,illustration3 ,showing the five groups considered in the book ,illustration3 ,group of ,extinct ,animals4 ,,outlines ,,of ,,creation4 ,,by ,,elisha ,,noyce4 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,boy',s ,,book ,,of ,,industrial ,,information4 ,,illustrated ,,with ,,four ,,hundred ,,engravings1 ,,by ,,the ,,brothers ,,dalziel4 ,,london3 ,,ward ,,lock1 #aeh1 ,,fleet ,,street4 #aheh4 7,the right of ,translation is reserved47 ,dalziel1 ,brothers1 ,camden ,press1 ,london4 ,,contents4 ,,the ,,sky4 ,,page ,sky1 definition of #a ,stars1 what they are #a ,sun1 probable planets of #b ,nebul #b ,solar system #c ,planets1 list of #c ,sun1 the source of light #c size1 diameter1 c4 #c spots on #c compared with size of planets #d ,orbits1 elliptical #e ,ellipse1 definition of #e ,earth's orbit1 form of #f ,mercury #f ,venus #g ,planets1 inferior and superior #g conjunction and opposition of #h ,the ,earth #h form of1 demonstrated #i diurnal motion of #aj rate of motion of #aj ,equinoxes and solstices #ab ,the ,moon #ab phases of #ac ,mars #ad ,jupiter #af satellites of #ah ,saturn #ah rings of #ai ,uranus #ba ,neptune #bb ,the planetoids #bb supposed origin of #bc ,the stellar system #bd ,stars1 number of #bd ,the ,milky ,way #bd ,nebul #bd ,constellations #be ,stars1 double #bf variable #bg ,comets #bg ,,the ,,air4 ,air1 how perceived #bi composition of #bi weight of #cj ,barometer1 principle of #cj ,winds1 course of #ca ,vapour1 condensation of #ca ,snow1 hail1 and frost #cb red and green #cb ,air1 temperature of #cb ,dew1 cause of #cc artificial formation of #cd ,clouds and fogs #ce ,lightning #cf conductors #cg ,thunder-storms #ch ,rainbow #ci ,air1 the source of nourishment #dj carbonic acid of #da the source of coal #da ,,the ,,earth4 ,elements1 list of #de ,earths1 list of #df ,silica #df ,alumina1 ,lime1 ,potassa #dg ,soda #dh ,the ,earth1 surface of #di ,strata #di diagram of #ej various positions of #ea ,faults or dykes #eb ,granite #ec ,gneiss #ed ,strata1 primary #ed ,earth1 primary period of #ee ,stalagmites1 formation of #eh ,terebratula #eh ,secondary system #ei ,trilobites #ei ,mountains1 formation of #fa ,earth1 section of part of #fb ,volcanoes1 formation of #fb ,coral polypi #fd ,encrinites #fe ,mountain limestone #fe ,basalt #ff ,tree-ferns1 ,pines1 c4 #ff ,air1 purification of #fg ,coal1 formation of #fg consumption of #fh ,coal shales1 ferns found in #fi ,earth's surface1 alterations of #fi ,labyrinthodon #gj ,red ,sandstone1 impressions in #gj ,saliferous system #ga ,lias and oolite #ga ,ammonites and pentacrinites #gb ,cretaceous system 7chalk7 #gb ,ichthyosaurus and plesiosaurus #gc ,coprolites #gd ,chalk1 organic remains in #ge flints of #gf ,strata1 tertiary #gh ,alluvium and diluvium #gh quadrupeds of #gh ,dinotherium #gi ,mammoth1 c4 #hj ,irish elk1 paleotherium #ha ,boulder formation #hb ,fossil leaves #hc ,man1 as yet unformed #hc his remains only in upper strata #hc ,sculptures from ,nineveh #hd ,earth's surface1 always changing #hd as it is #hf ,earth1 temperature of #hf ,europe #hg ,asia and ,africa #hh ,america #hh ,australia #hi ,the ,great ,desert #hi ,oceans #ij ,,the ,,waters4 ,the waters #ia ,sea-weeds1 c4 #ib ,the horizon #ic ,the cliffs #ic ,the waters1 their divisions #ic ,the sea1 always the same level #id waters poured into it #id ,rain1 how produced #ie ,rivers and streams #if causes of their overflowing #ig ,lakes #ig ,chalk downs1 c41 once a sea bottom #ih ,sea1 its encroachments #ih waves of #ii ,sargasso #aja ,gulf stream #aja ,sand1 formation of #ajb none in deep seas #ajb ,diatomace #ajc ,foraminifer #ajd ,salt1 the source of #ajd ,sea-water1 composition of #aje ,tides #aje ,waters1 beneficially arranged #ajg ,steam navigation #ajh ,introduction to organic kingdoms #aaj ,,the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom4 ,quantity1 distribution1 c4 #aab ,forests of ,russia and ,america #aac ,sargasso sea1 sea-weed #aad ,diatomace #aad ,fungi1 mould1 mildew1 c4 #aaf ,coral reef1 fertilisation of #aah ,vegetables1 composition of #aah feed on the air #aai the food of animals #aai mode of growth #abj action of light and heat on #aba ,seeds1 germination of #abb ,growth1 promoted by rain #abc ,endosmose1 experiment on #abc ,carbonic acid decomposed by plants #abd ,sap1 course of #abd ,vegetables1 position they hold #abe compared with radiata #abf description of parts of #abg ,leaves1 forms of #acj ,corolla1 forms of #acb ,stamens1 arrangement of #acc ,fruit1 forms of #acd ,inflorescence1 forms of #acf ,vegetable kingdom1 divisions of #aci ,acrogen #ada ,alg #ada ,fungi #adc ,lichens1 ferns #add ,liverworts #ade ,mosses1 various #adf ,horsetails #adg ,endogen #adg ,bamboo1 applications of #aeb ,endogen1 orders of #aed ,grasses #aed ,sedges1 ,arums #aee ,bull-rush1 ,colchicum #aef ,lily1 ,narcissus #aeg ,crocus1 ,orchids #aeh ,naiads1 ,flowering rushes #aei ,water ,plantain #afj ,exogens #afj wood of #afa age of #afb ,baobab #afc ,woods1 various kinds of #afe ,galls1 formation of #afg ,wood1 uses of #afg ,exogens1 size of #afh ,wellingtonia ,gigantea #afh ,banyan #agj ,exogens1 sub-classes of #agj ,thalamiflor1 orders of #aga ,white ,water ,lily #aga ,poppies1 ,monkshood #agb ,fumitory1 ,water-cress #agc ,helianthemum1 ,berberry #agd ,violet1 ,sun-dew #age ,milkwort1 ,bachelor's ,buttons #agf ,lime ,tree1 ,st4 ,john's ,wort #agg ,marsh ,mallow1 ,meadow ,geranium #agh ,flax1 ,maple ,tree #agi ,rue1 ,wood ,sorrel #ahj ,calyciflor1 orders of #aha ,spindle ,tree1 ,buckthorn #aha ,broom1 ,garden ,pea #ahb ,pear ,tree1 ,rose1 ,strawberry1 ,loose ,strife #ahc ,french ,willow1 ,myrtle #ahd ,house-leek1 ,gooseberry #ahe ,london ,pride1 ,fennel1 ,hemlock #ahf ,corolliflor1 orders of #ahg ,melon1 ,dogwood #ahg ,honeysuckle1 ,guelder ,rose1 ,cross ,wort #ahh ,valerian1 ,red ,valerian1 ,teasel #ahi ,coltsfoot1 ,ox-eye ,daisy1 ,harebell #aij ,grey ,heath1 ,gentian1 ,buck-bean #aia ,pimpernel1 ,primrose1 ,bindweed #aib ,borage1 ,sage #aic ,tobacco #aid ,speedwell #aie ,butterwort1 ,plantain #aif ,thrift1 ,holly #aig ,monochlamyde1 orders of #aig ,ladies' ,mantle #aig ,beetroot1 ,buckwheat #aih ,oleaster1 ,spurge ,laurel #aii ,sweet ,chestnut1 ,box #bjj ,hop1 ,white ,willow #bja ,birch1 ,alder1 ,elm #bjb ,larch1 ,yew1 ,bay #bjc ,plants1 list of poisonous #bjd ,monk's-hood1 ,wolf's-bane #bjd ,bryony1 ,green ,hellebore1 ,stinking ,hellebore #bje ,mezerium1 ,meadow ,saffron #bjf ,foxglove1 ,staves-acre #bjg ,nightshade #bjh ,hemlock1 ,thorn ,apple #bji ,poppies1 ,henbane #baj ,caper1 ,wild ,lettuce #baa ,fungi1 poisonous #bab ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom4 ,animalcul in water #bae ,man1 created1 not developed #bag ,animals1 chief division of #bag ,animals1 invertebrate #bag ,infusoria #bah ,protozoa #bah ,infusoria1 higher kinds of #bbj ,entozoa 7intestinal worms7 #bba ,zoophytes 7,sertularia1 c47 #bba ,sponge #bbb ,gorgonia #bbb ,actinia #bbc ,corals 7,tubipora musica1 c47 #bbd ,flustra 7,sea mats7 #bbe ,echinodermata 7,star-fishes1 c47 #bbe ,sea urchins1 c4 #bbf ,articulata #bbg ,annellata 7,worms1 c47 #bbg ,cirripeda 7,sea acorns7 #bbh ,crustacea #bbi ,insects #bca metamorphoses of #bca parts of #bcb depredations by #bcd orders of #bcf ,beetles #bcf ,grasshoppers1 ,locusts1 c4 #bcg ,dragon-flies1 ,may-flies1 c4 #bch ,bees1 ,wasps1 c4 #bdj ,ants1 habitations of #bdj ,white ,ants #bde ,stylops #bdg ,butterflies1 ,moths1 c4 #bdh ,silkworm #bdi ,bugs1 ,aphides1 c4 #bej ,house-fly1 ,gnat1 c4 #bej ,flea1 ,chigoe #bea ,spiders and ,scorpions #beb ,mollusca #beb ,nautilus1 mussel1 c4 #bee ,tunicated molluscs #bee ,lingula1 ,terebratula1 c4 #bef ,oyster1 cockle1 scallop1 c4 #bef ,clio borealis #beg ,snail1 slug1 whelk1 c4 #beg ,cuttle-fish1 nautilus1 c4 #beh ,vertebrata #bei ,fishes1 description of #bei ,fishes1 divisions of #bfj ,perch1 ,mackerel1 ,gurnard1 c4 #bfa ,salmon1 ,pilchard1 ,pike1 c4 #bfb ,turbot1 ,plaice1 ,soles1 c4 #bfe ,eels #bff ,pipe-fish1 ,sea ,horse #bfg ,sea ,porcupine1 ,sun-fish #bfh ,sturgeons1 ,sharks #bfi ,lamprey #bgj ,reptiles #bga ,frogs and ,toads #bga ,snakes #bgb ,lizards1 ,crocodiles1 c4 #bgd ,turtles and ,tortoises #bgf ,birds #bgi divisions of #bhj ,eagles1 ,falcons1 c4 #bha ,king-fisher1 ,woodpecker1 c4 #bha ,poultry1 ,pheasants1 c4 #bhb ,herons1 ,cranes1 c4 #bhd ,swans1 ,geese1 c4 #bhe ,mammalia1 orders of #bhf ,kangaroo1 ,opossum1 c4 #bhg ,duckbill #bhh ,rat1 ,beaver1 ,hare1 c4 #bhi ,anteaters #bia ,ox1 ,deer1 c4 #bib ,horse1 ,elephant1 ,hog1 c4 #bid ,whale1 ,narwal1 c4 #bif ,lion1 ,tiger1 c4 #big ,dogs1 ,wolves and ,jackalls #cjb ,bears #cjb ,seals and ,walrus #cjc ,mole1 ,hedgehog1 c4 #cjc ,bats #cjd ,monkeys #cje ,man #cjg ,man the only possessor of reason #cjh ,skeleton1 diagram of #cji parts of #caj ,bones1 description of #caa ,muscles #cab voluntary and involuntary #cac ,ligaments and cartilages #cac ,form1 affected by age and sex #cad in infancy #cae in middle age #cae in old age #caf affected by sex #caf ,senses1 special #cag ,sight #cag ,eye1 structure of #cai ,eyes1 compound #cbj ,hearing1 smell1 taste #cba ,touch #cbb ,digestion #cbb ,respiration #cbe ,circulation of ,blood #cbf ,man1 his superior faculties #cbg varieties of #cbh ,european race #cbh ,basks #cbi ,skiptar1 ,kelts 7or ,celts71 ,greeks and ,latins1 ,sarmatians1 ,germans #ccj ,abyssinians #cca ,mongolians #ccb ,hottentots #ccc ,malays #ccd ,papuans1 ,negrillo #cce ,indians1 or ,telingans1 ,ethiopians #ccf ,australians1 ,negro #ccg ,races1 numerical table of #cch ,,introduction4 ,the object of this work is to bring before the reader a simple and intelligible description of the whole ,creation1 without attempting to enter into minute particulars on any of the subjects more than is sufficient to present them in a form clear enough to be both comprehended1 and recollected2 thus aiming at the production of a taste for such knowledge1 and a desire to enter more minutely into any or all of the subjects this work embraces1 which desire can easily be gratified by a study of some of the many excellent works devoted exclusively to the individual parts1 which in this work are treated of collectively4 ,the want of a general knowledge of those works of the ,great ,creator which are constantly spread out before us1 in these days of easy acquirement1 amounts almost to a sin1 for it is by the study of ,nature in all her varied forms and associations1 that we learn to look from ,nature up to ,nature's ,god2 for who can look upon the works of ,god without a feeling of awe and admiration8 who can look upwards at the spacious firmament on high1 without a sense of his own insignificance8 who can gaze around upon the beauty and variety the earth displays1 without a strong desire to know more of such a ,great ,creator's works8--and he who knows the most1 be sure it is he who will worship ,him with the truest and most heartfelt gratitude and admiration4 ,the works of ,god 7next to the ,divine revelation of ,his will7 are the highest studies to which ,man can apply his intellect2 it has required the greatest study of the greatest minds to find out and record but a few facts to add to the general store1 and surely no one should consider his time misspent who can read over such records1 and trace their truth by comparison with ,nature1 the more especially as it is by these means a love of inquiry is engendered1 and that ultimately he may be enabled by diligent perusal of the great ,book of ,nature1 to add his quota to the store of knowledge already formed and recorded4 ,it is true that infidels have often brought forward some branch of ,science in confutation of ,scripture1 but it is also a fact that in nearly every such case1 the very arguments that have been used by these men1 have at last become the strongest arguments on the other side4 ,geology was at first adduced as a proof that the world had existed from all eternity1 instead of having been created by an ,omnipotent ,god1 and the question had often been asked1 ,can you produce one proof of the creation of anything8 ,now this was a difficult question to answer1 until ,geology made manifest the fact that ,man was created1 by producing a clear and unimpeachable proof that up to a certain time1 he did not exist on the earth1 and that at a period of time1 a little later1 he did exist2 the space between these epochs is not known1 but it has nothing to do with the argument1 for within that period 7whatever it may have been7 ,man was created1 and created as perfect in his physical organisation as he is at present--no long series of developments from the higher animals by fortuitous circumstances1 as some pretend--no gradual addition of parts to suit the physical changes of the earth's surface4 ,there is undoubted proof from the oldest records1 in the form of ,sculptures1 that ,man's appearance has always been the same1 and the records of the ,bible 7the antiquity of which1 at all events1 cannot be disputed7 show that the constitution of his mind was at that time just as it is now--every passion1 every desire the same--the only advance he has made1 is in the knowledge of ,god's works2 the application of that knowledge to his own benefit1 and the glorification of his ,maker4 ,,the ,,sky4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,telescopic ,,appearance ,,of ,,the ,,moon4 ,the ,sky is the familiar name used to express that wonderful and vast expanse of space which extends on all sides far beyond our knowledge or conception1 and in which the earth and millions of other orbs move round suns as their centres4 ,countless millions of these suns exist at immense distances apart and of the most prodigious magnitudes 7many thousand times larger than this earth71 these are the stars which on clear nights we see twinkling so brightly in the sky2 our sun is one of them1 but being very much nearer to us than the others it appears proportionately larger and brighter1 and is our centre of attraction and circulation4 ,there is but little doubt that every star has its circulating worlds or planets1 but these are too small to be seen even with the best telescopes2 this may be understood when it is considered that the stars themselves1 by the most powerful aids1 appear but as bright points or specks1 and they are thousands of times larger than the worlds which would circulate round them4 ,but though their planets cannot be perceived by the naked eye1 yet analogy teaches us that they in all probability exist1 for very many of the heavenly bodies have satellites revolving round them1 of such are our moon and the moons of ,jupiter1 and in this sense the planets themselves may be considered as the satellites of the sun1 and as the sun has its satellites revolving round it1 it is fair to conclude that it is not the only one of all the stars which has4 ,all these thousands of suns and planets1 millions of miles apart1 and occupying space1 the extent of which we have no terms to express1 form but one system of stars out of many1 for by comparison with infinite space they occupy but a point1 telescopes of the greatest power having revealed that beyond all these stars1 there is an immense space in which are seen other systems of stars1 as great and numerous as our own1 to which the name ,nebul has been given4 ,the mind fails to reach to such magnitude1 and it is certain that the study of these great things1 brings us to regard size and space 7like time7 as nothing2 for it appears that ,god has expanded or contracted ,his works at will to suit ,his plan of creation without regard to limit2 whether we look at the most minute shell or the greatest orb1 still ,his marks of design are equally evident4 ,if we consider it wonderful that ,god should take up hundreds of millions of miles for one system1 and that ,he should scatter through space millions of such systems1 then let us lay aside the telescope and1 after an exclamation of adoration1 take up the microscope1 by which we shall learn that ,god has also placed millions of systems equally wonderful within the compass of an inch6 ,we shall at once acknowledge that he is ,lord of all1 and that size1 space1 quantity1 and time1 are mere fictions of our own imperfect minds1 and that to an ,infinite ,god there is no difficulty from such sources4 ,,the ,,solar ,,system4 ,this is the name given to that collection of worlds which1 with the sun as a centre1 circulate at different distances from and around it4 ,there have at present been discovered eight large planets and thirty-four smaller ones called asteroids or planetoids1 the larger planets revolving in the following order from the sun or centre3-- #a4 ,,mercury4 #b4 ,,venus4 #c4 ,,the ,,earth4 #d4 ,,mars4 #e4 ,,jupiter4 #f4 ,,saturn4 #g4 ,,uranus4 #h4 ,,neptune4 ,the ,sun1 the centre of the solar system1 is the great source of light and heat to our planet and all others which revolve around it1 as well as of another agent not so well understood1 namely actinism1 or that power which produces the chemical changes in many substances exposed to the sun's rays1 and which has been of late turned to such useful and wonderful account in the art of photography4 ,the sun is an immense sphere1 many thousand times larger than our earth1 or indeed all the planets put together4 ,it turns upon its axis in twenty-five days1 and1 like all spheres which rotate1 has a slightly flattened form2 it is supposed that the sun itself1 carrying its planets with it1 performs a journey round some other centre very far away1 but for all the purposes of explaining the solar system it may be supposed to be stationary4 ,the diameter of the sun is about #hij1jjj miles1 or nearly #aab times the diameter of our earth1 and as the bulk of spheres is as the cubes of their diameters1 it follows that the sun is about #a1djj1jjj times the bulk of the earth4 ,fig4 #a shows the relative size of the sun and the planets which rotate round it2 the specific gravity of the sun is about a quarter that of our earth or one-and-a-half times that of water4 ,on its surface irregularities are seen 7by the aid of the telescope7 which give it a wavy appearance1 and beside these1 black spots or tracts 7macul7 which appear to traverse from west to east1 across its face2 these however do not travel on1 but are carried round by the sun in its rotation1 for by observing any one of them1 it is seen to go across and make its appearance again at the other side1 and the time it takes to arrive at the place where it was first seen1 determines the time of the sun's rotation1 which 7as before stated7 is twenty-five days or nearly2 these spots alter in size1 form1 and number from time to time1 some of them remaining permanent for months1 others closing in and disappearing in a few hours4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,planets ,,compared ,,with ,a ,,quarter ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,these black spots have a sort of shadowy fringe 7penumbra7 which gives them the appearance of being openings through a luminous surface1 discovering a surface less luminous1 with openings in it through which some still darker surface is seen2 that this really is the case1 and that these are not merely dark spots or surfaces1 is shown by the fore-shortening of the nearest edge as they arrive at the verge of the sun's disc1 and are consequently presented edgewise to the eye1 so that a spot may have the appearance of fig4 #b when seen in front-view near the centre1 and of fig4 #c when seen fore-shortened near the edge of the sun's disc4 ,these spots 7although but specks in comparison with the vast surface of the sun7 are yet of prodigious magnitude1 some having been calculated to measure #ah1jjj miles across--large enough for two such worlds as ours to pass through side by side6 ,from the rapid motion of the penumbra or edges of these spots1 which alter1 open1 and close up very rapidly1 and from some of them being semi-dark1 others quite dark1 c41 it has been concluded that the sun has at least two surrounding atmospheres1 that the body of the sun is not luminous1 nor the first atmosphere or that nearest to it1 but that the outer one is1 and that the dusky appearance of the inner1 as seen through openings of the luminous outer atmosphere1 results from its being very strongly illuminated by the outer one2 this luminosity may be 7and probably is7 only comparative1 for the spots which appear black may be yet very bright1 appearing black only in comparison with the extreme brilliancy of the outer atmosphere1 just as a bar of red-hot iron appears black when held up to the sun4 ,the course which the planets take round the sun is not exactly circular1 but deviating from it more or less1 never being quite a circle4 ,the orbit of each planet1 if accurately computed and laid down on paper1 proves to be that form of curved line called an ellipse1 or that form which instead of having one centre1 as in the circle1 from which all lines radiating to the circumference are equal in length1 has a longer and shorter diameter1 two centres called foci1 and the circumference or boundary so placed that the sum of any two lines1 drawn one from each centre1 and meeting at any part of the circumference1 shall be equal to any two other lines so drawn and meeting at any other point of the circumference1 and to the major axis or long diameter of the ellipse4 ,in fig4 #d1 each pair of lines drawn from ,a ,a and meeting repectively at ,b are each equal4 ,an ellipse may be very much elongated1 or almost circular1 but still have these properties which are essential to it1 and in the case of the orbits of the planets1 they are so nearly circular1 that if drawn a few inches wide1 would hardly be detected to differ from the circle4 ,the orbit of the earth is about one thirtieth part longer than broad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,the rate at which the planets revolve round the sun is not equable1 that is1 their progress is not through equal distances at equal times1 but a line drawn from the planet to the sun would always pass over equal spaces or areas in equal times1 for example1 in fig4 #e1 if the area of the angle included in ,a ,b ,c be equal to that included in ,a ,d ,e1 then a planet would pass from ,b to ,c and from ,d to ,e in equal times4 ,mercury is the smallest of the greater planets1 and the nearest to the sun4 ,its diameter is about #cjjj miles1 and it is about one-fifteenth part the volume of the earth2 its distance from the sun is #cf1ggj1jjj miles1 and it performs its revolution in eighty-eight days4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,this planet is but seldom seen with the naked eye2 for1 being so 7comparatively7 near to the sun1 it sets before dark1 and does not rise till the grey of morning makes it scarcely visible4 ,nothing notable has been discovered on its surface4 ,venus is the second in rotation from the sun1 and revolves round it1 at a distance of #fh1gej1jjj miles1 in #bbd-a_/b days4 ,the diameter of ,venus is about #ggfj miles1 it is therefore nearly the volume of the earth4 ,this is the brightest planet seen in the heavens1 for although much smaller than many others1 its comparative nearness to the sun and earth causes it to appear larger and brighter to the eye4 ,venus is the evening and morning star2 for when to the west of the sun1 it rises before it1 and is then called the morning star 7or1 formerly1 ,lucifer71 but when it is to the east of the sun1 it sets after twilight is gone1 and is called the evening star1 or ,hesperus4 ,these two planets1 ,mercury and ,venus1 have phases 7like the moon71 or certain positions in which the whole of the side illuminated by the sun is seen from the earth1 and other positions in which it is seen sideways2 the planet is then said to be in quadrature1 as may be seen at ,q ,q1 fig4 #f4 ,mercury and ,venus1 being between the sun and the earth1 are called inferior planets1 while those whose orbits are outside that of the earth are called superior planets4 ,when either of the inferior planets are between the earth and the sun1 they are said to be in inferior conjunction 7,i ,c1 fig4 #f71 and when on the opposite side1 or behind the sun1 so that a straight line from it to the earth would have to pass through the sun1 then it is called being in superior conjunction 7,s ,c72 at mid-distance1 either east or west1 it is said to be in eastern or western quadrature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,planets ,,seen ,,in ,,quadrature4 ,the third planet from the sun is the ,earth1 distant about #ie1jjj1jjj miles1 with a diameter of #gibe miles1 so that the most lofty mountains 7five miles high7 bear about the same proportion to it as would an elevation one-fourteenth of an inch in height to a ball of ten feet in diameter2 therefore1 with all its valleys and high hills1 the surface of the earth is smoother in proportion to its bulk than the rind of an orange4 ,the earth is not a perfect sphere1 but has a slightly flattened form1 as though it had been compressed at the poles4 ,the diameter at the poles is the smallest1 and is #ghii miles1 while that at the equator 7its greatest7 is #gibe miles1 being a difference of twenty-six miles2 but this is so small1 when compared with the size of the earth1 that if an exact model of it were made1 four inches in diameter1 it would require the most accurate measurement to determine that it was not a perfect sphere4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,the form of the earth has been demonstrated by accurate experiments and calculations1 but there are many things we may observe1 convincing us of its rotundity2 one of the most evident of these is the fact that as a ship at sea goes from the land1 the hull first disappears1 then the lower sails1 and lastly the tops1 while a ship approaching the shore shows first the topsails1 and lastly the hull2 see fig4 #g1 where ,a shows a ship on the horizon1 ,b hull-down1 ,c out of sight4 ,in the same way1 the tops of distant mountains are seen at sea long before the lower lands4 ,another proof is drawn from the fact1 that ships have been sailed quite round the earth2 by steering as nearly as possible in one direction1 they have arrived at the place from which they started4 ,a third proof of the earth's rotundity is found in the form of its shadow1 when the moon is eclipsed by it2 this shadow1 as thrown by the earth upon the moon1 is circular1 in whatever position the earth may be1 and a sphere is the only solid form which can in all positions cast a circular shadow4 ,the earth turns upon its axis every #bc hours1 #ef minutes1 and #d seconds1 which constitutes a day1 and makes one revolution round the sun in every #cfe-a_/d days1 which make up a year2 but the earth's axis is not at a right angle to an imaginary line drawn from the earth to the sun1 but at an angle of #bc deg4 #bh min4 to it1 as shown at fig4 #h1 where the line from ,n to ,s is the earth's axis of rotation1 the dotted line leading to ,s is the sun's direction1 and ,e ,q is the equator4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,the earth travels through space at a rate of more than a million-and-a-half miles per day1 besides the distance which each object upon it is carried in its diurnal rotation 7#bd1jjj miles74 ,at first thought it would seem impossible that such a rapid motion should not be felt2 but as the air and clouds1 and every object belonging to the earth1 moves with it1 and this motion is perfectly smooth1 it can only be perceived by looking at objects independent of the earth4 ,if sailing on the water1 when it is quite smooth and the land not very near1 the ship seems to be stationary and the objects on shore appear to pass along in an opposite direction to that in which the ship is going4 ,it is the same with the earth2 the sun1 which appears to move1 is stationary1 while the earth is going round it2 and the result is1 while the earth turns round on its axis the whole firmament appears to move1 we lose sight of those stars which are to the westward1 which are then said to set1 while those to the eastward1 constantly coming into sight1 are said to rise1 the whole appearing to pass from east to west1 while in reality the earth's surface is passing from west to east4 ,at the equator1 or that part of the earth which lies midway between the poles1 the sun and stars appear to rise and set perpendicularly to the horizon and at equal times above and below it1 it is therefore #ab hours day and #ab hours night2 in places not situated on the equator1 they do not rise and set perpendicularly to the horizon1 but form portions of circles at greater or less altitudes in the heavens1 and the nearer the observer is to either of the poles1 the smaller the circle1 and the more of it is seen2 so that1 at the poles1 any star situated exactly overhead does not appear to move at all4 ,this place is called the north pole of the heavens1 and the nearest star to it is called the polestar1 which neither rises nor sets1 and1 as it always keeps the same position1 serves as a guide to mariners4 ,all this is the effect of the diurnal motion of the earth1 its annual motion not affecting the position of the stars1 they being at such an immense distance that the circle which the earth forms in passing round the sun--although nearly #bjj1jjj1jjj miles across--is as a mere point in proportion4 ,but not so with the sun3 as before stated1 at the equator it is twelve hours above the horizon and the same time below it2 now1 as we approach towards the poles1 it forms at each rotation an arc above the horizon1 lower and lower1 until at the poles its daily rising and setting is lost altogether1 and there would never be daylight there1 provided that the earth was only subject to the diurnal motion 7fig4 #i72 but as the earth turns upon an oblique axis1 the north and south poles share the blessing of daylight between them1 so that through one-half of the earth's orbit the north pole is towards the sun1 as shown in the figure1 and the south pole during the other half4 ,there is therefore at the poles but one day and one night in the year--the day being summer and the night winter4 ,in less northern climates1 as ,england1 this exists to a much smaller extent2 for half the year the sun is longer above than below the horizon1 constituting our summer1 the other half of the year the sun is longer below the horizon than above it1 and this is winter4 ,hence1 in each case1 midway between1 the sun is twelve hours above and twelve below the horizon1 which occurs in spring and autumn1 being called the equinoxes 7equal nights72 the vernal or spring equinox takes place on the #bast of ,march1 the autumnal on the #bast of ,september4 ,the times just between these1 when the sun is the longest and shortest time below the horizon1 are called the summer and winter solstices1 and occur on the #bast of ,december and the #bast of ,june4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,the earth has a smaller sphere or satellite1 circulating round it1 this is the ,moon2 it is placed at a distance of about #bch1jjj miles from the earth1 is about one-fiftieth of its bulk or volume1 and revolves round it every #bg-a_/b days1 keeping always the same side towards it1 so that the other side has never been seen4 ,this is effected by rotation on its axis1 which takes place once for every circuit round the earth2 if it did not rotate1 or kept the same side always to the same point of the heavens1 then1 when it had half-way revolved1 the other side would be turned towards the earth4 ,there are good reasons for believing that the moon has no atmosphere or air around it1 for the concave edge 7when only a small portion of the half illuminated by the sun is seen7 instead of being gradually shaded off into darkness1 as would be the case if there were an atmosphere1 is well defined and uneven1 showing the tops of some of the mountains and their shadows 7fig4 #aj74 ,nor does there appear to be any clouds1 and as a consequence no water2 neither has anything been observed by the aid of the best telescopes which could be considered sea1 on the contrary1 the whole surface seems torn up and rent into chasms and immense jagged mountains1 enclosing circular portions like gigantic walls4 ,the darkened parts which are always seen on the surface of the moon were formerly supposed to be seas1 but of late1 by the use of improved instruments1 they have been seen to be rough like the other parts1 and cannot therefore be water 7fig4 #aa74 ,as there appears to be no water1 it may be confidently inferred that there are no inhabitants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,the moon having always one half illuminated by the sun1 while the other half is dark1 presents different phases to us on the earth1 according to the position in which we view it2 thus1 in fig4 #ab1 ,e represents the central position of the earth1 and ,s the direction from which the light of the sun comes1 the outer circle of moons represents the various real positions of that luminary with respect to the earth and sun1 and the inner circle shows its appearance when in these various positions4 ,when the moon is between the earth and sun1 as at a1 it is said to be in conjunction1 and as the darkened side is towards the earth1 of course it is not visible1 this is new moon 7a corruption of no moon72 when at b b1 but a small part of the illuminated half is seen1 and it is then said to be crescentic 7first and last quarter72 at c c1 half of the bright side is seen1 the moon is said to be at quadrature1 and the appearance is that of a half-moon2 at d d1 the greater part of the bright side is seen1 and it is called gibbous and appears as a three-quarter-moon1 and at e the whole of the illuminated side is seen2 it is then full-moon1 and is said to be in opposition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,beyond the earth the planet ,mars 7fig4 #ac7 moves in its orbit round the sun2 it is the smallest1 but one1 of the larger planets1 having a diameter of but #djhe miles1 and being only about one-seventh the magnitude of the earth2 it makes its revolution in #fhg days1 at a distance of #add1ghj1jjj miles from the sun4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,owing to the brilliancy and proximity to the sun of ,venus and ,mercury1 together with other causes1 no rotation has been observed in them1 but as this exists in all the other planets there is no doubt they also rotate1 but the nearness of ,mars to the earth when in opposition 7that is1 when the earth is between it and the sun71 has caused its rotation to be distinctly visible2 the observation of this has been from time to time greatly favoured by certain dark spots which have remained stationary a sufficient time to determine the question very accurately4 ,mars takes #bd hours and #cg minutes to turn on its axis1 or pretty nearly the time the earth does4 ,its resemblance is still more increased by the axis of rotation being oblique1 from all which it is inferred that there is a day and night1 winter and summer1 and variation of climate very nearly resembling that of our own world1 and there are round bright parts situated at the poles of ,mars1 which enlarge when it is winter there and diminish when summer1 just as would the snows of arctic regions1 and these are therefore supposed to be portions of the surface of ,mars which are actually covered with snow 7fig4 #ac74 ,as to the question of the planets being inhabited1 of course it can never be answered with certainty1 but it is a great deal more likely that they are than that the moon is1 which1 having neither water nor atmosphere1 can hardly be supposed to give habitation to any beings similar or analogous to those on earth1 while ,mars possesses a climate not greatly differing from that of the earth1 and has both air and water4 ,mars has1 at certain positions of the earth with respect to it1 a partially gibbous form1 that is1 a small portion of the non-illuminated part comes within the lines of our vision it is then of the form seen in 7fig4 #ad71 but this can only occur when the earth and planet occupy positions somewhat near to that represented in fig4 #ae1 in which ,s is the sun1 ,e ,e opposite positions of the earth1 and ,m ,mars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,jupiter is by far the largest of the planets1 it is #hg1jcj miles in diameter1 and placed at the enormous distance of #did1jjj1jjj miles from the sun4 ,this great planet takes #ab years and #eb days to perform its circuit2 it turns upon its axis in #i hours #ee minutes1 a surprisingly short time considering the immensity of its bulk4 ,as a result of this rapid motion ,jupiter is very far removed from the form of a true sphere1 for the oblate form of heavenly bodies is caused by their rotatory motion1 and the centrifugal force set up by it4 ,in fig4 #af is an outline of the earth and ,jupiter1 showing their relative size4 ,it has no phases1 like those planets which are nearer to the sun than the earth1 its great distance preventing this1 as may be seen in fig4 #ag1 in which the earth 7,e ,e7 is placed at the two widest lateral positions of its orbit1 but the earth is too near the sun1 in proportion to the great distance of ,jupiter1 to allow any part of the latter to come within the range of vision1 except that which is illuminated by the sun4 ,this planet is high up in the heavens the greater number of nights in the year1 and is therefore a very conspicuous object4 ,it also presents a most beautiful appearance through a good telescope1 its vast size causing it to look larger than those which are much nearer2 it has several shadowy belts across it1 which are supposed to be openings in the strata of clouds which surround it1 drawn into ring-like forms by the rotation of the planet1 these are shown in fig4 #ah4 ,it being probable that this great planet is surrounded by strata of the densest clouds which only open in the tropical region1 its inhabitants therefore1 7if there be any7 get but a glimpse of the firmanent and its stars through them1 in those situations at or near to the planet's equator4 ,these dense clouds serve a very useful purpose in regions so very far removed from the source of heat1 for if radiation were permitted to go on freely from the surface of the planet the sun's rays would be too feeble to compensate for it1 and the cold would be intense2 but the clouds reflect back the heat radiated from the surface and keep in what little heat is received at that great distance4 ,jupiter has four satellites or moons1 which revolve round it as our moon does round this earth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,far beyond ,jupiter rolls another stupendous orb called ,saturn1 not so large as ,jupiter1 but still immense1 being #hdg times the bulk of the earth4 ,it is placed at the distance of #ijf millions of miles from the sun4 ,an idea of this may be formed from the fact that light1 which travels at the rate of nearly #bjj1jjj miles a second or #ab1jjj1jjj a minute1 takes about an hour and a quarter to pass from the sun to ,saturn4 ,it performs its journey round the sun only in #bi-a_/b years1 which are therefore but as one year1 yet all this time it is moving at the rate of nearly #bb1jjj miles an hour1 so immense is the orbit it has to traverse1 but it revolves on its axis in about #aj-a_/b hours1 so that the nights and days are extremely short while the years are prodigiously long4 ,there is every reason to believe that it has changes of seasons and variation of climate similar to those in our world1 but1 being so far from the sun1 they must be altogether more severe than ours4 ,the most extraordinary part of this great globe is its possession of three 7perhaps more7 great flattened rings1 which surround it1 one within the other2 these rings are of immense size and width1 but very thin1 the great breadth through all from the inner to the outer edges being about #cj1jjj miles1 while their thickness cannot exceed #bej4 ,these rings are placed at a right angle to the planet's axis of rotation and revolve with it1 so that when the planet is at the equinox1 the edge of these rings is turned towards the sun1 they can then be seen only by the most powerful telescopes1 forming a faint streak on each side of the orb of the planet 7fig4 #ai71 but as they become inclined they appear as a very long ellipse1 the ends of which project in loop-like forms on either side1 giving rise to the notion of the planet having two handles 7fig4 #bj74 ,this ellipse becomes broader and broader as the plane of the rings forms a greater angle with the line of vision4 ,for a short time before and after the equinoxes of ,saturn1 the rings become invisible1 owing to the earth and sun being on opposite sides of them1 as may be seen in fig4 #ba1 so that the darkened side is turned towards the earth and the edge1 which is the only part illuminated1 is towards the sun4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,the inner ring of ,saturn is supposed to be composed of watery vapour1 as it is somewhat transparent1 but the outer ones are solid1 which is shown by the shadow they cast upon the planet1 and the shadow it casts upon them in different positions 7figs4 #bb and #bc74 ,besides these rings ,saturn has eight satellites or moons1 which revolve in a plane nearly parallel to that of the rings and exterior to them4 ,it has been calculated that ,saturn weighs only #ajj times more than the earth1 although it is somewhere about #ijj times larger1 from which it is concluded that the substance of which ,saturn is made must be about one-ninth the density of this earth1 half the density of water1 or about the same as cork4 ,saturn is very much flattened at the poles1 so much so that the equatorial diameter is a tenth more than the axial diameter1 which difference is distinctly visible through good glasses4 ,still further into space1 at double the distance of ,saturn1 or nearly #ahbb millions of miles from the sun1 another great world or planet revolves round it1 it is called ,uranus4 ,this planet is not so large as either ,jupiter or ,saturn1 but is of considerable magnitude1 being eighty times that of this world1 it takes eighty-four of our years to complete its vast circle round the sun1 which are therefore equivalent to but one year of ,uranus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,it has several satellites1 four of which have been discerned perfectly1 but it is doubtful whether there have not been two more seen4 ,this orb was first recognised as a planet by ,sir ,wm4 ,herschell1 after whom it was for some time named4 ,another1 and the most remote planet in our system1 is ,neptune1 revolving at the immense distance of #bhej millions of miles from the sun1 and taking more than #afd years to perform the journey4 ,this planet is only to be seen by the most powerful glasses1 and was discovered under very peculiar circumstances1 not 7like other planets7 by chance2 its existence was recognised as necessary to account for certain perturbations or deviations in the orbit of ,uranus1 which was found to take a course differing from what it should1 according to computation1 and which were only to be accounted for by supposing that another planet existed far out in space1 which affected the course of ,uranus by its attraction4 ,the idea of finding out where this orb should be1 occurred to ,m4 ,le ,verrier and ,mr4 ,adams1 independent of each other2 they both arrived at nearly similar conclusions1 for the positions assigned to the supposed planet so nearly agreed with each other and with its real position1 that their calculations have been looked on as the greatest feat of astronomical research4 ,it was discovered by ,dr4 ,galle of ,berlin1 upon his hearing from ,le ,verrier the position in which at that time it should be sought for4 ,,the ,,planetoids4 ,upon observing the relative distances of the planets from each other in passing outwards from ,mercury1 it will be found that each one is placed about double the distance of the one next before it 7not exactly1 but sufficiently near to form a coincidence almost amounting to a law71 they are as follows3-- ,mercury #cf1gjj1jjj ,venus #fh1ggj1jjj ,the ,earth #ie1jjj1jjj ,mars #add1ghj1jjj ,jupiter #did1jjj1jjj ,saturn #ijf1jjj1jjj ,uranus #ahbb1jjj1jjj ,neptune #bhej1jjj1jjj ,it will be seen1 however1 that in this table of distances there is one great exception to the rule1 namely the distance between ,mars and ,jupiter1 which is nearly double what it should be according to this rule1 giving rise to the idea that a planet ought to be placed between them4 ,professor ,bode was so convinced that something of the kind was necessary to complete the harmony of the series1 that he caused to be instituted a search for the supposed planet1 and according to his conjecture one was discovered as nearly as possible in the situation indicated1 but upon more accurate information being obtained1 this planet was found to be so small 7scarcely #aej miles diameter7 that it could hardly be considered as a planet ranging with the others1 and having so large a space of the heavens to itself2 shortly afterwards another small planet was discovered1 having nearly the same orbit4 ,from time to time others have been discovered1 to the number of forty-two1 up to the present date4 ,dr4 ,olbers upon discovering the second of these small bodies1 where one great one was anticipated1 put forth the curious hypothesis1 that one large planet had really existed there at some former time1 that it had been shattered into pieces by some accident1 such as an internal explosion1 and that more of these pieces would be found2 it is curious how accurately this prediction has been verified4 ,if we suppose the original planet to have been liquid when shattered to pieces1 it would fully account for the fragments being spherical1 just as globules of mercury assume this form from their own attraction of gravitation1 and that the planets1 our own earth amongst them1 are liquid1 is very nearly proved by their forms1 which are exactly such as fluid masses rotating on an axis would assume1 moreover the specific gravity of some of the planets is but little more than that of water1 and with respect to our earth1 the evidence of internal heat1 increasing as we descend below the surface1 c41 show almost beyond doubt that at the present time it is in a liquid state 7molten7 covered over by a few miles' thickness of hardened crust1 which bears such a small proportion to the bulk of the globe1 that the whole may be considered as liquid4 ,,the ,,stellar ,,system4 ,the thousands of stars which spangle the heavens are all part of one system2 but it has been found by the aid of the telescope that this system is but one out of many4 ,our system of stars occupies a space somewhat in the form of a thick lens or much-flattened sphere1 but others are of very different forms1 and some have but little regularity of form at all2 our sun is one of the stars of this system4 ,it is not known whether there are planets revolving round the other stars1 the distance being far too great for any telescope to render them visible4 ,our sun occupies a somewhat central position in the system4 ,the stars are classed into sizes1 as first magnitude1 second magnitude1 c41 on to the thirteenth or fourteenth magnitude1 but all beyond the fifth magnitude 7by far the greater number7 are only visible by the aid of the telescope4 ,there are about #ejjj stars visible to the naked eye4 ,but fourteen stars of the first magnitude are in our hemisphere of the heavens1 and about fifty of the second1 but the number of stars of each magnitude increases prodigiously in the higher numbers1 so that those stars capable only of being seen by the aid of powerful telescopes1 amount to many millions2 these are chiefly situated in a great belt which encircles the heavens1 called the ,milky ,way1 which is caused by the line of vision passing through the breadth of our starry system1 and consequently meeting with a greater number of stars than in other directions1 where it only crosses its thickness4 ,the other systems of stars1 called nebul1 from their resemblance to little clouds1 were supposed to consist of luminous matter of but little density1 and which might at some future period be condensed into stars2 but the improved power and construction of telescopes have enabled astronomers to resolve many of these nebul into clusters of stars1 and there is but little doubt that all could be thus resolved1 were the telescope of sufficient power2 and thus it appears that in the infinity of space collections of systems are placed1 each one too distant from the others to be calculated or written in numbers1 but each consisting of thousands of suns many hundred times greater than this earth1 and many millions of miles from each other4 ,what an idea of space does this afford1 and how soon do all our narrow notions of possibility and impossibility vanish before such facts accomplished by the hands of ,god6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,amongst the stars composing our system there are certain conspicuous groups or constellations1 which were named by the earliest astronomers1 and compose a list of the most ridiculous imaginary figures1 as useless to the casual observer of the stars as to the astronomer1 and have not the most distant resemblance to the figures after which they are named1 as for instance the ,great ,bear 7,ursa ,major7 fig4 #bd4 ,the grouping of stars into constellations serves1 however1 to find any one required 7provided the groups on the chart can be identified with those in the heavens71 as for instance the three conspicuous stars forming ,orion's belt 7fig4 #be71 from which a line produced eastward will point to ,sirius1 the brightest star in the heavens1 and another line produced westward will serve to point out ,aldebaran1 also a star of the first magnitude1 c42 also a line drawn from a to b in the ,great ,bear will nearly point to the pole-star--the star situated nearly 7although not exactly7 at the pole1 or that part of the heavens which would be indicated by a line drawn through the earth at its axis of rotation4 ,amongst the stars scattered over the vault of heaven there are many which to the naked eye appear single1 but which when seen through the telescope prove to be two stars closely approaching each other4 ,these double stars are of two kinds1 optical and physical2 optical double stars are those which appear to be near each other merely from the accident of one being placed behind the other1 nearly in a straight line1 although in reality at an immense distance and in no way connected4 ,physical double stars 7usually called binary systems7 consist of two suns comparatively near each other and revolving about their common centre of gravity4 ,sir ,william ,herschell first discovered their physical connection1 and thereby proved that the great law of gravitation was not confined to our system1 but was the ruling power which controlled and regulated other systems4 ,astronomers have calculated the orbits of only fourteen such binary systems at present with any degree of certainty2 about a thousand double stars are known1 but only about one hundred binary systems4 ,in some binary systems the two suns are of different colours2 white and purple1 red and green1 or yellow and blue4 ,if any planets revolve about such suns1 when situated between the two1 what strange phenomena must occur6 ,imagine a day during which a red sun had tinted everything crimson1 being succeeded at sunset 7not1 as with us1 by darkness7 by the rising of a green sun1 changing the colour of every object from red to green1 and how curious and beautiful must be the shades of light and colour during the transition from one day to the other4 ,can anything be conceived more gorgeous8--no shadow1 but every object tinted with a combination of colours of the most brilliant hues6 ,triple1 quadruple1 and multiple stars are known in abundance1 but all probably optically so1 and not in any way connected with each other by attraction4 ,others of the stars are called variable1 they are those whose light gradually diminishes and after a time regains its former brightness2 some of them not only vary in brilliancy but in colour2 the cause of these phenomena is totally unknown1 and fortunate will he be who discovers it2 it will be a great stride in the science of astronomy1 for at present everything proposed has been quite inadequate to account for such phenomena4 ,about #fj of these variable stars are at present known1 but others are constantly being added to the list4 ,hind has discovered twenty-one1 ,pogson seven1 and other astronomers have taken their share in discerning them4 ,but1 of all the heavenly bodies1 none have excited so much wonder1 and in former times so much fear1 as the ,comets4 ,the orbits of these are for the most part in very eccentric ellipses1 some of them comprised within the limits of our solar system1 while those of others extend millions of miles beyond it1 so that they only reappear to us after hundreds of years4 ,the matter of which these bodies is composed is certainly not solid1 as the smallest telescopic stars may be seen through the very middle of it1 although many thousand miles in thickness4 ,when comets approach the sun1 their substance appears to become more condensed1 and therefore to possess a greater power of reflecting light4 ,the cause of the tails which appear appended to comets when they approach the sun is not known1 but this tail extends always in a direction from the sun1 and passes over many degrees of the heavens' space4 ,as comets obey strictly the law of gravitation1 they must possess some amount of weight or mass1 however small it may be1 and that it is inconceivably small is proved by the fact of comets having passed close to ,jupiter1 right amongst his four moons1 without in any way affecting or disturbing their well-known motions2 the comets have1 however1 been terribly tossed about on such occasions1 one having been totally lost to us by such an occurrence4 ,thus it is seen how the same laws of gravity exist throughout all the infinity of space4 ,the comets traverse our system of suns1 and passing onwards with incredible rapidity1 for years upon years1 through that great space beyond it1 at last visit some other system--perhaps to be as much an object of regard and wonderment there as they were here4 ,the same ray of light which emanated from one of the distant stars of some one of the clusters situated far out in space1 and which has travelled for thousands of years at the rate of #bjj1jjj miles for every second of time1 serves us here on this globe to distinguish it--it enters the tube of our telescope and affects our optic nerve2 and the ,creator who caused it there to be given off1 has here made our senses capable of perceiving it4 ,is not this a clear demonstration of the fact1 that one hand has designed the whole2 and one ,creator provided for all8 ,,the ,,air4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,storm1 ,,with ,,heavy ,,rain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,the earth is surrounded in all directions by a covering of air about forty miles in thickness1 which bears about the proportion to the earth itself that a coating one inch thick would to a ball seventeen feet through1 being about #a_/bjjth of its diameter4 ,this air1 though invisible1 may at all times be felt while in motion 7such is the wind71 and by rapidly passing the hand backwards and forwards it may be perceived to press against and slightly obstruct it2 this air is composed of about twenty parts oxygen and eighty parts nitrogen1 together with about one part in every thousand of carbonic acid 7consisting of carbon and oxygen in union7 and a small proportion of vapour of carbonate of ammonia 7ammonia in union with carbonic acid74 ,it is the oxygen which enables animals to live in the air1 as it is taken into their systems at every breath1 it is thus constantly being consumed and would ultimately be so far diminished1 that they could live no longer for want of it2 but ,providence has so arranged1 that the necessary quantity is always being supplied by vegetables 7which give out oxygen7 to meet the deficiency4 ,the air1 although a gas1 is yet capable of being weighed1 of great compressibility1 and of expansion to an unlimited extent1 this causes the lower part 7near the surface of the earth7 to be much more dense than the upper regions1 and those who have ascended to the tops of high mountains1 have described the difficulty of respiration as being very great1 owing to the rarefaction or lightness of the air4 ,at the surface of the earth it presses with a weight of about fifteen pounds upon every square inch1 but as this pressure is equal in every direction1 it is not felt by us1 nor does it crush the most fragile flower or insect2 but1 remove the pressure from one side of anything1 and it will be found to press with violence upon the other4 ,if the air were removed from the inside of a drum1 the weight of the surrounding air would burst in the parchment and fill it4 ,by way of experiment1 fill a large basin with water1 take a tumbler in the left hand and a piece of lighted paper in the right1 hold the lighted paper for a moment under the inverted tumbler and immediately apply its open mouth to the surface of the water1 letting it dip in about half an inch1 the heat expands and consequently gets rid of some of the air in the tumbler1 and as this cools again it resumes its original bulk2 the pressure of the air on the surface of the water in the basin will force it up into the tumbler and nearly fill it 7fig4 #a74 ,this is the principle of the barometer1 which is a tube entirely exhausted of air and the weight of the atmosphere forces a column of mercury 7which is many times heavier than water7 up to the height of about twenty-nine inches1 according to the weight of the air at any particular time2 this weight varies according to the state of the weather1 whether wet or dry2 but the average weight of air is found to be perfectly stationary1 and during the twenty years from #ahaf to #ahcf1 it was found at ,paris not to have varied #a_/abjjth of an inch4 ,winds or currents of air proceed from several causes2 when the sun shines on a large surface of the earth1 it becomes heated and a column of hot air is pressed upwards1 for hot air is lighter than cold1 and the cold air all around1 by its weight1 forces it up and rushes in to fill the space2 this space may perhaps be many hundred square miles in extent1 so that a current of wind is caused to blow towards this spot from all the regions round4 ,this is the general state of things at the equatorial parts of the earth and causes the trade winds1 which uniformly blow 7the greater part of the year7 from both north and south towards the equator4 ,another cause of local winds1 is the condensation of vapours into water2 when the air over a large region is saturated with moisture it is greatly expanded by it1 and when the vapour is condensed and falls as rain1 the air from the surrounding parts forces itself in to fill the space occupied by the rain while in a state of vapour1 which is nearly one hundred thousand times greater than it occupies when in the form of water4 ,there are many causes to determine the condensation of the vapour1 which the atmosphere always holds in larger or smaller quantities1 but cold is the chief agent1 for when a current of air passes over seas or rivers1 or the damp surface of the earth1 it becomes loaded with moisture1 and being capable of holding only a certain quantity 7less when cold than hot71 it follows that warm air when saturated with moisture must let some of it fall when it becomes cooled4 ,this may occur from entering a colder region1 or uniting with another current of air colder than itself4 ,in tropical regions the air is so warm that it takes up a very large quantity of watery vapour and upon the coming of colder weather1 the rainy season begins and the air empties itself of its superfluous moisture1 causing the most tremendous falls of rain in consequence 7fig4 #b74 ,when the clouds are overcharged with moisture in cold climates or in cold weather1 the vapour freezes as it condenses and forms snow1 which under the microscope presents a series of the most beautiful star-like crystals 7fig4 #c72 the same result is produced by the freezing of the vapour or fog near to the earth's surface1 this is called hoar-frost1 which is 7like dew7 deposited on those parts of the surface most cooled by radiation4 ,hail is caused in all probability by the drops of rain passing through a cold stratum of air and becoming frozen as they fall4 ,there are many wonderful accounts on record of great masses of ice falling from the clouds1 some of them several feet thick2 the cause of these phenomena 7if they ever did occur7 is not known4 ,the curious occurrence of red or green snow1 which has sometimes been known to fall1 is owing to the snow being mixed with myriads of minute cellular plants called the ,protococcus pluvialis1 which in one state of its existence is green and in another red1 and they colour the snow accordingly4 ,the cause of their sudden accumulation in such vast quantities is not known1 but may be sought for in some peculiar state of the atmosphere favourable to their growth1 which in many places is prodigiously rapid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,the temperature of the air differs very greatly in different situations at the surface of the earth1 the extreme difference being about #ahj degrees2 thus in winter1 at the poles1 the thermometer frequently stands at #fj degrees below zero1 and at the equator1 in summer1 #abj degrees above1 but1 in the higher regions of the air1 it is even colder than at the poles1 for the sun shining on the earth heats it1 and the air is heated by contact with it2 this is its only source of heat1 of which it receives less and less the further it is from the earth1 so that at a distance 7depending upon the situation and climate7 ranging from #c1ejj to #ag1jjj feet from the surface1 the air is so cold that it is called the region of perpetual snow1 and all mountains whose tops reach above this altitude are covered with snow 7formed by the freezing of the rain and vapour7 from this point to their summits 7fig4 #d71 and the sun 7although it nearly always shines there1 these regions being above most of the clouds7 is not able to melt it1 for the radiation of heat from its surface is greater than its absorption from the sun's rays1 white substances absorbing but very slowly1 and rough surfaces 7as the snow7 radiating very