,transcrib]'s ,notes ,small capitals 9 ! orig9al "w h be5 transcrib$ z ,,all ,,capitals2 italics h be5 transcrib$ betwe5 und]scores4 ,a c>et repres5ts a subscript1 z 9 #do4 ,m ,transcrib]'s ,notes may be f\nd at ! end ( ?is text4 ,a ,,brief ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,=e/ry4 ,,9 ,,europe1 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,& ,,o!r ,,c\ntries ,,by ,b]nh>d ,e4 ,f]n[1 ,,ll4,d4 ,dean1 ,faculty ( ,=e/ry ,univ]sity ( ,toronto ,,revis$ ,,& ,,enl>g$ ,,edition ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,toronto ,,& ,,=e/ry ,,qu>t]ly1 ,,cambridge1 ,,mass4 ,,copyright1 ,,canada1 #aiaa1 ,,by ,b4 ,e4 ,,f]n[4 ,to ,my ,fri5d ( ,_m ,ye>s ,,rossit] ,w4 ,,raymond ^: w>m p]sonal int]e/ & en?usia/ic patriotism h f _! beg9n+s inspir$ my labors 9 =w>d+ =e/ry int]e/s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,page ,,preface ix ,,introductory #a ,,! ,,=e/ ,,( ,,! ,,anci5ts #h #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions #i #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,prop]ty #ab #c4 ,=e/ ,use #ae #d4 ,lit]ature #ai ,,g]many #bb ,i4 ,,f ,,e>lie/ ,,times ,,to ,,end ,,( ,,middle ,,ages #bf #a4 ,developm5t ( ,prop]ty ,conditions #bg #b4 ,=e/ ,treatm5t #cf ,,ii4 ,,fir/ ,,developm5t ,,( ,,=e/ry ,,me?ods 7#aejj ,,to #ahjj7 #da #a4 ,developm5t ( ,prop]ty ,conditions #db #b4 ,=e/ ,conditions #dg #c4 ,me?ods ( ,re/riction 9 ,=e/ ,use #di #d4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy #eb #e4 ,p]sonnel #ef #f4 ,developm5t ( ,silviculture #eg #g4 ,improvem5t ( ! ,crop #fg #h4 ,me?ods ( ,regulat+ ,=e/ ,managem5t #fh #i4 ,improvem5ts 9 ,me?ods ( ,m5suration #gc #aj4 ,me?ods ( ,lumb]+ & ,utilization #gg #aa4 ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration #hj #ab4 ,=e/ry ,s*ools #hc #ac4 ,=e/ry ,lit]ature #hd ,,iii4 ,,developm5t ,,9 ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury #ia #a4 ,*anges 9 ,prop]ty ,conditions #ib #b4 ,=e/ ,conditions #if #c4 ,p]sonnel #ig #d4 ,progress 9 ,silviculture #ajb #e4 ,me?ods ( ,=e/ ,organization #aac #f4 ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration #abj #g4 ,=e/ ,policy #abe #h4 ,=e/ry ,sci5ce & ,lit]ature #aca #i4 ,means ( ,advanc+ ,=e/ry ,sci5ce #ade ,,au/ria-,,hung>y #aeb #a4 ,prop]ty ,conditions #aeg #b4 ,fir/ ,attempts at ,=e/ ,control #aeh #c4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy #afb #d4 ,/ate ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration #afg #e4 ,progress ( ,=e/ ,organization #afi #f4 ,developm5t ( ,silviculture #agb #g4 ,education & ,lit]ature #age ,,hung>y #agh ,,switz]l& #ahe #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions & ,prop]ty ,rights #ahh #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy #aij #c4 ,=e/ry ,practice #aih #d4 ,education & ,lit]ature #bjj ,,france #bjc #a4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,prop]ty #bjc #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration #bac #c4 ,developm5t ( ,mod]n ,=e/ ,policy #bbj #d4 ,"w ( ,re=e/ation #bbd #e4 ,=e/ry ,sci5ce & ,practice #bcc #f4 ,education & ,lit]ature #bda #g4 ,colonial ,policies #bdh ,,russia ,,& ,,f9l& #bec #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions & ,own]%ip #bee #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy #bfa #c4 ,education & ,lit]ature #bgj #d4 ,=e/ry ,practice #bgc ,,f9l& #bgg ,,! ,,sc&9avian ,,/ates #bhe ,,sw$5 #bhg #a4 ,prop]ty ,conditions #bij #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy #bid #c4 ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration & ,=e/ ,practice #cja #d4 ,education & ,lit]ature #cjc ,,norway #cje ,,d5m>k #cad ,,! ,,m$it]ranean ,,p59sulas #cbj ,,turki% ,,& ,,slavi% ,,t]ritories #cba ,,greece #cbg #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions #cbh #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy #ccb ,,italy #cce #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions #ccf #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy #cdj #c4 ,education & ,lit]ature #cdg ,,spa9 #cdi #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions #ceb #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy #ced ,,portugal #cfj ,,great ,,brita9 ,,& ,,h] ,,colonies #cfe #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions #cfg #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy #cgj ,,india #chj #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions #chc #b4 ,prop]ty ,conditions #chh #c4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy #cia #d4 ,=e/ ,organization & ,adm9i/ration #cif #e4 ,=e/ ,treatm5t #djj #f4 ,education & ,lit]ature #dje ,,canada #dji #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions #dad #b4 ,own]%ip #dba #c4 ,adm9i/ration ( ,timb]l&s #dbd #d4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy #dbh #e4 ,education #dce ,,newf\ndl& #dcg ,,o!r ,,briti% ,,possessions ,,& ,,colonies #dch ,,japan #ddb #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions & ,own]%ip #ddb #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy #ddf ,,korea #dee ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,( ,,am]ica #def #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions #dfa #b4 ,e>ly ,=e/ ,hi/ory #dff #c4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy #dgi #d4 ,education & ,lit]ature #dii ,,insul> ,,possessions #ejd ,,index i ,,preface ,,to ,,second ,,edition4 ,x has be5 a great surprise & also a great gratification to ! au?or to see ! fir/ edition ( ?is volume exhau/$ )9 less ?an two ye>s s9ce its appe>ance 9 complete =m4 ,! gratification has come especially because ( ! opportunity ?us af=d$ ( revision1 improvem5t 9 /yle1 & correction ( ! _m inaccuracies :i* ! fir/ edition conta9$1 excusable only by ! mann] 9 :i* 7z expla9$ 9 ! preface ( ! fir/ edition7 ! volume _h come into exi/5ce4 ,only 9 a few cases has x seem$ desirable to exp&1 s9ce ! object ( ! book is n to be complete1 b to give z briefly z possible an ov]sight ov] a r l>ge field4 ,! *apt] on ,france has1 h[ev]1 be5 entirely re-writt5 & consid]ably enl>g$ to meet ! j criticisms ( review]s2 ! excell5t "w ( ,huffel1 full ( hi/orical data1 :i* 0 n available :5 ! fir/ edition 0 pr9t$1 p]mitt+ a cle>] & full] /atem5t to be made4 ,z long z hi/ory is 9 ! mak+1 a book ( ?is k9d c h>dly be br\ght up to date4 ,?is %\ld especially be kept 9 m9d by ! read] 9 reg>d to ! /ati/ics br\ght 94 ,s9ce ^! are only to s]ve 9 g5]al to %[ ! magnitude ( ! int]e/s involv$1 !y may )\t damage be only approximately accurate1 & ev5 ( old] date4 ,"s ( ! *apt]s h be5 submitt$ = criticism & corrections to correspond5ts 9 ! v>i\s c\ntries to :i* !y ref]4 ,= ! k9dly assi/ance ( ^! fri5ds ?anks is due f ! au?or4 ,,toronto1 ,,octob]1 #aiaa4 ,b4 ,e4 ,,f]n[4 ,,preface ,,to ,,fir/ ,,edition4 ,?is publication is ! result ( a s]ies ( #be lectures :i* ! writ] 0 invit$ to deliv] be=e ! /ud5ts ( =e/ry 9 ,yale ,univ]sity z a "p ( _! regul> c\rse ( in/ruction dur+ ! session ( #aijd4 ,circum/ances made x desirable1 9 ! abs5ce ( any exi/+ textbooks on ! subject1 to pr9t at once1 = ! sake ( ready ref]5ce1 ! sub/ance ( ! lectures :ile !y 7 be+ deliv]$4 ,?is /atem5t ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! book came into exi/5ce w expla9 &1 x is hop$1 excuse ! crudities ( /yle1 :i* has be5 also hamp]$ by ! necessity ( cond5sation4 ,! ma9 object 0 to br+ toge!r ! in=mation1 n[ scatt]$ & mo/ly inaccessible to ,engli% or ,am]ican read]s3 ! /yle has be5 sacrific$ to brevity2 x is a book ( exp&$ lecture notes4 ,9 ! nature ( ! case ! book does n lay claim to any orig9ality except 9 ! mann] ( pres5tation1 be+ m]ely a compilation ( facts ga!r$ mo/ly f o!r compilations1 (ficial docum5ts & j\rnals4 ,= none ( ! c\ntries discuss$ does a complete "w on ! hi/ory ( =e/s & =e/ry exi/1 except+ 9 ! case ( ,g]many1 :i* c boa/ ( a numb] ( compreh5sive works on ! subject4 ,x 01 !re=e1 possible to treat t c\ntry m 9 ext5so4 ,moreov]1 x appe>$ desirable to enl>ge ^u ! hi/ory ( t c\ntry1 s9ce x is pre-em95tly 9 ! lead 9 =e/ry matt]s & has pass$ ?r\gh all ! /ages ( developm5t ( =e/ policies & =e/ry practice1 :i*1 ) m or less v>iations mu/ be repeat$ 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,especially ! gr[? ( ! te*nical sci5ce & art ( =e/ry1 :i* has be5 develop$ 9 ,g]many = a long] "t & to a m ref9$ degree ?an 9 o!r c\ntries1 has be5 elaborat$ 9 ! *apt] relat+ to t c\ntry4 ,= "s ( ! o!r c\ntries available s\rces ( in=mation 7 q limit$4 ,! writ] believes1 h[ev]1 t = ! purpose ( ?is brief /atem5t ! data collect$ w be f\nd suffici5t4 ,9 ord] to make conditions exi/+ 9 ! diff]5t c\ntries & _! causes m readily und]/ood x appe>$ desirable to give v brief hi/oric ref]5ces to _! political & economic developm5t & also brief /atem5ts ( _! g5]al physical conditions4 ,pres5t conditions ( =e/ policy & =e/ adm9i/ration h sometimes be5 enl>g$ ^u beyond ! requirem5ts ( hi/orical treatm5t4 ,,i?aca1 ,n4,y41 ,may1 #aijg4 ,b4 ,e4 ,,f]n[4 ,,introductory4 ,! value ( /udy+ ! hi/orical developm5t ( an economic subject or ( a te*nical art :i*1 l =e/ry1 relies to a l>ge ext5t ^u empiricism1 lies 9 ! fact t x br+s be=e u1 9 prop] p]spective1 accumulat$ exp]i5ce1 & enables u to analyze cause & effect1 :]eby we may le>n to appreciate ! reasons = pres5t conditions & ! possibilities = rational advancem5t4 ,if !re be "o philosophy m readily d]ivable ?an ano!r f ! /udy ( ! hi/ory ( =e/ry x is t hi/ory repeats itself4 ,! same policies & ! same me?ods :i* we he> prop\nd$ to-day h at "s o!r "t be5 prop\nd$ & tri$ else:]e3 we c /udy ! results1 broad5+ our judgm5t & !reby avoid ! mi/akes ( o!rs4 ,n[h]e is ! record ( exp]i5ce & ! hi/oric me?od ( /udy ( m value ?an 9 an empiric art l =e/ry1 9 :i* x takes decades1 a lifetime1 nay a c5tury to see ! f9al effects ( op]ations4 ,su* /udy1 if prop]ly pursu$1 t5ds to free ! m9d f _m fooli% prejudices & p>ticul>ly f an unreasonable p>tiality = our own c\ntry & its cu/oms & me?ods m]ely because !y are our own1 sub/itut+ ! prop] patriotism1 :i* applies ! be/ k1 :]ev] f\nd1 to our own necessities4 ,=e/ry is an art born ( necessity1 z oppos$ to arts ( conv5i5ce & ( pleasure4 ,only :5 a r$uction 9 ! natural supplies ( =e/ products "u ! dem&s ( civilization1 necessitates a husb&+ ( supplies or necessitates ! application ( art or skill or k 9 secur+ a reproduction1 or :5 unfavorable conditions ( soil or climate induc$ by =e/ de/ruction make !mselves felt does ! art ( =e/ry make its appe>ance4 ,h5ce its beg9n+s occur 9 diff]5t places at diff]5t times & its developm5t proce$s at diff]5t paces4 ,9 ! "o c\ntry1 ow+ to economic developm5t1 ! ne$ ( an int5sive =e/ managem5t & ( /rict =e/ policies may h arriv$1 :ile 9 ano!r1 r\gh exploitation & wa/eful practices are /ill natural & practically unavoidable4 ,& su* diff]5ces1 z we %all see1 may ev5 exi/ 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! same c\ntry4 ,! orig9 & gr[? ( ! art1 !n1 is dep5d5t on economic & cultural conditions1 on v>i\s economic developm5t & on elem5ts ( environm5t4 ,! developm5t ( ! art c only be und]/ood & appreciat$ ?r\gh ! k ( su* environm5t1 ( su* o!r developm5ts z ( agriculture1 ( indu/ries1 ( means ( transportation1 ( civilization g5]ally4 ,h5ce we f9d1 = in/ance1 t ,engl&1 locat$ s z to be accessible by sea f all po9ts ( ! compass & ) oceanic %ipp+ well develop$1 c app>5tly disp5se ) s]i\s consid]ation ( ! =e/ supply "q4 ,aga91 we f9d t m ?an a c5tury ago fe> ( a timb] fam9e agitat$ n only ! d5se populations ( _m ,european c\ntries1 b ev5 ! scanty population ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 spite ( ! natural =e/ weal? :i* is /ill supply+ u2 & n )\t good reason1 = at t "t wood 0 ! only fuel & riv]s ! only means ( transportation2 h5ce local sc>city 0 to be fe>$ & 0 n unfrequ5tly exp]i5c$ :5 accessible =e/ areas _h be5 exploit$4 ,railroad & canal developm5t & ! use ( coal = fuel *ang$ ?is condition on bo? cont95ts4 ,n[1 ) improv$ means ( transportation by l& & by sea1 ! que/ions ( wood supply & ( =e/ry developm5t1 :i* at "o "t 7 ( v local conc]n1 h become _w que/ions1 & he :o proposes to discuss intellig5tly =e/ conditions & =e/ry movem5t 9 "o c\ntry mu/ und]/& :at is go+ on 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,z w appe> f ! /udy ( ! foll[+ pages1 ) ! exception ( "s p>ts ( c5tral ,europe or ( "s sporadic attempts else:]e to regulate =e/ use1 ! developm5t ( ! =e/ry idea belongs ess5tially to ! #ai? c5tury1 & m especially to ! second half1 :5 ! rapid developm5t ( railroads _h n>r[$ ! _w1 & ! rem>kable developm5t ( indu/ries & mat]ial civilization call$ = increas$ draft on =e/ res\rces4 ,yet we are /ill l>gely ignorant z to ! ext5t ( available =e/ area1 n only 9 ?is c\ntry b else:]e3 we d n "k :e!r x be suffici5t 9 ext5t & yield to furni% a cont9u\s supply = ! ne$s ( our civilization1 or1 if n1 = h[ long a "t x w suffice4 ,we c only make v broad /atem5ts z to que/ions ( wood supply1 & v broad inf]5ces f !m z argum5t = ! ne$ ( a clos] /udy ( =e/ conditions & ( ! practice ( =e/ry3 #a4 ,practically1 ! nor!rn temp]ate zone alone produces ! k9ds ( wood :i* ent] mo/ l>gely into our economy1 namely ! s(t conif]s & ! m$ium h>d woods2 mo/ ( ! woods ( ! tropics are v h>d1 fit prim>ily = ornam5tal use & h5ce less necess>y4 ,possibly a *ange 9 ! me?ods ( ! use ( wood may also *ange ! relative economic values1 b at pres5t ! va/ =e/s ( ! tropical c\ntries are ( relatively little importance 9 ! discussion ( wood supply = ! _w4 #b4 ,! productive =e/ area1 ( ! temp]ate zone1 9 :i* ! indu/rial nations are locat$1 has cont9u\sly decreas$4 ,we %all n be f> f wrong 9 /at+ ?is area lib]ally1 to be at pres5t ar\nd #b1ejj million acres1#a namely 9 ,europe1 #hjj million acres2 9 ,asia1 #hjj million acres2 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 #ijj million acres4 ,h[ mu* ( ?is acreage conta9s available virg9 timb]1 h[ mu* is m]ely pot5tial =e/1 h[ mu* gr[+ crop1 x is impossible to /ate4 #a ,! total =e/ area ( ! _w is suppos$ to be #c1hjj million acres4 #c4 ,! civiliz$ wood consum+ population ( ?is t]ritory is ab\t #ejj million1 h5ce ! p] capita acreage is /ill #e acres4 ,tak+ ! ,european c\ntries :i* n[ h to import all or "p ( _! consumption 7excess ov] exports71 we f9d t _! population is e/imat$ at #ahj million & t !y use #cj cubic feet ( wood p] capita1 ( :i* #ab cubic feet is log timb]2 or altoge!r !y use #b1bjj million cubic feet ( ?is latt] description1 ( :i* !y import 9 r\nd numb]s #a1jjj million at a co/ ( ab\t #bej million doll>s2 _! =e/ acreage ( #ajj million acres be+ insuffici5t to produce1 ev5 "u c>eful managem5t z 9 ,g]many1 m ?an two-?irds ( _! ne$s4 ,& ! wood consumption 9 all ^! nations is gr[+ at ! rate ( #a to #b p] c5t4 annually4 #d4 ,! defici5cy is at pres5t suppli$ by ! export c\ntries1 ,russia1 ,sw$51 ,norway1 ,au/ria-,hung>y1 ,canada & ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ^! c\ntries !mselves also increas+ _! consumption1 are beg9n+ to feel ! dra9 on _! =e/ res\rces1 :i* are = ! mo/ "p m]ely r\ghly exploit$4 #e4 ,if we assume a log timb] requirem5t by ! #ejj million p ( #fjjj million cubic feet & c\ld secure :at ,france annually produces1 namely a little less ?an #i cubic feet ( su* timb] p] acre1 ! area suppos$ to be "u =e/ w\ld amply suffice4 ,b a l>ge "p ( x is 9 fact )drawn f useful production & ( ! balance n m ?an #bej million acres at be/ are z yet "u managem5t = cont9u\s production4 ,h5ce att5tion to =e/ry is an urg5t necessity = e indu/rial nation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! hi/ory ( ! =e/ 9 all =e/ c\ntries %[s ! same p]iods ( developm5t4 ,fir/ h>dly recogniz$ z ( value or ev5 z p]sonal prop]ty1 ! =e/ appe>s an undesirable encumbrance ( ! soil1 & ! attitude ( ! settl] is ( necessity inimical to ! =e/3 ! ne$ = f>m & pa/ure leads to =e/ de/ruction4 ,! next /age is t ( re/riction 9 =e/ use & protection aga9/ cattle & fire1 ! /age ( cons]vative lumb]+4 ,!n come positive ef=ts to secure re-gr[? by fo/]+ natural reg5]ation or by artificial plant+3 ! practice ( silviculture beg9s4 ,f9ally a managem5t = cont9uity--organiz+ exi/+ =e/ areas = su/a9$ yield--=e/ economy is introduc$4 ,t ! "t & progress ( ^! /ages ( developm5t & ! me?ods ( _! inauguration v>y 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w is readily und]/ood f ! intimate relation :i*1 z has be5 po9t$ out1 ?is economic subject be>s to all o!r economic z well z political developm5ts4 ,at ! pres5t "t we f9d all ! ,european nations practic+ =e/ry1 al?\gh ) a v v>y+ degree ( int5sity4 ,! greate/ & mo/ univ]sal developm5t ( ! art is = good reasons to be f\nd 9 ,g]many & its ne>e/ neighbors4 ,e>ly att5tion to =e/ cons]vancy 0 "h induc$ by d5sity ( population1 :i* en=ces int5sity 9 ! use ( soil1 & by ! comp>ative difficulty ( secur+ wood supplies *eaply en\gh f outside4 ,on ! o!r h&1 su* c\ntries z ! ,m$it]ranean p59sulas by _! advantage\s situation ) ref]5ce to importations1 ) _! mild climate & less int5sive indu/rial developm5t1 h felt ?is ne$ less4 ,aga91 ! /ill poorly settl$ & orig9ally heavily timb]$ c\ntries ( ! ,sc&9avian p59sula & ! va/ empire ( ,russia are /ill heavy exploit]s ( =e/ products & are only j beg9n+ to feel ! dra9 on _! =e/ res\rces2 :ile ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) z mu* =e/ weal? z ,russia1 b ) a mu* m int5sive indu/rial developm5t1 has manag$ to rea* ! /age ( ne$ = a cons]vative =e/ policy 9 a %ort] "t4 ,f ea* ( ! ,european c\ntries we le>n some?+ helpful t[>ds inaugurat+ su* policies1 & :ile1 ow+ to a diff]5t hi/orical backgr\nd & to diff]5t political & social conditions1 none ( _! adm9i/rative me?ods & measures may appeal to u1 ! pr9ciples und]ly+ !m z well z ^? und]ly+ _! silvicultural me?ods rema9 ! same2 !y are applicable ev]y:]e1 & c be/ be recogniz$ & /udi$ 9 ! hi/ory ( _! developm5t4 ,,! ,,=e/ ,,( ,,! ,,anci5ts4 ,waldges*i*te des ,alt]?ums1 by ,,augu/ ,,seid5/ick]1 #ahhf1 #b vols41 pp4 #hfc1 is a mo/ pa9/ak+ compilation f orig9al s\rces ( notes reg>d+ ! =e/ conditions & ! k ( trees1 =e/s & =e/ry among ! anci5ts4 ,conta9s also a full bibliography4 ,die ,waldwir?s*aft d] ,rm]1 by ,j4 ,,trurig1 collects ! k1 especially ( arboriculture & silviculture1 possess$ by ! ,romans4 ,=/wiss5s*aftli*e ,lei/ung5 d] ,altgrie*51 by ,dr4 ,,*loros1 9 ,=/wiss5s*aftli*es ,c5tralblatt1 #ahhe1 pp4 #h4 ,ar*eologia =e/ale1 ,dell' antica /oria e giurisprud5za =e/ale 9 ,italia1 by ,a4 ,,di ,,b]5g]1 #ahei4 ,! =e/ 0 und\bt$ly ! e>lie/ home ( mank9d1 its edible products =m+ its pr9cipal value4 ,its wild animals develop$ ! hunt]1 ! *ase fir/ furni%+ means ( subsi/5ce & !n exhil>ation & pleasure4 ,next1 x 0 ! ma/ &1 9 its op5+s1 ! pa/ure :i* gave to ! =e/ its value = ! h]d]1 & only la/1 ) ! developm5t into settl$ communities & m highly civiliz$ conditions ( life1 did ! wood product become its ma9 contribution t[>d t civilization4 ,f9ally1 9 ! ref9em5t ( cultural conditions 9 d5sely settl$ c\ntries is add$ its influ5ce on soil1 climate & wat] conditions4 ,al?\gh !re is no writt5 hi/ory1 !re is little d\bt t ^! 7 ! phases 9 ! appreciation ( woodl&s 9 ! e>lie/ developm5t ( mank9d1 = we f9d ! same phases repeat$ 9 our own times 9 all newly settl$ c\ntries4 ,z agriculture develops1 ! ne$ = f>m+ gr\nd ov]%ad[s ! usefulness ( ! =e/ 9 all ^! directions1 & x is cle>$ away2 moreov]1 z population rema9s scanty1 a wa/eful use ( its /ores =ms ! rule1 until necessity arises = great] c>e 9 ! exploitation1 = m rational di/ribution ( f>m & =e/ area1 & f9ally = int5tional reproduction ( wood z a useful crop4 ,correspond+ly =e/ conditions *ange f ! d5sely =e/$ hills & m\nta9 slopes dur+ ! age ( ! nomad & hunt] to ! 8enclaves0 or pat*es ( field & pa/ure enclos$ by ! =e/ ( ! fir/ f>m]s1 !n foll[s ! op5+ up ( ! valleys & l[l&s1 :ile ! hill & m\nta9 f>ms may return to =e/1 & f9ally1 ) ! increase ( population & civilization 9 valleys & pla9s1 a r$uction ( ! =e/ area & a decrease ( =e/ weal? results4 #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions4 ,:ile we h _m isolat$ ref]5ces to =e/ conditions & progress ( =e/ exploitation among ! anci5ts 9 ! writ+s ( poets & hi/orians1 ^! are g5]ally too brief to p]mit u to ga9 a v cle> picture ( ! progress ( =e/ hi/ory2 except 9 isolat$ cases1 !y furni% only glimpses1 all[+ u to fill 9 ! re/ to "s ext5t by guess4 ,t ! c\ntries occupi$ & kn[n to ! anci5ts1 ev5 ,spa9 & ,pale/9e1 7 orig9ally well-wood$ !re seems little d\bt1 al?\gh 9 ! dri] regions & on ! dri] lime/one soils1 ! =e/ 0 p]haps op51 z is usual "u su* conditions1 & truly arid1 =e/less regions 7 also f\nd :]e !y exi/ n[4 ,al?\gh x has be5 cu/om>y to po9t out "s ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ,ea/]n c\ntries z hav+ become des]ts & depopulat$ ?r\gh de=e/ation1 & al?\gh ?is is und\bt$ly true = "s p>ts1 z ,m\nt ,lebanon & ,syria1 g5]alization 9 ?is respect is dang]\s4 ,we "k1 h[ev]1 t by ! #aa? c5tury be=e ,*ri/1 9 ,pale/9e1 ,asia ,m9or & ,greece1 especially 9 ! neighborhood ( ?riv+ cities1 ! =e/ cov] _h vani%$ to a l>ge ext5t & build+ timb] = ! temples at ,tyre & ,sidon _h to be br\ght long di/ances f ,m\nt ,lebanon1 ^: weal? ( c$> 0 also freely drawn ^u = %ip timb] & o!r /ructures4 ,al?\gh ab\t #dfe ,b4,c4 ,artax]xes ,i1 hav+ recogniz$ ! p5d+ exhau/ion ( ?is m\nta9 =e/1 _h attempt$ to regulate ! cutt+ ( timb]1 ! exploitation _h by #ccc ,b4,c4 progress$ to su* an ext5t t ,alex&] ! ,great f\nd at lea/ ! s\? slope exhau/$ & almo/ woodless4 ,! de/ruction by axe & fire ( ! celebrat$ =e/s ( ,%>on1 ,c>mel & ,ba%an is ! !me ( ! prophet ,isaiah writ+ ab\t #eij ,b4,c42 & ! widespread deva/ation ( l>ge =e/ areas dur+ ! ,jewi% w>s is depict$ by ,josephus4 ,9 ,greece1 ! ,p]sian w>s are on record z causes ( widespread =e/ de/ruction4 ,yet 9 o!r p>ts1 z on ! isl& ( ,cyprus1 :i*1 orig9ally d5sely wood$1 _h rapidly lo/ its =e/ weal? dur+ ,cleopatra's "t ?r\gh ! developm5t ( m9+ & metallurgical works1 %ip build+ & cle>+ = f>ms1 ! k+s seem$ to h be5 able to protect ! remnants = a long "t1 s t respectable =e/ cov] exi/s ev5 to date4 ,! ,romans seem to h _h /ill a surplus ( %ip timb] at _! comm& 9 ! ?ird & second c5turies be=e ,*ri/1 :5 !y did n hesitate to burn ! w>%ips ( ! ,c>?ag9ians 7#bjc ,b4,c47 & ( ! ,syrians 7#ahi ,b4,c471 al?\gh x may be t o!r consid]ations =c$ ^! actions4 ,d5ud$ hills & sc>city ( build+ timb] 9 c]ta9 p>ts are m5tion$ at ! end ( ! ?ird c5tury be=e ,*ri/1 & t ! ne$ = cons]vative use ( timb] res\rces _h arriv$ also appe>s f ! fact t :5 7#afg ,b4,c47 ! ,romans _h br\ght ,mac$onia "u _! sway1 ! cutt+ ( %ip timb] 9 ! ext5sive =e/s ( t c\ntry 0 prohibit$4 ,al?\gh at t "t ! ,roman ,/ate =e/s 7 /ill q ext5sive1 x is evid5t t "u ! sy/em ( r5t+ ^! = ! ma/ & pa/ure & = ! exploitation ( _! timb] to companies ( contractors1 _! deva/ation mu/ h progress$ rapidly4 ,yet1 on ! :ole1 ) local exceptions1 ,italy rema9$ well wood$ until ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,9 ,spa91 accord+ to ,diodorus ,siculus 7ab\t #ajj ,b4,c471 ! ,s\!rn prov9ces 7 d5sely wood$ :5 ab\t #bjj ,b4,c4 ! ,romans fir/ took possession2 b soon aft] a great =e/ fire />t+ f ! ,pyr5ees ran ov] ! c\ntry1 expos+ deposits ( silv] ore1 :i* invit$ a l>ge influx ( m9]s1 ! cause ( reckless de=e/ation ( ! c\ntry4 ,! int]ior ( ?is p59sula1 h[ev]1 0 probably always =e/less or at lea/ scantily wood$4 ,:ile ?r\gh colonization1 exploitation1 fire & o!r abuse1 ! useful =e/ area 0 decimat$ 9 _m p>ts1 ! location ( ! ,m$it]ranean p59sul> c\ntries 0 su* t wood supplies c\ld be readily secur$ by wat] f di/ant p>ts1 & ! lign>ii or wood m]*ants ( ,italy drew _! supplies ev5 f ,india by way ( ,alex&ria2 !y w5t = ,a% to ,asia ,m9or2 = ,c$> to ,cilicia2 ,paphlagonia1 ,liguria & ,mauritania became ! great wood export c\ntries4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t a regul> wood m>ket exi/$ 9 ,rome1 z 9 ,j]usalem1 & at ! =m] place firewood 0 sold by ! p\nd 7#ge;c p] #bjj lbs41 9 ,cic]o's "t74 ,at ! same "t t ! causes ( deva/ation 7 at "w ! =e/ area also increas$ 9 "s p>ts1 recov]+ gr\nd lo/ dur+ w>s & ?r\gh ! neglect ( f>ms by natural se$+2 mu* less by active ef=t1 al?\gh plant+ ( trees 9 p>ks1 v9ey>ds & groves 0 e>ly practic$ to a limit$ ext5t4 #b4 ,developm5t ( ,prop]ty4 ,z to developm5t ( =e/ prop]ty we h also only fragm5t>y in=mation4 ,nomads d n "k soil z prop]ty4 ,:5 !y become settl$ f>m]s ! pl[l&1 ! v9ey>d or olive grove & or*>d are recogniz$ z private prop]ty1 b all ! re/ rema9s common prop]ty or nobody's 9 p>ticul>2 & ev5 ! private prop]ty 0 n at fir/ entirely exclusive4 ,h5ce = a long "t 7& 9 "s p>ts ev5 to date7 ! exclusive prop]ty "r 9 =e/s is n fully e/abli%$4 ,at lea/ ! "r to hunt ov] all t]ritory )\t re/riction 0 possess$ by ev]ybody1 al?\gh an own] might prev5t undesirable hunt]s f ent]+ 8 prop]ty if x 0 enclos$4 ,! sett+ aside ( hunt+ gr\nds = private use came into exi/5ce only 9 lat] ,roman times4 ,b woodl& p>ks1 plant$ or o!rwise1 l ! 8p>adises0 ( ! ,p]sian k+s & ! nemora ( ! ,romans & ,c>?ag9ians 7 e>ly a "p ( ! private prop]ty ( pr9ces & gr&ees f :i* o!rs 7 exclud$4 ,=e/s =m$ a b>ri] & def5se aga9/ outsid]s1 or a hid+ place 9 case ( ne$1 h5ce we f9d 9 e>ly times fronti] =e/s1 or z ! ,g]mans call$ !m 8,gr5zm>k510 set aside or designat$ = su* purposes & )drawn f use1 & sometimes additionally =tifi$ by dit*es & o!r artificial b>ri]s4 ,ev5 be=e ! 8,gr5zm>k50 ( ! ,g]mans ! =e/ 0 us$ by ,greeks1 ,romans & /ill e>li] among ,asiatic tribes to designate ! limit ( peoples z well z to s]ve z a bulw>k aga9/ attacks f invad]s4 ,aga91 ! pan!i/ic ideas ( ! anci5ts l$ to consecrat+ n only trees b groves to c]ta9 gods3 holy groves 7 frequ5t among ! ,greeks & ,romans1 & also among o!r pagans2 ! ,jews1 h[ev]1 7 enjo9$ to eradicate ^! emblems ( paganism 9 ! promis$ l& ) axe & fire1 & !y did s m or less1 removal & re-e/abli%m5t ( holy groves v>y+ accord+ to ! religi\s s5tim5t ( _! rul]s4 ,altoge!r1 9 ,pale/9e ! =e/s 7 left to ! free & unre/rict$ use ( ! ,israelites4 ,out ( religi\s conceptions & prie/ly %rewdness arose *ur* prop]ty 9 f>ms & =e/s among ! ,indian ,brahmans1 ! ,e?iopians & ,egyptians1 z also among ,greeks & ,romans4 ,x appe>s t ! ori5tal k+s 7 exclusive own]s ( all unappropriat$ or public =e/s4 ,?is 0 c]ta9ly ! case ) ! pr9ces ( ,india & ( ,p]sia1 & su* own]%ip c be prov$ def9itely 9 _m o!r p>ts1 z 9 ! case ( ! =e/s ( ,lebanon1 ( ,cyprus1 & ( v>i\s =e/ areas 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,t 9 ! ,greek republics ! =e/s 7 ma9ly public prop]ty seems to be likely2 = ,attica1 at lea/1 ?is is true )\t d\bt4 ,:ile ! fir/ ,roman k+s seem to h own$ royal doma9s1 :i* 7 di/ribut$ among ! p aft] ! expulsion ( ! k+s1 ! public prop]ty :i* came to ! republic z a result ( conque/ 0 9 mo/ cases at once transf]r$ to private h&s1 ei!r = home/eads ( coloni/s1 or 9 recognition ( s]vices ( soldi]s & o!r public (fic]s1 or to mollify ! conqu]$1 or by sale1 or = r5t1 n to m5tion ! rights acquir$ by squatt]s4 ,! r5ts 7 usually f>m$ out to collectors 7publicani7 or to corporations =m$ ( ^!4 ,livy1 h[ev]1 m5tions also ,/ate =e/s 9 :i* ! cutt+ 0 regulat$1 probably by m]ely res]v+ ! %ip timb]4 ,t occasionally s+le cities & o!r small] municipal units own$ =e/ prop]ties 9 common seems also e/abli%$4 ,private =e/ prop]ties connect$ ) f>m e/ates exi/$ 9 ,e?iopia1 9 ,arabia1 among ! ,greeks & among ! ,romans at home z well z 9 _! colonies4 ,especially pa/ure woods 7saltus7 connect$ ) small & l>ge e/ates 7latifundia7 into :i* probably mo/ =e/ areas ne> settlem5ts 7 turn$1 are frequ5tly m5tion$ z 9 private own]%ip2 b also o!r private =e/s exi/$4 ,! in/itution ( s]vitudes or rights ( us] 7usus & usus-fructus7 & a consid]able am\nt ( law reg>d+ ! conditions "u :i* !y 7 ex]cis$ & reg>d+ _! ext+ui%m5t 7 9 exi/5ce among ! ,romans 9 ! fir/ c5turies ( ! ,*ri/ian era4 #c4 ,=e/ ,use4 ,re/rictions 9 ! use ( woods 7 n entirely abs5t1 b ) ! exception ( res]v+ %ip timb] 9 ! ,/ate =e/s1 !y ref] only to special classes ( =e/4 ,9 ! fronti] =e/s res]v$ = def5sive purposes1 timb] cutt+ 0 =bidd54 ,& 9 ! holy groves set aside by private or public decl>ation no wood c\ld be cut !reaft]1 be+ 9 ! latt] case consid]$ nobody's prop]ty b sanctifi$ & d$icat$ to religi\s use 7res sacra71 & :oev] remov$ any wood f !m 0 consid]$ a 8patricide10 except ! cutt+ be done = purposes ( improvem5t 7?9n+s7 & aft] a prescrib$ sacrifice4 ,) ! ext5sion ( ,*ri/5dom ! holy trees & groves became ! prop]ty ( ! emp]ors1 :o sometimes sub/itut$ ,*ri/ian hol9ess = ! pagan1 & reta9$ ! re/rictions :i* _h pres]v$ !m4 ,?us ! cutt+ & sell+ ( cypress & o!r trees 9 ! holy grove ne> ,antio*1 & ( ,p]sea trees 9 ,egypt g5]ally 7:i* _h be5 deem$ holy "u ! ,ph>aos7 0 prohibit$ "u p5alty ( five p\nds gold1 unless a special p]mit _h be5 obta9$4 ,9 ,attica z well z 9 ,rome ! !ory t ! ,/ate _c satisfactorily c>ry on any bus9ess 0 well e/abli%$4 ,h5ce1 ! ,/ate =e/s 7 r5t$ out "u a sy/em ( "t r5t or a p]petual lic5se1 ! r5t]s aft] exploit+ ! timb] usually sublett+ ! cull$ woods m]ely = ! pa/ure1 except :]e coppice c\ld be pr(itably utiliz$4 ,! (ficials1 ) titles ref]r+ to _! connection ) ! woods1 z ! ,roman saltu>ii or ! ,greek hyloroi 7=e/gu>ds7 & villici silv>um1 ! ov]se]s1 bo? grades tak5 f ! slaves1 _h h>dly ev5 police functions4 ,=e/ managem5t prop]1 i4e41 regulat$ use = cont9uity1 except 9 coppice1 seems n[h]e to h be5 practic$ by ! anci5ts1 al?\gh arboriculture 9 artificial plantations 0 well e/abli%$ & occasionally ev5 attempts at replacem5t 9 =e/ fa%ion seem to h be5 made delib]ately4 ,n only 7 _m arboricultural practices ( to-day well kn[n to !m1 b also a numb] ( ! /ill unsettl$ controv]sies 9 ?is field 7 !n already subjects ( discussion4 ,! cull+ sy/em ( tak+ only ! mo/ desirable k9ds1 trees & cuts1 :i* until rec5tly has *>act]iz$ our ,am]ican lumb]+ me?ods 0 naturally ! "o "u :i* ! mix$ =e/ 0 utiliz$4 ,fire us$ 9 ! pa/ure woods = ! same purposes z ) u effectively prev5t$ reproduction 9 ^!1 & de/roy$ gradually ! remnants ( old trees4 ,only :]e = p>k & hunt+ purposes "s c>e 0 be/[$ ^u ! woodl&1 0 reproduction purposely attempt$1 z1 = in/ance1 :5 9 a hunt+ p>k an und]wood 0 to be e/abli%$ = game cov]4 ,! treatm5t ( ! coppice & me?ods ( s[+ & plant+ 7 well und]/ood 9 spite ( ! lack ( natural sci5ces4 ,:atev] =e/ry practice exi/$ 0 bas$ m]ely on empirical obs]vations & 0 taught 9 ! books on agriculture z a "p ( f>m practice4 ,silviculture 0 ma9ly develop$ 9 connection ) ! coppice1 :i* 0 sy/ematically practic$ = ! purpose ( gr[+ v9ey>d /akes1 especially ) *e/nut 7ca/anetum71 oak 7qu]cetum71 & will[ 7salicetum71 :ile ! arbu/um d5ot$ ! plant+s ( trees = ! support ( grapes1 & incid5tally = ! foliage us$ z cattle fe$1 /ill 9 vogue 9 mod]n ,italy4 ,?is plant+ ( v9e supports 0 done ) sapl+s ( elm1 popl> & "s o!r species2 by poll>d+ & by a well devis$ sy/em ( prun+1 ^! 7 gradually prep>$ & ma9ta9$ 9 prop] =m = _! purpose4 ,! coppice seems to h be5 sy/ematically manag$ 9 ,attica z well z 9 ,italy 9 regul> fell+s2 ! mild climate produc+ spr\ts & root suck]s readily )\t requir+ mu* c>e1 ev5 conif]s 7cypress & fir7 reproduc+ 9 ?is mann]4 ,! oak coppice 0 manag$ 9 #g ye> rotation1 ! *e/nut 9 #e ye>1 & ! will[ 9 #c ye> rotation4 ,yield & pr(itabl5ess are discuss$1 & ! practice ( ?9n+s is kn[n1 b only = ! purpose ( remov+ & us+ ! dead mat]ial4 ,=e/ protection 0 poorly develop$3 ( insects little1 ( fungi no k exi/$4 ,h&-pick+ 0 appli$ aga9/ cat]pill>s1 also dit*es into :i* ! beetles 7 driv5 & !n cov]$2 ! use ( hogs 9 fight+ insects 0 also kn[n4 ,t goats 7 undesirable 9 ! woods _h be5 obs]v$4 ,"s rem>kable precoci\s physiological k or r philosophy exi/$3 x 0 recogniz$ t fro/ produces dr\ght & t a rem$y is to loos5 ! soil1 a]at+ ! roots1 to dra9 or wat] z ! case might require1 & to prune2 b also sap lett+ 0 prescrib$4 ,aga9/ hail1 dead owls 7 to be hung up2 aga9/ ants1 :i* 7 deem$ injuri\s1 a%es ) v9eg> 7 to be appli$1 or else an ass's he>t4 ,curiosities 9 wood te*nology 7 rife & _m contradictions among ! wood %>ps exi/$1 z 9 our times4 ,only f\r elem5ts1 e>?1 wat]1 fire1 air1 compos$ all bodies2 ! m fire 9 ! composition ( a wood1 ! m readily w\ld x decay4 ,spruce1 be+ compos$ ( less e>? & wat] b m fire & air1 is !re=e light] ?an oak :i*1 mo/ly compos$ ( e>?1 is !re=e s durable2 b ! latt] w>ps & develops season splits because on acc\nt ( its d5sity x _c take up readily & resi/s ! p5etration ( moi/ure4 ,wood impregnation1 suppos$ to be a mod]n inv5tion1 0 already practic$2 c$rium 7c$> oil7 be+ us$ z well z a t> coat+ or imm]sion 9 seawat] = "o ye>1 to secure great] durability4 #d4 ,lit]ature4 ,z reg>ds lit]ature1 we f9d 9 ,greece1 besides :at c be le>n$ incid5tally f ! hi/orians ,h]odotus & ,x5ophon & f ! natural hi/ory ( ,ari/otle1 ! fir/ "w on plant hi/ory & wood te*nology1 if n =e/ry1 9 #ah volumes by ,!ophra/us 7#cij-bhf ,b4,c471 a pupil ( ,ari/otle & ,plato4 ,among ! ,romans1 besides a numb] ( hi/orians1 at lea/ ?ree writ]s be=e ,*ri/ discuss$ 9 detail agriculture &1 9 connection ) x1 tree culture2 namely1 ,cato 7#bcd-adi ,b4,c47 :o wrote an excell5t "w ,de re ru/ica1 9 #afb *apt]s2 ,v>ro 7#aaf-bf ,b4,c471 also ,de re ru/ica1 9 ?ree books2 & ,v]gilius ,m>o 7#gj-ai ,b4,c471 :o 9 8 ,georgica records 9 six books ! /ate ( k at t "t4 ,( ! _m writ]s on ^! subjects :o came 9 ! ,*ri/ian era !re are also ?ree to be m5tion$1 namely1 ,cajus ,pl9ius ,major 7#bc-gi ,a4,d471 :o 9 8 ,hi/oria naturalis1 9 #cg books1 discusses also ! te*nique ( silviculture2 ,lucius ,junius ,mod]atus ,columella 7ab\t #ej ,a4,d471 ) #ab books1 ,de re ru/ica1 & "o book ,de arboribus1 ! =m] be+ ! be/ "w ( ! anci5ts on ! subject2 & ,palladius1 writ+ ab\t #cej ,a4,d41 #ac books1 ,de re ru/ica1 :i* 9 ! orig9al & 9 translations 0 read until pa/ ! middle ages4 ,only a few ref]5ces :i* exhibit ! /ate ( k on arboricultural subjects among ! ,romans z %[n 9 ?is lit]ature may be cit$1 "s ( :i* k 0 also develop$ 9 ,greece & f\nd application1 m or less1 ?r\gh\t ! ,roman empire f ,india to ,spa94 ,nurs]y practice 0 already well kn[n to ,cato1 :ile ,v>ro knew1 besides s[+ & plant+1 ! art ( graft+ & lay]+1 & ,columella discusses 9 addition prun+ & poll>d+ 7:i* latt] 0 practic$ = secur+ fuelwood71 & ! propriety ( leav+ ! prun$ trees two ye>s to recup]ate be=e apply+ ! knife aga94 ,! me?od ( w9t]+ acorns & *e/nuts 9 s&1 work+ !m ov] e #cj days & sep>at+ ! poor se$ by float+ 9 wat]1 0 kn[n to ,columella &1 inde$1 he discusses nurs]y managem5t ) m9ute detail1 ev5 ! advantages ( transplants & ( d\bly transplant$ mat]ial4 ,! "q :e!r to plant or to s[1 ! pref]5ce ( fall or spr+ plant+ ) di/9ction = diff]5t species & localities are matt]s "u 8 consid]ation2 & pref]5ce ( s[+ oak & *e/nut in/ead ( transplant+ is po9t$ out & support$ by good reasons4 ,pl9y1 ! ,humboldt ( ! anci5ts1 recognizes tol]ance ( diff]5t species1 ! ne$ ( diff]5t treatm5t = diff]5t species1 ! desirability ( transplant+ to soil & climatic conditions simil> to ^? to :i* ! tree 0 accu/om$1 & ( plac+ ! trees z !y /ood ) ref]5ce to ! sun4 ,b1 to be sure1 he also has _m curi\s notions1 z = in/ance 8 c\nsel to set %all[ root$ trees deep] ?an !y /ood be=e1 8 advice n to plant dur+ ra91 or w9dy wea!r & 8 lay+ mu* /ress on ! phases ( ! moon z influ5c+ results4 99 99 99 99 99 ,:ile !n ! anci5ts 7 n entirely )\t silvicultural k1 inde$ possess$ mu* m ?an is usually cr$it$ to !m1 ! ne$ ( a =e/ policy & ( a sy/ematic =e/ managem5t 9 ! mod]n s5se _h n aris5 9 _! "t2 ! mild climate r$uc+ ! necessity ( fuelwood & ! accessibility by wat] to s\rces ( supply = naval & o!r con/ruction delay+ ! ne$ = =e/ production at home4 ,!re is little d\bt1 t "s ( ! agricultural & silvicultural k & practice ( ! ,romans f\nd entrance among ! ,g]man tribes :o1 especially ! ,allemanni1 came into contact ) ! ,romans 9 _! civiliz$ surr\nd+s dur+ ! f\r? c5tury4 ,,g]many4 ,besides a doz5 or m e>li] hi/ories ( =e/ry 9 ,g]many1 "s ( :i* date back to ! beg9n+ ( ! #ai? c5tury1 !re are two excell5t mod]n compilations1 namely3 ,ges*i*te des ,waldeig5?ums1 d] ,waldwirts*aft und ,=/wiss5s*aft 9 ,deuts*l&1 by ,,augu/ ,,b]nh>dt1 #ahgb-ge1 #c ,vols41 #ajfb pp41 a classic1 :i* treats especially ext5sively ( political & economic que/ions hav+ a be>+ on ! developm5t ( =e/ry2 & ,h&bu* d] ,=/- und ,jagdges*i*te ,deuts*l&s1 by ,,adam ,,s*wappa*1 #ahhf1 #b ,vols41 #hib pp41 :i* appe>$ z a second edition ( ,b]nh>dt's hi/ory1 abridg+ ! political hi/ory & exp&+ ! =e/ry "p4 ,?is volume has be5 ma9ly foll[$ 9 ! foll[+ pres5tation ( ! subject4 ,9 cond5s$ =m ?is hi/ory is also to be f\nd 9 ,,lorey',s ,h&bu* d] ,=/wiss5s*aft1 #ahhh1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #adc-baj4 ,9 ,s*wappa*'s hi/ory a full li/ ( orig9al s\rces is enum]at$4 ,^! are1 = ! olde/ p]iod1 ,roman writ+s1 :i* are unreliable2 ! laws ( ! v>i\s ,g]man tribes2 ! laws ( k+s 7,capitul>ia72 ! laws ( villages & o!r t]ritorial di/ricts2 8,wei/hm]0 7judgm5ts72 inv5tories ( prop]ties 7especially ( *ur*es & cloi/]s72 docum5ts ( bus9ess transactions & *ronicles4 ,= ! "t aft] ! ,middle ages ! mo/ important s\rce is f\nd 9 ! ,=e/ ,ord9ances ( pr9ces & o!r =e/ own]s2 =e/ laws2 police ord]s2 bus9ess docum5ts1 & f9ally special lit]ature4 ,x is g5]ally conc$$ t bo? ! sci5ce & art ( =e/ry are mo/ ?or\ghly develop$ & mo/ int5sively appli$ ?r\gh\t ,g]many4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 n be und]/ood t p]fection has be5 rea*$ any:]e 9 ! practical application ( ! art1 or t ! sci5ce1 :i* l t ( m$ic9e has be5 l>gely a gr[? ( empiricism1 is 9 all p>ts safely bas$2 nor are def9itely settl$ =e/ policies s entr5*$1 t !y h become immutable4 ,on ! contr>y1 !re are /ill mismanag$ & unmanag$ woods to be f\nd1 ma9ly ^? 9 ! h&s ( f>m]s & o!r private own]s2 !re are /ill ev5 9 well manag$ =e/s practices pursu$ :i* are kn[n n to con=m to !oretical ideals1 & o!rs :i* lack a sure sci5tific f\ndation2 & :ile ! g5]al policy ( cons]vative managem5t & ( ,/ate int]e/ 9 ! same is ?or\ghly e/abli%$1 ! me?ods ( atta9+ ! result are nei!r uni=m ?r\gh\t ! v>i\s ,/ates :i* =m ! ,g]man ,f$]ation1 nor positively settl$ any:]e4 ,9 o!r words1 ! hi/ory ( =e/ry is /ill1 ev5 9 ?is mo/ advanc$ c\ntry1 9 ! /age ( lively developm5t4 ,= ! /ud5t ( =e/ry ! hi/ory ( its developm5t 9 ,g]many is ( greate/ int]e/ n only because 8 art has rea*$ "h ! highe/ & mo/ int5sive application1 b because all ! phases ( developm5t ?r\gh :i* o!r c\ntries h pass$ or else w ev5tually h to pass are "h exemplifi$1 & _m if n mo/ ( ! o!r c\ntries ( ! _w h m or less foll[$ ,g]man example or h be5 at lea/ influ5c$ by ,g]man prec$5t4 ,!re is h>dly a policy or practice t has n at "s "t 9 "s "p be5 employ$ 9 ! fa!rl& ( =e/ry4 ,"o reason = ?is ri* hi/orical backgr\nd is ! fact1 t ,g]many has nev] be5 a unit1 t f its e>lie/ hi/ory x 0 brok5 up into _m indep5d5t &1 until mod]n times1 only loosely associat$ units1 :i* develop$ diff]5tly 9 social1 political & economic direction4 ,?is acc\nts also = ! great v>iety ( conditions exi/+ ev5 to-day 9 ! #bf pr9cipalities :i* =m ! ,g]man empire4 ,politically1 x may be m5tion$ t out ( ! v _m indep5d5t pr9cipalities into :i* ! ,g]man t]ritory _h be5 divid$1 v>iable 9 numb] f "t to "t1 ! #bf :i* _h pres]v$ _! autonomy =m$ 9 #ahga ! f$]ation ( ,/ates1 kn[n z ! ,g]man ,empire4 ,ea* ( ^! has its own repres5tative gov]nm5t includ+ ! =e/ adm9i/ration1 v mu* l ! /ate gov]nm5ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 only ! army & navy1 t>iff1 po/s1 telegraphs1 crim9al law & =eign policy1 & a few o!r matt]s are "u ! direct jurisdiction ( ! empire1 repres5t$ 9 ! ,rei*/ag1 ! ,bundesra?1 & ! ,emp]or4 ,! #bjh1hcj squ>e miles ( t]ritory1#b :i* supports a population ( ab\t #fj million p1 /ill conta9 a =e/ area ( ar\nd #ce million acres 7#bf ( ! l& area7 or 4#fa acre p] capita1 :i* al?\gh l>gely "u cons]vative managem5t has long ago ceas$ to supply by its annual increm5t 7some:at ov] #ej cubic feet p] acre7 ! ne$s ( ! population2 ! imports dur+ ! la/ #ej ye>s s9ce #ahfb1 :5 ,g]many began to %[ excess ( imports ov] exports1 hav+ gr[n 9 volume at ! av]age rate ( #aj to n[ r\nd #chj million cubic feet 7#de million doll>s7 or ne>ly #ae ( ! consumption4 #b ,! /ati/ics 9 ?is book d n pret5d to be m ?an approximations4 ,! l>g] "p ( ,g]many1 two ?irds ( ! t]ritory & population is controll$ by mod]n ,prussia1 ) a total =e/ area ( #bj million acres2 ,bav>ia comes next ) "o sev5? ( ! l& area & #f million acres ( =e/2 ! five l>g] /ates ( ,wurttemb]g1 ,bad51 ,saxony1 ,meckl5burg & ,hesse1 occupy+ toge!r ano!r sev5? ( ! t]ritory ) #e million acres ( =e/4 ,! balance ( ! area is divid$ among ! o!r #ai /ates4 ,fifty p] c5t4 ( ,g]many r\ghly speak+1 is pla9s c\ntry1 ! l>g] "p 9 ! nor!rn & ea/]n t]ritory ( ,prussia2 #be is hill c\ntry1 mo/ly 9 ,we/ & ,middle ,g]many2 & #be is m\nta9 c\ntry1 ! l>g] portion 9 ! s\!rn /ates4 ,!re are at be/ only five species ( timb] ( high economic g5]al importance1 ! 7,scot*7 p9e :i* cov]s l>ge areas 9 ! nor!rn s&y pla9 & ! light] soils 9 ! s\?2 ! 7,norway7 spruce & 7,silv]7 fir :i* =m =e/s 9 ! s\?we/]n & o!r m\nta9 regions & repres5t1 9 mixture ) broadleaf =e/1 a goodly proportion 9 ! nor!a/]n l[l&s2 ! 7,engli%7 oak1 ( :i* botanically two species are recogniz$2 & ! bee*4 ,! la/ two are ! mo/ important h>dwoods f\nd ?r\gh\t ! empire1 b especially highly develop$ 9 ! we/ & s\?we/4 ,9 addition1 !re are half a doz5 species ( m9or or m local importance1 b ! five m5tion$ =m ! basis ( ! =e/ry sy/ems4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( =e/ry 9 ,g]many may be divid$ into p]iods v>i\sly4 ,b]nh>dt recognizes six p]iods2 ,s*wappa* makes f\r divisions1 namely1 ! fir/1 f ! e>lie/ times to ! end ( ! ,c>lov+ians 7#iaa71 :i* is occupi$ ma9ly ) ! developm5t ( =e/ prop]ty conditions2 ! second1 to ! end ( ! ,middle ,ages 7#aejj71 dur+ :i* ! necessity ( =e/ managem5t beg9s to be sporadically recogniz$2 ! ?ird1 to ! end ( ! #ah? c5tury1 dur+ :i* ! f\ndation = ! developm5t ( all bran*es ( =e/ry is laid2 ! f\r?1 ! mod]n p]iod1 accompli%+ ! complete e/abli%m5t ( =e/ry me?ods 9 all p>ts ( ,g]many4 ,= ! lat] hi/orian x w\ld be prop] to recognize a fif? p]iod f ab\t #ahfc1 :51 by ! e/abli%m5t ( exp]im5t /ations1 a break+ away f ! m]ely empiric basis to a m sci5tific f\ndation ( =e/ry practice 0 begun4 ,= our purposes we %all be satisfi$ ) a division into ?ree p]iods1 namely3 fir/1 to ! end ( ! middle ages1 :51 ) ! discov]ies ( ,am]ica & o!r new c\ntries1 an enl>gem5t ( ! _w's horizon gave rise to a *ange ( economic conditions2 second1 to ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 :5 *ange ( political & economic ?\ght alt]$ ! relation ( peoples & c\ntries2 ?ird1 ! mod]n p]iod1 :i* exhibits ! practical fruition ( ^! *anges4 ,i4 ,,f ,,e>lie/ ,,times ,,to ,,end ,,( ,,middle ,,ages4 ,_m ( ! pres5t conditions1 especially ^? ( own]%ip1 z well z ! progress 9 ! developm5t bo? ( =e/ policy & ( =e/ managem5t1 c be und]/ood only ) "s k ( ! e>ly hi/ory ( ! settlem5t ( ! c\ntry4#c #c ,,felix ,,dahn1 ,urges*i*te d] g]manis*5 und romanis*5 ,vlk]1 #ahha4 ,z is well kn[n1 ,aryan tribes f c5tral ,asia _h m ?an a ?\s& ye>s be=e ,*ri/ begun to ov]run ! c\ntry4 ,^! belong$ to ! ,keltic 7,celtic7 or ,gaelic race :i* _h gradually come to occupy p>tly or :olly1 ,france1 ,spa91 nor!rn ,italy1 ! we/]n "p ( ,g]many & ! ,briti% ,isl&s4 ,!y 7 foll[$ by ! ,g]mani 7suppos$ly a ,celtic ^w mean+ neighbor or bro!r71 also ,aryan tribes1 :o appe>$ at ! ,black ,sea ab\t #ajjj ,b4,c41 9 ,switz]l& & ,belgium ab\t #ajj ,b4,c4 ,^! 7 foll[$ by ! ,slov5es1 ,slovaks1 or ,w5ds1 cr[d+ on beh9d1 disput+ & tak+ possession ( ! l&s left free by1 or conqu]$ f ! ,g]mani4 ,?r\gh ^! migrations1 by ab\t #djj ,a4,d41 ! :ole ( ,we/]n ,europe seems to h be5 fully peopl$ ) ^! tribes ( hunt]s & h]d]s4 ,! mixture ( ! diff]5t elem5ts ( victors & vanqui%$ l$ to diff]5tiation into ?ree classes ( p1 economically & politically speak+1 namely ! free1 ! unfree 7s]fs or slaves71 & ! fre$m5--an important di/9ction 9 ! developm5t ( prop]ty rights4 #a4 ,developm5t ( ,prop]ty ,conditions4 ,! ,g]man tribes :o rema9$ conqu]ors 7 compos$ ( ! diff]5t gr\ps ( ,franks1 ,saxons1 ,?ur+ians1 ,bajuv>ians1 ,burgundians1 etc41 ea* compos$ ( families aggregat$ into communal hordes ) an elect$ ,duke 7dux1 ,h]zog1 ,graf1 ,fr/71 organiz$ = w>1 ea* 9 itself a sociali/ic & economic organization kn[n z ,m>k1 own+ a t]ritory 9 common1 ! memb]s or ,m>kg5oss5 =m+ a republic4 ,outside ( h\se1 y>d & g>d51 !re 0 no private prop]ty2 ! l& surr\nd+ ! settlem5t1 kn[n z ,allm5de1 7commons7 0 own$ 9 common1 b assign$ 9 p>cels to ea* family = field use1 ! assignm5t fir/ *ang+ f ye> to ye>1 !n becom+ fix$4 ,! outly+ woods1 kn[n z ! ,m>ca or ,gr5zwald1 =m+ debatable gr\nd ) ! neighbor+ tribes1 7 us$ 9 common = hunt+1 pa/ur+1 fatt5+ ( hogs by ! oak ma/1 & = o!r su* purposes1 r ?an = ! wood ( :i* little 0 ne$$4 ,9 return = ! assignm5t ( ! fields1 ! free m51 :o alone 7 fully recogniz$ citiz5s ( ! community1 _h to fulfil ! duties ( citiz5s & especially ( w> s]vice4 ,only gradually1 by p>tition1 immigration & unev5 num]ical developm5t1 0 ! orig9al ,m>k or diff]5tiation into family associations de/roy$ & a m het]og5e\s association ( neighbors sub/itut$4 ,at ! same "t1 inequality ( own]%ip arose especially f ! fact t ^? :o own$ a l>g] numb] ( slaves 7! conqu]$ race7 _h ! advantage 9 be+ able to cle> & cultivate m readily new & r\gh =e/ gr\nd4 ,^? )\t slaves w\ld seek assi/ance f ^? m favor$1 ex*ang+ = r5t or s]vice _! rights to ! use ( l&2 out ( ?is relation%ip a c]ta9 vassalage & inequality ( political rights develop$4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ,roman doctr9e1 a new aspect reg>d+ newly conqu]$ t]ritory ga9$ recognition1 by :i* ! ,dukes z repres5tatives ( ! community laid claim to all unseat$ or unappropriat$ l&2 !y !n di/ribut$ to _! foll[]s or donat$ to ! newly e/abli%$ *ur* portions ( ?is l&1 s t by ! ye> #ijj ,a4,d41 a complete *ange 9 prop]ty relations _h be5 effect$4 ,by t "t ! l>ge b>onial e/ates ( private own]s _h come into exi/5ce :i* 7 ( su* great significance 9 ! economic hi/ory ( ! ,middle ,ages1 *ang+ consid]ably ! /atus ( ! free m51 & *ang+ ! free m>k societies into communities "u ! dom9ion ( ! b>ons4 ,! fir/ real k+1 :o did n1 h[ev]1 assume ! title1 0 ,clovis1 a ,duke ( ! ,franks1 :o _h occupi$ ! l[] ,rh9e c\ntry4 ,ab\t #ejj ,a4,d41 pick+ a qu>rel ) 8 neighbors1 ! ,allemanni1 he subdu$ !m & aggr&iz$ himself by tak+ _! ,m>k4 ,9 ?is way he laid ! f\ndation = a k+dom :i* he ext5d$ by conque/ ma9ly to ! we/w>d1 b also by /rategy to ! ea/w>d1 ! w>like tribes ( ,saxons & o!r ,g]mans conc$+ 9 a mann] ! lead]%ip ( ! ,franks4 ,a real k+dom1 h[ev]1 did n arise until ,*>lemagne1 9 #ggb1 became ! rul]1 ext5d+ 8 gov]nm5t f> to ! ,ea/4 ,at times1 ! k+dom 0 divid$ into ! we/]n ,neu/ria1 & ! ea/]n ,au/ria1 & !n aga9 unit$1 b x 0 only :5 ! dyna/y ( ,*>lemagne became ext9ct ) ! dea? ( ,l\is ! ,*ild 7#iaa71 t ! f9al sep>ation f ,france 0 effect$1 & ,g]many became a sep>ate k+dom1 ! ea/]n tribes betwe5 ! ,rh9e & ,elbe *oos+ _! own k+1 ,conrad1 ,duke ( ,franconia4 ,!re 7 !n five tribes or nations1 ea* "u its own ,duke & its own laws1 compris+ ?is new k+dom1 namely ! ,franks1 ,suabians1 ,bav>ians1 ,saxons on ! "r1 & ! ,lora9]s on ! left bank ( ! ,rh9e1 :ile ! c\ntry ,ea/ ( ! ,elbe riv] 0 mo/ly occupi$ by ,slov5ians4 ,) ,clovis began ! new ord] ( ?+s :i* 0 signaliz$ by ! aggr&izem5t ( k+s1 dukes & b>ons4 ,9 addition to ! rule reg>d+ ! own]%ip ( unseat$ l&s !re develop$1 also "u ,roman law doctr9e1 ! conception ( seignorial "r1 i4e41 ! p[] ( ! k+ to jurisdiction ov] 8 prop]ty4 ,?is "r1 fir/ claim$ by ! duke or k+ = himself1 is !n transf]r$ ) ! t]ritory giv5 to 8 fri5ds & vassals1 :o !reby secure = !mselves 8 p[]s & jurisdiction1 immunity f taxes & f o!r duties1 z well z ! "r to exact taxes & s]vices f o!rs1 ! favor$ gr[+ into indep5d5t knights & b>ons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! =e/1 !n1 orig9ally 0 communal prop]ty & ! feel+ ( ?is own]%ip 9 common rema9s ev5 to ! pres5t day4 ,inde$1 actually x rema9$ 9 mo/ cases s until ! #ac? c5tury1 al?\gh ! *anges not$ _h _! orig9 9 ! #g? c5tury :5 ! k+s began to ass]t _! rights ( pr9cely sup]iority4 ,9 ^! e>li] ages1 ! ma9 use ( ! =e/s 0 = ! hunt1 ! ma/ & ! pa/ure1 & s9ce wood 0 relatively pl5tiful1 =e/ de/ruction 0 ! rule4 ,^? :o became possess$ ( l>g] prop]ties ?r\gh ! causes m5tion$ tri$ to secure an increas$ value ( _! possessions by colonization1 9 :i* especially ! slaves or s]fs 7 utiliz$4 ,^! (t5 became fre$m51 pay+ r5t 9 product or labor1 & acquir+ ! rights ( usufruct 9 ! prop]ty1 out ( :i* develop$ ! s-call$ s]vitudes or rights ( us]1 ! pra$ium ( ! ,romans1 a limit$ "r to use ! prop]ty ( ano!r4 ,) ! developm5t ( private prop]ty !re naturally also develop$ ! "r ( prev5t+ ! hunt+ on su* l&s1 ?is be+ !n _! ma9 use4 ,?is exclusive "r to ! *ase or hunt we f9d recogniz$ z a "p ( ! prop]ty ( ! k+s & b>ons 9 ! #h? c5tury1 :5 ! k+s =bade trespass "u p5alty ( sev]e f9es2 ! k+'s ban 7int]diction7 ( #fj %ill+s be+ impos$ ^u ! trespass]s4 ,inde$1 by ! end ( ! #h? c5tury ! ^w ,=/ 7voor/--=e/a7 :i* until !n _h be5 us$ m]ely to d5ote ! k+'s prop]ty 0 exclusively us$ to designate n necess>ily woodl& 7! latt] be+ ref]r$ to z silva or nemus71 b any t]ritory 9 :i* ! hunt _h be5 res]v$4 ,?is "r to res]ve ! *ase & ! fi%+1 t is1 to e/abli% ban=e/s 0 9 ! #aj? c5tury ext5d$ by ! k+s to t]ritory n belong+ to !m1 ! "r to ! *ase be+ accord+ to ! ,roman doctr9e a regal "r ov] any prop]ty4 ,"u ?is conception fields & pa/ures1 woods & wat]s1 & :ole villages ) _! inhabitants became 8in=e/$0 gr\nds4 ,! ,norman k+s1 imbu$ ) a passion = ! *ase1 ex]cis$ ?is "r widely1 especially 9 ,engl&2 ! =e/s ( ,dean1 ,epp+ & ! ,new ,=e/ be+ su* in=e/$ t]ritories1 ! inhabitants ( :i* 7 plac$ "u special 8=e/ laws10 & adjudg$ by special 8=e/ c\rts40 ,pres5tly ! k+'s "r ( ban 0 grant$ ) ! l& grants to 8 b>ons & to ! cl]gy4 ,ban=e/s also grew up ?r\gh own]s ( prop]ties plac+ !mselves & _! possessions "u ! protection ( k+s or bi%ops or o!r p[]ful b>ons & giv+ 9 ex*ange ?is hunt+ "r1 & 9 v>i\s o!r ways4 ,at ! same "t ! headm5 ( ! ,m>k 7,ob]mrk]1 ,graf1 ,waldgraf71 :o f be+ elect$ (fic]s ( ! p _h become (ficials ( ! k+1 began to ex]cise1 by virtue ( _! (fice1 ! jurisdiction ( ! k+1 & decl>+ ! ban = _! own or _! fri5ds' b5efit1 exclud$ ! ,mrk] f _! anci5t "r to hunt & fi% freely ov] ! t]ritory ( ! ,m>k4 ,:ile 9 ?is way ! fre$om ( ! communal own]s 0 und]m9$1 ! in/itution ( ban=e/s _h nev]!less its value 9 t x l$ to =e/ protection1 re/riction 9 =e/ use & re/riction 9 cle>+1 all ?is1 to be sure1 m]ely = ! b5efit ( ! *ase4 ,special (fic]s to gu>d ! rights ( ! k+1 =e/>ii1 *os5 f ! free & fre$m51 & also sup]ior (fic]s1 =e/ma/]s1 7 in/itut$1 to adm9i/] ! *ase & en=ce ! re/rictions :i* w5t ) x4 ,gradually1 ) ! loss ( prop]ty rights1 !re came also a *ange 9 ! political rights ( ! mrk] or common]s1 ?r\gh ! l>ge b>ons int]f]+ ) self-gov]nm5t1 assum+ = !mselves ! position ( ,ob]mrk]1 appo9t+ ! (ficials1 & issu+ /rict =e/ ord9ances to regulate ! cutt+ ( wood2 f9ally1 ! orig9al "r :i* belong$ to e common] ( supply+ himself ) wood mat]ial1 became dep5d5t ^u p]mission 9 ea* case1 & ?us 8 title to own]%ip became d\btful4 ,und\bt$ly also ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ,roman in/itutions ) :i* ! ,franks "u _! ,m]ov+ian k+s came into close contact1 !re arose t social & political in/itution :i* became f9ally kn[n z ! feudal sy/em4 ,by ! grants ( l&s :i* ! k+s made out ( _! e/ates to _! k9sm5 & foll[]s ) ! und]/&+ t !y w\ld be fai?ful & r5d] s]vice to _! ma/]s1 a peculi> relation%ip grew up1 bas$ on l& t5ure1 ! l& s grant$ be+ call$ a fief or feud1 & ! relation%ip be+ call$ vassality or vassalage4 ,?is vassalage d5ot$ ! p]sonal tie betwe5 ! grantor & grantee1 ! "l & ! vassal2 ! "l hav+ ! obligation to def5d ! vassal1 & ! vassal to be a fai?ful foll[] ( 8 "l4 ,simil> relation%ip arose f ! surr5d] by l&[n]s ( _! e/ates to ! *ur* or to o!r p[]ful b>ons1 to be receiv$ back aga9 z fiefs & to be held by !m z t5ants 9 ex*ange = r5t or s]vice4 ,9 ?is way a complete organization ( society develop$ 9 :i*1 f ! k+ d[n to ! l[e/ l&[n]1 all 7 b\nd toge!r by obligation ( s]vice & def5ce1 bo? ! def5ce & s]vice be+ regulat$ by ! nature & ext5t ( ! fief4 ,f9ally1 all k9ds ( prop]ty ( :atev] nature1 z well z (ficial positions :i* w\ld give an income1 7 subject to be treat$ z fiefs4 ,! obligations ( ! recipi5t 7 ( v>i\s nature1 b f9ally s]vice 9 army or c\rt became ! ma9 "o1 giv+ rise to ! class ( knights 7,ritt]7 or b>ons1 :ile ! fiefs to ! small f>m] gave rise to ! class ( peasants 7,bau]n1 ?is "n appe>+ fir/ 9 #aajf "u ,conrad ,,ii74 ,! fiefs ( ! high] class1 :ile at fir/ giv5 only to ! individual1 became e>ly h]$it>y1 & h]$it>y succession to e/ates & (fices g5]ally became ! rule4 ,primog5iture 9 ! succession to ! e/ates did !n n z 9 ,engl& prevail 9 ,g]many2 in/ead1 ei!r t5ancy 9 common1 or else equal division among ! sons 0 practis$4 ,z a result ! v _m small pr9cipalities came into exi/5ce 9 ! #ad? & #ae? c5turies1 ^! gr[+ small] & small] by subdivision4 ,! fir/ to in/itute ! primog5iture rule by law 0 ! h\se ( ,br&5burg 79 ! #ae? c5tury74 ,9 addition to ! class ( peasants & knights1 !re came into exi/5ce a ?ird class1 ! burgh]s1 :51 by ! ord] ( ,conrad ,i 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! #aj? c5tury1 t[ns 7 built ) walls & t[]s = def5ce aga9/ ! encroa*m5ts ( ! ,huns1 :o endang]$ ! ea/]n fronti] ,m>k4 ,9 ord] to enc\rage ! settlem5t ( ^! t[ns1 any slave mov+ to t[n 0 decl>$ a freeman2 & ! cities became free republics2 gifts ( l&1 includ+ =e/ areas1 7 made to ! cities1 & ! developm5t ( indu/ries 0 enc\rag$ 9 e way4 ,^! cities1 favor$ by ! k+s1 &1 hav+ become ri* & p[]ful1 9 ! lat] qu>rels ( ! k+s ) ! lawless nobility1 gave loyal support ) money & arms4 ,9 return = _! loans1 ! =e/ prop]ties ( ! k+s 7 (t5 mortgag$ to ! burgh]s2 &1 fail+ ( r$emption1 7 (t5 =feit$ to !m4 ,9 ?is way & ?r\gh pur*ases ! city =e/s came into exi/5ce4 ,/ill o!r prop]ty conditions arose :51 "u ,otto ! ,great 7#ifj71 colonization ( ! ea/]n c\ntry beyond ! ,elbe 0 pu%$4 ,9 ^! cases1 ! ,m>k in/itution 0 abs5t1 al?\gh ! coloni/s did (t5 become "p own]s 9 ! k+'s =e/1 or acquir$ p>ts ( x z common prop]ty1 or else secur$ rights ( us] 9 ! ne>e/ royal =e/4 ,by ! end ( ! p]iod1 due to ^! v>i\s developm5ts1 a great v>iety ( prop]ty conditions 9 =e/ areas _h develop$1 mo/ ( :i* cont9ue to ! pres5t "t1 namely royal prop]ties1 :i* by ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury & ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? 7 9 "p to become /ate prop]ty2 pr9cely & lordly possessions "u sep>ate jurisdiction1 ) or )\t entail1 & mo/ly encumb]$ ) rights ( us]2 allodial possessions 7held indep5d5t ( r5t or s]vice72 municipal possessions own$ by city corporations2 communal prop]ties1 ! remnants ( ! ,m>k2 & f>m]s' woodlots 7,bau]nwald71 result+ f p>titions ( ! ,m>k4 ,all ^! *anges f ! orig9al communal prop]ty conditions did n1 ( c\rse1 take place )\t friction1 ! opposition (t5 tak+ %ape 9 peasants' revolts2 hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( ^! be+ kill$ 9 _! attempts to pres]ve _! commons1 =e/s & wat]s free to all1 to re-e/abli% _! lib]ty to hunt1 fi% & cut wood1 & to aboli% ti!s1 s]fdom & duties4 #b4 ,=e/ ,treatm5t4 ,z /at$1 ! ,g]man tribes :i* settl$ ! c\ntry 7 h]d]s & hunt]s1 :o only gradually develop$ into f>m]s :ile ! c\ntry 0 be+ settl$4 ,at fir/1 !re=e1 z f> z ! =e/ did n ne$ to give way to f>m l&s1 its ma9 use 0 9 ! ex]cise ( ! *ase & = pa/ure1 & especially = ! rais+ & fatt5+ ( hogs2 ! numb] ( hogs :i* c\ld be driv5 into a =e/ s]v+ z an expression ( ! size ( su* a =e/4 ,oak & bee* furni%+ ! ma/ 7 consid]$ ! pref]able species4 ,x is natural1 !re=e1 t1 wood be+ pl5tiful & ! common prop]ty ( all1 ! fir/ regulation ( =e/ use _h ref]5ce to ^!1 n[ m9or b5efits ( =e/ prop]ty1 z = in/ance ! prohibition ( cutt+ ma/ trees1 :i* 0 en=c$ 9 e>ly times4 ,! fir/ ext5sive regulation ( =e/ use came h[ev]1 f ! ex]cise ( ! royal "r ( ! ban & m]ely = ! av[$ purpose ( protect+ ! *ase4 ,real =e/ managem5t1 h[ev]1 did n exi/1 ! =e/>ii m5tion$ 9 ^! e>ly times be+ no?+ b policem5 gu>d+ ! hunt+ rights ( ! k+s or o!r own]s4 ,! conception t wood on ! /ump 0 ( ! same nature z o!r prop]ty & its removal !ft _h n yet become e/abli%$3 8quia non res possessa s$ de ligno agitur0 7wood n be+ a possess$ ?+71 a conception :i* /ill p]vades ! laws ( mod]n times to "s ext5t4 ,! necessity ( cle>+ f>m l&s = ! gr[+ population cont9u$1 ev5 9 ! we/]n1 m d5sely populat$ sections1 into ! #ab? & #ac? c5turies4 ,! cloi/]s 7 especially active 9 coloniz+ & mak+ f>m l& ) ! use ( axe & fire1 su* cloi/]s be+ (t5 f\nd$ z m]e l& speculations4 ,squatt]s1 z ) u1 7 a frequ5t class ( coloni/s1 & 9 ea/]n ,prussia cont9u$ ev5 into ! #ag? & #ah? c5turies to appropriate =e/ l& )\t reg>d to prop]ty rights4 ,! di/urb$ own]%ip conditions1 :i* we h trac$1 l$ also (t5 to wa/eful sla%+1 especially 9 ! we/]n t]ritory1 :ile colonization among ! ,slavs ( ! ,ea/]n sections l$ to simil> results4 ,9 ! #ab? c5tury1 h[ev]1 "h & !re appe> ! fir/ signs ( great] necessity = regulat+ & re/rict+ =e/ use 9 ! ,m>k =e/1 & = improvem5t 9 =e/ conditions ) ! purpose ( insur+ wood supplies4 ,9 t c5tury1 division ( ! ,m>k =e/ beg9s = ! alleg$ reason t individual own]%ip w\ld lead to bett] managem5t & less deva/ation4 ,9 ! #ab? & #ac? c5turies also1 /rict] ord] 9 ! fell+s & 9 =e/ use 0 insi/$ ^u 9 _m places4 ,9 ! =e/ ord9ances ( ! pr9ces & b>ons1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 h always ref]5ce to limit$ localities1 we f9d prescriptions l ! foll[+3 ,! am\nt to be cut is to be limit$ to ! exact ne$s ( ea* family & ! prop] use ( ! wood is to be inspect$2 ! timb] is to be m>k$1 mu/ be cut 9 a giv5 "t & be remov$ at once2 only dry wood is to be us$ = fuel & ! place & "t = ga!r+ x is specially designat$1 simil> to ! pres5t practice4 ,! be/ oak & bee* are to be pres]v$ 7?is1 h[ev]1 m]ely ) ref]5ce to ! ma/71 & 9 ! ,alps we f9d already provisions to res]ve l>* & p9e4 ,! *>coal indu/ry is favor$ 7because ( easi] transportation ( its product71 b p]mitt$ only "u special precautions4 ,b>k peel+ & burn+ = pota% is =bidd54 ,! pa/ure is regulat$ ) reg>d to ! "y gr[?1 & %eep & goats are exclud$4 ,su* measures are1 to be sure1 f\nd only "h & !re :]e local conditions gave rise to a fe> ( a timb] fam9e2 su* communities may also be f\nd mak+ attempts to protect !mselves aga9/ r$uction ( home supplies by =bidd+ ! export ( wood f _! t]ritory4 ,an amus+ re/riction ( ?is k9d is f\nd at ,alt5/adt :]e ! bak]s 7 =bidd5 to bake bread = any b ! citiz5s ( ! t[n4 ,! fir/ ord9ance prohibit+ = cle>+s is f\nd at ,lors* 9 ! ,rh5i% c\ntry 9 #aafe1 & o!r ord9ances ) su* prohibition are on record 9 o!r p>ts 9 ! #ac? c5tury4 ,9 #abcg1 at ,salzburg1 cle>+s 7 prohibit$ 9 ! int]e/ ( ! salt m9es1 8s t ! cut =e/ may gr[ up to wood aga910 & also 9 o!r p>ts :]e m9+ int]e/s made a special dem& = props or *>coal ! regulation ( =e/ use 0 begun e>ly4 ,! difficulties ( transportation 9 ! abs5ce ( roads r5d]$ local supply ( m importance ?an at pres5t1 & ?is acc\nts = ! e>ly measures to secure m economical use :ile di/ant woods 7 /ill pl5tiful b unavailable4 ,:ile 9 ! #ab? & #ac? c5turies a m]ely re/rictive & regulative1 or else a let-alone policy1 8all[+ ! wood to gr[ up10 prevail$1 we f9d 9 ! #ad? c5tury ! fir/ beg9n+s ( an attempt at =e/ ext5sion or recup]ation4 ,9 #acji1 ,h5ry ,,vii ord]$ ! re=e/ation ( a c]ta9 /ripp$ area by s[+4 ,( ! execution ( ?is ord] we h no record1 b ! fir/ actually execut$ plantation on record is t by ! city ( ,nuremb]g1 9 #acfh1 :]e sev]al hundr$ acres ( burn$ area 7 s[$ ) p9e1 spruce & fir2 & !re is also a record t 9 #addi ?is crop 0 h>ve/$4 ,9 #adbj1 ! city ( ,frank=t on ! ,ma9 foll[$ ?is example1 rely+ on ! ,nuremb]g se$ deal]1 ^: correspond5ce is extant & :o 0 invit$ to g to ,frank=t = advice h[ to proce$4 ,he s[$ d5sely 9 ord] to secure cle> boles1 b express$ ! op9ion t ! plants c\ld n be transplant$2 he also reli$ on ! phases ( ! moon = 8 op]ations4 ,! plant+ ( h>dwoods seems to h be5 begun mu* lat]2 ! fir/ ref]5ce to x com+ f ! cloi/] & city ( ,selig5/adt1 :i* agre$ 9 #adia to re=e/ annually #bj to #cj acres ) oak4 ,natural reg5]ation by coppice 0 9 q g5]al practice & prov$ satisfactory en\gh = fuelwood production4 ,! sy/em ( coppice ) /&>ds 0 also frequ5tly practis$1 ! /&>ds1 #bj or #cj to ! acre1 be+ 8res]v$ = ! "l40 ,9 ! timb] =e/1 ! unregulat$ selection sy/em 0 cont9u$ g5]ally ?r\gh ! p]iod1 al?\gh 9 #aded we f9d 9 ! ,h>z ,m\nta9s a transition to a se$ tree managem5t1 a few se$ trees or gr\ps ( se$ trees be+ left on ! o!rwise cle>$ area1 some:at 9 ! mann] ( ! ,fr5* m?ode tire et-aire4 ,t[>d ! end ( ! #ae? c5tury we f9d "h & !re a di/9ction made betwe5 timb] =e/1 :]e no firewood is to be cut1 & 8leaf =e/0 :i* is to s]ve ! latt] purpose1 & is to be treat$ z coppice4 ,t[>d ! end ( ! p]iod we f9d1 h[ev]1 v>i\s provisions :i* are unque/ionably dictat$ by ! fe> ( a sc>city ( timb]4 ,! discov]y t pa/ure prev5ts natural reg5]ation l$ to a prohibition ( pa/ur+ 9 ! newly cut fell+ areas4 ,9 #adhh1 we f9d already a diamet] limit ( #ab in*es--j z is be+ advocat$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates n[--z a basis = cons]vative exploitation1 ! city ( ,brunswick buy+ /umpage1 & 9 ! contract be+ limit$ to ?is diamet]1 & 9 addition obligat$ to leave #ae oaks or asp5 p] acre = se$ trees4 ,attempts at regulat+ ! use ( a giv5 =e/ by division into fell+ areas are record$ 9 #acei1 :5 ! city =e/ ( ,erfurt1 #bhf acres1 0 divid$ into sev5 fell+ areas4 ,x is que/ionable :e!r ?is ref]r$ to a coppice ) %ort rotation or :e!r a selection =e/ ) sev5 p]iodic areas is meant4 ,we see1 !n1 t ! fir/ sporadic &1 to be sure1 crude beg9n+s ( a =e/ managem5t 9 ,g]many may be trac$ back to ! #ad? & #ae? c5turies2 b x took at lea/ #bej to #cej ye>s be=e su* managem5t became g5]al4 ,outside ( ! in=mation f\nd scatt]$ 9 =e/ ord9ances1 in/ructions & prescriptions ( v>i\s k9ds !re is no =e/ry lit]ature to be record$ f ?is p]iod except "o s+le book1 publi%$ ab\t ! ye> #acjj1 by an ,italian1 ,petrus de ,cresc5tiis1 :i* 0 translat$ into ,g]man4 ,x 0 m]ely a s*ola/ic compilation on agriculture & alli$ subjects1 mo/ly cribb$ f old ,roman writ]s & )\t value = ,g]man conditions4 ,,ii4 ,,fir/ ,,developm5t ,,( ,,=e/ry ,,me?ods4 7,p]iod #aejj to #ahjj47 ,! p]iod foll[+ ! middle ages m>ks ! gradual *anges f ! feudal sy/em to ! mod]n ,/ate organizations & to consid]able *ange ( own]%ip conditions & =e/ treatm5t4 ,v>i\s causes :i* l$ to an increas$ developm5t ( indu/rial life 7 also in/rum5tal 9 ha/5+ ! progress ( =e/ de/ruction4 ,at ! same "t1 dur+ ?is p]iod ! g]ms & embryonic beg9n+s ( e bran* ( =e/ry1 real =e/ry policy1 =e/ry practice & =e/ry sci5ce are to be not$4 ,by ! end ( ?is p]iod1 prep>atory to m mod]n conditions1 we f9d organiz$ te*nical =e/ adm9i/rations1 well develop$ me?ods ( silviculture & sy/ems ( =e/ managem5t4 #a4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,prop]ty ,conditions4 ,a numb] ( *anges 9 ! conceptions ( political relations1 9 me?ods ( life & ( political economy br\ght fur!r *anges 9 prop]ty conditions on ! same l9es z ^? prevail+ 9 ! #ad? & #ae? c5turies4 ,^! *anges 7 especially influ5c$ by ! spread ( ,roman law doctr9e reg>d+ ! rights ( ! gov]n+ classes2 by ! gr[? ( ! cities1 favor+ indu/rial developm5t & *ang+ me?ods ( life2 by ! *ange f b>t] to money managem5t1 favor$ by ! discov]y ( ,am]ica1 by o!r _w movem5ts1 & by ! result+ *anges 9 economic !ory4 ,?r\gh ! discov]y ( ! new _w & ! influx ( gold & silv] t came ) x gave impetus to indu/ry & comm]ce ( ! cities2 ! rapid increase ( money capital increas$ extravagance & induc$ a desire = amass+ weal?1 :i* *ang$ modes ( life1 *ang$ policies & sy/ems ( political economy4 ,! fiscal policy ( ! _m little pr9cipalities 0 dom9at$ by a desire to get a good balance ( trade by fo/]+ exports ( manufactures1 b =bidd+ exports ( raw mat]ials l =e/ products1 also by =bidd+ imports1 subsidiz+ indu/ries1 fix+ prices by law1 & tak+ 9 g5]al an inimical attitude t[>ds outsid]s except 9 s f> z !y s5t gold & silv] into ! c\ntry4 ,?is s-call$ m]cantili/ic sy/em1 :i* saw weal? n 9 labor & its products b 9 hord$ gold & silv]1 _h also full sway 9 ,engl& "u ,cromwell1 & 9 ,france "u ,colb]t's influ5ce4 ,?is fiscal policy1 :i* 0 b5t ^u br++ ca% into ! c\ntry1 l$1 "u ! direction ( s]vile (ficials1 to oppressive measures4 ,a reaction naturally foll[$1 :5 x 0 po9t$ out t ! real weal? ( a nation lies 9 its natural res\rces & 9 its labor4 ,b ?is s-call$ physiocratic doctr9e _h little practical influ5ce except to prep>e m5's m9ds = ! reception ( ! tea*+s ( ,adam ,smi? at ! end ( ! p]iod4 ,! doctr9e ( ! ,roman law1 deifi$ by ! juri/s & comm5tators1 und]m9$ ! national conceptions & in/itutions ( free citiz5%ip & ( exi/+ prop]ty relations2 c\rts1 legislation & adm9i/ration 7 subject to _! sway1 & ?is influ5ce la/$1 9 spite ( reactions1 until ! end ( ! #ah? c5tury4 ,"u x ! doctr9e ( ! imp]ium--! seignorage or sup]ior p[] ( ! pr9ces 7,hoheitsre*t7--0 fur!r develop$ into ! dom9ium t]rae1 i4e41 sup]ior own]%ip ( all ! l&1 :i* gives rise to ! title & ! ex]cise ( ! function ( 8,l&e%]r510 ma/]s ( ! l&1 & conf]s ! privilege ( curtail+ & ev5 discont9u+ private prop]ty rights4 ,to su/a9 _! position 9 ea* ( ! /ate units1 a re/riction ( ! autonomy ( *ur*es & cloi/]s1 ( ! ,m>k & ( ! vassals became ne$ful to ! pr9ces4 ,?is 0 secur$ by tak+ ! fir/ "u _! protection1 by mak+ !mselves ,ob]mrk]s1 & by *ang+ vassals :o held (fice 9 fief into employes 7,beamte74 ,= a "t ! ?ree privileg$ classes ( prelates1 knights & burgh]s1 comb9$ 9 ! ,l&/& or ,l&tag1 p>ticipat$ 9 "s ( ! functions ( gov]nm5t1 especially 9 rais+ & adm9i/]+ taxes1 b by ! second half ( ! #ad? c5tury ! pr9ces _h become absolute1 & ! doctr9e ( ! ,hoheitsre*t 0 firmly e/abli%$4 ,"u ?is doctr9e1 ! hi/oric position ( ! ,m>k is p]v]t$ & in/ead ( be+ ! common prop]ty ( ! p1 x becomes ! prop]ty ( ! pr9ce1 on :i* he graci\sly p]mits ! usufruct2 =1 =e/1 pa/ure & wat] 7,wald1 ,weide1 ,wass]7 are res publicae1 h5ce own]less & at ! disposal ( ! k+4 ,?r\gh ?is new con/ruction ( relation%ip1 z well z ?r\gh ! same ma*9ations & tricks :i* ! pr9ces z ,ob]ma]k] or headm5 ( ! ,m>k _h employ$ dur+ ! =ego+ p]iod 9 usurp+ p[]1 & p>tly ?r\gh volunt>y dissolution 0 ! decad5ce ( ! social1 economic & political organization ( ! ,m>k gradually complet$4 ,! orig9al usufruct ( a prop]ty held 9 common is expla9$ 9 ! ,roman s5se z a prec>ium or s]vitude1 & f be+ a "r ( ! :ole organization becomes a "r ( ! s+le individual or gr\p ( individuals4 ,9 ?is way ! sociali/ic basis ( ! ,m>k is de/roy$4 ,?r\gh ! ex]cise ( ! ,=/hoheit1 i4e41 ! sup]ior "r ( ! pr9ce ov] all =e/ prop]ty1 by ! appo9tm5t ( ! (ficials in/ead ( _! election1 by issuance ( ord9ances1 9 %ort1 by ! usurpation ( ! legislative & police p[]1 ! political p[] ( ! ,m>k is brok5 & ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> completes ! breakd[n2 ! pride ( ! burgh] & ! peasant is gone1 _! autonomy de/roy$ & _! economic & political organizations s9k into m]e corporations bas$ on l& t5ure1 :i*1 accord+ to ,roman doctr9e come "u ! regulation ( ! ,/ate or ,pr9ce4 ,! nobility move into ! cities & leave ! adm9i/ration ( _! e/ates to (ficials :o are con/antly press$ to furni% ! means = ! extravagant life ( _! ma/]s4 ,^! 9 turn h>ass & oppress ! peasantry1 :o f9ally become bondsm51 ,gut%rige 7b\nd to ! glebe7 & lose _! indep5d5ce entirely4 ,^!1 briefly1 are ! /eps by :i* ! *anges1 social & economic1 progress$4 ,re=ms 9 ?is situation ( ! peasantry began fir/ 9 ,prussia 9 #agjb1 :5 bondage 0 aboli%$ = all ^? :o c\ld pur*ase _! h\ses & f>ms f ! g5try4 ,z few _h ! means to d s1 ! result 0 ! creation ( a prolet>iat1 hi!rto unkn[n because "u ! old feudal sy/em ! "l _h to fe$ 8 impov]i%$ bondsm5 f :i* he 0 n[ absolv$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,*anges 9 =e/ prop]ty 9 p>ticul> 7 br\ght ab\t by ! increase ( pr9cely prop]ty ?r\gh ! v>i\s me?ods ( ex]cis+ ! seignorage4 ,especially aft] ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> own]less tracts fall+ "u ?is "r 7 pl5tiful4 ,9 addition1 :]ev] wa/e l&s grew up to wood1 !y 7 claim$ by ! pr9ces3 8,w5n das ,holz dem ,ritt] rei*t an d5 ,sporn ,hat d] ,bau] se9 ,re*t v]lorn40 ,:5 wood has gr[n up to ! spur ( ! knight1 ! peasant has lo/ 8 "r4 ,"s additions came f ! secul>ization ( *ur* & cloi/] prop]ty1 & o!rs by ! slices :i* ! pr9ces z ,ob]mrk] secur$ f ! ,m>k =e/s by v>i\s artifices4 ,x is ^! prop]ties1 :i* 9 ,prussia 7 turn$ ov] by ! ,k+ to ! ,/ate 9 #agac1 & by o!r pr9ces1 n until ! #ai? c5tury4 ,! same means :i* ! pr9ces employ$ 7 us$ by ! l&$ g5try to increase _! hold+s especially at ! exp5se ( ! ,m>k f :i* 9 _! capacity ( ,ob]mrk] !y secur$ portions by =ce or intrigue4 ,! peasants' =e/ prop]ty--! ,m>k =e/--_h by ! #ai? c5tury be5 almo/ entirely dismemb]$1 "p hav+ come into ! h&s ( ! pr9ces & b>ons1 "p hav+ be5 divid$ among ! ,mrk]1 & "p hav+ become corporation =e/ 9 ! mod]n s5se4 ,p>tition _h become desirable :5 ! re/rictions ( use :i* 7 ord]$ = ! good ( ! =e/ became un5durable "u ! rigid rule ( appo9t$ (ficials1 b ! expect$ improvem5t 9 managem5t :i* 0 look$ = f p>tition & private own]%ip 0 nev] realiz$4 ,aft] ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> ! free cities 7 impov]i%$ & _! autonomy und]m9$ by ,roman doctr9e4 ,f free republics !y became m]e corporations "u ! sup]vision ( appo9t$ (ficials1 & exp]i5c$ decad5ce 9 political z well z mat]ial directions4 ,h5ce1 no increase 9 city =e/ took place except ?r\gh division ( ! ,m>k =e/ 9 :i* cities _h be5 co-own]s1 & ?r\gh secul>iz$ prop]ties ( cloi/]s4 ,! wor/ feature1 f ! /&po9t ( =e/ treatm5t1 :i* result$ f ^! *anges 9 prop]ty conditions & relation%ip1 0 ! gr[? ( ! p]nici\s s]vitudes or rights ( us]1 :i* 7 ei!r conf]r$ to propitiate ! p[]less b dang]\s peasantry1 or evolv$ out ( ! feudal relations4 ,f ! #af? to ! #ai? c5turies ^! s]vitudes grew to su* an ext5t t 9 almo/ e =e/ "s "o outside ( ! own] _h ! "r to use p>ts ( x1 ei!r ! pa/ure1 or ! litt]1 or c]ta9 classes or sizes ( wood4 ,^! rights h prov$ ! greate/ imp$im5t to ! progress ( =e/ry until mo/ rec5t times1 & only )9 ! la/ few decades h ! majority ( !m be5 ext+ui%$ by legal process or compromise4 #b4 ,=e/ ,conditions4 ,"u ! ex]cise ( ^! v>i\s rights & ! unc]ta9ty ( prop]ty conditions1 ! =e/ conditions naturally det]iorat$ cont9u\sly until ! end ( ! #ah? c5tury2 ! virg9 woods 7 cull$ ( _! weal? & !n grew up to bru%1 z is usual 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,e =e/ ord9ance began ) compla9ts reg>d+ ! increas+ =e/ deva/ation1 & pr$ict$ a timb] fam9e 9 view ( ! increas+ population1 increas+ indu/ry & comm]ce1 & h5ce increas$ wood consumption4 ,especially along ! wat] r\tes1 :i* furni%$ ! means ( transportation1 ! available supplies 7 ru?lessly exploit$4 ,m s]i\s enemies ?an ! exploitation ( ! timb] prov$ ! pa/ur+ ( cattle1 ! removal ( ! litt]1 & above all1 ! fires4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! #af? c5tury1 ord9ances aga9/ =e/ fires began to be enact$2 yet1 z late z #aggh1 ! necessity ( keep+ ! rides or fire lanes op5 9 ! =e/s ( ,ea/]n ,prussia is ju/ifi$ by ! /atem5t t 8o!rwise ! /ill con/antly recurr+ fires c\ld n be *eck$40 ,at ano!r place x is /at$ t 8n a s+le acre ( =e/ c\ld be f\nd 9 ! prov9ce t _h n be5 burnt 9 =m] or lat] times10 & t 8! p are /ill too mu* accu/om$ to ! ru?less use ( fires1 s t no puni%m5t c /op !m40 ,o!r causes ( deva/ation 7 ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>1 ! w>s ( ! #ah? c5tury1 & ! loss ( int]e/ 9 ! =e/ by ! peasants aft] ! collapse ( ! ,m>k4 ,^! _h (t5 to /eal :at !y ne$$1 & _! depr$ations 7 increas$ by ! desire to rev5ge !mselves on ! l&$ proprietors = ! oppressions to :i* !y 7 subject$4 ,! increase 9 game1 :i* 0 fo/]$ by ! l&$ g5try1 did mu* damage to ! "y gr[?s1 & ! increase 9 ! liv+ exp5ses ( ! nobility :o mo/ly ab&on$ c\ntry = t[n _h to be met by increas$ exploitation4 ,by ! end ( ! middle ages ! r$uction ( =e/ area _h proce$$ s f> t x 0 g5]ally believ$ desirable to re/rict ! mak+ ( cle>+s to exceptional necessities1 except 9 ! nor!a/]n p>ts & 9 ! di/ant m\nta9 di/ricts4 ,yet a gr[+ population increas$ ! ne$ = f>m l&1 & s9ce int5sive use ( ! exi/+ f>m area 0 n attempt$ until ! end ( ! #ah? c5tury1 ! =e/ _h to yield /ill fur!r4 #c4 ,me?ods ( ,re/riction 9 ,=e/ ,use4 ,all ord9ances issu$ by ! pr9ces to regulate ! managem5t ( _! prop]ties conta9 ! prescription1 t p]mission ( ! ,l&e%]r is necess>y = cle>+s1 & t ab&on$ fields gr[+ up to wood are to be kept z woodl&2 ?is p>tly = timb] ne$s1 p>tly = consid]ations ( ! *ase4 ,/ill1 ,fr$]ick ! ,great 9 coloniz+ ,ea/ ,prussia1 express$ himself to ! effect t he c>$ m = m5 ?an = wood1 & enjo9$ 8 (ficials to colonize especially ! woods f> f wat]1 :i* entail$ ev5 m wa/e ( wood ?an :]e means ( transportation all[$ at lea/ p>tial m>ket+4 ,improvid5t cle>+s proce$$ ev5 "u 8 reign on ! ,fris*e ,nehrung betwe5 ,danzig & ,pillau1 & />t$ ! %ift+ s&s ( t p59sula4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( all k z reg>ds ! ext5t ( exi/+ supplies or ( ! increm5t1 & ) poor means ( transportation1 at lea/ local di/ress 0 imm95t4 ,to /ave (f a ?reat5+ timb] sc>city1 regulation 9 ! use ( wood 0 attempt$ by ! =e/ ord9ances1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( =bidd+ ! hang+ out ( gre5 bru% to designate a dr9k+ hall1 or ! cutt+ ( ,may trees1--simil> to our crusade 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates aga9/ ! use ( ,*ri/mas trees4 ,a diamet] limit to :i* trees might be p]mitt$ to be cut1 0 also frequ5tly urg$4 ,regulation ( =e/ use did n conf9e itself to ! pr9cely prop]ties alone1 b1 9 ! int]e/ ( ! :ole1 ! re/rictions 7 ext5d$ to all own]s4 ,^! re/rictions 7 direct$ ei!r to ! practice 9 ! exploitation ( ! =e/ or 9 ! use ( ! mat]ial4 ,9 ! latt] direction ! attempts at r$uc+ ! consumption ( build+ timb] are ( special int]e/4 ,build+ inspectors 7 to approve build+ plans & inspect build+s to see t !y 7 mo/ economically con/ruct$2 t repairs 7 made promptly1 to avoid ! necessity ( m ext5sive ones2 t new build+s replac+ old ones 7 n built high] ?an ! old ones4 ,9 ,saxony1 z e>ly z #aefj1 x 0 ord]$ t ! :ole h\se mu/ be built ( /one1 :ile else:]e1 ! build+ ( /one base walls & ! use ( brick ro(s in/ead ( %+les 0 insi/$ ^u4 ,ev5 ! numb] ( h\ses 9 any community 0 re/rict$4 ,f5ces 7 to be supplant$ by h$ges & dit*es4 ,economies 9 *>coal burn+1 9 pota% manufacture = glass works1 & 9 ! turp5t9e indu/ry 7 prescrib$1 & ab\t #afjj1 ! burn+ ( pota% = f]tiliz] 0 =bidd5 entirely2 b ^! laws prov$ unavail+4 ,ev5 9 fuel-wood a sav+ 0 to be effect$ by us+ only ! poor] woods & w9dfalls1 by in/itut+ public bake ov5s 7/ill 9 use 9 ,we/phalia71 by improv+ /oves1 re/rict+ ! numb] ( ba?+ rooms1 etc4 ,! consumption ( fuelwood seems to h be5 enorm\s1 = we f9d record ( #bjj cords us$ by "o family 9 a ye> & ( #a1bjj cords or m us$ by ! ,c\rt at ,weim> dur+ ! same "t4 ,! sub/itution ( turf & coal = firewood 0 ord]$ 9 "s sections 9 #afig & aga9 9 #aggg1 b practically n until #aghj did coal come 9 z a sub/itute4 ,tanb>k peel+ 0 also =bidd51 or only ! use ( b>k ( trees soon to be fell$ 0 all[$4 ,= coop]age only ! top-dry oak2 = c(f9s only s(t-wood1 or1 accord+ to ,joseph ,,ii ( ,au/ria1 no wood1 b black clo? 0 to be us$4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! c\ntry ! use ( oak 0 re/rict$1 ev5 z e>ly z #aefb4 ,= regulat+ practices 9 ! =e/ ! re/rictions (t5 took only ! g5]al =m ( =bidd+ deva/ation1 )\t specify+ :at t meant4 ,!n1 besides e/abli%+ a diamet] limit1 & regulat+ pa/ure 9 ord] to protect "y gr[?1 exclud+ %eep & goats entirely1 an attempt 0 made to secure at lea/ ord]ly proc$ure 9 ! fell+s4 ,=e/]s 7 to designate :at 0 to be cut ev5 = firewood4 ,m>k+ irons & hamm]s 7 employ$ = ?is purpose by ! middle ( ! #ae? c5tury 7usually two m>k+s1 by =e/] & by inspector to *eck74 ,& ?is designation by (ficials ext5d$ ev5 into ! private =e/1 :]e f9ally no fell+ 0 all[$ )\t previ\s p]mission & designation by a =e/]4 ,! use ( ! litt] by ! small f>m]s _h gr[n to a l>ge ext5t 9 ^! times & x 0 ?\ght desirable to /op x1 b ?is aid to ! poor peasant 0 s necess>y t only regulat+ ! ga!r+ ( x c\ld be insi/$ ^u4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood t all ^! v>i\s attempts at secur+ a cons]vative =e/ use 7 by no means g5]al b ref] to circumscrib$ t]ritory1 & mu* ( x 0 only pap] legislation )\t secur+ actual practice4 #d4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy4 ,) ! beg9n+ ( ! #ah? c5tury we f9d1 besides ^! prescriptions aga9/ wa/eful use1 & ord9ances regulat+ ! managem5t ( ! prop]ties ( ! pr9ces1 def9ite =e/ policies 9 "s sections1 hav+ 9 view =e/ pres]vation & improvem5t ( =e/ conditions1 & also means ( provid+ wood at mod]ate prices4 ,betwe5 ! ye>s #aeae & #aeij1 mo/ ( ! ,g]man ,/ates _h already enact$ ord9ances :i* _h ! =ce ( g5]al law ex]cis+ police functions ov] private =e/ prop]ty1 al?\gh 9 ,prussia ?is g5]al legislation did n occur until #agbj4 ,! objects 9 view ) ?is legislation 7 entirely ( a mat]ial k9d3 ! cons]vation ( res\rces4 ,besides secur+ ! rights ( ! ,l&e%]r to ! *ase1 x 0 to secure a cons]vative use ( ! pr9cely z well z private =e/s1 s9ce deva/ation ( ! latt] w\ld require ! =m] to be drawn on extravagantly2 x 0 to /ave (f a timb] fam9e1 & 9 c]ta9 localities to assure p>ticul>ly ! m9+ indu/ry ( _! wood supplies4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 concessions made to ! privileg$ & influ5tial classes ( =e/ own]s4 ,by ! end ( ! #ah? c5tury1 ?is =e/ police1 ow+ to ! uncontroll$ h>%ness & ! graft+ practices ( ! l[] (ficials _h become ! mo/ hat$ & di/a/eful "p ( ! adm9i/ration4 ,! argum5t ( ! protective influ5ce ( =e/ cov] did n ent] into ?is legislation2 ?is argum5t belongs to ! #ai? c5tury4 ,yet reboisem5t ( torr5ts _h already 9 #aghh1 be5 recogniz$ z a prop] public measure 9 ,g]man ,au/ria1 al?\gh active "w 9 t direction 0 n begun until ne>ly a c5tury lat]4 ,! rise ( prices dur+ ! #ag? & #ah? c5turies _h be5 v consid]able1 d\bl+1 trebl+ & ev5 quadrupl+ 9 ! fir/ half ( ! #ah? c5tury4 ,! m]cantili/ic doctr9es ( ! "t l$1 !re=e1 to attempts to keep prices l[ by prescrib+ rates = wood & 9 g5]al by re/rict+ & regulat+ wood comm]ce4 ,?is 0 done especially by int]dict+ sale to outsid]s1 =bidd+ export f ! small t]ritory ( ! p>ticul> pr9ce2 or1 at lea/1 giv+ pref]5ce to ! inhabitants ( ! t]ritory z pur*as]s & at *eap] rates4 ,ow+ to ! small size ( ! v _m pr9cipalities1 ! free developm5t ( trade 0 consid]ably hamp]$ by ^! regulations4 ,sometimes also wood imports 7 prohibit$1 z = in/ance1 9 ,wurttemb]g1 :51 9 #agdj1 widespread w9dfalls _h occurr$ :i* _h to be work$ up & ?reat5$ to ov]/ock ! m>ket4 ,wood depots "u gov]nm5t control 7 e/abli%$ 9 l>ge cities1 & ! am\nt ( wood to be us$ p] capita prescrib$1 z 9 ,ko5igsb]g 7#agjb74 ,9 ,b]l91 9 #agff1 a monopoly ( ! fuel wood m>ket 0 r5t$ to a corporation1 exclud+ all o!rs except by p]mission ( ! company4 ,?is 0 9 #aghe supplant$ by gov]nm5t adm9i/ration ( ! woody>ds4 ,ano!r su* monopoly 0 creat$ 9 ! 8,nutzholzh&elsgesells*aft0 7,workwood sales ag5cy7 = ! export trade ( build+ mat]ials f ,kurm>k & ,magdeburg1 :i* _h prior "r ( pur*ase to all timb] cut )9 giv5 t]ritory1 ! idea be+ to provide *eap mat]ial = ! indu/ries4 ,?is1 too1 came into ! h&s ( ! ,/ate 9 #agga4 ,9 ,prussia1 to prev5t ov]*>ges1 ! ,jews 7 exclud$ f ! wood trade 9 #agfa4 ,! ex]cise ( ! ,=/hoheit 7pr9cely sup]vision71 orig9at+ 9 ! ban =e/s1 & favor$ by ! m]cantili/ic & absoluti/ ideas ( ! #ag? & #ah? c5turies1 gradually grew until ! end ( ! #ah? c5tury to su* an ext5t t ! =e/ own]s !mselves 7 n all[$ to cut a tree )\t sanction ( "s =e/ (ficial1 & c\ld n sell any wood )\t p]mission1 ev5 d[n to hop-poles1 al?\gh ! l>ge l&$ prop]ty own]s vigor\sly resi/$ ?is assumption ( sup]visory p[]s4 ,mu* discussion & argum5t reg>d+ ! orig9 ( ?is "r to sup]vision 0 c>ri$ on by ! juri/s ^u ! basis ( ,roman law doctr9e1 & x 0 prov$ by !m to be ( anci5t date4 ,! degree1 h[ev]1 to :i* ?is sup]vision 0 develop$ v>i$ consid]ably 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! empire1 accord+ to diff]5t economic conditions4 ,! int]f]5ce1 & ! protection ( =e/s appe>$ m necess>y1 :]e advanc$ civilization & d5s] population creat$ great] ne$ = x4 ,we f9d !re=e t ! re/rictive policy 0 mu* m develop$ 9 ! ,s\!rn & ,we/]n t]ritories ?an 9 ! ,nor!rn & ,ea/]n ones1 :]e ! developm5t beg9s two c5turies lat]4 ,! olde/ attempts ( controll+ private =e/ prop]ty are f\nd 9 ,bav>ia 7#aeaf71 ,brunswick 7#aeij7 & ,wurttemb]g 7#afad74 ,"h1 =e/ prop]ties 7 plac$ ei!r entirely "u ! sup]vision ( ! pr9cely =e/ adm9i/ration1 or1 at lea/1 p]mission = int5d$ fell+s _h to be secur$4 ,lat]1 ^! re/rictions 7 consid]ably r$uc$ 9 rigor 7,bav>ia1 #aghi74 ,9 ,prussia1 private =e/ prop]ty rema9$ free f gov]nm5t int]f]5ce well into ! #ah? c5tury4 ,an edict by ! ,great ,elector1 9 #afgj1 m]ely inveighs aga9/ ! deva/ation ( =e/s by _! own]s1 b refra9s f any int]f]5ce2 & ! ,=/ordnung ( #agbj also conta9s only ! g5]al injunction to ! own]s n to treat _! =e/s uneconomically4 ,b1 9 #agff1 ,fr$]ick ! ,great in/itut$ a rigid sup]vision provid+ puni%m5t = fell+s beyond a special budget det]m9$ by exp]ts4 ,soon aft] ! ,fr5* revolution1 h[ev]1 unre/rict$ private own]%ip 0 re-e/abli%$4 ,*ur* & cloi/] prop]ty _h always be5 sev]ely sup]vis$1 simil> to ! ,m>k & o!r communal =e/ prop]ty1 "u ! direction ei!r ( specially appo9t$ (ficials or ! (ficials ( ! pr9ces4 ,f9ally1 9 "s sections 7,hesse-,kassel1 #agaa2 ,bad51 #aghg71 ! managem5t ( ^! communal =e/s 0 entirely und]tak5 by ! gov]nm5t4 ,9 ,prussia1 by ! ,ord] ( #aged1 ! =e/]s ( ! ,/ate 7 *>g$ ) ! sup]vision ( ! communal =e/s1 9 :i* !y 7 to designate ! trees to be fell$ & ! cultures to be execut$2 b z !re 0 no pay connect$ ) ?is additional duty & ! di/ricts 7 too l>ge1 ! execution ( ?is sup]vision 0 b indiff]5tly p]=m$4 ,9 #agdi1 a special city =e/ ord] plac$ ! city =e/s 9 ,prussia "u ! prov9cial gov]nm5ts1 requir+ = _! managem5t ! employm5t ( a =e/] & ! inspection ( 8 "w by ! prov9cial =e/ma/]4 #e4 ,p]sonnel4 ,al?\gh all ?is sup]vision 0 probably m or less lax1 ! possibility ( m g5]al & incisive influ5ce 0 increas+ because ! p]sonnel to :om su* sup]vision c\ld be intru/$ 0 at la/ com+ into exi/5ce4 ,! m5 9 ^: h&s at ! beg9n+ ( ! #ah? c5tury lay ! task ( develop+ & execut+ =e/ policies & ( develop+ =e/ry practice came f two v diff]5t classes4 ,! "w 9 ! woods fell naturally to ! %>e ( ! huntsm5 & =e/ gu>ds1 :o by _! practical life 9 ! woods _h secur$ "s wood lore & develop$ "s te*nical detail ^u empiric basis4 ,^! s-call$ holzg]e*te ,jaeg] 7woodcrafty hunt]s7 prep>$ = _! duties by plac+ !mselves "u ! direction ( an e/abli%$ huntsman1 :o taught !m :at he knew ab\t ! rules ( ! *ase1 :ile by que/ion+ wood*opp]s1 colli]s1 etc41 & by _! own obs]vation ! k ( woodcraft 0 acquir$4 ,at ! head ( affairs /ood ! s-call$ cam]ali/s or *amb] (ficials1 m5 :o _h prep>$ !mselves by ! /udy ( philosophy1 law1 diplomacy & political economy = ! positions ( directors ( f9ance & ,/ate adm9i/ration4 ,r ignorant ( natural sci5ce1 & )\t practical =e/ry k1 _! ef=ts 7 n always well direct$4 ,!y des]ve cr$it1 h[ev]1 = hav+ collect$ into encyclopdic volumes ! empiric k ( ! practition]s or ,holzg]e*t51 & = hav+ elaborat$ x m or less successfully4 ,9 ?is "w !y 7 jo9$ by "s ( ! pr(essors ( cam]alia & law at ! univ]sities4 ,by ! middle ( ! #ah? c5tury ! hunt]s _h s f> gr[n 9 k & education z to be able to produce _! k 9 books ( _! own4 ,q a lit]ature develop$ full ( acrimoni\s w>f>e ( op9ions1 z is ! rule :]e empiricism rules supreme4 ,notable progress1 h[ev]1 came only :5 hunt+ 0 plac$ 9 ! backgr\nd & m or less divorc$ f =e/ "w4 #f4 ,developm5t ( ,silviculture4 ,9 addition to ! re/rictive measures & attempts at m]e cons]vative lumb]+ )\t mu* ?\ght ( reproduction1 !re 7 z e>ly z ! #af? c5tury silvicultural me?ods appli$ to secure or fo/] reproduction4 ,ow+ to diff]5ces 9 local conditions & diff]5ce 9 necessities1 ?is developm5t v>i$ greatly 9 v>i\s sections z to ! "t x took place4 ,! ,we/]n & ,middle c\ntry practic$ z e>ly z ! #af? c5tury :at 9 ! ,ea/]n c\ntry did n appe> until ! #ah? c5tury4 ,! =e/ ord9ances1 f :i* we d]ive our k or inf]5ces ( ^! conditions1 prescrib$1 to be sure1 _m ?+s t probably 7 n really put into practice4 99 99 99 99 99 a4 ,natural reg5]ation 0 at fir/ m]ely favor$1 )\t ! adoption ( any v positive measures to secure x1 namely1 by remov+ ! cut wood )9 ! ye>1 s z to give "y gr[? a *ance ( e/abli%+ itself1 by remov+ ! bru% s z n to smo!r ! "y gr[?1 by keep+ out cattle f ! "y gr[? 7,s*onung74 ,if ! selection me?od ( lumb]+1 mo/ g5]ally practic$ )\t mu* plan1 did n produce any desirable result 9 reproduction1 ! cle> cutt+ :i* 0 practic$ )\t sy/em :]e *>coal manufactur+ or riv] driv+ invit$ to x1 did ev5 less s4 ,9 ei!r case1 besides ! defective & damag$ old /ubs :i* 7 left 9 ! logg+1 a poor aft]gr[? ( undesirable "* rema9$1 z is ! case 9 ! ,am]ican woods on s _m areas4 ,z e>ly z #aebd & #aebi1 we h record ( a consci\s attempt to secure a reproduction by leav+ t5 to ?irty se$ trees p] acre2 b ! result 0 disappo9t+1 = ?is practice1 be+ appli$ to ! %all[-root$ spruce1 produc$ ! inevitable result1 namely1 ! se$ trees 7 ?r[n by ! w9ds4 ,?is exp]i5ce l$ to ! prescription 79 #aefe7 9 ! ,palat9ate to leave1 besides se$ trees1 p>ts ( ! o!r /& = protection aga9/ w9d damage2 lat]1 w9d protection 0 s\ght by leav+ p>cels /&+ on all f\r sides1 giv+ rise to a *eck]bo>d progress ( fell+s or a gr\p sy/em ( reproduction1 :i* by ! middle ( ! #ah? c5tury _h develop$ into ! regul> /rip sy/em1 appli$ 9 ,au/ria 7#agff7 to fir & spruce1 & 9 ,prussia 7#agfd7 to p9e4 ,& ?is m>g9al se$+ me?od rema9$ = a long "t ! favorite me?od = ! conif]s4 ,to avoid long /rips & di/ribute ! fell+s m conv5i5tly1 v4 ,b]leps* 79 ,kassel7 recomm5d$ 79 #agfj7 ! cutt+ 9 e*elons 7curta9 me?od1 ,kuliss5hieb71 :i* insur$ bett] se$+1 b also increas$ dang] f w9dfalls1 & 0 nev] mu* practic$1 ! disadvantages ( ! me?od be+ %[n up especially 9 ! ,prussian ,=e/ ,ord] ( #aghh4 ,9 ! fir/ half ( ! #ah? c5tury x 0 recogniz$ t ! w9d dang] w\ld be consid]ably r$uc$ by mak+ ! fell+s progress f ,ea/ or ,nor!a/ to ,we/4 ,! conception ( a regul>1 prop]ly locat$ fell+ s]ies 0 fir/ elaborat$ 9 ! ,h>z m\nta9s 9 #agde by von ,lang51 :o also acc5tuat$ ! necessity ( pres]v+ a w9d mantle on expos$ situations4 ,bo? ( ^! propositions reappe> 9 ! ,prussian ,ord] ( #aghj1 accord+ to :i* fell+s are to proce$ 9 a bread? ( tw5ty to ?irty-five rods f ,ea/ to ,we/4 ,! application ( a nursetree me?od = conif]s 0 propos$ 9 #aghg by v4 ,burgsdorf 7,prussia71 a d>k position 7,dunkels*lag7 & a reg5]ation p]iod ( sev5 ye>s be+ advocat$4 ,9 broadleav$ =e/1 besides ! selection =e/1 ! natural result ( ! spr\t+ capacity ( ! h>dwood _h l$ to a coppice me?od :i* 0 ext5sively reli$ ^u = fuel production4 ,?is 0 r>ely1 h[ev]1 a simple coppice1 =1 int5tionally or un9t5tionally1 "s se$l+s or spr\ts w\ld be all[$ to gr[ on1 lead+ to a composite =e/ & f9ally to a regul> coppice ) /&>ds 7#aefi1 etc471 ) an int5tional hold+ ov] ( ! valuable oak & a% = /&>ds4 ,probably1 h[ev]1 l>ge areas ( unconsci\sly produc$ composite =e/ exhibit$ sad pictures ( bran*y ov]wood ) suppress$ und]wood ( poor spr\ts1 injur$ by game & cattle--a scrubby gr[?1 into :i* crept s(twoods ( bir* & asp54 ,attempts at prun+ su* scrub gr[?s into %ape on q an ext5sive scale are on record4 ,! recognition t m wood p] acre c\ld be secur$ by l5g!n+ ! rotation ( ! coppice1 :i* seems to h be5 mo/ly twelve ye>s or less1 l$ to tw5ty & ?irty ye> turns & f9ally to fifty1 sixty & ev5 eighty ye> rotations or s-call$ polewood managem5t 7,brunswick1 #agde71 also call$ ,ho*wald 7high =e/74 ,a full description & work+ plan = su* a =e/ to be manag$ 9 eighty ye> rotation1 ! city =e/ ( ,ma9z 9 ! ,od5wald & ,spess>t m\nta9s1 dates f #aggc1 & ?is polewood =e/ managem5t became q g5]al aft] ! middle ( ! #ah? c5tury1 b 9 ! la/ half ( ! #ai? c5tury x 0 g5]ally replac$ by ! true high =e/ managem5t "u nursetrees1 ! exp]i5ces ) ! natural reproduction ( conif] =e/ hav+ prov$ ! advantages ( ?is me?od4 ,! primitive beg9n+s ( ?is s-call$ ,femels*lag me?od 7,comp>tm5t selection or %elt]wood me?od7 are f\nd1 9 #agbj1 9 ,hesse ,d>m/adt1 :]e ,ob]=/mei/] von ,m9nig]ode prescrib$ regul> fell+s progress+ f nor? to s\?1 9 :i* all mat]ial d[n to polewood size 79 selection or virg9 =e/7 0 to be remov$1 except+ only a numb] ( clean boles1 "o e t5 to twelve paces be+ left = se$ & nursetrees4 ,! good results 9 reproduction /imulat$ own]s ( adjo9+ e/ates to imitate ! me?od 7#agcg74 ,! obs]vation t 9 bee* =e/ ! "y crop ne$$ protection & succe$$ bett] :5 gradually fre$ f ! %ade ( ! se$ trees1 especially on s\? & we/ aspects :]e dr\ght1 fro/ & we$s are apt to injure x on sudd5 exposure1 l$ to ! elaboration ( ! pr9ciple ( successive fell+s4 ,9 ! ord9ance ( ,hanau1 z e>ly z #agcf1 ?ree grades ( fell+s 7 develop$1 ! cutt+ = se$1 ! cutt+ = light1 :i* 0 to beg9 :5 ! "y crop 0 knee-high1 & ! removal cutt+ :5 ! crop 0 high4 ,?is me?od spread rapidly & 0 fur!r develop$ by ! addition 79 #agfg7 ( a prep>atory cutt+1 to secure a desirable se$b$1 & by l5g!n+ ! p]iod ( reg5]ation & elaborat+ o!r detail1 s t1 by #agij1 ! pr9ciples ( natural reg5]ation "u nursetrees = bee* =e/ 7 fully develop$ 9 ,we/]n ,g]many4 ,9 o!r p>ts1 h>dwood =e/ managem5t 0 b little develop$4 ,! ,prussian ,=e/ ,ord9ance ( #aghf cont5t$ itself ) =bidd+ ! selection me?od1 by decl>+ natural reg5]ation1 z practic$ 9 ! p9]ies1 n applicable2 :ile ! ,au/rian ,ord9ance ( #aghf recognizes only cle>+ foll[$ by plant+ z ! g5]al rule4 99 99 99 99 99 b4 ,artificial ,re=e/ation4 ,al?