,studies in ,judaism ,first ,series by ,solomon ,schechter1 ,m4,a41 ,litt4,d4 ,philadelphia ,the ,jewish ,publication ,society of ,america #aiaa ,,contents ,preface ,introduction ,i4 ,the ,chassidim ,,ii4 ,nachman ,krochmal and the 8,perplexities ,of ,the ,time0 ,,iii4 ,rabbi ,elijah ,wilna1 ,gaon ,,iv4 ,nachmanides ,v4 ,a ,jewish ,boswell ,,vi4 ,the ,dogmas ,of ,judaism ,,vii4 ,the ,history of ,jewish ,tradition ,,viii4 ,the ,doctrine of ,divine ,retribution in ,rabbinical ,literature ,,ix4 ,the ,law ,and ,recent ,criticism ,x4 ,the ,hebrew ,collection of the ,british ,museum ,,xi4 ,titles of ,jewish ,books ,,xii4 ,the ,child in ,jewish ,literature ,,xiii4 ,woman in ,temple and ,synagogue ,,xiv4 ,the ,earliest ,jewish ,community in ,europe ,index ,footnotes ,cover ,art ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the above cover image was produced by the submitter at ,distributed ,proofreaders1 and is being placed into the public domain4 ,,to ,,the ,,ever,,cherished ,,memory ,,of ,,the ,,late ,,dr4 ,p4 ,f4 ,,frankl1 ,,rabbi ,,in ,,berlin ,,these ,,studies ,,are ,,reverently ,,dedicated ,,preface ,these studies appeared originally in their first form in ,the ,jewish ,quarterly and ,the ,jewish ,chronicle4 ,to the ,editors of these periodicals my best thanks are due for their readiness in placing the articles at my disposal for the purposes of the present volume4 ,the ,introductory ,essay is new4 ,i desire to express my sincere gratitude to ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 and ,dr4 ,j4 ,sutherland ,black1 of ,london1 for their great kindness in revising the proofs1 and for many a valuable suggestion4 ,to ,mr4 ,claude ,g4 ,montefiore ,i am indebted for the ,english version of the ,essay on 8,chassidim0--my first literary effort in this country1 written at his own suggestion4 ,in the transliteration of ,hebrew names1 ,i have given the familiar ,english forms of the authorised version4 ,as regards post,biblical names1 ,i have with few exceptions followed ,zedner's ,catalogue of the ,hebrew ,books in the ,library of the ,british ,museum4 ,a ,hebrew word will be found here and there in the text2 ,i have purposely avoided bewildering devices for representing the actual sound of the word1 contenting myself with the ordinary ,roman alphabet1 in spite of its shortcomings4 ,the authorities used for the various ,essays will be found indicated in the ,notes at the end of the volume1 where the reader will also find short biographical and bibliographical notices1 together with brief explanations of technical terms for which no exact equivalent exists in ,english4 ,the index will1 it is hoped1 facilitate reference4 ,s4 ,s4 ,,cambridge1 ,february #ahif4 ,,introduction ,the essays published in this volume under the title of ,studies in ,judaism have been written on various occasions and at long intervals4 ,there is thus no necessary connection between them4 ,if some sort of unity may be detected in the book1 it can only be between the first three essays--on the ,chassidim1 ,krochmal1 and the ,gaon--in which there is a certain unity of purpose4 ,the purpose in view was1 as may easily be gathered from the essays themselves1 to bring under the notice of the ,english public a type of men produced by the ,synagogue of the ,eastern ,jews4 ,that ,synagogue is widely different from ours4 ,its places of worship have no claims to 8beauty of holiness10 being in their outward appearance rather bare and bald1 if not repulsive2 whilst those who frequent them are a noisy1 excitable people1 who actually dance on the 8,season of ,rejoicing0 and cry bitterly on the 8,days of ,mourning40 ,but among all these vagaries--or perhaps because of them--this ,synagogue has had its moments of grace1 when enthusiasm wedded to inspiration gave birth to such beautiful souls as ,baalshem1 such fine sceptics as ,krochmal1 and such saintly scholars as ,elijah ,wilna4 ,the ,synagogue of the ,west is certainly of a more presentable character1 and free from excesses2 though it is not devoid of an enthusiasm of its own which finds its outlet in an ardent and self sacrificing philanthropic activity4 ,but owing to its practical tendency there is too little room in it for that play of intellectual forces which finds its extravagant expression in the saint on the one hand1 and the learned heretic on the other4 ,eight of these essays are more or less of a theological nature4 ,but in reading the proofs ,i have been struck by the fact that there is assumed in them a certain conception of the ,synagogue which1 familiar though it be to the ,jewish student1 may appear obscure and even strange to the general ,english reader4 ,for brevity's sake ,i will call it the ,high ,synagogue1 though it does not correspond in all details to what one is accustomed to understand under the term of ,high ,church4 ,the ,high ,synagogue has a history which is not altogether without its points of interest4 ,some years ago when the waves of the ,higher ,criticism of the ,old ,testament reached the shores of this country1 and such questions as the heterogeneous composition of the ,pentateuch1 the comparatively late date of the ,levitical ,legislation1 and the postexilic origin of certain ,prophecies as well as of the ,psalms began to be freely discussed by the press and even in the pulpit1 the invidious remark was often made3 ,what will now become of ,judaism when its last stronghold1 the ,law1 is being shaken to its very foundations8 ,such a remark shows a very superficial acquaintance with the nature of an old historical religion like ,judaism1 and the richness of the resources it has to fall back upon in cases of emergency4 ,as a fact1 the emergency did not quite surprise ,judaism4 ,the alarm signal was given some #aej years ago by an ,italian ,rabbi1 ,abiad ,sar ,shalom ,bazilai1 in his pamphlet ,the ,faith of the ,sages4 ,the pamphlet is1 as the title indicates1 of a polemical character1 reviewing the work of the ,jewish rationalistic schools2 and after warming up in his attacks against their heterodox views1 ,bazilai exclaims3 8,nature and simple meaning1 they are our misfortune40 ,by 8nature and simple meaning0 ,bazilai1 who wrote in ,hebrew1 understood what we would call ,natural ,science and ,philology4 ,with the right instinct of faith1 ,bazilai hit on the real sore points4 ,for though he mostly argues against the philosophical systems of ,aristotle and his commentators1 he felt that it is not speculation that will ever seriously endanger religion4 ,there is hardly any metaphysical system1 old or new1 which has not in course of time been adapted by able dialecticians to the creed which they happened to hold4 ,in our own time we have seen the glorious1 though not entirely novel spectacle1 of ,agnosticism itself becoming the rightful handmaid of ,queen ,theology4 ,the real danger lies in 8nature0 7or ,natural ,science7 with its stern demand of law and regularity in all phenomena1 and in the 8simple meaning0 7or ,philology7 with its inconsiderate insistence on truth4 ,of the two1 the 8simple meaning0 is the more objectionable4 ,not only is it very often at variance with ,tradition1 which has its own code of interpretation1 but it is constantly increasing the difficulties raised by science4 ,for if words could only have more than one meaning1 there would be no objection to reading the first words of ,genesis1 8,in a beginning ,god evolved40 ,the difficulties of science would then be disposed of easily enough4 ,maimonides1 who was as bold an interpreter as he was a deep metaphysician1 hinted plainly enough that were he as convinced of the eternity of matter as he was satisfied of the impossibility of any corporeal quality in the deity1 he would feel as little compunction in explaining 7figuratively7 the contents of the first chapter of ,genesis as he did in allegorising the anthropomorphic passages of the ,bible4 ,thus in the end all the difficulties resolve themselves into the one great difficulty of the 8simple meaning40 ,the best way to meet this difficulty was found to be to shift the centre of gravity in ,judaism and to place it in the secondary meaning1 thus making religion independent of philology and all its dangerous consequences4 ,this shifting work was chiefly done1 perhaps not quite consciously1 by the historical school which followed upon that of ,mendelssohn and his first successors4 ,the historical school1 which is still in the ascendant1 comprises many of the best ,jewish writers who either by their learning or by their ecclesiastical profession as ,rabbis and preachers in great communities have acquired some important position among their brethren4 ,the men who have inaugurated this movement were ,krochmal 7#agheahda71 ,rapoport 7#agijahfg71 and ,zunz 7#agidahhf74 ,it is not a mere coincidence that the first representatives of the historical school were also the first ,jewish scholars who proved themselves more or less ready to join the modern school of ,bible ,criticism1 and even to contribute their share to it4 ,the first two1 ,krochmal and ,rapoport1 early in the second quarter of this century accepted and defended the modern view about a second ,isaiah1 the post exilic origin of many ,psalms1 and the late date of ,ecclesiastes2 whilst ,zunz1 who began 7in #ahcb7 with denying the authenticity of ,ezekiel1 concluded his literary career 7#ahgc7 with a study on the ,bible 7,gesammelte ,schriften1 i4 pp4 #bagbij71 in which he expressed his view 8that the ,book of ,leviticus dates from a later period than the ,book of ,deuteronomy1 later even than ,ezekiel1 having been composed during the age of the ,second ,temple1 when there already existed a wellestablished priesthood which superintended the sacrificial worship40 ,but when ,revelation or the ,written ,word is reduced to the level of history1 there is no difficulty in elevating history in its aspect of ,tradition to the rank of ,scripture1 for both have then the same human or divine origin 7according to the student's predilection for the one or the other adjective71 and emanate from the same authority4 ,tradition becomes thus the means whereby the modern divine seeks to compensate himself for the loss of the ,bible1 and the theological balance is to the satisfaction of all parties happily readjusted4 ,jewish ,tradition1 or1 as it is commonly called1 the ,oral ,law1 or1 as we may term it 7in consideration of its claims to represent an interpretation of the ,bible71 the ,secondary ,meaning of the ,scriptures1 is mainly embodied in the works of the ,rabbis and their subsequent followers during the ,middle ,ages4 ,hence the zeal and energy with which the historical school applied itself to the ,jewish postbiblical literature1 not only elucidating its texts by means of new critical editions1 dictionaries1 and commentaries1 but also trying to trace its origins and to pursue its history through its gradual development4 ,to the work of ,krochmal in this direction a special essay is devoted in this volume4 ,the labours of ,rapoport are more of a biographical and bibliographical nature1 being occupied mostly with the minor details in the lives and writings of various famous ,jewish ,rabbis in the ,middle ,ages2 thus they offer but little opportunity for general theological comment4 ,of more importance in this respect are the hints thrown out in his various works by ,zunz1 who was just as emphatic in asserting the claims of ,tradition as he was advanced in his views on ,bible criticism4 ,zunz's greatest work is ,die ,gottesdienstlichen ,vortrge--an awkward title1 which in fact means 8,the ,history of the ,interpretation of the ,scriptures as forming a part of the divine service40 ,now if a work displaying such wide learning and critical acumen1 and written in such an impartial spirit can be said to have a bias1 it was towards bridging over the seemingly wide gap between the ,written ,word 7the ,scriptures7 and the ,spoken ,word 7the ,oral ,law or ,tradition71 which was the more deeply felt1 as most of ,zunz's older contemporaries were men1 grown up in the habits of thought of the eighteenth century--a century distinguished both for its ignorance of1 and its power of ignoring1 the teachings of history4 ,indeed it would seem that ages employed in making history have no time for studying it4 ,zunz accomplished the task he set himself1 by showing1 as already indicated1 the late date of certain portions of the ,bible1 which by setting the early history of ,israel in an ideal light betray the moralising tendency of their authors1 and are1 in fact1 little more than a traditional interpretation of older portions of ,scripture1 adapted to the religious needs of the time4 ,placing thus the origin of ,tradition in the ,bible itself1 it was a comparatively easy matter for ,zunz to prove its further continuity4 ,prophecy and ,interpretation are with him the natural expressions of the religious life of the nation2 and though by the loss of ,israel's political independence the voice of the prophets gradually died away1 the voice of ,god was still heard4 ,israel continues to consult ,god through the medium of the ,scriptures1 and ,he answers ,his people by the mouth of the ,scribes1 the ,sages1 the ,interpreters of the ,law2 whilst the liturgy of the ,synagogue1 springing up at the time when ,psalms were still being composed1 expands in its later stages through the work of the ,poets of the ,synagogue into such a rich luxuriance 8that it forms in itself a treasure of history1 poetry1 philosophy2 and prophecy and psalms are again revived in the hymnology of the ,middle ,ages40 ,this is in brief the lesson to be learned from ,zunz's ,gottesdienstliche ,vortrge as far as it deals with the significance of ,tradition2 and it is in the introduction to this work that ,zunz expresses himself to the following effect3 ,indispensable is the free ,spoken ,word4 ,mankind has acquired all its ideal treasures only by ,word of ,mouth2 an education continuing through all stages of life4 ,in ,israel1 too1 the ,word of ,instruction transmitted from mouth to mouth was never silenced4 ,the historical school has never1 to my knowledge1 offered to the world a theological programme of its own4 ,by the nature of its task1 its labours are mostly conducted in the field of philology and archology1 and it pays but little attention to purely dogmatic questions4 ,on the whole1 its attitude towards religion may be defined as an enlightened ,scepticism combined with a staunch conservatism which is not even wholly devoid of a certain mystical touch4 ,as far as we may gather from vague remarks and hints thrown out now and then1 its theological position may perhaps be thus defined3--,it is not the mere revealed ,bible that is of first importance to the ,jew1 but the ,bible as it repeats itself in history1 in other words1 as it is interpreted by ,tradition4 ,the ,talmud1 that wonderful mine of religious ideas from which it would be just as easy to draw up a manual for the most orthodox as to extract a vademecum for the most sceptical1 lends some countenance to this view by certain controversial passages--not to be taken seriously--in which 8the words of the scribes0 are placed almost above the words of the ,torah4 ,since then the interpretation of ,scripture or the ,secondary ,meaning is mainly a product of changing historical influences1 it follows that the centre of authority is actually removed from the ,bible and placed in some living body1 which1 by reason of its being in touch with the ideal aspirations and the religious needs of the age1 is best able to determine the nature of the ,secondary ,meaning4 ,this living body1 however1 is not represented by any section of the nation1 or any corporate priesthood1 or ,rabbihood1 but by the collective conscience of ,catholic ,israel as embodied in the ,universal ,synagogue4 ,the ,synagogue 8with its long1 continuous cry after ,god for more than twenty three centuries10 with its unremittent activity in teaching and developing the word of ,god1 with its uninterrupted succession of prophets1 ,psalmists1 ,scribes1 ,assideans1 ,rabbis1 ,patriarchs1 ,interpreters1 ,elucidators1 ,eminences1 and ,teachers1 with its glorious record of ,saints1 martyrs1 sages1 philosophers1 scholars1 and mystics2 this ,synagogue1 the only true witness to the past1 and forming in all ages the sublimest expression of ,israel's religious life1 must also retain its authority as the sole true guide for the present and the future4 ,and being in communion with this ,synagogue1 we may also look hopefully for a safe and rational solution of our present theological troubles4 ,for was it not the ,synagogue which even in antiquity determined the fate of ,scripture8 ,on the one hand1 for example1 books like ,ezekiel1 the ,song of ,songs1 and ,ecclesiastes1 were only declared to be ,holy ,writ in virtue of the interpretation put upon them by the ,rabbis3 and1 on the other hand1 it was the veto of the ,rabbis which excluded from the canon the works that now pass under the name of ,apocrypha4 ,we may1 therefore1 safely trust that the ,synagogue will again assert its divine right in passing judgment upon the ,bible when it feels called upon to exercise that holy office4 ,it is 8,god who has chosen the ,torah1 and ,moses ,his servant1 and ,israel ,his people40 ,but indeed ,god's choice invariably coincides with the wishes of ,israel2 ,he 8performeth all things0 upon which the councils of ,israel1 meeting under promise of the ,divine presence and communion1 have previously agreed4 ,as the ,talmud somewhere expresses itself with regard to the ,book of ,esther1 8,they have confirmed above what ,israel has accepted below40 ,another consequence of this conception of ,tradition is that it is neither ,scripture nor primitive ,judaism1 but general custom which forms the real rule of practice4 ,holy ,writ as well as history1 ,zunz tells us1 teaches that the law of ,moses was never fully and absolutely put in practice4 ,liberty was always given to the great teachers of every generation to make modifications and innovations in harmony with the spirit of existing institutions4 ,hence a return to ,mosaism would be illegal1 pernicious1 and indeed impossible4 ,the norm as well as the sanction of ,judaism is the practice actually in vogue4 ,its consecration is the consecration of general use1--or1 in other words1 of ,catholic ,israel4 ,it was probably with a view to this communion that the later mystics introduced a short prayer to be said before the performance of any religious ceremony1 in which1 among other things1 the speaker professes his readiness to act 8in the name of all ,israel40 ,it would be out of place in an introductory essay to pursue any further this interesting subject with its farreaching consequences upon ,jewish life and ,jewish thought4 ,but the foregoing remarks may suffice to show that ,judaism did not remain quite inactive at the approach of the great religious crisis which our generation has witnessed4 ,like so many other religious communities1 it reviewed its forces1 entrenched itself on the field of history1 and what it lost of its old devotion to the ,bible1 it has sought to make up by a renewed reverence for institutions4 ,in this connection1 a mere mention may suffice of the ultra,orthodox party1 led by the late ,dr4 ,s4 ,r4 ,hirsch of ,frankfort 7#ahjhahhi7 whose defiance of reason and criticism even a ,ward might have envied1 and whose saintliness and sublimity even a ,keble might have admired4 ,and1 to take an example from the opposite school1 we must at least record the name of that devout ,jew1 ,osias ,schorr 7#ahafahie71 in whom we have profound learning combined with an uncompromising disposition of mind productive of a typical champion of ,radicalism in things religious4 ,these men are1 however1 representative of two extremes1 and their followers constitute mere minorities2 the majority is with the historical school4 ,how long the position of this school will prove tenable is another question4 ,being brought up in the old ,low ,synagogue1 where1 with all attachment to tradition1 the ,bible was looked upon as the crown and the climax of ,judaism1 the old ,adam still asserts itself in me1 and in unguarded moments makes me rebel against this new rival of revelation in the shape of history4 ,at times this now fashionable exaltation of ,tradition at the expense of ,scripture even impresses me as a sort of religious bimetallism in which bold speculators in theology try to keep up the market value of an inferior currency by denouncing loudly the bright shining gold which1 they would have us believe1 is less fitted to circulate in the vulgar use of daily life than the small cash of historical interpretation4 ,nor can ,i quite reconcile myself to this alliance of religion with history1 which seems to me both unworthy and unnatural4 ,the ,jew1 some writer aptly remarked1 was the first and the fiercest ,nonconformist of the ,east1 and so ,judaism was always a protesting religion4 ,to break the idols1 whether of the past or of the present1 has always been a sacred mission of ,judaism1 and has indeed been esteemed by it as a necessary preliminary to the advent of the kingdom of ,god on earth4 ,one of its daily prayers was and still is3 8,we therefore hope in ,thee1 ,o ,lord our ,god1 that we may speedily behold the glory of ,thy might1 when 444 the idols will be cut off1 when the world will be perfected under the kingdom of the ,almighty40 ,it bowed before truth1 but it had never made a covenant with facts only because they were facts4 ,history had to be re made and to sanctify itself before it found its way into its sacred annals4 ,nor did ,judaism make a virtue of swallowing down institutions4 ,such institutions as crept into it in course of time had1 when the ,synagogue was conscious of their claims to form part of religion1 to submit to the laborious process of a thorough adaptation to prophetic notions before they were formally sanctioned4 ,but when this process was deemed impossible or impracticable1 ,judaism boldly denounced the past in such fierce language as the prophets used and as still finds its echo in such passages of the liturgy as 8,first our ancestors were worshippers of idols and now ,god has brought us near to ,his service02 or 8,but of a truth1 we and our ancestors have sinned40 ,however1 it would be unfair to argue any further against a theological system which1 as already said1 was never avowed distinctly by the historical school--a school1 moreover1 with which speculation is a matter of minor importance4 ,the main strength of this school lies in its scientific work1 for which ,judaism will always be under a sense of deep gratitude4 ,and living as we do in an age in which history reigns supreme in all departments of human thought1 we may hope that even its theology1 as far as it goes1 will 8do0 for us1 though ,i neither hope nor believe that it will do for those who come after us4 ,i may1 however1 humbly confess that the sixth essay in this volume was written in a spirit of rebellion against this allabsorbing ,catholic ,israel1 with its decently veiled scepticism on the one hand1 and its unfortunate tendency with many people to degenerate into a soulless conformity on the other hand4 ,there is1 ,i am afraid1 not much to be said in favour of this essay4 ,it is deficient both in matter and in style4 ,it proved to be a futile attempt to bring within the compass of an essay what a whole book could hardly do justice to4 ,the ,hebrew documents bearing upon the question of dogma which ,i have collected from various manuscripts and rare printed books1 would alone make a fairsized volume4 ,i only venture to offer it to the public in the absence of anything better2 since1 so far as ,i know1 no other attempt has ever been made to treat the subject even in its meagrest outlines4 ,i even venture to hope that1 with all its shortcomings1 it will contribute something towards destroying the illusion1 in which so many theologians indulge1 that ,judaism is a religion without dogmas4 ,to declare that a religion has no dogmas is tantamount to saying that it was wise enough not to commit itself to any vital principles4 ,but prudence1 useful as it may be in worldly affairs1 is quite unworthy of a great spiritual power4 ,jewish mysticism in the ,middle ,ages and in modern times is represented in this volume by two essays 78,the ,chassidim0 and 8,nachmanides074 ,but in order to avoid mistakes which might be implied by my silence1 ,i think it desirable to state that there are also to be found many mystical elements in the old ,rabbinic literature4 ,mysticism1 not as a theosophic system or as an occult science1 but as a manifestation of the spiritual and as an expression of man's agonies in his struggle after communion with ,god1 as well as of his ineffable joy when he receives the assurance that he has found it1 is not1 as some maintain1 foreign to the spirit of old ,rabbinic ,judaism4 ,there was no need for the medival ,rabbi to borrow the elements of such a mysticism from non,jewish sources4 ,the perusal of the old ,homilies on the ,song of ,songs1 and on the ,lessons from the ,prophets1 or even a fair acquaintance with the ,jewish liturgy would1 in itself1 suffice to refute such baseless assertions4 ,those who are at all familiar with old ,rabbinic literature hardly need to be told that 8the sea of the ,talmud0 has also its gulf stream of mysticism which1 taking its origin in the moralising portions of the ,bible1 runs through the wide ocean of ,jewish thought1 constantly commingling with the icy waters of legalism1 and unceasingly washing the desolate shores of an apparently meaningless ceremonialism1 communicating to it life1 warmth1 and spirituality4 ,to draw attention to this fact a humble attempt has been made in the ninth essay1 8,the ,law and ,recent ,criticism10 a subject which ,i have essayed to expound in a series of essays on 8,some ,aspects of ,rabbinic ,theology10 now appearing in ,the ,jewish ,quarterly ,review4 ,the last five essays touch rather on certain social and familiar aspects of ,judaism1 and need no further comment4 ,they are mere causeries and hardly deserve the name of studies4 ,perhaps it may be useful for those who judge of the heaviness of a work by its bulk to know that there is also a lighter side of ,rabbinic literature4 ,but ,i shall be better pleased if the more serious side of this volume--,jewish mysticism and ,rabbinic theology--should attract the attention of students1 and so draw some fellowworkers into a field which is utterly neglected4 ,notwithstanding the numerous ,manuals and ,introductions which all more or less touch on the subject of ,rabbinic theology1 there is1 after nearly #bej years1 not a single work among them which1 either in knowledge of facts or in their interpretation1 is a single step in advance of the ,cambridge ,platonist1 ,john ,smith1 in his ,select ,discourses4 ,but those who try so hard to determine the miraculous distance of ,christianity by the eclipses in ,rabbinism1 should1 if they wish to be just or prove themselves worthy scholars1 also endeavour to make themselves acquainted with the numberless bright stars that move in the wide universe of ,jewish thought4 ,we are often told that no creed or theological system which has come down to us from antiquity can afford to be judged by any other standard than by its spiritual and poetic possibilities3 this indulgence ,judaism is as justly entitled to claim as any other religion4 ,the great and saintly ,franz ,delitzsch who1 born with an intellect of admirable temper1 was also endowed by ,heaven with a soul--and a beautiful soul it was--was one of the few theologians who1 partly at least1 admitted this claim1 and sought earnestly and diligently after these spiritual and poetic possibilities1 and was amply rewarded for his labours4 ,i4 ,,the ,,chassidim7#a7 ,throughout the whole of that interesting field of ,theological ,literature which deals with the genesis and course of religious movements1 there is probably none whose history1 even whose name1 is so little known to ,english students1 as that of the ,chassidim4 ,and yet it would be difficult to point1 in comparatively recent times1 to a ,dissenting movement more strikingly complete in its development1 more suggestive of analogy1 more full of interest in its original purpose1 more pregnant of warning in its decay4 ,the ,hebrew word 8,chassidim07#b7 merely means 8the ,pious10 and appears to have been complacently adopted by the early apostles of the sect4 ,but the thing--,chassidism--was1 in its inception at all events1 a revolt among the ,jews of ,eastern ,europe against the excessive casuistry of the contemporary ,rabbis4 ,it was in fact one more manifestation of the yearning of the human heart towards the ,divine idea1 and of its ceaseless craving for direct communion with ,god4 ,it was the protest of an emotional but uneducated people against a onesided expression of ,judaism1 presented to them in cold and oversubtle disquisitions which not only did they not understand1 but which shut out the play of the feelings and the affections1 so that religion was made almost impossible to them4 ,some account of the sect is the more necessary because1 although the ,chassidim have not been wholly ignored by historians or novelists1 the references to them have generally1 for perfectly intelligible reasons1 been either biassed or inaccurate4 ,the historians who have treated of them have been almost exclusively men saturated with ,western culture and rationalism4 ,to them the rude and uncouth manifestations of an undisciplined religious spirit could not be other than repellent2 to them ,chassidism was a movement to be dismissed as unsthetic and irrational4 ,to the purposes of fiction the romantic side of ,chassidism lends itself readily1 but the novelists who have used this material have confined themselves to its externals4 ,indeed1 to have done more would have involved a tedious and unremunerative study of difficult ,hebrew texts1 an undertaking not to be expected from the most conscientious writers of this class4 ,thus ,franzos in his references to the ,jews of ,barnow describes faithfully the outer signs of the man1 his long coat and tangled curls1 but the inner life1 the world in which the ,chassid moved and had his being1 was unknown to him and is therefore unrecorded4 ,as to my treatment of the subject1 ,i confess that there was a time when ,i loved the ,chassidim as there was a time when ,i hated them4 ,and even now ,i am not able to suppress these feelings4 ,i have rather tried to guide my feelings in such a way as to love in ,chassidism what is ideal and noble1 and to hate in it what turned out bad and pernicious for ,judaism4 ,how far ,i have been successful is another question4 ,at least ,i have endeavoured to write this paper in such a spirit4 ,but of one thing ,i must warn the reader--the desire to give some clear notion of the leading ideas of ,chassidism has compelled me to quote some passages in which the ,chassidim have spoken in very offensive terms of their opponents4 ,in justice to these ,i must remark that unfortunately religious struggles are usually conducted on the most irreligious principles4 ,thus the ,chassidim imputed to their antagonists1 the contemporary ,rabbis1 many vices from which they were free4 ,certainly1 there was1 as one can read in every history of ,jewish religion1 something wrong in the state of ,judaism4 ,but ,i know people who maintain that there is something very wrong in the present state of ,judaism1 and who despair of a regeneration4 ,but surely this is a silly exaggeration4 ,the ,chassidim also exaggerated4 ,it would be better to take but little notice of their accusations and dwell more on that which was spoken in a kind and loving spirit4 ,as to the literature of the subject1 ,i can only say here that ,i have made use of every book ,i could consult1 both in ,english and in foreign libraries4 ,but ,i cannot pledge myself to be what early ,jewish writers called 8a donkey which carries books40 ,i exercise my own choice and my own judgment on many points4 ,as an active force for good1 ,chassidism was shortlived4 ,for1 as ,i propose to show1 there lurked among its central tenets the germs of the degeneracy which so speedily came upon it4 ,but its early purposes were high1 its doctrines fairly pure1 its aspirations ideal and sublime4 ,the founder of the sect was one ,israel ,baalshem17#c7 and the story of his parentage1 birth1 and childhood1 and the current anecdotes of his subsequent career play a considerable part in ,chassidic literature4 ,but the authentic materials for his biography are everywhere interwoven with much that is pure legend and with much more that is miraculous4 ,this was1 perhaps1 inevitable1 and is certainly not an unfamiliar feature in the personal histories of religious reformers as presented by their followers and devotees4 ,the sayings and doings of ,baalshem are an essential--perhaps the most essential--portion of any account of the sect4 ,for ,baalshem is the centre of the ,chassidic world1 and ,chassidism is so intimately bound up with the personality of its founder that any separation between them is well nigh impossible4 ,to the ,chassidim ,baalshem is not a man who established a theory or set forth a system2 he himself was the incarnation of a theory and his whole life the revelation of a system4 ,even those portions of his history which are plainly legendary have their uses in indicating the ideals and in illustrating the aspirations of the early ,chassidim2 while their circulation and the ready credence they received are valuable evidence of the real power and influence of ,baalshem's personality4 ,in the tale as told by the sect little is omitted of those biographical accessories which are proper to an ,avatar4 ,there is all the conventional heralding of a preordained advent2 all the usual signs and portents of a new dispensation may be recognised in the almost preternatural virtues of ,baalshem's parents1 in the miraculous annunciation and exceptional circumstances of his nativity1 and in the early indication of a strong and fearless individuality4 ,everywhere it seems to be suggested that ,baalshem from his infancy was conscious of a lofty mission4 ,it is already in tender years that he is made to give evidence of an indifference to conventional restraints and accepted ideals4 ,rabbi ,eliezer and his wife1 the parents of ,baalshem1 dwelt1 as the story goes1 in ,moldavia4 ,they are described as a pious and ,godfearing couple1 who1 when they had already reached old age1 were still childless4 ,they are accredited with a spotless rectitude1 which was unimpaired by a long series of strange vicissitudes and misfortunes4 ,ultimately1 an angel of ,god appeared to ,eliezer and announced that1 as he had successfully withstood all the temptations and sufferings by which he had been tried1 ,god was about to reward him with a son1 who was destined to enlighten the eyes of all ,israel4 ,therefore his name should be ,israel1 for in him the words of ,scripture were to be fulfilled1 8,thou art my servant1 ,israel1 in whom ,i will be glorified40 ,in due course the promise was fulfilled1 and to the aged couple a son was born1 who was named ,israel according to the angel's word4 ,the date of ,baalshem's birth is about #agjj2 his birthplace1 in ,bukowina1 in a hitherto unidentified village which the authorities call ,ukop1 then still belonging to ,roumania4 ,the child's mother died soon after he was weaned1 and his father did not long survive her4 ,but before ,eliezer died he took his child in his arms1 and blessing him1 bade him fear naught1 for ,god would always be with him4 ,as ,eliezer had been greatly honoured in the community in which he lived1 his orphan son was carefully tended and educated4 ,he was early supplied with an instructor in the ,holy ,law4 ,but though he learned with rare facility1 he rejected the customary methods of instruction4 ,one day1 while still quite young1 his teacher missed him1 and on seeking found him sitting alone in the forest that skirted his native village1 in happy and fearless solitude4 ,he repeated this escapade so often that it was thought best to leave him to follow his own bent4 ,a little later we find him engaged as assistant to a schoolmaster4 ,his duty was not to teach1 but to take the children from their homes to the synagogue and thence on to the school4 ,it was his wont while accompanying the children to the synagogue to teach them solemn hymns which he sang with them4 ,in the synagogue he encouraged them to sing the responses1 so that the voices of the children penetrated through the heavens and moved the ,divine father to compassion4 ,satan1 fearing lest his power on earth should thereby be diminished1 assumed the shape of a werewolf1 and1 appearing before the procession of children on their way to the synagogue1 put them to flight4 ,in consequence of this alarming incident the children's services were suspended4 ,but ,israel1 recollecting his father's counsel to fear naught1 besought the parents to be allowed to lead the children once more in the old way4 ,his request was granted1 and when the werewolf appeared a second time ,israel attacked him with a club and routed him4 ,in his fourteenth year ,israel became a beadle at the ,beth ,hammidrash47#d7 ,here he assiduously but secretly pursued the study of the ,law4 ,yet1 being anxious that none should know his design1 he read and worked only at night1 when the schoolroom was empty and the usual scholars had retired4 ,during the daytime he slept1 so that he was popularly believed to be both ignorant and lazy4 ,despite these precautions1 however1 his true character was revealed to one person4 ,a certain holy man1 the father of a young student at the college1 had discovered some old manuscripts which contained the deepest secrets4 ,before his death he bade his son repair to ,ukop1 ,israel's birthplace1 telling him that he would find one ,israel1 son of ,eliezer1 to whom the precious documents were to be entrusted4 ,they possessed1 so the old man declared1 a certain mystic and heavenly affinity with ,israel's soul4 ,the student carried out his father's instructions1 and at last discovered the object of his search in the beadle of the ,beth ,hammidrash4 ,israel admitted him to his friendship and confidence on the condition of secrecy as to his real character4 ,the student1 however1 paid dearly for this acquaintance with ,israel4 ,contrary to ,baalshem's advice1 he entered upon a dangerous incantation in the course of which he made a mistake so serious that it cost him his life4 ,upon the death of his friend1 ,baalshem left his native village and settled as a teacher in a small town near ,brody4 ,here1 although his true mission and character were still unknown1 he became much respected for his rigid probity1 and was frequently chosen as umpire in disputes among ,jews4 ,on one of these occasions he arbitrated with so much learning and impartiality that not only did he satisfy both parties1 but one of them1 a learned man of ,brody1 named ,abraham1 offered him his own daughter in marriage4 ,israel1 to whom it had been revealed that ,abraham's daughter was his predestined wife1 immediately accepted the offer and the act of betrothal was drawn up4 ,but wishing his true character to remain unknown he stipulated that ,abraham1 although a 8,talmid ,chacham0 7student77#e7 himself and therefore presumably desirous that his daughter should marry a scholar1 should omit from the betrothaldeed all the titles of honour usually appended to the name of a learned bridegroom4 ,while returning to ,brody1 ,abraham died1 and ,gershon his son1 a scholar still greater and more celebrated than his father1 was surprised and shocked to find a deed of betrothal among his father's papers1 from which it appeared that his sister was to wed a man with apparently no claim to scholarship or learning4 ,he protested to his sister1 but she declined to entertain any objections to a marriage which her father had arranged4 ,when the time for the wedding was at hand1 ,israel gave up his post as teacher1 and repaired to ,brody4 ,disguised as a peasant he presented himself before his future brotherinlaw1 who was then fulfilling some high judicial function4 ,gershon taking him for a beggar offered him alms1 but ,israel1 refusing the money1 asked for a private interview1 stating that he had an important secret to reveal4 ,he then1 to ,gershon's surprise and disgust1 explained who he was and that he had come to claim his bride4 ,as the girl was determined to obey her father's will the affair was settled and the day fixed4 ,on the morning of the wedding ,israel revealed to his bride his real character and mission1 at the same time enjoining secrecy4 ,evil fortunes would befall them1 he said1 but a better time would eventually follow4 ,after the wedding1 ,gershon1 having in vain attempted to instruct his seemingly ignorant brotherinlaw1 decided to rid himself of his presence4 ,he gave his sister the choice of being separated from her husband1 or of leaving the town in his company4 ,she chose the latter1 and thereupon the two left ,brody and began a life of hardship and suffering4 ,israel chose for his new home a spot on one of the spurs of the ,carpathian ,mountains4 ,no ,jews lived there1 and ,israel and his wife were thus separated from the society of their fellows in a life of complete and unchanging solitude4 ,israel dug lime in the ravines among the mountains1 and his wife conveyed it for sale to the nearest town4 ,their life at this period seems to have been one of great privation1 but the harder ,israel's outward lot1 the more he increased in spiritual greatness4 ,in his solitude he gave himself up entirely to devotion and religious contemplation4 ,his habit was to climb to the summit of the mountains and wander about rapt in spiritual ecstasies4 ,he fasted1 prayed1 made continual ablutions1 and observed all the customary outward and inward exercises of piety and devotion4 ,after seven years1 ,gershon1 who was well aware of the bitter poverty which his sister endured1 relented and brought her and her husband back to ,brody4 ,at first he employed ,baalshem as his coachman1 but as he proved wholly unfit for this work ,gershon rented a small inn in a remote village1 and there established his sister and her husband4 ,the business of the inn was managed by the wife1 while ,baalshem passed most of his time in a hut in a neighbouring forest4 ,here he once more gave himself up to meditation and preparation for his future work1 and here1 a little later1 when nearly fortytwo years of age1 to a few chosen spirits1 afterwards his most fervent disciples1 he first revealed his true character and mission4 ,from this point unfortunately the materials for a continuous biography are wanting2 we next hear of ,baalshem discharging the functions of an ordinary ,rabbi at ,miedziboz in ,podolia1 but for the remainder of his personal history we have to be content with detached anecdotes and fragmentary passages in his life1 the sum total of which goes to show that he resided in ,podolia and ,wallachia1 teaching his doctrines to his disciples and 8working ,wonders40 ,he does not seem to have figured as a public preacher1 nor has he left behind him any written work4 ,he appears rather to have used the method1 familiar to students of ,greek philosophy1 of teaching by conversations with his friends and disciples4 ,these conversations1 and the parables with which they were largely interspersed1 were remembered and stored up by his hearers4 ,by his neighbours the country folk1 ,baalshem was regarded simply as 8a man of ,god40 ,he was allowed to pursue his course undisturbed by persecution of the serious character which his more aggressive successors provoked4 ,such of the ,rabbis as were aware of his existence despised him and his ways1 but the ,rabbinical world was at that time too much occupied in the controversy between ,eybeschtz and ,emden to concern itself with the vagaries of an obscure and apparently 8unlearned0 eccentric4 ,baalshem also took part in the disputes which were held in ,lemberg1 the capital of ,galicia 7#ageg871 between the ,rabbis and the ,frankists17#f7 who denounced the ,talmud to the ,polish ,government and wanted to have all the ,rabbinical books destroyed4 ,baalshem suffered from this excitement in a most terrible way4 ,the abrogation of the ,oral ,law meant for him the ruin of ,judaism4 ,baalshem1 in forming the little band of devoted followers who were destined to spread a knowledge of his creed1 travelled considerably about ,wallachia4 ,he at one time decided to make a pilgrimage to ,palestine1 but when he reached ,constantinople he felt himself inspired to return and continue his work at home4 ,he died at ,miedziboz on the eve of ,pentecost1 #agfa4 ,after his death his disciples1 of whom one ,beer of ,mizriez was the most prominent1 undertook the proselytising mission for which ,baalshem had prepared them1 but from which he himself appears to have abstained4 ,they preached and taught in all the provinces of ,russia where ,jews may reside1 and in ,roumania1 and ,galicia4 ,the number of the sect at the present day is probably about half a million4 ,returning now to ,baalshem the founder1 it may be noted that his appearance as a teacher and reformer was accompanied and justified by a customary and adequate number of miracles4 ,to one disciple he revealed secrets which could have become known to him only by divine revelation2 to another he appeared with a nimbus round his head4 ,on the evidence of the ,chassidim we learn that ,baalshem performed all the recognised signs and marvels which have ever been the customary minor characteristics of men of similar type in similar environment4 ,when ,baalshem desired to cross a stream1 he spread forth his mantle upon the waters1 and standing thereupon passed safely to the other side4 ,ghosts evacuated haunted houses at the mere mention of his name4 ,was he alone in the forest on a wintry night1 he had but to touch a tree with his finger tips and flames burst forth4 ,when his spirit wandered through the angelic spheres1 as was frequently the case1 he obtained access to ,paradise for millions of pining souls who had vainly waited without through long thousands of mournful years4 ,these and other miracles need not be examined4 ,here1 as in the case of other such blissful seasons of grace1 they were the ephemeral though important accessories in establishing the inspired character of his utterances and the authority of his injunctions4 ,it is not as a worker of miracles1 but as a religious teacher and reformer1 that ,baalshem is interesting4 ,properly to understand the nature and special direction of his teaching1 it is necessary in some measure to realise the character of the field in which he worked2 to consider1 in other words1 the moral and religious condition of the ,jews in those districts where ,chassidism first took root4 ,in a ,hebrew ,hymn1 written about #ajjj ,a4,c41 and still recited in the synagogue on the ,day of ,atonement1 the poet expresses the strange and bitter fortunes of his race in touching words of mingled sorrow and exultation4 ,destroyed lies ,zion and profaned1 ,of splendour and renown bereft1 ,her ancient glories wholly waned1 ,one deathless treasure only left2 ,still ours1 ,o ,lord1 ,thy ,holy ,word4 ,and this ,divine ,word it was1 which a persecuted religion has sought to preserve intact through so many centuries of persecution1 and for the sake of which no labour seemed too severe1 no sacrifice too large4 8,bethink ,thee1 ,o ,god10 exclaimed one of our ,jewish sages who flourished about the same period1 8bethink ,thee of ,thy faithful children who1 amid their poverty and want1 are busy in the study of ,thy ,law4 ,bethink ,thee of the poor in ,israel who are willing to suffer hunger and destitution if only they can secure for their children the knowledge of ,thy ,law40 ,and so indeed it was4 ,old and young1 weak and strong1 rich and poor1 all pursued that single study1 the ,torah4 ,the product of this prolonged study is that gigantic literature which1 as a long unbroken chain of spiritual activity1 connects together the various periods of the ,jews' chequered and eventful history4 ,all ages and all lands have contributed to the development of this supreme study4 ,for under the word ,torah was comprised not only the ,law1 but also the contributions of later times expressing either the thoughts or the emotions of holy and sincere men2 and even their honest scepticism was not entirely excluded4 ,as in the canon of the ,bible1 ,ecclesiastes and the ,song of ,solomon found place in the same volume that contains the ,law and the ,prophets1 so at a later time people did not object to put the philosophical works of ,maimonides and the songs of ,judah ,hallevi on the same level with the ,code of the ,law compiled by ,r4 ,isaac ,alfasi1 and the commentaries on the ,bible by ,r4 ,solomon b4 ,isaac47#g7 ,none of them was declared infallible1 but also to none of them1 as soon as people were convinced of the author's sincerity1 was denied the homage due to seekers after truth4 ,almost every author was called ,rabbi 78my master07 or ,rabbenu 78our master0717#h7 and nearly every book was regarded more or less as a contribution to the great bulk of the ,torah4 ,it was called ,writ17#i7 and was treated with a certain kind of piety4 ,but1 by a series of accidents too long to be related here1 sincerity ceased and sport took its place4 ,i refer to the casuistic schools commonly known by the name of ,pilpulists7#aj7 7the 8seasoned0 or the 8sharp0 ones71 who flourished in the last two centuries preceding ours4 ,to the authors of this unhappy period1 a few glorious exceptions always allowed1 the preceding ,jewish literature did not mean a 8fountain of living waters10 supplying men with truth and religious inspiration1 but rather a kind of armoury providing them with juristic cases over which to fight1 and to outdo each other in sophistry and subtlety4 ,as a consequence they cared little or nothing for that part of the ,jewish literature that appeals less to the intellect than to the feelings of men4 ,in short1 religion consisted only of complicated cases and innumerable ordinances1 in which the wit of these men found delight4 ,but the emotional part of it1 whose root is the ,faith and ,love of men1 was almost entirely neglected4 ,but it was precisely these higher religious emotions that were ,baalshem's peculiar province1 and it was to them that he assigned in his religious system a place befitting their importance and their dignity4 ,and the locality where his ministration lay was curiously adapted for such propaganda4 ,to that universal study of the ,law of which ,i have just spoken there was one exception4 ,that exception was amongst the ,jews in the territories which bordered on the ,carpathian ,mountains1 and comprise the principalities of ,moldavia1 and ,wallachia1 ,bukowina1 and the ,ukraine4 ,it is historically certain that the first arrival of the ,jews in ,roumania was at a very early date1 but there is no trace of any intellectual productivity among the immigrants until recent times1 and it is admitted that the study of the ,law was almost entirely neglected4 ,it was in these districts of mental1 and perhaps we might add of even spiritual1 darkness that ,chassidism took its rise and achieved its first success4 8,the sect of the ,chassidim10 says one of the bitterest but most trustworthy of their opponents1 8first gained ground in the most uncivilised provinces2 in the wild ravines of ,wallachia and the dreary steppes of the ,ukraine40 ,apart from the genius of its founder1 ,chassidism owed its rapid growth to the intellectual barrenness of these districts as compared with the intellectual fertility of the other regions where ,jews most thickly congregated4 ,the ,roumanian ,jews were to some extent under the jurisdiction of the ,rabbis of ,poland4 ,now the ,poles were celebrated even in ,germany for the elaboration of their casuistry4 ,these oversubtle ,rabbis1 delighting in the quibbles of their sophistry1 and reducing religion to an unending number of juristic calculations and all sorts of possibilities and impossibilities1 were but too apt to forget the claims of feeling in their eager desire to question and to settle everything4 ,they may have been satisfactory guides in matters spiritual to the men of their own stamp1 but they were of no avail to their ,roumanian brethren who failed to recognise religion in the garb of casuistry4 ,it was1 therefore1 not surprising that a revolt against the excess of intellectualism should have sprung up and flourished in those districts where the inhabitants were constitutionally incapable of appreciating the delights of argument4 ,the field was ready1 and in the fulness of time came the sower in the person of ,baalshem4 ,in the above estimate of the ,polish ,rabbis there undoubtedly lurks a touch of exaggeration4 ,but it represents the view which the ,chassidim took of their opponents4 ,the whole life of ,baalshem is a protest against the typical ,rabbi thus conceived4 ,the essential difference in the ideals of the two parties is perhaps best illustrated in those portions of their biographical literature where legend treads most closely upon the heels of fact4 ,the hero of ,polish ,rabbinic biography at five years of age can recite by heart the most difficult tractates of the ,talmud2 at eight he is the disciple of the most celebrated teacher of the time1 and perplexes him by the penetrative subtlety of his questions2 while at thirteen he appears before the world as a fullfledged ,doctor of the ,law4 ,the hero of the ,chassidim has a totally different education1 and his distinctive glory is of another kind4 ,the legendary stories about ,baalshem's youth tell us little of his proficiency in ,talmudic studies2 instead of sitting in the ,beth ,hammidrash with the folios of some casuistic treatise spread out before him1 ,baalshem passes his time singing hymns out of doors1 or under the green trees of the forest with the children4 ,satan1 however1 says the ,chassid1 is more afraid of these innocent exercises than of all the controversies in the ,meheram ,shiff47#aa7 ,it was through external nature1 the woods of his childhood1 the hills and wild ravines of the ,carpathians where he passed many of his maturer years1 that ,baalshem1 according to his disciples1 reached his spiritual confirmation4 ,the ,chassidic hero had no celebrated ,rabbi for his master4 ,he was his own teacher4 ,if not selftaught1 it was from angelic lips1 or even the ,divine voice itself1 that he learned the higher knowledge4 ,from the source whence the ,torah flowed ,baalshem received heavenly lore4 ,his method of selfeducation1 his ways of life1 his choice of associates were all instances of revolt2 not only did he teach a wholly different theory and practice1 but he and his disciples seem to have missed no opportunity of denouncing the old teachers as misleading and ungodly4 ,among the many anecdotes illustrating this feature1 it is told how once1 on the evening before the great ,day of ,atonement1 ,baalshem was noticed by his disciples to be1 contrary to his usual custom1 depressed and ill at ease4 ,the whole subsequent day he passed in violent weeping and lamentations4 ,at its close he once more resumed his wonted cheerfulness of manner4 ,when asked for the explanation of his behaviour1 he replied that the ,holy ,spirit had revealed to him that heavy accusations were being made against the ,jewish people1 and a heavy punishment had been ordained upon them4 ,the anger of heaven was caused by the ,rabbis1 whose sole occupation was to invent lying premisses and to draw from them false conclusions4 ,all the truly wise ,rabbis of the olden time 7such as the ,tannaim1 the ,amoraim7#ab7 and their followers1 whom ,baalshem regarded as so many saints and prophets7 had now stood forth as the accusers of their modern successors by whom their words were so grossly perverted from their original meaning4 ,on this account ,baalshem's tears had been shed1 and his prayers as usual had been successful4 ,the impending judgment was annulled4 ,on another occasion1 when he overheard the sounds of eager1 loud discussion issuing from a ,rabbinical college1 ,baalshem1 closing his ears with his hands1 declared that it was such disputants who delayed the redemption of ,israel from captivity4 ,satan1 he said1 incites the ,rabbis to study those portions of ,jewish literature only on which they can whet the sharpness of their intellects1 but from all writings of which the reading would promote piety and the fear of ,god he keeps them away4 8,where there is much study10 says a disciple of ,baalshem1 8there is little piety40 8,jewish ,devils07#ac7 is one of the numerous polite epithets applied to the ,rabbis by the friends of ,baalshem4 8,even the worst sinners are better than they2 so blind are they in the arrogance of their selfconceit that their very devotion to the ,law becomes a vehicle for their sin40 ,it will be found when we deal with the most positive side of ,baalshem's teaching that this antagonism to the attitude and methods of the contemporary ,rabbis is further emphasised1 and it will readily be seen that his whole scheme of religion and of conduct in relation to ,god and man rendered this acknowledged hostility inevitable4 ,in approaching this part of our subject it should be remembered that1 as stated above1 ,baalshem himself wrote nothing4 ,for a knowledge of his sayings we are therefore dependent on the reports of his friends and disciples4 ,and it is not unfrequently necessary to supplement these by the teaching of his followers1 whom we may suppose in large measure to have caught the spirit of their master4 ,unfortunately the original authorities are in a difficult ,hebrew patois which often obscures the precise meaning of whole passages4 ,the originality of ,baalshem's teaching has been frequently impugned1 chiefly by the suggestion that he drew largely from the ,zohar 7,book of ,brightness747#ad7 ,this mystical book1 8the ,bible of the ,cabbalists10 whether we regard its subjectmatter or its history and influence1 is unique in literature4 ,its pretended author is ,simeon ben ,yochai1 a great ,rabbi of the second century1 but the real writer is probably one ,moses de ,leon1 a ,spanish ,jew1 who lived eleven centuries later4 ,the book is one of the most interesting literary forgeries1 and is a marvellous mixture of good and evil4 ,a passage of delicate religious fancy is succeeded by another of gross obscenity in illustration and suggestion2 true piety and wild blasphemy are strangely mingled together4 ,baalshem undoubtedly had studied the ,zohar1 and he even is reported to have said that the reading of the ,zohar had enabled him to see into the whole universe of things4 ,but1 for all that1 ,baalshem was no copyist2 and the ,zohar1 although it may have suggested a hint to him here and there1 was not the source whence his inspiration was drawn4 ,its attraction for ,baalshem is sufficiently explained by the fantastic1 imaginative1 and emotional nature of its contents4 ,it lent itself more easily than the older ,rabbinical literature to new explanations unthought of by its author4 ,but even the ,talmud and its early commentaries became apocalyptic to the heroes of ,chassidism4 ,nay1 the driest and most legal disquisitions about meum and tuum could be translated into parables and allegories and symbols full of the most exalted meanings4 ,baalshem1 like every other religious reformer1 was partially the product of his age4 ,the influences of the past1 the history and literature of his own people1 helped to make him what he was4 ,but they do not rob him of his originality4 ,he was a religious revivalist in the best sense2 full of burning faith in his ,god and his cause2 convinced utterly of the value of his work and the truth of his teaching4 ,although there can be no real doubt of ,baalshem's claim to originality1 it should be borne in mind that his teaching is not only distinctively ,jewish1 but that for every part of it parallels and analogies could be found in the older ,hebrew literature4 ,indeed it is not wonderful that in a literature1 extending over #bjjj years1 of a people whose chief thoughts have been religion1 and who have come in contact with so many external religious and philosophic influences1 the germs can be discovered of almost every conceivable system1 and the outline of almost every imaginable doctrine4 ,the keynote of all ,baalshem's teachings is the ,omnipresence1 or more strictly the ,immanence1 of ,god4 ,this is the source from which flows naturally every article of his creed2 the universality of the ,divinity is the foundation of the entire ,chassidic fabric4 ,the idea of the constant living presence of ,god in all existence permeates the whole of ,baalshem's scheme2 it is insisted on in every relation2 from it is deduced every important proposition and every rule in conduct of his school4 ,all created things and every product of human intelligence owe their being to ,god4 ,all generation and all existence spring from the thought and will of ,god4 ,it is incumbent upon man to believe that all things are pervaded by the divine life1 and when he speaks he should remember that it is this divine life which is speaking through him4 ,there is nothing which is void of ,god4 ,if we imagine for a moment such a thing to be1 it would instantly fall into nothingness4 ,in every human thought ,god is present4 ,if the thought be gross or evil1 we should seek to raise and ennoble it by carrying it back to its origin4 ,so1 if a man be suddenly overwhelmed by the aspect of a beautiful woman1 he should remember that this splendour of beauty is owing to the allpervading emanation from the divine4 ,when he remembers that the source of corporeal beauty is ,god1 he will not be content to let his thought abide with the body when he can rise to the inward contemplation of the infinite soul of beauty1 which is ,god4 ,a disciple of ,baalshem has said3 ,even as in the jewels of his beloved the lover sees only the beauty of her he loves1 so does the true lover of ,god see in all the appearances of this world1 the vitalising and generative power of his divine master4 ,if you do not see the world in the light of ,god you separate the creation from its ,creator4 ,he who does not fully believe in this universality of ,god's presence has never properly acknowledged ,god's ,sovereignty1 for he excludes ,god from an existing portion of the actual world4 ,the word of ,god 7to ,baalshem1 a synonym for ,god himself71 which 8is settled in heaven0 and 8established on earth10 is still and always speaking1 acting1 and generating throughout heaven and earth in endless gradations and varieties4 ,if the vitalising word were to cease1 chaos would come again4 ,the belief in a single creation after which the ,master withdrew from his completed work1 is erroneous and heretical4 ,the vivifying power is never withdrawn from the world which it animates4 ,creation is continuous2 an unending manifestation of the goodness of ,god4 ,all things are an affluence from the two divine attributes of ,power and ,love1 which express themselves in various images and reflections4 ,this is the doctrine of universality in ,chassidism4 ,god1 the father of ,israel1 ,god the ,merciful1 ,god the ,allpowerful1 the ,god of ,love1 not only created everything but is embodied in everything4 ,the necessity of believing this doctrine is the cardinal ,dogma4 ,but as creation is continuous so also is revelation4 ,this revelation is only to be grasped by faith4 ,faith1 therefore1 is more efficacious than learning4 ,thus it is that in times of persecution1 the wise and the foolish1 the sinner and the saint1 are wont alike to give up their life for their faith4 ,they who could render no answer to the questions of the casuist are yet willing to die the most cruel of deaths rather than deny their faith in the ,one and ,supreme ,god4 ,their strength to face danger and death is owing to that divine illumination of the soul which is more exalted than knowledge4 ,we should thus regard all things in the light of so many manifestations of the ,divinity4 ,god is present in all things2 therefore there is good1 actual or potential1 in all things4 ,it is our duty everywhere to seek out and to honour the good1 and not to arrogate to ourselves the right to judge that which may seem to be evil4 ,in thinking therefore of a fellow man1 we should above all things realise in him the presence of the spirit of good4 ,whence we have the ,doctrine that each of us1 while thinking humbly of himself1 should always be ready to think well1 and always slow to think evil1 of another4 ,this explains the ,chassidic attitude towards erring humanity4 ,baalshem viewed human sin and infirmity in a very different light from that of the ordinary ,rabbi4 ,ever conscious of the ,divine side of ,humanity1 he vigorously combated the gratuitous assumption of sinfulness in man which was a fertile subject with contemporary preachers4 ,they1 among the ,roumanian ,jews as in other communities1 delighted chiefly to dwell on the dark side of things1 and found their favourite theme in elaborate descriptions of the infernal punishments that were awaiting the sinner after death4 ,it is related how on one occasion ,baalshem rebuked one of these4 ,the preacher had been denouncing woe to an audience of whom he knew nothing whether for evil or for good4 ,baalshem1 indignant at this indiscriminative abuse and conceited arrogation of the divine office of judgment1 turned on him in the following words3 8,woe upon thee who darest to speak evil of ,israel6 ,dost not know that every ,jew1 when he utters ever so short a prayer at the close of day1 is performing a great work before which the angels in heaven bow down80 ,great1 as it would seem1 was the value set by ,baalshem upon the smallest evidence of the higher nature in man1 and few there were1 as he believed1 who1 if their spirit was not darkened by pride1 did not now and again give proof of the divine stamp in which ,god had created them4 ,no sin so separates us from ,god that we need despair of return4 ,from every rung of the moral ladder1 no matter how low1 let man seek ,god4 ,if he but fully believe that nothing is void of ,god1 and that ,god is concealed in the midst of apparent ruin and degradation1 he will not fear lest ,god be far from him4 ,god is regained in a moment of repentance1 for repentance 8transcends the limits of space and time40 ,and he who leads the sinner to repentance causes a divine joy2 it is as though a king's son had been in captivity and were now brought back to his father's gaze4 ,baalshem refused to regard any one as wholly irredeemable4 ,his was an optimistic faith4 ,god was to be praised in gladness by the dwellers in this glorious world4 ,the true believer1 recognising the reflection of ,god in every man1 should hopefully strive1 when that reflection was obscured by sin1 to restore the likeness of ,god in man4 ,the peculiar detestability of sin lies in this1 that man rejects the earthly manifestations of the ,divinity and pollutes them4 ,one of ,baalshem's disciples delighted in the saying that the most hardened sinners were not to be despaired of1 but prayed for4 ,none knows the heart of man1 and none should judge his neighbour4 ,let him who burns with zeal for ,god's sake1 exercise his zeal on himself1 not others4 ,baalshem said1 8,let no one think himself better than his neighbour1 for all serve ,god2 each according to the measure of understanding which ,god has given him40 ,from this position it is a natural step to ,baalshem's view of prayer4 ,he is reputed to have said that all the greatness he had achieved was the issue not of study but of prayer4 ,but true prayer 8must move10 as ,baalshem phrased it1 8in the realms above10 and not be concerned with affairs sublunary4 ,your prayer should not be taken up with your wishes and needs1 but should be the means to bring you nigh to ,god4 ,in prayer man must lay aside his own individuality1 and not even be conscious of his existence2 for if1 when he prays1 ,self is not absolutely quiescent1 the object of prayer is unattainable4 ,indeed it is only through ,god's grace that after true prayer man is yet alive2 to such a point has the annihilation of self proceeded4 ,it may be necessary to caution the reader against ascribing to ,baalshem any modern rationalistic notions on the subject of prayer4 ,the power of prayer1 in the oldfashioned sense1 to produce an answer from ,god was never doubted by ,baalshem for a moment4 ,baalshem's deity is not restricted towards any side by any philosophic considerations4 ,all ,baalshem meant was that any reference or regard to earthly requirements was unworthy and destructive of this communion of man with ,god4 ,the wise man1 says ,baalshem1 does not trouble the king with innumerable petitions about trifles4 ,his desire is merely to gain admission into the king's presence and to speak with him without a gobetween4 ,to be with the king whom he loves so dearly is for him the highest good4 ,but his love for the king has its reward2 for the king loves him4 ,it has already been implied that1 with regard to our duty towards our fellowman1 we must not only honour him for the good1 and abstain from judging the evil that may be in him1 but must pray for him4 ,furthermore we must work for his spiritual and moral reclamation4 ,in giving practical effect in his own life to this doctrine1 ,baalshem's conduct was in striking contrast to that of his contemporaries4 ,he habitually consorted with outcasts and sinners1 with the poor and uneducated of both sexes1 whom the other teachers ignored4 ,he thus won for his doctrines a way to the heart of the people by adapting his life and language to their understanding and sympathies4 ,in illustration of this1 as well as of his hatred of vanity and display1 it is told how1 on the occasion of his being accorded a public reception by the ,jews on his arrival at ,brody1 instead of addressing to them in the conventional fashion some subtle discourse upon a ,talmudical difficulty1 he contented himself with conversing upon trivial topics in the local dialect with some of the less important persons in the crowd4 ,this incident is perhaps the more noteworthy because it occurred in ,brody1 which was at that time a seat of learning and ,rabbinic culture1--a place where1 for that very reason1 ,chassidism was never able to gain a foothold4 ,it is probable enough that ,baalshem in his visits to this town kept aloof from the learned and the wise1 and sought to gather round him the neglected and humbler elements of ,jewish society4 ,it is well known that ,baalshem consorted a good deal with the innkeepers of the district1 who were held in very low repute among their brethren4 ,the following remark by one of his followers is very suggestive in this respect4 ,just as only superficial minds attach a certain holiness to special places1 whilst with the deeper ones all places are alike holy1 so that to them it makes no difference whether prayers be said in the synagogue or in the forest2 so the latter believe that not only prophecies and visions come from heaven1 but that every utterance of man1 if properly understood1 contains a message of ,god4 ,those who are absorbed in ,god will easily find the divine element in everything which they hear1 even though the speaker himself be quite ignorant of it4 ,this line of conduct gave a fair opening for attack to his opponents1 an opportunity of which they were not slow to avail themselves4 ,baalshem was pointed at as the associate of the lowest classes4 ,they avenged themselves for his neglect of and hostility to the learned by imputing the worst motives to his indifference to appearances4 ,he was accused of idling about the streets with disreputable characters1 and one polemical treatise draws the vilest inferences from his apparent familiarity with women4 ,to this charge ,baalshem's conduct1 innocent in itself1 gave some colour2 for his views and habits in relation to women marked a strong divergence from current customs4 ,the position of women in contemporary circles was neither debased nor inevitably unhappy1 but it was distinctly subordinate4 ,their education was almost entirely neglected1 and their very existence was practically ignored4 ,according to the ,chassidic doctrine of ,universality1 woman was necessarily to be honoured4 8,all ,jews10 says one ,chassid1 8even the uneducated and the women1 believe in ,god40 ,baalshem frequently associated with women1 assigning to them not only social equality1 but a high degree of religious importance4 ,his own wife he reverenced as a saint2 when she died he abandoned the hope of rising to heaven while yet alive1 like ,elijah of old1 saying mournfully that undivided such translation might have happened1 but for him alone it was impossible4 ,then again in a form of religion utilising so largely the emotions of ,faith and ,love there was a strong appeal to the female mind4 ,the effect of this was soon evident1 and ,baalshem did not neglect to profit by it4 ,among the most devoted of his early adherents were women4 ,one of them was the heroine of a favourite anecdote concerning ,baalshem's work of ,love and ,rescue4 ,it is related that in a certain village there dwelt a woman whose life was so disgraceful that her brothers at last determined to kill her4 ,with this object they enticed her into a neighbouring wood1 but guided by the ,holy ,spirit ,baalshem intervened at the critical moment1 and dissuading the men from their purpose rescued the sinner4 ,the woman afterwards became a sort of ,magdalen in the new community4 ,above ,i have endeavoured to throw together in some order of sequence the doctrines and practical rules of conduct which ,baalshem and his early disciples seem to have deduced from their central idea of the omnipresence of ,god4 ,this was necessary in order to give a connected idea of their creed1 but it is right to say that nowhere in ,chassidic literature have these deductions been logically coordinated4 ,perhaps their solitary attempt to formulate and condense their distinctive views is confined to a statement of their idea of piety or service of ,god1 and an examination of three cardinal virtues1 ,humility1 ,cheerfulness1 and ,enthusiasm4 ,what the ,chassidim held as to true service brings into relief ,baalshem's characteristic manner of regarding the ,law4 ,by the service of ,god was generally understood a life which fulfilled the precepts of the written and oral law4 ,baalshem understood by it a certain attitude towards life as a whole4 ,for1 as ,god is realised in life1 each activity of life when rightly conceived and executed is at once a manifestation and a service of the ,divine4 ,all things have been created for the glory and service of ,god4 ,the smallest worm serves ,him with all its power4 ,thus1 while eating1 drinking1 sleeping1 and the other ordinary functions of the body are regarded by the old ,jewish moralists as mere means to an end1 to ,baalshem they are already a service of ,god in themselves4 ,all pleasures are manifestations of ,god's attribute of love2 and1 so regarded1 they are at once spiritualised and ennobled4 ,man should seek to reach a higher level of purity and holiness before partaking of food and drink1 than even before the study of the ,law4 ,for when the ,torah had once been given by ,god the whole world became instinct with its grace4 ,he who speaks of worldly matters and religious matters as if they were separate and distinct1 is a heretic4 ,upon the continual and uninterrupted study of the ,law1 ,baalshem lays but little stress4 ,he accepted the ordinary belief that the ,law 7under which term are included not only the ,pentateuch1 but the whole ,old ,testament and the major portion of the old ,rabbinic literature7 was a revelation of ,god4 ,but1 as the world itself is equally a divine revelation1 the ,torah becomes little more than a part of a larger whole4 ,to understand it aright one needs to penetrate to the inward reality--to the infinite light which is revealed in it4 ,we should study the ,law not as we study a science for the sake of acquiring knowledge 7he who studies it so has in truth been concerning himself with its mere outward form71 but we should learn from it the true service of ,god4 ,thus the study of the law is no end in itself4 ,it is studied because1 as the word of ,god1 ,god is more easily discerned and absorbed in this revelation of ,him than in any other4 ,the ,torah is eternal1 but its explanation is to be made by the spiritual leaders of ,judaism4 ,it is to be interpreted by them in accordance with the ,attribute of the age4 ,for he regarded the world as governed in every age by a different ,attribute of ,god--one age by the ,attribute of ,love1 another by that of ,power1 a third again1 by ,beauty1 and so on--and the explanation of the ,torah must be brought into agreement with it4 ,the object of the whole ,torah is that man should become a ,torah himself4 ,every man being a ,torah in himself1 said a disciple of ,baalshem1 has got not only his ,abraham and ,moses1 but also his ,balaam and ,haman3 he should try to expel the ,balaam and develop the ,abraham within him4 ,every action of man should be a pure manifestation of ,god4 ,the reason why we should do what the ,law commands is not to gain grace thereby in the eyes of ,god1 but to learn how to love ,god and to be united to ,him4 ,the important thing is not how many separate injunctions are obeyed1 but how and in what spirit we obey them4 ,the object of fulfilling these various ordinances is to put oneself1 as it were1 on the same plane with ,god1 and thus1 in the ordinary phrase of the religious mystic1 to become one with ,him1 or to be absorbed in ,him4 ,people should get to know1 says ,baalshem1 what the unity of ,god really means4 ,to attain a part of this indivisible unity is to attain the whole4 ,the ,torah and all its ordinances are from ,god4 ,if ,i therefore fulfil but one commandment in and through the love of ,god1 it is as though ,i have fulfilled them all4 ,i have now briefly to refer to the three virtues to which the ,chassidim assigned the highest place of honour4 ,of these the first is called in ,hebrew 8,shiphluth107#ae7 and is best rendered by our word 8,humility10 but in ,chassidic usage it includes the ideas of modesty1 considerateness1 and sympathy4 ,the prominence given to these qualities is in sharp contrast to the faults of conceit1 vanity1 and selfsatisfaction1 against which ,baalshem was never weary of protesting4 ,he regarded these as the most seductive of all forms of sin4 ,but a few minutes before his death he was heard to murmur1 8,o vanity1 vanity6 even in this hour of death thou darest to approach me with thy temptations3 #8,bethink thee1 ,israel1 what a grand funeral procession will be thine because thou hast been so wise and good4' ,o vanity1 vanity6 beshrew thee40 8,it should be indifferent to man10 says the master1 8whether he be praised or blamed1 loved or hated1 reputed to be the wisest of mankind or the greatest of fools4 ,the test of the real service of ,god is that it leaves behind it the feeling of humility4 ,if a man after prayer be conscious of the least pride or selfsatisfaction1 if he think1 for instance1 that he has earned a reward by the ardour of his spiritual exercises1 then let him know that he has prayed not to ,god but to himself4 ,and what is this but disguised idolatry8 ,before you can find ,god you must lose yourself40 ,the ,chassidim treated ,shiphluth from two sides3 a negative side in thinking humbly of oneself1 a positive in thinking highly of one's neighbour1 in other words the love for our fellowman4 ,he who loves the father will also love his children4 ,the true lover of ,god is also a lover of man4 ,it is ignorance of one's own errors that makes one ready to see the errors of others4 8,there is no sphere in heaven where the soul remains a shorter time than in the sphere of merit1 there is none where it abides longer than in the sphere of ,love40 ,the second ,cardinal ,virtue is 8,cheerfulness10 in ,hebrew 8,simchah407#af7 ,baalshem insisted on cheerfulness of heart as a necessary attitude for the due service of ,god4 ,once believe that you are really the servant and the child of ,god and how can you fall again into a gloomy condition of mind8 ,nor should the inevitable sins which we all must commit disturb our glad serenity of soul4 ,for is not repentance ready at hand by which we may climb back to ,god8 ,every penitent thought is a voice of ,god4 ,man should detect that voice in all the evidence of his senses1 in every sight and sound of external nature4 ,it is through his want of faith in the universality of ,god's presence that he is deaf to these subtle influences and can read only the lessons which are inscribed in books4 ,the reader will be prepared to learn that ,baalshem1 taking this cheerful view of things1 was opposed to every kind of asceticism4 ,judaism1 or rather ,israelitism1 it is true1 was not originally much of an ascetic religion4 ,but there can be little doubt that in the course of history there came in many ascetic doctrines and practices1 quite enough at least to encourage such tender souls the bent of whose minds lay in this direction4 ,to one of these1 a former disciple1 ,baalshem wrote3 8,i hear that you think yourself compelled from religious motives to enter upon a course of fasts and penances4 ,my soul is outraged at your determination4 ,by the counsel of ,god ,i order you to abandon such dangerous practices1 which are but the outcome of a disordered brain4 ,is it not written #8,thou shalt not hide thyself from thine own flesh8' ,fast then no more than is prescribed4 ,follow my command and ,god shall be with you40 ,on another occasion ,baalshem was heard to observe that it is a machination of ,satan to drive us into a condition of gloom and despondency in which the smallest error is regarded as a deadly sin4 ,satan's object is to keep us away from the true service of ,god1 and ,god can only be truly served from a happy and confident disposition4 ,anxious scrupulosity in details is therefore to be avoided4 ,it is the counsel of the ,devil to persuade us that we never have done and shall never do our duty fully1 and that moral progress is impossible4 ,such ideas beget melancholy and despair1 which are of evil4 ,the third virtue is called in the ,hebrew ,chassidic literature 8,hithlahabuth107#ag7 and is derived from a verb meaning 8to kindle0 or 8set on fire40 ,the substantive 8,hithlahabuth10 so far as ,i am aware1 was first coined by ,baalshem's followers4 ,it is best rendered by our word 8,enthusiasm40 ,every religious action1 to be of any avail1 must be done with enthusiasm4 ,a mere mechanical and lifeless performance of an ordinance is valueless4 ,a man is no step nearer the goal if he thinks1 forsooth1 that he has done his duty when he has gone through the whole round of laws in every section of the code4 ,this essential enthusiasm is only begotten of ,love4 ,the service of fear1 if not wholly useless1 is yet necessarily accompanied by a certain repulsion and heaviness1 which effectually prevent the rush and ardour of enthusiasm4 ,the inspiration of true service is its own end4 ,there is no thought of this world1 and there is none of the world to come4 ,in the ,talmud there is frequent reference to one ,rabbi ,elisha ben ,abuyah1 an apostate from ,judaism1 who1 when urged to repent1 replied that repentance was useless1 and that for this mournful belief he had direct divine authority4 ,for he had been told by a voice from heaven that even though he repented he would be excluded from sharing the happiness of the world to come4 ,of him it was said by one of the ,chassidim1 8,this man indeed missed a golden opportunity4 ,how purely could he have served ,god1 knowing that for his service there could never be a reward60 ,from the conception of ,enthusiasm springs the quality of mobility1 suggesting spiritual progress1 and commonly opposed by ,baalshem and his followers to the dull religious stagnation of selfsatisfied contemporaries4 ,man should not imagine himself to have attained the level of the righteous2 let him rather regard himself as a penitent who should make progress every day4 ,always to remain on the same religious plane1 merely repeating today the religious routine of yesterday1 is not true service4 ,there must be a daily advance in the knowledge and love of the ,divine ,master4 ,mere freedom from active sin is not sufficient2 such negative virtue may be but another word for the chance absence of temptation4 ,what boots it never to have committed a sin if sin lies concealed in the heart8 ,it is only the uninterrupted communion with ,god which will raise and ennoble your thoughts and designs1 and cause the roots of sin to die4 ,the patriarch ,abraham1 without any command from ,god1 fulfilled the whole ,torah1 because he perceived that the ,law was the life of all created things4 ,in the ,messianic age the law will no longer seem to man as something ordained for him from without2 but the law will be within the hearts of men2 it will seem natural and selfevident to them1 because they will realise that ,god and life are manifested through the law4 ,baalshem1 who dealt largely in parable1 has left the following1 which we may fitly add to our somewhat inadequate presentation of his doctrine4 ,there was once a king who built himself a glorious palace4 ,by means of magical illusion it seemed as if the palace were full of devious corridors and mazes1 preventing the approach to the royal presence4 ,but as there was much gold and silver heaped up in the entrance halls1 most people were content to go no further1 but take their fill of treasure4 ,the king himself they did not notice4 ,at last the king's intimate had compassion upon them and exclaimed to them1 8,all these walls and mazes which you see before you do not in truth exist at all4 ,they are mere illusions4 ,push forward bravely1 and you shall find no obstacle40 ,we must not interpret the parable to mean that ,baalshem denied the reality or even the importance of the actual phenomenal world4 ,the very contrary is the truth4 ,the world is for him full of ,god1 penetrated through and through by the divine1 and therefore as real as ,god himself4 ,it was quite in ,baalshem's manner when one of his disciples declared that only fools could speak of the world as vanity or emptiness4 8,it is in truth a glorious world4 ,we must only learn how rightly to make use of it4 ,call nothing common or profane3 by ,god's presence all things are holy40 ,above we have reviewed the essential doctrines of ,baalshem and his immediate followers2 we have now to see how they fared at the hands of the sect which he founded4 ,this is a sad part of our task1 for the subsequent history of ,chassidism is almost entirely a record of decay4 ,as formulated by its founder the new creed amounted to a genuine ,reformation1 pure and lofty in ideal4 ,after his death unhappily it was rapidly corrupted and perverted4 ,this was due almost exclusively to the dangerous and exaggerated development of a single point in his teaching4 ,that point1 the honour due to the divine in man1 was relatively a minor article in the original creed4 ,but the later ,chassidism has given it a distorted and almost exclusive importance wholly out of proportion to the grander and more essential features of ,baalshem's teaching1 until the distinctive feature of the ,chassidism of today is an almost idolatrous service of their living leaders4 ,what little there is to say of the history of the sect after ,baalshem's death would be unintelligible without some explanation of the origin and growth of this unfortunate perversion4 ,it has been explained that ,baalshem laid but little stress upon the study of the ,law or the observance of its precepts in themselves1 but regarded them only as means to an end4 ,the end is union with ,god4 ,man has to discover the presence of ,god in the ,divine word and will4 ,now this mystical service of ,god1 although perhaps sufficing to sensitive and enthusiastic natures1 is scarcely plain or definite enough for ordinary men4 ,few can realise abstractions3 and yet fewer can delight in them and find in their contemplation sufficient nurture for their religious needs4 ,what then had ,chassidism to offer to the ordinary majority who could not recognise ,god in all the plenitude of ,his disguise8 ,the want of something tangible whereon to fix the minds of the people1 which has confronted the teachers of so many creeds1 was also encountered by the ,chassidim1 and they unfortunately found their way out of the difficulty by relying on and developing their doctrine of man's position in the ,universe4 ,man's ideal is to be a law himself2 himself a clear and full manifestation of ,god4 ,now1 not only is he ,god's servant and child1 but in highest development he becomes himself a part of ,god1 albeit in human shape1 so that he may become wholly one with his divine ,father4 ,but if man may reach this highest level of holiness1 he is virtually a kind of ,godman1 whom his fellowmen of lower levels perceive by reason of his manhood1 but his essential office consists in raising them up to ,god by reason of his ,divinity4 ,the few chosen spirits who through the successful persistency with which they have sought ,god in all things have become1 though yet on earth1 absorbed in ,him1 are known in ,chassidic literature by the name of the 8,zaddikim40 ,the ,hebrew word ,zaddik7#ah7 means 8just0 or 8righteous10 and the term was probably chosen in conscious opposition to the title of ,rabbinic heroes1 8disciples of the wise40 ,for the ,zaddik is not so much the product of learning as of intuition3 his final consummation is reached by a sudden and direct illumination from ,god4 ,the ,zaddik not only resembles ,moses1 but1 in virtue of his long communion with the ,divine1 he is also the true child of ,god4 ,he is1 moreover1 a vivifying power in creation1 for he is the connecting bond between ,god and his creatures4 ,he is the source of blessing and the fount of grace4 ,man must therefore learn to love the ,zaddik1 so that through the ,zaddik he may win ,god's grace4 ,he who does not believe in the ,zaddik is an apostate from ,god4 ,here then we have the fatal exaggeration to which ,i have alluded1 and here its logical consequence4 ,the step to manworship is short4 ,this peculiar doctrine of the ,intermediary soon became the distinguishing feature of ,chassidism4 ,by a ,chassid was understood not a man who held such and such opinions in theology and religion1 but a believer in the ,zaddik1 and one who sought to attain salvation through the worship of the ,zaddik4 ,every other doctrine of ,chassidism was rapidly pushed into the background and overlooked4 ,even the grand and fundamental doctrine of ,omnipresence in the ,creation was veiled by the special presence in the ,zaddik4 ,chassidism became mere ,zaddikism1 and its subsequent history is identical with the downward development of that cult4 ,whether ,baalshem named his successor is doubtful4 ,but the lead after his death was assumed by his disciple ,beer of ,mizriez4 ,this man's conversion to ,chassidism was an important event for the new community2 his piety and learning were beyond dispute1 and1 whereas during ,baalshem's life ,chassidism had found its chief adherents among the lower classes of society1 ,beer managed to gather round him many of the most learned among his contemporaries4 ,it was to these new and ardent disciples of ,beer that the expansion of ,chassidism was chiefly due4 ,they came together from many quarters1 and after ,beer's death separated and preached the new doctrine far and wide4 ,many even went forth during the lifetime of their master1 and at his command1 to found fresh branches of the new sect4 ,like ,beer himself1 they directed their efforts mainly to winning over the educated sections of the ,jews4 ,the elder men paid little heed to their word1 but the youths1 just fresh from their casuistic studies1 which had sharpened their wits and starved their souls1 lent a ready ear and an eager heart to the new doctrine4 ,the uneducated were by no means excluded2 to them ,chassidism held out a deeper consolation and a grander hope than the current ,rabbinism of the age2 they therefore joined the young community in large numbers without any special effort being necessary to gain them over4 ,in their methods of ,prayer the ,chassidim most conspicuously differed from the older communities4 ,laying as they did supreme stress on the importance and efficacy of prayer1 they soon found it necessary to secede from the existing synagogues and erect separate buildings for themselves4 ,the usual salaried ,reader 8with the beautiful voice and empty head10 who naturally regarded his function as a matter of business1 was done away with and his place taken either by the ,zaddik himself or by some other distinguished person in the community4 ,the ,chassidim also effected many changes in the liturgy4 ,instead of the ,german they adopted the ,spanish ritual4 ,they excised many prayers which1 lacking the authority of antiquity1 were cumbrous in form or objectionable in matter4 ,they inserted new prayers and hymns of their own4 ,they paid little regard to the prescribed hours at which public worship should be held4 ,prayer began when they had got themselves into the proper devotional frame of mind4 ,frequent ablutions1 perusal of mystical writings1 introspective meditation were the means by which they sought to gain the befitting mood4 ,the prayers themselves were accompanied by the usual phenomena of religious excitement4 ,some in the zeal of their devotion began to dance2 others were rapt in a motionless ecstasy2 some prayed aloud2 others in solemn silence4 ,they justified their abrogation of fixed hours for prayer by saying that you cannot order a child when to speak with its father3 such restraint were fit only for slaves4 ,as a rule the larger number of the younger ,chassidim were able to devote their whole time to religious exercises4 ,it was the custom among the ,jews in ,eastern ,europe for the young men to live at the expense of their own or their wives' parents1 in order that they might give themselves up entirely to religious study4 ,according to the old notions1 this meant the study of the ,talmud and its ,commentaries2 the ,chassidim who cared little for the legal side of ,jewish literature betook themselves to the literature of edification and mysticism4 ,no small part of their time was taken up with endless conversations about the ,zaddik1 his piety1 goodness1 and self sacrifice and the wonderful miracles which he had wrought4 ,if a ,zaddik was living in his own town1 the youthful ,chassid spent as many hours as he could in the ,zaddik's company1 in order to observe and study this embodied ,torah as constantly as possible4 ,where no ,zaddik was at hand1 periodical pilgrimages were made to the town in which he lived1 and endless were the tales which were afterwards repeated1 to those who were obliged to stay at home1 of the ,zaddik's marvellous wisdom and extraordinary deeds4 ,the last hours of the ,sabbath day were looked upon as a special season of grace1 and the ,chassidim were therefore in the habit of collecting together in the waning of the ,sabbath and celebrating the socalled 8,supper of the ,holy ,queen40 ,the meal was accompanied by the usual conversations as well as by hymns and prayers4 ,the ,chassidim were second to no other sect in their loyalty and affection for each other4 ,no sacrifice for a brother ,chassid was too great4 ,they knew no difference of rich and poor1 old and young1 wise and ignorant2 for they all1 with one accord1 worshipped one common ideal1 the ,zaddik1 who in his exalted position was equally raised above them all4 ,before him all minor differences of rank disappeared4 ,when a ,chassid travelled1 he had no scruple in asking for lodging or entertainment in the house of any ,chassid who could afford to give them4 ,if he was in money difficulties the purse of his host was at his disposal4 ,if that was not sufficient1 it was supplemented by a grant from the fund of the community4 ,these gifts were not looked upon in the light of charity either by giver or receiver2 they were made to the ,zaddik1 to whom all ,chassidim alike were debtors4 ,it sometimes even happened that a ,zaddik said that the son of some rich merchant was to marry the daughter of a poor schoolmaster1 and both parties were equally delighted to fulfil the wish of their beloved chief4 ,it may easily be imagined that the innovations of the ,chassidim provoked the wrath of the orthodox communities4 ,but in their detestation of the ,rabbis the ,chassidim returned in full measure all the hatred they received4 ,the ,zaddik is the ,moses of his age3 the ,rabbis its ,korah and ,abiram4 ,where the ,chassidic party in any community gained the upper hand1 the ,rabbi was deposed and a ,zaddik1 if that was possible1 elected in his place4 ,the issue of these bitter attacks upon the old nobility of the ,jewish race was a rigorous persecution4 ,in many places the ,chassidim were excommunicated1 in others their leaders were publicly scourged and put into the stocks4 ,their books were burnt and their synagogues forcibly closed4 ,but persecution produced only the usual result of increasing the popularity and the numbers of the sect4 ,the devotion of the ,chassidim to each other and to their common cause was increased a hundredfold by suffering4 ,in one case a distinguished ,zaddik was accused of treason1 before the ,russian authorities1 and was thrown into prison4 ,in ,russia1 however1 the power of money is considerable1 and on payment of a large ransom not only was the beloved ,zaddik released but as an obvious consequence his reputation greatly profited3 the day of his release was celebrated as a yearly festival1 while his sufferings were regarded by his followers as a sinoffering that atoned for the iniquities of his age4 ,from this time the government maintained a purely neutral attitude towards the new sect1 and ere long the persecution by the orthodox ceased4 ,the cessation of persecution may possibly be accounted for by the fact that ,chassidism as a secession soon ceased to be formidable4 ,there were early divisions within the sect4 ,even ,beer's disciples began to quarrel over theological differences and to found separate communities4 ,when once the course of corruption and spiritual decay had begun1 it was the interest of the false ,zaddikim to accentuate these differences4 ,each ,zaddik sought to have a whole little sect to himself1 from which to draw an undivided revenue4 ,and each deluded little sect as it arose boasted of the exclusive possession of the true ,zaddik4 ,it must not be supposed that these strictures apply to the whole class of ,zaddikim4 ,the greater number of ,baalshem's leading disciples as well as ,beer's were beyond question men of pure1 unalloyed piety1 who would have rejected with scorn any idea of making a trade of their sacred profession4 ,their motives and their zeal were alike ideal4 ,many gave up highly paid posts as ,rabbis when they joined the new sect4 ,some emigrated to ,palestine to lead a holy life on holy ground1 others sought to become religious specialists1 following out practically1 although with some exaggeration1 a favourite doctrine of the ,founder1 that he who observes but one commandment devotedly and lovingly1 may reach the goal desired3 the union with ,god4 ,thus one ,zaddik made it his business never to tell the smallest falsehood1 whatever the cost or the inconvenience of truth might be4 ,it is related that the ,russian ,government1 suspecting the ,jews of his town of smuggling1 consented to withdraw the charge if he declared his brethren innocent4 ,having no alternative but either to bring misfortune on his brethren or to tell an untruth1 he prayed to ,god to save him from this dilemma by sending death upon him4 ,and lo6 when the officials came to fetch him before the law court they found him dead4 ,another1 thinking that the commandment in ,exodus xxiii4 #c1 relating to the help that should be given to a neighbour or enemy when 8his ass is lying under its burden10 was practically unobserved1 devoted himself to its fulfilment4 ,he was continually to be seen in the streets1 helping one man to load his waggon1 and another to drag his cart out of the mire4 ,a third made the service of the oppressed his religious specialty4 ,it is said that one day his wife1 having had a quarrel with her maid1 was setting out to the magistrate of the town to obtain satisfaction4 ,noticing that her husband was about to accompany her1 she asked him whither he was bound4 ,he replied1 8to the magistrate40 ,his wife declared that it was below his dignity to take any part in a quarrel with a servant4 ,she could deal with the matter herself4 ,the ,zaddik replied1 8,that may be1 but ,i intend to represent your maid1 who when accused by my wife will find no one willing to take her part40 ,and then1 bursting into a passion of tears1 he quoted ,job xxxi4 #ac3 8,if ,i did despise the cause of my manservant or of my maidservant1 when they contended with me1 what shall ,i do when ,god riseth up80 ,several ,zaddikim were learned men and thinkers of no ordinary kind4 ,the works of ,solomon ,ladier or of ,mendel ,witipsker1 read with attention and without ,western preconceptions1 certainly give the impression of both originality and depth of thought4 ,but most characteristic of all is the passionate yearning of authors such as these towards the ,divine4 ,the reader is astonished and moved by the intense sincerity and ardour of their longing after ,god4 ,but1 despite the adherence of these worthy men1 the fate of ,chassidism1 as a regenerative force1 was sealed from the day when ,zaddikism replaced the original doctrines of the sect4 ,for1 apart from the obvious theological considerations already suggested1 there are two points of inherent weakness in the cult of the ,zaddik which naturally doomed it to perversion and failure4 ,the necessary qualifications for 8,zaddikship0 are wholly undefined4 ,we hear a great deal about what a ,zaddik actually is1 but we hear very little about what he should be4 ,the ,zaddik has many virtues1 but we are nowhere told what are his indispensable qualifications4 ,moreover1 the ,zaddik is a being who can be comprehended by the understanding as little as an angel1 or as ,god ,himself4 ,he is realised by faith1 not conceived by thought4 ,hence there is no human test of a true ,zaddik except the test of miracles2 and every student of religious history knows the deceitful character of that test4 ,the second source of danger arose from the ,chassidim holding it to be their sacred duty to provide for the ,zaddik a life of comfort and ease4 ,the ,zaddik must pursue his divine avocations undisturbed by grosser cares4 ,but what were the consequences8 ,the ,chassidim believed they could win the grace and blessing of the ,zaddik by the richness and variety of their gifts4 ,a ,zaddik's career became a very profitable concern4 ,the result of both defects was that not only was the opportunity given for every scheming charlatan to become a ,zaddik1 but inducements were offered to make the deception lucrative4 ,hence the anxiety of the false ,zaddikim1 already noticed1 to found separate communities4 ,among the ,chassidim of today there is not one in ten thousand who has the faintest conception of those sublime ideas which inspired ,baalshem and his immediate disciples4 ,it is still the interest of the wretched ringleaders of a widely spread delusion to crush and keep down every trace of reflection and thought so that they may play at will with the conscience and purses of their adherents4 ,the new scientific movement1 inaugurated by such men as ,krochmal1 ,zunz1 and others who came under the influence of the ,german critical spirit1 found in them its hottest and most fanatical opponents4 ,that the cult of the ,zaddikim has not led to still more disastrous consequences is solely due to the fact that the ,chassidim in general have remained faithful to the ,law4 ,it is the ,law1 against the excessive study of which the original ,chassidim protested1 that has put limits to the license of its modern false prophets4 ,amid much that is bad1 the ,chassidim have preserved through the whole movement a warm heart1 and an ardent1 sincere faith4 ,there is a certain openness of character and a ready friendliness about even the modern ,chassidim which are very attractive4 ,religion is still to them a matter of life and death4 ,their faith is still real enough to satisfy the demands of a ,luther1 but it is diverted and wasted upon unworthy objects4 ,if ,chassidism is to be reformed1 its worship must no longer be of man2 it must be brought back again to the source of all ,beauty1 all ,wisdom1 and all ,goodness2 it must be restored to ,god4 ,,ii4 ,,nachman ,,krochmal ,,and ,,the 8,,perplexities ,,of ,,the ,,time0 ,in her goodnatured panegyric of mediocrity which is known under the title of ,scenes of ,clerical ,life1 ,george ,eliot remarked3 8,let us hope that there is a saving ignorance40 ,strange as this demand may sound1 the wish of the great novelist to see her favoured mediocrities 8saved10 has been shared by the great majority of mankind4 ,i know that ,i1 at least1 echo that desire with all my heart4 ,and ,i am afraid that ,i am prompted by some rather selfish reasons4 ,it would be somewhat hard1 when one is born with small abilities1 but a great desire for being saved1 to be deprived of the hope held out by the author of ,adam ,bede4 ,but there are some1 ,i am afraid1 who are not satisfied with this dictum of ,george ,eliot4 ,they show a strong tendency to make salvation a monopoly of ignorance4 ,this is a little too selfish4 ,with all due respect to every form of ignorance1 sacred as well as profane1 we ought1 ,i think1 to believe that there is also such a thing as a saving knowledge4 ,nay1 we might go even farther4 ,there may be certain epochs in history when there is hardly any other path to salvation than knowledge1 and the deep search after truth4 ,we all know the words of the ,psalmist1 8,the ,lord preserveth the simple40 ,but as there are periods in the life of the individual when navet has to give way to sagacity and reflection1 so there are times in history at which ,providence does not choose to leave men in simplicity4 ,at such times doubts arise1 as though of themselves2 questions suddenly become open when they had been supposed solved for centuries2 and the human mind is stirred by a sceptical breeze of which no man can tell whence it came4 ,one may under those circumstances be indifferent1 but one can be simple no more4 ,even in such cases1 however1 man has no cause to despair4 ,when our dearest beliefs are shaken by all kinds of doubts1 ,providence sends us also great thinkers1 earnest lovers of truth1 who devote their lives to enlightening our puzzled minds4 ,not that these men try to answer all the questions by which we feel perplexed4 ,they endeavour to satisfy us1 partly by showing that many of our difficulties are not difficulties at all1 but merely arise from superficiality1 and partly by proving that the great cause about which we feel so much anxiety does not exactly depend on the solution of the questions that are troubling us4 ,they give to the things which are dearer to us than our life a fresh aspect1 which enables us to remain attached to them with the same devotion and love as before4 ,to speak again in the words of the ,psalmist3 8,thou sendest forth ,thy ,spirit1 and they are created1 and ,thou renewest the face of the earth40 ,this spirit that renews the face of things is what ,i understand by 8saving knowledge40 ,as men of that saving knowledge we may regard ,rabban ,johanan ben ,zaccai7#ai7 and his disciples1 who made it possible for ,judaism to survive the destruction of the ,temple1 which some believed to involve the end of the religion4 ,as such men we may look upon ,r4 ,saadiah ,gaon and his followers1 who worked at a time when ,judaism was menaced in its inner life1 namely in the tradition1 by the attempts of the narrowminded ,caraites to convert it into a bookish religion47#bj7 ,such men were ,maimonides and his successors1 who came to the aid of religion when it had got into dogmatic troubles by reason of its coming into contact with various philosophical systems4 ,and in order to approach the subject of the present essay1 ,i venture to say that a man of such saving knowledge was also ,nachman ,krochmal1 who lived and laboured in the first half of the present century1 when ,judaism had been terribly shaken by the scepticism of ,voltaire1 and the platitudes of the socalled ,mendelssohnian school4 ,nachman ,krochmal was born on the #agth of ,february in the year #aghe4 ,his father1 ,solomon ,krochmal1 was a merchant of ,brody1 a commercial frontier town in the northeast of ,galicia in ,austria4 ,in his early years ,solomon often used to visit ,berlin for business purposes4 ,he is said to have seen ,mendelssohn there on one occasion1 and to have learned greatly to revere the ,jewish sage4 ,and it is not unlikely that ,nachman's subsequent admiration for ,mendelssohn was partly due to his father's influence4 ,solomon was a man of considerable wealth1 and he1 therefore1 endeavoured to give his son the best possible education4 ,but as a respectable member of a ,polish community a hundred years ago1 ,solomon had to follow the fashion adopted by his neighbours1 and the best possible education consisted in affording the child an opportunity to study the ,talmud and other ,rabbinical works4 ,all other languages and their literatures were sealed books to the child--a very absurd and regrettable fashion indeed4 ,but let us not be too hard on ,polish ,jews4 ,i have been told that there are countries on our globe where people have been driven by the force of fashion into the opposite extreme2 where1 with few exceptions1 they think that the ,talmud1 as well as the whole ,hebrew literature1 must needs be excluded from the programme of a gentleman's education4 ,happily1 or the reverse1 ,krochmal's childhood did not last long1 for in the year #agih we find that ,nachman1 a boy of fourteen1 was already married to a ,miss ,haberman in ,zolkiew4 ,as a result of this foolish custom of marrying at so very early an age1 ,nachman was hardly ever a boy2 we have at once to deal with him as a man4 ,it was then customary in ,poland1 and perhaps is so still1 for the father of the bride to provide for the support of the young couple for some years after their marriage4 ,in order to reduce the expense of this arrangement1 the bridegroom had to reside in the same house as his fatherinlaw4 ,thus we see ,krochmal removing from ,brody to ,zolkiew1 the native town of his wife4 ,here ,krochmal lived in the house of her father for many years1 entirely devoted to his studies2 and he certainly needed all his time for them4 ,for he now began to expand the sphere of his education1 to embrace subjects quite new to him4 ,by his marriage ,nachman seems to have gained a certain amount of independence1 and the first use he made of it was to study the ,guide of the ,perplexed7#ba7 of ,maimonides1 the ,commentaries of ,ibn ,ezra on the ,bible17#bb7 and other more or less philosophical works written in the ,hebrew language4 ,his next step was to learn ,german2 but1 as his biographers inform us1 he was not able to follow this course without undergoing many struggles1 and overcoming many obstacles4 ,it would lead us too far to give a full account of the difficulties which the young scholar had to conquer while pursuing his new studies4 ,they will be sufficiently characterised by the following extract from a ,hebrew letter of his disciple1 ,solomon ,leb ,rapoport1 who1 writing in #ahda concerning his master and friend1 remarks3 8,consider this1 ye inhabitants of ,germany0--and1 ,i may add1 ye inhabitants of ,england--8and you will be astounded4 ,it is easy for you to avoid being onesided1 and to study different sciences1 for you possess many schools and teachers from every branch of learning4 ,it is not so in ,poland and ,russia even at present1 much less was it so forty years ago4 ,there is no teacher1 no guide1 no supporter1 for the ,jew who desires any sort of improvement4 ,the ,jew who wishes to enter on a new path of learning has to prepare the road for himself4 ,and when he has entered on it1 his friend will come to him and ask1 #8,is it true that you have got scientific books in your house8 ,mind you do not mention it to any one4 ,there are enough bigots in the town to persecute you and all your family if they get scent of it4' 0 ,it was under these conditions that ,krochmal pursued his studies1 which were by no means few or easy1 for he was not content with a knowledge of only the lighter portions of ,german literature4 ,he soon began to read the works of ,lessing1 ,mendelssohn1 and more especially of ,kant1 who always remained his favourite philosopher4 ,in his later years he also became acquainted with the writings of ,fichte1 ,schelling1 and ,hegel4 ,but to the last he could not console himself for having missed the advantages of a systematic university education4 ,after having learned ,german1 ,krochmal proceeded to acquire a knowledge of ,latin and ,french1 and to read the best books written in those languages4 ,to deepen his knowledge of ,hebrew1 he studied ,arabic and ,syraic1 but we are unable to say how far he succeeded in mastering these languages4 ,with these studies1 which appear to have occupied our philosopher for an interval of ten years after his marriage1 the first period of his life seems also to end4 ,but the hard work of ten years did not pass over the delicate youth without undermining his health for ever4 ,at the age of twentyfour1 ,krochmal fell sick of an illness which compelled him to interrupt his work4 ,he was forced to go to ,lemberg to consult the doctors of that town1 and he had to remain there for a long time4 ,and now began ,krochmal's career as a teacher4 ,for during his stay at ,lemberg there gathered round him a band of young scholars whom ,krochmal's fame had already reached4 ,it is useless to enumerate the names of all these students4 ,among them figured ,isaac ,erter1 ,samson ,bloch1 ,a4 ,bodek1 and many others4 ,the most gifted of them was undoubtedly ,rapoport1 who afterwards became even more famous than his master ,krochmal4 ,it is not easy to define accurately the relation that subsisted between these two men4 ,graetz1 in his history1 calls ,rapoport a disciple of ,krochmal4 ,rapoport himself1 in his memoir of ,krochmal1 describes the latter as a dear friend with whom he was wont to discuss literary topics4 ,zunz does not mention ,rapoport at all in his account of our author4 ,it seems to me that this relation may be most aptly defined by the ,talmudic term 8,talmid,chaber107#bc7 8disciple colleague40 ,indeed1 ,krochmal's whole method of teaching was rather that of a companion than of a professor4 ,he gave no set lectures on particular subjects1 but conveyed his instruction rather by means of suggestive conversations with his younger friends4 ,his usual habit was to walk with his pupils in the neighbourhood of the town1 and to try to influence their minds each in accordance with its bent4 ,if any of his disciples showed an inclination for poetry1 ,krochmal sought to refine his taste by directing his attention to the best works in ,hebrew and ,german literature4 ,to another1 whose fancy strayed into mysticism1 he recommended the writings of ,philo and ,ibn ,ezra1 at the same time suggesting how the works of the latter should be interpreted4 ,a third who1 like ,rapoport1 was interested in historical researches1 ,krochmal instructed in the methods of critical inquiry4 ,there must have been some fascinating charm in ,nachman's personality1 which made him irresistible to all who came into contact with him4 ,rapoport has described his first interview with ,krochmal4 8,it is more than thirty years since ,i first made his acquaintance1 and beheld the glory of his presence4 ,though he was in weak health1 still his soul was strong2 and as soon as ,i conversed with him there came over me a spirit of judgment and knowledge4 ,i felt almost transformed into another man40 ,elsewhere the same writer says3 8,oh1 how sweet to me were these walks with ,krochmal--sweeter than all the pleasures of this world4 ,i could never have enough of his wisdom2 with his every word he conveyed a new lesson40 ,after a lengthy stay at ,lemberg1 ,krochmal partially1 though not entirely1 recovered from his severe illness2 he remained weak and pale for the rest of his days4 ,his antagonists1 the ,chassidim1 believed him to be possessed by a demon who could find no better dwellingplace than in the person of this archheretic4 ,had it been in their power they would probably have dragged him to some exorcist for the purpose of driving out his ,german1 ,french1 ,latin1 and other symptoms of demoniacal heresy4 ,happily the orthodox were powerless to do this1 so ,krochmal was left unmolested1 and was allowed to resume his walks and studies4 ,it may be here remarked that ,krochmal in general avoided giving the ,chassidim any cause for reasonable complaint4 ,rapoport asserts that his master was 8deeply religious and a strict observer of the law4 ,he was zealously anxious to perform every ordinance1 ,biblical or ,rabbinical40 ,the only liberty that ,krochmal claimed for himself and his disciples was the right to study what they thought best and in the way they thought best4 ,when this liberty was attacked1 he showed a firmness and resolution which would hardly have been expected from this quiet and gentle man4 ,to one of his pupils1 who made concessions to the ,chassidim and their ,zaddikim worship1 ,krochmal wrote3 8,be firm in this matter unless you wish to earn the contempt of every honest man4 ,one who is afraid of these people1 and debases himself before them bears a mean soul that was born to slavery4 ,the man that wishes to rise above the mob1 with its confused notions and corrupt morality1 must be courageous as a lion in conquering the obstacles that beset his path4 ,consideration of what people will say1 what bigots will whisper1 what crafty enemies will scheme--questions such as these can have but one effect1--to darken the intellect and confuse the faculty of judgment40 ,so ,krochmal continued his studies without interruption till #ahad1 when the death of his wife's mother brought his period of ease and comfort to an end4 ,his fatherinlaw seems to have died some time before1 and ,krochmal was forced to seek his own living4 ,he became a merchant1 but it is to be regretted that he did not prove as successful a man of business as he was a man of letters4 ,he found it a hard struggle to earn a living4 ,but the severest trial which he had to undergo was the death of his wife in #ahbf4 ,in a letter1 dating from about this time1 to a friend who had asked him for assistance in his philosophical inquiries1 ,krochmal wrote--8,how can ,i help you now8 ,i am already an old man2 my head is gray1 and my health is broken4 ,in the last three years ,i have met with many misfortunes4 ,my beloved wife died after a long illness4 ,my daughter will soon leave me to get married1 my elder son will depart to seek his livelihood1 and ,i shall be left alone with only a child of ten years1 the son of my old age4 ,i will lift up mine eyes unto the hills3 ,from whence shall my help come80 ,nachman was evidently in very low spirits at this time1 but he was in too true a sense a philosopher to despair4 ,he turned for comfort to his studies1 and at this dark epoch of his life he first became acquainted with the ,philosophy of ,hegel1 whose system he was wont to call the 8,philosophy of ,philosophies40 ,for the next ten years the works of ,hegel and inquiries into ,jewish history appear to have absorbed all the leisure that his mercantile occupation left him4 ,we shall presently see what the result of these studies was4 ,no fresh subjects were undertaken by ,krochmal in the last years of his life2 he had already acquired a fund of knowledge vast enough to engage all his thoughts4 ,there are1 however1 some remaining points in his private circumstances which it may not be uninteresting to mention4 ,krochmal1 as has been already related1 was not prosperous in his business4 ,things went from bad to worse1 and he was compelled in #ahcf to seek a situation4 8,there ought to be literary men poor10 some writer has maintained1 8to show whether they are genuine or not40 ,this test ,krochmal successfully passed through4 ,even as a young man ,nachman's strength of character was admired by his contemporaries not less than his rare learning4 ,in his subsequent distress1 he gave evidence of the truth of this judgment4 ,despite his poverty1 his friends could not prevail upon him to accept the post of ,rabbi in any ,jewish community4 8,i am unwilling10 he wrote to a friend1 8to be the cause of dissensions in any ,jewish congregation4 ,i should prefer to die of hunger rather than become a ,rabbi under present circumstances40 ,he expressed his views on this subject even more decidedly on a later occasion when the ,berlin congregation offered him the post of ,chief ,rabbi in that town4 ,in a letter1 conveying his refusal of this honourable office1 he says3 8,i never thought of becoming the ,consciencecounsellor 7,gewissensrath7 of men4 ,my line of studies was not directed to that end1 nor would it accord with my disposition and sentiments4 ,the only post that ,i should care to accept would be that of teacher in the ,jewish ,theological ,seminary1 which1 as ,i was informed1 you were thinking of establishing in ,berlin40 ,the plan to found such an institution was not realised till forty years later1 and in the interval ,nachman had to look for his living in other regions than ,jewish theology4 ,being in poor circumstances1 and as his children and friends had left him1 he felt very lonely at ,zolkiew4 8,nobody cares for me here10 he writes1 8and ,i am equally indifferent40 ,his one desire was to obtain a situation at ,brody1 possibly as bookkeeper with a salary of some thirty pounds a year1 on condition that he would be expected to devote only half the day to his business duties1 thus securing for himself leisure for philosophical studies4 ,his terms were accepted1 and he obtained the humble post he sought4 ,he remained in ,brody for the next two years1 #ahcfh1 but at the end of #ahch he fell so dangerously ill that he could no longer resist the pressing request of his daughter to live with her at ,tarnopol4 ,she had urged him to take this step even previous to his removal to ,brody1 but he had declined on the plea that he preferred to live by the labour of his hands4 ,now1 however1 he yielded to her wish1 and betook himself to ,tarnopol1 where for two years longer he lived affectionately tended by his children and respected by all who knew him4 ,in ,may #ahdj1 ,krochmal's illness began to develop fatal symptoms1 and he died in the arms of his daughter on the #cast of ,july 7the first of ,ab71 at the age of fiftyfive4 ,as ,zunz happily remarked3 8,this great man was born on the #gth of ,adar1 the birthday of ,moses 7according to ,jewish tradition71 and died on the first of ,ab1 the anniversary of the death of ,aaron1 the ,high ,priest40 ,i have tried in the foregoing remarks to give a short sketch of our ,rabbi's life according to the accounts of ,zunz1 ,rapoport1 and ,letteris4 ,there is one other point to which ,i must allude1 as it involves a consideration on which ,letteris seems to lay much stress4 ,this biographer appears to think that ,krochmal was in his youth greatly influenced by the society in which he moved1 consisting as it did of many learned and enlightened men4 ,there is1 too1 the oftquoted saying of ,goethe3-- ,wer den ,dichter will verstehen ,muss in ,dichters ,lande gehen4 ,and ,i am probably expected to give some account of the state of society in which ,nachman grew up4 ,i regret that ,i must ask to be excused from doing so4 ,i cannot consent to take the reader to ,krochmal's land4 ,and if ,i might venture to give him my humble advice1 ,i should only say1 8,by all means stop at home40 ,goethe may be right about the poet1 but his remark does not apply to the case of the scholar4 ,it may be true1 as some think1 that every great man is the product of his time1 but it certainly does not follow that he is the product of his country4 ,nor could ,i name any other country of which ,krochmal was the product4 ,many a city no doubt boasted itself a town full of 8,chakhamim and ,sopherim07#bd7 as the ,hebrew phrase is1 or1 as we would express it1 8a seat of learning10 full of scholars of the ancient and modern schools4 ,but neither these ancient scholars nor the modern were of a kind to produce a real scholar and an enlightened thinker like ,krochmal4 ,there were many men who knew by heart the whole of the ,halachic works of ,maimonides1 the ,mishnah1 and even the whole of the ,babylonian ,talmud4 ,this is very imposing4 ,but if you look a little closer1 you will find that with a few exceptions--such as the school of ,r4 ,elijah ,wilna--these men1 generally speaking1 hardly deserve the name of scholars at all4 ,they were rather a sort of studying engines4 ,the steamengine passes over a continent1 here through romantic scenery1 there in the midst of arid deserts1 by stream and mountain and valley1 always with the same monotonous hum and shriek4 ,so these scholars went through the ,talmud with never changing feelings4 ,they did not rejoice at the description which is given in tractate ,biccurim7#be7 of the procession formed when the firstfruits were brought into the ,holy ,temple4 ,they were not much saddened when reading in tractate ,taanith7#bf7 of the unhappy days so recurrent in ,jewish history4 ,they were not delighted by the wisdom of ,seder ,nezikin17#bg7 which deals with civil law2 nor were they vexed of ,seder ,taharoth17#bh7 which treats of the laws of cleanliness and uncleanliness1 that by their exaggeration gave cause to much dissension in the time of the ,temple4 ,the pre,talmudic literature1 such as the ,siphra1 ,siphr1 and ,mechilta7#bi7--the only existing means of obtaining an insight into the ,talmud--were altogether neglected4 ,all that these readers cared for was to push on to the end1 and the prayer recited at the close was of more importance to them than the treatise they had perused4 ,not less melancholy was the spectacle presented by the socalled men of 8,enlightenment0 7,aufklrung74 ,they belonged chiefly to the rationalistic school of ,mendelssohn1 but they equalled their master neither in knowledge nor in moral character4 ,it was an enlightenment without foundation in real scholarship1 and did not lead to an ideal life1 though again ,i must add that there were exceptions4 ,these men were rather what ,germans would term ,schngeister1 a set of dilettanti who cared to study as little as possible1 and to write as much as possible4 ,they wrote bad grammars1 superficial commentaries on the ,bible1 and terribly dull poems4 ,of this literature1 with the exception of ,erter's ,watchman17#cj7 there is scarcely a work that one would care to read twice4 ,most of them despised ,rabbinism1 but without understanding its noblest forms as they are to be traced in the ,talmud and later ,hebrew literature4 ,they did not dislike ,judaism1 but the only ,judaism they affected was one 8which does not oppose itself to anything in particular02 or1 as ,heine would have described it1 8,eine reinliche ,religion40 ,in one respect these little men were great3 in mutual admiration1 which reached such a pitch that such titles as 8,great ,luminary10 8,worldfamed ,sage10 were considered altogether too insignificant and commonplace4 ,i will now pass to the writings of ,krochmal4 ,it must be premised that ,krochmal was not a voluminous author4 ,all his writings1 including a few letters which were published in various ,hebrew periodicals1 would scarcely occupy four hundred pages4 ,krochmal used to call himself 8der ewige ,student0 7the perpetual pupil74 ,he did not read books1 nor study philosophical systems1 with the object of writing books of his own on them4 ,he read and studied in order that he might become a better and a wiser man4 ,besides1 he did not think himself competent to judge on grave subjects1 nor did he consider his judgment1 even if he formed one1 worthy of publication4 ,he counselled his friends to be equally slow in publishing their views to the world4 8,be not10 he wrote to a correspondent1--8be not hasty in forming your opinions before you have studied the literature of the subject with care and devotion4 ,this is no easy matter1 for no man can obtain any real knowledge of the ,torah and philosophy unless he is prepared to give himself up in singlehearted devotion to his studies40 ,severe though he was to his friends1 he was still more severe to himself4 ,though he had been collecting materials on subjects of ,jewish history and philosophy from his early youth1 it was not until he had endured much persuasion and pressure from his friends that he began to write down his thoughts in a connected form4 ,we thus possess only one work from the pen of this author2 but that work is the ,guide of the ,perplexed of the ,time17#ca7 a posthumous book published in #ahea1 eleven years after ,krochmal's death4 ,his work had been much interrupted by illness during the last years of his life1 and as a necessary consequence many parts of his treatise finally remained in an unfinished state4 ,krochmal commissioned his children to hand over his papers to ,zunz1 who was to arrange and edit them as best he might4 ,zunz1 who in his reverence for ,krochmal went so far as to call him the man of ,god1 gladly accepted the task1 in which he was aided by ,steinschneider4 ,unfortunately1 the work was published in ,lemberg1 a place famous for spoiling books4 ,even the skill of these two great masters did not suffice to save ,krochmal's work from the fate to which all the books printed in ,lemberg seem inevitably doomed4 ,thus ,krochmal's work is printed on bad paper1 and with faint ink2 it is full of misprints and the text is sometimes confused with the notes4 ,a second edition appeared in ,lemberg in #ahfc2 but1 it is scarcely necessary to add1 the reprint is even worse than the original issue4 ,the work occupies some #cej pages1 and is divided into seventeen chapters4 ,the opening six treat of ,religion in general4 ,the author first indicates the opposite dangers to which men are liable4 ,on the one hand1 men are exposed to extravagant phantasy 7,schwrmerei71 superstition and ceremonialism 7,werkheiligkeit74 ,some1 on the other hand1 in their endeavour to avoid this danger1 fall into the opposite extreme1 materialism1 unbelief1 and moral degeneracy as a consequence of their neglect of all law4 ,he proceeds to say3 ,even in the ritual part of religion1 such as the regulations of the ,sabbath1 the dietary laws and so forth1 we find abstract definitions necessary1 and differences of opinions prevalent4 ,in the dogmatic aspects of religion1 dealing as they do with the grave subjects of metaphysics1 the mystery of life and death1 the destiny of man1 his relation to ,god1 reward and punishment1 the inner meaning of the laws1--in these spiritual matters1 the difficulty of accurate definition must be far greater and the opportunities for difference of opinion more frequent and important4 ,what guide are we to follow1 seeing that every error involves the most dangerous consequences8 ,shall we abandon altogether the effort of thinking on these grave subjects8 ,such a course is impossible4 ,do not believe1 says ,krochmal1 that there ever was a time when the religious man was entirely satisfied by deeds of righteousness1 as some people maintain4 ,on the contrary1 every man1 whether an independent thinker or a simple believer1 always feels the weight of these questions upon him4 ,every man desires to have some ideal basis for his actions which must constitute his real life in its noblest moments4 ,krochmal here quotes a famous passage from the ,midrash47#cb7 ,the ,torah1 according to one of our ancient sages1 may be compared to two paths1 the one burning with fire1 the other covered with snow4 ,if a man enters on the former path he will die by the heat2 if he walks by the latter path he will be frozen by the snow4 ,what1 then1 must he do8 ,he must walk in the middle1 or1 as we should say1 he must choose the golden mean4 ,but1 as ,krochmal suggests1 the middle way in historical and philosophical doubts does not consist1 as some idle heads suppose1 in a kind of compromise between two opposing views4 ,if one of two contending parties declares that twice two make six1 while his opponent asserts that twice two make eight1 a sort of compromise might be arrived at by conceding that twice two make seven4 ,but such a compromise would be as false as either extreme2 and the seeker after the truth must revert to that mean which is the heart of all things1 independently of all factions1 placing himself above them4 ,having dealt with the arguments relating to the existence of ,god as elaborated in the philosophical systems of his time1 ,krochmal leads up to his treatment of the ,history of ,israel by a chapter on the ideal gifts bestowed upon the various ancient nations1 which1 possessed by them through many centuries1 were lost when their nationality ceased4 ,we next come1 in ,chapter ,,vii41 to the ideal gifts of ,israel4 ,these are the religious gift and the faculty and desire for seeking the ideal of all ideals1 namely1 ,god4 ,but ,israel1 whose mission it was to propagate this ideal1 was1 even as other nations1 subject to natural laws2 and its history presents progress and reaction1 rise and decline4 ,krochmal devotes his next three chapters to showing how1 in the history of ,israel1 as in other histories1 may be detected a triple process4 ,these three stages are the budding1 the period of maturity1 and the decay4 ,as the history of ,israel is more a history of religion than of politics and battles1 its rise and decline correspond more or less with ,israel's attachment to ,god1 and its falling away from ,him4 ,the decay would be associated with the adoption of either of the extremes1 the dangerous effects of which have been already mentioned4 ,but 8through progress and backsliding1 amid infectious contact with idolatry1 amid survival of old growths of superstition1 of the crude practices of the past2 amid the solicitation of new aspects of life2 in material prosperity and in material ruin10 ,israel was never wholly detached from ,god4 ,in the worst times it had its judges or its prophets1 its heroes or its sages1 its ,rabbis or its philosophers1 who strove to bring ,israel back to its mission1 and who succeeded in their efforts to do so4 ,even in its decay traces of the ,divine spirit made themselves felt1 and revived the nation1 which entered again on a triple course and repeated its three phases4 ,the first of these threefold epochs began1 according to ,krochmal's eighth chapter1 with the times of the ,patriarchs1 and ended with the death of ,gedaliah after the destruction of the first ,temple4 ,next1 in the following two chapters1 ,krochmal finds the second triple movement in the interval between the prophets of the exile in ,babylon and the death of ,bar,cochba about #ace ,a4,c4 ,the author also hints at the existence of a third such epoch beginning with ,r4 ,judah the ,patriarch1 the compiler of the ,mishnah 7#bbj ,a4,c4717#cc7 and ending with the expulsion of the ,jews from ,spain 7#adib74 ,this idea is not further developed by ,krochmal2 but it would be interesting to ask1 by the way1 in which phase of the threefold process--rise1 maturity1 or decay--are we at the present time8 ,the next five chapters may be regarded as an excursus on the preceding two4 ,krochmal discusses the ,biblical books which belong to the period of the ,exile and of the ,second ,temple1 such as the ,second ,isaiah1 certain ,exilic and ,maccabean psalms1 ,ecclesiastes1 certain ,apocryphal books1 and the work of the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue4 ,they contain1 again1 researches on the various sects1 such as the ,assideans1 ,sadducees1 ,pharisees1 ,essenes1 the ,gnostics1 the ,cabbalists and their relation to the latter1 and the ,minim17#cd7 who are mentioned in the ,talmud4 ,in another part of this excursus ,krochmal describes the systems of the ,alexandrian ,jewish philosophers1 such as ,philo and ,aristobulus1 and discusses their relation to certain theosophic ideas in various ,midrashcollections4 ,the author also attempts to prove the necessity of ,tradition2 he shows its first traces in the ,bible1 and explains the term ,sopherim 7scribes72 and he points out the meaning of the phrase 8,a law unto ,moses from ,mount ,sinai107#ce7 and similar expressions4 ,he gives a summary of the development of the ,halachah in its different stages1 the criteria by which the older ,halachahs may be discriminated2 he seeks to arrive at the origin of the ,mishnah1 and deals with various cognate topics4 ,in another discourse ,krochmal endeavours to explain the term ,agadah17#cf7 its origin and development2 the different kinds of ,agadah and their relative value4 ,chapter ,,xvi4 contains the ,prolegomena to a philosophy of the ,jewish religion in accordance with the principles laid down by ,hegel4 ,in the seventeenth and last chapter the author gives a general introduction to the ,philosophy of ,ibn ,ezra1 and quotes illustrative extracts4 ,the space of an essay does not permit me to give further details of ,krochmal's book4 ,i am conscious that the preceding outline is deficient in quality as well as in quantity4 ,yet1 even from this meagre abstract1 the reader will gather that ,krochmal reviews many of the great problems which concern religion in general and ,judaism in particular4 ,zunz somewhere remarks that ,krochmal was inspired in his work by the study of ,hegel1 just as ,maimonides had been by the study of ,aristotle4 ,i give this statement solely on the authority of ,zunz1 as ,i myself have never made a study of the works of the ,german philosopher1 and am therefore unable to express an opinion on the question4 ,now there is no doubt that ,krochmal's book is not without defects4 ,the materials are not always well arranged1 there is at times a want of proportion in the length at which the various points are treated1 and the author occasionally seems to wander from the subject in hand4 ,but we shall be better able to account for these and similar technical faults1 as well as to appreciate the real value of the author's work1 if we consider the following fact4 ,nachman ,krochmal's object was to elaborate a philosophy of ,jewish history1 to trace the leading ideas that ran through it1 and the ultimate causes that led to its various phases4 ,but1 unfortunately1 at the time when ,krochmal began to write1 there did not exist a ,jewish history at all4 ,the labours of ,zunz were conducted in an altogether different field4 ,not to mention the names of the younger scholars then unborn1 ,graetz1 the author of the ,history of the ,jews1 and ,weiss1 who wrote a history of the ,tradition1 were still studying at college4 ,frankel's masterly essays on the ,essenes and the ,septuagint1 his wellknown work1 ,introduction to the ,mishnah1 and the results of ,geiger's most interesting and suggestive researches on the older and later ,halachah1 and on the ,pharisees and ,sadducees1 had yet to be written4 ,rapoport's great treatise1 ,erech ,millin17#cg7 had not been published at that time1 and ,steinschneider was not yet working at his historical sketch of ,jewish literature4 ,it was not till six years after ,krochmal's death 7viz4 in #ahdf7 that ,landauer's memorable studies on the ,jewish mystics were given to the world4 ,even the bad books of ,julius ,frst1 such as his ,history of the ,canon1 and his still worse ,history of ,jewish ,literature in ,babylon1 were then unwritten4 ,neither the most charlatanic ,history of the ,opinions and ,teachings of ,all the ,jewish ,sects1 by ,peter ,beer1 the universal provider1 nor ,jost's most honest but narrowminded and superficial ,history of the ,jews1 was of much use to ,krochmal4 ,jost's more scholarly works were not published till long afterwards4 ,krochmal was thus without the guidance of those authorities to which we are now accustomed to turn for information4 ,excepting the aid that he derived from the writings of ,azariah de ,rossi17#ch7 ,krochmal was therefore compelled to prosecute all the necessary research for himself2 he had to establish the facts of ,jewish history as well as to philosophise upon them4 ,hence1 in the very midst of his philosophical analysis1 the author was bound to introduce digressions on historical subjects1 in order to justify as well as to form the basis of that analysis4 ,he had to survey the ground and to collect the materials1 besides constructing the plan of the edifice and working at its erection4 ,nevertheless1 it is precisely for these historical excursuses that ,krochmal has deserved the gratitude of posterity4 ,he it was who taught ,jewish scholars how to submit the ancient ,rabbinic records to the test of criticism and the way in which they might be utilised for the purpose of historical studies2 he it was who enabled them to trace the genesis of the tradition1 and to watch the inner germination of that vast organism4 ,he even indicated to them how they might continue to connect their own lives with it1 how they might derive nourishment from it1 and in their turn further its growth4 ,i may assert with the utmost confidence that there is scarcely a single page in ,krochmal's book that did not afterwards give birth to some essay or monograph or even elaborate treatise1 though their authors were not always very careful about mentioning the source of their inspiration4 ,thus ,krochmal justly deserves the honourable title assigned to him by one of our greatest historians1 who terms him the ,father of ,jewish ,science4 ,so far1 ,i have been speaking of the importance of ,krochmal's treatise and of its significance in the region of ,jewish ,science4 ,it is necessary1 ,i think1 to add a few words with regard to the general tendency of his whole work4 ,i have already alluded to the characteristic modesty of ,krochmal2 ,i have pointed out how little he cared for publicity1 how dearly he loved retirement4 ,the question accordingly presents itself--,what can have been the real and sufficient causes that prevailed upon him to yield to the solicitations of his friends and to write upon what the ,talmud would term 8matters standing on the heights of the world08 ,the answer to this question may1 ,i think1 be found in the title of ,krochmal's book1 the ,guide of the ,perplexed of the ,time4 ,it is indeed a rather unusual coincidence for the title of a ,hebrew book to have any connection with its subject matter4 ,the same merit is possessed by the ,guide of the ,perplexed of ,maimonides1 the title of which undoubtedly suggested that of ,krochmal's treatise4 ,there is1 however1 one little addition in ,krochmal's title that contains a most important lesson for us4 ,i mean the words 8of the ,time40 ,by these words ,krochmal reminds us that1 great as are the merits of the immortal work of ,maimonides--and it would be difficult to exaggerate its value and importance--still it will no longer suffice for us4 ,for1 as ,krochmal himself remarks1 every time has its own perplexities1 and therefore needs its own guide4 ,in order to show that these words are no idle phrase1 ,i shall endeavour to illustrate them by one example at least4 ,in the ,guide of the ,perplexed of ,maimonides1 ,part ,,ii41 ,chapter ,,xxvi41 occurs a passage which runs thus3 8,in the famous chapters known as the #8,chapters of ,r4 ,eliezer the ,great1'7#ci7 ,i find ,r4 ,eliezer the ,great saying something more extraordinary than ,i have ever seen in the utterances of any believer in the ,law of ,moses4 ,i refer to the following passage3 #8,whence were the heavens created8 ,he 7,god7 took part of the light of ,his garment1 ,he stretched it like a cloth1 and thus the heavens were extending continually1 as it is said 7,ps4 civ4 #b73 ,he covereth ,himself with light as with a garment1 ,he stretcheth the heavens like a curtain4 ,whence was the earth created8 ,he took of the snow under the throne of glory1 and threw it2 according to the words 7in ,job xxxvii4 #f71 ,he said to the snow be thou earth4' ,these are the words given there 7in the #8,chapters of ,r4 ,eliezer the ,great'71 and ,i1 in my surprise1 ask1 ,what was the belief of this sage8 ,did he think it impossible that something be produced from nothing8444 ,if the terms #8the light of ,his garment' and the #8snow of glory' mean something eternal 7as matter7 they must be rejected4444 ,in short1 it is a passage that greatly confuses the notions of all intelligent and religious persons4 ,i am unable to explain it sufficiently40 ,so far ,maimonides2 and we are quite able to conceive his perplexity in dealing with this passage4 ,on one side1 ,maimonides himself believed that ,judaism is a dogmatic religion1 and that one of its dogmas is the principle of ,creatio ex nihilo4 ,on the other side1 he found ,r4 ,eliezer--one of the greatest authorities of the early part of the second century--apparently denying this dogma4 ,the perplexity was indeed a serious one for ,maimonides1 but we find no difficulty whatever in extricating ourselves from it4 ,in the first place1 there are many who cling to the theory which holds that there are no dogmas in ,judaism at all1 and to them ,maimonides' difficulty would have no relevance4 ,secondly1 those who believe that there are dogmas in ,judaism may regard such expressions as those quoted above from the 8,chapters of ,r4 ,eliezer0 in the light of mere poetical metaphors1 or may call them fairy tales or legends1 or include them in some other section of literature1 known under the name of folklore1 which is an excuse for every absurdity1 the fortunate authors of which are responsible neither to philosophy nor to religion1 and sometimes not even to common sense4 ,but there is a third consideration that affords the best solution of the difficulty4 ,the 8,chapters of ,r4 ,eliezer10 despite their pompous title1 are not the work of ,r4 ,eliezer at all4 ,criticism has taught us to attach no importance to the heading of a chapter or the titlepage of a book4 ,we are now in a position to judge from the tone1 style1 and contents of the work1 that the 8,chapters of ,r4 ,eliezer0 is a later compilation of the eighth century1 and that its author could not have been ,r4 ,eliezer1 the teacher of ,r4 ,akiba1 in the second century4 ,in this way1 these particular difficulties of ,maimonides solve themselves for us in a sufficiently easy way4 ,but it is just these solutions that open up new difficulties and perplexities which did not exist for the generation of the great ,spanish philosopher4 ,suppose that we accept the view that ,judaism is not a dogmatic religion4 ,but how are we to conceive a religion without dogmas1 or1 if you prefer the expression1 without principles or bases of belief8 ,or is ,judaism1 as some platitudinarians think1 a mere national institute with some useful dietary and sanitary laws1 but with nothing that makes for the sanctification of man1 with no guidance to offer us in the great problems of our life1 and in the greatest anxieties of the human soul8 ,on the other hand1 granted that we may consider certain things as mere legend1 how are we to discriminate between these and the things that must be taken seriously8 ,does it depend on the nature of the subject1 or on the position of the book in the canon of ,hebrew literature8 ,in the thirteenth century symbolical meanings were given to certain difficult passages in the ,talmud2 but the process was carried further1 and the ,biblical narratives were subjected by philosophers to a like treatment4 ,r4 ,solomon ben ,adereth and his colleagues 7in the thirteenth century7 settled the question by indiscriminately excommunicating all young men who should study philosophy2 but this method is scarcely one to be commended for present use4 ,the third1 or the philological solution of difficulties1 leads to fresh troubles4 ,a hundred years ago men were in that happy state of mind in which they knew everything4 ,they knew the exact author and date of every ,psalm2 they knew the author of each and every ancient ,midrash2 they knew the originator of every law and ordinance2 they even knew the writer of the ,zohar1 and of other mystical books4 ,there were certainly a few who did not know all these things1 among them ,ibn ,ezra1 ,azariah de ,rossi1 and the two ,delmedigos47#dj7 ,but they were merely a miserable historical blunder1 men who had no right to be born when they were4 ,but the philological method has swept away all this knowingness as by a deluge from heaven1 and men find that they know nothing4 ,true1 there linger on a few who still know all these things1 but it is they who are now the anachronism4 ,these1 and such as these1 are the perplexities of our time1 to the resolution of which the labours of ,krochmal and of a noble band of scholars have been directed in this century4 ,have these perplexities1 we must ask1 and these puzzles been solved by ,krochmal and his coadjutors8 ,we may with all certainty answer3 ,they have only pointed out the way1 it is for ourselves to proceed by it4 ,it would be unreasonable to expect that difficulties which have been accumulating during the course of thousands of years should be solved by the men of one or two generations4 ,again1 we live in a century in which excavations and discoveries in other fields have added at once to our knowledge and to our uncertainty4 ,each country1 we might almost say1 over and above the perplexities that trouble mankind in general1 has its own special difficulties which are entirely unknown to those who dwell outside its frontiers4 ,i am not disposed to discuss these difficulties in this place4 ,nor have ,i the ability to do so4 ,but of two things ,i am perfectly certain3 the first is1 that for a solution of these difficulties which1 in the language of ,maimonides1 8confuse the notions of all intelligent and religious persons10 the only hope is in true knowledge and not in ignorance2 and secondly1 this knowledge can only be obtained by a combination of the utmost reverence for religion and the deepest devotion to truth4 ,the poor old ,rabbis who have been so foully decried by their calumniators as hedonists1 and so foolishly praised by sorry apologists as materialistic optimists1 strongly insisted that when a man woos the truth1 his suit can only prosper if he is influenced by the purest and most singlehearted affection4 8,a man10 says the ,siphr1 8must not say3 #8,i will study the ,torah in order that ,i may attain the title of ,rabbi or savant1 or that ,i may become rich by it1 or that ,i may be rewarded for it in the world to come4' ,he must study for love's sake40 ,such a knowledge1 which is free from all taint of worldliness and of otherworldliness1 a knowledge sought simply and solely for pure love of ,god1 who is ,truth1--such a knowledge is in the highest sense a saving knowledge1 and ,nachman ,krochmal was in possession of it4 ,,iii4 ,,rabbi ,,elijah ,,wilna1 ,,gaon ,the three great stars of ,german literature are usually characterised by ,german scholars in the following way3 ,goethe they say represents the beautiful1 ,schiller the ideal1 while ,lessing represents truth4 ,i think that we may apply the same characteristics to the three great luminaries1 with which the ,jewish middle ages ceased--for as ,zunz somewhere remarked1 the ,jewish middle ages lasted till the beginning of the eighteenth century--and the modern age of ,judaism opened4 ,i am thinking of ,mendelssohn in ,germany1 ,israel ,baalshem1 the founder of the sect of the ,chassidim in ,podolia1 and ,elijah ,wilna1 or as he is more frequently called1 the ,gaon17#da7 the ,great ,one1 in ,lithuania4 ,as to ,mendelssohn1 enough1 and perhaps more than enough1 has already been written and spoken about his merits in awakening the sense for the beautiful and the harmonious which was almost entirely dormant among the ,jews of his age4 ,in regard to the second1 namely1 ,israel ,baalshem1 ,i have only to refer the reader to the first essay in this volume4 ,the subject of the present essay will be ,r4 ,elijah ,wilna1 who1 among the ,jews1 as ,lessing among the ,germans1 represented truth1 both by his life and by his literary activity4 ,i say that the ,gaon represented truth1 but these words must be taken cum grano salis4 ,for ,i do not mean at all to say that he was in possession of the whole truth1 still less in exclusive possession of it4 ,it is true as we shall learn in the course of this essay1 that the ,gaon was a genius of the first order4 ,but there are matters of truth1 the obtaining of which cannot be accomplished by genius alone4 ,r4 ,elijah ,wilna did not know any other language than ,hebrew4 ,truths1 therefore1 which are only to be reached through the medium of other languages1 remained a secret to him4 ,again1 records of ancient times which are buried in the shelves of remote libraries or under the ruins of past civilisations are not always a matter of intuition4 ,even the most gifted of men have to wait patiently till these are brought to light by the aid of spade and shovel1 or the pen of some obscure copyist4 ,but ,r4 ,elijah lived at a time when excavation had as yet done very little for ,semitic studies1 and when a ,jew scarcely got admittance into the great libraries of ,europe4 ,thus much truth which we get now in a very easy way was beyond this seer's eye4 ,but even if all the libraries on earth had been at his disposal1 even if he had read all the cuneiform writings which ornament the ,british ,museum1 and had deciphered all the ,hieroglyphics which the ,louvre possesses1 even in that case we should not be justified in terming him a representative of the truth1 without qualifying our words4 8,truth10 said the old ,rabbis1 8is the ,seal of the ,holy ,one1 praised be ,he40 ,but ,heaven has no ,lord ,chancellor4 ,neither men nor angels are trusted with the great ,seal4 ,they are only allowed to catch a glimpse of it1 or rather to long after this glimpse4 ,however1 even the longing and effort for this glimpse will bring man into communion with ,god1 and make his life divine4 ,and the life of the ,gaon was1 as we shall see1 one long effort and unceasing longing after the truth4 ,again1 if ,i say that the ,gaon represented truth1 you must not think that he lacked the two other qualities4 ,a life entirely devoted to such a great cause as that of seeking the truth is1 ipso facto1 ideal and harmonious4 ,it is only in his influence on ,judaism--more particularly on the ,jews in the ,north of ,europe--that this feature in his life becomes more prominent than his other admirable qualities4 ,in what this truth consisted1 how the ,gaon arrived at it1 and by what means he conveyed it to others1 we shall see in the course of this essay4 ,r4 ,elijah was born at ,wilna in the year #agbj4 ,his father1 ,solomon ,wilna1 is called by his biographers the great ,rabbi ,solomon1 and is said to have been the descendant of ,r4 ,moses ,rivkas1 the author of a learned work1 containing notes to the ,code of the ,law by ,r4 ,joseph ,caro47#db7 ,having quoted the biographers1 ,i must point out that there are only two biographies of the ,gaon3 the one by ,finn1 in his book ,faithful ,city17#dc7 on the celebrities of ,wilna1 the other by ,nachman of ,horodna1 in his book ,ascension of ,elijah47#dd7 ,the former is a very honest account of the ,gaon's life1 but a little too short4 ,the latter is too long1 or rather too much intermixed with that sort of absurd legend1 the authors of which are incapable of marking the line which separates the monster from the hero4 ,even in the region of imagination we must not for a moment forget the good advice given to us by one of our greatest scholars who had to deal with a kindred subject3 8,he10 says this scholar1 8who banishes the thought of higher and lower from his study1 degrades it into a mere means of gratifying his curiosity1 and disqualifies it for the lofty task which it is called upon to perform for modern society40 ,we shall thus cling to the higher and stop at the hero4 ,our hero was the firstborn of five brothers4 ,they were all famous men in their little world4 ,according to the tradition in ,wilna1 ,elijah was a lovely child1 with beautiful eyes1 and goodly to look at1 or as it is expressed in another place1 8as beautiful as an angel60 ,the tradition1 or rather the legend1 relates that as a child of six years he was already the pupil of ,r4 ,moses ,margalith1 the famous author of a commentary on the ,talmud of ,jerusalem4 ,at the age of seven years he is said to have already perplexed the ,chief ,rabbi of his native town by his controversial skill in ,talmudical subjects4 ,at the early age of nine he was acquainted with the contents of the ,bible1 the ,mishnah1 the ,talmud and its ancient commentaries2 and even the ,cabbalistic works of ,r4 ,isaac ,loria were no secret to the youthful scholar47#de7 ,at the age of twelve years he is said to have acquired the seven liberal arts1 and to have puzzled the scholars of ,wilna by his astronomical knowledge4 ,at thirteen1 when according to ,jewish law he attained his majority1 he was already the accomplished or 8the great one0 7,gaon72 so far tradition4 ,i am afraid that tradition is here1 against all experience1 too exact in its dates4 ,but we may learn from it that the child ,elijah showed many signs of the future ,gaon1 and was therefore considered as the prodigy of his age4 ,again it is likewise pretty certain that no man could boast of having been the master of ,elijah4 ,he was not the product of any school1 nor was he biassed by the many prejudices of his time4 ,he was allowed to walk his own way in his struggle after truth4 ,it is rather an unfortunate thing that history is so much made up of parallels and contrasts that the historian or even the biographer cannot possibly point out the greatness of some men without touching1 however slightly1 on the smallness of others4 ,it is only natural that every strong shining object should push the minor lights of its surroundings into the background and darken them4 ,thus1 when we are speaking of the superiority of the ,gaon1 we cannot escape hinting at least at the shortcomings of his contemporaries1 as well as of his predecessors4 ,to indicate briefly in what this superiority consisted1 ,i will premise here a few words from a ,responsum by one of his great predecessors1 the ,gaon ,rabbi ,hai47#df7 ,consulted by a student as to the meaning of certain mystical passages in the tractate ,chagigah17#dg7 ,rabbi ,hai1 in warning his correspondent not to expect from him a long philosophical dissertation1 writes as follows3 8,know that it never was our business to palliate matters and explain them in a way of which the author never could have thought4 ,this is fashionable with other people1 but our method is to explain the words of this or that authority in accordance with his own meaning4 ,we do not pledge ourselves that this meaning is #8right rule' in itself1 for there do exist statements made by the old authorities that cannot be accepted as norm40 ,thus far the words of the ,gaon of the tenth century1 which speak volumes4 ,the ,gaon of the eighteenth century followed the same course4 ,all his efforts were directed to this point2 namely1 to find out the true meaning of the ,mishnah1 the true meaning of the ,gemara17#dh7 the true meaning of the ,gaonim1 the true meaning of the great codifiers1 and the true meaning of the commentators on the ancient ,rabbinical literature4 ,whether this meaning would be acceptable to us mattered very little to him4 ,his only object was to understand the words of his predecessors1 and this he obtained1 as we shall soon see1 by the best critical means4 ,this was the method of the ,gaon2 that of other scholars 7at least of the great majority7 was dictated by entirely different considerations4 ,they would not suffer the idea that the great man could be wrong at times4 ,to them1 all that he said was 8right rule40 ,now suppose a great author like ,maimonides had overlooked an important passage in the ,talmud or any other statement by a great authority1 the alternative remaining to them was either to explain away the passage of the ,talmud or to give the words of ,maimonides a strange meaning4 ,this led originally to the famous method of the ,pilpul 7casuistry71 a kind of spiritual gymnastic1 which ,r4 ,liva of ,prague in the sixteenth century1 and many others condemned as most pernicious to ,judaism and leading to the decay of the study of the ,torah4 ,now it is beyond doubt that the method of the two ,gaonim is the only right one4 ,but1 in justice to the casuistic school1 which includes many a great name1 it is only right to remember that this impartiality towards acknowledged authorities as maintained by our hero is not at all such an easy matter as we imagine4 ,we quote often with great satisfaction the famous saying1 ,amicus ,plato1 amicus ,socrates1 sed magis amica veritas1 8,plato is our friend1 so is ,socrates1 but ,truth is1 or rather ought to be1 our greatest friend40 ,this sounds very nicely1 but let us only realise what difficulties it involves4 ,to be a friend of ,socrates or ,plato means to know them1 or in other words to have a thorough knowledge of the writings of the one and the recorded utterances of the other4 ,but such a knowledge can with most men only be obtained by devoting one's whole life to the study of their works1 so that there is not left much time for new friendships4 ,and the few who are able to save a few years after long wanderings with these ,greek philosophers1 seldom see the necessity of new friendships4 ,for what else did those long courtships of ,plato or ,aristotle mean except that those who conducted them thought that thereby they would wed ,truth8 ,this impartiality is the more difficult when these friends are invested with a kind of religious authority where humility and submission are most important factors4 ,the history of ,lanfranc1 the predecessor of ,anselm of ,canterbury1 gives a striking example of what this submission meant in the ,middle ,ages4 ,one day1 we are told1 when he was still an ordinary monk1 he was reading at the table and pronounced a word as it ought to be pronounced1 but not as seemed right to the person presiding1 who bade him say it differently2 8as if he had said docre1 with the middle syllable long1 as is right1 and the other had corrected it into docre1 with the middle short1 which is wrong2 for that ,prior was not a scholar4 ,but the wise man1 knowing that he owed obedience rather to ,christ than to ,donatus1 the grammarian1 gave up his pronunciation1 and said what he was wrongly told to say2 for to make a short syllable long1 or a long one short1 he knew to be no deadly sin1 but not to obey one set over him in ,god's behalf was no light transgression407#di7 ,but this admiration--and here we turn again to the ,gaon--must not prevent us from believing that ,providence is not confined to such ungrammatical ,priors1 and that the men who are really working on behalf of ,god are those who teach us to pronounce rightly1 and to think rightly1 and to take matters as they are1 not as we desire them to be on account of our friends4 ,as for the critical means to which ,i have alluded1 the ,gaon himself said somewhere that simplicity is the best criterion of truth1 and this is the most characteristic feature of all his literary career4 ,the ,gaon studied ,hebrew grammar in order to obtain a clear notion of the language in which the ,scriptures are written4 ,he tried to attain to the knowledge of the ,bible by reading the ,bible itself2 and was not satisfied to become acquainted with its contents from the numerous quotations which are made from it in ,rabbinical literature4 ,again1 he studied mathematics1 astronomy1 and philosophy1 as far as they could be found in ,hebrew books4 ,certainly the ,gaon did not study these subjects for their own sake1 and they were considered by him only as a means to the end1 or as the phrase goes1 as the 8handmaidens0 of ,theology1 the queen of all sciences4 ,but it may be looked upon as a mark of great progress in an age when ,queen ,theology had become rather sulky1 continually finding fault with her hand maidens1 and stigmatising every attention paid to them as conducive