rapidly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,dew is caused by condensation of the watery vapour held in the air2 when the sun goes down the radiation continues from the surface of the earth1 and those surfaces which radiate most rapidly1 such as fields of grass1 get cooled down below the temperature of the surrounding air1 and therefore cause a condensation of its watery vapour4 ,this may be imitated by filling a large glass goblet with very cold water1 and bringing it into a very warm room1 the outside of the glass vessel will become covered with dew1 although previously quite dry2 the same may be shown by filling a similar glass with water at the ordinary temperature1 taking care that the outside is dry1 then stirring in an ounce or so of nitre or ,rochelle salt1 which will cause the water to become cold1 and the outside of the glass to be covered1 as before1 with dew4 ,dew falls fastest when there are no clouds in the sky1 as radiation then takes place from the earth into space1 and is not compensated for by a return of radiation from the clouds to the earth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,clouds are formed by the partial condensation of vapour1 and are borne along by the wind1 instead of falling as rain2 the reason of their not falling is this1 when the air below the clouds is saturated with moisture it will absorb no more and the rain falls1 but when it is warm and dry1 and passed in a constantly renewed current1 then the vapour is absorbed before it reaches the earth1 and is carried off by the wind4 ,clouds1 therefore1 although they often appear stationary1 are constantly altering their form and size1 portions being absorbed while others are being formed4 ,fogs are the same as clouds1 the vapour arising from wet grass1 rivers1 c41 being condensed as it ascends1 by a current of cold air passing over them4 ,the fogs in ,london have a brown colour1 from admixture of smoke1 dust1 c41 with which the air is contaminated 7fig4 #e74 ,clouds are of various forms and sizes1 and indeed of almost every variety1 but certain kinds which are frequently seen1 have received different names4 ,the cirrhus comprises all the feathery white clouds which float high up in the air in fine weather2 the cumulus consists of the large mountain-like clouds which are generally seen in summer2 the stratus1 those horizontal layers of clouds low down in the horizon1 so often seen at sunset2 and the nimbus is the rain-cloud1 of a dark grey or leaden hue1 with sharp well-marked edges 7fig4 #f74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,clouds are amongst the most beautiful as well as useful things in nature1 and it is one of the greatest proofs of the active benevolence of ,god1 that all those things which serve man the most1 are the most beautiful to contemplate4 ,without clouds there would be no rain1 and without this no vegetation4 ,in many parts of the tropical regions there is little or no rain1 and in such parts desert places abound4 ,clouds are often of different states of electricity1 and when they come near enough to each other1 a transfer of the fluid takes place1 accompanied with a flash of lightning 7fig4 #g7 and a report1 although this is not always heard at the same time that the lightning is seen1 as sound does not travel nearly so fast as light2 there is no danger from this kind of lightning4 ,but it sometimes happens that a cloud in an opposite state of electricity to the surface of the earth is near enough to produce a flash of lightning between them1 in this case it is extremely dangerous to be near2 but when the thunder is not heard till some time after the flash is seen1 there can be no danger1 as it is then far away4 ,sound travels at about eleven hundred feet per second1 therefore 7in round numbers7 it may be known that the lightning is one mile distant for every five seconds that elapse between the flash and the thunder4 ,the notion which prevails that iron and steel attract lightning is entirely erroneous1 they do not even conduct it so well as copper and many other metals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,lightning conductors 7fig4 #h7 are wires of iron or copper1 made to project above the highest parts of buildings and carried down to the earth2 they have the power of conducting the lightning down without injury to the building1 for electricity 7which lightning is7 travels through metallic wires for any distance without disturbance or noise 7as in the electric telegraph71 but bad conductors are apt to be burst and rent by it if it be strong enough1 creating flashes of light and reports4 ,lightning strikes most readily any projecting substance or point1 the highest point is therefore selected for the protrusion of the upper part of conductors4 ,in a plain or open space1 trees and animals are often struck1 as they form conductors 7although very bad ones7 to the lightning2 being bad conductors1 instead of allowing it to pass quietly to the earth as do the wires1 they are generally destroyed by it4 ,it has been often stated that we should select an open space in a thunder-storm1 but this would render one liable to be struck1 especially if there were no object near of larger dimensions1 the best plan is to stand near to any trees or houses without touching them1 the danger would not then be so great1 the trees or buildings being taller1 would be most liable to conduct the lightning to the earth4 ,the danger of touching or leaning against a tree in a thunder-storm1 arises from the person thus making himself 7as it were7 part of it and incurring the same risk4 ,thunder-storms1 which would at first thought appear to be of no utility to man1 are indeed of great service2 it is a common saying that thunder clears the air1 this is the result of feeling and experience1 but chemists have demonstrated the fact that a substance called ozone 7a peculiar state of the element oxygen7 is produced by thunder-storms2 this ozone possesses the wonderful power of correcting 7decomposing7 putrid and unwholesome gases and exhalations which might otherwise produce fever1 cholera1 c41 it moreover destroys the ova or germs of many animals and vegetables which might otherwise be injurious to vegetation of more importance1 the slight injury which these storms inflict here and there should weigh as nothing in the balance of utility with such universal good4 ,thus it is that the works of ,god have all the stamps of goodness1 and this ought to inspire us with so much thankfulness as to overcome every fear for personal safety4 ,were these grand phenomena of nature1 7as materialists would make us believe7 the result of laws depending solely upon the physical co-operation of mere matter1 good would be the exception instead of the rule1 and most of them would produce effects1 if not injurious at least not beneficial1 but such is not the case1 and throughout all the wonderful operations of nature there is not one but tends to good1 for ,god often inflicts a small injury that a great good may result2 we say a small injury1 but it is questionable if the injury is not often a benefit1 which appears to us injurious only because we do not understand it fully1 every disturbing cause tends to produce some apparent disorder1 such as storms1 hurricanes1 c41 some indeed so terrific as to destroy ships and houses1 but what would be the result if the atmosphere were never disturbed from any cause8 ,why the lower stratum would become so loaded with impurities that it would be unfit to breathe1 miasms and noxious gases would for ever remain a curse to the races of men and animals who might be doomed to inhabit such regions1 but the very regions where these miasms are most likely to form are those about the tropics1 and here it is that the greatest storms occur to remove them4 ,even the great deserts1 which appear so useless to man1 and which are uninhabitable to a great extent1 have their office1 and an important one too2 they are to the earth what ventilators are to buildings1 drawing the cold air from the poles to cool the regions that are too hot1 and sending a current of heated air through the upper regions of the atmosphere 7where it can do no injury to anything7 to warm the colder parts of the earth1 another instance of the wonderful care and goodness on the part of the ,creator4 ,the various and beautiful colours of the clouds1 particularly at the rising and setting of the sun1 are caused by refraction separating the white light into its primitive constituents1 blue1 red1 and yellow light and their combinations1 purple1 orange1 green1 c41 and the more obliquely the rays impinge upon the earth the greater will be this refraction1 this accounts for colours seldom appearing in the clouds at midday4 ,but of all the beautiful effects of the refraction of light1 the ,rainbow 7fig4 #i7 is the most glorious1 it has been celebrated in all ages for its transient beauty4 ,it is only seen when rain is falling in front of a brightly illuminated cloud1 the sun being behind the spectator2 it is a reflection of the sun by the cloud transmitted through millions of drops of rain1 each of which acts as a prism1 and produces rings of colour2 for each of the rays of light 7red1 blue1 and yellow7 are refracted in unequal degrees1 and therefore take separate places1 forming the rings of colour seen in the rainbow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,the air is the great source from which all the nourishment of the organic creation1 whether vegetable or animal1 is derived2 its carbonic acid is decomposed by the vegetables1 which appropriate the carbon1 turning over the oxygen to their companions1 the animals2 the ammonia of the air furnishes all the nitrogen of seeds and other nutritious parts of vegetables1 which are eaten by animals2 and water1 the chief source of all nutriment1 passes first from the air before it enters the soil1 bringing both carbonic acid and ammonia to fertilise it4 ,that all this nourishment is derived from the air is evidently shown by the formation and increase of mould in forests which have grown for centuries2 this black mould is nearly all decayed vegetable matter1 formed by the continuous fall and decay of leaves and trees1 but which1 instead of diminishing1 increases4 ,now1 where does all this come from8 certainly not out of the earth1 for it does not contain the necessary elements4 ,expose the surface of the bare earth for several centuries1 and first small plants1 then larger ones1 will grow upon it1 until the state of things described above takes place1 the earth being just as rich in organic matter now as at the beginning1 and much richer on the surface1 where a thick stratum of black mould forms from the repeated fall and decay of leaves and wood2 all the substance which the forest shall have drawn from the earth 7with the exception of certain salts and earthy matters7 must therefore have been derived from the air1 which contains every ingredient necessary for its formation1 while in the earth itself no kind of organic matter is ever found4 ,there was formerly a time when the carbonic acid of the air was in much greater abundance1 and favoured the growth of those plants which thrive where there is plenty of water1 as in swamps and marshes4 ,they grew and decayed for a vast period of time1 till a thick stratum of carbonaceous matter was deposited1 which1 after being buried 7by some convulsion of nature7 at a great depth1 and pressed by the enormous weight of the superincumbent earth into a hard solid substance1 is now being dug up by man1 and forms that most valuable of all products of the mine1 coal 7fig4 #aj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,that coal is derived from decayed and altered vegetable matters1 is pretty well proved2 for many pieces of coal1 if ground thin and subjected to the microscope1 present a texture exactly such as can be seen in wood of the present date1 and not only the ordinary structure1 but in very many cases certain dotted fibres1 indicating that the wood belonged to the order of cone-bearing trees 7,conifer71 and there is but little doubt that the constant deposit of such wood and its slow and gradual decay was the real source of all our coal4 ,how wonderful1 and how good1 is the foreknowledge of ,god6 ,just at a time when the great forests of the earth are fast disappearing1 and with them the only other source of fuel for fires1 this reserve of the old forests1 which was then useless1 serves man as a most excellent friend--more useful than gold or silver1 more precious than diamonds or rubies6 ,but this world is one of perpetual change1 and the coal thus brought forth from the depths of the earth1 is by man being rapidly restored to the air from whence--thousands of years ago--it was derived2 and it is not coal alone which is thus being restored1 but every organic being in the whole creation1 for at their decay they all enter this vast mausoleum of the dead6 ,illustration ,,the ,,earth4 ,illustration ,the ,earth1 considered as one of those spheres which circulate round the sun amidst the wide expanse of the firmanent1 holds but an insignificant position among them1 especially when compared with those great and magnificent orbs1 ,jupiter and ,saturn2 but1 in another point of view1 as the dwelling-place of all the animated beings1 vegetables1 and minerals1 with which we have any practical knowledge1 it holds to us a position in creation far above all the others4 ,it is upon the surface of this our earth that we behold in detail those wonders of the ,great ,creator's hands1 which must fill all who contemplate and study them with enlarged ideas of ,his wisdom1 goodness1 and power4 ,we see the millions of stars sparkling in the abyss of space1 and our minds are so formed that we can measure and gauge their distances and rates of travelling1 their orbits and their sizes1 their weights1 and the powers with which they attract and influence each other2 but we only contemplate a star as one bright and beautiful object worthy to be one of the gems which the ,almighty has set in ,his crown of glory1 or a lamp to light the halls of ,his infinite habitation1 but we still contemplate it as a single object2 while on the surface of the earth our ,maker has permitted us to roam and search out by what benevolent contrivances ,he has suited all things to the comfort and welfare of ,his creatures4 ,how ,his mercy and goodness are extended amply to the most minute animalcule as well as to man1 and how ,his powers of construction are to be found in the most minute objects which the microscope can display1 as perfect as in the largest creature we behold4 ,it is here upon our earth that we perceive how the structure and functions of all creatures are regulated and controlled by the unerring laws which ,he has created1 over which laws the creatures have no control1 and which if duly regarded and used according to the faculties each has been gifted with1 will return the greatest joy and happiness their several natures are capable of1 and secure all that perfection of operation which their mechanical frames are suited to perform2 but before any description of the organised beings which dwell on the earth can be given1 it will be proper to enter into a description of the earth itself1 to see what sort of place ,god has provided for them1 and how through succeeding cycles of time ,he has gradually perfected and prepared it for the reception of ,his last great work1 ,man4 ,it is only a few miles below the surface of the earth that man has been able to penetrate and examine1 but reason comes to assist him where examination fails1 and it would have been but a few hundred yards only that his labours could have extended had it not been that parts1 which are generally situated miles below the surface1 are occasionally found at or even raised above it1 by some disturbing cause which operated in times far back2 so that man is able to examine on the surface parts which he could scarcely dig down to4 ,the whole of the earth1 its inhabitants1 the air which surrounds it1 the waters upon its surface1 and its vegetable products1 are composed of certain substances called elements1 combined and united in certain numbers and proportions4 ,the following is a list of all known3-- ,,metallic ,,elements4 ,aluminium #ac4g ,antimony #ab4i ,arsenic #ge ,barium #fh4e ,bismuth #ba4c ,cadmium #ef ,calcium #bj ,cerium #dg ,chromium #bf4g ,cobalt #bi4e ,copper #ca4g ,didymium 99 ,donarium 99 ,erbium 99 ,glucinium 99 ,gold #aig ,ilmenium 99 ,iridium #ii ,iron #bh ,lanthanium 99 ,lead #ajc4g ,lithium #f4e ,magnesium #ab4b ,manganese #bg4f ,mercury #ajj ,molybdenum #df ,nickel #bi4f ,niobium 99 ,norium 99 ,osmium #ii4f ,palladium #ec4c ,pelopium 99 ,platinum #ih4g ,potassium #ci4b ,rhodium #eb4b ,ruthenium #eb4b ,silicon #ba4c ,silver #ajh4a ,sodium #bc ,strontium #dc4h ,tantalium #ahd ,tellurium #fd4b ,terbinum 99 ,thorium #ei4f ,tin #ei ,titanium #be ,tungsten #ie ,uranium #fj ,vanadium #fh4f ,yttrium #cb4b ,zinc #cb4f ,zirconium #bb4d ,,non-,,metallic ,,elements4 ,boron #aj4i ,bromine #hj ,carbon #f ,chlorine #ce ,fluorine #ah4i ,hydrogen #a ,iodine #abg4a ,nitrogen #ad ,oxygen #h ,phosphorus #cb ,sulphur #af ,selenium #ci4e ,by this list it will be perceived that the greatest number of the elements are metals1 but most of these are very rare and met with but in certain localities1 making up but a very insignificant part of the earth's surface1 while others 7never found in nature1 as metals7 in combination with oxygen forming earths compose the greater part of its bulk4 ,but of all the elements1 oxygen 7a gas7 is the most widely diffused1 and constitutes rather more than one half of the whole earth1 thus it forms #a_/eth of the air1 #i_/ajths of the water1 of the various earths and rocks about #a_/b1 and in all organised beings about #c_/d4 ,of the metallic elements1 those which form the greater bulk of the earth are-- ,silicon4 ,aluminium4 ,calcium4 ,magnesium4 ,potassium4 ,sodium4 ,these never exist in nature as metals1 but combined with oxygen forming the following earths and alkalies3-- ,silica ,alumina ,,earths4 ,lime ,magnesia ,potassa ,,alkalies4 ,soda ,these four earths form about eighty-five per cent4 of the whole bulk of this globe1 the remainder being made up of water 7composed of eight parts oxygen and one part hydrogen71 of salt1 both as rock or crystal-salt1 and dissolved in the water of the sea1 of the ores of different metals 7metals in union with oxygen1 sulphur1 c471 and of the remains of former vegetation1 existing as coal4 ,silica is composed of #ba4c parts of silicon with #bd of oxygen1 it is that earth which constitutes a great part of almost every soil1 and forms sand1 sandstone1 and flint1 it enters largely also into the formation of granite and the other primitive rocks2 when pure it is called quartz or rock-crystal and is often found in large and beautiful masses4 ,silica1 in different forms1 contaminated and coloured by different metallic oxides1 c41 forms that class of stones known as agate1 ,scotch pebble1 carnelian1 c41 and in the form of flint is found nearly pure1 forming nodules or rounded masses lying in layers in the chalk cliffs on our coasts1 the origin of these nodules of flint is very obscure1 but they are by many attributed to the petrifaction of sponges1 c41 the general form of which they often retain as well as their internal structure1 which may be seen when viewed in thin slices by means of the microscope4 ,pure silica is a white insoluble powder1 and is much used by the makers of porcelain to mix with their other ingredients4 ,alumina consists of #da4a parts of aluminium in combination with #bd parts of oxygen1 it is the earth which forms the basis of all clays1 loams1 and slates1 it is in its pure state perfectly white but in most clays is coloured brown or blueish by oxide of iron1 many of our most beautiful gems1 as the ruby1 sapphire1 and emerald1 consist chiefly of crystallised alumina coloured by oxide of iron1 chromium1 c41 this earth like silica enters largely into the composition of the primitive rocks4 ,lime is another of the earths which form a great part of all soils2 it consists of #bj parts calcium with #h of oxygen4 ,unlike the two preceding earths1 it exists only in union with some acid4 ,when united to carbonic acid it forms limestone1 chalk1 marble1 c41 and when in a crystallised state ,iceland spar4 ,the various kinds of limestone are largely used as building-stones1 and any of them when burnt yields lime or quick-lime as it is generally called1 which is capable of uniting with a certain portion of water1 giving out a considerable amount of heat during the combination4 ,lime is often found in union with sulphuric acid1 forming gypsum or ,plaster of ,paris1 in combination with phosphoric acid it forms the basis or earthy part of the bones of animals1 and is found in some of the tissues of plants4 ,potassa consists of #ci4b parts potassium in union with #h oxygen1 it constitutes about #ab per cent4 of the granites and basalts 7primitive rocks7 in union with silica and alumina1 it is also found in the fluids of many vegetables in union with carbonic1 oxalic1 and other acids4 ,soda consists of twenty-three parts sodium with eight oxygen1 it however does not exist in this form in nature1 but in union with chlorine instead of oxygen1 constituting chloride of sodium or common salt1 this substance forms strata of considerable extent in some localities and being soluble has no doubt been washed out by the rains from many other places and has thus communicated saltness to the waters of the ocean4 ,the other metallic elements exist chiefly in those forms of earth called ores being metals in union with oxygen1 sulphur1 c41 or are found in the metallic state1 as gold1 platinum1 c41 it is from these ores that most of our useful metals are procured by the process called smelting1 as in the case of iron1 copper1 lead1 tin1 c4 ,all the substances known result from the combinations of the elements1 but these elements do not chemically combine in all proportions1 but in certain definite quantities only2 these quantities or proportions are signified by the numbers attached to each element in the list given1#a and the union of these substances must be in the proportion of these numbers 7or multiples of them7 only1 all superfluity of the substances combined remaining in a state of mere mechanical mixture4 ,for example1 if six parts of carbon 7charcoal7 made red-hot be plunged into a jar containing twenty parts of oxygen1 it will unite with sixteen parts only of the oxygen 7a multiple of eight71 and form twenty-two parts of carbonic acid1 the extra four parts of oxygen still remaining as oxygen mixed with the carbonic acid2 and if into this carbonic acid twenty parts of lime be put1 it will unite with the twenty-two of carbonic acid1 forming forty-two of carbonate of lime1 still leaving the four parts of oxygen untouched4 ,had forty parts of lime been put into the mixture1 instead of twenty1 still only forty-two of carbonate of lime would have been formed1 and the other twenty parts 7like the four of oxygen7 being superfluous1 would still have remained as lime1 mixed with the carbonate of lime4 ,these combining quantities are called the equivalents of the substances4 ,footnote #a3 ,see the list of the elements at page #de2 those which are distinguished by an asterisk1 are elements of which the equivalents are not known4 ,upon examining various portions of the earth's surface1 they will be found to differ in character from each other2 in one place perhaps sandy soil will be found1 in another1 hard rock1 in a third1 clay1 in a fourth1 chalk1 and so on4 ,now1 if this examination were carried no further1 it might well be presumed that each of these kinds of soil were continued downwards into the earth for an indefinite distance1 but upon digging 7as in sinking a shaft or well7 it is found that the stratum of soil upon the surface is soon passed through1 that others in succession present themselves and that this succession of strata is not a matter of chance1 but 7with certain restrictions7 follows in invariable order4 ,it is true some strata are occasionally not present1 and that others replace them2 but yet 7taken altogether7 there is the same order of succession everywhere found4 ,the following diagram 7fig4 #a7 gives the section of these strata from the earth's surface to the granite which is the lowest of all formations and through which no one has ever penetrated4 ,the figures give an approximation to their average thickness in feet4 ,these strata do not all run in a direction parallel to the surface of the earth1 or else it would result that the surface would everywhere be made up of the highest1 but they have been contorted and heaved up into mounds or depressed2 and the granite has often been pushed upwards1 carrying with it all the upper strata to a certain extent1 at last thrusting quite through them all and presenting itself above the surface1 forming in this way the tops of many very high mountains1 ,mont ,blanc for instance4 ,such a mountain if cleft from the summit to the base would present a section similar to that shown in fig4 #b1 and thus it occurs 7contrary to what would at first thought be supposed7 that the highest ground is generally formed of the lowest strata1 while the valleys are nearly always covered with the latest formations1 which is partly owing to the elevating process before alluded to1 and partly to the winds1 rains1 c41 tending to carry away and wash down every kind of soil from the upper ground and deposit it in the lower4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,diagram ,,showing ,,the ,,positions ,,and ,,relative ,,thicknesses ,,of ,,the ,,strata4 ,illustration3 ,granite ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,fig4 #c represents strata in a state called by geologists conformable1 which name is applied when the strata follow their natural or regular succession1 whether this retains its horizontal position1 or1 as in fig4 #d1 assumes a position more or less vertical1 which frequently happens from the subsidence of one part or the elevation of another2 but they are sometimes found in the state represented in fig4 #e1 and in which they are said to be unconformable4 ,such strata after having been tilted out of the horizontal have had other strata deposited upon them1 which again may be more or less contorted from the same causes4 ,the regularity of strata is often interrupted by what are called faults or dykes1 which have arisen from some part of the earth sinking down or another part being raised up1 producing a fracture through all the strata and causing those on either side of this fault or fracture to occupy a situation not corresponding to those on the opposite1 as in fig4 #f1 but yet to be found at a higher or lower elevation1 and it is nearly always found that these strata are raised on that side to which the line of fracture inclines1 as in the figure4 ,these faults are often sources of great annoyance to the miner1 who finds a sudden termination to the seam of coal or ore that he is working4 ,the cracks are generally filled with some primitive rock1 as basalt1 rising from beneath while in a liquid state and filling up the interstices2 it will often happen that the faults thus filled will have veins of the same rock branching out and not only filling up cracks but forcing its way between the various strata1 thus interposing a stratum of basalt quite out of its proper position and altering1 by the effects of the heat communicated1 the character of the strata in juxtaposition2 this is shown in fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,upon a close examination of the various strata which form the crust of the earth1 it is found that each has its own peculiar character2 some have resulted from the accumulation of matters deposited at the bottom of ancient seas1 others in the beds of rivers or fresh-water lakes1 or again others 7as the coal formation7 from the accumulation of vegetable matters2 further1 these strata do not only differ in structure and composition1 but also in the remains of animals and plants found in them2 for there is scarcely any kind of soil 7above the primary rocks7 in which abundant remains of these have not been found4 ,it will now be proper to give a description of them in succession1 beginning at the lowest or primary1 granite4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,this appears to be the result of the cooling and crystallisation of that molten mass which many circumstances 7hereafter to be mentioned7 point out as making up the great body of the earth4 ,granite differs1 in various places1 in colour and quality 7the varieties are known as sienite1 porphyry1 greenstone1 c471 but still retains its own distinctive characters2 it is a hard1 crystalline rock1 consisting of felspar1 mica1 and quartz1 in separate crystals1 but mechanically blended2 its chemical composition as a whole is silica1 alumina1 and potassa1 with small quantities of lime and oxide of iron4 ,this granite is met with everywhere1 if the outer crust of the earth be penetrated to a sufficient depth2 it however frequently exists on the surface1 having no strata below it1 and in some places overlies other strata--this1 and the fact that cracks and crevices of some of the lower strata are filled up with granite1 which could only have taken place while it was in a liquid state1 as in fig4 #h1 together with evidences of the effects of calcination1 and other changes producible only by extreme heat1 all around those parts and in the strata immediately overlaying the granite1 point out that it was once in a state of fusion4 ,above the granite formation1 in many places1 especially in ,norway and ,sweden1 there is a stratum of rock called gneiss1 which consists of the same ingredients as granite in a slightly altered form4 ,granite will often pass into gneiss gradually1 and this again into those slaty formations which rest upon it and come next in the series4 ,these consist of mica-slate1 hornblend-slate1 and chlorite-slate or schist1 a name given to all those rocks of a slaty structure which have a cleavage or capability of being cleft into thin lamin or slices 7hence their applicability to the purposes of building1 forming excellent roofing materials1 c474 ,illustration3 ,granite ,,fig4 #h4 ,all these rocks have received the name of primary1 they have no appearance of being stratified or deposited in layers1 which appearance seems to be in all cases the result of having at some time been suspended in water and thence deposited gradually as mud1 sand1 c41 time1 pressure1 and heat having afterwards altered their consistence4 ,all these consist of the earths described as composing granite1 but combined in different proportions4 ,above these rocks there is a formation of a totally different composition1 namely crystalline limestone1 commonly known as marble2 this consists wholly of carbonate of lime or lime in union with carbonic acid1 and its crystalline state appears to have been produced by long-continued heat and pressure4 ,this limestone is by many ranked amongst the primary rocks1 although it differs so entirely in its composition which exactly resembles a formation presently to be described 7the chalk72 however1 if this be classed with the primary rocks1 then it may be fairly said that all above have resulted from their disintegration and reunion in different forms1 by the action of water and vital forces of different kinds4 ,the state of the earth at the close of this the primary period may now be considered4 ,the early history of our globe forms one of the great problems of geology1 but there is evidence enough upon which to form conclusions and show that the earth had undergone some great and varied changes embracing immense periods of time1 and if the sciences of astronomy1 chemistry1 mathematics1 c41 be brought in to assist the inquiry1 some plain facts become evident4 ,astronomy shows us orbs circulating round the sun 7the planets71 strictly analogous to our earth1 and furnishes us with their densities2 these are found to be various1 ranging from about six times the density of water to half its density4 ,the planets appear to be at different stages of condensation1 and it is not unreasonable to suppose that our earth was once of no greater density than the lightest of them4 ,the inner ring of ,saturn is probably in a liquid state1 for it is transparent4 ,the substance of which comets are composed is a vapour1 so rare and thin that it cannot be compared in density to our atmosphere even1 and yet these comets preserve their identity1 circulating through immense realms of space with prodigious rapidity4 ,thus astronomy presents analogies in favour of the supposition that the earth was once gaseous1 or at all events of much less density than at present2 but mathematical inquiries go much further1 and furnish almost proof that the earth was once 7if not now7 in a liquid state1 for the exact form which a liquid ball would assume upon rotating at the rate which the earth does1 is exactly that which the globe is found by measurement to possess4 ,chemistry has ascertained that the heat of the earth is far greater than any tract of the heavens through which it passes2 that this heat could not have been communicated by the sun's rays1 for had it been so the surface would be hotter than the interior1 the very reverse of which is found to be the fact1 and the deeper we go down the higher the temperature is4 ,chemistry shows further that this heat can be completely accounted for by the condensation and solidification of the earth itself2 for the condensation of all gases into liquids1 and of liquids into solids1 causes a very large portion of latent caloric to become sensible1 for example1 any quantity of a gas at #fj deg4 suddenly reduced to a smaller bulk1 would have a temperature higher than #fj deg4 ,a little contrivance has long been in use for obtaining fire by this process1 consisting of a cylinder and piston1 the rod of which if struck down sets fire to a piece of ,german-tinder4 ,it is probable that all fire1 and every alteration of temperature1 are due to this one cause alone4 ,now assuming it as a fact that the earth was once in a gaseous state1 and that the atoms of this gas or vapour exerted 7as they must have done7 an attraction towards each other1 the result would be that they would press immensely upon those parts towards the centre and cause them to solidify4 ,this act of solidification would produce such an intense heat that the solid would be expanded and fused into a liquid1 this continuing until all the more condensible matters had become liquid1 the earth would assume its spheroidal form from its rotation1 be surrounded by an atmosphere of the least easily condensible substance1 nitrogen1 together with all the oxygen not wanted to combine with the metallic vapour and form earth4 ,this globe with its atmosphere continuing to roll through the cold regions of space1 would gradually lose the heat from its outer part by radiation4 ,a film of cooled and condensed earthy matter would begin to form on the surface by crystallisation1 and then would commence all those grand phenomena which it is the province of the geologist to study and explain4 ,this crust consisted of the first-formed granite which 7from inequality of contraction in the bulk of the earth7 was broken up into fragments and perhaps partly re-dissolved again and again in some places1 as it chanced that these contractions were more or less irregular4 ,the result of this crushing and crumbling-up is seen in the coarser parts of the gneiss1 called ,grauwacke1 which consist of angular fragments of granite more or less imbedded in a cement of the same substance4 ,this could not have been produced by water1 as the surface must have been too hot for it to have existed on the earth in any other form than the most highly rarefied steam combined with the atmosphere1 and in all probability partly condensed in the upper regions1 forming a continuous strata of clouds1 or rather water1 through which the sun could hardly be seen or its light penetrate1 and such a state of things exists at this present time in the planet ,jupiter4 ,how beautifully does this coincide with the ,mosaic account1 ,the earth was without form and void1 and darkness was upon the face of the earth4 ,the surface of the earth at this time can be well understood by any one who will take the pains to evaporate any saline solution in a capsule till it is about to crystallise1 and observe attentively the pellicle of salt as it forms on the surface2 first a partial film will show itself in a few places1 floating about and joining with others1 then when nearly the whole surface is coated1 it will break up in some places and sink into the liquid beneath1 another pellicle will form and join with the remains of the first1 and as this thickens it will push up ridges and inequalities of the surface from openings and fissures in which little jets of steam and fluid will escape2 these little ridges are chains of mountains1 the little jets of steam those volcanic eruptions which were at that period so frequent2 the surface of the capsule is the surface of the earth1 and the five minutes which the observer has contemplated it1 a million years4 ,the next effect of the cooling of the earth would be the gradual condensation of the vapour of water with which it was surrounded2 this falling upon the earth formed seas and oceans1 leaving only the higher portions exposed above its level4 ,the clearing-up of the dense dark clouds for the first time let in to the earth's surface the glorious and vivifying rays of the sun1 and this great effect possibly accords with the earliest record in the ,bible of the acts of creation--,and ,god said1 let there be light1 and there was light4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i--,,stalagmite4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,terebratula4 ,the earth being chiefly covered with water1 and the air partly freed from watery vapour1 then commenced the great creation of organised beings4 ,the air1 although to a certain extent1 free from vapour1 must yet have contained an enormous amount of carbonic acid2 this1 being less easily condensed than any of the matters which had gone through that process1 would still remain there as a gas1 and the effect of this superabundance would be to saturate all the water covering the earth with it2 this solution of carbonic acid1 being capable of dissolving lime1 would 7as it percolated and rushed in currents through the rocks and inequalities of the surface7 become converted into a solution of percarbonate of lime1 taking up a large quantity of this earth from the broken-up granite1 c41 then this carbonate of lime would be deposited at the bottom of the water in one of two ways--either from pressure1 diminution of carbonic acid in the air1 and heat of the surface1 it crystallised at the bottom in the form of marble 7that the water does thus become saturated with carbonic acid and take up lime1 is constantly shown by the stalagmites which form on the floors of caverns1 where the water thus loaded with percarbonate of lime1 evaporating1 deposits gradually the carbonate in all sorts of fantastic shapes1 as in fig4 #i71 or the myriads of crinoidians and brachiopodous molluscs 7fig4 #aj7 which were about this time created1 absorbed it into their systems and at their death deposited their shells1 which are made of this earth1 at the bottom of the sea2 these shells1 accumulating through ages into strata1 became hardened and partly crystallised by heat1 thus forming the limestones1 which were the first containing carbonate of lime4 ,that such a collection1 from such causes1 is quite possible1 will be presently shown in describing the chalk formation4 ,ages of comparative quiet now appear to have succeeded the first great contraction of the earth's crust1 probably millions of years1 during which time the tides and currents of the ocean had to wash and wear down all the thousands of projecting rocks or inequalities and dissolve 7as before described7 all the lime1 depositing the sand and clay in those immense strata which form the transition series2 this appears to have taken place over nearly the whole world at that time1 and ages upon ages must have elapsed to form such deposits as the sandstone1 claystone1 and limestone1 in alternation1 forming the ,llandilo1 ,caradoc1 and ,wenlock strata1 more than a mile in thickness2 these are by some geologists reckoned among the primary series 7by some called the transition rocks71 and in ,england form the ,cambrian and ,silurian systems4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa--,,trilobite4 ,in these strata the remains of organised beings are first found1 consisting of zoophytes1 crustacea 7chiefly ,trilobites1 fig4 #aa71 nautili1 crinoidii 7stone lilies71 and a few ganoid 7plate-covered7 fishes2 these lower forms of animal life in some parts abound in the most prodigious numbers4 ,there must1 of course1 have been vegetables of some kind previously formed to constitute nourishment for these animals1 but scarcely any remains of such exist1 except in a few localities4 ,the ,trilobites were amongst the first creatures inhabiting our globe1 and it is a curious fact to contemplate1 that their eyes 7fig4 #ab7 should have been preserved perfect2 they present one of those wonderful objects which carry one's thoughts backwards to the early ages of the world1 probably many millions of years1 and yet it is found by the peculiar structure of the eyes of these ,trilobites that they were placed at the bottom of the sea with perfect power to look upwards at the light of the sun through the transparent waters4 ,the same hand and the same power had then ,divine care and solicitude for the well-being of ,his creatures1 as great as ,he has for those of later ages1 and these first-formed beings exactly correspond with the account of the creation of animals given in the book of ,genesis1 ,and ,god said1 let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,eye ,,of ,,trilobite4 ,at the end of the transition period--after ages of long-continued disintegration of the rough surface of the earth1 and its deposition in strata--after thousands of generations of crustaceans1 molluscs1 and zoophytes had lived and died1 depositing their shells at the bottom of the seas1 so as to form strata of the carbonate of lime--a great and terrific convulsion of nature put a stop to all this quiet and systematic order of things2 for through these long reaches of time1 the physical laws of nature had continued to exert their influence1 the bulk of the world had gone on radiating its heat into space1 and1 as a necessary result1 had gradually contracted in size4 ,now1 this radiation had doubtless been much retarded by the badly-conducting surface of solid matter which had everywhere covered it1 but1 although retarded1 it could not be prevented1 and although the crust of solid matter may already have been several miles in thickness1 yet this in relation to the bulk of the earth would hold but the proportion of the paper on the surface of a twelve-inch globe4 ,as the fluid mass of the earth continued to contract1 there would of course be a great stress or crushing-power exerted on the crust1 both by its own gravity and that of the air which surrounded it1 and about this period it appears to have given way over the greatest portion of the globe1 producing enormous rents and fractures1 seen in every country in the faults and dislocations of these primitive and transition strata1 some of which were driven up by the downward force of others1 and left in a perpendicular position1 some overlapping each other1 c42 but the greatest effect of this convulsion appears to have been produced by the rocking or rolling surface of the sub-existing fluid world1 forming gigantic waves1 which1 by meeting in opposite directions and thrusting upwards the strata to a great height1 formed the mighty mountain-chains of the now-existing earth1 which raise their lofty pinnacles above the clouds4 ,now1 these mountains may at first thought appear too ponderous and extensive to be thrown up in this way2 but by inspecting the engraved section of a part of the globe 7fig4 #ac71 it will be seen how very insignificant a mountain is when compared with the whole world4 ,this section is through ,asia from the ,persian ,gulf to the ,yellow ,sea1 and embraces the highest land on the whole face of the earth1 and is drawn on a scale in which the earth is represented by a globe sixteen inches diameter4 ,the rugged and peaked tops of these mountains would be formed by the great fractured masses of the broken strata being thrust upwards and there resting against each other2 but who can describe the chasms and hollows which must have resulted when the great wave of melted earth had subsided to its level under one of these huge mountain masses8 or the dreadful abyss into which at some future time it and the surrounding country may fall1 if they have not already been filled up by the sinking of the surrounding strata4 ,some of these great waves1 when thrust upwards1 forced their way right through the point of the mountain and came pouring down in torrents of liquid earth 7lava71 deluging the surrounding country and filling up the beds of the adjacent seas1 casting out cinders and ores of metals--as iron1 which appears to have first made its appearance at that time1 mingling with the deposits and tinging them of a red colour4 ,these great volcanoes1 upon the subsidence of the rock-waves1 still 7more or less7 retained their communication with the interior fiery earth1 and are now the greatest safeguards against such a general crushing-up of the strata1 for they act as safety-valves against any unequal expansion of the interior 7fig4 #ad74 ,the greatest eruptions of volcanoes or the most terrific earthquakes of modern times1 are as the most insignificant trifles compared with what must have taken place to form the inequalities of surface found to exist4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac--,,section ,,of #dj ,,deg4 ,,of ,,the ,,earth',s ,,surface1 ,,being ,,the ,,southern ,,part ,,of ,,asia1 ,,and ,,including ,,the ,,highest ,,land ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,the outer uneven line represents the mountains and table-lands from the sea's level1 and the lower line shows the depth to which the crust of the earth's surface has been examined--about five miles4 ,a to ,b4--,level of sea4 ,b to second ,c4--,hindustan4 ,c to ,d4--,thibet4 ,d to ,e4--,great ,desert of ,gobi4 ,f4--#ejj miles of ,earth's radius4 ,c to ,c4--,the ,himalayas1 in which occurs the highest mountain in the world1 ,dhawalagiri1 which is #bh1agd feet high4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,,burning ,,mountain4 ,but the contraction of the interior mass of the earth still continues1 and the cavities left by the expulsion of volcanic matters1 and the pushing-up of the mountains1 may not all have been compensated for by the sinking-in of the strata1 so it remains a matter of doubt whether the crust of the earth is sufficiently strong to bear the pressure of its own and the air's gravity1 or whether at some future day another contraction will break it up and destroy the whole existing order of things4 ,the shocks of earthquakes are strictly analogous to such catastrophes1 but on an immensely inferior scale4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,limestone ,,made ,,up ,,of ,,encrinite4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,limestone ,,made ,,up ,,of ,,corals 7,favosites polymorpha74 ,the effects of the last great contraction having subsided the surface of the earth assumed a new arrangement of its matter1 and the order of things which caused the deposition of the secondary strata commenced4 ,sedimentary sandstones were deposited from the washings of the surface by the waters which had not yet absorbed all the superfluous carbonic acid of the air1 but continued to do so1 and as fast as it became absorbed and saturated with the calcareous matter of the soil1 swarms of coral-polypi1 which were then formed1 began to build their habitations in the warm waters of the ocean and rob them of the carbonate of lime which they contained1 leaving them capable of absorbing more from the atmosphere4 ,these little creatures formed immense masses of coral1 and together with the ,encrinites 7having stony frameworks1 figs4 #ae and #af71 were the chief artificers of that age1 and well did they show what perseverance was able to accomplish1 for through the thousands of years of quiet which now succeeded1 they must have filled up nearly all the existing oceans with their structures1 causing the water gradually to flow from its former beds into other situations1 and thus from time to time was changed the position of both sea and land4 ,the strata of mountain limestone which now exist are the remains of what these little polypi then produced1 for there is scarcely a portion of this kind of rock1 but shows evidences of having been1 once1 coral1 madrapore1 or some analogous structure 7fig4 #ag74 ,this mountain limestone sometimes occurs thousands of feet thick1 and extends over vast districts both in ,europe and ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,,encrinitic ,,limestone4 ,during this period1 although there were no great disturbances1 capable of displacing the strata1 yet there appears to have been frequent small eruptions of volcanic matter through the crevices of the lower strata1 filling up all their cracks and vacuities1 and in many cases rising to the surface1 overflowing with basalt1 toadstone1 and other volcanic formations2 in other cases rising in enormous quantities through openings at the bottom of the seas1 partly filling these up1 driving off the waters1 and thus covering many of the coral formations with coatings of sand to a great thickness1 raising up others into considerable elevations1 and forming hills and fresh tracts of earth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,fossil ,,tree ,,ferns4 ,during this long period of comparative quiet most of the irregularities on the surface of the earth became worn down1 and extensive swamps were produced by partial evaporation of the inland lakes4 ,these swamps were subject to occasional inroads of the sea1 and at times formed shallow lakes or lagoons2 in these grew the most luxuriant vegetation1 gigantic pines1 tree-ferns 7fig4 #ah71 equisetac1 c4 ,these plants1 nurtured by a hot and moist climate1 acquired a great luxuriance of growth1 and must have formed forests of such great density1 that there is nothing existing at the present time worthy to be compared with them1 even in the hottest climates4 ,such fertility appears to have been dependent upon the conditions of the air and earth1 the former containing more carbonic acid 7the food of vegetables7 and the latter a greater amount of warmth1 than at present2 these two circumstances1 so favourable to the growth of plants1 were equally unfavourable to the existence of air-breathing animals1 to whom the carbonic acid would be fatal poison4 ,thus1 in the mighty hands of ,god1 the air was undergoing a gradual purification1 to fit it for the animals ,he intended to create2 the polypi were extracting from the water all the carbonate of lime it was absorbing from the air and earth1 and fixing it in the soil1 to be of use in a hundred ways at some future time1 while the vegetation growing in abundance extracted it from the air1 and fixed its carbon in their leaves and substance generally2 these vegetables1 decaying and falling upon the surface of the earth1 accumulated there for ages1 and formed a carbonaceous matter which was afterwards changed by time and pressure into coal4 ,the same thing 7on a very much smaller scale7 is taking place in the tropical forests of the present age2 there the surface-soil is quite black1 and consists of nothing but decayed leaves and wood for several feet in depth1 but in the present time there are hosts of insects1 every one of which feeds upon this vegetable matter1 preventing to a great extent its accumulation1 while in the former age there was nothing to destroy it when once deposited on the ground2 so that the carbon of these forests of the secondary period1 existing through perhaps tens of thousands of years1 extracted from the air a sufficient quantity of vegetable carbonaceous matter to produce thick seams of coal1 even when compressed by the superincumbent strata4 ,these forests were subject from time to time to inroads of the sea produced by the before-mentioned causes1 and thus it is found that the seams of coal are often buried by several hundred feet of sand1 clay1 shale1 c41 above which the same growth recommenced to form a second strata of coal1 and ages must have elapsed whilst each of the numerous seams which interstratify the coal measures were forming4 ,this coal1 preserved in the depths of the earth1 now forms the greatest treasure of the mine1 and ironstone 7from which iron is procured7 would be almost useless but for the occurrence of these two minerals together with limestone 7used as a flux7 in the same locality1 and it is this fortunate circumstance which enables ,england to produce such vast quantities of iron at such a cheap rate4 ,the quantity of coal consumed in the iron-smelting works and for fuel generally1 is beyond what could have been imagined a generation or two back1 being somewhere about #ej1jjj1jjj tons annually1 the coal brought to ,london alone in #ahef being #a1bga1hjj tons1 yet there is such a plentiful supply of this valuable fuel in ,great ,britain alone that1 supposing the annual consumption to rise to #gj1jjj1jjj1 it would serve 7according to computation7 a thousand years4 ,who shall say from whence fuel will then be obtained8 probably from some other source provided by the foreknowledge of ,god1 as was shown in the formation of the coal itself2 for who could have imagined1 a thousand years ago1 when ,england possessed such immense forests1 and wood was the universal fuel1 that this very wood would become too scarce and valuable to be used1 and that a substitute would be dug out of the earth6 ,the coal-shales 7thin layers of claystone found in the coal seams7 furnish beautiful specimens of ferns and other plants turned into coal 7fig4 #ai71 or leaving their perfect impressions in the clay4 ,the coal formation occurred during the latter part of one of those long eras of tranquillity which supervened upon the contraction and breaking-up of the older strata2 but the laws of nature are immutable1 and these days of comparative quiet again came to a close4 ,the same phenomena before described again occurred1 and there is hardly a square mile of these strata but shows evidences of the terrible convulsion which desolated the earth4 ,some of the strata were raised1 others depressed1 and some lost altogether1 the cracks and flaws being filled with liquid lava or basalt1 which in many cases rose upwards through them and overflowed the surface4 ,many of the cracks of this1 the carboniferous system1 are filled with sulphuret of lead called galena1 the ore from which all the lead of commerce is obtained2 it is not well known how the veins of this and similar substances got into these crevices1 but it is probable they were injected in a fluid state by some unequal pressure on the liquid beneath1 or deposited by electrical action4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,fern 7,pecopteris ligata7 ,,from ,,upper ,,shale1 ,,scarborough4 ,the great world of vegetation was thus destroyed1 giving place to new forms of animal and vegetable life4 ,the temperature1 all this while sinking1 had reached a degree somewhat resembling the hottest regions of the earth at the present day4 ,the waters had changed their localities1 new mountains and new continents had made their appearance1 and again did the ever-active waters begin to demolish and wear down the asperities of the surface and deposit the results upon the strata below in the form of the new red sandstone and magnesian limestone1 the former containing iron in great abundance1 and the latter magnesia 7an earth not met with before71 both of which substances were probably ejected as volcanic products and afterwards combined with the carbonic acid of the air4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,labyrinthodon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,,impressions ,,of ,,feet ,,in ,,new ,,red ,,sandstone4 ,during the formation of these strata there appears to have been both birds and quadrupeds of many kinds1 together with a reptile much resembling a frog1 but of great size1 being five or six feet long1 called the ,labyrinthodon 7fig4 #bj74 ,the oxide of iron1 or some other agent appears to have prevented the fossilisation of the inhabitants of these strata1 for but few of their organic remains have been preserved2 but very curious evidences of their existence nevertheless remain1 in the impressions of their feet upon the ground they trod 7fig4 #ba71 which appears to have been a moist clay or mud peculiarly adapted to receive impressions1 and which having been in many places covered over with a stratum of fine sand1 and then abandoned by the sea1 the whole have hardened into stone1 and being now separated1 the one contains their footprints and the other perfect casts of them6 ,nor are these foot-marks all that these sandstones have to tell us of their day2 for the ripples of the waves1 and even the little pits made by drops of rain as they fell1 are in this most marvellous manner preserved1 forming objects of wonder and admiration for us mortals to contemplate1 and themes whereon the devout mind may pour out its tribute of praise to their ,great ,author4 ,how evident it is that the ,creator designed beforehand that we should search for these hidden evidences of ,his handiwork1 or for what purpose were they thus stored up and preserved8 ,seek1 and ye shall find1 knock1 and it shall be opened unto you1 are the words of ,god1 and they apply as fully to the material wonders of ,his works as to the mysteries of ,his revealed ,word4 ,as the strata below the new sandstone formation was called the ,carboniferous system1 from its containing much carbon in the form both of coal and carbonic acid1 so this has been called the ,saliferous system1 from the occurrence in many places of strata of rock-salt or crystallised chloride of sodium1 and 7where the rain finds its way down and dissolves it7 of brine springs2 these 7in ,england7 exist chiefly in ,cheshire and ,warwickshire1 but in ,poland and ,hungary they exist on a much larger scale1 the rock-salt being nearly a thousand feet thick4 ,it has been said that these strata of salt were formed by the evaporation of salt lakes1 but it is much more probable that salt is one of the natural materials of the earth1 and that both salt lakes and oceans have become salt from dissolving out these strata wherever they have come into contact4 ,the next sediment deposited over the new red sandstone is called the ,lias1 a sort of limestone mixed with clay of a blueish-grey colour1 and upon this has is again deposited the various strata known as the ,oolite 7,roe-stone7 system1 from its appearance resembling the roe of a fish1 it consists of small rounded particles of limestone set in a cement of the same substance worn down fine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,,ammonite 7,henlyi74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,pentacrinite4 ,these strata furnish a great many organic remains1 especially the shells of the conchiferous mollusca and cephalopods1 as ,ammonites 7fig4 #bb71 ,belemnites1 ,nautili1 and ,pentacrinites 7fig4 #bc71 of which a great many varieties are found1 also the remains of gigantic reptiles1 as the ,ichthyosaurus 7fig4 #bd71 ,plesiosaurus 7fig4 #be71 and others4 ,new forms of animal existence seem to have been created in this period in great abundance1 and the waters of the earth once again became the theatre of deposition for the shells and polypidomes of zoophytes and molluscs1 which swarmed them in myriads1 and another great group of rocks began to be formed1 namely1 the chalk or ,cretaceous system1 which form the cliffs and downs of our south coasts1 and strata of great extent in nearly every part of the world2 it differs from limestone only in not being so hard1 which is supposed to arise from its not having undergone the changes caused by heat and pressure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,,ichthyosaurus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,plesiosaurus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,nautilus ,,inequalis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,organisms ,,from ,,chalk4 ,the chalk is interstratifed with lines of sand1 and the lower part is almost entirely sandy1 forming the gault and greensand deposits2 these each contain organic remains1 and must have been the original sand of the sea-bottom before the chalk was deposited on it4 ,these seas must have been the residence of a vast number of reptiles1 for the gault contains an enormous number of nodules of what appears to be stone1 but which upon closer examination1 prove to be coprolites1 or portions of the excrement of those creatures partly fossilised1 but still retaining phosphate of lime enough to render them valuable manure1 and these--like the coal--after being buried in the earth for thousands of years1 are now being brought into use4 ,in these coprolites may be constantly seen the teeth and bones of fishes1 together with portions of echini and crustaceans1 which had passed through the intestines of these saurian reptiles4 ,fig4 #bf is the shell of a small nautilus 7,nautilus inequalis7 thus found4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,,ammonite ,,from ,,the ,,chalk4 ,this chalk is of a white colour1 very light and porous2 under the higher powers of the microscope1 it appears to be made up of organic forms1 as ,foraminifera1 and portions of various kinds of shells1 crushed and broken into minute fragments 7fig4 #bg74 ,dr4 ,carpenter1 in his work on the microscope1 says3 ,many parts of it 7the chalk7 consist in a great measure of the minuter parts of the smaller kinds of ,foraminifera1 whose shells are imbedded in a mass of apparently amorphous particles1 many of which nevertheless present indications of being the worn fragments of similar shells1 or of larger