\gh sporadic attempts at s[+ & plant+ are on record z e>ly z ! beg9n+ ( ! #ad? c5tury1 ext5sive artificial re=e/ation did n beg9 until ! middle ( ! #ah? c5tury1 by :i* "t plant+ me?ods 7 q fully develop$4 ,among ! h>dwoods1 ! oak 0 ! fir/ to receive special att5tion4 ,by ! middle ( ! #af? c5tury ! =e/ ord9ances gave q explicit in/ructions = plant+ oak 9 ! s-call$ ,hutewald1 a comb9ation ( pa/ure & tree gr[? su* z is f\nd to-day 9 ! bluegrass region ( ,k5tucky2 ! remnants ( ^! poor pa/ure woods ) _! gn>ly oaks h la/$ into mod]n times4 ,9 ! =e/ ord9ance ( ,brunswick 7#aeih7 ord]s are giv5 to plant on fell+ areas3 8e full f>m] %all e ye> at ! prop] "t set out t5 "y oaks1 e half f>m] five1 e f>m labor] ?ree1 well tak5 up ) roots 7wildl+s71 & plant !m 9 ! commons or op5+s at ,m>t9i 7,novemb]7 or ,mitfa/5 7,ea/]7 & cov] !m ) ?orn bru%0 7to protect !m aga9/ cattle74 ,ab\t t "t x 01 inde$1 incumb5t on e m>k] to s[ annually five oaks1 or plant sev]al "y se$l+s = e tree cut & to t5d !m a few ye>s2 & ! cu/om exi/$ 9 ! l[ c\ntry1--aft]w>ds 7#agjj7 introduc$ by law 9 ,saxony--to plant 9 celebration ( c]ta9 occurr5ces--a k9d ( arborday--especially to celebrate ! m>riage day2 9 ord] to be m>ri$ ! bridegroom _h to prove t he _h plant$ a c]ta9 numb] ( oaks1 :i* 9 ,prussia 7#agai7 _h to be six1 besides six fruit trees4 ,! exi/5ce ( ?is cu/om1 n[ long =gott51 has giv5 rise 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates to ! /ory t ?is is ! me?od by :i* ! ,g]man =e/ is ma9ta9$4 ,! me?od ( collect+ & keep+ acorns ov] w9t] 0 well kn[n 9 #aegi1 z is evid5c$ by ! ,hoh5lohe ,=e/ ,ord9ance1 :i* advis$ fall s[+1 b1 if t did n prove successful1 to prep>e ! gr\nd 9 summ]1 leave x ?r\gh ! w9t] & s[ 9 ! spr+4 ,:ile1 9 e>li] times1 s[+ seems to h _h ! pref]5ce1 at a lat] p]iod plant+ 0 practic$1 at fir/ ) wildl+s1 b z e>ly z #afjc we f9d m5tion ( oak nurs]ies4 ,! ,prussian ,ord] ( #agbj ord]$ ! =e/]s to plant oaks 9 ! op5+s be=e ,*ri/mas1 = :i* !y 7 to be paid1 if ! trees 7 f\nd alive aft] ?ree ye>s4 ,! gr[+ & culture ( oak also int]e/$ ,fr$]ick ! ,great1 :o ord]$ its ext5sion ev]y:]e4 ,v explicit & correct rules = gr[+ & transplant+ !m1 & "s to :i* we w\ld n subscribe1 7 giv5 9 ! books ( ! #ah? c5tury4 ,among ! plant+ me?ods we f9d1 9 #agai & aga9 9 #aggf1 "o simil> to ! ,manteuffel me?od ( plant+ 9 m\nds4 ,:ile oak culture 0 especially fo/]$ 9 ,nor?we/]n ,g]many1 ! cultivation ( conif]s fir/ receiv$ att5tion 9 ! s\?we/1 & 9 ! same mann] :i* 0 inaugurat$ by ! ,nuremb]g se$ deal] 9 #acfh4 ,a new idea1 introduc$ 9 ! ,palat9e ,=e/ ,ord9ance 7#aefe7 & 9 ! ,bav>ian ,=e/ ,ord9ance 7#aefh71 0 ! prescription1 to soak ! se$ be=e use & s[ mix$ ) sawdu/ or s&1 br++ ! se$ "u ) bru% or iron rakes4 ,c>l[itz 7#agac7 taught well ! me?ods ( collect+1 extract+ & keep+ ! se$1 & ev5 propos$ se$ te/s4 ,! se$b$s 7 to be made z = c>rots1 d5se s[+s to be ?9n$1 & ! ?9n+s transplant$ into nurs]y r[s1 ! se$b$s to be cov]$ ) moss & litt] to protect !m aga9/ heav+2 he also discusses ! "q ( co/4 ,! adaptation ( plant mat]ial to diff]5t sites--conif]s :]e oaks are n suitable--0 also und]/ood 7,bav>ian ,=e/ ,ord9ance1 #afhc74 ,z long z ! old me?od ( extract+ ! se$ 9 hot /oves or ov5s prevail$1 conif] s[+s gave b indiff]5t results4 ,9 ! p9e =e/s ( ,prussia1 dur+ ! second half ( ! #ah? c5tury1 ! me?od ( s[+ ! cones on l>ge wa/e & s& b>r5s1 :]e ! sun w\ld make !m release ! se$1 0 practis$1 & be=e ,brmonti] _h writt5 8 celebrat$ mmoire sur les dunes1 s&dunes _h be5 recov]$ ) p9e plantations 9 ,g]many 9 ! mann] :i* is /ill 9 vogue4 ,! plant+ ( conif]s came into practice mu* lat]1 & !n x 0 mo/ly done ) wildl+s4 ,op9ions diff]+ z to ! value ( s[+ or plant+1 x 0 errone\sly held until ! #ai? c5tury t plant+ 0 less successful & too co/ly 9 comp>ison ) ! small h>ve/ yield1 :i* necessitat$ *eapness ( op]ations4 ,x 0 only t[>ds ! end ( ! #ah? c5tury t plant+ ( p9e 0 resort$ to1 b m]ely = repair+ fail places 9 s[+s & natural reg5]ation1 & !n ) a ball ( e>? 7#aggi71 us+ a holl[ spade1--a co/ly me?od4 ,! co/ ( a c]ta9 plantation made 9 #agea is1 h[ev]1 report$ z less ?an #c4jj p] ,m41 9 #aggj z l[ z #gj c5ts p] ,m4 ,to *eap5 ! op]ations ! labor 0 ex*ang$ = wood1 pa/ure or o!r mat]ials or advantages4 ,9 ,prussia1 9 #aggc1 all recipi5ts ( free wood _h to d s]vice 9 ! cultures2 9 #aghe1 e f>m] _h to furni% a c]ta9 am\nt ( cones or acorns4 ,! me?od1 lately adopt$ 9 ,russia1 came into vogue 9 ,prussia 9 #agai1 namely1 ( *>g+1 besides ! value ( ! wood1 a toll to be paid into ! plant+ fund 7ab\t #g ( ! value74 ,?is me?od 0 also imitat$ else:]e4 ,! use ( ! ,waldfeldbau 7comb9$ f>m & =e/ culture7 0 also inaugurat$ = ! purpose ( *eap5+ ! co/ ( plantations 7by v4 ,lang5 9 #agdd7 :5 ! great movem5t = re=e/+ wa/es & op5+s began1 ! tree se$ be+ s[n ) ! gra9 ei!r at once or aft] f>m use = "s ye>s4 ,regul> annual plant+ budgets 7( #ej--ajj--bjj7 7 inaugurat$ 9 ,brunswick by v4 ,lang5 9 #agde2 & 9 #agha1 ! ,prussian =e/ adm9i/ration _h atta9$ to entirely mod]n plant+ plans & annual plant+ budgets4 ,x 0 no wond] t ! fe> ( a timb] fam9e & ! app>5t hopelessness ( br++ improvem5t into ! exi/+ =e/ conditions creat$ anxiety & a desire to plant rapid gr[]s1 su* z bir*1 will[1 asp51 ald]2 ! plant+ ( ! ,:ite ,bir* became s g5]al 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! #ah? c5tury t a regul> betulomania is record$ correspond+ to ! incipi5t catalpomania 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,at t "t1 to be sure1 firewood 0 /ill ! ma9 conc]n1 & ! use ( ^! rapid gr[+ species _h "s ju/ification4 ,b :]e bir* 0 mix$ 9 spruce plantations its baneful effects consi/+ 9 :ipp+ (f ! spruce tips & injur+ its neighbors 7 soon recogniz$1 & mu* tr\ble 0 exp]i5c$ 9 gett+ rid ( ! unwelcome addition4 ,! ,rob9ia1 :i* _h be5 br\ght f ,am]ica 9 #afch1 0 also "o ( ! trees recomm5d$ 9 ! middle ( ! #ah? c5tury & 0 mu* plant$ until ,h>tig po9t$ out t ! expectations f x 7 entirely misplac$4 ,( c\rse no build+ mat]ial c\ld be expect$ f ^! species1 h5ce ! l>*1 also a rapid gr[]1 0 transplant$ f ! ,alps 7#agcj 9 ,h>z m\nta9s71 & its use 0 ext5d$1 z ) u1 to conditions = :i* x 0 n adapt$4 ,x 0 pr9cipally a desire = novelty & p]haps = bett]1 especially =eign ?+s1 t l$ to ! plant+ ( ,nor? ,am]ican species 9 p>ks dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! #ah? c5tury4 ,b1 al?\gh ,f4 ,a4 ,j4 von ,wang5heim's v compet5t writ+s on ! ,am]ican =e/-flora & on ! laws ( naturalization 7#aghg7 /imulat$ int]e/ 9 t direction1 ! use ( ,am]ican species = =e/ plant+ 0 n inaugurat$ till ne>ly #ajj ye>s lat]1 ) ! s+le exception ( ! ,:ite ,p9e 7,p4 /robus71 ( :i* l>ge numb]s 7 plant$4 #g4 ,improvem5t ( ! ,crop4 ,?9n+ ( /&s _h be5 practic$ e>ly 9 ! #af? c5tury1 n = improvem5t ( ! rema9+ /& s mu* z to secure f5ce mat]ial1 al?\gh 9 #aeca ! obs]vation 0 already record$ t ?9n+ improv$ & /imulat$ ! rema9+ gr[?4 ,9 ! #ag? c5tury1 opposite views1 or1 at lea/ d\bts z to its usefulness 7 express$ 9 ! =e/ ord]s1 & sometimes ?9n+ 0 ev5 =bidd54 ,ev5 9 ! #ah? c5tury "s ( ! prom95t =e/]s1 ,doebel & ,beckman1 7 oppos$ to x1 & al?\gh o!rs favor$ ! op]ation1 ! practice ( x rema9$ limit$4 ,9 #agfa1 we f9d ! fir/ good /atem5t ( ! !ory ( ?9n+s by ,b]leps*1 :o advis$ tak+ out ! suppress$ trees :5 ! s\nd poles 7 cle> ( l[] & middle bran*es2 he also acc5tuat$ ! f9ancial argum5t ( e>li] returns & increas$ value ( ! rema9d]4 ,ab\t ! same "t1 ,zan?i] recomm5d$ two ?9n+s1 namely1 = conif]s fir/ 9 ! ?irtie? to =tie? ye> & aga9 9 ! fiftie? ye>1 = broadleaf =e/ fir/ 9 ! =ty-fif? & aga9 9 ! eightie? to n9etie? ye>4 ,9 #agfe1 ! f9ancial ga9 f ?9n+s is figur$ by ,oettelt1 & ! possible r$uction ( ! rotation due to ?9n+s is recogniz$ by ,leub]t 9 #aggd4 ,j z ! ?9n+ 9 polewoods arose f ! ne$ ( e>li] utilization1 s ! we$+ ( "y gr[?s 0 done = ! purpose ( gett+ mat]ial = )es to b9d ! gra91 etc4 ,! removal ( coppice %oots 9 oak plant+s 0 practic$ 9 ,prussia 9 #agai1 & ! ?9n+ ( too d5se s[+s 0 advis$ by ,c>l[itz 9 #agac4 ,yet mu* lat]1 ev5 su* an intellig5t man z ,oettelt inveigh$ aga9/ ! we$+ out ( ! bir* 9 spruce s[+s because 8nature pref]s v>iety1 ) :i* pref]5ce x is n good to int]f]e40 ,?is 0 9 opposition to v4 ,lang5 7#agde71 :o prescrib$ = ! fir/ "t regul> clean+ or we$+1 especially ! removal ( ! s(twoods1 asp5 & bir*1 & ( coppice %oots f se$l+ =e/4 ,x 0 also kn[n t ?is we$+ is be/ done 89 ! full sap10 9 ord] to kill ! /ocks4 #h4 ,me?ods ( ,regulat+ ,=e/ ,managem5t4 ,organiz$ =e/ managem5t 0 sl[] to develop ?an silvicultural me?ods4 ,! fir/ attempts to br+ ord] into ! progress ( fell+s took ! =m ( divid+ ! :ole area into a c]ta9 numb] ( fell+ areas 7#ab1 #af1 #bj1 #cj1 etc471 sev]al ord9ances dat+ f ! middle ( ! #ae? & #ag? c5turies conta9+ prescriptions to t effect4 ,x is d\btful :e!r ! numb]s ( ^! areas indicate ye>s ( rotation1 9 :i* case !y c\ld only h appli$ to coppice1 or :e!r !y indicate p]iods ( return 9 selection =e/1 al?\gh ! hi/orians seem to jump to ! =m] conclusion4 ,! area division practic$ by v4 ,lang5 9 ! ,h>z m\nta9s 7#agde71 :o prescrib$ ! division ( l>g] di/ricts into fifty to sixty1 ( small] di/ricts into tw5ty to ?irty fell+ areas1 also leaves x d\btful1 :e!r ! areas correspond$ to an assum$ rotation or to a p]iod ( return4 ,at fir/1 ! division 0 n into equal areas1 = no survey exi/$1 & its object 0 simply to localize ! cutt+ & provide ord]ly progress4 ,! subdivision 0 made 9 ! m\nta9 c\ntry by foll[+ ! topography1 valleys & ridges1 :ile 9 ! pla9 ! l9es op5$ up = purposes ( ! *ase 7to set up nets71 call$ ,s*neis5 or ,ge/elle 7rides71 b\nd+ squ>e areas call$ ,jag51 ,quadrat1 ,/allung1 7 us$ = ! limitation ( ! fell+ areas4 ,mo/ commonly1 h[ev]1 l>gely due to abs5ce ( surveys1 ! ord]$ division did n mat]ialize1 b exi/$ only on pap]4 ,) m exact measur+ ( areas1 & ) ! conception ( a rotation or long] p]iods ( return1 x 0 recogniz$ t ! inequality ( ! sites or soil qualities1 especially 9 m\nta9 di/ricts1 produc$ v unequal fell+ budgets4 ,to ov]come ?is inequality1 ,jacobi1 9 ,goett+5 7#agda7 introduc$ proportional fell+ areas1 mak+ ! fell+ areas on poor sites p]man5tly l>g]4 ,simil>ly1 v4 ,lang5 & ,zan?i] attempt to secure equal annual returns )\t slavi%ly hold+ to ! geometric division1 m]ely mak+ sure t ! total area be cut ov] 9 ! pr$et]m9$ rotation4 ,! fir/ attempts to introduce a regulat$ managem5t by mak+ a volume division ! basis is record$ f ! ,h>z m\nta9s 9 #aedg4 ,?is me?od1 bas$ on v crude e/imates al?\gh ^u v fair =e/ description1 0 cont9u$ into ! #ah? c5tury4 ,9 ! la/ half ( ! #ah? c5tury all ^! crude me?ods 7 improv$1 & appli$ on ext5sive areas4 ,9 #aghe1 ,zan?i] comb9$ area & volume division1 det]m9+ ! fell+ budget on ea* fell+ area by c\nt+ & e/imat+ ! trees & calculat+ h[ _m trees c\ld be us$ annually "u a su/a9$ yield managem5t2 ! area division be+ us$ only z a *eck or means ( control4 ,a v consid]able advance 0 made by ,oettelt1 7:o survey$ & regulat$ ! ,weim> =e/s 9 #agfj7 9 ! elaboration ( details & e/abli%m5t ( prop] pr9ciples = regulat+ ! fell+ budget4 ,9 8 =e/ description he introduces = ! fir/ "t p]iodic age classes1 usually six1 b ( unev5 l5g?3 ,"y gr[?1 bel[ twelve ye>s2 ?icket1 twelve to tw5ty-f\r ye>s2 polewood1 tw5ty-f\r to =ty ye>s2 cle> timb]1 =ty to fifty2 m$ium timb]1 fifty to sev5ty-five2 mature timb]1 sev5ty-five ye>s & ov]4 ,he divides ! =e/ into proportional areas 7:i* 7 m>k$ by /ones 9 ! woods71 equaliz+ !m accord+ to age1 quality1 increm5t1 soil1 exposure1 s z to secure equal annual budgets2 ! /&s 7 rang$ into sev5 or eight unequal age classes & ea* into z _m annual fell+ areas z !re are ye>s 9 ! age class2 if "s ( ! age classes 7 abs5t1 he ext5d$ ! "t = cutt+ 9 ! old] class until ! y\ng] _h gr[n to ! prop] age & by v>y+ ! cut f good to poor sites = /&s he tri$ to ev5 out ! budgets4 ,! volume budget he det]m9$ by av]age increm5t measurem5ts4 ,?is me?od 01 h[ev]1 mu* too f> advanc$ & requir$ too mu* ma!matics to f9d imitators at t "t4 ,ano!r me?od :i* prov$ also too complex = ! =e/]s ( ! "t 0 t ( v4 ,w$ell2 nev]!less1 by #agij1 he _h by x put into work+ ord] #hjj1jjj acres 9 ,silesia4 ,he divid$ ?is area into di/ricts1 ! di/ricts into blocks or managem5t classes1 & us$ an elaborat$ proportional area division = det]m9+ ! fell+ budget4 ,he di/+ui%$ quality ( /& & quality ( site1 & made f\r site classes4 ,! volume ( /ock1 he f\nd by means ( sample areas1 to :i* he add$ ! increm5t 9 ord] to f9d ! total volume = h>ve/1 :5 x c\ld be det]m9$ h[ long ) a giv5 budget ! /&s w\ld la/1 or :at av]age annual fell+ budget c\ld be tak5 be=e ! next age-class w\ld be mature4 ,9 ! ,nor? ,g]man pla91 ) v uni=m conditions ( soil & timb]1 ! me?od ( equal fell+ areas 0 ! mo/ natural & mo/ easily appli$4 ,fr$]ick ! ,great1 :o took a consid]able int]e/ 9 =e/ry matt]s1 ord]$ su* an area division = ! ,/ate p9]ies 9 #agdj1 fix+ ^u diff]5t numb]s ( fell+ areas1 b f9ally1 9 #aggj1 decid+ on a rotation ( sev5ty ye>s4 ,lack ( p]sonnel ret>d$ progress 9 ?is =e/ survey & regulation until 9 #aggh v4 ,kropff und]took ! direction4 ,n agree+ ) 8 ma/] reg>d+ ! %ort rotation ( sev5ty ye>s1 he arrang$ to h ea* di/rict divid$ into two work+ blocks1 & by cutt+ alt]nately 9 ^!1 manag$ to d\ble t rotation4 ,8 successor1 ,h5n]t1 9 #aghh1 devis$ a new me?od by introduc+ allotm5t ( a numb] ( annual fell+ areas to a p]iod ( ! rotation :5 at lea/ ! p]iodic budget c\ld be equaliz$4 ,a value or money yield equalization ( ! fell+ budgets 0 also attempt$4 ,= easi] h&l+1 ! =e/ 0 divid$ into small comp>tm5ts or ,jag5 & a classification ( f\r1 /ill unev51 p]iodic age classes 7( diff]5t l5g? = conif]s & broadleav$ =e/71 & ?ree site qualities 7 employ$4 ,! m]*antable /ock 0 asc]ta9$ by a sample area me?od & ! fell+ budget by divid+ ! olde/ age class by ! numb] ( ye>s x mu/ la/ until ! next 0 ready4 ,s9ce no attempt 0 made to secure a prop] age class gradation1 ! me?od fail$ to improve conditions = ! next rotation4 ,"s #ejj1jjj acres 7 regulat$ accord+ to ?is plan 9 ,prussia1 probably v sup]ficially4 ,9 #aghi1 ,bav>ia also ord]$ a division into annual fell+ areas4 ,9 all ^! me?ods ( regulat+ ! yield or budget1 ! area play$ ! ma9 role1 ! volume be+ only a second>y consid]ation4 ,! fir/ elaboration ( a pure volume division 0 made by ,beckman 9 #agei4 ,he e/imat$ /ock on h& by trees & guess$ m or less at ! increm5t1 all[+ #b4e1 #b1 & #a = ! diff]5t sites1 & !n made a ye> to ye> calculation ( /ock = #abe ye>s4 ,h[ ! fell+ budget 0 f9ally det]m9$ is n kn[n4 ,two me?ods 7 simultane\sly devis$ 9 ,wrttemb]g 9 #aghc1 :i* =m ! transition to ! s-call$ allotm5t me?ods1 mak+ p]iodic age classes ( an equal numb] ( ye>s & allott+ ei!r fell+ areas or volumes to ea* p]iod ( ! rotation4 ,incapacity ( ! (ficials prev5t$ ! application ( ! "o me?od1 :ile ! o!r1 devis$ by ,maur]1 rema9$ also only a proposition4 ,b1 9 #aghh1 ,kregt+ 9 8 ,ma!matical ,contributions to ,=e/ry ,sci5ce tea*es a pure volume allotm5t me?od ) t5 ye> age classes & ne>ly all ! app>atus :i* 0 aft]w>d develop$ by ,h>tig1 :o 9 ! next p]iod dom9at$ to su* a l>ge ext5t ! developm5t ( =e/ry 9 all its bran*es4 #i4 ,improvem5ts 9 ,me?ods ( ,m5suration4 ,9 sci5tific direction1 ! ma!matical discipl9es 7 ! fir/ to be develop$2 ! natural sci5ces receiv$ att5tion mu* lat]4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( ma!matical k 0 requir$ = ?is "w ( =e/ organization4 ,! ma!matical app>atus ( ! =e/]s ev5 at ! end ( ?is p]iod 0 r sl5d]1 b its developm5t w5t h& 9 h& ) ! developm5t ( ^! me?ods ( regulation2 & ev5 elaborate ma!matical =mul = det]m9+ fell+ budgets 7 n abs5t4 ,until ne>ly ! middle ( ! #ah? c5tury1 surveys ( exact nature 7 almo/ unkn[n2 only :5 ! division into equal or proportionate fell+ areas became ! basis = det]m9+ ! fell+ budgets1 did ! necessity = su* surveys pres5t itself4 ,plane table & compass 7 ! in/rum5ts :i* came into use 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! #ah? c5tury4 ,b n until ! latt] half ( t c5tury 7 ext5sive =e/ surveys & maps ( v>i\s "* made1 especially 9 ,prussia "u ,w$ell1 ,kropff & ,h5n]t4 ,! me?ods ( measurem5t ( wood develop$ /ill lat]4 ,until ,oettelt's "t no me?od ( precise det]m9ation ( volumes 0 kn[n1 ev]y?+ be+ e/imat$ by cords or by diamet] brea/-high & height1 or by ! numb] ( bo>ds :i* a tree w\ld make 7bo>d feet874 ,! diamet] 0 sometimes us$ z a price mak]1 ! price increas+ 9 direct proportion to ! diamet] increase4 ,oettelt calculat$ ! volume ( conif]\s trees z cones1 & ,vi]5klee1 :o wrote a book on ma!matics = ! use ( =e/]s1 calculat$ timb]s ) ! top remov$ by us+ ! av]age diamet]1 to :i* ,h5n]t add$ ! volume ( a cone ) ! diff]5ce ( ! two diamet]s z a base1 to make ! total tree volume4 ,mo/ measurem5ts ( /&+ trees 71 ( c\rse1 made on ! circumf]5ce1 =1 9 ! abs5ce ( calip]s1 ! diamet] c\ld be directly measur$ only on ! fell$ tree4 ,doebel _h already measur$ ! height by means ( a rectangul> triangle1 & ! fir/ real hypsomet] ) movable sights 0 describ$ by ,jung 9 #agha2 & a complete in/rum5t1 :i* c\ld be us$ = measur+ bo? height & diamet] at any height1 simil> to "s m mod]n ones1 0 con/ruct$ by ,re9hold4 ,det]m9ation ( ! real wood cont5ts 9 a cord ( wood & ( ! volume ( b>k by measurem5t 0 taught by ,oettelt1 & ! me?od ( imm]sion 9 wat] & measur+ ! displac$ volume1 by ,h5n]t 7#aghb74 ,9 #aghe1 ,krohne fir/ call$ att5tion to ! v>iation ( ! increm5t 9 diff]5t age classes & ! ne$ ( det]m9+ ! accretion = ea* sep>ately4 ,9 #aghi1 ,trunk taught h[ to det]m9e av]age fell+ age increm5t1 & also ! me?od ( det]m9+ ! *ange ( diamet] classes1 :i* is n[ us$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,=e/ ,s]vice3 8,on good soil a tree gr[s "o in* 9 ?ree ye>s1 on m$ium soil 9 f\r ye>s1 on poor soil 9 five ye>s40 ,) ?is k1 ! atta9m5t ( a giv5 diamet]1 or ! *ange f "o diamet] or age class to ! next c\ld be calculat$4 ,volume tables 7 at ,trunk's comm&1 & ,pauls5 9 #aghg1 ,kregt+ 9 #aghh1 m5tion p]iodic yield tables2 b g5]ally speak+ 8ocul> taxation0 or e/imat+ 0 ! rule1 *eck$ by exp]i5ce 9 actual fell+s1 ! me?od ( ! ,am]ican timb] look]4 ,g5]ally1 ( c\rse1 only ! log timb] 0 e/imat$ z ) u1 & only ! v r\ghe/ e/imat+ or r guess+ 0 9 vogue until ne> ! end ( ! p]iod4 ,! fir/ attempt at clos] measurem5t 0 made by ,beckman 7#agef71 :o surr\nd$ ! area to be measur$ ) tw9e1 drove a color$ wood5 peg into ea* tree1 "o color = ea* diamet] class1 :51 kn[+ ! orig9al numb] ( pegs t _h be5 tak5 out1 ! diff]5ce gave ! numb] ( trees 9 ea* diamet] class1 & by multiply+ ! av]age cubic cont5ts ( a measur$ sample tree 9 ea* class by ! numb] 9 ! class its volume 0 f\nd4 ,! me?od1 (t5 employ$ at pres5t1 ( asc]ta9+ by tally ! diamet] classes on /rips =ty to fifty paces wide1 ! s-call$ /rip survey1 0 describ$ by ,zan?i] 9 #agfc4 ,^! measurem5ts 7 usually conf9$ to sample areas1 ! use ( su* be+ already kn[n 9 #agci4 ,! cont5ts ( ! sample area1 if a special degree ( accuracy 0 desir$1 7 asc]ta9$ by fell+ ! :ole & measur+4 ,oettelt1 ( ma!matical fame1 0 ! fir/ to publi% some?+ ab\t ! det]m9ation ( ! age ( trees by c\nt+ r+s1 al?\gh ! practice probably ant$ates ?is acc\nt4 ,he knew ( ! dep5d5ce ( ! r+ wid? on ! site & on ! d5sity ( ! /&4 ,x seems t long be=e ?is "t ! ,fr5* _h made ! det]m9ation ( yield 9 a m sci5tific mann]1 ,raumur report+ 9 #agba to ! ,fr5* ,academy comp>ative /udies ( ! yield ( coppice & ( volumes ( wood4 ,oettelt1 too1 laid ! f\ndation ( =e/ f9ancial calculations :5 he asc]ta9$ ! value ( a =e/ by det]m9+ ! value ( an acre ( mature wood--! olde/ age class--& multiply+ x by half ! acreage ( ! :ole =e/1 sugge/+ ! well kn[n expression = ! normal /ock 7,i r_/#b7 soon aft] to be develop$ by an obscure ,au/rian tax collector4 ,ev5 ! fir/ =e/ f9ance calculations ) ! use ( comp\nd int]e/1 & a comp>ison ( ! pr(itabl5ess ( ! diff]5t me?ods ( managem5t1 are to be record$ z made by ,zan?i] 9 #agfd1 br++ ! beg9n+ ( =e/al /atics into ?is p]iod4 #aj4 ,me?ods ( ,lumb]+ & ,utilization4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ?is p]iod1 r\gh exploitation 0 /ill ma9ly 9 vogue1 only p>ts ( trees be+ us$1 j z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates n[4 ,"h & !re1 attempts 7 made t[>d m cons]vative use2 = in/ance1 at ,brunswick 9 #aedg1 ! use ( log timb] = fuel 0 disc\rag$2 9 ,saxony1 z e>ly z #aefj1 ! bru%wood 0 utiliz$ = fuel4 ,high /umps 7 a usual feature 9 spite ( ! ?reats ( puni%m5t ( ! =e/ ord9ances1 z 9 ,bav>ia 7#aeca74 ,! axe 0 ! only in/rum5t us$ until ! end ( ! #ah? c5tury = fell+ z well z cutt+ into l5g?s2 n until #agge1 d we f9d an allusion to ! use ( ! saw1 :5 ! =e/ ord9ance ( ,weim> ord]$ t ! saw-cut %\ld be made = ?ree-f\r?s ( ! tree's diamet] & ! axe be us$ to f9i% 767 ! la/ qu>t]4 ,n until ! #ah? c5tury 0 ! fuel-wood split 9 ! woods1 & x 0 ne> ! end ( ! p]iod be=e x 0 set up 9 mix$ cords 7r\nd & split7 aft] ! splitt+ _h be5 introduc$4 ,! measurem5t 01 until ab\t t "t1 made m]ely 9 loads1 ! cord be+ ( lat] introduction4 ,! value ( l[ /umps & ( ! use ( ! saw 0 recogniz$ 9 ,au/ria 9 #aghf4 ,to %[ h[ v>i\sly & locally ! ne$ ( cons]vative use ( wood develop$1 we may cite ! fact t 9 ! ,h>z1 ab\t #agej1 trees 7 dug ) _! roots z n[ 9 "s ( ! p9]ies ( ! ,m>k ,br&5burg1 9 ord] to utilize m ( ! body-wood & ! root-wood4 ,9 #ageg we f9d /ump-pull+ ma*9es describ$4 ,9 measurem5t ( /&+ trees ! circumf]5ce at brea/-height 0 measur$ ) a *a91 & = ! body-wood :5 fell$ ! mean diamet] 0 employ$4 ,z reg>ds ! fell+ "t1 specific advice is f\nd 9 _m =e/ ord9ances :i* recomm5d mo/ly w9t] fell+1 /at+ ! prop] beg9n+ & end ( ! season by ! phases ( ! moon1 ! rule be+ t all :ite wood1 = example conif]s1 bee* & asp5 %\ld be fell$ on ! increase or wax+ ( ! moon2 oak1 at ! wan+2 b coppice1 because x is desir$ to secure a new gr[?1 at ! wax+ moon4 ,prescription 0 also made sometimes reg>d+ ! "t by :i* ! removal ( ! wood f ! fell+ area 0 to be f9i%$ 7,may to ,june74 ,means ( transportation 7 poor up to ! end ( ! p]iod2 sn[1 z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 0 9 ! ,nor!rn c\ntry ! ma9 reliance = mov+ ! wood4 ,riv] driv+1 bo? )1 & )\t rafts 0 well organiz$2 v>i\s sy/ems ( log-slides 7 develop$ to a consid]able ext5t2 9 "o place ev5 an iron pipe1 #ijj feet 9 l5g?1 is report$ to h be5 us$ 9 su* capacity4 ,orig9ally1 ! consum] cut 8 own wood1 b 9 ! middle ( ! #ag? c5tury special wood-*opp]s appe> to h be5 employ$1 =1 9 #afej1 m5tion is made 9 ,saxony ( m51 :o1 "u oa? to secure hone/ s]vice1 7 organiz$ = ! exploitation ( ! diff]5t classes ( wood4 ,a sy/em ( jobb]s came into exi/5ce ab\t ?is "t1 some?+ l ! logg+ bosses 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7,holzmei/]7 :o 7 responsible = ! execution ( ! logg+ job4 ,! organization ( wood-*opp]s w5t s f> t1 9 #agah1 we f9d 9 ! ,h>z m\nta9s m5tion ( an ,accid5t ,insurance & ,mutual ,*>ity ,association among !m4 ,! sale ( wood 0 at fir/ c>ri$ on 9 ! h\se2 lat] x became cu/om>y to indicate 9 ! =e/ ! trees to be cut or ! area f :i* !y %\ld be cut by ! pur*as]1 & f9ally !y 7 fell$ by ! employes ( ! own]4 ,= a long "t1 p]si/+ into ! #ah? c5tury1 ! sale 0 by area1 & ?is me?od develop$ ! necessity ( survey+2 at ! same "t1 h[ev]1 sales by ! tree & by wood measure occurr$1 b only 9 ! #ah? c5tury did ! pres5t me?od ( sell+ wood by measure aft] fell+ come into exi/5ce4 ,9 ,prussia1 ! buy] _h to take ! risk ( fell+1 & pay1 ev5 if ! tree prov$ to be rott51 or broke 9 ! fell+4 ,! =e/ own] seems to h _h ! :ip h& 9 det]m9+ ! price "o-sid$ly1 revis+1 i4e41 increas+ ! toll 9 long] or %ort] int]vals4 ,b1 9 #agac1 we f9d m5tion ( wood-auctions1 or at lea/ simil> me?ods ( gett+ ! be/ prices4 ,f9ally1 special m>ket days = mak+ sales & = designat+ ( wood 7 in/itut$2 on ^! days also1 all (f5ces aga9/ ! =e/ laws 7 adjudg$4 #aa4 ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration4 ,! adm9i/ration ( ! diff]5t =e/ prop]ties :i* ! pr9ces _h aggregat$ 9 ! c\rse ( "t 0 at fir/ a "p ( ! g5]al adm9i/ration ( ! pr9cely prop]ty4 ,! requirem5ts 9 ! woods be+ m]ely to look aft] utilization & protection1 illit]ate und]l+s 7,=/kne*te7 7 suffici5t to c>ry out ! police functions1 g5]ally "u a ,=/mei/]1 or ,ob]=/mei/]1 :o f "t to "t w\ld make an inspection t\r4 ,lat] on1 :5 a m int5sive =e/ managem5t _h come into exi/5ce1 x became cu/om>y to call 9 exp]i5c$ =e/]s f outside to make inspections & give advice4 ,a mu* m elaborate organization ( s]vice is1 h[ev]1 report$ 9 ! m9+ di/ricts ( ! ,h>z m\nta9s1 9 #aedg1 ) ! ,director ( ,m9es 7,b]ghauptman7 at ! head1 & diff]5t grades ( (ficials "u him1 :o 7 call$ toge!r p]iodically = reports & discussions4 ,until ! middle ( ! #ah? c5tury all ^? employ$ 9 ! =e/ s]vice1 at lea/ ^? 9 ! sup]ior positions1 _h also duties 9 connection ) ! *ase1 ! head (ficial ( ! hunt be+ also ! head ( ! =e/ s]vice2 & hunt+ _h usually sup]ior claims to =e/ry4 ,! m5 7 suppos$ to be ma/]s ( ! two bran*es1 i4e41 to be famili> ) ! te*nique ( ! hunt & ( =e/ry 7,hirs*g]e*t & ,holzg]e*t74 ,! high] positions 7 usually res]v$ to ! nobility until 7dur+ ! #ah? c5tury7 ! ,cam]ali/s came into control ( ! adm9i/ration2 & ) !m1 "u ! m]cantili/ic tea*+s1 ! app>atus ( (ficials also increas$4 ,^! m5 usually possess$ wide1 b n deep k ( matt]s be>+ ^u _! *>ges4 ,9 ,prussia1 9 #agdj1 ! =e/ s]vice 0 at lea/ 9 "p comb9$ ) ! milit>y s]vice1 ,fr$]ick ! ,great in/itut+ ! corps ( rid+ c\ri]s = ! c>ry+ ( dispat*es :o 7 select$ f ! =e/ s]vice1 an in/itution :i* p]si/s up to date 9 ! corps ( ,feldjaeg]1 :ile ! sons ( =e/]s 7 enli/$ 9 a troop kn[n z ,fussjaeg] 7*asseurs74 ,a new era dates f ! middle ( ! #ah? c5tury :5 ! connection ) ! hunt1 ! milit>y organization1 & ! pref]r$ position ( ! nobility1 7 at lea/ 9 "p abrogat$1 & a m te*nical organization 0 attempt$4 ,! cause = ?is *ange 0 ! increase ( wood prices1 :i* made a m te*nical managem5t desirable1 & also a decrease 9 ! passion = ! hunt4 ,/ill1 al?\gh ! =e/s 9 ,bav>ia 7 decl>$1 9 #aghj to #agij1 to be ( m importance ?an ! hunt1 & ! two s]vices 7 di/9ctly sep>at$1 ! head ( ! hunt /ill rank$ above ! head ( ! =e/ s]vice4 ,9 ,prussia1 ! pr(essional m5 became e>ly indep5d5t & influ5tial1 & by #aggj1 an organization _h be5 p]fect$ :i* excell$ 9 ?or\ghness & simplicity4 ,! sal>ies ( ! =e/]s consi/$ orig9ally ma9ly 9 a free h\se1 use ( l& & pa/ure rights1 _! uni=m1 & incid5tal emolum5ts1 su* z a toll = ! designation ( timb] etc4 ,lat]1 :5 ev]y:]e else a regul> money managem5t _h be5 introduc$1 ! abs5ce ( a ca% income & g5]al pov]ty =c$ ! =e/]s to /eal & extort2 & ! bad reputation e/abli%$ 9 ! la/ "p ( ! #ah? c5tury1 z well z ! bad practice1 p]si/$ until ! #ai? c5tury4 ,! l[] grades 9 ! s]vice 7 exce$+ly ignorant1 & _! social position1 consequ5tly1 v l[4 ,_! ma9 bus9ess 01 inde$1 simple1 & consi/$ 9 ! book+ ( ! cut1 issu+ p]mits = ! removal & ! sale ( wood1 & look+ aft] police functions 9 ! woods4 ,yet1 by #agha1 we f9d regul> plant+ plans submitt$ 9 ! ,prussian adm9i/ration1 &1 9 #aghg1 fell+ plans are on record4 ,! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice aga9/ (f5d]s 9 ! =e/s 0 until ! end ( ! #ah? c5tury 9 *>ge ( ! head =e/]s1 & only !n 0 transf]r$ to law (fic]s4 ,!ft ( wood1 z 9 old5 days1 0 consid]$ z a small] (f5se ?an o!r !fts1 except if x 0 cut wood4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ! p]iod1 ! judge _h wide latitude z to am\nt ( ! f9e to be impos$1 b 9 ! #ag? c5tury m precise f9es 7 fix$1 & 9 ! #ah? c5tury1 a revision ( ! f9es br\ght !m into proportion ) ! value ( ! /ol5 wood2 a *oice ( puni%m5ts by f9es1 imprisonm5t or labor 9 ! woods 0 !n also in/itut$4 #ab4 ,=e/ry ,education4 ,! c\rse ( education = ! =e/]s until ! middle ( ! #ah? c5tury 0 a simple "o & ma9ly direct$ to le>n+ ! manipulations ( ! *ase1 tra9+ ( dogs1 t5d+ ( horses1 sett+ ( nets1 %oot+1 etc4 ,two or ?ree ye>s' life ) a practical hunt] 7 foll[$ by j\rney+ & work+ = diff]5t employ]s1 woodlore be+ pick$ up by ! way f ^? t knew4 ,:5 9 ! #ah? c5tury ! ne$ = bett] woods k became press+1 ! few really good =e/ manag]s 7 s\ght out by ! "y m5 :o wi%$ to secure ?is k4 ,9 ?is way1 a numb] ( s-call$ 8ma/]-s*ools0 came into exi/5ce1 ea* dep5d+ on "o man4 ,su* a s*ool 0 t ( v4 ,zan?i] 9 ,w]nig]ode1 lat] transf]r$ to ,ils5burg1 />t$ 9 #agfc & end+ ) 8 dea? 9 #aggh4 ,!oretical tea*+ & opportunity = practical demon/ration "h 0 su* t ev5 /ud5ts f ! ,b]l9 s*ool & m5 9 actual employm5t att5d$ ! c\rses4 ,! two great ma/]s & fa!rs ( mod]n =e/ry1 ,h>tig & ,cotta1 ea* in/itut$ su* ma/]-s*ools1 ! =m] 9 #aghi1 & ! latt] 9 #aghe4 ,cotta's s*ool 0 aft]w>ds transf]r$ to ,?>&t & became a ,/ate in/itution4 ,! int]e/ ( ! ,/ate 9 =e/ry education f\nd fir/ expression 9 ,prussia 9 a c\rse ( lectures 9 botany1 lat] also 9 =e/ economy1 giv5 to ! =e/ (ficials by ,gl$its*1 pr(essor ( botany at ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]l9 7#aggj71 to :i* 0 add$ a practicum at ,tegel "u ,burgsdorf1 :o f9ally became ! head ( ?is mix$ ,/ate s*ool1 & cont9u$ 9 ?is position until at 8 dea?1 9 #ahjb1 ! s*ool 0 discont9u$4 ,9 imitation ( ?is move by ,prussia1 a milit>y plant+ s*ool 0 in/itut$ by ,wrttemb]g at ,solitude 9 #aggj4 ,! mo/ notewor?y feature ( ?is s*ool1 :i* "u v>i\s *anges la/$ less ?an #be ye>s1 0 ! c\rse ( lectures by ,/ahl1 m5tion$ be=e4 ,besides ?is high] s*ool1 a l[] grade s*ool 0 />t$ 9 #aghc1 b its c>e] 0 ev5 brief]1 n m ?an t5 ye>s4 ,bav>ia organiz$ a =e/ s*ool at ,muni* 9 #agij ) a f\r ye>s' c\rse1 & at lea/ ?ree ye>s' /udy at ?is s*ool 0 requir$ ( ^? seek+ employm5t 9 ! ,/ate s]vice2 b )\t hav+ ev] fl\ri%$1 ?is s*ool1 too1 collaps$ by #ahjc4 #ac4 ,=e/ry ,lit]ature4 ,! olde/ =e/ry lit]ature ( ?is p]iod is conta9$ 9 ! _m =e/ ord9ances1 :i* all[ u to judge f _! prescriptions z to ! conditions ( ! practice 9 ! woods & z to ! gradual accumulation ( empiric k4 ,( a =e/ry sci5ce "o c\ld h>dly speak until an attempt _h be5 made to organize ! k ?us empirically acquir$ into a sy/ematic pres5tation1 & ?is 0 n done until ! middle or la/ half ( ! #ah? c5tury4 ,! fir/ attempts at a lit]>y pres5tation ( ! empiric k are f\nd 9 ! encyclopdic volumes ( ! s-call$ 8,hausvt]0 7h\sehold fa!rs--dome/ic economi/s71 :o treat$ 9 a mo/ diffuse mann] ( agriculture 9 all its aspects1 includ+ silviculture4 ,a numb] ( ^! tomes appe>$ dur+ ! #ag? c5tury2 ! be/ & mo/ influ5tial be+ publi%$ at ! v beg9n+ ( t c5tury 7#aeie-afji71 writt5 by a prea*] f ,silesia1 ,johann ,col]us1 & entitl$ ,oeconomia ruralis et dome/ica1 wor9 das ampt all] brav5 ,hausvt] und ,hausmtt] begriff54 ,col]us reli$ ^u home exp]i5ce & n1 z ,petrus de ,cresc5tiis 9 8 e>li] "w1 ,pra$ium ru/icum 7translat$ f ! ,fr5*1 9 #aeib71 _h done1 ^u ! s*ola/ic expositions ( ! ,italians4 ,he 0 rew>d$ by ! popul>ity ( 8 "w :i* w5t ?r\gh ?irte5 editions & became v widely kn[n4 ,some:at e>li]1 a juri/1 ,no ,meur]1 wrote a book on =e/ law & hunt+ 7second edition1 #aegf71 :i* on ?is field rema9$ long an au?ority1 & gives insight into ! condition ( =e/ use at ! "t4 ,b ! fir/ indep5d5t "w on =e/ry1 divorc$ f ! hunt & f>m+1 did n appe> until #agac1 ,sylvicultura conomica1 writt5 by ! ,saxon director ( m9es1 ,hans ,c>l v4 ,c>l[itz4 ,?is book1 :ile conta9+ qua9t & amus+ ideas1 gives _m correct rules = silvicultural me?ods1 especially z reg>ds plant+ & s[+1 b ! subject ( =e/ managem5t or organization is entirely neglect$4 ,at ab\t ! same "t 7#agaj7 a =e/ (ficial1 v4 ,g*haus51 publi%$ ,notabilia v5atoris1 :i*1 h[ev]1 conta9$ little m ?an a description ( ! species ( trees & me?ods ( _! utilization4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! #ah? c5tury great activity began 9 ! lit]>y field4 ,?is 0 c>ri$ on by two di/9ct classes ( writ]s1 namely1 ! empirici/s & ! cam]ali/s4 ,! =m]--! holzg]e*te ,jg]--7 ! 8practical0 m5 ( ! woods :o prov$ 9 _m directions mo/ unpractical1 & exhibit$ 9 _! writ+s1 outside ( ! record ( _! limit$ exp]i5ce1 ! crasse/ ignorance4 ,! cam]ali/s 7 educat$ 9 law & political economy &1 :ile lack+ practical contact ) ! woodswork1 tri$ to sift & sy/ematize ! k ( ! empirici/s1 & to secure = x a tangible basis4 ,"s five or six ( ! empirici/s des]ve notice z writ]s2 ! fir/ & mo/ not$ ( !m 0 ,doebel 7,he9ri* ,wilhelm7 ^: book1 ,jg]praktica 7hunt]s' practice71 publi%$ 9 #agdf1 rema9$ an au?ority until mod]n times = ! "p ref]r+ to ! *ase4 ,! au?or 0 pre-em95tly a hunt]1 :o work$ 9 v>i\s capacities 9 ,saxony1 a self-taught man ) v little k ( natural hi/ory4 ,be+ famili> ma9ly ) broadleaf =e/ he condemn$ plant+ & ?9n+1 b describ$ q well = 8 "t ! me?ods ( survey1 subdivision1 e/imat+ & measur+1 & ! me?ods ( selection =e/ & coppice ) /&>ds4 ,8 ignorance is *>act]iz$ by 8 ref]5ce to ! 8sulphur\s & nitric elem5ts ( ! soil0 z cause ( spontane\s =e/ fires4 ,op9ionat$ & "o-sid$1 l _m s-call$ practical m51 he came into polemic controv]sies ) o!r practition]s1 n less op9ionat$1 among !m ,j4 ,g4 ,beckmann1 :o work$ 9 ano!r "p ( ,saxony1 :]e1 hav+ to deal ) conif]\s woods1 he _h ga!r$ diff]5t exp]i5ces f ^? ( ,doebel4 ,al?\gh he 0 himself poorly educat$1 especially 9 natural sci5ces1 he compla9$ ( ! ignorance ( ! =e/]s1 & 9 8 book 7,anweisung zu e9] pflegli*5 ,=/wir?s*aft1 #agei71 us$ = ! fir/ "t ! ^w ,=/wiss5s*aft 7=e/ sci5ce71 & insi/$ ^u ! necessity ( /udy+ nature4 ,he may be cr$it$ ) hav+ really advanc$ =e/ organization by devis+ ! fir/ good volume division me?od1 & silviculture by advocat+ ! me?od ( cle>+ foll[$ by s[+4 ,! fir/ practical =e/] ) a univ]sity education 0 ,j4 ,j4 ,b*t+1 :o work$ 9 ! ,h>z m\nta9s4 ,8 ma9 int]e/ lay 9 ! direction ( survey1 division & ord]ly utilization4 ,he did n1 h[ev]1 make any /rik+ advance1 except t he gave equal /&+ to bo? plant+ & s[+4 ,! two mo/ em95t practition]s ( ! p]iod1 h[ev]1 active dur+ ! middle ( ! c5tury1 7 ,johann ,georg von ,lang5 & 8 pupil1 ,hans ,dietri* von ,zan?i]1 bo? ( noble family1 & bett] educat$ ?an mo/ ( _! contempor>ies1 & bo? engag$ 9 ! organization & managem5t ( ,h>z m\nta9 =e/s1 namely1 ^? ( ! ,duke ( ,brunswick & ( ! ,c\nt ( ,/olb]g-,w]nig]ode4 ,! =m]1 )\t occupy+ himself directly ) lit]>y "w1 laid d[n 9 8 exp]t reports & 9 8 work+ plans _m in/ructions :i* =m ! basis = ord]ly managem5t & silviculture f> ahead ( ! times4 ,zan?i]1 writ+ consid]ably 7especially ,kurz] sy/ematis*] ,grundriss d] praktis*5 ,=/wiss5s*aft1 #agfd71 is also notable z ! f\nd] ( ! fir/ =e/ry s*ool 7at ,w]nig]ode71 #agfc4 ,ano!r ( ?is class ( bett] educat$ practition]s1 & co-work] ) ! =m] two1 0 von ,lassb]g1 :o 9 #agfd-aggg organiz$ ! ,saxon =e/s4 ,an int]e/+ incid5t 9 ! life ( ! la/ ?ree m5 is _! j\rney to ,d5m>k & ,norway1 :i!r !y 7 call$ to organize ! managem5t ( ! =e/s connect$ ) ! m9es4 ,ano!r prom95t =e/ manag] ( ! la/ half ( ! c5tury1 ^: lit]>y "w is to be f\nd only 9 v>i\s excell5t (ficial in/ructions1 among :i* is "o = ! tea*+ ( =e/]s1 0 ! head ( ! ,hessian =e/ s]vice1 a nobleman1 v4 ,b]leps*4 ,( ! cam]ali/s :o help$ to make =e/ry lit]ature1 six or sev5 des]ve m5tion4 ,^!1 m5 ( education & polyhi/ors1 7 ei!r at ! head ( affairs1 or else pr(essors at univ]sities1 :]e !y includ$ =e/ry z "o ( ! bran*es ( political economy4 ,! cr$it ( ! fir/ really sy/ematic pres5tation ( =e/ry pr9ciples & rules1 z develop$ at ! "t1 belongs to ,wilhelm ,gottfri$ von ,mos]1 a pupil ( von ,lang51 :o s]v$ 9 v>i\s pr9cipalities1 & f9ally ) ! ,pr9ce ( ,taxis4 ,9 8 ,pr9ciples ( ,=e/ ,economy1 publi%$ 9 #ageg1 :i* = ! fir/ "t br\ght out ! economic importance ( ! subject1 he discusses 9 two volumes divid$ into n9e *apt]s ! diff]5t bran*es ( =e/ry4 ,a m9+ eng9e]1 ,j4 ,a4 ,cram]1 came next ) a v notable book1 8,anleitung zum ,=/wes50 7#agff71 :i*1 al?\gh n z compreh5sive z ,mos]'s1 treats ! subject ( silviculture v well4 ,equal 9 arrogance & op9ionat$ self-satisfaction to any ( ! empirici/s ) :om he frequ5tly cross$ swords1 0 ! ,brunswick c\ncillor1 von ,brocke1 :o1 z an amateur1 practis+ =e/ry on 8 own e/ate1 develop$ ! *>act]i/ic trait ( ! empirici/s1 namely1 a pr(\nd belief 9 8 own infallibility4 ,he produc$1 besides _m polemic writ+s1 9 :i* he *>g$ ! :ole class ( =e/]s ) ignorance1 laz9ess & di%one/y1 a magnum opus 9 f\r volumes1 entitl$ 8,true bases ( ! physical & exp]im5tal g5]al sci5ce ( =e/ry10 :i* is an olla podrida ( small value4 ,less orig9al1 b m fair & well in=m$1 a typical repres5tative ( ! cam]ali/s1 0 ,j4 ,f4 ,/ahl1 f9ally head ( ! =e/ adm9i/ration ( ,wrttemb]g1 & at ! same "t lectur] on ma!matics1 natural hi/ory & =e/ry at ! =e/ s*ool ( ,solitude 7,/uttg>t74 ,al?\gh an amateur 9 ! field ( =e/ry1 he 0 a good tea*] & left _m valuable & wise prescriptions evolv$ dur+ 8 adm9i/ration4 ,he compil$ 9 f\r volumes a diction>y ( =e/1 fi% & game practice 7,onomatologia =e/alis-piscatoria-v5atoria1 #aggb-agha7 & f\nd$ ! fir/ =e/ry j\rnal4 ,s9ce #aggj1 =e/ry c\rses _h be5 giv5 = ! cam]ali/s at mo/ ( ! ,g]man univ]sities1 & _m ( ! pr(essors prep>$ textbooks = ! purpose4 ,at lea/ ?ree ( ^! pr(essors des]ve m5tion1 ,beckman1 ,jung & ,trunk4 ,! fir/1 ,j4 ,beckman1 pr(essor ( political economy at ,gtt+51 "o ( ! mo/ not$ cam]ali/s1 0 au?or ( a "w 9 =ty-five volumes on ! ,pr9ciples ( ,g]man ,agriculture 7#agfi71 9 :i* he devotes sixty-"o pages to =e/ry1 giv+ a complete sy/em ( =e/ry1 ) extracts f all kn[n =e/ry writ+s4 ,j4 ,h4 ,jung1 :o gave a special c\rse on =e/ry at ! ,kam]als*ule ( ,laut]n1 publi%$ a textbook 9 #agha 9 :i* =e/ botany 0 well treat$4 ,j4 ,j4 ,trunk1 :o 0 ,ob]=/mei/] 9 ,au/ria1 z well z pr(essor at ,freiburg1 0 ! mo/ prom95t ( ! ?ree1 & wrote a compreh5sive "w full ( practical s5se 7,neues voll/ndiges ,=/lehrbu* od] sy/ematis*e ,grundstze des ,=/re*tes1 d] ,=/polizei und ,=/konomie1 neb/ ,anhang von auslndis*5 ,holz>t51 von ,torf und ,/e9kohl51 #aghi74 99 99 99 99 99 ,:ile at fir/ ! ephem]al writ+s1 especially ! polemic ones ( ! empirici/s1 f\nd room 9 lit]>y & cam]ali/ic magaz9es1 ! ne$ ( a pr(essional j\rnal fir/ f\nd expression 9 #agfc1 9 ,/ahl's ,allgeme9es konomis*es ,=/magaz91 :i* ran into twelve volumes1 & conta9s _m articles important to ! hi/ory ( =e/ry1 & is especially ri* 9 its ref]5ces to =eign lit]ature4 ,two cont9uations ( ! magaz9e "u diff]5t editor%ips 7 ( less value4 ,b von ,mos]'s ,=/>*iv1 runn+ f #aghh to #ahjg ) its ?irty volumes1 is an au?ority & a hi/orical s\rce ( ! fir/ rank4 ,a v *>act]i/ic lit]ature ( ! la/ half ( ! #ah? c5tury consi/$ 9 =e/ cal5d>s 9 :i* advice z to mon?ly & seasonal proc$ures 9 ! =e/ 7 giv51 ,beckman & ,zan?i] be+ among ! au?ors4 ,,iii4 ,,developm5t ,,9 ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury4 ,! la/ hundr$ ye>s or s has se5 9 ,g]many ! developm5t ( fully e/abli%$ =e/ policies & ! complete organization ( /able =e/ adm9i/rations1 bas$ ^u ?or\gh & c>eful recognition ( ! pr9ciples ( =e/ managem5t & int5sive application ( silvicultural me?ods4 #a4 ,*anges 9 ,prop]ty ,conditions4 ,! *ange 9 =e/ treatm5t f t prevail+ dur+ ! previ\s p]iod 0 ma9ly due to ! *ange 9 prop]ty conditions1 & especially to ! e/abli%m5t ( /ate =e/s4 ,?is *ange 0 l>gely ! result ( ! revolution>y movem5ts at ! beg9n+ ( ! new c5tury :i* br\ght ab\t *anges 9 /ate organizations4 ,9 ,prussia1 ! pr9cely =e/ prop]ty _h be5 decl>$ /ate doma9 9 #agac1 b else:]e1 ! public doma9 _h be5 consid]$ ! prop]ty ( ! pr9ces 9 _! capacity z head ( ! c\ntry1 z domanium1 outside ( _! p]sonal private prop]ty 7,*atullgt]74 ,! income f ?is domanium 0 9 "p liable to be appli$ to ! exp5ses ( ! c\rt & ( ! adm9i/ration ( ! realm1 to "s ext5t alleviat+ ! burd5s ( taxation4 ,?is prop]ty arose f a v>iety ( relations :i* h be5 discuss$ at l5g? 9 ! =ego+ *apt]s4 ,x 0 d]iv$ ma9ly f feudal prop]ties1 fiefs ( vassalage & fiefs ( (ficial position1 secul>iz$ *ur* prop]ty & o!r =feit$ prop]ty1 division ( m>k =e/s1 & f allodial possessions ( ! family4 ,gradually1 by agreem5t ) ! l&$ e/ates1 x 0 und]/ood t ?is prop]ty c\ld n be dispos$ ( or dissipat$ by ! pr9ce1 & 0 inh]it$ by ! elde/ son toge!r ) ! pr9cely dignity1 be+ an attribute ( 8 position 9 ! /ate4 ,9 ! recon/ruction p]iod ( #ahjf to #ahae1 dur+ & aft] ! ,napoleonic w>s1 _m ( ! small pr9ces lo/ _! seigniorage 7,l&e%oheit ipso jure71 & ) ! loss ( ! pr9cely dignity1 ! obligation ( c>ry+ ! exp5se ( c\rt & adm9i/ration naturally fall+ away1 ^! prop]ties became 9 mo/ cases purely individual prop]ty ( ! =m] pr9ces4 ,n1 h[ev]1 until ! revolution>y movem5ts ( #ahdh & ev5 lat]1 0 ?is divorce ( ! /ate idea f t ( ! p]son ( ! pr9ce ev]y:]e accompli%$1 nor 0 x c>ri$ ?r\gh )\t _m bick]+s & qu>rels betwe5 ! pr9ces & ! repres5tatives ( ! p1 :o claim$ ?is domanium = ! /ate4 ,9 ! l>g] /ates1 all ?is domanial prop]ty 0 f9ally decl>$ /ate l&s1 :ile 9 ! small] pr9cipalities a p>tition ( ! l& betwe5 ! pr9ces & ! /ate took place1 or else a relation 0 e/abli%$ by :i* a "p ( ! rev5ue result+ f ! /ate l&s 0 secur$ to ! pr9ces4 ,an increase ( ! ,/ate's prop]ty came also dur+ ! fir/ decade ( ! c5tury ?r\gh ! aboli%m5t ( cloi/]s & secul>ization ( *ur* prop]ty g5]ally1 ! l&s ( bo? ,prote/ant & ,ca?olic *ur* in/itutions be+ tak5 by ! ,/ate4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 at ! same "t t ! idea ( /ate =e/ 0 be+ realiz$1 ! *anges 9 economic ?\ght :i* br\ght ! pr9ciple ( individualism to ! =e gave rise to a movem5t to sell ! /ate prop]ties4 ,?is movem5t 0 inspir$ by ,fr5* doctr9es1 ^: influ5ce 0 at ! "t v /rong1 by ! tea*+s ( ,adam ,smi? :o held t ! /ate is n fit to conduct bus9ess1 & by ! hope t 9 private own]%ip an improvem5t 9 =e/ conditions w\ld be m readily realiz$4 ,^! ideas by !mselves w\ld1 probably1 n h l$ to ! adoption ( a policy ( sale if x _h n be5 = ! ne$ = ca% :i*1 z a result ( ! ,fr5* w>s1 0 felt ev]y:]e dur+ ! fir/ ye>s ( ! decade4 ,! sale ( ?is prop]ty seem$ to provide a ready means = ,/ates to secure funds4 ,9 ,prussia1 aft] ! collapse ( #ahjf1 ?is measure 0 widely discuss$1 & ev5tually1 9 #ahaj to #ahac1 repeat$ly in/ructions = ! sale ( /ate =e/ prop]ty 7 issu$4 ,!re 7 to be exclud$ f su* sales only l>ge complexes ( =e/1 ^? on ! sea coa/1 s& dunes & riv] fronts1 :]e ! protection ( ! =e/ cov] 0 ne$$1 & ^? :i* x 0 desirable to ma9ta9 = ! use ( important indu/rial e/abli%m5ts4 ,only ! accession ( ,h>tig 7#ahaa71 z *ief ( ! =e/ adm9i/ration :i* 0 a bran* ( ! ,treasury dep>tm5t1 prev5t$ ! execution ( ?is dismemb]m5t4 ,x 0 due to him t ! diff]5ce 9 "* betwe5 f>m & =e/ prop]ty began to be recogniz$4 ,al?\gh1 aft] #ahbj1 sales ( =e/ prop]ty took place1 !y 7 nev] a fiscal measure1 b 7 made ei!r = ! purpose ( r\nd+ (f exi/+ /ate =e/ prop]ty or pay+ (f s]vitudes1 or else 9 ord] to turn ov] agricultural soil to f>m use4 ,at pres5t ev]y:]e 9 ,g]many /ate prop]ties are on ! increase4 ,! prop]ty conditions ( ! communal =e/s naturally *ang$ also ) ! political *anges ( ! #ai? c5tury1 :5 exi/+ communities 7 made "p ( ! l>ge political ma*9e & *ang$ f economic & social to mod]n political municipalities4 ,! own]%ip conditions1 h[ev]1 7 n simplifi$1 b z be=e1 rema9$ extremely v>i$4 ,( ! ,m>k =e/ b a v small portion rema9s to-day4 ,! majority ( x _h be5 f9ally divid$ among ! ,mrk] 9 ! fir/ decade ( ! c5tury1 & ! few rema9+ p>ts became indep5d5t ( ! political organization & n[ exi/ m]ely 9 ! =m ( appurt5ances to c]ta9 f>m prop]ty kn[n z ,g5oss5wald 7association =e/s74 ,9 addition to ! v>iety ( communal own]%ips exi/+ 9 ! prec$+ p]iod1 "s new communal prop]ties orig9at$ f ! grant+ ( l& 9 ! settlem5t & dissolution ( s]vitudes1 :]eby an undivid$ prop]ty 7,int]ess5t5wald7 9 :i* sometimes ev5 ! /ate reta9s an int]e/1 came into exi/5ce4 ,! municipal prop]ty ( ! cities _h become ei!r ! prop]ty ( ! entire community or ( t "p :i* con/itut$ ! real citiz5%ip1 or at lea/ ( a c]ta9 class ( citiz5s ( ! municipality4 ,! incumbrances :i* _h gr[n up ) reg>d to =e/ prop]ty "u ! "n ( s]vitudes & :i* s mu* ret>d$ ! developm5t ( bett] =e/ managem5t cont9u$ into ?is p]iod1 & al?\gh ?r\gh ! influ5ces ( ! ,fr5* revolution a desire _h be5 /imulat$ to get rid ( all curtailm5ts ( prop]ty1 "s h p]si/$ to ?is day4 ,inde$1 = a "t an increase ( ^! s]vitudes took place1 due to ! c>elessness ( =e/ (ficials 9 keep+ unju/ifi$ use ( ! =e/ 9 *eck1 :5 anci5t usage ( ^! rights ( us] 0 claim$ & new s]vitudes 7 e/abli%$4 ,9 ,bav>ia1 x became at la/ necess>y 7#aheb7 to positively =bid ! fur!r e/abli%m5t ( new s]vitudes or rights ( us]4 ,laws hav+ 9 view ! dissolution or buy+ out ( ^! rights 7 issu$ 9 ,bav>ia 9 #ahje1 & 9 ,prussia 9 #ahba1 giv+ ! "r to =e/ own]s ^: prop]ties 7 s encumb]$1 to call = a division ( int]e/s2 b z at fir/ ! only way to settlem5t 0 by ex*ange = def9ite p>cels ( =e/ prop]ty1 ! progress 9 ! aboli%m5t ( ^! rights 0 sl[1 until money ex*ange 0 p]mitt$ 7z 9 ,saxony1 #ahcb74 ,at ! pres5t "t1 ! /ate =e/ adm9i/rations h mo/ly got rid ( ^! s]vitudes1 or at lea/ h progress$ s f> 9 _! regulation t !y are n[ r>ely imp$im5ts to =e/ managem5t4 ,^! peaceable adju/m5ts ( ! rights ( us] con/itute ! la/ act ( free+ prop]ty socially & economically4 #b4 ,=e/ ,conditions4 ,9 spite ( ! sporadic ef=ts :i* _h be5 made to br+ ab\t ! recup]ation ( =e/ areas dur+ ! #ah? c5tury1 ! conditions ( ! =e/ at ! beg9n+ ( ! new c5tury 7 mo/ pitiable2 ! division ( ! ,m>k1 by :i* ! peasants became individual own]s1 pr(it$ little1 & l$ to deva/ation r ?an to improv+ ! condition ( ! prop]ty4 ,9 addition1 export trade 9 wood _h become brisk1 & ! f9ancial depression1 a result ( ! ,fr5* w>s1 l$ to increas$ exploitations1 :i*1 ) ! improvem5t 9 means ( transportation1 progress$ to ! m di/ant =e/ areas1 & enl>g$ ! wa/e area4 ,especially 9 ! m d5sely populat$ p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 ! de=e/$ area wid5$1 & l>ge wa/es ) poor "y gr[? increas$ 9 all directions1 9 ! same mann] z n[ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! al>mi/s _h good cause = r5ew+ _! cries1 &1 ar\nd ! ye> #ahjj1 a consid]able lit]ature sprung up on ! subject ( ! ?reat5$ timb] fam9e4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t at t "t ! ,catalpa play$ a role1 at lea/ on pap]1 z x does 9 our own day1 be+ recomm5d$ z ! only means ( /av+ (f ! timb] fam9e4 ,a r5ew$ betulomania spread widely ov] ! c\ntry4 ,9 ,nor? ,g]many especially1 great ef=ts 7 made to replant ! d5ud$ areas & to *ange ! coppice areas1 fit only = firewood1 to conif]\s species1 p9e1 etc41 by :i* ev5tually a great *ange 9 ! =e/ type f ! orig9al mix$ =e/ to ! pure =e/ 0 effect$4 #c4 ,p]sonnel4 ,! great *ange :i* l$ to improv$ conditions1 dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! c5tury1 0 pre-em95tly due to ! k & intellig5ce ( a gr\p ( m51 six 9 numb]1 compet5t =e/]s1 :o comb9$ ! high grade education ( ! ,cam]ali/s ) ! practition]s' k3 ,h>tig1 ,cotta1 ,hunde%ag51 ,ko5ig1 ,pfeil & ,hey]4 ,^! m5 built1 to be sure1 on ! %\ld]s ( _! precursors ( ! c5tury 9 :i* !y 7 born1 b1 be+ plac$ 9 au?oritative positions1 f\nd bett] opportunities = putt+ _! tea*+s into practice4 ,! fir/ two m5tion$ 7 old] ?an ! re/1 & are usually describ$ z ! 8fa!rs ( mod]n =e/ry40 ,born ab\t a ye> ap>t1 bo? educat$ at univ]sities1 !y excell$ 9 bo? sci5tific & practical directions4 ,georg ,ludwig ,h>tig 7#agfd-ahcg71 /udi$ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,giess5 &1 aft] hav+ s]v$ 9 v>i\s functions 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,s\!rn ,g]many1 became1 9 #ahaa1 head ( ! ,prussian =e/ adm9i/ration4 ,he 0 equally em95t z a practical man & organiz]1 z a writ]1 & z a tea*]4 ,9 lit]>y direction 8 "w lay n s mu* 9 develop+ new ideas z 9 =mulat+ cle>ly ! kn[n ones1 z evid5c$ 9 8 celebrat$ 8,g5]al ,rules0 9 silviculture4 ,n less ?an ?irty sep>ate publications atte/ 8 assiduity4 ,among !m /&s pre-em95t 8,anweisung zur ,holzzu*t fr ,fo]/]0 7#agia2 #h? edition1 #ahah74 ,z a tea*] he began 8 "w by e/abli%+ a ma/]s*ool 7#aghi-agia7 at ,hung51 transf]r$ to ,/uttg>t 9 #ahjg2 & aft]w>ds1 z head ( ! ,prussian =e/ adm9i/ration1 he lectur$ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]l91 cont9u+ 8 lectures !re1 ev5 aft] ! =e/ry s*ool at ,eb]swalde _h be5 e/abli%$1 until 8 dea?4 ,he may be consid]$ z hav+ e/abli%$ on a firm basis ! =e/ adm9i/ration ( ,prussia2 & _m ( ! ?+s he in/itut$ /ill prevail4 ,9 organiz+ ! s]vice1 he introduc$ fix$ sal>ies1 he reliev$ ! =e/]s f f9ancial responsibilities1 transf]r+ all h&l+ ( money to a sep>ate set ( (ficials1 :]eby ! temptation to fraudul5t practice ( graft 0 remov$1 & he issu$ in/ructions = ! diff]5t grades ( =e/]s2 & e "p ( ?is "w 0 all 8 own4 ,9 regulat+ ! =e/ area ( ! /ate he develop$ ! volume allotm5t me?od1 :i*1 h[ev]1 prov$ too cumb]some to be readily appli$ to l>ge areas4 ,t[>d ! end ( 8 life1 8 "w 0 n entirely successful1 & he lo/ pre/ige 9 8 lat] ye>s4 ,he9ri* von ,cotta 7#agfc-ahdd7 /udi$ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,j5a1 & aft]w>ds practic$ 9 ,?ur+ia1 :]e he e/abli%$ a ma/] s*ool at ,zillba* 7#agie74 ,9 #ahaa1 he 0 call$ to ,saxony1 z director ( =e/ surveys1 :i!r he also transf]r$ 8 s*ool1 at ,?>&t1 :i* 9 #ahaf 0 made a /ate in/itution & is /ill fl\ri%+4 ,9 t ye> he 0 made ! director ( ! ,bureau ( ,=e/ ,managem5t4 ,l ,h>tig1 he 0 em95t 9 ! ?ree directions ( practical1 lit]>y1 & educational "w1 b he excell$ ,h>tig 9 orig9ality1 develop+ new pr9ciples & ?\ght4 ,be+ a good plant-physiologi/ & obs]v] ( nature1 he develop$ new ideas 9 silviculture1 especially ) ref]5ce to me?ods ( ?9n+1 & 8 8,anweisung zum ,waldbau10 writt5 9 ! simple/1 cle>e/ & mo/ =ceful mann]1 =ms a classic wor?y ( /udy to ?is day4 ,9 ! field ( =e/ managem5t he became ! inv5tor ( ! area allotm5t me?od & ! orig9ator ( ! highly develop$ ,saxon =e/ managem5t4 ,z a tea*] he excell$ 9 cle>ness1 exposition1 weal? ( ideas & g5iality4 ,( an entirely diff]5t /amp 0 ! ?ird ( ! great ma/]s1 ,johann ,*ri/ian ,hunde%ag5 7#aghc-ahcd71 :o hav+ /udi$ 9 ,heidelb]g1 became aft] "s ye>s ( practice1 pr(essor ( =e/ry at ,tueb+51 9 #ahag1 & at ,giess51 #ahbe4 ,he 0 a repres5tative ( ! !oretical or philosophical side ( =e/ry1 be+ highly cultivat$ & imbu$ ) ! _s ( sci5ce4 ,8 b5t 0 to sy/ematize ! k 9 exi/5ce & ext5d x by means ( exact exp]im5ts4 ,9 =e/ organization1 he inv5t$ ! well kn[n =mula me?od or 8rational me?od0 ( regulat+ fell+ budgets & became also "o ( ! f\nd]s ( ,=e/ ,/atics 7#ahbf7 :i* he call$ 8! doctr9e ( measur+ =e/al =ces10 be+ ?us ! =]unn] ( mod]n sci5tific =e/ry4 ,! f\r? ( ! gr\p1 ,gottlob ,knig 7#aggf-ahdi71 0 a practition] )\t a univ]sity education1 :o _h enjoy$ ! tea*+ & influ5ce ( ,cotta :om he succe$$ 9 ,eis5a* z ! head ( ! ducal =e/ adm9i/ration4 ,he also f\nd$ "h a private =e/ s*ool1 :i*1 9 #ahcj1 became a /ate in/itution1 & is /ill 9 exi/5ce4 ,knig became not$ by 8 contributions to ! sci5tific1 especially ! ma!matical side ( =e/ry1 develop+ =e/ m5suration & /atics4 ,9 ?is latt] bran* he 0 ! =]unn] ( ,pressl] & ( ! mod]n s*ool ( f9ance4 ,9 8 8,anleitung zur ,holztaxation0 7#ahac7 he gives a complete acc\nt ( =e/ m5suration & 9 ! "p devot$ to =e/ valuation he develops ! fir/ soil r5t =mula & ! me?ods ( det]m9+ ! co/ value ( /&s4 ,8 8,=e/ ,ma!matics0 7#ahce7 9 :i* he introduces factors ( =m & _m o!r new ideas 0 an orig9al contribution to sci5ce4 ,v diff]5t 9 "* f ^! f\r lead]s 0 ! aggressive1 %>p-witt$ ,fri$ri* ,wilhelm ,leopold ,pfeil 7#aghc-ahei71 :o1 )\t a univ]sity education1 & 9 spite ( 8 poor k ( ma!matics & natural hi/ory1 advanc$ himself by native wit & g5ius4 ,aft] a brief p]iod ( employm5t 9 private s]vice1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,silesia1 he accept$ ! position ( pr(essor ( =e/ry at ! ,b]l9 ,univ]sity1 9 #ahba1 9 connection ) ,h>tig1 ) :om1 h[ev]1 he 0 at sword's po9t4 ,x 0 at 8 in/igation1 ) ! assi/ance ( von ,humboldt1 t ! s*ool 0 transf]r$1 9 #ahcj1 to ,eb]swalde1 ,pfeil becom+ its director4 ,:ile ,h>tig 0 a g5]aliz]1 ,pfeil 0 an individualiz]1 free f dogma1 & mo/ sugge/ive2 a free lance & a fight]4 ,critical 9 ! extreme & prolific 9 8 lit]>y "w1 he dom9e]$ ! =e/ry lit]ature ( ! day by means ( 8 ,kritis*e ,blaett]1 a j\rnal ( mu* import & m]it4 ,! y\nge/ ( ! gr\p1 ,k>l ,hey] 7#agig-ahef71 a ?or\ghly educat$ man1 comb9$ ! pr(essorial position 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,giess5 7#ahce7 ) practical managem5t ( a =e/ di/rict1 b 9 #ahcd ab&on$ ! latt] 9 ord] to devote himself entirely to lit]>y "w4 ,he 0 "o ( ! cle>e/ & mo/ sy/ematic exp\nd]s1 & bo? 8 ,waldbau 7silviculture1 #ahed7 & 8 ,wald]tragsregelung 7=e/ organization1 #ahda7 are classics4 ,! la/1 fif? edition ( ! ,waldbau1 appe>+ 9 #aijf 9 two volumes1 has be5 br\ght up to date by ,pr(essor ,hess4 ,he devis$ "o ( ! mo/ rational me?ods ( =e/ organization1 &1 imbu$ ) ! necessity ( bas+ =e/ managem5t on exact sci5tific inquiry1 in/ead ( on empiricism alone1 he =mulat$ in/ructions = =e/ /atic inve/igations1 a subject :i* 8 son1 ,gu/av ,hey]1 elaborat$ into a sci5ce4 #d4 ,progress 9 ,silviculture4 ,natural reg5]ation cont9u$ to be ! favorite me?od well into ?is p]iod1 &1 = a long "t1 selection =e/ & coppice 7 all t 0 kn[n 9 practice until ,h>tig & ,cotta =c$ recognition ( ! %elt]wood sy/em4 ,! only way 9 :i* a transition f ! g5]ally practic$1 unregulat$ selection =e/ to an int5sive managem5t 0 possible1 ) ! ignorant p]sonnel ( und]=e/]s1 0 to =mulate into an easily intelligible prescription ! necess>y rules1 all[+ ! lea/ play to individual judgm5t4 ,?is 0 done by ,h>tig :5 he =mulat$ 8 eight 8,g5]al ,rules0 7#ahjh7 :i* co9cid$ also closely ) ! tea*+s ( ,cotta4 ,s9ce ^! rules repres5t 9 brief & mo/ def9itely ! /atus ( silvicultural k on natural reg5]ation at ! "t1 x may be desirable to translate !m v]batim4 7#a7 8,e =e/ tree :i* is expect$ to propagate itself by natural reg5]ation mu/ be old en\gh to be> good se$4 7#b7 8,e di/rict or /& :i* is to be replac$ by a ?or\ghly p]fect /& by means ( natural reg5]ation1 mu/ be br\ght into su* position 7d5sity7 t ! soil may ev]y:]e receive suffici5t se$+4 7#c7 8,ea* comp>tm5t mu/ be kept 9 su* condition 7d5sity7 t x _c1 be=e ! se$+ takes place1 gr[ up to grass & we$s4 7#d7 8,) species ^: se$ loses its p[] ( g]m9ation ?r\gh fro/1 z is ! case ) ! oak & bee*1 ! comp>tm5ts mu/ be giv5 su* a position 7d5sity7 t ! foliage :i* aft] ! fall ( se$ cov]s & protects ! same _c be c>ri$ away by w9d4 7#e7 8,all /&s mu/ be giv5 su* d5sity t ! g]m9at+ plants 9 ! same1 z long z !y are /ill t5d]1 f9d suffici5t protection f _! "m trees aga9/ heat ( ! sun & aga9/ cold4 7#f7 8,s soon z ! "y /& result+ f natural reg5]ation does n any long] require ?is mo!rly protection1 x mu/ gradually1 ?r\gh ! c>eful removal ( ! "m trees1 be accu/om$ to ! wea!r1 & f9ally mu/ be entirely br\ght into ! op5 position4 7#g7 8,all ! "y gr[?s1 :e!r secur$ by natural or artificial se$+1 mu/ be fre$ f ! accompany+ less useful species & f we$s1 if ^! 9 spite ( all precaution ?reat5 ! bett] k9ds4 7#h7 8,f e "y =e/ until x is full gr[n1 ! suppress$ wood mu/ be remov$ f "t to "t1 s t ! trees :i* are ahead or dom9ate may gr[ ! bett]2 ! upp] p]fect cr[n cov]1 h[ev]1 mu/ n be int]rupt$ until x is ! int5tion to gr[ a new =e/ aga9 9 ! place ( ! old "o40 ,s9ce ^! rules are applicable only 9 bee* =e/s1 mu* mis*ief & misconception result$ f _! g5]alization2 pure1 ev5-ag$ high =e/s became ! ideal1 & ! mix$ =e/1 :i* 0 orig9ally ! mo/ widespread condition1 vani%$ to a l>ge ext5t4 ,?is 0 especially un=tunate 9 ,nor!rn & ,nor!a/]n p9e =e/s4 ,a reaction aga9/ ,h>tig's g5]alization began ab\t #ahcj1 "u ! lead ( ,pfeil4 ,he _h at fir/ agre$ ) ,h>tig1 & !n ) equal n>r[ness advocat$ = _m ye>s a cle> cutt+ sy/em ) artificial re=e/ation4 ,f9ally1 h[ev]1 he 0 n afraid to ackn[l$ge t 8 e>ly g5]alizations 9 ?is respect 7 a mi/ake1 & t diff]5t conditions requir$ diff]5t treatm5t4 ,9 ! developm5t ( ! %elt]wood sy/em !re 0 at fir/1 "u ! lead ( ,h>tig1 a t5d5cy to op5 up r %>ply1 tak+ out ab\t ?ree-f\r?s ( ! exi/+ /&1 b gradually he became conv9c$ t ?is 0 too mu*1 & f9ally r$uc$ ! fir/ removal to only ab\t "o-?ird ( ! /&4 ,?is 0 ! orig9 ( 8 nickname ( ,dunkelman4 ,9 spite ( ! fact t x 0 claim$ t ,cotta took ! opposite view 7= :i* he 0 call$ ,li*tman71 he1 too1 grew to favor a d>k position1 &1 z he progress$1 lean$ m & m t[>ds m c>eful op5+ up4 ,h>tig orig9ally recogniz$ only ?ree diff]5t fell+s3 ! cutt+ = se$2 ! cutt+ = light2 & ! removal cutt+4 ,by & by1 a second cut 0 made dur+ ! se$ ye>1 & ! numb] ( fell+s to secure gradual removal 7 increas$1 s t1 by #ahja1 ?is sy/em seems to h be5 pretty ne>ly p]fect$ to its mod]n conditions4 ,! be/ exposition ( ?is ,femels*lagbetrieb 7%elt]wood sy/em71 z !n develop$1 is to be f\nd 9 ,k>l ,hey]'s ,h&book1 #ahed4 ,! me?od 0 un=tunately ext5d$ by ,burgsdorf 7#aghg7 to ! ,nor!rn p9]ies ) a sev5ty ye> p]iod ( rotation4 ,)9 t5 ye>s1 h[ev]1 he recogniz$ its inappropriat5ess1 & modifi$ x by in/ructions to leave only six to twelve se$ trees p] acre4 ,8 successor1 ,kropff1 r$uc$ ! numb] ( se$ trees to f\r or five1 :i* 7 to be remov$ )9 two or ?ree ye>s4 ,9 spite ( ! developm5t ( ?is m rational me?od1 ! practition]s "u ,h>tig's approval1 held ma9ly to a d>k position ev5 = p9e1 mu* 9 ! mann] ( a selection =e/1 :i* produc$ a poor gr[? ( oppress$ se$l+s1 ret>d+ = a long "t ! developm5t ( ! p9]ies4 ,9 spruce or fir1 ei!r a pure selection =e/ or a /rip sy/em 0 employ$4 ,attempts at a %elt]wood sy/em 7 made1 b exp]i5ce ) ! w9d dang] soon taught ! lesson t ?is 0 n a prop] me?od ) %all[-root$ species4 ,ev5 ,h>tig pref]r$ = spruce cle>+ & plant+1 & ?is is /ill ! mo/ favor$ me?od ) t species4 ,= ! deep-root$ & %ade-endur+ fir ! %elt]wood me?od ) a long reg5]ation p]iod 0 ?or\ghly e/abli%$ 9 ! ,black ,=e/1 & 9 ,wrttemb]g by #ahah4 ,natural reg5]ation be+ ! ma9 me?od ( reproduction until ! beg9n+ ( ! #ai? c5tury1 artificial means1 z is evid5t f ! =e/ ord9ances ( ,prussia & ,bav>ia 7#ahab & #ahad71 7 usually appli$ only to repair fail-places1 or to plant up wa/es4 ,9 ?is artificial re=e/ation1 ) ! exception ( ! plant+ ( oak 9 pa/ures1 s[+ 0 almo/ entirely resort$ to because x c\ld be done *eap] & easi]1 b z ! s[+s 7 mo/ly made on unprep>$ soil & ) v l>ge am\nts ( se$ 7#cj to #fj p\nds p] acre1 n[ only #g to #aj p\nds71 ! results 7 n satisfactory1 ei!r because ! se$ did n f9d favorable conditions = g]m9at+1 or :5 g]m9at$ ! /& 0 too d5se4 ,plant+1 if done at all1 0 done only ) wildl+s dug f ! woods1 & usually1 foll[+ ! practice ( ! plant+ ( oak 9 pa/ures1 ) sapl+s3 ! plant mat]ial 0 too l>ge = success4 ,nurs]ies1 except = oak1 7 n kn[n1 ev5 to ,cotta 9 #ahag2 & ,hey]1 hav+ to plant up sev]al ?\s& acres1 /ill reli$ on wildl+s1 two to ?ree ye>s old1 :i* he took up ) a ball ( e>? by means ( 8 8hole spade10 a circul> spade re-inv5t$ by him & mu* prais$ by o!rs4 ,h>tig1 9 #ahcc1 /ill advis$ ! use ( f\r to five ye> old p9e wildl+s1 root-prun$1 b1 ev5tually1 hav+ met ) poor success1 = :i* he 0 mu* discr$it$1 came to ! conclusion t un-prun$ two-ye>-old plants 7 pref]able4 ,! cr$it ( hav+ radically *ang$ ^! practices belongs to ,pfeil1 :o1 entirely rev]s+ 8 position1 advocat$ = p9e =e/ a sy/em ( cle>+ foll[$ by s[+1 or by plant+ ( wildl+s ) a ball ( e>?4 ,!n1 sugge/+ t possibly plant+ )\t ?is precaution c\ld be attempt$1 & po9t+ out ! necessity ( secur+ a satisfactory root sy/em1 he recomm5d$1 ab\t #ahcj1 ! use ( "o-ye>-old se$l+s gr[n 9 c>efully prep>$ se$ b$s4 ,:ile = secur+ ^!1 he reli$ ^u ! simple prep>ation ( ! soil by spad+1 ,bi]mans add$ ! use ( a f]tiliz] 9 ! %ape ( ! a%es ( burn$ sod4 ,! me?od ( gr[+ p9e se$l+s & plant+ !m :5 "o to ?ree ye>s old 0 fur!r develop$ by ,butl> 7#ahde71 :o introduc$ ! practice ( d5se s[+ 9 ! se$ b$s4 ,he also inv5t$ an +5i\s plant+ iron or dibble1 a half cone ( iron1 :i* 0 ?r[n by ! plant] ) great precision1 fir/ to make a hole & !n to close x4 ,?is 0 improv$ by ! addition ( a long h&le into ! sup]ior1 well-kn[n & mu* us$ ,w>t5b]g plant+ dibble4 ,at ! same "t 7#ahdj71 ,manteuffel devis$ ! me?od kn[n by 8 "n ( plant+ 9 m\nds1 :i* is especially applicable on wet soils4 ,x 0 n until #ahdj t transplant+ ( ye>l+ p9es ) nak$ roots became g5]al4 ,! widespread application ( ?is latt] sy/em result$ 9 ab&on+ to a l>ge ext5t mix$ gr[?1 & l$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( pure p9e =e/s1 introduc+ !reby mo/ int5sively all ! dang]s incid5t to a cle>+ sy/em & pure =e/ :i* are avoid$ by ! mix$ =e/1 namely1 insects1 fro/ & dr\ght4 ,a practice ( plant+ spruce 9 bun*es1 orig9ally twelve to tw5ty plants 9 a bun*1 _h be5 9 exi/5ce s9ce #aghj4 ,?is practice increas$ until #ahej1 & is /ill 9 use 9 ! ,h>z m\nta9s & 9 ea/]n ,prussia1 al?\gh ! bun*es h be5 r$uc$ s z to conta9 only f ?ree to five plants1 ! object ( ! bun*+ be+ to make sure t "o or ! o!r ( ! plants %\ld live4 ,mu* discussion z to ! m]its ( ?is me?od took place betwe5 ! old ma/]s1 ,cotta favor+ ! small bun*es ^u ! basis ( a successful plantation ( 8 own1 ,h>tig & ,pfeil oppos+ x1 b f9ally weak5+4 ,s9ce #ahej1 h[ev]1 ! practice ( sett+ out s+le plants has become m g5]al4 ,a reaction f ! indiscrim9ate application ( ! %elt]wood me?od to ! h>dwoods & ( ! cle>+ me?od to ! p9e set 9 dur+ ! la/ qu>t] ( ! #ai? c5tury "u ! lead ( ,burkh>dt & ,gay]4 ,^! advocat$ return to mix$ =e/ & to natural reg5]ation ) long p]iods1 approa*+ a selection =e/4 ,gay] especially1 pr(essor ( silviculture at ,muni*1 became ! =emo/ apo/le ( ?is s*ool4 ,yet ev5 to ?is day1 ! pr9ciples ( silvicultural treatm5t "u ! _m diff]5t conditions rema9 unsettl$4 ,on ! :ole h[ev]1 ) ! f9ancial "q assidu\sly br\ght =w>d1 ! cle>+ sy/em has made mo/ progress1 & ! selection sy/em has ne>ly vani%$1 be+ replac$ by ! gr\p me?od & ! %elt]wood sy/em4 ,a numb] ( special =ms ( silvicultural managem5t applicable "u special conditions h be5 locally develop$1 )\t1 h[ev]1 ga9+ mu* gr\nd & be+ ma9ly ( hi/orical value4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ ,seeba*'s ,modifi$ ,bee* ,=e/1 :i* consi/s 9 op5+ up a bee* /& s z to secure reg5]ation1 m]ely to =m a soil cov]1 leav+ en\gh ( ! old /& on ! gr\nd to close up 9 ?irty or =ty ye>s4 ,by ?is treatm5t ! l>ge increm5t due to op5 position is secur$ )\t endang]+ ! soil4 ,simil>ly ! ,/ori$ or ,two-ag$ ,high =e/1 0 appli$ to ! managem5t ( oak =e/ 9 mixture ) bee*4 ,9 a few localities also1 on limit$ areas1 a comb9ation ( =e/ & f>m+ 7,waldfeldbau7 has be5 cont9u$ & elaborat$1 besides ! m g5]al use ( coppice & coppice ) /&>ds4 ,accord+ to ! /ati/ics = #aijj ! foll[+ di/ribution ( ! acreage "u diff]5t silvicultural me?ods prevail$ ?r\gh\t ! empire3 ,decidu\s ,conif]\s ,p] c5t4 ,p] c5t4 ,total ,=e/ #cb4e #fg4e ,high ,=e/ #ah4d #fj4a ,selection ,=e/ #b4c #g4d ,coppice #f4h -- ,coppice ) /&>ds #e4 -- ,conif]\s =e/1 ( :i* #fh is p9e & #cj spruce1 prevails 9 ,ea/]n & ,middle ,g]many1 decidu\s =e/1 ( :i* #bj is oak1 ! balance pr9cipally bee*1 9 ! ,we/ & ,s\?4 ,coppice & coppice ) /&>ds are mo/ly 9 private h&s z well z ! conif]\s selection =e/1 ! ,/ate =e/s be+ almo/ entirely high =e/1 i4e41 se$ =e/1 o!r ?an "u selection me?od4 ,me?ods ( ,improv+ ! ,crop4 ,! cr$it ( hav+ fir/ sy/ematically =mulat$ ! practice ( ?9n+s "u ! "n ( ,dur*=/ung 7= ! fir/ ?9n+71 ,dur*pl5t]ung 7= ! lat] ?9n+s71 belongs to ,h>tig1 al?\gh ! practice ( su* ?9n+s _h be5 kn[n & appli$ "h & !re be=e 8 "t4 ,he conf9$ himself ma9ly to ! removal ( ! undesirable species1 dead & dy+1 suppress$ & damag$ trees1 be+ especially emphatic 9 8 advice n to int]rupt ! cr[n cov]4 ,except+ ! e>ly we$+ or improvem5t cutt+s1 ^! ?9n+s 7 n to beg9 until ! fiftie? to sev5tie? ye> 9 ! broadleav$ =e/1 b 9 conif]s 9 ! tw5tie? to ?irtie? ye>4 ,! fir/ attempt to expla9 on a biological basis ! process & effect ( ?9n+ 0 made by ,sp? 9 a special contribution 7#ahjb74 ,cotta1 9 8 ,silviculture1 al?\gh at fir/ agree+ ) ,h>tig1 lat] 9 8 ?ird edition 7#ahba7 *anges 8 m9d1 & improves bo? ^u ! biological explanation ( ,sp? & ! practice ( ,h>tig1 po9t+ out t ! latt] came too late ) 8 assi/ance1 t ! /ruggle betwe5 ! individuals %\ld be anticipat$1 & ! ?9n+ repeat$ z soon z ! bran*es beg9 to die2 b he also recognizes ! practical difficulty ( ! application ( ?is cultural measure on acc\nt ( ! exp5se4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 he recomm5ds sev]] ?9n+s = fuel-wood production ?an = timb] =e/s4 ,pfeil acc5tuates ! necessity ( treat+ diff]5t sites & species diff]5tly 9 ! practice ( ?9n+s4 ,hunde%ag5 acc5tuates ! f9ancial result & ! fact t ! culm9ation ( ! av]age yield is secur$ e>li] by frequ5t ?9n+s4 ,hey] =mulates ! 8gold5 rule30 8,e>ly1 (t51 mod]ate10 b insi/s t fir/ ?9n+ %\ld n be made until ! co/ ( ! op]ation c be cov]$ by ! sale ( ! mat]ial4 ,propositions to base ! philosophy & ! results ( ?9n+ on exp]im5tal gr\nds r ?an on m]e op9ion 7 made z e>ly z #ahbe to #ahbh1 & aga9 f #ahci to #ahdf1 at v>i\s meet+s ( =e/ry associations1 until1 9 #ahfj1 ,brunswick & ,saxony inaugurat$ ! fir/ m ext5sive exp]im5ts 9 ?9n+s4 ,! two repres5tatives ( =e/ f9ance1 ,ko5ig & ,pressl]1 po9t$ out1 9 #ahdb to #ahei1 ! great significance ( ?9n+s 9 a f9ance managem5t z "o ( ! mo/ important silvicultural op]ations = secur+ ! highe/ yield4 ,9 spite ( ! advanc$ developm5t ( ! !ory ( ?9n+1 ! practice has l>gely lagg$ beh9d1 because ( ! impracticability ( introduc+ int5sive managem5t4 ,only lately1 ow+ to improvem5t 9 prices & ! possibility ( m>ket+ ! inf]ior mat]ial pr(itably en\gh to ju/ify ! exp5diture1 has x become possible to secure m g5]ally ! advantages ( ! cultural effect4 ,)9 ! la/ ?irty or =ty ye>s1 great activity has be5 develop$ among ! exp]im5t /ations 9 secur+ a true basis = ! practice ( ?9n+4 ,new ideas 7 introduc$ ?r\gh ,fr5* influ5ce & by o!rs indep5d5tly 9 ! latt] "p ( ! eighties1 :5 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! f9al h>ve/ crop 7,fr4 lite1 le haut7 & ! nurse crop 7le bas7 0 introduc$4#d #d ,! conception ( su* subdivision & ! ,engli% nom5clature 0 indep5d5tly fir/ employ$ by ! writ] 9 8 ,report = #ahhg1 z ,*ief ( ,=e/ry ,division1 :5 discuss+ plant+ plans = ! prairies4 ,! physiological reasons = ! practice ( ?9n+ ^u exp]im5tal basis1 7 advanc$ by ! botani/s ,goepp]t & ,r4 ,h>tig1 & among =e/]s1 ! names ( ,kraft1 ,lorey1 ,haug1 ,borggreve1 ,wag5]1 & o!rs are intimately connect$ ) ! v active discussion ( ! subject lately go+ on 9 ! magaz9es4 ,?9n+s h become su* an important "p ( ! income ( =e/ adm9i/rations 7#be to #dj ( ! total yield7 t ! prom95ce giv5 to ! subject is well ju/ifi$1 & a m mod]n conception ( ! advantages ( ?9n+s & especially ( sev]] ?9n+s is ga9+ gr\nd4 ,! proposition1 n[ mu* v5tilat$1 ( sev]e op5+ up ne> ! end ( ! rotation1 9 ord] to secure an accel]at$ increm5t 7,li*tung%iebe7 is1 h[ev]1 mu* old]2 ,hossfeld1 9 #ahbd1 & ,jg] 9 #ahej1 advocat$ ?is measure = f9ancial reasons1 :ile ,ko5ig & ,pressl] anticipat$ ! developm5t ( an individual tree managem5t by prun+1 & diff]5tiation ( f9al h>ve/ & nurse crop1 a me?od :i* is work+ itself out at ! pres5t "t4 #e4 ,me?ods ( ,=e/ ,organization4 ,z /at$ be=e1 to ,h>tig & ,cotta belongs ! cr$it ( hav+ appli$ sy/ematically on a l>ge scale me?ods ( =e/ organization = su/a9$ yield2 ,h>tig hav+ be5 active 9 ,prussia s9ce #ahaa1 & ,cotta beg9n+ to organize ! ,saxon =e/s 9 ! same ye>4 ,! me?od employ$ by ,h>tig1 ! s-call$ volume allotm5t1 _h be5 already =mulat$ & its f\ndation laid by ,kregt+ & o!rs 7al?\gh ,h>tig seems to h claim$ ! inv5tion74 ,b x 0 res]v$ to ,h>tig to build up ?is me?od 9 its detail1 & to =mulate cle>ly & precisely its application1 z well z to improve ! practice ( =e/ survey1 calculation ( increm5t1 & ! mak+ ( yield tables4 ,8 me?od involv$ a survey1 a subdivision1 a con/ruction ( yield tables & ! =mulation ( work+ plans1 9 :i* ! pr9ciple accord+ to :i* ! =e/ 0 to be manag$ dur+ ! :ole rotation 0 laid d[n = ea* di/rict4 ,! rotation 0 det]m9$1 divid$ into p]iods1 f9ally ( tw5ty ye>s1 & ! p]iodic volume yield repres5t$ by all /&s 0 di/ribut$ ?r\gh all ! p]iods ( ! rotation 9 su* a mann] z to make ! p]iodic fell+ budgets approximately equal2 or1 s9ce ! t5d5cy to increas$ wood consumption 0 recogniz$1 an increase ( ! fell+ budget t[>d ! end ( ! rotation 0 consid]$ desirable4 ,cotta bas$ 8 sy/em ( =e/ organization ^u a me?od describ$ by a ,bav>ian1 ,s*il*] 7#agif72 x reli$ prim>ily ^u area r ?an volume division4 ,?is me?od 0 lat] on 7#ahag71 call$ by him ,flae*5fa*w]k 7area allotm5t74 ,x divides ! rotation into p]iods & allots areas = ea* p]iodic fell+ budget4 ,b be=e ?is "t1 9 #ahjd1 ,cotta _h himself =mulat$ a me?od ( 8 own1 :i* comb9$ ! area & volume me?od1 ! volume be+ ! ma9 basis & ! area be+ m]ely us$ z a *eck4 ,:ile ,h>tig dogmatically & p]si/5tly c>ri$ out 8 difficult s*eme1 ,cotta 0 op5-m9d$ en\gh to improve 8 me?od ( regulation1 & by #ahbj1 9 8 ,anweisung zur ,=/-,e9ri*tung und -,abs*aetzung1 he comes to 8 f9al position ( bas+ ! su/a9$ yield entirely on ! area allotm5t1 us+ ! e/imate ( volume simply to secure an approximately uni=m fell+ budget4 ,he laid p>ticul> /ress on ord]ly proc$ure 9 ! subdivision & progress ( ! fell+s4 ,he did n prep>e an elaborate work+ plan b9d+ = ! entire rotation1 b m]ely prescrib$ ! pr9ciples ( ! g5]al managem5t1 &1 aft] #ahaf1 he conf9$ ! =mulat+ ( fell+ & plant+ plans only to ! next decade4 ,a simil> me?od1 mak+ a clos] comb9ation ( volume & area allotm5t1 n[ kn[n z ! comb9$ allotm5t1 9 :i* ! area =ms ! ma9 basis = di/ribut+ ! fell+ budgets1 0 prescrib$ by ,klip/e9 9 #ahcc4 ,?is1 also1 conf9es ! work+ plan to ! fir/ p]iod ( ! rotation & = ?is p]iod alone makes a r c>eful /atem5t ( ! expect$ volume budget2 a new budget is !n to be det]m9$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! next p]iod4 ,?is idea ( conf9+ ! budget det]m9ation to a comp>atively %ort p]iod is n[ g5]ally accept$1 ! future receiv+ only summ>y consid]ation4 ,^! me?ods ( organization 7 ! ones g5]ally appli$ 9 practice1 & are /ill ) "s modifications 9 practical use4 ,ab\t #ahbj1 h[ev]1 new !ories 7 advanc$ :i* l$ to ! =mulation ( me?ods bas$ ^u ! idea ( ! normal =e/4 ,! conception ( a normal =e/1 ) a normal /ock1 di/ribut$ 9 normal age classes1 s z to insure a su/a9$ yield managem5t1 0 evolv$1 9 #aghh1 by an obscure anonym\s (ficial 9 ! ,tax-collector's (fice ( ,au/ria1 design$ = assess+ woods manag$ = su/a9$ yield4 ,?is f]tile idea1 :i* is /ill ! basis ( =e/ organization 9 ,au/ria1 & expla9s bett] ?an any o!r me?od ! pr9ciples involv$ 9 =e/ organization1 did n f9d entrance into =e/ry lit]ature 9 all its detail until #ahaa :5 ,&r comp>$ ?is s-call$ ,cam]altaxe ) ,h>tig's me?od ( regulation4 ,we f9d1 h[ev]1 t1 simultane\sly ) ! ,au/rian inv5tion ( ?is me?od1 ,pauls5 7#aghg7 propos$ to det]m9e ! fell+ budget z a relation betwe5 normal /ock & normal yield1 & 9 8 yield tables 7! fir/ ( ! k9d1 #agie71 he gives ! proportion ( increm5t to normal /ock 9 p]c5tic relation1 s t ! fell+ budget may be ei!r express$ z a fraction ( ! /ock or z a p] c5t42 9 bee* =e/s1 = in/ance1 he det]m9es ! fell+ budget z #c4c on be/ sites1 #b4e on m$ium1 & #a4h on poor sites4 ,probably /imulat$ by ,&r's description1 ,hub] 7#ahab7 develop$ a me?od & =mula :i* may be consid]$ ! f\ndation ( ! lat] developm5t by ,c>l ,hey] 7,fell+ budget ,i 77,sa - ,sn7_/e774 ,bas$ ^u ! normal =e/ idea1 a numb] ( me?ods 7 elaborat$ :i*1 because ( _! employ+ a ma!matical =mula = ! det]m9ation ( ! fell+ budget1 are kn[n z =mula me?ods2 !y are1 inde$ modifi$ rational volume divisions4 ,hunde%ag5 has ! m]it ( hav+ fir/ cle>ly expla9$ ! basis ( ^! me?ods1 & himself develop$ a =mula1 ( ! correctness ( :i* he 0 s conv9c$ z to designate 8 me?od z 8! rational0 "o4 ,two o!r =mul 7 br\ght into ! _w by ,ko5ig 7#ahch-ahea71 b ! cr$it ( ! mo/ complete elaboration bo? ( ! pr9ciples ( ! normal =e/ idea & ( its practical application belongs to ,c>l ,hey]4 ,! pr9ciples ( 8 me?od are briefly3 ,fir/ det]m9e ^u ! p]iod ( regulation dur+ :i* ! abnormal =e/ is to be br\ght ne>] to normal conditions2 ! l5g? ( ?is p]iod to be det]m9$ ) due reg>d to ! f9ancial requirem5ts or ability ( ! own] & to ! conditions ( ! =e/4 ,! actual /ock on h& is !n det]m9$ & ! total increm5t1 bas$ on ! av]age increm5t at fell+ age ( ea* /&1 :i* w take place dur+ ?is p]iod1 is add$4 ,d$uct+ f ?is total :at has be5 calculat$ z ! prop] normal /ock requisite = a su/a9$ yield managem5t1 ! balance is available = fell+ budgets :i* may be utiliz$ 9 annual or p]iodic in/alm5ts dur+ ! p]iod ( regulation4 ,a work+ plan is provid$ :i* takes c>e ( secur+ an ord]ly progress ( fell+s & prop] location ( age classes1 to be revis$ e t5 ye>s4 ,al?\gh ?is is und\bt$ly ! mo/ rational me?od yet devis$1 x has rema9$ l>gely unus$1 & is f\nd 9 some:at modifi$ application only 9 ,au/ria & ,bad54 ,an entirely new pr9ciple 9 ! !ory ( =e/ organization 0 introduc$1 :5 ! aim ( =e/ managem5t 0 =mulat$ to be ! highe/ soil r5t4 ,accord+ to ?is requirem5t ! prop] h>ve/ "t ( any /&1 or ev5 ( any tree1 0 to be det]m9$ by ! s-call$ index p] c5t41 t is1 a calculation :i* det]m9es :e!r a /& or a tree is /ill produc+ at a prop] pr$et]m9$ rate1 or is decl9+4 ,! advocates ( ?is pr9ciple 7 especially ,pressl] 7pr(essor ( ma!matics at ,?>&t1 #ahdj to #ahdc7 & ,g4 ,hey]1 son ( ,c>l ,hey]1 :o bas$ 8 me?od on 8 fa!r's =mula1 m]ely introduc+ values = volumes4 ,judei*1 director ( ! ,?>&t s*ool1 also develop$ 9 ! sixties a me?od1 bas$ ^u f9ancial !ory1 :i* is to atta9 ! highe/ rate p] c5t4 on ! capital inve/$ 9 =e/ production4 ,on ! basis ( survey & subdivision ( work+ blocks compos+ a fell+ s]ies1 & ) a rotation det]m9$ by f9ancial calculations ) int]e/ acc\nts1 he makes a p]iodic area division = det]m9+ ! fell+ budget 9 g5]al1 & 9 addition employs ! index p] c5t41 z expla9$1 = det]m9+ 9 ea* allott$ /& ! m exact "t = its h>ve/4 ,:ile ^! m5 plead$ = a /rict f9ance calculation1 su* z is prop]ly appli$ to any bus9ess mak+ f9ancial results ! ma9 issue1 ! def5d]s ( ! old regime1 :i* s\ght ! object ( =e/ managem5t ma9ly 9 highe/ mat]ial or value production1 advanc$ z _! f9ancial program ! atta9m5t ( ! highe/ =e/ r5t z oppos$ to ! highe/ soil r5t4 ,!y neglect$ & d]id$ ! complicat$ int]e/ calculations :i* h to take into consid]ation unc]ta9 future developm5ts1 & 7 satisfi$ ) produc+ a satisfactory balance1 a surplus ( income ov] exp5ses1 no matt] :at int]e/ rate on ! capital involv$ 9 soil & =e/ gr[? t might repres5t4 ,at ! pres5t "t ^! f9ancial propositions are /ill ma9ly "u heat$ discussion4 ,9 actual practice1 ! v>i\s /ate =e/ adm9i/rations1 ) ! exception ( ! ,saxon "o1 cont9ue to rely ^u ! old] me?ods 9 regulat+ ! managem5t ( _! =e/ prop]ties )\t ref]5ce to f9ancial !ories4 ,?is is l>gely due to mom5tum ( ! practical exi/5ce & application ( ^! me?ods 9 e>li] times & ! difficulty & impracticability ( a *ange4 ,j n[1 h[ev]1 sev]al ( ! ,/ate adm9i/rations are prep>+ to radically revise _! work+ plans4 ,9 ,prussia1 ! in/ructions = work+ plans ( #ahai =mulat$ by ,h>tig 7 improv$ ^u by 8 successor1 ,ob]l&=/mei/] von ,reuss 7#ahcf71 & ^! in/ructions =m$ ! basis ( ! "w ( =e/ regulation until ! end ( ! #ai? c5tury4 ,x is a p]iodic area allotm5t ) only a summ>y *eck by volume4 ,! work+ plan is only to secure a rational location & gradation ( age classes2 ! calculations ( yields & specific rules ( managem5t are lately conf9$ to ! fir/ p]iod & are revis$ e six ye>s4 ,9 ,saxony1 ,cotta's area me?od 0 sy/ematically develop$1 &1 z ! l>g] "p ( ,saxon =e/s is conif]\s1 ma9ly spruce1 ! prop] location ( age classes =ms a special consid]ation = ! progress ( fell+s4 ,! det]m9ation ( volume & increm5t 0 left to summ>y e/imates1 & ! area division became entirely sup]ior4 ,! orig9al idea ( ,cotta t ord]ly proc$ure 9 ! managem5t is ( m importance ?an ! actual det]m9ation & equalization ( yield /ill p]vades ! ,saxon practice4 ,s9ce #ahfj1 an attempt has be5 made to calculate ! rotation & det]m9e ! fell+ budget on ! pr9ciple ( ! soil r5t1 at lea/ z a corrective ( ! annual budget1 & 9 g5]al to lean t[>ds ,judei*'s /& managem5t4 ,9 ,bav>ia1 aft] v>i\s *anges1 a complete allotm5t me?od ( area & volume _h come into vogue1 9 #ahai2 b1 at ! pres5t writ+ 7#aiaa7 an entirely new & mod]n re-organization has be5 begun1 9 :i* mo/ mod]n ideas & especially mu* fre$om ( movem5t1 ev5 to deviation f ! pr9ciple ( su/a9$ yield1 is all[$4 ,9 ,wrttemb]g1 :]e1 9 #ahah to #ahbb1 a pure volume allotm5t _h be5 introduc$1 9 #ahfb to #ahfc ! comb9$ allotm5t me?od 0 begun1 ! fell+ budget be+ det]m9$ 9 a g5]al way = ! next two or ?ree p]iods1 & m precisely = ! fir/ decade1 )\t attempt+ m ?an approximate equality4 ,9 #ahih1 new in/ructions 7 issu$1 :i* ab&on ! allotm5t me?od & re/rict ! yield regulation to designat+ fell+ areas = ! fir/ p]iod4 ,9 ,bad51 :]e ! =e/ organization began 9 #ahcf ^u ! basis ( volume allotm5t1 a *ange 0 made 9 #ahdi to an area allotm5t1 simplify+ to a great] ext5t ?an any:]e else ! calculation ( ! yield2 f9ally1 ,hey]'s me?od 0 adopt$ entirely 9 #ahfi4 ,x appe>s !n t ! s*ematic allotm5t me?ods f\nd ! mo/ g5]al application 9 ! e>li] "t ( ! p]iod1 be+ favor$ probably on acc\nt ( _! simplicity 9 application4 ,! improvem5t 9 _! pres5t application ov] ! orig9al me?ods z design$ by ,h>tig & ,cotta1 is t n[ !y require no volume calculation = any long future1 b are satisfi$ ) mak+ a suffici5tly accurate calculation & provision = ! prop] fell+ budget = ! pres5t4 #f4 ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! #ah? c5tury ! recognition ( ! importance ( =e/ry l$ to a sev]ance ( ! =e/ & hunt+ int]e/s1 & x became ! practice to place ! direction ( ! =m] into ! h&s ( "s m or less compet5t man--a /ate =e/]--usually "u ! fiscal bran* or treasury dep>tm5t ( ! g5]al adm9i/ration4 ,fully organiz$ =e/ adm9i/rations1 9 ! mod]n s5se1 h[ev]1 c\ld h>dly be said to h exi/$ be=e ! end ( ! ,napoleonic w>s 7#ahae7 :i* _h und\bt$ly ret>d$ ! peaceful developm5t ( ?is z well z ( o!r re=ms4 ,! pres5t organization ( ! l>ge ,prussian =e/ dep>tm5t 9 its pres5t =m dates f #ahbj1 :5 ,h>tig in/itut$ ! division into prov9cial adm9i/rations1 & diff]5tiat$ !m into directive1 inspection & executive s]vices4 ,! direction ( ! prov9cial managem5t 0 plac$ 9 ! h&s ( an ,ob]=/mei/]1 ) ! assi/ance ( a numb] ( ,=/mei/]1 :o act$ ma9ly z inspectors1 ea* hav+ 8 inspection di/rict consi/+ ( a numb] ( ranges4 ,! ranges 7#ajj1jjj to #abe1jjj acres7 7 plac$ 9 *>ge ( ,ob]fr/] or ,revi]fr/]1 :o ) ! assi/ance ( sev]al und]=e/]s 7,fr/]7 conduct$ ! practical "w4 ,at fir/ only indiff]5tly educat$1 ^! latt] 7 all[$ little latitude1 b ) improvem5t 9 _! education !y became by degrees m & m indep5d5t ag5ts4 ,?is tri-p>tite sy/em ( direct+1 inspect+ & executive (fic]s1 aft] v>i\s *anges 9 titles & functions1 f9ally became practically e/abli%$ 9 all ! l>g] ,g]man /ates2 9 "s r lately1 z = in/ance1 9 ,bav>ia1 n until #ahhe1 & 9 ,wrttemb]g 9 #ahhg4 ,) ?is m /able organization1 ! "* & ! /atus ( ! p]sonnel *ang$ greatly3 ! prior "r ( ! nobility to ! high] positions1 :i* _h la/$ 9 "s ,/ates until #ahdh1 & ! practice ( mak+ connection ) milit>y s]vice a basis = appo9tm5t 7 aboli%$1 &1 in/ead ( ,cam]ali/s1 educat$ =e/]s came ev]y:]e to ! head ( affairs4 ,! l[] s]vice1 :i* _h be5 recruit$ f hunt]s & lackeys1 & :i* 0 not$ = its l[ social1 moral & pecuni>y /atus1 0 improv$ 9 all directions4 ,! *ange f incid5tals 9 ! way ( fees1 & natural in/ead ( money emolum5t = ! l[] grade =e/]s1 7:i* _h be5 ! rule1 & /ill play a role ev5 to date71 to def9ite sal>ies1 & ! salut>y *ange ( me?ods 9 transact+ bus9ess1 :i* ,h>tig introduc$1 became g5]al4 ,) ! developm5t & improvem5t ( =e/ry s*ools1 ! requirem5t ( a high] te*nical education = positions 9 ,/ate s]vice c\ld be en=c$4 ,yet only )9 ! la/ tw5ty-five or ?irty ye>s1 has ! rank+ position ( =e/ (fic]s be5 made adequate & equaliz$ ) t ( o!r public (ficials ( equal responsibility1 & /ill lat] h _! sal>ies be5 made adequate to mod]n requirem5t4 ,! c5tral adm9i/ration n[ lies 9 ! h&s ( te*nical m5 7,ob]l&=/mei/]7 ) a c\ncil ( te*nical deputies 7,l&=/mei/]7 all ( :om h pass$ ?r\gh all ! /ages ( employm5t f t ( di/rict manag]s up4 ,?is c5tral (fice or 8division ( =e/ry0 is ei!r atta*$ to ! dep>tm5t ( agriculture1 or to t ( f9ance1 & has entire *>ge ( ! que/ions ( p]sonnel1 direction ( =e/ s*ools1 ( ! =e/ policy ( ! adm9i/ration1 & ! approval ( all work+ plans1 act+ 9 all ?+s p]ta9+ to ! =e/ s]vice z a c\rt ( la/ resort4 ,! work+ plans are made & revis$ by special commission]s 9 ea* case1 or1 z 9 ,saxony1 "u ! direction ( a special bureau1 ) ! assi/ance ( ! di/rict manag]4 ,^u ! basis ( ! g5]al work+ plan prep>$ by ^! commissions1 an annual plan is elaborat$ by ! di/rict manag]s ) consultation & approval ( ! prov9cial & c5tral adm9i/ration4 ,^! plans conta9 a detail$ /atem5t ( all ! "w to be done ?r\gh ! ye>1 ! co/ ( ea* item1 & ! receipts expect$ f ea* s\rce4 ,?is annual work+ plan requires approval by ! prov9cial adm9i/ration1 :i* is con/itut$ z a delib]ative c\ncil1 consi/+ ( a numb] ( ,=/mei/] ) an ,ob]=/mei/] z presid+ (fic]4 ,! titles ( ^! (fic]s1 to be sure1 & ! details ( proc$ure v>y some:at 9 diff]5t /ates1 b ! sy/em z a :ole is m or less alike4 ,! di/rict manag] or ,ob]fr/]1 n[ (t5 call$ ,=/mei/]1 has gr[n 9 importance & fre$om ( position1 al?\gh 8 di/rict has gr[n small] 7mo/ly n ov] #be1jjj acres71 &1 be+ "o ( ! be/ educat$ m5 9 ! c\ntry di/rict1 he usually holds ! highe/ social position1 al?\gh 8 emolum5ts are /ill mod]ate4 ,he holds _m (fices ( an honor>y "*1 z = in/ance t ( ju/ice ( ! peace1 & ! position ( /ates' attorney or public prosecutor 9 all cases ( infraction ( ! =e/ laws4 ,^! =e/ laws are /ill l>gely local1 i4e41 ,/ate laws1 al?\gh ! crim9al code ( ! empire has some:at unifi$ practice4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 wood on ! /ump is /ill n consid]$ prop]ty 9 ! same s5se z o!r ?+s1 s f> z !ft is conc]n$2 ! /eal+ ( gr[+ timb] is n ev5 call$ !ft1 ! ^w us$ 9 ! laws be+ ,frevel 7tort71 &1 l o!r infractions aga9/ =e/ laws1 x is puni%$ by a money f9e1 m or less 9 proportion to ! value ( ! /ol5 mat]ial or ! damage suff]$4 ,?is money f9e may be transmut$ into imprisonm5t or =e/ labor1 b corporal puni%m5t1 :i* /ill prevail$ 9 ! fir/ decades ( ! c5tury1 has be5 aboli%$4 ,wood /eal+ 0 v g5]al & rampant dur+ ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury1 b improvem5t 9 ! condition ( ! c\ntry population & 9 ! numb] & p]sonnel ( ! =e/ (fic]s s9ce #ahej has n[ r$uc$ x to a m9imum4 ,=m]ly1 & until #ahdh1 ! adm9i/rators & ev5 ! =e/ own]s act$ at ! same "t z prosecutor1 judge & execution]1 & only 9 #ahgi1 0 ?is condition ev]y:]e & entirely *ang$1 & infractions aga9/ =e/ laws adjudg$ by regul> c\rts ( law1 hold+ meet+s at /at$ times = ! prosecution ( su* infractions4 ,nev]!less1 ! c\rt proce$+s 9 =e/ matt]s /ill v>y f ! usual c\rt practice1 provid+ a simpl]1 *eap] & m ready disposal ( te/imony & witnesses1 & quick] retribution1 :i* is l>gely r5d]$ possible ?r\gh hav+ e =e/ (fic] "u oa? z a %]iff1 & 8 /atem5t1 & p]haps ! confiscat$ tools employ$ 9 ! !ft1 be+ accept$ z prima facie evid5ce ( ! infraction4 ,! social position ( ! und]=e/]s & ! =e/ protective s]vice has also be5 improv$ until all *>ges ( incompet5cy & immorality1 :i* 7 n undes]v$ ev5 until pa/ ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 h become rev]s$2 ! =e/ s]vice be+ morally on z high a plane z all ! dep>tm5ts ( ,g]man adm9i/rations4 #g4 ,=e/ ,policy4 ,dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! c5tury ! old conception ( ,=/hoheit--sup]ior "r ( ! pr9ces to sup]vise & int]f]e ) private prop]ty--*ang$ into ! m mod]n conception ( ! police function ( ! /ate1 &1 by #ahej1 aft] ! revolution>y p]iod1 ! seignorage ( ! pr9ces _h pass$ away4 ,! issue ( =e/ ord9ances 7! la/ 9 #ahdj7 0 replac$ by ! enactm5t ( =e/ laws :i*1 s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( repres5tative gov]nm5t1 has become a function ( legislatures4 ,! t5d5cy to re/rict ! ex]cise ( private prop]ty rights _h be5 assail$ by ! !ories ( ,laissez faire & ! tea*+s ( ,adam ,smi?1 &1 z a consequ5ce1 all ! re/rictive m&ates ( ! old] =e/ ord9ances _h be5 weak5$ & _h m ( less fall5 into disuse4 ,especially ! attempts to influ5ce prices & m>kets _h ne>ly if n entirely vani%$ dur+ ! fir/ decade4 ,only = ! /ate =e/1 x 0 /ill ?\ght desirable to pr$et]m9e wood prices1 or at lea/ keep rates l[1 because wood 0 a necess>y mat]ial = ! indu/ries4 ,?is !ory prevail$ until1 p]haps "u ! lead ( ,hunde%ag5 7see above71 ! propriety ( secur+ ! highe/ soil r5t 0 recogniz$ z ! prop] aim1 :5 ! practice ( sell+ wood at auction 9 ord] to secure ! be/ prices became ! rule4 ,! regulations reg>d+ export & import betwe5 ! diff]5t ,/ates1 :i* _h be5 enact$ "u ! m]cantili/ic tea*+s ( ! la/ c5tury 7see page #eb71 & ! _m t>iffs :i* imp$$ a free ex*ange ( commodities1 la/$ = a long :ile into ! #ai? c5tury1 & 7 n all aboli%$ until #ahfe1 :5 "u ! lead ( ,prussia1 ! ,nor? ,g]man ,f$]ation in/itut$ ! ,zollv]e9 7,t>iff alliance7 :i* aboli%$ n only all t>iffs betwe5 ! ,/ates ( ! ,f$]ation1 b also t>iffs on wood products aga9/ ! outside _w4 ,import duties 71 h[ev]1 aga9 e/abli%$ 9 #ahgi1 & ! policy ( protect+ ! e/abli%$ organiz$ =e/ managem5t aga9/ competition by importations f exploit+ c\ntries has be5 aga9 & aga9 recogniz$ z prop] 9 ! revision ( t>iff rates & railroad freight rates on ! gov]nm5t railroads4 ,dur+ ! fir/ decades ( ! c5tury1 ! supply "q 0 upp]mo/1 & al?\gh su* m5 z ,pfeil 7#ahaf7 laugh$ at ! idea ( a wood fam9e1 !re 0 good reason1 prior to ! developm5t ( railroads1 ( coal fields1 ( iron & /eel manufactures1 etc41 = discuss+ ) appreh5sion ! area & condition ( supply & ! ext5t ( ! consumption4 ,nev]!less1 ! attitude ( ! /ate t[>d private prop]ty 0 mu* m influ5c$ by ! economic !ories !n preval5t1 :i* taught ! ideas ( private lib]ty to :i* ! ,fr5* ,revolution _h giv5 su* =cible expression4 ,) ! *ange ( municipal communities f m]e associations ) common mat]ial int]e/ into units or p>ts ( political or /ate ma*9es1 also indep5d5ce 9 ! managem5t ( _! prop]ty 0 secur$1 & _m ( ! old re/rictions :i* _h circumscrib$ ?is "r fell away4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 dur+ ! ,fr5* dom9ation "u ,napoleon1 ! new ma/]s1 =gett+ ! _s ( ! revolution>y p]iod1 introduc$ ! prescriptions ( ! old ,fr5* ord9ance ( #affi :i* re/rict$ ! use ( communal prop]ty to ! ext5t ( exclud+ ! own]s entirely f ! managem5t ( _! prop]ty1 & plac$ x "u gov]nm5t (fic]s4 ,aft] ! ,fr5* )drew1 ?is me?od1 ( c\rse1 collaps$1 al?\gh x probably _h an influ5ce on ! f9al %ap+ ( =e/ policies 9 ^! respects4 ,altoge!r1 !re 0 su* v>iety ( hi/oric developm5t 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ,g]many t x is n to be wond]$ at t "o f9ds a great v>iety ( policies /ill prevail+ n only 9 diff]5t ,/ates b 9 diff]5t localities ( ! same ,/ate4 ,at ! pres5t "t ?ree diff]5t pr9ciples 9 ! relations ( ! /ate to ! corporation =e/s may be recogniz$1 namely1 entire fre$om1 except+ s f> z g5]al police laws apply1 :i* is ! case ) mo/ ( ! corporation =e/s 9 ,prussia 7law ( #ahgf72 special sup]vision ( ! te*nical managem5t "u approv$ (ficials ) prop] education1 :i* is ! case 9 ,saxony1 mo/ ( ,bav>ia1 ! ,prussian prov9ces ( ,we/phalia1 ,rh9el& & ,saxony1 & 9 "s ( ! small] /ates2 or la/ly1 ! absolute adm9i/ration by ! /ate1 :i* prevails 9 ,bad51 p>ts ( ,bav>ia1 prov9ces ,hesse-,nassau1 & ,hanov]4 ,! t5d5cy1 h[ev]1 9 mod]n times appe>s to be t[>d a m /rict int]pretation ( ! obligation ( ! /ate to prev5t mismanagem5t ( ! communal prop]ty4 ,private =e/ prop]ty1 :i* dur+ ! prec$+ c5tury _h be5 l>gely "u re/rictions1 fir/ "u ! application ( ! hunt+ "r1 & !n "u ! fe> ( a wood fam9e1 became 9 ! fir/ decades ( ! c5tury "u ! influ5ces already m5tion$1 almo/ entirely free1 all =m] policies be+ rev]s$2 inde$ ,prussia1 9 #ahaa1 issu$ an edict insur+ absolutely unre/rict$ rights to =e/ own]s1 p]mitt+ p>tition & conv]sion ( =e/ prop]ties1 & ev5 d5y+ 9 su* cases ! "r ( int]f]5ce on ! "p ( possessors ( rights ( us]4 ,?is policy ( fre$om 0 also appli$1 al?