to disloyalty4 ,to these accusations the ,gaon answered that ,queen ,theology does not study her own interests4 ,knowledge of all arts and sciences1 the ,gaon maintained1 is necessary for the real understanding of the ,torah which embraces the whole of them4 ,from his own writings it is evident that he himself was familiar with ,euclid1 and his ,ayil ,meshulash contains several original developments of ,euclid4 ,it was at his suggestion that a certain ,baruch of ,sclow translated ,euclid into the ,hebrew language4 ,another way which led the ,gaon to the discovery of many truths was his study of the pre,talmudic literature1 and of the ,jerusalem ,talmud4 ,by some accident or other it came to pass that only the ,babylonian ,talmud was recognised as a guide in the practices of religious life4 ,as the great teachers and their pupils cared more for satisfying the religious wants of their flocks than for theoretic researches1 the consequence was that a most important part of the ancient ,rabbinic literature was almost entirely neglected by them for many centuries4 ,and it was certainly no exaggeration1 when ,r4 ,elijah said that even the ,gaonim and ,maimonides1 occupied as they were with the practical part of the law1 did not pay sufficient attention to the ,talmud of ,jerusalem and the ,tosephta47#ej7 ,the ,gaon was no official head of any ,jewish community1 and was but little troubled by decisions of questions which concern daily life4 ,he was thus in a position to leave for a little while the ,babylonian ,talmud and to become acquainted with the guides of the guide4 ,i refer to ,siphra1 ,siphr1 ,mechilta1 ,tosephta1 the ,seder ,olam17#ea7 the ,minor ,tractates17#eb7 and above all the ,talmud of ,jerusalem1 which1 regarded from an historical and critical point of view1 is even of more importance than its ,babylonian twinbrother4 ,but by this means there came a new light upon the whole of ancient ,rabbinic literature4 ,the words of the ,torah1 the ,midrash says1 are poor in one place1 but we shall find them rich in another place4 ,the ,gaon by his acquaintance with the whole of the ,torah had no difficulty whatever in discovering the rich places4 ,if there was a difficult passage in this or that ,tractate1 he showed1 by giving a reference to some other place1 that it was wanting in some words or lines4 ,obscure passages in the ,mishnah he tried to elucidate by parallel passages in the ,tosephta4 ,the too complicated controversies of the ,babylonian ,talmud he tried to explain by comparing them with the more ancient and more simple ,talmud of ,jerusalem4 ,there is little to be told of the ,gaon's private affairs4 ,even the date of his marriage with a certain ,miss ,anna of ,kaidon is not mentioned by his biographers4 ,but it may be taken for granted that1 in accordance with the custom in ,poland1 he married at a very early age1 say about eighteen years4 ,it was also when a young man that he travelled for some years through ,poland and ,germany4 ,it is rather difficult to say what his object may have been in making these travels--for the ,gaon was not the man to travel for pleasure's sake4 ,perhaps it was to become acquainted with the great ,rabbis of these countries4 ,it is also possible1 as others maintain1 that the ,gaon considered the many privations which a traveller had to endure a hundred and fifty years ago1 as an atonement for his imaginary sins4 ,indeed we find in many ascetic books that travelling1 or as they term it 8receiving upon oneself to be banished into the exile107#ec7 is recommended as a very successful substitute for penance4 ,at least it seems that the coachmen whom the ,gaon employed on his journeys looked at it from this point of view4 ,one of them went so far in adding to the privations of the ,gaon as to run away with his carriage when the ,rabbi alighted from it in order to read his prayers4 ,but the reading of the ,eighteen ,benedictions7#ed7 must not be interrupted excepting in the case of danger2 and the ,gaon did not consider it very dangerous to be left without money and without luggage4 ,these travels ended in the year #agde4 ,the ,gaon left ,wilna again at a later date with the purpose of going to ,palestine and settling there4 ,but he found so many obstacles on his way that he was soon compelled to give up his favourite plan and to return to his native town4 ,it is not known whether he left ,wilna again4 ,the position which the ,gaon occupied in ,wilna was1 as already hinted1 that of a private man4 ,he could never be prevailed upon to accept the post of ,rabbi or any other office in a ,jewish community4 ,i am unable to give the reason for his declining all the offers made to him in this direction4 ,but it may be suggested here that it was in the time of the ,gaon that there arose a bitter struggle between the ,rabbi and the ,jewish wardens of his native town1 which ended in the abolition of the office of ,rabbi4 ,the history of the struggle is the more irritating1 as it arose from the pettiest reasons imaginable4 ,people actually discovered that there was no light in the house of the ,rabbi after the middle of the night1 which fact might lead to the conclusion that he did not study later than #ab o'clock ,p4,m4 ,what an idle man6 ,and this idleness was the less pardonable in the eyes of the community1 as the ,rabbi's wife was so unfortunate as not to have been polite enough to some ,mrs4 ,warden4 ,under such circumstances we must not wonder if the ,gaon did not find it very desirable to meddle with congregational affairs in an official capacity4 ,the relation of the ,gaon to his contemporaries resembles rather the position in the olden times of a ,tanna or ,amora17#ee7 who neither enjoyed the title of ,nasin or that of ,ab ,beth ,din47#ef7 ,like ,r4 ,akiba1 or ,mar ,samuel1 the ,gaon became influential among his contemporaries only by his teaching and his exemplary life4 ,it must be said in praise of the ,jews of ,wilna that1 notwithstanding their petty behaviour towards their ecclesiastical chief1 they willingly submitted to the authority of the ,gaon 7who was devoid of all official authority74 ,they revered him as a saint4 ,to converse with the ,gaon was considered as a happy event in the life of a ,jew in ,wilna1 to be of any use to him as the greatest distinction a man could attain on earth4 ,but what is remarkable is the readiness with which even scholars acknowledged the authority of the ,gaon4 ,scholars are usually more slow in recognising greatness than simple mortals4 ,every new luminary does not only outshine their minor lights and thus hurt their personal vanity1 but it threatens also sometimes to obscure certain traditions which they wish to keep prominently in view4 ,but the literary genius of the ,gaon was too great to be opposed with success1 and his piety and devotion to religion far above suspicion4 ,thus the ,gaon was very soon recognised by his contemporaries as their master and guide2 not only in literary questions1 but also in matters of belief and conduct4 ,it would lead me too far to name here all the ,gaon's disciples4 ,it seems as if all the great scholars in his country considered themselves to be more or less his pupils4 ,the ,gaon used to give in the ,beth ,hammidrash1 which he founded1 public lectures on various subjects1 and the students who attended these lectures also claimed the honour of being called his pupils4 ,i shall mention here only his greatest disciple1 ,r4 ,chayim ,walosin1 who1 after the ,gaon1 influenced his countrymen more than any other scholar of that time4 ,this ,r4 ,chayim also did not occupy any official post among his brethren4 ,he was a cloth manufacturer by profession1 and was very prosperous in his business4 ,but it did not prevent him from being devoted to ,hebrew literature1 and he enjoyed a widespread fame as a great scholar4 ,but as soon as the fame of the ,gaon reached him1 he left cloth manufactory and scholarship behind1 and went to ,wilna to 8learn ,torah0 from the mouth of the great master4 ,it must be noticed that even the giving up of his claim to scholarship was no little sacrifice4 ,all our learning1 said some scholar in ,wilna1 disappeared as soon as we crossed the threshold of the ,gaon's house4 ,he made every disciple who came into close contact with him begin at the beginning4 ,he taught them ,hebrew grammar1 ,bible1 ,mishnah1 and many other subjects1 which were1 as already mentioned1 very often neglected by the ,talmudists of that time4 ,r4 ,chayim had also to go through all this course4 ,some would have considered such treatment a degradation4 ,r4 ,chayim1 however1 became the more attached to his master for it4 ,in such a way the life of the ,gaon was spent1 studying by himself or teaching his pupils4 ,it must be understood that to learn ,torah meant for the ,gaon more than mere brain work for the purpose of gaining knowledge4 ,to him it was a kind of service to ,god4 ,contemporaries who watched him when he was studying the ,torah observed that the effect wrought on the personality of the ,gaon was the same as when he was praying4 ,with every word his countenance flushed with joy2 with every line he was gaining strength for proceeding further4 ,only by looking at matters from this point of view shall we be able to understand the devotion and the love of the ,gaon for study4 ,there has been1 no doubt1 among the ,russian ,jews a strong tendency to exaggerate the intellectual qualities of the ,gaon4 ,but one can readily excuse such a tendency4 ,he was gifted by nature with such a wonderful memory that1 having read a book once1 he was able to recite it by heart for the rest of his life4 ,not less admirable was his sure grasp4 ,the most complicated controversies in the ,talmud1 into which other scholars would require whole days and weeks to find their way1 the ,gaon was able to read by a glance at the pages4 ,already as a boy he is said to have gone through in a single night the tractates ,zebachim and ,menachoth17#eg7 containing not less than two hundred and thirty pages1 the contents of which are sometimes so difficult as to make even an aged scholar despair of understanding them4 ,again1 he possessed so much commonsense that all the intellectual tricks of the casuistic schools did not exist for him4 ,and nevertheless his biographers tell us that he was so much occupied by his studies1 that he could not spare more than one hour and a half for sleep out of twentyfour hours4 ,this is1 no doubt1 an exaggeration4 ,but let us say five hours a day4 ,he had not time to take his meals regularly4 ,he used also1 according to tradition1 to repeat every chapter in the ,bible1 every passage in the ,talmud1 hundreds of times1 even if they presented no difficulty at all4 ,but it was1 as already said1 a matter of love for the ,gaon2 of love1 not of passing affection4 ,nothing on earth could be more despicable to the ,gaon than amateurs who dabble with ancient literature4 ,to understand a thing clearly made him happy4 ,he is said to have spent more than six months on a single ,mishnah in the tractate ,kilayim17#eh7 and felt himself the happiest man when he succeeded in grasping its real meaning4 ,not to be able to go into the depth of a subject1 to miss the truth embedded in a single passage1 caused him the most bitter grief4 ,a story told by his pupil1 ,r4 ,chayim1 may illustrate this fact4 ,one ,friday1 narrates ,r4 ,chayim1 the servant of the ,gaon came to him with the message that his master wanted to see him as soon as possible4 ,r4 ,chayim went instantly4 ,when he came into the house1 he found the ,gaon lying in bed with a bandage on his head and looking very ill4 ,the wife of the ,gaon also reported to him that it was more than three days since her husband had taken any food1 and that he had hardly enjoyed any sleep all this time4 ,all this misery was caused by reason of not having been able to understand some difficult passages in the ,talmud of ,jerusalem4 ,the ,gaon now asked his disciples to resume with him their researches4 ,heaven1 he said1 might have mercy upon them and open their eyes1 for it is written1 8,two are better than one03 and lo6 ,heaven did have mercy on them2 they succeeded in getting the true meaning of the passage4 ,the ,gaon recovered instantly1 and master and disciple had a very joyful ,sabbath4 ,he is also reported to have said on one occasion1 he would not like to have an angel for his teacher who would reveal to him all the mysteries of the ,torah4 ,such a condition is only befitting the world to come1 but in this world only things which are acquired by hard labour and great struggle are of any value4 ,the ,german representative of truth expressed the same thought in other words1 which are well worth repeating here3 8,did the ,almighty10 says ,lessing1 8holding in ,his right hand ,truth and in ,his left ,search after ,truth1 deign to tender me the one ,i might prefer1 in all humility and without hesitation ,i should select ,search after ,truth40 ,this absorption of all his being in the study of the ,torah may also1 ,i think1 account for the fact that his biographers have so little to say about the family of the ,gaon4 ,of his wife1 we know only that she died in the year #aghc4 ,not much fuller is our knowledge about his children4 ,the biographers speak of them as of the family 8which the ,lord has blessed10 referring to his two sons1 ,rabbi ,aryeh ,leb and ,rabbi ,abraham1 who were known as great scholars and very pious men4 ,the latter one is best known by his edition of a collection of smaller ,midrashim4 ,mention is also made of the ,gaon's sonsinlaw1 especially one ,rabbi ,moses of ,pinsk4 ,but this is all1 and we are told nothing either about their lives or their callings4 ,from his famous letter which he sent to his family when on his way to ,palestine1 we see that he was rather what one may call a severe father4 ,he bids his wife punish his children most severely for swearing1 scolding1 and speaking untruth4 ,he also advises her to live as retired a life as possible4 ,retirement he considers as a condition sine qua non for a religious life4 ,he even advises his daughter to read her prayers at home1 for in the synagogue she may get envious of the finer dresses of her friends1 which is a most terrible sin4 ,the only tender feature in this letter is perhaps where he implores his wife to be kind to his mother on account of her being a widow1 and it were a great sin to cause her the least annoyance4 ,from other passages we may gather that his family had at times to suffer hunger and cold by the excessive occupation of their father with the study of the ,torah and other religious works4 ,in short1 the ,gaon was a onesided1 severe ascetic1 and would never have deserved the title of a good father1 a good husband1 an amiable man or any other appellation derived from those ordinary 8household decencies0 which1 as ,macaulay informs us1 half of the tombstones claim for those who lie behind them4 ,but ,i am very much afraid that many a great man who has made his mark in history could never claim these household virtues as his own4 ,i do not want to enter here into the question whether ,judaism be an ascetic religion or not4 ,but even those who think ,judaism identical with what is called 8making the best of this life10 will not dispute the fact that ,jewish literature contains within it enough ascetic elements to justify the conduct of our greatest men whose lives were one longcontinued self denial and privation4 8,the ,torah10 says the ,talmud1 8cannot be obtained unless a man is prepared to give his life for it10 or as the ,talmud puts it1 in another place1 8if it be thy desire not to die1 cease to live before thou diest40 ,this was the principle by which the ,gaon's life was actuated4 ,and as he did not spare himself1 he could not spare others4 ,we could not expect him to act differently4 ,the ,scriptures tell us3 8,thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself40 ,but how is it with the man who never loved himself1 who never gave a thought to himself1 who never lived for himself1 but only for what he considered to be his duty and his mission from ,god on earth8 ,such a man we cannot expect to spend his time on coaxing and caressing us4 ,as to the charge of onesidedness at which ,i have hinted1 if the giving up of everything else for the purpose of devoting oneself to a scholarly and saintly life is onesidedness1 the ,gaon must certainly bear this charge2 but in a world where there are so many on the other side1 we ought1 ,i think1 to be only too grateful to ,providence for sending us from time to time great and strong onesided men1 who1 by their counterbalancing influence1 bring ,god's spoilt world to a certain equilibrium again4 ,to appease my more tender readers1 ,i should like only to say that there is no occasion at all for pitying ,mrs4 ,gaon4 ,it would be a miserable world indeed if a good digestion and stupidity were1 as a certain author maintained1 the only conditions of happiness4 ,saints are happy in their sufferings1 and noble souls find their happiness in sacrificing themselves for these sufferers4 ,another severe feature in the life of the ,gaon showed itself in his dispute with the ,chassidim4 ,i regret not to be able to enter here even into a brief account of the history of this struggle4 ,i shall only take leave to say that ,i am afraid each party was right1 the ,gaon as well as the ,chassidim2 the latter1 in attacking the ,rabbis of their time1 who mostly belonged to the casuistic schools1 and in their intellectual pursuits almost entirely neglected the emotional side of religion2 but none the less was the ,gaon right in opposing a system which1 as ,i have shown above1 involved the danger of leading to a worship of men4 ,excepting this incident1 the ,gaon never meddled with public affairs4 ,he lived in retirement1 always occupied with his own education and that of his disciples and friends4 ,it is most remarkable that1 in spite of his hard work and the many privations he had to endure1 he enjoyed good health almost all his life4 ,he never consulted a doctor4 ,it was not until the year #agia1 in the seventieth year of his life1 that he began to feel the decline of his health4 ,but he was not much interrupted by the failure of his powers4 ,as a means of recovery1 he esteemed very highly the conversation of the preacher ,jacob of ,dubna1 better known as the ,dubna ,maggid17#ei7 whose parables and sallies of wit the ,gaon used to enjoy very much4 ,on the eve of the ,day of ,atonement in the year #agig1 he fell very ill and gave his blessing to his children4 ,he died on the third day of the ,feast of ,tabernacles1 with the branch of the ,lulab7#fj7 in his hands4 ,the ,feast of ,joy1 relates a contemporary1 was turned into days of mourning4 ,in all the streets of ,wilna were heard only lamenting and crying voices4 ,the funeral orations delivered on this occasion in ,wilna1 as well as in other ,jewish communities1 would form a small library4 ,his disciples wept for their master1 the people of ,wilna for the ornament of their native town1 and the feeling of the ,jews in general was that 8the ,ark of ,god was taken away40 ,after the foregoing sketch1 the reader will hardly expect me to give an account of the ,gaon's literary productions4 ,the results of so long a life and such powers of mind devoted to one cause with such zeal and fervour1 would furnish by themselves the subject of a whole series of essays4 ,the tombstone set on his grave by his pious admirers bears the inscription1 8,the ,gaon gave heed and sought and set in order0--that is to say1 he wrote commentaries or notes on--8the ,bible1 the ,mishnah1 both ,talmuds1 the ,siphr1 ,siphra1 the ,zohar1 and many other works40 ,inscriptions on tombstones are proverbial for exaggeration1 and we all know the saying1 8as mendacious as an epitaph40 ,but a glance at the catalogue of the ,british ,museum under the heading of ,elijah ,wilna1 will show that this inscription makes a praiseworthy exception4 ,we will find that this list might be lengthened by many other works of great importance for ,jewish life and thought4 ,his commentary to the ,code of ,r4 ,joseph ,caro1 in which one will find that in many cases he knew the sources of the religious customs and usages1 put together in this work1 better than its compiler himself1 would have been sufficient to place him at the head of ,halachic scholarship1 whilst his notes and textual emendations to the ,tosephta and ,seder ,olam1 to the restoration of which he contributed so much1 would have sufficed to establish his fame as a critic of the first order4 ,and this is the more astonishing when we consider that all this was done without manuscripts or any other aid1 and by mere intuition4 ,we cannot wonder that scholars who had the opportunity of visiting great libraries and saw how the emendations of the ,gaon agreed sometimes with the readings given in the best manuscripts exclaimed very often3 8,only by inspiration could he have found out these secrets40 ,we have no need to go so far2 we shall simply say with the ,talmud1 8,the powers of the real sage surpass those of the prophet40 ,nay1 even had we possessed only his ,gleanings1 which form a kind of obiter dicta on various topics of ,jewish literature1 the ,gaon would have remained a model of clear thinking and real ingenuity for all future generations4 ,however1 a real appreciation of the ,gaon's greatness as a scholar would only be possible either by a thorough study of his works1 to which ,i have alluded1 or by giving many specimens of them4 ,the short space ,i am limited to makes such an undertaking impossible4 ,i shall therefore use what remains to me to say a few words on the salutary influence the ,gaon had on his countrymen1 the ,russian ,jews4 ,the ,russian ,jew is still a riddle to us4 ,we know this strange being only from the ,reports of the ,board of ,guardians or from bombastic phrases in public speeches2 for he has always been the victim of platform orators1 ,so over violent or over civil1 ,that every man with them is ,god or ,devil4 ,from all1 however1 that ,i can gather from the best ,jewish writers in ,russia1 ,i can only judge that the ,russian ,jew1 when transplanted to a foreign soil1 where he is cut off from the past and uncertain of his future1 is for the time at least in a position in which his true character cannot be truly estimated4 ,his real life is to be sought in his own country4 ,there1 amidst his friends and kinsmen who are all animated by the same ideals1 attached to the same traditions1 and proud of the same religious and charitable institutions1 everything is full of life and meaning to him4 ,thus1 a certain ,russian writer addresses his younger colleagues who find so much fault with the bygone world3 8,go and see how rich we always were in excellent men4 ,in every town and every village you would find scholars1 saints1 and philanthropists4 ,their merits could sustain worlds1 and each of them was an ornament of ,israel40 ,and he proceeds to give dozens of names of such excellent men1 who are not all indeed known to us1 but with whom the ,russian ,jew connects many noble and pious reminiscences of real greatness and heroic selfdenial1 and of whom he is justly proud4 ,the focus1 however1 of all this spiritual life is the ,yeshibah 7,talmudical ,college77#fa7 in ,walosin4 ,i hope that a glance at its history and constitution will not be found uninteresting4 ,the intellectual originator of this institution which bears the name ,yeshibah ,ets ,chayim 7,tree of ,life ,college717#fb7 was the ,gaon himself4 ,being convinced that the study of the ,torah is the very life of ,judaism1 but that this study must be conducted in a scientific1 not in a scholastic way1 he bade his chief disciple1 the ,r4 ,chayim already mentioned1 to found a college in which ,rabbinical literature should be taught according to his own true method4 ,it would seem that1 as long as the ,gaon was alive1 ,r4 ,chayim preferred to be a pupil rather than a teacher4 ,when1 however1 the ,gaon died1 ,r4 ,chayim did not rest till he had carried out the command of his master1 and in the year #ahjc the ,college was opened in ,walosin4 ,the cloth manufacturer and disciple now became ,rabbi and master4 ,he began on a small scale1 teaching at first only a few pupils4 ,but even for the sustenance of a small number he had not sufficient means1 and his pious wife sold her jewellery to help him in accomplishing his favourite plan4 ,this is the best refutation of the ,french proverb ,avare comme une ,rabbine4 ,the number1 however1 increased daily1 and before he died 7#ahbh71 he was fortunate enough to lecture to a hundred students4 ,the number of students in the year #ahhh amounted to #djj1 and the ,russian ,jews are thus right in asserting that they have the greatest ,talmudical ,college in the world4 ,it is evident that no private charity by a single man1 however great1 could suffice to maintain such large numbers4 ,thus ,r4 ,chayim was already compelled to appeal to the liberality of his ,russian brethren4 ,the name of ,r4 ,chayim1 and the still greater name of his master1 were recommendation enough1 and besides private offerings1 many communities promised large sums towards supporting the students in ,walosin4 ,from time to time also messengers are sent out by the committee to promote the interests of the ,yeshibah4 ,the writers to whom ,i owe these data tell us that these messengers travel to all parts of the world to collect offerings for ,walosin3 so that it is a standing joke with the students that the existence of the mythical river ,sambatyon7#fc7 may be questioned after all1 otherwise it must long have been discovered by these messengers who explore the whole world in their journeys4 ,but it would seem that this world is only a very small one4 ,for the whole income of the ,yeshibah has never exceeded the sum of about #ahjj4 ,of this a certain part is spent in providing the salaries of the teaching staff and proctors1 and on the repairs of the building2 whilst the rest is distributed amongst the students4 ,considering that no scholarship exceeds #ac--;it is only the forty immortals of ,walosin who receive such high stipends--considering again that the great majority of the students belong to the poorer classes and thus receive no remittance from their parents1 we may be sure that the words of the ,talmud3 8,this is the way to study the ,torah2 eat bread and salt1 drink water by measure1 sleep on the earth1 and live a life of care10 are carried out by them literally4 ,but it would seem that the less they eat and the less they sleep1 the more they work4 ,indeed the industry and the enthusiasm of these ,bachurim 7alumni77#fd7 in the study of the ,torah is almost unsurpassable4 ,the official hours alone extend from nine in the morning until ten in the evening1 while many of the students volunteer to continue their studies till the middle of the night1 or to begin the day at three in the morning4 ,as to the subject of these studies1 it is confined1 as may be imagined1 to the exploration of the old ,rabbinic literature in all its branches4 ,but it would be a mistake to think that the modern spirit has left ,walosin quite untouched4 ,it would be impossible that among #djj thinking heads there should not be a few who are interested in mathematics1 others again in philosophy or history1 while yet others would conjugate the irregular verbs of some classical language when moving to and fro over their ,talmud folios and pretending to 8learn40 ,indeed1 almost all the writers who demand that these subjects should be introduced as obligatory into the programme of ,walosin1 belonged themselves to this ,yeshibah4 ,and it is these writers who betray the secret how secular knowledge is now invading the precincts of ,walosin1 as well as of other ,talmudical ,colleges in spite of all obstacles and prohibitions4 ,in conquering these difficulties seem to consist the pleasures of life of many ,bachurim at ,walosin4 ,look only at that undergraduate1 how1 after a heavy day's work he is standing there in the street reading ,buckle's ,history of ,civilisation in the moonlight6 ,poor man1 he is not so romantic as to prefer the moonlight to a cheerful1 warm room1 with the more prosaic light of a candle1 but he has got tired of knocking at the door1 for his landlady1 to whom he has neglected to pay rent for the last three terms1 made up her mind to let him freeze to night4 ,but still more cruel to him is his fellowsufferer1 who is also wandering in the streets with an overloaded brain and empty stomach2 he roughly shakes him out of his dreams by telling him that ,buckle is long ago antiquated1 and that he had better study the works of ,herbert ,spencer1 who has spoken the last word on every vital subject in the world4 ,still these two starving and freezing representatives of ,english thought in ,walosin form only an exception4 ,the general favourites are the representatives of ,jewish thought4 ,that such books as the ,guide of the ,perplexed1 by ,maimonides1 the ,metaphysical ,researches of ,levi b4 ,gershom17#fe7 and other philosophical works of the ,spanish school are read by the ,walosin students it is needless to say4 ,these books now form a part of the ,rabbinic literature1 and it would be almost unorthodox to suspect their readers4 ,but is worth noticing that even the productions of the modern historicocritical school1 such as the works of ,zunz1 ,frankel1 ,graetz1 ,weiss1 are very popular with the ,bachurim1 being much read and discussed by them4 ,thus ,walosin deserves rightly to be considered as the centre of ,jewish thought in ,russia1 in which the spirit of the ,gaon is still working4 ,i have very often1 however1 heard doubts expressed as to the continuance of this spirit when1 as it is to be hoped1 better times come for the ,jews in ,russia4 ,is it not to be feared that liberty and emancipation will render untenable ideas and notions which arose under entirely different circumstances8 ,there is no need of entertaining such fears4 ,rabbi ,jedaiah of ,bedres7#ff7 concludes his philosophical work ,examination of the ,world1 with the following words3 8,the conclusion of the whole matter is1 go either to the right1 my heart1 or go to the left1 but believe all that ,r4 ,moses ben ,maimon 7,maimonides7 has believed1 the last of the ,gaonim by time1 but the first in rank40 ,about five hundred years have passed away since these lines were written4 ,time1 as we have seen1 has brought another ,gaon1 and probably ,time will favour us in future with still another4 ,but times have also altered4 ,the rebellious hearts of a liberal age are not likely to obey always the command1 8believe all that the ,gaon said40 ,but the heart of man will in all ages retain idealism enough to love and revere the greatest of men and to follow what was best in them4 ,,iv4 ,,nachmanides7#fg7 ,r4 ,chayim ,vital1 in his ,book of the ,transmigrations of ,souls1 gives the following bold characteristic of the two great teachers of ,judaism1 ,maimonides and ,nachmanides4 ,their souls both sprang forth from the head of ,adam--it is a favourite idea of the ,cabbalists to evolve the whole of ideal humanity from the archetype ,adam--but the former1 ,maimonides1 had his genius placed on the left curl of ,adam1 which is all judgment and severity1 whilst that of the latter1 ,nachmanides1 had its place on the right curl1 which represents rather mercy and tenderness4 ,i start from these words in order to avoid disappointment4 ,for ,nachmanides was a great ,talmudist1 a great ,bible student1 a great philosopher1 a great controversialist1 and1 perhaps1 also a great physician2 in one word1 great in every respect1 possessed of all the culture of his age4 ,but1 as ,i have already indicated by the passage quoted by way of introduction1 it is not of ,nachmanides in any of these excellent qualities that ,i wish to write here4 ,for these aspects of his life and mind ,i must refer the reader to the works of ,graetz1 ,weiss1 ,steinschneider1 ,perles1 and others4 ,i shall mostly confine myself to those features and peculiarities in his career and works which will illustrate ,nachmanides the tender and compassionate1 the ,nachmanides who represented ,judaism from the side of emotion and feeling1 as ,maimonides did from the side of reason and logic4 ,r4 ,moses ben ,nachman1 or ,bonastruc de ,portas1 as he was called by his fellowcountrymen1 or ,nachmanides1 as he is commonly called now1 was born in ,gerona about the year #aaie4 ,gerona is a little town in the province of ,catalonia in ,spain4 ,but though in ,spain1 ,gerona was not distinguished for its philosophers or poets like ,granada1 ,barcelona1 or ,toledo4 ,situated as it was in the ,north of ,spain1 ,gerona was under the influence of ,franco ,jewish sympathies1 and thus its boast lay in the great ,talmudists that it produced4 ,i shall only mention the name of ,r4 ,zerahiah ,hallevi ,gerundi--so called after his native place--whose strictures on the ,code of ,r4 ,isaac ,alfasi1 which he began as a youth of nineteen years1 will always remain a marvel of critical insight and independent research4 ,nachmanides is supposed by some authors to have been a descendant of ,r4 ,isaac ben ,reuben of ,barcelona1 whose hymns are still to be found in certain rituals4 ,the evidence for this is insufficient1 but we know that he was a cousin of ,r4 ,jonah ,gerundi1 not less famous for his ,talmudic learning than for his saintliness and piety4 ,nachmanides thus belonged to the best ,jewish families of ,gerona4 ,various great men are mentioned as his teachers1 but we have certainty only about two1 namely ,r4 ,judah ben ,yakar1 the commentator of the prayers1 and ,r4 ,meir ben ,nathan of ,trinquintaines4 ,the mystic1 ,r4 ,ezra 7or ,azriel71 is indeed alleged to have been his instructor in the ,cabbalah1 and this is not impossible1 as he also was an inhabitant of ,gerona2 but it is more probable that ,nachmanides was initiated into the ,cabbalah by the ,r4 ,judah just mentioned1 who also belonged to the mystical school4 ,whoever his masters were1 they must have been well satisfied with their promising pupil1 for he undertook1 at the age of fifteen1 to write supplements to the ,code of ,r4 ,isaac ,alfasi4 ,nor was it at a much later date that he began to compose his work1 ,the ,wars of the ,lord1 in which he defends this great codifier against the strictures of ,r4 ,zerahiah1 to which we have referred above4 ,i shall in the course of this essay have further occasion to speak of this latter work2 for the present we will follow the career of its author4 ,concerning the private life of ,nachmanides very little has come down to us4 ,we only know that he had a family of sons and daughters4 ,he was not spared the greatest grief that can befall a father1 for he lost a son2 it was on the day of the ,new ,year47#fh7 ,on the other hand1 it must have been a great source of joy to him when he married his son ,solomon to the daughter of ,r4 ,jonah1 whom he revered as a saint and a man of ,god4 ,as a token of the admiration in which he held his friend1 the following incident may be mentioned4 ,it seems that it was the custom in ,spain to name the first child in a family after his paternal grandfather2 but ,nachmanides ceded his right in behalf of his friend1 and thus his daughterinlaw's first son was named ,jonah4 ,another son of ,nachmanides whom we know of was ,nachman1 to whom his father addressed his letters from ,palestine1 and who also wrote ,novell to the ,talmud1 still extant in ,,ms4 ,but the later posterity of ,nachmanides is better known to fame4 ,r4 ,levi ben ,gershom was one of his descendants2 so was also ,r4 ,simeon ,duran27#fi7 whilst ,r4 ,jacob ,sasportas1 in the eighteenth century17#gj7 derived his pedigree from ,nachmanides in the eleventh generation4 ,as to his calling1 he was occupied as ,rabbi and teacher1 first in ,gerona and afterwards in ,barcelona4 ,but this meant as much as if we should say of a man that he is a philanthropist by profession1 with the only difference that the treasures of which ,nachmanides disposed were more of a spiritual kind4 ,for his livelihood he probably depended upon his medical practice4 ,i need hardly say that the life of ,nachmanides1 8whose words were held in ,catalonia in almost as high authority as the ,scriptures10 was not without its great public events4 ,at least we know of two4 ,the one was about the year #abcb1 on the occasion of the great struggle about ,maimonides' ,guide of the ,perplexed1 and the first book of his great ,compendium of the ,law4 ,the ,maimonists looked upon these works almost as a new revelation1 whilst the ,anti,maimonists condemned both as heretical1 or at least conducive to heresy47#ga7 ,it would be profitless to reproduce the details of this sad affair4 ,the motives may have been pure and good1 but the actions were decidedly bad4 ,people denounced each other1 excommunicated each other1 and did not 7from either side7 spare even the dead from the most bitter calumnies4 ,nachmanides stood between two fires4 ,the ,french ,rabbis1 from whom most of the ,anti,maimonists were recruited1 he held in very high esteem and considered himself as their pupil4 ,some of the leaders of this party were also his relatives4 ,he1 too1 had1 as we shall see later on1 a theory of his own about ,god and the world little in agreement with that of ,maimonides4 ,it is worth noting that ,nachmanides objected to calling ,maimonides 8our teacher ,moses0 7,rabbenu ,mosheh717#gb7 thinking it improper to confer upon him the title by which the ,rabbis honoured the ,master of the ,prophets4 ,the very fact1 however1 that he had some theory of the ,universe shows that he had a problem to solve1 whilst the real ,french ,rabbis were hardly troubled by difficulties of a metaphysical character4 ,indeed1 ,nachmanides pays them the rather doubtful compliment that ,maimonides' work was not intended for them1 who were barricaded by their faith and happy in their belief1 wanting no protection against the works of ,aristotle and ,galen1 by whose philosophy others might be led astray4 ,in other words1 their strength lay in an ignorance of ,greek philosophy1 to which the cultivated ,jews of ,spain would not aspire4 ,nachmanides was also a great admirer of ,maimonides1 whose virtues and great merits in the service of ,judaism he describes in his letter to the ,french ,rabbis4 ,thus1 the only way left open to him was to play the part of the conciliator4 ,the course of this struggle is fully described in every ,jewish history4 ,it is sufficient to say that1 in spite of his great authority1 ,nachmanides was not successful in his effort to moderate the violence of either party1 and that the controversy was at last settled through the harsh interference of outsiders who wellnigh crushed ,maimonists and ,anti,maimonists alike4 ,the second public event in the life of ,nachmanides was his ,disputation1 held in ,barcelona1 at the ,court and in the presence of ,king ,jayme ,i41 of ,aragon1 in the year #abfc4 ,it was the usual story4 ,a convert to ,christianity1 named ,pablo ,christiani1 who burned with zealous anxiety to see his former coreligionists saved1 after many vain attempts in this direction1 applied to the ,king of ,aragon to order ,nachmanides to take part in a public disputation4 ,pablo maintained that he could prove the justice of the ,messianic claims of ,jesus from the ,talmud and other ,rabbinic writings4 ,if he could only succeed in convincing the great ,rabbi of ,spain of the truth of his argument1 the bulk of the ,jews was sure to follow4 ,by the way1 it was the same ,talmud which some twenty years previously was1 at the instance of another ,jewish convert1 burned in ,paris1 for containing passages against ,christianity4 ,nachmanides had to conform with the command of the king1 and1 on the #bast of ,july1 #abfc1 was begun the controversy1 which lasted for four or five days4 ,i do not think that there is in the whole domain of literature less profitable reading than that of the controversies between ,jews and ,christians4 ,these public disputations occasionally forced the ,jews themselves to review their position towards their own literature1 and led them to draw clearer distinctions between what they regarded as religion and what as folklore4 ,but beyond this1 the polemics between ,jews and ,christians were barren of good results4 ,if you have read one you have read enough for all time4 ,the same casuistry and the same disregard of history turn up again and again4 ,nervousness and humility are always on the side of the ,jews1 who know that1 whatever the result may be1 the end will be persecution2 arrogance is always on the side of their antagonists1 who are supported by a band of ,knights of the ,holy ,cross1 prepared to prove the soundness of their cause at the point of their daggers4 ,besides1 was there enough common ground between ,judaism and thirteenth century ,christianity to have justified the hope of a mutual understanding8 ,the ,old ,testament was almost forgotten in the ,church4 ,the ,first ,person in the ,trinity was leading a sort of shadowy existence in art1 which could only be the more repulsive to a ,jew on that account4 ,the largest part of ,church worship was monopolised by devotion to the ,virgin ,mother1 prayers to the saints1 and kneeling before their relics4 ,and a ,jew may well be pardoned if he did not entertain higher views of this form of worship than ,luther and ,knox did at a later period4 ,it will thus not be worth our while to dwell much on the matter of this controversy1 in which the essence of the real dispute is scarcely touched4 ,there are only two points in it which are worth noticing4 ,the first is that ,nachmanides declared the ,agadoth7#gc7 in the ,talmud to be only a series of sermons 7he uses this very word71 expressing the individual opinions of the preacher1 and thus possessing no authoritative weight4 ,the convert ,pablo is quite aghast at this statement1 and accuses ,nachmanides of heterodoxy4 ,secondly1--and here ,i take leave to complete the rather obscure passage in the controversy by a parallel in his book1 ,the ,date of ,redemption17#gd7 quoted by ,azariah de ,rossi--that the question of the ,messiah is not of that dogmatic importance to the ,jews that ,christians imagine4 ,for even if ,jews supposed their sins to be so great that they forfeited all the promises made to them in the ,scriptures1 or that1 on some hidden ground1 it would please the ,almighty never to restore their national independence1 this would in no way alter the obligations of ,jews towards the ,torah4 ,nor is the coming of the ,messiah desired by ,jews as an end in itself4 ,for it is not the goal of their hopes that they shall be able again to eat of the fruit of ,palestine1 or enjoy other pleasures there2 not even the chance of the restoration of sacrifices and the worship of the ,temple is the greatest of ,jewish expectations 7connected with the appearance of the ,messiah74 ,what makes them long for his coming is the hope that they will then witness1 in the company of the prophets and priests1 a greater spread of purity and holiness than is now possible4 ,in other words1 the possibility for them to live a holy life after the will of ,god will be greater than now4 ,but1 on the other hand1 considering that such a godly life under a ,christian government requires greater sacrifices than it would under a ,jewish king2 and1 considering again that the merits and rewards of a good act increase with the obstacles that are in the way of executing it--considering this1 a ,jew might even prefer to live under the ,king of ,aragon than under the ,messiah1 where he would perforce act in accordance with the precepts of the ,torah4 ,now there is in this statement much that has only to be looked upon as a compliment to the government of ,spain4 ,i am inclined to think that if the alternative laid before ,nachmanides had been a really practical one1 he would have decided in favour of the clement rule of the ,messiah in preference to that of the most cruel king on earth4 ,but the fact that he repeats this statement in another place1 where there was no occasion to be over polite to the ,government1 tends to show1 as we have said1 that the belief in the ,messiah was not the basis on which ,nachmanides' religion was built up4 ,the result of the controversy is contested by the different parties2 the ,christian writers claim the victory for ,pablo1 whilst the ,jewish documents maintain that the issue was with ,nachmanides4 ,in any case1 8,der ,jude wird verbrannt40 ,for in the next year 7#abfd7 all the books of the ,jews in ,aragon were confiscated and submitted to the censorship of a commission1 of which the wellknown author of the ,pugio ,fidei1 ,raymund ,martini1 was1 perhaps1 the most important member4 ,the books were not burned this time1 but had to suffer a severe mutilation2 the anti,christian passages1 or such as were supposed to be so1 were struck out or obliterated4 ,nachmanides' account of the controversy1 which he probably published from a sense of duty towards those whom he represented1 was declared to contain blasphemies against the dominant religion4 ,the pamphlet was condemned to be burned publicly1 whilst the author was1 as it seems1 punished with expulsion from his country4 ,it is not reported where ,nachmanides found a home during the next three years2 probably he had to accept the hospitality of his friends1 either in ,castile or in the south of ,france2 but we know that in the year #abfg he left ,europe and emigrated to ,palestine4 ,nachmanides was1 at this juncture of his life1 already a man of about seventy4 ,but it would seem as if the seven decades which he had spent in the ,spanish ,peninsula were only meant as a preparation for the three years which he was destined to live in the ,holy ,land1 for it was during this stage of his life that the greatest part of his ,commentary on the ,pentateuch was written4 ,in this work1 as is agreed on all sides1 his finest thoughts and noblest sentiments were put down4 ,before proceeding to speak of his works1 let us first cast a glance at his letters from ,palestine1 forming as they do a certain link between his former life and that which was to occupy him exclusively for the rest of his days4 ,we have three letters1 the first of which ,i shall translate here in extenso4 ,the letter was written soon after his arrival at ,jerusalem in the year #abfg4 ,it was addressed to his son ,nachman1 and runs as follows3-- 8,the ,lord shall bless thee1 my son ,nachman1 and thou shalt see the good of ,jerusalem4 ,yea1 thou shalt see thy children's children 7,ps4 cxxviii471 and thy table shall be like that of our father ,abraham67#ge7 ,in ,jerusalem1 the ,holy ,city1 ,i write this letter4 ,for1 thanks and praise unto the rock of my salvation1 ,i was thought worthy by ,god to arrive here safely on the #ith of the month of ,elul1 and ,i remained there till the day after the ,day of ,atonement4 ,now ,i intend going to ,hebron1 to the sepulchre of our ancestors1 to prostrate myself1 and there to dig my grave4 ,but what am ,i to say to you with regard to the country8 ,great is the solitude and great the wastes1 and1 to characterise it in short1 the more sacred the places1 the greater their desolation6 ,jerusalem is more desolate than the rest of the country3 ,juda more than ,galilee4 ,but even in this destruction it is a blessed land4 ,it has about #bjjj inhabitants1 about #cjj ,christians live there who escaped the sword of the ,sultan4 ,there are no ,jews4 ,for since the arrival of the ,tartars1 some fled1 others died by the sword4 ,there are only two brothers1 dyers by trade1 who have to buy their ingredients from the government4 ,there the ,ten ,men7#gf7 meet1 and on ,sabbaths they hold service at their house4 ,but we encouraged them1 and we succeeded in finding a vacant house1 built on pillars of marble with a beautiful arch4 ,that we took for a synagogue4 ,for the town is without a master1 and whoever will take possession of the ruins can do so4 ,we gave our offerings towards the repairs of the house4 ,we have sent already to ,shechem to fetch some scrolls of the ,law from there which had been brought thither from ,jerusalem at the invasion of the ,tartars4 ,thus they will organise a synagogue and worship there4 ,for continually people crowd to ,jerusalem1 men and women1 from ,damascus1 ,zobah 7,aleppo717#gg7 and from all parts of the country to see the ,sanctuary and to mourn over it4 ,he who thought us worthy to let us see ,jerusalem in her desertion1 he shall bless us to behold her again1 built and restored1 when the glory of the ,lord will return unto her4 ,but you1 my son1 and your brothers and the whole of our family1 you all shall live to see the salvation of ,jerusalem and the comfort of ,zion4 ,these are the words of your father who is yearning and forgetting1 who is seeing and enjoying1 ,moses ben ,nachman4 ,give also my peace to my pupil ,moses1 the son of ,solomon1 the nephew of your mother4 ,i wish to tell him 444 that there1 facing the holy temple1 ,i have read his verses1 weeping bitterly over them4 ,may he who caused his name to rest in the ,holy ,temple increase your peace together with the peace of the whole community40 ,this letter may be illustrated by a few parallels taken from the appendix to ,nachmanides' ,commentary to the ,pentateuch1 which contains some rather incoherent notes which the author seems to have jotted down when he arrived in ,jerusalem4 ,after a lengthy account of the material as well as the spiritual glories of the holy city in the past1 he proceeds to say3-- 8,a mournful sight ,i have perceived in thee 7,jerusalem72 only one ,jew is here1 a dyer1 persecuted1 oppressed and despised4 ,at his house gather great and small when they can get the ,ten ,men4 ,they are wretched folk1 without occupation and trade1 consisting of a few pilgrims and beggars1 though the fruit of the land is still magnificent and the harvests rich4 ,indeed1 it is still a blessed country1 flowing with milk and honey4444 ,oh6 ,i am the man who saw affliction4 ,i am banished from my table1 far removed from friend and kinsman1 and too long is the distance to meet again4444 ,i left my family1 ,i forsook my house4 ,there with my sons and daughters1 and with the sweet and dear children whom ,i have brought up on my knees1 ,i left also my soul4 ,my heart and my eyes will dwell with them for ever4444 ,but the loss of all this and of every other glory my eyes saw is compensated by having now the joy of being a day in thy courts 7,o ,jerusalem71 visiting the ruins of the ,temple and crying over the ruined ,sanctuary2 where ,i am permitted to caress thy stones1 to fondle thy dust1 and to weep over thy ruins4 ,i wept bitterly1 but ,i found joy in my tears4 ,i tore my garments1 but ,i felt relieved by it40 ,of some later date is his letter from ,acra1 which may be considered as a sort of ethical will1 and which has been justly characterised as a eulogy of humility4 ,here is an extract from it3-- 8,accustom yourself to speak gently to all men at all times1 and thus you will avoid anger1 which leads to so much sin4444 ,humility is the first of virtues2 for if you think how lowly is man1 how great is ,god1 you will fear ,him and avoid sinfulness4 ,on the humble man rests the divine glory2 the man that is haughty to others denies ,god4 ,look not boldly at one whom you address4444 ,regard every one as greater than thyself4444 ,remember always that you stand before ,god1 both when you pray and when you converse with others4444 ,think before you speak4444 ,act as ,i have bidden you1 and your words1 and deeds1 and thoughts1 will be honest1 and your prayers pure and acceptable before ,god40 ,the third letter is addressed to his son 7,r4 ,solomon87 who was staying 7in the service of the king7 in ,castile4 ,it is in its chief content a eulogy of chastity47#gh7 ,probably ,nachmanides had some dread of the dangerous allurements of the court1 and he begs his son never to do anything of which he knows that his father would not approve1 and to keep his father's image always before his eyes4 ,as to his works1 we may divide them into two classes4 ,the one would contain those of a strictly legalistic 7,halachic71 whilst the other those of a more homileticexegetical and devotional character 7,agadic74 ,as already indicated in the preliminary lines of this paper1 ,i cannot dwell long on the former class of our author's writings4 ,it consists either of ,glosses or ,novell to the ,talmud1 in the style and manner of the ,french ,rabbis1 or of ,compendia of certain parts of the ,law after the model set by ,r4 ,isaac ,alfasi or ,maimonides1 or in defences of the 8,earlier ,authorities0 against the strictures made on them by a later generation4 ,a few words must be said with regard to these defences2 for they reveal that deep respect for authority which forms a special feature of ,nachmanides' writings4 ,his ,wars of the ,lord1 in which he defends ,alfasi against ,r4 ,zerahiah of ,gerona1 was undertaken when he was very young1 whilst his defence of the author of the ,halachoth ,gedoloth7#gi7 against the attacks of ,maimonides1 which he began at a much more mature age1 shows the same deference 8to the great ones of the past40 ,indeed1 he says in one place1 8,we bow before them 7the earlier authorities71 and though their words are not quite evident to us we submit to them02 or1 as he expresses himself elsewhere1 8,only he who dips 7deeply enough7 in the wisdom of the #8ancient ones' will drink the pure 7old7 wine40 ,but it would be unjust to the genius of ,nachmanides to represent him as a blind worshipper of authority4 ,humble and generous in disposition1 he certainly would bow before every recognised authority1 and he would also think it his duty to take up the cudgels for him as long as there was even the least chance of making an honourable defence4 ,but when this chance had gone1 when ,nachmanides was fully convinced that his hero was in the wrong1 he followed no guide but truth4 8,notwithstanding10 he says in his introduction to the defences of the ,halachoth ,gedoloth1 8my desire and delight to be the disciple of the ,earlier ,authorities1 to maintain their views and to assert them1 ,i do not consider myself a #8donkey carrying books4' ,i will explain their way and appreciate their value1 but when their views are inconceivable to my thoughts1 ,i will plead in all modesty1 but shall judge according to the sight of my eyes4 ,and when the meaning is clear ,i shall flatter none1 for the ,lord gives wisdom in all times and ages40 ,but1 on the other hand1 there seems to have been a certain sort of literary agnosticism about ,nachmanides which made it very difficult for him to find the 8clear meaning40 ,the passage in the ,wars of the ,lord to the effect 8that there is in the art 7of commenting7 no such certain demonstration as in mathematics or astronomy10 is well known and has often been quoted2 but still more characteristic of this literary agnosticism is the first paragraph of the abovementioned defences of the ,halachoth ,gedoloth4 ,whilst all his predecessors accepted1 on the authority of ,r4 ,simlai17#hj7 the number 7#fac7 of the commandments as an uncontested fact1 and based their compositions on it1 ,nachmanides questions the whole matter1 and shows that the passages relating to this enumeration of laws are only of a homiletical nature1 and thus of little consequence4 ,nay1 he goes so far as to say1 8,indeed the system how to number the commandments is a matter in which ,i suspect all of us 7are mistaken7 and the truth must be left to him who will solve all doubts40 ,we should thus be inclined to think that this adherence to the words of the earlier ,authorities was at least as much due to this critical scepticism as to his conservative tendencies4 ,the space left to me ,i shall devote to the second class of his writings1 in which ,nachmanides worked less after given types4 ,these reveal to us more of his inner being1 and offer us some insight into his theological system4 ,the great problem which seems to have presented itself to ,nachmanides' mind was less how to reconcile religion with reason than how to reconcile man with religion4 ,what is man8 ,the usual answer is not flattering4 ,he is an animal that owes its existence to the same instinct that produces even the lower creatures1 and he is condemned1 like them1 to go to a place of worm and maggot4 ,but1 may not one ask1 why should a creature so lowly born1 and doomed to so hapless a future1 be burdened with the awful responsibility of knowing that he is destined 8to give reckoning and judgment before the ,king of kings1 the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he08 ,it is true that man is also endowed with a heavenly soul1 but this only brings us back again to the antithesis of flesh and spirit which was the stumblingblock of many a theological system4 ,nor does it help us much towards the solution of the indicated difficulty2 for what relation can there be between this materia impura of body and the pure intellect of soul8 ,and again1 must not the unfavourable condition in which the latter is placed through this uncongenial society heavily clog and suppress all aspiration for perfection8 ,it is 8a house divided against itself10 doomed to an everlasting contest1 without hope for cooperation or even of harmony4 ,the works ,the ,sacred ,letter and ,the ,law of ,man may be considered as an attempt by ,nachmanides1 if not to remove1 at least to relieve the harshness of this antithesis4 ,the former1 in which he blames ,maimonides for following ,aristotle in denouncing certain desires implanted in us by nature as ignominious and unworthy of man1 may1 perhaps1 be characterised as a vindication of the flesh from a religious point of view4 ,the contempt in which 8that ,greek10 as ,nachmanides terms ,aristotle1 held the flesh is inconsistent with the theory of the religious man1 who believes that everything 7including the body1 with all its functions7 is created by ,god1 whose work is perfect and good1 without impure or inharmonious parts4 ,it is only sin and neglect that disfigure ,god's creations4 ,i cannot enter into any further details of this work1 but ,i may be permitted to remark that there is a very strong similarity between the tendency of the ,sacred ,letter and certain leading ideas of ,milton4 ,indeed1 if the first two chapters of the former were a little condensed and put into ,english1 they could not be better summarised than by the famous lines in the ,paradise ,lost3-- ,whatever hypocrites austerely talk ,of purity1 and place1 and innocence1 ,defaming as impure what ,god declares ,pure1 and commands to some1 leaves free to all1 ,our ,maker bids increase2 who bids abstain ,but our destroyer1 foe to ,god and man8 ,hail1 wedded love1 mysterious law6444 ,far be it that ,i should write thee sin or blame ,or think thee unbefitting holiest place1 ,perpetual fountain of domestic sweets4 ,the second of these two works1 the ,law of ,man1 may be regarded as a sanctification of grief1 and particularly of the grief of griefs1 death4 ,the bulk of the book is legalistic1 treating of mourning rites1 burial customs1 and similar topics2 but there is much in the preface which bears on our subject4 ,for here again ,nachmanides takes the opportunity of combating a chilling philosophy1 which tries to arm us against suffering by stifling our emotions4 8,my son10 he says1 8be not persuaded by certain propositions of the great philosophers who endeavour to harden our hearts and to deaden our sensations by their idle comfort1 which consists in denying the past and despairing of the future4 ,one of them has even declared that there is nothing in the world over the loss of which it is worth crying1 and the possession of which would justify joy4 ,this is an heretical view4 ,our perfect ,torah bids us to be joyful in the day of prosperity and to shed tears in the day of misfortune4 ,it in no way forbids crying or demands of us to suppress our grief4 ,on the contrary1 the ,torah suggests to us that to mourn over heavy losses is equivalent to a service of ,god1 leading us1 as it does1 to reflect on our end and ponder over our destiny40 ,this destiny1 as well as ,reward and ,punishment in general1 is treated in the concluding chapter of the ,law of ,man1 which is known under the title of ,the ,gate of ,reward47#ha7 ,nachmanides does not conceal from himself the difficulties besetting inquiries of this description4 ,he knows well enough that in the last instance we must appeal to that implicit faith in the inscrutable justice of ,god with which the believer begins4 ,nevertheless he thinks that only the 8despisers of wisdom0 would fail to bring to this faith as full a conviction as possible1 which latter is only to be gained by speculation4 ,i shall have by and by occasion to refer to the results of this speculation4 ,here we must only notice the fact of ,nachmanides insisting on the bodily resurrection which will take place after the coming of the ,messiah1 and will be followed by the ,olam ,habba7#hb7 7the life in the world to come7 of which the ,rabbis spoke4 ,irrational as this belief may look1 it is only a consequence of his theory1 which1 as we have seen1 assigns even to the flesh an almost spiritual importance4 ,indeed1 he thinks that the soul may have such an influence on the body as to transform the latter into so pure an essence that it will become safe for eternity4 ,for1 as he hints in another place1 by the continual practising of a thing the whole man1 the body included1 becomes so identified with the thing that we call him after it1 just as the ,holy ,singer said3 ,i am prayer17#hc7 so that-- ,oft converse with heavenly habitants ,begins to cast a beam on the outward shape1 ,the unpolluted temple of the mind1 ,and turns it by degrees to the soul's essence1 ,till all be made immortal4 ,but if even the body holds such a high position as to make all its instincts and functions1 if properly regulated1 a service of ,god1 and to destine it for a glorious future of eternal bliss and rejoicing in ,god1 we can easily imagine what a high place the soul must occupy in the system of ,nachmanides4 ,to be sure it is a much higher one than that to which philosophy would fain admit her4 ,a beautiful parable of the ,persian poet ,yellaladeen 7quoted by the late ,mr4 ,lowell7 narrates that 8,one knocked at the beloved's door1 and a voice asked from within1 #8,who is there8' and he answered1 #8,it is ,i4' ,then the voice said1 #8,this house will not hold me and thee1' and the door was not opened4 ,then went the lover into the desert and fasted and prayed in solitude1 and after a year he returned and knocked again at the door1 and again the voice asked #8,who is there8' and he said #8,it is thyself'2 and the door was opened to him40 ,this is also the difference between the two schools--the mystical and the philosophical--with regard to the soul4 ,with the rationalist the soul is indeed a superior abstract intelligence created by ,god1 but1 like all ,his creations1 has an existence of its own1 and is thus separated from ,god4 ,with the mystic1 however1 the soul is ,god1 or a direct emanation from ,god4 8,for he who breathes into another thing 7,gen4 ii4 #g7 gives unto it something of his own breath 7or soul710 and as it is said in ,job xxxii4 #h1 8,and the soul of the ,almighty giveth them understanding40 ,this emanation1 or rather immanence--for ,nachmanides insists in another place that the ,hebrew term employed for it1 ,aziluth17#hd7 means a permanent dwelling with the thing emanating--which became manifest with the creation of man1 must not be confounded with the moving soul 7or the ,nephesh ,chayah717#he7 which is common to man with all creatures4 ,it may be remarked here that ,nachmanides endows all animals with a soul which is derived from the 8,superior ,powers10 and its presence is proved by certain marks of intelligence which they show4 ,by this fact he tries to account for the law prohibiting cruelty to animals1 8all souls belonging to ,god40 ,their original disposition was1 it would seem1 according to ,nachmanides1 peaceful and harmless4 ,about them frisking played ,all beasts of earth1 since wild1 and of all chase ,in wood or wilderness1 forest or den4 ,it was only after man had sinned that war entered into creation1 but with the coming of the ,messiah1 when sin will disappear1 all the living beings will regain their primval gentleness1 and be reinstituted in their first rights4 ,the special soul of man1 however1 or rather the 8oversoul10 was pre existent to the creation of the world1 treasured up as a wave in the sea or fountain of souls--dwelling in the eternal light and holiness of ,god4 ,there1 in ,god1 the soul abides in its ideal existence before it enters into its material life through the medium of man2 though it must be noted that1 according to ,nachmanides' belief in the ,transmigration of souls1 it is not necessary to perceive in the soul of every newborn child1 8a fresh message from heaven0 coming directly from the fountainhead4 ,nachmanides finds this belief indicated in the commandment of levirate marriage1 where the child born of the deceased brother's wife inherits not only the name of the brother of his actual father1 but also his soul1 and thus perpetuates his existence on earth4 ,the fourth verse of ,ecclesiastes ii4 ,nachmanides seems to interpret to mean that the very generation which passes away comes up again1 by which he tries to explain the difficulty of ,god's visiting the iniquity of the fathers on their children2 the latter being the very fathers who committed the sins4 ,however1 whatever trials and changes the soul may have to pass through during its bodily existence1 its origin is in ,god and thither it will return in the end1 8just as the waters rise always to the same high level from which their source sprang forth40 ,it is for this man1 with a body so superior1 and a soul so sublime--more sublime than the angels--that the world was created4 ,i emphasise the last word1 for the belief in the creation of the world by ,god from nothing forms1 according to ,nachmanides1 the first of the three fundamental dogmas of ,judaism4 ,the other two also refer to ,god's relation to the world and man4 ,they are the belief in ,god's ,providence and his ,yediah47#hf7 ,creation from nothing is for ,nachmanides the keynote to his whole religion1 since it is only by this fact1 as he points out in many places1 that ,god gains real dominion over nature4 ,for1 as he says1 as soon as we admit the eternity of matter1 we must 7logically7 deny ,god even 8the power of enlarging the wing of a fly1 or shortening the leg of an ant40 ,but the whole ,torah is nothing if not a record of ,god's mastery in and over the world1 and of ,his miraculous deeds4 ,one of the first proclamations of ,abraham to his generation was that ,god is the ,lord 7or ,master7 of the world 7,gen4 xviii4 #cc74 ,the injunction given to ,abraham1 and repeated afterwards to the whole of ,israel 7,gen4 xvii4 #b1 and ,deut4 xviii4 #ac71 to be perfect with ,god1 ,nachmanides numbers as one of the #fac commandments1 and explains it to mean that man must have a whole belief in ,god without blemish or reservation1 and acknowledge ,him possessed of power over nature and the world1 man and beast1 devil and angel1 power being attributable to ,him alone4 ,indeed1 when the angel said to ,jacob1 8,why dost thou ask after my name0 7,gen4 xxxii4 #bi71 he meant to indicate by his question the impotence of the heavenly host1 so that there is no use in knowing their name1 the power and might belonging only to ,god4 ,we may venture even a step further1 and maintain that in ,nachmanides' system there is hardly room left for such a thing as nature or 8the order of the world40 ,there are only two categories of miracles by which the world is governed1 or in which ,god's ,providence is seen4 ,the one is the category of the manifest miracles1 as the ten plagues in ,egypt1 or the crossing of the ,red ,sea2 the other is that of the hidden miracles1 which we do not perceive as such1 because of their frequency and continuity4 8,no man10 he declares1 8can share in the ,torah of our ,teacher1 ,moses 7that is1 can be considered a follower of the ,jewish religion71 unless he believes that all our affairs and events1 whether they concern the masses or the individual1 are all miracles 7worked by the direct will of ,god71 attributing nothing to nature or to the order of the world40 ,under this second order he classes all the promises the ,torah makes to the righteous1 and the punishments with which evildoers are threatened4 ,for1 as he points out in many places1 there is nothing in the nature of the commandments themselves that would make their fulfilment necessarily prolong the life of man1 and cause the skies to pour down rain1 or1 on the other hand1 would associate disobedience to them with famine and death4 ,all these results can1 therefore1 only be accomplished in a supernatural way by the direct workings of ,god4 ,thus miracles are raised to a place in the regular scheme of things1 and the difficulty regarding the possibility of ,god's interferences with nature disappears by their very multiplication4 ,but a still more important point is1 that1 by this unbroken chain of miracles1 which unconditionally implies ,god's presence to perform them1 ,nachmanides arrives at a theory establishing a closer contact between the ,deity and the world than that set forth by other thinkers4 ,thus1 he insists that the term ,shechinah1 or ,cabod7#hg7 7,glory of ,god71 must not be understood1 with some ,jewish philosophers1 as something separate from ,god1 or as glory created by ,god4 8,were this the case10 he proceeds to say1 8we could not possibly say1 #8,blessed be the glory of the ,lord from his place1' since every mark of worship to anything created involves the sin of idolatry40 ,such terms as ,shechinah1 or ,cabod1 can therefore only mean the immediate divine presence4 ,this proves1 as may be noted in passing1 how unphilosophical the idea of those writers is who maintain that the rigid monotheism of the ,jews makes ,god so transcendental that ,he is banished from the world4 ,as we see1 it is just this assertion of ,his absolute ,unity which not only suffers no substitute for ,god1 but also removes every separation between ,him and the world4 ,hence also ,nachmanides insists that the prophecy even of the successors of ,moses was a direct communion of ,god with the prophet1 and not1 as others maintained1 furnished through the medium of an angel4 ,the third fundamental dogma1 ,yediah1 includes1 according to ,nachmanides1 not only the omniscience of ,god--as the term is usually translated--but also ,his recognition of mankind and ,his special concern in them4 ,thus1 he explains the words in the ,bible with regard to ,abraham1 8,for ,i know him0 7,gen4 xviii4 #ai71 to indicate the special attachment of ,god's ,providence to the patriarch1 which1 on account of his righteousness1 was to be uninterrupted for ever2 whilst in other places we have to understand1 under ,god's knowledge of a thing1 his determination to deal with it compassionately1 as1 for instance1 when ,scripture says that ,god knew 7,exod4 ii4 #be71 it means that ,his relation to ,israel emanated from ,his attribute of mercy and love4 ,but just as ,god knows 7which means loves7 the world1 ,he requires also to be recognised and known by it4 8,for this was the purpose of the whole creation1 that man should recognise and know ,him and give praise to ,his name10 as it is said1 8,everything that is called by my name 7meaning1 chosen to promulgate ,god's name71 for my glory have ,i created it40 ,it is this fact which gives ,israel their high prerogative1 for by receiving the ,torah they were the first to know ,god's name1 to which they remained true in spite of all adversities2 and thus accomplished ,god's intention in creating the world4 ,it is1 again1 by this ,torah that the whole of ,israel not only succeeded in being real prophets 7at the moment of the ,revelation71 but also became ,segulah17#hh7 which indicates the inseparable attachment between ,god and ,his people1 whilst the righteous who never disobey ,his will become the seat of ,his throne4 ,the position of the rest of humanity is also determined by their relation to the ,torah4 8,it is10 ,nachmanides tells us1 8a main principle to know that all that man contrives to possess of knowledge and wisdom is only the fruits of the ,torah or the fruits of its fruits4 ,but for this knowledge there would be no difference between man and the lower animated species4 ,the existence of the civilised nations of the world does not disprove this rule both ,christians and ,mahometans being also the heirs of the ,torah4 ,for when the ,romans gained strength over ,israel they made them translate the ,torah which they studied1 and they even accommodated some of their laws and institutions to those of the ,bible40 ,those nations1 however1 who live far away from the centre of the world 7the ,holy ,land7 and never come into contact with ,israel are outside the pale of civilisation1 and can hardly be ranked together with the human species4 8,they are the isles afar off1 that have not heard my fame1 neither have seen my glory40 ,what ,nachmanides meant by maintaining that all knowledge and wisdom were 8the fruits of the ,torah1 or the fruits of these fruits10 will be best seen from his ,commentary on the ,pentateuch4 ,i have already made use of this ,commentary in the preceding quotations1 but1 being the greatest of the works of ,nachmanides1 it calls for some special attention by itself4 ,its general purpose is edification1 or as he says1 8to appease the mind of the students 7labouring under persecution and troubles7 when they read the portion on ,sabbaths and festivals1 and to attract their heart by simple explanations and sweet words40 ,the explanations occupy a considerable space4 ,as ,dr4 ,perles has shown in his able essay on this work of ,nachmanides1 our author neglected no resource of philology or archology accessible in his age which could contribute to establish the 8simple explanations0 on a sound scientific basis4 ,the prominent feature of this ,commentary1 however1 is the 8sweet words40 ,indeed1 how sweet and soothing to his contemporaries must have been such words as we read at the end of the 8,song of ,moses0 7,deut4 xxxii473 8,and behold there is nothing conditional in this ,song4 ,it is a charter testifying that we shall have to suffer heavily for our sins1 but that1 nevertheless1 ,god will not destroy us1 being reconciled to us 7though we shall have no merits71 and forgiving our sins for his name's sake alone4444 ,and so our ,rabbis said1 ,great is this song1 embracing as it does both the past 7of ,israel7 and the future1 this world and the world to come4444 ,and if this song were the composition of a mere astrologer we should be constrained to believe in it1 considering that all its words were fulfilled4 ,how much more have we to hope with all our hearts and to trust to the word of ,god1 through the mouth of his prophet ,moses1 the faithful in all his house1 like unto whom there was none1 whether before him or after him40 ,a part of these sweet words may also be seen in the numerous passages in which he attempts to account for various laws1 and to detect their underlying principles4 ,for though 8the ,torah is the expression of ,god's simple and absolute will1 which man has to follow without any consideration of reward10 still this will is not arbitrary1 and even that class of laws which are called chukkim7#hi7 7which means1 according to some ,jewish commentators1 motiveless decrees7 have their good reasons1 notwithstanding that they are unfathomable to us4 8,they are all meant for the good of man1 either to keep aloof from us something hurtful1 or to educate us in goodness1 or to remove from us an evil belief and to make us know his name4 ,this is what they 7the ,rabbis7 meant by saying that commandments have a purifying purpose1 namely1 that man being purified and tried by them becomes as one without alloy of bad thoughts and unworthy qualities40 ,indeed1 the soul of man is so sensitive to every impurity that it suffers a sort of infection even by an unintentional sin4 ,hence the injunction to bring a ,korban 7sacrifice7 even in this case2 the effect of the ,korban1 as its etymology 7,karab77#ij7 indicates1 is to bring man back to ,god1 or rather to facilitate this approach4 ,all this again is1 as ,nachmanides points out1 only an affluence from ,god's mercy and love to mankind4 ,god derives no benefit from it4 8,if he be righteous what can he give thee80 ,and even those laws and institutions which are intended to commemorate ,god's wonders and the creation of the world 7for instance1 the ,passover festival and the ,sabbath7 are not meant for ,his glorification1 or1 as ,heine maliciously expressed it3-- ,der ,weltkapellenmeister hier oben ,er selbst sogar hrt gerne loben ,gleichfalls seine ,werke4444 8,for all the honour 7we give to ,him71 and the praising of ,his work are counted by ,him less than nothing and as vanity to ,him40 ,what ,he desires is that we may know the truth1 and be confirmed in it1 for this makes us worthy of finding in ,him 8our ,protector and ,king40 ,the lessons which ,nachmanides draws from the various ,biblical narratives also belong to these 8sweet words40 ,they are mostly of a typical character4 ,for1 true as all the stories in the ,scriptures are1 8the whole ,torah is10 as he tells us 7with allusion to ,gen4 v4 #a471 8the book of the generations of ,adam10 or1 as we should say1 a history of humanity written in advance4 ,thus the account of the six days of the creation is turned into a prophecy of the most important events which would occur during the succeeding six thousand years1 whilst the ,sabbath is a forecast of the millennium in the seventh thousand1 which will be the day of the ,lord4 ,jacob and ,esau are1 as in the old ,rabbinic homilies generally1 the prototypes of ,israel and ,rome2 and so is the battle of ,moses and ,joshua with ,amalek indicative of the war which ,elijah and the ,messiah the son of ,joseph will wage against ,edom 7the prototype of ,rome71 before the ,redeemer from the house of ,david will appear47#ia7 ,sometimes these stories convey both a moral and a prejustification of what was destined to happen to ,israel4 ,so ,nachmanides' remarks with reference to ,sarah's treatment of ,hagar 7,gen4 xvi4 #f73 8,our mother ,sarah sinned greatly by inflicting this pain on ,hagar1 as did also ,abraham1 who allowed such a thing to pass2 but ,god saw her affliction and rewarded her by a son 7the ancestor of a wild race71 who would inflict on the seed of ,abraham and ,sarah every sort of oppression40 ,in this he alluded to the ,islamic empires4 ,nor does he approve of ,abraham's conduct on the occasion of his coming to ,egypt1 when he asked ,sarah to pass as his sister 7,gen4 xii474 8,unintentionally10 ,nachmanides says1 8,abraham1 under the fear of being murdered1 committed a great sin when he exposed his virtuous wife to such a temptation4 ,for he ought to have trusted that ,god would save both him and his wife4444 ,it is on account of this deed that his children had to suffer exile under the rule of ,pharaoh4 ,there1 where the sin was committed1 also the judgment took place40 ,it is also worth noticing that1 in opposition to ,maimonides1 he allows no apology for the attack of ,simeon and ,levi on the population of ,shechem 7,gen4 xxxiv4 #be74 ,it is true that they were idolaters1 immoral1 and steeped in every abomination2 but ,jacob and his sons were not commissioned with executing justice on them4 ,the people of ,shechem trusted their word1 therefore they ought to have spared them4 ,hence ,jacob's protest1 and his curse against their wrath1 which would have been quite unjustified had he looked on the action of his sons as a good work4 ,besides these typical meanings1 the matters of the ,torah have also their symbolical importance1 which places them almost above the sphere of human conception2 they are neither exactly what they seem to be nor entirely what their name implies1 but a reflex from things unseen1 which makes any human interference both preposterous and dangerous4 ,of 8the things called ,tree of ,life and ,tree of ,knowledge10 ,nachmanides tells us that their mystery is very great1 reaching into higher worlds4 ,otherwise1 why should ,god1 who is good and the dispenser of good1 have prevented ,adam from eating the fruit 7of the latter71 whilst in another place he says3 8,and if thou wilt be worthy1 and understand the mystery of the word ,bereshith7#ib7 7with which the ,torah begins71 thou wilt see that in truth the ,scripture1 though apparently speaking of matters here below 7on earth71 is always pointing to things above 7heaven720 for 8every glory and every wonder1 and every deep mystery1 and all beautiful wisdom are hidden in the ,torah1 sealed up in her treasures40 ,it is very characteristic of the bent of ,nachmanides' mind1 that he is perhaps the first ,jewish writer who mentions the apocryphal book ,the ,wisdom of ,solomon1 which he knew from a ,syriac version1 and which he believed to be genuine4 ,and when we read there 7vii4 #gbe71 8,wherefore ,i prayed and understanding was given to me4 ,i called upon ,god and the spirit of wisdom came upon me4444 ,for ,god has given me unmistakable knowledge to know how the world was made1 and the operations of the planets4 ,the beginning1 ending1 and midst of the times1 the alterations and the turnings of the sun1 the changes of the seasons1 the natures of the living creatures and the furies of the wild beasts1 the force of the spirits and the reasonings of men1 the diversities of plants and the virtues of the roots4 ,all such things that are either secret or manifest1 them ,i knew0--the wise king was1 according to ,nachmanides 7who quotes the passages which ,i have just cited71 speaking of the ,torah1 which is identical with this wisdom1 a wisdom which existed before the creation1 and by which ,god planned the world4 ,hence it bears the impression of all the universe1 whilst on the other hand when it is said1 8,the king brought me into his chambers10 those secret recesses of the ,torah are meant in which all the great mysteries relating to ,creation and to the ,chariot 7,ezekiel i47 are hidden4 ,we must content ourselves with these few sparks struck from the glowing fires of these