calcareous organisms4 ,in the chalk of some localities1 ,foraminifera constitute the principal part of the minute organisms which can be recognised with the microscope2 in other instances the disintegrated prisms of ,pinn1 or other large shells of the like structure 7as ,inoceramus71 constitute the great bulk4 ,the fossil remains in the chalk are very numerous and are all of a marine character1 the ammonites 7fig4 #bh71 belemnites1 and other cephalopods1 were very prevalent1 as were the various ,echinodermata1 as the ,hemicidarus intermedia 7fig4 #bi71 together with numerous univalve and bivalve mollusca1 various crustacea1 fish and reptiles4 ,there was some considerable wonderment a few years ago expressed at the skeletons of men being found in the chalk at ,guadaloupe2 but it has been ascertained that this chalk is a modern formation1 being produced by the sea washing and disintegrating the adjacent coral reefs1 and depositing a fine white sediment of broken coral on the shore which can hardly be distinguished from ancient chalk2 the same process is taking place at the ,bermudas and other islands of the ,west ,indies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,,echinus 7,hemicidarus intermedia1 ,chalk74 ,in many places the chalk strata contain single lines of flints1 running for miles parallel to the layers of chalk2 these flints consist of almost pure silica1 and it has been1 matter of wonder how they got there1 but on considering how slowly the deposition of chalk must have taken place1 from the formation and death of millions of minute creatures1 and that it was once the bottom of a deep sea1 the disposition of the flints in lines would be accounted for1 supposing them to have been formed on that sea-bottom1 and the source from which they have been derived is doubtless the petrifaction of sponges1 madrapores1 c41 there formed4 ,dr4 ,carpenter 7in the work before referred to7 says3 ,it may be stated1 as a fact beyond all question1 that nodular flint and other analogous concretions 7such as agates7 may generally be considered as fossilised sponges or alcyonian zoophytes1 since not only are their external forms and their superficial markings often highly characteristic of those organisms1 but when sections of them are made sufficiently thin to be transparent1 a spongy texture may be most distinctly recognised in their interior4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,tertiary ,,formation4 ,during the deposition of these secondary strata in the hollows of the surface1 but little alteration of the relative situations of sea and land could have taken place1 as the deposits for the most part lie conformably to the same hollows or basins 7fig4 #cj will illustrate this72 but after the deposition of these strata1 there appears to have been a very great disturbance1 many chains of mountains were cast up 7as the ,apennines71 carrying upwards with them these deposits2 some of the strata were so displaced that they were left in a perpendicular position1 as may be seen in several places at the south side of the ,isle of ,wight4 ,these disturbances1 however1 did not amount to so general a convulsion as those before described1 nor is it known whether all the effects produced on these strata took place at or near the same period of time2 they nevertheless appear to have produced an almost total change in the situation of the land and sea1 for the downs of chalk 7on the southern coast of ,england1 for example7 were1 before these changes1 the beds of seas4 ,this is the last of the great convulsions which the earth has undergone1 for the tertiary strata which afterwards began to be deposited rest in the hollows or basins 7chiefly in the chalk7 then left2 the alterations in and since these deposits appear to consist chiefly of the upheaval of certain localities1 the depression of others1 the evaporation of inland lakes1 and the wear and tear of the land from these causes1 which are still in continuous action 7as from the washing down of cliffs by the sea1 and the formation of mud deposits at the mouths of rivers71 or the volcanic agencies which in some places 7as in ,ireland7 have cast up basalt over the chalk4 ,the tertiary strata contain remains of most of the classes of animals now in existence1 but yet differing greatly in species1 and as the strata approach the surface those species become more and more general2 the plants also approach more nearly to those of the present time1 but still most parts of ,europe possessed a climate almost tropical4 ,the tertiary strata consist chiefly of marine and fresh water deposits in the form of sands and clays1 as the ,london clay1 which extends under ,london1 resting upon a basin of chalk4 ,the last deposits1 forming the superficial layer of earth1 and the formation last deposited before the creation of man1 are called the ,diluvium and ,alluvium1 and contain numerous remains of mammalia1 birds1 reptiles1 and fishes4 ,one of the most extraordinary animals of this period was the ,dinotherium1 a sort of walrus1 which is supposed to have been the largest of quadrupeds1 if indeed it was one 7fig4 #ca74 ,the quadrupeds of this1 the ,pliocene formation1 are thus described by ,professor ,owen in his ,history of ,british ,fossil ,mammals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,dinotherium4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,mammoth1 ,,teleosaurus1 ,,and ,,glyptodon4 ,at the period indicated by these superficial stratified and unstratified deposits the ,mastodon had probably disappeared from ,england1 but gigantic elephants 7fig4 #cb71 nearly twice the bulk of the largest individuals that now exist in ,ceylon and ,africa1 roamed here in herds1 if one may judge from the abundance of their remains4 ,two horned rhinoceros1 of at least two species1 forced their way through the ancient forests or wallowed in the swamps4 ,the lakes and rivers were tenanted by hippopotami1 as bulky and with as formidable tusks as those of ,africa4 ,three kinds of wild oxen1 two of which were of colossal size and strength1 and one of them maned and villous like the bonassus1 found subsistence on the plains4 ,deer as gigantic1 in proportion to existing species1 were the contemporaries of the old ,uri and ,bisontes1 and may have disputed with them the pasturage of that ancient land4 ,one of these extinct deer is well known as the ,irish elk1 by the enormous expanse of its broad-palmed antlers 7fig4 #cc74 ,another herd proves more like those of the wapiti1 but surpassed that great ,canadian deer in bulk4 ,a third extinct species more resembled the ,indian ,hippelaphus1 and with these were associated the red-deer1 the rein-deer1 the roebuck1 and the goat4 ,a wild horse1 a wild ass or quagga1 and the wild boar1 entered also into the series of ,british pliocene hoofed animals4 ,the carnivora1 organised to enjoy a life of rapine at the expense of the vegetable feeders1 to restrain their undue increase and abridge the pangs of the maimed and sickly1 were duly adjusted in size and ferocity to the fell task assigned them in the organic economy of the pre-adamite world4 ,besides a ,british tiger1 of larger size and with proportionately longer paws than that of ,bengal1 there existed a stronger feline animal 7,machairodus7 of equal size1 which from the great length and sharpness of its sabre-shaped canines1 was probably the most ferocious and destructive of its peculiarly carnivorous family4 ,of the smaller felines1 we recognise the remains of a leopard1 a large lynx1 and of a wild cat4 ,troops of hyenas1 larger than the ,crocuta of ,south ,africa1 which they most resembled1 craunched the bones of the carcases relinquished by the nobler beasts of prey1 and doubtless often themselves waged the war of destruction on the feebler quadrupeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,,irish ,,elk4 ,,the ,,paleotherium4 ,a savage bear1 surpassing the ,ursus ferox of the ,rocky ,mountains1 found its hiding-place1 like the hyna1 in many of the existing limestone caverns of ,england4 ,with the ,ursus spoelus was associated another bear1 more like the common ,european species1 but larger than the present individuals of the ,ursus ,arctas4 ,wolves and foxes1 the badger1 the otter1 the foumart1 and the stoat1 complete the category of known pliocene carnivora of ,britain4 ,in the time of these the last of the tertiary strata1 there appear evidences of a degree of cold much greater than at present exists2 this seems to be pretty well proved by the boulder formation1 or prevalence of erratic blocks of stone1 the progress of which have been traced from their sources of origin to hundreds of miles distant1 and there is no conceivable power which could have carried them but the floating fields of ice or glaciers2 both of these sources are capable of this removal1 for it is not uncommon to find large pieces of rock and layers of gravel floating on masses of ice4 ,glaciers are formed by the snow on the sides of mountains becoming hardened by being partially melted and again frozen1 and at every melting the fluid tends to descend1 when it again becomes frozen1 always adding to the lower part and carrying away from the upper4 ,in this way whole glaciers of many miles extent become unfixed1 and as fresh snows are added to their upper parts1 they descend slowly1 entangling with them and tearing away the rocks in their vicinity4 ,when they arrive at the sea and float forth1 these rocks are borne with them4 ,but there are as yet no traces of man1 not one small fragment of his skeleton1 not one minute relic of his constructive powers1 although the bones of man are as capable of preservation as those of any other animal1 being the same in structure and composition2 the remains of hundreds of fragile insects1 seeds1 leaves1 and all sorts of organic structures1 are found perfectly preserved 7fig4 #cd74 ,the only way1 therefore1 of accounting for the absence of any organic remains of man1 is the assumption that he was not then created2 and this is confirmed by the fact that in the very uppermost layers of the earth's surface his bones and the works of his hands are found in great abundance2 it is therefore with good reason that we come to the conclusion1 that he was the last creature formed by his ,maker4 ,that the creation of man was pre-intended by ,god1 seems also almost proved by the numerous objects before created1 capable of ministering to his use and happiness--capable of exercising his constructive and inquiring capabilities--suitable to his imagination and tastes1 and his only1 and which would serve no purpose of utility to the mere brutes4 ,of what use1 to any creature but man1 is coal--of what use the metals8 ,of what avail is it to any of the lower animals1 that ,god has caused glass and other transparent substances to have the power of refracting the rays of light8 but without which not one-half of our knowledge of ,his wondrous works would ever have been obtained1 for it is upon this property alone that the powers of the telescope and microscope depend4 ,of what use to any but man are fire1 artificial light1 and galvanism8 and yet all these were created long before man was4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd--;,,fossil ,,leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,sculpture ,,from ,,nineveh4 ,it has often been asked1 ,what does man gain by the study of the sciences8 ,besides the enlarged views which they give him of his ,creator's goodness and power1 they at this time are fast reaching towards the demonstration of many obscure passages of ,his ,holy ,word as revealed to us in the ,scriptures4 ,the study of truth can moreover never lead one into error1 and a habit of drawing correct conclusions from the facts presented is useful to every one4 ,geology has confirmed one great truth in ,scripture1 and overthrown the greatest groundwork of ,deism1 for it had been asserted by many that man 7and indeed all other creatures7 had risen to his present state by slow developments1 and no proof to the contrary had ever been given4 ,but geology has shown that at a certain era man was created1 that 7as is stated in ,scripture7 he was the last of ,god's works1 and that neither before that time had he existed in an undeveloped form1 nor since has he altered one jot from his original configuration2 and the same may be said of all other creatures1 whatever may be pretended to the contrary1 for from the sculptures brought from the ruins of ,nineveh 7at least #cjjj years old71 there appears the same external form 7fig4 #ce71 both of man and what animals are there depicted1 and his and their habits were described by the very earliest writers to be then as now4 ,but with respect to the form of the earth's surface it is otherwise1 there being a slow but continuous change4 ,those parts of the land exposed to the tides and action of the waves1 are washed away1 and the rivers are constantly bringing down soil to deposit it at their mouths1 forming those tracts of land known as deltas2 every wind that blows takes away some dust from the higher and deposits it on the lower parts of the earth's surface1 so that1 to use the words of the ,prophet ,isaiah1 every valley shall be exalted and every mountain and hill shall be made low4 ,but this alteration is so slow that it takes hundreds of years to make but a small difference1 yet a difference there undoubtedly is1 and a time must come when the alteration will be such as has been shown to have taken place in far-back times and recorded in the strata in evident language1 for though the changes are slow the result is inevitable4 ,it has been ascertained that the northern part of ,sweden has been steadily rising and the southern part sinking to a corresponding degree for many centuries past1 and that the west coast of ,italy has been elevated for ages past1 at the rate of not quite an inch yearly4 ,volcanic actions are raising some lands and depressing others 7in the earthquakes of #ahbb and #ahce1 the whole of ,chili from the ,andes to the sea1 and probably the bed of the sea to an unknown extent1 was elevated considerably71 rain and the rivers carry away land into the sea1 the beds of many seas are being filled up by coral polypes and protophytes1 so that the beds of these seas must ultimately be the land whilst the lower parts of the land will become sea4 ,after these various changes upon the surface of the earth1 from a climate hot beyond anything now existing1 from a surface rocky and full of fissures and inequalities1 studded with islands and continents1 abounding in marshes and swamps--from a state of atmosphere in which the higher animals could not live--to the present division and separation of land and water1 of oceans and seas1 of islands and continents1 well supplied with rivers to drain off the superfluous fluid and supply highways easy to traverse in boat or canoe1 the world remains1 a fitting habitation for the creatures ,god has placed upon it on every hand4 ,forests to shelter the wild animals from the rains and heat of the sun2 waters for those who dwell or delight in them2 metals1 stone1 earth1 and wood for man to exercise his ingenuity upon1 and other innumerable things contributing to his comfort or luxury--all freely given by the hand of his ,heavenly ,father for his well-being and delight1 that he may lack no excuse to worship and adore ,him1 and this delightful earth1 as ,milton says3-- ,brought forth the tender grass1 whose verdure clad ,her universal face with pleasant green1 ,then herbs of every leaf1 that sudden flower'd ,opening their various colours1 and made gay ,her bosom smelling sweet3 and these scarce blown1 ,forth flourish'd thick the clustering vine1 forth crept ,the swelling gourd1 up stood the corny reed ,embattled in her field1 and the humble shrub1 ,and bush with frizzled hair implicit3 last ,rose as in dance the stately trees1 and spread ,their branches hung with copious fruit1 or gemmed ,their blossoms2 with high woods the hills were crowned4 ,with tufts the valleys1 and each fountain side1 ,with borders1 long the rivers3 that earth now ,seem'd like to heaven1 a seat where gods might dwell ,or wander with delight1 and love to haunt ,her sacred shades4 ,after all these various elevations and depressions1 the land remains at this present time in the form of large tracts occupying about a third of the superficial area of our globe4 ,the largest tract is made up of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 which constitute one continuous area1 ,africa being almost severed from the others1 but still united by the ,isthmus of ,suez2 the tract next in size to this is made up of ,north and ,south ,america1 these again are nearly severed1 but still united by the ,isthmus of ,panama or ,darien2 next come ,australia and ,greenland1 but these1 although very large1 are yet not to be compared in size with the former two2 there are numerous other large islands1 as ,borneo1 ,new ,guinea1 ,new ,zealand1 ,madagascar1 ,iceland1 ,england1 ,ireland1 c41 and scores of smaller ones4 ,the temperature of the earth 7as a general rule7 is greatest on the equator and diminishes gradually towards each pole1 but this is by no means invariable1 for two places of the same latitude may be very different in climate1 and a system of lines passing round the earth from east to west1 would each pass through regions of various temperatures1 or what is the same thing1 lines made to follow the same temperature would have to make various curves and contortions2 such lines have been constructed and are called isothermal lines4 ,the causes of this are to be found in the various currents of the ocean1 the tides and winds1 and in the proximity to the ocean of snow-clad mountains and arid plains4 ,the variation of latitude in these lines sometimes reaches as much as seven degrees4 ,europe contains about #c1ijj1jjj square miles of surface1 and is separated from ,asia by the ,caucasus1 ,caspian ,sea1 ,river ,ural1 and ,uralian ,mountains4 ,it is about #cjjj miles long and #bdjj broad1 about two-thirds being plain and table-land and one-third mountain land4 ,the chief mountain ranges are those which run through ,norway and ,sweden in a north-westerly direction1 and the mountain system along the south part from ,portugal to ,turkey4 ,this last includes the ,pyrenees1 which runs from the ,bay of ,biscay to the ,mediterranean1 the highest peak of which is ,mont ,maladeta 7#aa1ejj feet72 the ,alps1 the highest point of which is ,mont ,blanc 7#ae1gdh feet72 the ,apennines1 the highest point of which is ,mont ,viso 7#ab1ehf feet72 the ,carpathian ,mountains1 extending from ,presburg in ,hungary towards the sources of the ,waag and ,march1 the highest point being ,mont ,lemnitz 7#gifb feet72 and the ,balkan range1 which may be considered a continuation of the ,alps eastward1 runs as far as the ,black ,sea1 together with many inferior ranges and branches4 ,the climate of ,europe embraces a range from the temperate to extreme cold4 ,it is bounded by the ,arctic ,ocean on the north1 ,asia eastward1 the ,mediterranean ,sea southward1 and the ,atlantic ,ocean to the westward2 it contains two great inland seas1 the ,black ,sea and the ,caspian ,sea4 ,there are three great volcanoes in ,europe1 ,hecla1 ,vesuvius1 and ,etna1 but the plains of ,auvergne contain many which are extinct4 ,asia contains the highest mountains and the most extensive table-lands in the world4 ,it is somewhat square1 being bounded northwards by the ,arctic ,ocean1 westward by ,europe1 southward by the ,indian ,ocean1 and eastward by the ,north ,pacific1 and contains about #ag1ejj1jjj square miles2 the greater part is made up of two extensive tracts of elevated land called table-lands1 although these are often varied by valleys and mountain chains of great extent1 yet as a whole1 they are from #ejjj to #aj1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,the eastern table-land is that of ,thibet and the ,great ,desert ,gobi1 and the western that of ,persia4 ,asia contains many great mountain chains1 the chief of which are the ,himalaya ,mountains1 which run along the centre of its southern part and contain some of the highest peaks in the world2 the ,dhawalagiri is #bh1jgb feet high1 but there are some others supposed to be as high4 ,the ,altai or ,gold ,mountains1 forming a boundary to the lowlands of ,siberia1 the highest peak of which is called the ,katunia ,pillars1 and is #aa1jjj feet high4 ,the ,thain-schan or ,celestial ,mountains1 the ,kuen ,lun1 and the ,hindoo ,coosh1 all of which run pretty nearly east and west1 while the ranges called ,uralian1 ,bolor1 ,khingan1 and ,chinese chains run nearly north and south4 ,africa is somewhat triangular1 with its base towards ,asia and its apex pointing southward4 ,it is bounded northwards by the ,mediterranean ,sea1 and at its east side by the ,red ,sea and ,indian ,ocean1 while the ,atlantic flows on its south-west side4 ,in ,africa is the largest desert in the world1 the ,great ,desert of ,sahara2 it occupies nearly all the northern part1 the southern has but few mountains of great extent1 but from their elevation and the amount of waters brought down by rivers1 it is supposed that the centre has very high table lands4 ,at the north-western part is an extensive mountain system 7the ,atlas7 covering with its branches nearly #ejj1jjj square miles1 and sending its slopes to bound the great ,desert northwards4 ,the great tract of land comprising ,north and ,south ,america extends in a longitudinal direction pretty nearly north and south through #acj degrees of latitude1 or nearly #hjjj miles4 ,this great tract is divided by a narrow neck of land 7the ,isthmus of ,panama7 into two pretty equal portions2 the northern part is peculiar1 from containing a number of lakes of immense extent1 deserving well the name of inland seas1 and both northern and southern divisions for the great number and extent of their water-courses4 ,the whole of this great tract of land is traversed from end to end by an extensive chain of mountains1 the longest in the world2 at its southern part it forms the ,andes1 from which a range is continued through the ,isthmus1 and onwards to form the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,in the southern division this immense chain passes on the west side of the land close to the sea1 is of great elevation in some parts1 has some of the highest mountain peaks in the world1 and volcanoes also1 the highest being in the ,andes 7,popocatapetl is about #af1jjj feet high72 but from the western side of the continent the land descends gradually to the eastern4 ,in ,south ,america are some of the highest table-lands known1 great elevated tracts in connection with the mountain ranges4 ,australia in its interior is but little known1 but the whole aspect of the island appears to be flat1 and to have but little elevation1 while ,greenland and the great tracts of the northern regions beyond1 deserve more the name of glaciers1 being almost entirely a mass of barren rocks and snow4 ,the water-courses of these various great tracts of land are all determined by the formation of the surface1 but the amount of water which is carried into the oceans by the rivers of any district is always in proportion to the amount of vegetation in that district2 thus in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 the number and extent of these correspond with the great fertility of the soil1 while the northern and western part of ,africa--the ,great ,desert--give off scarcely any of adequate extent1 the ,nile appearing to receive its supply from the central parts further south4 ,the reason of it is this3 wherever there is vegetation1 either in the form of grassy prairies or forests1 there is also a great reduction of temperature from the radiation and evaporation1 and the consequent formation of rain1 dew1 or snow1 which falling on the ground produces streams1 c4 ,excepting the great tracts of land named1 and islands too numerous to be mentioned1 the whole surface of the earth is covered with water1 the great divisions of which 7called ,oceans7 are1 the ,arctic ,ocean1 to the north of ,europe1 the ,atlantic1 between ,america1 ,europe1 and ,africa1 the ,pacific between ,asia and ,america1 and the ,indian ,ocean between ,africa and ,australia4 ,the foregoing is a very bare outline of the land and water covering the surface2 it may suffice1 however1 to call to mind the main features of the earth as it is now disposed4 ,there can be little doubt that the great variety of climate1 whether hot or cold1 moist or dry1 is one of the greatest sources of happiness that can be well imagined2 it stimulates to research1 travel1 and inquiry into the works of ,god2 every change experienced tends to make man search for further change1 every new scene makes him compare it with others2 and the acquirement of a knowledge of places1 and a general idea of the whole world1 expands his mind enables him to appreciate the good gifts he has received1 and affords a source of satisfaction beyond almost any other kind of enjoyment4 ,,the ,,waters4 ,illustration3 ,,sea-,,coast4 ,how grand is the ever-moving ocean6 how majestic its voice1 how terrible its anger6 how beautiful every colour that is reflected from its dancing spray1 and how balmy the air which is wafted from its bosom to refresh the heated earth1 which1 under the glare of a summer's sun1 seems parched with thirst4 ,how refreshing to the senses is the change from the dry heated grass on a midsummer day--from the dusty roads--from the smoke begrimed town1 smelling of dirt1 and heated by the reflection of the sun's rays from bricks and stones till it becomes a furnace--from the close dark habitations of the city--from the rattle1 excitement1 and continual noise of vehicles and human voices--from the corroding cares and depressing influences attending the fierce battle of life--to the cool and gentle breeze1 the wide o'er-arching canopy of heaven1 the murmur and ripple of the sea1 to the clear and exhilarating air1 free from soot and laden with the odour of the ocean--,oh what a desirable change6 all human nature seems to own it1 and hasten to the shores of the great watery world1 that they may contemplate one of the greatest and grandest of ,god's works with admiration and thankfulness1 and be re-animated by its health-giving powers4 ,it is a wonderful sight1 and one which fills our minds with reflection2 here we see many of the laws of nature exemplified on a great scale4 ,the laws of gravity keep the surface of the ocean perfectly spherical as a whole1 while those of equilibrium keep it in constant and ever-varying motion1 the laws of attraction produce the tides1 and those of reflection and refraction cause its surface to assume all sorts of colours and tints4 ,great art thou1 ,ocean1 and unknown ,the creatures springing into life from thee1 ,earth's farthest shores full proudly thou dost own1 ,the cradle of thy wave from iced to torrid zone4 ,the ocean is full of life1 both vegetative and animal2 myriads of both classes have their natural habitation in the sea1 and the shore is often1 after a gale1 strewed with curiosities well worth the contemplation of those who devote their minds to thought4 ,how many varieties of sea-weed have you gathered8 perhaps twenty2 not three of them are sea-weed at all6 they are living animals1 either zoophytes or molluscs1 every branch of that flustra contains a thousand living beings1 every spray of sertularia as many more1 that other piece is the bugula neretina and also owns a colony of animals3 the next is indeed a member of the vegetable kingdom1 its beautiful crimson colour makes it a conspicuous object1 and there are many specimens of the same plant1 but of all shades of red1 crimson1 and purple1 it is the plocamium coccineum4 ,and thus it is with every object we view1 a knowledge of it brings us to respect and admire it more and more as that knowledge increases1 and none more so than some of the productions of the sea4 ,it is here we find specimens of the star-fish1 the sea-urchin1 and other radiata4 ,shells of all kinds--both living and dead--belonging to the various tribes of mollusca2 crabs1 shrimps1 and other crustaceans1 besides the endless varieties of pebbles and other specimens of worn-down rock1 the effects of constant attrition4 ,if we turn from the shore and gaze upon the horizon1 what a marvellous object it is--ever receding as we recede1 ever rising as we rise1 and never nearer nor farther away4 ,this rising of the horizon1 so as to be always opposite to our eyes1 is because the higher we are up the more we see4 ,on looking at the horizon we do not look on a perfect level1 7if we did1 being above it1 of course we could not see it at all7 but the depression of the line of vision is so slight as to be quite unable to be appreciated2 yet1 small as it is1 it enables us to see a considerable space of the ocean1 and the higher we rise--at the same angle--the more we see4 ,the edge of the horizon also appears curved1 being higher in front of us than on either side4 ,this is only so in appearance1 for if any one were to place a piece of string 7stretched tightly between the hands7 before his eyes1 and bring it up till it is on a level with the horizon1 he would soon see that the string and the horizon were both perfectly straight and exactly corresponding with each other4 ,from the horizon we turn round and look at the chalk cliffs1 those white walls from which our native isle has received the name of ,albion4 ,how were they produced8 by the constant lashing of the restless waters1 which are constantly wearing them away2 but they are beautiful objects1 full of marvels and records of bygone ages1 when their tops were at the bottom of the deep seas4 ,the sea is a general name given to all the greater collections of water throughout the world1 although1 in a restricted sense1 it is applied to those tracts of water of a secondary size1 as the ,black ,sea1 the ,baltic1 and the ,mediterranean1 the term ocean being applied to the larger tracts of water1 as the ,atlantic ,ocean1 the ,pacific ,ocean1 c4 ,all the great oceans and seas unite1 and1 in reality1 form one great world of waters1 spread out and covering all the lower parts of the earth1 the term lake being applied to collections of water surrounded by land1 although the ,caspian ,sea retains the name of sea1 and some of the great lakes of ,america may well deserve such a name4 ,the waters of the sea fill up all the lower parts of the earth1 so that1 almost without exception1 the land is higher than the water1 and as the land in some places rises but a few feet1 and in others as many thousands1 so1 beneath the sea1 the land sinks in many places but a few feet1 and in others perhaps as many thousands as it is known to rise above it4 ,the sea always maintains the same general level1 although in past ages the land has risen and fallen1 sometimes in one place and sometimes in another2 indeed1 the same process is taking place every day1 but in so slow a manner that centuries are required to make any great alteration2 while some tracts of land are being encroached on by the action of the waves1 others are being added to and elevated by accumulations of mud and sand1 or raised by the action of earthquakes and volcanoes1 which throw up under the sea1 as well as on the land1 vast quantities of melted earth or lava1 forming strata known to geologists as basalt1 tufa1 c41 or eject showers of ashes and dust in such prodigious quantities as to cover many hundred square miles of the earth's surface4 ,it was by one of these showers of ashes from ,vesuvius that the cities of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii were buried4 ,so that1 as a whole1 although the sea is continually altering slowly its position1 yet it pretty equally maintains the same elevation4 ,at first thought it may be supposed that the rivers constantly flowing into the sea would alter its level1 for some are so large that millions of tons of water are brought by them into the sea every hour1 and there are thousands of rivers and rills which1 night and day1 pour in their tribute of waters2 but ,god has wisely and kindly arranged these things 7like all others7 so that they shall afford us innumerable comforts1 and yet not raise up the sea so that it shall cover the land1 for it requires but a moment's consideration to be convinced that all this water which flows into the sea must first have been abstracted from it1 and it is in this way--when the winds blow over the sea1 they absorb or take up a certain quantity of the vapour which continually rises from it2 for air absorbs a certain quantity1 and a certain quantity only1 of the vapour of water2 but this quantity is determined by certain circumstances1 for instance1 the warmer the air1 the more it will absorb1 the less the pressure on the air1 the more it will absorb1 and the drier the air1 the more it will absorb1 that is1 the less moisture it has already got1 the more will be required to make up that quantity which the other circumstances permit it to contain4 ,now1 what takes place if a warm1 dry1 light current of wind blows over the sea1 landward8 ,why1 all the vapour given off by the sea1 to the amount of millions of gallons1 is absorbed and carried inland by the wind or current of the air1 and this continues onward1 laden with moisture1 until it meets with one of the several circumstances which shall cause it to be incapable of holding the quantity of moisture which it has already got2 for instance1 it meets with another current of air colder than itself1 these mingle1 the vapour of water is condensed by the cold1 and a cloud is formed4 ,this consists of minute particles of water suspended in--not absorbed by--air2 these particles gradually collect1 and down falls the rain on to the earth4 ,this drains off from the surface1 forming rills1 which collect as they descend1 by their own weight1 into the lowest channels of the ground1 and form into streams and rivers1 and back into the sea comes the water which the air had taken away1 with this difference1 that it is free from salt and fit for the many uses to which fresh water alone can be applied2 when the vapour rises from the sea1 none of the saline matters rise with it1 for1 although the water is volatile1 yet they are not1 and this is the whole source of fresh water4 ,it is distilled in the great laboratory of ,nature1 and gives nourishment to all the living beings who dwell on the land and in the rivers and lakes2 or the rain may sink into the earth and be carried for miles and miles under ground1 running through some porous stratum1 such as gravel1 until it flows out in the form of a spring1 bubbling up amongst flowers and weeds1 and forming the source of some river1 which receiving the rain and all the springs in the country through which it flows1 finds its way back into the ocean at last4 ,illustration3 ,,mountain ,,stream4 ,this is the way in which all rivers and streams are formed4 ,an enormous extent of land thus drained gives rise to thousands of rills1 which collect into streams of goodly size1 meandering through valleys and pouring their tribute of waters into a main stream1 which at last accumulates by additions to its course1 and becomes one of those great water-courses which form the highway through a continent4 ,the ,amazon1 ,hoang-,ho1 ,ganges1 ,nile1 ,danube1 and ,volga1 may be cited as some of the greatest water-courses and highways of civilisation4 ,these great rivers are navigable for large ships1 even for many hundreds of miles1 and it is most fortunate that this navigation is so seldom impeded by falls2 for these1 although among the grandest and most beautiful objects of nature1 yet put a stop to the navigation of a river which would otherwise be passable for hundreds of miles further4 ,rivers which run through districts subject to periodical rains1 or those whose sources lead from mountain slopes where vast quantities of snow are deposited in winter which melts on the approach of summer1 are at such seasons of the year suddenly augmented1 and generally overflow the banks and inundate the country for miles4 ,this is in many cases a very great misfortune1 as it spoils the land1 reducing it to a swamp1 but not in every case2 the overflowing of the ,nile brings down with it a great quantity of fertilising vegetable matter1 and serves to manure the whole district1 for the soil being extremely porous and the heat great1 the moisture is soon got rid of1 and hence it was a custom of the ,egyptians to celebrate the rising of the ,nile by feasts and ceremonies4 ,lakes are formed in the same way as rivers1 but1 being surrounded by high land1 have no outlet for the waters so that they may flow back into the sea4 ,if a lake were about to be formed it would be in this way--the rain descending on the surrounding high lands would run in rills to the lowest part1 and there collect1 forming a pool which would gradually increase in size as the water flowed into it1 this increase continuing until the surface became so large that the evaporation from it exactly equalled the supply1 it would then extend no further1 but remain a permanent lake or inland sea1 giving off vapour to refresh the surrounding country1 and again receiving it back by streams and rivers1 as does the ocean4 ,there is scarcely a spot known on the surface of the earth1 which does not show strong evidence of having1 at some former period1 been the bed or bottom of some sea or lake4 ,some of these evidences may be seen in the strata or layers of earth forming the sides of the cliffs which abut on the sea-shore1 and which could not have been produced by any other agency2 these strata contain so many marine shells and other matters peculiar to the sea1 that the fact does not admit of doubt that they were there produced4 ,these same strata are met with throughout the land2 in sinking wells and mines1 the same strata are cut through1 and have a known and uniform succession1 with but few exceptions2 the cliffs1 however1 are the most convenient places to see these strata4 ,that the same process of alteration in the position of the water and land is still going forward1 is shown by many evidences1 such as towns which were once on the sea-shore1 being now some distance from it1 as the ,city of ,norwich1 and in other cases the reverse4 ,the chalk cliffs at ,dover1 ,ramsgate1 c41 show the action of the sea in the corroded state they present1 and slips or falls of great masses which have been undermined by the sea1 are frequently occurring4 ,illustration3 ,,cliffs1 ,,showing ,,strata4 ,the ancient town of ,ravenspurn1 at which ,henry ,,iv4 landed1 has entirely disappeared1 and others1 recorded to have been situated on the shore1 have now only their names left4 ,the parts of the shore most rapidly corroded by the sea1 are those composed of sand1 chalk1 and clay1 while those composed of the harder kinds of sandstone or of granite1 have been but little wasted away1 so that they project and form the headlands1 while in many cases deposits of mud have extended them4 ,there are many other causes which determine the elevation or depression of the land1 besides the action of the sea and earthquakes1 such as winds1 frosts1 c4 ,illustration3 ,,chalk ,,cliffs1 ,,dover4 ,illustration3 ,,great ,,waves ,,at ,,sea4 ,illustration3 ,,dead ,,calm4 ,the slightest movement of the air communicates motion to the surface of such a great sheet of water as the sea1 and this motion is gradually increased till one ripple meets another1 and the power of both goes to form the next1 so that they acquire a very considerable size2 when a gale of wind blows1 the rolling of the waves far out at sea becomes terrific1 and they rise like mountains1 chasing one another over the wide ocean4 ,but sailors rather like a smart breeze1 and more especially did they a few years ago1 when the wind was all they had to depend upon for onward progress4 ,in those days a calm which would sometimes last for weeks together was to them most fearful1 for it was often a source of great distress and privation1 especially if short of provisions2 the sea would then look like a great pool of stagnant water covered on the surface with sea-weed and animalcul1 and fearful it must have been when food was failing1 and no hope of progressing but the springing-up of a wind4 ,but1 in these days1 with the assistance of steam1 a calm is the very time in which most progress is made1 and there is no doubt but a time will come when it will be matter of wonder that men could ever have trusted to so uncertain an element as the wind2 yet1 if it were not for the winds1 currents1 and tides1 the sea could not maintain its state of purity1 for its saltness is not sufficient to prevent the growth of fungi and all sorts of animalcul1 which1 from their decay1 would produce noxious gases and be most injurious to animal life4 ,its constant motion alone prevents this1 and the spores and germs are tossed about until destroyed and eaten up by the inhabitants of the deep who devour every kind of organic matter which is deposited in the sea1 and thus it is that the waters of the ocean are so bright and clear that an object can be seen at a considerable depth4 ,that the constant currents of the sea prevent the formation and growth of sea-weed1 is clearly shown by the great ,sargasso ,sea1 or tract of weed 7,fucus natans71 called the ,gulf-weed4 ,this great tract embraces thousands of square miles1 and is situated in the very middle of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 where there are but few currents2 but surrounding it is the ,gulf-,stream1 an enormous current of water running at a regular rate of four or five miles an hour4 ,this ,gulf-,stream is supposed to be caused by the same laws and influences which determine the trade-winds1 namely1 a constant rarefaction of the water at the tropical parts of the earth1 and a corresponding condensation at the ,arctic portions1 for warm water is much lighter than cold1 and when the waters of the tropical regions become lighter the heavier waters of the cold regions pressing down more forcibly tend to raise them above their proper level2 they therefore flow towards those very parts which have sunk down by their contraction1 and a constant current takes place--this current is the ,gulf-,stream4 ,it runs from the ,gulf of ,mexico northwards towards ,newfoundland1 turning by ,iceland towards the ,british ,isles1 by ,france and ,spain1 onwards to the coasts of ,africa and ,south ,america1 the ,west ,indies1 and again to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 although the return current does not go by the name of ,gulf-,stream4 ,this great stream of water warmed by the tropical sun serves the same two purposes described under the section ,air as being fulfilled by the trade-winds1 namely1 a circulation and distribution of the superfluous heat of the equatorial regions1 warming the northern countries and cooling by the return of under-currents those in the tropics4 ,the fogs of ,newfoundland are caused by the great current of warm water entering the cold region and carrying with them surface-currents of moist air1 which the cold condenses into fog1 just as the breath is visible in a cold atmosphere4 ,england owes its moist and mild climate to the same cause4 ,the sand which lies upon the sea-shore is produced by the action of the waves constantly dashing against the earth and rocks of the coast1 and is mostly composed of what chemists call silex1 or silica1 which is a chief constituent of most rocks and earths2 these1 being worn down by the action of the waters1 form sand4 ,the fragments of these rocks 7especially granite7 and those which contain silica in the form of minute crystals1 are soon rolled and rubbed together until they are ground to powder1 but it is doubtful whether any sand exists at the bottom of the deep seas far from shore1 as the waters there lie--and must have laid--perfectly quiet ever since they were seas1 for the greatest storm that ever rages does not affect the tranquility of the sea more than a few fathoms beneath its surface1 so that a stone dropped in the middle of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 could be picked up after a hundred years exactly where it fell1 were it possible for any to find out the spot and descend2 but the bottom of some deep seas1 as in the antarctic regions and the north ,atlantic ,ocean 7as the soundings between ,ireland and ,america have lately shown71 is covered to an unknown depth with what had been supposed to be sand1 but which is not sand at all1 but a wonderful collection of minute shells and coralines1 which to the unassisted eye have the appearance of sand4 ,they are the silicious shells and coverings of minute vegetables and animals1 these creatures1 being coated with silica 7a substance indestructible by age and the action of water71 fall to the bottom of the sea and there accumulate in such countless myriads that they form this fine substance1 long mistaken for sand1 but between which1 in reality1 there is a marked distinction1 the one being formed by the disintegration and grinding-up of rocks1 the other the product of organic life2 this1 when it has accumulated for ages1 will1 in all probability1 form some island or part of a continent1 and be the site perhaps of some magnificent city1 reared upon a foundation of these minute wonders of the deep1 whose skeletons will have become consolidated into a hard and compact stone1 of which its houses and churches will1 in all probability1 be built4 ,this is not imagination1 as such occurrences have really taken place--all our chalk cliffs and downs constitute part of an immense stratum4 ,now1 every grain of this chalk contains and is made up of thousands of minute shells and corals4 ,these chalk downs were once the bed of some ocean which1 in all probability1 was filled up by their remains4 ,what are the railroads and works of men's hands compared with this8 ,of this chalk 7hardened by pressure into limestone7 most of our public buildings are constructed1 or 7changed by pressure and heat into marble7 our statues of great men have been carved4 ,what a mockery to choose marble as the medium of rendering our heroes immortal--itself the very type of mortality1 being formed by the death of millions of creatures4 ,in ,dr4 ,carpenter's work on the microscope occurs the following3-- ,thus1 when we meet with an extensive stratum of fossilised ,diatomace1 in what is now dry land1 we can entertain no doubt that this silicious deposit originally accumulated either at the bottom of a fresh-water lake or beneath the waters of the ocean1 just as some deposits are formed at the present time1 by the production and death of successive generations of these bodies1 whose indestructible casings accumulate in the lapse of ages1 so as to form layers1 whose thickness is only limited by the time during which this process has been in action4 ,in like manner1 when we meet with a limestone rock entirely composed of the calcareous shells of ,foraminifera--some of them entire1 others broken up into minute particles--we interpret the phenomenon by the fact that the dredgings obtained from certain parts of the ocean-bottom1 consist almost entirely of remains of existing ,foraminifera1 in which entire shells--the animals of which may be yet alive--are mingled with the debris of others that have been reduced by the action of the waves to a fragmentary state4 ,now1 in the fine white mud which is brought up from almost every part of the sea-bottom of the ,levant1 where it forms a stratum that is continually undergoing a slow but steady increase in thickness1 the microscopic researches of ,professor ,williamson have shown that not only are there multitudes of minute remains of living organisms1 both animal and vegetable1 but that it is entirely or almost wholly composed of such remains4 ,illustration3 ,,organisms ,,from ,,mud4 ,the water of the sea is everywhere salt1 except at the mouths of great rivers1 where the quantity of fresh water displaces that which properly belongs to the sea4 ,the cause of its saltness is the solution of a natural mineral 7chloride of sodium7 which exists in the earth in great abundance in layers of a crystalline structure1 and as this chloride of sodium 7common salt7 is soluble in water1 of course it is all dissolved by the water in whatever situation they may come into contact with each other4 ,the composition of sea-water differs slightly in different parts of the earth1 the southern seas being slightly more salt than the northern4 ,as a general rule1 about five per cent4 of solid matter is contained in sea-water1 of this rather more than half 7#e4g7 is chloride of sodium2 the greater part of the other half consists of different salts of magnesia1 and this is the whole source of the medicines known as ,epsom salts and magnesia1 the former being the sulphate and the latter the carbonate of magnesia4 ,iodine1 another article used in medicine and photography1 is also extracted from sea-water1 which however contains but a very minute portion1 too small to be detected as a general rule1 but extracted by burning certain sea-weeds1 in the ashes of which it is found in sufficient quantity to be separated4 ,although the sea as a whole keeps its level1 yet in various parts it is constantly rising and sinking1 sometimes at one place and sometimes at another2 these risings and fallings are called tides1 and are caused by the joint action of the sun and moon1 that is1 by their attraction1 acting at different distances4 ,first it must be observed 7as is well known7 attraction varies inversely as the square of the distance1 that is1 if the moon were twice as far off1 her attraction of the earth would be one-fourth of what it now is1 if three times as far off1 one-ninth1 and so on4 ,the moon's average distance from the centre of the earth 7,a to ,c1 in the diagram7 is about #bdj1jjj miles1 or about #fj times the earth's radius 7,b ,c71 which is a little under #djjj miles1 consequently if the distance from the moon to the centre of the earth 7,a ,c7 be expressed by #fj1 the distance to the nearest surface 7,a ,b7 will be #ei1 and the farthest surface 7,a ,d7 #fa4 ,the moon will attract the point ,b with a force of #a_/eib or #a_/cdha1 the point ,c with the force of #a_/fjb or #a_/cfjj1 and the point ,d with the force of #a_/fab or #a_/cgba4 ,now as the force at ,c is greater than at ,d1 the earth itself will be pulled away from the water at ,d1 and leaving it a little behind1 will produce a high tide there1 this tide is known as the inferior tide 7#b74 ,again as the force at ,b is greater than at ,c1 the water at ,b will be pulled away from the earth and produce a still higher tide1 called the superior tide 7#a71 or that which takes place when the moon is due south4 ,this heaping-up of the waters by the moon1 to the height of #d-a_/b feet 7on an average7 causes corresponding depressions to the same depth in those parts of the earth which are situated between the raised parts1 making a difference between high and low-water of nine feet due to the moon2 precisely the same effects are produced by the sun1 but though his attractive power is so much greater than the moon's1 his distance is also so much greater1 that the heap of water he can raise is somewhat less than #b feet1 and makes therefore less than #d feet difference between high and low-water1 due to the sun4 ,when the sun and moon are both on the same side1 or on opposite sides of the earth 7as at new or full moon71 then the attraction of both act together and produce spring tides1 with a difference of #ac feet2 at first and last quarter the sun and moon oppose each other1 acting in cross directions1 and the difference is then only #e feet4 ,but these effects could only take place in the wide open space of an ocean1 and when other forces do not interfere1 such as obstruction to the tide-waves by land1 c4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,tides4 ,inland seas 7as large as the ,mediterranean even7 have but very little tide1 while pinched-up rivers may have a great rush of tide1 as at ,bristol1 where it rises to #de feet sometimes1 and at ,anapolis in ,nova ,scotia1 to so much as #abj feet6 ,wind will also accelerate or retard both the speed and height of the tides4 ,london receives a much greater tide than its due1 for the tidal-wave being interrupted by ,ireland and ,england1 rolls up the western coast 7taking a northerly direction7 with such force as to swing round the ,shetlands and all down the eastern coast of ,great ,britain4 ,the direct ,atlantic wave also1 when split by our island1 rolls along the south coast from ,land's-,end to ,dover1 rushes through the ,straits1 and meets the backward wave which has been travelling round by ,scotland 7as before mentioned71 the two then pour into the ,thames and give an otherwise quiet river a high and useful tide2 so that ,london receives two tides1 the southern one nearly #aj hours after ,cornwall1 and the roundabout one not till nearly #bc hours after it first reaches ,england4 ,illustration3 ,,river ,,thames4 ,the waters are the great highway throughout the whole world1 and what an easy transit it has formed to those nations sufficiently civilised to require a further knowledge of the world1 and thence procure for themselves luxuries not obtainable at home--at the same time1 spreading civilisation wherever they go6 ,if the oceans1 instead of forming one great concourse of waters1 had existed in the form of inland seas or great lakes1 the great chains of mountains1 deserts1 and uninhabited tracts of earth1 would1 in some cases1 have formed impassable barriers1 whilst in other parts civilisation would have been impeded from the easy access of the more savage tribes1 who would have despoiled the more fortunate by inroads amongst them1 mingling with or exterminating them1 and checking the onward progress of civilisation4 ,and this has always existed where great tracts of land are1 which are the last parts of the world to be civilised1 and in many parts remain as rude as they were thousands of years ago4 ,all this is owing to the good and wise arrangement of water and land1 and is an instance of the care and foreknowledge of ,god1 who has provided for the onward progress of that creature to whom alone such a progress has been allotted2 but as they now exist the oceans form impenetrable barriers to the savage1 so as to restrict his brute force and uncultivated habits spreading1 while they form easily-traversed highways to the more civilised nations1 enabling them to spread their civilisation without contamination to themselves1 but to the advancement of others4 ,the oceans are now navigated by thousands of vessels engaged in mercantile objects1 and it is perfectly astonishing with what rapidity and safety these great tracts of water are crossed4 ,in one of ,chambers's ,papers for the ,people1 called ,ocean ,routes1 is the following1 speaking of the perfecting of the steam-vessel3-- ,the regularity1 speed1 and safety with which the voyages of these vessels were made1 soon pointed them out as the best conveyance both for passengers and the mails4 ,in #ahba they were employed on the latter service between ,dublin and ,holyhead1 and between ,calais and ,dover2 and now1 with few exceptions1 all the channel and ocean-work of the ,post-,office is done by steamers1 and all the passengers and much of the goods' traffic between the parts of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 have been within the last quarter of a century transferred to them4 ,after the steamboat had thus passed through the various stages of infancy and childhood--had tried its strength on ,english rivers1 in the ,irish ,sea1 and in the ,british ,channel--men began to ask1 was it not strong enough and old enough to do more8 ,could it not cross an ocean as well as a channel--take letters and men1 and merchandise to ,america1 ,india1 and ,australia1 as well as to ,ireland and ,france8 ,in this question were involved considerations of the highest importance to all the world1 but particularly to this country1 for no other country has such extensive foreign possessions as ,great ,britain1 or carries on such an extensive trade4 ,with the exception of the ,united ,states1 all the colonies planted by the ,british remain parts of the empire1 while ,spain and ,portugal have lost nearly all those rich territories1 extending over the fairest portion of the ,american continent1 that at one time acknowledged the sway of the houses of ,bourbon and ,braganza4 ,the foreign possessions of ,france are insignificant1 and1 of the other nations of ,europe1 the ,dutch alone possess a territory abroad greater than they have at home4444 ,the proud position of ,britain among the nations1 the necessities of her foreign trade1 and the wants of her colonies and dependencies1 apart from all other considerations1 rendered it fitting and natural that she should lead the way in maritime enterprise1 and teach the nations how to navigate the ocean by steam4 ,nor has she failed in this high task2 for1 within thirteen or fourteen years1 since the question was first proposed1 she has established lines of gigantic steam-vessels that are now traversing with regularity and safety every ocean1 steaming altogether more than a million and a quarter miles every year1 and distributing letters and newspapers all over the world1 at a cost to the country of about #fej1jjj per annum4 ,the rapidity and ease with which thousands of troops were lately conveyed to the ,crimea and ,india1 together with all their stores1 horses1 c41 form one of the most wonderful feats of ocean navigation ever performed1 and point out the beauty of those arrangements which enable man to traverse the whole earth1 whether by land or by water1 so that it may fairly be said that the civilisation of the world depended and still depends upon the waters4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,organic ,,kingdoms ,,of ,,nature4 ,the foregoing descriptions refer to the great works of ,god as seen in those creations which possess not that most wonderful attribute--life4 ,there is no limit in extent1 in quality1 or in number1 to these works2 their extension appears to be infinite2 their magnitudes are large or small1 just as we compare them one with the other4 ,this earth is an enormous mass1 contemplated in comparison with ourselves1 but an insignificant speck when compared with the sun1 and there are certain laws1 chemical and mechanical1 which govern them all--heat1 light1 and electricity permeate all the infinity of space--attraction exists everywhere4 ,there are no individual existences among them2 all are made up of matter combined according to certain definite chemical laws1 and always obedient to them under the same conditions--moving according to certain mechanical laws1 and always obedient to them4 ,the ,creator who made these lifeless masses made also the laws to regulate them2 but1 besides these1 it has pleased ,him to form certain other creatures not for an instant to be compared in size or quantity with the former1 and made up also of certain chemical compounds obedient to the mechanical and chemical laws1 with one more addition1 that unknown1 inexplicable attribute--life4 ,this wonderful quality exists in all organic beings2 they obtain by it individual identity2 they are whole creatures--imperfect with any part taken away1 also imperfect with any addition4 ,clay is clay1 in any quality or form2 iron is iron1 whether a grain or a ton2 but a tree is only a tree when it is complete4 ,we cannot say some tree1 as we would some clay1 it must be a tree1 or several trees1 each a separate and complete existence--perfect in itself--made up of solids and fluids1 and possessing certain attributes1 namely1 a constant circulation of its fluid parts1 a constant appropriation of food and rejection of waste matters--growth thereby to a certain definite form1 and in many a definite size1 together with the production of germs1 capable1 under certain conditions1 of producing beings exactly similar to themselves4 ,this constitutes organic life1 and is possessed by all vegetables4 ,animal life is exactly the same1 with the super-addition of will or mind in its most perfect state1 of instinct or some analogous function in its lower states1 or in quite the lowest--a chemical and mechanical difference only1 such as shall determine the choice of food and mode of assimilating it4 ,this difference consists in the vegetable feeding upon inorganic food1 and the animal on food which has received the stamp of organisation4 ,creatures possessing life1 whether vegetable or animal1 are called organisms4 ,it is found that these organisms are made up of certain atoms united in larger multiples than in inorganic substances1 which are either simple or compounded of but few atoms2 thus water is composed 7every atom of it7 of one atom oxygen1 united to two of hydrogen4 ,common salt 7every atom of it7 is composed of one atom of the metal sodium with one atom of chlorine4 ,chalk is compounded of one atom of calcium in union with one of oxygen1 and this united to one atom of carbonic acid1 itself composed of one atom of carbon with two of oxygen4 ,but organic compounds are often made up of four or six elements1 united in multiples of their usual combining quantities4 ,thus1 grape-sugar is made up 7every atom of it7 of #bd atoms of carbon1 #bh of hydrogen and #bh of oxygen2 these #gh atoms unite and form one compound atom1 of which the sugar is wholly compounded1 and thus1 from such a complex nature1 it happens that most organic compounds are decomposed by even a moderate degree of heat--all by a heat equal to red-hot iron4 ,from these facts1 it may be therefore stated1 that all organisms are complete in themselves1 have definite lives or existences1 appropriate certain matters to themselves1 grow thereby1 and are compounded of organic atoms4 ,,the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom4 ,illustration ,,quantity1 ,,distribution1 ,,and ,,offices ,,of ,,the ,,vegetable4 ,in contemplating nature there are few things which give more delight than the beauty and variety of the vegetation which clothes the surface of the earth1 whether it be that we contemplate the grassy covering of the plains of the ,old ,world1 or the immense prairies of the ,new1 spreading out as it were into seas of grass1 and giving food and shelter to thousands of wild animals2 or gaze upon the rocky height of some vast mountain range1 and see the gigantic oak or pine1 forming