\gh less radically1 9 ,bav>ia1 except z to small] own]s4 ,! result 01 to a l>ge ext5t1 ! increase ( exploitation & =e/ deva/ation1 creat+ wa/es & sett+ %ift+ s& & s&dunes 9 motion4 ,! reaction1 :i* set 9 aga9/ ?is unre/rict$ use ( =e/ prop]ty1 result$ 9 ,prussia n 9 r5ewal ( re/rictive measures1 b 9 ! enactm5t ( promotive ones4 ,! law ( #ahge s\ght improvem5t by enc\rag+ small own]s to unite _! prop]ties "u "o managem5t2 b ! expectations :i* 7 f\nd$ on ?is ameliorative policy seem s f> n to h be5 realiz$4 ,?is promotive policy has especially s9ce #ahii f\nd expression 9 ! in/itution 9 _m prov9ces ( in=mation bureaus1 :i* give te*nical advice1 make work+ plans1 secure plant mat]ial & give o!r assi/ance to woodl& own]s4 ,a new relation1 h[ev]1 ( a cons]vative "* arose by ! e/abli%m5t ( ! entail1 i4e41 a contract made by ! head ( ! family ) ! gov]nm5t "u :i* ! latt] assumes ! obligation ( =ev] prev5t+ ! heirs f dispos+ (1 dim9i%+1 or mismanag+ _! prop]ty4 ,z a result ( ?is arrangem5t1 _m ( ! l>g] private =e/ prop]ties are =c$ to a cons]vative managem5t1 n z a direct influ5ce ( ! law1 b z a matt] ( agreem5t4 ,! condition ( /ate sup]vision ( private & communal =e/ prop]ty at pres5t prevail+ is express$ 9 ! foll[+ /atem5t ( divisions by prop]ty classes ( =e/ areas ( ,g]many1 :i* %[s t at lea/ #fc4i are "u cons]vative managem5t3 ,total ,=e/ #cd1gfi1gid acres4 ,cr[n =e/ #a4h ,/ate =e/ #ca4i ,corporation =e/ #af4a ,in/itute =e/ #a4e ,association =e/ #b4b ,private =e/ 7#aj4d entail7 #df4e ,until ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury1 ! protective function ( ! =e/ _h play$ no role 9 ! argum5ts = /ate int]f]5ce1 b j ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury cries 7 he>d f ,france t1 ow+ to ! reckless deva/ation ( ! ,vosges & ,jura ,alps by cutt+1 by fires & ov]-graz+1 brooks _h become torr5ts1 & ! valleys 7 inundat$ & cov]$ by ! debris & silt ( ! torr5ts4 ,a new aspect ( ! results ( =e/ deva/ation began to be recogniz$1 :i* f\nd excell5t expression 9 a memoir by ,moreau de ,jonns 7,brussels1 #ahbe71 on ! "q 8,:at *anges does d5udation effect on ! physical condition ( ! c\ntry40 ,?is be+ translat$ into ,g]man by ,wi$5mann1 0 widely spread1 be+ int]e/+ly writt51 al?\gh n well f\nd$ on facts ( natural hi/ory & physical laws4 ,nev]!less1 suffici5t exp]i5ce z reg>ds ! effect ( d5udation 9 m\nta9\s c\ntries _h also accumulat$ 9 s\?we/ ,g]many & 9 ! ,au/rian ,alps1 & ! necessity ( protective legislation 0 recogniz$4 ,?is necessity fir/ f\nd practical expression 9 ! ,bav>ian law ( #aheb1 9 ,prussia 9 #ahge1 & 9 ,wrttemb]g 9 #ahgi4 ,b a really prop] basis = =mulat+ a policy or argum5t = protective legislation outside ( ! m\nta9\s c\ntry is /ill abs5t1 al?\gh = a numb] ( ye>s attempts h be5 made to secure su* basis4 #h4 ,=e/ry ,sci5ce & ,lit]ature4#e #e ,! necess>ily brief /atem5ts :i* are made "u ?is head+ presuppose k ( ! te*nical details to :i* !y ref]4 ,9 ?is %ort hi/ory x 0 possible only to sket* rapidly ! developm5t ( ! sci5ce 9 t]ms famili> to ! pr(essional man4 ,! habit ( writ+ encyclopdic volumes1 :i* ! ,cam]ali/s & le>n$ hunt]s _h inaugurat$ 9 ! prec$+ c5tury1 cont9u$ into ! new "o1 & we f9d ,h>tig1 ,cotta1 ,pfeil & ,hunde%ag5 ea* writ+ su* encyclopdias4 ,c>l ,hey] began "o 9 sep>ate volumes1 b complet$ only two ( !m4 ,ev5 an encyclopdic "w 9 monographs by sev]al au?ors 0 und]tak5 z e>ly z #ahai by ,j4 ,m4 ,be*/e91 :o ) 8 successors br\ght out f\rte5 volumes1 cov]+ ! gr\nd pretty fully4 ,:ile 9 ! e>li] /ages ! meag] am\nt ( k made x possible to compress ! :ole into small compass1 ! m mod]n encyclopdias ( ,lorey1 ,fr/ & ,dombr[ski arose f ! opposite consid]ation1 namely1 ! ne$ ( giv+ a compreh5sive survey ( ! l>ge mass ( accumulat$ k4 ,s9ce #ahbj1 monographic writ+s1 h[ev]1 became m & m ! practice4 ,among ! volumes :i* treat c]ta9 bran*es ( =e/ry monographically1 ! works ( ! ma/]s ( silviculture1 ,cotta1 ,h>tig & ,hey]1 bas$ on _! exp]i5ces 9 we/ & middle ,g]many1 & ( ,pfeil1 ref]r+ m p>ticul>ly to ,nor? ,g]man conditions1 7 foll[$ by ! ,s\? ,g]man writ]s1 ,gw9n] 7#ahcd71 & ,/umpf 7#ahdi74 ,9 #ahee1 ,h4 ,burkh>dt introduc$ 9 8 classic ,sen und ,pflanz5 a new me?od ( treatm5t1 namely1 by species1 & aft] #ahej1 :5 ! developm5t ( g5]al silviculture _h be5 accompli%$1 su* treatm5t by species became frequ5t4 ,( m mod]n works on g5]al silviculture elaborat+ ! attempts at re=m ( old practices ^? ( ,gay] 7#ahhj71 ,wag5] 7#ahhd71 ,borggreve 7#ahhe71 ,ney 7#ahhe71 all writ+ 9 ! same decade1 are to be especially m5tion$4 ,9 ?is connection %\ld be also notic$ ,fr/'s valuable collective "w on nurs]y practice 7,pflanz5zu*t im ,walde1 #ahhb74 ,at pres5t ! magaz9e lit]ature furni%es ample opportunity to discuss ! developm5t ( me?ods 9 all directions4 ,! text books at pres5t appe>+ seem to be ju/ifi$ by or int5d$ ma9ly = ! ne$s ( ! tea*] & r>ely = ! practition]4 ,su* a text book is t by ,weise4 ,b ! late/ contributions to silvicultural lit]ature by ,wagn] 7#aijg71 & ,mayr 7#aiji7 are works ( a new ord]1 utiliz+ broad] ecological k4 ,o!r bran*es ?an silviculture 7 simil>ly fir/ treat$ 9 compreh5sive volumes & !n 9 monographic writ+s on special subjects ( ! bran*4 ,! lit]ature on =e/ utilization cov]+ ! :ole field1 0 enri*$ especially by ,pfeil1 ,ko5ig1 ,gay]1 & ,fr/4 ,! fir/ inve/igation into ! physical & te*nical prop]ties ( wood 0 conduct$ by ,g4 ,l4 ,h>tig himself1 foll[$ by ,!odor ,h>tig1 & ! subject has be5 mo/ broadly treat$ by ,h4 ,no]dl+] 7#ahfj74 ,9 lat] ye>s1 ,s*wappa*'s inve/igations des]ve special m5tion4 ,! "q ( means ( transportation gradually became also a subject capable ( monographic treatm5t & a s]ies ( books came out on locat+ & build+ =e/ roads4 ,braun issu$ su* a book 9 #ahee = ! pla9s c\ntry1 & ,kais] 7#ahgc7 = ! m\nta9s1 also ,mhlhaus5 7#ahgf71 :o _h be5 commission$ to locate a p]fect road sy/em ov] ! demon/ration =e/ at ! =e/ academy ( ,mu5d54 ,only )9 ! la/ qu>t] ( ! c5tury 7 railroads introduc$ into ! economy ( =e/ managem5t4 ,! fir/ compreh5sive book on ! subject ( logg+ railroads 0 issu$ by ,fo]/] 7#ahhe71 & a lat] "o by ,runnebaum4 ,/oetz] 7#aijc7 furni%$ 9 8 compact /yle ! late/ discussion on ! subject ( roads & railroads4 ,a v compreh5sive lit]ature on ! value ( =e/ litt] 0 br\ght into exi/5ce by ! e/abli%$ usage ( small f>m]s ( supply+ _! lack ( /raw = b$d+ & manure by sub/itut+ ! litt] rak$ f ! =e/4 ,h>tig & ,hunde%ag5 7 active 9 ! discussion ( ?is subject z well z almo/ e o!r =e/]1 ! discussion be+1 h[ev]1 ma9ly bas$ on op9ions4 ,b1 aft] #ahfj1 ! subject became s important bo? to ! poor f>m+ population & to ! =e/1 :i* 0 be+ robb$ ( its natural f]tiliz]1 t a m def9ite basis = regulat+ its use 0 e/abli%$ by analysis & by exp]im5ts at ! exp]im5tal /ations4 ,) ! inauguration ( ! v>i\s me?ods ( =e/ organization describ$ be=e1 !re naturally w5t h& 9 h& ! developm5t ( me?ods ( measurem5t4 ,bett] =e/ surveys develop$ rapidly1 ! transit g5]ally replac+ ! compass & plane table4 ,at ?is p]iod ! necessity = books tea*+ ! important me?ods ( l& survey 0 met by ,baur 7#aheh7 & by ,krafft 7#ahfe74 ,?is subject does no long] occupy a place 9 =e/ry lit]ature1 ! k ( x be+ tak5 = grant$4 ,on ! o!r h& ! subject ( =e/ m5suration :i* =m]ly 0 g5]ally treat$ 9 connection ) =e/ organization has develop$ into a bran* by itself1 & has be5 v consid]ably develop$ 9 its me?ods & in/rum5ts1 mak+ a tol]ably accurate measurem5t ( =e/ gr[? possible1 al?\gh _m unsolv$ problems are /ill "u inve/igation4 ,/ill1 late into ! c5tury x 0 cu/om>y to measure only circumf]5ces ( trees1 by means ( a *a9 or b&1 al?\gh an in/rum5t = measur+ diamet]s is m5tion$ by ,cotta1 9 #ahjd1 & by ,h>tig1 9 #ahjh4 ,s*n] & ,ri*t] are 9 #ahac m5tion$ z inv5tors ( ! fir/ 8univ]sal =e/ measure0 or calip]4 ,! improvem5t ( calip]s to _! mod]n effici5cy has be5 c>ri$ on s9ce #ahdj by ,c>l & ,gu/av ,hey] & by _m o!rs until n[ self-record+ calip]s by 7,reuss1 ,wimm5au]1 etc47 h become practical in/rum5ts4 ,= measur+ ! heights ( trees1 ,hossfeld _h already a satisfactory in/rum5t 9 #ahjj2 a v l>ge numb] ( improvem5ts 9 great v>iety foll[$1 ) ,fau/mann's mirror hypsomet] probably 9 ! lead4 ,z a special developm5t = measur+ diamet]s at v>y+ heights ,pressl]'s in/rum5t %\ld be m5tion$1 & a v complicat$ b extremely accurate "o con/ruct$ by ,breymann4 ,v>i\s =mulas = ! computation ( ! cont5ts ( fell$ trees _h already be5 develop$ by ,oettelt & o!rs 9 ! eighte5? c5tury & a =mula by ,hub]1 us+ ! av]age area multipli$ by l5g? 0 def9itely introduc$ 9 ! ,prussian practice 9 #ahag4 ,! names ( ,smalian1 ,hossfeld1 ,pressl] & o!rs are connect$ ) improvem5ts 9 ^! directions4 ,! idea ( =m factors & _! use 0 fir/ develop$ by ,hub]1 :o made ?ree tree classes accord+ to ! l5g? ( cr[ns1 measur$ ! diamet]s six feet above gr\nd1 & us$ r$uction factors ( 4#ge1 4#ff1 4#ej = ! ?ree classes4 ,b ! fir/ =mula = det]m9+ =m factors is cr$it$ to ,hossfeld 7#ahab74 ,hunde%ag5 & ,ko5ig also occupi$ !mselves ) elaborat+ =m factors4 ,smalian 7#ahcg7 introduc$ ! conception ( ! normal or true =m factor relat+ x to ! area at "o-tw5tie? ( ! height4 ,an entirely new idea has lately be5 introduc$ by ,s*iffel1 an ,au/rian ,g]man1 "u ! "n ( =m quoti5t1 plac+ two measur$ diamet]s 9 relation4 ,volume tables giv+ ! volumes ( trees ( v>y+ diamet]s & height 7 already 9 use to "s ext5t 9 ! #ah? c5tury2 ,cotta gives su* = bee* 9 #ahjd1 &1 9 #ahag1 furni%$ a new set ( s-call$ normal tables :i* 71 h[ev]1 bas$ ^u ! assumption ( a conical =m ( ! tree4 ,ko5ig p]fect$ volume tables by introduc+ fur!r classification into five gr[? classes 7#ahac71 publi%$ volume tables = bee* & o!r species1 &1 9 #ahdj1 publi%$ volume tables n = s+le trees b = entire /&s p] acre classifi$ by species1 height & d5sity2 us+ ! s-call$ space numb] :i* he _h develop$ 9 #ahce to d5ote ! d5sity4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ^! tables1 :i* he call$ ,allgeme9e ,walds*tzung/afeln1 7 made = ! ,imp]ial ,russian ,society = ! ,advancem5t ( ,=e/ry4 ,9 #ahdj & succe$+ ye>s1 ! ,bav>ian gov]nm5t issu$ a compreh5sive s]ies ( measurem5ts & a l>ge numb] ( =m factors1 :i* 7 us$ 9 con/ruct+ volume tables2 ^! 7 f\nd to be s well made & s g5]ally applicable t !y 7 us$ 9 all p>ts ( ,g]many &1 translat$ into met] measurem5t by ,behm 7#ahgb71 are /ill g5]ally 9 use1 al?\gh new ones bas$ ^u fur!r measurem5ts h be5 furni%$ by ,lorey & ,kuntze4 ,= arriv+ at ! volume ( /&s1 e/imat+ 0 reli$ ^u long into ! n9ete5? c5tury1 al?\gh ,hossfeld1 9 #ahab1 introduc$ measur+1 & ! use ( ! =mula ,,ahf1 9 :i* ,a 0 ! measur$ total cross-section area ( ! /&1 ,h & ,f ! height & =m factors1 ! latt] be+ at t "t /ill e/imat$4 ,he fir/ made =m classes = ! same heights1 b1 9 #ahbc1 simplifi$ ! me?od by assum+ an av]age =m factor = ! :ole /&4 ,ev5 9 #ahcj1 ,knig /ill e/imat$ ! =m factor1 al?\gh he introduc$ ! measurem5t ( ! cross-section area & det]m9$ ! height indirectly z an av]age ( measurem5ts ( sev]al height classes1 b ,hub] 7#ahbd7 knew h[ to measure bo? ! av]age height & =m factor by means ( an ari?metic sample tree4 ,?is me?od f\nd entrance into ! practice & held sway until ab\t #ahfj1 :5 ! well-kn[n improvem5ts by ,draudt & ,uri* supplant$ x4 ,^! la/ m5tion$ me?ods h become g5]ally us$ 9 ! practice1 :ile o!r me?ods1 l ,r4 ,h>tig's & ,pressl]'s1 h rema9$ ma9ly !oretical4 ,! /udy ( ! increm5t & ! mak+ ( yield tables :i* _h be5 inaugurat$ t[>d ! end ( ! la/ c5tury1 by ,oettelt1 ,pauls51 ,h>tig1 & o!rs1 0 j at ! end ( t c5tury plac$ ^u a new basis ?r\gh ,sp? 7#agig71 :o con/ruct$ ! fir/ gr[? curves by plott+ ! cubic cont5ts ( trees ( diff]5t ages1 & ?r\gh ,seutt] 7#agii7 by introduc+ /em analysis1 on :i* he bas$ 8 yield tables4 ,on ! %\ld]s ( ^!1 ,hossfeld 7#ahbc7 built1 :5 he conceiv$ ! idea ( us+ sample plots = cont9u$ obs]vation ( ! progress ( increm5t1 & he also taught ! me?od ( int]polation ) limit$ measurem5ts1 lay+ ! basis = q elaborate =mul4 ,b ! fir/ normal yield tables1 bas$ on ! av]age trees ( an index /&1 7 publi%$ by ,hub] 7#ahbd7 &1 9 ! same ye>1 by ,hunde%ag54 ,f t "t on1 yield tables 7 con/ruct$ by _m o!rs1 b only s9ce ! ,exp]im5t /ations und]took to direct _! con/ruction is ! hope ju/ifi$ ( secur+ ?is mo/ invaluable tool ( =e/ managem5t 9 reliable & suffici5tly detail$ =m4 ,ev5 ! newe/ tables are1 h[ev]1 /ill defici5t1 especially 9 ! direction ( detail$ in=mation reg>d+ ! division into assortm5ts4 ,! yield tables ( ,baur1 ,kuntze1 ,weise1 ,lorey1 & o!rs are n[ sup]s$$ by ^? ( ,s*wappa* = p9e & spruce1 & ( ,s*ub]g = fir4 ,z a result ( ! _m yield tables :i* gradually accumulat$1 ! laws ( gr[? 9 g5]al became m & m cle>$ up & f9ally p]mitt$ _! =mulation z und]tak5 by ,r4 ,web] 7,=/e9ri*tung1 #ahia74 ,! idea ( us+ ! p]c5tic relations = /at+ ! increm5t1 & ( e/imat+ ! future gr[? ^u ! basis ( pa/ p]=mance = s+le trees 0 kn[n ev5 to ,h>tig 7#agie7 & ,cotta 7#ahjd7 :o publi%$ increm5t p] c5t4 tables4 ,! me?ods ( mak+ ! measurem5ts ( increm5t on /&+ trees 7 especially elaborat$ by ,ko5ig1 ,k>l1 ,edw>d & ,gu/av ,hey]1 ,s*neid] 78 =mula1 #ahec71 ,jaeg]1 ,borggreve1 & especially by ,pressl] 7#ahfj7 :o op5$ new po9ts ( view & increas$ ! means ( /udy+ increm5t by caus+ ! con/ruction ( ! well-kn[n increm5t bor]1 & 9 o!r ways4 ,! mo/ mod]n text-book :i* treats fully ( all mod]n me?ods ( =e/ m5suration giv+ also _! hi/ory is t ( ,udo ,mll] 7,lehrbu* d] ,holzmesskunde1 #ahii71 sup]s$+ su* o!r good ones1 z ^? ( ,baur 7#ahfj-ahhb71 ,kuntze 7#ahgc71 ,s*wappa* 7%ort h&book1 la/ edition #aijc74 99 99 99 99 99 ,! _m sales ( =e/ prop]ty :i* took place at ! beg9n+ ( ?is p]iod naturally /imulat$ ! elaboration ( me?ods ( =e/ valuation4 ,ev5 ! soil r5t !ory f9ds its basis at ! v beg9n+ 7#agii7 9 a publi%$ lett] by two o!rwise unkn[n =e/]s 7,be9 & ,eyb]71 :o propos$ to det]m9e ! value ( a =e/ by disc\nt+ ! value ( ! net yield ) a limit$ comp\nd int]e/ calculation to ! #abj? ye>4 ,?is idea 0 elaborat$1 9 #ahje1 by ,nrdl+] & ,hossfeld into ! mod]n conception ( expectancy values1 & ! n[ famili> disc\nt calculations 7 inaugurat$ by !m4 ,cotta & ,h>tig p>ticipat$ also 9 ! elaboration ( me?ods ( =e/ valuation2 ,cotta writ+ 8 manual 9 #ahjd1 recognizes ! propriety ( comp\nd int]e/ calculations1 :ile ,h>tig1 #ahab1 /ill uses only simple int]e/1 & exhibits 9 8 book z well z 9 8 in/ructions = practice 9 ! ,prussian /ate =e/s r mix$ notions on ! subject4 ,altoge!r1 ev5 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! p]iod1 !re arose consid]able diff]5ce ( op9ion & w>m discussions1 9 :i* all ! prom95t =e/]s took "p1 z to ! use ( int]e/ rates & me?ods ( calculation4 ,b ?is w>f>e broke into a r$ hot flame :5 ,fau/mann 7#ahdi7 ) mu* ma!matical app>atus develop$ 8 =mula = ! soil expectancy value1 & :5 ,pressl] & ,g4 ,hey] transf]r$ ! discussion into /atical fields1 mak+ ! "q ( ! f9ancial rotation ! issue4 ,!n ! advocates ( ! soil r5t & ( ! =e/ r5t !ories rang$ !mselves 9 opposite camps4 ,?is w> ( op9ions1 al?\gh abat$ 9 f]vor1 /ill cont9ues1 & ! issue is by no means settl$4 ,! discussion ( :at %\ld be consid]$ ! prop] fell+ age or rotation naturally occupi$ ! m9ds ( =e/]s f e>ly times2 a maximum volume production be+ orig9ally ! ma9 aim4 ,z e>ly z #agii1 ,seutt] _h recogniz$ ! fact t ! culm9ation ( volume production _h be5 obta9$ :5 ! av]age accretion _h culm9at$4 ,h>tig1 9 #ahjh1 made ! di/9ction ( a physical1 an economic & a m]cantili/ic1 i4e41 f9ancial fell+ age1 & ,pfeil1 consid]ably ahead ( 8 "t1 is ! fir/ to call 7#ahbj7 = a rotation bas$ on maximum soil r5t4 ,z1 h[ev]1 he _h s (t5 done1 he *ang$ 8 m9d1 & :ile he fir/ advocat$ ev5 = ! /ate a managem5t = ! highe/ int]e/ on ! soil capital involv$1 he lat] reject$ su* money managem5t4 ,ab\t ! same "t ,hunde%ag5 cle>ly po9t$ out ! propriety & prop] me?od ( bas+ ! rotation on pr(it calculations1 b x 0 res]v$ = a man n a =e/] to /ir up ! mod]n /rife = ! prop] f9ancial basis1 namely ,pressl]1 a pr(essor ( ma!matics at ,?>&t1 :o became a %>p critic ( exi/+ =e/ managem5t1 & develop$ to ! extreme ! net yield !ories4 ,x 0 !n t ! dang] ( a %ort5+ ( ! exi/+ rotations1 due to ! app>5t tru? t long rotations 7 unpr(itable1 call$ = a division into ! two camps allud$ to2 ,g4 ,hey]1 ,judei* & ,lehr1 elaborat$ especially ! ma!matical me?ods ( ! soil r5t !ory1 ,krafft & ,wag5] came to ! assi/ance ( ,pressl]1 :ile ,burkh>dt1 ,bose1 ,baur1 ,borggreve1 ,dankelmann1 ,fis*ba* & o!rs1 plead$ = a diff]5t policy = ! /ate at lea/1 namely1 ! =e/ r5t ) ! e/abli%$ rotations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,z 9 ! previ\s p]iod1 ! ma!matical subjects1 namely1 =e/ measurem5t & =e/ valuation1 7 m sy/ematically develop$ ?an ! natural hi/ory basis ( =e/ry practice2 ! sl[] progress ( ! latt] be+ caus$ by ! great] difficulties ( /udy+ natural hi/ory & ( utiliz+ direct obs]vation4 ,9 botanical direction1 descriptive =e/ botany 0 fir/ develop$1 & sev]al good books 7 publi%$ by ,wal!r1 ,borkhaus51 ,be*/e91 ,reum1 ! latt] 7#ahad71 ( high value1 & also by ,behl51 ,gw9n] & ,h>tig4 ,9 ! direction ( plant physiology1 ,cotta1 e>ly & cr$itably1 attempt$ 7#ahjf7 to expla9 ! movem5t & function ( sap1 b rema9$ unnotic$4 ,may]'s 7#ahje-ahjh7 essay on ! influ5ce ( ! natural =ces on ! gr[? & nutrition ( trees1 conta9s int]e/+ physiological explanations = advanc$ silvicultural practice4 ,b ^! sporadic attempts to secure a biological basis 7 soon =gott54 ,n until ,!odor ,h>tig 7#ahdh7 publi%$ 8 ,anatomy & ,physiology ( ,woody ,plants 0 ! necessity = exact inve/igation ( =e/ biology z a basis = silvicultural practice fully recogniz$4 ,) ! developm5t ( g5]al biological botany or ecology1 a new era = silviculture seems to h arriv$4 ,p]haps 9 ?is connection !re %\ld be m5tion$ z "o ( ! e>li] important contributions ( mu* mom5t1 ,g4 ,hey]'s ,v]halt5 d] ,bume geg5 ,li*t und ,s*att5 7#ahef7 9 :i* ! !ory ( influ5ce ( light & %ade on =e/ developm5t 0 elaborat$4 ,among ^? :o plac$ ! /udy ( pa?ology ( =e/ trees on a sci5tific basis %\ld be m5tion$ fir/ ,willkomm 7#ahgf71 foll[$ by ,r4 ,h>tig4 ,9 zology1 ! e>ly writ]s began ) a description ( ! biology ( game animals4 ,next1 int]e/ 9 =e/ insects became natural1 &1 9 #ahah1 ,be*/e9 9 8 ,encyclopdia devot$ "o volume 7by ,s*>f5b]g7 to ! natural hi/ory ( obnoxi\s =e/ insects4 ,t[>d ! middle ( ! c5tury1 ) ! plant+ ( l>ge areas ) s+le species1 insect pe/s increas$1 h5ce ! int]e/ 9 ! life hi/ories ( ! pe/s grew & gave rise to ! celebrat$ "w by ,ratzeburg1 8,die ,waldbv]d]b] und ,ihre ,fe9de0 7#ahda74 ,a numb] ( simil> h&-books on insects & on o!r zological subjects foll[$2 ! late/1 a mo/ complete "w on insects1 be+ /ill bas$ on ,ratzeburg's "w1 is t ( ,judei* & ,nitzs*e1 9 two volumes 7#ahie74 ,( c\rse1 ! g5]al works on =e/ protection always includ$ *apt]s on =e/ entomology4 ,! fir/ ( ^! text-books on =e/ protection 0 publi%$ by ,laurop 7#ahaa71 & o!rs by ,be*/e91 ,pfeil1 ,kaus*+] & rec5tly by ,hess 7#ahif71 & ,fr/ 7#ahhi74 99 99 99 99 99 ,k ( ! soil 0 b poorly develop$ 9 ! encyclopdic works ( ! e>li] "p ( ! p]iod4 ,n till ,liebig's epo*mak+ inve/igations 0 a sci5tific basis secur$ = ! subject4 ,!n became possible ! improvem5ts 9 ! cont5ts ( su* works z ,grebe 7#ahhf71 ,s5ft 7#ahhh71 & ( ,gu/av ,hey]1 ^: volume 7,lehrbu* d] ,=/li*5 ,bod5kunde und ,klimatologie1 #ahef71 well records ! /ate ( k at t "t4 ,b only s9ce !n has ?is field be5 work$ ) m sci5tific ?or\ghness by ,eb]may]1 ,s*rd]1 ,web]1 ,wollny1 & by ,ramann1 ^: volume on ,bod5kunde 7#ahic7 may be /ill consid]$ ! /&>d ( ! pres5t day 7newe/ edition1 #aiaj74 ,! "q ( ! climatic significance ( =e/s is "o :i* fir/ became recogniz$ z capable ( solution by sci5tific means :5 ! movem5t = =e/ exp]im5t /ations began to take %ape & ! sy/ematic collect+ ( obs]v$ data 0 attempt$4 ,mo/ ( ! problems are /ill unsolv$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,) ! aspects ( political economy 9 ref]5ce to =e/ policy ! =e/]s _h occupi$ !mselves b little1 leav+ ! %ap+ ( public op9ion to ! ,cam]ali/s1 ^: influ5ce la/$ long into ! c5tury4 ,^! produc$ a good deal ( lit]ature 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( ! c5tury :5 ! "q ( reta9+ or sell+ /ate =e/s 0 "u discussion1 &1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! tea*+s ( ,adam ,smi?1 _! op9ion 0 mo/ly favorably to sale4 ,only gradually 0 ! propriety ( /ate =e/s recogniz$ by !m1 till f9ally ! lead+ economi/s1 ,rau1 ,ros*] & ,wagn]1 took a decid$ /& 9 favor ( ?is view4 ,! =e/]s naturally 7 = ret5tion ( ! exi/+ ,/ate prop]ties1 b "o-sid$ m]cantili/ic views reg>d+ _! adm9i/ration p]si/$ ) !m till mod]n times4 ,w$ek9d1 z e>ly z #ahba1 advocat$ ! !ory :i* is n[ becom+ a practice1 t ! /ate %\ld n only reta91 b increase its pres5t =e/ prop]ty by pur*ase ( all absolute =e/ soil = ! purpose ( re=e/ation4 ,! erratic & radical ,pfeil alone 0 f\nd ) ! ,cam]ali/s on ! opposite side 9 #ahaf1 b1 by #ahcd1 he _h entirely gone ov] to ! side ( ! advocates ( /ate =e/1 decl>+ anyone :o oppos$ !m fit = ! lunatic asylum4 ,division ( op9ions exi/$ also reg>d+ ! sup]vision by ! /ate ( private & communal =e/s4 ,! political economi/s 7 incl9$ to r$uce1 ! =e/]s to increase sup]vision1 except+ aga9 ,pfeil 9 8 e>li] writ+s3 he modifi$ 8 views lat] by recogniz+ sup]vision z a necess>y evil4 ,cotta1 :o 0 incl9$ to favor free use ( =e/ prop]ty s\ght to meet ! objections to su* free use by increas+ ! /ate prop]ty4 ,! ma9 inc5tive urg$ by ! e>li] advocates ( /ate sup]vision 0 ! fe> ( a timb] fam9e4 ,?is argum5t vani%$1 h[ev]1 ) ! developm5t ( railroads1 & 0 !n supplant$ by ! argum5t ( ! protective functions ( ! =e/1 a classification into supply =e/s & protective =e/s sugge/+ diff]5ces ( treatm5t4 ,nev]!less1 ! belief t absolute fre$om ( prop]ty rights 9 ! =e/ is n 9 h>mony ) good political economy--a belief correct because ( ! long "t elem5t involv$--/ill l>gely prevails4 ,! difficulty1 h[ev]1 ( sup]vis+ private own]%ip1 & ! advantages ( /ate own]%ip f9d def9ite expression 9 ! policy :i* ,prussia especially is n[ foll[+1 9 acquir+ gradually ! mismanag$ private woodl&s & impov]i%$ f>m areas = re=e/ation1 mak+ annual appropriations to ?is end4 ,_m o!r /ates also are beg9n+ to see ! propriety ( ?is movem5t4 ,on ! :ole ! sy/ematic /udy ( ! economics ( =e/ry has be5 r neglect$ by =e/]s1 al?\gh ! subject 0 discuss$ by e>ly writ]s1 ,mey]1 ,laurop1 ,pfeil1 & 9 mod]n times by ,r4 ,web]1 ,lehr & ,s*wappa* 78,=/politik10 #ahid74 ,! late/ compreh5sive volume on ?is subject comes f ,endres 7#aije74 #i4 ,means ( ,advanc+ ,=e/ry ,sci5ce4 ,dur+ ! c5tury1 ! means ( increas+ k 9 =e/ry matt]s h gr[n 9 all directions2 s*ools1 associations1 j\rnals & prolific lit]ature atte/+ ! complete e/abli%m5t ( ! pr(ession & practice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ma/] s*ools :i* began to take %ape at ! end ( ! la/ c5tury1 & a numb] ( :i* 7 f\nd 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury z private in/itutions1 7 usually ei!r ( %ort duration or 7 *ang$ into /ate in/itutions3 !y became ei!r 8middle s*ools0 = ! l[] s]vice1 or else academies4 ,= ! high] education1 ! *airs ( =e/ry at ! univ]sities cont9u$ to d s]vice1 z at ,heidelb]g1 ,giess51 ,leipzig1 ,b]l91 etc41 b1 z ^! 7 mo/ly occupi$ by ,cam]ali/s 7al?\gh ,h>tig 9 #ahaa fill$ a *air at ,b]l971 & 7 int5d$ = ! b5efit ( su* r ?an ( pr(essional =e/]s1 ! education ( ! latt] 0 some:at neglect$4 ,mo/ ( ! exi/+ in/itutions _h _! beg9n+s 9 private s*ools4 ,bo? ^! & ! /ate s*ools pass$ ?r\gh _m *anges4 ,! fir/ high class =e/ academy 0 e/abli%$ at ,b]l9 directly by ! ,/ate1 9 #ahba1 9 connection ) ! univ]sity4 ,"h1 ,pfeil 0 ! only pr(essor ( =e/ry subjects1 ! o!r subjects be+ taught by o!r univ]sity pr(essors4 ,! fact t 9 ! abs5ce ( railroads a demon/ration =e/ 0 n easily accessible1 & p]haps ! friction betwe5 ,pfeil & ,h>tig br\ght ab\t a transf] to ,neu/adt-,eb]swalde1 9 #ahcj1 ) two pr(essors till #ahea1 :5 a ?ird pr(essor 0 add$ 7n[ #af ) #h assi/ants674 ,at ! same "t ! lectures at ,b]l9 7 cont9u$ by ,h>tig1 until #ahcg4 ,9 ,saxony1 ,cotta's private s*ool became a /ate in/itution 9 #ahaf1 ! =e/ academy ( ,?>&t1 ) six tea*]s 7n[ #ac71 & lat]1 9 #ahcj1 an agricultural s*ool 0 add$ to x4 ,9 ,bav>ia1 a private s*ool 0 begun 9 #ahjg at ,as*aff5burg4 ,x 0 made a /ate in/itution1 divid$ into a high] & l[] s*ool1 9 #ahai1 b 0 clos$ 9 #ahcb on acc\nt ( int]ior tr\bles & ineffici5cy4 ,x 0 re-op5$ & re-organiz$ 9 #ahdd ) f\r tea*]s1 & 0 int5d$ to prep>e = ! l[] grades ( ! s]vice4 ,mean:ile ! lectures at ! ,univ]sity ( ,muni*1 supplem5t+ ?is l[] s*ool1 7 to s]ve = ! education ( ! high] grades4 ,a reorganization took place 9 #ahgh1 :5 a special faculty = =e/ry 0 e/abli%$ at ,muni*1 ) ,gu/av ,hey] z head pr(essor4 ,?is 0 done aft] mu* discussion1 :i* is /ill go+ on ?r\gh\t ! empire1 z to ! "q :e!r education 9 =e/ry 0 be/ obta9$ at a univ]sity or at a special academy4 ,! pres5t t5d5cy is t[>d ! =m] solution ( ! "q s9ce railroad developm5t has remov$ ! ma9 objection1 namely1 ! difficulty ( rea*+ a demon/ration =e/4 ,nev]!less1 ,prussia reta9s its two =e/ academies ,eb]swalde & ,mnd5 7s9ce #ahfh7 = ! education ( its =e/ (ficials1 ! o!r /ate academies be+ at ,?>&t & ,eis5a*1 :ile *airs ( =e/ry are f\nd at ! univ]sities ( ,tb+5 7s9ce #ahag71 ,giess5 7s9ce #ahca71 & ,muni*1 & = ,bad5 at ! polyte*nicum 9 ,k>lsruhe 7#ahcb74 ,= ! l[] grades ( =e/ (ficials !re are also s*ools e/abli%$ by ! v>i\s gov]nm5ts 7#c 9 ,prussia1 #e 9 ,bav>ia74 ,9 #aiaj1 ! s*ool at ,as*aff5burg 0 discont9u$ & ! entire education ( =e/]s = ,bav>ia left to ! ,univ]sity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,al?\gh z e>ly z #ahbj1 ,hunde%ag5 _h insi/$ ^u ! necessity ( exact inve/igation to =m a basis = improv$ =e/ managem5t & especially = =e/ /atics1 &1 al?\gh1 9 #ahdh1 ,c>l ,hey] elaborat$ ! fir/ in/ruction = su* inve/igations :i* he expect$ to c>ry on ) ! aid ( practition]s1 ! apa?y ( ! latt] & ! tr\blesome times prior to #ahej ret>d$ ?is p[]ful means ( advanc+ =e/ry4 ,dur+ ! decade f #ahfj to #ahgj1 h[ev]1 ! movem5t = ! =mation ( exp]im5t /ations took %ape1 ! fir/ set be+ in/itut$ 9 ,saxony1 #ahfb1 by e/abli%+ n9e /ations = ! purpose ( secur+ =e/ meteorological data2 ! next 9 ,prussia1 9 #ahfe1 to solve ! problems ( ! removal ( litt]2 & 9 ,bav>ia 7#ahff71 also = ! /udy ( =e/ meteorology 7,eb]may]71 & ( ! problem ( ?9n+s4 ,b n until ,baur1 #ahfh1 _h po9t$ out m elaborately ! necessity ( sy/ematic inve/igations1 & a plan = su* _h be5 elaborat$ by a committee in/itut$ by ! ,g]man ,=e/]s ,association 0 a sy/em ( exp]im5tation z organiz$ 9 mod]n times secur$ 7#ahgb74 ,! v>i\s /ates e/abli%$ indep5d5tly su* exp]im5t /ations1 b at ! same "t a volunt>y association ( ^! /ations 0 =m$ = ! purpose ( co-ord9at+ & plann+ ! "w to be done4 99 99 99 99 99 ,=e/ry associations in/itut$ m]ely = ! purpose ( propag&a1 7 app>5tly n organiz$4 ,! fir/ association ( pr(essional =e/]s appe>s to h be5 =m$ z ! result ( ,be*/e9's conception1 :o propos$ 9 connection ) 8 s*ool 7#agie at ,go?a1 #ahjj at ,dreissigack]7 ! =mation ( an academy ( not$ =e/]s4 ,z a result1 ! ,societt d] ,=/- und ,jagdkunde 0 =m$1 9 :i* all ! not$ =e/]s jo9$ ) mu* en?usiasm1 &1 9 #ahja1 a memb]%ip ( #ha regul> & #fa honor>y memb]s 0 atta9$4 ,at ! same "t ! (ficial organ ,diana 0 f\nd$ 7#agig71 9 :i* ! essays ( ! memb]s 7 to be pr9t$2 aft] hav+ pass$ f\r c5sors4 ,two sessions 7 to be held annually4 ,?is mu* too elaborate plan = ! !n r undevelop$ education & defici5t means ( transportation defeat$ to "s ext5t ! great object4 ,by #ahab1 x 0 ?\ght necess>y to divide ! academy at lea/ into a nor!rn & s\!rn section1 & = ! latt] an additional j\rnal1 edit$ by ,laurop1 0 in/itut$4 ,! int]e/1 h[ev]1 decreas$ cont9ually1 & by #ahdc1 at ,be*/e9's dea?1 ! academy 0 ab&on$4 ,at ! same "t1 !re _h sprung up a numb] ( local associations 9 ! mod]n s5se4 ,! fir/1 9 #ahbj1 compos$ ( ! =e/]s & agriculturi/s ( ,nassau2 ! next1 9 #ahci1 ( ! =e/]s ( ,bad51 &1 by #ahfj1 n9e su* local societies ( =e/]s 7 9 exi/5ce1 & !y h s9ce increas$ rapidly until n[ "s ?irty may be c\nt$4 ,! desire to br+ ^! local associations into relation to ea* o!r l$ to ! fir/ ,=e/ry ,congress 9 #ahcg 7,congress d] ,l& und ,=/wir!71 meet+ at ,dresd54 ,at t "t1 & 9 ! congresses foll[+1 ! agriculturi/s play$ a lead+ "p1 s t1 9 #ahci1 ! ,s\? ,g]man =e/]s sep>at$1 & p]ipatetic congresses 7 held e "o or two ye>s4 ,9 #ahfi1 a g5]al organization 0 det]m9$ ^u1 &1 9 #ahgb1 ! fir/ g5]al ,g]man ,congress ( ,=e/]s met1 hold+ ye>ly meet+s !reaft]4 ,a rival association hav+ be5 organiz$ 9 #ahig1 two ye>s lat] an amalgamation ( ! two 0 effect$ 9 ! ,deuts*] ,=/v]e9 7n[ ov] #bjjj memb]s74 ,! mo/ /rik+ feature ( ?is =ceful means ( advanc+ =e/ry is ! in/itution ( ! ,=/wirts*aftsrat 7#ahij71 a p]man5t committee ( ab\t #ej memb]s1 :i* is to look aft] ! political & economic int]e/s ( =e/ry1 =m+ a semi-(ficial national c\ncil4 ,!re also exi/s an int]national association ( =e/ exp]im5t /ations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 ! magaz9e lit]ature1 ! ,cam]ali/s dom9at$ until ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! fir/ j\rnal edit$ by a =e/] 0 ,reitt]'s 8,j\rnal fr ,=/- und ,jagdwes50 :i* ran f #agij to #agig4 ,dur+ ! fir/ "p ( ! c5tury _m o!rs 7 />t$1 especially aft] #ahbj1 usually fail+ soon = lack ( support4 ,h>tig himself p>ticipat$ 9 ?is lit]ature ) five volumes 7until #ahjg7 ( ! ,j\rnal des ,=/-1 ,jagd- und ,fis*]eiwes5s & lat] 7#ahaf to #ahbj7 ) ! semi-(ficial j\rnal ,=/- und ,jagd>*iv4 ,pfeil's ,kritis*e ,bltt] 7 cont9u$ by him f #ahbc to #ahei1 :5 ,nrdl+] _h ! editor%ip till #ahgj4 ,an irregul> publication ( mu* note 0 ,burkh>dt's 8,aus dem ,walde0 7#ahfe-ahha74 ,"s ( ! j\rnals f\nd$ 9 e>li] times h cont9u$1 ) *anges 9 title & editor%ips1 to ! pres5t day4 ,( ^!1 x is prop] to m5tion z ! olde/1 8,allgeme9e ,=/- und ,jagdzeitung01 f\nd$ by v4 ,behl51 #ahbe1 lat] conduct$ by ,g4 ,hey]2 8,=/wiss5s*aftli*es ,c5tralblatt0 7#ahbh72 8,zeits*rift fr ,=/- und ,jagdwes50 f\nd$ 9 #ahfi by ,dankelmann2 8,=/li*e ,bltt]0 f\nd$ #ahfa by ,grun]t1 cont9u$ by ,borggreve until #ahij4 ,! ,?>&t] ,=/li*e ,jahrb*] 7 begun 9 #ahdb1 & ! ,mnd5] ,=/li*e ,hefte 9 #ahib4 ,9 #ahic1 ! ,=/li*-naturwiss5s*aftli*e ,zeits*rift 0 e/abli%$ to discuss ma9ly ! biological basis ( =e/ry 7*ang$ 9 #aijc to ,naturwiss5s*aftli*e ,zeits*rift fr ,l&- und ,=/wes574 ,= ! l[] grades !re has be5 publi%$1 s9ce #ahgb1 ,zeits*rift d] deuts*5 ,=/beamt54 ,sev]al lumb] trade j\rnals also discuss =e/ry matt]s4 ,a weekly j\rnal1 ,silva 0 begun 9 #aijh4 ,to assi/ 9 keep+ track ( ! hi/oric & sci5tific developm5t ( ! art1 an annual summ>y ( magaz9e lit]ature is be+ publi%$4 ,! fir/ ef=t 9 ?is direction 0 made 9 #ahgf by ,b]nh>dt's ,*ronik des deuts*5 ,=/wes5s1 :i* 0 cont9u$ = sev]al ye>s1 b is n[ supplant$ by ,jahresb]i*t b] die ,lei/ung5 und ,=ts*ritte d] ,=/wir?s*aft 7s9ce #ahhj74 ,besides ?is m sci5tific magaz9e lit]ature1 8,pocket ,books0 & 8,cal5d>s0 h be5 publi%$ f e>ly times1 ! regul> annual appe>ance ( ! latt]1 giv+ detail$ /ati/ics1 p]sonalia1 tables useful 9 ! practice1 etc41 dates f #ahea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,) ! accompli%m5t ( ! unity ( ! empire 9 #ahga1 ) ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,exp]im5t ,/ations & _! association 9 #ahgb1 & ) ! organization ( ! ,society ( ,g]man ,=e/]s1 :i* dates f ! same ye>1 a new & mo/ active era 9 ! developm5t ( =e/ry sci5ce may be recogniz$1 ! t5d5cy ( :i* is to lift ! art out ( ! %ackles ( empiricism1 & place x on a m sci5tific basis4 ,,au/ria-,,hung>y4 ,zur ,=/ges*i*te ,oe/]rei*s1 by ,,b9d] ,,von ,,kreigel/e91 9 ,v]h&lung5 d] ,k4 ,k4 ,l&wir?s*aftsgesells*aft1 #ahcf4 ,ges*i*te d] ,oe/]rei*is*5 ,l&- und ,=/wirts*aft und ihr] ,indu/rie51 #ahdh-ahih4 #e vols41 #aijb1 p>ts ref]r+ to =e/ry1 vols4 #d & #e1 by ,dr4 von ,gutt5b]g & #ae o!rs2 a unique & mo/ compreh5sive "w1 magnific5tly publi%$ z a jubilee ( ! semi-c5t5nial ( ! coronation ( ,emp]or ,franz ,joseph4 ,die ,=/e d] ,/aats- und ,fondsgt]1 by ,,k>l ,,s*9dl]1 #ahhe & #ahhi1 #b vols41 pp4 #dhg & #gdb1 conta9s 9 greate/ detail ) hi/orical data a description ( ! ,/ate & ,funds =e/s & _! managem5t4 ,jahrbu* d] ,/aats- und ,fondsgt]-v]waltung1 #i vols41 by ,l4 ,,dimitz1 #ahig-aijd cont4 ,urkund5sammlung zur ,ges*i*te d] ung>is*5 ,=/wir?s*aft by ,,alb]t ,v4 ,,b$1 #ahif1 9 ,magy>4 ,die ,wir?s*aftli*5 und ,komm]ziell5 ,bes*reibung5 d] ,wld] des ,ung>is*5 ,/aates1 by ,a4 v4 ,,b$1 #b;d edition1 #ahif1 #d vols41 #bbdb pp41 #do1 publi%$ z a jubilee ( ! t5-c5t5nial exi/5ce ( ,hung>y4 ,fir/ volume conta9s ! g5]al description1 ?ird volume ! details ( gov]nm5t =e/s4 ,a magnific5t "w describ+ 9 detail ! =e/s & =e/ managem5t ( ,hung>y4 ,?is is brief$ by ! same au?or 9 a *apt] 9 8,! ,mill5nium ( ,hung>y & its ,p1 by ,,jekelfalussy1 #ahig40 ,g]many's neighbor to ! s\?-ea/1 & until #ahff a memb] ( ! ,g]man ,empire or ,f$]ation1 l>gely settl$ by ,g]mans & h5ce sway$ by ,g]man ?\ght1 develop$ =e/ry me?ods on mu* ! same l9es z ! "m c\ntry4 ,yet !re are diff]5ces to be f\nd1 due to diff]5ce 9 economic developm5t1 & !re is = ! ,unit$ ,/ates p]haps m to be le>n$ f ,au/ria 9 ! matt] ( introduc+ =e/ry me?ods1 especially z lately practic$ 9 ,bosnia-,h]zegov9a1 ?an f any o!r c\ntry1 = economic conditions are 9 sev]al respects alike4 ,! int]e/ 9 ! =e/ hi/ory ( ,au/ria lies especially 9 ! fact t private =e/ prop]ty 9 l>ge hold+s is pr$om9ant1 & t l>ge areas are /ill unt\*$ or j op5$ to exploitation1 s t ,au/ria is /ill 9 ! li/ ( export c\ntries1 al?\gh 9 "s p>ts int5sive managem5t has be5 long 9 exi/5ce4 ,9 ! ma91 al?\gh movem5ts = re=m 9 =e/ use date back to ! middle ages1 ! condition ( =e/ry 9 ,au/ria 0 pa/ ! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury /ill mo/ deplorable1 & 9 a /age ( developm5t :i* mo/ ( ! ,g]man ,/ates _h pass$ long be=e2 b 9 ! la/ #ej ye>s su* progress has be5 made t bo? sci5ce & practice /& ne>ly if n q on ! same level ) ^? ( _! ,g]man neighbors4 ,if ,g]many exhibits 9 its diff]5t p>ts a great v>iety ( developm5t1 political & economic1 ,au/ria1 al?\gh long "u "o family ( rul]s 7s9ce #aebf71 exhibits a /ill great] v>iety due to racial1 natural1 & hi/orical diff]5ces )9 its own bord]s4 ,x is1 inde$1 an extraord9>y & s+ul> c\ntry1 )\t an equal ( its k9d 7except p]haps ,turkey7 9 t x is n a national1 b a dyna/ic p[]1 compos$ ( unrelat$ /ates or l&s1 ) p speak+ diff]5t languages1 mix$ races widely diff]5t 9 "*4 ,^! 7 gradually aggregat$ "u "o head or rul+ family1 ! ,hapsburgs1 :o z ,ar*dukes ( ,au/ria occupi$ ! elective position ( ,g]man ,emp]ors = sev]al g5]ations1 & aft] ! collapse ( ! ,empire1 9 #ahjf1 reta9$ ! title & call$ !mselves ,emp]ors ( ,au/ria4 ,! ,k+dom ( ,hung>y alone 7:i* 0 jo9$ to ! ,hapsburg dom9ions by election ( its p 9 #aebf1 & "u new relations 9 #ahfg71 ) at lea/ #ej ,hung>ians1 is a national unit ) a national language 7,magy>71 :ile all o!r p>ts h 9 _! composition prepond]at+ly ,slavi% population1 al?\gh ,g]man elem5ts h ! asc5dancy m or less ev]y:]e4 ,n less ?an #aj diff]5t languages are spok5 among ! =ty odd million p1 ( :om ! ,g]mans comprise ab\t "o-qu>t]1 ! ,hung>ians "o-?ird1 ! balance be+ ,slavs4 ,orig9ally1 ?is section ( ! c\ntry 0 occupi$ by ,g]mans ) ! ,g]man in/itution ( ! ,m>k1 b1 :5 ! ,slavi% & ,magy> tribes press$ 9 f ! ,ea/1 x became ! meet+ gr\nd ( ! ?ree races1 & dur+ ! fir/ #a1jjj ye>s aft] ,*ri/ ! 8,ea/ ,m>k0 =m$ ! bulw>k ( ! ,g]man empire aga9/ ! ea/]n invad]s1 :o1 71 9 succession1 ! ,slavs1 ! ,huns1 ! ,turks4 ,) ! unexpect$ election ( ,rudolph ( ,hapsburg1 a little kn[n pr9ce ( small possessions1 to ! dignity ( ,g]man ,emp]or1 9 #abgb1 ! f\ndation ( ! ,au/rian ,empire 0 laid4 ,! ,ar*du*y ( ,au/ria he secur$ by conque/ 9 #abhb1 & ar\nd ?is nucleus all ! o!r t]ritories 7 f "t to "t1 aggregat$ by ! ,hapsburgs ?r\gh m>riage1 conque/1 or treaty4 ,at "o "t _! rule ext5d$ ov] ,spa91 ! ,ne!rl&s1 ,switz]l&1 ,naples1 ,sicily & ,s>d9ia4 ,! abdication ( ,francis ,,ii1 9 ! ye> #ahjf1 prep>$ ! sep>ation f ,g]many1 al?\gh ,au/rian influ5ce p]si/$ 9 ,g]many until #ahff :51 by ! cru%+ defeat suff]$ at ! h&s ( ,prussia1 its place & voice 0 p]man5tly exclud$ f ,g]man c\ncils4 ,by arrangem5t ) ,hung>y1 ! new dual empire ( ,au/ria-,hung>y came into exi/5ce1 & gave a new national life & new policies to ! coalition :i* is to amalgamate ^! s\?-ea/]n t]ritories into a homog5e\s nation4 ,by ! treaty ( ,b]l9 9 #ahgh1 ?is t]ritory ( #bda1idb squ>e miles ) ov] #de million p 0 fur!r increas$ by ! addition ( ! ,turki% prov9ces ( ,bosnia & ,h]zegov9a ) #a1bej1jjj inhabitants & #bc1bfb squ>e miles1 fir/ m]ely plac$ "u ,au/ria's suz]a9ty & adm9i/ration1 9 #aijh incorporat$ z an integral "p4 99 99 99 99 99 ,x is natural t1 correspond+ to ?is great div]sity ( e?nological elem5ts & hi/orical developm5t1 we %\ld f9d a great v>iety ( =e/ conditions & unev5 developm5t ( =e/ry4 ,:ile 9 ,bohemia1 ,moravia & ,silesia ! mo/ int5sive managem5t has long be5 practic$1 9 ! ,c>pa?ians ( ,galicia & 9 ,hung>y r\gh exploitation is /ill ! rule1 & 9 o!r p>ts l>ge unt\*$ =e/ areas /ill await developm5t4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we c di/+ui% at lea/ sev5 regions ?us diff]5tly develop$3 ! ,nor?we/ ) ,bohemia1 ,moravia & ! rema9+ "p ( ,silesia1 settl$ ! longe/1 & ! longe/ "u =e/ managem5t2 ! ,nor!a/1 ,galicia ) ! ,c>pa?ian ,m\nta9s1 /ill l>gely ei!r exploit$ or unt\*$2 ! ,danube l&s or ,au/ria prop]1 ) ! ,vi5na =e/ & ! =e/s connect$ ) ! saltworks 9 ,upp] ,au/ria & ,/yria1 "u "s managem5t s9ce ! #ab? & #af? c5turies respectively2 ! ,alp t]ritory1 includ+ ,tyrol & ,salzburg1 p>ts ( ,/yria1 ,k>9?ia & ,kra91 mu* deva/at$ long ago1 & (f]+ all ! problems ( ! reboisem5t "w ( ,france2 ! ,coa/ l&s along ! ,adriatic ) ,dalmatia1 ,i/ria & ,trie/e1 :i*1 f anci5t times "u ,v5etian rule1 br+ ) !m ! inh]itance ( a mismanag$ lime/one c\ntry1 creat+ ! problems ( ! 8,k>/0 re=e/ation :i* has baffl$ ! economi/ & =e/] until ! pres5t "t2 ! two new prov9ces ea/ ( ?is region1 ,bosnia & ,h]zegov9a1 ^: ri* =e/ areas h only lately begun to be treat$ "u mod]n cons]vative ideas2 & f9ally ,hung>y ) a great v>iety ( conditions 9 itself4 ,! l>ge =e/ p] c5t4 7a little ov] #bd1jjj1jjj acres or ov] #cb ( ! l& area7 is due to ! m\nta9\s "* ( ! c\ntry1 ! ,alps occupy+ a l>ge area on ! we/ & s\?we/1 ! ,c>pa?ians /ret*+ = #fjj miles on ! nor!a/1 v>i\s m\nta9 ranges encircl+ ,bohemia1 ! ,sudetes =m+ "p ( ! nor!rn fronti]1 & ! ,wi5] ,wald & o!r l[] ranges be+ di/ribut$ ov] ! empire & b\nd+ ! f]tile valleys ( ! ,danube & its tribut>ies4 ,at lea/ #bj p] c5t4 is unproductive4 ,! climate 9 ! nor!rn portion ( ,au/ria is simil> to t ( s\!rn ,g]many2 9 ! s\!rn portions to t ( ,italy1 :ile ,hung>y p>takes ( ! *>act]i/ics ( a cont95tal pla9s climate ) l[ ra9fall & extreme temp]ature ranges4 ,9 addition to ! tree species f\nd 9 ,g]many !re are ( economic value f\r species ( p9e 7,p9us au/riaca1 cembra1 p9ea1 halep5sis71 two oaks 7,qu]cus ilex & sub]71 & ! *e/nut 7,ca/anea vesca74 ,conif] =e/ is prevail+ 9 ,au/ria 7) #hb71 decidu\s =e/ 9 ,hung>y1 mo/ly bee* & oak 7) #ge72 #bg be+ oak 9 pure /&s4 ,! foll[+ pages ref] to ,au/ria prop]1 ,hung>ian conditions be+ treat$ sep>ately fur!r on4 ,! value ( ! total raw product export$ f ! ,au/rian =e/s 7"s #ahj million cubic feet7 may be e/imat$ at ov] #ej million doll>s annually4 #a4 ,prop]ty ,conditions4 ,on ! :ole1 prop]ty conditions develop$ n unsimil>ly to ^? ( ,g]many4 ,!re 7 freem5 & s]fs to />t )1 develop+ into b>ons1 peasants1 burgh]s2 !re 7 ban =e/s1 royal doma91 =e/s ( ! m>k1 & private prop]ties2 rights ( us] or s]vitudes & all ! me?ods & conditions t 7 develop$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe are also f\nd "h1 only p]haps diff]+ 9 "t & rate ( progress 9 _! developm5t4 ,z a result ( gradual *anges1 ! pres5t di/ribution ( prop]ty result$1 9 :i* ! ,/ate own]%ip is comp>atively small1 namely1 9 ,au/ria prop] n m ?an #g4c 7) #b4h million acres ( :i* ne>ly "o-?ird is unproductive l&71 :ile private own]%ip repres5ts ov] #eh4f4 ,( ?is1 #cd is 9 l>ge l&$ e/ates1 among :i* ^? ( ! pr9ces ( ,lie*t5/e9 & ( ,s*w>z5b]g ) r\nd #cej1jjj acres & #bij1jjj acres respectively are ! l>ge/2 & #be o!rs ) f #ej1jjj to #bcj1jjj acres may be nam$4 ,by ! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury1 at lea/ #ge ( ! =e/ area 0 9 l>ge compact prop]ties1 a gu>antee = ! possibility ( =e/ managem5t2 ! indu/rial developm5t ( ! la/ decade has1 h[ev]1 l$ to consid]able exploitation4 ,9 upp] & l[] ,au/ria & 9 ! ,alp9e regions small private own]%ip prevails4 ,! communal =e/ comprises #ac1 entail$ =e/ #h1 & ! re/ belongs to *ur* & o!r in/itutions4 ,^! s-call$ ,fonds=/e are 9 "p "u gov]nm5t adm9i/ration4 #b4 ,fir/ ,attempts at ,=e/ ,control4 ,! olde/ record ( attempts at an ord]ly managem5t 9 any "p ( ! empire seems to date back to ! #ab? c5tury1 :5 ! city =e/ ( ,vi5na _h be5 plac$ "u managem5t4 ,dur+ ! #af? & #ag? c5tury ?is prop]ty appe>s to h be5 manag$ ^u ! basis ( c>eful surveys & e/imates4 ,we also f9d a def9ite =e/ organization 9 ! =e/s atta*$ to ! ducal salt m9es 9 ,/yria by #aebd1 & ! dams1 canals & wat] works = float+ timb] develop$ by #aeib ?r\gh ,?omas ,seeau] 7 ! wond] ( ! times4 ,9 #aebd also1 ,ar*bi%op ,ma?u ,lang ( ,well5burg issu$ a =e/ ord9ance :i* 0 full ( wise prescriptions1 probably little he$$4 ,a =e/ ord9ance ( #aeii ref]s to burn+ ( tops & c>e ( "y gr[? 9 fell+s4 ,g5]ally speak+1 z 9 ,g]many prop]1 =e/ ord9ances 7 issu$ f "t to "t1 by ! dukes "u ! !ory ( ! ,=/hoheit1 apply+ to limit$ t]ritories & attempt+ to regulate =e/ use4 ,no uni=mity exi/$4 ,! iron indu/ry 9 ! m nor!rn prov9ces _h l$ e>ly to a m cons]vative use ( =e/ prop]ties = fuel1 & s9ce ! m9es 7 regal prop]ty ! dukes _h a special int]e/ 9 _! cons]vation4 ,9 ! ,alp t]ritory1 especially 9 ,/yria1 ! regal "r to ! m9es comb9$ ) ! ,=/hoheit l$ e>ly to ! res]vation by ! dukes ( :atev] =e/ 0 n f5c$ or own$ by special grant = ! use ( ! m9es4 ,9 addition1 a sup]ior "r 0 ass]t$ by !m 9 "s ( ! private =e/s to all ! =e/ produce beyond ! p]sonal requirem5ts ( ! own]s1 = use ( ! m9es at a small tax2 & :at o!r private prop]ty exi/$ 0 burd5$ by innum]able rights ( us]4 ,! ex]cise ( ^! rights1 & ! w>f>e aga9/ irksome re/rictions l$ to widespread illegal exploitation & deva/ation1 :i* z e>ly z ! #ae? c5tury _h proce$$ to su* an ext5t t 9 ,tyrol associations = protection aga9/ ! torr5ts 7 already !n 9 exi/5ce4 ,yet 9 ?is prov9ce1 scantily populat$1 ) "o-?ird ( its area unproductive & "o-?ird =e/$1 wa/eful exploitation cont9u$ until rec5t times4 ,9 ,kra91 :i* 0 unusually well wood$1 =e/ res]vations 7 made = ! use ( ! m9es & furnaces 9 #aeaj & #aeae1 ^! res]vations compris+ all =e/ l&s )9 a giv5 radius4 ,! balance 0 mo/ly divid$ among small own]s1 ^: unre/rict$1 uncons]vative exploitation cont9u$ into ! latt] half ( ! #ai? c5tury4 ,9 ,/yria1 ne>ly "o-half wood$ & "o-?ird unproductive1 a regulat$ managem5t 0 attempt$ z e>ly z #aegb1 & by subsequ5t =e/ ord9ances ( #afie1 #agba & #agfg deva/ation 0 to be *eck$4 ,b ! resi/ance ( ! peasants to ! regulations & ! ineffici5cy ( ! =e/ s]vice 7 su* t no sub/antial improvem5t result$4 ,9 ,galicia1 unusually ext5sive rights ( us] 9 ! cr[n =e/s l$ to _! deva/ation1 & ! attempts to regulate ! ex]cise ( ^! rights by ord9ances 9 #aghb & #ahjb 7 unsuccessful4 ,! =e/ area along ! coa/ ( ! ,adriatic 9 ,i/ria & ,dalmatia _h furni%$ %iptimb] ev5 to ! anci5ts4 ,! ,v5etians becom+ ! own]s ( ! c\ntry 9 ! #ae? c5tury decl>$ all =e/s national prop]ty1 res]v$ = %iptimb]1 & plac$ !m "u managem5t4 ,!y in/itut$ a =e/ s]vice1 regulat$ pa/ur+1 & =bade cle>+4 ,! oak coppice 0 to be cut 9 #h to #ab ye> rotation1 ) /&>ds to be left = timb]1 etc4 ,a reorganization ( ?is s]vice ) division into di/ricts is record$ 9 ! #af? c5tury1 :5 ,*>les ,v1 9 #aebj1 in/itut$ a 8=e/ college10 i4e41 adm9i/ration4 ,b ! di/rict (fic]s1 capitani ai bos*i1 be+ und]paid1 c>ri$ on a nef>i\s trade on _! own acc\nt1 & by #agge1 ! :ole c\ntry 0 already ru9$ 9 spite ( attempts at re=m2 ! 8,k>/0 problem rema9$ unsolv$2 &1 :5 ,au/ria secur$ ,dalmatia1 9 #ahig1 t c\ntry too 0 f\nd 9 ! same deplorable condition1 ! =e/ area1 !re 9 ! h&s ( ! peasants1 hav+ suff]$ by pa/ure & indiscrim9ate cutt+4 ,x 0 ! "w ( ,m>ia ,!resa to re=m ! adm9i/ration ( ! v>i\s bran*es ( gov]nm5t1 & :olesome legislation 0 also ext5d$ to ! =e/ bran* by h] =e/ ord9ance ( #aged1 :i* rema9$ 9 =ce until #aheb4 ,x reliev$ ! private own]s1 :o held mo/ ( ! =e/ area1 f ! re/rictions hi!rto impos$1 except 9 ! fronti] =e/s4 ,^!1 = /rategic reasons1 7 to be manag$ accord+ to special work+ plans prep>$ by ! 8patriotic economic society40 ,! managem5t ( communal =e/s also 0 specially regulat$4 ,o!rwise ! ord9ance m]ely recomm5d$ 9 g5]al t]ms ord]ly sy/em & ! /opp+ ( abuses4 ,9 #agga1 ano!r =e/ ord9ance propos$ to ext5d ! same policy ( private unre/rict$ own]%ip to ! ,k>/ =e/s1 ) ! idea t !reby bett] conditions w\ld mo/ likely be secur$2 b1 s9ce "h ! prop]ty 0 n z 9 ,bohemia 9 l>ge e/ates b 9 small f>m]s' h&s1 ! result 0 disa/r\s1 z we %all see lat]3 x m]ely l$ to increas$ deva/ation4 ,! same result foll[$ ! increase ( private peasant own]%ip :i* came ) ! aboli%m5t ( s]fdom 9 #agha4 ,9 #aghb1 an ord9ance full ( wise prescriptions aga9/ wa/eful practice int5d$ = ! ,nor?we/ t]ritory s\ght to *eck ! improvid5t =e/ de/ruction4 ,a fur!r :olesome influ5ce on private =e/ managem5t 0 ex]cis$ by ! tax assessm5t re=m 9 #aghh1 :5 n only a m reasonable assessm5t b = ! fir/ "t a diff]5ce 0 made 9 taxation ( manag$ z oppos$ to unmanag$ woods & ! epo*-mak+ f]tile idea ( ! normal =e/ 0 ann\nc$ 7see p4 #aae74 ,at ! same "t ! hunt+ privileges & o!r burd5s1 hamp]+ =e/ prop]ties 7 aboli%$1 & measures = ! ext+ui%m5t ( ! rights ( us] enact$4 #c4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy4 ,z appe>s f ! =ego+ sket* ( e>ly attempts at =e/ control1 no uni=mity exi/$ 9 ! empire1 ea* prov9ce be+ treat$ diff]5tly & ! regal rights be+ appli$ diff]5tly 9 ea* case4 ,orig9ally ! regul> circuit or di/rict gov]nm5ts _h *>ge n only ( ! managem5t ( ,/ate =e/s b also ( ! =e/ police & ! regulation ( ! managem5t ( communal =e/s4 ,?is sup]vision 0 ex]cis$ by ! political adm9i/ration1 (t5 )\t te*nical advis]s1 & ! diff]5t prov9ces _h develop$ ?is s]vice v v>iably4 ,:ile 9 "s prov9ces no special ef=t 0 made to look aft] ^! int]e/s1 ! laws rema9+ ma9ly dead lett]s1 9 o!rs a bett] sy/em prevail$4 ,9 ,/yria1 = in/ance1 9 #ahjg1 five =e/ commission]s & #bj di/rict =e/]s 7 employ$2 b ?is organization 0 ( %ort duration4 ,a loose adm9i/ration ( ! =e/ laws 0 mo/ g5]al4 ,! movem5t = re=m & to secure a g5]al law = ! empire controll+ =e/ use dates f ! ye> #ahad2 b1 only aft] ! political reaction ( #ahdh1 & :5 ! sev]e floods ( #ahea _h =cibly call$ att5tion to ! unsatisfactory /ate ( ?+s 0 ! necessity ( *ange recogniz$4 ,9 #aheb1 su* a g5]al law 0 enact$1 supplant+ all ! =e/ ord9ances 7) m9or exceptions74 ,?is law1 :i* 9 ! ma9 is /ill 9 =ce1 di/+ui%es betwe5 ban =e/s & protective =e/s4 ,! =m] are su* z require 9 _! managem5t consid]ation ( _! protective value to adjo9+ private or ,/ate prop]ty & p]sonal safety1 e4g41 to prev5t l&slides1 sn[slides1 avalan*es1 etc4 ,protection =e/s are specially locat$ =e/s :i* = _! own cont9uance z well z = t ( neighbor+ ones mu/ be manag$ "u special re/rictions1 e4g41 on s& dunes1 %ores ( wat]s1 /eep slopes4 ,! dang]s :i* !y are to prev5t be+ m ( an indirect or hidd5 nature1 & only produc$ by _! mismanagem5t1 ! control also is ( a m g5]al nature1 ! own] be+ all[$ to manage 8 prop]ty )9 g5]al prescriptions1 :ile ! ban =e/s are protective =e/s ( a high] ord] & are m /rictly & m directly controll$ by ! au?orities4 ,! decl>ation ( a ban =e/ & ! prescription = ! cons]vative managem5t dep5d on ! f9d+s ( a commission assi/$ by exp]ts 7s9ce #ahgc74 ,! execution ( ! law h[ev]1 be+ left to ! political adm9i/ration ( ! prov9ces1 jeal\sies betwe5 imp]ial & prov9cial gov]nm5ts1 & fe> ( resi/ance & ill w ( =e/ own]s prev5t$ a /rict & uni=m application ( ! law4 ,h5ce1 f "t to "t1 we f9d m9i/]ial rescripts1 & special prov9cial legislation to secure a m en]getic en=cem5t ( ! law4 ,at fir/1 ! re=m _h ref]5ce ma9ly to ! ,alp di/ricts1 :i* _h suff]$ ! mo/1 &1 9 ,tyrol1 at lea/1 an organization 0 creat$ 9 #ahef :i* 0 to manage ! ,/ate =e/s1 sup]vise ! managem5t ( corporation =e/s & ex]cise ! =e/ police4 ,n until ! ye>s #ahga-gd1 h[ev]1 0 a simil> s]vice ext5d$ to o!r portions ( ! empire1 b at ! end ( t p]iod ! entire empire _h be5 plac$ "u ! adm9i/ration ( a 8=e/ protective s]vice40 an organization q di/9ct f ! ,/ate =e/ adm9i/ration4 ,9 #aijj1 !re 7 plac$ "u ?is s]vice ne>ly two million acres ( protective1 & some:at ov] #aej1jjj acres ( ban =e/s1 b "s #e to #f million acres ( private or communal =e/ 0 "u "s o!r re/rictive policy4 ,9 #ahhh1 ?is s]vice consi/$ ( #ad =e/ inspectors1 #ef =e/ commission]s1 #fc =e/ adjuncts & #hj assi/ants & =e/ gu>ds2 9 addition #beb special appo9tees & (fic]s ( ! ,/ate =e/ adm9i/ration 7 do+ duty 9 ?is s]vice1 s t altoge!r ne>ly #ejj p]sons 7 !n employ$ 9 c>ry+ on ! protective =e/ policy ( ! ,/ate4 ,9 #aiaj1 !re 7 #chh te*nical atta*s to ! prov9cial au?orities employ$1 & #abd on reboisem5t "w1 :ile ! ,/ate adm9i/ration employ$ only #big (ficials ( ! high] grade4 ,! law decl>es ! function ( ?is te*nical s]vice to be3 8to assi/ ! political gov]nm5t by te*nical advice & obs]vation 9 sup]vis+ =e/ protection1 & 9 ! application ( ! =e/ laws40 ,9 #ahhc1 ! functions ( ?is organization 7 ext5d$ 8to in/ruct & enc\rage =e/ own]s 9 =e/ culture1 & to manage =e/s designat$ to be s manag$40 ,! s]vice has be5 s satisfactory t1 :ile at fir/ mu* compla9t aga9/ ! en=cem5t ( ! regulations 0 he>d1 own]s n[ ask con/antly = its ext5sion4 ,! details ( ! duties devolv+ ^u ?is organization are f\nd 9 a s]ies ( laws1 applicable to diff]5t p>ts ( ! empire1 :i* are bas$ ^u ! recognition ( protection =e/s1 9 :i* sanction$ work+ plans regulate ! managem5t4 ,=cible re=e/ation & employm5t ( compet5t =e/]s 9 ^! are obligatory4 ,n[1 altoge!r ab\t #fj ( ! ,au/rian =e/ area is manag$ "u work+ plans4 ,a special reboisem5t law = ! ext9ction ( de/ructive torr5ts 0 ! result ( unusual damage by floods 9 ,tirol & ,k>9?ia1 9 #ahhb4 ,! basis = ?is legislation 0 laid by a translation f ! ,fr5* ( ,demontzey's great "w on ! reboisem5t ( m\nta9s1 by v4 ,seck5dorff 9 #ahhj1 & a subsequ5t report by ! same au?or 9 #ahhc4 ,a law1 simil> to t ( ! ,fr5* 0 enact$ 9 #ahhd1 = ! regulation ( torr5tial /reams4 ,a special fund = ! "w 0 creat$ to :i* ! int]e/$ p>ties are requir$ to contribute1 assi/$ by annual subv5tions f ! ,/ate4 ,! contributions ( ! ,/ate h av]ag$ f #dj to #fj1 ( ! prov9ces #bj to #ej1 ! int]e/$ p>ties hav+ contribut$ #cj ( ! r\nd five million doll>s exp5d$ on ?is "w by #aija4 ,9 #aiaj1 ! contribution to ! melioration fund by ! ,/ate _h gr[n to #a4f million doll>s4 ,at ! same "t1 = ! regulation ( ! l[] riv]s an appropriation ( #a1cej1jjj 0 made1 ( :i* #djj1jjj 0 to be us$ = re=e/ation "w4 ,?is "w z well z ! re=e/ation ( ! ,k>/ 7see p4 #agc7 "u ! laws ( #ahha1 #ahhc1 #ahhe1 is c>ri$ on by ! =e/ protective s]vice4 ,on ! :ole1 ! =e/ policy ( ,au/ria t5ds t[>d h>mony ) =e/ own]s & lib]ation ( private prop]ty4 ,by r$uction ( railroad freights1 :i* are "u gov]nm5t managem5t1 by abolition ( export duties1 by reasonable tax assessm5ts1 etc41 ! wood export trade 7n[ exce$+ #cj million doll>s7 is favor$2 by ! ext9ction ( rights ( us] "u lib]al laws improvem5t 9 =e/ managem5t is made possible1 ! ,emp]or sett+ a good example by hav+ r5\nc$1 9 #aheh1 8 sup]ior "r to =e/ res]vations 9 ! ,alp di/ricts4 ,! be/ exemplification ( ! _s ( ! ,au/rian =e/ policy & ( ! me?ods ( =e/ organization & adm9i/ration is to be f\nd 9 ! adm9i/ration ( ! prov9ces ( ,bosnia & ,h]zegov9a describ$ 9 a volume publi%$ 9 #aije by ! vet]an ,au/rian =e/]1 ,ludwig ,dimitz4#f #f ,die =/li*5 ,v]hltnisse und ,e9ri*tung5 ,bosni5s und d] ,h]zegov9a1 ,,ludwig ,,dimitz1 ,vi5na1 #aije1 pp4 #chi4 ,see ,=e/ry ,qu>t]ly1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #aac4 ,"h1 ! ,au/rian gov]nm5t has 9 ! %ort "t ( #be ye>s succe$$ 9 br++ ord]ly conditions into ! =e/ managem5t4 ,until #ahgh1 ^! c\ntries 7 prov9ces ( ,turkey & 7 plac$ "u ,au/rian suz]a9ty z a result ( ! ,russo-,turki% ,w>4 ,! ,turks _h already attempt$ a managem5t ( ! =e/ l&s1 :i* 7 9 _! entirety claim$ by ! ,sultan4 ,prop]ty conditions be+ entirely uncle> :5 ! ,au/rians assum$ ! adm9i/ration1 ^! que/ions _h fir/ to be settl$ by a survey4 ,?is survey result$ 9 %[+ a =e/ area ( #f4c million acres1 #ea ( ! l& area1 ( :i* probably all b ab\t #a4e million acres is private or communal prop]ty2 half ( ! /ate prop]ty is fully /ock$ & x is e/imat$ t ab\t #ajj million cubic feet is ! annual increm5t4 #d4 ,/ate ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration4 ,! ,/ate doma9 9 ! fir/ half ( ! #ai? c5tury _h be5 r$uc$ by sales f ne>ly #aj million acres to #d4e million acres1 & to a little ov] #c million acres 9 #ahee4 ,9 t ye>1 ab\t "o-half ( ?is prop]ty 0 h&$ ov] to ! ,national ,bank to secure ! ,/ate's indebt$ness ( #cj1jjj1jjj1 & betwe5 #ahfj & #ahgj fur!r sales r$uc$ ! doma9 to ab\t its pres5t size ( #a4h million acres productive =e/4 ,9 #ahgb1 h[ev]1 a new policy1 & ! pres5t organization 7 in/itut$4 ,be=e #ahdi1 ! =e/ prop]ties :i* ! ,cr[n or ,/ate own$ 9 ! v>i\s t]ritories 7 n manag$ z a unit or 9 any uni=m mann]1 b a numb] ( sep>ate prov9cial or t]ritorial =e/ adm9i/rations exi/$ :i* 7 (t5 connect$ ) m9+ adm9i/rations & 7 plac$ "u ! ,m9i/] ( ,f9ance4 ,^!1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! educat$ =e/]s issu+ f ! newly e/abli%$ =e/ s*ool1 _h1 to be sure1 be5 mu* improv$2 nev]!less ! ,cam]ali/s1 z 9 ,g]many1 7 at ! head ( affairs & kept ! te*nical developm5t back until aft] ! revolution ( #ahdh1 :5 ! accession ( ,franz ,joseph ,i br\ght _m re=ms & *anges 9 me?ods ( adm9i/ration4 ,a m9i/ry ( ,soilculture & ,m9+ 0 creat$ 9 t ye>1 &1 z a bran* ( x1 a =e/ dep>tm5t1 sep>at$ f ! dep>tm5t ( ! ,*ase4 ,to ! head ( ?is =e/ dep>tm5t 0 call$ a =e/]1 ,rudolf ,fei/mantel1 :o elaborat$ an organization4 ,b1 be=e mu* _h be5 accompli%$1 ! ,m9i/ry & its =e/ dep>tm5t 7 aboli%$ 7#ahec7 & ! =e/ doma9 aga9 transf]r$ to ! ,m9i/ry ( ,f9ance4 ,fei/mantel return$ 9 #ahef z ,*ief ( ! =e/ division 9 t ,m9i/ry1 & 8 organization ( ! =e/ prop]ty ( ! ,/ate into =e/ di/ricts "u =e/ manag]s & into prov9cial 8=e/ directions0 0 p]fect$4 ,matt]s1 h[ev]1 did n ?rive1 &1 only :5 public att5tion & indignation _h be5 ar\s$ by a policy ( sell+ ,/ate prop]ty1 a *ange ( attitude took place 9 #ahgb :i* l$ to ! pres5t organization4 ,?is places ! ,/ate =e/ adm9i/ration 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ) an 8,ob]l&=/mei/]0 & two assi/ants z sup]ior (fic]s1 & ! re/ ( ! organization is also v ne>ly ! same z t 9 vogue 9 mo/ ,g]man ,/ates1 ea* prov9ce hav+ a directive s]vice ( 8,ob]=/mei/]0 ) 8,=/mei/]0 z inspectors1 & 8,ob]fr/]0 ) ! assi/ance ( 8,=/w>te0 z executive (fic]s4 ,9 addition a special corps ( 8=e/ eng9e]s0 & 8sup]ior =e/ eng9e]s0 is provid$ = ! elaboration ( work+ plans4 ,lately 7#aijd71 a re-organization ( ! c5tral (fice provid$1 besides ! dep>tm5t ( adm9i/ration ( ,/ate & ,funds =e/s1 a dep>tm5t ( reboisem5t & correction ( torr5ts1 & a dep>tm5t ( =e/ policy *>g$ ) ! promotion ( =e/ culture1 includ+ ! education ( =e/]s & simil> matt]s4 ,mo/ ( ! ,/ate prop]ty is locat$ 9 ! ,alps & ,c>pa?ian m\nta9s at an elevation above #b1jjj feet1 h5ce f9ancial results d n make a good %[+4 ,s9ce #ahhe x has be5 ! policy to add to ! ,/ate =e/ area by pur*ase1 & by #ahih1 ov] #cej1jjj acres _h be5 add$ to x4 #e4 ,progress ( ,=e/ ,organization4 ,s9ce #ahgc1 work+ plans accord+ to unifi$ pr9ciples h be5 prep>$ = mo/ ( ! ,/ate prop]ty1 s t1 by #ahih1 ab\t #hb 0 "u regulat$ managem5t4 ,! progress made 9 br++ =e/ areas "u organiz$ managem5t v>i$ greatly 9 ! diff]5t prov9ces4 ,9 nor!a/]n ,au/ria1 ! fir/ me?ods ( regulat$ managem5t consi/$1 z 9 ! neighbor+ t]ritories ( ,g]many1 9 a simple division into fell+ areas4 ,! example ( ! neighbors 0 also foll[$ lat] 9 ! nor?we/]n prov9ces1 & 9 bo? regions ?is me?od 0 improv$ ^u by allotm5t accord+ to ! propositions ( ,h>tig & ,cotta4 ,9 addition1 s9ce #ahaj1 ! me?od ( ! ,au/rian 8,kam]altaxe0 ) ! new & f]tile idea ( ! 8normal =e/0 began to be employ$ 7see p4 #aae74 ,! new me?od n[ l>gely employ$ is an area allotm5t *eck$ by ! normal =e/ =mula4 99 99 99 99 99 ,especially 9 ,bohemia1 mo/ ( ! l>ge b>onial prop]ties _h1 by #ahdh1 be5 put "u a regul> sy/em ( managem5t accord+ to ,saxon & ,prussian prec$5t4 ,! influ5ce ( ! =m] 0 especially /rong1 & ,saxon =e/]s 7 l>gely employ$ to regulate ! managem5t4 ,mo/ prom95t among ^! 0 ,judei*1 :o became ! ,director ( ! ,au/rian =e/ s*ool at ,weisswass]1 7aft]w>ds ( ,?>&t74 ,by #ahij1 ov] #hc ( ! total =e/ area ( ,bohemia capable ( su* managem5t _h be5 plac$ "u rational work+ plans accord+ to ! mo/ mod]n conception1 & ne>ly ! same proportion 9 ! neighbor+ prov9ces ( ,moravia & ,silesia4 ,9 ! ,alps t]ritory & 9 ! ,danube prov9ces1 ! regulation ( =e/ managem5t has n progress$ ) ! same rapidity1 p>tly ow+ to ! exi/5ce ( ! _m hamp]+ rights ( us]2 only "h & !re1 are prop]ties manag$ int5sively4 ,by #ahij1 only #bc 7 manag$ "u rational work+ plans 7#dj /ate & #fj private & communal prop]ty71 mo/ly regulat$ by a comb9$ area & volume me?od4 ,9 ,/yria1 9 ! =e/s atta*$ to m9es1 we f9d already 9 #agie q a rem>kable ef=t 9 ! matt] ( work+ plans4 ,su* a plan by an unkn[n au?or deals ) volume tables & sample area me?ods = det]m9+ ! /ock4 ,b ! f9e plan 0 /[$ away 9 a cupbo>d1 & :51 9 #ahcj1 =e/ c\nselor ,wund]bald+] propos$ to apply a simil> plan he _h to wait sev5 ye>s be=e p]mission = a trial 0 grant$4 ,he cont9u$1 h[ev]1 ! organization ( ^! =e/s until #ahdh1 us+ ,hunde%ag5's 8use p] c5t40 9 ! selection =e/1 & volume allotm5t = ! woods manag$ "u cle>+ sy/em4 ,9 l[] ,au/ria1 ! ,vi5na /ate =e/ ( #gj1jjj acres _h = a long "t receiv$ att5tion2 ! fir/ ?or\gh =e/ survey & yield calculation be+ made 9 #agah-bj1 revis$ 9 #aghb-hf1 & regulat$ = ! %elt]wood sy/em 9 #ahbj4 ,)9 ! la/ #ej ye>s1 ! me?od has be5 *ang$ aga9 & aga91 until 9 #ahhb ! pres5t ,au/rian me?od bas$ on normal /ock pr9ciples 0 appli$4 ,s9ce 9 ?is prov9ce #ej ( ! =e/ area is small peasant prop]ty & communal =e/1 :i* are usually manag$ )\t sy/ematic plans1 ! #cc "u work+ plans repres5ts m ?an half ( ! area capable ( su* managem5t4 ,9 upp] ,au/ria1 :]e ! salt works are situat$1 ! attempts at regulat$ managem5t 9 connection ) ^! date back to ! middle ( ! #af? c5tury1 &1 aft] v>i\s *anges1 ^! =e/ areas 71 by #ahhh1 plac$ "u work+ plans ( mod]n /yle4 ,ov] #ej ( ! =e/ area ( ?is prov9ce is s regulat$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ mod]n work+ plans bas$ ^u ,pressl]'s soil r5t !ory & a mo/ int5sive silviculture1 is t ( ! ,b>on ,mayr-,melnh( on 8 e/ate ,kogl4 ,^! details are m]ely br\ght =w>d to illu/rate ! great v>iation bo? 9 ! progress ( developm5t & 9 ! pres5t conditions 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! empire1 simil> diff]5ces be+ f\nd 9 o!r portions4 ,suffice x to say t 9 r\nd numb]s ab\t fifte5 hundr$ ?\s& acres are manag$ "u m or less int5sive work+ plans1 & ( ! balance sev5 million acres are f>m]s' woodlots on :i* only silvicultural treatm5t is necess>y4 #f4 ,developm5t ( ,silviculture4 ,! necessity = cons]vative =e/ use & re=e/ation did n arise z e>ly 9 ,au/ria z x did 9 ,g]many4 ,x 0 n until ! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury t ?is necessity became app>5t 9 mo/ ( ! prov9ces1 :5 ,g]man exp]i5ces 9 silviculture c\ld be readily utiliz$4 ,9 ,bohemia1 ! cle>+ sy/em ) artificial re=e/ation1 mo/ly by se$1 _h be5 introduc$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury = ! conif] =e/s1 plant+ z a rule be+ resort$ to only 9 fail places4 ,= ?is plant+1 wildl+s 7 mo/ly us$4 ,9 ! broad-leav$ =e/1 ! selection sy/em1 & to "s ext5t ! %elt]wood me?od1 7 l>gely foll[$4 ,! /rip sy/em 0 also mu* employ$1 &1 z ! fell+ areas 7 (t5 made too l>ge1 undue increase ( undesirable s(twoods result$4 ,dur+ ! la/ #ej ye>s1 silvicultural !ory & practice develop$ v mu* on ! same l9es z 9 ,g]many1 m int5sively 9 ! d5sely populat$ & m accessible regions1 & less s 9 ! m di/ant & ?9ly settl$ m\nta9 di/ricts4 ,! mo/ not$ "w ( re=e/ation :i* has occupi$ ,au/rian =e/]s = ! la/ =ty ye>s or m is t ( ! 8,k>/10 a "n appli$ to ! wa/e l&s 9 ! m\nta9 & hill c\ntry ( ,i/ria1 ,trie/e1 ,dalmatia1 ,mont5egro & adjac5t t]ritory skirt+ ! ,adriatic ,sea4 ,x is a dry lime/one c\ntry ( "s #fjj1jjj acres 9 ext5t1 /ony & r\gh1 & ov]dra9$4 ,orig9ally well =e/$ ) conif]s & h>dwoods1 x _h furni%$ = ages %ip timb] & o!r wood supplies to ! ,v5etians4 ,?r\gh reckless cutt+1 burn+ & pa/ur+ by ! small f>m]s x _h become almo/ entirely d5ud$1 natural re=e/ation be+ prev5t$ by ^! practices comb9$ ) ! dryness ( ! soil1 int5sifi$ by ! de=e/ation4 ,= c5turies1 c\ntless laws 7 pass$ to /op ! progress ( deva/ation1 b )\t effect4 ,! fir/ attempt at plant+ 0 made by ! city ( ,trie/e 9 #ahdb1 & f\nd "s imitators1 b ) meag] result4 ,9 #ahfe1 ! ,au/rian gov]nm5t1 act+ ^u repres5tations ( ! ,=e/ry ,association1 und]took to enc\rage & assi/ private l&[n]s 9 re=e/+ _! ,k>/ l&s by remitt+ taxes on re=e/$ l&s = a p]iod ( ye>s1 by te*nical advice1 & by assi/ance ) plant mat]ial & money4 ,by ?is move1 s mu* l& 0 )drawn f pa/ure & taxation t opposition 0 ar\s$ among ! cattle own]s1 :i* l$ to additional legislation dur+ ! ye>s #ahhb to #ahhg1 & f9ally to ! creation ( a commission *>g$ to select ! l&s :i* 9 ! int]e/ ( ! c\ntry requir$ re=e/ation1 & emp[]$ to en=ce ?is improvem5t )9 a giv5 "t1 ! ,/ate expropriat+ ! l&s ( object+ own]s4 ,at ! same "t1 ! ,commission br\ght ab\t ! division ( pa/ure l&s :i* 7 held 9 communal own]%ip4 ,by #aiji1 ( ! #ge1jjj acres select$ by ! ,commission z ( imm$iate int]e/ #ae1jjj acres _h be5 plant$1 mo/ly ) ,au/rian ,p9e1 at an av]age co/ ( #h to #af p] acre1 ! co/ includ+ /one enclosures = ! plantations1 to protect !m aga9/ cattle & fire1 & ! repairs1 :i* sometimes equall$ ! orig9al exp5se4 ,9 addition1 "s #ej1jjj acres ( natural gr[? 7 br\ght into productive condition m]ely by protection4 ,:ile ?is activity ref]s to ! nor!rn portion ( ! coa/ region1 ! ,k>/ ( ,dalmatia f>!r s\?1 be+ oak c\ntry1 0 ma9ly recup]at$ by protective measures4 ,"h1 9 #ahgc1 ! pa/ur+ ( goats 0 =bidd5 on areas ( ov] "o million acres 9 ext5t :i* 7 f\nd capable ( re=e/ation4 ,9 #ahgf1 ! p>tition ( communal hold+s 0 ord]$1 & portions 7 designat$ = =e/ use1 to be plant$4 ,z a result ( ^! measures1 ne>ly #djj1jjj acres h be5 recup]at$4 #g4 ,education & ,lit]ature4 ,! fir/ =e/ s*ools 9 ,au/ria 7 e/abli%$ ?r\gh private ef=t1 namely "o 9 #ahjj 9 ,bohemia by ,pr9ce ,s*w>z5b]g1 & ano!r "o 9 ,moravia by ,pr9ce ,lie*t5/e91 ^! two be+ ! l>ge/ =e/ own]s 9 ,au/ria4 ,9 #ahje1 ano!r private =e/ s*ool 0 op5$ 9 ,bohemia1 & at ! same "t ! /ate in/itute ne> ,vi5na came into exi/5ce4 ,?is 01 9 #ahac1 transf]r$ to ,m>iabrunn1 &1 aft] v>i\s *anges 9 ! "* ( ! tea*+1 01 9 #ahfg1 rais$ to ! dignity ( an academy ) a ?ree ye>s' c\rse4 ,9 #ahge1 x 0 transf]r$ to ! ,ho*s*ule fr ,bod5kultur at ,vi5na1 an agricultural s*ool1 :i* _h be5 in/itut$ 9 #ahgb1 int5d$ to give ! high] sci5tific education 9 bo? =e/ry & agriculture by a ?ree ye>s' c\rse4 ,! c\rse 01 9 #aije1 increas$ to f\r ye>s4 ,dur+ ! ye>s f #ahge to #aijd1 ov] #b1fjj /ud5ts 9 =e/ry alone _h att5d$ ?is excell5t s*ool at :i* ov] #gj pr(essors & in/ructors are employ$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,= ! l[] grades ( =e/]s1 s*ools 7 f "t to "t op5$ 9 addition to ! private ones fir/ m5tion$4 ,su* s-call$ 8middle s*ools10 7 f\nd$ at ,eul5b]g 7#aheb71 ,weisswass] 7#ahee7 transf]r$ to ,rei*/adt1 & ,lemb]g 7#ahgd71 at :i* latt] ! c\rse is two ye>s 9 ! ,poli% language1 & "o at ,bruck 7#aijj71 :]e ! c\rse is ?ree ye>s4 ,at pres5t1 !re are five middle s*ools 9 op]ation4 ,= ! education ( gu>ds1 ?ree ,=/w>t s*ools 7 in/itut$ 9 #ahha & #ahhc1 "o ea* = ,tirol1 ,/yria & ,galicia1 :]e1 9 an elev5 mon?s' c\rse1 #ae =e/ gu>ds at ea* receive in/ruction4 ,9 addition !re are five s*ools ( silviculture :]e ! c\rse is "o ye>4 ,besides ^! s*ools1 c\rses 9 =e/ry ( %ort] duration are giv5 at ?ree o!r in/itutions4 ,besides ^! s*ools1 ! promotion ( =e/ry sci5ce is1 z 9 ,g]many1 secur$ by =e/ exp]im5t /ations1 :i* came into exi/5ce z a result ( ! e>li] delib]ations ( ! ,g]man =e/]s4 ,! fir/ proposition to e/abli% su* a /ation 0 submitt$ 9 #ahfh1 b its e/abli%m5t 0 delay$ until #ahge1 :5 su* a /ation 0 in/itut$ at ,vi5na 9 connection ) ! s*ool !re4 ,! results ( ! inve/igations are publi%$ f ye> to ye> & h enri*$ ! =e/ry lit]ature 9 ! ,g]man language ) _m important contributions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a v active association life exi/s 9 ,au/ria1 l>gely due to ! influ5ce ( ! _m l>ge private =e/ own]s4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 ! fir/ attempt at =m+ a society ( =e/]s 9 ,bohemia 0 suppress$ by ! au?orities1 probably = fe> ( revolution>y t5d5cies1 & ! ef=t simply result$ 9 a lit]>y or read+ association to obviate ! ne$ ( private pur*ase ( books4 ,n until #ahdh1 ! v ye> ( ! revolution1 did ! ,bohemian =e/ry association become a fact1 &1 "u ! lead]%ip ( ! l>ge =e/ own]s among ! nobility1 x has become ! /ronge/ 9 ,au/ria1 issu+ a bi-mon?ly association j\rnal f ! beg9n+4 ,ano!r /rong local association :i* dates its beg9n+ z a society = agriculture back to #aggj1 is ! ,moravian-,silesian ,=e/ry ,association1 :i* segregat$ f ! "m society 9 #ahej1 fir/ z a section1 &1 hav+ by #aheh1 atta9$ a memb]%ip ( #a1jjj1 x con/itut$ itself z a sep>ate association 9 #ahhf4 ,besides ^!1 _m small] ones exi/ 9 ,au/ria4 ,9 #aheb1 a g5]al ,au/rian =e/ry association 0 f\nd$1 :i*1 9 #ahed1 began ! publication ( a qu>t]ly j\rnal & held sessions 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! empire2 b1 by & by1 ! int]e/ seem$ to flag1 ! att5dance at ! meet+s became small] & small]1 & f9ally ! association 0 ab&on$ aft] a rival1 ! ,au/rian ,=e/ry ,congress1 _h be5 organiz$ 9 #ahgd1 :i* lat] became ! ,oe/]rei*is*e ,rei*s-,=/v]e94 ,9 ,galicia & 9 ,buk[9a1 ! =e/]s meet z a section ( ! ,society = ,soil ,culture4 ,! same me?od ( =m+ =e/ry sections ( ! agricultural societies is foll[$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ! empire1 & at lea/ a doz5 or m o!r local =e/]s' associations might be m5tion$1 9 :i* own]s ( =e/ prop]ties are z fully repres5t$ z pr(essional =e/]s2 & _! activity is n only to be f\nd 9 lit]>y labors1 b also 9 practical "w4 ,9 addition to ! meet+s ( ^! local societies1 repres5tative congresses h met annually at ,vi5na s9ce #ahgf1 & h become p[]ful ag5ts = improv+ legislation & practice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,al?\gh1 z 0 natural1 ow+ to ! diff]5ce 9 conditions ! =e/ry lit]ature 9 ,au/ria began mu* lat] ?an t ( ,g]many1 a v active progress is noticeable s9ce ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 & ! ,au/rians are vy+ successfully ) ! ,g]mans 9 ?is direction4 ,! names ( ,fioceli1 ,pokorny1 ,bhm1 ,wiesn]1 ,moli%1 ,willkomm1 ,hempel & ,k]n] 9 ! direction ( =e/ botany1 ,wessely1 von ,lor5z-,liburnau1 ,fei/mantel1 ,dimitz1 ,wa*tl 7,entomology71 ,dombr[ski 7encyclop$ia #ahhf71 ,exn]1 ,janka 7wood te*nology71 ,gutt5b]g 7=e/ m5suration & regulation71 von ,seck5dorff1 ,s*iffel 7=e/ m5suration71 ,ciesl>1 ,reuss1 ,bhm]le1 ,hufnagl1 ,m>*et1 & _m o!rs are famili> to all ,g]man read]s4 ,9 addition a v consid]able lit]ature 9 ! ,bohemian language is 9 exi/5ce1 "s 9 ! ,italian by ,au/rian au?ors1 & "s 9 ! ,slavonian4 ,! magaz9e lit]ature began ) publications by v>i\s =e/ry associations :i* became active aft] #ahdh4 ,at ! pres5t "t weekly1 mon?ly1 bi-mon?ly1 qu>t]ly1 ye>ly & irregul> publications to ! numb] ( n less ?an #ad 9 ,g]man1 9 addition to sev]al 9 ,bohemian1 may be c\nt$1 among :i* ! mon?ly ,c5tralblatt fr das ,gesammte ,=/wes51 9 exi/5ce s9ce #ahge1 & ! weekly ,oe/]rei*is*e ,=/zeitung1 s9ce #ahhc1 are p]haps ! mo/ widely kn[n4 ,,hung>y4 ,hung>y is ma9ly a f]tile pla91 trav]s$ by ! ,danube & ,!iss1 an agricultural c\ntry1 ) ! =e/ conf9$ to ! hilly portions1 to ! m\nta9\s s\!rn prov9ces ( ,slavonia & ,croatia1 & to ! ,c>pa?ians1 :i* b\nd x on ! nor? & ea/4 ,nev]!less1 :ile wood 9 ! pla9 is sc>ce1 ! total =e/ area1 includ+ t ( ! two m5tion$ prov9ces1 is b little less ?an t ( ,au/ria prop]1 namely1 #bc1jjj1jjj acres 7#bh74 ,l>ge areas ( %ift+ s&s1 &1 along ! ,danube & ,!iss riv]s1 swamps1 p>tly creat$ by de=e/ation1 are int]sp]s$ ) ! heavy black prairie & compact clay-soils4 ,at pres5t1 ( ! #bc million acres ( =e/ ! ,/ate owns #af1 corporations some:at ov] #bj1 *ur*es1 cloi/]s & o!r in/itutes #g4e1 & ! balance1 ov] #ac million acres1 is own$ privately4 ,! adm9i/ration ( ! ,/ate =e/s is 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture b "s are /ill "u ! control ( ! milit>y & railroad dep>tm5ts4 ,all b ! private =e/s are "u ,/ate surveillance4 ,( ! private prop]ties ! majority consi/s ( l>ge hold+s & ab\t t5 p] c5t4 are entail$1 a hopeful condition = cons]vative managem5t4 ,yet ) an export ( #aj to #ab million doll>s or m1 exploitation w\ld appe> /ill to be g5]al1 & deva/at$ areas ab\nd4 ,x is claim$ t half ! area is "u work+ plans1 & t ! #ajjj million cubic feet ( annual cut d n approa* ! annual increm5t4 ,! ,/ate =e/s yield n[ 9 ! neighborhood ( #fjj1jjj net4 ,al?\gh naturally influ5c$ by ,au/rian prec$5t1 =e/ry matt]s 9 ,hung>y l all matt]s ( adm9i/ration are l>gely indep5d5t ( ,au/ria1 ! connection be+ only 9 ! id5tity ( ! rul]4 ,! =e/s1 :i* _h be5 = ! mo/ "p ! prop]ty ( ! k+s ( ! ,arpad dyna/y1 _h by !m be5 turn$ ov] f "t to "t 9 donations to ! *ur*es1 cloi/]s & to coloni/s1 s t :5 ! ,hapsburgs succe$$ on ! ?rone1 9 #aebf1 only a small portion rema9$ undispos$1 & ?is became ,/ate prop]ty4 ,9 ! =e/s :i* 7 necess>y = ! work+ ( ! royal m9es & furnaces1 an attempt 0 e>ly made to secure sy/ematic treatm5t "u an ord9ance 7#aefe7 :i* gave in/ructions z to ! ord] ( fell+s1 ! res]vation ( se$ trees1 etc4 ,b1 o!rwise1 ! gov]nm5t did n make mu* ef=t at regulat+ =e/ use until ! middle ( ! #ah? c5tury1 & !n1 l>gely ow+ to milit>y consid]ations1 urg$ by ,g5]al von ,engel%(5 comm&+ on ! fronti] aga9/ ! ,turks4 ,! plant+ ( =e/s = def5se 0 ord]$ 7#agdc7 by ,m>ia ,!resa1 b ?is ord] 0 probably nev] execut$4 ,ab\t ?is "t1 h[ev]1 movem5ts ( re=m 9 v>i\s directions are noticeable4 ,complete work+ plans 7 made = ! ,kremnitz =e/ 9 #agej1 & = ! ,s*emnitz =e/ 9 #agfc4 ,! =e/ ord9ances ( #aggj & #agha & ! law ( #agia attempt$ to regulate ! use ( communal =e/s1 & ord]$ ! res]vation ( deva/at$ =e/ areas4 ,o!r legislation foll[$ 9 #ahjg1 design$ to arre/ ! fur!r ext5sion ( %ift+ s&s4 ,al?\gh1 s9ce #ahji1 =e/ inspectors _h be5 employ$ to look aft] ! execution ( ! =e/ laws1 mismanagem5t & =e/ de/ruction by promiscu\s cutt+1 pa/ure & fire rema9$ ! rule1 & ) ! adv5t ( ! railroads1 9 #ahej1 increas$ apace4 ,political tr\bles prev5t$ any attempts at improvem5t until1 9 #ahfg1 comp>ative peace & ! new rgime _h arriv$1 & f9ally1 9 #ahgi1 x became possible to pass a re=m law1 :i* is ! basis ( pres5t conditions4 ,a g5]al =e/ law _h be5 enact$ 9 #ahjg2 ?is 0 sup]s$$ 9 #aheh by ! adoption ( ! ,au/rian law ( #aheb4 ,b1 9 #ahgi1 a new law reorganiz$ =e/ policy & =e/ s]vice4 ,9 t ye>1 ! ,/ate int]e/s 7 plac$ "u ! adm9i/ration ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture ) a te*nical =e/] at ! head 7,ob]l&=/mei/]71 assi/$ by f\r section *iefs1 "o 9 *>ge ( ! ,/ate =e/ adm9i/ration1 "o = ! adm9i/ration ( corporation =e/s1 "o = ! elaboration ( work+ plans1 & "o1 ) ! assi/ance ( #bj =e/ inspectors hav+ sup]vision ( ! execution ( all =e/ laws4 ,o!rwise ! g5]al features ( ,g]man adm9i/rative me?ods prevail1 except t = purposes ( execut+ ! protective =e/ laws1 committees compos$ ( ?ree memb]s *os5 f ! c\ntry (ficials co-op]ate ) ! gov]nm5t s]vice4 ,! law ( #ahgi1 modifi$ & int5sifi$ 9 #ahih1 provides gov]nm5t sup]vision ( ! managem5t ( corporation & ( protection ( =e/s1 & prescribes t l& unfit = f>m+1 i4e41 absolute =e/ soil 7?ree-qu>t]s ( all =e/ l&71 no matt] by :om own$1 is to be re=e/$ )9 six ye>s aft] hav+ be5 /ripp$1 & no new cle>+s may be made on su* soils4 ,m\nta9 =e/s1 :i* are class$ z protection =e/s 7ar\nd "o million acres or #e4d ( ! =e/ area s class$71 z well z entail$ prop]ties1 mu/ be manag$ accord+ to work+ plans approv$ by ! =e/ dep>tm5t4 ,! decl>ation ( protective =e/s 0 to be made by a commission )9 five ye>s ( ! enactm5t ( ! law4 ,new plant+ = protective purposes c\ld also be ord]$1 & ?is "u c]ta9 conditions may be done by ! int]e/$1 i4e41 protect$ p>ties1 :i* may associate !mselves = ?is purpose4 ,violations ( ?is law are liable to be puni%$ by a f9e = ea* acre1 impos$ annually z long z ! (f5se cont9ues4 ,two-?irds ( ! :ole =e/ area is ?us m or less "u ,/ate sup]vision1 & work+ plans = ov] #ab million acres h be51 or are to be prep>$ by ! gov]nm5t4 ,an area allotm5t me?od ) a normal =e/ =mula z a *eck has be5 mo/ly employ$ 9 ?is "w1 :i* is by no means z yet complet$4 ,to promote =e/ plant+ sev]al nurs]ies h be5 e/abli%$ by ! gov]nm5t1 f :i* ar\nd #aj million plants are annually di/ribut$ free ( *>ge1 & subv5tions = re=e/ation ( wa/es are also grant$ annually4 ,x is int]e/+ to note 9 ?is connection t m ?an #agj1jjj acres h be5 plant$ to ,black ,locu/1 :i* is manag$ z coppice = v9ey>d /akes4 ,9 #ahhd1 a special fund = ! pur*ase ( =e/ l& by ! ,/ate 0 in/itut$ by turn+ all moneys receiv$ f ev5tual sales ( =e/ l& into t fund4 ,ano!r fund = =e/ improvem5t is accumulat$ by plac+ f\r-fif?s ( all p5alties collect$ = =e/ trespasses into a sep>ate acc\nt = t purpose4 ,^! funds h n accumulat$ v fa/1 ! =e/ improvem5t fund1 9 #ahif1 be+ only ab\t #abj1jjj4 ,simil> to ! ,l&es 9 ,france1 !re exi/ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,hung>y ext5sive s& wa/es & %ift+ s&s1 p>tly caus$ by de=e/ation4 ,ev] s9ce #aghh1 legislation has attempt$ to secure a rehabilitation ( ^! wa/e areas1 :i* cov] 9 all "s #fjj squ>e miles4 ,9 #ahag1 a fir/ sy/ematic beg9n+ 0 made 9 ! ,banat1 on ! 8,alfld0 ( ! ,magy>s1 "u ! =e/ director ,ba*(51 simil> to ,brmonti]'s und]tak+ 9 ,france4 ,by #ahdb1 ! total plantations am\nt$ to ab\t #ab1jjj acres1 & by #ahfi1 "s #bj1jjj acres _h be5 re=e/$1 & p>ts ( ! plantations _h begun to yield pr(its4 ,b ev5 to-day1 !re are /ill l>ge areas 9 a des]t condition4 ,a classic volume 9 ,g]man by ,joseph ,wessely1 ,hung>ian =e/ director1 ,d] europis*e ,flugs& und se9e ,kultur1 describes 9 detail ! pr9ciples & me?ods ( reclamation ( %ift+ s&s4 ,mo/ ( ! ,hung>ian =e/ry lit]ature be+ writt5 9 ! ,magy> language1 is inaccessible to ! re/ ( ! _w4 ,ef=ts by private endeavor to promote =e/ry education date back z e>ly z #agif1 :5 ,=e/ ,inspector ,vizn] op5$ an elem5t>y =e/ s*ool & wrote a =e/ry cate*ism4 ,?is ef=t 0 foll[$1 9 #ahjf1 by introduc+ ! subject 9 ! agricultural s*ool at ,kesz!ly1 &1 9 #ahjh1 9 ! s*ool ( m9es 9 ,s*emnitz 7,selmecz banya71 a ,g]man =e/] ,wilk9s fill+ ! *air1 :ile a special =e/ s*ool 0 e/abli%$ at ,h]mann/adt 9 #ahag4 ,! =e/ry c\rses at ,s*emnitz 7 enl>g$ & ! s*ool re-organiz$ 9 #ahdf & aga9 9 #ahgb2 "o ( ! *anges be+ ! use ( ! ,hung>ian language 9 its in/ruction1 :i* _h orig9ally be5 9 ,g]man4 ,9 #aijd1 ! c\rse1 :i* 0 #c ye>s & only optionally #d 7"o ye> = eng9e]+ education71 0 made #d ye>s = all1 & is obligatory = all high] grade ,/ate (ficials4 ,9 ,croatia-,slavonia1 :i* is 9 _m respects sep>ately adm9i/]$1 an agricultural & =e/ry s*ool exi/s at ,kreutz 7,krs7 ) a ?ree-ye> c\rse4 ,= ! l[] s]vice f\r s*ools ( two-ye> c\rses h be5 e/abli%$ by ! gov]nm5t1 ! in/ruction be+ giv5 by practition]s1 & "s ( ! /ud5ts receiv+ free tuition4 ,a =e/ exp]im5t /ation 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahih2 x issues a qu>t]ly magaz9e1 ,irdeszeti ,kis]letek1 9 :i* its results are record$4 ,a ,hung>ian =e/ry association 0 =m$ 9 #ahff2 x issues a mon?ly j\rnal1 di/ributes pamphlets1 gives prizes = lit]>y ef=t1 etc41 & is1 ) ov] #bjjj memb]s1 an active ag5t 9 ! "w ( re=m4 ,a sep>ate =e/ry association1 :i* also publi%es a mon?ly 9 ! ,slavi% language1 exi/s 9 ,croatia4 ,,switz]l&4 ,a v good brief /atem5t ( pres5t conditions ( =e/ry 9 ,switz]l& ) "s hi/orical ref]5ces may be f\nd 9 ,h&wrt]bu* d] ,s*weiz]is*5 ,volkswir?s*aft1 ,b]l9 #aijc1 ) two *apt]s by ,,dr4 ,j4 ,,coaz & ,pr(4 ,c4 ,,b\rgeois4 ,f4 ,,fankhaus]1 ,ges*i*te des b]nis*5 ,=/wes5s bis 9 die neu]e ,zeit1 ,b]n #ahic1 gives insight into ! developm5ts 9 "o ( ! cantons1 beg9n+ 9 #acjd4 ,,l&olt1 ,ueb] die ,ges*i*te d] ,waldung5 und des ,=/wes5s1 ,zri*1 #aheh4 ,l'volution =e/ire dans le canton de ,neu*tel1 ,hi/oire-,/ati/ique #ahif4 ,,burri1 ,die kulturges*i*tli*e ,entwicklung und wir?s*aftli*e ,b$eutung des s*weiz]is*5 ,waldbe/&s1 ,luz]n #ahih4 ,,mei/]1 ,die ,/adtwaldung5 von ,zri*1 #b;d ed1 #aijc1 exhibits on #bbe pages 9 great detail ! hi/ory & me?ods ( managem5t ( ?is rem>kable city =e/ ( only ab\t #c1jjj acres4 ,report ( ! ,briti% ,=eign ,(fice on ,swiss ,=e/ ,laws1 by ,,conway ,,?ornton1 #ahhh1 gives a v satisfactory expos ( ! e>li] legislation4 ,! int]e/ :i* we h 9 ! developm5t ( =e/ry 9 ?is small t]ritory1 ( some:at less ?an #af1jjj squ>e miles ) ov] ?ree million p1 lies 9 ! fact t x is a republic1 or r an aggregation ( republics1 ! olde/ 9 exi/5ce1 & t1 occupy+ an ,alp9e m\nta9 c\ntry1 x has develop$ a unique co-op]ative policy ( =e/ protection4 ,be+ l>gely ,g]man by orig9 & s5tim5t1 ,g]man influ5ce on ! developm5t ( =e/ry me?ods1 outside ( ! adm9i/rative measures1 has "h be5 z /rong z 9 ,au/ria4 ,switz]l& did n exi/ z a p[] 9 "n until ! #ag? c5tury1 & z a unit n until ! recon/ruction ( #ahae1 & 9 its pres5t settl$ condition & con/itution n until #ahdh1 al?\gh ! nucleus ( its political exi/5ce dates back at lea/ #fjj ye>s1 :51 9 #abia1 ! p ( ! ?ree =e/ cantons1 ,s*wyz1 ,uri & ,unt]wald51 =m$ _! fir/ league to resi/ encroa*m5ts on _! rights by ! *ur* & by ! feudal b>ons4 ,! c\ntry became settl$1 simil>ly to ,g]many1 by ,g]mans1 & especially ,burgundians1 a free p2 b :5 ! control ( ! ,ob]mrk] ov] ! free communities began to rip5 into feudal sup]iority1 x f\nd resi/ance 9 ! =e/ cantons1 & ^! =m$ a league to fight ! duke ( ,hapsburg1 :o p>tly z feudal "l1 p>tly z ,rei*svogt1 ! emp]or's repres5tative1 claim$ obnoxi\s rights4 ,?r\gh admission ( neighbor+ l&s & cities to ! league1 ! numb] ( conf$]ates _h by ! middle ( ! #ad? c5tury gr[n to eight1 & :51 by ! battles ( ,sempa* 7#achf7 & ,nfels 7#achh71 ! ,au/rian ,hapsburg supremacy _h be5 p]man5tly de/roy$1 ! numb] ( allies grew1 &1 by conque/ & annexation & o!rwise1 _! t]ritory atta9$ ne>ly ! pres5t size by ! middle ( ! #ae? c5tury2 ! w> aga9/ feudalism be+ ! cause = ?is gr[?4 ,^! v>i\s small republics1 h[ev]1 always =m$ a "p ( & ow$ allegiance to ! ,g]man ,empire1 al?\gh !y resi/$ ! arms ( ! ,emp]or z ,ar*duke ( ,au/ria--until1 ) ! peace ( #adii1 ?is connection became entirely nom9al4 ,! f9al sep>ation f ! ,g]man empire & ackn[l$gem5t ( indep5d5ce 0 n pron\nc$ until ! peace ( ,we/phalia1 9 #afdh4 ,! league ( cantons 0 only a v loose conf$]ation )\t any c5tral p[]1 al?\gh a diet1 to :i* ea* canton s5t a delegate1 _h delib]ative functions4 ,almo/ imm$iately aft] ! alliance 0 =m$ x became fatally divid$1 especially :5 religi\s diff]5ces arose1 & ?r\gh\t ! #af? & fir/ half ( ! #ag? c5tury1 cont9u\s w>f>e exi/$ betwe5 ! diff]5t allies4 ,x mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be und]/ood t ! peasants 9 ! diff]5t cantons 7 entirely free f ! anci5t tyrannies4 ,) ! exception ( ! ?ree =e/ cantons1 :i* 7 truly democratic republics1 ! majority ( ! ,swiss peasants1 free 9 ! eyes ( ! outside _w1 7 m]e s]fs until ! beg9n+ ( ! #ah? c5tury1 & secur$ _! fre$om only aft] _m revolts4 ,aft] ne>ly #ejj ye>s ( ?is loose f$]ation1 x 0 res]v$ to ,napoleon to proclaim ! ,helvetian ,republic "o & indivisible1 9 #agih1 aft] a %ort /ruggle ( #gd days4 ,?is con/itution fell ) ! fall ( ,napoleon1 & gave place1 9 #ahae1 to a reorganiz$ f$]ation1 9 :i* ! =m] sov]eignty ( ea* canton 0 re-e/abli%$1 ! inviolability ( ! t]ritory be+ gu>ante$ by ! ,european p[]s4 ,f9ally 9 #ahdh1 ! sev5? & la/ phase ( recon/ruction br\ght into exi/5ce ! 8,bund10 ! ,conf$]ation ( ,switz]l&1 v mu* aft] ! patt]n ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! con/itution !n adopt$ be+ once m revis$ 9 #ahgd4 ,! c\ntry is divid$ into #ai entire & #f half /ates or cantons1 :i* are a unit t[>ds =eign p[]s1 b h z mu* indep5d5ce among !mselves z ea* ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ea* self-gov]n+4 ,a p>liam5t 7,bundesv]sammlung7 ( two *amb]s--! ,nationalra? ( #ade memb]s correspond+ to ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 ! ,/&esra? ) #dd memb]s1 equival5t to ! ,s5ate--repres5t ! int]e/s ( ! :ole f$]ation4 ,! adm9i/ration ( ! cantons lies 9 ! h&s ( ! 8great0 & 8small0 c\ncils1 ) an executive m9i/ry ( ?ree memb]s *os5 = two ye>s by ! =m] c\ncil4 ,! adm9i/ration ( ! ,bund is 9 ! h&s ( ! ,bundesra? ( #g memb]s1 elect$ by ! p>liam5t1 :i* also elects "o ( ! memb]s z presid5t = "o ye>4 ,! ,ref]5dum1 :i*1 if #cj1jjj vot]s dem& x )9 #c mon?s1 requires ref]5ce ( any law to ! direct vote ( ! p is us$ z a *eck on legislation4 ,al?\gh ! l>g] "p ( ! population ( #c million p is ,g]man1 p>ts ( ,switz]l& are ,fr5*1 & o!r p>ts ,italian4 ,f ?is brief /atem5t ( ! political developm5t ( ! c\ntry x w appe> t ! developm5t ( =e/ry mu/ also h v>i$4 #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions & ,prop]ty ,rights4 ,topographic & soil conditions necess>ily _h also _! influ5ce on ?is developm5t4 ,9 ! pla9s1 ! plateau1 & ! hill c\ntry1 ! di/9ction ( =e/ & field z x n[ exi/s _h be5 9 g5]al atta9$ 9 ! #ae? c5tury1 :ile 9 ! m\nta9 c\ntry1 =e/ de/ruction began only 9 ! #ah? c5tury & cont9u$ till ! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury1 /imulat$ by ! developm5t ( ! metal indu/ry & ! improvem5t 9 means ( communication4 ,! cle>+s made "h 7 turn$ into pa/ure &1 be+ ov]pa/ur$1 became wa/e l&s4 ,?us1 ow+ to topographic & soil conditions1 a v unev5 di/ribution ( =e/ has result$ & we f9d a v>iation 9 =e/ area f #i 7,g5f7 to ov] #ci 79 ! ,jura7 ( ! total l& area ( ! diff]5t cantons1 ! av]age be+ #bj4f1 leav+ out ( consid]ation ! area above timb] limit 7#e1jjj to #g1ejj feet7 & ! wat]s & rocks bel[4 ,?is is less ?an 9 ,g]many & ,au/ria1 m ?an 9 ,france2 b1 if all[ance is made = unproductive soil :i* is includ$ 9 ! ,g]man area /atem5ts1 ! p]c5tage ( =e/ area on productive soil w\ld ab\t equal t ( ,g]many4 ,9 ! la/ #be ye>s1 ! area has increas$ by #aj p] c5t4 to #b1adj1jjj acres4 ,?is area is insuffici5t to supply ! dem&1 f #ae to #be ( x be+ import$4 ,9 #aijg1 ! imports _h ris5 to ne>ly #be million cubic feet1 valu$ at #i million4 ,prop]ty rights develop$ at fir/ simil>ly to ^? develop$ on ,g]man soil1 except t1 z we h se51 feudal conditions 7 n all[$ to ga9 foo?old to ! same ext5t1 & lib]ty f s]fdom 0 secur$ e>li]4 ,9 #agih1 seigniorial rights _h pretty ne>ly be5 ext+ui%$4 ,at pres5t1 own]%ip is /ill l>gely communal3 ne>ly #fg are s own$1 mak+ ?is prop]ty ( highe/ =e/ political importance2 private own]s hold only #bh4e1 & ! cantonal =e/s repres5t b #d4f2 ! ,bund z su* own+ none4 ,x is also to be not$ t communal prop]ty is con/antly increas+ by pur*ases f private hold+s4 #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy4 ,no d\bt1 9 "s p>ts ! fir/ beg9n+s ( c>e = =e/ prop]ty & =e/ use date back ev5 to ,roman times4 ,*>lemagne _h 8 =e/ (ficials "h z else:]e1 & ! numb] ( ban =e/s seems to h be5 especially great1 "s #djj 8bannbriefe10 docum5ts e/abli%+ !m1 hav+ be5 collect$ at ,b]n4 ,! fir/ =e/ ord9ance regulat+ ! use ( a special =e/ area 9 ,b]n dates f #acjd4 ,b ! fir/ work+ plan seems to h be5 made = ! city =e/ ( ,zri*1 ! s-call$ ,sihlwald1 9 #afhj-afig1 & to ?is day ?is corporation prop]ty1 ) its int5sive & mo/ pr(itable managem5t1 is ! pride ( all ,switz]l&4 ,! ,b]nese cantonal =e/s 7 fir/ survey$ & plac$ "u managem5t f #agbe to #agci1 & fully regulat$ by #agfe4 ,an excell5t =e/ code = ,ble 0 drawn up 9 #agee by ,bi%op ,joseph ,william2 & 9 #agfj1 ?r\gh ! propag&a ( ! two sci5tific societies ( ,zuri* & ,b]n1 ! tea*+ ( =e/ry 0 begun1 & =e/ organization 9 ! two cantons secur$ 9 #aggc & #aghf4 ,! canton ( ,soleure 7,solo?urn7 0 ! fir/ to />t a regul> sy/em ( in/ruction1 two citiz5s f ea* woodl& di/rict be+ giv5 ! opportunity to qualify !mselves z =e/]s4 ,ea* canton _h1 ( c\rse1 its own laws protect+ =e/ prop]ty aga9/ !ft & fire2 9 ! latt] respect especially great c>e 0 ex]cis$ & burn+ ( bru% c\ld only be done by p]mit & "u a =ce ( wat*]s4 ,! example ( ,zri* & ,b]n 9 organiz+ ! managem5t ( _! =e/ areas 0 foll[$ m or less by o!r cantons1 b a real s]i\s movem5t is n disc]nible until ! beg9n+ ( ! #ai? c5tury1 :5 ) ! impetus ( mod]n life & trade ! value ( =e/ prop]ty increas$1 & mo/ cantons issu$ regulative =e/ laws4 ,=e/ ord9ances _h f "t to "t attempt$ to prev5t ! decrease ( =e/ area by =bidd+ cle>+s1 regulat+ pa/ure1 & =bidd+ wood export to o!r villages or cantons1 a local timb] fam9e be+ dread$4 ,b1 only :5 a sev]e flood1 9 #ahcj1 _h acc5tuat$ ! protective value ( =e/ cov]1 7 ! =e/ ord9ances m /r5u\sly en=c$1 & a g5]al movem5t = bett] managem5t began 9 ! v>i\s cantons4 ,?is 0 p>tly signaliz$ by s5d+ "y m5 to ! =e/ s*ools ( ,g]many4 ,l>gely ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( a lively propag&a c>ri$ on by su* m5 z ,l&olt & ,coaz1 back$ by ! ,swiss =e/ry association1 7f\nd$ 9 #ahdh71 & ?r\gh ! increase ( torr5tial floods1 especially 9 #ahcd & #ahfh1 0 x made cle> t a c5tral p[] w\ld h to be clo!d ) au?ority to regulate ! use at lea/ ( ! alp9e =e/4 ,9 #aheg1 ! ,bund ord]$ an inve/igation ( ! m\nta9 =e/s 9 all p>ts2 ?is 0 made by ,l&olt4 ,b opposition by ! cantons aga9/ re/rictive measures prev5t$ any legislative result4 ,at ! same "t1 an annual vote ( #b1jjj 0 made to ! =e/ry association = re=e/ation & eng9e]+ works 9 ! ,alps4 ,?is grant 0 *ang$1 9 #ahga1 by vot+ an annual cr$it ( #bj1jjj to be exp5d$ by ! ,bundesra? = simil> purposes4 ,! floods ( #ahfh br\ght su* di/ress 9 c]ta9 cantons t contributions f all o!r p>ts 7 requir$ to assi/ ! flood suff]]s2 & #bjj1jjj ( ! collections 7 appropriat$ = re=e/ation4 ,f9ally1 9 #ahgd1 ?r\gh ! ef=t ( ! =e/ry association1 x 0 det]m9$ to create a c5tral bureau ( =e/ inspection = ! :ole ,bund 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,int]ior1 & an article 0 ins]t$ 9 ! con/itution decl>+ ! sup]ior "r ( ov]sight by ! ,f$]ation ov] ! wat] & =e/ police 9 ! high ,alps1 at ! same "t propos+ to aid 9 ! eng9e]+ & reboisem5t "w necess>y to correct ! torr5ts1 & to take measures = ! pres]vation ( ^! works & =e/s4 ,! result 0 ! in/allation ( a f$]al =e/ inspector ) "o assi/ant1 9 #ahge1 & ! enactm5t ( a law1 9 #ahgf1 :i* det]m9$ ! area )9 :i* ! f$]al gov]nm5t 0 to ex]cise sup]vision4 ,! execution ( ! law 01 h[ev]1 left to ! cantons--! jeal\sies ( ,/ate rights z aga9/ f$]al rights be+ ev5 m /rongly develop$ 9 ,switz]l& ?an 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,ea* canton proce$$ 9 its own way1 or neglect$ to proce$1 & h5ce no uni=m progress 9 apply+ ! law 0 made4 ,inde$1 n a s+le prescription ( ! law 0 appli$ )9 ! prescrib$ "t1 al?