inner compartments1 which1 imperfectly luminous as my treatment has left them1 may yet shed some light on the personality of ,nachmanides1 which is the main object of this essay4 ,but ,i do not propose to accompany the mystic into the 8chambers of the king10 lest we may soon get into a labyrinth of obscure terms and strange ways of thinking for which the ,ariadne thread is still wanting4 ,we might also be confronted by the ,fifty ,gates of ,understanding1 the ,thirty,two ,paths of ,wisdom1 and the ,two ,hundred and ,thirty,one ,permutations or ,ciphers of the ,alphabet1 the key to which ,i do not hold4 ,it is also questionable whether it would always be worth while to seek for it4 ,when one1 for instance1 sees such a heaping on of nouns 7with some ,cabbalists7 as the ,land of ,life1 the ,land of ,promise1 the ,lord of the ,world1 the ,foundation ,stone1 ,zion1 ,mother1 ,daughter1 ,sister1 the ,congregation of ,israel1 the ,twin ,roes1 the ,bride1 ,blue1 ,end1 ,oral ,law1 ,sea1 ,wisdom1 etc41 meant to represent the same thing or attribute1 and to pass one into another1 one cannot possibly help feeling some suspicion that one stands before a conglomerate of words run riot1 over which the writer had lost all control4 ,indeed ,nachmanides himself1 in the preface to the abovementioned ,commentary1 gives us the kind advice not to meditate1 or rather brood1 over the mystical hints which are scattered over this work1 8speculation being 7in such matters7 folly1 and reasoning over them fraught with danger40 ,indeed1 the danger is obvious4 ,i have1 to give one or two instances1 already alluded to the theory which accepts the ,torah or the ,wisdom as an agent in the creation of the world4 ,but the mystic pushes further1 and asks for the ,primal ,being to which this ,wisdom owes its origin4 ,the answer given is from the great ,nothing1 as it is written1 ,and the ,wisdom shall be found from ,nothing47#ic7 ,what is intended by this1 if it means anything1 is probably to divest the first cause of every possible quality which by its very qualifying nature must be limiting and exclusive4 ,hence1 ,god becomes the ,unknowable4 ,but suppose a metaphysical ,hamlet1 who1 handling words indelicately1 should impetuously exclaim1 ,to be or not to be1 that is the question8--into what abyss of utter negations would he drag all those who despair1 by his terrible ,nothing4 ,on the other hand1 into what gross anthropomorphisms may we be drawn by roughly handling certain metaphors which some ,cabbalists have employed in their struggling after an adequate expression of ,god's manifestations in ,his attribute of love1 if we forget for a single moment that they are only figures of speech1 but liable to get defiled by the slightest touch of an unchaste thought4 ,but the greater the dangers that beset the path of mysticism1 the deeper the interest which we feel in the mystic4 ,in connection with the above mentioned warning1 ,nachmanides cites the words from the ,scriptures1 8,but let not the priests and the people break through to come up unto the ,lord1 lest he break forth upon them0 7,exod4 xix4 #bd74 ,nevertheless1 when we read in the ,talmud the famous story of the four ,rabbis7#id7 who went up into the ,pardes1 or ,garden of ,mystical ,contemplation1 we do not withhold our sympathy1 either from ,ben ,azzai1 who shot a glance and died1 or from ,ben ,zoma1 who shot a glance and was struck 7in his mind74 ,nay1 we feel the greatest admiration for these daring spirits1 who1 in their passionate attempt to 8break through0 the veil before the ,infinite1 hazarded their lives1 and even that which is dearer than life1 their minds1 for a single glance4 ,and did ,r4 ,meir deny his sympathies even to ,other ,one or ,elisha ben ,abuyah1 who 8cut down the plants08 ,he is said to have heard a voice from heaven1 8,return1 oh backsliding children1 except ,other ,one10 which prevented his repentance4 ,poor fallen ,acher1 he mistook hell for heaven4 ,but do not the struggle and despair which led to this unfortunate confusion rather plead for our commiseration8 ,nachmanides1 however1 in his gentle way1 did not mean to storm heaven4 ,like ,r4 ,akiba1 8he entered in peace1 and departed in peace40 ,and it was by this peacefulness of his nature that he gained an influence over posterity which is equalled only by that of ,maimonides4 8,if he was not a profound thinker10 like the author of the ,guide of the ,perplexed1 he had that which is next best--8he felt profoundly40 ,some writers of a rather reactionary character even went so far as to assign to him a higher place than to ,maimonides4 ,this is unjust4 ,what a blank would there have been in ,jewish thought but for ,maimonides' great work1 on which the noblest thinkers of ,israel fed for centuries6 ,as long as ,job and ,ecclesiastes hold their proper place in the ,bible1 and the ,talmud contains hundreds of passages suggesting difficulties relating to such problems as the creation of the world1 ,god's exact relation to it1 the origin of evil1 free will and predestination1 none will persuade me that philosophy does not form an integral part of ,jewish tradition1 which1 in its historical developments1 took the shape which ,maimonides and his successors gave to it4 ,if ,maimonides' ,guide1 which he considered as an interpretation of the ,bible and of many strange sayings in the old ,rabbinic homilies in the ,talmud1 is ,aristotelian in its tone1 so is tradition too2 even the ,talmud in many places betrays all sorts of foreign influences1 and none would think of declaring it un,jewish on this ground4 ,i may also remark in passing that the certainty with which some writers deprecate the aids which religion may receive from philosophy is a little too hasty4 ,for the question will always remain1 ,what religion8 ,the religion of ,r4 ,moses of ,tachau or ,r4 ,joseph ,jabez7#ie7 would certainly have been greatly endangered by the slightest touch of speculation1 while that of ,bachya17#if7 ,maimonides1 ,jedaiah of ,bedres1 and ,delmedigo undoubtedly received from philosophy its noblest support1 and became intensified by the union4 ,but apart from that consideration1 the sphere of the activity of these two leaders seems to have been so widely different that it is hardly just to consider them as antagonists1 or at least to emphasise the antagonism too much4 ,maimonides wrote his chief work1 the ,guide1 for the few elect1 who1 like ,ibn ,tibbon7#ig7 for instance1 would traverse whole continents if a single syllogism went wrong4 ,and if he could be of use to one wise man of this stamp1 ,maimonides would do so at the risk of 8saying things unsuitable for ten thousand fools40 ,but with ,nachmanides1 it would seem1 it was these ten thousand who formed the main object of his tender care4 ,they are1 as we have seen1 cultivated men1 indeed 8students10 having enjoyed a proper education2 but the happy times of abstract thinking have gone1 and being under a perpetual strain of persecutions and cares1 they long for the ,sabbath and ,festivals1 which would bring them both bodily and spiritual recreation4 ,they find no fault with religion1 a false syllogism does not jar on their ears2 what they are afraid of is that1 being engaged as they are1 all the six days of work1 in their domestic affairs1 religion may be too good a thing for them4 8,to appease their minds10 to edify them1 to make life more sweet and death less terrible to them1 and to show them that even their weaknesses1 as far as they are conditioned by nature1 are not irreconcilable with a holy life1 was what ,nachmanides strove after4 ,now and then he permits them a glance into the mystical world in which he himself loved to move1 but he does not care to stifle their senses into an idle contemplation1 and passes quickly to some more practical application4 ,to be sure1 the tabernacle is nothing but a complete map of the superlunar world2 but nevertheless its rather minute description is meant to teach us 8that ,god desires us to work40 ,this tendency toward being useful to the great majority of mankind may account for the want of consistency of which ,nachmanides was so often accused4 ,it is only the logician who can afford to be thoroughgoing in his theory1 and even he would become most absurd and even dangerous but for the redeeming fact 8that men are better than their principles40 ,but with ,nachmanides these 8principles0 would have proved even more fatal4 ,could he1 for instance1 have upset authority in the face of the ten thousand8 ,they need to be guided rather than to guide4 ,but he does not want them to follow either the ,gaon or anybody else slavishly1 8the gates of wisdom never having been shut10 whilst on the other hand he hints to them that there is something divine in every man1 which places him at least on the same high level with any authority4 ,take another instance--his wavering attitude between the ,maimonists and the ,anti,maimonists1 for which he was often censured4 ,apart from other reasons1 to which ,i have pointed above1 might he not have felt that1 in spite of his personal admiration for ,maimonides' genius1 he had no right to put himself entirely on the side where there was little room for the ten thousand who were entrusted to his guidance1 whilst the ,french ,rabbis1 with all their prejudices and intolerance1 would never deny their sympathies to simple emotional folk8 ,this tender and absorbing care for the people in general may also account for the fact that we do not know of a single treatise by ,nachmanides of a purely ,cabbalistic character in the style of the ,book of ,weight1 by ,moses de ,leon1 or the ,orchard1 by ,r4 ,moses ,cordovora1 or the ,tree of ,life by ,r4 ,isaac ,loria47#ih7 ,the story that attributes to him the discovery of the ,zohar in a cave in ,palestine1 from whence he sent it to ,catalonia1 needs as little refutation as the other story connected with his conversion to the ,cabbalah1 which is even more silly and of such a nature as not to bear repetition4 ,the ,lilac of ,mysteries7#ii7 and other mystical works passed also for a long time under his name1 but their claim to this honour has been entirely disproved by the bibliographers1 and they rank now among the pseudepigraphica4 ,it is true that ,r4 ,nissim1 of ,gerona1 said of ,nachmanides that he was too much addicted to the belief in the ,cabbalah1 and as a fellowcountryman he may have had some personal knowledge about the matter4 ,but as far as his writings go1 this belief finds expression only in incidental remarks and occasional citations from the ,bahir17#ajj7 which he never thrusts upon the reader4 ,it was chiefly when philosophy called in question his deep sympathies with even lower humanity1 and threatened to withdraw them from those ennobling influences under which he wanted to keep them1 that he asserted his mystical theories4 ,nachmanides' inconsistency has also proved beneficial in another respect4 ,for mysticism has1 by its overemphasising of the divine in man1 shown a strong tendency to remove ,god altogether and replace ,him by the creature of ,his hands4 ,witness only the theological bubble of ,shabbethai ,tsebi--happily it burst quickly enough--which resulted in mere idolatry 7in more polite language1 ,hero ,worship7 on the one side1 and in the grossest antinomianism on the other4 ,nachmanides1 however1 with a happy inconsistency1 combined with the belief of man's origin in ,god1 a not less strong conviction of man's liability to sin1 of the fact that he does sin--even the patriarchs were not free from it1 as we have seen above--and that this sin does alienate man from ,god4 ,this healthy control over man's extravagant idea of his own species was with ,nachmanides also a fruit of the ,torah1 within the limits of which everything must move1 the mystic and his aspirations included1 whilst its fair admixture of #cfe ,do not's with #bdh ,do's preserved him from that 8holy doing nothing0 which so many mystics indulged in1 and made his a most active life4 ,much of this activity was displayed in ,palestine1 8the land to which the providence of ,god is especially attached10 and which was1 as with ,r4 ,judah ,hallevi1 always 8his ideal home40 ,there he not only completed his ,commentary on the ,pentateuch1 but also erected synagogues1 and engaged in organising communities1 whose tone he tried to elevate both by his lectures and by his sermons4 ,his career in ,palestine was not a long one1 for he lived there only about three years1 and in #abgj he must already have been dead4 ,a pretty legend narrates that when he emigrated to ,palestine his pupils asked him to give them a sign enabling them to ascertain the day of his death4 ,he answered them that on that day a rift in the shape of a lamp would be seen in the tombstone of his mother4 ,after three years a pupil suddenly noticed this rift1 when the mourning over the ,rabbi began4 ,thus1 stone1 or anything else earthly1 breaks finally1 and the life of the master passes into light4 ,what life meant to him1 how deeply he was convinced that there is no other life but that originating in ,god1 how deeply stirred his soul was by the consciousness of sin1 what agonies the thought of the alienation from ,god caused him1 how he felt that there is nothing left to him but to throw himself upon the mercy of ,god1 and how he rejoiced in the hope of a final reunion with ,him--of all these sentiments we find the best expression in the following religious poem1 with which this paper may conclude4 ,nachmanides composed it in ,hebrew1 and it is still preserved in some rituals as a hymn1 recited on the ,day of ,atonement4 ,it is here given in the ,english translation of ,mrs4 ,henry ,lucas47#aja7 ,ere time began1 ere age to age had thrilled1 ,i waited in his storehouse1 as he willed2 ,he gave me being1 but1 my years fulfilled1 ,i shall be summoned back before the ,king4 ,he called the hidden to the light of day1 ,to right and left1 each side the fountain lay1 ,from out the stream and down the steps1 the way ,that led me to the garden of the ,king4 ,thou gavest me a light my path to guide1 ,to prove my heart's recesses still untried2 ,and as ,i went1 thy voice in warning cried3 ,child6 fear thou him who is thy ,god and ,king6 ,true weight and measure learned my heart from thee2 ,if blessings follow1 then what joy for me6 ,if nought but sin1 all mine the shame must be1 ,for that was not determined by the ,king4 ,i hasten1 trembling1 to confess the whole ,of my transgressions1 ere ,i reach the goal ,where mine own words must witness 'gainst my soul1 ,and who dares doubt the writing of the ,king8 ,erring1 ,i wandered in the wilderness1 ,in passion's grave nigh sinking powerless2 ,now deeply ,i repent1 in sore distress1 ,that ,i kept not the statutes of the ,king6 ,with worldly longings was my bosom fraught1 ,earth's idle toys and follies all ,i sought2 ,ah6 when he judges joys so dearly bought1 ,how greatly shall ,i fear my ,lord and ,king6 ,now consciencestricken1 humbled to the dust1 ,doubting himself1 in thee alone his trust1 ,he shrinks in terror back1 for ,god is just-- ,how can a sinner hope to reach the ,king8 ,oh1 be thy mercy in the balance laid1 ,to hold thy servant's sins more lightly weighed1 ,when1 his confession penitently made1 ,he answers for his guilt before the ,king4 ,thine is the love1 ,o ,god1 and thine the grace1 ,that folds the sinner in its mild embrace2 ,thine the forgiveness1 bridging o'er the space ',twixt man's works and the task set by the ,king4 ,unheeding all my sins1 ,i cling to thee2 ,i know that mercy shall thy footstool be3 ,before ,i call1 oh1 do thou answer me1 ,for nothing dare ,i claim of thee1 my ,king6 ,o thou1 who makest guilt to disappear1 ,my help1 my hope1 my rock1 ,i will not fear2 ,though thou the body hold in dungeon drear1 ,the soul has found the palace of the ,king6 ,,postscript ,the third letter of ,nachmanides to which ,i have alluded above1 is embodied in the following will by ,r4 ,solomon1 son of the martyr ,isaac4 ,neither the date nor the country of the testator is known1 but style and language make it probable that he was a ,spanish ,jew1 and lived in the fourteenth century4 ,i give here a translation from the whole document as it is to be found in the ,manuscripts4 ,these are the regulations which ,i1 ,solomon1 the son of the martyr1 ,rabbi ,isaac1 the son of ,r4 ,zadok1 of blessed memory1 draw up for myself4 ,that as long as ,i am in good health1 and free from accident1 and think of it1 ,i shall not eat before ,i have studied one page of the ,talmud or of its commentaries4 ,should ,i transgress this rule intentionally1 ,i must not drink wine on that day1 or ,i shall pay half a ,zehub7#ajb7 to charity4 ,again1 that ,i shall every week read the ,lesson twice in the ,hebrew text1 and once in the ,aramaic version4 ,should ,i intentionally omit completing the ,lesson as above1 then ,i must pay two ,zehubs to charity4 ,again1 that ,i shall every ,sabbath take three meals1 consisting of bread or fruit4 ,should ,i omit to do so1 ,i must give in charity half a ,zehub4 ,again1 in order to subdue my appetites1 and not to enjoy in this world more than is necessary for the maintenance of my body1 ,i must not eat at one meal more than one course of meat1 and not more than two courses altogether2 nor must ,i drink more than two cups of wine at one meal1 apart from the blessingcup 7over which grace is said71 except on ,sabbath1 ,festivals1 ,chanukah 7the ,maccabean ,dedication ,feast71 ,new ,moon1 and at other religious meals 7for instance1 weddingdinners and similar festive occasions74 ,again1 ,i must not have any regular meal on the day preceding ,sabbath or ,festivals4 ,i must not have during the day more than one course1 so that ,i shall enter upon the holy day with a good appetite4 ,should ,i transgress this resolve intentionally ,i shall have to fast a day1 or to pay two ,zehubs4 ,again1 that ,i shall not eat the fish called burbot17#ajc7 if ,i think of it4 ,again1 even on the abovementioned days1 ,i must not eat more than three courses at a meal1 nor drink more than three cups of wine1 exclusive of the blessingcup4 ,again1 444 ,i must not swear by ,god1 nor mention the name of ,heaven without a purpose1 nor curse any man in the name of ,god4 ,should ,i1 ,god forbid1 transgress it1 ,i must not drink more than one cup of wine on that day exclusive of the blessingcup4 ,should ,i1 however1 transgress this after dinner1 ,i must abstain from wine the following day4 ,should ,i transgress it1 ,i have to pay half a ,zehub4 ,again1 that ,i shall get up every night to praise ,god1 to supplicate for ,his mercy1 and to confess4 ,on those nights when confession is not to be said 7,sabbaths and ,festivals71 ,i shall say hymns and psalms4 ,this ,i shall do when ,i am in my house1 and in good health1 free from any accident4 ,should ,i transgress it1 ,i shall drink not more than one cup of wine the following day1 except the blessingcup4 ,i again take upon myself to give in charity the following proportion of my expenditure--from each dress which ,i shall have made for myself or for one member of my family1 costing more than ten ,zehubs1 ,i must pay one ,pashut7#ajd7 for each ten ,zehubs4 ,again1 if ,i should buy an animal1 or a slave1 or a female slave1 or ground1 that ,i shall also pay at the same rate4 ,and if ,i shall buy clothes for sale1 called fashas1 ,i shall pay two ,pashuts for each garment4 ,as often as ,i have occasion to say the benediction of thanksgivings for having escaped danger ,i shall pay a ,zehub1 except when ,i am travelling also involving danger in those times61 in which case ,i shall have to pay a ,zehub on my arrival1 and two ,pashuts daily during the journey4 ,again1 from every kind of fish bought for me1 costing more than a ,zehub1 ,i shall pay a ,pashut for each ,zehub4 ,and also1 if ,i shall be deemed worthy by ,god to marry my children1 and to be present at their wedding1 to cause them to give to the poor from the dowry brought to them by their wives1 whether in money or in kind1 at the rate of one per cent4 ,if ,god will find me worthy of having sons1 ,i must give in charity according to my means at the time4 ,i shall also1 between ,new ,year and the ,day of ,atonement in each year1 calculate my profits during the past year and 7after deducting expenses7 give a tithe thereof to the poor4 ,should ,i be unable to make an accurate calculation1 then ,i shall give approximately4 ,this tithe ,i shall put aside1 together with the other money for religious 7charitable7 purpose1 to dispose of it as ,i shall deem best4 ,i also propose to have the liberty of employing the money in any profitable speculation with a view to augmenting it4 ,but in respect of all ,i have written above ,i shall not hold myself guilty if ,i transgress1 if such transgression be the result of forgetfulness2 but in order to guard against it1 ,i shall read this through weekly4 ,i also command my children to take upon themselves as many of the above regulations as may be in their power to observe1 and also to bind them 7i4e4 the regulations71 from generation to generation1 upon their children4 ,and he who carries them out1 and even adds to them1 at pain of discomfort to himself1 shall merit a special blessing4 ,and this is the text of the will which ,i1 the above mentioned ,solomon1 draw up for my children1 may ,god preserve them4 ,that they shall pray thrice daily1 and endeavour always to utter their prayers with devotion4 ,again1 that this prayer shall be said in the ,beth ,hammidrash1 or in the synagogue together with the congregation4 ,again1 that they shall apply all their powers to maintain the synagogues and the houses of study1 which our ancestors have built1 as well as to continue the endowments established by my ancestors and myself4 ,they must always endeavour to imitate them1 so that goodness shall never cease from among them4 ,again1 that they shall always have a chair on which a volume of the ,talmud1 or some other ,talmudical work1 shall lie2 so that they shall always open a book when they come home4 ,at least1 they shall read in any book they like four lines before taking their meal4 ,again1 that they shall every week read the ,lesson twice in the ,hebrew text1 and once in the ,aramaic version4 ,again1 to take three meals on the ,sabbath4444 ,again1 that they shall be always modest1 merciful1 and charitable1 for these are the qualities by which the children of ,israel are known4 ,let also all their thoughts and meditations be always directed to the service of the ,lord1 and be as charitable and benevolent as possible1 for this is all that remains to man of his labour4 ,they shall also endeavour to regulate their diet according to the rules laid down by ,rabbi ,moses 7b4 ,maimon1 or ,maimonides71 so as to fulfil the words of ,scripture3 8,the righteous eateth to the satisfying of his soul40 ,and let them always be careful not to take the name of ,god in vain1 to be honest in all business transactions1 and let their yea be always yea4 ,they shall always be under the obligation to train their children to the ,study of the ,torah1 but one shall devote his life exclusively to the study thereof4 ,and it shall be incumbent upon his brothers to support this one1 and to invest his moneys1 and to provide for him that he and his family may live respectably1 so that he be not distracted by worldly cares from his studies4 ,let also the elder love the younger brothers as their own children1 and the younger respect the elder as a parent4 ,thus they may always bear in mind that they are of a ,godfearing family4 ,let them love and honour scholars1 thus to merit the honour of having scholars for their sons and sonsinlaw4 ,this will they shall themselves read weekly1 and shall also make it incumbent upon their children1 from generation to generation1 to read weekly1 in order to fulfil what is written 7,gen4 xviii4 #ai71 8,for ,i know him that he will command his children10 etc41 and also the words of ,isaiah 7lix4 #ba71 8,and this is my covenant10 etc4 ,but as often as they shall read this will1 they shall also read the two letters below written1 which ,rabbi ,moses ben ,nachman sent to his sons1 with a view of being serviceable to them in many respects4 ,should1 heaven forbid1 they be by any sad accident prevented from fulfilling the injunctions above laid down1 they must fine themselves by not drinking wine on that day1 or by eating one course less at the dinner1 or by giving some fine in charity4444 ,and this is the letter which the abovementioned ,rabbi sent from the ,holy ,land to ,castile1 when his son was staying before the king 7in his service73-- 8444 ,may ,god bless you and preserve you from sin and punishment4 ,behold1 our master1 ,king ,david1 had a son1 wise and of an understanding heart1 like unto whom there was never one before or after4 ,nevertheless he said to him 7#a ,kings ii4 #b73 #8,and keep the charge of the ,lord thy ,god1' etc4 ,he also said to him3 #8,and thou1 my son1 know the ,god of thy father' 7#a ,chron4 xxviii4 #i74 ,now1 my son1 if thou wilt measure thyself with ,solomon1 thou wilt find thyself a worm--not a man1 merely an insect2 nevertheless1 if thou wilt seek ,god1 he will make thee great2 and if thou wilt forsake him1 thou wilt be turned out and forsaken4 ,my son1 be careful that thou read the ,shema7#aje7 morning and evening1 as well as that thou say the daily prayers4 ,have always with thee a ,pentateuch written correctly1 and read therein the ,lesson for each ,sabbath4444 #8,cast thy burden upon the ,lord1' for the thing which thou believest far from thee is often very near unto thee4 ,know1 again1 that thou art not master over thy words1 nor hast power over thy hand2 but everything is in the hand of the ,lord1 who formeth thy heart4444 ,be especially careful to keep aloof from the women of the court84 ,know that our ,god hates immorality1 and ,balaam could in no other way injure ,israel than by inciting them to unchastity4 ,here come many quotations from ,malachi and ,ezra4444 ,my son1 remember me always1 and let the image of my countenance be never absent from before thine eyes4 ,love not that which ,i hate4444 ,let the words of the ,psalmist be always upon thy lips1 #8,i am a stranger in the earth3 hide not thy commandments from me' 7,ps4 cxix4 #ai72 and ,god1 who is good and the dispenser of good1 shall increase thy peace and prolong thy life in peace and happiness1 and promote thy honour according to thy wish and the wish of thy father who begat thee1 ,moses ben ,nachman40 ,v4 ,a ,,jewish ,,boswell ,there is a saying in the ,talmud 8,nothing exists of which there is not some indication in the ,torah40 ,these words are often quoted1 and some modern authors have pressed them so far as to find even the discoveries of ,columbus and the inventions of ,watt and ,stephenson indicated in the ,law4 ,this is certainly misapplied ingenuity4 ,but it is hardly an exaggeration to maintain that there is no noble manifestation of real religion1 no expression of real piety1 reverence1 and devotion1 to which ,jewish literature would not offer a fair parallel4 ,thus it will hardly be astonishing to hear that ,jewish literature has its ,boswell to show1 more than three centuries before the ,scottish gentleman came to ,london to admire his ,johnson1 and more than four centuries before the ,sage of ,chelsea delivered his lectures on ,hero ,worship4 ,and this ,jewish ,boswell was guided only by the motives suggested to him in the old ,rabbinic literature4 ,in this literature the reverence for the great man1 and the absorption of one's whole self in him1 went so far that one ,rabbi declared that the whole world was only created to serve such a man as company47#ajf7 ,again1 the fact that1 in the language of the ,rabbis1 the term for studying the ,law and discussing it is 8to attend0 or rather 8to serve the disciples of the ,wise0 may also have led people to the important truth that the great man is not a lecturing machine1 but a sort of living ,law himself4 8,when the man10 said one ,rabbi1 8has wholly devoted himself to the ,torah1 and thoroughly identified himself with it1 it becomes almost his own ,torah40 ,thus people have not only to listen to his words but to observe his whole life1 and to profit from all his actions and movements4 ,this was what the ,jewish ,boswell sought to do4 ,his name was ,rabbi ,solomon1 of ,st4 ,goar1 a small town on the ,rhine1 while the name of the master whom he served was ,r4 ,jacob1 the ,levite1 better known by his initials ,maharil1 who filled the office of ,chief ,rabbi in ,mayence and ,worms successively4 ,the main activity of ,maharil falls in the first three decades of the fifteenth century4 ,those were troublous times for a ,rabbi4 ,for the preceding century with its persecution and sufferings--one has only to think of the ,black ,death and its terrible consequences for the ,jews--led to the destruction of the great ,schools1 the decay of the study of the ,law1 and to the dissolution of many congregations4 ,those which remained lost all touch with each other1 so that almost every larger ,jewish community had its own ,minhag or ritual custom47#ajg7 ,it was ,maharil who brought some order into this chaos1 and in the course of time his influence asserted itself so strongly that the rules observed by him in the performing of religious ceremonies were accepted by the great majority of the ,jewish communities4 ,thus the personality of ,maharil himself became a standing ,minhag1 suppressing all the other ,minhagim 7customs74 ,but there must have been something very strong and very great about the personality of the man who could succeed in such an arduous task4 ,for we must not forget that the ,minhag or custom in its decay degenerates into a kind of religious fashion1 the worst disease to which religion is liable1 and the most difficult to cure4 ,it is therefore an irreparable loss both for ,jewish literature and for ,jewish history1 that the greatest part of ,maharil's posthumous writings are no longer extant1 so that our knowledge about him is very small4 ,but the little we know of him we owe chiefly to the communicativeness of his servant1 the ,solomon of ,st4 ,goar whom ,i mentioned above4 ,solomon not only gave us the 8,customs0 of his master1 but also observed him closely in all his movements1 and conscientiously wrote down all that he saw and heard1 under the name of ,collectanea4 ,it seems that the bulk of these ,collectanea was also lost4 ,but in the fragments that we still possess we are informed1 among other things1 how ,maharil addressed his wife1 how he treated his pupils1 how careful he was in the use of his books1 and even how clean his linen was4 ,is this not out,boswelling ,boswell8 ,the most striking point of agreement between the ,boswell of the fifteenth and him of the eighteenth century1 is that they both use the same passage from the ,talmud to excuse the interest in trifles which their labours of love betrayed4 ,thus ,solomon prefaces his ,collectanea with the following words3 8,it is written1 ,his leaf shall not wither4 ,these words were explained by our ,sages to mean that even the idle talk of the disciples of the wise deserves a study4 ,upon this interpretation ,i have relied4 ,in my love to ,r4 ,jacob the ,levite1 ,i collected everything about him4 ,i did not refuse even small things1 though many derided me4 ,everything ,i wrote down1 for such was the desire of my heart40 ,thus far ,solomon4 ,now1 if we turn to the introduction to ,boswell's ,life of ,johnson1 we read the following sentence3 8,for this almost superstitious reverence1 ,i have found very old and venerable authority quoted by our great modern prelate1 ,secker1 in whose tenth sermon there is the following passage3 #8,rabbi ,kimchi1 a noted ,jewish commentator who lived about five hundred years ago1 explains that passage in the first ,psalm1 8,his leaf also shall not wither0 from ,rabbins yet older than himself1 that even the idle talk1 so he expressed it1 of a good man ought to be regarded4' 0 ,croker's note to this passage sounds rather strange4 ,this editor says3 8,kimchi was a ,spanish ,rabbi1 who died in #abdj4 ,one wonders that ,secker's good sense should have condescended to quote this farfetched and futile interpretation of the simple and beautiful metaphor1 by which the ,psalmist illustrates the prosperity of the righteous man40 ,now ,kimchi died at least five years earlier than ,croker states1 but dates1 we know from ,macaulay's essay on the subject1 were not ,croker's strong point4 ,but one can hardly forgive the editor of ,boswell this lack of sympathy4 ,had he known what strong affinity there was between his most ,christian author and the humble ,jew ,solomon1 he would have less resented this condescension of ,archbishop ,secker4 ,as for the ,jewish ,boswell himself1 we know very little about him4 ,the only place in which he speaks about his own person is that in which he derives his pedigree from ,r4 ,eleazar ben ,samuel ,hallevi 7died #aceg71 and says that he was generally called 8,der gute 7the good7 ,r4 ,salman40 ,he well deserved this appellation4 ,in his ,will we find the following injunction to his children3 8,be honest1 and conscientious in your dealing with men1 with ,jews as well as ,gentiles1 be kind and obliging to them2 do not speak what is superfluous40 ,and wisdom is surely rare enough to render inappropriate a charge of superfluousness against the work of those who in bygone times spent their energies in gathering the crumbs that fell from the tables of the wise4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,dogmas ,,of ,,judaism ,the object of this essay is to say about the dogmas of ,judaism a word which ,i think ought not to be left unsaid4 ,in speaking of dogmas it must be understood that ,judaism does not ascribe to them any saving power4 ,the belief in a dogma or a doctrine without abiding by its real or supposed consequences 7e4g4 the belief in creatio ex nihilo without keeping the ,sabbath7 is of no value4 ,and the question about certain doctrines is not whether they possess or do not possess the desired charm against certain diseases of the soul1 but whether they ought to be considered as characteristics of ,judaism or not4 ,it must again be premised that the subject1 which occupied the thoughts of the greatest and noblest ,jewish minds for so many centuries1 has been neglected for a comparatively long time4 ,and this for various reasons4 ,first1 there is ,mendelssohn's assertion1 or supposed assertion1 in his ,jerusalem1 that ,judaism has no dogmas--an assertion which has been accepted by the majority of modern ,jewish theologians as the only dogma ,judaism possesses4 ,you can hear it pronounced in scores of ,jewish pulpits2 you can read it written in scores of ,jewish books4 ,to admit the possibility that ,mendelssohn was in error was hardly permissible1 especially for those with whom he enjoys a certain infallibility4 ,nay1 even the fact that he himself was not consistent in his theory1 and on another occasion declared that ,judaism has dogmas1 only that they are purer and more in harmony with reason than those of other religions2 or even the more important fact that he published a schoolbook for children1 in which the socalled ,thirteen ,articles were embodied1 only that instead of the formula 8,i believe10 he substituted 8,i am convinced10--even such patent facts did not produce much effect upon many of our modern theologians47#ajh7 ,they were either overlooked or explained away so as to make them harmonise with the great dogma of dogmalessness4 ,for it is one of the attributes of infallibility that the words of its happy possessor must always be reconcilable even when they appear to the eye of the unbeliever as gross contradictions4 ,another cause of the neglect into which the subject has fallen is that our century is an historical one4 ,it is not only books that have their fate1 but also whole sciences and literatures4 ,in past times it was religious speculation that formed the favourite study of scholars1 in our time it is history with its critical foundation on a sound philology4 ,now as these two most important branches of ,jewish science were so long neglected--were perhaps never cultivated in the true meaning of the word1 and as ,jewish literature is so vast and ,jewish history so farreaching and eventful1 we cannot wonder that these studies have absorbed the time and the labour of the greatest and best ,jewish writers in this century4 ,there is1 besides1 a certain tendency in historical studies that is hostile to mere theological speculation4 ,the historian deals with realities1 the theologian with abstractions4 ,the latter likes to shape the universe after his system1 and tells us how things ought to be1 the former teaches us how they are or have been1 and the explanation he gives for their being so and not otherwise includes in most cases also a kind of justification for their existence4 ,there is also the odium theologicum1 which has been the cause of so much misfortune that it is hated by the historian1 whilst the superficial1 rationalistic way in which the theologian manages to explain everything which does not suit his system is most repulsive to the critical spirit4 ,but it cannot be denied that this neglect has caused much confusion4 ,especially is this noticeable in ,england1 which is essentially a theological country1 and where people are but little prone to give up speculation about things which concern their most sacred interest and greatest happiness4 ,thus whilst we are exceedingly poor in all other branches of ,jewish learning1 we are comparatively rich in productions of a theological character4 ,we have a superfluity of essays on such delicate subjects as eternal punishment1 immortality of the soul1 the day of judgment1 etc41 and many treatises on the definition of ,judaism4 ,but knowing little or nothing of the progress recently made in ,jewish theology1 of the many protests against all kinds of infallibility1 whether canonised in this century or in olden times1 we in ,england still maintain that ,judaism has no dogmas as if nothing to the contrary had ever been said4 ,we seek the foundation of ,judaism in political economy1 in hygiene1 in everything except religion4 ,following the fashion of the day to esteem religion in proportion to its ability to adapt itself to every possible and impossible metaphysical and social system1 we are anxious to squeeze out of ,judaism the last drop of faith and hope1 and strive to make it so flexible that we can turn it in every direction which it is our pleasure to follow4 ,but alas6 the flexibility has progressed so far as to classify ,judaism among the invertebrate species1 the lowest order of living things4 ,it strongly resembles a certain ,christian school which addresses itself to the world in general and claims to satisfy everybody alike4 ,it claims to be socialism for the adherents of ,karl ,marx and ,lassalle1 worship of man for the followers of ,comte and ,st4 ,simon2 it carefully avoids the word 8,god0 for the comfort of agnostics and sceptics1 whilst on the other hand it pretends to hold sway over paradise1 hell1 and immortality for the edification of believers4 ,in such illusions many of our theologians delight4 ,for illusions they are2 you cannot be everything if you want to be anything4 ,moreover1 illusions in themselves are bad enough1 but we are menaced with what is still worse4 ,judaism1 divested of every higher religious motive1 is in danger of falling into gross materialism4 ,for what else is the meaning of such declarations as 8,believe what you like1 but conform to this or that mode of life02 what else does it mean but 8,we cannot expect you to believe that the things you are bidden to do are commanded by a higher authority2 there is not such a thing as belief1 but you ought to do them for conventionalism or for your own convenience40 ,but both these motives--the good opinion of our neighbours1 as well as our bodily health--have nothing to do with our nobler and higher sentiments1 and degrade ,judaism to a matter of expediency or diplomacy4 ,indeed1 things have advanced so far that wellmeaning but illadvised writers even think to render a service to ,judaism by declaring it to be a kind of enlightened ,hedonism1 or rather a moderate ,epicureanism4 ,i have no intention of here answering the question1 ,what is ,judaism8 ,this question is not less perplexing than the problem1 ,what is ,god's world8 ,judaism is also a great ,infinite1 composed of as many endless ,units1 the ,jews4 ,and these ,unit,jews have been1 and are still1 scattered through all the world1 and have passed under an immensity of influences1 good and bad4 ,if so1 how can we give an exact definition of the ,infinite1 called ,judaism8 ,but if there is anything sure1 it is that the highest motives which worked through the history of ,judaism are the strong belief in ,god and the unshaken confidence that at last this ,god1 the ,god of ,israel1 will be the ,god of the whole world2 or1 in other words1 ,faith and ,hope are the two most prominent characteristics of ,judaism4 ,in the following pages ,i shall try to give a short account of the manner in which these two principles of ,judaism found expression1 from the earliest times down to the age of ,mendelssohn2 that is1 to present an outline of the history of ,jewish ,dogmas4 ,first1 a few observations on the position of the ,bible and the ,talmud in relation to our theme4 ,insufficient and poor as they may be in proportion to the importance of these two fundamental documents of ,judaism1 these remarks may nevertheless suggest a connecting link between the teachings of ,jewish antiquity and those of ,maimonides and his successors4 ,i begin with the ,scriptures4 ,the ,bible itself hardly contains a command bidding us to believe4 ,we are hardly ordered1 e4g41 to believe in the existence of ,god4 ,i say hardly1 but ,i do not altogether deny the existence of such a command4 ,it is true that we do not find in the ,scripture such words as3 8,you are commanded to believe in the existence of ,god40 ,nor is any punishment assigned as awaiting him who denies it4 ,notwithstanding these facts1 many ,jewish authorities--among them such important men as ,maimonides1 ,r4 ,judah ,hallevi1 ,nachmanides--perceive1 in the first words of the ,ten ,commandments1 8,i am the ,lord thy ,god10 the command to believe in ,his existence47#aji7 ,be this as it may1 there cannot be the shadow of a doubt that the ,bible1 in which every command is dictated by ,god1 and in which all its heroes are the servants1 the friends1 or the ambassadors of ,god1 presumes such a belief in every one to whom those laws are dictated1 and these heroes address themselves4 ,nay1 ,i think that the word 8belief0 is not even adequate4 ,in a world with so many visible facts and invisible causes1 as life and death1 growth and decay1 light and darkness2 in a world where the sun rises and sets2 where the stars appear regularly2 where heavy rains pour down from the sky1 often accompanied by such grand phenomena as thunder and lightning2 in a world full of such marvels1 but into which no notion has entered of all our modern true or false explanations--who but ,god is behind all these things8 8,have the gates10 asks ,god1 8have the gates of death been open to thee8 or hast thou seen the doors of the shadow of death8444 ,where is the way where light dwelleth8 and as for darkness1 where is the place thereof8444 ,hath the rain a father8 or who hath begotten the drops of dew8444 ,canst thou bind the sweet influences of ,pleiades1 or loose the bands of ,orion8444 ,canst thou send lightnings1 that they may go1 and say unto thee1 ,here we are80 7,job xxxviii474 ,of all these wonders1 ,god was not merely the prima causa2 they were the result of ,his direct action1 without any intermediary causes4 ,and it is as absurd to say that the ancient world believed in ,god1 as for a future historian to assert of the nineteenth century that it believed in the effects of electricity4 ,we see them1 and so antiquity saw ,god4 ,if there was any danger1 it lay not in the denial of the existence of a ,god1 but in having a wrong belief4 ,belief in as many gods as there are manifestations in nature1 the investing of them with false attributes1 the misunderstanding of ,god's relation to men1 lead to immorality4 ,thus the greater part of the laws and teachings of the ,bible are either directed against polytheism1 with all its low ideas of ,god1 or rather of gods2 or they are directed towards regulating ,god's relation to men4 ,man is a servant of ,god1 or ,his prophet1 or even ,his friend4 ,but this relationship man obtains only by his conduct4 ,nay1 all man's actions are carefully regulated by ,god1 and connected with ,his holiness4 ,the #aith chapter of ,leviticus1 which is considered by the ,rabbis as the portion of the ,law in which the most important articles of the ,torah are embodied1 is headed1 8,ye shall be holy1 for ,i the ,lord your own ,god am holy40 ,and each law therein occurring1 even those which concern our relations to each other1 is not founded on utilitarian reasons1 but is ordained because the opposite of it is an offence to the holiness of ,god1 and profanes ,his creatures1 whom ,he desired to be as holy as ,he is47#aaj7 ,thus the whole structure of the ,bible is built upon the visible fact of the existence of a ,god1 and upon the belief in the relation of ,god to men1 especially to ,israel4 ,in spite of all that has been said to the contrary1 the ,bible does lay stress upon belief1 where belief is required4 ,the unbelievers are rebuked again and again4 8,for all this they sinned still1 and believed not for ,his wondrous work10 complains ,asaph 7,ps4 lxxviii4 #cb74 ,and belief is praised in such exalted words as1 8,thus saith the ,lord1 ,i remember thee1 the kindness of thy youth1 the love of thine espousals1 when thou wentest after me in the wilderness1 in a land that was not sown0 7,jer4 ii4 #b74 ,the ,bible1 especially the books of the prophets1 consists1 in great part1 of promises for the future1 which the ,rabbis justly termed the 8,consolations407#aaa7 ,for our purpose1 it is of no great consequence to examine what future the prophets had in view1 whether an immediate future or one more remote1 at the end of days4 ,at any rate1 they inculcated hope and confidence that ,god would bring to pass a better time4 ,i think that even the most advanced ,bible critic--provided he is not guided by some modern ,aryan reasons--must perceive in such passages as1 8,the ,lord shall reign for ever and ever10 8,the ,lord shall rejoice in his works10 and many others1 a hope for more than the establishment of the 8national ,deity among his votaries in ,palestine40 ,we have now to pass over an interval of many centuries1 the length of which depends upon the views held as to the date of the close of the canon1 and examine what the ,rabbis1 the representatives of the prophets1 thought on this subject4 ,not that the views of the author of the ,wisdom of ,solomon1 of ,philo and ,aristobulus1 and many others of the ,judo ,alexandrian school would be uninteresting for us4 ,but somehow their influence on ,judaism was only a passing one1 and their doctrines never became authoritative in the ,synagogue4 ,we must here confine ourselves to those who1 even by the testimony of their bitterest enemies1 occupied the seat of ,moses4 ,the successors of the prophets had to deal with new circumstances1 and accordingly their teachings were adapted to the wants of their times4 ,as the result of manifold foreign influences1 the visible fact of the existence of ,god as manifested in the ,bible had been somewhat obscured4 ,prophecy ceased1 and the ,holy ,spirit which inspired a few chosen ones took its place4 ,afterwards this influence was reduced to the hearing of a ,voice from ,heaven1 which was audible to still fewer4 ,on the other hand the ,rabbis had this advantage that they were not called upon to fight against idolatry as their predecessors the prophets had been4 ,the evil inclination to worship idols was1 as the ,talmud expresses it allegorically1 killed by the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue1 or1 as we should put it1 it was suppressed by the sufferings of the captivity in ,babylon4 ,this change of circumstances is marked by the following fact3--,whilst the prophets mostly considered idolatry as the cause of all sin1 the ,rabbis show a strong tendency to ascribe sin to a defect in1 or a want of1 belief on the part of the sinner4 ,they teach that ,adam would not have sinned unless he had first denied the 8,root of all0 7or the main principle71 namely1 the belief in the ,omnipresence of ,god4 ,of ,cain they say that before murdering his brother he declared3 8,there is no judgment1 there is no judge1 there is no world to come1 and there is no reward for the just1 and no punishment for the wicked407#aab7 ,in another place we read that the commission of a sin in secret is an impertinent attempt by the doer to oust ,god from the world4 ,but if unbelief is considered as the root of all evil1 we may expect that the reverse of it1 a perfect faith1 would be praised in the most exalted terms4 ,so we read3 ,faith is so great that the man who possesses it may hope to become a worthy vessel of the ,holy ,spirit1 or1 as we should express it1 that he may hope to obtain by this power the highest degree of communion with his ,maker4 ,the ,patriarch ,abraham1 notwithstanding all his other virtues1 only became 8the possessor of both worlds0 by the merit of his strong faith4 ,nay1 even the fulfilment of a single law when accompanied by true faith is1 according to the ,rabbis1 sufficient to bring man nigh to ,god4 ,and the future redemption is also conditional on the degree of faith shown by ,israel47#aac7 ,it has often been asked what the ,rabbis would have thought of a man who fulfils every commandment of the ,torah1 but does not believe that this ,torah was given by ,god1 or that there exists a ,god at all4 ,it is indeed very difficult to answer this question with any degree of certainty4 ,in the time of the ,rabbis people were still too simple for such a diplomatic religion1 and conformity in the modern sense was quite an unknown thing4 ,but from the foregoing remarks it would seem that the ,rabbis could not conceive such a monstrosity as atheistic orthodoxy4 ,for1 as we have seen1 the ,rabbis thought that unbelief must needs end in sin1 for faith is the origin of all good4 ,accordingly1 in the case just supposed they would have either suspected the man's orthodoxy1 or would have denied that his views were really what he professed them to be4 ,still more important than the above cited ,agadic passages is one which we are about to quote from the tractate ,sanhedrin4 ,this tractate deals with the constitution1 of the supreme lawcourt1 the examination of the witnesses1 the functions of the judges1 and the different punishment to be inflicted on the transgressors of the law4 ,after having enumerated various kinds of capital punishment1 the ,mishnah adds the following words3 8,these are 7the men7 who are excluded from the life to come3 ,he who says there is no resurrection from death2 he who says there is no ,torah given from heaven1 and the ,epikurus407#aad7 ,this passage was considered by the ,rabbis of the ,middle ,ages1 as well as by modern scholars1 the locus classicus for the dogma question4 ,there are many passages in the ,rabbinic literature which exclude man from the world to come for this or that sin4 ,but these are more or less of an ,agadic 7legendary7 character1 and thus lend themselves to exaggeration and hyperbolic language4 ,they cannot1 therefore1 be considered as serious legal dicta1 or as the general opinion of the ,rabbis4 ,the ,mishnah in ,sanhedrin1 however1 has1 if only by its position in a legal tractate1 a certain ,halachic 7obligatory7 character4 ,and the fact that so early an authority as ,r4 ,akiba made additions to it guarantees its high antiquity4 ,the first two sentences of this ,mishnah are clear enough4 ,in modern language1 and positively speaking1 they would represent articles of belief in ,resurrection and ,revelation4 ,great difficulty is found in defining what was meant by the word ,epikurus4 ,the authorities of the ,middle ,ages1 to whom ,i shall again have to refer1 explain the ,epikurus to be a man who denies the belief in reward and punishment2 others identify him with one who denies the belief in ,providence2 while others again consider the ,epikurus to be one who denies ,tradition4 ,but the parallel passages in which it occurs incline one rather to think that this word cannot be defined by one kind of heresy4 ,it implies rather a frivolous treatment of the words of ,scripture or of ,tradition4 ,in the case of the latter 7,tradition7 it is certainly not honest difference of opinion that is condemned2 for the ,rabbis themselves differed very often from each other1 and even ,medival authorities did not feel any compunction about explaining ,scripture in variance with the ,rabbinic interpretation1 and sometimes they even went so far as to declare that the view of this or that great authority was only to be considered as an isolated opinion not deserving particular attention4 ,what they did blame was1 as already said1 scoffing and impiety4 ,we may thus safely assert that reverence for the teachers of ,israel formed the third essential principle of ,judaism47#aae7 ,i have still to remark that there occur in the ,talmud such passages as 8the ,jew1 even if he has sinned1 is still a ,jew10 or 8,he who denies idolatry is called a ,jew40 ,these and similar passages have been used to prove that ,judaism was not a positive religion1 but only involved the negation of idolatry4 ,but it has been overlooked that the statements quoted have more a legal than a theological character4 ,the ,jew belonged to his nationality even after having committed the greatest sin1 just as the ,englishman does not cease to be an ,englishman--in regard to treason and the like--by having committed a heinous crime4 ,but he has certainly acted in a very un,english way1 and having outraged the feelings of the whole nation will have to suffer for his misconduct4 ,the ,rabbis in a similar manner did not maintain that he who gave up the belief in ,revelation and ,resurrection1 and treated irreverently the teachers of ,israel1 severed his connection with the ,jewish nation1 but that1 for his crime1 he was going to suffer the heaviest punishment4 ,he was to be excluded from the world to come4 ,still1 important as is the passage quoted from ,sanhedrin1 it would be erroneous to think that it exhausted the creed of the ,rabbis4 ,the liturgy and innumerable passages in the ,midrashim show that they ardently clung to the belief in the advent of the ,messiah4 ,all their hope was turned to the future redemption and the final establishment of the ,kingdom of ,heaven on earth4 ,judaism1 stripped of this belief1 would have been for them devoid of meaning4 ,the belief in reward and punishment is also repeated again and again in the old ,rabbinic literature4 ,a more emphatic declaration of the belief in ,providence than is conveyed by the following passages is hardly conceivable4 8,everything is foreseen1 and free will is given4 ,and the world is judged by grace40 ,or1 8the born are to die1 and the dead to revive1 and the living to be judged4 ,for to know and to notify1 and that it may be known that ,he 7,god7 is the ,framer and ,he the ,creator1 and ,he the ,discerner1 and ,he the ,judge1 and ,he the ,witness10 etc47#aaf7 ,but it must not be forgotten that it was not the habit of the ,rabbis to lay down1 either for conduct or for doctrine1 rules which were commonly known4 ,when they urged the three points stated above there must have been some historical reason for it4 ,probably these principles were controverted by some heretics4 ,indeed1 the whole tone of the passage cited from ,sanhedrin is a protest against certain unbelievers who are threatened with punishment4 ,other beliefs1 not less essential1 but less disputed1 remain unmentioned1 because there was no necessity to assert them4 ,it was not till a much later time1 when the ,jews came into closer contact with new philosophical schools1 and also new creeds which were more liable than heathenism was to be confused with ,judaism1 that this necessity was felt4 ,and thus we are led at once to the period when the ,jews became acquainted with the teachings of the ,mohammedan schools4 ,the ,caraites came very early into contact with non,jewish systems4 ,and so we find that they were also the first to formulate ,jewish dogmas in a fixed number1 and in a systematic order4 ,it is also possible that their separation from the ,tradition1 and their early division into little sects among themselves1 compelled them to take this step1 in order to avoid further sectarianism4 ,the number of their dogmas amounts to ten4 ,according to ,judah ,hadasi 7#aaej71 who would appear to have derived them from his predecessors1 their dogmas include the following articles3--#a4 ,creatio ex nihilo2 #b4 ,the existence of a ,creator1 ,god2 #c4 ,this ,god is an absolute unity as well as incorporeal2 #d4 ,moses and the other prophets were sent by ,god2 #e4 ,god has given to us the ,torah1 which is true and complete in every respect1 not wanting the addition of the socalled ,oral ,law2 #f4 ,the ,torah must be studied by every ,jew in the original 7,hebrew7 language2 #g4 ,the ,holy ,temple was a place elected by ,god for ,his manifestation2 #h4 ,resurrection of the dead2 #i4 ,punishment and reward after death2 #aj4 ,the ,coming of the ,messiah1 the son of ,david4 ,how far the predecessors of ,hadasi were influenced by a certain ,joseph ,albashir 7about #iej71 of whom there exists a manuscript work1 8,rudiments of ,faith10 ,i am unable to say4 ,the little we know of him reveals more of his intimacy with ,arabic thoughts than of his importance for his sect in particular and for ,judaism in general4 ,after ,hadasi ,i shall mention here ,elijah ,bashazi1 a ,caraite writer of the end of the fifteenth century4 ,this author1 who was much influenced by ,maimonides1 omits the second and the seventh articles4 ,in order to make up the ten he numbers the belief in the eternity of ,god as an article1 and divides the fourth article into two4 ,in the fifth article ,bashazi does not emphasise so strongly the completeness of the ,torah as ,hadasi1 and omits the portion which is directed against ,tradition4 ,it is interesting to see the distinction which ,bashazi draws between the ,pentateuch and the ,prophets4 ,while he thinks that the five books of ,moses can never be altered1 he regards the words of the ,prophets as only relating to their contemporaries1 and thus subject to changes4 ,as ,i do not want to anticipate ,maimonides' system1 ,i must refrain from giving here the articles laid down by ,solomon ,troki in the beginning of the eighteenth century4 ,for the articles of ,maimonides are copied by this writer with a few slight alterations so as to dress them in a ,caraite garb4 ,i must dismiss the ,caraites with these few remarks1 my object being chiefly to discuss the dogmas of the ,synagogue from which they had separated themselves4 ,besides1 as in everything ,caraitic1 there is no further development of the question4 ,as ,bashazi laid them down1 they are still taught by the ,caraites of today4 ,i return to the ,rabbanites47#aag7 ,as is well known1 ,maimonides 7#aacjabje71 was the first ,rabbanite who formulated the dogmas of the ,synagogue4 ,but there are indications of earlier attempts4 ,r4 ,saadiah ,gaon's 7#hibidb7 work1 ,creeds and ,opinions1 shows such traces4 ,he says in his preface1 8,my heart sickens to see that the belief of my coreligionists is impure and that their theological views are confused40 ,the subjects he treats in this book1 such as creation1 unity of ,god1 resurrection of the dead1 the future redemption of ,israel1 reward and punishment1 and other kindred theological subjects might thus1 perhaps1 be considered as the essentials of the creed that the ,gaon desired to present in a pure and rational form4 ,r4 ,hannaneel1 of ,kairowan17#aah7 in the first half of the eleventh century1 says in one of his commentaries that to deserve eternal life one must believe in four things3 in ,god1 in the prophets1 in a future world where the just will be rewarded1 and in the advent of the ,redeemer4 ,from ,r4 ,judah ,hallevi's ,cusari1 written in the beginning of the twelfth century1 we might argue that the belief in the election of ,israel by ,god was the cardinal dogma of the author47#aai7 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud1 a contemporary of ,maimonides1 in his book ,the ,high ,belief17#abj7 speaks of rudiments1 among which1 besides such metaphysical principles as unity1 rational conception of ,god's attributes1 etc41 the belief in the immutability of the ,law1 etc41 is included4 ,still1 all these works are intended to furnish evidence from philosophy or history for the truth of religion rather than to give a definition of this truth4 ,the latter task was undertaken by ,maimonides4 ,i refer to the thirteen articles embodied in his first work1 ,the ,commentary to the ,mishnah4 ,they are appended to the ,mishnah in ,sanhedrin1 with which ,i dealt above4 ,but though they do not form an independent treatise1 ,maimonides' remarks must not be considered as merely incidental4 ,that ,maimonides was quite conscious of the importance of this exposition can be gathered from the concluding words addressed to the reader3 8,know these 7words7 and repeat them many times1 and think them over in the proper way4 ,god knows that thou wouldst be deceiving thyself if thou thinkest thou hast understood them by having read them once or even ten times4 ,be not1 therefore1 hasty in perusing them4 ,i have not composed them without deep study and earnest reflection40 ,the result of this deep study was that the following ,thirteen ,articles constitute the creed of ,judaism4 ,they are3-- #a4 ,the belief in the existence of a ,creator2 #b4 ,the belief in ,his ,unity2 #c4 ,the belief in ,his ,incorporeality2 #d4 ,the belief in ,his ,eternity2 #e4 ,the belief that all worship and adoration are due to ,him alone2 #f4 ,the belief in ,prophecy2 #g4 ,the belief that ,moses was the greatest of all ,prophets1 both before and after him2 #h4 ,the belief that the ,torah was revealed to ,moses on ,mount ,sinai2 #i4 ,the belief in the ,immutability of this revealed ,torah2 #aj4 ,the belief that ,god knows the actions of men2 #aa4 ,the belief in ,reward and ,punishment2 #ab4 ,the belief in the coming of the ,messiah2 #ac4 ,the belief in the ,resurrection of the dead4 ,the impulse given by the great philosopher and still greater ,jew was eagerly followed by succeeding generations1 and ,judaism thus came into possession of a dogmatic literature such as it never knew before ,maimonides4 ,maimonides is the centre of this literature1 and ,i shall accordingly speak in the remainder of this essay of ,maimonists and ,anti ,maimonists4 ,these terms really apply to the great controversy that raged round ,maimonides' ,guide of the ,perplexed1 but ,i shall1 chiefly for brevity's sake1 employ them in these pages in a restricted sense to refer to the dispute concerning the ,thirteen ,articles4 ,among the ,maimonists we may probably include the great majority of ,jews1 who accepted the ,thirteen ,articles without further question4 ,maimonides must indeed have filled up a great gap in ,jewish theology1 a gap1 moreover1 the existence of which was very generally perceived4 ,a century had hardly elapsed before the ,thirteen ,articles had become a theme for the poets of the ,synagogue4 ,and almost every country where ,jews lived can show a poem or a prayer founded on these ,articles4 ,r4 ,jacob ,molin 7#adbj7 of ,germany speaks of metrical and rhymed songs in the ,german language1 the burden of which was the ,thirteen ,articles1 and which were read by the common people with great devotion4 ,the numerous commentaries and homilies written on the same topic would form a small library in themselves47#aba7 ,but on the other hand it must not be denied that the ,anti,maimonists1 that is to say those ,jewish writers who did not agree with the creed formulated by ,maimonides1 or agreed only in part with him1 form also a very strong and respectable minority4 ,they deserve our attention the more as it is their works which brought life into the subject and deepened it4 ,it is not by a perpetual ,amen to every utterance of a great authority that truth or literature gains anything4 ,the ,anti,maimonists can be divided into two classes4 ,the one class categorically denies that ,judaism has dogmas4 ,i shall have occasion to touch on this view when ,i come to speak of ,abarbanel4 ,here ,i pass at once to the second class of ,anti,maimonists4 ,this consists of those who agree with ,maimonides as to the existence of dogmas in ,judaism1 but who differ from him as to what these dogmas are1 or who give a different enumeration of them4 ,as the first of these ,anti,maimonists we may regard ,nachmanides1 who1 in his famous ,sermon in the ,presence of the ,king1 speaks of three fundamental principles3 ,creation 7that is1 noneternity of matter71 ,omniscience of ,god1 and ,providence4 ,next comes ,r4 ,abba ,mari ben ,moses1 of ,montpellier4 ,he wrote at the beginning of the fourteenth century1 and is famous in ,jewish history for his zeal against the study of philosophy4 ,we possess a small pamphlet by him dealing with our subject1 and it forms a kind of prologue to his collection of controversial letters against the rationalists of his time47#abb7 ,he lays down three articles as the fundamental teachings of ,religion3 #a4 ,metaphysical3 ,the existence of ,god1 including ,his ,unity and ,incorporeality2 #b4 ,mosaic3 ,creatio ex nihilo by ,god--a consequence of this principle is the belief that ,god is capable of altering the laws of nature at ,his pleasure2 #c4 ,ethical3 ,special ,providence--i4e4 ,god knows all our actions in all their details4 ,abba ,mari does not mention ,maimonides' ,thirteen ,articles4 ,but it would be false to conclude that he rejected the belief in the coming of the ,messiah1 or any other article of ,maimonides4 ,the whole tone and tendency of this pamphlet is polemical1 and it is therefore probable that he only urged those points which were either doubted or explained in an unorthodox way by the sceptics of his time4 ,another scholar1 of ,provence1 who wrote but twenty years later than ,abba ,mari--,r4 ,david ben ,samuel d',estella 7#acbj7--speaks of the seven pillars of religion4 ,they are3 ,revelation1 ,providence1 ,reward and ,punishment1 the ,coming of the ,messiah1 ,resurrection of the ,dead1 ,creatio ex nihilo1 and ,free ,will47#abc7 ,of authors living in other countries1 ,i have to mention here ,r4 ,shemariah1 of ,crete1 who flourished at about the same time as ,r4 ,david d',estella1 and is known from his efforts to reconcile the ,caraites with the ,rabbanites4 ,this author wrote a book for the purpose of furnishing ,jewish students with evidence for what he considered the five fundamental teachings of ,judaism1 viz43 #a4 ,the ,existence of ,god2 #b4 ,the ,incorporeality of ,god2 #c4 ,his ,absolute ,unity2 #d4 ,that ,god created heaven and earth2 #e4 ,that ,god created the world after ,his will #eajf years ago--#eajf 7#acdf ,a4,c471 being the year in which ,shemariah wrote these words47#abd7 ,in ,portugal1 at about the same time1 we find ,r4 ,david ben ,yom,tob ,bilia adding to the articles of ,maimonides thirteen of his own1 which he calls the 8,fundamentals of the ,thinking ,man40 ,five of these articles relate to the functions of the human soul1 that1 according to him1 emanated from ,god1 and to the way in which this divine soul receives its punishment and reward4 ,the other eight articles are as follows3 #a4 ,the belief in the existence of spiritual beings--angels2 #b4 ,creatio ex nihilo2 #c4 ,the belief in the existence of another world1 and that this other world is only a spiritual one2 #d4 ,the ,torah is above philosophy2 #e4 ,the ,torah has an outward 7literal7 meaning and an inward 7allegorical7 meaning2 #f4 ,the text of the ,torah is not subject to any emendation2 #g4 ,the reward of a good action is the good work itself1 and the doer must not expect any other reward2 #h4 ,it is only by the 8commands relating to the heart10 for instance1 the belief in one eternal ,god1 the loving and fearing ,him1 and not through good actions1 that man attains the highest degree of perfection47#abe7 ,perhaps it would be suitable to mention here another contemporaneous writer1 who also enumerates twentysix articles4 ,the name of this writer is unknown1 and his articles are only gathered from quotations by later authors4 ,it would seem from these quotations that the articles of this unknown author consisted mostly of statements emphasising the belief in the attributes of ,god3 as1 ,his ,eternity1 ,his ,wisdom and ,omnipotence1 and the like47#abf7 ,more important for our subject are the productions of the fifteenth century1 especially those of ,spanish authors4 ,the fifteen articles of ,r4 ,lipman ,muhlhausen1 in the preface to his wellknown ,book of ,victory7#abg7 7#adaj71 differ but slightly from those of ,maimonides4 ,in accordance with the anti,christian tendency of his polemical book1 he lays more stress on the two articles of ,unity and ,incorporeality1 and makes of them four4 ,we can therefore dismiss him with this short remark1 and pass at once to the ,spanish ,rabbis4 ,the first of these is ,r4 ,chasdai ,ibn ,crescas1 who composed his famous treatise1 ,the ,light of ,god1 about #adje4 ,chasdai's book is well known for its attacks on ,aristotle1 and also for its influence on ,spinoza4 ,but ,chasdai deals also with ,maimonides' ,thirteen ,articles1 to which he was very strongly opposed4 ,already in his preface he attacks ,maimonides for speaking1 in his ,book of the ,commandments1 of the belief in the existence of ,god as an 8affirmative precept40 ,chasdai thinks it absurd2 for every commandment must be dictated by some authority1 but on whose authority can we dictate the acceptance of this authority8 ,his general objection to the ,thirteen ,articles is that ,maimonides confounded dogmas or fundamental beliefs of ,judaism1 without which ,judaism is inconceivable1 with beliefs or doctrines which ,judaism inculcates1 but the denial of which1 though involving a strong heresy1 does not make ,judaism impossible4 ,he maintains that if ,maimonides meant only to count fundamental teachings1 there are not more than seven2 but that if he intended also to include doctrines1 he ought to have enumerated sixteen4 ,as beliefs of the first class--namely1 fundamental beliefs--he considers the following articles3 #a4 ,god's knowledge of our actions2 #b4 ,providence2 #c4 ,god's omnipotence--even to act against the laws of nature2 #d4 ,prophecy2 #e4 ,free will2 #f4 ,the aim of the ,torah is to make man long after the closest communion with ,god4 ,the belief in the existence of ,god1 ,chasdai thinks1 is an axiom with which every religion must begin1 and he is therefore uncertain whether to include it as a dogma or not4 ,as to the doctrines which every ,jew is bound to believe1 but without which ,judaism is not impossible1 ,chasdai divides them into two sections3 7a7 #a4 ,creatio ex nihilo2 #b4 ,immortality of the soul2 #c4 ,reward and ,punishment2 #d4 ,resurrection of the dead2 #e4 ,immutability of the ,torah2 #f4 ,superiority of the prophecy of ,moses2 #g4 ,that the ,high ,priest received from ,god the instructions sought for1 when he put his questions through the medium of the ,urim and ,thummim2 #h4 ,the coming of the ,messiah4 7b7 ,doctrines which are expressed by certain religious ceremonies1 and on belief in which these ceremonies are conditioned3 #a4 ,the belief in the efficacy of prayer--as well as in the power of the benediction of the priests to convey to us the blessing of ,god2 #b4 ,god is merciful to the penitent2 #c4 ,certain days in the year--for instance1 the ,day of ,atonement--are especially qualified to bring us near to ,god1 if we keep them in the way we are commanded4 ,that ,chasdai is a little arbitrary in the choice of his 8doctrines10 ,i need hardly say4 ,indeed1 ,chasdai's importance for the dogmaquestion consists more in his critical suggestions than in his positive results4 ,he was1 as we have seen1 the first to make the distinction between fundamental teachings which form the basis of ,judaism1 and those other simple ,jewish doctrines without which ,judaism is not impossible4 ,very daring is his remark1 when proving that ,reward and ,punishment1 ,immortality of the soul1 and ,resurrection of the dead must not be considered as the basis of ,judaism1 since the highest ideal of religion is to serve ,god without any hope of reward4 ,even more daring are his words concerning the ,immutability of the ,law4 ,he says3 8,some have argued that1 since ,god is perfection1 so must also ,his law be perfect1 and thus unsusceptible of improvement40 ,but he does not think this argument conclusive1 though the fact in itself 7the ,immutability of the ,law7 is true4 ,for one might answer that this perfection of the ,torah could only be in accordance with the intelligence of those for whom it was meant2 but as soon as the recipients of the ,torah have advanced to a higher state of perfection1 the ,torah must also be altered to suit their advanced intelligence4 ,a pupil of ,chasdai illustrates the words of his master by a medical parallel4 ,the physician has to adapt his medicaments to the various stages through which his patient has to pass4 ,that he changes his prescription does not1 however1 imply that his medical knowledge is imperfect1 or that his earlier remedies were ignorantly chosen2 the varying condition of the invalid was the cause of the variation in the doctor's treatment4 ,similarly1 were not the ,immutability of the ,torah a 8doctrine10 one might maintain that the perfection of the ,torah would not be inconsistent with the assumption that it was susceptible of modification1 in accordance with our changing and progressive circumstances4 ,but all these arguments are purely of a theoretic character2 for1 practically1 every ,jew1 according to ,chasdai1 has to accept all these beliefs1 whether he terms them fundamental teachings or only ,jewish doctrines47#abh7 ,some years later1 though he finished his work in the same year as ,chasdai1 ,r4 ,simeon ,duran 7#acffaddd17 a younger contemporary of the former1 made his researches on dogmas4 ,his studies on this subject form a kind of introduction to his commentary on ,job1 which he finished in the year #adje4 ,duran is not so strongly opposed to the ,thirteen ,articles as ,chasdai1 or as another 8thinker of our people10 who thought them an arbitrary imitation of the thirteen attributes of ,god4 ,duran tries to justify ,maimonides2 but nevertheless he agrees with 8earlier authorities10 who formulated the ,jewish creed in ,three ,articles--,the ,existence of ,god1 ,revelation1 and ,reward and ,punishment--under which ,duran thinks the ,thirteen ,articles of ,maimonides may be easily classed4 ,most interesting are his remarks concerning the validity of dogmas4 ,he tells us that only those are to be considered as heretics who abide by their own opinions1 though they know that they are contradictory to the views of the ,torah4 ,those who accept the fundamental teachings of ,judaism1 but are led by their deep studies and earnest reflection to differ in details from the opinions current among their coreligionists1 and explain certain passages in the ,scripture in their own way1 must by no means be considered as heretics4 ,we must1 therefore1 ,duran proceeds to say1 not blame such men as ,maimonides1 who gave an allegorical interpretation to certain passages in the ,bible about miracles1 or ,r4 ,levi ben ,gershom1 who followed certain un ,jewish views in relation to the belief in ,creatio ex nihilo4 ,only the views are condemnable1 not those who cherish them4 ,god forbid1 says ,duran1 that such a thing should happen in ,israel as to condemn honest inquirers on account of their differing opinions4 ,it would be interesting to know of how many divines as tolerant as this persecuted ,jew the fifteenth century can boast47#abi7 ,we can now pass to a more popular but less original writer on our theme4 ,i refer to ,r4 ,joseph ,albo1 the author of the ,roots17#acj7 who was the pupil of ,chasdai1 a younger contemporary of ,duran1 and wrote at a much later period than these authors4 ,graetz has justly denied him much originality4 ,the chief merit of ,albo consists in popularising other people's thoughts1 though he does not always take care to mention their names4 ,and the student who is a little familiar with the contents of the ,roots will easily find that ,albo has taken his best ideas either from ,chasdai or from ,duran4 ,as it is of little consequence to us whether an article of faith is called 8stem10 or 8root10 or 8branch10 there is scarcely anything fresh left to quote in the name of ,albo4 ,the late ,dr4 ,lw1 of ,szegedin1 was indeed right1 when he answered an adversary who challenged him--8,who would dare to declare me a heretic as long as ,i confess the ,three ,articles laid down by ,albo80 with the words 8,albo himself40 ,for1 after all the subtle distinctions ,albo makes between different classes of dogmas1 he declares that every one who denies even the immutability of the ,law or the coming of the ,messiah1 which are1 according to him1 articles of minor importance1 is a heretic who will be excluded from the world to come4 ,but there is one point in his book which is worth noticing4 ,it was suggested to him by ,maimonides1 indeed2 still ,albo has the merit of having emphasised it as it deserves4 ,among the articles which he calls 8branches0 ,albo counts the belief that the perfection of man1 which leads to eternal life1 can be obtained by the fulfilling of one commandment4 ,but this command must1 as ,maimonides points out1 be done without any worldly regard1 and only for the love of ,god4 ,when one considers how many platitudes are repeated year by year by certain theologians on the subject of ,jewish legalism1 we cannot lay enough stress on this article of ,albo1 and we ought to make it better known than it has hitherto been47#aca7 ,though ,i cannot enter here into the enumeration of the ,maimonists1 ,i must not leave unmentioned the name of ,r4 ,nissim ben ,moses of ,marseilles1 the first great ,maimonist1 who flourished about the end of the thirteenth century1 and was considered as one of the most enlightened thinkers of his age47#acb7 ,another great ,maimonist deserving special attention is ,r4 ,abraham ben ,shem,tob ,bibago1 who may perhaps be regarded as the most prominent among those who undertook to defend ,maimonides against the attacks of ,chasdai and others4 ,bibago wrote ,the ,path of ,belief7#acc7 in the second half of the fifteenth century1 and was1 as ,dr4 ,steinschneider aptly describes him1 a ,denkglubiger4 ,but1 above all1 he was a believing ,jew4 ,when he was once asked1 at the table of ,king ,john ,,ii41 of ,aragon1 by a ,christian scholar1 8,are you the ,jewish philosopher80 he answered1 8,i am a ,jew who believes in the ,law given to us by our teacher ,moses1 though ,i have studied philosophy40 ,bibago was such a devoted admirer of ,maimonides that he could not tolerate any opposition to him4 ,he speaks in one passage of the prudent people of his time who1 in desiring to be looked upon as orthodox by the great mob1 calumniated the ,teacher 7,maimonides71 and depreciated his merits4 ,bibago's book is very interesting1 especially in its controversial parts2 but in respect to dogmas he is1 as already said1 a ,maimonist1 and does not contribute any new point on our subject4 ,to return to the ,anti,maimonists of the second half of the fifteenth century4 ,as such may be considered ,r4 ,isaac ,aramah1 who speaks of three foundations of religion3 ,creatio ex nihilo1 ,revelation 7871 and the belief in a world to come47#acd7 ,next to be mentioned is ,r4 ,joseph ,jabez1 who also accepts only three articles3 ,creatio ex nihilo1 ,individual ,providence1 and the ,unity of ,god47#ace7 ,under these three heads he tries to classify the ,thirteen ,articles of ,maimonides4 ,the last ,spanish writer on our subject is ,r4 ,isaac ,abarbanel4 ,his treatise on the subject is known under the title ,top of ,amanah17#acf7 and was finished in the year #adie4 ,the greatest part of this treatise forms a defence of ,maimonides1 many points in which are taken from ,bibago4 ,but1 in spite of this fact1 ,abarbanel must not be considered a ,maimonist4 ,it is only a feeling of piety towards ,maimonides1 or perhaps rather a fondness for argument1 that made him defend ,maimonides against ,chasdai and others4 ,his own view is that it is a mistake to formulate dogmas of ,judaism1 since every word in the ,torah has to be considered as a dogma for itself4 ,it was only1 says ,abarbanel1 by following the example of non,jewish scholars that ,maimonides and others were induced to lay down dogmas4 ,the non,jewish philosophers are in the habit of accepting in every science certain indisputable axioms from which they deduce the propositions which are less evident4 ,the ,jewish philosophers in a similar way sought for first principles in religion from which the whole of the ,torah ought to be considered as a deduction4 ,but1 thinks ,abarbanel1 the ,torah as a revealed code is under no necessity of deducing things from each other1 for all the commands came from the same divine authority1 and1 therefore1 all are alike evident1 and have the same certainty4 ,on this and similar grounds ,abarbanel refused to accept dogmatic articles for ,judaism1 and he thus became the head of the school that forms a class by itself among the ,anti ,maimonists to which many of the greatest ,cabbalists also belong4 ,but it is idle talk to cite this school in aid of the modern theory that ,judaism has no dogmas4 ,as we have seen1 it was rather an embarras de richesse that prevented ,abarbanel from accepting the ,thirteen ,articles of ,maimonides4 ,to him and to the ,cabbalists the ,torah consists of at least #fac ,articles4 ,abarbanel wrote his book with which we have just dealt1 at ,naples4 ,and it is ,italy to which1 after the expulsion of the ,jews from ,spain1 we have to look chiefly for religious speculation4 ,but the