by their wide-spread shades the solemn forest which extends for miles beneath us1 and which forms a shelter for the various tribes of birds1 monkeys1 and other animals1 to whom it is a home of happiness and plenty--under every aspect the contemplation of nature's clothing fills the mind with awe and admiration4 ,there is hardly anything more refreshing to the mind than the contemplation of trees and shrubs congregated into a wood1 the floor of which is carpeted with mosses and flowers1 where the gigantic and gnarled trunks of the forest trees covered with many-coloured lichens starting up all round1 circumscribe the view1 while the wide-spreading boughs and the leafy canopy overhead exclude the sun's rays4 ,it is here that one views nature in her purest forms and colours1 untouched by the destroying hand of artificial arrangement4 ,the immense preponderance of the vegetable over the animal world in quantity compensates somewhat for the superior organisation and the intelligence of the latter1 which must be studied in the individual1 while the vegetable world1 which can be contemplated in the mass1 almost overwhelms the imagination with its vastness4 ,it is indeed impossible to compute the amount of vegetation in the great forests of ,america and ,russia 7in which latter country are the largest in the world71 covering hundreds1 nay thousands1 of square miles with one continuous growth of timber4 ,that forest in ,russia through which the river ,pechora flows1 extends over a space of #aej1jjj square miles6 ,the whole mass of animated existence sinks into insignificance when compared in quantity with this2 and when to these forest-tracts are added the thousands of square miles of grass and heaths which grow in some climates with wonderful luxuriance1 the amount of the vegetable kingdom is at once placed beyond all comparison with the animal kingdom in point of quantity4 ,cooper1 in his ,american novels1 describes the prairies as great seas of grass extending as far as the eye can reach1 and rising to a height of #h or #aj feet2 and ,humboldt describes some of the grasses on the plains of the ,oronoco1 as being so gigantic that they measure #ah feet from knot to knot1 and says the ,indians use them for blow-pipes to shoot their poisoned arrows from4 ,and--as though it were not sufficient that the earth should bring forth everywhere all kinds of trees1 shrubs1 and grasses--the waters of the ocean itself are often filled with vegetable life2 in some tracks the tangled sea-weed 7,fucus ,natans7 is so dense as to impede the onward progress of ships for hundreds of miles together4 ,humboldt1 in his ,views of ,nature1 describing the two great banks of sea-weed1 says3 ,the two banks of sea-weed1 together with the transverse band uniting them1 constitute the ,sargasso ,sea of the older writers1 and collectively occupy an area equal to six or seven times that of ,germany4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,diatoma ,,vulgaris4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,various ,,diatomace4 ,nor is this the only vegetation which the great world of waters contains1 for if we descend from the contemplation of its larger members we find them even surpassed in quantity by others of such extreme smallness1 that they can only be seen individually by means of the microscope1 but which exist in such prodigious quantities that the mind can hardly realise the fact4 ,these vegetable atoms have been so increasing and depositing their minute coverings at the bottom of most parts of the ocean1 that for hundreds of miles their beds are composed of nothing else1 and it has been found that most of the great changes on the surface of the earth have been effected by these minute creatures and their companions of the animal world2 for as we find chalk-downs and coral-reefs formed by the remains of microscopic animals1 so productions of equal extent have been formed by the smallest members of the vegetable kingdom1 chiefly the ,diatomace1 a race of minute vegetable productions which propagate by sub-division and have the power of withdrawing earthy matters from the waters in which they live1 which forms a sort of shell or covering2 this shell at their death remains indestructible and gradually accumulates in the bed of the sea 7fig4 #a74 ,examination of the various strata of the earth shows that chains of hills1 beds of marl1 and almost every kind of soil1 whether superficial or raised from a depth1 consist in a great proportion of the earthy remains of these minute plants4 ,these tracts of land were once the beds of oceans which were thus gradually filled up4 ,the waters of the ,antarctic ,ocean are often opaque and quite brown from the multiplicity of these creatures1 the lead used on shipboard for sounding coming up from the bottom covered with what appears to be mud1 but which on a microscopic examination proves to be nothing else than the shells of these and allied species 7fig4 #b74 ,thus we find the land and the waters are everywhere full of vegetable life2 the air itself moreover is so filled with the germs of vegetable and animal creations1 that it is quite impossible to exclude a portion so small that it shall not contain any2 in proof of which1 any organic substance set by for a few days in a vessel ever so carefully closed1 is shortly covered with a growth of mould consisting of fungi1 which under the microscope present most beautiful forms and colours 7fig4 #c74 ,the cause of this is a deposit from the air of the spores or germs of these creatures1 and the nature of the decomposing substance into which they fall often determines the race or tribe which shall come to life and inhabit it1 showing plainly that but a few of these only among many come to maturity1 just as when a variety of seeds are thrown on any particular kind of soil1 only those to which the soil may be suitable come to perfection4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;a a1 ,,mould ,,from ,,an ,,old ,,bone--b1 ,,mould ,,from ,,jam4 ,dr4 ,carpenter in his work on the microscope says3--,there are scarcely any microscopic objects more beautiful than some of those forms of mould or mildew which are so commonly found growing upon the surface of jams and preserves1 especially when they are viewed with a low magnifying power and by reflected light2 for they present themselves as a forest of stems and branches of extremely varied and elegant forms1 loaded with fruit of singular delicacy of conformation1 all glistening brightly on a dark ground4 ,the universality of the appearance of these simple forms of fungi upon all spots favourable to their development1 has given rise to the belief that they are spontaneously produced by decaying substances1 but there is no occasion for this mode of accounting for it1 since the extraordinary means adopted by nature for the production and diffusion of the germs of these plants adequately suffices to explain the facts of the case4 ,the number of sporules which any one fungus may develope is almost incalculable2 a single individual of the puff-ball tribe1 has been computed to send forth no fewer than ten millions4 ,and their minuteness is such that they are scattered through the air in the finest possible dust1 so that it is difficult to conceive of a place from which they should be excluded4 ,pure water exposed to the air does not afford nourishment to the germs which fall into it till a sufficient number of them shall have been deposited to form a food for those which come after them2 but if we mix with the water any soluble vegetable or animal matter1 in a short time the microscope will detect the growth of the germs that are being deposited1 for where nourishment is1 there only can they be developed4 ,these germs are capable of existing for an indefinite period1 either floating in the water1 or blown about by the air1 and have been detected hundreds of miles from land1 the rigging and sails of ships far away from shore are often covered with what sailors suppose to be sand blown from the land1 but which are organic substances1 either vegetable or animal4 ,according to ,humboldt1 the ,red ,sea has derived its name from the fact that at certain seasons the surface of the water has a reddish appearance1 and this 7as he says7 he was fortunate enough to observe1 which colour he found to be due to myriads of red fungi which had formed on the surface4 ,the seeds of some plants are furnished with minute wings or plumes which cause them to be borne on the air or floated on the water 7fig4 #d71 to fertilise some barren spot1 perhaps a coral reef which has at length reached the surface of the water and which ascends no higher1 for the little creatures which built it are aquatic and cannot live exposed to the air2 this coral reef now becomes a receptacle for sea-weed and fungi1 which float on the surface of the ocean1 are washed on to the reef1 die1 decay1 and leave behind a thin layer of mould1 which process being repeated again and again1 forms an elevated edge to the reef1 enclosing a lake or lagoon as it is called1 the waters of which evaporate and the space is filled up in the same way as the edge was formed1 together with the excrements of birds1 c41 forming layer after layer of mould1 and the surface becomes fit for the growth of larger seeds1 as the cocoa-nut1 banana1 c41 which are drifted on to it by the waves2 in this way a coral reef becomes an island fit to be inhabited by man and other animals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,seeds ,,with ,,pappi4 ,the vegetable kingdom forms a mysterious link between the mineral and animal kingdoms1 and binds all creation into one grand and unspeakably beautiful whole4 ,there are certain substances from which the vegetable derives its nourishment1 namely water1 carbonic acid1 and ammonia1 which1 though strictly inorganic1 are yet not simple or elementary substances1 but consist of pairs of elements combined4 ,thus water consists of oxygen and hydrogen1 carbonic acid of oxygen and carbon1 and ammonia of hydrogen and nitrogen4 ,all these aliments of the vegetable kingdom exist in the air1 and in sufficient quantities to supply all the requirements of vegetation2 so that the air1 together with a few metallic oxides 7salts7 derived from the earth1 furnishes food for the whole vegetable tribe1 from the highest to the lowest1 and these vegetables in their turn supply all the food which the animal tribes consume1 for although one animal feeds upon others1 yet these must previously have derived their nourishment from vegetable matter4 ,vegetables not only supply food properly so called1 but likewise that which is essential to respiration1 for besides separating all noxious excess of carbonic acid from the air1 they are an inexhaustible source of oxygen1 the element essential to respiration1 and consequently animal life4 ,this supply of oxygen by vegetables compensates for that which is consumed in respiration by animals1 and thereby maintains the atmosphere in a state proper to be breathed4 ,that plants do thus absorb carbonic acid and give out oxygen1 can be proved in the most certain manner1 if the green parts of a plant be placed in water holding carbonic acid in solution1 and exposed to sunshine2 the carbonic acid will shortly be found to have disappeared from the water1 while oxygen gas is evolved and can be collected1 its quantity being exactly equal to the carbonic acid which the water contained4 ,besides furnishing food and oxygen for the nourishment of animals1 vegetables afford a shelter from the burning rays of the sun in hot climates1 not only to man1 but to those hundreds of wild animals whose proper home is in the forest4 ,humboldt says he found in ,south ,america forests composed of such close growth1 that it was quite impossible even for the wild animals to penetrate into them1 except at a few places1 and that the jaguar often lives for weeks in the trees without descending to the ground1 preying upon the monkey tribes and other animals1 which are found in almost incredible numbers there2 and ,dr4 ,livingstone thus describes the forests of ,africa3--,the forests became more dense as we went north4 ,we travelled much more in the deep gloom of the forest than in open sunlight4 ,no passage existed on either side of the narrow path made by the axe4 ,large climbing plants entwined themselves round the trunks and branches of gigantic trees1 like boa-constrictors1 and they often do constrict the trees by which they rise1 and1 killing them1 stand erect themselves4 ,these woods1 as well as the grass and herbage of the plains1 afford an enormously extended evaporating surface1 and act1 in the heart of hot countries1 as inland seas1 giving out clouds of vapour1 which ascend and are condensed in the form of rain2 in this way the surface of the earth is cooled1 the fluid 7far away from its proper source1 the ocean7 is economised and fertilises a greater space of surface4 ,vegetation also acts in preserving the surface of the earth from those ravages which both wind and rain would otherwise effect2 the great deserts have been levelled by these causes1 the earth not being of a quality to support vegetation4 ,cattlin says1 that in ,north ,america he frequently met with great conical-shaped mounds of earth devoid of vegetation1 and which were fast being levelled by the rains1 at every fall of which gullies were formed on their sides1 down which the mud poured in streams2 now1 had these been of a quality to support a covering of grass1 their size and form would have remained unchanged for centuries4 ,railway embankments are often sown with grass seeds1 to prevent injury to them1 especially where this covering is not likely to come soon1 as in the vicinity of large towns4 ,thus it is seen that the vegetable kingdom far exceeds the animal in quantity1 that it is everywhere distributed1 that it affords nourishment and shelter to animals1 preserves the air fit for respiration1 keeps down the excess of heat1 and preserves the form of the surface of the earth4 ,,mode ,,of ,,growth--,,agents ,,affecting--,,constitution ,,and ,,position ,,in ,,creation4 ,the green colour of plants is due to the formation and deposition in their cells of a peculiar compound called chlorophyll1 and it is ascertained that this compound is produced in the plant in consequence of its exposure to light1 for no plant grown in the dark is green1 but will become so when light is admitted4 ,this is shown in many cultivated vegetables1 as celery1 lettuces1 c41 in which by banking up the celery1 or tying together the lettuce1 the light is excluded1 and the stalks of the one and the heart-leaves of the other become mild and white1 whereas the same grown in a state of nature are so green and rank as to be almost poisonous4 ,the effects of light and heat in favouring vegetation being nearly always found in union1 causes that which is really due to light often to be attributed to heat1 as in the growth of tropical plants2 where both are combined1 there will be the greatest powers of vegetative growth4 ,the absence of light and air often causes the upward growth of a plant to seek them2 a curious instance of this1 altering the habits of a tree1 is mentioned by ,dr4 ,livingstone1 who says3-- ,as we traverse a succession of lawns and open forests1 it is interesting to observe something like instinct developed even in trees4 ,one1 which when cut emits a milky juice1 and if met with on the open lawns grows as an ordinary umbrageous tree1 and shows no disposition to be a climber1 when growing in a forest still takes the same form1 then sends out a climbing branch which twines round another tree until it rises #cj or #dj feet1 or to the level of the other trees1 and there it spreads out a second crown1 where it can enjoy a fair share of the sun's rays4 ,in parts of the forest still more dense than this1 it assumes the form of a climber only1 and at once avails itself of the assistance of a tall neighbour1 by winding vigorously round it1 without attempting to form a lower head4 ,it does not succeed so well as parasites proper1 but when forced to struggle for space1 it may be mistaken for one which is invariably a climber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,pine ,,trees ,,on ,,mountain ,,side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,seed ,,beginning ,,to ,,grow4 ,the absence of heat with plenty of light is shown in the vegetation of mountainous districts1 where there is great size1 but the absence of leafy expansion1 as in the pine tribe 7fig4 #e74 ,where both light and heat are deficient1 nothing but fungi1 mosses1 and lichens of the most stunted nature will grow4 ,experiments in hothouses prove that although tropical plants be supplied with their proper amount of heat1 yet without the very greatest supply of light that can be obtained1 they do not come to any degree of perfection4 ,the influence of light is chiefly upon the leaves1 that of heat upon the earth and root1 which becomes more fully developed4 ,when a seed is placed in the earth1 moisture is absorbed by it from the earth1 and a development of the cells of the cellular tissue of which the seed is composed takes place1 and from the peculiar nature of these cells they divide into two sets1 one of which passes upwards towards the light1 the other passes downwards into the earth2 these last 7which pass downwards7 form a fibre called the radicle 7fig4 #f71 those which pass upwards form also a stalk or fibre called the plumule1 which carries up with it a part of the seed called the cotyledon1 which 7like a leaf7 has the power of decomposing the carbonic acid of the air and fixing its carbon in the form of wood4 ,this begins as soon as the cotyledon has reached the light1 and thus the formation of fibres of woody matter takes place1 which fibres descend from the cotyledon to the radicle4 ,meanwhile the formation of other cells of the plumule takes place1 until the first leaf is formed1 when other fibres of wood are sent down1 and so on for every leaf1 so that the number of woody fibres which form the trunk of a tree is in proportion to the number of leaves which that tree has borne1 from which we come to the conclusion that the size of the trunk of a tree is the sum of all its branches4 ,while all this is going on1 the cellular tissue of the downward part or radicle also becomes developed and divides out into roots1 on the surface and at the extremities of which are minute cellular bodies called spongioles 7from their power of absorbing moisture71 which take up the fluid of the earth which surrounds them2 this moisture ascends through the vessels of the plant till it arrives at the surface of the leaves1 where it is exposed to the action of light and sunshine4 ,the ascent of the moisture of the earth was first correctly explained by ,du ,trochet1 and is owing to a peculiar power which he discovered1 and which is called ,endosmose2 this consists in the tendency which a fluid has to penetrate a membrane on the other side of which is a fluid of greater density than itself4 ,this may be seen by the following experiment3 obtain a piece of glass tubing about a foot long1 having the end blown out into the form of a bell1 as in fig4 #g1 tie a piece of bladder over the expanded end and fill it partly with syrup or gum-water1 so that this shall rise in the stalk about an inch2 place this in a glass of water with the bladder downwards1 and the fluid will be seen slowly to rise in the stalk1 so that in perhaps an hour it will rise to the top4 ,this apparatus resembles one of the spongioles at the extremity of the fibre of a root4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,endosmose4 ,the rain falling through the air carries with it a certain amount of carbonic acid and ammonia1 which the air always contains1 and this is the whole source of the nitrogen which forms a very important part of the bodies of plants and animals4 ,when the rain arrives at the surface of the earth1 it sinks down into it and carries with it all soluble vegetable or animal matter which it meets with1 together with any soluble earthy matter which may exist in the soil2 this forms the sap of the tree4 ,when it arrives at the surface of the leaf1 the watery part of it combines with the carbonic acid of the air 7through the influence of light7 and appropriating its carbon1 gives out the oxygen2 this is the true respiration of plants1 and is exactly the reverse of what takes place during the respiration of animals1 in which case oxygen is absorbed and carbonic acid given off4 ,the carbon thus retained by the plant combines with the elements of the water to form the solid green substance called chlorophyll1 which is the basis of all the tissues of the plant1 the ammonia is also decomposed1 and its nitrogen combining with the oxygen and hydrogen of the water1 and the carbon of the carbonic acid forms those compounds which constitute the most nourishing parts of vegetables1 such as albumen1 gluten1 c41 and of which all the animal tissues are built up1 for the production of these organic substances takes place in the vegetable only1 animals simply appropriating them from their food4 ,the sap which reaches the leaf is not all converted into chlorophyll1 but also into those peculiar juices which are found in plants1 some of which contain sugar1 some gum1 others 7as the pine tribe7 turpentine1 and in the laurel tribe camphor1 all of which are substances containing much carbon2 moreover the solid wood and bark are deposited from these juices as they descend from the leaf after having been acted on by light 7or the actinic power associated with it74 ,now1 as the water1 ammonia1 and carbonic acid which descend with the rain are from the air1 and as the vegetable is formed wholly by their absorption1 it may be fairly said that the vegetable kingdom 7and therefore the animal7 feeds upon the air1 and that the trees do not grow out of the earth but into it4 ,with respect to the position which the vegetable kingdom occupies in creation1 there can be no doubt that it is subordinate to the animal kingdom1 and takes a place between it and the mineral world1 inasmuch as it prepares food from the one kingdom and transfers it to the higher4 ,it has been supposed that the vegetable and animal kingdoms aid and support each other equally and mutually2 this is true with respect to respiration1 but not as regards nutrition1 for although in the decomposition of animal matters1 food is given off for the vegetable1 yet they are quite independent of this source of nourishment4 ,a forest of trees would be quite as well nourished if there were no animals1 but on the other hand the animal kingdom would shortly cease to exist if there were no vegetables4 ,it was formerly supposed that the lowest grades of the animal kingdom were higher than the highest of the vegetable kingdom2 this is not strictly true1 the best way of viewing the connection between the two kingdoms is to approximate the lowest of each1 when it will be found that our most acute physiologists are only just beginning to determine their distinctive characters4 ,dr4 ,carpenter says3--,in the present state of science it would be very difficult1 and is perhaps impossible1 to lay down any definite line of demarcation between the two kingdoms1 since there is no single character by which the animal or vegetable nature of any organism can be tested4 ,probably the one which is most generally applicable1 among those lowest organisms which most closely approximate to one another1 is not1 as formerly supposed1 the presence or absence of spontaneous motion1 but the dependence of the being for nourishment upon organic compounds already formed1 which it takes 7in some way or other7 into the interior of its body1 or its possession of the power of obtaining its own alimentary matter by absorption from the inorganic elements on its exterior4 ,the former is the characteristic of the animal kingdom as a whole1 the latter is the attribute of the vegetable4 ,both vegetables and animals begin with a simple nucleated cell1 having certain vital properties1 a double chain ascends from this simple type1 one branch of which is developed more and more till it arrives at a perfect vegetable1 and the other branch is developed till it arrives at a perfect animal4 ,thus1 by the addition of distinctive and characteristic appendages1 one being acquires properties regarded as vegetable1 while by the addition of other appendages equally characteristic1 the other being obtains those properties which cause it to rank as an animal2 but it must not be inferred from this that all organic forms have been a simple cell at some former period1 but that there are two classes of organic beings1 the vegetable and the animal1 and that each embraces forms1 ranging from a simple cell to the highest1 and that each of these forms 7from the lowest to the highest7 is and always was1 from their first creation1 the same as they now are1 in individual shape and size4 ,some of the lower members of the animal kingdom resemble the higher members of the vegetable kingdom1 both in outward appearance and in intimate structure2 ,dr4 ,darwin1 who wrote scarce half-a-century ago1 says that a tree should no more be considered as one plant than a branch of coral as one animal1 for as it is found that in the coral hundreds of separate beings exist associated in one habitation1 so 7he says7 should every bud on a tree be considered as a separate being4 ,even ,dr4 ,carpenter1 one of our most eminent physiologists1 seems in a great measure to favour this idea4 ,he says3 ,the radiata possess many points of affinity with the vegetable kingdom1 and of these the circular arrangement of their parts is one of the most evident4 ,many species of sea-anemones1 for instance1 present an appearance so much resembling that of various composite flowers1 as to have been commonly termed animal-flowers1 a designation to which they seem further entitled from the small amount of sensibility they manifest1 and the evident influence of light upon their opening and closing4 ,but it is in the tendency to the production of compound fabrics1 each containing a number of individuals1 which have the power of existing independently1 but which are to a certain degree connected with one another1 that we recognise the greatest affinity in structure between this group and the vegetable kingdom4 ,every tree is made up of a large number of buds composed of leaves arranged round a common axis2 each bud has the power of preserving its own life and reproducing the original structure when removed from the parent stem1 if placed in circumstances favourable to its growth1 and yet all are connected in the growing tree by a system of vessels which form a communication between them4 ,this is precisely the nature of those structures which are formed by the animals of the class that may be regarded as the most characteristic of the group4 ,every mass of coral is the skeleton of a compound animal1 consisting of a number of polypes1 connected together by a soft flesh in which vessels are channelled out2 the polypes are capable of existing separately1 since each one1 when removed from the rest1 can in time produce a massive compound fabric like that of its parent1 but they all contribute to the maintenance of the composite structure so long as they are in connection with it4 ,in some instances the skeleton is stony1 and is formed by the deposition of calcareous matter either in the centre of each fleshy column1 so as to form a solid stem1 or on its exterior so as to form a tube4 ,in other cases it is horny1 and then it may be a flexible axis in a delicate tube4 ,both the stony and horny corals often possess the form of plants or trees1 and as their skeletons are often found with no obvious traces of the animals to which they belong1 they have been accounted vegetable growths4 ,,description ,,of ,a ,,vegetable ,,and ,,its ,,parts4 ,as has been said before1 it is extremely difficult to make any distinction between the lower tribes of the vegetable and animal kingdoms1 and physiologists are not yet agreed1 with respect to some members1 as to which kingdom they belong4 ,their whole substance is made up of cellular tissue1 and there are but few distinctions of parts1 forming generally a broad foliaceous expansion called the thallus1 as in lichens and sea-weeds1 or a sort of root composed of fibres and called the mycelium1 as in the fungi4 ,but1 a very few steps higher1 the distinctive characters become so evident that they are impossible to be mistaken1 the following description will therefore apply to vegetables of the more elevated character1 such as trees or flowering plants4 ,plants are fixed to the earth1 and receive nourishment from it by imbibing its liquids1 which circulating upwards through the porous structure of the plant itself1 and becoming exposed to the air in the leaves1 attract to themselves nourishment from that source also4 ,the part of a plant which grows into the earth is called the root2 this has a variety of forms1 in some it is branched like the upper part1 and these branches divide into rootlets or fibres penetrating deep into the ground1 and absorbing nourishment in all directions1 but this absorption does not take place from the whole surface of the root but from spots covering it1 and from the slightly expanded ends of the fibres1 these portions are formed of new and porous cellular tissue1 and are called spongioles4 ,the part of plants which springs upwards from the earth is called the stem1 if large the trunk1 this divides into branches and twigs2 stems in some cases continue for a distance more or less underground4 ,the part of a potato plant1 usually called the root1 and from which the tubers or potatoes grow1 is in reality an underground stem1 and the fibres which spring from it are the roots2 the underground suckers of mint are also portions of stem1 and in some cases these are greatly expanded1 they then obtain the names of tubers 7as the potato71 or corm1 as in the crocus and meadow saffron2 when the stem is thin and runs along the ground1 sending in roots at intervals 7as in the strawberry71 it is called a runner1 when thicker and running horizontally under the ground1 it is called a rhizome4 ,the stem consists of a central portion1 either made up of long bundles of woody fibre running side by side1 as in the endogen1 or deposited in rings and having a central cylinder of pith1 as in the exogen4 ,in these the wood at the central part 7or the oldest7 is called duramen1 or heart-wood1 while that at the outer part or nearest to the bark 7the newest71 is called alburnum or sap-wood4 ,the former is the harder and the latter the softer portion4 ,from the pith in the centre1 through the woody part1 rays or lamin of cellular tissue similar to that which constitutes the pith itself1 are sent outwards through the woody rings to the inner part of the bark1 which they form2 these are called medullary rays1 and may be seen in wood which has been cut across the grain1 they are often called the silver grain1 and are very evident in oak1 beech1 and elm1 the inner part of the bark is called the liber4 ,the bark itself is made of cellular tissue dried and hardened by age2 the outer portion 7called the epidermis7 is in many cases shed1 and may be constantly seen hanging loosely from the bark of the birch and other trees in loose white silvery portions4 ,the outer part of the bark of some trees is so largely developed as to be of considerable thickness1 this is especially the case in the ,cork oak 7,quercus suber71 which is the cork of commerce4 ,the bark cannot stretch as the circumference of the tree increases1 it is therefore split up and cracked1 which accounts for the rough state of it on those trees which do not shed the outer part4 ,the chief appendage of the branches1 is called a leaf1 it grows from a small projection called a leaf-bud1 which contains the leaf rolled up4 ,the method in which this occurs is different in different plants1 in some it is folded backwards and forwards1 in others doubled up with the opposite leaf alternately1 and in various forms in other plants4 ,the leaf consists of two parts1 the stalk 7petiole7 and the blade 7lamina72 the blade is of different forms1 and has ribs and veins covering it1 in some of a reticulated or network pattern1 these belong to the exogen1 and in others running parallel1 which is the kind of venation found in the leaves of the endogen4 ,when leaves are placed on a stalk1 they are said to be petiolate1 when without one1 sessile4 ,when leaves are not separated into different portions 7although they may be much notched7 they are said to be simple1 as in the oak or willow1 but when divided into separate portions1 as in the ash1 they are said to be compound4 ,the following are the chief forms of leaves1 named according to variations of their several parts3 ,illustration3 ,,depending ,,on ,,form4 ,lanceolate 7,privet74 ,ovate 7,fuchsia fulgens74 ,oblong 7,primrose74 ,cordate 7,white ,bryony74 ,palmate 7,vine74 ,illustration3 ,,depending ,,on ,,margin ,,and ,,arrangement4 ,serrate 7,rose74 ,biserrate 7,elm74 ,crenate 7,betony74 ,entire 7,lilac74 ,digitate 7,lupin74 ,pinnate 7,vetch74 ,bipinnate 7,acacia74 ,pinnatifid 7,crepis74 ,ternate 7,clover74 ,biternate 7,columbine74 ,illustration3 ,,depending ,,on ,,point4 ,obtuse 7,dock74 ,mucronate 7,holly74 ,retuce 7,snowball74 ,emarginate 7,bladder ,senna74 ,at the base of many leaves are a pair of scales called stipules2 the petiole or leaf-stalk is generally cylindrical1 but frequently triangular1 and in grasses it is flat and surrounds the stem1 this is called a sheath2 when leaves are narrow and not expanded into a lamina1 as in the pine tribe1 they are said to be acicular4 ,the stalks which bear the flowers are called pedicels1 at the base of which are a pair of scales called bracts2 when these are large and expanded1 so as to enclose the flowers1 they are called spathes 7this is seen in the arum71 and when there are a number of flower-stalks arising from one point the bracts there collected are called an involucre4 ,a flower consists of several parts1 the outermost green scales1 composing a set1 are called the calyx1 and each part of it1 is called a sepal1 within this is the corolla or that coloured part which forms the most characteristic feature of the flower1 each part of the corolla is called a petal2 when the corolla consists of but one piece1 it is called monopetalous1 and when of many1 polypetalous4 ,the forms of corolla vary according to the form and the mode in which the petals are placed1 whether united or separated1 and to what extent1 whether regular or irregular2 the most usual forms are the following3-- ,illustration3 ,campanulate 7,bell-shaped71 ,canterbury ,bell4 ,rotate 7,wheel-shaped71 ,woody ,nightshade4 ,hypocrateriform 7,salver-shaped71 ,phlox4 ,infundibuliform 7,funnel-shaped71 ,tobacco4 ,labiate 7,having ,lips71 ,bugle4 ,ringent 7,grinning71 ,sage4 ,galeate 7,helmet-shaped71 ,monk's-hood4 ,pappilonaceous 7,like a ,butterfly71 ,sweet ,pea4 ,cruciate 7,like a ,cross71 ,cuckoo-flower4 ,within the corolla are placed the stamens 7male reproductive organs7 these consist generally of two parts1 the head and stalk1 the former called the anther and the latter the filament1 which last is sometimes absent1 and the anther is said to be sessile2 on the surface of the anther is the pollen or fertilising dust4 ,within the centre of the flower is the pistil 7female reproductive organ71 this consists of one or several cells called ovaries1 from the pistil a tube rises1 having an expanded end called the stigma1 it is by the application of the pollen dust to this stigma that the ovaries are fertilised1 and the various insects1 especially bees1 who seek for honey1 shake off by their movements the pollen from the anthers and cause it to be applied to the stigma1 thus unconsciously performing a necessary office for the plant while they rob it of that only which is not required4 ,the stamens are sometimes separate1 sometimes bound up into one or more bundles1 and are placed in various situations1 names are given to describe such arrangements as follows3-- ,stamens in one bundle1 ,monadelphous4 ,stamens in two bundles1 ,diadelphous4 ,stamens in more than two bundles1 ,polyadelphous4 ,filaments placed directly below the pistil1 ,hypogynous4 ,placed upon the sides of the calyx1 ,perigynous4 ,on the sides of the corolla1 ,epipetalous4 ,on the top of the ovary1 ,epigynous4 ,when the ovaries are fertilised the flower dies and they begin to enlarge and ripen to form the fruit1 which is the pistil enlarged1 and contains the ovules ripened into seeds4 ,the fruits of different plants are known by various names according to the state of development of the various parts composing them4 ,if the ripe fruit split open so as to let out the seeds 7as in the common pea7 it is called dehiscent1 if it do not so split 7as in the apple7 it is said to be indehiscent2 the outer part of fruit is called the pericarp1 and this may be soft and fleshy as in the apple or cherry1 or hard as in the filbert4 ,the following are the names of the principal varieties of fruit3-- ,illustration3 ,pome 7,apple74 ,gland 7,acorn74 ,legume 7,pea74 ,stobule 7,hop74 ,drupe 7,plum74 ,berry 7,currant74 ,capsule 7,poppy74 ,siliqua 7,shepherd's ,purse1 ,wallflower74 ,eterio 7,strawberry74 ,nut 7,hazel-nut74 ,caryopsis 7,wheat74 ,the seed is the ovule ripened1 it contains the germ of the future plant1 called the embryo1 the outer part of the seed is called the testa1 and the space between this and the embryo is generally filled with starchy matter called the albumen4 ,the embryo consists of the plumule or stem1 the radicle or root1 and the cotyledons or leaves of the future plant2 when the seed has but one cotyledon it is called monocotyledonous and when it has two dicotyledonous4 ,flowers are arranged in various ways upon the plants which produce them1 and receive names accordingly2 the whole arrangement of flowers is called the inflorescence4 ,the following are the principal forms of inflorescence3-- ,illustration3 ,hemlock4 ,the ,,umbel1 in which all the flower-stalks 7pedicels7 radiate from one point1 as in the carrot 7daucus carota74 ,umbels are sometimes compound1 that is1 the flowers are placed in umbels at the end of stalks themselves radiating from a point and so forming an umbel1 as in the ,hemlock 7,conium maculatum74 ,illustration3 ,plantain4 ,the ,,spike1 is that kind of infloresence in which all the flowers are seated without stalks upon a general peduncle or axis1 as in the ,plantain 7,plantago media71 in which the spike is entire1 or as the ,lavender 7,lavandula ,vera71 in which the spike is interrupted1 that is1 the inflorescence is not continuous4 ,illustration3 ,hazel ,,catkin1 or ,,amentum1 is the same as a spike1 but in which the flowers are imperfectly developed1 as in the ,hazel 7,corylus71 ,willow 7,salix71 ,white ,poplar 7,populus ,alba71 c4 ,illustration3 ,water-cress ,the ,,raceme has the inflorescence placed along a common axis or centre1 the same as a spike1 but with the flowers placed upon stalks instead of being sessile1 as in ,water-cress 7,nasturtium officinale7 and ,red ,currant 7,ribes rubrum74 ,illustration3,candy-tuft ,the ,,corymb is a form of inflorescence pretty much the same as raceme1 but the flowers of which proceed upwards till they are all on a level1 as in ,candy-tuft 7,iberis74 ,illustration3 ,creeping ,soft ,grass4 ,the ,,panicle1 the same as the raceme1 but having the flower stalks themselves divided into branches1 as in ,creeping ,soft ,grass 7,holcus mollis74 ,this and the spike are the most usual form of inflorescence found among grasses1 in many of which the panicle1 however1 is often contracted almost to a spike4 ,illustration3 ,elder4 ,the ,,cyme1 this resembles the panicle shortened in such a manner as to become flattened or almost corymbose1 as in the ,elder ,tree 7,sambucus nigra71 in which there are five principal stalks of inflorescence4 ,illustration3 ,chamomile4 ,,capitulum1 in which the flowers arise from a broad round head or receptacle as in the composite flowers1 such as ,chamomile 7,anthemis nobilis72 in such flowers the star-like ray of florets are called the florets of the ray1 and those composing the centre the florets of the disc4 ,illustration3 ,arum4 ,the ,,spadix is that form of inflorescence in which the expanded bract1 called a spathe1 forms a sort of sheath inclosing the flowers4 ,this spathe is white in the example given1 and is often mistaken for part of the flower itself1 as in the ,wake-robin or ,arum 7,arum maculatum74 ,the vegetable kingdom is divided into three great natural families1 the ,acrogen1 the ,endogen1 and the ,exogen4 ,the acrogenous plants are those which as a general rule have neither branches1 leaves1 nor flowers2 they are almost wholly made up of cellular tissue1 and are many of them so minute that they are quite invisible individually to the unassisted eye1 and are among the most wonderful works of the ,creator1 having an amount of beauty in form and elaboration of ornament bestowed on them1 quite equal to anything among the higher and larger creations1 and yet some of these are so small that tens of millions may be placed in the space of a cubic inch1 of such are the ,diatomace and ,desmidiace4 ,the acrogens take an immense range in the scale of organisation1 from the ferns 7which appear but little inferior to the exogen or endogen1 have stems and leaves1 and in some cases1 as in hot and moist climates1 assume the size and form of a tree71 to the very lowest state of vegetable existence1 consisting of simple cells uniting into strings or forming simple threads1 such as the green alg which form on stagnant waters and damp ground or wood-work1 and the mould or mildew which forms on all decomposing substances4 ,the general name for these acrogens1 cryptogamia1 which has been in use for a long time and is commonly still used1 indicates that the reproductive organs are invisible1 hence the expression used by one of ,shakespeare's characters1 ,we have the secret of fern seed1 we walk invisible2 but this is not really the case1 for the sorri at the back of fern-leaves1 are vessels filled with spore cases each having a number of angular seeds within it2 the lower tribes of the acrogens do not commonly grow from seed but by an extension of their several parts by the development of the cells of which they are composed1 and by their separation into portions4 ,few of this tribe have anything like true woody texture1 except their highest order1 the ferns1 which form some of the most beautiful objects in the vegetable world4 ,few of the family of acrogens are of much direct use to man1 the mushroom tribes are very generally eaten where they abound1 the lichens of the arctic regions form the food of the reindeer 7the greatest friend of man in these cold climes7 as well as1 in part1 the food of man himself2 but although these lowly plants serve man but little1 directly1 there is not a shadow of doubt that they have as important an office to fulfil as any other family or tribe of organised creatures1 whose purpose may meet the eye more plainly4 ,for all the members of creation form1 as it were1 the links of one great chain1 and were but one removed1 though it might perchance be only some poor weed or lowly moss1 yet might it cause the whole to be annihilated2 for certain earthy matters enter into the structure of all plants1 and it appears to be the wonderful office of some of these lowest tribes of plants to prepare this earthy matter for its reception into the systems of higher organisms1 for as silica is one of the primitive rocks of the earth and is only found in fragments1 from the largest to the sand on the sea-shore1 which is nothing but a collection of minute fragments of quartz worn small by attrition1 yet a grain of sand is a gigantic mass of rock in comparison with the thin porous hollow shells of the ,diatomace1 c41 and by far too large to be absorbed or dissolved so as to be taken into the systems of other plants that may require it1 which plants would cease to exist if this earth were not thus prepared for them2 now these are the corn-bearing plants1 the most useful to the animal world1 and upon which it in reality depends for existence4 ,moreover the whole of the mould in which the higher orders of plants grow1 is formed by the decomposition of the more humble grades1 especially the lichens1 which first take possession of the surface of bare rocks and stones1 and furnish by their death food fit for the sustenance of those which follow them4 ,like the higher orders of vegetation1 these minute plants excrete oxygen1 and thus in the ocean may supply this vital element for the respiration of the various corresponding minute animal organisms which inhabit the depths of the sea and which cannot come to the surface to get it1 so that the two thus supporting each other1 form food for all the higher marine animals1 which are finally eaten by man4 ,so that upon some of these minute and apparently useless creatures hang the lives and well-being of many of the most important vegetables and animals4 ,dr4 ,lindley divides the acrogens into the following orders3-- #a4 ,,alg 7,algals71 including ,sea-weeds1 c4 ,the ,alg include the lowest of all the vegetative organisms1 the ,protophytes 7first plants74 ,these have no individual parts1 but consist of living cells1 propagating by sub-division or by the union of two cells into one1 causing the formation of nuclei or smaller cells within them1 each of which becomes a parent cell after the rupture of the cell-membrane which contained them4 ,dr4 ,carpenter1 in his ,history of the ,microscope1 says3--,the life-history of one of these uni-cellular plants in its most simple form1 can scarcely be better exemplified than in the ,palmogloea macrococca1 one of those humble forms of vegetation which spreads itself as a green slime over damp stones1 walls1 c4 ,when this slime is examined with the microscope1 it is found to consist of a multitude of green cells1 each surrounded by a gelatinous envelope2 the cell1 which does not seem to have any distinct membranous wall1 is filled with granular particles of a green colour1 and a 'nucleus' may sometimes be distinguished through the midst of these4 ,when treated with tincture of iodine1 however1 the green contents of the cell are turned to a brownish hue1 and a dark-brown nucleus is distinctly shown4 ,other cells are seen1 which are considerably elongated1 some of them beginning to present a sort of hour-glass contraction across the middle2 in these is commencing that curious multiplication by duplicative subdivision which is the mode in which increase nearly always takes place throughout the vegetable kingdom4 ,illustration3 ,fucus ,vesiculosus4 ,the higher tribes of ,alg embrace the sea-weeds2 these are for the most part broad1 leaf-like expansions of thallus1 composed of cellular tissue1 they sometimes grow to an enormous length4 ,humboldt mentions the sea-grass as extending for miles1 and forming continuous extensions of two or three hundred feet1 and the ,macrocystis pyrifera attains to the length of more than a thousand4 ,the common ,bladder-wrack 7,fucus vesiculosus7 was formerly much used to procure soda from1 its ashes containing a considerable quantity1 it is also used for manure2 the ,laminaria digitata is eaten under the name of tangle1 and a nutritious jelly is made from the ,carigeen moss 7,chondrus crispus74 #b4 ,,charace 7,charas74 ,these are a kind of fresh-water ,alg1 composed of tubes of cellular tissue2 they are peculiar1 from the fact that the spores of the plant have cilia1 giving to them the powers of motion and enabling them to swim away and spread the plant afar off4 ,it is in the ,charas that the peculiar circulation of the granules of endochrome called cyclosis is best seen4 ,illustration3 ,charas4 #c4 ,,fungi 7,fungals71 including ,mushrooms1 c4 ,illustration3 ,eatable ,mushroom 7,agaricus campestris74 ,the ,fungi comprise a great variety of vegetable growths1 from the mould which grows on any animal or vegetable substance1 to the mushroom4 ,some of the moulds or mildews found on various decaying substances are peculiar to them1 and in many cases exceedingly destructive4 ,the microscopic fungus ,puccinea graminis1 is the parasite which fixes itself to corn and produces the disease known as mildew1 and the ,uredo segetum 7another microscopic fungus7 causes the smut2 the bunt is caused by the ,uredo foetida1 and the spur1 or ergot1 which attacks rye1 is caused by the ,acinula clavis4 ,these fungi completely destroy the grain of corn1 in which they form1 and propagate in the most rapid manner2 the ergot is moreover a dangerous poison to those who eat the bread made of rye infected by it4 ,the ,truffle 7,tuber cibarium7 is a kind of underground fungus1 and is esteemed a dainty4 ,mushrooms are also fungi1 and several species are sufficiently wholesome2 these are the ,field ,mushroom 7,agaricus campestris7 and the ,fairy-ring ,mushroom 7,agaricus pratensis74 #d4 ,,lichenes 7,lichens71 ,are those dry scaly growths forming grey1 green1 or yellow spots on the barks of trees and in various other places1 and they grow in a sort of leaf or scale called a thallus4 ,they are used as articles of food and as dye-stuffs2 the ,cetraria ,icelandica is the ,iceland ,moss used here for making a sort of nutritious drink or jelly1 the natives of ,iceland1 however1 use it as common food2 the ,cladonia rangifarina1 or ,reindeer ,moss1 is the chief food of that useful creature which forms the whole property of the ,laplander2 and the ,roccella tinctoria is the substance from which the dye called archil is procured4 ,illustration3 ,lichen4 #e4 ,,filices 7,ferns74 ,the ,ferns are a very numerous order of acrogenous plants1 growing in the temperate regions from a rhizome or underground stalk 7commonly called its root71 which throws up fronds or leaves with a strong midrib2 this midrib is commonly called its stalk1 but in tropical countries the fern stalk rises above ground to the height of #cj or #dj feet1 and then it is seen that the ordinary stalks are but the midribs of the fronds4 ,there are between two and three thousand species of fern4 ,the fronds open in a peculiar manner1 unwinding as it were from a round ball4 ,the sorri or seed-cases are situated at the back of the fronds in little brown spots1 each of which is found to consist of a heap or collection of round capsules1 and if these be placed under the microscope they have the appearance of little membraneous cases covered with net-like markings1 and at the upper part a striated band of a brown colour1 which after a time stretches out into a nearly straight line1 tearing open the bag or capsule1 and a number of seeds escape4 ,ferns grow best in damp and shady situations1 and will thrive well in damp mould under a glass case4 ,illustration3 ,fern4 #f4 ,,marchantiace 7,liver-worts74 ,illustration3 ,liver-worts4 ,these ,liver-worts are much like ,lichens1 growing between and upon stones near springs and moist places1 and forming a broad thallus or root from which grow cup-shaped sporangia or seed-cases4 ,the ,marchanta polymorpha is one of its chief members4 #g4 ,,jungermanniace 7,scale-mosses74 ,illustration3 ,scale-moss4 ,the ,scale-mosses grow in moist places and under the stems of trees and plants4 ,their appearance is scaly1 and they have a sort of stalk4 #h4 ,,bryace 7,urn-mosses74 ,illustration3 ,urn-moss4 ,urn-mosses comprise the most ordinary of the mosses1 the ,brium1 which grows on the ground everywhere1 forming tufts2 its fructification resembles an urn1 and hence its name4 #i4 ,,lycopodiace 7,club-mosses74 ,illustration3 ,club-moss4 ,these are very beautiful mosses1 of a bright green colour1 growing in moist places4 ,there are about #bjj species of club-mosses known4 ,the common ,lycopodium is its most characteristic member4 ,it grows well with ferns under a glass case4 #aj4 ,,equisetace 7,horsetails74 ,the ,equisetace are the highest of the ,acrogens1 and nearly resemble the ,endogens2 they grow in ditches and pools1 have a hollow stem with joints at regular intervals from each of which a whorl of green modified leaves arises2 they are very full of earthy matter 7silica71 and one kind 7,equisetum ,hyemale71 called ,dutch ,rush1 is so rough with it that it is used for polishing and scraping many articles4 ,illustration3 ,horsetail4 ,the second division of the vegetable kingdom are the ,endogen1 which are those plants growing from a central bud only1 as the palms1 bamboos1 and canes of all kinds1 the grasses and all graminiferous or grain-bearing plants1 as wheat1 barley1 c4 ,they have but one cotyledon in the seed and have no bark1 but in place thereof a kind of natural varnish or thin coating of silica2 this varnish or external polish is seen in the stalks of corn and on canes4 ,their leaves are often of great size1 the veins run parallel to each other 7fig4 #h71 they often grow from an expanded base which surrounds the stalk as in corn1 and branch off at regular intervals making knobs or joints1 as may be seen in the bamboo cane 7figs4 #i and #aj71 in other cases they branch off spirally1 and when fallen form a sort of trellis-work on the stem 7as in some of the palms7 but always in a regular manner4 ,the wood of this family of vegetables has the same porous structure as cane 7figs4 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1ad71 and is often hollow in the centre1 becoming more and more solid according to the age of the tree4 ,the stems of these plants are limited in growth and soon acquire their full size1 which never exceeds eighteen or twenty inches in diameter although some of the palms are nearly #aej feet high4 ,when the stem has acquired its full size1 the continual production of more woody fibres makes it impossible that these 7like the exogen7 can have a very extended period of existence1 for when every part of the stem is full of woody matter1 the plant ceases to grow from obstruction to the circulation of the juices4 ,the stems of some of this family are always hollow like the stalks of corn2 this arrangement allows of great elevations without bending1 and is found to be the form which gives the greatest strength from a given quantity of material--one of those beautiful mechanical perfections of nature which man first admired and then endeavoured to imitate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,endogenous ,,leaf1 ,,showing ,,parallel ,,venation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,,bamboo ,,cane1 ,,showing ,,joint4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,,bamboo ,,cane1 ,,split ,,open4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,perpendicular ,,section ,,of ,,endogenous ,,wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,part ,,of ,,the ,,same1 ,,magnified4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,endogenous ,,wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,part ,,of ,,the ,,same1 ,,magnified4 ,some of the palms and other endogen are of a most beautiful form1 and are moreover quite as useful as beautiful1 furnishing food to the inhabitants of many regions1 especially the ,arabs of the ,desert1 who carry the dried fruit of the ,date-palm with them1 on crossing these vast plains of sand1 as their chief food4 ,the ,plantain 7,musa sapientum7 forms a most beautiful and graceful object1 with its enormous leaves springing up from the ground by their midrib in clusters1 and extending upwards for #bj or more feet in graceful curves1 affording a shady and cool retreat beneath them from the burning rays of the sun2 the fruit is also one of the necessaries of life in the regions where they abound4 ,the ,fan-palm is another beautiful specimen1 from the fan-like leaves of which the punkahs or ,indian fans are made4 ,the ,palmyra palm furnishes leaves which are used to thatch houses1 the sap is drunk as a refreshing beverage1 and when evaporated yields a kind of sugar called juggery1 from which palm-wine is made4 ,the palms were amongst the first trees created1 their fossil stems being constantly found2 they were even then associated with the elephant and rhinoceros1 and although these are found chiefly in the northern parts of ,europe1 yet it is much more reasonable to suppose that the climate of these parts has changed1 than that these two favourites of the sunny regions should have had their natures changed4 ,among the useful members of the endogen may be mentioned the ,maranta ,arundinace1 or ,arrow-root plant1 which is thus described by ,dr4 ,baird3--,it is a genus of monocotyledonous plants1 belonging to the natural order ,cannace or ,marantace1 and composed of herbs which have a well-developed rhizome or tuberous root containing a large quantity of fecula or starch4 ,the species are natives for the most part1 of tropical ,america1 a few being also found in ,india4 ,the structure of the flowers is remarkable1 and the fruit fleshy4 ,the most important species is the ,maranta ,arundinace1 a plant which is extensively cultivated in the ,west ,indies1 the southern parts of the ,united ,states1 and in the ,isle of ,france1 for the sake of its root1 which affords the substance so well-known as ,arrow-root4 ,this root consists of a tuber of a peculiar form1 and contains a large proportion of fecula2 the stem is upwards of three feet high1 and the flowers are white1 delicate1 and small4 ,in ,cayenne the tubers are eaten by the natives1 roasted1 as a cure for intermittent fevers1 and when bruised1 are applied by them to wounds1 and considered more especially as a specific against those caused by poisoned arrows1 hence the name of ,arrow-root4 ,according to ,dr4 ,livingstone1 the inhabitants of ,angola live almost exclusively upon the ,tapioca plant4 ,he thus describes the mode of preparing it1 c43--,they 7speaking of the half-caste ,portuguese7 subsist chiefly on the ,manioc1 and as that can be eaten either raw1 roasted1 or boiled1 as it comes from the ground1 or fermented in water and then roasted or dried after fermentation and baked1 or pounded or rasped into meal and cooked as farina1 or made into confectionery with butter and sugar1 it does not so soon pall upon the palate as one might imagine when told that it constitutes their principal food4 ,the leaves1 boiled1 make an excellent vegetable for the table1 and when eaten by goats1 their milk is much increased4 ,the wood is a good fuel1 and yields a large quantity of potash4444 ,the root1 rasped while raw1 placed upon a cloth1 and rubbed with the hands while water is poured upon it1 parts with its starchy glutinous matter1 and this1 when it settles at the bottom of the vessel and the water is poured off1 is placed in the sun till nearly dry to form tapioca1 the process of drying is completed on an iron plate over a slow fire1 the mass being stirred meanwhile with a stick2 when dry1 it appears agglutinated into little globules1 and is in the form we see in the tapioca of commerce4 ,although none of this family of plants produce building timber 7according to our notions of that article71 yet it is questionable whether we have a greater number of uses for our exogenous woods than are found by the natives of those countries where the ,endogen abound for palm stems and bamboo canes2 as the ,grecian styles of architecture arose from the imitation of structures of timber1 so the ,hindoo and ,chinese styles have arisen from imitation of bamboo buildings4 ,there is scarcely a constructive use that can be imagined to which this convenient material is not applied4 ,in the ,penny ,cyclopdia 7article ,bambusa7 is the following3-- ,the purposes to which different species of bamboo are applied1 are so numerous that it would be difficult to point out an object in which strength and elasticity are requisite1 and for which lightness is no objection1 to which the stems are not adapted in the countries where they grow4 ,the young shoots of some species are cut when tender1 and eaten like asparagus4 ,the full-grown stems1 while green1 form elegant cases1 exhaling a perpetual moisture1 and capable of transporting fresh flowers for hundreds of miles2 when ripe and hard1 they are converted into bows1 arrows1 and quivers1 lance-shafts1 the masts of vessels1 bed-posts1 walking-sticks1 the poles of palanquins1 the floors and supporters of rustic bridges1 and a variety of similar purposes4 ,in a growing state the spiny kinds are formed into stockades1 which are impenetrable to any but regular infantry aided by artillery4 ,by notching their sides the ,malays make wonderfully light scaling-ladders1 which can be conveyed with facility where heavier machines could not be transported4 ,bruised and crushed in water1 the leaves and stems form ,chinese paper1 the finer qualities of which only are improved by a mixture of raw cotton1 and by more careful pounding4 ,the leaves of a small species are the material used by the ,chinese for the lining of their tea-chests4 ,cut into lengths and the partitions knocked out1 they form durable water-pipes1 or by a little contrivance are made into excellent cases for holding rolls of papers2 slit into strips they afford a most durable material for weaving into mats1 baskets1 window-blinds1 and even the sails of boats4 ,finally1 the larger and thicker truncheons are exquisitely carved by the ,chinese into beautiful ornaments4 ,it is however more especially for building purposes that the bamboo is important 7fig4 #ae74 ,according to ,marsden1 in ,sumatra the framework of the houses of the natives is chiefly composed of this material4 ,in the floorings1 whole stems four or five inches in diameter are laid close to each other1 and across these laths of split bamboo about an inch wide are fastened down with filaments of rattan-cane4 ,the sides of the houses are closed in with the bamboo opened and rendered flat by splitting or notching the circular joints on the outside1 clipping away the corresponding divisions within and laying in the sun to dry pressed down with weights4 ,whole bamboos often form the upright timbers1 and the house is generally roofed in with a thatch of narrow split bamboos six feet long1 placed in regular layers1 each reaching within two feet of the extremity of that beneath it1 by which a treble covering is formed4 ,another and most ingenious roof is also formed1 by cutting large straight bamboos of sufficient length to reach from the ridge to the eaves1 then splitting them exactly in two1 knocking out the partitions and arranging them in