\gh aga9 & aga9 ext5d$1 & ev5 to-day "s cantons h n yet compli$4 ,/ubborn opposition to ! law cont9ues ev5 to date 9 "s cantons4 ,besides ! unwill+ness to submit to f$]al au?ority1 ! lack ( te*nically tra9$ =e/]s--_! employm5t be+ a requirem5t ( ! law--& ! objection to _! employm5t by ! cantons1 :o look$ on !m z disguis$ policem51 imp$$ ! progress ( ! re=m4 ,until #ahhd1 ea* canton held its own exam9ations = =e/ (ficials1 b 9 t ye> a /&>d 0 enact$ = employm5t )9 ! f$]ally sup]vis$ t]ritory4 ,! mo/ frequ5t qu>rel 0 z to :at 0 to be consid]$ =e/ & :at pa/ure1 s t f9ally z a compromise a classification betwe5 ! two1 call$ pa/ure woods1 0 introduc$4 ,x w be not$ t ! f$]al surveillance 0 to ext5d only to ! ,high ,alps above a c]ta9 limit+ l9e4 ,?is limitation 0 remov$1 9 #ahih1 by resolution ( ! ,c\ncil1 & *ange ( ! con/itution1 by :i* ! f$]al ex]cise ( wat] & =e/ police 0 ext5d$ ov] ! :ole c\ntry1 & a bill to c>ry ?is into effect 0 introduc$4 ,f9ally1 9 #aijb1 a revis$ law 0 pass$ e/abli%+ fully ! pres5t ,f$]al =e/ policy4 ,?is law places ! surveillance ( all =e/ police 9 all =e/s ( ,switz]l& 9 ! ,bund1 ! private =e/s z well z ! public1 i4e41 ,/ate & communal or corporation =e/s4 ,b1 z !re are di/9ctive diff]5ces 9 ! mann] ( ?is surveillance1 a diff]5tiation ( own]%ip conditions & =e/ conditions 0 to be made by ! cantons )9 two ye>s4 ,! =e/s are to be divid$ into protection & non-protection =e/s 7by ! cantons ) sanction ( ! ,bund71 ! =m] be+ su* z are locat$ at headwat]s or furni% protection aga9/ sn[slides1 l&slides & rockfalls1 floods1 & climatic damage4 ,mo/ ( ?is segregation _h already be5 made & mapp$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! law ( #ahgf4 ,9 #aijd1 #ga ( ! total =e/ area _h be5 class$ z protective =e/2 ne>ly #hj ( ! communal1 & ov] #ej ( ! private =e/ prop]ty4 ,all public =e/s are to be survey$ & _! corn]s p]man5tly m>k$ by ! cantons accord+ to in/ructions by ! ,bund1 ! latt] furni%+ ! ne$$ triangulation survey1 & inspect+ & revis+ any old] surveys free ( *>ge4 ,! survey$ public =e/s are to be fully regulat$ accord+ to a su/a9$ yield managem5t1 "u work+ plans made accord+ to in/ructions by ! ,cantons1 to be sanction$ by ! ,bundesra?4 ,= ! unsurvey$ =e/ areas at lea/ a provisional fell+ budget is to be det]m9$1 z ne>ly z possible repres5t+ ! su/a9$ yield4 ,9 protection =e/s ! work+ plans mu/ con=m to ! objects ( ^! =e/s1 & cle>+s 9 ^! are z a rule =bidd54 ,! fell+s are to be made "u direct sup]vision ( =e/]s1 &1 aft] be+ cut1 ! wood mu/ be measur$4 ,sale on ! /ump is =bidd51 o!rwise no int]f]5ce 9 ! managem5t is int5d$4 ,up to #aijb1 "u ! law ( #ahgf1 work+ plans = #edj1jjj acres _h be5 made4 ,9 #aijg1 #ij1jjj acres ( ,/ate =e/1 & ov] "o million acres ( corporation =e/s 7 "u work+ plans4 ,= o!r ?an protection =e/s ! law provides a numb] ( re/rictions1 su* z ! foll[+3 ,pa/ure woods may n be decreas$ 9 area except by p]mission ( ! cantons4 ,communal =e/s are n to be subdivid$ )\t cons5t ( ! cantonal gov]nm5t1 except :]e two or m communities h jo9t own]%ip1 nor are !y to be sold except ) su* p]mission4 ,rights ( us] 9 public =e/s1 especially 9 protection =e/s1 may be =cibly ext+ui%$ by ! cantonal gov]nm5t1 b "u appeal to ! ,bundesra?4 ,money equival5ts are to be ! rule1 t]ritorial equival5ts to be giv5 only by special p]mission4 ,by #aijb1 ov] #cjj1jjj _h already be5 sp5t 9 ext+ui%+ #b1hdb diff]5t rights ( us]4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( means ( transportation1 roads1 etc41 is enc\rag$ by subv5tions f ! ,bund & 9 o!r ways4 ,private =e/s z f> z !y fall "u ! classification ( protection =e/s are subject to ! same sup]vision & rules z ! public =e/s z reg>ds _! survey1 ! prohibition ( cle>+s except by p]mission ( ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1 ( dim9i%+ pa/ure woods1 ! ext+ui%m5t ( rights ( us]1 ! prev5tion ( damag+ use1 & assi/ance 9 e/abli%+ means ( transportation4 ,! cantonal gov]nm5t is oblig$ to insure ! execution ( ^! laws4 ,9 addition1 :ile ! law enc\rages co-op]ative =e/ managem5t ( small hold+s z l>g] units1 ! ,bund pay+ = ! co/ ( effect+ su* co-op]ation1 x emp[]s ! canton or ! ,bund to en=ce su* co-op]ative managem5t ( protection =e/ areas 9 specially endang]$ localities z at ! headwat]s ( torr5tial /reams4 ,o!rwise1 9 ! non-protective private =e/s1 only ! prohibition ( cle>+ except by p]mission ( ! cantonal gov]nm5t1 ! obligation ( re=e/+ fell+ areas )9 ?ree ye>s1 & ( ma9ta9+ exi/+ pa/ure woods is ord]$4 ,:]ev] on private prop]ties conv]sion ( =e/ into f>m or pa/ure is p]mitt$ 7aft] report ( ! =e/ adm9i/ration ( ,canton or ,bund7 an equival5t re=e/ation ( o!r p>ts may be ord]$4 ,:]ev] by ! re=e/ation ( b>e gr\nd protective =e/ areas c be creat$1 ?is may be ord]$1 ! ,f$]al or ! ,cantonal gov]nm5t contribut+ t[>ds su* "w2 or else1 if ! own] pref]s1 he may insi/ ^u hav+ 8 gr\nd expropriat$ by ! ,canton or o!r public corporation2 ! f$]al gov]nm5t assi/+ 9 ! fir/ case to ! ext5t ( #cj to #ej ( ! co/1 & 9 e/abli%+ new protection =e/s to ! ext5t ( #ej to #hj4 ,be=e #aijb1 "u ! law ( #ahgf1 "s #af1jjj acres _h be5 re=e/$ & put 9 ord] at an exp5se ( ov] "o million doll>s1 ! f$]al gov]nm5t contribut+ j ab\t fifty p] c5t4 ,9 #aiaj1 ! area ( plant$ protection =e/ _h gr[n to #be1jjj acres4 ,besides ! v>i\s re/rictions ) provisions ( p5alties = disob$i5ce 7f #a to #ajj = ea* transgression7 & en=c$ execution by cantonal gov]nm5t1 !re are a numb] ( directions 9 :i* ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t makes contributions = ! purpose ( enc\rag+ cons]vative managem5t4 ,= ! sal>ies ( ! cantonal high] =e/ (ficials #bj to #ce p] c5t4 are contribut$1 = ! high] corporation & co-op]ative association (ficials #e to #be p] c5t41 = ! l[] =e/ s]vice #e to #bj p] c5t4 ,! ,f$]ation p>ticipates to ! ext5t ( "o-?ird 9 ! accid5t insurance ( =e/ (fic]s2 a m9imum sal>y ( ! (ficials & also _! prop] education be+ made conditions4 ,to secure ! latt] ! ,f$]ation pays = tea*]s & demon/ration mat]ial "u prescrib$ conditions4 ,9 #aija1 ! f$]al contributions am\nt$ to #ajj1jjj 9 all4 ,9 #aijc1 ! total appropriation 0 #abf1jjj1 namely1 #i1jjj = ! ,inspector-,g5]al's (fice2 #bf1jjj t[>ds sal>ies ( cantonal =e/]s2 #hj1jjj t[>ds reboisem5t2 #h1jjj t[>ds survey4 ,! cantonal gov]nm5ts contribut$ ab\t ! same am\nt outside ( ! co/ ( _! =e/ adm9i/rations4 ,x is e/imat$ t ! budget w h to be increas$ by #ej1jjj annually = "s "t to come4 ,by #aiaj1 ! f$]al gov]nm5t _h altoge!r contribut$ #b million 9 ! #ce ye>s t[>ds ! execution ( ! law1 outside its adm9i/rative (fice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! organization :i* is to c>ry out ?is =e/ policy is /ill ! "o :i* orig9at$ ) ! law ( #ahgf1 some:at modifi$ by ! law ( #ahib1 namely1 a =e/ry division 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,int]ior1 ) "o ,sup]ior ,=e/ ,inspector & ?ree assi/ants4 ,! ,cantons h _! own adm9i/rations1 mo/ly "u "o =e/] ( high] grade 7call$ v>i\sly ,ob]fr/]1 ,=/9spektor1 ,=/mei/]1 ,ob]=/mei/]74 ,b]n has ?ree co-ord9ate ,=/9spektor4 ,! ,cantons are or are to be di/rict$ into =e/ circles 7,=/kreise71 ! subdivision to be approv$ by ! ,bundesra?1 & "s are fur!r subdivid$ into ranges 7,unt]fr/]ei74 ,^! =e/ di/ricts1 f #g1ejj to #de1jjj acres ea*1 are to be manag$ by prop]ly educat$ & paid =e/]s elect$ by ! p4 ,! eligibility dep5ds ^u an exam9ation1 ! !oretical "p ( :i* is conduct$ by ! =e/ s*ool1 ! practical "p1 aft] a ye>'s practical "w1 is conduct$ by a commission ( =e/]s1 aft] completion ( :i* ! c&idate becomes eligible2 ! election be+ = ?ree ye>s1 & re-election be+ usual1 unless !re are good reasons aga9/ x4 ,9 #aijc1 !re 7 employ$ z adm9i/rators or manag]s #aai ,/ate 7,cantonal7 =e/]s & #cc ,communal =e/]s1 besides #aa ,f$]al =e/ (ficials4 ,9 #aiji1 ! total numb] _h gr[n to #aic1 besides #ajia "u-=e/]s1 to ^: sal>ies ! ,bund contribut$4 ,! ,/ate =e/]s are all[$ to manage neighb\r+ communal prop]ties4 #c4 ,=e/ry ,practice4 ,! timb] =e/ is ! mo/ g5]al =m ( silvicultural managem5t4 ,selection =e/ ) #aej to #bjj ye> rotations is practis$ 9 ! ,alps & 9 ! small] private =e/ areas4 ,%elt]wood sy/em 9 comp>tm5ts is 9 use 9 o!r p>ts 7) a rotation ( #fj to #hj ye>s 9 ! decidu\s1 & #hj to #abj ye>s 9 conif] =e/71 supplant+ l>gely ! cle>+ & plant+ sy/em :i* _h f\nd favor dur+ ! middle ( la/ c5tury4 ,9 corporation =e/s1 l>ge areas are /ill "u coppice ) /&>ds1 b w probably soon be conv]t$ into timb] =e/1 a policy favor$ by cantonal in/ructions4 ,pure coppice is only r>ely met1 usually conf9$ to ! ov]fl[ l&s & small private hold+s4 ,9 "s ( ! public =e/s 9 ! ,fr5* t]ritory x is practis$ ) a 8d\ble rotation0 7furetage7 accord+ to ,fr5* patt]n4 ,artificial means to secure complete /&s 9 natural reg5]ations is favor$ by ! cantonal regulations1 b ?9n+ op]ations are /ill mo/ly neglect$1 except :]e local m>ket = inf]ior mat]ial makes !m advisable1 :i* is mo/ly 9 ! pla9s c\ntry1 :]e ! annual yield f ?9n+s may repres5t #cj ( ! total h>ve/ yield4 ,conv]sion f coppice & coppice ) /&>ds into timb] =e/1 & *ange f cle>+ sy/ems to natural reg5]ation 7prop] = m\nta9 =e/71 & f pure to mix$ =e/ h become g5]al provisions ( ! work+ plans4 ,! av]age cut 9 ! ,/ate =e/s dur+ f\r ye>s prior to #ahic 0 ov] #fd cub4 ft4 p4 acre1 & #db cub4 ft4 = ! corporation =e/s2 an av]age = all ! public =e/s ( r\nd #de cub4 ft41--n a v good %[+ z yet4 ,s f>1 ! collection ( mat]ial = yield tables & = a /atem5t ( increm5t & /ock on h& 9 ! c\ntry at l>ge are /ill insuffici5t1 al?\gh1 9 #ahhb1 ,pr(4 ,l&olt e/imat$ ! annual product at little less ?an #ejj million cubic feet1 or #ej cubic feet p] acre4 ,only = ! int5sively manag$ city =e/s ( ,zri* & ! cantonal =e/s ( ,b]n are m accurate data available4 ,9 ! latt]1 ! ,/ate =e/s yield #ej cubic feet 9 ! plateau c\ntry1 #gc cubic feet1 9 ! middle c\ntry1 & #gf cubic feet 9 ! ,jura1 :ile ! communal =e/s ( t canton yield #ae1 #ff & #ef cubic feet respectively4 ,prices = wood are high] 9 ! l[ c\ntry ?an ! av]age 9 ,g]many & h be5 /eadily ris+ = ! la/ #dj ye>s1 especially = conif]\s saw mat]ial :i* at pres5t br+s /umpage prices ( #ab to #ae c5ts4 ,ow+ to ^! high prices ! gross yield ( "s ,swiss =e/s is ! l>ge/ kn[n 9 ,europe2 ! city =e/ ( ,zri*1 exhibit+ yields ( #ab1 & ! city =e/ ( ,a>au z mu* z #ad p] acre on ! av]age1 al?\gh 9 ! ,alps =e/s ! gross yield s9ks to #c & #d4 ,! m int5sively manag$ city =e/s m5tion$ sp5d on _! managem5t #f & ev5 #g p] acre1 :ile mo/ ( ! ,/ate =e/s keep _! exp5ditures )9 #b4ej to #c4ej1 & 9 "s places d[n to #a4ej p] acre4 ,! net yields v>y !re=e = ! ,/ate & communal =e/s ( ! plateau c\ntry betwe5 #c & #f4ej = "s ( ! city =e/s f #f4ej to #h & #i4 ,switz]l& has long ago ceas$ to produce its wood requirem5ts1 & imports f #h to #i million doll>s annually ( wood & wood manufactures4 #d4 ,education & ,lit]ature4 ,= ! education ( ! high] =e/ (ficials ! ,f$]al gov]nm5t in/itut$ a two ye> c\rse at ! ,polyte*nicum at ,zri* :i* 0 f\nd$ 9 #ahhe1 ! c\rse be+1 9 #ahhd1 increas$ to ?ree ye>s4 ,?ree pr(essors ( =e/ry besides ! faculty ( ! in/itution 9 fundam5tal & accessory bran*es are active "h1 ! numb] ( /ud5ts av]ag+ 9 ! neighborhood ( ?irty-five4 ,two exam9ations1 a sci5tific & a practical "o1 ! latt] tak5 be=e a special commission1 te/s ! eligibility ( c&idates1 =eign]s n exclud$1 = positions4 ,= ! education ( ! l[] grade =e/]s1 ! ,cantons !mselves are responsible1 ! ,bund only contribut+ by pay+ = tea*]s & demon/ration mat]ial 7ab\t #a1bej7 to c>ry on cantonal or int]cantonal =e/ry c\rses4 ,! c\rses usually la/ f two weeks to two mon?s1 9 succession or divid$ into spr+ & fall c\rses2 !y are ma9ly practical1 & require c&idates to be n less ?an #ah ye>s ( age & to possess a prim>y s*ool education4 ,_! numb] mu/ be at lea/ #ae1 & n m ?an #be4 ,!re h also be5 in/itut$ specially conduct$ excursions & progressive und]=e/]s' c\rses1 z well z additional sci5tific c\rses :i* ! ,bund subsidizes4 ,9 connection ) ! ,zri* s*ool1 =e/ry sci5ce & art are fur!rmore advanc$ by a well-end[$ c5tral ,=e/ ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 ) sev]al sub/ations & an annual budget ( #aj1jjj4 ,! greate/ cr$it = ! advancem5t ( =e/ry & =e/ legislation is due to ! ,swiss ,=e/ry ,association 7#cfe memb]s 9 #aiaa71 :i* 0 f\nd$ 9 #ahdc1 meet+ annually 9 v>i\s places1 manag$ by a ,committee ( five elect$ = #c ye>s4 ,?is ,association is subsidiz$ by ! ,bund = its educational "w4 ,s*weiz]is*e ,zeits*rift fr das ,=/wes5 7begun #ahej7 is its organ1 ) ,dr4 ,fankhaus] z editor4 ,9 #ahih1 an association ( und]=e/]s ) a special organ1 ,d] ,=/wir?1 came into exi/5ce 7#ebf memb]s 9 #aijb71 & sev]al cantonal =e/]s' associations are also active4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 ! lit]ature1 :i* is l>gely 9 ,g]man1 ) "s ,fr5* & ,italian volumes1 notable works h appe>$ & real advances 9 =e/ry sci5ce especially ) ref]5ce to managem5t ( m\nta9 =e/s are due to ,swiss writ]s4 ,9 #agfg1 ! ,socit d',economie de ,zuri* publi%$ a =e/]s' manual1 & dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ,zs*okke & ,ka/h(] develop$ silviculture 9 ! ,alps4 ,l&olt1 9 #ahfj1 publi%$ ! results ( 8 inve/igations 7"u ! ord] ( ! ,bund ( #aheg7 into ! =e/ conditions ( ! ,alps1 & contribut$ o!r volumes along simil> l9es4 ,he 0 succe$$ by ! n[ v5]able ,dr4 ,j4 ,coaz z ,inspector-,g5]al ( ! ,bund 7/ill active at #ij ye>s ( age71 :o also contribut$ to ! sci5ce ( m\nta9 reboisem5t & 9 o!r directions4 ,! "w on ! managem5t ( ! ,city =e/ ( ,zri* by its long-"t manag] ,mei/] is classic4 ,"u ! active direction ( ,anton ,bhl] = _m ye>s1 ! publication ( 7n[ "u ,dr4 ,engl]7 ,mit!ilung5 d] eidg5ssis*5 ,c5tralan/alt fr das =/li*e ,v]su*swes51 s9ce #ahia1 h become important contributions to =e/ry sci5ce4 ,9 ! direction ( wood te*nology ! "n ( ,l4 ,tetmaj]1 :o is conduct+ timb] te/s1 %\ld be m5tion$4 ,,france4 ,no complete monographic hi/ory ( =e/ry 9 ,france is 9 exi/5ce1 & ma9ly incomplete notes scatt]$ ?r\gh v>i\s volumes 7 at ! disposal ( ! writ]4 ,! "w :i* conta9s ! l>ge/ am\nt ( hi/oric in=mation is ,g4 ,,huffel1 ,economie ,=e/ire1 #c volumes1 #aijd-aijg1 pp4 #dbb1 #dhd1 #eaj1 p]haps ! mo/ ambiti\s "w 9 ! ,fr5* language1 :i* has be5 l>gely foll[$ 9 ! acc\nt "h giv54 ,x is a collection ( t5 /udies1 hi/orical data be+ int]sp]s$ ?r\gh\t ! ?ree volumes1 ! ?ird volume conta9+ "o /udy entirely hi/orical4 ,l4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,maury1 ,les =ts de la ,gaule et de l'anci5ne ,france1 #ahfg1 #eja pp4 is ma9ly descriptive1 b full ( int]e/+ hi/oric data & detail up to ! revolution>y p]iod4 ,,jules ,,clav1 ,etudes sur l'conomie =e/ire1 #ahfb1 #cgg pp41 #abo1 :ile ma9ly a propag&i/ essay1 rehe>ses to "s ext5t ! hi/ory ( =e/ practice1 policies1 etc41 & gives a good insight into conditions at t "t4 ,die =/li*5 ,v]hltnisse ,frankrei*s1 by ,dr4 ,a4 ,v4 ,,seck5dorff1 #ahgi1 pp4 #bbh1 furni%es a few hi/orical notes4 ,?ree ,engli% publications by ,,john ,,cr\mbie ,,br[n1 ,p9e ,plantations 9 ,france1 ,reboisem5t 9 ,france1 #ahgf2 ,fr5* ,=e/ ,ord9ance ( #affi1 #ahhb1 are pr(use & n entirely accurate1 b give h9ts ( hi/oric developm5t4 ,,*4 ,,guyot1 ,l'enseignem5t =e/i] en ,france1 #ahih1 #cih pp41 gives an insight into ! developm5t ( =e/ry education & a complete hi/ory ( ! s*ool at ,nancy1 & ?r[s mu* light on o!r developm5ts4 ,code de la lgislation =e/ire1 p> ,,puton1 conta9s all ! legislation hav+ ref]5ce to =e/s4 ,an article on ,l'ide =e/ire dans l'hi/oire1 by ,l4 ,f4 ,,tessi]1 9 ,revue des eaux et =ts1 #aije1 ,jan41 ,feb41 gives on #bf pages an int]e/+ brief survey ( ! hi/ory ( =e/ policy 9 ,france4 ,=e/ry 9 ,france1 by ,f4 ,,bailey1 9 ! ,indian ,=e/]1 #ahhf1 #fa pp41 describes well conditions at t "t4 ,france is "o ( ! c\ntries 9 :i* =e/ry has be5 practis$ = a long "t & =e/ry practice has be5 almo/ z highly develop$ z 9 ! prec$+ ,teutonic c\ntries4 ,g]many's neighbor to ! ,we/ has evolv$1 h[ev]1 =e/ policies & practices :i* are diff]5t 9 "s respects f ^? ( ,g]many1 al?\gh ! e>ly hi/ory ( =e/ry 9 ,france 0 l>gely analog\s to t ( ,g]many4 ,inde$1 until ! end ( ! n9? c5tury1 ! two c\ntries be+ undivid$1 ! same usages exi/$ m or less 9 bo?1 except t 9 ! ,gallic c\ntry ,roman influ5ce left a /rong] impr9t1 ,gallia hav+ be5 long "u ! dom9ion ( ,rome4 ,! fact t ,france has = ne>ly a ?\s& ye>s be5 a unit1 :ile ,g]many has until rec5tly be5 split up into _m indep5d5t pr9cipalities1 did mu* = uni=m1 albeit less ambiti\s1 developm5t 9 =e/ry matt]s4 ,mo/ ( ! =e/ policy z x exi/s to-day 0 inaugurat$ dur+ ! mon>*ical regime1 :i* came to an end 9 #ahga4 ,s9ce t ye>1 a republican =m ( gov]nm5t1 ) an assembly ( #ehd1 a s5ate ( #cjj memb]s1 "u a ,presid5t elect$ by ! legislature = sev5 ye>s1 has be5 9 exi/5ce4 ,! c\ntry is pr9cipally a pla91 mo/ly bel[ #abjj feet 9 altitude1 slop+ to ! nor? & we/2 ! m\nta9 ranges 7,pyr5es1 ,alps1 ,jura1 ,vosges7 are conf9$ ma9ly to ! s\? & ea/ b\nd>ies1 ) second>y ranges 7,cev5nes1 ,cte d',or1 ,auv]gne1 etc417 9 ! s\!a/ "p ( ! c\ntry4 ,( ! #bjd1jjj squ>e miles ( t]ritory1 j ab\t #ah p] c5t4 is wood$1 :i*1 ) a population ( ne>ly #dj million1 leaves only ab\t 4#f ( an acre p] capita4 ,9 its pres5t condition ?is area does n produce m ?an "o-?ird ( ! home dem&1 :i* requires on ! av]age an import 9 excess ov] export to ! am\nt ( ab\t #be million doll>s 7#cc million 9 #aijb71 repres5t+ ov] #aaj million cubic feet annually1 mo/ly workwood1 :ile ! export is ( m9e props & railroad ties at ab\t half ! value ( ! import$ wood4 ,s9ce1 9 #ahib1 !re 7 /ill ne>ly #ab 7ov] #ae million acres7 wa/e l&1 opportunity = enl>gem5t ( ! =e/ area seems to exi/4 ,x appe>s t ab\t two-?irds ( ?is wa/e l& is capable ( be>+ =e/1 & ! exi/+ =e/ area is capable ( mu* l>g] production ?an ! pres5t2 ?ree qu>t]s ( ! production be+ fuel wood4 ,! di/ribution ( =e/ area is v unev51 v>y+ f #c4e to #ef p] c5t4 9 ! v>i\s dep>tm5ts4 ,only ab\t #bj ( ! area is locat$ on ! m\nta9s1 #ai 9 hill c\ntry1 & #fj 9 ! pla9s4 ,six =e/ regions may be diff]5tiat$ accord+ to ,huffel1 :i*1 h[ev]1 are ma9ly geographical divisions3 ! nor!a/2 valleys ( ,se9e & ,loire2 nor?we/ & c5tral2 s\?we/ & ,pyr5ees2 ,m$it]ranean & ,pre-alps2 ,alps4 ,h>dwoods1 oak 7#dj71 bee* & a%1 etc41 occupy fully #hj1 :ile p9e--! two species silve/ris & m>itima1 l>gely plant$--repres5ts ! bulk ( ! #bj ( conif]\s =e/ area1 fir1 spruce & l>* 9 ! m\nta9s =m+ a v small "p4 ,only #be ( ! =e/ area is timb] =e/1 #ch is coppice1 & #ce coppice ) /&>ds1 #b be+ 9 process ( conv]sion into timb] =e/4 ,9 ! ,/ate =e/s alone1 h[ev]1 #fh are timb] =e/ or 9 process ( conv]sion to t =m4 ,( ! #bbg million acres1 h>dly m ?an "o-?ird1 belong+ to /ate & communities1 are plac$ "u ! rgime =e/i]1 i4e41 sup]vis$ & manag$ "u work+ plans4 ,! l>g] area is "u coppice4 ,?ree-f\r?s ( ! communal & "o-six? ( ! /ate's timb] =e/ is manag$ "u selection sy/em4 ,comb9ations ( f>m & =e/ culture 7s>tage & furetage7 are /ill q ext5sively practis$4 ,! production ( saw-timb] "u ^! practices is naturally small4 ,( ! #dj cubic feet ( wood p] acre produc$ 9 ! bett] class ( manag$ /ate & communal prop]ties1 only #aj cubic feet are saw-logs1 & if ! private =e/s 7 tak5 into consid]ation1 ! av]age product1 on ! :ole w\ld appe> /ill small]1 ! private prop]ties be+ mo/ly small1 poorly manag$1 & l>gely coppice4 ,nei!r ! own]s1 nor _! manag]s & gu>ds h1 z a rule1 any pr(essional education1 al?\gh ! means ( obta9+ x exi/ 9 ! s*ools at ,nancy & ,b>res4 ,bless$ = ! l>ge/ "p ) a mo/ favorable climate & ) ri* soil ( t]ti>y =mation1 ! difficulties 9 =e/ry practices exp]i5c$ by o!r1 m nor!rn & cont95tal c\ntries are h>dly kn[n4 ,h5ce _m practices :i* are successful 9 ,france might 9 ,g]many prove disa/r\s1 & su* yields z "s ( ! oak =e/s %[1 unatta9able4 ,! greate/ int]e/ = ! =e/] atta*es to ! me?ods ( conv]sion ( coppice into timb] =e/1 to ! ext5sive areas re=e/$ dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 :i* probably exce$ #c million acres1 & to ! reboisem5t "w 9 ! m\nta9s4 #a4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,prop]ty4 ,z 9 ,au/ria1 private own]%ip ( =e/ prop]ty is l>gely prepond]ant1 :ile /ate prop]ty is small4 ,9 anci5t ,gaul1 ! ,romans f\nd ! =e/ outside ( holy groves z communal prop]ty4 ,aft] ! conque/1 all ! unseat$ l&s1 especially ! ext5sive m\nta9 =e/s1 7 decl>$ ei!r ,/ate or imp]ial prop]ty--m ?an half ! :ole t]ritory--& 7 manag$ z res publica by ! adm9i/rators ( public affairs4 ,& :ile lat]1 ) ! adv5t ( ! ,g]man hordes1 prop]ty conditions %ap$ !mselves some:at accord+ to _! ways1 ! influ5ce ( ! ,roman law & in/itutions 7 nev] q eradicat$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! c\ntry1 outside ( ! public prop]ty1 0 by ! ,romans divid$ into communities1 call$ fundus1 ea* plac$ "u a ,gallic seigneur 7eques71 a =m] *ief1 n[ proprietor1 8 tribesm5 & ! remnants ( ! e>li] sessile population becom+ s]fs4 ,"o-?ird ( ! fundus 0 h&$ to ! s]fs z _! prop]ty & divid$ among !m--! fir/ private prop]ty--2 ano!r ?ird 0 reta9$ by ! seigneur & utiliz$ by means ( ! s]vice ( ! s]fs 7corves71 b usually also burd5$ by rights ( us] on _! "p2 & ! la/ ?ird became common prop]ty ( ! community at l>ge4 ,!re rema9$1 h[ev]1 "h & !re1 also1 "s ( ! orig9al free communes or ,m>k 7vicus71 s t five diff]5t prop]ty classes 7 9 exi/5ce4 ,! #e? c5tury saw ! ,teutonic tribes1 ,suevi1 ,alani1 ,v&als & ,burgundians1 ov]:elm ! ,romans1 :o _h = #ejj ye>s kept ! ,gallo-,celtic population "u _! rule2 & ^! 7 foll[$ by ,visigo?s & ,franks1 :o 9 turn took possession ( ! c\ntry4 ,! conqu]ors did n drive out ! ,gallo-,romans1 b m]ely qu>t]$ !mselves on !m "u ! euphemi/ic title ( 8gue/s10 assum+ to !mselves two-?irds ( ea* e/ate1 & leav+ ! rema9d] to _! 8ho/s40 ,on ^! l&s1 und\bt$ly1 simil> economic & social in/itutions 7 develop$ z 9 ,g]many4 ,communal own]%ip "u ^! 0 at fir/ develop$ to su* an ext5t t ! ,salic laws decl>$ all trees :i* 7 n res]v$ by special sign z subject to ! use ( all & any ( ! ,m>k]s4 ,b lat]1 z 9 ,g]many1 ! sociali/ic ,m>k 0 foll[$ by ! feudal sy/em ) its ban =e/s & ! creation ( great l&$ proprietors or lords4 ,:5 ,clovis1 ! k+ ( ! ,franks1 9 ! fir/ decade ( ! #f? c5tury defeat$ ! ,visigo?s & took possession ( ! c\ntry 7see p4 #bi71 he f\nd communal =e/s ( ! villag]s 7vicus71 prop]ty ( seigneurs 7equites71 royal =e/s & ,/ate =e/s1 remnants ( ,roman orig94 ,! latt] prop]ties & mu* ( ! ,m>k =e/s he claim$ = himself & divid$ two-?irds among 8 vassals2 b ! l>g] "p ( ! o!r ?ird became also gradually prop]ty ( ! nobility & *ur*1 s t1 by ! #ab? c5tury1 only a relatively small royal prop]ty rema9$4 ,aft]w>ds1 ! royal or ,/ate prop]ty grew aga9 9 v>i\s ways1 z ! p[] ( ! k+s grew4 ,9 #aeci1 ,francis ,i decl>$ ! same inali5able4 ,b nei!r himself nor 8 successors paid he$ to ?is self-impos$ prohibition &1 :5ev] f9ancial tr\bles made x exp$i5t1 !y dispos$ ( "s ( _! hold+s4 ,by ! ord9ance ( #aeff 7,edit de ,m\l9s71 ,k+ ,*>les ,,ix aga9 decl>$ ! doma9 ( ! cr[n inali5able4 ,nev]!less he himself 9 ! same ye>1 & repeat$ly aft]w>ds1 sold p>ts ( 8 doma94 ,h5ry ,,iii1 9 #aegi1 r5ew$ ! ord9ance ( non-ali5ation & re/or$ "s ( ! la/ p>cels to ! doma9 by ! ex]cise ( ! royal "r4 ,himself & 8 successors1 h[ev]1 cont9ually broke ?is contract1 & ! royal doma9 decreas$ :ile t ( ! seigneurs grew4 ,simil>ly to :at happ5$ 9 ,g]many1 ! *ur* prop]ty 0 tak5 by ma*9ation or =ce to increase ! hold+s ( k+s or seigneurs4 ,nev]!less1 at ! beg9n+ ( ! revolution 9 #aghi1 ! royal doma9 compris$ n m ?an #a1bjj1jjj acres1 produc+ a net income ( #a4b million doll>s4 ,!n foll[$ an era ( ups & d[ns1 cont9u\s *anges ( policy1 increases & decreases ( ! prop]ty until ) ! inauguration ( ! republic1 9 #ahga1 comp>ative /ability 0 secur$4 ,9 #agia1 aft] ! revolution1 ! royal prop]ty became national doma91 & by fur!r spoliation ( *ur* prop]ty1 & o!rwise1 atta9$ an area ( #d1cjj1jjj acres4 ,9 ! law ( #agia1 a di/9ction 0 made betwe5 ! inali5able doma91 :i* comprises roads1 canals1 =tresses1 h>bors1 etc41 & ! ali5able national doma91 includ+ ! =e/ & o!r prop]ty d]iv$ f royal or cr[n doma9s4 ,to ?is national doma9 0 add$1 by ! law ( #agib1 ! =e/ prop]ty ( ! refugees ( ! revolution :i* 01 h[ev]1 lat] = ! mo/ "p re/or$ or indemnifi$4 ,f9ally1 :51 by ! treaty ( ,basel 7#agie71 ! ,fr5* fronti] _h be5 pu%$ to ! ,rh9e1 ! total /ate =e/ _h gr[n to ar\nd #f1ejj1jjj acres1 ne>ly "o-?ird ( ! total =e/ area4 ,b1 ?r\gh sales & o!rwise1 ?is area _h1 by #ahae1 be5 r$uc$ to #c1bjj1jjj acres1 & dur+ ! p]iod until #ahgb1 ! area _h be5 fur!r aga9 r$uc$ to less ?an #b1ejj1jjj acres4 ,at pres5t 7#aije7 x comprises #b4i million acres1 or less ?an #ab p] c5t41 ( ! total =e/ area1 #ee p] c5t4 ( :i* comes f ! orig9al royal doma91 #bb p] c5t4 f orig9al *ur* prop]ty & #bc p] c5t4 f rec5t acquisitions1 secur$ "u ! laws ( reboisem5t ( m\nta9s1 s& dunes1 etc4 ,! communal prop]ty develop$ l>gely 9 a simil> mann] z 9 ,g]many1 f ! ,m>k1 & ?r\gh ! feudal sy/em1 ) its rights ( us] z a result4 ,9 ! twelf? c5tury1 ! gr&ees or seigneurs 7 active 9 coloniz+ _! doma9s1 acquir$ z fiefs or o!rwise1 ) s]fs & o!rs1 giv+ !m *>t]s = villages ) communal privileges & rights4 ,"u ?is me?od1 ano!r k9d ( communal =e/ prop]ty grew up1 by writt5 in/rum5ts or contracts1 9 :i* limitations & res]vations ( rights are impos$ by ! seigneurs4 ,"o ( ! mo/ usual conditions ( ! contract 0 ! prev5tion ( cle>+ or sale2 at ! same "t a new set ( rights ( us]1 ?is "t on ! "p ( ! seigneur1 br\ght new complications4 ,"o ( ! wor/ features orig9at+ 9 ! #ad? c5tury z an outgr[? ( feudal relations1 0 8! "r ( ! ?ird0 7triage71 :i* gave to ! seigneur1 :5ev] he wi%$ to ex]cise x1 "o-?ird ( ! prop]ty free ( all rights ( us]4 ,9 ?is way1 ! communal area 0 dim9i%$ until1 9 #affg1 ! widespread abuse ( ?is "r l$ to an ord9ance aboli%+ x4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 re-e/abli%$ by ! ord9ance ( #affi 9 all cases :]e ! =e/ _h be5 gratuit\sly c$$ by ! seigneurs1 or :5 ! rema9+ two-?irds 0 deem$ suffici5t = ! ne$s ( ! p>i%4 ,n until #agij-agib 0 ?is exorbitant "r f9ally aboli%$4 ,z an outgr[? ( ! revolution>y doctr9e ( #agic1 ! mo/ radical legislation decre$ presumptive own]%ip by ! municipal corporations ( all l&s = :i* ! claimant c\ld n %[ a de$ ( pur*ase1 exclud+ any title acquir$ z a result ( feudal relations4 ,! day ( rev5ge ( all old wrongs _h come1 &1 appeal to ju/ice be+ useless1 ! municipalities increas$ _! hold+s freely4 ,al?\gh lat] legislation attempt$ to arre/ ?is public !ft & to re/itute "s ( ! /ol5 prop]ty1 mu* ( ! communal =e/ area ( to-day consi/s ( ?is k9d ( ill-gott5 prop]ty4 ,ano!r me?od ( increas+ municipal prop]ties 0 by ex*ange ( t]ritory = ! rights ( us]4 ,ef=ts to get rid ( ^! rights1 :i* grew up z describ$ & to prev5t _! ext5sion 7 in/itut$ mu* e>li] ?an 9 ,g]many1 ,philip ( ,valois expressly =bidd+ su* ext5sion z e>ly z #acdf4 ,nev]!less !y cont9u$ to gr[ s t1 by ! middle ( ! #ah? c5tury1 !y 7 z g5]al & af=d$ z great a h9drance to =e/ managem5t1 z 9 ,g]many4 ,! ord9ance ( #affi also provid$ = ! ext9ction ( ^! rights1 app>5tly )\t mu* success1 & ! tr\blesome times aft] #aghi increas$ _! numb]4 ,only :5 ! ord]ly regime foll[+ ! reign ( ,napoleon gave rise to ! ,code ,=e/i] 7#ahbg71 0 a sy/ematic attempt = _! ext+ui%m5t by ! cession ( t]ritory & ca% paym5t begun1 & by ?is "t ! ext9ction may be consid]$ practically conclud$1 at lea/ = ! /ate & communal prop]ty4 ,private prop]ty1 n seignorial1 0 b little develop$ be=e ! #af? c5tury2 aft] t ! frequ5t sales by ! k+s & b>ons gave rise to small =e/ own]s1 s t1 by #aghi1 ov] #aj million acres 7 9 su* possession4 ,dur+ ! #ai? c5tury ?is grew by pur*ase1 by cessions1 & by re=e/ation ( wa/e l&s to d\ble t am\nt1 n less ?an two million acres be+ add$ by ! latt] cause alone1 :ile "s decrease came f cle>+s4 ,9 #aije1 private hold+s compris$ #ae million acres or #fe p] c5t4 ( ! total2 ! communal & in/itutional =e/s #d4h million acres or #ba p] c5t41 leav+ = ,/ate =e/ #b4i million acres1 or a little ov] #ab p] c5t4 ( ! total ( #bb4g million acres4 ,tw5ty-two p] c5t4 ( /ate & communal prop]ty is1 h[ev]1 wa/e l&1 & su* areas 9 private h&s may be six times z l>ge2 !re be+ altoge!r betwe5 #ad & #ae million acres ( wa/e l&s4 #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration4 ,9 ! e>li] times1 &1 inde$1 into ! #ah? c5tury1 ! mo/ important use ( ! =e/ 0 9 ! ma/ f oak & bee* = ! pigs & pa/ure = ! cattle1 besides firewood1 = :i* mo/ly ! s(t woods 7 us$4 ,?is 0 giv5 free f ! royal doma91 & ! adm9i/ration consi/$ ma9ly 9 regulat+ ?is use4 ,! ma9 inc5tive = ! regulation ( =e/ use on ! "p ( ! k+ 7 ! int]e/s ( ! *ase4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! n9? c5tury1 special =e/ (fic]s1 =e/>ii1 are m5tion$ 9 ,*>lemagne's celebrat$ capitul>ium1 :i* describes 9 detail ! adm9i/ration ( ! public doma9s4 ,^! 71 to be sure1 only l[] rank (ficials1 work+ "u mayors1 int5dants & ! c\nt 7comes71 :o 0 ! adm9i/rator & soon indep5d5t arbit] ( ! royal doma9 z well z ( ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice 9 g5]al4 ,8 (fice e>ly became h]$it>y4 ,! fir/ m5tion ( 8=e/ ma/]s0 7matres des eaux et =ts7 dates back to #abia1 & lat] ord9ances m5tion high] (ficials4 ,b ! cr$it = a full & detail organization & regulation ( managem5t belongs to ,*>les ,v1 ! wise ,valois1 9 8 ord9ance ( #acgf4 ,?is organization1 aft] v>i\s *anges1 by ! end ( ! #af? c5tury1 "u ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,iv1 took ab\t ! foll[+ =m3 ,"u a g5]al sup]9t5d5t ( =e/s1 titul>y head ( ! =e/ s]vice1 a numb] ( gr&s matres1 gnraux r=mateurs des eaux et =ts1 "s #ag1 7 appo9t$ by ! ,k+ to wat* ov] ! conduct ( ! matres & gruy]s1 (fic]s 9 *>ge ( ! =e/ di/ricts 7matrises74 ,all ( ^! (ficials _h _! deputies & lieut5ants "u v>i\s designations 7procureur du roi1 greffi]1 g>dem>teau1 s]g5t du g>de1 etc47 ,a /amp+ hamm] 7kept by ! g>dem>teau7 0 employ$ = m>k+ trees :i* def9$ ! b\nd>ies1 or :i* 7 to be res]v$ 9 ! fell+s4 ,9 addition to ^! regul> (fic]s !re 7 employ$ a great numb] ( capita9es des *asses ^: functions1 z ! title indicates1 relat$ ma9ly to ! *ase4 ,! function ( ! =e/ma/]s did n /op ) ! sup]vision ( ! use ( ! =e/ & sale ( wood1 b includ$ also ! jurisdiction ( all misdemeanors & crimes committ$ 9 ! royal1 & lat]1 9 all =e/s4 ,!y became ?us gradually a privileg$ class ( imm5se p[]4 ,graft & sale ( (fices became ! ord] ( ! day4 ,sometimes ! (fices 7 made h]$it>y1 & aga9 7 limit$ to ?ree or f\r ye>s' t5ure1 9 ! endeav\r to break up ! %ameful practices4 ,= ne>ly ?ree c5turies all ef=ts at re=m 7 failures4 ,! me?od ( prescrib+ ! rules & regulations dur+ ! #ab? to #ag? c5tury 0 by ord9ances l ^? issu$ by ! ,g]man pr9ces2 ! fir/ ord9ance on record be+ t issu$ by ,l\is ,,vi 9 #abae4 ,^! ord9ances usually appe>$ "u ! "n ,le fait des eaux et =ts 7! matt]s ( wat]s & woods71 curi\sly en\gh ?us sugge/+ ! relation ( ! two4 ,! latt] t]m 0 us$ exactly l t ( ! ,g]man ,=/1 designat+ ! res]v$ t]ritory "u ! ban1 :ile bois is us$ to designate actual woodl& 7silva74 ,9 #acgf1 ,*>les ,v1 9 8 endeavor to build up a navy aga9/ ,engl&1 made res]vations = naval timb] & also issu$ ! ord9ance ( ,melun1 a g5]al =e/ code1 ! provisions ( :i* la/$ l>gely until ! re=m ( #affi4 ,9 #adjb1 ! _m ord9ances1 (t5 contradictory 7 codifi$ "u "o text1 & ano!r codification 0 made "u ,francis ,i 9 #aeae4 ,by ! middle ( ! #ag? c5tury ! deva/ation ( =e/s _h progress$ s f>1 & ! abuses 9 ! managem5t ( ! royal doma9 _h become s evid5t t ,l\is ,,xiv's great m9i/]1 ,colb]t1 0 induc$ to make ! hi/orical rem>k 8,france w p]i% = lack ( woods40 ,aga9 ! ne$s ( ! navy 0 ! prime inc5tive ( ! vigor\s re=m :i* he in/itut$ aft] a mo/ se>*+ inve/igation4 ,! result 0 ! celebrat$ =e/ ord9ance ( #affi4 ,= ?is purpose he appo9t$1 9 #affb1 a commission :i* n only inve/igat$ conditions b 0 clo!d ) p[] to re=m ! abuses :i* x might discov]4 ,= ?is "w he select$ f\r tru/$ m5 outside ( ! =e/ s]vice1 to :om lat] m 7 add$1 & gave !m ! aid ( te*nical advis]s1 among :om ,fr\doir seems to h be5 mo/ prom95t4 ,colb]t himself gave close att5tion to ?is "w ( re=m4 ,z ! fir/ act1 ! commission recomm5d$ ! ceas+ ( all cutt+ 9 ! royal =e/s1 &1 aft] delib]ation & consultation ) int]e/$ p>ties ?r\gh eight ye>s1 ! f9al law 0 enact$1 a ma/]piece ^: pr9ciples & prescriptions to an ext5t h p]si/$ into ! #ai? c5tury4 ,! commission f "t to "t made reports1 giv+ _! f9d+s 9 detail1 & ^! =m a mo/ int]e/+ record ( conditions prevail+ at t "t4 ,z "o ( ! hi/orians 7,j\ba97 puts x1 8! commission]s did n recoil be=e long h\rs ( inspection nor high influ5ce1 !y nei!r hesitat$ to decl>e aga9/1 nor prosecute1 great & small alike1 nor to pron\nce a mo/ s]i\s s5t5ce40 ,a ?or\gh clean+ up 0 done & a complete reorganization secur$4 ,by ?is ord9ance1 ?ree special c\rts ( adjudication 9 matt]s p]ta9+ to ! =e/s 7 e/abli%$1 ) special (fic]s ^: duties 7 c>efully def9$1 namely ! c\rts ( ! ,gruries1 ( ! ,matrises & ! ,tables de ,m>bre4 ,! fir/ nam$1 l[] grade c\rts took cognizance ( ! less] (f5ces1 abuses1 wa/es & malv]sations1 disputes 9 reg>d to fi%+ or *ase1 & murd]s aris+ out ( ^!2 gruries be+ ! woods belong+ to individuals 9 :i* ! jurisdiction & ! pr(it f su* jurisdiction belong$ to ! k+1 or at lea/ to ! seigneurs4 ,! c\rts ( ! matrise ref]r$ to ! =e/ t]ritory plac$ "u adm9i/ration ( ! matres p>ticuli]s 7,=/mei/]71 & 7 e/abli%$ ne> ! _m royal =e/s z c\rts ( appeal 9 =e/ matt]s4 ,a f9al appeal c\ld be made to ! tables de m>bre 7c\rts ( ! m>ble table71 :i* also decid$ on ! m weighty que/ions ( proprietor%ip by :atev] t]m held1 & especially civil & crim9al cases relat+ to ! eaux et =ts2 ! wrong do+s 9 ! dis*>ge ( (ficial duties 7abus71 contrav5tions to ! ord]s & regulations1 misdemeanors or depr$ations 7dlit72 & all k9ds ( fraud n includ$ "u ^? cit$ 7malv]sations74 ,! :ole c\ntry 0 divid$ into #ah arrondissem5ts ( gr&es-matrises des eaux et =ts & ^! 7 divid$ into #acd matrises1 ea* "u a matre p>ticuli]1 ) a lieut5ant1 a g>de-m>teau1 a g>de gnral1 two arp5teurs & a numb] ( g>des4 ,a f9ancial bran* = ! h&l+ ( moneys1 & ! judicial bran* repres5t$ by ! ?ree c\rts describ$ above1 complet$ ! organization1 :i* la/$ until ! revolution1 albeit "s details 7 *ang$ soon aft] its enactm5t1 & ! (fices became aga9 pur*aseable & h]$it>y4 ,! sale ( royal =e/s 0 aga9 =bidd51 p5alties be+ provid$ = ! ev5tual pur*as]4 ,!ft & inc5di>ism 7 sev]ely puni%$1 & specific rules ( managem5t 7 e/abli%$4 ,cle>+s c\ld only be made by p]mission ev5 on ! "p ( private own]s4 ,! me?ods ( sale & h>ve/ 7 det]m9$4 ,! prescriptions ( old] ord9ances 7 r5ew$ to ! effect t at lea/ #ac to #af se$ trees 7baliveaux7 p] acre 9 ! coppice1 & #h se$ trees 9 timb] =e/1 7 to be res]v$ 9 all =e/s )\t exception4 ,private own]s 7 n to cut ^! se$ trees be=e !y 7 #dj ye>s old 9 ! coppice1 & #abj ye>s 9 ! timb] =e/1 :ile 9 ! public & *ur* =e/s ^! se$ trees 7 treat$ l res]ves4 ,simil>ly1 ! prescription t no woods 7 to be cut be=e #aj ye>s ( age 0 reviv$ f =m] ord9ances1 ! "t lat] 7#aghg7 be+ increas$ = public =e/s to #be ye>s4 ,also ! obligation to keep "o-f\r? ( ! =e/ 9 res]ve1 :i* ,*>les ,,ix _h decre$ 9 #aefj1 0 r5ew$ = ! public =e/s 7^? belong+ to corporations & o!r public in/itutions74 ,= ! fir =e/s ( ! m\nta9s1 :i* _h become important z furni%]s ( %ip ma/s1 special regulations 7 issu$1 & ! ma/ timb] res]v$ = ! cr[n4 ,!re 0 lively opposition to ! en=cem5t ( ^! prescriptions1 especially :]e !y int]f]$ ) prop]ty rights1 nev]!less !y p]si/$ until ! *anges br\ght ab\t by ! revolution ( #aghi4 ,c]ta9 prescriptions1 z = in/ance ! exclusion ( %eeph]d+ 7 nev] en=c$1 & ?is practice cont9ues ev5 to-day 9 c]ta9 sections4 ,z a result ( ! re=m1 h[ev]1 ! rev5ues f ! royal =e/s trebl$ 9 #bj ye>s4 ,dur+ ! #ah? c5tury1 sev]al fam9es occurr$ & l$ to ! enc\ragem5t ( ext5d+ f>m op]ations at ! exp5se ( ! =e/1 notably 9 ! sixties1 :5 among o!r simil> ef=ts "s #bjj families return+ f ,canada aft] ! ,engli% conque/ 7 coloniz$ 9 ! =e/s ( ,poit\4 ,at t "t1 also ! 8decl>ation0 ( #agff exempt$ ^? :o cle>$ l& = f>m purposes = #ae ye>s f all taxes4 ,z a result ( ?is invitation "s #gej1jjj acres 7 cle>$1 & ! practice ( cle>+ = f>m use cont9u$ until ! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury4 ,9 ?is way1 by inconsid]ately expos+ soil :i* w\ld n ev]y:]e be f\nd adapt$ to f>m use1 wa/es naturally exi/+ 7 greatly increas$4 ,! revolution br\ght ) x sudd5 & disa/r\s *anges4 ,! law ( #agia aboli%$ n only ! jurisdiction ( ! matrises1 b remov$ all re/ra9t1 & !reby inaugurat$ widespread de/ruction & deva/ation ( =e/ prop]ty aga9/ :i* legislative attempts ( ! republican gov]nm5t 7 entirely p[]less4 ,n only did ! peasants take advantage ( ! disord]1 & ! municipalities cut _! res]ves )\t h9drance b extraord9>y fell+s 9 ! /ate =e/s 7 necessitat$ by ! ne$s ( ! navy & ! ex*equ]4 ,9 #ahja1 aft] v>i\s previ\s attempts at organization1 ,napoleon reorganiz$ ! s]vice1 ) five adm9i/rators1 #cj cons]vators1 #bjj inspectors & #h1fjj inf]ior (fic]s4 ,at t "t1 x appe>s t ! rev5ue f ! public =e/ doma9 am\nt$ to #f1jjj1jjj1 a sum ju/ify+ su* elaborate organization4 ,b o!rwise ! me?ods ( ,colb]t's ord9ance 7 reviv$4 ,deva/ation1 h[ev]1 cont9u$4 ,incompet5ce 9 ! s]vice1 0 aga9 introduc$ :5 9 #ahaa half ! numb] ( (ficials 0 recruit$ f sup]annuat$ army (fic]s4 ,9 #ahag1 ! :ole =e/ s]vice 0 aboli%$1 & ! prop]ties plac$ 9 ! h&s ( ! fiscal ag5ts ( ! gov]nm5t )\t any te*nical k4 ,! old ord] ( ?+s 01 h[ev]1 re-e/abli%$ 9 #ahbj1 & soon aft] ! f9al organization :i* has la/$ to date 0 effect$4 #c4 ,developm5t ( ,mod]n ,=e/ ,policy4 ,9 #ahbb1 a commission compos$ ( =e/]s 0 in/itut$ to revise ! ord9ance ( #affi1 :i*1 "h & !re modifi$1 _h cont9u$ to be valid1 except dur+ ! revolution>y p]iod4 ,! result ( ! "w ( ?is commission 0 ! ,code ,=e/i] 7#ahbi7 :i* is ! law ( ! pres5t day4 ,9 x1 pr9ciples are laid d[n "u :i* ! /ate1 communal & o!r public =e/s are to be manag$4 ,all =e/s submitt$ to ! rgime =e/i]1 namely1 ! /ate & communal =e/s & ^? belong+ to public in/itutions1 are entirely manag$ by ! /ate =e/ adm9i/ration1 ! communities or o!r public =e/ own]s pay+ = ! s]vice n to exce$ #i c5ts p] acre1 or #e p] c5t4 ( ! rev5ue4 ,all jurisdiction & execution ( =e/ry laws is 9 ! h&s ( ! (ficials ( ! ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration4 ,! =e/]s ( ! /ate h ! exclusive responsibility ( mak+ & execut+ work+ plans1 )\t int]f]5ce by ! municipalities aft] ! plans h once be5 submitt$ & approv$ by !m4 ,! corporations h n ev5 ! "r to appo9t _! own gu>ds1 all su* be+ appo9t$ by ! prefects ( ! dep>tm5ts ^u recomm5dation by ! =e/ dep>tm5t4 ,! fell+s1 usually p]=m$ by ! pur*as]1 7! wood be+ sold on ! /ump71 are sup]vis$ mo/ rigor\sly1 mak+ ev5 ! smalle/ deviations f ! conditions ( ! contract sale1 :i* o!rwise w\ld only entail ! paym5t ( damage1 puni%able by f9e2 & ! responsibility = any trespass :i* may occur on ! l& rea*es #bej y>ds beyond ! limits ( ! pur*as]'s t]ritory1 unless he gives prop] w>n+ & tries to f9d out ! p]petrators ( ! same4 ,legal proce$+s are br\ght be=e ! c\rts ( correction1 & are greatly simplifi$1 z is cu/om>y 9 ,g]many4 ,! public =e/s may n be sold1 mortgag$ or divid$1 & ! product c be sold only ?r\gh /ate =e/]s4 ,z 9 ! old5 times1 "o-qu>t] ( ! /&s 9 ! timb] =e/s1 & "o-f\r? ( ! fell+ budget 9 ! coppice is plac$ 9 res]ve = urg5t or un=ese5 ne$s4 ,9 addition to ^! & o!r re/rictions :i* ref] to ! public =e/s1 !re are prescriptions :i* apply to all woods 9 g5]al4 ,all =e/]s employ$1 ev5 on private prop]ties1 h %]iff's p[]4 ,walk+ 9 ! woods ) axe1 saw & wagon outside ( ! public roads :i* pass ?r\gh !m1 is =bidd52 ! mak+ ( fires is =bidd52 ! mak+ ( fire l9es1 #bj y>ds wide1 betwe5 private =e/s c be en=c$ by ei!r own]1 & railroads1 along _! rights ( way1 are requir$ to make su*4 ,by special law ( #ahic1 ! sett+ ( fires ev5 )9 #bjj y>ds ( a wood is =bidd5 9 c]ta9 regions1 & ! puni%m5t ( infractions ( ^! laws is v sev]e4 ,! rights ( us] are gaug$ by ! adm9i/ration accord+ to ! possible yield1 ev5 9 private =e/s1 & are surr\nd$ by _m o!r re/rictions2 ! wood fall+ "u su* rights ( us] is cut & deliv]$ by ! =e/ ag5ts1 & ! rights c be =cibly ext+ui%$ by ex*ange ( t]ritory4 ,! sup]vision ( ! communal =e/s :i* _h1 inde$1 exi/$ s9ce ! #af? c5tury 0 by no means an easy task4 ,! opposition to x :i* _h always exi/$ & 01 9 e>li] times1 ju/ifi$ by ! incompet5ce & graft ( ! (ficials1 cont9u$ ev5 aft] ?is ju/ification ( x _h ceas$4 ,?anks to ! tact & effici5cy ( ! (ficials ( ! mod]n p]iod1 ! opposition has be5 l>gely ov]come1 &1 ?anks to ! progress made 9 en=c+ ^! rigor\s laws1 _! necessity has almo/ vani%$1 &1 at pres5t1 relatively few infractions ne$ to be inve/igat$ & puni%$4 ,moreov]1 ! rigor ( ! orig9al law 0 some:at abat$ by ! law ( #ahei4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 voices :i* proclaim t ! sup]vision by ! gov]nm5t is n z ?or\gh z x %\ld be1 & t ! conditions ( ! communal prop]ty h det]iorat$4 ,:ile ! sup]vision ( ! managem5t ( communal prop]ty is ma9ly bas$ on fiscal consid]ations1 ! ,code =e/i] also au?orizes ! adm9i/ration to int]f]e 9 ! managem5t ( =e/s ^: influ5ce on ! public welf>e c be demon/rat$4 ,9 ord] to assure ! possibility ( su* int]f]5ce1 e private own] :o desires to cle> l& is requir$ to advise ! gov]nm5t ( 8 purpose1 :5 ! adm9i/ration c prev5t su* cle>+1 if deem$ necess>y to prev5t l&slides1 erosion & torr5tial action1 to protect wat]s\rces1 s& dunes1 = def5sive purposes at ! fronti] 7671 & = public heal?4 ,o!rwise1 ! managem5t ( private =e/ is unhamp]$4 ,by special legislation1 enact$ 9 #ahfj & #ahhb1 h[ev]1 ! special cases ( torr5tial action 7 tak5 c>e ( 9 a special mann]1 :i* w be set =? 9 foll[+ pages4 ,! reboisem5t law ( #ahhb au?orizes ! adm9i/ration to acquire by expropriation m\nta9 =e/s or m\nta9 slopes ne$$ = re=e/ation = ! sake ( safegu>d+ !m & prev5t+ torr5tial damage4 ,= ,algi]s1 ! same au?orization to expropriate 0 ext5d$ by law ( #aijc to include all su* areas on :i* accord+ to ! ,code =e/i] ! adm9i/ration might =bid cle>+1 & su* ext5sion is advocat$ = ! "m c\ntry4 ,z a rule ! adm9i/ration has be5 able to avoid expropriation & secure ! t]ritories by volunt>y sale at less ?an #aj p] acre4 ,at pres5t1 ! =e/ s]vice is "u ! ,m9i/] ( ,agriculture z ,presid5t ( ! ,=e/ry ,c\ncil1 ) a ,director-,g5]al z ,vice ,presid5t & te*nical head1 & ?ree ,adm9i/rateurs ,vrificateurs gnraux1 *iefs ( ! ?ree bureaux into :i* ! adm9i/ration is divid$1 ea* ) two *iefs ( sections1 ,inspectors1 & ! necess>y (fice /aff4 ,= purposes ( ! local adm9i/ration ! =e/ area is divid$ into #cb cons]vations1 ea* "u *>ge ( a ,cons]vateur equival5t to ! ,g]man ,ob]=/mei/]4 ,^! are aga9 subdivid$ into ,*eff]ies or ,inspections1 two to twelve 9 ea* cons]vation1 :i* are adm9i/rative units1 "u ! sup]vision ( ,inspectors 7#bjj7 & ,assi/ant ,inspectors 7#baj74 ,9 addition1 a special s]vice = =e/-organization & reboisem5t employs #ad inspectors & "s #bj assi/ants4 ,! =e/ di/ricts or cantonm5ts 7ranges7 f9ally are "u ! direct *>ge ( ,g>des gnraux 7#afb71 ) ! assi/ance ( ,g>des gnraux /agiaires 7#fg7 & und]=e/]s or gu>ds 7,brigadi]s7 7#c1fej72 altoge!r a p]sonnel ( ov] #d1djj (ficials4 ,:ile ?is is a l>g] =ce p] acreage1 yet ! exp5se = p]sonnel p] acre is less ?an "o-half t ( ! ,prussian =e/ adm9i/ration1 & "o-qu>t] ( t 9 sev]al ( ! o!r ,g]man /ate adm9i/rations4 ,9 #aiji1 a reorganization 0 effect$ improv+ to "s ext5t ! sal>ies4 ,! legislation ( #aiji also fur!r /r5g!ns ,/ate influ5ce by plac+ c]ta9 private prop]ties "u ! control ( ! ,adm9i/ration1 & all[+ ! latt] to und]take ! managem5t ( private prop]ties at ! reque/ ( own]s = a consid]ation4 ,! budget = #aiaa places ! total exp5diture = ! ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration at #c million doll>s 7#ih c5ts p] acre71 ( :i* #iej1jjj = reboisem5t & o!r improvem5t "w4 ,! receipts = ! la/ five ye>s h av]ag$ ne> #g million doll>s1 s t a net result ( #a4fj p] acre seems atta9$1 consid]+ ! exp5se ( reboisem5t z new inve/m5t4 #d4 ,"w ( ,re=e/ation4 ,! mo/ not$ "w ( ! =e/ adm9i/ration1 & "o = :i* x des]ves high cr$it1 has be5 t ( ! reclamation ( wa/e l&s1 ( :i*1 9 #ahgi1 x 0 e/imat$ !re 7 /ill #bj1jjj1jjj acres 9 ext5t4 ,especially ! 8reboisem5t0 "w 9 ! ,alp9e di/ricts1 z a result ( ! law ( #ahhb1 has become celebrat$4 ,! movem5t = recov]y ( wa/e l&s dates f ! beg9n+ ( ! #ai? c5tury1 & to-day re=e/ation by /ate1 communal & private ef=t enc\rag$ by legislative acts dur+ ! la/ sixty ye>s1 has re/or$ well-nigh m ?an #c1jjj1jjj acres ( gr\nd :i* _h be5 lo/ to =e/ production4 ,!re are f\r def9ite regions ( l>ge ext5t 9 :i* sy/ematic ef=t 9 ?is direction has be5 made1 namely1 ! s& dunes ( ,gascony & ! ,l&es ( ,s\?we/]n ,france2 ! s&y pla9s ( ,la ,sologne2 ! lime/one wa/es ( ,*ampagne2 & ! m\nta9 slopes 9 ! ,vosges & ,jura-,alps4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! s& dunes on ! coa/ ( ,france comprise ar\nd #cej1jjj acres2 ^? on ! coa/ ( ,gascony 9 ,s\?we/ ,france alone h an ext5t ( ne>ly #bej1jjj acres1 ^! be+ ! mo/ important & hav+ = a long "t endang]$ ! adjo9+ pa/ures & fields4 ,x seems t ! l& occupi$ by dunes 0 orig9ally =e/$1 & t ^! 7 creat$ by de=e/ation4 ,z e>ly z #agag1 successful attempts at re=e/ation 7 made by ! inhabitants ( ,la ,te/e1 & f t "t on sporadically small plant+s came into exi/5ce4 ,b ! inauguration ( sy/ematic re=e/ation 0 begun only aft] a notable report by ,brmonti]1 :o1 9 #aghf1 secur$1 z *ief eng9e] ( ! dep>tm5t ( ,bordeaux1 a sum ( #aj1jjj to be employ$ 9 asc]ta9+ ! possibilities ( dra9+ ! ,l&es by means ( a canal1 & ( fix+ ! dunes4 ,z a result ( ?is beg9n+1 ! me?od = _! recov]y hav+ be51 by #agic1 exp]im5tally det]m9$ by ,brmonti]1 #bge1jjj acres ( mov+ s& h be5 fix$ dur+ ! la/ c5tury4 ,! revolution>y gov]nm5t1 9 #agii1 creat$ a ,commission ( ,dunes1 ( :i* ,brmonti] 0 made presid5t1 & annual appropriation ( #aj1jjj 0 made1 lat] 79 #ahjh7 increas$ to #ae1jjj4 ,9 #ahag1 ! "w 0 transf]r$ to ! ,adm9i/ration des ,ponts et ,*ausses4 ,! appropriations 7 increas$ until1 9 #ahed1 !y rea*$ #ajj1jjj a ye>1 & 9 #ahfe1 ! "w be+ ne>ly f9i%$1 ! dunes 7 h&$ ov] to ! =e/ adm9i/ration4 ,!re be+ /ill ab\t #bj1jjj acres to be recov]$1 ?is 0 a*iev$ 9 #ahfe1 :5 #bjj1jjj acres _h be5 re=e/$ at an exp5se ( ab\t #b1jjj1jjj1 & an additional exp5se ( #gjj1jjj to organize ! newly =m$ p9e =e/s--,p9us m>itima 0 entirely us$4 ,^!1 at pres5t1 ) _! res9\s products & wood are furni%+ valuable mat]ial4 ,an un=tunate policy ( c$+ "s ( ^! =e/ areas to private & communal own]s1 :o claim$ !m z ( anci5t "r1 & also ( sales 0 inaugurat$ j z ! plant+ 0 f9i%$1 s t at pres5t only #abe1jjj acres rema9 9 ! h&s ( ! /ate4 ,! returns f ! sales1 h[ev]1 reimburs$ ! co/ ( ! reboisem5t 9 excess by #adj1jjj1 s t ! /ate really acquir$ = no?+1 a prop]ty1 n[ e/imat$ to be wor? #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,a simil> plantation on mov+ s&s1 ( #ce1jjj acres1 is f\nd nor? ( ?is tract4 ,to ! ea/w>d ( ?is region ( dunes /ret* ! s-call$ ,l&es1 a t]ritory triangul> 9 %ape1 conta9+ #b1jjj1jjj acres ( %ift+ s&s & m>%es1 on :i* a poor population ( %eph]ds 7on /ilts7 us$ to eke out a liv+4 ,9 #ahgc1 ,*ambrel5t1 an eng9e] ( ! adm9i/ration ( bridges & roads 7adm9i/ration des ponts et *ausses71 conceiv$ ! idea ( improv+ ?is section by re=e/ation1 & at 8 own exp5se recov]$ "s #a1bjj acres 9 ! wor/ m>% by dit*+ & plant+4 ,! success ( ?is plantation invit$ imitators1 &1 by #ahee1 ! re=e/$ area _h gr[n to #ej1jjj acres4 ,?is l$1 9 #aheg1 to ! passage ( a law ord]+ =e/ation ( ! p>ts ( ! l& own$ by ! /ate z well z by ! communities1 ! /ate at ! same "t und]tak+ ! exp5se ( build+ a sy/em ( roads & mak+ ! plans = =e/ation free ( *>ge4 ,! communities 7 all[$ to sell a "p ( ! reclaim$ l& 9 ord] to recov] ! exp5se1 & sold "s #dgj1jjj acres = #b4g million doll>s1 ( :i* less ?an #cjj1jjj 7 us$ to =e/ ! #bej1jjj acres belong+ to !m4 ,f #ahej to #ahib1 private own]s imitat+ ! gov]nm5t & communal "w1 altoge!r ne>ly #a1gej1jjj acres 7 cov]$ ) p9e =e/ at a co/ ( #d4jj to #e4jj p] acre1 or1 includ+ ! build+ ( roads1 = a total exp5diture ( ar\nd #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,9 #ahgg1 ! value ( ! !n recov]$ area 0 e/imat$ at ov] #dj1jjj1jjj1 ?is figure be+ arriv$ at by calculat+ ! possible net rev5ues ( a p9]y "u a #ge ye>s rotation1 :i* 0 figur$ at #b4ej p] acre1 ) a production ( #ea cubic feet p] acre & #bjj qu>ts ( res9 7at #c74 ,an e/imate ( rec5t date places ! value ( ! recov]$ area at #ajj1jjj1jjj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,c5trally locat$ betwe5 ! valleys ( ! ,loire & ! ,*]1 ne> ,orleans1 lies ! region ( ,la ,sologne1 a s&y1 poorly dra9$ pla9 ^u an imp5etrable calc>e\s sub-soil giv+ rise to /agnant wat]s2 ?is region too _h be5 orig9ally d5sely wood$1 & 0 describ$ z a p>adise 9 e>ly times2 b f ! beg9n+ ( ! #ag? c5tury to ! end ( ! #ah? x 0 de=e/$1 mak+ x an unheal?y1 useless wa/e4 ,by #aghg1 #a1bej1jjj acres ( ?is t]ritory _h become absolutely ab&on$4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury1 a numb] ( influ5tial citiz5s con/itut$ !mselves a committee to beg9 its "w ( recov]y1 ! ,director ,g5]al ( ,=e/s be+ au?oriz$ to assume ! presid5cy ( t committee4 ,z a result1 a canal #be miles 9 l5g? & #cej miles ( road 7 built1 & "s #bjj1jjj acres1 all non-agricultural l&s1 7 s[$ & plant$ ) ,m>itime & ,scot* ,p9e1 ! /ate furni%+ assi/ance ?r\gh ! =e/ s]vice & o!rwise4 ,a set-back occurr$ dur+ ! sev]e w9t] ( #ahgi1 fro/ kill+ _m ( ! y\ng] plantations1 :i* l$ to ! sub/itution ( ! h>di] ,scot* ,p9e = ! ,m>itime ,p9e 9 ! plant+s4 ,! co/ p] acre set out ) ab\t #c1ejj two-ye> old se$l+s am\nt$ to #e4jj4 ,an e/imate ( ! value ( ^! plantations places x at1 n less ?an #ah1jjj1jjj1 s t l&s :i* #ej ye>s ago1 c\ld h>dly be sold = #d4jj p] acre1 n[ br+ ov] #c4jj z an annual rev5ue4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 ! prov9ce ( ,*ampagne1 ,s\? ( ,rheims1 a pla9 ( arid lime-/one wa/es ( an ext5t :i* 9 ! #ah? c5tury _h rea*$ #a1gej1jjj acres is f\nd4 ,ab\t #ahjg1 ! movem5t = ! recov]y ( ^! wa/es began2 fir/ 9 a small way1 ga9+ /r5g? by #ahcj aft] "s sporadic exp]im5ts _h %[n ! possibility ( re=e/ation1 & to-day ov] #bjj1jjj acres ( conif]\s =e/ 7ma9ly ,au/rian & ,scot* ,p9e71 l>gely plant$ by private inc5tive1 are 9 exi/5ce1 ! bett] acres be+ f>m$4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t l& :i* #ej ye>s ago 0 (t5 sold )\t measurem5t by di/ance1 8z f> z ! cry w\ld c>ry10 & r>ely = m ?an #d4jj p] acre1 is to-day wor? ov] #dj4jj at a co/ = plant+ ( less ?an #be4jj4 ,! /umpage value ( a ?irty ye>s' gr[? is figur$ at f #ej to #ajj1 ! total =e/ area is valu$ at #aj1jjj1jjj1 ) net rev5ue f ! #bjj1jjj acres at #b4jj p] acre4 99 99 99 99 99 ,france is un=tunate 9 hav+ )9 h] t]ritory1 al?\gh s little m\nta9\s1 ! l>ge/ proportion ( ! area 9 ,europe liable to torr5tial action4 ,n less ?an #a1dfb brooks & m\nta9 /reams h be5 c\nt$ z dang]\s wat]s 9 ! ,alps1 ! ,cev5nes1 & ! ,pyr5ees m\nta9s2 or two-?irds ( ! torr5ts ( ,europe4 ,an area ne>ly #a1jjj1jjj acres 9 ext5t1 ( m\nta9 slopes1 is expos$ to ! ravages ( ^! wat]s by erosion4 ,"h ! mo/ =cible demon/ration ( ! value ( a =e/ cov] 9 protect+ wat]%$s 0 furni%$ by ! results ( ! ext5sive =e/ de/ruction & deva/ation :i* took place especially dur+ & foll[+ ! ye>s ( ! ,revolution4 ,long ago1 9 ! #af? c5tury1 ! local p>liam5ts _h enact$ decrees aga9/ cle>+ 9 ! m\nta9s1 ) sev]e f9es1 confiscation & ev5 corporal puni%m5t1 & ^! re/rictions _h be5 g5]ally effective2 b dur+ ! ,revolution>y p]iod all ^! :olesome re/rictions vani%$2 inconsid]ate exploitation by ! f>m]s began1 & ! damage came s rapidly t 9 less ?an t5 ye>s aft] ! beg9n+ ( fre$om1 ! effect 0 felt4 ,)9 ?ree ye>s 7#agib71 ! fir/ compla9ts ( ! result ( unre/rict$ cutt+ 7 he>d1 &1 by #ahjc1 !y 7 q g5]al4 ,! brooks _h *ang$ to torr5ts1 inundat+ ! pla9s1 te>+ away f]tile l&s or silt+ !m ov] ) ! debris c>ri$ d[n f ! m\nta9s4 ,yet 9 spite ( ^! e>ly w>n+s & ! !oretical discussions by su* m5 z ,b\ss+ault1 ,becqu]el & o!rs1 ! de/ructive "w by axe1 fire & ov]-pa/ur+ progress$ until ab\t #h1jjj1jjj acres ( tillable l& _h be5 r5d]$ m or less useless1 & ! population ( #ah dep>tm5ts _h be5 impov]i%$ or r$uc$ 9 numb] by emigration4 ,a "y eng9e]1 ,surell1 0 ! fir/ to /udy ! possibility ( cop+ ) ! evil & prov$ 9 8 ,etude sur les torr5ts1 9 #ahda1 its relation to =e/ cov]1 & ! ne$ ( attack+ x at ! s\rces4 ,! fir/ "w ( recov]y 0 t5tatively begun 9 #ahdc1 b ! political ev5ts foll[+ did n promote its ext5sion1 until1 9 #ahfj1 a special law *>g$ ! ,=e/ ,dep>tm5t ) ! mission ( ext+ui%+ ! torr5ts4 ,!re 7 recogniz$ two categories ( "w1 ! "o1 consid]$ ( g5]al public int]e/ be+ designat$ z obligatory1 ! o!r ) less imm$iate ne$ be+ facultative2 ! t]ritories deva/at$ by ea* riv] & its afflu5ts on :i* ! "w ( recov]y 0 to be execut$ 7 kn[n z p]imet]s4 ,9 ! obligatory p]imet]s1 private l&s 7 to be acquir$ by ! /ate by process ( expropriation1 ! communal prop]ties 7 to be only = a "t occupi$ by ! /ate & aft] ! a*ievem5t ( ! recov]y 7 to be re/itut$ on paym5t ( ! exp5se ( ! "w2 or else ! corporation c\ld get rid ( ! debt by c$+ "o-half ( its prop]ty to ! /ate4 ,9 ! facultative p]imet]s1 ! /ate 0 simply to assi/ 9 ! "w ( recov]y by gratuit\s di/ribution ( se$s & plants1 or ev5 by money subv5tions 9 "s cases4 ,x appe>$ h>d t ! poor m\nta9e]s %\ld h to be> all ! exp5se ( ! ext9ction ( ! torr5ts1 & mu* compla9t 0 he>d4 ,9 response to ^! compla9ts1 9 #ahfd1 a law 0 pass$ all[+ ! sub/itution ( sodd+ in/ead ( =e/ plant+ = at lea/ "p ( ! p]imet]s1 ) a view ( secur+ pa/ures2 b ?is me?od seems n to h be5 successful & 0 mo/ly n employ$4 ,f9ally1 by ! reboisem5t law ( #ahhb1 ! compla9ts ( ! m\nta9e]s 7 prop]ly tak5 c>e ( by plac+ ! entire exp5se ( ! reboisem5t "w on ! /ate4 ,! attitude ( ! m\nta9e]s1 :i* 0 at fir/ ho/ile1 due to ! re/riction ( ! pa/ure1 has be5 ov]come by ! b5eficial results ( ! "w1 & n[ ! mo/ ho/ile are ready to (f] gratuit\sly _! t]ritory to ! ,=e/ ,dep>tm5t4 ,:]ev] necess>y ! /ate has b\ght t]ritory1 & f ye> to ye> has increas$ its hold+s1 & cont9ues to acquire l& at ! rate ( #be1jjj to #cj1jjj acres p] ye>1 ! budget ( #aijb1 = in/ance1 conta9+ #a1jjj1jjj = ?is purpose2 t ( #aiaa1 only #dj1jjj4 ,altoge!r ! /ate _h1 up to #aijj1 acquir$ #djj1jjj acres1 ( :i* #bah1jjj h be5 plant$1 & x is e/imat$ t ab\t #dcj1jjj acres m w h to be acquir$4 ,! total exp5se1 outside ( subv5tions to communities & private own]s1 up to #aijj has be5 ov] #ac1jjj1jjj1 ( :i* some:at ov] #e1jjj1jjj 0 exp5d$ = pur*ases1 x is e/imat$ t r\nd #be to #cj million m w be ne$$ to complete ! "w4 ,( ! #a1dfb torr5ts !re 7 9 #ahic1 #afc entirely controll$1 & #fed begun to be 8cur$40 ,among ! =m]1 !re 7 #ca :i* #ej ye>s ago 7 consid]$ by eng9e]s incurable4 ,x is e/imat$ t1 ) ! exp5diture ( #fjj1jjj p] annum1 ! "w may be f9i%$ by #aide4 ,! names ( ,mat?ieu & ,demontzey1 especially ! latt]1 are indelibly connect$ ) ?is great "w4 ,lately1 h[ev]1 ,briot 9 8 classical "w ,les ,alpes franaises criticizes sev]ely z improp]ly extravagant ! l>ge exp5ditures 9 places :]e ! result does n w>rant !m1 & proclaims z illusory "s ( ! me?ods adopt$4 #e4 ,=e/ry ,sci5ce & ,practice4 ,until ! #af? c5tury1 :atev] regulations _h be5 issu$ reg>d+ =e/ use 7 m]ely ( adm9i/rative or police "* & _h no?+ to d ) managem5t or silviculture1 except p]haps s f> z ! numb] ( baliveaux1 res]v$ trees to be left1 might be consid]$ z be>+ ^u ! subject4 ,! r=mateurs :o 7 f "t to "t appo9t$ _h to deal only ) judicial que/ions & abuses2 & usually ! ord9ances ref]r$ only to special =e/s1 b 9 #aefc1 ! ,table de m>bre ( ,p>is issu$ in/ructions :i* 7 to s]ve 9 all =e/s4 ,a futile attempt to secure /ati/ical k ( ! =e/ doma9 0 made1 app>5tly ) a view to regulation ( ! cut1 by de ,fleury1 ! *ief ( ! =e/ s]vice 9 #aefa4 ,9 default ( data f _m ( ! matrises1 a provisional p>tial ord] to regulate ! cut 0 issu$ 9 #aegc1 :i* rema9$ 9 =ce = a hundr$ ye>s1 & 0 regul>ly disreg>d$1 extraord9>y cuts be+ made )\t au?ority & ) ! connivance ( ! (fic]s4 ,an ord9ance ( #aegi describes ! deplorable condition ( ! =e/s at l5g?1 & calls = /ati/ical data1 b aga9 )\t result4 ,a numb] ( fur!r ord9ances also made no impression ^u ! call\s & corrupt (ficials ( ! =e/ s]vice4 ,a fir/ class attempt to secure m cons]vative =e/ use & to regulate ! cut 0 made by ,h5ry ,,iv 9 in/itut+ a commission1 &1 z a result ( its report1 issu+ 8 g5]al ord] ( ,r\51 9 #aeig1 a highly int]e/+ docum5t giv+ insight into conditions & op9ions ( ! =e/]s ( t p]iod4 ,x also rema9$ )\t any result :atsoev]4 ,repeat$ replacem5t ( ! high] (ficials _h no m effect ?an ! issuance ( ord9ances4 ,n until ,colb]t's vigor\s re=m 9 #affi came a *ange 9 conditions4 ,mean:ile1 "s =e/ry notions _h be5 develop$3 a sequ5ce ( fell+ areas 9 ! coppice1 & h5ce an area division1 an idea ( rotation & ( ! exploitable age 7#aj to #bj ye>s1 al?\gh sometimes d[n to #c & #d ye>s71 ! leav+ ( ov]wood1 :i* became obligatory 9 ! royal doma91 & a k9d ( regulation ( its age 7#dj ye>s--too %ort accord+ to "o writ] ( ! "t to furni% valuable trees71 & "s prop] consid]ations ( its selection4 ,9 ! timb] =e/1 ! fell+s proce$$ by area 9 regul> ord] f ye> to ye>1 leav+ a prescrib$ numb] ( m>k$ se$ trees1 at lea/ #f to #h p] acre1 on su* areas z 7 outside ! rights ( us] & remov$ f ! likelihood ( depr$ations2 ! fell+ age be+ at lea/ #ajj ye>s1 "u ! notion t ! oak1 ! mo/ favor$ species1 8gr[s = "o hundr$ ye>s1 keeps vigor\s b /&s /ill = ano!r hundr$1 & decl9es 9 a ?ird hundr$40 ,s[+ ( acorns on prep>$ gr\nd 0 also ord]$ 9 ! #af? c5tury1 & p]haps occasionally done4 ,"y gr[?s 7 sometimes protect$ by dit*es or f5ces aga9/ cattle1 al?\gh objections 7 rais$ aga9/ ! =m] z imp$+ ! *ase4 ,a diamet] limit sometimes res]v$ all oak & bee* two feet 9 circumf]5ce at six in*es f ! gr\nd1 ! height ( ! /ump4 ,ev5 improvem5t cutt+s 7call$ recpages7 are on record 9 ,norm&ie1 ma9ly = ! purpose ( cutt+ out s(twoods & free+ ! "y valuable reproduction1 repeat$ 9 dec5nial returns4 ,lat]1 ?9n+s assum$ ! "* ( selection fell+s &1 inde$1 receiv$ ! "n ( j>d9age4 ,!y 7 cont9u$ until ! "t = f9al cut & reg5]ation _h arriv$4 ,9 ! conif]\s m\nta9 =e/s1 selection cutt+1 pure & simple1 0 ! rule4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t q sane notions ( silviculture exi/$1 albeit !y may n h be5 v g5]ally & v /rictly c>ri$ out4 ,especially dur+ ! #af? c5tury1 ! maladm9i/ration ( ! royal doma9 br\ght ) x a decad5ce ( ! practice 9 ! woods2 ! area ( ! coppice increas$ by cle> cutt+ at ! exp5se ( ! timb] =e/1 &1 by ,colb]t's "t1 all =e/ry k _h wellnigh become =gott54 ,! =e/ ord9ance ( #affi attempt$ to re=m n only ! adm9i/rative abuses b to improve ! me?od ( exploitation hi!rto practis$2 at lea/ x put 9 writ+1 codifi$ z x 71 ! be/ usage ( ! "t4 ,a commission ( #ba 0 in/itut$ to make work+ plans & prescribe ! practice4 ,! prescriptions _h ref]5ce bo? to managem5t & silvicultural practice4 ,a fell+ budget 7tat d'assiette7 0 prescrib$ annually by ! gr& matre = ea* g>d]ie 7di/rict71 & fell+ areas 7 also1 sometimes1 b n always1 def9itely locat$4 ,besides1 extraord9>y fell+s might be ord]$4 ,! g>d]ies 7 divid$ into triages 7n[ call$ cantons71 managem5t classes or site classes "u diff]5t rotations1 & ! fell+s proce$$ 9 ea* triage 9 sequ5ce4 ,9 ea* fell+ area1 z _h suppos$ly be5 ! practice1 at lea/ #h se$ trees p] acre1 & g5]ally #af1 besides ^? "u ! diamet] limit1 7 to be left--! me?od tire et aire4 ,int]m$i>y fell+s--?9n+s--7 avoid$ & fr[n$ d[n ^u1 probably because ( ! abuses to :i* !y _h giv5 rise4 ,mean:ile _! ne$ grew m & m1 especially 9 ^? places :]e ! fell+ me?od did n produce satisfactory reg5]ation1 & s(twoods imp$$ ! developm5t ( ! bett] k9ds4 ,to improve ! *ances = valuable reg5]ation & to keep ! s(twoods d[n1 ! =e/]s propos$ ! r$uction ( rotations f #ajj to #ej & ev5 #dj ye>s1 &1 z ) ea* fell+ ! numb] ( res]ve trees _h to be left1 ! =e/ assum$ a =m resembl+ ! coppice "u /&>ds4 ,9 ! conif]\s woods ( ! m\nta9s 7fir71 :i* 9 ,colb]t's "t appe> almo/ l a new discov]y to 8 re=m]s1 ! selection =e/ ) a diamet] limit 7e4g41 #f in* at ! small end ( ! #ba-;foot log7 0 ! me?od mo/ g5]ally 9 vogue1 & is /ill to a l>ge ext5t ! me?od 9 use1 b some:at bett] regulat$ & modifi$1 sometimes ) improvem5t fell+s add$4 ,9 "s p>ts1 especially 9 ,lorra9e1 = a "t1 artificial reg5]ation & a /rip sy/em 7 tri$1 & ev5 a gr\p selection ) a reg5]ation p]iod ( probably #be to #cj ye>s & an exploitable age ( #ajj ye>s1 0 practis$ 9 ! #ah? c5tury4 ,buffon1 9 #agci1 propos$ a treatm5t = ! p9]ies to secure natural reg5]ation by cutt+ "o-?ird to "o-half1 leav+ #dj to #ej se$ trees p] acre1 :ile ,duhamel 7#aghj7 consid]s selection me?od be/ = l>* & p9e z well z fir1 al?\gh p9e might1 l oak1 be readily reproduc$ by s[+4 ,:ile sy/em & ord]ly progress ( fell+s 9 selection =e/ _h gradually be5 e/abli%$1 dur+ ! revolution ?is 0 l>gely disreg>d$ & uncons]vative fell+s became ! ord]4 ,guiot's ,manuel =e/i]1 publi%$ 9 #aggj1 gives a good idea ( ! /atus ( =e/ry at t "t4 ,x appe>s t = timb] =e/1 mo/ly royal woods1 rotations v>y+ f #fj to #bjj ye>s1 = coppice f #aj to #bj ye>s1 7 9 use on ! royal doma92 t fell+s 7 regulat$ accord+ to species1 soil quality & ! mo/ advantage\s yield4 ,to facilitate reg5]ation1 a sup]ficial culture ( ! soil is also advocat$4 ,! prescription ( ,colb]t's ord9ance to leave a c]ta9 numb] ( se$ trees1 no matt] = :at species or conditions ( soil or climate _h z e>ly z #aebj be5 po9t$ out z faulty by "o ( ! gr& ma/]s1 ,tri/an de ,ro/a+1 :o _h recomm5d$ a me?od ( successive fell+s4 ,?is prescription1 appli$ pretty ne>ly uni=mly z a matt] ( law1 remov$ f ! (ficials all _s ( initiative & desire or requirem5t ( improv+ ^u x4 ,no k beyond t ( ! law 0 requir$ ( !m1 h5ce no developm5t ( silvicultural me?ods result$ dur+ ! #ag? & #ah? c5tury4 ,! se$ trees left on ! fell+ areas grew into undesirable & bran*y 8wolves10 injur+ ! aft]gr[?1 or else 7 ?r[n by ! w9d or di$1 & _m ( ! areas became undesirable bru%4 ,n until ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! #ai? c5tury 0 a *ange 9 ?is me?od propos$ ?r\gh m5 :o import$ new ideas f ,g]many4 ,:5 ! ineffici5cy ( ! m?ode tire et aire 0 recogniz$1 ! only rem$y appe>$ to lie 9 a cle>+ sy/em ) artificial re=e/ation 7recomm5d$ by ,raumur & ,duhamel72 &1 inde$1 ! ord9ance ( #affi recogniz$ ! probable necessity ( fill+ up fail places 9 t mann]4 ,yet ! success ( ! plant+s 9 wa/e l&s does n seem to h br\ght ab\t mu* ext5sion ( ?is me?od to ! fell+ areas4 ,z late z #ahfb1 ,clav1 compla9+ ( ! conditions ( silviculture 9 ,france1 & ( ! ignorance reg>d+ x1 ref]s to ! cle>+ sy/em z m?ode allem&e1 ! ,g]man me?od4 ,! %elt]wood sy/em1 la m?ode du rensem5cem5t1 :i* 0 introduc$ 9 !ory f ,g]many by ,lor5tz 9 #ahbg1 0 h>dly appli$ until ! middle ( ! c5tury4 ,inde$1 ! promulgation ( ?is sup]ior me?od co/ ,lor5tz 8 position 9 #ahci1 & o!r (fic]s suff]$ simil>ly = ?is 8,g]man propag&a40 7see p4 #bdb7g #g ,9 ?is /atem5t we foll[ ,clav & o!r au?ors4 ,huffel takes exception to ?is conception ( ! orig9 ( ! %elt]wood sy/em1 because he f9ds 9 "s docum5ts allusion to a modifi$ application ( ! tire et aire me?od :i* might be con/ru$ into %elt]wood reg5]ation4 ,inde$1 ,guiot 7#aggj7 & ,v>5nes de ,f5ille 7#agij7 describe me?ods ( proc$ure :i* resemble some:at ?is me?od ( reg5]ation4 ,b z ! me?od ( successive fell+s 0 practis$ 9 ,g]many s9ce #agbj1 & fully develop$ 9 all its detail by #agij--;,h>tig =mulat+ m]ely into rules :at 0 long practis$--x is likely t ! ,fr5* au?ors _h he>d ( x4 ,moreov]1 9 ano!r place 7vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bga7 ,huffel says3 8,at ?is "t 7#ahba7 "o made sev]al t5tative reg5]ation cutt+s by successive fell+s accord+ to ! new =mula--b )\t success40 ,at ! pres5t "t l>ge areas ( coppice & ( coppice ) /&>ds *>act]ize ! hold+s ( ! municipal & private own]s1 & ! selection =e/ /ill plays a consid]able "p ev5 9 ! ,/ate =e/s2 ! me?od ( %elt]wood 9 comp>tm5ts1 be+ /ill m "u discussion ?an f\nd 9 practice4 ,! ma9 cr$it = advance 9 silvicultural direction :i* belongs to ! ,fr5* =e/]s 9 p>ticul> is ! developm5t ( new & f]tile ideas reg>d+ ! op]ations ( ?9n+s2 "h ! diff]5tiation ( ! crop into ! f9al h>ve/ 7le haut7 & ! nurse crop 7le bas7 7see page #aje7 & ! diff]5tiation ( ! op]ations1 p> le haut & p> le bas1 seems to h be5 = ! fir/ "t describ$ by ,boppe 9 #ahhg4 ,inde$1 ! !ory ( ?9n+s1 at lea/1 seems to h be5 well und]/ood by ,buffon1 :o advanc$ 8 !ories 9 a memoir to ! ,academy ( ,france1 9 #aggd1 & gives a v cle> exposition ( ! value ( ?9n+s & improvem5t cutt+s4 ,nev]!less1 ?9n+ practice1 :ile (t5 acc5tuat$ 9 ! lit]ature1 is too (t5 omitt$ 9 practice1 or ex]cis$ only 9 long int]vals1 :ile o!rwise silvicultural practice is excell5t1 especially 9 ! coppice4 ,mo/ valuable lessons may be _h especially f ! exp]i5ce 9 conv]t+ coppice into timb] =e/4 ,at ! ,int]national ,congress ( ,silviculture1 conv5+ 9 connection ) ! ,univ]sal ,exposition 9 #aijj1 suppos$ly ! be/ home tal5t 0 repres5t$1 b x _c be said t any?+ new1 or /rik+1 or promotive ( ! art or sci5ce transpir$4 ,! desirability ( e/abli%+ exp]im5t /ations outside ! "o 9 exi/5ce at ,nancy 7e/abli%$ 9 #ahhb71 & ! desirability ( con/ruct+ yield tables /ill requir$ argum5ts at ?is meet+4 ,9 ! direction ( =e/ organization1 x is /at$ by ,clav t 9 #ahfj only #ijj1jjj acres ( ! ,/ate doma9 7 "u a regulat$ managem5t1 namely #chj1jjj acres 9 timb] =e/ & #ebj1jjj 9 coppice ) /&>ds1 leav+ ab\t #a1ejj1jjj acres at t "t /ill m]ely exploit$4 ,! same writ] /ates t ( ! corporation or communal =e/s h>dly any are "u managem5t = su/a9$ yield1 & private =e/ managem5t is n m5tion$ 9 ?is connection4 ,ev5 to-day less ?an "o-?ird ( ! total area is "u sy/ematic control4 ,9 #aijh /ill1 ab\t #ad ( ! ,/ate =e/s 7 )\t work+ plans1 & #ae 9 selection =e/4 ,! me?od ( =e/ organization employ$1 outside ( ! crude det]m9ations ( a fell+ budget 9 ! selection =e/1 is an imitation ( ,cotta's comb9$ area & volume allotm5t1 ) h>dly any attempt ( secur+ normality1 introduc$ 9 #ahbe4 ,*>act]i/ic1 & diff]+ f ! ,g]man model1 is ! practice ( actually collocat+ 9 ea* di/rict 7canton7 ! p]iodic fell+ areas 7affectations7 on ! gr\nd s z to secure a s*ematic fell+ s]ies or p]iodic block 7sries74 ,?is is done (t5 at great sacrifice4 ,lately1 v>i\s1 m pliable modifications h come into vogue 7m?ode de l'affectation unique7 & fre] me?ods 7m?ode du qu>ti] de rgnration71 some:at simil> to ,judei*'s /& managem5t1 are propos$4 ,altoge!r work+ plans1 su* z are elaborat$ 9 ,g]many1 are r>e1 & yield tables are /ill look$ ^u by ,huffel z d\btfully useful4 ,! managem5t ( ! ,/ate =e/s is extremely cons]vative1 l>ge accumulations ( old /ock1 ! hold+ ov] ( "o qu>t] = res]ve1 & high rotations--only app>5tly bas$ on maximum volume production1 s9ce ! /ati/ical data are scanty--are *>act]i/ic4 ,! opposite conditions appe> 9 ! private =e/s4 #f4 ,education & ,lit]ature4 ,9 ! e>li] times ! s]vice e/abli%$ 0 z we h se51 (t51 nay mo/ly 9 incompet5t h&s2 ! (fices ( =e/ma/]s 7 pur*asable1 7 giv5 to c\rti]s z b5efices1 & became h]$it>y4 ,9 all ^!1 high] pr(essional k 0 unnecess>y4 ,! ignorance ( ! subord9ates 0 z great z t ( _! ,g]man c\nt]p>ts1 b la/$ long]4 ,h>dly any book lit]ature on ! subject ( =e/ry develop$ be=e ! #ai? c5tury1 & educational in/itutions _h to wait until long pa/ ! beg9n+ ( t c5tury4 ,! fir/1 & up to ! pres5t1 only =e/ s*ool1 came into exi/5ce aft] a consid]able campaign1 direct$ by ,baudrill>t1 ,*ief ( ,division1 ,adm9i/ration ,gnrale des ,=ts1 & pr(essor ( political economy4 ,8 campaign 9 ! ,annales ,=e/ires1 ! fir/ volume ( :i* appe>$ 9 #ahjh1 & 9 o!r writ+s z 9 8 ,dictionnaire des eaux et =ts 7#ahbe71 l$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! =e/ s*ool at ,nancy 9 #ahbe4 ,! fir/ director ( ?is s*ool1 ,b]n>d ,lor5tz1 hav+ become acqua9t$ ) & befri5d$ by ,g4 ,l4 ,h>tig1 & 8 assi/ant1 aft]w>d 8 son-9-law & successor1 ,adolphe ,p>ade1 hav+ /udi$ "u ,cotta 7#ahag-ahah7 9 ,?>&t1 ?is s*ool introduc$ ! sci5ce ( =e/ry z x _h !n be5 develop$ 9 ,g]many2 b lat] g5]ations "u ,nanquette1 ,bagn]is1 ,broill>d1 ,boppe & ,puton1 imbu$ ) patriotism1 attempt$ 9 a mann] to /rike out on orig9al l9es4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ! 8unpatriotic0 ,g]man t5d5cies ( its fir/ directors ! cont9uance ( ! s*ool at ,nancy 0 sev]al times ?reat5$1 !re be+ friction betwe5 ! adm9i/ration ( ! s*ool & ! s]vice1 :i* 9 #ahdd came to a climax1 ag5ts 9 ! s]vice be+ employ$ )\t prep>ation 9 ! s*ool1 a condition :i* la/$ until #ahef4 ,ev5 to date an active s]vice ( #ae ye>s is consid]$ equival5t to ! education 9 ! s*ool = advancem5t 9 ! s]vice4 ,9 #ahci1 ,lor5tz 0 disgracefully displac$1 9 spite ( 8 great m]its1 because he advocat$ too w>mly ! application ( ! sup]ior sy/em ( reg5]ation "u %elt]wood to replace ! coppice & selection =e/1 an incid5t almo/ precisely repeat$ 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york 9 ab&on+ its ,/ate ,college at ,cornell ,univ]sity2 & 9 o!r respects ! two cases appe> p>allel4#h ,p>ade1 ! successor ( ,lor5tz be+ imbu$ ) ! same h]etical doctr9es 0 con/antly 9 tr\ble1 & 9 #ahdg1 a mo/ savage attack 9 ! legislature 0 laun*$ :i* ?reat5$ ! collapse ( ! s*ool4 ,?is condition la/$ until ,p>ade's dea?1 9 #ahfd1 :5 ,nanquette assum$ guidance ( ! s*ool & /e]$ 9 m peaceful wat]s by avoid+ all ideas at re=ms & innovations1 b o!rwise improv+ ! "* ( ! s*ool & introduc+ ! ?ird ye> /udy4 ,b he1 too1 0 mu* criticiz$ & 9 difficulties until #ahhj2 nor 0 ,puton1 8 successor1 free f tr\bles1 until 9 #ahhi a new regime & new regulations 7 enact$4 #h ,accord+ to o!rs 7a review] ( ?is volume71 ! difficulties :i* befell ! in/itution 7 f9ancial ones1 8! too rapid conv]sion into timb]=e/ r$uc+ receipts1 :i* ! ,m9i/] ( ,f9ance res5t$40 ,guyot's hi/ory ( ! s*ool1 h[ev]1 leaves little d\bt ( ! above int]pretation be+ correct4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,/ate ,college at ,cornell ,univ]sity1 a lat] hi/orian might simil>ly claim f9ancial difficulties1 ! s*ool hav+ actually be5 clos$ = lack ( appropriation2 nev]!less political trick]y 0 ! real cause ( ?is lack4 ,! s*ool is organiz$ on milit>y l9es4 ,! /ud5ts1 :o int5d to ent] ! ,/ate s]vice are *os5 f ! graduates ( ! ,in/itute national agronomique ( ,p>is1 only a limit$ numb] be+ admitt$4 ,x has #ab pr(essors1 two = =e/ry1 two ea* = natural sci5ce1 ma!matics1 & "o ea* = law1 soil physics & agriculture1 = milit>y sci5ce & = ,g]man4 ,a ?ree ye> c\rse1 :i* includes j\rneys ?r\gh ! =e/ regions ( ,france1 leads to gov]nm5t employm5t2 inde$1 ! fir/ paid position z g>de gnral /agiaire is atta9$ aft] two ye>s /udy & be=e leav+ s*ool4 ,= sev]al ye>s1 7#ahfg to #ahhd7 ,engli% /ud5ts prep>+ = ! ,indian s]vice receiv$ _! in/ruction "h1 & #chj =eign]s h receiv$ _! education 9 ?is s*ool s9ce its f\ndation4 ,= ! education ( ! l[] grades1 an imp]ial rescript ord]$ ! e/abli%m5t ( sev]al s*ools1 :i* 71 h[ev]1 nev] organiz$4 ,9 #ahfc1 7 propos$1 & 9 #ahfh1 op5$1 f\r s*ools1 :]e effici5t =e/ gu>ds 7 to secure "s k t w\ld assi/ !m to advancem5t2 ?ree ( ^! s*ools p]si/$ until #ahhc4 ,9 #ahgc1 an additional s*ool = silviculture = ! education ( und]=e/]s 0 organiz$ at ,b>res-,vilmor91 :]e annually a limit$ numb] ( /ud5ts are p]mitt$ to ent]4 ,?is in/itution has p]si/$ to date4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,fr5* =e/ry lit]ature has nev] be5 prolific1 & to ?is day occupies /ill a limit$ am\nt ( %elf room4 ,! fir/ book on record is a translation ( ! well kn[n volume ( ! ,italian1 ,pet] de ,cresc5tiis1 translat$ at ! in/ance ( ,*>les ,v 9 #acgc4 ,9 ! #af? c5tury we h ref]5ce to an encyclopdic volume1 probably simil> to ! ,g]man ,hausvt]1 by ,oliv] de ,s]res1 ,?atre d',agriculture et ,mesnage des ,*amps1 9 :i* a *apt] is devot$ to ! =e/s4 ,dur+ ! #ah? c5tury1 j z 9 ,g]many ! cam]ali/s1 we h 9 ,france a numb] ( high class writ+s1 n by =e/]s1 b by savants or /ud5ts ( natural hi/ory1 ! names ( ,raumur1 ,duhamel1 ,buffon & ,mi*eaux appe>+ ) memoirs transmitt$ to ! ,academy ( ,france1 ! highe/ lit]>y & sci5tific body ( m51 on subjects relat+ to =e/ry4 ,raumur1 9 8 ,rflexions sur l'tat des =ts1 9 #agba1 recomm5d$ ! conv]sion ( coppice =e/s into timb] =e/s by a sy/em ( ?9n+s1 b x is evid5t t 8 words 7 n he>d beyond ! ,academy4 ,duhamel 79 #agee1 #agfd1 #aghj7 repeats ! recomm5dation ( ,raumur 9 8 ?ree memoirs1 ,semis et ,plantations1 ,exploitation des ,bois & ,trait de la ,physique des ,arbres1 9 :i* he exhibits consid]able le>n+1 :ile ,buffon1 ! great naturali/1 9 #agci & aft]1 pres5t$ sev]al memoirs on =e/ry subjects full ( excell5t advice4 ,v>5nes de ,f5ille1 ano!r "o ( ! ,academicians1 b also "o ( ! cons]vators is on record ) two memoirs 7#agij1 #agia7 on ! managem5t ( coppice & timb] =e/s 9 :i* also ! !ory ( ?9n+s 0 well develop$4 ,b among ! =e/]s ( ! s]vice !re seems n to h be5 suffici5t education to appreciate ^! writ+s1 or1 ) ! exception ( ,guiot ) 8 ,manuel =e/i] 7#aggj71 to br+ =? any contributions to ! lit]ature & art1 until ! #ai? c5tury4 ,9 #ahjc1 we f9d ! fir/ encyclopdic volume 9 ,trait de l',amnagem5t des ,=ts1 :i* 0 foll[$1 9 #ahje1 by a v incorrect translation ( ,h>tig's ,lehrbu*1 bo? by ,baudrill>t1 pr(essor ( political economy1 :o also publi%$ 9 #ab volumes 8 ,trait ,gnral des ,eaux et ,=ts4 ,p]?uis1 9 #agif1 & ,dralet1 a =e/]1 9 #ahjg1 also br\ght out treatises on =e/ managem5t1 :i* include all bran*es ( ! subject4 ,accord+ to ,huffel1 ! =e/]s ( ?is p]iod 7,l\is ,,xv & ,,xvi7 7 ( sup]ior "*1 & =e/ry 9 ,france ! fir/ 9 ! _w2 ! writ+s ( ,fr5* au?ors 7 be+ translat$ into ,g]man & /udi$ by =eign =e/]s4 ,he has to admit1 h[ev]1 t ! majority ( ^! au?ors 7 n really memb]s ( ! =e/ s]vice4 ,9 #ahcf appe>$ ,p>ade's ,c\rs ,elm5taire de ,culture des ,bois1 an excell5t book1 record+ ! tea*+s ( ,h>tig & ,cotta4 ,?is seems to h be5 all-suffici5t until #ahgc1 at lea/4 ,su* ?+s z yield tables are /ill a m]e wi%1 :5 ,tassy wrote 8 ,etudes1 etc41 9 #aheh1 :ile de ,salomon a little lat] reproduc$ ,cotta's yield tables1 & to ?is day ?is ne$ful tool ( ! =e/] is /ill almo/ abs5t1 at lea/ 9 ! lit]ature ( ,france4 ,nanquette1 ,broill>d1 ,bagn]is1 ,puton1 ,reuss1 ,boppe1 all directors or pr(essors at ! =e/ s*ool1 enri*$ ! ,fr5* lit]ature by volumes on silviculture & =e/ managem5t1 & ,h5ry on soil physics4 ,he also translat$ f ! ,g]man ,wollny's ,dcomposition des matires organiques4 ,x is claim$ by ,guyot1 t a truly 8,fr5* sci5ce0 767 ( =e/ry dates f ,broill>d's ,c\rs d'amnagem5t 9 #ahgh4 ,demontzey's ,reboisem5t des montagnes1 #ahhb1 is a classic volume4 ,( m mod]n book lit]ature may be m5tion$ ?ree volum9\s publications1 namely ,trait des arbres by ,m\illef]t 7#ahib-ahih7 9 #c volumes1 & ,trait d'exploitation comm]ciale des bois by ,mat!y 9 two volumes1 & ,guyot's ,c\rs de droit =e/i] 9 two volumes4 ,a v complete "w on valuation ( damage "u ! mislead+ title ,inc5dies en =t 0 publi%$ by ,jacquot 9 #aijc4 ,b ! late/ & p]haps mo/ ambiti\s "w 9 ! ,fr5* language & especially ( int5se int]e/ f ! hi/orical po9t ( view1 trac+ n only ! developm5t ( =e/ policies b ( silvicultural & manag]ial practices 9 ,france1 is ,g4 ,huffel's ,economie ,=e/ire 9 ?ree volumes publi%$ #aijd-aijg4 ,!re %\ld n be =gott5 z among ! non-pr(essional promot]s ( =e/ que/ions1 ,*ev&i]1 a *emi/ & manufactur]1 :o1 9 #ahdd1 made inve/igations reg>d+ ! influ5ce ( irrigation on wood gr[? & on ! influ5ce ( f]tiliz]s1 & 9 connection ) ,w]!im1 laid ! f\ndation = timb] physics4 99 99 99 99 99 ,"o bi-weekly magaz9e1 ,revue des ,eaux et ,=ts1 9 exi/5ce = #ej ye>s1 ! successor to ! ,annales =e/ires1 begun 9 #ahjh1 satisfies ! ne$s ( curr5t lit]ature1 besides ! j\rnals ( v>i\s =e/ry associations1 among :i* ! ,bullet9 de la ,socit de ,fran*e ,comt et ,bel=t has = a long "t tak5 a prom95t rank4 ,a v active propag&i/ lit]>y & association "w has )9 ! la/ decades be5 inaugurat$1 & =e/ry associations ( local "* ab\nd4 ,among ^! ! 8,t\r+ ,club10 a sport+ association ) "s #af1jjj memb]s 9 #cfd bran*es is active by writ+ out prizes & promot+ wa/e l& plant+4 ,?r\gh its ag5cy "s #djjj acres _h be5 plant$ by #aiaj1 "s #ijj nurs]ies furni%+ plant mat]ial4 ,an active ,section ( ,silviculture 9 ! ,socit des ,agriculteurs "s "t ago absorb$ ! =e/ry association & is also do+ practical "w 9 ! direction mo/ ne$$1 improvem5t ( =e/ry practice among private woodl& own]s4 #g4 ,colonial ,policies4 ,! ,fr5* possess ext5sive colonies 9 ,africa1 ,asia1 ,am]ica & ,oceania1 cov]+ n less ?an f\r million squ>e miles ) ov] #ij million p1 to "s ( :i* at lea/ !y h ext5d$ "s features ( _! =e/ policy1 notably 9 ,alg]ia1 ,tunis1 ,indo-,*9a & ,madagasc>4 ,alg]ia1 :i* 0 conqu]$ 9 #ahbh1 is ab\t f\r-fif?s ( ! size ( ,france1 b only #e4e p] c5t4 is =e/$4 ,besides ! des]t1 !re are two =e/ regions1 ! nor!rn slope1 ! s-call$ ,tell1 abutt+ on ! ,m$it]ranean1 :i*1 ) #bj p] c5t4 =e/$1 conta9s ! mo/ valuable =e/s ( ,cork ,oak1 v>i\s o!r oaks1 & ,aleppo ,p9e2 & ! high plateau to ! s\?1 a region ( /eppes ) ab\t #f =e/$1 mo/ly ) bru%wood4 ,! adjo9+ ,tunis also conta9s "s #b million acres ( =e/1 a "p ( :i* clo!d ) ! valuable ,cork ,oak4 ,al?\gh ! population does n exce$ #e million1 import ( wood f ,sw$5 & else:]e to ne>ly "o million doll>s 9 am\nt is necess>y4 ,! fir/ advance ( civilization l$ to wide-spread de/ruction ( ! orig9ally l>g] =e/ area2 fire & pa/ure be+ specially de/ructive4 ,be=e ! ,fr5* occupation1 ! #h million acres ( =e/ 7 all1 z usual 9 ! mussulman's empires1 ! prop]ty ( ! sultan1 b 7 us$ l communal prop]ty by ! p4 ,by #ahga1 ! l>g] portion1 "s #f million acres rema9$ 9 possession ( ! /ate1 mu* encumb]$ by rights ( us]4 ,at ! same "t1 consid]able areas 7"s #gjj1jjj acres7 _h be5 c$$ to communities outright1 & o!rs 7#a4be million acres7 _h be5 sold to private p>ties4 ,at fir/1 ^! latt] l&s 7 let = exploitation ( ! cork oak on #dj ye> leases1 lat] ext5d$ to #ij ye>s ) indemnities = damage by fire--an inc5tive to all[ ^! to run1 until 9 #ahgj1 ! fire damage hav+ become on]\s1 all areas burn$ aft] #ahfc 7 gratuit\sly c$$ to ! contractors1 m ?an "o-?ird ! areas involv$1 & ! o!r two-?irds 7 !n sold at a ridicul\sly l[ price & "u ! easie/ conditions ( paym5t1 9 ! same %ameful mann] 9 :i* ! timb]l&s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 giv5 away4 ,9 #ahcf1 a =e/ adm9i/ration = ! /ate doma9 0 inaugurat$1 b ! un=tunate division ( p[]s betwe5 milit>y & civil au?orities 0 a h9drance to effective improvem5t ( conditions4 ,! fire ravages ( #ahga l$ to a ?or\gh re-organization "u ! direction ( ,tassy1 9 #ahgc4 ,nev]!less1 9 #aijj1 ,lefebvre1 ,inspector ( ,=e/s1 9 8 book1 ,les =ts de l',algrie1 /ill compla9s t ! =e/s are be+ ru9$1 especially by pa/ur+1 ! means all[$ ! adm9i/ration be+ too nigg>dly measur$4 ,! ,=e/ ,code ( ! home c\ntry & special laws enact$ f "t to "t applies4 ,! adm9i/ration ( ! /ate & communal =e/ is directly "u ! home dep>tm5t & is regulat$ 9 simil> mann]4 ,a re-organization & a special =e/ code = ,algi]s 0 enact$ 9 #aijc4 ,?is legislation relies /ill l>gely on ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ! ,code ( #ahbg4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ features are ! provision = expropriation & addition to ! /ate doma9 ( =e/s ! pres]vation ( :i* is ( public int]e/1 & ! rigor\s =e/ fire legislation1 :i* p]mits ! treatm5t ( inc5di>ies z insurrectioni/s1 makes ! ext9ction ( =e/ fires a duty ( ! =e/ (ficials1 & provides ! =cible e/abli%m5t ( fire l9es 7rides7 betwe5 neighbors4 ,9 ! =e/s plac$ "u ! =e/ry regime1 p]mits f ! gov]nor-g5]al are requir$ = cle>+4 ,= ! adm9i/ration ( ^! prop]ties1 ! /ate receives t5 p] c5t4 ( ! gross yield4 ,re=e/$ hilltops or slopes & s& dunes are reliev$ f taxes = #cj ye>s1 burnt areas = #aj ye>s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 ! o!r ,african possessions1 unregulat$ exploitation ( ! tropical =e/s1 l>gely = by-products1 l ca\t*\c1 kola1 & f9e furniture woods1 is /ill ! ord] ( ! day1 except 9 ,madagasc>1 :i* ) #be to #cj million acres ( tropical =e/ area1 01 9 #aijj1 provid$ ) a =e/ s]vice1 :i* is "u ! ,m9i/] ( ,colonies4 ,"h1 a lic5se sy/em is 9 vogue1 giv+ concessions to exploit limit$ areas = a giv5 "t1 at an annual r5t ( less ?an "o c5t1 p] acre p] ye>4 ,! concessions run f #e to #bj ye>s1 & on #ab1ejj acres or m1 ! "t ( _! duration be+ ext5d$ f ! l[e/ t]m = "o ye> = e #b1ejj acres4 ,police regulations & f9es are int5d$ to *eck abuses1 & to regulate ! rights ( us] ex]cis$ by natives4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 ,indo-,*9a 7,co*9-,*9a1 ,cambodia1 ,anam1 ,tonqu97 ! total =e/ area is /ill unkn[n4 ,only t ( ,co*9-,*9a ) #b4e million acres1 & ( ,cambodia ) #aj million acres c be /at$1 & ,co*9-,*9a seems to possess ! only approa* to a =e/ s]vice4 ,al?\gh x is e/imat$ t 9 #aija 9 ! :ole ( ,indo-,*9a1 ) #ah million p1 "s #he million cubic feet ( wood 7 cut 7n9e-t5?s fire wood7 an import ( ov] #bjj1jjj wor? ( workwood f ,europe 0 ne$$4 ,! fir/ attempts at regulat+ =e/ use 9 ^! ,asiatic possessions date back to #ahfb1 :5 exploitation 0 conf9$ to delimit$ areas4 ,! adm9i/ration1 h[ev]1 rema9$ ineffici5t1 & "u impracticable & het]og5e\s ord]s1 :i* 7 issu$ f "t to "t1 deva/ation progress$ ) little h9drance4 ,= ,co*9-,*9a1 a m def9ite =e/ policy 0 =mulat$ 9 #ahid-e1 :5 n only ! ,/ate doma9 b also ! private =e/ prop]ty 0 plac$ "u ! rgime =e/i]4 ,! sup]vision ( ! private =e/s consi/s 9 requir+ ! m>k+ ( trees to be cut by gov]nm5t ag5ts1 & a p]mit = _! removal4 ,! ,/ate =e/s are ( two classes3 ,res]ves 9 :i* all cutt+ is =bidd51 only "s #bjj1jjj acres2 & ^? 9 :i* lic5ses to cut may op]ate4 ,su* lic5ses are giv5 = "o ye> & = a price ( #ajj pia/res4 ,! villag]s h free use ( ! less valuable woods1 _! only obligation be+ to assi/ 9 protection aga9/ fire & !ft4 ,a real =e/ s]vice 0 n in/itut$ until #aija a director ) f\r assi/ants be+ plac$ 9 *>ge "u ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,until rec5tly reports ( ! deplorable condition due to abs5ce ( te*nical managem5t rea*$ ! outside1 b lately 7#aiaa71 ! ,gov]nor-,g5]al discuss+ ! situation n only speaks approv+ly ( ! =e/ s]vice1 :i* on ! two million acres "u its imm$iate managem5t _h1 by #aiji1 trebl$ ! rev5ue1 b talks ( ext5d+ its activities to plant+ up wa/e places 9 ord] to secure favorable wat] conditions = irrigat+ l&s4 ,! re/ ( ! colonies are be+ m]ely exploit$4 ,,russia ,,& ,,f9l&4 ,les ,=ts de la ,russie1 ,m9i/re de l',agriculture1 ,p>is ,exposition ,univ]selle1 #aijj1 pp4 #aij1 gives a v detail$ description ( =e/ conditions1 m>kets & managem5t1 ) a few hi/oric po9ts4 ,russl&s ,wald1 by ,f4 ,v4 ,,arnold1 ,b]l91 #ahic1 pp4 #ebf1 conta9s hi/oric notes & a pr(use discussion ( ! law ( #ahhh4 ,! ,indu/ries ( ,russia3 ,agriculture & ,=e/ry1 issu$ by ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,m9i/ry ( ,cr[n ,l&s1 at ,_w's ,columbian ,exposition1 translat$ by ,j4 ,m4 ,,craw=d1 #ahic1 conta9s a *apt] on ,=e/ry by ,,r\dzski & ,,%afranov1 pr(essors at ! ,=e/ ,in/itute1 9 #ce pp4 ,annual reports by ! ,russian ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration are publi%$ s9ce #ahff4 ,f\r diffuse volumes1 by ,,john ,,cr\mbie ,,br[n1 treat ( ,russian conditions1 namely1 ,=e/s & ,=e/ry 9 ,pol&1 ,li?uania1 etc41 #ahhe2 ,f9l&1 its ,=e/s & ,=e/ ,managem5t1 #ahhc2 ,=e/ry & ,m9+ di/ricts ( ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 #ahhd2 ,=e/s & ,=e/ry ( ,nor!rn ,russia1 #ahhd4 ,num]\s articles & ,reviews by ,o4 ,,guse1 scatt]$ ?r\gh ! ,g]man =e/ry j\rnals1 give insight into ,russian =e/ conditions4 ,an excell5t idea ( prevail+ =e/ry practice c be ga9$ f an ext5d$ article by ,,dr4 ,,s*wappa*1 ,=/li*e ,reisebild] aus ,russl& 9 ,zeits*rift fr ,=/- und ,jagdwes51 #aijb4 ,= ,f9l& an article by ,b4 ,,ericson 9 ,=/wiss5s*aftli*es ,c5tralblatt1 #ahif1 & ano!r article by ,p4 ,w4 ,,hannika95 9 ,allgeme9e ,=/- und ,jagdzeitung1 #ahib1 bo? native =e/]s1 give consid]able in=mation4 ,f9l&3 ,its ,public & ,private ,economy1 by ,n4 ,c4 ,,fr$]iks51 #aijb1 #cjf pp4 ,:ile ,g]many & ,france 7 =c$ into ! adoption ( =e/ policies ?r\gh necessity1 aft] ! natural woods _h be5 l>gely de/roy$ or deva/at$1 ,russia />t$ ^u a cons]vative =e/ managem5t1 long be=e ! day ( absolute necessity seem$ to h arriv$4 ,inde$1 ev5 to-day ,russia is "o ( ! l>ge/ & increas+ly gr[+ export] ( =e/ products 9 ! _w1 its annual export hav+ gr[n 9 ! five ye>s1 #aijc to #aijh1 f #d to #f million tons & f #ce to #fb million doll>s4 ,a va/ t]ritory ( unt\*$ woods is /ill at h] comm&1 repres5t+ r\ghly two-?irds ( ! =e/ area ( ,europe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! va/ empire1 second only to ! ,briti% empire 9 ext5t1 gradually acquir$ s9ce ! #ae? c5tury1 occupies 9 ,europe 7includ+ ,f9l&7 some:at ov] #b million squ>e miles ) ov] #abj million inhabitants1 & 9 ,asia some:at ov] #f4e million squ>e miles1 ) only #cj to #dj million p4 ,until #aijf1 :5 z a result ( a revolution1 a k9d ( repres5tative gov]nm5t 0 secur$1 ! h]$it>y ,cz> 0 o/5sibly & by title an autocrat1 gov]n+ ) ! assi/ance ( f\r great c\ncils & #ab m9i/]s1 b 9 reality ! gov]nm5t 0 9 ! h&s ( a bureaucracy & c\rt cabal1 to a l>ge ext5t corrupt1 & h5ce ! _m good laws & in/itutions ( :i* we read1 may n always be f\nd execut$ 9 practice z int5d$4 ,! ,european section ( ! c\ntry is divid$ into #ih gov]nm5ts or prov9ces1 ea* "u a gov]nor1 :o is1 h[ev]1 l>gely dep5d5t on ! c5tral p[]4 ,! l>ge t]ritory ( ,sib]ia is divid$ into ?ree gov]nor-g5]al%ips1 mu* ( x1 z well z ( ! o!r ,asiatic prov9ces1 is /ill unorganiz$1 undevelop$ & unexplor$1 or at lea/ little kn[n4 ,orig9ally us$ ma9ly z a p5al colony = crim9al & political exiles1 s9ce ! completion ( ! great ,trans-,sib]ian railway1 ! c\ntry has be5 peopl$ by ,russian f>m]s4 ,bo? ,european ,russia & ,sib]ia are 9 ! ma9 va/ pla9s1 ! =m] slop+ nor?we/w>d f ! ,ural m\nta9s 9 ! ,ea/ & f ! ,caucasus 9 ! ,s\?1 & ! latt] f ! ,altai1 ,lyan & ,yabloni m\nta9s nor? to ! ,arctic ,ocean4 ,bo? sections exhibit 9 ! s\!rn ranges ! effect ( cont95tal climates1 prairie & pla9s c\ntry3 ! /eppe2 & 9 its nor!rn ranges ! effect ( an arctic climate1 %ort hot summ]s & long1 sev]e w9t]s3 tundra & swamps4 #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions & ,own]%ip4 ,bo? ! =e/ area & ! own]%ip conditions v>y v mu* ?r\gh\t ! empire4 ,russian /ati/ics are v unreliable & are bas$ on e/imates r ?an enum]ations1 & v>y f ye> to ye>4 ,s little is kn[n ( conditions 9 ,asia1 :]e ,russia occupies a t]ritory ?ree times z l>ge z its ,european possessions1 t we c dispose ( !m briefly4 ,!re exi/s a va/ =e/$ area1 almo/ unkn[n z to its ext5t & cont5ts1 or value4 ,?is area is ma9ly locat$ 9 ,sib]ia1 & al?\gh its ext5t is unc]ta91 x is kn[n to exce$ #gjj million acres1 b x is also kn[n t its "* is v v>iable1 & mu* ( x is 8taiga0 or swamp =e/1 mu* ( x deva/at$1 & mu* ( x 9 prec>i\s condition1 fires hav+ run & /ill runn+ ov] l>ge portions1 de/roy+ x to su* an ext5t t 9 sev]al ( ! prov9ces )9 ! =e/ belt1 ! "q ( wood supplies is ev5 n[ a tr\blesome "o4 ,! natives are especially reckless1 & deva/ation difficult to control4 ,! railroad has only increas$ ! evils4 ,"h1 9 ,sib]ia1 ! fir/ attempt at a managem5t 0 made 9 #ahig 9 ! gov]nm5t =e/s1 :i* are e/imat$ at ov] #cjj million acres2 9 addition ab\t #djj million acres h be5 decl>$ res]v$ =e/s4 ,n "o-?ird1 h[ev]1 ev5 ( ! gov]nm5t =e/s is well /ock$ & less ?an #d million acres are "u "s =m ( managem5t4 ,9 ,european ,russia1 ! =e/ area comprises ab\t #dfe million acres1 or #cf ( ! l& area4 ,! population be+ n[ ov] #abj million 7ne>ly "o-half escap$ f s]fdom only s9ce #ahfa71 ! =e/ area p] capita is only ab\t #d acres1 some:at less ?an 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 half ( :at is claim$ = ,sw$5 & ,norway1 al?\gh sev5 times z l>ge z t ( ,g]many or ,france4 ,x w be se51 !re=e1 t ,russia1 al?\gh /ill an export+ c\ntry1 has reasons = a cons]vative policy1 ev5 if only ! ne$s ( ! dome/ic population are consid]$1 :i* alone probably consumes m ?an ! annual increm5t ( ! :ole =e/ area2 & ! consumption is gr[+ ) ! gr[? ( civilization z appe>s f ! increase ( wood consum+ indu/ries1 :i* 9 #ahgg %[$ a product ( #h million doll>s1 9 #ahhg1 ( #ab million1 9 #ahig1 ( #ej million doll>s4 ,?is ass]tion1 t ! era ( ov]-cutt+ has actually arriv$1 may be made 9 spite ( ! /at$ fact1 t 9 ! nor!rn prov9ces only two-fif?s ( :at is suppos$ to be a prop] fell+ budget1 is cut & m>ket$1 & t o!r mo/ unc]ta9 e/imates make ! cut #ag cubic feet p] acre ( productive =e/ area1 & ! annual gr[?1 on /ill m unc]ta9 basis1 #ca cubic feet4#i ,! same reasons t op]ate 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates contribute to wa/eful practices1 namely unev5 di/ribution ( =e/ & population4 #i ,an idea ( ! suppos$ productive conditions may be ga!r$ f ! e/imates :i* h be5 made1 9 #ahih1 = ! ,/ate =e/s & ! op]ations 9 ^!4 ,9 ! two nor!rn prov9ces1 9 :i* ! /ate owns ne>ly ! entire =e/ area x is e/imat$ t #h cubic feet p] acre w\ld be available fell+ budget1 b only #aj p] c5t4 ( ?is is actually cut & sold4 ,outside ( ?is t]ritory ! available fell+ budget is calculat$ at #bd cubic feet p] acre1 b only #fj p] c5t4 or #ad cubic feet is be+ cut4 ,altoge!r 9 #ahih !re 7 cut 9 ! ,/ate =e/s 7some:at ov] #cjj million acres71 #a1hfj million cubic feet1 say #f cubic feet p] acre or #dj p] c5t4 ( ! e/imat$ prop] fell+ budget4 ,! adm9i/ration claims t ?ree-fif? ( ! project$ fell+ budget is saleable4 ,9 #aijf1 ! budget 0 plac$ at #cde million cubic feet1 b only #acj million 7 cut4 ,an e/imate ( ! cut 9 ! communal =e/s ) #ab cubic feet1 9 ! peasants hold+s ) #bj cubic feet1 & 9 ! private =e/s ) #dj cubic feet p] acre1 br+s ! total = ! c\ntry to r\nd #aj billion cubic feet1 wor? r\nd #ajj million doll>s = /umpage4 ,x is assum$ t #cj cubic feet %\ld be ! annual increm5t p] acre1 :5 x w\ld appe> t only #gj p] c5t4 ( ! increm5t is cut4 ,! cut 9 ! ,/ate =e/s 0 sold = #ba million doll>s 7#ahih71 or at an av]age ( less ?an #a;c4 p] cubic foot4 ,! highe/ price paid 9 ! ,vi/ula di/rict 0 #b4e c5ts1 :i* scales d[n to #a;c4 9 ,sib]ia & to "o-?ird c5t4 9 ! ,caucasus4 ,?is ref]s to /umpage1 ne>ly all sales be+ made on ! /ump to wood m]*ants by bids1 ! trees be+ m>k$ 9 "s p>ts1 9 o!rs ! area only be+ designat$4 ,! transportation is almo/ entirely by riv]4 ,f #ahhc to #aija ! net rev5ue f ! ,/ate =e/s increas$ f #af to #dg million doll>s1 :ile ! exp5ditures dropp$ f #bi p] c5t4 ( ! gross rev5ue to #ah4d p] c5t4 ,! gross result is #df c5ts p] acre4 ,9 #aijf1 ! returns 7 #bg million1 & exp5ses #e million4 ,z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! ,ea/ & ,we/ are or 7 well wood$1 ) a =e/less agricultural region betwe51 s 9 ,russia ! ,nor? & ! ,s\? 