philosophers of ,italy are still less independent of ,maimonides than their predecessors in ,spain4 ,thus we find that ,r4 ,david ,messer ,leon1 ,r4 ,david ,vital1 and others were ,maimonists4 ,even the otherwise refined and original thinker1 ,r4 ,elijah ,delmedigo 7who died about the end of the fifteenth century7 becomes almost impolite when he speaks of the adversaries of ,maimonides in respect to dogmas4 8,it was only10 he says1 8the wouldbe philosopher that dared to question the articles of ,maimonides4 ,our people have always the bad habit of thinking themselves competent to attack the greatest authorities as soon as they have got some knowledge of the subject4 ,genuine thinkers1 however1 attach very little importance to their objections407#acg7 ,indeed1 it seems as if the energetic protests of ,delmedigo scared away the ,anti,maimonists for more than a century4 ,even in the following seventeenth century we have to notice only two ,anti,maimonists4 ,the one is ,r4 ,tobijah1 the ,priest 7#afeb71 who was of ,polish descent1 studied in ,italy1 and lived as a medical man in ,france4 ,he seems to refuse to accept the belief in the ,immutability of the ,torah1 and in the coming of the ,messiah1 as fundamental teachings of ,judaism47#ach7 ,the other1 at the end of the seventeenth century 7#afie71 is ,r4 ,abraham ,chayim ,viterbo1 of ,italy4 ,he accepts only six articles3 #a4 ,existence of ,god2 #b4 ,unity2 #c4 ,incorporeality2 #d4 ,that ,god was revealed to ,moses on ,mount ,sinai1 and that the prophecy of ,moses is true2 #e4 ,revelation 7including the historical parts of the ,torah72 #f4 ,reward and ,punishment4 ,as to the other articles of ,maimonides1 ,viterbo1 in opposition to other halfhearted ,anti,maimonists1 declares that the man who denies them is not to be considered as a heretic2 though he ought to believe them47#aci7 ,i have now arrived at the limit ,i set to myself at the beginning of this essay4 ,for1 between the times of ,viterbo and those of ,mendelssohn1 there is hardly to be found any serious opposition to ,maimonides worth noticing here4 ,still ,i must mention the name of ,r4 ,saul ,berlin 7died #agid72 there is much in his opinions on dogmas which will help us the better to understand the ,thirteen ,articles of ,maimonides4 ,as the reader has seen1 ,i have refrained so far from reproducing here the apologies which were made by many ,maimonists in behalf of the ,thirteen ,articles4 ,for1 after all their elaborate pleas1 none of them was able to clear ,maimonides of the charge of having confounded dogmas or fundamental teachings with doctrines4 ,it is also true that the ,fifth ,article--that prayer and worship must only be offered to ,god--cannot be considered even as a doctrine1 but as a simple precept4 ,and there are other difficulties which all the distinctions of the ,maimonists will never be able to solve4 ,the only possible justification is1 ,i think1 that suggested by a remark of ,r4 ,saul4 ,this author1 who was himself--like his friend and older contemporary ,mendelssohn--a strong ,anti,maimonist1 among other remarks1 maintains that dogmas must never be laid down but with regard to the necessities of the time47#adj7 ,now ,r4 ,saul certainly did not doubt that ,judaism is based on eternal truths which can in no way be shaken by new modes of thinking or changed circumstances4 ,what he meant was that there are in every age certain beliefs which ought to be asserted more emphatically than others1 without regard to their theological or rather logical importance4 ,it is by this maxim that we shall be able to explain the articles of ,maimonides4 ,he asserted them1 because they were necessary for his time4 ,we know1 for instance1 from a letter of his son and from other contemporaries1 that it was just at his time that the belief in the incorporeality of ,god was1 in the opinion of ,maimonides1 a little relaxed4 ,maimonides1 who thought such low notions of the ,deity dangerous to ,judaism1 therefore laid down an article against them4 ,he tells us in his ,guide that it was far from him to condemn any one who was not able to demonstrate the ,incorporeality of ,god1 but he stigmatised as a heretic one who refused to believe it4 ,this position might be paralleled by that of a modern astronomer who1 while considering it unreasonable to expect a mathematical demonstration of the movements of the earth from an ordinary unscientific man1 would yet regard the person who refused to believe in such movements as an ignorant faddist4 ,again1 ,maimonides undoubtedly knew that there may be found in the ,talmud--that bottomless sea with its innumerable undercurrents--passages that are not quite in harmony with his articles2 for instance1 the well known dictum of ,r4 ,hillel1 who said1 there is no ,messiah for ,israel--a passage which has already been quoted ad nauseam by every opponent of ,maimonides from the earliest times down to the year of grace #ahif4 ,maimonides was well aware of the existence of this and similar passages4 ,but1 being deeply convinced of the necessity of the belief in a future redemption of ,israel--in opposition to other creeds which claim this redemption exclusively for their own adherents--,maimonides simply ignored the saying of ,r4 ,hillel1 as an isolated opinion which contradicts all the consciousness and traditions of the ,jew as expressed in thousands of other passages1 and especially in the liturgy4 ,most interesting is ,maimonides' view about such isolated opinions in a letter to the wise men of ,marseilles4 ,he deals there with the question of free will and other theological subjects4 ,after having stated his own view he goes on to say3 8,i know that it is possible to find in the ,talmud or in the ,midrash this or that saying in contradiction to the views you have heard from me4 ,but you must not be troubled by them4 ,one must not refuse to accept a doctrine1 the truth of which has been proved1 on account of its being in opposition to some isolated opinion held by this or that great authority4 ,is it not possible that he overlooked some important considerations when he uttered this strange opinion8 ,it is also possible that his words must not be taken literally1 and have to be explained in an allegorical way4 ,we can also think that his words were only to be applied with regard to certain circumstances of his time1 but never intended as permanent truths4444 ,no man must surrender his private judgment4 ,the eyes are not directed backwards but forwards40 ,in another place ,maimonides calls the suppression of one's own opinions--for the reason of their being irreconcilable with the isolated views of some great authority--a moral suicide4 ,by such motives ,maimonides was guided when he left certain views hazarded in the ,rabbinic literature unheeded1 and followed what we may perhaps call the religious instinct1 trusting to his own conscience4 ,we may again be certain that ,maimonides was clearheaded enough to see that the words of the ,torah3 8,and there arose no prophet since in ,israel like unto ,moses0 7,deut4 xxxiv4 #aj71 were as little intended to imply a doctrine as the passage relating to the king ,josiah1 8,and like unto him was there no king before him that turned to the ,lord with all his heart 444 neither after him arose there any like him0 7#b ,kings xxiii4 #be74 ,and none would think of declaring the man a heretic who should believe another king to be as pious as ,josiah4 ,but living among followers of the 8imitating creeds0 7as he calls ,christianity and ,mohammedism71 who claimed that their religion had superseded the law of ,moses1 ,maimonides1 consciously or unconsciously1 felt himself compelled to assert the superiority of the prophecy of ,moses4 ,and so we may guess that every article of ,maimonides which seems to offer difficulties to us contains an assertion of some relaxed belief1 or a protest against the pretensions of other creeds1 though we are not always able to discover the exact necessity for them4 ,on the other hand1 ,maimonides did not assert the belief in free will1 for which he argued so earnestly in his ,guide4 ,the common 8man10 with his simple unspeculative mind1 for whom these ,thirteen ,articles were intended1 8never dreamed that the will was not free10 and there was no necessity of impressing on his mind things which he had never doubted47#ada7 ,so much about ,maimonides4 ,as to the ,anti,maimonists1 it could hardly escape the reader that in some of the quoted systems the difference from the view of ,maimonides is only a logical one1 not a theological4 ,of some authors again1 especially those of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 it is not at all certain whether they intended to oppose ,maimonides4 ,others again1 as for instance ,r4 ,abba ,mari1 ,r4 ,lipman1 and ,r4 ,joseph ,jabez1 acted on the same principle as ,maimonides1 urging only those teachings of ,judaism which they thought endangered4 ,one could now1 indeed1 animated by the praiseworthy example given to us by ,maimonides1 also propose some articles of faith which are suggested to us by the necessities of our own time4 ,one might1 for instance1 insert the article1 8,i believe that ,judaism is1 in the first instance1 a divine religion1 not a mere complex of racial peculiarities and tribal customs40 ,one might again propose an article to the effect that ,judaism is a proselytising religion1 having the mission to bring about ,god's kingdom on earth1 and to include in that kingdom all mankind4 ,one might also submit for consideration whether it would not be advisable to urge a little more the principle that religion means chiefly a ,weltanschauung and worship of ,god by means of holiness both in thought and in action4 ,one would even not object to accept the article laid down by ,r4 ,saul1 that we have to look upon ourselves as sinners4 ,morbid as such a belief may be1 it would1 if properly impressed on our mind1 have perhaps the wholesome effect of cooling down a little our selfimportance and our mutual admiration that makes all progress among us almost impossible4 ,but it was not my purpose to ventilate here the question whether ,maimonides' articles are sufficient for us1 or whether we ought not to add new ones to them4 ,nor do ,i attempt to decide what system we ought to prefer for recitation in the ,synagogue--that of ,maimonides or that of ,chasdai1 or of any other writer4 ,i do not think that such a recital is of much use4 ,my object in this sketch has been rather to make the reader think about ,judaism1 by proving that it regulates not only our actions1 but also our thoughts4 ,we usually urge that in ,judaism religion means life2 but we forget that a life without guiding principles and thoughts is a life not worth living4 ,at least it was so considered by the greatest ,jewish thinkers1 and hence their efforts to formulate the creed of ,judaism1 so that men should not only be able to do the right thing1 but also to think the right thing4 ,whether they succeeded in their attempts towards formulating the creed of ,judaism or not will always remain a question4 ,this concerns the logician more than the theologian4 ,but surely ,maimonides and his successors did succeed in having a religion depending directly on ,god1 with the most ideal and lofty aspirations for the future2 whilst the ,judaism of a great part of our modern theologians reminds one very much of the words with which the author of ,marius the ,epicurean characterises the ,roman religion in the days of her decline3 a religion which had been always something to be done rather than something to be thought1 or believed1 or loved4 ,political economy1 hygiene1 statistics1 are very fine things4 ,but no sane man would for them make those sacrifices which ,judaism requires from us4 ,it is only for ,god's sake1 to fulfil ,his commands and to accomplish ,his purpose1 that religion becomes worth living and dying for4 ,and this can only be possible with a religion which possesses dogmas4 ,it is true that every great religion is 8a concentration of many ideas and ideals10 which make this religion able to adapt itself to various modes of thinking and living4 ,but there must always be a point round which all these ideas concentrate themselves4 ,this centre is ,dogma4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,jewish ,,tradition ,there is an anecdote about a famous theologian to the effect that he used to tell his pupils1 8,should ,i ever grow old and weak--which usually drives people to embrace the safer side--and alter my opinions1 then pray do not believe me40 ,the concluding volume of ,weiss's ,history of ,jewish ,tradition7#adb7 shows that there was no need for our author to warn his pupils against the dangers accompanying old age4 ,for though ,weiss had1 when he began to write this last volume1 already exceeded his threescore and ten1 and1 as we read in the preface1 had some misgivings as to whether he should continue his work1 there is no trace in it of any abatement of the great powers of the author4 ,it is marked by the same freshness in diction1 the same marvellous scholarship1 the same display of astonishing critical powers1 and the same impartial and straightforward way of judging persons and things1 for which the preceding volumes were so much distinguished and admired4 ,this book1 which is recognised as a standard work abroad1 is1 ,i fear1 owing to the fact of its being written in the ,hebrew language1 not sufficiently known in this country4 ,weiss does not want our recognition2 we are rather in need of his instruction4 ,some general view of his estimate of ,jewish ,tradition may1 therefore1 be of service to the student4 ,it is1 indeed1 the only work of its kind4 ,zunz has confined himself to the history of the ,agadah4 ,graetz gave most of his attention to the political side of ,jewish history4 ,but comparatively little has been done for the ,halachah1 though ,frankel1 ,geiger1 ,herzfeld1 and others have treated some single points in various monographs4 ,thus it was left for ,weiss to write the ,history of ,tradition1 which includes both the ,agadah and the ,halachah4 ,the treatment of this latter must have proved1 in consequence of the intricate and intractable nature of its materials1 by far the more difficult portion of his task4 ,in speaking of the ,history of ,tradition1 a term which suggests the fluctuating character of a thing1 its origin1 development1 progress1 and retrogression1 we have already indicated that ,weiss does not consider even the ,halachah as having come down from heaven1 readymade1 and definitely fixed for all time4 ,to define it more clearly1 ,tradition is1 apart from the few ordinances and certain usages for which there is no precedent in the ,bible1 the history of interpretation of the ,scriptures1 which was constantly liable to variation1 not on grounds of philology1 but through the subjective notions of successive generations regarding religion and the method and scope of its application4 ,weiss's standpoint with reference to the ,pentateuch is the conservative one1 maintaining both its unity and its ,mosaic authorship4 ,those passages and accounts in the ,bible in which the modern critic discerns traces of different traditional sources1 are for ,weiss only indicative of the various stages of interpretation through which the ,pentateuch had to pass4 ,the earliest stage was a very crude one1 as may be seen from the case of ,jephthah's vow1 for which only a misinterpretation of certain passages in the ,pentateuch 7,gen4 xxii4 #b2 ,num4 xxv4 #d7 could be made responsible4 ,nor was ,jephthah1 who felt himself bound to carry out his vow1 acquainted with the provision for dissolving vows7#adc7 that was sufficiently familiar to later ages4 ,when1 on the other hand1 ,jeremiah declared sacrifices to be altogether superfluous1 and said that ,god did not command ,israel1 when he brought them from the land of ,egypt1 concerning burnt offerings or sacrifices 7vii4 #bb71 he was not in contradiction with ,leviticus1 but interpreted the laws contained in this book as a concession to popular custom1 though not desirable on their own account4 ,this concession1 whenever it was of a harmless nature1 the prophets carried so far as to permit altars outside the ,tabernacle or ,temple1 though this was against the plain sense of ,deuteronomy4 ,elijah even bewailed their destruction 7#a ,kings xix4 #aj74 ,he and other prophets probably interpreted the law in question as directed against the construction and maintenance of several chief sanctuaries1 but not against sacrificing in different places on minor occasions4 ,this is evidently a free interpretation1 or rather application1 of the ,law4 ,occasionally the conception as to when and how a law should be applied took a completely negative form4 ,in this manner is to be explained the action of ,solomon in suspending the ,fast of the ,day of ,atonement before the festival he was going to celebrate in honour of the consecration of the ,temple 7#a ,kings viii4 #fe71 the king being convinced that on this unique occasion the latter was of more religious importance than the former4 ,weiss thinks that the later custom of holding public dances in the vineyards on the #ajth of ,tishri might have had its origin in this solemn1 but also joyful1 festival4 ,ezekiel1 again1 though alluding more frequently than any other prophet to the laws in the ,pentateuch1 is exceedingly bold in his interpretation of them1 as1 for instance1 when he says that priests shall not eat anything that is dead or torn 7xliv4 #ca71 which shows that he took the verses in ,exod4 xxii4 #cj1 and ,deut4 xiv4 #bj1 to have been meant only as a good advice to the laymen to refrain from eating these unclean things1 but not as having for them the force of a real commandment4 ,starting from this proposition1 that there existed always some sort of interpretation running side by side with the recognised ,scriptures1 which from the very looseness of its connection with the letter of the ,scripture could claim to be considered a thing independent in itself1 and might therefore be regarded as the ,oral ,law1 in contradistinction to the ,written ,law1 the author passes to the age of the ,second ,temple1 the period to which the rest of the first volume is devoted4 ,in these pages ,weiss reviews the activity of ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 the ordinances of the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue1 the institutions of the ,scribes1 the ,lives of the socalled ,pairs17#add7 the characteristics of the three sects1 the ,sadducees1 ,pharisees1 and ,essenes1 and the differences between the schools of ,shammai and ,hillel4 ,to each of these subjects ,weiss gives his fullest attention1 and his discussions of them would form perfect monographs in themselves4 ,to reproduce all the interesting matter would mean to translate the whole of this portion of his work into ,english4 ,i shall only draw attention to one or two points4 ,first1 this liberal interpretation was active during the whole period referred to4 ,otherwise no authority could have abolished the lex talionis1 or have permitted war on ,sabbath1 or made the condition that no crime should be punished without a preceding warning 7which was chiefly owing to the aversion of the ,rabbis to the infliction of capital punishment71 or have sanctioned the sacrificing of the ,passover when the #adth of ,nisan fell on ,sabbath4 ,indeed ,shemaiah and ,abtalyon1 in whose name ,hillel communicated this last law1 were called the ,great ,interpreters47#ade7 ,secondly1 as to the socalled laws given to ,moses on ,sinai47#adf7 ,much has been said about these4 ,the distinction claimed for them by some scholars1 viz4 that they were never contested1 is not tenable1 considering that there prevailed much difference of opinion about some of them4 ,nor is the theory that they were ancient religious usages1 dating from time immemorial1 entirely satisfactory4 ,for though the fact may be true in itself1 this could not have justified the ,rabbis in calling them all ,sinaitic laws1 especially when they were aware that not a few of them were contested by certain of their colleagues1 a thing that would have been quite impossible if they had a genuine claim to ,mosaic authority4 ,but if we understand ,weiss rightly these laws are only to be considered as a specimen of the whole of the ,oral ,law1 which was believed to emanate1 both in its institutional and in its expository part1 from the same authority4 ,the conviction was firmly held that everything wise and good1 be it ethical or ceremonial in its character1 whose effect would be to strengthen the cause of religion1 was at least potentially contained in the ,torah1 and that it only required an earnest religious mind to find it there4 ,hence the famous adage that 8everything which any student will teach at any future time was already communicated to ,moses on ,mount ,sinai02 or the injunction that any acceptable truth1 even if discovered by an insignificant man in ,israel1 should be considered as having the authority of a great sage or prophet1 or even of ,moses himself4 ,the principle was that the words of the ,torah are 8fruitful and multiply40 ,it will probably be said that the laws of clean and unclean1 and such like1 have proved rather too prolific2 but if we read ,weiss carefully1 we shall be reminded that it was by the same process of propagation that the ,rabbis developed from ,deut4 xxii4 #h1 a whole code of sanitary and police laws which could even now be studied with profit2 from the few scanty civil laws in ,exod4 xxi41 a whole corpus juris1 which might well excite the interest and the admiration of any lawyer2 and from the words 8,and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children10 a complete school system on the one hand1 and on the other the rsum of a liturgy that appears to have sufficed for the spiritual needs of more than fifty generations of ,israelites4 ,before we pass to the age of the ,tannaim17#adg7 the subject of ,weiss's second volume1 we must take account of two important events which have greatly influenced the further development of ,tradition4 ,i refer to the destruction of the ,temple and the rise of ,christianity4 ,with the former event ,judaism ceased to be a political commonwealth1 and if 8the nation was already in the times of ,ezra converted into a church10--an assertion1 by the way1 which has not the least basis in fact1--it became the more so after it had lost the last remains of its independence4 ,but it was a church without priests1 or1 since such a thing1 as far as history teaches us1 has never existed1 let us rather call it a ,synagogue4 ,from this fact diverse results flowed4 ,a ,synagogue can exist not only without priests1 but also without sacrifices1 for which prayer and charity were a sufficient substitute4 ,with the progress of time also many agricultural laws1 as well as others relating to sacerdotal purity1 gradually became obsolete1 though they lingered on for some generations1 and1 as a venerable reminiscence of a glorious time1 entered largely into ,jewish literature4 ,this disappearance of so many laws and the weakening of the national element1 however1 required1 if ,judaism was to continue to exist1 the strengthening of religion from another side4 ,the first thing needed was the creation of a new religious centre which would not only replace the ,temple to a certain degree1 but also bring about a greater solidarity of views1 such as would render impossible the ancient differences that divided the schools of ,hillel and ,shammai4 ,the creator of this centre was ,r4 ,johanan ben ,zaccai1 who founded the school of ,jamnia1 and invested it with the same authority and importance as the ,sanhedrin had enjoyed during ,temple times4 ,the consciousness that they were standing before a new startingpoint in history1 with a large religious inheritance from the past1 actuated them not only to collect the old traditional laws and to take stock of their religious institutions1 but also to give them more definite shape and greater stability4 ,as many of these traditions were by no means undisputed1 the best thing was to bring them under one or other heading of the ,scriptures4 ,this desire gave the impulse to the famous hermeneutic schools of ,r4 ,akiba and ,r4 ,ishmael4 ,the next cause that contributed to give a more determinate expression to the ,law was the rise of ,christianity4 ,this is not the place to give an account of the views which the ,rabbis entertained of ,christianity4 ,suffice it to say they could not see in the destruction of the ,law its fulfilment4 ,they also thought that under certain conditions it is not only the letter that killeth1 but also the spirit1 or rather that the spirit may sometimes be clothed in a letter1 which1 in its turn1 will slay more victims than the letter against which the loudest denunciations have been levelled4 ,spirit without letter1 let theologians say what they will1 is a mere phantasm4 ,however1 the new sect made claims to the gift of prophecy1 which1 as they thought1 placed them above the ,law4 ,it would seem that this was a time of special excitement4 ,the student of the ,talmud finds that such marvels as predicting the future1 reviving the dead1 casting out demons1 crossing rivers dryshod1 curing the sick by a touch or prayer1 were the order of the day1 and performed by scores of ,rabbis4 ,voices from heaven were often heard1 and strange visions were frequently beheld4 ,napoleon ,i4 is said to have forbidden the holy coat of ,treves to work miracles4 ,the ,jewish legislature1 however1 had no means of preventing these supernatural workings2 but when the ,rabbis saw their dangerous consequences1 they insisted that miracles should have no influence on the interpretation and development of the ,law4 ,hence the saying with regard to ,lev4 xxvii4 #cd1 that no prophet is authorised to add a new law4 ,and when ,r4 ,eliezer b4 ,hyrkanos 7about #abj ,a4,c47 thought to prove the justice of his case by the intervention of miracles1 the majority answered that the fact of this or that variation1 effected at his bidding1 in the established order of nature1 proved nothing for the soundness of his argument4 ,nay1 they even ignored the ,bath,kol7#adh7 7the celestial voice71 which declared itself in favour of ,r4 ,eliezer1 maintaining that the ,torah having once been given to mankind1 it is only the opinion of the majority that should decide on its interpretation and application4 ,very characteristic is the legend connected with this fact4 ,when one of the ,rabbis afterwards met ,elijah and asked him what they thought in heaven of the audacity of his colleagues1 the prophet answered1 8,god rejoiced and said1 my children have conquered me40 ,into such discredit did miracles fall at that period1 whilst the opinion of the interpreting body1 or the ,sanhedrin1 became more powerful than ever4 ,these were merely dogmatical consequences4 ,but new laws were enacted and old ones revived1 with the object of resisting ,christian influences over the ,jews4 ,to expand the ,oral ,law1 and give it a firm basis in the ,scriptures1 were considered the best means of preserving ,judaism intact4 8,moses desired10 an old legend narrates1 8that the ,mishnah also 7that is ,tradition7 should be written down20 but foreseeing the time when the nations of the world would translate the ,torah into ,greek1 and would assert their title to rank as the ,children of ,god1 the ,lord refused to permit tradition to be recorded otherwise than by word of mouth4 ,the claim of the ,gentiles might then be refuted by asking them whether they were also in possession of 8the ,mystery40 ,the ,rabbis therefore concentrated their attention upon 8the ,mystery10 and this contributed largely towards making the expository methods of ,r4 ,akiba and ,r4 ,ishmael1 to which ,i have above referred1 the main object of their study in the schools4 ,it would1 however1 be a mistake to think that the ,sanhedrin now spent their powers in 8enforcing retrograde measures and creating a strange exegesis40 ,i especially advise the student to read carefully that admirable chapter 7,,vii41 of ,vol4 ,,ii47 in which ,weiss classifies all the ,ordinances1 8,fences10 ,decrees1 and ,institutions1 dating both from this and from earlier ages1 under ten headings1 and also shows their underlying principles4 ,the main object was to preserve the ,jewish religion by strengthening the principle of ,jewish nationality1 and to preserve the nationality by the aid of religion4 ,but sometimes the ,rabbis also considered it necessary to preserve religion against itself1 so to speak1 or1 as they expressed it1 8,when there is time to work for the ,lord1 they make void thy ,torah40 ,this authorised the ,beth ,din7#adi7 to act in certain cases against the letter of the ,torah4 8,the welfare of the ,world0 was another great consideration4 ,by 8,world0 they understood both the religious and the secular world4 ,from a regard to the former resulted such 8,fences0 and ,ordinances as were directed against 8the transgressors10 as well as the general injunction to 8keep aloof from what is morally unseemly1 and from whatever bears any likeness thereto40 ,in the interests of the latter--the welfare of the secular world--they enacted such laws as either tended to elevate the position of women1 or to promote the peace and welfare of members of their own community1 or to improve the relations between ,jews and their ,gentile neighbours4 ,they also held the great principle that nothing is so injurious to the cause of religion as increasing the number of sinners by needless severity4 ,hence the introduction of many laws 8for the benefit of penitents10 and the maxim not to issue any decree which may prove too heavy a burden to the majority of the community4 ,the relaxation of certain traditional laws was also permitted when they involved a serious loss of property1 or the sacrifice of a man's dignity4 ,some old decrees were even permitted to fall into oblivion when public opinion was too strong against them1 the ,rabbis holding that it was often better for ,israelites to be unconscious sinners than wilful transgressors4 ,the ,minhag1 or religious custom1 also played an important part1 it being assumed that it must have been first introduced by some eminent authority2 but1 if there was reason to believe that the custom owed its origin to some fancy of the populace1 and that it had a pernicious effect on the multitude1 no compunction was felt in abolishing it4 ,very important it is to note that the ,oral ,law had not at this period assumed a character of such rigidity that all its ordinances1 etc41 had to be looked upon as irremovable for all times4 ,with those who think otherwise1 a favourite quotation is the administratory measure laid dawn in ,tractate ,evidences17#aej7 ,i4 #e1 where we read that no ,beth ,din has the right of annulling the dicta of another ,beth ,din1 unless it is stronger in numbers 7having a larger majority7 and greater in wisdom than its fellow tribunal4 ,confess with becoming modesty that the world is always going downhill1 decreasing both in numbers and in wisdom1 and the result follows that any decision by the earlier ,rabbis is fixed law for all eternity4 ,weiss refutes such an idea not only as inconsistent with the nature of ,tradition1 but also as contradictory to the facts4 ,he proves by numerous instances that the ,rabbis did abolish ordinances and decrees introduced by preceding authorities1 and that the whole conception is based on a misunderstanding4 ,for the rule in question1 as ,weiss clearly points out1 originally only meant that a ,beth ,din has no right to undo the decrees of another contemporary ,beth ,din1 unless it was justified in doing so by the weight of its greater authority4 ,this was necessary if a central authority was to exist at all4 ,weiss is indeed of opinion that the whole passage is a later interpolation from the age of ,r4 ,simeon b4 ,gamaliel ,,ii41 when certain ,rabbis tried to emancipate themselves from the authority of the ,patriarch4 ,but it was not meant that the decision of a ,beth ,din should have perpetual binding power for all posterity4 ,this was left to the discretion of the legislature of each generation1 who had to examine whether the original cause for maintaining such decision still existed4 ,the rest of this volume is for the greater part taken up with complete monographs of the ,patriarchs and the heads of the schools of that age1 whilst the concluding chapters give us the history of the literature1 the ,midrash1 ,mechilta1 ,siphra1 ,siphr1 ,mishnah1 etc41 which contain both the ,halachic and the ,agadic sayings emanating from these authorities4 ,with regard to these ,patriarchs1 ,i should like only to remark that ,weiss defends them against the charge made by ,schorr and others1 who accuse them of having assumed too much authority on account of their noble descent1 and who describe their opponents as the true friends of the people4 ,weiss is no lover of such specious phrases4 ,the qualifications required for the leadership of the people were a right instinct for the necessities of their time1 a fair amount of secular knowledge1 and1 what is of chief importance1 an unbounded love and devotion to those over whose interests they were called to watch4 ,these distinctions1 as ,weiss proves1 the descendants of ,hillel possessed in the highest degree4 ,it is true that occasionally1 as for instance in the famous controversy of ,r4 ,gamaliel ,,ii4 with ,r4 ,joshua b4 ,hananiah1 or that of ,r4 ,simeon b4 ,gamaliel ,,ii4 with ,r4 ,nathan and ,r4 ,meir1 they made their authority too heavily felt27#aea7 but this was again another necessity of those troubled times1 when only real unity could save ,israel4 ,however1 ,weiss is no partisan1 and the love he lavishes on his favourite heroes does not exhaust his resources of sympathy and appreciation for members of the other schools4 ,weiss is no apologist either1 and does not make the slightest attempt towards explaining away even the defects of ,r4 ,akiba in his somewhat arbitrary method of interpretation1 which our author thinks much inferior to the expository rules of ,r4 ,ishmael2 but this does not prevent him from admiring his excellences4 ,altogether it would seem that ,weiss thinks ,r4 ,akiba more happy in his quality as a great saint than in that of a great exegete4 ,what is most admirable is the instinct with which ,weiss understands how to emphasise the right thing in its right place4 ,as an indication of the literary honesty and marvellous industry of our author1 ,i would draw attention to the fact that the sketch of ,r4 ,akiba and his school alone is based on more than two thousand quotations scattered over the whole area of the ,rabbinic literature2 but he points in a special note to a sentence attributed to ,r4 ,akiba1 which presents the whole man and his generation in a single stroke4 ,i refer to that passage in ,tractate ,joys17#aeb7 in which ,r4 ,akiba speaks of the four types of sufferers4 ,he draws the comparison of a king chastising his children2 the first son maintains stubborn silence1 the second simply rebels1 the third supplicates for mercy1 and the fourth 7the best of sons7 says3 8,father1 proceed with thy chastisement1 as ,david said1 ,wash me thoroughly from mine iniquity and cleanse me from my sin0 7,ps4 li4 #d74 ,this absolute submission to the will of ,god1 which perceives in suffering only an expression of ,his fatherly love and mercy1 was the ideal of ,r4 ,akiba4 ,the great literary production of this period was the ,mishnah1 which1 through the high authority of its compiler1 ,r4 ,judah the ,patriarch1 his saintliness and popularity1 soon superseded all the collections of a similar kind1 and became the official textbook of the ,oral ,law4 ,but a text requires interpretation1 whilst other collections also demanded some attention4 ,this brings us to the two ,talmuds1 namely1 the ,talmud of ,jerusalem and the ,talmud of ,babylon1 the origin and history of which form the subject of ,weiss's third volume4 ,here again the first chapters are more of a preliminary character1 giving the student some insight into the labyrinth of the ,talmud4 ,the two chapters entitled 8,the instruments employed in erecting the great ,edifice10 and the 8,workmanship displayed by the ,builders10 give evidence of almost unrivalled familiarity with the ,rabbinical literature1 and of critical powers of the rarest kind4 ,now these instruments were by no means new1 for1 as ,weiss shows1 the ,amoraim employed in interpreting the ,mishnah the same explanatory rules that are known to us from the ,school of ,r4 ,ishmael as 8the ,thirteen ,rules by which the ,torah is explained10 though they appear in the ,talmud under other names1 and are in reality only a species of ,midrash4 ,besides this there comes another element into play4 ,it was the exaggerated awe of all earlier authorities that endeavoured to reconcile the most contradictory statements by means of a subtle dialectic for which the schools in ,babylon were especially famous4 ,there were certainly many opponents of this system1 and from the monographs which ,weiss gives on the various heads of the western and eastern schools we see that not all followed this method1 and some among them even condemned it in the strongest words4 ,however1 it cannot be denied that there is a strong scholastic feature in the ,talmud1 which is very far from what we should look for in a trustworthy exegesis4 ,thus we must not always expect to find in the ,talmud the true meaning of the sayings of their predecessors1 and it is certain that a more scientific method in many cases has led to results the very opposite of those at which the later ,rabbis have arrived4 ,this fact was already recognised in the sixteenth century1 though only in part1 by ,r4 ,yom,tob ,heller and others4 ,only he insisted that in this matter a line must be drawn between theory and practice4 ,but ,weiss gives irrefragable proofs that even this line was often overstepped by the greatest authorities1 though they remained always within the limits of ,tradition4 ,indeed1 as ,weiss points out1 not every saying to be found in the ,talmud is to be looked upon as representing ,tradition2 for there is much in it which only gives the individual opinion or is merely an interpolation of later hands2 nor does the ,talmud contain the whole of ,tradition1 this latter proceeding and advancing with the time1 and corresponding to its conditions and notions4 ,as we read ,weiss1 the conviction is borne in upon us that there was a ,talmud before1 and another after ,the ,talmud4 ,much space in this volume is given to the ,agadah and the socalled 8,teachers of the ,agadah40 ,weiss makes no attempt at apology for that which seems to us strange1 or even repugnant in this part of the ,rabbinic literature4 ,the greatest fault to be found with those who wrote down such passages as appear objectionable to us is1 perhaps1 that they did not observe the wise rule of ,johnson1 who said to ,boswell on a certain occasion1 8,let us get serious1 for there comes a fool40 ,and the fools unfortunately did come in the shape of certain ,jewish commentators and ,christian controversialists1 who took as serious things which were only the expression of a momentary impulse1 or represented the opinion of some isolated individual1 or were meant simply as a piece of humorous byplay1 calculated to enliven the interest of a languid audience4 ,but on the other hand1 as ,weiss proves1 the ,agadah contains also many elements of real edification and eternal truths as well as abundant material for building up the edifice of dogmatic ,judaism4 ,talmudical quotations of such a nature are scattered by thousands over ,weiss's work1 particularly in those chapters in which he describes the lives of the greatest ,rabbinical heroes4 ,but the author lays the student under special obligations by putting together in the concluding pages of this volume some of these sentences1 and classifying them under various headings4 ,i give here a few extracts4 ,for the references to authorities ,i must direct the reader to the original3-- 8,the unity of ,god is the keystone of dogmatic ,judaism4 ,the ,rabbis give ,israel the credit of having proclaimed to the world the unity of ,god4 ,they also say that ,israel took an oath never to change ,him for another ,god4 ,this only ,god is eternal1 incorporeal1 and immutable4 ,and though the prophets saw ,him in different aspects1 ,he warned them that they must not infer from the visions vouchsafed to them that there are different ,gods4 #8,i am the first1' ,he tells them1 which implies that he had no father1 and the words1 #8,there is no ,god besides me1' mean that he has no son4 ,now1 this ,god1 the ,god of ,israel1 is holy in every thinkable way of holiness4 ,he is merciful and gracious1 as it is said1 #8,and ,i will be gracious to whom ,i will be gracious1' even though he who is the recipient of ,god's grace has no merit of his own4 #8,and ,i will show mercy to whom ,i will show mercy1' that is1 even to those who do not deserve it4 ,his attributes are righteousness1 lovingkindness1 and truth4 ,god speaks words of eternal truth1 even as ,he himself is the eternal life4 ,all that the ,merciful ,one does is only for good1 and even in the time of ,his anger ,he remembers ,his graciousness1 and often suppresses ,his attribute of judgment before ,his attribute of mercy4 ,but with the righteous ,god is more severe than with the rest of the world1 and when ,his hand falls in chastening on ,his saints ,his name becomes awful1 revered1 and exalted4 ,this ,god of ,israel1 again1 extends ,his providence over all mankind1 and especially over ,israel4 ,by ,his eye everything is foreseen1 yet freedom of choice is given1 and the world is judged by grace1 yet all according to the works wrought4 ,hence1 know what is above thee1 a seeing eye and a hearing ear1 and that all thy deeds are written in a book4 8,they the ,rabbis believed that ,god created the world out of nothing1 without toil and without weariness4 ,this world was created by the combination of ,his two attributes1 mercy and justice4 ,he rejoices in ,his creation1 and if the ,maker praises it1 who dares to blame it8 ,and if ,he exults in it1 who shall find a blemish in it8 ,nay1 it is a glorious and a beautiful world4 ,it is created for man1 and its other denizens were all meant but to serve him4 ,though all mankind are formed after the type of ,adam1 no one is like his fellowman 7each one having an individuality of his own74 ,thus he is able to say1 #8,for my sake1 also1 was the world created'2 and with this thought his responsibilities increase4 ,but the greatest love shown to man is that he was created in the image of ,god4 ,man is a being possessed of free will1 and1 though everything is given on pledge1 whosoever wishes to borrow may come and borrow4 ,everything is in the gift of ,heaven except the fear of ,god4 ,in man's heart abide both the evil inclination and the good inclination2 and the words of ,scripture1 #8,thou shalt not bow down before a strange god1' point to the strange god who is within man himself1 who entices him to sin in this world1 and gives evidence against him in the next4 ,but the ,holy ,one--blessed be ,he6--said1 #8,i have created the evil inclination1 but ,i have also created its antidote1 the ,torah4' ,and when man is occupied with the ,torah and in works of charity1 he becomes the master of the evil inclination2 otherwise1 he is its slave4 ,when man reflects the image of ,god1 he is the lord of creation1 and is feared by all creatures2 but this image is defaced by sin1 and then he has no power over the universe1 and is in fear of all things4 8,another principle of ,judaism is the belief in reward and punishment4 #8,i am the ,lord1 your ,god1' means1 #8it is ,i who am prepared to recompense you for your good actions1 and to bring retribution upon you for your evil deeds4' ,god does not allow to pass unrewarded even the merit of a kind and considerate word4 ,by the same measure which man metes out1 it shall be meted out to him4 ,because thou drownedst others1 they have drowned thee1 and at the last they who drowned thee shall themselves be drowned4 ,though it is not in our power to explain either the prosperity of the wicked or the affliction of the righteous1 nevertheless know before whom thou toilest1 and who thy employer is1 who will pay thee the reward of thy labour4 ,here at thy door is a poor man standing1 and at his right hand standeth ,god4 ,if thou grantest his request1 be certain of thy reward2 but if thou refusest1 think of him who is by the side of the poor1 and will avenge it on thee4 #8,god seeketh the persecuted' to defend him1 even though it be the wicked who is persecuted by the righteous4 ,the soul of man is immortal1 the souls of the righteous being treasured up under the throne of ,god4 ,know that everything is according to the reckoning1 and let not thy imagination give thee hope that the grave will be a place of refuge for thee1 for perforce thou wast formed1 and perforce thou wast born1 and thou livest perforce1 and perforce thou wilt die1 and perforce thou wilt in the future have to give account and reckoning before the ,supreme ,king of kings1 the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he4 8,the advent of the ,messiah is another article of the belief of the ,rabbis4 ,but if a man tell thee that he knows when the redemption of ,israel will take place1 believe him not1 for this is one of the unrevealed secrets of the ,almighty4 ,the mission of ,elijah is to bring peace into the world1 while the ,messiah1 in whose days ,israel will regain his national independence1 will lead the whole world in repentance to ,god4 ,on this1 it is believed1 will follow the resurrection of the dead4 8,another main principle in the belief of the ,rabbis is the election of ,israel1 which imposes on them special duties1 and gives them a peculiar mission4 ,beloved are ,israel1 for they are called the children of ,god1 and ,his firstborn4 #8,they shall endure for ever' through the merit of their fathers4 ,there is an especial covenant established between ,god and the tribes of ,israel4 ,god is their father1 and ,he said to them1 ,my children1 even as ,i have no contact with the profanity of the world1 so also withdraw yourselves from it4 ,and as ,i am holy1 be ye also holy4 ,nay1 sanctify thyself by refraining even from that which is not forbidden thee4 ,there is no holiness without chastity4 8,the main duty of ,israel is to sanctify the name of ,god1 for the ,torah was only given that ,his great name might be glorified4 ,better is it that a single letter of the law be cast out than that the name of ,heaven be profaned4 ,and this also is the mission of ,israel in this world3 to sanctify the name of ,god1 as it is written1 #8,this people have ,i formed for myself1 that they may show forth my praise4' ,or1 #8,and thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god1' which means1 ,thou shalt make ,god beloved by all creatures1 even as ,abraham did4 ,israel is the light of the world2 as it is said1 #8,and nations shall walk by thy light4' ,but he who profanes the name of ,heaven in secret will suffer the penalty thereof in public2 and this whether the ,heavenly ,name be profaned in ignorance or in wilfulness4 8,another duty towards ,god is to love ,him and to fear ,him4 ,god's only representative on earth is the ,godfearing man4 ,woe unto those who are occupied in the study of the ,torah1 but who have no fear of ,god4 ,but a still higher duty it is to perform the commandments of ,god from love4 ,for greater is he who submits to the will of ,god from love than he who does so from fear4 8,now1 how shall man love ,god8 ,this is answered in the words of ,scripture1 #8,and these words shall be upon thy heart4' ,for by them thou wilt recognise ,him whose word called the world into existence1 and follow ,his divine attributes4 8,god is righteous2 be ye also righteous1 ,o ,israel4 ,by righteousness the ,rabbis understand love of truth1 hatred of lying and backbiting4 ,the seal of the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he1 is ,truth1 of which the actions of man should also bear the impress4 ,hence1 let thy yea be yea1 and thy nay1 nay4 ,he who is honest in money transactions1 unto him this is reckoned as if he had fulfilled the whole of the ,torah4 ,greater is he who earns his livelihood by the labour of his hands than even the ,godfearing man2 whilst the righteous judge is1 as it were1 the companion of ,god in the government of the world4 ,for upon three things the world stands3 upon truth1 upon judgment1 upon peace2 as it is said1 #8,judge ye the truth and the judgment of peace in your gates4' ,but he who breaks his word1 his sin is as great as if he worshipped idols2 and ,god1 who punished the people of the time of the ,flood1 will also punish him who does not stand by his word4 ,such a one belongs to one of the four classes who are not admitted into the presence of the ,shechinah2 these are the scoffers1 the hypocrites 7who bring the wrath of ,god into the world71 the liars1 and the slanderers4 ,the sin of the slanderer is like that of one who would deny the root 7the root of all religion1 i4e4 the existence of ,god74 ,the greatest of liars1 however1 is he who perjures himself1 which also involves the sin of profanation of the name of ,god4 ,the hypocrite1 who insinuates himself into people's good opinions1 who wears his phylacteries and is enwrapped in his gown with the fringes1 and secretly commits sins1 equally transgresses the command1 #8,thou shalt not take the name of the ,lord thy ,god in vain4' 8,god is gracious and merciful2 therefore man also should be gracious and merciful4 ,hence1 #8,thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself1' which is a main principle in the ,torah4 ,what is unpleasant to thyself1 do not unto thy neighbour4 ,this is the whole ,torah1 to which the rest is only to be considered as a commentary4 ,and this love is also extended to the stranger1 for as it is said with regard to ,israel1 #8,and thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself1' so is it also said1 #8,and thou shalt love him 7the stranger7 as thyself4' ,and thus said ,god to ,israel1 #8,my beloved children1 ,am ,i in want of anything that ,i should request it of you8 ,but what ,i ask of you is that you should love1 honour1 and respect one another4' ,therefore1 love mankind1 and bring them near to the ,torah4 ,let the honour of thy friend be as dear to thee as thine own4 ,condemn not thy fellowman until thou art come into his place1 and judge all men in the scale of merit4 ,say not #8,i will love scholars1 but hate their disciples2' or even1 #8,i will love the disciples1 but hate the ignorant1' but love all1 for he who hates his neighbour is as bad as a murderer4 ,indeed1 during the age of the second ,temple1 men studied the ,torah and the commandments1 and performed works of charity1 but they hated each other1 a sin that outweighs all other sins1 and for which the holy ,temple was destroyed4 ,be careful not to withdraw thy mercy from any man1 for he who does so rebels against the kingdom of ,god on earth4 ,walk in the ways of ,god1 who is merciful even to the wicked1 and as ,he is gracious alike to those who know ,him1 and to those who know ,him not1 so be thou4 ,indeed1 charity is one of the three pillars on which the world is based4 ,it is more precious than all other virtues4 ,the man who gives charity in secret is greater even than ,moses our teacher4 ,an act of charity and love it is to pray for our fellowman1 and to admonish him4 #8,thou shalt in any wise rebuke thy neighbour1 and not suffer sin upon him' 7,lev4 xix4 #ah71 means it is thy duty to admonish him a hundred times if need be1 even if he be thy superior2 for ,jerusalem was only destroyed for the sin of its people in not admonishing one another4 ,the man whose protest would be of any weight1 and who does not exercise his authority 7when any wrong is about to be committed71 is held responsible for the whole world4 8,peacefulness and humility are also the fruit of love4 ,be of the disciples of ,aaron1 loving peace1 and pursuing peace4 ,let every man be cautious in the fear of ,god2 let him ever give the soft answer that turneth away wrath2 let him promote peace1 not only among his own relatives and acquaintances1 but also among the ,gentiles4 ,for 7the labour of7 all the prophets was to plant peace in the world4 ,be exceeding lowly of spirit1 since the hope of man is but the worm4 ,be humble as ,hillel1 for he who is humble causes the ,divine presence to dwell with man4 ,but the proud man makes ,god say1 #8,i and he cannot dwell in the same place4' ,he who runs after glory1 glory flees from him1 and he who flees from glory1 glory shall pursue him4 ,be of those who are despised rather than of those who despise2 of the persecuted rather than of the persecutors2 be of those who bear their reproach in silence and answer not4 8,another distinctive mark of ,judaism is faith in ,god1 and perfect confidence in ,him4 ,which is the right course for a man to choose for himself8 ,let him have a strong faith in ,god1 as it is said1 #8,mine eye shall be upon the faithful 7meaning those possessing faith in ,god7 of the land4' ,and so also ,habakkuk based the whole ,torah on the principle of faith1 as it is said1 #8,and the just shall live by his faith' 7ii4 #d74 ,he who but fulfils a single commandment in absolute faith in ,god deserves that the ,holy ,spirit should rest on him4 ,blessed is the man who fears ,god in private1 and trusts in ,him with all his heart1 for such fear and trust arms him against every misfortune4 ,he who puts his trust in the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he1 ,god becomes his shield and protection in this world and in the next4 ,he who has bread in his basket for today1 and says1 #8,what shall ,i have to eat tomorrow8' is a man of little faith4 ,one consequence of real faith is always to believe in the justice of ,god's judgments4 ,it is the duty of man to thank ,god when he is visited with misfortune as he does in the time of prosperity4 ,therefore1 blessed is the man who1 when visited by suffering1 questions not ,god's justice4 ,but what shall he do8 ,let him examine his conduct and repent4 8,for repentance is the greatest prerogative of man4 ,better is one hour of repentance and good deeds in this world than the whole life of the world to come4 ,the aim of all wisdom is repentance and good deeds4 ,the place where the truly penitent shall stand is higher than that of the righteous4 ,repentance finds its special expression in prayer2 and when it is said in ,scripture1 #8,serve ,god with all thy heart1' by this is meant1 serve ,him by prayer1 which is even greater than worship by means of sacrifices4 ,never is a prayer entirely unanswered by ,god4 ,therefore1 even though the sword be on a man's neck1 let him not cease to supplicate ,god's mercy4 ,but regard not thy prayer as a fixed mechanical task1 but as an appeal for mercy and grace before the ,all,present2 as it is said1 #8,for ,he is gracious and full of mercy1 slow to anger1 abounding in lovingkindness1 and repenteth him of the evil4' 0 ,the last two volumes of ,weiss's work deal with the history of ,tradition during the ,middle ,ages1 that is1 from the conclusion of the ,talmud to the compilation of the ,code of the ,law by ,r4 ,joseph ,caro4 ,i have already indicated that with ,weiss ,tradition did not terminate with the conclusion of the ,talmud4 ,it only means that a certain undefinable kind of literature1 mostly held in dialogue form and containing many elements of ,tradition1 was at last brought to an end4 ,the authorities who did this editorial work were the socalled ,rabbanan ,saburai7#aec7 and the ,gaonim1 whose lives and literary activity are fully described by ,weiss4 ,but1 while thus engaged in preserving their inheritance from the past1 they were also enriching ,tradition by new contributions1 both the ,saburai and the ,gaonim having not only added to and diminished from the ,talmud1 but having also introduced avowedly new ordinances and decrees1 and created new institutions4 ,now1 it cannot be denied that a few of these ordinances and decrees had a reforming tendency 7see the second and twentieth chapters of vol4 iv472 in general1 however1 they took a more conservative turn than was the case in the previous ages4 ,this must be ascribed to the event of the great schism within the ,rabbinical camp itself4 ,i refer to the rise of ,caraism1 which took place during the first half of the eighth century4 ,there is probably no work in which the ,halachic or legalistic side of this sect is better described than in this volume of ,weiss4 ,i regret that ,i am unable to enter into its details4 ,but ,i cannot refrain from pointing to one of the main principles of the ,caraites4 ,this was 8,search the ,scriptures40 ,now this does not look very dissimilar from the principle held by the ,rabbis4 ,for what else is the ,talmud1 but a thorough searching through the ,bible for whatever was suggestive by time and circumstances8 ,the light which the ,caraites applied to the searching of the ,scriptures was the same which illumined the paths of the ,rabbis' investigations4 ,they employed most of the expository rules of the ,tannaite schools4 ,the fact is that they were only determined to find something different from what the ,rabbis found in the ,scriptures4 ,they wanted to have gloomy ,sabbaths and ,festivals1 and discovered authority for it in the ,bible2 they wanted to retain most of the dietary laws which had their root only in ,tradition1 but insisted on petty differences which they thought might be inferred from the ,scriptures1 and they created a new 8order of inheritance10 and varied the forbidden degrees in marriage1 in all which the only merit was that they were in contradiction to the interpretation of the ,rabbis4 ,they also refused to accept the ,liturgy of ,rabbinical ,judaism1 but never succeeded in producing more than a patchwork from verses of the ,bible1 which1 thus recast1 they called a prayerbook4 ,there were undoubtedly among their leaders many serious and sincere men1 but they give us the impression of prigs1 as for instance1 ,moses ,darai1 when he reproaches the ,rabbinical ,jews for having an 8easy religion10 or ,israel ,hammaarabi1 when he recommended his book on the laws regarding the slaughtering of animals1 as having the special advantage that his decisions were always on the more stringent side4 ,those who made a pilgrimage to the ,holy ,land were by the ,caraites canonised as 8mourners40 ,the ,rabbanite ,r4 ,judah ,hallevi also visited the ruins of ,jerusalem1 but he did something more than 8mourn and sigh and cry10 he became a ,godintoxicated singer1 and wrote the 8,zion ,elegy40 ,the novel terminology which they use in their exegetical and theological works1 was only invented to spite the ,rabbanites1 and marks its authors as pedants4 ,on the other hand1 it is not to be denied that their opponents did not employ the best means to conciliate them4 ,the ,middle ,ages knew no other remedy against schism than excommunication1 and the ,gaonim were the children of their time4 ,nor were the arguments which the latter brought forward in defence of ,tradition always calculated to convince the ,caraites of their error4 ,when ,r4 ,saadiah1 in his apology for the institution of the ,second ,day of the ,festival17#aed7 went the length of assigning to it a ,sinaitic origin1 he could only succeed in making the ,caraites more suspicious of the claims of ,tradition than before4 ,in a later generation one of his own party1 ,r4 ,hai ,gaon1 had to declare his predecessor's words a 8controversial exaggeration40 ,the zeal which some of the ,gaonim showed in their defence of such works as the ,chambers and the ,measure of the ,stature7#aee7 was a not less unfortunate thing1 for it involved the ,rabbanites in unnecessary responsibilities for a new class of literature of doubtful origin1 which in succeeding centuries was disowned by the best minds in ,judaism4 ,the ,gaonic period1 to which we also owe the rise of the ,massorah and the introduction of points in the text of the ,bible--of which ,weiss treats fully in the twentythird and twentyfourth chapters of vol4 iv4--comes to an end with the death of ,r4 ,hai4 ,the famous schools of ,sura and ,pumbeditha1 over which these two ,gaonim presided1 fell into decay1 and ,babylon ceased to be the centre of ,judaism4 ,to be more exact1 we should say that ,judaism had no longer any real centre4 ,instead of dwelling in one place for centuries1 we now have to be perpetually on our journey1 accompanying our authors through all the inhabited parts of the world--,france1 ,italy1 ,spain1 ,germany1 with an occasional trip to ,africa and ,russia4 ,there we shall meet with the new schools1 each of which1 though interpreting the same ,torah1 occupied with the study of the same ,talmud1 and even conforming more or less to the same mode of life1 has an individuality and character of its own1 reflecting the thought and habits of the country which it represents4 ,thus 8geographical ,judaism0 becomes a factor in history which no scholar can afford to neglect4 ,it is true that ,judaism never remained entirely unbiassed by foreign ideas1 and our author points in many a place to ,persian1 ,greek1 and ,roman influences on ,tradition2 still1 these influences seem to have undergone such a thorough 8,judaization0 that it is only the practised eye of the scholar that is able to see through the transformation4 ,but it requires no great skill to discriminate between the work produced by a ,spanish and that of a ,french ,rabbi4 ,though both would write in ,hebrew1 they betray themselves very soon by the style1 diction1 and train of thought peculiar to each country4 ,the ,spaniard is always logical1 clear1 and systematising1 whilst the ,french ,rabbi has very little sense of order1 is always writing occasional notes1 has a great tendency to be obscure1 but is mostly profound and critical4 ,hence the fact that whilst ,spain produced the greatest codifiers of the law1 we owe to ,france and ,germany the best commentaries on the ,talmud4 ,what these codes and commentaries meant for ,judaism the student will find in ,weiss's book1 and still more fully in his admirable essays on ,rashi 7,solomon b4 ,isaac71 ,maimonides1 and ,r4 ,jacob ,tam 7published in his periodical1 ,beth ,talmud1 and also separately74 ,it is enough for us here only to notice the fact of the breadth of ,tradition1 which could include within its folds men of such different types as the sceptics1 ,maimonides1 ,solomon b4 ,gabirol1 and ,abn ,ezra on one side1 and the simple 8non questioning0 ,rabbenu ,gershom1 ,rashi1 and ,jacob ,tam on the other4 ,the last three centuries1 which occupy our author's attention in the fifth volume1 are not remarkable for their progress4 ,the world lives on the past4 ,the rationalists write treatises on ,maimonides' philosophical works1 whilst the ,german ,talmudists add commentary to commentary4 ,it is1 indeed1 the reign of authority1 8modified by accidents40 ,such an accident was the struggle between the ,maimonists and ,anti,maimonists1 or the rise of the ,cabbalah1 or the frequent controversies with ,christians1 all of which tended to direct the minds of people into new channels of thought4 ,but though this period is less original in its work1 it is not on that account less sympathetic4 ,one cannot read those beautiful descriptions which ,weiss gives of ,r4 ,meir of ,rothenburg and his school1 or of ,r4 ,asher and his descendants1 without feeling that one is in an atmosphere of saints1 who are the more attractive the less they were conscious of their own saintliness4 ,the only mistake1 perhaps1 was that the successors of these 8,chassidim or pious men of ,germany0 looked on many of the religious customs that were merely the voluntary expression of particularly devout souls as worthy of imitation by the whole community1 and made them obligatory upon all4 ,this brings us to the question of the ,code already mentioned 7by ,r4 ,joseph ,caro71 with which ,weiss's work concludes4 ,i have already transgressed the limits of an essay1 without flattering myself that ,i have done anything like justice to the greatest work on ,jewish ,tradition which modern ,jewish genius has produced4 ,but ,i should not like the reader to carry away with him the false impression that our author shares in the general cry1 8,save us from the ,codifiers40 ,weiss1 himself a ,rabbi1 and the disciple of the greatest ,rabbis of the first half of this century1 is quite aware of the impossibility of having a law without a kind of manual to it1 which brings the fluid matter into some fixed form1 classifying it under its proper headings1 and this is what we call codifying the law4 ,and thus he never passes any attempt made in this direction without paying due tribute to its author--be it ,maimonides or ,caro4 ,but however great the literary value of a code may be1 it does not invest it with the attribute of infallibility1 nor does it exempt the student or the ,rabbi who makes use of it from the duty of examining each paragraph on its own merits1 and subjecting it to the same rules of interpretation that were always applied to ,tradition4 ,indeed1 ,weiss shows that ,maimonides deviated in some cases from his own code1 when it was required by circumstances4 ,nor do ,i know any modern author who is more in favour of strong authority than ,weiss4 ,his treatment of the struggle between the ,patriarch ,r4 ,gamaliel and his adversaries1 which ,i have touched on above1 proves this sufficiently4 ,what ,weiss really objects to1 is a weak authority--,i mean that phonographlike authority which is always busy in reproducing the voice of others without an opinion of its own1 without originality1 without initiative and discretion4 ,the real authorities are those who1 drawing their inspiration from the past1 also understand how to reconcile us with the present and to prepare us for the future4 ,,viii4 ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,divine ,,retribution ,,in ,,rabbinical ,,literature 8,blessed be he who knows40 ,these are the words with which ,nachmanides1 in his classical treatise1 ,gate of ,reward1 dismisses a certain theory of the ,gaonim with regard to this question2 after which he proceeds to expound another theory1 which seems to him more satisfactory4 ,this mode of treatment implies that1 unsatisfactory as the one or other theory may appear to us1 it would be presumptuous to reject either entirely1 there being only ,one who knows the exact truth about the great mystery4 ,but we may indicate our doubt about one doctrine by putting by its side another1 which we may affirm to be not more absolutely true1 but more probable4 ,this seems to have been the attitude1 too1 of the compilers of the ancient ,rabbinical literature1 in which the most conflicting views about this grave subject were embodied4 ,nor did the ,synagogue in general feel called upon to decide between these views4 ,there is indeed no want of theodicies1 for almost every important expounder of ,job1 as well as every ,jewish philosopher of note1 has one with its own system of retribution4 ,thus ,judaism has no fixed doctrine on the subject4 ,it refused a hearing to no theory1 for fear that it should contain some germ of truth1 but on the same ground it accepted none to the exclusion of the others4 ,these theories may1 perhaps1 be conveniently reduced to the two following main doctrines that are in direct opposition to each other1 whilst all other views about the subject will be treated as the more or less logical results of the one or other doctrine4 #a4 ,there is no death without 7preceding7 sin1 nor affliction without 7preceding7 transgression47#aef7 ,this view is cited in the name of ,r4 ,ammi1 who quoted in corroboration the verses ,ez4 xviii4 #bj1 and ,ps4 lxxxix4 #cc4 ,though this ,rabbi flourished towards the end of the third century1 there is hardly any doubt that his view was held by the authorities of a much earlier date4 ,for it can only be under the sway of such a notion of ,retribution that the ,tannaim were so anxious to assign some great crime as the antecedent to every serious calamity by which mankind was visited4 ,the following illustrations will suffice3--8,pestilence comes into the world for capital crimes mentioned in the ,torah1 which are not brought before the earthly tribunal4444 ,noisome beasts come into the world for vain swearing and for profanation of the name 7of ,god74 ,captivity comes upon the world for strange worship and incest1 and for shedding of blood and for 7not7 giving release to the land40 ,as an example of the misfortune befalling the individual ,i will merely allude to a passage in another tractate of the ,talmud1 according to which leprosy is to be regarded as the penalty for immorality1 slander1 perjury1 and similar sins47#aeg7 ,if we were now to complement ,r4 ,ammi's view by adding that there is no happiness without some preceding merit--and there is no serious objection to making this addition--then it would resolve itself into the theory of ,measure for ,measure1 which forms a very common standard of reward and punishment in ,jewish literature4 ,here are a few instances3--8,because the ,egyptians wanted to destroy ,israel by water 7,exod4 i4 #bb71 they were themselves destroyed by the waters of the ,red ,sea1 as it is said1 ,therefore ,i will measure their former work into their bosom 7,is4 lxv4 #g720 whilst1 on the other hand1 we read1 8,because ,abraham showed himself hospitable towards strangers1 providing them with water 7,gen4 xviii4 #d71 ,god gave to his children a country blessed with plenty of water 7,deut4 viii4 #a740 ,sometimes this form of retribution goes so far as to define a special punishment to that part of the body which mostly contributed to the committing of the sin4 ,thus we read1 8,samson rebelled against ,god by his eyes1 as it is said1 ,get her 7the ,philistine woman7 for me1 for she pleases my eyes 7,judg4 xvi4 #ba72 therefore his eyes were put out by the ,philistines 7,judg4 xviii4 #i702 whilst ,absalom1 whose sinful pride began by his hair 7#b ,sam4 xiv4 #be71 met his fate by his hair 7#b ,sam4 xviii4 #i747aeh7 ,nahum of ,gemzo himself explained his blindness and the maimed condition of his arms and legs as a consequence of a specific offence in having neglected the duty of succouring a poor man4 ,addressing the dead body of the suppliant who perished while ,nahum was delaying his help1 he said1 8,let my eyes 7which had no pity for your pitiful gaze7 become blind2 may my hands and legs 7that did not hasten to help thine7 become maimed1 and finally my whole body be covered with boils407#aei7 8,this was the hand that wrote it10 said ,cranmer at the stake2 8therefore it shall first suffer punishment40 ,it is worth noticing that this retribution does not always consist in a material reward1 but1 as ,ben ,azzai expressed it3 8,the reward of a command is a command1 and the reward of a transgression is a transgression407#afj7 ,so again3 8,because ,abraham showed himself so magnanimous in his treatment of the king of ,sodom1 and said1 ,i will not take from thee a thread2 therefore1 his children enjoyed the privilege of having the command of ,zizith1 consisting in putting a thread or fringe in the border of their garments40 ,in another passage we read1 8,he who is anxious to do acts of charity will be rewarded by having the means enabling him to do so407#afa7 ,in more general terms the same thought is expressed when the ,rabbis explained the words1 ,ye shall sanctify yourselves1 and ye shall be holy 7,lev4 xi4 #dd71 to the effect that if man takes the initiative in holiness1 even though in a small way1 ,heaven will help him to reach it to a much higher degree47#afb7 ,notwithstanding these passages1 to which many more might be added1 it cannot be denied that there are in the ,rabbinical literature many passages holding out promises of material reward to the righteous as well as threatening the wicked with material punishment4 ,nor is there any need of denying it4 ,simpleminded men--and such the majority of the ,rabbis were--will never be persuaded into looking with indifference on pain and pleasure2 they will be far from thinking that poverty1 loss of children1 and sickness are no evil1 and that a rich harvest1 hope of posterity1 and good health1 are not desirable things4 ,it does lie in our nature to consider the former as curses and the latter as blessings2 8and if this be wrong there is no one to be made responsible for it but the ,creator of nature40 ,accordingly the question must arise1 ,how can a just and omnipotent ,god allow it to happen that men should suffer innocently8 ,the most natural suggestion towards solving the difficulty would be that we are not innocent4 ,hence ,r4 ,ammi's assertion that affliction and death are both the outcome of sin and transgression2 or1 as ,r4 ,chanina ben ,dossa expressed it1 8,it is not the wild beast but sin which kills407#afc7 ,we may thus perceive in this theory an attempt 8to justify the ways of ,god to man40 ,unfortunately it does not correspond with the real facts4 ,the cry wrung from the prophets against the peace enjoyed by the wicked1 and the pains inflicted on the righteous1 which finds its echo in so many ,psalms1 and reaches its climax in the ,book of ,job1 was by no means silenced in the times of the ,rabbis4 ,if long experience could be of any use1 it only served to deepen perplexity4 ,for all this suffering of the people of ,god1 and the prosperity of their wicked persecutors1 which perplexed the prophets and their immediate followers1 were repeated during the death struggle for independence against ,rome1 and were not lessened by the establishment of ,christianity as the dominant religion4 ,the only comfort which time brought them was1 perhaps1 that the long continuance of misfortune made them less sensible to suffering than their ancestors were4 ,indeed1 a ,rabbi of the first century said that his generation had by continuous experience of misery become as insensible to pain as the dead body is to a prick of a needle47#afd7 ,the ansthetic effect of long suffering may1 indeed1 help one to endure pain with more patience1 but it cannot serve as an apology for the deed of the inflictors of the pain4 ,the question1 then1 how to reconcile hard reality with the justice of ,god1 remained as difficult as ever4 ,the most important passage in ,rabbinical literature relating to the solution of this problem is the following3--,with reference to ,exod4 xxxiii4 #ac1 ,r4 ,johanan said1 in the name of ,r4 ,jos1 that1 among other things1 ,moses also asked ,god to explain to him the method of his ,providence1 a request that was granted to him4 ,he asked ,god1 ,why are there righteous people who are prosperous1 and righteous who suffer2 wicked who are prosperous and wicked who suffer8 ,the answer given to him was1 according to the one view1 that the prosperity of the wicked and the suffering of the righteous are a result of the conduct of their ancestors1 the former being the descendants of righteous parents and enjoying their merits1 whilst the latter1 coming from a bad stock1 suffer for the sins of those to whom they owe their existence4 ,this view was suggested by the ,scriptural words1 8,keeping mercy for thousands 7of generations7 444 visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children0 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #g71 which were regarded as the answer to ,moses' question in the preceding chapter of ,exodus47#afe7 ,prevalent1 however1 as this view may have been in ancient times1 the ,rabbis never allowed it to pass without some qualification4 ,it is true that they had no objection to the former part of this doctrine1 and they speak very frequently of the 8,merits of the ,fathers0 for which the remotest posterity is rewarded2 for this could be explained on the ground of the boundless goodness of ,god1 which cannot be limited to the short space of a lifetime4 ,but there was no possibility of overcoming the moral objection against punishment of people for sins they have not committed4 ,it will suffice to mention here that1 with reference to ,joshua vii4 #bd1 #be1 the ,rabbis asked the question1 ,if he 7,achan7 sinned1 what justification could there be for putting his sons and daughters to death8 ,and by the force of this argument they interpreted the words of the ,scriptures to mean that the children of the criminal were only compelled to be present at the execution of their father4 ,such passages1 therefore1 as would imply that children have to suffer for the sins of their parents are explained by the ,rabbis as referring to cases in which the children perpetuate the crimes of their fathers47#aff7 ,the view of ,r4 ,jos1 which ,i have already quoted1 had1 therefore1 to be dropped1 and another version in the name of the same ,rabbi is accepted4 ,according to this theory the sufferer is a person either 8entirely wicked0 or 8not perfectly righteous10 whilst the prosperous man is a person either 8perfectly righteous10 or 8not entirely wicked40 ,it is hardly necessary to say that there is still something wanting to supplement this view1 for the given classification would place the not entirely wicked on the same level with the perfectly righteous1 and on a much higher level than the imperfectly righteous1 who are undoubtedly far superior4 ,the following passage may be regarded as supplying this missing something3--8,the wicked who have done some good work are as amply rewarded for it in this world as if they were men who have fulfilled the whole of the ,torah1 so that they may be punished for their sins in the next world 7without interruption72 whilst the righteous who have committed some sin have to suffer for it 7in this world7 as if they were men who burned the ,law10 so that they may enjoy their reward in the world to come 7without interruption747#afg7 ,thus the real retribution takes place in the next world1 the fleeting existence on earth not being the fit time either to compensate righteousness or to punish sin4 ,but as1 on the one hand1 ,god never allows 8that the merit of any creature should be cut short10 whilst1 on the other hand1 ,he deals very severely with the righteous1 punishing them for the slightest transgression2 since1 too1 this reward and punishment are only of short duration1 they must take place in this short terrestrial existence4 ,there is thus established a sort of divine economy1 lest the harmony of the next world should be disturbed4 ,yet another objection to the doctrine under discussion remains to be noticed4 ,it is that it justifies ,god by accusing man1 declaring every sufferer as more or less of a sinner4 ,but such a notion1 if carried to its last consequences1 must result in tempting us to withhold our sympathies from him4 ,and1 indeed1 it would seem that there were some non,jewish philosophers who argued in this way4 ,thus a certain ,roman official is reported to have said to ,r4 ,akiba1 8,how can you be so eager in helping the poor8 ,suppose only a king1 who1 in his wrath against his slave1 were to set him in the gaol1 and give orders to withhold from him food and drink2 if1 then1 one dared to act to the contrary1 would not the king be angry with him807#afh7 ,there is some appearance of logic in this notion put into the mouth of a heathen4 ,the ,rabbis1 however1 were inconsistent people1 and responded to the appeal which suffering makes to every human heart without asking too many questions4 ,without entering here into the topic of charity in the ,rabbinic literature1 which would form a very interesting chapter1 ,i shall only allude now to the following incident1 which would show that the ,rabbis did not abandon even those afflicted with leprosy1 which1 according to their own notion1 given above1 followed only as a punishment for the worst crimes4 ,one ,friday1 we are told1 when the day was about to darken1 the ,chassid ,abba ,tachnah was returning home1 bearing on his shoulders the baggage that contained all his fortune2 he saw a leprous man lying on the road1 who addressed him3 8,rabbi1 do me a deed of charity and take me into the town40 ,the ,rabbi now thought1 8,if ,i leave my baggage1 where shall ,i find the means of obtaining subsistence for myself and my family8 ,but if ,i forsake this leprous man ,i shall commit a mortal sin40 ,in the end1 he allowed the good inclination to prevail over the evil one1 and first carried the sufferer to the town47#afi7 ,the only practical conclusion that the ,rabbis drew from such theories as identify suffering with sin were for the sufferer himself1 who otherwise might be inclined to blame ,providence1 or even to blaspheme1 but would now look upon his affliction as a reminder from heaven that there is something wrong in his moral state4 ,thus we read in tractate ,berachoth37#agj7 8,if a man sees that affliction comes upon him1 he ought to inquire into his actions1 as it is said1 ,let us search and try our ways1 and turn again to the ,lord 7,lam4 iii4 #dj740 ,this means to say that the sufferer will find that he has been guilty of some offence4 ,as an illustration of this statement we may perhaps consider the story about ,r4 ,huna1 occurring in the same tractate47#aga7 ,of this ,rabbi it is said that he once experienced heavy pecuniary losses1 whereupon his friends came to his house and said to him1 8,let the master but examine his conduct a little closer40 ,on this ,r4 ,huna answered1 8,do you suspect me of having committed some misdeed80 ,his friends rejoined1 8,and do you think that ,god would pass judgment without justice80 ,r4 ,huna then followed their hint1 and found that he did not treat his tenant farmer so generously as he ought4 ,he offered redress1 and all turned out well in the end4 ,something similar is to be found in the story of the martyrdom of ,r4 ,simeon ben ,gamaliel and ,r4 ,ishmael ben ,elisha4 ,of these ,rabbis we are told that on their way to be executed the one said to the other1 8,my heart leaves me1 for ,i am not aware of a sin deserving such a death02 on which the other answered1 8,it might have happened that in your function as judge you sometimes--for your own convenience--were slow in administering justice407#agb7 ,but even if the personal actions of the righteous were blameless1 there might still be sufficient ground