close order1 with the hollow or inner sides uppermost2 after which a second layer with the outer or convex sides up1 is placed upon the other in such a manner that each of the convex falls into the two contiguous concave pieces1 covering their edges1 the latter serving as gutters to carry off the rain that falls upon the upper or convex layer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,,hut ,,of ,,bamboo4 ,the ,endogen are divided into twelve orders1 as follows3-- #a4 ,,graminac 7,grasses74 ,illustration3 ,wheat1 ,barley1 ,meadow-grass4 ,the ,graminac comprise the great bulk of those plants which supply man and the lower animals with food1 for it contains all the grasses and corn-bearing plants1 including rice1 maize1 wheat1 oats1 barley1 and rye4 ,upon these all the ,ruminants of the earth feed1 and millions of human beings taste no other kind of food4 ,there are nearly #djjj species of graminaceous plants1 rice and maize being the most broadly extended1 forming the chief food of the ,chinese1 ,hindoos1 and other nations2 wheat is here the most valuable grain1 and is now grown in all parts of ,europe and ,america4 ,humboldt1 in his ,views of ,nature1 gives an interesting account of the first wheat grown in ,new ,spain4 ,he says3-- ,a negro slave of the great ,cortes was the first who cultivated wheat in ,new ,spain1 from three seeds which he found in some rice brought from ,spain for the use of the troops4 ,in the ,franciscan convent of ,quito ,i saw1 preserved as a relic1 the earthen vessel which had contained the first wheat sown in ,quito by the ,franciscan monk ,fra ,jodoco ,rixi de ,gante1 a native of ,ghent in ,flanders4 ,the first crop was raised in front of the convent1 on the ,plazuela di ,san ,francisco1 after the wood which then extended from the foot of the volcano of ,pinchincha had been cleared4 ,the monks1 whom ,i frequently visited at ,quito1 begged me to explain the inscription1 which1 according to their conjecture1 contained some hidden allusion to wheat4 ,on examining the vessel1 ,i read in old ,german the words1 ',let him who drinks from me ne'er forget his ,god4' ,this old ,german drinking-cup excited in me feelings of veneration4 ,would that everywhere on the ,new ,continent the names of those were preserved who1 instead of devastating the soil by bloody conquests1 confided to it the first fruits of ,ceres4 #b4 ,,cyperace 7,sedges74 ,these plants much resemble the ,grasses1 they afford but little nourishment1 however1 to cattle1 having but little starchy matter in them1 and being but little succulent4 ,the ,cyperus ,papyrus is the plant from which the ancient papyrus was made1 and is probably 7according to ,dr4 ,baird7 the plant termed in ,scripture the ,bull-rush4 ,illustration3 ,sedges4 #c4 ,,arace 7,arum tribe74 ,the ,arace include the ,arum maculatum1 or ,cuckoo-pint1 peculiar in having the flowers enclosed by a kind of sheath formed like a leaf1 and called a spathe4 ,the ,portland ,sago is obtained from the ,rhizome of this plant1 but some of the species of this order are poisonous4 ,the ,dumb-cane 7,caladium ,segninum7 paralyses the tongue1 if chewed4 ,illustration3 ,arum4 #d4 ,,typhace 7,bull-rush kind74 ,the ,typhace are the ,bull-rush tribe1 having the ,typha latifolia or great ,reed-mace for its characteristic member4 ,it grows in ditches and marshy places4 ,the young shoots of the ,bull-rush1 which resemble asparagus1 are eaten by the ,cossacks as food4 ,illustration3 ,bull-rush4 #e4 ,,melanthace 7,colchicum kind74 ,this includes many plants which have bulbous roots1 some of them being poisonous4 ,the ,colchicum autumnale1 or ,meadow ,saffron1 is the type of this order2 it grows in moist meadows1 producing a purple flower which appears before the leaves4 ,the root or bulb1 and the seeds1 are used in medicine4 ,illustration3 ,meadow ,saffron4 #f4 ,,liliace 7,lily kind74 ,the ,liliace are a very numerous tribe1 including the ,lilies1 ,hyacinths1 and ,tulips1 the ,onion1 ,garlic1 ,asparagus1 the ,cape ,aloe1 ,yucca1 and many others2 they are for the most part bulbous plants1 having simple leaves enclosing the stem4 ,the ,palms are included in this order2 they are among the tallest and most graceful of the vegetable tribes1 and in the countries where they abound are applied to almost every purpose that can be enumerated4 ,illustration3 ,lily4 #g4 ,,amaryllidace 7,narcissus kind74 ,the ,amaryllidace are the ,narcissus tribe1 including also the ,agave1 or ,american ,aloe1 and the ,snow-drop4 ,the greater number of species belonging to this order are natives of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 some of these are poisonous2 the juice of the ,cape ,blood-flower 7,hmanthus ,toxicarius7 is used by the ,hottentots to poison their arrows with4 ,illustration3 ,narcissus4 #h4 ,,iridace 7,crocus tribe74 ,the ,iridace include the ,crocus 7,crocus sativa71 the ,corn-flag 7,gladeolus communis71 and the ,blue-flag 7,iris ,germanica72 the bulb of the ,iris ,florentina1 is dried and used for various purposes1 it has a scent resembling violets and is sold at druggists' shops by the name of orris-root1 a corruption of iris-root4 ,illustration3 ,crocus4 #i4 ,,orchidace 7,orchids74 ,illustration3 ,butterfly ,orchis4 ,the family of the ,orchis4 ,dr4 ,baird1 in describing them1 says3--,they are almost all herbaceous1 a very few only being somewhat shrubby in their growth2 some live in the ground1 and besides the ordinary roots have bulbs or starch-bearing tubercles2 others are what may be called pseudo-parasites1 living attached to the bark of trees4 ,these plants abound in the forests of tropical countries1 where the climate is moist1 and are generally known by the name of ,epiphytes4 ,the flowers vary very much in shape1 form1 and colour1 and in many instances have a striking resemblance to insects1 various birds1 and animals1 as ,oncidium1 in which the resemblance is to butterflies1 c42 ,cychnoches1 in which 7in one species7 the likeness is strikingly similar to a swan2 ,peristeria1 one species of which is called the ,sprito-,santo plant1 of ,panama1 and in whose flower there is the likeness of a dove descending upon the lip1 c4 ,a curious fact in this part of their history is1 that in the same plant1 on the same stem1 and even on the same head of flowers1 we find flowers so different in appearance that we might place them in different genera4 #aj4 ,,naiadace 7,naiads74 ,water-plants1 called pond-weeds1 and grow on both fresh and salt water4 ,the marine species1 ,zostera marina1 is dried and used for stuffing mattresses4 ,illustration3 ,pond ,weed4 #aa4 ,,butomace 7,flowering ,rushes74 ,of this order the ,butomas umbellatus1 a sort of rush1 producing very handsome pink flowers in umbels1 growing in ditches and by the sides of rivers1 is the most characteristic member4 ,illustration3 ,flowering ,rush4 #ab4 ,,alismace 7,water ,plantain74 ,the two chief members of this order are the ,alisma ,plantago or ,water ,plantain1 which grows in ditches1 having its flowers in the form of panicles1 and the ,sagittaria sagittfolia or ,arrowhead4 ,illustration3 ,water ,plantain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the third great natural family of plants are the ,exogen4 ,they comprise all the trees and shrubs of the temperate and colder regions1 together with many of the flowering plants4 ,they are characterised by certain peculiarities which can be at once recognised1 such as the twisted and branched form of the stem1 the possession of bark1 leaves having the veins covering them running in all directions and forming a network1 and the seeds containing two cotyledons2 the wood1 moreover1 is deposited in rings 7figs4 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai71 one of which is formed every year1 by the new wood being produced on the outside of the old1 and between it and the bark4 ,this deposition takes place as follows3 after the rains of winter and early spring have well saturated the earth with moisture1 and the warmth of spring has begun to penetrate to the roots of the plants1 a development of the points of each fibrile or radicle takes place1 forming new spongioles2 these1 being formed of new porous cellular tissue1 begin to absorb 7by endosmose7 the moisture of the earth1 which entering at all these thousands of minute spongioles at once1 collects and rises in the vessels of the trunk and branches1 and arriving at the vessels forming a plexis on the surface of every leaf1 begins to be changed by the action of the sun's rays1 absorbing carbon and giving out oxygen from the carbonic acid always contained in the air4 ,the sap which has thus risen is the juice of the earth in which the plant grows1 containing several earthy salts and vegetable extract drawn from the manure or decaying vegetation contained in the mould1 together with carbonic acid dissolved in the fluid2 this carbonic acid is changed by the sun's rays as well as that which was contained in the air1 and the carbon uniting with the watery part of the sap1 forms the green substance before alluded to1 called chlorophyll1 which is the green colouring matter of all plants1 and is the basis of the wood4 ,the altered sap descends between the wood and the bark1 and forms a deposit gradually1 which at the end of the year is a complete ring of wood surrounding the wood of former years4 ,this circulation of juices continues through the summer1 until1 the cold weather coming on and the light being diminished1 the sap neither rises nor is the leaf nourished by it1 when it decays and falls off4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,perpendicular ,,section ,,of ,,exogenous ,,wood 7,,elm71 ,a1 the pith1 ,b ,b1 the woody rings1 ,c ,c1 the bark4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,perpendicular ,,section ,,of ,,exogenous ,,wood 7,,cedar71 ,,magnified4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,exogenous ,,wood 7,,elm71 ,,showing ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,nine ,,years4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,exogenous ,,wood 7,,cedar7 ,,magnified1 ,,showing ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,five ,,years4 ,the age of exogenous wood can be ascertained--where the centre has not decayed--by counting the rings1 one only being deposited every year2 and it is truly astonishing to find that some trees will continue to live and flourish for several thousand years6 ,there does not1 in truth1 appear to be any limit assigned to the life of an exogenous tree if it escape accidents2 for1 although decay inevitably attacks the heartwood1 and a cavity is the result1 yet1 the new wood continuing to be deposited on the outer part1 the vitality of the tree is kept up1 and its size continues to increase4 ,the ,baobab or ,monkey ,bread-fruit trees1 growing at the mouths of the ,senegal1 have been estimated by ,adinson to be upwards of six thousand years old1 and are1 in all probability1 the oldest relics of organic life existing at the present time4 ,the cedars of ,lebanon are supposed to have existed longer than the records of history4 ,the ,yew at ,braburn1 in ,kent1 is at least three thousand years old2 and that of ,fortingal nearly as much4 ,dr4 ,livingstone1 describing the ,mowana or ,baobab tree 7fig4 #bj71 thus comments upon its power of withstanding injury3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,the ,,baobab ,,tree4 ,no external injury1 not even a fire1 can destroy this tree from without1 nor can any injury be done from within1 as it is quite common to find it hollow1 and ,i have seen one in which twenty or thirty men could lie down and sleep as in a hut4 ,nor does cutting down exterminate it1 for ,i saw instances in ,angola in which it continued to grow in length1 after it was lying on the ground4 ,those trees1 called exogenous1 grow by means of successive layers on the outside2 the inside may be dead1 or even removed altogether1 without affecting the life of the tree2 this is the case with most of the trees of our climate4 ,the other class is called endogenous1 and increases by layers applied to the inside1 and when the hollow of the tree is full1 the growth is stopped1 and the tree must die4 ,any injury is felt most severely by the first class on the bark1 by the second on the inside1 while the inside of the exogenous may be removed1 or the outside of the endogenous may be cut1 without stopping the growth in the least4 ,the ,mowana possesses the power of both4 ,the reason is1 that each of the lamin possesses its own independent vitality2 in fact1 the ,baobab is rather a gigantic bulb run up to seed than a tree4 ,the roots1 which may often be observed extending along the surface of the ground forty or fifty yards from the trunk1 also retain their vitality after the tree is laid low1 and the ,portuguese now know that the best way to treat them is to let them alone1 for they occupy much more room when cut down than when growing4 ,on examining the wood of the exogen1 it will be found that in the very centre is a small column of cellular tissue1 called the pith1 and that from this1 fine layers of the same substance radiate towards the circumference4 ,these are called the medullary rays1 or silver-grain2 they form an exterior layer or ring of cellular substance on the outside of the wood1 which is called the cambium4 ,the lightness of wood is owing to its porosity1 and1 on examining a transverse section under the microscope 7figs4 #ag and #ai71 it will be seen how little of real space is occupied in wood by solid substance4 ,the spaces between the wall-work of woody matter in the tree are all filled with sap1 and hence it is that green wood is so much heavier than that which is well seasoned4 ,it is its lightness and strength1 together with the ease with which it can be cut and fashioned1 which renders wood so exceedingly useful2 but its inflammability and liability to decay are great barriers to its more general use4 ,the leaves of the exogen have their veins always in the form of a network1 and not running parallel with each other1 as in the endogen 7fig4 #ba74 ,of the three divisions of the vegetable kingdom1 the exogen alone furnish building timber1 properly so called1 and it is doubtful whether nature has supplied a more generally applicable substance than wood2 being a bad conductor1 it can be handled in the coldest weather1 which metal cannot1 and1 being easily cut or split1 can be fashioned into almost any form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba--;,,exogenous ,,leaf1 ,,showing ,,reticulated ,,venation4 ,the woods mostly in use for general purposes are the different kinds of pine1 as ,american ,pine1 ,norway ,pine1 yellow and white ,deal1 ,mahogany1 ,oak1 ,beech1 ,elm1 ,ash1 and ,maple4 ,in the ,penny ,cyclopdia1 under the article ,wood1 is the following description of the different kinds used by cabinet-makers1 c43-- ,the woods that are used by the cabinet-maker for furniture of a more delicate kind are called 'fancy woods4' ,the use of these has become much more general since the introduction of the art of veneering1 and now that this is done by machinery instead of by hand1 a number of woods are used for furniture and other purposes1 which1 on account of their scarcity1 could have been formerly used only to a very limited extent4 ,the most common of the fancy woods1 and that which is most used by cabinet-makers1 is ,mahogany4 ,this wood is the produce of the ',swienteria ,mahogani4' ,next in point of importance and use to ,mahogany1 is ,rosewood4 ,this wood obtains its name from its fragrance1 and is the produce of a mimosa from the forests of ,brazil2 in veneering it affords about eight plates to the inch4 ,king-wood is a beautiful wood much in use1 brought from ,brazil in logs four feet long and about five inches wide1 and is used only for delicate articles2 it is said to be the produce of a species of ,baphia1 a genus of ,leguminous plants4 ,beef-wood is a very heavy wood of a pale red colour1 and is brought from ,new ,holland in logs nine feet long and thirteen or fourteen inches wide2 the tree from which this is obtained is unknown to botanists1 as well as most of those producing the fancy woods of commerce4 ,tulip-wood is brought into the market in very small pieces1 not more than four feet long and five inches in diameter1 so that probably it is the production of a shrub2 it is clouded with red and yellow colours1 and is used for bordering and for making small articles1 such as caddies and work-boxes4 ,zebra-wood is probably the production of a large tree1 as it is cheap enough to be made into tables1 pianofortes1 c42 it is coloured brown on a white ground and clouded with black4 ,satin-wood is of a brilliant yellow colour with delicate glowing shades4 ,it is the produce of a plant called ,chloroxylon ,swienteria1 a native of ,india2 it is one of the trees that yield the wood-oil of ,india1 and belongs to the natural order ,cedrelace1 the same order in which the mahogany is placed2 it is found in the market in logs two feet wide and seven or eight feet long4 ,sandal-wood is the produce of a species of ,sandoricum belonging to the family ,meliace2 the wood is of a light brown colour with golden-coloured waves4 ,ebony and ,iron-wood are the names given to some very hard woods1 the produce of the natural order ,ebenace4 ,these woods are mostly brought from ,india1 although some of the species are found in ,europe and ,america4 ,there are several other woods occasionally used amongst cabinet-makers1 of which little is known1 either with regard to the places they come from1 or the trees to which they belong4 ,canary-wood has a yellow colour2 ,purple-wood has a purple colour1 without veins2 ,snake-wood is of a deep colour with black shades2 ,calander-wood is a handsome cheap wood taking a high polish1 and is brought from ,ceylon4 ,other woods are named after the places they come from1 as ,coromandel-wood1 ,amboyna-wood1 c4 ,woods are largely used as dye-stuffs2 the chief of these is log-wood1 which has a deep red colour1 is very heavy and solid1 and yields a great deal of red colouring matter4 ,it is very astringent1 and contains tannic and gallic acids1 from which properties it produces a deep black colour when mixed with any of the salts of iron2 from this peculiarity it is very valuable as a black dye1 but the black dye so extensively used for dyeing cloth1 is1 for the most part1 made from galls1 or nut-galls1 as they are sometimes called4 ,these are hard round substances found growing on many species of oak1 chiefly the ,quercus infectoria1 and the best are brought from ,aleppo2 they are diseased growths produced by a little insect1 called the ,cynips ,quercus1 which deposits its eggs under the epidermis of the leaf1 and the juice collects and forms the gall 7fig4 #bb71 from the interior of which the larva eats its way out2 thus it will be found that every gall must have a little round hole in it1 whence the larva of the cynips has issued4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb--;,,aleppo ,,gall4 ,the root of the ,madder plant 7,rubia tinctorum7 produces the most beautiful and permanent of our red dyes1 and the cochineal insect 7,coccus cacti7 obtains its colour from feeding upon the cactus4 ,a useful and very permanent blue dye is obtained from ,indigo1 a kind of extract from the plant ,indigofera1 growing in ,india and other places1 and many other members of the vegetable kingdom yield dyes and colours used in the arts4 ,amongst the various and almost endless purposes to which wood is applied1 that of serving as a material to engrave on and print from must not be omitted4 ,the wood used for this purpose is that of the box-tree 7,buxus sempervirens71 which furnishes a close1 even-grained1 hard wood1 admirably suited to the purpose2 and the cultivation and perfecting of this most admirable art1 has produced an improvement in book-illustrating which can hardly be sufficiently appreciated4 ,wood must have supplied one of the earliest materials with which to erect buildings2 the ,grecian styles of architecture1 beyond doubt1 were derived from imitating in stone those structures first made of wood4 ,all the largest members of the vegetable kingdom belong to this division2 and indeed the same may be said of size which has been said of age1 namely1 that there is no limit except from accidental circumstances4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,wellingtonia ,,gigantea4 ,in the ,crystal ,palace at ,sydenham is a most wonderful and gigantic specimen of the ,wellingtonia ,gigantea 7fig4 #bc71 one of the class of trees called coniferous1 and belonging to the exogens1 the bark of which has been stripped off in portions at the place where it grew1 each of which being numbered1 has enabled them to be re-adjusted in their original places1 the result of which is1 the whole bark of this most magnificent tree appears as if growing on the timber4 ,it measures #ca feet across at the base1 and #ic feet in circumference2 the original tree was #cfc feet in height1 its present height is #aaf feet1 and the bark is #ah inches thick4 ,the ,norfolk ,island ,pine 7,araucaria excelsa7 sometimes grows to #cjj feet in height1 and ,humboldt1 describing a specimen of the ,pinus ,trigona1 says1 ,this gigantic fir was measured with great care2 the girth of the stem at #f-a_/d feet above the ground was often #ch to #de feet2 one stem was #cjj feet high1 and without branches for the first #aib feet4 ,as the exogens grow by the addition of woody matter to their circumference1 of course the older the tree 7other conditions being equal7 the larger will be the trunk1 but as the new wood is added to the outside1 the centre loses its vitality and is liable to the attacks of both animal and vegetable parasites1 and is therefore constantly found either decayed or totally destoyed2 this is not1 however1 invariably the case1 and many instances are found of wood of a great age remaining sound in the centre4 ,at ,st4 ,nicholas in ,lorraine is exhibited a plank of walnut wood made into a dining-table which is twenty-five feet wide4 ,besides timber for various useful purposes1 this division of the vegetable kingdom furnishes us with both cotton and linen for clothing1 and many of the dye-stuffs for ornamenting such clothing1 also with many articles of food 7although not so prolific in this respect as the ,endogen71 the potato1 most green vegetables1 as cabbages1 lettuces1 are exogenous1 together with such roots as carrots1 parsnips1 c4 ,to this class of plants belong many of the most beautiful flowers1 and all our fruit-trees1 not the least important of which is the fig-tree1 although the fig can hardly be called a fruit in the strict sense of the word1 being a consolidated mass of flowers within a receptacle4 ,the figs of commerce are produced from the ,ficus carica1 the fruit being dried in the sun2 they form a considerable article of commerce4 ,the celebrated ,banyan tree 7,ficus indica1 fig4 #bd7 is one of the fig tribe1 it throws down branches 7as do many others of this tribe7 which take root in the earth and form fresh stems1 so that one of the banyan trees with its off-shoots will cover a space of ground sufficient to shelter a regiment of cavalry1 and many of the fig tribe1 especially the sycamore 7,ficus sycamorus71 are planted for the sake of the shelter they supply by their broad crowns of leaves2 another of the fig trees 7,ficus elastica7 supplies a great part of the ,india-rubber of commerce4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd--,,the ,,banyan ,,tree4 ,de ,candolle divides the class of exogens into four sub-classes according to the arrangement of their flowers c42 they are as follows3-- #a4 ,,thalamiflor1 the flowers of which are furnished with both calyx and corolla1 the corolla having distinct petals1 and the stamens hypogynous1 that is1 growing immediately from below the pistil4 #b4 ,,calyciflor1 having flowers with both calyx and corolla1 the corolla divided into distinct petals1 but the stamens always ,perigynous1 that is1 growing upon the sides of the calyx4 #c4 ,,corolliflor1 having flowers with both corolla and calyx1 the former having its petals united4 #d4 ,,monochlamyde1 flowers without corolla and often without a calyx4 ,these four sub-classes have been divided into orders as follows3-- ,,orders ,,of ,,thalamiflor4 #a4 ,,nymphace 7,nympha alba7 ,white ,water-,lily4 7,nuphar luteum7 ,yellow ,water-,lily4 ,this order contains water plants of great beauty1 they grow in the mud at the bottom of the water1 sending up long flower- and leaf-stalks so that the flowers may blossom in the air and the leaves float on the surface2 the leaves are generally round and turned up slightly at the edges4 ,the ,victoria ,regia is a magnificent specimen of this order2 it originally came from ,brazil1 and has flowers a foot wide1 leaves four or five feet across1 and is sufficiently buoyant1 it is said1 to bear the weight of a child4 ,the ,lotus of the ,nile1 the blossom of which so frequently occurs on the carvings of the ,egyptians as an offering to ,isis1 is another member of this order4 ,illustration3 ,white ,water-,lily4 #b4 ,,papaverace 7,papaver somniferum7 ,white ,poppy4 7,papaver ,rhoeas7 ,red ,poppy4 ,opium is prepared from the unripe capsules of the ,white ,poppy1 it is chiefly cultivated for this purpose in ,india and ,turkey4 ,the ,chinese are the great consumers of opium1 it being a common habit with them both to eat and smoke it4 ,opium is made by collecting the juice in the morning which has exuded from incisions made in the capsules over night2 those employed for this purpose use a small knife with several blades and go round the plantations scarifying the capsules in the evening1 and the juice which issues and forms a thick concrete matter1 is scraped off1 beaten up1 and dried in round lumps4 ,about #b1jjj1jjj worth are exported from ,india annually4 ,illustration3 ,white ,poppy4 ,illustration3 ,red ,poppy4 #c4 ,,ranunculace 7,anemone coronaria7 ,garden ,anemone4 7,aconitum ,napellus7 ,monk's-hood4 7,ranunculus acris7 ,butter-cup4 ,besides the above examples1 there are many beautiful flowers belonging to this order1 as the ,clematis and ,peony4 ,members of this order are for the most part poisonous1 and some of them1 as ,monk's-hood and ,hellebore1 are violently so1 while even the ,butter-cup is to a certain extent acrid4 ,illustration3 ,garden ,anemone4 ,illustration3 ,monk's-hood4 #d4 ,,fumariace 7,fumaria officinalis7 ,fumitory4 ,this order contains no plant of any importance4 ,the common ,fumitory derives its name from the supposed resemblance of the odour of its flowers to smoke4 ,illustration3 ,fumitory4 #e4 ,,brassicace 7,sinapis alba7 ,white ,mustard4 7,nasturtium officinalis7 ,water ,cress4 7,brassica oleracea7 ,cabbage4 ,in this order are contained many of the useful occupants of our kitchen gardens1 the ,cabbage1 ,turnip1 ,cauliflower1 ,radish1 and many more2 they have nearly all a pungent taste1 and some1 as the ,rape1 yield seed producing much oil4 ,the ,water ,cress is grown near ,london in square pools1 into which some neighbouring stream is turned4 ,these pools are arranged side by side1 and those who gather the plants lie down on a plank of wood placed across4 ,enormous quantities are thus supplied to the ,london markets4 ,illustration3 ,water ,cress4 #f4 ,,cistace 7,helianthemum ,vulgare7 ,helianthemum4 ,these plants are for the most part evergreens2 the ,yellow ,cistus is our most familiar example of the order4 ,in ,turkey the ,rock-roses are much cultivated1 they exhale a gum having a highly aromatic odour1 which is there used as a perfume4 ,illustration3 ,helianthemum4 #g4 ,,berberidace 7,berberis vulgaris7 ,common ,berberry4 ,the ,berberry is commonly found in our hedgerows1 and its fruit is sometimes eaten2 in ,italy it grows to a good-sized tree4 ,it is remarkable as furnishing an example of vegetable motion1 from the irritability of its stamens1 which if touched will bend forward in a curved position1 and touch the stigma with the anther1 and after remaining a short time in that position the stamens recover their natural form4 ,illustration3 ,common ,berberry4 #h4 ,,violace 7,viola odorata7 ,sweet ,violet4 7,viola tricolor7 ,heart's-ease4 ,the well known ,sweet-smelling ,violet belongs to this order1 which otherwise contains no plants of importance1 except one1 the ,cephaelis ,ipecacuanha1 which produces the well-known emetic bearing that name4 ,illustration3 ,sweet ,violet4 #i4 ,,droserace 7,drosera rotundifolia7 ,sun-dew4 ,the ,sun-dew is so called from the globules of a sort of viscid liquid excreted by the hairs of this plant while in sunshine1 and looking like dew2 some species of this order have their leaves so irritable that an insect alighting on them causes them to shut up and catch it1 hence the name ,venus's ,fly ,trap 7,dionea muscipula7 which is given to an ,american species4 ,illustration3 ,sun-dew4 #aj4 ,,polygalace 7,polygala vulgaris7 ,milk-wort4 ,the ,polygala ,senega1 or ,virginian ,snake-root1 is a member of this order2 it is celebrated in ,america for the cure of the bite of snakes1 and is used here as an expectorant4 ,the ,rhatany1 a very powerful astringent1 is also of this order4 ,illustration3 ,milk-wort4 #aa4 ,,caryophyllace 7,lychnis dioica7 ,bachelor's ,buttons4 7,dianthus caryophyllus7 ,common ,pink4 7,stellaria media7 ,chickweed4 ,there are upwards of a thousand species of this order1 but none are of much importance2 they form however many of our most beautiful ornamental garden flowers1 of which the ,carnation1 ,sweet ,william1 and several others1 are familiar to all4 ,illustration3 ,bachelor's ,buttons4 ,illustration3 ,pink4 #ab4 ,,tiliac 7,tilia ,europa7 ,lime ,tree4 ,the ,lime ,tree grows often to a great size1 is a fine handsome tree1 commonly found in our plantations1 has heart shaped leaves1 and flowers generally in corymbs2 it is very general in tropical climates1 and produces a fine close grained wood4 ,illustration3 ,lime ,tree4 #ac4 ,,hypericace 7,hypericum perforatum7 ,perforated ,hypericum4 ,many species of ,hypericum are cultivated in our gardens1 and form handsome flowers2 the well known plant called ,aaron's ,beard 7,hypericum calycinum7 is a member of this order1 and is remarkable for the long runners which it throws out forming fresh plants at intervals4 ,it is often suspended in pots1 from which these runners descend in a very graceful manner4 ,illustration3 ,st4 ,john's ,wort4 #ad4 ,,malvace 7,malva sylvestris7 ,common ,mallow4 7,altha officinalis7 ,marsh ,mallow4 ,the ,marsh ,mallow has been much esteemed as a demulcent medicine1 and an ointment is made from it for external use2 but one species of this order1 the ,gossypium1 is one of the most important plants in the whole world1 producing that most useful article1 cotton1 so largely grown in ,america1 and for which the slave population are chiefly employed4 ,the fine white hairs surrounding the seeds and filling up the pod is the part picked out and preserved1 it forms the cotton-wool of commerce1 of which some eight hundred millions of pounds' weight are used annually6 employing a million and a half people1 in ,england alone1 and furnishing clothing to hundreds of millions4 ,it is grown in ,india1 which is supposed to be its native place1 and will probably be grown to a much greater extent when railways and canals shall have made a more easy communication from the interior of that country to the sea-board4 ,illustration3 ,marsh ,mallow4 #ae4 ,,geraniace 7,geranium pyreniacum7 ,meadow ,geranium4 ,many species of this order are indigenous1 and when cultivated produce some of our most beautiful garden flowers1 as the ,geraniums1 ,pelargoniums1 and ,erodiums4 ,the ,geraniums are those species which have five irregular petals and ten stamens2 they are the most characteristic of the order4 ,illustration3 ,meadow ,geranium4 #af4 ,,linace 7,linum usitatissimum7 ,common ,flax4 ,the ,flax plant is another of those insignificant plants which1 from certain properties they possess1 have become the greatest boons to mankind2 the stalks of the ,linum usitatissimum1 soaked1 bruised1 and prepared by combing1 c41 form the flax of commerce1 from which all our linen fabrics are made4 ,the manufacture of flax is one of the oldest arts known1 the ancient ,egyptians formed their mummy-cloths from this article1 and a piece of one of these cloths1 bleached and placed side by side with some of the present date1 would hardly suffer by the comparison1 but the rapidity of its manufacture1 and the price at which supplied1 are doubtless very different in the two cases4 ,illustration3 ,flax ,plant4 ,the value of the linen manufacture of ,great ,britain is between seven and eight millions yearly4 ,the seeds of the flax plant 7,linseed7 are used to crush and produce the linseed oil of commerce so extensively used in the production of paints and varnishes1 and the cake is used as food for cattle4 #ag4 ,,acerace 7,acer campestre7 ,maple ,tree4 7,acer pseudoplatanus7 ,sycamore ,tree4 ,this order contains the ,maple and ,sycamore1 fine trees1 not only ornamental1 but producing wood much in request1 moreover the ,acer saccharinum or ,sugar ,maple of ,north ,america is used to produce sugar1 which is obtained from its sap4 ,illustration3 ,maple ,tree4 #ah4 ,,rutace 7,ruta graveolens7 ,rue4 ,rue is a well-known shrub with small pinnate leaves1 and possessing a strong and very disagreeable odour2 this depends upon the volatile oil which is contained in the glands with which the leaves are dotted4 ,it has been1 from time immemorial1 used as a medicine4 ,another member of this order1 the ,buchu 7,diosmia crenata71 is also used medicinally4 ,illustration3 ,rue4 #ai4 ,,oxalidace 7,oxalis acetosella7 ,wood ,sorrel4 ,the ,wood ,sorrel is very acid1 and from its juice is made the salt of sorrel 7which is bin-oxalate of potash71 used to get out ink and iron stains from linen1 c4 ,this is supposed to be the true ,shamrock4 ,illustration3 ,wood ,sorrel4 ,this completes the orders of ,thalamiflor1 which1 with the following sub-class1 ,calyciflor1 contain all our star-like flowers1 or those in which the corolla forms a whorl or open ring of petals4 ,the third sub-class contains those chiefly in which the flowers form cups or bells4 ,,orders ,,of ,,calyciflor4 #a4 ,,celastrace 7,euonymus ,europas7 ,spindle ,tree4 ,illustration3 ,spindle ,tree4 ,this order consists of shrubs or small trees growing in the temperate regions of most parts of the world1 and some of the species1 as ,celastrus venatus1 are said to be poisonous2 the seeds of the ,south ,african species are used to express oil from4 #b4 ,,rhamnace 7,rhamnus catharticus7 ,buckthorn4 7,rhamnus frangula7 ,black ,alder4 ,illustration3 ,buckthorn4 ,buckthorn berries afford a juice which1 when made into syrup with sugar1 is a popular purgative medicine2 the juice precipitated with lime produces the green pigment known to artists as sap green4 ,the ,french ,berries used as a yellow dye-stuff are procured from a species of ,rhamnus4 #c4 ,,fabace1 or 7,cytisus scoparius7 ,broom4 ,,leguminos 7,pisum sativum7 ,garden ,pea4 7,faba vulgaris7 ,garden ,bean4 ,illustration3 ,broom4 ,illustration3 ,garden ,pea4 ,the plants producing pods or legumes are among the most important of the orders of this class1 giving us very many useful and nutritious plants1 which1 for the most part1 are climbers1 as ,peas1 ,beans1 c4 ,the ,tamarind and ,cassia trees belong to this order1 also those which produce gum-arabic1 catechu1 logwood1 and indigo4 ,there are between six and seven thousand species of the ,leguminos4 #d4 ,,rosace 7,rosa centifolia7 ,hundred-leaved ,rose4 7,fragaria vesca7 ,wood ,strawberry4 7,rubus fruticosus7 ,bramble4 7,pyrus communis7 ,pear ,tree4 ,this important order yields us our most beautiful flower1 the ,rose1 of which there are a great many varieties1 among which the ,dog-rose--that beautiful ornament to our hedges--deserves to hold a conspicuous place1 also the ,sweetbriar or ,eglantine4 ,the rose is used in ,turkey and ,persia for obtaining that most valuable and delicious perfume1 ,otto of ,roses4 ,it is made by distilling a portion of water from several quantities of fresh roses1 until it becomes saturated with the volatile oil4 ,this water is then exposed to the open air1 and1 in the cool night time1 drops of the otto collect on the top1 from which it is carefully gathered1 and the same water again distilled from a fresh quantity of roses4 ,besides the ,rose tribe1 this order contains some of our most valued fruits4 ,the ,apple1 ,pear1 and ,strawberry belong to it1 also the ,almond4 ,illustration3 ,pear ,tree4 ,illustration3 ,rose4 ,illustration3 ,strawberry4 #e4 ,,lythrace 7,lythrum salicaria7 ,purple ,loose-strife4 ,illustration3 ,loose-,strife4 ,the ,purple ,loose-strife is indigenous to ,england1 bearing a purple flower1 and is also found in ,australia4 ,there are several varieties of this plant2 an ,indian species1 ,lythrum ,hunteri1 bearing a red flower1 has been used by the natives as a red dye4 #f4 ,,onagrace 7,epilobium angustifolium7 ,french ,willow4 ,illustration3 ,french ,willow4 ,this order contains some very beautiful flowering plants1 as the ,evening-primrose 7,enothera biennis71 ,fuchsia1 c4 of which there are a great many varieties2 they abound plentifully in ,america1 of which country the ,evening-primrose is said to be a native4 #g4 ,,myrtace 7,myrtus communis7 ,myrtle4 ,illustration3 ,myrtle4 ,the ,myrtles are1 for the most part1 inhabitants of the warmer climates4 ,they are shrubs or trees1 and sometimes of great size and beauty2 the flowers and leaves of many species are odorous4 ,there are upwards of fifty species of ,myrtle1 and they are found in most of the warmer parts of the ,old and ,new ,worlds4 #h4 ,,crassulace 7,sempervivum tectarum7 ,house-leek4 7,sedum ,acre7 ,stone-crop4 ,illustration3 ,house-leek4 ,the species of this order have1 most of them1 thick succulent leaves4 ,the ,sedums1 ,stone-crop1 and ,house-leek1 are among the most common1 growing in dry1 earthy matter1 on walls or housetops2 they1 nevertheless1 are full of a milky juice4 ,the juice of ,houseleek mixed with cream has been a long time a popular remedy for various external complaints1 but1 like most popular remedies1 does neither good nor harm4 #i4 ,,grassulariace 7,ribes rubrum7 ,red ,currant4 7,ribes grassularia7 ,gooseberry4 ,illustration3 ,gooseberry4 ,the ,gooseberry and ,currant are members of this order4 ,they are useful plants for the kitchen-garden1 and afford a grateful and wholesome fruit1 although unripe gooseberries 7eaten raw7 are extremely unwholesome1 as the acid they contain is the oxalic4 #aj4 ,,saxifragace 7,robertsonia umbrosa7 ,london ,pride4 ,illustration3 ,london ,pride4 ,these are plants growing1 for the most part1 in mountainous regions1 and in the crevices of rocks4 ,the ,london ,pride and ,hydrangea are the best known1 the latter producing very large corymbs of flowers4 ,they occur in temperate climates in most parts of the world4 #aa4 ,,apiace1 or 7,foeniculum officinale7 ,fennel4 ,,umbellifer 7,conium maculatum7 ,hemlock4 7,apium graveolens7 ,celery4 7,petroselinum sativum7 ,parsley4 ,illustration3 ,fennel4 ,illustration3 ,hemlock4 ,contains many of our useful vegetables1 as the ,carrot 7,daucus ,carota71 ,parsnip 7,pastinaca71 c4 ,the ,celery also1 and many of our aromatic seeds1 are produced by the ,umbellifer1 as ,anise1 ,carraway1 ,dill1 ,coriander1 and ,fennel4 ,some members1 however1 are poisonous1 as ,hemlock 7,conium ,maculatum71 and ,cow-bane or ,water ,hemlock 7,cicuta ,virosa74 ,,orders ,,of ,,corolliflor4 #a4 ,,cucurbitace 7,cucurmis melo7 ,the ,melon4 7,elaterium agreste7 ,spirting ,cucumber4 ,illustration3 ,melon4 ,the ,cucumber 7,cucurmis ,sativa71 the ,melon 7,cucurmis ,melo71 both esteemed as delicacies1 are of this order4 ,also the numerous tribe of ,gourds 7,cucurbita71 as the ,pumpkin1 ,large ,gourd1 ,bottle ,gourd1 ,squash1 c41 also the ,vegetable ,marrow4 ,gourd-shells form the most common vessels for holding liquids1 in many parts of ,asia4 #b4 ,,cornace 7,cornus ,sanguinea7 ,dogwood4 ,illustration3 ,dogwood4 ,these plants are chiefly shrubs or trees1 growing in most temperate regions1 and especially in ,america4 ,the ,cornelian ,cherry 7,cornus muscula7 produces a berry somewhat resembling a cherry4 ,some species are used in ,america as a tonic medicine4 #c4 ,,caprifoliace 7,sambucus nigra7 ,elder ,tree4 7,viburnum tinus7 ,laurustina4 7,caprifolium perfoliatum7 ,honeysuckle4 ,illustration3 ,honeysuckle4 ,guelder ,rose4 ,this order contains few plants of any importance4 ,the ,honeysuckle is a very favourite ornamental plant1 and the fruit of the ,elder produces the ,elderberry-wine so much used on ,christmas ,eve1 with toasted bread1 in many parts of the country4 #d4 ,,galiace 7,galium cruciatum7 ,cross ,wort4 7,rubia tinctorum7 ,madder4 ,illustration3 ,cross-wort4 ,the root of the ,madder is one of our most important dye-stuffs1 producing the most permanent reds and browns used in dyeing4 ,it is a native of the south of ,europe and of ,asia4 ,animals fed upon madder are found to have their bones tinged of a red colour4 #e4 ,,valerianace 7,valeriana officinalis7 ,valerian4 7,cetranthus ruber7 ,red ,valerian4 ,illustration3 ,valerian4 ,red ,valerian4 ,valerian is indigenous1 growing by ditches1 and bearing a pink flower2 the root is used in medicine1 and has a most disagreeable odour4 ,several species are cultivated as ornamental garden flowers2 there are about #abe species4 #f4 ,,dipsacace 7,dipsacus fullonum7 ,teasel4 ,illustration3 ,teasel4 ,the heads of the ,teasel were formerly used1 to an enormous extent1 for carding cloth1 and were cultivated largely in some parts for that purpose--wagon-loads of them were brought to the cloth-dressers--but their use is now1 to some extent1 superseded1 the process called teaselling being frequently performed by machinery4 #g4 ,,asterace 7,tussilago ,farfara7 ,coltsfoot4 7,helianthus annuus7 ,sunflower4 7,chrysanthemum ,leucanthemum74 ,ox-eye ,daisy4 ,illustration3 ,coltsfoot4 ,illustration3 ,ox-eye ,daisy4 ,the members of this family have a star-like inflorescence1 as the ,sunflower1 ,china ,aster1 c42 the centre part or eye1 being composed of undeveloped florets1 is frequently1 by cultivation1 almost lost1 forming florets which are added to the ray4 #h4 ,,campanulace 7,campanula rotundifolia7 ,hare-bell4 7,campanula media7 ,canterbury-bell4 ,illustration3 ,harebell4 ,comprise the various ,bells1 which form of inflorescence is characteristic of the ,corolliflor4 ,there are about #ejj species of this order1 the flowers of which are for the most part of a blue or purple colour2 the ,hare-bell is also known as the ,bluebell of ,scotland4 #i4 ,,ericace 7,calluna vulgaris7 ,heather4 7,erica cinerea7 ,grey ,heath4 ,illustration3 ,grey ,heath4 ,the ,heaths are1 for the most part1 social plants1 growing in great numbers on waste ground1 and giving great beauty to scenery4 ,the ,heather gives a peculiar aspect to the hills of ,scotland4 ,humboldt observes1 ,it is curious that1 out of more than #cjj species of ,erica1 one only should be found throughout the whole ,american continent4 #aj4 ,,gentianace 7,gentiana campestris7 ,field ,gentian4 7,menyanthes trifoliata7 ,buck ,bean4 ,illustration3 ,field ,gentian4 ,illustration3 ,buck ,bean4 ,this order contains no member of great importance2 the ,gentian-root1 much used as a tonic1 is the product of the ,gentiana ,lutea4 #aa4 ,,primulace 7,anagallis arvensis7 ,pimpernel4 7,primula veris7 ,cowslip4 7,primula acaulis7 ,primrose4 ,illustration3 ,pimpernel4 ,illustration3 ,primrose4 ,these well-known and beautiful flowers form ornaments to our meadows1 hedgerows1 and gardens2 the ,oxlip1 ,polyanthus1 and ,auricula belong to this order1 of which many varieties are produced by cultivation4 #ab4 ,,convolvulace 7,calystegia sepium7 ,bindweed4 ,illustration3 ,bindweed4 ,the ,bindweeds are gay and beautiful flowers1 and besides being used for ornamental purposes1 many of this order have medicinal properties of great importance4 ,the ,jalap root is from the ,convolvulus ,jalap1 which comes from ,xalapa1 in ,mexico1 of which name ,jalap is a corruption4 ,scammony1 another medicine much used1 is a resin procured from a species of this order4 #ac4 ,,boraginace 7,borago officinalis7 ,borage4 ,illustration3 ,borage4 ,the members of this order have most of them rough hairy leaves1 they contain a certain amount of nitrate of potash in their juices1 and it is this which gives them the peculiar taste which has gained for them the name of ,oyster plants2 the common ,borage has been used as a remedy for coughs4 #ad4 ,,liniace1 or 7,salvia officinalis7 ,sage4 ,,labiates 7,thymus vulgaris7 ,thyme4 7,mentha viridis7 ,spear ,mint4 ,illustration3 ,sage4 ,the name ,labiates has been given from the form of their infloresence1 which is generally ,labiate 7having lips72 they frequently possess aromatic properties1 and are mostly of a strong smell4 ,although not commonly used as food1 yet most of them are employed to flavour it1 as ,mint1 ,thyme1 ,sage1 and many more4 #ae4 ,,solanace 7,atropa belladonna7 ,deadly ,nightshade4 7,solanum tuberosum7 ,potato4 7,capsicum annuum7 ,capsicum4 7,hyoscyamus niger7 ,henbane4 7,nicotiana ,tabacum7 ,tobacco4 ,illustration3 ,tobacco4 ,a great many members of this order are poisonous1 among which the ,deadly ,nightshade 7,atropa ,belladonna7 is the most virulent1 there are also ,henbane and ,tobacco1 both strong poisons2 but1 to compensate for this bad character1 the order contains one of the most useful vegetables used in ,europe--the ,potato4 ,this is the tuber of the ,solanum tuberosum4 ,the following account of the introduction of the ,potato into ,england is from the ,penny ,cyclopdia3-- ,queen ,elizabeth1 in #aehd1 granted a patent 'for planting and discovering in new countries1 not possessed by ,christians1' and1 under this sanction1 some ships1 principally equipped by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 sailed with him to ,america4 ,thomas ,harriott 7afterwards known as a mathematician7 who accompanied the adventurous squadron1 transmitted to ,england the description of a plant1 called ,openawk by the natives of that part of ,america1 which the courtier-like gallantry of ,raleigh had named ',virginia4' ,harriott described the ,openawk as having the roots round1 and 'hanging together as if fixed on ropes1 and good for food either boiled or roasted4' ,girarde in his ,herbal a few years subsequently1 distinguished the plant by a plate1 and not only confirmed the assertion that it was an indigenous production of ,virginia1 whence he himself had obtained it1 but supplied some curious details of its qualities1 and of the various modes in which it might be dressed for the table4 ,but the ,potatoe had been known in ,spain and ,portugal at an earlier period1 and it is from the latter country that we most directly derive the name by which we know it4 ,this is easily shown2 although the natives of ,south ,america called the plant by the name ',openawk1' those of the ,south1 more particularly the inhabitants of the mountains of ,quito1 called it ',papas1' which the ,spaniards corrupted into ',battata1' this again their neighbours in ,portugal softened into ',ba-ta-ta' 7da terra71 to which 'potato' is a very close approximation4 ,this plant1 the tubers of which for a long time were a luxury obtainable by the rich only1 now yields the support of the poor1 and furnishes the cheapest food known2 the peasantry of ,ireland almost subsist upon ,potatoes1 and the poor of most parts of ,europe find it indispensable to their living4 #af4 ,,scrophulariace 7,digitalis purpurea7 ,foxglove4 7,veronica officinalis7 ,speedwell4 ,illustration3 ,speedwell4 ,some of the members of this order were formerly considered useful in scrofulous complaints1 especially the ,scrophularia nodosa1 a common plant growing by the sides of ditches1 and whose tuberculated roots were considered to resemble scrofulous tumours1 and therefore to be the natural remedy for them4 ,the ,foxglove is used as a medicine and is highly poisonous4 #ag4 ,,lentibulariace 7,pinguicula vulgaris7 ,butterwort4 ,illustration3 ,butterwort4 ,this order includes the ,butterworts1 which are herbaceous indigenous plants1 growing in ditches and wet places2 they are divided into the ,pinguicula and the ,urticularia4 ,the example given is the most common and characteristic of the order4 #ah4 ,,plantaginace 7,plantago lanceolata7 ,plantain4 ,illustration3 ,plantain4 ,the common ,plantain or ,way-bred is found by roadsides1 the leaves form a sort of star on the ground1 from the centre of which a tall stalk arises1 forming a spike of flowers4 ,the seeds of plantain are much in request by bird fanciers1 cage-birds being fond of them4 ,the leaves were once in great repute as a styptic1 or application for stopping the bleeding of wounds4 #ai4 ,,plumbaginace 7,armeria maratima7 ,thrift4 7,ilex aquifolium7 ,holly4 ,illustration3 ,thrift4 ,illustration3 ,holly4 ,the most characteristic of this order are the two examples given1 especially the ,holly1 which is universally known and admired for the decorative uses to which it is applied in our churches and houses at ,christmas time4 ,,orders ,,of ,,monochlamyde4 #a4 ,,sanguisorbe 7,alchemilla vulgaris7 ,ladies' ,mantle4 ,illustration3 ,ladies' ,mantle4 ,some species of this order1 especially the ,greater ,burnet 7,sanguisorba officinalis71 were once much cultivated as food for cattle1 but it is now superseded by other plants1 especially ,sainfoin4 #b4 ,,chenopodiace 7,beta vulgaris7 ,beet4 7,spinacia oleracea7 ,spinach4 ,illustration3 ,beetroot ,the most important species of this order is the ,beetroot1 employed in ,france for the production of sugar4 ,its variety1 ,mangold-wurzel 7,beta altissima71 is also extensively used as food for cattle4 #c4 ,,polygonace 7,polygonum ,fagopyrum7 ,buckwheat4 7,rumex obtusifolius7 ,dock4 ,illustration3 ,buckwheat4 ,buckwheat is used as food in ,america and other places1 and the root of the ,rheum palmatum furnishes the ,rhubarb of commerce4 ,it is brought from ,turkey2 but is grown in ,china1 and thence passes through the hands of ,russians to ,turkey4 ,other species of ,rhubarb1 as ,rheum compactum1 are cultivated here for the sake of the leaf-stalk1 which has an agreeable acid taste1 and is much used for making tarts and puddings4 #d4 ,,el,,agnace 7,elagnus angustifolia7 ,oleaster4 ,illustration3 ,oleaster4 ,some foreign species of the ,oleaster are extremely fragrant1 and others1 especially those of ,india1 produce a fruit of a pleasant taste and is there eaten4 ,the ,sea ,buckthorn 7,hippoph ,rhamnoides7 is the only ,english species4 #e4 ,,thymelace 7,daphne pontica7 ,spurge ,laurel4 ,illustration3 ,spurge-,laurel4 ,some species of this order are cultivated in gardens and are very fragrant1 others partake of a poisonous quality2 the ,daphne mezerium1 the bark of which is very acrid1 is used in medicine1 and forms one of the ingredients in the celebrated compound decoction of ,sarsaparilla4 #f4 ,,corylace 7,castanea vesca7 ,sweet ,chestnut4 7,quercus pedunculata7 ,oak4 7,corylus avellana7 ,hazel ,nut4 ,this order contains some of our finest trees2 the ,oak1 that prince of trees1 is of this order4 ,it attains a great age and size1 and there are some celebrated specimens existing which have stood many centuries4 ,oaks constitute the greater part of the forest trees1 both on the ,continent and in ,england2 great numbers are cut in ,france for fire-wood1 and in both countries for ship-building4 ,the roof-timbers of our old churches and halls are nearly all oak4 ,the bark of the oak is largely used for tanning leather4 ,about #cj1jjj tons are imported into this country yearly for this purpose1 besides the product of our own trees4 ,the bark of the ,cork-oak 7,quercus suber7 is used for making corks1 some #b1jjj tons of this are imported annually4 ,moreover1 the ,gall-nut used in tanning1 and also to make black dye1 is the product of an oak4 ,the ,chestnut is a fine tree1 the nuts of which are commonly eaten by the peasantry of ,spain and ,italy as food2 the tree grows to a great age and to an enormous size4 ,illustration3 ,sweet ,chestnut4 #g4 ,,euphorbiace 7,buxus sempervirens7 ,box4 ,illustration3 ,box4 ,many species of this order are acrid and poisonous1 and have been used for poisoning arrows4 ,the ,castor-oil plant 7,ricinus palma-christi71 and the plant that yields that most violent purgative1 ,croton-oil 7,croton tiglium71 are of this species2 also the ,box-tree1 from which that useful wood1 known as box-wood1 is obtained4 #h4 ,,urticace 7,urtica urens7 ,stinging ,nettle4 7,humulus lupulus7 ,hops4 ,illustration3 ,hop4 ,the ,nettle in ,australia grows to the size of a tree2 the ,hop also belongs to this order1 and is largely cultivated in ,kent and ,sussex for the use of brewers1 as it communicates an agreeable bitter to beer which no other plant seems to be able to substitute4 #i4 ,,salicace 7,salix alba7 ,white ,willow4 7,populus nigra7 ,black ,poplar4 ,illustration3 ,white ,willow4 ,the most characteristic of this order are the examples given2 the ,willows are well-known trees1 growing by the margins of water and in damp places4 ,the ,poplar is one of our tallest trees1 specimens being known #ajj feet high2 its peculiar tall form distinguishes it from all other trees4 #aj4 ,,betulace 7,betula alba7 ,birch4 7,alnus glutinosa7 ,alder4 ,illustration3 ,birch4 ,illustration3 ,alder4 ,the ,birch and ,alder are both well known trees in our plantations1 the ,alder is often confounded with the ,elder4 ,the bark of the ,birch tree contains tannin2 it is used to tan skins in ,russia1 and gives to ,russian leather its peculiar qualities4 #aa4 ,,ulmace 7,ulnus campestris7 ,elm4 ,illustration3 ,elm4 ,the ,elm is one of our largest and noblest trees1 growing to #hj or #ij feet high1 it has often a girth of #aj to #aa feet1 and forms a very fine tree with a broad crown2 the wood is much used for making coffins4 #ab4 ,,pinace 7,taxus baccata7 ,yew4 7,abies larix7 ,larch4 7,laurus nobilis7 ,bay4 7,pinus sylvestris7 ,scotch ,fir4 ,illustration3 ,larch4 ,illustration3 ,yew4 ,illustration3 ,bay4 ,this order contains the various ,pines and ,firs1 together with the ,yew and ,bay trees1 and is sometimes called the ,conifer1 as they all bear cones4 ,in their general aspect many of these somewhat resemble endogenous trees1 growing perfectly straight in the stem1 and giving off branches in whorls at regular distances2 some1 as the ,norfolk ,island ,pine1 form perfectly regular figures by the interlacement of their branches4 ,the ,firs have their thin narrow leaves starting off singly from the branch1 and always on the upper side1 like the teeth of a comb1 while the ,pines have their leaves grouped together1 starting off in fours or fives from the same spot4 ,the ,conifera furnish the longest and straightest timber of all trees1 they commonly grow to #ajj feet high1 and in ,new ,zealand and ,california to more than #cjj4 ,the ,wellingtonia ,gigantea is the tallest species known1 and the ,araucaria ,excelsa 7,norfolk ,island ,pine71 perhaps1 the next4 ,the trees of this order are amongst the most useful to man1 supplying a number of useful articles1 such as turpentine1 resin1 c41 besides the most valuable timber4 ,pines1 like the ,palms1 serve as a screen against the severity of the weather1 but1 while the palms keep off the burning rays of the sun1 the pines defend us from the cold of the mountain blasts2 they are indeed used as nurses1 and as such1 in our oak plantations1 serve to screen the young saplings which are planted among them from the effects of cold until strong enough to bear exposure2 when the pines are cut down1 and what before appeared to be a pine-wood1 appears as a plantation of oaks4 ,the pine-trees furnish those straight stems largely used by builders under the name of scaffold poles4 ,they also make the best wood for rending into laths for building purposes1 their straight and open grain allowing of their being easily split4 ,it is from the vegetable kingdom that most of the medicines in use are derived1 but many of these1 in improper doses1 act as violent poisons2 indeed1 the most rapidly fatal of all poisons1 prussic acid1 was originally distilled from the ,laurel-cherry1 and strychnine1 which is hardly less rapid1 is the produce of the ,nux vomica 7,strychnos nux vomica74 ,the following is a list of the principal poisonous plants found growing wild in ,england3-- 99 #a4 ,,monk',s-,,hood 7,aconitum ,napellus74 ,,wolf',s-,,bane 7,aconitum lycactonum74 ,illustration3 ,monk's-hood4 ,illustration3 ,horse-radish4 ,illustration3 ,wolf's-bane4 ,all parts of ,monk's-hood and ,wolf's-bane are extremely poisonous2 the root of ,monk's-hood has often been mistaken for that of ,horse-radish1 of which an example is therefore given1 to show that it is impossible for this mistake to be made1 if the least attention be paid to the leaves1 as they are totally dissimilar4 99 ,,bryony 7,bryonia dioica74 ,the whole of this plant is poisonous1 and1 as the berries are red and tempting1 it is dangerous to trust children with them4 ,the root is large and succulent1 and is known by the name of ,mandrake2 it is very purgative and acrid4 ,illustration3 ,bryony4 99 ,,green ,,hellebore 7,heleborus viridus74 99 ,,stinking ,,hellebore 7,heleborus foetidus74 ,illustration3 ,green ,hellebore4 ,illustration3 ,stinking ,hellebore4 ,both poisonous in every part of the plants4 99 ,,mezerium 7,daphne mezerium74 ,the bark of this plant is acrid and poisonous1 producing a burning sensation in the throat if chewed1 and blistering the skin if applied1 for which purpose it was often formerly used medicinally4 ,illustration3 ,mezerium4 99 ,,meadow ,,saffron 7,colchicum autumnale74 ,the corm 7root7 and seeds of this plant are poisonous4 ,meadow ,saffron is also called ,colchicum1 it is much used in medicine1 and although a good and useful one in small doses for gouty affections1 yet in over-doses it produces violent purging and vomiting4 ,illustration3 ,meadow ,saffron4 ,,foxglove 7,digitalis purpurea74 ,this plant is very poisonous and dangerous1 the leaves are the most active part4 ,it is frequently used medicinally1 but requires great care1 as it lowers the action of the heart1 the effect of many small doses accumulating and at last acting like one large one4 ,illustration3 ,foxglove4 99 ,,staves-,,acre 7,delphinium ,staphisagria74 ,the ,ranunculace are1 most of them1 poisonous1 and this order includes the ,larkspurs1 of which the ,staves-,acre is a species4 ,the seeds are to a certain extent poisonous1 and when ground into meal and mixed with flour have been often used by farmers to destroy vermin of various kinds1 such as rats1 mice1 beetles1 c4 ,illustration3 ,staves-,acre4 ,,deadly ,,nightshade 7,atropa ,belladonna74 ,the ,deadly ,nightshade is also called ,belladonna4 ,both leaves and berries are a deadly poison4 ,the berries have been mistaken for black currants by children1 as they much resemble them4 ,there are several species1 of which the ,solanum nigrum1 or ,common ,nightshade1 very much resembles the ,deadly4 ,illustration3 ,deadly ,nightshade4 ,,woody ,,nightshade 7,solanum ,dulcamara74 ,this plant1 also called ,bitter-sweet1 from its taste1 produces the bright red berries so often seen in hedges1 and which from their pretty appearance frequently tempt children to eat them4 ,they are poisonous1 but not so much so as the twigs of the plant1 which are very acrid and narcotic4 ,illustration3 ,woody ,nightshade4 ,,hemlock 7,conium maculatum74 ,the ,hemlock is an umbelliferous plant growing by road-sides and under hedges1 and flowers in ,june and ,july2 it has been mistaken for ,parsley1 but may be known by the stems being spotted with black2 the leaves are of a dark green colour1 the upper ones bi-pinnate and the lower ones large and standing on long channelled foot-stalks4 ,illustration3 ,hemlock4 ,,thorn-,,apple 7,datura strammonium74 ,the ,thorn-,apple is a native of ,america1 but has become almost indigenous1 and is frequently found growing in waste places4 ,the whole of the plant is poisonous1 and is narcotic when smoked1 like tobacco4 ,it is an annual1 bearing a funnel-shaped white flower1 the fruit is a four-celled capsule covered with sharp spines or thorns1 hence its name4 ,illustration3 ,thorn-,apple4 ,,poppy1 ,red 7,papaver ,rhoeas74 ,,poppy1 ,white 7,papaver somniferum74 ,illustration3 ,white ,poppy4 ,illustration3 ,red ,poppy4 ,the unripe capsules of both of these species of ,poppy are narcotic and poisonous1 but chiefly those of the ,white ,poppy1 from which1 the opium of commerce is procured4 ,the leaves are but very slightly narcotic1 and the seeds not at all4 ,,henbane 7,hyoscyamus ,niger74 ,illustration3 ,henbane4 ,this plant is an indigenous annual growing in waste places1 especially in chalky soil1 bearing flowers in ,july1 which are of a yellowish green colour and nauseous odour2 the stalk1 leaves1 and indeed the whole of the plant is covered with hairs4 ,it is very narcotic1 and is much used medicine2 in over-doses it is poisonous4 ,,caper 7,euphorbia ,lathyris74 ,the ,caper is a biennial often found in gardens2 the seeds are very purgative1 and to some persons poisonous4 ,this plant bearing the name of ,caper1 many persons have erroneously thought the seeds to be the ordinary ,capers sold at shops for making ,caper-sauce4 ,these1 however1 are the flower-buds of quite another plant1 known as ,capparis spinosa4 ,illustration3 ,caper4 ,,wild ,,lettuce 7,lactuca virosa74 ,the ,wild ,lettuce is a biennial plant flowering in ,july and ,august2 it is found growing on the banks of ditches1 and is sufficiently narcotic to be called poisonous4 ,the dried juice has been used as a substitute for opium1 but by cultivation the narcotic property is nearly or altogether lost4 ,illustration3 ,wild ,lettuce4 ,,mushrooms1 ,,toadstools1 ,,and ,,other ,,fungi4 ,the only kinds of ,mushroom which can be eaten with safety are the common ,mushroom 7,agaricus campestris71 the ,champignon 7,agaricus oreades71 and the ,morell 7,marchella esculenta74 ,those which are of very bright colours1 or have spots on the cap1 those with thin caps1 or those which are moist--have a film like a cobweb about the stalk1 or have the stalk coming from one side of the cap--are poisonous4 ,illustration3 ,common ,mushroom4 ,illustration3 ,champignon4 ,illustration3 ,morell4 ,illustration3 ,poisonous ,fungi4 ,those marked 7997 in the foregoing list are acrid poisons1 and the remainder are