here not only similar mythical features1 but features which in both cases unite to form one and the same cycle4 ,the ,book of ,judges1 as well as the ,books of ,moses1 exhibits ancient elements preserved from the heathen times1 also in conformity with ,aryan myths4 ,so ,shamgar 7,judges ,,iii4 #ca71 who slew six hundred ,philistines with an ox-goad1 is only ,samson in another form4 ,and his name points to the ,sun-god2 for it seems to me to denote #8,he that circles about in the sky4' ,we must pay attention to the fact that ,barak denotes #8,lightning1' even though ,barcas is a ,carthaginian name4 ,with ,barak is associated ,deborah1 the #8,bee4' ,now if rain and dew are treated as ,honey1 then the ,bee must stand for the rain-cloud4 ,a third name occurs in this connexion--,jael 7,yel71 the #8,wild ,goat1' which is also a symbol of the ,cloud4 ,the ,melissae 7bees7 and the goat ,amalthea among the ,greeks take each others' places4 ,lastly1 the manner in which ,sisera is killed1 by a hammer and nail1 reminds one of the ,god of ,lightning4 ,the mode in which ,david kills ,goliath reminds us of ,thor's battle with ,hrungnir1 in which he throws his hammer into ,hrungnir's forehead4 ,the germ of these various agreements ought in fact probably to be referred to an original identity in the mythical views of the ,semites and ,aryans1 who were not separated till later4 ,the ,fire and 7connected therewith7 the ,sun1 and then the ,storm also1 may well have led to the formation of the same myths by the two races while they still lived together4 ,the separation of the races then produced distinct developments out of the common germ1 which developments1 however1 naturally had many points of agreement4 #aa4 ,,analogy ,,with ,,old ,,heathen ,,elements ,,in ,,the ,,popular ,,ideas ,,of ,,the ,,later ,,age4 ,it results from the preceding historical investigation that the oldest ,hebrews were heathens1 and that elements belonging to heathen mythology are even present in the ,bible4 ,to gain a clearer idea of the nature of this fact1 ,i will refer to a precisely similar case--the relation of our age to the old ,german heathen times4 ,the ,germans had originally gods1 worship1 myths and legends--in short1 a heathen faith1 of their own4 ,but for more than a thousand years all the ,german tribes have been ,christian4 ,nevertheless1 heathen practices still survive among them everywhere and in most various forms2 and are so closely interwoven with ,christian practices as to be almost ineradicable4 ,i will only select a few instances4 ,the old ,german gods still live in the names of the days of the week4#hfa ,churches and convents were founded at places which had been heathen sanctuaries2 ,christian feasts were fixed on days sacred to heathen deities1 and thus the heathen name #8,easter' has maintained its existence as a designation for the highest ,christian feast4 ,heathenism is preserved chiefly in the popular legends both of the hills and of the lowlands1 in popular customs1 usages1 games and superstitions2 all which has been lately collected in special books and periodicals4 ,kuhn's collections made in ,north ,germany and ,westphalia are of especial scientific value4 ,the gods1 however1 have been converted into devils and monsters1 the goddesses into night-hags and witches4 ,but religious stories1 ,christian legends1 are also often utterly heathen2 there are deeds and occurrences belonging to gods and heroes1 which are attributed to the ,saints and to ,christ himself4 ,thus the killing of the ,dragon1 which is known as a myth to all the ,aryan nations1 is ascribed to ,saint ,george4 ,the office of the god ,thor1 who pursued and bound giants1 is filled in ,christian ,norway by ,saint ,olave4 ,christ and ,saint ,peter wander about unrecognised in human form1 to reward virtue and punish vice1 as the heathen gods did before them4 ,mary1 especially1 had a multitude of lovely and charming features ascribed to her1 which under heathenism were attributes of ,freyja1 ,holda1 and ,bertha4 ,a great number of flowers1 plants and insects1 the older names of which referred to ,freyja and ,venus1 are called after ,mary1 e4g4 ,maiden-hair 7i4e4 the ,virgin ,mary's hair71 otherwise ,capillus ,veneris2#hfb and ,holda who sends snow becomes ,mary3 ,notre ,dame aux neiges1 ,maria ad nives4 ,in short1 #8now ,christian substance appears disguised in a heathen form1 now heathen substance in ,christian form1' as ,jacob ,grimm says1 in whose ,deutsche ,mythologie the reader will find much relating to this mixture of old heathen and ,christian ideas in the spirit of the #8simple folk that have a craving for myths4' ,with the ,hebrews it must have been much the same as with the ,germans4 ,we know that no less time than the entire period from ,moses to ,ezra--a thousand years of all manner of struggles and of the exercise of the greatest intellectual and moral forces--was requisite to develop the faith in ,one ,god1 and make it a common and permanent possession of the people1 pervading the whole spiritual consciousness4 ,but the fact that the ,germans' monotheism was brought to them from outside1 while that of the ,israelites sprang up among themselves1 must surely have been favourable to the preservation of heathen characteristics among the latter4 ,whilst in ,germany a systematised ,christianity1 fully conscious of the issues involved1 contended against ,heathendom2 among the ,hebrews1 ,monotheism unfolded all its inevitable consequences only by degrees1 gradually gaining a knowledge both of itself and of the antagonism in which it was implicated towards all phases of the heathen faith1 worship and life4 ,the ,germans knew that their ancestors were heathens2 they endeavoured as far as possible to break with their heathen past2 and yet1 knowingly or unknowingly1 they retained a great deal of heathenism2 and the pride of the ,old ,german popular poetry1 the ,nibelungen1 has a primeval myth for its subject4 ,but the contrast between the heathen and the modern age was not at all firmly fixed in the mind of the ,israelites1 precisely because the transition was gradual4 ,only exceptionally do we find any reminiscence of the old heathenism1 which is put back into the most ancient times4 ,as far as the people were able to trace their history backwards1 that is1 to their supposed ancestor ,abraham1 they put back the faith in ,jahveh2 or indeed still farther1 to ,adam4 ,the only true ,god ,jahveh was soon treated as the only one worshiped in the beginning1 from whom mankind fell away1 intentionally defying him4 ,abraham alone remained faithful1 and therefore ,jahveh elected ,abraham's descendants to be his people4 ,thus the ,israelite fancied the faith in ,jahveh to be the primitive and inalienable possession of his people1 which had been only temporarily weakened1 but never really lost4 ,even to other nations the knowledge of ,jahveh could never be wanting2 for they worshiped false1 non-existent1 gods from folly and malice1 and the ,israelite took for granted that they must know all that he knew4 ,now if even the ,christian of the middle ages1 although he knew that his ancestors were heathen1 nevertheless often described them as acting like ,christians1 because he had no knowledge of heathendom1 and no power of imagining a past age1 except in the likeness of his own2 how much more would the monotheistic ,israelite picture his past ages1 in which he acknowledged no heathenism at all1 in a ,jahveistic light8 ,his whole history was unconsciously transformed4 ,the heathen myths1 which must have something in them1 else they could not be told at all1 were converted into events of the earth1 closely coalescing with historical facts1 what the heathen gods were said to have done was ascribed to ,jahveh himself or one of his human ministers4 ,the old ,semitic gods1 if not utterly forgotten1 were made by the ,hebrew into men of the primeval age1 powerful heroes1 or ,patriarchs4 ,i can invoke the authority of ,ewald and ,bunsen1 for the assertion that no ,biblical name before ,abraham has any historical significance1 and that of ,movers for saying that ,abraham is only the ancient national god of the ,semites1 ,el1 who was also their first king or their ancestor1 and that ,israel1 ,abraham's grandson1 was the ,semitic ,herakles ,palaemon4 ,the ,israelite knew no longer how his forerunners had lived and thought in those ages1 while they were still heathen2 and he flooded his past history with the light which shone for him1 but was of recent origin4 ,he unconsciously falsified the facts of the history1 because he did not care particularly for facts4 ,everything heathen received a ,jahveistic sense1 the heathen form a ,jahveistic significance1 the heathen substance a ,jahveistic form4 ,only under these conditions could the past history of ,israel be made intelligible to the mind of the people4 ,and then1 when priests and prophets came to reduce the popular stories to writing1 they could certainly only complete what the populace had already begun4 ,they also were not historians or investigators at all2 instead of transporting themselves into a past age1 they raised the past age to the light of the present4 ,no doubt they were more consistent and more inventive than the populace2 for they wrote with an intelligence which marks and attempts to explain inconsistencies2 and even in the interest of a certain political or religious object4 ,the heathenism1 which they could not understand1 seemed to them impossible2 they discovered everywhere at least ,jahveistic motives4 ,thus1 ,i think1 the ,biblical narrative of ,samson was an old heathen story1 transformed by a ,jahveistic colouring1 given to it first by the ,israelitish populace1 and subsequently by the author of the narrative4 ,i have endeavoured1 by the aid of parallel instances1 to trace the mode of this transformation and to recover the original form and meaning of the old story4 #ab4 ,,general ,,psychological ,,reflection4 ,we must now attempt to realise the psychological relations and processes upon which is based the preservation and transformation of heathen ideas within the range of ,monotheism1 the fact of which has been exhibited above4 ,we require here to see clearly1 at least in broad outline1 what relations ideas of recent growth1 especially on religion and morals1 bear to older representations4 ,for from this it will then be easy to make the application to the special case before us1 the relation of the monotheistic ,jahveistic ideas to the older heathen representations among the ,israelites4 ,the story of ,samson will then present only a special instance of this relation4 ,among the ideas and thoughts1 either of a nation or of an individual1 a certain harmony prevails1 which is in its nature not logical but psychological1 not based on the law of ,contradiction1 but yielding that law as a specially rigorous result2 in itself1 however1 much broader and more delicate1 and indeed through its very breadth losing in stringency4 ,the laws of logic have a double basis1 a metaphysical one on the objective side1 and a psychological on the subjective4 ,that is1 the logical law must be observed1 because1 if it be not1 there arises1 on the one hand1 a disturbance of the metaphysical relation under which things in their reality have to come into thought1 and on the other1 an insoluble problem for our psychological function of ,consciousness4 ,of course1 in logical error or offence against logical law1 so far as it actually occurs1 there is nothing psychologically impossible4 ,for example1 a logically improper association of two ideas in the mind is possible--but only through the absence from the mind of the third factor1 which logically makes it an error3 if it were present1 it would infallibly have prevented the improper association4 ,that which is logically wrong is thus incapable of being thought4 ,no one can think that #g #d #ab4 ,we may certainly make such a false reckoning1 if we happen not completely to spread before us the contents of the numbers in this succession3 then such an association of ideas1 such a summation of the series1 may be formed4 ,but as soon as the set of numbers is fully counted out1 our passage from #g #d to #ab is stopped1 and no effort would avail to connect them as equals4 ,that which in the logical sphere is #8right' or #8wrong' takes1 in the psychological1 the form of #8complete' or #8incomplete4' ,accordingly1 if without knowing logic men can think right1 and tell right thinking from wrong1 it is because1 when once the elements of a case are all clearly present to the mind1 wrong thinking is psychologically impossible4 ,this impossibility in the first instance only forces us to drop the wrong combination2 but this is the first inducement to search for the right one4 ,but1 supposing no free movement of search and a total absence of reflection1 then we shall simply have such range of combination as may be compatible with the psychological conditions2 and1 provided the necessary factors are all clear in the mind1 this can be no other than the right one1 viz41 that which accords with the aggregate view of things4 ,this congruity among the ideas of particular nations or individuals is no doubt tantamount in the end to an avoidance of logical contradiction2 and into this we might in all cases resolve such concord1 could we exactly trace all the threads or intermediate members4 ,but where the most we can do is to feel such threads of connexion1 the congruity takes the shape of some ,characteristic pervading the circles of ideas--some common stamp4 ,according to this1 we ought to be able to discover in the mind of every nation a system of ideas intrinsically bound together and never self-contradictory4 ,and this will so far prove to be the fact1 that a certain national type will be everywhere present4 ,but it is possible for contradictions to occur in the national life2 for1 if only they do not clash against one another in the consciousness1 the contradictory ideas do not operate with their force of contradiction4 ,even every individual doubtless bears about with him unconsciously many ideas in harshest contradiction2 contradictions1 however1 they are1 in virtue not of any objective force proper to the ideas in themselves1 but of an act of judgment which sets them forth as mutually contradictory4 ,the contradictions are often hidden very deep1 and only brought to light by a methodical search4 ,when1 however1 new ideas1 proclaimed everywhere in the streets1 conflict with the old ones1 the contradiction is at once brought to the light of day4 ,what will be the result8 ,a conflict will arise1 without doubt3 will it be one with physical weapons8 ,such a conflict1 though it may be inevitable1 and though it has often given occasion for the exhibition of high and noble virtue1 is nevertheless of no value to the real cause1 the true victory1 the victory of truth2 and the chief point gained by the physical victory has generally been only the conviction of its worthlessness4 ,the conflict within the mind1 where ,ideas en masse confront ,ideas in rank and file1--this forms the substance of the ,history of ,mankind3 a ,conflict of ,souls4 ,mind rules and moulds1 ,matter is ruled and moulded3 this relation repeats itself within the consciousness4 ,whatever consciousness owes to impressions of sense1 serves as material to be moulded by mental activity4 ,for the purpose of this moulding1 the mind1 impelled partly by this material itself and partly by its own nature1 forms representations1 notions1 forms i4e4 modes of apprehension1 and ideas1 namely1 the general conceptions of genera and species1 the metaphysical categories1 and the moral ideas4 ,in accordance with the moral ideas are formed principles of action1 judgments on the acts of others1 even of ,god1 insofar as man believes himself acquainted with the acts of ,god4 ,conversely1 acts are declared to be or not to be ,god's1 insofar as they do or do not accord with the moral standard and the conception of ,god4 ,in accordance with the general class-conceptions the world of things divides itself before the view3 and while by certain esthetic and moral ideas these things are brought under a rule of valuation1 in metaphysical aspects they are put into a causal relation4 ,finally1 religious ideas form the foundation and the summit of all these curious constructions of a world and judgments passed on a world4 ,accordingly1 the conflict shows itself in two forms4 ,sometimes a certain domain of materials1 in which new relations and connexions have become prominent1 requires a new form of thought to dominate it2 sometimes a new form of thought strives to supplant the old one1 and to reshape1 in accordance with its new laws1 the matter which had been shaped by the former one4 ,an example will make this clear4 ,the thought #8,god' forms the apex of the pyramid of ideas2 it possesses the highest and widest dominion--for this very reason unfortunately often the weakest--and therefore shapes every province of consciousness in accordance with what it contains4 ,now1 let an altered character come over the contents of one of these domains1 say of the ideas concerning our relation to our fellow-men1 or concerning causality in nature2 then that domain can no longer tolerate to be ruled and moulded by the thought previously connoted in the word #8,god1' standing as it now does in contradiction to that thought4 ,it sets up the sway of a new form of thought1 which fits its new contents1 because growing out of them2 there arises a new conception of ,god1 a new ,theology4 ,but the old ,theology has still its seat in all the other provinces of consciousness2 so that1 before any further advance1 the new ,idea has still to bring all these other provinces under its sway1 to dissolve the shape given them by the old principle1 and replace it by one which is congenial with itself4 ,this may1 nay must1 produce a long conflict1 which demands much labour4 ,of many a concept the intension will have to be entirely cancelled1--of all to be at least remodelled4 ,yet with many ideas the association has through long habit become quite fixed4 ,severed they must be1 the new ,god requires it2 but it can only be done very gradually4 ,a thousand forbidden combinations find lurking-places and remain2 they maintain themselves in contradiction to the new order of things1 and perhaps half accommodate themselves to it in order to avoid a shock4 ,imperfectly as ,i have expounded the point in question1 ,i hope1 nevertheless1 that what ,i have said will suffice for the present purpose4 ,what it wants in transparency and clearness may yet be added by the application of the general remarks to the particular case4 ,there existed for a long time1 as ,i have remarked1 monotheistic and heathen ideas in the national mind of the ,israelites side by side--the former being the newer1 the latter the older4 ,but yet the former were the ruling ideas1 and always gaining strength and clearness and coming to the brightest foreground of the consciousness1 whereas the latter were constantly losing ground and clearness4 ,thus the nation lost the true consciousness of its heathen past history and the understanding of its former condition and experiences4 ,for no nation as such possesses that true sense for history1 by which it would conceive of itself and its present existence in conscious contrast to the past1 and strive to gain an objective view of the mind and nature of past ages4 ,the consciousness of a nation is only the active present age1 and knows nothing of history4 ,therefore1 whenever a radical revolution1 extending over many important domains of ideas1 has come over the nation1 it no longer understands its own past history which lies on the other side of the revolution4 ,yet the old words1 sayings and stories are transmitted all the same1 and they contain accounts of bygone events and conditions1 ancient ideas and ancient faith4 ,but the stories which refer to obsolete and forgotten states of things are unintelligible2 the names and sayings of forgotten gods1 things and ideas are empty2 typical figures and phrases based on those legends and gods1 though still living on the lips1 have become senseless4 ,the nation always thinks that the word must have an idea behind it4 ,so what it does not understand1 it converts into what it does2 it transforms the word until it can understand it4 ,thus words and names have their forms altered3 e4g4 the ,french crevisse becomes in ,english crawfish1 and the heathen god ,svantevit was changed by the ,christian ,slavs into ,saint ,vitus1 and the ,parisians converted ,mons ,martis into ,montmartre4 ,and what was reported of persons or beings represented like persons1 that are no longer known1 is now told of persons whose acquaintance has been newly made4 ,in ,germany it was told of the god ,wuotan1 that he was called ,long-beard1 and as such fell asleep inside a mountain2 now when ,wuotan was utterly forgotten1 a new subject had to be found2 and the legend was transferred to the heroic kings ,charles the ,great and ,frederick ,barbarossa4 ,moreover1 the myth that forms the groundwork of the poem of the ,nibelungen1 which was originally told without mention of any definite time or place1 was assigned to a well-known locality1 and its heroes received the names of historical kings4 ,every nation must of necessity act similarly2 for the legends which it tells must be its own legends1 and reflect its own life and present circumstances2 if they have ceased to do so because its life has changed1 then they are changed in accordance with the change in the life4 ,even the future beyond the grave is to the popular mind only the present life somewhat gilded2 then how is it likely that the past shall be thought of as different from the present8 ,and precisely because these transformations and transferences are necessary1 they take place unconsciously and unintentionally4 ,the mind of the nation does not make them2 they are an occurrence in that mind1 which makes itself by itself4 ,the nation has subjects and predicates1 sounds and meanings1 given to it in the legend4 ,now if the stream of time carries off the subjects and meanings into the ocean of oblivion1 then by the psychological law the unattached predicates and sounds must fasten themselves on to any other subjects and meanings by which they can be supported4 ,this takes place without any one intending it1 and without any one observing it4 ,the words1 names and phrases which a nation uses have to be apperceived in the moment when they are employed4 ,this is true both of the hearer and of the speaker4 ,but the apperceptions are dependent on the previously formed associations of ideas4 ,now if a ,german heard #8,sinfluth1' or if1 when speaking1 this word known to him by tradition presented itself to his consciousness in the course of speech1 then the second part of the word1 ,fluth #8flood1' found the idea with which it was associated1 and which was reproduced by being brought into consciousness by the word2 but the first part1 ,sin1 stood in no association and roused no idea4 ,but by material relationship and partial identity of sound1 ,sin is associated with ,snde #8sin1' and the latter idea 7that of sin or guilt7 was at the same time associated with the word ,sinfluth as a whole2 thus then this idea of sinfulness was strongly lifted into prominence on two sides1 much more strongly and quickly than the ,german ,sin itself4 ,this latter was ultimately raised into prominence only through its traditional combination with ,fluth #8flood1' and this only as a sound2 consequently in its advance it was overtaken by ,snde #8sin1' which was lifted into prominence partly through it 7,sin71 and partly also through ,fluth1 and therefore with double force4 ,consequently people spoke and thought ,snd1 instead of saying without thinking ,sin2 and this