for his being afflicted and miserable4 ,this may be found in his relations to his kind and surroundings1 or1 to use the term now more popular1 by reason of human solidarity4 ,now1 after the above remarks on the objections entertained by the ,rabbis against a man's being punished for the sins of others1 it is hardly necessary to say that their idea of solidarity has little in common with the crude notions of it current in very ancient times4 ,still1 it can hardly be doubted that the relation of the individual to the community was more keenly felt by the ,rabbis than by the leaders in any other society1 modern or ancient4 ,according to the view given by an ancient ,rabbi whose name is unknown1 it would1 indeed1 seem that to them the individual was not simply a member of the ,jewish commonwealth1 or a coreligionist1 but a limb of the great and single body 8,israel10 and that as such he communicated both for good and evil the sensations of the one part to the whole4 ,in the ,midrash1 where a parallel is to be found to this idea1 the responsibility of the individual towards the community is further illustrated by ,r4 ,simeon ben ,yochai1 in the following way3 8,it is10 we read there1 8to be compared to people sitting on board a ship1 one of the passengers of which took an awl and began to bore holes in the bottom of the vessel4 ,asked to desist from his dangerous occupation1 he answered1 #8,why1 ,i am only making holes on my own seat1' forgetting that when the water came in it would sink the whole ship40 ,thus the sin of a single man might endanger the whole of humanity4 ,it was in conformity with the view of his father that ,r4 ,eliezer1 the son of ,r4 ,simeon 7ben ,yochai7 said1 8,the world is judged after the merits or demerits of the majority1 so that a single individual by his good or bad actions can decide the fate of his fellowcreatures1 as it may happen that he is just the one who constitutes this majority407#agc7 ,nor does this responsibility cease with the man's own actions4 ,according to the ,rabbis man is responsible even for the conduct of others--and as such liable to punishment--if he is indifferent to the wrong that is being perpetrated about him1 whilst an energetic protest from his side could have prevented it4 ,and the greater the man the greater is his responsibility4 ,he may suffer for the sins of his family which is first reached by his influence2 he may suffer for the sins of the whole community if he could hope to find a willing ear among them1 and he may even suffer for the sins of the whole world if his influence extend so far1 and he forbear from exerting it for good47#agd7 ,thus the possibility is given that the righteous man may suffer with justice1 though he himself has never committed any transgression4 ,as a much higher aspect of this solidarity--and as may have already suggested itself to the reader from the passage cited above from the anonymous ,rabbi--we may regard the suffering of the righteous as an atonement for the sins of their contemporaries4 8,when there will be neither ,tabernacle nor the ,holy ,temple10 ,moses is said to have asked ,god1 8what will become of ,israel80 ,whereupon ,god answers1 8,i will take from among them the righteous man whom ,i shall consider as pledged for them1 and will forgive all their sins20 the death of the perfect man1 or even his suffering being looked upon as an expiation for the shortcoming of his generation47#age7 ,it is hardly necessary to remind the reader of the affinity of this idea with that of sacrifices in general1 as in both cases it is the innocent being which has to suffer for the sins of another creature4 ,but there is one vital point which makes all the difference4 ,it is that in our case the suffering is not enforced1 but is a voluntary act on the part of the sacrifice1 and is even desired by him4 ,without entering here on the often discussed theme of the suffering of the ,messiah1 ,i need only mention the words of ,r4 ,ishmael who1 on a very slight provocation1 exclaimed1 8,i am the atonement for the ,jews10 which means that he took upon him all their sins to suffer for them47#agf7 ,this desire seems to have its origin in nothing else than a deep sympathy and compassion with ,israel4 ,to suffer for1 or1 at least with ,israel was1 according to the ,rabbis1 already the ideal of ,moses4 ,he is said1 indeed1 to have broken the ,two ,tables with the purpose of committing some sin1 so that he would have either to be condemned together with ,israel 7for the sin of the golden calf71 or to be pardoned together with them47#agg7 ,and this conduct was expected not only from the leaders of ,israel1 but almost from every ,jew4 8,when ,israel is in a state of affliction 7as1 for instance1 famine7 one must not say1 ,i will rather live by myself1 and eat and drink1 and peace be unto thee1 my soul4 ,to those who do so the words of the ,scriptures are to be applied3 ,and in that day did the ,lord ,god of ,hosts call to weeping and to mourning1 444 and behold joy and gladness4444 ,surely this iniquity shall not be purged out from you till ye die0 7,is4 xxii4 #abad74 ,another passage is to the effect that1 when a man shows himself indifferent to the suffering of the community1 there come the two angels 7who accompany every ,jew71 put their hands on his head1 and say1 8,this man who has separated himself shall be excluded from their consolations407#agh7 ,we might now characterise this sort of suffering as the chastisement of love 7of the righteous7 to mankind1 or rather to ,israel4 ,but we must not confuse it with the ,chastisement of ,love often mentioned in the ,talmud1 though this idea also seems calculated to account for the suffering of the righteous4 ,here the love is not on the side of the sufferer1 but proceeds from him who inflicts this suffering4 8,him10 says ,r4 ,huna1 8in whom ,god delights he crushes with suffering40 ,as a proof of this theory the words of ,is4 liii4 #aj are given1 which are interpreted to mean3 him whom the ,lord delights in ,he puts to grief4 ,another passage1 by the same authority1 is to the effect that where there is no sufficient cause for punishment 7the man being entirely free from sin71 we have to regard his suffering as a chastisement of love1 for it is said3 8,whom the ,lord loveth ,he correcteth0 7,proverbs iii4 #aa747agi7 ,to what purpose ,he corrects him may1 perhaps1 be seen from the following passage3 8,r4 ,eleazar ben ,jacob says3 ,if a man is visited by affliction he has to be thankful to ,god for it3 for suffering draws man to1 and reconciles him with ,god1 as it is said3 ,for whom ,god loveth he correcteth407#ahj7 ,it is in conformity with such a high conception that affliction1 far from being dreaded1 becomes almost a desirable end1 and we hear many ,rabbis exclaim1 8,beloved is suffering10 for by it fatherly love is shown to man by ,god2 by it man obtains purification and atonement1 by it ,israel came in possession of the best gifts1 such as the ,torah1 the ,holy ,land1 and eternal life47#aha7 ,and so also the sufferer1 far from being considered as a man with a suspected past1 becomes an object of veneration1 on whom the glory of ,god rests1 and he brings salvation to the world if he bears his affliction with joyful submission to the will of ,god47#ahb7 ,continuous prosperity is by no means to be longed after1 for1 as ,r4 ,ishmael taught1 8,he who has passed forty days without meeting adversity has already received his 7share of the7 world 7to come7 in this life407#ahc7 ,nay1 the standing rule is that the really righteous suffer1 whilst the wicked are supposed to be in a prosperous state4 ,thus1 ,r4 ,jannai said1 8,we 7average people7 enjoy neither the prosperity of the wicked nor the afflictions of the righteous107#ahd7 whilst his contemporary1 ,rab1 declared that he who experiences no affliction and persecution does not belong to them 7the ,jews747#ahe7 #b4 ,the second main view on ,retribution is that recorded by the ,rabbis as in direct opposition to that of ,r4 ,ammi4 ,it is that there is suffering as well as death without sin and transgression4 ,we may now just as well infer that there is prosperity and happiness without preceding merits4 ,and this is1 indeed1 the view held by ,r4 ,meir4 ,for in contradiction to the view cited above1 ,r4 ,meir declares that the request of ,moses to have explained to him the mysterious ways of ,providence was not granted1 and the answer he received was1 8,and ,i will shew mercy on whom ,i will shew mercy0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #ai71 which means to say1 even though he to whom the mercy is shown be unworthy of it4 ,the old question arises how such a procedure is to be reconciled with the justice and omnipotence of ,god4 ,the commentaries try to evade the difficulty by suggesting some of the views given above1 as that the real reward and punishment are only in the world to come1 or that the affliction of the righteous is only chastisement of love1 and so on4 ,from the passages ,i am about to quote1 however1 one gains the impression that some ,rabbis rather thought that this great problem will indeed not bear discussion or solution at all4 ,thus we have the legend3 8,the angels said to ,god1 why have you punished ,adam with death8 ,he answered1 ,on account of his having transgressed my commandment 7with regard to the eating of the tree of knowledge74 ,but why had ,moses and ,aaron to die8 ,the reply given to them is the words1 ,eccl4 ix4 #b3 #8,all things come alike to all2 there is one event to the righteous and to the wicked1 to the good and to the clean and to the unclean4' 07#ahf7 ,another legend records1 8,when ,moses ascended to heaven1 ,god showed him also the great men of futurity4 ,r4 ,akiba was sitting and interpreting the law in a most wonderful way4 ,moses said to ,god3 ,thou hast shown me his worth1 show me also his reward2 on which he is bidden to look back4 ,there he perceives him dying the most cruel of deaths1 and his flesh being sold by weight4 ,moses now asks3 ,is this the reward of such a life8 whereupon ,god answers him3 ,be silent2 this ,i have determined407#ahg7 ,it is impossible not to think of the fine lines of the ,german poet3-- ,warum schleppt sich blutend1 elend1 ,unter ,kreuzlast der ,gerechte1 ,whrend glcklich als ein ,sieger ,trabt auf hohem ,ross der ,schlechte8 ,also fragen wir bestndig1 ,bis man uns mit einer ,handvoll ,erde endlich stopft die ,muler-- ,aber ist das eine ,antwort8 ,still1 one might perhaps suggest that these passages when examined a little closer1 not only contain a rebuke to man's importunity in wanting to intrude into the secrets of ,god1 but also hint at the possibility that even ,god's omnipotence is submitted to a certain law--though designed by ,his own holy will--which ,he could not alter without detriment to the whole creation4 ,indeed1 in one of the mystical accounts of the martyrdom of ,r4 ,akiba and other great ,rabbis1 ,god is represented as asking the sufferers to accept ,his hard decree without protest1 unless they wish ,him to destroy the whole world4 ,in another place again1 we read of a certain renowned ,rabbi1 who lived in great poverty1 that once in a dream he asked the divine ,shechinah how long he would have still to endure this bitter privation8 ,the answer given to him was3 8,my son1 will it please you that ,i destroy the world for your sake807#ahh7 ,it is only in this light that we shall be able to understand such passages in the ,rabbinic literature as that ,god almost suffers ,himself when ,he has to inflict punishment either on the individual or on whole communities4 ,thus ,god is represented as mourning for seven days 7as in the case when one loses a child7 before ,he brought the deluge on the world2 ,he bemoans the fall of ,israel and the destruction of the ,temple1 and the ,shechinah laments even when the criminal suffers his just punishment4 ,and it is not by rebelling against these laws that ,he tries to redeem ,his suffering4 ,he himself has recourse to prayer1 and says3 8,may it be my will that my mercy conquer my wrath1 that my love overrule my strict justice1 so that ,i may treat my children with love407#ahi7 ,if now man is equal to ,god1 he has nevertheless1 or rather on that account1 to submit to the law of ,god without any outlook for reward or punishment2 or1 as ,antigonos expressed it1 8,be not as slaves that minister to the ,lord with a view to receive recompense407#aij7 ,certainly it would be hazardous to maintain that ,antigonos's saying was a consequence of this doctrine2 but1 at any rate1 we see a clear tendency to keep the thought of reward 7in spite of the prominent part it holds in the ,bible7 out of view4 ,still more clearly is it seen when1 with reference to ,ps4 cxii41 8,blessed is the man 444 that delighteth greatly in his commandments10 ,rabbi ,eleazar remarks that the meaning is that the man desires only to do ,his commandments1 but he does not want the rewards connected with them47#aia7 ,this is the more remarkable1 as the whole contents of this psalm are nothing else than a long series of promises of various rewards1 so that the explanation of ,rabbi ,eleazar is in almost direct contradiction to the simple meaning of the words4 ,on the other hand1 also1 every complaint about suffering must cease4 ,not only is affliction no direct chastisement by ,god in the way of revenge2 but even when it would seem to us that we suffer innocently1 we have no right to murmur1 as ,god himself is also suffering1 and1 as the ,talmud expresses it1 8,it is enough for the slave to be in the position of his master407#aib7 ,this thought of the compassion--in its strictest sense of fellow suffering--of ,god with ,his creatures becomes a new motive for avoiding sin4 8,woe to the wicked10 exclaims a ,rabbi1 8who by their bad actions turn the mercy of ,god into strict justice407#aic7 ,and the later mystics explain distinctly that the great crime of sin consists in causing pain1 so to speak1 to the ,shechinah4 ,one of them compared it with the slave who abuses the goodness of his master so far as to buy with his money arms to wound him4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it becomes1 rather inconsistently1 also a new source of comfort2 for1 in the end1 ,god will have to redeem ,himself from this suffering1 which cannot be accomplished so long as ,israel is still under punishment47#aid7 ,most interesting is the noble prayer by a ,rabbi of a very late mystical school3 8,o ,god1 speedily bring about the redemption4 ,i am not in the least thinking of what ,i may gain by it4 ,i am willing to be condemned to all tortures in hell1 if only the ,shechinah will cease to suffer407#aie7 ,if we were now to ask for the attitude of the ,synagogue towards these two main views1 we should have to answer that--as already hinted at the opening of this paper--it never decided for the one or the other4 ,r4 ,david ,rocca ,martino dared even to write a whole book in ,defence of ,adam proving that he committed no sin in eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge against the literal sense of the ,scriptures1 which were also taken by the ,rabbis literally47#aif7 ,by this he destroyed the prospects of many a theodicy1 but it is not known to me that he was severely rebuked for it4 ,it has been said by a great writer that the best theology is that which is not consistent1 and this advantage the theology of the ,synagogue possesses to its utmost extent4 ,it accepted with ,r4 ,ammi the stern principle of divine retribution1 in as far as it makes man feel the responsibility of his actions1 and makes suffering a discipline4 ,but it never allowed this principle to be carried so far as to deny the sufferer our sympathy1 and by a series of conscious and unconscious modifications1 he passed from the state of a sinner into the zenith of the saint and the perfectly righteous man4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the ,synagogue also gave entrance to the very opposite view which1 abandoning every attempt to account for suffering1 bids man do his duty without any hope of reward1 even as ,god also does ,his4 ,hence the remarkable phenomenon in the works of later ,jewish moralists1 that1 whilst they never weary of the most detailed accounts of the punishments awaiting the sinner and the rewards in store for the righteous1 they warn us most emphatically that our actions must not be guided by these unworthy considerations1 and that our only motive should be the love of ,god and submission to ,his holy will4 ,nor must it be thought that the views of the ,rabbis are so widely divergent from those enunciated in the ,bible4 ,the germ of almost all the later ideas is already to be found in the ,scriptures4 ,it only needed the process of time to bring into prominence those features which proved at a later period most acceptable4 ,indeed1 it would seem that there is also a sort of domestication of religious ideas4 ,on their first association with man there is a certain rude violence about them which1 when left to the management of untutored minds1 would certainly do great harm4 ,but1 let only this association last for centuries1 during which these ideas have to be subdued by practical use1 and they will1 in due time1 lose their former roughness1 will become theologically workable1 and turn out the greatest blessing to inconsistent humanity4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,law ,,and ,,recent ,,criticism7#aig7 ,professor ,toy's work1 ,judaism and ,christianity1 gives an admirable conspectus of the results of the modern critical school in their bearing on the genesis of ,christianity4 ,the author takes various important doctrines of ,christianity1 traces them back to their origin in ,israelitism1 pursues their course through their various phases in ,judaism1 until they reach their final development in the teaching of ,jesus and ,his disciples1 which1 in the author's judgment1 is the consummation of that which the prophets and their successors had to give to the world4 ,laying so much stress as ,professor ,toy does on the saying1 8,by their fruits shall ye know them10 he ought also1 perhaps1 to have told us what1 in the course of time1 has become of these several doctrines4 ,for when1 for instance1 with regard to the doctrine of original sin1 he remarks that 8in certain systems of ,christian theology the human race is involved in the condemnation of the first man0 7p4 #ahe1 n4 #a72 or that1 in the ,new ,testament1 8the demand for a mediating power between ,god and humanity is pushed to the farthest point which thought can occupy consistently with the maintenance of the absoluteness of the one ,supreme ,deity0 7p4 #aba71 he is rather evading a difficulty than answering it4 ,such elaboration would1 however1 have been outside the scope of ,professor ,toy's book1 which claims only to be a sketch of the progress of thought from the ,old ,testament to the ,new4 ,for his own solution of the indicated difficulty1 ,toy1 to judge from his liberal standpoint1 would probably refer us to ,dr4 ,hatch's ,hibbert lectures2 the issue of such an appeal must1 ,i imagine1 remain for long doubtful and disputed4 ,a delightful characteristic of ,toy's book is its transparent clearness and sobriety1 which will make it interesting reading1 even to those who are acquainted with the writer's authorities in their original sources4 ,almost entirely new1 as well as most suggestive1 is the justice which ,toy does to the law in recognising it as a factor for good in the history of religion4 ,in this point ,toy is not only up to his date1 but beyond it4 ,it is true that even the ,pharisees have made some advance in the estimation of the liberal school4 ,they are no longer condemned en masse as so many hypocrites4 ,it is even admitted that there were a few honest men among them1 such as ,rabban ,gamaliel1 the teacher of ,paul1 or ,r4 ,akiba1 the patriot of ,bethar4 ,we are now too polite to be personal4 ,but with regard to the law1 on the other hand1 there is at present a markedly opposite tendency4 ,the general idea seems to be that1 as the doctrine of the resurrection of ,christ must be loosely interpreted in a spiritual sense1 it must logically have been preceded by a universal spiritual death1 and the germs of the disease which brought this death about are to be sought for in the law4 ,hence the strained efforts to discover in the law the source of all religious evil1--cant1 hypocrisy1 formalism1 externalism1 transcendentalism1 and as many 8isms0 more1 of bad reputation4 ,it was probably with this current representation of the law in view that ,toy1 when speaking of the ,levitical legislation1 and of its fixing 8men's minds on ceremonial details which1 in some cases1 it put into the same category and on the same level with moral duties10 asks the question3 8,would there not thence result a dimming of the moral sense and a confusion of moral distinctions8 ,the ethical attitude of a man who could regard a failure in the routine of sacrifice as not less blameworthy than an act of theft cannot be called a lofty one0 7p4 #ahf74 ,the answer which he gives is more favourable than such a leading question would induce us to expect4 ,he tells us that1 8in point of fact1 the result was different0 7ibid74 8,the ,levitical law is not to be looked on as a mere extension and organisation of the ritual4444 ,its ritual was1 in great part1 the organised expression of the consciousness of sin0 7p4 #bbf74 ,of the law in general ,toy says that it had 8larger consequences than its mere details would suggest10 for it 8cultivated the moral sense of the people into results above its mechanical prescriptions10 and 8it developed the sense of sin1 as ,paul points out0 7,gal4 iii4 #ai71 8and therewith a freer feeling1 which brought the soul into more immediate contact with ,god0 7p4 #bbg72 whilst in another place he reminds us 8that much of the law is moral1 and that no one could fail to see a spiritual significance beneath its letter0 7p4 #bde71 and he even admits that 8the great legal schools which grew up in the second century1 if we may judge by the sayings of the teachers which have come down to us1 did not fail to discriminate between the outward and the inward1 the ceremonial and the moral0 7p4 #ahf74 ,these and similar passages will suffice to show that ,toy's estimate of the law is a very different one from that of ,smend and his school4 ,however1 it must not be supposed that he is not on the lookout for the germs of the disease4 ,he must find these germs somewhere1 or else the progress1 which his book is intended to illustrate1 would be difficult to detect4 ,and thus he repeats the old accusations1 though not without modification4 ,professor ,toy's objections may1 perhaps1 be summed up in the passage in which he represents the ,jewish law as 8an attempt to define all the beliefs and acts of life0 7p4 #bci71 or as 8the embodiment of devotion to a fixed rule of belief and conduct0 7p4 #bcg74 ,toy does not entirely condemn this system1 and even speaks of it as a 8lofty attempt0 7p4 #bci72 but1 on the whole1 he considers that it must have resulted in bad theology1 as well as in doubtful conduct4 ,without following ,professor ,toy over the whole area of his investigations1 which would require a volume for itself1 ,i will only take the opportunity of making a few general remarks upon the nature and character of this legal system1 which seems to hold the key to the spiritual history of ,judaism4 ,first1 as to its theology1 ,toy's description of the law as an attempt to define all the beliefs of life--an assertion which is also made by ,schrer--is not wholly accurate4 ,for such an attempt was never made by ,judaism4 ,the few dogmas which ,judaism possesses1 such as the ,existence of ,god1 ,providence1 ,reward1 and ,punishment--without which no revealed religion is conceivable--can hardly be called a creed in the modern sense of the term1 which implies something external and foreign to man's own knowledge1 and received only in deference to the weight of authority4 ,to the ,jew of the ,christian era1 these simpler dogmas were so selfevident that it would have cost him the greatest effort not to believe them4 ,hence the fact that1 whilst there have come down to us so many controverted points between the ,sadducees and ,pharisees with regard to certain juristic and ritual questions1 we know of only one of an essentially dogmatic character1 viz4 the dispute concerning the ,resurrection4 ,it is thus difficult to imagine to what ,professor ,toy can be alluding when he speaks of the 8interest they 7the ,jews7 threw into the discussion and determination of minuti of faith0 7p4 #bda74 ,discussions upon minuti of faith are only to be read in the works of the later schoolmen 7as ,saadiah1 ,maimonides and their followers71 in which such subtle problems as ,creatio ex nihilo1 the origin of evil1 predestination1 free will and similar subjects are examined2 but this period is very distant from that with which ,toy is concerned4 ,the older schools and the socalled houses of ,shammai and ,hillel1 most of whose members were the contemporaries of the ,apostles1 show very little predilection for such minuti4 ,their discussions and differences of opinion about ritual matters are very numerous1 scattered as they are over the whole of the ancient ,rabbinic literature1 but ,i can only remember two of a metaphysical character1 or touching upon the minuti of faith4 ,the one1 dealing with the efficacy of certain sacrifices1 discusses whether it only extends to the remission of the pending punishment for sins1 or also includes their purification and washing away2 the other considers the question whether it would not have been better for man not to have been created47#aih7 ,but this latter controversy1 which is said to have lasted for two years and a half1 by no means led to any big metaphysical or theological system1 but only to the practical advice that1 as we have been created1 we ought to be watchful over our conduct4 ,it is1 indeed1 a noteworthy feature of ,judaism that theological speculations have never resulted in the formulation of any imposing or universal doctrine1 but usually in divers ceremonial practices4 ,to give one illustration3 according to ,professor ,toy 7p4 #baj7 the conclusion which the author of #a ,tim4 ii4 #aaad draws from the fact that woman was the immediate agent of the introduction of sin was the subordination of her sex4 ,the ,rabbis also noticed the same fact1 and in their less abstract language speak of woman as having brought death and grief into the world2 but the conclusion which they drew was that since woman had extinguished the 8light of the world10 she ought to atone for it by lighting the candles for the ,sabbath47#aii7 ,nor is ,toy quite correct when he maintains that the conception of the ,memra as ,creator and ,lord1 etc41 and as 8representative of the immediate divine activity10 did not keep its hold on ,jewish thought1 having been discarded in the later literature 7p4 #ajd74 ,for the ,shechinah of the ,talmud1 the ,metatron7#bjj7 of the ,gaonicmystical literature1 the ,active ,intelligence of the philosophical schools1 as well as the ,ten ,sephiroth7#bja7 7,emanations7 of the ,cabbalists1 all owe their existence to the same theosophic scruples and subtleties in which the ,logos of ,philo and the ,memra7#bjb7 of the ,targums originated4 ,thus1 they always kept--though under various forms--their hold on the ,jewish mind4 ,judaism was always broad enough to accommodate itself to these formul1 which for the one may mean the most holy mysteries1 and for the other empty and meaningless catchwords4 ,the objection--in fact1 the active opposition--of the ,synagogue began when these possible or impossible explanations of the universe tended to transgress the bounds of abstract speculation1 and1 passing over into real concrete beings1 to be worshipped as such4 ,an instance from comparatively modern times might be found in one of the vagaries of the followers of the ,pseudo,messiah1 ,shabbethai ,tsebi4 ,for many generations the controversy had raged among the ,cabbalists1 whether the first of the abovementioned ,ten ,emanations 7called by some ,original ,adam1 by others1 ,crown7#bjc77 is to be considered as a part of the ,deity or as something separate1 and so to speak1 having a reality in itself4 ,the danger of establishing a ,being near the ,deity1 having an existence of its own and invested with divine attributes1 could not have escaped the thoughtful1 and there are indeed some indications to this effect4 ,the ,synagogue as such1 however1 remained during the whole controversy strictly neutral1 and allowed these theosophists to fight in the air as much as they liked4 ,but the moment that the sect of ,shabbethai ,tsebi identified the incarnate ,original ,adam with their leader1 and worshipped him as a sort of ,god,messiah1 the ,synagogue at once took up a hostile attitude against those who separated ,god from ,his world1 and1 declaring ,shabbethai ,tsebi and his followers to be apostates1 excluded them from ,judaism for ever4 ,nor can it be proved that legalism or nomism has ever tended to suppress the spiritual side of religion1 either in respect of consciousness of sin1 or of individual love and devotion4 ,with an equal logic quite the opposite might be argued4 ,professor ,toy tells us himself that it is no 8accident that along with this more definite expression of ethicalreligious law we find the first traces of a more spiritual conception of righteousness in the #8new heart' of ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel0 7p4 #bce71 whilst in another passage we read that 8a turning point is marked by the ,deuteronomist ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel1 who announce the principles of individual responsibility and inwardness of obedience0 7p4 #ahd74 ,now1 two things are certain2 first1 that ,ezekiel urges the necessity of the new heart as well as of individual responsibility more keenly than any of his predecessors2 secondly1 that in ,ezekiel the legalistic tendency is more evident than in ,deuteronomy and ,jeremiah4 ,the logical conclusion would thus be that the higher ideals of religion are not only not inconsistent with legalism1 but are the very outcome of it1 and the socalled ,priestly ,code1 by the very fact of its markedly legalistic tendency1 should be considered as a step in the right direction4 ,the latter assertion sounds like a paradox1 but it will seem less so when the prevailing characteristic of this portion of the ,pentateuch1 as given even by ,kuenen1 who is by no means a champion of the ,law1 is borne in mind4 8,the centre of gravity10 according to the great ,dutch critic1 8lies for the priestly author elsewhere than for the prophet2 it lies in man's attitude1 not towards his fellowmen1 but towards ,god2 not in his social1 but in his personal life0 7,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #afa74 ,it is here that we seem to strike the keynote of the ,weltanschauung of the ,priestly ,legislation4 ,in it man is more than a social being4 ,he has also an individual life of his own1 his joys and sorrows1 his historical claims1 his traditions of the past1 and his hopes for the future--and all these have to be brought under the influence of religion1 and to become sanctified through their relation to ,god4 ,hence1 the work of the ,priestly narrator and legislator opens with a cosmogony of his own1 in which we find the grand theological idea of man being created in the ,divine image2 hence1 too1 his religious conception of the history of the nation and the control claimed by him over all the details of human life1 which became with him so many opportunities for the worship of ,god4 ,to him1 ,god is not a mere figurehead2 ,he not only reigns1 but governs4 ,everywhere1--in the temple1 in the judge's seat1 in the family1 in the farm1 and in the marketplace1--,his presence is felt in enforcing the laws bearing ,his imprimatur1 8,i am the ,lord thy ,god40 ,by thus diffusing religion over the whole domain of human life--not confining it to the social institutions which are represented only by a few personages1 such as the king1 the princes1 the priests1 the judges or elders--they made it the common good of the whole people1 and the feeling of personal responsibility for this good became much deeper than before4 ,thus it came to pass that whilst1 during the first temple1 the apostasy of kings and aristocracy involved the entire people1 so that the words 8,and he 7the king7 did evil in the sight of the ,lord10 embrace the whole nation1 during the second temple it was no longer of much consequence which side the political leaders took4 ,both during the ,hellenistic persecutions1 as well as afterwards in the struggles of some ,maccabean kings with the ,pharisees1 the bulk of the people showed that they considered religion as their own personal affair1 not to be regulated by the conscience of either priest or prince4 ,it is true that this success may be largely ascribed to such contemporary religious factors as the ,synagogue with its minimum of form1 the ,scribes with their activity as teachers1 and the ,psalmists with their divine enthusiasm2 but the very circumstance that these factors arose and flourished under the influence of the ,priestly ,code would suffice to prove that its tendency was not so sacerdotal as some writers would have us believe4 ,jewish tradition indeed attributes the composition of the daily public prayers1 as well as of others for private worship1 to the very men whom modern biblical criticism holds responsible for the introduction of the ,priestly ,code4 ,now this fact may perhaps be disputed1 but there is little doubt that the age in which these prayers were composed was one of flourishing legalism4 ,nor is there any proof that the synagogues and their ritual were in opposition to the temple4 ,from the few documents belonging to this period1 it is clear that there was no opposition to the legalistic spirit by which the ,priestly ,code was actuated4 ,this would prove that legalism meant something more than tithes and sacrifices for the benefit of the priests4 ,nor is it true that the legal tendency aimed at narrowing the mind of the nation1 turning all its thoughts into the one direction of the law4 ,apart from the fact that the ,torah contained other elements besides its legalism1 the prophets were not forgotten1 but were read and interpreted from a very early age4 ,it was under the predominance of the ,law that the ,wisdom literature was composed1 which is by no means narrow or onesided1 but is even supposed by some critics to contain many foreign elements4 ,in the book of ,job1 the great problems of man's existence are treated with a depth and grandeur never equalled before or since4 ,this book alone ought partly to compensate the modern school for the disappearance of prophecy1 which is usually brought as a charge against the ,law4 ,then1 too1 the ,psalms1 placed by the same school in the postexilic period1 are nothing but another aspect of prophecy1 with this difference1 perhaps1 that in the ,prophets ,god speaks to man1 while in the ,psalms it is man who establishes the same communion by speaking to ,god4 ,there is no reason why the critical school1 with its broad conception of inspiration1 and with its insistence that prophecy does not mean prediction1 should so strongly emphasise this difference4 ,if 8it is no longer as in the days of ,amos1 when the ,lord ,yahveh did nothing without revealing his counsel to his servants the prophets10 there is in the days of the ,psalmists nothing in man's heart1 no element in his longings and meditations and aspirations1 which was not revealed to ,god4 ,nay1 it would seem that at times the ,psalmist hardly ever desires the revelation of ,god's secrets4 ,let future events be what they may1 he is content1 for he is with ,god4 ,after all his trials1 he exclaims1 8,and yet ,i am continually with thee2 thou hast taken hold of my right hand4 ,according to thy purpose wilt thou lead me1 and afterwards receive me with glory4 ,whom have ,i 7to care for7 in heaven8 and possessing thee1 ,i have pleasure in nothing upon earth4 ,though my flesh and my heart should have wasted away1 ,god would for ever be the rock of my heart and my portion0 7,ps4 lxxiii4 #bcbf74 ,how an age producing a literature containing passages like these--of which ,wellhausen in his ,abriss 7p4 #ie7 justly remarks1 that we are not worthy even to repeat them--can be considered by the modern school as wanting in intimate relation to ,god and inferior to that of the prophets is indeed a puzzle4 ,now a few words as to the actual life under the ,law4 ,here1 again1 there is a fresh puzzle4 ,on the one side1 we hear the opinions of so many learned professors1 proclaiming ex cathedr1 that the ,law was a most terrible burden1 and the life under it the most unbearable slavery1 deadening body and soul4 ,on the other side we have the testimony of a literature extending over about twentyfive centuries1 and including all sorts and conditions of men1 scholars1 poets1 mystics1 lawyers1 casuists1 schoolmen1 tradesmen1 workmen1 women1 simpletons1 who all1 from the author of the #aaith ,psalm to the last pre,mendelssohnian writer--with a small exception which does not even deserve the name of a vanishing minority--give unanimous evidence in favour of this ,law1 and of the bliss and happiness of living and dying under it1--and this1 the testimony of people who were actually living under the ,law1 not merely theorising upon it1 and who experienced it in all its difficulties and inconveniences4 ,the ,sabbath will give a fair example4 ,the law of the ,sabbath is one of those institutions the strict observance of which was already the object of attack in early ,new ,testament times4 ,nevertheless1 the doctrine proclaimed in one of the ,gospels--that the son of man is ,lord also of the ,sabbath--was also current among the ,rabbis4 ,they1 too1 taught that the ,sabbath had been delivered into the hand of man 7to break1 if necessary71 and not man delivered over to the ,sabbath47#bjd7 ,and they even laid down the axiom that a scholar who lived in a town1 where among the ,jewish population there could be the least possibility of doubt as to whether the ,sabbath might be broken for the benefit of a dangerously sick person1 was to be despised as a man neglecting his duty2 for1 as ,maimonides points out1 the laws of the ,torah are not meant as an infliction upon mankind1 8but as mercy1 loving kindness1 and peace407#bje7 ,the attacks upon the ,jewish ,sabbath have not abated with the lapse of time4 ,the day is still described by almost every ,christian writer on the subject in the most gloomy colours1 and long lists are given of minute and easily transgressed observances connected with it1 which1 instead of a day of rest1 would make it to be a day of sorrow and anxiety1 almost worse than the ,scotch ,sunday as depicted by continental writers4 ,but it so happens that we have the prayer of ,r4 ,zadok1 a younger contemporary of the ,apostles1 which runs thus3 8,through the love with which ,thou1 ,o ,lord our ,god1 lovest ,thy people ,israel1 and the mercy which ,thou hast shown to the children of ,thy covenant1 ,thou hast given unto us in love this great and holy ,seventh ,day407#bjf7 ,and another ,rabbi1 who probably flourished in the first half of the second century1 expresses himself 7with allusion to ,exod4 xxxi4 #ac3 ,verily my ,sabbaths ye shall keep 444 that ye may know that ,i am the ,lord that doth sanctify you7--8,the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he1 said unto ,moses1 ,i have a good gift in my treasures1 and ,sabbath is its name1 which ,i wish to present to ,israel4 ,go and bring to them the good tidings407#bjg7 ,the form again of the ,blessing over the ,sanctification cup7#bjh7--;a ceremony known long before the destruction of the ,second ,temple--runs3 8,blessed art ,thou1 ,o ,lord our ,god1 who hast sanctified us by ,thy commandments1 and hast taken pleasure in us1 and in love and grace hast given us ,thy holy ,sabbath as an inheritance40 ,all these ,rabbis evidently regarded the ,sabbath as a gift from heaven1 an expression of the infinite mercy and grace of ,god which ,he manifested to ,his beloved children4 ,and the gift was1 as already said1 a good gift4 ,thus the ,rabbis paraphrase the words in the ,scripture 8,see1 for that the ,lord hath given you the ,sabbath0 7,exod4 xvi4 #bi73 ,god said unto ,israel behold the gem ,i gave you1 ,my children ,i gave you the ,sabbath for your good4 ,sanctify or honour the ,sabbath by choice meals1 beautiful garments2 delight your soul with pleasure and ,i will reward you 7for this very pleasure72 as it is said3 8,and if thou wilt call the ,sabbath a delight and the holy of the ,lord honourable 7that is honouring the ,sabbath in this way7 444 then shalt thou delight thyself in the ,lord0 7,is4 lviii4 #ac1 #ad747bji7 ,the delight of the ,sabbath was keenly felt4 ,israel fell in love with the ,sabbath1 and in the hyperbolic language of the ,agadah the ,sabbath is personified as the 8,bride of ,israel10 whilst others called it 8,queen ,sabbath107#baj7 and they are actually jealous of a certain class of semi proselytes who1 as it seems1 were willing to observe the ,sabbath1 but declined to submit to the covenant of ,abraham4 ,the ,gentile ,sabbath keepers--who1 like all the nations of the world1 envy ,israel their ,sabbath--the ,rabbis considered as shameless intruders deserving punishment47#baa7 ,no1 it was ,israel's own ,queen or ,bride ,sabbath whose appearance in all her heavenly glory they were impatiently awaiting4 ,thus we are told of ,r4 ,judah b4 ,ilai that when the eve of the ,sabbath came 8he made his ablutions1 wrapped himself up in his white linen with fringed borders looking like an angel of the ,lord of ,hosts10 thus prepared for the solemn reception of ,queen ,sabbath4 ,another ,rabbi used to put on his best clothes1 and arise and invite the ,sabbath with the words3 8,come in ,bride1 come in407#bab7 ,what the ,bride brought was peace and bliss4 ,nay1 man is provided with a super soul for the ,sabbath1 enabling him to bear both the spiritual and the material delights of the day with dignity and solemnity47#bac7 ,the very light 7or expression7 of man's face is different on ,sabbath1 testifying to his inward peace and rest4 ,and when man has recited his prayers 7on the eve of the ,sabbath7 and thus borne testimony to ,god's creation of the world and to the glory of the ,sabbath1 there appear the two angels who accompany him1 lay their hands on his head and impart to him their blessing with the words3 8,and thine iniquity is taken away and thy sin purged0 7,is4 vi4 #g747bad7 ,for nothing is allowed to disturb the peace of the ,sabbath2 not even 8the sorrows of sin10 though the ,sabbath had such a solemn effect on people that even the worldly man would not utter an untruth on the ,day of the ,lord4 ,hence it was not only forbidden to pray on ,sabbath for one's own 7material7 needs1 but everything in the liturgy of a mournful character 7as for instance the confession of sin1 supplication for pardon7 was carefully avoided4 ,it was with difficulty1 as the ,rabbis say1 that they made an exception in the case of condoling with people who had suffered loss through the death of near relatives4 ,there is no room for morbid sentiment on ,sabbath1 for the blessing of the ,lord maketh rich1 and ,he addeth no sorrow with it 7,prov4 x4 #bb747bae7 ,the burden of the ,sabbath prayers is for peace1 rest1 sanctification1 and joy 7through salvation7 and praise of ,god for this ineffable bliss of the ,sabbath4 ,such was the ,sabbath of the old ,rabbis and the same spirit continued through all ages4 ,the ,sabbath was and is still celebrated by the people who did and do observe it1 in hundreds of hymns1 which would fill volumes1 as a day of rest and joy1 of pleasure and delight1 a day in which man enjoys some foretaste of the pure bliss and happiness which are stored up for the righteous in the world to come4 ,somebody1 either the learned professors1 or the millions of the ,jewish people1 must be under an illusion4 ,which it is ,i leave to the reader to decide4 ,it is also an illusion to speak of the burden which a scrupulous care to observe six hundred and thirteen commandments must have laid upon the ,jew4 ,even a superficial analysis will discover that in the time of ,christ many of these commandments were already obsolete 7as for instance those relating to the tabernacle and to the conquest of ,palestine71 while others concerned only certain classes1 as the priests1 the judges1 the soldiers1 the ,nazirites1 or the representatives of the community1 or even only one or two individuals among the whole population1 as the ,king and the ,high ,priest4 ,others1 again1 provided for contingencies which could occur only to a few1 as for instance the laws concerning divorce or levirate marriages1 whilst many--such as those concerning idolatry1 and incest1 and the sacrifice of children to ,moloch--could scarcely have been considered as a practical prohibition by the pre,christian ,jew2 just as little as we can speak of ,englishmen as lying under the burden of a law preventing them from burning widows or marrying their grandmothers1 though such acts would certainly be considered as crimes4 ,thus it will be found by a careful enumeration that barely a hundred laws remain which really concerned the life of the bulk of the people4 ,if we remember that even these include such laws as belief in the unity of ,god1 the necessity of loving and fearing ,him1 and of sanctifying ,his name1 of loving one's neighbour and the stranger1 of providing for the poor1 exhorting the sinner1 honouring one's parents and many more of a similar character1 it will hardly be said that the ceremonial side of the people's religion was not well balanced by a fair amount of spiritual and social elements4 ,besides1 it would seem that the line between the ceremonial and the spiritual is too often only arbitrarily drawn4 ,with many commandments it is rather a matter of opinion whether they should be relegated to the one category or the other4 ,thus1 the wearing of ,tephillin7#baf7 or phylacteries has1 on the one hand1 been continually condemned as a meaningless superstition1 and a pretext for formalism and hypocrisy4 ,but1 on the other hand1 ,maimonides1 who can in no way be suspected of superstition or mysticism1 described their importance in the following words3 8,great is the holiness of the ,tephillin2 for as long as they are on the arm and head of man he is humble and ,godfearing1 and feels no attraction for frivolity or idle things1 nor has he any evil thoughts1 but will turn his heart to the words of truth and righteousness40 ,the view which ,r4 ,johanan1 a ,palestinian teacher of the third century1 took of the fulfilment of the ,law1 will probably be found more rational than that of many a rationalist of today4 ,upon the basis of the last verse in ,hosea1 8,the ways of the ,lord are right1 and the just shall walk in them1 but the transgressors shall fall therein10 he explains that while one man1 for instance1 eats his paschal lamb with the purpose of doing the will of ,god who commanded it1 and thereby does an act of righteousness1 another thinks only of satisfying his appetite by the lamb1 so that his eating it 7by the very fact that he professes at the same time to perform a religious rite7 becomes a stumblingblock for him47#bag7 ,thus all the laws by virtue of their divine authority--and in this there was in the first century no difference of opinion between ,jews and ,christians--have their spiritual side1 and to neglect them implies1 at least from the individual's own point of view1 a moral offence4 ,the legalistic attitude may be summarily described as an attempt to live in accordance with the will of ,god1 caring less for what ,god is than for what ,he wants us to be4 ,but1 nevertheless1 on the whole this life never degenerated into religious formalism4 ,apart from the fact that during the second temple there grew up laws1 and even beliefs1 which show a decided tendency towards progress and development1 there were also ceremonies which were popular with the masses1 and others which were neglected4 ,men were not1 therefore1 the mere soulless slaves of the ,law2 personal sympathies and dislikes also played a part in their religion4 ,nor were all the laws actually put upon the same level4 ,with a happy inconsistency men always spoke of heavier and slighter sins1 and by the latter--excepting1 perhaps1 the profanation of the ,sabbath--they mostly understood ceremonial transgressions4 ,the statement made by ,professor ,toy 7p4 #bdc71 on the authority of ,james 7ii4 #aj71 that 8the principle was established that he who offended in one point was guilty of all10 is hardly correct2 for the passage seems rather to be laying down a principle1 or arguing that logically the law ought to be looked upon as a whole1 than stating a fact4 ,the fact was that people did not consider the whole law as of equal importance1 but made a difference between laws and laws1 and even spoke of certain commandments1 such as those of charity and kindness1 as outweighing all the rest of the ,torah4 ,it was in conformity with this spirit that in times of great persecution the leaders of the people had no compunction in reducing the whole ,law to the three prohibitions of idolatry1 of incest1 and of bloodshed4 ,only these three were considered of sufficient importance that men should rather become martyrs than transgress them4 ,these1 then1 are some of the illusions and misrepresentations which exist with regard to the ,law4 ,there are many others1 of which the complete exposure would require a book by itself4 ,meanwhile1 in the absence of such a book to balance and correct the innumerable volumes upon the other side1 ,professor ,toy has done the best he could with existing materials1 and produced a meritorious work deserving of wide recognition and approval4 ,x4 ,,the ,,hebrew ,,collection ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,museum ,the ,hebrew collection in the ,british ,museum forms one of the greatest centres of ,jewish thought4 ,it is only surpassed by the treasures which are contained in the ,bodleian ,library at ,oxford4 ,the fame of these magnificent collections has spread far and wide4 ,it has penetrated into the remotest countries1 and even the ,bachurim 7alumni7 of some obscure place in ,poland1 who otherwise neither care nor know anything about ,british civilisation1 have a dim notion of the nature of these mines of ,jewish learning4 ,all sorts of legends circulate amongst them about the 8millions0 of books which belong to the 8,queen of ,england40 ,they speak mysteriously of an autograph copy of the ,book of ,proverbs1 presented to the ,queen of ,sheba on the occasion of her visit to ,jerusalem1 and brought by the ,english troops as a trophy from their visit to ,abyssinia1 which is still ruled by the descendants of that famous lady4 ,they also talk of a copy of the ,talmud of ,jerusalem which once belonged to ,titus1 afterwards to a ,pope1 was presented by the latter to a ,russian ,czar1 and taken away from him by the ,english in the ,crimean war2 of a manuscript of the book ,light is ,sown17#bah7 which is so large that no shelf can hold it1 and which therefore hangs on iron chains4 ,how they long to have a glance at these precious things6 ,would not a man get wiser only by looking at the autograph of the wisest of men8 ,but even the students of ,germany and ,austria1 who are inaccessible to such fables1 and by the aid of ,zedner's1 ,steinschneider's1 and ,neubauer's catalogues have a fair notion of our libraries1 cherish the belief that they would gain in scholarship and wisdom by examining these grand collections4 ,how often have ,i been asked by ,jewish students abroad3 8,have you really been to the ,british ,museum8 ,have you really seen this or that rare book or manuscript8 ,had you not great difficulties in seeing them8 ,is not the place where these heaps of jewels are treasured up always crowded by students and visitors80 ,yet how little does our ,english public know of these wonderful things6 ,we are fairly interested in ,grco,roman art4 ,we betray much curiosity about the different ,egyptian dynasties4 ,we look with admiration at the cuneiform inscriptions in the ,nimrod room4 ,we do not even grudge a glance at the abominable idols of the savage tribes4 ,but as to the productions of ,jewish genius1--well1 it is best to quote here the words of ,heine1 who ridiculed this indifference to everything that is ,jewish1 in the following lines3-- ,alte ,mumien1 ausgestopfte1 ,pharaonen von gypten1 ,merowinger ,schattenkn'ge1 ,ungepuderte ,perticken1 ,auch die ,zopfmonarchen ,china's ,porzellanpagodenkaiser-- ,alle lernen sie answendig1 ,kluge ,mdchen1 aber1 ,himmel6 ,fragt man sie nach grossen ,namen1 ,aus dem grossen ,goldzeitalter ,der arabischalthispanisch ,jdischen ,poetenschule1 ,fragt man nach dem ,dreigestirn ,nach ,jehuda ben ,halevy1 ,nach dem ,salomon ,gabirol ,und dem ,moses ,iben ,esra4 ,fragt man nach dergleichen ,namen1 ,dann mit grossen ,augen schaun ,uns die ,kleinen an--alsdann ,stehn am ,berge die ,ochsinnen4 ,now ,heine goes on to advise his beloved one to study the ,hebrew language4 ,it would be indeed the best remedy against this indifference4 ,but this is so radical a cure that one cannot hope that it will be made use of by many4 ,a few remarks in ,english1 trying to give some notion of the ,hebrew collection in the ,british ,museum1 may1 therefore1 not be considered altogether superfluous4 ,the ,hebrew collection in the ,museum may be divided into two sections3 ,printed ,books1 and ,manuscripts4 ,the number of the printed books amounted in the year #ahfg1 in which ,zedner concluded his catalogue1 to #aj1ajj volumes4 ,within the last twentyeight years about #ejjj more have been added4 ,this enormous collection has grown out of very small beginnings4 ,the ,british ,museum was first opened to the public in the year #agei4 ,amongst the #ejj1jjj volumes which it possessed at that time only a single ,jewish work1 the editio princeps of the ,talmud 7,bomberg1 ,venice1 #aebjaebc7 was to be found on its shelves4 ,according to an article by ,zedner in the ,hebrische ,bibliographie 7ii4 p4 #hh71 this copy of the ,talmud once belonged to ,henry ,,viii4 ,but very soon the ,museum was enriched by a small collection of ,hebrew books1 presented to it by ,mr4 ,solomon da ,costa1 surnamed ,athias1 who had emigrated to ,england from ,holland4 ,the translation of the ,hebrew letter with which the donor accompanied his present to the ,trustees of the ,museum was first published in the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 ,february #agfj1 and was afterwards republished by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,l4 ,green1 in an article in the ,jewish ,chronicle1 #ahei4 ,i shall only reproduce here the passage relating to the history of this collection4 ,after expressing his gratitude to the 8crowning city1 the city of ,london1 in which he dwelt for fiftyfour years in ease and quietness and safety10 and telling us that he bequeaths these books to the ,british nation as a token of his gratitude1 ,da ,costa proceeds to say that they are #ahj books1 which had been gathered and bound for ,charles ,,ii41 with valuable bindings and marked with the king's own cipher4 ,these books were intended as a present from the ,london ,jewish community to ,charles for certain privileges which he had bestowed on them4 ,the sudden death of the king seems to have frustrated the intention of the first donors4 ,the books were scattered1 and ,da ,costa had to collect them again4 ,small as this collection is1 it is most valuable on account of its including many early editions of ,venice1 ,constantinople1 ,naples1 etc4 ,the original letter of ,da ,costa1 with a full list of the #ahj books1 is preserved in a ,,ms4 in the ,british ,museum 7,additional1 #dgajaa74 ,of still greater importance is the ,michaelis collection4 ,it consists of #ddbj volumes1 and was bought by the ,trustees of the ,museum in #ahdh4 ,other successive acquisitions1 especially the purchase of a large number of printed books from the ,almanzi collection1 brought the ,museum into possession of one of the most complete and one of the largest ,hebrew libraries in the world4 ,after the foregoing remarks on the quantity of this collection1 ,i shall now attempt to give some idea of its quality4 ,the following table1 taken from the ,preface of ,zedner's ,catalogue1 shows its manifold contents3-- #a4 ,bibles1 #abfj #b4 ,commentaries on the ,bible1 #eaj #c4 ,talmud1 #gcj #d4 ,commentaries on the ,talmud1 #gjj #e4 ,codes of ,law1 #abfj #f4 ,decisions1 #ebj #g4 ,midrash1 #afj #h4 ,cabbalah1 #dfj #i4 ,sermons1 #djj #aj4 ,liturgies1 #abjj #aa4 ,divine ,philosophy1 #fij #ab4 ,scientific works1 #ahj #ac4 ,grammars1 ,dictionaries1 #dej #ad4 ,history1 ,geography1 #cbj #ae4 ,poetry1 ,criticism1 #ggj ,the reader can see that almost every branch of human thought1 religious and secular1 is amply represented in this collection4 ,looking at this table from a geographical point of view1 we may perhaps classify the authors in the following way3--,france and ,germany in the ,middle ,ages1 ,poland and the ,east in modern times1 are represented by the fourth1 fifth1 and sixth classes4 ,the ,rabbis of ,spain and ,italy would probably excel in the last five classes4 ,in the productions of classes eight and nine all the beforementioned countries would have an equal share4 ,english ,judaism1 by reason of its large number of occasional prayers and wedding hymns 7,zedner1 pp4 #dgb1 #feb71 may perhaps be represented in the last class 7criticism excluded74 ,we in ,england are a pious1 devotional people1 and leave the thinking to others4 ,but what is still more welcome to the student is the fact that all these branches of ,jewish learning are represented in the ,british ,museum by the best editions4 ,it would be a rather tedious task to enumerate here all the early editions of which this collection can boast4 ,there is hardly any ,hebrew book of importance from the ,bible down to the ,code of ,r4 ,joseph ,caro of which the ,museum does not possess the first printed edition4 ,there are also many books and editions in the ,museum of which no second copy is known to be in existence4 ,an enumeration of these rare books and editions would require long lists1 the perusal of which would be rather trying4 ,but ,i shall say a few words to show the importance of such early editions for the student4 ,they possess1 first1 the advantage of being free from the misprints which crept in with every fresh republication4 ,the art of editing books in a correct and scientific way is of a very recent date4 ,and even ,hebrew literature does not find that support from the public which would enable scholars to edit ,jewish books in such a way as ,roman and ,greek classics are prepared by ,oxford and ,cambridge students4 ,a new edition of a ,hebrew book meant therefore an addition of new mistakes and misprints4 ,and it is only by examining the editiones principes that the scholar finds his way out of these perplexities4 ,another advantage is the fact that these early editions escaped the hand of the censor1 whose office was not introduced till a comparatively late date4 ,the same advantage is also possessed by the ,hebrew books published at ,constantinople1 ,salonica1 and other ,mohammedan cities4 ,only ,christian countries indulged in the barbarous pleasure of burning and disfiguring ,jewish books4 ,it is one of the most touching points in the life of ,r4 ,david ,oppenheim1 of ,prague1 who spent all his life and fortune in collecting ,hebrew works1 and whose collection now forms one of the greatest ornaments of the ,bodleian ,library1 that he was not allowed by the censor to enjoy the use of his treasures4 ,he had to put them under the protection of ,lipman ,cohen1 his fatherinlaw in ,hanover1 many hundreds of miles from his own home4 ,with the exception of the ,bible hardly any ,jewish books escaped mutilation4 ,in certain ,christian countries some books were not allowed to be published at all2 of others1 again1 whole chapters had to be omitted1 while of others many passages had to be expunged4 ,the words ,roman1 ,greek1 ,gentile1 were strictly forbidden1 and had to be changed into ,turks1 ,arabs1 ,samaritans1 or worshippers of the stars and planets4 ,one can imagine what confusion such stupid alterations caused4 ,fancy what blunders would have been committed in history if the old chroniclers had been compelled to change the ,pope into the ,grand ,turk or the ,shah of ,persia1 the ,christian rulers into as many califs and pashas1 or ,rome and ,athens into ,pekin and ,mecca6 ,it may perhaps be interesting to learn that ,jews sometimes imitated their bitter enemies in this work of mutilation4 ,thus in the later editions of the ,book of ,genealogies by ,abraham ,zacuto17#bai7 a passage was left out reproducing the evidence given by the widow of ,moses de ,leon to the effect that the cabbalistic work1 the ,zohar1 was a forgery manufactured by her poor dear husband4 ,another omission of this kind is to be found in the ,code of ,r4 ,joseph ,caro1 mentioned above4 ,here the earliest editions declare1 in the heading of section #fje1 8a certain religious usage0 to be 8a custom of folly40 ,in the republications1 the last three words were left out4 ,from such nonsensical omissions and changes only the earliest editions1 which are abundant in the ,museum1 were exempt4 ,a remarkable feature about the books of this ,hebrew collection also is that many of them are provided in the margin with manuscript notes by their former possessors4 ,these often happen to bear very great names in literature4 ,i shall only mention here ,r4 ,jacob ,emden1 ,almanzi1 ,michael1 ,gerundi1 and ,heidenheim4 ,of the works written by ,r4 ,jacob ,emden1 the ,museum possesses an almost complete author's copy with abundant corrections1 notes1 and emendations by the author himself4 ,his works are still very popular among ,polish and ,russian ,jews1 especially his ,prayer ,book1 and his ,responses4 ,it would be advisable for publishers in these countries to avail themselves of this copy on the occasion of a new edition4 ,of ,christian scholars ,i should name here ,isaac ,casaubon4 ,a rather amusing mistake occurs in ,ben,jacob's ,treasure of ,books in connection with this name4 ,among the many valuable copies of ,kimchi's grammatical work ,perfection17#bbj7 possessed by the ,museum1 there is included one which belonged to ,casaubon1 and is full of notes by him4 ,the author of the ,treasure speaks of a ,perfection with notes by ,rabbi ,yitzchak ,kasuban4 ,i was at first at a loss to guess who that ,rabbi ,casaubon might be4 ,when examining ,zedner ,i found it was no other than the famous ,christian scholar1 ,isaac ,casaubon4 ,it is not known that ,casaubon's ambition lay in this direction4 ,but when ,philo was regarded as a ,father of the ,church1 ,ben ,gabirol quoted for many centuries as a ,mohammedan philosopher1 why should not ,casaubon obtain for once the dignity of a ,rabbi8 ,after having given the reader some notion of the collection of printed works1 ,i should like now to invite him to accompany me through the ,manuscript ,department of the ,museum4 ,but ,i am afraid that ,i shall make a bad guide here2 for the ,museum is still without a descriptive catalogue of the ,hebrew manuscripts1 which is the only means of enabling the student to obtain a general view of the number and nature of these works4 ,the manuscript catalogue of ,dukes goes only as far as #ahef4 ,it was1 as we shall soon see1 just after this time that the ,museum made its largest and1 to a certain degree also1 its most valuable acquisitions in ,hebrew manuscripts4 ,the following remarks must1 therefore1 not be taken as the result of a systematic study of this collection1 which would be quite impossible without the aid of a catalogue4 ,they rest partly on the descriptions given of a certain number of manuscripts in the catalogue by ,dukes1 but for the greater part on occasional glances at this or that ,,ms4 ,as to the history of the collection1 it has grown out of small beginnings just as that of printed books4 ,the collection of ,dr4 ,sloane1 which laid the foundation of the ,museum ,library1 contained only nine ,hebrew ,,mss4 ,later acquisitions1 as the ,harleian collection1 the ,cottonian collection1 the ,royal collection1 and many other smaller collections marked as ,additional up to #ahed1 increased the number of the ,hebrew manuscripts to #bcb4 ,of much more importance was the ,almanzi collection1 bought by the trustees of the ,museum in #ahfe1 and consisting of #cce ,,mss4 ,of succeeding acquisitions ,i shall mention here only the ,yemen ,,mss41 which were brought to this country by the famous ,shapira4 ,the number of ,hebrew ,,mss4 at the present day is said to exceed one thousand4 ,but we must not forget that many ,,mss4 contain more than one work2 in some cases even three or four1 so that the number of ,hebrew works is far greater still4 ,i shall now speak of the nature and importance of these ,,mss4 ,as to their contents they may be easily grouped under the following headings3 ,biblical ,,mss41 ,commentaries 7to the ,bible7 and ,super,commentaries1 parts of the ,talmud and their ,commentaries1 ,theology1 ,philosophy and ,ethics1 ,massorah1 ,grammar and ,lexicography1 ,cabbalah1 ,poetry1 ,mathematics1 ,astronomy1 ,astrology and ,magic1 ,historical and ,polemical ,literature1 etc4 ,all these branches of theological and secular learning and even of human folly are fairly represented in the collection of ,hebrew ,,mss4 in the ,museum1 though often only by a part or a fragment of a work4 ,thus the ,babylonian ,talmud is to be found only in two ,,mss4 7,harl4 #eejh and ,add4 #be1gag7 both of them including #aa ,tractates1 hardly a third part of the whole work4 ,indeed poor 8,rabbinus ,talmud0 had to go to the auto de f on so many occasions that one cannot wonder if only disjointed limbs are to be found of him in libraries4 ,the only complete ,,ms4 copy which escaped this vandalism is that in the ,royal ,library in ,munich1 from which ,mr4 ,rabbinowicz has edited his monumental work1 ,variae ,lectiones of the ,talmud4 ,all other libraries1 ,oxford included1 have to be satisfied with fragments4 ,still worse1 as it is seen1 fared the ,jerusalem ,talmud1 and excepting the wellknown copy in ,leyden from which the ,venice edition was prepared1 not even fragments of this ,talmud are to be found in the majority of libraries4 ,to my knowledge it is only the ,british ,museum which can boast of the ,jerusalem ,talmud in ,,ms4 extending over ,order of ,seeds and one tractate of ,order of ,festivals7#bba7 7,or4 #babbbd7 with commentaries of ,r4 ,solomon ,syrillo1 the first few pages of which were edited by ,dr4 ,lehmann of ,mayence4 ,the ,museum also possesses a great part of the ,tosephta extending over #ad ,tractates 7,add4 #bg1bif74 ,of ,midrashim we find in the ,museum two excellent manuscripts of the ,genesis ,rabbah1 one of the ,leviticus ,rabbah1 and one of the ,siphra and the ,siphr 7,add4 #bg1afi and #af1djf71 besides two copies of the ,midrash ,haggadol and other ,aagadic collections brought from ,yemen4 ,the ,midrash by ,machir b4 ,abba ,mari to the minor prophets included in the ,harleian collection 7#egjd7 is unique4 ,of ,liturgies1 besides a great number of ,,mss4 representing the most peculiar rites1 ,i shall mention the ,machzor7#bbb7 ,vitri 7,add4 #bg1bjja7 composed by the disciples of ,r4 ,solomon b4 ,isaac1 and forming in itself almost a small library4 ,for1 apart from the prayers for festivals and week days which gave it its title1 it includes1 besides the ,sayings of the ,fathers with a large commentary1 three of the ,minor ,tractates of the ,talmud1 many responses by ,german and ,french ,rabbis1 and a whole series of religious hymns by ,german and ,spanish authors1 and many other literary pieces4 ,cabbalah is represented by various valuable writings of the pre ,zoharistic time 7see for instance ,add4 #ae1bii7 and the works of ,r4 ,moses de ,leon and ,r4 ,abraham ,abulafia4 ,of ,poetry1 ,i shall point here to the ,tarshish of ,r4 ,moses ,ibn ,ezra1 the ,makames by ,judah ,al ,charisi 7,add4 #bg1abb71 and the ,divan of ,r4 ,abraham of ,bedres 7,add4 #bg1ahh74 ,of works relating to grammar and lexicography1 ,i may refer to a ,codex 7,add4 #bg1bad7 which contains the lexicon of ,r4 ,menahem ben ,saruk1 which is considered as the oldest ,hebrew ,,ms4 in the ,museum1 dating from the year #ajia4 ,of historical works1 ,i mention the chronicle of ,r4 ,joseph the ,priest 7,add4 #bg1abb7 and the letter of ,r4 ,sherira ,gaon 7,arundel #ea71 the oldest existing copy of this work 7#aahi71 which was edited by ,dr4 ,neubauer in his ,medival ,jewish ,chronicles4 ,these examples will suffice to show the significance of the ,,mss4 collection of this ,library4 ,and the student may rest assured that in whatever branch of ,jewish thought he is interested1 he will always find in the ,museum some ,hebrew manuscript useful for his purpose4 ,i ought now to say a few words as to the value of this collection of manuscripts4 ,now1 if the work contained in a ,,ms4 has never been edited1 as for instance the ,machzor ,vitri7#bbc7 and so many others1 its value is established by the mere fact of its existence4 ,for those who published ,,mss4 were not always guided by the best literary motives4 ,and while they published and republished many books of which one edition would have been more than enough1 many other works of the greatest importance for ,jewish literature and history remained in manuscript4 ,as an instance1 it will suffice to mention here the ,zohar1 which has passed through twentyfour editions since the sixteenth century1 whilst the earliest ,jewish ,midrash1 the ,pessikta de ,rab ,kahana1 had to linger in the libraries till the year #ahfh1 when it was edited by ,mr4 ,s4 ,buber4 ,thus there are still many pearls of ,jewish literature which exist only in ,,ms4 ,likewise most publishers were careless in their choice of the manuscript from which our editions have been prepared4 ,almost the whole of ,jewish literature will have to be re edited before a scientific study of it will be possible4 ,but such critical editions can only be obtained by the aid of the ,,mss4 not yet made use of1 in which better readings are to be found4 ,from this fact even those ,,mss4 the contents of which have been several times reprinted1 as for instance the ,,mss4 of the ,midrash ,rabbah1 gain the greatest literary importance4 ,and the more ,,mss4 the editor of a work has at his disposal1 the more certain is he of being able to furnish us with a good text4 ,but even when the whole of ,jewish literature lies before the student in the best of texts1 there will still remain a great charm about manuscripts4 ,printed books1 like the great mass of the modern society for which they are prepared1 are devoid of any originality4 ,they interest us only as classes1 and it is very seldom that they have a story of their own to tell4 ,it is quite different with manuscripts1 where the fact of their having been produced by a living being invests them with a certain kind of individuality4 ,this is specially the case with ,hebrew ,,mss41 which were not copied by men shut up in cloisters1 but by sociable people living in the world and sharing its joys and sorrows4 ,even women were employed in this art1 and ,i remember to have read in some ,,ms4 or catalogue a postscript by the lady copyist1 which1 if ,i remember rightly1 ran as follows3 8,i beseech the reader not to judge me very harshly when he finds that mistakes have crept into this work2 for when ,i was engaged in copying it ,god blessed me with a son1 and thus ,i could not attend to my business properly40 ,to be sure1 some of these copyists were curious folk4 ,their mind as well as that of the world around them must have been of a peculiar constitution hardly conceivable to us4 ,take1 for example1 ,benjamin1 the copyist of a certain ,machzor in the ,museum 7,add4 #aa1fci74 ,this ,machzor was written in times of bitter persecution4 ,the copyist1 who was himself a learned man1 alludes in one place to the sufferings which the ,jews in a certain ,french town had to undergo in the year #abgf4 ,on one of them1 the martyr ,r4 ,samson1 ,benjamin the copyist composed a lamentation written in a most mournful strain4 ,but this lamentation is followed by a winesong1 one of the jolliest and wildest parodies for the feast of ,purim4 ,speaking of this ,machzor ,i should like to remark that it forms one of the greatest ornaments of the ,museum4 ,besides including the whole of the ,pentateuch1 the abovementioned ,tarshish by ,r4 ,moses ,ibn ,ezra1 and many other smaller literary pieces which would require a small volume to describe them properly1 this ,,ms4 is most richly illuminated1 and contains very many illustrations4 ,the subjects of these illustrations are biblical1 sometimes also apocryphal1 such as--,adam and ,eve in ,paradise1 ,noah in the ,ark1 ,abraham meeting the angels1 ,sarah behind the door listening to the conversation of her husband with his guests1 ,moses with the rod in his hands dividing the ,red ,sea1 ,samson riding on the back of a lion1 ,solomon on his throne1 ,daniel in the lion's den1 the king ,ahasuerus holding out the golden sceptre to ,esther1 ,judith addressing ,holofernes1 the ,leviathan1 the mythical bird ,bar ,yochni1 and many other similar subjects4 ,in passing ,i recommend these illustrations and illuminations to the attention of the artist as the most worthy examples of ,jewish ecclesiastical art1--if there is such a thing as a special ,jewish art4 ,the artist will find the ,museum best suited for this purpose1 its collection being considered as the richest of the kind4 ,besides this ,machzor ,i must also allude to the illuminated ,bible 7,or4 #bbbfbh7 written in ,lisbon for ,r4 ,judah ,alchakin--it is said to be one of the finest specimens of such works--and the illuminated ,mishneh ,torah of ,maimonides1 executed for ,r4 ,joseph of the famous ,yachya family1 also thought to be most artistically done4 ,the liturgies for the ,passover ,eve service will also offer to the artist a rich harvest1 especially ,codex1 ,add4 #bg1baj1 which the wealthy ,lady ,rosa ,galico presented to her soninlaw on his weddingday1 and ,codex1 ,add4 #ad1gfb1 even the binding of which is considered as an artistic curiosity4 ,leaving now these marvels to the appreciation of the artist1 the greatest wonder which suggests itself to us is how the ,jews could maintain such a cultured taste in such unhappy times1 and get the means of satisfying it4 ,these reflections about the owners present themselves the more strongly to our mind when we meet with one of those old ,jewish prayerbooks1 which in many cases formed the whole religious and literary treasure of the family4 ,in their flyleaves1 in which the births and deaths of successive generations are very often registered1 the spiritus familiaris seems to be still haunting the pages4 ,when you turn them over and see the service for ,passover ,eve1 are you not bound to think of the anxiety with which these poor creatures engaged in this ceremony lest they might be attacked suddenly by a fanatic mob8 must you not ask how they could bear life under such circumstances8 ,and when you turn a few more pages and arrive at the prayers read for the dead1 must you not ask how did they die8 ,were they perhaps burnt alive ad majorem ,dei gloriam1 or torn to pieces by a 8saintly mob08 ,take again the illuminated copies of the ,bible and the ,mishneh ,torah1 both of which were finished only a few years before the great expulsion of the ,jews from ,spain and ,portugal1 times when the earth already 8burnt under their feet1 and the heaven was also very unkind to them40 ,and nevertheless ,jews were still1 as these ,,mss4 show us1 cultivating science and art4 ,another instance of such a devotion to science in spite of the unfavourable times may be seen from a colophon to ,codex ,or4 #ci4 ,it contains the book ,nissim1 a philosophical treatise on the fundamental teachings of ,judaism1 together with a philosophical commentary on the ,pentateuch by ,r4 ,nissim of ,marseilles1 a contemporary of ,r4 ,solomon ben ,adereth in the thirteenth century4 ,the ,museum copy was written by ,r4 ,jacob1 the son of ,david1 who also added some annotations to the book4 ,at the end he says3 8,i have copied this book ,nissim for my own use1 that ,i may study in it1 ,i and my children and my grandchildren4444 ,i have finished it today1 ,sunday1 the #bhth of ,ab1 #eccc 7#aegc71 at ,venice1 in the year of the expulsion which befell us on account of our sins40 ,now1 only observe this poor ,r4 ,jacob1 who has to go through all these horrors1 yet is still occupied in copying ,,mss4 for his own pleasure1 and in meditating on the most complicated problems of philosophy and religion4 ,but it is not always stories of this heroic nature that the ,,mss4 tell us4 ,they betray also very much of the instability of human affairs and their weakness4 ,you find in many copies the words that they must not 8be sold or given in mortgage40 ,but scarcely a generation has passed away1 and they are already in the possession of a new owner1 who writes the same injunction to be broken again by his children in their turn4 ,in ,codex #bg1abb1 we find commendatory letters for a worthy poor man1 who is so unhappy as to have two grownup daughters1 and not to have the means of supplying them with marriage portions4 ,indeed1 he must have been very poor1 not possessing even a book in his house1 or else his troubles could not have been so great4 ,for in ,codex ,harl4 #egjb1 we find the owner saying3 8,to eternal memory that ,i have acquired this ,third ,book of ,avicena from the hands of my fatherinlaw1 ,r4 ,jekuthiel1 as a part of my dowry40 ,as a sign of human weakness ,i give the following two instances4 ,there lies before me a cabbalistic ,codex 7,add4 #bg1aii71 which acquired some notoriety from the fact of its having been copied by the famous grammarian1 ,r4 ,elijah ,levita1 for his pupil ,cardinal ,aegidius4 ,at the end of this ,,ms4 we read3 8,i 7,levita7 have finished 7the copying of7 this book on ,wednesday1 the day of ,hoshana ,rabba17#bbd7 #ebgg 7#aeaf71 on which day ,i have seen my head in the shadow of the moon4 ,praised be ,god 7for it71 for now ,i am sure not to die in the following year40 ,these words relate to a wellknown superstition1 according to which1 when a man is going to die in the course of the next year his shadow disappears from him on the preceding ,hoshana ,rabba4 ,but is it not humiliating to see that the great ,levita1 who was superior to many prejudices of his time1 and taught ,christians ,hebrew1 and who denied the antiquity of the vowels in the ,bible1 which was considered by the great majority of his contemporaries as a mortal heresy--is it not humiliating to see this enlightened man trembling for his life on this night1 and anxiously observing his shadow8 ,another ,codex lies before me 7,add4 #ag1jec71 containing the ,novell to three tractates of the ,talmud4 ,its owner must accordingly have been a learned man4 ,but in the flyleaf of this ,,ms4 we read the following words3 8,memorandum--,thursday1 the #beth of ,sivan1 #ebie 7#aece71 ,i have taken an oath in the presence of ,r4 ,david ,ibn ,shushan and ,r4 ,moses de ,castro1 etc41 not to play 7cards7 any more40 ,i might perhaps suggest on this occasion that in our days when all sorts of ,judaisms are circulating1 a cooking ,judaism1 a racing ,judaism1 a muscular ,judaism1 and so many ,judaisms more--it would be interesting to take up also the subject of playing ,judaism1 and to write its history4 ,in conclusion ,i shall mention the colophon to ,codex ,harl4 #egac1 which may have some interest for the ,english reader4 ,it runs3 8,i have written it in honour of the noble and pious1 etc41 ,humphrey ,wanley1 the noble ,librarian of my ,lord ,treasurer4 ,may his glory be increased4 ,in the year #edgd 7#agad7 in the holy community of ,london1 under the reign of the noble and happy ,queen ,anne4 ,may the ,lord increase her splendour and glory40 ,the signature of the copyist is 8,aaron the son of ,moses1 born in the city of ,navaschadok in ,poland40 ,by the way1 we learn from this signature that the immigration of ,polish ,jews into this country had already begun in the time of ,queen ,anne1 and perhaps still earlier4 ,thus everything in a ,,ms41 the arrangement of the matter1 the remarks of the owners1 the signature of the copyist1 sets the reader thinking1 and contributes many a sidelight to the history of the ,jews4 ,,xi4 ,,titles ,,of ,,jewish ,,books ,it is now more than half a century since ,isaac ,reggio in his edition of ,elijah ,delmedigo's ,examination of ,religion1 made the remark that this book adds to its other merits that of bearing a title corresponding to its contents1--a merit that is very rare in ,jewish books4 ,reggio proceeds to give a few specimens confirming his assertion1 and concludes his remarks with a eulogy on ,delmedigo1 who in this respect also had the courage to differ from his contemporaries4 ,zunz also once wrote an article on titles of books4 ,but this article unfortunately appeared in some ,german periodical which the ,british ,museum does not possess1 and ,i could not even succeed in ascertaining whether ,zunz treats at all of titles of ,hebrew books1 nor am ,i aware that the subject has been taken up by any other scholar1 ,isaac ,d',israeli's few notes on the subject in his ,curiosities of ,literature being scarcely worth mention4 ,it seems to me1 however1 interesting enough to deserve some illustration1 though ,i can by no means hope to be complete4 ,the titles of the books contained in the ,bible need not be discussed here2 information concerning them is to be found in every critical introduction to the ,old ,testament4 ,the ,rabbinical works dating from antiquity also offer little opportunity for reflection on their titles4 ,the ,talmud1 as a work1 has no title at all2 for ,talmud simply means 8teaching0 or 8study40 ,sometimes it is termed ,sha,s,s1 an abbreviation of ,shisha ,sedarim17#bbe7 meaning the ,six ,orders or divisions contained in the ,mishnah4 ,this last word means1 according to some authors1 8,repetition40 ,other ,tannaitic