narcotic4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,oaks4 ,out of these three great families of plants1 in their almost endless variety of size1 form1 and colour1 it has pleased the ,great ,author of ,nature to form all the vegetation which beautifies this earth1 from the lofty ,palm--which1 from its grateful freshness and the beauty of its structure1 seems almost as if possessed of more than vegetative life1 to the ,alg1 which form the pool's green mantle--from the gigantic and storm-defying ,oak1 with its green foliage spreading out far above1 and throwing its welcome shade around1 to defend from the sun's rays the gentle deer who pasture on the herbage beneath--to the grass and clover1 and the sweet-smelling wild flowers at their feet-- ,daffodils ,that come before the swallow dares1 and take ,the winds of ,march with beauty2 violets dim ,but sweeter than the lids of ,juno's eyes1 ,or ,cytherea's breath1--pale primroses ,that die unmarried1 ere they can behold ,bright ,phoebus in his strength-- form inexhaustible themes on which to exercise our faculties of admiration1 and which serve admirably to minister to those wants which1 without doubt1 were given to us that we might derive pleasure from their being thus beautifully gratified--themes for the pencil of the artist1 who holds1 as it were1 the mirror up to nature1 and the architect1 when he designed his vistas of slender columns spreading out into and supporting roofs of tracery1 might well be supposed to have had in his mind's eye some beautiful recollection of the arcades of ,nature's palaces in the sombre forests1 where the twisted trunks of the trees1 the fretwork of their branches1 and the leafy covering formed by their leaves1 supply all the requisites of a grand and lofty temple1 fit for the worship of that great ,first ,cause who formed them4 ,illustration3 ,,forest ,,scene4 ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,animalcul ,,found ,,in ,,stagnant ,,water4 ,a1 ,cyclops ,quadracornis4 ,b1 ,anguillula4 ,fluviatilis4 ,c1 ,actinophrys4 ,sol4 ,d1 ,coleps ,hirtus4 ,e1 ,vorticella4 ,f1 ,amboeba princeps4 ,g1 ,acineta mystacina4 ,h1 ,oxytrycha4 ,i1 ,triophthalamus dorsalis4 ,j1 ,polyarthra4 ,after considering the beautiful covering which a kind ,providence has given to the earth in the form of all sorts of vegetation1 it will be necessary now to consider for what kind of creatures this most delightful garden was prepared1 whether they seek their food in the air1 water1 or earth1 for all these places are abodes of the vegetable tribes1 and where there is vegetation there are animated beings2 for there is not an animal in existence1 but directly or indirectly feeds upon the vegetable kingdom1 from the elephant and rhinoceros which devour whole plantations1 to the minute animalcul which float in the air or dwell in every drop of stagnant water1 where food in the form of equally minute alg is found--each possessed of wonderful organs and powers suitable to the kind of existence they lead1 for ,god has often placed life in the most simple as well as complicated forms4 ,dr4 ,mantell says3-- ,we have been accustomed to associate the presence of vitality with bodies possessing various complicated organs for the elaboration and maintenance of the energies of existence1 but here we see perfect and distinct creations in the condition of globules and cells1 which live and move and have their being1 and increase in numbers with a rapidity so prodigious1 and in modes so peculiar1 as to startle all our preconceived notions of animal organisation4 ,and it is in these ,protozoa1 the lowest of the animal creation1 that a perfect similarity of condition exists to those of the vegetable kingdom1 they are here upon a level2 but arising out of these simple forms1 ,god has created two sets of types or portraits1 the members of each resembling those below it in some particular1 but having organs which are superior to it2 and above these are found members whose organs are of a still higher order1 and so on till the one set comprises the highest orders of the vegetable1 and the other those of the animal kingdom1 in its ranks4 ,but these simple organisms are never developed so as to resemble those placed above them2 they each1 whether high or low1 continue to produce their like1 for each grade was a creation of itself and a separate one from ,god's hands4 ,there have been writers1 who would endeavour to make it appear that ,god only created the lowest and most simple germs1 and the circumstances which were necessary to develop them1 and then allowed these to act and re-act until a man or an oak tree at last became the result6 ,were this the case1 geology would long before this have shown the small beginnings of man2 but no6 as soon as traces of man's creation are perceived1 he is found as perfectly formed and organised as he is now1 there are no transition stages of man's existence1 nor of any other animal4 ,it is true that the simpler forms of both animal and vegetable existence were created first1 but this was in accordance with the state of the earth's surface1 which was not at first suitable to the requirements of the higher animals1 which were only created when the earth was in a state suitable to receive them4 ,but when the surface of the earth was still more developed ,god created man4 ,his last and greatest work2 and there can be no doubt that ,god in ,his wisdom caused all these changes to precede the creation of man1 that he might lack nothing to confer happiness on him1 nor objects to exercise his faculties upon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,animals are divided into two great natural families1 the ,invertebrate and the ,vertebrate1 the former having neither spine nor internal skeleton1 the latter having both4 ,the ,invertebrate animals are divided into the following sub-families1 classes1 and orders by ,dr4 ,william ,carpenter4 ,sub-family #a4--,,radiata1 having ,four classes4 #a4 ,infusoria4 #b4 ,entozoa4 ,hydroida #c4 ,zoophyta4 ,asteroida #d ,orders4 ,helianthoida ,ascidioda #d4 ,radiaria4 ,acaleph #b ,orders4 ,echinodermata ,sub-family #b4--;,,articulata1 having ,five classes4 #a4 ,annellata4 #b4 ,cerripeda4 #c4 ,crustacea4 ,coleoptera ,orthoptera ,neuroptera ,hymenoptera #d4 ,insecta4 ,strepsiptera #i ,orders4 ,lepidoptera ,hemiptera ,diptera ,aptera #e4 ,arachnida4 ,sub-family #c4--,,mollusca1 having ,six classes4 ,,acephala1 or ,headless4 #a4 ,tunicata4 #b4 ,brachiopoda4 #c4 ,lamellibranchiata4 ,,encephala1 ,having a ,head4 #d4 ,pteropoda4 #e4 ,gasteropoda4 #f4 ,cephalopoda4 ,the ,infusoria1 the first class of the ,radiata1 comprise all those microscopic organisms called ,protozoa2 they consist of a membranous cell with fluid contents1 and are very nearly allied to the ,protophytes or lowest vegetable existences4 ,it is still a matter of discussion amongst physiologists and microscopists as to which kingdom shall claim certain of them1 but1 according to ,dr4 ,carpenter1 it appears that the vegetable cell-beings have two envelopes1 the inner one albuminous and the outer one cellulose or starchy1 and the following passage occurs in his treatise on the ,microscope 7which should be in the hands of all enquiring minds73-- ,the animal cell1 in its most complete form1 is comparable in most parts of its structure to that of the plant1 but differs from it in the entire absence of the 'cellulose wall' or of anything that represents it1 the cell-contents being enclosed in only a single limitary membrane1 the chemical composition of which1 being albuminous1 indicates its correspondence with the primordial utricle4 ,in its young state it seems always to contain a semi-fluid plasma1 which is essentially the same as the protoplasm of the plant1 save that it does not include chlorophyll granules1 and this may either continue to occupy its cavity 7which is the case in cells whose entire energy is directed to growth and multiplication7 or may give place1 either wholly or in part1 to the special product which it may be the function of the cell to prepare4 ,like the vegetable cell1 that of animals very commonly multiplies by duplicative sub-division1 it also 7especially among ,protozoa7 may give origin to new cells by the breaking up of its contents into several particles4 ,some of these creatures are so exceedingly minute that hundreds of millions may be contained in a drop of water4 ,they have no organs of any kind1 but consist of single cells of a soft substance called sorcode2 there is no distinction of sexes1 and generation takes place by sub-division1 each cell separating into two1 and these again into two more1 and so on with marvellous rapidity2 this is the usual method of increase1 but occasionally an act of conjugation takes place1 two cells blending into one at the points of contact1 the result of which is a nucleus or cell within the original one4 ,these animated cells are of all forms1 having prolongations which appear to be thrown out to absorb any particle of organic matter within reach1 which then enters within the soft substance of the animalcule and is digested or dissolved1 such are the ,amboeba1 the ,actinophrys1 c4 7see fig4 #a72 a step or two higher from these1 the very lowest1 infusoria are found to possess the first rudiments of organs in the form of cilia1 which consist of minute elongations having a constant vibratory motion1 for the purpose of causing a current in the water in which they live and bringing food into their vicinity4 ,some very curious and complicated changes take place in the lowest of the animals1 very similar to those in the lowest vegetables2 and what has been called the life-history of these beings1 often embraces a great number of forms before the circle of their metamorphoses comes round to the starting-point4 ,some of these phases of existence are quite different from those going before and after them1 and as the vegetable free-cell at one time is capable of motion1 it has long been mistaken for an active living animalcule 7the ,protococcus pluvialis1 c471 and there can be no doubt but that it will be found that many of the lower forms of animated life described by ,ehrenberg and others1 and still considered as such1 will prove to be merely different stages of the metamorphosis of the same protozoon2 or it may be not an animal at all1 but a simple vegetable or protophyte4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,volvox ,,globator4 ,dr4 ,carpenter says1 ,it is quite certain that the ,desmidiace1 like the confervoid plants in general1 grow at the expense of the inorganic elements which surround them1 instead of depending upon other living beings for their subsistence1 and that they decompose carbonic acid and give off oxygen under the influence of sunlight4 ,they have the power of generating from these materials the organic compounds which they require for their own development1 and these are such as are formed by other undoubted protophytes1 as is proved by the application of the appropriate tests4 ,these ,desmidiace were long considered to belong to the animalcul1 as were the ,diatomace1 ,volvox globator 7fig4 #b71 c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,wheel ,,animalcule 7,rotifer vulgaris74 ,some of the ,infusoria1 however1 have a far higher organisation1 such as the ,rotifer1 and especially the wheel animalcule 7fig4 #c71 which at one time was supposed1 absurdly enough1 to possess a living wheel turning round rapidly on its head6 ,this wheel1 however1 proved to be nothing else than a vortex of water produced by rotatory cilia4 ,this and many other mistakes were owing to the imperfect construction of the microscopes of that date4 ,these and their fellow animalcules possess several organs1 as a stomach1 c4 ,the protozoa at one time were supposed to possess a number of stomachs1 and were thence called poly-gastric infusoria1 but it has now been demonstrated that these beings merely absorb or entangle portions of organic matter into their substance1 and that there are no cysts or stomachs for their reception4 ,some of the ,infusoria are able to withstand enormous changes of temperature1 without losing their vitality2 cold far below freezing point1 and heat equal to boiling water does not destroy them1 and they may be dried in the most complete manner which chemists can devise1 and kept in this dry state for years1 and yet1 on the application of moisture1 return to life4 ,there is no doubt but every inch of air contains the germs of some of the ,infusoria in a dry state or their ova1 and make up a portion of that fine halo of dust which always appears in the air when a gleam of sunshine is let into a dark place4 ,the second class of the ,radiata1 the ,entozoa1 are those beings which inhabit1 as parasites1 the intestines and other parts of animals4 ,their history is very obscure1 but there seems to be about twenty varieties of these creatures1 and a great number of animals have their peculiar ,entozoa4 ,the best known in the human subject are the ,ascaris or thread-worm1 the ,lumbricus ,teres or long-worm1 and the ,tnia or tape-worm2 this last is jointed1 and grows to several yards in length4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,sertularia ,,operculata 7a1 ,natural size1 b1 magnified74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,fragment ,,of ,,sponge1 ,,magnified4 ,the third class1 the ,zoophyta1 includes four orders4 ,the first of these1 the ,hydroida1 comprise the ,tubularia1 ,sertularia 7fig4 #d71 and ,sponges 7fig4 #e72 these are minute gelatinous creatures1 secreting a sort of tube in which they dwell4 ,these tubes are congregated into masses of different forms and colours1 and1 with other structures totally different1 are erroneously known by the general name of sea-weed4 ,the ,zoophyte which dwells in these tubes is furnished with a set of cilia forming a sort of plume4 ,most of these ,hydroida are phosphorescent1 such are those which1 scattered about on the surface of the sea1 contribute to that luminosity so frequently seen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,gorgonia ,,guttata 7,natural size74 ,the second order of the ,zoophyta1 ,asteroida1 are those which have a star-like shape2 they are congregated into compound structures1 forming what are called sea-fans 7,gorgonia1 fig4 #f74 ,these ,gorgonia are of all colours1 and very beautiful2 the animals or polypes are gelatinous1 and have a gelatinous mass or stalk with branches1 strengthened and supported by a horny centre4 ,this gelatinous mass forms the animal itself1 as well as a sort of common integument connecting the whole family of many thousands4 ,the ,gorgonia or sea-fans usually preserved1 are dry and hard1 as the gelatinous covering has so little substance that1 when dried1 it forms a rough powdery covering only to the horny support4 ,this powdery surface1 if washed off with a little water and placed under the microscope1 is found to contain and be made up of spicul or crystals of carbonate of lime1 of various colours and beautiful forms 7fig4 #g72 these1 when the animal is alive1 help to support its gelatinous frame2 the ,tubipor also belong to this class4 ,fig4 #h represents the ,organ-coral 7,tubipora musica72 it is of a bright red colour1 and1 when the polypes are living1 is a very beautiful object4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,spicules ,,of ,,gorgonia1 ,,magnified4 ,the third order of ,zoophytes is the ,helianthoida1 which include the ,actinia4 ,these ,zoophytes are entirely gelatinous1 and have beautiful variations of colour4 ,they throw out tentacles like the petals of a flower1 and form very beautiful objects2 they may be seen in the aquatic vivaria of the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,to this order of ,zoophytes belong the corals or ,zoanthoid polypes1 which produce the coral reefs1 extending in some cases hundreds of miles4 ,dr4 ,baird gives the following account of them3-- ,by far the greater part of the ,zoanthoid polypes1 as they grow1 deposit in the cellular substance of the flesh of their back an immense quantity of calcareous matter which enlarges as the animal increases in size1 and1 in fact1 fills up those portions of the substance of the animal1 which by the growth of new parts are no longer wanted for its nourishment1 and in this manner they form a hard and strong case1 amongst the folds of which they contract themselves so as to be protected from external injury1 and by the same means they form for themselves a permanent attachment which prevents their being tossed about by every wave of the element in which they live4 ,the stony substances so formed are called corals1 and their mode of formation causes them exactly to represent the animal which secretes them4 ,the upper surface is always furnished with radiating plates1 the remains of the calcareous particles which are deposited in the longitudinal folds of the stomach4 ,these1 in all probability were the constructors of all the strata of limestone rocks1 which form some of our largest mountains--they were once the beds of seas1 and were up-heaved by internal forces4 ,the ,madrepores 7fig4 #i7 are also of this order1 and form the stony matter in the same way4 ,these are of various patterns1 and the beautiful brain-stones in the ,british ,museum are of their construction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,tubipora ,,musica4 ,the fourth order of ,zoophytes are the ,ascidioida1 including formerly the ,flustr 7fig4 #aj71 but of late these have been shown to be closely allied1 if not identical with1 the ,tunicated ,mollusca1 and have received the name of ,polyzoa1 they will therefore be noticed under that head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,,coral 7,madrepora brachiata74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,sea ,,mat 7,flustra foliacea71 7,a1 magnified1 ,b1 natural size74 ,the fourth class of the ,radiata1 are the ,radiaria1 including two orders4 ,the first of these are the ,acaleph2 the ,medus or ,jelly-fishes belong to this order2 these creatures float about sometimes in great numbers1 they are transparent and gelatinous1 of a hemispherical form1 the flat surface being fringed round with fibres1 some of which sting like nettles if brought into contact with the skin4 ,the second order of the ,radiaria include the ,echinodermata or ,sea-hedgehogs1 ,star-fishes1 c41 these are many of them furnished with a profusion of spines1 and hence their name2 they are also called ,sea-eggs or ,sea-urchins 7fig4 #aa71 and are mostly of a conical or spherical shape1 divided into five segments covered with minute holes1 from which project tentacul serving as organs of locomotion1 touch1 c41 and the surface of the body is covered with shelly spines of various forms and thicknesses2 the mouth is in the centre1 and they feed upon marine productions4 ,the spines1 if cut across and ground thin so as to be transparent1 show a most complicated and beautiful structure when under the microscope 7fig4 #ab74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,sea-,,urchin 7,echinus71 ,,with ,,and ,,without ,,spines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,spine ,,of ,,echinus 7,a1 natural size1 ,b1 a section magnified74 ,the ,star-fishes are inhabitants of the sea1 and have generally five arms covered beneath with tentacul having small suckers at the point1 it is by means of these that they move from place to place2 the mouth is in the centre4 ,they live upon small marine animals1 and have the power of reproducing any of the rays which happen to be broken off2 and if cut into two or more pieces1 each will produce a fresh animal4 ,there is a species of ,star-fish1 so brittle1 that it is quite impossible to touch it without breaking it1 or rather it breaks itself1 for it seems to have the power of casting off its arms at pleasure4 ,these forms complete the ,radiate series of animals1 they have nearly all a somewhat regular radiated form1 and some of them are very beautiful1 such as ,sertularia1 which grow in communities and form many beautiful branched objects1 much resembling sea-weeds and flowers1 hence the name ,zoophyte1 which means animal flowers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,,earth ,,worm 7,lumbricus terrestris71 leech 7,hirudo medicinale74 ,the ,articulata form the second division of the ,invertebrata4 ,it has five classes1 the first of which is the ,annellata2 in this order are included the ,worms and ,leeches 7fig4 #ac71 these have no hard covering but are soft throughout1 they are made up of a number of soft rings which encircle their bodies from one end to the other1 and are capable of being shortened or elongated by the muscles which draw together the rings 7these are placed longitudinally71 or by those which contract and widen them1 placed circularly2 this enables them to move along1 and in so peculiar a manner that it has received the name of vermicular1 or worm-like4 ,the most familiar example of this class is the ,earth-worm 7,lumbricus terrestris71 this lowly creature lives in soft mud and clay and bores its way into the ground1 in doing so it is assisted by a slimy secretion which covers it1 its food consists of earth containing organic matter1 this it swallows constantly and extracts what is fit for its nourishment ejecting the remainder apparently unaltered2 the curious little heaps of soft dirt which are so often seen in wet weather on the garden-paths1 c41 are formed in this way4 ,the ,leech is another familiar example of the ,annellata or ,annelid1 this little useful creature lives in ponds and stagnant waters1 and feeds by sucking the fluids of other animals 7chiefly frogs and fish7 with which it will gorge itself till it is double its original size1 it will then remain 7often for months7 without food till it is all appropriated1 the process going on very slowly2 a full-grown ,leech is perhaps twenty years old1 they grow so slowly1 7hence it is1 that ,leeches may be kept for months after being gorged with blood without any food1 and they will live and be healthy74 ,they are furnished with two suckers1 one at each end1 and a mouth with numerous fine teeth placed in a tri-radiate manner1 with which they pierce the skin when about to feed4 ,they move in the water with great rapidity by a wavy motion of their bodies1 but on solid substances their mode of progression is that of adhering by the sucker in front1 then drawing the other one close up and extending the body to its full length1 taking hold again by the front sucker and again bringing up the hindermost4 ,the ,cirripeda constitute the second class of the ,articulata1 which comprise the ,acorn shells and ,barnacles 7fig4 #ad72 these little creatures were formerly described as ,molluscs1 but are now considered to be articulate animals1 and by some as ,crustaceans4 ,dr4 ,baird gives the following description of them3--,the ,cirripeds are articulated animals contained within a hard covering composed of several pieces and consisting of calcified chitine4 ,the body of the animal is enclosed in a sac lined with the most delicate membrane of chitine1 which in one group is prolonged into a peduncle and contains the ova2 the body is distinctly articulated and placed with the back downwards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,a1 ,,sea-,,acorns2 ,b1 ,,barnacles 7,cirripedes74 ,dr4 ,carpenter describes the young of the ,cirripedes as not fixed like the adult creatures1 but moving about freely1 and only becoming fixed in the form of the usual acorn shell after undergoing several strange metamorphoses1 during which stages they more resemble the ordinary ,crustaceans than they do in their fixed state4 ,the ,crustacea form the third class of the ,articulata1 they comprise animals covered with a hard shell or carapace1 like a case made up of rings1 with joints allowing the pieces to move upon each other1 except where several of them are consolidated to form the principal covering4 ,these rings generally amount to twenty-one in number1 some composing the claws1 others the legs1 c4 ,the shell is chiefly made of carbonate of lime 7chalk7 held together by animal matter4 ,the greater part of the ,crustacea inhabit the waters1 and they cast their shells from time to time as they grow2 the ,lobster 7,astacus marinus71 is a familiar example1 it is found in the sea near rocky shores1 and is capable of rapid motion under the water1 darting along 7tail foremost7 with great rapidity1 it has powerful claws1 with one of which 7the blunt one7 it holds its food and with the other 7the sharp one7 cuts it up into pieces2 they have the power of casting off these claws and reproducing them2 they feed upon smaller ,crustacea and fish1 or any animal matter they can find4 ,the ,cray-fish is another example1 it is a sort of fresh-water ,lobster1 living in holes 7frequently deserted rat holes7 in the banks of rivers2 its shell is very rough1 but otherwise somewhat resembles the ,lobster4 ,crabs1 ,shrimps1 and ,prawns1 are members of this class 7fig4 #ae74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,,crustacea4 #a4 ,lobster 7,astacus marinus74 #b4 ,cray-fish 7,astacus fluviatilis74 #c4 ,crab 7,cancer pagurus74 #d4 ,shrimp 7,crangou vulgaris74 #e4 ,prawn 7,palmon serratus74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,,insects4 #a4 ,dragon-fly 7,libellulina depressa74 #b4 ,grasshopper 7,gryllus74 #c4 ,bee 7,apis mellifica74 #d4 ,fly 7,musca domestica74 #e4 ,butterfly 7,pontia brassic74 #f4 ,musk-beetle 7,cerambyx moschatus74 ,the ,insects form the fourth class of this division1 and by far the most important and numerous4 ,they come to maturity only after undergoing successive changes from the egg to the perfect animal2 these transformations are amongst the most wonderful things connected with them4 ,the eggs 7some of which are very beautiful7 are first deposited in some safe place1 either attached to a leaf or tied up in a small bundle by silken threads spun by the parent insect1 and in some nutritious substance1 so that when it comes to life it may at once have food2 this is sometimes in manure1 sometimes in flesh1 and sometimes under the skin of a living animal 7few are exempt from this infliction71 where they remain for a time and then come forth as maggots1 caterpillars1 c42 in this state they are called larv1 these are generally active creatures and eat most voraciously1 which seems to be the principal act of this state of their existence4 ,these larv frequently change their skins as they grow1 and at last they assume the next stage of their life1 the pupa or chrysalis state1 which is one generally of complete inactivity2 many of these larv1 weave themselves a covering of a sort of silk1 to defend them while in the pupa state--such as the ,silkworm1 whose covering 7cocoon7 is the source of all the silk of commerce--others merely place themselves in a situation of security4 ,the pupa remains dormant for a certain time1 and then becomes the imago or perfect insect 7the last state of its existence71 such as a ,moth1 a ,butterfly1 a ,beetle1 c4 ,these are of different sexes1 and in due time produce a batch of eggs and then die2 these eggs are often incredible in numbers1 amounting to many thousands--fortunately but few escape the watchful eyes of other insects and of birds who feed upon them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,,antenna ,,of ,,cock-,,chaffer 7,melolontha vulgaris74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,foot ,,of ,,fly1 ,,magnified4 ,insects have six jointed legs1 a pair of antenn or horns 7as they are called7 and generally one or two pairs of wings4 ,the head is joined to the body by a constricted neck1 the part of the body to which it is joined is called the thorax1 and to this is added the posterior part or abdomen2 this part is extremely various in form in different insects1 in some it is round and full1 in others long and extended4 ,the antenn arise from the head1 and are generally composed of eleven pieces variously disposed2 these wonderful organs are possessed of great sensibility1 and they certainly serve to convey information to the insect1 of the nature of one of the special senses2 it was formerly thought to be simply that of touch very much refined1 or of smell1 but it is now generally considered to be that of hearing1 or a modification of it4 ,the forms of the antenn are very various1 fig4 #ag represents that of the ,cockchaffer 7,melolontha vulgaris74 ,the legs proceed from the thorax1 as do the wings1 the abdomen giving rise to none of the extremities2 the feet of insects are all pretty much upon the same model1 some being more developed than others1 they have a pair of hooks or claws for catching and clinging to rough surfaces1 and a pair of cushions or pads1 covered in some cases with suckers4 ,the foot of the ,fly 7fig4 #ah7 is well developed in this particular1 enabling it to walk with perfect ease even on glass or the smoothest surface1 and in any position4 ,insects do not breathe by lungs or gills1 but by means of branched tubes called trache1 which convey the air to the interior of the animal4 ,on the surface of these1 the blood vessels ramify1 giving out the carbonic acid of the blood and receiving oxygen2 the openings to these air-tubes are arranged along the sides of the body1 and are called spiracles 7fig4 #ai74 ,they are curious objects under the microscope1 some of them being closed by a perforated membrane1 others have a sort of sieve or network of fibres1 and most of them a contrivance to catch and exclude minute particles of matter floating in the air1 and thus prevent their entry into the trache4 ,insects have two eyes1 one on each side of the head1 which are of great size1 often forming complete hemispheres2 each eye is made up of several thousand separate eyes or ocelli1 hence they are called compound eyes2 these ocelli are placed closely together1 so as to form a sort of honeycomb arrangement2 the appearance of a part of one of these eyes is shown in fig4 #bj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,,spiracle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,,compound ,,eye4 7#a1 perpendicular section2 #b1 surface47 ,insects are amongst the most active of creatures1 whether for good or for evil1 and the prodigious rapidity with which they increase under favourable circumstances would soon cause them to overrun the whole earth1 to the extinction of almost every other creature1 were these circumstances not controlled by an all-wise ,providence1 who keeps a constant check upon their progress by causing one insect to feed upon another1 and who has formed almost innumerable other creatures 7including birds1 reptiles1 and fishes7 with instincts which lead them to feed upon insects in every stage of their development 7fish devour the larv of many insects which inhabit the waters during the first stage of their existence72 but it occasionally happens1 when some of these salutary checks upon their increase are withdrawn1 that they multiply with such fearful rapidity as to produce a complete famine1 for they eat up everything before them4 ,who has not heard of the plagues of ,locusts and the depredations of the ,white ,ants8 ,the swarms of ,locusts in ,africa will sometimes cover many hundred square miles of surface1 and in this space not a vestige of any vegetation would remain after their visit4 ,the description of the prophet ,joel is sublime3 ,the land is as the garden of ,eden before them1 and behind them a desolate wilderness3 yea1 and nothing shall escape them4444 ,the earth shall quake before them1 the heavens shall tremble3 the sun and the moon shall be dark1 and the stars shall withdraw their shining4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,locust 7,locusta ,migratoria74 ,but it is kindly ordained that these visitations shall only occasionally take place1 and even when they do1 terrible as is the infliction1 a benefit in reality outweighing the injury often succeeds2 for the land in these countries is often made almost barren by the quantities of tangled roots and stubble on the surface of the earth1 which by the destructive powers of these insects is completely removed1 and their manure left in its place1 so that the fertility of the ground is much increased 7often tenfold7 after their visits4 ,the thousands of species of insects which exist1 render it impossible in a work like this1 even to name them1 but under the separate orders will be given a slight outline of the more important4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,the ,,stag ,,beetle 7,lucanus cervus74 ,insects are divided1 according to the character of their wings1 into nine orders4 #a4 ,,coleoptera 7,black-winged74 ,the ,coleoptera are those insects generally denominated ,beetles1 they have four wings1 the two outer of which are not used to fly with1 but as cases to cover and protect the other two2 they are called elytra1 are horny and firm in texture1 and in some cases1 as the ,diamond ,beetle and ,musk ,beetle1 beautifully ornamented2 the under pair of wings fold transversely so as to pack up under the outer ones1 which are shorter4 ,all ,beetles live but one season1 both sexes die before winter1 leaving nothing but their eggs to continue the species1 the larv which come from these are very destructive1 eating most voraciously2 for the most part1 ,beetles feed on decaying substances such as dung1 c41 and are therefore useful creatures2 there are between #dj1jjj and #ej1jjj species of them4 ,beetles have been called the scavengers of nature1 and truly they are so1 for they 7with other insects7 clear off all dead matter1 whether animal or vegetable2 the ,geotrupes stercorarius1 and others1 dig holes in the ground and bury the excrement which is deposited on the surface1 thus doing a great service to vegetation1 taking it down to nourish the roots of the grass and other plants instead of allowing it to harden and decompose on the surface4 ,all dead animals are at once attacked and devoured by insects1 and the ,beetles play their full share in this necessary operation4 ,there are certain ,beetles1 called ,burying ,beetles 7,necrophorus vespillo71 which remove the earth from under the dead bodies of small animals1 such as birds or mice1 till they are beneath the level of the ground1 when they cover them up and deposit their eggs in them2 these bodies form stores of food for the future larv4 ,the ,stag ,beetle 7,lucanus cervus1 fig4 #bb71 the ,dor ,beetle 7,geotrupes stercorarius71 the ,cockchaffer 7,melolontha vulgaris71 the ,musk ,beetle 7,cerambyx moschatus1 fig4 #af71 and the ,lady-bird 7,coccinella71 are well-known members of this order4 #b4 ,,orthoptera 7,straight-winged74 ,the ,orthoptera are those insects whose wings fold longitudinally2 they have two pairs1 but the anterior pair are horny and serve as wing-cases to the posterior pair2 their food is chiefly vegetable1 but to many of their species any kind is acceptable1 as their mouths are suitable for grinding-up hard substances4 ,the ,locusts 7,locustid1 fig4 #ba71 ,grasshoppers 7,gryllid71 ,crickets 7,achetid1 fig4 #af71 and ,cockroaches 7,blattid71 or ,black-beetles1 as they are sometimes incorrectly called1 belong to this tribe4 ,their metamorphoses are not so complete as in many other insects1 for they never entirely change their form2 the larva as it leaves the egg has no wings1 but otherwise is much like the parent2 it changes its skin several times1 which stage is analogous to the pupa state1 after casting it five times and obtaining wings1 it becomes the imago or perfect insect4 ,the ravages of the ,locusts are so well known that little need be said2 the following is from ,kirby and ,spence's ,entomology3-- ,although this animal be not very tremendous for its size1 nor very terrific in its appearance1 it is the very same whose ravages have been the theme of naturalists and historians in all ages1 and upon a close examination you will find it to be peculiarly fitted and furnished for the execution of its office4 ,it is armed with two pairs of very strong jaws1 the upper terminating in short1 and the lower in long teeth1 by which it can both lacerate and grind its food2 its stomach is of extraordinary capacity and powers2 its hind legs enable it to leap to a considerable distance1 and its ample vans are calculated to catch the wind as sails1 and so to carry it sometimes over the sea2 and although a single individual can effect but little evil1 yet when the entire surface of a country is covered by them1 and every one makes bare the spot on which it stands1 the mischief produced may be as infinite as their numbers4 ,so well do the ,arabians know their power1 that they make a ,locust say to ,mahomet1 ',we are the army of the ,great ,god2 we produce ninety-nine eggs2 if the hundred were completed1 we should consume the whole earth and all that is in it4' #c4 ,,neuroptera 7,nerve-winged74 ,the ,neuroptera comprise the ,dragon-fly 7,libellulina1 fig4 #af71 ,ant-lion 7,myrmelion71 ,caddis-flies 7,phryganid71 and the ,may-flies 7,ephemera72 these insects have wings of a beautiful network structure1 as may be seen in the ,dragon-fly1 they make their appearance about the middle of ,june in the locality of ditches and ponds4 ,the ,caddis-fly is noted for the peculiar case which the larva makes for itself2 the larva inhabits the water and the ease is made of little fragments of wood1 shell1 and sand1 agglutinated together so as to float2 the perfect insect is not aquatic1 and flies away when formed4 ,the ,may-flies are noted for the shortness of their existence1 the larv live in the water1 and many of them are eaten by fishes who are very fond of them1 but sufficient numbers come to the perfect state1 to form complete clouds in the air where the larv were1 these creatures live but a day1 and some of their species but an hour or two1 in the perfect state1 they deposit their eggs in the water1 which come to life in the mud at the bottom4 ,the flight of these fragile beings and their short-lived holiday festivities are well described by ,kirby and ,spence3-- ,in the beginning of ,september1 for two successive years1 ,i was so fortunate as to witness a spectacle of this kind1 which afforded me a more sublime gratification than any work or exhibition of art has power to communicate4 ,the first was in #ahaa4 ,taking an evening walk near my house1 when the sun1 declining fast towards the horizon1 shone forth without a cloud1 the whole atmosphere over and near the stream swarmed with infinite myriads of ,ephemer and little gnats of the genus chironomus1 which in the sun-beam appeared as numerous and more lucid than the drops of rain1 as if the heavens were showering down brilliant gems4 ,afterwards1 in the following year1 one ,sunday1 a little before sunset1 ,i was enjoying a stroll with a friend at a greater distance from the river1 when in a field by the road-side the same pleasing scene was renewed1 but in a style of still greater magnificence2 for1 from some cause in the atmosphere1 the insects at a distance looked much larger than they really were4 ,the choral dances consisted principally of ,ephemer1 but there were also some chironomi1 the former1 however1 being most conspicuous1 attracted our chief attention4 ,alternately rising and falling1 in the full beam they appeared so transparent and glorious1 that they scarcely resembled anything material2 they reminded us of angels and glorified spirits drinking life and joy in the effulgence of the ,divine favour4 ,the ,bard of ,twickenham1 from the terms in which his beautiful description of his sylphs is conceived in the ',rape of the ,lock' seems to have witnessed the pleasing scene here described3-- ',some to the sun their insect wings unfold1 ,waft on the breeze1 or sink in clouds of gold2 ,transparent forms1 too fine for mortal sight1 ,their fluid bodies half dissolved in light2 ,loose to the wind their airy garments flew1 ,thin glittering textures of the filmy dew1 ,dipt in the richest tincture of the skies1 ,where light disports in ever mingling dyes1 ,while every beam new transient colours flings1 ,colours that change whene'er they wave their wings4' #d4 ,,hymenoptera 7,membrane-winged74 ,the ,hymenoptera are those insects which have four membraneous wings4 ,the ,bees 7,apid1 fig4 #af71 ,wasps 7,vespid71 the ,ants 7,formicid71 and the ,ichneumon ,flies 7,ichneumonid71 are the chief tribes of this order4 ,the ,bees1 ,wasps1 and ,ants are celebrated for forming societies1 more perfectly arranged and governed than in any other creatures but man4 ,it is curious that the most perfect instincts 7such as approach so nearly to reason that they almost defy us to make a distinction7 should have been given by the ,creator to creatures so far removed from man in the scale of existence1 and so little resembling him in any other particular4 ,this is one of the stumbling-blocks in the way of those who wish to have it believed that all animals are progressive from certain types1 which cannot be got over2 if such were the case1 man would be most nearly imitated by the ,apes1 and these again by those most nearly allied to them1 and so on downwards1 but here we find a government almost as perfect as that of the human species--an arrangement of work1 a division of labour1 buildings1 storehouses1 c4--showing nearly all the social habits and feelings of man1 in creatures who in form and size have no resemblance to him4 ,kirby and ,spence1 in describing the societies of insects1 say3--,but when we consider the object of these societies1 the preservation and multiplication of the species1 and the means by which that object is attained 7the united labours and co-operation of perhaps millions of individuals71 it seems as if they were impelled by passions very similar to those main-springs of human associations which ,i have just enumerated4 ,desire appears to stimulate them1 love to allure them1 fear to alarm them4 ,they want a habitation to reside in and food for their subsistence4 ,does not this look as if desire were the operating cause which induces them to unite their labours to construct the one and provide the other8 ,their nest contains a numerous family of helpless brood4 ,does not love here seem to urge them to exemplary and fond attention1 and those unremitted and indefatigable exertions manifested by the whole community for the benefit of these dear objects8 ,is it not also evident by their general and singular attachment to their families1 by their mutual caresses1 by their feeding each other1 by their sympathy with suffering individuals and endeavours to relieve them1 by their readiness to help those that are in difficulty1 and finally by their sports and assemblies for relaxation8 ,that fear produces its influences upon them seems no less evident1 when we see them agitated by the approach of enemies1 endeavour to repel their attacks1 and to construct works of defence4 ,they appear to have besides a common language1 for they possess the faculty1 by significative gestures and sounds1 of communicating their wants and ideas to each other4 ,numerous works have been entirely devoted to the habits and instincts of ,bees and ,ants1 and very interesting they are1 but it would be impossible to give an intelligible account of them in the small space allotted in this volume4 ,the wax of which ,bees build their beautiful six-sided cells1 and which is the whole source of all the wax used by men for a variety of purposes1 is secreted in little scales or flakes1 between the joints of the abdomen1 from whence the wax-making ,bees take it to build the comb2 the cells of the comb are filled with honey1 which is obtained by the ,bees 7by means of the apparatus shown at fig4 #bc71 from the nectaries of flowers in the form of nectar1 and is converted into honey in the honey-bag of the ,bee1 from whence it is discharged into the cells4 ,bees also collect the pollen from the flowers they visit1 this adheres to the hairs on the ,bee1 and is scraped and brushed off1 and collected into two little lots1 which the ,bee carries on each hind leg1 this pollen is made into bee-bread4 ,by scattering the pollen1 flowers are often fecundated1 for there are many plants1 the female flowers of which are separate from the males1 and it is only by insects and the wind1 that the females are fecundated1 for the ,bee1 with the pollen adhering to every part1 first visits one flower and then another in search of nectar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,,honey-,,lapping ,,apparatus ,,of ,,wild ,,sea-,,bee 7,halictus71 7a1 magnified2 a b1 more highly magnified74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,white ,,ants 7#a1 ,winged ,female2 #b1 ,female1 distended with eggs74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be--,,nests ,,of ,,white ,,ants4 ,with respect to the ,ants1 ,kirby and ,spence give the following account of the building of their habitations1 ,the nest of ,formica brunnea is composed wholly of earth1 and consists of a great number of stories1 sometimes not fewer than forty1 twenty below the level of the soil1 and as many above1 which last1 following the slope of the ant-hill1 are concentric4 ,each story1 separately examined1 exhibits cavities in the shape of saloons1 narrower apartments1 and long galleries which preserve the communication between both4 ,the arched roofs of the most spacious rooms are supported by very thin walls1 or occasionally by small pillars and true buttresses2 some having only one entrance from above1 others a second1 communicating with the lower story2 the main galleries1 of which1 in some places1 several meet in one large saloon1 communicate with other subterranean passages1 which are often carried to the distance of several feet from the hill4 ,these insects work chiefly after sunset4 ,in building their nest they employ soft clay only1 scraped from its bottom when sufficiently moistened by a shower1 which1 far from injuring1 consolidates and strengthens their architecture4 ,different labourers convey small masses of this ductile material between their mandibles1 and with the same instrument they spread and mould it to their will1 the antenn accompanying every movement4 ,they render all firm by pressing the surface lightly with their fore feet2 and however numerous the distinct masses of clay composing these walls1 and though connected by no glutinous material1 they appear when finished1 one single layer1 well united1 consolidated and smoothed4 ,having traced the plan of their structure1 by placing here and there the foundations of the pillars and partition-walls1 they add successively new portions2 and when the walls of a gallery or apartment1 which are half a line thick1 are elevated about half an inch in height1 they join them by springing a flattish arch or roof from one side to the other4 ,nothing can be a more interesting spectacle than one of these cities while building4 ,in one place vertical walls form the outline1 which communicate with different corridors by openings made in the masonry2 in another we see a true saloon1 whose vaults are supported by numerous pillars2 and further on are the cross-ways or squares where several streets meet1 and whose roofs1 though often more than two inches across1 the ,ants are under no difficulty in constructing1 beginning the sides of the arch in the angle formed by two walls1 and extending them by successive layers of clay till they meet2 while crowds of masons arrive from all parts with their particles of mortar1 and work with a regularity1 harmony1 and activity1 which can never enough be admired4 ,so assiduous are they in their operations1 that they will complete a story with all its saloons1 vaulted roofs1 partitions and galleries1 in seven or eight hours4 ,if they begin a story1 and for want of moisture are unable to finish it1 they pull down again all the crumbling apartments that are not covered in4 ,every one has heard of the destructive as well as constructive qualities of the ,white ,ant2 another quotation from ,kirby and ,spence will illustrate both4 ,when they find their way into houses or warehouses nothing less hard than metal or glass escapes their ravages2 their favourite food1 however1 is wood of all kinds1 except the ,teak1 and ,ironwood1 which are the only sorts known1 that they will not touch2 and so infinite are the multitudes of the assailants1 and such is the excellence of their tools1 that all the timber-work of a spacious apartment is often destroyed by them in a few nights4 ,exteriorly1 however1 everything appears as if untouched2 for these wary depredators 7and this is what constitutes the greatest singularity of their history7 carry on all their operations by sap and mine1 destroying utterly the inside of solid substances1 and scarcely ever attacking their outside until they have first concealed it and their operations with a coating of clay4 ,a general similarity runs through the proceedings of the whole tribe1 but the large ,african species1 called by ,smeathman ,termes bellicosus1 is the most formidable4 ,these insects live in large clay nests1 from whence they excavate tunnels all round1 often to the extent of several hundred feet2 from these they will descend a considerable depth below the foundation of a house1 and rise again through the floors2 or1 boring through the posts and supports of the building1 enter the roof and construct their galleries in various directions4 ,if a post be a convenient path to the roof1 or has any weight to support1 7how they discover it is not easily conjectured71 they will fill it with their mortar1 leaving only a track-way for themselves1 and thus1 as it were1 convert it from wood into stone as hard as many kinds of freestone4 ,in this manner they soon destroy houses1 and sometimes whole villages1 when deserted by their inhabitants1 so that in two or three years not a vestige of them will remain4 ,these insidious insects are not less expeditious in destroying the wainscoating1 shelves1 and other fixtures of a house1 than the house itself2 with the most consummate art and skill they eat away the inside of what they attack1 except a few fibres here and there1 which exactly suffice to keep the two sides1 or top and bottom1 connected1 so as to retain the appearance of solidity after the reality is gone2 and all the while they carefully avoid perforating the surface1 unless a book or any other thing that tempts them should be standing upon it4 ,koempfer1 speaking of the ,white ,ants of ,japan1 gives a remarkable instance of the rapidity with which these miners proceed4 ,upon rising one morning he observed that one of their galleries of the thickness of his little finger had been formed across his table2 and upon a further examination he found that they had bored a passage of that thickness up one foot of the table1 formed a gallery across it1 and then pierced down another foot into the floor2 all this was done in the few hours that intervened between his retiring to rest and his rising4 ,most of this order are armed with some weapon of defence4 ,the ,bee and ,wasp have each a most formidable sting1 with which they are able to inflict a wound fatal to most insects4 ,the ,ants have a peculiar secretion1 consisting of formic acid1 which they eject with great force1 and which has a very disagreeable smell4 ,the eggs of ,ants when hatched produce a small grub1 which spins itself a sort of cocoon1 and in this state it so much resembles a grain of corn1 that it has been mistaken for it2 this error has given rise to the supposition that ,ants store up corn for winter1 whereas they never eat corn1 but the care they take of these larv1 removing them from place to place1 taking them up in their mandibles and running along with them1 has been mistaken for the act of storing away grains of corn4 #e4 ,,strepsiptera 7,twisted-winged74 ,this order includes but a few species2 ,dr4 ,baird in his ,cyclopdia1 gives the following account of them3-- ,certain insects were discovered by ,kirby1 living parasitic in the abdomen of some ,andren1 which at that time were nondescript1 and could not be referred to any existing order4 ,they were afterwards placed in an order by themselves1 which he called ,strepsiptera4 ,the larv live in the bodies of ,bees1 ,wasps c41 and the males only undergo a perfect metamorphosis2 the females1 even when adult1 have neither legs1 wings1 nor eyes1 but resemble larv1 and continue to live parasitic in the bodies of the ,hymenopterous insects within which they were born4 ,the characters are thus taken from the male and consist chiefly in the structure of the wings4 ,the anterior pair are quite rudimentary1 being transformed into a pair of short1 slender1 contorted appendages resembling narrow balancers or halters4 ,the posterior pair are large and membraneous1 their nervures are only longitudinal1 so that they are able to fold them like a fan4 ,they have large globular eyes1 with the facets few1 but of comparatively large size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,stylops ,,andren4 ,about ten or twelve species are known1 forming a small family1 ,stylopid4 ,the genus ,stylops may be taken as the type1 and contain such species as have the tarsi with four points and the antenn with six4 #f4 ,,lepidoptera 7,scaly-winged74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,scales ,,from ,,moth',s ,,wing 7,magnified74 ,this order includes the ,butterflies and ,moths1 they have four wings1 which are large and covered with minute scales1 which are for the most part of a heart or battledore shape1 as in fig4 #bg4 ,the wings of these insects are many of them beautifully marked and tinged4 ,there are about #ab1jjj species1 by some divided into diurnal 7or those which fly by day71 crepuscular 7or those which fly in the evening71 and nocturnal 7or those flying by night74 ,the ,moths are mostly crepuscular and nocturnal1 while the ,butterflies are chiefly diurnal1 but the most usual distinction between the ,moth and ,butterfly consists in the form of the antenn1 those of the ,moth being feather-shaped1 while those of the ,butterfly have a small knob at the end1 or1 as it is called1 club-shaped4 ,the ,lepidoptera feed upon the nectar of flowers1 for which purpose they are furnished with a long proboscis or ,haustellium1 which is curled up under the head1 it consists of two semi-cylindrical pieces which when placed side by side form a tube1 up which the nectar is drawn by capillary attraction4 ,the metamorphosis of these insects is complete4 ,the ,silkworm 7,bombyx mori7 belongs to this order4 ,it is the most important of all insects to man1 as from it alone all the silk of commerce is obtained4 ,its cocoon is of a beautiful yellow colour1 varying in shade from orange to pale straw-colour2 the silk of one cocoon weighs somewhere about three grains2 it would therefore1 at this calculation1 take #aibj worms to spin one pound4 ,the annual import of silk into this country alone is about #g1jjj1jjj pounds1 it must therefore take #ac1ddj1jjj1jjj ,silkworms to supply us with silk yearly6 ,the ,silkworm feeds almost exclusively on the leaves of the mulberry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,the ,,silkworm 7,bombyx mori74 #a1 the ,eggs2 #b1 the young ,silkworms2 #c1 the full-grown ,silkworm2 #d1 the ,cocoon2 #e1 the ,chrysalis2 #f1 the ,moth4 #g4 ,,hemiptera 7,half-winged74 ,the ,hemiptera have two pairs of wings1 the hindermost small1 and the foremost pair half horny and half membraneous1 the base being horny1 and the apex membraneous4 ,they include the ,bugs1 some of which are aquatic1 as the ,water ,scorpion 7,nepa71 and the ,water ,boatman 7,natonecta71 which swims on its back1 rowing itself by means of a pair of long legs1 which look like oars2 the common bed ,bug is also of this order1 although wingless1 as are also the ,plant ,lice 7,aphides71 which1 however1 obtain wings in their perfect state4 #h4 ,,diptera 7,two-winged74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,part ,,of ,,gnat',s ,,wing1 ,,magnified4 ,the ,diptera include the common ,house ,fly 7fig4 #af71 ,bluebottle ,fly1 ,gnat1 and many others2 their wings are like the ,neuroptera1 but they have but one pair1 the other pair being undeveloped1 form little knobs called balancers4 ,the wings of ,flies are generally covered with short stout hairs1 as seen in fig4 #bi2 the common ,fly feeds upon almost anything1 but some of the ,diptera feed exclusively on the blood of other animals2 the ,gnat 7,culex pipiens71 of which the ,mosquito is a variety1 deposits its egg in the water on any floating substance1 the larva which comes from the egg is aquatic1 living with its head downwards1 the end of the abdomen only being above the water1 in this there is a spiracle or breathing orifice1 which enables it to take in the air2 the ,gnat1 when it comes from this larva1 stands on its shell for a moment1 and then flies off1 for it is not suited to live in the water2 this history of the early stages of its life1 accounts for ,gnats being always found in such numbers near pools of water4 ,the ,tsetse1 which ,dr4 ,livingstone describes as being so fatal to cattle1 is of this order2 he says1 ,it is well known that the bite of this poisonous insect is certain death to ox1 horse1 or dog4444 ,a most remarkable feature in the bite of the ,tsetse is its perfect harmlessness to man and wild animals1 and even calves1 so long as they continue to suck the cows4 #i4 ,,aptera 7,wingless74 ,to this order belongs the ,flea 7,pulex irritans71 which is furnished with lancet-shaped weapons1 through which it sucks the blood of other animals1 for it is entirely parasitic1 and also the ,chigeo 7,pulex penetrans71 which is a troublesome and even dangerous pest in the ,west ,indies2 it penetrates the skin of the feet1 and deposits its young beneath it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,,flea 7,pulex irritans7 ,,magnified4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,,arachnida4#a1 ,spider 7,epeira ,diadema72 #b1 ,scorpion 7,scorpio74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb--,,long-,,legged ,,house-,,spider 7,aran domestica74 ,the last class of the ,articulata1 the ,arachnida1 includes the ,spiders1 ,scorpions1 ,centipedes1 and ,millipedes4 ,the ,arachnida differ from insects1 in having eight or more legs1 more than two eyes1 no wings1 and no head2 the ,spiders have four pairs of legs1 and six1 eight1 or more1 simple eyes1 which appear as minute spots on the upper part of the thorax4 ,spiders nearly all live by preying upon small insects1 which they catch in several ways1 but by far the most general mode is by constructing a web or net to entangle them2 the threads of this web are made of a fluid glutinous substance1 which is secreted within the abdomen1 and which they project from extremely minute orifices1 several of which exist on the point of little projections called spinnarets1 this liquid dries into a solid thread immediately it comes into contact with the air2 it is extremely strong1 and so fine that several thousand of the single fibres will only make the size of a human hair4 ,the ,garden ,spider 7,epeira diadema7 is often called the ,geometrical ,spider1 from the regularity of its web4 ,these ,spiders will often place a thread from one spot to another1 where it would seem impossible that they could attach it1 such as from the branch of a tree to the corner of a house twenty feet or more from the ground2 it has never been accurately determined how the ,spider does this1 and it is the more difficult to observe1 as it is always done in the night1 but it has been supposed that a fine thread is spun1 and that the wind carries it across1 when it is strengthened and afterwards made tight4 ,the ,spider 7,arane domestica7 that makes cobwebs in the corners of rooms1 is called the ,weaving ,spider4 ,some ,spiders are called ,hunting ,spiders1 they do not construct webs1 but pounce upon their prey with a leap2 the ,mygale avicularis of ,south ,america is one of this kind2 it is said that some grow so large that their feet spread out a foot wide4 ,the ,long-legged ,spider1 often found in our houses1 and of which fig4 #cb is an exact copy1 measures #c #a_/b inches1 and is the largest species we have4 ,there are also aquatic ,spiders1 which feed upon insects in the water and dive down for them2 their surface being hairy and unctuous1 retains sufficient air to bring them up and prevent them being wetted4 ,the eyes of ,spiders are different from those of other insects2 they appear as simple1 shining spots1 or ocelli1 and not compound eyes1 having a great many ocelli compounded into one4 ,these ocelli are arranged in a group of eight or more1 and placed on the upper part of the thorax1 for ,spiders have no head1 although generally represented with one4 ,the eggs of ,spiders are generally deposited in some sheltered place1 fastened together and partly covered with a net-work of a sort of yellow silk1 very much resembling the cocoon of the ,silkworm4 ,the ,scorpion1 so terrible in appearance1 and in its sting so deadly1 and which is sometimes a foot in length1 belongs to this order4 ,it has eight legs1 and a pair of claws like a lobster1 the body is lengthened into a sort of tail1 at the end of which is a claw or sting1 like the poison fang of a serpent1 with a poison bag at its root2 its effects are often fatal to man1 and always so to the insects and other small animals upon which the ,scorpion feeds1 its usual mode of killing which1 is to catch them with its claws and then to sting them to death4 ,the ,centipede is a scarcely less frightful creature2 in ,south ,america and the ,west ,indies it is sometimes found to grow to eight or ten inches in length1 it is of a long jointed form1 with generally twenty-one pairs of legs1 although some have double this number2 its bite is much to be dreaded1 as it is poisonous1 especially the ,scolopendr1 which have a poison gland1 like the snake2 in this country they are very small indeed1 and are generally found in moist places4 ,the ,centipedes and ,millipedes are1 by some1 placed in the class ,arachnida1 but by others in a separate class called ,myriopoda1 divided into two orders1 the ,chilognatha1 which have rounded cylindrical bodies1 and generally more than one pair of legs to each segment of the body1 and the ,chilopoda1 which have a distinct flattened head and but one pair of legs to each segment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,mollusca4 #a1 ,nautilus 7,argonauta72 #b1 ,clio ,borealis2 #c1 ,mussel 7,mytilus edule74 ,the last of the three great divisions of the ,invertebrata is formed by the ,mollusca2 it is divided into