7,caucasus ,m\nta9s7 are well wood$1 ) a =e/less region1 ! /eppe1 betwe54 ,?is leads1 z ) u1 to an uneconomical exploitation ( ! woods1 ! inf]ior mat]ials be+ wa/$ because n pay+ = _! transportation 9 "o section1 & de>? ( timb] & fuelwood 9 ! o!r section4 ,! two mo/ nor!rn prov9ces ( ,ar*angel & ,vologda1 9 size equal to all ,g]many1 are wood$ to ! ext5t ( #ge & #hi p] c5t4 respectively1 & ! #ad nor!rn prov9ces toge!r conta9 ne>ly "o-half ! entire =e/ area4 ,"h ! =e/ cov]s #fd p] c5t4 ( ! l& area1 & n[h]e bel[ #bj p] c5t41 & ! acreage p] capita ranges f #c to ov] #bjj4 ,^! l>gely unsettl$ prov9ces are ! basis ( ! active wood export trade1 &1 z 9 ! simil>ly condition$ areas ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! t]ritory is deva/at$ by fires1 :i* sweep aga9 & aga9 ov] l>ge areas )\t *eck4 ,s\!rn ,russia 7except+ ! ,caucasus71 is l>gely prairie or /eppe1 =e/ cov] s9k+ bel[ #bj p] c5t4 on ! :ole1 d[n to #b p] c5t41 & less ?an "o-half acre p] capita4 ,altoge!r1 "o-half ! c\ntry & ?ree-f\r?s ( ! population are1 ) less ?an #ad p] c5t4 ( ! =e/ area1 expos$ to a de>? ( timb]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! nor!rn =e/1 ! mo/ important economic factor1 is compos$ l>gely ( pure or mix$ conif]\s woods 7#gd71 pr9cipally ,norway ,spruce 7#cd7 & ,scot* ,p9e 7#bi4e7 ) only slight admixtures ( l>* & fir1 & m frequ5tly ,:ite ,bir*4 ,op5 /&1 comp>atively poor developm5t1 & sl[ gr[?1 *>act]i/ic ( nor!rn climate1 r$uce its productive capacity1 :ile frequ5t bogs & o!r natural wa/e places outside ( ^? produc$ by mismanagem5t r$uce its productive area by n less ?an #bj p] c5t4 ,t[>d ! s\?1 decidu\s species are m frequ5t1 oak f9ally becom+ ! prevail+ timb] & =m+ =e/s1 ) bee*1 maple1 a% & elm z admixtures4 ,z ! pla9s are approa*$ pure decidu\s =e/ indicates ! *ange ( climate4 ,! =e/ ( ! ,caucasus is pr9cipally ( conif]\s composition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,!re are six classes ( =e/ prop]ty3 ! gov]nm5t doma92 ! apanage or imp]ial family 7cr[n7 =e/s2 private =e/s2 peasant or communal =e/s2 in/itute or corporation =e/s2 & =e/s ( mix$ own]%ip 9 :i* gov]nm5t & private own]s p>ticipate4 ,! l>g] "p ( ! =e/ area ( ,european ,russia is 9 control ( ! ,cr[n or ,/ate1 namely1 ne>ly #bgh million acres1 or a little less ?an two-?irds ( ! :ole1 & a simil> am\nt 9 ,asia1 besides ! s-call$ apanage =e/s ( #ad million acres set aside = ! support ( ! c\rt4 ,especially ! nor!rn =e/ is 9 gov]nm5t control1 9 "s gov]nm5ts 7,ar*angel7 ! entire area2 #fg ( ! doma9 =e/ lies 9 ! two gov]nm5ts ( ,ar*angel & ,wologda4 ,9 ! less wood$ di/ricts ,/ate prop]ty1 is insignificant4 ,! area "u gov]nm5t control 9 ,europe & ,asia is e/imat$ 9 ! (ficial report = #aijh at ar\nd #ieg million acres4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 n ! exclusive prop]ty ( ! ,/ate2 only ab\t #bfj million acres are s claim$1 ! l>g] balance includes #agj million acres :i* are to be apportion$ to ! lib]at$ peasants1 #bjj million acres 9 :i* ! gov]nm5t is only "p own]1 or ! own]%ip is 9 dispute2 & ! re/ is only tempor>ily plac$ "u ! managem5t or surveillance ( ! adm9i/ration4 ,yet1 #fj 9 ,europe & #ac 9 ,asia is exclusive ,/ate prop]ty4 ,9 #aijg1 ! area 9 ,europe "u work+ plans ( ! ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration1 h[ev]1 0 only #dh million acres1 #hf million hav+ be5 exam9$ = work+ plans4 ,( ! ,/ate prop]ty 9 ,europe #cd is spruce =e/1 #cj p9e1 & #bf mix$ conif] =e/2 altoge!r #hh ( conif]\s timb]4 ,! ,asiatic area is also ov] #hj p] c5t4 conif]\s4 ,! apanage or cr[n =e/s1 ! yield ( :i* goes t[>d ma9t5ance ( ! imp]ial family1 comprise ab\t #af million acres1 or #c4d4 ,private =e/ prop]ty to ! ext5t ( ov] #ajj million acres 7#bc7 is mo/ develop$ 9 ! ,baltic prov9ces & along ! ,vi/ula4 ,m9+ corporations & o!r in/itutes own ab\t #g million acres4 ,! peasants1 :o until #ahfa 7 m]e s]fs & _h no own]%ip ( any k9d1 be+ suppli$ ) _! necessities by ! l&$ proprietors1 /ill l>gely supply !mselves 9 ! nor!rn prov9ces by ! ex]cise ( rights ( us] f ! public doma9 on designat$ areas4 ,9 ! c5tral & s\!rn prov9ces1 f>m & =e/ l&1 ! latt] to ! ext5t ( ne>ly #dj million acres1 7 giv5 to !m 9 communal own]%ip4 ,z /at$ above1 ab\t #agj million acres class$ z gov]nm5t doma9 /ill awaits p>tition & cession to ! peasants4 #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy4 ,! fir/ record ( att5tion to ! woods z a special prop]ty dates f ,mi*ael1 ! f\nd]1 & ,alexis1 ! second ( ! h\se ( ,roman(f1 ! =m] becom+ ,cz> 9 #afac1 ! latt] 9 #afde4 ,he x 0 :o began to introduce ,we/]n civilization4 ,he conf9$ himself1 h[ev]1 to regulat+ prop]ty rights1 :i* up to t "t _h rema9$ some:at undef9$1 ! =e/1 z else:]e1 be+ consid]$ m or less public prop]ty4 ,he issu$ de$s ( own]%ip1 or at lea/ grant$ exclusive rights to ! use ( =e/s1 some:at simil> z 0 done 9 ! ban=e/s4 ,soldi]s alone 7 p]mitt$ to help !mselves1 ev5 9 private =e/s1 to ! wood !y requir$4 ,protection aga9/ !ft & fire 0 also provid$4 ,! peasants1 be+ s]fs1 7 b\nd to ! glebe1 & _h1 ( c\rse1 no prop]ty rights1 be+ ma9ta9$ by ! b\nty ( ! seigneurs4 ,alexis' successor1 ! f>-see+ ,pet] ! ,great1 :o 9 8 travels 9 ,g]many & o!r ,european c\ntries _h1 no d\bt1 be5 imbu$ ) ideas ( cons]vatism1 inaugurat$ 9 ! end ( ! #ag? & beg9n+ ( ! #ah? c5tury a f>-rea*+ re/rictive policy1 :i* _h two objects 9 view1 namely economic use ( wood1 :i* he _h le>n$ to appreciate :ile play+ c>p5t] 9 ,am/]dam1 & pres]vation ( %ip timb]1 :i* 8 desire to build up a navy dictat$4 ,all =e/s = #ce miles alongside ( riv]s 7 decl>$ 9 ban1 & plac$ "u ! sup]vision ( ! newly organiz$ ,adm9i/ration ( ,cr[n =e/s4 ,9 ^! ban=e/s1 ! fell+ ( timb]s fit = %ip build+ 0 =bidd54 ,m9ute regulations z to ! prop] use ( wood = ! purposes = :i* x 0 mo/ fit 7 prescrib$1 & ! use ( ! saw in/ead ( ! axe 0 ord]$4 ,^! rules 7 to prevail 9 all =e/s1 ) a few exceptions1 & p5alties 7 to be exact$ = contrav5tions4 ,?is good beg9n+ exp]i5c$ a %ort setback "u ,ca!r9e ,i 7#agbe71 ,pet]'s wife1 :o1 influ5c$ by h] m9i/]1 ,m5%ik(f1 aboli%$ ! =e/ adm9i/ration & ! p5alties1 & r$uc$ ! numb] & size ( ban=e/s4 ,b ! entire legislation 0 re-enact$ )9 ?ree ye>s aft] ,ca!r9e's dea? 7#agbg7 "u ,anna ,ivanovna's reign1 & _m new prescriptions = ! prop] use ( wood 7 add$ & additional p5alties en=c$4 ,at ?is "t1 "u ! influ5ce ( a ,g]man 8=e/ exp]t10 ,fokel1 ! increase ( =e/ area by s[+ oak1 etc41 9 ! poorly wood$ di/ricts1 0 also inaugurat$2 & ?is plant+ 0 made obligatory1 n only on ! adm9i/ration ( cr[n =e/s1 b also ^u private own]s1 :o 9 case ( default 7 to lose _! l& & h x re=e/$ by ! =e/ adm9i/ration4 ,to ,fokel's initiative is also to be cr$it$ ! celebrat$ l>* =e/ on ! ,gulf ( ,f9l&4 ,^! re/rictions ( private rights & ! tutelage ex]cis$ by ! =e/ adm9i/ration 7 aboli%$ 9 toto by ,ca!r9e ,,ii1 9 #aghh1 & al?\gh x 0 report$ by ! admiralty1 conc]n$ 9 ! supply ( %ipbuild+ mat]ials1 t z a consequ5ce ! cutt+1 especially ( oak timb]1 0 proce$+ rapidly1 no new re/rictive1 b r an ameliorative policy 0 attempt$1 su* z1 = in/ance1 ! (f]+ ( prizes = plantations 9 c]ta9 localities by ! prov9cial gov]nors4 ,^u ! aboli%m5t ( ! s]fdom ( ! peasants1 "u ,alex&] ,,ii1 9 #ahfc1 l&s1 bo? f>m & woodl&s1 7 allott$ to !m1 & 9 ?is p>tition1 9 "s p>ts z mu* z #be to #ej ( ?is =e/ prop]ty 0 h&$ ov] to !m4 ,imm$iately a g5]al slaught]+1 bo? by peasants & by ! private own]s1 :o _h suff]$ by los+ ! s]vices ( ! s]fs1 0 inaugurat$1 lead+ to :olesale deva/ation4 ,s]vitudes or rights ( us] also prevail$ 9 "s di/ricts & prov$ extremely de/ructive4 ,by #ahfd1 compla9ts 9 reg>d to =e/ deva/ation _h become s frequ5t t a movem5t = re=m 0 begun by ! ,cz>1 :i* l$ to ! promulgation ( a law 9 #ahfg1 foll[$ by a numb] ( o!rs dur+ ! next decade1 design$ to rem$y ! evils4 ,?is 0 to be done by re/rict+ ! acreage t might be fell$1 by =bidd+ cle>+s1 & by giv+ premiums = good managem5t & plantations4 ,f9ally1 9 #ahge1 a special commission 0 *>g$ ) ! elaboration ( a g5]al ord] :i*1 aft] ye>s ( he>+ ( te/imony & ( delib]ation1 0 promulgat$ 9 #ahhh1 a compreh5sive law = ! cons]vation ( =e/s1 private & o!rwise1 :i* 9 _m respects resembles ! ,fr5*1 9 o!r respects ! ,sw$i% cons]vation laws4 ,! deva/ation & its evil consequ5ces on wat]fl[ & soil conditions _h be5 especially felt 9 ! s\!rn di/ricts adjo9+ ! /eppe1 & ^! exp]i5ces 7 ! imm$iate cause = ! enactm5t ( ! law1 :i*1 h[ev]1 0 fram$ to apply conditionally to ! entire ,european ,russia4 ,! law makes an int]e/+ di/9ction betwe5 8protective10 8protect$0 & non-protective1 or unprotect$ =e/s1 z well z betwe5 diff]5t own]%ip classes1 & x makes di/9ction ( f\r regions z to ! ext5t ( its application4 ,9 ! f> nor!rn gov]nm5ts1 d5sely =e/$ 7#fj7 & ?9ly populat$1 only ! protective =e/s are "u ! op]ations ( ! law4 ,9 ! ,caucasus also1 none ( ! re/rictions ( private prop]ty except 9 protective & communal peasant =e/s are to apply1 p]haps because ! =e/ area 7av]ag+ n ov] #ag7 is !re l>gely own$ by memb]s ( ! imp]ial h\se & by nobles4 ,9 c]ta9 di/ricts adjo9+ ! nor!rn zone 7) #cg =e/7 also only ! la/ two classes ( =e/1 namely protective & communal prop]ties1 ) in/itute =e/s add$1 are subject to ! provisions ( ! law4 ,! re/1 a t]ritory ( ov] "o million squ>e miles ) only #ab 9 =e/1 is subject to all ! provisions ( ! law1 :i* is rem>kably democratic 9 treat+ ,/ate1 imp]ial & private =e/s alike4 ,?is law decl>es z 8protective =e/s10 to be manag$ "u special plans prescrib$ by ! ,cr[n =e/ dep>tm5t1 ^? =e/ areas :i* protect %ift+ s&s & dunes1 ! %ores ( riv]s1 canals & o!r wat]s2 & ^? on ! slopes ( m\nta9s1 :]e !y s]ve to prev5t erosion1 l&slides & avalan*es4 ,conv]sion ( ^! protective =e/s to f>m use is =bidd51 & ! use ( a cle>+ sy/em 9 =e/ managem5t1 z well z pa/urage & o!r uses suppos$ to be detrim5tal1 may be int]dict$1 & ! me?od ( managem5t may be prescrib$4 ,an in/ruction reg>d+ ! execution ( ! law promulgat$ 9 #ahhi prohibit$ cle> cutt+ 9 conif] =e/s1 p]mitt+ only selection =e/1 & 9 especially endang]$ localities only ! use ( ! dry wood & su* trees z int]f]e ) natural reproduction4 8,protect$0 =e/s are ^? :i* are locat$ at ! head wat]s & upp] rea*es ( /reams & _! afflu5ts4 ,"h ! rules z reg>ds cle>+1 mismanagem5t1 re=e/ation & pa/ure applicable to ! non-protective =e/s1 prevail1 except t cle>+ may be prohibit$ or p]mitt$1 if ! committee deems x n dang]\s ow+ to ! small size ( ! cle>+4 ,9 =e/s1 :i* are n protective =e/s1 conv]sion into f>ms or cle>+ ) ! sanction ( ! committee is p]mitt$1 if !reby ! e/ate is improv$1 e4g41 if ! soil is fit = or*>ds & v9ey>ds4 ,su* cle>+ may also be all[$ if ! soil is fit = tempor>y field use1 b 9 t case ! area mu/ be ev5tually re=e/$4 ,cle>+ is also p]mitt$1 if ano!r =m]ly f>m$ p>cel ( ! same size has be5 re=e/$ at lea/ ?ree ye>s prior to ! propos$ cle>+2 or if 9 artificial plantations ! gr[? is n yet #bj ye>s old2 also 9 a few special cases :]e prop]ty b\nd>ies are to be r\nd$ (f1 roads to be locat$1 etc4 ,if aft] six mon?s f ! "t ( ! application ! committee has n =bidd5 ! cle>+1 x is consid]$ z p]mitt$4 ,x is also =bidd5 to make fell+s :i* prev5t natural reg5]ation1 & ! runn+ ( cattle 9 "y gr[? is prohibit$4 ,private own]s are n requir$1 b are p]mitt$1 to submit work+ plans1 & if ^! are accept$1 !y are exempt$ f any o!r re/rictions4 ,su* plans may be consid]$ z accept$ if ! committee does n express itself )9 "o ye>4 ,all cle>+s made 9 contrav5tion to ! committee's decision mu/ be replant$ )9 a prescrib$ "t or may be =cibly re=e/$ by ! committee4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ feature1 because ?or\ghly democratic1 is ! creation ( ! local =e/ protection committees1 :i* are =m$ 9 ea* prov9ce & di/rict1 compos$ ( v>i\s repres5tatives ( ! local adm9i/ration1 "o or two =e/]s includ$1 ! ju/ice ( ! peace or o!r ju/ice1 ! c\nty c\ncil & two elect$ =e/ own]s1 9 all n9e to elev5 memb]s1 "u ! presid5cy ( ! gov]nor4 ,?is committee is ve/$ ) l>ge p[]s4 ,x decides1 )\t appeal1 :at areas are includ$ 9 protective =e/s & approves ( ! work+ plans = ^! z well z = ! unres]v$ =e/s2 x det]m9es :at cle>+s may be made1 & ex]cises wide police p[]s ) ref]5ce to all =e/ matt]s work+ 9 co-op]ation ) ! ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration1 :i* latt] has ! duty ( mak+ work+ plans free ( *>ge = ! res]v$ =e/s1 &1 at ! exp5se ( ! own] = ! private unres]v$ =e/s4 ,own]s ( ! latt] are1 h[ev]1 at lib]ty to prep>e _! own plans subject to approval4 ,appeal f decisions ( ! ,=e/ ,committees lies ?r\gh ! ,committee to ! ,m9i/] ( ,cr[n l&s & ,m9i/] ( ! ,int]ior4 ,9 case ! own] refuses to incur ! extra exp5se aris+ f measures impos$ ^u him1 ! doma9 m9i/ry may expropriate him1 b ! own] may recov] )9 #aj ye>s by pay+ co/s ) #f int]e/ 9 addition to ! sale price4 ,9 addition to ! above cit$ & o!r re/rictive measures1 "s ameliorative provisions are also f\nd4 ,all protective =e/s are free f taxes =ev]2 ^? artificially plant$ also = #cj ye>s4 ,"s ( ! be/ =e/ (ficials are detail$ to give advice gratuit\sly to =e/ own]s 7=e/ revisor--in/ructors7 & prizes are giv5 = ! be/ results ( silvicultural op]ations4 ,at ! recomm5dation ( ! ,=e/ ,committees1 m$als or money rew>ds or o!r di/9ctions are giv5 to ! =e/ gu>ds & =e/ manag]s ( private z well z public =e/s4 ,plant mat]ial is di/ribut$ free or at co/ price1 & work+ plans = protective =e/s are made free ( *>ge4 ,! ,imp]ial ,loan ,bank advances long t]m loans on =e/s1 bas$ ^u detail$ work+ plans made by ! ,/ate1 :i* insure a cons]vative managem5t4 ,9 #aijj1 ov] #g1jjj1jjj acres 7 9 ?is way mortgag$ "u su* managem5t4 ,! m9ute/ details are elaborat$ 9 ! in/ructions = ! execution ( ?is mo/ compreh5sive law4 ,h[ f> ?is law is really execut$ & :at its results s f> h be51 x w\ld be difficult to asc]ta94 ,x is1 h[ev]1 believ$ t x has work$ satisfactorily4 ,by #aijj1 #a4e million acres _h be5 decl>$ protection =e/s1 ne>ly #b million protect$ or riv] =e/s1 & ne>ly #ajj million private & communal =e/s _h be5 plac$ "u ! regime4 ,9 #aijg1 ! total area "u ! regime _h gr[n to ov] #acf million acres4 ,( private =e/s1 #ah million acres 9 #fjae =e/s 7 be+ manag$ accord+ to work+ plans made or approv$ by ! =e/ committees4 ,9 ^! plans1 usually1 ! /rip sy/em or se$ tree sy/em ) natural reg5]ation "u #fj ye> rotation = conif]s1 & at lea/ #cj ye> rotation = broadleaf =e/1 is provid$4 ,9 #aijc1 ! application ( ! law 0 ext5d$ to ! ,caucasus1 ! ,trans-caucasian & o!r s\!rn prov9ces1 b 9 ! abs5ce ( suitable p]sonnel & 9 a half civiliz$ c\ntry1 no result = ! imm$iate future may be anticipat$4 ,! surveillance ( ! execution ( ?is law lies1 ) ! assi/ance ( ! ,=e/ ,committees1 9 ! h&s ( ! ,/ate ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration4 ,?is latt]1 c5traliz$ 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 consi/s ( a ,director ,g5]al ) two ,vice-,directors & a s-call$ bureau ( =e/s ) sev5 division *iefs1 a numb] ( vice-inspectors & assi/ants4 ,! local adm9i/ration 9 ! gov]nm5ts is repres5t$ by ! ,direction ( ,cr[n l&s ) a sup]9t5d5t or sup]visor & sev]al inspectors4 ,! cr[n =e/s1 divid$ into "s #abfj adm9i/rative units1 are "u ! adm9i/ration ( sup]9t5d5ts1 ) =e/]s & gu>ds ( sev]al degrees4 ,! :ole s]vice compris$1 9 #aijh1 ab\t #cgij high] (ficials1 "s #hej ( :om 9 ! c5tral (fice at ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 & ov] #cj1jjj l[] (ficials "s #bj1jjj ( :om are educat$ und]=e/]s4 ,l>ge z ?is =ce appe>s to be1 x is small 9 comp>ison ) ! acreage1 & inadequate4 ,al?\gh ! net income f ! #cjj million acres ( ,/ate =e/ :i* are actually work$ is n[ close to ?irty million doll>s1 ! exp5ditures be+ ne> #f million1 ! pay ( ! (ficials is su* z to almo/ =ce !m to f9d means ( subsi/5ce at ! co/ ( _! *>ges4 ,p]haps n[h]e else is !re s mu* ma*9]y & s mu* regulation ) s little execution 9 practice4 ,nev]!less1 progress is be+ made 9 gradually improv+ matt]s1 & ! =e/ prop]ty1 or at lea/ ! cut1 has become m & m valuable4 ,:ile 9 ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury ! income f ! doma9 =e/ 0 only #ejj1jjj1 by #ahib x _h gr[n to #aj1jjj1jjj1 by #aija to #bc1jjj1jjj1 9 #aijh to ne>ly #cj1jjj1jjj1 besides sev]al million doll>s' wor? ( free wood4 ,9 #aijh1 ! dep>tm5t sp5t ov] half a million doll>s on plant+ & assi/+ natural reg5]ation4 ,timb] is sold z a rule to contractors by ! tree or acre1 & a diamet] limit is almo/ ! only re/riction4 ,9 #ahig1 h[ev]1 an arrangem5t 0 made by :i* ! lumb]man 0 oblig$ to re=e/1 or at lea/ to pay a c]ta9 tax into a plant+ fund1 & a "p paym5t ( #b to #d p] acre z gu>antee mu/ be made be=e cutt+4 ,?is ord] has1 h[ev]1 rema9$ mo/ly a dead lett]1 ! buy] pref]r+ to all[ 8 gu>antee to lapse4 ,9 #aijf1 !re /ood #c1jjj1jjj to ! cr$it ( ?is plant+ fund1 & only half ( x _h be5 appli$4 ,mean:ile ! unplant$ area increases1 s9ce natural reg5]ation g5]ally proves a failure4 #c4 ,education & ,lit]ature4 ,! attempts at =e/ry education date back to ! ye> #agcb :5 a numb] ( =e/]s 7 import$ f ,g]many to take *>ge ( ! =e/ managem5t z well z ( ! education ( =e/]s1 ea* =/mei/] hav+ six pupils assign$ to him4 ,?is me?od fail+ to produce results1 ! int]e/ 9 %ip timb] sugge/$ a c\rse 9 =e/ry at ! ,naval ,academy1 :i* 0 in/itut$ 9 #ahjj4 ,soon ! ne$ ( a l>g] numb] ( educat$ =e/]s l$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( sev]al sep>ate =e/ s*ools1 "o at ,z>skoye ,selo 7ne> ,/4 ,pet]sburg7 9 #ahjc1 ano!r at ,kozlovsk 9 #ahje1 & a ?ird at ,/4 ,pet]sburg 9 #ahjh4 ,?is latt] "u ! "n ( ! ,=e/ ,in/itute absorb$ ! o!r two1 & f #ahac has cont9u$ to exi/ ?r\gh _m vicissitudes4 ,n[1 ) #ae pr(essors & in/ructors & an exp5diture ( ne>ly #bej1jjj1 & ov] #ejj /ud5ts1 x is ! l>ge/ =e/ s*ool 9 ! _w4 ,x prep>es 9 a f\r ye>s' c\rse = ! high] positions 9 ! =e/ s]vice4 8,! hi/ory ( ?is ,=e/ ,in/itute is practically ! hi/ory ( =e/ry 9 ,russia40 ,a second s*ool at ,novo-,alex&ria1 ne> ,w>saw1 0 in/itut$ 9 #ahfj4 ,9 ^! s*ools1 z 9 ! me?ods ( managem5t1 ,g]man influ5ce is ev]y:]e visible4 ,9 addition to ^! s*ools1 *airs ( =e/ry 7 in/itut$ 9 ! ,petrovsk ,s*ool ( ,rural ,economy 9 ,moskau & 9 ! ,riga ,polyte*nic ,in/itute1 & also 9 sev5 int]m$iate s*ools ( rural economy4 ,9 #ahhh1 t5 second>y s*ools 7 e/abli%$ aft] ,au/rian patt]n = ! l[] or middle s]vice1 rang]s & und]=e/]s2 _! numb]1 by #aijj1 hav+ be5 increas$ to #cj &1 9 #aijh1 to #cc1 ) #dfj /ud5ts4 ,^! are bo>d+ s*ools 9 ! woods1 :]e a c]ta9 numb] ( ! /ud5ts are taught free ( *>ge1 ! maximum numb] ( ^? admitt$ be+ #aj to #bj at ea* s*ool4 ,! c\rse is ( two ye>s' duration1 & is ma9ly direct$ to practical "w & !oretical /udy 9 silviculture4 ,! total exp5se ( su* a s*ool is ab\t #c1cjj1 ( :i* ! ,/ate contributes #b1ejj1 ! total exp5diture1 9 #aijh1 be+ #hd1acd4 ,a numb] ( exp]im5t /ations 7 e/abli%$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! c\ntry by ! ,adm9i/ration ( ,cr[nl&s1 & a v consid]able & advanc$ lit]ature te/ifies to ! good education & activity ( ! high] =e/ s]vice4 ,two =e/ry j\rnals1 ,lesnoj ,j\rnal 7s9ce #ahgj7 & ,lessopromy*l5ny ,ve/nik1 ! fir/ bi-mon?ly1 ! latt] weekly1 besides sev]al less] ones1 keep ! pr(ession in=m$4 ,!re are 9 exi/5ce sev]al g5]al societies = ! enc\ragem5t ( silviculture4 ,probably ! olde/1 :i* ceas$ to exi/ 9 #ahej1 0 ! ,imp]ial ,russian ,society = ! ,advancem5t ( ,=e/ry :i* 0 f\nd$ 9 #ahcb4 ,x publi%$ a magaz9e & provid$ translations ( =eign books1 among :i* ! ,=e/ ,ma!matics ( ! not$ ,g]man =e/] ,knig1 :o also prep>$ yield tables = ! ,society4 7,see p4 #ace47 ,a society ( pr(essional =e/]s 0 f\nd$ at ,/4 ,pet]sburg 9 #ahga1 ano!r exi/s 9 ,mosc[1 & rec5tly two associations = ! developm5t ( =e/ plant+ 9 ! /eppes h be5 =m$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among ! prom95t writ]s & practition]s !re %\ld be especially m5tion$ ,!odor ,k>l[its* ,arnold1 :o is recogniz$ z ! fa!r ( ,russian =e/ry4 ,he 0 ! s\l ( ! =e/ organization "w1 = :i* he drew up ! in/ructions 9 #ahde1 & z pr(essor1 aft]w>ds director1 ( ! ,in/itute = ,agronomy & ,=e/ry at ,mosc[ s9ce #aheg1 he became ! tea*] ( mo/ ( ! pres5t practition]s4 ,f9ally he became ! head ( ! =e/ dep>tm5t 9 ! ,m9i/ry ( ,apanages :]e he rema9$ until 8 dea? 9 #aijb4 ,he is ! au?or ( sev]al classical works on silviculture1 =e/ m5suration1 =e/ managem5t1 etc41 &1 9 conjunction ) ,dr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,ti*on(f1 publi%$ an encyclopdic "w 9 ?ree volumes4 ,9 ! fir/ volume1 ,russl&'s ,wald 7#ahij71 :i* has be5 translat$ into ,g]man1 ! au?or makes an ext5d$ plea = improv$ =e/ry practice & describes & argues at l5g? ! provisions ( ! law ( #ahhh4 ,9 #ahie1 he publi%$ a hi/ory ( =e/ry 9 ,g]many1 ,france & ,russia4 ,( o!r prom95t =e/]s :o h advanc$ =e/ry 9 ,russia we may cite ,c\nt ,v>gaci de ,b$em>1 :o made ! fir/ attempt to prep>e ,russian gr[? & yield tables 9 #ahdj to #ahej4 ,pr(essor ,a4 ,f4 ,rudzsky1 :o 0 active at ! ,=e/ ,in/itute until a few ye>s ago1 develop$ 9 8 volumes especially ! ma!matical bran*es & me?ods ( =e/ organization4 ,! names ( ,tursky1 ,krav*9sky & ,kaigodorov are kn[n to ,russian /ud5ts ( d5drology & silviculture1 & among ! y\ng] g5]ation ! names ( ,morozov1 ,ne/orov1 ,orlov1 & ,tolsky may be m5tion$4 ,x is well kn[n h[ prom95t ,russian inve/igators h become 9 ! natural sci5ces1 & to =e/]s ! "w ( ! soil physici/s1 ,otozky & ,doku*aev w\ld at lea/ be famili>4 #d4 ,=e/ry ,practice4 ,:ile !n a v consid]able activity 9 sci5tific direction exi/s1 ! practical application ( =e/ry pr9ciples is less develop$ ?an "o w\ld expect1 especially 9 view ( ! /r+5t laws4 ,s f> n mu* m ?an cons]vative lumb]+ is ! rule4 ,g5]ally speak+1 ! ,/ate & cr[n =e/s are bett] manag$ ?an ! private1 _m ( :i* are be+ m]ely exploit$2 & 9 ! nor!rn dep>tm5ts l>ge areas rema9 /ill inaccessible4 ,"s notable exceptions to ! g5]al mismanagem5t ( private =e/s are furni%$ by "s ( ^? own$ by ! nobility1 l ^? ( ,c\nt ,uw>(f ) #aej1jjj acres "u model managem5t by a ,g]man =e/]1 & ( ,c\nt ,/rogon(f ) ov] #a1jjj1jjj acres "u fir/-class organization ) a /aff ( ov] #bcj p]sons4 ,a regul> =e/ organization 0 fir/ attempt$ 9 ! =e/s atta*$ to iron furnace prop]ties 9 #ahdj4 ,by ?is "t "s #ajj million acres h come "u regulat$ managem5t1 half ( ! area be+ gov]nm5t =e/s4 ,! me?od ( regulation employ$ is t ( area division & sometimes area allotm5t accord+ to ,cotta4 ,9 "s regions a division by rides into comp>tm5ts1 rang+ f #fj to #d1jjj acres ea*1 accord+ to int5sity ( exploitation1 has be5 effect$4 ,x is e/imat$ t at ! pres5t rate ( progress x w\ld take #cjj ye>s to complete ! "w ( organization4 ,! selection me?od is /ill l>gely employ$1 a fell+ budget by numb] ( trees & volume be+ det]m9$ 9 ! incompletely organiz$ areas2 :ile a cle>+ sy/em ) artificial re=e/ation is us$ 9 mo/ cases :]e a complete yield calculation has be5 made4 ,! rotations employ$ are f #fj to #ajj ye>s = timb] =e/1 #cj to #fj ye>s = coppice4 ,9 ! p9]ies1 ! /rip sy/em 9 e*elons is mo/ly 9 vogue1 ! /rips be+ made #ajh feet wide1 leav+ f\r se$ trees p] acre1 & on ! la/ /rip1 :i* is left /&+ = five ye>s1 ?is numb] is increas$ to eight :i* are left z ov]hold]s4 ,?is me?od1 accord+ to "s1 seems to secure satisfactory reproduction4 ,to get rid ( undesirable species1 especially asp5 & bir*1 ^! are girdl$4 ,9 spruce =e/1 #ej to #fj p] c5t4 ( ! trees are left 9 ! fell+s1 :5 aft] ?ree to f\r ye>s ! natural reg5]ation requires (t5 repair1 :i* is done if at all by bun* plant+2 aft] eight to t5 ye>s ! balance ( ! old gr[? is remov$4 ,:ile = a long "t natural reg5]ation 0 alone reli$ ^u1 n[1 at lea/1 artificial assi/ance is m & m frequ5tly practic$4 ,yet1 al?\gh ov] #b million acres 7 "u cle>+ sy/em1 n m ?an #e ( ! rev5ue1 or #ajj1jjj1 0 9 #ahih all[$ = plant+ z aga9/ #g4e 9 ,prussia2 ! total budget ( exp5ses !n rema9+ bel[ #c million doll>s4 ,b1 t5 ye>s lat]1 ov] half a million doll>s 0 employ$ by ! gov]nm5t 9 plant+1 ! plant+ fund contribut$ by ! lumb]man 7see p4 #bfi7 furni%+ ! means4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! =e/ adm9i/ration ( ! prov9ce ( ,pol&1 :]e ! ,/ate owns ov] #a4e million acres 0 = "s "t indep5d5t1 b1 ab\t #ahge1 0 reorganiz$ & plac$ "u ! c5tral bureau at ,/4 ,pet]sburg4 ,al?\gh ! =e/s ( ,pol& are ! mo/ lucrative to ! gov]nm5t &1 ) good m>ket & high prices = wood1 :i* are n[ rapidly increas+1 w\ld all[ ( int5sive managem5t1 ! /+9ess ( ! adm9i/ration1 ! l[ moral tone ( ! p]sonnel1 & long e/abli%$ bad practice h ret>d$ ! introduction ( bett] me?ods4 ,! private =e/s ( ,pol& comprise ov] #d4e million acres1 & are mo/ly n mu* bett] treat$ ?an ! ,/ate =e/2 9 ! abs5ce ( any re/rictive policy !y h dim9i%$ by #be 9 ! la/ #bj ye>s4 ,consid]able ef=ts h be5 made t[>ds re=e/+ ! /eppes 9 s\!rn ,russia1 fir/ z 9 our own prairies & pla9s by private endeavor1 b lately ) m & m direct assi/ance ( ! ,/ate =e/ adm9i/ration4 ,?is plant+ 0 begun by ,g]man coloni/s at ! end ( ! #ah? c5tury1 b )\t enc\rag+ results1 al?\gh ov] #be1jjj acres _h be5 plant$ by ! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury4 ,s9ce #ahdc1 ! gov]nm5t has _h two exp]im5tal =e/ res]ves 9 ! /eppes ( ! gov]nm5ts ( ,ekat]9oslav & ,tauride1 on :i* "s #aj1jjj acres h be5 plant$2 ! orig9ator ( ?is "w be+ von ,graff1 a ,g]man =e/]1 ^: plantations1 made ) #h1jjj plants to ! acre1 are /ill ! be/4 ,lat]1 ! numb] ( plants 0 r$uc$ to "o-half1 & ! results h n be5 satisfactory4 ,altoge!r1 plant+ on l>ge areas on soils unfit = ! purpose & by wrong me?ods has produc$ poor results4 ,at pres5t ! policy is n to create l>ge bodies ( =e/1 b to plant small /rips ( #bj to #hj y>ds squ>e 9 regul> di/ribution1 :i* are to s]ve z w9dbreaks1 & ! result has be5 satisfactory1 especially 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ,sam>a4 ,!re are n[ annually #b1jjj acres add$ to ^! plantations4 ,! reclamation ( %ift+ s&s & s& dunes has also receiv$ consid]able att5tion &1 to "s ext5t1 ! reboisem5t ( m\nta9 slopes 9 ! ,crimea & ,caucasus4 ,( ! =m]1 "s #aj million acres are 9 exi/5ce 9 ,european ,russia1 & 9 ! prov9ce ( ,worone% alone ea* ye> #ajj1jjj acres are add$4 ,= #ej ye>s sporadical "w 9 _! recov]y 0 done4 ,n until #ahia & #ahib1 :5 two dr\ghty fam9e ye>s _h l$ to an inve/igation ( agricultural conditions1 0 a sy/ematic attempt propos$1 & ?is 0 begun 9 #ahig4 ,by #aijb1 "s #hj1jjj acres _h be5 fix$1 & by #aijd1 #aej1jjj acres4 ,9 ?is "w ! gov]nm5t contributes #cf ( ! co/1 ! b5efit$ communities ! balance4 ,9 addition1 #a1ejj squ>e miles ( swamps 9 ,we/]n ,russia 7 reclaim$ by ext5sive canals & recov]$ ) mead[ & =e/ at a co/ ( #cjj1jjj1 ( :i* ! ,imp]ial ,treasury paid "o-?ird1 ! own]s "o-half1 ! local gov]nm5t ! balance4 ,:ile rational =e/ managem5t1 z we h se51 is f> f be+ g5]ally e/abli%$1 ! gov]nm5t tries at lea/ to prev5t wa/e & to pave ! way f exploitation to regulat$ managem5t4 ,,f9l&4 ,! ,gr& ,du*y ( ,f9l& 9 ! nor!a/ ( ,russia is /ill 9 "s respects indep5d5t ( ,russia4 ,f9l&1 ! 8l& ( a ?\s& lakes0 & ( mo/ ext5sive =e/s1 is h>dly less important z a wood produc] ?an ,russia itself2 its wood exports am\nt+ at pres5t to ar\nd #bjj million cubic feet & ov] #be million doll>s 9 value1 repres5t ov] #ej p] c5t4 ( its trade1 & its mo/ important res\rce4 ,settl$ 9 ! #g? c5tury by an ,aryan tribe1 ! ,f9ns1 cong5]s ( ! ,magy>s1 :o subdu$ ! aborig9al ,lapl&]s1 ,f9l& became by conque/ 9 ! #ab? c5tury1 & rema9$ = #ejj ye>s1 a prov9ce ( ,sw$54 ,9 ! w>s betwe5 ,sw$5 & ,russia2 p>ts ( ?is prov9ce 7 conqu]$ by ,russia1 & f9ally1 9 #ahji1 ,sw$5 lo/ ! :ole2 b ! ,f9ns succe$$ 9 pres]v+ national unity & p>tial indep5d5ce "u a con/itution1 adopt$ 9 #aggb & recogniz$ by ! ,cz>4 ,f9l& /&s v mu* 9 ! same relation to ,russia z does ,hung>y to ,au/ria1 ! union be+ m]ely a p]sonal "o3 ! ,cz> is ! rul] or ,gr& ,duke1 b ! adm9i/ration is o!rwise l>gely sep>ate f t ( ! empire1 "u a ,gov]nor-,g5]al1 appo9t$ by ! ,cz>1 & a ,s5ate ( #ah memb]s at ,hels+=s1 ) a national p>liam5t ( ! f\r e/ates1 nobles1 cl]gy1 burg]s1 peasants1 :i* conv5es e five ye>s2 ! ,cz> hav+ ! veto p[] ov] its legislation4 ,! ,w> ,dep>tm5t ( ,russia1 h[ev]1 is 9 *>ge ( milit>y affairs1 & o!r dep>tm5ts seem to be "u m or less sup]vision ( ! ,russian adm9i/ration4 ,lately repressive measures are ?reat5+ or h ne>ly accompli%$ ! de/ruction ( ?is autonomy4 ,( ! #ade1jjj squ>e miles ( t]ritory1 ne>ly #ej is occupi$ by lakes & bogs1 m>%es or tundra2 less ?an #i million acres 7#i4g7 is 9 f>ms1 & #cg4e million acres or #db1 is =e/l&1 actual or pot5tial2 ,! major "p ( ?is is locat$ 9 ! nor!rn & ea/]n sections1 :]e ! population is scanty1 agriculture little develop$1 & s& soils prevail4 ,beyond ! #fi? degree1 =e/ gr[? ceases1 & naturally ne> ! =e/ limit ! scrubby gr[? p>takes ( ! "* ( all nor!rn =e/s4 ,n m ?an #b4e million acres1 mo/ly 9 ! s\?we/]n sections1 are actually "u cultivation2 ! population be+ %ort ( #b4e million4 ,! rigor\s climate makes a l>ge consumption ( fuelwood necess>y1 &1 s9ce h\ses are also mo/ly built ( wood1 ! home consumption is ov] #cb cubic feet p] capita4 ,ov] #aj million cubic feet ( p9e are consum$ 9 mak+ t>1 & a l am\nt = pap] pulp4 ,! total cut is 9 ! neighborhood ( #cgj million cubic feet1 f\r-fif? ( :i* comes f private =e/s ( ! middle & s\!rn area1 & ov] "o-?ird ( x is be+ export$4 ,! c\ntry g5]ally is a tablel& ) occasional l[ hills4 ,! =e/ consi/s pr9cipally ( p9e1 ! latt] a v>iety ( ! ,scot* ,p9e 7or species871 call$ ,riga ,p9e :i* excels 9 /raightness ( bole & ?rifty gr[?1 & ( spruce 7#aj p] c5t4 ( ! :ole1 ma9ly 9 ! s\!a/74 ,asp51 ald] & bir*1 especially ! latt]1 are consid]$ undesirable we$s1 & fire is us$ to get rid ( !m :]e conif]\s aft]gr[? is desir$1 al?\gh bir* is also employ$ = fuel1 bobb9s & furniture1 & asp5 = mat*es4 ,basswood1 maple1 elm1 a% & "s oak occur1 & l>* 7,l>ix sibirica7 0 introduc$ "s #aej ye>s ago4 ,long1 sev]e w9t]s & hot1 dry summ]s produce sl[ gr[?1 ! p9e 9 ! nor? requir+ #bjj to #bej ye>s1 9 ! middle sections #adj to #afj ye>s to gr[ to m]*antable size4 ,fires1 us$ 9 cle>+1 h f "t to "t run ov] l>ge areas & h ne>ly kill$ out ! spruce except 9 ! l[l&s1 b ! p9e be+ m resi/ant has increas$ its area & 9 spite ( ! det]ioration ( ! soil by fire reproduces well4 99 99 99 99 99 ,orig9ally ! =e/ 0 communal prop]ty1 b 9 #aebd1 ,gu/av ,vasa decl>$ all =e/ & wat] n specially occupi$ to belong to 8,god1 ,k+ & ! ,sw$i% ,cr[n10 al?\gh he all[$ ! usufruct to ! p free ( *>ge or ne>ly s4 ,^! rights ( us] are /ill ! bane ( ! =e/ adm9i/ration4 ,be+ left )\t sup]vision x matt]$ little :o own$ ! l&1 ! =e/ 0 ru?lessly exploit$4 ,lat]1 ! rights ( us] ?us orig9at+ 7 b\ght (f by c$+ l&s to ! peasants4 ,n until #ahea did an improvem5t 9 ^! conditions occur :5 a provisional adm9i/ration ( ! ,/ate =e/s 0 provid$ 9 connection ) ! ,l& ,survey2 b a rational organization mat]ializ$ only aft] an em95t ,g]man =e/]1 v4 ,b]g1 ,director ( ! =e/ s*ool ( ,?>&t1 _h be5 import$ 7#aheh7 to effect a recon/ruction4 ,8 advice 01 h[ev]1 only p>tially foll[$1 & ! organization 0 n p]fect$ until #ahfi4 ,almo/ imm$iately1 a p[]ful opposition to ! adm9i/ration develop$1 because x c\ld n at once %[ increas$ pr(its1 & ! p]sonnel :i* _h be5 scanty en\gh1 0 /ill fur!r r$uc$1 ! l>ge di/ricts into :i* ! ,/ate prop]ty _h be5 divid$ 7 /ill fur!r enl>g$1 & to ?is day1 improvem5t 9 ^! respects has be5 only p>tial4 ,! ,/ate =e/ area1 situat$ ma9ly 9 ! nor? is /at$ z betwe5 #ce & #de million acres 7v>iable because ( cle>+ = f>ms & new settlem5ts71 b x conta9s ab\t #ae million acres ( bogs & moors & mu* o!r wa/e l&1 :i* r$uces ! productive =e/ area to ab\t #ab million acres 7#ce71 leav+ #fe ( ! productive =e/ area to private own]%ip4 ,?is ,/ate =e/ 0 divid$ 7#ahif7 into #ec di/ricts1 ! di/ricts be+ aggregat$ into #h inspections1 & ! :ole s]vice plac$ "u a c5tral (fice ) a =e/ director & #e assi/ants "u imm$iate control ( ! ,s5ate4 ,! =e/ gu>ds numb]$ #gej1 _! ranges av]ag+ #ej1jjj acres1 :ile ! di/ricts av]age #fjj1jjj acres & sev]al conta9 z high z #b4e million acres2 ! ,=/mei/] 9 *>ge may live sometimes #bjj miles f ! ne>e/ t[n & #fj miles f ! ne>e/ road4 ,8 function is ma9ly to protect ! prop]ty1 to sup]vise ! cutt+ & sales1 & to tea* ! p ! ne$ ( cons]vative me?ods4 ,9 spite ( ?is insuffici5t s]vice1 consid]able r$uction 9 =e/ fires & !ft has be5 atta9$4 ,beyond re/riction ( wa/e by axe & fire1 & cons]vative lumb]+ ( ! ,/ate =e/1 positive measures = reproduction h h>dly yet be5 introduc$1 bo? p]sonnel & wood values be+ insuffici5t = m int5sive managem5t4 ,at pres5t1 ) a cut h>dly exce$+ #ajj million cubic feet1 ! rev5ue is /ill almo/ nom9al1 say #fjj1jjj1 & h>dly ! annual gr[? is cut4 99 99 99 99 99 ,selection =e/ is1 ( c\rse1 ! rule1 b s9ce no trees are m>k$ & cut less ?an #aj in* diamet] at #be feet f ! gr\nd 7671 at lea/ ! possibility = improv$ managem5t w n be de/roy$ :51 ?r\gh ! exhau/ion ( ! private =e/s & increas$ wood prices1 m int5sive managem5t has become practicable4 ,:5 ! m>ket is good1 a cle>+ sy/em ) #ajj to #afj ye> rotation is practis$2 on ! cle>+s ab\t #bj se$ trees are left1 & aft] #f ye>s ! natural reg5]ation is repair$ by plant+4 ,?is latt] me?od is especially prescrib$ on ! gov]nm5t f>ms4 ,^! =m an int]e/+ "p ( ! ,/ate prop]ty1 "s #ijj small f>ms ) woodlots aggregat+ ov] #ejj1jjj acres1 mo/ly 9 ! s\!rn di/ricts4 ,^! came into exi/5ce 9 ! #ag? & #ah? c5turies1 be+ grant$ z fiefs to (fic]s ( ! army z _! only comp5sation4 ,!y rev]t$ to ! ,/ate & are r5t$ = t]ms ( #ej ye>s ^u condition t ! woods are to be manag$ accord+ to rules laid d[n by ! ,/ate dep>tm5t2 & special inspectors are provid$ to sup]vise ?is "w4 ,?is sy/em1 9 vogue s9ce #ahfc1 at fir/ met ) opposition on ! "p ( ! r5t]s on acc\nt ( ! impractical propositions ( ! dep>tm5t4 ,at pres5t ! dep>tm5t manages _m ( ^! woodlots directly1 z well z ^? :i* ! cl]gy h receiv$ 9 lieu ( emolum5ts4 ,s9ce #ahhc1 a corps ( =e/ surveyors has be5 occupi$ 9 mak+ work+ plans bas$ ^u diamet] accretion at ! curi\sly select$ height ( #be feet f ! gr\nd4 ,a commission 0 also in/itut$ "s ye>s ago to segregate =e/ & f>m soils 9 ! ,/ate doma9 ) a view ( dispos+ ( ! latt] prep>atory to improv$ managem5t ( ! rema9+ =e/ area4 ,! ,/ate has also 9 a small way begun to pur*ase absolute =e/ soils 9 ! s\!rn prov9ces ) a view to re=e/ation4 ,! private =e/ areas1 locat$ 9 ! m settl$ s\!rn portions are f\nd mo/ly 9 small p>cels & 9 peasants' h&s1 al?\gh ! nobility also owns "s =e/ prop]ties1 b ! size ( s+le hold+s r>ely exce$s #a1jjj acres4 ,^! areas are mo/ly exploit$ )\t reg>d to ! future1 furni%+ /ill f\r-fif?s ( ! l>ge export1 & accord+ to compet5t judges w soon be exhau/$4 ,al?\gh attempts h be5 made f "t to "t to re/rict ! use ( private =e/1 practically little has be5 accompli%$1 & su* re/rictions z h be5 enact$ are h>dly en=c$4 ,a law1 enact$ 9 #ahhf1 =bids cle>+ along wat]s adapt$ to fi%+1 & ord]s ! leav+ ( se$ trees or 8provid+ o!rwise = reg5]ation10 if m ?an #ab acres are cut at "o "t4 ,! me?od ( utiliz+ ! gr\nd = comb9$ =e/ & f>m use1 :i* is /ill frequ5tly practis$1 0 =bidd5 on ! light s&y soils ( ! p9]ies1 or 0 o!rwise regulat$4 ,=e/ fire laws are also on ! /atutes4 ,propositions = fur!r re/rictions1 made 9 #ahia1 7 promptly reject$ by ! p>liam5t4 99 99 99 99 99 ,educational opportunities are (f]$ 9 ! ,=e/ ,in/itute at ,evois1 fir/ e/abli%$ 9 #ahfb z a result ( v4 ,b]g's visit1 & re-organiz$ 9 #ahgd4 ,x accepts new /ud5ts only e second ye> = ! two ye>s' c\rse4 ,x has _h a prec>i\s exi/5ce1 be+ left sometimes )\t /ud5ts1 & is naturally n ( a high grade1 practical acqua9tance ) woodswork be+ its ma9 aim4 ,s9ce #ahgf1 a s*ool = =e/ gu>ds & private und]=e/]s has be5 9 exi/5ce1 :]e #f /ud5ts are annually accept$ = a two ye>s' c\rse4 ,9 addition !re are two in/ructors provid$ by ! gov]nm5t1 w&]+ tea*]s :o are to advise private own]s4 ,premiums are paid = ! be/ manag$ woodlots on ! gov]nm5t f>ms4 ,! ,f9ni% =e/ry association1 :i* is 9 "p ( propag&i/ nature1 0 organiz$ 9 #ahgg4 ,x supplies1 besides an annual report1 o!r =e/ry lit]ature1 & employs an exp]i5c$ plant] to direct ef=ts at re=e/ation4 ,a =e/ry j\rnal 7qu>t]ly7 is also publi%$1 & a pr(essional lit]ature is beg9n+ to />t into exi/5ce4 99 99 99 99 99 ,x may be ( int]e/ 9 ?is connection to cite a r\gh calculation made by ,dr4 ,mayr ( ! available mat]ial 9 ,european ,russia & ,f9l& comb9$1 :i* he places at #d1ejj million cubic feet1 & ( :i* he consid]s "o-half available = export4 ,x is impossible to progno/icate :at position ,russia & ,f9l&1 toge!r ! l>ge/ wood produc]s 9 ,europe1 w take 9 ! future _w comm]ce1 & h[ rapidly bett] practices1 = :i* ! ma*9]y is already half />t$1 w become g5]ally adopt$4 ,at pres5t1 especially 9 ,russia prop]1 ! g5]al corruption ( ! bureaucracy is an almo/ insurm\ntable ob/acle to improvem5t4 ,,! ,,sc&9avian ,,/ates4 ,9 ! ,engli% language ! ,report on ,=e/ry 9 ,sw$51 by ,g54 ,c4 ,c4 ,,&rews1 ,u4 ,s4 ,m9i/] at ,/ockholm1 #ahgb1 revis$ #aijj1 #ce pp41 gives a /atem5t ( pres5t conditions ) hi/orical notes4 ,a v good idea 9 detail ( ! wood trade ( ,sw$5 may be obta9$ f ,! ,wood ,indu/ries ( ,sw$51 publi%$ by ,,timb] ,,trades ,,j\rnal ( ,london 9 #ahif4 ,la ,sude1 son ,peuple et son indu/rie1 by ,g4 ,,sundb>g1 #aijj1 #b vols41 conta9s sev]al p]t95t *apt]s4 ,x is an (ficial "w1 v complete1 & 0 translat$ into ,engli% 9 #aijd4 ,! ,economic ,hi/ory ( ! ,sw$i% ,=e/1 by ,,gunn> ,,s*otte1 #aije4 #cb pp41 9 ,sw$i%1 publi%$ by ! =e/ry association1 gives a brief acc\nt ( conditions & data ( ! =e/ry movem5t4 ,norway4 ,(ficial publication = ! ,p>is ,exposition1 #aijj1 conta9s a *apt] on ,=e/ry by ,k4 ,a4 ,fau*ald1 pp4 #cbb-cej1 ) a map ( =e/ di/ribution4 ,skogsvaes5ets ,hi/orie v$ ,skogs direktor51 ,i ,del1 ,hi/orik1 #aiji1 is an (ficial publication ( ! ,norwegian ,=e/ adm9i/ration1 giv+ a full acc\nt ( ! developm5t dur+ ! #ej ye>s f #aheg to #aijg1 ) notes ( ! e>li] hi/ory4 ,le ,danem>c4 ,etat ,actuel de sa civilization et de son organization sociale1 by ,j4 ,,c>ls51 ,h4 ,,olric & ,c4 ,n4 ,,/>cke1 #aijj1 #gad pp4 ,d5m>k1 its hi/ory & topography1 etc41 by ,h4 ,,weitemey]1 #ahia4 ,bidrag til det ,danske ,skovbrugs ,hi/orie1 by ,o4 ,l,,tk51 #aijj1 0 n accessible to ! writ]4 ,ext5sive notes are f\nd ?r\gh ! ,g]man1 ,au/rian & ,fr5* =e/ry j\rnals4 ,especially an article 9 ! ,c5tralblatt fr das gesammte ,=/wes51 #aije 7brief$ 9 ,=e/ry ,qu>t]ly1 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bib7 & ano!r 7brief$ 9 same ,qu>t]ly1 vol4 ,,ix1 p4 #de7 gives ext5d$ acc\nts ( =e/ conditions 9 ,sw$54 ,"u ! "n ( ,sc&9avian ,/ates we may comprise ! c\ntries ( ,sw$51 ,norway & ,d5m>k1 :i* 7 settl$ by ! same gr\p ( ,g]man tribes1 ! s-call$ ,norsem52 !y orig9ally spoke ! same language1 :i* only lat] became m or less diff]5tiat$4 ,! settlem5t ( ! c\ntry by ^! tribes seems to h be5 accompli%$ 9 ! ma9 by ! end ( ! #h? c5tury2 & ! sep>ation into ! ?ree sev]al k+doms 9 ! n9? to twelf? c5turies1 dur+ :i* "t !y 7 sometimes unit$1 or at lea/ "u "o rul]1 sometimes at w> ) ea* o!r1 & always torn by int]ior diss5sions bord]+ on an>*y4 ,9 #acig1 by ! ,calm> conv5tion1 a m p]man5t union into "o k+dom 0 effect$ betwe5 ,sw$51 ,norway1 & ,d5m>k "u ,m>g>et1 8! ,semiramis ( ! ,nor?40 ,aft] ano!r p]iod ( v>iable =tunes1 ,sw$51 ab\t #aebc1 became an indep5d5t con/itutional mon>*y "u ,gu/av ,vasa1 & ,norway rema9$ jo9$ to ,d5m>k "u ,fr$]ick ,i4 ,sw$5 !n />t$ on a c>e] ( conque/1 be+ almo/ cont9u\sly at w> ) all h] neighbors & especially ) ,russia & ,pol&1 :]eby1 especially "u ,gu/avus ,adolphus & ! adv5tur\s ,*>les ,,xii1 h] t]ritory 0 greatly enl>g$4 ,) ! treaties ( ,/ockholm & ,ny/adt 7#agbj & #agba7 %e came into m peaceful wat]s1 b p]man5t peace & a settl$ policy 0 n atta9$ until ! election ( ,b]nadotte1 "o ( ,napoleon's adm9i/rators1 to ! k+%ip1 & by ! peace ( ,kiel1 9 #ahad1 ,sw$5 became a con/itutional h]$it>y mon>*y 9 ! mod]n s5se4 ,at ! same "t1 ,norway 0 tak5 away f ,d5m>k & =c$ to a union ) ,sw$51 :i* p]si/$ until #aijg1 :5 a peaceful sep>ation took place by ! action ( ! ,norwegian p4 ,! union has always be5 hateful to ! ,norwegians1 al?\gh only ! k+ & ! dep>tm5t ( =eign affairs 79 :i* ,norway 0 repres5t$ by a delegation f its ,c\ncil7 7 9 common1 all o!r matt]s ( adm9i/ration be+ sep>ate z well z ! p>liam5ts 7,/or?+ 9 ,norway1 & ,riksdag 9 ,sw$574 ,d5m>k1 p[]ful 9 ! #aa? c5tury "u ,canute1 :o subjugat$ n only ,norway b ,engl&1 los+ bo? ^! c\ntries %ortly aft] 8 dea?1 0 %orn by ,sw$5 ( mu* ( its t]ritory 9 ! #ag? c5tury1 &1 9 #ahad1 0 sep>at$ f ,norway4 ,orig9ally an elective mon>*y1 l>gely dom9at$ by ! nobility1 ! cr[n 9 #affa became h]$it>y & absolute1 & ,sw$5 did n become a con/itutional mon>*y until #ahdi4 ,,sw$54 ,?is c\ntry is ( greate/ int]e/ to ! _w at l>ge 9 =e/ry matt]s1 because x has be5 until lately ! l>ge/ export] ( wood & has only j fully wak$ up to its ne$ = a cons]vative =e/ managem5t3 ! law ( #aijc promises to br+ ab\t v decid$ *anges1 & to curtail ! exports ^u :i* o!r ,european nations s mu* rely4 ,sw$51 ) #agb1hgf squ>e miles1 occupies ! ea/]n two-?irds ( ! ,sc&9avian p59sula4 ,x is n l ,norway1 a m\nta9 c\ntry1 b ! great] "p consi/s ( l[ granitic hills4 ,! m\nta9 range 7,koel57 :i* =ms ! b\nd>y t[>ds ,norway falls (f 9 a long slope t[>ds ! gulf ( ,bo?nia & ! ,baltic sea1 ! coa/ be+ a broad level pla91 ) a s]ies ( isl&s1 l>g] or small]1 girdl+ ! out] coa/ l9e & =m+ an ar*ipelago4 ,! c\ntry is cut into num]\s wat] %$s1 ! _m riv]s 7call$ elfs71 furni%+ means ( transportation1 exp&+ frequ5tly into lakes 7sj7 9 ! upp] rea*es1 & fall+ ) cat>acts into ! l[] pla91 giv+ rise to f9e wat] p[]s4 ,eight p] c5t4 ( ! total area is 9 lakes4 ,only #ab p] c5t4 ( ! l& area is 9 f>ms4 ,! =e/ area1 ) ne>ly #ej million acres1 occupies ne>ly #dh p] c5t41 leav+ #dj p] c5t4 wa/e l& or o!rwise occupi$4 ,half ( ! population ( ov] #e million pursues agriculture1 :ile iron manufacture & ! lumb] indu/ry occupy "o-qu>t]4 ,( ! ?ree ma9 divisions ( ! c\ntry1 ! s\!rn1 ,gtal&1 is ri*e/ 9 l[l&s & agricultural soils1 &1 z x has also a favorable m>itime climate1 f>m+ is ! ma9 indu/ry4 ,"h1 a population ( #ej to #fj1 & 9 p>ts up to #aij p] squ>e mile is f\nd4 ,bee* & oak are "h ! pr9cipal trees1 ) spruce occasionally int]mix$4 ,9 ! c5tral "p1 ,sveal& or ,sw$5 prop]1 ! =e/ region beg9s1 ) p9e & spruce1 pure or 9 mixture1 cov]+ ! granite hills & plateau2 bir* & o!r h>dwoods1 oak1 bee*1 elm1 basswood & asp5 be+ f\nd 9 ! riv] valleys2 b ! ?ird division1 ,norrl&1 is ! =e/ region ( comm]cial importance1 ! seat ( ! ext5sive export trade4 ,x is a va/1 almo/ unbrok5 =e/ c\ntry1 ) h>dly m ?an #c p to ! squ>e mile1 9 ! nor!rnmo/ "p1 call$ ,lapl&1 ,laps & ,f9ns =m+ a n inconsid]able "p ( ! population4 ,p9e & spruce are ! timb] trees1 ) ,:ite ,bir* int]mix$4 ,t[>ds ! nor!rn b\nd>y ! p9e increases1 9 m & m op5 /&s z "o goes nor?w>d into ! dri] climate4 ,an op5 /unt$ gr[? ( bir* & asp5 =ms ! transition to ! treeless tundra4 ,a treeless alp9e region occupies ! nor?we/]n fronti]1 fr+$ at l[] elevations by a belt ( bir* 9 natural coppice1 a result ( repeat$ fires4 ,! nor!a/]n "p is a level coa/ pla91 b ! climate is too sev]e = agriculture & ! =e/ gr[? also is %ort & ( inf]ior quality4 ,l>ge areas ( swampl& are f\nd 9 ne>ly all p>ts1 recov]able = f>m or =e/ use1 & mismanag$ & deva/at$ =e/ areas are f\nd all ov] ! c\ntry4 ,! =e/1 ne>ly #aj acres p] capita1 on acc\nt ( its accessibility to ! sea by means ( ! _m riv]s1 plays an important rle 9 ! economy ( ,sw$51 n only because x cov]s su* a l>ge area & favorable composition 7#hj conif]\s71 b because x has long be5 a prom95t s\rce ( income4 ,especially aft] ! abolition ( ! ,engli% import duties1 9 #ahff1 & ( ! ,sw$i% export duties :i* _h re/rict$ trade1 9 #ahfc1 did a rapid increase 9 wood exports take place1 until 9 #aijj1 x am\nt$ to ov] #ed million doll>s 7( :i* #ab million = wood5w>e71 be+ ! lead+ export article & repres5t+ ov] "o-half ( all exports4 ,9 addition to ?is export :i* may repres5t at lea/ a r\nd #cjj million cubic feet ( wood1 !re are ab\t #bej million cubic feet ( pulpwood & #aej million feet us$ = *>coal1 besides ! dome/ic fuel consumption4 ,! total draft on ! =e/ may be e/imat$ to come ne> to #a1bjj million cubic feet :i* is believ$ f> 9 excess ( ! annual gr[?1 mu* ( ! ne>ly #ej million acres ( =e/ area hav+ be5 deva/at$ or det]iorat$ by axe & fire & be+ locat$ 9 a nor!rn zone :]e ! gr[? is sl[ 7#a in* 9 #ab to #ae ye>s74 ,accord+ to o!rs1 ! cut rema9s bel[ ! increm5t by ab\t #be p] c5t41 ! latt] be+ figur$ at #be cubic feet p] acre4 ,9 ! ,/ate =e/s1 to be sure1 mo/ly locat$ 9 ! m nor!rn ti]s1 ! cut is kept betwe5 #f & #g cubic feet effective1 b "h a wa/e ( sometimes #dj is incurr$ 9 ! exploitation due to ! difficulties 9 transport4 #a4 ,prop]ty ,conditions4 ,x 0 ,gu/av ,vasa :o1 9 #aedb1 decl>$ all uncultivat$ l&s ! prop]ty ( ! ,cr[n4 ,p>ts ( !m1 h[ev]1 7 giv5 to coloni/s1 & ^! z well z ! resid5t population _h ! "r to use ! neighbor+ =e/ to supply _! ne$s = wood & pa/ure4 ,by ! cont9u$ ex]cise ( ?is "r1 ! =e/ came to be consid]$ commons1 propriet>y rights rema9+ long 9 d\bt4 ,f9ally1 a division came ab\t1 "s ( ! l&s becom+ ! prop]ty ( ! p>i%es1 o!rs ( small] di/ricts 7! hundr$s71 o!rs aga9 encumb]$ or un5cumb]$ prop]ty ( ! ,/ate1 & "s rema9$ 9 jo9t own]%ip ( ,/ate & private individuals "u v>i\s complicat$ conditions4 ,! ,/ate n[ owns some:at ov] #af million acres1 ( :i*1 h[ev]1 only #gj are really =e/1 & controls m or less #d million m1 ( :i* ab\t #ijj1jjj acres are ecclesia/ical b5efices & =e/s belong+ to public in/itutions1 & #b4g million acres 9 ,/ate f>ms1 :i* are r5t$4 ,s9ce #ahge1 ! ,/ate has pursu$ a policy ( pur*ase1 :i* has add$ ov] #ejj1jjj acres 7at #g p] acre7 to ! doma94 ,lately1 ?is policy has f\nd consid]able opposition4 ,9 ?is way1 by re=e/+1 & by settlem5t ( disput$ titles ! ,/ate prop]ty 9 absolute possession ( ! gov]nm5t has gr[n by ne>ly #e p] c5t41 to #aj million acres4 ,9 ,lapl& ! entire =e/ area us$ to belong to ! ,/ate1 b 9 ord] to attract settl]s ^! 7 giv5 =e/ prop]ty = _! own use1 f #aj to #ajj times ! area :i* !y _h cle>$4 ,?is =e/ area ! settl]s dispos$ ( to wood m]*ants 7lumb]m571 until ! law ( #ahgc int]v5$1 re/rict+ ! settl]s to ! usufruct alone1 ! gov]nm5t tak+ *>ge ( ! cutt+ ( wood = sale & limit+ ! cut to a diamet] ( #h in* at #af feet f ! base4 ,?is int]f]5ce ) :at 0 suppos$ to be private rights seems to h be5 res5t$1 & has l$ to wa/eful practices1 9 ! abs5ce ( a suffici5t =ce ( =e/ gu>ds4 ,nev]!less ! law 0 ext5d$ to ,we/]bott5 9 #ahhb4 ,9 o!r prov9ces1 ,w]ml&1 ,ge/rikl&1 etc41 ! gov]nm5t ve/$ 9 ! own]s or ironworks ! "r to supply !mselves ) *>coal f ,/ate =e/s4 ,b ab\t ! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury1 :51 ow+ to railroad developm5t 9 o!r p>ts1 "s ( ! ironworks became unremun]ative & 7 ab&on$1 _! own]s cont9u$ to hold on to ! =e/ privileges1 & by & by ex]cis$ !m by cutt+ & saw+ lumb] = sale1 or ev5 by sell+ ! =e/ areas z if !y 7 _! prop]ties2 & 9 ?is way ^! prop]ties *ang$ h&s until sudd5ly ! gov]nm5t began to *all5ge titles1 & comm5c$ litigation1 ab\t #ahif4 ,grants ( c]ta9 log cutt+ privileges on gov]nm5t l&s 7 also made to sawmills 9 pa/ times1 usually by all[+ sawmill]s to cut a c]ta9 numb] ( logs annually at a v l[ price4 ,9 #ahgj ^! grants1 :i* 7 v lucrative1 7 modifi$ by sub/itut+ ! "r ( an increas$ cut = a /at$ numb] ( ye>s at a modifi$ price1 aft] :i* ! grant 0 to cease4 ,9 #aijj1 !re 7 /ill "s #cjj1jjj acres "u su* grants4 ,no wond] t "u ^! circum/ances ! value ( ! ,/ate =e/ prop]ty 01 9 #ahih1 assess$ at only #a4fj p] acre2 ! net income be+ #a1fhj1gec1 or ab\t #ab c5ts p] acre2 ! exp5ditures = adm9i/ration1 sup]vision1 & =e/ s*ool am\nt+ to #dbc1fei1 to :i* %\ld be add$ an undet]m9$ am\nt = ! p>ticipation ( ! doma9 bureau1 ! agricultural dep>tm5t & prov9cial gov]nm5ts1 all tak+ "p 9 ! =e/ adm9i/ration4 ,_m ( ! t[ns & c\ntry di/ricts 7ha]ad7 h receiv$ donations ( =e/ areas f ! ,cr[n1 :i* h be5 a consid]able s\rce ( rev5ue to !m4 ,! p>i% ( ,orsa1 e4g41 realiz$ f its =e/ prop]ty "s #b4e million doll>s1 & o!r simil> results are record$4 ,^! communal & in/itute =e/s ( v>i\s description comprise some:at ov] #b4f million acres1 or #e4e1 & are plac$ "u managem5t ( local committees1 ) ! gov]nor ( ! prov9ce z *airman4 ,! managem5t consi/s 9 sell+ /umpage ( all trees ov] #ac in*es 9 diamet] #e feet above gr\nd1 to be cut by ! pur*as] "u regulations4 ,9 ! ye>s f #ahdj to #ahej1 ! gov]nm5t sold to ,engli% wood m]*ants consid]able tracts ( timb]l&1 & 9 ! latt] "p ( ! #ai? c5tury1 z ! sawmill indu/ry exp&$1 _m mill firms acquir$ wood-cutt+ leases = #ej ye> t]ms = prices :i* 7 (t5 realiz$ f ! =e/ 9 ! fir/ w9t]4 ,at pres5t long] leases ?an = #bj ye>s are prohibit$ by law4 ,! diamet] limit ( #ab in*es1 #ah or #bj feet above gr\nd1 0 usually ! basis ( ! leases2 & z ! own]s c\ld !n lease away o!r sizes1 x might happ5 t #b or #c p]sons besides ! orig9al own] w\ld h prop]ty rights 9 ! same =e/4 ,( late ye>s _m ( ! mill own]s h endeavor$ to get rid ( ! result+ inconv5i5ce by buy+ ! fee-simple ( ! l&4 ,?is movem5t has result$ 9 ! aggregation ( l>ge areas 9 s+le h&s or m (t5 9 ! h&s ( l>ge mill companies4 ,by ! acquisition ( ^! prop]ties a c]ta9 am\nt ( cultivat$ l& is usually includ$1 :i* is !n left to ! =m] own] at a nom9al r5t1 provid$ t he pays ! taxes on ! :ole2 !reby creat+ a class ( r5t]s 9 lieu ( own]s ( f>ms4 ,! area ?us privately own$1 mo/ly by sawmill companies1 mu/ be ov] #be million acres2 ! total private =e/ area1 :i* includes ! bulk ( ! comm]cial =e/1 is ab\t #cj million acres 7#fa4c71 unreclaimable wa/e l&s swell+ ! figure to ov] #ej million4 #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy4 ,f ! times ( ,olaf ,tratlja1 ! fir/ ,*ri/ian k+ ( ,sw$5 7ab\t #ajjj ,a4,d471 :o ga9$ fame by ! "p he took 9 exploit+ ! =e/s ( ,w]ml&1 d[n to ! #ad? c5tury ,sw$5 suff]$ f a sup]abundance ( =e/4 ,nev]!less1 by ! end ( t c5tury re/riction ( ! wilful de/ruction by fire 0 felt necess>y1 & an ord9ance ) t object 9 view 0 promulgat$4 ,x is que/ionable :e!r ?is ord] _h any effect 9 a c\ntry1 :]e ! home/ead law provid$1 t a settl] might take up 8z mu* pa/ure & arable l& z he c\ld make use (1 twice z mu* =e/1 & 9 addition on ea* side ( ?is home/ead z mu* z a lame man c\ld g ov] on crut*es )\t re/+40 ,n till #afch1 d we aga9 f9d an attempt at =e/ cons]vancy1 ?is "t 9 ! int]e/ ( supply ( *>coal = ! iron indu/ry1 by ! appo9tm5t ( ov]se]s ( ! public =e/s4 ,! fir/ g5]al =e/ code1 h[ev]1 dates f #afdg1 :i* among o!r useless prescriptions made ! exi/+ usage ( plant+ two trees = e "o cut obligatory1 & ?is provision rema9$ on ! /atutes until #aghi4 ,9 spite ( ?is & o!r1 re/rictive1 laws1 exploitation by ! liege lords & ! communities cont9u$ until1 9 #agbj1 a director ( =e/s = ! two s\!rn di/ricts1 ,hall& & ,bohus1 0 appo9t$1 &1 at lea/ 9 ?is "p ( ! c\ntry1 ! execution ( ! laws 0 plac$ "u a special (fic]4 ,?is appo9tm5t may be consid]$ ! fir/ g]m ( ! lat] =e/ dep>tm5t4 ,a policy ( re/riction seems to h prevail$ dur+ ! entire #ah? c5tury1 al?\gh x is que/ionable :e!r ! re/rictions 7 en=c$ s9ce !re 0 no p]sonnel to wat* ov] _! en=cem5t1 & ! gov]nors1 9 ^: h&s ! jurisdiction lay1 _h o!r int]e/s1 m engross+4 ,a law1 enact$ 9 #agcd1 re/rict$ ! peasant =e/ own]s 9 ! sale ( wood f _! own prop]ties1 &1 9 #aghi1 ?is re/riction & o!r sup]vision 0 ext5d$ to ^? ( ! nobility4 ,x appe>s t soon aft] ?is a consid]able s5tim5tal solicitude inside & outside ! ,riksdag 0 ar\s$ reg>d+ an appreh5d$ det]ioration ( climate z well z sc>city ( wood z a result ( fur!r =e/ de/ruction--9 ! light ( pres5t exp]i5ce a r amus+ anticipation4 ,^! j]emiads1 h[ev]1 aft] an unsatisfactory attempt at legislation 9 #agic1 l$1 9 #agih1 to ! appo9tm5t ( a commission :i* report$ aft] #e ye>s ( inve/igation4 ,a new set ( =e/ regulations 0 enact$ z a result 9 #ahje4 ,9 fur!r prosecution ( ^! attempts at regulat+ =e/ use a commission]1 ,pr(4 ,f4 ,w4 ,radl(f1 0 s5t to ,g]many1 9 #ahji1 to /udy me?ods employ$ 9 t c\ntry4 ,long be=e t "t1 ab\t #agfb1 "s ( ! iron ma/]s1 own+ l>ge =e/ areas _h import$ a commission ( ,g]man =e/ exp]ts 7among !m von ,lang5 & ,zan?i]1 ! same :o _h done simil> "w 9 ,norway & ,d5m>k7 ) a view ( sy/ematiz+ ! =e/ use2 b app>5tly )\t result4 ,aft] mu* discussion ( ,radl(f's report1 & consultation ) ! prov9cial gov]nors1 :o sugge/$ ! propriety ( diff]5t plans = diff]5t localities1 new legislation 0 _h 9 #ahaj1 #ahah1 #ahbc1 & new regulations = ! cr[n =e/s 7 issu$ 9 #ahbd4 ,yet at ?is v "t n only ! p>tition ( ! communal =e/s b also ! sale ( t[n =e/s 0 ord]$2 & ?is policy ( dismemb]m5t la/$ till #ahff1 ov] #a million acres hav+ be5 sold by t "t4 ,nor 0 any dim9ution 9 wa/eful practices to be not$ z a result ( legislation1 & x seems t1 :ile on ! "o h& re/rictive policies 7 discuss$ & enact$1 on ! o!r h& uncons]vative me?ods 7 enc\rag$4 ,inde$1 9 #ahdf1 ! !n exi/+ re/rictions ( ! export trade 7 remov$2 app>5tly a rev]sion ( re/rictive policy _h set 91 & exploitation increas$1 9 ! belief ( inexhau/ible supplies4 ,on ! o!r h&1 enc\ragem5t ( re=e/ation 0 s\ght by giv+ b\nties = plant+ wa/e l& & = leav+ a c]ta9 numb] ( se$ trees 9 ! fell+ areas1 also by pay+ rew>ds = ! be/ plantations2 all )\t result4 ,mean:ile a *eck to ! wood trade _h occurr$ ?r\gh ! imposition ( exorbitant cu/oms duties by ,great ,brita91 & at ! same "t ! gov]nm5t impos$ an export duty to disc\rage export f ,norrl&1 & ?is 0 n abat$ until #aheg4 ,a fur!r project ( =e/ sup]vision 0 attempt$ ?r\gh a report by a new commission appo9t$ 9 #ahbh1 :i* =mulat$ rules = ! control ( public & private =e/s1 & recomm5d$ ! e/abli%m5t ( a ,c5tral bureau = ! managem5t ( =e/ affairs1 z well z ! organization ( a ,=e/ ,in/itute1 = ! tea*+ ( =e/ry4 ,?is ,in/itute 0 e/abli%$ at ,/ockholm 9 #ahbh1 b1 in/ead ( organiz+ ! bureau1 ! director ( t in/itute 0 *>g$ ) ! duties ( su* bureau4 ,aga9 = ye>s1 committee reports foll[$ ea* o!r1 b l$ to no satisfactory solution ( ! problems4 ,9 #ahcf1 h[ev]1 a =e/ry corps 7skog/at57 0 organiz$ = ! managem5t ( ! ,/ate =e/s "u ! direction ( ! ,=e/ ,in/itute1 &1 z a result ( p]si/5t propag&a1 ! c5tral bureau ( =e/ adm9i/ration 7skogs/yrels57 0 creat$ 9 #ahei ) ,bjrkman at ! head1 *>g$ ) ! sup]vision ( all ! ,/ate1 royal1 communal & o!r public =e/s1 & ! control ( private =e/ use4 ,! law ( #ahei1 h[ev]1 did n settle ^u any new policy ( control ov] private =e/ prop]ties4 ,aga9 & aga91 =e/ committees 7 appo9t$ to propose prop] me?ods ( su* control1 b n until #aijc 0 a g5]al law enact$1 :i* 0 to g into effect on ,janu>y #a1 #aije4 ,previ\s to ?is1 locally applicable laws 7 enact$4 ,9 #ahff1 a law 0 pass$ :i* ref]r$ only to a p>ticul> class ( private l&s1 namely ^? =e/s ( ,norrl& :i* ! ,/ate 0 to dispose ( = gr\nd r5t1 or :i* _h be5 dispos$ ( & on :i* ! conditions ( settlem5t _h n be5 fulfill$4 ,9 #ahfi1 a law applicable only on ! isl& ( ,gotl& provid$ a dim5sion limit1 & t 9 case ( neglect ( reg5]ation on private fell+s ! own] may n cut any m wood = sale1 until ! neglect _h be5 rem$i$4 ,exactly 9 ! same mann] z ! home/ead & o!r colonization laws 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates h be5 abus$ to get hold ( public timb] l&s1 s 9 ,sw$5 l>ge areas ( gov]nm5t l& _h be5 tak5 up = settlem5t1 b actually 7 exploit$4 ,x 0 to rem$y ?is evil t 9 #ahfj an exam9ation ( ! public l&s 0 ord]$ ) a view ( )draw+ portions f settlem5t & ( mak+ =e/ res]vations4 ,! royal ord9ance ( #ahff result$1 :i* 0 to regulate ! cutt+ on settl$ l&s & 9 su* new settlem5ts z 7 !reaft] all[$4 ,"h1 private own]s at fir/ 7 all[$ to cut only = _! own use1 & ! new law prescrib$ ! am\nt ( ye>ly cut & requir$ ! m>k+ ( timb] design$ = sale by ! gov]nm5t (fic]s4 ,?is 8compulsory m>k+0 or 8,lapl&0 law ) a dim5sion limit1 01 9 #ahgc1 ext5d$ to all private =e/s 9 ,norbott51 & 9 #ahhh1 to ,ve/]bott54 ,?is law limits ! diamet] to :i* fell+s are to be made 7#h in*es at #ae feet f base71 & if ! cutt+ ( small] trees is deem$ desirable = ! b5efit ( ! =e/ ^! are to be designat$ by =e/ (ficials4 ,! law = ,gotl& 0 r5ew$ 9 #ahid1 add+ a re=e/ation clause1 ! gov]nor be+ au?oriz$ to prohibit %ipp+ ( timb] "u #h in* diamet]1 & t n until new gr[? 0 e/abli%$2 or at lea/ no new fell+s may be made until ?is condition is fulfill$4 ,! same law applies to s& dune plantations 9 o!r1 s\!rn di/ricts4 ,altoge!r "o-qu>t] ( ! private =e/ prop]ty 0 9 ?is mann] subject$ to re/rictions1 until ! pres5t cons]vation law came into exi/5ce4 ,?is law1 ( #aijc1 :i* became op]ative 9 #aije1 0 ! result ( a mo/ pa9/ak+1 ext5d$ canvass by ! legislative committee1 appo9t$ 9 #ahif1 :i* report$ 9 #ahii1 & ( a fur!r canvass by ! ,director ( ,doma9s1 :o report$ 9 #aija4 ,a l>ge am\nt ( te/imony f private =e/ own]s1 sawmill m51 prov9cial & local gov]nm5t (ficials1 etc41 0 accumulat$1 & x may be reasonably expect$ t ?is new legislation w be m effective ?an mo/ ( ! prec$+ seems to h be54 ,! law requires 9 g5]al t]ms ! application ( =e/ry pr9ciples 9 ! managem5t ( private woodl&s4 ,= ?is purpose1 a ,=e/ ,protection ,committee1 "o = ea* prov9ce1 is con/itut$ :i* has surveillance ov] all private =e/s1 an in/itution simil> to t exi/+ 9 ,russia4 ,! ,committee1 or ,=e/ ,cons]vation ,bo>d1 consi/s ( ?ree p]sons :o are appo9t$ = ?ree ye>s1 "o by ! gov]nm5t1 "o by ! ,c\nty ,c\ncil1 "o by ! manag+ committee ( ! ,c\nty ,agricultural ,society4 ,9 addition1 :]e ! communities desire1 elect$ ,=e/ ,cons]vation ,commission]s may be in/itut$ to make sure ( ! en=cem5t ( ! law4 ,! ,bo>d secures ! s]vices ( an exp]t advis] f ! ,/ate =e/ s]vice paid by ! gov]nm5t b leaves to ! ,bo>d discretion z to ! int]pretation ( ! law :i* is = ! mo/ "p express$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 to secure cons]vative managem5t4 ,h5ce diff]5t ,bo>ds h work$ 9 diff]5t ways1 b gradually all are com+ to simil> me?ods1 & all apply p]suasive means r ?an =ce4 ,! law requires reg5]ation1 b does n prescribe detail me?ods z to h[ re-gr[? is to be obta9$1 leav+ ^! to be det]m9$ by ! ,bo>d 9 consultation ) ! own]s4 ,if no agreem5t c be arriv$ at1 or if ! measures /ipulat$ are n tak5 by ! own]1 ! ,bo>d may en=ce its rul+s by ,c\rt proce$+s1 9 :i* injunctions to prev5t fur!r lumb]+1 confiscation ( logs1 or ( lumb]1 or money f9es may be adjudg$4 ,! "t ( contracts = logg+ rights is r$uc$ f #bj to #e ye>s4 ,%ort c\rses ( in/ruction to =e/ own]s1 & ! issu+ ( popul>ly writt5 te*nical publications 7,folkskrift]7 is "o ( ! effici5t me?ods ( secur+ ! result1 :i* seems to h be5 atta9$ 9 ! few ye>s s9ce ! law is 9 op]ation1 namely 9 ar\s+ su* int]e/ t opposition has become v small4 ,an export duty 7#d to #h c5ts p] #ajj cubic feet ( timb]1 #h to #ad c5ts p] ton ( dry wood pulp7 is levi$ = ! purpose ( c>ry+ out ! law ! export duty am\nt+ to ov] #afj1jjj1 & a m g5]al export duty is "u contemplation4 ,! managem5t ( communal =e/ is to be plac$ "u ! ,/ate =e/ adm9i/ration1 ! corporations pay+ #a4f;c4 p] acre2 b ?is feature does n seem entirely settl$4 ,protective =e/s "u special regulations are e/abli%$ at ! alp9e fronti] & on ! drift-s& pla9s1 :i* are plant$ up4 #c4 ,=e/ ,adm9i/ration & ,=e/ry ,practice4 ,! c5tral =e/ry bureau z x exi/s n[ 0 organiz$ 9 #ahhc z ! ,doma9 ,bureau 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture )1 at pres5t1 a =e/] z ,g5]al ,director1 & "u x a =e/ry corps 7skog/at57 7reorganiz$ 9 #ahij7 :i* has *>ge ( ! public =e/s1 & also ( ! =e/ control 9 ! private =e/s :]e su* control exi/s outside ( ! ,cons]vation ,bo>ds4 ,= ! purpose ( ?is adm9i/ration ! c\ntry is divid$ into #aj di/ricts1 ea* "u an inspector 7or fv]jgm/>e72 ! di/ricts are divid$ into ranges 7revir71 n[ #ij1 ea* "u a *ief ( range 7or jgm/>e7 ) assi/ants & gu>ds 7kronojg>e72 ! nom5clature ( ! (fic]s sugge/+ ! hunt r ?an ! =e/ managem5t4 ,9 addition1 #f =e/ eng9e]s are employ$ on work+ plans1 eng9e]+ works1 & 9 giv+ advice & assi/ance to private own]s :o pay = su* s]vice4 ,:5 x is /at$ t ! ranges 9 ! nor!rn prov9ces av]age ov] #cjj1jjj acres ( public & #djj1jjj acres ( private =e/2 9 c5tral ,sw$5 #aej1jjj acres ( public & #ade1jjj acres ( private =e/1 & 9 ! s\!rn prov9ces ne>ly #ee1jjj acres ( ,/ate & communal =e/1 x w be und]/ood t ! control _c be v /rict4 ,! net rev5ue f ! ,/ate =e/ dur+ ! la/ #cj ye>s has increas$ f #cjj1jjj to #a1gej1jjj4 ,! managem5t ( ev5 ! ,/ate =e/s c only be v ext5sive4 ,! ,/ate /ill sells mo/ly /umpage1 r>ely cutt+ on its own acc\nt4 ,! lumb]+ is c>ri$ on v mu* z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates by logg+ contractors1 & ! riv] driv+ is done sy/ematically by boom+ companies4 ,selection =e/ is /ill ! g5]al practice1 n[ (t5 improv$ into gr\p sy/em1 al?\gh a cle> cutt+ sy/em ) plant+ has be5 practis$1 b is suppos$ to be less desirable1 probably because x entails a direct money outlay or else because x 0 n prop]ly done4 ,a se$ tree managem5t pref]r$ by private own]s = p9e seems frequ5tly n successful4 ,( ! ,/ate =e/s #ij are "u selection sy/em1 & ( ! private =e/ #fj4 ,9 ! s\!rn prov9ces :]e plant+ is m frequ5tly resort$ to1 #b-c ye> old p9es & #b-e ye> old spruces1 nurs]y-gr[n1 #b1jjj to ! acre1 are g5]ally us$ or else s[+ 9 se$spots is resort$ to1 :i* is m frequ5tly practis$ 9 ! middle c\ntry4 ,"s #aj1jjj acres 71 = in/ance1 plant$ by ! =e/ adm9i/ration 9 #ahih1 at a co/ ( #b p] acre1 & ! budget conta9s annually ab\t #bj1jjj = su* plant+4 ,t private endeavor 9 ! direction ( plant+1 has also be5 active1 is te/ifi$ by a plantation ( ov] #bf1jjj acres1 n[ #ce ye>s old1 report$ f ,f9spong ,e/ate4 ,complete work+ plans are r>e ev5 = ! ,/ate =e/s1 a m]e summ>y fell+ budget be+ det]m9$ = mo/ areas1 ! trees to be cut be+ m>k$4 ,"u in/ructions issu$ 9 #ahif1 work+ plans = ! small proportion ( ,/ate =e/ managem5t by cle>+ sy/em are to be made4 ,9 ^! an area allotm5t me?od is employ$ ) rotations ( #ajj to #aej ye>s4 ,=e/ fires are /ill v de/ructive1 especially 9 nor!rn ,sw$51 al?\gh an effective patrol sy/em1 greatly assi/$ 9 "s prov9ces by wat* t[]s1 has r$uc$ ! size ( ! areas burnt ov]4 ,! conif]\s composition & ! dry summ]s 9 ! nor!rn "p toge!r ) ! me?ods ( lumb]+ are responsible = ! conflagrations4 ,9 ?is direction too1 ! activities ( ! ,cons]vation ,bo>ds h be5 highly useful4 #d4 ,education & ,lit]ature4 ,among ! propag&i/ lit]ature1 :i* _h advanc$ ! introduction ( =e/ry ideas 9 ,sw$5 x is prop] to m5tion ! writ+s ( ,israel ,adolf ( ,/rm1 :o aft] ext5sive travels 9 ,g]many e/abli%$ ! fir/ private =e/ s*ool 9 #ahbc1 & 0 in/rum5tal 9 secur+ ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,/ate ,=e/ ,in/itute 9 ,/ockholm 7#ahbh74 ,9 reg>d to education a mo/ lib]al policy prevails4 ,at ! ,in/itute ! tuition is free & 9 addition #d /ud5ts receive s*ol>%ips ( #bej doll>s p] ye>2 appo9tm5t to assi/ant%ips foll[s imm$iately aft] promotion1 & 9 #aj ye>s ! position ( jgm/>e may be atta9$4 ,! numb] ( /ud5ts is limit$ to #cj4 ,! director ( ?is s*ool is also g5]al advis] 9 =e/ry matt]s4 ,besides ! director1 six pr(essors are employ$4 ,! c\rse at ?is s*ool is two ye>s ( #aa full mon?s4 ,!re are n[ a high] & a l[] c\rse1 ! =m] requir+ previ\s graduation f ano!r prep>atory =e/ s*ool1 ei!r ! "o at ,omb]g 7f\nd$ #ahhf71 or t at ,klot5 7#aijj71 :]e a "o-ye> c\rse1 ma9ly 9 practical "w1 is giv54 ,= ! l[] s]vice !re are n less ?an #f s*ools 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 ea* ) "o tea*] & assi/ants1 manag$ "u a *ief ( range4 ,9 ^!1 n only is tuition free b #aj pupils receive also bo>d & lodg+2 ! c\rse la/+ #h mon?s4 ,^! s*ools prep>e = ,/ate s]vice1 z well z = manag]s ( private =e/s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a =e/ exp]im5t /ation 0 organiz$ 9 #aijc1 an indep5d5t in/itution 9 ! ,doma9 ,bureau1 "u ! direct *>ge ( a practition]4 ,e ?ird ye>1 a commission is to det]m9e :at "w is to be und]tak54 ,! appropriation1 :i* s f> is h>dly #e1jjj p] annum1 w n p]mit mu* expansion4 ,! fir/ numb] ( its publication1 ,m$del&5 fran ,/at5s ,skogsfrsksan/alt1 0 issu$ 9 #aijd1 & "w ( a sup]ior "* has be5 accompli%$ s9ce !n4 99 99 99 99 99 ,t a =e/ry public exi/s 9 ,sw$5 is atte/$ by a =e/ association ) an organ ,skogsv>ds ,fr5+5s ,tidskrift1 :i* 0 f\nd$ 9 #aijb4 ,?is j\rnal is really ! cont9uation ( an e>li] magaz9e1 ,tidskrift = ,skog%u%alln+1 a qu>t]ly1 begun 9 #ahfi & runn+ until #aijc4 ,a =e/ry association = ,norrl& alone :i* also issues a ye>book1 0 organiz$ a few ye>s ago4 ,a p]iodical = rang]s1 etc41 is also 9 exi/5ce "u ! "n ( ,skogsvnn54 ,9 #aijb also1 !re 0 =m$ a lumb]man's tru/ to regulate ! output1 :i* ! =e/ own]s propos$ to meet by an associat$ ef=t to raise /umpage *>ges4 ,! attempt ( ! lumb]m5 to re/rict ! cut 9 #aijb 01 h[ev]1 a failure1 = ! export ( t ye> 0 #aj l>g] ?an ! previ\s ye>4 ,x is expect$ t ! new law w h ! t5d5cy ( decreas+ ! cut & ( inaugurat+ a new era 9 =e/ry matt]s g5]ally4 ,,norway4 ,orig9ally divid$ up among a numb] ( petty k+s1 ,norway 0 br\ght "u "o rule by ,h>old 9 #hfc2 & unit$ to ,d5m>k 9 ! #aa? c5tury1 becom+ gradually a m]e dep5d5cy4 ,its lat] political =tunes & *ang+ relations ) ,d5m>k & ,sw$5 h be5 ref]r$ to on p4 #bhf4 ,! hi/ory ( ! =e/ry developm5t1 h[ev]1 has proce$$ m or less indep5d5tly ( ! o!r two c\ntries4 ,norway1 occupy+ ) #abd1dde squ>e miles ov] "o-?ird ( ! ,sc&9avian p59sula1 is = ! mo/ "p a m\nta9\s plateau ) deep valleys & lakes4 ,its num]\s fjords & wat] ways make accessible mu* ( ! int]ior m\nta9 =e/1 yet a l>ge "p ( ! inl& area /ill rema9s inaccessible & trackless4 ,m ?an #ge ( ! c\ntry is wa/e l& & wat]2 only #c 9 f>ms1 leav+ = ! =e/ area #ba1 or little ov] #ag million acres4 ,accord+ to late/ data 7#aijg7 f ?is productive area a fur!r #b million acres mu/ be d$uct$ z non-produc+4 ,! di/ribution ( ?is =e/ area is mo/ unev54 ,! bulk & ! mo/ valuable portion ( x is f\nd 9 ! s\?-ea/]n corn] ar\nd ,*ri/iania 9 eight c\nties1 9 :i* ! =e/ p] c5t4 exce$s #dj to #ej1 ) conif] gr[? 7p9e & spruce7 up to ! #c1jjj foot level4 ,aga9 9 ! ?ree c\nties ar\nd ,trondhjem a l>ge & important =e/ area is locat$ at ! head ( ! fjords4 ,b ! entire we/]n coa/ & ! high] elevations are devoid ( valuable =e/ gr[? & ! nor!rn ?ird ( ! c\ntry 7nor? ( ! ,arctic circle7 is mo/ly hea? & moors ) only #g wood$1 ma9ly bir* gr[? ( little comm]cial value4 ,! comm]cially important =e/ area is1 !re=e1 locally conf9$4 ,x is e/imat$ t "o-half ( ! t]ritory has to import its lumb]1 "o-qu>t] has suffici5t = home consumption1 & ! excess :i* p]mits exportation is conf9$ to ! la/ qu>t]4 ,?is export1 mo/ly 9 logs & /aves1 :i* am\nts to ne>ly #bj million doll>s 7#dj ( ! total export7 half ( x woodpulp is e/imat$ to repres5t only "o-fif? or "o-six? ( ! total cut1 :i* is /at$ z ab\t #cej million cubic feet1 or at ! rate ( #bc cubic feet on ! productive area :ile ! annual gr[? is e/imat$ at less ?an ?is am\nt1 namely at ! rate ( ne>ly #ba cubic feet 9 ! s\!rn di/ricts1 & 9 ! nor!rn n ov] #ab cubic feet4 ,scot* ,p9e is ! pr9cipal timb]1 & occurs beyond ! ,arctic ,circle--! nor!rnmo/ =e/ 9 ! _w--:]e its rotation becomes #aej to #bjj ye>s1 ) ,norway ,spruce m or less localiz$1 ^! two species =m+ #ge p] c5t4 ( ! =e/ gr[?2 oak1 a%1 basswood & elm occurr+ sporadically1 & ,:ite ,bir* be+ ubiquit\s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,=e/ prop]ty develop$ on ! same l9es z 9 ,sw$5 & 9 o!r ,european c\ntries1 h5ce we f9d ,/ate1 communal1 & private prop]ty4 ,:5 9 ! n9? c5tury1 ^u ,h>old's accession1 ! commons 7 decl>$ ! prop]ty ( ! k+1 ! rights ( us]1 bo? to wood & graz+1 7 reta9$ by ! mrk]1 & ! s-call$ ,/ate commons 7/ats-alm5n+]7 rema9 to date encumb]$ by ^! rights1 simil> to conditions 9 ,sw$54 ,f ! end ( ! #ag? to ! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury x 0 ! policy ( ! k+s to dispose ( ^! commons :5ev] _! ex*equ] 0 l[1 & ! be/ ( ^! l&s became1 by pur*ase1 prop]ty ( ! di/ricts 7bygdealm5n+71 prov9ces1 city & village corporations1 or else became private prop]ty on :i* ! rights ( us] cont9u$ 7privatalm5n+]74 ,at pres5t ! ,/ate owns1 l>gely 9 ! nor!rn di/ricts1 some:at ov] #d4h million acres 7#bh4e72 b ( ?is h>dly #b million acres are productive1 & ( ^! productive acres half a million consi/s ( encumb]$ commons f :i* ! ,/ate receives h>dly any income4 ,! di/rict commons or communal1 & o!r public in/itute =e/s comprise ar\nd #g1hjj1jjj acres 7#df72 b "h aga9 only #ehj1jjj acres are productive4 ,! balance !n1 or a full "o-qu>t] is 9 private h&s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,export trade 9 wood _h be5 v e>ly c>ri$ on1 & _h be5 consid]ably develop$ 9 ! #ac? & #ad? c5tury4 ,by ! middle ( ! #ag? c5tury ! coa/ =e/ ( oak _h be5 cut out by ,dut* & ,engli% wood m]*ants :o _h obta9$ logg+ privileges "u special treaties ( #abag & #acjh1 & by ,hanseatic cities1 especially ,hamburg ent]+ ?is m>ket 9 ! middle ( ! #af? c5tury4 ,!re are records :i* w\ld make x appe> t at lea/ "s ( ! n[ d5ud$ coa/ 0 =e/$ 9 old5 times4 ,! developm5t ( ! iron indu/ry increas$ ! dra9 on ^! supplies1 :i* =e/ fires1 insects & excessive graz+ prev5t$ f recup]at+4 ,z e>ly z ! middle ( ! #af? c5tury we f9d attempts to arre/ ! deva/ation by regulat+ ! export trade & sup]vis+ ! sawmills1 =bidd+ especially ! erection ( sawmills int5d$ to "w = export only4 ,9 ! #ag? c5tury1 v>i\s commissions 7 appo9t$ by ,*ri/ian ,,iv to make =e/ reconnaissances & elaborate rules = prop] =e/ use4 ,9 #afhc1 ,*ri/ian ,v issu$ a =e/ ord9ance increas+ ! numb] ( =e/ inspectors in/itut$ by 8 pr$ecessor1 & giv+ 9 detail ! rules gov]n+ =e/ use1 _m ( :i* prov$ impractical4 ,9 #agbe1 a commission1 ! socall$ =e/ & sawmill commission1 0 appo9t$ to organize a =e/ s]vice4 ,x function$ until #agci1 :5 ! fir/ ,g5]al=/amt 0 e/abli%$ & ! fir/ attempt at real =e/ managem5t 0 made4 ,?is came into exi/5ce ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( two fam\s ,g]man =e/]s1 ,j4 ,g4 von ,lang5 & von ,zan?i]1 :o ) six assi/ants 7 call$ 9 f ! ,h>z m\nta9s 7z also aft]w>ds to ,d5m>k & ,sw$571 dur+ ! ye>s #agcf to #agdj1 to make a =e/ survey & organize a managem5t4 ,descriptions & in/ructions 7 elaborat$ 9 ,g]man & ! s]vice 0 l>gely mann$ by ,g]man 8wood =e/]s0 7holz=/]ne74 ,! /rictness ( ! dep>tm5t :i* _h be5 organiz$ aft] von ,lang5's dep>ture 9 #agci1 made x1 h[ev]1 unpopul>1 &1 9 #agdf1 x 0 aboli%$1 von ,zan?i] return+ to 8 c\ntry1 ! sole survivor1 ! o!r assi/ants hav+ succumb$ to scurvy4 ,! adm9i/ration 0 aga9 plac$ 9 ! h&s ( a commission :i* cont9u$ till #agfj4 ,only ! =e/s connect$ ) m9es rema9$ "u ! adm9i/ration z in/itut$1 & ^? belong+ to ! copp]works ( ,roras cont9u$ "u its =e/ inspectors until #aija4 ,9 t ye>1 #agfj1 ano!r %ortliv$ attempt to organize a =e/ adm9i/ration 0 made1 b ! new organization did n f>e any bett] & 0 sup]s$$ 9 #agga4 ,!n foll[$ an int]im regim51 dur+ :i* ! g5]al gov]nm5t & di/rict (fic]s 7 9 *>ge4 ,! old ord]s "u :i* =e/ use _h be5 regulat$ rema9$ mo/ly 9 =ce until 9 #agie all ! reasonable & ! unreasonable ob/ructions to export 7 remov$4 ,! sawmill privileges1 "u :i* ,engli% lumb]m5 held l>ge areas = long t]ms & deva/at$ !m )\t reg>d to ! impractical regulations1 71 h[ev]1 n end$ until #ahfj4 ,! wood indu/ries 7 !n reliev$ entirely f re/rictions1 & =e/ de/ruction progress$ ev5 m rapidly ) ! increas+ facilities = transportation4 ,?is f9al cessation ( ! de/ructive policy 0 ! outcome ( a campaign :i* />t$ once m ) a =e/ commission in/itut$1 9 #ahdi1 to take /ock & make new propositions4 ,?is commission report$ 9 #ahej1 & po9t$ out n only ! necessity ( t]m9at+ ! sawmill privileges1 :i* 0 done 9 #ahed1 giv+ "t till #ahfj1 b also v wisely acc5tuat$ ! ne$ ( te*nically educat$ =e/]s if any?+ = =e/ recup]ation 0 to be done4 ,to meet ?is latt] want1 "y m5 7 s5t to ,g]many at gov]nm5t exp5se to /udy =e/ry4 ,"s #aj or #ab m5 7 educat$ 9 ?is way dur+ ! next decade & !reby ! basis = a te*nical =e/ managem5t 0 laid4 ,9 #aheg1 ! fir/ two pr(essional =e/]s1 ,mejdell & ,b>?1 7 plac$ 9 *>ge ( affairs "u ! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t1 & :5 9 #ahei a new commission 0 *>g$ ) organiz+ a =e/ s]vice1 ^! two m5 7 memb]s4 ,gradually an organization took %ape "u ! direction ( ^! two =e/mei/]s1 &1 f9ally1 9 #ahfc1 ! mod]n =e/ dep>tm5t & =e/ policy 0 e/abli%$ by law1 plac+ ! ,/ate doma9 & o!r public =e/s "u an effective managem5t1 mak+ provision = ! ext9ction ( ! ru9\s rights ( us] & also = r$uc+ ! mismanagem5t ( private =e/s4 ,! =e/ s]vice1 z n[ con/itut$ aft] a reorganization 9 #aijf1 is 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture "u a director 7,skovdirector7 & #d ,=/mei/] or inspectors ) "s executive (fic]s "u v>i\s names1 & #cfj rang]s 7skogsvogt]nes71 includ+ ! rang]s employ$ 9 ! public =e/s outside ! ,/ate doma94 ,! ranges are s l>ge1 sometimes sev]al million acres1 & _m ( !m s inaccessible t only ! mo/ ext5sive managem5t is possible2 ! (ficials be+ poorly paid & poorly educat$1 ! managem5t is1 ( c\rse1 n ( a high ord]4 ,besides a 8=e/ eng9e]10 :o is a public lectur]1 ! (fic]s ( ! =e/ dep>tm5t are "u ! obligation ( advis+ private =e/ own]s 9 _! managem5t1 "u contracts some:at simil> to ! pres5t practice ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ry ,bureau1 ! own]s agree+ to foll[ ! advice4 ,s9ce #ahfj1 ! ,/ate has begun to pur*ase =e/ l&s = re=e/ation 9 ! =e/less di/ricts & :]e1 = protective reasons1 x is desirable4 ,9 late ye>s1 regul> appropriations ( #ae1jjj to #bj1jjj 7 annually made = ?is purpose1 besides extraord9>y grants4 ,9 ?is way1 ! cut-ov] l&s1 neglect$ by _! own]s1 are *eaply acquir$ by ! ,/ate4 ,besides its own plant+1 ! ,/ate assi/s private own]s by advice & money grants & plantmat]ial 9 re=e/+ _! wa/e l&s4 ,! communal =e/s are "u gov]nm5t sup]vision2 !y are usually work$ "u plans & "u sup]vision ( =e/]s ) a view to supply ! ne$s ( ! community4 ,only :5 ! area is m ?an suffici5t may !y obta9 ! "r to cut = sale outside ( _! p>i%2 on ! o!r h& all fell+s may be prohibit$ by ! gov]nm5t1 if ?is is f\nd desirable4 ,z reg>ds private prop]ty !re seems to be little or no sup]vision1 al?\gh ! law ( #ahfc _h decl>$ ,kulturplight & ,kulturtvank1 i4e41 ! duty ( re=e/+1 b x _h n def9$ t duty1 & ! law rema9$ a dead lett]4 ,9 #ahgd1 a special commission 0 *>g$ to consid] ! =e/ policy :i* ! public welf>e requir$4 ,! commission report$ 9 #ahgi ) propositions1 :i* 7 submitt$ to ! (ficials ( ! dep>tm5t & ! di/rict4 ,a new proposition 0 work$ out & submitt$ 9 #ahhb1 b x 0 pigeonhol$ until #ahia1 :5 ! =e/ adm9i/ration br\ght 9 n a g5]al law b "o m]ely =bidd+ ! export f ,nordl&1 ,tromsoe & ,f9m>k51 ! ?9ly =e/$ nor!rn prov9ces4 ,f9ally1 9 #ahic1 legislation 0 _h enabl+ municipalities to protect !mselves aga9/ de/ruction ( =e/s ne$$ = _! protective function4 ,?is gives to !m ! "r to =mulate rules :i* are to prev5t deva/ation1 z = in/ance a diamet] limit = fell+1 or re=e/ation ( cle>+s4 ,b ! co/s ( su* re/riction mu/ be borne by ! municipalities z well z half ! co/ ( inspection1 ! o!r half be+ paid by ! ,/ate4 ,! proc$ure to det]m9e ! protective quality ( =e/s & ! f9ancial difficulty h left ! law unus$4 ,9 #ahgh1 h[ev]1 a committee ( private own]s =m$ itself1 to fix ! s& dunes1 :i* ) ! ,/ate subv5tions />t$ "w ! foll[+ ye>4 99 99 99 99 99 ,_m ( ! ,/ate =e/s are s burd5$ ) rights ( us]1 :i* 7 grant$ to help 9 develop+ ! c\ntry1 t ! f9ancial results ( ! =e/ adm9i/ration & ! conditions ( ! ,/ate prop]ty are mo/ unsatisfactory1 & ! application ( silviculture greatly circumscrib$4 ,! silvicultural sy/em appli$ is mo/ g5]ally ! r\gh selection =e/ or an approa* to gr\p sy/em1 rely+ ^u volunt>y reproduction entirely4 ,managem5t is mu* hamp]$ by rights ( us] to c]ta9 dim5sions1 & 9 ! m di/ant di/ricts by ! difficulty ( dispos+ ( any b ! be/ sizes4 ,an ord]ly organization is /ill almo/ unkn[n4 ,! /umpage is sold & remov$ by ! buy] & ! axe is /ill ma9ly us$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,high] =e/ s*ools !re are none1 b ?ree s*ools = ! l[] grades _h exi/$ = "s "t1 ! fir/ hav+ be5 e/abli%$ 9 #ahge at ,kongsb]g2 "o ( !m 0 ab&on$ 9 #ahhi4 ,=e/ry is also taught at two f>m s*ools4 ,until rec5tly ! high] class =e/]s _h to get _! education 9 ,g]many1 or 9 ! ,sw$i% ,=e/ ,in/itute at ,/ockholm2 b 9 #ahgi1 a *air ( =e/ry 0 in/itut$ 9 ! ,agricultural college at ,kri/iania4 ,9 #ahha1 ! fir/ =e/ry association 0 =m$1 :i* by #ahih _h ov] #ejj memb]s1 & !n 0 re-organiz$ ) a special view to elevate private =e/ry practice4 ,x has n[ 7#aijg7 #a1ejj memb]s1 & employs a =e/] paid by ! ,/ate1 to give pr(essional advice1 & works ) ,/ate aid4 ,x has set out ov] #ej million trees besides s[+ #h1jjj lbs4 ( se$4 ,x publi%es a j\rnal ,tidskrift = ,skogsbruk1 & a ,ye>book4 ,!re is also ano!r j\rnal1 ,=/ligt ,tidskrift1 & a pr(essional ,society ( ,=e/]s4 ,altoge!r =e/ry is n yet on a high level 9 ?is c\ntry1 b ! subject is n[ be+ br\ght ev5 into ! prim>y s*ools1 & ! ef=ts to improve conditions are widespread4 ,,d5m>k4 ,=e/ry 9 ,d5m>k is ( int]e/ especially on acc\nt ( ! int5sive me?ods develop$ on small areas1 & ( ! ef=ts at re=e/ation ( s& dunes1 moors & hea?s4 ,greatly curtail$ 9 area :51 z a result ( ! w> ( #ahfd1 ,prussia deta*$ ! prov9ces ( ,s*leswig & ,hol/e91 ,d5m>k n[ has an area ( #ae1cfj squ>e miles ) #b4e million p 7or #afc to ! squ>e mile74 ,x is l>gely a f>m+ c\ntry1 #hj p] c5t4 be+ productive1 only #f4c p] c5t4 ( x1 or less ?an #fjj1jjj acres be+ "u =e/1 & ?is also mo/ly on soil capable ( f>m use2 h5ce an import ( ov] #g million doll>s wor? ( wood mat]ial is requir$4 ,9 addition1 !re are ab\t #ge1jjj acres ( hea?s & o!r wa/es 9 process ( re=e/ation4 ,especially on ! isl& ( ,sjll&1 on :i* ! capital ,cop5hag51 is situat$1 ! =e/ area is n[ increas+ by plant+4 ,! balance1 or ne>ly #bj p] c5t4 ( ! l& area1 consi/s ( hea?s1 moors1 peatbogs & s&s4 ,half ! =e/ area is locat$ on ! isl&s1 & z ^! repres5t ab\t "o-?ird ( ! total area1 !y are twice z d5sely =e/$ z ! p59sula ( ,jtl&4 ,?is latt] along ! nor? & we/ coa/ = #bjj miles repres5ts a l>ge s&bank ) ext5sive s& dunes1 %ift+ s&s1 hea?s & moors1 a desolate almo/ un9habit$ c\ntry ( /]ile d[ns1 call$ ,klitt51 ! recov]y ( :i* has be5 9 progress = a hundr$ ye>s4 ,accord+ to "s1 ?is once bore a conif]\s =e/1 m likely x 0 nev] =e/$4 ,:ile orig9ally bee* 0 & is /ill ! pr$om9ant timb] 7#fj7 ) consid]able additions ( oak 7#g7 & o!r h>dwoods1 a conif] =e/ ( spruce & p9e1 cov]+ m ?an #bj ( ! =e/ area1 has be5 e/abli%$ by plant+4 ,?is plant+ has be5 ma9ly done on ! dunes & s&wa/es1 & 9 ! reclamation ( ! ext5sive hea?s & moors or peat bogs1 especially 9 ! nor!rn ,limfjord di/rict1 :i* occupy "o-six? ( ! unproductive area4 99 99 99 99 99 ,z 0 natural1 ! =e/ /ock+ on good f>m l& _h to yield e>ly to pl[ & pa/ure4 ,attempts at cons]vative use ( ! =e/ area date back to #aeeg :5 ,*ri/ian ,,iii issu$ a =e/ ord9ance direct+ 8 vassals or liege lords to p]mit ! peasants to secure _! dome/ic wood requirem5ts at a *eap rate1 b n to p]mit cutt+ = sale or export1 & res]v+ to himself all returns f su* sales4 ,!re 7 also regulations = ! pa/ure1 especially z to goats1 & = ! use ( ! ma/1 :i* !n =m$ m ?an "o-qu>t] ( ! income f ! royal =e/s4 ,9 ! #ah? c5tury ! ne$ ( =e/ managem5t 0 recogniz$1 & 9 #agfb ! two em95t ,g]man =e/]s1 von ,lang5 & von ,zan?i] 7see p4 #hh7 7 invit$ to visit ,d5m>k & ,norway 7see above7 ) a view ( organiz+ su* managem5t4 ,9 #agfj1 eight "y ,danes 7 s5t to von ,lang5 9 ,w]nig]ode to /udy 8 me?ods = ?ree ye>s1 & ^! ) ! two ,g]man =e/]s return$ 9 #agfb1 & "u ! direction ( von ,lang5 organiz$ ! ,seel& =e/ areas & />t$ ! fir/ plantations ( conif]s1 :i* are n[ ! pride ( ,dani% =e/]s4 ,9 #agha1 ! ,/ate =e/s 7 altoge!r plac$ "u an organiz$ adm9i/ration4 ,by ! beg9n+ ( ! #ai? c5tury ! r$uction ( =e/ areas _h progress$ to su* an ext5t t1 9 #ahje1 a law 0 enact$ provid+ t ! !n exi/+ =e/ area conta9+ bee* & oak %\ld be ma9ta9$ z su* =ev]1 or at lea/ t = any new cle>+ an equival5t area be plant$ to =e/4 ,?is law 0 p]haps ! result ( a j\rney 9 #ahjb1 to ,g]many made by two lead+ (ficials ( ! =e/ dep>tm5t1 ,g]man influ5ce ?r\gh ,cotta & ,h>tig be+ at ?is "t visible ev]y:]e4 ,o!r re/rictions 9 ! disposal ( peasants' f>ms or woodl&s & 9 ! mann] ( f>m+ ! l>ge e/ates 7o!rwise ?an by r5t+ to f>m]s71 7 also enact$ 9 ord] to secure /ability ( ! peasant class4 ,x 0 at ?is "t t ! accumulative tax+ ( l&$ e/ates n[ "u heat$ discussion 9 ,great ,brita91 0 us$ effectively to break up ! aggregation ( l&$ prop]ty & *ang$ ! c\ntry f "o ( b>onial e/ates to small f>m]'s hold+s4 ,9 ?is re=m movem5t ! "n ( ,c\nt ,rev5tl[1 ,*ief ( ! ,/ate =e/ dep>tm5t1 appe>s z ! lead+ _s4 ,! =e/ area1 :i* until #ahbj 0 on ! decrease1 has s9ce t "t increas$ /eadily1 & is especially n[ increas+ ?r\gh re=e/ation ( wa/e l&s4 ,at pres5t1 mo/ int5sive =e/ managem5t is practis$ 9 ! ,/ate =e/ z well z 9 ! communal & private =e/ areas1 :i* latt] z /at$1 are l>gely 9 f>m]s' wood lots s9ce ! law =bids ! union ( small f>ms into l>ge e/ates4 ,!re is little communal prop]ty1 & l>ge private e/ates are also r>e4 ,! ,/ate owns ab\t #bd ( ! =e/ area or #adb1jjj acres1 ( :i* "o ?ird is nonproductive or o!rwise occupi$1 & "o ?ird consi/s ( conif]\s plantations4 ,except+ 9 ! bee* =e/1 mo/ ( ! timb] is ( ! y\ng] age classes1 bel[ #fj to #hj ye>s1 & x is anticipat$ t ! cut w h to be r$uc$1 & ! import ( wood & wood5w>e increas$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,artificial reproduction is ! mo/ g5]al silvicultural practice except 9 ! bee* =e/ :i* is reproduc$ naturally aft] prep>ation ( ! soil & s[+ acorns = admixture at ! same "t1 sp5d+ altoge!r #ab to #ae p] acre 9 ?is prep>ation4 ,s9ce #ahhj1 ?9n+s h be5 bas$ on ! idea ( favor+ f9al h>ve/ trees some:at aft] ! ,fr5* fa%ion2 !y are begun 9 ! tw5tie? to ?irtie? ye> & are repeat$ e ?ree ye>s1 aid$ by prun+4 ,!n 9 ea* subsequ5t decade ! return occurs 9 z _m ye>s z ! decade has t5s4 ,especially 9 ! direction ( ?9n+s1 ! ,g]man practice & ev5 !ory is outdone1 ! ?9n+s be+ made sev]] & recurr+ m frequ5tly4 ,m ?an a hundr$ ye>s ago ! ,/ate began ! reclamation "w ( ! dunes & hea?s1 b x progress$ m actively only s9ce ! sixties ( la/ c5tury z a result ( legislation _h 9 #aheg4 ,9 #ahfg1 a special ,dune ,dep>tm5t 0 in/itut$1 & ?r\gh ! ef=t ( a ,/ate eng9e]1 ,capt4 ,dalgas1 an association 0 =m$ = ! reclamation ( hea?s & moors4 ,a small subv5tion ( #fjj />t$ ! "w ( ! association1 9 its useful campaign "u ! advice ( ,/aats planteur 7,/ate =e/ plant]7 ,j5s5 ,tus*4 ,! ,/ate subv5tion n[ am\nts to ab\t =ty ?\s& doll>s annually1 & ! success ( ! association has be5 su* t x has become almo/ a fad = l>ge l& own]s & o!rs to buy up ^! wa/e l&s & h !m plant$ ?r\gh ! ag5ts ( ! ,hea? ,association4 ,! plant+ is ma9ly ( spruce 9 pl[ furr[s at a co/ ( #aj to #ab p] acre2 #fj to #hj ye> old /&s ( e>li] plant+s te/ify+ to ! possible results4 ,9 ! la/ #dj ye>s ne>ly #bjj1jjj acres ( hea? h be5 plant$1 ( :i* ov] "o-half are to ! cr$it ( ! association4 99 99 99 99 99 ,= ! education ( ! high] grade =e/]s a dep>tm5t ( =e/ry 7n[ ) two pr(essors7 0 in/itut$ 9 ! ,royal ,vet]9>y & ,agricultural ,high ,s*ool at ,cop5hag5 9 #ahfi1 ) a c\rse ( five ye>s includ+ "o & a half ye> ( practical "w4 ,?is education is giv5 free ( *>ge4 ,! ,hea? ,association educates its own (fic]s1 includ+ 9 _! subjects ! managem5t ( mead[s & peatbogs4 ,a ,=e/ry ,association1 compos$ "o-half ( =e/ own]s1 ) its organ ,tidskrift = ,skovvaes51 9 exi/5ce s9ce #ahhh1 & a valuable book lit]ature1 9 :i* ! problems ( ! hea? are especially fully & au?oritatively treat$1 places ,d5m>k 9 ! =emo/ rank 9 ! =e/ry _w 9 ^! p>ticul>s4 ,among ! prom95t contributors are to be m5tion$1 besides ,rev5tl[ & ,dalgas1 ,p4 ,e4 ,mll]1 well kn[n by 8 discussions ( ! problems ( moor soils4 ,f #ahgf to #ahia1 he issu$ a magaz9e1 9 :i* ,opp]mann contribut$ a hi/ory ( ,dani% =e/ry4 ,! latt] au?or also1 9 co-op]ation ) ,hau*1 publi%$ 9 #aijj a ,h&-book ( ,=e/ry4 ,,! ,,m$it]ranean ,,p59sulas4 ,geographically1 & to "s ext5t climatically1 ! ?ree p59sulas ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea1 ! ,ib]ian1 ,italian1 & ! ,balkan1 are situat$ alike4 ,_! p1 if n 9 race1 are 9 temp] & *>act]i/ics1 & 9 _! political economy m or less alike4 ,!y repres5t ! olde/ civilization 9 ,europe1 & 9 _! long hi/ory h be5 frequ5tly 9 collision ) ea* o!r4 ,_! =e/s1 ?r\gh c5turies ( abuse1 are :]ev] accessible1 9 poore/ condition4 ,long-cont9u$ political di/urbances1 :i* h prev5t$ peaceful developm5t1 & pov]ty1 h be5 ! greate/ h9drances to economic re=ms l ! recup]ation ( =e/s1 :i* require sacrifices4 ,anci5t rights ( us]1 & ! necessity ( politicians to respect !m are also responsible = ! fact t1 :ile praisewor?y attempts 9 legislation h be5 made1 execution has be5 usually lagg+ beh9d4 ,! accessibility to sea1 p]mitt+ readily importation1 ! temp]ate climate1 ! simple life & ab/emi\sness ( ! p1 & ! lack ( indu/rial developm5t h made ! defici5cy ( wood mat]ial less felt ?an x w\ld o!rwise be1 b ! detrim5tal influ5ce ( =e/ de/ruction is be+ repeat$ly exp]i5c$ 9 floods & dr\?s4 ,!re is probably no m pot5t cause ( =e/ deva/ation 9 all ?is section ( ! _w ?an ! pa/ur+ ( ! woods1 especially ) %eep & goats4 ,:ile ,italy is n[ a unit$ c\ntry1 & only two peoples1 ,spa9 & ,portugal1 occupy ! ,ib]ian p59sula1 ! ,balkan p59sula is occupi$ by eight sep>ate peoples1 if we include all ! c\ntry s\? ( ! ,danube ,riv] & ,ea/ ( ! ,c>pa?ian ,m\nta9s4 ,,turki% ,,& ,,slavi% ,,t]ritories4 ,! ,turks = c5turies w>r$ )1 _h "u vassalage or o!rwise controll$1 & misrul$ all ! ,slavi% ,/ates1 z well z ,mac$onia & ,greece--a t]ritory ( ar\nd #agj1jjj squ>e miles & #af1jjj1jjj p--until1 by ! ,congress ( ,b]l9 7#ahgh71 end+ ! ,russo-,turki% w>1 ^! ,/ates 7 recogniz$ z indep5d5t k+doms1 namely ,bulg>ia1 ,s]via1 ,mont5egro1 ,r\melia1 & ,r\mania1 :ile ,bosnia-,h]cegov9a 0 plac$ "u ,au/rian adm9i/ration 7see page #aee & #aff74 ,) ! exception ( ,r\mania1 ^! p are /ill 9 ! l[] /ages ( civilization1 ! c\ntries undevelop$1 ! =e/ /ill s]ves l>gely = ! ma/ & pa/urage1 probably less ?an #bd p] c5t4 ( ! c\ntry be+ =e/ cov]$1 mo/ly ) decidu\s trees1 oak1 bee* & walnut1 etc4 ,r\mania alone has sy/ematically tak5 advantage ( h] fre$om f ,turki% rule 9 develop+ a mod]n civilization1 & c also boa/ ! beg9n+ ( a =e/ry sy/em4 ,r\melia1 compris+ ,mac$onia1 ,albania & ,?race1 ! ,turki% possessions 9 ,europe1 ) #fg1jjj squ>e miles & #e1jjj1jjj p1 conta9 l>ge areas ( unt\*$ =e/ 7n less ?an #e1jjj1jjj acres 9 ,mac$onia alone#aj7 ) valuable oak & walnut1 :i* h rema9$ unus$ ow+ to _! inaccessibility & ! undesirability ( develop+ !m "u ,turki% rule4 ,:]e accessible1 ! =e/ is maltreat$ or de/roy$4 #aj ,lacretelle1 ,rapport sur les =ts de la ,macdo9e1 #ahic4 ,bulg>ia1 to :i*1 9 #ahhe1 ,ea/ ,r\melia 0 atta*$1 repres5ts n[ #ch1jjj squ>e miles & ov] #d1jjj1jjj p1 indep5d5t "u a ,g]man pr9ce z k+ s9ce #ahgi4 ,! =e/ area#aa ( #g4e million acres 7#cj p] c5t4 ( ! l& area71 mo/ly decidu\s 7oak1 bee*1 walnut1 etc471 & l>gely conf9$ to ! m\nta9s1 is "o-half 9 communal own]%ip1 "o-six? 9 private h&s1 mo/ly small woodlots1 & "o-?ird ,/ate prop]ty2 b own]%ip rights are /ill mu* 9 d\bt1 & until #ahfi ! ,/ate =e/s 7 freely op5 to ! use ( all1 :5 "s sort or regulation ( ! cut accord+ to ! ne$s ( diff]5t communities 0 attempt$4 ,s9ce )9 #aj ye>s su* rights ( us] e/abli% own]%ip1 endless litigation has result$1 until 9 #ahhc a law 0 enact$ ord]+ ! /oppage ( rights ( us]1 sub/itut+ money paym5t 7#aj p] c5t4 ( value71 & ano!r re/rict+ ! diamet] to :i* ! mo/ valuable export timb]1 walnut1 may be cut4 ,*anges 9 detail 7 made 9 #ahig1 b political exig5cies1 abs5ce ( an adequate organization1 & o!r undevelop$ conditions h l>gely prev5t$ en=cem5t ( ^! laws1 & r\gh exploitation cont9ues 9 spite ( ! nom9al ,/ate control4 #aa ,=/li*e ,runds*au1 #aijc4 ,ow+ to inaccessibility ( _m ( ! agricultural di/ricts to ! wood$ m\nta9s1 a l>ge import 0 necess>y1 b lately export almo/ equals ! import1 & inde$ ! export ( walnut has increas$ f\rte5fold 9 a few ye>s4 ,! =e/ adm9i/ration is ve/$ 9 a bureau "u ! ,m9i/] ( ,comm]ce & ,agriculture1 ) a *ief1 an inspector g5]al1 & two assi/ant *iefs4 ,:5 x is /at$ t 9 #aije ! entire budget = =e/ry 0 #aej1jjj1 ! ineffici5cy ( ! s]vice is app>5t4 ,s]via1 a k+dom ) #ai1jjj squ>e miles & #b1jjj1jjj p1 has ov] #db p] c5t4 7five million acres--accord+ to o!rs only #cb7 /ill 9 unt\*$ =e/1 ) valuable oak & walnut1 ! =e/ be+ ma9ly us$ = hograis+4 ,ov] #cf is ,/ate =e/1 ov] #dc communal & in/itutional =e/1 leav+ ab\t #bj 9 private h&s2 b1 j z 9 ,bulg>ia1 prop]ty conditions are /ill some:at unsettl$4 ,l ,bulg>ia also on acc\nt ( ! unev5 di/ribution ( =e/ area1 lack ( transportation & sy/ematic developm5t--a l>ge "p ( ! population are m *eaply suppli$ by importation1 :i* am\nts to ne> "o million doll>s4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 by ! law ( #ahia only ! wood cut f ,/ate & *ur* =e/s c\ld be export$ free ( duty4 ,?is export duty 0 aboli%$ 9 #aijd1 & ! fir/ attempt 0 made by ! ,m9i/] ( ,agriculture to br+ ord] into ! =e/ adm9i/ration by import+ ,g]man =e/]s4 ,! law ( #ahia1 ) v>i\s subsequ5t additions & *anges1 plac$ private =e/ prop]ty locat$ on expos$ m\nta9 slopes or on %ift+ s&s1 or on bogsoils "u gov]nm5t surveillance1 & reliev$ plantations made "u direction ( ! gov]nm5t ( taxes = #aj ye>s4 ,r\mania1#ab ) #ej1jjj squ>e miles & ne>ly #f1jjj1jjj p1 "u ! capable adm9i/ration ( a ,hoh5zoll]n pr9ce1 ,k+ ,*>les1 0 9 ,roman times z ,dacia felix "o ( ! mo/ prosp]\s prov9ces1 half ( x hilly & m\nta9\s1 ! o!r half 9 ! ri* alluvial valley ( ! ,danube1 n[ l>gely de=e/$4 ,! hill & m\nta9 c\ntry 0 until ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury /ill well wood$4 ,a rapid depletion !n took place by ! dem&s ( ! ,turki% m>kets1 until n[ n q #ag p] c5t4 7accord+ to o!rs #ah or #bj p] c5t47 ( ! area is =e/$1 & multif>i\s rights ( us]1 :i* made commons ( ! woods1 h naturally l$ to widespread deva/ation 9 ! accessible p>ts4 ,9 #ahdg1 ! ,national ,assembly attempt$ regulation ( ! cut & ( ! rights ( us]1 b ) little effect4 ,9 #ahid1 ! total area _h decreas$ to less ?an #e million acres 7accord+ to o!rs #f4g million acres71 ( :i* two-fif?s is 9 private h&s1 two-fif?s ,/ate prop]ty & ,royal =e/ 7=m]ly1 until #ahfc1 9 ! h&s ( ! monks71 ! small balance belong+ to communities & in/itutes4 ,9 ! high] m\nta9s1 fir & spruce ) "s p9e & l>* =m ! =e/2 b broadleaf =e/1 especially oak & bee* is ! prevail+ type occupy+ ! middle altitudes & ! hill c\ntry4 ,! private =e/ ( small own]s is be+ rapidly deplet$1 only ! ,/ate =e/ & t ( l>ge proprietors be+ 9 good condition4 #ab ,die =/wirts*aftli*5 ,v]hltnisse ,rumani5s1 ,von ,mihail ,vasilescu1 #ahia4 ,notice sur les =ts de ,r\manie1 9 ,/ati/ica pdurilor ,/atul94 #aijc4 ,9 #ahfc1 :5 ! cloi/] prop]ty 0 secul>iz$ & tak5 ov] by ! /ate1 ! rights ( us] 9 ?is prop]ty 7 susp5d$1 & sales at auction to contractors 7 inaugurat$1 "u condition t a c]ta9 numb] ( se$ trees p] acre be left4 ,!re 0 little en=cem5t ( ?is rule4 ,! fir/ compreh5sive law organiz+ ! ,/ate prop]ty & inaugurat+ a protective policy 0 enact$ 9 #ahha4 ,?is law recogniz$ ,/ate1 ,royal & ,communal prop]ty z ( public conc]n1 & also plac$ su* private prop]ty "u sup]vision z 0 situat$ on /eep slopes1 ne> wat]c\rses1 & ne> ! b\nd>ies 7( /rategic importance74 ,^! areas1 com+ "u ! protective policy1 comprise #hd p] c5t4 ( ! :ole =e/ area4 ,!y 7 n to be cle>$ except by special p]mit1 & n to be exploit$ except "u specially approv$ work+ plans4 ,9 #ahhe1 ?ree ,fr5* =e/]s 7 call$ 9 to organize a ,/ate =e/ dep>tm5t & to inaugurate ! mak+ ( work+ plans4 ,! p]sonnel 7#be inspectors & #hi di/rict (fic]s7 be+ insuffici5t1 & wood prices l[ 7! income f /ate prop]ty be+ n ov] #djj1jjj71 ! progress ( ! "w 0 sl[4 ,al?