collections of laws or expositions of the ,scriptures are called 8the ,book0 7,siphra71 8the ,books0 7,siphr71 or 8,additions0 7,tosephta to the ,mishnah74 ,the word ,baraitha7#bbf7 means the external ,mishnah that enjoyed less authority than the ,mishnah of ,r4 ,judah the ,patriarch4 ,some approach to titles we find in the names given to the different tractates included in the ,mishnah1 as ,berachoth1 because it treats of ,benedictions1 ,peah7#bbg7 7,corner7 which contains the particulars concerning the law in ,lev4 xix4 and so forth4 ,of the few works quoted in the ,talmud it will suffice to mention the ,seder ,olam1 the ,order of the ,world1 the name of which is very suitable to the chronological contents of the book4 ,in general1 ,i may observe that as long as the law which prohibited the writing down of the ,oral teachings was in force1 there hardly existed ,jewish books4 ,but where there are no books there is also no need for titles4 ,the few titles1 however1 which can be proved to be historical are simple and to the point4 ,it is not till about the beginning of the ,middle ,ages1 when this prohibitive law had1 for reasons not to be explained here1 been abolished1 that we can speak of ,hebrew books4 ,but here also the ,titleconfusion begins4 ,in order that we may have some general view of the thousands of titles that are catalogued by the ,jewish bibliographers1 it will perhaps be well to arrange them under the following six classes3-- ,i4 ,simple titles1 that have no other object than that of indicating the subject matter of the book4 ,these are1 as we have just seen1 the only kind of titles known to antiquity4 ,the few books which the ,gaonim left us bear such simple titles as could have served as models to later generations4 ,among them may be mentioned the ,halachoth or collection of ,laws1 ,creeds and ,opinions1 by ,r4 ,saadiah ,gaon1 the ,book on ,buying and ,selling1 by ,r4 ,hai ,gaon1 containing the laws relating to commercial transactions4 ,it may be noticed that this last book is one of the best arranged in ,jewish literature1 and displays more systematising powers than even the ,code of ,maimonides4 ,the greatest part of the literary activity of the ,gaonim consists in their ,responsa1 in which they gave decisions on ritual questions1 or explanations of difficult passages in the ,talmud4 ,the titles borne by the various collections of those ,responsa belong to a period later than the author's4 ,the great majority of the books produced by the ,franco,german school may also be included in this class4 ,they are termed 8,commentaries10 8,additions0 or 8,glosses10 8,novell10 or 8,confirming ,proofs10 and similar modest titles which show both their relation to1 and dependence on1 another older authority4 ,the largest collection of ,midrashim we possess bears the simple title 8,bag407#bbh7 ,many of the ,responsa satisfy themselves with the words 8,questions to1 and ,answers by40 ,,ii4 ,titles taken from the first word with which the book begins1 or from the first word of the ,scriptural verse occurring first in the book4 ,this class is strongly represented by the ,midrashim4 ,thus the ,midrash to the ,song of ,songs is also quoted as the ,midrash ,chazitha17#bbi7 8,midrash1 ,seest thou0 7the first text with which this ,midrash deals being ,proverbs xxii4 #bh74 ,the ,midrash to the ,psalms is called ,midrash ,shocher ,tob17#bcj7 8,midrash1 ,he that diligently seeketh the good0 7,prov4 xi4 #cg74 ,the ,midrash containing the legendary story of the wars of the sons of ,jacob with the ,canaanites is quoted as ,midrash ,v'yisseu17#bca7 8,midrash1 ,and they journeyed10 as the story begins with the verse from ,gen4 xxxv4 #e4 ,and this is the case with the titles of many other ,midrashim4 ,whether the work cited under the strange name of ,meat on ,coals did not begin with those words1 containing some law relating to the salting of meat1 ,i do not venture to decide4 ,under this class we may also arrange those books that are called after a phrase which is often used in the book1 e4g41 the ,midrash ,yelamdenu 7,he may teach us71 or the ,vehizhir1 8,and ,he commanded us10 almost every paragraph in these books beginning with the phrases mentioned47#bcb7 ,probably all the books belonging to this class received from the hands of their authors or compilers no titles at all4 ,the student who had to quote them gave them names after the phrase or word which first caught his eye4 ,in later centuries this class disappears almost entirely 7see1 however1 ,ben,jacob's ,treasure1 p4 #bja1 ,no4 #hbg74 ,,iii4 ,pompous titles4 ,the largest contributions to this class were made by the mystical writers4 ,books which profess to know what is going on in the heavens above and the earth beneath cannot possibly be satisfied with modest titles4 ,thus we have the 8,book of ,brightness0 7,zohar71 8the shining book0 7,bahir71 8the ,confidential ,shepherd0 7,moses747#bcc7 ,the books which the ,zohar quotes bear such titles as the ,book of ,adam1 the ,book of ,enoch4 ,the only excuse for the ,zohar is that the manufacturing of such books with pseudoepigraphical titles had already begun in antiquity4 ,it is not1 however1 till the ,gaonic period that a whole apocryphal literature suddenly emerges which perplexes the ,gaonim themselves4 ,no one is spared4 ,angels1 patriarchs1 and martyrs are called upon to lend their names to these books4 ,what one resents most is that history came within the range of the forger's activity4 ,there is1 for instance1 the ,josippon1 which professes to be written by ,josephus1 the wellknown ,jewish historian of the first century4 ,but in spite of all the care taken by the author to disguise himself in the garb of antiquity1 the ,josippon is a forgery of the ninth or tenth century4 ,of a similar kind is the ,book of ,jasher1 containing legendary stories relating to ,biblical personages4 ,it pretends to be identical with the ,book of ,jasher quoted in ,joshua x4 #ac and #b ,sam4 i4 #ah4 ,some sixty years ago a certain ,mr4 ,samuel of ,liverpool had the misfortune to make himself ridiculous by maintaining the pretensions of this book2 for1 indeed1 it does not require much knowledge of the ,agadic literature to see that the ,book of ,jasher is only a compilation of comparatively late ,midrashim4 ,,iv4 ,titles suggested by other ,titles4 ,as an instance of this we may take ,maimonides' great ,code of ,law1 which bears the title ,mishneh ,torah4 ,the importance of the book made it the object of study for hundreds of scholars1 who wrote their commentaries and glosses on it4 ,among the titles of the commentaries such ,titlegenealogies may be discovered as ,maggid ,mishneh1 ,mishneh ,lammelech2 which last word again suggested such titles as ,emek ha,melech1 ,shaar ha,melech1 and so on47#bcd7 ,the same process may be observed in other standard works1 the importance of which made them a subject of investigation and interpretation as the 8,prepared ,table10 one of the glosses to which is called ,mappah1 8,tablecloth10 whilst others provided it with the ,shewbread and with ,new ,fruit4 ,v4 ,euphemistic ,titles1 as 8,the ,tractate of ,joys10 treating of funeral ceremonies and kindred subjects4 ,it does not seem that this title was known to antiquity1 but it is certain that already the earlier authorities quoted it by this name4 8,the ,book of ,life0 7the ,german ,jewish title of which is ,alle ,dinim1 von ,freuden71 is the name of a very popular book containing the prayers to be read in the house of mourning as well as in the cemetery1 which is also called the ,house of ,life4 ,,vi4 ,titles taken from the ,bible1 or ,fancy ,titles4 ,this is the largest class of all1 though it was utterly unknown in antiquity4 ,it will be1 perhaps1 convenient to arrange this class of titles under the following subdivisions4 7a7 ,titles taken from the ,bible1 but also fulfilling the purpose of indicating the name of the author4 ,for instance1 8,seed of ,abraham0 7,ps4 cv4 #f71 is the title of nine different books1 the name of whose authors happened to be ,abraham2 8,and ,isaac entreated0 7,gen4 xxv4 #ba71 is by ,isaac ,satanow on the ,prayers2 8,then ,isaac sowed0 7ibid4 xxvi4 #ab71 edited by ,r4 ,isaac ,perles1 contains an index to the ,zohar4 8,jacob shall take root0 7,is4 xxvii4 #f7 is the name of a book on ,grammar and ,massorah by ,r4 ,jacob ,bassani4 ,r4 ,joseph of ,posen left two collections of sermons and commentaries on the ,pentateuch1 of which the one is called 8,and ,joseph nourished0 7,gen4 xlvii4 #ab71 the other 8,and ,joseph gathered0 7ibid4 #ad74 ,authors with the name of ,judah are represented among others by such titles as 8,and this of ,judah0 7,deut4 xxxiii4#g71 a treatise on the laws concerning the killing of animals2 or 8,judah shall go up0 7,judges i4 #b71 a pamphlet containing a collection of prayers to be said on a journey4 8,moses began0 7,deut4 i4 #e7 forms the title of three different books on various subjects1 the authors of which had the name ,moses4 8,moses shall rejoice10 a phrase occurring in the morning prayer for ,sabbaths1 is also the title of two books1 the authors of which were named ,moses4 ,the 8,rod of ,aaron0 enjoyed1 as it seems1 a goodly popularity2 there are four bearing this name1 not to speak of a fifth1 8,the ,rod of ,aaron brought forth buds0 7,exod4 xvii4 #bc71 which is the name of a collection of ,responsa by ,r4 ,aaron ben ,chayim4 ,but other ,rods also were fashionable2 there are1 besides the five ,rods of ,moses1 also ,rods of ,ephraim1 ,dan1 ,judah1 ,joseph1 ,naphtali1 and ,manasseh4 ,by authors of the name of ,david we find books with the title 8,and ,david said10 or a 8,prayer of ,david10 and other phrases occurring in the ,psalms relating to ,david2 whilst the 8,tower of ,david0 became the stronghold of other writers1 and the 8,shield of ,david0 protected as many as nine more4 ,the 8,chariot of ,solomon0 7,cant4 iii4 #i7 adorns the titlepages of five books by authors named ,solomon4 ,the ,caraite ,solomon ,troki was so fond of that title that he called his two polemical treatises 8,he made himself a chariot10 while ,r4 ,solomon of ,mir's collection of sermons has the title1 8,this ,bed which is ,solomon's0 7,cant4 iii4 #g74 ,as to family names1 there were not many authors in the enjoyment of that luxury 7especially among the ,german ,jews71 but we find them indicating the fact of their being ,priests or ,levites4 ,among such books are the collection of ,responsa1 by ,r4 ,raphael ,cohen1 which has the title 8,and the ,priest shall come again0 7,lev4 xiv4 #ci71 and the ,cabbalistic treatise by ,r4 ,abraham ,cohen1 of ,lask1 with the title 8,and the ,priest shall reckon unto him0 7,lev4 xxvii4 #ah74 ,probably the author deals with numbers4 ,r4 ,hirsch ,horwitz1 the ,levite1 called his ,novell to the ,talmud 8,the ,camp of ,levi40 ,the title 8,the ,service of the ,levite0 7with allusion to ,exodus xxxviii4 #ba7 is borne by five other books by authors who were ,levites4 ,and there may be found hundreds of books with titles suggesting the ,priestly or ,levitical descent of their authors4 ,most anxious is ,joseph ,ibn ,kaspi 7,joseph the ,silvern1 so called after his native place ,argentire1 in the south of ,france7 to provide most of his numerous books with some ,biblical titles combined with silver1 as a 8,bowl of ,silver0 7,numb4 vii4 #ac71 or 8,points of ,silver0 7,song of ,songs i4 #aa71 or 8,figures of ,silver0 7,prov4 xxv4 #aj71 and other similar phrases4 ,on the other hand ,azulai manages to indicate at least one of his three ,hebrew names1 ,chayim ,joseph ,david1 in most of his works1 of which the number exceeds seventy1 as ,chayim ,shaal17#bce7 8,he asked ,life0 7,ps4 xxi4 #d71 or 8,the knees of ,joseph0 7alluding to ,gen4 xlviii4 #ab71 and 8,truth unto ,david0 7,ps4 cxxxii4 #aa74 7b7 ,the ,tabernacle with its furniture was also a great favourite with many authors4 ,there are not only six tabernacles 7two on ,cabbalah1 two on grammar1 and two on ,talmudical subjects71 but also three 8,arks of the ,testimony10 two 8,altars of gold10 two 8,tables of ,shewbread10 four 8,candlesticks of the ,light10 two 8,sockets of ,silver10 and two 8,pillars of ,silver40 ,others again preferred the vestments of the priests as the 8,plate of ,judgment10 the 8,robe of the ,ephod10 the 8,mitre of ,aaron10 the 8,plate of ,gold10 the 8,bell and ,pomegranate10 8,wreathen ,chains10 and the 8,arches of ,gold40 ,many of these books were written by authors claiming to be priests4 7c7 ,but besides the canonical1 other costumes were also fashionable4 ,r4 ,mordecai ,yafeh composed ten books1 every one of them bearing the name of some garment or apparel1 as 8,apparel of ,royalty10 8,apparel of ,blue10 8,apparel of ,white10 and so the whole suit with which ,mordecai went out from the presence of the king 7,esther viii4 #ae74 ,these ten works range from codifications of the law and occasional sermons to philosophy1 astronomy1 and ,cabbalah4 ,by other writers we have three 8,coats of many colours0 7,gen4 xxxvii4 #d71 one 8,bridal ,attire10 and the 8,thread of ,scarlet0 is not missing4 7d7 ,the ingredients for incense as well as other articles used in the ,tabernacle or in the ,temple were also fancied by some authors1 and we have two books with the title of 8,principal ,spices10 two 8,pure ,myrrh10 three 8,arts of the ,apothecary10 one 8,oil of ,holy ,ointment10 five 8,meat ,offerings mingled or dry10 three or four 8,flour of the ,meat ,offering10 and also one 8,two ,young ,pigeons0 7,bene ,yonah7 by ,r4 ,jonah ,zandsopher4 ,but the appetite of the authors did not stop at these holy things4 ,it extended also to such lay articles as 8,spiced ,wine10 8,juice of ,pomegranate0 7,cant4 viii4 #b71 8,forests of ,honey10 the 8,book of the ,apple10 and 8,seven ,kinds of ,drink40 7e7 ,field and flock also suggested to ,hebrew writers as well as to ,mr4 ,ruskin such titles as 8,the ,fruit of the ,hand10 the 8,rose of ,sharon10 the 8,lily of the ,valleys10 or 8,the ,shepherds' ,tents10 and 8,in the ,green ,pastures0 7,ps4 xxiii4 #b74 ,the specimens given for every class may with very little trouble be doubled and redoubled4 ,but it is not my intention to reproduce here whole catalogues4 ,reggio thinks all such titles1 which do not correspond with the context of the book1 absurd and confusing4 ,he suggests that the ,jews followed in this respect the ,arabic writers4 ,there is no doubt that ,reggio is not altogether wrong in his complaint4 ,almost all the titles included in class vi41 as the reader might have observed1 never indicate to the student the subject of which the books treat4 ,how can one guess that the ,responsa1 the ,dance of ,mahanaim 7two companies71 is of a polemical nature against the tendencies of reform8 ,this list may be lengthened by hundreds of titles4 ,but even these incomprehensible titles are better than the ,chad ,gadyah ,lo ,israel 7,one ,kid ,no ,israel717#bcf7 the un,hebrew title of a pamphlet trying to prove the un,jewish origin of the wellknown folksong sung on ,passover ,eve4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it must not be overlooked that even this class has1 though not always1 something suggestive and even practical about it4 ,the 8,choice of ,pearls0 is undoubtedly more attractive than the prosaic 8,collection of ,proverbs and ,sayings10 which is what the book contains4 8,understanding of the ,seasons0 7#a ,chr4 xii4 #cb71 sounds also better than the simple 8,collection of ,sermons on different occasions40 8,the ,lips of those who ,sleep0 recommends itself as a very suggestive title for a catalogue1 especially when one thinks of the ,agadic explanation given to ,cant4 vii4 #aj1 according to which the study of the book of a departed author makes the lips of the dead man to speak4 ,such titles as 8,bunch of ,lilies0 for a collection of poems are still usual with us4 ,such a title as the 8,jealousy ,offering10 or the 8,law of ,jealousies10 in polemical literature is very appropriate for its subject4 ,r4 ,jacob ,emden1 who named one of his pamphlets 8,rod for the fool's back0 7,prov4 xxvi4 #c71 will be envied for his choice by many a controversialist even today4 ,wittily devised is the puntitle1 8,city of ,sihon0 for a mathematical book by ,r4 ,joseph ,tsarphathi1 alluding to ,numb4 xxi4 #bg1 8,for ,hesbon 7reckoning7 is the ,city of ,sihon40 ,other titles were probably intended more as mottoes than titles4 8,go forth and behold1 ye daughters of ,zion0 7,cant4 iii4 #aa71 is put in the title page of ,r4 ,jacob's ,german,jewish paraphrase of the ,pentateuch1 which was written chiefly for the use of ladies4 8,let another man praise thee and not thine own mouth1 a stranger and not thine own lips0 7,prov4 xxvii4 #b71 forms the title of a book extending over only one and a half page in quarto4 ,it contains letters by seven ,rabbis 7among them ,r4 ,liva of ,prague7 recommending the ,ascetic1 ,r4 ,abraham ,wangos1 who has a daughter to marry1 and wants also to make a pilgrimage to the ,holy ,land1 as deserving the support of his brethren4 ,there is also another objection to these titles4 ,it is that they seem sometimes not quite consonant with our notions of modesty4 ,thus we have 8,desirable and ,sweet0 on astronomy1 8,sweeter than ,honey0 or 8,he shall comfort us10 and many others of this kind4 ,but it must not be thought that we have a right to infer from the title to the author4 ,there is1 indeed1 an anecdote that three authors were rather too little careful about the choice of their titles1 namely ,maimonides in calling his ,code ,mishneh ,torah 7which is the traditional title of the ,book of ,deuteronomy71 ,r4 ,moses ,alshech in calling his homiletical commentaries ,torah of ,moses1 and ,r4 ,isaiah ,horwitz in calling his book ,shene ,luchoth ha,berith 7,the ,two ,tables of the ,covenant74 ,these authors1 as the story goes1 had for their punishment that their works are never quoted by the titles they gave to them1 the former two being usually cited as ,rambam or ,alshech1 whilst the last is more known by its abbreviated title of ,s,he,la7#bcg7 than by its full name4 ,i do not remember where ,i have read this story1 but ,i am quite sure that its pious author would have been more careful about repeating it had he known that this accusation against ,maimonides was a favourite topic with apostates1 who thought to hit ,judaism in the person of its representative ,maimonides4 ,but1 as ,r4 ,solomon ,duran in his polemical work remarks1 ,maimonides was too much of a truly great man to find any satisfaction in such petty vanity4 ,nor do ,i believe that even the character of lessknown authors can in any way be impugned by the seemingly conceited titles of their books2 just as on the other hand the humility of the author is not proved by calling his book 8,the ,offering of the ,poor10 or other modest titles4 ,the fancy title was in common use1 and was therefore a commonplace with no significance whatever4 ,the real disadvantage of such titles lies in the fact that1 as already pointed out1 they conceal from the student the contents of the book which he might otherwise consult in the course of his researches4 ,did these authors perhaps foresee that there would come a time in which indexknowledge would pass for deep scholarship8 and did they thus by using these obscure titles try to put a check on the dabblers who speak the more of a book the less they have read of its contents8 ,if this be the case we can only admire their foresight4 ,,xii4 ,,the ,,child ,,in ,,jewish ,,literature 8,i saw a ,jewish lady only yesterday with a child at her knee1 and from whose face towards the child there shone a sweetness so angelical that it seemed to form a sort of glory round both4 ,i protest ,i could have knelt before her1 too1 and adored in her the divine beneficence in endowing us with the maternal storg which began with our race and sanctifies the history of mankind40 ,these words1 which are taken from ,thackeray's ,pendennis1 may serve as a startingpoint for this paper4 ,the fact that the great student of man perceived this glory just round the head of a ,jewish lady rouses in me the hope that the small student of letters may1 with a little search1 be able to discover in the remains of our past many similar traces of this divine beneficence and sanctifying sentiment4 ,certainly the glimpses which we shall catch from the faded leaves of ancient volumes1 dating from bygone times1 will not be so bright as those which the novelist was so fortunate as to catch from the face of a lady whom he saw but the previous day4 ,the mothers and fathers1 about whom ,i am going to write in this essay1 have gone long ago1 and the objects of their anxiety and troubles have also long ago vanished4 ,but what the subject will lose in brightness1 it may perhaps gain in reality and intensity4 ,a few moments of enraptured devotion do not make up the saint4 ,it is a whole series of feelings and sentiments betrayed on different occasions1 expressed in different ways1 a whole life of sore troubles1 of bitter disappointments1 but also moments of most elevated joys and real happiness4 ,and surely these manifestations of the divine beneficence1 which appear in their brightest glory in the literature of every nation when dealing with the child1 shine strongest in the literature of the ,jewish nation4 ,in it1 to possess a child was always considered as the greatest blessing ,god could bestow on man1 and to miss it as the greatest curse4 ,the patriarch ,abraham1 with whom ,israel enters into history1 complains--8,oh ,lord1 what wilt ,thou give me1 seeing ,i go childless60 ,the ,rabbis regarded the childless man as dead1 whilst the ,cabbalist in the ,middle ,ages thought of him who died without posterity as of one who had failed in his mission in this world1 so that he would have to appear again on our planet to fulfil this duty4 ,to trace out the feelings which accompanied the object of their greatest anxiety1 to let them pass before the reader in some way approaching to a chronological order1 to draw attention to some points more worthy of being emphasised than others1 is the aim of this essay4 ,i said that ,i propose to treat the subject in chronological order4 ,i meant by this that ,i shall follow the child in the different stages through which it has to pass from its birth until it ceases to be a child and attains its majority4 ,this latter period is the beginning of the thirteenth year in the case of a female1 and the beginning of the fourteenth year in the case of a male4 ,i shall have occasion later on to examine this point more closely4 ,but there is the embryoperiod which forms a kind of preliminary stage in the life of the child1 and plays a very important part in the region of ,jewish legends4 ,human imagination always occupies itself most with the things of which we know least4 ,and so it got hold of this semiexistence of man1 the least accessible to experience and observation1 and surrounded it by a whole cycle of legends and stories4 ,they are too numerous to be related here4 ,but ,i shall hint at a few points which ,i regard as the most conspicuous features of these legends4 ,these legends are chiefly based on the notion of the preexistence of the soul on the one hand1 but on the other hand they are a vivid illustration of the saying of the ,fathers1 8,thou art born against thy will40 ,thus the soul1 when it is brought before the throne of ,god1 and is commanded to enter into the body1 pleads before ,him3 8,o ,lord1 till now have ,i been holy and pure2 bring me not into contact with what is common and unclean40 ,thereupon the soul is given to understand that it was for this destiny alone that it was created4 ,another remarkable feature is the warning given to man before his birth that he will be responsible for his actions4 ,he is regularly sworn in4 ,the oath has the double purpose of impressing upon him the consciousness of his duty to lead a holy life1 and of arming him against the danger of allowing a holy life to make him vain4 ,as if to render this oath more impressive1 the unborn hero is provided with two angels who1 besides teaching him the whole of the ,torah1 take him every morning through paradise and show him the glory of the just ones who dwell there4 ,in the evening he is taken to hell to witness the sufferings of the reprobate4 ,but such a lesson would make free will impossible4 ,his future conduct would only be dictated by the fear of punishment and hope of reward4 ,and the moral value of his actions also depends1 according to ,jewish notions1 upon the power to commit sin4 ,thus another legend records3 8,when ,god created the world1 ,he produced on the second day the angels with their natural inclinations to do good1 and the absolute inability to commit sin4 ,on the following days again ,he created the beasts with their exclusively animal desires4 ,but ,he was pleased with neither of these extremes4 ,if the angels follow my will1 said ,god1 it is only on account of their impotence to act in the opposite direction4 ,i shall therefore create man1 who will be a combination of both angel and beast1 so that he will be able to follow either the good or evil inclination4 ,his evil deeds will place him beneath the level of animals1 whilst his noble aspirations will enable him to obtain a higher position than angels40 ,care is therefore taken to make the child forget all it has seen and heard in these upper regions4 ,before it enters the world an angel strikes it on the upper lip1 and all his knowledge and wisdom disappear at once4 ,the pit in the upper lip is a result of this stroke1 which is also the cause why children cry when they are born4 ,as to the origin of these legends1 the main features of which are already to be found in the ,talmud1 ,i must refer the reader to the researches of ,lw and others47#bch7 ,here we have only to watch the effect which these legends had upon the minds of ,jewish parents4 ,the newly born child was in consequence looked upon by them as a higher being1 which1 but a few seconds before1 had been conversing with angels and saints1 and had now condescended into our profane world to make two ordinary mortals happy4 ,the treatment which the child experienced from its parents1 as well as from the whole of the community1 was therefore a combination of love and veneration4 ,one may go even further and say that the belief in these legends determines greatly the destination of the child4 ,what other destination could a being of such a glorious past have than to be what an old ,german ,jewish poem expressed in the following lines3-- ,geboren soll es wehren ,zu ,gottes ,ehren4 8,the child should be born to the honour of ,god40 ,the mission of the child is to glorify the name of ,god on earth4 ,and the whole bringing up of the child in the old ,jewish communities was more or less calculated to this end4 ,the words of the ,bible1 8,and ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests10 were taken literally4 ,every man felt it his duty to bring up his children1 or at least one member of his family1 for this calling4 ,how they carried out this programme we shall see later on4 ,now1 regarding almost every infant as a predestined priest1 and thinking of it as having received a certain preparation for this calling before it came into this world1 we cannot wonder that the child was supposed to show signs of piety from the days of its earliest existence1 and even earlier4 ,thus we read that even the unborn children joined in with the chorus on the ,red ,sea and sang the ,song 7of ,moses74 ,david1 again1 composed ,psalms before perceiving the face of this world4 ,on the ,day of ,atonement they used to communicate to the unborn child1 through the medium of its mother1 that on this great day it had to be satisfied with the good it had received the day before4 ,and when a certain child1 afterwards named ,shabbethai1 refused to listen to such a request1 ,r4 ,johanan applied to it the verse from the ,psalm1 8,the wicked are estranged from the womb40 ,indeed1 ,shabbethai turned out a great sinner4 ,it will perhaps be interesting to hear what his sin was4 ,it consisted in forestalling the corn in the market and afterwards selling it to the poor at a much higher price4 ,of a certain child the legend tells that it was born with the word emeth 7truth7 engraved on its forehead4 ,its parents named it ,amiti17#bci7 and the child proved to be a great saint4 ,the priest1 however1 could not enter into his office without some consecration4 ,as the first step in this consecration of the child we may consider the ,covenant of ,abraham4 ,but this was prefaced by a few other solemn acts which ,i must mention4 ,one of the oldest ceremonies connected with the birth of a child was that of treeplanting4 ,in the case of a boy they planted a cedar1 in that of a girl a pine2 and on their marriage they cut branches from these trees to form the weddingcanopy4 ,other rites followed1 but they were more of a medical character1 and would be better appreciated by the physician4 ,in the ,middle ,ages superstition played a great part4 ,to be sure1 ,i have spoken of saints2 but we ought not to forget that saints1 too1 have their foolish moments1 especially when they are fighting against hosts of demons1 the existence of which is only guaranteed by their own overexcited brains4 ,jewish parents were for many centuries troubled by the fear of ,lilith17#bdj7 the devil's mother1 who was suspected of stealing children and killing them4 ,the precautions they took to prevent this atrocity were as foolish as the object of their fear4 ,i do not intend to enumerate here all these various precautions4 ,every country almost has its own usages and charms1 one more absurd than the other4 ,it will suffice to refer here to the most popular of these charms1 in which certain angels are invoked to protect the child against its dangerous enemy ,lilith4 ,but of whatever origin they may be1 ,judaism could do better without them4 ,the only excuse for their existence among us is to my mind that they provoked the famous ,dr4 ,erter to the composition of one of the finest satires in the ,hebrew language4 ,of a less revolting character was the socalled ceremony of the 8,reading of the ,shema407#bda7 ,it consisted in taking all the little children of the community into the house of the newlyborn child1 where the teacher made them read the ,shema1 sometimes also the ninetyfirst ,psalm4 ,the fact that little children were the chief actors in this ceremony reconciles one a little to it despite its rather doubtful origin4 ,in some communities these readings took place every evening up to the day when the child was brought into the covenant of ,abraham4 ,in other places they performed the ceremony only on the eve of the day of the ,berith ,milah7#bdb7 7,ceremony of the ,circumcision74 ,indeed1 this was the night during which ,lilith was supposed to play her worst tricks1 and the watch over the child was redoubled4 ,hence the name 8,wachnacht10 or the 8,night of ,watching40 ,they remained awake for the whole night1 and spent it in feasting and in studying certain portions of the ,bible and the ,talmud1 mostly relating to the event which was to take place on the following day4 ,this ceremony was already known to ,jewish writers of the thirteenth century4 ,nevertheless1 it is considered by the best authorities on the subject to be of foreign origin4 ,quite ,jewish1 as well as entirely free from superstitious taint1 was the visit which was paid to the infantboy on the first ,sabbath of his existence4 ,it was called 8,shalom ,zachar107#bdc7 probably meaning 8,peace boy10 in allusion to a wellknown passage in the ,talmud to the effect that the advent of a boy in the family brings peace to the world4 ,at last the dawn of the great day of the ,berith came4 ,i shall1 however1 only touch here on the social aspects of this rite4 ,its popularity began1 as it seems1 in very early times4 ,the persecutions which ,israel suffered for it in the times of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 8when the princes and elders mourned1 the virgins and the young men were made feeble1 and the beauty of women was changed1 and when certain women were put to death for causing their children to be circumcised10 are the best proof of the attachment of the people to it4 ,the repeated attempts against this law1 both by heathen and by ,christian hands1 only served to increase its popularity4 ,indeed ,r4 ,simeon ben ,eleazar characterised it as the law for which ,israel brought the sacrifice of martyrdom1 and therefore held firmly by it4 ,in other words they suffered for it1 and it became endeared to them4 ,r4 ,simeon ben ,gamaliel declares it to be the only law which ,israel fulfils with joy and exultation4 ,as a sign of this joy we may regard the eagerness and the lively interest which raised this ceremony from a strictly family affair to a matter in which the whole of the community participated4 ,thus we find that already in the times of the ,gaonim the ceremony was transferred from the house of the parents to the synagogue4 ,here it took place after the prayers1 in the presence of the whole congregation4 ,the synagogue used to be specially illuminated in honour of the event4 ,certain pieces of the daily prayer1 of a rather doleful nature1 such as the confession of sins1 were omitted1 lest the harmony of the festival should be disturbed4 ,as a substitute for these prayers1 various hymns suitable for the occasion were composed and inserted in the liturgy for the day4 ,as the most prominent members among those present figured the happy father of the child and the medical man who performed the ceremony1 usually called the ,mohel or ,gozer17#bdd7 both wearing their festal garments and having certain privileges1 such as being called up to the ,reading of the ,law and chanting certain portions of the prayers4 ,it is not before the tenth century that a third member suddenly emerges to become almost as important as the father of the child4 ,i refer to the ,sandek or ,godfather4 ,in some countries he was also called the ,baal ,berith 7,master of the ,covenant74 ,in ,italy they seemed to have had two ,sandeks4 ,this word was for a long time supposed to be the ,greek word 4 ,but it is now proved beyond doubt that it is a corruption of the word used in the ,greek church for godfather4 ,in the church he was the man who lifted the neophyte from the baptismal waters4 ,among the ,jews1 the office of the ,sandek was to keep the child on his knees during the performance of the rite4 ,the ,sandek's place was1 or is still1 near the seat of honour1 which is called the ,throne of ,elijah1 who is supposed to be the angel of the covenant4 ,other angels1 too1 were believed to officiate at this rite4 ,thus the angel ,gabriel is also said to have performed the office of ,sandek to a certain child4 ,according to other sources the archangel ,metatron himself attended4 ,probably it was on this account that later ,rabbis admonished the parents to take only a pious and good ,jew as ,sandek for their children4 ,christian theologians also declared that no good ,christian must render such a service to a ,jew4 ,the famous ,buxtorf had to pay a fine of #ajj florins for having attended the ,berith of a child1 whose father he had employed as reader when editing the well known ,basel ,bible4 ,the poor reader himself1 who was the cause of ,buxtorf's offence1 was fined #djj florins4 ,of an opposite case in which a ,jew served as godfather to a ,christian child1 we find a detailed account in ,schudt's ,merkwrdigkeiten der ,juden1 a very learned and very foolish book4 ,when the father was summoned before the magistrate1 and was asked how he dared to charge a ,jew with such a holy ,christian ceremony1 he coolly answered1 because he knew that the ,jew would present him with a silver cup4 ,as to the present1 ,i have to remark that with the ,jews also the godfather was expected to bestow a gift on the child4 ,in some communities he had to defray the expenses of the festivaldinner1 of which ,i shall speak presently4 ,in others1 again1 he had also to give a present to the mother of the child4 ,much older than the institution of the ,sandek is the festivaldinner just alluded to1 which was held after the ceremony4 ,jewish legend supplies many particulars of the dinner the patriarch ,abraham gave at the ,berith of his son ,isaac4 ,this is a little too legendary1 but there is ample historical evidence that such meals were already customary in the times of the ,second ,temple4 ,the ,talmud of ,jerusalem gives us a detailed account of the proceedings which took place at the ,berith dinner of ,elisha ben ,abuyah1 who afterwards obtained a sad celebrity as ,acher4 ,considering that ,elisha's birth must have fallen within the first decades after the destruction of the ,temple1 and that these sad times were most unsuitable for introducing new festivals1 we may safely date the custom back to the times of the ,temple4 ,the way in which the guests entertained themselves is also to be gathered from the passage referred to4 ,first came the dinner1 in which all the guests participated2 afterwards the great men of ,jerusalem occupied one room1 indulging there in singing1 hand clapping1 and dancing4 ,the scholars again1 who apparently did not belong to the great men1 were confined to another room1 where they employed themselves in discussing biblical subjects4 ,in later times special hymns1 composed for this festival1 were inserted in the grace after dinner4 ,after the dinner1 sermons or speeches used also to be given1 the contents of which were usually made up of reflections on biblical and ,talmudical passages relating to the event of the day4 ,sometimes they consisted of a kind of learned puns on the name which the child received on this occasion4 ,with this meal the first consecration of the childpriest was concluded4 ,in some places they used to come to the father's house on the third day after the circumcision with the purpose of making inquiries after the child's health4 ,in the case when the child was the firstborn the ceremony of 8redeeming the child07#bde7 in accordance with ,exodus xiii4 used to take place4 ,the details of this ceremony are to be found in almost every prayerbook1 and there is nothing fresh to add4 ,but perhaps ,i may be allowed to draw attention to another distinction that the firstborn received in the ,middle ,ages4 ,i refer to an account given by the author of the book1 ,the ,ordinance of the ,law17#bdf7 who flourished in the thirteenth century4 ,he says3 ,our predecessors made the rule to destine every firstborn to ,god1 and before its birth the father had to say1 8,i take the vow that if my wife presents me with a son1 he shall be holy unto the ,lord1 and in ,his ,torah he shall meditate day and night40 ,on the eighth day after the ,berith ,milah they put the child on cushions1 and a ,bible on its head1 and the elders of the community1 or the principal of the college1 imparted their blessings to it4 ,these firstborn sons formed1 when grown up1 the chief contingent of the ,yeshiboth 7,talmudical ,colleges71 where they devoted the greatest part of their lives to the study of the ,torah4 ,in later centuries the vow was dropped1 but from the abundance of the ,yeshiboth in ,poland and elsewhere it seems as if almost every child was considered as having no other calling but the study of the ,torah4 ,indeed1 the growing persecutions required a strengthening of the religious force4 ,with these ceremonies the first act of consecration ended in the case where the newborn child was a boy4 ,i will now refer to the ceremony of the namegiving1 which was common to males and females4 ,in the case of the former this ceremony was connected with the ,berith ,milah4 ,the oldest formula1 which is already to be found in the ,ritual ,rab ,amram ,gaon1 is composed in ,aramaic4 ,it is1 like many prayers in that language1 a most beautiful composition1 and very suitable for the occasion4 ,our present ,hebrew prayer is far less beautiful1 and dates from a much later age4 ,in some countries the ceremony of naming was repeated in the house of the parents4 ,it took place on the ,sabbath1 when the mother returned home from her first visit to the synagogue after her recovery4 ,here the friends and relatives of the family assembled1 and after arranging themselves round the cradle of the child they lifted it three times1 shouting the new name at every lifting4 ,this name was the socalled 8profane0 name1 whilst the name it received in the synagogue was the 8sacred0 or ,hebrew name4 ,the ceremony concluded with the usual festivaldinner4 ,by the way1 there was perhaps a little too much feasting in those days4 ,the contemporary ,rabbis tried indeed to suppress some of the banquets1 and put all sorts of restrictions on dinnerhunting people4 ,but considering the fact that1 as ,jews1 they were excluded from every public amusement1 we cannot grudge them the pleasure they drew from these semireligious celebrations4 ,for people of an ascetic disposition it was1 perhaps1 the only opportunity of enjoying a proper meal4 ,in the same way1 in our days1 the most severe father would not deny his lively daughter the pleasure of dancing or singing charitably for the benefit of suffering humanity4 ,the ceremony described was known to the authors of the ,middle ,ages by the name of ,holle ,kreish4 ,these words are proved by ,dr4 ,perles to be of ,german origin1 and based on some ,teutonic superstition into the explanation of which ,i cannot enter here4 ,of much more importance was the ceremony of namegiving in the case of a girl1 it being the only attention the female child received from the synagogue4 ,the usages varied4 ,in some countries the name was given on the first ,sabbath after the birth of the child4 ,the father was 8called up to the ,reading of the ,law10 on which followed the formula1 8,he who blessed our ancestors ,abraham10 etc41 8may ,he also bless10 etc41 including the blessing and announcement of the child's name4 ,after the prayer the congregation assembled in the house of the parents to congratulate them4 ,in other countries the ceremony took place on the ,sabbath when the mother attended the synagogue after the recovery4 ,the ceremony of ,holle ,kreish seems to have been especially observed in the case of a girl4 ,though the feasting was now over for the parents1 the child still lived in a holiday atmosphere for a long time4 ,in the legend of the 8,ages of ,man0 the child is described in the first year of its existence as a little prince1 adored and petted by all4 ,the mother herself nourished and tended the child4 ,although the ,bible already speaks of nurses1 many passages in the later ,jewish literature show a strong aversion to these substitutes for the mother4 ,in the event of the father of the child dying1 the mother was forbidden to marry before her suckling infant reached the age of two years1 lest a new courtship might lead to the neglect of the child4 ,more difficult is it to say wherein the other signs of loyalty to the little prince consisted2 as1 for instance1 whether ,jews possessed anything like lullabies to soothe the little prince into happy and sweet slumber4 ,at least ,i am not aware of the existence of such songs in the ancient ,jewish literature1 nor are they quoted by medival writers4 ,the 8,schlummerlied10 by an unknown ,jewish bard1 about which ,german scholars wrote so much1 contains more heathen than ,jewish elements4 ,from the protest in ,the ,book of the ,pious1 against using non,jewish cradlesongs1 it seems that little ,moshechen was lulled to sleep by the same tunes and words as little ,johnny4 ,the only ,jewish lullaby of which ,i know1 is to be found in the work of a modern writer who lived in ,russia4 ,how far its popularity goes in that country ,i have no means of ascertaining4 ,this jingle runs as follows3-- ,o6 hush thee1 my darling1 sleep soundly my son1 ,sleep soundly and sweetly till day has begun2 ,for under the bed of good children at night ,there lies1 till the morning1 a kid snowy white4 ,we'll send it to market to buy ,sechora17#bdg7 ,while my little lad goes to study ,torah4 ,sleep soundly at night and learn ,torah by day1 ,then thou'lt be a ,rabbi when ,i have grown gray4 ,but ,i'll give thee tomorrow ripe nuts and a toy1 ,if thou'lt sleep as ,i bid thee1 my own little boy47#bdh7 ,but naturally the holiday atmosphere ,i spoke of was very often darkened by clouds resulting from the illness of the child4 ,excepting smallpox1 the child was subject to most of those diseases which so often prove fatal to our children4 ,these diseases were known under the collective name of 8the difficulties 7or the pain7 of bringing up children40 ,these difficulties seem to have been still greater in ,palestine1 where one of the old ,rabbis exclaimed that it was easier to see a whole forest of young olive trees grow up than to rear one child47#bdi7 ,to avoid so mournful a subject1 ,i refrain from repeating the touching stories relating to the death of children4 ,the pain was the more keenly felt since there was no other way of explaining the misfortune which befell the innocent creature than that it had suffered for the sins of the parents2 and the only comfort the latter had was that the child could not have lost much by its being removed from this vale of tears at such an early period4 ,a remarkable legend describes ,god ,himself as giving lessons so many hours a day to these prematurely deceased children47#bej7 ,indeed1 to the mind of the old ,rabbis1 the only thing worth living for was the study of the ,law4 ,consequently the child that suffered innocently could not have a better compensation than to learn ,torah from the mouth of the ,master of masters4 ,but even when the child was healthy1 and food and climate proved congenial to its constitution1 there still remained the troubles of its spiritual education4 ,and to be sure it was not an easy matter to bring up a 8priest40 ,the first condition for this calling was learning4 ,but learning cannot be acquired without honest and hard industry4 ,it is true that ,r4 ,akiba numbers wisdom among the virtues which are hereditary from father to son4 ,experience1 however1 has shown that it is seldom the case1 and the ,rabbis were already troubled with the question how it happens that children so little resemble their fathers in respect of learning4 ,certainly ,jewish legends can boast of a whole series of prodigies4 ,thus a certain ,rabbi is said to have been so sharp as to have had a clear recollection of the midwife who made him a citizen of this world4 ,ben ,sira again1 instantly after his birth1 entertains his terrified mother with many a wise and foolish saying1 refuses the milk she offers him1 and asks for solid food4 ,a certain ,nachman was born with a prophecy on his lips1 predicting the fate of all nations on earth1 as well as fixing the date for the advent of the ,messiah4 ,the youngest of seven sons of ,hannah1 who became martyrs under the reign of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 was according to one version aged two years1 six months1 six hours1 and thirty minutes4 ,but the way in which he defied the threats of the tyrant was really worthy of one of seventy4 ,r4 ,judah de ,modena is said to have read the lesson from the prophets in the synagogue at the age of two years and a half4 ,a famous ,cabbalist1 ,nahum1 at the age of three1 gave a lecture on the decalogue that lasted for three days4 ,the ,chassidim pretended of one of their ,zaddikim that he remembered all that he had been taught by the angels before his birth1 and thus excused their ,zaddik's utter neglect of studying anything4 ,perhaps ,i may mention in this place a sentence from ,schudt1 which may reconcile one to the harmless exaggerations of the ,chassidim4 ,it relates to a case where a ,jewish girl of six was taken away by a ,christian with the intention of baptising her1 for he maintained that this was the wish and pleasure of the child4 ,probably the little girl received her instruction from the ,christian servant of the house1 as has happened many times4 ,schudt proves that this wish ought to be granted in spite of the minority of the child4 ,he argues3 ,as there is a maxim1 8,what is wanting in years may be supplied by wickedness10 why could not also the reverse be true that 8,what is wanting in years can be supplied by grace08 ,of a certain ,r4 ,meshullam1 again1 we know that he preached in the synagogue at ,brody1 at the age of nine1 and perplexed the chief ,rabbi of the place by his deep ,talmudical learning4 ,as the ,rabbi had a daughter of seven1 the cleverness exhibited by the boy ,rabbi did not end without very serious consequences for all his life4 ,happily all these prodigies or children of grace are only exceptional4 ,i say happily1 for the ,rabbis themselves disliked such creatures4 ,they were more satisfied with those signs of intelligence that indicate future greatness4 ,the following story may serve as an instance3--,r4 ,joshua ben ,hananiah once made a journey to ,rome4 ,here he was told that amongst the captives from ,jerusalem there was a child with bright eyes1 its hair in ringlets1 and its features strikingly beautiful4 ,the ,rabbi made up his mind to redeem the boy4 ,he went to the prison and addressed the child with a verse from ,isaiah1 8,who gave ,jacob for a spoil and ,israel to the robbers80 ,on this the child answered by continuing the second half of the same verse1 8,did not the ,lord1 ,he against whom we have sinned8 ,for they would not walk in ,his ways1 neither were they obedient unto ,his law0 7,isaiah xlii4 #bd74 ,the ,rabbi was so delighted with this answer1 that he said3 8,i am sure he will grow up to be a teacher in ,israel4 ,i take an oath to redeem him1 cost what it may40 ,the child was afterwards known under the name of ,r4 ,ishmael ben ,elisha4 ,such children were ideals of the ,rabbis1 but they hated the baby scholar1 who very often grew impertinent and abused his elders4 ,the ,rabbis much preferred the majority of those tiny creatures1 who are characterised by the already mentioned legends on the 8,ages of ,men0 as little animals playing1 laughing1 crying1 dancing1 and committing all sorts of mischief4 ,but these children must be taught4 ,now1 there is the wellknown advice of ,judah ben ,tema1 who used to say that the child at five years was to be taught ,scripture1 at ten years ,mishnah1 at thirteen to fulfil the ,law1 etc4 ,this saying1 incorporated in most editions in the fifth ,chapter of the ,sayings of the ,fathers1 is usually considered as the programme of ,jewish education4 ,but1 like so many programmes1 this tells us rather how things ought to have been than how they were4 ,in the times of the ,temple1 the participation of the youth in religious actions began at the tenderest age4 ,as soon as they were able to walk a certain distance with the support of their parents1 the children had to accompany them on their pilgrimages to ,jerusalem4 ,in the ,sabbatical year they were brought to the ,temple1 to be present at the reading of ,deuteronomy by the king47#bea7 ,the period at which the child's allegiance to the ,synagogue began is still more distinctly described4 ,of the many ,talmudical passages relating to this question1 ,i shall select the following quotation from a later ,midrash1 because it is the most concise4 ,in allusion to ,leviticus xix4 #bc1 #bd1 concerning the prohibition of eating the fruits of a tree in the first three years1 this ,midrash goes on to say3 8,and this is also the case with the ,jewish child4 ,in the first three years the child is unable to speak1 and therefore is exempted from every religious duty1 but in the fourth year all its fruits shall be holy to praise the ,lord1 and the father is obliged to initiate the child in religious works40 ,accordingly the religious life of the child began as soon as it was able to speak distinctly1 or with the fourth year of its life4 ,as to the character of this initiation we learn from the same ,midrash and also from other ,talmudical passages1 that it consisted in teaching the child the verses1 8,hear1 ,o ,israel3 the ,lord our ,god is ,one0 7,deut4 vi4 #d71 and 8,moses commanded us a ,torah1 the inheritance of the congregation of ,jacob0 7,deut4 xxxiii4 #d74 ,it was also in this year that the boys began to accompany their parents to the synagogue1 carrying their prayerbooks4 ,at what age the girls first came out--not for their first party1 but with the purpose of going to the synagogue--is difficult to decide with any degree of certainty4 ,but if we were to trust a rather doubtful reading in ,tractate ,sopherim17#beb7 we might maintain that their first appearance in the synagogue was also at a very tender age4 ,i hope that they behaved there more respectfully than their brothers1 who played and cried instead of joining in the responses and singing with the congregation4 ,in some communities they proved so great a nuisance that a certain ,rabbi declared it would be better to leave them at home rather than to have the devotion of the whole congregation disturbed by these urchins4 ,another ,rabbi recommended the praiseworthy custom of the ,sephardim17#bec7 who confined all the boys in the synagogue to one place1 and set a special overseer by their side1 with a whip in his hands1 to compel them to keep quiet and to worship with due devotion4 ,a strange custom is known among the ,arabian and ,palestinian ,jews under the name of ,chalaka4 ,it means the first haircutting of the boy after his fourth birthday4 ,as on this occasion loyalty to the ,scripture is shown by not touching the 8corners0 7,lev4 xix4 #ag71 the whole action is considered a religious ceremony of great importance4 ,in ,palestine it usually takes place on the second day of the ,feast of the ,passover when the counting of the seven weeks begins4 ,on this day friends and relatives assemble at the house of the parents4 ,thither the boy is brought1 dressed in his best garments1 and every one of the assembly is entrusted with the duty of cutting a few hairs1 which is considered a great privilege4 ,the ceremony is as usual followed by a dinner given to the guests4 ,the ,jews in ,safed and ,tiberias perform the ceremony with great pomp in the courtyard surrounding the 7supposed7 grave of ,r4 ,simeon ben ,yochai1 in one of the neighbouring villages4 ,another custom already mentioned in the ,talmud1 but which quite disappeared in later times1 is that of weighing the child4 ,it would be worth reviving if performed in the way in which the mother of ,doeg ben ,joseph did it4 ,this tenderhearted mother weighed her only son every day1 and distributed among the poor1 in gold1 the amount of the increased weight of her child4 ,i pass now to the second great consecration of the boy1--the rites performed on the day when the boy went to school for the first time4 ,this day was celebrated by the ,jews1 especially in the ,middle ,ages1 in such a way as to justify the high esteem in which they held the school4 ,the school was looked upon as a second ,mount ,sinai1 and the day on which the child entered it as the ,feast of ,revelation4 ,of the many different customs1 ,i shall mention here that according to which this day was fixed for the ,feast of ,weeks4 ,early in the morning1 while it was still dark1 the child was washed and dressed carefully4 ,in some places they dressed it in a 8gown with fringes40 ,as soon as day dawned the boy was taken to the synagogue1 either by his father or by some worthy member of the community4 ,arrived at their destination1 the boy was put on the ,almemor1 or reading dais1 before the ,scroll of the ,law1 from which the narrative of the ,revelation 7,exod4 xx4 #bbf7 was read as the portion of the day4 ,from the synagogue the boy was taken to the house of the teacher1 who took him into his arms4 ,thereupon a slate was brought1 containing the alphabet in various combinations1 the verse1 8,moses has commanded10 etc4 in ,deut4 xxxiii4 #d1 the first verse of the ,book of ,leviticus1 and the words1 8,the ,torah will be my calling40 ,the teacher then read the names of the letters1 which the boy repeated4 ,after the reading1 the slate was besmeared with honey1 which the boy licked off4 ,this was done in allusion to ,ezekiel iii4 #c1 where it is said3 8,and it 7the roll7 was in my mouth as honey for sweetness40 ,the boy was also made to eat a sweet cake1 on which were written passages from the ,bible relating to the importance of the study of the ,torah4 ,the ceremony was concluded by invoking the names of certain angels1 asking them to open the heart of the boy1 and to strengthen his memory4 ,by the way1 ,i am very much afraid that this invocation was answerable for the abolition of this ceremony4 ,the year in which this ceremony took place is uncertain1 probably not before the fifth1 nor later than the seventh1 according to the good or bad health of the child4 ,the reverence for the child already hinted at was still further increased when the boy entered the school4 8,the children of the house 7school7 of the master0 is a regular phrase in ,jewish literature4 ,it is on their pure breath that the existence of the world depends1 and it is their merit that justifies us in appealing to the mercy of ,god4 ,words of ,scripture1 uttered by them quite innocently1 were considered as oracles2 and many a ,rabbi gave up an undertaking on account of a verse pronounced by a schoolboy1 who hardly understood its import4 ,take only one instance3 ,r4 ,johanan was longing to see his friend ,mar ,samuel in ,babylon4 ,after many disturbances and delays1 he at last undertook the journey4 ,on the way he passed a school where the boys were reciting the verse from #a ,samuel xxviii4 #c1 8,and ,samuel died40 ,this was accepted by him as a hint given by ,providence that all was over with his friend4 ,especially famous for their wisdom and sharpness were the children of ,jerusalem4 ,of the many illustrative stories given in the ,midrash to ,lamentations1 let the following suffice3 ,r4 ,joshua was one day riding on his donkey along the high road4 ,as he passed a well1 he saw a little girl there1 and asked her to give him some water4 ,she accordingly gave water to him and to his animal4 ,the ,rabbi thanked her with the words3 8,my daughter1 you acted like ,rebecca40 8,to be sure10 she answered1 8,i acted like ,rebecca2 but you did not behave like ,eleazar40 ,i must add that there are passages in ,jewish literature from which1 with a little ingenuity1 it might be deduced that ,jewish babies are the most beautiful of their kind4 ,the assertion made by a monk that ,jewish children are inferior to ,christian children is a dreadful libel4 ,the author of the ,old ,victory17#bed7 in whose presence this assertion was made1 was probably childless1 or he would have simply scratched out the eyes of this malicious monk1 instead of giving a mystical reason for the superior beauty of any other children than his own4 ,another point to be emphasised is that the boys were not confined all day long to the close air of the schoolroom4 ,they had also their hours of recreation4 ,this recreation consisted chiefly1 as one can imagine1 in playing4 ,their favourite game was the ball1 boys as well as girls being fond of this form of amusement4 ,they did not deny themselves this pleasure even on festivals4 ,they were also fond of the kite and games with nuts1 in which their mothers also took part4 ,lettergames and riddles also occupied their minds in the recreation hours4 ,the angel ,sandalphon17#bee7 who also bears in the ,cabbalah the name of 8,boy10 was considered by the children as their special patron1 and they invoked him in their plays1 addressing to him the words3 8,sandalphon1 ,lord of the forest1 protect us from pain40 ,speaking generally1 there are very few distinctively ,jewish games4 ,from the researches of ,zunz1 ,gdemann1 and ,lw on this subject1 it is clear that the ,jews always adopted the pastimes of the peoples among whom they dwelt4 ,but it must not be thought that there was too much playing4 ,altogether1 ,jewish education was far from spoiling the children4 ,and though it was recommended--if such recommendation were necessary--to love children more than one's own soul1 the ,rabbis strongly condemned that blind partiality towards our own offspring1 which ends in burdening our world with so many goodfornothings4 ,the sad experience of certain biblical personages served as a warning for posterity4 ,even from the quite natural behaviour of ,jacob towards his son ,joseph1 which had the best possible results in the end1 they drew the lesson that a man must never show to one of his children marks of greater favour than to the others4 ,in later times they have been even anxious to conceal this love altogether1 and some ,rabbis went so far as to refrain from kissing their children4 ,the severity of ,akabya ben ,mahalaleel is worth mentioning1 if not imitating4 ,when this ,rabbi1 only a few minutes before his death1 was asked by his son to recommend him to his friends and colleagues1 the answer the poor boy received was3 8,thy conduct will recommend thee to my friends1 or will estrange thee from them40 ,another ,rabbi declared 7with reference to ,prov4 xxviii4 #bg7 that it is lifegiving to a youth to teach him temperance in his diet1 and not to accustom him to meat and wine4 ,r4 ,judah1 the ,pious1 in the ,middle ,ages1 gives the advice to rich parents to withdraw their resources from their sons if they lead a disorderly life4 ,the struggle for their existence1 and the hardship of life1 would bring them back to ,god4 ,when the old ,rabbi said that poverty is a most becoming ornament for ,israel1 his remark was probably suggested by a similar thought4 ,and many a passage in the ,rabbinic literature gives expression to the same idea as that in ,goethe's divine lines3-- ,wer nie sein ,brot mit ,thrnen ass1 ,wer nie die kummervollen ,nchte ,auf seinem ,bette weinend sass1 ,der kennt ,euch nicht1 ,ihr himmlischen ,mchte4 ,i have spoken of a kingdom of priests1 but there is one great disadvantage of such a polity4 ,one or two priests in a community may be sustained by the liberality of the congregation4 ,but if a community consisted of only priests1 how could it then be maintained8 ,besides1 the old ,jewish ideal expected the teacher to be possessed of a divine goodness1 imparting his benefits only as an act of grace4 ,salaries1 therefore1 either for teaching or preaching1 or for giving ritual decisions1 were strongly forbidden4 ,the solution of the question put by the ,bible1 8,and if ye shall say1 ,what shall we eat80 is to be found in the law that every father was obliged to teach his son a handicraft1 enabling him to obtain a living4 ,i have now to speak of the time when childhood is brought to a conclusion4 ,it is1 as ,i stated above1 in the case of a girl at the beginning of the thirteenth year1 and in that of a boy at the beginning of the fourteenth year4 ,as a reason for this priority ,i will reproduce the words of ,r4 ,chisda1 who said that ,god has endowed woman with a greater portion of intelligence than man1 and therefore she obtains her maturity at an earlier period than man does4 ,a very nice compliment1 indeed2 but like all compliments it is of no practical consequence whatever4 ,it is not always the wiser who get the best of it in life4 ,whilst the day on which the girl obtained her majority passed unnoticed either by her or by her family1 it was marked in the case of the boy as the day on which he became a ,son of the ,law17#bef7 and was signalised by various rites and ceremonies1 and by the bestowing on him of beautiful presents4 ,i miss only the wig1 which used to form the chief ornament of the boy on this happy day4 ,less known1 however1 is the origin of this ceremony1 and the reason for fixing its date4 ,it cannot claim a very high antiquity4 ,i may remark that in many cases centuries elapse before an idea or a notion takes practical shape and is crystallised into a custom or usage1 and still longer before this custom is fossilised into a law or fixed institution4 ,as far as the ,bible goes1 there is not the slightest indication of the existence of such a ceremony4 ,from ,lev4 xxvii4 #e1 and ,num4 xiv4 #bi1 it would rather seem that it was not before the twentieth year that the man was considered to have obtained his majority1 and to be responsible for his actions4 ,it was only in the times of the ,rabbis1 when ,roman influence became prevalent in juristic matters at least1 that the date of thirteen1 or rather the pubertas1 was fixed as giving the boy his majority4 ,but it would be a mistake to think that before having obtained this majority the boy was considered as under age in every respect4 ,certainly the law made every possible effort to connect him with the synagogue1 and to initiate him in his religious duties long before the age of thirteen4 ,we have seen that the boy's first appearance in the synagogue was at the beginning of the fourth year4 ,we have noticed the complaints about his troublesome behaviour4 ,but how could we expect the poor child to be attentive to things which quite surpassed the intellectual powers of his tender age8 ,there was no better reason for this attendance either in the ,temple or in the synagogue than that the parents might be rewarded by ,god for the trouble of taking their children there4 ,these cares1 by the way1 fell most heavily upon the women4 ,the mother of ,r4 ,joshua enjoyed this burden so much that she carried her boy1 when still in the cradle1 to the 8,house of ,study of the ,law10 in order that his ears might be accustomed to the sound of the ,torah4 ,in later times there was another excuse for taking the little children to the synagogue4 ,they were there allowed to sip the wine of the ,sanctification ,cup17#beg7 which was the exclusive privilege of the children2 an easy way of worshipping1 but1 as you can observe1 it is a method that they enjoy and understand most excellently4 ,they did not less enjoy and understand the service with which they were charged on the day of 8,the ,rejoicing of the ,law407#beh7 ,on this feast they were provided with flags1 which they carried before the bearers of the ,torah1 who feasted them after the service with sweets4 ,another treat was that of being called up on this day to the ,torah1 a custom that is still extant4 ,in the ,middle ,ages they went in some countries so far as to allow these little fellows who did not wear caps 8to be called up0 to say the blessings over the ,law bareheaded4 ,a beautiful custom was that every ,sabbath1 after finishing the weekly lesson and dressing the ,scroll of the ,law1 the children used to come up to the ,almemor and kiss the ,torah4 ,leaving the synagogue they kissed the hands of the scholars4 ,at home the initiation began with the blessing the child received on every eve of the ,sabbath1 and with its instruction in 8,hear ,o ,israel0 and other verses as already mentioned4 ,short prayers1 consisting of a single sentence1 were also chosen for children of this age4 ,the function of the child on the eve of the first day of ,passover is well known4 ,besides the putting of the four questions for the meaning of the strange ceremony 7,exod4 xiii4 #ad71 the boy had also to recite1 or rather to sing1 the 8,praise407#bei7 ,but ,i am afraid that they enjoyed better the song of 8,one ,kid10 which was composed or rather adapted for their special entertainment from an old ,german poem4 ,within three or four years after entering the synagogue1 and with the growth of intellect and strength1 the religious duties of the boy increased1 and became of a more serious character4 ,he had not only to attend the school1 which was troublesome enough1 but he was also expected to attend the services more regularly1 and to gain something by it4 ,yet the ,rabbis were not so tyrannical as to put unjust demands on the patience of the child4 ,the voice of ,god on ,mount ,sinai1 the ,rabbis said1 was adapted to the intellect and powers of all who witnessed the ,revelation--adapted1 as the ,midrash says1 to the powers of old and young1 children and women4 ,it was in accordance with this sentiment that the ,rabbis suited their language to the needs of the less educated classes4 ,thus we read in the ,tractate ,sopherim that according to the law the portion of the week1 after having been recited in ,hebrew1 must be translated into the language of the vernacular for the benefit of the unlearned people1 the women1 and the children4 ,another consideration children experienced from the ,rabbis was that at the age of nine or ten the boy was initiated into the observance of the ,day of ,atonement by fasting a few hours4 ,lest1 however1 this good work might be overdone1 and thus endanger the child's health1 the sage ,r4 ,acha used to tell his congregation after the ,addition,prayer 8,my brethren1 let every one of you who has a child go home and make it eat40 ,in later centuries1 when the disease of smallpox became so fatal1 some ,rabbis declared it to be the duty of every father to leave the town with his children as soon as the plague showed itself4 ,the joy with which the ,rabbis hailed ,dr4 ,jenner's discovery deserves our recognition4 ,none of them perceived in vaccination a defiance of ,providence4 ,r4 ,abraham ,nansich1 from ,london1 wrote a pamphlet to prove its lawfulness4 ,the ,cabbalist ,buzagli disputed ,dr4 ,jenner's priority1 but nevertheless approved of vaccination4 ,r4 ,israel ,lipschtz declared that the ,doctor acquired salvation by his new remedy4 ,with his advancing age1 not only the boy's duties but also his rights were increased4 ,an enumeration of all these rights would lead me too far1 but ,i shall mention the custom which allowed the boy the recital of 8,magnified07#bfj7 and 8,bless ye07#bfa7 in the synagogue4 ,now this privilege is restricted to the orphan boy4 ,it is interesting to hear that girls were also admitted to recite the ,magnified in the synagogue1 in cases where their parents left no male issue4 ,i have myself witnessed such a case4 ,in some countries the boy had the exclusive privilege of reading the prayers on the evenings of the festivals and ,sabbaths4 ,r4 ,samson ben ,eleazar1 in the fifteenth century1 received his family name ,baruch ,sheamar7#bfb7 from the skill with which he recited this prayer when a boy4 ,he chanted it so well that he was called by the members of the community ,master ,baruch ,sheamar4 ,as to the question whether the boy1 while under age1 might lawfully be considered as one of the ,ten when such a quorum was required1 or one of the three in the case of grace after meals1 ,i can only say that the authorities never agreed in this respect4 ,whilst the one insisted upon his having obtained his majority1 the other was satisfied with his showing such signs of intelligence as would enable him to participate in the ceremony in question4 ,here is an instance of such a sign4 ,abaye and ,raba1 the two celebrated heroes of the ,babylonian ,talmud1 were sitting at the table of ,rabbah4 ,before saying grace he asked them1 8,do you know to whom these prayers are addressed80 ,thereupon one boy pointed to the roof1 whilst the other boy went out and pointed to the sky4 ,the examiner was satisfied with their answer4 ,the privilege of putting on the phylacteries forms now in most countries the chief distinction of 8,the ,son of the ,law02 in olden times1 however1 every boy had claim to it as soon as he showed himself capable of behaving respectfully when wearing the holy symbol4 ,it even happened that certain honours of the synagogue were bestowed on boys1 though under age4 ,we possess a copy of a ,jewish epitaph dating from about the third century1 which was written in ,rome for a boy of eight years1 who is there designated as archon4 ,the fact is the more curious1 as on the other hand the ,palestinian ,r4 ,abuha1 who lived in the same century1 maintained that no man must be elected as ,warden before he has achieved his fiftieth year4 ,that boys were admitted to preach in the synagogue ,i have already mentioned47#bfc7 ,from all these remarks it will easily be seen that in olden times the boy enjoyed almost all the rights of majority long before the day of his being 8,the ,son of the ,law40 ,the condition of the novice is hardly distinguishable from that of the initiated priest4 ,the ,talmud1 the ,gaonim1 and even ,r4 ,isaac ,alfasi and ,maimonides knew neither the term 8,the ,son of the ,law0 7in our sense of the word7 nor any ceremony connected with it4 ,there is only one slight reference to such an institution1 recorded in the ,tractate ,sopherim1 with the quotation of which ,i shall conclude this paper4 ,we read there3 8,in ,jerusalem there was the godly custom to initiate the children at the beginning of the thirteenth year by fasting the whole ,day of ,atonement4 ,during this year they took the boy to the priests and learned men that they might bless him1 and pray for him that ,god might think him worthy of a life devoted to the study of the ,torah and pious works40 ,for1 this author says1 8they were beautiful1 and their lives harmonious and their hearts directed to ,god40 ,,xiii4 ,,woman ,,in ,,temple ,,and ,,synagogue ,the learned ,woman has always been a favourite subject with ,jewish students2 and her intellectual capabilities have been fully vindicated in many an essay and even fairsized book4 ,less attention1 however1 has been paid to woman's claims as a devotional being whom the ,temple1 and afterwards the ,synagogue1 more or less recognised4 ,at least it is not known to me that any attempt has been made to give1 even in outline1 the history of woman's relation to public worship4 ,it is needless to say that the present sketch1 which is meant to supply this want in some measure1 lays no claim to completeness2 but ,i venture to hope that it will help to direct the attention of the friends of research to the matter1 and that it may induce others to deal more fully with the subject and do it the justice it deserves4 ,the earliest allusion to women's participation in public worship1 is that in ,exodus xxxviii4 #h1 to the women who assembled to minister at the door of the 8tent of meeting10 of whose mirrors the lavers of brass were made 7cf4 #a ,sam4 ii4 #bb74 ,philo1 who is not exactly enamoured of the emancipation of women1 and seeks to confine them to the 8small state10 is here full of their praise4 8,for10 he says1 8though no one enjoined them to do so1 they of their own spontaneous zeal and earnestness contributed the mirrors with which they had been accustomed to deck and set off their beauty1 as the most becoming firstfruits of their modesty1 and of the purity of their married life1 and1 as one may say1 of the beauty of their souls40 ,in another passage ,philo describes the ,jewish women as 8competing with the men themselves in piety1 having determined to enter upon a glorious contest1 and to the utmost extent of their power to exert themselves so as not to fall short of their holiness40 ,it is1 however1 very difficult to ascertain in what this ministry of women consisted4 ,the ,hebrew term 8,zobeoth07#bfd7 would suggest the thought of a species of religious ,amazons1 who formed a guard of honour round the ,sanctuary4 ,some commentators think that the ministry consisted in performing religious dances accompanied by various instruments4 ,the ,septuagint again speaks 8of the women who fasted by the doors of the ,tabernacle40 ,but most of the old ,jewish expositors1 as well as ,onkelos1 conceive that the women went to the tent of meeting to pray4 ,ibn ,ezra offers the interesting remark1 8,and behold1 there were women in ,israel serving the ,lord1 who left the vanities of this world1 and not being desirous of beautifying themselves any longer1 made of their mirrors a free offering1 and came to the tabernacle every day to pray and to listen there to the words of the commandments40 ,when we find that in #a ,sam4 i4 #ab1 8,hannah continued to pray before the ,lord10 she was only doing there what many of her sisters did before and after her4 ,we may also judge that it was from the number of these noble women1 who made religion the aim of their lives1 that the 8twentytwo0 heroines and prophetesses sprang who form part of the glory of ,jewish history4 ,sometimes it even happened that their husbands derived their religious inspiration from them4 ,thus the husband of the prophetess ,deborah is said to have been an unlettered man4 ,but his wife made him carry to the ,sanctuary the candles which she herself had prepared1 this being the way in which she encouraged him to seek communion with the righteous4 ,the language in which the husband of the 8,great ,woman0 of ,shunem addresses his wife3 8,wherefore wilt thou go to him0 7the prophet78 8it is neither ,new ,moon nor ,sabbath0 7#b ,kings iv4 #bc71 proves that on ,festivals and ,sabbaths the women used to attend some kind of worship1 performed by the prophet1 though we cannot say in what this worship consisted4 ,the ,new ,moon was especially a woman's holiday1 and was so observed even in the ,middle ,ages1 for the women refrained from doing work on that day4 ,the explanation given by the ,rabbis is that when the men broke off their golden earrings to supply material for the golden calf1 the women refused to contribute their trinkets1 for which good behaviour a special day of repose was granted to them4 ,some ,cabbalists even maintain that the original worshippers of the golden calf continue to exist on earth1 their souls having successively migrated into various bodies1 while their punishment consists in this1 that they are ruled over by their wives4 ,rather interesting as well as complimentary to women is the remark which the ,rabbis made with regard to the 8,great ,woman40 ,as will be remembered1 it is she who says1 8,i perceive that this 7,elisha7 is a holy man of ,god0 7#b ,kings iv4 #ai74 ,in allusion to this verse the ,talmud says3 8,from this fact we may infer that woman is quicker in recognising the worth of a stranger than man40 ,the great woman1 or women1 continued to pray and to join in the public worship also after the destruction of the first ,temple4 ,thus ,esther is reported by tradition to have addressed ,god in a long extempore prayer before she presented herself before the throne of ,ahasuerus to plead her people's cause2 and women were always enjoined to attend the reading of the ,book of ,esther4 ,when ,ezra read the ,law for the first time1 he did so in the presence of the men and the women 7,neh4 viii4 #c74 ,in the ,book of the ,maccabees we read of 8,the women girt with sackcloth 444 and the maidens that ran to the gates4444 ,and all holding their hands towards heaven made supplication40 ,in the ,judith legend1 mention is also made of 8,every man and woman 444 who fell before the ,temple1 and spread out their sackcloth before the face of the ,lord 444 and cried before the ,god of ,israel40 ,in the second ,temple1 the women1 as is well known1 possessed a court reserved for their exclusive use4 ,there the great illuminations and rejoicings on the evening of the ,feast of ,tabernacles used to be held4 ,on this occasion1 however1 the women were confined to galleries specially erected for them4 ,it was also in this ,women's ,hall that the great public reading of certain portions of the ,law by the king1 once in seven years1 used to take place1 and women had also to attend at the function4 ,on the other hand1 it is hardly necessary to say that women were excluded from performing any important service in the ,temple4 ,if we were to trust a certain passage in the 8,chapters of ,r4 ,eliezer10 we might perhaps conclude that during the first ,temple1 the wives of the ,levites formed a part of the choir1 but the meaning of the passage is too obscure and doubtful for us to be justified in basing on it so important an inference4 ,nor can the three hundred maidens who were employed for the weaving of the curtains in the ,temple1 be looked upon as having stood in closer connection with the ,temple1 or as having formed an order of womenpriests or girldevotees 7as one might wrongly be induced to think by certain passages in ,apocryphal writings of the ,new ,testament74 ,but on the other hand1 it is not improbable that their frequent contact with the ,sanctuary of the nation produced in them that religious enthusiasm and zeal which may account for the heroic death which--according to the legend--they sought and found after the destruction of the ,temple4 ,it is to be remarked that1 according to the law1 women were even exempted from putting their hands on the head of the victim1 which formed an important item in the sacrificial worship4 ,it is1 however1 stated by an eyewitness1 that the authorities permitted them to perform this ceremony if they desired to do so1 and that their reason for this concession was 8to give calmness of the spirit1 or satisfaction1 to women40 ,still greater1 perhaps1 was 8the calmness of spirit0 given to women in the synagogue4 ,we find in ancient epitaphs that such titles of honour were conferred upon them as 8,mistress of the ,synagogue10 and 8,mother of the ,synagogue10 and1 though they held no actual office in the ,synagogue1 it is not improbable that they acquired these titles by meritorious work connected with a religious institution1 viz43 ,charity4 ,there was1 indeed1 a tendency to exclude women from the synagogue at certain seasons1 but almost all the authorities protest against it1 many of them declaring such a notion to be quite un,jewish4 ,some ,jewish scholars even think that the ancient synagogues knew of no partition for women4 ,i am rather inclined to think that the synagogue took for its model the arrangements in the ,temple1 and thus confined women to a place of their own4 ,but1 whether they sat side by side with the men or occupied a special portion of the edifice1 there can be no doubt that the ,jewish women were great synagogue goers4 ,to give only one instance4 ,one ,rabbi asks another3 ,given the case that the members of the synagogue are all descendants of ,aaron1 to whom then would they impart their blessing8 ,the answer is1 to the women who are there4 ,of the sermon they were even more fond than their husbands4 ,thus one woman was so much interested in the lectures of ,r4 ,meir1 which he was in the habit of giving every ,friday evening1 that she used to remain there so long that the candles in her house burnt themselves out4 ,her lazy husband1 who stopped at home1 so strongly resented having to wait in the dark1 that he would not permit her to cross