was the direct result of a simple psychological process4#hfc ,similarly in all analogous cases4 ,among the ,ossetes of the ,caucasus the ,dies ,martis1 ,tuesday1 is unconsciously converted into ,george's ,day2 and the ,dies ,veneris1 ,friday1 into ,mary's ,day4 ,in many nations the gods form a circle limited to twelve immortals2 the thirteenth in a society was then a mortal1 one destined to die4 ,similarly1 even at the present day1 ,christians fear that out of thirteen one will die1 referring it however to the company of thirteen formed by ,jesus and the twelve ,apostles4 ,again1 there was a legend widely spread among ,teutonic nations1 of an ,archer1 who shot an apple from his own little boy's head1 and answered the despot at whose command he had done it1 when asked about his other two arrows1 that they were intended for him1 in case the first had killed the child4 ,who was the ,archer8 ,who was the ,despot8 where and what was the motive8 ,all this was forgotten2 there only remained a dim echo of the legend of the shot4 ,but when ,switzerland1 a nation of archers1 had shaken off the yoke of a despot1 all the features of the story recovered definite names1 places1 time1 and motive4 ,as the stone flying through the air falls to the earth by the law of attraction1 so the old legend fell into the ,liberation-time4 ,sometimes we forget something1 but yet retain a small part of it in the memory1 as when we say1 ,i have really forgotten his name2 but ,i am sure it begins with ,b4 ,the same thing happens to nations4 ,the name of ,venus1 or ,holda1 was forgotten2 but people were sure that she was a divine woman4 ,now to the ,christians of the middle ages #8,divine ,woman' and #8,mary' were one single idea2 consequently1 the name ,mary1 unobserved1 took the place of the heathen goddesses in the numerous appellations and legends which are now connected with ,mary4 ,of ,mars it was only remembered that he was a warrior2 so ,tuesday1 which was sacred to him1 could only become ,saint ,george's ,day4 ,similar was the history of the ,israelites when they became monotheistic4 ,the heathen cosmogony1 and the heathen idea of the activity of the gods in physical occurrences1 contradicted the new idea of the ,one ,almighty ,god1 before whom ,nature is nothing4 ,but even though the idea that this ,god alone created the world1 had been long accepted and established1 yet there were still1 preserved in stereotyped expressions of language1 many ideas which preserved from oblivion and ruin features of the old modes of thought alongside of the new4 ,they remain1 so long as attention is not drawn to the contradiction in which these separate words stand to the new general system4 ,when the clouds were no longer regarded as a sea1 as they once were1 people ceased to understand the meaning of #8the heights of the sea2' this expression no longer finds any organ of apperception1 because #8,sea' is no longer associated with the idea of the clouds4 ,therefore1 the expression is sustained only by its traditional connexion with #8heights4' ,but #8heights' are very closely associated with earth and with the idea of mountains2 and thus with the ,prophet ,amos#hfd this association supplanted the older one--the living took the place of the dead4 ,we will now1 in conclusion1 return to ,samson4 #ac4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,myth ,,of ,,the ,,sun-,,god4 ,we will now review the entire history of the old ,semitic ,god of the ,sun or of ,heat1 as he was present to the national consciousness of ,israel4 ,i wonder whether ,i am mistaken8 ,i flatter myself that ,i know the particle by which was expressed the greatest revolution ever experienced in the development of the human mind1 or rather by which the mind itself was brought into existence4 ,it is the particle #8as' in the verse#hfe #8,and he the ,sun is as a bridegroom1 coming out of his chamber2 he rejoices as a hero to run his course4' ,nature appears to us as a man1 as mind1 but is not man or mind4 ,this is the birth of ,mind1 the generation of ,poetry4 ,this #8as' is unknown not only to the ,vedas1 but even to the ,greeks4 ,this does not mean that the ,greeks had no poetry at all1 but only that there is an inherent defect in their poetry1 which is connected with the deepest foundation of their national mind4 ,helios1 driving along the celestial road with fiery steeds1 is not poetry1 but only becomes poetical when we tacitly insert the #8as' of the ,psalmist4 ,he to whom ,helios is a conscious being is childlike1 if not childish3 the ,psalmist is poetical4 ,now when such psalms were being spread abroad increasingly in ,israel2 when ,jahveh was acknowledged as the being that brings up the sun1 the stars and the rain-clouds1 that builds the house and guards the city2 then the old ,sun-god or ,herakles was forgotten2 that is1 his divinity1 and that only1 was forgotten4 ,his deeds were still recounted2 but deeds demand an agent4 ,and thus out of the god1 who could exist no longer in the presence of ,jahveh1 a man was made1 who with ,jahveh's force to aid him performed superhuman things1 but in other respects lived among men and within human conditions1 worked quite as a man1 and even enjoyed his superhuman power only on human terms1 namely the terms of ,naziritism4 ,deeds were reported of some one who had long hair4 ,but who wore his hair long1 but the ,nazirite consecrated to ,jahveh8 ,deeds were told1 which no one could accomplish unless exceptionally endowed with strength by ,jahveh2 and ,jahveh would give such privilege only to the ,nazirite consecrated to him4 ,consequently1 when ,samson was no longer a god1 he must be a ,nazirite4 ,nevertheless1 he was distinguished beyond all other ,nazirites3 he was so from his very birth1 like ,samuel1 to whom with ,naziritism was granted ,prophecy1 a gift vouchsafed to others only later in life and occasionally4 ,the strictly mythical character1 the allusion to a religion of nature1 was entirely lost from the stories about ,samson4 ,whatever happened to him took a purely human character4 ,there was also a dim memory of the same forgotten god1 that he was ,melkart1 i4e4 #8king or guardian of the city4' ,samson1 now reduced to humanity1 could have been such a guardian only in a human sense1 though perhaps in an extraordinary degree4 ,now ,israel preserved from the first half of its political existence the memory of no other enemy so dangerous1 so difficult to withstand1 and again in its subsequent weakness so hateful1 as the ,philistines3 against them ,samson must have fought4 ,no other foe had laid on ,israel so hard a yoke or such bitter degradation as the ,philistines3 but ,samson must have avenged this on them4 ,he must not only have conquered them1 but likewise have given them a taste of his great physical and intellectual superiority3 the ,nazirite consecrated to ,jahveh could scoff at the ,philistines4 ,thus ,samson was in the end a ,judge1 ,shph2 for in the age of the ,judges1 the wars with the ,philistines had begun1 and after ,eli and ,samuel1 ,saul and ,david1 or even beside any of them1 ,samson could not have lived4 ,these were not deliberations1 but unconscious impulses1 which shaped the legend of ,samson in the national mind of ,israel4 ,no feature of the ,solar hero has suffered a more characteristic conversion than his end1 as is seen by a comparison with the corresponding polytheistic legends4 ,orion is blinded by the father of his lady-love1 and ,samson had his eyes put out4 ,but ,orion kindled the light of his eyes again at the rays of ,helios1 whereas ,samson remains blind1 and only prays to be endowed with strength to avenge the loss of one of his two eyes4#hff ,it is true1 his hair grows again and brings back his strength3 after the winter comes a new spring4 ,but all in vain--,samson dies1 notwithstanding4 ,he dies like ,herakles3 but there is no ,iolaos to wake him to a new life1 no ,athene and ,apollon to lead him to ,olympos1 no ,zeus and ,here to present to him ,hebe1 the personification of the enjoyment of perpetual youth4 ,samson dies and remains dead2 he dies1 and tears down with him his own pillars--the pillars on which he had built the world--to find a grave beneath them4 ,the heathen god is dead1 and draws his own world down with him into his own nothingness2 his battles were a play of shadows4 ,jahveh lives1 #8he hath established the world by his wisdom1' #8he giveth rain1 the autumn and the spring showers1 each in its season1 and keepeth to us the prescribed weeks of harvest1' #8cold and heat1 summer and winter1 day and night2'#hfg he lives1 the ,lord of the world1 the ,king of the earth1 and his hero is ,israel4 ----- ,footnote #ghf3 ,see ,w4,k4 ,kelly1 ,curiosities of ,indo-,european ,tradition and ,folk-lore1 ,london #ahfc1 chap4 ,,ii4--,,tr4 ,footnote #ghg3 ,see ,kelly1 ibid41 p4 #gd4--,,tr4 ,footnote #ghh3 ,see ,kelly1 ibid41 p4 #hc4--,,tr4 ,footnote #ghi3 ,see ,kelly1 ibid41 #afc-e--,,tr4 ,footnote #gij3 ,see ,kelly1 ,curiosities etc41 p4 #hi4--,,tr4 ,footnote #gia3 ,see ,kelly1 ,curiosities etc41 p4 #hc-he1 #aea4--,,tr4 ,footnote #gib3 ,see ,kelly1 ibid41 p4 #hc1 #ada-c4--,,tr4 ,footnote #gic3 ,see ,kelly1 ,curiosities etc41 pp4 #cg1 #dc4--,,tr4 ,the literal meaning of his name is qui in matre tumescit vel praevalet1 i4e4 a boring-stick like the lightning4 ,footnote #gid3 ,in ,english mangle1 substantive and verb4 ,the verb mangle #8to tear' is probably the same1 derived from the action of boring4 ,to mantle--to winnow corn1 to rave1 to froth1 may be from the same original root1 represented by the ,sanskrit1 math1 manth1 in the sense #8to shake4' ,see ,halliwell1 ,dict4 of ,archaic and ,provincial ,words4 ,the ,greek #8tumult' is connected with the same root by ,gr4 ,curtius1 ,grundzge der griech4 ,etymologie1 ,no4 #dgf4--,,tr4 ,footnote #gie3 ,the penis4 ,the ,latin mentula1 as ,prof4 ,weber reminds me1 is clearly the same4 ,footnote #gif3 ,the boring-stick and the penis4 ,footnote #gig3 in ,sanskrit is pronounced as r with a very short vowel1 e4g4 like ri in merrily4--,,tr4 ,footnote #gih3 ,halliwell1 l4c41 gives in provincial ,english bliken #8to shine1' blickent #8shining1' and blink #8a spark of fire4'--,,tr4 ,footnote #gii3 in ,sanskrit is the ,english ch in church4--,,tr4 ,footnote #hjj3 ,this is supported by the analogy of the ,french apprendre4 ,it should also be noted that ,plato1 in defining the signification of 1 says that it means 7,euthyd4 #bgg4 e474 ,footnote #hja3 ,on all this see my ,einleitung in die ,psychologie und ,sprachwissenschaft4 ,footnote #hjb3 ,it is explained by ,lazarus1 ,leben der ,seele1 ,,ii4 p4 #aff1 and by me in ,grammatik1 ,logik und ,psychologie1 pp4 #cai-cdj1 and in ,charakteristik der ,typen des ,sprachbaues1 pp4 #gh et seq4 ,footnote #hjc3 ,the male is the ,pramantha1 the female the 7the lower piece of wood and the female pudenda74 ,footnote #hjd3 ,see ,kelly1 ,curiosities etc41 pp4 #ce-ch1 #acg-aej1 #aeh4--,,tr4 ,footnote #hje3 ,num4 ,,xx4 #ab1 ,,xxvii4 #ac1 #ad4--,,tr4 ,footnote #hjf3 ,sage1 a #8saying' or legendary story1 which may have no historical foundation1 but be produced out of mythic matter4 ,where1 as here1 it is sharply distinguished from history1 ,i render it legend2 elsewhere story1 which is generally the best ,english equivalent1 notwithstanding its derivation from historia4--,,tr4 ,footnote #hjg3 ,the allusion is to the story of ,bruin the bear and the honey1 in ,reynard the ,fox3 see ,reinhart1 v4 #aecc-aefb1 ,reinaert1 v4 #fja-gjf1 in ,jacob ,grimm's edition1 ,berlin #ahcd2 and ,goethe's modern ,german version1 canto #b4--,,tr4 ,footnote #hjh3 ,welcker1 ,griechische ,gtterlehre1 ,i4 #dgh4 ,footnote #hji3 ,welcker1 ibid41 #dij4 ,footnote #haj3 ,studer1 ,buch der ,richter1 p4 #cbj3 ,sachs1 ,beitrge zur ,sprach- und ,alterthumsforschung1 ,,ii4 p4 #ib4 ,footnote #haa3 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 p4 #dcg-h4 ,footnote #hab3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 ,,iv4 #fgi et seqq4 ,footnote #hac3 ,judges ,,xv4 #h4 ,footnote #had3 ,judges ,,xv4 #ae-ai4 ,footnote #hae3 ,,viii4 #e4 #a1 p4 #cec4 ,footnote #haf3 ,,iii4 #bb4 #h4 ,footnote #hag3 ,judges ,,xv4 #ai3 n har4 ,footnote #hah3 ,judges ,,xv4 #af4 ,footnote #hai3 ,buch der ,richter1 p4 #ahe4 ,footnote #hbj3 ,judges ,,xv4 #ag3 ,rmath ,lech4 ,footnote #hba3 v4 #ai4 ,footnote #hbb3 ,schwartz1 ,ursprung der ,mythologie4 ,footnote #hbc3 ,makhtsh1 v4 #ai4 ,footnote #hbd3 ,i formerly saw in the ,jawbone the representative of the ,harpe 7toothed sickle71 with which ,herakles cuts off the heads of the ,hydra1 and which ,kronos and ,perseus also employ--the latter when he beheads ,medusa4 ,i have changed my view in favour of that here propounded1 through consideration of the #8throwing1' which undoubtedly is significant4 ,but complete certainty is unattainable4 ,what meaning can be attached to the circumstance that the jawbone is called a #8fresh' 7new7 one 7v4 #ae78 ,footnote #hbe3 ,judges ,,xvi4 #a-c4 ,footnote #hbf3 ,welcker1 ,griech4 ,gtterlehre1 ,,ii4 #ggf2 ,preller1 ,griech4 ,mythol41 ,,ii4 #aed1 #afg2 ,movers1 ,phnizier1 ,i4 #ddb4 ,footnote #hbg3 ,welcker1 ibid41 ,,ii4 #gfa4 ,footnote #hbh3 ,judges ,,xvi4 #d3 ,nachal ,sr1 i4e4 ,valley of the ,vine4 ,footnote #hbi3 ,i formerly took ,dell1 i4e4 the #8,worn out1' to be a personification of ,nature1 worn out and no longer productive in the winter-season4 ,then the name ,dell might be compared with that of ,aphrodite ,morpho1 supposing ,movers 7p4 #ehf7 to give the right interpretation of the latter1 in discovering it to be the ,syriac word for ,fatigue1 ,flagging4 ,then ,dell would be the ,winter-goddess1 and might be a peculiar phase of ,derketo1 who was worshiped in conjunction with the barren ,sea-god ,dagon 7see ,stark1 ,gaza1 p4 #bhe74 ,pausanias 7,,iii1 #ae4 #h7 relates that there was at ,sparta an old temple with an image of ,aphrodite to whom it belonged--i4e4 ,astarte1 ,semiramis1 etc4 ,this temple 7alone of all the temples that ,pausanias knew7 had an upper story1 in which was an image of ,aphrodite ,morpho4 ,she was represented sitting1 veiled1 and with her feet bound4 ,pausanias himself interprets the fetters to indicate women's attachment to their husbands2 but this reading is not binding on us4 ,i regard this ,morpho as a picture of ,nature fettered and mourning in winter4 ,similarly1 and also at ,sparta 7ibid4 #e7 the bound ,enyalios signifies the restrained solar heat of ,mars4 ,however1 this interpretation of ,dell as ,winter stands in no contradiction to what is said in the text4 ,moon-goddess1 ,love-goddess1 ,chaste goddess1 and ,winter1 are only different aspects of the same mythological figure1 to which a name capable of many interpretations is very suitable4 ,stark 7,gaza1 p4 #bib7 is right in asserting the hostility of ,herakles to the descendants of ,poseidon1 the gloomy sea-god1 who according to ,semitic conceptions ,i believe to have been also the ,winter-god 7,dagon74 ,but ,movers 7p4 #dda7 appears to be also right in showing how1 besides combating the creatures of ,typhon1 ,melkart-,herakles is also hostile to the evil ,moon-goddess4 ,for she is only the female figure corresponding to the male ,moloch1 ,typhon and ,mars4 ,in the ,greek myth the place of the ,semitic ,lunar ,astarte is occupied by ,hera1 the adversary of ,herakles4 ,she is confounded both with ,ashr the goddess of ,love1 and with ,astarte4 ,thus there was in ,sparta an ,aphrodite ,hera 7,paus4 ,,iii4 #ac4 #f74 ,to her goats were sacrificed at ,sparta1 and only there1 as to the ,semitic ,birth-goddess2 and she was called #8,goat-eater' 7 1 ib4 #ae4 #g2 ,preller1 ,griech4 ,myth41 p4 #aaa2 but ,i am of opinion that the goats have not the same meaning in her case as in that of ,zeus74 ,in the character of ,astarte1 as an evil ,moon-goddess1 a female ,moloch or ,mars1 she appears when she sends the ,nemean lion1 the ,solar heat1 into the land1 and on other occasions when she is put into connexion with the powers of evil 7,preller1 p4 #aji74 ,the conception which unites opposite natural forces in the same divine person1 which then appears under a modified form1 could not be better expressed in architecture than it is in the above-mentioned temple of ,aphrodite4 ,the lower story is a temple of the ,armed ,aphrodite2 the upper a temple of ,aphrodite ,morpho3 thus the whole is a temple of the strict goddess1 below of the ,summer1 above of the ,winter4 ,the fact that a deity of the ,solar heat and the ,fire is regarded as also a deity of the ,sea1 may be explained not only by the equal barrenness of the ,desert--a sea of sand1 and the ,sea--a desert of water1 but perhaps also by the opinion1 attributed by ,plutarch 7de ,is4 et ,os4 c4 #g7 to the ,egyptians1 that the sea is not an independent element but only a morbid emanation from fire4 ,to ,morpho or ,winter corresponds ,hera1 as one at variance with ,zeus1 or as a widow 7,preller1 p4 #ajh74 ,thus then it will be clear that ,dell may be both the ,birth-goddess 7,ashr7 and the evil ,moon-goddess 7,astarte71 or more accurately the ,winter-goddess 7,derketo74 ,if ,semiramis exhibits a combination of ,ashr with ,astarte1 then ,dell shows a similar combination of ,ashr with ,derketo1 who is only a modification of ,astarte4 ,footnote #hcj3 ,the derivation from the root shmn is impossible1 that from the root shmm far-fetched4 ,the simple derivation from shemes #8sun' appears to be rejected by ,bertheau 7,buch der ,richter1 p4 #afi7 only #8because the long narrative concerning ,samson presents no reference to a name of any such signification' 7as #8the ,sunny1' the ,solar hero71 and because1 as he says1 #8we do not expect to find a name of this kind anywhere in ,hebrew antiquity4' ,but the matter appears to us now in a very different light1 and the connexion with the ,sun which ,bertheau did not expect to find has now become clear4 ,footnote #hca3 ,that ,dagon really had the form of a fish1 which ,movers denies1 surely appears certain from #a ,sam4 ,v4 #d 7see ,stark1 ,gaza1 p4 #bdi74 ,and it would be an excess of diplomatic accuracy1 such as we are not justified in ascribing to the ,hebrew writer1 to suppose that his only reason for writing dgn was that the ,hebrew dgn #8corn' was pronounced ,dgn in ,phenician4 ,moreover1 such a word as #8,corn' 7dgn7 cannot well be a proper name4 ,the formation of proper names of men and places by the termination n is excessively common1 and requires no citation of examples4 ,footnote #hcb3 ,judges ,,xvi1 #bb4 ,footnote #hcc3 ,judges ,,xiii4 ,footnote #hcd3 #a ,sam4 ,i4 ,footnote #hce3 ,num4 ,,vi4 #a-ba4 ,footnote #hcf3 #a ,sam4 ,i4 #bh4 ,footnote #hcg3 #a ,sam4 ,,ii4 #aa1 #ah1 ,,iii4 #c1 ,i4 #aa4 ,footnote #hch3 ,amos ,,ii4 #aa1 #ab4 ,footnote #hci3 ,lev4 ,x4 #i4 ,footnote #hdj3 ,num4 ,,vi4 #f1 #g4 ,footnote #hda3 ,the circumstance that this was #8of ,jahveh' 7,judges ,,xiv4 #d7 is a fiction interpolated into the legend by the systematising author4 ,footnote #hdb3 ,it will be seen from the above1 that ,i am far from subscribing to the judgment on the heathen religions which has in recent times been widely diffused among philosophers and philologians4 ,i agree essentially with the judgment of the natural mind1 which always sees delusion and superstition in heathendom4 ,but it does not follow from this that the heathens were absolutely immoral3 they invested with their own morality gods who were intrinsically representations of nature only4 ,footnote #hdc3 ,see ,preller1 ,griech4 ,mythol4 ,,ii4 #ig2 ,gerhard1 ,griech4 ,mythol4 #gaa4 ,footnote #hdd3 ,for this assertion ,i must for the present refer to what ,i have said in an article1 ,zur ,charakteristik der semitischen ,vlker1 in the ,zeitschr4 fr ,vlkerpsychologie etc4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #cbh et seqq4 ,in ,liebner and others' ,jahrbcher fr deutsche ,theologie1 ,v4 p4 #ffi et seqq41 there is a long article by ,diestel1 ,der ,monotheismus des ltesten ,heidenthums1 vorzglich bei den ,semiten4 ,he also declares himself averse to the assumption of a primitive ,monotheism1 because it is destitute of all historical proof4 ,he brings many points judiciously into the light1 especially the absence of an accurate conception of ,monotheism 7p4 #fhd74 ,but when he objects to me1 that in the above-quoted article 7p4 #ccj7 ,i am too hard on the expression ,instinct used by ,renan1 inasmuch as it is to be understood as implying only an individual disposition of the religious mind1 not a momentum of half-animal physical life4 ,i must observe in reply1 that ,i can scarcely imagine how else instinct can be understood but as a #8half-animal momentum'2 and even reason1 taken as an instinct1 is eo ipso degraded to a momentum of half-animal physical life4 ,and if ,diestel here means by instinct a #8disposition of the mind1' ,i can see in such dispositions scarcely anything more than momenta of half-animal physical life4 ,moreover1 ,i cannot admit any such #8dispositions of the religious mind1' which have the special object of their belief determined beforehand4 ,a disposition to reasonableness in general1 or to religiousness in general1 does dwell in the human mind2 but not a disposition so defined as to its object that a limited idea1 such as ,monotheism1 could be a priori inherent in it4 ,footnote #hde3 ,by ,j4 ,olshausen in ,hirzel's ,hiob1 p4 #fj note4--,but ,ewald says expressly 7,ijob1 #ahed1 p4 #abf7 that ,rahab is everywhere a mythological name for a sea-monster1 even where it stands for ,egypt4--,,tr4 ,footnote #hdf3 ,see pp4 #gc1 #afi4 ,footnote #hdg3 ,see ,zeitsch4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g41 #ahdi1 ,,iii4 p4 #bjj et seq4 ,footnote #hdh3 ,hebrew livythn1 nchs2 ,sanskrit ,vtra1 ,ahi4 ,footnote #hdi3 ,the literal and only possible translation of the first three words of the verse1 gear chayyath aneh1 rendered correctly in the ,septuagint and ,vulgate2 for which the ,english ,a4,v4 unaccountably substitutes #8,rebuke the company of spearmen1' while the ,prayer-book version goes even further astray4--,,tr4 ,footnote #hej3 ,baal kn1 see ,movers1 ,i4 #bib4 ,footnote #hea3 ,job ,,ix4 #h2 bmoth ym4--,,tr4 ,footnote #heb3 ,is4 ,,xiv4 #ad2 bmoth bh4--,,tr4 ,footnote #hec3 ,it will be inferred from the above reasoning1 that ,i should be inclined to assign an early age to the writer of the ,book of ,job4 ,but ,i can find no reason for making him older than ,amos2 indeed1 he may have lived into the lifetime of ,isaiah4 ,i must further remark that ,schlottmann 7,das ,buch ,hiob verdeutscht und erlutert1 pp4 #fi-aje1 especially #aja et seqq47 has expressed ideas similar to those propounded by me1 though starting from assumptions utterly different in principle4 ,to the passages of ,job which he places side by side with corresponding ones of ,amos 7p4 #aji71 the following may be added3 ,amos ,v4 #h and ,,ix4 #f1 #8who calleth to the water of the 7,cloud-7 ,sea1' and ,job ,,xxxviii4 #cd1 #8wilt thou lift up thy voice to the ,cloud8' ,footnote #hed3 ,prometheus1 p4 #cia4 ,footnote #hee3 ,kuhn1 ,herabkunft des ,feuers etc41 p4 #cj4 ,footnote #hef3 ,p4 #cib4 ,footnote #heg3 ,preller1 ib4 ,i4 #dch2 ,kuhn1 ib4 p4 #bd1 #bdc4 ,footnote #heh3 ,see p4 #cii4 ,footnote #hei3 ,see p4 #dbe4 ,footnote #hfj3 ,schwartz1 ,ursprung der ,mythologie1 p4 #bea4 ,footnote #hfa3 ,in ,english ,tues-day1 ,wednes-day1 ,thurs-day1 ,fri-day1 ,satur-day1 from ,anglo-,saxon names of gods1 ,tiu or ,teow1 ,wden1 ,thunor1 ,frige1 ,stern4--,,tr4 ,footnote #hfb3 ,e4g4 the ,lady-bird1 in ,german ,marienkfer2 its ,danish name1 ,marihne1 was1 according to ,grimm1 anciently ,freyjuhna #8,freyja's hen4' ,so ,venus' ,looking-glass 7,speculum ,veneris7 is also called ,lady's ,glass2 ,pecten ,veneris is ,lady's ,comb4 ,there are very numerous plants named after ,our ,lady1 which were probably originally dedicated to ,freyja or ,venus1 as ,lady's ,mantle2 ,lady's ,thistle or ,lady's ,milk 7,carduus ,marianus3 #8distinguished at once by the white veins on its leaves4444 ,a drop of the ,virgin ,mary's milk was conceived to have produced these veins1 as that of ,juno was fabled to be the origin of the ,milky ,way4' ,hooker and ,arnott1 ,british ,flora1 p4 #bca72 ,lady's ,smock 7,cardamine72 ,lady's ,bower or ,virgin's ,bower 7,clematis72 ,lady's ,fingers 7,anthyllis72 ,lady's ,tresses 7,spiranthes or ,neottia72 ,lady's ,slipper 7,cypripedium74--,,tr4 ,footnote #hfc3 ,as this ,german example will not be familiar to all ,english readers1 it is necessary to give a few words of explanation4 ,the great ,deluge 7,gen4 ,,vi4-,,viii47 is called in modern ,german ,snd-fluth1 which seems to be ,sin-flood ,flood on account of sin4 ,but in ,old ,high ,german it is written ,sin-vluot and ,sint-vluot1 which cannot be identical with the assumed meaning of the modern word1 since sin 7peccatum7 is in ,old ,high ,german sunta4 ,moreover1 sin is a prefix well known to most of the ,teutonic languages1 denoting 7#a7 always1 7#b7 great4 ,in the former sense we have it in the ,old ,english singrene #8evergreen2' in the latter in the ,anglo-,saxon sinhere #8great army4' ,hence it is assumed that the word in ,german altered its pronunciation when the prefix sin became obsolete1 being then supposed to be intended for ,snd-fluth1 as is shown in the text4 ,see ,grimm1 ,deut4 ,gram4 ,,ii4 #eed1 ,graff1 ,althochd4 ,sprachschatz1 ,,vi4 #be1 ,ettmller1 ,lex4 ,anglosax4 p4 #fch1 ,vigfusson1 ,icelandic ,english ,dict4 s4 v4 ,s4 ,prof4 ,steinthal appears now 7in a letter to the translator7 to doubt whether this history of the word is tenable2 but the assumption that it is so may at least be allowed1 in order to retain this excellent example of the psychological progress4--,,tr4 ,footnote #hfd3 ,see supra1 p4 #dbf4 ,footnote #hfe3 ,ps4 ,,xix4 #f #e4 ,footnote #hff3 ,judges ,,xvi4 #bh3 #8,give me strength only this once1 ,o ,god1 and ,i will avenge myself with the vengeance of one of my two eyes on the ,philistines4' ,this is the only possible meaning of the very simple ,hebrew words nekam achath mishsheth nay1 which were misunderstood by the ,,lxx and ,vulg42 and the ,german and ,english versions have merely followed the latter4--,,tr4 ,footnote #hfg3 ,jer4 ,x4 #ab1 ,v4 #bd2 ,gen4 ,,viii4 #bb4 ----- ------------------------------------ ,,index4 ,aaron1 grave of1 #bhj-bhb ,abd ,duhmn1 #gc ,abel a herdsman1 #aaj2 his grave 7according to ,mohammedan tradition7 at liiyy1 suburb of ,damascus1 #bhj2 figure of the ,dark ,sky1 #aaa2 ,jabal another form of the same1 #aaa-b ,abraham denotes the ,heaven at ,night1 #cb2 myth of his sacrifice of ,isaac1 #de-dg2 his journey to ,egypt on account of a famine1 when ,jahveh plagued ,pharaoh--a type of the later residence in ,egypt1 #bge2 his grave at ,hebron1 #bgh-bhj2 at ,berze near ,damascus1 #bhj ,abram 7#8,high ,father'7 originally denoted ,heaven1 #ia2 changed into ,abraham1 #bcj ,abram and ,jacob1 mythical ideas connected with these names not quite obsolete1 #bbi ,adam1 grave of 7according to ,mohammedan tradition71 on ,mt4 ,ab u-beys1 #bhj ,agd contains mythology1 #bi-cb2 but must be used with caution1 #cb-cd2 a hermeneutic law of the ,a41 that #8the intensity of a word's sense increases with the enlargement of its form1' #cci2 etymologies in ,a41 #ccg2 given even in opposition to others in the ,bible1 #cci ,agni1 #8fire' and #8,god of fire1' #cfg-h1 #chb1 #chf-i2 hidden1 and brought back by ,mtarivan1 #cfi-gj ,agricultural civilisation1 speculation on1 #baa-ad ,agriculture1 ,fall of man connected with1 #hg ,agriculturists love the ,day and the ,sun1 #eh-fj2 refer the arts of civilisation to the ,sun1 #bjb ,akra 7,gold ,coast71 people of1 identify ,god with clouds1 #bbd ,al b4 ,jafar al-,raz wrote a book on the graves of the ,patriarchs at ,hebron1 #bgi ,allh1 idea of1 similar to that of ,jahveh1 #bij-a ,amnon's liaison with ,tamar1 its mythical element1 #aha-b ,ancestors1 originally mythical figures1 #bbi1 #bed1 #beg ,agiras1 mythical family of1 connected with ,agni1 #cga-b ,anschauung 7,conception71 #cgg ,antar1 the black hero1 compared with the ,night1 #adg-h ,apperception1 #cgf ,aptchos1 of ,cyrene1 identical with ,jephthah1 #ajd ,arabian children educated in the tents of ,bedw1 #hh ,arabs travel by night1 #ef2 proud of ,nomadism1 #gi et seqq42 their poetry always conveys the scenery of the desert1 #hd-h ,archer who shot an apple from his son's head1 a ,teutonic legend1 #ddb ,aryan gods1 their names date from the original unity1 proved by ,kuhn1 #cfc-d ,ascension to heaven1 characteristic of ,solar heroes1 #abg ,ash-tree of the world1 in the sky1 #cff ,asher is the #8,marching' 7the ,sun71 #abj-b2 his grave 7according to ,mohammedan tradition71 at ,kafarmand1 #bhj ,ashr1 the #8,marching1' consort of ,asher 7and therefore the ,moon71 #abb-c1 #aeh ,ass1 called from his red colour1 #aha ,ass's ,jawbone1 used as a weapon by ,samson2 originally name of a locality1 #djj2 similar to ,onugnathos in ,lakonia1 #djj-a2 denotes the ,lightning1 and is therefore thrown1 #djb ,assyria and ,babylon exerted an intellectual influence on the ,hebrews during the ,captivity1 #cai ,assyrian poetry1 very similar to the ,hebrew ,psalms1 #cah ,assyrians have gradations of authority among gods as among men1 #bfg ,aztecs adopted ,toltec civilisation1 #bcf ,babel 7,babylon71 confusion of tongues at1 story of1 arose at ,babylon1 #ccj-a1 #cce ,babylon and ,assyria exerted an intellectual influence on the ,hebrews during the ,captivity1 #cai ,babylonian story of the ,creation1 very similar to the ,hebrew1 #cbc ,baghirmi1 people in ,central ,africa1 identify ,god with the ,storm1 #bbd ,balaam 7,bilm7 as interpreted in the ,agd1 #cc-d ,barak1 #8,lightning1' is made a national hero1 #bef2 the ,judge 7,lightning71 #dcj ,bedw1 their ,sun-worship1 #gb2 they are regarded as the true ,arabs1 #hb-d2 they regard ,god as a great ,chief or ,sheykh1 #bff ,bedouins4 ,see ,bedw ,bel1 in the ,louvre1 with ox-horns on his tiara1 #agi ,benjamin1 #8,son of the right side1' #agf2 his sons' names1 their origin given in the ,agd on etymological grounds1 #ccg2 a similar story in ,arabic1 #cci ,bernstein's theory on the differentiation of the legends between ,north and ,south1 #bhf ,bhgu-s1 same as ,phlegyans1 ,lightning1 #cgb-c2 the first man1 #chi ,bilhah1 a ,solar figure1 loves or marries ,jacob and ,reuben1 figures of ,night1 #aga-c ,bird1 denotes ,lightning1 #chd ,black1 the colour of ,night1 #adf-i ,bochica1 ,solar hero of the ,muyscas1 author of civilisation1 #bjd-e ,bunsen confounds religion and mythology1 #ab2 does not admit any ,hebrew mythology1 #ab-ac ,cain1 with ,abel1 #aaj-b2 the #8,smith1' #aac1 and so in the ,myth of ,civilisation1 #bac-d1 #bag2 ,solar hero1 #aac-d1 #abf-g2 his descendants ,solar1 #abf et seqq42 progenitor of the human race1 #baj2 grave of 7according to ,mohammedan tradition71 at liiyy1 suburb of ,damascus1 #bhj2 called in ,arabic bil in assonance to ,hbil1 according to a frequent practice1 #cdg-i2 although the name yin is also known1 #cdi ,calabar legend of the first human pair1 #hg ,canaan is cursed for ,ham's fault1 #bee2 his grave 7according to ,mohammedan tradition71 near ,hebron1 #bhj ,cats draw ,freyja's car1 #cdb ,cat-worship of the ,egyptians1 ,solar1 #cdb ,caves in ,canaan1 traditions relating to1 #bgh ,cherub perhaps denotes the ,covering ,cloud1 and is of ,hebrew origin1 #aif-g ,chiun4 ,see ,kiyyn ,chrysoros the #8,opener1' hero of the ,myth of ,civilisation1 #baf-g ,civilisation1 ,myth of1 #aih et seqq4 refers the higher civilisation to the ,sun1 #bjj-f ,clouds1 forms and names of1 #afc-e2 clouds groaning1 #afd1 weeping1 #afe2 worshiped by nomadic ,hebrews1 #bbg2 mythologically called #8,heights of the ,sea1' #dbf1 #ddc ,clouds and ,serpents1 ,hebrew observers of1 #bbg-h ,coalescence of psychological ,motions or ,combinations1 #cge ,colours only imperfectly distinguished and expressed in the mythic age1 #ada-aee ,combination of psychological elements1 #cge ,comparative ,mythology not limited by distinctions of race1 #i ,conception 7,anschauung71 #cgg ,concubines in mythology are of opposite natures to their men1 #aeh ,confusion of tongues at ,babel 7,babylon71 story of1 arose at ,babylon1 #ccj-a1 #cce ,conquered impose their superior civilisation on their conquerors1 #bcf-dj ,cow in mythology denotes the ,sun1 #cdc-d ,creation1 ,hebrew story of1 conceived at ,babylon1 #cbc-f2 established the ,sabbath on a new basis1 #cbd2 ,babylonian story very similar1 #cbc ,creator1 idea of a1 essential conception of ,jahveh1 #bii ,crocodile1 mythologically identical with the ,sun1 worshiped in ,egypt1 #cdb-c yavana1 son of ,bhgu1 is ,lightning1 #cgb-c1 #cia ,dagon1 #8,fish1' ,solar god of civilisation1 #bae ,dan1 the #8,moving1' the ,sun1 #abc-d ,darkness expressed by words meaning #8to ,cover1' #aij-d ,darkness and ,blackness associated1 #adg-i ,david's story has features belonging to the ,solar ,myth3 redness1 beautiful eyes1 throws stones1 #aji2 he kills ,goliath as ,thor kills ,hrungnir1 #dcj ,dawn and ,sunset expressed by the same words1 #dc ,dawn flies1 or is a bird1 #aaf2 the name denotes #8moving1' #abj2 it is in ,aramaic afr 7,arab1 afar71 #8golden1' #aej-a2 its colour saffron1 #aeb2 changes from red to white1 #aeb2 or from white to red1 #aec ,dawn 7or the ,sun7 is called the #8,uncoverer1' #aid ,day called #8red1' #adf2 #8white1' #aec-d2 loved by ,agriculturists1 #eh1 #fj ,deborah1 the #8,bee1' i4e4 the ,rain-cloud1 #dcj ,dell1 loved by ,samson1 #dje2 meaning of her name1 #dje1 #djf note ,deluge1 ,biblical story of the1 #cai2 ,assyrian very similar1 #cbj2 ,hebrews must have borrowed it from ,babylonians1 #cbj-b2 ,greek1 ,indian1 and ,persian stories of1 not very ancient1 #cai-bj ,deuteronomy1 expresses a compromise between ,priests and ,prophets with a leaning towards the ,prophets1 #cjg-h ,differentiation of ,hebrew national legends after the political separation1 #bge-hg ,dinah1 the #8,moving1' i4e4 the ,sun1 #abc-e ,dionysus strikes wine and water out of the rock1 as a ,solar hero1 #dbi2 called ,liknites1 #8in a cradle1' #chi ,divine names1 ,hebrew and ,phenician1 #bdf-g ,division of the kingdom1 #bge-g ,dragon 7,serpent7 denotes ,rain1 #bbd-f ,dragon of the ,storm1 ,semitic1 #dbc2 and see ,rahabh ,dual deities1 male and female1 among ,semites1 #af ,dualism in sexual connections1 #ahb ,dualism1 religious1 occurs in savage tribes as well as in rn1 #ae ,dyu1 nom4 ,dyaus1 #fg ,easter1 heathen goddess1 #dca ,eden1 story of1 arose at ,babylon1 #cbd-f2 #8,garden of ,eden' denotes a pleasure-garden in ,joel before the ,captivity1 #cbe1 but has a fuller meaning to the ,prophets of the ,captivity1 #cbe-f ,edom1 the #8,red1' solar epithet1 #bji2 subsequently called ,esau1 the #8,worker1' #bad1 #bag ,elijah1 ,solar hero1 produces drought1 #afg-h2 a typical ,jahveist1 #cje-f2 precursor of the great ,day of ,jahveh1 #bga-b ,elhm1 originally polytheistic1 but became monotheistic1 #bgj-a2 idea of ,elhm opposed by ,jahveistic ,prophets1 #big-h ,elhm or l1 names compounded with1 and similar ones compounded with ,jahveh1 #bib-c ,elohistic documents ,jahveistic in character1 only using #8,elhm' for the ,patriarchal age1 #cac ,elohistic writings subsequent to the compromise with ,jahveism1 their piety1 #cad-e ,enoch1 ,solar hero1 #abg-h ,ephraim1 a geographical name derived from ,ephrth 7,beth-lehem71 #age1 #bhc-e ,esau1 hairy1 signifies the ,sun with his rays1 #acf-h2 red1 #aci-dj ,etymologising in legends1 secondary and not original1 #cca-e2 yet fables are invented to account for names1 #ccb2 etymologies assigned which are quite unsatisfactory1 #ccc-d ,euhemerus1 his system of mythology1 regarding gods as human promoters of civilisation deified by posterity out of gratitude1 #bja ,eve1 or the #8,circulating1' an epithet of the ,sun1 #baj2 grave of 7according to ,mohammedan tradition71 at ,jedd1 #bhj ,exodus1 story of1 contains mythic elements1 #bc1 #bh ,eye1 an image of the ,sun1 #ajf-aj ,ezekiel1 prophet of the compromise between ,priests and ,prophets in the ,captivity1 #cjg1 #cag ,fall of man connected with ,agriculture1 #hg ,feronia 7like ,phoroneus7 originally a ,lightning-bird1 #che1 #dbh ,figurative language conceals myths1 #bf-g ,figures of speech1 apparent1 often preserve something historical1 #bi ,fire1 given by nature1 #cfe2 produced by boring1 #cff1 #chj-a2 observed in the sky1 which was believed to be the origin of the earthly fire1 #cff ,fire-myth analysed1 #cgf-hb ,foxes1 represent ,solar heat1 #cih2 ,samson tied firebrands to their tails and sent them into the ,philistines' corn1 #cih2 similar ,roman usages1 #cih ,fratricide accompanies mythical founding of cities1 #aac ,freyja1 her car drawn by ,cats1 #cdb2 converted in ,christian times into ,virgin ,mary1 #dca-b ,gad1 like ,jupiter1 the star of ,fortune1 #agf ,gaza1 gates of1 carried off by ,samson1 a disguised myth of a descent to the nether-world1 #djc-d ,gazelle1 designation of the rising sun1 #agh-i ,gazelles1 golden1 at ,kab at ,mekka1 #agh ,geiger1 ,l41 his researches on the faculty of distinguishing colours1 #ada ,gender-distinctions in nouns1 supposed by ,bleek to encourage formation of mythology1 #b-c ,genealogies invented through national hatred1 #ceh-i2 concocted by national pride or for other reasons1 #ceg-h ,george1 ,saint1 kills a dragon--a general ,aryan ,myth1 #dca ,german gods' names preserved in names of days of the week1 #dca ,german heathen practices in ,christian times1 #dcj-b ,getube1 in an ,ojibwa legend1 has twelve children1 #agd ,gideon1 the #8,smasher1' is made a ,national hero1 #bef ,gold1 called sulphur-coloured and red1 #adb-d ,greeks love ,agricultural life1 #hj2 preserve traces of ,nomadism1 #gj-a ,gynaeocracy1 #gf ,hagar1 the #8,flying1' i4e4 the ,sun1 #aai ,haggai expresses the compromise between ,priests and ,prophets1 #cjh ,hair in mythology denotes ,rays of sun or moon1 #acg-dj ,hajnal1 #8dawn1' in ,hungarian1 denoted originally #8white1' #cea ,ham is made ancestor of the ,canaanites1 #bee2 his grave 7according to ,mohammedan tradition71 in the district of ,damascus1 #bhj ,hamor1 father of ,shechem1 called #8,ass' from the red colour1 which is ,solar1 #aha ,heaven1 called the #8,high' in the ,semitic languages1 #ia ,hebrew ,mythology became ,jahveistic1 #dcc-d2 its existence denied by ,bunsen1 #ab-c ,hebrew ,myths did not grow into religion1 #bdh-i2 but generally became history1 #bdi1 #bee ,hebrew national consciousness1 its effect on the ,myth1 #bea-d ,hebrew national individuality aroused1 #bei ,hebrew political centralisation confirmed ,monotheism1 #bfh ,hebrews 7,ibhrm71 the #8,wanderers1' #ec2 show sympathy with ,shepherds as against ,agriculturists1 #hf-g2 adored the ,serpent in the ,desert1 #bbf2 adopted the ,solar religion of ,canaan1 #bbg1 #bdj-b2 their history begins with the conquest of ,canaan1 #bcb2 remained ,nomads some time after leaving ,egypt1 #bcb2 abandoned ,nomadism on passing the ,jordan1 #bcc2 took social and political institutions from the ,phenicians1 #bdb2 forgot the fact of their original polytheism and set back the origin of ,jahveism to ,abraham or even ,adam1 #dcc2 compared but did not identify heroes with the ,sun1 #ddc ,hebron1 legends of the ,patriarchs localised at1 #bgh-hj2 therefore chosen by ,david for his residence1 #bhj ,heimdall 7the ,sun7 has the point of his horn in ,niflheim1 #agi ,helios converted by ,modern ,greeks into ,ilias 7,elijah71 #abh ,hephaestos originally identical with ,prometheus and ,agni1 #cij ,herakles1 original ,aryan ,sun-god1 #dag2 he kills a lion1 #cie-f1 #cii1 a feature which appears to be borrowed from the ,semites 7the ,aryan ,sun-god kills a ,dragon71 #dah2 as also the story of ,foxes with firebrands attached to their tails1 #dai2 he dies1 but ,iolaus wakes him to new life on ,olympos1 #ddf ,heroic age1 in ,book of ,judges1 contains mythology1 #bj-a ,hind1 a designation of the rising sun1 #agh-i ,history1 mythic features attach themselves to1 #bb-c ,honey1 in ,samson's riddle1 #cid-g ,horns denote the ,sun's rays1 #agi ,horvth and ,vrsmarty's ,hungarian ,myths1 #beb ,hd1 prophet1 his grave 7according to ,mohammedan tradition71 #bhc ,huythaca1 #8the ,moon1' wife of ,bochica1 ,solar hero of the ,muyscas1 whom she opposes in his promotion of civilisation1 #bjd ,hykss adopted ,egyptian culture1 #bcf ,ichneumon1 mythologically representing the ,night1 worshiped in ,faym1 #cdc ,idea 7,vorstellung71 #cgg ,ife1 a town of the gods of the ,yorubas1 #ajj ,immortality1 belief in1 characterised the ,jahveistic ,prophets1 #cje ,indians1 traces of ,nomadic myths among1 #fg-gj ,interlacing of psychological ,combinations1 #cgf ,iokaste1 the #8,evening-glow1' mother and wife of ,oedipus1 #ahg rn1 traces of ,nomadism in1 #fh-i ,iranian 7,persian7 theological ideas influence the ,hebrews in and after the ,captivity1 #cbf-i ,irej1 ancestor of the ,iranians1 his sufferings a type of the subjugation of his race1 #beh ,isaac1 the #8,laugher1' originally the ,sun1 #ib-if2 myth of the sacrifice of1 #de-g1 #ajd-f2 his grave at ,hebron1 #bgh-i ,isf and ,nil1 two ,arabian idols 7,soil and ,rain71 #ahb-c ,isaiah1 the second1 the ,prophet of the ,captivity1 #cjg ,isis1 the horned1 #agi ,islm not favourable to ,nomadism1 #hf ,israel1 i4e4 the ,hebrew nation1 created by ,jahveh1 #bii ,issachar1 called an ,ass1 a ,solar figure1 #agg note1 #aha ,istar1 ,babylonian goddess1 is the ,moon1 #aeh-i ,jacob1 the #8,follower1' i4e4 the ,night1 the ,dark ,sky1 #ig2 fights with a man who cannot conquer him 7the ,dawn71 #adj2 struggles with ,laban1 #8,white1' and ,esau1 #8,red' 7,solar figures71 #acc-e1 #adj-a1 #aef2 his name changed to ,israel1 #bcj2 identified with ,israel1 #bef2 his grave at ,hebron1 #bgh-i ,jacob's ,blessing 7,gen4 ,,xlix47 contains remains of descriptions of mythical figures1 #agg ,jacob's family1 the ,moon and ,stars1 #agc2 his twelve sons were not originally named1 #agd2 some belong to the original myth1 #age2 some names are later1 ethnographical or geographical1 #age ,jael1 #8,wild ,goat1' i4e4 ,cloud1 #dcj2 is made a national hero1 #bef ,jahveh1 the specially ,hebrew name of ,god 7,elhm being used by the ,canaanites71 its origin in the idea of ,nationality1 #bgb2 idea of1 #bij2 ,mohammedan idea of ,allh similar1 #bij-a2 name ,jahveh known before the ,separation1 #bib2 the idea first introduced by the ,prophets1 #bid-i2 indicates a ,creator1 #bii-cja2 #8,i am who ,i am1' #cjj-a2 ,national ,god of the ,hebrews1 #cja2 who hated foreign vice1 #cjc-d2 but also cosmopolitan1 #cjb-c2 not an esoteric religion1 #cjd-e2 friendly to both ,north and ,south and favourable to their reunion1 #cje-h ,jahveh1 names compounded with1 and similar ones compounded with ,elhm 7l71 #bib-c ,jahveism reforms ancient legends for moral ends1 #cab2 adopted by the sacerdotal party in the ,captivity through a compromise effected with the ,prophets1 #cjg-h2 came to be supposed to be primitive1 #dcc ,jahveistic documents show a very thorough-going ,jahveism1 #cac2 their peculiar prophetic phraseology1 #cad ,janus1 connected with navigation1 #ajb2 has one bearded and one smooth face1 #acg ,japanese ,myths of ,civilisation1 #bjg ,japheth4 ,see ,jepheth ,jawbone1 used by ,samson4 ,see ,ass's ,jawbone ,jell al-,dn al-,suyt1 his ,kitb al-awil1 #bab ,jemshd1 ,solar hero1 author of ,iranian ,civilisation1 #bjb-c2 establishes castes1 #bjc2 is brought to ruin by ,zohak1 #bjc ,jepheth1 a ,solar figure1 #acb ,jephthah1 myth of his killing his daughter1 #if-g2 his name mythical1 its meaning1 #ig1 #ajd ,joktan1 denotes the ,sedentary people1 #ed ,jonah1 features of the ,solar myth attached to him1 #ajb ,joseph 7the ,rain71 born of ,rachel 7the ,cloud71 #aff1 #age2 his contest with ,zalchah1 #afh2 with his brothers the ,possessors of arrows1 i4e4 the ,sun's rays1 #afh-i2 his bow is the ,rainbow1 #afi-gj2 his story was worked out by the ,northerns in his favour against the ,southerns with their ,judah1 #bhe-f2 taken by the ,northerns as their hero and ancestor at the separation1 #bgh ,jubal1 ,solar hero1 inventor of music1 #acj ,judah1 his connexion with ,tamar1 a ,solar legend1 of ,sun and ,fruit1 #ahj-b2 an ethnographical name1 #age1 #agi-hc ,judges 7,shphem71 ,hebrew1 legends of1 suffered no theocratic transformation1 #bhg-h2 were preserved mainly in the ,northern kingdom1 #bhi ,judges1 ,phenician magistrates 7,suffetes71 #bdb-e bil and ,hbil1 ,arabic for ,cain and ,abel1 #cdg-i ,kfir1 #8,infidel1' its original meaning1 #aic ,kalypso and ,kalyke1 the #8,covering ,night1' #aib ,kenite origin of name ,jahveh asserted by ,tiele1 #bic ,khitem dynasty adopted ,chinese civilisation1 #bcf ,kiyyn 7,chiun71 the star1 worship of1 by the ,hebrews1 #bbj ,kuhn's ,herabkunft des ,feuers reviewed by ,steinthal1 #cfc ,kulyatu1 ,solar hero of the ,voguls and author of ,civilisation1 #bjg ,kutub al-awil1 #8,libri ,principiorum1' #bab uza1 ,semitic 7,arabic7 ,cloud-god1 #gc-d1 #dbc ,lamb1 white 7a ,cloud71 adored by the ,arabs1 #bbc ,lamech4 ,see ,lemech ,laughter1 words denoting1 originally meant to #8shine bright1' #ic2 of the morning or the sun and the stars1 #id-f ,leah1 the #8,weary1' is the ,night when the sun is weary1 #afb ,legends1 ,hebrew1 affected by the political separation of ,north and ,south1 #bgg-hi ,lemech 7,lamech71 ,solar hero1 kills his son1 #abi ,lengthened forms of words have greater intensity of meaning than simple1 according to the ,agd1 #cdj ,lenormant claims ,mythology for the ,semites1 #aa ,levi1 #8,serpent1' i4e4 ,rain1 #ahc-g ,leviathan 7livythn71 #8,serpent1' either ,lightning or ,rain1 #ahd-f2 ,storm-,dragon1 #dbc1 #dbe ,levites oppose the ,solar worship of the ,golden ,bull1 #bbf ,leviticus1 ,book of1 expresses the compromise between ,priests and ,prophets1 with a leaning towards the ,priests1 #cjh ,life1 treated in mythology as identical with fire1 #cfg1 #cga ,lightning1 identified with a bird--eagle1 hawk1 or woodpecker1 #cff2 which again might be transformed into a tree--rowan1 ash1 #cff-g ,lightning-,bird represents both ,fire and ,man1 #cff1 #cfh1 #chd-f1 #chi ,lion1 ,semitic symbol of ,summer-heat1 #cif-g ,livythn4 ,see ,leviathan ,localisation of myths1 #bgh-he ,lomn1 identified with ,balaam1 #cc1 #cd note #ajj ,longevity1 characteristic of ,solar heroes1 #cef2 and therefore of ,noah to the ,arabs and ,ethiopians1 #cef-g ,lot1 #8,night1' and his daughters1 a ,solar myth1 #ahi-ie ,lot's daughters denote the ,glow of morning or evening1 #aid2 their names1 #aid-e2 they are made mothers of ,moab and ,ammon1 #bed ,love1 especially incest1 common in mythology1 #ahg ,malachi1 expresses the compromise between ,priests and ,prophets1 #cjh ,mama ,oello and ,manco ,copac1 sons of the ,sun1 teachers of civilisation in ,peru1 #bjh ,manchu dynasty adopted ,chinese civilisation1 #bcf ,manco ,copac and ,mama ,oello1 sons of the ,sun1 teachers of civilisation in ,peru1 #bjh ,manna reminds us of the ,nectar and ,mead of the gods1 #dbi ,mary1 the ,virgin1 succeeds in ,christian times to the functions of ,freyja1 ,holda and ,bertha1 #dca-b1 #ddc ,mtarivan brings back ,agni or fire to men1 #cfi2 is identical with ,prometheus1 #cgj-c ,menenm and menachashm1 #bbg ,mexican ,solar and ,lunar ,chronology1 #fe ,milcah is the ,moon1 #aeh ,milk and honey1 characteristic of a ,solar land1 #bh-i ,moammed approved the ,nomadic life of shepherds1 #ha ,mohammedans1 how they transformed foreign legends1 #ced-f ,monotheism favourable to the growth of science1 according to ,lange and ,comte1 against ,renan1 #f-g2 exclusive1 and prompted by the ,hebrew ,national spirit1 #bfi2 supposed to be primeval and to have preceded ,polytheism--an untenable proposition1 #bfa1 #dba2 supposed to have been given by ,divine revelation--untenable1 #dbj ,monotheistic #8,instinct1' refuted by the example of the ,semites1 #bfj ,moon1 worship of1 earlier than ,sun-worship1 #ga-f2 three phases1 #bjd-f2 turns red 7chphar7 through shame1 #cea-b ,moon-goddess1 her names1 #aeh-fj ,moorish architecture derived from life in the ,desert1 #he ,mormons speak of ,god as the great #8,president1' #bff ,moses1 in the myth1 resembles ,prometheus1 #bc1 #cia-b2 is like a ,sun-god in general1 #dbh-i2 has horns1 denoting a nimbus of rays1 #agi2 is put in the water in a chest when an infant like ,perseus1 etc41 #dbh2 kills an ,egyptian and flies1 like a ,solar hero1 #dbi2 stretches his hand with the staff over the sea 7originally the sea of ,clouds7 and divides it1 #dbi2 his grave1 #bha-b ,motion1 psychological term1 #cge ,mller1 ,j4,g41 of ,basle1 thinks the ,hebrews originally spoke a distinct language1 and afterwards adopted that of ,canaan1 #bci-dj ,music invented by ,solar heroes1 #acj ,muyscas of ,bogot1 their ,myth of ,civilisation1 #bjd-e ,myth1 its beginning and its end1 #ej2 prior to ,religion1 #ea ,mythical names not used as human names1 #bbi ,mythological faith and worship still live as superstition etc41 #cfd ,mythology1 precursor of ,religion1 not itself religion1 #e2 common to all mankind1 #aj2 begins with perception and description of physical phenomena1 #ci2 is transformed into allegory when the original meaning of the names is forgotten1 #ci2 turns into ,religion1 #bah et seqq42 and must produce ,polytheism1 #bfb2 denied by ,bunsen to the ,hebrews1 #ab-c ,myths represent the daily phenomena of nature1 #ad2 outlive the stage of ,civilisation which produced them1 #gg et seqq42 are interpreted in a theocratic sense1 of pious servants of ,god1 #bgc2 do not interest the ,prophets1 #cji-aj2 are converted from a polytheistic to a monotheistic form1 #dbj ,names of persons preserve myths1 #bd-e ,naphtali1 #8with plaited locks1' denotes the ,dawn1 #agh-i2 grave of 7according to ,mohammedan tradition71 at ,kafarmand1 #bhj ,national sentiment transforms ,myths1 #bec ,national spirit promoted an exclusive monotheism among the ,hebrews1 #bfi-gb ,nationalisation of ,hebrew ,myths1 #beg ,nations1 table of 7in ,gen4 ,x471 revised at ,babylon1 #cbi-cj ,naziritism1 #daj-ad ,nehushtan1 the 7brazen87 ,serpent1 #ahd2 adored1 #bbf ,new ,druids1 #beb ,night1 loved by ,nomads1 #ea-g2 used by them in reckoning time and distances1 #fa-c2 precedes ,day in the ,nomad's chronology1 #fb2 is blind1 or has lost an eye1 #aaj2 has wings to cover1 #aag2 is called a #8,coverer' and has a black covering1 #aij-d2 is called ,black1 #adf1 and compared to ink1 #adh1 and to a #8,suds' 7a greenish garment71 #adi-ej ,night-sky and rain worshiped by the ,arabs1 #bai-ba ,nimrod1 the #8,hunter1' i4e4 the ,sun1 #ca-b1 #ace-f ,nimrd1 ,arabic story of1 identical with that of ,oedipus1 #ahh-i ,ninka-,si1 ,accadian horned goddess1 ,solar1 #agi ,noah1 inventor of ,agricultural implements1 a figure of the ,sun at noon1 #acj-a2 second progenitor of the human race1 #baj2 why he is made the hero of the ,deluge-story1 #cbb2 noted among the ,arabs and ,ethiopians for longevity1 #cef-g ,nomads love ,night and ,rain1 #ed-g1 #fj2 reckon distances and time by nights1 #fa-c2 have no history1 #bca ,normans adopted ,french language and transplanted it to ,england1 #bcf ,north and ,south separated into two kingdoms1 #bge-g2 effect of separation on national legends1 #bgg-hi ,oannes1 the ,sun1 in the ,assyrian and ,babylonian mythology1 ,hero of ,civilisation1 #bad-e1 #bbd ,oedipus1 ,solar hero1 his story1 #ahg ,olave1 ,saint1 succeeds to the office of ,thor in pursuing and destroying giants1 #dca ,omar1 ,chalif1 approves of the ,bedw1 #hb ,opener1 frequent designation of the ,sun1 #ig-h ,origins1 legends of1 #baa-c ,orion1 #dbf-g1 #ddf ,orpheus1 son of the ,sun1 author of ,civilisation1 #bjh ,osterhase 7,easter ,hare7 indicates the swiftness of the goddess ,ostara1 the ,sun1 #aah ,participle passive used for active in ,hebrew1 #cej-a ,patriarchal stories1 sources for discovery of ,mythology1 #ai ,patriarchs1 their names mythical1 referring to phenomena of ,nature1 #ah2 are made types of ,elohistic piety1 #bgd2 years and cycles of years in their history1 elaborated at ,babylon1 #cbi ,perez and ,zerah 7,pharez and ,zarah71 ,solar figures1 #ahc ,perizzites1 their name denotes the #8,wanderers1' #ec ,persian antagonism to the ,arabs gives a tone to legends in the ,shhnmeh1 #beh ,persian 7,iranian7 theological ideas influence the ,hebrews in and after the ,captivity1 #cbf-i ,persians1 false genealogies invented by or for them1 #ceg-h ,pharez4 ,see ,perez ,phenicians1 their civilisation prevailed for long in ,africa1 but yielded to the ,arabian1 #bcg2 their influence on the tribes of ,canaan and the ,hebrews1 #bce1 #bdj ,phenix1 mythical designation of the ,sun1 #cdd ,philo ,herennius1 his report on ,sanchuniathon1 #bae-g ,phlegyans1 identical with ,bhgu-s1 #cgc ,phoroneus1 at ,argos1 brought fire like ,prometheus1 #cfh2 was originally epithet of the ,lightning-bird1 #che ,phut ,p denotes the #8,runners1' #ec ,picus1 #8,woodpecker1' a ,lightning-bird1 #cfh2 is the first man1 #chi ,pillar of ,cloud1 belongs to the worship of the ,night-star1 #bbb-c ,pleiades1 #dbf ,poetry of the ,arabs always conveys the ,scenery of the ,desert1 #hd-e ,polytheism and ,monotheism1 successive stages of religious thought1 #e ,polytheism results from ,mythology and necessarily precedes ,monotheism1 #bfb2 tends1 through a unifying process1 to ,monotheism1 #bfc2 shows a monotheistic tendency when one god is supreme over others1 #bfd2 mythical1 in ,israel1 exhibited in the ,prophets and ,poets1 #dba-cj ,pools of the ,sun1 in which his heat is cooled1 #cdj-a ,pramantha1 the boring-stick to produce fire1 #cgj1 #chg2 ,moses' staff the same1 #cia1 #dbh ,pramati1 son of yavana1 son of ,bhgu1 identical with ,prometheus1 #cia ,prometheus1 inventor of ,navigation1 #ajc2 his name1 corresponding to ,sans4 ,prmthyu-s1 from pramantha #8boring-stick1' #cgj2 connexion of the name with 1 #cgd-e2 identical in function with ,mtarivan1 #cga2 a ,titan 7enemy of the gods7 and yet benefactor of men1 #chi-ia2 created man1 #chi ,prometheus1 legend of1 ,steinthal's ,essay on1 #cfc-ib ,proper names in ,mythology originally appellative1 #cg-h ,prophets introduced the real idea of ,jahveh1 #bid-cjh2 do not care for ,myths1 #cji-aj1 nor the ,patriarchal history and ,moses1 #caj-a ,psychological ,terminology1 #cge-f ,psychology1 a necessary factor of ,mythology1 #ce-g ,pyrrha1 the #8,red1' mother of mankind1 #baj ,quails1 connected with ,apollon and ,diana1 as well as with ,moses1 #dbi ,rachel1 the #8,sheep1' i4e4 the ,cloud1 #afb-e2 weeps for her children1 i4e4 pours down ,rain1 #afe2 bears ,joseph1 the #8,rain1' #aff1 #age2 her grave1 #bhc ,rahabh1 the ,storm-,dragon1 #dbb-f2 denotes ,egypt1 #dbc ,rain with the dark rainy sky loved by ,nomads1 #ed-g2 the child of the ,cloud or the ,sky1 #aff-g2 called a ,serpent1 #ahe-f2 worshiped by the ,nomadic ,hebrews1 #bbg2 attributed by the ,mohammedans to the ,stars1 #bba ,rainbow is called ,joseph's ,bow1 #afi-gj ,red1 for a light colour in general1 #ada2 the colour of ,day1 #adf ,reduplicated forms have1 according to the ,agd1 a greater intensity of meaning than unreduplicated1 #cdj ,religion1 developed out of ,mythology1 #bah et seqq42 takes its form partly from political analogies1 #bfd-h ,religion1 founders of1 born from ,virgins1 #bjh-i ,renan says the ,semites have no ,mythology1 #d2 is mistaken in asserting that ,arabic absorbs only dialects related to itself1 #bcg-i ,reuben1 the #8,twilight1' takes to himself ,bilhah1 a ,solar heroine1 #aga-c2 his grave 7according to ,mohammedan tradition71 at ,jahrn1 #bhj ,riddle proposed by ,samson1 #cid-g ,roman ,calendar1 #fe-f ,rowan1 a ,lightning-tree1 #cff-g ,sabbath1 established on a new basis by the story of ,creation1 #cbd ,sacrifice1 human1 condemned by ,jahveism in the rewritten story of the sacrifice of ,isaac1 #cab afr1 7in ,aramaic71 #8,dawn1' its etymology1 #aej ,sage 7,german71 #cic note ,samson1 a ,sun-god1 #ba-b1 #djg-aj2 his name ,shimshn from ,shemesh1 #8,sun1' #djh2 like other ,sun-gods1 flies after victory1 #cii1 and is pernicious to the ,philistines1 destroying their corn by foxes1 #cih1 and is given to sexual pleasure1 #djd2 is attacked by a lion1 #cid1 and kills him1 #cih2 solution1 #cif-i2 his heroism with the ass's jawbone1 #djj2 was said1 in a myth now lost1 to have gone down to the netherworld1 #djd2 his death1 #djf1 #ddf2 is said in the narrative to be a ,nazirite1 but this is a late addition to the story1 #dac2 motive for it1 #dde2 compared with the other ,judges1 is seen to be mythical1 #dad-e1 but is admirably described1 #dae-f ,samson1 legend of1 ,steinthal's ,essay on1 #cib-ddf ,samuel1 a typical prophet1 #cjf2 a ,nazirite1 #daj-b ,sanchuniathon's account of ,phenician ,mythology1 #bae-g ,sandan or ,sandon1 ,assyrian and ,lydian ,sun-god1 kills a lion1 #cif-g ,sarah1 the #8,princess of heaven1' i4e4 the ,moon1 #aeh ,scarabeus1 worship of the1 #cdc ,seraph1 mythical name of a dragon1 #aig ,serpent 7livythn and rahabh7 denotes ,lightning and ,rain1 #bg-h2 ,rain1 #bbd-f ,serpents crushed by ,herakles1 #ahd ,seth1 grave of 7according to ,mohammedan tradition71 in the valley of ,yahff1 in ,antilibanus1 #bhj ,shamgar1 ,solar hero1 another form of ,samson1 #dbi-cj ,shechem1 a name of the ,morning1 #be-f2 converted into a prince of the ,hivvites1 #bed ,shem1 the #8,lofty1' denotes the ,heaven1 #acb ,shphem 7,judges71 ,phenician magistrates1 #bdb-e ,sinai1 consecrated to ,sin1 the ,moon1 #afj ,sinflut became ,sndflut--psychological process1 #dda-b ,solar heroes found cities1 #aac1 #abg2 remarkable for longevity1 #cef ,space the earliest category understood by man1 #dj-b ,stars worshiped by ,nomadic ,hebrews1 #bai-cj ,steinthal1 ,h41 ,essay on the original form of the legend of ,prometheus1 #cfc-ib2 on the legend of ,samson1 #cib-ddf ,stork1 brought fire and brings children to earth1 #cfg ,suds 7sundus71 greenish1 the colour of ,night1 #adi-ej ,sukkth 7,tabernacles71 ,feast of1 connected with worship of ,stars and ,rain1 #bbj-b ,sulphur1 red1 ,arabic phrase for something impossible1 #adc ,sun1 passes through the sea at night1 #bh1 #ii-ajd2 loved by ,agriculturists1 #eh1 #fj2 called in ,mythology the #8,marching1' #8,running1' #aad-bb2 called the #8,uncoverer1' #aid2 regarded as an ,eye1 #ajf-aj1 as a ,well1 his light being the water1 #cde2 as a ,wheel1 #cha2 represents ,fire in heaven1 and is the source of light and growth1 #cgh2 his rays described as a moisture1 whether water1 milk or wine1 #cde-g2 his three phases1 #bjd-f2 his colour1 #cec-d1 saffron1 #aea1 grey1 #aec1 white1 #aed-e2 turns pale through shame1 #cea-b2 synonyms of1 become obsolete1 #bah2 pools and whips for1 #cdj2 his sons are authors of ,civilisation1 #bjh ,sunset and ,dawn expressed by the same words1 #dc ,tabernacles 7,sukkth71 ,feast of1 connected with the worship of ,stars and ,rain1 #bbj-b ,tj al-,dn b4 ammy1 al-,sarachsh1 on #8,origins1' #bab ,tamar1 the #8,fruit1' her liaison with ,judah1 and with ,amnon1 #ahj-b ,tannn1 #8,extended dragon1' i4e4 ,rain1 #dbc1 #dbg2 ,crocodile1 and ,egypt1 #dbd-e ,tent of heaven denotes the sky by night1 #aaa ,theocracy1 a league between ,religious and ,national ideas1 #bgc ,thor1 converted in ,christian times into ,st4 ,olave1 #dca ,thunder is a groaning or roaring of the clouds1 #afd-e ,time1 a category not understood till after ,space1 and expressed in language by the same terms1 #dj-c ,tr1 formed of chu and dbhr conjoined1 #cae ,tribes1 ,hebrew1 named earlier than ,jacob's sons1 #agf ,tubal-cain and ,jabal1 duplicates of ,cain and ,abel1 #aaa-c1 #acj ,union1 sexual1 its significance in ,mythology1 #aga-c ,uriah1 grave of 7according to ,mohammedan tradition71 #bhj ,usurpers1 other ,gods besides ,jahveh1 according to ,hartmann1 #bfi-gj ,vaivasuta1 son of the ,sun1 ,indian legislator1 #bjh ,varua and the #8,coverer1' #aij ,vedic myths so primitive as to explain themselves1 #cfd ,virgins made to conceive by the ,sun's rays are the mothers of founders of legislation and religion1 #bjh-i ,voguls1 their ,myth of ,civilisation1 #bjg ,vrsmarty and ,horvth's ,hungarian ,myths1 #beb ,vorstellung 7,idea71 #cgg ,wa-jeeg-e-wa-kon-ay1 in an ,ojibwa legend1 repels evil spirits1 #agd ,wamasai people in ,east ,africa identify ,god and ,rain1 #bbd ,wara 7in ,ethiopic71 #8gold1' and connected words1 #add-f ,week1 #fe2 of five days among the ,chinese1 ,mongols1 ,azteks1 and ,mexicans1 #ff2 of eight days in ,old ,calabar1 #ff ,well1 an image of the ,sun1 its water being the rays1 #cde ,wheel1 epithet of the ,sun's chariot1 #baj ,whips of the ,sun1 to drive him along his course1 #cda ,white1 light-coloured in general1 #ada2 the colour of ,day1 #aeb-c ,wings assigned to the ,sun and ,dawn1 #aae-g ,wives1 legitimate1 in ,mythology are homogeneous with their husbands1 #aeh ,woodpecker 7,picus71 personification of ,lightning1 i4e4 ,fire1 #cff1 and of ,man1 #cfh1 #chi ,years and cycles of years in ,patriarchal history1 elaborated at ,babylon1 #cbi ,yere 7in ,hebrew71 #8,grass1' its etymology1 #ade ,zalch1 the #8,swift-marching1' ,solar heroine1 her contest with ,joseph 7,rain71 #afh ,zarah4 ,see ,zerah ,zebulun1 the #8,round1' the ,setting ,sun1 #agg-h ,zechariah expresses the compromise between ,priests and ,prophets1 #cjh ,zerah and ,perez 7,zarah and ,pharez71 ,solar figures1 #ahc ,zeus has ram's horns1 #agi ,zillah1 the #8,night1' mother of ,tubal-cain1 #acj ,zilpah1 #8,marching1' #abe-f ,zipporah1 grave of 7according to ,mohammedan tradition71 #bhj ,zzm1 a nomadic tribe1 #ec ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,and ,,co41 ,,new-,,street ,,square ,,and ,,parliament ,,street ---------------------------------------- -------------- #ci ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,e4,c4 ,,london1 ,march #ahgf4 ,,general ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,published ,,by ,,messrs4 ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,page ,,arts1 ,,manufactures1 c #bf ,,astronomy ,,meteorology #ag ,,biographical ,,works #g ,,chemistry ,,physiology #bd ,,dictionaries other ,,books of ,,reference #ae ,,fine ,,arts ,,illustrated ,,editions #be ,,history1 ,,politics1 ,,historical ,,memoirs1 #a c4 ,,index #da to #dd ,,mental ,,political ,,philosophy #h ,,miscellaneous ,,critical ,,works #ab ,,natural ,,history ,,physical ,,science #ai ,,poetry the ,,drama #cf ,,religious ,,moral ,,works #bi ,,rural ,,sports1 ,,horse ,,cattle ,,management1 #cg c4 ,,travels1 ,,voyages1 c4 #cb ,,works of ,,fiction #ce ,,works of ,,utility ,,general ,,information #ci ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,history1 ,,politics1 ,,historical ,,memoirs1 c4 ------------------ ,the ,history of ,england from the ,accession of ,james ,,ii4 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,lord ,macaulay4 ,,student',s ,,edition1 #b vols4 cr4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,,people',s ,,edition1 #d vols4 cr4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,,cabinet ,,edition1 #h vols4 post #hvo4 #dhs4 ,,library ,,edition1 #e vols4 #hvo4 #d4 ,critical and ,historical ,essays contributed to the ,edinburgh ,review4 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,lord ,macaulay4 ,,cheap ,,edition1 crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,student',s ,,edition1 crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,,people',s ,,edition1 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #hs4 ,,cabinet ,,edition1 #d vols4 #bds4 ,,library ,,edition1 #c vols4 #hvo4 #cfs4 ,lord ,macaulay's ,works4 ,complete and uniform ,library ,edition4 ,edited by his ,sister1 ,lady ,trevelyan4 vols4 #hh vo4 with ,portrait1 #e4 #es4 ,the ,history of ,england from the ,fall of ,wolsey to the ,defeat of the ,spanish ,armada4 ,by ,j4,a4 ,froude1 ,m4,a4 ,,cabinet ,,edition1 #ab vols4 cr4 #hvo4 #c4 #abs4 ,,library ,,edition1 #ab vols4 #hvo4 #h4 #ahs4 ,the ,english in ,ireland in the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,by ,j4,a4 ,froude1 ,m4,a4 #c vols4 #hvo4 #b4 #hs4 ,journal of the ,reigns of ,king ,george the ,fourth and ,king ,william the ,fourth4 ,by the late ,charles ,cavendish ,fulke ,greville1 ,esq4 ,edited by ,h4 ,reeve1 ,esq4 ,fifth ,edition4 #c vols4 #hvo4 price #cfs4 ,the ,life of ,napoleon ,,iii4 derived from ,state ,records1 ,unpublished ,family ,correspondence1 and ,personal ,testimony4 ,by ,blanchard ,jerrold4 ,in ,four ,volumes #hvo4 with numerous ,portraits and ,facsimiles4 ,,vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 price #ahs4 each4 ,the ,third ,volume is now in the press4 ,recollections and ,suggestions1 #ahac-ahgc4 ,by ,john ,earl ,russell1 ,k4 ,g4 ,new ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,introductory ,lectures on ,modern ,history delivered in ,lent ,term #ahdb2 with the ,inaugural ,lecture delivered in ,december #ahda4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,thomas ,arnold1 ,d4,d4 #hvo4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,on ,parliamentary ,government in ,england3 its ,origin1 ,development1 and ,practical ,operation4 ,by ,alpheus ,todd4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #a4 #ags4 ,the ,constitutional ,history of ,england since the ,accession of ,george ,,iii4 #agfj-ahgj4 ,by ,sir ,thomas ,erskine ,may1 ,k4,c4,b4 ,d4,c4,l4 ,fifth ,edition4 #c vols4 crown #hvo4 #ahs4 ,democracy in ,europe2 a ,history4 ,by ,sir ,thomas ,erskine ,may1 ,k4,c4,b4 ,d4,c4,l4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,in the press4 ,lectures on the ,history of ,england from the ,earliest ,times to the ,death of ,king ,edward ,,ii4 ,by ,w4 ,longman1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,maps and ,illustrations4 #hvo4 #aes4 ,the ,history of the ,life and ,times of ,edward ,,iii4 ,by ,w4 ,longman1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,with #i ,maps1 #h ,plates1 and #af ,woodcuts1 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,history of ,england under the ,duke of ,buckingham and ,charles the ,first1 #afbd-afbh4 ,by ,s4 ,rawson ,gardiner1 late ,student of ,ch4 ,ch4 #b vols4 #hvo4 with two ,maps1 #bds4 ,popular ,history of ,france1 from the ,earliest ,times to the ,death of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,by ,elizabeth ,m4 ,sewell1 ,author of #8,amy ,herbert' c4 ,crown #hvo4 ,nearly ready4 ,the ,history of ,prussia1 from the ,earliest ,times to the ,present ,day2 tracing the ,origin and ,development of her ,military ,organisation4 ,by ,captain ,w4,j4 ,wyatt4 ,vols4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,a4,d4 #gjj to ,a4,d4 #aebe4 #hvo4 #cfs4 ,history of ,civilisation in ,england and ,france1 ,spain and ,scotland4 ,by ,henry ,thomas ,buckle4 #c vols4 crown #hvo4 #bds4 ,a ,student's ,manual of the ,history of ,india from the ,earliest ,period to the ,present4 ,by ,col4 ,meadows ,taylor1 ,m4,r4,a4,s4 ,second ,thousand4 ,cr4 #hvo4 ,maps1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,studies from ,genoese ,history4 ,by ,colonel ,g4,b4 ,malleson1 ,c4,s4,i4 ,guardian to ,his ,highness the ,maharj of ,mysore4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,native ,states of ,india in ,subsidiary ,alliance with the ,british ,government2 an ,historical ,sketch4 ,by ,colonel ,g4,b4 ,malleson1 ,c4,s4,i4 ,guardian to the ,maharj of ,mysore4 ,with #f ,coloured ,maps1 #hvo4 price #aes4 ,the ,history of ,india from the ,earliest ,period to the close of ,lord ,dalhousie's ,administration4 ,by ,john ,clark ,marshman4 #c vols4 crown #hvo4 #bbs4 #f;d4 ,indian ,polity2 a ,view of the ,system of ,administration in ,india4 ,by ,lieut4-,colonel ,george ,chesney4 ,second ,edition1 revised1 with ,map4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,waterloo ,lectures2 a ,study of the ,campaign of #ahae4 ,by ,colonel ,charles ,c4 ,chesney1 ,r4,e4 ,third ,edition4 #hvo4 with ,map1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,essays in ,modern ,military ,biography4 ,by ,colonel ,charles ,c4 ,chesney1 ,r4,e4 #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,the ,british ,army in #ahge2 with ,suggestions on its ,administration and ,organisation4 ,by ,john ,holms1 ,m4,p4 ,new and ,enlarged ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 with ,diagrams1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,the ,oxford ,reformers--,john ,colet1 ,erasmus1 and ,thomas ,more2 being a ,history of their ,fellow-,work4 ,by ,frederic ,seebohm4 ,second ,edition4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,the ,new ,reformation1 a ,narrative of the ,old ,catholic ,movement1 from #ahgj to the ,present ,time2 with an ,historical ,introduction4 ,by ,theodorus4 #hvo4 price #abs4 ,the ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations4 ,by ,geo4 ,w4 ,cox1 ,m4,a4 late ,scholar of ,trinity ,college1 ,oxford4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,a ,history of ,greece4 ,by the ,rev4 ,geo4 ,w4 ,cox1 ,m4,a4 late ,scholar of ,trinity ,college1 ,oxford4 ,vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 #hvo4 ,maps1 #cfs4 ,the ,history of the ,peloponnesian ,war1 by ,thucydides4 ,translated by ,richd4 ,crawley1 ,fellow of ,worcester ,college1 ,oxford4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,tale of the ,great ,persian ,war1 from the ,histories of ,herodotus4 ,by ,rev4 ,g4,w4 ,cox1 ,m4,a4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,general ,history of ,greece to the ,death of ,alexander the ,great2 with a ,sketch of the ,subsequent ,history to the ,present ,time4 ,by the ,rev4 ,george ,w4 ,cox1 ,m4,a4 ,author of #8,the ,aryan ,mythology' c4 ,crown #hvo4 with ,maps1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,general ,history of ,rome from the ,foundation of the ,city to the ,fall of ,augustulus1 ,b4,c4 #gec-;,a4,d4 #dgf4 ,by the ,very ,rev4 ,c4 ,merivale1 ,d4,d4 ,dean of ,ely4 ,with #e ,maps1 crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,history of the ,romans under the ,empire4 ,by ,dean ,merivale1 ,d4,d4 #h vols4 post #hvo4 #dhs4 ,the ,fall of the ,roman ,republic2 a ,short ,history of the ,last ,century of the ,commonwealth4 ,by ,dean ,merivale1 ,d4,d4 #abmo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,sixth ,oriental ,monarchy2 or the ,geography1 ,history1 and ,antiquities of ,parthia4 ,collected and ,illustrated from ,ancient and ,modern sources4 ,by ,geo4 ,rawlinson1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,maps and ,illustrations4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,the ,seventh ,great ,oriental ,monarchy2 or1 a ,history of the ,sassanians3 with ,notices ,geographical and ,antiquarian4 ,by ,geo4 ,rawlinson1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,map and #ie ,illustrations4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,encyclopdia of ,chronology1 ,historical and ,biographical2 comprising the ,dates of all the ,great ,events of ,history1 including ,treaties1 ,alliances1 ,wars1 ,battles1 c4 ,incidents in the ,lives of ,eminent ,men1 ,scientific and ,geographical ,discoveries1 ,mechanical ,inventions1 and ,social1 ,domestic1 and ,economical ,improvements4 ,by ,b4,b4 ,woodward1 ,b4,a4 and ,w4,l4,r4 ,cates4 #hvo4 #dbs4 ,the ,history of ,rome4 ,by ,wilhelm ,ihne4 ,vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 #hvo4 #cjs4 ,vols4 ,,iii4 and ,,iv4 in preparation4 ,history of ,european ,morals from ,augustus to ,charlemagne4 ,by ,w4,e4,h4 ,lecky1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,history of the ,rise and ,influence of the ,spirit of ,rationalism in ,europe4 ,by ,w4,e4,h4 ,lecky1 ,m4,a4 ,cabinet ,edition1 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #afs4 ,introduction to the ,science of ,religion3 ,four ,lectures delivered at the ,royal ,institution2 with two ,essays on ,false ,analogies and the ,philosophy of ,mythology4 ,by ,f4 ,max ,mller1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,stoics1 ,epicureans1 and ,sceptics4 ,translated from the ,german of ,dr4 ,e4 ,zeller1 by ,oswald ,j4 ,reichel1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #ads4 ,socrates and the ,socratic ,schools4 ,translated from the ,german of ,dr4 ,e4 ,zeller1 by the ,rev4 ,o4,j4 ,reichel1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,plato and the ,older ,academy4 ,translated1 with the ,author's sanction1 from the ,german of ,dr4 ,e4 ,zeller by ,s4 ,frances ,alleyne and ,alfred ,goodwin1 ,b4,a4 ,fellow of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,post #hvo4 ,nearly ready4 ,sketch of the ,history of the ,church of ,england to the ,revolution of #afhh4 ,by ,t4,v4 ,short1 ,d4,d4 sometime ,bishop of ,st4 ,asaph4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,historical ,geography of ,europe4 ,by ,e4,a4 ,freeman1 ,d4,c4,l4 #hvo4 ,maps4 ,in the press4 ,the ,student's ,manual of ,ancient ,history3 containing the ,political ,history1 ,geographical ,position1 and ,social ,state of the ,principal ,nations of ,antiquity4 ,by ,w4 ,cooke ,taylor1 ,,ll4,d4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,student's ,manual of ,modern ,history3 containing the ,rise and ,progress of the ,principal ,european ,nations1 their ,political ,history1 and the ,changes in their ,social ,condition4 ,by ,w4 ,cooke ,taylor1 ,,ll4,d4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,history of ,philosophy1 from ,thales to ,comte4 ,by ,george ,henry ,lewes4 ,fourth ,edition1 #b vols4 #hvo4 #cbs4 ,the ,crusades4 ,by the ,rev4 ,g4,w4 ,cox1 ,m4,a4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 with ,map1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,era of the ,protestant ,revolution4 ,by ,f4 ,seebohm1 ,author of #8,the ,oxford ,reformers4' ,with #d ,maps and #ab ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,thirty ,years ,war1 #afah-afdh4 ,by ,samuel ,rawson ,gardiner4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 with ,maps1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,houses of ,lancaster and ,york2 with the ,conquest and ,loss of ,france4 ,by ,james ,gairdner4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 with ,map1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,edward the ,third4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,warburton1 ,m4,a4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 with ,maps1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,age of ,elizabeth4 ,by the ,rev4 ,m4 ,creighton1 ,m4,a41 late ,fellow and ,tutor of ,merton ,college1 ,oxford4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 with ,maps1 #bs4 #f;d4 ------------------ ,,biographical ,,works4 ------------------ ,the ,life and ,letters of ,lord ,macaulay4 ,by his ,nephew1 ,g4 ,otto ,trevelyan1 ,m4,p4 #b vols4 #hvo4 with ,portrait1 price #cfs4 ,the ,life of ,sir ,william ,fairbairn1 ,bart4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,corresponding ,member of the ,national ,institute of ,france1 c4 ,partly written by himself2 edited and completed by ,william ,pole1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,member of ,council of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers4 ,in the press4 ,arthur ,schopenhauer1 his ,life and his ,philosophy4 ,by ,helen ,zimmern4 ,post #hvo4 with ,portrait1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,life1 ,works1 and ,opinions of ,heinrich ,heine4 ,by ,william ,stigand4 #b vols4 #hvo4 with ,portrait of ,heine1 price #bhs4 ,memoirs of ,baron ,stockmar4 ,by his ,son1 ,baron ,e4 ,von ,stockmar4 ,translated from the ,german by ,g4,a4,m4 ,edited by ,f4 ,max ,mller1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #bas4 ,admiral ,sir ,edward ,codrington1 a ,memoir of his ,life2 with ,selections from his ,correspondence4 ,abridged from the larger work1 and edited by his ,daughter1 ,lady ,bourchier4 ,with ,portrait1 ,maps1 c4 ,crown #hvo4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,life and ,letters of ,gilbert ,elliot1 ,first ,earl of ,minto1 from #agea to #ahjf1 when his ,public ,life in ,europe was closed by his ,appointment to the ,vice-,royalty of ,india4 ,edited by the ,countess of ,minto4 #c vols4 post #hvo4 #cas4 #f;d4 ,autobiography4 ,by ,john ,stuart ,mill4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,isaac ,casaubon1 #aeei-afad4 ,by ,mark ,pattison1 ,rector of ,lincoln ,college1 ,oxford4 #hvo4 price #ahs4 ,biographical and ,critical ,essays1 reprinted from ,reviews1 with ,additions and ,corrections4 ,by ,a4 ,hayward1 ,q4,c4 ,second ,series1 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,third ,series1 #a vol4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,the ,memoirs of ,sir ,john ,reresby1 of ,thrybergh1 ,bart4 ,m4,p4 for ,york1 c4 #afcd-afhi4 ,written by ,himself4 ,edited from the ,original ,manuscript by ,james ,j4 ,cartwright1 ,m4,a4 #hvo4 price #bas4 ,lord ,george ,bentinck2 a ,political ,biography4 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,b4 ,disraeli1 ,m4,p4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,essays in ,ecclesiastical ,biography4 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,sir ,j4 ,stephen1 ,,ll4,d4 ,cabinet ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,leaders of ,public ,opinion in ,ireland2 ,swift1 ,flood1 ,grattan1 ,o',connell4 ,by ,w4,e4,h4 ,lecky1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,dictionary of ,general ,biography2 containing ,concise ,memoirs and ,notices of the most ,eminent ,persons of all ,ages and ,countries4 ,by ,w4,l4,r4 ,cates4 ,new ,edition1 #hvo4 #bes4 ,supplement1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,life of the ,duke of ,wellington4 ,by the ,rev4 ,g4,r4 ,gleig1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 with ,portrait1 #es4 ,the ,rise of ,great ,families2 other ,essays and ,stories4 ,by ,sir ,bernard ,burke1 ,c4,b4 ,,ll4,d4 ,crown #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,memoirs of ,sir ,henry ,havelock1 ,k4,c4,b4 ,by ,john ,clark ,marshman4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,vicissitudes of ,families4 ,by ,sir ,bernard ,burke1 ,c4,b4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #bas4 ------------------ ,,mental and ,,political ,,philosophy4 ,comte's ,system of ,positive ,polity1 or ,treatise upon ,sociology4 ,translated from the ,paris ,edition of #ahea-ahed1 and furnished with ,analytical ,tables of ,contents4 ,in ,four ,volumes1 each forming in some degree an independent ,treatise3-- ,vol4 ,i4 ,general ,view of ,positivism and ,introductory ,principles4 ,translated by ,j4,h4 ,bridges1 ,m4,b4 formerly ,fellow of ,oriel ,college1 ,oxford4 #hvo4 price #bas4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,the ,social ,statics1 or the ,abstract ,laws of ,human ,order4 ,translated by ,frederic ,harrison1 ,m4,a4 #hvo4 price #ads4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,the ,social ,dynamics1 or the ,general ,laws of ,human ,progress 7the ,philosophy of ,history74 ,translated by ,e4,s4 ,beesly1 ,m4,a4 ,professor of ,history in ,university ,college1 ,london4 #hvo4 ,nearly ready4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,the ,synthesis of the ,future of ,mankind4 ,translated by ,richard ,congreve1 ,m4,d41 and an ,appendix1 containing the ,author's ,minor ,treatises1 translated by ,h4,d4 ,hutton1 ,m4,a4 ,barrister-at-,law4 #hvo4 ,in the press4 ,order and ,progress3 ,part ,i4 ,thoughts on ,government2 ,part ,,ii4 ,studies of ,political ,crises4 ,by ,frederic ,harrison1 ,m4,a4 of ,lincoln's ,inn4 #hvo4 #ads4 #8,we find from this book--a large part1 and by far the more valuable part1 of which is new--that ,mr4 ,,harrison has devoted careful attention to what we shall call the constructive problems of political science4 ,whoever has mistaken him for a commonplace ,radical1 either of the ,chartist or the ,trades ,unionist type1 has been wrong4444 ,the best political thinkers for a quarter of a century or upwards have more or less vaguely felt that one grand problem they had to solve was how our governing apparatus may be made to yield good government2 but we are not aware that any writer has looked it more fully in the face1 or more carefully scanned it with a view to a solution1 than ,mr4 ,,harrison4' ,,literary ,,world4 ,essays1 ,political1 ,social1 and ,religious4 ,by ,richd4 ,congreve1 ,m4,a4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,essays1 ,critical and ,biographical1 contributed to the ,edinburgh ,review4 ,by ,henry ,rogers4 ,new ,edition4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #abs4 ,essays on some ,theological ,controversies of the ,time1 contributed chiefly to the ,edinburgh ,review4 ,by ,henry ,rogers4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,democracy in ,america4 ,by ,alexis de ,tocqueville4 ,translated by ,henry ,reeve1 ,esq4 ,new ,edition4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #afs4 ,on ,representative ,government4 ,by ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,fourth ,edition1 crown #hvo4 #bs4 ,on ,liberty4 ,by ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,post #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 crown #hvo4 #as4 #d;d4 ,principles of ,political ,economy4 ,by ,john ,stuart ,mill4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #cjs4 or #a vol4 crown #hvo4 #es4 ,essays on some ,unsettled ,questions of ,political ,economy4 ,by ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,second ,edition4 #hvo4 #fs4 #f;d4 ,utilitarianism4 ,by ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,fourth ,edition4 #hvo4 #es4 ,a ,system of ,logic1 ,ratiocinative and ,inductive4 ,by ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,eighth ,edition4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bes4 ,examination of ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 and of the principal ,philosophical ,questions discussed in his ,writings4 ,by ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,fourth ,edition4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,dissertations and ,discussions4 ,by ,john ,stuart ,mill4 #d vols4 #hvo4 price #b4 #fs4 #f;d4 ,analysis of the ,phenomena of the ,human ,mind4 ,by ,james ,mill4 ,new ,edition1 with ,notes1 ,illustrative and ,critical4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,the ,law of ,nations considered as ,independent ,political ,communities2 the ,rights and ,duties of ,nations in ,time of ,war4 ,by ,sir ,travers ,twiss1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,new ,edition1 revised2 with an ,introductory ,juridical ,review of the ,results of ,recent ,wars1 and an ,appendix of ,treaties and other ,documents4 #hvo4 price #bas4 ,church and ,state2 their relations ,historically ,developed4 ,by ,t4 ,heinrich ,geffcken1 ,professor of ,international ,law at the ,university of ,strasburg4 ,translated from the ,german by ,e4 ,fairfax ,taylor4 ,in the press4 ,a ,systematic ,view of the ,science of ,jurisprudence4 ,by ,sheldon ,amos1 ,m4,a4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,a ,primer of the ,english ,constitution and ,government4 ,by ,sheldon ,amos1 ,m4,a4 ,second ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,outlines of ,civil ,procedure4 ,being a ,general ,view of the ,supreme ,court of ,judicature and of the whole ,practice in the ,common ,law and ,chancery ,divisions under all the ,statutes now in force4 ,with ,introductory ,essay1 ,references1 ,time ,table1 and ,index4 ,designed as a ,systematic and ,readable ,manual for ,students1 and as a ,handbook of ,general ,practice4 ,by ,edward ,stanley ,roscoe1 ,barrister-at-,law4 #abmo4 price #cs4 #f;d4 ,principles of ,economical ,philosophy4 ,by ,h4,d4 ,macleod1 ,m4,a4 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,second ,edition1 in #b vols4 ,vol4 ,i4 #hvo4 #aes4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,part ,i4 price #abs4 ,the ,institutes of ,justinian2 with ,english ,introduction1 ,translation1 and ,notes4 ,by ,t4,c4 ,sandars1 ,m4,a4 ,fifth ,edition4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,lord ,bacon's ,works1 ,collected and ,edited by ,r4 ,l4 ,ellis1 ,m4,a4 ,j4 ,shedding1 ,m4,a4 and ,d4,d4 ,heath4 ,new and ,cheaper ,edition4 #g vols4 #hvo4 #c4 #acs4 #f;d4 ,letters and ,life of ,francis ,bacon1 including all his ,occasional ,works4 ,collected and edited1 with a ,commentary1 by ,j4 ,spedding4 #g vols4 #hvo4 #d4 #ds4 ,the ,nicomachean ,ethics of ,aristotle4 ,newly translated into ,english4 ,by ,r4 ,williams1 ,b4,a4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,the ,politics of ,aristotle2 ,greek ,text1 with ,english ,notes4 ,by ,richard ,congreve1 ,m4,a4 ,new ,edition1 revised4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,the ,ethics of ,aristotle2 with ,essays and ,notes4 ,by ,sir ,a4 ,grant1 ,bart4 ,m4,a4 ,,ll4,d4 ,third ,edition4 #b vols4 #hvo4 price #cbs4 ,bacon's ,essays1 with ,annotations4 ,by ,r4 ,whately1 ,d4,d4 ,new ,edition4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,picture ,logic2 an ,attempt to ,popularise the ,science of ,reasoning by the combination of ,humorous ,pictures with ,examples of ,reasoning taken from ,daily ,life4 ,by ,a4 ,swinbourne1 ,b4,a4 ,second ,edition2 with ,woodcut ,illustrations from ,drawings by the ,author4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #es4 ,elements of ,logic4 ,by ,r4 ,whately1 ,d4,d4 ,new ,edition4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 cr4 #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,elements of ,rhetoric4 ,by ,r4 ,whately1 ,d4,d4 ,new ,edition4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 cr4 #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,an ,outline of the ,necessary ,laws of ,thought3 a ,treatise on ,pure and ,applied ,logic4 ,by the ,most ,rev4 ,w4 ,thomson1 ,d4,d4 ,archbishop of ,york4 ,twelfth ,thousand4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,an ,introduction to ,mental ,philosophy1 on the ,inductive ,method4 ,by ,j4,d4 ,morell1 ,,ll4,d4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,philosophy without ,assumptions4 ,by the ,rev4 ,t4,p4 ,kirkman1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,rector of ,croft1 near ,warrington4 #hvo4 price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,ueberweg's ,system of ,logic1 and ,history of ,logical ,doctrines4 ,translated1 with ,notes and ,appendices1 by ,t4,m4 ,lindsay1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,the ,senses and the ,intellect4 ,by ,a4 ,bain1 ,,ll4,d4 ,third ,edition1 #hvo4 #aes4 ,the ,emotions and the ,will4 ,by ,alexander ,bain1 ,,ll4,d4 ,professor of ,logic in the ,university of ,aberdeen4 ,third ,edition1 thoroughly revised1 and in great part re-written #hvo4 price #aes4 ,mental and ,moral ,science2 a ,compendium of ,psychology and ,ethics4 ,by ,a4 ,bain1 ,,ll4,d4 ,third ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,or separately3 ,part ,i4 ,mental ,science1 #fs4 #f;d4 ,part ,,ii4 ,moral ,science1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,on the ,influence of ,authority in ,matters of ,opinion4 ,by the late ,sir ,george ,cornewall ,lewis1 ,bart4 ,new ,edition1 #hvo4 #ads4 ,hume's ,treatise on ,human ,nature4 ,edited1 with ,notes1 c4 by ,t4,h4 ,green1 ,m4,a4 and the ,rev4 ,t4,h4 ,grose1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,hume's ,essays ,moral1 ,political1 and ,literary4 ,by the same ,editors4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,the above form a complete and uniform ,edition of ,,hume',s ,philosophical ,works4 ------------------ ,,miscellaneous ,,critical ,,works4 ,miscellaneous and ,posthumous ,works of the late ,henry ,thomas ,buckle4 ,edited1 with a ,biographical ,notice1 by ,helen ,taylor4 #c vols4 #hvo4 #b4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,short ,studies on ,great ,subjects4 ,by ,j4,a4 ,froude1 ,m4,a4 ,,cabinet ,,edition1 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #abs4 ,,library ,,edition1 #b vols4 demy #hvo4 #bds4 ,manual of ,english ,literature1 ,historical and ,critical4 ,by ,thomas ,arnold1 ,m4,a4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,lord ,macaulay's ,miscellaneous ,writings4 ,,library ,,edition1 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,portrait1 #bas4 ,,people',s ,,edition1 #a vol4 cr4 #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,lord ,macaulay's ,miscellaneous ,writings and ,speeches4 ,students' ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,speeches of the ,right ,hon4 ,lord ,macaulay1 corrected by ,himself4 ,people's ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,rev4 ,sydney ,smith's ,essays contributed to the ,edinburgh ,review4 ,authorised ,edition1 complete in ,one ,volume4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 sewed1 or #cs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,the ,wit and ,wisdom of the ,rev4 ,sydney ,smith4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,german ,home ,life2 a ,series of ,essays on the ,domestic ,life of ,germany4 ,reprinted1 with ,revision and ,additions1 from ,,fraser',s ,,magazine4 #a vol4 crown #hvo4 ,nearly ready4 ,the ,miscellaneous ,works of ,thomas ,arnold1 ,d4,d4 ,late ,head ,master of ,rugby ,school and ,regius ,professor of ,modern ,history in the ,univ4 of ,oxford4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,realities of ,irish ,life4 ,by ,w4 ,steuart ,trench4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 sewed1 or #cs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,lectures on the ,science of ,language4 ,by ,f4 ,max ,mller1 ,m4,a4 c4 ,eighth ,edition4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #afs4 ,chips from a ,german ,workshop2 being ,essays on the ,science of ,religion1 and on ,mythology1 ,traditions1 and ,customs4 ,by ,f4 ,max ,mller1 ,m4,a4 #d vols4 #hvo4 #b4 #ahs4 ,southey's ,doctor1 complete in ,one ,volume4 ,edited by ,rev4 ,j4,w4 ,warter1 ,b4,d4 ,square crown #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,lectures delivered in ,america in #ahgd4 ,by ,charles ,kingsley1 late ,rector of ,eversley4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,families of ,speech4 ,four ,lectures delivered at the ,royal ,institution4 ,by ,f4,w4 ,farrar1 ,d4,d4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,chapters on ,language4 ,by ,f4,w4 ,farrar1 ,d4,d4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,a ,budget of ,paradoxes4 ,by ,augustus ,de ,morgan4 ,reprinted1 tenth ,author's ,additions1 from the ,athenum4 #hvo4 #aes4 ,apparitions2 a ,narrative of ,facts4 ,by the ,rev4 ,b4,w4 ,savile1 ,m4,a4 ,author of #8,the ,truth of the ,bible' c4 ,crown #hvo4 price #ds4 #f;d4 ,the ,oration of ,demosthenes on the ,crown4 ,translated by the ,right ,hon4 ,sir ,r4,p4 ,collier4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,miscellaneous ,writings of ,john ,conington1 ,m4,a4 ,edited by ,j4,a4 ,symonds1 ,m4,a4 ,with a ,memoir by ,h4,j4,s4 ,smith1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,recreations of a ,country ,parson4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,two ,series1 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,landscapes1 ,churches1 and ,moralities4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,seaside ,musings on ,sundays and ,weekdays4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,changed ,aspects of ,unchanged ,truths4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,counsel and ,comfort from a ,city ,pulpit4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,lessons of ,middle ,age4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,leisure ,hours in ,town4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,autumn ,holidays of a ,country ,parson4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,sunday ,afternoons at the ,parish ,church of a ,scottish ,university ,city4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,commonplace ,philosopher in ,town and ,country4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,present-,day ,thoughts4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,critical ,essays of a ,country ,parson4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,graver ,thoughts of a ,country ,parson4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,three ,series1 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ------------------ ,,dictionaries and ,,other ,,books of ,,reference4 ,a ,dictionary of the ,english ,language4 ,by ,r4,g4 ,latham1 ,m4,a4 ,m4,d4 ,founded on the ,dictionary of ,dr4 ,s4 ,johnson1 as edited by the ,rev4 ,h4,j4 ,todd1 with numerous ,emendations and ,additions4 #d vols4 #dto4 #g4 ,thesaurus of ,english ,words and ,phrases1 classified and arranged so as to facilitate the expression of ,ideas1 and assist in ,literary ,composition4 ,by ,p4,m4 ,roget1 ,m4,d4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,english ,synonymes4 ,by ,e4,j4 ,whately4 ,edited by ,archbishop ,whately4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #cs4 ,handbook of the ,english ,language4 ,for the use of ,students of the ,universities and the ,higher ,classes in ,schools4 ,by ,r4,g4 ,latham1 ,m4,a4 ,m4,d4 c4 late ,fellow of ,kings ,college1 ,cambridge2 late ,professor of ,english in ,univ4 ,coll4 ,lond4 ,the ,ninth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,practical ,dictionary of the ,french and ,english ,languages4 ,by ,lon ,contanseau1 many years ,french ,examiner for ,military and ,civil ,appointments1 c4 ,post #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,contanseau's ,pocket ,dictionary1 ,french and ,english1 abridged from the ,practical ,dictionary1 by the ,author4 ,square #ahmo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,a ,new ,pocket ,dictionary of the ,german and ,english ,languages4 ,by ,f4,w4 ,longman1 ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,founded on ,blackley and ,friedlnder's ,practical ,dictionary of the ,german and ,english ,languages4 ,square #ahmo4 price #es4 ,a ,dictionary of ,roman and ,greek ,antiquities4 ,with #b1jjj ,woodcuts from ,ancient ,originals1 illustrative of the ,arts and ,life of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,by ,anthony ,rich1 ,b4,a4 ,third ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,new ,practical ,dictionary of the ,german ,language2 ,german-,english and ,english-,german4 ,by ,rev4 ,w4,l4 ,blackley1 ,m4,a4 and ,dr4 ,c4,m4 ,friedlnder4 ,post #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,mastery of ,languages2 or1 the ,art of ,speaking ,foreign ,tongues ,idiomatically4 ,by ,thomas ,prendergast4 ,second ,edition4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,greek-,english ,lexicon4 ,by ,h4,g4 ,liddell1 ,d4,d4 ,dean of ,christchurch1 and ,r4 ,scott1 ,d4,d4 ,dean of ,rochester4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,crown #dto4 #cfs4 ,a ,lexicon1 ,greek and ,english1 abridged for ,schools from ,liddell and ,scott's ,greek-,english ,lexicon4 ,fourteenth ,edition4 ,square #abmo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,an ,english-,greek ,lexicon1 containing all the ,greek ,words used by ,writers of good authority4 ,by ,c4,d4 ,yonge1 ,m4,a4 ,new ,edition4 #dto4 #bas4 ,mr4 ,c4,d4 ,yonge's ,new ,lexicon1 ,english and ,greek1 abridged from his larger ,lexicon4 ,square #abmo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,a ,latin-,english ,dictionary4 ,by ,john ,t4 ,white1 ,d4,d4 ,oxon4 and ,j4,e4 ,riddle1 ,m4,a4 ,oxon4 ,fifth ,edition1 revised4 #a vol4 #dto4 #bhs4 ,whites ,college ,latin-,english ,dictionary2 abridged from the ,parent ,work for the use of ,university ,students4 ,third ,edition1 ,medium #hvo4 #aes4 ,a ,latin-,english ,dictionary adapted for the use of ,middle-,class ,schools1 ,by ,john ,t4 ,white1 ,d4,d4 ,oxon4 ,square fcp4 #hvo4 #cs4 ,white ,junior ,student's ,complete ,latin-,english and ,english-,latin ,dictionary4 ,square #abmo4 #abs4 ,separately ,,english-,,latin1 #es4 #f;d4 ,,latin-,,english1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,m,culloch's ,dictionary1 ,practical ,theoretical and ,historical of ,commerce and ,commercial ,navigation4 ,edited by ,h4,g4 ,reid4 #hvo4 #fcs4 ,supplement1 price #es4 ,a ,general ,dictionary of ,geography1 ,descriptive1 ,physical1 ,statistical1 and ,historical2 forming a complete ,gazetteer of the ,world4 ,by ,a4 ,keith ,johnston4 ,new ,edition1 thoroughly revised4 ,in the press4 ,the ,public ,schools ,manual of ,modern ,geography4 ,forming a ,companion to #8,the ,public ,schools ,atlas of ,modern ,geography4' ,by ,rev4 ,g4 ,butler1 ,m4,a4 ,in the press4 ,the ,public ,schools ,atlas of ,modern ,geography4 ,in #ca ,maps1 exhibiting clearly the more important ,physical ,features of the ,countries delineated4 ,edited1 with ,introduction1 by ,rev4 ,g4 ,butler1 ,m4,a4 ,imperial #hvo4 price #es4 cloth2 or in imperial #dto4 #cs4 #f;d4 sewed #es4 cloth4 ,the ,public ,schools ,atlas of ,ancient ,geography4 ,edited1 with an ,introduction on the ,study of ,ancient ,geography1 by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,butler1 ,m4,a4 ,imperial ,quarto4 ,in the press4 ------------------ ,,astronomy and ,,meteorology4 ,the ,universe and the ,coming ,transits2 ,researches into and ,new ,views respecting the ,constitution of the ,heavens4 ,by ,r4,a4 ,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,with #bb ,charts and #bb ,diagrams4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,saturn and its ,system4 ,by ,r4,a4 ,proctor1 ,b4,a4 #hvo4 with #ad ,plates1 #ads4 ,the ,transits of ,venus2 ,a ,popular ,account of ,past and ,coming ,transits1 from the first observed by ,horrocks ,a4,d4 #afci to the ,transit of ,a4,d4 #bjab4 ,by ,r4,a4 ,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,second ,edition1 revised and enlarged1 with #bj ,plates 7#ab ,coloured7 and #bg ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,essays on ,astronomy4 ,a ,series of ,papers on ,planets and ,meteors1 the ,sun and ,sun-surrounding ,space1 ,stars and ,star ,cloudlets4 ,by ,r4,a4 ,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,with #aj ,plates and #bd ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,the ,moon2 her ,motions1 ,aspect1 ,scenery1 and ,physical ,condition4 ,by ,r4,a4 ,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,with ,plates1 ,charts1 ,woodcuts1 and ,lunar ,photographs4 ,crown #hvo4 #aes4 ,the ,sun2 ,ruler1 ,light1 ,fire1 and ,life of the ,planetary ,system4 ,by ,r4,a4 ,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,second ,edition4 ,plates and ,woodcuts4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,the ,orbs ,around ,us2 a ,series of ,familiar ,essays on the ,moon and ,planets1 ,meteors and ,comets1 the ,sun and ,coloured ,pairs of ,suns4 ,by ,r4,a4 ,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,second ,edition1 with ,chart and #d ,diagrams4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,other ,worlds than ,ours2 ,the ,plurality of ,worlds ,studied under the ,light of ,recent ,scientific ,researches4 ,by ,r4,a4 ,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,third ,edition1 with #ad ,illustrations4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,brinkley's ,astronomy4 ,revised and partly re-written1 with ,additional ,chapters1 and an ,appendix of ,questions for ,examination4 ,by ,john ,w4 ,stubbs1 ,d4,d4 and ,f4 ,brunnow1 ,ph4,d4 ,with #di ,diagrams4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,outlines of ,astronomy4 ,by ,sir ,j4,f4,w4 ,herschel1 ,bart4 ,m4,a4 ,latest ,edition1 with ,plates and ,diagrams4 ,square crown #hvo4 #abs4 ,the ,moon1 and the ,condition and ,configurations of its ,surface4 ,by ,edmund ,neison1 ,fellow of the ,royal ,astronomical ,society c4 ,illustrated by ,maps and ,plates4 ,nearly ready4 ,celestial ,objects for ,common ,telescopes4 ,by ,t4,w4 ,webb1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,new ,edition1 with ,map of the ,moon and ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 #8,by universal consent of observers in this country1 ,mr4 ,,webb',s ,celestial ,objects has taken the place of a standard text-book4 ,with a book so well known and so highly appreciated1 we have little more to do than to mention the appearance of a new edition1 which we know has been wanted for some time1 and which those who survey the glories of the heavens will be anxious to obtain4' ,the ,,student4 ,a ,new ,star ,atlas1 for the ,library1 the ,school1 and the ,observatory1 in #ab ,circular ,maps 7with #b ,index ,plates74 ,by ,r4,a4 ,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,larger ,star ,atlas1 for the ,library1 in ,twelve ,circular ,maps1 photolithographed by ,a4 ,brothers1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,with #b ,index ,plates and a ,letterpress ,introduction4 ,by ,r4,a4 ,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,second ,edition4 ,small folio1 #bes4 ,dove's ,law of ,storms1 considered in connexion with the ordinary ,movements of the ,atmosphere4 ,translated by ,r4,h4 ,scott1 ,m4,a4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,air and ,rain2 the ,beginnings of a ,chemical ,climatology4 ,by ,r4,a4 ,smith1 ,f4,r4,s4 #hvo4 #bds4 ,air and its ,relations to ,life1 #aggd-ahgd2 a ,course of ,lectures delivered at the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain in #ahgd1 with some ,additions4 ,by ,walter ,noel ,hartley1 ,f4,c4,s4 ,demonstrator of ,chemistry at ,king's ,college1 ,london4 ,small #hvo4 with ,illustrations1 #fs4 ,nautical ,surveying1 an ,introduction to the ,practical and ,theoretical ,study of4 ,by ,j4,k4 ,laughton1 ,m4,a4 ,small #hvo4 #fs4 ,schellen's ,spectrum ,analysis1 in its ,application to ,terrestrial ,substances and the ,physical ,constitution of the ,heavenly ,bodies4 ,translated by ,jane and ,c4 ,lassell2 edited1 with ,notes1 by ,w4 ,huggins1 ,l4,l4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #ac ,plates and #bbc ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ------------------ ,,natural ,,history and ,,physical ,,science4 ,professor ,helmholtz' ,popular ,lectures on ,scientific ,subjects4 ,translated by ,e4 ,atkinson1 ,f4,c4,s4 ,with many ,illustrative ,wood ,engravings4 #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,ganot's ,natural ,philosophy for ,general ,readers and ,young ,persons2 a ,course of ,physics divested of ,mathematical ,formul and expressed in the language of daily life4 ,translated by ,e4 ,atkinson1 ,f4,c4,s4 ,second ,edition1 with #b ,plates and #dbi ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,correlation of ,physical ,forces4 ,by the ,hon4 ,sir ,w4,r4 ,grove1 ,f4,r4,s4 c4 ,sixth ,edition1 with other ,contributions to ,science4 #hvo4 #aes4 ,weinhold's ,introduction to ,experimental ,physics1 ,theoretical and ,practical2 including ,directions for ,constructing ,physical ,apparatus and for ,making ,experiments4 ,translated by ,b4 ,loewy1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,with a ,preface by ,g4,c4 ,foster1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #c ,coloured ,plates and #djd ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 price #cas4 #f;d4 ,ganot's ,elementary ,treatise on ,physics1 ,experimental and ,applied1 for the use of ,colleges and ,schools4 ,translated and edited by ,e4 ,atkinson1 ,f4,c4,s4 ,seventh ,edition1 with #d ,coloured ,plates #geh ,woodcuts4 ,post #hvo4 #aes4 ,problems and ,examples in ,physics1 an ,appendix to the ,seventh and other ,editions of ,ganot's ,elementary ,treatise4 #hvo4 price #as4 ,text-,books of ,science1 ,mechanical and ,physical1 adapted for the use of ,artisans and of ,students in ,public and ,science ,schools4 ,small #hvo4 ,woodcuts4 ,the following ,text-,books in this ,series may now be had3-- ,anderson's ,strength of ,materials1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,armstrong's ,organic ,chemistry1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,barry's ,railway ,appliances1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,bloxam's ,metals1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,goodeve's ,mechanics1 #cs4 #f;d4 -------- ,mechanism1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,griffin's ,algebra ,trigonometry1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,notes on the same1 with ,solutions1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,jenkin's ,electricity ,magnetism1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,maxwell's ,theory of ,heat1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,merrifield's ,technical ,arithmetic1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,key1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,miller's ,inorganic ,chemistry1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,preece and ,sivewright's ,telegraphy1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,shelley's ,workshop ,appliances1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,thorpe's ,quantitative ,analysis1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,thorpe and ,muir's ,qualitative ,analysis1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,watson's ,plane ,solid ,geometry1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,other ,text-,books1 in extension of this ,series1 in active preparation4 ,principles of ,animal ,mechanics4 ,by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,haughton1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,second ,edition4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,fragments of ,science4 ,by ,john ,tyndall1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,new ,edition1 crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,heat a ,mode of ,motion4 ,by ,john ,tyndall1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,fifth ,edition1 ,plate and ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,sound4 ,by ,john ,tyndall1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,third ,edition1 including ,recent ,researches on ,fog-,signalling2 ,portrait and ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,researches on ,diamagnetism and ,magne-,crystallic ,action2 including ,diamagnetic ,polarity4 ,by ,john ,tyndall1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #f ,plates and many ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,contributions to ,molecular ,physics in the domain of ,radiant ,heat4 ,by ,john ,tyndall1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #b ,plates and #ca ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,six ,lectures on ,light1 delivered in ,america in #ahgb and #ahgc4 ,by ,john ,tyndall1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,second ,edition1 with ,portrait1 ,plate1 and #ei ,diagrams4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,notes of a ,course of ,nine ,lectures on ,light1 delivered at the ,royal ,institution4 ,by ,john ,tyndall1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,crown #hvo4 #as4 sewed1 or #as4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,notes of a ,course of ,seven ,lectures on ,electrical ,phenomena and ,theories1 delivered at the ,royal ,institution4 ,by ,john ,tyndall1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,crown #hvo4 #as4 sewed1 or #as4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,a ,treatise on ,magnetism1 ,general and ,terrestrial4 ,by ,h4 ,lloyd1 ,d4,d4 ,d4,c4,l4 #hvo4 price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,elementary ,treatise on the ,wave-,theory of ,light4 ,by ,h4 ,lloyd1 ,d4,d4 ,d4,c4,l4 ,third ,edition4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,comparative ,anatomy and ,physiology of the ,vertebrate ,animals4 ,by ,richard ,owen1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #a1dgb ,woodcuts1 #c vols4 #hvo4 #c4 #acs4 #f;d4 ,sir ,h4 ,holland's ,fragmentary ,papers on ,science and other subjects4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,holland4 #hvo4 price #ads4 ,kirby and ,spence's ,introduction to ,entomology1 or ,elements of the ,natural ,history of ,insects4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,light ,science for ,leisure ,hours2 ,familiar ,essays on ,scientific ,subjects1 ,natural ,phenomena1 c4 ,by ,r4,a4 ,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,first and ,second ,series4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 each4 ,homes without ,hands2 a ,description of the ,habitations of ,animals1 classed according to their ,principle of ,construction4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,with about #adj ,vignettes on ,wood4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,strange ,dwellings2 a ,description of the ,habitations of ,animals1 abridged from #8,homes without ,hands4' ,by ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,frontispiece and #fj ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,insects at ,home2 a ,popular ,account of ,british ,insects1 their ,structure ,habits1 and ,transformations4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,with upwards of #gjj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,insects ,abroad2 being a ,popular ,account of ,foreign ,insects1 their ,structure1 ,habits1 and ,transformations4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,with upwards of #gjj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,out of ,doors2 a ,selection of ,original ,articles on ,practical ,natural ,history4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,with #f ,illustrations from ,original ,designs engraved on ,wood4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,bible ,animals2 a ,description of every ,living ,creature mentioned in the ,scriptures1 from the ,ape to the ,coral4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,with about #aab ,vignettes on ,wood4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,the ,polar ,world3 a ,popular ,description of ,man and ,nature in the ,arctic and ,antarctic ,regions of the ,globe4 ,by ,dr4 ,g4 ,hartwig4 ,with ,chromoxylographs1 ,maps1 and ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders4 ,by ,dr4 ,g4 ,hartwig4 ,fourth ,edition1 enlarged4 #hvo4 with many ,illustrations1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,tropical ,world4 ,by ,dr4 ,g4 ,hartwig4 ,with about #bjj ,illustrations4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,subterranean ,world4 ,by ,dr4 ,g4 ,hartwig4 ,with ,maps and ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,aerial ,world2 a ,popular ,account of the ,phenomena and ,life of the ,atmosphere4 ,by ,dr4 ,george ,hartwig4 ,with ,map1 #h ,chromoxylographs1 and #fj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 price #bas4 ,game ,preservers and ,bird ,preservers1 or #8,which are our ,friends8' ,by ,george ,francis ,morant1 late ,captain #abth ,royal ,lancers ,major ,cape ,mounted ,riflemen4 ,crown #hvo4 price #es4 ,a ,familiar ,history of ,birds4 ,by ,e4 ,stanley1 ,d4,d4 late ,ld4 ,bishop of ,norwich4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 with ,woodcuts1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,rocks ,classified and ,described4 ,by ,b4 ,von ,cotta4 ,english ,edition1 by ,p4,h4 ,,lawrence 7with ,english1 ,german1 and ,french ,synonymes71 revised by the ,author4 ,post #hvo4 #ads4 ,excavations at the ,kesslerloch near ,thayngen1 ,switzerland1 a ,cave of the ,reindeer ,period4 ,by ,conrad ,merk4 ,translated by ,john ,edward ,lee1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,f4,g4,s4 ,author of #8,isca ,silurum' c4 ,with ,sixteen ,plates4 ,royal #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,origin of ,civilisation1 and the ,primitive ,condition of ,man2 ,mental and ,social ,condition of ,savages4 ,by ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 ,bart4 ,m4,p4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,third ,edition1 with #be ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,the ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states of ,north ,america4 ,by ,hubert ,howe ,bancroft4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,wild ,tribes1 their ,manners and ,customs2 with #f ,maps4 #hvo4 #bes4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states4 #hvo4 #bes4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,myths and ,languages4 #hvo4 price #bes4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,antiquities and ,architectural ,remains1 with ,map4 #hvo4 #bes4 ,vol4 ,v4 ,aboriginal ,history and ,migrations2 ,index to the ,entire ,work4 ,with #b ,maps1 #hvo4 #bes4 ,this work may now be had complete in #e volumes1 price #f4 #es4 ,the ,ancient ,stone ,implements1 ,weapons1 and ,ornaments of ,great ,britain4 ,by ,john ,evans1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #b ,plates and #dgf ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,the ,elements of ,botany for ,families and ,schools4 ,eleventh ,edition1 revised by ,thomas ,moore1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 with #aed ,woodcuts1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,rose ,amateur's ,guide4 ,by ,thomas ,rivers4 ,tenth ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #ds4 ,on the ,sensations of ,tone1 as a ,physiological ,basis for the ,theory of ,music4 ,by ,h4 ,helmholtz1 ,professor of ,physiology in the ,university of ,berlin4 ,translated by ,a4,j4 ,ellis1 ,f4,r4,s4 #hvo4 #cfs4 ,a ,dictionary of ,science1 ,literature1 and ,art4 ,re-edited by the late ,w4,t4 ,brande 7the ,author7 and ,rev4 ,g4,w4 ,cox1 ,m4,a4 ,new ,edition1 revised4 #c vols4 medium #hvo4 #fcs4 ,the ,history of ,modern ,music1 a ,course of ,lectures delivered at the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain4 ,by ,john ,hullah4 ,new ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,the ,transition ,period of ,musical ,history2 a ,second ,course of ,lectures on the ,history of ,music from the ,beginning of the ,seventeenth to the ,middle of the ,eighteenth ,century1 delivered at the ,royal ,institution4 ,by ,john ,hullah4 ,new ,edition1 #a vol4 demy #hvo4 ,in the ,spring4 ,the ,treasury of ,botany1 or ,popular ,dictionary of the ,vegetable ,kingdom2 with which is incorporated a ,glossary of ,botanical ,terms4 ,edited by ,j4 ,lindley1 ,f4,r4,s4 and ,t4 ,moore1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,with #bgd ,woodcuts and #bj ,steel ,plates4 ,two ,parts1 fcp4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,a ,general ,system of ,descriptive and ,analytical ,botany4 ,translated from the ,french of ,le ,maout and ,decaisne1 by ,mrs4 ,hooker4 ,edited and arranged according to the ,english ,botanical ,system1 by ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker1 ,m4,d4 c4 ,director of the ,royal ,botanic ,gardens1 ,kew4 ,with #e1ejj ,woodcuts4 ,imperial #hvo4 #cas4 #f;d4 ,loudon's ,encyclopedia of ,plants2 comprising the ,specific ,character1 ,description1 ,culture1 ,history1 c4 of all the ,plants found in ,great ,britain4 ,with upwards of #ab1jjj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #dbs4 ,handbook of ,hardy ,trees1 ,shrubs1 and ,herbaceous ,plants2 containing ,descriptions c4 of the ,best ,species in ,cultivation2 with ,cultural ,details1 ,comparative ,hardiness1 suitability for particular positions1 c4 ,based on the ,french ,work of ,decaisne and ,naudin1 and including the #gbj ,original ,woodcut ,illustrations4 ,by ,w4,b4 ,hemsley4 ,medium #hvo4 #bas4 ,forest ,trees and ,woodland ,scenery1 as described in ,ancient and ,modern ,poets4 ,by ,william ,menzies1 ,deputy ,surveyor of ,windsor ,forest and ,parks1 c4 ,with ,twenty ,chromolithographic ,plates4 ,folio1 price #e4 #es4 ------------------ ,,chemistry and ,,physiology4 ,miller's ,elements of ,chemistry1 ,theoretical and ,practical4 ,re-edited1 with ,additions1 by ,h4 ,macleod1 ,f4,c4,s4 #c vols4 #hvo4 ,,part ,i4 ,,chemical ,,physics1 #aes4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,inorganic ,,chemistry1 #bas4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,organic ,,chemistry1 ,new ,edition in the press4 ,health in the ,house1 ,twenty-five ,lectures on ,elementary ,physiology in its ,application to the ,daily ,wants of ,man and ,animals4 ,by ,mrs4 ,c4,m4 ,buckton4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 ,woodcuts1 #bs4 ,outlines of ,physiology1 ,human and ,comparative4 ,by ,j4 ,marshall1 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,surgeon to the ,university ,college ,hospital4 #b vols4 cr4 #hvo4 with #abb ,woodcuts1 #cbs4 ,select ,methods in ,chemical ,analysis1 chiefly ,inorganic4 ,by ,wm4 ,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #bb ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,a ,dictionary of ,chemistry and the ,allied ,branches of other ,sciences4 ,by ,henry ,watts1 ,f4,c4,s4 assisted by eminent ,scientific and ,practical ,chemists4 #f vols1 medium #hvo4 #h4 #ads4 #f;d4 ,supplement completing the ,record of ,discovery to the year #ahgc4 #hvo4 price #dbs4 ------------------ ,the ,,fine ,,arts and ,,illustration ,,editions4 ,poems4 ,by ,william ,b4 ,scott4 ,i4 ,ballads and ,tales4 ,,ii4 ,studies from ,nature4 ,,iii4 ,sonnets c4 ,illustrated by ,seventeen ,etchings by ,l4 ,alma ,tadema and ,william ,b4 ,scott4 ,crown #hvo4 #aes4 ,half-hour ,lectures on the ,history and ,practice of the ,fine and ,ornamental ,arts4 ,by ,w4,b4 ,scott4 ,third ,edition1 with #ej ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,a ,dictionary of ,artists of the ,english ,school3 ,painters1 ,sculptors1 ,architects1 ,engravers1 and ,ornamentists2 with ,notices of their ,lives and ,works4 ,by ,samuel ,redgrave4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,in ,fairyland2 ,pictures from the ,elf-,world4 ,by ,richard ,doyle4 ,with a ,poem by ,w4 ,allingham4 ,with #af coloured ,plates1 containing #cf ,designs4 ,second ,edition1 folio1 #aes4 ,the ,new ,testament1 illustrated with ,wood ,engravings after the ,early ,masters1 chiefly of the ,italian ,school4 ,crown #dto4 #fcs4 ,lord ,macaulay's ,lays of ,ancient ,rome4 ,with #ij ,illustrations on ,wood from ,drawings by ,g4 ,scharf4 ,fcp4 #dto4 #bas4 ,miniature ,edition1 with ,scharf's #ij ,illustrations reduced in ,lithography4 ,imp4 #afmo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,moore's ,irish ,melodies1 ,maclise's ,edition1 with #afa ,steel ,plates4 ,super royal #hvo4 #cas4 #f;d4 ,sacred and ,legendary ,art4 ,by ,mrs4 ,jameson4 #f vols1 square crown #hvo4 price #e4 #aes4 #f;d4 as follows3-- ,legends of the ,saints and ,martyrs4 ,new ,edition1 with #ai ,etchings and #ahg ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 #cas4 #f;d4 ,legends of the ,monastic ,orders4 ,new ,edition1 with #aa ,etchings and #hh ,woodcuts4 #a vol4 #bas4 ,legends of the ,madonna4 ,new ,edition1 with #bg ,etchings and #afe ,woodcuts4 #a vol4 #bas4 ,the ,history of ,our ,lord1 with that of his ,types and ,precursors4 ,completed by ,lady ,eastlake4 ,revised ,edition1 with #ac ,etchings and #bha ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 #dbs4 ------------------ ,the ,,useful ,,arts1 ,,manufactures1 c4 ,industrial ,chemistry2 a ,manual for ,manufacturers and for ,colleges or ,technical ,schools4 ,being a ,translation of ,professors ,stohmann and ,engler's ,german ,edition of ,payen's #8,prcis de ,chimie ,industrielle1' by ,dr4 ,j4,d4 ,barry4 ,edited1 and supplemented with ,chapters on the ,chemistry of the ,metals1 by ,b4,h4 ,paul1 ,ph4,d4 #hvo4 with ,plates and ,woodcuts4 ,in the press4 ,gwilt's ,encyclopdia of ,architecture1 with above #a1fjj ,woodcuts4 ,new ,edition 7#ahgf71 with ,alterations and ,additions1 by ,wyatt ,papworth4 #hvo4 #ebs4 #f;d4 ,the ,three ,cathedrals dedicated to ,st4 ,paul in ,london2 their ,history from the ,foundation of the ,first ,building in the ,sixth ,century to the ,proposals for the ,adornment of the ,present ,cathedral4 ,by ,w4 ,longman1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,square crown #hvo4 #bas4 ,lathes and ,turning1 ,simple1 ,mechanical1 and ,ornamental4 ,by ,w4 ,henry ,northcott4 ,with #bdj ,illustrations4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,hints on ,household ,taste in ,furniture1 ,upholstery1 and other ,details4 ,by ,charles ,l4 ,eastlake1 ,architect4 ,new ,edition1 with about #ij ,illustrations4 ,square crown #hvo4 #ads4 ,handbook of ,practical ,telegraphy4 ,by ,r4,s4 ,culley1 ,memb4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,engineer-in-,chief of ,telegraphs to the ,post-,office4 ,sixth ,edition1 ,plates ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,a ,treatise on the ,steam ,engine1 in its various applications to ,mines1 ,mills1 ,steam ,navigation1 ,railways and ,agriculture4 ,by ,j4 ,bourne1 ,c4,e4 ,with ,portrait1 #cg ,plates1 and #edf ,woodcuts4 #dto4 #dbs4 ,catechism of the ,steam ,engine1 in its various ,applications4 ,by ,john ,bourne1 ,c4,e4 ,new ,edition1 with #hi ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,handbook of the ,steam ,engine4 ,by ,j4 ,bourne1 ,c4,e4 forming a ,,key to the ,author's ,catechism of the ,steam ,engine4 ,with #fg ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #is4 ,recent ,improvements in the ,steam ,engine4 ,by ,j4 ,bourne1 ,c4,e4 ,with #abd ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,encyclopdia of ,civil ,engineering1 ,historical1 ,theoretical1 and ,practical4 ,by ,e4 ,cresy1 ,c4,e4 ,with above #c1jjj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #dbs4 ,ure's ,dictionary of ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,mines4 ,seventh ,edition1 re-written and greatly enlarged by ,r4 ,hunt1 ,f4,r4,s4 assisted by numerous ,contributors4 ,with #b1ajj ,woodcuts4 #c vols4 medium #hvo4 price #e4 #es4 ,practical ,treatise on ,metallurgy1 ,adapted from the last ,german ,edition of ,professor ,kerl's ,metallurgy by ,w4 ,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s4 c4 and ,e4 ,rhrig1 ,ph4,d4 #c vols4 #hvo4 with #fbe ,woodcuts4 #d4 #ais4 ,treatise on ,mills and ,millwork4 ,by ,sir ,w4 ,fairbairn1 ,bt4 ,with #ah ,plates and #cbb ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #cbs4 ,useful ,information for ,engineers4 ,by ,sir ,w4 ,fairbairn1 ,bt4 ,with many ,plates and ,woodcuts4 #c vols1 crown #hvo4 #cas4 #f;d4 ,the ,application of ,cast and ,wrought ,iron to ,building ,purposes4 ,by ,sir ,w4 ,fairbairn1 ,bt4 ,with #f ,plates and #aah ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,the ,theory of ,strains in ,girders and similar ,structures1 with ,observations on the application of ,theory to ,practice1 and ,tables of the ,strength and other ,properties of ,materials4 ,by ,bindon ,b4 ,stoney1 ,m4 ,a4 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,new ,edition1 royal #hvo4 with #e ,plates and #abc ,woodcuts1 #cfs4 ,practical ,handbook of ,dyeing and ,calico-,printing4 ,by ,w4,crookes1,f4,r4,s4 c4 ,with numerous ,illustrations and ,specimens of ,dyed ,textile ,fabrics4 #hvo4 #dbs4 ,occasional ,papers on ,subjects connected with ,civil ,engineering1 ,gunnery1 and ,naval ,architecture4 ,by ,michael ,scott1 ,memb4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 of ,inst4 ,n4,a4 #b vols4 #hvo4 with ,plates1 #dbs4 ,mitchell's ,manual of ,practical ,assaying4 ,fourth ,edition1 revised1 with the ,recent ,discoveries incorporated1 by ,w4 ,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s4 crown #hvo4 ,woodcuts1 #cas4 #f;d4 ,naval ,powers and their ,policy3 with ,tabular ,statements of ,british and ,foreign ,ironclad ,navies2 giving ,dimensions1 ,armour1 ,details of ,armament1 ,engines1 ,speed1 and other ,particulars4 ,by ,john ,c4 ,paget4 #hvo4 price #ajs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,loudon's ,encyclopdia of ,gardening2 comprising the ,theory and ,practice of ,horticulture1 ,floriculture1 ,arboriculture1 and ,landscape ,gardening4 ,with #a1jjj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,loudon's ,encyclopdia of ,agriculture2 comprising the ,laying-out1 ,improvement1 and ,management of ,landed ,property1 and the ,cultivation and ,economy of the ,productions of ,agriculture4 ,with #a1ajj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,reminiscences of ,fen and ,mere4 ,by ,j4,m4 ,heathcote4 ,with #bg ,illustrations and #c ,maps4 ,square #hvo4 price #bhs4 ------------------ ,,religious and ,,moral ,,works4 ,an ,exposition of the #ci ,articles1 ,historical and ,doctrinal4 ,by ,e4,h4 ,browne1 ,d4,d4 ,bishop of ,winchester4 ,new ,edition4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,historical ,lectures on the ,life of ,our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,by ,c4,j4 ,ellicott1 ,d4,d4 ,fifth ,edition4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,an ,introduction to the ,theology of the ,church of ,england1 in an ,exposition of the #ci ,articles4 ,by ,rev4 ,t4,p4 ,boultbee1 ,,ll4,d4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,three ,essays on ,religion3 ,nature2 the ,utility of ,religion2 ,theism4 ,by ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,second ,edition4 #hvo4 price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,sermons ,chiefly on the ,interpretation of ,scripture4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,thomas ,arnold1 ,d4,d4 #hvo4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,sermons preached in the ,chapel of ,rugby ,school2 with an ,address before ,confirmation4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,thomas ,arnold1 ,d4,d4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #cs4 #f;d4 ,christian ,life1 its ,course1 its ,hindrances1 and its ,helps2 ,sermons preached mostly in the ,chapel of ,rugby ,school4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,thomas ,arnold1 ,d4,d4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,christian ,life1 its ,hopes1 its ,fears1 and its ,close2 ,sermons preached mostly in the ,chapel of ,rugby ,school4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,thomas ,arnold1 ,d4,d4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,religion and ,science1 their ,relations to ,each ,other at the ,present ,day2 ,three ,essays on the ,grounds of ,religious ,beliefs4 ,by ,stanley ,t4 ,gibson1 ,b4,d4 ,rector of ,sandon1 in ,essex2 and late ,fellow of ,queen's ,college1 ,cambridge4 #hvo4 price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,notes on the ,earlier ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,by ,sir ,g4,b4 ,airy1 ,k4,c4,b4 #hvo4 price #fs4 ,synonyms of the ,old ,testament1 their ,bearing on ,christian ,faith and ,practice4 ,by ,rev4 ,r4,b4 ,girdlestone4 #hvo4 #aes4 ,the ,primitive and ,catholic ,faith in ,relation to the ,church of ,england4 ,by the ,rev4 ,b4,w4 ,savile1 ,m4,a4 ,rector of ,shillingford1 ,exeter4 #hvo4 price #gs4 ,the ,eclipse of ,faith3 or a ,visit to a ,religious ,sceptic4 ,by ,henry ,rogers4 ,latest ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #es4 ,defence of the ,eclipse of ,faith4 ,by ,henry ,rogers4 ,latest ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,a ,critical and ,grammatical ,commentary on ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles4 ,by ,c4,j4 ,ellicott1 ,d4,d4 #hvo4 ,galatians1 #hs4 #f;d4 ,ephesians1 #hs4 #f;d4 ,pastoral ,epistles1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,philippians1 ,colossians1 ,philemon1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,thessalonians1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul4 ,by ,rev4 ,w4,j4 ,conybeare1 ,m4,a4 and ,very ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,howson1 ,d4,d4 ,,library ,,edition1 with all the ,original ,illustrations1 ,maps1 ,landscapes on ,steel1 ,woodcuts1 c4 #b vols4 #dto4 #dbs4 ,,intermediate ,,edition1 with a ,selection of ,maps1 ,plates1 and ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 square crown #hvo4 #bas4 ,,student',s ,,edition1 revised and condensed1 with #df ,illustrations and ,maps4 #a vol4 crown #hvo4 #is4 ,an ,examination into the ,doctrine and ,practice of ,confession4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4,e4 ,jelf1 ,b4,d4 #hvo4 price #cs4 #f;d4 ,evidence of the ,truth of the ,christian ,religion derived from the ,literal ,fulfilment of ,prophecy4 ,by ,alexander ,keith1 ,d4,d4 #djth ,edition1 with numerous ,plates4 ,square #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 or in post #hvo4 with #e ,plates1 #fs4 ,historical and ,critical ,commentary on the ,old ,testament2 with a ,new ,translation4 ,by ,m4,m4 ,kalisch1 ,ph4,d4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,genesis1 #hvo4 #ahs4 or adapted for the ,general ,reader1 #abs4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,exodus1 #aes4 or adapted for the ,general ,reader1 #abs4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,leviticus1 ,part ,i4 #aes4 or adapted for the ,general ,reader1 #hs4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,leviticus1 ,part ,,ii4 #aes4 or adapted for the ,general ,reader1 #hs4 ,the ,history and ,literature of the ,israelites1 according to the ,old ,testament and the ,apocrypha4 ,by ,c4 ,de ,rothschild and ,a4 ,de ,rothschild4 ,second ,edition4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,abridged ,edition1 in #a vol4 fcp4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,ewald's ,history of ,israel4 ,translated from the ,german by ,j4,e4 ,carpenter1 ,m4,a4 with ,preface by ,r4 ,martineau1 ,m4,a4 #e vols4 #hvo4 #fcs4 ,ewald's ,antiquities of ,israel4 ,translated from the ,german by ,henry ,shaen ,solly1 ,m4,a4 #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,the ,types of ,genesis1 briefly considered as revealing the ,development of ,human ,nature4 ,by ,andrew ,jukes4 ,third ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,second ,death and the ,restitution of all ,things2 with some ,preliminary ,remarks on the ,nature and ,inspiration of ,holy ,scripture4 ,by ,andrew ,jukes4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,history of the ,reformation in ,europe in the time of ,calvin4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4,h4 ,merle ,d',aubign1 ,d4,d4 ,translated by ,w4,l4,r4 ,cates1 ,editor of the ,dictionary of ,general ,biography4 #f vols4 #hvo4 price #d4 #ajs4 ,,vols4 ,,vii4 ,,viii4 completing the ,work1 are preparing for publication4 ,commentaries1 by the ,rev4 ,w4,a4 ,o',conor1 ,b4,a4 ,rector of ,st4 ,simon and ,st4 ,jude1 ,manchester4 ,crown #hvo4 ,epistle to the ,romans1 price #cs4 #f;d4 ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,st4 ,john's ,gospel1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,some ,questions of the ,day4 ,by ,elizabeth ,m4 ,sewell1 ,author of #8,amy ,herbert1' #8,passing ,thoughts on ,religion1' c4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,an ,introduction to the ,study of the ,new ,testament1 ,critical1 ,exegetical1 and ,theological4 ,by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,davidson1 ,d4,d4 ,,ll4,d4 #b vols4 #hvo4 price #cjs4 ,thoughts for the ,age4 ,by ,elizabeth ,m4 ,sewell4 ,new ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,preparation for the ,holy ,communion2 the ,devotions chiefly from the works of ,jeremy ,taylor4 ,by ,elizabeth ,m4 ,sewell4 #cbmo4 #cs4 ,bishop ,jeremy ,taylor's ,entire ,works2 with ,life by ,bishop ,heber4 ,revised and corrected by the ,rev4 ,c4,p4 ,eden4 #aj vols4 #e4 #es4 ,hymns of ,praise and ,prayer4 ,collected and edited by ,rev4 ,j4 ,martineau1 ,,ll4,d4 ,crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 #cbmo4 #as4 #f;d4 ,spiritual ,songs for the ,sundays and ,holidays throughout the ,year4 ,by ,j4,s4,b4 ,monsell1 ,,ll4,d4 #ith ,thousand4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #es4 #ahmo4 #bs4 ,lyra ,germanica2 ,hymns translated from the ,german by ,miss ,c4 ,winkworth4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #es4 ,lectures on the ,pentateuch the ,moabite ,stone2 with ,appendices4 ,by ,j4,w4 ,colenso1 ,d4,d4 ,bishop of ,natal4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,endeavours after the ,christian ,life2 ,discourses4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,martineau1 ,,ll4,d4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,supernatural ,religion2 an ,inquiry into the ,reality of ,divine ,revelation4 ,sixth ,edition carefully revised1 with #hj pages of ,new ,preface4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bds4 ,the ,pentateuch and ,book of ,joshua ,critically ,examined4 ,by ,j4,w4 ,colenso1 ,d4,d4 ,bishop of ,natal4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ------------------ ,,travels1 ,,voyages1 c4 ,the ,indian ,alps1 and ,how we ,crossed them3 being a ,narrative of ,two ,years' ,residence in the ,eastern ,himalayas1 and ,two ,months' ,tour into the ,interior1 towards ,kinchinjunga and ,mount ,everest4 ,by a ,lady ,pioneer4 ,with ,illustrations from ,original ,drawings made on the spot by the ,authoress4 ,imperial #hvo4 #dbs4 ,tyrol and the ,tyrolese2 being an ,account of the ,people and the ,land1 in their ,social1 ,sporting1 and ,mountaineering ,aspects4 ,by ,w4,a4 ,baillie ,grohman4 ,with numerous ,illustrations from ,sketches by the ,author4 ,crown #hvo4 #ads4 #8,the ,frosty ,caucasus2' an ,account of a ,walk through ,part of the ,range1 and of an ,ascent of ,elbruz in the ,summer of #ahgd4 ,by ,f4,c4 ,grove4 ,with ,eight ,illustrations engraved on ,wood by ,e4 ,whymper1 from ,photographs taken during the ,journey1 and a ,map4 ,crown #hvo4 price #aes4 ,a ,journey of #a1jjj ,miles through ,egypt and ,nubia to the ,second ,cataract of the ,nile4 ,being a ,personal ,narrative of ,four and a ,half ,months' ,life in a ,dahabeeyah on the ,nile4 ,by ,amelia ,b4 ,edwards4 ,with numerous ,illustrations from ,drawings by the ,authoress1 ,map1 ,plans1 ,facsimiles1 c4 ,imperial #hvo4 ,in the ,autumn4 ,over the ,sea and ,far ,away2 being a ,narrative of a ,ramble round the ,world4 ,by ,thos4 ,woodbine ,hinchliff1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,president of the ,alpine ,club1 ,author of #8,summer ,months among the ,alps1' c4 #a vol4 medium #hvo4 with numerous ,illustrations4 ,nearly ready4 ,discoveries at ,ephesus4 ,including the ,site and ,remains of the ,great ,temple of ,diana4 ,by ,j4,t4 ,wood1 ,f4,s4,a4 #a vol4 imperial #hvo4 copiously illustrated4 ,in the press4 ,through ,bosnia and the ,herzegovina on ,foot during the ,insurrection1 ,august and ,september #ahge2 with a ,glimpse at the ,slavonic ,borderlands of ,turkey4 ,by ,arthur ,j4 ,evans1 ,b4,a4 ,f4,s4,a4 ,post #hvo4 with ,map and numerous ,illustrations4 ,in the press4 ,italian ,alps2 ,sketches in the ,mountains of ,ticino1 ,lombardy1 the ,trentino1 and ,venetia4 ,by ,douglas ,w4 ,freshfield1 ,editor of #8,the ,alpine ,journal4' ,square crown #hvo4 ,illustrations4 #aes4 ,memorials of the ,discovery and ,early ,settlement of the ,bermudas or ,somers ,islands1 from #afae to #afhe4 ,compiled from the ,colonial ,records and other original sources4 ,by ,major-,general ,j4,h4 ,lefroy1 ,r4,a4 ,c4,b4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,hon4 ,member ,new ,york ,historical ,society1 c4 ,governor of the ,bermudas4 #hvo4 with ,map4 ,in the press4 ,here and ,there in the ,alps4 ,by the ,hon4 ,frederica ,plunket4 ,with ,vignette-title4 ,post #hvo4 #fs4 #f;d4 ,the ,valleys of ,tirol2 their ,traditions and ,customs1 and ,how to ,visit them4 ,by ,miss ,r4,h4 ,busk4 ,with ,frontispiece and #c ,maps4 ,crown #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,two ,years in ,fiji1 a ,descriptive ,narrative of a ,residence in the ,fijian ,group of ,islands2 with some ,account of the ,fortunes of ,foreign ,settlers and ,colonists up to the time of ,british ,annexation4 ,by ,litton ,forbes1 ,m4,d4 ,crown #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,eight ,years in ,ceylon4 ,by ,sir ,samuel ,w4 ,baker1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,new ,edition1 with ,illustrations engraved on ,wood by ,g4 ,pearson4 ,crown #hvo4 ,price #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,rifle and the ,hound in ,ceylon4 ,by ,sir ,samuel ,w4 ,baker1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,new ,edition1 with ,illustrations engraved on ,wood by ,g4 ,pearson4 ,crown #hvo4 ,price #gs4 #f;d4 ,meeting the ,sun2 a ,journey all round the ,world through ,egypt1 ,china1 ,japan1 and ,california4 ,by ,william ,simpson1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with ,heliotypes and ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bds4 ,the ,dolomite ,mountains4 ,excursions through ,tyrol1 ,carinthia1 ,carniola1 and ,friuli4 ,by ,j4 ,gilbert and ,g4,c4 ,churchill1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,sq4 cr4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,the ,alpine ,club ,map of the ,chain of ,mont ,blanc1 from an actual ,survey in #ahfc-ahfd4 ,by ,a4 ,adams-,reilly1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,m4,a4,c4 ,in ,chromolithography1 on extra stout drawing paper #ajs4 or mounted on canvas in a folding case1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,the ,alpine ,club ,map of the ,valpelline1 the ,val ,tournanche1 and the ,southern ,valleys of the ,chain of ,monte ,rosa1 from actual ,survey4 ,by ,a4 ,adams-,reilly1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,m4,a4,c4 ,price #fs4 on extra ,stout ,drawing ,paper1 or #gs4 #f;d4 mounted in a ,folding ,case4 ,untrodden ,peaks and ,unfrequented ,valleys2 a ,midsummer ,ramble among the ,dolomites4 ,by ,amelia ,b4 ,edwards4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,the ,alpine ,club ,map of ,switzerland1 with parts of the ,neighbouring ,countries1 on the scale of ,four ,miles to an ,inch4 ,edited by ,r4,c4 ,nichols1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,in ,four ,sheets1 in ,portfolio1 price #dbs4 coloured1 or #cds4 uncoloured4 ,the ,alpine ,guide4 ,by ,john ,ball1 ,m4,r4,i4,a4 late ,president of the ,alpine ,club4 ,post #hvo4 with ,maps and other ,illustrations4 ,eastern ,alps4 ,price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,central ,alps1 including all the ,oberland ,district4 ,price #gs4 #f;d4 ,western ,alps1 including1 ,mont ,blanc1 ,monte ,rosa1 ,zermatt1 c4 ,price #fs4 #f;d4 ,introduction on ,alpine ,travelling in general1 and on the ,geology of the ,alps4 ,price #as4 ,either of the ,three ,volumes or ,parts of the #8,alpine ,guide' may be had with this ,introduction prefixed1 #as4 extra4 ,the #8,alpine ,guide' may also be had in ,ten separate ,parts1 or districts1 price #bs4 #f;d4 each4 ,guide to the ,pyrenees1 for the use of ,mountaineers4 ,by ,charles ,packe4 ,second ,edition1 with ,maps c4 and ,appendix4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,how to ,see ,norway2 embodying the ,experience of ,six ,summer ,tours in that ,country4 ,by ,j4,r4 ,campbell4 ,with ,map and #e ,woodcuts1 fcp4 #hvo4 #es4 ------------------ ,,works of ,,fiction4 ,higgledy-,piggledy2 or1 ,stories for ,everybody and ,everybody's ,children4 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,e4,h4 ,knatchbull-,hugessen1 ,m4,p4 ,author of #8,whispers from ,fairyland' c4 ,with #i ,illustrations from ,original ,designs by ,r4 ,doyle1 engraved on ,wood by ,g4 ,pearson4 ,crown #hvo4 price #fs4 ,whispers from ,fairyland4 ,by the ,rt4 ,hon4 ,e4,h4 ,knatchbull-,hugessen1 ,m4,p4 ,author of #8,higgledy-,piggledy' c4 ,with #i ,illustrations from ,original ,designs engraved on ,wood by ,g4 ,pearson4 ,crown #hvo4 price #fs4 #8,a series of stories which are certain of a ready welcome by all boys and girls who take delight in dreamland1 and love to linger over the pranks and frolics of fairies4 ,the book is dedicated to the mothers of ,england1 and more wholesome food for the growing mind it would be unreasonable to desire1 and impossible to procure4444 ,this welcome volume abounds in vivacity and fun1 and bears pleasant testimony to a kindly-hearted ,author with fancy1 feeling1 and humour4' ,,morning ,,post4 ,the ,folk-,lore of ,rome1 collected by ,word of ,mouth from the ,people4 ,by ,miss ,r4,h4 ,busk4 ,crown #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,becker's ,gallus2 or ,roman ,scenes of the ,time of ,augustus4 ,post #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,becker's ,charicles3 ,illustrative of ,private ,life of the ,ancient ,greeks4 ,post #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,novels and ,tales4 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,benjamin ,disraeli1 ,m4,p4 ,cabinet ,editions1 complete in ,ten ,volumes1 crown #hvo4 #fs4 each1 as follows3-- ,lothair1 #fs4 ,coningsby1 #fs4 ,sybil1 #fs4 ,tancred1 #fs4 ,venetia1 #fs4 ,alroy1 ,ixion1 c4 #fs4 ,young ,duke1 c4 #fs4 ,vivian ,grey1 #fs4 ,henrietta ,temple1 #fs4 ,contarini ,fleming1 c4 #fs4 ,the ,modern ,novelist's ,library4 ,atherstone ,priory1 #bs4 boards2 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,mlle4 ,mori1 #bs4 boards2 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,the ,burgomaster's ,family1 #bs4 and #bs4 #f;d4 ,,melville',s ,digby ,grand1 #bs4 and #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,gladiators1 #bs4 and #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,good for ,nothing1 #bs4 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,holmby ,house1 #bs4 and #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,interpreter1 #bs4 and #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,kate ,coventry1 #bs4 and #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,queens ,maries1 #bs4 and #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,general ,bounce1 #bs4 and #bs4 #f;d4 ,,trollope',s ,warden1 #as4 #f;d4 and #bs4 ---- ,barchester ,towers1 #bs4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,bramley-,,moore',s ,six ,sisters of the ,valleys1 #bs4 boards2 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,elsa3 a ,tale of the ,tyrolean ,alps4 ,translated from the ,german of ,mme4 ,von ,hillern by ,lady ,wallace4 ,price #bs4 boards2 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,tales of ,ancient ,greece4 ,by the ,rev4 ,g4,w4 ,cox1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 #f;d4 ,stories and ,tales4 ,by ,elizabeth ,m4 ,sewell4 ,cabinet ,edition1 in ,ten ,volumes3-- ,amy ,herbert1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,gertrude1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,earl's ,daughter1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,experience of ,life1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,cleve ,hall1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,ivors1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,katharine ,ashton1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,margaret ,percival1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,laneton ,parsonage1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,ursula1 #cs4 #f;d4 ------------------ ,,poetry and ,,the ,,drama4 ,ballads and ,lyrics of ,old ,france2 with other ,poems4 ,by ,a4 ,lang1 ,m4,a4 ,square fcp4 #hvo4 #es4 ,the ,london ,series of ,french ,classics4 ,edited by ,ch4 ,cassal1 ,,ll4,d4 ,t4 ,karcher1 ,,ll4,b4 and ,lonce ,stivenard4 ,the following ,plays1 in the ,division of the ,drama in this ,series1 are now ready3-- ,,corneille',s ,le ,cid1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,voltaire',s ,zaire1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,lamartine',s ,toussaint ,louverture1 double volume1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,milton's ,lycidas and ,epitaphium ,damonis4 ,edited1 with ,notes and ,introduction1 by ,c4,s4 ,jerram1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,lays of ,ancient ,rome2 with ,ivry and the ,armada4 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,lord ,macaulay4 #afmo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,lord ,macaulay's ,lays of ,ancient ,rome4 ,with #ij ,illustrations on ,wood from ,drawings by ,g4 ,scharf4 ,fcp4 #dto4 #bas4 ,miniature ,edition of ,lord ,macaulay's ,lays of ,ancient ,rome1 with ,scharf's #ij ,illustrations reduced in ,lithography4 ,imp4 #afmo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,horatii ,opera1 ,library ,edition1 with ,english ,notes1 ,marginal ,references and various ,readings4 ,edited by ,rev4 ,j4,e4 ,yonge1 ,m4,a4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,southey's ,poetical ,works with the ,author's last ,corrections and ,additions4 ,medium #hvo4 with ,portrait1 #ads4 ,bowdler's ,family ,shakspeare1 cheaper ,genuine ,edition4 ,complete in #a vol4 medium #hvo4 large type1 with #cf ,woodcut ,illustrations1 #ads4 or in #f vols4 fcp4 #hvo4 price #bas4 ,poems by ,jean ,ingelow4 #b vols4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #ajs4 ,,first ,,series1 containing #8,divided1' #8,the ,star's ,monument1' c4 #afth ,thousand4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #es4 ,,second ,,series1 #8,a ,story of ,doom1' #8,gladys and her ,island1' c4 #eth ,thousand4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #es4 ,poems by ,jean ,ingelow4 ,first ,series1 with nearly #ajj ,woodcut ,illustrations4 ,fcp4 #dto4 #bas4 ,the neid of ,virgil ,translated into ,english ,verse4 ,by ,j4 ,conington1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #is4 ------------------ ,,rural ,,sports1 ,,horse and ,,cattle ,,management1 c4 ,annals of the ,road1 being a ,history of ,coaching from the ,earliest ,times to the ,present4 ,by ,captain ,malet4 ,with ,practical ,hints on ,driving and all ,coaching matters1 by ,nimrod4 ,reprinted from the ,,sporting ,,magazine by permission of the ,proprietors4 #a vol4 medium #hvo4 with ,coloured ,plates1 uniform with ,mr4 ,birch ,reynardson's #8,down the ,road4' ,on ,may #a4 ,down the ,road2 or1 ,reminiscences of a ,gentleman ,coachman4 ,by ,c4,t4,s4 ,birch ,reynardson4 ,second ,edition1 with #ab ,coloured ,illustrations from ,paintings by ,h4 ,alken4 ,medium #hvo4 price #bas4 ,blaine's ,encyclopdia of ,rural ,sports2 ,complete ,accounts1 ,historical1 ,practical1 and ,descriptive1 of ,hunting1 ,shooting1 ,fishing1 ,racing1 c4 ,with above #fjj ,woodcuts 7#bj from ,designs by ,,john ,,leech74 #hvo4 #bas4 ,a ,book on ,angling3 a ,treatise on the ,art of ,angling in every branch1 including full ,illustrated ,lists of ,salmon ,flies4 ,by ,francis ,francis4 ,post #hvo4 ,portrait and ,plates1 #aes4 ,wilcocks's ,sea-,fisherman3 comprising the ,chief ,methods of ,hook and ,line ,fishing1 a glance at ,nets1 and remarks on ,boats and ,boating4 ,new ,edition1 with #hj ,woodcuts4 ,post #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,the ,ox1 his ,diseases and their ,treatment2 with an ,essay on ,parturition in the ,cow4 ,by ,j4,r4 ,dobson1 ,memb4 ,r4,c4,v4,s4 ,crown #hvo4 with ,illustrations #gs4 #f;d4 ,youatt on the ,horse4 ,revised and enlarged by ,w4 ,watson1 ,m4,r4,c4,v4,s4 #hvo4 ,woodcuts1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,youatt's ,work on the ,dog1 revised and enlarged4 #hvo4 ,woodcuts1 #fs4 ,horses and ,stables4 ,by ,colonel ,f4 ,fitzwygram1 ,,xv4 the ,king's ,hussars4 ,with #bd ,plates of ,illustrations4 #hvo4 #a,os4 #f;d4 ,the ,dog in ,health and ,disease4 ,by ,stonehenge4 ,with #gc ,wood ,engravings4 ,square crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,greyhound4 ,by ,stonehenge4 ,revised ,edition1 with #be ,portraits of ,greyhounds1 c4 ,square crown #hvo4 #aes4 ,stables and ,stable ,fittings4 ,by ,w4 ,miles1 ,esq4 ,imp4 #hvo4 with #ac ,plates1 #aes4 ,the ,horse's ,foot1 and how to keep it ,sound4 ,by ,w4 ,miles1 ,esq4 ,ninth ,edition4 ,imp4 #hvo4 ,woodcuts1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,a ,plain ,treatise on ,horse-shoeing4 ,by ,w4 ,miles1 ,esq4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,post #hvo4 ,woodcuts1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,remarks on ,horses' ,teeth1 addressed to ,purchasers4 ,by ,w4 ,miles1 ,esq4 ,post #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,fly-,fisher's ,entomology4 ,by ,alfred ,ronalds4 ,with #bj coloured ,plates4 #hvo4 #ads4 ------------------ ,,works of ,,utility and ,,general ,,information4 ,maunder's ,treasury of ,knowledge and ,library of ,reference2 comprising an ,english ,dictionary and ,grammar1 ,universal ,gazetteer1 ,classical ,dictionary1 ,chronology1 ,law ,dictionary1 ,synopsis of the ,peerage1 ,useful ,tables1 c4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,maunder's ,biographical ,treasury4 ,latest ,edition1 reconstructed and partly rewritten1 with about #a1jjj additional ,memoirs1 by ,w4,l4,r4 ,cates4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,maunder's ,scientific and ,literary ,treasury2 a ,popular ,encyclopdia of ,science1 ,literature1 and ,art4 ,new ,edition1 in part rewritten1 with above #a1jjj new articles1 by ,j4,y4 ,johnson4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,maunder's ,treasury of ,geography1 ,physical1 ,historical1 ,descriptive1 and ,political4 ,edited by ,w4 ,hughes1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with #g ,maps and #af ,plates4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,maunder's ,historical ,treasury2 ,general ,introductory ,outlines of ,universal ,history1 and a ,series of ,separate ,histories4 ,revised by the ,rev4 ,g4,w4 ,cox1 ,m4,a4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,maunder's ,treasury of ,natural ,history2 or ,popular ,dictionary of ,zoology4 ,revised and corrected ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 with #ijj ,woodcuts1 #fs4 ,the ,treasury of ,bible ,knowledge2 being a ,dictionary of the ,books1 ,persons1 ,places1 ,events1 and other ,matters of which mention is made in ,holy ,scripture4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,ayre1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,maps1 #ae ,plates1 and numerous ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,the ,theory and ,practice of ,banking4 ,by ,h4,d4 ,macleod1 ,m4,a4 ,third ,edition1 revised throughout4 #hvo price #abs4 ,the ,elements of ,banking4 ,by ,henry ,dunning ,macleod1 ,esq4 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,modern ,cookery for ,private ,families1 reduced to a ,system of ,easy ,practice in a ,series of carefully-tested ,receipts4 ,by ,eliza ,acton4 ,with #h ,plates #aej ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,practical ,treatise on ,brewing2 with ,formul for ,public ,brewers1 and ,instructions for ,private ,families4 ,by ,w4 ,black4 ,fifth ,edition4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,english ,chess ,problems4 ,edited by ,j4 ,pierce1 ,m4,a4 and ,w4,t4 ,pierce4 ,with #fjh ,diagrams4 ,crown #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,the ,theory of the ,modern ,scientific ,game of ,whist4 ,by ,w4 ,pole1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,correct ,card2 or1 ,how to ,play at ,whist3 a ,whist ,catechism4 ,by ,captain ,a4 ,campbell-,walker4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 ,nearly ready4 ,the ,cabinet ,lawyer2 a ,popular ,digest of the ,laws of ,england1 ,civil1 ,criminal1 and ,constitutional4 ,twenty-fourth ,edition1 corrected and extended4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #is4 ,pewtner's ,comprehensive ,specifier2 a ,guide to the ,practical ,specification of every kind of ,building-,artificer's ,work4 ,edited by ,w4 ,young4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,chess ,openings4 ,by ,f4,w4 ,longman1 ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,second ,edition1 revised4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,hints to ,mothers on the ,management of their ,health during the ,period of ,pregnancy and in the ,lying-in ,room4 ,by ,thomas ,bull1 ,m4,d4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #es4 ,the ,maternal ,management of ,children in ,health and ,disease4 ,by ,thomas ,bull1 ,m4,d4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #es4 ,,index4 ,acton's ,modern ,cookery1 #dj ,aird's ,blackstone ,economised1 #ci ,airy's ,hebrew ,scriptures1 #bi ,alpine ,club ,map of ,switzerland1 #cd ,alpine ,guide 7,the71 #cd ,amos's ,jurisprudence1 #aj ---- ,primer of the ,constitution1 #aj ,anderson's ,strength of ,materials1 #bj ,armstrong's ,organic ,chemistry1 #bj ,arnold's 7,dr47 ,christian ,life1 #bi ---- ,lectures on ,modern ,history1 #b ---- ,miscellaneous ,works1 #ac ---- ,school ,sermons1 #bi ---- ,sermons1 #bi ---- 7,t47 ,manual of ,english ,literature1 #ab ,atherstone ,priory1 #cf ,autumn ,holidays of a ,country ,parson1 #ad ,ayre's ,treasury of ,bible ,knowledge1 #ci ,bacon's ,essays1 by ,whately1 #aa ---- ,life and ,letters1 by ,spedding1 #aa ---- ,works1 #aj ,bain's ,mental and ,moral ,science1 #ab ---- on the ,senses and ,intellect1 #ab ---- ,emotions and ,will1 #ab ,baker's ,two ,works on ,ceylon1 #cd ,ball's ,guide to the ,central ,alps1 #cd ---- ,guide to the ,western ,alps1 #ce ---- ,guide to the ,eastern ,alps1 #cd ,bancroft's ,native ,races of the ,pacific1 #bc ,barry on ,railway ,appliances1 #bj ,becker's ,charicles and ,gallus1 #ce ,black's ,treatise on ,brewing1 #dj ,blackley's ,german-,english ,dictionary1 #af ,blaine's ,rural ,sports1 #cg ,bloxam's ,metals1 #bj ,boultbee on #ci ,articles1 #bi ,bourne's ,catechism of the ,steam ,engine1 #bg ---- ,handbook of ,steam ,engine1 #bg ---- ,treatise on the ,steam ,engine1 #bg ---- ,improvements in the same1 #bg ,bowdler's ,family ,shakspeare1 #cg ,bramley-,moore's ,six ,sisters of the ,valley1 #cf ,brande's ,dictionary of ,science1 ,literature1 and ,art1 #bc ,brinkley's ,astronomy1 #ab 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,conington's ,translation of ,virgil's neid1 #cg ---- ,miscellaneous ,writings1 #ac ,contanseau's ,two ,french ,dictionaries1 #ae ,conybeare and ,howson's ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 #cj ,corneille's ,le ,cid1 #cf ,counsel and ,comfort from a ,city ,pulpit1 #ad ,cox's 7,g4,w47 ,aryan ,mythology1 #d ---- ,crusades1 #f ---- ,history of ,greece1 #d ---- ,general ,history of ,greece1 #d ---- ,school ditto1 #d ---- ,tale of the ,great ,persian ,war1 #d ---- ,tales of ,ancient ,greece1 #cf ,crawley's ,thucydides1 #d ,creighton's ,age of ,elizabeth1 #f ,cresy's ,encyclopdia of ,civil ,engineering1 #bg ,critical ,essays of a ,country ,parson1 #ad ,crookes's ,chemical ,analysis1 #be ---- ,dyeing and ,calico-printing1 #bh ,culley's ,handbook of ,telegraphy1 #bg ,davidson's ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 #ca ,d',aubign's ,reformation1 #ca ,de ,caisne and ,le ,maout's ,botany1 #bd ,de ,morgan's ,paradoxes1 #ac ,de ,tocqueville's ,democracy in ,america1 #i ,disraeli's ,lord ,george 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,francis's ,fishing ,book1 #cg ,freeman's ,historical ,geography of ,europe1 #f ,freshfield's ,italian ,alps1 #cc ,froude's ,english in ,ireland1 #b ---- ,history of ,england1 #b ---- ,short ,studies1 #ab ,gairdner's ,houses of ,lancaster and ,york1 #f ,ganot's ,elementary ,physics1 #bj ---- ,natural ,philosophy1 #ai ,gardiner's ,buckingham and ,charles1 #c ---- ,thirty ,years' ,war1 #f ,geffcken's ,church and ,state1 #aj ,german ,home ,life1 #ac ,gibson's ,religion and ,science1 #bi ,gilbert ,churchill's ,dolomites1 #cd ,girdlestone's ,bible ,synonyms1 #bi ,goodeve's ,mechanics1 #bj ---- ,mechanism1 #bj ,grant's ,ethics of ,aristotle1 #aa ,graver ,thoughts of a ,country ,parson1 #ad ,greville's ,journal1 #b ,griffin's ,algebra and ,trigonometry1 #bj ,grohman's ,tyrol and the ,tyrolese1 #cb ,grove 7,sir ,w4,r47 on ,correlation of ,physical ,forces1 #ai ---- 7,f4,c47 ,the ,frosty ,caucasus1 #cb ,gwilt's ,encyclopdia of ,architecture1 #bf ,harrison's ,order and ,progress1 #i ,hartley on the ,air1 #ai ,hartwig's ,aerial ,world1 #bb ---- ,polar ,world1 #bb ---- ,sea and its ,living ,wonders1 #bb ---- ,subterranean ,world1 #bb ---- ,tropical ,world1 #bb ,haughton's ,animal ,mechanics1 #bj ,hayward's ,biographical and ,critical ,essays1 #g ,heathcote's ,fen and ,mere1 #bh ,heine's ,life and ,works1 by ,stigand1 #g ,helmholtz on ,tone1 #bc ,helmholtz's ,scientific ,lectures1 #ai ,helmsley's ,trees1 ,shrubs1 and ,herbaceous ,plants1 #bd ,herschel's ,outlines of ,astronomy1 #ah ,hinchliff's ,over the ,sea and ,far ,away1 #cc ,holland's ,fragmentary ,papers1 #ba ,holms on the ,army1 #d ,hullah's ,history of ,modern ,music1 #bc ---- ,transition ,period1 #bc ,hume's ,essays1 #ab ---- ,treatise on ,human ,nature1 #ab ,ihne's ,history of ,rome1 #e ,indian ,alps1 #cb ,ingelow's ,poems1 #cg ,jameson's ,legends of ,saints and ,martyrs1 #bf ---- ,legends of the ,madonna1 #bf ---- ,legends of the ,monastic ,orders1 #bf ---- ,legends of the ,saviour1 #bf ,jelf on ,confession1 #cj ,jenkin's ,electricity and ,magnetism1 #bj ,jerram's ,lycidas of ,milton1 #ce ,jerrold's ,life of ,napoleon1 #b ,johnston's ,geographical ,dictionary1 #ag ,jukes's ,types of ,genesis1 #ca ---- on ,second ,death1 #ca ,kalisch's ,commentary on the ,bible1 #cj ,keith's ,evidence of ,prophecy1 #cj ,kerl's ,metallurgy1 by ,crookes and ,rhrig1 #bg ,kingsley's ,american ,lectures1 #ac ,kirby and ,spence's ,entomology1 #ba ,kirkman's ,philosophy1 #aa ,knatchbull-,hugessen's ,whispers from ,fairy-,land1 #ce ---- ,higgledy-,piggledy1 #ce ,lamartine's ,toussaint ,louverture1 #cf ,landscapes1 ,churches1 c4 by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b41 #ad ,lang's ,ballads and ,lyrics1 #cf ,latham's ,english ,dictionary1 #ae ---- ,handbook of the ,english ,language1 #ae ,laughton's ,nautical ,surveying1 #ai ,lawrence on ,rocks1 #bb ,lecky's ,history of ,european ,morals1 #e ---- ---- ---- ,rationalism1 #e ---- ,leaders of ,public ,opinion1 #h ,lee's ,kesslerloch1 #bb ,lefroy's ,bermudas1 #cc ,leisure ,hours in ,town1 by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b41 #ad ,lessons of ,middle ,age1 by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b41 #ad ,lewes's ,biographical ,history of ,philosophy1 #f ,lewis on ,authority1 #ab ,liddell and ,scott's ,greek-,english ,lexicons1 #af ,lindley and ,moore's ,treasury of ,botany1 #bc ,lloyd's ,magnetism1 #ba ---- ,wave-,theory of ,light1 #ba ,longman's 7,f4,w47 ,chess ,openings1 #dj ---- ,german ,dictionary1 #ae ---- 7,w47 ,edward the ,third1 #b ---- ,lectures on ,history of ,england1 #b ---- ,old and ,new ,st4 ,paul's1 #bf ,london's ,encyclopdia of ,agriculture1 #bh ---- ,gardening1 #bh ---- ,plants1 #bd ,lubbock's ,origin of ,civilisation1 #bb ,lyra ,germanica1 #cb ,macaulay's 7,lord7 ,essays1 #a ---- ,history of ,england1 #a ---- ,lays of ,ancient ,rome1 #be1 #cf ---- ,life and ,letters1 #g ---- ,miscellaneous ,writings1 #ab ---- ,speeches1 #ab ---- ,works1 #b ,mc,culloch's ,dictionary of ,commerce1 #af ,macleod's ,principles of ,economical ,philosophy1 #aj ---- ,theory and ,practice of ,banking1 #ci ---- ,elements of ,banking1 #ci ,mademoiselle ,mori11 #cf ,malet's ,annals of the ,road1 #cg ,malleson's ,genoese ,studies1 #c ---- ,native ,states of ,india1 #c ,marshall's ,physiology1 #be ,marshman's ,history of ,india1 #c ---- ,life of ,havelock1 #h ,martineau's ,christian ,life1 #cb ---- ,hymns1 #ca ,maunder's ,biographical ,treasury1 #ci ---- ,geographical ,treasury1 #ci ---- ,historical ,treasury1 #ci ---- ,scientific and ,literary ,treasury1 #ci ---- ,treasury of ,knowledge1 #ci ---- ,treasury of ,natural ,history1 #ci ,maxwell's ,theory of ,heat1 #bj ,may's ,history of ,democracy1 #b ---- ,history of ,england1 #b ,melville's ,digby ,grand1 #cf ---- ,general ,bounce1 #cf ---- ,gladiators1 #cf ---- ,good for ,nothing1 #cf ---- ,holmby ,house1 #cf ---- ,interpreter1 #cf ---- ,kate ,coventry1 #cf ---- ,queens ,maries1 #cf ,menzies' ,forest ,trees and ,woodland ,scenery1 #bd ,merivale's ,fall of the ,roman ,republic1 #e ---- ,general ,history of ,rome1 #d ---- ,romans under the ,empire1 #d ,merrifield's ,arithmetic and ,mensuration1 #bj ,miles on ,horse's ,foot and ,horse ,shoeing1 #ch ---- on ,horse's ,teeth and ,stables1 #ch ,mill 7,j47 on the ,mind1 #aj ---- 7,j4,s47 on ,liberty1 #i ---- on ,representative ,government1 #i ---- ,utilitarianism1 #i ---- ,autobiography1 #g ,mill's ,dissertations and ,discussions1 #i ---- ,essays on ,religion c41 #bi ---- ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 #i ---- ,system of ,logic1 #i ---- ,political ,economy1 #i ---- ,unsettled ,questions1 #i ,miller's ,elements of ,chemistry1 #bd ---- ,inorganic ,chemistry1 #bj ,minto's 7,lord7 ,life and ,letters1 #g ,mitchell's ,manual of ,assaying1 #bh ,modern ,novelist's ,library1 #cf ,monsell's #8,spiritual ,songs'1 #cb ,moore's ,irish ,melodies1 illustrated1 #bf ,morant's ,game ,preservers1 #bb ,morell's ,elements of ,psychology1 #aa ---- ,mental ,philosophy1 #aa ,mller's ,chips from a ,german ,workshop1 #ac ---- ,science of ,language1 #ac ---- ,science of ,religion1 #e ,nelson on the ,moon1 #ah ,new ,reformation1 by ,theodorus1 #d ,new ,testament1 ,illustrated ,edition1 #be ,northcott's ,lathes and ,turning1 #bf ,o',conor's ,commentary on ,hebrews1 #ca ---- ,romans1 #ca ---- ,st4 ,john1 #ca ,owen's ,comparative ,anatomy and ,physiology of ,vertebrate ,animals1 #ba ,packe's ,guide to the ,pyrenees1 #ce ,paget's ,naval ,powers1 #bh ,pattison's ,casaubon1 #g ,payen's ,industrial ,chemistry1 #bf ,pewtner's ,comprehensive ,specifier1 #dj ,pierce's ,chess ,problems1 #dj ,plunket's ,travels in the ,alps1 #cc ,pole's ,game of ,whist1 #dj ,preece ,sivewright's ,telegraphy1 #bj ,prendergast's ,mastery of ,languages1 #af ,present-,day ,thoughts1 by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b41 #ad ,proctor's ,astronomical ,essays1 #ag ---- ,moon1 #ag ---- ,orbs around ,us1 #ah ---- ,other ,worlds than ,ours1 #ah ---- ,saturn1 #ag ---- ,scientific ,essays 7,new ,series71 #ba ---- ,sun1 #ag ---- ,transits of ,venus1 #ag ---- ,two ,star ,atlases1 #ah ---- ,universe1 #ag ,public ,schools ,atlas of ,ancient ,geography1 #ag ---- ,atlas of ,modern ,geography1 #ag ---- ,manual of ,modern ,geography1 #ag ,rawlinson's ,parthia1 #e ---- ,sassanians1 #e ,recreations of a ,country ,parson1 #ad ,redgrave's ,dictionary of ,artists1 #be ,reilly's ,map of ,mont ,blanc1 #cd ---- ,monte ,rosa1 #cd ,reresby's ,memoirs1 #h ,reynardson's ,down the ,road1 #cg ,rich's ,dictionary of ,antiquities1 #ae ,river's ,rose ,amateur's ,guide1 #bc ,rogers's ,eclipse of ,faith1 #cj ---- ,defence of ,eclipse of ,faith1 #cj ---- ,essays1 #i ,roget's ,thesaurus of ,english ,words and ,phrases1 #ae ,ronald's ,fly-,fisher's ,entomology1 #ch ,roscoe's ,outlines of ,civil ,procedure1 #aj ,rothschild's ,israelites1 #cj ,russell's ,recollections and ,suggestions1 #b ,sandars's ,justinian's ,institutes1 #aj ,savile on ,apparitions1 #ac ---- on ,primitive ,faith1 #cj ,schellen's ,spectrum ,analysis1 #ai ,scott's ,lectures on the ,fine ,arts1 #be ---- ,poems1 #be ---- ,papers on ,civil ,engineering1 #bh ,seaside ,musing1 by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b41 #ad ,seebohm's ,oxford ,reformers of #adih1 #d ---- ,protestant ,revolution1 #f ,sewell's ,questions of the ,day1 #ca ---- ,preparation for ,communion1 #ca ---- ,stories and ,tales1 #cf ---- ,thoughts for the ,age1 #ca ---- ,history of ,france1 #c ,shelley's ,workshop ,appliances1 #bj ,short's ,church ,history1 #f ,simpson's ,meeting the ,sun1 #cd ,smith's 7,sydney7 ,essays1 #ab ---- ,wit and ,wisdom1 #ac ---- 7,dr4 ,r4,a47 ,air and ,rain1 #ai ,southey's ,doctor1 #ac ---- ,poetical ,works1 #cg ,stanley's ,history of ,british ,birds1 #bb ,stephen's ,ecclesiastical ,biography1 #h ,stockmar's ,memoirs1 #g ,stonehenge on the ,dog1 #ch ---- on the ,greyhound1 #ch ,stoney on ,strains1 #bh ,sunday ,afternoons at the ,parish ,church of a ,university ,city1 by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b41 #ad ,supernatural ,religion1 #cb ,swinbourne's ,picture ,logic1 #aa ,taylor's ,history of ,india1 #c ---- ,manual of ,ancient ,history1 #f ---- ,manual of ,modern ,history1 #f ---- 7,jeremy7 ,works1 edited by ,eden1 #ca ,text-,books of ,science1 #bj ,thomson's ,laws of ,thought1 #aa ,thorpe's ,quantitative ,analysis1 #bj ,thorpe and ,muir's ,qualitative ,analysis1 #bj ,todd 7,a47 on ,parliamentary ,government1 #b ,trench's ,realities of ,irish ,life1 #ac ,trollope's ,barchester ,towers1 #cf ---- ,warden1 #cf ,twiss's ,law of ,nations1 #aj ,tyndall's ,american ,lectures on ,light1 #bj ---- ,diamagnetism1 #bj ---- ,fragments of ,science1 #bj ---- ,lectures on ,electricity1 #ba ---- ,lectures on ,light1 #ba ---- ,lectures on ,sound1 #bj ---- ,heat a ,mode of ,motion1 #bj ---- ,molecular ,physics1 #bj ,ueberweg's ,system of ,logic1 #aa ,ure's ,dictionary of ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,mines1 #bg ,voltaire's ,zaire1 #cf ,walker on ,whist1 #dj ,warburton's ,edward the ,third1 #f ,watson's ,geometry1 #bj ,watts's ,dictionary of ,chemistry1 #be ,webb's ,objects for ,common ,telescopes1 #ah ,weinhold's ,experimental ,physics1 #ai ,wellington's ,life1 by ,gleig1 #h ,whately's ,english ,synonymes1 #ae ---- ,logic1 #aa ---- ,rhetoric1 #aa ,white and ,riddle's ,latin ,dictionaries1 #af ,wilcocks's ,sea-,fisherman1 #ch ,williams's ,aristotle's ,ethics1 #aa ,wood's 7,t4,g47 ,bible ,animals1 #bb ---- ,homes without ,hands1 #ba ---- ,insects at ,home1 #ba ---- ,insects ,abroad1 #ba ---- ,out of ,doors1 #bb ---- ,strange ,dwellings1 #ba ---- 7,j4,t47 ,ephesus1 #cc ,wyatt's ,history of ,prussia1 #c ,yonge's ,english-,greek ,lexicons1 #af ---- ,horace1 #cg ,youatt on the ,dog1 #ch ---- on the ,horse1 #ch ,zeller's ,plato1 #f ---- ,socrates1 #e ---- ,stoics1 ,epicureans1 and ,sceptics1 #e ,zimmern's ,life of ,schopenhauer1 #g ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,and ,,co41 ,,new-,,street ,,square ,,and ,,parliament ,,street ,transcriber's ,note3 ,minor errors and inconsistencies of punctuation have been corrected with no further mention here4 ,obvious printer's errors have also been corrected1 as noted in the table below4 ,on p4 #bc1 the reference to ,chapter ,,vi4 #h seems to be in error1 and should have been to #h of ,chapter ,v41 where there is a reference to ,elijah as an historical figure4 ,this has been corrected4 ,the reference to ,isaiah #fc4ag1 as printed on p4 xxx1 was hand-corrected to refer to #fc4af1 which itself is quoted on p4 #bbi4 ,the correction is made here as well4 ,footnote #cjh on p4 #aji had no corresponding anchor in the text4 ,the intended placement is not obvious4 ,the anchor has been added at the end of the first paragraph4 ,the reference to ,psalms ,,xxiii on p4 #acc was printed as #8,,xviii'1 and has been corrected4 ,on p4 #aga1 the opening quote of the passage beginning3 #8,helios saw the maiden ,anaxibia dancing there444 has no closing quote1 and the end of the passage is not clear4 ,likewise1 on p4 #aga1 with the passage beginning3 #8,to me is due from thee444 ,in the ,excursus section1 there is no ,excursus ,j4 p4 xvi n4 #c ,vienna #ahfh1 p4 #bjh47 ,added4 p4 xxx 7,is4 ,,lxiii4 #ag_/f7 ,corrected4 p4 #ag it will be the business ,added4 p4 #bc 7,see ,chap4 ,v,i4 #h7 ,removed4 p4 #be a priori ,added4 p4 #ce n4 #ajd #8civilisation-historical' ,added4 p4 #ei undoubtedly ,added4 p4 #hc against the townsmen4' ,removed4 p4 #hf #8this volatile people ,added4 p4 #hh of an inferior caste ,added4 p4 #ii her grey-headed spouse4' ,added4 p4 #aae n4 #cbb and shine on the creatures4' ,added4 p4 #acc ,the psalmist of ,ps4 ,x,v_/,x,,iii4 ,corrected4 p4 #aef ,beden_/utung ,corrected4 p4 #afi proved s_/to be ,corrected4 p4 #aid is mak_/de by the poet ,corrected4 p4 #aii ,and their_/there arose strife ,corrected4 p4 #bbd the ,akra people or_/f the ,corrected4 ,gold ,coast p4 #cbi and ,persians became the ,added4 dominant powers4' p4 #bcc in the land now called ,corrected4 ,judea1' p4 #bci n4 #fcc ,pl_/hantasie ,corrected4 p4 #bib n4 #fij insertion of can be ,missing explained word_/character4 p4 #cja vividly recall the speeches ,added4 p4 #cef n4 #gge see my artit_/cle ,corrected4 p4 #ded dif_/scovery of ,mythology ,corrected4