\gh1 9 #ahid1 ! income _h d\bl$1 ! adm9i/rative =ces _h n be5 enl>g$ to any great ext5t 7#acg =e/]s ( v>i\s grades71 & by t "t only #aej1jjj acres _h be5 br\ght "u work+ plans4 ,by #aijj1 ab\t #bjj1jjj acres ( ,/ate prop]ty1 or #ad p] c5t41 & #ejj1jjj acres ( private =e/1 or #bb p] c5t41 7 organiz$ 9 "s fa%ion4 ,lack ( means ( transportation1 h[ev]1 prev5ts a really well regulat$ managem5t4 ,altoge!r only #fe p] c5t4 ( ! ,/ate prop]ty is accessible s t x c be work$1 & ! work+ plans consi/ ma9ly 9 leav+ a numb] ( se$ trees4 ,9 #ahhi1 a ,=e/ry ,association 7,progressul ,silvic7 0 =m$1 :i* ) its organ1 ,revi/a pdurilor1 pu%es ! propag&a4 ,9 #ahij1 an en]getic ,m9i/] ( ,doma9s1 ,c>p1 s\ght /r5u\sly to br+ improvem5t into ! situation4 ,a budget ( #ejj1jjj = =e/]s' dwell+s 0 secur$ to br+ ! =e/ manag]s into clos] contact ) _! *>ges1 a plant+ fund ( #ajj1jjj1 lat] increas$ to #adj1jjj p] annum1 0 vot$1 & re=e/ation & reclamation ( s& dunes 0 begun4 ,a =e/ improvem5t fund 0 inaugurat$ 9 #ahib by sett+ aside #b p] c5t4 ( ! gross =e/ yield4 ,b1 9 ! political /ruggles1 ,c>p's p>ty 0 displac$1 &1 depression 9 agricultural prosp]ity caus+ f9ancial di/ress1 an era ( increas$ exploitation foll[$1 s t ! export ( =e/ products1 l>gely coop]age1 7ma9ly to ,greece1 ,italy & ,france7 :i* _h be5 decl9+ to less ?an half1 rose aga9 to ab\t f\r million doll>s annually4 ,! f9ancial emb>rassm5t ( ! ,/ate l$ ev5 to a proposition to sell ,/ate =e/s1 b1 be=e contracts = ?is purpose 7 consummat$1 relief came & ! dang] 0 av]t$4 ,! ,/ate cuts ab\t #bb1jjj acres annually1 yield+ ab\t #a1jjj1jjj1 ! adm9i/ration co/+ 79 #aijc7 #bdj1jjj1 leav+ a net yield ( #cj c5ts p] acre4 ,9 #ahih1 ! ,=e/ ,dep>tm5t1 9 ! ,direction ( ,doma9s "u ! ,m9i/ry ( ,agriculture consi/$ ( a ,=e/ ,director ) #aef =e/]s academically educat$ 7mo/ly 9 ,france1 & s9ce #ahib 9 ! ,agricultural ,in/itute at ,bu*>e/71 & ov] #b1ejj und]=e/]s & gu>ds4 ,( "s #cj1jjj acres ( s& dunes1 "o-half belong+ to ! ,/ate1 ab\t #ah1jjj acres h be5 recov]$ by plant+ ,black ,locu/1 & "s #i1jjj acres ( pla9s c\ntry h be5 re=e/$1 = :i* #ccj acres ( nurs]ies furni% ! mat]ial4 ,9 spite ( all ^! ef=ts1 excessive pa/ur+1 al?\gh =bidd5 9 ! ,/ate =e/1 & fires cont9ue to deva/ate ! prop]ty4 ,private =e/ry is1 ( c\rse1 mu* less develop$2 yet "s l>ge prop]ties 7,pr9cess ,s*o5burg1 ) #bj1jjj acres7 are "u effici5t ,g]man =e/ managem5t4 ,"h1 money is sp5t on develop+ means ( transportation1 & a bett] rev5ue is secur$ ?an 9 ,/ate =e/s4 ,,greece4 ,,dr4 ,,*loros1 ,waldv]hltnisse ,grie*5l&s4 ,!sis = ! ,doctorate at ,muni*4 #ahhd4 #de pp4 ,,&]l9d1 ,mit!ilung5 b] die ,waldv]hltnisse ,grie*5l&s4 ,allgeme9e ,=/- und ,jagdzeitung4 #ahhd4 ,! hi/ory ( ! c\ntry has be5 s un=tunate1 & political conditions s unsettl$ t only lately ef=ts at improvem5t 9 economic conditions c\ld hope to receive att5tion4 ,= c5turies aft] ,greece _h become a ,roman prov9ce 7#adf ,b4,c471 x *ang$ rul]s1 ,romans1 ,byzant9es1 ,franks1 ,v5etians foll[+ ea* o!r1 until1 betwe5 #adfj & #adgc1 x came "u ! ,turki% yoke4 ,z a result ( an insurrection />t$ 9 #ahba1 fre$om1 b no settl$ ord] z yet1 0 atta9$ 9 #ahbi ?r\gh ! assi/ance ( ,great ,brita91 ,france & ,russia1 & ! elect$ k+s1 ,o?o 7( ,bav>ia71 ,alfr$ 7( ,engl&7 & ,george 7( ,d5m>k7 successively tri$ to secure social ord] & effici5t con/itutional gov]nm5t4 ,by ! "t ?is new era _h arriv$ !re 0 probably little valuable =e/ wor?y ( ! "n left1 except 9 ! inaccessible m\nta9 di/ricts4 #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions4 ,al?\gh c]ta9 di/ricts1 l ,attica1 7 already practically d5ud$ 9 ,plato's "t1 !re is little d\bt t orig9ally ! :ole ( ,greece ) small exceptions 0 a cont9u\s =e/4 ,! de/ruction ( ! =e/1 protect$ by ?\s&s ( gods & nymphs 9 holy groves1 proce$$ sl[ly "u ! regime ( ! anci5t ,greeks1 until ! fanaticism ( ! ,*ri/ian religion l$ to a w> aga9/ ^! pagan /rongholds1 & ! holy groves 7 r$uc$ by axe & fire4 ,turki% misrule = c5turies1 ov]-taxation1 reckless cutt+1 ext5sive h]d+ ( goats & %eep1 & fires h r$uc$ ! =e/ area until n[ x occupies only #ab or #ad p] c5t4 ( ! l& area 7#be1jjj squ>e miles74 ,9 #ahed1 a survey develop$ ab\t #b million acres ( woodl&s 7probably an excessive figure7 = ! n[ #b4e million p1 :ile #fg p] c5t4 ( ! surface is a useless wa/e1 & only #bj p] c5t4 "u cultivation1 s t ! g5]al aspect ( ! c\ntry is desolate4 ,! _m isl&s are entirely de=e/$1 & s are ! sea%ores4 8,:]e 9 old5 times d5se %ady popl>s /ood1 n[ only inf]tile s& & dre>y rock wa/e rema940 ,! =e/ 9 nor!rn & middle ,greece is conf9$ to ! two rugg$ m\nta9 ranges ) num]\s spurs :i* run p>allel1 nor? & s\?1 ) ,mt4 ,olympus 7ne>ly #i1jjj feet7 & ,mt4 ,p9dus 7#f1jjj feet7 ! highe/ elevations4 ,! l>ge f]tile pla9s ( ,!ssaly & ,boeotia are =e/less4 ,s is ! l>ge ,arcadian plateau ( ! ,peloponnesus1 & ! o!r small]1 hot b f]tile pla9s & plateaus4 ,! mo/ valuable conif] =e/ is f\nd on ! high] ranges betwe5 ! #b1ejj & #e1jjj foot level1 bel[ ! sn[-clad m\nta9 tops1 :]e especially two species ( fir1 ,abies ,apoll9is & ,abies reg9 ,amaliae 7a species rem>kable = its spr\t+ habit71 ) o!r firs & sev]al species ( ,junip]us & ,cupressus1 =m sometimes ext5sive =e/s4 ,o!r common trees are *e/nut1 sycamore1 sev]al species ( oak & popl>1 &1 on ! coa/1 ,p9us halep5sis4 ,! firs occupy ab\t #ce p] c5t4 ( ! =e/ area1 oaks & decidu\s =e/ #de p] c5t4 ,among ! =e/ products :i* are export$1 we f9d galls1 v]million & suma* prom95t4 ,x is believ$ t ,greece 9 anci5t times 0 m f]tile ?an x is n[1 & t ! det]ioration is due to de=e/ation4 ,und\bt$ly soil conditions favor$ su* det]ioration1 =1 ) ! exception ( ! ,p9dus range1 :i* is compos$ ( metamorphic rock1 a poor1 dry lime/one is *>act]i/ic ( ! c\ntry except :]e f]tile1 alluvial & diluvial deposits cov] x 9 valleys along ! coa/4 ,! climate is1 h[ev]1 s favorable t ev5 ! poor soil w\ld readily reclo! itself if left alone4 ,! w9t]s are %ort1 h>dly ?ree mon?s1 & ) h>dly any sn[ or ice except on ! high m\nta9s1 mak+ ! vegetative p]iod n9e mon?s2 &1 ) temp]ature ranges f #bj to #ajf degrees ,f42 ra9fall av]age #djj mm42 ! summ]s1 to be sure1 ra9less & dry1 b ! o!r seasons humid1 some:at less ?an 9 middle ,europe1 rapid gr[? is ! result ( ^! conditions4 ,b ! cont9u$ pa/ur+ ( goats & %eep--"s six million--prev5ts any natural re=e/ation4 ,increas$ taxation on ?is indu/ry has _h no effect1 & ! practice ( p]mitt+ ! p to ga!r dry wood = fuel is an inc5tive = mak+ dry wood by sett+ fires1 :i* also s]ve to improve ! pa/ure2 p]haps n[h]e are =e/ fires m frequ5t1 9 spite ( heavy p5alties4 ,t a baneful influ5ce on ! wat] condition & riv] fl[ has be5 ! result is hi/orically demon/rat$ by ,*loros4#ac #ac ,see ,allgeme9e ,=/- und ,jagdzeitung #ahhd1 p4 #ahc ff41 & #ahhg1 p4 #cbg ff4 = int]e/+ details4 ,9 ! m\nta9s "s f9e & q ext5sive bodies ( fir /ill exi/1 lack ( transportation hav+ pres]v$ !m4 ,else:]e ! rights ( us]1 & ! h]d+ ( goats are s well e/abli%$ t re=ms appe>1 inde$1 difficult4 ,firewood1 #c loads = ea* p]son1 suppos$ to be tak5 f ! dead or o!rwise useless trees1 & small dim5sion mat]ial is free to all4 ,= ! "r to cut workwood1 ! gov]nm5t *>ges a tax ( #be to #cj p] c5t4 ( ! value ( ! mat]ial1 ! price = ?is be+ annually det]m9$4 ,on ! mat]ial cut 9 private =e/s1 ! gov]nm5t also levies a tax ( f #ab to #ah p] c5t4 ( its value4 ,?is p]nici\s sy/em ( promiscu\s cutt+ leads to ! mo/ wa/eful use imag9able1 n only high /umps1 b l>ge am\nts ( good mat]ial are left 9 ! woods s t x is e/imat$ t h>dly #ej p] c5t4 ( :at is cut is really utiliz$4 ,! cut1 z f> z ! tax gives a clue to x1 am\nts to ar\nd #b4g million cubic feet workwood1 b ) ! firewood includ$ x 0 e/imat$ t ne> #ij million cubic feet are cut annually4 ,importation to ! am\nt ( #a4e million doll>s1 mo/ly f ,au/ria & ,r\mania1 makes up ! deficit 9 "w mat]ial1 especially = ! box factories :i* manufacture ! packages = ! l>ge export ( currants1 "s #b million boxes4 ,! tax dur+ ! decade f #ahfb to #ahga produc$ an annual income ( #fjj1jjj1 a little less 9 #ahie4 ,! =e/ has be5 f old5 times1 & is n[ almo/ entirely1 ,/ate prop]ty 7"s #hj or #ij p] c5t47 & 9 ne>ly all ! rema9+1 private1 communal & cloi/] prop]ty ! ,/ate has a p>tial own]%ip or sup]vision4 ,! wa/e l& ( probably #c million acres ext5t also belongs to ! ,/ate1 ! :ole ,/ate prop]ty cov]+ ov] #cj p] c5t4 ( ! l& area4 #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policies4 ,a fir/ def9ite attempt to regulate matt]s 0 made by ,o?o1 :o be+ a ,g]man1 took a p]sonal int]e/ 9 ?is =e/ prop]ty1 & in/itut$ = ea* prov9ce =e/ inspectors 7das>*ys7 "u "o *ief inspector1 ) =e/ gu>ds1 to prev5t deva/ation by fire & !ft4 ,! mi/ake 0 made ( employ+ 9 ^! positions sup]annuat$ ,bav>ian army (fic]s1 :o 7 m]ely a burd5 on ! treasury4 ,no managem5t or ev5 regul> fell+s 7 attempt$4 ,! population c\ld1 z be=e1 supply its ne$s ^u p]mits1 always grant$1 f ! gov]nor ( ! prov9ce1 "o ( ! =e/ gu>ds be+ suppos$ to vise ^!1 & to see t ! wood 0 prop]ly employ$1 n1 h[ev]1 to sup]vise ! cutt+4 ,9 #ahgg1 fur!r legislation 0 _h1 in/itut+ 9 ! ,m9i/ry ( ,f9ance1 a =e/ inspector1 te*nically tra9$1 ) two assi/ant inspectors1 also te*nically tra9$1 to sup]9t5d ! outside "w4 ,a =e/ survey 0 begun 9 #ahgi1 b int]rupt$ 9 #ahhj = lack ( funds & p]sonnel4 ,! same law plac$ ! duty ( gu>d+ ! ,/ate prop]ty 9 ! h&s ( ! g5]al police or g5d>m]ie1 #ej (fic]s & "s #cdj gu>ds1 & dur+ ! fire dang] 7,june to ,octob]7 #aaj m1 be+ detail$ = ?is s]vice "u direction ( ! ,m9i/] ( ,w>4 ,! p]nici\s p]mit sy/em1 h[ev]1 0 cont9u$4 ,dr4 ,*loros1 :o obta9$ 8 education 9 ,g]many1 became f9ally ,=e/ ,director & 0 responsible = secur+ fur!r legislation 9 #ahhh1 ! object ( :i* 01 z a fir/ /ep t[>ds improvem5t1 to survey & delimit & r\nd (f ! ,/ate prop]ty4 ,x provid$ t enclaves1 & all absolute =e/ soil 0 to be expropriat$4 ,if no amicable agreem5t ) ! own] c\ld be rea*$1 ! price 0 to be det]m9$ by ! net yield :i* _h be5 obta9$ f ! prop]ty dur+ ! la/ five ye>s1 capitaliz$ at #e p] c5t4 ,no attempts1 h[ev]1 at an effici5t organization or *ange ( ! de/ructive p]mit sy/em 7 made4 ,by g5]al law1 ! ,/ate has ! "r to surveillance ( private prop]ty1 al?\gh ! ext5t ( ?is "r is n fully def9$4 ,! gov]nm5t may take = its own use1 by pay+ = x1 upw>ds ( "o-six? ( ! annual cut2 x collects a tax ( #ab to #ah p] c5t4 = all woodwork cut2 x =bids ! pa/ur+ ( woods t h be5 burn$ )9 #aj ye>s1 & obliges all own]s ( ov] #abjj acres to employ =e/ gu>ds4 ,?is & o!r int]f]5ce ) prop]ty rights naturally acts z det]r5t to private =e/ managem5t4 ,a notable exception is ! small private royal =e/ prop]ty ne> ,a!ns1 :i*1 s9ce #ahgb "u a ,dani% =e/]1 appe>s to h be5 manag$ "u =e/ry pr9ciples4 ,a ?or\gh re-organization ( ! =e/ s]vice 0 effect$ 9 #ahic1 :5 #bj di/rict =e/]s 7 employ$1 ! numb] ( =e/ inspectors 0 increas$ to f\r1 & a regul> ,division ( ,=e/ry 0 in/itut$ 9 ! ,f9ance ,dep>tm5t4 ,! g5]al police or g5d>m]ie 0 cont9u$ z =e/ gu>ds4 ,until a native p]sonnel c\ld be educat$ by s5d+ "y m5 to ,g]many1 =eign]s 7 to be employ$ = ! mak+ ( work+ plans4 ,yet 9 #ahif1 ! !n ,director ( ! ,=e/ ,dep>tm5t1 a lawy]1 /ill compla9s ( ! abs5ce ( a prop] organization & ( any p]sonnel ) =e/ry k4 ,app>5tly no progress _h be5 made4 ,9 t ye>1 h[ev]1 ! g5d>m]ie 0 to be replac$ by =e/ gu>ds 7#eb sup]ior & #bih subalt]n7 :o 7 to be appo9t$ f graduates ( a special second>y s*ool1 :i* _h be5 in/itut$ at ,vyt9a "s two ye>s be=e4 ,?is replacem5t c\ld1 ( c\rse1 n be effect$ at once1 s9ce h>dly m ?an #be m5 c\ld be graduat$ annually2 h5ce ev5 ?is improvem5t 9 ! l[] class police w\ld n be complet$ = six or eight ye>s4 ,no /eps _h be5 tak5 to educate (fic]s = ! high] grades1 & 9 ?is direction1 propositions m]ely 7 discuss$4 ,9 #ahii1 a *ange 9 ! p]mit sy/em 0 made1 b h>dly = ! bett]1 ju/ices ( ! peace be+ emp[]$1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 to issue su* p]mits4 ,nor d we f9d 9 #aija any?+ m ?an expressions ( good wi%es1 & desire = fur!r legislation1 besides "s attempts at popul> education ?r\gh ! =mation ( tree-plant+ associations "u ! patronage ( ! ,cr[n ,pr9cess4 ,9 #aije no *ange 9 conditions are report$4 ,=e/ fires /ill cont9ue z a common occurr5ce4 ,:ile ! gov]nm5t makes ef=ts to improve conditions1 ! indiff]5ce1 /upidity1 cupidity1 & malevol5ce ( ! p1 & ! long e/abli%$ abuses prev5t rapid progress at re=m4 ,,italy4 ,bollet9o ufficiale p] l'amm9/razione =e/ale ,italiana4 ,direzione g5]ale dell' ,agricoltora3 ,relazione int]no all' amm9i/razione dei bos*i domaniali inali5abili4 ,v>i\s essays by ,pr(4 ,,vittorio ,,p]ona ( ,vallambrosa 9 ,g]man magaz9es2 notably 9 ,allgeme9e ,=/- und ,jagdzeitung1 #ahhb1 #ahhh4 ,ar*eologia =e/ale4 ,dell' antica /oria e giurisprud5za =e/ale 9 ,italia4 ,a4 ,,di ,,b]5g]4 #ahei4 ,,maffei1 ,revi/a =e/ale4 ,italy4 ,by ,pr(4 ,w4 ,,deeke4 #aijd4 ,il rimbos*im5to dello ,app5n9o m]idionale1 by ,,luigi ,,sava/ano1 #ahic4 ,an exce$+ly well writt5 popul> treatise on silviculture1 :i* gives also briefly insight into =e/ conditions & =e/ practices4 ,i bos*ia e la no/ra politica ,italiana1 by ,,b]tagnolli1 #ahhi4 ,italia mod]na4 #aijd1 article by ,,lunadoni4 ,! ef=ts to secure improvem5t 9 ! treatm5t ( =e/ res\rces h be5 m active & /r5u\s 9 ,italy ?an 9 ,greece4 ,!y 7 induc$ especially by ! urg5t ne$ ( protect+ wat]%$s1 ! riv]s ?r\gh\t ,italy hav+ be5 turn$ into torr5ts by de=e/ation4 ,b1 ow+ to ! weakness ( ! gov]nm5t & to pov]ty1 ! actual execution ( ! v good laws has lagg$ beh9d4 ,inde$1 :ile ample legislation has be5 enact$1 ! p1 ov]burd5$ ) debt1 & ne$+ ! small income t c be d]iv$ f pa/ur+ or r5t+ ! pa/ure 9 ! woods1 make x difficult to c>ry on any re=m1 & ! en=cem5t ( ! laws has aga9 & aga9 l$ to s]i\s tr\ble4 8,=e/ry is a sore po9t 9 ! national economy ( ,italy1 z x involves sacrifice ( money & "t40 ,italy1 !re=e1 is /ill 9 ! transition p]iod f =e/al rap9e to =e/ culture4 ,d5sely populat$ 7#cc million on #aaj1fjj squ>e miles71 ) fully "o-fif? ( its area unproductive1 or at lea/ unus$1 & "o-qu>t] ( ?is almo/ or q beyond r$emption1 no c\ntry (f]s bett] opportunities = /udy+ ! evil effects ( de=e/ation on soil & wat]fl[4 ,z a result ( ! comb9ation ( geology 7slates & lime/ones71 topography 7/eep slopes71 climate1 & =e/ deva/ation or de/ruction1 ma9ly by pa/urage ( goats 7two million71 ! ,italian riv]s are inv>iably flood$ 9 ,m>* & mo/ly dry 9 summ]2 ! melt+ ( ! sn[ co9cid+ ) ! heavy spr+ ra9s turns !m into rag+ torr5ts 7fium>e71 silt+ ov] ! f]tile l&s 9 ! valleys & occasional l&slides 9 ! m\nta9 c\ntry1 :]e ext5sive tracts are ne>ly b>e ( vegetation4 ,especially ! riv]s ar\nd ,bologna1 :i* 9 #ahig aga9 caus$ damage 9 excess ( "o million doll>s1 are dread$4 #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions4 ,situat$ simil>ly to ,greece z reg>ds accessibility & climate1 & simil>ly torn by w>s & political /rife1 & 9 un/able conditions = c5turies1 ,italy has 9 proportion to population1 if n to area1 r$uc$ h] =e/ res\rces ev5 m ?an ,greece2 less ?an "o-?ird ( an acre p] capita rema9s1 ) a total ( some:at ov] twelve million acres1 or ab\t #ag p] c5t4 ( ! l& area1 & ?is includes mu* useless bru%l&1 ov] #b million acres4 ,app>5tly1 if ! unc]ta9 /ati/ics may be reli$ ^u1 a r$uction ( sev]al million acres has tak5 place ev5 s9ce #ahgj4 ,"s #ae million acres ( wa/e l& & swamps (f] ample opportunity = increas+ ?is =e/ area )\t infr++ on ! #db million acres ( usefully employ$ agricultural soil4 ,( ! =e/ area1 #be p] c5t4 is to be f\nd 9 ! ,alps1 ab\t #ej p] c5t4 on ! ,ap5n9es1 ! "o m\nta9 range :i* =ms ! backbone ( ,italy2 less ?an "o-qu>t] is di/ribut$ ov] ! pla9s1 & ! small balance is f\nd on ! isl&s1 especially ,sicily1 :i* is a hill & m\nta9 c\ntry1 once magnific5tly wood$1 n[ l>gely d5ud$ 7#d p] c5t4 wood$71 & on ,s>d9ia1 :i*1 ) ne>ly #de p] c5t4 "u =e/1 is ! be/ wood$ "p ( ,italy1 al?\gh ! condition ( ! =e/ is "h no bett] ?an else:]e4 ,) ! exception ( ! slopes ( ! ,alps 7#b4e million acres ( spruce1 fir1 bee*1 l>*71 & ! tops ( ! ,ap5n9es & remote plateaus 7#d4e million acres71 & ( a few special places on :i* n[ & !n ev5 magnific5t remnants ( virg9 =e/ may be f\nd--lack ( transportation hav+ pres]v$ !m--mo/ ( ! area is occupi$ by mis]able bru% =e/1 coppice or else op5 =e/ ) scatt]$ trees among a %rub und]gr[? ( ?orns1 hazel & *e/nut 7call$ mac*ia1 i4e41 *ap>ral71 s t mo/ ,italians h nev] se5 a real =e/4 ,nev]!less1 ,italy is by no means z treeless z ?is condition ( =e/ w\ld imply1 = trees 7popl>1 a%1 elm7 are dott+ ! pla9s & slopes1 plant$ = v9e supports & b\nd>ies1 un%apely ?r\gh poll>d+ & lopp+ ! bran*es = firewood4 ,olive & *e/nut groves on ! hills 7( ! =m] #b million acres1 ( ! latt] ov] #djj1jjj acres plant$ = ! fruit71 & #h4e million acres 9 v9ey>ds add to ! wood$ appe>ance ( ! c\ntry & to ! wood supply4 ,! annual product ( firewood f ^! plant$ trees is e/imat$ at #f million cords4 ,on ! s& dunes & ne> ! sea%ore1 especially 9 ! m>%es1 ! ,m>itime1 ! ,aleppo ,p9e1 & ! umbrella-%ap$ ,p9us p9ea1 & picturesque ,cypresses are sometimes f\nd 9 small groves1 :ile ! calc>e\s hills 9 ?is region up to #abjj feet are /udd$ ) olives1 cork & ev]gre5 oak4 ,osi] gr[+ is "h also q ext5sively practic$4 ,9 ! m\nta9s1 above ! #bgjj foot level1 conif] =e/1 compos$ ( ,p9us silve/ris & l>icio1 & ,abies pect9ata1 has be5 r$uc$ to less ?an #g p] c5t4 ( ! :ole1 mix$ conif] & decidu\s =e/ repres5ts #d p] c5t41 ! bulk be+ decidu\s =e/ ( oak 7sev]al species7 & bee*1 ) *e/nut4 ,=ty-eight p] c5t4 ( ! =e/ area is 9 coppice 7c$uo71 & ( ! #eb p] c5t4 ( high =e/1 ! bulk is manag$ "u selection sy/em 7a scelta71 a small "p "u cle>+ sy/em 7ad alto fu/o71 al?\gh managem5t c h>dly be said to exi/ except 9 small groves4 ,t supply ( workwood is insuffici5t = ! ne$s ( ! population1 & is decreas+1 is atte/$ by ! fact t ! importations m ?an d\bl$ 9 ! decade f #ahib to #aijc to ne> #ad million doll>s1 #hj p] c5t4 ( :i* 0 saw mat]ial1 9 addition to #b million doll>s ( wood manufactures1 :ile ne>ly #e million doll>s' wor? 0 export$ 9 ! la/ nam$ ye>1 mo/ly cork1 casks1 ?9 box-bo>ds1 olive wood manufactures1 & *>coal4 ,no bett] picture ( ! =e/ conditions c be _h ?an by a /atem5t ( ! home production1 :i*1 9 #ahhf1 7la/ (ficial data7 0 plac$ at #dh million cubic feet ( workwood1 valu$ at #c4d million doll>s1 #bbc million cubic feet firewood1 valu$ at #d4a million1 #ajf million cubic feet *>coal1 wor? #c4f million1 & by-products to ! l>ge am\nt ( #f4d million doll>s1 altoge!r a little less ?an #ag4f million doll>s4 ,firewood & *>coal1 :i* repres5t ov] #hj p] c5t4 ( ! product1 are1 ( c\rse1 furni%$ by coppice1 & 9 addition by ! poll>d$ mat]ial1 almo/ ! only fuel to be _h4 ,! own]%ip ( ! =e/ area is = ! great] "p private 7#ec p] c5t47 & communal 7ov] #dc p] c5t471 ! ,/ate own+ a little ov] #djj1jjj acres1 less ?an #d p] c5t4 ,! ,/ate prop]ty be+ s small1 sup]vision ( communal & private =e/ has become ! policy4 ,! ,/ate =e/ is ( two classes1 ! ali5able1 "u ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,f9ance1 ! l>g] "p1 ab\t #cge1jjj acres1 & ! inali5able1 s decl>$ by law ( #ahga1 :i* 0 !n ab\t #aae1jjj acres1 & 0 plac$ "u a =e/ adm9i/ration 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture2 b ( ?is ab\t #bj p] c5t4 is n =e/1 & ev5 9 #ahif1 "s ( ?is small area 0 sold s t n[ only #dj1jjj acres rema94 ,?is area is to s]ve = demon/ration ( model managem5t1 & to supply gov]nm5t ne$s4 ,bee* & oak ) fir1 p9e & l>*1 mo/ly 9 timb] =e/1 *>act]ize ?is prop]ty1 :i* is manag$ mo/ly 9 selection sy/em4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 9 #ahhh1 ! difficulty ( dispos+ advantage\sly ( ! old timb] is compla9$ (1 due to lack ( means ( transportation4 ,! p]sonnel ( ! adm9i/ration consi/s ( a c5tral bureau ) "o ,inspector ,g5]al1 ?ree ,inspectors1 & a ,c\ncil4 ,= ea* prov9ce1 & 9 "s cases = two or m prov9ces toge!r1 an ,inspector ) sev]al ,sub-inspectors & a numb] ( gu>ds or brigadi]i are *>g$ ) ! managem5t ( ! ,/ate prop]ty & ! en=cem5t ( ! =e/ laws4 #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy4 ,= c5turies1 s9ce ! fall ( ! ,roman ,empire 7#dgf ,a4,d47 until ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 ,italy has be5 ! victim ( w> & /rife ) neighbors or )9 its bord]s1 be+ divid$ into numb]less commonweal?s1 almo/ ea* city be+ indep5d5t4 ,h5ce1 no economic improvem5ts c\ld take place until1 "u ! influ5ces ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 ! reg5]ation p]iod began4 ,n1 h[ev]1 until ! sev5 or eight /ates1 :i* ! ,congress ( ,vi5na 7#ahae7 _h e/abli%$1 7 m\ld$ into "o unit$ ,italy "u ,victor ,emmanuel1 dur+ ! ye>s #ahei to #ahgj1 c\ld an effective recon/ruction be inaugurat$4 ,x is true t "s ( ! republics 9 e>li] times paid att5tion to _! =e/ prop]ty4 ,notably 9 ,v5ice1 old =e/ ord9ances#ad date back to #fig1 &1 9 #adec1 a regul> =e/ adm9i/ration 0 in/itut$1 especially to take c>e ( ! l>ge =e/ area 9 ,i/ria & ,dalmatia1 :i* fell into ! h&s ( ! ,v5etians ab\t #adbj4 ,a tol]ably cons]vative managem5t cont9u$ "h until ! beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury :51 9 consequ5ce ( political complications1 sup]vision became lax1 & deva/ation began :i* cont9u$ ?r\gh ! c5tury1 leav+ to ! new c5tury1 & f9ally to ! ,au/rians1 ! legacy ( ! ,k>/ 7see p4 #agc74 #ad ,,b]5g]1 ,saggio /orico della legislacione ,v5eta =e/ale1 #ahfc4 ,an excell5t s\rce4 ,flor5ce too1 manag$ to prev5t ! de=e/ation ( ! summit ( h] m\nta9s until ! beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & 9 o!r republics1 k+doms & du*ies1 simil> ef=ts at =e/ adm9i/ration exi/$4 ,yet ,g5oa1 :i* 9 ,/rabo's "t 0 ! pr9cipal timb] m>ket ( ,italy1 _h by #ahfj ne>ly all its m\nta9 slopes d5ud$4 ,be=e ! g5]al legislation = all ,italy 0 enact$ !re 7 at lea/ a doz5 laws 9 op]ation 9 ! v>i\s prov9ces2 9 ,lomb>dy1 ! law ( #ahaa2 9 ,naples1 ! law ( #ahbf2 9 ,rome1 ( #ahbg2 9 ,umbria1 ( #ahje2 9 ,bologna1 ( #ahbi2 9 ,tuscany1 ( #ahbi2 9 ,pi$mont1 ( #ahcc2 9 ,s>d9ia1 ( #ahea2 etc4 ,if ^! _h be5 he$$ mu* bett] conditions w\ld h be5 inh]it$ by ! new k+dom4 ,) ! arrival ( a national _s1 _m s*emes = ! promotion ( =e/ry & ( =e/ policy 7 discuss$4 ,! academies ( ,flor5ce1 ,milan1 ,mod5a1 ,pal]mo1 & ,pes>o (f]$ premiums = re=e/+ ( m\nta9s1 & call$ = popul> treatises on silviculture4 ,a =e/ry j\rnal came into be+1 fur!r+ ! propag&a4 ,9 #ahfj a v well writt5 acc\nt ( 8,pres5t ,conditions ( ,=e/ry & ,production ( ,sulphur 9 ,sicily10 a collection ( reports1 0 publi%$ by ,%iro4 ,9 #ahfj also1 an inve/igation ( =e/ conditions 9 ea* prov9ce 0 ord]$ by royal decree1 & propositions = _! improvem5t 7 call$ =1 :i* l$ to legislative proposals1 introduc$ 9 #ahfb1 & legislation enact$ 9 #ahfc4 ,! law ( #ahfc /ill treat$ ea* prov9ce indep5d5tly3 =e/ inspectors = ea* prov9ce1 & = ,naples an ,inspector ,g5]al1 ) di/rict =e/]s & a l>ge numb] ( =e/ gu>ds 7 appo9t$4 ,ano!r law1 applicable only to c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ,k+dom1 0 enact$ 9 #ahgd1 int5d$ to *eck ! progress ( de=e/ation & prev5t turn+ wa/e woodl&s into pa/ure2 ^! absolute =e/ soils 7 to be re=e/$ )9 five ye>s4 ,! law rema9$ a dead lett]1 yet x is /ill 9 =ce 9 "p1 ) modifications enact$ 9 #ahhf4 ,! f9al unification ( ! c\ntry z f> z legislative unity is conc]n$1 0 complet$ 9 #ahgg1 & 9 t ye> ! fir/ g5]al =e/ law = all ,italy 0 also enact$4 ,?is law1 :i* has ma9ly 9 view ! protective influ5ce ( =e/ cov] z a factor 9 ! public welf>e1 leav+ all private prop]ty n fall+ "u ! "* ( protection =e/ entirely free1 e/abli%$ prov9cial =e/ commissions--cons]vation bo>ds--unpaid1 :o 7 to enact rules & regulations be/ adapt$ to _! localities4 ,! ,bo>d ( ,commission]s consi/$ ( ! prefect ( ! prov9ce1 ex-(ficio presid5t2 an inspector ( =e/s1 ! te*nical (fic] :o adm9i/]s ! gov]nm5t prop]ty2 an eng9e] appo9t$ by ! gov]nor2 & ?ree memb]s *os5 by ! prov9cial c\ncil2 9 addition1 ea* communal c\ncil 0 to s5d "o memb] to take "p 9 ! delib]ations ( ! bo>d z f> z 8 p>ticul> commune 0 int]e/$4 ,by ?is law ! c\ntry is divid$ into two sections v]tically1 namely ! t]ritory above ! limit ( *e/nut1 & t bel[ ?is limit1 ! latt] repres5t+ ! f>m+ c\ntry1 ! t]ritory above be+ unfit = agricultural use4 ,to ! =m] ! re/rictions ( ! law apply z a rule 7t]r5i soggetti al v9colo =e/ale--ban =e/71 to ! latt]1 z exception1 namely :]e ! removal ( =e/ or bru% cov] might cause l&slides1 or affect /ream fl[ or heal? conditions unfavorably4 ,! *e/nut limit naturally v>ies 9 diff]5t p>ts1 b1 g5]ally speak+1 lies betwe5 #a1hjj & #b1jjj feet elevation4 ,! det]m9ation ( ^! areas 0 to be made by ! prov9cial =e/ committees1 & x is significant to note t 9 ^! ! ,/ate =e/ adm9i/ration did n h ! majority4 ,! t]ritory "u re/riction1 0 9 #ahhg1 aft] v>i\s revisions1 e/abli%$ z compris+ #g4e million acres ( =e/ & #b4e million acres ( bru% & wa/e1 ne>ly #ga ( ! =e/ area be+ ?us plac$ "u re/riction2 leav+ #b4e million acres ( =e/ & ov] #b million ( bru% & wa/e outside ! work+ ( ! law2 ^! latt] areas are left entirely )\t re/rictions1 except z g5]al police regulations apply4 ,! execution ( ! law & regulations is left to ! ,/ate ,=e/ ,dep>tm5t ) an organization ( =e/ gu>ds 7"s #c1jjj 9 #ahhc71 appo9t$ by ! prefect ( ! prov9ce ) ! advice ( ! =e/ry commission1 b act+ "u ! ,/ate =e/ adm9i/ration4 ,_! pay 0 to come to ! ext5t ( two-?irds f ! communes1 ! o!r ?ird f ! prov9cial treasur]4 ,9 ! =e/s plac$ "u ! law1 cle>+ & agricultural use is =bidd54 ,fell+s & cultures mu/ be made "u direction ( ! ,committee4 ,no comp5sation is made = ?is limitation 9 use except :]e hygi5ic influ5ce 0 ! basis = plac+ ! =e/ "u ban4 ,if ! regulations ( ! commissions _h be5 obs]v$ to _! full ext5t1 all w\ld h be5 well 9 "t1 b x is evid5t f subsequ5t legislative ef=ts t ! execution ( ! laws 0 n :at c\ld be desir$4 ,political exig5cies requir$ l5i5cy 9 ! application ( ! law4 ,an int]e/+ report on ! results ( ! fir/ qu9qu5nium %[s t dur+ t "t #agj1jjj acres 7 cle>$1 ov] #dj1jjj )\t p]mission1 & by #aijj1 x 0 e/imat$1 de=e/ation _h tak5 place on ab\t #e million acres4 ,wrangl+ ov] ! classification ( ! l&s "u ban has cont9u$ until ! pres5t1 & local au?orities h cont9u$ to favor private z aga9/ public int]e/1 to )draw l&s f ! op]ation1 & to w9k at disreg>d ( ! law4 ,moreov]1 rights ( us] to dead wood1 pa/urage 7goats are by law exclud$7 & o!r privileges cont9u$ to prev5t improvem5t1 al?\gh sev]al laws to effect _! ext9ction _h be5 pass$4 ,! deva/at+ floods ( #ahhb l$ to mu* agitation1 &1 ^u a report ( a special commission 9 #ahhf1 ! law ( #ahgd1 :i* _h obligat$ ! communities to re=e/ _! wa/e l&s )9 five ye>s or else to sell1 0 reviv$1 ext5d+ ! t]m ( obligatory re=e/ation 9 ! endang]$ sections to t5 ye>s4 ,by t "t1 out ( #hjj1jjj acres orig9ally decl>$ z requir+ re=e/ation1 n m ?an #dj1jjj acres _h be5 plant$1 b ! acreage involv$ _h also be5 gradually scal$ d[n by ! =e/ committees to #bdj1jjj acres4 ,! report1 on ! o!r h&1 f\nd t ! area ne$+ reboisem5t 0 at lea/ #ejj1jjj acres1 requir+ an exp5diture ( #ab million doll>s4 ,! law ( #ahgg did n contemplate en=c$ re=e/ation ( ban=e/s2 x s\ght to accompli% ?is by emp[]+ ei!r ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture or ! prov9ces or ! communities or special associations to expropriate = ! purpose ( re=e/ation4 ,results 7 nil4 ,a revision & broad5+ ( ! law l$ to ! g5]al reboisem5t act ( #ahhh1ae :i* has 9 view ! correction ( torr5ts1 fix+ ( m\nta9 slopes & s& dunes--"o ( ! be/ laws ( its k9d 9 exi/5ce any:]e4 #ae ,= details see ,f]n[1 9 ,g>d5 & ,=e/1 #ahhh1 page #dag4 ,! pr9cipal features ( ! law are3 obligatory reboisem5t ( m\nta9s & s& dunes accord+ to plans1 & "u direction ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ! areas to be designat$ by ! dep>tm5t1 ) approval or disapproval ( ! =e/ committees2 contribution to ! ext5t ( two-fif?s 7f9ally rais$ to two-?irds7 ( ! exp5se by ! gov]nm5t2 expropriation :]e own]s d n cons5t1 or fail to c>ry out ! "w z plann$2 "r to reclaim prop]ty by paym5t ( co/s & int]e/1 or else sale by gov]nm5t2 "r ( ! dep>tm5t to regulate & re/rict pa/ure1 b comp5sation to be paid to re/rict$ own]s2 enc\ragem5t ( co-op]ative plant]s' associations4 ,! area to be re=e/$ 0 e/imat$ at some:at ov] #ejj1jjj acres & ! exp5se at ov] #g million doll>s4 ,! execution ( ! law 0 n any /rict] ?an be=e4 ,9 #aijj1 ! ,secret>y ( ,agriculture reports t 8! laws d n yet receive effective application40 ,! difficulty ( det]m9+ :at is & :at is n necess>y to re=e/1 :at is & :at is n absolute =e/ soil made o/5sibly ! greate/ tr\ble & occasion$ delay1 b f9ancial incapacity & political influ5ces bidd+ = popul>ity are probably ! ma9 cause ( ! ineffici5cy4 ,mean:ile ! =e/ dep>tm5t tri$ to promote re=e/ation by giv+ premiums f its scanty appropriation & di/ribut+ f its #acj acres ( nurs]ies1 dur+ ! ye>s f #ahfg to #ahii1 "s #df million plants & ov] #ejj p\nds ( se$1 & furni%+ advice free ( *>ge4 ,9 #ahig1 aga9 a commission 0 in/itut$ to =mulate new legislation4 ,?is commission report$ 9 #aijb1 decl>+ t all accessible =e/s 7 m or less deva/at$1 acc5tuat+ ! ne$s ( wat] managem5t1 & propos+ a m rigor\s def9ition ( ban =e/s1 a /rict sup]vision ( communal =e/s1 & ! managem5t ( private prop]ties "u work+ plans by accr$it$ =e/]s or else "u direct control ( ! =e/ dep>tm5t1 ! =e/]s to be paid by ! ,/ate1 :i* is to recov] f ! own]s4 ,x 0 f\nd t 9 ! pa/ #ce ye>s ( ! #abe1jjj acres ne$+ re=e/ation urg5tly only #eh1cjj acres _h be5 plant$ at an exp5se ( #a1cdj1jjj4 ,9 #aiaj1 conditions seem n to h mu* improv$1 = aga9 a vigor\s attempt at re-organization & improvem5t on ! law ( #ahgg 0 made by ! ,m9i/] ( ,agriculture2 s f> )\t result4 ,x is to be not$ t ,italy is p]haps ! only c\ntry :]e =e/ influ5ce on heal? conditions 0 legally recogniz$1 by ! laws ( #ahgg & #ahhh4 ,! belief t de=e/ation ( ! m>emnae1 ! m>%y l[l&s betwe5 ,pisa & ,naples1 _h produc$ ! mal>ial fev] :i* is rampant "h1 l$ ! ,trappi/ monks ( ! cloi/] at ,tre ,fontane to make plantations ( ,eucalyptus 7#hd1jjj7 beg9n+ 9 #ahgj1 ! ,/ate assi/+ by cessions ( l& = ! purpose4 ,a commission1 appo9t$ to inve/igate ! results1 9 #ahha1 ?rew d\bt on ! effectiv5ess ( ! plantation1 f9d+ ! obs]v$ *ange 9 heal? conditions due to improvem5t ( dra9age2 & lately1 ! mosquito has be5 recogniz$ z ! ma9 ag5cy 9 propagat+ ! fev]4 ,! new propositions1 h[ev]1 did n any m recognize ?is claim$ influ5ce z a reason = public int]v5tion4 ,incid5tally x may be /at$ t to two ,italians is due ! cr$it ( hav+ f\nd ! true cause ( salubri\sness ( =e/ air1 namely 9 ! abs5ce ( pa?og5ic bact]ia4 #c4 ,education & ,lit]ature4 ,! fir/ =e/ s*ool 0 organiz$ by ,bale/ri]i1 :o _h /udi$ 9 ,g]many1 at ! ,agricultural ,s*ool ne> ,tur9 ab\t #ahdh1 transf]r$ to ! ,te*nical ,in/itute 9 ,tur9 9 #ahea4 ,?is s*ool cont9u$ until #ahfi1 & f #ahfc on1 _h be5 recogniz$ by ! ,/ate1 assur+ its graduates employm5t 9 ,/ate s]vice4 ,9 #ahfi1 ! ,/ate e/abli%$ a =e/ s*ool ( its own 7,in/itute ,=e/ale7 at ,vallambrosa ne> ,flor5ce1 ) a ?ree ye>s' c\rse 7s9ce #ahhf1 f\r ye>s7 &1 9 #aijj1 ) elev5 pr(essors & #dj /ud5ts4 ,9 spite ( ! ,/ate subv5tion ( #h1ejj1 x appe>s t "s peculi> economies are necess>y1 = ow+ to ! abs5ce ( /oves ! s*ool is clos$ f ,nov4 #a to ,m>* #a4 ,9 spite ( ! exi/5ce ( ?is s*ool1 ! ,/ate ,s]vice is recruit$ also f m5 :o h n pass$ ?r\gh ?is s*ool4 ,! legislative propositions br\ght =w>d 9 #aiaj also provide = transf] ( ?is s*ool to ,flor5ce1 leav+ only ! exp]im5t /ation 9 ,vallambrosa1 & also = rais+ ! /&>d ( in/ruction4 ,at ! same "t1 h[ev]1 !re 0 at ! old in/itution ord]$ a 8ru% c\rse0 to be f9i%$ 9 #ae mon?s1 s9ce x appe>$ t n en\gh =e/]s 7 9 exi/5ce to c>ry out ! propos$ re-organization4 ,9 #aije1 a s*ool ( silviculture = =e/ gu>ds 0 in/itut$ 9 ,cittaducale1 ! c\rse be+ #i mon?s4 ,besides ! te*nical s*ool at ,vallambrosa1 agricultural s*ools h *airs ( =e/ry or arboriculture1 z = in/ance ! ,royal s*ool at ,portici4 ,z an educational feature1 ! introduction ( ,arbor ,day1 9 #aijb1 la fe/a dei alb]i1 %\ld also be m5tion$4 ,! exi/5ce ( a =e/ s*ool naturally produces a lit]ature4 ,:ile a consid]able numb] ( popul> booklets attempt ! education ( ! p1 :o are ! own]s ( ! =e/1 !re is no abs5ce ( pr(essional works4 ,among ^! %\ld be m5tion$ ,di ,b]5g]'s ,selvicoltura1 a v complete "w1 :i* also conta9s a brief hi/ory ( =e/ry 9 ! ,ori5t1 ,greece & ,italy4 ,g4 ,c>los ,siemoni's ,manuele d'arte =e/ale 7#ahfd71 & ! e>li] ,sci5za selvana by ,tondi 7#ahbi7 are encyclop$ias ( inf]ior quality4 ,9 #ahei1 ,r4 ,maffei1 a private =e/]1 began to publi% ! ,revi/a =e/ale del regno d' ,italia1 an annual review1 = ! purpose ( popul>iz+ =e/ry 9 ,italy1 aft]w>ds *ang$ into a mon?ly1 :i* cont9u$ = "s "t "u subv5tions f ! gov]nm5t4 ,a numb] ( propag&i/ =e/ry associations 7 =m$ at v>i\s times1 publi%+ leaflets or j\rnals1 "o ( ^! ,l',alpe1 a mon?ly1 9 #aijb4 ,9 #aiaj1 ! two lead+ societies comb9$ into a f$]ation ,pro montibus ed enti aff9i1 m]g+ also ! ,rivi/a =e/ale italiana ) ,l',alpe1 :i* s]ves bo? propag&i/ & pr(essional ne$s4 ,,spa94 ,revi/a de ,montes1 a semi-(ficial j\rnal1 e/abli%$ 9 #ahgg1 is ! be/ s\rce4 ,el ,manuel de ,legislacion y ,adm9i/racion ,=e/al1 by ,,hil>io ,,ruiz1 & ,novisima ,legislacion ,=e/al1 by ,,del ,,campo1 #aija1 elaborate ! complicat$ legislation up to #ahid4 ,dicion>o ,hispano-,am]icano1 #ahic1 conta9s an article 7montes7 on ! adm9i/rative practice ( ! =e/ laws4 ,a ,ye> 9 ,spa91 by a "y ,am]ican 7,,slidell7 #ahbi1 gives an excell5t acc\nt ( physical conditions ( ! c\ntry & "* ( ! p at t "t4 ,das ,mod]ne ,gei/esleb5 9 ,spani51 #ahhc1 & ,kulturges*i*tli*e und ,wirts*aftspolitis*e ,betra*tung51 #aija1 by ,,gu/av ,,di]ks1 details "* ( in/itutions & p4 8,poor ,spa90 is ! expression :i* comes to ! lips ( ev]ybody :o contemplates ! economic conditions ( ?is once s p[]ful nation1 almo/ ! rul] ( ! _w4 ,once1 "u ! b5efic5t dom9ion ( ! ,s>ac5s1 a p>adise :]e1 z a ,roman au?or puts x1 8,nil otiosum1 nihil /]ile 9 ,hispania10 x has become almo/ a des]t ?r\gh neglect1 indol5ce1 ignorance1 false pride1 lack ( communal _s1 despotism ( *ur*1 & misrule by a corrupt bureaucracy4 ,) ! exception ( a n>r[ belt along ! sea%ore1 ! :ole ( ! ,ib]ian p59sula is a va/ high mesa1 plateau or tablel&1 #a1ejj to #c1jjj feet above sea level1 trav]s$ by l(ty m\nta9 *a9s1 or si]ras1 five or six 9 numb]1 runn+ p>allel to ea* o!r1 ma9ly 9 a we/]ly & s\?we/]ly direction4 ,^! divide ! plateau into z _m pla9s1 treeless1 & = ! mo/ "p1 arid1 expos$ to cold bla/s 9 w9t]1 & burn+ up 9 summ]4 ,!y are frequ5tly subject$ to sev]e dr\ghts1 :i* sometimes h la/$ = mon?s1 br++ desolation to c\ntry & p4 ,! riv]s1 z !y usually d 9 su* c\ntries simil> to our arid pla9s1 =m caons & arroyos1 &1 be+ unc]ta9 9 _! wat] /ages1 none ( !m are navigable al?\gh hundr$s ( miles long1 b useful = irrigation1 on :i* agriculture relies4 ,! great m9]al weal? _h made ,spa9 ! ,cali=nia ( ! ,c>?ag9ians & ,romans1 & x is /ill its mo/ valuable res\rce4 ,spa9 awak5$ to civilization ?r\gh ! visits ( ,pho5icians & ,c>?ag9ians foll[$ by ! ,romans4 ,dur+ ! fir/ c5turies ( ! ,*ri/ian era !re occurr$ "o ( ! sev]al p]iods ( extreme prosp]ity1 :5 a suppos$ population ( #dj million exploit$ ! c\ntry4 ,aft] ! d>k days ( ! ,go?ic dom9ation1 a second p]iod ( prosp]ity 0 atta9$ = ! portion :i* came "u ! sway ( ! indu/ri\s & intellig5t ,moors or ,s>ac5s 7#gaa to #a1jjj ,a4,d47 :o made ! des]t bloom1 & ^: irrigation works are /ill ! ma9/ay ( agriculture at pres5t4 ,c5turies ( w>f>e & c>nage to re-e/abli% ,*ri/ian k+doms /ill left ! c\ntry ri*1 :51 9 #adgi1 ! sev]al k+doms 7 unit$ into "o "u ,f]d9& & ,isabella1 & ! ,moors 7 f9ally driv5 out altoge!r 7#adib74 ,?is k+dom p]si/$ 9 ! same =m to ! pres5t "t ) only a %ort p]iod z a republic 7#ahgc74 ,spa9 0 among ! fir/ c\ntries to h a con/itution4 ,aft] ! ,conque/ ( ! ,moors1 & ) ! discov]y ( ,am]ica1 aga9 a p]iod ( prosp]ity set 9 = ! !n #bj million p1 b1 ?r\gh oppression by ,/ate & ,*ur* 7,inquisition71 :i* also l$ to ! expulsion ( ! ,jews & l>ge emigration to ,am]ica1 ! prosp]ity ( ! c\ntry 0 de/roy$1 ! population r$uc$ to #aj million 9 #ahjj1 & ! conditions ( "* & gov]nm5t creat$ :i* are ! cause ( its pres5t desolation4 ,s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury1 ! population has increas$ to ne> #ah million1 b f9ancial bankruptcy keeps ! gov]nm5t ineffici5t & unable to accompli% re=ms ev5 if ! p w\ld let x h its way4 #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions4 ,x has be5 a matt] ( speculation :e!r ,spa9 01 or 0 n1 once heavily wood$ 7see page #aa74 ,9 ,roman times1 only ! ,prov9ce ( ,la ,manca is report$ z be+ un=e/$1 &1 9 ! #ac? & #ad? c5turies1 ext5sive =e/ zones are /ill record$4 ,! "* ( ! c\ntry at pres5t1 & ! climate1 bo? resembl+ s mu* our own arid pla9s1 make x que/ionable to :at ext5t ! =e/ desc5d$ f ! m\nta9 ranges1 :i* 7 und\bt$ly well wood$4 ,at pres5t ! =e/ is ma9ly conf9$ to ! high] m\nta9s4 ,! be/ is to be f\nd 9 ! ,pyr5ees & _! cont9uation1 ! ,cantabrian m\nta9s4 ,! area ( actual =e/ 7bosques7 is n kn[n ) precision1 s9ce 9 ! (ficial figures m]e pot5tial =e/1 i4e41 bru% & wa/e l&1 is includ$ 7montes71 & ! area v>ies1 i4e41 dim9i%es ?r\gh new cle>+s1 ( :i* ! /ati/ics d n keep acc\nt4 ,moreov]1 ! /ati/ics ref] only to ! 8public =e/s10 leav+ out ! /atem5t ( private =e/ areas1 if any4 ,9 #ahei1 ?is area 0 report$ z ov] #be million acres or #bj p] c5t4 ( ! l& area 7#aif1jjj squ>e miles72 9 #ahhe1 ! acreage _h be5 r$uc$ to ab\t #ag4e million acres2 &1 9 #aijj1 ab\t #af million acres1 or #ac p] c5t4 ( ! l& area rema9$ z public =e/1 & ! total 0 e/imat$ at some:at ov] #bj million acres4 ,! foll[+ peculi> classification1 publi%$ 9 #ahgd1 gives 79 r\nd figures7 at once an insight into ! mean+ ( montes1 & ! probable condition ( ! 8public =e/0 area3 ,acres4 ,/ate ,res]ves #hfe1jjj ,salable ,/ate ,prop]ty #d1eej1jjj ,public ,in/itute ,=e/ #bj1jjj ,communal ,=e/ #i1hfj1jjj ,op5 ,commons = ,wood & ,pa/ure #a1hhj1jjj ,common ,pa/ure = ,draft ,animals #dbe1jjj ---------- ,total #ag1fjj1jjj ,an e/imate ( ! actual =e/ 7timb] & coppice71 does n exce$ #ab million acres = a population ( #ah million1 or 4#g acres p] capita4 ,! late/ (ficial figures claim z ,/ate prop]ty ar\nd #fjj1jjj acres1 & municipal in/itutional prop]ty #aa4e million acres2 ^! con/itut+ ! public =e/s4 ,accord+ to (ficial classification1 ^! public =e/s are to ! ext5t ( #e4c million acres high =e/1 #c million coppice1 ! balance bru%woods4 ,9 spite ( ?is evid5t lack ( wood mat]ial1 except = firewood or *>coal1 ! importations 9 #aijc did n exce$ #ac4e million doll>s1 acc5tuat+ ! abs5ce ( indu/rial developm5t4 ,! (ficial /atem5t ( imports reports #f4e million doll>s m ?an ! above figure1 b ?is includes horses & cattle enum]at$ z =e/ products--products ( ! 8montes40 ,^! also figure 9 ! exportations ( #ae million doll>s1 :i* to ! ext5t ( "o-half consi/s ( cork 7"s #e million doll>s f #fcj1jjj acres7 & tanb>k1 :ile *e/nuts1 filb]ts & esp>to furni% ! balance4 ,9 #aijh1 ! imports ( lumb] & /aves alone am\nt$ to #g1chb1jjj4 ,9 #ahhb1 all ! public =e/s produc$ f wood sales only #ijj1jjj1 b ! value ( ! products tak5 by rights ( us] 0 e/imat$ at ne>ly twice t am\nt4 ,9 #aiaj1 ! av]age income ( ! =e/ s]vice 0 report$ z hav+ av]ag$ = ! decade 9 ! neighborhood ( #b million doll>s1 & ! exp5se approximately #a million1 a net yield ( ab\t #cj c5ts p] acre on ! area involv$ result+1 ! total cut be+ #e4g million cubic feet annually4 ,! =e/ flora & its di/ribution is v simil> to t ( ,italy1 & is describ$ fully 9 two volumes prep>$ by a special commission appo9t$ = ?is purpose4 #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy4 ,spa9 is not$ = its compreh5sive legislation )\t execution2 x is also kn[n t (ficial reports are r>ely tru/wor?y1 s t :at appe>s on pap] is by no means always f\nd 9 reality1 h5ce all /atem5ts mu/ be accept$ ) res]vations4 ,! =e/ laws ( ,spa9 are some:at simil> to ^? ( ,italy1 yet %[ less appreciation ( ! ne$s ( te*nical =e/ culture4 ,! value ( =e/ res\rces & ne$ ( economy 9 _! use 01 inde$1 recogniz$ e>ly4 ,recomm5dations = _! cons]vative use are record$ f ! #ac? c5tury on4 ,an ord9ance ( ,p$ro ,i1 9 #acea1 impos$ heavy f9es ^u =e/ de/roy]s4 ,f]d9& ,v1 9 #adif1 express$ al>m at ! progress+ deva/ation1 &1 9 #aeah1 we f9d a sy/em ( =e/ gu>ds e/abli%$1 & ev5 ord9ances ord]+ re=e/ation ( wa/e l&s1 :i* 7 aga9 & aga9 repeat$ dur+ ! c5tury4 ,9 #aefg & #aehb1 notes ( al>m at ! cont9u+ de/ruction prove t ^! ord9ances _h no effect4 ,! same compla9ts & fe>s are express$ by ! rul]s dur+ ! #ag? & #ah? c5turies1 )\t any effective action4 ,9 #agdh1 ,f]d9& ,,vi plac$ all =e/s "u gov]nm5t sup]vision1 b 9 #ahab1 ! ,cortes ( ,cadiz1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! _s ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 resc9d$ ^! ord]s & aboli%$ all re/rictions4 ,an awak5+ to ! absolute necessity ( action seems n to h arriv$ until ab\t #ahcc1 :5 a law 0 enact$ & an ord9ance issu$1 at great l5g? def9+ ! mean+ ( 8montes10 & in/itut+ 9 ! ,corps ( ,civil ,eng9e]s a =e/ inspection4 ,at ! same "t1 a special s*ool 0 to be e/abli%$ 9 ,madrid4 ,?is la/ proposition does n seem to h mat]ializ$1 =1 9 #ahdj1 we f9d t sev]al "y m5 7 s5t to ! =e/ s*ool at ,?>&t 7,g]many74 ,no d\bt1 "u ! influ5ce ( ^! m5 on _! return1 back$ by ,la ,soci$ad ,economica ( ,madrid1 a commission to =mulate a =e/ law 0 in/itut$ 9 #ahdf1 & 9 ! same ye>1 c>ry+ out ord9ances ( #ahce & #ahdc1 a =e/ s*ool 0 e/abli%$ at ,villaviciosa de ,odon1 lat] 7#ahfi7 transf]r$ to ! ,escurial ne> ,madrid4 ,?is s*ool1 "u semi-milit>y organization1 fir/ ) a ?ree-ye>1 lat] a f\r-ye>1 c\rse1 & cont9ually improv$ & enl>g$ 9 its curriculum 7"o ,director & #ac pr(essors 9 #aijj71 is ! pride ( ! ,spani% =e/]s1 to all appe>ances des]v$ly s4 ,x 0 organiz$ aft] ,g]man models by ,b]n>do della ,torre ,royas z fir/ ,director4 ,! creation ( a =e/ dep>tm5t1 h[ev]1 ,cu]po de ,montes1 _h to wait until #ahec4 ,?is dep>tm5t1 "u ! ,m9i/] ( ,public ,works 7n[ "u ! ,m9i/] ( ,agriculture71 is a close corporation made up ( ! graduates ( ! s*ool z ,+5i]os de ,montes1 acceptance into :i* is bas$ ^u graduation & f\r ye>s' s]vice 9 ! =e/ dep>tm5t z assi/ants besides ! p]=mance ( "s m]itori\s "w4 ,! s*ool /&s 9 close relation to ! dep>tm5t s]vice4 ,! fir/ "w ( ! new adm9i/ration 0 a g5]al =e/ survey to asc]ta9 conditions1 & especially to det]m9e :i* ( ! public =e/s1 "u ! laws ( #ahee & #ahei1 x 0 desirable to reta94 ,! inve/igation %[$ t !re 0 m =e/ 7def9$ z 9 ! above classification7 ?an _h be5 suppos$1 b t x 0 9 ev5 worse condition ?an _h be5 kn[n4 ,! public =e/s1 i4e41 ^? own$ by ! ,/ate1 ! communities & public in/itutions1 7 divid$ into ?ree classes accord+ to ! species by :i* =m$1 :i* 0 ! easie/ way ( det]m9+ _! location z reg>ds altitude1 & _! public value2 namely1 ! conif]\s =e/ & decidu\s oak & *e/nut =e/s1 :i* 7 decl>$ inali5able2 ! =e/s ( a%1 ald]1 will[1 etc41 naturally locat$ 9 ! l[] levels1 !re=e )\t int]e/ to ! /ate1 :i* 7 decl>$ salable2 & an int]m$iate ?ird class compos$ ( cork oak & ev]gre5 oak1 ^: /atus z to propriety ( sale 0 left 9 d\bt4 ,9 #ahfb1 a revision ( ?is classification left out ?is d\btful class1 add+ x & ! =e/ areas ( ! fir/ class :i* 7 n at lea/ #bej acres 9 ext5t to ! salable prop]ty4 ,! fir/ class1 :i* 0 to be res]v$1 0 f\nd to comprise ne>ly #ag million acres 7( :i* #a4b million 0 own$ by ! ,/ate71 :ile ! salable prop]ty 0 f\nd to be ab\t half t area4 ,ev] s9ce1 a con/ant wrangle & commotion has be5 kept up reg>d+ ! classification1 & repeat$ attempts1 sometimes successful1 h be5 made by "o faction1 usually l$ by ! ,m9i/] ( ,f9ance1 to r$uce ! public =e/ area 7desamortizadoro71 oppos$ by ano!r faction "u ! lead ( ! =e/ adm9i/ration1 :i* 0 =c$ aga9 & aga9 to re-classify4 ,9 #ahhc1 ! ali5able public =e/ area 0 by decree plac$ "u ! ,m9i/] ( ,f9ance1 ! inali5able "p rema9+ "u ! ,m9i/] ( ,public ,works 7,fom5to72 v mu* ! same z x 0 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates until rec5tly4 ,! public debt & imm$iate f9ancial ne$s ( ! corporations gave ! inc5tive = desir+ ! disposal ( =e/ prop]ty1 &1 to satisfy ?is dem&1 x 0 ord]$1 9 #ahgh1 t all receipts f ! ,/ate prop]ty & #bj p] c5t4 ( ! receipts f communal =e/s 7 to be appli$ t[>ds ! ext+ui%m5t ( ! debt4 ,! ups & d[ns 9 ?is /ruggle to keep ! public =e/s intact 7 acc5tuat$ on ! "o h& by ! press+ ne$s ( tak+ c>e ( ! debt1 on ! o!r h& by dr\ght & flood4 ,?us1 9 #ahgd1 ! sale 9 annual in/alm5ts ( ov] #d4e million acres 9 ! h&s ( ! ,m9i/] ( ,f9ance 0 ord]$1 b ! floods ( ! same ye> 7 s disa/r\s1 7caus+ #g million doll>s damage1 #gfj dea?s1 #bh1jjj homeless71 be+ foll[$ by successive dr\ghts1 t a rev]sion ( s5tim5t 0 exp]i5c$1 :i* l$ to ! enactm5t ( a reboisem5t law 9 #ahgg4 ,?is law1 hav+ 9 view bett] managem5t ( communal prop]ties1 ord]$ ) all sorts ( unnecess>y te*nical details1 ! imm$iate re=e/ation ( all wa/e l& 9 ! public =e/s1 creat+ = t purpose a corps ( #djj cultivators 7capatacas de cultivos74 ,to furni% ! funds = ?is "w ! communities 7 to contribute #aj p] c5t4 ( ! value ( ! =e/ products !y sold or 7 entitl$ to4 ,b funds 7 n =?com+1 &1 by #ahie1 "u ?is law only #ba1jjj acres _h be5 re=e/$ 7?ree-f\r?s by s[+74 ,! f9ancial results ( ! managem5t ( ! public =e/s1 al?\gh ! =e/ dep>tm5t probably did ! be/ x c\ld "u ! circum/ances1 _h1 inde$1 n be5 reassur+4 ,9 #ahfa1 a deficit ( #bf1jjj 0 record$2 9 #ahgj1 #fjj1jjj wor? ( mat]ial 0 sold1 #a4c million doll>s wor? giv5 away1 & #gjj1jjj wor? de/roy$4 ,altoge!r1 by fire & !ft1 x 0 e/imat$ t #ae p] c5t4 ( ! production 0 lo/4 ,9 #ahhe1 ?is loss 0 e/imat$ at #be p] c5t41 :5 ! net income _h atta9$ to #ae c5ts p] acre1 or1 on ! #ag4e million acres to less ?an ?ree million doll>s4 ,:5 x is consid]$ t ! gov]nors ( prov9ces & _! appo9tees1 besides ! village au?orities1 _h also a h& 9 ! adm9i/ration1 x is no wond] t ! =e/ dep>tm5t 0 pretty ne>ly helpless4 ,:ile1 "u ! law ( #ahfc1 ! dep>tm5t 0 specially ord]$ to regulate ! managem5t ( communal =e/s & to gauge ! cut to ! increm5t1 ! political elem5ts 9 ! adm9i/ration1 :i* appo9t$ ! =e/ gu>ds1 made ! regulations mo/ly nugatory4 ,at la/1 9 #aijj1 a new era seems to h arriv$1 a ?or\gh reorganization 0 made1 :i* l5ds hope = a bett] future4 ,! te*nical adm9i/ration 0 divorc$ f ! political influ5ce & plac$ "u ! newly creat$ ,m9i/] ( ,agriculture4 ,! ma*9]y ( ! ,cu]po de ,montes 0 remodel$4 ,?is consi/s n[ ( "o ,*ief ,inspector-,g5]al1 f\r ,division ,*iefs1 t5 ,inspectors-,g5]al = field inspection1 #ej *ief eng9e]s ( di/rict manag]s1 #ahe assi/ants1 & #cdb =e/]s & gu>ds1 ! latt] n[ appo9t$ by ! dep>tm5t1 in/ead ( ! ,gov]nors1 & n all1 z =m]ly1 *os5 f vet]an soldi]s4 ,! bett] f9ancial %[+ ref]r$ to above 0 ! result4 ,9 #aiaj1 a special reboisem5t s]vice1 ! ,s]vicio ,hidrological ,=e/al1 0 also plac$ on a new foot+1 ! c\ntry be+ divid$ into t5 di/ricts = ?is purpose1 & an eng9e] plac$ 9 *>ge ( ea*4 ,b f a /atem5t t1 9 #aiaj1 ( "s #cjj1jjj acres plann$ to be recov]$ only #ca1jjj _h be5 complet$ x may be inf]r$ t f9ancial difficulties /ill ret>d ! "w4 ,private =e/s1 :i* _h be5 )\t any int]f]5ce1 71 9 #aijh1 plac$ "u gov]nm5t control s f> z locat$ )9 a def9$ protective zone 7zona protectora dasocratica74 ,su* mu/ be manag$ "u plans provid$ by ! ,=e/ ,s]vice1 & 9 case ( refusal on ! "p ( own]s expropriation proce$+s are provid$1 b ! money = tak+ advantage ( ?is provision w\ld probably n be 9 ! ,treasury4 ,inde$1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,miguel del ,campo at ! ,escurial =e/ s*ool1 results s f> are nil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,s9ce #ahif1 popul> education is attempt$ ?r\gh ,arbor days1 v>i\s associations fo/]+ ! idea2 9 #aijd1 ,la ,fie/a del ,arbol 0 made a national holiday1 & premiums are di/ribut$ = plantations made on t day4 ,! ,revi/a de ,montes1 a semi-(ficial mon?ly j\rnal1 began its publication 9 #ahgg1 & s]ves ! purpose ( propag&a1 z well z ! pr(essional ne$s4 ,a consid]able book lit]ature is also develop$4 ,,portugal4 ,a pamphlet writt5 = ! ,int]national ,exposition at ,rio de ,janeiro 9 #aijh1 conta9s a *apt] writt5 by a =e/]1 ,borges1 :i* gives mo/ rec5t & au!ntic in=mation4 ,besides notes scatt]$ ?r\gh ! lit]ature1 an article by ,l4 ,p>de1 a ,fr5* botani/1 9 ,revue des ,eaux et ,=ts1 #aiaa1 gives an ext5sive description ( =e/ conditions & especially ( ! =e/ ( ,leiria4 ,! small k+dom :i* occupies ! we/ coa/ ( ! ,ib]ian p59sula1 ) #cd1jjj squ>e miles & #f million p1 is 9 _m respects simil> to ,spa91 except t a l>g] portion is f]tile1 be+ situat$ 9 ! litoral region1 ! climate less excessive1 & ! p some:at m ent]pris+4 ,n mu* m ?an "o-half ( ! c\ntry1 h[ev]1 is utiliz$2 ne>ly #ae1jjj squ>e miles be+ wa/e4 ,?ree sections or zones are recogniz$1 ! nor!rn1 b\nd+ on ,spa9 :i* is ma9ly m\nta9\s b also conta9s ext5sive s& dunes1 is ! be/ wood$2 ! c5tral1 :i* is hilly & less well wood$1 conta9s 79 ,e/remadura & ,beira7 "o ( ! mo/ desolate regions ( ,europe & at ! same "t ! be/ manag$ =e/2 ! s\!rn1 ! ri*e/ 9 f>m l&s1 ) semi-tropic climate & flora1 ! zone ( ev]gre5 broadleaf flora4 ,ab\t #aj ( ! l& area1 or #d million acres are "u =e/1 al?\gh #b million m are wood$ ) olive1 fig1 almond plantations1 or op5 woodl&s & bru%wood4 ,( ! actual =e/ area ! ,/ate owns only #hb1jjj acres1 #cj1jjj ( :i* re=e/$ areas or s& dunes 9 process ( recov]y4 ,! composition is ne>ly "o-half ( p9e 7,p9us m>itima & p9ea71 "o-fif?1 cork oak 8) pa/ures10 a little ov] "o-fif?1 o!r ev]gre5 oaks 8) pa/ures10 & ! balance1 *e/nut & decidu\s oaks4 ,! fact ( ! ext5sive private own]%ip & ! ref]5ce to ! pa/ures 9 ! enum]ation ( =e/ areas suffice to give an idea ( ! condition ( mo/ ( !m4 ,! oak =e/ is also to a l>ge ext5t /ill us$ = hog rais+4 ,besides ! native =e/ areas1 !re are 9 exi/5ce a numb] ( p>ks & plantations ( exotics1 ! climate ( ,portugal 9 p>ts resembl+ t ( ,cali=nia & p]mitt+ a wide range ( introductions1 ev5 tropical4 ,!re is p]haps n[h]e su* a good opportunity ( see+ ! mo/ v>i$ =e/ flora 9 f9e developm5t z ! =e/ p>ks ( ,monts]rate1 ( ,bussaco1 & 9 ! v>i\s botanical g>d5s4 ,ext5sive ,eucalyptus & ,acacia plantations1 "s #aejj acres1 ( high economical value1 ne> ,abrants1 are ! ent]prise ( a private l&[n]1 ,w4 ,c4 ,tait4 ,! defici5cy ( wood supplies is cov]$ by an importation ( ab\t #a4e million doll>s aga9/ :i* !re is an export ( a little ov] half a million1 ma9ly coop]age /ock4 ,! be/ develop$ =e/ indu/ry is ! gr[+ ( cork giv+ rise to an export ( ar\nd #e million doll>s4 ,a consid]able naval /ore production is also develop$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! fir/ attempt at a real managem5t ( ! ,/ate's prop]ty dates f #ahfh2 a regul> organization1 h[ev]1 did n take place until #ahgb1 :51 "u ! ,director-,g5]al ( ,comm]ce & ,indu/ries1 a =e/ adm9i/rator ) a te*nical /aff ( ?ree division *iefs1 correspond+ to ! ?ree sections ( c\ntry1 & six =e/ma/]s 7 in/all$4 ,at pres5t1 ! /aff ( ! ,inspector consi/s ( #h te*nically educat$ assi/ants1 ea* 9 *>ge ( "s bran* ( s]vice4 ,"u ^!1 !re are a numb] ( field ag5ts or sup]visors 7"s #ad 9 #aijc7 ) less education1 & und]=e/]s & gu>ds4 ,! only really well manag$ =e/1 ! pride ( ! ,portuguese =e/]s1 is ! =e/ ( ,leiria 9 ,e/remadura1 a plant$ p9]y ( ab\t #be1jjj acres1 on :i* ov] #ej m5 ( v>i\s grades are employ$1 ) naval /ore di/ill]ies1 impregnat+ works1 & saw mills4 ,its managem5t 79 natural se$ tree sy/em7 dates f #ahib4 ,besides att5d+ to ! managem5t ( ! ,/ate =e/s1 a committee compos$ ( ! adm9i/rator & "s ( ! te*nical /aff1 7 to exam9e ! c\ntry & decide :at p>ts ne$$ re=e/ation4 ,z a result ( a v full report1 9 #ahhb1 a reboisem5t law 0 enact$ "u :i* "s ( ! s& dunes 7 fix$4 ,9 #aijc1 a m ?or\gh organization ( ?is "w took place1 :i*1 ) lib]al appropriations1 promises m rapid progress4 ,?is law recognizes two ways ( plac+ private prop]ty "u a =e/ry regime1 namely obligatory & facultative or volunt>y4 ,t]ritory 9 ! m\nta9s & on dunes may if deem$ by ! sup]ior ,agricultural ,c\ncil z requir+ x f ! po9t ( view ( public utility be plac$ "u ! regime by royal decree4 ,or else private own]s may ask to h _! prop]ties s plac$1 ei!r m]ely secur+ police protection1 obligat+ !mselves to keep ! prop]ty wood$1 or work+ "u a work+ plan or re=e/ation plan provid$ by ! ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,9 ei!r case ! own] is oblig$ to pay ! gu>ds & at ! rate ( ab\t #b c5ts p] acre = ! work+ plans4 ,plant+ mat]ial is furni%$ free or at co/ price1 & exemption f taxes = #bj ye>s is grant$ = re=e/$ l&s4 ,expropriation ( wa/e l&s decl>$ z ( public int]e/ is provid$1 if own]s object to en=c$ re=e/ation4 ,"s #bge1jjj acres h s f> be5 plac$ "u ! =e/ry regime4 ,!re are provisions = =e/ry education 9 ! ,s*ool ( ,agriculture at ,lisbon1 or ! education = ! high] positions 9 ! =e/ s]vice may be secur$ at ,g]man or ,fr5* =e/ s*ools1 & "s h secur$ x at ,vallambrosa4 ,,great ,,brita9 ,,& ,,h] ,,colonies4 ,hi/orical ,inquiries conc]n+ ,=e/s & ,=e/ ,laws1 by ,,p]cival ,,lewis1 #ahaa1 gives a full acc\nt ( ! practices 9 ! old ban =e/s4 ,engli% ,=e/s & ,=e/ ,trees1 #ahec1 anonym\s1 gives an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ! old #8=e/s' & _! hi/ory4 ,our ,=e/s & ,woodl&s1 by ,,john ,,nisbet1 #aijj1 has a *apt] on ! hi/orical developm5t ( =e/ laws4 ,,wm4 ,,s*li*1 ,manual ( ,=e/ry1 vol4 ,i1 #c;d ed41 #aijf1 br+s 9 conv5i5t =m an acc\nt ( conditions 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! ,briti% ,empire4 ,,s*wappa*1 ,=/li*e ,zu/nde 9 ,engl&1 ,zeits*rift fr ,=/- und ,jagdwes51 #aijc1 is an acc\nt ( =e/ conditions f ! p5 ( a practical obs]v]4 ,b4 ,,ribb5trop1 ,=e/ry 9 ,india1 #aijj4 ,also v>i\s reports ( ! =e/ dep>tm5ts ( ! v>i\s ,briti% ,colonies4 ,x is a rem>kable fact t ! nation :i* c boa/ ( ! mo/ ext5sive =e/ dep>tm5t 9 "o ( h] colonies1 has at home n yet be5 able to come to an intellig5t conception ev51 n to speak ( application1 ( prop] =e/ policy or =e/ economy4 ,"o ( ! ,engli% au?orities on ! subject writes /ill 9 #aijj3 8,) s mu* l& ( poor quality ly+ uncultivat$ 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 ! apa?y %[n t[>ds =e/ry 9 ,brita9 is "o ( ! ?+s t x is impossible to und]/&40 ,if we %\ld v5ture to seek = an explanation1 we w\ld f9d x 9 geographical & physical conditions1 b /ill m 9 p]sonal & political *>act]i/ics1 hi/orically develop$1 su* z also 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates make progress ( =e/ry sl[] ?an x w\ld o!rwise be4 ,due to h] insul> position ) :i* 9 "p ! developm5t ( h] naval supremacy is connect$1 ,engl& c readily supply h] ne$s by importations4 ,situat$ )9 ! influ5ce ( ! ,gulf /ream1 ! climate is mu* mild] ?an h] nor!rn location w\ld indicate1 & is 9 no respect excessive4 ,! topography is mo/ly g5tle1 except 9 ,scotl& & ,wales1 & ! riv]fl[ ev5 all ! ye>4 ,h5ce ! abs5ce ( =e/cov] has n be5 felt 9 its physical influ5ces4 ,britons1 ,picts1 ,scots1 ,sc&9avians1 ,anglo-,saxons & ,normans are ! elem5ts :i* h amalgamat$ to make ! ,engli% p4 ,?r\gh endless w>f>e & political /ruggle ! ?ree c\ntries1 ,engl&1 ,scotl& & ,irel& _h1 by ! ye> #afjj1 come "u "o rul]1 al?\gh f9al legislative union ) ,scotl& did n take place until #agjg1 & ) ,irel& n until #ahjj4 ,!oretically1 =m+ a con/itutional mon>*y1 practically1 an ari/ocracy ) republican t5d5cies1 ! hi/ory ( ! isl&s has be5 a /ruggle1 fir/ to e/abli% race supremacy1 !n to secure ! asc5d5cy ( ! nobility & l&hold]s ov] ! k+ & ! common]s1 9 :i* ! =m] h be5 m successful ?an ! b>ons 9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe4 ,politically1 ! ,engli%man is an individuali/1 jeal\s ( 8 private int]e/s & unwill+ to submit to gov]nm5t int]f]5ce = ! public welf>e4 ,h5ce1 ,/ate =e/ry1 :i* is f9ally ! only solution ( ! =e/ry problem1 appe>s objectionable4 ,comm]cial & indu/rial ent]prise r ?an economic developm5t appeals to him2 ! practical issue ( ! day r ?an dem&s ( a future & sy/ematic prep>ation = ! same occupy 8 m9d4 ,he lacks1 z ,mr4 ,roseb]ry po9ts out1 sci5tific me?od1 & h5ce is wa/eful4 ,moreov]1 he is cons]vative & self-satisfi$ beyond ! citiz5s ( any o!r nation1 h5ce if all ! wisdom ( ! _w po9t new ways1 he w /ill cl+ to 8 accu/om$ ones4 ,9 ! matt] ( hav+ commissions appo9t$ to inve/igate & report1 & leav+ ?+s to cont9ue 9 unsatisfactory condition he rem9ds "o ( ,spani% dilator9ess4 ,^! w\ld appe> to u ! reasons = ! difficulty :i* ! w\ld-be re=m]s exp]i5ce 9 br++ ab\t economic re=ms4 #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions4 ,cs>'s & ,/rabo's descriptions agree t ,great ,brita9 0 a d5sely wood$ c\ntry4 ,! =e/ area seems to h be5 r$uc$ mu* less ?r\gh long-cont9u$ use1 ?an ?r\gh de/ruction by fire & pa/ure1 & by subsequ5t =mation ( moors1 s t x is n[1 except+ t ( ,portugal1 ! smalle/ ( any ,european nation 9 proportion to total area1 &1 except+ t ( ,holl&1 9 proportion to population4 ,( ! #aba1chj squ>e miles1 :i* ,great ,brita9 & ,irel& repres5t1 less ?an #d p] c5t41 or #c million acres1 7#hhj1jjj 9 ,scotl&1 #cjc1jjj 9 ,irel&7 are =e/$1 "o-f\rte5? ( an acre p] capita2 b !re are ne>ly #cc ( wa/e l&s1 namely ov] #ab million acres ( hea?s1 moors & o!r wa/e l&s capable ( =e/ gr[?1 & ano!r #ab million acres p>tly or d\btfully s1 :ile ! agricultural l& 9 crops & pa/ure comprises ab\t #dh million acres4 ,! wa/e areas re-=e/$1 x is believ$1 c\ld meet ! consumption n[ suppli$ by importations4 ,notably 9 ,scotl&1 ext5sive hea?s & moors ( _m hundr$ squ>e miles 9 ! ,nor!rn ,highl&s & ! ,grampian m\nta9s--well wood$ 9 old5 times1 ! woods hav+ be5 eradicat$ suppos$ly = /rategic reasons--are n[ )\t f>ms or =e/s1 & are ma9ly us$ = %oot+ pres]ves4 ,9 ! la/ ?irty ye>s1 ! l& "u tillage has cont9u\sly decreas$1 & n[ repres5ts less ?an #be p] c5t4 ( ! :ole l& area1 grassl&s occupy+ #ch p] c5t4 ,! agricultural l& z well z ! m\nta9 & hea? l&s1 are to ! l>ge/ ext5t own$ by l>ge proprietors 79 #ahgf1 #aa1jjj p]sons own$ #gb p] c5t4 ( ! total area ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s74 ,) ! exception ( #fg1jjj acres ( cr[nl&s1 ! entire =e/ area is own$ privately1 & t mo/ly by l>ge l&$ proprietors1 !re be+ no communal own]%ip1 except t ! municipality ( ,london owns a =e/ area 7,epp+ ,=e/7 devot$ to pleasure1 & ! ,wat] ,bo>d ( ,liv]pool has begun to plant "s ( its cat*m5t bas9s4 ,practically ! entire wood supply is import$1 & ! rate ( importation is rapidly increas+4 ,:ile 9 #ahfd x 0 #c4d million tons1 9 #ahib1 #g4h million tons wor? #ib million doll>s2 9 #ahii1 #aj million tons & #abe million doll>s2 9 #aijb1 x _h gr[n to #ach million doll>s1 & 9 #aijf to #ada million 7#gjj million cubic feet7 9 :i* #g4d million ( wood manufactures1 aga9/ :i* an export ( #ai million ma9ly wood manufactures1 mu/ be (fset4 ,?is makes ,engl& ! l>ge/ wood import] 9 ! _w1 ,g]many com+ next1 & ! am\nt paid to o!r c\ntries exce$s ! value ( h] pig iron output4 ,ne>ly #ij p] c5t4 ( ! import is conif]\s mat]ial1 f ,sw$51 ,russia & ,canada4 ,! home product1 mo/ly oak ties1 m9eprops1 etc41 satisfies ab\t "o-six? ( ! consumption4 ,9 addition to timb] & lumb]1 ov] #aj million doll>s ( wood pulp1 & #fj million doll>s ( by-products are import$4 ,! total wood consumption p] capita is betwe5 #ab & #ad cubic feet1 half ( :at x 0 #ej ye>s ago4 99 99 99 99 99 ,p9e is ! only native conif] ( timb] value1 & oak is ! mo/ important native decidu\s tree1 f\nd mo/ly 9 coppice or 9 old1 ov]mature1 /raggl+ pa/ure woods4 ,compact l>g] =e/ areas are entirely abs5t1 b !re are _m small plantations & p>ks4 ,=1 :ile ,engli%m5 h n be5 =e/]s1 !y h be5 active treeplant]s1 & ! mild climate has p]mitt$ ! introduction ( _m exotics1 especially ,am]ican conif]s4 ,mo/ ( ^! plant+s h be5 = p>k & game purposes4 ,! mo/ not$ =e/ plantations are f\nd 9 ,scotl&1 among !m ! l>* plantations ( ! ,duke ( ,a?ole 7begun 9 #agbh71 ( at "o "t ov] #aj1jjj acres1 ! ducal woodl&s n[ cov]+ ov] #bj1jjj acres2 ! p9]y ( #be1jjj acres1 belong+ to ! ,c\ntess ( ,sealfield1 ! be/ manag$ =e/ prop]ty1 p>tly 9 natural reg5]ation1 & o!rs4 ,b ^! plantations too are mo/ly widely spac$ & trimm$1 h5ce n produc+ timb] ( mu* value1 s t timb] ( ,briti% production is usually rul$ out by ar*itects4 #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policies4 ,! ,saxons & ,normans 7 prim>ily hunt]s1 & ?is prop5sity to ! *ase has impress$ itself ^u _! =e/ treatm5t into mod]n times4 ,! ,teutonic ,saxons und\bt$ly br\ght ) !m ! feudal & communal in/itutions ( ! ,g]mans1 "u :i* t]ritory = ! k+'s special pleasure 9 ! *ase 0 set aside z #8=e/'1 & ?is exclusive "r & privilege 0 on o!r t]ritory ext5d$ to ! vassals1 :ile ! common]s 7 exclud$ f ! ex]cise ( hunt+ privileges on ^! gr\nds4 ,! ,normans n only increas$ ! l&s "u #8ban'1 b !y increas$ also 9 a despotic mann] ! p5alties & puni%m5ts = infraction ( ! =e/ laws1 & en=c$ !m m /r+5tly ?an 0 done on ! cont95t4 ,! feudal sy/em 0 develop$ to its utmo/4 ,besides #8=e/s' 9 :i* ! k+ alone _h exclusive rights1 & 9 :i* a code ( special laws1 adm9i/]$ "u special c\rts1 0 appli$1 !re 7 set aside #8*ases'1 hunt+ res]ves )\t ! pale ( ! =e/ laws2 #8p>ks'1 small]1 enclos$ hunt+ gr\nds2 & #8w>r5s'1 privileg$ by royal grant or prescription z pres]ves = small game4 ,:ole villages 7 wip$ out1 or liv$ almo/ 9 bondage to satisfy ?is ta/e = sport4 ,9 ! #8=e/s'1 ( :i* 9 ,elizabe?'s "t n less ?an #ge di/9ct ones 7 enum]at$1 )draw+ an imm5se area f free use1 bo? #8v]t' & #8v5ison'1--wood & game1--belong$ to ! k+2 a ho/ ( (fic]s1--/ew>ds1 v]d]]s1 =e/]s1 reg>d]s1 agi/ors1 woodw>ds1--ex]cis$ police duties1 & oppress$ & gr\nd ! p by extortions1 :ile special c\rts1--#8woodmote'1 #8swa9mote'1 #8c\rt ( ju/ice seat'1--en=c$ ! savage & cruel laws4 ,! fir/ ( ^! laws 0 suppos$ to date f ,canute ! ,great1 9 #ajaf1 b 0 ev5tually f\nd to be a =g]y p]petrat$ by ,william ,i 9 ord] to l5d hi/orical color to 8 ass]tion ( #8=e/' rights4 ,a p>tial r$uction ( =e/s1 & a modification ( ! cruelty & unreasonabl5ess ( ! laws 0 obta9$ by ! ,*>ta de ,=e/a1 9 #abbe1 :i* =mulat$ ! laws into a code1 & aga9 by ! ,=e/ ,ord9ance ( #acjf4 ,b n until #adhc1 "u ,edw>d ,,iv1 7 ! p liv+ )9 #8=e/s' p]mitt$ to cut & sell timb]1 & to f5ce 9 = sev5 ye>s portions ( ! res]v$ t]ritory4 ,! la/ t]ritory 0 #8af=e/$'1 i4e41 )drawn = purposes ( ! *ase1 "u ,h5ry ,,viii1 b he _h to secure ! cons5t ( ! freehold]s4 ,! ,long ,p>liam5t1 9 #afda1 /opp$ at lea/ ! ext5sion ( =e/s1 & modifi$ ! application ( ! laws to a m reasonable degree4 ,! =e/ laws are /ill on ! /atutes1 b h fall5 into desuetude2 ! la/ #8=e/ c\rt ( ju/ice seat' 0 held "u ,*>les ,i4 ,! #8=e/s' !mselves h also almo/ entirely vani%$1 "s be+ aboli%$ z late z ,que5 ,victoria's "t1 by act ( p>liam5t1 b ! la/ action "u ! #8=e/ laws' 0 _h 9 #ahfb :5 ! ,duke ( ,a?ole tri$ to e/abli% 8 "r z #8=e/]' = ! cr[n4 ,a full acc\nt ( ! =e/ laws is conta9$ 9 ,manwood's volume1 ! title page ( :i* is "h reproduc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,treatise ,,( ,,! ,,lawes ,,( ,,! ,,fo- re/3 ,:]e9 is decl>$ n onely ^? ,lawes1 z !y are n[ 9 =ce1 b also ! ori- g9all & beg9n+ ( ,=e/s3 ,& :at a ,=e/ is 9 8 owne prop] nature1 & :]e9 ! same do? dif- f] f a ,*ase1 a ,p>ke1 or a ,w>r51 ) all su* ?+s z are incid5t or belong+ !re into1 ) _! seu]all prop] te>mes ( ,art4 ,,also ,a ,,treatise ,,( ,,! ,p\rallee1 decl>+ :at ,p\rallee is1 h[ ! same fir/ began1 :at a ,p\rallee man may d1 h[ he may hunt & vse 8 owne ,p\rallee1 h[ f>re he may pursue & fol- l[ aft] 8 *ase1 toge!r ) ! limits & b\nds1 z well ( ! ,=e/1 z ! ,p\rallee4 ,collect$1 z well out ( ! ,common ,lawes & ,/atutes ( ?is l&1 ,z also out ( sundrie le>n$ aunci5t ,au- ?ors1 & out ( ! ,assises ( ,pick]+ & ,lanca/]1 by ,,iohn ,,manvvood4 ,:]eunto are add$ ! ,/atutes ( ! ,=e/1 a ,trea- tise ( ! seu]all (fices ( ,v]d]ors1 ,reg>dors1 & ,=e- /]s1 ! ,c\rts ( ,atta*m5ts1 ,swanimote1 ,iu/ice seat ( ! ,=e/1 & c]ta9e pr9cipall ,cases1 ,iudgem5ts1 & ,entries ( ! ,assises ( ,pick]+ & ,lan- ca/]3 neu] h]et(ore pr9t$ = ! publique ,,london1 ,pr9t$ = ! ,societie ( ,/ation]s1 ,anno ,dom4 #afae4 ,cum ,priuilegio4 ,facsimile ( ,title page ( ,manwood's celebrat$ volume4 7,orig9al1 ! prop]ty ( ,mr4 ,joly de ,lotb9ire74 ,9 ,scotl& ! same usages & laws exi/$1 only v mu* less rigor\sly en=c$1 until1 9 #afha1 ! ext5sion ( #8=e/s' 0 discont9u$ by p>liam5t>y act4 ,x w be und]/ood t ! t]m =e/ did only di/antly ref] to woodl& & t no economic policy _h any?+ to d ) ! laws4 ,only incid5tally 0 =e/ gr[? protect$ & pres]v$ = ! sake ( ! *ase--! same m$ieval policy :i* /ill l>gely animates ! =e/ policy ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york4 ,! woods outside ! #8=e/s'1 :i* _h ma9ly s]v$ = ! rais+ ( hogs1 & = dome/ic ne$s1 exp]i5c$ at v>i\s times unusual r$uction by fire4 ,g5]al ,monk1 among o!rs1 laid wa/e l>ge areas on ! ,scotti% bord]l& 9 ,cromwell's "t4 ,! fir/ s]i\s inroads by ext5sive fell+s occurr$ "u ,edw>d ,,iii 9 ! fir/ half ( ! #ad? c5tury to enri* ! treasury = ! ,fr5* w>s4 ,aga91 ,h5ry ,,viii 9 ! #af? c5tury1 :5 he seiz$ ! *ur* prop]ties = 8 own use1 turn$ !m into ca%4 ,a hundr$ ye>s lat]1 ,james ,i r$uc$ ! =e/ area1 especially 9 ,irel&1 by 8 colonization s*emes4 ,yet bo?1 ,h5ry ,,viii & ,james ,i1 are on record z enc\rag+ =e/ plant+ = utility4 ,*>les ,i1 ,james' successor1 always 9 ne$ ( ca%1 ali5at$ _m ( ! cr[n =e/s1 & turn$ !m into ca%1 besides extort+ money ?r\gh ! =e/ c\rts4 ,dur+ ! ,revolution1 beg9n+ 9 #afdb1 & dur+ ,cromwell's reign a lic5ti\s deva/ation ( ! confiscat$ or mortgag$ noblem5's woods took place4 ,f9ally1 "u ,*>les ,,ii1 ! ne$s = ! royal navy =c$ att5tion to ! r$uction ( wood supplies1 & z a result ( ! agitation to enc\rage ! gr[? ( timb]1 a memb] ( ! newly =m$ ,royal ,society 0 deput$ to prep>e an essay1 :i*1 publi%$ 9 #affb1 has become ! classic "w ( ,engli% =e/ lit]ature1 namely ,john ,evelyn's ,sylva1 or 8,a ,disc\rse ( ,=e/ ,trees10 :i* has exp]i5c$ elev5 editions4 ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be m5tion$ t an e>li] writ]1 :om ,evelyn (t5 quotes1 ,tuff]1 be=e ! reign ( ,elizabe?1 9 #aebf1 publi%$ 8 8,five ,hundr$ ,po9ts ( ,husb&ry10 a v]sification 9 :i* treeplant+ receiv$ att5tion4 ,ev] s9ce t "t1 p]iodically & spasmodically1 ! "q ( =e/ry has be5 agitat$1 )\t mu* s]i\s result4 ,f #agge to #agha1 ! ,society ( ,arts 9 ,london (f]$ gold m$als & prizes = treeplant+1 & 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! #ai? c5tury a revival ( arboricultural int]e/ 0 exp]i5c$1 p]haps z a result ( an int]e/+ report by ! celebrat$ ,admiral ,nelson on ! mismanagem5t ( ! =e/ ( ,dean1 conc]n = naval timb] giv+ ! inc5tive1 9 :i* he recomm5d$ ! plant+ ( oak = inve/m5t4 ,at t "t1 a ,surveyor-,g5]al1 ) an insuffici5t =ce1 0 9 *>ge ( ! cr[n =e/s4 ,9 #ahji1 ! managem5t 0 plac$ "u a bo>d ( ?ree ,commission]s1 "o ( :om be+ a memb] ( ! p>liam5t 0 to be *ang$ ) ! adm9i/ration4 ,"u ?is managem5t1 graft became s rampant t1 9 #ahdh1 a committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons 0 appo9t$1 ^: report reveal$ ! mo/ a/oni%+ rott5ness1 plac+ a /igma on gov]nm5t managem5t su* z we /ill uncov] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates f "t to "t4 ,a reorganization took place 9 #ahea4 ,at t "t ! royal =e/s & p>ks1 r$uc$ 9 ext5t to ab\t #bjj1jjj acres1 %[$ a defici5cy ( #abe1jjj1 mo/ly1 to be sure1 occasion$ by ! p>ks4 ,!re 0 !n /ill a tribute ( "s #fjj bucks to be deliv]$ to v>i\s p]sonages1 z 0 ! anci5t usage4 ,at pres5t !re are "s #aae1jjj acres class$ z royal =e/1 b only #fg1jjj acres are really =e/1 consi/+ ( m or less mismanag$ woods1 "u ! adm9i/ration1 n =e/ managem5t1 ( ! ,commission]s ( ,woods & ,=e/s1 ) ,deputy ,surveyors 9 *>ge ( ! ranges4 ,al?\gh !re are a few notable exceptions 9 ! managem5t1 x is to be not$ t ! same /upid ignorance1 :i* introduc$ ! clause into ! ,con/itution ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 0 enact$ into law 9 #ahgg by ! ,engli% ,p>liam5t1 =bidd+ 9 ! ,new ,=e/ all cutt+ & plant+4 ,9 #aijj1 !re exi/$ j "o plant+ plan1 made by a pr(essional =e/]1 namely1 = a portion ( ! =e/ ( ,dean1 :ile n[ only two o!r ,/ate prop]ties & two or ?ree private e/ates are manag$ "u work+ plans4 ,9 #ahhg1 a ,committee appo9t$ to inquire into ! adm9i/ration ( ?is prop]ty1 express$ itself mo/ dissatisfi$1 b a ,committee ( ,p>liam5t 9 #ahij :itewa%$ ! adm9i/ration & report$ t ! managem5t 0 satisfactory4 ,^! committees1 z well z an e>li] "o1 9 #ahhe1 7 also to recomm5d measures = ! advancem5t ( =e/ry4 ,!y laid 9 _! recomm5dations ! ma9 /ress ^u education1 b no action foll[$1 & x c be said t ! gov]nm5t has nev] done any?+ = ! advancem5t ( =e/ry 9 ! home c\ntry1 :atev] x may h done = ! dep5d5cies4 ,a ,dep>tm5tal ,committee aga9 report$ 9 #aijb ) all sorts ( recomm5dations1 :i* h rema9$ unhe$$4 ,! int]e/s ( =e/ry z f> z ! gov]nm5t is conc]n$ are at pres5t committ$ to ! ,bo>d ( ,agriculture1 an unwieldy body creat$ 9 #ahhi1 f :i* ?is ,dep>tm5tal ,committee 0 appo9t$4 ,!re is n[1 h[ev]1 a /rong movem5t on foot1 l$ by =e/]s return$ f ,india1 to commit ! gov]nm5t to "s action ) ref]5ce to ! wa/e l&s1 & t[>ds provid+ = educational means4 ,ano!r committee1 appo9t$ 9 #aijh to enquire into prospects ( af=e/ation 9 ,irel&1 report$ 9 favor ( acquir+ #cjj1jjj acres ( wood & #gjj1jjj acres ( unplant$ l&1 dwell+ especially on ! b5efit to be secur$ by provid+ employm5t & a *eck ^u emigration ( ! rural population4 ,in/ead ( act+ ^u ?is proposition ! gov]nm5t direct$ ! ,royal ,commission on ,coa/ ,erosion1 :i* _h issu$ its fir/ report 9 #aijg1 to susp5d its inquiry into ! inroads ( ! sea & apply !mselves to ! inquiry z to 8:e!r 9 connection ) unclaim$ l&s or o!rwise x is desirable to make an exp]im5t 9 af=e/ation z a means ( increas+ employm5t dur+ p]iods ( depression1 & h[1 & by :om su* exp]im5t %\ld be conduct$40 ,9 #aiji1 ! ,royal ,commission on ,af=e/ation & ,coa/ ,erosion report$ at l5g?1 propos+ ! re=e/ation by a special ,commission ( n9e million acres ( wa/e l& at a rate ( #ge1jjj or #aej1jjj acres a ye> to be acquir$ by pur*ase--an elaborate plan1 :i* s f> has rema9$ )\t result4 ,! gov]nm5t1 al?\gh v>i\s committees h recomm5d$ x1 has rema9$ also call\s 9 respect to educational policy1 except t1 9 #aijd1 ! ,commission]s ( ,woods & ,=e/s in/itut$ a s*ool 7"o in/ructor7 9 ! ,=e/ ( ,dean = ! education ( woodsm5 & =em54 ,z illu/rative ( ! gov]nm5t's peculi> attitude to =e/ policy 9 g5]al1 we may note a curi\s ana*ronism1 namely ! act ( #ahid1 :i* relieves railway companies f liability = damage f locomotive fires1 if !y c prove t !y h ex]cis$ all c>e1 al?\gh traction eng9es _c (f] ?is excuse4 ,! fir/ attempt to secure educational facilities dates to #ahhd :5 a *air ( =e/ry 0 e/abli%$ 9 ! ,royal ,eng9e]+ ,college at ,coop]'s ,hill1 an in/itution design$ to prep>e = s]vice 9 ,india purely4 ,?r\gh private subscriptions1 ano!r *air ( =e/ry 0 in/itut$ 9 #ahhg at ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 & sev]al agricultural colleges1 notably t ( ,cir5ce/]1 z well z ! ,univ]sities ( ,cambridge & ,ox=d1 _h made provisions = tea*+ ! subject 9 a way1 b outside ( ,coop]'s ,hill no adequate education 9 =e/ry 0 obta9able 9 ,great ,brita91 until #aije4 ,9 #aije1 ! =e/ dep>tm5t 9 ,coop]'s ,hill 0 transf]r$ to ,ox=d1 ! ?ree ye>s' c\rse--"o ye> to be sp5t 9 ! =e/s ( ,g]many or o!r c\ntries--be+ z be=e design$ ma9ly = aspirants to ! ,indian =e/ s]vice4 ,n[1 besides ,ox=d1 "s n9e o!r in/itutions (f] c\rses 9 =e/ry--! reason = ?is educational developm5t be+ difficult to imag9e4 ,! "n ( ,sir ,william ,s*li*1 a ,g]man =e/]1 & = "s "t ! head ( ! ,indian =e/ dep>tm5t n[ 9 *>ge ( ?is s*ool1 is mo/ prom95tly connect$ ) ! re=m movem5t4 99 99 99 99 99 ,altoge!r =e/ managem5t & silvicultural practice are /ill ne>ly unkn[n 9 ,engl&1 &1 until )9 a few ye>s1 ! useful idea ( work+ plans _h n yet p5etrat$ ! m9ds ( own]s ( e/ates4 ,?is apa?y is1 no d\bt1 9 "p due to ! fact t ! gov]nm5t is 9 ! h&s ( ! nobility1 :o pref] to keep _! 8%oot+ ranges01 & d n see ev5 a f9ancial advantage f turn+ !m into =e/ z long z !y c d]ive a r5t ( f #aj to #dj c5ts p] acre = %oot+ privileges4 99 99 99 99 99 ,private endeavor has be5 active ?r\gh ! two arboricultural societies1 ! ,royal ,scot*1 f\nd$ 9 #ahed1 & ! ,royal ,engli%1 beg9n+ its labors 9 #ahhj4 ,! transactions ( ^! societies 9 annual or occasional volumes repres5t$ ! curr5t magaz9e lit]ature on =e/ry s9ce ! mon?ly ,j\rnal ( ,=e/ry & ,e/ates ,managem5t1 :i* began its c>e] 9 ,london 9 #ahgg1 transf]r$ to ,ed9burgh 9 #ahhd1 ceas$ to exi/ 9 #ahhe4 ,at pres5t1 a v well conduct$ ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ,=e/ry1 />t$ 9 #aijg by ! ,royal ,engli% ,arboricultural ,society replac+ its ,transactions & t ( ! ,iri% ,=e/ry ,association1 also ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,bo>d ( ,agriculture1 occasionally1 supply ! ne$s ( ! cont9u\sly improv+ *ances = developm5t on =e/ry l9es4 ,until )9 a %ort "t ! ,engli% pr(essional book lit]ature has be5 extremely meag]1 al?\gh a consid]able propag&i/1 arboricultural1 & g5]al magaz9e lit]ature exi/s4 ,s*li*'s ,manual ( ,=e/ry1 fir/ 9 ?ree volumes publi%$ f #ahhi to #ahie1 n[ 9 its second to f\r? edition1 enl>g$ to five volumes1 is ! mo/ compreh5sive publication4 ,ano!r au?or des]v+ m5tion is ,john ,nisbet1 kn[n by 8 ,/udies 9 ,=e/ry 7#ahid71 :o also engraft$ cont95tal silvicultural notions into lat] editions ( ,james ,br[n's ,! ,=e/]1 an encyclopdic "w ( m]it4 ,sev]al ,g]man & ,fr5* works h be5 translat$ into ,engli%1 notably ,k4 ,gay]3 ,die ,=/b5utzung2 ,r4 ,hess3 ,d] ,=/s*utz2 ,h4 ,fr/3 ,walds*utz4 ,john ,cr\mbie ,br[n's sixte5 volumes on =e/s & =e/ry 9 v>i\s c\ntries may be m5tion$ among ! propag&i/ lit]ature4 ,! ,arboricultural ,societies m5tion$ also make a brave ef=t to advance pr(essional developm5t ( =e/ry 9 _! publications4 ,,india4 ,:ile s neglectful ( h] =e/ int]e/s at home1 ,great ,brita9 has develop$ 9 h] possessions 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies a f>-see+ policy1 &1 "u ! lead ( ,g]man influ5ce1 has e/abli%$ !re "o ( ! l>ge/1 if n mo/ effici5t1 =e/ dep>tm5ts 9 ! _w4 ,contr>y to a frequ5tly express$ idea t ! conditions & problems ( ,india are comp>able to ! conditions & problems ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 s t ! example ( ,great ,brita9 9 ,india r ?an t ( any ,european c\ntry might s]ve u 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! writ] ?9ks t ! v opposite is true4 ,n only are ! natural conditions = ! mo/ "p diff]5t1 ,india be+ ma9ly tropical ) an entirely diff]5t flora & diff]5t conditions ( gr[?1 b indu/rial1 cultural1 social & political conditions are also entirely diff]5t2 all ( :i* entails diff]5ce 9 me?ods ( proc$ure4 ,!re are1 to be sure1 a few po9ts ( simil>ity3 ! l>ge size ( c\ntry "u "o gov]nm5t1 & t 9 ! h&s ( an ,engli% speak+ race2 ! fact t ! fire sc\rge1 z ) u1 b f diff]5t reasons1 is /ill ! greate/ problem2 t !re are arid regions & des]ts 7n ov] #aj p] c5t471 & irrigation problems & flood dang]s to deal )2 & f9ally ! long delay 9 e/abli%+ a def9ite =e/ policy4 ,al?\gh ?is policy 0 inaugurat$ ov] #dj ye>s ago1 ,india has n yet1 & w by ! nature ( ?+s1 n soon pass out ( ! fir/ /age ( developm5t :i* we may confid5tly expect to pass ?r\gh mu* m rapidly1 due to ! conditions 9 :i* we resemble ,europe m closely4 ,! great] "p ( ,india1 namely #fb p] c5t4 ( ! #a1ggc1jjj squ>e miles1 is "u ,briti% adm9i/ration1 & is peopl$ by a subject race ( ne>ly #bdj million1 )\t a voice 9 _! gov]nm5t1 :i* is c>ri$ on by a small h&ful ( ! conqu]ors 7ab\t #ajj1jjj ,engli%m5 are liv+ 9 ,india71 :ile ! balance1 ar\nd #gjj1jjj squ>e miles ) #ec million p1 is divid$ among a l>ge numb] ( m or less indep5d5t native ,/ates1 v diff]5t 9 _! civilization f ours4 ,indu/rially1 ! diff]5ce w appe> f ! /atem5t t ab\t #gj p] c5t4 ( ! population is engag$ 9 agricultural pursuits1 h5ce !re is no active wood m>ket z ) u1 except = dome/ic purposes1 &1 z ! woods1 l ^? ( mo/ tropical =e/1 are ma9ly cab9et woods1 ev5 ! export trade is insignificant1 am\nt+ to h>dly #c million doll>s1 :ile m9or =e/ products 7lac1 cut* & gambi]1 myrobalan1 ca\t*\c1 etc47 repres5t ab\t #ab million doll>s4 ,climatically1 z is to be expect$1 on su* a l>ge t]ritory1 great v>iation exi/s1 :i* is increas$ by diff]5ces 9 altitude f ! sea level to ! tops ( ! ,himalayas4 ,! climate is1 ( c\rse1 l>gely tropical1 ) a ra9fall :i* v>ies f ! heavie/ kn[n1 ( #fjj in*es1 to almo/ none at all4 ,nev]!less1 9 spite ( ^! diff]5ces f our conditions1 mu* may be le>n$ f ,indian exp]i5ce 9 ! matt] ( organization1 bo? to foll[ & to avoid1 & ! fact t ?is c be done )\t ! ne$ ( a =eign language w be attractive to mo/ ,am]icans4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,briti%1 l o!r nations1 ga9$ a foo?old 9 ,india = trad+ purposes dur+ ! #ag? c5tury4 ,?is !y ext5d$ dur+ ! #ah? c5tury1 especially aft] !y _h atta9$ ! asc5dancy by ,clive's subjection1 9 #ageg1 ( ! great ,mogul1 "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful native pr9ces4 ,by conque/ & amicable arrangem5t1 ! t]ritory ( ,briti% influ5ce 0 gradually increas$ ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! ,ea/ ,india ,company1 until1 9 #aheh1 ! ,briti% gov]nm5t 9 ,india 0 =mally e/abli%$ by royal proclamation2 &1 9 #ahgg1 x 0 decl>$ an empire4 ,z /at$1 native pr9ces /ill control1 "u ,briti% influ5ce & re/rictions1 ov] "o-?ird ( ! c\ntry1 or a t]ritory ( ne>ly #gjj1jjj squ>e miles1 divid$ into #ac feudatory /ates4 ,! total area "u direct ,briti% control & gov]nm5t is #a1jhg1jjj squ>e miles1 ( :i* #be p] c5t4 7#bhj1jjj squ>e miles7 is probably =e/$ & wa/e1 "s #bcb1jjj squ>e miles or ne>ly #aej million acres ( :i* are s f> decl>$ gov]nm5t prop]ty4 ,! ,briti% t]ritory is divid$ into ?ree presid5cies 7,madras1 ,bombay & ,b5gal7 & n9e prov9ces1 ea* ) a sep>ate gov]nm5t "u a gov]nor1 or commission]1 ) a c\ncil1 & all subject to control by ! resid5t gov]nor-g5]al or vic]oy & 8 c\ncil1 & he 9 turn is responsible to ! ,secret>y ( ,/ate at home4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 little c5tralization ( gov]nm5t functions1 ! prov9cial gov]nm5ts be+ to a l>ge degree at lea/ semi-autonom\s1 l ! /ates 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & consid]able v>iation exi/s 9 ! conduct ( affairs4 ,! difficulties 9 introduc+ some?+ l a uni=m =e/ policy 71 inde$1 n small1 & mu* cr$it is due to ! wisdom & tact ( ! ?ree ,g]man =e/]s1 :o 9 succession fill$ ! difficult position ( head ( ! ,imp]ial ,=e/ ,dep>tm5t & organiz$ ! s]vice--,br&is1 ,s*li* & ,ribb5trop4 #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions4 ,9 ! tropics1 ra9fall conditions m ?an any o!r factor det]m9e =e/ conditions4 ,! ra9s ( ,india dep5d on extraord9>y sea w9ds1 or 8monsoons10 & _! di/ribution is regulat$ by ! topography ( l& & relative position ( any di/rict ) reg>d to ! m\nta9s & ! vapor-lad5 air curr5ts4 ,?us excessive ra9fall *>act]izes ! coa/ l9e along ! ,arabian ,sea to ab\t latitude #bj degrees ,n41 & /ill m along ! coa/ ( ,l[] ,burma1 & to a less] ext5t also ! delta ( ! ,ganges & ! s\!rn slopes ( ! ,himalayas4 ,a mod]ately humid climate1 if gaug$ by annual ra9fall1 prevails ov] ! plateau occupy+ ! l>g] "p ( ! p59sula & ! l[] ,ganges valley1 :ile a ra9fall ( less ?an #ae in*es occurs ov] ! arid regions ( ! l[] ,indus4 ,! ra9fall1 s unev5ly di/ribut$ t]ritorially1 is1 moreov]1 z unev5ly di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! ye>4 ,9 mo/ di/ricts ! pr9cipal ra9s are exp]i5c$ 9 summ]1 ! ra9y season be+ foll[$ by a long dry season4 ,b on ! ,ea/]n coa/ ! summ] ra9s are slight1 & ! pr9cipal ra9y season is delay$ into ,octob] & ,novemb]1 :ile 9 ,nor!rn ,india & ! ,himalayas1 also w9t] ra9s occur1 irregul> & ( %ort duration4 ,ev5 :]e a relatively l>ge ra9fall prevails1 ! climate is dry on acc\nt ( ! high temp]ature1 h5ce "s #cj1jjj1jjj acres ( ! cultivat$ acreage 7:i* comprises #bbe1jjj1jjj acres 9 all7 dep5d on irrigation1 ov] half ( ?is irrigat$ area ly+ 9 ! tropical zone4 ,r\ghly speak+1 at lea/ f\r climatic zones ) _m sub-types1 may be recogniz$3 ! truly tropic1 int5sely hot & wet 7ov] #ge in* ra9fall71 prevail+ on ! pla9s & tablel&s ( ! l[] half ( ! p59sula2 ! hot & dry 7bel[ #ae in* ra9fall7 climate ( ! ,nor?we/]n ,indus pla9 & plateau2 ! mod]ately w>m & dry to humid 7#cj-ge in* ra9fall7 climate ( ! ,ganges pla9 & c5tral plateau2 & ! temp]ate to alp9e1 humid climate ( ! ,himalaya m\nta9s1 ) sn[ & ice 9 w9t]1 & mod]ate heat 9 summ]4 ,9 keep+ ) ?is great div]sity ( climate1 bo? z to temp]ature & humidity1 !re is a great v>iation 9 ! "* & developm5t ( ! =e/ cov]4 ,at lea/ six types c be recogniz$1 namely ! ev]gre5 =e/1 f\nd along ! ,we/ coa/1 9 ,burma1 ,&aman ,isl&s1 & ! sub-,himalaya zone1 :i* is compos$ ( broadleav$ species ) a d5se und]gr[? ( small trees & tangl$ lianas 7v9es71 b few %rubs1 z is *>act]i/ic ( mo/ tropical =e/2 ! decidu\s =e/1 ma9ly 9 ! int]ior ( ,c5tral ,india1 ) ,sal1 ,teak & ,ironwood z *>act]i/ic trees2 ! arid region =e/1 f\nd 9 ! ,punjab1 9 ,raiputana1 & 9 ,s9dh1 ( v>y+ composition1 f ! op5 %rub =e/s ( ! latt] prov9ce1 compos$ ( acacias1 tam>isk & mesquite1 to ! d5s]1 m div]sifi$1 dry1 l[ tree =e/ ( ! =m]2 ! alp9e conif]\s =e/ ( ! ,himalayas & ( ! m\nta9s ( ,afghani/an1 ,belut*i/an1 & ,burma1 compos$ ( p9e1 deod>1 junip]1 ) oak1 walnut1 boxwood1 approa*+ our own =e/ types4 ,9 addition1 !re may be segregat$ ! coa/ =e/1 ( small ext5t1 compos$ ( trees :i*1 l ! mangrove1 w be> salt wat]2 ! ov]fl[ =e/ along riv]s2 & riv] =e/s 9 ! des]t regions1 ( :i* latt] l>ge areas exi/4 ,! natural diff]5ces 9 ! =e/ cov] are emphasiz$ by ! action ( man1 :o = _m c5turies has wag$ w> aga9/ ! =e/1 cle>+ x p]man5tly or tempor>ily = agricultural purposes1 or else m]ely burn+ x ov] to improve graz+ facilities1 or = purposes ( ! *ase4 ,/ati/ics1 except ( gov]nm5t prop]ties1 are some:at d\btful4 ,app>5tly1 ! =e/$ area ( ! :ole ( ,india comprises some:at ov] #dj p] c5t4 ( ! l& area4 ,! gov]nm5t =e/s1 settl$ & unsettl$1 repres5t at pres5t ab\t #bd p] c5t4 ( ! area "u ,briti% rule 7#adi million acres71 n ov] #bj p] c5t4 be+ "u cultivation1 leav+ ab\t #ef p] c5t4 ei!r natural des]t1 wa/e1 or graz+ l&s4 ,! great =e/s ( ,india are 9 ,burma2 ext5sive woods clo! ! foo?ills ( ! ,himalayas & are scatt]$ 9 small] bodies ?r\gh\t ! m humid portions ( ! c\ntry1 :ile ! dry nor?we/]n t]ritories are practically treeless wa/es4 ,l>ge areas ( d5sely settl$ di/ricts are s completely void ( =e/ t millions ( p regul>ly burn c[ dung z fuel1 :ile equally l>ge di/ricts are /ill imp5etrable1 wild woods1 :]e1 = want ( m>ket1 x h>dly pays to cut ev5 ! be/ ( timb]s4 ,! great mass ( =e/s 9 ,india are /ock$ ) h>dwoods1 :i* 9 ^! tropical c\ntries are l>gely ev]gre51 or ne>ly s1 al?\gh ! l>ge areas ( dry =e/ are decidu\s by seasons2 only a small portion ( ! =e/ area is cov]$ by conif]s1 bo? p9e & c$>1 ^! p9e =e/s be+ g5]ally re/rict$ to high] altitudes 9 ! ,himalayas4 ,! h>dwoods1 mo/ ( :i* 9 ,india truly des]ve ?is "n1 belong to a great v>iety ( plant families1 "s ( ! mo/ important be+ ! ,legum9os1 ,v]b5ace1 ,dipt]oc>pe1 ,combretace1 ,rubiace1 ,eb5ace1 ,euphorbiace1 ,myrtace1 & o!rs1 & a relatively small portion repres5t$ by ,cupulif] & o!r families famili> to u4 ,! mo/ important1 valuable species are ,teak1 ,sal1 & ,deod>4 ,9 ! great] "p ( ,india ! h>dwood =e/ consi/s n ( a few species1 z ) u1 b is made up1 l mo/ tropical =e/1 ( a great v>iety ( trees unlike 9 _! habit1 _! gr[?1 & _! product2 &1 if our h>dwoods (f] on ?is acc\nt consid]able difficulties to pr(itable exploitation1 ! case is f> m complicat$ 9 ,india1 sev]al ?\s& species ent]+ into ! composition4 ,9 addition to ! l>ge v>iety ( timb] trees !re is a multitude ( %rubs1 tw9+ & climb+ plants1 & 9 _m =e/ di/ricts also a gr[? ( giant grasses 7bamboos71 atta9+ a height ( #cj to #abj feet1 :i* is ready to take possession ( cle>+s4 ,^! bamboos1 valuable z !y are 9 _m ways1 prev5t (t5 = ye>s ! gr[? ( any se$l+ trees1 & ?us =m a s]i\s ob/acle to ! reg5]ation ( valuable timb]4 ,! gr[? ( timb] is g5]ally q rapid1 al?\gh to atta9 comm]cial size1 ,teak requires usually a rotation ( #aej ye>s4 ,b 9 spite ( _! rapid gr[? & ! l>ge areas n[ 9 =e/ capable ( re=e/ation1 ,india is n likely--at lea/ )9 reasonable "t--to raise m timb] ?an x ne$s4 ,9 mo/ p>ts ( ,india1 ! use ( ord9>y s(t woods1 su* z p9e1 seems v re/rict$1 = only durable woods1 ^? resi/+ bo? fungi & insects 7( :i* ! :ite ants are specially de/ructive71 c be employ$ 9 ! m p]man5t /ructures1 & are !re=e acceptable 9 all ,indian m>kets4 ,at pres5t1 ,teak is ! mo/ important h>dwood timb]1 :ile ! ,deod> 7a true c$>7 is ! mo/ ext5sively us$ conif]4 ,teak occurs 9 all moi/ regions ( ,india except ! ,himalayas1 gr[s usually mix$ ) o!r k9ds1 s+le1 or 9 clumps1 is girdl$ two or ?ree ye>s be=e fell+1 is g5]ally logg$ 9 a primitive way1 commonly hewn 9 ! woods & %ipp$--usually float$--z timb]1 r\nd or hewn1 & r>ely sawn to size4 ,9 #aije-f1 ! cut 9 ! ,/ate =e/ area 0 #bdj1jjj1jjj cubic feet1 timb] 7#be7 & fuel1 ( :i* #bj p] c5t4 0 giv5 to grantees or ^? hold+ rights ( us] free ( *>ge1 & less ?an #b p] c5t4 0 export$4 ,9 addition1 ov] #bjj million bamboos & ne>ly two million doll>s wor? ( by-products1 su* z lac1 ca\t*\c1 cut*1 gambi]1 myrobalans1 7 secur$4 #b4 ,prop]ty ,conditions4 ,prior to ! ,briti% occupation1 ! native rul]s1 or rajahs1 laid claim to a c]ta9 proportion ( ! produce f all cultivators ( ! soil4 ,!y also res]v$ absolute "r to ! =e/s1 & to all unseat$ or wa/e l&s1 al?\gh usually ! p 7 all[$ to supply _! ne$s f ^!4 ,! ,engli% gov]nm5t1 by "r ( conque/1 fell heir to ^! rights z well z to ! prop]ties1 b1 )\t c>e 9 ass]t+ its rights1 ! unimp$$ use ( ungu>d$ =e/ prop]ty l$ to ! ass]tion ( rights ( us] by ! p1 & su* 7 also sometimes grant$ by ! gov]nm5t4 8,jo9t village0 communities 9 "s p>ts1 i4e41 settlem5ts :i* occupy contigu\s areas1 claim$ & occupi$ l>ge areas ( =e/ & wa/e z commons1 & 9 g5]al ! orig9al prop]ty rights ( ! gov]nm5t became unc]ta94 ,! necessity ( br++ ord] into ?is "q l$ to v>i\s s-call$ settlem5ts1 by :i* ! rights 7 def9$1 prop]ties de-limit$1 & paym5t 9 k9d *ang$ into ca% paym5ts4 ,aft] attempts to regulate ^! matt]s by local rules1 ! fir/ g5]al ,indian ,=e/ ,act1 pass$ 9 #ahfe1 modifi$ by ! ,=e/ ,act ( #ahgh1 laid d[n ! basis ^u :i* ! rights ( =e/ prop]ty 7 to be settl$4 ,^! acts divide ! =e/s into ?ree classes1 namely1 ^? 9 :i* ! "r ( ! ,/ate is absolute2 ^? 