the threshold until she gave some offence to the preacher1 which would make him sure that she would not venture to attend his sermons again4 ,the prayers they said were the ,eighteen ,benedictions which were prescribed by the ,law4 ,but it would seem that occasionally they offered short prayers composed by themselves as suggested by their personal feelings and needs4 ,thus1 to give one instance1 ,r4 ,johanan relates that one day he observed a young girl fall on her face and pray3 8,lord of the world1 ,thou hast created ,paradise1 ,thou hast created hell1 ,thou hast created the wicked1 ,thou hast created the righteous2 may it be ,thy will that ,i may not serve as a stumblingblock to them40 ,the fine ,hebrew in which the prayer is expressed1 and the notion of the responsibility of ,providence for our actions1 manifest a high degree of intelligence and reflection4 ,it would also seem that some women went so far in their religious sensibility as to lead a regular ascetic life1 and1 according to the suggestion of some scholars1 even took the vow of celibacy4 ,of these the ,rabbis did not approve1 and stigmatised them as the 8destroyers of the world40 ,perhaps it was just at this period that ,judaism could not afford to give free play to those morbid feelings1 degenerating into religious hysterics1 which led some to join rival sects1 and others to abandon themselves to the gross immorality we read of in the history of the ,gnostics4 ,the same circumstances may have been the cause of public opinion being led to accept the view of ,r4 ,eliezer1 who thought it inadvisable--it would seem on moral grounds--to permit woman to study the ,law4 ,this opinion was opposed to that of ,ben ,azzai1 who considered it incumbent upon every father to teach his daughter ,torah4 ,but justified as the advice of ,r4 ,eliezer may have been in his own time1 it was rather unfortunate that later generations continued to take it as the guiding principle for the education of their children4 ,many great women in the course of history indeed became lawbreakers and studied ,torah2 but the majority were entirely dependent on men1 and became in religious matters a sort of appendix to their husbands1 who by their good actions insured salvation also for them1 and sometimes the reverse4 ,thus there is a story about a woman which1 put into modern language1 would be to the effect that she married a minister and copied his sermons for him2 he died1 and she then married a cruel usurer1 and kept his accounts for him4 ,the fact that women were exempted from certain affirmative laws1 which become operative only at special seasons--e4g41 the taking of the palm branch on the ,feast of ,tabernacles--must also have contributed to weaken their position as a religious factor in ,judaism4 ,the idea that women should vie with men in the fulfilment of every law1 became even for the ,rabbis a notion connected only with the remotest past4 ,this is the impression one gains when reading the legend about ,michal1 the daughter of ,saul1 putting on phylacteries1 or the wife of the prophet ,jonah making a pilgrimage to ,jerusalem at the three ,festivals4 ,it would indeed seem as if women were led to strive for the satisfaction of their religious wants in another direction4 ,yet it was said of ,jewish women1 8,the daughters of ,israel were stringent and laid certain restrictions on themselves40 ,they were also allowed to form a quorum by themselves for the purpose of saying the ,grace1 but they could not be counted along with males for this end4 ,it was also against the early notion of the dignity of the congregation that women should perform any public service for men4 ,one privilege was left to women--that of weeping4 ,in ,judges xi4 #dj1 we read of the daughters of ,israel that went yearly to lament the daughter of ,jephthah2 while in #b ,chronicles xxxv4 #be1 we are told how 8all the singing men and the singing women spake of ,josiah in their lamentations40 ,of this privilege they were not deprived1 and if they were not allowed to sing any longer1 they at least retained the right to weep as much as they pleased4 ,even in later times they held a public office as mourning women at funerals4 ,in the ,talmud fragments of compositions by women for such occasions are to be found4 ,indeed1 woman became in these times the type of grief and sorrow4 ,she cannot reason1 but she feels much more deeply than man4 ,here is one instance from an old legend3 ,jeremiah said1 8,when ,i went up to ,jerusalem 7after the destruction of the ,temple7 ,i lifted my eyes and saw there a lonely woman sitting on the top of the mountain1 her dress black1 her hair dishevelled1 crying1 #8,who will comfort me8' ,i approached her and spake to her1 #8,if thou art a woman1 speak to me4 ,if thou art a ghost1 begone4' ,she answered1 #8,dost thou not know me8444 ,i am the ,mother1 ,zion4' 0 ,in general1 however1 the principle applied to women was3 ,the king's daughter within the palace is all glorious 7,psalm xlv4 #ad71 but not outside of it4 ,in the face of the 8,femina in ecclesia taceat10 which was the ruling maxim with other religions1 ,jewish women could only feel flattered by this polite treatment by the ,rabbis1 though it meant the same thing4 ,we must not think1 however1 that this prevented them from attending the service of the synagogue4 ,according to the ,tractate ,sopherim1 even 8the little daughters of ,israel were accustomed to go to the synagogue40 ,in the same tractate we find it laid down as 8a duty to translate for them the portion 7of the ,law7 of the week1 and the lesson from the prophets0 into the language they understand4 ,the 8,king's daughter0 occasionally asserted her rights without undue reliance on the opinion of the authorities4 ,and thus being ignorant of the ,hebrew language women prayed in the vernacular1 though this was at least against the letter of the law4 ,and many famous ,rabbis of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries express their wonder that the 8custom of women praying in other 7non,hebrew7 languages extended over the whole world40 ,it is noteworthy that they did not suppress the practice1 but on the contrary1 they endeavoured to give to the ,law such an interpretation as would bring it into accord with the general custom4 ,some even recommended it1 as1 for example1 the author of ,the ,book of the ,pious1 who gives advice to women to learn the prayers in the language familiar to them4 ,at about the same period a lengthy controversy was being waged by the commentators of the ,talmud and the codifiers1 about woman's partaking in the fulfilment of the laws for special seasons1 from which1 as already remarked1 they were exempted4 ,to the action itself there could not be much objection1 but the difficulty arose when women also insisted on uttering the blessing4 ,now the point at issue was whether they could be permitted to say1 for instance1 8,blessed art ,thou1 ,o ,lord our ,god1 etc41 who hast sanctified us by ,thy ,commandments1 and hast commanded us1 concerning the taking of the ,palm branch10 since in reality the women had not been commanded to do it4 ,to such logical and systematic minds as ,maimonides and ,r4 ,joseph ,caro1 the difficulty was insurmountable1 and they forbade women to use the formula2 but with the less consistent majority women carried their point4 ,rather interesting is the answer received by ,r4 ,jacob1 of ,corbeil1 with regard to this question4 ,this ,rabbi is said to have enjoyed the mysterious power which enabled him to appeal in cases of doubt to the celestial authorities4 ,before them he put also this women's case for decision4 ,judgment was communicated to him in the verse from the ,scriptures1 8,in all that ,sarah saith unto ,thee1 hearken unto her voice0 7,gen4 xxi4 #ab74 ,nor was it unknown for a pious ,jew to compose a special hymn for his wife's use in honour of the ,sabbath4 ,how long this custom of women praying in the vernacular lasted1 we have no means of ascertaining4 ,probably was already extinct about the end of the fifteenth century4 ,for ,r4 ,solomon ,portaleone1 who lived in the sixteenth century1 already regrets the abolition of 8this beautiful and worthy custom40 8,when they prayed in the vernacular10 he says1 8they understood what they were saying1 whilst now they only gabble off their prayers40 ,as a sort of compromise we may regard the various 8,supplications027#bfe7 they form a kind of additional prayers supplementary to the ordinary liturgy1 and are written in ,german4 ,chiefly composed by women1 they specially answer the needs of the sex on various occasions4 ,these prayers deserve a full description by themselves1 into which ,i cannot enter here2 ,i should like only to mention that in one of these collections in the ,british ,museum1 a special supplication is added for servantmaids1 and if ,i am not quite mistaken1 also one for their mistresses4 ,it is also worth noticing that the manuals on the 8,three ,women's ,commandments0 7mostly composed in ,german1 sometimes also in rhymes71 contained much more than their titles would suggest4 ,they rather served as headings to groups of laws1 arranged under each commandment4 ,thus the first 7about certain laws in ,lev4 xii4 and xv47 becomes the motto for purity in body and soul2 the second 7the consecration of the first cake of the dough7 includes all matters relating to charity1 in which women were even reminded to encourage their newly married husbands not to withhold from the poor the tithes of the bridal dowry1 as well as of their future yearly income2 whilst the third 7the lighting of the ,sabbath lamp7 becomes the symbol for spiritual light and sweetness in every relation of human life4 ,as another compromise may also be considered the institution of 8,vorsugern0 7womanreader7 or the 8,woilkennivdicke0 7the wellknowing one7 who reads the prayers and translates them into the vernacular for the benefit of her less learned sisters4 ,in ,poland and in ,russia1 even at the present time1 such a womanreader is to be found in every synagogue1 and from what ,i have heard the institution is by no means unknown in ,london4 ,the various prayerbooks containing the ,hebrew text as well as the ,jewish ,german translation1 which appear in such frequent editions in ,russia1 are mostly intended for the use of these praying women4 ,not uninteresting is the titlepage of ,r4 ,aaron ,ben ,samuel's ,jewish,german translations and collections of prayers which appeared in the beginning of the eighteenth century4 ,he addressed the ,jewish public in the following terms3 8,my dear brethren1 buy this lovely prayerbook or wholesome tonic for body and soul1 which has never appeared in such ,german print since the world began2 and make your wives and children read it often1 thus they will refresh their bodies and souls1 for this light will shine forth into your very hearts4 ,as soon as the children read it they will understand their prayers1 by which they will enjoy both this world and the world to come40 ,an earlier translator of the prayerbook addresses himself directly to the 8pious women0 whom he invites to buy his book1 8in which they will see very beautiful things40 ,recent centuries seem1 on the whole1 to have been distinguished for the number of prayingwomen they produced4 ,the virtues which constituted the claim of women to religious distinction were modesty1 charity1 and daily attendance at the synagogue morning and evening4 ,in the memorial books of the time hundreds of such women are noticed4 ,some used also to spin the 8,fringes10 which they presented to their friends2 others fasted frequently1 whilst 8,old ,mrs4 ,hechele0 not only attended the synagogue every day1 and did charity to poor and rich1 but also understood the art of midwifery1 which she practised in the community without accepting payment for her services4 ,according to ,r4 ,ch4 ,j4 ,bachrach women used also to say the 8,magnified0 prayer in the synagogue when their parents left no male posterity4 ,in bringing to a close this very incomplete sketch1 perhaps ,i ought to notice the confirmation of girls introduced during this century in some communities in ,germany1 which the 8,reformed0 ,rabbis recommended1 but of which the 8,orthodox0 ,rabbis disapproved4 ,it would be well if in the heat of such controversies both sides would remember the words of ,r4 ,zedekiah b4 ,abraham1 of ,rome1 who with regard to a certain difference of opinion on some ritual question1 says3 8,every man receives reward from ,god for what he is convinced is the right thing1 if this conviction has no other motive but the love of ,god40 ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,earliest ,,jewish ,,community ,,in ,,europe ,roman ,judaism has disappeared from our guidebooks4 ,civilisation has levelled down the walls of the ,ghetto1 and its former inhabitants are not any longer 8a people that dwell alone40 ,but with this welldeserved destruction a good deal of the interest was also destroyed which the traveller used to attach to 8the peculiar people0 enclosed in that terrible slum of ,rome4 ,still1 if there is anything eternal in the 8eternal city10 which was neither reconstructed by the ,csars1 nor improved upon by the ,popes1 it is the little ,jewish community at ,rome4 ,it has survived the former2 it has suffered for many centuries under the latter1 and1 partaking in the general revival which has come upon the ,italian nation1 it may still be destined for a great future4 ,indeed1 the history of the relation of ,israel to ,rome is so old that it is not lacking even in legendary elements4 ,on the day on which ,king ,solomon married the daughter of ,pharaoh1 the ,rabbis narrate1 there came down the angel ,gabriel4 ,he put a reed into the sea1 which1 by means of the slime that adhered to it1 formed itself1 in the course of time1 into a large island1 on which the city of ,rome was built--an event with which the troubles of ,israel began4 ,these were the evil consequences of the first msalliance4 ,even more unfortunate for ,israel 7and it is not impossible that this is the meaning of the legend7 were the results of that spiritual mixed marriage between ,judaism and paganism which took place at a much later period1 whereat a blunt soldier1 who sympathised with neither1 and 8who dealt in salvation as he dealt in provinces10 acted as best man4 ,as a fact1 the parties concerned never understood each other properly4 ,the declaration of love1 and the final proposal1 were made in an ,alexandrine jargon1 strange to both1 the obscurities of which only grew with the commentaries each successive generation added to them4 ,under such circumstances1 a happy union was not to be expected1 and the family quarrel which fills the annals of civilised ,europe soon broke out4 ,judaism1 more particularly ,roman ,judaism1 witnessed this struggle from the beginning1 and its fortunes were greatly dependent on the chance which of these two elements1 the ,jewish or the pagan1 won the ascendency4 ,however1 ,i am theologising too much1 whilst ,i am deviating from the subject of these lines4 ,nor could ,i think of giving here1 even in outline1 the history of the oldest ,jewish community in ,europe4 ,this has been already admirably done by ,dr4 ,a4 ,berliner1 who has made the history of the ,jews of ,rome the subject of his studies for nearly a quarter of a century4 ,i intend only to reproduce here1 in a stray fashion1 some of those impressions and reflections which1 ,i am certain1 must occur to every ,jewish traveller in ,italy4 ,now ,i do not think for a moment that we ,jews should have a point of view of our own for looking at things and men in this paradise of ,europe4 ,it would be as silly to have a ,jewish ,baedeker as to think of orthodox mathematics or an ecclesiastical logic or a racial morality--though unfortunately there exist such things4 ,but on the other hand1 if we have not1 like the fox in the fable1 left our heart at home1 let us not do violence to our feelings by passing over everything ,jewish1 over sights which might remind us of our history1 with a certain indifference which would be affected on our part4 ,we are not all little ,goethes1 nor even little ,ruskins1 and our artistic enjoyment is hardly so intense as to shut our hearts against impressions which force themselves upon us either by the way of remembrance of the past1 or even as a living contrast in the present4 ,it so happened that my first visit to the ,vatican was on a ,friday4 ,after doing my work in the ,vatican ,library1 which is open till noon1 ,i went into the adjoining ,church of ,st4 ,peter4 ,one should be1 like the angel of death in the legend1 full of eyes1 properly to see all the wonders of art and marvels of architecture at which human genius and piety laboured busily through centuries1 in adorning the grandest of sacred buildings in the world4 ,but there is ,baedeker or ,murray serving at least as a pair of good spectacles to the layman1 and it was by their aid that ,i made my round in ,st4 ,peter4 ,but lo1 whilst you are observing the celebrated ,piet by ,michael ,angelo1 and1 according to the instruction of your guides1 admiring both the grief of the ,mother and the death of the ,son1 you notice in its vicinity a little column1 surrounded by rails to which the pilgrims approach with a certain awe2 for 8,tradition affirms it to have been brought from ,jerusalem40 ,naturally1 one is instantly reminded of the report1 given by the famous traveller of ,tudela1 of the curiosities of ,rome1 which among other things records1 8,that there are also to be seen in ,st4 ,giovanni in ,porta ,latina 7probably meant for ,lateran7 the two brazen pillars1 constructed by ,king ,solomon of blessed memory1 whose name1 ,solomon1 the son of ,david1 is engraved upon each2 of which he was also told that every year about the #ith of ,ab 7the anniversary of the destruction of ,jerusalem71 these pillars sweat so much that water runs down from them40 ,so far ,benjamin of ,tudela in the twelfth century4 ,in our days pillars weep no longer1 and even of men it is considered a special sign of good breeding to behave pillar like2 but a sigh is still permissible at the sight of this templecolumn1 which in its captivity symbolises1 not less than the ,piet1 the grief of a whole people4 ,of course1 not possessing on the spot either the ,itinerary or even ,urlick1 one is unable to establish the connection between these two traditions and their claim to authenticity4 ,perhaps one may even comfort oneself on the same ground on which the famous cur tried to appease his flock who were sobbing bitterly at his telling them the ,passion story4 ,he exclaimed3 8,my children1 do not weep so much2 it happened long ago1 and even perhaps is not quite true40 ,however1 the ,vatican is the last place in the world to exercise your critical faculties2 you are so deeply absorbed in seeing1 that you have no time to think4 ,so on ,i went1 from aisle to aisle1 from niche to niche1 from chapel to chapel1 looking1 staring1 and admiring1 till of a sudden my eyes were struck by a large statue1 on which the words1 8,thou shalt have no other ,god before me10 are engraved4 ,there ,i stood before a question of exegesis1 where one is permitted to use his right senses without any regard to the sthetic side4 ,yet not all the manifold expositions of the ,decalogue1 nor all the talk about the subjectiveobjective1 the absolute and the real1 with which metaphysicians have tried to confuse the notion of the ,unity of ,god1 will reconcile one to the meaning which ,medival ,art has impressed upon the ,ten ,commandments4 ,the truth has to be sought elsewhere1 and thus my thoughts were turned to the synagogue1 and thither ,i went4 ,the day was already drawing to its close1 and1 by a marvellous coincidence1 ,i arrived at the synagogue just as the congregation was intoning the words3 8,the ,lord is one1 and ,his name is one to ,his renown and glory40 ,here was sound1 simple exegesis1 though sadly lacking in the illustrative matter in which the ,vatican is so rich4 ,but what need was there of any real or artificial 8aid to the believer10 in the presence of such a living faith1 as enabled this little community to maintain its protesting position in the teeth of the mistress of the world6 ,and this even at a time1 when it only required a hint from the successors of the old ,roman ,emperors to make the whole world renounce its right of thinking and judging1 and1 were we to believe ,herr ,janssen1 even to feel perfectly happy in this torpor4 ,but1 by the way1 are our own times much better8 ,as ,i write these lines 7,october #ahic7 ,i hear that a ,bill has been brought into the ,german ,diet1 asking that the ,talmud should be submitted to a ,commission 7which en passant1 has been sitting in unbroken session in that country since the days of ,pfefferkorn in the fifteenth century7 with the purpose of examining its contents1 while in the ,vatican the very pupils of ,loyola are offering every convenience and comfort to the student who should care to devote his time to ,rabbinic literature4 ,does not the work of a great number of our poets1 historians1 theologians1 and socalled seers in this blessed century of ours1 in many respects prove but a strained effort to destroy the few humanitarian principles which were established a few generations ago1 as well as to deify every brutal warrior who was successful in his day8 ,again1 is the national idea so much sublimer1 so much grander1 than that of a universal religion1 that we would willingly permit the former to employ the means which have been denied to the latter as inhuman and barbarous8 ,every age has its own idolatry1 and the eternal wandering ,jew will always be the chosen victim of the ,moloch in fashion4 ,let us1 however1 return to the synagogue1 which withstood many a cruelty1 both ancient and modern4 ,the place where the synagogue stands is near the ,ghetto1 now called ,piazza di ,scuola4 ,it is1 besides a few other communal houses1 the only building left there1--all those narrow1 dirty1 and typhoidbreeding streets which formed the old ,ghetto having been demolished by a sage and humane government1 which by this action wiped out the last stain from its history4 ,there1 on this vast blank is the synagogue1 a comparatively small1 insignificant building1 laden with heavy age and looking down on her children whom she has been nursing1 consoling1 and protecting for centuries1 but who1 now grown old1 have forsaken her and scattered to all the ends of the city4 ,of all her former acquaintances there appears to be left only father ,tiber1 who would seem to be murmuring to her many an old tale of the times before she was called into existence4 ,and if he listened to the special prayers recited within her walls by the deputies of the ,jewish communities1 when preparing themselves to go to the court of the ,pope1 the ,tiber heard many a sigh and cry1 wrung out from the heart of a ,jewish captive who1 preferring death to slavery even under the masters of the world1 found his last repose in its waters4 ,but insignificant as this synagogue appears1 she proved the spiritual bulwark against all the attacks of the time1 and you admire her brave resistance all the more when you look at that multitude of churches and cloisters in the closest vicinity of the ,ghetto1 impressing you as so many intrenchments1 all directing their missiles and weapons against this humble1 defenceless building1 threatening it with death and destruction4 ,one of these churches1 probably founded by some ,jewish convert1 who gained in it both salvation and a good living1 bears on its gates in ,hebrew letters the inscription3 8,i have spread out my hands all the day unto a rebellious people1 which walketh in the way that was not good1 after their own thoughts4 ,a people that provoketh me to anger continually to my face0 7,isaiah lxv4 #b1 #c74 ,menace is followed by persuasion1 the cited verses being accompanied by the ,latin words3 8,indulgentia plenaria quotodiana perpetua pro vivis et defunctis40 ,theologians who like to quarrel most about things they can know least1 have for ages discussed the question1 whether prayers for the dead are of any use2 here the matter is decided by a simple advertisement4 ,it is not to be denied that one would enjoy the fortunes accumulated by one's late sinner of an uncle all the better for being sure that a few pennyworths of prayer enable the legatee to make one's benefactor in ,hades comfortable and happy4 ,the thought is very consoling indeed1 and it is not to be wondered at that the ,roman synagogue could not entirely withstand its temptations1 and introduced into the offeringblessing after one is called up to the ,torah1 the words3 8,to the advancing of the soul of the departed40 ,of course much of this tendency may be attributed to the ,ford ,jabbok17#bff7 which was and is still very popular in that country2 but the fact that the author of this ,jewish 8,book of the ,dead0 was an ,italian 7from ,modena71 shows clearly that there was some ,catholic influence at work1 from which even the fellowcountrymen of ,azariah de ,rossi and ,judah ,messer ,leon could not entirely emancipate themselves4 ,i ought to have spoken of ,roman synagogues1 since the building in the ,ghetto to which ,i have been constantly alluding comprises four prayer houses devoted to ,spanish and ,italian rites4 ,it says much for ,roman ,judaism1 that they did not consider ritual differences of such importance as to prevent them from forming one community for all charitable and congregational purposes4 ,in ,verona and in ,modena some congregations even retained the ,german rite1 which their ancestors who immigrated from the ,rhine provinces brought with them1 whilst they accepted the ,spanish pronunciation4 ,i wish that the ,anglo,jewish community could see their way to imitate their example4 ,not that ,i think for a moment that the ,spanish pronunciation is more correct than the ,german4 ,each system has its own mistakes and corruptions2 and it is more than probable that the prophet ,isaiah1 or even the author of ,ecclesiastes1 would be as little able to follow the prayers in ,bevis ,marks as in ,duke's ,place4 ,but since the non ,jewish scientific world has1 though only by pure accident1 accepted the ,spanish way of reading the ,hebrew1 ,i should like to see this trifling difference of ,baruch over ,buruch at last disappear1 by pronouncing the cametsvowel a instead of o1 and accepting similar little changes1 which are of no real importance to us4 ,the inside of these synagogues is even more simple than their outside4 ,i was told that the synagogue which was burned down last winter1 and which also formed a part of this building1 could boast of many fine decorations and carvings1 etc41 but ,i could observe nothing of the kind in the synagogues ,i had occasion to frequent4 ,nor is there much of natural decorum in them1 and they reconcile one perfectly to the worst of the ,small ,synagogues elsewhere4 ,i venture to think that in this respect1 too1 we have to recognise ,catholic influence4 ,it was1 ,i think1 one of the leaders in the ,oxford ,movement who expressed his delight at seeing in ,italy a woman poorlydressed coming into the church1 who1 after putting down the basket from her back1 kneels before one of the many altars and says her prayers4 ,a good deal of this familiarity in the place of worship may also be noticed in the ,roman synagogues1 where ,i have seen a woman come into the partition for men1 notwithstanding their having a separate gallery1 without bonnet or hat on her head1 and with an infant in her arms1 and listen there to the prayers1 till she walked home with her husband4 ,the other people were also very restless1 coming and going often1 whilst1 as soon as the reading of the ,law was over1 the greater part of the worshippers left the synagogue4 ,it was not a very delightful sight4 ,a minus of decorum does not always mean a plus of devotion2 just as little as a maximum of respectability and stiffness are to be taken as signs of true piety4 ,it is not uninteresting to notice that the ,roman synagogue1 in spite of its old traditions1 did not entirely shut itself against modern reforms4 ,among them there is that of 8calling up the people to the ,torah0 by the simple formula1 8,let the ,priest0 7or 8the ,levite07 8step forth107#bfg7 and so on1 not mentioning either names or titles1 which ,i should like to recommend most strongly to our congregations4 ,i hope that no man will suspect me of such heresy as that of questioning the wisdom of the ,synagogue ,regulations4 ,but ,i am inclined to think that the business of conferring the degrees of ,rabbi1 8,associate0 or 8,master10 does not exactly fall within the sphere of activity of the ,wardens4 ,the matter could only be decided by a proper ,board of examination4 ,as the ,council is not provided with such a ,board1 nor is every aspirant to this honour prepared to undergo the examination required1 the wisest course would be to give up titles altogether1 calling up all people alike in the way indicated4 ,the robes the ministers wear 7somewhat similar to those of the ,greek clergy71 are probably also an innovation of modern date1--the old orthodox ,rabbis looking at any special vestment for the ,preacher or ,reader with the same feeling of disgust which the old ,puritans entertained for surplice or mitre4 ,but the principle of 8,the ,beauty of ,holiness0 proved too strong for resistance1 and it was only a pardonable vanity when the reformers applied it to their own persons2 8,vanity of vanities10 saith the preacher1 so often1 that he gets rather to like it4 ,this vanity is greatly redeemed by the fact that the preacher does not grudge his uniform to his humbler brother1 the beadle1 who is in most cases to be distinguished from the officiating ministry only by the brassplate on his breast1 on which the word 8,servant0 is engraved4 ,considering the great confusion arising from the meaningless 8,reverend0 and the universal white necktie1 such a label1 indicating the proper office of the bearer1 might1 perhaps1 prove as useful among the ,english ,jews as it is among the ,jews of ,rome4 ,it was with a pupil of the ,rabbinical ,college1 in company with his friends1 that ,i took my first walk through ancient ,rome4 ,i felt attracted to him by his striking face of that peculiar fine ,jewish type1 which is more common among the ,jews in the ,east than among us4 ,and when he was reading the lesson from the ,prophets in the synagogue1 where ,i made his acquaintance1 he reminded me of that ,jewish boy with bright eyes1 black curls1 and features strikingly beautiful walking as a captive from ,jerusalem through the streets of ,rome some seventeen centuries ago1 whose proficiency in the words of ,isaiah caused his redemption4 ,it would be an exaggeration to say that my companion's remarks were very instructive from an artistic point of view4 ,being born and bred in ,rome1 he passed with utter indifference many objects which we are bidden to admire1 whilst at others he actually shouted out 8,image10 or made some other prosaic remark4 ,but in a country where one is determined to play the heathen for so many weeks1 to worship superannuated deities1 to get into raptures at every reminiscence of superseded and vanishing religions1 and to be delighted at the sights of 8greasy saints and martyrs hairy10 there can be no great harm in being called back to one's true nature4 ,the feelings crowding upon one1 when entering that part of the ancient city which probably was in the mind of the ,rabbis when they spoke of 8,guilty ,rome10 are of a conflicting nature4 ,every stone and every brick there saw the humiliation of ,israel1 in every theatre and every circus the ,jew served as a comic figure1 and was held up to ridicule1 whilst there was1 perhaps1 hardly a single lane or gate through which those who resented the yoke of the 8anti,semites of ,antiquity0 did not pass1 in order to 8be butchered to make a ,roman holiday40 ,what concerns a ,jew most in this perished world of ruins1 and at the same time causes him the deepest grief1 is the triumphal arch of ,titus1 8commemorating the defeat of the ,jews1 and dedicated to him by his successor1 ,domitian40 ,enough has been said and written about it both by antiquarians and theologians1 the former admiring the workmanship of the reliefs1 the latter perceiving in it a proof of the fulfilment of the wellknown passages in the ,new ,testament about the destruction of the ,temple1 which came to pass in spite of the efforts made by ,titus to save it4 ,those who have read ,bernay's essay on the 8,chronik des ,sulpicius ,severus0 know that the behaviour of 8the delight of the human species0 on that occasion is rather open to doubt1 and it is more probable that1 instead of trying to rescue it1 he commanded that it should be set on fire4 ,josephus1 who witnessed the shame of his compatriots and coreligionists1 has left us a full account of the triumphal procession4 ,only a flunkey like ,josephus could maintain that calm indifference with which he describes the events of the 8bitter day10 the perusal of which makes one's blood boil4 ,his description fairly agrees with the famous relief on the arch1 showing that part of the procession in which the table with the shewbread1 the candlestick with the seven lamps1 and the golden trumpets figure as the chief objects4 ,the only thing which we miss is the 8,law of the ,jews10 which1 according to ,josephus1 was carried in the triumph as 8the last of all the spoils40 ,was it only an oversight of the artist1 or had he no place for it1 or is it ,josephus who committed the error1 mistaking some other object for the ,scroll of the ,law8 ,i dearly hope that this last was the case1 and that ,heine was under the impulse of a true and real and poetic inspiration when he wrote 7speaking of the ,holy ,scripture to which he owed his conversion73 8,the ,jews1 who appreciate the value of precious things1 knew right well what they did when1 at the burning of the second temple they left to their fate the golden and silver implements of sacrifice1 the candlesticks and lamps1 even the breastplate of the ,high ,priest adorned with great jewels1 but saved the ,bible4 ,this was the real treasure of the temple1 and1 thanks be to ,god6 it was not left a prey to the flames1 nor to the fury of ,titus ,vespasian1 the wretch1 who1 as the ,rabbi tells us1 met with so dreadful a death40 ,however1 there were others who brought the glad tidings of the ,old ,testament to ,rome long before there existed a ,new one4 ,and this is1 on the other side1 what makes ,rome a sort of ,terra ,sancta even to the ,jew4 ,it is true that we have not to look for the footprints of the prophets1 for whom even tradition never claimed 8the gift of missionarytravelling40 ,but might not the ground there have received a sort of consecration by the fact that it was traversed by the ambassadors of ,judas ,maccabus 7about #afa ,b4,c47 8to make a league of amity and confederacy0 with the ,roman ,senate8 ,of the embassy of ,simon the ,maccabee 7about #adj ,b4,c47 there is actual historical evidence that they began to propagate in ,rome the ,jewish religion4 ,some seventy or eighty years later the ,jews had already their own quarter in ,rome1 with their own synagogues1 which they were in the habit of visiting1 8most especially on the sacred ,sabbath days1 when they publicly cultivate their national philosophy40 ,that many of the oldest teachers of ,israel1 the ,tannaim1 went to ,rome as deputies1 and that one of them 7,r4 ,mathia ben ,chares7 founded a school there early in the second century1 is also an authenticated fact4 ,one would like to know what they taught1 and in what way they expounded their national philosophy4 ,most of all one would like to know what were the spiritual means they employed in their proselytising work1 in which they were1 according to the testimony of history1 so successful4 ,did they preach in the streets8 ,or did they hold public controversies8 ,or did they even send out ,epistles which1 in form at least1 served as a model to apostles of another creed8 ,how many a problem would be solved2 how many a miracle would disappear2 how many a book would become superfluous1 if we could obtain certainty about these points6 ,the ,talmud tells us little1 almost nothing1 about these important things1 whilst we get from the ,roman writers only sneers and raillery4 ,to these respectable ,romans the ,jews were only a mob of unlettered atheists4 ,indeed1 to a good orthodox heathen1 a religion without images and statues1 with a ,god without a pedigree and without a theogony1 was an impossible thing4 ,those poor metaphysicians6 ,however1 why dwell so long on a past world8 ,a famous ,rabbi once exclaimed3 8,if a man would ask thee1 #8,where is thy ,god8' answer him3 #8,in the great city of ,rome4' 0 ,the underlying idea was the mystical notion that wherever ,israel had to migrate1 they were accompanied by the ,divine presence4 ,and ,rome was1 in the times of the ,rabbis1 the point to which the streams of ,jewish migration from the ,holy ,land chiefly converged4 ,but now1 instead of to ,rome1 might we not point to ,london and ,new ,york as centres of ,jewish migrations8 ,,index ,this ,index contains the most important names of persons1 titles of books1 technical terms and ,hebrew words occurring in the text4 ,in the notes to the text1 the ,hebrew words are for the most part given also in ,hebrew characters4 ,abarbanel1 ,isaac1 #agc1 #agd ,abaye1 #caa ,ab ,beth ,din1 #hd ,abba ,mari b4 ,moses1 #afe1 #agi ,abba ,tachnah1 the ,chassid1 #bba ,abraham1 ,baalshem's fatherinlaw1 #g ,abraham1 son of ,elijah ,wilna1 #hh ,abraham of ,bedres1 #bfb ,abraham ,abulaphia1 #bfb ,abraham ,ibn ,daud1 #afb ,abraham ,ibn ,ezra1 #ej1 #eb1 #fd1 #ga1 #baj1 #cad ,abraham b4 ,shem--,tob ,bibago1 #agb1 #agc ,abtalyon1 #ahf ,abuha1 #caa ,acha1 #caj ,acher1 #bib ,adam1 ,primal1 #bci ,agadah1 pl4 ,agadoth1 #fd1 #aje1 #ahc1 #aig ,agadic1 #aaj1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aic1 #bfb1 #bgi ,ages of ,man1 #bie ,akabyah b4 ,mahalaleel1 #cje ,akiba1 #gj1 #hd1 #acj1 #ahh1 #aij1 #aid1 #bbj1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bcd ,almemor1 #cjb ,ammi1 #bad1 #bag1 #bbf1 #bca ,amora1 pl4 ,amoraim1 #ag1 #hd1 #aie ,amram ,gaon1 #bic ,anna of ,kaidon1 wife of ,elijah ,wilna1 #hb ,anselm1 ,st41 of ,canterbury1 #gi ,antigonos of ,socho1 #bbi ,anti,maimonists1 #acc ,aristotle1 #gi1 #afg ,aryeh ,leb1 son of ,elijah ,wilna1 #hh ,ascension of ,elijah1 #ge ,asher b4 ,jechiel1 #baj ,assideans1 #fd ,ayil ,meshulash1 #ha ,azariah de ,rossi1 #ff1 #ga1 #aje1 #ccc ,aziluth1 #aag ,azulai1 #bgg ,baalshem1 ,israel1 #cab1 #adce1 #gc ,bachrach1 ,ch4 ,j41 #cbe ,bachur1 pl4 ,bachurim1 #ie1 #ig ,bachya1 #aca ,baraitha1 #bga ,baruch ,sheamar1 #caa ,bashazi1 #afa ,bath,kol1 #aij ,beer of ,mizriez1 #aa1 #cg ,beer1 ,peter1 #ff ,ben ,azzai1 #acj1 #baf1 #cai ,benjamin of ,tudela1 #cbi ,ben,jacob1 #bei ,ben ,sira1 #big ,ben ,zoma1 #acj ,bereshith1 #abg ,berith ,milah1 #bhh1 #bib1 #bic ,berliner1 ,a41 #cbg ,bernays1 ,isaak1 #ccg ,beth ,din1 #aiaaic ,beth ,hammidrash1 #g1 #af1 #hd1 #aci ,beth ,talmud1 #baj ,biccurim1 #eh ,bloch1 ,samson1 #ea ,bodek1 ,a41 #ea ,book of ,brightness 7see ,zohar7 ,book of the ,pious1 #bie1 #cbb ,book of ,victory1 #afg ,book of ,weight1 #acc ,boswell1 #adb1 #aig ,buckle1 #if ,burbot1 #ach ,buzagli1 the ,cabbalist1 #caj ,cabbalah1 ,cabbalists1 #ii1 #abh1 #abi1 #acc1 #baj1 #bhc1 #cae ,cabod1 #abj1 #aba ,caraites1 #dh1 #afj1 #afa1 #bjg1 #bjh ,casaubon1 ,isaac1 #bei ,chagigah1 #gg ,chakhamim1 #eg ,chambers1 the1 #bjh ,chanina b4 ,dossa1 #bag ,chanukah1 #ach ,chapters of ,r4 ,eliezer the ,great1 #fh1 #fi1 #caf ,chasdai ,ibn ,crescas1 #afgagc1 #ahj ,chassidim1 ,chassid1 ,chassidic1 ,chassidism1 #ad1 #aa1 #ab1 #adaf1 #ba1 #bb1 #bebg1 #cj1 #cc1 #ceda1 #dcde1 #ec1 #gc1 #ij1 #bih ,chayim ,vital1 #ii ,chayim ,walosin1 #he1 #hg1 #id ,chisda1 #cjg ,chukkim1 #abd ,code of the ,law1 by ,caro1 #ge1 #ib1 #bjf1 #baa1 #beg ,collectanea1 #add ,commentary on the ,pentateuch1 by ,nachmanides1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #abc1 #ace ,creeds and ,opinions1 by ,saadiah ,gaon1 #afb ,crown1 #bci ,cusari1 #afb ,date of the ,redemption1 #aje ,david ,rocca ,martino1 #bcj ,david ,messer ,leon1 #agd ,david b4 ,samuel d',estella1 #afe1 #aff ,david b4 ,yom,tob ,bilia1 #aff4 ,defence of ,adam1 #bcj ,delmedigo1 #ga1 #aca1 #age ,disputation1 by ,nachmanides1 #ajc ,dukes1 ,l41 #bfj ,eighteen ,benedictions1 #hc ,eleazar1 #bbi ,eleazar b4 ,jacob1 #bbe ,eliezer1 father of ,baalshem1 #e ,eliezer b4 ,hyrkanos1 #ahi1 #cai ,eliezer b4 ,samuel ,hallevi1 #ade ,eliezer b4 ,simeon1 #bbc ,elijah ,levita1 #bfh ,elijah ,wilna1 #eg1 #gcgg1 #haib1 #if1 #ig ,elisha b4 ,abuyah1 #cc1 #acj1 #bib ,emden1 ,jacob1 #aj1 #bei ,epikurus1 #aeg ,erech ,millin1 #ff ,erter1 ,isaac1 #ea1 #ei1 #bhh ,essenes1 #fd1 #ahe ,examination of the ,world1 #ig ,eybeschtz1 ,j41 #aj ,ezra1 or ,azriel1 the mystic1 #ajj ,faithful ,city1 the1 #ge ,fichte1 #ea ,finn1 #ge ,ford ,jabbok1 #ccc ,frankists1 #aj ,frankl1 ,z41 #fe1 #ig ,frst1 ,j41 #ff ,gamaliel ,i41 #bcd ,gamaliel ,,ii41 #aid1 #bab ,gaon1 pl4 ,gaonim1 #gc1 #gfgh1 #ig1 #ih1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bhi1 #cab ,garden of ,mystical ,contemplation1 #abi ,gate of ,reward1 #aae1 #bac ,geiger1 ,a41 #ff ,gemara1 #gh ,gershon1 brotherinlaw of ,baalshem1 #h1 #i ,ghetto1 #cbf1 #ccaccc ,gnostics1 #fd ,goethe1 #eg1 #gc1 #cjf1 #cbh ,gozer1 #bij ,graetz1 #fe1 #ig1 #ii1 #ahc ,great ,interpreters1 #ahf ,green1 ,a4 ,l41 #bee ,guide of the ,perplexed1 #di1 #fh1 #ig1 #ajb1 #acj1 #aca1 #agi ,guide of the ,perplexed of the ,time1 #fj1 #fg ,hadasi1 ,judah1 #afj1 #afa ,hai ,gaon1 #gg1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bgb ,halachah1 pl4 ,halachoth1 #fd1 #ff1 #ahc ,halachic1 #eg1 #ib1 #aaj1 #aeg1 #aic1 #bjg ,halachoth ,gedoloth1 #aaa1 #aab ,hannaneel of ,kairwan1 #afb ,hegel1 #ea1 #ed1 #fd1 #fe ,heine1 #ei1 #abd1 #bed ,high ,belief1 #afb ,hillel the ,great1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #aic1 #bcg ,hillel1 ,r41 #agg ,history of ,jewish ,tradition1 #fe1 #ahb ,hithlahabuth1 #cb ,holle ,kreisch1 #bid1 #bie ,huna1 #bba1 #bbe ,isaac ,alfasi1 #ac1 #ajj1 #aja1 #aaa1 #cab ,isaac ,aramah1 #agc ,isaac ,loria1 #gf1 #acc ,isaac b4 ,ruben1 #ajj ,ishmael1 #ahh1 #aij1 #bbd ,ishmael b4 ,elishah1 #bbb1 #bii ,israel ,baalshem 7see ,baalshem1 ,israel7 ,jacob of ,corbeil1 #cbb ,jacob ,dubna1 #ia ,jacob the ,levite1 or ,maharil1 #adc1 #add ,jacob ,sasportas1 #aja1 #ajb ,jacob ,tam1 #baj ,jannai1 #bbf ,jedaiah of ,bedres1 #ig1 #aca ,jerusalem1 by ,mendelssohn1 #adg ,johanan1 #bdi1 #bhg1 #cjc1 #cah ,johanan b4 ,zaccai1 #dh1 #ahh ,jonah ,gerundi1 #ajj1 #aja ,jonah1 son of ,nachmanides1 #aja ,jos1 #bah1 #bai ,joseph ,albashir1 #afj ,joseph ,albo1 #aga1 #agb ,joseph ,caro1 #ge1 #ib1 #bjf1 #baa1 #cbb ,joseph ,jabez1 #aca1 #agc1 #agi ,joshua b4 ,hananiah1 #aid1 #bii1 #cjd1 #cjh ,jost1 ,m41 #ff ,judah ,alcharisi1 #bfb ,judah ,hallevi1 #ac1 #cd1 #aeb1 #afb1 #bjh ,judah b4 ,ilai1 #bdf ,judah ,messer ,leon1 #ccc ,judah de ,modena1 #bih ,judah the ,patriarch1 #fc1 #aie ,judah the ,pious1 #cjf ,judah b4 ,tema1 #bii ,judah b4 ,yakar1 #ajj ,karab1 #abd ,kilayim1 #hg ,kimchi1 ,d41 #ade ,korban1 #abd ,krochmal1 ,nachman1 #dd1 #df1 #dhfh1 #ga1 #gb ,kuenen1 #bdj ,law of ,man1 #aacaae ,laws unto ,moses on ,mount ,sinai1 #fd ,lessing1 #gc ,letteris1 ,m41 #ef1 #eg ,levi b4 ,gershom1 #ig1 #aja1 #aga ,light of ,god1 #afg ,lilac of ,mysteries1 #acc ,lilith1 #bhg1 #bhh ,lipman of ,mhlhausen1 #afg1 #agi ,liva of ,prague1 #gh ,lowell1 ,r41 #aaf ,lw1 ,l41 #aga1 #bhe1 #cje ,lucas1 ,mrs4 ,henry1 #ace ,macaulay1 #hi ,maggid1 #ai ,magnified1 #caj ,maimonides1 or ,moses b4 ,maimon1 #ac1 #dh1 #di1 #fh1 #gj1 #gh1 #ig1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aaa1 #abf1 #acj1 #acc1 #adj1 #afaafh1 #agjaha1 #baj1 #baa1 #bdi1 #bgd1 #bhj1 #bha1 #cab1 #cbb ,maimonists1 ,anti,maimonists1 #afcafe1 #agc1 #baj ,mar ,samuel1 #hd ,mathia b4 ,chares1 #cci ,measure of the ,stature1 #bjh ,mechilta1 #eh1 #ha1 #aic ,meheram ,schiff1 #af ,meir1 #acj1 #aid1 #bbf1 #cah ,meir b4 ,nathan of ,trinquintaines1 #ajj ,meir of ,rothenburg1 #baj ,memra1 #bch ,men of the ,great ,synagogue1 #fd1 #ahe ,menachoth1 #hf ,mendelssohn1 ,moses1 #dh1 #eh1 #gc1 #adg1 #aea1 #agf ,metatron1 #bch ,midrash1 pl4 ,midrashim1 #fa1 #fd1 #ga1 #ha1 #aic1 #aie1 #bbb1 #bfb1 #bgb1 #bgc1 #cjd ,milton1 #aad ,minhag1 pl4 ,minhagim1 #adc1 #aib ,minim1 #fd ,minor ,tractates1 #ha ,mishnah1 #eg1 #fd1 #ff1 #gf1 #gh1 #hb1 #he1 #hg1 #ia1 #aeg1 #aij1 #aic1 #aie1 #bga ,mistress of the ,synagogue1 #cag ,moses ,cordevora1 #acc ,moses ,ibn ,ezra1 #bfb ,moses de ,leon1 #ah1 #acc1 #beh1 #bfb ,moses of ,tachau1 #aca ,mother ,zion1 #cba ,nachman1 son of ,nachmanides1 #aja ,nachmanides1 or ,moses b4 ,nachman1 #iiada1 #bac ,nahum of ,gemzo1 #bae ,nasi1 #hd ,nathan1 #aid ,nephesh ,chayah1 #aag ,neubauer1 ,dr4 ,a41 #bfc ,night of ,watching1 #bhh ,nissim of ,gerona1 #acc ,nissim of ,marseilles1 #bfg ,olam ,habba1 #aae ,old ,victory1 #cjd ,oral ,law1 #aj ,orchard1 the1 #acc ,ordinance of the ,law1 #bic ,pablo ,christiano1 #ajc1 #aje1 #ajf ,pairs1 the1 #ahe ,paradise ,lost1 #aad ,pardes1 #abi ,pashut1 #ach ,path of ,belief1 #agb ,perles1 ,j41 #ii1 #abc1 #bid ,pharisees1 #fd1 #ahe1 #bcg1 #bda ,philo1 #eb1 #fd1 #aed1 #bch ,pilpul ,pilpulist1 #ac1 #gh ,plato1 #gh ,pugio ,fidei1 #ajg ,raba1 #caa ,rabbanan ,saburai1 #bjf ,rabbah1 #caa ,rabbenu1 #ac ,rabbenu ,mosheh1 #ajc ,rabbinowicz1 ,r4 ,n4 ,n41 #bfa ,raimund ,martini1 #ajg ,rapoport1 ,solomon ,leb1 #ej1 #ec1 #ef1 #ff ,reggio1 ,isaac1 #bgj ,roots1 the1 #aga ,ruskin1 #cbh ,saadiah ,gaon1 #dh1 #afb1 #ajh1 #bgb ,sacred ,letter1 #aac ,sadducees1 #fd1 #ahe1 #bcg ,salman the ,good1 #ade ,sambatyon1 #ie ,sanctificationcup1 #bde ,sandalphon1 #cje ,sandek1 #bij ,sanhedrin1 the1 #ahh1 #aij1 #aia ,saul ,berlin1 #agf1 #ahj ,sayings of the ,fathers1 ,aboth1 #bfb1 #bii ,schelling1 #ea ,schiller1 #gc ,schlummerlied1 #bie ,schorr1 ,o41 #aic ,schudt1 #bia1 #bih ,sechorah1 #bif ,seder ,nezikin1 #eh ,seder ,olam1 #ha1 #ib ,seder ,taharoth1 #eh ,segulah1 #abb ,sephardim1 #cja ,sepher1 #ac ,sephiroth1 ,ten1 #bch ,sermon in the ,presence of the ,king1 by ,nachmanides1 #afe ,shabbethai ,tsebi1 #acd1 #bci ,shalom ,zachar1 #bhi ,shammai1 #ahe1 #ahh1 #bcg ,shechinah1 #abj1 #aba1 #bbhbcj ,shema1 reading of the1 #ada1 #bhh ,shemaiah1 #ahf ,shemariah of ,crete1 #aff ,sherira ,gaon1 #bfc ,shiphluth1 #cj ,simchah1 #ca ,simeon ,duran1 #aja1 #agj1 #aga ,simeon b4 ,eleazar1 #bhi ,simeon b4 ,gamaliel1 #bbb ,simeon b4 ,gamaliel ,,ii41 #aic1 #aid ,simeon b4 ,yochai1 #ah1 #bbc ,simlai1 #aab ,siphra1 #eh1 #ha1 #ia1 #aic1 #bfb ,siphr1 #eh1 #ha1 #ia1 #aic1 #bfb ,solomon b4 ,adereth1 #gj1 #bfg ,solomon b4 ,gabirol1 #baj ,solomon of ,st4 ,goar1 #adcade ,solomon b4 ,isaac1 ,rashi1 #ac1 #baj ,solomon b4 ,isaac b4 ,zadok1 #acg ,solomon ,ladier1 #dc ,solomon ,portaleone1 #cbc ,solomon1 son of ,nachmanides1 #aaj ,solomon ,syrillo1 #bfb ,solomon ,wilna1 #ge ,son of the ,law1 #cjg1 #cab ,sopherim1 #fd ,spencer1 ,herbert1 #ig ,steinschneider1 ,m41 #ii1 #agb ,taanith1 #eh ,talmid ,chaber1 #eb ,talmid ,chakam1 #g ,talmud 7of ,jerusalem or ,babylon71 #af1 #ai1 #cc1 #di1 #eb1 #egei1 #fd1 #gf1 #gh1 #ha1 #hb1 #hf1 #hg1 #hi1 #ia1 #ib1 #if1 #aja1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aaa1 #abi1 #aca1 #adj1 #aea1 #aee1 #aeh1 #aie1 #aif1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bji1 #baj1 #bch1 #beb1 #bedbef1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bga1 #bgb1 #bgg ,tanna1 pl4 ,tannaim1 #ag1 #hd1 #ahg ,tephillin1 #bdi ,thackeray1 #bhb ,thirteen ,articles of the ,creed1 #adh1 #afc1 #afd1 #agj1 #agf1 #agi ,thirteen ,rules 7of ,interpretation71 #aie ,tobijah1 the ,priest1 #age ,tosephta1 #ha1 #hb1 #ib1 #bfb1 #bga ,toy1 ,prof41 #bccbci1 #bea ,tractate ,berachoth1 #bba1 #bga ,tractate ,evidences1 #aib ,tractate ,joys1 #aid ,tractate ,sanhedrin1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aei ,tractate ,sopherim1 #cja1 #cab1 #cba ,tree of ,life1 the1 #acc ,troki1 ,solomon1 #afa ,variae ,lectiones 7of the ,talmud71 #bfa ,viterbo1 ,abraham ,chayim1 #age1 #agf ,vorsugerin1 #cbd ,wars of the ,lord1 #aja ,watchman1 the1 #ei ,weiss1 ,t4 ,h41 #fe1 #ig1 #ii1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #aheahg1 #aiaaig1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bjibab ,wellhausen1 #bdc ,wisdom of ,solomon1 #abg1 #aed ,woilkennivdicke1 #cbd ,yediah1 #aai ,yeshibah1 pl4 ,yeshiboth1 #idif1 #bic ,yom,tob ,heller1 #aif ,zaddik1 pl4 ,zaddikim 7,zaddikism71 #cfdd1 #ec1 #bih ,zadoc1 #bde ,zebachim1 #hf ,zedner1 #bedbef ,zehub1 #acgaci ,zerahiah ,hallevi of ,gerona 7or ,gerondi71 #ajj1 #aja1 #aaa ,zion,elegy1 #bjh ,zobeoth1 #cad ,zohar1 #ah1 #ai1 #ga1 #ia1 #acc1 #beh ,zunz1 ,leopold1 #dd1 #eb1 #ef1 #fj1 #fe1 #gc1 #ig1 #ahc1 #bgi1 #cje ,,footnotes #a ,,subjoined ,,is ,a ,,list ,,of ,,selected ,,authorities ,,on ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,,the ,,chassidim4--,historical and ,bibliographical ,works3 ,graetz 7xi4 including the polemical literature quoted in the ,appendix71 ,jost1 ,peter ,beer1 ,m4 ,bodek 7 1 ,lemberg1 #ahfe71 ,a4 ,walden 7 1 ,warschau1 #ahfd71 ,finn 7 1 ,wilna1 #ahfj71 ,d4 ,kahana 7 in the periodical 1 iv471 ,zederbaum 7 1 ,odessa1 #ahfh74 ,essays and ,satires3 ,t4 ,erter 71 ,wien1 #aheh71 ,s4 ,szant 7,jahrbuch fr ,israeliten1 p4 #ajhagh1 #ahfg71 ,a4 ,gottlober 7in his periodical 1 iii471 ,l4 ,lw 7,ben ,chananjah1 ii471 ,rudermann 71 vi471 ,rapoport 7 1 ,lemberg1 #ahgc1 p4 #aj71 ,frhlich 71 ,warschau1 #ahgf1 p4 #fc seq471 ,s4 ,maimon 7,autobiographie1 ,berlin1 #agib74 ,compare also the ,hebrew novels by ,p4 ,smolensky1 ,l4 ,gordon1 ,m4 ,brandsttter1 ,a4 ,gottlober and ,b4 ,horowitz 7,german74 ,occasional references to the liturgy or the system of the ,chassidim in the 8,responses0 of ,r4 ,ezechiel ,landau1 ,moses ,sopher1 ,e4 ,flekeles and ,t4 ,steinhart1 and in the works of ,israel ,samostsch1 ,salomon ,chelma and ,chayim ,walosin4 ,compare also ,zunz 7,gottesdienstliche ,vortrge1 p4 #dgg7 and ,l4 ,lw 7,mannheimer ,album1 ,wien1 #ahgd71 ,senior ,sachs 71 i4 #fa7 and ,b4 ,l4 ,zeitlin 7 1 ,paris1 #ahdf74 ,the best book on the whole subject is ,e4 ,zweifel's work 7,zitomyr #ahfh1 three parts71 which ,i strongly recommend to students4 ,the books written by the ,chassidim would amount to more than #bjj4 ,they are catalogued by ,bodek and ,walden4 ,i shall only draw the attention of the student to the works of ,beer1 ,salomon ,ladier1 and ,mendel ,witipsker on one side1 who developed the theory of the ,immanence1 and those of ,nachman ,braslaw and ,melech ,liezensker1 who1 on the other hand1 carried the theory of ,zaddikism to its utmost consequences4 ,the student will find a fair collection of sayings and sentences arranged according to theological subjects in the books and 7,anon41 ,lemberg1 #ahgf74 #b 1 8pious ones0 7,ps4 xxxvii4 #bh1 lxx4 #b1 etc474 ,the reader is probably acquainted with the term from the ,maccabean history 7#a ,macc4 ii4 #db1 vii4 #ac71 in which the strict party1 opposed to all ,hellenistic influence1 are called 8,assideans0 ,r4,v4 8,hasidaeans01 ,gr4 4 #c 1 8,the ,master of the ,name10 a term usually applied to exorcists1 who cast out devils and performed other miracles through adjuration by the name of ,god 7or angels74 ,the unbelieving ,rabbis maintained indeed that in his exorcisms ,baalshem employed 8impure names0 7of devils71 whilst the ,chassidim1 on the other hand1 declared that their ,master never used 8names0 at all1 his miracles being performed by the divine in ,baalshem to which all nature owes obedience4 ,occasionally the ,chassidim call him 7,the ,man of ,good ,name71 in allusion to ,eccles4 vii4 #a1 shortened by some into ,besht4 #d --8,house of ,research0 or of 8study0 7of the ,law71 but in which also divine service is held thrice a day4 #e --8,disciple of the ,wise10 the usual title of a scholar or student4 #f ,a ,jewish sect1 so called after their founder ,jacob ,leibovicz ,frank1 who was himself one of the apostles of the pseudo,messiah ,shabbethai ,tsebi of ,smyrna in ,turkey4 ,among his other doctrines he taught also a sort of ,trinity1 consisting of the ,holy ,ancient ,one1 the ,holy ,king or the ,messiah1 and a feminine person in the ,godhead1 in which he1 like his master1 represented the ,second ,person4 ,the sect ultimately abolished the ,law1 and1 after many controversies with the ,rabbinic ,jews1 went over to ,catholicism1 the dominant religion in ,poland1 by which they were soon absorbed4 ,eybeschtz1 chief ,rabbi of ,prague and ,hamburg1 was suspected by ,emden to be a secret adherent of ,shabbethai ,tsebi1 which was tantamount to apostasy from ,judaism4 ,eybeschtz protested4 ,the litigants excommunicated each other1 and the ,rabbis divided into two camps1 taking sides either with ,emden or with his antagonist4 #g ,the works of ,maimonides or ,moses b4 ,maimon 7#aaceabjd7 are too many to be enumerated here4 ,the most important are the ,guide of the ,perplexed 7 7 and his ,compendium of the ,law 7 74 ,judah ,hallevi or ,abul ,hassan flourished in the first half of the twelfth century4 ,he is well known as a poet by his ,divan and as a deep religious thinker by his ,cusari4 ,the former contains also many songs of a secular nature4 ,isaac ,alfasi 7died #aajc7 is best known by his ,compendium of the ,talmud1 which was so greatly admired by his contemporaries that they declared it could never have been composed 8without the aid of the ,holy ,spirit40 ,r4 ,solomon b4 ,isaac1 also called by his initials ,rashi 7#ajdjaaje71 is well known by his commentaries on the ,bible and the ,talmud4 #h 4 #i 1 ,sepher4 #aj ,the ,hebrew word is 1 meaning subtle discussion and sharp distinction4 ,the word is closely related to or 1 which means 8pepper0 or 8seasoning40 #aa ,r4 ,meir ,shiff1 whose novell on the ,talmud are of a very subtle kind1 and were very popular with the students of this work4 #ab --1 8,the ,repeaters10 and 8,the ,interpreters40 ,the sayings and statements of the former are embodied in the ,mishnah1 a work compiled by ,r4 ,judah the ,saint about #bbj ,a4,c41 and covering a period of about #bej years 7#cj ,b4,c4#bbj ,a4,c474 ,the latter occupied themselves mainly with the interpretation of the ,mishnah1 and their discussions and controversies are incorporated in the ,talmud of ,jerusalem and that of ,babylon1 and extend over the period from #bbjejj ,a4,c4 ,the ,talmud of ,jerusalem is mostly the product of the schools of ,palestine4 ,the ,talmud of ,babylon is a growth of that country4 ,the authorities of this latter ,talmud being far away from the place where the first great ,rabbis lived and laboured1 their traditions are naturally not so historically reliable as those of the ,talmud of ,jerusalem4 ,the authorities of ,palestine were also simpler in their method of interpretation4 ,these again are followed by the ,babylonian schools of new interpreters 7of the ,talmud74 #ac 1 an expression that goes back as far as to the ,zohar4 #ad 1 8,brightness40 ,cf4 ,dan4 xii4 #c1--the authors of 8,the ,brightness0 pretending to be the ,maskilim or 8,wise ,ones0 mentioned in this verse4 #ae 4 #af 4 #ag 4 #ah 1 pl4 4 #ai ,r4 ,johanan b4 ,zaccai was a contemporary of the ,apostles1 and died about #aaj ,a4,d4 ,he belonged to the peace party in opposition to the ,zealots1 and obtained permission from the ,roman government to establish the school of ,jamnia1 which1 after the destruction of the ,temple1 became the centre of ,jewish religious life4 ,see also p4 #ahh4 #bj ,r4 ,saadiah ,gaon was born in ,egypt in #hib1 and died as the head of the school of ,sura in ,babylon in #idb4 ,he is known by his translations of and commentaries on the ,bible1 and many other works1 especially his philosophical treatise ,creeds and ,opinions4 ,he was also a great controversialist4 ,most of his polemical writings are directed against the ,caraites 77 or 8,scripturalists10 a ,jewish sect founded by ,anan in the eighth century4 ,they protested against the ,oral ,law1 and denied ,tradition4 ,on the title 8,gaon10 see note #a to ,elijah ,wilna4 #ba 1 ,moreh ,nebuchim1 generally considered to be the greatest philosophical work by any ,jewish thinker4 #bb ,r4 ,abraham ,ibn ,ezra1 who spent some time in ,london1 died about #aafa4 ,he is best known by his commentaries on the ,bible4 ,he was the first writer who doubted the unity of the book of ,isaiah4 #bc 4 #bd 1 meaning 8sages0 and 8scribes10 but used by later writers in the sense given in the text4 #be 1 dealing with the laws relating to the firstfruits which were brought to the temple 7,ex4 xxiii4 #ai74 ,the processions formed by the pilgrims are very vividly described after the said tractate by ,delitzsch in his ,iris1 p4 #aij sq4 7,english ed474 ,see also by the same author1 ,jdisches ,handwerkerleben zur ,zeit ,jesu1 p4 #ff seq4 #bf 1 8,fast10 or 1 8,fasts40 #bg 1 8,order of ,damages10 treating of the civil law of the ,jews1 the procedure of courts of justice1 and kindred subjects4 ,this ,order also includes the tractate 1 ,aboth or 8,sayings of the ,fathers10 which is very important for the study of ,rabbinic doctrine and ethics4 #bh 1 8,order of ,purities10 dealing with the laws regarding ,levitical purity4 #bi 7or 71 1 4 ,these three works form the oldest ,rabbinic commentary on ,exodus1 ,leviticus1 ,numbers1 and ,deuteronomy4 ,the authorities cited in these commentaries all belong to the period of the ,tannaim4 ,see above1 note #ab to the ,chassidim4 ,constituting as they do1 to a certain extent1 one of the sources used by the ,gemara1 they are naturally indispensable for a scientific study of the ,talmud4 #cj 1 8,hatsophe10 a spirited satire against the orthodox and especially against the then prevailing belief in the transmigration of souls taught by the mystical schools4 ,the book is written in the purest biblical ,hebrew4 #ca 4 #cb 1 pl4 7,midrashim71 8,research10 8,researches10 a name usually applied to the homiletical part of the ,rabbinic literature4 ,the most important collection of this kind is the ,midrash ,rabbah to the ,pentateuch4 ,the usual way of quoting it is ,genesis ,rabbah1 ,exodus ,rabbah1 and so on4 #cc ,see above1 note #ab to the ,chassidim4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,footnote on the ,tannaim and ,amoraim4 #cd 1 8,heretics10 applied to the first ,christians1 and more so to certain ,gnostic sects4 #ce 1 see below1 p4 #ahf and note4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the footnote on 8laws given to ,moses on ,sinai40 #cf or --1 8rule10 8method10--8narrative40 ,the former deals with the legal side of the ,scriptures1 and is thus more of a juristic nature2 the latter represents a collection of homilies having mostly as their text the historical and exhortatory parts of the ,bible1 and is thus more of an edifying character4 ,the theological side of ,judaism1 as well as its ideal aspirations and ,messianic hopes1 find their expression in the ,agadah4 ,the two words are also used as adjectives1 as ,halachic 7legalistic1 juristic1 and obligatory7 and ,agadic 7poetic1 edifying1 and hyperbolic74 #cg 1 a sort of encyclopdia to the ,talmud1 of which only the first letter appeared4 #ch ,menahem ,azariah de ,rossi1 an ,italian ,jew who flourished in the first half of the sixteenth century4 ,his great work1 1 ,meor ,enayim1 8,light of the ,eyes10 is the first attempt made by a ,jew to submit the statements of the ,talmud to a critical examination1 and to question the value of tradition in its historical records4 #ci 4 #dj ,italian ,jews of the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,the one1 ,elijah ,delmedigo1 wrote an ,examination of ,religion1 whilst his grandson1 ,joseph ,solomon ,delmedigo1 wrote various pamphlets of a deeply sceptical character4 ,see ,geiger's ,introduction to his ,melo ,chofnayim 7,berlin1 #ahdj74 #da 1 8,the ,great ,one40 ,the authorities of the ,babylonian schools after the sixth century were also called the ,gaonim 771 8their ,eminences40 ,the title was also given afterwards to great ,rabbis distinguished for their learning4 #db ,r4 ,joseph ,caro 7#adhhaege7 lived in ,safed4 ,the title of his code is 1 ,prepared ,table4 ,this is a code of the ,oral ,law compiled from the ,rabbinic literature4 #dc 1 containing an account of the ,jewish worthies of that city4 #dd 4 #de ,a famous mystic of the sixteenth century1 from ,safed1 who was the more admired the less his pupils understood him4 #df ,hai was the last of the authorities called ,gaon4 ,with his death 7#ajch7 the schools of ,babylon fell into decay and soon disappeared4 #dg 1 treating of the voluntary offerings brought by the pilgrims to ,jerusalem4 #dh 1 8,perfection or ,supplementary ,explanations40 ,by this is understood the interpretation given to the ,mishnah by the schools in ,palestine and ,babylon4 ,see above1 note #ab to the ,chassidim4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,footnote on the ,tannaim and ,amoraim4 #di ,see ,dean ,church's ,st4 ,anselm1 from which this story is taken4 #ej 1 8,addition0 7to the ,mishnah71 but also containing only the sayings and discussions of the period of the ,tannaim4 #ea 1 8,order of the ,world10 dealing with the ,chronology of the ,bible1 and dating from about the end of the second century4 #eb ,these 8,minor ,tractates0 include1 among others1 treatises on proselytes1 on the laws concerning funerals1 the writing of the ,law1 and the like4 ,others are more of an edifying nature1 treating of good manners1 conduct1 etc4 #ec 4 #ed 1 8,eighteen40 ,they are recited thrice a day1 and form the original germ of the prayers1 from which a very rich liturgy developed in the course of time4 #ee ,the titles of the old authorities from #gj ,b4,c4 to #ejj ,a4,c4 ,see above1 note #ab to the ,chassidim4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,footnote on the ,tannaim and ,amoraim4 #ef 1 1 8,prince10 or 8,patriarch10 religious head1 of the ,jews 7not political71 and 8,father 7or president7 of the ,court of ,justice40 #eg 1 1 8,sacrifices10 8,offerings40 ,they treat of the laws relating to sacrifices and mealofferings4 #eh 1 the laws relating to diverse seeds and garments of diverse sorts4 ,cf4 ,deut4 xxii4 #iaa4 #ei 1 8,teller10 a sort of travelling preacher4 #fj 1 8palm branch40 ,cf4 ,lev4 xxiii4 #dj4 #fa 1 8,high ,school10 or 8,academy10 in which the ,rabbinic literature is studied4 #fb 4 #fc 1 a mythical river which is supposed to stop its course on ,sabbath4 #fd 1 sing4 1 8,young man10 by which term the ,jews usually understand the alumni of their ,talmudical schools4 #fe ,levi b4 ,gershom 7#abhfacdd7 is generally regarded as the greatest successor of ,maimonides4 ,besides his rationalistic commentaries on the ,bible1 he wrote various treatises on metaphysics1 mathematics1 astronomy1 medicine1 etc4 #ff 4 #fg ,in ,steinschneider's ,catalogue of the ,bodleian ,library1 under the name of ,moses ,nachmanides1 pp4 #aidgaife1 all the works which are ascribed to this author are put together1 and also discussed as to their authenticity4 ,there are only to be added the new edition of the ,derasha by ,jellinek 7,vienna1 #ahgb71 in which the variants from ,schorr's ,,ms4 71 viii4 #afb7 are already incorporated2 a new edition of the 1 and the commentary to ,is4 lii4liii4 by ,steinschneider 7,berlin1 #ahfj72 a ,sermon for the ,new ,year1 ed4 by ,h4 ,berliner 7,libanon1 v4 #efd72 and another ,sermon at a wedding 7871 ed4 by ,schorr 7,hechalus1 xii4 #c74 ,for the literature on ,nachmanides1 besides the references given by ,steinschneider1 in his ,catalogue1 and the ,addenda1 p4 cxviii4 7cf4 also the pedigree in the ,catalogue #bcje71 see also ,graetz1 ,geschichte1 vii41 pp4 #aabadc1 and p4 #adg seq42 ,michael1 1 ,no4 #aabe1 and ,weiss1 1 v4 #d seq42 ,perles' ,monatsschrift1 #ahfj1 p4 #age2 ,zomber1 ibid4 #dba2 and ,z4 ,frankel1 ibid4 #ahfh1 p4 #ddi1 and ,the ,jewish ,quarterly ,review1 iv4 #bde seq4 ,for ,nachmanides' disputation we have to add ,m4 ,loeb in the ,rvue des tudes ,juives1 xv4 #a seq41 and xviii4 #eb 7about ,abner71 and ,dr4 ,neubauer's ,essay on ,jewish ,controversy in the ,expositor1 vol4 vii4 7third series71 p4 #ih seq41 with the references given there4 ,see also his article on the ,bahir and the ,zohar in ,the ,jewish ,quarterly ,review1 iv4 #ceg4 ,with regard to ,nachmanides' mystical system see the references to ,s4 ,sachs 7whose remarks are most suggestive71 ,krochmal1 and ,jellinek in ,steinschneider1 col4 #aidi and #aifd1 ,perles' ,monatsschrift1 #aheh1 p4 #hc seq41 and ,steinschneider in the ,heb4 ,bibliographie1 i4 #cd4 ,see also ,professor ,kaufmann's ,die ,geschichte der ,attributenlehre1 and the references given in the index under this name4 ,the ,novell by his son ,r4 ,nachman1 alluded to in the text1 are in the ,university ,library1 ,cambridge 7,add4 #aahg1 #b74 ,the is extant in the ,british ,museum1 ,,ms4 ,add4 #bf1hid1 and the passage quoted by ,de ,rossi is to be found on p4 #afc;b1 but a few words are erased by the censor4 ,as to the poem given at the end of this paper1 see ,zunz1 ,synagogale ,poesie1 p4 #dgh2 ,landshut1 ,amude ha,abodah s4v41 the references in ,sachs' ,religise ,poesie der ,juden1 and ,luzzatto in the ,ozar ,nechmad1 ii4 #bg4 ,compare also ,professor ,cheyne's ,the ,origin of the ,psalter1 p4 #dba4 #fh ,new ,year's ,day1 on the first of ,tishri4 ,it is in autumn4 #fi ,a famous ,rabbi of the fifteenth century1 known by his various casuistical and philosophical works4 #gj ,chiefly known through his controversial writings against the adherents of the pseudo,messiah ,shabbethai ,tsebi4 ,he was for some time the ,rabbi of the ,portuguese congregation in ,london4 #ga ,the main objections of the opponents of ,maimonides were directed against his rationalistic notions of ,revelation1 and his allegorising interpretation of the ,scriptures1 which amounted in some places to a denial of miracles4 ,he was also suspected of having denied bodily resurrection4 ,a history of ,jewish rationalism is still a desideratum4 ,i am certain that it would prove at least as interesting as ,reuter's ,geschichte der religisen ,aufklrung im ,mittelalter 7,berlin1 #ahdefj74 #gb 4 #gc 1 8,homilies40 ,see above1 p4 #fd and note4 #gd 1 8,the end of the ,redemption10 that is the time when the advent of the ,messiah is to be expected4 #ge ,this patriarch is famous in ,jewish legend for his hospitality4 ,see ,beer's ,leben ,abrahams1 pp4 #cg and #ef4 #gf ,this is the quorum necessary to form a congregation 77 for the purpose of holding divine service4 #gg ,by ,zobah1 or ,aram ,zobah1 the ,jews of the ,middle ,ages usually understood ,aleppo4 ,see ,benjamin of ,tudela's ,itinerary1 i4 #hh1 ii4 #abd 7,london and ,berlin1 #ahdjda74 #gh ,see below1 p4 #ada1 where a full translation of the letter is given4 #gi 1 a compendium of the ,law1 dating from the ninth century1 by ,r4 ,simon ,caro4 #hj ,r4 ,simlai flourished in ,palestine in the third century4 ,he is best known as an ,agadic teacher and a great controversialist4 ,according to him1 #fac commandments were given to ,moses on ,mount ,sinai1 of which #cfe are prohibitive laws1 whilst the remaining #bdh are positive injunctions4 #ha 1 8,treatise on ,reward 7and ,punishment740 #hb 4 #hc ,ps4 cix4 #d2 4 #hd 4 #he 4 #hf 1 8,knowledge10 8,foreknowledge10 8,omniscience40 #hg 1 4 #hh 4 ,see ,exod4 xix4 #e4 #hi 4 #ij 1 4 #ia ,according to a ,jewish tradition 7the date of which is uncertain7 the advent of the ,messiah1 the ,son of ,david1 will be preceded by that of the ,messiah1 the ,son of ,joseph4 ,the latter will perish in the battle against ,gog and ,magog 7the ,antichrist of ,jewish literature71 but will soon be brought back to life on the appearance of the former4 ,cf4 ,g4 ,h4 ,dalman's ,der leidende und der sterbende ,messias der ,synagoge 7,berlin1 #ahha74 #ib 1 8,in the beginning10 ,gen4 i4 #a4 #ic 2 ,job xxvii4 #ab4 #id ,chagigah #ad;b4 ,the activity of these four ,rabbis falls chiefly in the second century4 ,r4 ,akiba died as a martyr in the ,hadrianic persecution 7about #acj74 ,elisha b4 ,abuyah1 the apostate1 was usually called 1 ,acher1 8the other one40 #ie ,the former lived in the twelfth1 the latter in the sixteenth1 century4 ,they are both known for their hostility to philosophy4 #if ,bachya wrote in the eleventh century a famous book called 1 ,the ,duties of the ,heart4 ,for the others see above1 p4 #ac and note1 p4 #di and note1 p4 #ajb and note1 p4 #ig and note1 p4 #ga and note4 ,they all belong to the rationalistic school4 #ig ,a younger contemporary of ,maimonides1 who translated the ,guide from ,arabic into ,hebrew4 #ih 4 ,see above1 p4 #ah4 ,r4 ,moses ,cordovora1 the author of the 1 lived in ,safed in the sixteenth century4 ,for ,r4 ,isaac ,loria1 the author of the 1 see above1 note #e to ,elijah ,wilna4 #ii 4 #ajj 1 a forgery by a ,provenal ,jew of the thirteenth century1 who attributed it to a ,rabbi of the first century4 #aja ,this hymn is now incorporated in her excellent little book1 ,songs of ,zion1 pp4 #acae4 #ajb 1 a gold piece4 ,the country and the date of the writer not being certain1 it is impossible to determine the value of this coin4 #ajc ,the lawfulness of eating this fish 7 sturgeon87 was contested for many centuries1 and the controversy still continues4 #ajd 1 a smaller coin than the ,zehub4 #aje 1 8,hear10 the verses from ,deut4 vi4 #di1 xi4 #acba1 and ,num4 xv4 #cgda1 recited twice a day by the ,jews4 #ajf ,sabbath1 #cj;b4 #ajg 1 pl4 7,minhagim71 applied usually to those ritual customs and ceremonies for which there is no distinct authority in the ,scriptures or even in the ,talmud4 #ajh ,jerusalem1 in ,mendelssohn's ,smmtliche ,werke 7,vienna1 #ahch71 especially from p4 #bfd onwards1 and a letter by him published in ,frankel,graetz's ,monatsschrift1 #ahei1 p4 #agc4 ,for ,mendelssohn's position1 see ,graetz's ,geschichte1 xi4 #hf seq41 especially p4 #hh and note #a2 ,kayserling1 ,leben und ,werke of ,m41 #b;d ed41 p4 #cid2 ,steinheim1 ,moses ,mendelssohn 7,hamburg1 #ahdj71 p4 #cj seq42 ,holdheim1 ,moses ,mendelssohn 7,berlin1 #ahei71 p4 #ah seq42 ,leopold ,lw's pamphlet1 ,jdische ,dogmen 7,pesth1 #ahga74 #aji ,see the ,commentaries on ,maimonides' 1 especially ,r4 ,simeon ,duran's 2 cf4 also ancient and modern commentaries on ,exod4 xx4 #b4 #aaj ,see ,siphra 7ed4 ,weiss71 pp4 #hf;b1 #ic;b4 #aaa ,baba ,bathra1 #ad;b2 cf4 ,frst's ,kanon1 p4 #ae4 #aab ,see ,sanhedrin1 #ch;b1 and ,pseudo,jonathan to ,gen4 iv4 #h4 #aac ,mechilta1 #cc;b4 #aad 1 ,lat4 ,epicurus4 #aae ,see ,mishnah1 ,sanhedrin1 x4 e1 #a1 and ,talmud1 ibid4 #ij;a and b1 and ,rabbinowicz's ,variae ,lectiones1 ix4 p4 #bdg notes4 ,besides the ordinary commentaries on the ,talmud1 account must also be taken of the remarks of ,crescas1 ,duran1 ,albo1 and ,abarbanel on the subject4 ,cf4 also ,kmpf in the ,monatsschrift 7#ahfc71 p4 #add seq42 ,oppenheim1 ibid4 7#ahfd71 p4 #add2 ,friedmann in the ,beth ,talmud1 i4 p4 #baj seq4 ,see also ,talmudical ,dictionaries1 s4v4 4 ,the explanation ,i have adopted agrees partly with ,friedmann's and partly with ,oppenheim's views4 #aaf ,sayings of the ,fathers1 iii4 #i1 and iv4 #bb4 #aag ,see 7,jovslow1 #ahce71 p4 #dh4 ,in my exposition of the dogmas of the ,caraites ,i have mainly followed the late ,dr4 ,frankl's article 8,karaiten0 in ,ersch u4 ,gruber's ,encyclopdie 7sec4 ii4 vol4 xxxvi4 pp4 #abah74 ,see also his ,ein mutazilitischer ,kalam and his ,beitrge zur ,literaturgeschichte der ,karer 7,berlin1 #ahhg7 on ,bashazi4 ,cf4 also ,jost's ,geschichte1 ii4 c4 #ac4 #aah ,kairowan was one of the greatest centres of ,jewish learning in ,north ,africa during that period4 #aai ,see1 however1 ,professor ,d4 ,kaufmann's note in the ,jewish ,quarterly ,review1 i4 p4 #dda4 ,from this it would seem that the creed of ,r4 ,judah ,hallevi may be formulated in the following articles3--,the conviction of the existence of ,god1 of ,his eternity1 of ,his guidance of our fathers1 of the ,divine ,origin of the ,law1 and of the proof of all this1 the pledge or token of its truth1 the exodus from ,egypt4 #abj 1 ,emunah ,ramah1 pp4 #dd and #fi2 cf4 ,gulmann1 ,monatsschrift1 #ahgh1 p4 #cjd4 #aba ,for the various translations of the ,thirteen ,articles which were originally composed in ,arabic1 see ,steinschneider1 ,cat4 ,bodl4 col4 #ahhg4 ,cf4 ,rosin1 ,ethik des ,maimonides1 p4 #cj2 ,weiss1 ,beth ,talmud1 i4 p4 #ccj1 and ,ben ,chananjah1 #ahfc1 p4 #idb1 and #ahfd1 pp4 #fdh and #fig1 and ,landshut1 1 p4 #bca4 #abb 4 ,see pp4 #aaf4 #abc ,see ,hammaskir1 viii4 pp4 #fc and #ajc4 #abd ,see ,steinschneider1 ,cat4 ,mnchen1 ,no4 #baj4 #abe ,see the ,collection 1 by ,ashkenazi1 pp4 #ef;b seq4 #abf ,see ,albo1 c4 iii4 ,probably identical with the author mentioned by ,duran1 #ac;b4 #abg 1 8,sepher ,nizzachon40 #abh ,see 7ed4 ,johannisburg71 preface1 and pp4 #bj;a1 #dd;b1 #ei;b1 and elsewhere4 ,the style of this author is very obscure4 ,cf4 ,joel's pamphlet on this author 7,breslau1 #ahgd74 #abi ,see the first pages of the 7,leghorn1 #ageh71 and his 1 pp4 #ac seq4 #acj 1 ,ikkarim1 8,fundamentals40 #aca ,see ,ikkarim1 i4 c4 #bc1 and ,maimonides' ,commentary on the ,mishnah 7end of tractate ,maccoth74 ,on ,albo compare ,schlesinger's ,introduction and notes to the ,ikkarim1 ,joel's pamphlet1 p4 #hb2 ,paulus1 ,monatsschrift1 #ahgd1 p4 #dfc1 and ,brll's ,jahrb4 iv4 p4 #eb4 #acb ,i know his work from a ,,ms4 in the ,british ,museum1 ,orient4 #ci4 #acc 1 ,derech ,emunah4 ,cf4 ,steinschneider1 ,monatsschrift1 #ahhc1 p4 #gi seq4 #acd ,see 1 gate #ee4 #ace ,see his and 4 #acf 4 #acg ,see 1 ed4 ,reggio1 p4 #bh4 #ach ,see 7,venice1 #agjg71 #af;a and #bc;a4 ,his language is very vague4 #aci ,see the ,collection by ,ashkenazi 7as above1 note #ah71 p4 #bi;b4 #adj ,see his 1 p4 #cca4 #ada ,see ,weiss's admirable monograph on ,maimonides1 published in the ,beth ,talmud1 i4 #adb ,the ,hebrew title of the work is 4 #adc ,that is1 vows of an ascetic nature 7not vows or oaths enforced by a court of justice71 which the tribunal could annul when there was sufficient reason for it4 #add ,the ten ,rabbis who are named as the bearers of tradition during the period between #agj and #cj ,b4,c4 ,the 8pair0 in each case is supposed to have consisted of the president and the vicepresident of the ,sanhedrin for the time being4 ,see1 however1 ,kuenen1 ,gesammelte ,schriften1 p4 #di seq4 #ade 4 #adf 4 ,they amount1 in the whole of ,rabbinic literature1 to about forty1 of which more than ten concern the preparation of the phylacteries1 whilst others relate to the libations of water at the ,feast of ,tabernacles and similar subjects4 #adg ,this is the time when the school of ,r4 ,johanan b4 ,zaccai began its activity4 ,others place the ,tannaitic age in ,hillel's time 7#cj ,b4,c474 #adh 4 #adi 1 lit4 8,court of ,justice10 as above1 note #af to ,elijah ,wilna1 but it means also a sort of permanent ,synod1 in which of course justice was also administered as a part of religion4 #aej 1 8,evidences given by ,witnesses40 ,the tractate consists mostly of a number of laws attested by various ,rabbis as having come down to them as old traditions4 #aea ,the family of ,hillel1 which was supposed to be descended from the house of ,david1 supplied the ,jews with patriarchs for many generations4 ,gamaliel ,,ii4 flourished about #abj ,a4,c41 whilst ,simon b4 ,gamaliel's activity as ,patriarch falls about #afj ,a4,c4 #aeb 1 ,semachoth4 ,it is a euphemistic title1 the tractate dealing with the laws relating to funeral ceremonies and mourning4 #aec 1 8,elucidators0 or 8,explainers40 ,the heads of the schools in ,babylon during the fifth and sixth centuries were so designated4 #aed ,the ,rabbinic ,jews of the dispersion add one day to each festival1 and thus celebrate the ,passover eight days1 the ,feast of ,weeks two days1 etc4 ,the custom arose out of the uncertainty about the first day of the month1 the prerogative of fixing the ,new ,moon resting with the great ,beth ,din in ,palestine1 which had not always the means of communicating in time the evidence given before them that the ,new ,moon had been seen by qualified witnesses4 ,the prerogative was abolished in the fourth century1 and the calendar fixed for all future time1 but the additional day is still kept by the ,rabbinic ,jews as the 8,custom of their ,fathers40 #aee 1 1 8,chambers 7of ,heaven70 and the 8,measure of the ,stature10 mystical works in which occasionally gross anthropomorphisms are to be found4 ,their authorship is unknown4 #aef ,sabbath1 #ee;a4 #aeg ,sayings of the ,fathers 7ed4 ,c4 ,taylor71 v4 #abae4 ,see also ,sabbath1 #cb seq41 and ,mechilta 7ed4 ,friedman71 #ie;b4 ,arachin1 #af;a4 #aeh ,see ,mechilta1 #be;a1 #cb;b4 ,gen4 ,rabbah1 ch4 #dh1 and ,tossephta ,sotah1 iv4 #g1 and parallels4 #aei ,taanith1 #ba;a4 #afj ,sayings of the ,fathers1 iv4 #e4 #afa ,baba ,bathra1 #i;b4 #afb ,yoma1 #ci;a4 #afc ,berachoth1 #cc;a4 #afd ,sabbath1 #ac;b4 #afe ,berachoth1 #g;a4 #aff ,see ,mechilta1 #fh;b1 and parallels4 ,siphra1 #aab;b4 ,pessikta of ,r4 ,kahana1 #afg;b4 ,cp4 ,sanhedrin1 #dd;a4 #afg ,aboth de ,r4 ,nathan1 #dj;a1 #ei;b1 and #fb;b4 #afh ,baba ,bathra1 #aj;a4 #afi ,eccles4 ,rabbah1 ix4 #g4 #agj #e;a4 #aga #g;b4 #agb ,see ,mechilta1 #ie;b1 and parallels4 #agc ,see ,kiddushin1 #dj;b4 ,mechilta1 #fc;b4 ,lev4 ,rabbah1 iv4 #agd ,see ,sabbath1 #ed;a4 #age ,exodus ,rabbah1 c4 #ce1 and parallels4 #agf ,see ,negaim1 ii4 #a4 #agg ,exod4 ,rabbah1 c4 #df4 #agh ,taanith1 #aa;a4 #agi ,see ,berachoth1 #e;a4 #ahj ,tanchuma1 1 #b4 ,cp4 ,mechilta1 #gb;b4 #aha ,siphr1 #gc;b1 and parallels4 #ahb ,taanith1 #h;a4 #ahc ,arachin1 #af;b4 #ahd ,sayings of the ,fathers1 iv4 #ae4 #ahe ,see ,chagigah1 #e;a4 #ahf ,sabbath1 #ee;a4 #ahg ,menachoth1 #bi;b4 #ahh ,taanith1 #be;a4 #ahi ,gen4 ,rabbah1 xxvii42 ,pessikta1 #acf;b2 ,sanhedrin1 vi4 #e2 ,berachoth1 #g;a4 #aij ,sayings of the ,fathers1 i4 #c1 p4 #bg1 ed4 ,taylor4 ,see also note #h4 #aia ,abodah ,zarah1 #ai;a2 ,siphr1 #gi;b4 #aib ,berachoth1 #eh;b4 #aic ,see ,exod4 ,r41 #cj1 and parallels4 #aid ,see 1 i4 #i4 #aie ,see 1 #cc;b4 #aif ,see ,sabbath1 #ee;b1 and ,siphra1 #bg;a4 #aig ,judaism and ,christianity1 a ,sketch of the ,progress of ,thought from ,old ,testament to ,new ,testament1 by ,c4 ,h4 ,toy1 ,professor in ,harvard ,university4 ,london1 #ahij4 #aih ,see ,pessikta of ,r4 ,kahana1 #fa;b1 and parallels1 and ,erubin1 #ac;b4 #aii ,tal4 ,jer41 ,sabbath1 #e;b4 #bjj 1 the name of an angel1 already found in the ,talmud1 but playing a more important part in the ,book of ,chambers1 where he is identified with ,enoch4 ,the etymology of the word is doubtful1 some authors considering it to be of ,persian origin 7,mithra72 others again deriving it from the ,greek 1 or 4 #bja 4 #bjb 1 8,the ,word10 sometimes substituted for ,god4 ,see ,j4 ,levy's ,chaldisches ,wrterbuch1 s4v4 #bjc 1 4 #bjd ,mechilta1 #ajd;a4 #bje ,see ,tal4 ,jer41 ,yoma1 #de;b4 ,cf4 ,maimonides1 ,mishneh ,torah1 4 #bjf ,tosephta ,berackoth1 iii4 #g4 #bjg ,sabbath1 #aj;b4 ,the name of the ,rabbi is not given1 but the fact that ,r4 ,simeon b4 ,gamaliel 7#afj ,a4,c47 already refers to this interpretation makes it clear that its anonymous author must have lived at least a generation before4 #bjh 4 #bji ,see ,midrash to the ,psalms xcii4 and ,deut4 ,rabbah iii4 ,the ,rabbis perceived in the words 7,isa4 lviii4 #ac71 a command to make the ,sabbath a day of pleasure1 whilst the word was understood by them to mean 8needs10 8wants10 or 8business0 7not 8pleasure074 ,cf4 ,sabbath1 #aac;a and b4 #baj ,see ,gen4 ,rabbah1 xi4 7and parallels71 and ,sabbath1 #aai;a4 #baa ,see ,maaseh ,torah 7ed4 ,schnblum7 and ,deut4 ,rabbah1 i4 #bab ,sabbath1 #be;b and #aai;a4 #bac ,betsah1 #af;a4 ,cf4 ,baer's notes in his ,prayer,book1 p4 #bjc seq4 #bad ,see ,sabbath1 #aai;b1 and ,gen4 ,rabbah1 xi4 #bae ,see ,sabbath1 #aj;b1 and ,gen4 ,rabbah1 ibid4 #baf 4 #bag ,nazir1 #bc;b4 #bah by ,r4 ,isaac b4 ,moses of ,vienna 7thirteenth century71 mostly on legal subjects4 #bai 1 ,yuchasin4 #bbj 1 ,miklal4 #bba 1 1 the former treating of the agricultural laws of the ,bible1 the latter of those relating to the ,sabbath1 ,passover1 and other festivals4 #bbb 1 8,cycle10 containing the liturgy for the festivals4 #bbc ,since then edited by the ,mekize ,nirdamim4 #bbd ,eve of the last day of the ,feast of ,tabernacles4 #bbe 4 4 #bbf 4 #bbg 4 #bbh 1 ,yalkut4 #bbi 4 #bcj 4 #bca 4 #bcb 4 #bcc 4 #bcd 1 1 1 1 4 #bce 4 #bcf 4 #bcg 4 4 #bch ,the main authorities on the subjects of this essay are ,die ,lebensalter1 by ,dr4 ,leopold ,lw2 ,the ,jewish ,rite of ,circumcision1 by ,dr4 ,asher2 an article by ,dr4 ,perles in the ,graetz ,jubelschrift1 p4 #bc seq42 ,merkwrdigkeiten der ,juden1 by ,schudt2 the and other works on ritual customs2 ,gdemann's ,geschichte des ,erziehungswesens und der ,cultur der ,juden2 and ,das ,kind in ,brauch und ,sitte der ,vlker1 by ,dr4 ,ploss4 #bci 1 4 #bdj 1 ,is4 xxxiv4 #ad4 #bda ,see above1 note #ci to ,nachmanides4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the footnote on ,shema4 #bdb 1 8,covenant of ,circumcision40 ,this is the usual expression in ,hebrew literature for the rite of circumcision4 #bdc 4 #bdd 1 4 #bde 4 #bdf 1 on educational matters4 #bdg 1 8business10 or 8wares40 #bdh ,i am indebted for the ,english adaptation to ,mrs4 ,henry ,lucas4 #bdi ,bereshith ,rabbah1 chapter xx4 ,for another reading see 7ed4 ,cracow71 p4 #cgd4 #bej ,abodah ,zarah1 #c;b4 #bea ,this is the way in which ,deut4 xxxi4 #ajab was explained4 #beb 1 8,scribes02 treating of the regulations concerning the writing of the ,law1 but containing also much liturgical matter4 #bec 1 by which name the ,jews of the ,spanish rite are designated4 #bed 1 a controversial work published by ,wagenseil4 ,see above1 p4 #bjc1 for another victory4 #bee 1 who is probably known to the ,english reader from ,longfellow's poem4 #bef 4 #beg 1 8,sanctification0--8benediction0--on the eve of ,sabbath1 which is pronounced over a cup of wine4 #beh 1 or on the #bcrd of ,tishri1 when the last portion from the ,pentateuch is read4 #bei 1 8,praise10 i4e4 ,ps4 cxiii4cxviii4 #bfj 1 the name of a prayer commencing 1 8,magnified and sanctified be10 etc4 #bfa ,prayer beginning 1 8,bless ye10 etc4 #bfb 1 beginning of a prayer1 8,blessed be ,he10 etc4 #bfc ,see ,schrer's ,die ,gemeindeverfassung der ,juden in ,rom1 p4 #bd4 ,cf4 ,hebrische ,bibliographie1 xix4 p4 #gi4 #bfd 4 #bfe 4 #bff 4 #bfg 4 ,in olden times the weekly lesson from the ,law used to be read by seven members of the congregation who were 8called up0 for this purpose2 the ,priest and the ,levite took precedence of laymen for this honour4 ,at the present day1 the members of the congregation are still called up1 but the actual reading is performed by an official4