six classes1 7see page #bah74 ,the ,mollusca are characterised by having no internal skeleton1 nor external horny case1 as in the ,articulata2 they are rather soft1 and either void of solid covering1 or possessed of shells composed chiefly of earthy matter 7chalk71 and in one or two pieces1 called valves1 hence the names1 uni-valve and bi-valve2 all shells of this description belong to the ,mollusca1 some of which have no means of locomotion1 as ,oysters2 others have a foot covered with a muscular expansion1 called the mantle1 by which they glide onwards1 as the ,snail4 #a4 ,the ,tunicata have no shell or hard covering1 but are of a pretty firm consistence2 they are either fixed to rocks and sea-weeds1 or float about freely1 and are either solitary1 social1 or compound4 ,the ,ascidians are united in groups1 and are all connected by a common stalk or ,stolon1 from which they grow by buds4 #b4 ,the ,brachiopoda4 ,these ,molluscs are furnished with a pair of shells1 within which the animal lives2 one of these shells 7the ventral one7 has a small hole in it1 close to the hinge1 and through this a long tendinous cord passes1 which fixes the creature to some stone or rock1 hence the name ,brachiopodous1 which means arm-footed4 ,the young of this ,mollusc are not fixed1 but float about4 ,the ,lingula has horny shells1 and the foot passes out between them2 these creatures were some of the first created1 if not the very first2 the shells of ,terebratula are found in vast quantities in the oldest fossiliferous strata4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,,cockle 7,cardium edule74 #c4 ,the ,lamellibranchiata include a great many of our most ordinary ,mollusca1 commonly known as shell fish4 ,they have a pair of shells1 and are thence called bivalve4 ,the ,oyster 7,ostrea edulis71 ,mussel 7,mytilus edulis71 ,cockle 7,cardium edule71 ,scallop 7,pecten71 belong to this class4 ,oysters form a considerable article of commerce1 thirty or forty thousand bushels are brought each season to ,london2 they are dredged up from beds1 where they are found in great quantities4 ,they spawn in ,may and ,june1 and are not then good4 ,there is an old and a well-known saying1 that ,oysters are not fit to eat1 unless there is an ,r in the month1 all the names of the months containing an ,r but ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 and ,august4 ,the spawn is collected and placed in artificial beds1 consisting of shallow places or hollows in the sea1 where the tide will not wash them away1 and whence they can be easily removed when sufficiently grown1 which is in five or six years2 these creatures have no powers of locomotion1 but remain where the tide washes them2 but ,scallops1 ,cockles 7fig4 #cd71 and ,mussels 7fig4 #cc71 have the power of fixing themselves to any substance they wish1 by means of the byssus or beard1 which is a tuft of fibres passing out from between the shells2 and it is said1 the ,scallops have the power of progression1 by suddenly opening and shutting the shells4 #d4 ,the ,pteropoda are ,mollusca which have no shell1 or a very thin one2 the ,clio borealis 7fig4 #cc71 which forms the chief food of the ,whale1 is found in great multitudes in the ,arctic seas1 it swims about by means of two extensions1 similar to wings4 ,the ,hyaloea has a small round transparent shell4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,snail 7,helix aspersa71 ,,and ,,slug 7,limax cinerius74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,,wentle-,,trap ,,shell 7,scalaria74 #e4 ,the ,gasteropoda are extremely numerous2 most of them have univalve shells1 but many of them have none1 as the ,garden ,slug 7,limax1 fig4 #ce74 ,the ,whelk 7,buccinum undatum71 ,perriwinkle 7,littorina littoria71 ,garden ,snail 7,helix aspersa1 fig4 #ce71 and the ,wentle-trap 7,scalaria1 fig4 #cf71 are the most familiar examples of this class4 ,these ,mollusca walk by means of the mantle1 which is muscular1 and capable of alternate contraction and expansion2 they breathe by means of lungs on their back beneath the shell1 and to which there is an opening in their side4 ,what are usually called the horns are four in number1 two short and two long2 they are tentacul1 but what is peculiar in them is the circumstance of having the eyes placed at their ends4 ,these ,mollusca have a sort of valve1 which1 when they retire into the shell1 closes it like a lid2 it is called the ,operculum2 in some cases it is horny1 as in the ,perriwinkle1 and in others1 resembles shell2 the shells of these mollusca are coiled into a spiral1 this is caused by the shell always growing by additions to the edges of the mouth1 and in nearly every case this spiral turns in the same direction that a screw does1 but in a very few it turns in the opposite direction1 as in the ,fusus contrarius4 #f4 ,the ,cephalopoda include the ,cuttle-,fish1 and ,nautilus 7fig4 #cc74 ,they are furnished with eight or ten tentacula or arms1 which spring from the head1 and which are covered with suckers2 the mouth is in the centre1 and these tentacula are used to lay hold of their prey and convey it to the mouth2 they have two perfect eyes1 and they breathe by gills4 ,the ,nautilus has a univalve shell1 which is of a very graceful and elegant form2 its interior is divided into chambers1 with a syphon running through them1 by which the air is exhausted or compressed so as to cause them to sink or swim2 the animal occupies only the outer chamber2 the extinct ,ammonite belonged to this class4 ,it is from the ,cuttle-,fish 7,sepi7 that the beautiful dark brown pigment1 known as sepia1 is obtained1 and also the material of which ,indian-ink is made4 ,,the ,,vertebrata4 ,the ,vertebrate animals are those which have a brain and spinal cord inclosed within a bony case1 an internal skeleton1 to which are affixed the muscles1 and which is moved by them2 they all possess four extremities1 more or less modified in form1 with the exception of the ,serpents4 ,they are divided into four classes1 ,fishes1 ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,mammals4 ,,fishes4 ,the ,fishes live in water1 and are unable to live in the air2 they receive oxygen from the water1 but this is received much more slowly than by air-breathing animals1 and as the combination of oxygen with the carbon of the system gives the elevated temperature of animals1 so in ,fishes1 the oxygen being received slowly1 their temperature rises but little above the temperature of the water they inhabit2 they have thence received the name of cold-blooded4 ,fishes live upon the marine animals which they capture1 the various sea-weeds which grow in the water1 and insects which fall into1 or breed there4 ,they have fins instead of legs1 but the two pairs of fins known as ,pectoral and ,ventral are analogues of them1 and in a pectoral fin may be found bones analogous to all the bones of the arm and hand of ,man1 or the fore-feet of the other ,vertebrata4 ,fishes urge themselves through the water chiefly by the action of the tail from side to side1 and in those members which have more extended forms 7as ,eels71 by a wavey motion of the body itself2 and the rapidity with which they swim is such1 that ,sharks have been known to go round the ship they are following many times in a very short space1 although it may be sailing at a great speed before the wind4 ,fishes are covered with scales1 and the head is united to the body without any constriction which can be considered as a neck2 they are mostly of a form such as can easily pass through the water1 without offering much resistance1 and their specific gravity is so nearly that of water1 that1 by the compression of a small vessel filled with air1 called the swimming bladder or sound1 they can rise and sink with little effort4 ,many tribes of the human family1 such as the ,esquimaux and ,polynesians1 almost live upon ,fish1 and even in ,great ,britain1 in fishing districts1 it forms a great part of the food of the inhabitants1 and their capture gives employment to thousands4 ,fish inhabit all kinds of water1 the sea1 rivers1 and ponds1 and many which live habitually in the sea come into rivers at certain seasons2 and with respect to those which dwell always in the sea1 some inhabit certain tracts only1 and confine themselves to them1 just as quadrupeds do to certain localities on the land4 ,it has been a matter of wonder how the ,fish get into ponds formed by the drainage of lands2 but most ponds are supplied by springs which run underground from adjacent lakes or rivers1 or by rills running on the surface1 these bring the ova or eggs1 which in favourable situations become hatched4 ,fish are exceedingly prolific1 the eggs in the roe of a ,codfish were estimated by ,lewenhoec1 to be upwards of #i1jjj1jjj1 but not one in a thousand comes to maturity2 there are enemies on all sides to devour them before they are hatched1 and others to attack them afterwards4 ,some of the rivers of ,france have lately been artificially stocked with ,fish by causing the fecundated spawn to be preserved till they are of a bulk and strength to protect themselves4 ,this was effected by confining them in tanks floating in the water and perforated with holes1 and afterwards placing them in a part of the river1 inclosed both above and below by means of nets1 so as to keep away their enemies--the larger ,fishes4 ,fishes were the first of the ,vertebrated animals created1 and as a proof of the incorrectness of the doctrine of development1 these first-created ,fish were of a class corresponding to the most highly organised ,fishes of the present day4 ,fishes are divided into two families3 #a1 ,osseous ,fishes 7with a bony skeleton72 #b1 ,cartilaginous ,fishes 7with a cartilaginious skeleton74 ,the ,osseous ,fishes are divided into six ,orders3-- #a4 ,,acanthopterygii 7,thorny-fin74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--a1 ,,perch 7,perea fluvia ilis74 #b1 ,,mackerel 7,scomber vulgaris74 #c1 ,,gurnard 7,trigla ,gurnhardus74 ,the ,acanthopterygii include a great number of our ordinary useful ,fishes1 as ,mackerel1 ,perch1 ,tunny1 ,gurnard1 c4 7fig4 #cg74 ,the ,perch is a good example of this order1 the sharp spines on its dorsal fin being well developed1 and dangerous for anglers to handle4 #b4 ,,malacopterygii ,,abdominales 7,abdominal soft-fin74 ,the abdominal ,malacopterygii include the ,pilchard1 ,herring1 ,pike 7fig4 #ch71 ,salmon 7fig4 #ci71 ,anchovy1 ,trout1 ,roach1 ,chub1 ,tench1 and many more of the ,fish which inhabit our streams and the sea4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,,the ,,salmon 7,salmo salar74 ,the following account of the ,salmon1 is extracted from ,dr4 ,baird's ,cyclopdia of the ,natural ,sciences3--,the ,salmon is exceedingly abundant in all the northern oceans4 ,it is found in ,france1 ,england1 ,germany1 ,bohemia1 ,switzerland1 ,scandinavia1 ,iceland1 and ,greenland4 ,it exists also in ,labrador and ,canada1 and down the ,american coast to the ,connecticut river1 in latitude #da-a_/b deg41 and either it1 or a species so closely allied as not to be distinguished except by close comparison1 abounds in the ,arctic seas washing the northern shores of the ,american continent4 ,it does not frequent the rivers falling into the ,mediterranean1 and1 though it has been stated to be the case1 it does not occur in the ,persian ,gulf1 or the ,caspian ,sea4 ,in entering the mouths of rivers in order to spawn1 the females are always observed to precede the males1 depositing their ova in little pools or sort of nests1 which they form in the sand at the bottom1 for the males to fecundate4 ,the young grow very rapidly1 and at the present time1 the subject of the changes which they undergo in their progress to maturity is one exciting much interest4 ,when first hatched they are about an inch in length1 and during the first year are called ,parr4 ,when they remove to the sea1 they receive a more brilliant dress1 and then become the ,smolt1 varying from four to six inches in length4 ,after a residence in the sea of from two months to ten weeks1 they revisit the fresh waters1 and are then from two-and-a-half to four pounds' weight1 and are called 'grilses' or 'gilses4' ,during the ensuing winter they spawn1 and are then known as ,salmon4 ,salmon grow to a large size1 full-grown specimens weighing about forty pounds1 though individuals are mentioned which have weighed seventy or even eighty pounds4 ,such are now excessively rare1 owing to the perfection of the means of capturing them at the mouths of our rivers1 by which the chances are very greatly against any fish escaping the various dangers by which it is environed for such a succession of years as is likely to admit of its attaining to its full dimensions4 ,the power these fish have in overcoming obstacles to their progress up large rivers at spawning time is very great2 they shoot up rapids with the velocity of arrows1 and clear considerable waterfalls1 leaping a height of ten1 twelve1 and even as much as twenty feet4 ,the usual time at which the ,salmon leaves the sea is the autumn2 it remains in the rivers during the winter1 and returns to the sea1 after having deposited its spawn1 in the spring4 ,the fishing of this excellent and universally admired fish gives employment to many thousands of people1 throughout the whole of the north of ,europe4 ,salmon fisheries1 it has been said1 rank next to agriculture4 ,in this country the ,scotch rivers supply by far the greater proportion of the salmon brought to market4 ,the total value of the ,scotch fisheries has been calculated at #aej1jjj a year4 ,many salmon are caught by stake nets1 and also by the practice of spearing2 this is a very picturesque sight1 as it is conducted by torchlight4 ,the ,herring 7,clupea ,harengus7 makes its visit to this country about ,september1 in enormous shoals1 extending many miles each way2 they are caught in great quantities and salted in the boats immediately2 when brought on shore they are suspended in the smoke of wood fires1 and become red herrings4 ,the ,herring fisheries are very important1 and afford--like the ,salmon fisheries--employment to thousands2 the greatest quantities are caught off the coast of ,norway1 where it is calculated about #djj1jjj1jjj are taken yearly4 ,a great many are caught off ,lowestoffe1 and ,wick1 in ,caithness4 ,the ,pilchard 7,clupea pilchardus7 is a kind of ,herring1 and is caught in enormous quantities off the coasts of ,cornwall4 ,the ,sprat and ,whitebait are species of ,clupea4 #c4 ,,malacopterygii ,,sub-,,brachiales 7,sub-brachial soft fin74 ,the brachial ,malacopterygii include most of the ,flat ,fish2 as the ,turbot1 ,plaice1 ,sole1 c4 7fig4 #dj74 ,the ,turbot1 and ,halibut are caught out in the deep waters1 but the ,plaice and ,flounders1 chiefly in shallows2 these fish have one side dark and the other light1 and both eyes are placed on the dark side2 they always swim with this side upwards2 in the ,turbot this is the left1 while in ,plaice it is the right side4 ,the ,cod 7fig4 #dj7 is also included in this order2 it is a large fish1 often weighing forty or fifty pounds1 and three or four feet long2 it is chiefly caught in northern regions1 the banks of ,newfoundland being the most celebrated for its ,cod fisheries1 and supply the ,london market4 ,these fish are caught by a long line and hook let down to a great depth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--a1 ,,turbot 7,rhombus maximus74 #b1 ,,sole 7,solea vulgaris74 #c1 ,,plaice 7,platessa communis74 #d1 ,,cod 7,gadus morrhua74 #d4 ,,malacopterygii ,,apodes 7,footless soft fin74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,,the ,,eel 7,anguilla acutirostris74 ,to this order belong the ,eels 7fig4 #da74 ,they have no abdominal fins1 and are therefore called apodial1 or footless2 they very much resemble the serpent in their elongated form2 they live chiefly in rivers and ponds1 in the mud of which they obtain worms1 c41 upon which they feed1 they have been known to leave the water at night and travel for some distance in search of worms1 frogs1 c4 ,these fish live a long time after they are removed from the water1 and are extremely tenacious of life2 their skins are covered with such fine small scales that they appear quite smooth1 and are extremely slimy4 ,the ,conger ,eel is much thicker in proportion than the common ,eel1 and has a dorsal fin like a fringe all down the back2 it grows to the weight of ninety or a hundred pounds sometimes4 ,eels are often caught by thrusting many-pronged spears 7having the spears barbed7 into the mud1 and the ,eels are brought up sticking between the prongs4 ,the ,electrical ,eel 7,gymnotus electricus7 belongs to this section2 it somewhat resembles a large ordinary ,eel four or five feet long1 but has a broad ventral fin running all along its lower part2 it is famous for its power of giving electrical shocks when touched1 and seems to have the power of using this influence at pleasure1 but after giving a certain number of shocks its power becomes exhausted1 and it has to remain some time before it can again give out shocks of any strength2 these shocks are sufficiently strong to prove fatal to small animals1 and even to mules and horses crossing the streams which they frequent1 when a number will attack them at once4 ,this creature is a native of the rivers and pools of ,south ,america1 ,demerara1 c42 the natives kill them by driving in a great number of horses1 and when the ,eels have exhausted their electrical powers1 they are then caught and killed4 #e4 ,,lophobranchi 7,tufted gill74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db--;,,hippocampus 7,from a dried specimen74 ,to the ,lophobranchi belongs the ,pipe-fish 7,hippocampus1 or ,sea-horse1 fig4 #db74 ,the following is ,dr4 ,baird's description of these curious little creatures3-- ,most of these species are straight1 but others of the family contract after death1 so as to form a grotesque resemblance to a horse in miniature4 ,these form the genus ,hippocampus1 and from their shape are generally called ,sea-horses4 ,hippocampus brevirostris 7the short-nosed ,sea-horse7 is occasionally met with on the ,british coast4 ,it is from six to ten inches long1 the body much compressed1 short and deep2 the whole length of the body and tail divided by longitudinal and transverse ridges1 with tubercular points at the angles of the intersection4 ,the snout is slender1 and the tail long1 quadrangular1 and terminated in a naked or finless tip4 ,when swimming about1 the ,hippocampus maintains a vertical position1 but the tail is ready to grasp whatever meets it in the water2 it quickly entwines in any direction round weeds or other objects1 and darts at its prey with great dexterity4 #f4 ,,plectognathi 7,plaited jaw74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,the ,,sun-,,fish 7,orthagoriscus74 ,the ,sea ,porcupine 7,diodon hystrix7 belongs to this order4 ,these ,fish are of a peculiar thick rounded form1 and occasionally inflate their stomachs with air1 which makes them almost spherical1 in which state they float with the belly upwards1 and being covered with spines1 present rather a formidable object to attack2 the flesh is unwholesome1 and1 it is said1 the liver is violently poisonous2 some of the species of this fish are phosphorescent1 and from this appearance they derive the name of ,sunfish1 as they shine very brightly in the dark4 ,the short ,sunfish 7fig4 #dc7 turns round as it swims2 it is very large1 sometimes weighing from three to four hundred pounds4 ,they yield a considerable quantity of oil1 for which they are caught4 ,their jaws are not divided into teeth1 but consist each of a single piece2 they live upon seaweeds and various crustaceans4 ,the ,cartilaginous ,fishes are divided into three orders4 #a4 ,,sturiones 7,sturgeons74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,the ,,sturgeon 7,accipenser sturio74 ,sturgeons 7fig4 #dd7 are inhabitants of the northern seas1 but are occasionally found in our rivers4 ,they have rows of bony plates imbedded in the skin2 they sometimes attain the length of twenty feet1 but are usually from six to eight feet long4 ,isinglass is made of the swimming bladder of the ,sturgeon1 and the roe 7dried and salted7 forms the ,caviare4 #b4 ,,plagiostomi 7,wide-mouthed74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,,the ,,shark 7,carcharias vulgaris74 ,the ,plagiostomi comprise the ,sharks 7fig4 #de7 and ,dog-fishes1 a most voracious tribe2 the ,white ,shark often attains the length of twenty feet4 ,they are terribly famous for their dreadful powers of destruction1 swallowing all that comes before them2 they are able to bite in two1 with one snap of their formidable jaws1 the body of any one unfortunate enough to fall in their way2 their mouths are armed with several rows of short spear-shaped teeth2 the mouth is placed a considerable distance under the head1 so that when biting they turn on one side or quite over2 they have no gills1 but the water passes through five oblong openings on each side4 ,sailors hold this terrible inhabitant of the deep in great detestation1 as well they may1 for there are few who have spent many years at sea but can tell of a friend or messmate who has been mutilated or devoured by the ,sharks4 ,when sailors catch one1 it is hauled on deck and killed with great gusto2 the stomach is opened and its contents examined1 and it generally contains some terrible mementoes in the form of buttons1 buckles1 c41 the only relics of its victims4 #c4 ,,cyclostomi 7,round-mouthed74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,,the ,,lamprey 7,petromyzon fluviatilis7 7b1 the sucker74 ,the ,lamprey or ,lampern 7fig4 #df7 inhabits both rivers and lakes1 and some species1 the sea2 it has a round mouth1 by which it affixes itself to rocks1 c41 and also to other fish1 it is furnished with teeth on the outer edge1 it has no scales1 but is covered with a glutinous skin2 in form it much resembles an ,eel1 and is from twelve to eighteen inches long4 ,the ,lamprey was once very plentiful in the ,thames1 and considered a dainty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--a1 ,,frog 7,rana temporaria74 #b1 ,,toad 7,bufo vulgaris74 #c1 ,,tadpoles4 ,,reptiles4 ,these constitute the second class of the ,vertebrate animals4 ,they are divided into four orders4 #a4 ,,amphibia 7double-lived74 ,by some naturalists a separate class is made out of the ,amphibia1 including the ,frog kind1 ,toads1 and ,newts 7fig4 #dg71 which they call ,batrachia1 and which takes a place between ,reptiles and ,fishes1 as the young of this class have a totally different form from the adult animal1 and much resemble a fish1 breathing by gills and having no legs1 but as they become mature the gills are replaced by lungs1 and the legs make their appearance4 ,the ,amphibia have soft skins1 which appear to serve as lungs or gills when they are under the water1 extracting the air from it1 and enabling them to remain a long time there without coming up to breathe2 they are partly aquatic1 and feed upon insects and other small creatures1 which they capture by darting out the tongue1 which is covered with a glutinous secretion1 and drawing it in again instantly with the insect adhering to it1 which they swallow whole4 ,the ,frogs are furnished with webbed feet and swim well2 they progress on land by leaps1 their powerful hind legs carrying them to a great distance4 ,the young of the ,amphibia are brought forth as eggs1 which float on the water1 and when they first come to life form the curious little creatures called ,tadpoles1 having long tails and no feet1 and1 as before stated1 more resembling ,fish than ,reptiles4 ,the ,toads are for the most part nocturnal in their habits1 living in the daytime in gardens and holes2 they feed upon insects1 as do ,frogs1 and lay their eggs in the water4 ,the stories of ,toads being found alive in rock and the heart of trees1 arise from the following circumstances3 ,toads when small will often creep into holes in rocks and hollows in trees1 and in these situations they find abundance of food2 being slothful in their habits1 and capable of existing upon but little food1 and abstaining from it a long time1 they are apt to remain in their snug quarters and content themselves with what insects may come to them4 ,in this way they grow too large to get out of the hole1 and live for a great time in it2 when chance discovers them1 by the rock being broken open or the wood of the tree cleft1 the opening into which they had crept is overlooked4 ,the ,water ,newt 7,triton cristatus7 inhabits pools and ditches1 and 7like the others of this order7 is first formed as a ,tadpole2 it is of a brown and bright yellow colour1 with a crest down its back and tail1 and has the most extraordinary powers of reproducing any part cut off or removed1 such as a leg or the tail4 #b4 ,,ophidia 7,snake-like order74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--a1 ,,rock ,,snake 7,python molurus72 #b1 ,,spectacled ,,snake 7,cobra de ,capello72 #c1 ,,boa ,,constrictor4 ,this includes the ,serpents1 ,boas1 and ,pythons4 ,these creatures are peculiar from their long and flexible form1 and the absence of legs4 ,they move by a sinuous winding action1 and when about to seize their prey1 make a sudden dart with great rapidity4 ,they are covered with regular scales1 and mottled with different colours2 some1 as the ,adder and ,rattle-snake1 are very venomous1 the poison is contained in small glands connected with the poison-fangs1 which are two long pointed teeth1 having a groove or small canal leading from the side of the tooth to the poison-bag1 upon which1 when they bite1 they press1 and inject the poison into the wound while the tooth is in the flesh4 ,these poison-fangs lie flat down when the creature is not excited1 but are drawn up by muscles1 when they are about to spring on anything4 ,it is a common mistake to think that ,serpents have a sting1 arising from their having a thin1 long forked tongue1 which they protrude and retract with great rapidity1 and which has been mistaken for a sting2 the greater number of ,snakes are not at all venomous4 ,serpents have no teeth fit for eating with1 but they are used to hold their prey1 while they swallow it1 and they serve admirably for this purpose1 as each tooth turns backwards4 ,these creatures have mouths and throats capable of enormous distension 7the lower jaw not being fixed to the upper one71 so that they can swallow their food whole1 which they always do2 a ,frog or ,toad is often swallowed by the common ,snake1 which is quite disfigured by it when in its stomach4 ,the ,pythons and ,boas 7fig4 #dh7 are the largest of this class1 they kill their prey by coiling round it1 and gradually tightening their folds till it is suffocated and almost crushed1 when it is swallowed2 these great creatures will grow to the length of #cj or #dj feet1 and are capable of swallowing considerable quadrupeds1 as ,hares1 ,goats1 ,deer1 c42 after having their food1 they lie torpid for several days4 ,all ,serpents lay eggs1 and the ,pythons coil themselves round upon their eggs to protect them2 the ,boa-constrictors are inhabitants of ,america1 the ,pythons of the ,old ,world4 #c4 ,,sauria 7,lizards74 ,the ,sauria include the ,crocodiles1 ,alligators1 ,skinks1 ,geckos1 ,iguanas1 and ,lizards2 they are carnivorous1 the smaller ones feeding on insects1 and the larger members on whatever they can catch4 ,they have four legs1 and are covered with hard rough scales running in ridges on their backs1 they have large strong tails1 and their jaws are furnished with sharp teeth4 ,the ,alligator is found in great numbers in the ,mississippi1 and is a most formidable creature1 attacking any who may venture into the water4 ,in winter they bury themselves in the mud and remain there in a torpid state1 they are from #ae to #bj feet long4 ,the ,crocodile is a native of ,africa and the ,west ,indies1 there are many found in the ,nile1 it is larger than the ,alligator1 reaching often to #cj feet4 ,dr ,baird gives the following account of the ,alligators and ,crocodiles3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--a1 ,,crocodile 7,crocodilus vulgaris72 #b1 ,,alligator 7,alligator lucius72 #c1 ,,lizards4 ,the ,alligator 7,alligator lucius1 fig4 #di71 a native of ,north ,america and abundant in the ,mississippi1 is a formidable and ferocious creature1 prodigiously strong1 and sometimes reaching the length of #ah feet4 ,it is provided with numerous sharp teeth1 long tenacious claws1 and a powerful tail1 a single blow of which is capable of overturning a canoe4 ,it chiefly preys by night1 assembling in large numbers1 besetting the mouth of some retired creek1 into which they have previously driven the fish1 and bellowing so loud that they may be heard at the distance of a mile4 ,it is said to attack men and quadrupeds whilst bathing or crossing the rivers1 and to be more fierce and voracious then the other species of this sub-family4 ,in ,winter it buries itself in the mud at the bottom of the swamps and marshes which it inhabits1 and continues in a torpid state till ,spring4 ,the true ,crocodiles are natives of ,africa1 the ,west ,indies1 and ,america2 and the best known species is the ,nilotic ,crocodile 7,crocodilus vulgaris1 fig4 #di74 ,this animal is a native of the ,senegal river1 of the ,niger1 and other rivers of ,africa1 but more particularly of the ,nile in ,egypt1 where it attains the length of about #cj feet4 ,the ,crocodile was held in great veneration by the ancient ,egyptians1 by whom it was known under the name of ',champsa4' ,the ,crocodiles are exclusively carnivorous1 and are ferocious animals4 ,their numbers are1 however1 kept down by the enemies which surround them4 ,for the adults1 few animals could be their match1 but the little ,ichneumon or ',mongooz' devours their eggs in great numbers while hatching in the sand2 and birds of prey pounce upon their young on quitting their shell1 and before they are able to reach the shore4 #d4 ,,testudinata 7having a shield74 ,the ,testudinata include the ,tortoise1 and ,turtle kind4 ,they are remarkable for their horny covering 7carapace7 which forms a sort of shell1 out of openings in which1 their head1 tail1 and legs protrude2 they have short feet1 covered with scales1 and no teeth1 but the edges of the maxillary bones are sharp1 like the edge of a knife1 and they bite out pieces from vegetable substances with ease4 ,some of this class 7the ,turtles7 are residents of the water1 and grow to a great size1 weighing fourteen or fifteen hundred pounds1 and measuring seven or eight feet long4 ,others are much esteemed as food1 especially the green ,turtle4 ,dr4 ,baird1 in his ,cyclopdia of the ,natural ,sciences1 under the article ,chelonia1 gives a good description of these creatures1 from which the following is extracted3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,turtle 7,chelonia viridis74 ,the ,green ,turtle 7,chelonia viridis1 or midas1 fig4 #ej7 is five or six feet long1 and weighs from seven to eight hundred pounds4 ,it is principally found in the ,atlantic ,ocean1 and is often met with seven or eight hundred leagues from land4 ,they are easily caught when asleep on the surface of the water1 to which they come to breathe4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 the ,bahama ,islands1 and the ,island of ,ascension1 the capture of ,turtles gives employment to many people1 and affords food for thousands4 ,the ,hawk's-bill ,turtle 7,caretha imbricata7 is a smaller species1 scarcely ever exceeding two hundred pounds' weight1 and is a native of the ,atlantic and ,indian ,oceans4 ,the flesh is not good1 but the shells1 which are formed of a considerable number of scales overlapping each other at their extremities1 in the manner of tiles on the roof of a building1 are of great importance as an article of commerce1 and are much superior to that of any other species4 ,it is extensively used in the manufacture of combs1 snuff-boxes1 c41 also for inlaying1 and other ornamental work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,tortoise 7,testudo sulcata74 ,in the family of land ,tortoises 7fig4 #ea71 the feet are club-shaped1 and their habits are terrestrial4 ,the shell is very solid1 thick1 ovate1 and 7in the adult state7 covered with horny concentrically-grooved shields1 marked with a permanent areola4 ,they have a short thick tail1 are very slow in their motion1 and live upon vegetables and roots4 ,most of the species are natives of the warm regions of the globe1 but those that live in colder regions burrow and sleep during the winter4 ,they are quiet1 inoffensive animals1 extremely tenacious of life1 and remarkable for longevity4 ,individuals are stated upon good authority to have lived upwards of two hundred years4 ,the common ,tortoise1 or ,taragua 7,testudo ,grca71 is a native of the south of ,europe1 and almost all the countries bordering on the ,mediterranean2 it is found in the islands of the ,archipelago1 ,corsica1 ,sardinia1 and in ,africa1 but is thought to be more common in ,greece than elsewhere4 ,it is from six to eight inches long1 and weighs about forty-eight ounces4 ,this species is often brought to this country and kept in gardens4 ,one was brought to the ,archiepiscopal garden at ,lambeth1 in the time of ,laud1 in #afcc1 where it lived till #agec1 owing its death then1 more to neglect than the effects of age4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--a1 ,,condor 7,sarcoramphus gryphus72 #b1 ,,ostrich 7,struthio camelus72 #c1 ,,kiwi-,,kiwi 7,apteryx74 ,,birds4 ,the third class of the ,vertebrata1 comprises the ,birds1 or those whose young are not born alive1 but in the form of eggs2 who have warm blood1 and breathe by lungs1 the air-cells of which communicate with the hollow shafts of the bones1 7these are full of air instead of marrow71 this gives them lightness1 and serves as a reservoir of air while flying2 they have two anterior extremities so modified as to form wings1 and a heart with four cavities2 most of them have the power of flying through the air1 and some to a very great height1 as the ,condor 7fig4 #eb71 while in others the wings are rudimentary and only assist them in running1 as in the ,ostrich 7fig4 #eb7 ,cassowary1 ,penguin1 c41 while in the ,apteryx 7fig4 #eb7 they are quite absent4 ,birds are covered with a peculiar modification of hair known as feathers2 these consist of a central shaft with closely-set diverging branches1 some of which have others branching from them with a serrated surface1 giving them that peculiar metallic brilliancy so well shown in the feathers of the ,humming ,bird4 ,birds are furnished with beaks of almost every form1 to suit their method of feeding1 c41 and likewise feet1 sometimes furnished with sharp and powerful talons1 at others1 feet suitable to climb with1 and again in some they are webbed between the toes1 so as to enable them to swim with great rapidity4 ,birds are divided into five orders1 as follows3-- #a4 ,,raptores 7,preying7 ,eagle1 ,owl1 c4 #b4 ,,insessores 7,perching71 divided into #d tribes1 viz3-- #a4 ,dentirostres 7,tooth bill7 ,thrush1 ,butcher-bird4 #b4 ,conirostres 7,cone bill7 ,raven1 ,crow1 ,finch4 #c4 ,scansores 7,climbing7 ,parrot1 ,wood-pecker4 #d4 ,fissirostres 7,split bill7 ,king ,fisher1 ,goat-sucker4 #c4 ,,rasores 7,scraping7 ,poultry1 ,pheasants1 c4 #d4 ,,grallatores 7,wading7 ,heron1 ,crane1 c4 #e4 ,,natatores 7,swimming7 ,goose1 ,duck1 c4 #a4 ,the ,,raptores1 as the ,eagles and ,falcons1 are furnished with hooked beaks and strong sharp talons 7fig4 #ec71 they prey upon all small animals1 as birds of less strength1 rabbits1 c41 and some of them upon fish1 as the ,osprey1 others feed upon dead flesh and offal1 as the ,vultures1 and are very useful creatures in hot countries1 where they are generally respected1 they hover about the towns1 feeding upon almost everything capable of being swallowed2 it is not certain whether these birds detect the presence of food by smell or sight 7both of these senses are possessed by them in perfection71 but it is certain that in the desert1 when any animal dies1 these birds soon make their appearance1 although a few minutes before not one could be seen for miles around4 ,the ,owls are nocturnal1 their plumage is downy1 and their eyes placed so that both shall look forwards1 the pupils close1 similarly to a cat's eye1 and their vision1 like the cats 7their companions among the ,mammalia7 is extremely sensitive1 so that the expression as blind as an ,owl1 has no more sense in it than as blind as a ,cat would have2 they feed upon rats1 mice1 insects1 c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,,beak ,,and ,,talons ,,of ,,eagle4 #b4 ,the ,,inessores include some that live by catching insects in the air while they fly1 as the ,swallows 7fig4 #ed72 these are furnished with great powers of flight and rapidity of movement2 others 7the ,scansores7 which climb and hold by the branches of trees1 feeding upon nuts and fruit1 as the ,parrot2 others live upon insects1 but seek them in the crevices of old trees and other similar places1 as the ,woodpeckers 7fig4 #ed74 ,some live entirely upon fish 7,king-fishers71 which they catch from the streams on the banks of which they live4 ,this order includes all the singing birds1 and by far the greater number of birds of passage2 this propensity to migrate is one of the most wonderful of all the instincts of ,birds1 the ,swallow leaves ,england in the ,autumn to take up its abode for the ,winter in ,africa1 or the ,islands of the ,archipelago1 and returns again in the ,spring1 year after year1 to the same nest2 these journeys are accomplished at the rate of #dj or #ej miles an hour4 ,pigeons also have the wonderful faculty of returning home from almost any distance1 appearing to know by instinct the right direction2 as1 after a turn or two1 they take a straight course to their destination4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--a1 ,,swallow 7,hirundo rustica72 #b1 ,,woodpecker 7,picus viridis74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--a1 ,,dorking ,,fowls 7,gallus ,domesticus72 #b1 ,,pheasants 7,phasianus colchicus74 #c4 ,the ,,rasores include the common ,fowl 7fig4 #ee71 ,pheasant 7fig4 #ee71 ,partridge1 ,turkey1 c42 they feed principally on grain1 but occasionally on insects and worms1 which they scrape up with their feet2 they live chiefly upon the ground1 on which they build their nests1 but generally roost on trees4 ,most of this order supply excellent food1 the ,turkey is famous as a ,christmas dish1 and is often of a great size2 this bird is very plentiful in ,central and ,south ,america in a wild state1 and often attains a large size1 weighing #cj or #dj pounds2 the natives have a simple and curious method of catching these birds1 which are extremely shy1 never allowing any one to approach near to them4 ,a sort of cage is built of twigs1 large enough to contain many1 and having holes close to the ground all round1 of a size just sufficient to admit a ,turkey when its head is bent down2 leading to each of these holes a train of corn is placed1 but none within1 the birds coming to pick the corn1 follow up the line of corn with their heads down1 till they are within the inclosure1 when finding no more1 they raise up their heads and cannot get out1 for they have not the sense to stoop their heads1 so as to allow of their exit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--a1 ,,heron 7,ardea cinerea72 #b1 ,,crane 7,megalornis cinerea74 #d4 ,the ,,grallatores include the ,herons and ,cranes 7fig4 #ef71 which wade into streams and catch fish2 these are furnished with long legs1 neck1 and beak1 and when they have gone into the water as far as their long legs permit1 they stand still and wait with the head resting on the shoulders and the eyes fixed on the stream1 till an unlucky fish approaches near enough1 when with a quick stroke they dart at it1 and catch it2 they are very picturesque objects1 standing on one leg 7as they commonly do7 in some lonely pool or stream4 #e4 ,the ,,natatores1 a very large class of ,birds1 live almost entirely in the water1 they are web-footed and swim beautifully1 as the ,swans1 ,geese1 ,ducks1 c4 7fig #eg72 these feed in general upon the vegetation growing in1 and on the margin of the water1 also on worms1 larv1 c42 they have a beautiful mode of rising and flying in a line1 when disturbed from their haunts1 and this line is maintained for a long distance1 and is sometimes double like the letter ,v1 one bird leading and the others following in single file4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 #a1 ,,swan 7,cygnus mansuetus72 #b1 ,,geese 7,anser ferus72 #c and #d1 ,,duck and ,,wild ,,ducks 7,anas ,boschas74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,,group ,,of ,,mammalia4 #a1 ,leopard 7,leopardus varius72 #b1 ,bear 7,ursus arctos72 #c1 ,goat 7,hircus aegagrus72 #d1 ,boar 7,sus scrofa72 #e1 ,beaver 7,castor fiber72 #f1 ,armadillo 7,dasypus72 #g4 ,monkeys 7,semnopitheci72 #h1 ,seal 7,phoca vitulina72 #i1 ,bat 7,plecotus auritus74 ,,the ,,mammalia4 ,this class is divided into twelve orders3-- #a4 ,,marsupiata 7,pouched7 ,kangaroo4 #b4 ,,monotremata 7,having but one vent7 ,platypus4 #c4 ,,rodentia 7,gnawing7 ,beaver1 ,rabbit4 #d4 ,,edentata 7,toothless7 ,anteater4 #e4 ,,ruminantia 7,chewing7 ,ox1 ,deer1 ,sheep4 #f4 ,,pachydermata 7,thick skinned7 ,horse1 ,elephant4 #g4 ,,cetacea 7,whale-like7 ,whale1 ,porpoise4 #h4 ,,carnivora 7,flesh-eating7 ,lion1 ,tiger4 #i4 ,,insectivora 7,insect-eating7 ,mole1 ,hedgehog4 #aj4 ,,cheiroptera 7,hand-winged7 ,bat4 #aa4 ,,quadrumana 7,four-handed7 ,monkey1 ,ape4 #ab4 ,,bimana 7,two-handed7 ,man4 ,these twelve orders of the class ,mammalia1 of the division ,vertebrata1 7as their names imply71 have their peculiarities1 such as fit them to their modes of life1 as1 the medium in which they live1 the climate1 the food they eat1 and the manner of obtaining it4 ,they have all the five special senses1 sight1 hearing1 smell1 taste1 and touch1 but very differently developed in respect to power4 ,yet1 as a whole1 they maintain a similitude4 ,they have all internal skeletons1 and each part of this skeleton exists in all1 but modified to suit different purposes4 ,they have all the peculiar attributes of the ,mammalia1 such as suckling their young1 being born alive1 having four extremities1 warm blood1 respiration by lungs1 and a heart with two auricles and two ventricles4 ,a general description of the anatomy and some of the functions of ,man will be given hereafter1 and will apply equally to all the ,mammalia2 always bearing in mind that the difference in structure of every animal1 although making it inferior to ,man1 does not do away with any of the essential qualities1 which constitute it one of the members of the highest group2 for1 although immensely inferior to ,man1 yet the ,mammalia are for the most part greatly superior to all the classes below it1 the capability of being educated1 being in itself a vast step beyond mere instinct1 wonderful though this may be1 and developed to an extraordinary degree1 as in some of the insects2 yet1 in these1 there is no possibility of improving it1 while in some of the ,mammalia1 as the ,dog1 ,horse1 ,elephant1 and ,monkey1 there is an evident tendency to progressive improvement when aided by the example and tuition of ,man4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 #a1 ,,kangaroo 7,macropas major72 #b1 ,,opossum4 7,didelphus ,virginiana74 #a4 ,the ,,marsupiata include the ,kangaroos and ,opossums 7fig4 #ei74 ,they are characterised by the possession of a pouch at the lower part of the abdomen1 into which the young enter as soon as born1 for they are born in a very imperfect state1 and when in the pouch they adhere to the teat of the mother1 where they remain till more fully developed4 ,in these animals the hind legs are greatly developed1 and the fore legs but little4 ,they progress by enormous leaps1 resting on the hinder legs and tail1 both of which are very strong4 ,they belong exclusively to ,australia1 which appears to produce many forms having peculiarities not met with elsewhere1 and among the lowest of their type2 this and the next order appear somewhat to partake of the form of the ,bird1 the undeveloped state of the young in the ,marsupiata1 being an approach to the egg of the ,oviparous animals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,,platypus1 ,,or ,,duck-,,bill 7,ornithorynchus74 #b4 ,the ,,monotremata includes the ,duckbill1 called also ,platypus1 and ,ornithorynchus paradoxus1 7fig4 #fj71 a most singular combination of the forms of the mammal and the bird4 ,it has a mouth resembling the bill of a ,duck1 and several other peculiarities1 which lead to the consideration of it as one of the connecting links between the forms of the ,mammalia and ,birds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,,beavers 7,castor fiber74 #c4 ,the ,,rodentia comprise the ,rat1 ,beaver1 ,rabbit1 ,hare1 ,mouse1 c4 ,they live upon almost any kind of vegetable matter2 the ,rat and ,mouse will eat anything they can get4 ,their incisor teeth are two in front of each jaw1 and are chisel shaped and very sharp2 they are so constructed that they shall be kept sharp by being used1 which is effected by the hardest part or enamel being in front in a thin layer1 so that it is not so easily worn away as the bony part4 ,if these animals be fed on soft food1 their teeth continue to grow nevertheless1 and protrude from their mouths in a most singular way4 ,the ,beaver 7fig4 #fa7 is almost aquatic in its habits1 it gnaws through the stems of trees1 and uses them to dam up the water of the stream they inhabit1 so as to secure a constant supply4 ,they build houses or huts of wood1 mud1 and stones1 which they unite in constructing4 ,these houses have their entrances beneath the water1 so that the ,beavers dive to enter them2 they have two divisions or rooms in them1 and are sufficiently large to lodge several families4 ,the ,rat is too well-known to need much description4 ,the brown or ,norway ,rat has only been an inhabitant of this country about forty years1 the black ,rat being before that time the usual house ,rat1 but it is now almost exterminated1 specimens being very rare4 ,there are several other species of ,rats2 the best known is the ,water ,rat1 who burrows in brooks and ditches1 and partly lives in the water4 ,of the ,mouse there are also several species4 ,besides the usual house ,mouse1 there is the wood ,mouse1 which forms a magazine of grain and nuts underground for winter store2 and the harvest ,mouse1 which builds a little round nest between the stalks of corn4 ,the ,squirrel is also of this order4 ,this pretty little creature lives in the trees1 chiefly feeding upon nuts2 can leap well1 and run up the branches of trees with surprising agility4 ,the ,flying ,squirrel has a broad expansion of skin between the fore and hind legs on each side1 so that when stretched out1 they form a sort of parachute2 this enables the creature to leap to a great distance from tree to tree1 and supports it in the air as it goes4 ,the ,porcupine 7,hystrix cristata71 so celebrated for its quills1 which supply a sort of defensive armour1 is of this order4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,,anteater 7,myrmecophaga jubata74 #d4 ,the ,,edentata1 or ,anteaters1 have no teeth1 but a peculiarly shaped tongue1 which is covered with viscid mucus1 and which they project and retract with great rapidity1 causing the ,ants and ,termites1 on which they feed1 to adhere to it1 and be carried into their mouths4 ,the ,great ,anteater 7,myrmecophaga jubata1 fig4 #fb7 is a very extraordinary animal in appearance2 it has an enormously prolonged nose1 and the back is covered with a sort of mane2 the tail1 also1 is of prodigious size1 and very bushy2 when this curious animal lies down to sleep1 the long snout is thrust under it1 and the tail laid across the back1 the end of the snout projecting behind4 ,in this position1 it would lead anyone to suppose that the head was where the tail really is1 and that when looking at the creature's hinder part1 they were looking at its head2 and the sudden reversal of the position of these parts1 when it gets up quickly1 is certainly extremely ridiculous4 99 99 99 99 99 #e4 ,the ,,ruminantia4--,the ,ruminating animals 7fig4 #fc7 are those which chew the cud4 ,there are a great many species1 and their members are also very numerous4 ,the ,ox1 and its varieties1 the ,buffalo1 ,bison1 ,yak1 c42 the ,deer1 ,antelopes1 ,gazelles1 c42 the ,sheep1 ,goat1 ,giraffe1 and ,camel1 all belong to the ,ruminants4 ,these all have hoofs1 cloven into two parts2 have no incisor 7or front7 teeth in the upper jaw2 and are essentially grazing animals4 ,they have stomachs made up of four compartments2 into the first of these 7the ,rumen7 the crude grass enters1 and is afterwards returned to the mouth1 and again chewed at leisure2 the molar teeth1 or grinders1 are flat1 and roughened1 so as to effect this purpose2 and1 that they may not become smooth by wear1 the enamel 7or hard part7 of the teeth is so disposed in various layers1 that it is always projecting above the bony part1 which wears down first4 ,the ,ruminants are gregarious1 associating in herds of enormous numbers4 ,cumming1 describes the herds of ,springboks1 in ,south ,africa1 as being in countless thousands1 continuing to pass for hours together2 and covering the plain as far as the eye could reach4 ,cattlin1 also1 describes the ,american ,bison of the ,prairies as being congregated in the most surprising numbers4 ,some of the members of this order are very large and heavy animals4 ,the ,cape ,buffalo is of enormous strength1 and very fierce when attacked4 ,dr4 ,livingstone1 in his ,travels in ,south ,africa1 speaking of the ,lion1 says3--,he seldom attacks full-grown ,buffalos2 but frequently1 when a ,buffalo-calf is caught by him1 the cow rushes to the rescue1 and a toss from her often kills him4 ,one we found was killed thus1 and on the ,leambye1 another1 which died near ,sesheke1 had all the appearance of having received his death-blow from a ,buffalo4 ,it is questionable if a single ,lion ever attacks a full-grown ,buffalo2 the amount of roaring heard at night1 on occasions when a ,buffalo is killed1 seems to indicate there are always more than one ,lion engaged in the onslaught4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc--;,,group ,,of ,,ruminants4 #a1 ,ox 7,bos taurus72 #b1 ,sheep 7,ovis aries72 #c1 ,red ,deer 7,cervus elaphus72 #d1 ,camel 7,camelus ,arabicus72 #e1 ,llama 7,pacos74 ,the ,ruminants are the only members of the ,mammalia furnished with horns1 and some of these are of enormous size2 the ,elk1 ,buffalo1 and ,steinbok1 are instances4 ,in the ,deer tribe they are shed yearly1 and increase in size and in the number of their branches at each fresh growth4 ,the flesh of the ,ruminants forms the chief animal food of ,man1 and some tribes of the ,american aborigines live exclusively on it4 ,the ,camel1 next to the ,horse1 is the most useful beast of burthen4 ,the ,arabs greatly prize these creatures1 and from their power of carrying a supply of water in their stomach1 they are very useful in crossing the desert2 their hoofs are also spread out so as to enable them better to walk on the soft and yielding sand2 there are two kinds of ,camel1 the ,bactrian1 with two humps1 and the ,arabian ,camel with but one4 ,the ,dromedary is a small agile breed of the ,arabian ,camel1 celebrated for its swiftness4 99 99 99 99 99 #f4 ,the ,,pachydermata or thick-skinned animals 7fig4#fd7 include the ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 ,horse1 ,ass1 and its varieties2 ,hog1 ,tapir1 ,hippopotamus1 c42 these have many of them a single solid hoof on each foot1 as in the ,horse and ,ass tribe1 others have separate toes clothed with a hoof1 as in the ,elephant4 ,in nearly all the ,pachydermata there is a prolongation of the nose or upper lip1 the ,horse even has some power of prehension in this part2 the ,rhinoceros is able to bring the upper lip into so fine a point as to pick up a crumb1 and in the ,tapir there is a considerable prolongation of the nose1 while the ,elephant has this part developed into a complete prehensile organ4 ,the ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 and ,hog are fond of wallowing in the mud1 with which they completely besmear themselves1 and seem to derive great satisfaction therefrom4 ,there are two kinds of ,elephants1 the ,asiatic1 or ,indian1 and the ,african1 the chief distinction between them is the size of the ear1 that of the ,african ,elephant being of very great size2 there is a very young specimen of this kind in the ,british ,museum1 but a full-grown ,african ,elephant has never been brought to ,england4 ,the ,elephant is furnished with a pair of enormous tusks proceeding from the upper jaw1 these are composed of solid ivory1 and often weigh nearly a hundred pounds each2 with the trunk1 the ,elephant is able to gather food in the form of grass and herbage1 and put it into its mouth1 it can also draw up a considerable quantity of water1 and this being poured down its throat from the trunk1 constitutes its usual mode of eating and drinking1 as the neck is too short for the animal to reach the ground except by the trunk4 ,the ,indian ,elephant is much used as a beast of burthen1 and for various other purposes2 they are very docile and sagacious4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,pachydermata4 #a1 ,elephant 7,elephas ,indicus72 #b1 ,rhinoceros 7,rhinoceros unicornis72 #c1 ,hippopotamus 7,hippopotamus amphibius72 #d1 ,wild ,boar 7,sus scrofa74 ,the ,horse has been subjected to the service of ,man from the earliest records1 indeed it is not known when this beautiful animal was first trained to be his useful servant and companion2 he is mentioned1 in the ,scriptures1 as being subjected to the ,bit1 and in the sculptures brought from the ruins of ,nineveh by ,layard2 the ,horse is constantly sculptured1 decked in the most gorgeous trappings and driven by reins and a bit1 almost in the same manner as in the present day1 and these sculptures are among the earliest records of ,man's hands4 ,there are several breeds of ,horses2 the chief are the ,arabian 7from which stock proceed our race horses71 the ,flanders or ,cart-horse1 and the ,sheltie or ,shetland horse4 ,the ,horse is nowhere found in a state of nature1 yet many wild ,horses graze on the plains of ,america1 but it is known that these are not native1 but proceed from those placed there to graze1 and which have bred and run wild4 ,the ,ass is distinguished from the horse by the tail having short hair on it1 except at the extremity1 and the mane being short and upright4 #g4 ,the ,,cetacea1 or ,whale kind1 inhabit chiefly the colder latitudes1 they are entirely aquatic1 but breathe air2 the ,whale1 ,narwal1 ,dolphins1 and ,porpoises are the chief members4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,whale 7,balena mysticetus71 ,in ,whales 7fig4 #fe7 the anterior extremities are so developed as to form a sort of fin called a flipper1 but in which all the usual bones of an extremity exist2 the posterior extremities are modified so as to completely resemble the tail of a fish2 they have smooth skins devoid of hair4 ,all these tribes have a considerable thickness of fat or blubber 7as it is called7 beneath their skin2 this protects them from the cold1 for most of these creatures live in the very coldest climates1 the oily matters acting as a non-conductor2 it is for the oil yielded by this blubber that they are chiefly caught4 ,the ,cachelot or ,sperm-whale 7,phyceter macrocephalus7 also yields spermaceti1 which crystallizes from the oily matter contained in its head1 and the ,greenland-whale yields baleen or whale-bone1 which is a substance forming a sort of sieve in the mouth1 through which they draw the sea water and catch all it may contain for food1 this consists of all small fish1 but principally a small mollusc called the ,clio ,borealis1 which inhabits the northern seas in great numbers2 a whole shoal of these is taken in by the ,whale at a draught4 ,the ,whale often measures #fj or #gj feet in length1 and the ,razor-back ,whale sometimes #ajj2 a large ,whale will yield #bj tuns of oil4 ,the ,narwal or ,sea ,unicorn is from #bj to #cj feet long2 it has but one tooth1 which is developed to a prodigious length1 and projects in front in a straight line like a sort of horn1 there are however sometimes two of these1 one being always much larger than the other2 this horn is #h or #aj feet long1 perfectly straight and twisted1 it is used by the animal to break the ice so that it may breathe1 and also to spear and capture fish1 on which the ,narwal lives4 ,this horn produces beautiful ivory4 #h4 ,the ,,carnivora1 or ,flesh-eaters 7fig4 #fg71 include the ,feline tribe1 as the ,lion1 ,tiger1 ,jaguar 7fig4 #fh71 ,leopard1 c42 the ,canine1 as the ,hyena1 ,wolf1 ,jackal1 ,dog1 ,fox1 c41 the ,ursine1 which includes the ,bears1 and the ,phocine1 including the ,seal kind4 ,the ,feline tribe are formed to spring upon1 hold1 and rend other animals which they kill for food1 and have teeth and claws suitable to this purpose1 and great activity and strength to enable them to contend with1 and overcome their prey4 ,they are1 for the most part1 nocturnal in their habits1 seldom seeking their prey but in the night1 and then mostly frequenting the drinking-places where other animals come for water4 ,they attack by gradually stalking after the animal1 getting nearer and nearer1 till at last a well-directed spring brings them on to it at once4 ,that these animals may better surprise their prey1 they have eyes so extremely sensitive to light that they can see well when it would appear to ,man to be quite dark1 hence the saying1 cats can see in the dark4 ,the ,iris 7or coloured part of the eyes7 in this tribe is made so as to close up into a slit 7#a1 fig4 #ff71 and thus exclude the light of the day to a great extent1 which would otherwise be too powerful1 and injure the extreme sensibility of their vision4 ,their claws 7#b1 fig4 #ff7 are made to retract by a tendon1 so as to keep their points from being worn by walking4 ,this accounts for the silent1 stealthy tread of the domestic cat2 it enables them to creep quietly upon their prey1 and at the moment they are about to seize them1 the claws are extended4 ,the pointed or flesh-teeth of the ,carnivora are greatly developed1 and are very sharp4 ,their molars 7#c1 fig4 #ff7 are pointed1 and suitable to the food they are intended to masticate4 ,the tongue of the feline tribe is very rough1 and is used to rasp off the flesh from bones4 ,when closely examined1 the surface of their tongues present a series of horny hooks1 all bending in one direction1 and forming a sort of rasp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--a1 ,,eye ,,of ,,lion4 #b1 ,,claw4 #c1 ,,teeth4 ,the ,lion is usually placed at the head of this race1 but it is questionable whether he is so powerful as the ,bengal ,tiger1 and combats between the two1 generally give the mastery to the ,tiger4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,,carnivora4 #a1 ,lion 7,leo ,barberus72 #b1 ,tiger 7,tigris regalis74 ,dr4 ,livingstone1 in his description of the ,lion1 takes off a good deal of the poetical nobility and imaginary superiority with which the ,lion has been commonly invested4 ,the following selections will show what are ,dr4 ,livingstone's impressions from personal experience3--,when a ,lion is met in the day-time1 a circumstance by no means unfrequent to travellers in these parts1 if preconceived notions do not lead them to expect something very 'noble' or 'majestic1' they will see merely an animal somewhat larger than the biggest ,dog they ever saw1 and partaking very strongly of the canine features4 ,when encountered in the day-time the ,lion stands a second or two gazing1 then turns slowly round and walks as slowly away for a dozen paces1 looking over his shoulder1 then begins to trot1 and when he thinks himself out of sight bounds off like a greyhound4 ,by day1 as a rule1 there is not the smallest danger of ,lions which are not molested attacking ,man1 nor even on a clear1 moonlight night1 except at the breeding-time4 ,so general1 however1 is the sense of security on moonlight nights that we seldom tied up our ,oxen1 but let them lie loose by the wagons2 while1 on a dark1 rainy night1 if a ,lion is in the neighbourhood1 he is almost sure to venture to kill an ,ox4 ,his approach is always stealthy1 and the least appearance of a trap is enough to cause him to refrain from making the last spring4 ,lions never go near any ,elephants1 except the calves1 which1 when young1 are sometimes torn by them4 ,every living thing retires before the lordly ,elephant1 yet a full-grown one would fall an easier prey than the ,rhinoceros4 ,the ,lion rushes off at the mere sight of the latter beast4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,,jaguar 7,leopardus onca74 ,the ,bengal or ,royal ,tiger is the largest of the ,feline tribe1 being generally #h feet long and #d high4 ,it is1 however1 often found much larger4 ,it would appear from the most correct accounts that the ,lion is hardly a match for this formidable creature4 ,the ,tiger is as beautiful as dreadful2 its colour is of a bright orange-buff1 with white face and under parts1 the back and legs being beautifully striped with black4 ,the ,tiger has no mane1 but is of a sleek1 graceful make1 though terribly powerful4 ,it inhabits ,india chiefly1 and will prowl for hundreds of miles by the sides of rivers1 secreting itself in the jungle and sleeping by day4 ,sometimes traces of a ,tiger will be seen in the locality of villages or towns1 and stray ,sheep or ,bullocks disappear from time to time1 but it will destroy any human being who unluckily approaches its haunts1 and having once tasted human blood1 appears afterwards to prefer this kind of food to all others1 and will pick out a cow-herd in preference to the cattle he is driving2 in all probability this preference is really owing to the ease with which the capture can be made2 and the small resistance ,man is capable of offering2 be this as it may1 the ,tiger having once destroyed a man is called a man-eater1 and a reward is offered for his head2 when this occurs near any of the stations of the ,east ,india ,company1 the officers generally make it a point to sally forth and endeavour to capture