9 :i* ! ,/ate has prop]ty rights1 b :i* are burd5$ ) prescriptive or grant$ rights ( us]2 & ^? :i* are private prop]ty1 b on :i* ! ,/ate res]ves ! "r to cut c]ta9 k9ds ( trees = gov]nm5t use1 ,teak1 ,s&alwood1 & 9 "s p>ts ,deod>1 ^! be+ consid]$ 8royal trees40 ,! =e/ act be+ ?r\gh\t applicable only at ! *oice & "u ! con/ruction ( ! prov9cial gov]nm5ts1 modifi$ acts1 applicable to diff]5t p>ts ( ! ,empire1 & diff]5t 9 details1 7 pass$ f "t to "t1 & _m diff]5t local rules 7 issu$ by ! prov9cial gov]nm5ts1 b all agree 9 fix+ "o def9ite policy1 namely decl>ation or dem>cation ( gov]nm5t =e/s1 aft] inquiry into all exi/+ rights1 & division ( ! decl>$ gov]nm5t =e/s into ?ree classes1 res]ves or p]man5t /ate =e/s1 protect$ =e/s1 & unclass$1 ! latt] two /ill op5 to *ange 9 own]%ip1 & adju/m5t 9 rights ( us]1 etc4 ,! absolute & relative areas ( gov]nm5t prop]ty1 !re=e1 are cont9u\sly *ang+4 ,9 #aijj ! res]ve =e/s compris$ #ha1djj squ>e miles1 or #h4f ( ! total t]ritory controll$ by ! ,briti% gov]nm5t2 ! protect$ =e/ #hhjj squ>e miles1 & ! dem>cat$ b unclassifi$ area1 #aag1jjj squ>e miles4 ,^! figures _h1 9 #aijd1 *ang$ to #ia1efg = p]man5t res]ves 7#eh million acres71 #ihfe = protect$1 & #aca1bfi = unclass$1 %[+ ! rapid *ange n[ tak+ place 9 ! /atus ( classification4 ,! "n ( ,b4 ,h4 ,bad5-,p[ell1 at "o "t cons]vator ( ! ,punjab & ,act+ ,inspector-,g5]al ( ,=e/s dur+ #ahgb-d1 is closely connect$ ) plac+ ?is =e/ legislation on a s\nd basis4 ,! object ( ?is legislation 0 ma9ly to settle ! "q ( own]%ip & rights1 h5ce res]v$ =e/s are n necess>ily set aside = =e/ purposes l ! =e/ res]vations 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 al?\gh ultimately ?is w probably be _! condition4 ,rights ( us] 7 "u ?is legislation regulat$ or commut$4 ,9 "s p>ts1 ev5 on ! res]v$ =e/ areas1 !re are /ill reta9$ rights to cut taungyas1 i4e41 to make p>tial cle>+s = tempor>y agricultural use1 "u ! re/riction ( n de/roy+ teak trees ov] #ah in*es 9 diamet]1 & ) ! "r ( ! cultivators to supply _! dome/ic ne$s1 "u obligation to cut out fire traces1 burn+ ! bru%1 & in/itut+ simil> protective measures4 ,! title to ! =e/ prop]ty hav+ be5 secur$1 its p]man5t dem>cation & a survey ( ! same 7 ! next /eps2 ! fir/ hav+ gradually be5 ne>ly accompli%$1 ! latt] be+ /ill f> 9 arre>s4 ,! area ( private & communal =e/s is n precisely kn[n1 b1 includ+ wa/e l& & l&s ( unc]ta9 conditions1 !re are at lea/ #ejj1jjj squ>e miles s own$1 includ+ ^? ( feudatory rul]s )9 ! prov9ces4 ,( ^!1 "s #ejj squ>e miles or m ( =e/ are leas$ to ! gov]nm5t & "u its control2 & 9 "s cases =e/ adm9i/rations are in/itut$ by ! rajahs !mselves4 ,9 ! ,act ( #ahgh1 !re 0 a clause call+ = protection ( private =e/ prop]ty aga9/ trespass & encroa*m5t1 b ?is rema9$ a dead lett]4 ,by lat] legislation ! gov]nm5t is entitl$ to ex]cise control ov] private =e/s & l&s1 if x appe>s necess>y = ! public weal1 or if ! treatm5t :i* su* =e/s h receiv$ f _! own]s affect ! public welf>e or safety injuri\sly2 b 9 su* cases ! own] c require ! gov]nm5t to expropriate ! l& 9 "q4 ,! =e/ act also provid$ t ! gov]nm5t may assign to village communities f ! res]v$ =e/ area s-call$ village =e/s1 & make rules = _! protection1 use & managem5t4 ,h[ f> ?is policy has be5 appli$ does n appe>4 ,!re are /ill areas ! own]%ip ( :i* is n settl$1 & rights :i* are /ill 9 d\bt1 ! "w ( ! s-call$ =e/ settlem5ts /ill go+ on1 sev]al ?\s& squ>e miles be+ annually *ang$ 9 /atus1 & sev]al ?\s& doll>s annually sp5t to quiet rights ( us]4 #c4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy4 ,?r\gh ! long hi/ory ( ,india t prec$$ ! arrival ( ! ,mohamm$ans 9 ! #aj? to #ab? c5turies1 x appe>s t ! =e/ area 0 only sl[ly encroa*$ ^u by ! ,h9doo civilization4 ,ev5 :5 ! invad]s1 nomads by habit1 drove _m ( ! native race into ! jungle to eke out a prec>i\s exi/5ce1 ow+ to ! rem>kable recup]ative p[]s ( a tropical nature ! impression made 0 n p]man5t4 ,al?\gh mu* =e/ gr[? 0 !n de/roy$1 cle>$ or mutilat$1 *anges took place only sl[ly4 ,x has be5 claim$1 t 9 consequ5ce ( ! de/ruction1 :i* 0 incid5t to ! nomadic life ( ! ,mohamm$ans & ! %ift+ agriculture ( ! aborig9es1 climatic *anges 7 produc$1 b ! pro( = ?is ass]tion has rema9$ que/ionable4 ,:5 9 ! #ah? c5tury ! ,briti% ent]$ ,india 9 rivalry ) ! ,fr5* & o!r ,european nations1 x 01 ( c\rse1 only = purposes ( exploitation1 & = a long "t aft] ! ,briti% _h atta9$ ! asc5dancy & _h subject$ mo/ ( ! t]ritory n[ rul$ by !m1 n mu* conc]n 0 _h ab\t ! =e/s2 !y furni%$ b small values1 except+ 9 "o p>ticul>1 namely supplies ( ,teak = naval purposes4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ! #ai? c5tury ! ,gov]nm5t became conc]n$ reg>d+ ^! supplies1 :i* "u ! r\gh exploitation ?reat5$ to become exhau/$4 ,! fir/ /ep t[>ds secur+ "s cons]vative managem5t dates back to #ahjf1 :5 ,capta9 ,watson 0 s5t to ,india z ,cons]vator ( ,=e/s1 to look aft] ! int]e/s ( ! ,ea/ ,india ,company 9 ?is direction4 ,8 inability to compromise ) ^? :o _h secur$ timb] privileges l$ to 8 removal & an ab&onm5t ( ! (fice1 9 #ahbc4 ,ineffective1 sporadic ef=ts at adm9i/ration by ! prov9cial gov]nm5ts !n foll[$4 ,9 #ahci-dj1 ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,bombay ,presid5cy /opp$ ! cutt+ ( ,teak trees on gov]nm5t prop]ty4 ,9 #ahcd1 ,m4 ,connolly1 ,collector ( ,malab> 9 ! ,madras ,presid5cy1 began to plant ,teak on a l>ge scale at ,nilambur4 ,9 #ahdg1 ,dr4 ,gibson 0 appo9t$ ,cons]vator ( ,=e/s 9 ,bombay2 f #ahdh to #ahef1 ,lieut5ant 7n[ ,g5]al1 ,c4 ,s4 ,i47 ,james ,mi*ael conduct$ ! gov]nm5t timb] op]ations 9 ! ,anamalai ,teak =e/s 7,madras71 & made ! fir/ record$ attempts to protect ,indian =e/s f injury by annual jungle fires4 ,9 #ahef1 ,dr4 ,hugh ,cleghorn 0 appo9t$ ,cons]vator ( ,=e/s 9 ,madras4 ,he *eck$ ! de/ructive practices ( tempor>y cultivation 9 ! gov]nm5t =e/s ( t ,presid5cy1 a measure1 :i* at fir/ 0 /rongly oppos$ by ! p1 b 8 well-kn[n desire to promote native int]e/s inspir$ ! rul]s ( ! c\ntry ) confid5ce1 & f9ally 8 measures 7 successful4 ,v>i\s attempts at "s k9d ( regulation ( ! exploitation by lumb]m5 7 also made by ! g5]al gov]nm5t1 aft] v>i\s exam9ations & reports1 &1 9 #ahdg1 ev5 a small & ineffective =e/ dep>tm5t 0 organiz$4 ,! annexation ( ! ,prov9ce ( ,pegu 9 l[] ,burma1 9 #aheb1 introduc$ a new complication1 & prov$ ! turn+ po9t 9 =e/ry matt]s4 ,9 ?is prov9ce1 ! "r to cut ,teak _h be5 res]v$ by ! native pr9ces1 & h5ce became a "r ( ! cr[n1 b private lumb]m5 began to cut ?is timb]1 &1 aft] an inve/igation & report1 x 0 decid$ to take def9ite /eps to regulate ! use ( ^! valuable ,teak =e/s at lea/4 ,"l ,dalh\sie1 ! !n ,gov]nor-,g5]al1 ^u ! basis ( ! report ( ! sup]9t5d5t ( =e/s at ,pegu1 ,dr4 ,mc,clelland1 9 #ahee laid d[n 9 /atesmanlike mann] an outl9e ( a p]man5t =e/ policy = ! gov]nm5t1 & introduc$ ! fir/ pr(essional advis]4 ,9 #ahef1 a ,g]man =e/] f ,hesse1 ,dietri* ,br&is 7aft]w>d ,sir7 0 in/all$ z sup]9t5d5t ( =e/s = ,pegu ) wide p[]s "u contract = #aj ye>s1 at a lib]al sal>y1 & p5sion aft] retirem5t4 ,! only possible *eck t c\ld at fir/ be appli$ 0 to =ce ! lumb]m5 to make contracts1 limit ! diamet] to :i* ! exploitation 0 to be all[$1 & m>k ! trees to be fell$4 ,?is 0 done1 naturally n )\t a l>ge am\nt ( friction4 ,! result ( ?is exp]im5t 9 =e/ cons]vancy1 z ! ,engli% are pleas$ to call x1 0 s satisfactory1 t1 9 #ahfb1 x 0 decid$ to organize a =e/ dep>tm5t = all ,india2 ,br&is 0 entru/$ ) ! organization1 &1 9 #ahfd1 he 0 appo9t$ head ( ! new dep>tm5t "u ! ,secret>y ( ,public ,works ) ! title ( ,inspector-,g5]al1 act+ z advis] ( ! v>i\s prov9cial gov]nm5ts4 ,! =e/s ( ,india dur+ ! next #bj ye>s dur+ :i* ,br&is held (fice1 71 prov9ce by prov9ce1 br\ght "u ! regime ( ! ,imp]ial ,=e/ ,dep>tm5t1 al?\gh ! prov9cial gov]nm5ts reta9 full & indep5d5t adm9i/rative p[]4 ,! fir/ problem 0 to settle own]%ip conditions1 :i* 0 done 9 ! mann] describ$ be=e1 by ! act ( #ahfe1 & by lat] acts4 ,! discont5t :i* 0 creat$ by ?is act came v ne> wreck+ ! :ole ent]prise1 & mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion betwe5 ! local & g5]al gov]nm5ts exi/$1 ! gov]nm5t ( ,madras go+ s f> z to decl>e ! impossibility ( e/abli%+ ,/ate prop]ty 9 view ( ! ackn[l$g$ rights ( ! villag]s ov] wa/e l&s4 ,! g5]al policy1 h[ev]1 f9ally prevail$1 & an increas+ly h>moni\s coop]ation ( ! prov9cial gov]nm5ts has all[$ ! developm5t ( an effici5t =e/ s]vice4 ,v>i\s prov9cial legislation 0 consid]$1 pass$ & repeal$1 until1 9 #ahgh1 ! ,indian ,=e/ ,act ,,vii settl$ ! policy at lea/ = ! majority ( ! prov9ces1 ,madras & ,burma & "s m9or di/ricts /ill decl9+ to ext5d its provisions to _! =e/s4 ,! ,burma gov]nm5t enact$1 h[ev]1 simil> legislation 9 #ahha1 & ! ,madras gov]nm5t 9 #ahhb1 &1 mu* lat]1 ! o!r out/&+ gov]nm5ts foll[$ 7#ahhf to #ahia71 s t1 :ile ! detail ( application v>ies n inconsid]ably1 ! g5]al policy reg>d+ =e/ prop]ty ( ! ,/ate is ! same ?r\gh\t ! empire4 ,:atev] ( uni=mity exi/s _h to be secur$ ma9ly by p]suasive means4 ,! =e/ acts1 z /at$ on a previ\s page1 conta9 c]ta9 provisions reg>d+ =mation ( village =e/s & control ( private =e/ prop]ty1 b no int]f]5ce ) private =e/ prop]ty has be5 attempt$1 al?\gh 9 "s p>ts ?is is m important & l>g] ?an ! ,/ate hold+s4 ,mo/ ( ! own]s m]ely exploit _! prop]ty1 b "s ( ! l>g]1 m enlight5$ native pr9ces h e/abli%$ =e/ adm9i/rations1 imitat+ ! example ( ! ,imp]ial gov]nm5t4 ,^? ( ,mysore & ,ka%mir & ,hyd]abad h plac$ ?is adm9i/ration "u an imp]ial =e/ (fic]1 furl\gh$ = ?is purpose1 & d]ive h&some rev5ues2 ! ,ka%mir =e/s ( ab\t #bejj squ>e miles yield+ r\nd #ahj1jjj2 ^? ( ,mysore1 ne> #bjjj squ>e miles1 ov] #ccj1jjj1 ?is l>gely d]iv$ f sales ( s&al wood2 ^? ( ! ,nizam ( ,hyd]abad1 ) #ebjj squ>e miles 9 res]ves & #ddjj 9 protect$ =e/s1 d]iv+ a rev5ue ( #ge1jjj1 sev5 times :at x 0 t5 ye>s be=e4 #d4 ,=e/ ,organization & ,adm9i/ration4 ,! condition ( affairs 9 ! =e/ dep>tm5t c be briefly summ>iz$ z foll[s = ! ye> #aiji4 ,total area "u gov]nm5t control3 #bda1ggd squ>e miles1 namely1 ,res]v$1 #id1efa2 ,protect$1 #h1hce2 ,unclass$1 #ach1cgh4 ,(ficials 79 #aije73 ,high] grades1 #cab2 ,l[] grades1 #a1ffc2 ,gu>ds1 #h1ecc4 ,! controll+ /aff 0 9 #aiji increas$ by #cd2 & numb]s 9 all o!r grades increas$4 ,r\nd$ (f ,exp5ditures1 #d1ejj1jjj2 ,rev5ues1 #h1bbe1jjj2 ,net ,proce$s1 #c1fge1jjj 7#de ( gross74 ,v>iation 9 ! value ( ! rupee makes comp>ison ) e>li] ye>s unc]ta94 ,9 spite ( ! _m difficulties1 a poor m>ket 7no m>ket at all = a l>ge numb] ( woods71 wild1 unsurvey$1 & practically unkn[n woodl&s1 requir+ unusual & co/ly me?ods ( organization & protection1 ! =e/ry dep>tm5t has succe$$1 )\t curtail+ ! timb] output ( ,india1 9 s regulat+ =e/ exploitation z to insure n only a p]man5ce 9 ! output1 b also to improve ! woodl&s by favor+ ! valuable species4 ,x has prep>$ = an increase ( output = ! future1 & at ! same "t has yield$ ! ,gov]nm5t a /eadily gr[+ rev5ue1 :i* bids fair to rank be=e long among ! important s\rces ( income4 ,9 #ahfe ! net rev5ue 0 only #cfj1jjj1 x _h ab\t d\bl$ by #ahge1 & m ?an trebl$ by #ahhe1 & s9ce !n has m ?an quadrupl$4 ,:ile 9 ! p]iod ( #ahgj to #ahgd ! exp5se ( ! adm9i/ration 0 /ill #gj p] c5t4 ( ! gross income1 x has gradually be5 r$uc$ to ne> #de p] c5t41 :ile ! outturn 9 mat]ial has 9 ! la/ five ye>s increas$ by #ce ov] ! prec$+ qu9qu5nium4 ,at fir/1 ! dep>tm5t & its op]ations z well z its f9ances 7 ,imp]ial1 ! local gov]nm5ts hav+ no control ov] its (fic]s or ov] ! rev5ue d]iv$1 b1 9 #ahhb1 dec5tralization 0 effect$1 ! local gov]nm5ts obta9+ a direct int]e/ 9 ! rev5ues4 ,z a result ! f9ancial int]e/ ov]rul$ ! cons]vative policy1 & ov]-cutt+ 0 ! consequ5ce4 ,9 #ahhd1 ! g5]al gov]nm5t recogniz$ ! ne$ ( a *ange4 ,aft] "s /ruggle1 ! ,imp]ial dep>tm5t 0 plac$ at lea/ 9 *>ge ( prep>+ ! work+ plans1 & pressure = _! execution if n direct en=cem5t c be br\ght ?r\gh appeal to ! g5]al gov]nm5t by ! ,inspector-,g5]al1 :i*1 h[ev]1 has nev] be5 necess>y to use4 ,! organization ( ! =e/ s]vice pass$ ?r\gh v>i\s /ages1 & ! arrangem5t 9 ! diff]5t prov9ces is ev5 n[ n q uni=m4 ,! =e/ s]vice1 !n1 is peculi>ly organiz$ z reg>ds division ( responsibilities & relation%ips betwe5 ! imp]ial & ! prov9cial gov]nm5ts1 ! autonomy ( ! latt] be+ jeal\sly gu>d$4 ,x is divid$ into ! ,imp]ial & ! ,prov9cial ,s]vice1 ! =m] consi/+ ( ! high] grade (ficials entirely recruit$ f ,engl&1 ! latt]1 ! executive s]vice1 be+ 9 adm9i/rative functions indep5d5t ( ! =m]4 ,an ,inspector-,g5]al1 directly "u ! ,secret>y ( ,rev5ue & ,agriculture1 7= "s "t "u ! ,home ,dep>tm5t7 is ! head ( ! s]vice1 & acts z pr(essional advis] bo? ( ! ,imp]ial & ! ,prov9cial ,gov]nm5ts4 ,b ?is head ( ! s]vice is %orn ( mo/ ( executive functions1 all adm9i/rative matt]s be+ res]v$ to ! prov9cial au?orities4 ,! ,inspector-,g5]al has *>ge only ( ! =e/ s*ool adm9i/ration1 ( =e/ surveys1 & ( ! mak+ ( work+ plans1 :i* lat]1 aft] approval by ! ,prov9cial gov]nm5t1 are 9 _! execution inspect$ & critically sup]vis$ by him1 b )\t p[] to en=ce !m1 or to give direction directly to ! ,cons]vators 9 *>ge 7at lea/ 9 ,madras & ,burma74 ,he also wat*es ov] & reports on ! progress ( all =e/ry matt]s 9 ! empire4 ,peculi>ities & great v>iety are also f\nd 9 o!r (ficial relations & 9 ! appo9t+ p[]1 ! g5]al & prov9cial gov]nm5ts ex]cis+ c]ta9 rights 9 ?is respect4 ,! ,controll+ ,/aff 7#eg (fic]s 9 #ahfi1 n[ ab\t #cjj7 "u ! ,inspector-,g5]al1 consi/s ( ,cons]vators1 ,deputy ,cons]vators & ,assi/ant ,cons]vators4 ,! ,cons]vators1 n[ "s #bj1 s f> z !y are n directly act+ z assi/ants 9 ! ,inspector-,g5]al's (fice1 are ! heads ( ! prov9cial dep>tm5ts & cons]vator%ips1 & 9 t capacity directly subord9ate to ! local gov]nm5t1 :i* 9 ,madras & ,bombay also has _! appo9tm5t2 ea* is 9 *>ge ei!r ( ! entire =e/ bus9ess ( ! ,prov9ce1 or ( a circle =m+ "p ( a ,prov9ce & ! adm9i/ration unit 9 ,india4 ,^! are1 !re=e1 ! mo/ influ5tial & mo/ responsible ag5ts 9 introduc+ =e/ry practices4 ,cons]vator%ips are divid$ into divisions1 ea* 9 *>ge ( a divisional =e/ (fic]1 a memb] ( ei!r ! ,imp]ial or ! ,prov9cial ,controll+ ,/aff2 b ^! h to ackn[l$ge subord9ation to ! ,*ief ,civil (fic]1 ! ,collector ( ! di/rict 9 :i* !y are locat$1 9 ord] to h>monize ! f9ancial & =e/al int]e/s4 ,ab\t #hj p] c5t4 ( ! ,controll+ ,/aff 9 ! ,imp]ial ,s]vice are appo9t$ by ! ,secret>y ( ,/ate f graduates =m]ly f ! =e/ s*ool at ,coop]'s ,hill ,college1 n[ ,ox=d1 ! rema9+ #bj p] c5t4 f ,engli%m5 9 ! prov9cial s]vice1 ! memb]s ( :i* h pass$ ?r\gh ! ,dehra ,dun =e/ s*ool & ?r\gh ! l[] bran*es ( ! s]vice4 ,9 addition to ?is ,sup]ior ,/aff1 a ,subord9ate ,/aff ( ,extra ,deputy ,cons]vators & ,extra ,assi/ant ,cons]vators =ms ! ,prov9cial ,s]vice1 :i* is ma9ly recruit$ f ! natives4 ,! di/ricts are divid$ into ranges1 = :i* an ,executive ,s]vice is organiz$1 ( rang]s 7ov] #djj71 :o are n[ select$ f graduates ( ! =e/ s*ool 9 ,dehra ,dun4 ,deputy rang]s & =e/]s1 a l[] grade 7"s #agjj71 & gu>ds1 hav+ _! sep>ate beats 7ov] #hejj71 =m ! ,protective ,s]vice1 mo/ly or all recruit$ f ! bett] class ( natives4 #e4 ,=e/ ,treatm5t4 ,) ! irregul> di/ribution ( =e/s1 ! peculi>ities ( ,indian gov]nm5t affairs & population1 & ! wild & difficult =e/ conditions !mselves1 x is b natural t ! "w ?us f> has be5 *iefly "o ( organization1 survey1 & protection4 ,9 ! protection aga9/ unlawful fell+ or timb] /eal+ & graz+1 ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,india has %[n itself fully equal to ! occasion by a lib]al policy ( supply+ villag]s 9 proximity ( ! =e/s ) fuel1 build+ mat]ial1 pa/ure1 etc41 at r$uc$ prices or gratis4 ,ov] #a1ejj1jjj wor? is ?us dispos$ ( annually1 ! inc5tive to timb] /eal+ be+ !reby mat]ially r$uc$4 ,a reasonable & j p]mit sy/em = graz+1 :]e aga9 ! ne$s ( ! neighbor+ villag]s are mo/ c>efully consid]$1 n only br+s ! gov]nm5t a ye>ly rev5ue ( ov] #hjj1jjj1 b enables ! p to pa/ure ab\t #ad1jjj1jjj head ( animals 9 ! ,/ate =e/s )\t do+ any mat]ial damage to tree gr[?4 ,?irty-"o p] c5t4 ( ! total =e/ area is op5 to graz+4 ,! "w ( prev5t+ & fight+ fires c ) ! means available n be c>ri$ on ov] ! entire =e/ area1 ( :i* l>ge tracts are n ev5 cross$ by a footpa?1 & 9 a l& :]e ! regul> fir+ ( ! woods has become ! cu/om ( c5turies1 & :]e1 9 addition1 int5sely hot & dry wea!r1 toge!r ) a mo/ luxuriant gr[? ( giant grasses1 r5d] ^! jungle fires practically unmanageable4 ,ea* ye>1 h[ev]1 additional t]ritory is br\ght "u protection4 ,9 #aijb1 ne>ly #cg1jjj squ>e miles1 or ne>ly #dj ( ! area 9 res]ve1 b only #ab ( ! total gov]nm5t =e/ area1 7 "u protection at a co/ ( #d4jj p] squ>e mile or less ?an "o c5t p] acre1 half ( :at x 0 #aj ye>s be=e1 & ov] #b p] c5t4 ( ! gross rev5ue4 ,ne>ly #e1jjj fires occurr$1 to be sure1 :i* burnt ov] #c1jjj1jjj acres1 t is to say ov] #ij p] c5t4 ( ! area ! protection 0 effective4 ,= ne>ly half ! fires ! cause rema9s unkn[n4 ,dang] f fire has1 h[ev]1 become less 9 protect$ areas because ( ! *anges 9 h]bage & moi/ure conditions4 ,yet x co/s /ill ab\t two p] c5t4 ( ! gross rev5ue to protect ! area1 & ! figures j cit$ %[ t ?is exp5diture is only p>tially effective4 ,9 #aiji1 ! protect$ area _h increas$ to #dc1jjj squ>e miles1 ! co/ to #e1 ! effici5cy to #id p] c5t4 ,! fir/ successful attempts to deal ) =e/ fires 7 made 9 #ahfd by ,major 7lat] ,colonel7 ,g4 ,f4 ,pe>son1 :o 0 !n ,cons]vator ( ,=e/s 9 ! ,c5tral ,prov9ces1 & :o devis$ a sy/em ( cle>$ fire l9es or 8fire traces10 surr\nd+ ! areas to be protect$1 :i* 7 cut & burn$ ov] e>ly 9 ! season1 a sy/em n[ 9 vogue 9 all ,india4 ,9 ! jungle =e/s ! traces mu/ be broad2 ! grass (t5 tall] ?an an elephant mu/ be cut & burn$ be=e ! grass on ei!r side ( ! fire lane is dry en\gh to burn4 ,?is protection =ms ! mo/ important duty ( ! =e/ (ficials1 a try+ "o z x has to be c>ri$ on dur+ ! hot season4 ,a sep>ate bran* ( ! =e/ s]vice c>ri$ on ! "w ( survey+ & mapp+ ! =e/ area in/ead ( ! regul> ,survey ( ,india1 ) ! result ( *eap5+ ! co/4 ,"s #gd1jjj squ>e miles _h be5 mapp$ on ! scale ( #d in* to ! mile1 ! /&>d1 "s small] areas on small] scale1 at ! rate ( #be p] squ>e mile4 ,9 #aijh1 h[ev]1 ?is "w 0 h&$ ov] to ! ,survey4 ,silviculture4 ,silvicultural practices are naturally b little develop$4 ,protection aga9/ fire1 graz+1 ov]cutt+ has be5 ! fir/ requisite4 ,! unregulat$ selection sy/em ) a diamet] limit1 :i* ,br&is introduc$1 /ill prevails mo/ly1 al?\gh beg9n+s ( a comp>tm5t & gr\p sy/em 9 conv]t+ misc>ri$ selection =e/ ( ,deod>1 ,p9e & ,sal h be5 made1 or r ( an improv$ selection me?od1 :i* seeks to secure reproduction 9 gr\ps4 ,cle>cutt+ ) se$ trees held ov] is practis$ 9 ! conif]\s m\nta9 =e/4 ,coppice & coppice ) /&>ds 7res]ves ( spr\ts7 is a natural condition ov] l>ge areas1 especially ) ,teak & ,sal4 ,ev5 improvem5t cutt+s or s[+ on b>r5 hillsides ) rem>kable success1 are n abs5t4 ,! attempts at secur+ reproduction1 especially 9 ! truly tropic =e/s h (t5 misc>ri$1 inf]ior species fill+ ! op5+s4 ,girdl+ ( inf]ior species to favor ! bett] classes has h>dly _h ! desir$ result4 ,9 ! decidu\s =e/1 ! same difficulty ( undesirable aft]gr[? is exp]i5c$1 det]iorat+ ! composition1 except 9 ! case ( ! greg>i\s ,sal tree 7,%orea robu/a71 ! treatm5t ( :i* = reproduction has1 aft] _m failures1 be5 well e/abli%$4 ,o!r greg>i\s species also c be satisfactorily reproduc$4 ,! cull$ & burn$-ov] =e/s1 ( :i*1 !re are _m1 are re-habilitat$ 9 a mann] by m]ely remov+ ! old ov]mature & defective timb]1 ) comp>ative success4 ,9 "s p>ts1 ! l>ge greg>i\s bamboos are a s]i\s ob/acle to reproduction4 ,"h1 ! only *ance = reproduction exi/s :5 !y fl[] & die4 ,kill+ ! bamboos by cutt+ ! annual %oots prov$ a failure1 b burn+ ov] ! :ole area & s[+ seems to be foll[$ by success4 ,9 o!r p>ts1 z 9 ! l>ge ,teak =e/s ( ,burma1 z well z ( o!r prov9ces1 ! useless k9ds ( trees are girdl$1 huge climb]s are cut (f1 & a /eady w> is wag$ aga9/ all species detrim5tal to teak reg5]ation ) satisfactory results4 ,) ,teak1 ev5 plant+ on a l>g] scale is resort$ to1 especially by means ( taungyas1 i4e4 plantations1 :]e ! native is all[$ to burn d[n a piece ( woods1 use x = a few ye>s z field 7?\gh x is nev] really cle>$7 on condition ( plant+ x ) teak1 be+ paid a c]ta9 sum = e hundr$ trees f\nd 9 a ?rifty condition at ! "t ( giv+ up 8 l&4 ,simil>ly1 ! dep>tm5t has exp5d$ l>ge sums 9 attempt+ to e/abli% =e/s 9 p>ts ( ! arid region ( ,belu*i/an1 &1 on ! :ole1 dur+ #ahid-ie ab\t #aej1jjj 7 exp5d$ on cultural op]ations1 :i* up to t "t involv$ ab\t #gf1jjj acres ( regul> plantations & #cf1jjj acres taungyas 7mo/ly teak17 mak+ a total ( #aab1jjj acres1 besides num]\s l>ge areas :]e ! "w consi/$ m]ely 9 aid+ natural reproduction4 ,b1 9 #aiji1 ! plantations seem to h be5 r$uc$ to #ei1jjj acres1 7probably ?r\gh failures71 ! taungyas h[ev] increas$ to #hd1jjj acres1 & ! budget = plant+s & o!r cultural measures =m$ a little ov] two p] c5t4 ( ! gross rev5ues4 ,we see !n1 t ?\gh ! =e/s ( ,india are n[1 & w cont9ue = "s "t to be little m ?an wild woods ) "s protection & a reasonable sy/em ( exploitation 9 place ( a m]e robb+ or cull+ sy/em1 yet ! "w ( actual improvem5t /eadily increases 9 am\nt & p]fection4 ,9 dispos+ ( its timb] ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,india employs v>i\s me?ods4 ,9 "s ( ! =e/ di/ricts ! p pay m]ely a small tax & get out ( ! woods :at & z mu* z !y ne$4 ,9 o!r cases1 ! logg] pays = :at he removes1 ! am\nt he fells be+ nei!r limit$ 9 quantity nor quality4 ,! preval5t sy/ems1 h[ev]1 are ! p]mit sy/em1 :5 a p]mit is issu$ indicat+ ! am\nt to be cut & ! price to be paid = ! same1 & ! contract sy/em1 :5 ! "w is m or less "u ! control ( gov]nm5t (fic]s & ! mat]ial rema9s gov]nm5t prop]ty until paid =4 ,to a limit$ ext5t ! gov]nm5ts c>ry on _! own timb] exploitation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,work+ ,plans4 ,only a relatively small "p ( ! total =e/ area1 ea* ye>1 h[ev]1 increas+1 is z yet work$ "u plans4 ,9 #ahhe1 only #aji squ>e miles1 9 #ahii1 #bj1jjj squ>e miles1 & 9 #aijc1 ne>ly #cj1jjj squ>e miles1 ab\t #ac p] c5t4 ( ! total1 or #cj p] c5t4 ( ! res]v$ area1 7 op]at$ "u work+ plans1 & ea* ye> ab\t #djjj squ>e miles are add$1 s t n[ 7#aiji7 ov] half ! res]v$ area is "u work+ plans4 ,only gradually 0 ! "* ( ^! plans br\ght into practical =m1 & _! execution1 9 _s at lea/1 en=c$1 ! ,cons]vators hav+ ! "r to deviate f ! plans4 ,a map1 prep>$ by ! survey bran* naturally =ms ! basis ( ! plan4 ,! =m ( ! plan is prescrib$ by ! prov9cial regulations1 & ! prep>ation is also c>ri$ on by ! prov9cial s]vice "u advice & sup]vision ( ! imp]ial dep>tm5t4 ,! 8/rip valuation survey10 :i* ,br&is introduc$1 cov]+ sometimes z mu* z #cj p] c5t4 ( ! area1 is employ$ 9 det]m9+ numb] ( trees & sizes1 gr[+ /ock & cut1 model$ aft] ! ,european practice1 except t little1 p]haps too little1 money is sp5t on _! elaboration1 especially on det]m9+ ! prop] am\nt ( cut4 ,t ! cut is controll$ at all is ! mo/ important result4 #f4 ,education & ,lit]ature4 ,9 #ahff1 ,sir ,dietri* ,br&is select$ z assi/ants two "y m5 :o _h be5 tra9$ 9 ! =e/ s*ools ( ,g]many--9 turn 8 successors--& at ! same "t arrangem5ts 7 made = ! tra9+ ( "y ,engli%m5 9 ! ,=e/ s*ools ( ,france & ,g]many4 ,at ! end ( #ahge ! pr(essional education 0 entirely transf]r$ to ,nancy4 ,! pres5t =ce ( ,cons]vators is compos$ l>gely ( ^! m54 ,= "s reason1 ! tra9+ ( m5 9 ,g]many & ,france became unpopul>1 & ?is objection f9ally l$1 9 #ahhd1 to ! e/abli%m5t ( a *air ( =e/ry at ,coop]'s ,hill ,college = ,eng9e]+ 9 ,engl&4 ,at fir/1 ! c\rse ( /udy ext5d$ ov] #bf mon?s1 dur+ #bb ( :i* ! c&idates prosecut$ _! /udies at ! college2 ! rema9+ f\r mon?s be+ sp5t "u suitable sup]vision 9 select$ ,briti% & ,cont95tal =e/s4 ,9 #aije1 ?is dep>tm5t 0 transf]r$ to ,ox=d ,univ]sity & ! c\rse ext5d$ to ?ree ye>s1 "o ye> to be sp5t 9 cont95tal =e/s4 ,at pres5t ?is "t may1 h[ev]1 be r$uc$ to two ye>s & ! vacations 9 cont95tal =e/s4 ,?is is a gov]nm5t affair1 & probation]s receive /ip5ds f ! gov]nm5t4 ,mr4 ,br&is z e>ly z #ahfi saw also ! necessity ( provid+ ! means ( giv+ ! natives ( ,india "s sort ( te*nical education 9 =e/ry4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 ?is direction 0 to place natives1 select$ ones1 "u "o or two (fic]s ( ! ,imp]ial ,s]vice :o 7 deem$ fit to in/ruct !m1 & 9 ?is way a few good m5 7 turn$ out4 ,ano!r exp]im5t1 aft] ! ,g]man patt]n1 0 made by appr5tic+ likely "y m5 "u "s =e/] = a ye> or two & !n s5d+ !m to an eng9e]+ s*ool = !oretical in/ruction4 ,?is 0 also a failure4 ,aft] mu* h>d "w1 ! ,indian =e/ s*ool at ,dehra ,dun 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahgh1 ! =e/s betwe5 ! ,jumna & ! ,ganges riv]s 7 set aside z tra9+ gr\nds1 =m$ into a special ,=e/ ,circle & plac$ "u ! control ( ! director ( ! s*ool4 ,^! =e/s h be5 subject$ to regul> sy/ems ( managem5t1 bas$ on ,european exp]i5ce1 & excell5t results h be5 obta9$4 ,! fir/ c\rse ( sy/ematic !oretical in/ruction 0 op5$ on ! #a/ ( ,july1 #ahha4 ,9 #ahhd ! s*ool 0 made an imp]ial in/itution by ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,india1 & ! ,inspector-,g5]al ( ,=e/s 0 *>g$ ) its sup]vision1 "u a ,bo>d ( ,control1 consi/+ ( ! ,inspector-,g5]al1 ! ,director1 & ?ree ,cons]vators1 ) ! ,assi/ant ,inspector-,g5]al z secret>y4 ,?is bo>d meets once a ye> at ,dehra1 conducts ! exam9ations1 & looks into all ( ! work+s ( ! ,s*ool v c>efully4 ,!re 7 two c\rses--"o 9 :i* ! tea*+ 0 giv5 9 ,engli% = rang]s1 ! o!r 9 :i* ! in/ruction 0 giv5 9 ! v]nacul> = =e/]s2 c\rses ext5d+ ov] #bd mon?s4 ,9 #aijf ! s*ool 0 rais$ to ! rank ( a college & ! c\rse 9 ! v]nacul> aboli%$4 ,! graduates may aspire to ! rank ( division (fic]s4 ,! tra9+ ( l[] grade (fic]s is left to ! prov9ces4 ,! ,bombay ,presid5cy _h = "s "t _! own =e/ s*ool 9 connection ) ! ,eng9e]+ ,college at ,poona1 b ?is is n[ ab&on$4 ,ano!r s*ool1 h[ev]1 is locat$ at ,?>rawaddy1 ) a two-ye> c\rse 9 ,burmese1 & "o 9 ,madras ) a "o-ye> c\rse2 s t ! education ( l[] grade (ficials is well att5d$ to4 ,=e/ ,exp]im5t & ,inve/igations h nev] be5 sy/ematically in/itut$1 be+ left to individual initiative1 b lately 7#aiji7 provision has be5 made 9 ?is direction 9 connection ) ! ,dehra ,dun s*ool by ! e/abli%m5t ( an ,imp]ial ,rese>* ,in/itute4 ,besides a mon?ly j\rnal1 ! ,indian ,=e/] :i* came into exi/5ce 9 #ahge ?r\gh ,s*li*'s initiative1 & ! annual reports ( ! v>i\s cons]vators & ( ! ,inspector-,g5]al1 a small book lit]ature has develop$ )9 ! la/ t5 or fifte5 ye>s4 ,descriptive volumes ( note are ,j4 ,s4 ,gamble's ,manual ( ,indian ,timb]s1 new edition1 #aijb2 ,trees1 ,%rubs & ,woody ,climb]s ( ,bombay ,presid5cy by ,w4 ,a4 ,talbot1 #aijb2 ,ribb5trop's ,=e/ry 9 ,briti% ,india1 #aijj1 & ! e>li] publication ( ,h4 ,r4 ,morgan1 ,=e/ry 9 ,s\!rn ,india2 ,br&is' ,indian ,=e/ry & ,di/ribution ( ,=e/s 9 ,india4 ,( pr(essional int]e/ are ,e4 ,e4 ,f]n&ez ,manual ( ,indian ,silviculture1 un=tunately out ( pr9t2 ! same au?or's ,=e/ ,indu/ries2 ,d',arcy's ,manual ( ,=e/ ,work+ ,plans2 ,c4 ,c4 ,rog]'s ,manual ( ,=e/ ,eng9e]+ 9 ,india1 & ,b4 ,h4 ,bad5-,p[ell1 ,=e/ ,law4 ,! influ5ce ( ! developm5t ( ! ,indian ,=e/ ,s]vice on ! =e/ policy ( o!r ,briti% colonies & ( ! home c\ntry has be5 consid]able & is gr[+1 ,indian =e/ (fic]s be+ detail$ to assi/ 9 develop+ =e/ policies 9 ^! o!r p>ts ( ! ,briti% ,empire4 ,,canada4 ,report on ! ,=e/ ,weal? ( ,canada1 by ! ,/ati/ician ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 #ahie4 ,reports ( ,cr[n ,l&s ,dep>tm5ts1 ( ,bureau ( ,=e/ry ( ,ont>io1 & ( ,=e/ry ,bran* ( ! ,dom9ion4 ,,defebaugh',s ,hi/ory ( ! ,lumb] ,indu/ry ( ,am]ica1 ,vol4 ,i1 #aijf1 br+s toge!r mu* in=mation on ?is phase ( ! subject4 ,,h\gh',s ,report on ,=e/ry1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #ahhj1 has a compilation ( e>li] /ati/ics4 ,an ,analysis ( ,canada's ,timb] ,weal?1 by ,b4 ,e4 ,,f]n[1 9 ,=e/ry ,qu>t]ly1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 #aijh1 attempts a diff]5tiation ( comm]cial =e/ areas4 ,! l>ge/ s+le colony ( ,great ,brita9 & ! mo/ important z reg>ds =e/ supplies1 bo? z to quantity & "*1 ,canada has be5 = a long "t supply+ ! "m c\ntry ) a l>ge proportion ( h] imports4 ,al?\gh 9 size l>g] ?an ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 its l& area be+ e/imat$ at ov] #c1fjj1jjj squ>e miles1 ,canada has s f> atta9$ only "o-fifte5? ( ! population ( h] neighbor1 namely less ?an #g million1 al?\gh n[ rapidly gr[+4 ,mu* ( h] t]ritory is /ill unkn[n1 & w rema9 = a long "t unavailable = civilization ow+ to its inhospitable climate4 ,inde$1 z yet n "o-?ird ( its t]ritory may be consid]$ op5$ up to civilization1 & n mu* m ?an #ajj1jjj squ>e miles c be said to be occupi$1 "o-half improv$ 9 f>ms1 & two-?irds ( ?is 9 crops4 ,mu* ( ! nor!rn c\ntry rema9s unorganiz$ & ! va/ ,nor? ,we/ ,t]ritory 7#b1fef1jjj squ>e miles7 betwe5 ,hudson's ,bay & ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 z well z ,labrador1 are = ! mo/ "p un9habit$ except by ,indians & a few milit>y & trad+ po/s4 ,! c5tral int]ior region1 dott$ ) lakes & intricate riv] sy/ems1 is a cont9uation ( ! =e/less arid & sub>id1 pla9s & prairies ( ! c\ntry ,we/ ( ! ,mississippi ,riv]1 t[>d ! nor? *ang+ by /eps into l[l&s /udd$ ) op5 treegr[?1 & b>r5 tundra froz5 all ! ye>1 a million squ>e miles answ]+ to ?is la/ description4 ,! ,pacific ,slope is a r\gh & l(ty m\nta9 c\ntry1 ! ext5sion ( ! ,rockies & ,coa/ ,ranges1 ) a v>iable1 9 "p humid & temp]ate1 9 "p dry & rigor\s climate1 m or less heavily wood$1 ab\t #fjj1jjj squ>e miles1 ) ! ,fras] ,riv] 9 ! ,s\? =m+ ! mo/ important dra9age bas94 ,! ,atlantic portion1 s\? ( ! plateau-l1 b>e1 or scantily wood$ ,hudson ,bay & ,labrador c\ntry1 ) a climate1 some:at simil> to ,nor? ,ea/]n ,g]many1 is =m$ by ! slopes ( ! wat]%$s ( ! ,great ,lakes & ( _! mighty outlet1 ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,riv] & its ,gulf2 ! slopes ris+ gradually nor?w>d to ! l[ range ( ! ,height ( ,l&1 a plateau ) l[ hills1 n ov] #aejj feet elevation1 :i* cuts x (f f ! nor!rn c\ntry & =ms ! limit ( comm]cial =e/4 ,?is region1 ! bulk ( ! prov9ces ( ,ont>io & ,quebec--a belt ( n exce$+ #cjj miles 9 wid? & ab\t #aejj miles 9 l5g?1 altoge!r #cjj1jjj squ>e miles--) #ic1jjj squ>e miles 9 ! m>itime prov9ces1 ar\nd #bej million acres 9 all1 repres5ts1 outside ( ,briti% ,columbia1 ! true =e/ region ( ,canada1 & at ! same "t ! c5tre ( ,canadian civilization4 ,al?\gh ! ,cabot bro!rs discov]$ ,cape ,breton & ,labrador 9 #adig & #aejj1 ! fir/ settlem5t ( ,canadian t]ritory 0 n made until #aeda by ,fr5* coloni/s1 aft] ! fir/ ,capta9-,g5]al ( ,canada1 ,jacques ,c>ti]1 ! discov]] & explor] ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce 79 #aecd71 _h tak5 possession ( ! c\ntry = ,francis ,i2 b n mu* progress 9 coloniz+ 0 made until ,*ampla9's arrival 9 ! fir/ ye>s ( ! next c5tury4 ,quebec 0 f\nd$ z e>ly z #afjh1 & ,montreal 9 #afaa1 b ,ottawa dates its fir/ beg9n+s n f>!r back ?an #ahjj4 ,! nor!rn c\ntry ar\nd ,hudson's ,bay 01 "u ! "n ( ,rup]t's ,l& 7aft] ,pr9ce ,rup]t1 ! head ( ! ent]prise71 undef9$ 9 limits1 grant$ by ,*>les ,,ii1 9 #afgj1 to ! ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 a p[]ful fur-trad+ corporation :i* _h n only a comm]cial monopoly b1 except = occasional int]f]5ce by ! ,fr5*1 held absolute gov]nm5tal sway ov] ! c\ntry ?r\gh #bjj ye>s1 its jurisdiction at "o "t ext5d+ to ! ,pacific ,coa/4 ,friction & w>f>e ) ! ,engli% result$ 9 ! latt] acquir+ by ! treaty ( ,utre*t 9 #agac1 ,newf\ndl&1 & settl+ _! rights on ,hudson's ,bay4 ,! f9al conque/ ( 8,new ,france0 by ! ,engli% end$ ,fr5* rule 9 #agfc1 b ! ,fr5* coloni/s rema9$ peacefully1 & _! desc5dants =m to-day1 at lea/ 9 ,quebec1 ! pr$om9at+ influ5ce4 ,inde$1 9 #aggd1 by ! s-call$ ,quebec ,act1 ! fir/ p]man5t sy/em ( self gov]nm5t 0 e/abli%$ mu* on ! l9es ( ! ,fr5* feudal sy/em1 & ! ,fr5* civil law 0 reta9$4 ,at fir/1 "u ,engli% rule1 ! t]ritory1 !n includ+ ! ,/ates ( ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 ,mi*igan1 ,wiscons9 & ,m9nesota1 =m$ "o colony1 b aft] ! w> ( ! ,revolution1 9 #agia1 ! t]ritory rema9+ ,engli% 0 divid$ into two sep>ately gov]n$ prov9ces1 ,upp] & ,l[]1 or ,we/ & ,ea/ ,canada4 ,!y 7 re-unit$ 9 #ahdj1 & cont9u$ s until #ahfg :5 ! s-call$ ,union or ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica ,act effect$ ! pres5t organization ( ! ,dom9ion ( ,canada1 a f$]al union1 compris+ only ! prov9ces ( ,ont>io1 ,quebec1 ,new ,brunswick & ,nova ,scotia4 ,aft] v>i\s comb9ations & subdivisions all ( ! ,briti% ,possessions 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 except ,newf\ndl& & its dep5d5cies 9 ,labrador1 came into ! union1 &1 9 #ahhb1 ! union 0 complet$ ) ! !n sev5 prov9ces 7^? m5tion$ ) ,pr9ce ,edw>d ,isl&1 ,manitoba & ,briti% ,columbia7 & all ! organiz$ & unorganiz$ t]ritory4 ,9 ! same ye>1 f\r t]ritories1 ,ass9iboia1 ,saskat*ewan1 ,alb]ta & ,a?abasca1 9 #ahie ! t]ritory ( ,ungava 9 ,labrador1 & 9 #ahih t ( ,yukon 7 organiz$1 ) a view ( _! ev5tual elevation into prov9ces1 ! relation%ips ( ! f$]ation be+ q simil> to t ( ! /ates & t]ritories 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 #aije1 ! ,we/]n t]ritories 7 organiz$ into two prov9ces1 ,saskat*ewan & ,alb]ta4 ,! gov]nm5t1 al?\gh practically mu* l a republic & l>gely indep5d5t ( ! home c\ntry1 is !oretically a limit$ mon>*y1 ! k+ be+ repres5t$ by a ,gov]nor-,g5]al1 appo9t$ by ! k+1 & a privy c\ncil select$ by ! gov]nor4 ,! latt] also appo9ts 7n[ #ha7 s5ators = life to =m ! upp] h\se ( ! ,p>liam5t or legislative body1 :ile ! l[] ,h\se ( ,commons is elect$ by ! p4 ,besides ?is imp]ial gov]nm5t1 ea* prov9ce has its own sep>ate gov]nm5t ) a lieut5ant-gov]nor1 appo9t$ by ! ,gov]nor-,g5]al1 & an elect$ legislature2 ?is autonomy be+ some:at simil> to t ( ! /ates ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ! division ( functions betwe5 f$]al & prov9cial gov]nm5ts be+ also simil>4 ,al?\gh ! home gov]nm5t reta9s ! veto p[]1 ! supreme jurisdiction & v>i\s o!r p[]s1 & al?\gh app>5tly1 by ! appo9tm5t ( (ficials1 its influ5ce is gu>d$1 practically ! p>ty managem5t z ex]cis$ 9 ,great ,brita9 prevails1 & indep5d5ce f imp]ial influ5ce & f ! home gov]nm5t is cont9ually increas+4 ,9 reg>d to ! cr[nl&s1 includ+ =e/s1 ?is division z well z ?is relation%ip becomes important4 ,ea* prov9cial gov]nm5t except ^? ( ! ?ree middle prov9ces adm9i/]s ! cr[nl&s )9 its b\nd>ies 9 its own way1 yet on simil> l9es1 :ile ! ,dom9ion gov]nm5t controls only ! l&s locat$ outside ( ! prov9ces toge!r ) ^? ( ! middle prov9ces & ! s-call$ railway belt 9 ,briti% ,columbia4 ,^! latt] l&s 7 mo/ly acquir$ by pur*ase f ! ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 ! ,company rel9qui%+ its t]ritorial rights 9 #ahfh1 & ! transf] be+ complet$ 9 #ahgj ^u paym5t ( #cjj1jjj4 #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions4 ,! =e/ area has at v>i\s times & by v>i\s au?orities be5 r\ghly e/imat$ z betwe5 "o & a qu>t] & ov] "o & ?ree qu>t] million squ>e miles1 :i* w\ld make ! =e/ p] c5t4 at lea/ ov] #cb4 ,b ?is includes ! op5 woodl&s ( ! nor!rn t]ritory & ( ! prairies1 :i*1 :ile ( great importance to ! local settl]s1 are = ! mo/ "p probably or surely n ( comm]cial value4 ,comm]cially valuable =e/s1 actually or prospectively1 are f\nd almo/ only 9 ,briti% ,columbia & 9 ! old prov9ces1 ! two =e/ regions sep>at$1 j z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 by a =e/less region1 except t nor? ( ! prairie region a cont9u\s belt ( op5 woodl& ext5ds to ne> ! m\? ( ! ,mack5zie ,riv]4 ,a c>eful exam9ation ( ! s\rces ( in=mation has l$ ! writ] to ! conclusion t less ?an #cej1jjj squ>e miles or r\nd #bjj million acres w\ld cov] fully ! comm]cially valuable =e/ l&1 al?\gh ! wood$ area ( ! prov9ces 9 :i* ! comm]cial timb] occurs is /at$ (ficially z ar\nd #dej million acres1 two-fif?s ( :i* is to be f\nd 9 ,briti% ,columbia4 ,inde$1 al?\gh we are accu/om$ to look ^u ,canada z a great =e/ c\ntry1 x really possesses ab\t #fj p] c5t4 less comm]cial =e/ area ?an ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ab\t "o-qu>t] ( ! mature timb] ( t c\ntry4 ,x w be und]/ood t all su* /ati/ics are m]ely r\gh e/imates1 ! data be+ slim1 & ek$ out by conjectures bas$ on geographical conditions :i* pr$icate ! "* ( ! c\ntry4 ,mo/ unreasonable speculations & calculations#af z to am\nt ( timb] /&+ & value h be5 made on impossible assumptions4 #af ,z an in/ance1 "o /ati/ician by m]e ma!matical figur+1 namely1 d$uct+ ! kn[n crop & pa/ure area f ! total l& area w\ld make ! =e/ area ( ,quebec alone ov] #bji million acres4 ,?is includes ! c\ntry nor? ( ! ,height ( ,l&1 ( #afc million acres1 :i* by ano!r ma!matical calculation is made to be able to furni% ov] #fe billion feet ( lumb]1 besides ov] #fjj million cords ( pulpwood & #cgj million railroad ties2 b "u pres5t conditions1 ow+ to topography & "* ( ! timb] x _c be utiliz$ & its comm]cial value is altoge!r problematic4 ,?is calculation w\ld leave z really or pot5tially available =e/ l& s\? ( ! ,height ( ,l& #df million acres 9 addition to ov] #e million on f>ms4 ,x is claim$ t ?is =e/ area may /ill produce "s #aaj billion feet ( conif]\s & #a4e billion feet ( h>dwoods1 or #bejj feet to ! acre4 ,! *ief ( ! prov9cial ,=e/ ,s]vice lately made ! =e/ area ( ! prov9ce #aca million acres1 includ+ #b million acres ( wa/e l&4 ,:ile by ! *ange ( /&>ds & by local ne$s1 =e/ areas may become comm]cially valuable :i* 7 n s consid]$ be=e1 & !reby ! above figures may be ev5tually increas$1 f ! /&po9t ( valuable lumb] supply = ! _w trade1 ! above nam$ area may be assum$ to set ! limit = ! pres5t4 ,a computation bas$ on sl5d] in=mation has plac$ ! c\ntry ) op5 woodl&s 9 ! c5tral region z exce$+ #bhj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,! ,director ( ,=e/ry e/imat$ t #aej1jjj squ>e miles ( ?is area might conta9 ne>ly #bjj billion feet m]*antable timb]4 ,! s\!a/]n t]ritory s\? ( ! ,height ( ,l& 0 orig9ally all d5sely wood$4 ,f x a f>m area ( r\nd #be million acres has be5 cut out1 less ?an #g p] c5t4 ( ! l& area includ$4 ,especially ! s\?-we/]n half ( ,ont>io1 betwe5 ! ,great ,lakes1 :i* conta9s ! mo/ f]tile l&1 is d5sely settl$1 z also ! %ores ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! rema9+ =e/ area is cut ov] & cull$1 especially = p9e2 ! am\nt ( ,:ite ,p9e rema9+ accord+ to e/imates made 9 #ahie w\ld n[ be less ?an #bj billion feet4 ,ext5sive areas h be5 turn$ into semi-b>r5s by repeat$ fires4 ,! ,/ati/ician ( ! ,dom9ion 9 8 report made 9 t ye> comes to ! conclusion t 8! fir/ quality p9e has ne>ly disappe>$0 & t 8we are )9 measurable di/ance ( ! "t :51 ) ! exception ( spruce z to wood1 & ( ,briti% ,columbia z to ,prov9ces1 ,canada %all cease to be a wood export+ c\ntry40 ,! composition 9 g5]al is ! same z t ( ! nor!rn =e/ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 h>dwoods 7bir*1 maple & elm prevail+7 ) conif]s mix$1 ! latt]1 especially spruce1 becom+ occasionally pure4 ,! ne>ly pure h>dwood =e/ ( ! s\!rn ,ont>io p59sula has be5 almo/ entirely supplant$ by f>ms1 & "h1 ev5 = dome/ic fuel1 coal1 import$ f ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is l>gely sub/itut$ = wood4 ,al?\gh ,:ite ,p9e1 ! mo/ important /aple is f\nd 9 all p>ts ( ?is =e/ region1 ! be/ & l>ge/ supplies are n[ conf9$ to ! region nor? ( ,georgian ,bay4 ,unop5$ spruce & fir l&s /ill ab\nd especially 9 ,quebec on ! ,gasp p59sula & nor?w>d4 ,spruce =ms also ! l>ge/ %>e 9 ! composition ( ! ,new ,brunswick1 ,nova ,scotia & ,newf\ndl& =e/1 ! p9e 9 ! fir/ two prov9ces hav+ practically be5 cut out4 ,ext5sive1 almo/ pure ,balsam ,fir =e/1 fit = pulp wood1 /ill cov]s ! plateau ( ,cape ,breton1 :ile ,pr9ce ,edw>d ,isl& is to ! ext5t ( #fj p] c5t4 cle>$ = agricultural use4 ,mu* ( ?is ,ea/]n =e/ area is n only cull$ ( its be/ timb]1 b burnt ov]1 & !reby det]iorat$ 9 its composition1 ! inf]ior ,balsam ,fir appe>+ 9 l>ge/ numb] 9 ! reproduction4 ,nor? ( ! ,height ( ,l&1 9 ,ungava & we/w>d1 spruce cont9ues to timb] l9e1 b1 outside ( n>r[ belts foll[+ ! riv] valleys1 only 9 op5 /&1 bran*y1 & /unt$1 h>dly fit ev5 = pulp1 = ! mo/ "p ) bir* & asp5 int]mix$4 ,?is op5 spruce =e/1 int]sp]s$ among muskegs cont9ues m or less to ! nor!rn tundra & across ! cont95t to )9 a few miles ( ! m\? ( ! ,mack5zie ,riv] & ! ,arctic ,ocean1 ! ,:ite ,spruce be+ ! mo/ nor!rn species4 ,9 ! int]ior1 nor!rn prairie belt1 groves ( asp51 d5se & well develop$1 skirt ! wat] c\rses & =m an important wood supply4 ,! =e/s ( ,briti% ,columbia p>take ( ! "* ( ! ,pacific =e/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! ,coa/ ,range along ! coa/ = ab\t #bjj miles be+ /ock$ ) conif]s ( magnific5t developm5t1 ,d\glas ,fir1 ,giant ,arborvit1 ,hemlock1 ,bull ,p9e & a few o!rs1 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 range also ( conif]\s gr[?1 p9e & l>*1 b ( inf]ior "*1 l>ge areas be+ cov]$ ) ,alp9e ,fir 7,abies lasioc>pa7 & ,lodgepole ,p9e1 important z soilcov] & = local use 9 ! m9+ di/ricts1 b lack+ 9 comm]cial value4 ,if mu* ( ! =e/ area 9 ! settl$ prov9ces is burnt ov] & damag$ by =e/ fire1 mu* m ext5sive de/ruction is wr\ght 9 ?is nor!rn =e/ by fires sweep+ annually ov] millions ( acres un*eck$1 _m ( !m said to be />t$ by lightn+4 ,ab\t #ej p] c5t4 ( ?is c\ntry is said to be fire-swept4 ,among ! l>ge notable =e/ fires ! great ,mirami*i fire 9 ,new ,brunswick 9 #ahbe de/roy$ m ?an #f1jjj squ>e miles 9 a few h\rs4 ,9 #ahhj ! loss by =e/ fires 9 ! ,ottawa valley alone 0 /ill e/imat$ at #e1jjj1jjj annually4 ,9 #aiji1 reports indicate ov] half a million acres burnt ov] 9 t ye>4 ,! riv] sy/ems ( ,ea/]n ,canada1 ) ! mighty ,/4 ,lawr5ce p]mitt+ sea-go+ vessels to come up to ,montreal1 h be5 mo/ pot5t factors 9 ! developm5t ( ! lumb] indu/ry & export trade1 )\t ! ne$ ( railroads4 ,yet al?\gh1 z a consequ5ce ?is trade 0 e>ly develop$ to a relatively l>ge figure1 x has n gr[n at z rapid a rate z might h be5 expect$1 & to-day ) an export 9 excess ( imports ( less ?an #dj million doll>s is consid]ably bel[ t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! small export trade ( e>li] times1 hav+ be5 /imulat$ by exempt+ ,canadian timb] f pay+ duties 9 ! home c\ntry1 or at lea/ all[+ x a pref]5tial t>iff1 _h by #ahbj gr[n to #ae million cubic feet1 all squ>$ timb]1 & s5t to ,engl&4 ,9 #ahcj1 x _h crept up to only #bj million cubic feet1 b by #ahej1 x am\nt$ to ov] #ej million cubic feet1 two-fif?s ( :i* 0 saw$ mat]ial1 ! #bfcb mills be+ report$ by ! ,c5sus 7#ahea7 z hav+ cut #ggf million feet ,b4,m4 ,by #ahfg1 :5 ! ,dom9ion 0 =m$1 ! total export ( =e/ products _h advanc$ 9 value to #ah million2 ! next decade1 ) a climax ye> 9 #ahgc ( #bf million1 saw an increase to #bj million 9 ! av]age1 ! proportion ( sawn mat]ial be+ ne>ly ?ree times t ( hewn wood1 & ! entire cut ( ,ont>io go+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,at t "t x 0 comput$ t ! wa/e ( value 9 %ipp+ squ>e timb] am\nt$ = ! prov9ce ( ,ont>io alone /ill to ov] #cej1jjj annually4 ,at pres5t saw$ lumb]1 deals1 bo>ds1 planks1 etc41 =m #gj p] c5t4 ( ! total export4 ,9 ! la/ #bj ye>s a /eady increase 9 exports at an av]age rate ( ab\t #c p] c5t4 p] annum is not$1 ! total 9 #aijc culm9at+ at ne>ly #da million1 b 9 ! foll[+ ye> s9k+ to #cf4g million4 ,9 #aiaj1 ! total export am\nt$ to #ec million1 aga9/ :i* an import ( ne>ly #af million is to be (fset1 ne>ly d\ble :at x 0 ?ree ye>s be=e4 ,add+ wood manufactures1 ! net export mu/ be increas$ by "s #cf million4 ,! bulk ( ! export goes1 ( c\rse1 to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,b1 :ile exports ( =e/ products ?us increas$ absolutely1 relatively to o!r exports !y h consid]ably decl9$1 i4e41 ! lumb] indu/ry has n gr[n proportionally to o!r developm5ts1 = :ile1 9 #ahfh1 =e/ products =m$ #cd p] c5t4 ( ! total export1 9 #aijd !y repres5t$ only ab\t half t figure4 ,! same conclusion1 namely t ! lumb] bus9ess has n increas$ rapidly 9 ! la/ #be ye>s1 may be d]iv$ f ! report ( ! ,dec5nial ,c5sus4 ,:ile1 = #ahij1 ! total cut am\nt$ to ov] #e billion feet & its value to ne>ly #hj million1 9 #aijj1 ! cut or at lea/ ! ,c5sus report fell bel[ #d billion & its value to #ec million4 ,9 #aiji1 ! total lumb] cut 0 report$ z #c4h billion feet ,b4 ,m4 & its value #fb4h million4 ,a measure ( ! depletion ( ! great /aple ,:ite ,p9e is f\nd 9 ! /atem5t t f #ahfe to #ahic ! av]age size ( pieces decreas$ by "o-qu>t] to "o-?ird1 & t1 9 #ahfc1 ov] #bc million cubic feet 7 export$ f ,quebec z aga9/ #a4e million feet 9 #aijd1 :ile ! price _h m ?an quadrupl$ 9 t p]iod4 ,spruce has "h tak5 ! place ( p9e1 & ,ont>io is n[ ! ma9 produc] ( p9e4 ,yet 9 #aiji1 ! ,:ite ,p9e cut 9 am\nt almo/ equal$ t ( spruce1 & 9 value exce$$ x by #dj p] c5t4 ,spruce1 & especially pulpwood1 =ms an ev] increas+ item 9 cut & export1 export ( pulpwood hav+ increas$ sev5fold 9 ! la/ decade1 to ne>ly #b million1 & ( woodpulp to ov] #d million4 ,a notable economic improvem5t has tak5 place dur+ ! la/ t5 or fifte5 ye>s 9 t ! proportion ( raw mat]ials export$1 especially logs & squ>e timb]1 has decreas$ 9 favor ( manufactures4 ,:ile orig9ally ! home c\ntry took ! bulk ( exports ( =e/ products1 ! cut ( ,ont>io has be5 always1 duty or no duty1 s5t almo/ entirely to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ! la/ six or eight ye>s1 ! export to ! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 d\bl$1 am\nt+ n[ to ab\t half ( ! total export1 & z ! ,/ates return ( its own =e/ products l>gely 9 ! =m ( manufactures to ! ext5t ( ab\t #f million doll>s wor?1 a balance ( trade = ! ,canadian =e/ product ( #ab million doll>s is left4 #b4 ,own]%ip4 ,:5 ! ,fr5* took possession ( ! c\ntry1 all ! l& belong$ to ! k+1 & c\ld be held by o!rs only "u feudal t5ure1 i4e41 z a gift "u obligation ( c\nt] s]vice4 ,! :ole c\ntry 0 plac$ z a fief "u ! rule ( ! ,hundr$ ,associates1 a company :i* also ex]cis$ a trad+ & coloniz+ monopoly1 b made no success1 & 0 dissolv$ 9 #affc4 ,x 0 !n t ,ri*elieu introduc$ ! sy/em ( seigniorial t5ure1 ! l& be+ divid$ into portions ( f #ajj to #ejj squ>e miles1 usually ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( riv] front1 & giv5 outright to y\ng] noblem51 favorites ( ! c\rt1 & cl]ics1 :o 71 h[ev]1 obligat$ to subgrant to coloni/s1 !reby becom+ s _m immigration ag5ts4 ,^! n only treat$ _! coloni/s z t5ants1 exact+ r5t & s]vice1 b ex]cis$ ne>ly absolute jurisdiction )9 _! doma9s1 ! coloni/s becom+ virtually s]fs or reta9]s ( ! seigneurs4 ,?is condition cont9u$ until #ahed1 :5 an adju/m5t ( rights 0 =mulat$ by ! ,seigneurial ,t5ures ,act1 & ! gov]nm5t aid$ ! 8habitans0 to secure _! fre$om by indemnify+ ! seigneurs1 or else by pay+ r5t1 :i* 0 done mo/ly4 ,"u ,engli% rule1 ! grant+ ( l&s1 )\t1 h[ev]1 ! seignorial rights1 0 cont9u$4 ,9 #aghd1 su* grants 7 made along ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce & ! ,bay ( ,qu9te to vet]ans ( ! loyali/ army1 "s #bj1jjj1 9 lots ( #bjj acres = privates up to #e1jjj acres = field (fic]s4 ,9 #agia1 e sev5? section 0 ord]$ to be set aside z ,cl]gy ,res]ves = ! support ( ! ,prote/ant ,*ur*1 a measure :i* creat$ mu* friction1 & =m$1 especially 9 ! ,roman ,ca?olic prov9ce ( ,quebec1 a *ief grievance 9 />t+ ! ,pap9eau rebellion ( #ahcg4 ,"s #c1cjj1jjj acres 7 gradually )drawn = ?is purpose1 & z f> z possible leas$ to secure an income4 ,"s ( ^! l&s 7 sold aft] #ahbg1 & f9ally1 9 #ahec1 a /atute 0 pass$ to sell ! rema9d] & turn ov] ! proce$s to municipalities = educational purposes & local improvem5t4 ,ext5sive grants & sales 7 made to lumb]m5 & speculators4 ,9 ?is mann]1 by ! grant+ ( #ac1jjj acres to an ,am]ican1 ,philemon ,wright1 9 #ahjj1 ! great lumb] indu/ry ( ,ottawa 0 />t$1 &1 9 #ahcf1 ano!r ,am]ican syndicate secur$ ab\t a million acres ( grants4 ,out ( ! #ej million acres grant$ 9 aid ( railroad con/ruction1 "s portion mu/ also h be5 9 timb]4 ,by all ^! me?ods z well z by small grants & sales to settl]s a l>ge area ( unc]ta9 ext5t has become private prop]ty4 ,9 ,nova ,scotia1 ne>ly ! entire gov]nm5t doma9 has pass$ by grant & sale into private h&s1 "s #f million acres1 "o-half 9 small hold+s4 ,( ! l&s rema9+ 9 ! cr[n at lea/ two-?irds is on b>r5s4 ,simil>ly1 9 ,pr9ce ,edw>d ,isl&1 ! #hjj squ>e miles ( woodl& rema9+ are almo/ :olly own$ privately1 ! #ad1jjj acres ( /ate l& be+1 l mo/ ( ! private prop]ty1 /ripp$ ( its value4 ,9 ,new ,brunswick ov] #a4f million acres1 mo/ly woodl& 7conta9+ ov] #aj billion feet7 0 grant$ to ! railway company & ano!r million acres or s is 9 o!r private possession2 a lib]al disposal ( l&s hav+ be5 cont9u$ until #ahhc1 :5 ab\t #g million acres ( timb] & wa/e l& rema9$ to ! cr[n4 ,9 ,quebec "s #f million acres are e/imat$ z privately own$1 mo/ly 9 woodlots on f>ms4 ,9 ,ont>io ! private woodl& area ( comm]cial "* may be ov] #e million acres4 ,besides ! l>ge grants :i* 7 & /ill are probably to ! greate/ ext5t 9 timb]l&s1 ! f>ms 9 ! v>i\s prov9ces1 accord+ to ! ,c5sus ( #aija1 h f #bb to #eg p] c5t4 9 woodlots1 or altoge!r probably 9 ! neighborhood ( #cj million acres4 ,! total area privately own$ may !n be plac$ at n to exce$1 say #dj million acres1 & ! l>ge/ "p ( ! =e/ area1 is /ill cr[n l&s1 ! gov]nm5t ( ! diff]5t prov9ces & ! ,dom9ion gov]nm5t 9 ! t]ritories & 9 ! middle prov9ces adm9i/]+ !m & d]iv+ ! rev5ue !refrom4 ,?is condition has prevail$ s9ce #ahcg1 :5 ! home gov]nm5t gave up its claim to l& & rev5ues4 ,! prov9cial own]%ip ext5ds ov] ab\t #ejj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,! ,dom9ion gov]nm5t owns an area ( #bj1jjj squ>e miles 9 ! railway belt ( ,briti% ,columbia1 #bj miles on ea* side ( ! railway = #ejj miles1 :i* conta9s good timb]1 & "s #gbb1jjj squ>e miles ( l& 9 ! middle prov9ces :i* conta9s practically only timb] suitable = local use4 #c4 ,adm9i/ration ( ,timb]l&s4 ,9 ! developm5t ( own]%ip conditions1 ! realization ( ! valuable assets 9 timb] gr[? _h n be5 ov]look$ by ! home gov]nm5t1 c>e ( supplies = naval con/ruction giv+1 z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! fir/ inc5tive to a cons]vative =e/ policy4 ,ev5 "u ! e>ly ,fr5* rule1 ! grants ( l& 7 made "u res]vation ( ! oak timb] fit = naval use1 z is evid5c$ f a l&grant made 9 #afhc4 ,?is res]vation l$ to consid]able friction z x hamp]$ ! coloni/s 9 mak+ _! cle>+s on ! be/ l&s4 ,lat]1 ! res]vation 0 ext5d$ to include o!r timb] ne$$ = milit>y purposes1 & :5 ! ,briti% occupation began1 ^! e/abli%$ rights ( ! cr[n 7 n only cont9u$1 b res]vations ( l>g] areas = ! timb] 7 ord]$1 notably ar\nd & nor? ( ,lake ,*ampla94 ,9 #agfc1 & aga9 9 #agge1 ! home gov]nm5t ord]$ res]vations to be set aside 9 e t[n%ip4 ,b ! great timb]weal? seem$ s inexhau/ible t ! gov]nors paid little att5tion to ! wise in/ructions ( ! home gov]nm5t = ! creation ( res]vations1 & :atev] regulations reg>d+ ! cutt+ ( timb] 7 made1 fail$ to be /rictly en=c$4 ,9 #aghi1 ! policy ( res]v+ to ! cr[n all ! timb] z f> z n grant$1 & giv+ lic5ses to cut1 0 inaugurat$2 b n until #ahbf 0 ev5 ! rev5ue feature /rongly en\gh realiz$ to attempt sy/ematically to secure ! b5efit ( x1 namely by all[+ anyone to cut timb] 8su* z 0 n requir$ = ! navy0 :o w\ld pay a fix$ rate = :at 0 cut2 a surveyor-g5]al ( woods & =e/s be+ appo9t$ to collect ! timb] dues ) ! aid ( qualifi$ 8cull]s0 7#ahaa74 ,!re 0 ev5 an attempt made to prev5t wa/e by d\bl+ ! rate ( timb] dues on all trees cut :i* w\ld n squ>e m ?an #h in*es2 ?is re/riction probably rema9$ a dead lett] = lack ( sup]vision4 ,lumb]m51 h[ev]1 f\nd x *eap] to buy ! l&1 mak+ only "p paym5t1 & aft] cutt+ ! be/ timb]1 =feit+ ! l&2 contractors :o _h ! monopoly = cutt+ ! timb] = ! royal navy cut also = _! own acc\nt2 corruption & graft p]vad$ ! adm9i/ration1 :i* enri*$ its foll[]s ) ! rev5ues obta9$ f ! timb] lic5ses & o!rwise4 ,! /rong h& :i*1 9 ! abs5ce ( a /rong gov]nm5t1 lumb]m5 7 driv5 to use 9 ord] to protect !mselves f piracy by _! neighbors1 or else to p]petrate su*1 br\ght ab\t _m bloody conflicts4 ,! g5]al maladm9i/ration ( ! s-call$ 8,family ,compact0 besides o!r grievances1 caus$ ! revolution ( #ahcg1 :i*1 al?\gh readily put d[n1 l$ to ! union ( ! prov9ces ( ,upp] & ,l[] ,canada 9 #ahda1 & to re=m ( ! abuses4 ,x 0 !n1 t1 aft] ! new gov]nor-g5]al1 ,"l ,durham's admirable report on ! situation1 ! home gov]nm5t turn$ ov] ! adm9i/ration 79 "p at lea/7 & rev5ues ( ! cr[nl&s to ! sev]al prov9cial gov]nm5ts4 ,at t "t 9 ,new ,brunswick1 :]e a ?riv+ export trade _h be5 e>ly e/abli%$ ! dues on #b million wor? ( production 7 involv$1 & 9 ,quebec & ,ont>io ! income am\nt$ to betwe5 #bjj1jjj & #cjj1jjj4 ,b ev5 !n1 ! imm$iate rev5ue1 & n any conc]n = its cont9uation animat$ ! adm9i/ration ( ! public or cr[n =e/s4 ,! free-h& sales = nom9al sums 7 *ang$ into lic5ses to cut1 & 9 ord] to secure l>g] returns ^! 7 by & by put up at auction = competitive bids1 ! premium or 8bonus0 be+ paid = ! limits1 7i4e41 a limit$ t]ritory on :i* ! hold] or lic5see _h ! exclusive "r to cut71 9 addition to ! fix$ dues or *>ges p] unit = ! timb] actually cut4 ,lat]1 to disc\rage ! hold+ ( timb] limits = a rise ( prices1 an annual cut ( fir/ #a1jjj1 !n #ejj feet p] squ>e mile ( hold+s 0 requir$4 ,to /ill fur!r accel]ate ! use ( ! lic5ses to cut1 ! ,cr[n ,timb] ,act ( #ahdi limit$ ! lic5se to "o ye>1 & provid$ = an ev5tual limit 9 size ( ! grants4 ,all ^! provisions =c$ to m rapid cutt+ & ov]production1 & depression 9 ! lumb] m>ket 0 ! result1 ! supply 9 #ahdg be+ #dd million feet to meet an export ( #ai million4 ,new rules 7 promulgat$ 9 #ahea1 introduc+ a gr\nd r5t sy/em1 a set price be+ paid p] squ>e mile ( limit1 & d\bl+ ! gr\nd r5t = unus$ limits ea* ye>4 ,ne$less to say1 ! impracticability ( ?is geometric progression 9 gr\nd r5ts became visible 9 a few ye>s4 ,! f9al pres5t sy/ems 9 ! disposal ( timb] limits1 v>y+ 9 detail1 7 gradually p]fect$ 9 v>y+ mann] by ! sev]al prov9cial gov]nm5ts1 b !y agree 9 g5]al pr9ciples1 9 t !y grant limits = a c]ta9 "t1 "s by ! ye>1 o!rs by p]iods1 usually #ba ye>s1 dur+ :i* c]ta9 conditions z to e/abli%m5t ( mills & am\nt ( manufacture )\t wa/e mu/ be fulfill$1 & a gr\nd r5t1 a bonus1 & timb] dues = all timb] cut are to be paid by ! limit hold]1 details & prices v>y+ & be+ *ang$ f "t to "t4 ,a diamet] limit bel[ :i* trees are n to be cut also mo/ly prevails4 ,lately1 sales by ! ?\s& feet ,b4 ,m4 h be5 inaugurat$ 9 ,ont>io1 & sale by ! mile is to be ab&on$4 ,z a rule lic5ses become negotiable & c be transf]r$ ^u pay+ a small fee p] squ>e mile4 ,! gov]nm5ts res]v+ absolute rights to *ange conditions ( ?is contract at any "t1 ! int]e/ ( ! lic5see is to cut z fa/ z he c2 o!r unsatisfactory conditions lead+ 9 ! same direction4 ,a ,dep>tm5t ( ,cr[n ,l&s 9 ! ,dom9ion gov]nm5t & 9 ea* prov9ce 79 ,nova ,scotia ! ,attorney-,g5]al act+ z head7 adm9i/]s ! l&s4 ,scal]s or cull]s att5d to ! measur+ ( ! cut4 ,! rev5ue d]iv$ by ?is sy/em by all ! prov9ces am\nts n[ to r\nd #d4e million doll>s p] ye>1 ,ont>io lead+ ) ab\t #bj1jjj squ>e miles n[ "u lic5se1 7mo/ly p9e71 produc+ 9 #aiaj1 #a1hce1jjj2 ! ye>ly av]age = ! decade end+ #aiaj 0 #a million doll>s1 & "s #da million doll>s h altoge!r accru$ s9ce #ahfg2 ,quebec1 ) ov] #gj1jjj squ>e miles "u lic5se1 7mo/ly 9 spruce17 produc+ only ab\t #gjj1jjj1 ne>ly #cj million doll>s hav+ accru$ dur+ ! #dc ye>s1 or at ! rate ( #dah p] squ>e mile1 two-?irds ( :i* f dues4 ,s9ce l& = settlem5t is1 z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 obta9able by home/ead & o!r entries1 a good _m fraudul5t applications "u guise ( settlem5t h curtail$ ! rev5ue1 until n[ clos] scrut9y ( ! fitness ( l& = settlem5t is made4 ,! ret5tion ( ! l&s by ! gov]nm5t is naturally a feature :i* w\ld p]mit & %\ld h e>li] induc$ cons]vative =e/ry me?ods1 b ! imm$iate rev5ue int]e/ has _h & /ill has a m pot5t influ5ce ?an consid]ations ( ! future4 #d4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy4 ,! impetus to introduce cons]vative features seems to h l>gely come ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ! =e/ry movem5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 &1 al?\gh1 voices ( prom95t ,canadians1 l t ( ,james & ,william ,little1 & ,sir ,h5ry ,joly de ,lotb9ire _h be5 he>d be=e 9 advocacy ( a m f>-see+ policy1 ! meet+ ( ! ,am]ican ,=e/ry ,congress at ,montreal 9 #ahhb1 7see p4 #dhj7 may be set z ! date ( ! inception ( ?is movem5t 9 ,canada4 ,! def9ite result ( t meet+ 0 ! inauguration ( =e/ fire legislation 9 ! v>i\s prov9ces4 ,9 ! ,prov9ce ( ,ont>io1 ! ,fire ,act ( #ahgh1 :i* _h until !n rema9$ a dead lett]1 0 improv$1 9 #ahhe1 by inaugurat+ a fire rang] sy/em1 9 :i* limit hold]s pay "o-half ! co/ ( ! rang]s4 ,! =ce ( fire fight]s1 #cg 9 ! fir/ ye> 0 gradually increas$ until1 9 #aiaj1 ne>ly #ajjj 7 employ$ at a co/ ( #cjj1jjj4 ,9 t ye> a *ange 0 made1 ! :ole s]vice includ+ inspection be+ *>g$ aga9/ ! limit hold]4 ,9 ,new ,brunswick1 a fire law 0 pass$ 9 #ahhe1 foll[$1 9 #ahig1 by ! introduction ( ! ,ont>io rang] sy/em4 ,9 #ahhc1 ,nova ,scotia pass$ a =e/ fire law1 :i*1 l t ( ,new ,brunswick1 rema9$ ineffective = lack ( ma*9]y2 ?is 0 n provid$ until #aijd1 & s9ce !n has work$ mo/ satisfactorily4 ,rec5tly a =e/ survey ( ?is ,prov9ce 0 made4 ,quebec also enact$ fire legislation 9 #ahhc1 b did n provide means to c>ry x into effect until #ahhi4 ,s9ce at fir/ only #e1jjj annually 0 all[$ = its execution1 & by #aija-b n m ?an #g1bbf 0 exp5d$ = fire protection ov] an area ( #dj million acres1 its effectiv5ess may be d\bt$4 ,b 9 #aije1 a special ,=e/-,protection ,bran*1 ) a ,sup]9t5d5t & a rang] sy/em aft] ! ,ont>io patt]n 0 organiz$1 & ! s]vice has become m effective4 ,! ne$ = m organiz$ ef=t & advice l$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( special bureaus ( =e/ry4 ,9 ,ont>io1 a ,cl]k ( ,=e/ry 0 e/abli%$ 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture 9 #ahhc1 &1 9 #ahie1 he 0 replac$ by a ,cl]k 9 ! ,cr[n ,l&s ,dep>tm5t1 lat] nam$ ,director ( ,=e/ry 7,mr4 ,?omas ,s\?wor?74 ,?is (fice1 lat]1 0 *ang$ to a ,bureau ( ,=e/ry & ,colonization1 & a te*nically educat$ man 0 appo9t$ z ,prov9cial ,=e/]1 ) a view ( develop+ a =e/ managem5t1 at lea/ 9 ! ,res]ves4 ,?is movem5t1 h[ev]1 soon collaps$ = lack ( appreciation2 ! (fice 0 transf]r$ back to ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 :i* does n control any timb]l&s1 ! ,=e/] resign$1 & ! bureau 01 f9ally1 9 #aijg1 re/rict$ to ! colonization "w1 ! =e/ry "p be+ delib]ately ab&on$4 ,mean:ile ! ,prov9ce ( ,quebec pursu$ a m enlight5$ c\rse4 ,to control ! cut1 a ,cull]'s (fice 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahdb1 :i*1 h[ev]1 only *eck$ ! squ>e timb]1 !n ! pr9cipal mat]ial4 ,9 #ahgc1 aft] v>i\s futile attempts to secure bett] sup]vision1 a corps ( =e/ rang]s 0 creat$2 b z !y work$ )\t organization ! results 7 only p>tial until1 9 #ahhi1 !y 7 plac$ "u sev5 *iefs or sup]9t5d5ts4 ,9 #ahig1 ! numb] ( sup]9t5d5ts 7 r$uc$ to "o1 b hav+ to "w ) incompet5t m51 political appo9tees1 ?is improvem5t 9 head%ip did n produce mu* result4 ,9 #aijg1 a re-organization took place by introduc+ two pr(essional =e/]s educat$ at gov]nm5t's exp5se at ,am]ican colleges ( =e/ry :o ^u _! return 7 employ$ to supply ! te*nical sup]vision ( cutt+ on lic5s$ l&s1 & o!rwise to =w>d =e/ry re=ms4 ,9 #aiaj1 ! logical sequ5ce occurr$ by plac+ ! entire =e/ s]vice except ! protection aga9/ fire "u "o ( ^! te*nical m5 z *ief1 ) ! o!r "o z 8 assi/ant1 & a corps ( ?ree civil eng9e]s1 #dj =e/ rang]s & six scal]s1 besides #bj /ud5t assi/ants--! fir/ organiz$ prov9cial =e/ s]vice 9 ,canada1 adm9i/]$ "u ! ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,woods & ,=e/s 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,cr[nl&s4#ag #ag ,see ,report ( ,canadian ,=e/ry ,conv5tion1 #aiaa4 ,9 #ahih1 ! ,dom9ion gov]nm5t _h also recogniz$ ! ne$ ( m te*nical adm9i/ration by in/itut+ a ,=e/ry ,bran* 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,int]ior "u a sup]9t5d5t ) a view ( develop+ improv$ me?ods4 ,at fir/ mann$ )\t te*nical advis]s1 :o 71 inde$1 n 9 exi/5ce1 gradually ! pr(essional elem5t 0 introduc$1 & ! scope ( ! ,bran* enl>g$1 ! irrigation int]e/s ( ! c\ntry be+ add$4 ,"u ! able guidance ( ! pres5t director--^: task "u ! political conditions surr\nd+ x is n an easy "o--?is dep>tm5t may 9 a few ye>s also become fully organiz$ ) te*nical m51 ( :om !re are n[ sev5te5 employ$1 besides /ud5t assi/ants4 ,^! v>i\s gov]nm5t ag5cies & o!r propag&a produc$ at lea/ ! important result ( committ+ ! gov]nm5ts to see ! propriety ( sett+ aside p]man5t =e/ res]ves4 ,! fir/ movem5t 9 ?is direction 0 made 9 #ahic1 & 9 #ahie1 ! fir/ ,dom9ion res]vations 7 made by ,executive ,ord] ?r\gh ! ,m9i/] ( ! ,int]ior4 ,^!1 to be sure1 7 locat$ 9 ! ?9ly timb]$ p>ts ( ! prov9ce ( ,manitoba1 ! ,turtle ,m\nta9s & ,rid+ ,m\nta91 ma9ly = ! protection ( wat] supply4 ,sev]al o!r simil> res]ves 7 set aside by ! ,m9i/]1 b to give m /ability to ^! res]vations1 an ,act ( ,p>liam5t 0 pass$ 9 #aijf1 decl>+ _! p]man5ce & plac+ !m1 #c1chj1jjj acres1 "u ! adm9i/ration ( ! ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,=e/ry4 ,!re are s f>1 "s #bf ,dom9ion ,=e/ ,res]ves creat$1 or 9 ! act ( creation1 compris+ an area ( ov] #be1jjj squ>e miles4 ,! ,=e/ry ,bran* is mak+ a brave beg9n+ to survey & manage ^! res]ves "u =e/ry pr9ciples4 ,( ! prov9ces1 ,ont>io 0 ! fir/ to recognize ! pr9ciple ( res]vations 9 #ahic1 :5 a p>tially cut ov]1 p>tially lic5s$ t]ritory ( ov] "o million acres 0 set aside z ! ,algonqu9 ,national ,p>k 9 ! ,nipiss+ ,di/rict1 b ! fir/ def9ite e/abli%m5t ( a =e/ res]ve policy dates f ! ,=e/ ,res]ve ,act1 pass$ 9 #ahih1 :i* au?orizes ! ,executive1 z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 to )draw l&s = res]ves4 ,"s eight res]ves & two p>ks h s f> be5 e/abli%$1 & ! res]v$ area am\nts to ar\nd #bj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,( managem5t on =e/ry l9es on ^! res]ves !re is s f> little to be he>d1 except an ef=t to keep fires out4 ,quebec has foll[$ ?is example ( ,ont>io1 fir/ by sett+ aside ! ,laur5tides ,p>k 9 ! ,sagu5ay region1 7#a1fcd1jjj acres71 :i*1 l ,algonqu9 ,p>k1 0 m 9 ! nature ( a game pres]ve4 ,dur+ #aijf-g1 h[ev]1 "u a law au?oriz+ ! ,lieut5ant ,gov]nor to set aside =e/ res]ves1 ov] #ajj million acres 7 plac$ 9 res]ve4 ,app>5tly1 h[ev]1 no adm9i/ration ( ?is pres]ve 9 ! =e/ry s5se is z yet attempt$4 ,briti% ,columbia1 :i* until lately 0 only conc]n$ 9 dispos+ ( ! well timb]$ cr[nl&s1 aft] hav+ dispos$ ( ! be/ p>ts1 has plac$ "u res]vation ! balance1 & a =e/ commission ( inquiry has be5 con/itut$ to devise fur!r measures 9 ! int]e/ ( =e/ry4 ,its report1 appe>+ 9 #aiaa1 gives a v cle> /atem5t ( conditions 9 ! prov9ce & ! promise ( active organization ( a bett] s]vice4 ,( o!r attempts to fo/] =e/ry int]e/s may be m5tion$ a law 9 ,quebec1 pass$ 9 #ahhb1 provid+ a bonus ( #ab p] acre = tree plant+1 :i* seems to h rema9$ )\t effect2 ano!r1 provid+ = a diamet] limit ( #ab in*es on ! /ump = p9e & #i in*es = o!r k9ds 7^! dim5sions are n[ v>i$7 inaugurat$ 9 #ahhh1 may h pres]v$ "s "y gr[? on ! limits1 al?\gh1 s9ce pulpwood is n[ ! ma9 product1 & sup]vision has be5 ineffici5t1 n mu* may be expect$ f su* laws4 ,inde$1 ! *ief ( ! =e/ s]vice reports t #fj ( ! reg5]ation is ( ! inf]ior balsam fir4 ,9 ,ont>io1 a v compet5t ,commission 0 creat$ 9 #ahig1 ) a not$ lumb]man1 ,mr4 ,b]tram z presid5t1 to =mulate me?ods ( re=m2 b ! able report rema9$ b>r5 ( results4 ,! ,dom9ion has be5 active 9 enc\rag+ tree-plant+ 9 ! prairies4 ,! ,agricultural ,exp]im5t ,/ation at ,ottawa n only set out object lessons by plant+ "s #bj acres ( sample plots1 b = a numb] ( ye>s di/ribut$ plant mat]ial to settl]s4 ,?is "w 0 lat] tak5 ov] by ! ,=e/ry ,bran* & increas$ to a l>g] scale1 "s #he acres be+ 9 nurs]y1 & ! di/ribution hav+ gr[n to #ae1jjj1jjj se$l+s 9 #aiaj4 ,ont>io1 "u ! direction ( its ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture & 9 co-op]ation ) ! ,agricultural ,college at ,guelph1 has lately emb>k$ 9 two movem5ts ( amelioration1 namely1 e/abli%+ a ,/ate nurs]y f :i* plant mat]ial at co/1 ) advice z to its use1 is giv5 to f>m]s1 & pur*as+ & re=e/+ wa/e l&s 9 ! agricultural section4 ,t>iff legislation is ano!r means :i* is 9 ! h&s ( ! ,dom9ion gov]nm5t to be us$ = enc\rag+ =e/ cons]vancy4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 s f> n be5 us$ directly = su* purpose1 fiscal & comm]cial policies be+ upp]mo/4 ,b ! prov9ces h 9 ?is respect help$ !mselves by enc\rag+ manufacture r ?an export ( raw mat]ials1 ,ont>io lead+ 9 ?is matt] by prohibit+ export ( unmanufactur$ logs f ,cr[nl&s 9 #ahih4 ,o!r prov9ces impose an export duty on pulpwood cut on cr[nl&s1 z does also ,ont>io4 ,at pres5t writ+1 a reciprocity agreem5t ) ! ,unit$ ,/ates is "u contemplation1 :i* w\ld admit wood products f ,canada free ( duty--an arrangem5t :i* :atev] its comm]cial advantages bodes no good = a cons]vative =e/ policy4 ,mean:ile private limit hold]s1 "h & !re1 _h begun to see ! ne$ ( cons]vative me?ods1 & by #aijh1 at lea/ two l>ge ,pap] & ,pulp conc]ns _h plac$ =e/]s 9 *>ge ( _! logg+ op]ations4 #e4 ,education4 ,until #aijj1 associat$ ef=t to advance =e/ry 9 ,canada _h reli$ on ! int]national ,am]ican ,=e/ry ,association4 ,9 t ye>1 l>gely ?r\gh ! (ficials ( ! ,dom9ion ,=e/ry ,bran* 7,mr4 ,e4 ,/ew>t71 ! ,canadian ,=e/ry ,association 0 =m$4 ,?is ,association has gr[n m & m vigor\s1 & hav+ escap$ ! p]iod ( s5tim5talism :i* 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ret>d$ ! movem5t s long1 c\ld at once acc5tuate ! economic po9t ( view & br+ ! lumb]m5 into sympa?y ) _! ef=t4 ,9 #aije1 a qu>t]ly magaz9e1 ! ,canadian ,=e/ry ,j\rnal 0 />t$ by ! ,association1 mak+ its "w ( in/ruction & propag&a m effective4 ,! te*nical lit]ature1 z yet slightly develop$ is f\nd ma9ly 9 ,bullet9s ( ! ,=e/ry ,bran*4 ,a mo/ promis+ conv5tion held 9 ,janu>y #aijf1 ) ! ,premi] ( ! ,dom9ion presid+1 p>ticipat$ by prom95t (ficials & bus9ess m51 seem$ to =e%ad[ ! "t :5 a real rational =e/ managem5t1 at lea/ 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,dom9ion w\ld be inaugurat$4 ,b x c h>dly be said t ! expectations 7 realiz$1 & ano!r su* conv5tion 0 held 9 #aiaa1 :i* may p]haps be foll[$ by bett] results4 ,9 #aiji1 foll[+ ! prec$5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 a ,cons]vation ,commission 0 appo9t$ = ! ,dom9ion "u f$]al support1 mann$ by ! lead+ (ficials & prom95t repres5tative m5 f all prov9ces1 & "h ! =e/ry int]e/s may f9d at lea/ educational advancem5t4 ,! fir/ two ye>s ( ! exi/5ce ( ?is ,commission h1 h[ev]1 produc$ little advancem5t4 ,:ile ! ,ont>io gov]nm5t _h directly discr$it$ ! =e/ry movem5t by aboli%+ its bureau ( =e/ry1 indirectly x laid ! f\ndation = a sure future1 9 #aijg1 by e/abli%+ 9 its prov9cial ,univ]sity at ,toronto a ,faculty ( ,=e/ry1 ) full equipm5t4 ,a ye> lat]1 ! ,prov9ce ( ,new ,brunswick also e/abli%$ a *air ( =e/ry 9 its ,univ]sity1 :ile "s "t e>li]1 ! ,guelph ,agricultural ,college _h introduc$ ! subject ( f>m =e/ry 9 its curricula4 ,! late/ developm5t 9 educational direction is ! =e/ s*ool organiz$ 9 #aiaj by ! gov]nm5t ( ,quebec 9 connection ) its =e/ s]vice = ! purpose ( educat+ its own ag5ts4 ,,newf\ndl&4 ,newf\ndl&1 probably ! fir/ discov]y ( ,am]ica by ! ,norsem51 rema9$ a m]e fi%+ /ation until mod]n times1 &1 except = ! op5 coa/1 unkn[n z reg>ds ! wood$ int]ior1 :i* 0 suppos$ to be l>gely b>r54 ,x became a possession ( ,great ,brita9 9 #agac4 ,developm5t did n beg9 until #ahhj :5 ! fir/ railroad 0 built1 & has progress$ m rapidly s9ce ! ,newf\ndl& ,railway trav]s+ ! entire isl& 0 op5$ 9 #ahih4 ,x 0 f\nd t1 :ile ! %ores & a consid]able "p ( ! ,we/ & ,s\? coa/ are b>r5 or poorly timb]$1 & on ! int]ior plateau l>ge moss b>r5s exi/1 !re are ext5sive timb] areas ( mix$ gr[?1 ,:ite & ,r$ ,p9e1 ,balsam & ,spruce1 ) ,:ite ,bir*4 ,a lumb] indu/ry1 :i* by #aijd _h gr[n up to probably n less ?an #ajj million feet1 is rapidly ext5d+ ov] ! :ole isl&1 & an ext5sive pap] pulp indu/ry is prep>+ to e/abli% itself1 on timb] limits "u a lic5se sy/em simil> to t appli$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ,canada4 ,"s #ejjj squ>e miles are n[ "u lic5se4 ,=e/ fires h repeat$ly deva/at$ l>ge areas1 especially 9 #aijd4 ,! exp]i5ce ( t ye> l$ to ! enactm5t ( a =e/ fire law1 b )\t any ag5cy to make x effective4 ,no =e/ policy exi/s1 except ! comm]cial re/riction ( ! lic5se sy/em4 ,a =e/ry association has lately be5 =m$4 ,,o!r ,,briti% ,,possessions ,,& ,,colonies4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ! ,indian =e/ s]vice1 or /imulat$ by its success1 "s ( ! o!r ,briti% ,colonial gov]nm5ts 9 ,africa & ,au/ralia h attempt$ & sometimes succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ a =e/ policy4 ,( ,ea/ ,indian t]ritories1 ,ceylon1 ! ne>e/ neighbor to ,india1 ) ov] #be1jjj squ>e miles1 ( :i* #db p] c5t4 wood$1 mo/ly ) second gr[? =e/ ( small value1 attempt$ long ago an organization ) ! aid ( ,indian =e/]s1 b by #aijj _h ( ov] #aj1jjj squ>e miles only #dca 9 res]ves1 9 addition to ne>ly #ahjj acres plant$4 ,"o ,cons]vator & #h ,assi/ant ,cons]vators produce a net rev5ue ( less ?an #cj1jjj1 !re be+ an import ( #bej1jjj necess>y to eke out ! wood requirem5ts ( ! #c4e million p4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,/raits ,settlem5t1 an area ( #aebf squ>e miles1 _h1 by #aijj1 a res]v$ /ate =e/ area ( #ach squ>e miles "u an exp]i5c$ ,indian =e/ (fic]4 ,gutta p]*a1 rubb] & gums are "h ! mo/ valuable products4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,f$]at$ ,malay ,/ates1 ) #bf1cej squ>e miles1 & heavily wood$1 aft] a report by ! ,indian ,inspector-,g5]al1 h begun to res]ve =e/ areas1 "s #ajj1jjj acres hav+ be5 set aside1 :i* are adm9i/]$ by ! ,cons]vator ( ! ,/rait ,settlem5t's res]ves4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! gov]nm5t ( ! isl& ( ,cyprus also employs a =e/ (fic] & gu>ds to look aft] its #gjj squ>e miles ( =e/4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 ,africa1 dur+ ! la/ few ye>s small =e/ dep>tm5ts h be5 e/abli%$ by ! gov]nm5ts ( ! ,s\dan1 ,ea/ ,africa1 ,nig]ia1 ,transvaal1 ,orange ,riv] & ,natal1 mo/ly = ! purpose ( plant+ on ! treeless pla9s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! gov]nm5t ( ,mauritius _h made attempts at cons]vancy = _m ye>s1 b )\t notable success4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! mo/ successful attempt 9 ,africa s f> is report$ f ,cape ,colony1 :i* z e>ly z #ahai _h a ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,l&s & ,woods1 & 9 #ahgf1 a ,dep>tm5t ( ,=e/s & ,plantations1 nei!r ( :i* h left mu* ( record4 ,9 #ahha1 a new =e/ dep>tm5t "u a ,fr5* =e/ (fic] 0 />t$1 :i* has gr[n until n[ its consi/s ( "o ,cons]vator 7,d4 ,e4 ,hut*9s71 #bb ,assi/ant ,cons]vators1 #hd ,european =e/]s1 & a few native gu>ds4 ,9 #ahhh1 ! ne$$ legislation 0 _h = regulat+ ! work+ ( ! ne>ly half million acres ( =e/ area1 :i*1 9 #aijb1 0 decl>$ inali5able gov]nm5t prop]ty4 ,s9ce ! wood imports am\nt to ov] two million & a qu>t] doll>s annually1 ! ne$ ( cons]vative use is appreciat$ especially z climatic conditions are unfavorable to reproduction4 ,"s #bd1jjj acres h be5 plant$ dur+ #bb ye>s1 at a co/ ( #a1ejj1jjj1 ! fir/ plantations beg9n+ to yield a sub/antial rev5ue1 & x is believ$ t ano!r #dj1jjj acres ( su* plantations w\ld supply all ! timb] ne$$ 9 ! ,colony4 ,treeplant+ by private l& own]s & municipalities is enc\rag$ by furni%+ advice gratis & plant mat]ial at l[ co/1 & to municipalities 9 addition gov]nm5t aid is ext5d$ to ! ext5t ( half ! co/ ( plant+4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! sev5 ,au/ralian colonies are v v>i\sly situat$ reg>d+ timb] supplies1 ?ree ( !m1 ,que5sl&1 ,we/]n & ,s\? ,au/ralia be+ poorly wood$1 ! o!rs m or less heavily =e/$1 especially ,tasmania ) #fe p] c5t41 & ,new ,zeal& ) #ca p] c5t4 ,g5]ally speak+ ! =e/ areas are conf9$ to ! coa/ 9 n>r[] & wid] belts1 ! int]ior be+ =e/less or ) scrubby gr[?4 ,?is portion is l>ge en\gh to r$uce ! total =e/ p] c5t4 to less ?an #f4e4 ,! m\nta9s & hill ranges fac+ ! ,ea/]n1 ,s\!rn & ,we/]n coa/s are especially heavily wood$ ) magnific5t ,eucalypts1 ,j>rah & ,k>ri :ile ! ,kauri p9e is ! mo/ valuable tree 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,! "o successful attempt at a =e/ policy 0 made by ! almo/ =e/less colony ( ,s\? ,au/ralia1 :i* 9 #ahhb res]v$ its scanty =e/ area ( #bag1jjj acres & />t$ to plant1 7n[ #ac1jjj acres plant$71 employ+ a ,cons]vator & six ,=e/]s4 ,9 ! o!r colonies at v>i\s times unsuccessful beg9n+s 7 made1 & !re exi/ 9 ,que5sl&1 ,new ,s\? ,wales1 & ,victoria s-call$ ,=e/ ,bran*es or dep>tm5ts1 b mo/ly )\t p[] or equipm5t1 & no intellig5t conception ( =e/ policy seems practically to exi/4 ,9 ,que5sl&1 s9ce #ahig1 ! ,gov]nor 9 ,c\ncil may res]ve =e/ l&s & regulate ! cutt+ by diamet] limit4 ,"o & a half million acres h be5 res]v$1 b no /aff = adm9i/ration exi/s4 ,9 ,new ,s\? ,wales six million acres 7 )drawn f settlem5t1 b x is mo/ly us$ = pa/ure1 & )drawal may be revok$ at any "t4 ,no effective sy/em ( control exi/s4 ,9 ,victoria five & a half million acres h be5 decl>$ res]ves "u act ( #ahij1 ne>ly half ! =e/ area4 ,!re exi/s a =e/ dep>tm5t ( "o ,cons]vator1 two ,inspectors & #be ,=e/]s1 b no plan ( managem5t4 ,f\r ,/ate nurs]ies ( d\btful value seems ! :ole result4 ,! o!r colonies /ill m]ely exploit _! =e/ res\rces "u loosely manag$ lic5se sy/ems1 )\t ev5 an ineffici5t attempt at intellig5t treatm5t4 ,,japan4 ,=e/ry ( ,japan1 #aijd1 publi%$ by ! ,imp]ial ,bureau ( ,=e/ry 9 connection ) ! ,l\isiana ,pur*ase ,exposition1 & a repr9t ) additions 9 #aiaj1 conta9s mo/ ( ! in=mation utiliz$ above4 ,aus d5 ,waldung5 ,japans1 by ,dr4 ,he9ri* ,mayr1 #ahia1 gives a full acc\nt ( ! =e/ geography1 :i* is also to be f\nd 9 ,j4 ,j4 ,re91 ,japan1 #ahhf4 ,d] ,wald 9 ,japan1 an article by ,dr4 ,hefele 9 ,=/wiss5s*aftli*es ,c5tralblatt1 #aijc1 gives an insight into =e/ conditions f ! po9t ( view ( a =e/]4 ,a v cle> analysis ( ! developm5t ( prop]ty rights is to be f\nd 9 an article by ,dr4 ,z5t>o ,kawase 9 ,allgeme9e ,=/- und ,jagdzeitung1 #ahid4 ,an article 9 ,zeits*rift fr ,=/- und ,jagdwes5 f ! p5 ( ,pr(4 ,h4 ,matsuno1 ! fir/ pr(essional =e/] ( ,japan1 gives a brief acc\nt ( ! developm5t ( =e/ry1 especially 9 e>li] times4 ,a report by ,special ,canadian ,trade ,commission] ,w4 ,t4 ,r4 ,pre/on1 #aijh1 conta9s valuable /ati/ics on ! lumb] trade4 ,! mod]nization ( ?is rem>kable isl& empire ( ,niphon 7! native "n71 :i* began 9 #ahfh1 includ$ ! organization ( a =e/ dep>tm5t aft] ,g]man models4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 !re are o!r notewor?y po9ts ( simil>ity to be f\nd 9 ! hi/oric developm5t ( =e/ry 9 ,g]many & ,japan4 ,! empire comprises f\r l>g] isl&s--,kiu%iu1 ,%ikoku1 ,hondo or ,hon%iu1 & ,hokkaido or ,yesso--& a ho/ ( small] ones1 /ret*+ 9 a *a9 ( ne>ly #c1jjj miles nor? & s\? along ! ,asiatic %ore1 ! wid? ( l& be+ n[h]e ov] #bjj miles4 ,x comprises an area ( ne>ly #aej1jjj squ>e miles1 ) a population approximat+ #ej million1 l>gely engag$ 9 fi%]ies & o!r sea indu/ries4 ,! isl&s are ( volcanic orig9--"p ( ! 8girdle ( fire0 :i* rea*es f ! ,alaska p59sula ?r\gh ! ,philipp9es to ! ,antilles--) _m active crat]s1 subject to frequ5t disa/r\s e>?quakes & tidal waves2 m\nta9\s1 ) num]\s ranges ( high hills & ) l(ty c5tral ridges1 ) num]\s %ort riv]s1 apt to turn into trea*]\s torr5ts1 :ile hurricanes & wat]sp\ts1 typhoons & equ9octial gales sweep ! surr\nd+ seas frequ5tly4 ,! soil is n[h]e p>ticul>ly f]tile1 b ! pati5t & pa9/ak+ labor ( ! ,japanese has br\ght e available foot ( x--little m ?an #aj is arable--into produc+ condition1 :]ev] ! climate comp5sates = ! inf]tility1 especially 9 ! mo/ d5sely populat$ "p1 ! s\!rn half ( ,hondo4 ,ext5d+ ?r\gh #cj degrees ( latitude1 ! climate naturally v>ies f ! tropical "o ( ,=mosa1 ?r\gh all v>iations ( ! temp]ate1 to ! alp9e "o ( ! high m\nta9s & ! ne>ly arctic "o ( ! ,kurile isl&s4 ,! ,japan curr5t skirt+ ! ea/]n coa/1 & ! m\nta9 ranges1 ) elevations g5]ally n exce$+ #f1jjj feet1 occasionally up to ov] #ac1jjj feet1 :i* cut (f ! dry cont95tal we/ w9ds1 also produce great climatic v>iations betwe5 ea/ & we/ coa/s4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 ! climate ( ! :ole empire is *>act]iz$ by a high p]c5tage ( relative humidity & ample ra9fall1 especially dur+ ! hot season1 produc+ luxuriant gr[?4 #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions1 & ,own]%ip4 ,due to ^! great v>iations 9 climate1 f\r climatic regions be+ diff]5tiat$1 ! =e/ flora ( ,japan almo/ rivals 9 v>iety t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) ov] #bjj decidu\s1 & m ?an #cj conif]\s species ( size 7besides a l>ge numb] ( half-trees71 al?\gh n m ?an "s #ej or #fj are ( silvicultural importance1 & n m ?an #aj or #ab species =m ! basis ( =e/ managem5t & ( ! lumb] trade1 :i* requires "s two billion cubic feet annually1 & supports an export ( ov] six million doll>s4 ,! value ( ! total cut 01 9 #aijg1 plac$ at ov] #ag million doll>s1 ( :i* six million 0 to ! cr$it ( ! ,/ate ,treasury4 ,9 ! tropical di/ricts1 bamboos =m ! ma9 /aple2 9 ! subtropical region1 ! mo/ d5sely populat$ & h5ce also almo/ =e/less1 ! broadleaf ev]gre5s1 especially sev]al species ( oak1 furni% desirable fuel wood1 & two species ( p9e are mo/ valu$ = timb]1 "o1 ! ,r$ ,p9e 7,p4 d5siflora7 ext5d+ its realm rapidly ov] wa/e areas2 camphor tree & boxwood furni% ornam5tal wood4 ,! region ( temp]ate =e/ furni%es1 out ( ov] #fj species1 "s #ad conif]s & #ai broadleaf trees ( value1 ! =m] ma9ly ( ! c$> tribe1 ) ,*amaecyp>is obtusa & ,cryptom]ia japonica ! mo/ widely us$1 :ile ( ! broadleaf species1 :i* occupy m ?an #ej p] c5t4 ( ! =e/ area1 ,zelk[a keaki1 ( ! elm tribe1 a *e/nut1 a bee*1 sev]al oaks1 a walnut1 & an a% c\nt among ! mo/ useful4 ,spruce1 ,fir1 & ,:ite ,bir* are ! trees ( ! nor!rn =e/4 ,mix$ =e/ =ms #de1 broadleaf #be1 conif] #ba1 & #i is rat$ z blank or ?9ly /ock$4 ,! =e/ area1 :i*1 ov] ! :ole1 cov]s1 ) ! addition ( ! newly acquir$ isl& ( ,saghali51 #fg ( ! l& area1 or ar\nd #ge million acres 7#a acres p] capita71 is q unev5ly di/ribut$ accord+ to topography & population1 be+ mo/ly conf9$ to ! m\nta9 ranges & hills :i* =m ! backbone ( ! c\ntry1 & to ! nor!rn prov9ces1 :i* conta9 /ill l>ge1 unt\*$ areas4 ,hokkaido1 :i* 0 op5$ up to colonization only #ce ye>s ago1 n[ ) a population ( only #bj to ! squ>e mile1 has #fc ( =e/1 #ae acres p] capita2 ! nor!rn "p ( ,hondo has a some:at great] area p] c5t41 mo/ly on ! high /eep m\nta9s1 b only #a4b acres p] capita2 on ! s\!rn portion1 ! l[ ranges ( hills & valleys ! =e/ area has be5 r$uc$ to #ec1 b %[s only ?ree-qu>t] acre p] capita2 & ,ok9awa1 ) #bf1 & less ?an "o-?ird acre p] capita1 %[s ! l[e/4 ,( ?is =e/ area1 h[ev]1 almo/ "o-half is 8h>a10 bru% =e/1 *ap>ral1 or dw>f$ tree gr[?--! result ( mismanagem5t1 excessive cutt+ & fires--& 9 ! s\!rn di/ricts1 imp5etrable ?ickets ( dw>f bamboo1 :i* cr[d out tree & ev5 %rub gr[? :]ev] su* mismanagem5t gives x entrance4 ,^! ext5sive h>as are cut e two or five ye>s = ! bru%1 :i* is us$ to cov] & furni% manure = rice fields4 ,fire1 :i*1 until lately1 ran ov] #e or #f million acres annually1 & ru?less cutt+1 h 9 ! pa/ & are /ill det]iorat+ ! =e/ area4 ,grassy prairie & b>r5s due to natural conditions are n abs5t1 & are due to excessive dra9age ?r\gh loose co>se-gra9$ rock soil2 !y are f\nd1 n ext5sively1 at ! foot ( volcanoes1 & on highe/ elevations4 ,! diff]5tiation ( l& areas is n q c]ta94 ,9 #ahid1 !re 0 /ill #cj4e ( grassy prairie report$1 b "s ( ?is1 no d\bt1 0 =e/$1 probably "o-half4 ,! bulk ( ! =e/ area is own$ by ! ,/ate & ! ,imp]ial ,h\sehold4 ,communal =e/s are e/imat$ to aggregate1 9 #aijd1 some:at ov] f\r million acres 7#g4e71 9 #aiaj report$ z #aa1 & private prop]ty "s #ah million 7#bf2 9 #aiaj1 #bb7 leav+ #cj million = ! ,/ate & = ,imp]ial or ,cr[n =e/ 7#ff71 ! latt] compris+ "s #e4e million acres4 ,^! figures are liable to v>iation1 due to sales ( ! latt] class1 & to adju/m5ts ( ! some:at obscure prop]ty rights4 ,! own]%ip by ! ,/ate & a cons]vative use ( ! m\nta9 =e/ is necessitat$ by ! protective value ( ! =e/ cov]1 ! cultivation ( ! ext5sive rice fields be+ dep5d5t ^u irrigation4 #b4 ,developm5t ( ,=e/ ,policy4 ,! hi/ory ( ,japan dates back to #ffj ,b4,c41 :5 ! empire 0 f\nd$ on ! isl& ( ,kiu%iu by ! w>rior k+ ,jimmut5o4 ,he e/abli%$ a k9d ( feudal gov]nm5t1 ) ! daimios 7knights or b>ons7 hold+ _! fiefs f ! mikado1 :o 0 consid]$ ! sole own] ( ! soil1 or at lea/ all ex]cise ( own]%ip rights emanat$ f him4 ,private prop]ty seems !n n to h exi/$ at all1 ! p hav+ m]ely rights ( us]4 ,colonization ( ! isl&s br\ght "u ! mikado's dom9ion progress$ rapidly1 & ) x1 n only arable portions b ev5 m\nta9s 7 d5ud$4 ,) ! beg9n+ ( ! ,*ri/ian era1 ! ne$ ( bett] protection aga9/ floods seems to h be5 recogniz$1 &1 9 #bgj ,a4,d41 we f9d ! fir/ =e/ (ficial appo9t$1 a son ( ! royal h\se1 :o ) assi/ants 0 to regulate ! use ( ! =e/ prop]ty1 :i*1 "u ! rights ( us] grant$ by ! mikado1 0 be+ excessively exploit$ & deva/at$4 ,9 ! fif? c5tury1 ! feudal me?od ( giv+ fiefs ( l& & =e/ to ! des]v+ vassals _h come g5]ally into vogue1 & lat]1 ) ! rise ( ,buddhism1 =e/s 7 assign$ to ! temples & prie/s1 :o1 z 9 ,g]many ! monks1 7 assidu\s 9 cultivat+ & utiliz+ !m4 ,soon ! daimios1 simil>ly to ! b>ons 9 ,g]many1 began to ass]t exclusive prop]ty rights1 &1 not)/&+ v>i\s edicts1 issu$ f "t to "t to secure free use to ! p1 m & m ( ! =e/ area 0 secur$ by daimios1 & by prie/s z temple =e/s4 ,9 ! n9? c5tury1 de=e/ation & excessive exploitation _h s f> progress$ t n only ! ne$ ( protect+ wat]%$s 0 recogniz$ by edicts1 b fe> ( a timb] fam9e l$ ev5 to plant+ 9 ! prov9ces ( ,noto4 ,a p]iod ( int]nal /rife & w>f>e dur+ ! foll[+ c5turies :i* left =e/ int]e/ 9 ! backgr\nd1 l$1 9 #aaib1 to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! rule ( ! %oguns1 ! h]$it>y milit>y repres5tatives ( ! mikado1 :o made him a m]e figurehead1 & ex]cis$ all ! imp]ial functions !mselves1 until ! revolution ( #ahfh re/or$ ! mikado to 8 rights4 ,! ef=t at cons]vative =e/ use 0 r5ew$ ) increas$ h>%ness :51 aft] a p]iod ( w>f>e & deva/ation1 ! great %ogun family ( ,tokugawa 7#afjc7 assum$ ! rule ( ! empire1 en=c+ ! re/rictive edicts ) milit>y sev]ity4 ,ev5 at t e>ly age1 ! protective influ5ce ( =e/ cov] on soil & wat]fl[ 0 fully recogniz$1 & a di/9ction ( op5 or supply =e/ & clos$ or protection =e/s seems to h be5 made1 ! latt] be+ plac$ "u ! ban ( ! emp]or or %ogun1 & )drawn f utilization4 ,! ext5sive =e/s ( ! prov9ce ( ,kiso1 ! be/ rema9+1 owe _! pres]vation to ^! ef=ts4 ,! daimios1 #bfj 9 numb]1 ea* 9 8 di/rict1 en=c$ ! edicts 9 _! own way1 giv+ rise !reby to great diff]5ces 9 =e/ adm9i/ration2 yet 9 ! abs5ce ( te*nical k1 det]ioration cont9u$4 ,! sev]ity ( puni%m5ts = depr$ations etc41 rem9ds u ( ^? ( ! ,g]man ,m>kg5oss51 a h& or f+] be+ ! p5alty = !ft1 dea? by fire t = inc5di>ies4 ,! idea ( protect+ or res]v+ c]ta9 species ( trees1 :i* 0 practic$ 9 ,india by ! rajahs1 we f9d "h aga9 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! #ah? c5tury1 ! numb] ( su* protect$ species v>y+ f "o to sev5 & ev5 fifte5 9 diff]5t di/ricts4 ,ano!r unique & peculi> way ( enc\rag+ =e/ culture 0 to p]mit peasants :o made =e/ plantations 9 ! ,/ate =e/s1 to be> a family "n1 a "r :i* 0 o!rwise res]v$ to ! knights or samurli1 or to we> a d\ble-edg$ sword l ! latt]4 ,arbor days 7 also in/itut$1 memorial days & fe/ivities1 z at ! bir? ( *ildr51 be+ m>k$ by ! plant+ ( trees4 ,:ile 9 ,g]many ! love ( hunt+ _h l$ to ! exclusion ( ! p f ! =e/s1 9 ,japan x 0 a "q ( cons]v+ wood supplies t dictat$ ^! policies4 ,x is claim$ t to ^! e>ly ef=ts is due ! pres]vation ( ! rema9+ =e/s4 ,b1 :ile ?is may be true 9 "s in/ances1 z 9 ! prov9ce ( ,kiso1 m probably _! di/ance f c5t]s ( consumption & _! g5]al inaccessibility pres]v$ ^? ( ,hokkaido & ( ! nor!rn m\nta9s4 ,c]ta9ly ! bru% =e/s s\? ( ,tokyo d n te/ify to great c>e4 ,! dete/$ %ogunate 0 aboli%$ 9 #ahfg by a revolution :i* br\ght ! mikado to 8 rights aga9 & cru%$ ! p[] ( ! daimios1 ^: fiefs 7 surr5d]$1 & _! acquisitions ( =e/ prop]ty1 z well z 7a few ye>s lat]7 ^? ( ! prie/s1 7 decl>$ ,/ate prop]ty1 ) ! exception ( "s :i* 7 recogniz$ z communal prop]ties4 ,simil> to ! exp]i5ces ( ,france1 ! di/urbances 9 prop]ty conditions1 :i* impli$ in/antane\s loss by ! p ( all rights ( us] 9 ! ,/ate prop]ty z well z removal ( all re/rictions f private & communal prop]ties1 l$ to :olesale depr$ations f ! ,/ate doma91 & to widespread de=e/ation & deva/ation1 an area ( a million acres ( burnt wa/e ne> ,k(u1 we/ ( ,tokyo1 te/ify+ to ! recklessness ( ^! times4 ,)\t any =ce to gu>d prop]ty rights1 /eal+ on an ext5sive scale1 simil> to pa/ exp]i5ces 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) ! accompany+ wa/efulness1 became ! ord] ( ! day1 & is ev5 n[ n uncommon4 ,a fir/ provisional adm9i/ration ( ,/ate =e/s 0 inaugurat$1 & a =e/ reconnaissance ord]$ 9 #ahge 9 ord] to secure insight into ! mix$-up prop]ty relations1 & re/ore to _! rightful own]s su* portions z _h be5 wrongly tak5 by ! ,/ate4 ,9 #ahgh1 ! ,/ate =e/s 7 plac$ "u a special bureau organiz$ by ,matsuno1 :o _h /udi$ =e/ry 9 ,g]many 7,eb]swalde7 = five ye>s4 ,b x 0 n academic k t 0 ne$$ 9 ! situation2 x 0 necess>y fir/ to m\ld public op9ion 9 ord] to secure means = adm9i/rative measures4 ,?is he set himself to d ?r\gh public addresses & pamphlets1 & by organiz+ a society ( fri5ds ( =e/ culture1 & f9ally1 9 #ahhb1 by e/abli%+ an exp]im5t /ation at ,ni%igah>a1 &1 a ye> lat]1 a d5drological s*ool1 :i* f\r ye>s lat] 0 comb9$ ) ! agricultural s*ool at ,komaba2 five ye>s lat] bo? 7 jo9$ to ! ,univ]sity ( ,tokyo4 ,) ! transf] ( ! =e/ry bureau to ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture & ,comm]ce 9 #ahha1 & a reorganization 9 #ahhf1 a new era seem$ to be promis$1 yet a sub/antial progress 9 organiz$ =e/ managem5t ( ! ,/ate prop]ty does n seem to h be5 made = ano!r decade at lea/1 ! sl[ progress be+ l>gely due to lack ( p]sonnel & ! cont9uance ( mix$ prop]ty conditions1 :i* involv$ n only unc]ta9ty ( b\nd>ies1 b also mix$ own]%ips4 ,al?\gh ?is la/ tr\ble1 namely ( mix$ own]%ip by ,/ate & private individuals1 _h be5 recogniz$ z inimical to good managem5t1 x 0 delib]ately increas$ by ! law ( #ahgh 9 a curi\s way1 reviv+ an old cu/om1 namely by p]mitt+ private individuals to plant up cle>+s 9 ! ,/ate =e/s2 9 ?is way1 ^! individuals secur$ a c]ta9 p]c5tage1 usually #bj p] c5t41 ( ! ev5tual pr(its aris+ f ! results4 ,"s #bjj1jjj acres 7 plant$ "u ?is arrangem5t4 ,to remove ! b\nd>y difficulty1 a survey ( ! b\nd>ies ( ,/ate prop]ty & adju/m5t ( prop]ty rights1 z well z segregation ( ! ,/ate l&s to be dispos$ (1 namely small lots & o!rs n ne$$1 0 ord]$ 9 #ahij4 ,x 0 !n also t ! fir/ provisional work+ plan = ! fell+s on ,/ate l&s 0 elaborat$1 & gradually ) ! progress ( ! survey1 m p]man5t plans 7 adopt$ = di/rict aft] di/rict4 ,by #ahii1 ! adju/m5t _h progress$ f> en\gh to beg9 ! re/oration ( prop]ties1 :i* ! ,/ate _h improp]ly claim$1 to _! prop] own]s4 ,x 0 !n also t ! ,imp]ial =e/s1 int5d$ = ! support ( ! ,imp]ial h\sehold1 7 increas$ to ab\t #e million acres4 ,mean:ile1 ! p]sonnel _h increas$ 9 numb]s & improv$ 9 "*4 ,9 #aijd1 ! organization ( ! =e/ry bureau "u ! ,m9i/] ( ,agriculture & ,comm]ce1 arrang$ some:at aft] ,g]man models1 consi/$ ( "o director & f\r =e/ commission]s ) t5 cl]ks1 =m+ ! head (fice2 ! sixte5 di/ricts into :i* ! ,/ate =e/s 7 divid$ 7 presid$ ov] by #cb cons]vators & #hj inspectors1 :ile #cbe di/rict (fic]s ) #hhj assi/ants & #fbf gu>ds1 altoge!r ov] #a1hjj employes1 =m$ ! field =ce4 ,9 #aiaj1 ! numb] _h increas$ to #bejj1 ma9ly by additional rang]s4 ,?is organization applies to ! ,/ate =e/s "u control ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,/rangely en\gh1 ^? 