this terrific beast2 this they do on foot1 as it is impossible to depend on any ,horse1 their natural fear of the ,tiger being so great that all ,horses either shy1 or at once retreat4 ,the officers1 armed with guns1 take with them a number of natives1 who with long canes beat the jungle and generally start out the monster1 at whom there are a few deadly rifles pointed1 which invariably bring him at once to the ground4 ,the largest of this tribe inhabiting the ,new ,world1 is the ,puma or ,cougar1 which is much inferior to the ,lion both in size and strength1 although very fierce and dangerous1 it is of a pale drab colour inclining to grey2 it climbs trees and stretches itself along their branches1 waiting for some unlucky animal to pass1 when it drops quietly upon its shoulders and quickly destroys it4 ,the ,leopard tribe includes several varieties1 as the ,jaguar1 ,panther1 ,ounce1 ,ocelot1 c41 they are all more or less spotted with black1 and possess all the ferocity and much of the strength of the nobler species of their tribe1 the smallest of them being more than a match for a man without weapons4 ,the ,canine tribe of the ,carnivora includes ,dogs1 ,wolves1 ,jackalls1 and ,foxes4 ,the ,dogs are greatly altered from their wild nature by being domesticated1 resembling in their wild state a small ,wolf2 the ,dog in its domesticated state is too well known to need any description here4 ,the ,jackals and ,wolves generally hunt in packs1 and devour all kinds of offal1 flesh and bones1 which their strong jaws and teeth appear to crush and break up without difficulty4 ,the ,bears form the next tribe1 these are often very large animals2 the ,grisly ,bear of the ,rocky ,mountains 7,damis ferox7 is the largest of the ,brown ,bears1 it often measures eight feet long and is extremely powerful1 the ,brown ,bear 7,ursus arctos7 is smaller1 but still a powerful animal1 the ,polar ,bear 7,thalarctos maratimus7 is white and is the largest of all the ,bears1 measuring eight or nine feet long1 it is coated with long shaggy hair1 and even its feet are clothed with hair underneath1 that it may not slip on the ice1 and to defend it from the cold2 this ,bear is found in the ,arctic ,regions among the ice1 and feeds upon ,fish and other marine animals4 ,bears in general are carnivorous1 but eat many other kinds of food2 they are very fond of honey1 and are never contented if they smell it1 until they get at it1 for this purpose they will often gnaw a hole in a tree and thrust in their head4 ,advantage is taken of this predilection to entrap the animal1 the natives of the ,rocky ,mountains often baiting ,bear traps with honey4 ,the ,seals and ,walrus 7fig4 #fi7 form the next1 or ,phocine tribe2 they are amphibious1 and feed chiefly on ,fish1 inhabiting the colder regions of the ,north2 their hinder extremities are but little developed1 and serve the purposes of a tail4 ,they are covered with a close fur1 and the canine teeth of the ,walrus are so largely developed in the upper jaw as to form tusks1 by means of which they hook on and attach themselves to the blocks of ice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,,walrus 7,trichicus rosmarus72 ,,seal 7,phoca vitulina74 #i4 ,the ,,insectivora1 such as the ,mole1 ,hedgehog1 and ,shrew-mouse1 7fig4 #gj71 live entirely on insects1 the ,mole burrows for them in the earth1 and the fore paws are so made as to dig out and throw the earth behind it1 and it burrows in this way with the greatest rapidity4 ,as it is nearly always beneath the surface of the earth1 and consequently in the dark1 so a sense of vision is not required1 it is therefore blind1 but the senses of touch and smell1 being very acute enable it to find its food4 ,the ,hedgehog and ,shrew-mouse are furnished with pointed noses1 with which they dig up the earth in search of insects1 and when found they devour them with amazing rapidity4 ,the ,hedgehog has the power of rolling itself up into a ball and defying the attacks of almost anything1 for its bristles are so stiff and sharp that they prick like thorns1 and make a capital defensive armour2 the ,hedgehog is eaten by many1 especially by the ,gipsies1 who esteem it a dainty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,,insectivora4 #a1 ,hedgehog 7,erinaceus ,europus72 #b1 ,mole 7,talpa ,europus72 #c1 ,shrew-mouse 7,sorex araneus74 #aj4 ,the ,,cheiroptera 7,bat tribe1 fig4 #ga71 have fore feet so modified as to serve as wings1 with which they fly with tolerable swiftness1 producing a peculiar flapping sound4 ,these wings are formed by a membrane which is stretched out between the fingers1 which are exceedingly elongated1 and which reaches from the fore feet to the hind feet4 ,the ,bat tribe all feed upon insects1 especially moths2 they rest in the day time head downwards1 clinging to rough places by means of the claws of their hind feet1 coming out at night to seek their food2 their sight1 which is very quick1 enabling them to see their prey when almost dark4 ,some of the larger species of this tribe1 inhabiting ,america1 are called ,vampire ,bats1 they live by sucking the blood of various animals1 such as cattle and horses1 thereby inflicting dangerous wounds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,bats 7,plecotus auritus74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,,quadrumana4 ,baboons4--#a4 ,mandrill 7,papio maimon72 #b4 ,chacma 7,chacma ,porcarius74 ,monkeys4--#c4 ,mona 7,cercopithecus mona72 #d4 ,howler 7,mycetes72 #e4 ,spider 7,ateles74 #aa4 ,the ,,quadrumana 7fig4 #gb71 so called from their hind and fore feet both having thumbs1 and being developed into hands1 includes the ,monkeys2 they may be divided into two tribes1 those inhabiting the ,old ,world 7,simiid71 and those inhabiting the ,new 7,cebid71 these include what were formerly called ,apes1 ,baboons1 c4 ,these animals approach the most nearly to the form of the human being1 the ,chimpanzee being considered the nearest in formation to ,man2 there are1 however1 many very broad distinctions between the two1 especially in the foot and head4 ,the ,quadrumana are very clever1 but their actions seem to have more meaning in them than they in reality possess1 owing to the resemblance of these creatures to the human being4 ,there are many surprising accounts of these beings1 such as their arming themselves with sticks and stones to defend themselves2 but no act of reason has ever yet been perceived in them1 nor any tendency towards improvement1 except that which has been given them by ,man4 ,the ,monkey who had seen the world1 and went home and taught his companions1 is a fable in both senses of the word4 ,the ,monkey tribe are formed to pass their lives in the trees among the branches1 their hands being formed to suit this kind of life4 ,none of them walk well1 but when they are among the branches1 swinging themselves from bough to bough1 few creatures are more active2 their food is fruit and nuts of all kinds4 ,the ,chimpanzee1 certainly1 is the nearest approach to ,man in the lower animals1 and walks better in an upright position than does the ,ourang-outang1 whose whole life is spent in the trees1 while the ,chimpanzee often inhabits holes in the earth and rocks4 ,in the ,penny ,cyclopdia is the following account of one1 by ,captain ,payne3-- ,it shook hands with some of the sailors1 but refused its hand with marks of anger to others1 without any apparent cause4 ,it speedily1 however1 became familiar with the crew1 except one boy1 to whom it was never reconciled4 ,when the seamen's mess was brought on deck it was a constant attendant1 would go round and embrace each person1 while it uttered loud yells1 and then seat itself among them to share the repast4 ,some of the ,monkey tribe 7the ,spider-monkeys7 have the power of holding fast with the end of the tail2 it1 in fact1 forms a sort of hand1 and they swing from the boughs by it1 and it is said that several will attach themselves in this way1 forming a long chain1 and swing themselves from the topmost bough of a tree when they wish to cross a stream1 the lowest catching hold of the boughs on the opposite side1 and the uppermost of them letting go his hold1 they are all thus conveyed across4 #ab4 ,,bimana 7two-handed74 ,this order includes ,man alone4 ,man has been placed in a separate class1 and not as the first order of the ,mammalia1 but1 as will be presently noticed1 although he has many attributes which no other animal has1 yet in bodily construction1 and all the functions of his material part1 he so nearly resembles the other orders of his class that it is deemed better to place him at their head under the designation of two-handed2 although indeed he is the only animal who can be said to possess hands1 properly so called1 for those of the ,monkey tribe are so imperfectly developed that they have but little claim to the name4 ,in his circulation1 respiration1 digestion1 c41 ,man exactly resembles the other ,mammalia1 also in the organs of locomotion and special sense1 modified slightly in form2 but to these purely animal attributes1 he has superadded faculties which raise him above them1 and show him to be the last and most perfect of ,god's creatures1 one step further1 in fact1 than any other living being2 and it is a curious circumstance1 and one showing the accuracy of detail1 with which the ,mosaic account of ,creation in the ,bible abounds1 that this very superiority is not only mentioned in many ways1 but recorded as the result of a special act of ,god over and above his formation as an ordinary animal1 in which state he was created1 for we find the words1 and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life1 and man became a living soul1 this especial act was not performed for any other being which ,god had created1 of which it is stated simply male and female created ,he them4 ,man is possessed of sentiments 7or those feelings which prompt him to believe in1 look forward to1 and hope for a higher state of existence1 than that which he enjoys here7 which none of the lower animals have1 and of reason in place of instinct4 ,there is certainly a vast difference between the two1 although many would have us believe the one is the same as the other1 but of a higher order2 instinct causes its possessor to act from innate impulse without consciousness of the result1 while reason points out the why and the wherefore4 ,man is conscious of his own identity1 this is also peculiar to him2 moreover1 all the performances of man can be improved by practice1 none of the instincts can1 but are as perfect at first as at last2 the ,bee makes the comb1 and the ,bird the nest1 as well the first time as the last1 and although the higher animals1 as the ,dog1 ,horse1 ,elephant1 c41 can be taught to perform various clever and useful acts1 yet it is by ,man's instrumentality and not by their own powers2 in fact there is not an animal which left to itself has the slightest power within itself of deviating one iota from those peculiar instincts which were given it by ,god4 ,but ,man at every effort rises higher than he was before1 till he arrives at such a knowledge of the great works and designs of his ,creator that he bows his head in awe and admiration of the wonders permitted to appear to his comprehension4 ,with respect to his bodily structure1 ,man undoubtedly stands first in the race of beings1 although1 in some particulars1 such as the acuteness of the senses1 he may be inferior to some4 ,illustration3 a4 ,skull4 b4 b4 ,vertebral column or ,spine4 c4 ,ribs4 d4 ,sternum or ,chest bone4 e4 e4 ,scapulae or ,blade bones4 f4 f4 ,clavicles or ,collar bones4 g4 g4 ,pelvic or ,hip bones4 h4 h4 ,humeri or ,arm bones4 i4 ,radius ,bones of fore-arm4 j4 ,ulna k4 ,femur or ,thigh bone4 l4 ,tibia or ,large bone of leg4 m4 ,fibula or ,small bone of leg4 n4 ,calcaneum or ,heel bone4 o4 ,tarsal bones or ,bones of the foot4 p4 ,carpal bones or ,bones of the wrists4 ,,fig4 #gc4--,,the ,,human ,,skeleton4 ,the ,human frame consists of a skeleton 7fig4 #gc7 formed of hard and unyielding bone1 having joints to admit of motion in certain directions2 this skeleton performs certain great and important offices1 it forms strong boundaries or protecting cases for most of the vital parts1 so as to shield them from external violence1 such as the brain and spinal cord1 the lungs1 heart1 c41 it also furnishes a series of levers to be acted on by the muscles1 for the purposes of motion1 and a firm support for the soft parts of the system4 ,the skeleton is divided into the head1 trunk1 and extremities2 the head is again divided into cranium and face2 the trunk is divided into spine1 thorax1 and pelvis2 the extremities into the upper and lower1 the upper consisting of arm1 fore-arm1 and hand2 the lower of thigh1 leg1 and foot4 ,the bones are divided into flat bones 7fig4 #gd7 and long bones 7fig4 #ge71 the flat bones 7as a general rule7 form the boundaries of the cavities1 and the long bones the levers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,,flat ,,bone 7,scapula74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,,long ,,bone 7,femur74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,section ,,of ,,bone1 ,,magnified4 ,the bones consist of earthy matter1 chiefly phosphate of lime1 held together by a sort of cartilage1 and arranged in fine scales or plates forming interstices or cells 7fig4 #gf71 these are large in the centre of the bone so as to make it nearly 7and in some instances quite7 hollow1 and very small at the surface1 so as to make it there nearly solid2 this arrangement is found to be the very best to secure strength and lightness1 together with a very slight degree of flexibility4 ,the general form of a long bone is that of a shaft1 having an enlargement at either extremity1 the shaft is generally curved slightly so as to give elasticity1 and is more solid than the ends1 which are expanded to give size and firmness to the joints1 and porous to keep them light2 the shaft is small and close in its texture1 that there may be plenty of room for the muscles which lie on and cover it4 ,the skeleton then1 consists of bony cases which enclose the viscera1 a series of levers covered with1 and moved by the muscles1 and the whole forming a solid framework to support the soft parts4 ,all the various motions of the body1 from the winking of the eyelid and the wonderfully adjusted motions of the eye itself--which are so accurate1 that a certain perceptible motion is required to look alternately at one side and the other of a pin's head--to the most powerful stroke of the arm1 are performed by the contraction of the muscles4 ,but there are several actions which would at first appear to be produced by elongation instead of contraction1 such as the protrusion of the tongue1 the winking of the eyelids1 and the closure of the lips2 but the first of these is produced by the contraction of a muscle which is attached at one extremity to the under part of the root of the tongue1 and at the other to the inner part of the lower jaw1 which1 when it contracts1 draws the whole tongue forwards1 causing a part of it to protrude2 the eyelids and lips are closed by circular muscles surrounding them1 which1 by contraction1 draw together those parts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,,fibrils ,,of ,,voluntary ,,muscle1 ,,magnified4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,the ,,same1 ,,more ,,highly ,,magnified4 ,the muscles form the flesh of an animal1 or that part which is of a red colour1 and which is called lean 7in contra-distinction to fat71 they are composed of fibres1 each fibre made up of a number of fibrils1 and the whole bound up together by means of a fine membrane1 called areolar tissue4 ,each of these fibrils consists of a number of cells pressed closely together and having a peculiar bearded appearance 7figs4 #gg1 #gh74 ,it is by the sudden approximation and flattening of these cells that the muscle is shortened during contraction1 but the contraction of each fibril is only for an instant1 and then a relaxation and elongation of the cells takes place1 which is followed by a second contraction1 and so on4 ,now1 the way in which a muscle keeps in a state of permanent contraction is this3 the various fibrils or strings of cells relieve each other instead of all contracting and all relaxing together1 and in this way a part only of the fibrils are in a state of contraction at any given time1 while the others are relaxed1 and as one begins to relax another contracts1 and so keeps up a state of contraction in the muscle up to a certain point1 when the contractions become gradually more feeble1 and finally cease altogether2 the muscle is then exhausted1 but1 if allowed to rest awhile1 it again obtains its contractile power4 ,this peculiar contractile power is a physical one1 and exists for a short time after death1 that is1 until its perfect structure is altered by the beginning of decomposition2 and what is a curious fact1 the muscles of a dead body stimulated to contraction by pricking or galvanism1 will tire and again obtain their contractility by rest1 just as in the living body4 ,the nature of the stimulus which causes the muscles to contract during life is not known2 but1 whatever it may be1 it is conveyed from the spinal cord and brain1 through the medium of a set of nerves1 called the motor nerves1 or nerves of motion1 to the muscles1 to every fibre of which they are distributed4 ,there is1 however1 another set of nerves which have nothing to do with motion1 although exactly similar in appearance and generally associated and bound up in the same sheath with them2 these are the nerves of sensation4 ,they take their origin from every part possessed of sensibility or feeling--more especially the skin--and convey every impression of feeling to the brain4 ,the muscles are not all under the control of the will1 for the muscles of the heart1 bowels1 c4 are quite out of our control4 ,those which are subservient to our will are called voluntary muscles1 or the muscles of animal life1 while those out of the control of the will1 are the involuntary muscles1 or muscles of organic life 7fig4 #gi74 ,these last have a structure different to the voluntary muscles1 being composed of flattened fibres containing granules and overlapping each other4 ,the tendons are the cord-like extremities of the muscles which connect them to the bones2 they are fibrous and slightly elastic1 flexible1 and exceedingly strong2 while moist they have a splendent appearance1 somewhat like mother-of-pearl4 ,the ligaments are the strong fibrous bands which connect the bones together4 ,cartilages are substances of a white colour1 smooth in their texture1 and not very flexible2 they are connected to the bones which they sometimes serve to prolong1 and are themselves often converted into bone in old people1 by the deposition of earthy matter within their structure1 in fact1 they may be considered as bone in an undeveloped state2 for1 in the infant1 many parts are cartilaginous1 which1 in the adult1 are bony2 such as the ends of the long bones1 the bones of the nose1 c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,,involuntary ,,muscular ,,fibre4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,,head ,,of ,,an ,,infant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,,head ,,of ,,an ,,adult4 ,with respect to the development of the form of the human body1 there are two chief conditions which influence it1 namely1 age and sex4 ,with respect to age1 the proportional magnitudes of the different parts1 early and late in life1 vary very considerably4 ,in the infant 7fig4 #hj7 the hand is by far the most completely developed 7in size71 next to this the abdomen1 then the chest and upper extremities1 and1 finally1 the lower extremities4 ,in the adult 7fig4 #ha71 the largest measurement is round the chest and shoulders1 but in the infant it is round the head2 in the adult the lower extremities weigh one half of the whole body1 but in the infant not one quarter4 ,the infantile face has many peculiarities1 so also has the face of old age 7fig4 #hb74 ,in the infant the lower part of the face is but little developed1 the lower jaw is small1 the chin scarcely at all prominent1 and the distance from the nose to the chin very short1 owing to the absence of the teeth1 or 7when formed7 their smallness4 ,the bones of the nose are scarcely formed1 and this organ has therefore no bridge1 properly so called2 the nostrils are small1 the lower part of the forehead small1 smooth1 and rounded1 and the arches of the eyebrows but little prominent4 ,the cheek-bones are small1 and so are the bony arches which join them to the temples2 the cheeks are full of fat1 and the angles of the jaws rounded4 ,in middle age the lower part of the forehead becomes more fully developed1 the bony edges which support the eyebrows project and overhang the eyes1 the bridge of the nose and the nostrils become more fully formed1 the space from the nose to the chin is greater1 the teeth cause the lips to be pushed more forward1 the lower jaw is larger1 and the cheek-bones show more plainly4 ,in old age the whole upper part of the face becomes more marked1 the nose and eyebrows still more prominent1 the cheeks hollow from absorption of the fat1 the space from the nose to the chin 7as in infancy7 shortens from loss of teeth1 but the chin1 being more fully formed1 projects as the jaw rises to fill the space occupied by the teeth4 ,the angles of the jaw are also very sharp and square1 the eyes sunk in the head1 and the whole skin of the face loosened and wrinkled from loss of substance beneath4 ,with respect to sex1 in the ,male the facial bones are more fully formed1 the shoulders broader and higher1 the collar-bones longer and more curved1 the chest wider1 the hips narrower1 and the legs longer1 and every bone has its processes or markings more fully developed1 and is more contorted from the action of the muscles1 which are larger and more powerful than in the ,female4 ,in the ,female 7fig4 #hc7 there is a greater deposition of fat1 and1 in many other respects1 a tendency to a child-like conformation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb--;,,head ,,of ,,an ,,old ,,man4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,,head ,,of ,a ,,female4 ,the body is everywhere covered by a common integument called the skin1 beneath which is a layer of areolar and adipose tissue1 which last has its cells filled with fat1 which during life is in a liquid or oily state2 this serves to protect the parts beneath both from cold and violence1 fills up the hollows and irregularities between the muscles1 and gives the body a more rounded and graceful appearance4 ,man1 in common with all the higher animals1 is possessed of the five special senses1 namely1 sight1 smell1 hearing1 touch1 and taste1 the organs of which are the eyes1 nose1 ears1 skin1 and mouth2 but these are developed in very different degrees in different animals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,,front ,,view ,,of ,,eye4 ,sight is the sense by which we take cognisance of those external objects which either give out or reflect light4 ,the eye 7fig4 #hd7 is an optical instrument of great beauty and perfection1 and by its help an image of everything we look at is produced in miniature on the expanded optic nerve called the retina1 as an image is produced in the camera1 which instrument is made in imitation of the eye2 this image by some unknown power is perceived by the mind1 and produces the sense of vision4 ,by the sense of sight we recognise all forms1 colours1 and gradations of light and shade1 and also 7assisted by the experience gained by the sense of touch7 the qualities of surface1 such as roughness1 smoothness1 c42 for instance1 we know by touch that a piece of glass is smooth1 that a piece of velvet has a different kind of smoothness1 c41 and the mode in which these surfaces reflect the light1 teaches us to recognise them so that we could predict from touch what appearance an object would have1 or by the look how it would feel4 ,our knowledge of the solidity of bodies is known to the sense of sight by 7unconsciously7 looking at them with each eye alternately1 so as to see to a certain extent round them1 or somewhat on either side alternately4 ,by this fact the principle of the stereoscope is explained1 the pictures looked at through it1 consist of two views of the same object1 taken at points of sight a short distance apart 7corresponding to the distance between the eyes7 and they give us1 when steadily looked at1 the same result that real objects do when looked at with each eye1 alternately4 ,it is a curious fact1 but one which has been clearly demonstrated by optical experiments1 that the picture represented on the retina is inverted1 but from habit we refer things to their natural position1 and how naturally and easily this is done1 may be ascertained by holding the head down close to the floor1 and looking at objects through one's legs1 in this position they are all inverted2 but we naturally make ourselves satisfied that they are still as they were before1 so that they really do not appear to be inverted4 ,the impression formed by objects upon the retina is not immediately destroyed upon their removal1 but remains for an instant permanent2 this gives rise to a great many curious phenomena1 among which the most familiar is the circle of light produced by the rapid evolution of any luminous body1 as the red-hot end of a stick4 ,this is also shown by a toy1 called the ,thaumatrope1 which consists of a piece of card having a small wire attached to the upper part by which it may be turned rapidly round by the thumb and finger4 ,on one side of the card is painted an object1 such as a parrot1 and on the other a cage2 when the card is turned round1 first the bird and then the cage is presented to the eye1 but the image of the one has not left the eye before the other is presented to it1 and the result is the uniform appearance on both sides of a parrot in a cage4 ,the structure of the eyes in ,man and the higher animals is very nearly alike1 so that the same description will serve for both1 but those of insects and the lower orders of animated beings are very different4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,,section ,,of ,,human ,,eye4 ,a4 ,sclerotic4 ,b4 ,choroid4 ,c4 ,retina4 ,d4 ,vitreous humour4 ,e4 ,aqueous humour4 ,f4 ,cornea4 ,g4 ,crystalline lens4 ,h4 ,pupil4 ,i4 ,optic nerve4 ,the eye consists of various humours of different densities enclosed in membranes 7fig4 #he72 the human eye is spherical for the posterior four-fifths of its circumference1 but the front part projects a little1 being formed of part of a smaller sphere4 ,the globe of the eye1 all but this front part1 is enclosed in a firm fibrous coat called the sclerotic1 within which is a membrane full of blood-vessels called the choroid1 this on its inner side is covered with a black substance called the black pigment1 and within this 7lining the ball7 is the nervous coat or retina1 it is the optic nerve so expanded as to form a lining to the membranes of the ball of the eye for the greater part of its extent4 ,the ball of the eye is filled with a transparent fluid1 somewhat glutinous1 called the vitreous humour2 stretched across the front part of the ball of the eye is a membrane having a round hole in its centre1 called the iris1 coated 7like the choroid7 with black pigment on its back surface2 this membrane 7the iris7 is the coloured part of the eye1 and its transparency or opacity determines the colour of the eye4 ,the pupil is the hole in its centre1 it looks black because the black pigment which covers the inside of the ball of the eye 7for the retina is transparent7 is seen through it2 behind the iris and in front of the vitreous humour1 is the crystalline lens1 it is just the shape of a very thick lens1 but is more convex behind than in front1 it is quite transparent1 and of a density almost approaching to solidity4 ,the front fifth of the ball of the eye is covered in by a dense transparent substance called the cornea1 of the form of a watch-glass and quite transparent1 between this and the crystalline lens there is a small space called the anterior chamber1 filled with a clear watery fluid called the aqueous humour4 ,the eye is moved by six muscles1 four straight and two oblique1 these turn it in every direction with the greatest accuracy2 the front of the eye is defended by the eyelids1 which by winking and being moistened by the tears1 keep the eye always moist and free from dust4 ,the eyes of insects and several other classes of animals are called compound eyes1 and the image they produce must resemble objects depicted in mosaic1 or made up of small spots of distinct colours2 they consist of hundreds of small tubes1 radiating and forming part of a sphere on each side of the head1 each of these tubes admits the light from objects at which they point4 ,some of the animals still lower in the scale have simple spots of transparent membrane with an expansion of optic nerve beneath them2 in such creatures the power of vision is probably limited to distinguishing light from darkness4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,,section ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,ear4 a1 external opening2 b1 tympanum2 c1 small bones2 d1 ,eustachian tube2 e1 cochlea2 f1 semicircular canals4 ,hearing4--,sound is conveyed to the mind by the vibration of air1 and this vibration is communicated to a membrane within the ear1 called the tympanum2 this is in connection 7by means of three minute bones7 with the expanded auditory nerve1 which ramifies within the vestibule1 which is filled with a fluid1 so that the vibrations of the air are thus communicated to the nerve of hearing 7fig4 #hf74 ,smell4--,the interior of the nose is lined by a fine moist membrane1 on which the olfactory nerve is distributed4 ,the cause of odour is quite unknown2 though1 as most volatile substances are odorous1 it is supposed to be some volatile matter which comes in contact with the olfactory nerve1 or nerve of smelling4 ,the quantity given off in some instances must be exceedingly small1 for one grain of musk placed on a piece of glass will give out scent for months1 and at the end of that time weigh still one grain4 ,some animals1 as ,dogs and ,birds of prey1 have this sense so acute that it serves them instead of almost every other2 the ,vulture will scent carrion miles away1 and the ,dog will track his master by the power of scent4 ,taste4--,the sense of taste resides chiefly in the tongue1 but to some extent in the palate or roof of the mouth2 it appears to be a modified sense of smell1 combined with common sensation or touch1 and is much diminished by loss of smell4 ,touch1 next to sight1 is the most important of the senses4 ,the whole skin possesses this sense1 but in some parts far more than others1 the finger-ends being the most perfectly endowed with it2 and in the lower animals the parts which are used as prehensile organs1 are in them the most acutely sensitive to touch1 as the end of the proboscis in the ,elephant1 and the lips of most other quadrupeds4 ,in the ,feline tribe1 the smellers or hairs from the side of the face1 appear to be true organs of touch1 and enable them to feel their way in the dark4 ,by the sense of touch we are informed of the amount of resistance of matter 7and consequently its weight71 of hardness1 smoothness1 roughness1 and other qualities of surface1 and by the amount of extension of the hand to reach them of their distance from us1 and also of the form and size of things4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,,tiger',s ,,head ,,and ,,elephant',s ,,trunk4 ,the human hand is the most perfect organ of prehension possessed by any animal1 for although ,monkeys have hands1 yet these are so imperfect as to serve chiefly for clinging to1 and climbing amongst the branches1 they cannot take any small substance between the thumb and finger1 while the human hand1 besides enabling its possessor to grasp firmly with all the fingers and thumb1 each can individually be approximated to the thumb so as to hold the very smallest substance1 and as ,man is so constituted that he can stand firmly on his feet1 his hands can be solely appropriated to the acts of prehension4 ,it has been said that ,man owes much of his superiority to the lower animals1 to the possession of hands which can take1 examine1 and compare everything within his reach2 but it seems more probable that these hands have been given him because he1 only1 has the faculties of examining and comparing4 ,the ,lion and ,tiger would be no better off1 had they ,man's hands instead of their feet with claws--probably much worse4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,,human ,,hand4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,,monkey',s ,,hand4 ,animals do not feed upon unorganised matter1 as do vegetables1 but merely appropriate to their own use those organic principles which are ready formed in the vegetable or animal1 such as albumen1 fibrine1 starch1 gum1 sugar1 c41 and assimilate them into their substance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,,human ,,stomach4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,,lungs1 ,,heart1 ,,and ,,large ,,vessels4 #a and #b1 ,right and left ,lungs2 #c1 ,heart2 #d1 ,aorta2 #e1 ,trachea4 ,when food enters the mouth of an animal it there meets with a fluid 7the saliva7 which is capable of converting starchy matters into sugar1 thus rendering this aliment 7which is presented in a state of a nature quite insoluble at the heat of the stomach7 not only soluble1 but nutritious4 ,this ensalivation takes place while the food is being masticated2 when in the stomach 7fig4 #ij7 it meets with the gastric juice1 a fluid capable of dissolving both fibrine and albumen 7the two other chief aliments71 even when coagulated2 thus all kinds of food when they have been a short time in the stomach are reduced to a liquid1 and so far fitted to enter the system4 ,the stomach is a membraneous bag1 communicating at the upper orifice with the mouth1 and at the lower with the intestines2 its internal 7mucous7 coat is smooth1 and contains many absorbents2 its outer coat is muscular1 and capable of contraction1 so as to roll together its contents1 thus bringing every portion into contact with the gastric juice2 this mass of dissolved food has received the name of chyme4 ,by admixture with the bile 7a fluid excreted by the liver7 and other juices1 it separates 7like curds and whey7 into a liquid and partially solid matter2 the liquid part is like milk1 and is called chyle1 and it is taken up by absorbent vessels1 by endosmose1 a peculiar power which membranes have of allowing liquids to pass through them when there is a more dense liquid on the other side 7as described in the experiment at page #abc1 ,vegetable ,kingdom171 and1 passing through the vessels called lacteals1 is mixed there with the impure blood as it is about to be returned to the heart1 and from thence to the lungs1 where impurities are got rid of in the form of carbonic acid4 ,the lungs 7fig4 #ia71 in performing this office1 expose the blood 7contained in thousands of minute blood-vessels7 to the air which enters the windpipe at every inspiration or breath1 the windpipe divides into two1 and these each into two more 7the bronchial tubes71 and so on until they are no larger than a hair2 at the end of each tube is a little air-cell1 on the membraneous walls of which the vessels containing the blood are distributed as a network4 ,the blood when it enters the lungs is of a dark purple or blackish colour1 and is loaded with carbonic acid2 this blood is received by the heart from the great veins1 which pour it into the right auricle1 this contracting1 sends it into the right ventricle1 which1 in turn1 sends it through the pulmonary arteries into the lungs2 while there1 it is exposed in the network of vessels which ramify on the walls of the air-cells2 another process of endosmose takes place1 and the carbonic acid passes through the walls of the vessels into the air-tubes1 and escapes by the breath2 at the same time that this carbonic acid is cast off1 an equal bulk of oxygen is absorbed from the air1 so that the air which enters the lungs1 and that which passes out1 are the same in bulk--plus watery vapour--although what enters is pure air1 and what is expelled1 is loaded with carbonic acid4 ,the blood1 having exchanged carbonic acid for oxygen1 is now altered from a black to a bright scarlet colour1 and is in a condition to be circulated through the system4 ,on leaving the lungs by the pulmonary veins1 it enters the left auricle of the heart1 and passes from thence to the left ventricle1 which is very powerful1 and forces it by compression upwards into the aorta 7the first great artery71 and thence through the other arteries1 which divide1 and become smaller and smaller until it arrives at every part of the body1 forming a network of fine vessels which are called capillaries2 so perfectly are these vessels distributed1 that it is almost impossible to cut or prick any part of the body without wounding one of them1 and thereby drawing blood4 ,when these capillaries have supplied this pure blood to repair and renovate every part of the system1 and received for the new material1 that which is worn out or spoiled1 they urge it onwards to where they unite into small veins1 and1 as these continue to unite1 they form large trunks1 and pour the blood1 now black and impure1 into the right auricle of the heart1 together with the fresh material 7chyle7 derived from the food1 again to be sent through the lungs and purified for fresh circulation4 ,this description applies as well to the other ,mammalia as it does to ,man1 for these classes do not differ from ,man in their physical structure1 except in form and size1 and the alteration in the proportion of the various parts to adapt each to its peculiar purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,european ,,and ,,negro4 ,,man is1 without doubt1 the only animal possessed of reflective and reasoning faculties1 and the possession of these has raised him immeasurably above all the rest4 ,he has also physical capabilities suitable to a dominant being whose race is destined to people the earth in every part4 ,were his constitution formed like that of the ,chimpanzee or the ,ourang1 he could only live in the very hottest of climates2 but it is found that ,man is healthy and happy through ranges of temperature1 which would prove fatal to most other animals4 ,in the frigid regions of the north1 the ,laplander enjoys many comforts which he fancies could never be obtained in any other latitude1 and the ,bushman of ,africa1 following the wild animals of that region1 and needing no covering to shield him from the burning rays of the sun1 deems his lot the happiest that can be4 ,the human race are gradually increasing in number1 and there is scarcely a spot capable of being inhabited at all1 but they are found there2 and1 wherever ,man comes1 the wild animals of the region retire or become entirely extinct1 excepting those which serve him as food1 such as the ,ruminants4 ,the difference between the highest of the lower animals and ,man1 is so distinct1 that no more need be said about it2 but among men themselves1 there is a great difference2 between the ,european1 and the ,negro or the ,hottentot1 there is a vast distinction1 but the most simple would at once say they are both men1 and possessed of the essential qualities of men2 and there can be no doubt that all men of every kind form one species4 ,this is a point pretty well settled among all who have written on the subject2 and indeed1 great as the difference is among men1 it is not half so great as that which exists between the ,bull-dog and ,italian ,greyhound1 and yet they are both dogs2 or between the ,race-horse and the ,dray-horse1 and yet who is there can doubt of these both being of the same species4 ,blumenbach made out five varieties--namely1 #a1 ,caucasian2 #b1 ,mongolian2 #c1 ,american2 #d1 ,malay2 #e1 ,ethiopian or ,negro4 ,pickering#b describes eleven varieties1 and arranges them as follows3-- ,,white4 #a4 ,arabian4 #b4 ,abyssinian4 ,,brown4 #c4 ,mongolian4 #d4 ,hottentot4 #e4 ,malay4 ,,blackish-,,brown4 #f4 ,papuan4 #g4 ,negrillo4 #h4 ,indian or ,telingan4 #i4 ,ethiopian4 ,,black4 #aj4 ,australian4 #aa4 ,negro4 ,footnote #b3 ,pickering's ,races of ,man4 ,by ,john ,charles ,hall1 ,m4,d41 p4 #cjj4 ,in this arrangement the ,arabian corresponds with the ,caucasian of ,blumenbach2 both names are given from the supposed country of the original members of the race2 the appellation ,european1 used by ,dr4 ,latham is1 however1 a much more appropriate one than either1 both the ,caucasian and ,arabian being now limited to the inhabitants of the localities from which their names were derived4 ,the ,arabian1 ,caucasian1 or ,european family occupy the chief part of ,western ,europe1 the ,british ,isles1 and the ,united ,states of ,america1 and is fast spreading in other parts of the ,american ,continent and in ,australia4 ,it is characterised by a fair complexion1 arched nose1 ruddy cheeks1 thin lips1 and the frequency of blue eyes and light hair4 ,its members are at this present time the highest and most civilised classes in the world1 being further advanced in religion1 arts1 sciences1 and literature2 also their capacity for enterprise and speculation1 and their love of novelty1 is far beyond that of any other variety of the human race2 anything new that offers the smallest chance of being beneficial is at once adopted by them and carried out4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the great secret of their advancement1 for the other most numerous variety of the human family1 and which exceeds the ,european in numbers 7the ,mongolian71 has but little capacity for change of any kind1 in fact1 appears to admire and adhere to those matters only1 which have the most undoubted stamp of antiquity--such a mode of feeling especially obtains among the ,chinese4 ,dr4 ,latham divides the ,european family into-- #a4 ,,the ,,basks4 #b4 ,,the ,,skiptar4 #c4 ,,the ,,kelts4 #d4 ,,the ,,greeks ,,and ,,latins4 #e4 ,,the ,,sarmatians4 #f4 ,,the ,,germans4 ,illustration3 ,,european4 ,the ,,basks appear to have been the original inhabitants of ,spain and ,portugal1 which have abandoned their former habitation and now dwell in the mountains of ,navarre and ,gascony1 just as the ,american ,indians may be supposed to dwell at some future time in the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the ,,skiptar are the inhabitants of ,albania1 much resembling in personal appearance the ,turks and ,sclavonians1 but having a language derived from a different source4 ,the following is a description of the ,albanian1 from the ,penny ,cyclopdia3-- ,the ,albanians are about five feet and a half high1 muscular and straight in their persons4 ,their activity1 and the tight girdles which they wear1 render them small round the loins2 they have full broad chests1 long necks1 long oval faces with prominent cheek bones1 and flat raised foreheads1 arched eyebrows1 blue or hazel 7rarely quite black7 lively eyes1 thin straight noses1 thin but open nostrils1 and small mouths furnished with good teeth4 ,their complexions are white in youth1 but become tinged a dusky hue in old age4 ,the ,,kelts 7or ,celts7 were the former inhabitants of both ,france and ,england1 they are now to be found chiefly in ,ireland and the ,highlands of ,scotland1 and are called ,gaelic ,celts2 the ,english are a mixture of these with ,saxon and ,german1 but still retain a good deal of the blood of the ,celts2 in ,wales the ,celts are derived from the ancient ,british branch4 ,the ,english retain more of the ,germanic language1 while the ,welsh retain most of the original ,british2 the ,french are ,celtic mixed with ,roman1 and have therefore a great admixture of ,latin in their language4 ,the ,kelts appear to have been a race above the usual height1 with red or light hair1 ruddy complexion1 and of a fierce and impetuous disposition4 ,the ,,greeks and ,,latins4--,of this stock1 the inhabitants of ,italy and ,greece are the purest descendants1 but it is extended with more or less contamination to ,spain and the ,danubian ,principalities4 ,italy was probably the original seat of both races4 ,the ,,sarmatians4--,this stock inhabits ,russia1 ,poland1 ,bohemia1 ,hungary1 and ,servia1 all speaking the ,sclavonic languages4 ,the ,,germans4--,this race inhabits ,germany1 ,holland1 ,denmark1 ,sweden1 and ,norway1 and its immediate branch the ,english1 forming the ,anglo-,saxon family1 are extended to ,america1 ,canada1 ,australia1 and other parts of the world by colonisation4 ,dr4 ,pickering calls the ,european race ,arabian1 and makes it extend through the whole of ,europe1 ,india1 ,arabia1 and the northern parts of ,africa1 believing all these to have been derived from the same stock1 and forming variations of the same family4 ,the language spoken by the ,europeans of all classes has been called ,indo-,european1 hence ,pickering classes with them the ,hebrews1 ,armenians1 ,parsees1 and many more1 all derived from a stock supposed to have migrated from ,asia into ,europe and ,africa4 ,the ,,abyssinian4--,this race inhabits the table lands of ,abyssinia1 and its extension into the interior4 ,dr4 ,pickering thus describes the appearance of three individuals of this race whom he met at ,singapore-- ,illustration3 ,,abyssinian4 ,the hair was much alike in all three1 and was crisped and fine1 neither coarse enough nor in sufficient quantity to form a resisting mass4 ,the beard of one individual was in pellets absolutely like the close wool of the ,negro1 but the prominence of nose1 greater even than usually occurs in the white race1 bore sufficient testimony to his purity of descent4 ,the second individual had the face very much elongated1 but the nose was not particularly prominent4 ,the third had a straighter beard1 which was black and grey in regular stripes4 ,the complexion was the same in all three1 and though very light1 was by no means of a sickly hue1 and indeed these persons might readily have been passed in the streets as belonging to the white race4 ,illustration3 ,,mongolian4 ,illustration3 ,,esquimaux4 ,the ,,mongolian race1 according to ,pickering1 includes the inhabitants of part of ,china and all the north-eastern parts of ,asia1 also the aborigines of ,north and ,south ,america1 with the exception of a tract of land on the south-western coast1 including what is now ,california1 and part of the ,united ,states4 ,this race is probably the most numerous in the world4 ,the complexion of the ,mongolian is decidedly yellowish brown1 but rather pale withal 7it is well seen in the ,chinese72 the head is flattened from before to behind1 and expanded from side to side1 so that in some well-marked cases the head is as broad as it is long1 the eyes are drawn upwards at the outer angles1 and appear wide apart1 from the inner angle1 being but little prolonged inwards1 the cheek-bones are prominent2 the eyes black1 and the hair black and straight4 ,the best specimens of this family are the ,tartars and ,chinese4 ,the ,chinese are highly skilful in most of the useful arts1 especially in agriculture4 ,their history extends very far back1 and probably the longest series of recorded events in existence1 being continuous for a period of about #d1jjj years1 during the whole of which time they have been in a state of civilisation nearly the same as they are at the present time4 ,the aboriginal tribes of ,america belong to this family4 ,dr4 ,latham derives their origin from the ,esquimaux 7or ,eskemo71 and their migration from north-eastern ,asia1 ,kamschatka1 and the ,aleutian ,islands1 to the eastern or ,pacific shores of ,america4 ,the ,chinese and ,tartars are of a decidedly yellow tint4 ,the ,americans are of a dark copper-coloured hue1 hence their designation ,red ,indians4 ,illustration3 ,,american ,,indian4 ,the ,,hottentot4 ,this race inhabits the south of ,africa1 and parts extending thence into the interior2 they are of a yellowish-brown complexion1 small in stature1 with hair consisting of small black knobs of a crisp sort of wool1 separated from each other in such a way that the skin of the head may be distinctly seen between them4 ,they are strictly nomadic1 scarcely ever remaining in any fixed spot1 but following the animals they hunt and kill for food1 upon the flesh of which1 with a few roots1 they live4 ,dr4 ,livingstone denies that they are very small in stature2 speaking of the ,bushmen1 a tribe of the ,hottentot family1 he says3--,they are the only real nomads in the country1 they never cultivate the soil1 nor rear any domestic animals1 save wretched dogs2 they are so intimately acquainted with the habits of the game1 that they follow them in their migrations from place to place1 and prey upon them1 and thus prove as complete a check upon their inordinate increase as the other carnivora4 ,the chief subsistence of the ,bushmen is the flesh of game1 but that is eked out by what the women collect of roots1 beans1 or fruits of the desert4 ,illustration3 ,,hottentot ,,female4 ,illustration3 ,,malay4 ,the ,,malay family are a coast-dwelling people1 delighting in the water1 and never found very far removed from it2 they inhabit the southernmost coast of ,china1 from ,siam southwards1 and all the adjacent islands4 ,they are of a dark rich brown colour1 with straight1 coarse1 black hair and scanty beard1 which in some is quite wanting4 ,some of the members of this family are above the usual standard of height1 such as the ,polynesians and ,tahitians4 ,the moral character of the ,malays1 generally speaking1 is of an inferior order4 ,they are a race differing much1 in some respects1 from the ,negro and ,red ,indian1 being of peculiarly active temperaments2 they exhibit considerable intellectual capacity1 and are an ingenious people4 ,it is extremely probable1 from the fact of their being found in islands surrounded by others in the hands of the ,ethiopic race1 that they have pushed out the less active variety1 and1 in short1 annihilated them2 and it is likely that they will in turn suffer extinction at the hands of a superior variety1 or a variety rendered superior by civilisation4 ,the ,,papuan race inhabit the ,feejee ,islands and the coasts of ,new ,guinea2 they are almost black1 with a rough skin and thick woolly hair1 which grows much longer than in the ,negro1 and which they wear curled up so as to form a resisting mass1 and no bad protection against the blow from a club 7their national weapon74 ,their height is above the average of ,europeans4 ,fish and yams are their chief food4 ,illustration3 ,,papuan4 ,the ,,negrillo are nearly black in colour1 short in stature1 with projecting jaws and thick woolly hair1 the nose not so flat as the ,negro1 nor the lips so thick2 they inhabit the interior of ,new ,guinea and a few islands in its locality1 of which they appear to have been the aborigines1 the central parts only being occupied by them2 the coasts are inhabited by the ,papuan and ,malay races1 who have driven the ,negrillo aborigines from their former abode to the central mountains4 ,the ,,indian or ,,telingan race inhabit the whole of ,hindostan1 and parts of ,persia4 ,the complexion is much the same as in the two preceding races 7,negrillo and ,papuan71 and is so decidedly darker than in the ,malayan1 that by common consent it is called black1 although1 on comparison1 the two differ widely from that of the unmixed ,negro4 ,the greater part of ,hindostan is1 however1 inhabited by a mixed race1 partly ,persian1 partly ,arabian4 ,pickering describes them as follows3--,the features approximated very closely to those of the ,white race1 but in general the mouth appeared to be wider1 the nose rather less prominent1 and the lips sensibly thicker4 ,the profile was less vertical than in the surrounding ,malays1 the lower part of the face projecting with a regular arch1 as in the ,mongolian1 and there was a further correspondence with the latter race in the frequent instances of the arched nose4 ,the beard occurred more frequently1 and was more copious than in the ,malay race2 the hair was straight and fine1 and ,i have never seen it any other colour than black4 ,illustration3 ,,hindoo4 ,the ,,ethiopians inhabit the central and north-east part of ,africa1 ,nubia1 and the upper districts of the ,nile4 ,they are black1 but their features are not far removed from the ,european1 except in the fulness of the lips1 and they are in some cases extremely handsome4 ,the hair is black and crisp1 but not completely woolly1 and grows sufficiently long to be plaited1 which is the usual mode in which it is worn by the females of this race4 ,the ,,australians4--,the natives of ,australia are quite black1 and have the nose and mouth very wide2 the lips are thick1 but not so much so as in the ,negro2 the hair is black and curly1 but not woolly2 the eyes are very small1 deeply set1 black1 and keen2 the lower part of the face does not project like that of the ,negro4 ,these make a wide distinction between the two races1 although they have been confounded with each other4 ,illustration3 ,,australian4 ,illustration3 ,,negro4 ,the ,,negro4--,this race appears to differ from the ,european more than any other4 ,the skin of the ,negro is quite black and shining1 the hair black1 closely crisped into a sort of wool1 and never growing to any great length2 they have but little beard1 the nose is flat and broad1 and the lips very thick and protruding1 as is also the whole lower part of the face2 the front teeth also project outwards1 and the whole contour of the face and head is backwards1 forming a gradually receding outline4 ,they inhabit the interior and eastern parts of ,africa conjointly with the ,hottentot4 ,the preceding is a slight outline of the various races of men which inhabit the earth2 their numbers are in the gross somewhere about a thousand millions1 and it has been computed as follows1 bearing in mind that these numbers are but a rude approximation to truth3-- ,european #cej1jjj1jjj ,mongolian #djj1jjj1jjj ,malay #ajj1jjj1jjj ,telingan #hj1jjj1jjj ,negro #ej1jjj1jjj ,ethiopian #aj1jjj1jjj ,abyssinian #cj1jjj1jjj ,papuan #c1jjj1jjj ,negrillo #c1jjj1jjj ,australian #ejj1jjj ,hottentot #ejj1jjj ,in examining the various tribes of animated nature1 there is one great fact which impresses itself irresistibly upon our minds1 namely1 that they all form the handiwork of one ,creator1 and ,his ,autograph is stamped everywhere4 ,his care is also shown in the way in which animals are made to feed on all kinds of organic matters1 and on each other2 this has been the means of economising all the nutriment which exists on the earth1 for1 although it may not always be apparent1 yet there is not a scrap or crumb ever wasted in nature2 not a decayed leaf or blade of grass1 not a leg of a fly1 nor the wing of a gnat1 nor any part or portion of organic matter1 from the smallest animalcule to the huge carcass of the dead elephant1 or the trunk of the giant pine tree which the hurricane has uprooted1 but forms a feast for some of the smaller tribes of animated beings there placed by ,providence to eat it4 ,millions of these1 after devouring the waste-matters of organic existence1 whether embedded in the soil or elsewhere 7not accessible to larger creatures71 themselves form the food for creatures of larger growth1 as birds1 fishes1 c42 these again form the food of ,man1 so that ,,nothing ,,is ,,wasted4 ,,the ,,end4 ,cloth1 ,gilt1 ,price ,five ,shillings4 ,,uniform ,,with ,,outlines ,,of ,,creation4 ,,the ,,boy',s ,,book ,,of ,,industrial ,,information4 ,,by ,,elisha ,,noyce4 ,,author ,,of ,,outlines ,,of ,,creation4 ,,illustrated ,,with ,,three ,,hundred ,,and ,,sixty-,,five ,,engravings1 ,,by ,,the ,,brothers ,,dalziel4 ,,opinions ,,of ,,the ,,press4 ,examiner1 ,july #c4 #aheh4 ,this book contains a brief and very clear summary of information for young readers upon the natural products used in the arts1 and the arts by which they are converted to ,man's use4 ,it tells the main facts that relate to every manufacture1 and describes the various kinds of apparatus and machinery--chains1 cranks1 valves1 wheels1 steam and other engines1 fire-arms1 stills1 thermometers and barometers1 ploughs1 thrashing-machines1 c41 as well as the more notable kinds of engineering work4 ,to make the brief descriptions as effectual as full ones1 they are very freely illustrated with good woodcuts by the ,brothers ,dalziel4 ,whatever is described is shown not only by plans and diagrams1 but frequently also by little pictures that are very interesting and effective4 ,the illustrations1 we should add1 are not copies of copies1 but new and direct sketches from the things they represent4 ,among efforts to produce cheap volumes of useful information for the young1 we account this one of the most successful4 ,art ,journal1 ,august4 ,this is just the book to place in the hands of an intelligent boy or girl--for why should the useful information it contains be limited to sex8--who desires to know something about those things from which so much of his comfort and enjoyment is derived4 ,every youth in ,prussia1 whatever be his condition--the prince and the peasant alike--is1 we believe1 compelled by the laws which apply in that country to education1 to learn some trade or handicraft4 ,mr4 ,noyce's book will serve to initiate every boy in the ,united ,kingdom who reads it1 into the theoretical art and mystery of the material and manufacturing world4 ,he divides his teachings into six sections1 under the respective heads of ,natural ,products1 ,manufactured ,products1 ,products of ,skilled ,labour1 ,arts and ,trade ,processes1 ,apparatus and ,machinery1 and ,engineering ,works1 bringing into notice more than one hundred and fifty different subjects4 ,the explanations and descriptions are1 as they should be1 simple and untechnical1 as far as possible2 concise1 yet sufficiently demonstrative2 a multum in parvo1 to which ,messrs4 ,dalziel's clear and well-executed engravings give great additional value4 ,such a volume is worth a hundred story-books as a present to the juveniles4 ,illustrated ,london ,news1 ,july #c4 ,this work1 by ,elisha ,noyce1 with #cfe illustrations by the ,brothers ,dalziel1 is calculated to do much good4 ,the object is not only to please1 but to instruct2 and1 although written ostensibly for the young1 it may be read with advantage by all who desire to possess a knowledge of things in everyday use4 ,the information throughout is conveyed in a clear and understandable form2 this1 combined with its pictures on every page1 is well calculated to make the mind familiar with many objects that as a rule have hitherto been but imperfectly realised to the young4 ,the book is admirably adapted to assist those who are about to make choice of an occupation1 and this of itself would make it a welcome addition to the numerous works written for the information and guidance of the rising generation4 ,the book is published by ,ward and ,lock4 ,dispatch1 ,july #d4 ,there is really a great deal to recommend this book to the attention of the public as one especially adapted for the entertainment and the instruction of the young4 ,the subjects themselves embrace the whole arcana of the material universe1 the mineral and vegetable products of the earth1 their properties1 manufacture1 and varied convertibility to the service and uses of man4 ,three hundred and sixty-five first-class engravings1 from the pencils of the ,brothers ,dalziel1 and most of these being illustrative of the finished machinery of ,woolwich ,arsenal1 and drawn by permission of the authorities1 add to the value of the matter incorporated in these pages1 while in almost all other forms the industrial arts1 with their varied apparatus and machinery1 are ably and fully described4 ,it is a true ,boy's ,book1 and merits the amplest circulation possible for it to attain4 ,daily ,telegraph1 ,july #bj4 ,the title of ,mr4 ,noyce's book sufficiently explains its object1 and we have only to say that it answers its purpose4 ,it is clearly and amusingly written1 and embraces a large variety of useful subjects1 which it treats in a full1 though1 at the same time1 a concise manner4 ,the book is illustrated with three hundred and sixty-five excellent engravings by the ,brothers ,dalziel4 ,leeds ,times1 ,july #ca4 ,the author's object in the elegant-looking issue before us1 as described by himself1 is to convey to the youthful reader a knowledge of the materials1 processes1 and apparatus made use of in the various examples of industry and skill constantly before our eyes4 ,no fewer than #cfe wood-cuts by the ,brothers ,dalziel are appropriately interspersed with the letterpress1 thus enabling the reader to clearly understand what otherwise would of necessity1 in some cases1 be almost incomprehensible4 ,the work is clearly and ably written1 and even the intelligent adult must possess a large fund of general knowledge who can truthfully affirm that he has derived no information from its pages4 ,norfolk ,news1 ,aug4 #g4 ,the title of ,the ,boy's ,book has been applied to more than one1 two1 or three subjects2 but to none more appropriately than to this1 which is really and truly ,the ,boy's ,book of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,the author has observed the happy medium of saying neither too little nor too much--of neither wearying the patience of his young readers by long and needless details1 nor of disappointing their curiosity by unnecessarily brief and insufficient descriptions4 ,if we are not greatly mistaken1 the book will soon become a general favorite with the young1 and we should strongly recommend it as a text-book of general information to ,educational establishments4 ,it is beautifully got up1 and its value is considerably enhanced by the superior wood engravings of the ,brothers ,dalziel1 which speak the language of explanation as plainly to the eye as does the letterpress to the understanding4 ,,london3 ,,ward ,,lock1 #aeh1 ,,fleet ,,street4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes ,variations in spelling1 punctuation and hyphenation have been retained except in obvious cases of typographical errors which have been silently corrected4 ,italics are shown thus italic4 ,the repetition of the title on the first two pages has been removed4