9 ,saghali51 ,hokkaido & ,=mosa are n "u t dep>tm5t1 b "u ! sup]vision ( ! ,m9i/] ( ,home ,affairs1 & are m]ely exploit$1 :ile ! ,imp]ial =e/s are "u ! ,h\sehold ,dep>tm5t4 ,9 #aijg1 only #g p] c5t4 ( ! ,/ate =e/s 7 "u work+ plans4 ,! ne$ ( sup]vision ( ! ill-manag$ private & communal =e/s1 mo/ly locat$ ne> ! settl$ portions1 e>ly attract$ ! att5tion ( ! new regime1 ma9ly on acc\nt ( _! protective value4 ,annual losses ?r\gh floods to ! am\nt ( f\r million doll>s1 & simil> losses due to un*eck$ =e/ fires gave ! inc5tive to ! passage ( a law1 9 #ahhb1 simply =bidd+ all =e/ use 9 protection =e/1 :i* simple prescription evid5tly did n "w until a fur!r revision 0 made 9 #ahig4 ,?is latt] does n conf9e itself to legislation = protection =e/s alone1 b also au?orizes ! sup]vision ( supply =e/s1 "u ! special control ( ! local gov]nors4 ,"u ?is law1 :i* also ext5d$ ! assi/ance ( local au?orities to w\ld-be plant]s1 aid$ by re=ms 9 ! corporation sy/em1 rem>kable activity 9 plant+ wa/e l&s ensu$1 s t 9 ! next two ye>s n less ?an "o million acres ( communal prop]ty 0 set out ) trees1 numb]+ ov] #hjj million1 :ile 9 ! ,/ate =e/s1 "s #djj1jjj acres ( vacant l& _h be5 plant$ by #aigj4 ,"s s& dune plant+ & reboisem5t works are also ! result ( ?is legislation4 ,fur!r legislation m closely def9+ ,/ate control 0 _h 9 #aijg4 ,9 connection ) ?is plant+1 x may be ( int]e/ to record ! attitude ( ,japanese =e/]s t[>d natural reg5]ation3 8,?is is no long] popul> 9 ^! days :5 ! k ( =e/ managem5t possess$ by =e/]s has become highly develop$1 = if t me?od is ! easie/ & lea/ tr\blesome1 nev]!less x is n advisable1 9 view ( ! necessity ( effect+ a ?or\gh improvem5t 9 our silvicultural conditions4 ,only on /eep slopes & = protection =e/s is x applicable40 ,9 #ahig1 also1 "s eight exp]im5t /ations 7 organiz$1 9 addition to ! e>li] "o at ,ni%igah>a organiz$1 9 #ahhb1 by ,matsuno4 ,education 9 =e/ry has lately run riot 9 ,japan z x has 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,s9ce ! fir/ s*ool1 organiz$ 9 #ahhb1 n less ?an #fb in/itutions _h se5 ! ne$ ( (f]+ ! opportunity to become acqua9t$ ) t subject4 ,by #aiaj1 ^! _h be5 r$uc$ to #dg4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 diff]5t grades are frankly ackn[l$g$4 ,!re are ?ree collegiate in/itutions ^: diploma admits to ! high] s]vice1 f\r are ( second>y grade1 n9ete5 give special c\rses1 & ! re/ treat ! subject m]ely z a subsidi>y ( a practical education includ+ agriculture1 /ock-f>m+ & fi%]y4 ,a rang] s*ool1 :i* 0 in/itut$ "u ,matsuno's guidance1 controll$ by ! =e/ry bureau1 came to an end dur+ ! ,russian w> = lack ( funds1 b has probably be5 reviv$ aga94 ,a =e/ry association n[ ) #djjj memb]s c>ries on propag&a & publi%es a magaz9e1 & co-op]ative associations among small own]s to facilitate bett] managem5t are be+ =m$ "u ! law ( #aijg4 ,9 conclusion1 we may say t ,japan has done wond]s 9 reorganiz+ its =e/ry sy/em 9 a %ort "t1 b1 accord+ to "o compet5t obs]v]1 :ile all ! ,japanese c>e = detail & love = ord]l9ess is app>5t 9 ! (fice1 n all t is f\nd on pap] is to be f\nd z yet 9 ! woods1 & t1 = simil> reasons z h be5 indicat$ = ,russia2 _m ?+s happ5 9 ! woods t are n kn[n 9 ! (fice4 ,,korea4 ,! late/ move 9 =e/ re=m 9 ?is "p ( ! _w1 z a result ( ,japanese influ5ce1 is to be record$ f ,korea4 ,inde$1 9 #aiaj1 ,japan annex$ ,korea1 & w d\btless apply h] own me?ods 9 ! new prov9ce4 ,! =e/ area ( ,korea comprises only ab\t #b1ejj1jjj acres1 out ( an area ( ne>ly #ec million acres ( v m\nta9\s c\ntry4 ,a concession = ! exploitation ( ! nor!rn =e/s to a ,russian1 :i* includ$ ! re-plant+ ) 8exotic0 tree species1 0 ! imm$iate cause ( ! ,russo-,japanese w>4 ,9 #aijg1 by co-op]ative arrangem5ts ) ,japan1 a cons]vative =e/ policy 0 to be inaugurat$ by laws simil> to ^? ( ,japan4 ,dr\?1 floods & erosion ( soils h be5 common exp]i5ces4 ,! pres]vation ( =e/ cov]1 especially at ! headqu>t]s ( ! ,yalu & ,tum5 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! c\ntry1 is aim$ at4 ,= ?is purpose ! gov]nm5t has tak5 all =e/s "u its c>e4 ,all private own]s or lease hold]s mu/ report _! hold+s & h _! prop]ty li/$1 & 9 case ( failure to d s ! prop]ty is =feit$4 ,! gov]nm5t may !n expropriate1 or else regulate ! cutt+1 or1 :]e protective functions ( ! =e/ cov] require x1 may =bid cutt+ altoge!r4 ,a =e/ry s*ool is also "p ( ! program4 ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,( ,,am]ica4 ,report ^u ,=e/ry1 #ahgh-i1 by ,dr4 ,f4 ,b4 ,h\gh2 conta9s ref]5ces to ! e>li] hi/ory ( =e/ developm5t4 ,hi/ory ( ! ,lumb] ,indu/ry1 by ,j4 ,e4 ,defebaugh1 #aijf-g2 is valuable z a ref]5ce to /ati/ical matt]4 ,report ^u ,=e/ry ,inve/igations ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 #ahgg-ahih1 by ,b4 ,e4 ,f]n[4 ,h\se ,docum5t ,no4 #aha1 #ee? ,congress2 conta9s amplifications ( ! matt] conta9$ 9 ?is *apt]4 ,annual & o!r reports issu$ by ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 by ! v>i\s ,/ate ,=e/ ,commissions1 & ,=e/ry ,associations4 ,= late/ developm5ts1 consult ,cons]vation 7,am]ican ,=e/ry7 & ,=e/ry ,qu>t]ly4 ,! great & exub]ant republic ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 va/ 9 ext5t & ri* 9 natural res\rces g5]ally1 excell$ & /ill excels 9 ext5t1 importance & value ( h] timb] res\rces2 &1 hav+ only lately begun to inaugurate rational =e/ policies1 promises to become ( all-absorb+ int]e/ to =e/]s4 ,! m>vel\s gr[? ( ! nation1 :i* f ?ree million 9 #aghj _h atta9$ to a population ( #gf million 9 #aijj1 &1 by ! la/ ,c5sus numb]$ ar\nd #ib million p1 has be5 ! wond] ( ! _w by reason ( its rapid expansion2 & yet ! limit is f> f be+ rea*$4 ,annually "s ?ree-qu>t]s ( a million or m immigrants f all p>ts ( ! _w arrive1 & !re is /ill room & com=table liv+ = at lea/ ano!r #ajj million1 if ! res\rces are prop]ly treat$4 ,! l>ge l& area ( ne>ly two billion acres 7ov] ?ree million squ>e miles7 is und\bt$ly ! ri*e/ contigu\s doma9 ( su* size 9 ! _w1 locat$ mo/ favorably ) ref]5ce to trade by virtue ( a coa/ l9e ( ov] #bj1jjj miles1 & div]sifi$ 9 climate s z to p]mit ! wide/ range ( production4 ,:ile a simple ma!matical relation w\ld make ! population at pres5t ab\t #ca to ! squ>e mile1 su* a /atem5t w\ld give an errone\s conception ( economic conditions1 = ! di/ribution ( ! population is mo/ unev51 a condition :i* mu/ ev5tually div]sify ! application ( =e/ry me?ods 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,9 ,massa*usetts & ,rhode ,isl& comb9$1 = in/ance1 ! d5sity ( population is #dbh to ! squ>e mile1 exce$+ t ( ! simil>-siz$ ,/ate ( ,wrtemb]g 9 ,g]many1 :ile 9 ! neighbor+ ,/ate ( ,ma9e x is n #be2 ! ,atlantic ,coa/ ,/ates s\? ( ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 a t]ritory slightly l>g] ?an ,g]many1 %[ ab\t half1 & ! ,c5tral agricultural ,/ates ab\t "o-?ird ! d5sity ( t d5sely populat$ c\ntry2 on ! o!r h&1 "s ( ! ,we/]n ,/ates1 ,montana1 ,wyom+1 ,nevada1 ,arizona1 & ,new ,mexico h less ?an ?ree to ! squ>e mile4 ,simil> unev5ness is f\nd 9 ! di/ribution ( res\rces1 especially ( timb] weal?1 &1 to "s ext5t at lea/1 ! pres5t populational di/ribution is expla9$ by ! unev5 di/ribution ( f>m soils & timb]4 ,outside ( ! unorganiz$ t]ritory ( ,alaska & ! disfran*is$ ,di/rict ( ,columbia1 ! c\ntry is divid$ into #df ,/ates & two ,t]ritories :i* w ev5tually acquire /atehood4 ,9 addition1 !re are a numb] ( insul> possessions "u ! direct control ( ! f$]al gov]nm5t4 ,ea* ,/ate be+ "u ! ,con/itution sov]eign 9 itself z f> z its int]nal adm9i/ration is conc]n$1 x is evid5t t no uni=mity ( policies c be expect$1 except s f> z imitativ5ess1 9 :i* ! ,am]ican citiz5 excels1 may lead ,/ate aft] ,/ate to repeat ! exp]im5t attempt$ by "o4 ,! f$]al gov]nm5t has no direct jurisdiction 9 matt]s conc]n+ ! managem5t ( res\rces )9 ! ,/ates1 except s f> z x /ill owns l&s 9 ! ,we/]n1 s-call$ ,public ,l& ,/ates1 & a few p>cels 9 ! ,ea/]n ,/ates ov] :i* x /ill reta9s jurisdiction4 ,! sev]e/ te/ ( democratic in/itutions is exp]i5c$ :5 ! attempt is made to e/abli% a policy :i* %all gu>d ! int]e/s ( ! future at ! exp5se ( ! dem&s & ne$s ( ! pres5t4 ,democracy produces attitudes & *>act]i/ics ( ! p :i* are inimical to /able economic arrangem5ts look+ to ! future1 su* z are impli$ 9 a =e/ policy4 ,! va/ c\ntry ) an unev5ly di/ribut$ & het]og5e\s population pres5ts ! greate/ v>iety ( natural1 z well z ( economic conditions2 ! imm$iate int]e/s ( "o section naturally d n co9cide ) ^? ( o!r sections2 p>ticul>i/ic & individuali/ic t5d5cies ( ! true democrat are antagoni/ic to any?+ :i* smacks ( 8pat]nalism10 ! attitude "u :i* alone a p]si/5t1 f>sight$ policy c ?rive4 ,frequ5t *ange ( adm9i/ration1 or at lea/ ! ?reat ( su* *ange1 imp$es consi/5t execution ( plans2 fickle public op9ion may subv]t at any "t well laid plans :i* take "t 9 matur+2 ! true democratic doctr9e ( re/rict+ ,/ate activity to police functions1 & ! doctr9e ( non-int]f]5ce ) private rights1 z well z ! idea ( ,/ate rights 9 opposition to f$]al p[] & au?ority--all ^! *>act]i/ics ( a democratic gov]nm5t are imp$im5ts to a conc]t$ action & /able policy4 ,t1 9 spite ( ^! antagoni/ic int]e/s1 conditions & doctr9es1 sub/antial progress t[>d e/abli%+ at lea/ a f$]al =e/ policy has be5 made1 is due to ! fact t ! ,am]ican1 9 spite ( 8 reputation z a mat]iali/ic1 selfi% opportuni/1 is really an ideali/2 t he responds readily to patriotic appeals2 t1 9 spite ( 8 rabid nationalism1 he is will+ to le>n f ! exp]i5ces ( o!r nations2 t1 inde$1 he is anxi\s to be educat$4 ,f9ally1 mu* cr$it is due to ! m5 :o ) s+le purpose devot$ _! lives to ! education ( _! fell[ citiz5s 9 ?is direction4 ,x mu/1 to be sure1 be add$ t rem>kable *anges 9 ! political attitude ( ! p h tak5 place 9 ! la/ #cj ye>s s9ce ! propag&a ( =e/ry began2 *anges1 p>tly p]haps induc$ by t propag&a1 :i* h aid$ ?is movem5t1 & :i*1 if !y p]si/1 promise mu* = ! future developm5t ( =e/ policies4 ,a decid$ly pat]nali/ic1 if n sociali/ic attitude has1 lately be5 tak5 by ! f$]al gov]nm5t2 & by skilful con/ruction ( ! ,con/itution z reg>ds ! "r to regulate int]/ate relations1 has l$ to an expansion ( f$]al p[] 9 v>i\s directions4 ,a simil> pat]nali/ic attitude has develop$ 9 ! legislatures ( sev]al ,/ates to a noticeable degree4 ,ev5 ! judici>y has tak5 up ?is new _s1 & is ready to sanction int]f]5ce ) private prop]ty rights to a degree :i*1 a decade ago1 w\ld h be5 d5\nc$ z undemocratic & tyrannical4 ,two c\rts h lately rul$ t own]s ( timb]l&s may be re/rict$1 )\t comp5sation1 z reg>ds ! size ( trees !y may fell on _! prop]ty1 if ! welf>e ( ! ,/ate dem&s su* int]f]5ce4 ,! argum5t ( ! ,roman doctr9e ut]e tuo ne alt]um noceas1 :i* =e/ry propag&i/s h s /r5u\sly us$1 seems f9ally to h f\nd favor1 & ! inclusion ( ! community at l>ge1 pres5t & future1 z ! possibly damag$ p>ty does n appe> any m /ra9$4 ,! idea ( ! provid5tial function ( gov]nm5ts1 z ! writ] has call$ x1 seems to h tak5 hold ( ! p4 ,! democratic doctr9e ( ,/ate rights1 & re/riction ( gov]nm5t functions has1 ev5 among ,democrats1 be5 weak5$ ?r\gh ! long cont9u$ reign ( ! ,republican p>ty1 ! p>ty ( c5traliz+ t5d5cies1 to su* an ext5t t ! late/ ,democratic plat=m ( a ,presid5tial campaign 7#aijh7 outdid ! ,republican plat=m 9 c5traliz+ & pat]nali/ic propositions4 ,x is prop] to emphasize ! gr[? ( ?is sociali/ic attitude1 z x is b\nd to influ5ce1 & influ5ce favorably1 ! fur!r developm5t ( =e/ policies4 ,nev]!less1 x is /ill necess>y to keep 9 m9d t ! ,/ates are autonom\s1 & t1 :ile ! f$]al gov]nm5t1 9 spite ( ! antagonism 9 ! ,we/]n ,/ates1 9 :i* ! public l&s are situat$1 has be5 able to *ange its l& policy f t ( lib]al disposal to "o ( res]vation1 x alone _c save ! situation4 ,:ile a few ( ! ,/ates h made beg9n+s 9 work+ out a policy to arre/ ! de/ruction ( _! =e/ res\rces1 :i* are mo/ly 9 private h&s1 /ill mu* wat] mu/ fl[ d[n ! ,mississippi be=e adequate measures w be tak5 to /ave (f ! ?reat5+ timb] fam9e1 & ! en]gy ( ! v>i\s local & national ,cons]vation associations w ne$ to be ex]cis$ to ! utmo/4 #a4 ,=e/ ,conditions4 ,?ree ext5sive m\nta9 sy/ems1 runn+ nor? & s\?1 give rise to at lea/ eight topographic subdivisions ( ! c\ntry1 go+ f ea/ to we/4 #a4 ,! n>r[ belt ( level coa/ & hill c\ntry along ! ,atlantic %ore1 f #ajj to #bjj miles 9 wid? ) elevations up to #a1jjj feet1 b especially l[ along ! seacoa/ f ,virg9ia s\?2 dra9$ by %ort riv]s navigable only = %ort di/ances f ! m\?2 a f>m+ c\ntry1 ) ! soils v>y+ f ! ri*e/ to ! poore/2 "s #cjj1jjj squ>e miles4 #b4 ,! ,appala*ian m\nta9 c\ntry1 ne>ly ( ! same wid? z ! fir/ section1 ) elevations up to #e1jjj feet2 ! wat]%$ ( all ! riv]s to ! ,atlantic1 ( sev]al riv]s to ! ,gulf1 & ( ! ea/]n afflu5ts ( ! ,mississippi2 a m\nta9 c\ntry1 ( ab\t #cfj1jjj squ>e miles ext5t1 ri* 9 coal1 iron & o!r m9]als1 except 9 its nor!rn ext5sion =m$ ( ar*ean rock4 #c4 ,! great riv] bas9 ( ! ,mississippi1 a ,c5tral pla9 ( glacial & riv] deposit1 ris+ gradually f ! ,gulf to ! headwat]s = m ?an #abjj miles1 & n[h]e ov] #a1jjj feet above sea level2 ! ri*e/ agricultural section1 #gjj1jjj squ>e miles1 m or less1 9 ext5t4 #d4 ,! plateau1 ris+ t[>ds ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s f #a1jjj to #e1jjj feet above sea level1 "s #hgj1jjj squ>e miles 9 ext5t1 a region ( scanty ra9fall1 h5ce ( prairie & pla91 b mo/ly ri* soil ( undet]m9$ dep?1 capable ( prolific production :]e suffici5t wat] supply is available4 #e4 ,! ,rocky ,m\nta9 region1 ris+ f #e1jjj to ne> #aj1jjj feet 7except "s high] peaks71 an arid to semi-arid di/rict ( rugg$ ranges1 cov]$ mo/ly ) =e/ gr[?1 (t5 op5 & ( inf]ior k9d1 ) tillable soils 9 ! n>r[ valleys1 requir+ irrigation = f>m use2 a m9+ c\ntry1 ri* 9 gold & silv]1 ext5d+ ov] #aej1jjj squ>e miles4 #f4 ,! ,si]ra ,nevada ,m\nta9 ,range1 includ+ ! ,coa/ ,range1 r>ely ov] #g1jjj feet elevation1 arid to semi-arid on ! ,ea/]n slopes2 humid1 & support+ magnific5t =e/ gr[? on ! ,we/]n slopes2 "s #aij1jjj squ>e miles4 #g4 ,! ,int]ior ,bas91 ly+ betwe5 ! two prec$+ m\nta9 ranges1 "s #djj1jjj squ>e miles2 = ! mo/ "p a des]t1 al?\gh 9 p>ts support+ a /unt$ gr[? ( p9on & junip]1 &1 :]e irrigation is possible1 productive4 #h4 ,! int]ior valleys ( ! ,si]ra1 compris+ ab\t #cj1jjj squ>e miles1 :i*1 "u irrigation1 h become ! g>d5 spots ( ! ,pacific4 ,to ^! topographic subdivisions correspond 9 "p ! climatic & ! =e/ conditions1 al?\gh v>iation ( soil1 & ( nor!rn & s\!rn climate produce fur!r diff]5tiation 9 types1 & 9 di/ribution ( field & =e/4 ,! fir/ ?ree sections 7 orig9ally d5sely wood$--! great ,atlantic =e/ region--b f>ms n[ occupy mo/ ( ! arable portions2 ! f\r? & sev5? are =e/less1 if n treeless1 :ile ! fif? & six? 7 m or less =e/$--! ,pacific ,coa/ region4 ,flori/ically also1 ^! topographic conditions are reflect$1 namely 9 ! wide1 nor? & s\? di/ribution ( species1 unimp$$ by int]v5+ m\nta9 ranges1 & 9 ! *ange 9 composition f ea/ to we/4 ,! two gr& flori/ic divisions ( ! ,atlantic & ! ,pacific =e/1 hav+ b few species 9 common1 are sep>at$ by ! pla9s & prairies4 ,! ,atlantic =e/ is 9 ! ma9 compos$ ( broadleaf trees ) conif]s int]mix$1 :i* latt] only "u ! influ5ce ( soil conditions =m pure /&s1 z 9 ! ext5sive p9]ies ( ! ,s\? & ,nor?1 & 9 ! nor!rn swamps & on s\!rn m\nta9 tops4 ,! c5tral region we/ ( ! ,alleghanies exhibits little conif] gr[? 9 its composition1 & is mo/ widely turn$ to f>m use4 ,:ite ,p9e1 hemlock & spruce are ! important conif]\s /aples ( ! nor!rn section1 & a numb] ( ,yell[ ,p9e species1 ) ,bald ,cypress & ,r$ ,c$>1 are ! valuable conif] species 9 ! ,s\?4 ,z reg>ds valuable h>dwoods1 !re is b little *ange f nor? to s\?4 ,! ,pacific =e/ flora is almo/ entirely conif]\s1 b "h also climatic conditions p]mit a di/9ction ( two v diff]5t =e/ regions1 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 =e/ be+ mo/ly ( r inf]ior developm5t1 & ! ,si]ra =e/ exhibit+ ! mo/ magnific5t tree gr[? 9 ! _w4 ,ne>ly half ! c\ntry is =e/less1 grassy prairie & pla91 "s #djj million acres be+ ( ! latt] description1 :ile op5 prairie & bru% =e/1 or wa/e l& occupies #fjj million acres4 ,)9 ! =e/ region ( ! ,ea/ "s #bej million acres h be5 turn$ into f>ms1 leav+ /ill two-?irds ( ! area ei!r "u woods1 or else wa/$ by fire4 ,al?\gh any reliable data reg>d+ ?is acreage are want+1 ! area ( really productive woodl& 9 ?is section may probably be set d[n z n exce$+ #cjj million acres1 :i* w\ld be ne>ly #dj ( ! total area1 v>y+ f #ac 9 ! ,c5tral agricultural ,/ates to #ej 9 ! ,s\!rn ,/ates2 ,ma9e1 ,new ,hamp%ire & ,arkansas be+ mo/ d5sely wood$1 ) ov] #fj4 ,! ,rocky ,m\nta9 & ,si]ra =e/s1 ea* ) #ajj million acres1 w\ld br+ ! total productive woodl& area to a r\nd #ejj million acres1 or ab\t #bf ( ! :ole4 7,lat] e/imates includ+ bru%l&s ( d\btful productive capacity1 increase ?is area to #eej million acres47 ,x is almo/ idle to attempt an e/imate ( ! timb] /ill /&+ ready = ! axe2 n only are ! data = su* an e/imate too scanty1 b /&>ds ( :at is consid]$ m]*antable *ange cont9u\sly & vitiate ! value ( su* e/imates4 ,! writ]'s own e/imate1 made "s ye>s ago1 ( #b1ejj billion feet1 :i* by o!rs has be5 treat$ z au?oritative & =m+ a basis = pr$ict+ ! "t ( a timb] fam9e1 & :i* 0 lately su/a9$ by an ext5sive (ficial inquiry1 mu/ nev]!less be consid]$ only z a reasonable guess1 v5tur$ = ! purpose ( acc5tuat+ ! ne$ ( m cons]vative treatm5t ( ^! exhau/ible supplies1 9 comp>ison ) ! consumption :i* repres5ts ar\nd #de billion feet ,b4,m41 & altoge!r #bc billion cubic feet ( =e/-gr[n mat]ial1 ! ultimate value ( all =e/ products rea*+ ! /up5d\s sum ( ar\nd #a1bej million doll>s4 ,&1 z 9 o!r c\ntries1 ?is lavi% consumption ( =e/ gr[?1 f five to fifte5 times t ( ,europeans1 has %[n 9 ! pa/ a p] capita increase ( #cj p] c5t4 = e decade4 ,! bulk ( ! /&+ timb] is to be f\nd along ! ,pacific ,coa/1 9 ! ,si]ra1 & 9 ! ,s\!rn ,/ates ) _! ext5sive p9]ies2 ! ,nor!rn & ,ea/]n sections are )9 measurable "t ( ! end ( _! virg9 supplies ( saw timb]4 ,! practice ( cull+ ! mo/ valuable species has *ang$ ! composition 9 ! reg5]ation1 mak+ x inf]ior1 & l>ge areas h be5 r5d]$ wor?less by fires4 ,! loss by fire1 ! bane ( ,am]ican =e/s1 z f> z loss 9 mat]ial is conc]n$ probably does n exce$ #b or #c p] c5t4 ( ! consumption1 & may be valu$ at say #be million doll>s p] annum4 ,b ! indirect damage to =e/ & soil1 *ang+ ! composition1 b>+ ! soil1 & expos+ x to erosion & wa%+1 turn+ f]tile l&s into wa/es1 & brooks & riv]s into torr5ts1 is incalculable4 ,!re is no d\bt t at ! pres5t rate ( consumption ! bulk ( ! virg9 supplies w be us$ up 9 a measurable "t1 :i* w =ce a r$uction 9 ! use ( wood mat]ials2 a m or less sev]e timb] fam9e is b\nd to appe>1--inde$1 has begun to make its appe>ance2 & all recup]ative measures w n suffice to /ave x (f1 al?\gh !y may %ort5 ! "t ( its duration4 #b4 ,e>ly ,=e/ ,hi/ory4 ,! e>ly coloniz]s1 settl+ on ! ,atlantic ,coa/ soon aft] ! discov]ies ( ,columbus1 did n1 z is usually believ$1 f9d an unt\*$ virg9 =e/4 ,! aborig9al ,indians _h1 be=e !n1 hewn out _! corn fields1 & _h suppli$ !mselves ) fuel wood & mat]ial = _! ut5sils2 & fires1 accid5tal1 int5tional1 or caus$ by lightn+1 _h1 no d\bt1 also made inroads "h & !re4 ,! :ite man1 to be sure1 is a m lavi% wood consum]2 8 f>ms increas$ m rapidly1 8 build+s & 8 fireplaces consum$ m =e/ gr[?1 & c>elessness ) fire 01 z x is /ill1 8 besett+ s94 ,moreov]1 a trade 9 timb] ) ! ,old ,_w develop$1 9 :i* only ! be/ & l>ge/-siz$ mat]ial figur$4 ,wa/efulness 0 br$ 9 him by ! sight ( pl5ty1 & ! h>d "w ( cle>+ 8 f>m acres incit$ a natural enmity to ! encumb]+ =e/4 ,! fir/ sawmill 9 ! ,new ,_w 0 erect$ 9 #afca 9 ! t[n ( ,b]wick1 ,ma9e1 & ! fir/ gang saw1 ( #ah saws1 9 #afej 9 ! same place1#ah :ile1 be=e t "t1 ma/s & sp>s1 h&made coop]age /ock1 clapbo>ds & %+les =m$ commonly p>ts ( ! return c>goes ( %ips4 ,by #afhj1 ne>ly #ej vessels1 engag$ 9 su* trade1 cle>$ f ! ,piscataqua ,riv]4 ,! ord9ances on record :i* 7 issu$ at ! same e>ly times by ! t[n gov]nm5ts ( ,exet] 7#afdj71 ,kitt]y 7#afef71 ,portsm\? 7#affj71 & ,dov] 7#affe71 re/rict+ ! use ( timb]1 rem9d u ( ! e>ly ,european =e/ ord9ances2 !y 7 probably n dictat$ by any ?reat5+ defici5cy ( ?is class ( mat]ial1 b m]ely int5d$ to secure a prop] & ord]ly use ( ! t[n prop]ty4 #ah ,see ,=e/ry ,qu>t]ly1 vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ad4 ,! appo9tm5t ( a ,royal ,surveyor ( ! ,woods = ! ,new ,engl& colonies 9 #afii1 & ! p5alties impos$ 9 ,new ,hamp%ire 7#agjh7 = cutt+ ma/ trees on ungrant$ l&s 7#ejj = cutt+ #bd-;in* trees71 & 9 ,massa*usetts 7#aghd7 = cutt+ ,:ite ,p9e ^u ! public l&s 7#ajj71 7 probably also m]ely police regulations1 to protect prop]ty rights ( ! ,cr[n or commonweal?4 ,t ?is la/ move 0 9 no way conceiv$ z a ne$$ cons]vatism is prov$ by ! fact t two ye>s lat] ! ,legislature ( ,ma9e devis$ a lott]y s*eme = ! disposal ( fifty t[n%ips2 & #c1ejj1jjj acres 7 dispos$ ( 9 ?is way dur+ ! twelve ye>s foll[+ ! w>4 ,altoge!r ! ,/ates sacrific$ _! 8wild l&s0 at trifl+ prices4 ,b1 :5 ,william ,p5n1 ! f\nd] & fir/ legislator ( ! ,/ate :i* repres5t$ 8 grant1 /ipulat$1 9 #afhb1 t = e five acres cle>$ "o acre 0 to be res]v$ = =e/ gr[? by ^? :o took title f him1 t may prop]ly be consid]$ an attempt to inaugurate a cons]vative policy1 dictat$ by wise =e?\ght1--an attempt1 :i*1 h[ev]1 bore little or no fruit4 ,?\ghtful m5 probably at all times look$ ) pity & appreh5sion ^u ! wa/eful use ( ! timb] z !y d n[1 yet squ&] w5t on1 j z x /ill does2 b ! app>5tly inexhau/ible supplies 9 ^? e>ly times call$ = no re/riction 9 its use4 ,at ! end ( ! eighte5? & beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 a fuel-wood fam9e mu/ h appe>$ 9 "s p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 j z 9 ,g]many at t "t & = ! same reasons1 ! wood hav+ be5 cut along ! riv]s1 :i* 7 ! only means ( transportation1 & h5ce1 ! di/ance to :i* wood _h to be haul$ increas+ ! co/4 ,?is 0 probably ! reason :y ! ,society ( ,agriculture1 ,arts & ,manufactures ( ,new ,york1 aft] an inquiry by circul> lett]1 issu$ 9 #agia1 publi%$1 9 #agie1 a report on ! 8be/ mode ( pres]v+ & increas+ ! gr[? ( timb]40 ,?is condition probably also l$ ! wise ,gov]nor ( ,new ,york1 ,de,witt ,cl9ton1 ( ,erie ,canal fame1 9 a message 9 #ahbb1 to =eca/ an evil day1 because 8no sy/em ( economy0 = ! reproduction ( =e/ supplies 0 be+ adopt$2 & he add$3 8,probably none w be1 until sev]e privations are exp]i5c$40 ,l ,great ,brita9 at t "t1 ! f$]al gov]nm5t became conc]n$ z reg>ds supplies = naval con/ruction1 &1 by act approv$ 9 #agii1 appropriat$ #bjj1jjj = ! pur*ase ( timb] fit = ! ,navy1 & = its pres]vation = future use4 ,small pur*ases 7 made on ! ,georgia coa/1 b no?+ ( importance 0 done until1 9 #ahag1 ano!r act r5ew$ ! proposition ( ! fir/1 & direct$ ! res]vation ( public l&s be>+ live-oak or c$> timb] suitable = ! ,navy1 z might be select$ by ! ,presid5t4 ,"u ?is act1 a res]vation ( #ai1jjj acres 0 made1 9 #ahbh1 on ,commission]s1 ,cypress & ,six ,isl&s1 9 ,l\isiana4 ,ano!r appropriation ( #aj1jjj 0 made 9 #ahbh1 & "s l&s 7 pur*as$ on ,santa ,rosa ,s\nd1 :]e1 dur+ a few ye>s1 ev5 an attempt at cultivation 0 made1 includ+ s[+1 transplant+1 prun+1 etc4 ,?is 0 done "u a m g5]al act ( #ahbg1 by :i* ! ,presid5t 0 au?oriz$ to take prop] measures to pres]ve ! live oak timb] gr[+ on ! f$]al l&s4 ,"u ^! acts1 altoge!r "s #bdd1jjj acres ( =e/ l& 7 res]v$ 9 ,alabama1 ,florida1 ,l\isiana & ,mississippi4 ,b1 al?\gh ano!r act1 ( #ahca1 provid$ = ! puni%m5t ( p]sons cutt+ or de/roy+ any ,live ,oak1 ,r$ ,c$>1 or o!r trees gr[+ on any l&s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 no g5]al conception ( ! ne$ ( a broad =e/ policy1 or ev5 ( a special value atta*+ to ! public timb]l&s dictat$ ^! acts1 except s f> z ! secur+ ( c]ta9 mat]ial1 !n believ$ necess>y = naval con/ruction1 0 conc]n$4 ,inde$1 ! act ( #ahca rema9$ = #fj ye>s ! only expression ( int]e/ 9 ?is "p ( ! f$]al doma94 ,9 ^? e>ly times1 ! ext5t ( our =e/ doma9 0 entirely unkn[n1 & ! conc]n ( occasional e>ly voices 9 public pr9ts reg>d+ a ?reat5$ exhau/ion ( timb] supplies c only be expla9$ by ! fact t1 9 ! abs5ce ( railroads1 ! supplies ne> c5t]s ( civilization1 or ne> drivable & navigable riv]s1 7 alone ( any acc\nt4 ,t ! e>li] propag&i/s ( =e/ culture receiv$ scant att5tion 0 due to ! fact t conditions soon *ang$2 & ) ^! *anges ! evil day seem$ indef9itely po/pon$1 & ! necessity = =e/ culture app>5tly vani%$4 ,^! *anges 7 ma9ly wr\ght by ! op5+ up ( ! we/1 by ext5d+ means ( transportation ?r\gh canals & railroads1 & by di/ribut+ population1 :]eby ! ne$ = ne>-by home supplies 0 ov]come2 a cont95tal supply ( app>5tly inexhau/ible am\nt 0 br\ght into sight & )9 rea*4 ,mean:ile ! population began to gr[1 immigrants began to p\r 9 by ! hundr$ ?\s&1 & ! we/w>d /ream op5$ up new c\ntry & new timb] supplies1 & a lumb] indu/ry ( m>vell\s size began to develop4 ,! small c\ntry mill1 run 9 ! mann] (1 & (t5 9 connection )1 ! gri/ mill1 do+ a petty bus9ess by saw+ z occasion dem&$1 to ord] = home cu/om]s or export1 gave way to ! l>ge mill e/abli%m5t z we "k x n[2 & ) ! developm5t ( railroad transportation & ! settlem5t ( ! we/]n c\ntry1 especially ! =e/less prairies1 ! indu/ry grew at an a/oni%+ rate4 ,x is wor? :ile to briefly trace ! hi/ory ( ?is indu/ry1 = ! sake ( :i* ! ne$ ( cons]vative =e/ policies is ess5tial4 ,t ! petty me?od ( do+ bus9ess la/$ until ! middle ( ! c5tury is evid5c$ by ! c5sus ( #ahdj1 :i* report$ #ca1efj lumb] mills1 ) a total product valu$ z #ab1idc1ejg1 or a little ov] #djj p] mill4 ,by #ahgf1 ! product p] mill _h become #f1ejj2 by #ahij1 ) only #ba1jjj mills1 x 0 #ai1jjj2 9 #aijj1 ne>ly ! same numb] ( mills z 7 record$ 9 #ahdj 7#cc1jce7 furni%$ a product ( #eff million doll>s1 & 9 #aijg1 ! bann] ye> ( production1 ! cut ( #bh1hej mills 0 report$ at ov] #dj billion feet1 & ! gross product p] mill _h gr[n to #bc1jjj1 or a value = all ( #fff1fda1cfg4 ,9 #aiji1 #dh1aab mills cut #dd1eji1gfa1jjj feet valu$ at #fhd1dgi1hei4 ,ne>ly half ?is product came f ! ,s\!rn ,/ates4 ,9 ! fifty ye>s f #ahej to #aijj1 ! value ( all =e/ products h>ve/$ increas$ f #ei million to #efg million1 & 9 #aijg ! value _h ris5 to #a1bhj million1 repres5t+ a consumption ( ov] #bj million cubic feet ( =e/-gr[n mat]ial4 ,especially aft] ! ,civil ,w>1 ! settlem5ts ( ! ,we/ grew z if by magic2 ! railroad mileage m ?an d\bl$ 9 ! decade f #ahfe to #ahge1 & ) x1 ! lumb] indu/ry develop$ by rapid /rides into its mod]n me?ods & volume4 ,h[ rapidly ! *anges took place may be judg$ f ! fact t1 9 #ahfe1 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york /ill furni%$ m lumb] ?an any o!r ,/ate2 n[ x supplies only insignificant am\nts1 a little ov] two p] c5t4 ( ! total lumb] cut4 ,9 #ahfh1 ! gold5 age ( lumb]+ _h arriv$ 9 ,mi*igan2 9 #ahga1 rafts fill$ ! ,wiscons92 9 #ahge1 ,eau ,claire _h #cj1 ,m>a?on #cj1 & ,fond du ,lac #bj sawmills1 n[ all gone2 & mills at ,la ,crosse1 :i* 7 cutt+ millions ( feet annually1 are n[ clos$4 ,by #ahhb1 ! ,sag9aw ,valley _h rea*$ ! climax ( its production1 & ! lumb] indu/ry ( ! great ,nor?we/1 ) a cut ( #h billion feet ( ,:ite ,p9e alone1 0 9 full bla/4 ,! ,:ite ,p9e production rea*$ its maximum 9 #ahij1 ) #h4e billion feet1 !n to decrease gradually b /eadily to less ?an half t cut 9 #aijh4 ,s\!rn developm5t began to assume l>ge proportions mu* lat]2 at ! pres5t "t1 ! lumb] product ( ! ,s\!rn ,/ates has gr[n to am\nts ne>ly d\ble t ( all ! ,nor!rn ,/ates comb9$4 ,b n only ! unp>allel$ & ev] increas+ wood consumption1 :i* n[ has rea*$ #bfj cubic feet p] capita1 five times t ( ,g]many & t5 times t ( ,france1 ?reat5$ ! exhau/ion ( ! natural supplies4 ,reckless conflagrations almo/ inv>iably foll[$ ! lumb]man & de/roy$ g5]ally ! rema9+ /&1 & surely ! "y gr[?4 ,s common did ^! conflagrations become1 t !y 7 consid]$ unavoidable1 & ?\gh laws int5d$ to protect =e/ prop]ty aga9/ fires 7 f\nd on ! /atute books ( e ,/ate1 no attempt to en=ce !m 0 made4 ,no wond] t ^? obs]v+ ?is rapid decimation ( our =e/ supplies & ! incr$ible wa/efulness & additional de/ruction by fire ) no att5tion to ! aft]gr[?1 began aga9 to s\nd ! note ( al>m4 ,besides ! writ+s 9 ! daily press & o!r non-(ficial publications1 we f9d ! reports ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture m & m frequ5tly call+ att5tion to ! subject4 ,9 a report issu$ by ! ,pat5t ,(fice z e>ly z #ahdi1 we f9d ! foll[+ significant language 9 a discussion on ! rapid de/ruction ( =e/s & _! influ5ce on wat] fl[3 8,! wa/e ( valuable timb] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 to say no?+ ( firewood1 w h>dly beg9 to be appreciat$ until our population rea*es #ej1jjj1jjj4 ,!n ! folly & %ortsight$ness ( ?is age w meet ) a degree ( c5sure & reproa* n pleasant to contemplate40 ,9 #ahfe1 ! ,rev4 ,fr$]ic ,/>r discuss$ fully & =cibly ! ,am]ican =e/s1 _! de/ruction & pres]vation1 9 a l5g?y article 9 :i*1 ) truly prophetic vision1 he says3 8,x is fe>$ x w be long1 p]haps a full c5tury1 be=e ! results at :i* we ought to aim z a nation w be realiz$ by our :ole c\ntry1 to wit1 t we %\ld raise an adequate supply ( wood & timb] = all our wants4 ,! evils :i* are anticipat$ w probably increase ^u u = ?irty ye>s to come ) t5fold ! rapidity ) :i* re/or+ or ameliorat+ measures %all be adopt$40 ,& aga93 8,l a cl\d no bigg] ?an a man's h& j ris+ f ! sea1 an awak5+ int]e/ beg9s to come 9 sight on ?is subject1 :i* z a "q ( political economy w place ! int]e/s ( cotton1 wool1 coal1 iron1 meat1 & ev5 gra91 b5ea? its feet4 ,"s ( ^!1 accord+ to ! dem&1 c be produc$ 9 a few days1 o!rs 9 a few mon?s or a few ye>s1 b timb] 9 n less ?an "o g5]ation4 ,! nation has slept because ! gnaw+ ( want has n awak5$ h]4 ,%e has _h pl5ty & to sp>e1 b )9 ?irty ye>s %e w be consci\s t n only individual want is pres5t1 b t x comes to ea* f p]man5t national fam9e ( wood40 ,! article is full ( int]e/+ detail1 & may be said to be ! />t+ basis ( ! campaign = bett] me?ods :i* foll[$4 ,ano!r unque/ionably mo/ influ5tial1 (ficial report 0 t ^u 8,=e/s & ,=e/ry 9 ,g]many10 by ,dr4 ,john ,a4 ,w>d]1 ,unit$ ,/ates ,commission] to ! ,_w's ,fair at ,vi5na 9 #ahgc4 ,dr4 ,w>d] set =? cle>ly & correctly ! me?ods employ$ abroad 9 ! use ( =e/s1 & became himself "o ( ! mo/ prom95t propag&i/s = _! adoption 9 8 own c\ntry4 ,ab\t ! same "t appe>$ ! classical "w ( ,george ,b4 ,m>%1 our m9i/] to ,italy1 8,! ,e>? z ,modifi$ by ,human ,action10 9 :i* ! evil effects on cultural conditions ( =e/ de/ruction 7 ably & =cibly po9t$ out4 ,among ^! e>li] publications design$ to ar\se public att5tion to ! subject1 %\ld also be m5tion$ ,g5]al ,c4 ,c4 ,&rews' report on #8,=e/ry 9 ,sw$51' publi%$ by ! ,/ate ,dep>tm5t 9 #ahgb4 ,! ,c5sus ( #ahgj attempt$ = ! fir/ "t a canvas ( our =e/ res\rces "u ,pr(4 ,f4 ,w4 ,brew]1 z a result ( :i* ! relative smallness ( our =e/ area became kn[n4 ,all ^! publications _h _! influ5ce 9 educat+ a l>g] numb] to a conception & consid]ation ( ! importance ( ! subject1 s t1 :51 9 #ahgc1 ! committee on =e/ry ( ! ,am]ican ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce 0 =m$ & pres5t$ a memorial to ,congress1 po9t+ out 8! importance ( promot+ ! cultivation ( timb] & ! pres]vation ( =e/s1 & recomm5d+ ! appo9tm5t ( a commission ( =e/ry to report to ,congress10 !re already exi/$ an intellig5t audi5ce1 & al?\gh a consid]able am\nt ( le?>gy & lack ( int]e/ 0 exhibit$1 ,congress c\ld be p]suad$1 9 #ahgf1 to e/abli% an ag5cy 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 out ( :i* grew lat] ! ,division ( ,=e/ry1 a bureau ( in=mation on =e/ry matt]s4 ,dr4 ,frankl9 ,b4 ,h\gh1 "o ( ! sign]s ( ! memorial1 0 appo9t$ to ! ag5cy4 ,x is to be not$ z *>act]i/ic ( mu* ,am]ican legislation1 t ?is ag5cy 0 secur$ only z a 8rid]0 to an appropriation = ! di/ribution ( se$4 ,:ile ^! 7 ! beg9n+s ( an (ficial recognition ( ! subject by ! f$]al gov]nm5t1 private ent]prise & ! sep>ate ,/ates also />t$ ab\t ! same "t to =w>d ! movem5t4 ,9 #ahfg1 ! agricultural & horticultural societies ( ,wiscons9 7 invit$ by ! legislature to appo9t a committee to report on ! disa/r\s effects ( =e/ de/ruction4 ,9 #ahfi1 ! ,ma9e ,bo>d ( ,agriculture appo9t$ a committee to report on a =e/ policy = ! ,/ate1 lead+ to ! act ( #ahgb 8= ! enc\ragem5t ( ! gr[? ( trees1 exempt+ f taxation = tw5ty ye>s l&s plant$ to trees1 :i* law1 z f> z we "k1 rema9$ )\t result4 ,ab\t ! same "t a real wave ( en?usiasm reg>d+ ! plant+ ( timb] seems to h p]vad$ ! c\ntry1 & especially ! ,we/]n prairie ,/ates4 ,9 addition to laws reg>d+ ! plant+ ( trees on highways1 laws = ! enc\ragem5t ( timb] plant+1 ei!r "u b\nty or exemption f taxation1 7 pass$ 9 ,i[a1 ,kansas & ,wiscons9 9 #ahfh2 9 ,nebraska & ,new ,york 9 #ahfi2 9 ,miss\ri 9 #ahgj2 9 ,m9nesota 9 #ahga2 9 ,i[a 9 #ahgb2 9 ,nevada 9 #ahgc2 9 ,ill9ois 9 #ahgd2 9 ,dakota & ,connecticut 9 #ahge2 & f9ally ! f$]al gov]nm5t jo9$ 9 ?is k9d ( legislation by ! s-call$ timb]-culture acts ( #ahgc & #ahgd1 am5d$ 9 #ahgf & #ahgg4 ,= ! mo/ "p ^! laws rema9$ a dead lett]1 except+ 9 ! case ( ! f$]al gov]nm5t (f]4 ,! enc\ragem5t by release f taxes 0 n mu* ( an inducem5t2 nor does ! b\nty provision seem to h _h great] success1 except 9 tak+ money out ( ! treasuries4 ,f9ally1 ^! laws 7 9 _m or mo/ cases repeal$4 ,! timb]-culture act 0 pass$ by ,congress on ,m>* #c1 #ahgc1 by :i* ! plant+ ( timb] on #dj acres ( l& 7or a proportionate area7 9 ! treeless t]ritory1 conf]r$ ! title to #afj acres 7or a proportionate am\nt7 ( ! public doma94 ,?is law _h n be5 9 exi/5ce t5 ye>s :5 its repeal 0 dem&$1 & ?is 0 f9ally secur$ 9 #ahia1 ! reason be+ t1 p>tly ow+ to ! crude provisions ( ! law1 & p>tly to ! lack ( prop] sup]vision1 x _h be5 abus$1 & _h giv5 rise to mu* fraud 9 obta9+ title to l&s "u false pret5ses4 ,x is difficult to say h[ mu* impetus ! law gave to bonafide =e/ plant+1 & h[ mu* timb] gr[? has result$ f x4 ,unfavorable climate1 lack ( satisfactory plant mat]ial1 & lack ( k z to ! prop] me?ods1 l$ to _m failures4 ,a numb] ( railroad companies1 op5+ up ! prairie ,/ates1 plant$ at ?is "t groves along ! "r ( way = ! sake ( demon/rat+ ! practicability ( secur+ =e/ gr[? on ! treeless prairies & pla9s4 ,!re 0 also consid]able plant+ ( w9d-breaks & groves on home/eads1 :i* 0 att5d$ ) bett] results4 ,altoge!r1 h[ev]1 ! am\nt ( tree plant+1 ev5 9 ! prairies & pla9s1 0 inf9itesimal1 if comp>$ ) :at is necess>y = climatic amelioration2 & x may be admitt$1 n[ z well z lat]1 t ! re=e/ation ( ! pla9s mu/ be a matt] ( co-op]ative1 if n ( national1 ent]prise4 ,at ?is "t also1 an ef=t 0 made to /imulate en?usiasm = tree plant+ among ! home/ead]s & settl]s on ! pla9s by ! e/abli%m5t ( arbor days4 ,f its inception by ,gov]nor ,j4 ,/]l+ ,morton1 & its fir/ inauguration by ! ,/ate ,bo>d ( ,agriculture ( ,nebraska 9 #ahgb1 ,arbor ,day gradually became a day ( obs]vance 9 ne>ly e ,/ate4 ,:ile ) ! exception ( ! s-call$ treeless ,/ates1 p]haps n mu* plant+ ( economic value is done1 ! obs]vance ( ! day 9 s*ools z "o set ap>t = ! discussion ( ! importance ( trees1 =e/s & =e/ry has be5 productive ( an increas$ int]e/ 9 ! subject4 ,arbor days h p]haps also _h a ret>d+ influ5ce ^u ! practical =e/ry movem5t1 9 lead+ p into ! misconception t =e/ry consi/s 9 tree plant+1 9 div]t+ att5tion f ! economic "q ( ! prop] use ( exi/+ =e/ areas1 9 br++ into ! discussion poetry & emotions1 :i* h cl\d$ ! h>d-head$ practical issues1 & delay$ ! e>ne/ att5tion ( practical bus9ess m54 ,private ef=ts 9 ! ,ea/ 9 ! way ( fo/]+ & c>ry+ on economic timb] plant+ %\ld n be =gott51 su* z ! (f]+ ( prizes by ! ,massa*usetts ,society = ! ,promotion ( ,agriculture 7z e>ly z #ahjd & aga9 9 #ahgf71 & ! plant+ done by private l& hold]s at ,cape ,cod1 9 ,rhode ,isl&1 ,virg9ia1 & else:]e4 ,^! ef=ts1 to be sure1 7 only sporadic & unsy/ematic1 & on no scale comm5surate ) ! de/ruction ( virg9 =e/ res\rces4 ,a t\*+ attempt ( two noble ,fr5*m5 to tea* _! ,am]ican ho/s a bett] use ( _! magnific5t =e/ res\rce1 al?\gh ( little result1 %\ld nev] fail ( m5tion4 ,&r ,mi*aux & 8 son1 ,&r ,francois1 :o1 betwe5 #aghe & #ahje1 explor$ & /udi$ ! =e/ flora ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & publi%$ a magnific5t ,nor? ,am]ican ,sylva 9 ?ree volumes1 left1 9 recognition ( ! hospitalities receiv$1 two legacies ( #bj1jjj = ! 8ext5sion & progress ( agriculture & m especially ( silviculture 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates10 :i* beque/s became available 9 #ahgj4 ,! ,am]ican ,philosophical ,society at ,philadelphia1 a tru/ee ( "o ( ! legacies1 has devot$ its income to beautification ( ,fairm\nt ,p>k1 provid+ a few lectures on =e/ botany & =e/ry1 & collect+ a =e/ry libr>y1 :ile ! o!r legacy has be5 us$ by ! ,massa*usetts ,society = ! ,promotion ( ,agriculture to aid ! botanical g>d5s at ,h>v>d & ! ,arnold ,arboretum1 besides (f]+ ! prizes = tree plant+ ref]r$ to above4 #c4 ,developm5t ( a ,=e/ ,policy4 ,?is fir/ p]iod ( desultory ef=ts to create public op9ion on behalf ( a m cons]vative use ( =e/ res\rces 0 foll[$ by a m sy/ematic propag&a1 9 :i* ! ,division ( ,=e/ry1 gr[+ out ( ! ag5cy 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 took ! lead4 ,?is x did (ficially z well z by assi/+ ! ,am]ican ,=e/ry ,association1 soon aft] organiz$ ) a view ( educat+ public op9ion4 ,= #ae ye>s1 ! *ief ( ! ,division act$ ei!r z ,secret>y or ,*airman ( ! ,executive ,committee ( ! ,association4 ,! fir/ =e/ry association _h be5 =m$ on ,janu>y #ab1 #ahgf1 9 ,/4 ,paul1 ,m9n41 l>gely ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ,leon>d ,b4 ,hodges1 :o 0 ! fir/ to make plantations 9 ! prairies = ! ,/4 ,paul & ,pacific ,railroad4 ,?is association 0 aid$ by ,/ate appropriations1 :i* enabl$ x to (f] premiums = ! sett+ out ( plantations1 to di/ribute plant mat]ial1 & also to publi% & di/ribute widely a ,tree ,plant]s' ,manual1 revis$ editions ( :i* 7 issu$ f "t to "t4 ,9 #ahge1 ,dr4 ,john ,a4 ,w>d] issu$ a call = a conv5tion 9 ,*icago to =m a national =e/ry association4 ,?is association 0 complet$1 9 #ahgf1 at ,philadelphia1 b nev] %[$ any life or gr[?4 ,9 #ahhb1 a numb] ( patriotic citiz5s at ,c9c9nati call$ toge!r a =e/ry congress1 incit$ !reto by ! visit & repres5tations ( ,b>on von ,/eub51 a ,prussian =e/ (ficial1 :5 visit+ ?is c\ntry on ! occasion ( ! c5t5nial celebration ( ! surr5d] ( ,yorkt[n4 ,a v en?usia/ic & repres5tative ga!r+1 on ,april #be1 0 ! result1 la/+ ?r\gh ! week1 :i* l$ to ! =mation ( ! ,am]ican ,=e/ry ,congress4 ,9 ! same ye>1 9 ,augu/1 a second meet+ 0 held 9 ,montreal1 "u ! patronage ( ! ,canadian gov]nm5t1 & ! "n 0 *ang$ to ! ,am]ican ,=e/ry ,association4 ,9 #ahih1 x began ! publication ( a propag&i/ j\rnal1 ,! ,=e/] 7lat] *ang$ to ,=e/ry & ,irrigation !n to ,cons]vation1 & n[ aga9 to ,am]ican ,=e/ry74 ,x has n[ a memb]-%ip ( ov] #e1jjj4 ,mu* ( ! e>ly educational propag&a 0 done ?r\gh ?is association4 ,inde$1 ?is association1 hold+ ye>ly & int]m$iate meet+s 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! ,/ates1 became ! c5t] ( all private ef=ts to advance ! =e/ry movem5t4 ,twelve volumes ( its proce$+s conta9 n only ! hi/ory ( progress 9 e/abli%+ a =e/ policy1 b also mu* o!r in=mation ( value on =e/ry subjects4 ,o!r local or ,/ate =e/ry associations 7 =m$ f "t to "t1 m or less "u ! lead ( ! national association1 & exi/ n[ 9 almo/ e ,/ate1 :ile sev]al o!r societies1 l ! ,si]ra ,nevada ,club & ! ,mazamas ( ! ,pacific coa/1 & ,/ate horticultural societies 9 v>i\s ,/ates1 made ! subject "o to be discuss$ & to be fo/]$4 ,! mo/ active ( ^! associations1 s9ce x 0 =m$ 9 #ahhf1 publi%+ also a bi-mon?ly j\rnal1 ,=e/ ,leaves 7at fir/ less frequ5tly71 is ! ,p5nsylvania ,/ate ,=e/ry ,association1 :i* has succe$$ 9 ?or\ghly committ+ its ,/ate to a prop] =e/ policy1 z f> z (ficial recognition is conc]n$4 ,usually z a result ( ?is associat$ private ef=t1 ! ,/ates appo9t$ =e/ry commissions or commission]s4 ,^! commissions 7 at fir/ = ! mo/ "p in/itut$ = inquiry & to make reports1 ^u :i* a =e/ policy = ! ,/ate might be fram$4 ,o!rs h become p]man5t p>ts ( ! ,/ate organization1 ) executive1 or m]ely educational functions4 ,su* commission]s ( inquiry 7 appo9t$ at v>i\s times1 9 ,connecticut 7#ahgg71 ,new ,hamp%ire 7#ahha & #ahhi71 ,v]mont 7#ahhb71 ,new ,york 7#ahhd71 ,ma9e 7#ahia71 ,new ,j]sey 79 ,geological ,survey #ahid71 ,p5nsylvania 7#ahic71 ,nor? ,c>ol9a 79 ,geological ,survey #ahia71 ,ohio 7#ahhe71 ,mi*igan 7#ahii71 ,wiscons9 7#ahig71 ,m9nesota 7#ahii71 ,nor? ,dakota 7#ahia71 ,colorado 7#ahhe71 ,cali=nia 7#ahhe74 ,x 0 b natural 9 a democratic c\ntry t ^! movem5ts sometimes became ! play balls ( self-seek+ m51 political wire pull]s1 & graft]s1 or m (t5 ( ignorant amateurs & %all[ s5tim5tali/s1 aid$ by half-in=m$ newspap] writ]s4 ,inf9ite pati5ce 0 requir$ to /e] ?r\gh ^! rocks ! %ip ( true economic re=m1 & to educate legislators & con/itu5ts to its true ne$s4 ,! v fir/ =e/ry congress 0 really conceiv$ ) a view ( advanc+ political pref]m5t ( "o ( its organiz]s1 & _m ano!r 8=e/ry0 meet+ 0 utiliz$ = a simil> purpose1 ! new1 cat*y title attract+ ! gullible4 ,"o ( ! fir/ ,/ate =e/ commissions1 well end[$ to d its "w1 soon fell into ! h&s ( graft]s1 & creat$ su* sc&als t !y l$ to its aboli%m5t1 & to a set-back 9 ! movem5t ev]y:]e4 ,arbor day s5tim5talism discr$it$ & cl\d$ ! issue be=e ! bus9ess _w2 ! movem5t 0 9 con/ant dang] at ! h&s ( its fri5ds4 ,antagonism ( ! lumb] _w 0 ar\s$ by ! false idea ( :at ! re=m contemplat$1 &1 9 ! abs5ce ( te*nically tra9$ =e/]s to in/ruct ! public & ! amateur re=m]s1 & to conv9ce legislators ( ! absolute ne$ ( discont9u+ old e/abli%$ habits1 progress 0 naturally sl[1 & exp]i5c$ _m setbacks4 ,x 0 a h>d field to pl[1 gr[n up ) ! we$ gr[? ( prejudice & cu/om1 & means & tools = ! "w 7 inadequate4 ,! f$]al gov]nm5t 0 naturally look$ to to take ! lead4 ,! fir/ two ag5ts1 employ$ 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture to 8report on =e/ry01 un=tunately lack$ all te*nical k ( ! subject1 ! fir/1 a mo/ assidu\s work]1 be+ a writ] ( local hi/ories & ga!r] ( /ati/ics1 ! second a prea*]4 ,! ?ird1 ! writ] himself1 _h at lea/ ! advantage ( ?is te*nical tra9+1 b1 at ! same "t1 ! disadvantage ( be+ a =eign]1 :o _h fir/ to le>n ! limitations ( democratic gov]nm5t4 ,only ! paltry sum ( #h1jjj 0 at 8 disposal = pl[+ ! gr\nd1 & ev5 aft] ! ag5cy _h be5 rais$ to ! dignity ( a ,division 9 #ahhf1 = ye>s no adequate appropriations c\ld be secur$1 & h5ce ! scope & usefulness ( ! "w ( ! ,division 0 hamp]$4 ,! ,=e/ry ,association1 inaugurat$ ) su* a fl\ri% ( trumpets & ) su* a l>ge memb]%ip at ! />t1 _h 9 ! fir/ two ye>s dw9dl$ to a small numb] ( fai?ful ones1 & 0 )\t funds :5 ! writ] became its secret>y4 ,9 spite ( ^! drawbacks1 ! propag&a _h progress$ s f> 9 #ahia1 t1 ?r\gh ! e>ne/ insi/5ce ( ! !n ,secret>y ( ! ,int]ior1 ,john ,w4 ,noble1 :o _h be5 won ov] to ! views = :i* ! ,division & ! ,association /ood1 a clause 0 enact$ by ,congress 9 8,an act to repeal timb]-culture laws & = o!r purposes10 giv+ au?ority to ! ,presid5t to set aside =e/ res]vations f ! public doma94 ,aga91 ?is important legislation1 :i* *ang$ ! entire l& policy & all previ\s notions ( ! gov]nm5t's functions conc]n+ ! ,public ,doma91 0 n delib]ately enact$1 b slipp$ 9 z a 8rid]01 at ! la/ h\r1 9 ,conf]5ce ,committee4 ,9 ?is connection ! "n ( ,edw>d ,a4 ,b[]s1 9 #ahhg ,special ,ag5t 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,int]ior1 & lat] ,assi/ant ,commission] ( ! ,g5]al ,l& ,(fice1 des]ves m5tion z mo/ active 9 secur+ ?is res]vation policy4 ,act+ "u ?is au?ority1 ,presid5ts ,h>rison & ,clevel& proclaim$1 previ\s to #ahid1 sev5te5 =e/ res]vations1 ) a total e/imat$ area ( #ag1ejj1jjj acres4 ,! res]vations 7 e/abli%$ usually ^u ! petition ( citiz5s resid+ 9 ! respective ,/ates & aft] due exam9ation1 ! ,=e/ry ,association act+ bo? z in/igator & z int]m$i>y4 ,mean:ile no provision = ! adm9i/ration ( ! res]ves exi/$1 & ! compreh5sive legislation devis$ by ! ,*ief ( ! ,division ( ,=e/ry1 :i* includ$ )drawal & adm9i/ration ( all public timb]l&s1 fail$ to be enact$1 al?\gh 9 ! ,fifty-?ird ,congress x 0 pass$ by bo? ,h\ses1 b fail$ to become a law m]ely = lack ( "t to secure a conf]5ce report4 ,b ! purpose ( ! advocates ( =e/ry 0 to create su* a condition z w\ld compel ,congress to act1 by cont9ually )draw+ =e/$ l&s t w\ld lie useless until au?ority 0 giv5 = _! prop] use & adm9i/ration4 ,9 ord] to secure influ5tial support f outside1 a committee ( ! ,=e/ry ,association induc$ ! !n ,secret>y ( ! ,int]ior1 ,hoke ,smi?1 9 #ahif1 to reque/ ! ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 ! legally con/itut$ advis] ( ! gov]nm5t 9 sci5tific matt]s1 to inve/igate & report 8^u ! inauguration ( a rational =e/ policy = ! =e/$ l&s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates40 ,aft] an unnecess>y s-call$ 8junket0 ( a committee ( ! ,academy to inve/igate ! public timb]l&s1 a prelim9>y report 0 submitt$ recomm5d+ ! creation ( ?irte5 additional res]vations1 ) an area ( ov] #bj million acres1 & lat] a complete report 0 made ) practically ! same recomm5dations :i* _h be5 urg$ by ! ,=e/ry ,association4 ,presid5t ,clevel&1 h]oically1 proclaim$ ! desir$ res]ves all on "o day1 ,wa%+ton's bir?day1 #ahig1 )\t ! usual prelim9>y asc]ta9m5t ( local int]e/s1 & imm$iately a /orm broke loose 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,s5ate1 :i* ?reat5$ ! ov]?r[ ( ! entire1 toilsomely a*iev$ res]vation policy2 & impea*m5t ( ! ,presid5t 0 /rongly argu$ 9 a two-day 7,sunday7 session4 ,congress1 h[ev]1 came to an end on ,m>* #d1 be=e x _h tak5 any action1 b1 z x _h also fail$ to pass ! annual ,sundry ,civil ,appropriation ,bill1 x 0 imm$iately recall$ 9 extra session4 ,!n1 aga91 by a clev] trick & 9 an indirect & surreptiti\s mann]1 in/ead ( by op51 direct & /raight=w>d consid]ation & delib]ation ( a prop] policy1 mo/ important legislation 0 secur$ 9 ! ,sundry ,civil ,appropriation ,bill1 :i* provid$ = ! tempor>y susp5sion ( ! res]vations lately set aside until !y c\ld be m def9itely delimit$1 private claims adju/$1 & agricultural l&s exclud$1 by a survey1 = :i* #aej1jjj 0 appropriat$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey4 ,! agricultural l&s 7 !n to be return$ to ! public doma9 = disposal4 ,at ! same "t1 provisions = ! adm9i/ration ( ! rema9+ res]vations1 mu* 9 ! s5se ( ! legislation advocat$ by ! ,division ( ,=e/ry & by ! ,=e/ry ,association1 & especially = ! sale ( timb]1 7 hung on to ?is appropriation clause4 ,"u ?is act ! res]ves 7 adm9i/]$ until #aijd4 ,if ! int]ior hi/ory ( ?is bit ( legislation 7 reveal$1 x w\ld probably appe> t1 n conception ( ! importance ( ! subject1 b ! ne$ = ! employm5t ( a c]ta9 organiz$ survey p>ty 9 ! ,geological ,survey 0 at ! bottom ( x4 ,:ile ?is law _h set aside "o ye> & a limit$ sum to accompli% ! survey1 ?is c\ld n1 ( c\rse1 be done1 & h5ce appropriations 7 cont9u$1 & ! date = ! segregation ( ! l&s 0 def]r$ s9e die4 ,= ye>s ?is =e/ survey cont9u$1 giv+ rise to magnific5t volumes1 issu$ f ! ,geological ,survey1 describ+ ! =e/ res]vations--a v useful1 educational piece ( "w1 n at all contemplat$ by ! legislation--= :i* n less ?an #a4e million h be5 exp5d$4 ,by #aije "s #aaj1jjj squ>e miles _h be5 exam9$ :5 ?is "w 0 h&$ ov] to ! ,=e/ry ,bureau4 ,?us x happ5$1 almo/ by accid5t1 t f9ally ! aims ( ! re=m]s 7 realiz$1 ! appo9tm5t ( =e/ sup]9t5d5ts1 rang]s1 etc41 to take *>ge ( ! =e/ res]vations 0 secur$1 & rules & regulations = _! adm9i/ration 7 =mulat$ by ! ,commission] ( ! ,g5]al ,l& ,(fice1 m>k+ ! beg9n+ ( a settl$ policy on ! "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t to take c>e ( its long neglect$ =e/ l&s4 ,9 ?is "w ( fir/ organization ! "n ( ,filib]t ,ro?1 a ,g]man-born =e/]1 des]ves m5tion4 ,mean:ile1 ! ,division ( ,=e/ry _h cont9u$ to br+ toge!r & di/ribute 9 ! %ape ( reports1 bullet9s1 circul>s1 addresses & lett]s1 su* in=mation useful = ! education ( ! public1 ( wood consum]s1 & timb]l& own]s1 z its limit$ appropriations p]mitt$1 und]tak+ also "s sci5tific inve/igations1 especially 9 ! l9e ( timb] physics4 ,soon aft]1 9 ,july1 #ahih1 :5 ! writ] resign$ 8 position z ,*ief ( ! ,division ( ,=e/ry1 to organize ! fir/ pr(essional =e/ s*ool1 ! ,new ,york ,/ate ,college ( ,=e/ry1 ,mr4 ,gif=d ,p9*ot1 took *>ge ( ! division4 ,"y1 ambiti\s1 aggressive1 ) "s k ( =e/ry acquir$ 9 ,europe & ) influ5tial connections & a l>ge =tune1 he easily secur$ ! fir/ ne$ = effective s[+ on ! well-pl[$ field be=e him--appropriations4 ,:atev] _h be5 feebly begun c\ld be broadly1 sometimes lavi%ly1 ext5d$1 & ! new idea ( mak+ 8work+ plans0 = private timb]l& own]s c\ld be develop$--a great educational "w1 :i*1 e>li]1 :5 ev5 co-op]ation ) ,/ate in/itutions 0 consid]$ a que/ionable proposition1 w\ld h be5 turn$ d[n z too pat]nal4 ,9 five ye>s ! appropriations _h increas$ t5fold1 to ov] #bej1jjj2 & 9 ! fir/ decade ( ! new regime1 ar\nd #c1jjj1jjj _h be5 sp5t on =e/ry inve/igations1 n c\nt+ exp5ditures on =e/ res]vation acc\nt4 ,a fur!r /rong support came into ! field1 :5 ,mr4 ,roosevelt became ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 #aija1 & unres]v$ly ?rew 8 ov]p[]+ influ5ce into ! balance1 to advance =e/ policies4 ,ow+ to 8 int]e/1 ! )drawal ( public timb]l&s f entry proce$$ at a rapid rate3 by #aijb1 ! res]vations _h gr[n to #fe million acres2 9 #aije1 !re 7 ov] #ajj million acres includ$2 & by ! end ( 8 adm9i/ration1 #age million acres _h be5 plac$ 9 res]vation4 ,! anomal\s condition1 :i* plac$ ! survey ( ! =e/ res]ves 9 ! ,geological ,survey1 _! adm9i/ration 9 ! ,l& ,(fice1 & ! sci5tific or te*nical developm5t ( =e/ry 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 0 f9ally end$ 9 #aijd1 :51 on ,febru>y #a/1 ! :ole matt] 0 plac$ 9 ! h&s ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ) its ,=e/ry ,division1 :i* _h be5 *ang$ into a ,bureau ( ,=e/ry1 & !n *ang$ its "n aga9 to ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,) ?is transf]1 x may be said1 ! f$]al =e/ policy 0 fully e/abli%$1 at lea/ = its own l&s1 & all t rema9s to be done is ! p]fection ( details 9 _! adm9i/ration & ! developm5t ( silvicultural me?ods4 ,) appropriations :i* n[ 7#aijg7 exce$ #iej1jjj = inve/igat+ "w alone1 limitless opportunity seems to be op5 to ext5d ! _m directions ( inquiry & solve ! silvicultural problems1 & satisfy ! educational function ( ?is gov]nm5t ag5cy4 ,b1 besides ! adm9i/ration ( ! f$]al timb]l&s & ! educational & o!r assi/ance ( private own]s1 a fur!r expansion ( ! ,=e/ ,s]vice is develop+ "u ! pat]nali/ic & sociali/ic t5d5cies ref]r$ to be=e1 :i* may ultimately lead to ! pur*ase & f$]al control ( =e/ res]ves 9 ! ,ea/]n ,/ates4 ,su* expansion1 01 inde$1 propos$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( res]ves 9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s & ! ,s\!rn ,appala*ians1 propositions :i* h be5 resi/$ by ,congress = ! la/ sev5 ye>s1 b ) ev] weak5+ resi/ance4 ,f9ally 9 #aiaj1 success 0 atta9$1 & ! f$]al gov]nm5t plac$ 9 position to acquire ^! =e/ areas1 to ! am\nt ( #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,mean:ile ! s+le /ates h begun to develop _! own policies4 ,outside ( legislation aim+ at protection aga9/ =e/ fires--:i* ne>ly e ,/ate possess$ f e>ly times1 ineffective = lack ( ma*9]y to c>ry x into effect--& outside ( ! futile attempts to enc\rage timb] plant+ ref]r$ to1 no int]e/ 9 timb]l&s 0 ev9c$ by ,/ate au?orities = ! fir/ two-?irds ( ! c5tury1 s9ce practically all ^! l&s _h be5 dispos$ ( to private own]s1 & ! au?orities did n see any fur!r duties reg>d+ !m4 ,! fir/ ,/ate to in/itute a commission ( inquiry 0 ,wiscons91 9 #ahfg2 b ) ! r5d]+ ( ! report1 prep>$ by ,i4 ,a4 ,lapham1 "o ( ! active e>ly propag&i/s--! matt] 0 all[$ to mature = ?irty ye>s4 ,! next ,/ate to move1 9 a feeble way1 9 #ahgf1 0 ,m9nesota1 ! legislature mak+ an annual grant ( money to its =e/ry association4 ,! appo9tm5t ( commissions ( inquiry !n became fa%ionable4 ,new ,hamp%ire appo9t$ su* a commission 9 #ahha1 :i* report$ 9 #ahhe1 )\t result1 & ano!r commission 9 #ahhi1 ^: report1 9 #ahic1 l$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( a p]man5t commission ( inquiry & advice1 ) a p>tial sup]vision ( =e/ fire laws4 ,v]mont foll[$ suit ) a commission ( inquiry1 9 #ahhb1 ^: report made 9 #ahhd1 rema9$ )\t consequ5ces4 ,9 ,mi*igan ! exp$i5t 0 resort$ to ( con/itut+ ! ,/ate ,bo>d ( ,agriculture a commission ( inquiry1 ^: report1 publi%$ 9 #ahhh1 _h also no consequ5ces except ^? ( an educational "*4 ,simil>ly1 ! ,/ate ( ,massa*usetts ord]$ ! ,/ate ,bo>d ( ,agriculture 9 #ahij1 to inquire 8into ! consid]ation ( ! =e/s ( ! ,/ate1 ! ne$ & me?ods ( _! protection10 ) simil> results1 or lack ( result4 ,9 ,new ,j]sey1 ! matt] 0 ref]r$ to ! ,/ate ,geologi/1 :o1 s9ce #ahid1 has made reports on =e/ conditions & ne$s4 ,simil> ref]5ce ( ! subject 0 made 9 ! ,/ate ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 9 #ahia1 & 9 ,we/ ,virg9ia4 ,! fir/ m p]man5t ,/ate in/itution delib]ately e/abli%$ z an educational & advisory ag5t 0 ! ,=e/ry ,bureau ( ,ohio1 9 #ahhe1 :i* publi%$ a numb] ( annual reports1 b ev5tually collaps$ = lack ( support4 ,9 ! same ye>1 ?ree important ,/ates1 ,new ,york 9 ! ,ea/1 ,colorado 9 ! ,middle ,/ates1 & ,cali=nia 9 ! ,we/1 seem$ simultane\sly to h awak5$ to _! duty1 l>gely z a result ( ! propag&a ( ! ,am]ican ,=e/ry ,association4 ,9 ,cali=nia1 a ,/ate ,bo>d ( ,=e/ry 0 in/itut$1 ) consid]able p[] & ample appropriations1 :i*1 h[ev]1 ev5tually fell into ! h&s ( unscrupul\s politicians & graft]s1 ! result+ sc&als lead+ to its aboli%m5t 9 #ahhi4 ,9 ,colorado1 :i* :5 admitt$ to ,/atehood 9 #ahgf1 _h1 9 its ,con/itution1 direct$ ! g5]al assembly to legislate on behalf ( ! =e/ry int]e/s ( ! ,/ate1 ^! int]e/s 7 r t>dily committ$ to a =e/ commission]1 :o 0 *>g$ to organize c\nty commission]s & road ov]se]s ?r\gh\t ! ,/ate z =e/ (fic]s 9 _! respective localities1 to act z a police =ce 9 prev5t+ depr$ations on timb]$ s*ool l&s & 9 en=c+ ! fire laws4 ,col4 ,e4,t4 ,ensign1 :o _h be5 mo/ in/rum5tal 9 br++ ab\t ?is legislation1 0 appo9t$ commission]1 &1 ) s+ul> devotion1 9 spite ( ! enmity ar\s$ by 8 activity1 :i* ev5tually l$ to a discont9uance ( appropriations1 tri$1 = a numb] ( ye>s to execute ?is law4 ,) 8 resignation f ! (fice1 ?is legislation also fell into innocu\s desuetude4 ,9 ,new ,york1 conc]n 9 ! wat] supply = ! ,erie ,canal1 _h l$ su* a f> sight$ /atesman z ,horatio ,seym\r1 twice ,gov]nor ( ! ,/ate & once runn+ = ! ,presid5cy1 to conceive ! ne$ ( pres]v+ ! ,adirondack wat]%$ 9 ,/ate h&s4 ,accord+ly a law 0 pass$1 9 #ahgb1 nam+ sev5 citiz5s1 ) ,horatio ,seym\r *airman1 z ,/ate p>k commission1 in/ruct$ to make inquiries ) ! view ( res]v+ or appropriat+ ! wild l&s ly+ nor?w>d ( ! ,mohawk1 or s mu* !re( z might be deem$ exp$i5t1 = a ,/ate p>k4 ,! commission1 f9d+ t ! ,/ate !n own$ only #dj1jjj acres 9 t region1 & t !re 0 a t5d5cy on ! "p ( ! own]s ( ! re/ to comb9e = ! enhancem5t ( values %\ld ! ,/ate want to buy1 recomm5d$ a law =bidd+ fur!r sales ( ,/ate l&s1 & _! ret5tion :5 =feit$ = ! non-paym5t ( taxes4 ,x 0 n until elev5 ye>s lat]1 9 #ahhc1 t ?is recomm5dation 0 act$ ^u1 :5 ! ,/ate ?r\gh ! non-paym5t ( taxes by ! own]s ( cut-ov] l&s _h become possess$ ( #fjj1jjj acres4 ,9 #ahhd1 ! comptroll] 0 au?oriz$ to employ 8su* exp]ts z he may deem necess>y to inve/igate & report a sy/em ( =e/ pres]vation40 ,! report ( a commission ( f\r memb]s 0 made 9 #ahhe1 b ! legislation propos$ 0 antagoniz$ by ! lumb]m5's int]e/s4 ,! legislature f9ally pass$ a compromise bill1 :i* ! writ] _h draft$ at ! reque/ ( ,s5ator ,l[e1 entitl$ 8,an act e/abli%+ a =e/ commission1 & to def9e its p[]s1 & = ! pres]vation ( =e/s10 ! mo/ compreh5sive legislation at t "t4 ,! orig9al =e/ commission1 appo9t$ "u ! act ( #ahhe1 0 sup]s$$ 9 #ahie1 by ! commission ( fi%]ies1 game1 & =e/s1 :i* br\ght alli$ int]e/s "u ! control ( a s+le bo>d ( five memb]s appo9t$ by ! ,gov]nor = a t]m ( five ye>s4 ,9 #aijc1 ! commission 0 *ang$ to a s+le commission]1 & ano!r backw>d /ep 0 tak5 9 #aiaa by h&+ ov] ! "w ( ?is commission] to ! newly creat$ ,/ate ,cons]vation ,commission1 consolidat+ ) x sev]al o!r commissions4 ,"h1 !n1 = ! fir/ "t on ! ,am]ican cont95t1 _h ! idea ( ,/ate =e/ry1 managem5t ( ,/ate l&s on =e/ry pr9ciples1 tak5 %ape2 a new doctr9e ( ,/ate functions _h ga9$ ! day4 ,n only 0 ! commission *>g$ to organize a s]vice1 ) a 8*ief =e/]0 & 8und]=e/]s10 to adm9i/] ! exi/+ res]ve accord+ to =e/ry pr9ciples1 b also f ! incomes to lay aside a fund = ! pur*ase ( m l&s to con/itute ! ,/ate =e/ pres]ve4 ,un=tunately1 in/ability ( purpose1 ! *>act]i/ic ( democracy1 spoil$ ! dream ( ! =e/]4 ,bo?1 commission & *ief =e/] 71 ( c\rse1 political appo9tees1 &1 rightly or wrongly1 fell "u ! suspicion1 :5 propos+ ! sale ( /umpage1 t !y 7 work+ into ! h&s ( lumb]m54 ,a set ( well-mean+ b ill-advis$ civic re=m]s succe$$1 9 #ahic1 9 secur+ ! ins]tion into ! ,con/itution1 !n be+ revis$1 ( a clause prev5t+ ! cutt+ ( trees1 dead or alive1 on ,/ate l&s1 decl>+ t !y %all =ev] be kept z 8wild l&s40 ,lat]1 ?is con/itutional provision 0 delib]ately set aside by ! commission1 :i* began to plant up "s ( ! fire-wa/$ areas1 ! legislature appropriat+ money = ?is brea* ( ! ,con/itution because x 0 popul>3 & lately p]mission has also be5 grant$ by ! legislature to remove trees f burnt areas 9 ord] to r$uce ! fire dang]--! fooli% objection ( a ,con/itution not)/&+4 ,9 #ahig1 new legislation 0 pass$ to au?orize ! ,/ate to pur*ase additional =e/ l&s )9 a prescrib$ limit1 to r\nd (f ! ,/ate's hold+s1 a special ag5cy1 ! ,=e/ ,pres]ve ,bo>d1 be+ con/itut$ = t purpose4 ,"u ?is law1 "s #c1ejj1jjj h be5 sp5t1 & by #aijg1 ov] "o & a half million acres _h be5 add$ to ! ,/ate ,=e/ ,pres]ve4 ,?is l>ge area is )drawn f rational economic use1 res]v$ = a pleasure gr\nd ( weal?y ,new ,york]s1 :o h locat$ _! camps 9 ! 8wild]ness0 "u ! av[$ assumption t ! ,/ate c be =c$ to ma9ta9 =ev] ?is anomal\s condition4 ,9 lat] ye>s1 private plant+ has be5 enc\rag$ by ! ,commission sell+ plant mat]ial f ! ,/ate nurs]ies at l[ rates4 ,! mo/ important adm9i/rative function ( ! ,commission has be5 ! r$uction ( =e/ fires1 9 :i*1 also ow+ to political conditions1 only p>tial success has be5 atta9$4 ,! legislation ( #ahhe = ! fir/ "t attack$ ?is problem 9 a m ?or\gh mann]1 provid+ = ! organization ( a s]vice1 & ?is s]v$ z an example to o!r ,/ates :o copi$ & improv$ on x4 ,notably ! =e/ fire legislation ( ,ma9e 7#ahia71 ( ,wiscons9 7#ahie71 & ( ,m9nesota 7#ahie7 0 bas$ on ?is model4 ,ano!r ( ! l>ge ,/ates to />t ^u &1 diff]5tly f ,new ,york1 to develop consi/5tly a prop] =e/ policy1 0 ! ,/ate ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,z a result ( a p]si/5t propag&a by ! ,p5nsylvania ,=e/ry ,association1 =m$ 9 #ahhf1 & especially by its active secret>y1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,ro?rock1 a commission ( inquiry 0 in/itut$ 9 #ahic4 ,be=e its report 0 e/abli%$1 ! legislature ( #ahie provid$ = an executive ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 & includ$ 9 its organization a provision = a ,division ( ,=e/ry1 ! botani/ memb] ( ! previ\s commission1 ,dr4 ,ro?rock1 be+ appo9t$ ,commission] ( ,=e/ry at ! head ( ! ,division4 ,two ye>s lat]1 ! f9al legislation1 :i* firmly e/abli%$ a =e/ policy = ! ,/ate1 0 pass$ namely = ! pur*ase ( ,/ate =e/ res]vations4 ,all lat] legislation 0 simply an expansion ( ^! propositions4 ,by #aiaj1 ! ,/ate _h acquir$ by pur*ase1 wild1 mo/ly cull$ l&s to ! ext5t ( ov] #ijj1jjj acres1 & ! ,commission _h progress$ f> t[>ds provid+ = _! managem5t & recup]ation4 ,! unusually disa/r\s conflagrations ( #ahid2 ! gr[+ conviction t ! plead]s ( ! exhau/ibility ( timb] supplies 7 "r1 acc5tuat$ by a rapid decl9e 9 ,:ite ,p9e production & a rapid1 &1 inde$1 almo/ sudd51 rise 9 /umpage prices2 ! example :i* ! f$]al gov]nm5t _h set 9 )draw+ public timb]l&s f spoliation2 toge!r ) an increas+ numb]1 n only ( advocates ( san] me?ods1 b ( te*nically educat$ m51 :o came f ! s*ools lately organiz$--all ^! influ5ces _h work$ z a leav5 9 all p>ts ( ! c\ntry s z to br+ 9 ! new c5tury ) a realization ( ! s]i\sness ( ! situation4 ,&1 )9 ! fir/ sev5 ye>s ( ! c5tury1 ! *ange ( attitude1 at lea/1 0 almo/ complet$ 9 all p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 & among all classes1 ! lumb]m5 & o!rs dep5d+ directly on wood supplies becom+ especially prom95t 9 recogniz+ ! ne$ & value ( =e/ry4 ,/ate aft] ,/ate came into l9e 9 recogniz+ t x _h a duty to p]=m1 & 9 "s way gave expression to ?is recognition1 s t1 by #aijh1 h>dly a ,/ate 0 )\t at lea/ a g]m ( a =e/ policy4 ,two pr9ciples _h be5 recogniz$ z correct & 7 br\ght into practice1 namely1 t ! =e/ int]e/s ( ! ,/ate call$ = direct ,/ate activity1 & t ev5tually ! ,/ate mu/ own & manage at lea/ portions ( ! =e/ area4 ,! fir/ pr9ciple took %ape 9 appo9t+ s+le ,/ate =e/]s1 z 9 ,ma9e 7#ahia & #aijc72 9 ,massa*usetts 7#aijd72 9 ,connecticut 7#aijc72 9 ,v]mont 7#aijf72 9 ,rhode ,isl& 7#aijf72 or ,commissions or ,bo>ds z 9 ,new ,york 7#ahhe71 *ang$ to a s+le commission] ) ,sup]9t5d5t & ,/ate =e/]s 9 #aijc2 9 ,p5nsylvania 7#aija72 9 ,new ,hamp%ire 7#ahic72 ,m>yl& ) a ,/ate =e/] 7#aije72 ,wiscons91 ) a ,/ate =e/] 7#aije72 ,indiana 7#aija-jc72 ,l\isiana1 ) a ,/ate =e/] 7#aijd72 ,mi*igan 7#ahii72 ,m9nesota 7#ahii72 ,cali=nia 7reviv$1 ) a ,/ate =e/]1 9 #aije72 ,wa%+ton1 ) a ,/ate =e/] 7#aije72 ,k5tucky 7#aijf72 9 ,new ,j]sey1 ) a ,/ate =e/] 7#aijd72 ,alabama 7#aijg74 ,a v important feature 9 ^! appo9tm5ts 0 ! fact1 t1 m & m pr(essional or te*nically educat$ m5 displac$ ! m]ely political appo9tees1 or 7 at lea/ add$ to ! commissions4 ,! idea ( ,/ate =e/s f\nd expression1 m or less def9itely1 9 sett+ aside =e/ res]vations or else 9 enabl+ ! ,/ate to accept & adm9i/] donations ( =e/ l&s4 ,among ! ,/ates recogniz+ ?is pr9ciple 7 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,mi*igan1 ,wiscons91 ,m9nesota1 ,indiana1 ,cali=nia4 ,:]e nei!r ( ^! two pr9ciples _h z yet f\nd application1 at lea/ "s ag5cy 0 e/abli%$ to give advice & inve/igate or exp]im5t 9 matt]s ( =e/ int]e/s1 & sometimes to (f] assi/ance to private woodl& own]s or plant]s1 z 9 ,delaw>e1 ,ohio1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 etc4 ,mean:ile1 l>gely ?r\gh ! influ5ce & ) ! co-op]ation ( ! f$]al ,bureau ( ,=e/ry1 private own]s _h begun1 if n to apply1 at lea/ to /udy ! possibility ( ! application ( =e/ry to _! hold+s4 ,! ,bureau prep>$ 8work+ plans0 :i* 7 n[ & !n foll[$ 9 "p1 or at lea/ l$ to attempts at a m cons]vative me?od ( logg+4 ,notably1 v>i\s pap] & pulp manufactur]s realiz$ ! usefulness ( m sy/ematic att5tion & cons]vative me?ods 9 ! use ( _! prop]ties4 ,9 ?is connection ! object lesson furni%$ by ,mr4 ,g4 ,k4 ,v&]bilt on 8 ,biltmore ,e/ate 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 :i* 0 begun by ,mr4 ,p9*ot & conduct$ by ,dr4 ,c4 ,a4 ,s*5ck1 a ,g]man =e/]1 requires special m5tion z ! fir/1 & = ne>ly #bj ye>s cont9u$ exp]im5t 9 apply+ =e/ry me?ods sy/ematically 9 ,am]ica4 ,at pres5t writ+ ! cont9uance ( ?is exp]im5t is 9 d\bt4 ,) ! second decade ( ! c5tury1 we %all ent] ^u ! flood tide ( developm5t1 :5 no m ne$ ( argum5t = its necessity1 & only ! "q ( practicable me?ods1 w occupy u4 99 99 99 99 99 ,s f>1 silviculturally1 ! selection =e/1 i4e41 cull+ ! be/ & ! /\te/1 practic$ hi!rto by ! lumb]man1 )\t ref]5ce to reproduction1 b c>ri$ on some:at m cons]vatively1 is /ill ! me?od advocat$ 9 mo/ cases by ! ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,?is s-call$ cons]vative lumb]+ is1 to be sure1 ! transition to bett] me?ods4 ,accord+ to reports ( ! f$]al ,=e/ ,s]vice 9 #aijg1 "s million acres ( private timb]l& 7 "u =e/ managem5t or cons]vatively lumb]$4 ,plant+ ( wa/e or logg$ l&s1 z di/+ui%$ f plant+ 9 ! prairies1 :i* _h1 sporadically & 9 a small way1 be5 done by individuals "h & !re = _m ye>s1 is practis$ 9 ev] increas+ am\nt1 bo? by ,/ate adm9i/rations & by private own]s2 ! ,new ,york ,/ate ,college ( ,=e/ry />t+ su* plant+ 9 its ,college ,=e/ on a l>g] scale & sy/ematically1 9 #ahii4 ,at pres5t writ+1 ! =e/ry dep>tm5t ( ! ,p5nsylvania ,railroad ,company is p]haps ! l>ge/ s+le plant] 9 ! c\ntry1 hav+ set out ov] f\r million trees 7by #aiaj71 ) ! av[$ purpose ( gr[+ railroad ties4 ,by #aijh1 popul> int]e/ 9 =e/ cons]vation _h become s ke51 & at ! same "t pat]nali/ic t5d5cies s fully develop$ by ! ,roosevelt adm9i/ration--! f$]al gov]nm5t hav+ ent]$ ^u ext5sive plans ( reclaim+ l&s by irrigation1 & prep>+ to develop wat] p[]s1 & inl& wat]ways1--t ! "t seem$ ripe to br+ all ^! cons]vative =ces into unity4 ,! ,presid5t call$ toge!r 9 conf]5ce ! gov]nors ( all ! ,/ates ) _! advis]s1 toge!r ) ! presid5ts ( ! v>i\s national societies int]e/$1 & o!rs1 to discuss ! broad "q ( ! cons]vation ( natural res\rces4 ,z a consequ5ce national & ,/ate ,cons]vation ,associations & ,commissions 7 =m$ 9 all p>ts ( ! ,union1 & a new era ( active int]e/ 9 economic developm5t seems to h arriv$4 #d4 ,education & ,lit]ature4 ,! prim>y education ( ! p at l>ge & ( _! gov]nm5ts 9 p>ticul>1 ! propag&a = ! economic re=m contemplat$ by ! =e/ry movem5t1 0 c>ri$ on1 z /at$1 by ! f$]al ,division ( ,=e/ry & especially by ! =e/ry associations1 :i* sprang up 9 all p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 by means ( _! annual & special meet+s1 aid$ by ! g5]al press & sometimes by special publications4 ,! fir/ ,j\rnal ( ,=e/ry1 a mon?ly publication1 v5tur$ into ! _w z a private ent]prise1 edit$ by ,dr4 ,h\gh1 soon aft] ! ,=e/ry ,congress 9 ,c9c9nati1 b x surviv$ j "o ye>1 vani%+ = lack ( read]s4 ,?is 0 foll[$ by irregul>ly appe>+ ,=e/ry ,bullet9s1 ( :i* ! writ] prep>$ f\r "u ! aegis ( ! ,am]ican ,=e/ry ,association4 ,9 #ahhf1 ! ,p5nsylvania ,=e/ry ,association began ! publication ( a bi-mon?ly j\rnal1 ,=e/ ,leaves1 :i* has p]si/$ to ?is day4 ,9 #ahie1 ,dr4 ,john ,gif=d laun*$ ano!r bi-mon?ly1 ! ,new ,j]sey ,=e/]1 soon to *ange its "n to ,! ,=e/]1 & "u t "n1 ?ree ye>s lat]1 tak5 ov] by ! ,am]ican ,=e/ry ,association1 cont9u$ z ,=e/ry & ,irrigation1 *ang$ to ,cons]vation & n[ aga9 *ang$ to ,am]ican ,=e/ry4 ,n[1 half a doz5 or m simil> publications emanate f ! v>i\s ,/ate ,associations4 ,9 ?is connection !re %\ld n be =gott5 ! j\rnal1 ,g>d5 & ,=e/1 edit$ by ,pr(essor ,c4 ,s4 ,s>g5t1 :i* = t5 ye>s1 f #ahhh to #ahig1 did mu* to enlight5 ! public on =e/ry matt]s4 ,"s provision = te*nical education 0 made long be=e opportunity = its application _h aris51 &1 inde$1 be=e any pr(essional =e/]s 7 9 exi/5ce to d ! tea*+4 ,! new doctr9e attract$ ! att5tion ( educational in/itutions1 & ! desire to assi/ 9 ! popul> movem5t l$ to ! introduction ( ! subject1 at lea/ by "n1 into _! curricula2 ! pr(essor ( botany or ( horticulture1 add+ 8=e/ry0 to 8 title1 & expla9+ 9 a few lectures ! objects1 &1 z f> z he knew !m1 ! me?ods ( =e/ry2 or1 at lea/ "s lectures on d5drology & =e/ geography 7 introduc$ 9 ! botanical c\rses4 ,by #ahig1 tw5ty in/itutions--l& grant colleges--_h 9 ?is way introduc$ ! subject4 ,p]haps ! fir/ attempt to pres5t sy/ematically a :ole c\rse ( te*nical =e/ry matt] to a class ( /ud5ts 0 a s]ies ( twelve lectures1 deliv]$ by ! writ]1 at ! ,massa*usetts ,college ( ,agriculture 9 #ahhg1 & ano!r to /ud5ts ( political economy at ,wiscons9 ,univ]sity 9 #ahig4 ,! era ( pr(essional =e/ s*ools1 h[ev]1 01 inaugurat$ 9 #ahih1 :5 ! writ] organiz$ ! ,new ,york ,/ate ,college ( ,=e/ry at ,cornell ,univ]sity1 & almo/ simultane\sly ,dr4 ,s*5ck op5$ a private s*ool at ,biltmore4 ,a ye> lat]1 ano!r ,=e/ s*ool 0 op5$ at ,yale ,univ]sity1 an end[m5t ( ! ,p9*ots1 fa!r & sons4 ,9 #aijc1 ! ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan add$ a pr(essional dep>tm5t ( =e/ry1 & !n foll[$ a real flood ( educational en?usiasm1 "o in/itution aft] ano!r see+ ! necessity = add+ ! subject z an integral "p to its c\rses4 ,be=e !re 7 en\gh compet5t m5 9 ! field1 "s tw5ty colleges or univ]sities call$ = tea*]s1 besides private in/itutions4 ,an inevitable result ( ?is ov]-production ( =e/ s*ools & ( =e/]s all at once mu/ be an ov]cr[d+ ( ! pr(ession ) m$iocre m5 be=e ! pr(ession is really fully e/abli%$4 ,brief ref]5ce to ! hi/ory ( ! fir/ s*ool1 e/abli%$ by ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 may be ( int]e/1 z exemplify+ 9 a /rik+ mann] ! political tr\bles besett+ re=ms "u republican conditions4 ,b = a simil> occurr5ce 9 ,france 7see p4 #bdb71 ?is case might be unique 9 ! hi/ory ( educational in/itutions4 ,al?\gh ! s*ool ?riv$ almo/ beyond expectation1 hav+ 9 its f\r? ye> atta9$ 9 numb]s to #gj1 l>g] ?an any ,fr5* or ,g]man =e/ s*ool at ! "t1 & readily f9d+ employm5t = its graduates1 x sudd5ly came to an end 9 #aijc4 ,its appropriation1 unanim\sly vot$ 9 ! ,legislature1 0 veto$ by ! ,gov]nor1 on ! alleg$ gr\nd t ! silvicultural me?ods appli$ 9 ! demon/ration =e/ ( ! ,college 8_h be5 subject$ to grave criticism40 ,x is true ! only silvicultural me?od (ficially sanction$ 7by ! ,=e/ ,s]vice71 ! selection =e/1 _h n be5 appli$1 yet ! w> aga9/ ! ,college be+ wag$ by two weal?y bank]s ( ,new ,york & ! well-kn[n "* ( ! !n ,gov]nor sugge/ t o!r 8consid]ations0 ?an m]e criticism ( pr(essional judgm5t 7 at ! bottom ( 8 action4 ,z f ! />t1 ! f$]al ,=e/ry ,bureau naturally cont9u$ 9 ev] increas+ degree to be ! educator ( ! nation1 n only z reg>ds popul> conceptions & attitudes1 b z reg>ds te*nical matt]4 ,its bullet9s1 circul>s1 & reports on ! subjects :i* come "u inve/igation =m ! bulk ( ! ,am]ican lit]ature on ! te*nical side ( ! subject4 ,dur+ ! fir/ #bj ye>s ( its exi/5ce1 "s #bj1jjj pages ( pr9t$ matt] 7 produc$1 & ! next decade increas$ ! crop ( in=mation apace4 ,at fir/ int5d$ = popul> propag&a1 ! matt] pr9t$ 0 naturally argum5tative1 /ati/ical & descriptive1 b gradually m & m te*nical matt] fill$ ! pages1 & n[ mo/ ( ! publications are ( te*nical nature4 ,"o ( ! fir/ ext5sive & important l9es ( inve/igation und]tak5 by ! ,division 0 t into ! *>act]i/ics & /r5g?1 ! timb] physics1 ( ,am]ican woods1 :i* 9 its compreh5siv5ess comm&$ ! admiration ( ev5 ! ,g]mans1 & gave rise to a s]ies ( reports4 ,! biology ( ,am]ican species1 m or less exhau/ively /udi$1 0 also begun 9 ! old ,division1 z well z =e/ surveys1 etc4 ,by #aijb1 en\gh pr(essional int]e/ 0 9 ! c\ntry to make ! publication ( a pr(essional j\rnal possible & desirable1 ! ,=e/ry ,qu>t]ly be+ laun*$ by ! writ]1 ) a ,bo>d ( ,editors *os5 ma9ly f ! =e/ s*ools4 ,! fir/ association ( pr(essional =e/]s 0 =m$ 9 #aijj--! ,society ( ,am]ican ,=e/]s--:i* issues f "t to "t proce$+s conta9+ te*nical discussions4 ,! te*nical book lit]ature1 p>tly due1 no d\bt1 to ! ov]p[]+ publication facilities ( ! f$]al gov]nm5t1 is /ill scanty1 & good textbooks especially are /ill lack+ 9 mo/ bran*es4 ,a s]ies ( ephem]al popul> books answ]$ ! dem&s ( e>li] days1 b outside ( ,pr(essor ,h5ry ,s4 ,graves' volumes on ,=e/ ,m5suration & lately on ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,h&l+ ,woodl&s1 & a few m9or aid books & lecture notes1 !re is z yet no?+ ( p]man5t value to be record$4 ,! writ]s' own publication1 ,economics ( ,=e/ry1 is int5d$ less = =e/]s ?an /ud5ts ( political economy4 ,?ree monum5tal works c be m5tion$ 9 ! d5drological l9e1 h[ev]1 namely ! #aj? volume ( ! ,,xii ,c5sus 7#ahhj7 on ! ,=e/s ( ,nor? ,am]ica2 ,mi*eaux & ,nuttall's ,nor? ,am]ican ,silva 9 #e volumes1 #ahfe2 & ,c4 ,s4 ,s>g5t's ,silva ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 #ad magnific5t volumes1--?ree publications :i* c take rank ) any simil> lit]ature any:]e4 ,,insul> ,,possessions4 ,! ,spani% ,w>1 9 #ahih1 br\ght to ! ,unit$ ,/ates new outly+ t]ritory1 ov] #aej1jjj squ>e miles1 9 ?ree locations1 ! relation%ip z reg>ds gov]nm5t v>y+ 9 ! ?ree cases1 namely ,porto ,rico1 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 & ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s1 besides sev]al small] isl&s 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,:ile ! latt] are only tempor>ily "u control or tutelage ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & are expect$ soon] or lat] to atta9 complete self gov]nm5t1 ,hawaii 0 annex$ z a ,t]ritory 9 ! same s5se z all o!r ,t]ritories1 ! inhabitants hav+ become citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :ile ,porto ,rico is a dep5d5cy ) p>tial self-gov]nm5t1 b its inhabitants d n enjoy citiz5%ip 9 ! ,/ates4 ,all ^! isl&s are locat$ 9 ! tropics & h5ce ! composition ( ! =e/ is ( tropical species4 ,comm]cially1 ! =e/s ( ,porto ,rico & ( ,hawaii are relatively ( little value1 b _! protective value is p>am\nt1 & a cons]vative policy is ne$$ 9 ord] to pres]ve ! wat] supply = agricultural use 7sug> plantations 9 ,hawaii7 & to prev5t erosion4 ,= ,porto ,rico1 a beg9n+ ( =e/ policy 0 made by sett+ aside1 9 #aijc1 ! ,luquillo ,=e/ ,res]vation1 "s #bj1jjj acres 9 ! ,ea/]n m\nta9\s "p ( ! isl&1 :i* is "u direct control ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t4 ,! re/ ( public l&s & =e/s 0 plac$ "u ! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,int]ior ( ! isl&4 ,9 ,hawaii1 ev5 be=e annexation1 a movem5t on ! "p ( ! ,sug> ,plant]s ,association 0 made 9 #ahig1 to induce ! insul> gov]nm5t to devise protective measures4 ,! result 0 ! appo9tm5t ( a ,committee :o made a report 9 :i* ! writ] _h a h&4 ,b n until #aijc 0 a ,bo>d ( ,commission]s ( ,agriculture & ,=e/ry e/abli%$1 a ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,=e/ry appo9t$1 an organization ( di/rict =e/]s effect$1 & a numb] ( =e/ res]vations e/abli%$4 ,! pr9ciple ( ,/ate =e/ 0 fully recogniz$ by plann+ ! gradual )drawal ( "s #cjj1jjj acres & by beg9n+ ! ext5sion ( =e/$ area by plantations4 ,9 #aiaj1 #bc res]ves ) an area ( #ege1jjj acres _h be5 made4 ,di/ribution ( plant mat]ial & ( advice to plant]s is also "p ( ! policy4 ,annual ,reports are issu$ :i* atte/ ! good common s5se 9 ! adm9i/ration4 ,9 ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s1 a t]ritory ( #abj1jjj squ>e miles1 l>gely m\nta9\s1 n only ! protective b ! comm]cial value ( ! timb]l&s is consid]able4 ,! ext5t is v>i\sly e/imat$ z cov]+ betwe5 #dj & #ej million acres 7#ej ( total area71 mu* ( x virg91 & #af million acres ( x comm]cially valuable4 ,( ! sev5 hundr$ odd species ( trees1 mo/ly heavy woods1 compos+ ! =e/1 "s #afj are m>ketable at home & 9 ,*9a2 yet almo/ fifty p] c5t4 ( ! home consumption is import$ f ! ,/ates1 ow+ to abs5ce or inaccessibility ( s(twoods1 & high co/ due to excessive exp5se ( pres5t logg+ me?ods4 ,:5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates took *>ge ( ! isl&s x 0 f\nd t ! ,spani>ds _h s9ce #ahfc a =e/ry s]vice1 mann$ by ,spani% =e/]s1 & 9 ! l[] ranks by ,filip9os4 ,to be sure1 ! activities ( ?is =e/ry bureau w5t h>dly beyond ! collection ( dues = timb] lic5ses1 :i* yield$ little m ?an ! co/ ( ! s]vice1 al?\gh on pap] excell5t in/ructions 7 f\nd elaborat$4 ,x s happ5$ t an (fic] ( ! ,am]ican army1 ,capta9 ,george ,p4 ,ah]n1 _h = "s "t giv5 att5tion to =e/ry matt]s 9 ! ,/ates1 & he naturally 0 plac$ 9 *>ge ( ?is bureau1 9 #aijj4 ,!re 7 f\nd to be ar\nd "o million acres private & *ur* prop]ty1 ! re/ be+ consid]$ ,/ate l&s1 b all private own]s 7 requir$ to regi/] _! hold+s be=e be+ all[$ to ex]cise _! rights4 ,a sy/em ( lic5ses = cutt+ timb]1 & ( free use p]mits to ! poor population 0 cont9u$ aft] ,spani% models4 ,n only 0 an effici5t adm9i/ration gradually secur$1 b ! te*nical side ( d5drological & silvicultural k 0 develop$ z rapidly z possible "u ! able adm9i/ration ( ,capta9 ,ah]n1 a cont9u\sly gr[+ lit]ature be+ ! result4 ,,index4 ,,adm9i/ration1 ,au/ria1 #afg2 ,canada1 #dbd2 ,d5m>k1 #caf2 ,f9l&1 #bha2 ,france1 #bag1 #bai1 #bbc1 #bbd2 ,g]many1 #hj1 #abj;ff2 ,great ,brita91 #cge2 ,greece1 #ccb1 #ccc2 ,hung>y1 #aha2 ,india1 #cif2 ,italy1 #cci2 ,japan1 #dej;ff2 ,norway1 #cji1 #caa2 ,portugal1 #cfb2 ,r\mania1 #cbe1 #cbg2 ,russia1 #bfh1 #bfi2 ,spa91 #cei2 ,sw$51 #bia1 #cja1 #cjb2 ,switz]l&1 #aig2 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dhe1 #dhf1 #dhh4 ,africa1 #dci4 ,alabama1 #dif4 ,albania1 #cbb4 ,algi]s1 #bbc1 #bej4 ,allm5de 7,g]many71 #bh4 ,allotm5t me?ods1 #gc1 #aad1 #abj1 #cjc4 ,&r1 #aae4 ,&rews1 #dgd4 ,arabia1 #ae4 ,arborday1 ,g]many1 #fc2 ,italy1 #cdh2 ,japan1 #ddi2 ,spa91 #cfj2 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dgg4 ,area allotm5t1 ,au/ria1 #agj2 ,france1 #bdj2 ,g]many1 #aad2 ,sw$51 #cjc4 ,area division1 ,france1 #bdj2 ,g]many1 #dj1 #fi1 #gj1 #gd2 ,russia1 #bgd4 ,arnold1 #bgb4 ,artax]xes1 regulations by1 #aj4 ,as*aff5burg1 #adf4 ,asia ,m9or1 #aj4 ,associations1 ,au/ria1 #agf2 ,canada1 #dce2 ,d5m>k1 #cai2 ,f9l&1 #bhd2 ,france1 #bdg2 ,g]many1 #adh2 ,great ,brita91 #cgh2 ,greece1 #ccd2 ,hung>y1 #ahd2 ,italy1 #cdi2 ,japan1 #ded2 ,norway1 #cad2 ,r\mania1 #cbf2 ,russia1 #bga1 #bgb2 ,sw$51 #cje2 ,switz]l&1 #bja2 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dgi1 #dhj1 #dha1 #ejc4 ,au/ralia1 #ddj4 ,au/ria1 #aeb4 ,,bad51 #abj4 ,bad5-,p[ell1 #cij1 #djh4 ,bagn]is1 #bdb1 #bdf4 ,bale/ri]i1 #cdg4 ,ball plant+1 ,g]many1 #fe4 ,ban=e/1 ,au/ria1 #afc2 ,g]many1 #ba2 ,great ,brita91 #cgj2 ,italy1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #cdf2 ,japan1 #ddh2 ,russia1 #bfa2 ,switz]l&1 #aij4 ,b>res1 #bdd4 ,baudrill>t1 #bdb1 #bde4 ,baur1 #acc1 #acg1 #ach1 #adj1 #adg4 ,bav>ia1 #aai4 ,be*/e91 ,j4 ,m41 #aca1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #adh4 ,beckman1 ,j4 ,g41 #gc1 #gf1 #hg4 ,beckman1 ,j41 #ij1 #ia4 ,b$em>1 #bgc4 v4 ,behl51 #adj1 #aej4 ,behm1 #acf4 ,be9 & ,eyb]1 #ach4 v4 ,b]leps*1 #fg1 #hh4 ,b]l9 =e/ s*ool1 #hc1 #hd4 ,b]n1 #bjj4 ,b]nh>dt1 #aej4 ,b]tram1 #dcd4 ,betulomania 7,g]many71 #ff4 ,bi]mans1 #ajg4 ,biltmore1 #dig4 ,bohemia1 #agj1 #agb1 #agf4 ,boppe1 #bdb1 #bdf4 ,borggreve1 #aab1 #aca1 #ach1 #adj1 #aej4 ,borkhaus51 #adj4 ,bose1 #adj4 ,bosnia-,h]zegov9a1 #aee1 #aff4 ,b[]s1 #dhc4 ,br&is1 #chc1 #cid1 #djb1 #dje1 #djf1 #djh4 ,braun1 #acb4 ,brmonti]1 #bbe4 ,brew]1 #dgd4 ,breymann1 #acd4 v4 ,brocke1 #hi4 ,broill>d1 #bdb1 #bdf4 ,b*t+1 #hg4 ,buffon1 #bcg1 #bci1 #bde4 ,bhl]1 #bjb4 ,bulg>ia1 #cbb4 ,bun* plant+1 ,g]many1 #ajh4 ,burgsdorf1 #hd1 #aje4 ,burkh>dt1 #ajh1 #aca1 #adj1 #aej4 ,butl>1 #ajg4 ,,cali=nia1 #dia1 #dif1 #dig4 ,calip]s1 #acd4 ,cam]ali/s1 ,au/ria1 #afh2 ,g]many1 #eg1 #ha1 #abb1 #adc4 ,canada1 #dji4 ,cape ,colony1 #dci4 ,c>l[itz1 #fd1 #fh1 #hf4 ,catalpa 7,g]many71 #ff4 ,cato1 #ai1 #bj4 ,ceylon1 #dch4 ,*ampagne1 reboisem5t 7,france71 #bbi4 ,*ev&i]1 #bdg4 ,*ur* =e/s1 #ad1 #df1 #ee1 #ic4 ,city =e/s 7,g]many71 #cd1 #df1 #ef4 ,clav1 #bch1 #bci4 ,cle>+ sy/em1 ,france1 #bah2 ,g]many1 #ajh2 ,italy1 #cch2 ,india1 #djb2 ,sw$51 #cjb4 ,cleghorn1 #cic4 ,cleopatra1 #aj4 ,clevel&1 #dhd1 #dhe4 ,cl9ton1 #dfh4 ,cloi/] =e/s1 ,g]many1 #cg1 #df1 #ee1 #ic4 ,clovis1 #bi1 #cj4 ,coaz1 #aia1 #bjb4 ,co*9 ,*9a1 #bea4 ,code =e/i]1 #bbj1 #bbb4 ,colb]t1 #bae4 ,colb]t's ord9ance1 ,france1 #bce1 #bch4 ,col]us1 #he4 ,colonies1 7,fr5*71 #bdh-beb2 7,great ,brita971 #chj-dda4 ,colorado1 #dij1 #dia4 ,columella1 #ai1 #bj4 ,commissions1 ,au/ria1 #afb1 #agd2 ,canada1 #dcd1 #dcf2 ,france1 #bae2 ,great ,brita91 #cge1 #cgf1 #cgg2 ,hung>y1 #aha2 ,italy1 #cdb1 #cdd1 #cde2 ,norway1 #cjh1 #cji1 #cab2 ,russia1 #bfc1 #bff2 ,spa91 #cee2 ,sw$51 #bie1 #big1 #bii2 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dge1 #dha1 #dhi1 #dib1 #dic1 #did4 ,communal =e/s1 ,au/ria1 #aeh1 #agd2 ,france1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #baa1 #bab1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bdj2 ,f9l&1 #bhj2 ,g]many1 #bh1 #df1 #ef1 #id1 #abg2 ,hung>y1 #ahj2 ,india1 #cij1 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,plant mat]ial di/ribution1 ,g]many1 #abh2 ,hung>y1 #ahb2 ,italy1 #cdf2 ,portugal1 #cfd2 ,russia1 #bfg2 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dih4 ,pl9y1 #ai1 #bj4 ,pol&1 #bge4 ,polewood managem5t1 ,g]many1 #fa4 ,portugal1 #cfj4 ,porto ,rico1 #ejd4 ,pressl]1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aag1 #acd1 #acf1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj4 ,private =e/s1 anci5t1 #ae2 ,au/ria1 #aeh1 #afb2 ,canada1 #dbc2 ,d5m>k1 #cag2 ,f9l&1 #bhc2 ,france1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bab1 #bbd1 #bdj1 #bda2 ,g]many1 #bi1 #ee1 #abh2 ,greece1 #ccc2 ,hung>y1 #agi2 ,india1 #cij1 #cia2 ,italy1 #cci2 ,japan1 #ddg2 ,norway1 #cjh2 ,portugal1 #cfa1 #cfc2 ,russia1 #bgc2 ,spa91 #cfj2 ,sw$51 #bic2 ,switz]l&1 #aie1 #aif4 ,prop]ty conditions1 anci5t1 #ab2 ,au/ria1 #aeg2 ,canada1 #dbb1 #dbc1 #dbd2 ,d5m>k1 #baf1 #bag2 ,f9l&1 #bhj2 ,france1 #bab2 ,g]many1 #bg-cf1 #db-dg1 #ib2 ,great ,brita91 #cge2 ,india1 #chh2 ,italy1 #cci1 #cdb2 ,japan1 #ddg1 #dej2 ,norway1 #cjg2 ,portugal #cfa2 ,russia1 #bei1 #bfj2 ,spa91 #ceb2 ,sw$51 #bij;ff2 ,switz]l&1 #ahi2 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #deh1 #dfa4 ,protection =e/1 ,au/ria1 #afc2 ,france1 #bbb1 #bej2 ,hung>y1 #aha2 ,italy1 #cdb2 ,japan1 #dec2 ,norway1 #cab1 #cac2 ,russia1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bff2 ,switz]l&1 #aid1 #aif4 ,puton1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdf4 ,,que5sl&1 #dda4 ,,railroad plant+1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dgi1 #dih4 ,ramann1 #adb4 ,ratzeburg1 #adb4 ,raumur1 #gg1 #bch1 #bde4 ,reboisem5t1 ,au/ria1 #aej1 #aei1 #afe2 ,d5m>k1 #cag2 ,france1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bbi1 #bcb1 #bch2 ,g]many1 #fb1 #ajf2 ,great ,brita91 #cgg2 ,hung>y1 #aha2 ,portugal1 #cfc2 ,russia1 #bfi1 #bge1 #bgf-bgg2 ,italy1 #cdd1 #cde2 ,norway1 #caa2 ,russia1 #bgf2 ,spa91 #ceh1 #cei4 ,re=e/ation1 see ,plant+ & ,reboisem5t4 ,res]vations1 ,canada1 #dbd1 #dbe1 #dcb2 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dfi4 ,reum1 #adj4 v4 ,reuss1 #aah1 #acd1 #bdf4 ,ribb5trop1 #chc1 #chj1 #djh4 ,ri*t]1 #acd4 ,rhode ,isl&1 #dif4 ,rights ( us]1 anci5t1 #ae2 ,d5m>k1 #cbb2 ,france1 #bjf1 #baj1 #baa1 #bba2 ,g]many1 #ba1 #cb1 #dd1 #dg1 #if1 #abh2 ,greece1 #cca2 ,india1 #chh1 #chi1 #cij1 #cia2 ,japan1 #ddg2 ,norway1 #cjg1 #cac2 ,sw$51 #bia2 ,switz]l&1 #aie4 ,road build+1 ,g]many1 #acb4 ,rob9ia1 ,g]many1 #ff4 ,rog]1 #djh4 ,romans1 =e/ conditions1 #aa4 wood m>kets1 #ab4 managem5t1 #ab4 own]%ip1 #af4 ,roosevelt1 #dhg1 #dii4 ,ro/a+1 #cch4 ,rotations1 ,france1 #bcd1 #bcg2 ,g]many1 #aci1 #adj2 ,russia1 #bgd4 ,ro?1 #dhf4 ,ro?rock1 #die4 ,r\mania1 #cba1 #cbd1 #cbg4 ,r\melia1 #cbb4 ,royal trees1 ,india1 #chi2 ,japan1 #ddh4 ,rudzsky1 #bgc4 ,runnebaum1 #acb4 ,russia1 #bec4 ,,de ,,salomon1 #bdf4 ,s& dune plant+1 ,d5m>k1 #cah2 ,france1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bej2 ,g]many1 #fe2 ,hung>y1 #ahj1 #ahc2 ,italy1 #cch2 ,russia1 #bgf4 ,s>g5t1 #ejj4 ,saxony1 #aai4 ,saw1 use1 ,g]many1 #gg1 #gh4 ,sc&9avia1 #bhe4 ,s*5ck1 #dig1 #eja4 ,s*iffel1 #ace4 ,s*il*]1 #aac4 ,s*li*1 #cgh1 #cgi1 #chc1 #djh4 ,s*neid]1 #ach4 ,s*o5]1 #acd4 ,s*ro$]1 #adb4 ,s*ub]g1 #acg4 ,s*wappa*1 #acb1 #acg1 #ach1 #add4 v4 ,seck5dorff1 #afe4 ,seeba* modifi$ bee* =e/1 ,g]many1 #aji4 ,se$ tree managem5t1 ,france1 #bcd4 ,se$ tree me?ods1 ,sw$51 #cjb4 ,seigniorage1 ,au/ria1 #aei2 ,g]many1 #cb1 #dc1 #dd1 #ed1 #ib4 ,selection =e/1 ,au/ria1 #agb2 ,f9l&1 #bha2 ,france1 #bjf1 #bce1 #bcg1 #bci2 ,g]many1 #dj1 #eh1 #fb1 #ajh1 #aaj2 ,india1 #djb2 ,italy1 #cch2 ,norway1 #cac2 ,russia1 #bgd2 ,sw$51 #cjb2 ,switz]l&1 #aih2 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dih4 ,s5ft1 #adb4 ,s]via1 #cbc4 ,s]vitudes1 see ,rights ( us]4 ,seutt]1 #acg1 #aci4 ,seym\r1 #dia4 ,%elt]wood sy/em1 ,au/ria1 #agb2 ,france1 #bch1 #bci1 #bdb2 ,g]many1 #ajb1 #ajg1 #aje1 #ajh2 ,switz]l&1 #aih4 ,%ift+ s&s1 see ,s& dunes4 ,sib]ia1 #bed1 #bee1 #bef4 ,sihlwald1 #aij4 ,silviculture1 ,au/ria1 #agb2 ,france1 #bce-bdj2 ,d5m>k1 #cah2 ,g]many1 #eg;ff1 #fh1 #ajb-aab2 ,india1 #djb2 ,romans1 #af1 #ag2 ,russia1 #bgd2 ,sw$51 #cjb2 ,switz]l&1 #aih4 ,slavi% c\ntries1 #cba4 ,smalian1 #acd1 #ace4 ,smi?1 ,adam1 #ic1 #adc4 ,smi?1 ,hoke #dhd4 ,soil k1 ,g]many1 #adb4 ,soil r5t1 ,g]many1 #aag1 #ach1 #aci4 ,solitude1 s*ool1 ,g]many1 #hd1 #ij4 ,sologne1 reboisem5t1 ,france1 #bbh4 ,s\? ,au/ralia1 #ddj4 ,s\?wor?1 #dcj4 ,s[+1 ,g]many1 #fc4 ,s[+ cones1 ,g]many1 #fd4 ,space numb]1 ,g]many1 #ace4 ,spa91 #i1 #aa1 #cdi4 ,sp?1 #aaj1 #acf4 ,/ahl1 #hd1 #hi1 #ia4 ,/>r1 #dgc4 ,/ate =e/]s1 ,canada1 #dca2 ,france1 #bbj2 ,g]many1 #abj2 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dif2 ,switz]l&1 #aih4 ,/ate =e/s1 ,au/ria1 #afg1 #afh2 ,d5m>k1 #cag2 ,f9l&1 #bhj1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhc2 ,france1 #baj1 #bah1 #bai2 orig9 9 ,g]many1 #ib2 ,great ,brita91 #cgd1 #cge1 #cgf2 ,greece1 #cca2 ,hung>y1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahb2 ,india1 #chh1 #cif2 ,italy1 #cci2 ,japan1 #dej1 #dea2 ,norway1 #cjg1 #caa2 ,portugal1 #cfb2 ,russia1 #bef2 ,spa91 #ceg1 #ceh1 #cei2 ,sw$51 #bij1 #bia1 #bib4 ,/ate sup]vision1 ,au/ria1 #afa-afe2 ,g]many1 #add2 ,greece1 #ccc2 ,hung>y1 #aha2 ,france1 #bbj-bbc2 ,f9l&1 #bhc2 ,d5m>k1 #caf2 ,italy1 #cdb;ff2 ,japan1 #deb2 ,norway1 #cab2 ,portugal1 #cfc2 ,russia1 #bfc;ff2 ,spa91 #cfj2 ,sw$51 #big1 #bii;ff2 ,switz]l&1 #aic4 v4 ,/eub51 #dhj4 ,/oetz]1 #acb4 ,/raits ,settlem5t1 #dch4 ,/rip sy/em1 ,au/ria1 #agb2 ,g]many1 #ei2 ,russia1 #bgd4 ,/yria1 #aei1 #afj1 #afb1 #aga4 ,successive fell+s1 ,g]many1 #fa1 #ajb4 ,supplies1 ( _w1 #d4 ,swamps reclaim$1 ,russia1 #bgg4 ,sw$51 #bhg4 ,switz]l&1 #ahe4 ,syria1 #aj4 ,,t>iff1 ,g]many1 #abf4 ,tassy1 #bdf1 #bdi4 ,taungya1 ,g]many1 #fe2 ,india1 #djc4 ,tax release1 ,au/ria1 #agc1 #agd2 ,france1 #bah2 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dgf4 ,te*nology1 anci5t1 #ah1 #ai2 ,switz]l&1 #bjb4 ,?>&t1 #hd1 #adf4 ,?race1 #cbb4 ,!ophra/us1 #ai4 ,ti*on(f1 #bgb4 ,?9n+s1 ,d5m>k1 #cah2 ,france1 #bcf1 #bci2 ,g]many1 #fg1 #aaj-aab2 ,switz]l&1 #aii4 ,?irty ye>s' w>1 ,g]many1 #dh4 ,timb] culture acts1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dgf1 #dgg4 ,timb] fam9e1 ,g]many1 #c1 #dj1 #di1 #ig1 #abf1 #add2 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dff1 #dfh4 ,timb] lic5ses1 ,canada1 #dbe1 #dbf1 #dbg4 ,timb] ,physics1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #ejc4 ,tire et aire me?od1 ,france1 #bcf1 #bch1 #bda4 ,tolsky1 #bgc4 ,torr5ts1 ,au/ria1 #afe2 ,france1 #bbi-bcb2 ,italy1 #ccf1 #cde4 ,transportation means1 ,g]many1 #gi4 ,tree m>k+1 ,g]many1 #ea4 ,triage1 #baa4 ,trunk1 #ge1 #ij4 ,tb+51 #adf4 ,tuff]1 #cgd4 ,turkey1 #cba4 ,tursky1 #bgc4 ,tyrol1 #aei4 ,,unit$ ,,/ates1 #def4 ,uri*1 #acf4 ,utilization1 ,g]many1 #acb4 ,,valuation1 ,g]many1 #ach4 ,v&]bilt1 #dig4 ,v>ro1 #ai1 #bj4 ,v5ice1 #afa4 ,v]gil1 #ai4 ,v]mont1 #dif4 ,vi5na =e/1 #aga4 ,vizn]1 #ahc4 ,volume allotm5t1 ,g]many1 #gc1 #aac4 ,volume tables1 ,g]many1 #ge1 #gf1 #ace4 ,,wag5]1 #aab1 #aca1 #adj4 ,wagn]1 #acb4 ,waldfeldbau1 ,g]many1 #fe1 #aji4 ,wal!r1 #adj4 ,wang5heim1 #ig4 ,w>d]1 #dgd1 #dgi4 ,w>t5b]g dibble1 #ajg4 ,wa%+ton1 #dif4 ,wa/e l&s1 ,canada1 #dcd2 ,france1 #bbd2 ,japan1 #dec4 ,web]1 ,r41 #acg1 #adb1 #add4 ,w$ek9d1 #adc4 v4 ,w$ell1 #ga1 #gd4 ,weise1 #acg4 ,weisswass]1 #agj4 ,well5burg1 ,lang von1 #aeh4 ,w]!im1 #bdg4 ,wessely1 #ahc4 ,we/ ,virg9ia1 #dij4 ,wi$5mann1 #acj4 ,willkomm1 #ada4 ,wimm5au]1 #acd4 ,w9d dang]1 ,g]many1 #ei4 ,wiscons91 #dhi1 #did1 #dif1 #dig4 ,wollny1 #adb4 ,wood *opp]1 league1 ,g]many1 #gi4 ,wood prices1 ,switz]l&1 #bjj4 ,work+ plans1 ,france1 #bce2 ,g]many1 #aac1 #aba1 #abb2 ,india1 #dje2 ,japan1 #dea4 ,_w1 wood supply & consumption1 #d4 ,wrttemb]g1 #aai4 ,,yield1 regulation me?ods1 #fh4 ,yield tables1 ,g]many1 #gf1 #aae1 #acf4 ,v4 ,,zan?i]1 #fh1 #gj1 #gf1 #gg1 #hc1 #hh1 #ia1 #cji1 #caf4 ,zri*1 #aji1 #bjj4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,?is ebook foll[s ! text ( ! orig9al pr9t$ "w1 except z m5tion$ bel[4 ,inconsi/5cies 7spell+1 _/oe_/1 diacritics1 hyph5ation1 capitalisation1 comp\nd words1 s+le_/d\ble l1 etc47 h be5 reta9$4 ,v>i\s pages3 ,g]man 7nick7names end+ 9 -man3 ! orig9al spell+ has be5 reta9$ 7e4g41 ,beckman is usually spell$ ,beckmann 7,johann ,gottlieb1 #agjj-aggg & ,johann1 #agci-ahaa774 ,page #cf4 8its removal !ft03 z pr9t$ 9 ! orig9al "w4 ,page #fc1 ,mitfa/5 7,ea/]73 ,mitfa/5 is n ,ea/]1 b half-l5t4 ,page #acd3 7,reuss1 ,wimm5au]1 etc473 !re seems to be no reason = ! p>5!ses4 ,page #bdd1 8translat$ at ! in/ance (03 z pr9t$ 9 ! orig9al "w2 possibly an error = ano!r ^w 7in/igation874 ,page #ddb1 8utiliz$ above03 z pr9t$ 9 ! orig9al "w1 ?is appe>s to ref] to ! fir/ two p>agraphs only 78,! mod]nization 444 o!r sea indu/ries407 ,page #dgf3 clos+ quote m>k miss+1 ?is %\ld possibly be ins]t$ aft] 8l&s plant$ to trees0 ,index3 n all entries are 9 alphabetical ord]2 ?is has n be5 *ang$4 ,*anges made to ! text3 ,sev]al *apt]s h a li/ ( lit]ature at ! bottom ( ! fir/ page4 ,?is li/ has be5 mov$ to directly bel[ ! *apt] head]4 ,m9or obvi\s typographical & punctuation errors 7includ+ ,fr5* & ,g]man diacritics7 h be5 correct$ sil5tly4 ,v>i\s pages3 *auss *ang$ to *ausse2 ,=/ und ,jagd444 & ,=/-und ,jagd444 *ang$ to ,=/- und ,jagd4442 ,bremonti] *ang$ to ,brmonti]2 v4 ,kropf *ang$ to v4 ,kropff2 ,b4 ,c4 *ang$ to ,b4,c4 ,page v3 ord] ( ,introductory & ,preface rev]s$ ,page ix3 #bjg *ang$ to #bjc 7#bx7 ,page #ba3 ,b]ang] *ang$ to ,b]5g]2 giurisprud5zia *ang$ to giurisprud5za ,page #bd3 a r\nd #ce million *ang$ to ar\nd #ce million ,page #bi3 became ext5t *ang$ to became ext9ct2 sep>ation ( f ,france *ang$ to sep>ation f ,france 7cf4 #a/ edition7 ,page #ci3 #cj or #cj to ! acre *ang$ to #bj or #cj to ! acre 7cf4 #a/ edition7 ,page #fc3 wild+s *ang$ to wildl+s ,page #acj3 ,moreau de ,jonns *ang$ to ,moreau de ,jonns ,page #acf3 ,oetellt *ang$ to ,oettelt ,page #ahj3 von ,engel%(f5 *ang$ to von ,engel%(5 ,page #bad3 s]g5 *ang$ to s]g5t2 clos+ p>5!sis add$ aft] etc4 ,page #beb3 ,les =ts de la ,gaule l'anci5ne ,france *ang$ to ,les =ts de la ,gaule et de l'anci5ne ,france ,page #beh3 p>5!sis add$ aft] ,caucasus ,page #bgf3 #b4jjj acres *ang$ to #b1jjj acres ,page #bgg3 #hj4jjj acres *ang$ to #hj1jjj acres ,page #cai3 hi/oral *ang$ to hi/orical ,page #cca3 r\nd #b4g million *ang$ to ar\nd #b4g million ,page #ccg3 *app>al *ang$ to *ap>ral ,page #cdi3 ,rivi/a =e/ate italiana *ang$ to ,rivi/a =e/ale italiana ,page #cfd3 ,leira *ang$ to ,leiria ,page #cgb3 transcription add$ ,page #dbf3 ov] "o & ?ree qu>t] million & *ang$ to & ov] "o & ?ree qu>t] million ,index page vi3 ,moreau des ,jonns *ang$ to ,moreau de ,jonns ,index page ix3 ,/tz] *ang$ to ,/oetz] ,index page x3 ,well5b]g *ang$ to ,well5burg2 ,wi$5man *ang$ to ,wi$5mann